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How Latinos ascend to the superintendency
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Content
HOW LATINOS ASCEND TO THE SUPERINTENDENCY
by
Rafael H. Escobar
____________________________________________________________________
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2009
Copyright 2009 Rafael H. Escobar
ii
DEDICATION
The completion of this doctorate has been an ardous and difficult undertaking.
There were moments when I thought I would be not able see this through were it not
for the support of my family and friends. I dedicate this doctoral degree to my
family without whose support I would not have been able to begin nor finish the
pursuit of this endeavor.
I also want to thank my friend and colleague, Mark Sanders who provided me
with the support and guidance needed in order complete this undertaking. This poor
tongue cannot begin to thank him for his review of my work throughout the program,
as well as the countless hours dedicated to the revising and editing of this paper. His
countless hours of support, laughter, and unique insights provided me with the
impetus to move forward and remain positive. I will always remain indebted to him.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I want to acknowledge the support and time provided to me by the
superintendents involved in this research project. They provided so much of their
time in completing the surveys, and particularly, to the superintendents and board
members who allowed me to interview them. Their candid responses where
refreshing and illuminating, and they provided me with the desire to continue
forward with this research.
I also want to thank my disseration committee: Dr. Dominic Brewer,
Dr. Sylvia Rousseau, and Dr. Rudy Castruita. Their keen intellect provided me with
the additional insights needed to make this research informative and valuable. I
especially want to thank Dr. Castruita, my dissertation chair, who provided more
encouragement and guidance than he may have realized. His wonderful demeanor as
well as his constant support and personal belief in me, provided me with the
wherewithal to complete this dissertation. Thank you so much Dr. Castruita.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION ...................................................................................................... ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................. iii
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................ vii
ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................... viii
Page
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ...................................................................... 1
Statement of the Problem .................................................................... 2
Purpose of the Study ........................................................................... 5
Research Questions ............................................................................. 7
Importance of the Study ...................................................................... 7
Limitations .......................................................................................... 8
Delimitations ....................................................................................... 9
Definitions of Terms ........................................................................... 9
Methodology ....................................................................................... 10
Summary ............................................................................................. 11
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW .............................................................. 12
Introduction ......................................................................................... 12
The Historical Context of the Superintendency .................................. 13
Changing Roles of the Superintendency ............................................. 14
Latino Representation in the Superintendency ................................... 19
Professional Preparation and Skills for Success ................................. 25
Barriers to Success for Latinos ........................................................... 27
Mentoring and Networks..................................................................... 32
Framework for the Study .................................................................... 36
Conclusion .......................................................................................... 38
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ....................................................................... 40
Introduction ......................................................................................... 40
Purpose of the Study ........................................................................... 41
Research Questions ............................................................................. 42
Instrumentation .................................................................................. 43
Criteria for the Selection of Participants ............................................. 43
Data Collection.................................................................................... 44
Data Analysis ...................................................................................... 45
Validity and Credibility....................................................................... 46
v
Transferability .................................................................................. 47
Limitations and Assumptions ........................................................... 47
Implications ...................................................................................... 48
Summary .......................................................................................... 48
CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS .................................................................................... 50
Introduction ...................................................................................... 50
Collection of Data ............................................................................ 51
Interviews ......................................................................................... 53
The Superintendents of Schools ....................................................... 54
Tenure of Service and Education ..................................................... 58
Research Question #1 ....................................................................... 59
Research Question #2 ....................................................................... 64
Research Question #3 ....................................................................... 69
Research Question #4 ....................................................................... 73
The Views of School Site Principals ................................................ 76
The Oral Interviews.......................................................................... 79
The Superintendents ......................................................................... 80
Commitment and Dedication to All Students .................................. 82
Politically Astute .............................................................................. 83
Interpersonal Skills........................................................................... 85
Has Race or Ethnicity Even Been an Issue for You in Your
Pursuit of the Superintendency?................................................. 90
What Are the Reasons Why So Few Latinos Are Being Promoted
To the Position of Superintendent of Schools? .......................... 93
Significance of the Findings ............................................................ 98
CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION ............................................ 102
Introduction ...................................................................................... 102
Implications ...................................................................................... 103
Conclusion ....................................................................................... 108
REFERENCES ...................................................................................................... 112
APPENDICES
A. Survey Cover Letter ............................................................................... 116
B. Information Sheet ................................................................................... 117
C. Statement of Consent (Particpant’s Copy) ............................................. 120
D. Statement of Consent (Research’s Copy) .............................................. 121
E. Directions for Completing the Surveys .................................................. 122
F. Superintendent’s Survey ........................................................................ 123
G. Invitation to Participant in Oral Interview ............................................. 132
H. Interview Questions Guide ..................................................................... 133
vi
I. Cover Letter for Principals ..................................................................... 135
J. Survey: How Latinos Ascent to the Superintendency............................ 136
K. Letter of Introduction for Board of Education Members ....................... 141
L. Interview Question Guide for Board of Education Members ................ 142
vii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1 Gender .............................................................................................. 55
Table 4.2 Distribution of Age of Superintendents ........................................... 56
Table 4.3 Educational Level of Parents ........................................................... 57
Table 4.4 Description of School Districts ........................................................ 57
Table 4.5 Number of Promotions Within the Administrative Ranks ............... 58
Table 4.6 Level of Education ........................................................................... 59
Table 4.7 Factors that Influenced Your Appointment to the
Superintendency ............................................................................... 61
Table 4.8 Positive Effect of Mentor ................................................................. 67
Table 4.9 Nature of Mentoring Relationships .................................................. 68
Table 4.10 The Degree to Which Raced was Considered a Barrier ................... 70
Table 4.11 Principals Wanting to Become Superintendents .............................. 76
viii
ABSTRACT
Purpose: During the last 150 years, the position of superintendent of schools
has undergone massive changes. Unfortunately, the inclusion of minorities,
particularly Latinos as members of this group has not increased. Much of the extant
literature is bereft of information that deals with Latino superintendents.
Significance: This research provides aspiring administrators with the
information they will need in order to make informed decisions regarding the
direction of their careers.
Methodology: Surveys of current superintendents, school-site principals, and
Board of Education members were used as part of the data collecting process. Oral
interviews of current superintendents as well as Board of Education members were
conducted to provide critical information regarding the superintendency.
Key Findings: 1) Aspiring Latino administrators need to possess the skills
and attributes that all administrators need in order to become a superintendent. 2)
Mentoring can provide aspiring administrators with guidance in career path
development as well providing feedback on a course of action. 3) Race and ethnicity
is always a consideration in the hiring of a superintendent, but this consideration is to
be viewed as a positive attribute that provides a value-added bonus to the prospective
candidate. 4) There are few Latinos serving as superintendents. This small number
can be attributed to the small number of Latinos serving as administrators in the
education field.
ix
Conclusions: The research indicates that with greater minority representation
throughout the ranks of education, there is a commensurate academic achievement
for students. Although being of the same race as that of the student body, is not a
prerequisite for success, being of same heritage does provide the administrator with
an enhanced understanding of the culture, language, and traditions of said students.
Recommendations: 1) Gaining the proper preparation at the university level,
as well as on the job will provide aspiring educational leaders with the tools to
become qualified to apply for the superintendency. 2) There is a great need for the
implementation of formal and informal mentoring programs. 3) A concerted effort
between school districts, private industry, and terciary insitutions of education must
come together to enlarge the representative pool of Latinos in education.
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The State of California currently has 1,056 school districts. Of those school
districts, only 7.1% of them have Latino superintendents at their helm. In a system
where 47% of the total student enrollment in California is now Latino, there is
definitely an inequity in terms of districts being led by Latinos. Latinos are the
fastest growing and youngest group of minority populations in the United States.
The current population of Latinos in the U.S. is estimated at 40.4 million and the
Census Bureau also projects that by the year 2050, Latinos could reach 130 million
in number, thus becoming the largest minority population in the United States.
Projections are that within the next 15 years, the number of Latino children between
the ages of 5 to 13 will double, and that by 2030 Latino students will comprise one-
fourth of the total K-12 school population in the United States. This reality
accentuates the need to have leaders who have the cultural competence and cultural
pedagogy in working with Latino families at all levels of public service.
The following is demographic data that affects the practice of educational
leadership in California (ACSA, 1994): (a) California has the largest school
enrollment in the nation, with two-thirds of the immigration in the world coming to
the United States; (b ) one-half of the immigration to the United States is to
California with California being first among the states in the number of foreign-born
residents, 1 of 3 Latino children and 2 of 4 Asian children in the United States live in
2
the State of California. California is the most populated of all of the states, second in
its African-American population, and is first in its Latino and Asian populations.
In contrast to this profile of increasing minority students populations, the
State of California as well as in the U.S., the teacher and administrative ranks remain
occupied by members of the traditional dominant majority group. In 1993, teachers
of diverse ethnic backgrounds comprised 19.4% of the teachers in California, while
membership in the Association of California School Administrators, the largest
professional administrative association in the state, reports the following ethnic and
racial composition: African-American, 6%, Asian, 2.2 %, Hispanic 9.5% and White,
81.5%.
Statement of the Problem
The Latino student population comprises a very large portion of the student
body within the State of California. Accordingly, one would believe that their
numbers should be equally represented throughout the leadership ranks of the school
districts in which they attend, especially at the superintendency level.
Lugg, Bulkley, Firestone, and Garner (2002) indicates that,
Currently, both the teacher and principal corps are overwhelmingly White.
Only 13% of teachers come from minority groups, and 40% of all U.S.
schools have no minority teachers. Similarly, the percentage of minority
principals working in public schools remains low, with only 16% of all
principals coming from minority groups . . . . This lack of minority teachers
and administrators is highly problematic, given the written and unwritten
cultural codes of proper school conduct that are expected of children.
Cultural clashes can and do occur, with students on the losing end. A more
diverse teaching and administrative staff could make both staff and students
more sensitive to different ways of thiking, understanding and acting.
3
Data indicates that in the 2003-2004 school year there were only 75 (7.1%)
superintendents who were Latino in the Sate of California. Of that group, 61 were
males and only 14 were females (Magdaleno, 2006). New Latino educational
leaders frequently find it difficult to ascend to, and remain in administrative positions
at subsequent levels of school leadership administration. As a result, the number of
positive role models in educational leadership positions for Latino students is limited
at best. Given the current shift in demographics within the Sate of California, will
many of the new leaders be from historically underrepresented populations in the
United States? Or will we continue as we always have and hire individuals who are
not representative of the students they lead and teach?
It is projected that by the year 2020, approximately 1 in 3 students will be a
member of a minority group. Thus, it is important that well prepared and
experienced minority educational leaders be available to serve in districts with large
numbers of minority children, both as advocates and as role models (Glass, 1992,
p. 9). Due to the rapid rise of Latinos in the state, many school district officials have
recognized that in order to address the needs of their students in terms of cultural
differences, language, and providing a culturally relevant pedagogy, individuals that
can serve as role models throughout the administrative ranks would be necessary.
The selection of a superintendent can be considered to be one of the most
important decisions that a school board makes. However, because most board
members do not expect the appoinment of a superintendent to lead to a permanent
relationship, the immediate context or political situation determines to a great extent
4
how the search and selection process will be conducted and who is likely to be
appointed (Johnson, 1996). It should also be noted that when Latino superintendents
have been selected for their positions, the selection was done under the belief that the
match and fit between the Latino superintendent and the school district, was one in
which the superintendent served to represent the Latino stakeholders who may be
sources, or perceived as sources, of conflict or unrest in the school district (Ortiz,
1998). The author also goes on to indicate that when Latino superintendents are
selected, it was done so that the Latino superintendent could address those
populations identified as not having their concerns addressed. This information
indicates that Latino superintendents have only been selected in order to deal with
the political situations that are at hand or to districts that nobody else wants. As a
side note, African-American superintendents in the United States are often in jobs
that are abandoned by White superintendents and were often left with systems that
suffered from infrastructure failure and massive budgetary constraints. The school
systems were a part of the urban crisis of that time, and they continued to perpetuate
the cycle of poverty.
There is also the need to examine the existence of discrimination against
minorities. In the study conducted by Glass (1992) the author found that in general,
superintendents today think that women have a more difficult time being hired than
do minorities, and fewer superintendents think that hiring discrimination against
minorities is a major problem. Whether discrimination in hiring minorities exists,
the presence of so few minority superintendents presents a major challenge to the
5
profession. The composition of student bodies and teaching staffs, along with the
make-up of the community speaks to the need to improve the record in preparing and
placing minority administrators as superintendents (Glass, 1992). The author also
states that of the superintendents in the study, 55% felt that there was a minor to
major problem in the discriminatory hiring practices of minorities.
Purpose of the Study
This study aims to investigate what skills, abilities, talents, and preparation,
are needed for Latinos to ascend to the position of superintendent of schools. This
study also aims to investigate what barriers exist in this quest and how, if possible,
can these barriers be ameliorated. According to the national profile, about 4% of the
nation’s superintendents are minorities. The total number in the 1992 sample was 66
out of 1,714 (Glass, 1992). The author goes on to state that because of shifts of some
racial groups in the nation, minority populations have become majority populations
in many large American cities. Thus, many urban school districts have become
majority-minority, despite court–imposed desegregation orders and busing programs.
But as the data indicates these students, these schools, and these districts are being
managed by White males.
This study also aims to investigate what are the reasons why so few Latinos
are being promoted to the position of superintendent of schools. Is it possible that
although we find ourselves in the 21
st
century, we are still dealing with the age old
demons of racism and prejudice? In a study conducted by Campbell-Jones (2000),
the author noted that there were several factors that posed the greatest challenge to
6
minority superintendents. The author indicated that racial prejudice was a constant
reality and that preconceptions about their abilities, leadership, effectiveness, and
qualifications were ever present by members of the organizaton they led and by the
community at large.
Ortiz (1998) also noted that unlike the appointment of White males to the
superintendency, the appointment of Latino superintendents had symbolic and
political overtones. The appointments were viewed as problematic for both the
district and the Latino superintendent because the position of superintendent has
been traditionally seen as a symbol for the school board, and that it challenges the
existing school organization structure. In other words, the appointment of a Latino
superintendent had been traditionally viewed as being done in order to appeal or
appease certain constituencies, and thus, the appointment is accompanied by
skepticism with regard to the superintendent’s abilities and a suspicion that the
individiual will act to favor members of his/her own group.
The Study of the American School Superintendency by Glass (1992),
indicated that a greater number of minority and women superintendents are serving
in larger districts than in previous years. Nevertheless a dramatic underrepresenta-
tion of these two groups still exits. For whatever reason, superintendency
preparation programs, state agencies, school boards, communities, and practicing
superintendents have failed to ensure that women and minorities are hired for the
superintendency. With the increasing number of Latino students in California
schools, there is a clear need for mentoring programs that not only increase the
7
growth rate, but also support the retention rate of Latino superintendents. Such
leaders are most often perceived by Latino students as positive role models who
represent their future (Magdaleno, 2006).
Research Questions
1. What skills and talents will Latino administrators need to possess in
order to ascend to the superintendency in the current context of public
education?
2. Does mentoring and/or mentoring programs provide aspiring, as well as
sitting Latino superintendents with the skills and tools necessary to be
successful in the position?
3. Has race or ethnicity ever been an issue for you in your pursuit of the
superintendency?
4. What are the reasons why so few Latinos are being promoted to the
position of superintendent of schools?
Importance of the Study
There is a growing realization of the importance of including Latinos and
other minorities in the pool of candidates for the superintendency. This was duly
noted when Glass et al. (2000) included in their study of the superintendency for the
very first time a chapter devoted to minorities. The author of this chapter, C. Cryss
Brunner noted that in no small measure, minorities in the superintendency are
severely underrepresented and that the little available data would make
8
generalizations difficult. He nevertheless added that this information was potentially
important to minorities who aspire to, or are in, the position.
Role models are few and far between and research with a focus on minorities
in the superintendency is comparatively rare. With such little knowledge available to
them, Latinos are not able to look to the traditional sources of information to help
them further their careers. This qualititative study aims to provide Latinos with the
tools necessary for them to ascend to the superintendency and become successful
upon assumption. It is clear that aspiring superintendents need to equip themselves
with the tools necessary so that they can go on to become successful administrators.
As noted previously, the minority student population of the State of California
continues to increase. It is, therefore, imperative that these students be represented at
the top levels of school administration by individuals of their own race and ethnicity.
Kenneth R. Magdaleno (2006) asserts that such leaders are most often perceived by
Latina and Latino students as positive role models who represent their future. This
case study will bring to light those skills, strategies, preparation, and systems of
support that need to be place for Latinos to become superintendents of schools.
Limitations
1. Interview data limitations include distorted responses due to personal
bias, anxiety, and politics (Patton, 2002).
2. Results of the study may be limited as they pertain to Latino
superintendents and possibly may not be generalized to a larger
population.
9
Delimitations
1. This study will identify Latino superintendents from the State of
California. The focus and findings of the study may only be useful as
they apply in California, but generalizations can be drawn from the
study.
2. Successful Latino superintendents were identified by individuals with
knowledge of superintendents who had met with success in the past.
This process lent itself to subjective points of view.
Definition of Terms
Characteristics
A distinguishing trait, quality, or property.
Ethnicity
Of or relating to large groups of people classed according to common racial,
national, tribal, religious, linguistic, or cultural origin or background.
Latino
A person of Latin-American origin living in the United States.
Superintendent of Schools
One who has executive oversight and charge.
Mentor
A trusted counselor or guide.
Mentee
One who is being mentored.
10
Strategies
Are defined as specific tactics used to carry out a careful plan or method : it
is also the art of devising or employing plans toward a goal.
Traits
A distinguishing quality as of personal character: an inherited characteristic.
Urban
Districts localed in major cities with populations of at least 100,000.
Methodology
This study was designed around the examination of superintendents using a
case study model. The methods that were employed to collect data were structured
interviews, participant observation, and document analyses.
1. Interviews. Current superintendents were invited to be part of the study
and semi-structured interviews were given to the participants.
Particpants were asked specific questions regarding their ascent to the
superintendency. When issues of ethnicity or color did not emerge
naturally during the conversations specific questions were asked to
ascertain that information. Follow-up interviews were conducted as
needed.
a. School board members were also interviewed to determine their
views of race and ethnicity in the hiring of superintendents.
11
2. Survey. Surveys were developed for superintendents as well as for
school-site principals. The superintendents were asked to respond to
questions regarding how they had reached the superintendency, as well
as to share information regarding possible professional barriers they
have met throughout the course of their careers. The principals were
surveyed to determine their aspirations to the superintendency of
schools, and to see if this correlated with the current number of Latino
superintendents.
This methodology will increase the validity of the study, such that the
strengths of one of the approaches have, therefore, compensated for the weaknesses
of the others (Patton, 2002). The purpose was to gather comprehensive, systematic,
and in-depth information about the superintendency as it relates to Latinos.
Summary
Chapter 1 provided an overview of the proposed research. It included an
introduction, a summary of the background of the research problem, a statement of
the research problem, a description of the purpose of the research, an explanation of
the rationale of the research and its significance. It also included research
hypotheses questions, definitions of terms used, and a discussion of the research
design, instrumentation, procedure, delimitations and limitations.
12
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
This purpose of this chapter is to review the literature and information
available regarding Latinos as superintendents of schools. The review of the
literature indicates that there is precious little information available regarding the
history or place of Latinos as educational leaders. Much of the literature speaks to
minorities as a whole with little specificity in terms of Latinos, but nevertheless
generalizations can be drawn from the extant literature.
This chapter covers the history of the superintendency from its infancy to its
present-day embodiment, the changing roles of superintendents are also examined, as
well as how Latinos have been a very small part of that record. An examination of
Latino representation in the superintendency highlighted the fact that Latinos
continue to be underrepresented and what effect, if any, this underrepresentation has
on the students of the State of California and by extension the United States. Based
on this underrepresentation, the literature was searched to determine what
professional preparation and skills were needed in order for Latinos to assume the
role of the superintendency in greater numbers, as well as what barriers existed that
made ascending to this position nearly impossible. And finally, the literature was
reviewed in an effort to determine what programs or initiatives facilitated the ascent
to the superintendency such as the use of networks and mentoring programs.
13
The Historical Context of the Superintendency
When public schools were first established in 1640, the position of
superintendent of schools did not exist in American public education until the middle
of the 1800s (Brunner et al., 2002). As this country began to develop and became a
more diverse society, conflicts and political manuevering began to seep into the
education field and so the establishment of a superintendent of schools was made
necessary. The superintendent’s role in the running of school districts has changed
over time and it is not entirely accurate as to how the title of school superintendent
came into existence.
Cuban (1988) indicates that it may have developed from the turmoil of the
industrial revolution, “Managers of early 19
th
-century mills were called
superintendents. The admiration Americans felt for the economic benefits generated
by these factories may have best fit what they wanted from their schools; to produce
children who were obedient, punctual, and hard-working.” It is also possible that the
name was derived from John Wesley, a British Methodist evangelist. He named the
men whom were ordained as bishops in the 1700s in the United States
superintendents. There was also an alternate view that suggests that Americans did
not want to appoint superintendents due to a strong anti-executive tradition that
existed among the early American colonists (Brunner et al., 2002).
Carl Candoli, indicates that there were two major events that were
instrumental in the development of the superintendency. The first was the Michigan
Supreme Court decision of 1874. Known as the Kalamazaoo case, it established the
14
right of local school boards to tax property owners for the support of elementary and
secondary education. This decision helped establish public high schools across the
country and assisted in creating the need for a single head of a consolidated school
system. The second, was the invention of the motor vehicle, the advent of the
automobile allowed for the consolidation of larger student bodies at single locations
(1994). The earliest superintendencies were not clearly defined positions and during
the period between 1820-1850, clerks were used to assist Boards of Education with
the day-to-day operations related to schooling (Brunner et al., 2002). As the various
states began to develop a commercial and industrial base, the cities of the country
started to grow and the school systems serving those cities grew as well (Candoli,
1994). Shortly thereafter, some state Boards of Education were given statutory
authority to appoint superintendents. The establishment of the superintendency in
rural areas took much longer to develop and it did not occur until the 20
th
century
(Candoli et al).
Changing Roles of the Superintendency
Originally the position was designed to oversee the day-to-day operations of
the school houses, and by 1860, 27 cities with school districts had created
superintendencies. Those who first served as school superintendents had as part of
their job responsibilitites to keep the coal furnaces burning (Glass, 2003). Another
of the early roles of the superintendent was that of a schoolmaster, with the Board of
Education making almost all of the decisions that had any importance. By the end of
the 19
th
century, most superintendents in cities had shed this role of supervisor of
15
students and teachers to become managing administrators (Glass, 2000). They were
typically responsible for the operational aspects of the district and early
superintendents also struggled with Boards of Education in order to be able to reform
schools. Glass (2000) also indicates that, the superintendency as we know it today,
evolved from superintendents struggling to become professionals during the early
part of the 1900s.
Public education has come under extreme scrutiny and government officials
of all levels are concerned with the many aspects of our current educational system.
Much of this criticism is leveled at the educational administrators and the lack of a
cohesive, strong, and able leadership in many schools and districts (Campell-Jones,
2000). Cuban (1976) studied the ever-changing skills required of successful
superintendents, and noted that the first role or conception of the superintendent was
that of a teacher-scholar, because the most important role of the superintendent was
to make good teachers out of poor ones. Over the last 150 years, the expectations of
a superintendent have increased enormously in terms of complexity and demand.
Kowalski (2005) writes that by the 1980s, most states had in place laws or policies
that required superintendents complete a prescribed course of study in order to
qualify for licensure, although the pendulum has swung in the other direction, and
most states have either changed or eliminated the minimum requirements for this
important position.
16
Although it is difficult to neatly delineate the different incarnations of the
superintendency there are some general periods that are useful as points of reference.
These are outlined by Kowalski in the following manner:
1. Superintendent as teacher-scholar. From the onset of its creation, the
position’s primary focus was the implementation of a state curriculum
and that of supervising teachers. After the Civil War, normative
standards were implemented and superintendents were viewed as
master teachers. Superintendents dedicated much of their time to the
supervising of instruction and ensuring curricular uniformity.
2. Superintendent as manager. As the country began to move from an
agrarian to an industrial society a debate began to develop as the the
proper role of the superintendent. Was the superintendent a business
manager or an instructional leader? During the industrial revolution,
the development of large school districts began and school district
began to focus on resource management. By 1920, the position had
been transformed into a scientific manger who could improve
operations by concentrating on time and efficiency.
3. Superintendent as Democratic leader. The 1930s brought about scarce
resources and this forced superintendents to engage in political
activities. Prior to this period, politically inclined superintendents were
viewed as unprofessional. This period brought about the ideal that the
17
superintendent needed to bring together policymakers, employees, and
taxpayers to support the district’s initiatives.
4. Superintendent as Applied Scientist. This period encouraged
superintendents to emphasize empiricism, predictability, and scientific
certainty in their research and practice. The intent at the time was to
redo the normative standards for the profession. Superintendents were
expected to apply scientific inquiry to the problems and decisions they
encountered in their jobs, and they were expected to have the expertise
necessary to deal with social and institutional problems such as poverty,
racism, gender discrimination, crime, and violence.
5. Superintendent as communicator. Historically, the ability of a school
administrator has been viewed as a skill, something that is done when
assuming a role or position. As the superintendency began to change
once again, the ability to communicate was no longer seen as a skill but
as a pervasive role characterization. The environment in which the
superintendent worked required the individiual to move away from an
isolationist or closed organizational climate and to work collaboratively
with principals, parents, and other stakeholders. This has become so
crucial that leaving out the interactions of key individuals in this
process dooms the proposed plans or reforms, because the values and
beliefs expresed in the reforms are not those held the majority of the
stakeholders (2005).
18
The superintendency has been a position that changed and developed as the
needs arose throughout the years. The current environment in which superintendents
must work has much to do with the current focus on accountability, and this has
undoubtedly lead to changes in the day-to-day responsibilities of superintendents.
Glass (2000) indicated that there has been a widespread concern over the quality of
schools during the last two decades, and this has lead to a revamping of school
districts in an effort to improve the quality of public education. Discussions for
improving classroom instruction and fundamentally changing the way schools are
operated and governed eventually led to a redefining of the role of superintendents.
Carl Candoli (1995) in his work, The Superintendency: Its History and Role,
summarized the role of the modern superintendent thusly,
The superintendent of schools is the chief executive office of the school
system appointed by and directly responsible to the Board of Education for
the discharge of his or her responsibilities. The superintendent acts in
accordance with the policies, rules, and regulations established by the board
and the laws and regulations of the state and federal government. Lastly, the
administration of the entire school system is delegated to the superintendent.
Yet in all of this history, what is most startling is the absence of the history of
women and minorities. Of particular note, is the absence of any substantial work or
information on Latino superintendents. Glass (2000) in his work indicated that the
vast majority of superintendents were White, but that there had been a slight increase
in the number of women and minority superintendents, with the superintendencies
held by minorities moving from 3.9 % to 5.2% nationwide during the 1990s.
19
Although the data does suggest that there has been a slight improvement, the
improvement is almost statiscally irrelevant, yet it nevertheless does bring to light
the stark underrepresentation of minorities when compared to White males in the
superintendency.
Latino Representation in the Superintendency
Harris (2004) noted that men and women of color are seriously
underepresented in the superintendency with only 5% of the positions being held by
members of a minority. Harris also added that for many years now, it has been
known that minority superintendents served in districts where students of the same
ethnicity were present in significant numbers. Although we find ourselves in the 21
st
century, segregation is still alive and well throughout the country. Harris (2004)
concurs by referencing work done by Marshall and Kasten, in which they state that
there is an unstated understanding that “minority administrators should administer
minority schools . . .populations and concerns”. The historical record of Latino
superintendents is sparse and Glass (2000), noted that much of the historical record
of minority superintendents is centered around African-Americans, but did add that
recent studies of Hispanics in school administration have enlightened our
understanding of those who serve as school chiefs.
Between the 1930s and 1950s reports indicated that minority superintendents
were few and far between and those that did serve as superintendents were African-
Americans and that they served in predominantly African-American school districts.
The American Association of School Aministrators in their report, Women and
20
Racial Minority Representation in School Administration from 1993, found that
superintendents of different racial backgrounds tended to serve in school districts of
their same race (Glass, 2000). Statistics indicate that in the 1980s, 2.1% of the
superintendents were of minority descent, and that in the 1990s, there was an
increase to 3.9%. Many of these superintendents were serving in large urban
districts. Glass adds that the number of minority superintendents serving as school
superintendents increased overall by 31% during the 1990s, and concerns began to
be brought to the forefront about this number reaching a plateau or of possibly
declining due to opportunities in other fields of endeavor open to minorities (Glass,
2000). Tallerico (2000) in her work, Gaining Access to the Superintendency:
Headhunting, Gender, and Color, also corroborated this by indicating that initiatives
would need to be put into place by search consultants and boards of education in
order to remove barriers to career advancement by minority candidates to the
superintendency.
Past research has suggested that organizations or school districts behave no
differently whether they have a White person or a person of color at their helm.
Historically, it has been believed that there has not been a need to have active
representation at the top of public entities because the process of achieving upper-
level management positions created administrators that were neutral, at least in
regards to representation (Theobold, 2004). Active representation is a term used to
indicate that a Latino is leading a district with a majority of Latino students or that an
African-American is leading a school district with a student population that is
21
predominantly African-American. As we will see, there is a growing body of
knowledge that indicates that there is a need to have active, as opposed to passive,
representation at the top levels of school administration. In a study conducted by
Campbell-Jones (2000), the author indicated that minority administrators that work
with low-income communities are more adept at offering insights about the
educational process and needs for their students in a way that others may miss,
because they were most likely members of that same community at some point in
their lives. Magdaleno (2006) also adds that Latino leaders are readily conscious of
the obstacles and issues members of their ethinic group face, and the author also
believed that due to the long history of Latinos not assuming the role of the
supeintendency, the number of positive role models for Latino students is very
limited and that this may contribute to the poor academic achievement of Latinos.
As the percentage of minorities in the nation’s population increases, they are
beginning to have an important impact in the way they are educated. The important
questions as to how these very students and schools will be taught and governed, as
well as who will lead them will all need to be answered.
Fernando R. Elizondo in his article, “A Latino Perspective: Better Teachers
and Administrators,” indicates that school districts who are serving Latino students
are faced with the challenge of trying to close the achievement gap of these students.
He suggests that districts would be well served by approaching the problem in a two-
fold manner: More bilingual teachers and more bilingual administrators. “These two
basic strategies can positively affect the teaching and learning of Latino children in
22
addressing the linguistic diversity and competencies of English language learners.”
He adds that there is a need for a larger share of Latino administrators at all levels
and that the research is clear in that more Latino educators are needed, beginning in
the classroom and extending all the way to the superintendency. He continues by
indicating that a critical element for the sustained academic improvement of Latino
students would be the assignment of more bilingual educators in policy development
positions and high-level administrative roles (2008).
In The Study of the American School Superintendency, by Glass (2000) the
authors indicate that by the year 2020, one-third of the population of the United
States will be non-White, and that the proportion of minority students will grow to
38%. The authors also added that as this population begins to grow, the business
leaders of the private sector have become worrisome about the preparation of these
individuals because they are their future workforce. There worries are two-fold.
First, they know that they will need a highly educated workforce in order to compete
globally, and secondly, they also realize that minority students have historically been
underserved by the public schools they attend. In this context, lawmakers have come
to understand that, “access and excellence, issues once considered by policymakers
as being mutually exclusive, are now viewed as intrinsically related.”
It is heart rending to stop and consider that only when someone’s pocketbook
is affected, or when the captains of industry feel that their bottom-line is is not where
is should be, that then and only then, do they stop and consider that those who have
been disenfranchised for so long now deserve a second look.
23
Glass (2000) adds that both liberals and conservatives have come together to
promote the education of all children and to help increase the number of minorities
in school administration, for they have come to the realization that these individuals
serve both as advocates and as role models. Lugg (2002) wrote that nationally there
is a need to increase the racial and ethnic diversity of school personnel. Currently,
both the teacher and principal corps are for the most part White. Only 13% of
teachers come from minority groups and 40% of all schools in the U.S. have no
minority teachers at all and that the percentage of minority principals across the
nation is only slightly better at 16%. The author also notes that these are national
averages, and that in some states, the disparity between educational leaders and the
student population is far greater. Lugg also believes that there is a need for these
minority students to be lead by individuals of their own race or ethnicity. She states
that this lack of minority teachers and administrators is highly problematic, given the
written and unwritten codes of proper school conduct that are expected to be learned
by students. A more diverse teaching and administrative staff could make both staff
and students more sensitive to different ways of thinking, understanding, and acting.
Theobold (2004) also adds that there is a growing body of research that
indicates that bureaucratic representation improves outcomes for the represented
clientele. In referencing work done by Meier (1999) and Meier and Nicholson-
Crotty (2002), Theobold states that with the increase of minority teachers there has
also been an increase in minority student achievement, much like police forces with
more women are more responsive to rape allegations. Theobold (2004) suggests that
24
these improved outcomes are a function of active representation, and that minority
bureaucrats are utilizing their discretionary powers on behalf of their minority
clientele. The author also stated that in a study conducted by Polinard (1990), it was
found that the effect of bureaucratic Latino representation in schools benefitted
Latino students. Although Theobold (2004) was looking at the linkages between
Latino superintendents and English Language Learners programs, the generalizations
that can be extrapolated are obvious.
The literature indicates that the presence and history of Latinos in the
superintendency is brief and that their service has been relegated to working in
districts in which there is a large proportion of students of color. The record of
Latinos as superintendents of schools also shows us that although their numbers are
on the increase, their overall numbers do not reflect their numbers found in the
districts throughout the State of California nor of the United States. Active
representation at all levels of management is needed, but particularly in the
superintendency. Research has shown that when students have a leader of their own
race or ethnicity they tend to achieve at higher levels academically, because these
leaders are able to approach their work via a culturally relevant pedagogy. As the
minority population of California as well as the nation continues to grow, politicians,
board members, and communities at-large must come to the realization that Latinos
who aspire to the superintendency must be afforded the opportunity to lead, not out
of affirmative action, but because they are just as prepared, just as ready, and just as
devoted to their cause as anyone else. Additionally, it should also understood that
25
the driving force of our societal engines need to be put into motion for these changes
to begin to take place.
Professional Preparation and Skills for Success
Justice O’Connor once said, “In order to cultivate a set of leaders with
legitimacy in the eyes of the citizenry, it is necessary that the path to leadership be
visibly open to talented and qualified individuals of every race and ethnicity”
(Hrabowski, 2004). Latinos face a unique set of circumstances as they go about
fulfilling their roles as superintendents. Harris (2004) referring to work conducted
by Grady indicated that “nontraditional” populations were increasingly enrolling in
graduate school programs, and that ethnic minorities were also included in this group.
In statistics noted by Harris, they showed that in the mid 1990s less than 20% of
doctoral recipients were women and people of color, but that those numbers were
increasing. Harris also felt that these numbers advanced the notion that educational
administrative programs need to speak to the unique needs and challenges of women
and other minority groups in the design of leadership programs. Numerically,
Latinos are not entering the superintendency at the numbers representative of their
numbers in the student population, but as Glass (2000) noted in his study, minorities
are doing well in other fields and because of this, there will need to be a concerted
effort through state and federal initiatives, as well as from grants from philanthropic
organizations to support the recruitment and training of minorities from throughout
the different levels of educational administration.
26
Campbell-Jones (2000) noted that in their study, participants described skills
that had to be developed in order for them to be successful as African-American or
Latino superintendents. They also noted that this expertise was not acquired as part
of their academic preparation. The superintendents posited that major success
factors included learning how to: be strong, but not threatening, and having everyone
feel they were part of the team. It was also noted that it was necessary to work with
all types of people, even those that displayed prejudice and that establishing
coalitions that reached beyond ethnic walls was seen as critical for success. In fact,
working with only one group and ommitting others was seen as professional suicide,
and superintendents of color could not be part of an environment in which they only
worked with individuals similar to themselves. The importance of strong written and
oral communication skills was also seen as a skill set that was necessary for working
with the dominant culture.
Flora Ida Ortiz in her work, Using Social Capital in Interpreting the Careers
of Three Latina Superintendents (2001), explains that the possesion of social capital
is a necessary ingredient in the development of a career as a school superintendent.
The value of social capital, as a concept, lies in the fact that it identifies properties of
social structure that are used by actors to achieve their interests. As candidates begin
the process of preparing to become a superintendent, it is imperative that they
acquire as much social capital as possible. The importance of acquiring social
capital was summed up by Ortiz (2001) when she stated that it contributes to the
appointment and establishment of the superintendency career in two different ways.
27
First, superintendent appointments with social capital are not as likely to be
perceived as temporary and based on short term objectives. Second, social
capital between the superintendent and the community of stakeholders hold
each other mutually responsible for being part of something larger than
themselves. These lasting relationships are more likely to call for commit-
ment and permanency in the career and stability to the school district.
In her work, she went on to indicate that 70.6% of African-American
superintendents had used their contacts to acquire work in school districts where
there was a majority of minority students and school board members, and that the
opposite was true of White school superintendents. She concluded that few women
and minoritites are hired as superintendents, because they are not able to build strong
informal networks based on professional ties. Developing high levels of social
capital is therefore a critical component for success as a superintendent. Ortiz (2001)
also indicated that connections and sponsorship and not necessarily individual
competence alone, greatly matter in obtaining employment and advacement.
Barriers to Success for Latinos
Respondents to a study conducted by Franklin Campbell-Jones (2000)
indentified several factors that were the greatest challenges to minority
administrators. Many of the respondents indicated that racial prejudice was a
constant reality and that preconceptions about their abilities as candidates to the
superintendency were ever present by the community stakeholders at large. Hudson
(1994) in citing Feagin and Eckberg (1980), also indicated that in the last 2 decades
the virtual disappearance of traditional legal segregation has caused most
discrimination to take on new forms that are subtle, informal, and thus, both difficult
28
and expensive to document. The authors went on to state that, “Racial discrimina-
tion remains a bedrock feature of this society and that only the research documenting
the dimensions of discrimination seem to be on the decline” (p. 386). Lindsey (1999)
also wrote that in many areas of the country, any desire for placing people of color
into formal leadership positions, has been preceeded by actual legislation or by
precedent-setting court cases. Lindsey also adds that gender and race still correlate
very highly with who gains formal leadership positions in schools.
Hudson (1991) also wrote that even though few minority superintendents are
hired, those that are, face major disadvantages such as limitations on where they can
work due to gender and race restrictions based on preconceived notions of ability and
best-fit scenarios. Campbell-Jones (2000) wrote that some of the respondents even
felt that there were institutional mechanisms that were designed to keep minorities
out of the superintendency, while still others felt that the greatest barrier to overcome
was the temptation to view oneself as not worthy of the position of superintendent.
The study participants also spoke of an inner dialogue that helped remind
themselves of their worthiness of holding the position of superintendent. Enomoto
(2000) also noted that both race and gender factored into feelings of self-doubt about
their capacity to do their work and be successful as educational administrators.
Glass (2000) as well noted that nearly half (46.9%) of the minority superintendents
that participated in his study indicated that there were discriminatory hiring practices.
Discrimination in the hiring practices of school districts has also been documented in
the literature. Glass indicates that very few sitting superintendents believe that there
29
is discrimination in the work place, but the actual number of female and minority
superintendents speaks to a very different reality.
There is also the matter of dealing with erroneous perceptions about job
opportunities and the abilities of potential candidates. For example, male and female
superintendents have very different perceptions relative to the barriers faced by
women who desire to become superintendents. Males do not believe that there is a
lack of recruiting by boards of education, or the lack of opportunities in which
professional experience can be gained, nor the lack of professional networks for
women. This is also the case when it comes to the perceptions about opportunity and
promotion when the discussion is centered around minorities. About 50% of
minority superintendents see these issues as major problems, and by contrast only
10% of White superintendents view them in the same manner. Glass (2000)
concludes by stating that, “Understanding significant gender and racially related
differences between superintendents’ hiring and promotional experiences and
perceptions may help boards of education, professional associations, search
consultants, state education agencies, practicing superintendents, and professional
preparation programs to address these barriers.”
Tallerico (2000) suggests that the barriers that females face in the acquisition
of the superintendency parallel those faced by those who are of racial and ethnic
minorities. These barriers include “systemic biases, professional socialization
patterns, tokenism, and cultural exclusion.” Tallerico also indicates that there is
great concern in the process used by school districts to hire superintendents. She
30
notes that the dimensions in this process can limit the advancement of women and of
people of color. These dimensions include: how “best qualified” is defined,
stereotyping and cultural dynamics, and the role of “good chemistry” in determining
interview success. By using a gatekeeping model as a conceptual framework,
selection committees have historically looked at candidates who fit a specific mold
in terms of career experience. This experience includes being a teacher for 3-5 years,
secondary principal for 3-4 years, a superintendent from a small district, and then a
superintendent from a larger district. This sequence of career advancement has
become the standardized path that nonminority males have historically taken and the
one that Boards of Education look to in selecting a new superintendent. Because the
professional experience of minority candidates is typically unlike that of White
males, this career path therefore becomes an impediment for aspiring candidates of
color. Candidates of color have traditionally taken a different career path, which
includes having elementary principal experience, and working as staff coordinators
and directors (Tallerico, 2000). The barrier to the superintendency, therefore,
becomes the candidates chosen career path. “In sum, the experiential backgrounds
routinely described as ‘best’ or ‘strongest’ by this study’s informants reflect career
pathways more likely followed by nonminority males than by any other
administrators.” The favoring of positions that are not frequently held by
administrators of color lessens the chances of being viewed as qualified to advance
through the selection process.
31
Dominant ideologies are also determining factors in who is hired to fill a
vacancy at the superintendent level. Tallerico (2000) forwards the notion that
Boards of Education and search committees dislike affirmative action in the selection
of a superintendent. The author indicates that these groups contend that they believe
in equal opportunity but that no special preferences are to be given to any potential
candidate of color. Simply put, this is a misunderstanding of how to promote
diversity within the applicant pool. In order for this to be understood correctly, we
need to go back to how the “best qualified” has been identified. As noted before, the
best qualified candidate has been viewed as that person who possesses the career
path most closely resembling that of White males. It is very interesting to note that
during the screening process, selection committees actively seek out and encourage
individuals that have all the “right” administrative experience (experienced
superintendents, assistant superintendents, high school principals), which again, is
dominated by White males. Tallerico’s (2000) stunning rebuke of this process is
brought to light when she stated that,
The idea of acting affirmatively to attract female and minority candidates is
equated with affording an unfair advantage in the search and selection
process. This contradiction seems to go unnoticed that each of these
processes reflects special efforts to selectively target particular group
members. (p. 34)
Another barrier to success pointed out by Tallerico is what she indicates is the
similiarity-attraction theory, which posits that in its simplest terms, “There is a
comfort syndrome in which people have a proclivity to bond with people who are
similar to those they are accustomed to working with.” Hudson (2004) corroborates
32
this when she wrote that organizational process descrimination has existed because
employers have the tendency to choose people like themselves, and that this has
served to advance the opportunities for White men and hinder the hiring
opportunities for minorities and women.
Based on this information, it becomes painfully obvious that Latinos will
have a difficult time ascending to the superintendency. Again, because the literature
is meager at best, regarding Latinos, generalizations can nevertheless be made and
understandings can be reached with the extant literature on minorities. It requires
just a very small leap to come to the understanding that the experience of other
minorities will most likely be the same experience of Latinos.
Mentoring and Networks
Networks
Both women and minority superintendents perceive some hiring
discrimination. However, both groups indicated that to a certain degree, they had
also taken advantage of the “old boy/old girl” network to gain their positions (Glass,
1992). In the study conducted by Glass, he noted that the numbers of women and
minority superintendents in the 1992 study have increased from previous surveys,
but that there were still very few. In the study sample of 1,734 superintendents, only
115 were women, and only 67 were minority (1992). Revere (1987) also noted that
the position of the superintendent has been assumed over the years through the “old
boy” network and that this practice has provided White males with preferential
33
treatment. The author also indicates that this practice has led to the number of
superintendents in the United States being almost exclusively male and White.
In a study conducted by Hudson (1991), the author noted that 62% of all
school superintendents had learned about their jobs through informal contacts.
Hudson in referencing Granovetter (1974) stated that, “Those without the right
contacts are penalized in the job market and that contacts are of paramount
importance in connecting people to jobs. The better jobs are found through contacts,
and the best ones are found through many contacts.” The findings in Hudson’s study
indicated that when controling for minority (women and Blacks) and majority (White
men) superintendents, minority superintendents depended more (69.3%) on the use
of informal sources to learn about jobs. Hudson also postulated that one of the
reasons why nearly two-thirds of minority superintendents acquire their jobs through
networking, is due to the fact that they must prove themselves before they will ever
be considered for the superintendency. Whites, on the other hand, do not need to
avail themselves of informal channels as much as minorities do, because they are
inherently trusted even when they apply for a position through the formal channels of
the employment process. Hudson (1991) also noted that minorities also functioned
within more limited employment areas. Seventy-five percent of White males were
able to secure employment in districts where they had never worked, while minority
candidates were typically place-bound, getting their jobs in school districts in which
they currently worked or had been employed previously.
34
The art of networking is a skill that must be mastered by all, but particularly
by the aspiring Latino superintendent. In a study conducted by Campbell-Jones
(2000), it was found that superintendents needed to join networks for administrators,
but that it was also necessary to join, or if necessary, to create networks that focused
on their special needs as minorities. Enemoto (2000) in her study indicated that
having access to networks was especially important to people of color who must
negotiate entry into an environment that is dominated by White males. Access into
the networks, leads to access into different school districts, and thus leading to
different opportunities. Enemoto (2000) also stated that, “Opening doors and
gaining access are probably as important for female aspirants seeking to enter an old-
boy network, but . . . it is even more important for persons of color who must
negotiate entry into a White-male-dominated hierarchy.” Ortiz (1998) also stated
that of the 12 Hispanic superintendents that were studied in her paper, 9 of the
superintendents had been appointed in school districts that utilized search
committees; and that although the search committees had served to find them and
legitimate their applications, their appointment was nevertheless linked to someone
who knew them personally.
Mentoring
Glass (2000) indicated that superintendents are not only leaders of schools
districts, but they also serve in that role amongst their peer groups. A goodly number
of superintendents (77.9%) considered themselves mentors to those who were
interested in the superintendency and 58.5 % indicated that they had been assisted by
35
a mentor in their own career development. Developing and acquiring cultural capital
through the mentoring process is of critical importance. Glass also added that,
A great deal of professional knowledge is transferred through the mentoring
relationship that can not be replicated or dispensed in a university classroom
or inservice workshop. The mentorship therefore becomes a critical link
between the academic and practical preparation for the position. (p. 50)
The general role of a mentor is that of supporter, guide, protector, and as an
advocate. Anecdotal evidence suggests that mentors provide an excellent support
system and that this support system helps mentees navigate through the difficulties
of being new administrators, and of learning about the politics of the office
(Enemoto, 2000). Mentors also provide informal on-the-job training that is not
available to everyone. How to manuever and manage is crucial for someone who
aspires to a position in educational leadership in a highly charged political
environment. Having this knowledge and savvy provided to them by a mentor will
help mentees succeed in the profession (Enemoto, 2000).
Magdaleno (2006) wrote that with the increasing number of Latino students
in the State of California there was a clear need to develop mentoring programs that
increased the growth of, and retention rate of Latina and Latino school superin-
tendents. The author also stated that Latino superintendents have encountered years
of lower expectations and the presence of a career “glass ceiling,” Latino educational
leaders have found it difficult to ascend to, and sustain positions at the various levels
of school leadership. Magdaleno (2006) warns that implementing and sustaining a
same-race administrator mentoring program that improves the probability of being a
36
successful Latino eductional leader is essential to the future of California’s
educational system.
Enomoto in citing Stalker (1994) wrote that according to Homer’s tale of the
adventures of Odysseus, the Greek goddess of wisdom, Athene was asked to take
care of Telemachus, while his father Odysseus was away. Athene disguised as
Mentor, a loyal friend of Odysseus, aids, guides, and acts as a trusted friend and
counselor to the young boy. This is how the English word mentoring came into
existence, and if Latinos are ever to come into a fuller existence in the
superintendency, the development of mentoring relationships will need to be
established via informal friendship based relationships, as well as through
institutionalized programs such as those put forth by the California Association of
Latino Superintendents and Administrators.
Framework for the Study
Cultural capital theory as developed by Pierre Bourdieu (2006) states that it is
a sociological term, and was described as a notion that first stood out as a theory
which was,
. . . essential in accounting for the inequality of performance at schools of
children from different social classes yielding success at school, and that the
specific profits which children of different classes can make on the school
market in the distribution of cultural captial between the classes. (p. 1)
The author continues by stating that this implies a break with the
presupositions inherent to both the ordinary point of view which considers success or
failure at school an effect of natural aptitude, and to theories of human capital. The
37
theory takes three distinct forms, and for the purposes of this study, the form with
which we will focus will be the insitutionalized state. Cultural capital in the
institutionalized state refers to the value of educational qualifications, and the value
that can be measured only in relationship to the labor market. Under this theory,
Bourdeiu (2006) also indicates that cultural values are given by society and that the
development of a dominant culture is simply a reflection of their powerful position
within a Capitalist society. A dominant class is able, in effect, to impose its
definition of reality upon all other classes. The term cultural capital is used because,
like money, it can be translated into social resources such as wealth, power and
status. The cultural capital we accumulate from birth can be “spent” in the education
system as we try to achieve things that are considered to be culturally important.
Cultural capital begins to explain how White superintendents are able to
continue to be found in large numbers in school administration. School boards,
politicians, parents, and other community stakeholders have continued to look to one
kind of individual to lead their schools under the belief that they have the most
cultural capital. This cultural capital which comes in the forms of knowledge, skills,
and education is used and reproduced to perpetuate the current system. Society, for
whatever reason, has deemed that a certain section of the population with higher
cultural capital and therefore is repeatedly given preferential treatment. Bourdieu
(2006) also introduced the idea of cultural reproduction, whereby existing
disadvantages and inequalities are passed down from one generation to the next.
According to Bourdieu, this is partly due to the educational system and other social
38
factors and which may explain why Latinos have been historically underrepresented
in the superintendency.
Funds of knowledge theory refers to those historically developed and
accumulated strategies (e.g., skills, abilities, ideas, practices) or bodies of knowledge
that are essential to an individuals functioning and well being. Gonzalez (1993) in
her work, studied how families develop social networks that interconnect them with
their environments, particularly how they connected with other households. She also
looked at how these social relationships helped develop and exchange resources,
including funds of knowledge. A key component of these exchanges was the idea of
reciprocity. Gonzalez (1993) in quoting Velez-Ibaňez (1988) explained that,
“Reciprocity is an attempt to establish social relationships on an enduring and long-
term basis. Reciprical practices, established obligations based on the assumption of
confianza (mutual trust), and each exchange lead to the growth of the relationship.”
As such, an intimate analysis of the funds of knowledge that aspiring and sitting
superintendents hold, would provide valuable anecdotal information as to what kinds
of preparation (both formal and informal), networking, and mentoring have been
developed in order to reach the superintendency.
Conclusion
Very little is known about the Latino superintendent. Much of the research
done on minority superintendents has focused on women and African-Americans.
This is due in part to the fact that there are very few sitting Latino superintendents.
The review of the literature indicates that throughout the United States and
39
particularly in the state of California, Latinos continue to grow as a percentage of the
total school age population. Yet the number of Latino superintendents is not
representative of the numbers found amongst the student population. For the most
part, these students have not had the good fortune to have one of their own serving as
a mentor or role model in the upper levels of school management. In Glass’ (2000)
study of the superintendency, the lack of Hispanic superintendents was startling. Out
of the 2,250 superintendencies across the country only 31 or 1.3 % of them are
Hispanic. This continued underrepresentation will undoubtedly have a deleterious
effect on the needs of the Latino student.
Latino candidates to the superintendency are faced with many challenges and
much more information is needed in order to help those Latino candidates aspiring to
the superintendency. Information is needed on how Latino superintendents now
serving across the state, can help in terms of professional preparation, mentoring,
networking, and the development of social capital. The development of the requisite
skills, abilities, and attributes will undoubtedly help overcome the pernicious and
consistent effects of racism and/or prejudice.
40
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
Introduction
The purpose of this study is to ascertain what skills and attributes are
essential for administrators to ascend to the superintendency of public school
systems. This chapter describes the methodology used to collect data, analyze, and
interpret the data as well as the selection of participants. This chapter also describes
the representative sample, the survey questions, and the face-to-face interviews. The
design methodology used for this study was was a multi-method qualitative case-
study approach. The case study approach as proposed by Patton (2002) involves
organizing the data by specific cases for in-depth study and comparison. The case
study approach to qualitative analysis constituted a specific way this researcher was
able to collect, organize, and analyze the data. This analysis process resulted in the
product known as a case study (Patton). An applied design method was employed in
order to shed light on the societal concerns of having few Latinos serving as
superintendents of schools. The stated purpose of applied research is to contribute
knowledge that will help people understand the nature of a problem and therefore
capacitate them in order to be able to intervene (Patton). This study hopes to be able
to bring to light what is happening in public eduction that is not allowing more
Latino administrators become superintendents. It is in this sense that this qualitative
research study is also ethnographic in nature.
41
McEwan and McEwan (2003) state that,
To many, qualitative research is embodied in the term ethnography, which
includes both observations made by an individual during an extended stay in
a specific culture and the construction or interpretation of that culture in a
written form. The idea is to make familiar that which is strange. (p. 76)
This study aims to be able to understand the culture of the superintendency
and what if any traits need to be learned or acquired by Latino administrators in
order for them to reach the superintendency.
Pupose of the Study
This study aims to investigate what skills, abilities, talents, and preparation,
are needed for Latinos to ascend to the position of superintendent of schools. This
study also aims to investigate what barriers exist in this quest and how, if possible,
can these barriers be ameliorated. According to the national profile, about 4 percent
of the nation’s superintendents are minorities. The total number in the 1992 sample
was 66 out of 1,714 (Glass, 1992). The author goes on to state that because of shifts
of some racial groups in the nation, minority populations have become majority
populations in many large American cities. Yet as the data indicates these students,
these schools, and these districts are being managed by White males.
This study also aims to investigate what are the reasons why so few Latinos
are being promoted to the position of superintendent of schools. The Study of the
American School Superintendency (1992) indicated that a greater number of
minority and women superintendents are serving in larger districts than in previous
years. Nevertheless a dramatic underrepresentation of these two groups still exists.
42
For whatever reason, superintendency preparation programs, state agencies, school
boards, communities, and practicing superintendents have failed to ensure that
women and minorities are hired for the superintendency. With the increasing
number of Latino students in California schools, there is a clear need for mentoring
programs that not only increase the growth rate but also support the retention rate of
Latino superintendents. Such leaders are most often perceived by Latino students as
positive role models who represent their future (Magdaleno, 2006).
Research Questions
The questions that were developed for this study were based on the review of the
relevant literature on Latinos and the superintendency. The items in the survey were
designed to answer the following research questions:
1. What skills and talents will Latino superintendents need to be
successful in the current context of public education?
2. Does mentoring and/or mentoring programs provide aspiring as well as
sitting Latino superintendents with the skills and tools necessary to be
successful in the position.
3. Has race or ethnicity ever been an issue for you in your pursuit of the
superintendency?
4. What are the reasons why so few Latinos are being promoted to the
position of superintendent of schools?
43
Instrumentation
Once the research questions were developed, the next step in the research
process was to develop and test the survey instrument prior to sharing it with the
identified Latino superintendents. During this phase, the input from the test
participants served to provide focus, clarity, and format suggestions that were
incorporated into the survey. The next step was to distribute the survey to the
identified Latino superintendents in the state of California. The third step was the
identification of those superintendents who were willing to participate in phone and
face-to-face interviews. Four superintendents were identified.
Criteria for the Selection Participants
Four Latino superintendents were selected to participate in the interview part
of the study and they were selected from the State of California. The superintendents
represented leaders in the counties of Los Angeles and San Bernardino. Patton
(2002) indicates that qualitative researchers should purposefully select their
particpants. Through the use of purposeful sampling, the superintendents were
selected for this study based on the following crieria:
1. The superintendents headed districts that were ethnically diverse with
Latino students accounting for at least 30%.
2. The selection of the superintendents purposely did not take into account
their views on race and ethnicity in the superintendency.
3. The selection of the particpants was based on their work experience,
and geographic location.
44
4. Gender, ethnicity, and their willingness to particpate in the study.
Two members of the Board of Education were also identified in order to gather their
input as to their views on the selection and hiring of superintendents.
Data Collection
Throughout the course of this study, the researcher used structured interviews,
and a survey. After securing approval from the Institutional Review Board,
information was gathered from the participants regarding the formal processes they
may have undergone in order to obtain the superintendency. These formal processes
included having been teachers, school-site coordinators, teacher in out-of-classroom
assigments, assistant principals, principals, and district leadership positions. The
researcher also inquired as to the informal processes they may undergone in order to
become a superintendent of schools. These informal processes included networking
and mentoring.
Through the use of interviews the researcher was able to explore the
perceptions of each of the superintendents in regards to leadership, ascending to the
superintendency, and their perceptions on race and ethnicity in the workplace. The
interviews were conducted with each participant during the 2007-2008 school year.
The researcher sought to encourage an open and frank dialogue, so that the exchange
of information would generate responses that accurately portrayed their work as
school district superintendents. In as much as it was possible, the interviewer
developed a rapport with the participants in order to foment a relationship of trust,
and follow-up phone calls were used in order to obtain clarification of any
45
unanswered questions and to probe further if necessary. An interview protocol was
developed to record responses provided by the interviewees (Appendix G). The
open-ended questions were developed to answer the identified research questions of
this study. By extension, all of the survey items addressed the research questions
that have been identified in this study. As previously noted, the survey was
distributed to all of the Latino superintendents in the state of California. The list of
Latino superintendents from California was obtained from the State Department of
Education as well as from other online sources.
Data Analysis
At the completion of the interviews, the process for collecting the data and
analyzing it began by recording the surveys, and transcribing the audiotaped
interviews. A classification and coding system was developed in order to analyze
the raw data. This system was then implemented in order to identify, classify, and
label the primary patterns in the data. According to Patton (2002), “Classifying and
coding qualitative data produce a framework for organizing and describing what has
been collected during fieldwork.” The author also states that this phase of the
analysis builds a foundation for the next phase of interpreting the data, making
comparisons, drawing conclusions, and in generating theory.
In the early stages of data collection, the information was analyzed and
processed in order to check for inconsistencies or data that would not form part of
the research. This process provided the data collection procedures with heightened
direction and clarity.
46
The raw data was collected and a case record was developed and organized.
This record was in turn made into case study using a narrative format. The case
study method was used because it provided, as indictated by Patton (2002), the
ability to organize the data by specific cases for in-depth study and comparison. The
purpose of utilizing the case study method is such that it provides the ability to
gather comprehensive, sytematic, and in-depth information regarding each case of
interest. Additionally, McEwan and McEwan (2003) clarify that case studies are
often used to focus on the particular aspects of organizational behavior as well as
human behavior.
Validity and Credibility
The literature indicates that the credibility of qualitative methods hinge to a
great extent on the skill, competence, and rigor of the person doing the fieldwork.
Patton (2002) noted that the credibility of qualitative data inquiry depends on three
distinct but related inquiry elements noted here:
1. Rigorous methods for doing fieldwork that yield high-quality data that
are systematically analyzed with attention to issues of credibility;
2. The credibility of the researcher, which is dependent on training,
experience, track record, status, and presentation of self; and
3. Philosophical belief in the value of qualitative inquiry, that is, a
fundamental appreciation of naturalistic inquiry, qualitative methods,
inductive analysis, purposeful sampling, and holistic thinking.
47
Patton (2002) also indicates that one barrier to credible qualitative findings stems
from the suspicion that the analysis, has shaped findings according to predispositions
and biases. This researcher has been meticulously careful in not including personal
predispositions and biases.
Transferability
One of the goals of this paper is to be able to generalize the research and
information that has been obtained from the data collected from the superintendents,
the principals, and the members of the Board of Education. The researcher has also
endeavored to produce research that is not only transferable, but that useful and
meaningful extropolations can also be made. Patton (2002) indicates that
extrapolations clearly connote that one has gone beyond the narrow confines of the
data to think about other applications of the findings. Extrapolations are modest
speculations on the likely application of findings to other situations under similar,
but not identical, conditions. It is believed that data and findings will provide for
extrapolations that will be particularly useful when based on the samples and designs
that this study has provided.
Limitations and Assumptions
1. Interview data limitations include distorted responses due to personal
bias, anxiety, and politics (Patton, 2002, p. 306).
2. Results of the study may be limited as they pertain to Latino
superintendents and possibly may not be generalized to a larger
population.
48
3. This study will identify Latino superintendents from the state of
California. The focus and findings of the study may only be useful as
they apply in California, but generalizations can be drawn from the
study.
4. Successful Latino superintendents were identified by individuals with
knowledge of superintendents who had met with success in the past.
This process lent itself to subjective points of view.
Implications
It is the aim of this research study to determine what skills and attributes are
needed in order to ascend to the superintendency of schools. It is hoped that this
information will prove valuable to those aspiring to lead school communities in that
capacity. Because there is so little information regarding Latinos in the
superintendency, the resulting information taken from the surveys and interviews
will provide school leaders who aspire to the superintendency with the information
that will help them become superintendents of schools. The research described in
this chapter and the subsequent data analysis, and findings in the following chapters
should be considered the linkage between the knowledge base regarding Latino
administrators and their subsequent appointment as superintendents of schools.
Summary
This study aims to examine how aspiring Latinos administrators ascend to the
superintendency. This study also aims to investigate what skills, abilities, talents,
and preparation, are needed for Latinos to ascend to the position of superintendent of
49
schools. An examination has also been undertaken to investigate what barriers exist
in this quest and how—if possible—can these barriers be ameliorated. This chapter
also included a review of the instrumentation used, criteria for the selection of the
superintendents, and the collection of data, as well as its analysis. A review of the
validity and credibility, transferability, as well as the limitations and assumptions of
the study were also undertaken.
50
CHAPTER 4
FINDINGS
Introduction
The aim of the research that was conducted was desgined to determine what
were the possible reasons for having so few Latinos as superintendent of schools in
the State of California. Another aspect of the study sought to determine that if
Latino candidates were coming up against barriers to promotion to the
superintendency what could be done to ameliorate that situation. As previously
indicated, only about 7% of the superintendents in the State are of Latino origin,
while the Latino student population is 47%. One school of thought suggests that
students should be lead by individuals of their own ethnicity or race, because these
individuals serve as role models, as well as being highly cognizant of the particular
needs of that subset of students. This study sought to answer that question, as well
as the following questions:
1. What skills and talents will Latino administrators need to possess in
order to ascend to the superintendency in the current context of public
education?
2. Does mentoring and/or mentoring programs provide aspiring, as well as
sitting Latino superintendents with the skills and tools necessary to be
successful in the position?
3. Has race or ethnicity ever been an issue for you in your pursuit of the
superintendency?
51
4. What are the reasons why so few Latinos are being promoted to the
position of superintendent of schools?
Based on the data that was collected and analyzed, the findings are presented here by
each question of research.
Collection of Data
The instument that was used to survey the superintendents provided valuable
and key information that was used to develop baseline data. The purpose of the
survey was to gather data that would identify the current state of the superintendency
as it relates to Latinos. The survey that was constructed for this research was
adapted from a survey developed by Frank S. Davila, as presented in Mentoring and
the Appointment of Latino Administrators to the Superintendency. The survey
included a total of sixty-four questions (see Appendix F), and was divided into five
sections, which included the following:
1. Personal characteristics. This section provided information regarding
the the superintendents background.
2. Professional characteristics. This section provided information
regarding the superintendents professional experience and education.
3. Factors influencing your appointment to the superintendency. This
section delved into the factors thay may have played a role in their
being appointed to the superintendency.
52
4. Nature of mentoring and professionalrRelationships. This
section investigated the nature of and effect the role of mentors
have had in the career growth of educational leaders.
5. Nature of networking relationships. This section sought to
examine the degree to which networking is an essential tool in
ascending to the superintendency.
The survey also included short answer open-ended questions, fill-in the blank, short
essay, and Likert-scale response questions that utilized a scale from 0 to 4.
The Likert-scale responses in sections three and four of the survey asked the
respondents to circle the answer that best reflected the factors that may have had an
influence in their appointment to the superintendency. A response of “4” represented
an answer that indicated to “a very great degree,” a “3” represented an answser of to
“a great degree”, a “2” equaled a response of to “a small degree,” and a one indicated
a response of to “a very small degree.” For statements that were not applicable they
were asked to respond with a zero. The survey provided descriptive data of the
target population and this data was taken mainly from Section I of the afore-
mentioned document. It should be noted that the data that is presented in the tables
of this chapter will be stated as percentages.
All of the Latino/Latinas superintendents in the State of California were
asked to participate in the survey that was mailed to them. Sixty-nine surveys were
mailed and twenty-three were completed and returned by the superintendents. The
53
return rate was representative of a full one-third of the Latino/Latina superintendents
in the State of California.
School-site principals were also asked to complete a survey to determine their
experiences as school-site administrators as well as to determine their desire to one-
day become superintendents. Although their survey was not as extenstve, it
nevertheless included all of the same sections previously described for the instrument
that was used with the superintendents. Minimal background information will be
presented regarding these principals, as the aim of inquiring of the principals was
mainly to determine their desire to one day become superintendents as well as their
experiences in the area of educational leadership.
Interviews
Oral interviews were conducted in order to gain a greater understanding of
the role of a superintendent as well as to gather the views and imput of sitting
superintendents. The interviews provided key information and it provided a deeper
picture of how superintendents ascend to the superintendency, and how they remain
active and current in their educational leadership roles. The superintendents were
asked a series of eleven questions (Appendix H), which were intended to mirror the
sections found in the survey.
Their candor and honesty was truly refreshing. Their responses proved to be
very enlightening and they provided information that was both thought provoking as
well as illuminating.
54
Members of Boards of Education were also interviewed in order to gain a
greater appreciation as to the process they undertake as they interview and hire
superintendents for their school districts. The aim of interviewing board members
was to come to a better understanding of what they specifically look for in a
prospective candidate, as they go about filling a vacancy in the superintendency.
The combined experiences of the superintendents, principals, and the
members of the Board of Education will address the research questions previously
stated. This triangulation of information and data will provide the perspectives that
are unique to each individual group.
It is important to note the distinction between the views of the
superintendents and those of the board members. Their thoughts and views were
interwoven throughout so as to provide their views and perceptions on each category
of questions.
The Superintendents of Schools
Background Information
Of the superintendents that completed the survey, just over two-thirds were
male, with one-third being female. These Latino/Latinas superintendents came from
all walks of life, as well from a sundry assortment of backgrounds, experiences, and
aspirations. Their responses ran the gamut and provided a wealth of information. In
some of their responses they were homogeneous with each other, in others they had
responses in every category, while in others they differed greatly.
55
In order to maintain their confidentiality, as provided for in the surveys and
the interviews, the superintendents will be referred to as Superintendent followed by
a number; i.e., “Superintendent 69.”
Fifty-two percent of the superintendents had parents that were born in the
United States, with 48% having parents born outside of the United States. The
majority of the superintendents were born within the United States at 83%, with only
17% having been foreign-born (Table 4.1).
Table 4.1. Gender
Gender of
superintendents
Male
Female
68% 32%
The average age of the superintendents was 54.6 years old and their ages
ranged from 38 to 61-years-old. The mode was 56 with slightly over 50% being in
their early to mid-50s. Eighty-five percent of the superintendents were in their 50s
and 60s. This was reflective of the long years they had served as educators, which in
turn proved to be preparatory for their roles as superintendents (Table 4.2).
The superintendents had spent an average of 29 years in public education
which also included the time that they had spent serving as the heads of their school
56
Table 4.2. Distribution of Age of Superintendents
Age of
superintendents
36-40
41-45
46-50
51-55
56-60
61+
5% 0% 10% 34% 41% 10%
districts. The range of the years in public education were from a low of 16 years to a
high of 36.
The great majority of the superintendents were born within the United States
at 81%, with a few being born outside of the United States, coming from places such
as Mexico, Puerto Rico, and Cuba. For the most part the superintendents came from
households that spoke English and Spanish in the home at 78%, with 4% who spoke
only English and with one respondent indicating that English and Portuguese was
spoken.
Sixty-one percent of the superintendents came from homes who had at least
one parent who had only a primary level of education. As Table 4.3 indicates,
between 26% and 31% of the superintendents had at least one parent who had
received at least a secondary education, and between seventeen and twenty-six
percent of the them had parents who had completed a terciary level of education
The superintendents served in urban, suburban, and rural school districts.
The distribution amongst these categories was very evenly distributed (Table 4.4).
57
Table 4.3. Educational Level of Parents
Parent Primary Secondary Terciary
Mother 52% 31% 17%
Father 48% 26% 26%
Table 4.4. Description of School District
School District Urban Suburban Rural Other
39% 26% 31% 4%
The respondents also indicated that they had spent a relatively short period of
time as teachers prior to their first administrative assignment. The surveys indicated
that they had served an average of 7.6 years as teachers and educators prior to going
into administration. These years had been spent honing their skills as teachers, as
well as in quasi-administrative positions such as coordinator, director, project
specialist, and dean of students. Once having gone into administration they held
positions such as assistant principal, principal, director of instruction, director of
personnel, program manager, assistant superintendent, associate superintendent,
deputy superintendent, and senior deputy superintendent. As administrators, the
superintendents promoted through the ranks, but the number of promotions varied
58
greatly. Table 4.5 reflects the number of promotions, and the range was from a low
of two, to a high of 8.
Table 4.5. Number of Promotions Within the Administrative Ranks
Number of
administrative
promotions
2%
3%
4%
5%
6%
7%
8%
9% 30% 22% 22% 9% 0% 9%
Nearly three-fourths of the superintendents had been promoted between 3-5
times prior to assuming the superintendency. The responses provided also indicated
that having the right experiences was crucial in becoming a superintendent. A broad
and general background was considered more desirable as opposed to a more
focused professional background. As one superintendent noted, “As I speak with
aspiring Latino administrators, I find that for some, they don’t have the appropriate
professional background and experiences for the position. Sometimes they lack
confidence or they allow their ethnicity to become an obstacle when it really
shouldn’t be . . . ” (Superintendent 20).
Tenure of Service and Education
The respondents had been serving an average of 6.65 years as superin-
tendents. The range of their experiences included one new superintendent who had
only been in his position for 7 months, to a superintendent who had a total of 14
59
years of service. The average age when they first assumed the superintendency was
a mere 43.9 years, with the range going from a low of 37 years to a high of 61.
Despite this wide range, the mode indicated that the superintendents were mostly in
their fifties when they first assumed the superintendency.
Nearly two-thirds of the superintendents held doctoral degrees with most
being in a variety of disciplines within the field of education. These fields included:
Curriculum and Instruction, Educational Leadership, Counseling and Guidance,
Policy, Planning and Analysis, Language, Literacy and Learning, and Special
Education. Of those that held doctoral degrees, 60% were male and 40% were
female (Table 4.6).
Table 4.6. Level of education
Highest degree earned Masters Doctorate
35% 65%
Research Question # 1
What skills and talents will Latino administrators need to possess in order to
ascend to the superintendency in the current context of public education?
The superintendents were asked a series of questions that inquired regarding
the factors that may have had an influence in their appointment as the head of their
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school districts. Outlined in the table that follows are their responses regarding how
these items played a role or had an influence in their careers (Table 4.7).
The data indicated that 99% of those surveyed felt that their professional
preparation had played a large role in their assuming the superintendency. Their
professional preparation included their formal education as well as the training they
had received through the various positions of leadership that they had held. When
surveyed as to their personal leadership skills, 74% felt that to a great degree, was
this, a factor in their ascending to the superintendency. These leadership skills
included things such as problem-solving skills, interpersonal relationships, providing
inspiration, and, team-building. An overwhelming majority (91%) noted that their
prior leadership experiences had qualified them and provided the basis for which
they were hired into their current positions.
They also felt that they had been hired as superintendents, first and foremost,
for their comptetency to do the work, and that the fact that they were of Latino
heritage was secondary. Although many had had to deal with discrimination in their
careers and job searches, they nevertheless felt that once they had been hired, it had
been because of their skills and expertise, and not because of their ethnicity.
Nevertheless, it should be noted that 22% indicated that the districts’
affirmative action had played a role in their selection as superintendents, with the
other 88% indicating that it had played a very minor or no role at all.
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Table 4.7. Factors that Influenced Your Appointment to the Superintendency
4 3 2 1 0
1. Professional preparation 18% 13% 1%
2. Your competence for the job 87% 13%
3. The district’s affirmative action plan
22% 31% 47%
4. Mentoring within the district 13% 14% 42% 13% 43%
5. Mentoring support outside the
district
26% 48% 17% 4%
6. Latino pressure from within the
district
9% 17% 22% 48%
7. Pressure from the Latino community
4% 9% 35% 52%
8. Networking among Latino peers
9% 22% 13% 3% 26%
9. High percentage of Latinos
(students) in district
13% 35% 26% 26% 4%
10. Membership in Latino organizations
9% 22% 17% 39% 13%
11. Administrative internship experience
17% 9% 22% 17% 35%
12. Bilingual communication skills
26% 39% 17% 17%
13. Your knowledge of district’s culture
43% 48% 13%
14. Your personal relationship with
members of the school board
13% 22% 9% 17% 35%
15. Your knowledge of the politics
within the Board of Education
26% 17% 17% 13% 22%
16. Your knowledge of the polictics
within the school district
30% 35% 9% 22% 4%
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Table 4.7 (continued)
4 3 2 1 0
17. Race or ethnic preference of the
Board of Education
13% 4% 17% 35% 30%
18. Personal leadership skills 74% 26%
19. Support received from your family
61% 35% 4
20. Prior leadership experiences 91% 9%
21. Positive work environment 52% 35% 13%
22. Personal values 87% 13%
23. Family values 74% 13% 13%
As noted previously, nearly 50% of the student body in the State of
California is Latino, yet only 65% of the superintendents that were surveyed
indicated that having had the ability to communicate bilingually proved to be an
asset for them, and 17% felt that it had been of little or no consecuense for them
professionally.
Although not specifically a skill or talent, the respondents resoundedly
informed this research, in that 91% of the superintendents felt that it was imperative
that a knowledge of a district’s culture be inquired and ascertained when entertaining
the possibility of leading any given school district. The respondents felt that know-
ing the culture of a school district, also included knowing the politics within the
63
Board of Education as well as the politics within the the school district itself. Sixty-
five percent of the respondents felt that it was important to know the political
environment of school district, with only 43% believing that knowing the politics
within the Board of Education was an important element.
The superintendents also indicated that the following skills and attributes
were important in order to become or be a successful superintendent:
1. Communication skills. Being able to articulte your vision and how to
speak to people in a way that will inspire.
2. Experience. Having a variety of experiences at all levels.
3. Passion for student learning. Having a love of education and of
students.
4. Inclusive. Making sure that people perceive you to be an advocate for
all kids.
5. Personal qualities. Being honest, having integrity, and the ability to
move in different circles. Being humane and supporting people in
being successful.
6. Can-do attitude. It can be done . . . just do it. Having a mental focus.
Being a leader of change.
7. Positive outlook. Focusing on what can be done.
8. Courage. The will to do the right thing.
Also noteworthy was the level of support the respondents enjoyed from their
families. Sixty-one percent indicated that the support of their families was very
64
important, with an additional 35% noting that this support was also important, but to
a lesser degree. The superintendents also felt that family values also played an
important role in their work as superintendents. A good number of superintendents
indicated that the support of their spouses and family had been a critical component
of their personal as well as professional success. They wrote that having a
“supportive spouse–was critical when one has young children at home”
(Superintendent 2). Another superintendent added that, “My spouse’s support
throughout my career, work on the docotorate, and during my current
superintendency has been invaluable. It allowed me to focus on my goals which
included attaining a superintendency” (Superintendent 23).
The superintendents indicated that the support of their families was an
integral part of their professional success. The superintendency does not take place
during the confines of 9-to-5, and it therefore, requires the superintendent to be out
in the community, attend fundraisers, meet with coummunity leaders, and politicians.
A good many of these meetings do not take place during the course of the business
day and require the superintendent to be away from his home and family. At 61%, a
significant number of superintendents, indicated that to a great degree, the support of
their family and what they valued had had been a factor in their career path, with an
additional 35% indicated that it was also an important factor.
Research Question # 2
Do mentoring programs provide aspiring, as well as sitting Latino
superintendents with the skills and tools necessary to be successful in the position?
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Of all of the short-answer questions that were asked of the superintendents,
this question had the most unanimity in terms of their responses. The respondents
indicated that mentoring was an extremely important tool, not only for themselves,
but also for helping aspiring Latinos to ascend to the superintendency. Mentoring
was viewed by the superintendents as a way of having someone to provide critical
feedback on a course of action or a possible career path to be taken. The superin-
tendents also noted that many of the individuals that had mentored them along the
way, had indicated to them that they saw a a great potential that had been lost on the
mentee. Many of the superintendents indicated that they had not seen that potential
in themselves, but that not until someone had taken a professional interest in them,
had they decided to move into administration and ultimately to the superintendency.
One superintendent noted that mentoring was a very useful tool because there were
many unwritten rules for the do’s and don’ts, as one is navigating through the career
ladder (Superintendent 4).
Mentoring was also viewed as a way of ameliorating the barriers that exist or
have existed for Latinos in ascending to the superintendency of a school district.
Although the old adage, that it is not what you know, but who you know, may have a
negative connotation, it was nevertheless seen as a necessary evil of the workplace
by the superintendents. Mentoring was also seen as a way for not only improving
promotional opportunities, but as well as the providing a way to discuss the
challenges of being an administrator. As one superintendent put it, “Mentoring
helped with the avoidance of pitfalls” (Superintendent 2). Another indicated that
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mentoring was, “Absolutely essential, because Latinos need to be made aware of the
pitfalls and how to best deal with situations” (Superintendent 5). Additionally,
mentoring was a way to learn the administrative culture/structure of a school district.
The data also indicated that mentoring within districts was virutally non-
existent. Forty-three percent said that in their districts there was not a formal or
informal mentoring program present. Nor was there an established program to
groom administrators for future leadership positions, with 35% noting that it had
played in a very small role in their appointment as superintendents. Where the
superintendents did find a great degree of support was from outside of their school
districts. Twenty-six percent felt that to a great degree, their professional support
came from mentoring and networking with individuals with whom they had
professional relationships previous to their current place of employment. An
additional 48% felt that, in large part, the mentoring they had received had also
played a significant role (Table 4.8).
As the above data indicates, with the exception of one, all of the
superintendents indicated that they had had a mentor that provided the needed
guidance and encouragement in their pursuit of the superintendency. They also
noted that the support of their mentor had been crucial in their being able to actually
reach the superintendency (Table 4.9).
As noted in Table 4.9, of those superintendents that had a mentor(s), a full
92% indicated that the relationship between the mentor and mentee existed because
they shared the same personal and career goals. The superintendents also noted that
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Table 4.8. Positive Effect of Mentor
Yes
No
Extremely
Important
Very
Important
Somewhat
Important
Not
Important
Did you have a
mentor /sponsor
that helped or
encouraged you
in your pursuit
to become a
superintendent?
91% 90%
Please indicate
how important
the support of
that individual
was to you
being able to
become a
superintendent
71% 17% 4% 8%
their mentors not only provided career guidance but they also aided them by
enhancing their problem-solving skills. The superintendents also posited that their
mentors had provided them with invaluable counsel and direction when confronting
difficult situations.
When asked, “Do you feel that mentoring is an important tool for helping
aspiring Latinos ascend to the superintendency?” the superintendents responded with
a clear conviction that indeed, mentoring was one of the most important tools in
assisting the superintendents of tomorrow. They said:
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Table 4.9. Nature of Mentoring Relationships
4 3 2 1 0
My mentor and I had similar upbringings 22% 22% 4% 30% 22%
I had similar educational experiences as
my mentor
17% 17% 17% 39% 10%
My mentor and I share similar service
clubs and organizations
13% 35% 1% 22% 26%
Professional problem solving skills were
enhanced by my mentoring relationship
43% 52% 4%
Personal and career goals reflect my
mentoring relationship
35% 57% 4% 4%
Mentoring is a very important tool for all individuals, but most Latinos need
to focus on seeking experiences that extend our unique gifts and talents by
working together and by reaching out in partnership and collaborattion
(Superintendent 19).
Absolutely! There are many Latinos in education that are completely
unaware of the opportunities in higher levels of administation, as well as the
impact a Latino superintendent can have in shaping the equitable distribution
of services that promote success for Latino and all students in an urban
setting (Superintendent 13).
Yes, because you can suggest a career track and talk about the obstacles they
may face. You can also give them suggestions for dealing with tough
individuals and sticky situations (Superintendent 12).
Definitely, I currently mentor 2-3 aspiring Latino administrators and the
opportunity to share mutual concerns, advice, and guidance are invaluable.
They also have the opportunity to observe me in various situations and learn
from my successes and mistakes. Seeing a Latino as suprintendent not only
gives them great pride but also hope that they can be a superintendent should
they so choose (Superintendent 20).
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Absolutely. There is a definite need for support and encouragement for
minority candidates (Superintendent 14).
Yes. Currently Latinos constitute 95 or nearly 10% of California’s
superintendents. It, thereby, is critical that every opportunity possible for
success be provided to new Latino superintendents, and mentoring is one of
those (Superintendent 23).
The superintendents also indicated that mentoring had provided them, as well
as provide aspiring superintendents with the necessary preparation needed for that
position. They wrote the following:
Most definitely . . . without a good mentor/coach it would be very difficult to
learn the administrative culture/structure in any district. To overcome the
challenges would be difficult (Superintendent 17).
. . . . Being prepared for the reality prior to taking the seat makes the
transition much easier (Superintendent 10).
[It] prepares individuals individuals for the challenges and [needed]
wisdom to address those challenges (Superintendent 21).
Mentoring is key. When you have someone guiding your career path, the
help lay the foundation that helps build your career (Superintendent 3).
Absolutely, for all the obvious reasons—role modeling, training, shared
learning, support, and problem solving (Superintendent 22).
Research Question # 3
Has race or ethnicity ever been an issue for you in your pursuit of the
superintendency?
The research that was cited earlier in this paper indicated that forms of racism
and prejudice were still to be found in the workplace of the superintendent. Of those
that were surveyed, the superintendents indicated that race was a major issue when it
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came to being promoted to the superintendency. Over 80% indicated that race was
“somewhat of a barrier” to a “major barrier.”
Table 4.10. The Degree to Which Race Was Considered a Barrier
A major barrier 31%
Somewhat of a barrier 50%
Not a barrier 19%
Of those that felt that race was a major barrier, they nonetheless, felt that it
was simply another obstacle that had to be dealt with. One superintendent wrote
that, “Race does not necessarily hinder one’s career; race just becomes one more
obstacle that one needs to overcome. Nonminorities do not have that obstacle”
(Superintendent 4). Nineteen percent indicated that race had not been an issue in
their careers. Among the reasons that the superintendents felt that race had been a
barrier were the politics of the district, as well discrimination.
It became apparent that as Latino/Latinas moved their way up the career
ladder, race or ethnicity became more and more of an issue. Despite this reality, race
was not a concern of the Latino community as a whole. One survey question asked
if pressure from the Latino community has played a role in their being appointed as
superintedents and 61% responded that it had had no role, or to a very small degree.
A majority of the superintendents also felt that race or ethnicity was not a major
concern of Boards of Education. Thirty percent indicated that is was not a factor at
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all, with an additional 35% indicating that, to a very small degree, had it been a
consideration.
Another recurring theme in their responses was the need to prove oneself
beyond what nonminorities might have to professionally. The following
superintendents noted that:
It slowed down my career advancement. I needed to obtain more experiences
and ‘prove’ myself to higher administration, that a bilingual administrator
could be just as effective as a monolingual/White administrator. Some were
afraid because I was Latino--I would be ‘too radical’ as a superintendent
(Superintendent 8).
I believe we have had to prove ourselves twice as good in order to be given
an opportunity. Positions I believe I was prepared for but were not offered
(Superintendent 10).
I personally believe that our system views Latinos as good second-in-
command. It is changing, but extremely slowly. Latinos must prove
themselves…we are measured with a different measuring device
(Superintendent 17).
Another respondent felt that there were systemic as well as endemic problems
within the education field that need to be addressed, the following superintendents
noted that:
We don’t have the structures that the typical ‘White male or female’ have
established over a long period of time, and racism and discrimination
continue to exist—not as blatant—on a more sophisticated level
(Superintendent 4).
White privilege for White males continues to dominate the superintendency
(Superintendent 2).
We presently have districts that have 80%-90% Latino students/community
and the position [superintendent] is occupied by [an] individual that has no
clue of the culture, needs, and aspirations of the culture (Superintendent 17).
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Though many of the superintendents believed that to some degree, prejudice
had been a factor in their pursuit of a position of leadership. They had nonetheless
been able to overcome this barrier through sheer determination, and by proving
themselves equal to the task. One superintendent posited that,
Although race can be a barrier, I don’t feel that being Latino hurt my goal
of becoming a superintendent because I applied for positions that were
comptatible with my guiding principles, and educational beliefs. I did my
homework because I wanted to insure I would be in a successful situation
(Superintendent 12).
While another noted that, “At first they weren’t hiring minorities to
administrative positions. Once I became one, it got a lot easier to get hired in other
administrative positions. I experienced the most barriers in trying to land my first
administrative position” (Superintendent 5).
The superintendents also believed that although race and/or ethnicity had
been a reality of their professional careers, it had been an obstacle that had been
overcome. They felt that the role of the “good ol’ boys network” was slowly being
eroded from their professional landscape. Despite this, one superintendent, when
asked about the importance of mentoring aspiring Latinos to the superintendency
wrote that, “There are enormous barriers out there. Most times it’s not what you
know, but who you know. There’s this air of not being competent no matter your
background or preparation” (Superintendent 6).
Representative of those that felt that race had never been a barrier, one
superintendent wrote, “Race never has been a barrier. Because of my experience,
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competency, skills, honesty, and people skills. My colleagues have placed a higher
priority on these attributes rather than race” (Superintendent 20).
Research Question #4
What are the reasons why so few Latinos are being promoted to the position
of superintendent of schools?
One of the contributions made to this research was the belief that gender
inequalities were at work and were partially to blame for the lack of Latino/Latinas
superintendents in California. Although this research did not specifically look at the
issue of gender equity, their views on this subject indicate that there is a strong belief
that gender inequality is one more barrier that Latinas face. Twenty-eight percent of
the female respondents felt that gender issues had played a significant role in their
workplaces. One Latina superintendent from an urban school district indicated that,
Although not in your survey, Latinas face two challenges. If the district is
looking for a Latino, it is usually a male who has a better chance than a
female Latina. I find males obtain positions of superintendency from
principal or district positions much easier than females. Race [also] plays a
part in that I was seen as the ‘Bilingual Director’ rather than the Director. I
chose to leave a district after many years because I felt that I was seen as a
Latina only, not an educational leader (Superintendent 3).
While another Latina stated that, “Being a woman of color, I always had to
‘be better’ than my peers--performance was judged” (Superintendent 2). Again, the
notion of having to be “better” not only applied to being Latino, but also to being a
female Latina. “A female who is Latina must be able to transcend preconceptions
through results and proven record much more than others” (Superintendent 19).
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When asked if they believed that Latino/Latinas were underrepresented in the
superintendency, 100% of them agreed in the affirmative. One respondent wrote, “I
believe that based on the demographics we are underrepresented. Part of this is the
inability to move forward. I see that few Latinos are entering administration and this
makes it difficult to nurture and mentor new people” (Superintendent 3). Included
here are the additional reasons why Latino/Latinas are underrepresented. These
reasons included:
A lack of mentoring:
Younger and capable Latino teachers and lower administrator Latinos are not
identified as school leaders early enough. They need middle leadership
training and experiences (Superintendent 8).
Not having the appropriate experiences:
We are still not seen as experts as a whole for all children. [We] are often
lumped into positions to serve only Latino children (Superintendent 10).
Not enough Latinos go into education or there are better paying job without
all the stress (Superintendent 5).
I believe Latinos as superintendents is a growing number, however the
number does not keep pace in what is reflected in our student population.
We need to cultivate prospective candidates when they are in the classrooms
as teachers and in some cases as students (Superintendent 9).
Latino superintendents should have all of the necessary credentials, e.g.,
doctorate. One percent of doctorates are held by Latinos in the U.S. I think
there are lots of reasons for the underrepresentation. Some of the reaons are:
lack of needed experiences . . . lack of district readiness for a Latino
superintendent (Superintendent 23).
Very few Latinos
There are fewer of us in the educational field to begin with. This makes the
pool much smaller. There are also fewer organized efforts to mentor Latinos
for higher office (Superintendent 23).
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The pool of Hispanic principals and assistant principals is small. Many may
get discouraged by potential obstacles (Superintendent 12).
The superintendents were also asked how they felt regarding the need to have
a Latino superintendent leading a predominantly Latino (student population) school
district. Seventy percent of their responses reflected a belief that it would be
important for a Latino to lead a predominantly Latino school district if it was done
for the right reasons. These were their reasons:
Postive Role Model
I have worked with White and Latino superintendents in large urban school
districts. Having a Latino who reflects the make-up of the community is
definitely an asset. The community connects with this individual and
students see a person they can look up [as well as] a role model
(Superintendent 3).
It is important to provide role models not only for students, but for staff and
the community (Superintendent 6).
The parents and community want to believe that they can communicate with
their superintendent. Students see me as a role model as do the teachers and
administrators of color (Superintendent 2).
The modeling is critical in a predominantly Latino community. Spanish
speaking parents may find it easier to participate in the educational process
and a Latino superintendent may have similar experiences as those of the
students in the community. Language becomes a non-issue and there is a
great potential for a greater equitable emphasis of services for minority
students (Superintendent 13).
Understanding Needs
. . . . Latino superintendents have a better understanding of the Latino
community, resolving achievement gap, better communications, and positive
role model for students and community (Superintendent 8).
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. . . in order to best relate to the experiences of those students (Superintendent
16).
The Views of School-Site Principals in Relation to the Superintendency
Introduction
The principals were asked to respond to a survey that inquired as to their
desire to continue serving in leadership positions with greater responsibility. During
the course of this research, the possibility that one of the reasons why there were so
few Latino/Latinas in the superintendency, was that very few actually had those
aspirations. Although the sample size was relatively small, nevertheless viable
generalizations were able to be generated from the data they provided.
In order to protect the confidentiality of the principals, they will be referred
to, in the body of this paper, as “Principal” followed by a number, i.e., “Principal
69.”
The principals were asked if they had any desire to one day become
superintendents. Slightly over two-thirds indicated that at this point in time, they had
no desire to be at the helm of a school district (Table 4.11).
Table 4.11. Principals Wanting to Become Superintendents
Desre to become superintendent Yes No
67% 33%
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Their reasons for not wanting to do so were as follows:
No, due to my age I am close to retirement . . . . To become superintendent I
have to be willing to put in at least 12-16 more years (Principal 4).
No, because of my family. It has always been difficult to juggle work and
family. The principal position takes up so much time and dedication. At this
time I don’t aspire to become superintendent (Principal 5).
Several years ago, I may have taken the opportunity, but recently, I have
strong desires to go in a totally different direction from public education.
One of the factors that prevented me from pursuing a superintendent position
was the political nature of the position (Principal 8).
No, I want to remain at the school-site and work directly with students
(Principal 9).
No, I sincerely believe that most districts in California are caught up in an
endless bureaucracy that is limiting student progress. I would like to to do
something more creative (Principal 3).
Probably not. It’s too political (Principal 1).
No, don’t need the pressure. It’s a thankless job (Principal 2).
Only 33% indicated that they would consider becoming a superintendent at
some point in the future. This low number does not portend well for the future of
Latino/Latinas in the superintendency. A great many more candidates would be
needed in order to be able to have a greater presence in the upper levels of district
management. Yet, of those few that responded in the affirmative, their reasons for
wanting to do so indicated that they wanted to effect change on a greater scale.
They saw the superintendency as a natural progression within the leadership ranks.
Their responses were as follows:
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To effect the greatest change for the greatest number has been my goal from
when I entered administration (Principal 7).
Yes . . . I have a passion for learning and implementing new pedagogy.
Want to a make a greater impact on student knowledge and achievement
(Principal 12).
Yes, I still aspire to the position--reason, it is a position that allows you to
make change that can last (Principal 10).
Slightly more than half of the principals also felt that their race would be a
consideration that would be taken into account should they consider wanting to
become a superintendent. Fifty-eight percent indicated that race had been somewhat
of a barrier at some point in their careers, with 42 % indicating that it had not been a
barrier. Of those that indicated that racism would be a factor in reaching the
superintendency, they stated this would manifest itself in the following ways:
Depending on the vision of the board and the type of individual being sought,
or present climate/problems of district (Principal 9).
The make-up of the the school district—Boards may want the superintendent
to reflect the students served (Principal 10).
Race is a barrier when those who control the hiring are biased toward any
ethnicity. For Latinos I think often the barrier is not so much race as [it is]
culture. For Latinos to be successful here in the U.S. they need to be able to
navigate in a new culture, or leave their Latino culture behind (Principal 3).
Selections are not made without the knowledge of a candidates ethnicity
(Principal 7).
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The Oral Interviews
Members of the Board of Education
Boards are involved in all aspects of school policy. They hire and fire
superintendents, set the curricula, decide spending priorities, and adopt reform plans
(Leal, 2004). Leal also noted that the question of Latino representation in school
policymaking might be less urgent if Latino educational achievement were high, but
this is far from the case (2004). Latino board members were interviewed in order to
determine their views on race and ethnicity in relation to the superintendency. Leal
(2004), in citing Meier and Stewart, noted that Latino representation on school
boards was associated with better educational conditions.
There are many reasons why individuals serve as members of the Board of
Education. Chief among these is the desire to be able to help children develop
academically and socially. Serving as a member of the board is typically seen as an
opportunity to serve and to give back to the community that he or she may have
grown up in. The opportunity to serve in this capacity often awakens the desire to
seek other offices of public service, especially in large metropolitan cities.
Ambitious leaders and politicians see being a member of the Board of Education as a
stepping stone for greater opportunities on a larger stage. With the advent of this
change, which is a positive one, has come the added pressure put upon the shoulders
of both the board member, and by extention, on the superintendent by the voter-
going public. Because of this, Board of Education members are sometimes voted
into their respective offices based on a particular agenda or platform. Board
80
members are, therefore, acutely aware of the ramifications involved in the hiring of a
superintendent. Board members must not only take into account the candidates
credentials but also the political fall-out that may develop should the issue of race or
ethnicity become an issue to the constituents of a given school district.
The issue of the race and ethnicity of board members has been correlated to
the decisions made by that board. Leal (2004) noted that the percentage of school
board members who are Latino was positively associated with funding for bilingual
education.
It was, therefore, to that end that the opinions of school board members were
sought out. The information and data that the board members provided this research
with a view from both sides of the spectrum. On the one hand you have the view of
the superintendent with his or her view of what is involved in the process of
becoming a superintendent. On the other hand, you have the view of board members
and the reality of what they seek and look for when interviewing a candidate to the
superintendency. A comparative analysis of both the thoughts and beliefs of the
superintendents as well as the members of boarads of education provided this
research with a unique perspective, that will ultimately provide an aspiring
superintendent with a better understanding of the skills needed in order to be able to
assume the superintendency
The Superintendents
The superintendents that were interviewed came from large and medium
sized school districts. As previously noted, the superintendents responded to
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questions that were aligned to the four basic research questions. All of the
superintendents that were interviewed wished to remain annonymous. To protect
that anonymity the superintendents that were interviewed will be referred to as
“Superintendent” plus a contrived name, i.e., “Superintendent Marcelo.”
What continues are the responses that were provided by the superintendents
as well as the members of the Boards of Education.
What skills and talents will Latino administrators need to possess in order to
ascend to the superintendency in the current context of public education?
In no uncertain terms the superintendents felt that the skills and attributes that
a Latino superintendent would need to succeed were essentially those that any
superintendent would need regardless of their race or ethnicity. One of the
superintendents summarized it as simply needing to have, “All the skills that any
other superintendent, be it black, purple, brown, orange, they just need to do it a little
bit better than everybody else” (Superintendent Aaron). Superintendent Ryan
echoed this same sentiment when he stated, “When you are talking about the
superintendency, you would have to have all of the skills that you would need to be
successful. In terms of being a race issue; no. It’s just about having the skills and
tools necessary to be qualified to run a district.”
What they offered were those skills and talents that were essential for a
superintendent.
1. Commitment and dedication to all students
2. Political awareness
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3. Instructional Leadership
4. Interpersonal skills
5. Proving oneself
Commitment and Dedication to All Students
Throughout the interviews, the superintendents repeatedly indicated that there
needed to be a commitment to the progress and educational success of all students
and not just Latinos. They indicated that Latino superintendents could not just focus
on the needs of one group at the expense of the others. One of the superintendent’s
shared that a superintendent had to have a, “commitment and dediction to truly being
an instructional leader, and to being committed to closing the achievement gap, for
all students, not just Latino students” (Superintendent Megan).
The members of the board also indicated that would-be superintendents
needed to provide for the success of all students and not just Latino children,
I think that one of the really crucial skills, is to understand what systems need
to be in place in order to be effective and to produce outcomes for all children
including Latino students who continue to underperform in the state
(Boardmember Stephanie).
Another board member stated that,
I think they have to be bold and aggressive, they have to understand multiple
communities, multiple learners, multiple populations. From the foster care
kids, to the homeless kids, the teen moms, the English learners, the Standard
English learners, and the kids who learn fast, and the kids who learn slow; the
special education population. We need people who understand that in our
classrooms are different kinds of kids. That superintendents are responsible to
multiple kinds of communities (Boardmember Dolores).
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Those that were interviewed wanted it to be made clear that as aspiring
Latino administrators, they could not look at the position and the work only through
the lens of a Latino. The work was greater than that. This was succintly stated by
one superintendent,
Rather than looking at a person’s ethnicity, I think that it should be about the
skill sets that they bring to the position, and the commitment to represent all
students, that I may be able to communicate well because of my bilingualism
with a certain section of the community, but that I am as aware and sensitive
to the needs to my Arican-American section as well . . . I think that we have
to be role models for all of our students (Superintendent Megan).
This same superintendent also added that,
Just because we are Latino does not mean we will get to lead a Latino district.
We need to broaden our perspective, we are not just here to represent Latinos
students. I have a significiant percentage of other students, and I have to be
able to speak to that. I have a diverse community, and I have to be able to
speak to how we are going to help all our students. I don’t just represent
Latino or ELL students, that may be an area of expertise that I think I have,
but by far I need to be able outreach and show that I am committed to every
population that exists here (Superintendent Megan).
Politically Astute
Aspring superintendents needed to be poltically aware. The superintendents
noted that many mistakes can be avoided by being skillful in handling school district
politics. One superintendent confided that,
Being aware of the political dynamics that often influence how decisions are
made [is important]. And by that I mean, having what I call situational
awareness, Robert Marzano talks about the twenty-one effective character-
istics of effective leaders. I think that situational awareness is really used to
know what the political arena is and how you need to get your point across,
cognizant of not stepping on all of the land mines that may be around you
(Superintendent Megan).
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This same belief was shared by another superintendent when completing the
written survey in that he indicated that his mentor had provided him with information
and counsel so that he too, could avoid the “land mines” of the political arenas that
are found in school districts.
Instructional Leader
The board members also felt that a superintendent needed to be an
instructional leader, but they also felt, much like the superintendents, that
instructional leadership needed to be coupled with political astuteness. Stephanie,
Vice President, on her Board of Education stated the following,
I think school boards are looking for leaders who can make academic
movement within their schools. A lot of districts are dealing with program
improvement issues and need to be really knowledgeable as an instructional
leader, but also to be politically skilled to be able to represent the voice of a
school board and to be able to navigate in very complex political climates. I
think that you can be a great instructional leader, but if you can’t navigate the
politics of a place you’re not going to be successful.
This same belief was voiced by another superintendent who stated that,
I think that being a Latino brings value added, but it isn’t the only thing that
school districts are looking for. They are going to be looking for that skilled
political person, that knowledgeable instructional leader that can help unlock
the learning that needs to take place within a school system. And to be able
to be a spokesperson as the top educator in a system. And to do that in a
sometimes politically volatile environments. If a district is in Program
Improvement, they are looking for that person who is going to be able to
move that system. And they tend to be impatient sometimes in that, they
want someone who is going to do it overnight, and whose skilled enough to
work with the board to have them understand what it takes to get there, and
that the journey isn’t a short journey, it’s a long one. I would say really
crucial instructional skills, and political skills, and knowing how to build a
team, how to build relationships, how to foster those relationships over time”
(Superintendent Elizabeth).
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Interpersonal Skills
The need to have outstanding interpersonal skills was also brought to light
throughout the interviewing process. This sentiment,
I think you need to have strong leadership skills, which means that they have
to be able to manage well, they have to be able to share a vision, and get
people on their staff to buy into that vision. They’ll have to have an ability to
be collaborative, be approachable and engaging. There is the knowledge,
there is the content, that they have to have. But equally important, is an
ability to relate to people, to collaborate, to work well, across, bottom up, top
down, etc. (Boardmember Stephanie).
This same belief was also echoed by a superintendent when she stated that,
How to collaborate, everyone is looking for a collaborative leader. And so
you acquire those skills along the way, you acquire them as a vice principal,
you acquire them as principal, you acquire them in the other promotional
roles. So to have those skills, to work at acquiring them; the instructional
leadership, the relationship building, the political expertise. . .
(Superintendent Elizabeth).
The interviewees noted that these interpersonal skills allowed them, as well
aspiring administrators with the tools necessary to forward their agendas. This
superintendent noted that,
That there isn’t a leader that is going to lead the system in the old way of
top-down; that just doesn’t work anymore. So a skilled leader who knows
how to build coalitions, who knows how to work effectively with unions [is
needed]”. While this board member stated that, “It means somebody who
can inspire, who can lead, who can challenge, and . . . enroll people in their
vision. I think it is sombody who can build a team, I think it is somebody
who not only understands the dynamic between learning and teaching, but
somebody who can understand how the media and communications work.
Somebody who can understand dealing with parents and stakeholders. And
somebody who can be an advocate on behalf of children (Boardmember
Dolores).
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Proving Oneself
In both the survey and the interviews the idea of having to prove oneself
repeated itself time and again. Many of the superintendents felt that they were equal
to the task, but that that was probably not enough in the eyes of some. There was
this feeling amongst the superintendents that they had to be just a bit better than their
nonminority counterparts. This was said in the context that because they were
Latino, they had to be better than the next person, in order to be viewed as viable
candidates to the superintendency. One superintendent said,
I would tell you, although less so now, there are fewer and fewer people who
are looking for these jobs, but I think you have to be better than the non-
ethnic minority, in order to get one of these jobs. It is matter of proving
oneself (Superintendent Aaron).
There are many many skills, talents, and attrributes that an aspiring
administrator needs to possess in order to ascend to the superintendency. But it goes
beyond that. A board member summarized it nicely when she indicated that what
she was looking for in a superintendent, was more than those things that have been
enumerated previously. She stated that,
What I am looking for is more than skills and talents, I am looking for
authentic engagement. I was looking for someone who understood who was
in our classroom, I was looking for confidence, vision. I was definitely
wanting an instructional leader, that was somebody who could fill the gaps of
our instructional team. I was looking for someone who would be a
community leader, because we need someone who would encourage others to
get involved in our schools. I was looking for a partner (Boardmember
Dolores).
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Does mentoring and/or mentoring programs provide aspiring, as well as
sitting Latino superintendents with the skills and tools necessary to be successful in
the position.
The need to have a mentor(s) was viewed as a critical component to
ascending to the superintendency. Aaron, superintendent of a local unified school
district stated that,
I don’t care if you’re black, brown, purple, or orange, mentoring is the key
part of one moving through the system, but it’s as equally as important in
keeping your job, once you get through the systems. So I’ve always had
multiple people whom I considered to be mentors, that I talk to virtually
everyday in some way, while driving in in the morning, or driving home at
night. Mentoring is an incredibly important part of becoming a high level
administrator. The textbooks aren’t written to respond to all of the problems
we get thrown at us on a daily basis.
Mentors also provide the needed guidance that is needed early in one’s career
as well the insights and advise are that critical to making key decisions. This was
duly noted by this superintendent:
I think that it is probably one of the most powerful tools we have to increase
the representation of Latinos in the superintendency. Latinos really need the
feedback of a mentor, at least one strong mentor, and usually along the road
you acquire several mentors at different levels of your experience. But
having someone who can be a sounding board for your decisions when you
feel that they are critical polical decisions you have to make, who can just be
a sounding board for you and have the wisdom of their experience as a way
to inform you and guide you is, I think, very powerful. And someone who is
looking out for you, because one of the things that I think Latinos sometimes
make a mistake at that they’re so anxious to get an experience, but sometimes
it may not be experience that is matched to where they are going to be
successful. The thing I really worry about is Latinos jumping into the
superintendency that isn’t the right one. And that is where mentors also can
guide you; yes you’re ready for this; no this isn’t the right match for you at
this time. It’s so much more difficult to recuperate from huge failure. I think
that’s where mentoring is a powerful tool, and it gives somebody a protected
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environment where they can talk about the things that they are worried about.
Especially when we are stepping into the early levels of administration, you
worry about your own effectiveness; you need that reassurance . . . . People
don’t come around and say you’re the most wonderful leader we’ve ever had.
You may be very effective in that role, but you’re not getting that feedback.
That is the case the higher and higher you go, no one is going to give you that
feedback that you need. But a mentor in a protected environment can help
with that and I just think that it is underutilized in terms of filling the gap for
Latinos (Superintendent Elizabeth).
Superintendent Ryan also noted that,
No matter what position you are seeking, you should always have a group of
individuals; mentors—not just one—to bounce off ideas, to vent…One of my
close friends who I went to law school with, is a judge. So I talk to him quite
frequently [as well as] a retired superintendent of 50 years that I talk to
frequently as well. And another friend of mine is a city prosecutor I talk to. I
want to know from their perspective how they perceive education. So when I
have an issue it gives a different lens to it.
There is also a reciprocal responsibility that comes with mentoring.
Superintendents also need to bring along those who aspire to the superintendency.
This superintendent stated it in this way,
I think that the mentoring is critical, but I think that what is even more critical
than the formal sense of mentoring is what you do on a daily basis. The
informal mentoring, and informal conversations, and modeling what we do
for your entire staff is probably much more meaningful and impactful as
opposed to official mentoring. What is probably more constructive about
informal mentoring is having the chance to sit down and having informal
conversations; just to sit down and talk. Mentoring is what occurs on a daily
basis. Everything that you do and say, becomes a model for those that you
are leading (Superintendent Megan).
Mentoring provides the mentee with valuable information that can change the
course of one’s career path. An example of this was shared by a superintendent,
I had one recently, she is an assistant superintendent and I know that she
aspires to the superintendents position, and she was about to make a very bad
decision career wise, about a change on a school board, and resultant changes
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with the administrators in the system. I advised her because she was going to
take a demotion just to get out of a tough situation. She needed a mentor to
say to her that that is not the right thing to do. And I just got an email from
her earlier this week where she said she was so grateful for the conversation
because she did stick it out and now things look better (Superintendent
Elizabeth).
The superintendents were asked about networking to determine if it had
played an equally as important of a role as mentoring. The superintendents reflected
a belief that mentoring and networking were just as important, and that the two were
almost the same tools or strategies when done correctly. They stated that:
I really have some misgivings about networking, I’ve never been one to go
anywhere because I thought I would meet the right people. It’s just not in my
blood to do that. I think that networking is about developing relationships
with people that you respect, and you trust, and you aspire to be like. False
relationships will get you nowhere, there not based on that relational power
that really is needed to really learn from individuals that you respect and trust.
When you develop relationships based just because of a positional power
they are not going to take you along anywhere. They are not going to be that
critical friend that you need to help you advance your opportunities both
professionally and personally (Superintendent Megan).
Huge piece; equally as important, equally as important as mentoring. If you
really look at it, mentoring, and networking aren’t too much different. So
who you’ve been trained with, is an incredibly important part of becoming a
superintendent, because if you’ve worked for certain superintendents, who
are seen as being successful, if they have trained you, you get an extra
bounce in the interview process; an extra consideration. I think that also
works in the reverse. I would be hesitant to work for somebody who came
out of Compton, or worked for somebody who got fired. Not as strongly in
the reverse, because I worked for a less than successful superintendent, in
one district, but it was in a good district. She was fired and never regained a
superintendency again. So I had the good fortune to have worked for some
great superintendents who overcame that (Superintendent Aaron).
I don’t think I’d be a superintendent today if I hadn’t had that networking and
a mentor who through the networking really convinced me that I should
apply for a superintendents position. Because I really didn’t see that at the
time and it was that encouragement and network that produced a mentor that
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said you need to do this, and who helped shape my thinking around it, and I
became a superintendent (Superintendent Elizabeth).
Mentoring and networking is about the development of relationships. It is
not about the knowing the right people in the hopes that they will be able to further
your personal goals. It also about extending one’s own hand and helping those that
will follow. This was summarized eloquently by Superintendent Elizabeth, when she
said,
You have a lot of those firsts, when you’re a Latino, Latina, you’re blazing
the trail, and there aren’t that many. And you hope that your legacy will be
that you will have helped open the doors for a whole lot of others . . . And
whether it’s a formal program or more informal, you have enough influence
that you can open the doors for others, and you can help them when they get
there to be successful, because you can be their sounding boards in their early
careers.
Superintendent Ryan added to this when he said, “ . . . what you want to do is
continue building relationships. It’s really what it’s all about in terms of reaching
that level. Because it is going to be those same relationships that will help you be
successful.”
Has Race or Ethnicity Ever Been an Issue for You
in Your Pursuit of the Superintendency?
The superintendents spoke about how racial issues pertained to them as well
as how they handled race and ethnicity both personally and professionally. The
superintendents reflected on race and ethnicity in two ways. First, they spoke about
how it had affected them, and secondly, how they took into consideration race and
ethnicity when putting together administrative teams and/or hiring administrators.
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Race and ethnicity can be such a divisive and destructive topic, and at the
same time it can also be wholesome and constructive. This dichotomy can lead those
who are in a position to hire personnel to either turn a blind eye to it, or to embrace it
and make it part of the selection process. One administrator stated this dilemma in
this way,
I don’t look at race or ethnicity when considering hiring an educational leader.
I always look for the best person. I look at what skill set that person brings. I
also feel that it is incumbent upon me to keep on trying to create that
diversity that is also needed. That is even more critical at the school site,
because nothing makes a greater impact than the administrative team at that
school . . . I really try to create a team that can really bring together an array
of diversity of the student population. If I have three administrators, is one of
them bilingual? I try to bring together a team that compliments each other
through their skills and their sensitivity towards meeting the needs of the
students at that school (Superintendent Megan).
As stated previously in the literature review, prejudice and/or racism can still
be found in the workplace. This superintendent’s experiences with those issues,
though minor in nature, were nevertheless a reality of her workplace. She states that,
For me personally, it was only ever an issue on occasion with people in a
commnity who might have had there own prejudices on the racial end. But
because I had the name [Anglo surname] through marriage, they weren’t
always aware, they were probably more discreet. Every once-in-a-while it
would come up, you think that way because you’re Latino, thay’s why you
think that way. But not where I would say that it is an impediment or a
barrier. Particularly after getting the Ph.D, that credential, wiped out that
barrier for me. Few people have that degree, I think that one percent of all
the doctorates are Latino Ph.D’s, so it’s just a very small group
(Superintendent Elizabeth).
The board members that were interviewed felt that race was a factor that
should be taken into account when interviewing candidates for the superintendency.
They viewed it as being an important factor but not the only thing that should be
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considered. Again, the notion that being Latino was something that was going to be
considered, but that being a true leader was equally as important, if not moreso.
They stated their belief this way:
It can, I don’t think it should be your primary consideration, but I think it can
and should get factored in. Particularly in disenfrancished communities
where perhaps previous superintendents have not been able to connect or
engage with students or their parents because they don’t understand the
culture, they don’t speak the language. It facilitates running a district,
leading a district if you have that. But I don’t think it is the most important
consideration, I think your experience, your leadership qualities, your
capacity to lead are the most important things (Boardmember Stephanie).
I think that race always plays a role. I think either people are not willing to
acknowledge it; this idea that when ever you have a color blind attitude;, it’s
playing a role. I think it’s very difficult not to be racial or ethnic. Therefore
if it is acknowledged or not acknowledged there is an impact . . . I think
people’s own level of comfort with their racial ethnic identity is always part
of the process (Superintendent Elizabeth).
When the members of the Board of Education where asked if race was a
consideration in selecting a superintendent they stated that race would be a
consideration. One member stated it as follows, “I think that race always matters,
that it’s always factored in on the positive or the negative. It’s hard not too”
(Boardmember Stephanie). While another stated,
Given that I am a rare voice on a school board, and given that we have yet to
see leadership numbers reflect the population numbers of our community . . . I
think by and large when people choose a superintendent, I don’t know if being
Latino is a barrier. I will acknowledge institutional biases, I will acknowledge
that we are a society in transition towards accepting multiculturalism. I’m
going to say it’s not a barrier because I think it’s part of what we offer as
Latino leadership. When I think of a Darlene Robles, or a Carlos Garcia, or a
Carmen Schroeder, or Marty Galindo, I think their talent included their
ethnicity (Boardmember Dolores).
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What are the Rreasons Why So Few Latinos Are Being
Promoted to the Position of Superintendent of Schools
Many different reasons were given for the lack of Latinos in the
superintendency. Much of what will be shared here comes from the personal
experience of those that were interviewed as well as their thoughts on the subject.
With that said, they spoke of needing to have mentors, of there not being enough
people in the teaching as well as the administrative ranks, as well as larger societal
issues. They also spoke of more Latinos needing to develop the desire to become
superintendents as well as some of the inherent difficulties some women may face:
I think that it is going to be slow to change. I think if we look at representa-
tion at the state legislature or at anyone leading an organization, like CFO’s
and CEO’s, we are not going to see an equitable distribution of ethnic
minorities in those positions simply because change takes time
(Superintendent Megan).
We have more today than we’ve ever had in the ranks and that’s really been
over the last 15 -20 years that we’ve grown in Latino teachers and Latino
administrators . . . Perhaps Latinos in those roles haven’t imagined for
themselves, that they can also achieve at those levels. Primarily because we
don’t have a lot of role models. So it’s like any profession, whether it’s in
engineering or the medical field, the more you see yourself and people who
look like you the more you can aspire to that (Boardmember Stephanie).
I think that we need to be purposeful in grooming administrators. To that
end, I started a program with CSUSB where classes are being held at district
locations, so that a cohort of aspiring administrators is working jointly with
the Riverside County Office of Education (Superintendent Megan).
First of all, we don’t have a history of having Latinos go onto college and be
in the profession as our Anglo counterparts. There are few of them coming
up the ranks. Secondly, I don’t think as a system we’ve invested in the
development and training, and leadership preparation sufficiently to create a
pathway for them to accellerate in the career and move up into these
important positions (Boardmember Stephanie).
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One of the most notable and recurring themes during the interviews was the
belief that there were not enough Latinos serving as educators and administrators
that would help increase their numbers at the superintendency level. Superintendent
Ryan believed, “that statistically you are not going to see high numbers of Latinos
getting post-graduate education. And if we do, not very many of us go into
education.”
One board member felt that reaching the superintendency began by preparing
Latinos in primary school. She stated,
I think that we can look at our graduation rates and know that the Latino
community has as their challenge between a 50%-60% dropout rate . . . So if
our kids are not getting through K-12 structure, and kids are challenged with
issues of poverty and access. This is one of the major reasons that there is
not an automatic pipeline to the highest level of leadership in the school
district (Boardmember Dolores).
Another superintendent concurred when he stated that, “I think that the
perecentage of site administrators is still significantly less that our student population.
There is not enough people that make it that far through the pipeline”
(Superintendent Aaron). This superintendent also added that,
I don’t know how many people are in a position to take a superintendency
that are a minority. I can tell you here in my district I’m creating a pipeline,
but at the Assistant Superintendent level I don’t have a Latino in my cabinet.
So I’m doing what I can to change that. Diversity is important but I’m not
going to put someone there just because they are Latino” (Superintendent
Ryan).
Women also face the additional challenges of bearing children and raising a
family. This was noted by Superintendent Elizabeth, who stated that,
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I do think that also in the pipeline we have largely women and I find from my
conversations with them at conferences, that aspiring to the superintendent’s
position, that they will sometimes limit their aspiration, because of trying
how to create balance in their lives. So that there is a natural balance, there is
a real high value to meet their obligations to their family, to their children.
Although definitely in the minority, one superintendent did believe that
Latino/Latinas were on the of verge moving forward and taking higher levels of
leadership,
I do think that there is a whole pipeline, a whole group that is just about ready,
and I expect the numbers to increase, because I do think that there is more
mentoring going on. So I expect there to be an increase in the percentage, but
I don’t take that for granted, because I think that without the mentoring, it
won’t happen. I’ve got a bunch of folks that I have in the pipeline in
different places, people that I’ve worked with and mentored (Superintendent
Elizabeth).
Pigeonholed: Real or Perceived
Virtually all of those that were interviewed indicated that it was imperative
that Latino administrators not get themselves into a situation where professionally
they would thought of as “Latino administrators.” They stated that being thought of
in that way would limit their opportunities professionally and possibly not give them
the opportunity to become superintendents. Having the appropriate experiences in a
variety of leadership positions was seen a giving aspiring administrators the needed
preparation for becoming a superintendent. Again, the superintendents felt that
being Latino was a positive, and that such individuals brought more to the table by
virtue of their ethnicity. They also noted that being Latino should not be one’s
defining characteristic. They voiced their concerns in a variety of ways with this
superintendent noting that,
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I think that one thing that Latino administrators do is make a mistake in
getting themselves type-cast in that they can only work in Latino school
districts. Big mistake, because then you limit the number of places that you
can work (Superintendent Aaron).
Superintendent Aaron, also added that he had purposely set out to be seen as
an outstanding educational leader, first and formost, as well as being Latino. His
experiences as a superintendent speak to this and said the following regarding those
experiences,
I have had the good fortune that most of the districts that I’ve worked in, and
the positions that I’ve held, are not ones that are heavily Latino oriented. For
example, the percentage of Latinos in my school district is 20%-25%, which
is significantly lower, on the other hand, the most significant population of
40% is Armenian, yet they had no problem hiring a Latino superintendent.
The superintendents also felt that it was necessary to get a variety of
experiences, and to not limit oneself professionally to those things that might be
associated with Latinos students, such as bilingual education and English language
learners. Superintendent Elizabeth noted the following,
So to ascend to the superintendency I think you’ve got to have the
experiences necessary along the way, not to bypass the critical experiences
and to show that you can be successful as an assistant principal, principal,
director, as an assistant superintendent. And to have a broad enough
experience that it would in a sense ensure that you’re gonna be successful.
What happens with some Latinos, you get too pigeonholed in a particular
area. Getting experiences that are broad, not just English learner experiences,
but broad experiences that relate to how schools perform. The entire program
for all children. It’s something I say to Latino administrators, be careful not
to get yourself so narrowly defined, in that you’re viewed only about one
group.
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Superintendent Elizabeth also explained that although one may be
professionally defined as being too focused or not having the right experiences
(even in ones current position), she felt that this could be corrected when she stated,
. . . I was so involved in bilingual education, deeply involved, I did a lot of
national work, I debated U.S. English on national televison, I was with the
Eastman Project, we were on television a lot and we were doing a lot of
advocacy work, that I got very narrowly defined . . . Probably the broader
experiences I had in the last 4 or 5 years in LA where it was much more
broad in terms of the whole district helped. I don’t think I would have
gotten the job if my last job was the director of the Eastman Project, the fact
that I had moved up from there to a broader role was very helpful. So don’t
get yourself pigeonholed. Even if you’re involved in a job that is focused,
make sure you’re involved in broader roles, either through organizations,
through the work that you do through, lets say a group like ACSA, or some
of the other professional groups, like PDK.
Aspiring Latino/Latinas administrators must also be cognizant of the fact that
there are many opportunities to serve as superintendents. The superintendents felt
that too many Latino/Latinas administrators were closing off opportunities that were
actually there for them. The superintendents shared the following:
. . . . You’ve got to show people that you’re a quality person. Don’t let
people define you, because you’ve defined yourself so narrowly, that it
begins with yourself. Project what you’re doing and why you’re doing it.
Don’t let youself be pigeonholed, and I experienced that, I didn’t see that that
was becoming an impediment at a point in my career and it was frustrating to
me (Superintendent Elizabeth).
The thing that always frustrates me is Latinos who think that their
opportunities are limited because they are Latino. I think that that is an
incredible mistake. There are sometimes opportunities or options you can
gain or leverage as a result of being Latino. Even though I probably had in
my career, of any of the jobs I received, one or two of them I got the benefit
of being Latino. I don’t think I ever got the disadvantage of being Latino. I
don’t think it ever worked against me (Superintendent Aaron).
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I think that sometimes Latinos end up only going to positions where there are
a lot of Latinos in a community. Sometimes, that for personal preference,
they want to be in that kind of environment. I encourage people to look more
broadly, don’t just define yourself as I’m a Latino, and therefore I should be
in a Latino community. I think you should define yourself as I’m an
excellent leader, and I bring the value-added aspect of having culture, and
maybe even language that makes me someone who has broad sensitivity to
all groups. That that value-added piece isn’t just value-added for Latinos. It
may be value-added for an immigrant Korean population or Chinese
population because you understand the importance of valuing culture, and
valuing language, because of your own background and therefore you would
be a great person to have in a very diverse community, that has some Latinos
and a lot of other kinds of folks, and that you bring a heightened sensitivity
that may be valuable to a community (Superintendent Elizabeth).
Significance of the Findings
The information and data that was gathered for this research project provided
a look into the superintendency that will provide the aspiring school administrator
with the tools needed to reach high levels of school administration. The research
brought to the forefront how these administrators become superintendents of schools,
as well as how they view themselves in the superintendency. The data presented
provides aspring administrators with the information they will need in order to make
informed decisions regarding the direction of their careers. Much like teachers who
take the data that is provided to them from classroom exams, tests, observations, and
professional development, to inform their instruction, so should administrators do the
same with the key finding contained in this document. It is hoped that through the
information provided here, Latino/Latinas can make informed decisions that will
benefit not only themselves, but to the students to whom they will ultimately serve.
These are the key findings:
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1. Aspriring Latino administrators need to possess the skills and talents
that any administrator would need to have in order to become a superintendent.
The superintendents informed this research in that the skills and talents that a
Latino administrator would need in order to become a superintendent were exactly
the same as for anyone else. Nevertheless, there was one caveat; Latino/Latinas
needed to be just a little bit better than everyone else. This was a reference to the
belief that there were people who might feel that a Latino/Latinas did not possess the
requisite abilities to assume the superintendency. Despite this, the results of the
surveys and the interviews indicated that there were certain key skills and talents that
a Latino/Latinas had to possess. They indicated that the professional preparation that
they had received, both in school and on the job played a significant role in their
attaining the superintendency. Having the appropriate professional experiences
provided the superintendents with the broad and general background needed for
assuming the superintendency.
2. Mentoring can provide aspiring administrators with guidance in career
path development as well as having someone to provide critical feedback on a course
of action.
Mentoring was viewed as one of the most important tools available to
increase the numbers of Latinos in the superintendency. Mentoring provides
aspiring administrators with the opportunity to develop relationships with individuals
than can provide guidance and assistance in career development. Mentors provide
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invaluable counsel when confronting difficult situations as well as helping those
administrators avoid common mistakes. Mentoring provided aspiring administrators
with information regarding possible promotional opportunities they might not
otherwise receive. Mentors also provided and served to solidify professional
foundations in terms of role modeling, shared learning, support, and problem solving.
Most of this mentoring came from individuals outside of the mentees home district
through unstructured and informal methods.
3. Race and ethnicity is always a consideration in the hiring of a superin-
tendent, but consideration is to be viewed as a positive attribute that provides a
value-added bonus to the prospective candidate.
Race and ethnicity are social issues that are still to be found in the workplace
of our schools and is the reality that aspiring administrators and superintendents must
deal with. The superintendency is a field that is dominated by White males and there
are many reasons this continues to be so. Although these issues have been
considered a barrier throughout the careers of the administrators and superintendents,
they nonetheless have been able to overcome this barrier and it has ultimately proven
to be a positive factor in their careers.
4. There are relatively few Latinos serving as superintendents of schools.
This small number can be attributed to the small number of Latinos serving as
administrators in the education field.
As previously noted, Latino/Latinas make up less than 10% of the
superintendents in the State of California. The lack of Latino superintendents has
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been attributed in part, to a lack of mentoring, not having the appropriate experiences,
the “pigeonhole effect”, as well as there being very few Latinos serving as
educational leaders. Despite this, there is a positive outlook on the current situation.
A more global view was also taken to explain the lack of Latino superintendents.
The percentage of Latino students graduating from high school as well as college,
was also seen as a factor as to why there are so few Latino teachers and
administrators. Despite this, positive steps are being taken to ensure that more and
more Latinos are being prepared to occupy these leadership positions. Formal
programs, developed jointly with school districts are providing the avenues for this
to take place.
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CHAPTER 5
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
Introduction
The designed goal of this research project was to determine how
Latinos/Latinas can ascend to the superintendency of school districts, as well as to
other high-level management positions. Some of the literature noted prviously
suggested that Latino/Latinas did not go about becoming superintendents in what
could be called a “traditional” nonminority fashion. The literature indicates that
superintendents are culled from the ranks of secondary school administrators, while
traditionally, many Latinos administrators are to be found at elementary schools.
One of the purposes of this research was to determine if in fact Latinos used a
different trajectory to the superintendency than their nonminority colleagues and
peers. This paper also sought to identify and understand the possible barriers
Latino/Latinas faced and how, if possible, could these barriers be ameliorated. It
was also a hope of this paper to determine what skills and attributes would a
Latino/Latinas need to possess in order to compete successfully for the upper level
leadership positions to be found throughout the school districts of California.
The data suggests that Latino/Latinas superintendents face unique challenges
as they go about their work of educating the children of this state. What is hoped is
that this paper will provide a framework for aspiring administrators on how to
overcome those challenges and move forward and become superintendents of
schools or occupy other upper-level school management positions.
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Currently 47% of the students in the State of California are Latino. Census
data indicates that this number is going to continue to grow despite the political
climate related to immigration within the state. Teachers, school site administrators,
and particularly superintendents are viewed as role models for this ever increasing
population of Latino students, yet they must also be able to reach and serve all of the
students within their school district. In order to be able to do this, aspiring
administrators must be able to equip themselves with those things that will bring
about success not only for themselves but also the students and the community for
whom they will ultimately serve.
Implications
The superintendents surveyed and interviewed for this research served
throughout the State of California. They worked in districts that were urban,
suburban, as well as rural. And they also worked in districts that were large as well
as small. Yet despite their differences both geographically, demographically and
politically, their views about the superintendency were strikingly similar.
Skills and Talents
Those that were surveyed and interviewed were for the most part in
agreement and they indicated that the skills and talents that a Latino superintendent
needed to possess were essentially those that any and all superintendents should have
in order to successfully promote to that position. They spoke of commitment,
dedication, instructional leadership, political awareness, interpersonal skills, and
communication skills.
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Aspiring administrators must also acquire the skills that will provide them
with the best opportunity for promotion to the superintendency. These skills are
essentially the same for every individual; regardless of their gender, race or ethnicity.
These skills and talents are acquired while on the job as one moves throughout the
career ladder and obtains the experiences that develop and hone those skills and
abilities. Proper preparation, both at the university level, as well as on the job will
provide aspiring educational leaders with the tools to become qualified to apply for
the position of superintendent as well as optimizing the individuals ability to be
successful upon assumption to the superintendency.
Mentoring and Networking
There is a great need for the implementation of formal and informal
mentoring programs for aspiring superintendents, as well providing for the continued
support of new and veteran superintendents. The tutelage provided by a veteran
superintendent grants the aspiring administrator the opportunity to learn those things
that can only be taught from one person to another; much like what happens in our
classrooms throughout California. Mentoring should be viewed as the acquiring of
another education; an on-the-job education. Both formal and informal mentoring is
critical to the needs of aspiring administrators as well as sitting superintendents. As
noted previously by one superintendent, not all of the information one needs as a
high-level administrator can be found in a text book. Some can only be provided or
received through the mentoring process.
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The California Association of Latino Superintendents and Administrators
(CALSA) has a mentoring program that is designed to support those seeking the
superintendency. Their mission statement reads as follows: The California
Association of Latino Superintendents and Administrators is a community of
educational leaders whose mission is working to increase the number of successful
Latino/Latina administrators, committed to closing the Latino/Latina student
achievement gap. Formal programs such as these provide the necessary
infrastructure for individuals to acquire the needed skills and guidance in order to
reach the superintendency. Informal mentoring can only be developed through the
initiative of either the mentor, the mentee, or from both. The establishment of these
relationships pays huge dividends when critical decisions need to be made and there
is an individual, or group of individuals who can provde the needed guidance. It,
therefore, behoves any aspiring administrator to begin developing those relationships
now, so that they can be nurtured and strengthened over the course of many years.
Networking needs to be viewed with as much importance as mentoring.
Networking is one of the most powerful tools to increase the representation of
Latinos in the superintendency. It is through networking with trusted colleagues that
finding the right fit; the right school district, is made possible through the informed
advise and feedback from the individuals network circle. Networking must be
viewed as the development of relationships with individuals that you respect and
admire. Networking is not to be viewed as making the casual acquiataince of
individuals because of the position they hold within an organization. Relationships
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that are developed on relational power will bear no fruit for the would-be
superintendent.
Race and Ethnicity
The data gathered from the surveys as well as the information gathered from
the interviews demonstrated that the superintendents emphatically felt that they were
qualified to assume the leadership of any school district. They wanted it to be
known that they did not want to be hired simply on the basis of their race or ethnicity.
They first and foremost wanted to be leading a school district based on their skills
and abilities. They did not want race or ethnicity to be at the top of the qualities that
a hiring committee might be looking for. The superintendents felt that the issue of
race or ethnicity was more of a matter of having the wrong mind-set rather than a
reality of the real working world. The race or ethnicity of a Latino is to be viewed
not as a barrier, but as a value-added trait that brings that individual an advantage
rather than a disadvantage.
Nevertheless, it should be noted that the reality of the workplace is such that
there are individuals who have their own prejudices, and possibly condone
discriminatory practices. Although the literature speaks to this issue, and it indicates
that prejudice and racism may account the the lack of Latino/Latinas in the superin-
tendency, the data that informed this research indicates that the prevalence of these
situations are beginning to be a rarity, and that even when they are present, they are
not not as severe as they once where, nor can they be considered an impediment or a
barrier to the aspiring candidate of the superintendency.
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Why So Few
The data speaks clearly to the fact that there are few Latinos/Latinas serving
as superintendents of schools in the State of California. The factors that contribute to
this are many and include a lack of desire to be superintendents by current
administrators, very few Latinos/Latinas having the requisite education in order to be
considered for the position, not having the appropriate information and knowledge in
order to be competitive, and not having the appropriate and broad professional
experiences.
Correcting the societal ills of this state are beyond the scope of this paper.
But suffice it to say that there are areas of concern that can be amerliorated through a
concerted effort between school districts, private industry, as well as terciary
institutions of education. The high school graduation rate of Latinos continue to lag
behind other subpopulations and even fewer are graduating from college.
Latinos/Latinas need to be supported in high school and encouraged to continue their
educations at the college level. Colleges and universities need to do more in the
developing the leadership potential of historically underrepresented minorities.
Latinos themselves must also be conscious of the need to reach out and mentor those
that are beginning their educational careers. Incumbent Latino/Latinas
superintendents can do much in preparing the way for new administrators to reach
the highest levels of educational leadership. Sitting Latino/Latina superintendents
serve as role models and can do much good in providing the needed professional
opportunities through the mentoring and networking process. More and more
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Latino/Latinas must also begin to believe in themselves and know that they too can
serve in the highest levels of leadership of a school district.
Growing the number of Latino/Latina superintendents may also be a function
of the number of Latinos/Latinas on school boards. Leal (2004) noted that there was
a ripple effect, whereby more Latino school board members led to more Latino
school administrators, which in turn led to more Latino teachers. Increasing the
number of Latino/ Latinas–the pipeline— superintendents may also have to do with
the political will of the people of a community as well as of the school board district.
Conclusion
As noted previously, the Latino population is an ever increasing body of
students in the State of California. It had been my initial assumption or belief that
these students should be commensurately represented at all levels of education.
According to the California Department of Education, Latinos comprise 16.1% of the
teachers in the state, with Latino/Latinas administrators of all levels being
represented at 17.7%, with 47% of the students in the state being Latino. The
difference between the students and the teachers, as well between the students and
the administrators is over 30%.
This paper has looked at four particular things: (a) skills and attributes,
(b) mentoring and networking, (c) race and ethnicity, and (d) why so few Latinos in
the superintendency. What this paper has brought to the foreground is that:
1. Latinos must posses all the skills and attributes that any other
candidate would have be it a minority or not.
109
2. Mentoring and networking is crucial to becoming a
superintendent and subsequently becoming a successful one.
3. Race and ethnicity can be barriers, but typically those
attributes are looked upon as value-added for the aspiring
administrator.
4. There are very few Latinos/Latinas serving as
superintendents, and there are also relatively few Latinos
serving as teachers and administrators
With the exception of the area of race and ethnicity, all of the other barriers,
if they can be considered that, can be ameliorated. But ironically it is that same
characteristic –race and ethinicity– that sets one apart. Addressing this,
boardmember Stephanie stated that,
. . . . I do think that we have to invest more deliberately and strategically in
creating opportunities for Latinos to be in these positions. Because I do
think that it rounds out your ability to be a great superintendent, if you
understand the culture, the language, the traditions, of these students. I
think it adds to the level of experience and skill that you bring. It just
rounds you out much more I believe. To have walked in their shoes, I think
what helps me be a more responsive school board member to people I
represent is that I’ve walked in their shoes. I know their struggles, I know
the barriers having been an immigrant English learner student living in
communities of poverty. I get what those barriers do to the educational
goals that we have for our kids. If you don’t understand that, you can
potentially dismiss that those are not important factors that we have to work
to eliminate.
Few jobs bring with them the opportunity to do so much good. The
superintendency allows you to create opportunities for a student, an educator, and
even a community. Superintendent Elizabeth said it best when she said,
110
Because once you become the superintendent you create opportunities for
other Latinos, and you create opportunities for a community. But you have
to get their first and succeed at it. But it is the mentoring programs that I do
think help people get into that pipeline . . . . The superintendents position
gives you a voice, people listen to you. It’s more important to have that voice,
because it’s going to help Latino kids statewide . . .
Being a superintendent of schools is an extremely difficult occupation. It is fraught
with what seems like insurmountable tasks. Yet the opportunity to work hard and
reach out and help those in need is such a rich recompense.
The Association of California School Administrators (ACSA) in addressing
the issues of race and ethnicity, believes there is a place for the acknowledgement of
cutural differences. In quoting from Saving the the African American Child: A
Report of the National Allicance of Black School Educator, they indicated that,
It is neither undemocratic nor a violation of equal protection of the law to
have a system of education that allows for recognition of and respect for
existing cultural differences in our society. The unique diversity of cultural
heritage and backgrounds of this nation should be recognized as a valuable
asset for the nation, one to be cherished and shared.
ACSA (2008) also wrote in their position paper that its “leadership and
membership must reflect the diversity of California’s student population”, and that
“a person’s uniqueness must not preclude equitable access to educational or
employment opportunities.” Organizations such as ACSA can do much good in
promoting the needs of all students as well as helping provide opportunities for all of
its membership.
Finally, there is something to be said about the simple correlation between a
Latino superintendent and the needs of Latino and minority students. “Multiple
111
studies suggest that greater minority representation in the educational policy process
translates into more positive outcomes for minority students” (Leal, 2004). So
although race and ethnicity is not a prerequisite to be able to meet the needs of a
population of students, having Latino/Latinas superintendents serve Latino students
can have a positive outcome for all involved.
There is an old addage that speaks about being the jack of all trades, yet the
master of none. This is usually said about individuals that try to do too much, or be
too many things, to too many people. There is probably some truth to this saying.
Yet despite that, the superintendent of today, will have to be able to marshall all of
his or her skills and talents in order to be successful. So much is at stake, so many
lives affected.
112
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APPENDIX A
SURVEY COVER LETTER
How Latinos Ascend to the Superintendency
Dear Sir or Madam,
This letter is to introduce myself and to request that you participate in a survey
related to Latino superintendents. I am currently working on my dissertation at the
University of Southern California in Urban Educational Leadership.
My study focuses on factors that have a positive impact in helping Latino
administrators ascend to the superintendency. The significance of this study is one
of helping current Latino administrators find a faster track in their personal quest to
the superintendency. Your responses and additional input will be carefully reviewed,
analyzed, and reported.
Please read the attached information sheet and complete the survey instrument if you
are willing. In addition, please complete the Invitation to Participate in Oral
Interview form which indicates if you are willing and available to particpate in an in-
depth interview. The interview will be conducted in person and please be assured
that all information will be kept confidential. Your participation in this study is
voluntary. An abstract of the findings can be forwarded to you at the completion of
the study.
I know how valuable your time is and I truly appreciate the effort you are making in
completing the survey. I, as well as my dissertation chair, Dr. Rudy Castruita, thank
you very much for your assistance.
Please return the survey, Statement of Consent, and the Invitation for Participation in
Oral Interview (if you so desire) forms in the enclosed stamped envelope that has
been provided for you convenience. Muchisimas gracias!
Sincerely,
Rafael H. Escobar
Principal Investigator
117
APPENDIX B
INFORMATION SHEET
University of Southern California
School of Education
INFORMATION SHEET FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
How Latinos Ascend to the Superintendency
You are asked to participate in a research study conducted by Rafael H. Escobar, a
doctoral student, and Dr. Rudy Castruita, Dissertation Advisor, from the School of
Education at the University of Southern California. The results of the surveys and
interviews will contribute to my dissertation. You were selected as a possible
participant in this study because you are a Latino(a) who is currently serving as a
superintendent of schools. A total of approximately 40 subjects will be selected to
participate from all of the Latino(a) currently serving as superintendents in the State
of California. Your participation is voluntary. Please take as much time as you need
to read the information sheet. You may also decide to discuss it with your family or
friends. You will be given a copy of this form.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
We are asking you to take part in a research study because we are trying to learn
more about how Latino(a)s ascend to the position of superintendent of schools. This
study aims to investigate what skills, abilities, talents, and preparation, are needed
for Latinos to ascend to the position of superintendent of schools. This study also
aims to investigate what barriers exist in this quest and how, if possible, can these
barriers be ameliorated. This study aims to investigate what are the reasons why so
few Latinos are being promoted to the position of superintendent of schools.
Completion and return of the questionnaire or response to the interview
questions will constitute consent to participate in this research project.
PROCEDURES
You will be asked to complete a survey which requests some basic information such
as background, professional experience, and education. The survey will also ask
questions regarding any roadblocks you may have had in reaching your goal as a
superintendent of schools. The survey should be able to be completed within 20-30
minutes. If you decide to participate in the oral interview, it should take no more
than one hour to complete.
118
POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
There are no anticipated risks to your participation; although you may experience
some discomfort from answering some of the questions or you may feel
inconvenienced by having to take time out of your day to complete the
questionnaire/survey instrument. Please know that if any questions make you feel
uncomfortable you may leave them unanswered.
POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO SUBJECTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY
You may not directly benefit from your participation in this research study.
Although I anticipate that your participation will be able to help those who are
seeking to become superintendents of schools. It is hoped that those who may read
this dissertation will benefit from the information provided. It is the aim of this
study to determine what skills, attributes, and professional preparation are needed in
order to be prepare oneself to become a superintendent of schools. Another aim of
this study is to investigate what, if any, are the possible roadblocks in becoming a
superintendent of schools.
PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
You will not receive any payment or compensation for your participation in this
research study.
POTENTIAL CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
The investigators of this research do not have any financial interest associated with
this study.
CONFIDENTIALITY
Any information that is obtained in connection with this study and that can be
identified with you will remain confidential and will be disclosed only with your
permission or as required by law. The information collected about you will be coded
using a fake name (pseudonym) or initials and numbers, for example abc-123, etc.
The information which has your identifiable information will be kept separately from
the rest of your data.
Only members of the research team will have access to the data associated with this
study. The data will be stored in the investigator’s office in a locked file
cabinet/password protected computer. The data will be stored for three years after
the study has been completed and then destroyed. The data will only be shared with
the dissertation committee: Dr. Rudy Castruita, Dr. Dominic Brewer, and Dr.
Sylvia Rousseau, all faculty members in the School of Education of the University of
Southern California. The data will be coded and will be provided for the purpose of
reviewing the best method of presenting the data in the body of the dissertation.
Should any other use of the data present itself, no release of data or any other
information will occur without your written authorization having been secured.
119
Should you participate in the interview, it will be audiotaped and you will have the
right to review and/or edit the recording. Only members of the research team will
have access to these recording. These recording will be kept confidential and will be
stored for a period of three years, after which they will be destroyed.
When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no
information will be included that would reveal your identity.
PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
You can choose whether to be in this study or not. If you volunteer to be in this
study, you may withdraw at any time without consequences of any kind. You may
also refuse to answer any questions you don’t want to answer and still remain in the
study. The investigator may withdraw you from this research if circumstances arise
which warrant doing so.
ALTERNATIVES TO PARTICIPATION
Your alternative is to not participate.
RIGHTS OF RESEARCH SUBJECTS
You may withdraw your consent or your continued participation at any time. You
are not waiving any legal claims, rights or remedies because of your participation in
this research study. If you have any questions about your rights as a study subject or
you would like to speak with someone independent of the research team to obtain
answers to questions about the research, or in the event the research staff can not be
reached, please contact the University Park IRB, Office of the Vice Provost for
Research Advancement, Stonier Hall, Room 224a, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1146,
(213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu
IDENTIFICATION OF INVESTIGATORS
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact
Rafael H. Escobar
Principal Investigator
2151 North Soto Street
Los Angeles, CA 90032
323-224-3100 * rhescoba@usc.edu
Dr. Rudy Castuita
Melbo Chair in Educational Administration
Faculty Sponsor
University of Southern California
School of Education, WPH 902B
213-821-4392
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APPENDIX C
STATEMENT OF CONSENT
(Participant’s Copy)
I have read the consent form and fully understand the contents of this document. I
acknowledge that I have been informed of, and understand, the nature and purpose of
this study, and I freely consent to participate. I have also received a copy of this
consent form for my records. Your signature below indicates that you consent to
particpate in this study.
Print Name: __________________________________________________
Signature:____________________________________________________
□ Please check this box if you would like a copy of the research findings after the
study is complete.
121
APPENDIX D
STATEMENT OF CONSENT
(Researcher’s Copy)
I have read the consent form and fully understand the contents of this document. I
acknowledge that I have been informed of, and understand, the nature and purpose of
this study, and I freely consent to participate. I have also received a copy of this
consent form for my records. Your signature below indicates that you consent to
particpate in this study.
Print Name: __________________________________________________
Signature:____________________________________________________
□ Please check this box if you would like a copy of the research findings after the
study is complete.
PLEASE RETURN THIS FORM WITH YOUR COMPLETED SURVEY
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APPENDIX E
SURVEY: HOW LATINOS ASCEND TO THE SUPERINTENDENCY
The following questionnaire is part of a research study aimed at determining how
Latinos ascend to the superintendency. The study seeks to understand what skills
and attributes are needed by prospective candidates to the superintendency. Your
responses to this survey are greatly appreciated. Please be assured that your
responses will be kept in the strictest of confidence and will be used solely for
research purposes. The time required to answer the survey is approximately 20
minutes.
Please respond to the survey questions by placing an “X” in the box next to the
response(s) that best respresent your position on a particular question or by circling
the letter(s) or number(s) that apply to your answers. For open-ended questions,
please write your answer in the space provided. If you need additional space, please
feel free to write on the back of the survey or attach additional sheets as needed.
Again, the information you provide will remain confidential and will used to create
a profile of Latino(a) superintendents in California. When you have completed the
survey, please mail it back in the self-addressed, stamped envelope. I know how
valuable your time is and I thank you very much for taking the time to particpate in
this valuable study.
Should you have any questions or concerns please feel free to contact me at 323-224-
3116 (w), 323-223-4424 (h), or at rhescoba@usc.edu.
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APPENDIX F
SURVEY: HOW LATINOS ASCEND TO THE SUPERINTENDENCY
Section I: Personal Characteristics
1. Name
___________________________________________________________
2. Current School District/Organization
___________________________________
3. What is your Latino family origin
□ United States □ Central America
□ Mexico □ South America
□ Caribbean □ Europe (please specify)___________
4. Birth Place:
Mother _____________ Father ___________________
Yourself ____________ Significant Other __________
5. Languages spoken at home. _____________________________________
6. If born outside the United States, how many years have you lived in this
country?
____________________________________________________________
7. Current age (optional) __________________________________________
8. Father’s highest educational level completed (check one)
□ Primary □ Secondary
□ Post Secondary □ Other (please specify) _____
9. Mother’s highest educational level completed (check one)
□ Primary □ Secondary
□ Post Secondary □ Other (please specify) _____
124
10. Describe your school district
□ Urban □ Suburban
□ Rural □ Other
Section II: Professional Characteristics
11. Years in public
education_____________________________________________
12. Total years in education before promotion to first administrative
position_______
13. Title of first administrative
position_____________________________________
14. At what age did you obtain your first position as principal?
a. 25-30 d. 41-50
b. 31-35 e. 51-55
c. 36-40 f. 56+
15. Number of promotions within administrative ranks prior to
superintendency_____
a. Please list those promotions from oldest to most recent:
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
16. Totals years as
superintendent_________________________________________
17. Age at first superintendency (optional)
__________________________________
125
18. Highest educational level you have completed (check one)
□ Bachelor’s □ Master’s
□ Doctorate □ Other (please specify) ____
19. In regards to your highest degree, in what academic area was it received in?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Section III: Factors influencing your appointment to the superintendency
In the section that follow there are questions regarding factors that may have played
a role or may have had influence in your appointment to your present or past
positions as a superintendent.
Please indicate to what extent these factors played a role in your appoitnment as a
superintendent by circling the number that best reflects that influence. The scale is
from 4 for “a great degree” through 1 for “a very small degree.” For statements that
are not applicable to you, please circle the number 0.
20. Professional preparation 4 3 2 1 0
21. Your competence for the job 4 3 2 1 0
22. The district’s affirmative action plan 4 3 2 1 0
23. Mentoring within the district 4 3 2 1 0
24. Mentoring support outside the district 4 3 2 1 0
25. Latino pressure from within the district 4 3 2 1 0
26. Pressure from the Latino community 4 3 2 1 0
27. Networking among Latino peers 4 3 2 1 0
28. High percentage of Latinos (stduents)
in district 4 3 2 1 0
29. Membership in Latino organizations 4 3 2 1 0
126
30. Administrative internship experience 4 3 2 1 0
31. Bilingual communication skills 4 3 2 1 0
32. Your knowledge of district’s culture 4 3 2 1 0
33. Your personal relationship with
members of the school board 4 3 2 1 0
34. Your knowledge of the politics
within the Board of Education 4 3 2 1 0
35. Your knowledge of the polictics
within the school district 4 3 2 1 0
36. Race or ethnic preference of the
Board of Education 4 3 2 1 0
37. Personal leadership skills 4 3 2 1 0
38. Support received from your family 4 3 2 1 0
39. Prior leadership experiences 4 3 2 1 0
40. Positive work environment 4 3 2 1 0
41. Personal values 4 3 2 1 0
42. Family values 4 3 2 1 0
43. To what degree do you consider race to be a barrier when comes to obtaining
a superintendency position?
a. A major barrier
b. Somewhat of a barrier
c. Not a barrier
127
44. If race was a barrier, in what way do you believe it hindered your career and
your goal of becoming a suprintendent?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Section IV: Nature of your Mentoring and Professional Relationships
Professional relationships can have a positive influence particularly when an
individual demonstrates an interest in another person’s career growth.
Please indicate to what degree these mentoring relationships affected your career by
circling the numer according to the scale. Use ‘4’ for “very great influence” through
‘1’ for “no influence” or a ‘0’ if it is not applicable.
45. Did you have a mentor/sponsor that helped or encouraged you in your pursuit
to become a superintendent?
a. Yes
b. No
46. If yes, please indicate how important the support of that individual was to
you being able to become a superintendent.
a. Extremely important
b. Very important
c. Somewhat important
d. Not important
47. My mentor and I had similar upbringings 4 3 2 1 0
48. I had similar educational
experiences as my mentor 4 3 2 1 0
49. My mentor and I share similar service
clubs and organizations 4 3 2 1 0
128
50. Professional problem solving skills
were enhanced by my mentoring
relationship. 4 3 2 1 0
51. Personal and career goals reflect
my mentoring relationship. 4 3 2 1 0
52. I had an equal opportunity for
advancement in my district. 4 3 2 1 0
53. Personal or political views hindered
my advancement. 4 3 2 1 0
54. My cultural expressions were
detrimental to my career. 4 3 2 1 0
55. Being a Spanish/English speaker
had a positive impact on my
professional advancement. 4 3 2 1 0
56. Do you feel that mentoring is an important tool for helping aspiring Latinos
ascend to the superintendency? Why or why not?
_____________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
57. Did mentoring help you ascend to the superintendency? No_________ If
yes, how? _____________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
129
Section V: Nature of your Networking and Professional Relationships
58. Do you feel that networking is an essential tool for helping aspiring Latinos
ascend to the superintendency?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
59. Has networking helped you move forward in your career? Why or why not?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
60. Do you believe Latinos are underrepresented in the superintendency?
No._____ If yes, what do you believe are the reasons for that
underrepresentation?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
130
61. Do you believe it is important to have a Latino as superintendent of a
predominantly Latino (student population) school district? Please state why
or why not.
__________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
62. Is there any other factor, not mentioned in this survey, that you found had a
positive impact in your ascension to the superintendency?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
63. Is there any other factor, not mentioned in this survey, that you found had a
negative impact in your ascension to the superintendency?
_____________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
131
64. Do you believe it is important for a minority to lead a minority majority
school district? Why or why not.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
132
APPENDIX G
INVITATION FOR PARTICIPATE IN ORAL INTERVIEW
Permission to Contact
My study includes conducting in-depth interviews with superintendents to gain
further insight into the positive factors that help latinos ascend to the
superintendency as well as the possible barriers Latinos must overcome in their
quest to become superintendents. I plan to interview Latino superintendents
from public school districts from the State of California. If you would be willing
to be interviewed for this research study, please indicte this below by checking
the appropriate box
I am willing to participate in an in-depth interview (approximately 1
hour) for this research project. Please contact me using the
information below to set up a date and time for the interview.
I am willing to participate in a shorter less involved phone interview.
PLEASE SIGN AND RETURN THE ENCLOSED CONSENT FORM
Name:
__________________________________________________________________
School District:
__________________________________________________________________
Telephone Number:
__________________________________________________________________
Email Address:
__________________________________________________________________
133
APPENDIX H
INTERVIEW QUESTION GUIDE
Oral Interview of Superintendents
1. What skills and talents will Latino administrators need to possess in order
to ascend to the superintendency in the current context of public
education?
2. Do mentoring programs provide aspiring as well as sitting Latino
superintendents with the skills and tools necessary to be successful in the
position.
3. To what degree did networking help you ascend to the superintendency?
4. Do leadership preparation programs provide Latino superintendents the
skills they will need to be successful in their roles?
5. What are the reasons why so few Latinos are being promoted to the
position of superintendent of schools.
6. What do you believe accounts for the disproportionate representation of
Latinos in the superintendency, considering their significant numbers at
all other levels in education?
7. Please describe your career path that led you to the superintendency.
8. What were the most common personal or professional barriers, if any,
you experienced in your ascent to the superintendency?
134
9. To what degree do you consider race to be a barrier when it comes to
obtaining the superintendency?
10. What recommendations would you make to other Latinos considering
the superintendency as a profession?
11. Is there anything else you would like to add that you feel is pertinent to
this study and important for Latinos aspiring to the superintendency?
135
APPENDIX I
HOW LATINOS ASCEND TO THE SUPERINTENDENCY
Dear Principal,
This letter is to request that you participate in a survey related to Latino
superintendents. I am currently working on my Ed.D at the University of Southern
California in Urban Educational Leadership and my dissertation is focusing on
Latinos in the superintendency.
My study focuses on the factors that have a positive impact in helping Latino
administrators ascend to the superintendency. The significance of this study is one
of helping current Latino administrators find a faster track in their personal quest to
the superintendency.
In the State of California there are very few Latino Superintendents. My dissertation
committee has asked that I research the possibility that one of the reasons why there
are few Latinos in the superintendency might be due to fact that very few Latinos
actually aspire to the superintendency.
Your participation in this study is voluntary. Your responses and additional input
will be carefully reviewed, and analyzed. Please be assured that your responses will
be kept completely confidential. If you so desire, an abstract of the findings can be
forwarded to you at the completion of the study.
I know how valuable your time is and I truly appreciate the effort you are making in
completing this survey. I, as well as my dissertation chair, Dr. Rudy Castruita,
thank you very much for your assistance.
Please return the survey, and the Statement of Consent form in the enclosed inter-
office envelope that has been provided for your convenience. Muchisimas gracias!
Sincerely,
Rafael H. Escobar
Principal Investigator
136
APPENDIX J
SURVEY: HOW LATINOS ASCEND TO THE SUPERINTENDENCY
School Site Principals
Section I: Personal Characteristics
1. Name (optional)
___________________________________________________
2. Current School District/Organization
___________________________________
3. What is your Latino family origin
□ United States □ Central America
□ Mexico □ South America
□ Caribbean □ Europe (please specify)___________
4. Birth Place:
Mother _____________ Father ___________________
Yourself ____________ Significant Other __________
5. Languages spoken at home. _____________________________________
6. If born outside the United States, how many years have you lived in this
country?
______________________________________________________________
____
7. Current age (optional) __________________________________________
Section II: Professional Characteristics
8. Years in public
education_____________________________________________
9. Total years in education before promotion to first administrative
position_______
137
10. Title of first administrative
position_____________________________________
11. At what age did you obtain your first position as principal?
a. 25-30 d. 41-50
b. 31-35 e. 51-55
c. 36-40 f. 56+
12. Number of promotions within administrative ranks prior to
principalship?_____
a. Please list those promotions from oldest to most recent:
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
13. Totals years as principal?_________________________________________
14. Highest educational level you have completed (check one)
□ Bachelor’s □ Master’s
□ Doctorate □ Other (please specify) ____
15. In regards to your highest degree, in what academic area was it received in?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
16. At some point in your career do you aspire to become a superintendent?
Why or why not.
__________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
138
Section III: Factors influencing the appointment to the superintendency
In the section that follows there are questions regarding factors that could play a role
or have influence for someone seeking an appointment to the superintendency.
Please indicate to what extent these factors may play a role for someone seeking to
be appointed as a superintendent by circling the number that best reflects that
influence. The scale is from 4 for “a great degree” through 1 for “a very small
degree.” For statements that are not applicable to you, please circle the number 0.
17. Mentoring within the district 4 3 2 1 0
18. Mentoring support outside the district 4 3 2 1 0
19. Networking among Latino peers 4 3 2 1 0
20. High percentage of Latinos (stduents)
in district 4 3 2 1 0
21. Bilingual communication skills 4 3 2 1 0
22. Your knowledge of district’s culture 4 3 2 1 0
23. Personal relationship with
members of the school board 4 3 2 1 0
24. Knowledge of the politics
within the Board of Education 4 3 2 1 0
25. Your knowledge of the politics
within the school district 4 3 2 1 0
26. Race or ethnic preference of the
Board of Education 4 3 2 1 0
27. Personal leadership skills 4 3 2 1 0
28. Prior leadership experiences 4 3 2 1 0
29. To what degree do you consider race to be a barrier when it comes to
obtaining a superintendency position?
a. A major barrier
139
b. Somewhat of a barrier
c. Not a barrier
30. If race is a barrier, in what way do you believe it may hinder your goal of
becoming a suprintendent?
___________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
____________________________
Section IV: Mentoring, Networking and Professional Relationships
Professional relationships can have a positive influence particularly when an
individual demonstrates an interest in another person’s career growth.
31. Do you feel that mentoring is an important tool for helping aspiring Latinos
ascend to the superintendency? Why or why not?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
32. Do you feel that networking is an essential tool for helping aspiring Latinos
ascend to the superintendency? ____________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
140
33. Has networking helped you move forward in your career? Why or why not?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
34.
35. Do you believe Latinos are underrepresented in the superintendency?
No._____ If yes, what do you believe are the reasons for that
underrepresentation?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
36. Do you believe it is important to have a Latino as superintendent of a
predominantly Latino (student population) school district? Please state why
or why not.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
141
APPENDIX K
HOW LATINOS ASCEND TO THE SUPERINTENDENCY
Board of Education Members
Dear Ms. Flores-Aguilar,
This letter is to introduce myself and to request that you participate in a survey
related to Latino superintendents. I am currently working on my dissertation at the
University of Southern California in Urban Educational Leadership.
My study focuses on factors that have a positive impact in helping Latino
administrators ascend to the superintendency. The significance of this study is one
of helping current Latino administrators find a faster track in their personal quest to
the superintendency. Your responses and additional input will be carefully reviewed,
analyzed, and reported.
The purpose for interviewing a member of a Board of Education is to get the
perspective of those who particpate in the interviewing and selection process for
hiring new superintendents. The interview will be conducted in person and please be
assured that all information will be kept confidential. Your participation in this
study is voluntary. An abstract of the findings can be forwarded to you at the
completion of the study.
I know how valuable your time is and I truly appreciate the effort you are making in
taking the time to participate in an interview. I, as well as my dissertation chair, Dr.
Rudy Castruita, thank you very much for your assistance.
Muchisimas gracias!
Sincerely,
Rafael H. Escobar
Principal Investigator
142
APPENDIX L
INTERVIEW QUESTION GUIDE
Board Members
1. What skills and talents will Latino administrators need to possess in order
to ascend to the superintendency in the current context of public
education?
2. What skills and talents do you look for when interviewing potential
candidates for the superintendency?
3. Does race or ethnicity play any role in the interviewing process or in
selecting a superintendent?
4. Do leadership preparation programs provide Latino administrators with
the skills they will need to become successful superintendents?
5. What do you believe are the reasons why so few Latinos are being
promoted to the position of superintendent of schools.
6. What do you believe accounts for the disproportionate representation of
Latinos in the superintendency, considering their significant numbers at
all other levels in education?
7. Do you believe there are personal or professional barriers that impede
Latinos ascending to the superintendency?
8. Do you believe it is important for a minority to lead a minority-majority
school district?
143
9. To what degree do you consider race to be a barrier when it comes to
Latinos obataining the superintendency?
10. Do you believe it is important to have a Latino as superintendent of a
predominantly Latino (student population) school district?
Abstract (if available)
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Escobar, Rafael
(author)
Core Title
How Latinos ascend to the superintendency
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Education (Leadership)
Publication Date
05/07/2009
Defense Date
12/12/2008
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
Latinos as school district superintendents,Latinos in school district leadership,Latinos in the superintendency of schools,OAI-PMH Harvest
Language
English
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
Advisor
Castruita, Rudy M. (
committee chair
), Brewer, Dominic J. (
committee member
), Rousseau, Sylvia G. (
committee member
)
Creator Email
escobar.r@sbcglobal.net,rhescoba@usc.edu
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m2184
Unique identifier
UC1123661
Identifier
etd-Escobar-2596 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-239904 (legacy record id),usctheses-m2184 (legacy record id)
Legacy Identifier
etd-Escobar-2596.pdf
Dmrecord
239904
Document Type
Dissertation
Rights
Escobar, Rafael
Type
texts
Source
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
Repository Name
Libraries, University of Southern California
Repository Location
Los Angeles, California
Repository Email
cisadmin@lib.usc.edu
Tags
Latinos as school district superintendents
Latinos in school district leadership
Latinos in the superintendency of schools