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Closing the achievement gap: a statewide imperative

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Closing the achievement gap: a statewide imperative

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CLOSING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP:

A STATEWIDE IMPERATIVE

by

Katherine H. Fundukian

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2009

Copyright 2009 Katherine H. Fundukian
ii
DEDICATION

They say a journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step. I would not have been
able to take any steps without many incredible individuals who have helped clear my
path. This book is dedicated to them:

• My parents, Vartan and Sonia Fundukian, whose love, strength and wisdom
inspire me every day.
• My sister, Alice Fundukian Anmahouni, who as my primary editor is almost as
excited as I am to see this completed.
• My brother, Aram Fundukian, who is relieved to see me out of his hair, as he
roughs it at the beach house.
• My husband, Rafik Thorossian, whose faith in me motivates me to reach higher
than I thought possible.
• My friend and mentor, Denis Paul, who brings out the best in everyone around
him.
• And to the generations of Fundukians and Minassians - past and present - aunts,
uncles, cousins, nephews, and nieces, as well as my wonderful friends who have
made this life’s journey worth travelling.

iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to acknowledge the invaluable support and guidance I have received from
some very special people:

• Dr. Michael Escalante, for seeing a world of possibilities and making the best of
what he sees, real.
• Dr. Stuart Gothold, for his care, his vision, and his expertise.
• Dr. Dennis Hocevar and Dr. Pedro Garcia as my dissertation committee members
and all the professors and staff members of the Rossier School of Education for
selflessly giving their time and experience to help us grow.
• The Gap Busters – Michele, Mark, Karen, Ed, Mary, Matt, Vicki, and Tammi –
for their perseverance and the individual strengths they brought to this team.

As I near the thousand mile marker, I am filled with gratitude for those I have mentioned
in these pages and wonder about where the next thousand will lead. Thank you for
travelling these steps with me.

iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication ii
Acknowledgements iii
List of Tables vi
Abstract vii
Chapter I: Overview of the Study
Introduction 1
Background 3
Statement of the Problem 5
Purpose of the Study 5
Research Questions 6
Significance of Study 6
Assumptions 7
Limitations and Delimitations 8
Definition of Related Terms 8

Chapter II: Literature Review
Introduction 14
Historical Perspective 16
External Variables 18
Family Background 20
Race 22
Internal Variables 25
Curriculum 25
Teacher Quality 28
Institutional Racism 29
Political Solutions 32
Racial Integration 36
Educational Solutions 36
What This Dissertation Will Study 43
Summary 44

Chapter III: Methodology
Introduction 46
Conceptual Model 47
Figure 1. Conceptual Model 48
Research Questions 49
Criteria 49
Site and Sample Population 50
Research Design 52
v
Instruments 54
Data Collection 56
Data Analysis 56
Validity and Reliability 58
Ethical Considerations 59

Chapter IV: The Findings
Introduction 60
Valley Forge High School 60
Survey Overview 63
Research Question #1 64
Research Question #2 72
Research Question #3 77
Discussion 85

Chapter V: Summary, Conclusions, Implications
Summary 89
Conclusions 89
Implications 91

References 95

Appendices
Appendix A. Administrative Survey 100
Appendix B. Teacher Survey 106
Appendix C. Teacher Interview 112
Appendix D. Administrative Interview 113
Appendix E. Data Collection 114
Appendix F. Observation Tool 116

vi
LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Highest Educational Attainment for Every 100 Kindergarteners 18

Table 2. VFHS API Growth Chart 52

Table 3. Survey Questions 1 – 6 66

Table 4. Survey Questions 7 – 22 73

Table 5. Survey Questions 23 – 37 80
vii

ABSTRACT

The purpose of the study was to methodically examine Valley Forge High School – a
high school that had, steadily and systemically, reduced the achievement gap by
improving the performance of traditionally under-performing sub-groups: Hispanic,
socio-economically disadvantaged, and English Language Learners. Through a thorough
investigation, three main themes emerged as playing a pivotal role in increasing student
performance: high expectations for student achievement, academic support to meet those
expectations, and the collaborative, reflective practice of teachers. These are congruent
with many of the elements discussed within the research, and especially echo the
recommendations of Education Trust: progress is gained through additional emphasis on
curriculum, standards, intervention opportunities, and pedagogy.

At VFHS, specific programs, practices, and strategies have been developed to promote
learning in all core subject areas in this school. Academic support is tiered to meet the
varying levels of student need. The progression of this support spirals up, building upon
what is learned. The programs incorporate past learning with new learning in a
methodical, sequential manner. Teachers use data as they reflect upon their practices and
as they develop re-teaching strategies. Teachers within departments collaborate to ensure
parity in coursework as they articulate both vertically and horizontally.

1
CHAPTER I:
OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY

Introduction
From the days of the little red schoolhouse to the technology magnets of the 21
st
century,
teachers, students, parents and communities have grappled with a single question: how
do we ensure that every child learns? Over the years, schools have developed a variety of
measures to assess their effectiveness. These include graduation rates, drop out rates,
college admissions rates, and attendance rates to name a few. Until about the middle of
the 20
th
century, the United States was comfortable in its position as the greatest power in
the world: economically, militarily, educationally, and technologically.

Then, on October 5, 1957, the U.S.S.R launched the first spacecraft into orbit and, with
Sputnik, shocked the U.S.A. into realizing that American preeminence had been ceded.
A national effort to revamp science and math curricula ensued in an effort to recapture
and maintain international dominance, and with it national security, in the technical
world.

This effort has continued for over 50 years. While change efforts have taken different
permutations, the U.S. continues to face an equally troubling state of affairs in terms of
student academic achievement. On international standards, our students are not
demonstrating proficiency in math and science – the only two subjects that are assessed at
that level. In academic assessments, American students generally lag behind their peers
2
around the world. On criterion-referenced assessments, American students’ scores verify
that they lack subject area competence in these core academic areas.

The disparity between U.S. and global student achievement in math and science is
acutely evident when reviewing the data accrued through an international standard called
the Trends in International Math and Science Study (TIMSS). TIMSS assesses
achievement in math and science every four years for students in the fourth and eighth
grades – as well as students in their final grade of high school. The first TIMSS was
given in 1995 to students from 40 nations. In math, US students placed slightly above the
international average in the primary grades, slightly below the average in the middle
years, and well below the international average for students in their final year of
secondary education.

The last TIMSS was given in 2003. The 2003 report shows that math achievement in the
United States at the fourth grade level scored above the international average of the 50
countries that participated in this second administration of TIMSS. Yet, compared to the
other 12 industrialized nations that participated in both TIMSS assessments, the U.S. falls
below the average. Hong Kong, Japan, Belgium, The Netherlands, Latvia, Russia and
Hungary all performed better than the U.S. Italy, Austria, New Zealand, and Norway are
the four industrialized countries that did not perform as well as the U.S.

At the senior high school level, students scored toward the bottom of the international
scale of all 50 countries. The TIMSS Executive Summary, in its summative analysis,
3
recommended bolstering U.S. math education in the elementary grades as a means to
improve our consistently mediocre scores, “because, generally speaking, a country’s
initial performance is correlated with its later performance.”

This disparity in achievement at the international level also manifests itself on the
national level. Within the fifty states, California continues to lag behind most states in
standardized tests assessing student learning. The National Association of Educational
Progress (NAEP), also known as the Nation’s Report Card, has measured the
performance of fourth, eighth, and twelfth grade students in various subject areas since
1969. According to the NAEP, on a scale from 0-500, fourth grade students in California
averaged 230 points in math and 209 points in reading, as compared to the national
average of 239 and 220 points respectively. This 10 point gap remains constant for
eighth graders who, in California scored 270 in math and 251 in reading, as compared to
the national averages of 280 and 261. The state whose students scored the highest is
Massachusetts, scoring 252 points in fourth grade math, 236 points in fourth grade
reading, 298 points in eighth grade math and 273 points in eighth grade reading.
California outperformed four states, performed at a level comparable to seven states, and
scored lower than 40 of the 50 states, thereby placing California at the bottom of a
national continuum – a continuum that falls far short of international standard.

Background
The gap in the achievement of students in California and the rest of the nation parallels
the gap that has manifested between the performance of majority and minority student
4
populations within California schools. National and international pressures play a
powerful role in shaping the accountability system currently in place assessing the
effectiveness of schools. The most ubiquitous example is President Bush’s No Child Left
Behind Act (NCLB). This legislation mandates that all students attain proficiency in
English Language Arts and Math by the year 2014. Since federal regulations such as
NCLB are inextricably tied to funding sources, states have begun imposing standardized
testing requirements. Through these, student performance is measured as a reflection of
school achievement.

Technological advances have also allowed schools to analyze the performance of their
students to look for trends or anomalies. This data impacts both curriculum and
instruction as school officials use content area scores to drive their educational practices.
One of the more disturbing trends that educators have seen nationwide is the consistent
underperformance of some minority student groups. Educators have implemented
myriad strategies to close this gap in achievement between majority and minority
populations.

As a result, closer scrutiny is placed on the five variables that greatly impact student
achievement. First, leadership styles are evaluated. Second, teaching practices and
instructional strategies are assessed. Third, professional development plans are designed
and honed. Fourth, the culture of the school is gauged. Finally, the curriculum is
weighed against state standards to ensure access to rigor for all students. These primary
variables serve as the nexus of most of the literature that focuses on student achievement.
5
These five variables also serve to identify the variable(s) most closely correlated to
closing the achievement gap.

Statement of Problem
For the purposes of this study, the achievement gap is defined as the persistent disparity
in academic performance between groups of students – particularly between white or
Asian and affluent students and minority, poverty stricken, or second language students.
Most urban schools have not been successful in closing this gap. While standardized test
scores or graduation rates or attendance rates might have risen school-wide, those in the
minority sub-groups consistently lag behind the majority population even within the same
school. Former Secretary of State, Colin Powell describes the dropout of more than a
million students each year as “not just a crisis; this is a catastrophe.”

The societal consequences of allowing this educational imbalance to persist are
devastating – creating a more insurmountable gulf between the “have’s” and the “have
not’s.” State Superintendent of Education, Jack O’Connell (2008) asserts that, “this gap
threatens the future competitiveness of our state in this demanding global economy.”
This anachronism is striking in a country that prides itself as the land of opportunity – a
land where economic disparities are overcome through educational opportunities.

Purpose of Study
This study will examine a school which has successfully closed the achievement gap, in
order to identify those factors that have contributed to its success. Variables such as
6
leadership, teaching practices, professional development plans, curriculum and culture
will be reviewed to indicate their impact on student achievement in general, and the
closing of the achievement gap in particular. The identification of replicable practices
will lead to greater student achievement – especially in schools where the achievement
gap has remained steady or is widening.

Research Questions
This study will answer the following three questions:
1. Which schoolwide programs promote student achievement and contribute to the
closing of the achievement gap?
2. Which schoolwide practices promote student achievement and contribute to
closing the achievement gap?
3. Which strategies were implemented to target the closing of the achievement gap?
The questions are predicated on the assumptions that the achievement gap can be closed
by the efforts of schools. Regardless of the external variables that hamper the
educational progress of some students, including poverty and familial dysfunction,
educators and this researcher believe that the concerted efforts of schools can not only
mitigate but neutralize the adverse academic impact of these external variables.

Significance of Study
The topic of the achievement gap is paramount in the actions of educators,
particularly administrators, who are under much pressure to close it. Whether a result of
legislative action or the regular briefs offered by California State Superintendent Jack
7
O’Connell, the achievement gap plays an integral role in all school related matters from
curricular design to instructional strategy to free and reduced lunch programs. Since the
purpose of education is student achievement and since this topic has not been the focal
point of researchers, it is of urgent importance to educators and, of course, to students.
Answers to these research questions will assist practitioners in their efforts to increase
student achievement – especially within those groups that continue to underperform.
Through a case study, the unique characteristics of a successful school can be explored in
depth. Through that exploration, if replicable practices can be identified, more students
will achieve at higher levels.

This study is one of nine doctoral studies focusing on the achievement gap. This cohort
will study elementary, middle, and high schools that have been able to raise student
achievement scores schoolwide. Growth within their underperforming subgroups has
been at a greater rate than that of the schoolwide population, thereby successfully closing
the gap. The breadth and depth of the study – through the collaborative efforts of all
cohort members, as well as the compilation of findings – will significantly add to what
we know about the variables that contribute to the perpetuation of the achievement gap
and, more importantly, the variables that effectively reduce it.

Assumptions
The following assumptions have been made during this study:
• Participation by faculty members has been completely voluntary.
• All responses to interview questions and questionnaires have been authentic.
8
• All data gathered from the CDE website is accurate and that the school
studied meets the criteria.

Limitations and Delimitations
Several factors limit this study:
• While all faculty members had the opportunity to participate in the
questionnaire, some declined.
• No classified staff members or community members, including parents, were
surveyed or interviewed.
• The number of interviews conducted had to be kept to a manageable number.
• The study was completed in a limited time frame on a single site.

Definitions of Related Terms

• API (Academic Performance Index)
Per the California Department of Education, “the Academic Performance Index is
the cornerstone of California’s Public Schools Accountability Act of 1999
(PSAA). The purpose of the API is to measure the academic performance and
growth of schools. It is a numeric index (or scale) that ranges from a low of 200 to
a high of 1000. A school’s score on the API is an indicator of a school’s
performance level. The statewide API performance target for all schools is 800. A
school’s growth is measured by how well it is moving toward or past that goal. A
school’s API Base is subtracted from its API Growth to determine how much the
school improved in a year” (CDE Website).
9

• Growth Targets
Per the California Department of Education, “Schools must meet their annual
schoolwide API growth target as well as API growth targets for each numerically
significant ethnic/racial, socioeconomically disadvantaged, English learner, and
students with disabilities subgroup at the school. If the school’s (or subgroup’s)
Base API is between 200 and 690, the growth target is 5 percent of the difference
between the school’s (or subgroup’s) Base API and the statewide performance
target of 800. If the school’s (or subgroup’s) Base API is between 691 and 795,
the growth target is a gain of five points. If the school’s (or subgroup’s) Base API
is between 796 and 799, the growth target is the following:
API of 796 – a gain of four points
API of 797 – a gain of three points
API of 798 – a gain of two points
API of 799 – a gain of one point
If the school’s (or subgroup’s) Base API is 800 or more, the school (or subgroup)
must maintain an API of at least 800” (CDE Website).

• AYP
Per the California Department of Education, “The federal No Child Left Behind
(NCLB) Act of 2001 requires that California determine whether or not each
public school and local educational agency (LEA) is making Adequate Yearly
Progress (AYP). (An LEA is a school district or county office of education.)
10
AYP criteria encompass four areas: participation rate, percent proficient (also
referred to as Annual Measurable Objectives or AMOs), API as an additional
indicator for AYP, and graduation rate. Each of these four areas has specific
requirements. Participation rate and percent proficient criteria must be met in both
English-language arts (ELA) and in mathematics” (CDE Website).

• Four Frames

Bolman and Deal (2003) research focuses on the four aspects or traits that a leader
may or may not encompass; structural, human resource, symbolic or political.

• High Performing School
A High Performing School is a school that has large percentages of students who
traditionally perform in the upper deciles of standardized tests such as the
California Standards Tests and the High School Exit Exam. Often such schools
have high numbers of students who excel in Advanced Placement or International
Baccalaureate programs. Often such schools are recognized by the United States
Department of Education as National Blue Ribbon Schools or the California
Department of Education as California Distinguished Schools.

• Outperforming School
An Outperforming School is a school that has consistently performed in the upper
deciles of similar schools rankings for 2 or more years. “Outperforming” is a
relative term; it means the school is outperforming other schools like it (schools
of the same type and similar demographic characteristics).
11

• Similar Schools Ranking
Per the California Department of Education, “The similar schools rank compares
a school to 100 other schools of the same type and similar demographic
characteristics” (CDE Website).

• Urban School
An Urban School is a school that either 1) is located within the city limits of what
is considered a large city, or 2) has two or more traditional demographics or
characteristics of schools that are located in large cities. A dictionary definition of
urban is 1) of, pertaining to, or designating a city or town, 2) living in a city, or 3)
characteristic of or accustomed to cities; citified (Random House, 2008).
Characteristics that are typical of large city schools are a diverse student body or
high numbers or non-white students, a diversity of commonly spoken languages,
low attendance rates, high suspension rates, low test scores, low teacher
attendance, high numbers or uncredentialed teachers, high drop-out rates and low
graduation rates, low college-going rates, low parent participation, and high rates
of crime in the areas surrounding the school.

• National School Lunch Program
The National School Lunch Program (NSLP) is a federally assisted meal program
operating in public and nonprofit private schools and residential child care
institutions. It provides nutritionally balanced, low-cost or free lunches to children
12
each school day. The program was established under the National School Lunch
Act, signed by President Harry Truman in 1946 (United States Department of
Agriculture, 2008).

• Achievement Gap
According to the University of Southern California’s thematic dissertation group,
the achievement gap is the persistent disparity in academic performance between
groups of students, particularly between White and or Asian and affluent students
and students of color, minority, poverty and second language learners.

• SARC (School Accountability Report Card)
Per the California Department of Education, “In November 1988, California
voters passed Prop.98, also known as The Classroom Instructional Improvement
and Accountability Act. This ballot initiative provides California’s public schools
with a stable source of funding. In return, all public schools in California are
required annually to prepare SARCs and disseminate them to the public. SARCs
are intended to provide the public with important information about each public
school and to communicate a school’s progress in achieving its goals” (CDE
website).

• CST (California Standards Test)
Per the California Department of Education, “The California Standards Tests in
English-language arts, mathematics, science, and history-social science are
administered only to students in California public schools. Except for a writing
13
component that is administered as part of the grade 4 and 7 English-language arts
tests, all questions are multiple choice. These tests were developed specifically to
assess students’ performance on California’s Academic Content Standards. The
State Board of Education adopted these standards that specify what all California
children are expected to know and be able to do in each grade or course” (CDE
STAR website).

• ELL (English Language Learners)
Per the California Department of Education, “English learner” is defined as an
English learner or as a reclassified-fluent-English-proficient (RFEP) student who
has not scored at the proficient level or above on the CST in ELA for three years
after being reclassified” (CDE website).

• Socio-Economically Disadvantaged
Per the California Department of Education, “Socioeconomically disadvantaged”
is defined as a student whose parents both have not received a high school
diploma OR a student who participates in the free or reduced-price lunch program
(also known as the National School Lunch Program)” (CDE Website).
14
CHAPTER II:
LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
Horace Mann, often considered the father of American education, believed that the
purpose of schools was to promote a greater society through the advancement of its
people. The progress of each individual promotes the progress of the whole. Ideally, it
would serve to erase class distinctions so that all could live in harmony. He called it the
“great equalizer of the conditions of men,—the balance wheel of the social machinery”
(Mann, 1848). While Horace Mann’s precepts continue to serve as the philosophical
touchstone of educators to this day, his goal remains elusive.
As our society has changed, so must our schools to prepare students to meet these
changes. While there is much to be said about the current concerns about our educational
system, there has been some progress. More students and more diverse students are in
school today than 100 years ago. In 1900, only half the school age population was
enrolled in school. In 1990, that number almost doubled. The average number of days in
school has increased from 99 in 1900 to 180 today. This is progress; we have not yet
reached our destination.
Schools endeavor to teach all their pupils; yet, with the advancement of technology, we
are able to determine that the quality of education each student receives varies between
states, schools, and classrooms. The fundamental issue is equity. Why are students who
matriculate through the same educational system achieving at vastly disparate rates as
15
delineated by their socio-economic status (SES) or ethnicity? Minority populations
achieve at a consistently lower rate than majority populations. It is fairly simple to
deduce factors which affect academic achievement: poverty, societal violence, familial
dysfunction, squalid schools, inadequate curricula, and low expectations.
However, some teachers have been able to overcome these external factors to ensure a
quality education for all their students. For instance, Clemmitt (2007) documents the
immigrant students in Rafe Esquith’s fifth grade class of Hobart Elementary in Los
Angeles, California, who have been invited to perform with the Royal Shakespeare
Company in Great Britain. Eighty-eight percent of the students at Hobart Elementary
are designated as socio-economically disadvantaged and 81% are English Language
Learners. According to standardized test scores, they significantly outperform students
across the state. However, Mr. Esquith’s successful strategies are not replicated by even
the teacher next door because of the “enormous amount of work” it would require.
(Clemmitt, 2007,p. 11) There is as surmountable gap between the students in the
different fifth grade classes at Hobart Elementary as there is between students who reside
in different socio-economic neighborhoods. The gap between the achievement of
students on standardized tests at Hobart Elementary whose API is 774 and Beverly Hills’
Beverly Vista Elementary with an API of 886 is both significant and surmountable.
This dissertation will review the pertinent literature exploring both the external,
environmental, as well as the internal, academic variables that contribute to this gap in
achievement. It will identify the replicable variables that allow teachers such as Mr.
Esquith to be so successful. This chapter will serve as an overview of the pertinent
16
research that has been done within the field of education in terms of student achievement
and identifies how this study will enhance our understanding of this conundrum called
the achievement gap.
Historical Perspective
The achievement gap has fluctuated over the last several decades – often reflecting
political reform patterns. The end of WWII and the beginning of the G.I. Bill offered
minority soldiers the opportunity to attend college. Many who graduated were the first in
their families to do so, thus increasing expectations and opportunities for themselves and
generations succeeding them. The civil rights movement followed with the landmark
Brown v Board of Education case that declared that separate, by definition, meant
unequal and ended the de jure segregation of African American students in public
schools.
While reviewing the achievement over the past 30 years, research from the National
Center for Education Statistics shows that the performance of African American and
Latino students improved dramatically during the 1970s and 1980s. In the 1970’s and
1980’s the gap between African American students, Latino students and white students
decreased by a half and a third respectively (Haycock, 2002).
In spite of this progress, policy makers believed that something was terribly wrong with
our educational institutions and, in 1983, A Nation at Risk was published by the National
Commission on Excellence in Education (NCEE). This critique of our nation’s
educational system focused on four main areas in need of improvement. They found a
17
lack of rigor in the curriculum, diluted graduation requirements, minimal instructional
time, and poor teacher quality – a recurring theme of educational analysts over the last
quarter century. (National Commission on Excellence in Education, 1983)
Several authors have since questioned the veracity of the foundation upon which the
Commission developed these concerns. (Guthrie, Springer, 2004; Handel, Harris, Mishel,
2004) Some suggest that this was a political proposal that resonated with a public
grappling with the ramifications of this new “Information Age.” The people recognized
that the education they had received would not adequately prepare their children for the
world of work. Despite some positive trends in education, including lower dropout rates
and increased numbers of minority students taking the SAT, the NCEE published a
scathing assessment of public education.
Then, the last decade of the 20
th
century and first of the 21
st
saw a widening of the
achievement gap. By the end of high school, African American and Latino students
attain the skills in reading and math of most white 8
th
graders. That is, if they complete
high school at all. While 90% of whites and 94% of Asians between the ages of 18 and
24 have earned their high school diplomas or its equivalent, only 81% of African
Americans and 63% of Latinos have realized this educational milestone. (Haycock, 2002)
The chart below highlights the academic aftermath of these differences:

18
Table 1: Highest Educational Attainment for Every 100 Kindergartners
(Ages 15 to 29 African Americans Asians Latinos Whites
Graduate from h.s. 88 90 63 88
Complete some college 50 74 33 59
Bachelor’s Degree 16 51 10 28
Source: U.S. Census Bureau. (1998) Educational Attainment Tables, October CPS
It may be said that Horace Mann’s dream, rather than equalizing the diverse social strata
found in the U.S., has magnified it. How well a student does in school has a direct
relationship with how s/he does in adulthood. According to the United States Department
of Labor, “Education pays.” The unemployment rate for individuals without a high
school diploma is 9%. That number is almost cut in half with a high school diploma,
with the rate falling to 5.7%. The number continues to decline with each additional
educational degree earned (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2009).
External Variables
There are many variables, external to the classrooms, which are correlated to student
achievement. These are variables over which schools and their personnel have little or no
control such as race, wealth, and familial structure. However, as achievement data is
disaggregated, a gap in achievement between students of different races, levels of
income, and family background emerges.

The gap in achievement between white and non-Asian minority students is evident as
early as kindergarten. This gap widens each academic year (Johnston, 2000). Early
19
childhood development initiatives are vital for fostering academic success.
Complementing these preschool programs are family literacy programs and parent
education programs teaching families to create a nurturing learning environment in the
home and to utilize school and community resources that support achievement. Although
results are encouraging for early childhood education programs such as Head Start, the
overarching problem of the achievement gap remains evident through high school.

Indicative of student achievement are scores on the Scholastic Achievement Tests taken
by college going seniors. Of the 195,406 seniors in California who took the SAT in
2007, 35% identified themselves as White in the census, 21% Asian, 7% Black, and 16%
Mexican. White and Asian students scored comfortably above 500 in critical reading,
math, and writing. Black and Mexican students scored in the low to mid 400’s. The gap
between the student population numbers and the number who actually choose to take
these tests is also indicative of the difference in educational attainment between these
students.

“Poverty, while a big factor, does not account for all of the differences. Nor does family
structure. All other things being equal, young children growing up in single-parent
homes score just as high on preschool vocabulary tests as children from intact families”
(Johnston, 2000, p.8). These external variables play a role in the performance levels of
students. The data attests to the discrepancies that lie within these sub-groups. The
following sections will delve more deeply into the research around these variables.

20
Family background

Parental socio-economic status includes four key components that play a role in student
achievement: earning, education, familial structure, and environs. Studies analyzing the
roles each of these disparate, yet related, items affecting student achievement provide
interesting results. Smith, Brooks-Gunn, and Klebanov (1977), in a study that controlled
for all factors but income for pre-schoolers, found that poverty accounted for a substantial
difference in achievement. The study noted that with increased income came increased
access to learning in the home with manipulatives such as educational toys, books and
maps. The study also monitored parent education level and noted that parent education is
linked to the academic achievement of their children. The more educated the parent, the
better the child performs in school (Smith, Brooks-Gunn, Klebanov, 1997). Welfare
recipient mothers who were mandated to attend classes transferred some of their
increased education to the pre-schooler’s school readiness quotient. Noticeably, parent
education and income are inter-connected (Duncan & Magnuson, 2005).

Whether or not parents are together in the home also plays a significant role in how well
students perform. Children from single-parent homes – whether resulting from divorce
or if the parents had never been married – are at much greater risk of behavioral problems
and academic failure than their counterparts from families with both parents at home
(Duncan & Magnuson, 2005). This also plays a significant role in how well the children
are supervised in their homes and environs. With one parent, it is difficult to maintain the
level of supervision necessary to counteract the negative influences of some
neighborhoods teeming with violence. The effects of life outside of the school grounds
21
have a profound effect on children - even affecting the games they play. In one urban
middle school outside of Oakland, the students came up with a game called “nigger ball”
(Noguera, 1996). The faculty quickly banned the game from campus because of its
violent nature. Students left holding the ball were beaten by the other players. When
students were asked why they would play such a dangerous game with their friends, their
response stunned their teachers. The game simulated beatings which were common in
their neighborhoods. Every student needed the skills to withstand such a beating whether
it was from a local gang or the police. By playing the game, these kids were preparing
themselves for what life in their neighborhood offered.

One study, focusing on this single variable, entitled “Moving to Opportunity” (MTO),
offered to move families from high-poverty neighborhoods to low-poverty
neighborhoods (Orr, 2003). The data collected between four and seven years after the
move concludes that no significant educational progress was made by the students who
moved versus the control group that stayed in their original neighborhoods. While
parents had fewer stressors concerning the environment in which their children played
after school, no real difference in the home environment or learning opportunities therein
resulted. The implication here is that neighborhoods have a negligible impact, if any, on
student achievement. It also suggests that parent education about educational
manipulatives and learning should be included in any “move,” because while the outside
of the house changed, the inside did not - regardless of neighborhood.

22
Through studies such as these that target the four major components of family
background, we learn that both income and parent education levels have a direct and
significant impact on student achievement. One other critical component of family
background is, of course, race. The achievement gap is as real for those with low SES as
it is for minority students.

Race
Twenty percent of the student population in the United States has migrated here. That
means that one out of five students live in a house where English is not the only language
spoken. This is the fastest growing segment of our population (Suarez-Orozco, 2000).
How these children do in school will be indicative of what they will contribute to society
as adults. In many ways, they are in a unique position to bridge the many cultural chasms
with their bicultural experiences and skills.

Theories and generalizations about why some immigrant groups are successful and some
not abound. Researchers such as Gordon (1964) maintained that the rate of the
assimilation of immigrant groups correspond to the rate of their economic advancement.
Today, the research on Latino youth suggests just the opposite. The rate of assimilation
corresponds to decreased academic performance (Suarez-Orozco, 2001). The statistics
for African-American youth is just as bleak. According to Arcia (2005), Black students
in Florida were four times as likely to be suspended as Asian students in a three year
longitudinal study.

23
Anthropologist John Ogbu (1978) argued that the manner in which the particular groups
enter the country has a significant effect on their attitude toward advancement. He
explains the differences in academic achievement between different minorities are a
result of their “status.” If the minority, such as American Indians or American Blacks,
were one that had been subjugated by the dominant White group, they are caste-like and
characterized by failure. However, West Indian and African Blacks who immigrated to
this country with a “passion for education” surpass the standard of the American Black
population (Carter & Goodwin, 1994). About this time, the “model minority” concept
gained momentum because of the large number of Asian Americans in advanced classes
and in the most prestigious universities. As research on this topic continues, it has
become evident that not all Asian sub-groups are as successful as others.

This research, confounding the numerous generalities about various immigrant groups
has led researchers to shift their focus to the critical role social capital plays in student
achievement. Social capital refers to the benefits membership in groups such as religious
organizations, youth groups, and families yield to individuals. Connections between
people forge reciprocal bonds resulting in access to greater resources in finding jobs,
getting information, procuring favors, and providing a system of support. This includes
the role peers play in establishing academic expectations and the role schools play in
accessing academic opportunities. The research on social capital refocuses the lens from
factors that reduce racial background into predictors of academic success or failure and
onto social variables that may be modified to promote academic success (Noguera, 2004).

24
Sociologist James Coleman applies this concept to an analysis of schools. He contends
that those schools most able to secure a collaborative relationship with parents will
achieve greater success as defined by greater parental satisfaction, fewer dropouts, and
fewer disciplinary problems. For example, Oregon’s Hillsboro district, which boasts
19,000 students, employs 15 home-consultants in a federally financed migrant program to
meet the needs of families so that the children attend school (Zehr, 2002). Many of the
families are undocumented aliens who have emigrated from Oaxaca, one of Mexico’s
poorest states. One of the consultants’ primary roles is to regularly visit the labor camps
and the homes of those new to the district. They seek to reassure parents that children
have a right to a free, public education - regardless of their status in this country. Also,
by visiting the home, they learn of parents’ questions and concerns. They are able to
provide immediate assistance and specific options as parents ask how best they might
help their children overcome behavioral or academic obstacles. They suggest meeting
with teachers and administrators. They translate and assist in the decision making
process. The social capital they are providing is invaluable in the betterment of the lives
of the children within this community (Zehr, 2002).

A corollary to social capital is ethnic identity. Ethnic identity refers to the extent to
which an individual feels integrated within and wishes to participate in one’s familial
ethnic group. Students’ comfort with their own ethnic identity fosters relationships with
students within other ethnic groups (Carter & Goodwin, 1994). This may, however, also
lead to increased segregation and serve to heighten racial tension.

25
Thus far, we have reviewed studies that address variables that are external to the school
system – variables unique to each student that cannot be manipulated by school policies,
practices, or personnel. These are the variables, as determined by the Coleman Report in
1966 that concluded that familial factors have a much greater effect on achievement than
schools. The report further asserted that schools do not vary much in terms of teacher
preparation, salary, or curriculum. Perhaps that is the reason why in 2004 three out of
every four Americans reported that they believed the achievement gap is caused by
factors external to the quality of education within public schools (Phi Delta Kappan,
2006).

Internal Variables
In spite of the popular belief that the achievement gap is caused by factors external to
schools, in the last forty years, there has been significant research to the contrary –
research that contends schools can make a profound difference in the academic
attainment of every student – regardless of variables external to the school.

Curriculum
In 2001, Haycock, president of Education Trust - an independent, non-profit organization
committed to educational reform from pre-kindergarten to grade 12 - identified four key
components to any successful educational venture that improves the achievement of all
students and not only retards but reduces the achievement gap: curriculum, standards,
intervention opportunities, and pedagogy. Maintaining high expectations for all students
translates into a standards-based curriculum that increases the rigor of each standard in
26
each grade level. The more rigorous the courses are, the better students perform. Even
low scoring students, when placed in more rigorous courses, improved their levels of
performance as a result of the greater demands placed on them.

Curricular practices are integral in the development of opportunities for students. What
we teach is as important as how we teach it. It identifies the priorities and expectations of
the school. Whether a school demands service learning quotas, a global perspective of
world history or the classics in literature demonstrates these standards.

The curriculum in which we place underperforming students is also open to discussion.
In what way do classes that progress at a slower than average pace help students “catch
up” to their peers? The tracking of students into remedial or special education courses
effectively steers students away from college. Students understand that what is expected
of them is less because that is the sum of their ability. Rather than accelerating student
learning to close the achievement gap, these courses decelerate learning and widen it.

As far back as 1933, Carter G. Woodson in The Mis-Education of the Negro illustrated
the fundamental differences in the lives of black and white students, as well as its impact
on their education. In the back counties of Mississippi, fifth grade black children came
from the homes of itinerant workers who moved regularly. Fifth grade white children,
conversely, came from the permanent homes of business and plantation owners. They
were surrounded by calculations and budgets, the likes of which their black counterparts
would never see. Woodson asserted that, “instead of teaching such children less
27
arithmetic, we must teach them more than white children.” Woodson, too, believed that
schools could effectively address the limited opportunities some students found at home
by increasing those same opportunities at school.

Offering and demanding more, rather than less, of students in high-poverty schools runs
counter to current practices. Delpit (2006) emphasizes the difference by describing her
visit to both a private elementary school and an inner city public elementary school. In
the private school, children ran up to her to share their learning. One of the students in
the class had some hearing loss. Students learned about the structure of the middle ear,
could name all the parts of the ear, in addition to how the brain processed sound. The
lesson was meaningful and relevant. In the public schools, children again ran up to her to
share their learning. This time, they showed her their handwriting samples and their
worksheets. It was clear that the parents’ of the students attending the private school
were getting their money’s worth.

Private school teachers are not required to hold teaching credentials and often have fewer
years in the field than their public school colleagues. The research holds that urban
school teachers are more likely not to be credentialed and more likely to be at the
beginning of their careers. The teachers of both educational settings are similar in terms
of professional background. The critical difference determining the educational
expectations, at least outwardly, is socio-economic status. While school readiness is
affected by the socio-economic background of students, so too is the expectation level of
teachers.
28

Haycock’s recommendation to ensure high standards for all students, with opportunities
for remediation to attain mastery in challenging curriculum, directly relates to teacher
effectiveness.

Teacher Quality
Study after study demonstrates the profound impact teachers have upon student learning.
Students of certificated teachers outperform those of uncertificated teachers in both
reading and math. In a 1986 study by Strauss and Sawyer, students taught by more
knowledgeable teachers were more successful. The failure rate of students decreased by
between 3 and 5%, with just a 1% increase in teacher scores on the National Teacher
Examinations (NTE).

In a more recent study, fourth, fifth, and sixth graders gained approximately 0.10 of a
standard deviation in both reading and math more than their counterparts in classrooms
taught by teachers with two years or fewer teaching experience (Rivkin, Hanushek, and
Kain, 2005). Controlling for other major variables, Darling-Hammond (2006) noted that
teacher variation accounted for a 64% variance in student performance. These findings
led researchers to conclude that of the internal variables over which schools have greatest
control, teachers play the single greatest role in determining student achievement.
However, according to research from Flores of the University of Delaware, the least
experienced and least qualified teachers are twice as likely to be found in those schools
where the achievement gap is the greatest. Similarly, Education Trust (2002) data reveals
29
that 34% of the core academic teachers in Title I schools have not earned even a Minor in
the subject taught as compared to 15% in low-poverty schools.

Expectations from teachers and schools, according to some researchers, remain lower for
minority children because of personal, internal biases within our society. The Pygmalion
Effect is as prevalent today as it was during the study and, according to some researchers,
is one of the key variables that affect teacher expectations for their under-privileged
students.

Institutional Racism
The Applied Research Center, based in Oakland, California, contends that institutional
racism is the real problem causing the achievement gap – insidious because it is both
pervasive and unintentional. This is further supported by research from Buriel who, in
1983, found that regardless of levels of achievement, income, and English proficiency,
“Mexican-American children received less teacher affirmation following correct
responses than their Anglo-American classmates” (Buriel, 1983, p.6). That was consistent
with the research by Vanfossen, Jones, and Spade (1987) who found that highly
proficient students with lower socio-economic backgrounds had only a 50% chance of
being placed in an accelerated course. In the next decade, Oakes (1995) found that in San
Jose, California “African-American and Latino students were much less likely than white
or Asian students with the same test scores to be placed in accelerated courses.” The
trend continues into this century with African-American and Latino students less likely to
30
be placed in more rigorous courses, even when their performance on standardized tests
are equal to or greater than their White or Asian- American classmates.

Some experts even suggest that the problem in achievement and African American
students stems from a “behavioral gap” between African American students and
Caucasian students. According to Levin, from the Knowledge is Power Program (KIPP)
charter schools, white, middle class Americans know from a very young age that sitting
up, raising your hand, and maintaining eye contact with your teacher demonstrates good
behavior in schools. He suggests that this behavior needs to be taught to African
American students.

According to University of Virginia researcher Anne Gregory, African-American student
discipline problems stem from behaviors perceived as defiant by their teachers. In fact,
75% of African-American referrals were for defiance – a significantly higher percentage
than that of any other ethnic group (Clemmitt, 2007). Cultural differences are also
apparent with Latino students who have learned to avoid direct eye contact with teachers
because that direct eye contact signifies disrespect (Paz, 1985).

This study dovetails with U.C.L.A. researchers Cooper and Liou (2007) who suggest that
this “behavior gap” is really an extension of the “information gap” that exists in schools.
They contend that under-performing students have limited access to high-stakes
information such as how to enroll in advanced placement courses or how to get involved
31
in co-curricular activities. These knowledge gaps severely limit students’ Opportunity to
Learn (OTL).

Cooper and Liou (2007) contrast high-stakes information, whose purpose is to help
students matriculate into higher education endeavors – particularly four-year universities
– with “functional information.” Functional information focuses on rules and
regulations, grading policies, behavioral expectations and graduation requirements. The
purpose of this information is to have students comply with school norms and graduate.
The researchers submit that the more clearly students understand the high-stakes
information, the more likely they will be to continue their educational endeavors –
through high school and beyond. “Exposure to high stakes information early and often
during the transition period [middle school to high school] can fundamentally alter the
schooling experience of students and increase the number of students who are
academically prepared to matriculate to college” (Cooper & Liou, 2007).

Students enter high school with high aspirations of pursuing careers requiring post-high
school degrees. By the end of their first year in high school, the reality is that most will
be tracked out of the basic courses required to apply to college. Without the information
necessary to get back on track, these minority students will slowly become more and
more disengaged from the educational process (Datnow & Cooper, 1997).

However, according to researchers, schools are organized to provide support services to
the top and bottom 15% of students. Those in the middle are expected to fend for
32
themselves – not requiring any “special” services (Clemmitt, 2007). While that structure
may meet the needs of most suburban schools, urban schools have much different student
populations. “Sometimes up to 80 percent of the kids are “high needs,” as defined as
English-as-a-second-language students, special-education students or students below
grade level or with severe attendance problems….We’re not set up to respond when that
many kids need one-on-one tutoring or monitoring of their attendance on a daily basis”
(Balfanz).

Thus far, we have reviewed the studies that target both internal and external variables that
contribute to the problem of achievement. Politicians, as well as educators, have
developed and implemented solutions to this persistent and pervasive problem.

Political Solutions
In 2001, President Bush enacted the No Child Left Behind legislation emphasizing that
schools must act to,“ increase substantially the likelihood that each group of students
enrolled in the school identified for corrective action will meet or exceed the state’s
proficient levels of achievement on the state academic assessment” (No Child Left
Behind Act: August, 2001). The objective is that all students meet academic proficiency
standards in English and math by 2014. This would be accomplished by hiring highly
qualified teachers and by reporting all student testing results – including all sub-groups so
that school and district standardized test scores would not be artificially inflated by the
scores of the top performing students in each school. The disaggregated score reports
33
allow educators and laymen alike to assess how well each student or how well specific
student groups are performing.

Federal funding, which comprises a sizeable chunk of a school’s budget, is contingent
upon schools making Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP). The AYP is a number identified
through a complex algorithm whose variables do not necessarily match the criteria of the
schools they are being used to assess. For example, immigrant students must meet the
same standards in English language as native English speakers. Those schools teaching
larger immigrant populations will face greater difficulty in meeting growth targets than
those schools with stable English speaking populations.

As the law is not supported by additional funding sources, underperforming schools have
a more difficult time meeting the additional needs of urban students and maintaining
highly qualified teachers in schools requiring the most work. In fact, Haycock of
Education Trust urges Congress to add funding to the NCLB legislation in order for
schools and districts to access the resources necessary to close the gap. She further
contends that the legislation does not go far enough in ensuring the validity and reliability
of the measure used by different states. Since each state is able to establish its own levels
of proficiency, there is no consistency between what students’ scores mean between
states. For example, earning a score of proficient or above in one state might be the
equivalent of scoring basic or below in another.

34
Researchers assert that while the classroom teacher has the greatest effect on student
achievement in schools, they have no accountability within the tenets of the bill
(Knowles). He attributes this glaring gap to the strong Democratic ties to labor unions.
Knowles also suggests that teacher education programs should be assigned a level of
accountability within the bill – promoting those university programs who engender the
most effective teachers.

Some states have developed policies that include student accountability practices within
them that have resulted in increased student performance. In New York, for example,
successful completion of New York Regent’s Exams is required for graduation. Since
the implementation of this requirement, more students have enrolled in more rigorous
courses resulting in more students passing these tests. Predictably, New York’s SAT
scores have also risen.

The Maryland State Board of Education requires students – beginning with the Class of
2009 – to pass exams in the core academic areas of English, algebra, biology, and
government. As the implementation date nears, many fear that thousands of students will
fail the exams, and therefore, not meet high school graduation requirements. This fear
resulted in a recent decision to ease the parameters of these requirements. However,
educational leaders now fear that the dilution of these requirements will invariably lead to
lower standardized test scores. While more students will earn their high school diplomas,
schools will have more difficulty meeting their AYP.
35
Upon studying several districts in which promotion or graduation is connected to student
achievement, Harris and Herrington have concluded that the most effective form of
accountability is that which holds the student accountable (2006). The achievement gap
narrows and average student achievement increases as students choose to take more
challenging courses in order to prepare for and pass their own high-stakes tests.

School accountability policies make an interesting impression on local neighborhoods. In
Florida, for example, schools are given a grade ranging from “A” to “F.” Housing prices
coincide with grades earned – the higher the grade, the more expensive the house.
Unfortunately, grades seem to also coincide with the racial demographic of
neighborhoods with “A” schools attended primarily by white students (Harris, 2006).

Across the United States, most Hispanic and African-American students are concentrated
in low-income, urban areas whose local schools serve statistically insignificant numbers
of white students, thereby creating a “new era of separate but unequal schools”
(Clemmitt, 2007). Thernstrom, a researcher from Harvard University maintains that there
is no clear correlation between student integration and student achievement.

This diametrically opposes the Coleman report, mentioned earlier, that studied the
achievement of 600,000 students. The report asserted that the level of racial integration
made a significant difference in the achievement levels of students, helping spur the
bussing efforts of the late sixties through the mid-eighties.

36
Racial Integration
Baker contends that desegregation “has clear academic benefits.” Scores from Charlotte,
North Carolina suggest that greater integration of black and white students in elementary
schools yields greater standardized test scores for both groups in middle and high school.
Researchers further contend that the neighborhoods around the schools in which this
desegregation occurs also become more integrated.

Several districts have begun employing strategies to integrate the schools within their
boundaries. In Raleigh, North Carolina and Cambridge, Massachusetts, schools were
kept to no more than 40% students who qualified for free or reduced-price lunches. Their
results reflect higher achievement scores for their low-income students. In Raleigh’s
high school exit exams, 63.8% of low-income students and 64.3 % of its African-
American students passed, as compared to the approximately 50% pass rate for the same
sub-groups in the state’s more segregated urban districts. In 2007, the U.S. Supreme
Court rejected Jefferson County, Kentucky’s desegregation policy that was based on the
racial make up of each student. The county will vote in mid-2008 on a plan that will
keep its schools diverse by considering family income and parent education instead.

Educational Solutions
Within the fifty states, thousands of individual efforts are being promoted to see greater
student achievement for all students. Some meet Haycock’s mandates of standards,
intervention, curriculum, and teaching. Others focus on systemic approaches within the
37
schools including de-tracking efforts, increased counseling, and increased access to
relevant curriculum.

In Kentucky, one urban elementary school tackled the problem with a two-pronged
approach: effective classroom discipline and increased time with literacy. The results are
undeniable. School-wide, reading scores soared from a 15% proficiency rate to an 89%
proficiency rate (Petrilli, 2005). Lanier Middle School, in Houston, achieved similar
results by also offering an additional period of English or Math – as needed by the
student. They also created after school reading and writing groups for Latino students.
Their data proves the effectiveness of their method. While only 70% of their Latino
students passed the state tests in 1995-1996, by the 2000-2001 academic year, 86%
passed (Challenge Journal, 2001).

Programs that bridge the internal and external variables have also evidenced some
success. Success for All (SFA) incorporates a multi-partite plan that targets both the
home and the school and has been particularly effective in Title I elementary schools.
Cooperative learning models, increased tutoring opportunities, and professional
development round out the supplemental support provided to schools. Familial support
services are also offered outside the school grounds (Slaven and Madden, 2006).

Another multi-faceted program that has yielded positive results for low achieving
students is the Student Success Skills (SSS) program (Miranda, et al 2007). The three
skills taught by counselors to students enrolled in this program focus on goal setting,
38
including monitoring progress and memory; interpersonal skills, including problem
solving and teamwork; and self-control skills, including anger management. Results of
the program confirmed higher performance scores in math and reading for all under-
performing students, regardless of ethnic background. Treatment groups showed up to a
16 point increase in reading scores and 24 point increase in math scores, versus a no more
than a 12 point increase in either reading or math in the control group.

This program addresses some of the factors identified as part of the “behavioral gap.”
Students learn listening skills and ways to encourage their peers in their efforts. Test
taking skills such as “positive self-talk” are also practiced by participants. Counselors
collaborate with teachers to help students with the organization of their study materials
and to help chunk the curriculum into digestible sections. As students learn the behaviors
consistent with classroom teacher expectations, their disciplinary infractions decrease and
their academic performance increases.

The University of California, Irvine has generated much interest in their Before and After
School Learning and Safe Neighborhoods Partnerships Programs. This program serves
dual, complementary purposes: to provide a safe and positive environment for
youngsters during the hours they are most at risk and to raise student academic
performance. Integral to the program’s success are the community partnerships that
improve both quality and sustainability. The plan recommends elementary school
students attend three hours a day, five days a week. Middle school students attend at
least three days each week. The program is free for all students attending schools with a
39
50% free and reduced lunch population. They offer homework assistance, combined with
fun and engaging strategies aligned with school day activities.

This program has yielded formidable results. Participating students have improved their
scores in reading and math by almost double that of their counterparts. School
attendance has increased by an average of 17 days per year and there has been a
significant decline in grade retention. These outcomes actually save the district
approximately $13,000,000.00.

The programs outlined above share many common characteristics. They are based on
nation-wide research efforts spearheaded by the National Council on Education Standards
and Testing (NCEST, 1992) and commissioned by Congress. The NCEST asserts that
Opportunity to Learn (OTL) standards are necessary to help close the achievement gap
between advantaged and disadvantaged students. These standards have been formed to
assess the overall educational quality of schools by quantifying student instruction in
subject areas prior to testing and by identifying the availability and use of educational
resources. Specific components of OTL standards are clearly delineated.
1. The curriculum should meet content standards and be logically integrated with
other coursework. It should reflect challenges of real life problems, presenting
material in a context relevant to students and free from hidden bias. Every
student should have access to higher level courses. Schools should establish
curricular priorities, appropriate teacher assignments, and student support
services.
40
2. Adequate time should be allotted in class to cover the content and students should
be afforded the time to learn the content on their own. Important curricula can be
emphasized by assigning more class time. Students should be provided with time
to do general academic work on campus.
3. Teachers should attain mastery of course content and techniques to teach
meaningfully. They should pay attention to content standards and strategies for
reaching diverse student populations. Teachers should have time, material,
private space, and support staff for lesson planning and professional development.
4. The school should have enough physical space to accommodate staff and students
safely and with enough resources to maintain optimum class size. It should be
clean, safe from hazards, and in good repair. Students should have access to
textbooks and educational facilities. The school culture should foster learning and
demonstrate concern for the well-being of students. Schools should promote
respect for diversity and protect all stakeholders from discrimination.
5. There should be a comprehensive approach to student health and social service
needs; immunization; physical and mental health care services; protection from
unsafe and violent environments; substance abuse, sex, and pregnancy counseling.
Teachers, counselors, social workers and other professionals would work together
to best meet student needs and deliver these comprehensive services.

Researchers from Texas A & M contend that it is not a matter of which curricular
program is implemented in schools. The critical factors are that the program is
implemented consistently and that high expectations are maintained for all students.
41
Schools and districts able to close the gap do not blame external environmental elements
when addressing the gap. Instead, they focus on elements over which they do have
control such as pedagogy, curriculum, and co-curricular programs. This supports
Marzano’s belief that effective instruction in the classroom hinged upon three elements:
the curriculum, the strategies for instruction, and those for classroom management
(Marzano, 2001).

However, it is difficult to teach low performing students in rigorous classes. When
students enter a high school class reading at the third grade level, teachers are faced with
a Herculean task: move these third grade readers to grade level within a year. Some
districts have responded to this challenge by developing intervention opportunities
throughout the school day such as adding additional classes for students in numeracy and
literacy and by training all their teachers in the implementation of innovative curricular
programs or in diverse instructional strategies.

Programs, though, are only as effective as the personnel responsible for implementing
them. In most cases, because learning is done in classrooms, the teacher is fixed as that
fulcrum upon which student achievement hinges. According to Haycock’s Boston-based
research, the most effective teachers produce six times the learning as the least effective
teachers. As early as 1998, Harvard economist, Ronald Ferguson, found that when high-
performing elementary schools hire ineffective teachers and low-performing elementary
schools hire effective teachers, by the time those students get to high school, the
performances of their respective feeder schools will have reversed positions.
42
Darling-Hammond (2006) makes several recommendations to attract effective teachers
into low-performing schools. First, she recommends offering service scholarships to
teachers who teach in areas difficult to recruit. Inner city physics teachers, for example,
would have their credentialing program funded by the government in return for five years
of teaching in that challenging neighborhood. Next, federal grants would be developed to
establish high quality teacher training programs in city neighborhoods difficult to staff,
thereby creating a direct link between the program and the district. Third would involve
the institution of teacher mentor programs to improve teacher retention. The cost of
hiring and training new teachers in Texas, for example, is somewhere between 300
million and 2 billion dollars annually. Finally, Darling-Hammond recommends the
equalization of funding and salaries, with an additional monetary incentive for those
teachers committed to working in low-performing urban schools.

Unfortunately, removing ineffective teachers from their charges is more difficult than
simply removing any other ineffective white-collar professional from their place of
employment because of contractual issues such as “tenure.” Tenure refers to the
obligation of districts to maintain on their ledgers teachers who are, at best, ineffective in
their profession. Examples of teachers arriving to work hung over or completely
disengaged from their disruptive students are not difficult to find. Unfortunately,
removing these highly ineffective individuals from their classrooms takes, minimally,
two years of sustained documentation and increased professional development
opportunities. It is nearly impossible to remove the ineffective teacher who soberly
43
drudges through worksheets and end of chapter questions and tests without offering
relevance, interaction, or purpose to his/her students.

When teacher evaluation procedures include student learning, then the focus will shift
from what teachers do in front of the class to what students learn. Currently, in
California, administrators are not allowed to reference student standardized test scores or
grades when evaluating teachers. Instead, they focus on the National Teaching Standards
which do reflect good pedagogy. They do not, however, gage the effectiveness of the
teacher in terms of student learning.

What this dissertation will study
In this age of accountability, administrators, and districts are accountable for the
standardized test scores of students. They are held accountable by their supervisors; they
are accountable to the state. However, the system of accountability does not clearly
target or measure the purported goals of each. They are accountable for scores.
However, is that really the function of schools or is that more directly linked to teacher
effectiveness? When asked, educators, students, and parents agree that the function of
schools is student learning. Standardized test scores are one measure of student
achievement, but it lacks scope. Student achievement may be assessed through multiple
measures, including behavior and grades, as well as standardized test scores. Teacher
effectiveness, too, should also incorporate some of those same measures. They do not.
Instead, the California Standards for the Teaching Profession, for example, focus on what
44
the teacher does, not how well the student has learned. The standards, as listed below, do
describe ideal teaching practices, whether or not the students learn:
1. Engaging and Supporting all student in learning
2. Creating and maintaining effective environments for student learning
3. Understanding and organizing subject matter for student learning
4. Planning instruction and designing learning experiences for all students
5. Assessing student learning
6. Developing as a professional educator.
Teaching and learning are reciprocal and complementary aspects of education. As
teacher quality increases, so does student learning. It is for that reason that teachers are at
the core of the educational debate.

Summary
Much of the research this far has focused on the external variables that affect student
achievement – variables imposed upon the school and its community. These include
legislative actions, political diatribes, and familial background. Researchers have
effectively explained how wealthier families have greater access to learning tools and
how this access positively impacts student learning. However, these are variables that
remain outside the school’s locus of control.

While schools have little if any control over parent education or income levels, they have
a great deal of control over curriculum and teaching practices. The positive results on
student learning that effective teachers with high expectations for all students have been
45
demonstrated in study after study. The external, environmental factors that contribute to
poor student achievement can be mitigated by schoolwide efforts to provide opportunities
to learn for all students. The success of those opportunities is predicated upon the
effectiveness of the personnel.

This study will focus upon identifying those variables that translate into greater levels of
learning. It will further assess which schoolwide practices are essential to promoting
that success. This study constitutes one portion of a cohort group of researchers delving
deeply into high performing public schools within the southern California area. Each of
these case studies will yield results unique to each school. The collaboration between
cohort members will allow for patterns to emerge that will offer insight for educators
about successful schoolwide practices.

As the problem becomes more pronounced in high school, this study will be conducted at
that level within the public school system. The complexities within a high school
community become more intricate as size of population, age and maturity level of
students, and subject specific expertise all play roles in every child’s success. This study
will add to the existing tomes of knowledge currently available by building on the
foundation already established and offering practitioners specific suggestions about how
to positively impact student learning.

46
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
Introduction
Most urban schools have not been successful in closing the achievement gap.
This study examined a high performing school that had successfully closed the gap. An
in depth study will help identify factors which have contributed to its success. This study
identified and assessed those variables that led to greater levels of student learning. As
the function of schools is the reciprocal process of teaching and learning, this study was
designed to further explore the characteristics of successful teachers. Since no teacher
works in a vacuum, a fundamental portion of this research project investigated the
environment in which they taught. This included school leadership and school structure.

A successful urban high school was explored to determine which critical variables within
the climate of the high school are integral to student achievement and how that climate is
maintained. This includes schoolwide programs, practices, and strategies - both formal
and informal – that contributed to their positive results.

While this individual study focused on the practices within a single school, it was also
part of a greater effort of researchers within the University of Southern California’s
doctoral program committed to exploring the many and varied elements affecting the
achievement of students. By delving into these variables in studies throughout
California’s high performing schools, this cohort aimed to develop a perspective that was
as broad as it was deep in terms of its analysis of the achievement gap and the factors that
47
contribute to its dissolution. Each member of this cohort serves as an educator within the
public school system and has a vested interest in making more tangible those nebulous
features that affect student learning. Their aim is to highlight successful practices that
may be replicated in order to promote greater student achievement throughout the
southland.

Conceptual Model

In order to identify the elements that significantly impact student achievement –positively
or negatively - the conceptual model presented below was developed. In the center of the
radial is student achievement, representing the focal point of both this study, as well as
the primary purpose of education. Stemming outward from that center are the elements
on a campus that affect student achievement: those internal elements over which site
personnel have some control. Encircling the radial drawing are the external elements that
affect how schools operate. They are imposed upon schools from state, national or even
international sources. On the right side of the model are the strategies used to improve
student achievement in general, and how to close the achievement gap, in particular.
48

Figure 1. Conceptual Model
49
Research Questions
As this study is designed to identify solutions to the problem of the achievement gap
within schools, all levels of schooling - elementary, middle, and high schools - will be
incorporated. The following three research questions will be addressed:
1. Which school-wide programs promote student achievement and contribute to the
closing of the achievement gap?
2. Which school-wide practices promote student achievement and contribute to the
closing of the achievement gap?
3. Which instructional strategies were implemented to target the closing of the
achievement gap?
Through an in-depth study of a single school, each researcher learned in great detail the
processes and programs implemented on sites that contributed to the steady shrinking of
the achievement gap within the school specifically and within the student population in
California as a whole. The instruments that the researchers used- survey and interview
questions – provided the raw data necessary to support the findings and provided
practitioners with strategies that might be replicated in additional settings. The research
team developed the questions collaboratively. In addition, to narrow the focus of the
study, three critical areas were targeted: school leadership, instruction, and teacher
efficacy.

Criteria
The cohort collaborated in the definition of terms found in Chapter 1 and referred to
throughout this study, as well as the quality indicators that would qualify a school for this
50
study. The achievement gap was defined as the persistent disparity in academic
performance between groups of students, particularly between White and/or Asian and
affluent students and minority students and students of color, from lower socio-economic
backgrounds not having attained English language proficiency.

The measures that were used to identify the schools as high performing were based
primarily on standardized test scores. That included an Academic Performance Index
(API) that outperformed the statewide average with a minimum of “7” on the statewide
ranking – suggesting that they were above the median. This measure should be
maintained for at least two years. The two year requirement helped differentiate between
an anomaly and the beginnings of a trend.

Since the achievement gap served as the pivot of this study, only high performing schools
with a traditionally lower performing student population would be included. One
measure of this target population was their socio-economic status. As a result, only
schools with 30% or more of the student population receiving Free or Reduced Lunch
would be incorporated into this effort. In sum, the following lists the criteria with which
each study school must align:
• The school must have scored 20 points higher than the statewide API for at least
two of the following traditionally underperforming subgroups (minority, lower
socio-economic status, students with disabilities, and English Language Learners)
for at least two or more years.
OR
51
• The school had shown significant growth in their API for two or more years in
one or more traditionally underperforming subgroups.
OR
• The school received a similar school ranking, as defined by the state, of at least a
“7” over two years.

Site and Sample Population
Valley Forge High School, located in Valley Forge, California, is one of eight high
schools in the Valley Union High School District, within northern Orange County.
VFHS serves a population of 2,044 students, 42% of whom qualify for the Federal Free
and Reduced Lunch Program. VFHS also serves a largely minority population, with 67%
of their student population Hispanic and 30% English Language Learners. While these
subgroups traditionally perform at lower levels than the schoolwide average, at VFHS,
significant strides have been made in increasing the achievement of the students within
these two subgroups. This has resulted in a steady closing of the achievement gap at
VFHS.

Over the last three years, the Hispanic population increased their schoolwide API by 41
points; their socioeconomically disadvantaged subgroup by 63; and their English Learner
population by 139 points. This marked increase over the last few years also resulted in
their similar school ranking to increase from “7” to “9.” The chart below provides a
longitudinal snapshot of VFHS’s performance since 2005 – including their schoolwide
API.
52
Table 2. VFHS API Growth Chart
2005 2006 2007
Overall 662 699 717
Hispanic 644 677 695
SES 630 661 693
EL 574 587 713

Not only had there been considerable progress by the school overall, there had been a
corresponding increase within these significant subgroups. The most noteworthy was the
performance of the English Learner population with a substantial 126 point increase in
just one year that shrunk the achievement gap from 88 points in 2005 to a mere 4 points
in 2007. Within that year, EL proficiency scores jumped from 12% to 46%, as measured
by the AYP. In fact, the EL population at Valley Forge High School had the highest
proficiency rate within the state of schools with significant EL populations in 2008.

Research Design
A mixed-methods design was employed within this qualitative case study. In order to
identify the methodology that best serve the purposes of this study, this researcher
assessed responses to the three basic questions of research design, as articulated by
Creswell (2003):
1. What are the knowledge claims and theoretical perspectives of the researcher?
2. In what sort of sequence will the data be collected?
3. What strategies will be employed to gather the data during the study?
53
The responses delineated in the succeeding paragraphs clearly led to the method that best
suited the needs of this study.

Knowledge claims referred to the assumptions with which the researcher began the study
about how and what would be learned. In this study, the problem of the “Achievement
Gap” was paramount and solutions to redressing the problem would be explored. It was
pragmatic in its approach in that it sought to first understand the problem and then
explore multiple pathways that had addressed it. This required flexibility in the
collection of data. In this way, once broad themes emerged, more focused queries were
utilized.

Strategies of inquiry directed the procedures for data collection. In this study, the
researcher began with a theoretical framework that included both quantitative and
qualitative data. The data itself was collected sequentially or concurrently, as warranted
by the study. These were all elements of what Creswell termed a transformative
procedure.

The data was collected both through the use of instruments as well as through open-ended
interviews. The broader surveys had been designed to allow meaningful generalizations
to emerge. From there, more individually tailored questions were posed to participants.
Since it was based on a pragmatic lens, it required the use of multiple methods of data
collection in order to gain a full understanding of both the problem and the various
solutions.
54
Upon considering the knowledge claims, strategies, and data collection methods
employed by this researcher, it was determined that a qualitative approach would best
marshal this study. Since the phenomenon of the achievement gap must be studied in the
setting in which it naturally occurred, one school served as the setting for this study.

Further, this study was embedded in a broader research project incorporating several
such studies that explored the Achievement Gap through multiple perspectives, through
multiple solutions, and through multiple correlates. In this way, the greater meta-study
offered a uniquely concentrated convergence of problem and solution.

Instruments
Data from the school was collected through several vehicles. Initially, a cross-sectional
survey was used to gather information from administrators and teachers. This fairly rapid
method of assessing the perspectives of the larger population served to enhance our next
method of inquiry. This survey was designed by our cohort specifically for this research
project. The questions had been designed to identify school-wide programs promoting
student achievement, instructional strategies, and professional development emphases.
The questionnaire was administered to both groups to help ascertain basic perceptions
from these two different groups. (Appendix A)

The second source of information was through personal teacher interviews. The
questions, as developed by this cohort, were generated to gain a better understanding of
the school and its procedures. Many of the questions were gleaned from the results of the
55
initial survey. The interview had only a few questions, beginning with some
demographic inquiries to ascertain the professional history of the interviewee. The
discourse allowed for some flexibility on the series of questions posed in order to gain a
more thorough understanding of the issues. (Appendix B)

The third source of information was through a comprehensive search of the school’s
published documents and records. These included, but were not limited to, the Single
School Plan, School Accountability Report Card (SARC), Bell Schedules, and courses of
study. (Appendix C)

The instruments, as well as the observations, allowed the researcher to also assess
according to the four frames as presented by Bolman and Deal. These frames served as
lenses through which organizations might be perceived. Since most organizations are
complex entities, it is critical for researchers to view them through multiple lenses in
order to fully appreciate the multiple layers at work within the school or business studied.

The Structural, Human Resource, Political, and Symbolic frames each offered a different
window through which to peer into the organization. The Structural Frame offered the
rules and regulations, goals and hierarchies. The Human Resource Frame referred to the
symbiotic relationship between individual and organization. The innovation that man
brings to the organization enriches both man and organization: neither exists without the
other. The Political Frame entrenched the viewer in the internal political dynamics that
competed for power as they served the organization. Finally, the Symbolic Frame
56
honored the history and the myths developed through the years within the organization.
These inspired faith and hope within the scope of the organization and the role that each
of its members played towards its success.

Data Collection
Data was collected on the school site and through online resources. All interviews and
observations were conducted on site. An observational protocol was established by the
cohort that distinguished observations from the observer’s personal reflections. Survey
results were collected from teachers and administrators.

Data Analysis
Following Cresswell’s (2003) recommendations for the thorough analysis of data in a
qualitative case study, the process used here was continuous and on-going. The
researchers in every case study of this cohort posed open-ended questions to evoke
authentic responses. Responses were shared throughout the data collection process,
allowing opportunities for reflection, discussion, and interpretation internally throughout.

Once observation notes and transcribed interviews were gathered, the researcher read
through to garner emerging overarching themes. These themes were further refined to
develop multiple categories into which the data was coded. This included codes
differentiating perspectives, setting, strategy, and relationship.

57
A greater sense of the organization and its people surfaced through this deeper analysis of
the details. This served as the foundation for the description of the setting, people, and
categories – including multiple, and often divergent, perspectives. These multiple lenses
were used to illustrate the case study, painting the description with more vibrant and
definitive strokes. The intersecting lines running between the coded themes provided an
extra layer of texture to the narrative portrait.

Cresswell (2003) recommended identifying the manner through which this portrait would
be presented. The narrative wove the dominant themes through a chronological depiction
of the road this school traveled. Specific examples and multiple perspectives were
embedded within this narrative providing for a fuller, more complete representation of
the course this institution and its members journeyed. Once this picture was complete,
the researcher interpreted the data, comparing it to the literature.

Thus, cross-case analyses were used to group commonalities within the responses of
interview participants. Substantive connections linking research questions, data, and
conclusions demonstrate the strength of the chain of evidence. Further supporting this
chain is the audit trail documenting data extraction methods, data analysis, data
reconstruction, researcher’s process notes, as well as background relating to the
formation of survey and interview questions.

58
Validity and Reliability
Following Yin’s protocol for case study research (2003) the following four criteria were
established to ensure validity and reliability:
1. Construct Validity: aligning the case study with the concepts studied
2. Internal Validity: demonstrating a causal relationship between variables
3. External Validity: generalizing of findings to comparable cases
4. Reliability: replicability of results by other researcher using the same instruments
In this way, the relationship between dependant and independent variables were clearly
identified and patterns supporting causality, bolstered.

Each of the multiple sources of data was triangulated to ensure the validity of conclusions
and eliminate any bias that the reliance on a single data source might engender. Findings
from the surveys were incorporated within interviews for corroboration. When
researchers found patterns within their own cases emerge, another member of the cohort
was asked to review the data independently to substantiate the reliability of the finding.

Creswell (2003) affirms that validity is a strength of the case study method. He
recommends eight strategies to ensure accuracy: triangulation; member-checking; rich,
thick description; clarification of researcher bias; presentation of information running
counter to the themes; extended time in the field; peer debriefing; and the use of an
external auditor. With the exception of the external auditor, each of the strategies listed -
as delineated in the preceding data analysis section of this study – had been incorporated
into this analysis.
59

Ethical Consideration
Each member of this cohort successfully completed the CITI Training as offered by
USC’s Institutional Review Board (IRB). The names of the district, the school, and all its
members have been changed. Participation in this project was entirely voluntary. No
information had been published without the consent of the individuals from whom it was
elicited. All transcribed interviews have been stored in a secure location, access to which
is limited to this researcher. Transcriptions will be destroyed in 2010.

60
CHAPTER IV
THE FINDINGS

Introduction

There is no elixir to eliminating the achievement gap. This researcher systematically
analyzed the methods utilized in a high school where the achievement gap is shrinking.
The members of the school carved their own path to meet their unique needs. The
overarching themes that emerged through the research highlighted the critical elements
found in their strategies, practices, expectations, and use of data to assess the
effectiveness of research based programs. Following an anecdotal introduction to VFHS,
is an analysis of the findings by research question. Evidence was gathered through
document reviews, observations, surveys, and interviews.

Valley Forge High School

A visitor’s first impression of Valley Forge High School reveals an older façade that is
easy to navigate. Informational signs are clearly posted providing direction for those new
to the school. The front office is a welcoming area, with office staff immediately
acknowledging and helping guests. The school is situated on a single level, with parallel
rows of buildings housing classrooms that are organized by curricular areas. Between
classes, students flood the causeways in an energetic, yet orderly fashion; the steady hum
of fading conversations fills the air.

61
This researcher’s introduction to the school began in the Spring of 2008. The school was
two weeks away from beginning its state testing season. The principal was focused on
preparing each student to do their very best on these tests by meeting with every class.
On this particular day, he was scheduled to present to freshmen English classes.

Students filed into the classroom in a timely manner and the PowerPoint began. Principal
Pack explained the purpose of standardized tests, rewarded the achievement of those
students who had improved in the preceding year, and detailed the growth of Valley
Forge High School over the last few years. The charts comparing VFHS’s scores to those
of the other schools within the district inspired school spirit and competition. Students
were instilled with a sense of purpose to perform at even higher levels in order to
outperform the other schools within the district. The presentation by the principal took
about 15 minutes, with time for questions. He presented to two classes per period.
Presenting to all classes in all grade levels would take about four weeks of concentrated
time and it was clear he was enjoying every minute of it.

Student achievement was the focus of the principal’s message to every class and to every
student for this extended period of time. This was also this researcher’s first answer to
the three research questions posed about the school. It was clear, from the leader of this
school, that student achievement was his top priority. He was willing to forego all other
commitments for this extensive time frame to emphasize not just the importance of
demonstrating their learning, but also to convey his expectations that V.F.H.S. students
were capable of performing at the highest levels. These high expectations, combined
62
with support to meet them, surfaced quickly as a theme throughout the fact-finding
portion of this study.

VFHS first opened its doors in 1956 to educate 508 students. That number has climbed
incrementally and today, VFHS has a total population of 2,044. 42% of the student
population, because of their socio-economic status, qualifies for federal funding. 85% of
the school’s English Learners (EL) speaks Spanish as their native language. According
to student responses on state testing forms, 31% of parents have not graduated from high
school; 32% have earned a high school diploma; 20% have taken some college courses;
13% have graduated from college; and 4% attended graduate school.

The diverse population of VFHS is served by a variety of programs that are designed to
support student achievement. Students in need of remediation are enrolled in
intervention courses in the core academic areas of math and English. In addition,
extensive staff development has been done over the last three years in the area of
vocabulary development strategies and in the Jane Schaffer writing process which is used
throughout every curricular area. Finally, for the last two years, Princeton Review has
worked with second language and Title I students and teachers through professional
training and curriculum development. Proficiency scores for EL populations, as measure
by the AYP, have soared from 12% to 46%. The API for this population has enjoyed a
commensurate increase of 126 points. (Chapter III)

63
Improving student achievement is identified as the school-wide objective in the
documents reviewed by the researcher. These documents are produced by stakeholders
to chart the course the school will take for a three to five year period of time. For
example, both the Single Plan for Student Achievement (SPSA), developed by the School
Site Council, and the Schoolwide Action Plan, as developed through the Western
Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC) accreditation process, share specific and
targeted areas of confluence. The first goal identified for each is to improve literacy; the
second, numeracy. A quick glance at internal and external measures of student
achievement validates the effectiveness of these plans.

Survey Overview
The researcher introduced the dissertation and its purpose at the first staff meeting of the
year, prior to the opening of school. Methods of data collection, including observation,
document reviews, interviews, and a survey were also presented. The surveys were
distributed and faculty members were given the following survey protocols:
• Completion of surveys was optional.
• All surveys would remain anonymous.
• There would be no remuneration for the completion of surveys.
• Results would be shared with the site administrator.

VFHS employs 105 faculty members, 70 of whom submitted completed surveys. The
survey was divided into three distinct areas of concentration, in alignment with each of
the three survey questions. The numbers within the parentheses reflect the number of
64
administrators responding in each category. Administrative responses are closely aligned
with those of teachers.

Question 1: What schoolwide programs promote student achievement and contribute to
the closing of the achievement gap?

Programs were described to participants as a pre-packaged series that is implemented to
achieve a prescribed goal. Implementation also affects the fidelity with which programs
are delivered and the human variable always affects the manner in which it is
communicated. Programs range from curricular, such as a reading improvement
program, to instructional, such as professional development series presented to the
faculty. If the emphases of each should dovetail, with students and teachers learning
about a common concept, the direction of this educational institution would immediately
become evident. In the case of VFHS, this was certainly the case. The synergy
developed from this common endeavor has resulted in better teaching and, therefore,
better learning.

During his interview, when asked which programs offered on the campus promote
student achievement, Principal Pack unequivocally stated that every program that VFHS
offers promotes student achievement. He elaborated by explaining the series of
intervention programs VFHS offers for students who have not been doing well, as well as
an advanced academy for the higher achieving students. In this way, the school
systematically supports the achievement of every student:
We have READ 180 for our 9
th
and 10
th
graders targeting kids with low reading
ability. We also have a Freshman Academy for 9
th
graders who are struggling
65
with writing skills. Probably the most effective program for our EL students has
been the 10
th
grade pre-CAHSEE courses. This class is designed for EL students
who received less than a 2.5 on the writing portion of the practice CAHSEE that
they take at the end of the 9
th
grade. They take that class as a companion class to
the English 2 class the entire sophomore year. 25% of the class focuses on
CAHSEE multiple choice type skills and 75% essay writing. The curriculum was
developed by our own teachers with a little bit of help from Princeton Review.
We also have a post-CAHSEE class targeted at kids who haven’t passed the
CAHSEE the first time. We have that for both math and English. We also have a
large AVID program targeted at typical AVID students who have the potential to
go to college but maybe not the background.

The English Department, then, developed a curricular series that provided additional
instruction in either reading or writing. READ 180 supports reading comprehension for
underclassmen; the Freshman Academy supports effective writing; the CAHSEE course
offers test taking skills and writing instruction. The solid academic base cemented in the
first two years of high school allows for greater academic growth in every subject matter
for students in their last two years of high school. That instruction is tailored to not only
meet student academic needs, but also state testing requirements. Teachers, having
developed these courses, demonstrate their collective efficacy as well as the
deliberateness of their practice. They not only believe that students are capable of
achieving more, but have also built in a system to support that achievement.

This systemic approach to assist struggling students through additional instruction, and
not diluted instruction – reaffirms the assertions of educators since Carter G. Woodson in
1933. Woodson had found it counter-intuitive that white children, who, at the time, had
greater opportunities at home, were taught more than black children. As an educational
66
community, VFHS practices what Woodson contended. Struggling students require more
instruction, for them to reach the levels of proficiency of their peers.

Principal Pack’s assessment of schoolwide programs is consistent with survey results.
Ninety percent of respondents agreed that VFHS had schoolwide programs to assist
teachers in the use of academic assessments to provide information on, and to improve,
the achievement of individual students and the overall instructional program. Eighty-
eight percent agreed that the school offered professional development programs to enable
all children in the school to meet the state academic standards. However, in terms of
student behavior, only 52% of respondents agreed that the school offers programs that
provide teacher training in effective classroom management and discipline strategies.
Administrators’ responses mirror those of teachers throughout the survey and are listed in
the survey tables for information purposes. Only teacher results were used as measures
within the analysis of this case study.

Table 3. Survey Questions 1-6
Survey Question Strongly
Disagree
Disagree Agree Strongly
Agree
1- My school has a school-wide
professional development program or
programs for teachers to enable all
children in the school to meet the
state academic content standards.
2 40 (1) 22 (3)
2- My school has a school-wide
program or programs to increase
parental involvement through means
such as family literacy services.
1 12 (2) 38 (1) 8 (1)
3- My school has a school-wide
programs or programs providing
training to teachers in effective
instructional methods and strategies.
1 5 39 (1) 21 (3)
67

Table 3. Continued
4- My school has a school-wide
program or programs that provide
effective, timely assistance for
students who experience difficulty in
attaining the proficient or advanced
level of the academic content
standards.
1 5 42 (3) 16 (1)
5- My school has a school-wide
programs or programs to assist
teachers in the use of academic
assessments to provide information
on and to improve, the achievement
of individual students and the overall
instructional program.
1 2 47 (3) 15 (1)
6- My school has a school-wide
program or programs that provide
teachers training in effective
classroom management and discipline
strategies.
1 25 (1) 29 (3) 8

The school’s Special Projects Coordinator, Dr. Maggie Smith, concurred with these
results through a follow up interview. She stated that teachers tutored their own students
and that, in addition, a peer tutoring program had been initiated by one of this year’s
graduating seniors. This program provides tutoring for students during lunch. It also
exemplifies the validation students receive through their participation in the governance
of the school. She did, however, mention that much teacher training had not been
provided since 2002, where professional development opportunities in effective
classroom instructional strategies, such as Graphic Organizers and student recognition
opportunities, had been promoted. She mentioned that while some of the teachers who
had participated in these trainings continued to use some of the strategies, newer teachers
had not benefited from such opportunities and, those who had, needed refresher courses.
68
"That happened several years ago. The faculty had been trained the year before I
returned to the campus. Back then, there were many books available from the training
that people were still using. Principal Pack has mentioned that this year we need to focus
on the good instructional practices that the program advocates.” The instructional
practices that teachers have instituted, beyond the efforts in literacy, include a vehicle to
support student learning.

In terms of professional development though, Rosie Christopher, English Department
Chair, believes that the members in her department have received significant training in
improving student writing. She cites the Jane Schaffer Writing Project as playing a
critical role in structuring lessons and guiding the instruction of writing throughout the
department and throughout the school. Teachers believed that this project would
increase student achievement not only in writing, but throughout their high school
careers. This confidence in the program positively impacted its implementation.
When Jane Schaffer came to campus, the administration had her work with the
entire campus. Every group of teachers incorporated writing into their classes.
Science teachers are coming to me and asking if this make sense. Wow. I’m
talking about writing to Science teachers and math teachers!”

The program offers educators guidelines about how to teach the multi-paragraph essay to
students in any subject area. The unexpected additional value that it brought to teachers
was a common language through which to discuss student learning and assessment
strategies. Math and English teachers could discuss student learning as diagnosed by
student writing. Conversations about individual student progress were facilitated through
this common endeavor.
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The decision to bring this program onto campus had begun as a collaborative decision
between the faculty and the previous administration. Despite a change in leadership, it
was carried forward through transition of principals. This consistency of vision,
message, and direction demonstrates the strength of the professional dialogues that
occurred for this group of educators to move forward, spanning the tenure of two
leadership teams at VFHS. Ms. Christopher echoes the sentiments of staff members
from other departments:
Getting the dialogue going is helping people get together. It’s helping people to
not remain isolated and it is a really, really positive thing for this department…
That [collaboration time] gave us time to start looking at data and time to work
with each other.

In the English department, students with limited skills in writing matriculate through a
two-year series within this program. In the third year, students transition into the
California Literature Project. According to Ms. Christopher, by their fourth year, these
students who started their high school careers as needing the most assistance in writing
became the most proficient in the writing process. She also believes that maintaining a
level of consistency within the curriculum cements the learning for students. Regardless
of teacher, everyone is learning the same thing. Students transferring from one class to
another, and one grade to another, are not learning new styles and new processes.
Instead, every teacher is “speaking the same language” and every student is building
upon the same knowledge base.

70
These programs, as addressed in the school’s WASC document and in their Single Plan
for Student Achievement, took root in the Spring of 2005 when a Literacy Task Force
was formed to infuse literacy across the curriculum. Task Force teachers and
administrators developed an Academic Literacy Action Plan that included schoolwide
academic vocabulary training, as well as training in the Jane Schaffer Writing Process.
These schoolwide programs were supplemented by a unique partnership with Princeton
Review. Princeton Review is a national, for-profit, test preparation company that
specializes in increasing student performance on standardized tests such as the Scholastic
Aptitude Test (S.A.T.) or Advanced Placement Exams that college bound high school
students are required to take to enroll in a college or university. Princeton Review
worked primarily with English Learners (EL) and Title I students. They also provided
professional development training to the teachers who worked with these specific sub-
groups.

According to Principal Pack, this partnership was not universally embraced by the
teaching staff. Staff members were concerned that the instruction would not meet state
standards and that the learning would be artificial – teaching test-taking strategies and not
substance. In fact, as Ms. Christopher describes it, they were “teaching to the test which
is the most horrendous thing we’ve had to do as educators.” However, they did go
through the training, as the students went through theirs. The results of these combined
efforts yielded a significant increase in the EL proficiency scores, as measured by the
AYP: soaring from 12.6% in 2006 to 51.9% in 2008. The socio-economically
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disadvantaged sub-group attained a 50.6 proficiency rate, up from 42% in 2006; while the
schoolwide proficiency rate rose from 48% to 56% in that same time period.

These scores validated many of the attempts the school leadership team had implemented
and served to remind all faculty members that every student can find success through
their concerted efforts. Ms. Christopher reflected later that perhaps, if the test accurately
assesses the content standards, then teaching to the test is simply teaching to the content
standards – as every Advanced Placement teacher does for those courses aligned with
college level standards.

In addition to remedial, intervention programs, VFHS offers an accelerated program for
high achieving students. Their Advanced Academic Academy (AAA) emphasizes
international studies. Students who successfully complete the rigorous honors and
Advanced Placement courses required, earn the prestigious Advanced Placement
International Diploma. (APID) This program, initiated in 2005 with 38 freshmen is now
featured in all four grade levels. As a testament to its success, VFHS’s AAA received the
California School Board Association’s coveted Golden Bell Award in 2008.

The schoolwide programs that promote the learning of all students while narrowing the
gap between underperforming subgroups are embedded within the curriculum. Writing
programs serve as a common base for teachers from all areas. This collective base fosters
dialogue about student performance, and, through this shared mechanism for assessment,
increases discussion about both individual student achievement and lesson planning.
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Reading programs, in particular, READ 180, offer students additional literacy support
that also transfers to all subject areas. READ 180 is one of four reading intervention
programs approved by the state. As its name suggests, students make a 180 degree shift
in their approach to reading. Students benefit with the tools provided by the test
preparatory programs. The strategies and skills learned through this program will serve
students in any high stakes test they will ever be required to take, through academic or
professional institutions. The myriad programs listed and discussed thus far have been
effective because they are an outgrowth of the collaborative efforts of the educators on
the VFHS campus. The teachers investigated them, trained with them, and believed that
they would be effective. They believed that their students could achieve proficiency and
that these programs would work as a catalyst to spur on the effort.

Question 2: What schoolwide practices promote student achievement and contribute to
the closing of the achievement gap?

If programs are what schools are doing, then practices are how schools are implementing
those programs. This revolves around the organization of the school and how people
interact with one another as they implement the programs. Bolman and Deal’s structural
frame surfaces as the appropriate lens through which to view this dynamic. Bolman and
Deal highlight the importance of well-defined roles in team performance in order to
carefully balance work allocation while coordinating diverse efforts (p.69). Defining
these relationships within a school falls under the auspices of the principal: the leader
charged with the responsibility of moving all stakeholders in a common direction,
motivated by a common purpose.
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The survey questions geared toward assessing schoolwide practices include clearly
defined collaboration opportunities, participation in a cohesive professional development
program, reflective practices, and communication with the school’s leadership team.

Table 4. Survey Questions 7- 22
Survey Question Strongly
Disagree
Disagree Agree Strongly
Agree
7 – Teachers are encouraged to
collaborate with other teachers on
instructional matters on a regular
basis.
7 30 (3) 26 (1)
8 – Teachers have an active role in
identifying and implementing
professional development goals and
objectives fort he school.
14 (2) 34 (2) 14
9 – I regularly discuss my teaching
with my administrator(s).
8 38 15 (3) 1
10- The evaluation feedback I receive
from my administrator(s) assist me to
improve my teaching effectiveness.
4 22 (1) 27 (2) 6
11- I am aware of specific areas of
interest that my administrator(s) look
at when visiting my classroom.
2 21 (1) 38 (3) 13
12- Assessment of student learning is
accomplished to improving, rather
than just monitor student
performance.
1 45 (2) 14 (2)
13- The assessment of student
learning is based on specific, clearly
identified academic standards for
student performance.
1 38 (2) 24 (2)
14- Teachers seek feedback to
improve their teaching.
10 34 (3) 16 (1)
15- Decisions about school
improvement are always based upon
school improvement plan.
2 42 18 (4)
16- Teachers at this school have
comparable expectations regarding
student academic performance.
1 12 37 (2) 12 (2)

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Table 4. Continued
17- Professional development
training over the past year has
provided useful information helping
me increase my teaching
effectiveness.
2 7 41 (2) 13 (2)
18- Teachers at this school are
encouraged to use the same or similar
instructional strategies.
4 37 (2) 22 (2)
19- There is an intentional effort to
improving home school relations and
parent participation.
1 6 (1) 36 (2) 17 (1)
20- Academic content you expect
your students to learn is dictated by
districts adopted curriculum.
1 (1) 9 (1) 40 (1) 14 (1)
21- Academic content you expect
your students to learn to do (or you
and your colleagues) select.

2 8 (1) 28 (2) 14
22- Academic content you expect
your students to learn is selected by
your students.
24 (1) 22 (1) 14 (1)

Eighty-eight percent of respondents agreed that the assessment of student learning is
accomplished to improve, rather than just monitor, student performance. Sixty-six
percent of teachers disagreed about having regular discussions with their administrators
about their teaching. Another 66% of respondents did not agree that the academic
content that their students were expected to learn were selected by those same students.

English Department chairperson, Rosie Christopher, described the practice of enrolling
students in double blocks of English when they require additional literacy support. The
second block of English might be the Freshman Academy, CAHSEE support, or Read
180 depending upon student need. The Freshman Academy is an English support course
for those students who have attained proficiency in reading but not in writing. The
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CAHSEE support course is for 11
th
and 12
th
grade students who have not passed the Exit
Exam. A 10
th
grade Pre-CAHSEE course was also developed for students who score
poorly on a practice CAHSEE at the end of their 9
th
grade English class.

The practice of enrolling students in a support course has yielded tremendous results
according to their internal measures such as their district benchmark exams, as well as
their external CST measures. Ms. Christopher also credits the Princeton Review program
as having played a significant role in improving their CAHSEE pass rate for students who
are at risk of not passing, or have not passed, the California High School Exit Exam
(CAHSEE).

In terms of collaboration and the use of assessments to drive instruction, Dr. Smith of
Special Projects described early release days during which teachers reviewed pacing
guides, shared lessons, and reviewed common test results. Ms. Christopher of the
English Department commented that two of the best practices used within the department
were the promotion of critical thinking skills and the use of the Modern Language
Association’s (MLA) guidelines for writing. As a department, it is through the
employment of these two practices that teachers collaborate.

Finally, the Math Department co-chairs detailed the collaborative opportunities provided
to their department specifically through the TASEL-M grant. This program, as described
in the school’s Western Association of Schools and Colleges report, is a five year
collaborative model with California State University, Fullerton (CSUF). The Teacher
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Assisting Students to Excel in Learning Mathematics grant (TASEL-M) is a standards-
based program designed to improve students’ academic performance in math. The grant
funded professional development opportunities, and release time specifically designed to
increase intra-departmental collaboration. As the program has run its five-year cycle, the
department was now deep into discussing alternate ways through which the collaboration
would continue without the grant.

The department chairs, though, did not believe that the program produced tangible results
in terms of student achievement. While they enjoyed the collaborative nature and the
opportunities to partner with colleagues, they could not say that student achievement rose
as a result of this grant. Principal Pack echoes these concerns:
Our math scores have been the least successful in improving within the school.
I’ve watched a lot of good training and good staff development and I haven’t seen
math scores really improve that much. However, math scores haven’t improved
that much anywhere in the state and we do have a lot more kids taking higher
level math so in that respect I think it’s been successful. We don’t have anything
below algebra any longer and the number of kids taking calculus has tripled in the
last three or four years…I’m kind of at a loss for why we haven’t seen more
improvement.

AYP proficiency rates between 2006 and 2008 within subgroups confirm this belief,
staying relatively flat in this time period. A notable exception is the steep rise in scores
within the EL population. They climb from a 33.3% proficiency rate to a 47.6%, while
schoolwide the growth is from 49.4% to a 52% proficiency rate. Some school leaders
attribute this growth to language acquisition. As students have gained greater proficiency
in English, they have been better able to understand the material in class and better able
to decipher standardized test questions.
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To address this flatlining, the school launched a Numeracy Task Force this year. Similar
to the Literacy Task force of 2005, this group will develop a plan of action to increase
math performance. This plan will be borne of data analysis, research-based programs,
and healthy discussions by all faculty members to make it a schoolwide focus.

The practice of enrolling students in curricular programs that support their learning
further evidences the cogency of this integration. Students are given the gift of time
within the school day to hone their skills. The substantive information that teachers
impart to students is laced with literacy skills. The support classes in reading or writing
or test prep were developed by teachers who recognized the gap in student learning and
who believed that a systematic approach would close that gap. This targeted instructional
focus, through its programs and its practices, is reflected within the school’s budget. The
financial commitment to provide a concentrated professional development series for
teachers that would be supported by additional sections in the master schedule for
students demonstrates the cohesion between programs and practices on the VFHS
campus.

Question 3: What instructional strategies were implemented to target the closing of the
achievement gap?

As programs are implemented through the structures in place on the campus, they are
enhanced by the individuals leading the efforts. The nuances associated with program
implementation are the instructional strategies incorporated. How leaders garner support
for their efforts and the types of personal touches involved in moving programs forward
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all fall under instructional strategies. Using, again, Bolman and Deal, these envelop
several frames: human resources, political, and symbolic frames. These are the least
tangible and, yet, the most critical in terms of program fidelity and sustainability.
The human resources frame focuses on the tension associated with personal versus
organizational need; the political frame refers to the allocation of scant resources to
occasionally competing interests; and the symbolic frame centers around the meanings
we create around images. Belief and faith inspire reactions to relatively innocuous
symbols or objects or locations. The interconnectedness of each of these frames to the
human condition is what gives rise to the strategies incorporated in classrooms and
throughout campuses. These are what not only create, but drive the culture within
organizations.

Just over 50 years old, Valley Forge High School is not steeped in history. While there
is a great deal of “Wolverine” pride throughout the campus, with staff and student
populations, no real traditions have been established over the years to mark VFHS
activities within the community. However, the fact that they are a community is
markedly clear. During one of the final visits to this school, the researcher noted flyers
posted throughout the school highlighting a fund established in honor of a student. When
asked about the student, the principal said he had been killed recently in the crosswalk as
he was riding his bike home from school. The fund was for the family and, to date, this
Title I school had raised over a thousand dollars in donations. They had also had – after
securing consent from the family - a special assembly for VFHS students and staff to
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commemorate this young life. Symbolically, the school is connected to this family and
demonstrating the interconnectedness of all their students and staff.

As an institution, though, there had been a time when the needs of the organization had
come before the needs of the students. VFHS had, for decades, participated in the
practice of tracking students into college preparatory and non-college preparatory
courses. In the last few years, they have dismantled the non-college prep track and have
begun placing every student in a college prep course. In order to support these previously
tracked students, the school developed the support classes described above, targeting
specific areas of focus. In addition to de-tracking, the school increased their minority
enrollment in advanced classes by eliminating pre-requisites for honors and advanced
placement classes. As the principal asserts, “any kid who wants to challenge themselves,
as long as they don’t have an ‘F’ in the subject of the previous class, gets to take the
class.” This practice is consistent with the message of Kati Haycock from Education
Trust. Even lower performing students when placed in more challenging classes, perform
at higher levels and, learn more. The number of honors and advanced placement classes
has increased threefold in the last three to four years. In fact, this substantial increase, as
well as the significant increases in their standardized test scores, has resulted in the
school being named as one of Newsweek Magazine’s “Top 1000 High Schools” in
America.

Maintaining high expectations for all students is validated in the survey, as well. Ninety-
six percent of respondents agree that when developing lessons, teachers consciously
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prepared them with high expectations designed to challenge and stimulate all students.
Eighty-seven percent of respondents agree that they consciously employ teaching
strategies and instructional materials that stimulate higher-order thinking skills. Eighty-
six percent agree that when teaching, they move among the students, engaging
individually and collectively with them during the learning experience, and monitor their
understanding of the content to make adjustments accordingly. In fact, not one
respondent disagreed with the statement about monitoring and adjusting material to
facilitate student learning. Interestingly, in addition, no one disagreed with the statement
that when developing lessons, they consciously selected teaching methods and strategies
that accommodate individual student needs and interests.

Table 5. Survey Questions 23 - 37
Survey Question Strongly
Disagree
Disagree Agree Strongly
Agree
23- When developing my lessons, I
consciously select content that meets
the district’s student competencies
and performance standards.
4 30 (4) 24
24- When developing my lessons, I
consciously select instructional
materials based upon my knowledge
of my students’ developmental needs
and learning styles.
2 (1) 29 (3) 28
25- When developing my lessons, I
consciously select teaching methods
and strategies that accommodate
individual student needs and interests.
(1) 37 (2) 22 (1)
26- When developing my lessons, I
consciously prepare lessons with high
expectations designed to challenge
and stimulate all students.
1 37 (4) 30

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Table 5. Continued
27- When developing my lesson, I
consciously build upon my students’
existing knowledge and experience.
1 31 (3) 27 (1)
28- When developing my lesson, I
consciously consider how to create
active learning experience for my
students to facilitate engagement.
1 (1) 30 (2) 28 (1)
29- When developing my lesson, I
consciously consider how to create
cooperatives learning experiences for
my students.
6 26 (2) 27 (2)
30- When developing my lesson, I
consciously create lessons that
require integration of content from
more than one content area.
8 (1) 36 (3) 15
31- When teaching, I monitor
students’ understanding of the content
and make adjustments accordingly.
28 (4) 32
32- When teaching, I move among
the students, engaging individually
and collectively with them during the
learning experience.
1 25 (3) 35 (1)
33- When teaching, I consciously
employ teaching strategies and
instructional materials that stimulate
higher-order thinking skills.
1 (1) 25 (3) 36
34- When teaching, I create social
interaction among students by
requiring students to work as a team
with both individual and group
responsibilities.
5 26 (4) 30
35- When teaching, I vary the size
and composition of learning groups.
5 37 (4) 18
36- When a student is having
difficulty with an activity or
assignment, I am usually able to
adjust it to his/her level.
1 37 (3) 23 (1)
37- At your school, peer tutoring is
often used to assist struggling
students.
9 (1) 37 (3) 14

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The Math Department co-chairpersons particularly supported these responses during their
interview. Delia Gallagher and Thomas Ripple discussed the use of questioning
strategies that helped improve student learning. The questioning strategies, as used,
dovetail with the critical thinking efforts promoted throughout the English Department.
They also employ the use of exit tickets to gauge the effectiveness of their instruction and
the level of student engagement during lessons. Student feedback, in this way, helps
drive their instructional strategies.

Overwhelmingly, through interviews, the mission of Valley Forge High School in
educating all students becomes acutely evident. Every interviewee mentioned the high
standards to which they exhort every student, believing that they are attainable. Dr.
Smith summed this philosophical foundation when discussing the school’s level of
success in closing the achievement gap.
We have seen gains in our test scores every year – even though that’s a very short
hand version of what we are doing here. We have more kids wanting to be in the
high achievement academy and it’s tough. They are asking for more work by
being a part of that. In closing the achievement gap you think of the minority kids
who have done as well typically. 2/3 of our students are Hispanic with Latino
background and that is true of our Academy as well. And as the Title I
coordinator, I know who we’ve gotten to sign up for the free and reduced lunch.
We have poor kids who are working very hard.

Whether through exit tickets, implementation of student recommended programs, or
eliciting authentic responses from students through questioning strategies, the student
voice emerges clearly as a voice that matters. Achievement is not only expected, but
celebrated. This was also highlighted through the observation of the principal as he
presented information about the upcoming STAR tests to each grade level. Individual
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students in each class were singled out as having improved the most from one year to the
next. Students applauded their peers for their achievement and students were entered into
raffles for prizes earned for this achievement. In fact, through a close partnership with a
nearby theme park, every student who demonstrated growth – no matter how small –
earned an admission ticket to that park.

While Principal Pack suggests that this method is only “smoke and mirrors,” the evidence
suggests otherwise. In his self-effacing manner, he underestimates the power of the
motivational strategies he has set in place. The tangible rewards for individual student
performance help build student buy-in to a test that is virtually immaterial to them or
their future. In addition, as teachers meet individually with each of their homeroom
students to review past performance in every subject matter, students actively choose to
set realistic goals for the following year. This further cements the student’s role in the
assessment process and emphasizes to students that teachers actively review student
learning through these measures, thereby adding meaning to their performance.

These tangible incentives, coupled with the personal contact and support provided to
students – at risk, or otherwise – evidence the schoolwide commitment to student
achievement. However, student performance has as much to do with active choice as it
does with solid educational foundations. Strategies are developed by faculty members to
identify expectations, implement academic and personal support structures to ensure the
realization of those expectations, and data is analyzed by staff members to measure
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progress. Through this analysis, the course of the school is charted by its stakeholders so
that every student finds success through perseverance. As. Dr. Smith notes:

The more you interact with kids one on one, the more they understand that there is
a whole group of people really pulling for them. Kids get discouraged and they
start thinking they’re all alone and they find out they’re not. Teachers really want
them to achieve and do well. A lot of the success in any area is about the
relationships that you build. And of course we have those kids who are just
downright lazy and you have to say to them that this is not acceptable. You will
benefit, society will benefit, from your productivity.

This year, the school embarked upon a new professional development effort, focusing on
training in direct instruction. Through questioning techniques, it is designed to engaging
all students within the classroom - not merely those volunteering to participate. This
year, the Social Science and Science departments will initiate the endeavor. Math and
English will follow suit next year. The program includes auxiliary support opportunities
after the initial training. Teachers begin by learning about the research and theory behind
the program. Trainers follow up by giving demonstration lessons to VFHS students, with
the regular teacher observing and taking notes. Teacher and trainer debrief after the
lesson and then spend time co-planning and co-teaching a lesson. The final step is with
the teacher planning and teaching independently, with the trainer observing and
debriefing with the teacher and without any administrative oversight. In the interim,
administrators are trained in evaluating teachers implementing this method of instruction.
As Principal Pack note, “They [teachers] are looking forward to seeing them [trainers] do
a demo lesson with their worst class to see if it works.” It is an interesting challenge –
one that has already convinced several of the teachers on campus about the effectiveness
of this approach.
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Discussion
The Educational Solutions discussed in the literature have been incorporated, in many
ways, in the structure of VFHS. Additional academic support is given to struggling
students either through co-enrollment in core curricular areas, or through guided
counseling. The instruction is sequenced to ensure student mastery of the material. This
is especially clear with the pacing and curriculum within the English Department.

The substantive knowledge acquired by students in this particular department would not
have been as effective were it not for the clear sense of personal and departmental
efficacy. Teachers believe that they do make a difference in student learning. They do
not focus on any of the external variables that may serve as impediments to learning:
poverty, language acquisition, or social pressures. Instead, they focus on the variables
over which the school does have control: curriculum, pacing, and professional
development. Indeed, it is this last that fuels the expert teachers within the department.
Their professional development has targeted student writing. Student writing has
improved. Teachers are reflective about their practice and collaborate regularly to find
strategies or practices that might assist with students within their classes. At VFHS, it is
evident that teachers recognize and validate the experts in the next class and down the
hall. The collaborative nature of the department fosters the success of all students.

While interview and survey results suggest substantial collaborative opportunities, much
of this is done informally. When asked about collaboration time, the principal mused:
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It’s hit and miss. We have no formal collaboration time built into the schedule so
our teachers get three professional development days a year and most of those
days are devoted to collaboration. In addition to those, we have four yearly
release days at two hours each that is all designed for collaboration. Other than
that, our departments meet once a month on their own, either at lunch or before or
after school and sometimes they will spend time looking at benchmark results and
doing a little bit of collaboration but there’s not a whole lot of time for that. We
have a faculty meeting every time we have a professional development day. We
end up with maybe six meetings a year, but they’re pretty brief.

However, he further commented that when departments ask for additional collaboration
time, they receive it. Another notable observation is that while the principal does not
hold monthly faculty meetings, they do seem to be a cohesive group moving forward in
the same direction. Whether this is due to the monthly get-togethers in the staff lounge
with each department responsible for providing snacks or the fact that professional
development targets a common practice for each department so that the teaching
strategies in each department coalesce into a schoolwide endeavor, it is clear that the staff
at VFHS moves forward with one voice and one purpose.

Not only is this reflective practice commensurate with the logical integration of the
curriculum, it is highlighted in several of the successful efforts detailed in Chapter II of
this study. Success for All, as well as the Opportunity to Learn Standards, as delineated
by the National Council on Educational Standards and Testing, emphasize the need for
curricular logic and targeted professional development. Indeed, the leadership of VFHS
infuses only research based professional development programs into the school – a
practice consistent with the research reviewed in Chapter II.

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Although three themes emerged to serve as a nexus leading to high student achievement,
all of which are commensurate with the literature, one overarching principle has driven
this movement. The path toward progress was paved as a result of the laser-like focus the
leadership of the school had instilled on promoting the achievement of every student.
The collaborative practices, the targeted professional development, the incentive
programs, the tutoring, the counseling, are just a few of the factors that have contributed
to student success. Each of these factors was generated through a discussion, launched
by the school’s leadership, between all stakeholders identifying a gap in the organization
– a gap that impeded student learning. The high level of personal and organizational
efficacy allowed for honest and innovative dialogue to discuss assessment measures and
to determine next steps believing they will be effective. This, then, becomes an inverted
version of the Pygmalion Effect discussed in Chapter II. Those who believe they will be
successful will not be deterred by minor setbacks and will find effective routes to their
destination.

At VFHS, believing that students can achieve at the highest levels is part of their ethical
core. Support programs are embedded into the school day to ensure student achievement.
The teachers here are motivated because they have lower achieving kids so they
can see the direct result of something that works a lot faster than teachers at
higher performing schools. They believe that these kids can do better. It seems to
be a pervasive belief that ‘hey, these are low socio-economic kids but they’re
capable of doing better.’ It would be easy to say that these kids have all these
problems so they’re not going to master calculus or they’re not going to master
Shakespeare. I don’t see that in most teachers here.

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However, the principal is clear about how to keep driving the school forward. He has
read the research that demonstrates how students can either move ahead or fall behind in
a single academic year depending upon the teacher to which s/he is assigned.
It has to come from instructional changes in the classrooms. The next couple of
years, if the school wants to go further than it is, we’re going to have to
concentrate more on pushing some of the more average teachers to get better.

He understands that only by engaging in some tough conversations will some teachers
embrace some of the pedagogical changes that are being implemented throughout the rest
of the campus. He is concerned about the impact that will have on the cohesiveness of
his staff and he is concerned about how yet another transition in leadership teams –
within the school and within the district – would affect the steady, significant progress
this school is making.

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CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS

Summary
Todd Whitaker, professor of Educational Leadership at Indiana State University and
former teacher and principal, says it best, “It’s people, not programs.” The success
attained by Valley Forge High School is the result of the concerted efforts of the faculty
and leadership of the school. Through their regular professional dialogue about
curricular programs, instructional strategies, and student achievement, they have made
significant strides in closing the achievement gap, while ensuring the academic growth of
every student. The level of efficacy with which they embarked upon these endeavors has
only increased as a result of their significant levels of success. The teachers in the school
care deeply about student achievement: they not only expect it but have embedded
support for struggling students. They assess learning through a variety of means and use
the data to direct their next instructional steps. Professional dialogues about programs,
practices, and strategies occur regularly within departments and with the school’s
leadership team. The partnership between these two groups reinforces the impact of their
efforts with students.

Conclusions
The people within the organization have clearly taken ownership of the educational
program offered to students. Through classroom observations, surveys, and individual
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interviews, the personal and group efficacy of the staff becomes immediately evident.
The conversations do not center on the myriad variables adversely affecting student
achievement: poverty, parent education levels, rates of language acquisition, or
neighborhood. Rather, while acknowledging these factors, the professionals on this
campus discuss the programs, practices, and strategies that they have in place to not only
mitigate the effects of those factors, but overcome them. Students who have not yet
attained a certain level of proficiency with their writing matriculate through an
instructional sequence that will transform them into the strongest writers within their peer
group. Students, who are intimidated by asking an adult for help, can now turn to a peer
first. Achievement is expected, encouraged, and celebrated.

These norms, maintained in classrooms, departments, and the school, have developed
over time. It is clear that despite a turnover in leadership, three years ago, this student
centered culture continued unabated. Principal transitions have, within other studies of
this cohort, stalled the steady progress of schools. That is not the case at VFHS. Dr.
Pack assumed the helm and only accelerated the rate of success. One reason may be that
Dr. Pack was a seasoned, successful principal when he accepted the role of principal at
VFHS. This, though, would be a topic for another study. Indeed, such a study could also
assess the impact of district leadership on school sites. The district’s superintendent has
remained constant over the last seven years – spanning the latter half of previous
administration, as well as Dr. Pack’s tenure. The consistent message delivered by the
district office, including the support provided by it, would be another variable studied
when assessing the impact of principal change on the culture and progress of a school.
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This study offers an exhaustive analysis of the approach upon which one school
embarked to promote the achievement of all students, while closing the achievement gap
between majority and traditionally underperforming populations. Although their
approach met the unique needs of the school and its constituents, it included many
commonalities with other research based successful programs that share this same
objective. Additional research, though, is warranted especially in the topics listed below:
• Do leadership transitions – particularly of principals – affect the momentum of a
school’s progress?
• Is the transition smoother if the new principal is an experienced principal?
• Would improvement initiatives in math positively impact student achievement in
other subjects, as those in English have achieved?
• Would teachers be more likely to embrace change if job security were based on
the performance of their students – through multiple measures - and not through
the tenure system?
• How significant a role do the superintendent and board of education play in the
progress of schools?

Implications
The research on student achievement provides a host of programs that significantly and
positively affect the performance of our lowest performing students. These programs
require funding if they are to be successful – funding for additional, knowledgeable
personnel; funding for additional materials; funding for ongoing training and
collaboration opportunities.
92
In California, especially, this is difficult. Out of 50 states, California comes in last in
terms of revenue to education through taxes. In the current economic crisis, educators
and lawmakers alike speculate about the types of draconian cuts that may be made,
midyear, to local budgets. The bleak forecast does not inspire educational leaders to
invest in new programs. More accurately, these leaders are most concerned about how to
get through the remainder of the year solvent.

Perhaps, these extreme economic conditions create opportunities to develop greater
flexibility to streamline resources and personnel. Currently, some local educational
agencies (LEA) meet with considerable resistance when assessing the effectiveness of
programs and personnel. In fact, the assessment process is contested by some teacher
unions that suggest that teachers should be assessed on the delivery of the lesson rather
than whether or not students learn. Contract negotiations around this very concept have
stalled the progress of some schools. It would not be unusual for the least effective
teacher to lead this opposition – the least effective by internal and external measures who,
because of their tenured status, have no real fear of losing their position within any
district.

Today, in Washington D.C., the seat of our democracy is plagued with schools with 24%
graduation rates. Thirty-nine percent of D.C. high school students are proficient in
reading; 36% in math. The newly named chancellor of the district, Michelle Rhee, is
attempting to change these statistics by focusing on personnel: encouraging strong
teachers and principals, dismissing weak ones. She has earned both respect and rancor
93
throughout the district and every educator in the country is watching. One innovative
idea she proposed to the teachers union was to pay effective teachers up to $130,000.00
for one year if they were willing to forfeit their tenured status. The union declined to take
this proposal to their membership for a vote.

Research-based programs that have had significant, positive impact on the achievement
of students have also been contested because they have, according to union leadership,
changed working conditions. The sooner educators believe they can educate – despite the
stereotypical barriers with which students enter the school grounds – the sooner the
achievement gap is eliminated. It has been done in places where teachers believe in
themselves, as well as their students and where rich conversations regarding student data
occurs between professionals who then adjust practice to meet the immediate needs of
their students.

Physicians, lawyers, gardeners, and chefs are all measured by the level of their success on
an operating table, in a court room, in the yard, and in the kitchen. Why would we not
assess the effectiveness of teachers within the classroom? More importantly, why would
we not take action when all indicators suggest that this ineffectiveness results in
catastrophic conditions within schools across the country?

Many argue that the reason tenure exists within teacher contracts is to safeguard against
the arbitrary and capricious administrator. There must be some alternative between
falling victim to Machiavellian administrators and no accountability. We would find
94
different physicians, lawyers, gardeners, and chefs if they were found incompetent.
Students have no such choice. Administrators have no choice but to place students in
classrooms with teachers they know to be ineffective. Parents have not choice but to live
with these decisions because there may be no alternative. Students have no choice but to
submit to the teacher who is inept and on an improvement plan with no real faith that s/he
will improve. This is the teacher who blames his/her students for their lack of success,
year after year. This is also the teacher who has no other practical option but to remain in
teaching because of the consistent salary and benefits. This is a teacher living the life of
quiet desperation, waiting until retirement.

Thankfully, through this study, every researcher within this cohort found examples of
excellence: schools filled with professionals working toward a common vision, believing
it to be attainable, open to collaborating and using data to adjust practice. As this
becomes the norm, as the art of teaching and the science of results synergize within every
school and every district, the achievement gap will disappear.

95
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100
APPENDICES

Appendix A
Survey
Administrator Survey

Research Question 1: What school wide programs promote student achievement?

1. My school has a school-wide professional development program or programs for
teachers to enable all children in the school to meet the state academic content
standards.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

2. My school has a school-wide program or programs to increase parental involvement
through means such as family literacy services.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

3. My school has a school-wide program or programs providing training to teachers in
effective instructional methods and strategies.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

4. My school has a school-wide program or programs that provide effective, timely
assistance for students who experience difficulty in attaining the proficient or advanced
level of theStrongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

5. My school has a school-wide program or programs to assist teachers in the use of
academic assessments to provide information on, and to improve, the achievement of
individual students and the overall instructional program.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

6. My school has a school-wide program or programs that provide teachers training in
effective classroom management and discipline strategies.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4
101
Research Question 2: What school wide practices promote student achievement?

7. Teachers are encouraged to collaborate with other teachers on instructional matters on
a regular basis.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

8. Teachers have an active role in identifying and implementing professional
development goals and objectives for the school.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

9. I have regular discussions with my teachers regarding their teaching.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

10. The evaluation feedback I give to teachers assists them to improve their teaching
effectiveness.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

11. The teachers are aware of specific areas of interest I look at when visiting their
classrooms.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

12. Assessment of student learning is directed to improving, rather than just monitoring,
student performance.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

13. The assessment of student learning is based on specific, clearly identified academic
standards for student performance.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

102
14. Teachers seek feedback from other teachers to improve their teaching.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

15. Decisions about school improvement are always based upon our school improvement
plan.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

16. Teachers at this school have comparable expectations regarding student academic
performance.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

17. Professional development training over the past year has provided useful information
helping teachers increase their teaching effectiveness.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

18. Teachers at this school are encouraged to use the same or similar instructional
strategies.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

19. There is an intentional effort to improving home-school relations and parent
participation.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

20. Academic content students are expected to learn is dictated by district’s adopted
curriculum.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

21. Academic content students are expected to learn is selected by teachers.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4
103

22. Academic content students are expected to learn is selected by the students.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

Research Question 3: What instructional strategies were implemented to target the
closing of the achievement gap?

23. When teachers develop lessons, they consciously select content that meets the
district’s student competencies and performance standards.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

24. When teachers develop lessons, they consciously select instructional materials based
upon their knowledge of their students’ developmental needs and learning styles.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

25. When teachers develop lessons, they consciously select teaching methods and
strategies that accommodate individual student needs and interests.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

26. When teachers develop lessons, they consciously prepare lessons with high
expectations designed to challenge and stimulate all students.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

27. When teachers develop lessons, they consciously consider how to build upon their
students’ existing knowledge and experiences.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

28. When teachers design lessons, they consciously consider how to create active
learning experiences for their student to facilitate engagement.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4
104

29. When teachers develop lessons, they consciously consider how to create cooperative
learning experiences for their students.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

30. When teachers develop lessons, they consciously design lessons that require
integration of content from more than one content area.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

31. When teaching, teachers monitor students’ understanding of the content and make
adjustments accordingly.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

32. When teaching, teachers move among the students, engaging individually and
collectively with them during the learning experience.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

33. When teaching, teachers consciously implement a teaching strategy and instructional
materials that stimulates higher-order thinking skills.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

34. When teaching, teachers create social interaction among students by requiring
students to work as a team with both individual and group responsibilities.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

35. When teaching, teachers vary the size and composition of learning groups.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

105
36. When a student is having difficulty with an activity or assignment, the teachers are
usually able to adjust it to his/her level.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

37. At my school, peer tutoring is often used to assist struggling students.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

106
Appendix B
Teacher Survey

Research Question 1: What school wide programs promote student achievement?

1. My school has a school-wide professional development program or programs for
teachers to enable all children in the school to meet the state academic content
standards.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

2. My school has a school-wide program or programs to increase parental involvement
through means such as family literacy services.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

3. My school has a school-wide program or programs providing training to teachers in
effective
instructional methods and strategies.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

4. My school has a school-wide program or programs that provide effective, timely
assistance for students who experience difficulty in attaining the proficient or
advanced level of the academic content standards.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

5. My school has a school-wide program or programs to assist teachers in the use of
academic assessments to provide information on, and to improve, the achievement of
individual students and the overall instructional program.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

6. My school has a school-wide program or programs that provide teachers training in
effective classroom management and discipline strategies.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

107
Research Question 2: What school wide practices promote student achievement?

7. Teachers are encouraged to collaborate with other teachers on instructional matters on
a regular basis.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

8. Teachers have an active role in identifying and implementing professional
development goals and objectives for the school.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

9. I regularly discuss my teaching with my administrator(s).
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

10. The evaluation feedback I receive from my administrator(s) assists me to improve my
teaching effectiveness.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

11. I am aware of specific areas of interest that my administrator(s) looks at when visiting
my classroom.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

12. Assessment of student learning is accomplished by improving, rather than just
monitoring, student performance.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

13. The assessment of student learning is based on specific, clearly identified academic
standards for student performance.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

108
14. Teachers seek feedback from other teachers to improve their teaching.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

15. Decisions about school improvement are always based upon our school improvement
plan.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

16. Teachers at this school have comparable expectations regarding student academic
performance.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

17. Professional development training over the past year has provided useful information
helping me increase my teaching effectiveness.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

18. Teachers at this school are encouraged to use the same or similar instructional
strategies.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

19. There is an intentional effort to improving home-school relations and parent
participation.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

20. Academic content you expect your students to learn is dictated by district’s adopted
curriculum.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

109
21. Academic content you expect your students to learn is selected by you (and/or your
colleagues).
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

22. Academic content you expect your students to learn is selected by your students.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

Research Question 3: What instructional strategies were implemented to target the
closing of the achievement gap?

23. When developing my lessons, I consciously select content that meets the district’s
student competencies and performance standards.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

24. When developing my lessons, I consciously select instructional materials based upon
my knowledge of my students’ developmental needs and learning styles.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

25. When developing my lessons, I consciously select teaching methods and strategies
that accommodate individual student needs and interests.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

26. When developing my lessons, I consciously prepare lessons with high expectations
designed to challenge and stimulate all students.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

27. When developing my lessons, I consciously build upon my students’ existing
knowledge and experiences.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

110
28. When developing my lessons, I consciously consider how to create active learning
experiences for my students to facilitate engagement.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

29. When developing my lessons, I consciously consider how to create cooperative
learning experiences for my students.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

30. When developing my lessons, I consciously create lessons that require integration of
content from more than one content area.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

31. When teaching, I monitor students’ understanding of the content and make
adjustments accordingly.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

32. When teaching, I move among the students, engaging individually and collectively
with them during the learning experience.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

33. When teaching, I consciously employ teaching strategies and instructional materials
that stimulate higher-order thinking skills.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

34. When teaching, I create social interaction among students by requiring students to
work as a team with both individual and group responsibilities.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

111
35. When teaching, I vary the size and composition of learning groups.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

36. When a student is having difficulty with an activity or assignment, I am usually able
to adjust it to his/her level.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

37. At your school, peer tutoring is often used to assist struggling students.
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4

112
Appendix C

High School, Middle School - Principal, asst. principal, and teacher leaders (6 total)
Elementary School - One representative per grade level

Teacher Interview

1. What is your position and role in the school and how many years have you
been a faculty member of the school itself and in education overall?

2. What programs do you have in your department/grade level that promotes
student achievement? (R1)

3. How does the program work?

a. Does it target a specific population? (R3)
b. Does it require any additional funding? – source?
c. How do you measure its success?
d. Has it been successful in reducing the achievement gap? (R3)

4. Do you have any specific instructional practices that your department/grade
level uses to promote student achievement? (R2)
a. What kind of professional development have you received in those
practices?
b. How do you measure the effectiveness of the instructional practices?
c. Has it been successful in reducing the Achievement Gap? (R2)

5. Does your department/grade level have specific strategies that target the
closing of the achievement gap for all students and what are they? (R3)

6. How do you promote enrollment in your most rigorous courses?

7. How does the school’s leadership team support your efforts in these programs
and practices?
a. Who is on your leadership team and what role do they play?

8. What does collaboration look like at your school?

9. What specific aspects of your schools culture support student achievement?
(R1 & 2)

10. How much parent participation do you receive?

113
Appendix D

Administrator Interview

1. What is your position and role in the school and how many years have you
been a faculty member of the school itself and in education overall?

2. What programs does your school have that promotes student achievement?
(R1)

3. How does the program work?
a. Does it target a specific population? (R3)
b. Does it require any additional funding? – source?
c. How do you measure its success?
d. Has it been successful in reducing the achievement gap? (R3)

4. Does your school have any specific instructional practices that promote
student achievement? (R2)
a. What kind of professional development do you offer your staff?
b. How do you measure the effectiveness of the instructional practices?
(R2)

5. Does your school have specific strategies that target the closing of the
achievement gap for all students and what are they? (R3)

6. How do you promote enrollment in your most rigorous courses?

7. How do you support your teachers’ efforts in these programs and practices?

8. What does collaboration look like at your school site?

9. How do you feel the teachers support these school wide practices and
implementation?

10. What specific aspects of your school’s culture support student achievement?
(R1 & 2)

11. How much parent participation do you receive?

114
Appendix E
Data Collection

Document Questions the document answers Research
Question
School background and profile
SARC

Single School Plan
• Class Size
• Number of Suspensions/Expulsions
• California Healthy Kid Survey Results
• Population breakdown (ethnicity, SES, EL’s)
• Supplemental Programs
• Vision and Mission Statements
• Teacher Groups (leadership, advisory, SSC, etc.)
1,2,
3
List of teachers and Support Staff • Experience
• Credentials
• Grade Levels
• Years at current site
1
Professional Development Plan • Collaboration Plan, Schedule 1,
2, 3
Daily and Instructional Schedule • Number of instructional Minutes 3

English Leaner’s Master, technology
and Safe Schools Plan

• Plan for ELL and safe campus

3
Achievement Results
CST and Local Assessments Data for
over a 2 year period.

Local Benchmarks

SARC

Website: CDE
• CST data
• API, AYP, disaggregated data by demographics,
• subgroups, etc.

2, 3
Parent/Community Involvement
SARC

School/Parent handbook

Parent surveys from school or district

School Website

Single School Plan
• Parent community/outreach education
• Community Partnerships
• Parent Survey results
• Volunteer Hours
• Parent Club
• Parent/Community Communications
(newsletters, websites)
1,
2, 3
Fiscal Information
Single School Plan

CPM Report
• Categorical Documents & Resources
• Compliance Findings
3
Other Information
WASC Action Plan/Self-
Study/Visiting Team Report
• Referral process for Special Ed.
• Distinguished School Information
• Response to Intervention Strategies
• Teacher Evaluation
• WASC

115

Appendix F
Observation Tool

Trigger Words: Welcoming Environment
Engagement Rigor
Focus Standards
Programs Practices
Strategies Stakeholders

Four Frames: Structural: Goals and information are clear, cause and effect
understood
Human Resources: Employee morale, resources and creativity
Political: Power, conflict, competition, organizational polices
Symbolic: Culture, meaningful, ritual, ceremony, stories

What is Happening? What do I think is Happening?

116

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of the study was to methodically examine Valley Forge High School -- a high school that had, steadily and systemically, reduced the achievement gap by improving the performance of traditionally under-performing sub-groups: Hispanic, socio-economically disadvantaged, and English Language Learners. Through a thorough investigation, three main themes emerged as playing a pivotal role in increasing student performance: high expectations for student achievement, academic support to meet those expectations, and the collaborative, reflective practice of teachers. These are congruent with many of the elements discussed within the research, and especially echo the recommendations of Education Trust: progress is gained through additional emphasis on curriculum, standards, intervention opportunities, and pedagogy.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Fundukian, Katherine H. (author)

Core Title Closing the achievement gap: a statewide imperative

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 05/06/2009

Defense Date 02/11/2009

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag achievement gap,collaboration,Learning and Instruction,OAI-PMH Harvest,sub-groups,teacher quality

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Gothold, Stuart E. (committee chair), Escalante, Michael F. (committee member), Garcia, Pedro E. (committee member)

Creator Email fundukia@usc.edu,fundukian@yahoo.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m2119

Unique identifier UC1105187

Identifier etd-Fundukian-2823 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-224271 (legacy record id),usctheses-m2119 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Fundukian-2823.pdf

Dmrecord 224271

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Fundukian, Katherine H.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu