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Student engagement experiences of African American males at a California community college

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Student engagement experiences of African American males at a California community college

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STUDENT ENGAGEMENT EXPERIENCES OF AFRICAN AMERICAN MALES

AT A CALIFORNIA COMMUNITY COLLEGE

by

Dyrell W. Foster

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

December 2008

Copyright 2008 Dyrell W. Foster

ii
Acknowledgements

Thank you to my dissertation committee, Dr. Adrianna Kezar, Dr. Darnell Cole and
Dr. John Hernandez, for their willingness to share their time and expertise to support me
through this process. A special acknowledgement to my chair, Dr. Adrianna Kezar, who
was instrumental in guiding, supporting, and encouraging me to keep moving forward,
especially when times were tough. Thank you Adrianna for your on-going support,
feedback, responsiveness and understanding; I would not have finished without your
support and encouragement. To my colleagues and friends at Mt. SAC, particularly my
staff in the Student Life Office: Donna, Eula, Anita, Maryann and Raul. Thank you for
your consistent support and encouragement. A special thank you to my bosses, Carolyn
Keys and Dr. Audrey Yamagata-Noji for your on-going support and understanding
during this entire process. I would like to thank the fellas for your support and
encouragement and my brothers from A
2
MEND who mentored me and supported me
along the way.
Finally, I would like to thank my family for their love, support, and encouragement.
To my parents, Nat and Ok Cha Foster, my sister Nataly Holston, Mr. James Hudson, and
my beautiful nieces, Haily and Zoie, who constantly served as my source of motivation,
encouragement, and joy. Lastly, thank you to my beautiful fiancé, and soon to be wife,
who sacrificed, loved and supported me every step of the way, through the good times
and tough times, and who was always there for me to lean on; without your unconditional
love Tami, this would not have been possible. Thank you!

iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................... ii

List of Tables .................................................................................................................. vi

Abstract ...................................................................................................................... vii

Chapter One: Overview of the Study................................................................................1
Introduction..............................................................................................................1
Statement of the Problem.........................................................................................5
Background of the Problem .....................................................................................9
Purpose of Study....................................................................................................12
Research Questions................................................................................................12
Significance of the Study.......................................................................................13
Definitions of Related Concepts ............................................................................15
Assumptions...........................................................................................................15
Dissertation Organization ......................................................................................18

Chapter Two: Review of the Literature ..........................................................................20
Introduction............................................................................................................20
Community College Students ................................................................................20
Factors that Impact the Academic Success of African American Males...............24
Identity Development and Self-Perception......................................................27
Coping Strategies.............................................................................................29
Institutional Environment and Campus Climate..............................................31
Academic and Social Connections...................................................................38
Student Engagement ........................................................................................39
Theory of Student Engagement .............................................................................41
Figure 1: Student Engagement.........................................................................43
Academic Challenge ........................................................................................44
Student-Faculty Interactions ............................................................................46
Active and Collaborative Learning..................................................................50
Supportive Educational Environments ............................................................51
Critiques of Student Engagement Theory..............................................................54
Conclusion .............................................................................................................62

Chapter Three: Research Methods..................................................................................64
Introduction............................................................................................................64
Constructivist Paradigm.........................................................................................64
Phenomenological Approach.................................................................................67
Epoche....................................................................................................................69

iv
Research Site..........................................................................................................72
Participants.............................................................................................................76
Data Collection ......................................................................................................78
Data Analysis.........................................................................................................80
Limitations of the Study.........................................................................................83
Ethical Considerations ...........................................................................................85
Trustworthiness......................................................................................................86
Conclusion .............................................................................................................88

Chapter Four: Findings ...................................................................................................90
Introduction............................................................................................................90
Theme 1: Having a clear educational goal and an identified path in ..............92
in which to achieve it allows students to stay focused and helps to
relieve stress and anxiety
Theme 2: Students' notion of independence determines whether or ...............97
or not they take the initiative to seek assistance on campus
Theme 3: Some students welcome peer interactions, while others ...............102
perceive these interactions as being distractions, avoiding them
altogther
Theme 4: Students are engaged by faculty who genuinely care and .............108
have a passion for teaching
Theme 5: Students prefer faculty who teach to accommodate various .........115
learning styles
Theme 6: Time and financial constraints are real barriers to student ............117
engagement
Theme 7: A wecloming, open campus environment promotes greater .........126
student satisfaction and enhances student engagement

Chapter Five: Discussion and Implications ..................................................................135
Introduction..........................................................................................................135
Findings Compared to Research Questions .........................................................135
Findings in Relation to Literature on African American Males ..........................138
Current Study's Basis in Student Engagement Literature....................................143
Implications for Community Colleges.................................................................149
Implication 1: Ensure that students have an educational plan and a .............150
clear path in which to achieve it
Implication 2: Structure peer groups that are academically focused .............154
Implication 3: Ensure that students understand that seeking assistance ........155
is normal and expected
Implication 4: Develop a culture of success for African American males ...158
Implication 5: Do the necessary work to understand and validate ................159
students' experiences

v
Pulling it all Together: Findings and Implications ..............................................161
Future Research ...................................................................................................165

Conclusion ..................................................................................................................167

References ..................................................................................................................169

Appendices ..................................................................................................................180
Appendix A: Participant Profile Form.................................................................180
Appendix B: Sample Focus Group Interview Protocol .......................................182
Appendix C: Sample Individual Interview Protocol............................................184
Appendix D: Sample Email Solicitation..............................................................186
Appendix E: Sample Flyer Solicitation ...............................................................188
Appendix F: Informed Consent Form..................................................................190

vi

List of Tables

Table 1: 2006-2007 Mt. SAC Ethnic Profile of Credit Enrollment..............................74

Table 2: Participant Profiles ..........................................................................................89

Table 3: Summary of Results ......................................................................................134

vii
Abstract

This dissertation shows the results of an investigation into the engagement
experiences of African American males in a California Community College. In an effort
to illuminate such experiences, a phenomenological investigation into the experiences of
African American male students in engaging in educationally purposeful activities on a
community college campus was conducted, with extensive interviews of 12 participants.
Research questions asked about the students’ experiences regarding their use of time on
campus outside of class, faculty interaction, peer interaction, campus involvement and
utilization of institutional resources - constructs identified from previous research in
Student Engagement theory. Results of the investigation showed consistency of
experience in seven distinct areas.
First, having a clear educational goal and an identified path in which to achieve it
allows students to stay focused and helps to relieve stress and anxiety. Second, students’
notion of independence determines whether or not they take the initiative to seek
assistance on campus. Third, some students welcome peer interactions, while others
perceive these interactions as being distractions, avoiding them altogether. Fourth,
students are engaged by faculty who genuinely care and have a passion for teaching.
Fifth, students prefer faculty who teach to accommodate various learning styles. Sixth,
time and financial constraints are real barriers to student engagement; and seventh, a
welcoming, open campus environment promotes greater student satisfaction and
enhances student engagement.

viii
These results suggest that community colleges have a responsibility to enhance the
student engagement experiences of African American males to increase their academic
success. Specific suggestions to achieve this goal include: Ensure that students have an
educational goal and a clear path in which to achieve it, structure peer groups that are
academically focused, ensure students understand seeking assistance is normal and
expected, develop a culture of success for African American males, and do the necessary
work to understand and validate students’ experiences.

1
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY

Introduction

Higher education is an important pathway to social and economic mobility.
Earning a college degree significantly increases earnings and income. In California, an
associate degree increases income, on average, by 47 percent compared to a high school
level education; a bachelor’s degree by 108 percent and a graduate degree by 189 percent
(California Postsecondary Education Commission, 2007). Degree attainment is a
powerful mechanism to assist historically marginalized groups to achieve social mobility
and economic success.
The recent review of the social and economic status of African Americans in
California demonstrates that African Americans fare significantly worse than Whites and
Asians on indicators related to economics, housing, health, education, criminal justice,
and civic engagement (California Legislative Black Caucus, 2006). African Americans
maintain the lowest household median income, and the highest unemployment and
poverty rates of all ethnic groups in California (California Legislative Black Caucus,
2006). Furthermore, African American students have the lowest average SAT scores and
are most likely to drop out of high school than any other ethnic group in California
(California Legislative Black Caucus, 2006). The continued inequality and disparity in
economic and social status of African Americans in California, and nationally, are of
great concern and demand immediate attention.

2
The future for African American males is particularly disturbing when one
considers the low educational attainment and the lack of social stability of this group in
our country. African American males in the K-12 system lead all other groups of
students in suspensions, expulsions, behavioral problems and referrals to special cases for
slow learners (White & Cones, 1999). In addition, African American adolescent males
have a 41 percent homicide rate in California, compared to 14 percent, 5 percent, and 4
percent for Latino, Asian, and White males, respectively (California Legislative Black
Caucus, 2006). Further, there are more African American men in prison than in college.
In 2004, African American males made up 3 percent of the total population in California,
29 percent of the prison population, and only 1 percent of the undergraduate student
population in higher education (California Department of Corrections & Rehabilitation,
2005). Among those enrolled in higher education, African American males remain
significantly underrepresented; they are the least likely group to be enrolled in colleges or
universities and least likely than African American females to earn a college degree
(Bush, 2004; Cuyjet, 1997; Hoffman, Llagas & Snyder, 2003).
Community colleges play a significant role in sustaining and increasing the
educational attainment of the American population, particularly for African Americans.
The role of California community colleges is most significant to African American higher
education in the United States. One of every 14 African Americans who are enrolled in
higher education attends a California community college; moreover, one of every 7
African American community college students in the country is enrolled in California

3
(Anomymous, 2007). More specifically, of the 1.2 percent of all African American
males enrolled in public, postsecondary institutions in California, 82 percent are enrolled
in the California Community College system (Community College League of California,
2004). Clearly, a large proportion of African American males in California use
community colleges as their primary means to seek access to higher education and to
pursue career opportunities by earning a degree, transferring to a four-year institution,
and eventually entering the work force to earn a higher salary; therefore, the educational
success of African American males in community colleges is critical to enhancing their
socio-economic status, not only in California, but across the country.
Disturbingly, African Americans, particularly men, are being left behind, severely
lacking educational attainment, which inhibits social mobility and economic
achievement. Although this is not a recent phenomenon, it has continued to be a
persistent problem that has not yet been successfully resolved. Recent studies
demonstrate that African Americans earn the fewest degrees and transfer at lower rates to
four-year institutions than any other major ethnic group in the California community
college system (Bush, 2004; Wassmer, Moore, & Shulock, 2003). Whites earn six times
as many associate’s degrees compared with African Americans, Latinos earn nearly three
times as many, and Asians and Filipinos earn twice as many (Allen, Bonous-Hammarth,
& Teranishi, 2002). This gap in educational access and attainment for African
Americans has a profound impact on the group’s opportunity to succeed in society.

4
A recent report, titled “Rules of the Game” from the Institute for Higher
Education Leadership and Policy finds that the vast majority of African American
students, who enter community college in California seeking a degree, are not completing
their course of study (Shulock & Moore, 2007). More specifically, this study found only
15% of African American students, compared to 18% of Latino, 27% of White, and 33%
of Asian students, earned a certificate or degree, transferred to a four-year university, or
achieved some combination of those outcomes within six years of enrolling in a
California Community College (Shulock & Moore, 2007). A similar study found that
African American men in comparison to other ethnic and gender sub-groups are
disproportionately underachieving in all segments of academic outcomes in California
community colleges (Bush, 2004). The study further asserted that African American men
throughout California’s community college system are the lowest performing subgroup
when one considers: percentage of degrees earned, persistence rates, and average
cumulative grade point average (Bush, 2004).
Although community colleges are open access institutions, provide quality,
affordable education, and serve as a catalyst for African American males who might not
otherwise pursue a college education; community colleges appear to be failing African
American males. These findings suggest that California community colleges need to
develop interventions that would appropriately reduce the racial, ethnic, and gender
disparities in student success, persistence and achievement. In considering the large
proportion of African American males who enroll in California community colleges, their

5
success is of the utmost importance. To respond effectively to these challenges,
community colleges need to better understand the experiences of African American
males in order to develop more effective strategies to enhance their educational outcomes
and academic success.
Statement of Problem
A broad body of research and theoretical perspectives indicate that positive
educational outcomes are associated with student engagement (Astin, 1985; Pace, 1980;
Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005; Tinto, 1993). The notion of student engagement has
received considerable attention in recent years and has been found to be an important
indicator of student success (Hu & Kuh, 2002; Kuh, 2001; Kuh, Kinzie, Buckley,
Bridges, & Hayek, 2006; Kuh, Vasper & Pace, 1997). Although some students come to
college better prepared academically than others, student engagement literature suggests
that what students do while in college, such as the activities in which they engage and the
company they keep, are important factors in their persistence and success (Kuh et al.,
2006). Numerous studies assert that students who take part in educationally
effective activities within the institution have positive educational outcomes (Astin, 1985;
Hu & Kuh, 2002; Kuh, 2001; Kuh et al., 1997; Pascarella, 1980). Furthermore, research
shows that the time and energy that students, at any institution, devote to educationally
purposeful activities is the greatest predictor of their cognitive and personal development
(Astin, 1993; Pascarella and Terenzini, 1991; Pace, 1980). Also important to achieving
positive student learning outcomes are institutional environments that students perceive

6
as inclusive and affirming (Kuh, 2001; Kuh, Schuh, Whitt, & Associates, 2005;
Pascarella, 2001). These factors and conditions are also positively related to student
satisfaction and achievement on a variety of dimensions (Astin, 1984, 1993; Pascarella &
Terenzini, 1991); therefore, educationally effective colleges are those that add value to
the student experience, by directing students’ efforts and energy toward appropriate tasks,
activities, and behaviors and engages them in these activities at high levels (Bridges,
Cambridge, Kuh & Leegwater, 2005). Therefore, it can be assumed that enhancing
student engagement may be an effective strategy for increasing the persistence, retention
and academic achievement of all students in higher education, including African
American males (Kuh et al., 2006).
Despite the numerous studies that support the relationship between student
engagement and educational outcomes, it should be noted that most of the research has
been conducted on general student populations in large, four-year institutions. Numerous
scholars assert that higher education research overwhelmingly under represents empirical
work conducted using community college students (Cofers & Somers, 2000; Pascarella,
1997; Townsend, Donaldson, & Wilson, 2004), and this gap is particularly salient in the
student engagement literature (Bridges et al., 2005; Wortman & Napoli, 1996).
Therefore, limited research exists which specifically examines student engagement
experiences in community college settings, and very few seek to understand the
engagement experiences of African American males (Greene, 2005; Harvey-Smith,
2002).

7
Another problematic issue is that our understanding of student engagement
practices in higher education is based primarily upon quantitative data collected from
student responses to various survey instruments such as the Community College Student
Report (CCSR). Although the CCSR survey is used as a benchmarking instrument,
diagnostic tool, and monitoring device to provide valuable information regarding
institutional practices and student characteristics that are correlated with student learning
and student retention in community colleges, current data fails to provide in-depth
qualitative information which would allow institutions to better understand student
engagement experiences. Survey instruments do not tell us why students responded the
way they did not do, nor do these surveys provide a context in which they responded or
their thoughts and behaviors that influence their responses (Creswell, 2007). Therefore,
institutions cannot solely rely on quantitative data to understand students’ experiences in
community colleges because the students’ experiences are too complex; there are too
many factors and too many constraints that impact their success. This study fills a gap in
the literature by describing and understanding the student engagement experiences of
African American males in community colleges.
Furthermore, Dowd and Korn (2006) assert that “assessment instruments
commonly used in community colleges today may narrow perspectives on the
institutional scope of responsibility because colleges will only be looking at part of the
picture…colleges cannot see problems that are not measured” (p. 28). Some scholars
have critiqued student engagement surveys for being culturally insensitive and for failing

8
to take into account the impact of student racial demographics, issues of power and
cultural norms (Dowd & Korn, 2006; Tanaka, 2002; Tierney, 1992). These perspectives
suggest that although quantitative surveys are effective for gathering useful data for large
student populations, they fail to provide a complete picture, leaving some important
issues unexplored. Student interactions with peers and faculty are difficult to capture
with current survey instruments, and these instruments may not be sensitive to issues
such as gender differences, ethnicity, and individual differences (Creswell, 2007).
Moreover, existing measures may not be well suited to fully capture the complex cultural
concepts involved in understanding student engagement. Therefore, qualitative research
is needed to understand student interactions and to examine how and to what extent
characteristics such as gender and ethnicity impacts students’ engagement experiences on
community college campuses (Creswell, 2007).
Given that student engagement activities are likely to enhance academic
achievement and persistence, community college administrators need to understand how
African American male students’ learning is being impacted by their engagement
experiences on campus and to what extent. The better we understand the issues involved
with how African American male community college students engage within the college
environment, the better we are able to develop effective strategies to facilitate their
success and promote educational equity in community colleges, and in higher education.
Therefore a qualitative approach was used to examine student engagement from the lens

9
of African American males and to understand their experiences in engaging in
educational activities on a community college campus.
Background of Problem
Numerous studies have examined the notion of student engagement and have
found that students who are engaged in formal and informal educational activities
enhance their educational outcomes, academic achievement, and college satisfaction
(Astin, 1985; Hu & Kuh, 2002; Kuh, 2001; Kuh et al., 1997; Kuh, et al., 2006; Pascarella,
1980). Furthermore, Hu and Kuh (2002) assert that student engagement is the most
important determinant of student learning and development for college students (as cited
by Greene, 2005). On the contrary, students who fail to form sufficient formal and
informal social connections to others on campus are found to be significantly more likely
to leave the institution (Tinto, 1987). Clearly, student engagement is a valuable indicator
for assessing the quality of colleges’ educational practices and identifying ways they can
produce more successful outcomes to help students to attain their educational goals.
However, as discussed in the previous section, an in-depth understanding of students’
behaviors in engaging with the campus environment is lacking and is not captured
through current, quantitative measures, particularly in community college settings.
A recent review of community college research (McClenney & Marti, 2006)
found that student engagement is one of the more poorly studied areas within the
community college literature; therefore, few studies have explored the impact of student
engagement on community college students, and more specifically the engagement

10
experiences of African American males (McClenney & Marti, 2006). Through an
extensive review of literature, two studies (Bush, 2004; Greene, 2005) were found that
examine the relationship between engagement and educational outcomes for African
American males at community colleges. Both studies confirm previous research by
demonstrating a broad, positive relationship between student engagement factors and
enhanced academic outcomes for African American males at community colleges.
However, these findings focus mainly on the type and frequency of engagement activities
that tend to affect student outcomes and achievement; they fail to completely understand
the quality and nature of these engagement activities and how it may impact the
educational outcomes for African American male community college students.
Therefore, the experiences that may impact students’ level and type of engagement in
educational activities in community colleges are not completely understood.
Furthermore, prevalent among the few studies that examine the engagement of
African American males in higher education are findings that suggest that African
American males are most likely to be disengaged from educational activities on college
campuses when compared to similar peer groups; and these non-engaging student
behaviors are found to have a negative impact on student success, achievement, and
persistence (Bonner & Bailey, 2006; Flowers, 2006; Harper, Carini, Bridges & Hayek,
2004). More specifically, Bush (2004) examined the effects of community college
institutional factors on the academic achievement of African American males and their
perceptions of their college experience. The study revealed that African American men

11
have greater amounts of dissatisfaction and are least likely to engage in purposefully
educational activities when compared to all other subgroups in California community
colleges (Bush, 2004). In addition, the study revealed that African American men are
less likely to meet with their instructors and less likely to be involved in extracurricular
activities. In fact, compared to other subgroups Bush found that African American men
were: more likely to express boredom in class, less likely to participate in campus
activities, and had not encountered peers in college that could help them adjust to college
life. In this study, African American males were found not to be academically and
socially engaged in campus life in a community college setting.
Therefore, current research begs the question, what are effective ways in which
community colleges can foster the engagement of African American male students in
educationally purposeful activities. This dissertation study sought to understand African
American males’ experiences in engaging in educational activities in community colleges
by exploring the context and nature of their college experiences. Given that African
American males are more likely to enroll in community colleges than in any other
postsecondary institution, community college administrators must fully understand the
experiences of African American males to develop more effective strategies to engage
them in purposeful activities on their campuses, which enhance their likelihood of
successfully attaining their academic and professional goals and assist in closing the
educational and socio-economic gaps that exist in our society.

12
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this phenomenological investigation was to examine and attempt to
understand the formal and informal engagement experiences of African American male
community college students at Mt. San Antonio College. Additionally, this study sought
to understand the institutional factors that affect student engagement. Consequently, very
little is known about how perceptions, stereotypes, and the culture of African American
males directly shape their engagement experiences in community colleges. It can be
assumed that the experiences of African American males are unique and may have an
effect on their level and type of engagement. However, this relationship and the impact
have not been explored and therefore, are not clear. This investigation provides an in-
depth understanding of the student engagement experiences of African American males
on a community college campus, with the purpose of improving their academic
achievement and persistence. Improving the success of African American males in
community colleges increases their participation in higher education, which may lead to
an increase in their transfer rates, degree attainment, and employment at significantly
higher salaries; thus, resulting in helping to close the socio-economic and educational
gaps prevalent in California and across the nation.
Research Questions
This qualitative research study reveals a deeper understanding of the experiences
of African American male students in engaging in educationally purposeful activities on a
community college campus. Specifically, this study explored the students’ experiences

13
regarding their use of time on campus outside of class, faculty interaction, peer
interaction, and utilization of institutional resources and services. Although the following
research questions guided the inquiry of this study, they did not bound it given the nature
of qualitative research which allowed for flexibility of the research design as the research
progressed (Creswell, 2007). The following research questions were used to inform and
direct this study:
What are the formal and informal engagement experiences of African
American male community college students at Mt. San Antonio College?
What are the reasons (underlying factors) for their type and level of
engagement?
In what ways, if any, does the institution affect the engagement experiences of
African American males?
Significance of Study
A plethora of research has examined student retention and persistence in higher
education, and clearly, student engagement seems to play a role in the retention,
persistence and success of college students, including African American males.
However, student engagement has not been adequately explored in community college
settings and less with specific, diverse student subgroup populations. In addition, our
knowledge of student engagement practices in higher education is based primarily upon
quantitative data collected from various survey instruments, which fails to provide an in-
depth understanding of the quality and nature of students’ engagement experiences.

14
Furthermore, some scholars have critiqued the use of these engagement surveys for
failing to consider important factors that may affect student engagement, such as culture,
power, gender, and ethnicity (Tanaka, 2002; Dowd & Korn, 2006). This qualitative study
contributes to existing literature by exploring the student engagement experiences of
African American males on a community college campus.
Although many current retention strategies encourage institutions to enhance
student engagement, it is evident that African American males may not be engaged in
educationally purposeful activities within community colleges. In an effort to enhance
the retention and persistence of African American males, their experiences need to be
closely examined. It is important to first understand specific students’ experiences,
before effective strategies to retain, support and assist them can be developed. A clear
understanding of their engagement experiences in interacting with faculty, peers, and use
of support services provides further insight into the notion of student engagement,
therefore adding to the existing literature on the engagement experiences of African
American males.
Through one-on-one interviews of African American males at a community
college in southern California, this investigation provides insightful information for
community college administrators, faculty and staff to allow them to better understand
students’ experiences and the factors that hinder and support their engagement on
campus. I hope that this study allows community college administrators to develop more
effective strategies to engage African American males on their campuses, which may

15
increase their educational outcomes, persistence and success; thus, ultimately lead to
better socio-economic outcomes for African American males in California, and in our
nation.
Definitions of Related Concepts
Educationally Purposeful Activities: includes, but is not limited to the amount of
time studying, interaction with faculty members and peers related to substantive
topics, involvement in co-curricular activities, and use of institutional resources,
such as library, tutoring, counseling, and other student support services
Faculty Interaction: the frequency and type of informal or formal contact students
have with their professors
Peer Interaction: the type and quality of interaction a student has with his peer
group
Persistence: occurs when students who were enrolled in courses from one term
continue their education at the same institution to the next term
Student Engagement: quality of effort students themselves devote to educationally
purposeful activities that contribute directly to desired outcomes (Hu & Kuh,
2002).
Assumptions
I understand that I brought values to this process and I recognize that these values
that may have influenced my inquiry (Guba & Lincoln, 1988 as cited in Creswell, 2007);
therefore, I want to reflect on my axiological assumptions that were used to shape this

16
study (Creswell, 2007). One assumption that I had prior to conducting research was that
racism and discrimination plays a major role in higher education, particularly for African
American males; thus, would play a significant role in how African American males are
treated and perceived, which would directly impact the campus climate and ultimately,
their experiences on college campuses. Although this assumption held true, students
were able to utilize effective coping mechanisms to overcome negative perceptions.
Therefore, my assumption that African American males have a unique experience as they
attempt to navigate, cope with and respond to the prejudice and racial discrimination on
college campuses held true; and these experiences did have a significant influence on the
level and type of engagement activities that these African American males experienced in
this particular community college environment.
Another assumption that I had also applied to the majority of community college
students, the experience of African American males were shaped and influenced by many
factors, such as: 1) being low-income; 2) being a first generation college student; 3) being
academically under-prepared; 4) having family and work responsibilities; and 5)
educational goals (Price, 2004; Wilson, 2004); more importantly, their gender and
ethnicity would have a major influence on their experiences as well. Therefore, at the
onset, I believed that these factors would play a major role in the type and level of
engagement experiences for African American males in community colleges, which also
held true based upon the findings. I recognized that each student would experience
engagement in multiple and various ways based on their different and unique life

17
experiences; however, I still believe that institutions need to understand students’ cultural
contexts (i.e. how their ethnicity and gender affects their experiences) within the
institution and take responsibility for developing effective strategies and programs to
successfully engage all students, and in this case, African American males in educational
activities on college campuses.
Lastly, the notion of student engagement is based on large, general student
populations at predominately White, four-year institutions and therefore, I questioned
whether the current notion of student engagement is adequately conceptualized for
African American males in community colleges. From my experience, working as a
community college administrator for the past seven years, I’ve observed African
American male students who do not engage in educational activities while on campus.
Some African American males tend to approach their collegiate experiences with a sense
of independence, and intentionally choose not to seek out or utilize available support,
assistance or services on community college campuses; other African American males
may be engaged socially, with peers, congregating in a specific location on campus,
however, their level of interactions seem to be strictly social, and don’t appear to reach a
deeper level of support or structure that focuses on academic or educational issues; this
assumption emerged throughout the research as well.
Furthermore, some African American males may have been engaged outside of
the institution, within community-based organizations; however the impact of engaging
in community based organizations remain unaccounted for in college settings. Therefore,

18
the assumption that African American males are not engaged, and most likely choose to
not to be engaged, on community college campuses, was partly true. This study further
explored these assumptions, with the notion that current theories or strategies of
engagement are not working effectively for this student population. Therefore, this study
explored student experiences with the intent of providing a deeper understanding of their
engagement experiences (or lack there of) to inform institutions of what is working and
what is not working for these students, and suggest how to enhance their overall
engagement experiences.
African American males historically lack sufficient educational progress in higher
education, and within community colleges; and because they tend not to engage in
educationally purposeful activities in community colleges, I believe we need to rethink
our strategy and develop new approaches for enhancing the engagement of African
American males on college campuses. I believe any new approach must be culturally
sensitive, culturally relevant and culturally appropriate for this specific population. This
study allows community college administrators to develop more effective strategies to
engage African American males on their campuses to increase their educational
outcomes, persistence and success.
Dissertation Organization

This chapter provides the background, purpose and significance of this
dissertation study. Chapter Two contains a review of the literature and research related to
student engagement with specific attention to African American males in community

19
colleges. Chapter Three will discuss the methodology and procedures used to gather data
regarding the engagement experiences of African American male community college
students. The results of analysis and findings, which emerge from the study, are provided
in Chapter Four. Chapter Five summarizes the study and findings, draws conclusions
from the findings, presents a discussion of the results, and provides recommendations for
further study.

20
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Introduction
This review of literature presents a context for this study by providing an
overview of four areas that are pertinent to examining the engagement experiences of
African American males in community colleges. First, an understanding of the setting
and characteristics of community colleges and its students are important for
understanding the barriers and factors that impede student success in community
colleges. Second, an overview of the literature that addresses the factors that specifically
impact the academic success of African American males is presented. Third, the theory
of student engagement and the pertinent literature regarding the indicators of student
engagement are provided to better inform the understanding of students’ engagement
experiences. Finally, a critique of the theory of student engagement and how it is
measured, particularly as it relates to African American males is presented. This review
provides a context to better inform the study of African American male students’
engagement experiences within a community college environment.
Community College Students
With rising tuition, less need based student aid, reduction of remedial education,
and more stringent admission requirements at many four-year institutions, African
American males are relying on the open access mission of community colleges to pursue
their education (Dougherty & Kienzel, 2006). Community colleges serve an important
role in higher education by providing many students with the opportunity to pursue a

21
post-secondary education; the majorities whom are from low, social economic
backgrounds and are considered nontraditional (Cabrera, Nora, Terrenzini, Pascarella, &
Hagedorn, 1999). The National Center for Education Statistics (2003) defines a
nontraditional student as one who is financially independent, attends part time, works full
time, delays enrollment after high school, has dependants, is a single parent, or does not
have a high school diploma (McClenney, 2004). Using this definition, almost 90 percent
of all community college students, during the 1999 academic year, were nontraditional
(McClenney, 2004). About two-thirds of community college students are part-time
students, and about one-half of students work full-time, are first generation college
students, and are 25 years or older (McClenney, 2004).
Community college students have a wide array of educational goals. Most
community college students (59 percent) want to obtain job related skills; 58 percent
aspire to obtain an associate degree and 47 percent plan to transfer to a four-year
institution (McClenney, 2004). Almost 50 percent of all first-time community college
students are assessed as under-prepared for college (McClenney, 2004). The majority of
these students who are required to take pre-collegiate classes are low-income, first
generation, students of color. “Community colleges, undoubtedly, have the toughest job
in American higher education”, (McClenney, 2004, p. 11); they are open-access
institutions who serve disproportionately high numbers of nontraditional, low-income,
first generation college students, a majority of whom are African American and Latino.

22
Recent findings indicate that the higher a student’s socioeconomic status (SES),
the more likely that student earned a degree or transferred to a 4-year institution; 35
percent of high SES students transferred, compared to 21 percent of middle SES and only
7 percent of low SES students (U.S. Department of Education, 2005). Wilson (2004)
reports that low income and first generation students, a large proportion of whom are
African American and Latino, acknowledged that employment, family responsibilities
and lack of academic preparation are very likely reasons that would prevent them from
continuing their education. Therefore, community college students, especially students
of color and those who are low-income and first generation, face challenges that hinder
their success, including academic under-preparedness, financial need, and work and
family responsibilities.
Frankenberg and Lee (2002, as cited in Price, 2004) who examined racial
inequalities in American Public Schools found that low-income students and students of
color overwhelmingly attend secondary schools with fewer resources, and as a
consequence are often academically under-prepared for the rigors of college work
(Greene, 2005). In examining student profiles in American community colleges, Wilson
(2004) reports that forty-two percent of all first year community college students are
considered to be academically under-prepared because they are required to enroll in at
least one developmental course. Further, Schuetz (2002) found that eighty percent of the
remedial population needs one or two courses, with math as the most common area of
remediation.

23
A disproportionate number of African American and Latino students are enrolled
in pre-collegiate classes, which creates a barrier for them to continue to pursue their
education. Some students never make it out of remedial education, only half go on to
enroll at a four-year institution, and for students of color that figure is less than 20
percent (McClenney, 2004). Colleges must ensure equitable, fair and quality education
programs and policies to ensure that those students, who are determined to be
academically under-prepared, have an equal opportunity to effectively pursue their
educational goals as those students who come to community colleges “academically
prepared”. In addition, community college educators must recognize that their students
have multiple responsibilities, outside of just being a student.
Eighty-five percent of all community college students are employed and over one-
half of them work full time (Wilson, 2004). Full-time employment is an indication that
students are at risk of not achieving their educational goals, because they do not have the
same access to student support programs and services, class offerings may not allow them
take the classes that they need to meet requirements, and they have to extend their
enrollment at the college since they are limited in the number of classes they can take per
term (Wilson, 2004). In addition, nearly 30 percent of community college students are
married and over one-third have a least one dependant (Wilson, 2004). Work and family
responsibilities contribute to the risk of students not completing degree programs and
transferring to four-year institutions.

24
Each of the factors presented in this section: being academically under-prepared,
financial need, and having family and work responsibilities can serve as a significant
challenge for most community college students, including African American males; and
these factors may also play a vital role in the type and extent of their engagement
experiences within the college environment. In order to increase student success and
retention, community college administrators must understand students’ experiences,
including those of African American males, and the factors that impede their engagement
in the campus environment which ultimately impacts their academic achievement,
persistence and success.
Factors that Impact the Academic Success of African American Males
African American males are the least likely group to be enrolled in colleges or
universities and least likely than African American females to earn a college degree
(Hoffman et al., 2003). In 2003-04, African American females were nearly two-thirds
(60 percent) of the total African American enrollment in colleges and universities in the
United States, while the proportion of African American males enrolled in higher
education (40 percent) was the lowest enrollment for males of any ethnic or racial group
(American Council on Education, 2006). The disparities between African American
males and females are apparent, not only in enrollment in higher education, but also in
degree attainment. African American females earned a significantly larger proportion of
college degrees than their male counter-parts. In 1999, the graduation rate for African
American men in U.S. colleges and universities was 33 percent, 10 percentage points

25
lower than the college graduation rate for African American women (Cross & Slater,
2000). Furthermore, a recent study by the American Council on Education which
examines gender equity in higher education asserts that, real problems exist in particular
“for African American, Hispanic, and low-income males who lag behind their female
peers in terms of educational attainment and are far outpaced by white, Asian American,
and middle-class men” (King, 2000, p. 2).
African American females also academically outperform their male counterparts.
Studies suggests that African American males take fewer notes in class, spend less time
writing papers, participate less in campus activities, hold fewer leadership positions, and
report lower grades then African American females (Cuyjet, 1997). These facts highlight
a continuing widening gap, specifically between African American men and African
American women, in higher education access, persistence, and degree attainment.
Although an abundance of research exists that examines various aspects of student
retention and academic success, few studies focus specifically on the success of African
American males. Among the research that focuses on the retention and success of
African American males, a lack of qualitative research exists that examines the
experiences of African American males on college campuses (Davis, 1994; Harvey-
Smith, 2002). Furthermore, a large majority of studies that focus on African American
males in U.S. higher education are conducted at large four-year institutions; very few are
conducted at the community college level (Harvey-Smith, 2002).

26
Although, Swail, Redd, and Perna (2003) identified critical issues to minority
student retention in college such as academic preparedness in high school, campus
climate, students’ commitment to their educational goals and the institution, social and
academic integration, and the availability of adequate financial aid, the framework for
this study is based upon the notion that particular educational experiences, institutional
practices and student behaviors impact the academic success, retention and persistence of
African American males in higher education (Laird et al., 2007).
From a thorough review of the literature regarding the factors that impact the
success of African American males, a number of themes emerged that attempt to shed
light on some of the institutional challenges that African American males face on college
campuses, as well as some of the behaviors that they engage in to respond to these
challenges. First, numerous studies suggest that identity development and self-perception
are important factors to the success of African American males, because early schooling
experiences may play an important role in shaping their attitudes and perceptions about
school. Masculinity, gender-role socialization and negative stereotypes may impact
African American males’ ability and interest in learning in academic settings. Coping
strategies may help students in adjusting within an academic environment; however,
African American males have been found to develop resistance to employing these
strategies, again possibly limiting their capacity to succeed.
The most influential factors that impact the success of African American males
are institutional environment and campus climate. A negative campus environment has

27
been found to hinder student success, while a positive and supportive environment seems
to enhance student success and persistence. Lastly, academic and social connections, in
essence student engagement, in which students engage with faculty, staff, peers, support
services, and course content seems to have a positive impact on their learning, persistence
and success. The following sections will discuss these factors in further detail to provide
some context to the factors that impact the success of African American males in higher
education.
Identity Development & Self-Perception
Numerous studies that examine the educational status of African American males
and the nature of their negative educational position in our society suggest that African
American males face several unique academic and social challenges, which impact their
academic success. Research regarding the educational experiences of African American
males tends to focus on their early schooling experiences and the notion that African
Americans develop attitudes, which oppose or resist academic achievement (Ogbu, 2003;
Harris, 2006). Tyson (2002) found that schooling experiences play a central role in the
development of negative schooling attitudes among African American children (Harris,
2006). Obgu (2003) in his study of low achieving African Americans suggests that there
is a tendency not to put forth much effort academically because African American
children perceive fewer returns to education and fewer opportunities for upward social
mobility than White children (Harris, 2006). Furthermore, Ogbu (2003) asserts that high
achieving African Americans are negatively sanctioned by their peers, in which academic

28
success is equated to “acting White” (Ogbu & Fordham, 1986; Harris, 2006); therefore,
these findings suggests that African American students fear academic success because
they do not want their peers to perceive them as “acting White”. Although this theory
has been challenged by Harris (2006), who claims that there is insufficient evidence to
suggest that African Americans are negatively sanctioned by their peers and that this fear
is prevalent among African Americans in education, she does assert that African
American students’ negative attitudes towards school are shaped by early negative
schooling experiences (Ogbu & Fordham, 1986; Ogbu, 2003; Tyson, 2002).
Some scholars further suggest that masculinity plays a role in negatively affecting
African American males’ disposition towards school and that their poor academic
performance is a function of their inability or disinterest in fulfilling their roles as
learners in educational settings (Holland, 1991; Martin & Harris, 2006). Ogbu and
Fordham (1986) argue that gender-role socialization rewards African American males for
not achieving academically. This finding suggests that African American males are not
encouraged, socially, to achieve academic success. Further, Holland (1991) asserts that a
main reason for the alienation and poor academic performance of some African American
males is that they perceive most schooling activities as irrelevant to their masculine
identity and development (Davis, 2003). Steele (1992) offers that African American
males have an “academic disidentification” based on his study of African American
males whom he found to exhibit low levels of motivation to succeed; this study is

29
significant because it found a positive relationship between self-esteem and academic
performance.
Steele (1999) also advanced another concept known as “stereotype threat”, when
he discovered that capable African American college students failed to perform as well as
their white counterparts; however, and more importantly, Steele suggests that the
explanation often “has less to do with preparation or ability than with the threat of
stereotypes about their capacity to succeed” (p. 1, 1999). He further proposes that
negative stereotypes about the intellectual ability of African Americans may result in
their academic underperformance because of their fear of confirming these negative
stereotypes (Steele 1992; Steele, 1997). Again, although some researchers suggest that
African Americans’ lower school achievement should not be attributed to lower levels of
desire for success (Harris, 2006; Tyson 2002), there is agreement that lower academic
performance is a product of negative school experiences, feelings of marginalization, and
institutional factors that limit learning opportunities for African American males in
educational settings (Davis, 1994; Davis, 2003). Therefore, these studies suggest that
ethnicity, gender and identity development have a fundamental impact on the college
experiences of African American males.
Coping Strategies
Scholars assert that African American, Asian American, Latino/a, and White
students possess different perceptions of the academic environment, based on their
unique historical background and cultural values; thus, their experiences in adjusting to

30
the environment will differ (Hurtado, Milem, Clayton-Pederson, & Allen, 1998). African
American males often experience personal challenges that require unique coping
strategies in dealing with prejudice and racial discrimination on college campuses. In
their book, Cool Pose: The dilemmas of Black manhood in America, Majors and Billson
(1992), discuss the coping mechanisms that African American males employ when faced
with challenging situations that question their manhood, affirm racial stereotypes, or
damage their sense of identity or self-worth (Bonner & Bailey, 2006).
The authors suggest that African American males adopt “cool” behaviors, which
give them control of a situation. These behaviors convey a masculine attitude that entails
scripts, physical posturing, strength, visibility and security that tend to empower African
American males in educational settings in which they are perceived by most to be
powerless (Bonner & Bailey, 2006; Majors & Billson, 1992). Further, Hughes (1987)
suggests that many African American men resist adopting strategies that would lead to
their academic success. Often due to African American males’ alignment with masculine
and macho principles, Hughes asserts that African American males find it necessary to
defend instances of racism, thus developing a resistance to employing strategies to lead to
their educational success (Bonner & Bailey, 2006).
African American students who have developed important coping skill such as:
dealing effectively with racism, positively identifying with the institution, bridging gaps
from student culture to institutional culture, having strong support systems, and strong
leadership skills, have been found to enhance their retention and academic success (Allen

31
1988; Harvey-Smith, 2002). In addition, these skills allow minority students to function
effectively on majority campuses by assisting them with making successful adjustments
in the overall college environment (Fleming, 1984; Harvey-Smith, 2002). Furthermore, a
variety of student characteristics such as a positive self-image, self-esteem and internal
locus of control have been found to correlate with academic achievement and success of
African American college students and are also important in helping students cope with
negative college experiences (Allen, 1988; Harvey-Smith, 2002).
Therefore, African American males have unique experiences as they attempt to
navigate, cope with and respond to prejudice and racial discrimination on college
campuses. In order to be effective in assisting African American males to be successful
in higher education, it is essential for institutions to recognize how ethnicity, gender, and
other family and community characteristics shape the experiences of this particular
student population (Cuyjet, 2006). The personal challenges that African American males
face in college would seem to have a profound impact on their engagement experiences
and ultimately their academic achievement and success.
Institutional Environment and Campus Climate
In analyzing the literature, Love (1993) asserts that although most retention
programs and strategies are aimed at correcting or changing African American students’
attitudes and beliefs towards education, these strategies fail to address the campus or
institutional issues involved (Harvey-Smith, 2002). Even though most studies that
explore the academic achievement of African Americans in higher education examine

32
pre-college indicators as a means to predict academic success (Davis, 1994; Johnson,
1993; Hagedorn et al. 2001), Carroll’s (1988) study of freshman retention in a
predominately African American, urban community college asserts that institutional
factors play an important role in determining the success of African American students.
Further, Nettles, Thoeny & Gosman (1986) compared African American and
White student performances in college and found that the most important findings “are
those related to the student-environment fit as measured by students’ feelings: that the
university is nondiscriminatory, academic integration, students’ satisfaction, peer group
relations, and interfering problems” (p. 306). In this particular study, the institutional
factors measured the quality of the college experience, and the findings suggest that
positive college experiences contributed to higher grade point averages. This study also
revealed that the observed interactions between race and student satisfaction, peer
relations and interfering problems demonstrate the need for greater sensitivity on the part
of colleges and universities to the particular needs of African American students (Nettles
et al., 1986)
Tanaka (2002) reviewed 31 self-studies conducted by the University of
California, in the early 1990s, using various quantitative survey instruments that
measured the relationship between student participation and quality of effort in college
and student outcomes. In his review, in more than one occasion, African American
students had the highest quality of effort of any ethnic group on campus; however, they
still had low graduation rates and low educational gains, with no clear causes or solutions

33
(Tanaka, 2002). These findings suggest that student effort alone may not lead to positive
outcomes for African American students and demonstrated that students’ may have
differential experiences which may not be captured by common survey instruments
(Tanaka, 2002). This research clearly demonstrates that institutional factors may play a
significant role in the educational outcomes and academic success of African American
students.
A common theme among the literature that exists regarding the college
experiences of African American males suggests that institutions make a concerted effort
to remove the institutional barriers that impede their progress by improving the campus
climate (Nettles, 1988; Townsend, 1994) and creating a positive social and supportive
environment (Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991). Campus climate and institutional
environment are referenced often as a significant contributor to the challenges
experienced by students of color in higher education (Greene, 2005). At predominantly
White institutions (PWIs), underrepresented groups on campus, including African
American and Latino undergraduates, often encounter impediments to their engagement,
such as a “chilly” or negative racial/ethnic campus climate (Hurtado et al., 1998; Laird et
al., 2007). Ancis, Sedlacek, and Mohr (2000) surveyed 578 African American, Latino/a,
Asian American and White undergraduates at a large, four-year institution regarding their
perceptions and experiences of the campus cultural climate. The study revealed that
African American students consistently reported significantly more racial-ethnic hostility

34
on campus, pressure to conform to stereotypes, less equitable treatment by faculty and
staff, and more faculty racism than any other racial group (Ancis et al., 2000).
Furthermore, problems of cultural adjustment, isolation from other African
Americans, and problems of racism compromise the academic careers of African
American undergraduates in predominately White institutions (Allen, 1988; D’Augelli &
Hershberger, 1993). Therefore, it can be assumed that African American students'
personal experience with racism on campus and their perceptions of the campus
environment can be viewed as mediating the relationship between their academic
potential and their performance (Mallinckrodt, 1988). Some scholars have argued that
negative campus environments are the most powerful factors that influence academic
achievement for African American students (D’Augelli & Hershberger, 1993; Mannan,
Charleston, & Saghafi, 1986).
Numerous studies on campus climate, conclude that a lack of cultural and social
support, and perceived prejudice and discrimination are associated negatively with
minority student retention; furthermore, scholars suggest that racism has a negative
impact on the development of students of color and is often taken for granted on many
colleges and universities across the country (Allen, 1988; Cabrera et al., 1999; Greene,
2005; Love, 1993, Townsend, 1994). Tinto (1987) suggests that these adverse conditions
make it difficult for African American students to feel comfortable and included in the
academic life of college. More specifically, Zamani (2000) in examining effective
retention strategies for students of color found that prejudice and negative stereotypes on

35
college campuses create problems for African American students and are the reason
many students choose to leave the institution.
On the other hand, studies have found that a positive racial environment on a
college campus is correlated with positive academic performance and persistence (Allen,
1988; Nettles et al., 1988). Moreover, the differences in academic achievement between
African American students at predominately White and historically Black institutions has
been attributed to the campus climate and institutional environment of college campuses
(Allen, 1992; Fleming, 1984; Nettles, 1998). For example, Fleming (1984) reports that
African American students at Black institutions experience a greater degree of
satisfaction in their social and academic endeavors; and therefore, tend to report higher
academic achievement. Based on the literature regarding campus climates, it is evident
that students of color are more actively engaged in their education, and consequently gain
more from their experiences when they are at institutions that they perceive as inclusive
and affirming and where students typically do not experience prejudice and
discrimination (Laird et al., 2007).
Furthermore, Clewell and Ficklen (1986) found that institutional commitment
from campus leadership to create comfortable and inclusive environments is an important
factor for student success (Harvey-Smith, 2002). Further, Bonner and Bailey (2006)
suggest that institutions take responsibility in creating academic climates that promote
success for African American men in college by focusing on, promoting, and enhancing a
positive institutional environment. When students are at institutions that they perceive as

36
inclusive and affirming and where performance expectations are clearly communicated
and set at reasonably high levels, students are more actively engaged in their education,
and tend to gain more from their experiences (Kuh, 2001; Kuh et al., 2005; Kuh et al.,
2006; Pascarella, 2001; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991, 2005). Therefore it is imperative
for institutions, particularly community colleges that seek to enhance the achievement of
African American males, to create an environment that is supportive and understanding
of the experience, culture, backgrounds, perceptions, and talents of African American
males and to develop strategies to effectively engaging them in the academic life of the
college (Bush, 2004; Cuyjet, 1997; Cuyjet, 2006; Hagedorn et al, 2001).
Most studies concentrate primarily on campus climate at four-year institutions,
however, these issues regarding prejudice, negative stereotypes, student satisfaction and
campus climate allow for inferences to be made in community college settings. A
negative campus climate, in which African American students have negative experiences
on campus, has a direct impact on their level of engagement within the institution.
Therefore, to be effective in enhancing the educational outcomes and the engagement
experiences of African American students, institutions need to take a proactive and
intentional approach to foster a positive campus climate; this study intends to explore the
perceptions and experiences regarding campus climate for African American males to
further understand how it impacts their engagement experiences in a community college.
Although negative campus environments and students’ perceptions of prejudice
and discrimination can impact educational outcomes, other factors can play an important

37
role in student success. Nora and Cabrera (1996) in their study of minority freshmen
students attending a pre-dominantly White postsecondary four-year institution, analyzed
the effects of students’ perception of prejudice and discrimination and their effect on
minority students’ academic outcomes. Nora and Cabrera’s (1996) findings suggest that
performance in college, encouragement from parents, positive experience with the
academic and social realms of the institution, and other factors are more influential than
perceptions of prejudice-discrimination among minorities on college campuses (Bush,
2004).
Further, in a study that examined the issues and problems of retention of African
American students, Love (1993) identifies seven areas that were found to significantly
impact student retention: racism, institutional leadership, finances, social interaction,
interaction with faculty, use of student services, and student characteristics. These
finding suggest that institutional factors, such as student interactions on campus, use of
student services, and a positive, supportive campus environment also play an important
role in the success of African American students. Townsend’s (1994) study which found:
faculty indifference, financial aid, lack of cultural and social support, absence of
institutional commitment, and campus climate have a significantly negative impact on
African American students’ retention; again, underscoring the importance of positive
student interactions and a supportive campus environment (Harvey-Smith, 2002).

38
Academic and Social Connections
In their comprehensive review of literature, Pascarella and Terenzini (2005)
conclude that the level of student involvement and connections to an institution’s
academic and social systems can play a critical role in students’ persistence and success;
thus students’ college experiences are vital to their success, retention and persistence.
Bean (1986) asserts that students come to college with certain attitudes and expectations,
which are confirmed or disproved through their college experiences and interactions with
others. Furthermore, Astin (1984, 1993) found that students who became more involved
in various aspects of college life, and had interactions with other students and faculty,
tend to have better educational outcomes; therefore, colleges need to provide students
with opportunities for interactions and involvement in campus life to enhance their
academic achievement and success.
Fischer (2007) asserts that students who fail to form sufficient informal and
formal social connections to others on campus are significantly more likely to leave the
institution than students who are more connected and involved. Fischer (2007) further
posits that involvement in formal educational activities on campus contributes not only to
greater satisfaction, but also to greater academic success for African American and
Latino students on college campuses. His study also suggested that academic
engagement, which includes connections with professors, tutoring and informal study
groups had a significant and positive effect on college satisfaction and academic
performance for African American students. Other findings emphasize the importance

39
that quality peer and faculty relationships and inclusive, supportive environments have on
the success of minority college students, particularly for African American males
(Harvey-Smith, 2002; Rendón et al., 2000; Townsend et al., 2004; Zamani, 2000).
Clearly, student connections, student relationships and overall student engagement,
matter to the success of all students, including African American males, in higher
education (Greene, 2005). These findings suggest that intentional efforts on behalf of
institutions to enhance stronger relationships between students and faculty, and other
educational connections within the institution hold the potential to enhance the overall
satisfaction, success and achievement of African American males in college (Greene,
2005).
Student Engagement
As evidenced through the reviewed literature, most retention strategies, regardless
of the type of institution, include creating a supportive institutional environment and
helping students establish meaningful connections and relationships on college campuses.
In his study, Greene (2005) found that African American community college students
who report higher-quality college relationships and who felt more support by their
college tended to perform at higher academic levels. The Community College Survey of
Student Engagement (CCSSE) recently published a validation report that examines the
relationship between student engagement indicators and community college student
outcomes. The report summarizes three large studies that were conducted to explore and
document the validity of student engagement indicators using the Community College

40
Student Report (CCSR). Confirming previous research findings, the results of these
studies broadly support the impact of engagement on community college students’
academic outcomes (McClenney & Marti, 2006).
These findings validate the relationship between student engagement factors and
outcome measures by suggesting the more actively engaged community college students
are with faculty, staff, peers, and course content, the more likely they are to learn, persist,
and attain their educational goals (McClenney & Marti, 2006). Furthermore, student
engagement factors, such as student faculty and peer interaction were found to strongly
predict student success for African American men in community colleges (Bush, 2004).
Hu and Kuh (2002) assert that student engagement is the most important determinant of
student learning and development for college students (as cited by Greene, 2005).
Student engagement is a valuable indicator for assessing the quality of colleges’
educational practices and identifying ways they can produce more successful outcomes
and for helping students to attain their academic goals within community college
environments. However, research has also found that African American males are not as
engaged in educationally purposeful activities as other students, particularly within
community colleges (Bonner & Bailey, 2006; Bush, 2004; Flowers, 2004; Harper et al.,
2004). This dissertation study focuses on understanding students’ experiences in
engaging in educational activities on a community college campus. By understanding the
experiences of African American males in engaging in formal and informal interactions
with faculty, peers and with other institutional resources and services, this study will add

41
new knowledge that will assist institutions in developing effective retention strategies for
this particular student population.
Theory of Student Engagement
Based on a review of pertinent literature, several key factors impact the success of
African American students, particularly males, in higher education. Although student
characteristics such as identity development, self-perception, and coping strategies play a
role in African American male student success, institutional factors such as: positive
student-faculty and peer interactions, cultural and social support, and a supportive
campus climate and environment appear to have a more powerful impact (Harvey-Smith,
2002). Therefore, to further examine the factors that impact African American students’
success, it is imperative to understand the student behaviors and the institutional factors
that impact African American students’ experiences in engaging within the campus
environment. This section will review student engagement theory and pertinent literature
that examines the five indicators of engagement as they pertain to African American
college students.
Kuh (2004) asserts students’ college experiences counts more in terms of their
overall college success, than who they are or what they do prior to starting college. Kuh,
Kinzie, Buckley, Bridges and Hayek (2006) describe the college experience as having
two central features: student behaviors and institutional conditions; student behaviors
include such aspects as the time and effort students put into their studies, interaction with
faculty, and peer involvement, while institutional conditions include campus

42
environment, resources, and educational polices, programs and practices (Kuh et al.,
2006). As indicated in Figure 1, student engagement exists at the intersection of student
behaviors and institutional conditions. Since much of the evidence regarding student
engagement appropriately accounts for students’ race or ethnicity, it leads to the
conclusion that engagement is found to be an indicator of student success for all students
(Laird et al., 2007); therefore, this study will focus on understanding the student
engagement experiences of African American males, within the context of student
behaviors and institutional conditions, in a community college environment.
Student engagement has two critical features; the first is the amount of time and
effort students put into educationally purposeful activities within the institution and the
second component is how well the institution encourages students to participate in these
activities (Kuh, 2001; Kuh et al., 2006). Certain institutional practices are known to lead
to high levels of student engagement (Astin, 1991; Kuh, Schuh, Whitt & Associates,
1991; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991). Chickering and Gamson (1987) in a landmark
publication, Principles of Good Practice for Undergraduate Education, identified seven
categories of effective educational practices that directly influence student learning and
the quality of their college experiences; these institutional practices include: encourage
student-faculty contact, encourage cooperation among students, encourage active
learning, give prompt feedback, emphasize time on task, communicate high expectations,
and respect diverse talents and ways of learning.

43
Figure 1. Student Engagement

From Kuh, G. D., Kinzie, J., Buckley, J. A., Bridges, B. K., Hayek, J. C. (2006). What
Matters to Student Success: A Review of the Literature Commissioned Report for the
National Symposium on Postsecondary Student Success: Spearheading a Dialog on
Student Success. National Postsecondary Education Cooperative. Page 8.

Generally, when students engage in these types of educational practices they learn
more, and are more likely to persist and graduate from college (Astin 1984, 1993; Hu &
Kuh 2001; Kuh et al. 2006; Pascarella and Terenzini, 1991). Further, high levels of
student engagement are also generally associated with campus environments that are
perceived by students as being inclusive and affirming, and where academic expectations
are clearly communicated and set at reasonably high levels (Kuh 2001; Kuh et al. 2005;
Kuh et al., 2006; Pascarella, 2001). Overall, these types of student behaviors and

44
institutional conditions that promote substantial levels of student engagement have been
found to be generally and positively related to student satisfaction, persistence,
educational attainment and student learning (Astin 1984, 1985, 1993; Kuh et al., 2006;
Pascarella and Terenzini, 1991).
At institutions where faculty members use effective educational practices more
frequently in their classes, students are more engaged over all and gain more from college
(Pascarella and Terenzini 2005). Some studies have found that the most important
purposeful activities that enhance student outcomes are: the amount of time students
spend studying, substantive interactions with peers and faculty, and the utilization of
institutional resources and support services (Astin, 1993; Kuh et al., 2005; Pascarella &
Terenzini, 1991); more specifically, Chickering and Gamson (1987) and Kuh, Pace, and
Vesper (1997) assert that student-faculty contact and collaborative student-peer
interaction are the strongest predictors of valued educational outcomes for college
students (Kuh et. al., 2006). The following sections will describe the indicators of
student engagement: academic challenge, student-faculty interactions, active and
collaborative learning, and supportive learning environments, as well as present literature
that addresses these benchmarks as it relates specifically to African American students.
Academic Challenge
Academic challenge refers to setting high expectations for student performance
and student academic effort in meeting those expectations. Expectations include:
preparation for class, number of assigned textbooks, number of written papers, and

45
coursework emphasizing synthesizing and organizing ideas, information and experiences
(Kezar, 2006a). Considerable research suggests that academic challenge relates to
student outcomes (McClenney & Marti, 2006). Students were found to learn more when
they are asked to tackle complex and compelling problems that invite them to develop an
array of innovative solutions (Kezar, Hirsch, & Burack, 2001; McClenney & Marti,
2006). In addition, the use of unconventional, challenging assignments has been
demonstrated to develop critical thinking skills (Herman, 2005; McClenney & Marti,
2006).
Research also suggests that peer mentors may help students succeed in creating a
challenging environment by helping to push students’ thinking on material, especially on
larger campuses, where student-faculty interactions are less likely to occur (Kezar,
2006a). Moreover, student effort such as the amount of reading of course materials, level
of note taking, frequency of class attendance, and preparing multiple drafts of an
assignment relates to student persistence and academic outcomes (McClenney & Marti,
2006). Furthermore, students participating in these academic activities have improved
writing and revising skills (Carifio, Jackson, & Dagostino, 2001) and have increased
exam performance (Williams & Clark, 2004; McClenney & Marti, 2006).
However, studies which examine the academic challenge and student effort of
African American males in college have found that they take fewer notes in class, spend
less time writing papers and report lower grades than their peers (Cuyjet, 1997).
Furthermore, Bush (2004) found African American men in a California community

46
college indicated feelings of a lack of classroom engagement by indicating they were
often bored in class at a higher rate than any other subgroup. These findings suggest that
African American males seem to be disengaged in the classroom environment. Although
challenging academic environments and high expectations appear to enhance student
outcomes, these aspects alone may not be enough for African American males, if they do
not take place in a supportive and positive learning environment, in which students are
able to establish and maintain positive interactions with faculty.
Student-Faculty Interactions
Formal and informal interactions, including E-mail conversation, faculty
involvement in orientation programs, learning communities and mentoring programs are
common practices for obtaining greater faculty and student interaction, specifically at
larger universities (Kezar, 2006). In their extensive review of higher education literature,
Pascarella and Terenzini (1991, 2005) identified relevant studies (Kuh & Hu, 2001) that
found a positive correlation between student-faculty interaction and positive student
outcomes. Related studies (Pascarella, 1980) found that informal student-faculty
interaction outside of the classroom, also has a positive impact on the socialization of
undergraduate students, and these interactions demonstrated a strong influence on
students’ persistence and academic achievement (Kuh et al., 2006; Tinto, 1993). Some
researchers contend that student-faculty interaction represents one of the most significant
aspects of students’ development and commitment to their institution (Astin, 1993).
Research further suggest that if this interaction is negative or if it does not occur, students

47
are more likely to feel marginalized, which increases their likelihood of leaving the
institution (Astin, 1993; Greene, 2005; Pascarella, 1980; Pascarella and Terenzini, 1991).
The interaction between students and faculty emerged from several studies as having an
important impact on the success of African American students (Harvey-Smith, 2002).
Although student-faculty interactions may have a positive impact on retention,
Gordon (1994) asserts that African American men are perceived by society to have poor
academic socialization and low expectations for their academic achievement, and
therefore are less likely to seek out faculty for assistance (Hood, 1990). One reason for
the lack of faculty interaction is that African American students may experience feelings
of being marginalized in the classroom due to perceived pressures of having to serve as
the spokesperson for their race (Gossett, Cuyjet, & Cockriel, 1996); in addition, Sedaleck
(1987) found that faculty are less likely to provide praise to African American students
that is equal to the degree and quality of praise provided to their peers. Therefore,
African American students choose not to have many formal or informal interactions with
faculty.
Nettles (1988) and Townsend (1994) discovered that African American students
in predominately White institutions found it difficult to establish supportive relationships
with White faculty. Wasson (1990, in Flowers, 2006) contends that African American
students have the perception that faculty in predominately White institutions are
unsupportive and unwilling to assist them in meeting their academic goals. On the other
hand, Christiansen and Sedlacek (1974) suggest that African American students are

48
afforded fewer opportunities to interact with faculty, found it difficult to get feedback,
and comments that they did receive are often not helpful. Nettles (1988) also found that
minority students are not provided opportunities to interact with faculty at the same level
and quality as White students. As a result of, either or both, faculty behaviors and
students’ unwillingness to interact with faculty, Davis (1994) claims that African
American males feel isolated on college campuses; thus, they tend to be unengaged and
disconnected from educational purposeful activities.
Although African American students tend not to interact, formally or informally,
with faculty, Pascarella’s (1980) popular persistence model found the student-faculty
interaction to be a significant non-cognitive variable affecting general student retention
and academic achievement. Furthermore, other studies have confirmed Pascarella’s
findings that positive student-faculty relationships are also associated with improved
academic performance and higher grade point averages, increased satisfaction, and
decreased feelings of alienation, specifically for African American students in four-year
institutions (Hughes, 1987; Fleming 1984; Love, 1993). In regards to African American
students in community colleges, research contends that those students who experience
positive student-faculty relationships are likely to believe in their ability to achieve their
academic goals and are also likely to have little experience with prejudicial and
discriminatory behaviors.
For example, Bush (2004) and Greene (2005) both found that student interactions
with faculty have a positive relationship with academic achievement and enhance

49
educational outcomes among African American males in community colleges. Therefore,
purposeful student-faculty interaction seems to have a positive impact on the success of
African American students in four-year institutions, and in community colleges. On the
other hand, Dougherty and Kienzel (2006) examined the transfer experience of students
from community colleges to four-year institutions and found that students’ contact with
advisors and faculty members had a negative impact on their academic success; this study
suggests that it’s not the frequency of interactions that matter, but rather the quality of
these interactions that impact student success.
Therefore, the exploration of understanding the nature and quality of African
American males’ experiences in interacting with faculty, which are currently not captured
through existing measures of student engagement is vital for institutions to enhance the
success and persistence of this particular student population within community colleges.
This study seeks to better understand student-faculty interactions from the perspective of
African American males in a community college. A deeper understanding of the nature
and quality of these interactions, or possibly why these interactions do not occur, will
provide valuable information for institutions to re-think our current approaches, such as
offering faculty office hours and expecting students to take the initiative to go, may not
be the most effective strategies to engage students, particularly African American men, in
these important educational activities.
Active and collaborative learning

50
Co-curricular programs, such as internships and service learning, group projects
and learning communities are common activities used to foster active and collaborative
learning on college campuses; and these activities foster student engagement and enhance
student learning (Kezar, 2006a). Student-peer interaction was also found to be important
to students’ academic and personal development (Bean, 1986; Pascarella and Terenzini,
1991). Astin (1993) suggested that student-peer interaction is a strong predictor of
educational outcomes and asserted that the peer group is the single most powerful source
of influence on the undergraduate student’s academic and personal development. Gerken
and Volkwien (2000) assert that the nature and quality of first-year students’ experiences
in the classroom, with faculty, and with peers are better predictors of desired educational
outcomes than pre-college characteristics (Kuh et al., 2006).
In their study of African American and Hispanic student engagement at minority
serving and predominantly White institutions, Laird et al. (2007) found that African
American seniors at a Historically Black College and University (HBCUs) scored
significantly higher on active and collaborative learning than African American seniors at
a Predominately White Institution (PWI). This suggests that African American seniors at
HBCUs were more likely to report that they often participated in activities such as asking
questions in class, contributing to class discussions, making presentations in class,
working with classmates inside and outside of class, and community-based projects as a
part of class, than their African American counterparts at PWIs. These findings suggest
that faculty at HBCUs may intentionally attempt to get students involved in the practices

51
and relationships that lead to desirable educational outcomes in classrooms, than faculty
at PWIs (Laird et al., 2007); further, the gains in overall development suggest that
African American seniors at HBCUs sense that they are learning and developing as a
result of a supportive learning environment, which enhances their collegiate experience to
a greater degree than African American seniors at PWIs (Laird et al., 2007). Therefore,
faculty and supportive educational environments seem to play important roles in fostering
active and collaborative learning environments.
Furthermore, campus environments in which students: develop close on-campus
friendships, perceive their college to be highly concerned about their success, participate
freely in college sponsored activities and use supportive student services have also been
found to enhance educational outcomes (Kuh et al., 2006). This dissertation study seeks
to understand the quality and type of active and collaborative learning that African
American males engage in on a college campus.
Supportive Educational Environments
Supportive educational environments are created through a systemic process, and
intentional and collaborative network of practices (Kezar, 2006a). Summer bridge
programs, orientation programs, welcome programs and first-year seminars are important
activities that help establish student engagement, particularly within larger campuses
(Kezar, 2006a). The use of college support services, such as tutoring and advising,
informal connections with faculty, staff and administrators, and student peer support also
help to ensure that students are connected to the campus community (Kezar, 2006a).

52
These activities are also important to enhancing the college experience and educational
outcomes of college students. Supportive educational environments are important, as
learning best occurs when students are in an environment in which they feel connected,
cared for, and trusted (Kezar et al., 2001; McClenney & Marti, 2006). Moreover,
supportive environments and group interaction offer students the structure to engage in
the educational process and fosters experiences that encourage retention (Wild & Ebbers,
2002; McClenney & Marti, 2006).
Most literature that examines the retention and persistence of students of color on
college campuses emphasize the importance of making connections, in and out of the
classroom, and the positive relationship that these connections have to overall student
success and satisfaction. Cheatham (1991), Fleming (1984), Pascarella & Terenzini
(1991) contend that minority students who are actively involved in their college lives
participate fully in classroom and out of class activities and feel a sense of connection
and campus community tend to be most successful in college. In examining the
experiences of African American males on college campuses, Bonner & Bailey (2006)
point out the critical factors that promote a positive social and supportive environment;
these factors include intentional faculty interactions and positive peer group interaction.
Kuh (2006) posits, “who students choose for friends and spend time with is important to
what they do in college and how they feel about their experiences” (p. 42). Pascarella
and Terenzini (1991) also suggest that peer groups influence students’ attitudes, career
choices, and college persistence (Bonner & Bailey, 2006). Although the majority of

53
research examines general peer interactions at four-year institutions, Bush (2004)
explored the experiences of African American males in community colleges.
In a focus group interview of six African American male community college
students, Bush (2004) found that students’ perceived their same-group, male peers as
being prone to “hanging out”, interested in socializing, rather than studying, and
generally being unengaged in college. This finding is significant because is provides
evidence that African American men may serve as obstacles to their peers as opposed to
serving as a means of academic support (Bush, 2004). Cujyet (2006) shares the same
perspective by asserting that some African American males tend not to direct their energy
towards academic success, but rather towards other social pursuits, such as: achieving
manhood status, socializing, and women. Therefore, research supports the notion that
peer interactions certainly influence student success, persistence and achievement;
however, for most students, particularly African American males, peer interactions can
have a positive or a negative impact on their academic progress. Building upon existing
research, this study will provide further insight into the experiences of African American
males and the nature and quality of their interactions with peers within a community
college environment. This study may further reveal the need to re-conceptualize the
notion of engagement for African American males and how their experiences are shaped
by their interactions with their peers.
The concept of student engagement recognizes the importance of academic
challenge and student effort as well as the effectiveness of active and collaborative

54
learning by fostering positive student-peer interaction, quality student-faculty
interactions, and an overall sense of connectedness within the institution. Based on this
research, student engagement is found to be an important indicator of student success;
however, some scholars have critiqued the notion of student engagement, how it is
measured, and suggest that other factors should be considered when examining student
engagement, particularly for non-traditional populations (Tanaka, 2002; Dowd & Korn,
2006).
Critiques of Student Engagement Theory
Despite the voluminous evidence supporting a positive relationship between
student engagement and successful outcomes, most of the research is disproportionately
conducted on general student populations in large, four-year institutions (Pascarella,
1997; Townsend et al., 2004), which may not always generalize to students at two-year
institutions. In a major study that explored student and institutional characteristics that
differentiate the most engaged and most disengaged students and the factors that link to
high and low levels of student engagement, Hu and Kuh (2001) utilized a sample size of
50,883 undergraduate students at 123 institutions across the country. However, this large
sample included only full-time students from various large, four-year research,
comprehensive and liberal arts colleges and universities; further, 83% of the participants
were White and 78% of the students were 22 years old or younger (Hu & Kuh, 2001).
Clearly, this study was not truly reflective of non-traditional, part-time and older, student
populations, which are typically found in community colleges (Hu & Kuh, 2001). Other

55
studies suggest that most literature on student engagement in higher education has
overwhelming focused on students at baccalaureate-granting institutions (Harper et al.,
2004; Harper & Wooley, 2002; Kuh, 1991; Kuh et al., 2005; Kuh et al., 2006;
McClenney & Marti, 2006). Therefore, a significant gap in the literature exists that
examine the engagement experiences of students within community colleges.
Student engagement has been widely studied within and across Predominately
White Institutions (PWIs) and Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) and
there is agreement that active engagement (formal and informal) positively affects
student outcomes, satisfaction, cognitive and intellectual skill development, and college
adjustment (Harper et al., 2004; Kuh, 2001; Tinto, 1993); however, none of these studies
adequately describe what these students experience on a community college campus.
Therefore, a lack of research exists that examines student engagement in community
college settings. Only within the past five years has research regarding the relationship
between student engagement and enhanced educational outcomes increased in
community colleges across the country primarily through the use of the Community
College Survey of Student Engagement’s survey instrument, the Community College
Student Report (CCSR) (McClenney & Marti, 2006).
Although the CCSR asks students to report the frequency with which they engage
in the activities that represent good educational practice that foster student engagement in
community colleges, these data fail to provide in-depth information which would allow
institutions to better understand the nature of student engagement experiences. Although

56
survey instruments measure the type and frequency of student engagement behaviors, the
quality of interactions among students, faculty, their peers, and their experiences in
connecting (socially and academically) within the institution are difficult to capture with
existing quantitative measures. Therefore, the quantity of faculty-student and student-
peer interactions account for only one part of the equation; without understanding the
quality of those interactions some scholars believe it is impossible to account for the
related student outcomes (Cox & Orehovec, 2007; Sax, Bryant, & Harper, 2005).
Cox & Orehovec (2007), in their qualitative study that examined faculty-student
interactions outside of the classroom at a four-year, residential college, assert, “while
educators know that faculty-student interaction outside the classroom is associated with
positive outcomes, there is little understanding of the process by which such interactions
take place” (p. 344). Therefore, the lack of qualitative data that examines student
engagement leaves researchers generally unsure why and how students engage with
faculty members, their peers, and with institutional support services. Such an
understanding is critical; without it, efforts to develop strategies and practices that foster
these educationally productive and engaging interactions will be limited in both their
effectiveness and efficiency (Cox & Orehovec, 2007). Not only do current measures of
student engagement fail to capture the quality of student interactions on campus, these
measures may also be insensitive to the cultural context in which these interactions occur
(Creswell, 2007). In fact, survey instruments such as the Community College Student
Report (CCSR) have been critiqued for being culturally insensitive for failing to take into

57
account the impact of student racial demographics, issues of power and cultural norms
(Dowd & Korn, 2006; Tanaka, 2002). Tanaka (2002) further suggests that there is
growing evidence that current approaches to measuring the impact of student
participation in the institution are no longer adequate to explain the increasingly complex
experience of contemporary college students.
In his article, Higher Education’s Self-Reflexive Turn: Toward an Intercultural
Theory of Student Development, Tanaka (2002) infuses critiques into survey instruments,
such as the CCSR, claiming that current survey instruments fail to allow students to self-
report their own cultural identities and histories in the social context of the institutions
they attend. He further asserts that voice, culture, and power are important constructs in
understanding students’ experiences in college and that these aspects are not often
captured through current measures (Tanaka, 2002). For example, Tanaka (2002) suggests
that each student should have the opportunity to locate his or her culture in relation to
such core experiences as course content, grading, and student-faculty relations, which
current survey instruments do not allow. This also includes examining whether these
experiences and interactions are friendly or unfriendly to a student’s multiple cultures.
Finally, Tanaka (2002) cautions that constructs, such as student engagement, can
be misused by researchers if they choose not to examine the underlying cultural norms of
the institution, thinking simply that the more a student immerses themselves in the
general activities of the campus, the more likely they are to persist and do well
academically. Therefore, it may be helpful to understand students’ cultural identities,

58
within the context of the campus climate, to have an accurate perspective of the quality
and nature of their engagement experiences; this will allow institutions to have a much
clearer picture of the outcomes that are typically found to be associated with student
engagement. Based on this critique, I question whether current measures of student
engagement capture and accurately reflect the quality and nature of African American
males’ experiences in engaging within community college campuses.
Theories largely developed and supported by research conducted with students at
four-year institutions are likely to fit students at those institutions better than students at
community colleges. The numerous differences between community colleges and four-
year institutions suggest a need to investigate the extent to which models of student
involvement, student effort and engagement developed in four-year institutions are
applicable to community colleges (Marti, 2005). Kezar and Kenzie (2006b) assert that
further empirical data is needed to identify important institutional differences that might
affect the way that engagement is created among different institutional types and sectors.
There is a need for additional research investigating academic and social engagement in
the two-year college environment (Marti, 2005). After conducting this study, I believe
the notion of student engagement is inadequately conceptualized, specifically for African
American males, in community colleges.
Institutional characteristics such as campus climate are found to be important
aspects of student engagement; the effort that students put forth towards educationally
purposeful activities is another important aspect that has also received criticism. Dowd

59
and Korn (2006), assert that “the concept of engagement omits critical aspects of the
effort racial-ethnic minority, low-income, and first-generation students must expend to
succeed in higher education” (p. 3); they suggest that non-traditional students put forth
effort that helps them succeed in college that is not recognized by current indicators of
student engagement. This concept of negotiating two worlds is known as biculturation,
also referred to as dual competency or intercultural effort (Tanaka, 2002), in which
students must exert effort to be competent in their own culture as well as the culture of
the institution (Swail et al., 2003). The different sets of values and norms represented by
the culture at home and at college need to be taken into account when studying various
aspects of student success (Kuh et al., 2006).
Successfully navigating dual environments of home and college is the
responsibility of, and demands effort by, both the individual and institution; students
should not be left to manage and resolve these intercultural differences on their own (Kuh
et al., 2006; Rendón, Jalomo, & Nora, 2000). Dowd and Korn (2006) describe
intercultural effort as: “1) effort to decode, gain trust in, and negotiate the culture of
higher education; 2) effort to participate in cultural affinity groups on campus; 3) effort to
transform physical campus spaces and the curriculum to incorporate aspects of the home
community; and 4) effort to develop an individual identity in a complex multicultural
environment” (p. 14). This concept of intercultural effort is significant in understanding
the experiences of African American males in engaging within a community college; it is
important to understand how students negotiate their social and academic engagement

60
while attempting to balance their home culture, and support networks outside of the
institution. Concepts of student effort and engagement assume that there is a culturally,
neutral level playing field (Dowd & Korn, 2006); this qualitative study provides a clearer
picture of the student engagement experiences of African American males to better
identify how these factors impact engagement to allow institutions to provide the
necessary support to allow students to successfully address them.
Although there are some critiques to the concept of student engagement and how
it is measured, it is clear that student engagement is found to be an important indicator of
student success and leads to positive student outcomes. This section does not suggest
that student engagement is a concept that should not be embraced; on the contrary, this
study suggests that student engagement is vital to the success of students, including
African American males. However, this study does suggest that we need to re-think how
we measure engagement and how students, African American males in particular,
experience it, within the context of their institutions. The indicators of student
engagement should be expanded to better reflect the personal identities and cultural
experiences of students, and the effort that students exert to negotiate their cultural
experiences need to be recognized and validated as educationally purposeful activities.
Taken collectively, these findings are supported substantially in previous
scholarly research that emphasizes the importance that quality peer and faculty
relationships and inclusive, supportive environments have on the success of college
students of color (Harvey-Smith, 2002; Rendon, 2002; Zamani, 2000). Based on the

61
literature presented in this section, it is clear that: having positive interactions with
faculty is positively related to academic outcomes, and having more formal and informal
social connections on campus are positively related to college satisfaction for all students,
more specifically for students of color, and African American students (Fischer, 2007).
On the contrary, students who fail to form sufficient informal and formal social
connections to others on campus are significantly more likely to leave the institution
(Tinto, 1987).
African American men have been found to have greater amounts of dissatisfaction
and are least likely to engage in purposefully educational activities when compared to all
other subgroups in California community colleges (Bush, 2004). This dissertation study
sought to understand why African American males are not engaged in educational
activities in community colleges by exploring the context and nature of the experiences
that impact their engagement; further, this study suggests ways in which institutions can
better engage this population within the campus community. Given that African
American males are more likely to enroll in community colleges than in any other
postsecondary institution, community college administrators must fully understand the
experiences of African American males to develop more effective strategies to engage
them in purposeful activities on their campuses, which enhance their likelihood of
successfully attaining their academic and professional goals and assist in closing the
educational and socio-economic gaps that exist in our society.
Conclusion

62
Overall, this chapter provides a framework that was used to examine the
engagement experiences of African American males in a community college. Clearly,
there is still a need for additional research conducted on community college campuses
that address the unique challenges and experiences of African American males (Harvey-
Smith, 2002). The central framework resides on the notion that institutional factors, such
as campus climate, faculty contact, peer interaction, and student connections within the
institution, all of which is termed student engagement, play a prominent role in the
academic success of African American male students. This review examined the context
of community college students and the factors that impact their success. The review
further examined the institutional factors that impact the academic success of African
American males. The importance of a positive and supportive campus environment was
highlighted. The review also explored the notion of student engagement and suggested
that, although important to student success, it may not be measured or conceptualized
accurately for African American males in community college settings. By understanding
the experiences of African American males in engaging in formal and informal
interactions with faculty, peers and with other institutional resources and services, this
study adds new knowledge that will assist institutions in developing effective
engagement strategies for this particular student population. In the next chapter, I will
discuss the methodology used for this qualitative research study.

63
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODS
Introduction
In this chapter, the methodological design used for this qualitative study will be
discussed. The purpose of this phenomenological investigation was to examine the
formal and informal engagement experiences of African American male community
college students at Mt. San Antonio College. Since this study sought to understand the
institutional factors that affect student engagement, the following three questions were
used to guide this qualitative study:
What are the formal and informal engagement experiences of African
American male community college students at Mt. San Antonio College?
What are the reasons (underlying factors) for their type and level of
engagement?
In what ways, if any, does the institution affect the engagement experiences of
African American males?
Constructivist Paradigm
Qualitative research begins with assumptions, a paradigm, and the study of
research problems inquiring into the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social
problem (Creswell, 2007). To study this research problem, a qualitative approach was
used to collect data in a natural setting to understand the context of the institution and the
environment in which these interactions and engagement experiences occurred (Creswell,
2007). This research study gained a deeper understanding of the engagement experiences

64
of African American males, particularly how institutional factors impact their
engagement experiences. As such, a constructivist paradigm was selected to capture the
multiple voices of African American male students within the context of the community
college environment. Constructivist assumptions seek to develop subjective meanings of
experiences; these meanings are varied and multiple, in which research is to rely as much
as possible on the participants’ views of the situation (Creswell, 2007). The intent of this
approach was to make sense (or interpret) the experiences and meanings others have
about their environment (Creswell, 2007).
The philosophical assumptions of the constructive paradigm provided the
conceptual and theoretical structure for this study. These five assumptions are adapted by
Creswell (2007) from the “axiomatic” issues advanced by Guba and Lincoln (1985).
1. Ontological: Reality is subjective and multiple as seen by participants in the
study.
The purpose of this study was to understand the multiple meanings as constructed
by African American male students about their engagement experiences and the
institutional factors that impact these experiences. This study did not attempt to predict
the engagement behaviors of these students.
2. Epistemological: Researcher attempts to lessen distance between himself and
the object of inquiry.
As the Director of Student Life at Mt. San Antonio College and being an African
American male, I acknowledged that I often interact with the African American

65
community on campus. Therefore, I consider myself to have “insider status”. I also
acknowledge that I have spent time in the field or have prior interaction with some of the
participants prior to this research study.
3. Axiological: Researcher acknowledges that research is value-laden and that
biases are present.
At the conclusion of Chapter One of this dissertation, I shared my assumptions
and values or biases that I have that may have impacted this study. Throughout the study,
I was mindful of my values and assumptions, paying close attention to any biases on my
part. In the narrative, I’ve attempted to include my own interpretations in conjunction
with the interpretations of the participants.
4. Rhetorical: Research writes in literary, informal style using personal voice and
uses qualitative terms and limited definitions.
During this study I employed an engaging style of narrative, and used an informal
style, using first-person pronouns, and qualitative terms to accurately describe students’
experiences.
5. Methodological: Researcher uses deductive logic, in which the study is
grounded in theory; however, there is an openness to inductive findings.
Although this study was grounded in student engagement theory, the findings
emerged from the gathered data, described in detail, and reported as themes within the
context of this study. Although the themes are grounded in deductive assumptions, the

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questions were revised as an on-going process based on my experiences in the field. I did
not attempt to generalize the findings from this study to others in the general population.
Furthermore, the following characteristics of qualitative research guided the
selection of this approach: a) natural setting, a source of data for close interaction, b)
researcher as key instrument of data collection, c) multiple data sources, d) analysis of
data, inductive, recursive, and interactive, e) focus on participants’ perspectives,
meanings, and subjective views, f) framing of human behavior and belief through a
cultural lens, g) emergent rather than tightly prefigured design, h) interpretive inquiry,
researcher reflects on his role, and i) holistic view of social phenomena (Creswell, 2007).
The paradigm, assumptions and characteristics of this qualitative study consisted of a
ground up research approach and provided an effective framework for analyzing data to
develop an increasingly detailed knowledge of the topic being studied (Creswell, 2007).
Phenomenological Approach
A phenomenological research approach was used as the strategy of inquiry to
explore the student engagement experiences of African American males in a community
college setting. Creswell (2007) describes a phenomenological study as an approach
used to “describe the meaning for several individuals of their lived experiences of a
concept or a phenomenon” (p. 57). The purpose of phenomenology is to grasp the nature
or describe the “essence” of the experience for all of the individuals (Creswell, 2007). A
description of the essence of these experiences consists of “what” they experienced and
“how” they experienced it (Mousakas, 1994). A phenomenological approach for this

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study provides an in-depth understanding of what and how African American males
experience student engagement in a community college setting.
Phenomenology has a strong philosophical component that rests on the following
foundations: “the study of the lived experiences of persons, the view that these
experiences are conscious ones, and the development of descriptions of the essences of
these experiences” (Creswell, p. 58, 2007).
Creswell (2007) suggests that there are two approaches to phenomenology,
hermeneutic phenomenology which focuses more on the interpretations of the researcher,
and psychological or transcendental phenomenology which focuses more on the
description of the experiences of the participants. I chose to use the transcendental
phenomenology approach for this study because it is based on a philosophy without
presuppositions. The purpose of this approach is to suspend all judgments about what is
real, until they are founded on a more certain basis. This suspension is called epoche
(Creswell, 2007). Epoche (or bracketing) requires the researchers to set aside their
experiences, to take a fresh perspective toward the phenomenon under examination
(Creswell, 2007).
Therefore, in order for me to embrace this idea, and this approach, I described my
own experiences with the phenomenon and bracket out my views before attempting to
describe the experiences of others (Creswell, 2007). In the following section, I attempted
“to become aware of personal bias . . . or at least gain clarity about preconceptions”
(Patton, 2002, p. 484) by sharing my personal attempt at epoche, in which I described

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certain features of my experience as an African American male undergraduate student
and reflected on my own level of student engagement. Although I did not attend a
community college, I believe there are certain experiences that I had as an African
American male college student that led me to develop personal bias and/or
preconceptions regarding the phenomenon.
Epoche
Being the first in my family to attend college at the University of California, I
acknowledge that I was moderately engaged within the University, more socially than
academically. I entered the University through the Educational Opportunity Program
(EOP) and attended the Summer Transitional Enrichment Program (STEP), which had a
tremendous positive impact in assisting with my transition to college. Through STEP, I
was able to acclimate to the college environment, learn about support programs and
services, meet with an educational advisor, live on campus for four weeks prior to my
first fall semester, and develop meaningful friendships, many of which I have maintained
to this day. Furthermore, I was a walk-on student athlete and was eventually selected as a
co-captain of the football team as a senior. These experiences profoundly shaped my
college experience and helped to ensure that I felt welcomed, connected to, and supported
by the University; also ensuring that I persisted, and successfully achieved my
educational goal, which was to graduate.
I perceived the campus climate as a positive one; I felt that the University
respected diversity and provided various clubs, programs and events that supported the

69
African American community, such as the Black Student Union, various African
American fraternities and sororities, and an annual “Black Family Day”. Although I was
recruited numerous times, I chose not to join a fraternity because I believed that I already
established strong, positive friendships during my first two years in college through
STEP, with my fellow teammates, roommates, and others that I met by living on-campus
in the residence halls. Although I was socially connected on campus, I still felt
somewhat uncomfortable being in college.
Internally, I struggled with the feeling that I did not belong at the University. As
an EOP student, I was admitted through Affirmative Action, therefore I knew that I was a
special admit which translated to me that I was not as smart as most of the other students
at the University. In most of my classes I did not feel confident in my intellectual ability
and therefore did not participate in class discussions and did not ask questions because I
was fearful that my questions would be considered “stupid” or “unintelligent”. I did not
visit professors during office hours, nor did I interact with any of them, formally or
informally, during my undergraduate years, mainly because I felt intimated and
inadequate in my intellectual ability. Therefore, my interactions with faculty were non-
existent.
Furthermore, I did not engage with other students in my classes because I did not
feel that I had anything in common with them. In several classes, I was the only African
American, which made me feel even more distant from my fellow classmates.
Furthermore, within the courses for my major, many of my classmates knew each other,

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studied together and socialized outside of class, which made me feel even more
disconnected from them. There were a couple of occasions when I took classes with
friends, and we studied together and supported each other, which was great; but those
experiences were far and in between.
Aside from my experience as a student-athlete, I did not participate in other co-
curricular programs, mostly because I had two part-time jobs and worked between 20-30
hours a week to support my education. I also chose not to utilize campus support
services or resources. Although I knew there were staff, particular in the EOP office, who
I could turn to for support, I chose not to, because I believed that I had to succeed on my
own. I always carried a sense of independence and learned at an early age how to cope
with problems and handle tough situations alone; therefore, the challenges that I faced in
college were no different. At the time I believed that my independence and ability to
overcome challenges on my own, made me stronger and as an adult, is what was
expected of me. As I look back, there were many occasions in which I should have
turned to someone for support or assistance, such as when my roommate passed away,
my parents divorced, struggling with calculus and computer science classes, and
uncertain about how and when to change my major. Most often, when I needed to turn to
someone, I turned to my friends for support.
In summary, my engagement experiences in college were mixed. I felt engaged
socially, however, I was not formally engaged with the University. Most of my time on
campus, outside of class, was spent doing football related activities (practicing, watching

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film, working out); aside from those activities, I hung out in front of the student union,
playing cards or dominoes in between class. I rarely studied on campus; I utilized the
library for the sole purpose of conducting research when necessary, otherwise I studied at
home. Although I was not necessarily engaged in educationally purposeful activities
while on campus, I was focused on my goal to graduate and did what I needed to do to
achieve it. Certainly there were many distractions that I had to overcome, mostly of a
social nature, but I knew that I had to be successful because I did not want to let my
parents down, since I was the first in my family to go to college. I was self-motivated
and pushed myself through tough times to succeed. I believe I had a great college
experience; I made the most of it, and I was able to do it on my own. I believe my
experiences show that I had significant and relevant experiences in engaging with the
institution during my undergraduate years. I believe I was able to set my experiences
aside and I took a fresh perspective in learning about the engagement experiences of the
participants in this study.
Research Site
This phenomenological study was conducted at Mt. San Antonio College (Mt.
SAC). Mt. SAC, a Hispanic serving institution, is among the largest of California's 109
community colleges. Located in the city of Walnut, just 25 miles east of Los Angeles,
Mt. SAC serves nearly 20 communities in the San Gabriel Valley, including: Baldwin
Park, Bassett, Charter Oak, Covina, Diamond Bar, southern portion of Glendora,
Hacienda Heights, City of Industry, Irwindale, La Puente, La Verne, Pomona, Rowland

72
Heights, San Dimas, Valinda, Walnut, and West Covina. Since the College opened its
doors in 1946, Mt. SAC has aimed to provide quality and affordable educational
opportunities to more than a million students (Mt. San Antonio College, 2007a). Mt.
SAC was chosen as the site for this study because it has a positive reputation for
effectively serving students and meeting the needs of a diverse student population;
however, African American students, particularly males, remain the lowest performing
subgroup at the institution, which is significant considering that the participants in the
study found the institution to be welcoming, open and supportive. Today, the College
serves close to 40,000 students, offers more than 200 degree and certificate programs,
and has earned statewide and national distinction in a number of disciplines (Mt. San
Antonio College, 2007a). Further, Mt. SAC is self-proclaimed as the “College of
Champions”, referring to their successful intercollegiate athletic and academic
competition teams and programs. Mt. SAC’s vision is to strive to be regarded as one of
the premier community colleges in the nation; the institution would like to be viewed as a
leader in community college teaching, programs, and services (Mt. San Antonio College,
2007b).
Since the Mt. SAC district serves such a large community, many of the cities
within the San Gabriel Valley, it also serves a diverse student population from various
socio-economic backgrounds. The median household income in 2005 for cities from the
east San Gabriel Valley was $59,300; however for cities within the southwest San
Gabriel Valley region, the median family income from the same year was $45,900. The

73
median income for the state of California in 2005 was $53,629; clearly, Mt. SAC serves
students from both, upper and lower socio-economic communities (City-Data.com,
2008). As is the case for most community colleges, Mt. San Antonio College also serves
an ethnically, diverse student population. Table 1 presents the student ethnic profile of
students enrolled in credit courses from 2006-07. Approximately 53% of Mt. SAC’s
student body is female, and 47% is male (Mt. San Antonio College, 2007c). Although
close to two-thirds of the Mt. SAC student population is in the 18-25 age range, the age
distribution at Mt. SAC is from 10 to 97 years old; the average student age is 26 years old
(Mt. San Antonio College, 2007c).
Table 1. 2006-2007 Mt. SAC Ethnic Profile of Credit Enrollment

Hispanic 44.5%
White (Non-Hispanic) 19.5%
Asian 19.2%
Black/African American (Non-Hispanic) 5.8%
Filipino 5.8%
Other Non-White 2.7%
American Indian/Alaskan Native 0.4%
Pacific Islander 0.7%
Unknown/Non-Respondent 1.4%

Mt. San Antonio College (2007c). Student Demographic Profile. Retrieved on July 8,
2007 from http://www.mtsac.edu/about/facts/ethnicity.html

Another reason why Mt. SAC was selected as this study’s research site is because
African American students are the lowest performing student population at the institution,
in terms of student success, retention, and transfer rates. In 2003-04, Mt. SAC reported
that a dismal 3.4 percent of African American students transferred to UC, CSU or other
public 4-year institutions. In contrast, the transfer rates for Asian American/Pacific

74
Islander students (29 percent), Latino students (28 percent), and White students (19
percent) in the same year were significantly higher (Mt. San Antonio College, 2005).
Furthermore, in January 2005, the Mt. SAC Student Equity Committee published the
College’s Student Equity Plan which assesses student equity across five major areas:
Access, Course Completion, ESL and Basic Skills Completion, Degree and Certificate
Completion, and Transfer from fall 2001 to spring 2004. Across multiple measures,
African American students and males reported the lowest success and retention rates
when compared to other peer groups.
For example, in spring 2004, the success (course completion) rates for African
American students was 61.6%, compared to 62.9%, 72.2%, and 73.5% for Latino, Asian
and Pacific Islander, and White students, respectively; these success rates are fairly
consistent with other institutions, in which African Americans generally report lower
rates (Mt. San Antonio College, 2005). Furthermore, the retention rate for African
American students in the same semester was 82.8%, compared to 83.2%, 86.6%, and
87% for Latino, Asian and Pacific Islander, and White students, respectively (Mt. San
Antonio College, 2005). Males also reported lower success and retention rates, when
compared to females. Although these statistics are not desegregated by gender and
ethnicity, it is clear, based on these reports, that African American males are the lowest
performing sub-group at the institution (Mt. San Antonio College, 2005). Mt. SAC was
an ideal site for this study because it provided an opportunity to understand African
American male students’ engagement experiences on a campus in which they are the

75
lowest performing student group, which is consistent with statewide trends and statistics.
In addition, Mt. SAC has earned a positive reputation for being one of the top community
colleges in the state, thus, other student populations have demonstrated the ability to
achieve academic success and positive educational outcomes at Mt. SAC; however, no
research has been conducted to determine why African American males are the lowest
performing sub group at that institution. This study sought to understand students’
experiences to provide a better understanding of their engagement experiences and how
these experiences may impact their success and achievement.
Participants
The sample for this dissertation study was comprised of African American male
students at Mt. SAC. To gather the participants for this study, I used purposeful
sampling. Patton (2002) defines purposeful sampling as “selecting information-rich
cases whose study will illuminate the questions under study” (p. 230). Having an
information-rich case provided me with detailed information regarding students’
engagement experiences. In order to include as much information as possible, maximum
variation sampling was the mode of choice. This mode allowed the study to detail the
many and different student experiences to give the contexts its “unique flavor” (Patton,
2002). Maximum variation sampling was used to select participants who have different
experiences in order to more thoroughly describe the variation in the group and to better
understand the variations in experiences (Patton, 2002).

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The sample was selected in ways that provided the broadest range of information
possible. Since this study examined the engagement experiences of African American
male students, the approach was to include participants who represented a variety of
experiences and backgrounds; variations in the following categories were selected: a)
academic major/discipline; b) number of units completed; c) number of hours worked per
week; and d) various degrees of involvement in college programs (i.e. athletics, EOP&S,
student club, student government or academic team). I was successful in obtaining a
broad sample in regards to experiences and backgrounds, however, the sample did not
represent a broad range in age, involvement in college programs, or number of hours
worked. Most participants were between the ages of 18-21, many were working part-
time or not working at all, and few were involved in college programs; this is reflected as
one of the limitations of this study. All of the participants in this study also met the
criteria of being self-identified or primarily associating themselves as an African
American male.
To obtain participants for this study, I solicited students by passing out flyers on
campus (see Appendix E) at the student center and the campus café. I also invited faculty
and staff to make referrals by sending out an electronic mail (email) announcement (See
Appendix D) to selected college administrators, faculty and staff. Once I received
referrals I contacted those students to participate. The recruitment and referral process
continued until I obtained the initial sample size of fourteen; however, since this study
was concerned with more quality than quantity, and more information richness, than

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volume, the sample size was terminated at twelve during the data collection process when
no new information was received (Patton, 2002).
Prospective participants were asked to complete a participant profile form (See
Appendix A). This form briefly outlined the purpose of the study and identified how to
contact the researcher. Interested students had the option to complete the form at that
time or to submit it to my office at a later date. The participant profile form was used to
identify students with different experiences, based on the previous stated categories.
Participants were selected based on these categories to provide a broad range of
experiences and information. Selected participants were contacted by telephone or email
based on their stated preference on the profile form. The purpose of contacting
participants was to answer any questions about the study and to schedule a date, time and
location for the initial interview. Once initial contact was established, interested
participants were asked to complete a participant informed consent form, which includes
the elements required by the USC Institutional Review Board (See Appendix F).
Data Collection
Prior to collecting any data, I first obtained approval from the Institutional
Review Board at USC. After obtaining this approval, I identified and contacted a
separate group of six students for a focus group. I conducted a focus group to pilot the
set of questions for the individual interviews. The students who participated in the focus
group were a representative sample of the students that I eventually interviewed. Using
the input and feedback that I received from the focus group, I was able to formulate new

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questions that were clear to the students and effectively drew out the general information
that I was seeking. The focus group allowed me to revise my initial interview protocol,
prior to conducting the one-on-one interviews. This process was extremely helpful to
allow me to develop effective questions for students about their engagement experiences
at Mt. SAC. This focus group lasted approximately one and a half hours (90 minutes).
This focus group was audio recorded and transcribed verbatim.
In an effort to understand the engagement experiences of African American males
at Mt. SAC, I conducted a series of one-on-one interviews with 12 purposefully selected
participants. These information-rich cases helped to provide an in-depth picture of the
students’ perceptions about their engagement experiences in college. As discussed in
Creswell (2007), when doing one-on-one interviews it was imperative to have
participants who were not hesitant to speak and share ideas. Using a flexible interview
protocol (See Appendix C), the interviews consisted of semi-structured open-ended
questions. These questions allowed me to ask follow-up questions in order to reach a
clearer understanding of the participant’s experiences.
The interview protocols focused primarily on the participants’ engagement
experiences and the institutional factors that impacted their experiences; these questions
were based on the salient themes discussed in the review of the literature (Chapter Two).
Participants were asked to first describe their overall experiences at Mt. SAC. Classroom
experiences, interaction with faculty, peers and use of student support services were
discussed. Next, the interviews transitioned into the reasons (underlying factors) for their

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type and level of engagement at Mt. SAC. These questions focused on the student’s
perceptions of engagement, their behaviors and the challenges that they have faced in
engaging within the institution, through their lens as an African American male. Finally,
participants were asked about the institutional factors, such as campus climate and
institutional environment that may have affected their engagement experiences at Mt.
SAC. When needed, adjustments were made to the protocol during the interview process.
Each interview last approximately one and a half hours (90 minutes) and occurred
at a time convenient to both the researcher and the interview participants. It was
important to find a quiet location, free from distractions to conduct the interview. All of
the participants agreed to conduct the interviews in my office, housed in the Student Life
Office at Mt. SAC. This location provided a closed, quiet room on campus to ensure
confidentiality and minimal interruptions. The interviews were informal and I began
each interview with a brief introduction of myself to break the ice and establish a
comfortable setting for the conversation. I shared a personal story about my experiences
in college to establish a comfortable and relaxed tone, and to encourage the participant to
open up to me during the interview. At the conclusion of each interview, I informed the
participants of the next steps, which included interview feedbacks and member checks.
All interviews were audio recorded and transcribed verbatim.
Data Analysis
According to Creswell (2007), data analysis consists of core elements, which
include coding the data into meaningful segments, combining the codes into broader

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themes, and displaying the data and findings. Certainly, there were several methods of
data analysis that could have been employed. The methods used depended upon the
methodological design of the study, but were also dependent upon the questions being
answered. In an effort to truly capture the essence of the engagement experiences of
African American males at Mt. SAC, I began with individual stories and through the
process of data analysis, I reconstructed these stories into a new story that emerged and
reflected the majority of collective experiences of the participants. Therefore, I employed
a systematic approach to analysis, which is traditionally used in phenomenological
analysis (Creswell, 2007). This approach included: describing my personal experiences
with the phenomenon, reducing the information to significant statements or quotes,
combining the statements into themes, developing a textural description of the
experiences (what participants experienced), developing a structural description of their
experiences (how they experienced it), and combining the textual and structural
descriptions to convey an overall essence of their experience (Creswell, 2007).
Creswell (2007) suggests that phenomenological data analysis begins with a full
description of my own experience of the phenomenon. This is referred to as epoche and
it is an attempt to set aside my personal experiences in order to focus on the experiences
of the participants in the study (Creswell, 2007). Secondly, the analysis builds on the
data (e.g. interview transcriptions) by highlighting the significant statements, sentences
and quotes that provide an understanding of how the participants experienced the
phenomenon; this step is referred to as horizonalization in which each statement has

81
equal worth and works to develop a list of non-repetitive, non-overlapping statements
(Creswell, 2007). In order to complete this step, I needed to first transcribe all of my
interviews. I organized my data into computer file folders and converted appropriate files
into word documents for analysis by using a computer software program
(HyperResearch). I then moved into the next phase of analysis by intensely reviewing
the interview transcriptions, and developing clusters of meaning from the significant
statements (Creswell, 2007). These larger clusters or groups of information are also
referred to as “meaning units” (Creswell, 2007). The development of meaning units, or
themes, allowed me to write a description of what the participants experienced with the
phenomenon; this is called a textual description of the experience and it includes
verbatim examples (Creswell, 2007).
In the next step, I wrote a description of how the participants experienced the
phenomenon, which is called a structural description; I also reflected on the setting and
context in which the phenomenon was experienced. During this step, I also needed to
reflect on the context and situations that have influenced my own experiences with the
phenomenon, to ensure that my experiences did not influence how I perceived or
interpreted the experiences of the participants in the study (Creswell, 2007). The final
phase in the analysis entailed writing a composite description from the textural and
structural descriptions that presents the “essence” of the phenomenon (Creswell, 2007).
This phase focused on the common experiences of the participants and represented the
culminating aspect of the phenomenological study (Creswell, 2007). At the end of this

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analysis there was a clear understanding of the phenomenon, and an understanding of the
engagement experiences of African American males at Mt. San Antonio College.
Limitations of the Study
Aside from potential affects from the research findings of this dissertation study,
there were still some limitations of this study. For one, this phenomenological study was
guided by the assumption that African American males are not as engaged as their peers
in community college environments. This assumption was based on my experience and
observations as the Director of Student Life at Mt. San Antonio College, as well as my
experience as an undergraduate college student. It was important that I did not allow my
current work experiences or previous college experiences to bias my interpretations of the
research findings. Although I attempted to bracket my own experiences, it was difficult
to implement. I often needed to be mindful of my epoche and constantly remind myself
to suspend my understanding of the phenomenon based on my own experiences and
focus solely on the experiences of the participants in the study.
The second challenge associated with the search for the essence of the
phenomenon was to resist the urge to oversimplify. I was tempted to reach the “essence”
of the experience and attempt to lump together experiences that are actually quite distinct.
As I attempted to understand the various experiences among the participants, I needed to
be mindful that these students may have very different histories and life experiences that
may have an impact on their college experiences; I was challenged to resist the urge to
homogenize their experiences.

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Furthermore, the participants in this study are traditional aged; ten of the twelve
participants are between the ages of 18-23 years old, and only two participants work 36
hours/week or more (see Participant Profiles in Table 2). Therefore the students who
chose to participate in this study are not very representative of community college
students, let alone of all African American males in community colleges. In addition,
since these students took the initiative to volunteer and to participate in this study, by
nature of their participation, these students were exhibiting formal engagement behaviors
within the institution. Therefore, obtaining an understanding of the experiences of
students who are completely disengaged from the college environment was not captured
through this study. Furthermore, the students’ experiences described in the following
chapter represent only a snapshot, rather than a longitudinal analysis of their college
experiences.
Another important consideration regarding this study is that I began each interview
by asking participants to describe their overall experience at the college. Every student
spoke of positive experiences, and how welcomed and supported they felt at the
institution. This was a complete surprise to me and it was an unexpected outcome; most
literature suggests that students of color, particularly African American students often
find the campus climate to be “chilly” and unwelcoming. This issue will be discussed
later in Chapter Four, however, as the interviews progressed, I attempted to further
explore the reasons why the participants perceived the campus to be a welcoming
environment. Nonetheless, this became another limitation for this study since this

84
institution might not be very representative of other community college environments;
thus the student engagement experiences will most likely look different at other
institutions, depending upon how African American males perceive the campus climate
and environment.
Certainly, during the study, some participants shared their negative experiences at
the institution, however I believe it is important to recognize that, in general, the
students’ engagement experiences in this study takes place within an environment in
which they feel, overall, is positive. As discussed in Chapter Two, the most influential
factors that impact the success of African American males are institutional environment
and campus climate. A negative campus environment has been found to hinder student
success, while a positive and supportive environment seems to enhance student success
and persistence (Swail, Redd & Perna, 2003). This is a very important aspect to
acknowledge at the onset of understanding the students’ engagement experiences in this
study. Lastly, this phenomenological study was centered at one institution; thus, there is
a lack of transferability to other institutions.
Ethical Considerations
Throughout the data collection and analysis process, the highest ethical standards
were used. I followed the rules and regulations set forth by the Institutional Review
Board at USC. Participants were informed of the study’s purpose and their participation
being confidential. Participants were made aware that their participation was voluntary
and they could choose to withdraw from this study at any time; no participants withdrew

85
from this study. Prior to conducting the interviews, all participants signed a consent form
(See Appendix F) and completed a participant profile form. The participant profile form
provided me with general background information that I was able to use to reference back
to during the data analysis process. Each participant was reassured that no one else, aside
from me, would have access to their profile form. Due to the personal nature of this
study and its location, alias names were used during the interview process and data
analysis. To further protect the identity of the participants, all audio recordings and
transcriptions were stored on my computer, which is password protected, and all written
files and documents were kept in a locked file cabinet in my office.
Trustworthiness
I use trustworthiness to mean research that is credible, dependable, and
confirmable (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). To help ensure the trustworthiness of this research
study, I used three separate techniques, among the eight suggested by Creswell (2007).
The first technique is recognizing, exposing, and clarifying researcher bias. Creswell
(2007) defines clarifying of researcher biases as “the researcher comments on past
experiences, biases, prejudices, and orientations that have likely shaped the interpretation
and approach to the study” (p. 208). This step was completed in the introductory chapter
in which I shared my assumptions about the study, through my professional experience
working at a community college. Earlier in this chapter, I also discussed my epoche, in
which I made clear my engagement experiences as an undergraduate college student.

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A second technique that I have employed to develop the trustworthiness of this
study is to include commentary and interpretation during the description of my findings.
In an attempt to fulfill the phenomenological methodology approach, I was able to remain
focused on the participants’ words and behaviors and still provide detail and context to
the conversations that I had with participants. The final strategy that I utilized is member
checks.
As defined by Creswell (2007), member checks “involves taking data, analyses,
interpretations, and conclusions back to the participants so that they can judge the
accuracy and credibility of the account” (p. 208). Member checks are considered by
Lincoln & Guba to be very crucial in establishing credibility of a study and its findings
(as cited in Creswell, 2007). They help to determine whether or not the findings from the
study match reality (internal validity). The member checks for this study occurred in a
two-step process. The first step of the member check occurred during the one-on-one
interviews. After each interview was transcribed and reviewed by me, I emailed the
participants a copy of the transcription and ask them for their feedback. The member
check at this point of the data collection process helped to ensure that the engagement
experiences of these students have been adequately captured. This provided the
participants an opportunity to clarify any inaccuracies presented during the interviews. I
made sure to hear back from each of the participants before moving forward; each
participant responded and all of them felt that the transcriptions accurately captured their
experiences.

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The final step of this member check came after the initial findings from the one
on one interviews were analyzed. The collective findings were presented to the
participants. The findings were presented in such a way that no participant was identified
and therefore, no one was offended. During this feedback session, it provided the
participants with an opportunity to ask questions, provide clarification, and correct any
inaccuracies. All of the participants expressed their appreciation for the opportunity to
participate in the study. They found the initial findings accurate and interesting; many
volunteered to participate in any similar, future research studies.
Conclusion
This chapter provides the methodological design of this qualitative research study.
In an effort to describe and interpret the engagement experiences of African American
males at Mt. SAC, a phenomenological study was conducted. The data collection
methods of this study included a focus group and twelve separate one-on-one interviews.
A systematic approach to analysis was used for this study; the approach included:
describing my personal experiences with the phenomenon, reducing the information to
significant statements or quotes, combining the statements into themes, developing a
textural description of the experiences, developing a structural description of their
experiences, and combining the textual and structural descriptions to convey an overall
essence of their experience. Lastly, the research findings were verified using the
qualitative strategies of clarifying researcher biases and member checks.

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Table 2. Participant Profiles
Name Profile
Andrew 39 years old; 3
rd
semester, returning to school after 17 years; sociology major
with an educational plan; currently works 15 hours/week; involved in the
future teacher’s preparation program; has a 12 year old son; recently
transferred to the University of La Verne.
Bobby 20 years old; 2
nd
semester; business major with an educational plan; currently
works 40 hours/week; not involved in any campus programs; participated in
the summer bridge program; would like to transfer to SFSU or UC Berkeley.
Cedric 19 years old; 2
nd
semester; biology major without an educational plan;
currently works 36 hours/week; not involved in any campus programs;
involved in his church; would like to transfer to USC.
Chad 19 years old; 4
th
semester; business major without an educational plan;
currently works 16 hours/week; involved in student clubs and in his church;
participated in the summer bridge program out of high school; is a Foster
youth; would like to transfer to the University of La Verne.
Curtis 19 years old; 2
nd
semester; plans to be a history teacher without an educational
plan; not currently working; not involved in any campus programs; served in
the U.S. Navy; not sure where he would like to transfer.
Dwayne 22 years old; 8
th
semester, off and on; liberal studies major, plans to be a
broadcaster without an educational plan; not currently working; involved in
athletics; not sure where he would like to transfer.
Jordan 23 years old; 3
rd
semester; public administration major; with an educational
plan not currently working; involved in athletics, student clubs, and serves as
a peer mentor; would like to transfer to USC.
Martin 21 years old; 8
th
semester; business major without an educational plan; not
currently working; involved in athletics; rides the bus, a 2 hour ride each way;
not sure where he would like to transfer.
Ray 29 years old; 6
th
semester, off and on; fashion design major with an
educational plan; not currently working; not involved in any campus
programs; would like to transfer to the Fashion Institute of Technology.
Scott 19 years old; 4
th
semester; theater arts major without an educational plan;
currently works 20 hours/week; involved in athletics; rides the bus, a 1 ½ hour
ride each way; not sure where he would like to transfer.
Shaun 18 years old; 1
st
semester; nursing major with an educational plan, plans to be
a dental hygienist; not currently working; not involved in any campus
programs; participated in the summer bridge program out of high school; not
sure where he would like to transfer.
Terrell 19 years old; 3
rd
semester; business major without an educational plan, owns
his own clothing business; currently works 20 hours/week; involved in
student clubs, and in his church; is a Foster youth; would like to transfer to the
University of La Verne.

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CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
Introduction
The notion of student engagement was explored by attempting to understand the
experiences of African American males regarding: faculty interaction, peer interaction,
their use of time on campus outside of class, and utilization of institutional resources in a
community college environment. This chapter consists of seven themes that emerged
from examining the relationships among the twelve horizonalization documents that were
used to summarize and capture the essences of participants’ experiences during data
analysis.
The seven themes that emerged from the interviews are as follows: 1) Having a
clear educational goal and an identified path in which to achieve it, allows students to
stay focused and helps to relieve stress and anxiety; 2) Students’ notion of independence
determines whether or not they take the initiative to seek assistance on campus; 3) Some
students welcome peer interactions, while others perceive these interactions as being
distractions, avoiding them altogether; 4) Students are engaged by faculty who genuinely
care and have a passion for teaching; 5) Students prefer faculty who teach to
accommodate various learning styles; 6) Time and financial constraints are real barriers
to student engagement; 7) A welcoming, open campus environment promotes greater
student satisfaction and enhances student engagement. These seven themes help to
answer the three research questions that were used to inform and direct this study. The
findings for each theme come directly from the composite textural and structural

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descriptions described in Chapter Three; verbatim examples are provided which represent
the essences of the students’ experiences.
In all, having a clear educational goal and an identified path in which students
achieve it emerged as the major factor that influenced the student engagement
experiences of the participants in this study. Almost half, five of the twelve participants
had identified a clear educational goal and established an educational plan with a
counselor. The educational plan assists students in pursuing their goal by informing them
of which courses they need to take each semester and it provides students with a realistic,
prescriptive, and structured timeframe for how long it will take students to achieve their
goals. According to Rosenbaum, Deil-Amen, & Person (2006), information regarding
academic planning is critical for community college students as this type of structured
support tends to lead to higher completion rates. Among the other seven participants, all
of them had identified an educational goal, but none had established an educational plan
or an identified path in which to achieve their goal.
Through this study, it became evident that the five participants in this study that
had previously developed an educational plan with a counselor were more likely to
exhibit student engagement behaviors by exerting time and effort into educationally
purposeful activities. For example, these five students recognized the importance of
getting to know their instructors; they approached instructors after class to ask questions;
they utilized counseling and other support services; and perceived peer interactions on
campus as distractions, avoiding social interactions on campus altogether. On the

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contrary, the other seven participants who did not have a clear educational plan, were
more likely to seek information on their own, choosing not to utilize campus resources or
approach instructors after class, and they were also more likely to seek out peer/social
interactions on campus; all of these behaviors, as suggested by student engagement
literature, typically do not lead to enhanced educational outcomes or academic
achievement. Each of these experiences will be further explored through the seven
themes presented in the following sections in this chapter.
Theme 1: Having a clear educational goal and an identified path in which to achieve it,
allows students to stay focused and helps to relieve stress and anxiety.
The essence of this theme focuses on the importance for participants to have an
educational goal and a clear path in which to achieve it, which allows them to be more
focused academically, than those students who do not have a clear goal or a structured
educational plan. Having a goal and a clear path to follow also helps to relieve the stress
and anxiety that students typically feel as a result of the uncertainty of not knowing what
classes to take, what they want to major in, or which career field they want to pursue.
Community colleges mistakenly make the assumption that students know what they want
to do when they first come to college; one of the most important decisions that students
need to determine at the onset of their educational career is their educational goal. Most
participants talked about their need to identify clear educational goals to help them get on
track, academically. In discussing his return to college after 17 years, Andrew talked
about the importance for him to identify a goal:

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When I told people I was coming back to school, their first question is, well, what
are you going to major in? The second question is, well, what are going to do
with that? It’d always be a type of question they wanted me to have a specific
answer…so that’s the first thing I did, I figured it out and…that helped me to feel
more comfortable with coming back to school.

Andrew took the initiative to figure out what he wanted to do, and as a result of
identifying his educational goal, he felt more comfortable in the community college
environment, particularly as a returning student. Each of the participants that have a goal
and an educational plan talked about how it helps them to stay focused on their education.
Jordan comments about the importance for him to have an educational goal by stating, “if
I don’t have a goal or an educational path, I have nothing to strive for and when I have a
goal, that’s what really makes me try hard and get As in classes.”
Not all students are able to take the initiative or have the ability to identify their
educational goals on their own. Therefore, community colleges need to recognize that
although many students may identify an educational goal on their college application,
they may be unsure of what it will require or how long it will take for them to achieve it,
and as a result many students muddle through their college careers with inadequate
guidance and assistance, unsure of what they want to do (Rosenbaum et al., 2006).
Cedric shares his perspective regarding students that still have not been able to identify a
major or an educational goal:
I’ve known people who changed their majors three times already. It’s just
because if you don’t know what you’re doing, you’re bouncing around and you’re
not quite sure what you want to do. They’re just drifting. And a lot of people that
you’ll tell them like, well, what do you want to do and they’ll say, I don’t really
know. I really don’t care.

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There were a number of participants in this study who, although they were able to tell me
what they’re majoring in, they were not convincing to me, because of their hesitation,
that they really knew what they wanted to do, and I certainly was not convinced that they
knew what it was going to take for them to get there.
Through this study, it seems that students understand that the institution expects
them to know what they want to do regarding to their educational goals, and as a result,
every participant was able to identify their major and an educational goal. All of them
stated that they want to transfer, most were even able to identify the university that they
wanted to transfer to, however, only five of the twelve participants had an educational
plan, which lays out the required courses and the semesters it will take for them to
achieve their goal. It is clear that although students are able to identify an educational
goal, most need assistance in helping to developing a plan in which to achieve that goal.
Therefore, community colleges need to take a proactive approach to ensure that all
students have the adequate guidance and assistance necessary to establish a clear, realistic
goal, as well as an educational plan in which to achieve it, thus enhancing students’ focus
and motivation in pursuing their educational goals, and ultimately their educational
outcomes and achievement.
Not only is it important for participants to have identified an educational goal, a
few of the participants talked about the importance of having developed an educational
plan, which provides a sense of satisfaction, and helps to relieve stress and anxiety.
Bobby comments on how important an educational plan is to his educational experience:

94
I didn’t know what I was going to major in or what classes I needed to take or
anything. The Ed [educational] plan mapped out my whole education, like
everything. Now I know I’m finished in fall 2009, so it made things easier. I
have a clear goal, which is now a time-stamp kind of like. I know what I need to
do in order to get there, and how much time it’s going to take, and that’s lovely.

Bobby discusses an important component of the educational plan, that it provides
students with a realistic time frame and inherently provides a sense of motivation for
students to achieve their goal. The participants that have an educational plan clearly
expressed their excitement and enthusiasm about having a plan in place, because it seems
to make their lives so much easier. Shaun was excited and enthusiastic as he talked about
having an educational plan:
Yeah, my counselor predetermined all that for me. I have an Ed [educational]
plan right now. It just makes me feel better, like [my goal] is reachable, you
know. I have my stuff planned out for me, so it’s not really difficult. I just go
along with the plan and all I have to do is just do good in my classes.

Shaun further explains:
If I didn’t have an Ed plan I’d kind of be lost, having to gather up all the classes I
need to take and for them to be able to do that for me and then tell me everything
I need to do to transfer and me not have to stress, it takes all of the pressure off
me…I feel as though I can put focus on doing well in my classes.

Ray has also developed an educational plan with a counselor, based on his educational
goal, and he expressed his satisfaction like this:
Having an Ed plan and having structure in the school system has helped me a lot
because basically, I didn’t know what I was doing, I mean, I know what I wanted
to do in life, but I didn’t know how to achieve it or what classes to take and the Ed
plan directs you on exactly how you can get it done.

The importance of identifying a major, having an educational goal, and an
educational plan, collectively, helps motivate students to stay focused, develop a sense of

95
satisfaction, and helps to relieve the pressures, stress and anxiety that many students feel
of not knowing what they are doing in the community college environment. Other
participants, those who did not have an educational plan, talked about their lack of an
educational direction and how they were not motivated or focused towards their
education. Curtis captures the essence of this perspective by sharing, that for him, not
having an educational plan caused him to be unmotivated towards his education:
The core reason was that I didn’t have a motivation, you know. Like you have to
have in your mind, this is what I want to do and this is what I have to do to get
there, and until I had that, I didn’t want to do anything.

Furthermore, students who do not have an educational plan can end up taking
unnecessary classes, which will essentially prolong their stay at the community college.
Ray currently has an educational plan, but during our interview he reflected on his
experience that led him to develop an educational plan with a counselor:
I pretty much took a whole bunch of classes on my own that weren’t necessary
and weren’t even towards my major or even really towards a degree, I didn’t
know what to take, so I was just taking classes like that I thought were
transferable, but a lot of them weren’t unfortunately.

The essence of this experience was common for those participants who relied on
themselves to try to “figure out” their class schedules and major requirements on their
own, without the assistance of a counselor and the overall intervention of the institution.
Taking unnecessary classes can have a negative impact on students’ educational
experiences, which has a financial impact and it could also negatively affect their grade
point average if they don’t do well in those classes. Identifying an educational goal and
developing an educational plan, essentially requires students to make an educational

96
commitment and it was clear during the interviews that some students were reluctant to
make that commitment. Chad captures the essence of this experience when he discussed
the reason why he chose not to see a counselor to develop an educational plan:
I was supposed to go, I should go, but I just haven’t got around to doing it yet.
I’m pretty sure once I get on that though, they actually will have an exact plan
that helps you. Why I haven’t? I don’t know because once I do something like
that, it’s like I’ll be obligated to it, so I’ll just do it next semester.

Clearly, having an educational plan helps students to focus and commit to their
education. Community colleges need to take the initiative to assist students in developing
their educational plan because it not only provides direction, motivation, a sense of
satisfaction, it also relieves stress and establishes a clear timeline for students to achieve
their goals. In addition, it is important to recognize that not all students want to develop
an educational plan because they are reluctant to make an educational commitment, for
reasons that were not fully explored during this study. As the participants talked about
their need to say focused on their education and how their educational plan helps them to
do that, another related theme emerged regarding their experiences, specifically as it
relates to seeking assistance on campus.
Theme 2: Students’ notion of independence determines whether or not they take the
initiative to seek assistance on campus
The way in which students perceive the notion of independence seemed to be a
major factor in participants’ perceptions and attitudes regarding seeking assistance and
asking for help; which ultimately shaped their engagement experiences. The participants
who perceived independence to mean doing everything possible to achieve their goal

97
were more likely to seek assistance on campus and were also more likely to enhance their
engagement experiences, than those participants who perceived independence to mean
self-reliance and doing things solely on their own. This finding is consistent with student
engagement literature in which studies have found that purposeful activities such as
substantive faculty interactions, and the utilization of institutional resources and support
services, enhances student educational outcomes (Astin, 1993; Kuh et al., 2005;
Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991).
Curtis, who typically relies on himself for information talked about the reason he
chooses to find out information on his own:
My uncle…he’s the one who pretty much gave me the mentality to always think
things through on your own…that’s how I grew up, make your own decisions,
think it out yourself, if you don’t know the answer, research it yourself…that’s
how I got that whole mentality to find things out.

Clearly, some students subscribe to this mentality in college and rely solely on
themselves to get by, which seems to conflict directly with the notion of student
engagement, almost creating, intentional “dis-engagement” experiences within the
college environment. The perception or mentality of some students to find out
information on their own should be commended and acknowledged as being resourceful,
however, within the college environment, this self-reliance does not always pay off.
Therefore, the information that students attempt to obtain on their own, may take them
down a different path, one that leads away from success. To exemplify this point,
Dwayne shared this about his self-reliance to obtain information, especially for class
projects and assignments:

98
I’ll go to my own resources and try to learn myself. The Internet or I’ll ask my
aunts, my uncles…if I have to study. Like I said, sometimes what I turn in is not
what the teachers want and I get a bad grade, you know. In the end, it makes it all
a waste of time, why do the homework in the first place, you know.

Dwayne’s experiences in relying on himself for information, instead of utilizing college
resources, such as asking his instructors for assistance, exemplifies how self-reliance can
have a negative impact on students’ engagement experiences, especially for those
students who are not willing to seek out assistance.
In attempting to understand this issue further, as to why a majority of these
participants chose not to seek assistance and ask for help; Terrell offered his suggestion
as to why he and other African American males prefer to rely on themselves as oppose to
relying on college resources to obtain necessary information:
You want to try to do it on your own to see if you could do it first…you have that
attitude, you know what? I’m a man now. I’m a young adult. I have
responsibilities. I can do it on my own. I don’t need no one’s help…and that’s
why we have that perspective, that sort of tough guy persona…learning for
yourself all the time.

This, I can do it on my own mentality, does not translate well in the higher education
arena. With the confusing terminologies, numerous acronyms, and multiple processes,
procedures and requirements abundant within the bureaucracy of the institution, there is
plenty that students do not understand; not because they are not intelligent, but because of
the complex nature of community college institutions. Surely students who rely on
themselves can manage to be successful in college, however, and most likely, this self-
reliant mentality conflicts with what community colleges expect; and that is for students
to know what they want and to take the initiative to ask for it. Student services are

99
available and willing to assist students all hours of the day, but if students don’t ask or are
not willing to utilize the services, important engagement experiences or quality
interactions do not occur within the institution, often resulting in lower educational
outcomes and less student satisfaction (Astin, 1993). Research further suggests that if
this interaction is negative or if it does not occur at all, students are more likely to feel
marginalized, which increases their likelihood of leaving the institution (Greene, 2005;
Pascarella, 1980; Pascarella and Terenzini, 1991).
On the other hand, some participants, those who have an educational goal and an
identified educational plan, tend to take a different approach and carry a different
mentality in regards to seeking assistance and asking for help. These participants talked
about their perspective of seeking assistance and how they use their independence to ask
for help, by utilizing all of the resources they can, to get what they need. These students
who perceive self-reliance as a means of engagement also tend to utilize college
resources regularly, which enhances their engagement experiences. Andrew shared his
perspective as to why he feels comfortable asking for assistance from the college, “for
one thing, it’s the maturity level that I’ve attained, so I know that I want to succeed.
There’s nothing wrong with asking for help. If I need help, I’m going to ask for help.”
He went on to offer his suggestion as to why African American males tend not to ask for
assistance:
Black men have been taught to just do things on their own and if you don’t you’re
less of a man, but that doesn’t make you less of a man, I don’t see anything wrong
with asking for help when you need help, especially if it’s going to benefit you in
the long-run.

100

Bobby captures the essence of the experiences for a few of the participants when
he shared that he grew up being independent, but he has used his experiences to help him
achieve his goals, by staying focused and asking for assistance when he needs it:
My mom was like, you can’t count on nobody to get you where you want to go.
You have to do it yourself…you cannot rely on anyone. No one person is going
to be able to help you get where you need to go. You have to go out there and do
what you need to do. So it’s like, OK, I need to know what classes I need to take,
so who do I need to talk to? And I talk to my counselors. I need to get good
grades. What do I need to do to get it? I need to go to tutoring, I need to ask
professors questions, I need to go to the lab. That was it. I have to do these
things in order to get where I need to go.

Although he has a sense of independence, Bobby has found an effective way to utilize
college resources to obtain the information he needs to be successful. Jordan shares a
similar perspective, and he enjoys receiving assistance and support from the college, “I
know that I need help and I actually like getting help from other people that are where
I’m wanting to go, so I don’t mind getting help from them”. Ray utilizes college
resources instead of relying on himself for information because he learned from his
experiences. Once he changed his mindset to believe that he is a strong person, because
he asks for help, he enhanced his engagement experiences and more importantly his
educational outcomes:
My first two semesters were horrible. I failed every class I took...not because I
didn’t know, not because I wasn’t smart or I just didn’t try, I didn’t care…then
once I changed my attitude about it, I got on the Dean’s List and I’ve been on the
Dean’s List ever since. I have African American friends who are very prideful
people, who won’t ask for help when I know they need help…I think it’s a male
thing that men just feel that, you know what? I can’t ask for help and it’s such a
stupid mind frame. I’m not afraid to ask for help and now that I do, I’m a better

101
student. I’m a strong person because I’m strong enough to ask for that help but
African American males see it backwards, that because they don’t ask for help,
that they are being a strong person, but they got it kind of flipped around.

Clearly, those participants who have an educational goal and an identified path in
which to achieve it were more open to seeking assistance, utilizing college resources, and
asking instructors for help; whereas those students who did not have an educational goal
and an educational plan, typically relied on themselves for obtaining information. These
two groups of participants had a different perspective of what independence means and
how it translates into the college environment ultimately shaping their engagement
experiences, positively and negatively.
Theme 3: Some students welcome peer interactions, while others perceive these
interactions as being distractions to their educational goals, avoiding them altogether
Again, the participants differed on their perceptions regarding peer interactions on
campus. Those students who have an educational goal, and an identified path in which to
achieve it, who also expressed their motivation and need to stay focused on their
education, found peer interactions on campus to be a distraction. The other participants,
who did not have an educational goal and a clear path in which to achieve it, welcomed,
and in fact looked forward to these peer interactions, often choosing these peer/social
interactions above going to class, studying and their overall academic success.
All of the participants in this study talked about their challenges with effectively
balancing their time and energy between friends and schoolwork. Some participants
talked about their engagement with friends and peers, particularly in an area on campus,

102
outside of the campus café, which students refer to as “The Tables”, where predominately
African American students spend their time. Those students who spend time at The
Tables, also talked about the struggle that they face in balancing their academic life.
Other participants admitted that their friends and peer groups are distracting, therefore,
they have intentionally avoided social interactions on campus altogether. Current
literature emphasizes the importance that quality peer relationships and inclusive,
supportive environments have on the success of minority college students, particularly for
African American males (Harvey-Smith, 2002; Rendón et al., 2000; Townsend et al.,
2004; Zamani, 2000); this finding emphasizes the distinction between quality peer
relationships and distracting, social peer relationships.
During the course of the interviews it became evident that the place that most of
the students referred to as The Tables, served as their community on campus, and this
community contributes to the students feeling that the campus is an inclusive and
supportive environment. The participants expressed that they feel welcomed and
supported on campus, and that is consistent with the understanding that they feel that they
have their own space on campus, where some participants frequent and others completely
avoid, but each participant was familiar with this location for African American students
on campus. Cedric typically spends his time at The Tables when he is not in class and he
sums up his experience by saying:
It’s so hard to mix play with education. That’s what was so hard in high school
because I was only thinking about, let’s hurry up so we can talk to people, do this,
do this, instead of going to class. That’s what I think about at The Tables, like I

103
think some people will not go to class because they’re just having so much fun at
The Tables.

Curtis, who also spends his time at The Tables, acknowledges that he sometimes has a
hard time making academics his priority:
I should have took tutoring last semester for my Japanese class, that’s why I failed
that class...The truth is people don’t want to take the time out of their day,
whether they think they might be too busy, and some people actually really are
too busy, but some people who aren’t as busy, like me, it’s just I don’t want to go.
It’s like I gotta take an hour or two hours out of my day and talk to this person…It
could be a mixture of laziness and distractions, do you want to go to this boring
tutoring or would you rather just go to the mall with your friends. Let’s go to the
mall.

The distinction between quality peer interactions and purely social interactions
became clear during this study. Most of what the participants described at the Tables
were social interactions, as opposed to the substantive peer interactions that positively
affect students’ experiences. It appears that those students who were not focused on their
education or intent on achieving their goals welcomed these highly social interactions,
while those students who were focused avoided them altogether. It was clear that
students were not able to successfully do both, focus on school and have a social life, it
was an either, or. Curtis further shares his challenges in trying balance between being a
good student while having a social life:
What’s the difference between people like us and the other people who are
successful; I could say that the difference is that they probably don’t have any
social lives, but for me, it’s like an either or.

Dwayne further stated:
Well, I try to study when I’m on campus, but there’s a lot of distractions when
you’re just outside by yourself trying to hang out. There’s always somebody

104
trying to talk to you or ask you what you’re doing and I just can’t get my work
done.

There are other factors that contribute to the distractions at The Tables that some
of the participants talked about as well. Chad shared, “some people who don’t go to
school here, come up here with a backpack with nothing in it and hang out all day and
they try to get us to not to go to class.” Scott also experienced similar social distractions
at The Tables, “…some of them [the students who hang out at The Tables], drop them
[their classes] and they keep acting like they’re going to class, but they really don’t.”
A few of the participants also talked about women as social distractions and how those
interactions take away from their focus on academics. Terrell captures the essence of this
experience as he explains:
Got here, saw the environment, the people, the girls and everything and…it just
sucks you in, it becomes a distraction. I’d have to say it sucked me in, it’s
something new that I never experienced before, a lot of interaction with girls, so
that kind of sucked me in, you know, it was a distraction…and I could have
gotten better grades in some of my classes.

Terrell provides an example of how his interactions with women became a distraction for
him:
Sometimes you say, oh, I think I’m going to go to the library, and this girl comes
and talks to you or something or you see this girl and you go and talk to her and
you’re like, well, I’ll just go to the library later. And an hour later, then you put it
off again, then you get home, and you realize you got this to do, this to do, plus
some stuff that you should have done, and you think, dang, I should have went to
the library.

Clearly, these distractions can have a negative impact on educational outcomes, by
choosing to hang out with friends as opposed to going to see a tutor or doing homework

105
in the library, and can negatively affect students engagement experiences by discouraging
them to put forth the effort towards educationally, purposeful activities. Although all
participants talked about their various struggles in balancing a social life with academics,
some participants attempt to deal with it while maintaining a social life, which often
includes hanging out at The Tables on campus, while other participants avoid The Tables
and other possible distractions on campus altogether to focus on their academics.
Andrew talked about his intentional lack of social interactions on campus, “my
main goal is to try to get that degree out of the way, I feel with the less distractions…I’m
a bit more focused that way…if I had friends on campus, that would be a distraction for
me”. Bobby shared a similar perspective, “without having those [social] connections, I
think it actually helps me because without people talking to you all the time, that’s less of
a distraction, but that’s a connection that you could have had that you don’t now, so it’s a
risk, but I’d rather just do my studying.” Bobby also talked about the struggle that he has
in trying to stay focused on his school work:
Oh, sometimes my friends want to hang out and stuff and I’ll be going, ‘I got to
do my work,’ and sometimes people that I meet in class, they’ll want to hang out
and I’m like, ‘No,’ then they’ll keep pushing it and I just gotta keep letting them
down. It’s like, man, then I think about it and then just thinking about it will
throw me off from my work and I have to bounce back from that…and focus
again.

Ray, who intentionally does not spend time on campus outside of class, also
talked about his struggle to balance a social life with academic:
I just keep to myself ‘til I’m done with school….it seems like every time I get
involved socially while I’m in school, my schooling suffers, my grades slack off,
so to uphold good grades, it’s like something has to suffer, so my social life

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suffers until everything’s taken care of pretty much…So I limit my personal
interactions on campus to try to avoid that.

Ray further emphasized his perspective regarding hanging out on campus:
I mean, you can get caught up in The Tables…I don’t want to get caught up in
that. That’s not something that you want to be seen as, as someone who’s never in
class, doing the same thing everyday when you know you should be in class so I
avoid The Tables.

Shaun, who also avoids having a social life on campus, talks about his need to stay
focused on his education:
I don’t really tend to build a social life on campus, because I don’t want to be
driven by distractions and I kind of like to do things by myself, it basically helps
me be focused at school. I feel as though when I leave school I have enough time
to be social, so while I’m at school I need to really be focused and keep to myself.

Another distinction that developed during the interviews is that some participants,
those that focus more on their academics and less on social interactions, also talked about
the importance of them having friends who have similar goals as they do because they
were less likely to be a distraction. Martin talked about the importance of having quality
peer relationships, as opposed to having distracting peer relationships:
I don’t have a problem being able to make friends. If I wanted to make friends, I
can do that, but I find like, when you have friends, you have to find friends that
are like you, dedicated…you can’t have friends that always want to hang out and
stuff like that, that’s a distraction.

Bobby also talked about the importance of having positive peer interactions:
The wrong type of people, they’re going to influence you to do the wrong type of
things. That’s just life, even outside of college, if you hang out with the wrong
type of friends, they’re going to have you acting stupid, as opposed to the people
that you should be knowing…the ones that are in school, studying, doing the right
thing, those people that you should really get to know, because your friends
reflect on yourself.

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This perspective is supported by student engagement literature, which emphasizes that
student-peer interaction is a strong predictor of educational outcomes and asserted that
the peer group is the single most powerful source of influence on the undergraduate
student’s academic and personal development (Astin, 1993; Bean, 1986; Pascarella and
Terenzini, 1991).
Therefore, some participants choose to hang around peers who are as focused as
they are on their education, which helps them avoid social distractions. These are the
same participants who choose to focus on their academics, while other participants
choose make social interactions their priority. From the interviews, and through
capturing the essence of the participants’ experiences, it became clear that students were
unable to successfully balance, both, a social life and an academic life. However, those
students who focused on their academics talked again and again about their need to stay
focused on their goals and their education, which enhances their academic experience.
Theme 4: Students are engaged by faculty who genuinely care and have a passion for
teaching
This theme further explores the students’ experiences in the classroom, and the
important role that faculty play in creating an active and collaborative learning
environment, which helps to foster student engagement experiences. The majority of
participants talked about instructors who cared about teaching and who can keep their
attention by bringing energy and passion into the classroom. As participants described
their experiences in the classroom, it became evident that students appreciated faculty

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who have passion, energy and genuinely care about students’ success. When asked to
describe his experience in the classroom, Curtis offered:
They [faculty] have to enjoy what they’re doing, if they are there just for the
money, it would show…they have to enjoy teaching their subject, they have to have
a passion if they want students to understand what they are trying to teach. Those
are the ones who are really going to put in the effort to teach you and they are the
ones that I’m going to put in the effort to learn from.

Although this theme does not necessarily present shocking information, it does address a
very important issue, particularly within community colleges where there are many part-
time faculty, who don’t necessarily have an office to conduct business or to hold office
hours. Based upon these findings, faculty (full-time or part-time) who are not passionate
about what they are teaching and most importantly don’t sincerely care about students’
success, they will not be very effective and students will be not be engaged in the
learning process, some may even chose to drop the class. On the contrary, faculty
members who are passionate and engaging can have a tremendous impact on students’
experiences in the class and their overall success within the institution.
Ray, shared a positive experience that he had with a faculty member:
He was a teacher who wanted his students to learn not only about the subject but
about success. Everyday in class he’d be like, OK, I want to teach you guys how to
get through college. I want to teach you how to do it, so you make the most of your
experience…and I’m like, man, this guy is really cool. He really actually cares
about his job.

During the interviews, I asked each participant to describe the qualities of the instructors
that were likely to engage them in the classroom. Jordan offered:
Someone that actually cares about being there…encourage you to come to their
office and seek help with anything you don’t understand. They’ll take time after

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class to talk…they will pretty much do anything to help you succeed in the class…I
take advantage of those opportunities.

Clearly, faculty who demonstrate to students that they care about teaching, care about
students’ success, not only in the class, but in life are effective at fostering engagement
experiences in the classroom. This genuine care displayed in the classroom also
contributes to creating a welcoming, open and supportive campus environment.
Faculty making themselves available seemed to be an important aspect that helped
to inspire students and engage students in the classroom. Demonstrating this availability
was also a way for faculty members to show students that they cared. Ray stated that he
had an instructor who told the class:
Here is my number, call me. Here is my email address, email me. Here are my
office hours, come by. Don’t be afraid to come to my office and he’d encourage
people to speak to him. I stayed after class everyday and talked to him for like 10
to 15 minutes after class to just make sure that I truly understood my
assignments…

On the contrary, some students shared their experiences with faculty who they believe did
not care whether the students learned the subject matter; they were more concerned about
getting through their lectures or about getting a pay check. Scott talked about his overall
experience in classrooms and his thoughts about the instructors that he has experienced,
“the mediocre ones just go through the routine, teaching you enough stuff to get through
the lecture, but you don’t see any fun in it…you don’t see any excitement going on, they
are just barely doing their job”.
Cedric concurs with this notion because he stated that he had an instructor who
“did not have any passion for what he was doing nor did he want his students to

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learn…this was made clear to the class when he said, if you pass or fail, I still get paid.
It’s like dang…this is kind of sad; I dropped the class”. Faculty who bring a passion to
the classroom, make themselves available, and demonstrate to students that they care,
have a profound impact on shaping student engagement experiences within the classroom
and their institution. Moreover, community colleges have a responsibility to ensure that
they hire passionate instructors, who not only know the subject matter, but can also teach
it in an engaging way. Furthermore, community colleges need to ensure that they hire
faculty who are sensitive to the various needs and experiences of community college
students, and who sincerely care about their success.
In further discussing their experiences in the classroom, although almost all of the
participants admitted that they typically do not ask questions during class, some talked
about the importance of getting their questions answered by their instructors after class,
while others discussed why they tend not to ask their instructors for help at all. The
participants who tend to be more focused on their education were also the students who
typically approached their instructors outside of class; they often discussed the
importance of understanding what their instructors expect as well as recognizing the need
to develop a positive relationship with their instructor. For example, Andrew stated:
I go straight to the instructor after class and ask him pretty much specifically what
I need to know…I would just go straight to the source…I’d just cut out the middle
man and I’d just ask the professor because each professor is different, so they’re
looking for certain things…I would just ask them what they were looking for
directly.

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Bobby typically takes the time to get to know his instructors and discussed his rationale
for doing so:
If you interact with the professor, they’re going to know you, they’re going to
remember you and you guys will build a relationship because you’re never going
to know who you’re going to need a letter of recommendation from…I just take a
second out of the day to ask them how they’re doing and they’ll feel better, you
know.

Jordan shared a similar perspective regarding his interest in getting to know his
instructors:
Just talk to them because the closer you actually get to the person, that’s you
seeing them as a person, not just as an instructor, that’s easier for you to talk to
them…it’s just that you learn stuff about them and it makes it easier, you can
relate to them better.

A key finding in regards to this theme is that none of the participants attend faculty office
hours, those participants who approach their instructors to ask questions, do so after class.
However, many faculty teach back to back classes and are not available after class, so if a
student approaches an instructor after class, the student may not get his question
answered and the student may also interpret that the lack of availability after class on as
the instructor not caring about students’ success or learning. Community colleges need to
be mindful of this issue and allocate time after class for students to interact with their
instructors, as opposed to scheduling instructors to teach back to back classes and expect
students to take the time to come back to attend office hours; clearly that does not
happen, so something needs to change.
Much of my conversations with participants regarding their experiences on
campus involved them talking about their need to stay focused on school and their goals,

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as well as their challenges, and their motivations, or in some cases a lack there of. Our
conversations also involved the role of the institution in providing support and creating a
welcoming environment inside and outside of the classroom. Not surprisingly, almost all
of the participants talked about the importance of receiving feedback and encouragement
as a sense of validation within the classroom, which adds to their positive experience on
campus and their engagement experiences.
Again and again participants shared how receiving positive feedback in class from
faculty encouraged and motivated them to do well. Each provided examples of how
faculty made a positive difference and positively influenced their experience. Ray
captures the essence of this experience with this example:
My first two tests, I got like a 57 and a 62 percent, so just getting that extra help
from that instructor, taking her time to pull me aside, to write on my test like, you
participate in class. You’re a very smart individual. Maybe you take tests
differently. Let me know what’s going on with you. Talk to me. Not just, sorry,
you got an F. You know, that’s encouraging for me because I was about to drop
the class and her writing those little notes on my paper encouraged me to say, you
know what? If I can just keep working at it, I’ll pass her class, and I did!

Terrell discusses what it means to him to receive positive feedback from an instructor:
Show that person some acknowledgement, a good job, every once in awhile, you
know. Even a good job for improving…A lot of students don’t get that, and they
work hard from day to night and just a good job makes a student want to do more.
It’s like handing me a trophy when you say, good job or excellent, because I feel
that someone else is acknowledging that I am working. Especially as an African
American, when we hear good job, man, that’s going to keep me going.

Not all participants experienced positive feedback and encouragement all of the
time. Some participants shared negative experiences that they’ve had with faculty and

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explained how feedback can discourage them in the classroom. Andrew’s experience
further describes the essence of this theme:
It was one class in particular, I was having difficulties, and the instructor rather
than trying to help me, kind of belittled me and told me that I couldn’t write. Up
until that point, I had passed all my English classes and I had written an exam
already. It’s not that I couldn’t write, I was having a problem with that particular
course. I didn’t really understand the concept of reporting and instead of him
trying to help me, he belittled me like that and I dropped the class.

Some participants shared other examples of negative feedback that they received
from with faculty. Ray explains the severe impact of a discouraging experience in which
he left college for a while; he captures the essence of his experience with this:
I cried once. I felt like quitting. I stayed up two days, two straight days to rewrite
a paper because I turned it in and he was like, no, it’s wrong. I don’t like it. You
gotta rewrite it. He did not give me clear feedback, I didn’t know what was
wrong, but I knew I had to rewrite it. So I stayed up two straight days, I didn’t
sleep…I still failed the class, you know, and it’s like I was very discouraged.
That’s when I was at the point I was like, you know what? I’m quitting school
altogether.

Although some participants had negative experiences with faculty in the classroom, the
participants in this study were able to move past the negativity, persist and continue their
education. Literature suggests that this is not common and that students who have
negative experiences in classrooms tend not persist or continue their education
(Pascarella and Terenzini, 1998); however, for various reasons, the students who
participated in this study continued to pursue their education.
These examples exemplify how faculty members who are uncaring and
unsupportive can negatively impact students’ engagement experiences. These findings
also reiterate the importance of recognizing that positive students’ engagement

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experiences are dependant on both, the students’ ability to put forth the time and effort
towards the engagement activity and the college’s (faculty and staff’s) ability to
effectively receive and foster that activity; it must be an equally shared responsibility. In
all, the engagement experiences of these students varied in the classroom; however, it is
clear that their engagement experiences were shaped by the instructors’ energy, passion,
availability, and feedback and encouragement. Students in community colleges spend
most of their time in a classroom, and the experience that they have in that classroom can
have a profound affect, positive or negative, on their overall college experience.
Theme 5: Students prefer faculty who teach to accommodate various learning styles
This theme continues to address students’ experiences in the classroom, and the
findings suggest that students are engaged by faculty who enjoy teaching, demonstrate
that they want students to learn, and are able to utilize various teaching methods in their
classroom to accommodate students’ learning styles. This theme is consistent with
previous research, which concluded that students are more engaged over all and gain
more from college when faculty members use effective educational practices more
frequently in their classes (Pascarella and Terenzini, 2005). Martin captures the
importance and the necessity for faculty members to be more patient and to teach to meet
the needs of students:
A good instructor should be able to explain his or her work thoroughly in more than
two ways and be willing to take the time to answer all questions when a student raises
their hand and not get mad…I’ve had some teachers who know the material, but
when you have 10 students raising their hands, the teacher gets irritated because they
want to move on, but we’re stuck here because there are so many questions…they
should not get frustrated, they think it’s our problem, that it’s our fault…maybe the

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teacher doesn’t teach it right.

This experience was shared by most other participants, the majority of whom, also
suggests that faculty who accommodate various learning styles and encourage
participation in class are also more effective at engaging students in the classroom. Most
of the participants acknowledged that they have various learning styles.
Dwayne offered his thoughts:
To work with students individually, rather than just speak on a universal
level…and expect you to understand…some people don’t learn the same way…
Power points are good, but it also has to be hands-on…to not only hear how it’s
done, but to see it and do it ourselves…I need examples and repetition.

Bobby further captures the essence of the participant’s experiences regarding their need
to have information presented in various ways:
Some of them [faculty] just lecture. I’ve noticed like the one I had, she just
lectured and lectured and lectured. She basically just rambles on our packets of
slides, and it’s like we could just be at home and just read that. That’s not very
engaging, you know what I mean?

Over and over, participants talked about the importance of faculty who can present
information in various ways, and how that approach was more engaging to the student.
Ray shared his thoughts about effective faculty members:
A teacher who understands that everybody in the learning environment does not
learn the same, so that teacher does not give their curriculum in one way. They
may give it to you verbally. They may give it to you visually. They may, if you’re
a person who needs it to be explained personally, take you to the side and explain
it to you. They’ll take the time to do that…that’s what helps me learn…I thrive in
that type of environment.

Scott had this to offer regarding an instructor whom he found to be engaging:

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She had a lot of energy and stuff. She made us participate in class and that
created more interactions within the class. She made more things that were
hands-on learning, like group activities…she didn’t just lecture and stuff, she was
active in the class and that made me active. I participated in class discussions and
I asked a lot of questions…we were all involved…

The findings in relation to this theme parallel the finding in Theme 4, and place the
burden on the institution to not only hire faculty who know the subject matter, but can
also teach it in an engaging and effective way. In discussing Theme 4, participants often
referred to the importance of faculty who were engaging and brought an energy and
passion to the classroom, which had a positive impact on their engagement experiences.
Students also emphasized that faculty who genuinely care and who teach to accommodate
various learning styles were also able to effectively engage them in their classes. The
findings for this theme also highlight the vital role that faculty play in fostering student
engagement experiences within the classroom.
Theme 6: Time and financial constraints are real barriers to student engagement
Finances, or the lack there of, can serve as a barrier to student engagement,
especially if it results in a student not being able to come to campus to attend class
because he did not have enough money, or to purchase a textbook, which often means
that the student is unable to effectively participate in class, and will often choose not to
attend. Most of the participants who are not working also shared their challenges, which
revealed the effort that they exert towards pursuing their education. Curtis, who is not
currently working, but is actively looking for a job, offered this:

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I come from a really low income family and we can’t even afford to buy gas, like
last week, there were two days out of the week where I couldn’t even drive here
because I just didn’t have the gas money, so I was like, well, I guess I’m not
going to school today…

He further described how financial constraints impact his educational experiences, and
results in a tremendous amount of effort that he must exert towards his education:
If I can’t afford to buy a book, at least I try to get to class. It makes it harder
when I don’t have a book, but I can handle it. I gotta motivate myself more
because now it’s not like you just go home and I got this book right here. Now it’s
like, oh, I have to stay after school and try to talk to some people and try to find
out exactly what’s the homework and all this. I have to have my work done before
I get home, you know, it’s crazy.

Dwayne recalled an experience in which he was asked to leave the class because he could
not afford the book:
One semester I took English and I was kicked out because I didn’t have the book
on the first day. Only because I didn’t have the money at the time. It wasn’t
because I was lagging or anything. Whenever [the class] took out the book and he
saw that I didn’t have it, he would just tell me to leave…when you can’t afford
the book and you get thrown out of class, that’s not encouraging; it’s
embarrassing.

Curtis captures the essence of the financial struggles that he faces, while attempting to
successfully pursue his education:
Honestly I could keep a 4.0 GPA, as long as I had all the resources, but without
the resources, even with 100% effort, it’s still hard, but honestly, even with the
financial aid, it’s still hard because they don’t give you enough to live on for the
whole semester.

Over and over, participants talked about their financial struggles and how it limited their
engagement experiences, particularly their experiences within the classroom. Time
constraints, aside from work, such as having to rely on public transportation to and from

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campus, also play a major role in the shaping or limited the engagement experiences of
the participants in this study. Most participants, again, talked about common experiences
which include not studying with classmates due to various time constraints, or not being
able to participate in extra-curricular activities, outside of athletics, again, because of
various time constraints and a perception that this type of co-curricular involvement is
distracting and will take away from their focus on their education.
Four of the twelve participants actively participate in athletics, as a means of
engaging within the institution. As a student athlete, Martin is not working, but he
commutes to and from school on the bus, which is a two-hour ride each way, and shares
his experience:
Being a student athlete, it’s a lot harder because there’s less time to cram in for
studying, or getting involved in other things... the bus comes at 6:30am, I get here
at about 8:30am and I go to class, after class we lift for a couple of hours, we go
to study hall, and then we get ready for the regular practice at 2:00pm for about
two or three hours, and we don’t leave until about 5:30pm, when I get home, it’s
about 8:00pm and I’m just tired. When I get home, I don’t want to talk to
anybody, I’m getting in the shower, eating, going to sleep, so that’s my day
typically… I usually study on the bus, you know, because it’s a two-hour ride. I
take advantage of the bus time if I’m not completely exhausted.

Scott, who is also a student athlete, works part time and also commutes on the bus an
hour and a half each way, shares his experience:
I get on the bus, I’m usually on there either sleeping, catching up on some more
sleep from last night, or depending on the class I have on that day, it’s homework,
like reading a novel or something, for the hour and a half I’m on the bus. Like
when I go on the bus, sometimes, I’m tired, and sometimes when I do want to do
something, I like to have peace and quiet, but when you have the bus engine, you
have the people on the phone talking, it’s just like, wow! This is a hard place to
study in.

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Undoubtedly, through developing a better understanding and appreciation for the
participants’ experiences and the effort that they put forth towards their education, even
the effort that it takes some of them to get to and from school each day, provides insight
into the reasons that may impact their engagement experiences on campus. All of the
participants talked about the effort it takes to balance school and work, handle family
responsibilities, and overcome negative perceptions and stereotypes, and how these
issues, in one way or another, limits their engagement experiences on campus. As a
result it may be that the indicators of student engagement should be expanded to better
reflect the personal identities and cultural experiences of these students, and the effort
that they exert should also be recognized and validated as educationally purposeful
activities.
As I began to understand the essence of the participants’ experience in this study,
I realized that most of the participants exert effort towards their education; however their
efforts do not translate to student engagement experiences. Unless someone takes the
time to truly understand “their story”; and they each have a story, the experiences of these
students will not be fully understood. Clearly, the community college environment, as an
open access institution, provides educational opportunities to people from all walks of
life and the findings here are not exclusive to African American males at this institution.
However, as each participant shared his stories, I began to appreciate their experiences
and the effort that they put forth towards their education, even the effort that it takes
some of them to get to and from school each day. All participants talked about the effort

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it takes to balance school and work and handle family responsibilities, and how these
issues, in one way or another, limits their engagement experiences on campus. The
following section further explores these reasons and the factors that impact student
engagement experiences.
Although, for the most part, the participants in this study found the environment
to be a welcoming and open campus, they all talked about the effort it takes to overcome
negative perceptions and stereotypes, which exists, even on a campus in which students
find to be welcoming, open and supportive. Exerting effort towards overcoming these
issues may also play a role in limiting the participants’ engagement experiences at the
institution. Many of the participants talked about their experiences with negative
perceptions and stereotypes and how they employ “a need to prove people wrong”
attitude as a coping mechanism and as a positive motivation to overcome those negative
perceptions, in which people typically do not have high expectations for them. During
each conversation with the participants, they all recognized the power of the media and
how that shapes their experiences in college, and how others perceive them and may treat
them differently, without knowing them as an individual. Terrell shared his thoughts,
“You have to beat those who are so judgmental. There’s no other choice but to show
them that we’re not like that, we’re not what you see on T.V.”. Andrew elaborated further
by stating, “whether it’s directly or indirectly, because the stigma that society places on
black men, that we’re lazy, that all we want to do is athletics and we’re all street thugs

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and we all come from the hood or the ghettos, it is not always true…and people,
especially teachers have to recognize that.”
When explaining how he deals with negative perceptions, Ray captures the
essence of this experience with this comment:
I’d try to get an A in their class. I’d try to bust my butt twice as hard to prove
them wrong. Just because I wear baggy clothes or I wear my hat to the side, some
teachers think I’m not smart. I like to prove them wrong and attempt to change
their mind on how they look at me.

The notion of having to prove them wrong can certainly serve as a means of motivation
for some students and play a role in shaping their engagement experiences within the
institution. On the other hand, the notion of having to work harder than any other
students in school also emerged as a common experience for many of the participants,
and again, emphasizes the amount of effort that these participants put forth towards their
education, which may not translate into student engagement experiences. Chad offered
this, “we’re brought up already thinking that we’re already at a disadvantage in life, so
we have to go that extra mile just to be successful, but its not easy; it takes a lot of work.”
Martin contributes this comment to support this notion:
I feel like being a black male, we still have it five times as hard as let’s say a
white person or an Asian or any other ethnic group, but that’s just how it is you
know…

Other participants talked about the pressure they feel in class sometimes by having to
represent for their entire race. Dwayne sums up this experience with this comment:
Sometimes I’m the only black person in my class. I wish there was a couple more
African Americans in here, female or male, you know…Like I gotta hold my own
and I have to represent for the whole entire race sometimes. It’s hard to inject my

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view in a conversation of whatever, because I’m afraid that they don’t understand
what I’m going to say but if I had another African American male in class, he
could help me elaborate and help me explain my perspective.

Dwayne’s experience suggests that he chooses not to participate in class
discussions, because he thinks that the other students in the class may not understand his
perspective and where he is coming from. Although most participants used these
negative perceptions as a means to motivate themselves in the classroom, to prove people
wrong, the effort that it takes to cope with negative perceptions and to believe that you
constantly have to “prove people wrong” is un-measurable and is often unnoticed by
those who do not understand their experience. Martin offered more insight about the
effort he puts forth towards his education:
School never came to easy to me. Everything I had to do, I had to really buckle
down and do it. I had to really work hard just to make it to college. I had to really
work my butt off and sometimes it becomes frustrating at times. You know, when
I see other students, they do well and it looks like they’re not even trying…I try
really hard.

Furthermore, as I learned more about each participant and the effort they put towards
their education to overcome various challenges and obstacles, I realized that this effort is
not necessarily translated into student effort, as defined by student engagement theory,
which describes the effort that students put forth towards educationally purposeful
activities. This finding is consistent with what Dowd and Korn (2006) assert that “the
concept of engagement omits critical aspects of the effort racial-ethnic minority, low-
income, and first-generation students must expend to succeed in higher education” (p. 3);
they suggest that non-traditional students put forth effort that helps them succeed in

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college that is not recognized by current indicators of student engagement. Therefore, I
found that it is important in understanding the experiences of the participants in this
study, to also understand that they exert a tremendous amount of effort to negotiate their
social and academic engagement while attempting to balance work, home and family
responsibilities, and overcoming negative perceptions and stereotypes.
To further understand the participants’ experiences on campus, I asked each
participant to discuss what a typical school day looks like for him. I was amazed to hear
how much these students have going on in their lives while pursuing their education.
Over and over again, each participant shared their stories and their experiences, and I
realized that these participants exert a tremendous amount of effort towards their
education. Although some participants are not working at all and most are not involved
in extra-curricular activities, they all still exert a high amount of effort towards their
education. Bobby’s experience captures the essence of this theme. Bobby, who works
40 hours a week, lives on his own renting an apartment, and does not receive financial
assistance from his family, shared his schedule for a typical day:
I wake up at 6:30am, I’m in class from 8:00am to 1:00pm, work from 2:00pm to
9:30pm, go home and study, go to bed at around 1:00am or 2:00am, get up at
6:30am and do it again…

In addition to work and school, Bobby shares that he also has family responsibilities
since he is the oldest child:
It’s like not even a joke, working, and being a big brother because I have a lot of
god-family because my mom’s best friends with their parents, and their children,
I’m a god-brother to a lot a lot of them. I don’t even see them as god-family
anymore. I have about six sisters and six brothers and it’s like to be a big brother

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to all of them, that’s another job in itself. Money, support, information, I’ve been
there for them. If I just had nothing but school, man, it would be all good! I just
have a lot on my plate and it’s hard to try to do it all.

Cedric’s experience is similar, as he explains how he balances working 36 hours a week
and pursuing his education:
With my experience I was working two jobs, I worked one job, it was at night
from 10:00pm to 6:00am, after work, my class started at 8:00am, and then
Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, I went to work at my other job from 9:00am
until 4:00pm, slept until 10:00pm, and then worked from 10:00pm until 6:00am,
so I don’t have too much time to sleep or to study. I don’t want any sympathy. If
I do good it’s like, ‘Hey, even with all this, I still did better,’ so that’s how it is. I
tell my professors, so they understand where I’m coming from. If I’m tired in
class or I don’t do well on my exams, it’s not that I wasn’t trying, because that’s
the worst thing when somebody thinks you did bad because you’re not trying.
Even if you give it your all and you fail, at least you gave it your all, so that’s one
thing, at least if they [faculty] know about you, they understand that…

I asked Cedric when does he make the time to study, his reply:
The night job was at 24-Hour Fitness. You sit at the front desk, nobody’s there
and I could just study there. I always tried to take Sundays off because, well, at
least part of Sundays off for church, we live in Fontana so on the ride to church to
L.A. (which is over an hour) and on the way back, I would study in the car.

These examples capture the essence of this experience for most of the participants,
particularly those who were working, and even those who worked part-time, discussed
their family responsibilities and how it limited their time to fully engage within the
campus environment. The participants shared how these experiences limit the
opportunities that they have to visit faculty office hours, study with classmates outside of
class, and/or to participate in extra-curricular activities. Certainly, this theme cuts across
all other students’ experiences, regardless of who had an educational plan and a clear
path in which to achieve it, for most of these participants, the responsibilities of life can

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still get in the way; which plays a role in limiting the participants’ engagement
experiences at this institution.
Theme 7: A welcoming, open campus environment promotes greater student satisfaction
and enhances student engagement
The third research question explores the role that the institution plays in affecting
the engagement experiences of African American males. This question was partly
answered previously in this chapter through the findings in Themes 4 and 5, which
revealed that participants are engaged by faculty who care, show energy and passion
while teaching and who teach to accommodate various learning styles; this suggests that
institutions, by way of faculty, directly influence the engagement experiences of students
in the classroom. In addition, the findings identified in Theme 1 informs us that
institutions can also positively impact students’ efforts towards educationally purposeful
activities by helping students identify clear educational goals and developing an
educational plan. As discussed at the onset of this chapter, every participant described
their overall experience at the institution as “positive”. I was surprised to learn that the
participants felt so strongly about their positive educational experiences.
Even though all participants talked about the need to overcome negative
perceptions and stereotypes, and those participants who had negative experiences on
campus still described their overall experience as being positive; I was curious to explore
what the institution was doing that contributed to helping the participants to describe their
overall experience as positive, especially since campus climate and institutional

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environment are often described as the most significant challenge for students of color in
higher education (Greene, 2005). Most of the literature suggests that students of color
typically describe their experiences in college as “chilly” or as having a negative
racial/ethnic campus climate (Hurtado et al., 1998).
Campus climate serves as the central focus of this theme; more specifically this
theme will highlight the factors that students perceive as important in shaping their
positive attitudes about the institution. In an attempt to capture the participants’ overall
experiences, a number of common responses began to emerge; participants talked about
the diversity of the campus and the support, resources and services that were available to
them. As participants described these factors and their perceptions about the institution,
it became clear to me why the students feel so positive about their experiences.
Some of the participants are connected in one way or another to the institution,
through active involvement in academic programs, athletics, or have participated in the
summer bridge program, which is a program designed to assist incoming students with
the transition into the college. The other participants are not formally involved in the
institution, but they have found their connections, socially, on campus by way of The
Tables (as described in Theme 1). The findings in this study remain consistent with
previous studies that suggest that student satisfaction regarding the institutional
environment is measured by students’ feelings that the college: is nondiscriminatory, has
positive academic integration, and supports peer group relations (Nettles et al., 1986).

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In describing the essence of their overall experience at the institution, many
participants used the words “welcomed” and “open” throughout our conversations.
When asked about his first semester, Shaun stated: “Yeah, they [the college] welcomed
me…so I feel pretty welcome and acknowledged…I feel welcomed here.” Andrew
describes his experiences in his classrooms like this:
Overall, I think it’s been great, very helpful. They [instructors] have been more
than willing to just help all the students in the class, in particular some of the
older students coming back, so they’ve been really helpful making us feeling real
comfortable in that type of setting…

Cedric also commented, “yeah, a lot of the professors I’ve had since I’ve been here, they
all know me by name, even after the class is over…it feels good.” Creating a sense of
comfort and helping students to feel good about the institution allows them to connect
with others and helps to foster engagement experiences, inside and outside of the
classroom. Most participants stressed the importance of feeling supported and how that
contributed to their positive feelings about their overall experience. Jordan captures the
essence of this experience with this comment:
I feel I have a very good support network here. Number one, because there’s
almost every available resource and service there is, as far as advising, and
progressing beyond academics, and good faculty interaction. I also know who I
can turn to when I am having problems on campus, so I do have a very good
support system, it’s really positive.

In all, most participants stressed the important role of the institution in creating a caring,
supportive and encouraging environment, as discussed in Theme 4, the students’ positive
feelings can translate into greater satisfaction and an enhanced college experience.
Clearly, a positive campus climate is critical to enhancing student engagement, however,

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it does not guarantee that students will take advantage of the opportunities that are
available. There is an institutional responsibility to not only create a welcoming, campus
environment, but to also ensure that students are fully engaged and take advantage of
these opportunities. Community colleges need to be intentional about directing students’
efforts towards purposeful activities and behaviors, even if it means bring information to
the students, as opposed to waiting for them to seek out services, which, according to
Theme 2, some students will tend to just rely on themselves to get by.
Almost all of the participants talked about the unlimited opportunities available to
them on campus, even if they chose not to participate or take advantage of them, there
was a sense of comfort on their part, in knowing about the number of services and
resources available to them. Bobby shared his thoughts regarding his overall experience
at the institution:
Everything’s pretty open. They have a wide range of things for you to get into. I
don’t really have any complaints and I’m glad I chose this school to be the school
I attended, and basically they have a lot of programs that pretty much tie into what
you want to do.

Over and over most participants, in talking about their positive experiences, referred to
the numerous programs, services and resources available to students on campus. When
asked about the services and resources that the participants use on campus, they
mentioned everything from the library, the learning assistance center (which includes the
computer lab and tutorial services), financial aid, health services, career services,
counseling, and the WIN program (which provides academic support for student
athletes). Some participants shared their experiences in taking advantage of these

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services and resources, while others admitted that they do not use these services at all;
however, to my surprise all of the participates were aware of these services and resources.
Terrell provides some insight into a lesson he’s learned regarding his experience
in utilizing campus services:
You know what? At first I was too afraid to go to a counselor. I didn’t even think
of actually asking for help, and then of course you’re going to end up realizing
you do need help. I took a risk on my own but it didn’t work. So now I’m using
all the campus resources I can, so therefore, I don’t have any more slip-ups.

Jordan shared how he learned about the available resources on campus:
We had this group project where the entire class was divided into different groups
and we had to research the different services offered by the school, and one group
did Student Services and they showed the entire class what was available to
students and how they could further their progress beyond academics and I
thought it was really interesting…and that’s how I got connected…

Most other students talked about the visible programs that occur through out the semester
such as the fairs and information tables that are available outside. Participants stated that
they perceived the college environment to be open and welcoming, in part, because of the
visibility of the programs and services that are available to students; where students do
not have to go into an office to search out information. Almost all of the participants
stated that they appreciate the fact that information is brought to them, outside to the
students. Shaun stated:
I attended the college fair, the job fair too. You know, I forgot, I received a job
from the college fair. I received some college information from the college fair, so
that’s real positive. That’s one thing I like better than high school. I like that a lot.
It’s more open around here to help you do things in life. It’s easier to find out
what is available to students.

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Martin captures the essence of participants’ experiences with this statement:
The different events make it fun because there are always free giveaways, food,
and music, so it draws in our attention. But, you know, we also get good
information about what is available to us. Like it shows us that the college cares
because you take the time to come outside to give us important information that
we would not usually be aware of.

Helping students to learn about the availability of college programs and services
is the first step, as it helps to promote student engagement experiences by encouraging
students to take advantage of those services and to direct their efforts towards
educationally purposeful activities on campus. The value in having programs that are
visible and available to students is that some participants discovered their major through
various interactions within the institution. Dwayne, who came to the institution as a
student athlete shared:
All I wanted to do was get a football scholarship. When I got here, unfortunately
it just didn’t happen. I got hurt real bad and I had to hurry up and come up with an
educational goal while I was here rather than already having one…What really
confirmed it for me was the beginning of last semester, they had some booths
around campus and I saw broadcasting and T.V. to become a broadcaster on
camera or behind the scenes. I grabbed one of those flyers and I liked what I saw,
so I found my major.

These visible programs and services can also play a vital role in helping to address
Theme 1, by assisting students to take the first step in their college careers by identifying
a major or a career goal by attending various college information fairs. The institution
still needs to ensure that students take their educational goals to the next step by
providing the necessary support to develop an educational plan by which to achieve their
goal.

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In addition to the resources and services available to students on campus, the
participants also stressed the importance of feeling supported and how that contributed to
their positive feelings about their overall experience, which also fostered their
engagement activities and helped to develop their connections with others on campus.
Curtis shared that his support network has been developed informally by getting to know
the staff that work on campus:
I try to get a business card to a mentor, a staff or counselor, from people who I
actually trust. You know, when I see these mentors on campus who are African
American males, we need that sort of figure, manly figure, that I can turn to when
I have a problem, and there are a couple of people that work here that I know I
can turn to if I need it…

Some participants commented about the importance of having a support network and
seeing other African Americans, particularly males, in the classroom and in important
positions on campus; these participants discussed how seeing other African American
males working on campus, it also helps to create a positive campus environment. Chad
shared his perspective regarding this notion:
Everything has been positive since I’ve come here. I suppose the fact that I was
able to meet other black people with the same goals as me, and seeing other black
men who work here and have good jobs, that is motivating…we [my friends]
hang out off campus and stuff too, so that’s positive, I’ve met some responsible,
intelligent black people here who are positive and that I look up too.

Overall, participants for the most part, feel welcomed and supported and are aware of
campus resources, even if some choose not to utilize them; however, community colleges
should not be content about making students feel welcomed and supported, that is only
the first step. The next, and most challenging step is to ensure that students utilize the

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necessary services to be successful. Nonetheless, this positive perception of the campus
environment comes from participants feeling that the campus is a diverse environment,
where there are many available programs and services that allow students be successful
and where students perceive that they have a support network, in which they see other
African Americans, particularly males who hold important positions within the
institution. Community colleges need to shift gears and not only focus on promoting
greater student satisfaction, but to take it a step further by creating greater student
success. The following chapter will discuss strategies and implications for community
colleges to enhance the success of African American males.

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Table 3. Summary of Results

Research
Question
Themes Essence of
Experience
Implications
What are the
formal and
informal
engagement
experiences of
African American
male community
college students at
Mt. San Antonio
College?
Having a clear
educational goal and an
identified path in which
to achieve it, allows
students to stay focused
and helps to relieve
stress and anxiety
Some students welcome
peer interactions, while
others perceive them as
distractions and avoid
them
Students prefer faculty
who teach to
accommodate various
learning styles
Staying focused
and keeping on
track
Perceptions of
peer interactions
on campus
Different
learning styles
and ways of
learning; prefer
hands on and
interactions
Ensure that
students have an
educational goal
and a clear path in
which to achieve it
Structure peer
groups that are
academically
focused

What are the
reasons for their
type and level of
engagement?

Students’ notion of
independence
determines whether or
not they take initiative
to seek assistance on
campus
Time and financial
constraints are real
barriers to student
engagement

Seeking
assistance and
asking for help
Put forth a
tremendous
amount of effort
towards
education
Gotta prove
them wrong
attitude
Ensure students
understand seeking
assistance is
normal and
expected
Develop a culture
of success for
African American
males
In what ways, if
any, does the
institution affect
the engagement
experiences of
African American
males?

Students are engaged by
faculty who genuinely
care and have a passion
for teaching
A welcoming, open
campus environment
promotes greater
student satisfaction and
enhances student
engagement
The strength of
positive
feedback and
encouragement
The availability
and visibility of
resources
Do the necessary
work to understand
and validate
students’
experiences

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CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS
Introduction
The seven themes highlighted in Chapter 4 provide a better understanding of the
engagement experiences of African American males in a California Community College.
This chapter provides an examination of the findings from this study compared to
research questions. This chapter also, examines findings in relation to existing literature
regarding African American males in higher education, reviews the current study’s basis
in student engagement literature, introduces five implications of findings for community
colleges, and proposes questions for future research.
Findings Compared to Research Questions
The first research question asked, “What are the formal and informal engagement
experiences of African American male community college students at Mt. San Antonio
College?” As participants discussed their experiences, it became apparent that most of
their engagement experiences were shaped by whether or not they had identified a clear
path in which to achieve their educational goals. As discussed in the previous chapter,
those participants who had clear educational goals with an identified path of how to
achieve them, were more likely to be intentional about their experiences, take advantage
of college resources and stay focused on their education. Those participants who did not
have an educational goal and a clear path in which to achieve it were not as likely to take
advantage of college resources, often seeking their own methods to obtain information
regarding their education, and welcomed social interactions with their peers. Therefore,

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having, or not having, identified an educational path to achieve their goals played an
important role in shaping the participants’ engagement experiences.
Clearly, the participants shared a number of common experiences that were not
related to whether or not they had identified an educational goal. For example, although
some participants stated that they tend to participate in class discussions, depending on
the topic, they all agreed that they don’t typically ask questions in class, nor do they
frequent professor’s office hours. Some participants stated that they do not have the time
to visit office hours due to various time constraints, including participation in athletics;
while others stated that they simply preferred to not spend time talking with professors
when they could instead spend time with their friends. The few participants that did
interact with their professors choose to do so immediately after class to ask questions
regarding their assignments, as opposed to taking the time to attend office hours.
Participants also discussed their experiences with asking for assistance and seeking
information. It seems that those students who talked about their need to stay focused on
their educational goals were more likely to rely on college resources, instead of
themselves, for information. Some participants talked about their social interactions with
peers and how they found those interactions to be distracting from their focus and pursuit
of their goals. Those participants, who did not discuss the need to stay focused on their
goals, were also unlikely to perceive their social peer interactions as distracting. Other
common experiences include not studying with classmates due to various time
constraints, including having to rely on public transportation to and from campus. Most

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participants stated that they did not participate in co-curricular activities, outside of
athletics, again, because of various time constraints and a perception that this type of co-
curricular involvement is distracting and will take away from their focus on their
education. For those participants who did not have an identified path in which to achieve
their goals, they did not see the benefit in participating in co-curricular activities, such as
clubs, student government or other leadership activities.
In regards to the second research question, “What are the reasons for their type and
level of engagement?”, all participants discussed their time constraints due to work,
transportation issues and/or participation in athletics as reasons for their lack of
engagement within the institution. A few participants also discussed their financial need
and how the lack of financial support for their education also limited their engagement
experiences on campus; either by not being able to attend class because they did not have
the money to buy gas to get to school or not being able to participate in class because
they did not have the money to purchase textbooks.
In answer to the third research question, “In what ways, if any, does the institution
affect the engagement experiences of African American males?”, participants agreed that
caring faculty who provide support and encouragement in the classroom has a positive
effect on their engagement experiences. Participants also emphasized the importance of
having faculty who teach to accommodate various learning styles. Furthermore, a
positive welcoming and open campus environment in which students are aware of the
various programs and services that are available, also contribute to their positive

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engagement experiences. Lastly, the findings suggest that although the participants
characterize their overall experiences as positive, there were a few examples in which
participants shared negative experiences, particularly as it related to the students’
perceiving their instructors as being unsupportive and uncaring. Overall, the participants’
engagement experiences were shaped not only by their own efforts to engage within the
institution, but equally, the institution’s efforts to be receptive, supportive and caring,
which are important ingredients in effectively fostering the engagement experiences of
these particular students at this institution.
Findings in Relation to Existing Literature of African American Males
Although there is limited literature on the engagement experiences of African
American males in community college settings, some findings in this study are fairly
consistent with much of the literature regarding the factors the enhance the engagement
experiences of African American males in higher education, particularly as it relates to
the major factors that impact student success such as: campus climate, commitment to
their educational goal, and academic engagement (Swail et al., 2003). Since the
participants in this study do not have significant work and family responsibilities, which
are common for most community college students, it begs the question as to why these
participants are not even more engaged than other community college students.
Consistent with student engagement literature, this study suggests that student
engagement is not based solely upon students having the time available; it is also
concerned with student effort and an institutional environment that fosters and

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encourages student engagement behaviors. Clearly, for this study, the students perceived
the institutional environment as being positive and caring, yet the institution was still not
truly effective in encouraging student engagement on campus. Therefore, student effort
is just as important as the effort that the institution must be put forth to provide guidance,
structure and clarity for students to foster positive student engagement experiences within
the community college setting.
Although most previous research on African American males has been conducted at
large, four-year institutions, some similarities emerged, as well as some differences
regarding the students’ engagement experiences in this study. The similarities include
the importance of academic engagement and positive student-faculty interactions, a
positive climate and supportive campus environment, and students possessing important
coping strategies to deal with negative experiences to motivate themselves to persist
(Allen, 1988; Harvey-Smith, 2002).
This study clearly demonstrates a distinction between social engagement and
academic engagement. Although most literature asserts that the level of student
involvement and connections to academic and social systems play a critical role in
students’ persistence and success (Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005), the findings from this
study suggest that students can be connected socially, if they choose, but most are not
connected academically, through faculty, tutoring and study groups, which have been
found to be have a positive effect on college satisfaction and academic performance for
African American students (Fischer, 2007). Other studies emphasize the importance that

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quality peer and faculty relationships have on the success of African American males,
and these appear to be important relationships that are missing from the experiences of
the students who participated in this study (Harvey-Smith, 2002).
Furthermore, literature suggests that social connections with peers have a positive
impact on African American male students’ learning, persistence, and success. Although
this may be true at four-year institutions, some of the participants in this study found peer
interactions to be distracting from their need to make progress toward achieving their
educational goals, and tended to intentionally avoid being socially integrated on campus,
unless students interacted with peers who had similar goals, focus and motivation. Other
students, who welcomed the social integration experiences, were also less likely to talk
about their need to stay focused and to pursue their educational goals. Although social
integration is important because it may lead to feelings of comfort and satisfaction within
the institution, it may not translate specifically to academic progress and success in the
community college environment.
Another important factor that influenced students’ engagement experiences in this
study is campus climate and students’ perceiving the institution as a welcoming and
supportive environment. Most literature regarding the experiences of African American
students in higher education are described as taking place within a “chilly” campus
environment, in which students feel isolated from other African American students
(Allen, 1998; D’Augelli & Hershberger); albeit most of the research has been conducted
at large, four-year, predominately White institutions. The findings in this study are

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unique in that the students describe their experiences within a campus environment in
which they feel a sense of support and openness. It may be as a result of, not only the
diversity of the student body, faculty, staff and administration at this particular
institution, but also because of the sense of community that the African American
students feel on campus by way of the “Tables”, as described by the participants in
Chapter Four.
This social environment is important because it allows students to stay connected
and not isolated from each other and it is creates a safe place where students can go to get
the cultural and social support from each other, which is often missing at many colleges
and universities. This does not mean that this social environment necessarily enhances
student’s academic achievement and success; nor does it mean that students do not
experience prejudice and negative stereotypes, which create problems and are often the
reason that students choose to drop out of college (Zamani, 2000). This study suggests
that peers, although an important component in helping student integrate within the
campus environment, yet, may not assist, and in fact, may deter students from academic
success in a community college environment.
Therefore the findings are consistent with previous research conducted on African
American male community college students, in which Bush (2004) found that students’
perceived their same-group, male peers as being prone to “hanging out”, interested in
socializing, rather than studying, and generally being unengaged in college. This finding
is significant because is provides evidence that African American men may serve as

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obstacles to their peers as opposed to serving as a means of academic support (Bush,
2004; Cujyet, 2006). Although research supports the notion that peer interactions
certainly influence student success, persistence and achievement; however for African
American males, peer interactions can have a positive or a negative impact on their
academic progress and based upon the findings from the current study, African American
males who are focused on their education tend to avoid these social peer interactions in
this community college environment.
Lastly, literature suggests that African American males are not typically supported
within our educational system; more specifically, they are not encouraged socially to
achieve academic success (Ogbu & Fordham, 1986), therefore they need to develop
various ways to cope with these experiences (Majors & Billson, 1992). Some of the
participants in this study talked about how they’ve developed a “gotta prove them wrong”
attitude, which serves as a positive motivation for helping them to overcome these
negative perceptions and stereotypes that they may experience in the classroom. This is
also consistent with previous studies that suggest that students who have developed
effective ways to deal with racism have been found to enhance their retention and
academic success; moreover African American students who have a positive self-image,
self-esteem, and an internal locus of control have also been found to enhance their
academic achievement and success (Allen, 1988; Harvey-Smith, 2002).
This is significant because it highlights the importance of African American males
using negative experiences as a sense of motivation, to keep them focused on pursuing

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their educational goals, assuming that they have one. This also illuminates the effort that
some of the participants in this study put forth to cope with these negative experiences,
which may have limited their engagement experiences on campus. The following section
will further explore the participants’ experiences specifically as it relates to student
engagement literature.
Current Study’s basis in Student Engagement Literature
Student engagement literature suggests that what students do in college, in regards
to their activities and the friends they keep, are the most important factors to their success
(Kuh, 2004); although the findings from this study would support the notion that the
friends that students don’t keep in the community college environment may be more
important to their success. Literature also suggests that student engagement has two
critical features, the first is the amount of time and effort students put into educationally
purposeful activities within the institution, and the second component is how well the
institution encourages students to participate in these activities (Bridges et al., 2005).
Therefore, in understanding student engagement it is imperative to recognize that there is
a shared responsibility placed upon the institution to ensure that students’ efforts are
fostered and positively received within an environment in which students perceive as
inclusive and supportive. This study focused on understanding the student engagement
experiences of African American males, within the context of student behaviors and
institutional conditions, in a community college environment.

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As outlined in Chapter Two, student engagement literature examines student
behaviors and institutional conditions through five main indicators: academic challenge,
student-faculty interaction, active and collaborative learning, student-peer interaction,
and supportive educational environments. The research questions for this study not only
attempted to understand participants’ experiences based upon these indicators, but to also
understand why students behave the way they do as well as the role that the institution
plays in influencing these behaviors. The current study differed from previous research
in that most previous studies focused on the experiences of general student populations at
large, four-year, predominately White institutions. Furthermore, the few studies
conducted on community college students were conducted using quantitative measures,
which although informational, failed to provide qualitative data to provide a thorough
understanding of the reasons behind student behaviors and their experiences. The
findings from the current study, through the lens of the four main student engagement
indicators, provide valuable information in helping to better understand the student
engagement experiences of African American males in a community college
environment.
Academic challenge refers to setting high expectations for student performance and
student academic effort in meeting those expectations (Kezar, 2006a). The findings of
the current study suggest that having high expectations is important, but it is only
beneficial to students when there is an equal balance of support and encouragement.
Participants talked about the importance of having faculty who care about their success

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and as long as that support is in place, students are more likely to be encouraged and
motivated to put forth the effort to meeting those expectations. Although challenging
academic environments appear to enhance student outcomes, these aspects alone may not
be enough for African American males, if they do not take place in a supportive and
positive learning environment, in which students are able to establish and maintain
positive interactions with faculty.
Student-faculty interactions, formal and informal, are found to have a positive
correlation with positive student outcomes and are important for student persistence and
retention (Kuh & Hu, 2001). This study is fairly consistent with previous research that
found that African American men are less likely to seek out faculty for assistance (Hood,
1990), partly because of a reliance on themselves to obtain information; although those
participants who had a clear educational goal and an identified path in which to achieve
it, were more likely to seek out faculty for assistance. Some participants shared that they
were uninterested in getting to know their instructors while others, those that were more
focused on their education, understood the importance of having a positive relationship
with their instructors and were intentional about utilizing them as a resource.
Moreover, the participants that talked about getting to know their instructors also
talked about the importance of initially perceiving their instructors as being open,
welcoming, and receptive of their efforts, which helped the students to feel comfortable
approaching them for assistance. Most participants also talked about the importance of
receiving clear feedback, positive comments, and encouragement as a means to assess the

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faculty’s level of support and care. If students perceive their instructors as being
unsupportive and unwilling to assist them, they will not make an effort to ask for
assistance. This interaction is important and the findings from this current study support
the contention that African American students in community colleges who experience
positive student-faculty relationships are more likely to believe in their ability to achieve
their academic goals (Hughes, 1987; Fleming 1984; Love, 1993).
Active and collaborative learning refers to the importance of technology-based
pedagogies and techniques, and teaching to accommodate various learning styles to
further enhance student engagement experiences within the classroom (Kezar, 2006a).
This study suggests that faculty whom accommodate various learning styles and
encourage participation are effective at engaging students in the classroom. Most of the
participants acknowledged that they have various learning styles and expressed their need
to have course content presented in various ways, not just through lecture and power-
point. The participants emphasized how important active and collaborative learning,
such as group activities/projects, class discussions, and interactive tasks and assignments
helped to facilitate their engagement within the classroom. Participants also often
referred to the importance of faculty who brought an energy and passion to the
classroom, which also had a positive impact on their engagement experiences. Creating
better learning environments for students involves: active learning, respect for diverse
learning styles, collaboration, and fostering involvement, all of which are effective
practices to improve student engagement (Kezar, 2006a).

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Student-peer interaction was also found to be important to students’ academic and
personal development (Bean, 1986; Pascarella and Terenzini, 1991). The findings for the
current study suggest that it’s the quality and type of peer interaction that is important.
Quality, substantive, and academic based peer interactions seem to serve as positive
interactions for African American males in community colleges. Most literature that
examines the retention and persistence of students of color on college campuses
emphasize the importance of making connections with peers, in and out of the classroom,
and the positive relationship that these connections have to overall student success and
satisfaction (Cheatham, 1991; Fleming, 1984; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991). The
findings from this current study are consistent with what Kuh (2006) posits, “who
students choose for friends and spend time with is as important to what they do in college
and how they feel about their experiences” (p. 42).
Literature emphasizes the strong influence that peer groups have on students’
attitudes, career choices, and college persistence (Bonner & Bailey, 2006), and in regards
to this study it is clear that peer interactions can be distracting and may have a negative
impact on students’ within the community college environment. All participants in this
current study acknowledged how strong this social influence can be, some chose to
engage in it, by hanging out at “the tables”, while others chose to avoid it all together;
those that chose to avoid it perceived the social interactions as being distracting to their
pursuit of their educational goals. Furthermore, the current findings were also consistent
with previous findings that suggest that African American males are least likely to

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participate in student clubs and leadership activities in higher education and the
participants in this study suggested that the reasons they choose not to participate, for
some it is due to various time constraints and, for others, these activities are perceived as
being a distraction that would take away from their focus on achieving their academic
goals.
Supportive educational environments are created through a systemic process and
collaborative network of practices designed to break down the campus to a smaller,
comfortable environment, often through programs such as student orientation, welcome
programs, and first-year seminars (Kezar, 2006a). These programs are essential in
helping to develop a positive and supportive campus environment, which are important in
helping students to develop positive attitudes about the institution. Overall, the
participants shared their positive experiences, talked about the diversity of the campus
and the support, resources and services that were available to them. In this study, the
participants expressed their connection in one way or another to the institution, through
active involvement in athletics, student services programs, such as EOP&S, Financial
Aid, athletics, or participation in the summer bridge program, which is a program
designed to assist incoming students with the transition into the college. Other
participants not formally involved in the institution, also found their connections,
socially, on campus by way of “The Tables” (as described in Chapter 4). The findings in
this study remain consistent with previous studies that suggest that student satisfaction
regarding the institutional environment is measured by students’ feelings that the college:

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is nondiscriminatory, has positive academic integration, and supports peer group relations
(Nettles et al., 1986). The use of college support services, such as tutoring and advising,
informal connections with faculty, staff and administrators, and student peer support also
help to ensure that students are connected to the campus community (Kezar, 2006a).
These activities are also important to enhancing the college experience and educational
outcomes of college students.
Overall, the concept of student engagement recognizes the importance of student
effort as well as the role of the institution in fostering substantive student-peer
interactions, quality student-faculty interactions, and an overall sense of connectedness
within the institution. Based on these findings, it is clear that positive student
engagement experiences are enhanced within a welcoming and supportive campus
environment, in which faculty are caring and supportive and students have a clear
educational goal and identified path way in which to achieve it. The following section
will introduce five implications on how institutions can respond to enhance the
engagement experiences of African American males in a community college setting.
Implications for Community Colleges
The following five implications are recommendations for community colleges to
consider for enhancing the engagement experiences of African American males.
Institutions that take the initiative to adopt these suggestions by changing the way in
which they do business may benefit from the contributions that African American males
may make at their institution, and more importantly, from the enhanced academic success

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and achievement rates that may result from these enhanced student engagement
experiences. The five implications are described below with a brief justification for each
implication.
Implication 1: Students need an educational goal and a clear path in which to achieve it
The major factor that influenced students’ engagement experiences in the current
study was whether students had an educational goal and identified a clear pathway in
which to achieve it. Institutions can no longer underestimate the importance of helping
students to develop an educational goal and an educational plan in which to achieve that
goal, particularly for student who unsure of their major or career interests. Institutions
must be intrusive and take the initiative to assist students in developing an educational
focus at the onset of the students’ educational career at the institution.
In community colleges, there are many goals and options that students can pursue,
for example, they can obtain a vocational certificate, take classes to enhance their
personal or professional development, or complete a general education pattern with the
intent to transfer to a four-year institution. Although many students may not know what
they want to major in or what educational goals they want to pursue, the institution must
take the initiative to assist students in formulating their plans prior to their enrollment in
the first semester. Students who have a clear, realistic educational goal talked about the
need to stay focused, and how the goal helped to keep them motivated to succeed. In
addition, these students were also more likely to have an educational plan, which clearly

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helped them identify a path in which to accomplish their goal, and they were more likely
to interact with faculty and utilize college resources.
In California, there are seven components to matriculation, which is designed to
ensure that students receive the educational services necessary to maximize their
opportunities for success and to provide students with the information to establish
realistic educational goals; these components include: admissions and registration,
assessment and placement, orientation, and counseling and advisement (Mt. San Antonio
College, 2008). Through matriculation, there are a number of ways in which institutions
can facilitate assisting students to develop an educational plan. Most community
colleges require orientation for new students and students are encouraged to meet with a
counselor during their first semester to receive assistance with course selection, major
selection, and transfer information and planning. Furthermore, students are also
encouraged to develop an Individual Education Plan (IEP) during their first semester to
identify the courses students need to complete a major and to satisfy graduation and
transfer requirements. Some institutions also offer summer bridge programs and
welcome programs to assist with the transition to college. Any of these programs can
also be effective in helping inform students of college resources and to inform them that
seeking assistance is normal and is expected in the community college environment.
Although the matriculation process is mandated and funded within each community
college district by the state of California, and the components in place help to facilitate
student success, the problem is that not all students take advantage of the matriculation

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process.Community colleges can no longer encourage students, particularly African
American males, to take advantage of college resources; colleges must initiate and ensure
that students receive these services, whether they seek out the assistance or not.
Although matriculation is mandated by the state, not all community colleges require
orientation for new students, and there are some exceptions as well; therefore students
can enroll in classes without having attended an orientation or having an educational plan
in place. All community colleges need to mandate orientation for all students, except for
those students who are exempt by law.
Furthermore, community colleges need to initiate thorough orientation programs in
which students meet with a counselor or educational advisor prior to their first semester
to help them understand their options and to establish an initial Individual Education
Plan.
This early academic advisement intervention can also occur through first year
seminar courses that students take during their first semester, such as college success,
introduction to college and other counseling courses all of which should include as part of
the curriculum, helping students to identify their educational goal and establish an
educational plan that is accurate and realistic. Career centers need to play a pivotal role
in helping students to identify a major and career goals at the onset of a students’
academic career; this should be done through career exploration courses that students
who have not identified an educational goal or major on their application, should be
required to take during their first semester. The career center also has a variety of

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assessments that can help students identify their strengths and possible career interests,
which can be incorporated as part of these courses.
Community colleges also need to ensure that students not only have their courses
laid out through an Individual Education Plan at the onset of their college careers, they
also have to ensure that students have a realistic goal, an identified path as to how to
achieve it, as well as an understanding of how to make the most of their college
experience to help them achieve their goal. For example, students who plan to transfer to
a four-year institution, need to be informed of how leadership opportunities and
community service can assist them in achieving their goals; again, this can occur during
orientation programs and first-year seminar classes. It is important to acknowledge that
students not only need to understand what courses to take each semester, which I
acknowledge as the “small educational plan”, but they also need to understand their
“large educational plan” which includes their career options, educational goals, as well as
the intentional experiences they should pursue on campus to assist them and better
prepare them for achieving their goals.
Having an educational goal and a clear idea of how to achieve it, seemed to be the
most important factor in shaping the engagement experiences of African American males
within a community college environment, and without effectively addressing this issue,
the following implications may not be as effective, particularly for students who do not
have an educational goal and a clear plan in which to achieve it.

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Implication 2: Structure peer groups that are academically focused
For African American males, balancing an academic life and a social life in a
community college environment is challenging. Those students who tend to seek out the
social peer connections are not likely to be focused on pursuing their educational goals,
while those students who are focused on pursing their educational goals tend to avoid the
social peer connections altogether. It is clear from student engagement literature that
peer group interactions are important to student retention and persistence, and active and
collaborative learning enhance student educational outcomes; therefore, institutions must
create intentional learning environments in which African American males are engaged
in active and collaborative learning activities that are academically focused and
structured to allow for the peer group interactions to take place in an academically
meaningful way.
Some African American males are more likely to turn to their peers to obtain
information or assistance than approach their instructors or utilize student support
services. Through learning communities that are culturally based, for example an English
course linked to an African American history course, students will be connected to their
peers in an academic environment and will likely engage in active and collaborative
learning, especially since the instructors selected to teach each course will be supportive,
encouraging and sensitive to the learning styles of this student population. This type of
learning community can be intentionally developed through Counseling in collaboration
with other departments such as Math and English. When students meet with their

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counselor or educational advisor during orientation, they can be placed in various linked
classes during their first semester.
Another way that institutions can structure peer groups that are academically
focused are to develop study groups based on majors or educational goals or develop a
peer mentoring or peer tutoring program in which African American males are connected
with peers who are taking similar courses and have the same major or educational goal as
they do. The challenge with this type of out of class activity is the availability of the
students to participate, considering their various time constraints. Therefore, it would be
important to assess the needs, interests, and availability of students to participate in these
types of programs. Overall, these structured classes and groups will enhance peer
interactions, which have demonstrated to be important and have a positive influence on
student persistence and academic achievement (Kuh et al., 2006; Tinto, 1993).
Implication 3: Ensure students understand seeking assistance is normal and expected
As previously discussed in Chapter Four, African American males typically do not
seek assistance on their own. Institutions need to ensure that students are aware of the
resources and services that are available to assist them, one of the most common ways in
which this can occur is during new student orientation. The awareness of programs and
services is an on-going challenge and an inherent issue within community colleges,
therefore institutions need to shed this “if I build it, they will come” mentality which is a
prevalent perspective, although within this particular study, participants seemed to be
aware of the various services and resources available at the institution. Based upon the

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findings from this current study, in order to effectively engage students within the
institution, it’s services and resources need to be visible to the student body. By way of
bringing information to the students, students are informed and are likely to perceive
these on-campus, outreach activities as a means of the institution showing that they are
open, welcoming and supportive. By all means, this in itself may not increase students’
visits to various student services, however, it will help to establish a supportive and
welcoming campus environment, especially if these activities occur at the beginning of
the term, and are accompanied with music, entertainment and food.
Clearly, community colleges are challenged by not having effective means of
getting information to students, mostly because they are commuter institutions, therefore,
student services must also be willing to make presentations in the classrooms, during the
day and evening to be effective. This clearly requires support from faculty, but it is
another way of being visible and bringing information to the students. Furthermore,
institutions need to understand that although students may be aware of what is available,
not all students will take the initiative to seek assistance; moreover, students may not
know when or how to ask for assistance within the community college environment.
Whether it involves asking an instructor for help, utilizing tutorial services, and
meeting with a counselor to discuss their educational plan, it is imperative for institutions
to ensure that students understand that within the community college environment,
seeking assistance and asking for help is normal and expected; again this is an important
message to get across during new student orientation, welcome programs and first year

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seminar courses. Clearly, African American males tend not to ask questions in class,
attend office hours, or utilize college services, for various reasons, one of which is their
need to be self reliant which is a result of how they were raised and the social
expectations that are often placed upon them. All of the participants were also clear that
they do not attend faculty office hours, for various reasons, therefore, offering faculty
office hours and expecting students to take the initiative to attend, is not an effective
strategy to engage them with faculty.
Since students are more likely to approach faculty after class, it would be
imperative for faculty to be open, receptive and available to talk with students
immediately after class, which is not always the case in a community college
environment. Another effective way to enhance interactions between faculty and
students is through the use of technology. Communications can be enhanced through the
use of email, chat rooms, electronic bulletin boards and blogs, in which students could
interact with faculty at their convenience and also receive timely responses. Faculty can
also create a Facebook page and add students from their classes to join, which again,
provides a virtual community and enhances the likeliness of student engagement and
interaction with faculty. Of course these methods can only be effective if students
perceive the faculty member as being caring, supportive and passionate about teaching.
Some African American males will often try to figure things out on their own as a
result of having a strong sense of independence. Sometimes, and unfortunately, this
approach does not serve them well within the college environment, as a result, student

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may not understand instructors expectations, take unnecessary classes that do not meet
their requirements, and do not have a clear path as to how they will achieve their
educational goals. Through new student orientations, student success and counseling
courses, institutions can ensure that students know the importance of asking for
assistance and understand that it is expected within the community college environment.
Implication 4: Develop a culture of success for African American males
African American males are in need of positive role models, positive perceptions,
positive examples, and an overall focus on success and not failures within higher
education environments, particularly within community collage settings. Participants in
the current study talked about how they use negative perceptions as a means of
motivation, by taking on this “gotta prove them wrong” attitude. Community colleges
need to alleviate this need for students to have to resort to utilizing this type of coping
mechanism in order to overcome negative stereotypes and perceptions. These negative
stereotypes and low expectations often lead to alienation and abandonment, therefore,
institutions need to create a culture of success by creating positive expectations and
helping to instill an educational mindset by allowing African American males to believe
in themselves. This is created by many of the implications described above. Institutions
can further create a culture of success by hiring African American male faculty, staff and
administrators who can serve as positive role models and mentors to African American
male students.

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A formal mentorship program in which students meet with a staff member,
faculty member, or campus administrator throughout the year may help students build a
connection on campus and can help keep the student focused and on track, academically.
Mentors do not need to be African American males, although it would be ideal, however,
as long as the mentors are supportive, encouraging, and concerned about the success of
their mentees. On-going progress reports throughout the semester can serve as the basis
for regular meetings and can also be an effective way for the mentor to get to know the
student on a more personal level. A book scholarship or academic scholarship program
can serve as an incentive for students to participate.
In addition, developing an African American male student organization or
program that teaches leadership skills, positive communication skills and exposes
students to various career options by bringing in African American male professionals to
talk about career pathways are other examples of how this culture of success can be
established.
Implication 5: Do the necessary work to understand and validate students’ experiences
Students’ experiences in the classroom have a direct impact on their persistence and
retention, particularly for African American males. Previous research suggests that
African American males’ lower academic performance is a product of negative school
experiences, feelings of marginalization, and negative stereotypes about their intellectual
ability (Harris, 2006; Tyson, 2002). Therefore, it is imperative for institutions to not
only create a positive and supportive environment within the classroom, but to ensure that

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positive reinforcement, encouragement and validation occur in all areas and at all levels
within the institution. Clearly, students are encouraged by faculty who genuinely care
about their success. Students are also engaged by faculty who show enthusiasm and
passion for the work that they do. These lessons should be applied to all faculty, those
outside of the classroom, and throughout the institution. A positive campus climate is the
most important factor in student success, and positive engagement experiences typically
occur in an environment that students perceive as welcoming and supportive (Nettles,
1988; Townsend, 1994). Institutions need to first assess their campus climate, by
understanding students’ experiences. There should also be a commitment on behalf of
the institution to foster a sense of community for African American students on their
campus to ensure that students feel welcomed, supported and validated. This can occur
by understanding the experience, culture, backgrounds, perceptions and talents of African
American males and developing strategies to effectively engage them in the academic life
of the college (Bush, 2004; Cuyjet, 1997; Cuyjet, 2006).
The most effective way for institutions to do this is to take the time to collect
meaningful data through their institutional research departments and to disaggregate the
data by ethnicity and gender to fully understand their campus climate and the experiences
of their students. This means that institutions need to go beyond the use of quantitative
data to determine persistence and retention rates, but to also utilize qualitative data to get
to know the students, understand their experiences, and engage them in dialogues about
their educational goals, plans, needs and interests. Creating a campus environment that

160
validates students’ experiences is a difficult task, but it can happen if it is an institutional
priority that is supported by the campus leadership. Committing college resources and
time to obtain this valuable information regarding their students’ experiences is an
effective way to show the campus community that this process and information is
valuable.
So often, these processes do not receive the buy-in from the campus community
because of the perception that nothing will occur as a result; therefore, the campus
leadership must establish this task as an institutional goal and hold open forums or town
hall meetings to report out on the data collected, what it means, and what the institution
will do with the results, developing and adopting an institutional plan of action. In
addition, professional development programs throughout the year that focus on issues of

validation, support and creating and maintaining a welcoming campus environment is
also essential to ensure that validation occurs at all levels throughout the institution.
Pulling it all Together: Findings and Implications
After examining the findings and implications from this study, a few connections
have emerged; this section will review the inter-relationships and connections among
some of these findings and implications. Clearly, the findings from this study suggest
that it is essential for students to develop a realistic educational plan, which includes not
only having a list of courses to take each semester to the fulfill requirements of their
educational goals, but to also ensure that students understand how to make the most of

161
their college experience and to be intentional about the experiences that they pursue
while in the community college environment. This can also be referred to as helping
students develop their educational purpose.
Chickering & Ressier (1993) established the Seven Vectors of student
development, which includes a vector known as developing purpose. Many college
students have the energy and determination to succeed, but have not yet determined their
destination. Many students struggle with the notion of who they want to be. Community
colleges need to take the initiative to assist students in developing their educational
purpose, which will help them to be intentional about pursing opportunities and
experiences to help them achieve their purpose. This emerged as the most important
factor in enhancing the engagement experiences of African American males in
community colleges.
In addition, students’ notion of independence also plays an important factor in
shaping their engagement experiences in a community college environment. For some
African American males, because of how they were raised and the expectations placed
upon them by their families, they have an “I need to do it on my own” mentality. Some
scholars suggest that this mentality for African American males is developed at a young-
age through gender-role socialization (Ogbu & Fordham, 1986; Davis, 2003).
Community colleges need to be mindful of this mentality, because this mindset runs
contradictorily to what the college environment expects. Community colleges encourage
and expect students to seek assistance; however, this clearly does not always happen,

162
particularly for African American males. Thus, helping African American males to
understand that seeking assistance is normal and expected within the community college
environment is imperative and necessary; albeit, it is still an on-going challenge for many
institutions to develop institutionalized strategies in which to do this effectively.
As you recall I suggested in the previous section of this chapter, institutions need to
develop a culture of success for African American males on their campus. This culture of
success also includes helping African American males understand that independence is
about doing everything they can to be successful; it is not about them doing thing on their
own, on the contrary, it is about them taking advantage of every resource available to get
the job done and to achieve their goals. This culture of success is about doing everything
possible to achieve success, which takes strength, motivation and determination, and it
also includes seeking assistance and asking for help.
In the same way that some African American males have a “gotta prove them
wrong” attitude, which serves as a source of motivation to succeed, that attitude can be
fostered and utilized to ensure that African American males take advantage of resources
and, again, do all that it takes to be successful. Asking for assistance and utilizing
college resources can serve as an effective strategy in which students can use, to prove
others wrong.
Lastly, to further develop a culture of success, institutions needs to create and
structure peer groups, through learning communities, linked courses, or even student
organizations for African American males, which can serve as a type of support group

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and one in which students would not find distracting because they are connected to peers
who have an educational purpose and similar educational goals and would serve as
another source of motivation, encouragement and support. This group would help
students engage in educationally purposeful activities within the institution because
students could turn to each other for assistance and would work together to do what it
takes to achieve success, including seeking assistance, to ensure that they are successful
at proving those who do not believe that the can be successful, wrong.
Through this study, I’ve captured the essence of the engagement experiences of
African American males in a community college environment. From the findings, I’ve
also made recommendations for community colleges to implement strategies for
enhancing the engagement experiences of this particular student population. In reflecting
on the questions that I asked and the responses that I received in attempting to understand
the student engagement experiences of African American males in a community college
environment, I’d like to suggest a few basic questions that college administrators should
ask students to better understand their experiences at their particular institution, they are
as follows: 1) Do you have an educational goal and a clear understanding of how to
achieve it, why or why not? 2) How do you describe your interactions with other students
on campus? 3) How do you describe your interactions with faculty on campus? 4) How
do you feel about asking for help and seeking assistance on campus, and why do you feel
this way? 5) How supported do you feel as a student here, and why? 6) What could the
college do to make your experience better as a student? By all means, this is not an

164
exhaustive list of questions to effectively assess the engagement experiences of students
on any community college campus; however, it will certainly provide a good starting
point and valuable qualitative data that will allow the institution to develop a better
understanding of and effective strategies to enhance, the engagement experiences of
African American males.
Future Research
This study is just an initial exploration into the engagement experiences of African
American males in a community college environment. There are four future research
questions that could be explored. First, this study only examined the experiences of
students from one community college; experiences of African American males from a
number of different community colleges may reveal different findings. At this particular
institution, student perceived the campus climate as being open and welcoming, where as
other community college environments may not be described as such, which would most
likely result in different findings.
Another opportunity for further research would also be one of the most challenging.
By design, this study ignored those students who were not engaged at all within the
institution. Utilizing a self-selecting process, in which students volunteered to participate
in the study, eliminated the opportunity to understand the engagement experiences of
students who are not engaged and did not choose to volunteer to participate in this
particular study. This group would most likely represent the majority of African
American male community college students. Understanding why they remain uninvolved

165
and unengaged within the campus environment may reveal further obstacles to student
engagement and introduce other findings that may not have been addressed.
It would also be interesting to examine the experiences of faculty, staff and
administrators regarding their perceptions and efforts to engage African American males
inside and outside of the classroom. This institutional perspective would lend itself to
assess the feasibility and effectiveness of some of the implications that are suggested
earlier in this chapter.
A final possible avenue would be to further explore the experiences of African
American male athletes in community colleges. Since athletics seems to be a viable
engagement option for African American male community college students, it would be
interesting to further explore their engagement experiences from that perspective,
allowing us to understand their student-coach interactions, student peer interactions with
teammates and the students’ experiences in the classroom, possibly having to deal with
additional negative perceptions and stereotypes as a student athlete. The purpose of these
future research questions provide additional insight to further understanding the
experiences of African American males in community college settings.

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Conclusion
The introduction to this study described the disturbing future for African
American males in our society, and more specifically, within higher education. A large
proportion of African American males in California use community colleges as their
primary means to seek access to higher education and to pursue career opportunities by
earning a degree, transferring to a four-year institution, and eventually entering the work
force to earn a higher salary; therefore, the educational success of African American
males in community colleges is critical to enhancing their socio-economic status, not
only in California, but across the country. A number of factors have been found to
impact the academic success of African American males, such as: identity development
and self-perception, coping strategies, institutional environment and campus climate,
academic and social connections, and student engagement. The purpose of this study was
to explore and understand the student engagement experiences of African American
males in a community college environment. A group of students were examined at a
single institution and through their voices a better understanding of their experiences
interacting with faculty, peers and utilizing college services emerged. As a result,
institutions have the benefit of understanding why these particular students behave the
way that they do and the role that the institution should play to further foster positive
student engagement experiences.
Community colleges need to develop interventions that appropriately reduce the
existing racial, ethnic, and gender disparities in student success, persistence and

167
achievement. To respond effectively to these challenges, community colleges need to
better understand the experiences of African American males in order to develop more
effective strategies to enhance their educational outcomes and academic success. In
short, the results of this study may help institutions to change the way that they do
business to better support the academic success of African American males in community
college environments; thus, helping to close the existing gaps in educational access and
attainment for African American males, which will have a profound impact on the
group’s opportunity to succeed in society.

168
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Appendices
Appendix A:
Participant Profile Form

You are asked to participate in a research study called “Student Engagement Experiences
of African American Males at a California Community College” with Dyell Foster
(doctoral student at USC) and Dr. Adrianna Kezar in USC’s School of Education. You
are asked to participate in this study because you are an African American male enrolled
at Mt. SAC. Approximately 10-12 students are eligible to participate. Your participation
in this study is voluntary. Even if you decide to participate, you may still stop the
interview at any time without any consequence to you.

Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to learn more about the engagement experiences of African
American males at a community college.

Procedures
You will be asked to share your experiences in an interview with the researcher. The
interview will last about an hour and a half. Before the interview, your permission to
audio-tape the interview will be sought. After the interview, the data will be transcribed.
Then, you will have the chance to correct the transcription. Finally, the audio recording
will be erased, and the transcription will only be identified by a code. Only the researcher
will know your identity. There are no anticipated risks to your participation.

If you are interested or would like to know more about this study, please complete the
following information, to the best of your knowledge, and I will contact you. Thank you.

STUDENT ID# _________________ Date _________________________

Name ___________________________________ Age __________________________

Phone Number ____________________ Email Address _________________________

Ethnicity (Please Circle): African American Mixed Heritage: _______________

Educational Goal (Please circle all that apply):

Transfer (where:____________) AA/AS Degree Certificate/Technical Program Not sure

180
Academic Major ____________________________ Number of units completed ___________

Number of semesters you have been at Mt. SAC_______ Mt. SAC cumulative GPA ________

Number of units you were enrolled in Fall _____ Number of hours you work per week______

Please list your involvement in any college program, organization or club (such as athletics,
EOP&S, student club, student government or academic team):

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

Identification of Investigators
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please contact Dr. Kezar at
213-821-1519 or kezar@usc.edu, USC Rossier School of Education, WPH Room 703C,
Los Angeles, CA 90089 or Dyrell Foster, (408) 206-3964, dwfoster@usc.edu, Mt. San
Antonio College, 1100 N. Grand Ave., Walnut, CA 91789.

181
Appendix B:
Sample Focus Group Interview Protocol

1. Who are you? How would you describe yourself to others?

2. Why are you here at Mt. SAC? What are your educational goals?

3. How would you describe your overall experience at Mt. SAC?

4. How do you describe your interactions with other students on campus?

[Follow Up]: Within the classroom?

[Follow Up]: Outside of the classroom?

5. How do you describe your interactions with faculty, staff and administrators?

[Follow Up]: Within the classroom?

[Follow Up]: Outside of the classroom?

6. How do you spend your time outside of class when you are on campus?

[Follow Up]: What do you believe are the reasons for this?

[Follow Up]: Are any involved in any clubs/organizations/leadership
programs/student government?

7. How do you describe your experiences in utilizing campus support services
(tutoring/library/advising/counseling)?

8. Do you feel comfortable while on campus at Mt. SAC? Why, why not?

182

9. How do you describe your level of connection or engagement within the
college?

10. How welcomed do you feel as a student at Mt. SAC?

[Follow Up]: What experiences have you had that makes you feel this
way?

11. How supported do you feel as a student at Mt. SAC?

[Follow Up]: What experiences have you had that makes you feel this
way?

12. What are some of the challenges (if any) you experience as an African
American male at Mt. SAC?

13. What factors do you feel have been important to your experience at Mt. SAC?

14. What could the college do to make your experience better as a student?

15. African American males have the lowest success rates in CA community
colleges compared to any other group, why?

16. African American males are not connected/engaged on community college
campuses, why?

17. Is there anything you feel I should have asked you about your experience at
Mt. SAC?

183
Appendix C:
Sample Individual Interview Protocol

1. How would you describe your overall experience at Mt. SAC?

2. How do you describe your interactions with faculty, staff and administrators?

[Follow Up]: Within the classroom?

[Follow Up]: Outside of the classroom?

[Follow Up]: What do you believe are the reasons for these types and
levels of interactions?

3. How do you describe your interactions with other students on campus?

[Follow Up]: Within the classroom?

[Follow Up]: Outside of the classroom?

[Follow Up]: What do you believe are the reasons for these types and
levels of interactions?

4. How do you spend your time outside of class when you are on campus?

[Follow Up]: What do you believe are the reasons for this?

5. How do you describe your experiences in utilizing campus support services?

[Follow Up]: What do you believe are the reasons for this?

6. How do you describe your level of connection or engagement within the
college?

[Follow Up]: What makes you say this?

184
7. How welcomed do you feel as a student at Mt. SAC?

[Follow Up]: What experiences have you had that makes you feel this way?
8. How supportive do you feel as a student at Mt. SAC?

[Follow Up]: Within the classroom?

[Follow Up]: Outside of the classroom?

[Follow Up]: What experiences have you had that makes you feel this
way?

9. What are some of the challenges (if any) you experience as an African
American male at Mt. SAC?

10. What factors do you feel have been important to your experience at Mt. SAC?

11. What could the college do to make your experience better as a student?

12. Is there anything else you’d like to add? Is there anything you feel I should
have asked you about your experience at Mt. SAC?

185
Appendix D:
Sample Email Solicitation

EMAIL SOLICITATION FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH

Student Engagement Experiences of African American Males at a California
Community College

Hello. I am Dyrell Foster, a doctoral student at USC. The purpose of this email is to
inform you about a research project called “Student Engagement Experiences of African
American Males at a California Community College”. I am working with Dr. Adrianna
Kezar in USC’s School of Education.

Please read the information below and then let me know if you would consider referring
students that you know of who may be interested in participating in this study. I will be
interviewing approximately 10-12 students for this research study. Student participation
in this study is voluntary. Subjects must be aged 18 or older to be eligible.

Feel free to have potential subjects contact me at dwfoster@usc.edu or (909) 594-5611
ext. 5950. The student can contact me directly. I will set up a time to meet with the
student and explain the process. Your assistance is truly appreciated.

Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to learn more about the engagement experiences of African
American males at a community college.

Procedures
Subjects will be asked to share their experiences in an interview with me. The interview
will last about an hour and a half.

Risks and Benefits
There is no direct benefit to subjects for participating in this research study.

Confidentiality
Subjects’ responses will be identified with a code; only the researcher will have access to
the data. Faculty, staff, administrators, etc., at Mt. SAC will not have access to subjects
responses

Participation and Withdrawal
Subjects can choose to participate or refuse to participate or may still withdraw at any
time without any consequence.

186
Identification of Investigators
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please contact Dr. Kezar at
213-821-1519 or kezar@usc.edu, USC Rossier School of Education, WPH Room 703C,
Los Angeles, CA 90089 or Dyrell Foster, (408) 206-3964, dwfoster@usc.edu, Mt. San
Antonio College, 1100 N. Grand Ave., Walnut, CA 91789.

Do you know a student who might be willing to participate in this research study?

If so, feel free to let the student know about this research study. Thank you!

187
Appendix E:
Sample Flyer Solicitation

FLYER SOLICITATION FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH

Student Engagement Experiences of African American Males at a California
Community College

Hello. I am Dyrell Foster, a doctoral student at USC. The purpose of this flyer is to
inform you about a research project called “Student Engagement Experiences of African
American Males at a California Community College”. I am working with Dr. Adrianna
Kezar in USC’s School of Education.

Please read the information below and then let me know if you would be interested in
participating in this study. Approximately 10-12 students will be interviewed for this
research study. Your participation in this study is voluntary. You must be aged 18 or
older to participate. Even if you decide to participate, you may still stop the interview at
any time without any consequence to you.

If you are interested or would like to know more about this study, please contact me at
dwfoster@usc.edu or (909) 594-5611 ext. 5950. An appointment will be set up a time to
meet with you to explain the process. I appreciate your time and consideration. Thank
you.

Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to learn more about the engagement experiences of African
American males at a community college.

Procedures
You will be asked to share your experiences in an interview. The interview will last
about an hour and a half and will be audio-taped.

Risks and Benefits
There is no direct benefit to you for participating in this research study. There are no
anticipated risks to your participation.

Confidentiality
Only the researcher will have access to the data. Your responses will be coded. Your
grades will not be affected whether or not you participate. No one in Mr. SAC will know
whether or not you participated.

188
Participation and Withdrawal
You can choose to participate or refuse to participate. If you volunteer to participate, you
may still withdraw at any time without any consequence to you.

Identification of Investigators
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please contact Dr. Kezar at
213-821-1519 or kezar@usc.edu, USC Rossier School of Education, WPH Room 703C,
Los Angeles, CA 90089 or Dyrell Foster, (408) 206-3964, dwfoster@usc.edu, Mt. San
Antonio College, 1100 N. Grand Ave., Walnut, CA 91789.

189
Appendix F:
Informed Consent Form

INFORMED CONSENT FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH

Student Engagement Experiences of African American Males at a California
Community College

You are asked to participate in a research study called “Student Engagement Experiences
of African American Males at a California Community College” with Dyell Foster
(doctoral student at USC) and Dr. Adrianna Kezar in USC’s School of Education. You
were selected for this study because you are an African American male enrolled at Mt.
SAC aged 18 or older. Approximately 10-12 students are eligible to participate. Your
participation in this study is voluntary. Even if you decide to participate, you may still
stop the interview at any time without any consequence to you.

Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to learn more about the engagement experiences of African
American males at a community college.

Response to the interview questions will constitute consent to participate in this
research project.

Procedures
You will be asked to share your experiences in an individual and/or focus group
interview. The interviews will last about an hour and a half each. The interviews will be
audio-taped; if you do not want to be audio-taped, you cannot participate. The interviews
will be transcribed by the researcher, and you will have the chance to correct the
transcription. After confirmation of the transcription, the tape will be erased, and the
transcription data will only be identified by a code.

The interview will take place in a private setting at Mt. San Antonio College, at a
mutually convenient time.

Risks and Benefits
There are no anticipated risks to your participation, and any direct benefits from your
participation are unknown. You may feel uncomfortable being audio-taped or
interviewed. You do not have to answer any questions you don’t want to.

Confidentiality
Any information that is obtained in connection with this study and that can be identified
with you will remain confidential and will be disclosed only with your permission or as

190
required by law. The information collected about you will be coded using a fake name
(pseudonym) or initials and numbers, for example abc-123, etc.

Only members of the research team will have access to the data associated with this
study. The data will be stored in the investigator’s office in a locked file cabinet and on a
password protected computer

Participation and Withdrawal
You can choose to participate or refuse to participate. If you volunteer to participate, you
may still withdraw at any time without any consequence to you.

Alternatives to Participation
Your alternative is to not participate. Your grades will not be affected whether or not you
participate. Faculty, staff or administrators of Mt. San Antonio College will not have
access to any data associated with this research study.

Identification of Investigators
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please contact Dr. Kezar at
213-821-1519 or kezar@usc.edu, USC Rossier School of Education, WPH Room 703C,
Los Angeles, CA 90089 or Dyrell Foster, (408) 206-3964, dwfoster@usc.edu, Mt. San
Antonio College, 1100 N. Grand Ave., Walnut, CA 91789.

Rights of Research Subjects
You may withdraw your consent at any time and discontinue participation without
penalty. You are not waiving any legal claims, rights or remedies because of your
participation in this research study. If you have any questions about your rights as a
study subject or you would like to speak with someone independent of the research team
to obtain answers to questions about the research, or in the event the research staff can
not be reached, please contact the University Park IRB, Office of the Vice Provost for
Research Advancement, Stonier Hall, Room 224a, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1146, (213)
821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This dissertation shows the results of an investigation into the engagement experiences of African American males in a California Community College. In an effort to illuminate such experiences, a phenomenological investigation into the experiences of African American male students in engaging in educationally purposeful activities on a community college campus was conducted, with extensive interviews of 12 participants. Research questions asked about the students’ experiences regarding their use of time on campus outside of class, faculty interaction, peer interaction, campus involvement and utilization of institutional resources - constructs identified from previous research in Student Engagement theory. Results of the investigation showed consistency of experience in seven distinct areas.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Foster, Dyrell W. (author)

Core Title Student engagement experiences of African American males at a California community college

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 09/16/2008

Defense Date 08/14/2008

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag African American males,community college,Higher education,OAI-PMH Harvest,student engagement

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Kezar, Adrianna (committee chair), Cole, Darnell (committee member), Hernandez, John (committee member)

Creator Email dwfoster@mtsac.edu,dwfoster@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m1605

Unique identifier UC1123229

Identifier etd-Foster-1823 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-94733 (legacy record id),usctheses-m1605 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Foster-1823.pdf

Dmrecord 94733

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Foster, Dyrell W.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu