University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

The Korean community in Los Angeles County

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The Korean community in Los Angeles County

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Content THE KOREAN COMMUNITY
IN LOS ANGELES COUNTY
A Thesis
Presented to
the Ta.culty of the Department of Sociology
University of Southern California
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Master of Arts
by
Helen Lewis Givens
May 1939
This thesis, written by
Helen Lewis Givens
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ------------
under the direction of h.!?~. Faculty Committee,
and approved by all its members, has been
presented to and accepted by the Council on
Graduate Study and Research in partial fulfill-
ment of the requirements for the degree of
l,~aster of Arts
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
,.
(_Ai2L2 . . .
...i.
Dean
pW,@>.,./’
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Secretary ‘“:\_ ..)
Dafe . . . ..JUL939...L939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Faculty Committee
TABLE OF 00 NTENTS
CHAPTER
I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Purpose of the Study. . . . . . . .
Definition of Terms . . . . . . . .
Method of Investigation . . . . . .
Organization of Subsequent Chapters
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11. THE BAOKGROUED OF THE KOREANS IN THEIR NATIVE
Geography and Climate
Racial and Historical
Social Factors . . .
Family Life . , . .
Village Customs . .
Religion . . . . .
Education . . . . .
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Background.
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Resources and Industries. . . . .
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III. KOREAN IHHIGRATIOIU TO THE UNITED STATES
Reasons for Immigration . . . . . . .
Federal Legislation . . . . . . . . .
California Restrictions . . . . . . .
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IV. TEE LOCAT ION AND CONSTITUENCY OF THE KOREAl?
COMMUNITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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VI.
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Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Statu8 Of the Koreans as a Minority Group.
ORGM?IZAT IONS IN THE KOREAN COMMUNITY.
Churches . . . .
Presbyterian .
Methodist. . .
Christian. . .
Korean Center. .
Clubs. . . . .
Recreation and
EIXJCATIOM. . . . .
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Enrolment in Local Elementary and Secondary
schools. ● . . ● . . . .* ● ● . . . ● ● ●
Enrolment in Institutions of Higher Learning
KOREANS IN BUSINESS AND PROFESS IONS. . . . . .
Business Enterprises Under Korean Operation.
Professions. . . . . . . . .
GHARGES IN THE LIFE OF KOREANS
Family Life . . . . . . . . .
Marriage . . . . . . . . .
Food. . . . . . . . . . .
Dress . . . . . . . . . .
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Language . . . . . . . . . . . .=..
Political and Civic Activities . . . . .
IX. THE KOREAN NATIONAL ASSOCIATION AND ITS
OBJECTIVES• 00000 COCO •0”~0
Purpose and9cope . . . . . . ...*..
Loss of Korean Independence . . . . . . .
Membership of Korean National Association
Subsidiary Organizations . . . . . . .
Method of Operation . . . . . . . . . . .
TheNewKorea. . . . . . . . . . ● . . ●
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Activities in Behalf of Korean Independence . .
x. sUMMARY AND CONcL~SIo~S . ● ● ● c ● ● Q ● ● ● c ●
BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . ...=.. ● OCO.OOOO **0*
APPENDIX A. Order of Worshipt K~r@an presbYteri~
Church . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ●
APPENDIX B. Korean Students in Colleges and
Universities of the United States . . .
Supplementary Table . . . . . . . . . .
APPENDIX C. Kor8m Declaration of Independence . . .
TABLE
I. Korean Students in
LIST OF TABLES
PAGE
Three Colleges and Universities
of Los Angeles County Classified Aocording to
Field of Professional Preparation and Name of
Institution, for School Year 1937-3g. . . . . . .
%
CHAPTER I
Il!l PRODUCTION
This thesis represents a study of the group life of
some 650 Koreans in Los Angeles County, particularly those
residing in the Korean community.
It sets forth sociological,
political and economic factors influencing this minority
group whose racial oharacteristioe and interests separate
them distinctly from all other Orientals in our midst.
1-. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The writer’s purpose is to analyze the life of the
Koreans in LOS Angeles County; to determine their reaotions
to American culture, education, and industry; to discover
those factors which are sources of conflict in their minds;
and to survey the means by which they are adjusting their
various problems.
This study attempts to bring together facts hitherto
unrelated in regard to an interesting minority group,
small as to be virtually unrecognized. The faot that
Koreans are a paxt of the Oriental population, and in
so
the
many
instances are classified with the Japanese, gives warrant
for this thesis.
2
II - TKRM9 DEFINES
The term Inative-born Korean’ as used in this study
applies to Koreans born in the Ortent. ~Seoond generation
Korean
t
applies to those born in the United States and
residing tn this country.
Although Korea is officially recognized by the name of
Chosen, it is known commercially by the former name. Thi$
designation Is favored by the Koreans themselves, and is
more familiar to the western world. The early British
spelling of the name was Cores, but later editions of such
reference works as the Encyclopedia BRITTANIA give the
common spelling, Korea.
The Korean Conmnity, for the purposes of this study,
refers to that group of Koreans in Los Angeles, held together
by virtue of their common racial and cultural background,
and by their association with one another in a variety of
activities.
It should be understood that those Koreans who have
immigrated to this country were not permitted to become
naturalized. Those born here are, of course, United States
citizens, unless they have renounced citizenship.
In the chapter pertaining to anti-Aslatie immigration
legislation, the term Japanese inoludes Koreans as well, since
all Koreans entering after 1910 have come under Japanese quota.
3
III - METHOD Or IM’vmT IGAT IOl?
The source material relating to American-born Koreans
was found to be limited. Some information was obtained by
correspondence, and additional data were taken from Korean
bulletins and statistical reports published by different
groups throughout the United States. These groups represent
young people and students,
as well as business and pro-
fessional men.
At present there is available for the English reading
public only one source of statistically prepared information
concerning Korea under Japanese rule. This is The Annual
1
.—
W?!?QQL- A~ini~t=tion Q_QQQl?
I?umerous books have
been consulted to ascertain present conditions in Korea, but
almost without exception, these are not favorable to Japanese
rule in Korea.
The secretary of the Korean National Association and
editor of its newspaper, The New Korea, has been most helpful
.— —
in anewering specific questions concerning the community and
the Koreans throughout the United States. He has made avail-
able a complete file of the newspaper for the months of
January, February, and March,1939, and other records as well.
,
lGovernment.@neral of Chosen, comp., ,W.R~
on the Administration of Chosen. (Kei jos: Government Press,
~3~ 127 PP.
– —
4
Personal interviews with merchants, c?lub or church
leaders, professional men, and students form the ba$is for
those chapters dealing with churches, education, and
employment.
IV - ORGANIZATION OF SUBSEQUENT CHAPTERS
Because the Korean community In Los Angeles County is
approximately fifty percent foreign-born, some attention
must be given to the background history of the land from
whioh they oame, and the reasons for their immigration.
Chapter II treats of geographical, raoial, and
historical faotors pertaining to Korea. The social background
of the people is considered, in family, village, religious,
and educational life. Resources and industries are surveyed.
In Chapter III, Korean i~iwation to the United States
is surveyed. Reasons for the immigration are set forth, and
a summary made of federal and state legislation restricting
Oriental immigration, as it has affeoted the Koreans.
Chapter IV will begin the consideration of the 100al
Korean community, indicating geographical boundaries, popula-
tion, housing conditions, and their status as a minority
group in a metropolitan area.
Organizational life, including clubs and recreation
activities, is detailed in Chapter V. The second-generation
5
KoreamY and their social interest6, as well as the place of
the three churches in the life of the community are set
forth herein.
Chapter VI treats of the response of Koreans to
educational advantages, the honors won by local students, and
their professional preparation in institutions of higher
learning.
Chapter VII presents the business and professional
life of the local oommunity, and the economic disadvantages
which confront its members.
Cultural and social changes occurring among the Koreans
are treated in Chapter VIII, particularly as they affect
family tiity and patriotic zeal for Korean independence.
The Korean Rational Association and the various
organizations functioning under its sponsorship are presented
in Chapter IX, together with a statement of methods of
operation. Factors leading to Korean sentiment for politioal
independence are set forth. The English section of the
Official n=spaper, The Mew Korea, is analyzed. Local
—— —
support of Korean independence is studied in the concluding
section of this chapter.
Chapter X summarizes findings and draws conclusions.
CHAPTER 11
THE BACKGROUND OF THE KOREAIVS Ili THEIR NATIVE LABD
I- GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE
Korea is situated in northeastern Asia, ocoupying a
peninsula which divides the Yellow Sea from the Sea of Japan.
It lies in a southerly direction from Manchuria,, the two
countries being separated by the Yalu and the Tureen rivers.
Beyond the Yellow Sea on the west Is China, to the east is
the Sea of Japan, and to the south is the Korean Strait.
The’area of Korea is approximately ~5,000 square miles,
making it almost equal to that of the state of Utah, although
in shape, Korea somewhat resembles the state of New Jersey.
Korea includes more than one thousand islands. The coastline
of the mainland is more than 6,OOO miles in extent. The
Korean peninsula extends north and south for a distance of
660 miles, and is approximately 130 miles wide.
Korea lies between 33° 12I and 43° 121, north latitude,
and 124° 188 and 130° ~~, longitude east of Greenwich. The
surface is generally quite mountainous, especially in the
northeast. The prinoipal mountain range extends the length
of the country along the eastern coast, and forms the back-
bone of the peninsula. The eastern coast is rooky. Level
land is scarce, and sparsely populated. The 1930 census
k
7
gave. the population of Korea as 23 ,O~t$, 305.
The western and southern sides of the peninmla
consist of extensive plains with many rivers flowing through
them, the principal streams being the Apnok or Yalu, the
Taitong, the Han, the Keum, and the Naktong. .
These rivers together with their tributaries, supply
waterways for
irrigation of
economic life
navigation ignd serve as reservoirs for the
farm lands. This is an important factor in the
of the people.
The southern and western ooasts are deeply indented,
8nd are fringed with numerous is18nds. Here are many
excellent harbors, such as Fussn, Mokpo, Chemulpo and
Chinnampo. The eastern side has only three significant ports:
Wosan, Sungchin, and Cbungcbin.
The olimate of Korea is described in an account of the
seasons, abridged from J. D. Van Buskirk’s study, “The Climate
of Korea and Its Probable Effect on Human Efficiency.
“1
To quote Alleyne Ireland’s abridgment:
There are not suoh intensely hot days as axe
common in the United States, but the heat is continuous,
so that the summers are more trying than in places in the
United States having the same mean temperature. The
highest temperature reported b
J
the Government stations
is 1030 F. from Wonsan ( Gensan , but this is exceptional.
Taikyu, the Provincial capital of North Keisho-do has as
lJ. D. Van Busklrk,
llThe climate of KOrOa and It8
Probable Effect on Human Efflciency~ Transactions of the
Korean Branoh of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. To-ylyp.
—. .
8
a rule the hottest weather, its maximum going as high
aS 103°F. The coast towns in the south have le s
extreme heat,
$
Fusan reporting a maximum of 91.G F. The
humidity of the summer is high, and this, with the
steady heat and the rains, makes the total effect of the
summers quite depressing.
Spring and fall are nearly ideal seasons In Korea.
The winter ends and spring advances almost imperceptible --
no hot days followed by severe oold, but a gradual warm-
Ingup, with bright sunshine
$
occasional rains, and for
the most part, gentle winds.
II s RACIAL AND HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
The exact origin of the Korean racial stock is unknown.
It is thought to be an offshoot of the Mongol family.3 HOW.
ever, the Koreans are distinct from both Chinese and Japanese
in physiognomy. Their akin is bronze-tinged, the hair is
dark and stsaight, and they have oblique, brown eyes.
As in the case of other ancient nations, the beginnings
of Korean history are shrouded in mythology and legends.
Korea is known to be one of the oldest civilizations in the
world, sinoe its traditions date from the time of early
Chinese, Egyptian, and Chaldean history.
The nation has
existed for at least 4,200 years.
In 2333 B. C., aocording to both Chinese and Korean
records, several groups of Mongolians gathered and elected a
2
Alleyne Ireland, The Mew Korea (H- York: E. P.
Dutton and Company, 1926)~.=.
3A. l?ebille J. Whymant, ‘Korea, ” Encyclopedia
Britannica, lkth edition, XIII, ~5-91.
. .
%
a rule the hottest weather, its maximum going as high
a8 103°F. The coast towns in the south have le s
$ extreme heat, ?tuJan reporting a maximum of 91. F. The
humidity of the summer is high, and this, with the
steady heat and the rains, makes the total effect of the
aummer8 quite depressing.
Spring and fall are nearly ideal seasons in Korea.
The wintex ends and spring advances almost imperceptible --
no hot days followed by severe cold, but a gradual war~
Ingup, with bright sunshine
3
occasional rains, and for
the most part, gentle winds.
II * RACIAL AND HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
The exact origin of the Korean racial stock is unknown.
It is thought to be an offshoot of the Mongol f’amil y. 3 HOW.
ever, the Koreans are distinct from both Chinese and Japanese
in physiognomy. Their skin is bronze-tinged, the hair is
dark and stsaight, and they have oblique, brown
As in the case of other ancient nations,
of Korean history are shrouded In mythology and
eyes.
the beginnings
legends.
Korea is known to be one of the oldest civilizations in the
world, sinoe its traditions date from the time of early
Chinese, Egyptian, and Chaldean history. The nation has
existed for at least 4,E00 years.
In 2333 B. C., according to both Chinese and Koreen
records, several groups of Mongolians gathered and elected a
2
Alleyne Ireland, The Mew Korea (Hew York: E. P.
Dutton and Oompany, 1926 )~.=.
3
A. Nebille J. lthym8nt, ‘Korea,” En0Yc10p0di8
Britannica, lqth edition, XIII, 4&91.
9
king, called Tangun, to rule over Korea. He called the
country Chosen, or The Land of the Morning Oalm.
19ear the end of the pre-Christian era, Korea was
divided geographically into three kingdoms. Civilization
reached a high state during this time, as attested by the
literature and the art whioh have survived. During the
fourth oentury, literary culture was particularly noteworthy.
The empire was again consolidated in 918 A. D. For
hundreds of years thereafter, Korea was alternately under the
suzerainty of China or of Japan. Manchus, Mongols, Chinese,
and wild nomadio tribes made frequent invasions. The most
significant onslaught was that of a Japanese army in 1592,
when fields were devastated, art treasures were plundered, and
the skilled workmen were kidnapped in order that they might
teach their crafts to the Japanese. Japan’s development of
3atsuma porcelain is traceable to this event.
4
Korea had always been a hermit nation, and the suffer-
i ng and humiliation which accompanied the invasion of 1592
intensified the desire for seclusion. Korean life was
primitive in many respeots, but the houses, food, clothing,
customs end industries which had served in the past seemed
adequate; and Korea asked nothing of the world except to be
4
Eunice Tiet jens, Ja an, Korea, and Formosa. (Chicago:
--%5H 3T
—
Wheeler Publishing Company,
_ .
10
lat alone. As late as 18g0, signposts along the highway bore
Korean inscriptions which read, ‘If you meet a foreigner,
him; he who has any friendly relations with the foreigner
traitor to his oountry. “5
Since Korea$s modern history may be said to have begun
her opening to outside influence in the nineteenth
kill
18 a
W Ith
century, aibsequent national development and international
relations will be treated in a later chapter.
III - SOCIAL FACTORS
- ,~,, Under Confucianism, family life requires
the segregation of the sexes. Accordingly, the Korean house
of a Confucian family consists of imer and outer rooms, the
1
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former being occupied by the women and girls, the latter by
t
b
the men and boys.
1.
A Korean household usually anbraces a large number of
members, particularly among the upper classes.
When a son
marries, he brings his bride to the old home, instead of
establishing another. Frequently several sons with their
wives and children live in the parental home. The eldest man
in the household is the center of activity, and his authority
iS highly respected.
5Ellasue Wagner, Korea: The Old and the ~. (Hew York:
Fleming H. Revell Compann31~pn7-
—
11
Marriage is consummated at an early age among the
Koreans. Eighteen years Is the common age for men, while
brides are often from three to eight years younger. Since
the selection of the Korean bride or bridegroom usually rests
with the parents, the father of the young man initiates the
procedure. He makes inquiries among his friends concerning
the age, appearance, character, and social Position of eligible
girls. After he has reached a conclusion, he confers with
his wife, who puts on her long robe, oovers her face, and
proceeds to the home of the young lady in question. A go-
between makes the necessary arrangements with both sets of
parents.
The young people exchange gifts on the day immediately
prior to that set for the ceremony. This establishes the
betrothal, which cannot be broken. In the strict Confucian
wedding cer~ony, the contracting parties do not see each
other face to face until the time of the wedding. The
wedding preparations sometimes continue for twelve or fourteen
years, and in certain instances, children are betrothed before
birth.
Koreans are monogamists, but concubinage is recognized,
and the families are large. Women are secluded, and occupy
inferior positions in the household.
The customs regulating divoroe favor men, rather than
I
k
women, as is indicated
At marriage
handed them, which
12
by the following statement:
a red paper with written ckrscters is
is afterward cut in two, - each
retaining half; for In ease of future trouble, the husband
cannot marry again, if he has not the half showing him
independent; for many married people separate in Korea,
from ‘incompatibility of temper$, or other reasona; nor
need we wonder at the fact. The separated husband, with
his half of red paper, oan easily obtain another wife,
but no without; while she is supposed never again to
marry.
8
Korean funeral services are performed by relatives and
friends of the family without the assistance of a priest. The
young are buried in a very siuAple manner. Older people are
given elaborate funerals, frequently creating heavy debts to
be met by their families. Women are not permitted in a
funeral procession. The period of mourning for the dead is
usually from three months to three years, depending on the
relationship.
White or straw color is considered by Koreans to be
the proper shade for mourning. When a parent dies, a Korean
man must wear white coat, trousers, and oloaks for three years.
The death of an official requires the wearing of momning,
also, and since the people found themselves in mourning so
frequently on this account, white became the customary everyday
color throughout the nation, except among those who labored
.
6JOhn ROSS, Korea, Its Histo~, ~~,~ ~ _
(London: Stock, lggl) p. 3r
13
in the fields.7 As is indloated later, this has had oertain
undesirable ooneequenoes.
Village Customs. The village is the unit of Korean
life, although theirs is a farming country. The need for
protection against robbers and wild animals requires that
the people group their dwellings together. A village may
consist of a small number of mud huts, or it may comprise
a thousand homes.
Such streets and alleys as these villages boast are
planned for utility, rather than beauty. Pig pens and out-
buildings are located frequently in what should be the front
yards of the premises.
The houses are constructed usually of mud, with stone
floors a,nd thatch roofs. A prolonged rain may oause such a
house to melt away. Beoause of this poor struoture, Korean
houses are frequently in the process of rebuilding.
The family clan in Korea is much more important than
the individual. Three or four generations are found often
under one roof, although it may be a small house. Marriage
does not mean the setting up of a new household, but rather
an increase in responsibility for the father and eldest
brother of the bridegroom, since the sons bring their wives
7
Eunice Tietjens, ~.
14
to live in their anoestral hornas. A relative as much a8
eight times removed may command and receive support from the
head of a family.
In times past, the village well
center for Korean women. Frequently a
has been the social
nearby stream serves
as oommunity laundry, and it is not uncommon to see drinking
water taken from the source where vegetables and olothes are
being washed. The Koreans discovered, centuries ago, that
cold water made them ill, and therefore they boil their
drinking water.
White is the favorite color for Korean clothing. That
of the common people is made principally of ootton materials
or hemp, while the richer olass usually wears silk. As
pointed out by Philip Jaisohng, this divides the population
into inferior and superior classes, with bad psychological
effects. His second objection to the wearing of white is
that its upkeep imposes constant drudgery upon the women.
Furthermore, the fashions, particularly the loose trousers
and enormous sleeves, are impractical.
The Korean men are required to wear hats of different
sizes and shapess aocording to the class to which they belong.
One hat, made of expensive, fragile bamboo fibers, is about
$
Philip Jaisohn,
‘My Days in Koreati3 .= ~, =$
January 26, 1939.
15
three feet in diameter. This hat Is so unwieldy that it must
be tied on the head, but it offers protection from neither
heat nor cold. Whatever the style of hat, a horse hair oap
is worn under it, and a horse hair band is tied around the
head. This cumbersome covering is expensive, unhygienic, and
injurious to health.
Korean children usually wear gay oolors, which contrast
with the white garments of adults.
Leather shoes were worn by Koreans while the wooden
getta was still common in Japan. Koreans themselves admit,
however, that the dark garments of the Japanese are more
praotical than their customary white.
Rice is the principal artiole of diet in Korea, although
in rural regions, millet and barley are favored because they
are less expensive. The Koreans have a particular liking for
highly flavored relishes, which are used freely with their
various vegetables, fish, and cereals.
The range of diet is indicated in the following
statement:
The Korean is omnivorous. Birds of the air,
beasts of the field, and fish from the sea, - nothing
comes amiss to his palate. Dog-meat is in great request
at oertain seasons; pork and beef with the blood undrained
from the carcass; fowls and game birds cooked with the
lights, giblets, head, and olawe intact; fish, sun-dried
and highly malodorous, all are aooeptable to him. Oook ing
?
is not always necessary; a species of small fish is
preferred raw, dipped in some piquant sauce. Other
dainties are dried seaweed, shripps, and vermicelli made
16
by the women from buckwh~t flour and white of egg. Pine
seeds, lily bulbs, honey-water, wheat, barley, millet,
rice, maize, wild potatoes,
and all vegetables of Western
and Eastern gardens; even now the list is by no means
exhu ted.
9
Their excesses make them martyrs to indiges-
t ion.
ReliRion. The Korean’s religious beliefs and his
superstitions oontrol almost every event of his life, and
even In death, they determine the place of burial. The
distinctions between different religions are not always
plainly discernible, since the Korean has adapted from
different religions such elements as suit his nature and his
needs.
Buddhism was first introduced into Korea in the year
372 A. D. At this time, Korea was divided into three king-
doms, namely, Korai or the northern and larger kingdom;
Hiakeai in the southwest; and Shinro in the southeast. It
appears that Buddhism was first introduced into Korai.
In 374 A. D. , two Buddhist monasteries are known to
have existed at Pyeng-yang, the capital of the northern
kingdom. The monasteries were schools, . as well as temples.
The students were trained as missionaries, and were sent to
various parts of the kingdom. Their efforts were rewarded,
and after a few years, Korei accepted Buddhism as its
official religion. In 384 A. D., the kingdom of I!iaksai
‘An s Hamilton, Korea
Y
(Hew York: Charles Scribner%
Sons, 1904 p. 121.
1
17
sent to China for Buddhist missionaries. Of the three king-
domo, the people of Hiaksai were the most responsive to the
worship of Buddha. Shinro was the last kingdom to receive
the new religion.
Korea gave Buddhism to Japan in 552 A. D. The king of
Hiaksal sent missionaries and images to Japan in that year,
and again in 572 A. D.
Buddhism continued to be the state religion of Korea
until about the fourteenth oentury. It played an important
part in political affairs throughout many centuries. However,
the Buddhist religion later fell into disrepute, and at
present, in all Korea its adherents number only 185,000.10
Confucianism i6 now the ba8i8 Of mOr818 in Korea.
Shamanism is the popular religion at present, Since it is
believed to propitiate demons.
Anoestor worship is general.
Catholicism was first introticed Into Korea in 1594,
through the efforts of a Jesuit chaplain. Later attempts to
spread this doctrine met with only limited succ$ess. Adherents
in 1936 numbered slightly in excess of 100,000, while the
missionaries totaled 120.
Protestant misslom in Korea date from l$gk. The moat
recent government atatlsttcs indicate that their converts
10
James Bissett Pratt, The
(New York: The Maomillan Compa~
1(?!
number in excess of 350,000.
Missionaries of the various
denominations total about 250.11
Chuntoism has sprung up in Korea in opposition to
Christ ianity, and in an attempt to preserve all national
12
customs. Younghill Kang describes it 89 a reaotlonary
system of ethios, which while accepting the science and
rationalism of the west, nevertheless incorporates the
teachings of Confucius, Buddha and Lao Tze. It would seem
to correspond somewhat to humanism, since it teaches that
there is no divinity outside man, the superior man being God.
Chuntoists advocate reason and control in all things, modera-
tion both in action and in opposition, and a general minimiza-
tion of everything, perhaps by way of protest against western
bustle and efficiency.
One name applied to Chuntoism is
Tonghak, which means Eastern Learning, in contradistinction
to Western Learning, by which name Roman @tholicism was
known in Korea in early days.
Chuntoists use a mosaic of scriptures, inoluding the
five relations of Confucianism, the law of heart-cleansing as
set fotth by Buddha, magic and charms from Animism, and,
surprisingly, the monotheism associated with the Christian
,
. .
,,
,,
‘,
llGovernment.General of Chosen, Annual R-, on
\
Administration of Chosen. (Keijo: Gove~ press, I?J36) p. 117. ~
.—
12Youn@ill Kang, The Grass Roof (New York: Charles
gcribner’s Sons, 1931) p.m7-
—
,,
P
19
religion. The Catholic custom of candles in worship was
borrowed, also. Thus, Chuntoiam is seen to be a synthetio
religion, with political Implioatione as well, in its protest
against the introduction of Catholici~ from another nation.
Eduoation. When Litan ascended to the Korean throne
in 1392, being invested with sovereign power by the first Ming
emperor of China, he introduced the Confucian system of
education to Korea, and it dominated that field for the five
succeeding oenturies. The Chinese calendar and chronology
were accepted at that time, also.
Koreans have always had much veneration for the Chinese
classioa, and in the old Korea, these classics were considered
to be the only educational requirement for preparing men for
civil service examinations and the holding of governmental
office. When Japanese infleunce began to dominate Korea,
during the latter part of the nineteenth century, the Japanese
curriculum was introduced into the schools. Ilational civil
service examinations were discontinued, and since the Koreans
had not been aroused to interest In the new eduoation, learning
became less popular than formerly.
General education was unknown in old Korea. It W&S
considered that formal learning distinguished the nobility
from the mlgar class. Those who had power to extend the
influence of education jealously guarded the superior position
20
which it gave to them. Even now, schooling is often the
choice of the young Koreans who dislike manual labor.
The
fact that the supply of ‘white collar’ jobs is less than the
number of applicants who have prepared for them, has had
disheartening results. The situation is summarized in a
statement by Ellasue Wagner, who in 1931 was Superintendent
of the social Evangelistic Centre, in the City of Seoul.
She writes:
Wise Korean leaders and especially educationalists
are facing this difficult problem: how to help the student
to a knowledge of the special type of work for which he
is individually fitted; how to inspire him with a genuine
respect for labor, for manual labor; how to give him the
tools with which to carve out his career and how to bring
the student to a reali~tion of his responsibility to
work for the general welfare of the community in which he
lives. Face to face with Koreats poverty and economic
struggle young Korea will inevitably address himself to
doing his bit in the task of making a uller, more
abundant life possible to his people.
15
IV - RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES
Kozea is rich in minerals, which include gold, silver,
crystal, zino, copper, lead, iron, tungsten, grsphite, tale,
anthracite coal, and kaolin. Nearly one-half the gold mined
in the Japanese empire is obtained from Korea. The output of
iron ore, anthracite ooal and graphite is of considerable
value, frequently as much as 30,000,000 yen annuelly, or
approximately $t!!,196,000.00.
Museum specimens indicate that ancient Koreans attained
,.
i.
,
,,
21
high profioienoy in weaving and in the casting of metal.
Arts and crafts were neglected during the last dynasty, but
modern industrial methods are influencing work in leather
goods, metals, and weaving.
Korea’s forests constitute a valuable resource. The
mulberry tree thrivee, and 60,000 acmes have been planted.
The culture of 8ilkWOrm8 gives employment to at least
400,000 families.
Agricultural industries have been an important factor
in the development of Korea. More than eighty percent of the
population is supported directly or indirectly by farm prodw
Ucts. The people live in villages, from which they go out
daily to till the soil. Rice, potatoes, and cotton are the
principal farm crops, although a variety of grains and fruits
are produced. Approximately 12,000,000 acres of farm land
are under cultivation.
Koreats extensive coast line, together with that of
her numerous islands, makes fishing an important industry.
The Chosen Fisheries Association has an aggregate membership
in excess of 300,000. Uhale fishing is particularly profitable
there.
Because Korea has been known as ‘the hermit nation, !
some people believe that the inhabitants must be backward and
unprogressive. However, this is not true in all respects.
22
Long ago, they manufactured porcelain, they wove silk, they
smelted ore and used it for various iron products, and they
manufactured wagons and other useful contrivances.
The
following statement summarizes their contributions In many
lines of invention and adaptation:
Japanese records show that the Japanese themselves
first learned from the Koreans the cultivation of the
silkworm, the weaving of cloth, architecture, the print.
ing of books, the painting of pictures, the beautifying
of gardens, the making of leather harness, and the
shaping Of more effective weapons. . . . Whereas the
Chinese invented the art of printing from movable wooden
blocks, the Koreans invented metal type in 1403. They
used a phonetic alphabet in the early part of the
fifteenth oentury. They saw the significance of the
marinerts compass in 1525. They devised, in 1550, an
astroncmic81 instrument which they very properly called
‘a heavenly measurer. ‘ Money was used as a medium of
exchange in Korea long before it was employed in northern
Europe. They used cannon and explosive shells when the
Japanese invaded them in 1592. The first ironclad war
ship in the world was invented by a Korean, Admiral
Yi-Sun-Sin, in the sixteenth century. He called it the
tortoise boat. He oommanded it with such effectiveness
against the Japenese that it was largely Instrumental in
defeating the fleet of Hideyoshl. s
14A. J. ~r~n, ~B~gr
of the Far East (IVew York:
Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1919) —p~5~4-
While the Japanese proved themselves to be stronger ,
in war, they were deeply influenced by the Koreans in
religion and the arts of peace. . . . Many people praise
the Japanese for their exquisite Satsuma ware without
knowing that the Korea~klong ago taught the Japanese the
,
art of its manufacture.
.,
I
~I
‘i
‘,
.=
. .
f!
;:
[
CHAPTER III
1
KOREAN IMMIQIATION TO THE UNITED STATES
,68
I- REASOMS FOR IMMIGRAT IOM
,,
~
f
The first Korean immigration to the United States
;,
i ‘u
occurred in 1872. At that time, five young men came here for
.<
the purpose of higher education, with the expectation of
returning to their own oountry.
Approximately ten years
later, several Korean ginseng sale~en located in California.
1
.;
‘i
In 1902 and 1903, approximately 160 Korean laborers
,$
immigrated, the majority of them coming from Hawaii, rather
than Korea. Between the years 1900 and 1910, the greatest
number of Korean students entered.
Many of these students did
not return to Korea as they had previously planned, since the
terms of the Japanese protectorate, established in 1910, would
have restricted their activities as leaders in various
f;
professional lines.
.,
).
Koreans have never come to the United States in
,; :
‘,.
,,
sufficient numbers to oreate an immigration problem, but they
;$
,
are a factor in the larger problem of Oriental immigration,
:;
since they are admitted under the Japanese quota.
,!
This works
,, !
to the disadvantage of the Koreans, beoause they must obtain
neoessary visds and admittance papers through the Japanese
‘c;
m
. .
.’
passport bureau, which discriminates in favor of its own
The Korean
posed principally
past school year,
the United States
nationals. Students enter on visas issued by the Ameriosn
Consular Agent stationed in their district or province.
student population in this country is co-
of second-generation Koreans. During the
only twelve foreign-born Koreans entered
for the purpose of study.
Prior to the passage of discriminatory legislation,
laborers and merchants came to the United States with a view
to residence, because they foresaw opportunities here which
neither Korea nor Hawaii offered.
In 1906, the Korean population in Los Angeles County
numbered sixty, and at the present writing, thirty-three
years later, the foreign-born Korean population does not
exceed 300.
The most populous Korean cozmnunities in California
outside Los Angeles County are Dinuba, Reedley, San Francisco,
Oakland, %cramento, and Delano.
The United States Census for 1930 gives the following
data concerning Koresn population in continental United States.
The total number of inhabitants is 1,g60, of whom 1,250 are
urban dwellers. Of those in rural areas, 330 are farmers and
2~0 are non-farmers. The California Korean population in
1930 was 1,097, of whom 6g7 were males, and 410 were females.
With these figures in mind, the reader will realize
t
25
that the Koreans themselves have never presented an Immigra.
tion problem. Two reasons have motivated their coming to
this country: the need of bettering individual eoonomia
conditions, and the desire to obtain teohnioal training that
.
might be used for the advancement of their countrymen in Korea.
II - FEDERAL LEGISLAT ION
In 1905, a San Francisco newspaper announced that
during a twenty-five year period then ending, the Japanese
population of California had increased from eighty-six to
approximately 50,000.
To prevent a further influx of
Japanese laborers,
the ~Gentleman4s Agreementl was made
between the governments of Japan 8nd the United States.
The intention of this understariding was that Japan
should issue passports for entry to the United states only to
those subjeots who were non-laborers, or to laborers who had
previously established homes or farming enterprises here, or
who had families in this country.’
Accordingly, Japan agreed to restrict immigration, in
order to avert discriminatory race legislation that threatened
because of reourring raoe frtction on the west coast.
The ineligibility of Japanese subjects to American
citizenship was set forth under the Federal statute of 1790,
oonfining the privilege of naturalization to the white race.
lEliot Grinnell Mears, Resident Orientals on the
American Pacific Coast (Chicago: The Universityz moap
press, 19~-
2James A. B. Scherer, Ja an Defies the World
(Indianapolis: + The Bobbs Merri om~l~)~35 .
%ears, ~. ~., p. 123.
26
However, the issue came up again, and action of the Supreme
Court in 19Z2 oonfirmed the limitation.l
IYOm 190?! until 1924, Japanese immigration was
2
The Ismigrant Ad of
regulated by the Gentl~nOs Agreement.
July 1, 1924, popularly termed the Exclusion Aot, restricted
immigration into the United States to a quota basis of two
percent of the foreign-born individuals of any nationality
resident here by the census of 1890. .This limited the number
of Japanese admissible annually to 150, which was the prac.
tical equivalent of exclusion. No-alien ineligible to
citizenship could be admitted under the quota baais. Excep-
tions were made in the cases of government officials, mer-
chants on temporary business, tourists, ministers, professors
with their wives and children under eighteen years of age,
and bona-fide students.3
During the period of regulatory control, eentiment in
favor of absolute restriction was crystallizing. On February
24, 1913, the President of the United States issued a
proclamation to regulate aliens entering the United States as
skilled or unskilled laborers. The complete text follows:
27
Whereas, by the act entitled *An aot to regulate
the immigration of aliens into the United States,
ti
approved February ~, 1907, whenever the President is
satisfied that passports issued by any foreign government
to its oitizens to go to any country other than the United
States, or to any insular possession of the United States,
or to the Canal sone, are being used for the purpose of
enabling the holders to come to the continental territory
of the United States to the detriment of labor conditions
therein, it is made the duty of the President to refuse
to permit such citizens of the oountry issuing such pass-
ports to enter the continental territory of the United
States from suoh country or from such insular possession
or from the Canal Zone; and
Whereas, upon sufficient evidence produced before
me by the Department of Commerce and Labor, I am satisfied
that passports issued by certain foreign governments to
their citizens or subjects who are laborers, skilled or
unskilled, to proceed to countries or places other than
the continental territory of the United States are being
used for the purpose of enabling the holders thereof to
oome to the continental territory of the United States to
the detriment of labor conditions therein;
J
I hereby order that such alien laborers, skilled
or unskilled, be refused permission to enter the conti-
nental territory of the United States.
It is further ordered that the Secretary of
Commerce and Labor be, and he hereby la, directed to take,
through the Bureau of Immigration and Naturalisation,
such measures and to make and enforce such rules and
1
regulat ons as may be necessary to carry this order into
effeot.
Since Japan was the country most affected by the
Exclusion Act, it was popularly accepted there as a ‘warning
fiat from America, u to quote the phrase of Tatsuji Takeuchi.5
4
James J. Davis, Immi
*1W rlw
ation Laws and Rules (Washington:
United States Department o
5Tatsu j i Takeuchi, “Background of the Sine-Japanese
Crisis, W Amerasia, 2: lg3v June, 193g.
2(!
Declaring, however, that this immigration legislation
does not discriminate against any particular group of
Orientals, Henry Pratt Fairchild writes:
(30ngress adopted the entirely reasonable and
1 iberal view that it would be much better to deal with
the whole problem of Oriental immigration through a
single blanket clause of a general character, in which
no nation should be specifically mentioned. This
provision took the form of excluding from immigration
all alie s “ineligible to citizenship in the United
States.fl
~
III - CALIFORNIA RESTR ICTIOHS
To supplement the federal immigration laws, the state
of California found it advisable to legislate against Asiatics,
denying them rights and privileges allowed to other immigrants.
The influx of Orientals had created a serious labor problem,
dating back to the @ld rush days of lg49. The issue persisted
through the years, breaking into flame periodically in regions
where Oriental laborers had banded together In sufficient
numbers to become a dominant factor in the 100al agricultural
situation. Frequently their low male of living placed them
in unfair competition with other racial groups.
The California anti-alien land law was enacted in 1913,
for the protection of residents of California. This denied
to aliens ineligible to citizenship any rights in regard to
6
Henry Pratt Fairchild, ‘There IS No Japanese Exclusion
Act. ‘$ The New Republic, 93:102, December 15, 1937.
.—
a
real property which were not granted by the Treaty of 1911
between the United States and Japan.
Specifically, they
oould not buy land, and could lease it only for a term not
exceeding three years.
7
While this Issue was under discussion in the state
legislature, Japanese authorities in Tokyo objected that the
law was directed solely against their people, and that its
discriminations violated the treaty of 1911.
Discrimination against Orientals did not cease with
the passage of the anti-alien land law. Anti-Asiatic agitators
brought about the enactment of a law whereby persons ineligible
for naturalization may be acknowledged by the Supreme Court
of the United States to constitute a distinct class who may be
dangerous to the state in which they reside. They may, there-
fore, be properly deprived of civil rights, and seriously
hampered in the pursuit of happiness and the exercise of
their liberties.
Additional steps in the legislative program of anti-
Japanese agitators resulted in depriving aliens ineligible
for citizenship the rights of guardianship of real estate
belonging to their minor children. This law became effective
as of May 31, 1923.
30
The United States and the state of California in
proposing and enacting the legislation now on the statute
books were required to consider two major problems: first,
the ultimate consequence of allowing unassimilable races to
colonize within the borders of the United States; and, second,
their own rights as a sovereign nation to choose their future
residents and citizens. The latter doctrine has always been
recognized in international law as the prerogative of any
sovereign state. Bi-lateral treaties have been the bases of
agreements on immigration between the nations concerned.
Furthermore, the United States has found it neoessary
to regulate immigration because this country no longer con-
tains vast uninhabitated plains and valleys.
No longer do we
need immigrants to till the soil and provide unskilled labor.
America can no longer encourage foreigners to leave their
homelands and come to her shores.
CHAPTER IV
LOCAT ION AND CONSTITUENCY OF THE KOREAN COMMUNITY
I- BOU?HMR IES
The Korean community in Los Angeles is located between
Vermont and Western Avenues, and between Adams Boulevard and
Slauson Avenue. The population formerly was concentrated
within these boundaries, although decentralization has
occurred d.uling the past five years.
Several families are
found to be living in connection with their business establish-
ments in the vicinity of Temple and Figueroa Streets.
Korean
families who have scattered throughout the county have chosen
those locations for business reasons, and they return to the
Korean community for social and religious life.
11 - PO?U&AT ION
The Los Angeles Korean community
United States. Including the soattered
above, it numbers approximately 650.
III - HOUSING
is the largest in the
families indicated
The Alien Land Laws have prohibited home ownership on
the part of native-born Koreans. The second generation have
32
not bought property in any hmbers.
The principal reason is
financial limitation.
The Korean community is in am older section of the
city, where race restrictions are not enforced.
We find
Koreans living among various nationality groups, including
Chinese, Japanese, Negro, Mexican and white people.
It is
not a strictly residential district, and because of the
mixed population, rental rates are moderate.
They vary
according to location, condition of repair, and number of
room8. The average family of from four to six members pays
approximately twenty five dollars per month.
As long as the
Koreans remain in the geographical district hitherto
described, they seldom encounter anti-Oriental discrimination
concerning domicile.
IV - sTATUS AS A MINORITY GROW
Many Los Angeles residents are surprised to learn that
Koreans live here in any considerable numbers.
Because of
physical similarity, the Koreans are easily confused with
the Chinese, and on occasion,
A Korean is sensitive on this
nationality. He would prefer
rather than a Japanese, since
seems to be offensive to him.
The Koreans have lived
are mistaken for Japanese.
point, for he is proud of his
to be mistaken for a Chinese
any mention of this latter -e
here in some numbers for more
‘-- -
*
:,
than thirty years, but during this time, they have created
no particular social or economic problan.
Being clannish,
they have maintained their own group life, have initiated
their recreational and religious activities, and have not
been ag~essive in mingling with other raoial groups.
These people have been self+aintaining, hence have
not come to the attention of private or public charitable
organizations. If financial assistance is needed to provide
burial for one of their group, notice to that effeot is
printed in the weekly newspaper, and throughout the various
communities of the United States, contributions are made.
Members of this racial group are orderly and law.
abiding, and have not presented any problems for police or
juvenile delinquency authorities.
Bogardus has tabulated the results of a survey of the
reactions of 1,725 Arriericans to forty different races.
The seven points covered by the. reaction test were as
follows: (1) To close kinship by marriage. (2) To my club
as personal ohums. (3) TO my street as neighbors. (4) To
. employment in my occupation. (5) To citizenship in my
country. (6) As visitors only to my country. (7) Would
exclude from my oountry.
Selecting from the forty races studied the three
Oriental groups, Japanese, Chinese, and Korean, a comparative
analysis reveals that at the time of this survey, (192S or
35
earlier), scant discrimination was made between these
different groups. On only the first and the last of the
seven points mentioned did any wide divergence in attitude
appear. The percentage of Americans who were favorable to
close kinship by marriage with the Japanese was 2.3, while
only 1.1 per cent were favorable toward the Chinese or
Koreans on this point. On the matter of exclusion from this
country, 2.5 per cent held that attitude toward the Japanese,
while 13.g per cent had that reaotion toward the Koreans.
Regarding the Chinese, 22.4 per cent would have excluded them.l
It is interesting to speculate what results might be
disclosed by a similar survey at present.
,
lEmory Stephen Bogardus, Immigration and Race
Attitudes, (Boston:
D. C. Heath and Company ,Tzl!l-p. 25.
CHAPTER V
ORGAEI ZATIOIW IN THE KOREAR COMMUNITY
I - CHURCHES
The entire Korean community Is of the Protestant faith,
with no Catholic affiliates whatever.
The original immi-
grants were for the most part missionary converts in Korea
and Hawaii.
Presbyterian Church. In 1905, the Korean Presbyterian
Church was first organized in Los Angeles. It is still helped
by the Presbyterian Missionary Extension Board.
The present
property includes a brick churah, a parsonage of stucco
construction, and a large paved parking lot.
The church
building is located at 1374 West Jefferson Boulevard, Los
Angeles.
This building was erected in 193~, with the help of
$4,000 from the Presbyterian Missionary Extension Board,
in addition to gifts from interested individuals.
The church
members gave $5,000 of the $20,000 required.
The plant is of
modern design. The main auditorium, which seats approximately
150 people, has a choir loft, pipe organ, and stained glass
windows. The building also contains a choir room, a study
for the pastor, three Sunday School class rooms, and a
r
.
37
Sunday School auditorium whioh seats ~~, adjoining the
church auditorium. The church kitchen is fully equipped,
and the back yard has kindergarten playground apparatus.
The ohurch owns three pianos.
Although the church membertiip is only thirty.two,
the attendance at Sunday morning worship is usually sixty-
five or seventy. Evening service is conducted, also.
The
mimeographed order of worship is written in both English
1
and Korean. All preaching is in Korean.
The sunday School, with an average attendance of
seventy-five, is taught in English. It is divided into five
departments: Adult, Young People, Intermediate, Primary,
and Nursery. The Young Peopleis Society of Christian
Endeavor meets on Sunday evening, with about twenty in
attendance. On one Sunday each month, a church vesper service
is conducted at four o~olock. All services have more men
than women in attendance.
The program of weekly activities includes a teacher
training class taught by the minister on Monday evening.
The Wednesday night prayer meeting has from fifteen to
eighteen In attendance. The choir has eighteen members, who
rehearse on Saturday evening. The church is open each
morning from five-thirty to six, for a prayer circle.
The
1
See Appendix h.
pastor of a churoh of’ one thousand members, and a180 an
instructor in the Union Christian College.
In addition to his pastoral duties, the Reverend Kim
conduct8 the Korean Language School. It meets in the church
building, four days a week, for the study of Korean language,
customs, and history. During the regular school year, about
twenty-five children attend, but in summer, the number
increases to eighty. The mini8ter conducts smaller language
classes weekly in two outlying districts.
Methodist Church. The congregation of the Southern
Methodist Church rents the building owned by the Colored
Seventh Day Adventists. The progrsm of 8ctivities in the
Methodist Church is less comprehensive than that of the
members go there for individual meditation and prayer before
they go to their places of employment. The Woments Missionary
Society has an average attendance of twenty-five at its
monthly meetings.
The Sunday School uses denominational literature. The
Bibles are imported from Korea, and are printed in both
Korean and Chinese. They are published by the British and
Foreign Bible Society, Seoul. The hymnals likewise are
printed in Korea.
The resident minister is the Reverend Shungnak Kim,
who came here from Korea two year8 ago, where he had been
38
,,
,,
‘!
,!
,
~ -.,
i
39
Presbyterian Church. They are able to rent these quarters
for use on Sunday morning for only two dollars weekly.
The church membership is 125, but the average atten-
dance at morning worship is only fifty. No evening service
is conducted, either for preaching or for young people:s
meeting. Three sundays a month, the morning service is in
Korean, but on the fourth Sunday, an English service is held,
of particular appeal to the second generation. The guest
speakers have included American ministers, missionaries, and
denominational officials.
The Korean Methodist sunday School has approximately
forty-five enroled, and an equal attendance. The Women~s
Missionary Society has twenty members. The weekly prayer
meeting has from twelve to fifteen in attendance.
An outstanding group In this church is the choir of
twenty voices. It has given guest performances at numerous
local Protestant churches, and has appeared on a series of
radio broadcasts over Station KFWB, from Hollywood. These
broadcasts were under the auspices of the Federation of
Protestant Churches of Los Angeles.
The Reverend S. Y. Whang has been pastor of the
Korean Southern Methodist congregation for the past ten
years.
Christian Church. This ohurch has been organized
‘1
.
40
only recently. They meet in rented property, and have
virtually no activities outside the Sunday morning worship.
The membership is approximately twenty-five. Doctor
,.
3
~
Livingston Kim is the pastor.
II - KOREAN CENTER
Clubs. The clubs and social activities of the
community use the KorO~ National Association building at
1368 West Jefferson Boulevard, Los Angeles. This building
will be referred to hereafter as the Korean Center.
The Girl Reserves, sponsored by the Young Women~s
Christian Association, under the supervision of Miss Knight,
meet at the Center each Friday evening. Mary Lee is the
Korean sponsor. They have a membership of thirteen, ranging
from the ages of fourteen to seventeen. Their activities are
varied, including dancing, dramatics, handcraft, needlework,
and the presentation of benefit programs.
The Ewha Club is comprised of former members of the
Girl Reserves. These are college women, in addition to a
few who have completed their schooling. The olub, with a
membership of fifteen, is sponsored by the International
Institute, under Miss Bartlett. The president of the Euha
Club iS LuCile Kim. The activities are principally social.
They sponsor dances and parties.
An organization has been formed recently for girls
41
from ten to fourteen years of age. It is named Moo Goong Wha,
which means Hibiscus Flower.
They have about twelve members,
who hope eventually to become Girl Reserves.
Mary Lee
organized the club, and is its sponsor.
The young Korean boys have formed the Squires Club,
which divides its activities between athletics and social
life. The ages vary from fourteen to seventeen.
Proceeds
from their basket ball games are being banked to help the
members acquire higher education.
The money may not be used
for any other purpose. They have approximately fifteen
members.
The Young Korean Aoademy is an organization for Korean
men, corresponding to our Young Ments Christian Association.
It was founded here in 1913,, and now has branches in other
countries. Its purpose is the all-round development of young
men, through physical exercise, reading, meditation, and
companionship. The local organization rents and maintains a
large house, where many Korean students make their home.
The organizations which f~dtion under the sponsorship
of the Korean National Association are principally political,
yet they should be considered as faotors in the composite
social life of the community.
Recreation and Athletics. The Korean Center is in
use at least two nights each week. The Korean National
P
,-
: ~,,
42
Association is constructing a playground with outdoor courts
for volley ball and basket ball. When the weather does not
permit outside practice, a church gymnasium in the neighbor-
hood is used for this purpose. Both high school and college
boys are interested in basket ball. Games are played with
other Korean teams throughout California, or with local
Chinese teams.
, . .
!. ,
The Koreans are proficient in other athletic events,
:...
and it is expected that their entrants will compete in the
marathon race and in ~imming in the 19M Olympic Games.
social dances are held occasionally at the Korean
Center, and Chinese young people sometimes attend these.
Plans have been made to equip a libraxy at the Korean
Center, where Korean and English books will be available.
CHAPTER VIII
EDUCATION
The Koreans are vitally interested in education. They
prize learning highly, and are willing to contend with seri.
ous obstacles in order to obtain advanaed training.
Many of the young people regard education as a means
by which they hope to improve their social position.
They
anticipate that it will relieve them of some of the diffi-
culties which have conftinted their parents~ and that it will
better their economic status. Parents have expressed them-
selves as feeling tht education is the best gift they can
make to their children.
I- ENROLMENT IN LOCAL ELEMENTARY AND SE OONDARY SCHOOLS
Interviews with various leaders in the Korean community
revealed some disorepanoy regarding statistics on present
school enrolment. A conservative estimate places the figures
at approximately one hundred in grammar schools, forty in
junior high schools, and thirty In senior high schools. The
majority of the latter number attend Manual Arts high school,
although BelmontS Pol@echnic? ~anklin, Alhambra, and others
have Korean students.
During recent years, six Koreans have been elect ed to
,.
44
the Ephebian Society, which is an honorary scholastic
organisation for high school students.
For the current year, a Korean boy is president of
the student body at Franklin high school.
The distinction
becomes more significant in view of the fact that this is a
large school, in a conservative district having a minimum of
foreign population.
II -
ENROLMENT IN INST ITUT IONS OF HIGHER LEARNING
During the school year 1937-38$ Korean students
attending institutions of higher learning in Los Angeles
County numbered thirty-eight.
Their major subjects
represented eighteen fields of professional preparation.
Table I on page 45 will show that thirty of these
thirty-eight students attended either City College, University
of California at Los Angeles, or the University of Southern
California. The remaining eight students were distributed
among various schools, such as California Institute of
Technology, Chouinard Art Institute, Motion Picture Art
School, and Whittier Theological Seminary.
A natural question is, How are Korean students able
to attend technical schools where high tuition fees are
charged? Many students have obtained scholarships based on
previous credentials, or through the philanthropy of inter-
ested individuals.
45
TABLE I
KOREAN STUDENTS IN THREE OOLLEGES AND UNIVF2M ITIES
OF LOS ANGELES OOUNTY
CLASSIFIED ACOORDING TO FIELD OF PROFESSIONAL PREPARAT IOM
AND NAME OF INSTITUTION, FOR SCHOOL YEAR 19~7-3g1
Field of
lkime of Institution Total
Professional Los Angele8 University University enrol -
preparation city of Oali- of Southern ment
College fornia at California
Los Angeles
AgriOultW9
Architecture
Business
Administration
Chemistry
Dentistry
Economics
English
Medical and
Pre-Medical
Music
Nursing
Optometry
Religious
Education
Social Hygiene
sociology
Not Reporting
1
1
1
1
4
1 2
2
2
1
1
1
1
4
2
1
1
1
1
1
4
Total Enrolment 11
8 11 30
1
Data from Korean Student Director , 1
ds,~’s:z
Division of Commit- ~Y
Avenue, New York, New York.
46
Only a few of these students from the Korean community
can look to their parents for financial assistance.
Others
support themselves by summer employment or part-time work
during the sohool yeas. A limited number get National Youth
Administration work. Some earn board and room in exohange
for service as domestics in private homes. Certain instit&
tions, such as the University of Southern California, provide
a student loan fund, and a few Korean students have availed
themselves of this.
Despite their interest in specialized higher education,
and their excellent scholastic records, it has been virtually
impossible for Korean graduates to find places in this country
in the professions for which they have trained.
To cite a few instances, a graduate in sociology,
trained for social service, is a waitress. A graduate chemist
operates a small sales agency. A trained lawyer has been
unable to gain admittance to the bar, because of his citizen-
ship. An experienced teacher from Korea manages a small
general market.
A Korean boy attending City College has been given
recognition for musical compositions, and has been eleoted
student manager of music at City College. He is recognized
in the Korean community as a proficient pianist and teacher.
However, his success in utilizing his training is
exceptional. Most second generation Koreans find it neoessary
47
to go to Hawaii for professional openings.
The Korean
population there is considerable, and the large proportion
of Orientals minimizes the raoial discrimination which con-
fronts them here. One local sociology student plans to
enter social service in Korea upon completion of her training.
Aa indicated in the chapter dealing with immigration,
students who come here from Korea must return to that oountry
upon expiration of vis~s granted for the purpose of study.
It is difficult for them to obtain permission from the Japan-
ese government to come here. A majority of the Korean
students now entering this country are of Hawaiian birth. At
present, the number coming for study is about twelve each
year.
The total enrolment of Korean students in colleges and
universities is made up principally of second-generation
Koreans, of American bitth. It may be assumed that of the
259 Korean students in colleges and universities during the
past school year, 200 were American born. Thus it is seen
that of the Korean population in the United States, estimated
at 2,000, one in ten is attending an institution of higher
learning. For the general population of the United States,
the average attendance is one in each hundred.
2
2
Data from The World Almanac end Book < Facts, 1
“ (New York:
*
NeW Yo=W-T_,w3~PP. ~nd 51
CHAPTER VII
KOREANS IN BUSINESS AND PROFESS IONS
I- BUSINESS ENTERPRISES UNDER KOREAN OPERAT ION
The business life of the Koreans in Los Angeles county
does not present a picture of wide diversification.
They
have limited choice of the type of business into which they
are able to go, because of prejudice against their race.
This has hindered financial success, likmise, and has made
it difficult for them to accumulate capital to launch naw
businesses.
The distribution of business establishments owned or
operated by Koreans in Los Angeles county is approximately
as follows: fruit and vegetable stands, thirty-three; grocery
stores, nine; wholesale companies, five; pressing and
laundry shops, eight; trucking companies, six; restaurants,
five; employment agencies, one; herb stores, three; hat shops)
two; rooming house, one.
For the most part, these independent establishments
are small, with only a few employees.
The largest single
Korean business in this county is the Oriental
of California, located at 4100 South Broadway,
This firm specializes in the purveying of chop
Food Products
Los Angeles.
suey, chow
49
mein, and similar foods. They advertise twenty-seven varieties
of canned goods retailed through grocers.
They wholesale
freshly prepared Oriental foods to restaurants, and maintain
a delivery servioe to private residences.
Eighteen Koreans
are employed by this firm.
A similar business on a smaller scale is that of the
Great Eastern Industrial Company, at 4716 South Mormandie
Avenue, Los Angeles.
The New Ilhan Company, importers of Korean novelties
and wearing apparel, have recently opened headquarters in the
San Fernando
They hope to
present they
Building, at Fourth and
have a retail gift shop
have three employees.
Main Streets, Los Angeles.
in operation soon. At
The employment agency mentioned places other Orientals,
as well as Koreans. In fact, its business among Koreans is
almost negligible, and does not exceed five placements monthly.
Domestic help, dishwashers, and cooks constitute the class of
openings. The manager is & Korean.
He employs no assistants.
The herb stores enumerated are conducted by ‘herb
doctors$, who prescribe their remedies for certain ailments.
These men learned their lore from their fathers, but they
consult reference books in advising their clientele, which
consists of Korean?? ChineseS Filipinos$ and Americans.
The restaurants operated here by Koreans are usually
50
known as Chinese restaurants, serving Oriental food.
They
are generally in poor neighborhoods> where they cater largely
to the laboring class.
The various business enterprises herein mentioned are
distributed throughout the city, since the Korean community
itself is situated in a semi-residential district. For the
most part, these independent establishments are small, with
a minimum number of employees, and limited patronage.
II - PROTESS IONS
Professional opportunities for Koreans in Los Angeles
county are even more restricted in scope and number than
business opportunities. To the factor of race prejudice must
be added that of the handicap of non-citizenship in the case
of foreign-born Koreans. They are barred automatically from
professions wlmre citizenship is required, such as the
practice of law and teaching in the public schools.
Even the second-generation Koreans, who have United
States citizenship, find it virtually impossible to utilize
their professional preparation in a chosen field. Specific
instances of this situation were set forth in the chapter
entitled Education.
At present, no Koreans in Los Angeles county are
engaged in such professions as law, engineering, dentistry~
education, or social work. Two Koreans are engaged in the
i
51
~,
practice of medicine. Their patients include Chinese,
~;; ,
p., ):
Filipinos, and Americans, as well as Koreans.
I
i... .. ‘
[.,
,.,
~’, ..,.
The Korean ministers of the community~s three
!
[$
I $$,
churches have been mentioned in the seotion on Churches,
1
.*.
,:?,
: .’:”.,
in the chapter dealing with other local organisations.
K,
I :’:
~:.. ~,
The field of motion pictures has two Korean repre.
~:
p:,
[,$ -;
sentatives as character actors.
i>
Four Koreans teach musio in the community.
!
Their
, ‘.
,. ~
1;
piano students include Chinese as well as Koreans.
::’
~.
, ..,1
,.-.
i“
,!
$.
1.-
1 ,-
, ..
;.:
,.
1’
‘1
,
,..
CHAPTER VIII
CHANGES II? THE LIFE OF KOREANS
I- FAM ILY LI~
Relatively few customs identify Korean family life
here with that in their native country. However, family
feeling is strong, and the group is usually closely knit and
affectionate. As in Korea, the oldest living male is head
of the family, and a son will assume this responsibility upon
the death of the father. One noticeable difference is the
fact that Korean women ~e not secluded in this country.
Girls are loved equally with boys by their parents.
M8rriage. Another change is apparent in the marriage
customs. The marriage broker is no longer patronized.
Young people choose their own mates, but generally they
consult their parents before final arrangements are made.
Elopements are unknown.
The marriages are carefully planned,
following public announcement of engagement.
Intermarriage
with other nationalities is rare. The Korean is proud of his
racial heritage, and is eager to retain it.
Second generation marriages in this community have
been few. Even when young men reach the age at which they
might normally marry and establisb their own households~ it
53
young men. Many Korean girls have gone
ment, and have married KOre~s there.
to Hawaii for employ.
Food. The diet of Koreans here is a combination of
Korean and American foods. Their break~ast may be much like
our own. The principal meal of the day, however, will use
rice, which is their favorite dish. The use of fruits and
vegetables is increasing, particularly among the second
generation, who seem to relish Amerioan and lCorean foods
equally.
Dress. The local Koreans have been quick to adopt
American styles of clothing. The young people usually make
an excellent appearance, since they are neat, have good
carriage, and are quick to observe and copy the current
modes of dress.
Language. A disruptive force in family life has been
the difference in language. The second generation seem to have
slight interest in learning and using Korean, preferring the
English they have acquired in public schools.
is often necessary for them to assist in the support of
their parents or younger members of the family.
Korean young
men who are employed or who conduct independent businesses
seldom are financially able to undertake the responsibilities
of marriage. The young women in the community outnumber the
L ,.
1
,. ,.
- ., . .
,7 !’<;,
[.:
~ .;:
.:.-
,..
II - POLITICAL AND CIVIC ACTIVITIES
The patriotism of foreign-born members of the commun-
ity expresses itself in propaganda for Korean independence
from Japan. They send money to support the provisional
government for the Republic of Korea, which is being main-
tained in China, awaiting the time when it oan be established
in Korea. They are intensely loyal to this cause, however
ill-founded their hope may prove to be, in view of the
present Oriental situation. They are proud of Korea’s long
history as an independent nation with an illustrious cultural
past and a high standmd of ethics, preserved from generation
to generation by men of letters, philosophers, and artists.
The passion to free Korea from bondage and to perpetu-
ate her language and culture dominites the thought of the
older generation. Many have educated their children at
considerable financial sacrifice, with the idea that they
would be able to assume positions of leadership in Korea.
However, since the establishment of the Japanese protectorate
in 1910, imprisonment has been the fate of those who attempted
to change the Japanese regime in Korea. This situation
intensifies anti-Japanese sentiment in the local community,
8nd makes patriotism almost a religion.
The second generation Koreans are divided in their
55
loyalties. The passion for Korean independence has been
instilled in them from childhood, yet they are proud of their
American citizenship, and miss no opportunity to exercise
their rights. They study governmental issues and investigate
candidates for office, in the effort to vote intelligently.
CHAPTER IX
THE KOREAN 19ATIOlVAL ASSOCIAT ION AND ITS OBJECT IVES
The Koreans in this country first banded together in
a national organization on February 1, 1910. FTOZI this
preliminary organization, the Korean National Association of
North America has evolved. Since the principal branch of the
Korean National Association.is located in Los Angeles, a
detailed statement of its Puzposes seems pertinent to this
study.
I * PURPOSE AND SCOPE
The preservation of national identity, the promotion
of general welfare, and the perpetuation of their civilization
for future generations are the ideals which gu!ided the forma-
tion of the ICotban National Association. Korean independence
has been promoted through this organization, and the pro-
visional government of the Republic of Korea has been
supported.
(
Since Koreans everywhere are int8r0Sted in the
liberation of their country from Japan, the Korean National
Association is particdarly active in promoting measures to
bring about the independence of Korea.
P
b’.
57
~ .,
II - LOSS OF KOREAN INDEPENDENCE
The struggle toregaip Korean independence oannot be
:. .
; .,
:,
understood without a brief summary of the historical facts
connected with its loss.
The principal facts are as follows:
In lg94, Japan
,,
(
). -
waged war upon China over the prize of Korea.
Chinese
!
suzerainty was renounced, and Korean independence was
acknowledged as a consequence of the war, although the real
victory was for Japan, over China. Korea had been only a
pretext; the most important result was that Japan had gained
~
a foothold in Manchuria.
This conclusion is s8t forth at
length by George E. Sokolskyl, expert on the Far Eastern
situation, and well known for his numerous writings on that
[
subject.
The Period of the Protectorate, from 1905 to 1910, was
an intermediate stage between Japanese and Korean rule. It
was characterized by confusion and unrest, and by more or
less inefficient governmental administration.
In August,
1910, the Emperor of Japan announced that Korea had been
, l::;;
[’
1:
.“ -,”.”..
annexed, and the Government-General of Korea was ordered
,.
., .,
-----
,.
$-.. .:
1 . . .
1
George E. Sokolsky, The Tinder Box of Asia,(Garden
Cit , New York:
[
Doubleday, D=n~o~n~ =rporated,
193 ) pp. 118 ff.
56
established.
This annexation involved more than territory and its
inhabitants, as is suggested in the following statement by
Harry Emerson Wildea:
Korea had behind it centuries of complete, or
partial, freedom. It had a history, a reoord of artistic
and literary achievement, a more or less well-grounded
national memory of h8ving helped to oivilize Japm.
Korea was compact, well-settled and articulate.
It had
the weakness of old age and decadence and corruption,
but it had once known a degree of glory.2
Japanese rule subsequent to 1910 was enforced with
military authority, and this aroused Korean resentment to the
point where a Proclamation of Independence
nationalists on Maroh lJ 1919. The revolt
increased military display, but due to the
was issued by the
was repressed with
sentiment aroused
in both Korea and Jap8n, 8 new Governor-General was appointed.
Japan may be acknowledged to have introduced certain
reforms; however, the Koreans generally feel t~t they ~ve
lost their country; and that the schools, roads, industries,
and trade which Japan fostered were not for Korean advantage,
but to fortify the Japanese position in regard to Manchuria.
They are inclined to feel that the public school system is
an attempt to make Korean boys and girls into Japanese
citizens, since the curriculum is Japanese.
2
Harry Emerson Wildes, Ja an in Crisis, (New York:
+%7
—
The Macmillan Company, 1934) p.
,.
59
Japan has been outspoken concerning her intention to
amalgamate Korea and assimilate its people. This would mean
the supplanting of the native culture with Japanese oustoms,
language, and ideals. However, this is more easily declared
than consummated. To quote again from Japan in Crisis:
.—
Japan walks in constant fear of a Korean rising.
This fear, rather than the actuality, of revolt motivates
the official policy. There is an ever.present conscious.
ness that Korea is filled with discontent and that Japan
has ruled unwisely.
Official reassurances are, to be sure, voioed
frequently that the worst is over =d that the Koreans
have lost all real desire for freedom. But the reassur-
ances have none of the ring of oonviotion. The Japanese
are well aware that Korea, reduced to helplessness, can
take no drastic action to rebel, but they are also
certain that Korean passivity is a sullen silence and t at
treachery to Japan is very far indeed from unthinkable.
9
Civilian rule had been promised to Korea in 1919, but
repression continued, and the desired opportunities for self-
development were not forthcoming. Red propaganda crept into
the country, and several hundred Communists were apprehended
in 1931. Martial law was instituted, and the experiment of
gradual liberation of the Koreans =der Japanese rule had
virtually ended.
Any news whioh has come from Korea during reoent years
has been censored by the Japanese @vernment. Even the
journalists whose dispatches appear in the least biased
newspapers are dependent for their eoonomic safety upon the
3
Ibid, pp. 229-30.
goodwill of
present the
60
Japanese officials, hence it is not possible to
whole truth.
Younghill Kang writes graphically as an eye-witness
of the preparations for the Revolution of 1919, for which
the Koreans had been in preparation during ten years. The
plan was to have their Declaration of Independence read in
public, and then for all the people in the city of Seoul to
cry ‘Mansei’ (O live ten thousand years~ Korea!) The text
4
of the Declaration of Independence summarizes much of the
nation’s long history. It was written by SIX Grass Roofs,
pen-name of Koreats famous scholar and chronicler.
The following statement indioates the feeling out of
which an attempt was made to gain Korean independence from
Japan. The author, C. H. Ahn, died as a political prisoner
of Japan in 1938, after having devoted his life to efforts
to free Korea from Japanese oppression. To quote from a
magazine article entitled, ‘A Korean Appeal to America”:
For ten years we have been oppressed by a
militaristic and imperialistic government. . . The
Japanese government has not only robbed us of national
liberty, but has deprived us of those rights which are
the heritage of every human being.
It has deprived us of justice, of freedom of
thought, of our language, of the right to educate our
children according to our ideals, imposing upon us a
system of eduoation not only destructive of our national
ideals, but imperiling the very foundation of the
b
See Appendix III.
61
Christian religion. They have also taken from us the
saored right of religious freedom. The Christians have
been the repeated objects of brutal and nation-wide
persecution and oppression, many having suffered
imprisonment an
!?
barbarous and inhuman treatment without
any just cause.
The foregoing indioates the intensity of Korean
sentiment regarding Japaneee oppression. The issue of
independence enters into all Korean thinking, and a principal
function of the Korean National Association Is to provide a
means of joint protest against Japanese rule.
III - MEMBERSHIP OF KOREAN NAT 101’?AL ASSOCIAT IOR
The Korean Hational Assooi8tion has seventeen branches,
located throughout the United States, Hawaii, Ouba, and
Mexico. The local branch is oalled Kook min Hoi. It has
approximately 120 members.
Membership in the Korean National Association is based
on the payment of annual dues of ten dollars to the head-
quarters office at 136~West Jefferson Boulevard, Los Angeles.
Paid membership flguree vary with the financial status of
the Koreans. Membership has been as high as one thousand,
and has dropped as low as five hundred during depression
years.
5
C. H. Ahn, ‘A Korean Appeal to Amerioa”, The IVation,
.—
1( M:63$-9, Aprll,1919.
,. \
Subsidiary
62
Organizations. Other organizations are
included under the sponsorship of the Korean 19ational
As60Ci@tiOn. The Young Korean National Association has a
100al membership of approximately fifty second-generation
Koreans. It attempts to contribute to community welfare and
to give patriotic support to the provisional government of
the Republic of Korea.
The Korean womenls local patriotic league is known as
the Akuk Buin Dan. Its forty-five members work to bring about
a strong feeling of national~- among their people, aeinst
the Japanese domination of Korea.
The United Korean Society wag formed a Year ago for
the purpose of aiding China in the war against Japan, by
collecting money and relief materials, -and by observing the
boycott against Japanese trade. Its membership comprises
representation from all local Korean groups.
Certain second-~neration members of the Los Angeles
Korean community have formed the Korean American Citizens
t
Club. They have a loose organization, in which young pe@e
become members automat ically upon reaching their majority.
As the name would indicate, this group concerns itself with
the responsibilities of American citizenship.
Governmental
issues and the qualifications of candidates are considered.
The advisory bard inoludes such Persons as *rtrude
63
H. Rounsavelle and Margarete L. Clark, of the Board of
Education; Frofessor Francis Bacon, Counselor of Men,
University of Southern California; David V. Gill, State
President, Young Democratic Clubs of California; Judge A. A.
Scott of the Superior Court; Tom J. Rice, Chairman of the
Americanisation Committee of the American Legion; Professor
Wilbur Long, University of Southern California; and Doctor
E. C. Far~m, Executive Secretary of the Federation of
Protestant Churches of Los Angeles.
IV - METHOD OF OPEllATIOH
The only salaried officer of the Korean l?ational
Association is Mr. C. H. Choy~ the executive secretary. He
has been an active member sinoe its organization.
From 1917
to 1919, he served as executive secretary; from 1919 to 1927,
he was president; from 1934 to 1936 he was again president;
and since 1936 he has been executive secretary.
6
Mr. H. J. Song is president for the year 1939.
The Association holds its annual convention in
January, at the headquarters in Los Angeles. Branch Associ~
tions are permitted to send one delegate for each fifteen
bona fide mewbers; no looality is permitted to send a
delegate unless it has at least ten bona fide members.
6
The New Korea, February 16, 1939.
———
1“
1
.
-, ..’. .
P-
r
64
Members of the Young Korean ??ational Association do not pay
dues until they become twenty-one years of age.
The Association has eleven members on its Board of
Directors, of whom eight live in Los Angeles County.
Standing cmnnittees are: Administration, Education, Public
Relief, Business Affairs, Public Relations (Propaganda), and
special cotmnittees were appointed at the last annual conven-
tion for Investigation on Home for the Aged, and for Korean
textbooks.
The headquarters of the Korean National Association
were moved from San Francisco to Los Angeles, about one year
ago, upon completion of the Korean Center building.
Both
the Korean l?ational Association and the Young Korean National
Association are chartered under California law.
The budget estimate for the fiscal year Is $5,375.00.
v- THE NEU KOREA
A weekly newspaper, The New Korea, is the official
—. —
publication of
every Thursday
Bouievard, Los
the Korean National Association. It is issued
from the headquarters at 136~ West Jefferson
Angeles. The Association owns a linotype
machine, but the paper is at present printed by a commere$al
firm. The Committee on Administration has been authorized
to study the possibilities and advantages of installing a
1“
65
printing press.
The newspaper is circulated by mail to approximately
five hundred paid subsc?lbers and
not pay the subscription price of
This is the only Korean newspaper
to numerous others who do
five dollars annually.
published in North America.
It circulates throughout the United States, Ihwaii, Cuba,
and Mexico.
A recent issue sets forth is purposes as follows:
‘to disseminate our Ideals, to unite ourselves for one oo~on
purpose - our national liberty, and to promote a better
7
understanding among our people.”
The staff consists of C. H. Choy, seoretary of the
Association, who is editor and general manager; C. H. Lee,
assistant to the editor; and Phllson Ahn, editor of the
English seotion.
In physical mak-up, The Hew Korea is a four-page
.— —
sheets of standard size. The first page is printed in
English, but the others are in Korean, except for some
display advertising, an official directory of branch
Association headquarters, and the church direotory.
The commercial display advertising is llmited to that
for pstent medicines and staple foods. This advertising 1S
accepted on an exchange basis, in return for the free use of
f
The New Korea, January 26, 1939.
.——
+
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~
. ..” “ ., :
. . ,. *
.>% $’
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; 1.+?
66
a oomic strip whic?h appears weekly. One issue oontained
three separate advertisements for Listerine, all direoted
toward aooial consciousness, since they recommended the
product for halitosis, for dandruff, and for tobacco stains
on the teeth.
Only one professional advertisement appears regularly,
that of a dootor.
A~lYsi8 of cmmplete files of the paper for the first
three months of 1939 disolosed that the English section
carries some propaganda, and one or two regular features deal-
ing with life in Korea. An appeal was published recently for
news items. Club activities and athletic @vents are reported.
Offioial proceedings of the Korean National Association
and subsidiary local organizations are published at intervals.
However, the publication appears to be a propaganda instrument
for Korean patriotism, more than a newspaper. Anti-Japanese
sentiment is vigorously and frequently expressed.
It was Impossible to make any study of the contents
of the Korean section of the paper.
VI - ACTIVITIES IN BEHALF OF KOREAN IMIEPENDENCE
The third section of this chapter dealt with the
various local political organizations sponsored by the Korean
National Association. From facts set forth therein, the
vital interest of the Koreans in political activities is
6,7
apparent. Local support for Korean independence, both in
propaganda and In finances, Is given through two principal
channels, the Korean IVational Association, and the Jong mi
Hoi.
The work of the former organisation has been described
in detail, in its activities for Korean independence and the
provisional government of the Republio of Korea. It is
militaristic ia spirit. The Korean National Association
helps to support a capital city in China. A government which
is oalled ‘The Re~bllc of Korea” is maintained there, ready
for transfer to Korea, whenever Japanese domination uan be
overthrown.
The Jong Dai Hoi was founded by Doctor Syynman Rhee,
as a protest against the militarism which characterized the
Korean National Association. Doctor Rhee was elected in 1910
as the first president of the Republic of Korea, but he has
never functioned in that office. He Is at present the head
of the Korean Institute in Hawaii, located at Honolulu. The
Jong Dal Hoi has a program of passive non-resistance. Their
100al membership is small, comprising only a few families.
CHAPTER X
SUMMARY AlfD CONCLUSIONS
The Korean community in Los Angeles county has been
considered against its Oriental background, from the viau-
point of racial history, social and cultural traditions, and
economic and industrial life.
Its numbers here are small, but it represents a
distinct racial oulture, and has retained its group identity
for more than thirty years.
Our rec?ent immigration
entry from Korea. Therefore,
laws have prohibited further
the Koreans in the United States
will remain few in number until the seoond generation group
marries and adds to the population.
Los Angeles may be considered the ~capitsl~ of Korea
in the United States, since the Korean National Association
headquarters are located here, in the largest n-erieal
community. The only Korean newspaper in the United States is
published here, and Los Angele8 is the center of activities
in behalf of Korean independence and the improvement of the
economic statu8 of American Koreans as a minority group.
The local oommunity was found to be housed in a not
undesirable residential district, in an older section of the
city.
68
Housing appeared to be adequate.
Organizations in the Korean oommunity are numerous,
and they overlap in function and accomplishment. They
attempt to direct the religious, political, soci81, and
recreational life of the group. The chief limitation is
lack of adeauate leadership for their activities.
Korean interest in higher edueation has always been a
significant factor in the life of the local community.
The
proportion of professionally trained members of the group,
together with their limited opportunities for employment,
either here or in Korea, constitutes a problem which may
become increasingly serious.
The economic situation among individual members of
the community is far from desirable. Those who conduct
independent businesses seem to have suffered severely during
the depressions of the past ten years. Those who depend
upon outside employment meet discrimination, and as a minor-
ity group, find themselves helpless to offer effective
resistance.
In surveying Korean family life, it was observed that
the second generation are being affected by American customs
and culture, even though their parents attempt to stimulate
loyalty to Korea, by continuing to use the language and to
agitate for national independence of the mother country.
From the study of the Korean community, it has been
found that this minority group
by reason of raoe. The people
79
presents no particular problem
are law-abiding, have strong
home ties, are industrious, and educationally ambitious.
The handioaps to their advancement have been principally two:
laok of opportunities for employment commensurate with their
training, and lack of oommunity leadership in industry,
vocational guidance, and organized group life.
Community activities would be more effeotive were it
not for their wide diversification and overlapping.
Members
of the group appear lacking in ability to coordinate their
purposes and efforts. Thus, instead of 8trOng, COOpOrative
organizations, presenting a united front, we find much
duplication of effort, and consequent unsatisfactory results.
The three struggling churches in the community are an
illustration of this point.
I
. .
f
1
I
,
BIBLIOCXUIPHY
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. BOOKS
Allen, G. C., Japan: the Hungry Guest.
New York: E. P.
Dutton and Compan~Incorpor- 1938. 261 pp.
Bogardus, Efiiory Stephen, Immigration and Race Attitudes.
Boston: D. C. Heath and Company, ~g~63 pp.
Brown, A. J., Mastery of the Far East.
Hew York:
Charles
Scribner’s Sons, 1X9.
‘6~pp.
Carpenter, F. G., Ja n and Korea.
+9= TPP.
Garden City: Doubleday,
Page and Comp8ny,
Carter, Boake, and He81y, Thomas H., WA Meddle in the Orient?
New York: Dodge Publishing Company, ~~ ~~.
—
Chung, Henry, The Case ~ Korea: & Collection of Evidence on
the Ja ane~D=mtio=Korea and on the~evelo~ent—
_=t*n Independen~ =e~
—
I?-York: Fleming
H. ~e-pany, 1921.
3~
Clark, Charles Allen, Religions of Old Korea.
Fleming P. Revell Comp8ny, l~2V
m.
Davis, James J.,
Immigration Laws and Rules.
United States Departm
en~ ~a~,”~~.
Drake, Henry Burgess, Korea of the Japanese.
1930. 225 pP. ‘——
New York:
Washington:
247 PP.
London: Lane,
Government-General of Chosen,
compiler, Annual Re ort on the
Administration of Chosen.
Keijo:
—
ks~
–
~93b.
Governmen
~PP*——
Griffis, Willi~ Elliot, Cores, the Hermit Nation.
New York:
Charles Scribner ~s so~90~ -.
—
Hamilton, Angus, Korea.
New York: Charles Scribner~s Sons,
1904. 315 pp.
Easluck, E. L. , Forei ~l~;~ir~+gl~.19~~. lVew York: Th e
Macmillan COmpanY,
(
i.
i.
,,
:.
1
I
b
.
~ .-..
. .
.’
Ireland, Alleyne, The l!lew Korea. Heu York: E. P. Dutton
and Company, 1~.~5~
Kang, Younghill, The Grass Roof. New York: Charles
Scribnerts SOG ~ ‘~~ pp.
Karig, Walter, Asiats Good l?ei hbor.
—
*og ::imapo’is: ‘he
J30bbs Merri~Pany,
MacNair, Harley Farn~orth, The Real Conflict between China
“ Un=rfi of
**“ chi”am”
Chica@~,~g.
McKenzie, R. D., Oriental Exclusion. New York: Institute
of Pacific Relatiens, ~{.
= PP*
Mears, Eliot Grinnell, Resident Orientals on the American
Pacific Coast. Chicago: Universit
~m
y o~C=ago Press,
Pratt, J~es Bissett, The Pil ima e of Buddhism.
–*K.
New York:
The Macmillan Company,
Reuter, Edward Byron, Race and Culture Contacts.
New York:
MoGraw Hill Book C~nn~7~
Rockhill, William Woodville, compiler, Treaties, Conventions,
Agreements, and Ordinances, Relatin
,~fcy !* +-
Washington: ~ernment Printing
ROSS, John, Korea, Its Histor , Nenners and Customs. London:
Stock, lg91. Wpp.
y
‘——
Scherer, James A. B., Japan Defies the World. Indianapolis:
The Bobbs Merrill Compan~$g.—3=.
Schrieke, B., Alien Americans:
~ Stud of Race Relations.
d New York: =Viking Press~ ● ~0~.
Sokolsky, George E., The Tinder Box of Asia.
Garden City:
Doubleday, Doran = _Ym9y. ~i6 PP.
Soltau, T. Stanley, Korea, the
to Christianity.~do=
~3 PP.
Tletjene, Eunice, Japa% Korea
Publishing Company, 1~~
Hermit Nation and Its Res onse
+.
mr~i=n=ess,
and Formosa. Chicago: Wheeler
W=
I
I
1
,-
,’
1
‘&
&.- *
. . .
,.
Wagner, Ellasue, Korea: The Old and the New. New York:
Fleming H. Rev=omp~,W3~ ~ ~
Wlldes, Harry Emerson, Aliens in the East. Philadelphia:
University of Penns=a7%~,’~570 360 pp.
Wildes, Harry Emerson, Ja an in Crisis.
Maomillan Company,
* 70- ‘w ‘ork’ “e
B. PERIODICAL ARTICLES
Ahn, C. H., ‘A Korean Appeal to America, n The Nation,
10g : 63g-9 , APril 19, 1919.
——
I?airchild, Henry Pratt, aThere Is No Japanese Exclusion Act,”
The Hew Republic, 93:173, Decanber 15, 1937.
——
Smith, W. C.,
“Changing Personality Traits of Second
Generation Orientals in Amerioa,R American Journs.1 of
SoCiOIOI?’Y, 33:922-9, my, 1928.
——
Takeuchi, Tatsuji, ‘Background of the Sine-Japanese Crisis,”
Amerasia, 2:lg3-91, June, 193g.
Watkins, Gordon S. social ‘Japan and the Oriental Crisis,” _
Science, 13: 10#-11, April, 193g.
Wittfogel, K. A., ‘lCulture is War,” Asia, 3g:21g-9, April,
lg3g.
c. MISCELLANEOUS REFERENCE WORKS
‘Korea,
n
Enc C1O edia Britannica, 14th Edition, Volume XIII,
PP. ~
The Korean Student Direator
for 1938, sociel Relations
—
‘=tm~
+– e Korean gtudent Federation of North
America and The Korean Division of the Committee on
Friendly Relations Among Foreign Students
t
347 Madison
Avenue, New York, New York.
The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 1939, New York World-
.— ——
—=@m@ PP.
k
,.
75
D. UNPUBLISHED MATERIALS
Corpus, Severino Fermin, ‘An Analysis of the llacial Adjust-
ment Activities and Problems of the Filipino-American
Christian Fellowship in Los Angeles. ” Unpublished
Ma8ter18 thesis, University of Southern California,
Los Angeles, California, 193g. 124 pp.
E. NEWSPAPERS
The New Korea, Los Angeles, California, January 5, 1939
—
wnii30 , 1939.
F. OTHER SOURCES
SELECTED I19TERVIEWS
Ahn, M., 954 West 37th Street, Los Angeles.
(Housewife;
widow of Chang Ho Ahn, founder of Korean Hatlonal
Association, who died in 193g as a political prisoner
of Japan.)
Ahn, Philson, 954 West 37th Street, Los Angeles. (Specialty
sales distributor; Editor, English section of The New
Korea; Motion Picture actor.
——
Ahn, Susan, 5172 College Avenue, San Diego. (Student, San
Diego State Teachers
$
College. )
Bartlett, Miss, 435 South Boyle Avenue LOS Angeles. (Group
Director, International Inst Itute. \
Choy, C. H.,
136s West Jefferson Boulevard, Los Angeles.
(Secretary, Korean National Association; Director in
charge
}
Korean Center;
General Manager, The New Korea.)
.— —
Hahn, Young D., 307 West First Street, Los Angeles.
(Physician and Surgeon. )
Kim, Sbungnak, 1372Wd Jefferson Boulev=d~ LOS An6@les.
(Minister, Korean Presbyterian Church. )
Lee, Emma, 954 West 37th Street, Los Angeles. (Employed in
Department Store. )
Lee, Mary, 1909 San Fernando Road, Los Angeles. (University
student. )
Lee, M., 136~ West Jefferson Boulevard, Los Angeles.
(Linotype operator, The New Korea. )
—. —
Park, Nellie, 240g Temple Street, Los Angeles. (Housewife. )
Park, W. K., 619 Morth Main Street, Los Angeles. (Manager,
Oriental Employment Agency. )
Song, H. J., 5373 Venice Boulevard, Los Angeles. (President,
Korean National Association; grocer. )
Whang, S. T., 1340 West 37th Street, Los Angeles. (Minister,
Korean Methodist Church. )
i
t
,,
I

k
APPENDIX A
ORDER OF WORSHIP, KOREAN Presbyterial? CHURCH
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APPENDIX B
KOREAN STUDENTS IN COLLEGES AND
UNIVERSITIES OF THE UNITED STATES
Throughout the United States, Korean students in
colleges and universities numbered 259 for the school year
1937-3g. This is only a slight increase-over the number
for 1932-33. The table on page 79, showing the distribution
by field of professional preparation presents certain inter-
esting contrasts, although ohanges in terminology may indi-
cate more variation than actually exists. Agriculture, for
example, enroled almost three times as many in 1937-3$ as in
1932-33, while Engineering and Electrical Engineering enroled
only half as many in 1937-38 as before. Religious Eduoation
and Theology likewise show a marked decrease in enrolrnent.
The Korean Student Directory lists all their students
in institutions of higher learning in this country, indicat-
ing major study and year of enrolment. It is publ i shed by
The Korean Division of the Committee on Friendly Relations,
347 Madison Avenue, New York, New York. In addition to the
,“
1
publication of this annual directory and a quarterly Korean
;,.
!;
Student Bulletin, they attempt to make Korean students from
[
~
abroad better acquainted with Americ?an lifet to promote
,/.
their contacts with Amerioan students, and to develop mutual
I
i,
‘1
[
!,
1 ’
i ’
,-
:,-,
/$3
understanding and the exehange of ideas.
Another objective is to make Americans conversant
with Korea and its problems, through hospitality and friend-
ship extended to foreign students. Aleo, the committee
attempts to aid individual Korean students in the solution
of their personal problems.
t
}’
TABLE I
KOREAN STUDENTS Ill COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES
OF THE UNITED STATES
CLASS IFIED AC CORDING TO FIELD OF PROFESSIONAL PREPARAT ION
DURIX?G TWO SELECTED SCHOOL YEARS1
FIELD OF PROFESSIONAL PREPARAT ION NUMBER OF STUDENT%
1932-33 1937-3~
Agriculture
Architecture
Chemistry
Dentistry
Economics and Business
Education
Electrical Engineering
Engineering
Fine Arts
Geology
Home Economics
Journalism
Languages
Liberal Arts
Library Science
Literature
Mathematics
Medlc?ine
Music
Natural Science
Nursing
Optometry
Pharmacy
Philosophy
Physical Education
Physioal Sciences
Religious Education
Social Science
Theology
Not reporting
5
14
26
25
3
23
13
5
21
21
26
34
d
2
6
2$
10
4
TOTALS
247 259
lKorean Student Directory, 1933 and 193g.
——
APPENDIX C
KOREAN DECLARAT ION OF INDEPENDENCE
With this we declare our Korea an independent
nation, and Koreans a free people. With this we announce
her independence to the ten thousand nationalities of
the world, and so reveal the Great Truth of the equality
of man. With this we endow our sons and our sonsts sons
for innumerable generations, with the just right of
national self-existence always.
In making this declaration we have the authority
of five thousand unbroken years of independent history;
the approval of a sincere and loyal people of twenty
millions. We make it to assure a racets free development
in perpetual unity, and in accord with the awakening
conscience of mankind; and thereby we fall into step with
the progress of the world. It is our evident destiny,
revealed from Heaven, consistent with the oourse of our
times a part of the increasing effort of all mankind to
live in mutual peace. Ho power under the sky can thwart
us. During the last decade, after an independent history
of thousands of years, we have tasted for the first time
the bitter sorrow of oppression by a foreign people
intoxicated by the doctrine of power and the philosophy
of domination by conquest. We have been how deprived
even of our right to our subsistence! We have been how
repressed in our intellectual and spiritual development!
We have been how degraded from the ancient glory of our
origin; and how deprived of the priceless opportunity to
move with the tide of world culture, and to contribute
our own peculiar gifts to the world’s renascence!
If we are to east off the mistakes of yesterday,
and the yoke of todayts bitter sorrow, and evade the
threatened tyranny of tomorrow; if we are to breathe new
life into our old national integrity now dwindling even
in the oonsoiousness of our own people; if we are to give
to each individual his rightful opportunity to grow to
hie propeh dimensions; if we are to avoid handing down to
our sons and grandsons a heritage of sorrow and shame;
if we are to give a blessing for always to our poor sons
and brothers’ ohildren, .
then our one urgent duty is to
achieve national independence.
We are twenty millions, and the heart of each is
like a square-edged sword. Today a sense of human
brotherhood, and the common conscience of mankind protect
us. - They cover us with the shield of justice and the
spear of truth. On to victory. - No power can resist us.
What may we not, passive, achieve?
We shall not judge Japants treachery. Ever since
the year lg76 she has torn into scraps of paper treaties
which she had said were as pure as gold and firm as rock;
nor do we resent her falsehoods in deolaring through
her scholars on the lecture platforms and her P01itiCian8,
that the works of our ancestors were merely those of her
colonials, and that our cultural leaders were aborigines;
and we do not pause to condemn her for ignoring our
venerable social organizations and our pemliar psychology,
in her lust for our conquest. We are too eager to search
out our own faults for that; - we have no time for blaming
others. Our ooncern is to mend the present, - not to weep
over the sleeping past. Today it is our task to re-con-
struct ourselves, not to destroy others. Under the
direction of solemn Conscience we are pioneers for a new
destiny; - not ejecting aliens for an old revenge or any
other emotionalism. The statesmen of the Japanese are
chained in anachronistic ideas; - idolaters of militarism,
so unnatural? contrary to the un~ersal law.
This wrong
must be righted. It must be adjusted to the Law of
Virtue, to the straight path of the Great Principle.
Korea and Japan were joined against the will of all
Koreans: the result has been a deadly oppression by force,
prejudice, and misrepresentation. - In such circumstances
these two nations whose interests are directly opposed
can never live in harmony; - on the contrary each day
widens and deepens their mutual resentment. Is there any
course for them to follow to avoid danger and gain peaoe,
but this? - In reasonableness and kindness to reotify the
old mistakes with the principle of opening a new and
friendly world where sympathy and justice rule. Forcibly
to shackle twenty million distracted people! Is that the
way to insure permanent peace? By reason of this captivity
the fear and suspicion of Japan among four hundred million
Chinese, the hub of peril or peace here in Asia, will be
intensified and hardened the longer it lasts, to the
great danger of Japan; - and the end that it induces is
the mutual destruction of the nations of the whole Far
East. - So, today Korean independence brings to Koreans
a just and contented life and at the same time turns
85
Japan from the path of evil to a contemplation of her
own responsibilities as guardian of the Par East. It
frees Ohina of those unwasy fears which must haunt her
awake or asleep.
And now that the Far E%lst is so firmly
interwoven with the texture of the wor~,it is a step
toward the happiness of the whole of mankind. Is our
freedom then a small or personal. matter?
A new Heaven and a new earth stretch out befoze
us. The age of force and arms is gone, the age of right
and justice has come. The dawn of a new civilization
radiant with the great ideas of humanity in past
centuries shines upon the history of man. Spring comes
anew to the earth and quickens ten thousand precious
things. This new age contrasts with the past as does the
renascence of Sprin , when all life expands in the warm
f sunlight and the mi d wind, with the hibernating existence
of things under the ice and the snow of winter.
We, contemporaries of the new destiny of man, do
not hesitate and do not fear. It is for us to regain
the freedom that was ours; to enjoy all the happiness of
life; to manifest our own creative genius and enable the
budding thoughts of our people to bear their natural
fruit out in the great Spring-filled world.
We here rise up bravely. Conscience is with use
Truth is advancing with us. Men, women, old and young,
all vigorously emerging from the gloomy old nests in tens
of thousands, go to accomplish a happy resurrection. The
ghosts of our ancestors from hundreds and thousands of
generations help us from beneath, and the currentis of
the world assist us from without. Beginning As succeeding:
only go fo~ard in the light that lies ahead.
2
Younghill Kang,
Scribner’s S6ns, 1931)
The Grass Roof.
mm-
(lJew York: Charles

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This thesis represents a study of the group life of some 650 Koreans in Los Angeles County, particularly those residing in the Korean community. It sets forth sociological, political and economic factors influencing this minority group whose racial characteristics and interests separate them distinctly from all other Orientals in our midst.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Givens, Helen Lewis (author)

Core Title The Korean community in Los Angeles County

School Graduate School of Social Work

Degree Master of Science

Degree Program Social Work

Publication Date 05/01/1939

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Clubs,dress,Education,family life,Food,Housing,immigration,Korean National Association,Koreans,Marriage,OAI-PMH Harvest,political activities,Population,Religions

Place Name California (states), Koreatown (city or populated place), Los Angeles (city or populated place), Los Angeles (counties), USA (countries)

Format 85 leaves ; 29[?] cm. (aacr2), masters theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Digitized by the University of Southern California (provenance)

Advisor Mangell, George B. (committee chair), Nordskog, John E. (committee member), Taylor, Robert J. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m19

Unique identifier UC1111178

Identifier etd-Givens-193905 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-146 (legacy record id),usctheses-m19 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Givens-193905.pdf

Dmrecord 146

Document Type Thesis

Format 85 leaves ; 29[?] cm. (aacr2),masters theses (aat)

Rights Givens, Helen Lewis

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions (213) 743-1672; https://www.usc.edu/isd/libraries/locations/grand/

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Grand Avenue Library, 3434 South Grand Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90007

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu