University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Latino parental aspirations and literacy practices related to children's reading engagement

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Latino parental aspirations and literacy practices related to children's reading engagement

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Content i

LATINO PARENTAL ASPIRATIONS AND LITERACY PRACTICES
RELATED TO CHILDREN’S READING ENGAGEMENT
by
Gustavo Loera

_______________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

December 2006

Copyright 2006 Gustavo Loera

ii
DEDICATION

In memory of my father Mauro, for his humbleness and for all the
sacrifices he made to make my educational journey possible.
To my mother Enedina, for her support and encouragement
throughout my entire education.
To my other half Yiling, for her continued love, support
and companionship during this endeavor.
To my daughter Enedina, for the everyday smiles and for
reminding me of the little things in life that really matter.
To my youngest brother Emmanuel, whose English as a Second
Language (ESL) experience inspired me to write on this topic.
To my other siblings, Efrain, Hector, Oscar, Yadira, and Darlene
for the life experiences we all shared from the more
difficult ones to the more happier ones.
To my uncle Jose, whose strength and persistence to enjoy
life, despite living with a mental illness, reminds me everyday
to never take time and people for granted.
To my niece and nephews: Nayeli, Keith Jr., and Mauro-Justin.

iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

A few people have the opportunity to have the intellectual and experiential
support of a team such as: my Chairperson, Dr. Robert Rueda, Dr. Maryon Dembo, and
Dr. Amanda Datnow. I feel privileged to have had the opportunity to engage in
meaningful and insightful conversations with each one of these professionals. It was Dr.
Rueda, who provided me the pathway and direction to write this dissertation. The
research challenges provided by Dr. Rueda have inspired me to continue research in the
area of literacy and minority children.
I have been blessed with friends and mentors who have provided much support
and guidance. These individuals have left their imprint on this work—Dr. Miguel
Dominguez, Dr. Silvia Santos, Dr. Frances Wu-Barone, Richard Van Horn, Ann Stone,
and Julia Scalise.
Finally, I must thank the school administration and staff, students, and parents for
their participation in this project. It was their time and dedication that made this project
possible.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS

DEDICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii

ABSTRACT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

CHAPTER 1. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Background of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Statement of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Purpose of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Significance of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Assumptions of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Delimitations of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Limitations of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Definition of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Reading Engagement as a Theory in Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Self-Efficacy and Competence and Challenge and Autonomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Self-Efficacy and Competence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Seeking Challenging Tasks and Autonomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Intrinsic Motivation versus Extrinsic Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Learning Goal Orientation versus Performance Goal Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Concept-Oriented Reading Instruction (CORI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Measurement of Reading Engagement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
The Role of Latino Parental Aspirations and Literacy Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Latino Parents’ Aspirations in Children’s Academic Achievement . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Family’s Eco-cultural and Socio-cultural Literacy Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
v
CHAPTER 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Participants and Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Student Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Parent Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
The Research Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
The Motivation for Reading Questionnaire (MRQ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Parent Early Literacy Development Questionnaire (PELDQ) . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Focus Group Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Exploratory Factor Analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Reliability and Validity of the Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Structural Equation Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

CHAPTER 4. RESULTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Descriptive Statistics of Sample Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Correlation of Parent Literacy Practices and Student Motivation Scales . . . . . . . . . 75
Construct Validity, Reliability, Means and Standard Deviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Motivation for Reading Questionnaire for Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Parent Early Literacy Development Questionnaire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Exploratory Factor Analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Structural Equation Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Major Themes from Focus Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Parents’ Hopes for an Economically and Socially Prosperous Life and
Its Importance in Their Children’s Academic Achievement . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
School Resources and Parents’ Ability to Access School Resources is
Necessary in Increased Reading Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Parent-Child Communication and Parent’s Verbal Encouragement is
Important in Increased Reading Engagement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Parents’ Way of Thinking toward Their Children’s Educational
Attainment is Important in Increased Aspirations and Expectations . . . . . . 93
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

vi
CHAPTER 5. DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Research Question One: How do Latino Parents’ Aspirations and Home
Literacy Practices Relate to Their Children’s Motivation to Read? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Research Question Two: What are Latino Parents’ Aspirations for Their
Children’s Educational Attainment? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Parents’ Hopes for an Economically and Socially Prosperous Life and
Its Importance in Their Children’s Academic Achievement . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
School Resources and Parents’ Ability to Access School Resources is
Necessary in Increased Reading Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Parent-Child Communication and Parent’s Verbal Encouragement is
Important in Increased Reading Engagement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Parents’ Way of Thinking toward Their Children’s Educational
Attainment is Important in Increased Aspirations and Expectations . . . . . . 106
Implications for Educators and Policymakers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
Recommendations for Future Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
A. Parent Informed Consent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
B. Student Assent Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
C. Parent Invitation to Participate in Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
D. Parent Early Literacy Development Questionnaire (PELDQ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
E. Motivation for Reading Questionnaire (MRQ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
F. Parent Focus Group Guiding Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
G. Parent Focus Group Codes and Themes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
vii
LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. Research School Site’s 2005-06 Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2. Descriptive Statistics of Parent and Child Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3. Descriptive Statistics of Parents Occupation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4. Descriptive Statistics of Parent and Child’s Education Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5. Parents and Students Residence in the U.S. and Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
6. Correlations of the Parent Literacy Practices and Student
Motivation Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
7. Reliabilities, Means and Standard Deviations for the Motivation and
Parental Literacy Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
8. Factor Loadings of the Literacy Resources and TV Watching Habits . . . . . . . . 81
9. Factor Loadings of Parental Involvement in Schooling and Parental
Involvement in Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
10. Factor Loadings of Student’s Motivation for Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

viii
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1. Path Model with Parent’s Literacy Resources Predicting
Children’s MRQ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
2. Path Model with Parental Involvement in Reading Predicating
Children’s MRQ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
ix
ABSTRACT

This mixed-methods study focused on motivation-related factors in Latino
students reading engagement, specifically related to parental variables. The specific
questions addressed included, how do Latino parents’ aspirations and home literacy
practices relate to their children’s motivation to read? What are Latino parents’
aspirations for their children’s educational attainment? Using quantitative (structural
equation modeling) and qualitative approaches (focus groups), these two questions were
addressed using 128 Latino students (second to seventh grade) including their immigrant
parents. The results indicated that parental literacy resources were positively related to
their children’s motivational outcomes. In addition, while parental involvement in
reading was positively and significantly related to children’s motivational outcomes,
parental involvement in schooling was not significantly related. Overall, the results
suggest that having more literacy resources (books) at home where children can access
and choose them, as well as having parents engage in reading activities with their
children, increases their children’s reading engagement. In contrast, simply attending
school meetings was not related. It was also found that these immigrant parents’ held
high academic aspirations for their children, expecting them to graduate from a university
and work in a professional setting.
This study reaffirms the importance of parental and home influences on student
reading engagement, both in terms of material resources (access to print materials) and
parental involvement in specific reading-related activities. It also suggests that efforts to
involve parents in a meaningful way might focus on improving print access and helping
x
parents to engage in key reading-related activities at home. Simple attendance at school
meetings as an index of parental involvement is not likely to lead to improved student
engagement in reading and literacy. Finally, this study documented the strong parental
aspirations’ for their childrens’ success, in contrast to some past perceptions that these
parents are unconcerned with their childrens’ academic success.
1
CHAPTER 1
Statement of the Problem

Introduction

The education reform movement in America, from the Elementary and Secondary
Education Act (1965) to A Nation at Risk Act (National Commission on Excellence in
Education, 1983), continues to be the norm in U.S. public education. As one reform plan
replaces another, these acts continue to leave behind unsatisfactory and inequitable
results, particularly for minority children attending large urban public schools. Similar to
past educational reforms, the No Child Left Behind Act (2001), the most recent education
reform at the national level, places much of its emphasis on closing the achievement gaps
for children of all ethnicities, native language or socioeconomic status. For the past two
decades, at every level of urban education, student performance in U.S. schools has
remained dull, showing only slight improvements. For example, in the area of reading
and writing, forty percent of high school students could not draw conclusions from
written text and only 20 percent were able to write a persuasive essay (U.S. Department
of Education 1983b). College enrollment and completion rates for Latino students have
not increased over the last 20 years. In fact, only a small percentage of Latino students
who enroll in college get to finish. If these poor academic rates don’t change, for every
100 Latino kindergarteners, only eleven will be successful in completing some college
(The Education Trust, 2003).
The education crisis in America is no different today than it was over two decades
ago. According to Morse (2003) of the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES),
2
in America a student drops out of school every nine seconds of the school day and the
most common cited reason for dropping out is that students simply do not possess the
literacy capacity to keep up with curriculum and standards. Over eight million students
in grades four through twelve are struggling readers (The Alliance for Excellent
Education, 2004). The National Assessment of Educational Progress (2003) points out
that 68 percent of the nation’s fourth graders are reading below proficiency and 64
percent of twelve graders never make it to proficiency reading level.
It is crucial to put the literacy crisis into perspective: an average school year
consists of about 36 weeks, the equivalent of 180 days, subtract 12 days for holidays,
sickness, and other non-school days, a student is left with 168 days of instruction per
year. The context of this “crisis” is one that in twelve years of schooling, without
dropping out, students will have just 2,016 total days of instruction. In other words,
schools have just seven percent of a child’s lifetime to teach them the literacy skills
necessary to impact the remaining 93 percent of their lives assuming their life span is 80
years. The challenging task for schools is using time with students efficiently by aligning
curriculum with reading activities to increase literacy engagement. Another challenge
facing schools is the task of creating home literacy programs that inspire parental
participation in reading activities.
Parental participation has long been considered a critical factor in increasing
student’s academic achievement. Although the Latino population continues to grow in
the United States, estimated to be more than 73 million or 20.1 percent of the U.S.
population by the year 2030 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2004), their educational success and
3
upward mobility show little promise. Without high levels of parental participation at
some capacity, the drop out rate for Latino students will continue to increase. According
to Oakes, Rogers, Silver, Horng, & Goode, (2004), Latino students’ educational
difficulties stem from the fact that a large percentage of these students attend large inner
city schools, most of which serve immigrant families with higher poverty rates and lower
levels of education. In California alone, the drop out rate for Latinos is shocking.
Latinos who start high school at the ninth grade, 44 percent will drop out before
graduation (Education Trust, 2004). Students exposed to high poverty and lower levels
of education from their parents tend to have lower educational aspirations and
expectations. Clearly, immigrant parents make a huge sacrifice when they leave their
home country to come to the United States and endure hardships, sometimes working
more than one low-paying job so their children could go to school and receive the
education they never had. Several researchers have argued that Latino parents’ lowered
academic aspirations for their children are a result of their feelings of incompetence,
perceived discrimination, and lack of job opportunities (Suarez-Orozco, 1987;
Goldenberg, 2001). One way to begin to explore why Latino students experience
academic difficulties, especially in the area of literacy, is to look at parental aspirations
and home literacy practices related to their children’s reading motivation and educational
attainment.
The purpose for the present study is three-fold: 1) to address the significant
reading problems among Latino children, 2) to explore the motivational characteristics of
Latino children as they apply to reading, and 3) to recognize how parental aspirations and
4
involvement practices at home and schools has an impact on their children’s motivation
and educational attainment. Even though schools are seen as the context where much of
a child’s literacy development takes place, research shows that the origin of a child’s
literacy development starts with the child’s home environment. As Latino parents engage
in specific practices aimed at supporting their children’s education, they improve parent
and student attitudes toward literacy, and increase their children’s motivation to read.
In this study, reading engagement is the theory of motivation applied to reading.
Reading engagement, also referred to as literacy engagement and reading motivation, is
defined as “the joint functioning of motivation with knowledge, strategies and social
interactions in literacy” (Guthrie & Wigfield, 1997, p.5). The principles guiding this
theory are a mixture of an individual’s beliefs of competence and efficacy, achievement
values and goals, and social interactions as a means to increase one’s breadth of reading
and produce positive outcomes (Guthrie, 2000). Engaged readers are individuals who are
actively involved in reading and motivated to read because they want to become more
knowledgable about the world around them, to socialize and enjoy sharing literacy
experiences, and to feel confident with their reading abilities (Guthrie 1996). What
follows is a discussion on the problem that leads to poor reading skills among Latino
children and brings forth this study.
Background of the Problem
Latino students constitute a significant and rapidly growing population of the U.S.
public school system and by far the largest group of English learners in the United States
in general and California in particular. Specifically, Latinos constitute nearly 20 percent
5
of the nations K-12 student population (National Center for Education Statistics, 2003).
Most of the Latino students that make up the 20 percent are English learners who come
from low-income families with limited resources and exposure to literacy opportunities
(Goldenberg, 2001; Trueba, 2004). Immigrant parents face the challenging task of
establishing new lives in a culture unknown to them, cope with discrimination, and work
long hours at repetitive low-paying jobs with little opportunity for upward mobility
(Carreón, Drake, & Barton, 2005). A low-income Latino family who experiences high
levels of poverty and unemployment can directly affect children’s academic achievement
and early literacy development. A United Way Latino scorecard study (2006), found that
Latino students are less likely than any other ethnic group to achieve in math, reading and
language and have a high likelihood of droping out of high school. The Latino scorecard
also indicated that the Latino achievement deficiency was highly correlated to Latino
families having the lowest income per person and the highest poverty rate estimated at 22
percent.
Educators and policy makers must realize and pay attention to Latino family
factors, such as lack of employment opportunities and high poverty rates that contribute
to illiteracy among Spanish-speaking children and quickly becoming a significant
educational and economic crisis in the Latino community. One needs to give attention to
the context so as to understand the complexity of the relationship between Latino parental
aspirations, home literacy factors and their child’s motivation to read. California’s 26
year history of bilingual education was brought to a close with the passage of Proposition
227 in 1998. Proposition 227 called for all schools to place Spanish-speaking children
6
with limited English proficiency in sheltered English language programs for no more than
one year. However, different interpretations and implementations of the Proposition have
led to inconsistencies that have caused Latino children to spend their entire secondary
school years in these sheltered programs. Proposition 227 and its failure to create
educational equity for Spanish-speaking children will continue to negatively impact
Latino children’s motivation to become proficient readers. Because of the sociopolitical
and economic distractions, Proposition 227 has affected families and children’s school
experience, by limiting parental choice, destroying trust between teachers and parents,
and failing to build a positive socio-cultural environment (Rueda et al., 2001). This
proposition is one facet contributing to the literacy deficiencies of Latino students in our
public schools. Therefore, gathering data that is relevant to the issue of illiteracy and
motivation problems is imperative.
The term Latino is often used to include a variety of different ethnicities (e.g.,
Mexicans, El Salvadorians, Cubans, Puerto Ricans) and grouped by generation. This
study will specifically focus only on the perspectives of immigrant, first and second
generation Latinos from Mexico and Central America. First generation Latinos are
defined as immigrants from Mexico or Central America and second generation Latinos
are U.S. born with at least one foreign-born parent (Ono, 2002). In the present study, the
author recognizes that cultural, demographic, and educational differences exist between
Latinos from Mexico and Latinos from Central America. By focusing on first and second
generation Latino children and their parents who are less educated and not familiar with
7
the U.S. education system, will provide an in-depth understanding of parents’
perspectives on reading and aspirations for their children’s academic achievement.
The study focuses on three main areas: Latino student’s underachievement in
reading, parental aspirations for their children’s literacy development and academic
achievement, and parental involvement in their children’s schooling.
First, the study is interested in underachieving Latino children, specifically their
poor literacy level. As early as elementary school, more than half of fourth grade Latino
children fail to reach the basic level of reading. In fact, by the end of the fourth grade,
Latino children are already two years behind their Caucasian peers in reading ability; by
middle school, they are three years behind; and by their senior year in high school, their
reading skills are at the same level as Caucasian children in middle school – four years
behind in reading ability. Only 33 percent of fourth grade Latino students in California
are able to comprehend the meaning of a storybook (The Education Trust West, 2003).
In large urban public schools, specifically at the secondary level, a large number of
Latino children are in need of more enrichment school programs that foster their reading
motivation (Suárez-Orozco, 2001). In order to generate rich evidence that can be used to
influence education policy decision-making and find a remedy to the high illiteracy rate
among Latino children, it is vital for educators to look at parental involvement as a
multifaceted practice that is unique and specific to each family. For example, taking into
account the education, economic, social, and demographic context in which each family
operates in.
8
Second, this study is interested in how Latino parents’ aspirations and home
literacy practices are related not only to children’s academic achievement, but also to
children’s reading engagement at school. The perceptions held by parents about the
purposes of reading affect children’s reading engagement. Parents who convey the
perspective that reading is entertaining and meaningful will have a positive result on their
children’s reading engagement (Baker, 2003). Parental aspirations derive from and are
shaped by personal life experiences, immigration experiences and acculturative attitudes.
Acculturative attitudes are the expectations immigrant parents have when moving to a
new society and how these expectations shape the way they identify with and respond to
the new life in the United States (Ogbu, 1990; Li, 2001; Carreón, Drake, & Barton,
2005). If Latino children are going to show some promise in reading, and increase their
reading engagement, then the issue should not be studied in isolation. Latino children’s
reading motivation must be examined in connection to their home literacy experiences
and practices. The strong connection of the school and home has also been considered a
critical contributor in a child’s literacy development. For example, Morrow and Young
(1997) implemented a comprehensive school–home reading program in order to engage
parents and their children in reading activities. The elementary students who participated
showed higher reading achievement and motivation for reading. Enhancing a child’s
motivation to read both at home and at school is crucial in determining a child’s success.
However, simply stating the importance of parental involvement in a child’s literacy
development is not enough particularly when looking at low-income Latino immigrant
parents. Improving Latino students’ academic achievement requires an in-depth
9
examination of the full range of social, economic, cultural, linguistic, and educational
needs (Durán, 1996).
Immigrant parents rely heavily on their life experiences and cultural values when
forming academic aspirations for their children’s educational attainment. However,
because of parent’s lack of familiarity with the U.S. school system, they fail to act on
them. Therefore, most immigrant parents prefer to emphasize a strict academic discipline
home environment combined with high levels of parental warmth and responsiveness as a
way to show their involvement and interest in their children’s education and literacy
development (Taylor, Clayton, & Rowley, 2004).
Third and final area is the value of parent involvement in their children’s
education. Parental involvement their children’s schooling has long been considered a
plus in increasing children’s academic success. Latino parents value their children’s
academic attainment and view the ability to read as a key toward economic and social
upward mobility. Although most Latino parents do not possess an understanding of the
U.S. educational system, many make an effort to understand their roles in their children’s
educational attainment. For example, parents will participate in school parent meetings
and enforce school work at home by implementing a “Can’t watch T.V. or go out to play
until your reading is done” routine. Moreover, Latino parents who understand their role
as a home educator tend to hold high aspirations for their children’s educational
attainment compared to parents who only see their role as a provider of living necessities
(Moreno & Lopez, 1999; Goldenberg, Gallimore, & Reese, 2001). In general, many
immigrant parents with low levels of education feel unprepared to positively influence
10
their children’s literacy development. Researchers have suggested that Latino parents’
diminished aspirations for their children’s educational attainment stem from their feelings
of incompetence in combination with their educational level, social, and economic
situation (Cooper, Garcia, Ittel, Lopez, & Martinez-Chavez, 1994; Goldenberg, 2001).
Two different Latino parental views are discussed in this section. The first view
“passive-uninvolved” pertains to Latino parents who feel they are unable to contribute to
the learning of their children because they possess little knowledge on what they can or
should do to positively influence their children education attainment. The “passive-
uninvolved” parents tend to hold high regard for school authority to the point where
questioning educators is viewed as being out of place. The origin of this parental style
can be traced from the parents’ home country. For example, in Mexico, parents are
conditioned not to question the school authority and are expected to accept the content
taught in the schools. The point here is that Latino parents who have little or no
education are more likely to view schools as an entity that knows best on educating their
children and parents have no place in questioning teacher’s teaching or testing methods
(Marcon, 1999). Researchers (e.g., López, 2001; Carreón Drake, & Barton, 2005) argue
that educators need to be better trained in understanding how “passive” Latino parents
make sense of school structures and how their perceptions affect their quality of
participation in their children’s schooling.
The second view “active-involved” pertains to Latino parents with high levels of
active participation in their children’s education. The “active-involved” parents assume
the active role as the voice for their children by demanding school accountability and are
11
often viewed as parent leaders by their community (Marcon, 1999). In this particular
view, Latino immigrant parents are similar to Asian immigrant parents in that both
groups came to the United States because of the educational advantages for their children.
They view education as the most important pathway toward economic stability. The
level of involvement and educational aspirations are a reflection of their eagerness to
acculturate or assimilate to a new culture in order to provide a better life for their
children. The “active-involved” parents perceive themselves as competent individuals
and see their involvement as an instrument of identity and authority (Li, 2001; Carreón
Drake, & Barton, 2005).
Reading engagement is the theory used to better understand Latino children’s
motivation to read. Today the majority of English language learners (ELL) are
immigrants or children of immigrants. Approximately 80 percent of these ELL children
in K-12 urban schools are enrolled in special programs, such as English as a Second
Language (ESL) classes (Butler & Stevens, 2001). These special programs physically
isolate Spanish-speaking students from the general English-speaking student population
and segregates Latino students into instructional tracks that do not foster upward social
mobility (Godina, 2004). This incubator-type strategy serves to segregate Latino students
by placing them in strictly Spanish-speaking student cohorts located in bungalows,
basements, and in some cases, within walking distance from the main building (Katz,
1999). This is a commonly used approach to accelerate the student’s literacy progress
and help them catch up to their Caucasian peers. The thinking behind this remedial
program is to slowly merge Spanish-speaking children into the general population once
12
they demonstrate some English-language ability, usually during their fourth or fifth grade
level. Depending on the classroom structure and instruction, some of these one-size-fits-
all incubator-type remedial programs quickly become part of the problem because they
fail to adequately socialize Latino children and can potentially damage a child’s self-
efficacy—a strong predictor of reading motivation. As a result, Latino children end up
with the ESL label and leads to children’s sense of self-doubt, incompetence, lowered
aspirations, lowered expectations and poor social skills.
Successful remedial programs that strengthen children’s reading skills are
programs that promote motivation reading strategies and a program structure that give
purpose and meaning to reading activities. For example, Quirk and Schwanenflugel
(2004) examined the reading engagement practices of five major remedial reading
programs. They focused on three motivational constructs of reading: self-efficacy,
outcome attributions, and task value. They found that the five remedial programs did not
do a good job in addressing the motivation problems of the majority of the children they
served. The researchers concluded that all five remedial programs lacked a strong
motivation component.
In short, large urban school districts in California are facing the ever-increasing
challenge to close the academic achievement gap among Latino children as well as
increase their reading performance. Latino parental aspirations and literacy practices
related to their children’s educational attainment play a critical role in their student’s
motivation to read. On one hand, creating strong home–school partnerships will increase
students’ ability, confidence, and motivation to achieve academically (Cummins, 1986).
13
On the other hand, a lack of parental-school programs will have the opposite effect,
leading to parents’ low academic aspirations for their children and evident in children’s
low levels of motivation. More research that focuses on parents’ perceptions on literacy
development and educational aspirations is necessary. For example, the work of
Goldenberg, Gallimore, and Reese, (2001), recommends that educators must be willing to
work with Latino families in order to find viable strategies that encourage Latino parents
to act on their aspirations for their children’s educational attainment.
Statement of the Problem
The failure of educators and policy makers to respond to the disconnection
between home and school factors can prove to have a long-lasting negative affect on
Latino children’s academic achievement and motivation. The school community must
find alternative solutions that are specific to the cultural, social, and educational needs of
immigrant Latino families. This strategy will engage parents in their children’s schooling
and improve their reading engagement. Specifically, to establish solid partnerships
between parents and school educators, working together to improve the reading
performance of Latino children. In contrast, failing to take advantage of such
opportunities during the early stages of a child’s education can lead to negative and
irreparable consequences, such as educational, economic, and interpersonal and social
deficiencies argued by John Dewey as early as 1927.
In most high fluent school settings, good readers, mostly Caucasian students,
continue to excel because of practice at home with parental guidance, whereas struggling
readers’ skills, such as Latino students, remain sluggish at best and non-existent at worst.
14
Parental involvement and guidance in their children’s education earlier in their education
is critical and needs more attention. Without a strong parent and motivation component
Latino children will not only invest less time and effort in their education, but also
continue to struggle with their reading skills (Anderman & Maehr, 1994; Quirk &
Schwanenflugel, 2004). Therefore, it is critical for parents and educators to work in
partnership to encourage and increase the reading engagement of Latino children in
reading tasks both at home and school.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between Latino
parents’ aspirations and home literacy practices and their children’s motivation to read
and educational attainment. This study specifically examines parents’ beliefs toward
early literacy development and home literacy practices in relationship to their children’s
reading engagement. The two research questions that guide this investigation are:
1. How do Latino parents’ aspirations and home literacy practices relate to their
children’s motivation to read?
2. What are Latino parents’ aspirations for their children’s educational attainment?
Significance of the Study
There is little doubt that providing the means for Latino students to further their
literacy development and their educational attainment will not only translate into long-
term educational and economic success for them, their families and communities, but also
benefit and strengthen America (Rubinstein-Ávila, 2003; Fry, 2003). According to the
National Conference of State Legislatures: Children’s Policy Initiative (2005), in 2003,
15
there were approximately five million English language learners enrolled in the K-12
educational system with Spanish as the most spoken language. Not surprisingly, a poor
English-language capacity has become a significant impediment to obtaining a positive
educational experience and strong literacy engagement among Latino students (Durán,
1996; Moreno & Lopez, 1999; Fry, 2003).
The importance of parental and home factors on children’s educational attainment
was emphasized by several researchers (e.g., Azmitia, Cooper, Garcia, Ittler, Johnson,
Lopez, Martinez-Chavez, & Rivera, 1994; Cooper et al., 1994; Moreno & Lopez, 1999;
Goldenberg, Gallimore, & Garnier 2001; Li, 2001; López, 2001; Godina, 2004; Carreon,
Drake, & Barton, 2005). Much of the research about motivation and the role it plays on
reading engagement has been inspired by the work of Guthrie and colleagues (e.g.,
Guthrie, Meter, McCann, Wigfield, Bennett, Poundstone, Rice, Faibisch, Hunt, &
Mitchell, 1996; Guthrie & Wigfield, 1997; Guthrie, Wigfield, & VonSecker, 2000;
Guthrie, Wigfiled, Barbosa, Perencevich, Toboada, Davis, Scafiddi, & Tonks, 2004),
who discovered that students’ beliefs, values and goals and social reasons for reading are
multidimensional. Although there have been a handful of studies that examined parental
beliefs about literacy and their academic hopes for their children (Goldenberg, Reese, &
Gallimore, 1992; Morrow & Young, 1997; Reese & Gallimore, 2000; Monzó & Rueda,
2001; Rueda, Macgillivary, Monzó, Arzubiaga, 2001; Arzubiaga, Rueda, & Monzó,
2002), further exploration is needed. To date very little analysis has produced a
comprehensive understanding of how parental and home factors might be contributing to
the Latino literacy crisis. Much of the research on reading motivation has concentrated
16
on Caucasian children with a focus on individual achievement or performance. As
schools move toward improving the quality of their Latino student’s education, it is
critical for educators to take into account Latino family’s socio-cultural and socio-
political factors, such as economic, education, and acculturation levels (Rueda et al.,
2001). The present study will add to the existing literature by providing a more
comprehensive view on how Latino parental aspirations and literacy practices are related
to their children’s reading engagement.
Assumptions of the Study
Previous studies have shown that Latino parents possess their own philosophy
about the importance of an education based on their home and host society experiences.
The common belief is that Latino parents do value education and have high aspirations
for their children (Goldenberg, Reese, & Gallimore, 1992). However, because Latino
families differ in terms of education level, socioeconomic status, cultural traditions,
acculturation and assimilation levels, the following assumptions can be made.
1. Other variables, such as a lack of print resources, family financial instability,
responsibility to care for the young, among other family obligations may impinge on
children’s reading engagement.
2. The survey instruments will be administered in a quiet environment with ample room.
3. The respondents surveyed will objectively and honestly answer the questions posed to
them regarding the study.
4. The number of questionnaire respondents was adequate.
5. The data was accurately recorded and analyzed.
17
6. The measures are reliable and valid indicators of the constructs being studied.
7. The research, data gathered, findings and conclusions of the study represent “good
research.”
Delimitations of the Study
The proposed study will focus on a cross-section of two urban public schools,
Spanish-speaking students and their immigrant parents. The following delimitations exist
in the study:
1. The study confines itself to immigrant Latino parents and their immigrant, first and
second generation ELL students enrolled in National Elementary School and
Emmanuel Middle School located in Southeast Los Angeles in the state of California.
2. The study is confined to questions from surveys completed by students and their
parents.
Limitations of the Study
The proposed study has six main limitations.
1. This study is limited to participants who agreed to participate voluntarily.
2. Time and money. Having adequate time and funding dedicated toward distinguishing
between Mexican families from Central American families by examining their
demography and history, acculturative issues, and school issues they face.
3. Parents may choose not to participate or withdraw their information from the study
because of their illegal residency status and fear of getting reported.
18
4. Studying parental aspirations and literacy practices related to their children’s
academic attainment and reading engagement is a large undertaking and should be a
longitudinal study.
5. The findings of this study are limited to the participants surveyed and the amount of
time available to conduct the study.
6. Validity of the study is limited to the reliability of the instruments used.
Definition of Terms
Within the context of this study, the following terms are used extensively.
Thorough explanations of the following terms will be provided in Chapter two.
CORI (Concept Oriented Reading Instruction)
Is a curricular framework designed to incorporate reading strategy instruction in
interesting and unique ways for students in order to increase reading comprehension and
reading motivation (Guthrie, 1993).
Ecocultural Factors
Are a number of contextual factors that influences Latino students home literacy
experiences and literacy development. For instance, family cultural values, acculturative
attitudes, socioeconomic status, and familiarity with U.S. school system (Goldenberg,
Gallimore, & Reese, 2003).
ESL (English as a Second Language)
Secondary programs in which immigrant students are taught English using the
four language communication skills: speaking, listening, reading, and writing.
19
Extrinsic Motivation
The motivation that drives students to engaging in literacy activities for tangible
rewards, praise or pressure to perform, rather than for the pleasure of it (Ryan & Deci,
2000).
First Generation Latino
Born in a foreign country and immigrated to the U.S. and parents are also born in
a foreign country.
Gap-Focused Feedback
The specific strategies used to close the achievement gap by focusing on goals
and monitoring progress through positive feedback (Clark & Estes, 2002, p. 3).
Home Literacy Factors
The family participation in literacy related activities in the home that influences
and enhances Latino children’s literacy development. Home literacy related activities
include exposure to printed materials and frequent reading to parents (Rashid et al.,
2005).
Intrinsic Motivation
The motivation that drives students to engage in literacy related activities by
internal factors, as opposed to external forces. Intrinsic motivation drives students to
engage for fun or because they believe that engaging in a particular activity is a good
thing (Ryan & Deci, 2000).
20
Learning Goal Orientation
The desire of students to set specific learning goals that increases their
competence and challenge seeking behavior regardless of the presence of external
consequences (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002, p. 215).
Parental Aspirations
The value Latino parents place on a U.S. education and their hope for their
children’s academic achievement level. Latino parents’ aspirations are mostly based on
their perceptions, cultural values and life experiences in adjusting to U.S. culture
(Goldenberg, 2001).
Parental Expectations
The educational level parent’s think their children are capable of attaining.
Parents’ expectations are influenced by how well students are doing in school, in
particular parents’ perceptions of how interested and motivated their students are
(Goldenberg, 2001).
Performance Goal Orientation
Demonstrating competence or ability and how ability will be judged relative to
others, for example, trying to surpass normative performance standards, attempting to
best others, using social comparative standards (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002, p. 214).
Reading Autonomy
The student’s ability to make independent decisions that leads to a meaningful
and profound understanding of the English language in both written and spoken (Guthrie,
2000).
21
Reading Challenge
Students who believe to be competent and confident in their literacy abilities are
constantly seeking new literacy challenges that enhance their comprehension and
communication abilities (Turner, 1997, p. 187).
Reading Engagement
A type of motivation where students approach reading with enthusiasm,
confidence, and establish purposeful literacy strategies to build reading efficacy (Guthrie
& Wigfield, 1997, p. 5).
Second Generation Latinos
Children who were born in the U.S. and at least one of his/her parents was born in
a foreign country (Ono, 2002).
Self-efficacy
Student’s beliefs about their abilities to produce, organize, and execute levels of
performance that exercise influence over events that affect their lives. Self-efficacy
beliefs determine how people feel, think, motivate themselves and carry out tasks
(Bandura, 1997).
Sociocultural Factors
The roles that parents and student play in influencing home-school partnerships
and the in-depth understanding of how parents view school structures (Rueda et al.,
2001).
22
Subjective Task Values
The incentives for engaging in various activities that includes the interest and
liking an activity, the importance of the activity, and the usefulness of the activity
Wigfield (1997, p. 17).
Conclusion
Chapter one of the present study, provided a quick overview of the educational
and literacy struggles of Latino children in relationship to reading engagement as a theory
of motivation. Specifically bringing to light the significant literacy problems facing
immigrant, first, and second generation Latino ELL students in an urban public school
setting. Latino parental literacy practices and educational aspirations for their children
were also mentioned and regarded as a critical piece in motivating and improving the
reading skills of Latino children. The two questions that guide this study focus on Latino
parents’ aspirations and home literacy practices and its relationship to their children’s
reading engagement and educational attainment. In other words, one would expect to
find Latino students, whose parents are involved in their child’s education and hold high
aspirations, would show higher levels of reading engagement and academic achievement,
compared to Latino students whose parents are not involved in their children’s academics
and have low academic aspirations for their children.

23
CHAPTER 2
Literature Review
Introduction
This investigation sought to understand how Latino parental and home factors
influence their children’s reading engagement. The study was specifically looking at
parental aspirations and literacy practices related to their children’s motivation to read.
The author’s approach in this chapter was to bring to light previous work on reading
engagement and Latino parental aspirations and literacy practices by reviewing two main
bodies of literature. One of the main areas was reading engagement as a theory in
motivation, which includes Concept-Oriented Reading Instruction (CORI), a motivation
strategy that builds intrinsic motivation, self-efficacy, and autonomy. It also includes
measurement of reading engagement focusing on assessing various motivation constructs.
The second main area was the role of Latino parental aspirations and literacy practices in
relationship to their children’s academic achievement, which includes the eco-cultural
and socio-cultural literacy practices of Latino families.
Reading Engagement as a Theory in Motivation
As the research has indicated, motivation researchers accept the term engagement
as a multifaceted motivation concept in the area of school achievement and reading. For
example, the National Research Council and Institute of Medicine (2004) stated that the
concept of engagement has become a guiding principle for increasing academic
achievement levels especially in large urban schools where underachievement and high
drop out rates are most evident.
24
The interest to examine diverse communities by focusing on the reading
engagement of Latino students, who are at greater risk of dropping out of school because
of their poor English proficiency and lack of a supportive home environment, advances
the purpose of the present study. The work of Fredricks, Blumenfeld and Paris (2004)
conceptualizes the term engagement. They classify engagement as behavioral,
emotional, and cognitive. Behavioral engagement is defined as doing the work out of
compliance or to fulfill a requirement. Emotional engagement has to do with how
interest, values, and emotions influence commitment and persistence to accomplish a
task. And, cognitive engagement is defined as mental effort and knowledge required for
use of various strategies to achieve a task. Moreover, the researchers claim that
engagement is malleable and multidimensional and that once established it builds on
itself. In their work, they found that more research that explores the value of choice, the
value of decision-making, and the value of incentives for behavioral, emotional, and
cognitive engagement at various school and home environemnts is needed. A focal point
in their study, which they consider to be a major gap in the research, is that most of the
research conducted has been with predominately Caucasian samples. They also added
that more research looking at the influence of autonomy-supportive environments (home
and schools) on engagement across minority groups is necessary.
The most common approach to research in the area of reading engagement is
found in the work of John Guthrie. The work of Guthrie and his colleagues (e.g., Guthrie
et al., 1996; Guthrie & Wigfield, 1997; Guthrie, Anderson, Alao, & Rinehart, 1999;
Guthrie, 2000; & Guthrie, et al., 2004), which has generated the most comprehensive
25
research on reading engagement, provides a theoretical reading engagement model that
emphasizes key dimensions that are unique to reading motivation. Guthrie contends that
what influences reading engagement is different from what influences engagement in
other academic areas. In one of Guthrie’s (2000) well-known theoretical studies on
reading engagement, he measured three reading engagement constructs. Cognition was
one of the constructs and it had to do with knowledge of a variety of strategies to
learning. The second construct was social or engaging in community activities and
interacting with people. The third and final construct was motivation and it had to do
with choice and setting attainable goals. He found that a child’s motivation to read was
influenced by a combination of teacher involvement, positive feedback, clear learning
goals, real-world hands-on interactions, autonomy-supportive environments, interesting
texts, strategy instruction, collaboration, praise, and rewards. While his focus was on
specific constructs for reading engagement, he pointed out that reading engagement is
multidimensional; people will engage in a task for different reasons and purposes.
In keeping with the argument that reading motivation is multidimensional,
Wigfield (1997) proposed that salient characteristics of reading engagement can be
simplified and understood with two important questions: “Can I succeed?” and “Do I
want to succeed and why?” (p. 16 & 17). The intent of these two questions was to
provide a range of information about reading engagement in two main areas. One area
had to do with a person’s sense of efficacy and competence, creating new knowledge and
persisting at completing a task. The second area had to do with the purpose and value
given to the task and whether it was worth engaging in. Wigfield concluded that people
26
with high self-efficacy and competence in reading will not engage in reading activities
unless a purpose for engaging exists. In other words, children must value reading
activities if they are expected to engage in reading tasks. Csikszentmihaliyi (as cited in
Wigfield, 1997) calls this level of engagement the “flow experience,” occurring when
someone gets completely involved in a story to the point of losing track of time. These
two areas of interest make up the three reading engagement dimensions unique to this
study and guide this portion of the literature. These dimensions are: 1) self-efficacy and
competence and challenge and autonomy, 2) intrinsic motivation versus extrinsic
motivation, and 3) learning goal orientation versus performance goal orientation.
Self-Efficacy and Competence and Challenge and Autonomy
This dimension refers to an individual’s sense of capability to take on new and
challenging tasks and having the correct number of strategies to engage and successfully
complete reading tasks. High levels of self-efficacy and competence along with seeking
challenges and achieving autonomy have been shown to correlate with academic
perseverance, positive attitudes toward reading and high levels of reading engagement.
Therefore, a strong sense of self-efficacy and competence in reading, among Latino
students, and a greater understanding for how parental and home factors influence a
child’s reading capacity is essential for improving a child’s motivation to read.
Self-efficacy and Competence
An in-depth understanding of Latino parents’ involvement in relation to their
academic aspirations and home literacy practices that motivate their children to read and
achieve academically, requires the study of self-efficacy and competence. This body of
27
literature will examine the role of self-efficacy and competence in relationship to reading
that has been explored in research to date. Self-efficacy beliefs have a direct effect on an
individual’s self-enhancing or self-debilitating way of thinking and how well each
individual motivates him/herself and perseveres when confronted with difficulties
(Bandura, 1997).
To set the stage for understanding a student’s choice to engage, willingness to
expand effort and persist at mastering the ability to read, two studies (Wigfield &
Guthrie, 1997; Baker & Wigfield, 1999) are significant to understanding students’
reading efficacy and competence. Both studies examined key constructs or dimensions
that pertain to children’s reading motivation by administering the Motivation for Reading
Questionnaire (MRQ) using elementary-aged children from a mid-Atlantic state.
Specifically, both studies looked at students’ beliefs about their efficacy to achieve, their
purpose for engaging in different tasks, and the social aspects of motivation. Overall, the
findings suggested that children as young as five years of age possess a multifaceted
sense of themselves as readers. In other words, children who believe they are capable of
reading well and are intrinsically motivated to read indicated that they read more
frequently; students who avoid reading-related activities were less likely to engage in out-
of-school reading opportunities. The two studies recommended that home and school
contexts can provide more opportunities to further understand a child’s motivation to read
and more longitudinal investigations focusing on specific dimensions of reading
motivation without the influence of special reading incentive programs are needed.
28
When building self-efficacy in people, it is important to focus on people’s
accomplishments versus shortcomings. Bandura and Locke (2003) set out to address
negative self-efficacy or discrepancy reduction, such as negative feedback, and its effects
on individual goals. They argue that too much focus on discrepancy feedback when a
person is trying to achieve a goal, such as learning to read, can have a negative effect on
goal achievement. For example, making a statement like “here is what you have yet to
accomplish.” In contrast, when encouraging young readers, Bandura and Locke
recommend that focus be placed on what the child has accomplished, for instance “look
at what you have accomplished thus far.” This suggest that acknowledging a child’s
literacy accomplishments and use of strategies will lead to higher levels of motivation
and engage in more challenging reading activities. When feedback constantly
emphasizes an individual’s poor qualities, their self-efficacy, competence and
performance deteriorates which then leads to anger or depression and simply gives up. In
order to improve motivation in any context and subject, an effective approach is to
replace negative feedback with gap-focused feedback, where clear goals and current
progress is emphasized (Clark & Estes, 2002).
Adding to the previous literature, Cole (2003) took on a qualitative approach to
investigate what motivated four of her second grade students to read. Specifically, she
looked at four different literacy personalities and found that her students’ motivation to
read was due to different ability beliefs, reasons, and purposes. Each student exhibited a
unique personality toward reading—reinforcing the notion that reading engagement is
multidimensional. Cole added that students with positive self-efficacy felt autonomy and
29
in control of their learning. Moreover, they believed they were competent and capable of
succeeding at any task. On the other hand, students with poor self-efficacy did not feel in
control and quickly engaged in self-defeating thinking.
In sum, people with negative beliefs will limit themselves from active choice,
mental and physical effort and persistence. On the other hand, people with positive
beliefs are motivated to engage, willing to expend mental and physical effort and persist
until goals are accomplished. Competence is concerned with a person’s beliefs about
control, strategies, and capacity. Individuals that achieve a sense of competence believe
they can determine their success and possess the capacity to actually succeed (Fredricks,
Blumenfeld and Paris, 2004). When students show high reading efficacy and
competence, they will most likely seek challenges and autonomy in their reading
activities. For instance, when parents and their child visit the library and children are
given the opportunity to choose a book of their liking from a selection of books, they will
seek books with challenging content, and will show higher levels of reading motivation at
home and school, because the book is of interest to them.
Seeking Challenging Tasks and Autonomy
In a high autonomy-supportive environment, students improve their literacy skills
to meet challenges, and then, prepared with greater literacy skills, they seek new
challenges. Turner (1997) examined the value of challenge and autonomy as a strategy
for enhancing reading engagement among young learners. In Turner’s work, challenging
tasks were defined as open or closed reading tasks. Open reading tasks are literacy
activities where students are able to use a variety of strategies allowing them to set
30
personal goals and decide how best to meet them. Closed reading tasks, on the other
hand, are drill-type activities that promote practice instead of application and deprive
students of opportunities. He found that when elementary-aged children were moderately
challenged and engaged in open reading tasks, they were not only self-regulated for
instance able to monitor and evaluate their progress, but also they demonstrated increased
persistence, multiple strategy use, greater interest in the activity, and increased literacy
performance. Reading activities that are open and challenging offer more opportunities
for students to respond strategically and give them autonomy or ownership over their
literacy learning.
In short, the expectation for success answers the question “Can I do this task?”
Based on prior experience with a similar task, individuals can assess their capabilities and
beliefs about their individual performance on a specific task (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002).
In other words, individuals who genuinely possess a “I can do this task” attitude are more
likely to engage in new challenging reading activities and develop strong self-efficacy
coupled with strong feelings of competence, challenge, and autonomy. A school or home
setting where students are given choice, opportunity to make decisions, and are free from
outside influences, will help them achieve autonomy (Fredricks, Blumenfeld and Paris,
2004). Equally important is the type of motivation orientation that drives a person’s
interest and curiosities to read. In the next dimension of reading engagement the
proposed study examines and differentiates between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
31
Intrinsic Motivation versus Extrinsic Motivation
With the focus on the context in which individuals are motivated to read, the
dichotomous theories of motivation (intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation) will be
explored to bring an understanding of the influence of each theory on reading
engagement.
Individuals engage in reading activities either for intrinsic reasons, for instance
doing something because it is stimulating and enjoyable, or for extrinsic reasons such as
doing something because it leads to a reward (Ryan & Deci, 2000). It is in this section
that the author attempts to explore the question “Do I want to succeed and why?” Both
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation have emerged, in the area of academic achievement, as
important engagement constructs, equally significant in the area of reading motivation.
Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation have been widely studied by Gambrell and Marinak
(1997); Ryan and Deci (2000) and Eccles and Wigfield (2002). From a theoretical
perspective, these three studies were pivotal for understanding this motivation dichotomy.
Gambrell and Marinak (1997) set out to investigate the question: “What motivates
individuals to read in the absence of incentives?” They examined four first-grade reading
programs to determine if incentives have any effects on intrinsic motivation. They found
that children across different populations were most motivated to read by feeling a sense
of ownership and meeting their personal reading challenges. They also found that simply
by providing children with opportunities to choose their own reading text proved to be
enough of an incentive to read. There was a correlation between choosing reading
materials and increased reading rates. Children’s reading behavior was also encouraged
32
by parental support when children brought home books to share with family members. A
major gap in this study, one that will continue to resonate throughout this chapter, is that
most of the research was on Caucasian children and families. Clearly, more research is
needed in order to understand the effects of home literacy incentive practices on Latino
children’s motivation.
Several researchers have cautioned that simply understanding what motivates
students to learn isn’t enough. Ryan and Deci (2000) and Eccles and Wigfield (2002)
looked at intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in relationship to an individual’s beliefs,
values, and goals. They acknowledged that the social, economic and educational
background of student’s home and school that facilitate or hinder student’s beliefs of
competence, autonomy, and relatedness are the basis for maintaining intrinsic or extrinsic
motivation orientation. Equally important, they argue, is to also gain insight on how
students view and experience the school structure and context. More needs to be done to
better understand the influence of multifaceted interactions between students and parents
and school factors. One of the features that drives extrinsic motivation is verbal praise.
But verbal praise can sometimes be too much or not enough.
Students who are praised for being intelligent, they begin to view intelligence as
something people are born with. In other words, you either have it or you don’t. On the
other hand, students who were praised for their effort viewed intelligence more as
developing from skill, thought, and persistence (Dweck, 1999a). The important thing to
recognize in Dweck’s study is that, when home and school contexts emphasize children’s
potential to learn and when parents and teachers model the importance of effort over
33
ability, children are more likely to seek challenging tasks, become accountable for their
success and take ownership of their achievement and self-efficacy.
Understanding the extent to which a task is valued in relationship to goal
achievement is essential to explaining an individual’s intentions and decisions to start,
continue or stop reading (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). In the section that follows, the
author describes and differentiates between a learning goal orientation and a performance
goal orientation.
Learning Goal Orientation versus Performance Goal Orientation
To set the stage for the discussion on goal orientation, subjective task values, such
as, interest value, attainment value, and utility value, are important in understanding the
many reasons people are motivated to read. Interest value is defined as how an individual
will engage in a particular reading task based on the interest given to the activity.
Attainment value refers to the level of significance placed on the reading task by the
individual. Utility value refers to the effectiveness of the reading task in relationship to
current and future goals. Subjective task values have evolved as motivational
components that make up a person’s perceptions about reading engagement (Wigfield
1997). Understanding subjective task values is important because they are strong
predictors of reading engagement.
Similar themes can be found throughout the goal orientation literature.
Specifically, the two most talked about orientations are learning versus performance
goals (Dweck & Leggett, 1988), followed by mastery versus performance goals (Ames,
1992b) and task oriented versus ego oriented (Nicholls, 1984). According to Dweck and
34
Leggett (1988), students who have a learning goal perspective are more likely to engage
in reading tasks that prove to be difficult as long as they learn something from the text,
even if it means failing at first. Using a performance goal perspective, on the other hand,
will not engage students if the reading text is too difficult and makes them look dumb or
incompetent. Failing is not an option. So, learning goals promote mastery, competence,
understanding and appreciation for what is being learned. Performance goals promote
the opposite, such as competition, individual achievement, and ability “smart” status.
Students are more likely to value a reading activity and enjoy its process when the
primary reason for reading is learn-focused rather than performance-focused. Students
with a performance-orientation will avoid failure, expend less effort and not persist
(Covington 2000).
Student motivation and parental involvement in their children’s education has also
been studied in other countries, for example in China Liu (2003) examined the change in
motivation by looking at children’s progression from elementary school to middle school
using a sample from an urban community in the east coast of China. Liu found that
elementary-aged children valued family involvement and collectivism. Middle school-
aged students, on the other hand, valued more of an individual performance-focused
approach to school, perhaps because of the increased competition to enter high school. In
China, after the ninth grade, children must pass a high school entrance exam in order to
advance. Liu also found that parental expectations for their only child to succeed were
higher. Although Liu’s study involving Chinese children might not generalize to other
populations, it provides some evidence that distinguishes between learning goals and
35
performance goals. The research has also demonstrated that motivation deteriorates at
the middle school level across different groups. According to Anderman and Maehr
(1994), students who adopt a learning goal approach are more likely to engage in deep
cognitive processing, such as finding creative ways to incorporate new knowledge with
existing knowledge and, make a greater investment in academic activities that increases
self-efficacy. In contrast, students who adopt a performance goal approach limit their
strategy use to only memorizing facts long enough for a test. When confronted with
difficulties, they tend to give up.
Ending this discussion it can be concluded that reading engagement is fueled by
self-efficacy, which includes sense of competence, challenge and autonomy; intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation; and different goal orientations for reading. Individuals who possess
a high self-efficacy are intrinsically motivated and when they adopt a learning goal
orientation will show high levels of engagement in reading activities and develop
multiple motivational strategies for learning.
One of the most effective and most talked about programs that uses multiple
motivational strategies is the Concept-Oriented Reading Instruction also known as CORI.
The program CORI and its five motivational principles are important to reading
engagement, because it focuses on three key areas from the three dimensions of reading
engagement discussed in this study. For example, it increases intrinsic motivation in
literacy, it increases student’s motivation to learn from a variety of books and build
knowledge capacity, and it increases student’s involvement with reading activities. In
short, it builds student’s intrinsic motivation, self efficacy, and autonomy for literacy
36
activities. Moreover, CORI enhances student’s collaboration with others. Through
collaboration students are able to work with other students by sharing ideas and helping
one another with literacy tasks. The practice of collaboration also enables students to
share with their parents what they are reading and involve their parents in literacy
activities. A more detailed description of CORI in relationship to reading engagement
follows.
Concept-Oriented Reading Instruction (CORI)
This section of the chapter is organized into two parts. The first treats Concept-
Oriented Reading Instruction (CORI) as an instructional approach for motivating and
engaging students and for using of motivational practices. The second focuses on key
studies done on CORI and its effectiveness on reading engagement. Because CORI is
relatively a novel concept, much of the research has been done by Guthrie and his
colleagues and no research was found that contradicts CORI’s principles.
CORI uses multiple motivational strategies, especially in reading engagement,
which can increase students’ intrinsic motivation for literacy, self-efficacy, independence,
and collaboration in and out of the classroom (Guthrie et al., 2004). CORI practices for
motivation and engagement consists of five principles. The first principle is using
content goals to give specific purpose and meaning to the use of strategies in a
meaningful context and encouraging students to use strategies with greater effort and
attention. A second principle of CORI is supporting student autonomy and ownership in
the classroom. Giving students independence and choice over what task and text they
wish to engage in increases effort and persistence in the challenge to learn and gain
37
mastery in reading. The third CORI principle is hands-on experiences associated with
reading. This requires interactions with the real world, through true experiments, where
students are able to make observations and connect those observations with reading text.
For example, reading about birds and taking a field trip to the zoo to observe the social
nature of exotic birds will lead to more curiosity and subsequent more reading about
birds. The fourth principle, the use of an abundance of text with a variety of stimuli, such
as visuals, easy comprehensive, character identification, and surprise will generate
positive affect and increased ownership. And, the fifth principle is collaboration with a
diversity of reading activities. This requires working in a group, where students are able
to share their reading experiences with each other. The ultimate goal of CORI is the
coordination of and merging of the five principles into other academic subjects and
increase students’ intrinsic motivation and reading efficacy (Guthrie et al., 2004).
Based on a number of studies (Guthrie et al., 1998; Guthrie et al., 1999; Guthrie,
Wigfield, VonSecker, 2000) the CORI framework and its motivational principles have
shown to be successful in increasing reading engagement among students in third and
fifth grade classrooms. Other similar studies compared the CORI framework with other
instructional frameworks (Guthrie et al., 2004; Wigfield, Guthrie, Tonks, & Perencevich,
2004) and found similar positive results. For example, CORI students, when compared to
other students and other frameworks, showed an ability to use a variety of strategies to
gain more conceptual knowledge and had higher levels of curiosity for reading.
Moreover, CORI students were able to apply newly acquired knowledge to other subject
disciplines. Although CORI is focused on enhancing students’ learning or mastery goals,
38
which are directly associated with intrinsic motivation, findings revealed that CORI
students were extrinsic-value-oriented and motivated by the value of recognition and
competition. The findings from these studies also revealed major weaknesses. Some of
these weaknesses included that more research is needed to examine the strengths of age
differences in reading motivation; a random assignment or pretest-posttest design should
be used; larger samples are needed to examine treatment effects such as gender and
ethnic group difference; and multiple measures should be used and findings generalized
to other grade levels.
Measurement of Reading Engagement
In this section, the study presents two major measures of reading engagement, the
Motivation for Reading Questionnaire (MRQ) and the Motivation for Reading Profile
(MRP). Wigfield and Guthrie (1995 & 1997) and Baker and Wigfield (1999) began
building measures of reading engagement, creating the Motivation for Reading
Questionnaire (MRQ) to measure a variety of motivation constructs that were central to
children’s motivation. Their objective for creating and revising the MRQ was to gain an
understanding about the evolution of children’s motivation to read over time. The MRQ,
more popular than the MRP, assesses eleven motivation dimensions: reading efficacy,
reading challenge, reading work avoidance, reading curiosity, involvement, importance
of reading, reading for recognition, reading for grades, completion in reading, social
reasons for reading, and reading compliance (see table 1 in Wigfield, 1997, p.19). The
MRQ also measures the relationship between reading engagement and home-school
literacy factors. Several studies using the MRQ found that children’s motivation to read
39
must be seen from a multidimensional lens. In other words, children are motivated to
read for different reasons as long as the reading activities have a purpose to them.
Watkins and Coffey (2004) pointed out a weakness in the MRQ, contending that after
conducting their own analysis on the instrument, surveying third, fourth and fifth graders,
they found reliable support for only eight of the eleven MRQ factors. The eight factors
were social reasons for reading, grade compliance, reading curiosity, competition in
reading, involvement, reading work avoidance, reading efficacy, and reading for
recognition. Their critical review of the MRQ confirmed what other researchers have
found—strong evidence that reading motivation is a multidimensional construct.
Along similar lines as the MRQ that students engage in reading activities for
different reasons, Gambrell, Palmer, Codling, and Mazzoni, (1996) set out to investigate
different aspects of reading engagement using elementary-aged children. Gambrell and
her colleagues designed a measurement tool called Motivations for Reading Profile
(MRP), an instrument designed to assess student’s self-concept as a reader, the value
students place in reading and student’s reasons for reading. The MRP is a two-part
instrument, self-report questionnaire and interviews. The first part is a 20-item self-
report questionnaire that assesses two dimensions of reading engagement: self-concept as
a reader and value of reading. The second part, the interview, provides data about the
literacy content that children read. Other instruments have been developed and used, but
the MRQ and the MRP are the ones most commonly used for assessing children’s reading
engagement.
40
In sum, to this point the author has described in detail and provided a body of
research on three key dimensions of reading engagement: Self-efficacy and competence
and challenge and autonomy, intrinsic motivation versus extrinsic motivation, and
learning goal orientation versus performance goal orientation. Overwhelming consensus
in the literature confirms that reading engagement is a multidimensional construct,
meaning that individuals are motivated to read for different reasons. Moreover, without a
sense of purpose or mission, individuals will not engage in any reading activity regardless
of their high level of reading efficacy and excellent reading ability (Wigfield & Guthrie,
1997; Guthrie, 2000). Another area of influence was the individuals’ level of confidence,
competence and the value given to reading as a task. Equally important factors on
reading engagement are giving students a choice on text, establishing clear tangible goals,
and providing feedback on their progress. All of these works on reading engagement call
for more research to better understand reading motivation in other contexts and best
determine why some students are more motivated to read than others. To gain more
insight on what motivates some students to read and not others, further research needs to
be done where parental and home factors are also examined. Further, exploring
children’s reading motivation in combination with parental beliefs about literacy must be
expanded beyond the school context and into the homes of Latino and other immigrant
minority families. The following section focuses on parental perceptions about literacy
and aspirations for children’s educational attainment.
41
The Role of Latino Parental Aspirations and Literacy Practices
There is no doubt that U.S. schools are facing an enormous challenge—to serve,
educate immigrant Latino children and provide curricula that engages and motivates them
while they are acquiring English-language skills. Linguistic and cultural resources from
the child’s home environment must be taken into account and merged with the classroom
instruction in order to create learning environments that promote and sustain high
aspirations and expectations. Healthy learning environments that enhance motivation in
classrooms will transfer this same motivation to students’ homes. As a result, supportive
relationships will evolve between teachers and students and teachers and parents (Suarez-
Orozco, 2001; Baker, 2003). Several studies (Baker, Sonnenchein, & Gilat, 1996; Baker,
2003) argue in favor of encouraging parental involvement that is consistent with parents’
beliefs and values as opposed to enforcing school agendas and attempting to change
parents’ perspectives on early literacy development. The studies also indicated that when
parents emphasized reading as a source of entertainment versus a skill, it led to their
children developing a positive attitude towards reading. Respecting and valuing home
and parental views on literacy development creates an effective home-school
collaboration that fosters a type of reading engagement that leads to frequent voluntary
reading among Latino children.
The geographical, historical, social, ethnic, linguistic, economic, and cultural
makeup of a child is crucial to better understanding parental factors that influence a
child’s lack of English literacy—a characteristic commonly used to explain their poor
performance (Shavelson & Towne, 2002). Mexican and Central American immigrant
42
parents historically tend to possess little, if any, formal education and have a higher
prevalence of living in poverty (Goldenberg, 2001). Establishing a relationship between
home literacy and school reading ability is critical to gaining a clear understanding of the
specific home environmental factors, for example parental perceptions on literacy
development and academic aspirations, that affect motivation (Rashid, Morris, & Sevcik,
2005). Poor reading levels will be evident among Latino children if what they are
learning at school is not being reinforced at home, regardless of parents’ aspirations and
expectation levels. Parents are considered to be the primary agents of child socialization,
the process by which the parent shapes the child’s behaviors, attitudes, and social skills in
order for the child to be capable of functioning as a member of society (Taylor, Clayton,
& Rowley, 2004).
Parents’ aspirations are distinguished from socioeconomic status as specific sets
of behaviors that have a strong relationship to children’s reading motivation. Two major
areas of Latino parental factors are discussed: 1) Latino Parents’ Aspirations and 2)
Latino Family’s Eco-cultural and Socio-cultural Literacy Practices.
Latino Parents’ Aspirations in Children’s Academic Achievement
Perhaps one of the most debated areas in today’s K-12 education is the role that
parents play in their child’s education. The work reported in this section centers around
Latino parents’ aspirations of their children’s academic achievement, including literacy
development. When referring to Latino parents’ aspirations, parents have two ways of
thinking, according to the author. One way is that parents think of and hold high
expectations for their children’s schooling when thinking long-term. However, they have
43
trouble referencing their short-term or immediate expectations with their long-term
expectations. Azmitia et al., (1994) examined Mexican-American parents’ aspirations
and strategies for guiding their children. Their findings revealed that parents of middle
school Latino children held lower educational and vocational aspirations as their children
advanced from elementary to middle school. One possible reason for parents’ diminished
aspirations could be due to discrimination and lowered job opportunities they’ve
experienced. Another reason, indicated in the study, is that parents view academic and
vocational attainment as their children’s responsibility once the children surpass the
parents, education level because they feel they are no longer competent or/and able to
offer guidance. St-Hilare (2002) agrees that as Latino children progress through higher
grade levels of education, that discrimination, academic tracking and labeling becomes
more overt and significant. What’s more, the pressure to meet unrealistic expectations
and unattainable aspirations creates a negative attitude that eventually permeates to
parents’ view of academic achievement and literacy development.
Latino parent’s view of literacy development is greatly determined by the
experiences from their home country, experiences that include poor formal schooling,
poverty, and poor vocational training opportunities. Reese and Gallimore (2000)
examined home-school discontinuities by looking at an immigrant Latino cultural model
of literacy development. Their findings revealed that immigrant Latino parents share a
communal view about early literacy development—one that is compatible to their
education upbringing from their Mexican or Central American towns or “ranchos.” The
way children respond inside and outside the classroom is greatly influenced by their
44
family’s perceptions of schooling, which is aligned to their historical and structural
experiences (Ogbu, 1990). Reese and Gallimore also found no evidence that suggests
parents’ perspectives on literacy are static or that parents saw adopting and changing their
cultural views about literacy development as abandoning their traditional educational
values of their homeland. Instead, parents’ attitudes toward new literacy practices were
to comply if engaging their children in more reading meant a good education. Parents
acknowledged that an education from the U.S. meant advancement and opportunities for
better jobs, quality of life and ability to help their less-fortunate relatives coupled with
raising their children with the same religious and family values with which they were
raised with (Reese, Gallimore, & Goldenberg, 1999; Reese & Gallimore, 2000).
More comprehensive studies that look at the cultural and language differences as
well as the different problems in schools are needed because such sub-group differences
can be a significant factor in school adjustment and academic performance (Suarez-
Orozco, 1987; Erickson, 1988; Ogbu, 1990).
Claude Goldenbergs’ work provides the most extensive research on literacy and
immigrant Latino parents’ perspectives. In a 1992 study with colleagues (Goldenberg,
Reese, & Gallimore, 1992) they set the stage for future research in the area of literacy
development by looking at the relationship between literacy materials from school and
Latino children’s home literacy experiences. Two critical recommendations, already
studied in previous literature review, came out of their investigation. One
recommendation was to educate or train Latino parents and expand their views on
literacy development. In other words, teach parents novel methodologies to help them
45
promote reading as a family-meaningful-rich experience. The second recommendation
was for educators to work with parents concentrating on what the parents already know,
and believe can do rather than introducing them to new methodologies. Enhancing home
literacy in a way that is consistent with parents’ values can result in more effective long-
term strategies.
As indicated in chapter one of this study, Latino parents immigrate to the United
States because they want a better life for themselves and their families. Moreover, they
view a college education as a pathway to better job opportunities. Goldenberg,
Gallimore, and Garnier, (2001) examined the relationship between parents’ aspirations
and expectations for their children’s educational attainment. Goldenberg and his
colleagues looked at 81 immigrant Latino families in a longitudinal study in order to
answer three basic questions. Questions one and two focused on the influence parental
aspirations and expectations have on children’s education attainment. The focus of the
third question was on whether parents’ aspirations diminished and experienced
discrimination the longer they remained in the U.S. To answer all three questions, they
used qualitative techniques to collect the data. They found that the majority of their
parent sample did have high academic aspirations for their children throughout the
elementary years, but varied during the middle school years. They also found that
children’s school performance had an impact on parents’ expectations. Yet, parents’
expectations did not influence their children’s school performance. Moreover, it was
shown that immigrant Latino parents perceive literacy and academic attainment as
46
essential for economic and social mobility regardless of time spent in the U.S. or
experiencing discrimination.
In short, these studies confirm that most parents start with high aspirations and
expectations and some are able to sustain high hopes for their children to learn and
advance to great things in life. The great predicament, however, is that parents do hold
high aspirations for their children’s academic achievement but may not have the
knowledge about what they can or should do to act on those aspirations. This lack of
information is likely to have serious consequences for children’s motivation to read,
because parents won’t know of available reading programs to help get their child on the
right track to literacy. Despite their lack of literacy ability, parents can still be effective
in promoting literacy in the home by incorporating and emphasizing culture and personal
experiences. Rogoff (2003) proposes that parents who help their children develop
through their shared use of cultural tools and practices they in turn contribute to the
transformation of their children’s individual thinking, values, behavior, beliefs, social
networks, and communication with others. Moreover, parents that place high value on
education and literacy, contribute to their children’s sense of resolution, sense of
community and sense of identity. Integrating cultural practices with children’s personal
and social development, increases their involvement in the sociocultural activities of their
communities, helping them evolve into social individuals—critical to reading
engagement.
47
Family’s Eco-cultural and Socio-cultural Literacy Practices
Research also suggests that Latino parents are powerful agents of adaptation using
basic cultural tools that are effective and malleable to a changing society. Furthermore,
advancing understanding on early literacy development and reading motivation requires a
close examination of the Latino sociocultural and ecocultural family factors. Several
studies (Rueda et al., 2001; Monzó & Rueda, 2001; Arzubiaga, Rueda, & Monzó, 2002)
looked at the relationship between ecocultural and sociocultural aspects that makeup
parents’ perceptions, home literacy practices and reading engagement.
Rueda and his colleagues (2001) examined reading engagement from a
sociocultural perspective, which emphasizes reading engagement in a social context
versus a solitude context, specifically looking at family factors and reading motivation. It
was predicted that ecocultural factors would be associated to children’s reading
engagement and to their reading efficacy. Their study consisted of 21 first and second
graders considered “at-risk,” students from low-income homes with high drop potential,
Spanish-speaking Latino children including their families. Results indicated a strong
relationship between eco-cultural factors and children’s reading engagement. In other
words, Latino children’s motivation to read and the high value they placed on reading as
an activity was because they spent quality time with their parents that provided them with
encouragement and emotional support. Parents in the study were also active in
accompanying their children to the library on a regular basis and were more
knowledgeable because of these trips. These findings remind us once again that in order
to enhance reading motivation, children must see reading as a social activity and not an
48
isolation activity. Reading can be a social engagement and have an intrinsic value when
recognized as a reciprocal activity, in a nurturing context, where students are given the
opportunity to share their insights.
How do the family contexts of Latino immigrant children contribute to
developing an achievement orientation toward literacy and schooling? This question was
investigated by Monzó and Rueda (2001). Specifically, this study set out to explore the
basis for academic achievement and early literacy development by looking at the home
and community contexts of five Latino families. In constructing values for schooling and
literacy, the researchers looked at parents’ aspirations, the role of schools and the need
for literacy. Their findings indicate that parents overwhelmingly expressed high
aspirations for their children, regardless of parent’s level of education. Two of the five
families studied used consistent strategies to motivate their children to engage in and
persist at reading. These strategies included modeling, parents taking adult GED classes
or reading daily in front of their children; consejos or advice, parents storytelling about
their struggles to build a better life or just emphasizing the importance of an education
and ability to read in English; and imagining future success, sitting down with their
son/daughter to imagine and visualize what life would be like when they graduate. They
also found that a disconnection between the home context and school context exists.
Parent’s efforts, whether small or large, were rarely, if ever, acknowledged in school
contexts. As a result, home and school contexts become incompatible and what is
learned at school could not be reinforced at home. Again, schools are failing to recognize
the variabilities among families and acknowledge that one-size-fit-all programs does not
49
fit all even within similar cultures. If educators are to successfully and fully understand
how and why some Latino children are motivated and possess effective strategies as
readers while others are failing to learn to read and dropping out school, research must
align itself with home literacy practices, motivation constructs must be seen as products
of sociocultural and historical phenomena (Arzubiaga, Rueda, & Monzó, 2002).
Based on the literature, it can be concluded that in order to achieve and sustain
reading engagement among Latino children, it is critical that motivation theories broaden
their scope from cognitive models to an all-inclusive framework that treats the child and
the family as active agents within the culture. Moreover, it is essential to emphasize that
educators begin to acknowledge the home and community contexts as “already-existing”
resources and build on these rich contexts in order to engage students in literacy. In order
to build motivation equity, educators must stop treating Latino children as individual
entities separate from their culture, and start treating them as an active participant in the
transformation of cultural tools, policies and practices that are essential to the child’s self
concept as a reader.
Conclusion
Motivation is a complex human endeavor ultimately aimed at moving people
toward achieving a goal. In this study, reading engagement is the theory of motivation
applied to reading with the goal of understanding the relationship between Latino
parents’ academic aspirations and literacy practices toward their children’s motivation to
read. In the section to follow, the study is advanced by summarizing the literature and
50
gaps in the research exploring Latino parental aspirations and literacy practices and how
they are related to children’s motivation to read and academic achievement.
First, and most obvious, individuals engage in reading tasks for different reasons
and purposes. Reading engagement is positively related to strong academic outcomes
and enhanced by a sense of efficacy, competence, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation,
challenges, autonomy, and goal orientation. Despite the knowledge gained about reading
engagement, the literature has several gaps. Very little research exists that looks at the
reading motivations of Latino children and other minority groups. Most of the research
that exists on reading engagement has been conducted using Caucasian students. Further
work needs to be done on specific dimensions of reading engagement in combination
with parental aspirations and literacy practices using either qualitative or quantitative
approaches. In addition, the research has used mostly data from elementary-aged
children and sheds very little light on the secondary-aged (middle school and high
school) children. As a result, very little is known about the causes that lead to reading
disengagement among Latino children in middle school and high school.
Three main themes have emerged from the literature on parental factors. First,
that parents’ level of education and socioeconomic status does have an effect on their
children’s academic attainment. Second, schools are most effective in increasing
students reading motivation when they work from within the home cultural structure.
Third, parents do place a high value on higher education attainment and hold high
aspirations for their children’s success. Aside from these three factors, gaps exist in the
literature and need to be addressed. Learning more about parents’ attitudes toward early
51
literacy development, and the type of literacy activities they are engaging in with their
children at home is vital. Moreover, the type of cultural motivation and learning
strategies used by parents to promote literacy is vital. For example, parents visiting the
library with their child to check out books or simply supervising and monitoring how
their children spend their time outside of school. Clearly, understanding parental
aspirations and literacy practices in connection to reading engagement deserves more
attention.
The purpose of the proposed study is to examine the relationship between Latino
parental aspirations and literacy practices and their child’s motivation to read. The
present study aims to address two main questions which include, how do Latino parents’
aspirations and home literacy practices relate to their children’s motivation to read? And,
what are Latino parents’ aspirations for their children’s educational attainment?
More research is needed to investigate the motivational characteristics of Latino
children as they apply to reading and how parents’ aspirations and literacy practices are
related to children’s motivation to read. By exploring this relationship the proposed
study will be able to find plausible solutions that can ameliorate home-school connections
and increase Latino children’s reading engagement. Moreover, the proposed study will
build upon the knowledge gained from the qualitative case studies of (Rueda et al., 2001;
Monzó & Rueda, 2001), by gathering data from a larger sample and using a mixed
methods (quantitative and qualitative) approach. The two bodies of literature previously
reviewed suggest that a strong relationship between parental and home literacy factors
52
and students’ reading engagement and educational attainment merits further exploration
and leads to the proposed methodology.
53
CHAPTER 3
Research Methodology

Introduction

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between Latino
parents’ aspirations and literacy practices related to children’s reading engagement and
educational attainment. The study addressed the significant reading issues facing Latino
children. Specifically, the study explored the motivational characteristics of Latino
children as they apply to reading and parental and home literacy practices to see if a
relationship existed. The author was also interested in understanding parents’ aspirations
and its impact on their children’s educational attainment. Data for this study were
collected between December and April using a mixed methods approach.
Participants and Setting
The study consisted of a total of 128 participants, including students and their
parents. The participants were recruited as volunteers from two large urban public
schools from the same community in the city of Huntington Park, in Los Angeles County
in California. According to the U.S. Census Bureau report (2000), the city’s total
population was 61,348 and of that total, 58,636 or 96 percent were Latino. Of which,
44,948 or 73 percent were from Mexican decent. Moreover, 90 percent of the city’s
population identified Spanish as the primary language spoken at home. Eighty-five
percent of children under the age of 18 live in a two parent household. The city’s average
household income was $28,941. With 43 percent having less than a ninth grade
education; 25 percent with a ninth to twelfth grade education but no diploma; 15 percent
54
having graduated with a high school diploma; ten percent with some college but no
degree; and seven percent with some kind of college degree. The reality is that there is
an urgent need to improve the education capacity of the residents in this city; without a
solid education beyond high school, and with the Latino population increasing in the next
two decades, there is little hope for economic stability and upward mobility among
Latino families.
Student Sample
The student sample was randomly selected from English as a Second Language
classes and consisted of 73 elementary-aged children from grades two through five and
55 middle school-aged children from grade sixth to seventh. Of the sample, 56 were
males and 72 were females. Of these 128 students, 101 (79%) were born in the United
States, 25 (20%) in Mexico, and two (1%) in Central American countries. In addition, all
students in the study had at least one immigrant parent from Mexico or Central America.
In the study, 84 percent or 108 of the students lived with both parents, 19 lived with the
mother only, and one lived with grandparents.
Parent Sample
Although most of the parent sample had a partner, in some cases, only one parent
was present for the study. When appropriate, demographic information for both parents
was provided. The parent sample consisted of 115 parents who were immigrants from
Mexico, nine from El Salvador, three from Guatemala and one from Honduras. Mothers
in the sample averaged 15 years of residence in the United States; fathers averaged 17
years. The grade level of formal schooling for mothers and fathers was nearly identical
55
with 79 percent having some type of elementary or secondary, including middle school
and high school education. In contrast, 15 percent had some college education from their
country of origin and six percent had no formal education. Parents’ occupations clustered
in low-wage categories. For example, 23 percent of mothers and 54 percent of fathers
reported being laborers; 16 percent of mothers and 37 percent of fathers indicated
working in service-related jobs; and six percent of mothers reported working in the
garment industry and five percent of fathers. Fifty-six percent of the mothers described
their occupation as a housewife. Six parents from the same group also volunteered in one
of two focus groups. All six parent participants were Latina mothers who identified
themselves as housewives. Spanish was the primary language of all six mothers. Five
mothers were born in Mexico and one born in El Salvador. All six mothers immigrated
to the United States and have been living in the United States between two and nineteen
years. Their ages ranged between 38 and 41. The mothers had completed some
secondary school, and three had some higher education completed in their country of
origin.
The Research Setting
At the time of recruitment, all students were enrolled in one of two schools
(National Elementary School & Emmanuel Middle School, both pseudonyms). The two
research sites selected for the study were from the same public school district and were
selected because both school settings serve a population that is 99 percent Latino and of
the 98 percent Latino population, 99.5 percent are English Language Learners. Most of
these students come from low-income families. Also, both schools operate as multi-track
56
schools. During the 2005-06 academic year, National Elementary School had a total
student body of 1,390. In that same year, Emmanuel Middle School had a total of 3,501
students. Both school sites serve a large number of low-income families and receive
Title I funding in order to provide their student population free or reduced lunches. In
addition, approximately 11 percent of all ELL students in both school sites get
reclassified or placed back in regular English classes. The schools’ student population,
racial and ethnicity, socioeconomic, and ELL status profile are presented in Table 1.
Table 1
Research School Site’s 2005-06 Profile

School Site Race and Ethnicity Socioeconomic English Language
Status Learners (ELL’s)

National Elementary 99.5% Latino Title I School 983 ELL Students
School (N = 1,390) 0.5% Other 100% qualify for (grades K-5)
Number of tracks 4 free/reduced lunches
51.4% or 715 ELL’s
56% receive AFDC (grades 2-5)

benefits
13.6% reclassification
rate

Emmanuel Middle 98.6% Latino Title I School 1,668 ELL Students
School (N = 3,501) 1.4% Other 100% qualify for (grades 6-8)
Number of tracks 3 free/reduced lunches
30.6% or 1,073 ELL’s
73% receive AFDC (grades 6 & 7)
benefits
14.8% reclassification
rate
______________________________________________________________________________________
Source: Los Angeles Unified School District, 2006

Procedures
The study consisted of two questionnaires, one for students and another for
parents. These questionnaires were first piloted to ensure that appropriate and clear
language was used and to identify potential problems that would influence the results of
57
the study. The parent questionnaire was piloted with two parents and based on their
feedback, the following three issues became evident: 1) parents viewed the questionnaire
as a test. For example, after the pilot parents completed the questionnaire they asked
“Cuantas me sace mal?” or “How many did I get wrong?” 2) parents viewed the five-
point scale on the first section of the questionnaire as 1’s representing bad parents and 5’s
representing good parents. For instance, the more 5’s circled meant a better parent; the
more 1’s circled meant a bad parent. And, 3) parents reported that if the questionnaire
was introduced as a tool to help schools, they would feel disinterested, but if introduced
as a tool to help create reading programs to help children be better readers, they would be
willing to complete the questionnaire and be honest in their answers. For example,
parents said “Si yo se que va ayudar a los niños, le pongo mas esfuerzo, pero para la
escuela, escribo lo que sea con tal de acabar,” or “If I know that it will help children, I
will put more effort, but for the school, I will write whatever just to be done with it.”
Because of the feedback received from the pilot process, changes were made to the
instructions read to the parent sample to emphasize and clarify the purpose of the study
without coercing them. For example, one change that was made on the parent
questionnaire was to write in capital letters and in bold, “THIS IS NOT A TEST” and
stress that this study would eventually help to create reading programs that would help
students like their children. The student questionnaire was also piloted with one English
language learner (ELL) student, and he reported that it was straight forward and easy to
answer. Therefore, no changes were made.
58
Emmanuel Middle School provided a list of approximately 1,800 ELL sixth and
seventh grade candidates. Packets, which consisted of an invitation letter, a flyer and a
consent form, were mailed to their parents. The information on the items of the packet
invited parents to a “College: Making It Happen” workshop on a later date. A total of
three workshops were scheduled, each on a different day and time to accommodate work
and household obligations. The workshop was designed to provide parents with
information, for the first 30 minutes, about applying to college and financial aid. The
parents were then asked to volunteer for the study, which most parents in attendance did.
As mentioned earlier, three workshops were conducted, but only a small number of
parents came to the workshop. As a result of the low parent turnout, the author and
school staff made phone calls to approximately 200 additional parents from the same list
and made a personal invitation. Each phone conversation with parents was
approximately five to seven minutes in duration in order to establish trust. Although this
procedure of making phone calls and engaging parents in a short conversation was time-
consuming, it proved to be a more effective strategy in getting parents to attend the
workshop and volunteer in the study. Specifically, a total of 72 parents were recruited by
phone.
For the National Elementary School parent sample, the author recruited parents by
attending regular monthly parent meetings and making announcements to parents.
Parents were also invited to the “College: Making It Happen” workshop as described
above, and then asked to participate in the study. Getting parents to participate from this
59
school site was more successful, because parents from this group met monthly on a
consistent basis. Therefore, this group did not require phone calls.
After the college workshop, parents who agreed to volunteer were given a consent
form in order to participate and give permission to include their child in the study as well.
Once parents signed the consent form, they were given the Parent Early Literacy
Development Questionnaire (PELDQ) and the following instructions were read aloud:
“Some studies have indicated that a child’s home environment affects
his/her literacy development. This questionnaire is NOT A TEST. This
study is part of my work as a doctoral student. I am interested in parents’
views about their children’s education so that more effective programs
can be created. There is no right or wrong answers and all your
responses will be kept confidential. Also, your responses will not be part
of any school records. The scale 1 to 5 does not determine if you are a
good parent or a bad parent. Please give your honest response.”

Once the instructions were read, the author told parents that each question would be read
aloud by the author and each parents would circle the answer that best corresponds to
them. After the questionnaires were completed, the author collected the surveys along
with the consent forms, thanked the parents for their participation, answered any
questions parents had, and then raffled five $25 gift certificates. After collecting all the
parent’s surveys, the author engaged in short discussions with the parents about their
views and opinions on education and their personal struggles with motivating their
children.
Using the names of students on the parent consent forms, the author compiled a
list of student names and gave the list to a school administrator from each school in order
to summon out the students of the parents who volunteered their children for the study.
Students were then summoned out in cohorts of ten to fifteen and instructed to report to a
60
designated testing room. Once students arrived, they were asked to sit by leaving one
chair empty between them in order to prevent copying. Students were then informed that
their parents gave consent for them to participate. Even though parents gave permission
for students to participate, each student was given an assent form so that they would
choose for themselves whether or not to participate. Students who chose not participate
were asked to return back to their classroom. Once students agreed to participate, and
signed the assent form, the Motivation for Reading Questionnaire (MRQ) was passed out
and the following instructions were read aloud to them:
“Your parents gave permission for you to participate in this study and
complete a 60-question survey. However, you can still decline and not
participate by letting me know and you will then return back to your
classroom. If you choose to participate and during the administration of
the questionnaire, you feel the need to no longer participate, you may
withdraw from the study at any time. Your input is very valuable to this
study. When responding to the items of this questionnaire, please think
about your experience with reading. There is no right or wrong answers
and all your responses will be kept confidential and will not be part of
school records. Please answer each question as honest as you can.”

The author read each question of the student questionnaire aloud as students circled the
answer that best described them. Once the questionnaires were completed, the author
collected the surveys along with the assent forms, thanked the students and asked if they
had any questions. The author made an effort to keep each parent and child questionnaire
and consent/assent forms set together in order to ensure accuracy with data input.
In order to obtain a complete and concrete picture of parents’ aspirations for their
children’s educational attainment and their involvement in school, two focus groups were
conducted. A total of 12 parents, six from each school site, were randomly selected and
contacted by phone requesting their participation. All 12 participants agreed to participate
61
and were divided into two groups of six, based on the school of their child. Focus groups
are face-to-face “semi-structured” interviews using open-ended questions with a small
group of six to eight participants, who are asked to express their opinions on a particular
topic (Creswell, 2003, p. 188). The two focus group sessions were conducted back-to-
back in a two-day period, and each session lasted between 60 to 90 minutes in duration.
Moreover, both focus group sessions were conducted in a comfortable private classroom.
In the first focus group three of the six participants recruited from the elementary school
attended. Similar to the first focus group, three parents from the middle school
participated in the second focus group session. All 6 parents were mothers. The six
participants received a $20 gift certificate immediately following their participation. The
author did not purposely look for a mother participants for the focus groups, it just so
happens all six participants were mothers. Both focus group sessions were conducted
entirely in Spanish and later translated into English by the author. Focus group sessions
were also audio recorded for accuracy. The author reminded the parents about recording
the session and assured the parents that this session was not a test and there were no right
or wrong answers. According to Stringer (1999), in qualitative research, it is essential to
first build rapport with the participants before engaging in face-to-face interviews and
taping. Therefore, prior to asking the questions related to the study, the author engaged
in casual discussion in order to build trust and make the parents comfortable. More
importantly, that author indicated their responses would not be part of any school records
and that once the interview was transcribed, the tape would be destroyed. Once the
parents gave a verbal consent to the recording, the author proceeded by pressing the
62
“record” button and started the session with a general topic, such as “tell me something
interesting about your birth place,” just to get the parents comfortable. Each focus group
session was immediately transcribed and translated literally.
Instrumentation

The author used two questionnaire instruments and a question protocol to collect
data for the present study. Students completed the Motivation for Reading Questionnaire
(MRQ) created by Guthrie and Wigfield (1995) and modified by the author. The MRQ is
a 54-item questionnaire divided into eleven subsections. For parents, the author
developed a 24-item Parent Early Literacy Development Questionnaire (PELDQ). The
items for the PELDQ were adopted and modified from the work of various researchers
(e.g., Alexander & Jettson, 2000; Morrow & Gambrell, 2000; Goldenberg, et al., 2001;
Williams, 2002). For the parent focus groups, an interview protocol consisting of six
guiding question was used for the data collection. This protocol was crucial to the study
because it tapped into information on parents’ aspirations for their children’s educational
attainment. The author created the six-question protocol based on the research of
Goldenberg and his colleagues (2001). What follows is a full description of the three
instruments used in the study.
The Motivation for Reading Questionnaire (MRQ)
The first instrument, Motivation for Reading Questionnaire (MRQ), was used to
measure students’ reading engagement. The MRQ is an instrument designed to tap into
information on students’ motivation to read. This instrument was created by Wigfield
and Guthrie in 1995. One item from the MRQ’s “Recognition” subscale was not used
63
and four items from MRQ’s “Social” subscale were also not used in the present study.
These items were not used because the author determined these items were not relevant to
the purpose of the study. Therefore, the MRQ version used for the present study
consisted of 50 of the original MRQ’s 54 items. The MRQ was designed to assess eleven
aspects of reading engagement using a five-point scale, with answer choice ranging from
1 being “Very different from me” to 5 being “A lot like me.” These eleven aspects are
grouped into four main areas of motivation: self-efficacy and challenge, intrinsic
motivation and learning goals, extrinsic motivation and performance goals, and social
motivation for reading.
The first area of motivation is self-efficacy and challenge as identified in Wigfield
and Guthrie’s work in 1997. This dimension assesses children’s belief that they will
acquire the necessary literacy skills to comprehend complex ideas and be successful in
reading (Wigfield & Guthrie). The MRQ subscales aligned with this dimension are the
reading efficacy subscale, consisting of items one through four and the reading challenge
subscale, consisting of items five through nine of the questionnaire. Examples in this
area included: “I know that I will do well in reading next year,” and “I like hard,
challenging books”.
The second area is intrinsic motivation and learning goals as identified in
Wigfield and Guthrie’s reading engagement theory. This dimension assesses children’s
desire to learn about a topic of interest, the enjoyment of experiencing different kinds of
literary texts, gaining pleasure from reading, and preference about reading (Wigfield &
Guthrie). The MRQ subscales pertaining to this dimension are the reading work
64
avoidance subscale, which includes items 10 through 13; importance reading subscale,
items 14 and 15; reading involvement subscale, items 16 through 21; and reading
curiosity subscale, items 30 through 35. Sample items in this area included, “I don’t like
reading something when the words are too difficult,” “It is very important to me to be a
good reader,” “I enjoy a long, involved story or fiction book,” and “I read to learn new
information about topics that interest me”.
The third area is extrinsic motivation and performance goals as identified in
Wigfield and Guthrie’s reading engagement theory. This dimension assesses children’s
competitive nature to outperform others in reading, need for praise and tangible rewards,
and the need to be evaluated favorably (Wigfield & Guthrie). The MRQ subscales
pertaining to this dimension are the recognition for reading subscale, items 22 through
25; reading for grades subscale, items 26 through 29; and competition subscale, items 36
through 41. Sample items in this area included, “I am happy when someone recognizes
my reading,” “Grades are a good way to see how well you are doing in reading,” and “I
like being the only one who knows the answer in something we read”.
The fourth area is social motivation for reading as identified in Wigfield and
Guthrie’s reading engagement theory. This dimension assesses children’s reasons for
engaging in short group discussions, where they could share their ideas based on readings
(Wigfield & Guthrie). The MRQ subscales relevant to this dimension are the compliance
subscale, items 42 through 46; and the social reasons for reading, items 47 through 50.
Sample items in this area include, “I do as little schoolwork as possible in reading,” and
“I sometimes read to my parents”.
65
Students’ demographic data such as gender, age, grade level, country born, ethnic
background, and language preference were collected. Student survey is shown in full in
the appendices.
Parent Early Literacy Development Questionnaire (PELDQ)
Data were collected from parents who attended a college workshop and
volunteered in the study. At the end of the workshop, all parents were invited to
complete a questionnaire. The author developed a 24-item questionnaire with three
subsections: (1) parental perceptions about literacy, (2) home literacy resources and
practices, and (3) parental aspirations for their children’s educational attainment.
The first section focused on parental perceptions about literacy, which included
items one through 12. These items assessed parental perceptions toward early literacy
development and home literacy activities they consider important using a five-point scale,
ranging from 1 representing “Very much typical of me” to 5 representing “Not at all
typical of me.” Example items for the parent perception subscale included: “I enjoy
listening to my child read his/her favorite book to me,” “I visit the library with my child
and let him/her pick out a book to read”.
The second section dealt with home literacy resources and practices, consisting of
items 13 through 17. This self-report five-item close-ended multiple choice format
assessed how well parents use literacy resources and how their child’s television
watching habits impact reading practices. Example items in this subscale included:
“How often in the last six months have you and your child visited the library and checked
66
out books?” and “On an average weekday, how many hours of television will your child
watch?”
The third section focused on parents’ aspirations for their children’s educational
attainment and parents’ level of school involvement. Questions 18 through 20 are close-
ended multiple choice items aimed at addressing parents’ hopes and dreams for their
children’s educational advancement. Example items in this subscale included: “How far
do you want your child to go in his/her education?” and “How far do you think your child
will go in his/her formal education?” Items 21 through 24 are answered using a close-
ended “true” or “false” format to assessed parent’s stages of involvement in their
children’s educational attainment, based on parents’ aspirations. Example item in this
section included: “When your child completes elementary or middle school, you will
most likely get more involved in his/her education,” and “When your child completes
elementary or middle school, you will most likely expect your child to be completely
responsible for his/her education.”
Parents’ demographic data such as their home country, age, time of residence in
the U.S., household status, education level, occupation, and income were collected. The
three subsections including the demographic section are shown in full in the appendices.
Because only two questions of the PELDQ inquired information about parents’
aspirations for their children’s educational attainment, focus groups were carried out to
gather specific information about parents’ aspirations.
67
Focus Group Protocol
The focus group protocol consisting of six open-ended guiding questions was
designed to uncover Latino immigrant parents’ academic aspirations for their children
given their social, cultural and educational circumstances. Sample items included, “Some
students have said the following ‘my parents came to the United States because they did
not want me to lead a life such as the one they had to live when they were young, because
they had to work hard and sacrificed themselves,’ what do you think when you hear
this?” “Some parents have said that because they have no formal education, they are not
able to contribute much to their child’s education, how do you feel about that?” And,
“When children have low aspirations and expectations, how does that change your
aspirations and expectations for your child’s school attainment?” With the consent of
each participant, a tape recorder was used as part of the protocol in order for the author to
record accurate and detailed accounts.
Data Analysis
Mindful that the parent sample was predominately Spanish-speaking, the author
ensured that the content in the parent questionnaire and focus group sessions were
presented in Spanish. This study used both descriptive and inferential statistics to
investigate the existence and extent of relationships among selected variables. SPSS
version 12.0 was used to analyze quantitative data from the MRQ and PELDQ for the
following statistical procedures: (a) descriptive statistics which included means and
standard deviations of demographic variables; (b) a reliability analysis was conducted,
and a cutoff of .70 was used as a criteria; and (c) correlation analysis were used to
68
generate information about the relationship between parents’ home literacy factors and
their children’s reading engagement. SPSS AMOS 6 was used to perform a structural
equation model (SEM) to determine if parental and home factors predicted children’s
motivation to read. For the qualitative data of this study, data analysis followed
immediately after each focus group session. After transcribing and translating each
session, the author began coding the transcript to identify themes or patterns in the data.
Specifically, when analyzing the data, the author extracted significant viewpoints and
opinions from the transcripts and began looking for categories through a process called
open coding, which means forming initial categories of information about the
phenomenon being studied by segmenting information (Creswell, 1998). Then using
axial coding, the author was able to organize the data in order to obtain a holistic picture
of parent’s views and opinions. Creswell describes axial coding as a process used to
establish themes and patterns in order to build a meaningful story.
As described in the previous section, this study employed a mixed methods
approach and combination of quantitative and qualitative strategies was used in the
analysis of the study. A quantitative approach involves close-ended questions on a
predetermined survey instrument designed to collect statistical data about peoples’
attitudes and behavior (Creswell, 2003). In contrast, in a qualitative approach, the
researcher collaborates with the participants and employs strategies of open-ended
inquiry focusing on the process and the participant’s perceptions and experiences
(Creswell).
69
Exploratory Factor Analyses
Two separate factor analyses were performed, one for out-of-school reading
activities and within child factors and a second one for levels of parental involvement in
their child’s education. This variable reduction procedure was performed in order to
examine the number of factors that emerged from the PELDQ questionnaire that would
potentially show a strong correlation with student motivation factors. The goal was to
explore the underlying factor structure of a set of measured variables. An exploratory
factor analysis was performed on the data collected from the MRQ. Specifically, an
exploratory factor analysis was performed to assess the dimensionality of children’s
reading motivation.
Reliability and Validity of the Scales
Although the MRQ had already been tested for reliability and validity, all the
quantitative content from the instruments (MRQ & PELDQ) used in the study were tested
for internal consistency reliability to see which scale items held together. A Cronbach’s
Alpha value above .70 was recommended.
Correlation
A correlation analysis was used to determine if there was a significant relationship
between parent variables and children’s motivation variables. By using this analysis, the
author was able to uncover the relationship strength between the four parent variables
(literacy resources, TV watching, parental involvement in school, and parental
involvement in reading) and the children’s motivation for reading variables (efficacy,
70
challenge, involvement, recognition, curiosity, competition, social, importance, and
grades).
Structural Equation Model
To answer the major research question for the study: How do Latino parents’
aspirations and home literacy practices relate to their children’s reading engagement? A
series of structural equation models were performed to evaluate the interrelationships
between two sets of variables. Two series of analyses were be carried out: 1) to test the
association between the parent’s literacy resources, the children’s TV watching habits,
and the children’s responses to the MRQ, and 2) to test the association between parental
involvement in schooling, parental involvement in reading, and children’s responses to
the MRQ.
Conclusion
The focus of this chapter was to describe in detail the design of the study
including the participants of the study, the procedure and instruments used for collecting
the data, and the statistical procedures used for analyzing the data. Through a mixed
methods approach, data for a sample of 128 were collected using a self-report
questionnaire format along with a semi-structured focus group approach. The next
chapter presents the analysis of the data.
71
CHAPTER 4
Results
Introduction
In this chapter, quantitative and qualitative outcomes are presented in the context
of two research questions presented in Chapter One. Both questions sought to find a
relationship between parental and home factors and children’s motivation to read,
findings are evaluated using structural equation modeling and displayed as path models.
The first section of this chapter presents the descriptive statistics of the sample
characteristics. The second section presents a summary of correlations of student
motivation and parent literacy scales. The third section presents the construct validity
and reliability analysis of each measure, along with means and standard deviations. The
fourth section presents the factor analysis of out-of-school and within child factors, such
as literacy resources and TV watching habits; home parental factors, such as parental
involvement in school and parental involvement in reading; and students’ motivations for
reading. The fifth section presents a structural equation model to specifically address the
question: How do Latino parents’ aspirations and home literacy practices relate to their
children’s motivation to read? The sixth and final section presents the qualitative results
from two focus groups. The emphasis of the final section was to explore the question:
What are Latino parents’ aspirations for their children’s educational attainment?
Descriptive Statistics of Sample Characteristics
One hundred and twenty eight copies of questionnaires from students and their
parents were collected and data from these questionnaires were analyzed using SPSS
72
version 12.0. Table 2 shows the participants’ birth place, students’ gender, and student’s
household situation. Most of the parent participants (89%) were born in Mexico;
approximately 80 percent of the students were born in the United States and considered
second generation Latinos. The other 20 percent are either immigrant or first generation
Latinos. Also, 84 percent of the student sample lived in a household that includes both
parents.
Table 2
Descriptive Statistics of Parent and Child Characteristics (N = 128)
______________________________________________________________________________________

Frequency Percent
Parent’s Place of Birth
Mexico 115 89.8
El Salvador 9 7.0
Guatemala 3 2.3
Honduras 1 0.8
Student’s Place of Birth
USA 101 78.9
Mexico 25 19.5
Guatemala 1 0.8
Honduras 1 0.8
Student’s Gender
Males 56 43.8
Females 72 56.3
Student’s Household
Live with both parents 108 84.4
Live with mother only 19 14.8
Live with grandparents 1 0.8

Table 3 shows the parent’s occupation when the data were collected. The three
most occupied occupations reported by the parent sample were homemakers, laborers,
and service. Fifty-five percent of the mothers described their occupation as a housewife
compared to 54 percent of the fathers who reported laborer as their occupation. Sixteen
percent of the mothers reported being employed in a service-related occupation compared
73
to 37 percent of the fathers. Most of these occupations are low-wage jobs and require
little to no formal education.
Table 3
Descriptive Statistics of Parents Occupation (N = 128)
______________________________________________________________________________________

Housewife Laborer Service Garment Management Retired
Mother’s Occupation
Frequency 71 29 20 8 0 0
Percent 55.5 22.7 15.6 6.3 0 0
Father’s Occupation
Frequency 0 69 47 6 4 2
Percent 0 53.9 36.7 4.7 3.1 1.6

Most parents reported having some type of elementary or secondary education,
either in their country of origin or here in the United States. The student sample
consisted of grades 2
nd
through 7
th
. Parents and students education level are shown in
Table 4.
74
Table 4
Descriptive Statistics of Parent and Child’s Education Level (N = 128)
______________________________________________________________________________________

Education Frequency Percent
Mother’s Education Level
No formal education 9 7.0
Elementary school 47 36.7
Middle school 36 28.1
High school 17 13.3
Some college 12 9.4
College graduate 5 3.9
Graduate school 2 1.6
Father’s Education Level
No formal education 8 6.3
Elementary school 36 28.1
Middle school 43 33.6
High school 23 18.0
Some college 12 9.4
College graduate 2 1.6
Graduate school 4 3.1
Student’s Education Level
Grade 2 19 14.8
Grade 3 10 7.8
Grade 4 18 14.1
Grade 5 26 20.3
Grade 6 38 29.7
Grade 7 17 13.3

Means and standard deviations for parent’s time in the United States, parent’s
mean age, and student’s mean age are shown in Table 5. Mothers, on average, show
close to 15 years of residence in the United States. In addition, fathers, on average, show
close to 17 years of residence in the United States. Also, fathers, on average, reported
being two and a half years older than mothers. The mean age for the student population
was ten.
75
Table 5
Parents and Students Residence in the U.S. and Age
______________________________________________________________________________________

N M SD
Parent’s average years in the U.S.
Mother 128 15.30 7.29
Father 128 16.77 6.38
Parent’s average age
Mother 128 37.58 6.36
Father 128 40.09 7.67
Student’s average age 128 10.27 1.68

Correlations of Parent Literacy Practices and Student Motivation Scales
A summary of the student motivation and parent literacy development scales are
listed in Table 6. The parent literacy subscales were positively correlated with one
another and these correlations ranged from small to moderate. The correlations ranged
from a low of r = .22, p < .01 for the correlation between TV watching and parental
involvement in school to a high of r = .50, p < .001 for the correlation between literacy
resources and parental involvement in reading. All of the MRQ subscales were
moderately correlated with one another. These ranged from a low of r = .39, p < .001 for
the correlation between efficacy and involvement to a high of r = .69, p < .001 for the
correlation between involvement and curiosity. Additionally, the parent literacy
subscales were all positively correlated with the children’ MRQ responses. These
correlations ranged from non-significant (r = .01, ns; MRQ importance with TV
watching) to having a small but significant effect size that included those between
literacy recourses and MRQ challenge (r = .28, p < .01), literacy resources and MRQ
social (r = .25, p < .05), literacy resources and MRQ involvement (r = .21, p < .05); and
parental involvement in reading and MRQ social (r = .19, p < .05).
76
These results indicate that having more literacy resources at home gives children
more choice and increases their reading engagement as they seek books that are
challenging and relevant to their interests. Also, by parents making an effort to provide a
home environment rich with literacy resources, it engages them in reading activities with
their children and build their children’s social capacity. Of the parent sample, 48 percent
reported having 30 or more books in their home. Moreover, having a large quantity of
books accessible to children means less time dedicated toward watching TV. In fact, the
results found a poor correlation between watching TV and increasing children’s
motivation to read. In other words, watching to much TV decreases children’s reading
engagement. Based on the parent sample responses to the question “how many hours of
TV does your child watch everyday,” 57 percent of the sample reported their children
watched less than two hours. This can mean that parents may have answered this
question based on what they though to be an acceptable answer. Or, it can mean that
parents are providing more reading material and encouraging more reading activities at
home and resulting in less hours of TV watching.
77
Table 6
Correlations of the Parent Literacy Practices and Student Motivation Scales
______________________________________________________________________________________
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
1. Lit. Resources -
2. TV Watching .31
***
-
3. Par. Inv. School .37
***
.22
**
-
4. Par. Inv. Reading .50
***
.28
**
.30
***
-
5. MRQ Efficacy .16 .20
*
.15 .17 -
6. MRQ Challenge .28
**
.17 .19
*
.16 .66
***
-
7. MRQ Involvement .21
*
.17 .07 .18
*
.39
***
.62
***
-
8. MRQ Recognition .12 .06 .02 .06 .54
***
.59
***
.63
***
-
9. MRQ Curiosity .08 .02 .02 .13 .50
***
.61
***
.69
***
.63
***
-
10. MRQ Compet. .16 .04 .03 .13 .41
***
.61
***
.62
***
.67
***
.60
***
-
11. MRQ Social .25
*
.20
*
.19
*
.19
*
.45
***
.59
***
.68
***
.60
***
.62
***
.53
***
-
12. MRQ Importance .09 .01 .03 .10 .45
***
.50
***
.44
***
.54
***
.44
***
.46
***
.41
***
-
13. MRQ Grades .13 .02 .12 .12 .35
***
.48
***
.59
***
.57
***
.52
***
.63
***
.53
***
.51
***
-
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Note.
*
p < .05.
**
p < .01.
***
p < .001.

Construct Validity, Reliability, Means and Standard Deviations
To test for construct validity of the independent variables, a principal components
analysis was performed on these items using a varimax rotation, which assumes the
factors are correlated. The following criteria were used for item selection and factor
identification: 1) only items with factor loadings greater than .40 in absolute value were
retained; 2) factors had to be composed of at least three items, with the exception of the
TV watching factor which consisted of two items, with loadings .40. Items on each
factor were then examined for conceptual consistency, and inconsistent items were
deleted.
Motivation for Reading Questionnaire for Students
Question items 10, 11, 12, 13, 42 and 43 were reverse-coded to be consistent with
the questions of confidence. Moreover, all factors and subscales had high internal
consistency reliabilities. Students indicated their level of motivation to reading by
answering statements pertaining to nine scales: reading efficacy, consisting of four items;
78
reading challenge, consisting of five items; importance in reading, consisting of two
items; reading involvement, consisting of six items; reading recognition, consisting of
four items; reading for grades, consisting of four items; reading for curiosity, consisting
of six items; reading for competition, consisting of six items; and reading for social,
consisting of four items. This instrument measuring the reading engagement of students
was found to be reliable. All nine scales proved to be reliable. Table 7 presents the
reliabilities, means and standard deviations for all nine MRQ scales.
The means from MRQ subscales revealed that, on average, the students reported
high levels of reading engagement. The means for the challenge, importance, reading
involvement, recognition, grades, curiosity, and competition subscales indicated that the
students reported “A lot like me” for each subscale. The means for the reading efficacy
and social subscales were also high, but the students, on average, reported being closer to
“A little like me” than “A lot like me” when responding to the items.
Parent Early Literacy Development Questionnaire
Question items 7, 8 and 10 were reverse-coded to be consistent with the questions
of confidence. All factors and subscales had high internal consistency reliabilities.
Parents indicated their level of involvement in their children’s schooling and literacy
development by answering statements pertaining to four scales: parental involvement in
schooling, consisting of five items; parental involvement in reading, consisting of three
items; literacy resources, consisting of three items; and TV watching habits, consisting of
two items.
79
The parent instrument, which measured four main areas of parents involvement
and promotion of literacy was found to be reliable. The five items for parental
involvement in schooling showed good reliability. The reliabilities, means and standard
deviations for the PELDQ are shown in Table 7.
The means from PELDQ subscales revealed that, on average, the parents reported
somewhat involved and their children’s TV watching habits being high. The means for
parental involvement in schooling and TV watching habits subscales indicated that the
parents reported “Very much typical of me” for each scale. The mean for the literacy
resources subscales, the parents, on average, reported that literacy resources were
accessible and available to their child by either visiting the library or checking out books,
having at least 20 to 30 books in the home, and purchasing new books at least once a
month. The mean for the parental involvement in reading subscale was high, but the
parents, on average, reported being closer to “Somewhat typical of me” than “Very
typical of me” when responding to the items.
80
Table 7
Reliabilities, Means and Standard Deviations for the Motivation and Parental Literacy Scales (N = 128)
______________________________________________________________________________________

Scale Number of Items α M SD
Reading Engagement
Reading Efficacy 4 .77 3.43 0.84
Challenge 5 .73 3.68 0.77
Importance 2 .70 3.84 1.02
Reading Involvement 6 .70 3.56 0.76
Recognition 4 .79 3.67 0.87
Grades 4 .70 3.94 0.76
Curiosity 6 .77 3.61 0.78
Competition 6 .81 3.63 0.84
Social 4 .78 3.18 1.10
Parents Early Literacy Development
Parental Involvement in Schooling 5 .73 1.94 0.76
Parental Involvement in Reading 3 .64 2.59 0.89
Literacy Resources 3 .66 3.33 1.00
TV Watching Habits 2 .60 1.99 0.81

Exploratory Factor Analyses
To investigate the number of factors that emerge from the Motivation for Reading
Questionnaire and Parents Early Literacy Development Questionnaires, exploratory
factor analyses were performed. Table 8 presents the factor loadings of out-of-school
activities and within child factors. For example, parents visiting the library with their
child to check out books, having books at home, purchasing new books, and the number
of days and hours children watch television. Only factors that loaded above .40 were
extracted. In this case, two factors were extracted.
81
Table 8
Factor Loadings of the Literacy Resources and TV Watching Habits

Factor Loadings
Scale 1 2
Parents
Visit Library .64
Literacy Resources .83
New Books .80
TV Watching Habits .87
Hours of TV Viewing .79

Note. Factor loadings less than .40 are not presented.

Two types of parental involvement are featured in this section. One type has to
do with parents’ physical involvement in school activities, such as attending parent
meetings, open houses, and various workshops. The second type are parents who engage
in literacy activities with their children, such as reading to their child, having their child
read to them, or visiting the library and giving their child reading choices. Only factors
that loaded above .40 were extracted. Two factors were extracted based on the factor
loadings of parents’ type of involvement in their children’s education and literacy
development as shown in Table 9.
Table 9
Factor Loadings of Parental Involvement in Schooling and Parental Involvement in Reading

Factor Loadings
Scale 1 2
Parents’ Involvement in Schooling
Enforce Reading .69
Partnerships with School .71
Participate in School .71
Reading for Homework .59
U.S. Educational System .66
Parents’ Involvement in Reading
Read to Child .78
Listen to Child .72
Reading Choice .71

Note. Factor loadings less than .40 are not presented.

82
When the nine motivation for reading subscales from the MRQ were subjected to
a principal components analysis, and only factors that loaded above .40 were extracted.
In this case, one factor was extracted. The factor loadings ranged from .67 to .83 and the
majority of the loadings were close to .80. Table 10 presents the factor loadings of the
nine MRQ subscales.
Table 10
Factor Loadings of Student’s Motivation for Reading

Factor Loadings
Scale 1
Students
MRQ Efficacy .67
MRQ Challenge .82
MRQ Involvement .82
MRQ Recognition .83
MRQ Curiosity .81
MRQ Competition .80
MRQ Social .78
MRQ Importance .67
MRQ Grades .74

Note. Factor loadings less than .40 are not presented.

Structural Equation Model
Structural equation modeling was performed with AMOS 6. The chi-square ( χ²)
statistic, the χ²/df, the comparative fit index (CFI), and the root-mean-square error of
approximation (RMSEA) were used to evaluate the models. Additionally, the χ² statistic
was used to assess the significance of individual parameters. The standard errors and
associated significance levels for the parameter estimates from the models are not
reported because they cannot be used for calculating exact significance levels (Loehlin,
2004). Two series of analyses were carried out with the children’s MRQ responses as the
outcome variable. This was done because an analysis with all of the predictors would
83
have been too complex (i.e., too many parameters to be estimated; Benter & Chou, 1987)
for the sample size. Additionally, with all of the predictor variables in one model, the
power to test the significance of individual predictors of the MRQ factor would have
been reduced.
The first series of analyses tested the association between the parent’s literacy
resources, the children’s TV watching habits, and the children’s responses to the MRQ.
The three items that loaded highly on the parent’s literacy resource factor based on the
principal components analysis were the three indicators of one latent factor.
Additionally, the two items that loaded on the TV watching habits factor based on the
principal components analysis were the two indicators of a second factor that was
hypothesized to covary with the first factor. Additionally, causal paths were specified
from these two factors to a latent factor indicated by the nine subscales of the MRQ. This
model showed an acceptable fit to the data, χ² (74, n = 128) = 124.36, p < .001, χ² / df =
1.68, CFI = .93, RMSEA = .07. To assess the significance of the causal paths leading to
the MRQ factor, the decrement in model fit was calculated after the paths were
individually constrained to be equal to zero. The results showed that when accounting
for the effects of the other factor, the path from parent’s literacy resources → MRQ ( β =
.26; Δχ² = 3.81, 1 df, p = .06) and the path from TV watching habits → MRQ ( β = .04;
Δχ² = 0.09, 1 df, p = .76) were not significant.
To further explore the association between the parent’s literacy resources and the
MRQ factor, a model was tested with the path from TV watching habits → MRQ
removed. Figure 1 shows this association between the parental factor and MRQ factor.
84
This model also showed an acceptable fit to the data, χ² (75, n = 128) = 124.45, p < .001,
χ² / df = 1.66, CFI = .94, RMSEA = .07. When the path from
Figure 1
Path Model with Parent’s Literacy Resources Predicting Children’s MRQ

Visit libary
Literacy
resources
New books
T.V. watching
habits
Hours of T.V.
view ing
e
e
e
e
e
Literacy
Resources
TV Watching
Habits
.51
.63
.76
.60
.75
Grades
Importance
Social
Competition
Curiosity
Recognition
Inv olv ement
Efficacy
Challenge
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
MRQ
.29
.62
.78
.81
.81
.79
.77
.76
d
.46
.70
.61

parent’s literacy resources → MRQ was constrained to be equal to zero, the decrement in
model fit revealed that the path was significant ( Δχ² = 7.03, 1 df, p < .01). Overall, the
results revealed that the parent’s literacy resource factor was positively related to their
children’s MRQ responses and the effect size was small, but significant. Additionally,
the results showed that the children’s TV watching habits was not significantly related to
their MRQ responses.
The second series of analyses tested the association between parental involvement
in schooling, parental involvement in reading, and the children’s MRQ responses. The
85
five items that loaded highly on the parental involvement in schooling factor based on the
principal components analysis were the five indicators of one latent factor. Additionally,
the three items that loaded on the parental involvement in reading factor based on the
principal components analysis were the three indicators of a second factor that was
hypothesized to covary with the first factor. Additionally, like the first series of analyses,
causal paths were specified from these two factors to a latent factor indicated by the nine
subscales of the MRQ. This model showed an acceptable fit to the data, χ² (116, n = 128)
= 167.83, p < .01, χ² / df = 1.45, CFI = .94, RMSEA = .06. To assess the significance of
the causal paths leading to the MRQ factor, the decrement in model fit was calculated
after the paths were individually constrained to be equal to zero. The results showed that
when accounting for the effects of the other factor, the path from parental involvement in
schooling → MRQ ( β = .01; Δχ² = 0.01, 1 df, p = .95) and the path from parental
involvement in reading → MRQ ( β = .24; Δχ² = 3.25, 1 df, p = .07) were not significant.
To further explore the association between the parental involvement in reading
and the MRQ factor, a model was tested with the path from parental involvement in
schooling → MRQ removed. Figure 2 shows this association between the parental factor
and the MRQ factor. This model also showed an acceptable fit to
86
Figure 2
Path Model with Parental Involvement in Reading Predicting Children’s MRQ

Partnerships
with school
Participate
in school
Enforce
reading
Reading for
hom ew ork
US educational
system
Read to
child
Listening
to child
Reading
choice
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
Parental Involvement
in Schooling
Parental Involvement
in Reading
.60
.60
.72
.51
.53
.64
.66
.55
Efficacy
Challenge
Involvem ent
Recognition
Curiosity
Com petition
Social
Grades
Im portance
MRQ
.62
.78
.81
.81
.79
.77
.76
d
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
.25
.44
.61
.70

the data, χ² (117, n = 128) = 167.83, p < .01, χ² / df = 1.43, CFI = .94, RMSEA = .06.
When the path from parental involvement in reading → MRQ was constrained to be
equal to zero, the decrement in model fit revealed that the path was significant ( Δχ² =
4.87, 1 df, p < .05). On the whole, the results revealed that the parental involvement in
reading was positively and significantly related to the children’s MRQ responses with a
small effect size. Additionally, the results showed that the parental involvement in
schooling was not significantly related to the children’s MRQ responses. The parental
aspiration factor was excluded from this section of the analysis because it showed poor
reliability. Therefore, two focus groups were conducted to determine the relationship
between Latino parents’ aspirations and their children’s educational attainment
87
Major Themes from Focus Groups
Two semi-structured focus groups were conducted with a total of 12 parents
focusing on parents’ aspirations. Four key themes emerged from the data analysis: (a)
parents’ hopes for an economically and socially prosperous life and its importance in
their children’s academic achievement, (b) school resources and parents’ ability to access
school resources is necessary in increased reading motivation, (c) parent-child
communication and parents’ verbal encouragement is important in increased reading
engagement, and (d) parents’ way of thinking toward their children’s educational
attainment is important in increased academic aspirations and expectations.
Parents’ Hopes for an Economically and Socially Prosperous Life and
Its Importance in Their Children’s Academic Achievement
Consistent with all mothers in the focus groups, there was an emphasis on a sense
of mission and a necessity for parents to make an ultimate sacrifice to come to the United
States in order to provide their children with more opportunities for a quality of life and a
well off job. Mothers clearly perceived an education from the United States to be a
vehicle for upward mobility economically and socially and meant a better life for the
entire family. One mother claims she came to the United States because of the many
educational opportunities that she never had from her home country and her hopes of
giving her children a chance to get ahead in life, as illustrated in the following:
“…buscar una oportunidad tanto para ellos como tambien para nosotros
como padres para mejorar… que estudien y se den cuenta de la realidad
que estamos ahorita viviendo… que una persona entre mas estudie, tiene
mas opciones para una vida major, no como nosotors que no sabemos, no
estudiamos.”

88

[“…look for an opportunity for them as well as for us as parents to
improve… for them to study and realize the reality we are living today…
that an educated person has more options for a better life and not like us,
the parents who don’t know and have no education” NP #14-18]

As the above statement suggests, the value of an education was central to these mothers.
Moreover, being a professional was constantly communicated to their children. For
example, this mother emphasized her sacrifices in coming to the United States for
something more than just a job in the fast food industry. She articulated:
“…le digo a mi hija ‘sabes que, yo quiero que tu seas una profesional,’ se
lo estoy metiendo desde chiquita… ‘tanto esfuerzo, tu papi, ves como
trabaja, nosotros estamos pendiente de ustedes, de todas formas, y no
quiero verte quedar en un McDonald’s, tanto esfuerzo para un
McDonald’s?’”

[“…I tell my daughter ‘you know, I want you to be a professional,’ I start
instilling this thought in her while she’s little… ‘your father’s effort, you
see how hard he works, we are behind you all the way, and I don’t want to
see you end up in McDonald’s, all this effort for you to end up in
McDonald’s?’” NP #237-243]

Sharing with their children, the many sacrifices these mothers made in coming to
the United States for a chance of a better life, was seen as a way of teaching their
children the value of an education. “…tenemos que tener mas empeño y
enseñarles a nuestros hijos el scarificio que uno hace… y valorizen el sacrificio
que uno hace para que ellos puedan seguir estudiando” [“… we have to have
more determination and teach our children the sacrifice that one makes… and for
them to value the sacrifice that one makes so that they could continue their
education” NP #6-11], these mothers believed that if their children were educated
in the U.S. educational system, with its rich instructional resources and able to
89
read well, they would be prepared with the necessary skills to succeed in the real
world.
School Resources and Parents’ Ability to Access School Resources
is Necessary in Increased Reading Motivation
The mothers in the focus group stressed the importance of becoming aware and
using already-existing school resources. The majority of participants also believed that
the school system in the United States offered parents and their children many
opportunities for a quality education. For example, free materials and supplies, parent
workshops, extra remedial courses. However, the group of mothers believed that most
parents and students never take advantage of the opportunities. This view is brought to
light in the following account:
“…tienen mucho material, muy buenos maestros, grandes capacidades…
tanta capacidad economicamente… lo que no entiendo, es porque tanto
alumno no aprovecha en realidad lo que se les estan dando?... Yo veo que
los maestros se esfuerzan, el gobierno tambien se esfureza mucho para
que los niños estudien mas, avanzen mas… lo que falta es motivacion por
parte de uno, como padre…”

[“they (U.S. schools) have a lot of materials, good teachers, a huge
capacity… a lot of economic capacity… what I don’t understand, is why
are there so many students who fail to take advantage of these
resources?... I see the great effort put forth by teachers and the government
as well, to give children a good education… what is lacking in children’s
education, is motivation from parents” NP #27-39]

Although there was consensus among the participants that U.S. schools have more
educational instruction to offer their children, one mother recalls her frustration with
school remedial resources for improving her child’s reading ability. What makes this
finding important is that this mother did not see herself as a key resource or the
90
motivation agent for her child. She believed that the school’s resources were not helpful
and that her child was not working hard enough to improve his reading ability. The
mother explained:
“…mi hijo va un poco atrasado en lectura… siempre lo mando a clases
extra, cursos aqui, cursos aya, clases aqui, clases aya para que se supere
un poco… yo no miro que se supere nada, tambien el no le pone el 100%
de su parte… no se que es lo que no esta funcionando”

[“…my son is a little behind in reading… I always send him to extra
classes, courses here, courses there, classes here, classes there in order to
increase his knowledge… I don’t see him getting better perhaps it’s him
who doesn’t put 100%... I don’t know what is failing?” NP #61-66]

This sentiment was also echoed by another mother, who claimed that schools function
more as a business than as an academic institution: “… muchas veces, se procupan
porque necesitan los niños para recibir los fondos del estado y no por lo que llegen a
estudiar los niños” [“…often they are more concerned about having so many students
because of state funding and forget about educating children” NP #45-52]. However, this
next parent brings the focus back to the role of the parent by stressing that parents are the
main motivation problem. She describes what she refers to as a common practice among
Latino parents – talking down to their children and not taking advantage of opportunities
to educate them selves using school resources. She explains her point:
“…hay padres que dicen ‘no pues mi hijo es burro y asi va hacer’… es la
mentalidad de cada padre… o sea consiste tambien de los padres…
porque si la escuela esta abierta, no es nomas para los ninos, es tambien
para los papas porque tambien uno aprende mucho.”

[“…there are parents that say ‘well my son is dumb and that’s how he will
stay’… therefore, it has a lot to do with parents as well… because, if the
school is open, it’s not just for children, but also for parents to learn” MP
#135-142]

91
Clearly communication between parents and schools is critical, but equally important is
the constant communication between the parent and their child.
Parent-Child Communication and Parent’s Verbal Encouragement
is Important in Increased Reading Engagement
Data from the mothers revealed the importance of verbal communication and
encouragement between parents and children. For the mothers constant communication
and verbal praising in combination with school participation was seen as a way of
motivating their children. As this parent articulates:
“…todo empieza con el auto-estima entra la familia… si no hay
comunicacion entre los padres, no pueden darle ese sigimiento al niño…
porque tambien el hijo esta con el bajo auto-estima, o sea no tiene
sueños… si el papa o la mama no estan alli presente, si el hijo no los ve en
la escuela, es lo mismo que a los hijos no los motivan… si consiste mucho
entre papa y mama darle un alabanza, un elop al nino y hay padres que
no lo hacemos.”

[“…everything starts with self-esteem within the family… if there is no
communication among parents, they can’t be helpful with their children’s
education… because, it also affects their children’s self-esteem and their
dreams… if parents are not present, if children don’t see their parents at
school, then children aren’t motivated… it has a lot to do with parents
praising their children, but there are parents that don’t do it” MP #163-
178]

For one mother, she felt that if she expects her children to be educated and succeed in
life, the same must be expected from the parents. Parents must also aspire to better
themselves. Open communication reciprocity between parents and their children is a
critical component to increase student motivation. This mother explains how parents
must also take on a more active and assertive role in their child’s education:
92
“…si uno le esta exigiendo a su hijo, tambien uno se tiene que superar…
tambien tiene que ver la educacion que uno a llevado, la paciencia que
uno tiene para poderle ayudar a sus hijos… la base que uno trae, tiene
que ver mucho… porque si usted quiere ayudar a su hijo, usted tiene que
ver de que manera le ayuda, todo es uno quierer ayudar a sus hijos.”

[“…if parents demand their child, they (parents) too should try to better
themselves… also, parent’s education level and their patience in helping
their children has a lot to do with parent’s willingness to help their
children, you just have to want to help your children” NP #160-178]

This research suggests that parents who are engaged in their children’s education and
promote a parent-child team feel a sense of accomplishment when their children succeed.
For example, one mother told her son, “Okay, vamos a leerlo y vamos a entenderle los
dos” [Okay, let’s read it and try to understand it together” MP #260] when he told her he
did not understand a homework assignment. According to this mother, parents have to
try to educate themselves and learn to read so that they are able to help their children with
homework assignments. This mother explains how her investment in her children’s
education and their successes translates to her success as well:
“El logro de mis hijos, es el mio mas… una de mama es la que tiene el
tiempo para estar con ellos tanto en el estudio, como en la escuela, para
platicar con ellos… saber todo acerca de ellos.”

[“My children’s achievement is more mine… as a mother, I dedicate time
to be with them, not only in their studies, but also involved in their school,
conversing with them… knowing everything about them” MP #374-380]

Expanding the role of a mother from being just a parent to being a communicator and
motivator, increases reading engagement, raises expectations, and establishes a parent-
child partnership at home. This type of partnership allows the parent and child to
communicate, share experiences and engage in storytelling. For most Latino families,
according to these mothers, a child’s reading ability is an asset because the child is able
93
to interpret and translate letters and other documents from English to Spanish. What
these mothers are advocating is that the ability to read be seen as a communication tool
and not as a translating tool. Equally important, is parents’ attitudes toward higher levels
of education.
Parents’ Way of Thinking toward Their Children’s Educational Attainment
is Important in Increased Aspirations and Expectations
Another main theme was mother’s high aspirations for their children’s academic
advancement. These mothers perceived themselves as playing a critical role in
motivating their children toward higher levels of education. Moreover, these mothers
believe that they are the source that motivates their children in their education. For
example, consider the way this mother describes the Kennedy family as an example of a
successful family because their mother emphasized the importance of home etiquette as
an education foundation value:
“…uno siempre tiene que estar diciendo “vas a llegar”…como escuche yo
una vez un comentario donde los Kennedy’s que la mama siempre les
decia desde niños, “come bien y sientate bien, porque los presidentes se
tienen que sentar y comer bien”… y todos los Kennedy’s fueron
presidentes… tiene que hablarles uno haci… “sientate bien, come bien,
estudia bien porque vas hacer lo que quieras hacer”… uno como padre
tiene la responsabilidad de apoyarlos siempre.”

[“…as a parent, one must always be saying to their children ‘you will get
there’… I once heard that the mother of the Kennedy’s would always tell
her children, ‘eat properly and sit properly, because that’s what presidents
do, they sit and eat properly’… and all the Kennedy’s became
presidents… you have to talk to your children this way… ‘sit and eat
properly, study hard because you will be someone’… as a parent, we have
the responsibility to always support our children” MP #352-359]

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According to one mother, an education is acquired through family values and cultural
grass roots. She states: “…la educacion no se adquiere con el dinero, la educacion se
adquiere por uno, de las bases que la persona tenga…” [“You can’t acquire an
education with money, you acquire an education through you’re upbringing” NP #216-
219]. Parents see two types of education: one that emerges from cultural values and
traditions and makes up the person’s foundation; and secondly, one that is acquired from
an academic institution to get ahead in life. A higher value is placed on the education of
values and traditions from one’s culture.
Parents saw the transmission of negative attitudes as a form of discouragement
and lowered aspirations for their children’s academic achievement. Again, parents are
perceived as the agent of motivation, as this mother explains:
“…uno mismo como padre a veces les quita los sueños a ellos (hijos),
porque “pues ya saliste embarazada, ponte a cuidar a tu hijo, es lo que
querias… si ya tienes novio, para que vas a la escuela si nomas vas a ver
el novio, mejor ponte a trabajar.”

[“…as parents, we sometimes take away our children’s dreams, because
‘well you’re now pregnant, now you must take care of your child, this is
what you wanted… if you have a boyfriend, why bother going to school, if
all you’re going to do is go with your boyfriend, instead of school, go to
work’” MP #327-330]

The majority of parents in this study indicated that they want their children to graduate
from a university and have a professional career. This mother expresses her high
aspirations for her son, as well as her somewhat low expectations:
“…yo deseo que llege hasta la universidad y termine una buena carera, es
lo mejor… pero, si no puede con el estudio, aunque sea una carera corta,
pero que la haga, que no me quede en la high school, que logre hacer
algo mas para que el pueda trabajar en algo diferente y no como
nosotros, yo y mi esposo trabajamos en construcion, y es muy pesado.”
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[“…my hope is for my child to attend a university and pursue an good
career, that’ll be the best… but, if he can’t handle college work, at least
pursue a short career, but see it through, don’t just finish high school, my
hope is for my child to achieve something big, not like us, me and my
husband work in construction and it is heavy work” NP #325-329]

This mother emphasized the long-hours and back-breaking work her and her
husband do for her son to realize how much they sacrifice for him to attend a university
and have a chance to a better life. But not all parents have high hopes according to this
mother, “Hay muchos padres…no les importa un logro de sus hijos…’yo fui asi, mis
padres fueron asi, y yo voy hacer asi y mis hijos tienen que ser igual que yo’” [“There are
too many parents…don’t have high hopes for their children…’I was like this, my parents
were like this, and so shall my children be like this, the same as me’” MP #439-443].
Again, pointing out that parents play a pivotal role in the motivation of their children.
Although the participation of both the mother and the father were encouraged,
only mothers participated in the focus group. Not surprisingly, it was the mothers who
participated in the entire study. This is an important observation, because it demonstrates
the role structure of a Latino family in relationship to education. In most Latino families,
it is the mother who is the most involved in their children’s education. The father, on the
other hand, is more concerned about the financial aspect of the family. This thread of
mother’s involvement in their child’s education was evident among the four major
themes. For example, mothers’ becoming more knowledgeable about resources, having
an open communication style with their children, and having high academic aspirations
were essential for a prosperous life.
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Conclusion
The author used a mixed methods approach to determine if a strong relationship
existed between parental literacy practices and student literacy factors. Two sets of
research results were presented in this chapter. In the quantitative portion, the results
show that the structural equation model fits the data for the parental and children
measures. In the first SEM analysis, the results revealed that the parent’s literacy
resources component was positively related to their children’s MRQ responses. Results
from the second SEM analysis revealed that the parental involvement in reading was
positively and significantly related to children’s MRQ responses. However, parental
involvement in schooling was not significantly related to children’s MRQ responses.
Overall, the results implied that having more literacy resources (books) at home where
children could choose from as well as having parents engage in reading activities with
their children, increases their children’s reading engagement.
For the qualitative portion of the study, four themes emerged from two focus groups and
shed light on parents’ aspirations for their children’s educational attainment. These
themes were: 1) parents’ hopes for an economically and socially prosperous life and its
importance in their children’s academic achievement, 2) school resources and parents’
ability to access school resources is necessary in increased reading motivation, 3) parent-
child communication and parents’ verbal encouragement is important in increased
reading engagement, and 4) parents’ way of thinking toward their children’s educational
attainment is important in increased academic aspirations and expectations.
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The overall results from this portion revealed that mother’s from these focus
groups want their children to attend and graduate from college with a professional title. It
is this aspiration that shapes the attitudes of parents. Moreover, these mothers believe
that a parent’s role is to advocate for the academic needs of their children and engage in
open communication with them and praise their achievements. In the next and final
chapter, the data will be interpreted and research and policy implications will be
explored.
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CHAPTER 5
Discussion
Introduction
The Latino parent sample of this study shared a common view on what an
education from the United States means in the context of their educational aspirations for
their children. But, equally important were parents’ views on the value of literacy and
the role that parents play in increasing their children’s motivation to read. This study
examined the relationship between Latino parental aspirations and literacy practices and
their children’s reading engagement. Data were gathered from a public elementary and
secondary school using a mixed methods approach. The quantitative data presented in
the previous chapter were gathered from 128 participants, which included parents and
their children. The data were analyzed using the following statistical techniques: A
correlation analysis was used to describe the strength of the relationship between parental
literacy practices and students’ reading engagement; exploratory factor analyses were
performed to explore the interrelationships among children and parent-home variables;
and structural equation modeling was performed to explore the association between
children and parent-home variables.
A qualitative approach was used to further explore Latino parents’ aspirations for
their children’s educational attainment. Specifically, two parent focus groups were
conducted, as presented in the previous chapter, in order to gain insight on parents’
academic aspirations for their children. In discussing the results, this chapter focuses on
the interpretation and presentation of two main questions: How do Latino parents’
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aspirations and home literacy practices relate to their children’s motivation to read? And,
what are Latino parents’ aspirations for their children’s educational attainment?
Research Question One: How do Latino Parents’ Aspirations and Home
Literacy Practices Relate to Their Children’s Motivation to Read?
In addressing this question, the following three major conclusions were drawn
from the quantitative data of the study and presented in the following section. These
conclusions are: 1) parent literacy resources was positively related to children’s reading
engagement, 2) children’s time spent watching TV was not related to children’s reading
engagement, and 3) parental involvement in reading activities was positively related to
children’s reading engagement compared to parental involvement in schooling.
First, having access to an abundance of literacy resources outside of school did
increase children’s motivation to read. The study found a significant and positive
association between parent’s literacy resources and their children’s reading engagement.
As more literacy resources become available and accessible to children outside of school,
the higher their reading engagement becomes. One potential explaination for these
results is that Latino immigrant parents acknowledge the value of making reading
material available to their children. Simply put, Latino parents who promote reading by
making an abundance of reading material available to their children at home put their
children in an environment with choices and opportunities to engage in reading activities.
However, Latino parents are not exclusive in this respect the same can be said about
parents of all ethnicities. Previous researchers (e.g., Rashid, Morris, & Sevcik, 2005;
Baker, 2003; Goldenberg, 2001; Goldenbeg, Reese, & Gallimore, 1992) have shown that
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a high quantity of print resources at a home environment is positively correlated with
higher levels of reading. This is a significant finding, because having an abundance of
literacy resources at home means that children are more likely to engage in reading
activities. Also, a home with a wealth of reading material gives children a venue to
practice reading and share what they are reading with family members and at the same
time build confidence in their reading ability.
Second, the study showed that children’s time spent watching TV was negatively
associated with higher levels of reading engagement. Research has shown that children
who spend three or more hours daily watching TV tend to dedicate less time to reading
activities. This is consistent with the research of Hancox, Milne, and Poulton (2005) who
found that time spent watching TV among sixth and seventh graders in the United States
had an inverse correlation with reading and other academic work. In other words, more
time spent watching TV results in less literacy activities in the home. According to the
U.S. Department of Education, on the average, children in the United States watch three
to five hours of television on a daily basis. Other research (e.g., Close, 2004 & Marzano,
2003) disagree that TV watching negatively affects children’s literacy capacity. In fact,
Close contends that watching quality educational television programs on a daily basis can
be beneficial in increasing children’s language acquisition and build vocabulary.
In the present study, 57 percent of the parent sample indicated that their children
watch less than two hours of television per day. This finding is consistent with the
previous section, in that Latino parents are recognizing the importance of having more
literacy resources in the home. Clearly, Latino immigrant parents are stressing a
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structure that supports more literacy activities and less TV watching. Another potential
reason for children’s moderate (two hours) TV watching habits reported by their parents
could be because parents may have circled the item that they felt was most acceptable,
based on the amount of hours of TV they should be enforcing.
Third, parental involvement approaches to motivating students to read can best be
illustrated in the following two ways: parental involvement in schooling and parental
involvement in reading. Traditionally, the concept “parent involvement” has been
viewed by school administrators as parents attending school events and following a
scripted role for the sheer reason of meeting school policy (Lopez, 2001; Carreón, Drake,
Barton, 2005). However, this view often ignores parent-home involvement literacy
practices. Not surprisingly, in the present study, parent participation in school activities
was not positively related to children’s reading engagement. Although Latino immigrant
parents in the study showed strong commitment to their children’s academic
achievement, many felt less commitment toward the school. When parents felt they were
doing the school’s work, they were less invested in school activities and at home they
often enforced reading activities out of compliance. This finding is consistent with
previous research (e.g., Reese & Gallimore, 2000; Goldenberg et al., 1992) who found
that Latino parent’s involvement in their children’s reading was stronger when teachers
directly demanded home reading as on-going homework assignments requiring parent
participation. It is not surprising that children answered the extrinsic MRQ’s subscales
(e.g., recognition, grades, and competition) “A lot like me.” This means that children are
reading, not because they enjoy the activity, but because they are complying with their
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parents and teachers. Moreover, the child is more likely to perceive reading activity as a
chore and not as a pleasurable activity.
Evidence was found that parental involvement in reading, such as reading to
children, listening to children read, and giving children choices in reading material did
increase reading engagement. Parents enforcing reading on their children because of a
home-school requirement is not likely to be a highly effective strategy in increasing
children’s reading motivation. However, parents promoting reading as a fun activity and
they themselves engaging in those reading activities can be an effective strategy in
increasing children’s reading engagement. The study confirms the notion that when
parents dedicate quality time to read to their children or just listening to their children
read does increase children’s reading engagement.
In the present study, children’s reading engagement was based on their responses
to the Motivation for Reading Questionnaire (MRQ) designed by Guthrie and Wigfield in
1995. To date, this instrument has been the most effective tool in determining the
reasons children are motivated to read. In contrast, Watkins and Coffey (2004), argue
that the MRQ is not an entirely reliable instrument and that it should be revised.
Although they agree that reading engagement is multidimensional, they disagree with the
MRQ as a sound instrument claiming that only eight of the eleven scales are reliable.
The results from this study also point out that children’s motivation to succeed in
school and life are influenced by their parents’ attitudes toward schooling, in particular
their educational aspirations for their children.
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Research Question Two: What are Latino Parents’ Aspirations
for Their Children’s Educational Attainment?
The study provides further evidence about Latino parents’ educational aspirations
for their children. This qualitative portion of the study focuses exclusively on the notion
that parents’ educational aspirations influence their children’s motivation and academic
achievement. Four major themes emerged from two focus groups and are presented in
this section.
Parents’ Hopes for an Economically and Socially Prosperous Life and
Its Importance in Their Children’s Academic Achievement
A chance for a better life is the most common reason given by most Latino
immigrant parents for coming to the United States. Not surprisingly, the focus group
participants placed a lot of emphasis on the sacrifices they made when immigrating to the
United States. There was consensus among the focus group mothers in that they came to
the United States for a chance to a prosperous life and a quality education for their
children. For these mothers, sharing family sacrifices with their children was their way
of communicating the value of an education. It was also a way to give their children a
choice, the choice to attend and graduate from a university with a professional title and
live a prosperous life or work long hours at a low-wage job with little prosperity. Parents
will often frame sacrifices in reference to the future of their children (Suarez-Orozco,
1987). The results revealed that Latino parents do have high academic aspirations for
their children and see an education from the United States as a path for upward mobility,
similar to what others have found (Suarez-Orozco, 1987 & Goldenberg, et al., 2001). In
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contrast, Ogbu (1990) contends that Latinos and other minorities’ academic aspirations
do not always match with their effort. In Ogbu’s research, Latino students indicated that
Asian and Caucasian students are more likely to succeed because they put more effort on
their school work at home. Without a doubt, parents play a crucial role in providing a
home environment that fosters learning and motivation to read for their children. The
role of parents is an important piece of this conundrum facing Latino children in
succeeding in school and in life.
School Resources and Parents’ Ability to Access School Resources
is Necessary in Increased Reading Motivation
The role of parents as advocates, as motivators, and as a support system is crucial
in advancing their children’s success in school and in life. Being well educated with a
successful career also benefits the entire family, including those left behind in Mexico or
Central America. To these mothers, acquiring and making good use of school resources
is one method in which parents can be actively involved in their children’s education.
The focus group participants collectively agreed that a substantial amount of school
resources are readily available for parents and their children. They also agreed that not
too many parents and children take advantage of these resources. The author agrees with
Godina’s (2004) notion that too many Latino students have limited access to English-
language print because they are placed in low-track courses and often little attention is
given to their home literacy needs. However, it must be pointed out that in order for
school resources to be effective, parents must supplement these resources with their
efforts and their engagement. In other words, school resources alone without sufficient
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parent engagement at home and school will not be effective. If children are going to be
successful in their schooling and be able to read at a proficient level, parents must not
limit their involvement role to just looking for school resources and attending school
meetings. Instead, parents must expand their involvement role to include spending time
at home reading to and listening to their child read. Previous research (e.g., Reese &
Gallimore, 2000) point out that childrens’ motivation to read improves when their parents
are fully engaged in reading activities as early as the elementary years. Therefore,
parents play a major role and can be powerful agents of motivation when they actively
engage in their child’s educational activities.
In staying with the argument that many Latino parents fail to act on school
resources. Traditionally, Latino families in the U.S. are known to be reluctant to use
services of any kind. According to the National Council of La Raza (2005), this attitude
of not using services can be described by the Spanish saying “No se lava la ropa en casa
ajena” (one must not wash their dirty clothes in someone else’s home). In other words,
everything must be dealt within the family and never with strangers. Based on the
research, the English language and the ability to communicate are major obstacles for
Latino parents and get in the way of seeking resources and services. The ability to
communicate, according to the focus group mothers, was perceived as a necessary ability
when seeking school resources. Clearly, Latino parents must receive specialized training
on strategies for using school resources where they not only learn the principle of reading
engagement, but become equiped with the skill to get involved in their children’s reading
activities.
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Parent-Child Communication and Parents’ Verbal Encouragement
is Important in Increased Reading Engagement
According to the focus group mothers, a fundamental “must have” for any parent
is the ability to communicate with their children and function as a support system. This
theme emerged as an important factor for all the mothers in the focus group. The group
felt that parents’ primary role was to encourage their children and guide them through life
and academic challenges. Moreover, the mothers in the focus group felt it was important
for parents to constantly communicate with their children and be attentive to all their
academic, personal and emotional needs. One interesting finding was the mothers’ sense
of entitlement to their children’s academic accomplishments. Collectively, the group
agreed that mothers do more to encourage their children to succeed in school when
compared to fathers. Mothers felt that talking to their children frequently and
consistently praising their academic efforts are necessary activities to ensure a strong
parent-child relationship.
Parents’ Way of Thinking toward Their Children’s Educatinal Attainment
is Important in Increased Aspirations and Expectations
Parents’ attitude toward schooling can be very influential in their children’s
academic success. Mothers in the focus group felt that parents’ positive approach toward
school was vital in encouraging their children. Mothers agreed that parents often create
self-fulfilling prophesies in the way in which they communicated their academic
aspirations to their children. For example, parents who communicate to their children
high educational aspirations result in tangible high expectations and success of children.
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On the other hand, parents who perceive their children as non-academic will expect less
from them, academically, and result in less education. This means, that Latino children’s
reading motivation and academic achievement can be improved by improving parents’
approach toward schooling and early literacy development. Mothers in the focus groups
agreed that negative comments were the single most damaging thing to children’s
motivation to succeed. Parents’ poor perceptions about schooling and literacy stem from
their poor knowledge of school resources, poor communication with their children,
tenuous parent-child support system, and not knowing how to act on their academic
aspirations. Latino parents who provide a home environment that embraces and
encourages education as a valuable tool will motivate their children to work harder to
succeed in school and life.
Implications for Educators and Policymakers
This study brings to light some of the same literacy issues that were debated in the
early 1970s when bilingual education became part of the academic instruction for non-
English speaking students. The same issues continue to be debated in post-Proposition
227, the proposition that ended bilingual education in California. The results from the
study emphasize the important role parents play in their children’s early literacy
development and academic achievement. Clearly, multifaceted motivation strategies that
involve parental participation are essential to increasing children’s reading engagement.
Based on the results of this study, the following policy and strategies for future
discussion and consideration are recommended.
108
First and most fundamentally, educators must be familiar with the various Latino
groups (e.g., Mexicans, El Salvadorians, Guatemalans etc.), and recognize that each
group frames their views on education and literacy development based on their historical,
sociopolitical, and environmental experiences. As the research indicates, Latino families
come to the United States with a sense of purpose unique to them, a purpose to find better
life opportunities and give their children a chance to a quality education.
One way to understand the real-life literacy needs of Latino children and their
parents is for educators to have a firm understanding of the diversity of cultural,
linguistic, educational, and social barriers facing Latino children and their parents.
Working with Latino children and their parents from their point of reference in order to
better understand the culture of the home is essential. As the Latino population increases,
educators and policymakers must realize that there is no one-size-fits-all approach to
understanding Latino families.
Second, educators who work with Latino children and their parents must provide
Latino immigrant parents with the capacity and strategies to make use of school
resources. Most Latino parents are not aware of the full range of literacy resources that
exist in their children’s school. Moreover, when parents become aware of school
resources, they do not know how to access them. Greater efforts must go into providing
Latino parents with the capacity to use school literacy resources and link these resources
to children’s success in professional jobs. For example, offering parents informational
workshops about existing literacy resources along with a real-life panel of local
community business leaders connecting high paying jobs with solid reading skills.
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Parent capacity to use school literacy resources can also lead to a home literacy
context, where reading literature is available, accessible, and relevant to children’s
interests. A home literacy context allows for rich literacy content to be shared among
family members—an important indicator for increasing children’s reading engagement.
The evidence of the study suggests that children are able to acquire knowledge and
become literate through positive relationships and verbal communication between them
and family members.
Finally, educators and policy makers must encourage parents to engage in their
children’s reading activities. Parental involvement in their children’s education must be
redefined as parents spending quality time reading to or listening to their children read at
home. When parents engage in reading activities with their children at home, children’s
reading engagement increases.
Recommendations for Future Research
Clearly, more research is needed to better understand the different Latino groups
in relation to literacy development. Future studies will need to continue exploring the
same issues raised by this study, including examining each Latino group separately and
taking into consideration other educational issues they face. Also, future Latino samples
should be well represented. For example, fathers and other family members should be
represented because they may provide different opinions or views on the issues of
motivation and literacy. Having said that, a larger research sample size and a
longitudinal research design is needed in order generate rich data and add to the present
research. From the collection of longitudinal data it would be possible to examine if
110
parents’ academic aspirations and expectations for their children would change over time
based on students’ ability to read. Furthermore, a larger diverse Latino sample would
make it possible to compare various Latino families and examine their unique approach
to literacy and academic achievement. The author recommends that more culturally-
linguistically-appropriate focus groups with Latino families be conducted on an on-going
basis so that educators can stay current with the educational needs of Latino families and
their views on education and literacy. In addition, the author recommends the following
research questions for future studies: What are the main characteristics of the various
Latino cultural models that educators must be aware of when addressing motivation and
literacy issues? How do Latino parents’ views about the U.S. educational system, as a
business, impacts their involvement and their children’s educational attainment? What
can be learned from successful Latino parent-child partnership models that lead to
reading engagement and academic achievement? What are some effective strategies to
motivate Latino parents to act on their aspirations for their children’s educational
attainment?
Conclusion
Given the small sample, care should be exercised in generalizing these results to
other groups of Latino parents and their children. The parent sample consisted mostly of
parents whose country of origin was Mexico and therefore, makes the data not
representative to other Latino groups. Moreover, most of the respondents were Latina
mothers, not by choice of the author, but because the majority of data collection sessions
were conducted during the day, perhaps the father’s work schedules were not flexible
111
during that time. Therefore, having a more representative sample, consisting of other
Latino groups and more father representation could have presented different insights on
the issues covered in this study.
However, based on the responses from the respondents of the study, issues
affecting children literacy and motivation are important and meaningful. Thus, this data
serves as an important discussion to bring together key stakeholders and start a dialogue
on strategies to strengthen the collaboration between Latino parents and school educators.
Therefore, it is reasonable and important for the following conclusions to be stated.
First, the results from the study suggest that Latino parents are becoming more
attentive about the negative impact television watching has on their child’s ability to read.
Perhaps they are providing more supervision on the amount of TV there children watch
because teachers are requesting more homework due to poor academic performance at
school. Secondly, Latino parents are choosing more out-of-school literacy activities that
include building a home library, visiting the library, and spending quality time conversing
with their children about their schooling or storytelling. Third, Latino parents are
promoting the value of an education and expressing this value by communicating high
aspirations for their children’s educational attainment. Clearly, when asked “how far do
you want their children to reach in their formal education?” Parents did not hesitate to
respond that their wish is for their children to graduate from a good university, possess a
professional title, and live a prosperous life. Finally, parents who engage in more literacy
activities strengthen the parent-child partnership and increase their children motivation to
read. Parents play a critical role and the more encouraging they do at home by promoting
112
and engaging in more home literacy activities with their children, the more responsive
their children will be in their motivation to read.
Illiteracy and motivation issues among Latino children and their families will
persist unless educators, policymakers and the Latino community come to the table not to
point fingers, but to begin dialogue on tangible action steps with tangible timelines and
tangible outcomes. Reciprocal accountability on all stakeholders is crucial in order to
bring change to the schools and the communities that serve Latino children and their
families.
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APPENDIX A
Parent Informed Consent

INFORMED CONSENT FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH

******************************************************************

CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE IN RESEARCH

The relationship between Latino parents’ perceptions and
aspirations and their children’s motivation to read

You are asked to participate in a research study conducted by principal investigator,
Gustavo Loera, M.A., a doctoral candidate from the Rossier School of Education at the
University of Southern California and Dr. Robert Rueda, PhD (Faculty Advisor) because
you are a Latino parent. The results of this study will be contributed to a dissertation.
You were selected as a possible participant in this study because your child is enrolled in
an ESL (English as a Second Language) identified for this study. A total of 500 families
will be selected from predominantly Spanish-speaking community where the ethnic
make-up is 99 percent Latino and whose children are enrolled in ESL courses to
participate. Your participation is voluntary. You should read the information below, and
ask questions about anything you do not understand, before deciding whether or not to
participate. You are also asked to give consent for your child to participate in the study.
Therefore, giving both consent for your participation and your child’s participation, you
will both be asked to complete a survey and you will be invited to also participate in a
focus group.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

The purpose of this study is to better understand parents’ beliefs about reading and their
hopes and dreams for their children. We are also trying to learn more about children’s
motivation to read in connection to parents’ beliefs and hopes.

PROCEDURES

If you volunteer to participate in this study, we would ask you to do the following things:

122
Parents
You are invited to attend a “College; Making it Happen” workshop to learn more about
the admission procedures to post-secondary colleges and universities. After the
workshop, you will be asked to complete a survey, which has 35 questions about home
literacy practices and your perceptions about educational attainment. This survey will
take approximately 20 minutes to complete in the multi-purpose room. For example,
with items 1 – 12 using the following scale “Very much Typical of me”, “Somewhat
typical of me”, and “Not at all typical of me”. A sample survey item asks you to rate
your opinion with the following statement: “I read to my child frequently”. For items 13
– 17 circle the appropriate letter (a,b,c,d,e,f). A sample survey item asks you to circle the
appropriate letter for the following statement: “On an average weekday, how many hours
of television will your child watch?” For items 18 – 20 circle the appropriate letter
(a,b,c,d,e,f). A sample survey item asks you to circle the appropriate letter for the
following statement: “How far do you want your child to go in his/her education?” For
items 21 – 24 circle to appropriate word (TRUE or FALSE). A sample survey item asks
you to circle the appropriate word for the following statement: “When your child
completes elementary or middle school, as a parent you will most likely get more
involved in his/her education.” For items 25 – 35 ask you demographic questions. For
example: “What is your home country?” After the survey, parents will be approached
and recruited to participate in a parent focus group. All parents will be given the
opportunity to participate and another date and time will be scheduled for the focus
group. At this focus group, parents will be told that the group interview will be audio-
taped and transcribed for clarity. Parents will also be told that pseudonyms will be used
to protect their identity and once the interview is transcribed, the tapes containing their
voice will be destroyed. All parents will be asked in advance if they do not wish to be
audio-taped and given the opportunity to withdraw from the study. The following
question is a sample of what parents would be asked to answer: “What school subject is
important that children learn?” There is no right or wrong answers and that their
responses will only be analyzed by the principal investigator to ensure confidentiality.
Again, you are being asked to consent for your child to participate in this study, what
follow is your child’s participation procedures.

Students
Will be asked to complete a survey in class, which asks 50 questions about their
experience with reading. This survey will take approximately 20 minutes to complete in
class. For example, the students will be asked to rate their self according to how well
statements 1 – 50 describes them, using the following scale “Very different from me”, “A
little like me”, and “A lot like me”. A sample survey item asks you to rate yourself with
the following statement: “I know that I will do well in reading next year.” Another
example on the survey asks them to rate them self on the following: “It is very important
to me to be a good reader.” There is no right or wrong answers and that their responses
will only be analyzed by the principal investigator to ensure confidentiality.

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POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS

This study does not pose any identifiable risks beyond minor discomfort to you and your
children. You or your child may be uncomfortable due to spending time completing the
survey, from being away from other activities, or concerned with the confidentiality of
your and your child’s answers on the survey. If you or your child feel discomfort you or
your child may stop and withdraw from the study at any time.

POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO SUBJECTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY

There will be no direct benefit to you or your child for participating in this study.
However, the information from this study will be used to help inform decisions and
improve instruction and services for students.

PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION

There will be a raffle of five $20 gift certificates to a supermarket and all individuals (that
is all parents present at the workshop) are eligible to participate in the raffle even if you
chose not to participate in completing the “Parent Early Literacy Development
Questionnaire”.

CONFIDENTIALITY

Any information that is obtained in connection with this study and that can be identified
with you and your child will remain confidential and will be disclosed only with your
permission or as required by law.

Any personal information and data collected for the study will be coded to ensure
privacy. The data will be stored for three years in a locked file cabinet of the principal
investigator for three years after the completion of the study, at which time the
information will be destroyed. Teachers and administrators will not have access to the
information you provide on this survey and your answers will not influence the grade
your child receive in their classes. Responses will be held in the strictest professional
confidence and will only be viewed by the principal investigator. The informed consent
forms with your name will be stored separately from your completed surveys so that no
connection can be made to them.

When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no
information will be included that would reveal your identity. If audio-tape recordings of
you will be used for educational purposes, your identity will be protected or disguised.
At your (parent) request, who will have access to review the audio tape(s). Once the
focus group interview is transcribed, all tapes will be destroyed. Moreover, pseudonyms
will be used instead of your names for identity protection.

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PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL

You can choose whether to be in this study or not. If you volunteer to be in this study,
you may withdraw at any time without consequences of any kind. You may also refuse
to answer any questions you don’t want to answer and still remain in the study. The
investigator may withdraw you from this research if circumstances arise which warrant
doing so.

IDENTIFICATION OF INVESTIGATORS

If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact the
Principal Investigator, Gustavo Loera via mail at 320 N. Pine Ave., Long Beach, CA
90820; email at gloera@usc.edu; or phone at (213) 447-5591.

RIGHTS OF RESEARCH SUBJECTS

You may withdraw your consent at any time and discontinue participation without
penalty. You are not waiving any legal claims, rights or remedies because of your
participation in this research study. If you have questions regarding your rights as a
research subject, contact the University Park IRB, Office of the Vice Provost for
Research, Grace Ford Salvatori Building, Room 306, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1695,
(213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu.

SIGNATURE OF RESEARCH SUBJECT, PARENT OR LEGAL
REPRESENTATIVE.

I understand the procedures described above, and I understand fully the rights of a
potential subject in a research study involving people as subjects. My questions have
been answered to my satisfaction, and I agree to participate in this study. I have been
given a copy of this form.

□ I agree to be audio-taped.

□ I do not wish to be audio-taped.

□ I agree to have my child’s reading grades/scores accessed.

□ I do not wish to have my child’s reading grades/scores accessed.

□ I give permission/consent for my child to participate in this study.

□ I do not give permission/consent for my child to participate in this study.

125

Name of Student

Name of Parent or Legal Representative

Signature of Subject, Parent or Legal Representative Date

SIGNATURE OF INVESTIGATOR

I have explained the research to the subject or his/her legal representative, and answered
all of his/her questions. I believe that he/she understands the information described in
this document and freely consents to participate.

Name of Investigator

Signature of Investigator Date (must be the same as
subject’s)
126
APPENDIX B
Student Assent Form

ASSENT TO BE IN RESEARCH

Page 1 of 2

The relationship between Latino parents’ perceptions and
aspirations and their children’s motivation to read

1. My name is Gustavo Loera.

2. We are asking you to take part in a research study because we are trying to learn more
about parents’ beliefs on reading and their hopes and dreams for their children. We
are also trying to learn more about children’s motivation to read in connection to
parents’ beliefs and hopes.

3. If you decide to be in this study you will be asked to complete a survey in class. The
survey has 50 questions about your experience with reading. This survey will take
about 20 minutes to complete in class.

4. Sometimes things happen in research studies. Some of the bad things that could
happen are: You may experience a little uneasy, which may include time away from
class assignments or tired. Some of these things might happen to you or they might
not. Or things might happen that we don’t know about yet.

5. People also have good things happen to them when they are in research studies. The
good things may be that your participation will provide important information about
parents and home habits and how it is related to reading motivation.

6. Please talk this over with your parents before you decide whether or not to take part
in this study. We will also ask your parents to give their permission for you to take
part in this study. But even if your parents say “yes” you can still choose not to do
this.

7. If you don’t want to be in this study, you don’t have to. You can choose whether to
be in this study or not. If you volunteer to be in this study, you may also remove
yourself at any time without consequences of any kind. You may stop being in this
127
study any time. Remember, being in this study is up to you and no one will be upset
if you don’t want to take part in this study or even if you change your mind later and
want to stop. You may also choose not to answer any questions you don’t want to
answer and still take part in the study.

8. You can ask any questions that you have about the study. If you have a question later
that you didn’t think of now, you and your parent can call me at (213) 447-5591 or
ask me next time.

9. Putting your name at the bottom means that you want to take part in this study. You
and your parent(s) will be given a copy of this paper after you have signed it.

____________________________________
Name of Student

____________________________________ ____________________
Student’s Signature Date

___________________________________
Name of Investigator

___________________________________ ____________________
Investigator’s Signature Date (must be same as Student’s)

128
APPENDIX C
Parent Invitation to Participate in Study

Dear Parent(s):

Hello, my name is Gustavo Loera and I am a doctoral candidate in the Rossier School of
Education at the University of Southern California (USC). I would like to invite you to
participate in a presentation called “College: Making It Happen” on December 8, 2005
at Middleton Elementary, where you will learn more about how to apply for colleges
and universities and financial aid. I also would like to invite you to participate in a study
I am conducting as part of a requirement for my doctoral program at USC. As part of my
study, I am conducting a survey to learn more about parents’ beliefs about reading and
their hopes and dreams for their children. We are also trying to learn more about
children’s motivation to read in connection to parents’ beliefs and hopes. Your
participation is voluntary.

The survey will take between 20 to 30 minutes to complete. If you would be willing to
participate in this study, I will need to obtain your written permission on the informed
consent form that is included in this packet or the one you will be receiving at the end of
the “College: Making It Happen” workshop. Please read it over carefully and sign the
last two pages (pages 5 and 6) of the form, if you are willing to participate and turn it in
to Maria Mendez at Middleton Elementary on November 17
th
or before the workshop.
Five $20 gift certificates to a grocery store will be raffled after the workshop and the
survey. All participants in the workshop will be eligible to participate in the raffle, even
if you chose not to participate in the study. Your answers to the survey will be
completely anonymous.

Your participation in the study is very important to the success of this study, and I
certainly appreciate your time and support. If you have any questions about the study,
please feel free to contact me at (213) 447-5591. If you have any other questions about
the workshop, please contact Maria Mendez at (323) 582-6387. Once again, thank you
for your support.

Sincerely,

129
APPENDIX D

Parent Early Literacy Development Questionnaire (PELDQ)

Some studies have indicated that a child’s home environment affects his/her literacy development. This
questionnaire is NOT A TEST. This study is part of my work as a student at USC. I am interested in
parents’ views about their children’s education so that more effective programs can be created. There are
no “right” or “wrong” answers and all of your responses are confidential and will not be part of any school
records. By completing this survey, you give permission to correlate your answers with your child’s
Motivation for Reading Questionnaire answers. Please circle one response for each question.

PART ONE

Please read the items below and rate yourself according to how well the statement describes you, not in
terms of how well you think you should be or what others do. The scale 1 to 5 does not determine if you
are a good parent or a bad parent. For questions 1 through 12, please circle the appropriate number. For
example, circle 3 if you feel that the statement is somewhat typical of you.

1 2 3 4 5

Very much Somewhat Not at all
typical of typical of typical of
me me me

1. I read to my child frequently. 1 2 3 4 5
2. I enjoy listening to my child read his/her favorite
book to me. 1 2 3 4 5
3. I visit the library with my child and let him/her pick
out a book to read. 1 2 3 4 5
4. I take on the responsibility to encourage my child to
read outside of school. 1 2 3 4 5
5. I take time off from work/house chores to attend my
child’s school activities. 1 2 3 4 5
6. I take the time to get to know my child’s teachers by
first name. 1 2 3 4 5
7. I believe that schools and not I are responsible for
teaching my child to read. 1 2 3 4 5
8. I believe that my sole responsibility to my child’s
education is to just provide the basic living necessities
(i.e., food, shelter, clothing etc.). 1 2 3 4 5

9. I enforce home reading as a part of my child’s regular
homework assignments. 1 2 3 4 5
10. I take my child out of school for family trips to Mexico
or Central America. 1 2 3 4 5
130
Very much Somewhat Not at all
typical of typical of typical of
me me me

11. I believe in making an effort to understand the U.S.
educational system. 1 2 3 4 5
12. I believe in promoting reading as a fun and pleasurable
activity instead of a chore. 1 2 3 4 5

For questions 13 through 17, please circle the appropriate letter. For example, circle b if you feel that
statement applies to your home.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)

13. How often does your child watch television?
a) everyday
b) a few days a week
c) about once a week
d) a few times a month
e) rarely, or almost never

14. On an average weekday, how many hours of television will your child watch?
a) 4 or more hours
b) 3 hours
c) 2 hours
d) 1 hour
e) none

15. How often in the last six (6) months have you and your child visited the library and checked
out books?
a) everyday
b) a few days a week
c) about once a week
d) a few times a month
e) rarely, or almost never

16. How many books do you have in your home?
a) over 50
b) 30 – 40
c) 20 – 30
d) 10 – 20
e) fewer then 10
f) none

131
17. How often do you get your child a new book from the store or library?
a) every week
b) a few times a month
c) about once a month
d) a few times a year
e) 2 times or less a year
f) never

PART TWO

For questions 18 through 20, please circle the appropriate letter. Questions 18 and 19 may sound the
same, but they are different. For example, circle b if you feel that statement applies to you.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)

18. How far do you WANT your child to go in his/her formal education?
a) finish middle school
b) finish high school
c) attend a trade school
d) attend a two-year college
e) attend a four-year university
f) finish university

19. How far do you THINK your child will actually go on in his/her formal education?
a) finish middle school
b) finish high school
c) attend a trade school
d) attend a two-year college
e) attend a four-year university
f) finish university

20. At what grade level do you feel your guidance and involvement in your child’s education will
no longer be effective?
a) after elementary school
b) after middle school
c) after high school
d) when they attend college
e) when they finish university

For questions 21 through 24, please circle the appropriate word. For example, circle TRUE if you feel that
statement to be true to you.

TRUE FALSE

21. When your child completes elementary or middle school, you will
most likely get more involved in his/her education? TRUE FALSE
132

22. When your child completes elementary or middle school, you will
most likely get less involved in his/her education? TRUE FALSE

23. When your child completes elementary or middle school, you will
most likely get involved in his/her education only at the request of
his/her teachers? TRUE FALSE

24. When your child completes elementary or middle school, you will
most likely expect your child to be completely responsible for
his/her education? TRUE FALSE

PART THREE

25. What is your home country? (Write your answer here) ______________________________

26. Write the age for each parent (i.e. 45)

Mother __________

Father ___________

27. Write the year each parent first come to the U.S. (i.e. 1954)

Mother ___________

Father ____________

28. My child lives with (circle one)
1. both parents
2. one parent – mother
3. one parent – father
4. grandparents
5. other

29. Mother’s education (circle one)
1. no schooling
2. elementary
3. middle school
4. high school
5. some college
6. college graduate
7. graduate school

133
30. Father’s education (circle one)
1. no schooling
2. elementary
3. middle school
4. high school
5. some college
6. college graduate
7. graduate school

31. Write down the mother’s occupation ____________________

32. Write down the father’s occupation ____________________

33. Write approximately how much, in total, is earned per paycheck (for both parents and
children working)? For example $1,200.
$_________________

34. How many children or relatives are living with you for whom you are responsible? ______

35. How many children in your household? (List their name, age, grade level, and school for
each child)

Name of child Child’s age School grade
level
School
35a.

35b.

35c.

35d.

35e.

35f.

35g.

35h.

35i.

35j.

134
APPENDIX E

Motivation for Reading Questionnaire (MRQ)

Dear Student:

Your input is very valuable to this study. When responding to the following survey items please think
about your experience with reading. There are no “right” or “wrong” answers and all of your responses are
confidential and will not be a part of any school records. When you are finished, please turn in your
surveys and signed consent form in the box provided at the back of the room.

Please read the items and rate yourself according to how well the statement describes you, not in terms of
how well you think you should be or what others do. Please circle the appropriate number. For example,
circle 1 if you feel that the statement is very different from you. 1 2 3 4 5

Very
different A little A lot
from me like me like me

1. I know that I will do well in reading next year. 1 2 3 4 5
2. I am a good reader. 1 2 3 4 5
3. I learn more from reading than most students in
the class. 1 2 3 4 5
4. In comparison to my other school subjects, I am
best at reading. 1 2 3 4 5

5. I like hard, challenging books. 1 2 3 4 5
6. I like it when the questions in books make me think. 1 2 3 4 5
7. I usually learn difficult things by reading. 1 2 3 4 5
8. If the project is interesting, I can read difficult
material. 1 2 3 4 5
9. If a book is interesting, I don’t care how hard it is
to read. 1 2 3 4 5

10. I don’t like reading something when the words are
too difficult. 1 2 3 4 5
11. I don’t like vocabulary questions. 1 2 3 4 5
12. Complicated stories are no fun to read. 1 2 3 4 5
13. I don’t like it when there are too many people in
the story. 1 2 3 4 5

14. It is very important to me to be a good reader. 1 2 3 4 5
135
Very
different A little A lot
from me like me like me
15. In comparison to other activities I do, it is very
important to me to be a good reader. 1 2 3 4 5

16. I read stories about fantasy and make believe. 1 2 3 4 5
17. I make pictures in my mind when I read. 1 2 3 4 5
18. I feel like I make friends with people in good books. 1 2 3 4 5
19. I like mysteries. 1 2 3 4 5
20. I enjoy a long, involved story or fiction book. 1 2 3 4 5
21. I read a lot of adventure stories. 1 2 3 4 5

22. My friends sometimes tell me I am a good reader. 1 2 3 4 5
23. I like hearing the teacher say I read well. 1 2 3 4 5
24. I am happy when someone recognizes my reading. 1 2 3 4 5
25. I like to get compliments for my reading. 1 2 3 4 5

26. I look forward to finding out my reading grade. 1 2 3 4 5
27. Grades are a good way to see how well you are
doing in reading. 1 2 3 4 5
28. I read to improve my grades . 1 2 3 4 5
29. My parents ask me about my reading grade. 1 2 3 4 5

30. If the teacher discusses something interesting,
I might read more about it. 1 2 3 4 5
31. I read about my hobbies to learn more about them. 1 2 3 4 5
32. I read to learn new information about topics that
interest me. 1 2 3 4 5
33. I like to read about new things. 1 2 3 4 5
34. If I am reading about an interesting topic, I
sometimes lose track of time. 1 2 3 4 5
35. I enjoy reading books about people in different
countries. 1 2 3 4 5

36. I like being the only one who knows an answer in
something we read. 1 2 3 4 5
37. I like being the best at reading. 1 2 3 4 5
136
Very
different A little A lot
from me like me like me
38. It is important for me to see my name on a list of
good readers. 1 2 3 4 5
39. I try to get more answers right then my friends. 1 2 3 4 5
40. I like to finish my reading before other students. 1 2 3 4 5
41. I am willing to work hard to read better than my
friends. 1 2 3 4 5

42. I do as little schoolwork as possible in reading. 1 2 3 4 5
43. I read because I have to. 1 2 3 4 5
44. I always do my reading work exactly as the
teacher wants it. 1 2 3 4 5
45. Finishing every reading assignment is very
important to me. 1 2 3 4 5
46. I always try to finish my reading on time. 1 2 3 4 5

47. I visit the library often with my family. 1 2 3 4 5
48. I often read to my brother or my sister. 1 2 3 4 5
49. I sometimes read to my parents. 1 2 3 4 5
50. I like to tell my family about what I am reading. 1 2 3 4 5

51. What is your gender? Male _____ Female _____
52. Write how old you are? ______________
53. Write what grade you are in? _______________________________
54. Write what country you were born? (for example, USA, Mexico etc.)
_______________________________________
55. From where does your culture come from? (Circle one):
Mexico Guatemala El Salvador
Honduras Nicaragua Costa Rica
Panama Belize
Other (please write it here):
__________________________________

137
For questions 56 through 60, please circle the letter that best fits your answer. For example,
circle a if you feel that answer best describes you
a.
b.
c.

56. What language(s) do you speak? (Circle one):
a. Spanish
b. English
c. Both Spanish and English
57. What language(s) do you read? (Circle one):
a. Spanish
b. English
c. Both Spanish and English
58. What language do you prefer? (Circle one):
a. Spanish
b. English
59. In what language do you think? (Circle one):
a. Spanish
b. English
60. Write what type of music you prefer?
___________________________________________________

138
APPENDIX F

Parent Focus Group Guiding Questions

INSTRUCTIONS: This is not a test and there are no right or wrong answers. Please
be honest with your responses.
The “Platica” Topic: Tell me something interesting about your birth place.
1. Some students have said the following “my parents came to the United States because
they did not want me to lead a life such as the one they had to live when they were
young, because they had to work hard and sacrificed themselves,” what do you think
when you hear this?

¿Algunos estudiantes han dicho lo siguiente “mis padres vinieron a los Estados
Unidos porque ellos no quisieron que yo llevara una vida tal como ellos tuvieron
que vivir cuando ellos eran jóvenes, porque ellos tuvieron que trabajar duro y
sacrificaron mucho,” que piensan cuando ustes oyen esto?

2. What are your thoughts about the educational system of the United States?

¿Qué piensan ustedes acerca del las escueles de los Estados Unidos?

3. Some parents have said that because they have no formal education, they are not able
to contribute much to their child’s education, how do you feel about that?

¿Algunos padres han dicho que porque ellos no tienen una educaccion formal,
ellos no son capaces de contribuir mucho a la educación de sus hijos, cómo se
siente ustes acerca de esto?

4. When children have low aspirations and expectations, how does that change your
aspirations and expectations for your child’s school attainment?

¿Cuando estudiantes tienen bajas aspiraciones y esperanzas de lograr una
educaccion formal de la universidad, que creen ustedes sucede con respecto a las
aspiraciones y esperanzas de los padres para sus hijos?

5. How far do you want your child to go in his/her formal education?

¿Hasta qué nivel quisiera usted que su hijo/a llegara en sus estudios?

6. How far do you think your child will go in his/her formal education?

¿Hasta qué nivel cree usted que su hijo/a llegara en sus estudios?
139
APPENDIX G

Parent Focus Group Codes and Themes

THEME: Parents’ hopes for an economically and prosperous life and its importance
in their children’s academic achievement.

Question 1: Some students have said the following: “My parents
came to the United States because they did not want me to lead a life
such as the one they had to live when they were young because they
had to work hard and sacrificed themselves,” what do you think
when you hear this?

Open Coding

Focused Coding
…Si vinimos aquí, es para
superarnos tanto los padres como
adelantar los hijos y vivir en un
ambiente un poco mejor que el que
nosotros vivimos de donde vinimos
(MP #6-8).

… If we came here, it was to
better ourselves not only us as
parents, but also to advance
our children’s education and
live in an environment with
better opportunities then what
we had from where we came
from.

Better life
Better education
Better
opportunities

…Buscar una oportunidad tanto
para ellos como tambien para
nosotros como padres para
mejorar… que estudien y se den
cuenta de la realidad que estamos
ahorita viviendo… que una
persona entre mas estudie tiene
mas opciones para una vida mejor,
no como nosotros que no sabemos,
no estudiamos… (NP #14-18)
… Look for an opportunity for
them as well as for us as
parents to improve… for them
to study and realize the reality
we are living today… that an
educated person has more
options for a better life and not
like us, the parents who don’t
know and have no
education…

Opportunity to
improve
Educated person
has options
Education
means better
life

…Yo le digo a mi hija “si quieres
vivir bien, estudia, tu sabes bien
que un año mas de estudio, es una
vida mejor que vas a tener…
estudia, estudia para que vivas
bien para que seas una mujer
preparada (MP #185-188).
… I tell my daughter “if you
wish to live a good life, you
know very well that one more
year of schooling means a
better life… study, study so
that you can live a good life
and be a well prepared
woman.

More years of
school
A better life
Well prepared

Better life
options and
opportunities
Quality of life

…Me motivo estar aquí y ayudar a
mi niña a sobre salir porque es lo
que yo quiero, un bienestar para
alla, ya que mis padres no
pudieron hacer eso por mi en
Mexico… aqui yo quiero ayudar a
mi niña para que salga adelante
(MP #25-28).
… I’m motivated to be here
and help my daughter move
forward, what I want is a good
life for her, something my
parents couldn’t give me in
Mexico… here I want to help
my daughter so she can
prosper.

Advance in life
Live a good life
Help children
prosper

Upward
mobility
Prosper
economically,
socially and
spiritually
140
…Nosotros como inmigrantes, no
queda mas que estarles diciendo,
aconsejando y diciendoles “tienes
que salir adelante, no te quedes a
medio camino como uno”…
nosotros los imigrantes vinimos
con un fin de salir adelante, de
prosperar economicamente,
scialmente y espiritualmente…
(NP #282-287)

… As immigrants, the best we
can do is to keep telling them,
advising them, and telling
them “you must achieve, don’t
settle for half way like we
did”… we the immigrants
came to the U.S, with one end
result, to prosper
economically, socially, and
spiritually…
Promoting,
guiding,
encouraging our
children
Do better then
parents
Prosper at all
levels
…Tenemos que tener mas empeño
y enseñarles a nuestros hijos el
scarificio que uno hace… y
valorizen el sacrificio que uno
hace para que ellos puedan seguir
estudiando (NP #6-11).
… We have to have more
determination and teach to our
children the sacrifice that one
makes… and for them to value
the sacrifice that one makes so
that they could continue their
education.

Parent’s
determination
Parent’s
sacrifice
Value parent’s
sacrifice
…Le digo a mi hija “sabes que, yo
quiero que tu seas una
profesional,” se lo estoy metiendo
desde chiquita… “tanto esfuerzo,
tu papi ves como trabaja, nosotros
estamos pendiente de ustedes de
todas formas, y no quiero verte
quedar en un McDonalds, tanto
esfuerzo para un McDonalds?
(NP #237-243)”
… I tell my daughter “you
know, I want you to be a
professional,” I start instilling
this thought in her while she’s
little… “your father’s effort,
you see how hard he works,
we are behind you all the way,
and I don’t want to see you
end up in McDonald’s, all this
effort for you to end up in
McDonald’s?”

Promoting
education
earlier in life
Parents
sacrifices and
efforts
Supporting
child to excel
Aspire to be
more than their
parents

Value of
parents’
sacrifice
Promoting
education at
home
Be someone in
life

THEME: School Resources and parents’ ability to access school resources is
necessary in increased reading motivation.

Question 2: What are your thoughts about the educational system of
the United States?

Open Coding

Focused Coding
…Aqui siempre pasan de año o sea
sepan sus materias o no sepan…
aqui tambien hay mejores libros,
les dan sus papeles, sus lapizes…
aqui les ayudan con todo
(MP #61-64).
… Here students are promoted
to the next grade whether they
are knowledgeable or not…
here there are also better
books, students get free paper,
free pencils… here students
get a lot of help.

Promoted
without success
More learning
resources
Free assistance
…Porque aqui si el niño tiene iete
años, ya tiene que ir a primero
aunque no sepa nada… lo estan
anunciando que los primeros
cinco, yo eso lo tengo tan
comprovado que les ayuda tanto a
… Because here (U.S.) if a
child is seven years old, he/she
must be in the first grade
regardless of how much they
know… there is evidence to
support that the first five years
Children’s age
versus
knowledge
First five years
are critical
Learning do’s

Students are ill
141
los niños… a mi hija grande no la
aproveche, con el que sigue, si y
veo la diferencia (NP #123-127).

are critical in a child’s
education… I failed to do so
with my oldest daughter, but
with the youngest I have and I
already see a difference.

and don’ts from
first child
Implementing
parent
knowledge
…Aqui los niños van con sus folder
todos enrollados, y llegan a su
casa y alli los tieran… no le ponen
tanto entusiasmo, a decir, “voy a
ver mi libro, esta es la tarea que
me dejaron, voy a leer esta
pagina”… aqui nomas veo que los
libros estan debajo de la mesa y
alli se quedan para el sigiuente dia
(MP #95-98; 104-105).

… Here students go with their
folder all rolled up and when
they get home, they just toss
it… they don’t have enough
enthusiasm to say “l am going
to open my book, this is my
homework assignment, I’m
going to read this page”…
here all I see is books under
the table until the next day.
Lack of student
enthusiasm
No study
discipline
Poor use of
textbooks
…Tienen mucho material, muy
buenos maestros, grandes
capacidades… tanta capacidad
economicamente… lo que no
entiendo, es porque tanto alumno
no aprovecha en realidad lo que se
les estan dando?... Yo veo que los
maestros se esfuerzan, el govierno
tambien se esfuerza mucho,
paraque los niños estudien mas,
avanzen mas… lo que falta es
motivacion por parte de uno como
padre… porque yo veo algunos
niños un poco de disinteres
(NP #27-40).

… They (U.S. schools) have a
lot of materials, good teachers,
a huge capacity… a lot of
economic capacity… what I
don’t understand, is why are
there so many students who
fail to take advantage of
resources? I see how hard
teachers work and the
government as well, in order
to give children a good
education… what is lacking in
children’s education, is
motivation from parents.
Many resources
in U.S. schools
Students failing
to take
advantage
Educators and
policy-makers
make great
effort
Lacking
motivation from
parents
…Mi hijo va un poco atrasado en
lectura… siempre lo mando a
clases extra, cursos aqui, cursos
aya, clases aqui, clases aya para
que se supere un poco… yo no
miro que se supere nada, tambien
el no le pone el 100% de su
parte… no se que es lo que no esta
funcionando? (NP #61-66)
… My son is a little behind in
reading… I always send him
to extra classes, courses here,
courses there, classes here,
classes there in order to
increase his knowledge… I
don’t see him getting better
perhaps it’s him who doesn’t
put 100%... I don’t know what
is failing?

Exposure to
other school
resources
Child continues
to fall behind in
reading
Not 100% from
student
prepared
A lot of under
used resources
No motivation
and discipline

…Aqui lo motivan mas a uno
(padre) que venga a la escuela a
participar con los niños… lo
involucran a uno mucho en las
clases, en tareas, en participar con
ellos… lo motivan y le estan
recordando lo que los niños van
hacer para que uno conviva con
… Here they motivate you to
come to school and participate
with children… they
encourage you to participate in
classes, in homework,
participate with your
children… they motivate you
and remind you in advance
U.S. schools
motivate parents
U.S. schools
encourage
parents
Parents
participation in
school

U.S. schools
142
ellos mas en lo que es de la escuela
(MP #123-126).

what the children will be
doing so that parents can
participate in these school-
related activities.

…Hay padres que dicen “no pues
mi hijo es burro y asi va hacer”…
es la mentalidad de cada padre…
o sea consiste tambien de los
padres… porque si la escuela esta
abierta, no es nomas para los
niños, es tambien para los papas
porque tambien uno aprende
mucho (MP #135-137; 140-142).

… There are parents that say
“well my son is dumb and
that’s how he will stay”…
therefore, it has a lot to do
with parents as well…
because, if the school is open,
it’s not just for children, but
also for parents to learn.
Parents’ low
academic
expectations
Schools are
open for parents
Parents don’t
take advantage
of opportunities
…Me pongo a pensar, con mi otra
hija que esta aqui tambien, porque
no tiene tan buenas calificaciones
como la primera… a la mejor eso
influencio a la grande de que
siempre me veia aqui (escuela)
siempre y la otra, ya como que
deje de venire ahora con la mas
chiquita (MP #147-150).
… I start thinking about my
youngest daughter who is also
here (U.S.), how come she
doesn’t have good grades like
her older sister… maybe my
oldest daughter was influenced
because she would always see
me here at school, but I’ve
stopped coming to school for
the youngest.

Parent
involvement
Parent influence
on grades

encourage
parent
participation
Parent
involvement
influences
grades
…Se (escuela) procupan mas por
el economico que por los
estudiantil… muchas veces, se
procupan porque necesitan los
niños para recibir los fondos del
estado y no por lo que llegen a
estudiar los niños (NP #45-52).
… They (schools) worry more
about making money than
about students… often they
are more concerned about
having so many students
because of state funding and
forget about educating
children.
More about
money than
students
Students means
more funding
Education is
lost
Parents feel
school funding
is priority over
students
Teacher’s lack
of determination
Teachers don’t
consider
children’s point
of reference

…Yo siento que los maestros… no
se quieren involucrar mucho a los
niños… no se ponen en el punto de
enfoque donde estan los niños…
los maestros no les ponen tanto
empeño… me fijo en el regimiento
academico de cada niño, los niños
a un nivel de tercer grado aya
(Mexico o Centro America), aqui
lo puedo decir, estan en el sexto
grado (NP #80-93).
… I feel that teachers, do not
want to get involved with
children’s education… they
fail to see things from the
children’s point of reference…
teachers are not determined…
It’s obvious in children’s
academic regimen the children
in the 6
th
grade in the U.S.
education system are at the
same level as 3
rd
graders from
Mexico or Central America.

Teachers don’t
want to get
involved
Children’s point
of reference
Teachers lack
determination
Children from
home country
are more
advanced

143
THEME: Parent-child communication and parents’ verbal encouragement is
important in increased reading engagement.

Question 3: Some parents have said that because they have no
formal education, they are not able to contribute much to their
child’s education, how do you feel about that?

Open Coding

Focused Coding
…Me dice el (esposo), “yo no
puedo darles nada a ellos (hijos)”
… le digo yo a el “… no es
necesario que tu les des todo
conocimiento… con lo que tu estes
presente, con lo que tu les digas
que buen trabajo hiziste, me gusto
y puedes hacer algo mas… lo que
ellos necesitan es tu compania… es
muy importante para ellos
(MP #214-223).

… My husband tells me, “I
can’t give them anything”…
“It’s not necessary for you to
teach them everything, as long
as you are present to tell them
good job, I like what you did
and you could do better…
what they need is your
company… that is what’s
important” I tell him.
Parents feel
incapable
Parents being
accessible
Praising
children
constantly
Motivating
children
Giving children
company
…Se siente uno impotente porque
no puede uno ayudarle a los niños
con las tareas de la escuela, por
no saber tanto como ellos… si mis
hijos me dicen “mami no le
entiendo a esto”… “okay vamos a
leerlo y vamos a entenderle los
dos”… yo tengo que tratar de
entenderle para poder ayudarles
con la tarea (MP #257-261).

… Parents feel incompetent
because they are not able to
help their children with their
homework, because they
(parents) don’t know as much
as their children… if my
children tell me “mami, I
don’t understand this”…
“okay let’s read it and try to
understand it together”… I
have to try to understand so
that I could help them with
their homework.

Parents feel
incompetent
Know less than
their children
Parent and child
read together
Parent makes
extra effort to
understand
…Mi hija quiere estudiar mas
idiomas, quiere entrar a una
escuela para gymnasia…
motivarlos todo lo que a ellos les
guste y que de verdad sepamos que
es bien para ellos… tratar de
ayudarles con lo que mas pueda
uno para salir adelante
(MP #243-246).

… My daughter wants to study
languages, she wants enroll in
a gymnastics school… we
must motivate them in
everything they like and
recognize that it’s good for
them… try to help them with
everything so that they could
keep going.
Motivate your
child
Recognize and
validate their
interests

Parents sense of
incompetence
Children
surpass parents
in education
Recognize and
validate child’s
interests
…Todo empieza con el auto-estima
entra la familia… si no hay
comunicacion entre los padres, no
pueden darle ese sigimiento al
niño… porque tambien el hijo esta
con el bajo auto-estima, o sea no
tiene sueños… si el papa o la
mama no estan alli presente, si el
hijo no los ve en la escuela, es lo
… Everything starts with self-
esteem within the family… if
there is no communication
among parents, they can’t be
helpful with their children’s
education… because, it also
affects their children’s self-
esteem and their dreams… if
parents are not present, if
Family efficacy
Communication
among parents
Communication
and education
Children’s self-
efficacy
Parents being
accessible

144
mismo que a los hijos no los
motivan… si consiste mucho entre
papa y mama darle un alabanza,
un elop al nino y hay padres que
no lo hacemos
(MP #163-168; 176-178).

children don’t see their parents
at school, then children aren’t
motivated… it has a lot to do
with parents praising their
children, but there are parents
that don’t do it.
Parent praising
children
…La motivacion de los padres es
importante, pero tambien que
tenga uno mucha comunicacion
con ellos, que sientan afecto, que
sientan cariño y que sientan que
uno esta con ellos… la motivacion
y estar platicando con ellos…
todos sus emociones, que le
platicen a uno y que uno este
atento con ellos, eso es lo que los
motiva a ellos, porque si no hay
comunicacion con ellos… entonces
empiezan hacer lo que quieren
(MP #196-203).
… Motivation from parents is
important, but also a lot of
communication between
parents and their children,
children must feel affection,
love, and belongingness…
motivate and converse with
children… allow children to
share their emotions so that
parents can be aware of their
emotions, that’s what
motivates them, because
without communication…
then children will do
whatever.

Parents
motivating
Communication
between parents
and children
Affection, love
and
belongingness
Talk with
children about
emotions
Aware of
emotions

La actitude… mi hermana… su
hijo mas grande tiene 17 años … el
se siente como que ella no le da
mucho cariño… el no le pide amor
de mama, porque el ve que ella no
les puso mucha atencion… eso fue
negativo… ella no platicaba
mucho con sus hijos acerca de sus
escuela, de que no se involucraran
en drogas… ella no les dio tanto
cariño como hijos (MP #393-401).

The attitude… my sister… her
oldest son is 17 years old… he
resents her and expects
nothing from her because she
didn’t pay enough attention to
her children… that was
negative… she never talked
with them about their
schooling or about staying
away from drugs… she never
showed them affection.

Parents’ attitude
toward children
Paying attention
to children
Talking to
children about
education
Showing
children
affection

Family
communication
Parents being
accessible
Praising
children
Family efficacy
Showing
affection
Sense of
belonging
Pay attention to
children’s
emotions

…Si uno le esta exigiendo a su
hijo, tambien uno se tiene que
superar… tambien tiene que ver la
educacion que uno a llevado, la
paciencia que uno tiene para
poderle ayudar a sus hijos… la
base que uno trae, tiene que ver
mucho… porque si usted quiere
ayudar a su hijo, usted tiene que
ver de que manera le ayuda, todo
es uno quierer ayudar a sus hijos
(NP #160-163; 169-178).

… If parents demand their
child, then they (parents) too
should try to better
themselves… also, parent’s
education level and their
patience in helping their
children has a lot to do with
parent’s willingness to help
their children, you just have to
want to help your children.
Parent and child
reciprocity in
learning
Parents’
education and
patience
Parents must
want to help
El logro de mis hijos, es el mio
mas… una de mama es la que tiene
el tiempo para estar con ellos
tanto en el estudio, como en la
My children’s achievement is
more mine… as a mother, I
dedicate time to be with them,
not only in their studies, but
Parent-child as
a team
Parent-child
achievement

Parent and child
learning
reciprocity
Parent and child
working as a
team
Team work to
overcome
obstacles
145
escuela, para platicar con ellos…
saber todo acerca de ellos
(MP #374-380).
also involved in their school,
conversing with them…
knowing everything about
them.

Talking to your
children
Yo a mi hija la veo muy interesada
en su escuela… porque ella queria
seguir estudiando, pero ella no
mira que aqui le puedan dar
oportunidades, entonces le digo
“se van areglar (residencia) antes
de que tu salgas de la high
school… yo voy hacer todo lo
posible… por mi no va quedar
como madre de que tu vayas a la
universidad, no se como le voy
hacer, pero tu vas a ir a la
universidad, pero yo quiero que tu
me respondas
(NP #299;306-312).”

In my daughter, I see interest
in her schooling… because
she wants to learn, but is
discouraged because of the
lack of opportunities, so I tell
her “your residency will get
resolved by the time you
graduate from high school… I
will do everything I can… as
far as I’m concerned, you will
attend a university, I don’t
know how I’m going to do it,
but you will attend a
university, but I want you to
meet me half way.”
Parent and child
reciprocity in
achieving
Overcoming
obstacles
(immigration)

…Yo creo que el nivel academico
es mas exigente, y ella me dice
“mama, mira la fulanita va haci…
mama crees que me puedes
cambiar a esa escuela… yo quiero
ir a ese mismo nivel” le digo yo,
“si tu te pones las pilas, vamos…
vamos (NP #381-384).”

… I believe that the academic
level is more demanding, and
she tells me “mama, Mrs. So
and so is doing like this…
mama can you transfer me to
that school… I want to be at
that same academic level” I
tell her “if you put enough
effort and persistence, let’s
go.”

Parent and child
reciprocity in
achieving
Wanting
opportunities

…Yo eh quierido ayudarla (hija) y
a veces no me entiende porque sus
clases son en ingles y el maestro
les explica en ingles… a veces
tengo que decirle “cuatro por
cuatro” y luego le tengo que decir
“four times four”… el idioma es lo
que a mi se me complica… ella no
me entiende (MP #268-272).

I’ve wanted to help her
(daughter) and at times she
can’t understand me because
her classes are in English and
the teacher explains in
English… at times I have to
tell her “cuatro por cuatro”
and then in English “four
times four”… the language is
what is complicated for me…

Language
barrier in
families
School and
family
differences in
teaching
Language is
complicated

…Una persona preparada, es la
que sabe mas idiomas… una
persona preparada, para mi, es la
que habla mas idiomas, que se
desarolle (MP #456-460).
… A person well prepared is
one who knows many
languages… for me a well
prepared person is able to
speak many languages and is
well developed.

More languages
spoken equals
success

Language as a
barrier and
opportunity
Too many
opportunities
for parents to
learn
146
…Aqui dan muchas maneras,
razones para que tu avances
tambien como padre, si tu dices
“como le voy ayudar a mi hijo si
no se ingles?”… lo que debe uno
de hacer si no puede ayudar al
niño por el idioma, es buscar la
manera, aunque trabajes, puedes
asistir a la escuela… muchos
padres tambien somos muy
apaticos…
(NP #143-149; 156-157).

… Here (in the U.S.) there are
many ways, reasons for
parents to better themselves, if
you say “how can I help my
child if I can’t speak
English?”… What you need to
do if this is the case, is to find
a way, if you work you can
still participate in school
activities… many parents are
too apathetic…
Opportunities
for parents to
learn
Use and find
resources to get
involved
Parents are too
apathetic
Misconceptions
about parents’
involvement
Education starts
with a strong
culture
foundation

…Porque no sabe uno el idioma,
ellos (escuela) creen que no sabe
uno nada, que uno es ignorante…
a veces te hacen sentir mal, y dices
“no, porque me voy hacer sentir
mal, si yo no estoy haciendo mal o
flatando el respecto, yo nomas le
estoy pidiendo que por favor me de
esta informacion… o si no puede,
que me canalize a otra persona
que me pueda ayudar,” pero eso
esta en uno (NP #205-210).

… Just because parents don’t
know the language (English),
schools thing parents are
ignorant… sometimes, they
make you feel bad, and you
say, “no, why am I going to
feel bad, if I’m not harming
anyone or disrespecting
anyone, I’m just asking you to
please provide me with
information… or if you can’t,
can you channel me to another
person who can help me,” its
up to the parent.

Schools
misconceptions
about parents
Parents active in
getting
information
Assertive
parents
…La educacion no se adquiere con
el dinero, la educacion se adquiere
por uno, de las bases que la
persona tenga, lo que la persona
quiera hacer en su vida, porque
por mucho dinero que tengas,
muchas personas que son muy
universitarias, muy estudiadas, no
tienen educacion… puede ser la
persona mas humilde del barrio,
vivir con piso de cemento, de tiera
pero puede ser la persona mas
buena y la mas educada
(NP #216-219; 225-227).
One can’t acquire an
education with money, an
education is acquired through
a person’s grass roots, what a
person wishes to do with their
life, because no matter how
much money you have, many
people who claim to be
educated don’t have an
education… you could be the
most humble person from a
“barrio” living with concrete
and dirt floors and yet be the
most educated person.

Education and
grass roots of
parents
Education is
humbleness
Money and
degrees does
not mean
educated

…Aqui no valoran lo que se les
da… no valoran lo que hay en este
pais, todo se los ponemos
demasiado a la boca, se los
hacemos muy facil a ellos
(NP #258-263).

… Here students don’t value
what they are given… they
don’t value the opportunities
this country offers, we are
constantly putting everything
in their mouths we make it too
easy for them.
No value for
free resources
No value for
opportunities
given
Making things
too easy for
students
No hard work

Not taking
advantage of
existing
resources
Enforcing
learning
147
…Yo estoy inculcando en mis
hijos… se tienen que aprender las
tablas del uno al diez, porque el
sigiuente ano lo van a ver…
(NP #103-105).
… I am instilling in my
children… they must learn
multiplication from one to ten,
because next year you’ll need
it.
Enforcing
learning on
students
Getting them
ready for next
year
…Que si estan haciendo sus cosas
como la maestra quiere, como
ellos (estudiantes) quieren, como
quiero yo… los papas… que ellos
demostrarnos a todos que ellos si
pueden salir adelante y espero que
las ganas que le pongan ahorita,
vayan poniendole mas adelante
para lograr lo que ellos quieren
(MP #314-318).
…That they’re doing things
like the teachers want, how
they (students) want, how I
want… the parents… that they
can show everyone that they
are capable of excelling and I
expect the same determination
they put forth today, will
continue as they attain their
goal.
Students
complying with
teachers and
parents
Students must
show they are
capable
Consistent
student
determination is
expected until
goal is achieved

Complying with
expectations
Showing
competence

THEME: Parents’ way of thinking toward their children’s educational attainment is
important in increased academic aspirations and expectations.

Question 4: When children have low aspirations and expectations,
how does that change your aspirations and expectations for your
child’s school attainment?

Probing Question 1: How far do you want your child to go in his/her
formal education?
Probing Question 2: How far do you think your child will go in
his/her formal education?

Initial Coding

Focused Coding
…Uno mismo como padre a veces
les quita los sueños a ellos (hijos),
porque “pues ya saliste
embarazada, ponte a cuidar a tu
hijo, es lo que querias… si ya
tienes novio, para que vas a la
escuela si nomas vas a ver el
novio, mejor ponte a trabajar
(MP #327-330).”

… As parents, we sometimes
take away our children’s
dreams, because “well you’re
now pregnant, now you must
take care of your child, this is
what you wanted… if you
have a boyfriend, why bother
going to school, if all you’re
going to do is go with your
boyfriend, instead of school,
go to work.”

Parents negative
comments
Parents’ attitude
toward
pregnancy and
relationships
and education
…Usted puede tener muchos
sueños, pero el dia de mañana,
pongale que a mi hija le parece un
nivio, y ella deja de enfocarse en lo
que quiere y se va con el novio…
uno quiere que llegen ellos hasta
las estrellas, pero llegan a medio
camino… (NP #271-275)
… One can have all the
dreams you want, but at the
end of the day, let’s say that
my daughter finds a boyfriend
and she stops focusing on her
education and leaves with the
boyfriend… I hope for my
children to reach the stars, but
they may only get half way…
High hopes, but
poor
expectations
Parents could
only do so much
No focus
because of
relationship

Positive
comments
versus negative
comments
Parents’
attitudes toward
schooling
Parents limited
in aspirations
Parents as a
support system

148
…Uno siempre tiene que estar
diciendo “vas a llegar”… como
escuche yo una vez un comentario
donde los Kennedy’s que la mama
siempre les decia desde niños,
“come bien y sientate bien, porque
los presidentes se tienen que sentar
y comer bien”… y todos los
Kennedy’s fueron presidentes…
tiene que hablarles uno haci…
“sientate bien, come bien, estudia
bien porque vas hacer lo que
quieras hacer”… uno como padre
tiene la responsabilidad de
apoyarlos siempre (MP #352-359).
… As a parent, one must
always be saying to their
children “you will get
there”… I once heard that the
mother of the Kennedy’s
would always tell her children,
“eat properly and sit properly,
because that’s what presidents
do, they sit and eat
properly”… and all the
Kennedy’s became
presidents… you have to talk
to your children this way…
“sit down and eat properly,
study hard because you will be
someone”… as a parent, we
have the responsibility to
always support our children.

Parents positive
comments to
motivate
children
The Kennedy
family as an
example
Parent’s
responsibility to
be supportive

…Hay mucha gente (padres) que
van viviendo la vida asi, como
viene, no les importa un logro de
sus hijos, talvez ellos van viviendo
la vida “yo fui asi, mis padres
fueron asi, y yo voy hacer asi… y
mis hijos tienen que ser igual que
yo (MP #439-443).”

… There are too many parents
who live their lives as it
comes, they don’t care about
their children’s achievements,
perhaps their hopes are for
their children to follow in the
same foot steps “I was like
this, my parents were like this,
and so shall my children be
like this, the same as me”

Follow same
path as parents
Low hopes and
expectations
Settle for less
…Quisiera que mis hijas fueran
unas mujeres graudadas, o sea que
sean mujeres que no dependan de
un esposo… me gustaria que fuera
una professional… me gustaria
mucho que sea una abogada
(MP #10-11; 18-20).
… I would like for my
daughters to graduate, in other
words, for them to be
independent women and not
depend on a husband… I
would like for her to be a
professional… I would like
very much for her to be a
lawyer.

Graduate from a
university
Be independent
Be a
professional
…Yo deseo que llege hasta la
universidad y termine una buena
carera, es lo mejor… pero, si no
puede con el estudio, aunque sea
una carera corta, pero que la
haga, que no me quede en la high
school, que logre hacer algo mas
para que el pueda trabajar en algo
diferente y no como nosotros, yo y
mi esposo trabajamos en
construcion, y es muy pesado
(NP #325-329).

… My hope is for my child to
attend a university and pursue
an good career, that’ll be the
best… but, if he can’t handle
college work, at least pursue a
short career, but see it through,
don’t just finish high school,
my hope is for my child to
achieve something big, not
like us, me and my husband
work in construction and it is
heavy work.
High aspirations
for a college
education and
professional
Expectations are
short career
Do better than
parents

High hopes for
university
graduation and
professional job
High
aspirations, but
willing to settle
for short career
Child’s
autonomy in
their education
Recognize and
admire child’s
capabilities

149
… Uno quiere enseñarles lo que
uno aprendio en Mexico y nos
ponemos a pensar, que este es un
pais diferente, tiene su propias
historias, sus personajes…
podemos platicar lo que nosotros
aprendimos, pero ellos tienen que
aprender lo suyo aqui en el pais en
que estamos (MP #423-427).

… As a parent you want to
teach them everything you
learned in Mexico, but if we
stop and think, this country
(U.S.) is different, it has its
own histories, personalities…
we can share what we learned
from our native country, but
they have to learn for
themselves as part of this
country that we live in.

Teach child
everything
parents learned
in Mexico
Child’s
autonomy in
learning in U.S.
schools

…Yo se que el (hijo) es capaz de
mucho mas… le digo yo, “hijo te
dejan diez palabras, te aprendes
las palabras, el concepto,” pero
cuando falla una, ya viene
llorando, le digo, “te van a exegir
mas en el otro” me dice “no
importa mama, yo se que me puedo
aprender viente si la maestra me
los deja”… tengo miedo de que se
vaya a frustar (NP #356-361).

… I know that my child is
capable… I tell my child “they
leave you ten words, you learn
them, learn the concept, “but
when he gets a wrong one, he
comes home crying, I tell him,
“they’re going to demand
more from you” he tells me “I
don’t care mama, I know I can
learn twenty if the teacher
gives them to me”… I’m
afraid that he might get
frustrated.

Recognizing
child’s
capabilities
Children’s
determination to
excel
Parent’s worry
of failure

Abstract (if available)

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Asset Metadata

Creator Loera, Gustavo (author)

Core Title Latino parental aspirations and literacy practices related to children's reading engagement

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 09/30/2008

Defense Date 08/22/2006

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag literacy practices,OAI-PMH Harvest,parental aspirations,reading engagement

Language English

Advisor Rueda, Robert S. (committee chair), Datnow, Amanda (committee member), Dembo, Myron H. (committee member)

Creator Email gloera@mhala.org

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m59

Unique identifier UC1104291

Identifier etd-Loera-20060930 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-17150 (legacy record id),usctheses-m59 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Loera-20060930.pdf

Dmrecord 17150

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Loera, Gustavo

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu