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What is the impact of same-race alumni mentoring on the career development of African American students attending predominantly White Universities?

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What is the impact of same-race alumni mentoring on the career development of African American students attending predominantly White Universities?

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Content WHAT IS THE IMPACT OF SAME-RACE ALUMNI MENTORING ON THE
CAREER DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS ATTENDING
PREDOMINANTLY WHITE UNIVERSITIES?

by

Kari E. Enge

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2010

Copyright 2010 Kari E. Enge
ii
Table of Contents
Abstract

Chapter One: Background, Purpose and Overview of the Study
Introduction 1
Program Overview 2
Definitions 3
Problem Statement 5
Theoretical Framework 8
Methodology 10
Organization of the Study 11

Chapter Two: Review of Literature
Goal of the Research 13
History of African American Student in Higher Education 14
Integration of Students 14
Mentorship: Student Satisfaction, Academic Success, 17
& Career Development
Conceptual Framework Model: Intent/Involvement 22

Chapter Three: Research Methodology and Participants
Research Methodology/Design 32
Site Selection 33
Sample & Population 34
Instrumentation 35
Document Analysis & Collection 38

Chapter Four: Presentation of Data
Introduction 43
Overview of Methodology 45
Findings #1: Attributes of Mentors 48
Findings #2: Mentoring: Access to careers 53
Findings #3: Mentees becoming Mentors 58
Chapter Summary 61

Chapter Five: Summary of Findings and Research
Introduction 64
Presentation of Findings 65
Connect findings to: Research, Practice & Policy 68
Recommendations 70
Chapter Summary 71
iii
References 74

Appendix A: Mentor & Mentee Demographics 77
Appendix B: Mentee & Mentor Post & Pre-Program Questions 79
Appendix C: Mentee & Mentor Interview Questions 81
iv
List of Tables:
Table A: Career-related mentoring model as adapted from
Kram & Noe (1983) 21
Table B: Intent & Involvement model as adapted from
Norma Mertz (2004) 24
Table C: Mentee & Mentor Subjects 44
Table D: Mertz Model in Research 62
v
Abstract
The goal of this study is to examine the impact Black alumni may have on the
career development of African American undergraduate students attending predominantly
White universities. The narratives presented in this study aim to highlight the mentoring
process and to provide new perspectives on theories of social integration, particularly
same-race mentoring relationships. The development of these relationships can have
significant effects on the professional integration of African American students at
predominantly White institutions. This study will identify how students who engage in
same-race mentoring programs experience increased opportunity for career development.
1
Chapter One
Background, Purpose, and Overview of the Study
Recent studies suggest that the learning environments at historically Black
colleges and universities (HBCUs) are more conducive to the academic success and
satisfaction of African-American students attending these institutions, as compared to
their peers attending predominantly White institutions (PWIs) (Reddick, 2006). Research
shows that the presence of a strong emotional connection has been found to be a
distinguishing feature of those same-race mentoring relationships that are associated with
better outcomes such as improvements in perceptions of scholastic competence and
feelings of self-worth (DuBois, Neville, & Pugh-Lilly, 2002). However, there is limited
research on the role of mentorship on African American students attending PWI’s and the
value in informal and formal same-race mentoring.
Therefore, the research will explore meaningful relationships between African
American mentors and African American mentees and the overall value of this
experience as it pertains to career development. It is this topic that has been considered,
most specifically in the lives of African American students in an attempt to increase our
present knowledge of mentoring. In order to do so, a preexisting mentoring program
focused on African American undergraduates at a four-year predominantly White
university was chosen.
This program is supported by the Office of African American Students (OAAS)
and was adopted in the fall of 2008. With the first year serving as a pilot project, the
second year has proven to be essential in evaluating the impact and influence that it may
2
have on the career development of African American students. In an effort to better
understand the mission and objective of the program, an overview has been provided.
Program Overview
The OAAS mentoring program is an opportunity for alumni to acknowledge the
student’s commitment to advancement in their education, community and volunteer
service, and future careers. The program enables students to connect with alumni and
peers in their community at large as well as successful industry leaders.
Students accepted into the program are paired with alumni whose profession
closely mirrors the student’s specific professional field of interest. The program’s
approach is to create and cultivate a developmental network with the alumni to whom the
students can turn to mentoring support and who have a genuine interest in their learning
and development. A minimum of 6 interactions occur between the mentee and mentor
during the school year. To maintain the mentee-mentor relationship, a minimum of 3 in
person meetings and 3 additional meetings/contacts of their choice are required (i.e.,
phone, e-mail, or social outing). While some guidelines have been given as to what the
expectations of the program are, we will continue to analyze those additional
expectations and variables that directly influence the student and alumni experience. In
order to do so effectively, key classifications used throughout this research have been
defined.
3
Mentee
The mentee is expected to drive the team relationship as part of his or her
networking practice. Those responsibilities may include but are not limited to: preparing
and communicating goals, following-up on suggestions and practices recommended by
the mentor, attending mutually agreed upon events, and providing ongoing feedback
regarding the mentorship experience to OAAS mentorship administrators during the
mandatory mentee assessment meetings. For the purpose of this study the mentee is the
student.
Mentor
The mentor's duty is to establish an on-going positive and constructive
relationship with the mentee so that the mentee will be comfortable seeking advice and
counsel when needed. This includes but is not limited to reviewing the goals (career
development) created by the mentee for the program, brainstorming with the mentee, and
providing constant feedback regarding the mentorship experience to OAAS
administrators. In subscribing to these roles, it is believed that both parties gain a
tremendous amount from the experience and that longevity of the relationship will
increase to foster continuance throughout and beyond the school year, although that is not
a requirement of the program. For the purpose of this study, the mentor is the alumni of
the University who has volunteered to participate in the OAAS program.
4
Retention rate
The percentage of the cohort that returned (or was "retained") the following fall
semester is described as the retention rate. The reasons for withdrawal can be academic
or personal, and the student may eventually return after having previously discontinued
their higher education experience. As we examine the influence of same-race mentoring
on the career development of students, we will consider graduation rates to give us
additional information on this topic. While retention is an important factor in
determining academic and personal success, so are graduation rates.
Graduation rate
The percentage of the cohort that received the undergraduate degree between
September 1 and August 31 of the tracking year is the graduation rate. For the purposes
of this research, we will solely focus on those students whose proposed graduation date
takes place during the 2010-2013 academic years.
Student Satisfaction
The mission of higher education is not only to impart knowledge but also to
enhance the student's total development (Astin, 1993). Student satisfaction can be
defined as having a sense of contentment for their undergraduate experience as well as
fulfillment of expectations of the higher education institution.
5
Informal Mentoring
Informal or classical mentoring, Levinson et al. (1978) contend, is based on
mutual attraction between the mentor and protégé. These are the opportunities that both
the mentor and mentee participate in to allow for growth in their professional and
personal relationship. It is this interaction that is agreed upon according to the schedule
and availability of both parties. It is also a method to increase outside communication and
foster a more casual rapport.
Formal Mentoring
Formal mentoring is an example of the kind of interaction between the
participants that we will assess in an effort to better understand the dynamics of
mentorship and the impacts from these kinds of relationships that can be manifested.
Problem Statement
Since the Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court decision of 1954,
overwhelming changes have taken place in the higher educational system for black
students. Before, Black colleges and universities were created to serve the Black
community by providing the higher education they were denied privy to at PWI’s.
Following this decision more Black students began to enroll into PWI’s seeking what had
been classified as a “better education.” While this influx of Black students into White
colleges impacted the role of Black colleges and universities, these institutions still
played a major role in the education of Black students (Leppel, pg. 440).
6
For decades, student persistence among African Americans in college has been a
point of contention. Academic researchers, students, parents and college administrators
have explored the development of low numbers of persistence and retention rates within
predominantly White post-secondary institutions among Black students. Within this
study, we have explored what current and former research has been completed to address
the question of: What is the impact of same-race mentoring on African American
students in the mentoring program? And does this participation influence career
development?
While some students leave school because of academic dismissal, “only 15 to 25
percent of all institutional departures arise because of academic failure” (Tinto, 1993, p.
81-82) (Leppel, 2002 p.433). With that said, it is apparent that influencing how to
improve students’ grades is not the only pertinent factor to ensure college persistence.
Therefore, administrators and academic personnel have to continue to look at what other
factors exist that can effectively increase persistence. African American students who
attend predominantly White institutions also known as PWI’s come across more unique
challenges than those students attending Historically Black Universities and Colleges
(HBCU’s). It is these challenges that create a need for additional resources and an
increase in programs that foster the personal, academic and career development of these
students. While the history of PWI’s excluded the foremothers and forefathers of African
Americans less than half a decade ago, the matriculation of these students into these
universities today has increased dramatically.
7
According to Leppel (2002), in Similarities and Differences in the College
Persistence of Men and Women, student integration is extremely important. How well a
student is integrated into the institution can be a deciding factor as to whether or not that
student is more likely to withdraw prior to degree completion. For students attending
PWI’s, the assimilation process can be quite daunting and encompass challenges that the
student may or may not be capable of managing. “A student’s interaction with others is
important for his or her persistence in college…because it assists the student in
developing specific strategies for negotiating the physical, social and cognitive/academic
geographies” (Leppel, 2002, p. 437).
The more integrated a student is into the college environment, the higher his or
her efficacy will be and the higher the expected probability of persistence. The presence
of mentors is often a great necessity in achieving this element of positive integration.
While there are articles of research that address the faculty/student relationship and the
differences in non-Black or White faculty and staff mentoring specifically students of
color; there is very little research highlighting the importance between students and same
race alumni mentorship.
Higher education statistics report that on predominantly White campuses, only
thirteen percent of faculty is of color, with African Americans representing
approximately five percent of total faculty of color teaching in colleges and universities
across the United States (Lynch, 2002). “Since 1974, Black enrollment in White
institutions increased fully 160 percent, compared to a 34 percent increase in the Black
enrollment of traditionally Black colleges and a 33 percent increase in total enrollment”
8
(Lucas, 2006 p.262). Due to the large presence of African American students on PWI
campuses and the limited presence of African American faculty, students are forced to
seek out additional resources in an effort to obtain same race mentoring relationships.
Therefore, what this study will aim to accomplish is to use the narratives of
African American students attending a 4 year private university located in the center of a
large urban city. These stories will be told from their perspective and will include
students from first year, seniors and graduate students. Particular attention will be paid to
race specific associations of mentoring relationships in the program and the influence that
the relationships have on their ability to successfully access the workforce following
graduation. Thus exploring the question: What is the impact of same-race mentoring on
African American undergraduate students attending predominantly White Universities?
Theoretical Framework
Mentoring is one way that higher education, particularly at predominantly white
institutions, has sought to positively influence the undergraduate experience of African
American students (Allen, 1988; Allen, Epps and Haniff, 1991a; Jacobi, 1991; Merriam,
Thomas and Zeph, 1987; Ugbah and Williams, 1989). There are a disproportionate
number of African American students lagging behind their White counterparts in areas
such as academic achievement, persistence and post-graduate study (Allen, 1992; Astin,
1975, 1982; Blackwell, 1987; Fleming, 1984; Griffin, 1992, Lomotey, 1990; Tinto, 1987,
1993). The role of the mentor becomes a social and academic support system for the
student ultimately impacting their overall undergraduate career at a predominantly White
university.
9
The model of social and academic integration is a helpful tool used to evaluate the
mentoring experiences of students and alumni. This model has had a significant impact
on higher education retention research (Griffin, 1992; Pascarella and Terenzini, 1979,
1980; Tinto, 1975, 1987, 1993). The concept of academic and social integration was first
introduced by Tinto (1975), in his seminal quantitative research study on college student
attrition. Tinto goes on to define social integration as the degree to which students
identify with the social characteristics of the institution. Peer interaction, social
adjustment and interaction within the university are extremely important factors in social
integration. It is vital for African American students to be positively integrated into the
university system in an effort to ensure student satisfaction, academic excellence and
positive career building pipelines.
The model that was chosen as the primary conceptual framework in this study is
known as the involvement/intent model designed by Norma Mertz. Adopted from
Kram’s model of career-related mentoring functions, it illustrates the relationship
between mentoring and career development. Mertz (2004) took that model and infused
additional elements into it demonstrating career development as a series of activities
aimed at helping individuals grow and developing professionally. With borrowed
knowledge from various scholars, the model centers on defining the significant
partnership of “involvement” and “intention” in relationships.
The roles of the model, mentor and protégé, are represented in a pyramid form.
They suggest a hierarchy based on the degree of involvement required by the
relationship. For example, mentoring requires a greater, more intense level of
10
involvement and interaction as demonstrated in level 6 than do any of the other roles.
Unlike the function of a role model, defined as level 1, where the collaboration between
intent and involvement is much lower. As one moves up the pyramid (from Level 1 to
level 6), the interaction and intensity of involvement increases. These levels include the
following: Level 1 and 2 are the most basic of interactions; for example, role model, peer
pal, or supporter. Level 3 and 4 begin to increase in professional development and
advisement, they are: Counselor, Advisor, Sponsor or Benefactor. The last of the levels,
level 5 and 6 are considered the greatest example of coupling intent and involvement,
they are: Patron, Protector and Mentor.
Although the model recognizes three functional categories of intent and ties them
to different relationships-psychosocial development (modeling), professional
development (advising), and career advancement (brokering); different roles are
associated with each category: role model, teacher or coach with psycho social
development: counselor, advisor, or guide with professional development; and sponsor or
benefactor, patron or protector, and mentor with career advancement (Mertz, 2004). It is
through the lens of this conceptual framework that the idea that same race mentoring may
impact the career development of African American students is supported.
Methodology
The study site for this research is a 4 year private university located in the heart of
a large urban city. With over 40 academic and professional programs of study, the
university is well known for their student body diversity and top research capacity. With
just under 7 percent of the student population being African American, the student
11
sample to draw from was extremely limited. The sample selection for this research
derived from the pool of students who are participants of the Office of African American
Students (OAAS) scholars program.
The criteria for the scholarship program consists of the following: the students has
maintained a 2.5 grade point average or if entering as a first year student, has a
competitive high school equivalency score; is involved in extracurricular leadership
activities, and most importantly has demonstrated a need for financial resources. Out of
these students both men and women will be chosen as subjects for this study. In an effort
to eliminate gender bias, the research will attempt to include a balance amid female and
male participants. Student participation in this program is made up of no more than 54
students and therefore have been chosen based on their availability, accessibility and
desire to be included in this study.
Organization of the study
This dissertation has been organized in five significant parts. Chapter 2 includes
the relevant literature that helps to expose some of the important factors of mentoring;
social integration and social support. Chapter 3 includes the research design methods and
approach to the study. Highlighting the design of the interviews and observations, the
types of data collection procedures, limitations of the study and the connections between
the methods and the data collected. Chapter 4 illustrates the findings from the data
collection and the analysis of those findings. And lastly, Chapter 5 is compiled of the
connection between the findings, implications, researcher bias, and final thoughts for
prospective scholars. This study will illuminate the practices of higher education
12
institutions to the importance of same race social support for career advancement in the
form of mentorship for African American students. Thus, in an effort to do so, the
following chapter demonstrates the use of a theoretical model that connects the
importance of mentoring of students to career development.

13
Chapter Two
Review of Literature
The goal of this research is to build an understanding of the processes at work in
same race mentoring relationships between alumni and students that work to create a
positive benefit for African American undergraduates. African American student
retention and graduation at 4-year institutions continues to be a major concern among
college and university officials. “College attendance among Black students has increased
dramatically within the last 15 years, both in real numbers and as a percent of all students
in higher education” (Jones, p. 8). This chapter includes various researches that explore
the history and experiences of African American students at predominantly White
Institutions (PWI), importance of integration of students into PWI environments, and the
benefits of mentorship. Lastly, this chapter will bring additional enlightenment to the
effect of same race student/alumni mentorship and how it may promote career
development in African American students. The theory used as the primary source of
theoretical support in this research is Mertz’ Model of Career Development entitled:
Intent and Involvement.
This conceptual model is designed

to distinguish mentoring from other kinds of
supportive relationships.

Built on the existing literature and a modification of Kram’s

(1983) distinctions of the functions of mentoring; the model

uses the concepts of intent
and involvement as variables for

distinguishing and categorizing relationships

and roles.
Although there are several themes worthy of further exploration, such as academic
success and student satisfaction; this research will focus on career development. Let us
14
begin by setting the foundation for the history of African American students in higher
education.
History of the African American Student in Higher Education
African-American students continue to be overwhelmed by problems associated
with access, retention, and achievement in U.S. higher education (Burrell, 2001). Three-
fourths of currently enrolled Black college students attend predominantly White
institutions;
an estimated 60 percent of baccalaureate degrees awarded to Black students
during 1988 were granted by predominantly White colleges and universities and
the proportion of Black students matriculating at and graduating from White
universities will likely grow in the foreseeable future. (Allen, 1992, p. 27)

Academic researchers, students, parents and college administrators have explored
the development of low numbers of persistence and retention rates within predominantly
White post-secondary institutions among Black students. While some students leave
school because of academic dismissal, “only 15 to 25 percent of all institutional
departures arise because of academic failure” (Leppel, 2002 p.433). With that said, it is
apparent that influencing how to improve students’ grades is not the only significant
factor to ensuring college persistence. Administrators and academic personnel have to
continue to look at what other factors exist that can effectively increase persistence as
well as other areas of student development.
Integration of Students
A “students’ interaction with others is important for his or her persistence in
“College…because it assists the student in developing specific strategies for negotiating
15
the physical, social and cognitive/academic geographies” (Leppel, 2002, p. 437). The
more integrated a student is in the college environment, the higher his or her self-efficacy
will be and the higher the expected probability of student satisfaction. A “student-faculty
interaction or social embeddedness within the university social system is believed to be
the most critical factor of college persistence” (Volkwein, King, and Terenzini 1986;
Thile and Matt, 1995); as well as it being an important measure of whether or not a
student is satisfied with his or her undergraduate experience.
The author of The Color of Success investigated Historically Black Colleges and
the level of student satisfaction and found that they exhibited “more positive
psychological adjustments, more significant academic gains, and greater cultural
awareness/commitment than Black students on White campuses” (Allen, 1992, p. 32).
This idea of “fit” is incredibly important and can determine the level of student
satisfaction within the university. As mentioned before, the integration of students into a
campus environment is extremely important to student success, therefore, at Historically
Black Colleges and Universities, the challenge becomes lessened by the lack of pressure
to “fit in.”
Campus Climate
Campus climate is a major part of the undergraduate experience. Therefore, as
we progress through the research, there are a number of subsidiary questions that will be
addressed. For example; what connection is there between the student and the campus?
And are there organizations, student groups or other outlets that can assist in creating a
16
positive campus climate for African American students attending predominantly white
institutions?
College racial composition is also associated with social involvement: students
attending predominantly White institutions report substantially lower levels of
social involvement. Those who believe that they made the right college choice
also report greater social involvement, and those who report positive faculty
relationships and feel positive about their connections to peers of both races have
the greatest social involvement (Allen, 1992, p. 32).

When students are a part of a campus environment, but feel little to no connection, it
interferes with both their academic success and personal growth. Findings suggest that,
academic achievement is highest for students who have high educational
aspirations, who are certain that their college choice was correct, and who report
positive relationships with faculty…compared to Black students who attend
historically black colleges, those Black students attending predominantly White
colleges report lower academic achievement (Ager & Oyserman, 1995, p. 1226).

Therefore, it is vital to support the relationships of peers as well as those between
faculty, staff and students. Students are “more likely to thrive in school settings when
they have our social and emotional support, but they will need considerable academic
support as well” (Omrod, 2006, p. 385). White universities, unlike their Black peer
institutions have the responsibility of creating an inclusive environment for all of their
students. This becomes challenging as we embark on universities and colleges whose
demographic student body is extremely diverse. According to the work of Astin (1993,
1975) and Tinto (1987) who emphasized students’ need to feel attached to the college to
be successful (Allen, 1992, p. 41) and Phinney’s research on ethnic and social identity, it
was found that “simply being a member of a group provides individuals with a sense of
belonging that contributes to a positive self-concept” (Phinney, p. 298).
17
The significance of integrating the student into the campus environment can be
enhanced with opportunities like mentoring relationships. While, most mentoring
relationships develop naturally, programs like that of the Office of African American
students (OAAS), fosters “planned” mentoring relationships that create a vehicle for
students to access resources not otherwise readily available to them through the
university. It is the hope that through these relationships, those students are given a
greater sense of satisfaction with their undergraduate institution and show increase in
career development.
Mentorship
“Prior to the civil rights movement there were virtually no black men or women in
staff and administrative positions in predominantly White higher education institutions”
(Jones, p. 3). It was not until civil rights legislation and affirmative action regulations
were made that colleges and universities began to employ African Americans to staff,
administrative, and faculty positions. “African-American faculty and administrators still
comprise of only a minute proportion of the tenured and senior staff in White colleges
and universities…” (Allen, 1992, p.27).
Students who make connections with the faculty and administrators on campus
display higher levels of satisfaction with their undergraduate experience. These are the
students that become capable of maneuvering through the higher educational system
more effectively and more positively.
On historically black campuses, black students emphasize feelings of
engagement, connection, acceptance, and extensive support and encouragement.
Consistent with accumulated evidence on human development, these students,
18
like most human beings, develop best in environments where they feel valued,
protected, accepted, and socially connected (Allen, 1992, p. 32).

As we have seen in the literature presented throughout this paper, the sense of
“belonging” is a large component of student success within the college experience…“that
part of an individual’s self concept which derives from his knowledge of his membership
of a social group (or groups) together with the value and emotional significance is
attached to membership” (Chae, 2000, p. 4). It is having a positive attachment to the
group that you belong too that allows for a healthy self-perception and ultimately an
optimistic outlook on your immediate environment. However, “In the case of African
American youth, identity negotiation involves the dual task of assembling a positive
sense of self while discrediting negative identities attributed to African American males
and females” (Ager & Oyserman, 1995, p. 1216).
Mentoring programs enrich the careers of education and business professionals as
well as the welfare of minority youth, Cuyhet (2006), has found mentoring to be a valued
asset to the self-esteem and confidence of these students. According to Patton and
Harper (2003), African American female graduate students overwhelmingly perceived
that a mentoring relationship with an African American female mentor is the optimal
experience, largely due to their ability to help them understand the complex intersection
of race and gender issues within the academy as well as to provide friendly advice to help
them avoid professional pitfalls. The importance of Black faculty, particularly in the
retention of African-American students of White college campuses, “cannot be
overemphasized.” “African-American and other minority students on predominantly
19
White campuses need to see role models that are reflective of their culture group”
(Cuyhet, p.91).
Benefits of Mentorship
The creation of assigned mentor relationships is currently being viewed as a
powerful intervention for disadvantaged or at risk youth, and mentoring programs are
growing at an exponential rate (Rhodes, 2002). Other factors that differentiate higher
quality mentoring relationships have begun to be identified. The presence of a strong
emotional connection has been found to be a distinguishing feature of those mentoring
relationships that are associated with better outcomes such as improvements in
perceptions of scholastic competence and feelings of self-worth (DuBois, Neville, &
Pugh-Lilly, 2002). Researchers have found that there are perceived benefits of mentoring
relationships to be mediated by relationship closeness for mentors and protégés rather
than directly linked with variables such as amount of contact and types of shared
activities. These factors might include what professional opportunities the students have
been exposed to through their association with their mentors.
Like business organizations, educational institutions have an implicit obligation to
develop their employees. However, unlike businesses they have an explicit (or at least
widely understood and expressed) moral obligation to the personal and professional
development of students and to helping they take their place in society as productive,
contributing members. This is where the Office of African American Students
mentorship program becomes extremely important. As it stands now, many corporations
have affirmative action strategies in place to increase the population of underrepresented
20
groups such as African Americans. However, with mentoring programs like that of
OAAS’s, students are given additional access to the individuals in the upper management
roles of these corporations to ensure career advancement.
While personal development is a large part of the role of universities and colleges,
the development of resources towards career and fields of interest are just as important.
Through mentoring, a student can be inspired to “push beyond his or her own perceived
limitations to greater success, in terms of role, status and character development”
(Neblett, p. 6, 2004). As a mentor, there are several aspects of influence that can occur,
and as career development becomes a more salient theme throughout this study, the
psychosocial and career-related mentoring functions model adapted from Kram and Noe,
will become increasingly important (See Table A).

21
Table A. Career-related Mentoring Model as adapted from Kram and Noe (1983)
Mentoring Function by
Subconstruct Example Activities
Career-related: part of mentoring
relationship
that prepares protégé for career-
advancement sponsorship nominating protégé for promotions
public support to launch career
exposure and visibility exposure to future opportunities

provide assignments that increase visibility
of protégé to decision makers
coaching
provide knowledge about informal and
formal networks
providing feedback
strategies for accomplishing objectives
protection reduce unnecessary risk to protégé
shield the protégé
challenging assignments
provide challenging assignments that are
importance learning opportunities

Psychosocial: part of mentoring
relationship that enhances the
protégés sense of competence,
identity, and work-effectiveness
model appropriate attitudes, values, and
behaviors
role-modeling unconditional support and acceptance
acceptance and confirmation
provide forum for the protégé to discuss
fears and concerns
counseling interact with protégé on an informal basis
friendship

22
This table illustrates the relationship between career advancement for students and
the function of mentors. In a study performed through the College of Pharmacy at The
University of Arizona, they found that “mentoring functions had a positive, significant
correlation with career advancement” (Plaza, Draugalis, Skrepnek, Slack, pg. 7, 2003).
The strongest correlations of these findings were found within the role-modeling that
took place between these interactions.
The foundational theory of interpersonal relationships (mentoring relationships),
and the social exchange theory (Homans, 1961), posits that benefits or rewards are what
each person perceives to be valuable, and although the relationship must be mutually
beneficial to be satisfying, participants seek the greatest rewards at the lowest cost
(Ganser, 2001). This is where the adaptation of Kram’s model by Mertz (2004) becomes
an important tool for review. This pyramid model connects two important factors of
mentorship and that is: involvement and intention. Because this model allows for the
impact of mentorship to be easily measured, it is being used as the main theoretical
framework in this study to evaluate the OAAS alumni mentoring program.
Conceptual Framework Model
Built on existing literature and research of scholars such as Kram (1983) and his
findings of the functions of mentoring; the model that has been chosen as part of the
primary conceptual framework in this study is known as the involvement/intent model
designed by author Norma Mertz (2004). It begins by defining two major terms,
“involvement” and “intention.” These two concepts become the initial building blocks of
the conceptual model and are defined as “the physical and emotional costs as well as the
23
intensity of interaction required by the relationship and intent is easily defined as the
perceived purpose of the activity”(Mertz, p. 547).
Both concepts, involvement and intention, are found to be important factors in
distinguishing the relationships in mentoring. Kram and Isabella (1985) differentiate
diverse functions of mentoring by the various positions that a mentor may serve, for
example: in the role of a supervisor or as a peer. Ragins (1999) recognized intent as a
critical factor in relationships in her review of diversity and mentoring and identified the
need to “illuminate the degree of congruency in (mentor-protégé) perceptions” of the
relationship (Mertz, p. 235). In defining mentoring as an intentional association for
purposes of their study, something other researchers have not necessarily done, Enomoto,
Gardiner, and Grogan (2002) implicitly recognized intent as a factor in supportive
workplace relationships (Mertz, 2004).
The roles of this model, mentor and protégé, are represented in a pyramid form.
They suggest a hierarchy based on the degree of involvement required by the
relationship. For example, level 6 requires a greater, more intense level of involvement
and interaction from the mentors than do any of the other roles, whereas level 1, the role
model, requires the lowest level of involvement and interaction. As one moves up the
pyramid (from Level 1 to level 6), the interaction and intensity of involvement increases.
The numbering of levels is not designed to quantify the level of involvement but rather to
signify difference in least (level 1) to greatest (level 6) (See Table B).

24
Table B. Intent & Involvement Model as adapted from Norma Mertz (2004)
INTENT ROLE INVOLVEMENT
(Level)

Career Advancement Mentor 6
(Brokering) Patron or Protector 5
Sponsor or Benefactor 4

Professional Development Counselor, Advisor, or Guide 3
(Advising) Teacher or Coach 2

Psychosocial
Development
Role Model, Peer Pal, or
Supporter 1
(Modeling)

25
The model recognizes three functional categories of intent and ties them to
different relationships-psychosocial development (modeling), professional development
(advising), and career advancement (brokering). These different roles are associated with
an involvement category: role model, peers, and teacher or coach with psycho social
development: counselor, advisor, or guide with professional development; and sponsor or
benefactor, patron or protector, and mentor with career advancement (Mertz, 2004).
Intent
In terms of the primary intent of the relationship, three types of associations
emerge: modeling, advising, and brokering. A role model is someone to whom
individuals turn to for social and emotional support or from whom they seek to learn
something related to their “person-ness.” The primary focus is on the personal, inner life
of the individual and therefore is most closely aligned with psychosocial functions. The
term role model is used in the most inclusive sense and includes friends, teachers, peer
pals, coaches, administrators and an infinite array of others within and outside of the
school setting (Mertz, 2004).
The primary focus of the relationship is professional development, and it is
reasonable to hypothesize that it is possible to be an effective advisor without being
particularly attentive to the individual’s psychosocial development, to be a good advisor
without necessarily being a role model for the individual. What distinguishes brokering
from advising is the fundamental focus on career advancement and helping the individual
(student, junior colleague, prospective administrator) advance professionally. The
relationship is focused on what the protégé needs to do to be successful in getting ahead
26
in the organizational or professional context and what the sponsor, patron, or mentor
needs to do to help the protégé advance. Thus, mentoring has a future orientation. The
broker is not unconcerned with the protégés’ current capabilities and development, but
the concern is in the service of career advancement (Mertz, 2004).
Involvement
Level 1/2
There are critical differences in the nature and intensity of involvement among the
roles identified in the model. Although being a role model may require some level of
involvement, the time and intensity of involvement is less than that required of advisors
and significantly less than that required of brokers (Mertz, 2004). The emotional cost and
intensity of relationships at Level 1 and 2 are relatively low, even though one may be
called in to demonstrate concern, to help the individual work through insecurities or find
ways to deal with their problems. “Social support has the capacity to enhance self-
esteem (and, hence, promote positive adjustment) through communications of approval
from others that then become internalized” (Harter, 1998).
Level 3/4
In the following stage of this model, there is more of a “free choice” element that
exists where one has an option of withdrawing from the relationship. It is predicated on a
more formal identification of the relationship (ranging from recognized by only the
parties involved to a formal recognition by the organization) and therefore carries with it
ongoing and mutual responsibilities. The advisor and advisee are bound together in the
relationship and have a stake in it and to its continuation over a period of time, sometimes
27
specified, sometimes not. The nature and level of involvement of the advisor with the
advisee tends to be greater than that of the role model (Mertz, 2004).
Furthermore, there must be a level of trust that the advisor not only knows what to
do but is willing to use that knowledge in the service of the advisee; here exists a level of
trust greater than is required of a role model. The advisor and advisee are linked together
temporally and by purpose, and each makes something of an emotional investment in the
other.
Level 5/6
The mentor and protégé, for example, are inextricably linked together in their
common purpose, the advancement of the protégé; and their relationship is explicit, to
one another and often to others in the organization. The mentor is invested in the success
of the protégé and is associated with her or his success (Mertz, 2004). Mentoring
requires more of the mentor than is required of the advisor, and that puts the mentor into
a more intense, intimate involvement with the protégé. Mentors use their networks
(contacts) and reputation to support and promote their protégés for advancement sharing
their power and influence in the process (Mertz, 2004).
Clearly, the level of involvement may vary (perhaps from moderate to intense),
but one cannot have a brokering relationship without at least a moderate level of
involvement. One cannot mentor from an emotionally distant position, and given the
dimensions of the relationship, a higher level of trust is necessary in mentoring
relationships than in the others examined. Both mentor and protégé need to share
thoughts, understandings, dreams, schemes, and perspectives they might not ordinarily
28
share, and they are likely to be far more exposed before one another than they would be
in other professional relationships.
Differences in the levels and intensity of involvement among each of the roles
identified in the model correspond to differences in the number of individuals at the same
time, for example: the mentor cannot mentor too many individuals at the same time. As
we advance through the research you will see that the program only fosters a 1-1
relationship to increase the building of trust and communication that is inevitably a core
aspect in the mentoring relationship. Without such an investment, it may be argued, that
it is not a mentoring relationship.
Not everyone is prepared to make this kind of commitment; not everyone
possesses the abilities to realize the commitment. And even if one is prepared and able
to, it will only work if there is an affinity between the mentor and protégé, an affinity that
is about more than liking one another. It is about a sure sense that the person to be
mentored possesses what it takes to make it (is a winner), is worth the effort, and will
make the mentor proud; and it is about shared respect as persons and professionals, and
perhaps, shared values (Mertz & Pfleeger, 2002; Mertz Welch, & Henderson, 1990;
Pfleeger & Mertz, 1994).
One major impediment that continues to obstruct positive mentoring experiences
between White faculty and minority students is the negative perception white faculty
members have regarding African-American students’ academic performance in the
classroom (Kerwin, C. & Ponterotto, J.G., 1995). These disturbing indications that these
students are not expected to achieve at the same level as their white counterparts is
29
directly implicated in students of African American men as reflected in Allen’s (1987)
findings that some White faculty members subconsciously assume that African American
male students are academically inferior, underachieving, and poorly motivated (Cuyjet,
p.104).
If PWI’s are to enjoy the same mentoring success stories as their HBCU
counterparts, it is essential that campus stakeholders and student affairs practitioners
begin to inform their faculty and staff colleagues that mentoring is more than providing
academic and social remediation for a particular student’s subculture. It should be an
experience designed to empower protégés rather than foster dependency (Cuyjet, 2006).
Although, such mentoring programs can fill the academic and social void for African
American males at PWIs the presence of more African American male faculty and staff
in these environments will significantly enrich the campus climate even more, as well as
provide additional potential mentors for African American male students (Cuyjet, 2006).
Additionally, African Americans in PWI’s have had to couple the normal
concerns of first-year students (being away from home for the first time, sharing a room
with a stranger, and establishing new relationships) with those having to adjust in an
intellectual and social community that is unprepared to accept their cultural differences
(Allen, 1988; Fields, 1991; Jones, 1993; Pound, 1987). It is this aspect that we are going
to examine more closely in this study. The literature explored thus far has stressed the
importance of assisting African-American students in establishing early connections
(becoming involved) with members of their ethnic group during the orientation period.
30
It has been cited by several authors the importance of Black faculty, particularly
in the retention of African-American students of White college campuses. African-
Americans and other minority students on predominantly White campuses need to see
role models that are reflective of their cultural group. Mertz (2004) has found that the
major function distinguishing successful relationships from all other relationships was the
failure of the mentor and protégé to “share a common perspective about mentoring and
what should go on in the name of mentoring” (Cuyet, p. 68). Mentors vary in terms of
what they perceive their roles are, and it ultimately impacts the involvement and intent.
Although race and gender were variables in several of the studies and research mentioned
above, they were not as significant as the distinguishing factors of intent and involvement
of both parties.
This theoretical framework was chosen in an effort to appropriately address the
impact and influence of the Office of African American Students alumni mentoring
program. In doing so, the aim is to support that the program itself is serving both the
student and the alumni in a fashion that promotes career development. “Rusbult (1983)
found that the greater the investment, the greater the involvement and the greater the
commitment” (Mertz, p. 548). Making certain that our students attending PWI’s have a
positive self-concept which is significant to ensuring that they are satisfied with their
college experience and motivated to persist through until graduation.
According to Mertz (2004) there are specific expectations of a mentor that we will
use throughout our research. Responsibilities of mentors include but are not limited too;
advising students about course and programs; counseling with students about problems
31
they are experiencing; overseeing and guiding students intellectual, and at times, social
and moral development; working closely with students in planning and conducting
research and in preparing reports of research, theses, and dissertations; providing career
advice and direction to students and junior colleagues; advising, guiding, and helping
students to move into suitable positions in the field; advising junior colleagues about how
to be successful as faculty members; working with junior colleagues to enhance their
skills and success in the field by giving advice, critiquing their work, and/or working with
them on research and projects; and advancing their entry and reputation (Mertz, p. 548).
Most available information on the effects of formal mentoring programs in higher
education focus primarily on educational outcomes such as persistence rates, graduation
rates, and grade point average (e.g., Levin and Levin 1991; Thile and Matt 1995). As we
move forward in how we approach the evaluation of the roles of the mentors and
mentees, we will determine what factors contributing to career development are most
important in a mentoring relationship. One of the most important of these factors is
same-race mentoring relationships. This will continue to serve as the focal point for the
study as we examine the influence of same-race alumni mentoring amongst African
American students attending a 4-year private predominantly white university. In order to
do so the following chapter will begin to reveal the research design created to aid in
collecting, analyzing and evaluating the information in this study.
32
Chapter Three
Research Methodology and Participants
The Office of African American Students (OAAS) has created a mentoring
program that facilitates the relationship between current undergraduate African American
students and University Black alumni. Chapter one presents why this research is
important to both students and administrators at higher education institutions. Chapter
two provides additional support for the importance of this research as well as defines the
theory that will be used titled: The intent and involvement model. Chapter three includes
the research methodology and procedures which consists of the following sections: a)
background b) research design c) site selection d) sample and population e)
instrumentation and f) data collection. The research question guiding this study includes:
What is the impact of same-race mentoring on African American student career
development attending predominantly White Universities?
Research Design
For the purpose of evaluating an existing program, a qualitative approach was
used. “Qualitative inquiry means going into the field-into the real world of programs,
organizations, neighborhoods…the studied commitment to actively enter the worlds of
interacting individuals” (Lunenburg, 2008). Once solutions to problems are identified, a
variety of programs and policies are designed to intervene in society and bring about
change, thus we are using two types of approaches in the methodology. Among the two
is summative, “judgments about a program to make a major decision about its value,
whether it should be continued, and whether the demonstrated model can or should be
33
generalized to and replicated for other participants or in other places” (Patton, 214). As
well as “Summative evaluations that serve the purpose of rendering an overall judgment
about the effectiveness of a program…” (Patton, p. 218).
In using qualitative research, narratives of experiences were verbalized as part of
these results rather than with the use of quantitative values. These verbal descriptions
take place through journaling, focus groups, interviews and observations. The
combination of these methods permitted for a greater foundation of information to be
evaluated, thus creating a fuller picture of the problem and potentially allowing for
different approaches to solutions. It is part of this purposeful approach that gives more
in-depth consideration for the program and the strengths and weaknesses that we will
assess. In studying African American undergraduates and evaluating their experience in
the mentoring program, the best type of research approach to use is a case study. “Case
studies are specific explorations of individuals, but also such investigations can be on
groups, cohorts, cultures, organizations, communities, or programs” (Patton, p. 96).
Therefore, personal narratives were used to illustrate the student and mentor experience.
Site Selection
The University known as Callier University and the participants chosen for this
study are part of a 4 year private Research University nestled in the center of a large
urban city located on the western side of the United States. This top university admits
less than 7 percent of African American students, a rather small population of students of
who enter the University with certain needs, such as: financial constraints and first
generational disparity. These needs are advanced through offices like OAAS in an effort
34
to increase matriculation and retention. In order to meet these needs, the office occupies
several roles, such as: supporting and fostering African American students by providing
helpful academic programming and workshops, facilitating the access and use of campus
resources, developing community building programming, and exposing students to
academic and professional opportunities. Callier University has awarded over 4,676
Bachelor degrees and 5,380 advanced degrees. With an endowment of 3.7 billion dollars,
Callier University is in the top 1% of all colleges and universities in terms of selectivity.
Yet they award over 60% of their incoming students with financial aid.
Along with the reputation of being a national leader in the fields of
communication, multimedia technologies and the life sciences, Callier University has a
reputation for being exceptionally student focused and creating a positive undergraduate
experience for its students. Their goal is to impact student life through the resources of
student services such as, The Office of African American Students (OAAS). It is offices
like OAAS that have positively influenced the African American student population.
Through their conception in 1976 they have strived to facilitate the personal, academic
and professional growth of African American students.
Sample and Population
A total of 8 undergraduate students from the OAAS Scholars program
participated in the study. These first through fourth year student subjects partook in a
pre-interview created in order to retrieve demographical information, their previous
knowledge of mentoring and overall career aspirations and ambitions. The students
selected for this study have been accepted as OAAS Scholars. Their role as scholars in
35
the program is demonstrative of their academic competency coupled with their financial
need. This program hosts approximately 54 students that have demonstrated a financial
need. The gender composition is 37 women and 17 men whose academic focus is in
various majors within the University. The students participating in this research are both
undergraduate and graduate students. Due to the large disparity of men versus women,
the likelihood of having equity in gender is unlikely. All of these participants will have
been exposed to the OAAS office prior to this study through the scholar program
application process or through their alumni membership.
“For many audiences, random sampling, even of small samples, will substantially
increase the credibility of the results” (Patton, 240). However, the researcher has chosen
to use purposeful sampling to assist in the choosing of student and alumni subjects for
this research. “Purposeful sampling is sometimes called purposive or judgment
samplings…you decide the purpose you want informants (or communities) to serve, and
you go out to find some…” (Patton, p. 230). Each participant, student or alumni will be
chosen based on their participation in the program as well as their availability.
Instrumentation
In this study, various instruments will be used to gather data. A general survey
was distributed to the participants that included both demographic information as well as
primary knowledge of the mentoring program. The survey was given to both the mentors
and mentees before the interview process. The purpose of the survey is to gain a greater
understanding of the expectations of the program for subject groups, mentors and
mentees, prior to their involvement. This will give a greater sense of knowledge
36
pertaining to insight into mentoring and the overall initial expectations that both parties
have prior to engaging in the actual act of mentorship. This will serve as a pre-
measurement tool to help in assessing the career advancement and mentor influence
within the study.
In addition to pre and post surveys, mentors and mentees were observed as they
participated in mentoring mixers and organized events. This tool was designed to obtain
supplemental information about the kinds of interaction a mentor and mentee have and if
that interaction can or should be increased or decreased to ensure positive results. The
results have been organized by the demographic information given and placed into a
spreadsheet that will divide each participant’s feedback. See Appendix A and Appendix
B for more detailed information on demographic and pre/post program questions.
Observation
As an observer you become a part of the group and fully engaged in the
participants’ experience. As the researcher for this event, attending recruitment events,
mixers and formal mentoring outings is part of the observation instrument. These events
take place once a month and include the OAAS staff and mentors and mentees.
“Observations that yield detailed, thick description...” (Patton, p. 96) will serve as
valuable information for this study during the time of analysis. The information was then
compiled and analyzed using a charting system that directly connected the findings to
Mertz’ (2004) model.
37
Interviews and Focus Groups
Focus groups included 8 participating students and 5 mentors facilitated
separately. These collaborative group interviews take place in a central location on the
university campus and require a two hour commitment on the part of the participants.
The process includes questions from the researcher as well as open group discussion
concerning the program and their overall experience at the university. Written notes and
audio taping served as the primary modes of recording data. Focus groups are an
additional instrument that will be used to evaluate the data gathered in this research.
A total of two meetings per group took place, two meetings for the mentors and
two meetings for the mentees. In these meetings, we established a protocol and a set of
ground rules to assist in creating a safe and confidential environment. A list of questions
guided the discussion and information will be gathered through observation and
communication between and among the participants. Information was recorded with the
use of a digital recorder as well as through handwritten notes. This allowed for the cross
referencing of recorded information and a more accurate account of the interview.
Both the focus groups and 1-1 interviews allowed the participants the opportunity
to give feedback on their current exposure to African American alumni and the impact
that it may have on their overall college experience. At the same time, 1-1 interviews
were facilitated with mentors to evaluate their perception of the program and to collect
any feedback and opinions. These prescheduled meetings lasted an hour and were
scheduled once prior to the launch of this program and towards the end of the program.
Interviews were the largest part of information gathered for this study and as a result.
38
Two interviews per mentor and mentee will begin from September 2009 and continue
until spring 2010. In these interviews, questions pertaining to the impact of the program
on their ability to obtain a career as well as how well their mentee has encouraged them
personally and professionally are included.
The locations for the interviews and focus groups for students were held on the
university campus classroom space at flexible times in an effort to create accessibility for
both the students and mentors. Accessibility and comfort served as a priority during the
study to ensure a greater level of authenticity from each participant. Each focus group
and individual interview was carefully transcribed and inputted into a data form
connecting its validity to the intent and involvement model by Mertz as well as its ability
to influence career development amongst students (See Appendix C).
Document Analysis & Collection
This being the second year of the program, the compilation of participant
information prior to the study was limited. There was no database of mentors and
mentees established nor was there any information regarding their experience in the
program during its first year. What were available were recruitment materials in the form
of email correspondences and program literature. According to Patton (2002), qualitative
analysis will allow the researcher to transform data into findings. Therefore, it was
helpful in determining the purpose of the program and its ability to impact the career
advancement of the participating students.
There are two types of methods that are being used to collect the various kinds of
selected data; the first involving the use of the digital recorder that was present during
39
interviews and focus groups. Following each of the interviews the researcher transcribed
and inputted into a spreadsheet the information gathered that day and was coded by the
demographics of the surveys filled out by each participant. The second is through
handwritten journals that were useful when the researcher was observing. The data was
collected with these instruments but organized with the use of spreadsheets and
transcriptions. The questions for each of the interviews, including the focus groups, were
connected with the theoretical framework, Mertz’ (2004) model of intent and
involvement (See Appendix C).
As an administrator in the Office of African American Students, my role includes
supervising the OAAS scholars as well as assisting with the facilitation of
communication between students and mentors participating in the program. As the
researcher, I was not responsible for coordinating the mixers, programs, and expectations
or facilitating the meetings between the mentors or mentees. As a result, my access was
limited to giving literature and information to prospective OAAS mentor or mentee
participants. However, due to my close association with the office there is a level of
trepidation that the results might be comprised. However, as mentioned above, as the
researcher limitations were put in place in order to ensure that only the voice of the
participants are heard.
Limitations
Along with the possibility of biased results were the innate limitations of the
study. Three of the eight mentee participants interviewed touched on the inconsistencies
in experiences they had within the mentoring program. Ultimately, they mentioned the
40
need for some type of written list of expectations defining the mentoring relationship.
The subjects discussed the aspect of outlining expectations in depth and relating it to
setting goals, both mentee and mentor, agreeing upon meeting expectations and the level
of assistance in accessing internships and future positions within their mutual career field.
Additional opportunity for discussing further expectations of the mentoring
relationship was done in the focus group which included seven of the eight mentee
participants. This feedback suggested that goals and objectives for both the mentee and
mentor be discussed in advance. Each mentee should summarize what their goals and
objectives are in developing professionally before entering into the mentoring
relationship. The logistics of the mentoring relationship is an important inclusion. For
example, the relationship should specify meeting places, times and duration of the
relationship where possible, and stipulations for extension or termination of the
association if necessary. As well as setting measurable goals that can are achievable.
One of the limitations of this study is the “lack of time mentoring, poor planning
of the mentoring process, unsuccessful matching of mentors and mentees, a lack of
understanding about the mentoring process and lack of access to mentors from minority
groups” (Trask, Marotz-Baden, Settles, Gentry, and Berke, 2004). What this creates is an
ineffective relationship and an inability to connect which ultimately hinders any possible
influence of career development for the student. While these students might have found
their position in their desired work fields, they will now be strategically positioned to
obtain their career goals by means of an alumni mentoring program focused specifically
on African American students. It is the deferment or lack of support of these types of
41
programs that results in students struggling to obtain access into fields where networking
is vital.
An additional limitation of this study is due to the close proximity of the
researcher to the program and its data. As a professional within the office of African
American Students and the only researcher in this study, there was a question of whether
or not the researcher would be capable of maintaining an objective perspective of the
program and its positives and negatives. Having been a part of the inception of the
program as well as serving as the hub of communication for the office and its agendas,
there is the possibility that the results of the evaluation of this program and its objective
might fair more positively. However, the focus of this research was not to highlight an
existing mentoring program within an alumni cultural center on a predominantly white
campus, but to assess what impact a program like this one may have on African
American student’s career development. It is for this reason that the apprehension
surrounding researcher impartiality among the results of this qualitative research is
unsubstantiated.
Nevertheless, as we reflect through the data and information collected, there was
one greater limitation to the credibility of this study; the lack of student and mentor
participation. As the program began its second year, there were an approximate number
of 54 students to 54 mentors who would be likely candidates to participate in this
research. However, as the weeks passed, several of the potential subjects found
themselves inundated with school work or professional obligations that kept them from
committing to the objectives of the program which were to build a mentoring relationship
42
thus disqualifying them as participants of the mentoring program. When the initial
request was made to subjects to participate in this study, there were concerns with time
commitments and availability. Therefore, the number of qualified candidates began to
dwindle. As a result, out of 54 mentees only 8 were available and out of 54 mentors,
only 5 committed to participate as subjects in this study. Ultimately with the lack of
presence represented, it would be challenging to generalize that this mentoring program
would work for all students attending a 4-year predominately white university but that for
these students and mentors, the impact on student career development was evident.
Although this program takes place for a full academic calendar year, the majority
of data was collected during the fall 2009 semester and early part of the spring 2010
semester. Data collections began in the third week of September during the first mentor
and mentee volunteer session. From there, surveys were distributed to participants and
individual interviews and focus groups were coordinated through email and phone
conversation. The data analysis provided insight into the participant’s experiences
through observations, interviews, and focus groups; the perspectives of the program and
whether or not the program met the objective of impacting career development. The
question that guided the study was what impact the OAAS Mentoring Program has on the
career development of African American students. Within the next chapter, the data will
assist in explaining the role of mentorship on these students and its overall impact on
their ability to development professionally.
43
Chapter Four
Presentation of Data
The goal of this study is to examine the impact of mentorship Black alumni on the
career development of African American students attending Predominantly White
universities. The stories presented in this chapter highlight the mentoring process
provided through this program and provide new perspectives on theories of social
integration related to career development and race-specific mentorship. The cultivation
of these relationships takes the effort of both parties and can have significant effects on
the academic and professional integration of African American students attending
predominantly White institutions.
Through the illustration of narratives, observations and group interviews, this
chapter seeks to show the relationship between African American student career
development and African American alumni mentors. In order to do so, a number of
strategies have been created in order to obtain information concerning the contribution
that African American alumni may have on African American students and their career
development. While there is continued debate as to what exclusive impact same-race
mentoring has on advancing the careers of their mentees, this research aims to determine
the positive outcomes from these established relationships. This chapter includes an
overview of the subjects (See Table C), methodology, instruments, and the analysis
process used to secure the findings within this study related to the alumni and student-
mentoring program.
44
Table C: Mentee and Mentor Subjects

Mentees

Subject Major Student Year

Jimmy Music/Jazz Senior
Holley
Health Promotion and
Prevention Junior
Jessica Business Freshman
Eddie Engineering Sophomore
Kevin Communications Junior
Pam Business Freshman
Beth Theatre Senior
Nikki Social Work Graduate

Mentors

Subject Profession Alumni Year

Trudy Engineer 1996
Simeon Business 1985
Nicole Entertainment 1994
Erika Marketing 1990
Sally Business 2006

45
Overview of Methodology
Gathering Data
The researcher chose to take a case study approach allowing for the results to
show a well-formed depiction of the African American alumni mentoring program and its
impact on the career development of students. This approach is maintained using
interviews, focus groups and observations. To begin with, demographic information
including student class standing, GPAs, program of study, and familial educational
background is collected. All mentee and mentor interviews take place on Callier
University campus in the Office of African American (OAAS) students’ boardroom.
Following these interviews, each student and alum was offered an opportunity to give
additional feedback or comments that might not have otherwise been covered through
structured dialogue but would assist in creating the central themes for this chapter.
Interview/Focus Group Questions
The last form of data collection was a focus group. During this interview,
students were asked to gather in the same space in which individual interviews was held.
Sitting in a round table discussion style, seven of the eight students were present and
encouraged to speak freely about their perspectives on the mentoring program and its
ability to influence their career maturation. However, before beginning the individual
and group interview process, a data collection form was created and stored in an excel
spreadsheet to help organize the demographic information of each participant. Mentee
subjects were assigned the letter A, and each mentor subjects a letter B. In an effort to
organize their information in a format that was efficient, the letter was coupled with a
46
number that allowed for information to be stored in an anonymous, yet descriptive form
connecting students to their career interests, academic achievements and familial
background. Each interview and focus group was intended to support an open and honest
space for students to share their overall sentiments concerning the program and to give
feedback pertaining to career development and mentoring. During these interviews, a
digital recorder was used to document all essential information. This allowed the
researcher to fully participate in the interview process both verbally and non-verbally.
Observations/Field Notes
In addition to interviews and a focus group, were observations. Notes were taken
during two initial mentoring mixer events. One was the Orientation for the alumni
mentoring program and the other a Welcome Mixer introducing each mentee to their
perspective mentor. In order for the natural environment to not have been impacted by
the researcher’s presence; the researcher avoided carrying a small pad and writing utensil
and in doing so, observations of the relationships was naturally monitored. In only its
second year of inception, the program collected very little information on their students
and alum therefore limiting any prior knowledge of each participant. For that reason, a
demographical questionnaire was created in an effort to obtain a larger picture of the
participants. For the mentors, this includes the following prompts:
What is your age?
What is your occupation?
Are you a first generation college student?
What was your experience at Callier University as an undergraduate?
47
As noted in Appendix A, these questions help to give an overall depiction of the
alum as a mentor, there educational background and possibly their potential exposure to
similar experiences of undergraduate African American students on Callier University
campus today. Serving as an anonymous questionnaire, the mentees were also asked to
complete a similar assessment. This assessment allowed for student mentees to elaborate
on their academic achievements, career interests, and what priority education holds in
their immediate family. The majority of student mentees interviewed were from family
backgrounds where they were 2
nd
or 3
rd
generation college students whose family highly
valued higher education. With career development as the focal point, these participants
became excellent candidates for this research as we explore the impact same-race
mentoring may have on their ability to grow professionally.
Introduction to Findings
The findings presented in this chapter are based on the analysis of interview
transcripts, the researcher’s field notes, and the results of the focus group discussion. We
begin with short illustrations that introduce our subjects and summarize the most
important points of their interview. Consequently, in writing their accounts, an attempt
was made to capture and convey as much as possible, the experience of each mentee in
the program and how it may have influenced their career development. At the end of
each interview, participants were allowed the opportunity to make additional comments
pertinent to the topic and the outcomes of those conversations have been organized into
three major themes: 1) Attributes of mentors, 2) Access to careers and 3) Cycle of
48
mentorship: mentees becoming mentors. The outcomes of the data collected are
presented below.
The data collected is organized in a way that addressed two important aspects:
involvement and intention for both mentors and mentees participating in the program. In
order to systematize the data, a data collection form was created with the following
fields: gender, class status, length of participation in the program, major, field of interest
and involvement in the program. With this form, the researcher is able to categorize the
demographics of each subject participating in this research in a clear format. As we
move forward, this chapter intends to report the main findings of the study and the three
major themes that were drawn from the information collected.
Finding #1 Attributes of Mentors
The top three important attributes identified by interviewees and focus group
participants are encouragement, accountability and availability. These top three attributes
are selected based on the recurring themes expressed in the individual interviews and
focus group and repeatedly surfaced throughout the data collection process. The three
attributes are listed below:

1. Being encouraging-providing positive and uplifting words when things get tough.
2. Being accountable-keeping your words on what you say you are going to do.
3. Being available-being accessible for planned meetings and when there are
possible emergencies.
The following data illuminate these attributes.
49
Beth
With a 3.6 GPA and in her senior year, Beth has achieved academic success and
the ability to balance a role as a student and member of Callier University golf team,
African American Business Association and student leader in the Residential Housing
community. As accomplished as this student is, Beth cited the difficulty she has had in
obtaining access to an internship and employment opportunities outside of the University.
Looking in the direction of life after college and the limitless possibilities that are in front
of her; her next move includes a career in film that allows her to use her creativity and
knowledge acquired while at Callier University. Therefore, Beth found it most beneficial
to be part of a program geared towards linking African American students with Black
alumni. When asked what she expected to gain from this program, Beth said; “I expect
guidance in my career field and whenever I have serious questions about something to be
able to call them.” The idea that the mentor is accessible to the student in an intentional
and involved way was most important to Beth. “I have an open relationship with my
mentor; she is like an “Auntie” to me.” According to this student, being accessible and
encouraging was most important.
Nikki
As a student with a dual focus, government and education, Nikki has always
aspired to be an advocate for positive change in the field of international affairs. As a
result, her vision to attend Callier University was made complete upon her admittance
into the 2-year master program for social work. As a first year graduate student, Nikki
saw the value in having a mentor on campus and therefore sought out the OAAS student-
50
mentoring program. Because she saw very few representatives amongst the staff and
faculty in her academic program, the Office of African American students was an ideal fit
for her and her interests in finding a mentor that had proven to be successful in their
profession.
When asked what her expectations of the program were and whether or not they
were being met, Nikki mentioned that her and her mentor did not have much in common
and as a result, there was very little connection.
We’ve connected a few times over email, and she’s asked if there is anything that
I need from her… as a first year graduate student in the program, I feel having a
mentor will help me to stay focus, especially when it’s time for looking for
employment.

Although Nikki’s academic program provided referrals to their students for internship
opportunities; she had not been successful in ascertaining an African American
representative in her field to assist her in the process. As important as the student
experience is for all students, African American students have an especially unique need
to connect with the campus environment and its resources. Thus, attending Callier
University, a predominantly white university, African American students rely on mentors
who have the same desire they do, to connect with one another.
Alumni Mentor Responses
Erika
Alumnus Erika felt more positively about OAAS’s program. As a recent alumni
Erika had a positive perception of her undergraduate experience at Callier University. As
a member of the communications school and dedicated sorority affiliate, she recognized
the importance of mentorship and giving back to the community. After participating in
51
this program, she had not seen a lot of change in the campus climate at the University
since her graduation in 1990. “Students of all ethnicities were cordial to each other but
there was some self imposed segregation.” Therefore, as a mentor, Erika realized the
obvious disconnection and found it incredibly important to be as accessible as possible.
“Anything that might help the student whether it’s personal or having to do with my
business experience…” she made available to her mentor. However, even when there
was a lack of accessibility, there were still innate benefits to the relationship.
I attended the first event and that is where I got my mentee. Neither I nor the
mentee were able to make the other events…one of the events I attended but my
mentee didn’t attend I ended up meeting someone else.

While there was some level of difficulty on both parties to connect, the benefit
was still present. The student was given access to the mentor in the form of email and
personal phone numbers that was helpful in facilitating a relationship that took place
shortly after those missed events. When asked if there was anything else to add regarding
her experience as a mentor in the program, Erika said;
I think that the program is really beneficial for students and I think that when
you’re in college it is important to have someone that you can relate to on a
personal level as well as on a professional level. It is very important and
beneficial for minorities in particular.

As a mentor whose graduation from the university was most recent, she saw the value of
having a mentoring program where same race relationships were encouraged and
fostered. As we continue, you will see that several students have been enlightened to the
fact that this program added value to their career development.

52
Jimmy
Jimmy is a graduating senior performance major who is extremely involved in
Callier University’s college campus. In addition to taking part in music recitals and other
musical endeavors on and off campus, he participates in the Callier University Christian
choir as well as the School of music program. As a first generation college student,
education and music have always played a major role in this student’s life. Jimmy has
excelled in his craft of guitar and music composition and has brought a tremendous
amount of exposure to the music program at Callier University. While the University has
a professional networking center through their career services; according to this student,
African American students were not seeing a tremendous effort towards connecting the
few African American music students existing in the program to African American
alumni. When asked what his expectation of the Alum mentoring program would be, he
answered:
I didn’t really have an expectation…thought it was cool that they supported black
students…there wasn’t really anything like that at my high school so I didn’t
know what to expect. It looked good to have that kind of support.

After interviewing Jimmy, much of his undergraduate experience lacked career support
from his academic program. “As the only African-American student in my program…I
guess, just the opportunity to match up with folks…connect with anyone else who is
black in my field is cool.” When asked the question of how would you best describe your
role as a mentee. Jimmy answered
Well, first of all to be responsive…because the mentor can do all they can to help
you but if you aren’t getting back to them in time or even interested in what their
telling you then it isn’t going to be beneficial to anyone involved.
53
Jimmy gives ownership of the success of the relationship to both the mentee and mentor,
without it, it becomes “just another relationship of convenience.”
The alumni and students felt a pressing need to participate in a program that
fostered career development and personal growth. However, the unanimous response
was that there are fundamental elements of the relationship that need to be present. “I
think the most important thing here is that the mentee is up front about his/her
expectations and the mentor is up front about their expectations as well…”
Accountability and accessibility are unvarying commentaries made throughout the
facilitated individual interviews and focus group. Although this expectation was
projected for alumni mentors, it was also an expectation for the student as well. Overall,
if mentors are “giving guidance…and whenever I have serious questions about something
to be able to call them,” students feel a benefit to the alliance. Although the attributes of
a mentor were especially important to subjects in this study, the accessibility to careers
and professionals within those desired careers were even more noteworthy.

Finding #2 Mentoring: Access to careers
The significance of alumni mentor attributes was not the only finding that
highlighted the overarching question of whether alumni mentoring of students increased
career development. It has been established through these narratives that accessibility to
careers and the student’s ability to graduate from the institution with an established
professional association, is a significant outcome of this research.
54
When asked the question of whether or not the mentoring program would benefit
them in their careers, every one answered that the program would substantially increase
their success. The majority of focus group participants commented that they knew that
they would not have been successful in their career development without mentorship.
The same-race type of mentoring (informal and formal) was substantial in contributing to
the overall success of these students.
The mentor participants in interviews and focus groups express a range of beliefs,
attitudes, and ideas on the value of mentoring and the link to possible success it may have
on African American students seeking employment. Mentee subjects reflected on a
variety of aspects concerning the relationship and its qualified support and ability to
create strong connections with alumni in order to benefit their career goals and preparing
for life after college. Still, many factors can contribute to their professional success and
several of these were considered, for example; family educational background, the
students’ commitment to developing and pursuing goals and exposure to informal and
formal mentoring experiences. Many of these mentors have exposed their specialized
and personal portfolios so that the students might obtain a complete view of the steps to a
successful career.
Holley
Health Sciences major Holley is working towards gaining employment experience
in an effort to ensure her candidacy with a reputable company. “I think in general, I was
looking to work with someone that was in my field and be connected to someone before
an interview and mentored in that capacity.” Because of the alumni student-mentoring
55
program, Holley was able to gain access into her field of interest leveraged by the
relationship she had with her mentor who worked as a neurological surgeon at a reputable
hospital. As an incredibly involved student on campus, Holley saw the importance of
becoming engrossed in a program that specifically facilitated relationships between
African American students and African American alumni. As a result, she obtained what
she was seeking most, the ability to connect with African American professionals not
typically involved on campus or part of the career service resource center.
Jessica
As a first year student, Jessica has become extremely active in her short time at
Callier University. She holds membership in the Student Body Government, Black
Entertainment and Theatrical Association, and is a student leader in the African
American housing community. She grew up in a one-parent home along with an older
brother who also aspires to attend Callier University. It is here where she learned that
higher education is the key to career success. When asked what things she had learned
thus far as a participant of the program she answered: “There are several powerful
individuals in the black community willing to help students in careers…to act as advisors
and that is what my mentor has been to me…making sure I am making the right steps
towards my career.”
Pam
As a first year student at Callier University, Pam had a desire to pursue
opportunities that would assist in creating a social network on campus. She was very
clear about what she expected to gain from the OAAS program. “I wanted to know about
56
opportunities in the black community and work force.” Unaware of any existing student
resources, Pam was referred by a peer to the Office of African American students where
the alumni student-mentoring program was in its second year of implementation. When
asked what was the most important aspect of participating in a mentoring program like
this one, she said “networking and obtaining career advice…this program is unique
because we’re matched with black professionals…there’s no guessing or hoping…we
know we’re going to be connected with a black alum.”
Eddie
As a sophomore engineering major whose goals are to raise a family and be a
successful manager of an engineering company; Eddie was most pleased when he was
matched with an African American manager for General Electric Engineering Company
who was married with a young family. According to this student, the initial attraction to
Callier University was its infamous alumni network. However, upon admission, he found
out that the network required some maneuvering and relationship building on his part.
“In the Office of African American students, there is an existing network to help black
students accomplish their career goals.” This is where the program, unlike other
departments, offers a unique resource for African American students attending this
prestigious predominantly white university.
Simeon
As alum from the class of 1985, Simeon has stepped into his first year as a mentor
for the OAAS program. Ultimately, it was his own experience as an undergraduate of
Callier University that ignited his desire to participate. “As a black business student, we
57
did not have access to employers and alumni like our white peers. It just didn’t work like
that...we had to rely on family to help connect us after graduation.” It is due to his
undergraduate experience that he imparts his time and knowledge to those students
participating within this program; allowing them direct access into a field that they may
not have otherwise had access into. Through his involvement in the program, two of his
mentees were extended an unpaid internship with the option to hire after their degree
completion. Prior to their involvement in the program, these students were struggling to
find willing alumni to speak to about opportunities in their field of interest. However, the
OAAS mentoring program provided this prospect for these students.
With the purpose of the mentoring program to allow for black students from
Callier University to become successfully engaged in the highly selective and
competitive processes associated with career preparation; it offers the indispensible
partnerships of corporate America to students that they would not otherwise obtain
through the career center. “My mentor has a strong knowledge of my field and a passion
for helping other African Americans…it makes it easier to talk to them about my
interest.” With this as a reality for African American students on predominantly white
campuses, students therefore become their own advocates, or rely on programmatic
efforts to connect them to alumni in their field many of them having not been part of a
formal mentoring program, realizing just “…how important the connections in a
relationship are.”
This program has become a vehicle for students in positioning themselves within
the workforce and having access to professionals in their diverse careers of interest. It is
58
a connection that becomes crucial to the career development of students and the
involvement that they possibly will have to the University following graduation.
Ultimately, this invaluable connection comes from the building of sincere relationships
that allow for students who have been successfully mentored to become mentors
themselves following their career achievements. Which leads us to our third most
important finding; mentees becoming mentors.
Finding #3 Cycle of Mentorship: Mentees to Mentors
As we consider the influence of mentor support on career advancement for these
students, we begin to see that those alumni responsible for creating access into the
workforce have now positioned themselves to be of assistance to these students. Having
once been a student at this prestigious University there is a reality that support for these
students is essential. Consequently, students graduate and inevitably transition from
mentees to mentors. This becomes our third most important result of the research.
Alumni Mentor Responses
Nicole
As a first generation college student and 1994 alumnus, Nicole has had several
careers to which she has obtained a great deal of success. Along with her career
experience, she is very aware of the plight for job attainment in the United States,
especially for students of color. Her perception of the experience of African American
students is that they have more difficulty with professors, university expectations, and
overall treatment. “Mentoring is and will always be invaluable to African American
students, especially those on white campuses seeking a future in their career field.”
59
Nicole would not be the only alumnus in this study who shared the same viewpoint
concerning the need for mentorship for our African American students attending
predominantly white universities.
Sally
When asked what the expectations were for the program, Sally was interested in
making certain that those students preparing for life after college received the guidance
necessary to be successful in a career. Therefore, when she saw that through this
program there was an opportunity to help change the student experience; she invested her
time and energy to connect with African American students.
A student from my alma mater and someone of color that is experiencing the
same things that I went through during my time at Callier University becomes my
responsibility to inform, educate and advise in order for them to make it out with
a career and a foot in the door.

Because Sally is recent alum, she was able to relate to her mentee on both a student and
professional level.
Trudy
Some alumni participated in the program with more than just an intention to
connect with students but to give back to their undergraduate institution. Not knowing
what to expect, Trudy requested no more than one mentee and after a positive experience,
found that she really enjoyed her time and would like to mentor more than one student.
Trudy was reminded of her undergraduate experience at the predominantly white
prestigious University; where her career development was mostly fostered through
relationships with peers and family members and not from the institution making an
effort to support a population in need of a unique type of mentorship.
60
It’s unfortunate that programs like these have to exist to ensure employment for
African American students, but there is no real effort behind getting career
information to those students extremely in need. There is no attachment to the
lives of those students that for all intensive purposes we used to be.

As a committed mentor in the program, Trudy extended two positions of summer
employment through her company internship program to her senior mentees. This is an
excellent example of the career developing resources offered through mentorship.
Kevin
In his 3
rd
year at Callier University, this 20-year-old student is pursuing two
degrees: broadcast journalism and international relations. Originally, from Southfield
Michigan, Kevin comes from a two parent home where education is highly valued. His
mother, a retired teacher, father an employee for a major hospital legal management
department; and sister an undergraduate engineer alum from the University of Michigan;
Callier University was his first choice for an undergraduate education. As involved as
Kevin is in his academic department, he had been unsuccessful in securing meaningful
relationships between staff and faculty that would then turn into mentorship. It was not
until his participation in the program that Kevin created connections with two very
important alumni in his field and has been able to utilize them as he moves through his
final year at the University. “…a price cannot be put on the information that I get from
these alumni…it comes from experience…I will become a mentor and show other
students how they can be successful in their careers...”
These intentional relationships and associations between alum and students allow
for increased advocacy for students in their pursuit to enhance their career development.
“Mentoring is and will always be invaluable to African American students, especially
61
those on white campuses seeking a future in their career field.” While America’s
workforce has increased its “visible” diversity, this study has shown that connecting
students to alum of color is a very useful method of creating modes of career
advancement and access for our African American students. If successfully
manufactured, these relationships can promote positive future University contacts among
alumni and students.
Chapter Summary
“Persons that give much to others try to get much from them, and persons that get
much from others are under pressure to give much to them” (Appalachian State
University, 2005). As we explore this idea of same-race mentorship and its impact on
career development, this quote becomes extremely valid. When you have benefitted from
the wisdom and instruction of another, it is only in your best interest and that of the group
you came from to do the same. Much of what we have seen through the testimonies and
narratives in this chapter has shown a great deal of positivity and gratitude towards a
mentoring program designed to connect African American students with African
American alumni. It is within this connection that these students become better prepared
for life as a professional and equipped with the non-traditional knowledge of the
positions and roles in their field of interests, see Table D.
62
Table D. Mertz Model in Research
Framework Mentor Mentee
Intent Subjects A1-A8 Subjects B1-B5

Career Advancement
(Involvement Level 4-6)

"Anything that might help the student
whether it’s personal or having to do
with my business experience…”

"In the Office of African American
students, there is an existing network
to help black students accomplish
their career goals."

Professional Development
(Involvement Level 2-3)

"Mentoring is and will always be
invaluable to African American
students, especially those on white
campuses seeking a future in their
career field."

"There are several powerful
individuals in the black community
willing to help students in careers…
and to act as advisors and that is what
my mentor has been to me…"

"I think in general, I was looking to
work under someone that was in my
field and be connected
to someone before an interview and
be mentored in that capacity.”

Psychosocial Development
(Involvement Level 1)

"It becomes my responsibility to
inform, educate and advise in order
for them to make it out with a career
and a foot in the door.”

“I wanted to know about
opportunities in the black community
and work force.”

"I have an open relationship with my
mentor; she is like an "Auntie" to
me."

"My mentor has a strong knowledge
of my field and a passion for helping
other African Americans…
it makes it easier to talk to them
about my passion."

"...it is important to have someone
that you can relate to on a personal
level as well as on a professional
level."

63
With projections indicating that within the next 30 years, minorities will
constitute over one-third of the U.S population. These population changes make it
imperative that African American and other minority groups obtain the educational
credentials, skill sets, and knowledge needed to work productively in a rapidly changing
economy. One way to support and guarantee the necessary increase of skilled personnel
in our American workforce is to encourage and enable a greater number of African
Americans and other minority students to successfully enter and complete postsecondary
education and training (Wimberly, 2002).
After gaining access into a higher education institution, it becomes crucial that
they are exposed to alumni in the form of mentors in their career fields to couple their
scholarly knowledge with experiential knowledge. However, as illustrated throughout
these narratives, it is only with the genuine intention and involvement on the part of the
mentor that students can be positively impacted in their career development and be led
successfully towards a career path following graduation. The final chapter will address
the above questions that assisted the researcher in exploring the elements of this
mentoring program. They will also speak to the insight created from the literature
review, as well as contributions from the study and possible future research needed to
expand on the findings of this study and the information that was not yet explored.
64
Chapter Five
Summary of Findings and Research
The goal of this study is to examine the impact that Black alumni may have on the
career development of African American students attending a predominantly white
university. These stories that were represented in the previous chapter are used to
highlight the mentoring process and to provide new perspectives on theories of social
integration, particularly race-specific mentoring relationships. The objective of this
mentoring program is to create a series of events that connect Callier University (CU)
Black alumni to undergraduate and graduate black CU students through mentoring based
on professional career experience. Its focus is specifically to address disparities in the
underrepresentation of African American professionals in highly competitive fields such
as medicine and pharmacy, engineering and high tech, business and entrepreneurship, and
overall management and leadership.
The Office of African American Students (OAAS) mentoring program promotes a
holistic relationship between alum and student. The alum is required to provide
professional as well as social insight to the ways and means of career pipeline
opportunity and success. The alumni mentor provides a bridge to past and current
experience, as well as an informed perspective of future expectations and future prospects
regarding trends and proactive career positioning. These relationships will prove to be
invaluable to the mentee; the student receives a distinct sense of immeasurable pride
regarding the progress of social and professional diversity, and their role in establishing
competencies for the 21
st
century. While the mentors that are part of this program may
65
have entered the Callier University campus under different socio-economical
circumstances; they now maintain highly influential positions in all areas of the
workforce.
While research surrounding the topic of mentorship and its impact on the social
and academic development of students has been explored; there has been little research
pertaining to the impact of mentorship on African American students and their career
development as attendees of predominantly white universities. Therefore the findings
that were exposed through this research will be extremely informative for all of the
professionals working with this population of students in this particular environment.
Presentation of Findings
Amongst these findings were the importance’s of mentor characteristics. Three of
which were most important were: encouraging, accountability and availability. It is these
three attributes of the mentor that made the relationships successful and in turn
determined the level of impact on same-race mentoring association and its ability to
impact the student’s career development. Whether or not a mentor was available would
establish the mentees ability to take advantage of their resources and expertise. If
inaccessible the mentee would then be limited on what they were capable of being
directly exposed to through their relationship and ultimately lack in knowledge and
preparation towards their career field as originally assured by their involvement in this
program. Therefore if we are securing mentors for our African American students whose
needs for connection with African American professionals becomes even more unique in
66
their environment; they must be accessible and approachable. Without it, there is a lack
of reciprocity and the student fails to benefit from the relationship.
While accessibility of the mentor is a great concern, accountability is another
crucial element. Accountable mentors who kept their commitments of meeting times and
dates, their ability to serve as vehicles into their desired careers and the extent to which
they are capable of exposing them in their field of interest; was all contingent on their
accountability. The mentees that participated in the research more often than not found
that their mentors were accountable to the objective of the program, to create holistic
relationships with alumni. It is within these relationships that the effort to increase
student career development was made possible.
While attending predominantly white universities, many of the participants
addressed the limited representation of African American faculty and staff and thus relied
heavily on programs such as this one for their career progression. Lastly, of the three
mentor attributes, being encouraging was amongst one of the most important. Those
mentors that were encouraging of their mentees throughout their academics, professional
and social lives; were more apt to create a genuine relationship that afforded them access
into their career fields than those that were not.
It is this accessibility into careers that is afforded by these intentional
relationships. Through the mentorship of these alumni, the research shows that these
students were given opportunities not otherwise offered to them through their campus
career resource center. Part of that is because unlike those relationships built with a
recruiter responsible for finding the most capable candidates in a short amount of time,
67
these students are given an opportunity to have an intimate relationship with the very
person responsible for hiring for these companies and therefore allows for direct
advocacy on the part of the student.
The mentors that are part of this particular program do not hold entry level
positions but positions of extreme power and influence and it is the exclusiveness of that
relationship that allows a greater opportunity for career advancement for these students.
Minority students are no longer just a demographic statistic that coupled with an
academic achievement score, make up the diversity numbers on campus; but they have a
voice and a story that due to their mentoring relationships has allowed employers to have
greater insight into the competencies and capabilities of these students.
Now this is not to say that African American students are at a disadvantage with
the use of career centers on campus. There are a number of resources provided by the
University that foster diversity in careers. However, there is nothing in place that harbors
a deliberate attempt to magnify professional African American relationships with other
African American alum in upper level management positions. The majority of students
participating in this research were positioned for internships and full time employment
following their degree completion. Their access into these careers was made possible in
the course of their mentoring relationship.
As these students become part of the work field; they have the potential to be
mentors to their successors. Several of the alumni subjects who participated in this
research all had one thing in common; they felt very strongly about giving back to the
higher educational community they were all products of. As a result, the eagerness to
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assist students in their career development was evident. How best do institutions engage
their alumni to be connected to their Higher Education institutions? by making available
the opportunity to impact the lives of students attending their alma mater and those
students to follow.
Participating in the Office of African American Students’ mentoring program
does exactly that. Students who strive for a higher education in an effort to obtain access
into a career of their choice now become the alumni professional capable of creating the
same vehicle for entry into a desired career field that might once have not been granted to
them. Mentees becoming mentors is an incredibly important factor of this research that
demonstrates the cycle of positive career development that is accomplished by creating
these types of programs and relationships. While not limited to just the African
American community, these kinds of programs have the ability to ensure the introduction
of minority students into distinctive vocations.
Connecting findings to research
Each of these findings has supported the notion that there is a level of influence
on career development through same race mentoring relationships. And as stated within
all three of these themes was this perception of importance on involvement and intention.
As part of Norma Mertz’ (2004) model of career development, the more involved of a
role (e.g. mentor and guardian), the more intentional the relationship becomes. Therefore
as we evaluate the three main themes that surfaced within this research, we find that all
the mentees benefitted mainly because of the intention of each of these alumni to act as
mentors. As the highest role of Mertz’ developmental theoretical model, it is also
69
demonstrative of the highest level of involvement. This further informs us that the
mentor is the highest connection in a professional relationship and therefore would have
the greatest outcome for student career development.
Connecting findings to practice and policy
As a Student Affairs professional there is an effort to maintain the integrity of the
University’s academic goals as well as their social goals. It is in cultivating excellence
that was able to assist students in obtaining successful careers. In doing so, special
attention paid to smaller communities residing on larger majority campuses is necessary
in order to create a direct pipeline to networking and employment opportunities.
Practice
The objective of career services is to allow student’s accessibility to professionals
within their field of interest. The foundation of this can be fueled by the participation of
alumni who make a choice to stay connected to the University. Therefore, efforts need to
be made in order to ensure that these alliances are formed in advance. In doing so,
mentoring programs like this one whose focus is to foster career development in students
need to exist. The best method of nurturing these connections is to make sure that we are
constantly reaching out to our African American alumni. While Callier University does
not allow the release of student demographic information there are several other methods
that can be used to collect this data, for example through alumni mixer events. These
events would allow for alumni to give their contact information as well as their level of
interest in becoming involved with the University and in what capacity. This information
could then be housed in a universal database accessible to the campus community
70
especially to those cultural offices and departments responsible for enhancing the overall
development of a specific population of students attending a predominantly white
campus.
Policy
How these practices are implemented are simply through policy. Creating a
course of action where each academic department, student service office and culturally
focused center is nurturing a mentoring program specifically centered on professionally
developing our African American students. The responsibility of educating our students
on the fundamentals of building professional relationships as well as in the ins and outs
of the work force should not solely depend on campus career services but on every
Higher Education student service departments and offices. In providing these intentional
relationships with alumni of the same race our students are benefitting beyond career
development, but also personally, socially and academically.
Recommendations
However, as part of any research, there are recommendations to be considered.
Mentors unsuccessfully being matched or the lack of access to mentors from minority
groups negatively impacts the mentee experience and is a definite limitation (Trask, et al,
2004). In an effort to support these important relationships, the association between
alumni and students needs to correlate directly to the student’s field of interest and the
alumni’s present career. Additionally, within this relationship there needs to be a formal
mentoring contract generated. One that includes: meeting times, places, duration,
stipulations for extension of or termination of relationship in some cases. The
71
recommendation of defining a mentoring relationship can provide clarity and make
available guidelines for both parties. Because none of the mentee participants of this
research had specifically defined their relationship in writing or used a contract in
advance, the majority of them were in touch with their mentees and mentors as
determined by their availability. There is added value to the mentoring experience if
given the opportunity to create an agreed upon course of action.
An additional recommendation would be to create some measureable outcomes,
i.e. how many acquired internships were acquired through the program, how many
received access into their field of interests, or what helpful professional knowledge did
these students ascertain from these relationship from these relationships. This allows for
an assessment tool to be put into place that supports the positive outcomes of including
these types of programs on predominantly white campuses.
Chapter Summary
In summary, the Office of African American Students mentoring program’s
initiative focuses on creating an intentional connection between students and alumni with
a willingness to give back to those students seeking career advancement. While the
outcomes of this kind of relationship are clear for the mentee it can also prove to be
advantageous for the University. Allowing our alumni to be connected to current
students keeps them linked to the University and its initiatives. It also has the ability to
create a philanthropic interest on behalf of these participating alumni mentors. You will
find that there are a number of factors that can be enhanced in an effort to increase
72
outreach and the influence it can have on building relationships and impacting career
advancement for African American students at predominantly white universities.
While we continue to recognize that we are working and living on diverse
campuses full of students whose differences make up minority student enrollment
numbers; the reality is that these communities are in need of resources to help propel
them into an already impaired workforce. The connections between schooling, network
development, and career attainment have only become more understandable in light of
contemporary research on adult social networks, which has demonstrated that “consistent
and predictable structural variations in the interpersonal networks of people from
different social classes and status groups usually translate into differential access to
highly valued institutional resources, opportunities, and privileges” (Stanton-Salazar,
1997).
Through relationships with institutional agents, such as faculty, staff and alumni;
these students are given access to privileges and support that is advantageous to
advancing and maintaining a desired economical position within society. This
positioning begins with connecting students to professional representatives and creating a
forum for social networks with the purpose of increasing career development amongst
this student population. These social networks have the ability to empower young people
according to the value of these types of relationships presented to them. Such
relationships become fundamental to students for the reason that they allow direct access
to professional resources. Relationships with esteemed professionals allow students to
not only obtain knowledge of the skill sets necessary for professional growth but to gain
73
expertise in network development; skillful networking behavior; knowledge of how to
negotiate with various gatekeepers and agents within and outside of the academic
environment; and knowledge of how to develop supportive and collaborative ties with
alumni and peers who are well integrated in their desired professional circles.
Overall, the development of same-race mentoring relationships with alumni is
crucial to the career development and empowerment of ethnic minority youth specifically
because these associations represent consistent and reliable sources from which these
students become proficient in, such as career obtainment, advancement and development.
The uniqueness of this program lies in its ability to connect these students with high
achieving professionals. Due to the roles that these mentors have as Directors, Vice
President’s and in many cases CEO’s of these companies; these students not only obtain
access to the positions that they desire, but, a very specific and intentional relationship
with professionals that have made it to the top of their career.
Unlike other mentoring programs where students are matched with mid-level
management professionals these students become exposed to a road map to their “dream”
positions by the very person that has made it to that space. It is this distinctiveness that
allows this program to successfully influence the career development and advancement of
these African American students attending predominantly white universities. “Mentoring
is a brain to pick, an ear to listen, and a push in the right direction” (anonymous). I urge
others to continue the research in the area of career development among African
American students and African American alumni at predominantly white universities.

74
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Appendix A
Mentor and Mentee Demographics
Mentor Demographic Questionnaire: Subject Number:
What is your age?
What is your occupation?
What is your place of employment?
What year did you graduate from The University of Southern California?
Are you from a first generation family?
Did your parents attend college?
How involved are you in the Office of African American Students?
What was your experience at The University of Southern California as an undergraduate?
How would you describe the climate of the campus at that time?
What similarities or differences do you see on campus regarding the relationships of
African American students and white students?
Were you mentored during your undergraduate years at The University of Southern
California?
If so, how did it impact your life after college?
Mentee Demographic Questionnaire: Subject Number:
What is your age?
What is your class status?
What program of study are you in?
What types of activities/clubs/organizations are you a part of?
78
Tell me a little bit about your background? Where are you from?
Was the University of Southern California a top choice?
How are you financing your time here?
Are you the first generation?
Did your parents attend college?
Did your siblings attend college?
What are you expecting from your experience at The University of Southern California?
If you are returning, what are some positive things about the University that you enjoy?
What are some negative aspects about The University of Southern California that you
have noticed?
What is your GPA?
79
Appendix B
Mentee & Mentor Post & Pre-Program Questions
Mentees and Mentors Pre-Exposure Questions
How did you hear about the program?
What do you expect to learn from this program?
What kind of mentor are you looking for?
What do you think you will bring to the program as a mentee?
What is the most important aspect of being part of this program?
As a mentor, what sort of aspects of your life are you willing to expose to these students?
How would you best describe the role of the mentor?
How would you best describe the role of a mentee?
What aspects of this program inspired you to participate?

Mentors and Mentees Post-Exposure Questions
Based on your experience, what would you say are the strengths of this program?
What about the weaknesses?
Let me turn now to your personal likes and dislikes about the program. What are some of
the things that you have really liked about the program?
What about dislikes? What are some things you do not like concerning the program?
What impact has the program had on you?
What would be your recommendations for the program? If you have the power to change
things about the program, what would you make different?
80
What did you learn from your mentor that you could not have learned otherwise?
In hindsight, what would you have exposed your mentee to in order to increase their
knowledge base?
How did this program live up to their expectations?
What was the biggest concern that you saw in these students that you mentored?
What was the largest disappointment from your experience with your mentor or mentee?
What was the greatest benefit from your experience as a mentor of the mentoring
program?
81
Appendix C
Mentee & Mentor Interview Questions
Interview Questions:
Intent and Involvement Model: Career Development: Norma Mertz (2004)
Mentor: 1-35 (Intent), 70-80 (Involvement)
Mentee: 38-69 (Intent), 70-80 (Involvement)

Mentors:

1. What do you expect to learn from this program?
2. What kind of mentor are you looking for?
3. What do you think you will bring to the program as a mentee?
4. What is the most important aspect of being part of this program?
5. As a mentor, what sort of aspects of your life are you willing to expose to
these students?

6. How would you best describe the role of the mentor?
7. How would you best describe the role of a mentee?
8. Based on your experience, what would you say are the strengths of this program?
9. What about the weaknesses?
10. Let me turn now to your personal likes and dislikes about the program.
11. What are some of the things that you have really liked about the program?
12. What about dislikes? What are some things you do not like concerning the program?
82
13. What impact has the program had on you?
14. What would be your recommendations for the program?
15. If you have the power to change things about the program, what would you make
different?

16. What did you learn from your mentor that you could not have learned otherwise?
17. In hindsight, what would you have exposed your mentee to in order to increase their
knowledge base?

18. How did this program live up to their expectations?
19. What was the biggest concern that you saw in these students that you mentored?
20. What was the largest disappointment from your experience with your mentor or
mentee?

21. On a Likert Scale, 1-5 (1-great, 5-poor), how would you rate this experience?
22. What did you learn?
23. Did you feel that you were able to connect with your mentor? If not, why not?
24. How else do you think you could impact the career development of your mentees?
25. What sorts of things did you learn pertaining to career development that was helpful?
26. Do you believe that as a mentor that you can impact your mentees career
development? If so, how?

27. What was your expectation as a mentor in the program?
28. What sorts of things do you intend to expose your mentee?
29. What have you exposed your mentee too so far?
30. Were these activities beneficial to their career development?
31. How have you exposed them to your profession?
32. Do you feel as though you have gotten to know your mentee well?
83
33. How would you describe your relationship with your mentee?
34. What has been your intention in the program as a mentor?
35. How involved have you been since the start of the program?
36. How would you describe your level of satisfaction with the mentoring program?
37. How would you now define your role as a mentor?
Mentees:

38. What do you expect to learn from this program?
39. What kind of mentor are you looking for?
40. What do you think you will bring to the program as a mentee?
41. What is the most important aspect of being part of this program?
42. As a mentor, what sort of aspects of your life are you willing to expose to these
students?

43. How would you best describe the role of the mentor?
44. How would you best describe the role of a mentee?
45. Based on your experience, what would you say are the strengths of this program?
46. What about the weaknesses?
47. Let me turn now to your personal likes and dislikes about the program.
48. What are some of the things that you have really liked about the program?
49. What about dislikes? What are some things you do not like concerning the program?
50. What impact has the program had on you?
84
51. What would be your recommendations for the program?
52. If you have the power to change things about the program, what would you make
different?

53. What did you learn from your mentor that you could not have learned otherwise?
54. In hindsight, what would you have exposed your mentee to in order to increase their
knowledge base?

55. How did this program live up to their expectations?
56. What was the biggest concern that you saw in these students that you mentored?
57. What was the largest disappointment from your experience with your mentor or
mentee?

58. Did you feel that you were able to connect with your mentor? If not, why not?
59. What would you have changed about this event?
60. What sorts of things did you learn pertaining to career development that were helpful?
61. Do you believe that your mentor can or will impact your career development?
62. Were these activities beneficial to your career development?
63. What have you learned about your mentor thus far?
64. Do you have any interest in working in their occupation?
65. Has this experience hindered you from your original career path? If so, tell me how?
66. As of now, how would you rate this program on a Likert scale, 1-5,
(1-expectations met, 5-below expectations)?
67. How would you describe your level of satisfaction with the mentoring program?
68. How important if at all, do you see the role of a mentor in career development?
69. Do you think that the intent of the mentoring program meets your needs as a student
seeking career development?
85
Mentors/Mentees Involvement:

70. What aspects of this program inspired you to participate?
71. What is your level of involvement in the program?
72. How often do you attend events?
73. How often do you correspond with your mentor?
74. What type of mentoring event did you attend?
75. What sorts of activities have you and your mentor participated in?
76. How might you increase your level of involvement with this program?
77. How would you help in the effort to increase participation of mentees across campus?
78. What could the organization do to increase involvement?
79. How would you rate the level of involvement of your peers in this program?
80. How would you rate the level of involvement of mentors in this program?

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The goal of this study is to examine the impact Black alumni may have on the career development of African American undergraduate students attending predominantly White universities. The narratives presented in this study aim to highlight the mentoring process and to provide new perspectives on theories of social integration, particularly same-race mentoring relationships. The development of these relationships can have significant effects on the professional integration of African American students at predominantly White institutions. This study will identify how students who engage in same-race mentoring programs experience increased opportunity for career development.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Enge, Kari E. (author)

Core Title What is the impact of same-race alumni mentoring on the career development of African American students attending predominantly White Universities?

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 08/17/2010

Defense Date 05/11/2010

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag African American students,career development,Higher education,identity,mentoring,OAI-PMH Harvest,predominantely White universities,student satisfaction

Place Name USA (countries)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Venegas, Kristan M. (committee chair), Tobey, Patricia (committee member), West, Kim (committee member)

Creator Email dr.enge2010@gmail.com,enge@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m3368

Unique identifier UC1124068

Identifier etd-Enge-3964 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-381776 (legacy record id),usctheses-m3368 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Enge-3964.pdf

Dmrecord 381776

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Enge, Kari E.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu