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Undergraduate single mothers' perception of the impacts of college on their cognitive and psychosocial development

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Undergraduate single mothers' perception of the impacts of college on their cognitive and psychosocial development

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UNDERGRADUATE SINGLE MOTHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF THE
IMPACTS OF COLLEGE ON THEIR COGNITIVE AND
PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
by
Tony Arguelles
__________________________________________________________________
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
August 2008
Copyright 2008 Tony Arguelles

ii
DEDICATION

This dissertation is dedicated to my beautiful daughter, full-of-life son,
and loving wife. Thank you for all your love and support.

iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank the members of my dissertation committee, Rodney K.
Goodyear (chair), Dennis Hocevar, and Don Tuitt; their guidance throughout this
process has been invaluable. I also thank my wife, Meli, for her support and
encouragement; without her love and friendship I would never have completed this
project. Finally, I thank Natalie and Ethan for their love and understanding.

iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION ..........................................................................................................ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...................................................................................... iii
LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................vi
LIST OF FIGURES ...............................................................................................vii
ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................... viii
Chapter 1: CONCEPTUAL AND EMPERICAL FOUNDATIONS
FOR THE STUDY OF SINGLE MOTHRS IN COMMUNITY
COLLEGES................................................................................................1
Purpose of the Study.......................................................................................6
Review of the Literature .................................................................................6
Student Development ...............................................................................6
Psychosocial-Identity Development.........................................................7
Cognitive-Structural Theories ................................................................12
Research on Single Mother College Students ..............................................14
Means of Assessment ...................................................................................17
Research Questions.......................................................................................18
Chapter 2: METHOD ...........................................................................................19
Participants ...................................................................................................19
Phase I Participants.................................................................................19
Phase II Participants ...............................................................................19
Raters......................................................................................................20
Measures.......................................................................................................20
Critical Incident Technique ....................................................................20
Paired Comparison Questionnaire..........................................................21
Procedures ....................................................................................................21
Phase I.....................................................................................................21
Phase II ...................................................................................................22
Analyses........................................................................................................22
Ratings....................................................................................................22
MDS..................................................................................................23
Clustering..........................................................................................23
Chapter 3: RESULTS ...........................................................................................25
Phase I Results..............................................................................................25
Development of Categories ....................................................................25
Ratings....................................................................................................30
Phase II Results ............................................................................................32
Multidimensional Scaling.......................................................................32

v
Cluster Analysis......................................................................................32
Chapter 4: DISCUSSION.....................................................................................38
Discussion of Findings .................................................................................38
The 12 Categories in Relation to Previous Research .............................38
The Women’s Cognitive Organization of Their Experiences ................44
Limitations of the Study ...............................................................................45
Suggestions for Future Research ..................................................................45
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................47
APPENDICES
A. COLLEGE YEAR EXPERIENCE QUESTIONNAIRE (CYEQ) ..........51
B. RANDOM PAIRED THEME PLACEMENT CHART ..........................57

vi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Frequencies of Categories, Positive Values, and Eventual Effects .....31
Table 2: Dimension Weights for Each Category...............................................33
Table 3: Themes by Cluster Name ....................................................................35

vii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Single mothers in community college .................................................34
Figure 2: Dendrogram using Ward method ........................................................34

viii
ABSTRACT
This mixed-methods study examined the sources of impact that single
mothers perceived to have affected their sense of self and how they conceptually
organized those impacts. Seventy-one undergraduate single mothers (mean age 22
years) participated in the first phase of the study by completing a variant of
Flanagan’s Critical Incident Technique to report a college-related experience that
had affected their sense of self. A team of three doctoral students identified 12
categories of impact from those incidents. In the second phase of the study 12
women who had participated in the first phase rated the degree of similarity
between the items in each possible pair of those 12 categories.
Those similarity data were analyzed using multidimensional scaling (MDS).
A two-dimensional solution was used to graphically represent the results. After
naming the dimensions, the data were analyzed using hierarchical cluster analysis.
A four-cluster analysis best represented the data. Those clusters were overlaid
graphically on the MDS solution.
The 12 themes that emerged during the analysis of the first phase data were
associated with particular factors that theory and previous research had identified as
influencing personal identity development and demonstrated the profound effect of
college on the study participants’ personal identity development. The clusters and
dimensions illustrated the importance of relationships, especially student-faculty
relationships, to the women. The clusters and dimensions were consistent with prior
theory and the current research provided validation for the results. Limitations of
the study, suggestions for future research, and implications for higher education
practitioners were discussed.

1
CHAPTER 1
CONCEPTUAL AND EMPERICAL FOUNDATIONS
FOR THE STUDY OF SINGLE MOTHRS IN
COMMUNITY COLLEGES
The sources of impact on college students’ sense of self have been a topic
of interest for quite some time, accruing a large body of research. In 1991
Pascarella and Terenzini published How College Affects Students: Findings and
Insights From Twenty Years of Research, a review of over 2,600 studies; they
updated that book in 2005. Their two books identified over 4,000 studies of student
development phenomena and outcomes. Although there has been a great deal of
research on college student development, little has focused on the impacts of
community college on student development, and almost none has focused on single
mothers in higher education.
A dominant aspect of student development is the evolution of the self or
identity. During their college years, students refine and establish their identities. In
fact, college plays a significant role in that process (Evans, Forney, & Guido-
DiBrito, 1998). Therefore, factors affecting identity development are an important
focus of study.
Nontraditional students, specifically single mothers, face challenges that
traditional students normally do not face (Dill & Henley, 1998; Huff & Thorpe,
1997), including those related to employment, health care, day care, housing,
transportation, academics, dental care, time, and finances.
Three factors are particularly important. First, nontraditional students face
the challenge of managing multiple roles. For instance, many single mothers have

2
to juggle the roles of motherhood, student, provider, and employee. This type of
situation creates a conflict of roles, compromising one role for another.
Second, nontraditional students face the challenge of time constraints. One
of the biggest problems for nontraditional students is that of class attendance (Dill
& Henley, 1998). Their attendance record is affected by family obligations—
running home from work to pick up the children to deliver them to a babysitter
(assuming that one is available) and then try and arrive at class on time.
Third, nontraditional students face the challenge of being financially stable.
If they do not have the financial means to pay for day care, transportation, housing,
tuition, health care for dependents and self, and so on, then they have no choice but
to drop out of college (Dill & Henley, 1998; Huff & Thorpe, 1997).
Women are now the dominant gender on college campuses. Data from the
National Center for Education Statistics (NCES; 2000) showed that, in 1999, 8.5
million women were enrolled in U.S. colleges and universities. In 2000 they com-
prised 57% of all students. The same report predicted that by 2009 the percentage
of female college students would increase to 61%.
Many of those women attend community colleges. Community colleges
attract a diverse body of students, predominantly nontraditional students. Most
students in community colleges are there because they do not have the grades,
motivation, financial resources, and/or academic proficiency to attend a 4-year
college. Many are not sure what they want to do and use the community college
experience as a safety valve. Many students simply do not have a choice other than
community college because the college is less expensive, provides more choices in
career paths, and usually is within 20 miles of home and work (NCES, 2000).

3
The 1,173 community colleges in the United States enrolled 10.4 million
students (Phillippe & Patton, 1999). In fact, 44% of all undergraduate students in
the United States were enrolled in community colleges. The average age of com-
munity college students was 29 and the majority (58%) were women. Community
college students constituted the following percentages of undergraduates: first-time
freshmen 41%, Native American, 55%, Asian/Pacific Islander, 46%, Black 46%,
Hispanic 55% (American Association of Community Colleges [AACC], 2008).
Data are derived from the most current information available as of January 2008.
Bryant (2000) noted that persistence in adult women is connected to
multiple variables, such as financial aid status, grade point average, and family
support. She also noted that students who do not persist differ from those who do
persist in that they do not commit to the course of study and do not become
involved on campus. Johnson, Schwartz, and Bower (2000) echoed Bryant’s
concerns, reporting that high levels of stress among adult women in the community
colleges result from parenting, financial constraints, and health concerns. Single
mothers confront different challenges from those faced by a “traditional” student,
rendering them far more susceptible to attrition (NCES, 2000).
One in eight (16.4%) community college women students are single
mothers (NCES, 2000). This subpopulation has been severely overlooked. For
instance, only 48% of community colleges offer welfare-to-work programs for
young single mothers (AACC, 2008).
The CCSSE (2005) documented the extent to which students have differing
educational goals. In the 2005 study 57% wanted to pursue an Associate of Arts
(AA) degree and 48% wanted to transfer to a 4-year college or university. (Because
many respondents have more than one goal, the percentages overlapped). Some

4
percentage of those who noted that they wanted an AA degree also noted that they
wanted to continue to work toward a 4-year degree from a college or university,
resulting in 48%. The study reported that almost two thirds (65%) attended college
part time and that if it were not for financial assistance, they would have dropped
out.
Part-time enrollment reached a high of approximately 64% of total com-
munity college enrollment in 1997 (NCES, 2000). Clearly, support of part-time
students on the part of the 2-year colleges allows for those with jobs and family
constraints to enroll in college.
Shaw and London (1995) surveyed four urban community colleges to deter-
mine what factors contributed to the success of transferring students. One was the
school’s culture. They explained that a campus culture that is attuned to the needs
of the students fosters positive attitudes and aspirations. Therefore, if community
colleges provide single mothers with the appropriate service or support, they are
more likely to transfer to 4-year institutions and to complete a Bachelor’s degree
(Shaw & London; Striplin, 1999).
Two-year colleges should serve the needs of students from all walks of life.
Rendon (1994) recommended that colleges encourage nontraditional students to get
involved on campus to improve their perception of themselves because “the more
students get validated, the richer the academic and interpersonal experience” (p.
44). Rendon defined validation as “an enabling, confirming and supportive process
initiated by in- and out-of-class agents that foster academic and interpersonal
development” (p. 46).
Existing research on student development has focused primarily on the
traditional White student in a 4-year university (Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005). To

5
achieve a more accurate understanding of the development of college students in
the 21st century, researchers should focus on a student population that is more
diverse with respect to its ethnic, racial, cultural, and socioeconomic backgrounds.
In the past 20 years societal changes and technological advances have influenced
who attends college, the goals that they pursue, and the institutions that they attend.
Single mothers who are college students have been largely ignored by aca-
demics and student affairs professionals. Worse, when women have been studied,
they have been evaluated, diagnosed, measured, and/or assessed with an inaccurate
rubric. Student affairs people and academics generally use a one-size-fits-all
approach to document the development of the subpopulation in question. Thus, the
unique, rich data from this subpopulation are untapped and uncharted.
Haleman (2004) captured some of the challenges of this group in this inter-
view with a single parent college student:
I feel like a classic welfare case, you know? And I’m not gonna be like this
forever. Because if it wasn’t for an AFDC check, if it was not for food
stamps, and if it was not for the [JOBS] program that pays for my son’s day
care, if it wasn’t for Section 8 [housing]—all of this is subsidized, I live off
the subsidies—I couldn’t be in school. I wouldn’t be here. Housing, food,
day care—people have a right to that. Even if the system is being abused by
other people, don’t take it away from me, because I’m using it correctly.
(p. 781)
To tap into the students’ perspective of their college experience requires a
means that allows students to find their voice. Gilligan (1982) spoke to the integral
part that voice plays in the development of the self. Similarly, Mayher and
Tetreault (1996) described the theme of women’s voices in higher education.
The theme of voice is twofold: first, it is about the new forms of personal
student expression available in these classrooms; second, it is about the
construction of communities of discourse as teachers’ and students’ voices
interact with, influence, and construct each other. In the first sense, voice
concerns the relationship within an individual of what can be expressed and
not expressed, and how that relates to who one “is” and who one can

6
become. This “coming of voices” for previously silenced women is an
important theme. (p. 159)
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this mixed-methods descriptive study was to address the
significant absence of research concerning the effects of community college on 18-
to 24-year-old undergraduate single mothers’ sense of self. Seventy-one women
meeting these criteria were asked to report critical incidents reflecting experiences
that somehow had affected their sense of self. Those incidents were clustered into
categories. A subset of the initial group of students then rated the degree of simi-
larity between each possible pair of categories. Those similarity data were analyzed
using both multidimensional scaling and cluster analysis. The results of those
analyses were depicted graphically to create a concept map of their experiences.
Review of the Literature
The following literature is divided into two broad sections: student
development and identity development.
Student Development
College students are expected to develop cognitively, emotionally, and
socially. Some may argue that the development of the self and intellectual growth
are the cornerstones of student development (Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005). This
project was concerned specifically with the development of the self.
Erikson (1968) defined identity as something that “connotes both a per-
sistent sameness within oneself and a persistent sharing of some kind of essential
character with others . . . [it is] ever-changing from birth to death, but as each crisis
is successfully resolved, commitment to an established identity becomes even

7
stronger” (p. 109). Chickering and Reisser (1993) added to Erikson’s definition,
asserting the importance of being comfortable with one’s body, being comfortable
with one’s gender and sexual orientation, and having positive self-esteem, personal
stability, and a sense of self. He identified a process by which people develop
identity, a critical part of late adolescence and adulthood.
There are many models of student development, drawing from several
disciplines, including psychosocial theory, cognitive-structure theory, person-
environment theory, and humanistic existential theory. The literature on student
development “need[s] an expansive vision of the impact of college that is consist-
ent with the growing diversity of American undergraduate students” (Pascarella &
Terenzini, 2005, p. 2). But even these evolved models likely will be informed by
these five types of models. Therefore, each will be considered in turn.
Psychosocial-Identity Development
The theorist most identified with psychosocial identity models is Erikson
(1959/1980, 1968). He drew from Piaget (1952) to suggest eight stages of the life
cycle wherein biological and psychological changes interact with sociocultural
demands. He maintained that the first four stages are experienced through child-
hood and that the fifth stage, identity versus identity diffusion, is the dominant
developmental task for people of traditional college age (Pascarella & Terenzini,
2005).
Chickering and Reisser (1993) focused on Erikson’s (1959/1980, 1968)
identity versus identity confusion stage of development, elaborating it into seven
aspects of students. These aspects, or vectors, of student development are intrinsic-
ally connected to identity resolution. Chickering postulated that vector 1 pertains to

8
developing competence. Vector 1 entails having students demonstrate intellectual
competence, knowledge acquisition, critical thinking, and capacity for analysis.
Vector 2 relates to managing emotions, including developing awareness of feelings,
integration of feelings, and knowing how to handle various feelings. Vector 3
relates to developing autonomy, the ability to make plans for reaching goals, being
mobile in relations to one’s desires, and the ability to use problem-solving methods.
Vector 4 concerns how to establish one’s identity by experiencing some develop-
ment along the first three vectors, by negotiating a realistic and stable self-image,
and by experimenting with situations that require decision making. Vector 5 per-
tains to freeing interpersonal relationships, developing increased tolerance for and
acceptance of differences between individuals, increasing the capacity for mature
and intimate relationships, and having the capacity for reciprocal empathy. Vector
6 pertains to developing purpose, in which the individual makes progress in life by
assessing and clarifying interest in education, career options, and lifestyle prefer-
ences. Vector 7 entails developing integrity by defining sets of values to guide
actions and overall life direction.
Chickering proposed that educational environments affect student develop-
ment (Evans et al., 1998). He identified seven environmental factors in particular:
institutional objectivity, institutional size, student-faculty relationship, curriculum,
teaching, friendship and student community, and student development programs
and services. The seven factors are reminiscent of Astin’s (1984) theory of involve-
ment, shedding light on the fact that the environment plays a significant role in the
facilitation of the developmental process. Student socialization on campus is
integral to academic success.

9
Although Erickson’s theoretical framework has significantly contributed to
the field of student development, in particular to identity development, the theory
has its limitations. One of the limitations is that the extent of the theory is not
sufficiently expansive to evaluate subpopulations, in particular, single mothers in
community colleges (Evans et al., 1998).
More recently, Arnett (2000) questioned Erikson’s notion of identity
development, purporting that one should consider emerging adulthood as more
characteristic of the traditional 18- to 24-year-old. The notion stems from the idea
that many “emerging adults” are constrained by their prescribed roles in society.
Arnett argued that, in these periods of being “constricted,” students are postponing
or delaying their development. The idea is based on the notion that the environment
affects the development of the student. Arnett stressed that the role of culture is
highly influential during this vulnerable stage of development. Thus, the college
setting can be a significant factor in thwarting the development of undergraduate
single mothers.
Critics have argued that Chickering’s theory of development is too narrow,
applying primarily to traditional-age White males. Straub and Rodgers (1986), for
example, examined the linear successive stages of developmental for women and
concluded that the results were not congruent with Chickering’s theory.
Marcia (1980) also built on Erickson’s theory. He argued that the formation
of identity involves four possible pathways: foreclosure, diffusion, moratorium, and
achievement. In foreclosure people have not experienced a crisis but are committed
to certain values or roles. In diffusion people have no clear commitment to any
particular roles. In moratorium people find themselves in a crisis and experience
difficulty. In achievement people experience a crisis and commit to a set of values

10
or roles, propelling their development. Marcia understood the development of
students to require both a crisis and a commitment, and the aforementioned stages
identify the progress that people can make as college students.
Marcia (1980) argued that identities are structures of belief.
The better developed this structure is, the more individuals appear to be of
their own . . . strengths and weaknesses . . . . The less developed this struc-
ture is, the more confused individuals seem to be about their own distinct-
iveness from others and the more they have to rely on external sources to
evaluate themselves. (p. 61)
Marcia (1980) used both crisis and commitment. Marcia explained that the
exploration phase is a time of crisis, a time when students lack decision making. As
a result of the crisis, students find commitment. For students to undergo an identity
development, they need “commitment to sexual orientation, an ideological stance,
political, religious, and a vocational direction” as a means to develop and forge
their identity (p. 160).
In line with Marcia’s work, Josselson (1987) suggested that the identity of
women develops in four statuses: identity diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium, and
identity achievement. The foreclosure status details how women at that point are
highly traditional and understand that they have to meet the expectations of the
family. In the identity achievers status women have made some progress in
developing their identity. For the moratorium status, women find themselves
unsettled in terms of who they are and what they want to do. For the identity
diffusion status, women are anxious and have difficulty in establishing relation-
ships. Josselson’s four statuses differ from Marcia’s theory in that Josselson set out
“to understand the internal and developmental roots of identity formation in
women” (p. 33). Josselson wanted to document how women developed, interpers-
onally, and how to come to terms with how relationships played a significant role

11
in their development. Marcia set out to expand on Erikson’s notion by stressing that
there are two very different parts in identity development: a crisis and a commit-
ment. Speaking to students’ “pathway” of decision making in the process of
identity formation, it is then that the crisis leads the student to establishing a com-
mitment to particular values or roles. All things considered, both statuses speak to
how particular students develop in the process of identity formation.
Schlossberg (1981) is typically associated with adult development. How-
ever, Evans et al. (1998) noted that her theories also are “relevant to traditionally
aged college students” (p. 108). Her most notable contributions are her concepts of
transition, particularly those of “marginality and mattering.” She defined mattering
as “our belief, whether right or wrong, that we matter to someone else” (p. 9). She
suggested four facets of “mattering:” attention, importance, ego extension, and
appreciation.
Schlossberg, Waters, and Goodman (1995) defined transition as “any event,
or non-event, that results in changed relationships, routines, assumptions, and
roles” (p. 27). They suggested that, for the process of transition to be in effect, one
first must believe that one is undergoing a “transition.” They suggested four signifi-
cant groups of issues that affect skills to cope with a transition: situation, self,
support, and strategies (“the 4S’s”).
Schlossberg (1989) asserted that people continue throughout their lives to
experience “change and transition” in their daily lives. This “work in progress” is
what allows people to further define their sense of self, providing a new perception
of self. Schlossberg saw transition as a crucial aspect of development: The focal
point is not the transition, but rather the refined perception of the individual after
the transition has occurred. Moreover, Schlossberg et al. (1995) argued that a

12
person’s relationship to his or her context is what determines how he or she
responds (change). An inhospitable environment can prove to be treacherous in
transition. Generally, the force behind the impact in these inhospitable environ-
ments determines the extent of change in the person. Transition theory provides
researchers the opportunity to examine individual progress in the identity develop-
ment life continuum, shedding light on the overall transition process.
Cognitive-Structural Theories
Several cognitive-structural theories address the development of women in
higher education. Of these, that of Gilligan is among the most influential, for she
challenged the applicability of standard developmental models to women. Gilligan
(1982) presented three studies in which she argued that moral development occurs
through three levels and two transition periods: (a) orientation to individual sur-
vival, (b) first transition: selfishness to responsibility, (c) goodness as self-sacrifice,
(d) second transition: goodness to truth, and (c) the morality of nonviolence.
Gilligan studied how women come to construct their reality and concluded that
women are more ethical, caring, and intimate than men (Gilligan, 1993).
Gilligan and Belenky (1980) examined the role of conflict in moral
development. Twenty-nine women from various ages, ethnicities, races, social
class, and martial statuses who all either had had an abortion or had chose not to
have an abortion were asked to explain their choice. Gilligan and Belenky theorized
that moral development arises from conflict and that it is resolved through context
and narratives. Thus, the women facing the dilemma of whether to abort were faced
with a serious conflict of interest; however, through the context and narrative form
of their reasoning they came to the decision that helped them to develop.

13
Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger, and Tarule (1986) postulated that women
view the world from five epistemological perspectives: (a) silence (i.e., mindless,
voiceless, and obedient), (b) received knowledge (i.e., listening to others), (c) sub-
jective knowledge (i.e., truth not found within oneself), (d) procedural knowledge
(i.e., learning and applying objective procedures), and (e) constructed knowledge
(i.e., integration of subjective and objective knowledge). They argued that women
experience development through these perspectives of growth, which would
explain how women develop in their unique ways. In addition, the authors con-
tended that connected knowing (i.e., truth rising in the context of personal
experience) comes more easily to many women than does separate knowing (i.e.,
uncongenial procedures for establishing truth); the connected knowing comes from
the subjective experience, the personal experience of the individual. According to
Belenky et al., “Connected knowers know that they can only approximate other
people’s experiences, but insofar as possible, they must act as connected rather than
separate selves, seeing the other not in their own terms, but in the other’s terms”
(p. 113).
Baxter Magolda (1992) studied the gender differences between men and
women, specifically looking to identify how women and men organize their
knowledge and find meaning. She denoted the nature and process of change,
postulating four ways in which college students make meaning: (a) absolute
knowing (i.e., knowledge viewed as certain), (b) transitional knowing (i.e.,
recognizing that some knowledge is uncertain), (c) independent knowing (i.e.,
knowledge considered to be mostly uncertain), and (d) contextual knowing (i.e.,
knowledge determined contextually). Magolda found more similarities than
differences in men’s and women’s ways of knowing. However, she was adamant

14
that there are gender-related differences in reasoning, specifically noting how
women initially accept authority’s knowledge prior to accepting self-knowledge.
Research on Single Mother College Students
The foregoing summarized the more salient model that might be used to
understand the development of college women. This section looks specifically at
the literature on single mother college students. It is a small body of literature.
Haleman (2004) studied 10 women who were both welfare recipients and
college students, documenting how these women came to terms with their educa-
tion. She found that the students saw their education as instrumental, as the oppor-
tunity to grow as people and to model for their children. In addition, she found that
these women saw education as the opportunity to demonstrate their strength of
character, especially when they were labeled as lazy and irresponsible. Haleman
captured some of the challenges and complexities in the following interview with a
single mother college student:
I feel like I’m changin’! I just feel like education is the key to everything. I
just feel like, if you want to know something, go to school. I feel like that’s
the key to this whole world—if people were educated, we would probably
live a little bit better. (p. 777)
Haleman (2004) asserted that the single mothers whom she studied took
pride in their identity as successful students and used this identity to disrupt the
assumptions that, because they were single mothers, they were uneducated and
unmotivated. She also found that these women constantly worried about not
succeeding because they had to worry about personal factors (rather than being
“unmotivated”). Furthermore, Haleman found that single mothers were experience-
ing high levels of stress because most attended school full time and had to add a
part-time job, which only compounded their already difficult lives because they

15
already had extensive student and parenting responsibilities. Haleman’s study
focused specifically on single mothers who were welfare recipients but her data
provide insight into the experience of most single mothers in higher education.
Houghton (2000) designed and implemented a residential program for
single mothers and their children at Wilson College. This prompted her to conduct
a study of those women. Houghton found that, although the single mothers had
been disenfranchised, they had found hope in Wilson College. They had a sense of
accomplishment, succeeding in both academics and extracurricular activities, and
that credited supportive educators, social workers, and family members who helped
to bolster self-esteem and self-confidence. Houghton found that these single
mothers pursuing higher education expressed sentiments of hope, encouragement,
and opportunities to succeed in life.
Huff and Thorpe (1997) explored the “hurdles” that nontraditional students
faced as they pursued a postsecondary education. They noted that the nontradi-
tional label is not limited to particular students, but rather includes seniors, wives,
returning students, and single mothers. They reported that students 25 years old and
older were one of the largest subgroups of students, with more than half categor-
ized as nontraditional. These students faced greater hurdles than traditional
students, including tuition, child care, housing, health care, and transportation. Huff
and Thorpe found that single mother college women experienced heavier than usual
levels of stress pertaining to child care, self-esteem, depression, relationship
improvement, and goals—challenges for which many of these students received
counseling. One student wrote,
Single parents always seem to be caught up with financial concerns and not
enough hours in the day to get everything done. If an easily accessible

16
information system could be set up to find out about such things as support
groups and others, it would be wonderful!! (p. 298)
Huff and Thorpe noted that, although their findings were not necessarily surprising,
what was alarming was the level of poverty that these women were experiencing.
The study captures the image of single parents who are overworked, academically
stressed, lacking self-esteem, and financially limited.
Stone, Nelson, and Niemann (1994) studied 12 poor single mothers enrolled
at a small northeastern college. They found that these women attributed their aca-
demic success to at least three factors: (a) financial aid, (b) family support, and
(c) teacher support. These women relied on social support from family and friends,
especially their family’s emotional support and encouragement during the hard
times. Financial support from their family was also a critical factor in their aca-
demic success. Moreover, their children were a critical factor in their success,
inspiring them to continue to pursue higher education.
These several studies provide some descriptive information about single-
parent college women. But a great deal more needs to be learned. Therefore, this
study was undertaken to learn more about these women’s perception of experiences
that have affected their sense of self.
Cognitive-structural and psychosocial models of student development
models provided the conceptual foundation for this project, giving a framework by
which to make sense of the students’ perceptions of their educational experience.
For instance, Baxter Magolda’s model of moral development can help to explain
the development of single mothers in higher education. Josselson’s model can help
to explain the identity development of women by examining their development:
identity diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium, and identity achievement. The models

17
served as a foundation by which to account students’ perception of their college
experience and explain their journey.
Means of Assessment
According to Rossiter (1999), “Narrative is a central structure in human
meaning making; thus, the life course and individual identity are experienced as a
story” (p. 59). This statement suggests how integral students’ narratives are in
assessing the impact of college.
For the purpose of this study, the student’s voice was obtained by utilizing a
qualitative method. During the first phase of the study Flanagan’s (1954) critical
incident technique was used. This technique was designed by Flanagan to collect
information about moments of “crisis.” The respondent provides a written account
of a particular incident that significantly affected him or her. In the report the parti-
cipant identifies factors that contributed to the “crisis” and how those factors led to
the outcome.
Data collected through the critical incident technique were used for two
purposes. The first purpose was to classify types of experiences that participants
had reported; this alone would add to the scant literature on the topic. The second
purpose was to use those categories of experience as the basis for developing a con-
cept map of students’ experiences. Goodyear, Tracey, Claiborn, Lichtenberg, and
Wampold (2005) wrote that “concept mapping is a methodological approach to
understanding the concepts people use to understand and interpret their worlds”
(p. 236). The critical incident data provide the raw data for this study.

18
Research Questions
The literature review provided a plethora of models by which to chart and
categorize the development of students. Studies have illustrated that development
differs starkly between males and females. Aside from the differences in develop-
ment, many students are subject to similar aspects that affect their personal experi-
ences through college. However, the effects of the sources of impact are rich and
unique. Based on these assumptions, two research questions were developed to
guide the study.
1. What categories of college-related impacts will single mothers (ages 18
to 24) in community colleges report as having been of particular importance to the
development of their sense of self?
2. What conceptual maps do single mothers (ages 18 to 24) in community
colleges use to organize their experiences into categories?

19
CHAPTER 2
METHOD
This chapter describes the methods used in this study. It describes the
participants, measures, and procedures.
Participants
Phase I Participants
Seventy-one community college women participated in the first phase of the
study. Each participant was allowed to complete one or two surveys for the study.
The anonymity of the participants prevented the surveys from identifying any of
the participants. All students were recruited from community colleges. Because of
the anonymity factor guarding against identification, the participants were not
identified their community college. However, Cerritos College and Harbor City
College (southern California) were campuses where surveys were distributed.
Forty-five participants (72.6%) were of White/European ethnic background; the
rest were Hispanic. Ages ranged from 18 to 24 years (M = 22.1 years, SD = 26.4
years).
Phase II Participants
Twelve of the 71 participants from phase I formed a subset who volunteered
for the second phase survey. Most of the women who participated in this phase
were 23 years old; 58.3% were Hispanic, 16.7% were Black, 8.3% were Asian, and
16.7% were White.

20
Raters
The critical incidents were assigned categories by three doctoral students in
education. All were familiar with the concept of critical incidents and how it per-
tained to the study. Once themes had been identified, similar themes were clustered
in order to plot the cluster in a diagram and chart the development of the students.
All three raters were male (one Black, one Latino, and one White). All were over
30 years old.
Measures
Two measures were used in this study. During the first phase, Flanagan’s
(1954) critical incident technique was used. During the second phase, a paired
comparison questionnaire, developed for this study, was used.
Critical Incident Technique
Critical incident technique is an open-ended question designed to capture
and document critical incidents in people’s lives. An adaptation of Flanagan’s
(1954) procedure, the College Years Experience Questionnaire (CYEQ), was
developed to include the five major attributes of a critical incident report: The
incident solicited was a response to a particular experience, and the incident
solicited was significant in that it affected a predetermined outcome (sense of self).
Two additional questions were included on the questionnaire: one asked students
about the degree to which they had experienced the incident negatively or posi-
tively and the second asked students how they perceived the “eventual effects” of
the incident on their sense of self. Each of the questions used a 7-point Likert-type
scale ranging from 1 = very negative to 7 = very positive. A copy of the CYEQ is
attached as appendix A.

21
Paired Comparison Questionnaire
The 12 categories of critical incidents developed during the first phase of
the study constituted the concepts of elements used in developing a paired-compari-
son questionnaire. That is, each category was paired with each category. Partici-
pants were instructed to rate the similarity between them on a 5-point scale of 1 =
not all alike to 5 = very much alike. The number of items on the questionnaire
depended on the number of categories developed. The number of questionnaire
items was N(N-1), where N was the number of categories. For example, if 10
categories were developed, then the questionnaire would have 45 items. In this
case, with 12 categories, the questionnaire had 62 items. The Paired Comparison
Questionnaire is included as appendix B.
Procedures
Phase I
Participants for the study were recruited from two community colleges.
Survey were distributed to several classes, students on campus, and students using
day care. At the first community college the researcher visited a few classrooms,
distributed surveys to all students, and visited the day care center and distributed
surveys there as well. At the second community college the researcher approached
students on campus, asking them whether they were willing to partake in a study.
Most of the responses were collected from the first community college.
All students who received a survey were provided written and verbal
information about the research as well as informing regarding anonymity and the
voluntary aspect of the study. Each student was instructed to indicate on a separate
contact card whether he or she was interested in participating in the second phase of

22
the study. The surveys and the phase II forms were placed in separate folders to
avoid identifying the participants.
After the CYEQ responses were collected, the three raters identified
exemplar statements from the incident reports and sorted all phase I responses into
categories. Once all three raters completed categorization of responses, they
revisited the responses to reach a consensus on how many categories seemed to
describe the data and what those categories were.
Phase II
These participants were recruited from phase I participants. They were
contacted via the contact card from phase I. The 12 participants who volunteered
to participate in this phase of the study were contacted. All agreed to meet on the
college campus to complete the phase II questionnaire. They were reminded of the
purpose and extent of the study and the anonymous and voluntary aspects of the
research.
Analyses
Ratings
After data collection, the similarity ratings were arranged into a similarity
matrix. Each category was listed both vertically and horizontally in the matrix, and
the similarity score for each paired comparison was entered in the appropriate cell
below the diagonal. The similarity ratings for each participant were subjected to
both nonmetric multidimensional scaling (MDS) and clustering analysis, with the
overall aim of depicting the structures that participants used in thinking of the
impacts that college had on them.

23
MDS
With MDS, it has been recommended not to interpret more dimensions than
the number of elements (in this case, themes) divided by 4 (Kruskal & Wish, 1978).
Thus, for example, Participant A, who generated eight themes, should have no
more than two dimensions. Also, because its representations are spatial, MDS is not
generally useful with greater than three or four dimensions.
Choosing the optimal number of dimensions is not always easy. The rela-
tive fit of the MDS solution to the data serves as the primary selection criterion.
The common indicator of fit is stress1, which is the square root of the normalized
residual sum of squares. Values of 0 indicate perfect fit of the model to the data and
larger values indicate less fit. Kruskal and Wish (1978) recommended that a one-
dimension solution with a stress1 < .15 suggests that this solution is the best repre-
sentation. Failing this, solutions with more dimensions should be examined. The
“elbow” in the stress1 fit values is examined in a manner similar to the scree test in
factor analysis. Kruskal and Wish recommended the cutoff of stress1 < .10 as a
criterion of adequacy in deciding on the elbow; in other words, does the elbow
adequately account for the data by being below the .10 threshold?
Clustering
Two dimensions were used in this study. This provided the opportunity to
represent the results graphically. Clustering focuses on differences of “type,” in
contrast to MDS’s differences of “amount,” and thus allowed examination of how
the generated themes were qualitatively different. The similarity matrix was
examined using both hierarchical clustering and add-tree clustering methods. The
methods involve different assumptions, a presentation of which is beyond the scope
of this paper; however, by using both and looking for commonalities, confidence

24
was gained in any yielded structures. Focus was placed on hierarchical clustering,
using Euclidean distance and Ward’s method of linkage, with complete linking as
an added check.
The selection of the number of clusters is rarely clear (Borgen & Barnett,
1987) and selection procedures range from informal to statistical. Given the present
study’s focus on interpretability and ease of use, the informal approach was used.
The logic is similar to that of the scree test in factor analysis. Hierarchical cluster-
ing presents the data in the form of a dendogram, which is a representation of the
distance of each theme from each other theme. The fusion coefficient (i.e., the
value of the distance parameter listed in the clustering dendogram for each number
of clusters) is examined for an “elbow,” as in MDS, using the criteria of interpreta-
bility and ease of use to yield the final cluster representation.

25
CHAPTER 3
RESULTS
This chapter presents the results of the data analyses for the two phases of
this study. Each section begins with the research question that was used to guide
that phase of the study, followed by the presentation of the results. Phase I results
include descriptive analysis, theme definition, and excerpts from the CYEQ
responses that described the themes. Phase II results include the MDS and hier-
archical cluster analysis results of the Cluster Similarity Rating Scale (CSRS) data.
Phase I Results
The research question that guided Phase I of this study was, What cate-
gories of college-related impacts will single mothers in community colleges, 18-24
years old, report as having been of particular importance to the development of
their sense of self?
Development of Categories
The raters developed 12 categories from the 71 incidents that participants
provided. Those categories are described in the material that follows, illustrated by
excerpts from the incidents.
Category 1: Encountering unexpected adversity (unrelated to parenting
roles); (Adversity). The incidents in this theme were defined by participant’s
reports that they had encountered unexpected adversity while attending community
college. The following excerpts reveal that the incidents addressed challenges such
as working, school, family, social life, and financial challenges.

26
My younger sister was detected with a tumor in her ovary and was under
critical condition. I was actually affected by this negatively because I could
not concentrate took the rest of my semester off.
Death of my mother. I believe that my immediate family and me were
affected greatly by this occurrence. It changed my life 360 all around. I
believe that it brought a great level of sadness to my life and changed that
way I feel about life and lot of things, especially my child.
Category 2: Having a professor give me unexpected support when parent-
ing affected my role as a student (Support). The incidents in this theme were
defined by participants’ reports that they had encountered unexpected support when
parenting affected their role as students, illustrating an instructor interacting beyond
the regular classroom instruction. The following excerpts reveal the interaction,
including personal encouragement to continue education and positive feedback.
My sociology professor let me retake a test because I did so badly. I could
not study because my daughter was teething.
Once I brought my daughter to class and I was afraid my professor would
ask me to leave, but he said I could stay as long as my daughter wasn’t
disturbing the class.
Category 3: Involved in campus programs or extracurricular activities
(Involved). The incidents in this theme were defined by participants’ reports that
they had found support and encouragement from participating in events or activities
outside the schools’ regular curriculum. The excerpts illustrate the effects of being
involved on campus.
Joining a program called Puente @ Cerritos College. It inspired and
motivated me to attend a university to obtain Bachelor’s in nursing.
Going to the track for my health class and running a mile with my friend in
the class. It was fun because we got to be outside and our health teacher
talked to us about health.
Category 4: Making decision to succeed in college in order to achieve a
better life for myself (Decisions). This theme reflected participants’ ability to make
decisions in order to pursue a life as a college student and a successful adult. The

27
following excerpts reflect the sentiments shared by participants who believed that
their decisions had made a difference.
There was a time I decided to drop out and work. I got a job that sometimes
I had to work up to 16 hours a day. But at the end of the day I felt like I
didn’t accomplish anything. That’s when I decided to return to school.
Before I came to college, I felt lost. I had no contact with my high school
friends. I had a baby right out of high school and I had to grow up and be a
mother. I decided to go to college to provide a better future for my baby.
Category 5: Having experiences that allowed me to feel independent
(Independent). The incidents in this theme were defined by participants’ reports
that they had experienced a sense of independence as a result of taking more
responsibility. The following excerpts reveal the disposition shared by the par-
ticipants’ sense of emancipation.
The experience I had was in my first year of college and my parents no
longer dropped me off at school and I had to catch the MTA. By catching
the bus to school it taught me to be independent.
The experience that I would have to say best described would be the
freedom to choose my own educational path and not what somebody else
has chosen for me.
Category 6: Being told by a teacher or staff member that I was not capable
of succeeding in the work I was doing (Criticism). This theme reflected instructors’
or staff members’ actions that resulted in reducing or insulting students’ self-
esteem. The following excerpts illustrate the effects of doubting students.
Before enrolling as a freshman, I consulted a counselor and disclosed that I
would like to take PACE classes. Without knowing anything about me this
counselor told me that “it requires a higher level of intelligence” and maybe
I should “start with more simpler classes.” I am now in my 3rd PACE
semester and am determined to complete my AA by the next semester.
I was having a very hard time with math and I needed tutoring. I was helped
by a young man who worked for a special services program . . . [but] . . . he
made me feel very stupid with his comments. I cried because I felt so bad.

28
Category 7: Experiencing a financial struggle (Financial). The incidents in
this theme were defined by participants’ reports that they had experienced financial
constraints as single mothers pursuing higher education. The following excerpts
reveal the disposition resulting from the participants’ precarious financial stability.
I had to drop out of college because I could not afford to pay for tuition. I
was already working 30 hours a week; any more and I would not be able to
go to college or pay attention to my baby.
As a young single in college it was financially difficult. I had to pay tuition
+ books, aside from diapers and baby formula. I was debating whether to
come to college or work another job.
Category 8: Finding personal responsibility and the resolve to succeed as a
result of having a child (Responsibility). The incidents in this theme were defined
by participants’ reports that they had experienced a sense of responsibility as a
result of taking the initiative to be successful. The following excerpts reveal the
disposition resulting from by the participants’ proactive approach.
Giving birth was a very dramatic event in my life . . . . My daughter gave
sense to my life and her dependence on me made me grow as a individual in
every aspect. Now, thanks to motherhood, I’m a very responsible adult and
with goals in completing my education.
The day I had my daughter was the day I wanted to start working hard to
give her a good life. She truly influenced me to be in school to strive for
something better than what I have.
Category 9: Experiencing a more difficult personal and academic life as a
result of having a child (Challenging). The incidents in this theme were defined by
participants’ reports that they had experienced a greater sense of responsibility as a
result of having a child. The following excerpts reveal the participants’ feelings of
being overwhelmed and helpless.
When I had my son, I was the only one of my family to get pregnant. I was
also the only one of my friends, among my cousins and what not, to get
pregnant. I essentially lost my friends and family; we had nothing else in
common. When I got to college, I felt so alone.

29
My parents and family have pretty much adjusted to the new baby; I too
have adjusted well to the baby and school. What does trouble me is that fact
that I have to constantly go to my parents and family for help. I know they
want to help, but I feel that I am burdening them by asking them for money,
to baby sit, etc.
Category 10: Meeting counselor and instructors who became role models
(Role Model). Incidents in this theme illustrate an instructor or counselor interact-
ing with the participant beyond the office or classroom. The excerpts reveal that
this interaction included personal encouragement.
I had a positive experience with an English teacher who talked about life
situations and really taught me a lot, I think maybe more than the teacher
knew. It really encouraged me to stay in school and continue.
The experience that impacted me was a former instructor sharing their back-
ground life experiences with the class. It must have been difficult for this
person to reveal aspects of their life to people that they barely know. It has
made me learn to be more open.
Category 11: Being inspired to succeed by a friend or relative (Inspired).
This theme was defined as being inspired by a friend or relative to succeed in life.
The following excerpts illustrate this theme.
In my intro to psychology class, I met this girl who would do very well on
her assignments and exams. She also had a child. I looked up to her because
she was doing well in school. I thought to myself, “If she could do it, so can
I.”
I grew up in the city of Compton, with really bad influences. My parents did
not really have an education and not really having someone to look up to
and ask questions not until my senior year of high school, I met the most
amazing person that encouraged me to do well in school and move on to
college. I was not planning to go to college but he made believe in myself
and now I want to do whatever it takes to succeed in life.
Category 12: Making critical decisions (Critical Decisions). The incidents
in this theme were defined by participants’ reports that they had made critical deci-
sions that would inevitably affect their lives. The following excerpts reveal that the
incidents had had an effect on their lives.
During the years of my early life, I was searching for my purpose and
meaning in life. [When I was 21] I became a Bible-believing Christian after

30
looking for meaning in many ways, including involvement in a cult. From
that point until now, I’ve been a student of the Bible.
As a single mother, I have to make sure that my baby is okay. His dad was
not good, so we broke up. I was working hard to get ready for the baby. He
was doing nothing about getting ready for the baby. When I found out he
was not serious about the baby, I told him he would not be part of our lives.
Table 1 summarizes the frequency of categories found in the Phase I CYEQ
responses, the positive value attributed to the incidents, and the reported eventual
effect on sense of self. The categories are organized from those that were least
positive to those that were most positive in immediate impact.
Ratings
Regarding positive value ratings, eight categories of experience were
perceived as positive, with mean values between 5.0 and 7.0 on the 7-point scale.
Responsibility and Adversity were perceived as positive. Three categories were
perceived as usually negative, with mean values ranging from -4.0 to -4.2; Support
received the most negative rating (M = -4.0). Involved and Independent received
high positive ratings (each M = 7.0).
There was variability in participants’ ratings of the eventual effects of their
experience. Participants gave a positive rating in nine categories (Critical, Inspired,
Role Model, Responsibility, Involved, etc.). In most ratings, the eventual effect was
rated slightly more positive than the initial experience. However, some participants
rated the initial experience as slightly more positive than the eventual effect. In four
categories the participants rated the effects of their experience as negative. The
category Challenge was rated as negative, while the initial experience was also
rated as negative.

31

32
Phase II Results
The research question that guided Phase II of the study was, What concep-
tual map do single mothers, ages 18-24 years, in community colleges use to
organize their experiences into categories?
Multidimensional Scaling
Nonmetric MDS used the summed similarity ratings from respondents on
the Paired Comparison Questionnaire to represent the numerical values as points on
a plane figure. Following Trochim (1989), the decision was made at the outset to
use a two-dimensional MDS solution, the item weighting of which is reported in
Table 2. The two-dimensional scale produced a stress value of .26, meeting the .30
threshold for solution stability. In turn, the two-dimensional scale produced the
scatter plot in Figure 1, using the Euclidean distance model.
The concept map is clarified by labeling the dimensions to assist in the
process of analyzing the data (Goodyear et al., 2005). The data suggest that the
participants clearly separated perceptions of their experiences. Hence, dimension 1
(vertical) seems to characterize a self-assessment (upper end) versus drawing from
others (lower end). Dimension 2 (horizontal) had clusters that characterized
different pathways to resiliency and was labeled self-directed (left side) versus self-
reliant (right side).
Cluster Analysis
Hierarchical cluster analysis can complement MDS in interpreting data.
“An important reason why a neighborhood interpretation can reveal other patterns
in the data is that its focus in primarily on the small distances (large similarities),

33
Table 2

Dimension Weights for Each Category

Dimension
Category 1(X) 2(Y)

Encountering unexpected adversity (Adversity) 0.75 -0.62
Having a professor give me unexpected support when parenting
affected my role as a student (Support) 0.94 -1.15
Involved in campus programs or extracurricular activities (Involved) 0.23 -0.51
Making the decision to succeed in college in order to achieve a better
life for myself (Decision) -2.13 -0.58
Having experiences that allowed me to feel independent (Independent) 1.05 1.64
Being told by a teacher or staff member that I was not capable of
succeeding in the work I was doing (Criticism) 0.18 0.20
Experiencing financial struggle (Financial) 1.30 0.71
Finding personal responsibility and the resolve to succeed as a result
of having a child (Responsibility) -0.57 -1.76
Experiencing a more difficult personal and academic life as a result
of having a child (Challenge) -1.84 0.63
Meeting counselors and instructors who became role models
(Role Model) 0.40 -0.56
Being inspired to succeed by a friend or relative (Inspired) -0.27 0.02
Making critical decisions (Critical) -0.10 1.40

while a dimensional approach attends most to the large distances” (Kruskal &
Wish, 1978, p. 44). Therefore, the similarity data were analyzed via hierarchical
cluster analysis, using the Ward method. The resulting dendrogram (Figure 2)
depicts the results.

34

Figure 1. Single mothers in community college.

Figure 2. Dendrogram using Ward method.
I
nspired

35
By dropping a vertical line at point 14 on the dendrogram, four clusters are
evident. The four clusters share distinct qualities that engender a concept or theme.
These are presented in Table 3.

Table 3

Themes by Cluster Name

Drawing
from others Self-reliance Self-assessment Self-direction

Involved Financial Criticism Decision
Inspired Independent Role Model Challenging
Adversity Critical
Support
Responsibility

Cluster 1 (Drawing From Others) represents experiences that assisted
participants to expand their understanding of the ebb and flow of the college
experience: being inspired, supported, and involved. Cluster 2 (Self-Reliant)
represents experiences that increased participants’ sense of self-sufficiency, self-
determination, and autonomy, while ever so gently reminding them of accounta-
bility, whether it had to do with finances, relationships, or academics. Cluster 3
(Self-Assessment) represents incidents in which participants were forced to evalu-
ate themselves against others, whether through criticism or the modeling of some
significant person. Cluster 4 (Self-Direction) represents incidents in which partici-
pants were challenged or made an important decision.

36
The arrangement of the MDS and the cluster analysis resulted in the con-
cept map shown in Figure 1, visually diagramming how single mothers in com-
munity colleges conceptually organize their perception of the impact of college on
their sense of self.
The Drawing From Others cluster shows a diverse body of themes. This
cluster is labeled Awareness because of the level of cognizance required to under-
stand that adversity is an everyday part of life; it is through the coping skills
acquired through one’s developmental process that one learns to find support and
inspiration and then begins to get involved and face the ebb and flow of adversity
with a firm understanding that it will all pass some day.
These results confirm the research literature. Chickering and Reisser (1993)
discussed the empowering influence of autonomy, independence, and confidence.
Participants commented on the many challenges that they faced both as parents and
as students, and the cluster depicts a strong alignment among the themes, construct-
ing an analogous arrangement of thoughts. This configuration could be indicative
of a continuous advance through the developmental process.
The Self-Reliance cluster has a smaller number of themes. This particular
cluster is more uniform than the previous cluster. The participants’ incident reports
reflected the themes of independent and financial. This particular cluster was
labeled Self-Reliance because with self-reliance, one finds one’s locus of control
within oneself and takes on a greater sense of responsibility, resulting in a stronger
sense of autonomy. Terenzini and Pascarella (2005) reported similar results. The
cluster depicts an alignment among the themes, creating a congruent set of ideas.
This alignment could be suggestive of a sustained progression through the develop-
mental process.

37
The third cluster, Self-Assessment, emerged as a result of participants
commenting on the criticism that they faced, the role models in their lives, and the
critical decisions that they had to make to pursue higher education and their career
goals. A closer look shows that these three themes seem to align almost perfectly.
First, the individual encounters some unexpected criticism from instructors or staff,
then finds someone who possess all the admired qualities and establishes a role
model, followed by the fortitude to make critical decisions. Thus, these participants
had developed the skills to assess a situation and take the steps necessary to be
successful.
The fourth cluster, Self-Direction, emerged as a result of participants
making decisions to be. As a result of the clustering analysis, the themes were
clustered in close proximity. One would expect to find critical decisions and
challenges in a proximal relationship, and as a result of the CSRS, both themes
have a noteworthy proximal correlation. The theme decision(s) is based on the
skills to make decisions to be successful; critical decisions are based on the
competence to make far more difficult decisions to be successful. These findings
confirm Terenzini and Pascarella’s notion that “students develop their identities
during college leads to greater confidence in concluding that students probably
make important progress in this facet of their psychological development during the
college years” (2005, p. 261).

38
CHAPTER 4
DISCUSSION
This chapter discusses the findings of the study, linking them to previous
literature. It also discusses limitations, makes recommendations for future research,
and suggests implications for practitioners.
Discussion of Findings
This study adds to the small literature base on the experiences of single
mother college students. Significantly, it provides various kinds of information,
according to the method used in the study. The first kind of information, concern-
ing the 12 categories, is that which is most “experience near,” as these were
developed directly from what these women reported. Although experience near,
they were developed on the basis of judgments by neutral raters. The second kind
of information concerned the women’s own perceptions of how the categories
related to each other, using empirical means to do so. Each of these two types of
data is discussed.
The 12 Categories in Relation to Previous Research
It was not surprising that many of the 12 categories developed from the
students’ reported incidents confirmed earlier findings on student development,
specifically about women. This section addresses each of the 12 categories of
impact.
The women who participated in this study spoke about instances of
Adversity (encountering unexpected adversity unrelated to parenting) that they had
experienced in their lives. Of the 71 survey response sets collected, one fourth

39
(24%) concerned adversity. The frequency of the incidents speaks to the many
challenges that these students faced. It is significant that participants had rated the
eventual effect of the incident on their sense of self as very important. Therefore,
they apparently believed that they eventually had been affected positively by events
that had tested them.
Nontraditional students–especially single mothers–have to worry not only
about paying for tuition and books but about paying the babysitter, paying for baby
formula, and other experiences that are quite foreign to the experience of the typical
student. This was the point of Terenzini and Pascarella’s (2005) discussion and of
the earlier book (Single Parents on Campus: A Challenge for Today) by Huff and
Thorpe (1997), who commented on the many confounding life circumstances that
these students endure.
A smaller proportion of the women (5.6%) spoke about Support (Having a
professor give me unexpected support when parenting affected my role as a
student) in their lives and how it had affected them. That support was obtained
from counselors, teachers, staff, and administrators and was rated as quite positive.
These findings were not surprising, for one would expect that students receive that
sort of support. What was surprising was how few such incidents were reported.
Perhaps if faculty and staff were aware of the profound effects of simple support on
students, they would offer it more freely.
Rendon (1994) discussed the suspicions that students often have about their
academic ability. She asserted that validation is important to students, for it is “an
enabling, confirming and supportive process initiated by in-and-out-of-class agents
that foster academic and interpersonal development” (p. 46). This was based on her

40
own research findings. That more such support was not reported by the current
participants is of concern.
The importance of nontraditional students being involved on campus was
demonstrated by the theme Involved (Involved on campus programs or extracurri-
cular activities). Because single-parent mothers are so busy parenting, going to
school, and working, it can be difficult for them to become involved on campus and
in extracurricular activities. For the three participants who reported these incidents,
this was a very positive experience. These students took the initiative to participate
in some extracurricular activity, whether joining a college program or running with
groups of friends on campus. These incidents play a vital role in the developmental
process and reflect Astin’s (1999) ideal of the extracurricular activities. Similarly,
Chickering and Reisser (1993) stated that getting involved with extracurricular
activities is likely to facilitate a student’s self-esteem. The few participants who
listed these incidents spoke vividly about the effects of their involvement. Perhaps,
if single-parent women students had more opportunity to become involved, they
would have more positive educational experiences.
A subset of the women (17.7%) talked about the impact of having made an
important decision (Making decisions to succeed in college in order to achieve a
better life for myself). They rated these incidents as positive and the eventual effect
on of the incident on their sense of self as important. It is striking that these partici-
pants noted an incident that concerned a conscious decision to improve their lives.
These incidents could reflect Marcia’s (1980) notion that students experience a
period of exploration, then find the commitment to make decisions. All students
face challenges and decision-making predicaments; nontraditional students face
more difficult challenges and decisions.

41
Although only one student reported an incident that reflected the assertion
of Independence (Having experience that allowed me to feel independent), it was
important, as it reflected Astin (1999) and Chickering and Reisser’s (1993) notions
of autonomy, independence, competence, and confidence. However, previous
research suggests that women forgo developing autonomy in order to develop
healthy relationships (Taub, 1995; Torres, Howard-Hamilton, & Cooper, 2003).
Previous research also suggests that many women reach autonomy with growth of
strong relationships (Taub).
Single-parent students face a number of challenges. But to face criticism
(Being told by a teacher or staff member that I was not capable of succeeding in the
work I was doing) from a teacher or staff about succeeding is to experience an
unwarranted challenge. Two participants reported having experienced very nega-
tive criticism from faculty or staff. The literature suggests that students usually face
some form of criticism, but especially as single mothers (Huff & Thorpe, 1997).
Chickering and Reisser’s (1993) developing competence vector speaks to students
building on their sense of self by having colleges accommodate their abilities. If
staff members and instructors are more understanding of the unique challenges that
nontraditional students face, perhaps the staff and instructors would be more care-
ful in how they express feedback to students.
Another set of experiences concerned financial issues (Experiencing a
financial struggle). Like many college students, single mothers must worry about
paying for tuition, books, and supplies. But they also worry about paying for a
babysitter, diapers, milk, and baby clothes. Participants rated these financial
experiences as negative and the eventual effect of the incidents on their sense of

42
self as important. The results reflect findings by Taub and McEwen (1992) and
Houghton (2000) and explicitly reveal what many nontraditional students face.
Performing both as parent and student, single mothers pursuing higher
education must resign themselves to a greater sense of responsibility. Participants
rated incidents in this category as positive and the eventual effect of the incident on
their sense of self as important. Terenzini and Pascarella (2005) discussed the
importance of nontraditional students accepting responsibility, building on their
competence, and establishing autonomy. These results reflect Gilligan’s (1977)
theory of women’s moral development, which is about students “integrating
responsibility and care into [their] repertoire of moral decision-making patterns”
(Torres et al., 2003, p. 192).
It was not surprising that a substantial subset of the reported situations
concerned the more difficult personal and academic life that these students had as a
result of having a child, a category labeled Challenge (experiencing a more difficult
personal and academic life as a result of having a child). Participants rated these
incidents as negative and the eventual effect as of moderate importance. For this
particular theme, the frequent endorsement speaks to the importance of how
challenging life can be for single mothers. Terenzini and Pascarella (2005)
discussed the support network that nontraditional students can access when times
are challenging, which would be important to the students in this study. Accom-
plishing something that seemed impossible reflects Houghton’s (2000) and
Haleman’s (2004) account of challenges that single mothers in community colleges
face as both parents and students.
Some students reported incidents that concerned having had a role model
(meeting counselors and instructors who become role models). Students rated these

43
experiences as positive and their eventual effects on sense of self as very important.
This theme is consistent with Kuh’s (1995) assertion that faculty-student inter-
actions play a significant role in students’ sense of self-development. Chickering
and Reisser’s (1993) work also confirmed these results. The notion of fostering a
healthy teacher-student relationship can have an enduring effect on students,
especially with role models.
The participant women also recounted incidents that concerned being
Inspired (being inspired to succeed by a friend or relative). Participants rated these
incidents as positive and the eventual effect of the incident on their sense of self as
important. Houghton (2000) found that, once women enrolled in the college
program, they realized just how many barriers they faced as nontraditional students
and singled out inspiration as a significant factor in propelling students to pursue
higher education. Although there were only a few such responses, they confirm
previous literature on the impact of having inspiration and the present potential that
it can have on students.
The theme of Critical Decisions emerged in several reports. Making critical
decisions as a single mother in community colleges is crucial to identity develop-
ment. These incidents were rated by participants as positive and the eventual effect
of the incident on their sense of self as important. The incident reports speak to the
participants’ perception of how their personal and academic life improved as a
result of finding the courage to make critical decisions. Stone et al. (1994) found
that women attributed academic success to at least three factors: financial aid,
family support, and/or teacher support. Chickering and Reisser (1993) substantiated
these results. When these students gathered the strength to make critical decisions,

44
autonomy, independence, and confidence followed—propelling them in their
identity development.
The Women’s Cognitive Organization
of Their Experiences
Concept mapping was used during the second phase of the study to deter-
mine how participants organized the themes that surfaced from Phase I incidents.
The two dimensions obtained from the MDS were difficult to interpret. They were
named Self-Assessment versus Drawing From Others and Self-Direction versus
Self-Reliance. To the extent that these accurately captured the women’s experi-
ences, they suggest the self-versus-other focus that characterized their lives as
single parents attending school.
The four clusters of categories that were obtained in the cluster analyses
were easier to interpret (and overlap with the names given the dimensions).
Moreover, they add to understanding of these women.
The cluster labeled Drawing From Others concerned not only the support
that they obtained from others in their lives, which likely is important to most
traditional-age students (18 to 22 years old). But for these women who also were
parenting, this support seemed especially important. Self-Reliance, Self-Assess-
ment, and Self-Direction were the names given to the other three clusters. Whereas
the support that others gave them was important, these women had more responsi-
bilities than most students and so were obliged not only to be reflective and
engaged in self-assessment but also to be self reliant and have self-direction.

45
Limitations of the Study
All studies have limitations. In this case, two particular limitations warrant
mention as factors that may have affected the interpretation of the findings.
The representativeness of the sample is an issue that constrains the extent to
which the results can generalize to single-parent women students in general. These
women were from two community colleges in one region of the country. Reason-
ably, single mothers drawn from more diverse settings across a larger geographic
range might have reported different experiences.
Another representativeness issue was that many participants were reluctant
to disclose that they were single mothers in community colleges. This made recruit-
ment difficult and may have affected the results in unknown ways.
The focus of this study was community college students. This was by
design and more precisely a delimitation of the study rather than a limitation.
Nevertheless, how the results might generalize to single mothers who are students
in other types of colleges (e.g., 4-year universities) is unknown.
Retrospective studies such as this, in which students report past events,
provide important information but they are subject to the memories of the students,
which can be imperfect.
Suggestions for Future Research
A few areas seem promising as next steps for research on this topic. One is
to explore how many of these women complete their higher education and the
factors that predict that measure of success. This knowledge could enable colleges
and universities to tailor student development programs for this particular group.
A second strategy would be to implement a longitudinal study to explore
the sources of impact and eventual effects on this particular subpopulation. This

46
would paint a more accurate picture than the snapshot provided by the present
study. In time, the longitudinal study could identify results over time.

47
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51
APPENDIX A

COLLEGE YEARS EXPERIENCE QUESTIONNAIRE (CYEQ)
Developing a sense of who we are occurs across time and in many situations. But college often is
unique in the ways it can affect that sense of self. Moreover, there often are particular incidents or
experiences that stand out as having been particularly influential.

Think back over your experience as a college student and identify one incident or experience that
had particular influence on your sense of who you are. This could have been either positive or
negative.

Please describe that incident or experience in a few sentences. Be sure to indicate
(a) what that incident or experience was,
(b) if another person or persons were involved in this incident or experience, describe them and their
relationship to you, and
(c) what do you think was important about this experience or incident, and why?
(d) what you believe the long-term effect to have been on your sense of who you are?

At what point in your college experience did this incident or experience occur (please check one)?
Freshman year ___

Junior year ___ Other (please specify) _______________________
Sophomore year ___

Senior year ___

How long ago did this incident occur? ___________ years or ________ months
(number of) (number of)

Please respond to the questions below by circling the number that best represents your answer.

Very Negative

Very Positive
Degree to which you experienced this incident or
experience as positive

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
The eventual effect this incident or experience had
on your sense of yourself

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

52
College Years Experience Questionnaire
Demographic Information

1. Which college or university are you currently attending? _____________________

2. What is your class standing at this college or university?
□ Freshman □ Sophomore □ Junior □ Senior

3. What is your gender?______________ 4. What is your age?___________________

5. What is your ethnicity?
□ Asian/Pacific Islander □ Black/African American
□ Hispanic/Latino/Latina □ White/European American
□ Other _______________________

6. Which of the following categories best describes your total combined family income for the past
12 months?
□ Less than $5,000 □ $50,000 through $74,999
□ $5,000 through $11,999 □ $75,000 through $99,999
□ $12,000 through $15,999 □ $100,000 and greater
□ $16,000 through $24,999 □ Don't know
□ $25,000 through $34,999 □ No response
□ $35,000 through $49,999

7. How many people are currently living in your household, including yourself? _____
8. Of these people, how many are children? _______
9. Of these people, how many are adults? _________
10. Of the adults, how many bring income into the household? _______
11. Please circle the highest grade (or year) of regular school that your father completed.

12. Please circle the highest grade (or year) of regular school that your mother completed.
Elementary 01 High School 09 College 13
Elementary 02 High School 10 College 14
Elementary 03 High School 11 College 15
Elementary 04 High School 12 College 16
Elementary 05 Graduate 17
Elementary 06 Graduate 18
Elementary 07 Graduate 19
Elementary 08 Graduate 20+
Elementary 01 High School 09 College 13
Elementary 02 High School 10 College 14
Elementary 03 High School 11 College 15
Elementary 04 High School 12 College 16
Elementary 05 Graduate 17
Elementary 06 Graduate 18
Elementary 07 Graduate 19
Elementary 08 Graduate 20+

53
Hello, this is Tony Arguelles. I am a doctoral candidate at the University of Southern California’s
Rossier School of Education.

First, I would like to thank you for participating in Phase I of my dissertation study about the college
experiences of single mothers in community college.

Secondly, thank you for expressing an interest in participating in Phase II of this study.
This portion is fast, quick and easy. You just need to click on appropriate boxes.
Please click on your first instinct; there is no need to overanalyze your choices.

Your participation in Phase II will help me understand your opinion about specific categories created
by a research team. The categories are based on the previous experiences collected from Phase I.
The following page describes the thirteen categories created by a research team.

I would greatly appreciate your participation in this final step of my study.

Please know that this survey is also anonymous and your contributions will enable me to conduct
quantitative analyses of the experienced categories. The findings of this study will help develop
intervention strategies to better serve college students like you.

USC IRB #: UP-06-00355

*Completing this survey constitutes an agreement to participate in this study.

Now that you have read the 12 categories, we are interested in assessing how similar you see these to
one another.
Please look at each numbered line (1 to 71) below, and at the paired items in it. Each line has 2 of
the 12 categories.
Please rate the extent to which you view these categories as alike using the scale below:

1 very dissimilar 2 not similar 3 somewhat similar 4 similar 5 very similar

For example if we ask you about “Receiving encouragement from university staff and faculty
members” and “Receiving inspiration and support
from my father” and you think that they are “very similar” you would circle a 5.
If you think that they are only “somewhat similar”, you would circle 3.

Themes:
1. Encountering unexpected adversity (Unrelated to Parenting Roles)
2. Having a professor give me unexpected support when parenting affected my role as a
student
3. Involved in campus programs or extracurricular activities
4. Making the decision to succeed in college in order to achieve a better life for myself
5. Having experiences that allowed me to feel independent
6. Being told by a teacher or staff member that I was not capable of succeeding in the work I
was doing
7. Experiencing a Financial Struggle
8. Finding personal responsibility and the resolve to succeed as a result of having a child
9. Experiencing a more difficult personal and academic life as a result of having a child
10. Meeting counselors and instructors who became role models
11. Being inspired to succeed by a friend or relative
12. Making Critical Decisions

54
Themes:
I. Encountering unexpected adversity (Unrelated to Parenting Roles):
Two examples to illustrate:
1. My younger sister was detected with a tumor in her ovary and was under critical condition.
I was actually affected by this negatively because I could not concentrate took the rest of
my semester off.
2. Death of my mother. I believe that my immediate family and me were affected greatly by
this occurrence. It changed my life 360 all around. I believe that it brought a great level of
sadness to my life and changed that way I feel about life and lot of things, especially my
child

II. Having a professor give me unexpected support when parenting affected my role as a
student.
Two examples to illustrate:
1. My sociology professor let me retake a test because I did so badly. I could not study
because my daughter was teething.
2. Once I brought my daughter to class and I was afraid my professor would ask me to leave,
but he said I could stay as long as my daughter wasn’t disturbing the class

III. Involved in campus programs or extracurricular activities
Two examples to illustrate:
1. Joining a program called Puente @ Cerritos College. It inspired & motivated me to attend a
university to obtain Bachelors in nursing
2. Going to the track for my health class and running a mile with my friend in the class: It
was fun because we got to be outside and our health teacher talked to us about health.

IV. Making the decision to succeed in college in order to achieve a better life for myself.
Two examples to illustrate:
1. Well there was a time I decided to dropout and work. I got a job that sometimes I had to
work up to 16 hours a day. But at the end of the day I felt like I didn’t accomplish
anything. That’s when I decided to return to school.
2. Before I came to college I felt lost. I had no contact with my high school friends. I had a
baby right out of high school and I had to grow up and be a mother. I decided to go to
college to provide a better future for my baby.
V. Having experiences that allowed me to feel independent.
Two examples to illustrate:
1. The experience I had was in my 1
st
year of college and my parents no longer dropped me off
at school and I had to catch the MTA. By catching the bus to school it taught me to be
independent
2. The experience that I would have to say best described, would be the freedom too choose my
own educational path, and not what some body else has chosen for me.

VI. Being told by a teacher or staff member that I was not capable of succeeding in the work I
was doing.
Two examples to illustrate:
1. Before enrolling as a freshman I consulted a counselor and disclosed that I would like to
take PACE classes. Without knowing anything bout me this counselor told me that “it
requires a higher level of intelligence: and maybe I should “start with more simpler
classes.” I am now in my 3
rd
PACE semester and am determined to complete my AA by
the next semester

55
2. I was having a very hard time with math and I needed tutoring. I was helped by a young
man who worked for a special services program .. [but] …he made me feel very stupid with
his comments. I cried because I felt so bad.

VII. Experiencing a Financial Struggle
Two examples to illustrate:
1. I had to drop out of college because I could not afford to pay for tuition. I was already
working 30 hrs a week, any more and I would not be able to go to college, or pay attention
to my baby
2. As a young single in college it was financially difficult. I had to pay tuition + books aside
from diapers and baby formula. I was debating whether to come to college or work another
job.

VIII. Finding personal responsibility and the resolve to succeed as a result of having a child
Two examples to illustrate:
1. Giving birth was a very dramatic event in my life …my daughter gave sense to my life and
her dependence on me made me grow as a individual in every aspect. Now thanks to
motherhood, I’m a very responsible adult and with goals in completing my education
2. The day I had my daughter was the day I wanted to start working hard to give her a good
life. She truly influenced me to be in school now to strive for something better than what I
have.

IX. Experiencing a more difficult personal and academic life as a result of having a child
Two examples to illustrate:
1. 1. When I had my son, I was the only one of my family to get pregnant. I was also the
only one of my friends, among my cousins and what not, to get pregnant. I essentially lost
my friends and family--- we had nothing else in common. When I got to college, I felt so
alone
2. 2. My parents and family have pretty much adjusted to the new baby; I too have adjusted
well to the baby and school. What does trouble me is that fact that I have to constantly
have to go to my parents and family for help. I know they want to help, but I feel that I am
burdening them by asking them for money, to baby sit, etc.

X. Meeting counselors and instructors who became role models
Two examples to illustrate:
1. I had a positive experience with an English teacher, who talked about life situations and really
taught me a lot, I think maybe more than the teacher knew.
It really encouraged me to stay in school and continue.
2. The experience that impacted me was a former instructor sharing their background life
experiences with the class. It must have been difficult for this person to reveal aspects of their
life to people that they barely know. It has made me learn to be more open.

56
XI. Being inspired to succeed by a friend or relative
Two examples to illustrate:

1. In my intro to psychology class, I meet this girl who would do very well on her assignments
and exams. She also had a child. I looked up to her because she was doing well in school.
I thought to myself is she could do it so can
2. I grew up in the city of Compton with really bad influences. My parents did not really have
an education and not really having someone to look up to and ask questions not until my
senior year of high school I meet the most amazing person that encouraged me to do well
in school and move on to college. I was not planning to go to college but he made believe
in myself and now I want to do whatever it takes to succeed in life

XII. Making Critical Decisions
Two examples to illustrate:
1. During the years of my early life, I was searching for my purpose and meaning in life. [when
I was 21] I became a Bible believing-Christian after looking for meaning in many ways
including involvement in a cult. From that point until now I’ve been a student of the Bible

2. As a single mother, I have to make sure that my baby is okay. His dad was not good so we
broke up. I was working hard to get ready for the baby. He was doing nothing about getting
ready for the baby. When I found out he was not serious about the baby I told him he would
not be part of lives.

57
APPENDIX B

58

59

60

61

62

63

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This mixed-methods study examined the sources of impact that single mothers perceived to have affected their sense of self and how they conceptually organized those impacts. Seventy-one undergraduate single mothers (mean age 22 years) participated in the first phase of the study by completing a variant of Flanagan’s Critical Incident Technique to report a college-related experience that had affected their sense of self. A team of three doctoral students identified 12categories of impact from those incidents. In the second phase of the study 12 women who had participated in the first phase rated the degree of similarity between the items in each possible pair of those 12 categories.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Arguelles, Tony (author)

Core Title Undergraduate single mothers' perception of the impacts of college on their cognitive and psychosocial development

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education

Publication Date 06/27/2008

Defense Date 02/20/2008

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Community Colleges,Higher education,nontraditional students,OAI-PMH Harvest,Single mothers

Language English

Advisor Rodney Goodyear (committee chair), Hocevar, Dennis J. (committee member), Tuitt, Donahue (committee member)

Creator Email arguelle@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m1304

Unique identifier UC1127023

Identifier etd-Arguelles-20080627 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-80192 (legacy record id),usctheses-m1304 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Arguelles-20080627.pdf

Dmrecord 80192

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Arguelles, Tony

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu