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The successful African American Parenting (SAAP) Program: an evaluation of a culturally sensitive parenting intervention

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The successful African American Parenting (SAAP) Program: an evaluation of a culturally sensitive parenting intervention

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THE SUCCESSFUL AFRICAN AMERICAN PARENTING (SAAP) PROGRAM:
AN EVALUATION OF A CULTURALLY SENSITIVE PARENTING
INTERVENTION

by

Alisha Renee Alleyne

____________________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(PSYCHOLOGY)

December 2007

Copyright 2007 Alisha Renee Alleyne

ii
DEDICATION
I dedicate this dissertation to my parents, Cuthbert Alleyne and Irma Alleyne.
I truly appreciate the personal sacrifices you both have made to help support me
from kindergarten all the way to graduate school!
I will be forever grateful for your presence throughout every major step
I have taken thus far.
THANK YOU FOR MAKING THIS POSSIBLE!!

iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
A huge thank you to my advisor and dissertation chair, Dr. Stan Huey, for
your mentorship and guidance during my time in graduate school. Thank you to my
dissertation committee and all the faculty members who provided support throughout
the graduate school process. Thank you to my dedicated research assistants for
helping me carry out this project over the years from start to finish. Thank you to all
of my friends for your overwhelming support, consideration, and kindness over the
years. Thank you to the community organizations, school leaders, and, of course, all
of the families who supported my research by participating in this project. Thank you
to everyone who told me time and time again that I could do it!!

iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication ii
Acknowledgements iii
List of Tables v
List of Figures vi
Abstract vii
Introduction 1
Chapter 1: SAAP Study Phase 1 27
Chapter 2: SAAP Study Phase 2 37
General Discussion 60
References 69
Appendices 82
Appendix A: Successful African American Parenting (SAAP) Slides 82
Appendix B: Successful African American Parenting (SAAP) 103
Principles and Resources

v
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: SAAP Principles, Sample Vignettes, and Strategies 16
Table 2: Post-Workshop Participant Feedback for SAAP Evaluation, Phase 1 33
Table 3: Ease of Implementing Each Principle at 1-Month Follow-Up 35
Table 4: Selected Participant Characteristics for SAAP Evaluation, Phase 2 39
Table 5: Post-Workshop Participant Feedback for SAAP Evaluation, Phase 2 50
Table 6: Ease of Implementing Each Principle at 1-Month Follow-Up 52
Table 7: Participant Use of the Take-Home Booklet at 1-Month Follow-Up 53

vi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Phase 1 Flow Diagram of Participants 30
Figure 2: Phase 2 Flow Diagram of Participants 38
Figure 3: Percentage of Families Receiving Mental Health Services at 46
1-Month Follow-Up, by Treatment Condition
Figure 4: Mean Child Prosocial Involvement at Baseline and Follow-Up, 47
by Treatment Condition
Figure 5: Parental Self Efficacy Scores for Each SAAP Family 55
Figure 6: Mean Parental Self Efficacy Over Time for Each SAAP Family 58

vii
ABSTRACT
Prior empirical work suggests that traditional parenting programs may be less
successful with African American families. The current research expands on
previous work by evaluating a novel, parent-focused intervention for African
Americans. A two-phase study evaluated the acceptability and efficacy of the
Successful African American Parenting (SAAP) program, a culturally sensitive
parenting workshop. Phase 1 assessed participants’ satisfaction with SAAP. Results
revealed positive impressions of the intervention immediately following the
workshop and again 1 month later. Phase 2 evaluated SAAP’s impact on parental
self-efficacy and community-based service utilization (i.e., mental healthcare use and
child prosocial involvement). As anticipated, SAAP parents reported greater child
involvement in prosocial activities compared to Usual Community Services (UCS)
participants. However, no group differences in self-efficacy or use of mental health
services emerged. Supplemental qualitative analyses helped identify intervention
elements (e.g., sharing experiences with each other, providing materials in a
principles-based format) that may be key for disseminating well-received parent-
oriented treatments for African American families. These results hold implications
for the design, implementation, and evaluation of parenting interventions for ethnic
minority families.

1
INTRODUCTION
Parenting Interventions
For many years, parent training has been acknowledged as an effective
intervention for children with externalizing behavior problems (e.g., aggression and
noncompliance) (Berkowitz & Graziano, 1972; Kazdin, 1993; Kazdin, Mazurick, &
Bass, 1993; Moreland, Schwebel, Beck, & Well, 1982). Favorable child outcomes
have been obtained by teaching parents strategies that include rule consistency,
positive reinforcement, and effective communication (Bradley et al., 2003).
However, some evidence suggests that standard parenting programs may not work as
well with ethnic minority families (Eamon & Venkataraman, 2003; Spoth, Guyll,
Chao, & Molgaard, 2003).
One problem with many parenting interventions is that clinicians may not
always acknowledge the role of culture in their conceptualization of parenting beliefs
and behaviors (Forehand & Kotchick, 1996). Additionally, they may fail to allow
parents of diverse backgrounds to bring their own competencies to training. As a
result, members of ethnic minority groups may be wary of traditional parenting
interventions (Franklin, Boyd-Franklin, & Draper, 2002; Tucker, 1999).
The present research is a pilot evaluation of a novel, principles-based
parenting program for African American families—the Successful African American
Parenting Program (SAAP). In addition to creating an atmosphere in which parents
can share experiences, SAAP teaches 6 empirically-based but culturally relevant
parenting principles. SAAP also provides parents with tangible links to community-

2
based resources (e.g., mental health services, youth activities). In the short run, a
culturally sensitive parent-oriented program that provides links to neighborhood
resources may: (a) enhance participants’ beliefs in their parenting competence and
(b) positively impact parents’ interest in and utilization of community-based
supports. Programs that accomplish these two goals may have longer-term effects on
parenting and child outcomes.
To provide an appropriate framework for exploring the SAAP program, the
following points are presented first: (a) an overview of the differential effects of
traditional parenting programs for African Americans, (b) arguments supporting the
use of culturally sensitive approaches, (c) a selected presentation of extant culturally
sensitive interventions for African Americans, and (d) limitations of culture-specific
programs targeting African Americans. Next, SAAP’s rationale and format are
provided. Finally, the results of a preliminary evaluation of SAAP are presented.
This investigation could help inform future research and intervention efforts
targeting ethnic minority families.
African Americans and Parenting Programs
Differential Enrollment, Retention, and Outcomes in Traditional Programs
There is evidence that participation in traditional parenting programs may be
problematic for ethnic minority families on three levels: 1) enrollment, 2) retention,
and 3) participant outcomes. Recent studies indicate that ethnic minority parents are
less likely to sign up for interventions that incorporate parent training (e.g.,
Cunningham et al., 2000; Reid, Webster-Stratton, & Beauchaine, 2001). Moreover,

3
even when enrollment is successful, retention issues are evident. Indeed, several
studies indicate that African Americans drop out of traditional parenting programs at
higher rates than European Americans (Kazdin, 1993; Kazdin, Mazurick, & Bass,
1993; Kazdin, Stolar, & Marciano, 1995; Kendall & Sugarman, 1997).
Regarding family outcomes, limited evidence suggests that African
Americans participating in parenting programs fare less well than European
Americans (Caughy, Miller, Genevro, Huang, & Nautiyal, 2003). For example, one
effective method for reducing behavior problems in preadolescents is parent
management training (PMT; Kazdin, 2000). PMT therapists teach specific skills that
help parents more effectively discipline and communicate with their children. PMT
programs are generally effective at reducing “aversive” parenting, increasing
authoritative discipline practices, and reducing oppositional and conduct problems in
youth (Brestan & Eyberg, 1998; Kazdin, 1998). However, there is evidence that
African American children show less remediation of aggression and other
externalizing problems compared to European American participants (e.g., see
Eamon & Venkataraman, 2003).
Additionally, some programs may have iatrogenic effects on the parenting
behaviors of ethnic minority participants. Caughy et al. (2003) found that parent
training had a negative impact on the disciplinary strategies of African American
parents, whereas it led to favorable outcomes for European Americans. Specifically,
African American parents in treatment groups displayed lower use of
authoritative/inductive discipline compared to their control group counterparts;

4
European American parents receiving the same parenting intervention experienced
increases in authoritative/inductive disciplinary strategies relative to those in the
control group (Caughy et al., 2003).
Why Culturally Sensitive Content Matters
Several researchers have attributed minority disparities in intervention
outcome to a lack of culturally relevant content (Forehand & Kotchick, 1996;
Caughy et al., 2003). Ethnic minorities may find programs less appealing if there is
an absence of elements that parallel their cultural values, beliefs, or worldviews
(Hudley, 2001). Therefore, attempts to effectively engage ethnic minority parent
training participants and influence family outcomes may prove less successful
without incorporating culturally relevant content. Accordingly, many researchers
have highlighted the need to consider culture when intervening with diverse families
(e.g., Forehand & Kotchick, 2002; Harkness & Super, 1995).
In an investigation of ways in which consumer perception of insensitivity to
culture might impact the therapeutic relationship, Kalyanpur and Rao (1991)
interviewed African American mothers about their experiences with outreach
agencies. Perceptions of a disregard of culture and a focus on deficits were
associated with exclusionary (unempowering) parent-professional relationships. In
contrast, collaborative (empowering) relationships were associated with reciprocal
and supportive approaches in which parents felt their familial values were
acknowledged and their parenting approaches were respected (Kalyanpur & Rao,
1991). Parent training participants who perceive the worldviews of mental health

5
service providers as disparate from their culture-specific expectations of appropriate
parenting and child behavior may disengage from treatment altogether, thereby
leading to suboptimal intervention outcomes. Patterns of differential enrollment,
retention, and outcomes may persist if ways to address cultural relevance are not
explored.
In order to actively engage and help African American parents, an awareness
of and sensitivity to their experiences may be warranted (Forehand, 1996).
According to qualitative explorations of parenting behavior, culture can strongly
influence perceptions of appropriate childcare techniques (Bornstein, 1995; Holden
& Miller, 1999). Therefore, clinical researchers and service providers should
consider utilizing culture-specific themes when treating ethnic minority parents
(Caughy et al, 2003; Forehand & Kotchick, 1996; Tucker & Herman, 2002).
Evaluating Culturally Sensitive Treatments for African American Families
Programs targeting African American families typically fall into one of two
categories: 1) adaptations of generic programs and 2) treatments specifically created
for African American participants. Studies falling into each of these categories are
presented below. These evaluations, with varying levels of experimental rigor,
highlight potentially useful strategies for successfully engaging and treating this
population. These approaches include ethnic matching, building on racial
socialization processes, and using visual or biographical depictions of African
American families. Only studies with parent training components are reviewed
below.

6
Programs culturally adapted for African Americans. There are several
examples of interventions that have been modified for use with African American
parents. Myers and colleagues (1992) conducted a quasi-experimental evaluation of
the Effective Black Parenting Program (EBPP). Study participants were low-income
inner-city African American parents and their 1
st
and 2
nd
-grade children. EBPP is an
adaptation of a cognitive-behavioral parent training program designed to help
mitigate a wide array of emotional and behavioral problems in children (Myers et al.,
1995). According to the investigators, EBPP’s culture-specific content areas include
supporting achievement-oriented parenting; differentiating between “traditional
Black discipline (i.e., equating discipline with punishment, spanking, and
obedience)” and “modern Black self-discipline (i.e., internalizing standards of
effective behavior)”(Myers et al., 1995, p. 132); and promoting pride in blackness
(providing positive communications about ethnicity-specific issues, avoiding self-
disparagement, and helping children cope with racism) (Myers et al., 1992).
Additionally, the program includes special sections focusing on drug abuse and
single parenting (Myers et al., 1992). Families were nonrandomly assigned to EBPP
or a no treatment control group based on children’s schools. Relative to the control
group, EBPP families demonstrated significant decreases in parental rejection and
child behavior problems at 1-year follow-up (Myers et al., 1992).
As another example, Kumpfer and Alvarado (1995) conducted a quasi-
experimental evaluation of a culturally-adapted version of the Strengthening
Families Program (SFP) in rural Alabama. The original SFP is a cognitive-

7
behavioral program that provides parent and youth social skills training for
substance-abusing parents and their children; cultural adaptations consist of using
African American graphics and stories throughout treatment (Kumpfer et al., 1989).
Kumpfer and Alvarado’s (1995) evaluation of SFP spanned a 4-year period, with the
culturally adapted version of SFP being implemented 2 years after an evaluation of
the generic version. Participants consisted of drug-abusing mothers and their
children. The retention rate for parents attending at least 12 of 14 sessions was 61%
for generic SFP versus 92% for culturally adapted SFP. However, family outcomes
(i.e., parenting efficacy, depression, and substance use; and child externalizing
problems and school issues) were equivalent between generic and adapted versions.
According to the investigators, the quasi-experimental time-lagged design may have
contributed to difficulty in determining reasons for null findings in adapted versions
of the program (Kumpfer & Alvarado, 1995).
Aktan et al. (1996) conducted several pre-post evaluations of the Safe Haven
Program, a modification of Kumpfer et al.’s (1989) culturally adapted SFP in order
to evaluate its impact on child protective and risk factors (Kumpfer, DeMarsh, &
Child, 1989). The Safe Haven Program is a video and manual guided intervention
designed for substance abusing parents and their children. Like the culturally adapted
SFP, videotapes and visual aids contain depictions of African American families.
Additionally, posters displaying artwork associated with African American heritage
(e.g., Kwanzaa posters) are displayed in treatment rooms. Several other
modifications beyond those used in culturally adapted SFP include allowing for a

8
collaborative exchange between attendees and group leaders rather than a didactic
one and “an acknowledgment of the historical/cultural use of corporal punishment
(spanking) by African-American families as valid while also promoting alternative
discipline strategies”(Aktan, 1996, p.234). Notably, some sessions were held in
African American churches. In terms of family outcomes, parenting efficacy
increased from pre- to post-treatment while drug use and depression decreased.
Additionally, youth externalizing behavior and school problems decreased, whereas
school bonding and family cohesion increased.
Programs designed specifically for African Americans. In contrast to the
studies reviewed above, a number of parent-oriented programs were originally
created specifically for African Americans. One example is the Strong African
American Families Program (SAAF; Brody et al., 2006). SAAF focuses on
supporting parent-child racial socialization processes thought to promote a positive
group identity and protect children from engaging in high-risk behaviors (i.e.,
alcohol use and early onset sexual activity). Racial socialization consists of relaying
messages that foster the development of a strong positive ethnic identity and enhance
coping abilities when faced with racism and discrimination (Littlejohn-Blake &
Darling, 1993; Thornton, 2002; Wakefield & Hudley, 2007). In addition to a focus
on racial socialization processes, SAAF parents are taught and encouraged to use
“nurturant–involved” parenting practices, provide high levels of monitoring and
control, and communicate clear expectations regarding alcohol us. In a quasi-
experimental design, low-income rural African American families were assigned to

9
SAAF or a control condition based on county of residence. Positive parenting and
youth outcomes (i.e., greater parental involvement, increases in pride and appropriate
sexual self concepts among youth) have been demonstrated in several evaluations
comparing SAAF to no treatment control groups (Brody et al., 2004; Brody et al.,
2006a; Brody et al., 2006b; Murray et al., 2005).
As part of an effort to identify successful retention strategies for African
American families, Armistead and colleagues (2004) conducted a feasibility
investigation of the Parents Matter! Program (PMP). PMP is a community-based
sexual risk reduction intervention designed to promote parent-child communication
about sexuality and sexual risk reduction and to enhance protective parenting
processes (Armistead et al., 2004). PMP was developed to reduce the incidence and
prevalence of substance abuse and antisocial behaviors in youth. African American
group leaders delivered program content; additionally, study personnel maintained
close contact with the Community Advisory Board as well as the participants in their
respective neighborhoods so that parents would become more familiar with
researchers and group leaders throughout all intervention and assessment phases.
Qualitative data indicated that PMP was successful in retaining low-income African
American families (Armistead et al., 2004). No family or youth outcomes were
assessed for this investigation.
Another evaluation examined the effects of the Africentric Adolescent and
Family Rites of Passage Program (Harvey & Hill, 2004). Participants consisted of
African American boys ages 11 to 14 years and their parents. Boys were referred

10
from the criminal justice system, diversion programs, and local schools. The
program is based on the following Africentric principles: umoja (unity), kujichajulia
(self-determination), ujima (collective work and responsibility), ujamaa (cooperative
economics), nia (purpose), kuumba (creativity), and imani (faith) (Harvey & Rauch,
2004). There are three main components to the program: after-school sessions;
family enhancement and empowerment meetings; and individual and family
counseling sessions. The Africentric principles are used as affirmations throughout
treatment. Pretest posttest data were collected from participants over the 3-year span
of the program. Relative to a no treatment control group, participating youth
demonstrated greater increases in self-esteem and accurate knowledge of the dangers
of drug abuse. Qualitative data gathered from interviews and focus groups suggested
that the program's holistic, family-oriented, Africentric, strengths-based approach
and indigenous staff contributed to favorable outcomes (Harvey & Hill, 2004).
In sum, several strategies have been utilized by clinical researchers targeting
African American parents and their children. These strategies include “surface
structure modifications” which entail strategies such as modifying visual materials to
depict ethnically similar faces and providing ethnically matched group leaders; and
“deeper structure modifications” which involve building on traditions and values
such as Africentric principles throughout treatment (Kumpfer, Alvarado, Smith, &
Bellamy, 2002, p. 242). In terms of retention rates and family outcomes (i.e., parent
involvement and child adaptive behavior), the surface and deeper structure

11
modifications used in extant evaluations identify some potentially useful tools for
engaging and treating African American families.
However, one main limitation pertaining to the studies reviewed above is that
targeted families represent lower socioeconomic (SES) or at-risk (e.g., substance-
abusing) populations. Therefore, the adaptations tend to be based on a small
subgroup of the population (e.g., an intervention program targeting low-income
African American families residing in rural areas). Indeed, some “cultural”
adaptations presented above are approaches that seem to be tailored specifically for
at-risk families (e.g., incorporating sections that focus on drug abuse) rather than
African American families more broadly; this focus provides limited information to
clinical researchers and service providers interested in methods of providing
culturally sensitive to African American families representing a wider range of
economic backgrounds and risk levels. This observation should not suggest that the
programs reviewed above are inappropriate for members of targeted subgroups.
Rather, it is unclear whether they would work well with African Americans who are
not low income or high-risk.
Although African American families are disproportionately represented
among those who are economically disadvantaged (Muñoz & Mendelson, 2005;
Simons et al., 2002), the majority of African Americans are not living in poverty
(U.S. Census Bureau, 2007). Yet, in reviewing the psychology literature as a whole,
there is more research on the experiences of socioeconomically disadvantaged ethnic
minorities than any other individuals in these populations (Nagayama Hall, 2005).

12
Therefore, many culture-specific intervention programs may not necessarily be as
relevant for ethnic minority families from higher SES backgrounds. In order to
address the limitation of a focus on low SES families, SAAP targets African
American families from a variety of SES backgrounds. More information on ways in
which SAAP’s content was designed to be inclusive of families representing a wider
range of SES levels is provided in the next section.
Beyond class-related concerns is the dilemma of identifying which culture-
responsive strategies to build on. Importantly, the issue of identifying effective
culture-responsive approaches is not limited to African American families. In
general, there is a lack of clear, consistent guidelines detailing the most efficient and
effective ways to incorporate cultural sensitivity into interventions targeting ethnic
minority families (Graham, 1992; Iwamasa & Smith, 1996; Lau, 2006; Nagayama
Hall, 2005; Tucker & Herman, 2002). Thus, it may be difficult for clinical
researchers and providers to ascertain the best culture-responsive strategies to utilize
for this population. Accordingly, creating a culturally sensitive program with
potential for high levels of acceptability, satisfaction, and effectiveness is not an
easily attainable goal. In an effort to provide treatment that is empirically sound and
culturally appealing, with potential for widespread dissemination, SAAP’s principles
were designed to encompass both cultural relevance and empirical basis while being
inclusive of competencies that most parents are believed to possess. Developing
intervention content that is both culturally sensitive and empirically based may be an
effective formula to utilize when targeting traditionally underserved ethnic minority

13
participants (e.g., see Huey & Pan, 2006). The next section details SAAP’s format
and provides an overview of its culture-responsive elements.
The SAAP Program
Program Format & Rationale
Before detailing the steps taken to evaluate the acceptability and efficacy of
SAAP, an overview of the program’s rationale, content, and format is warranted. The
SAAP program is an intervention developed primarily for African American parents
raising children with behavioral or academic problems. SAAP has several
components which distinguish it from many traditional parenting interventions.
These features are summarized below.
SAAP removes several practical barriers to treatment. In addition to residing
disproportionately in disadvantaged neighborhoods (Simons et al., 2002), African
Americans are overrepresented among those experiencing financial strain (Muñoz &
Mendelson, 2005). For this reason, African Americans are more likely to encounter
SES-related barriers to mental health care including lack of information regarding
available treatments, low access to services, and unresponsive service providers
(Aponte, Zarski, Bixenstine, & Cibik, 1991; Boyd-Franklin, 2003; Flaskerud, 1986;
Kacir & Gordon, 1999; Ojeda & McGuire, 2006; Wallen, 1992). For low income
minority families, additional barriers to treatment participation may include
scheduling conflicts (e.g., services only being available during times parents need to
work or care for children) (Kacir & Gordon, 1999) and long-term time commitment
issues (e.g., programs having 8-10 weekly sessions that families cannot consistently

14
attend) (Kazdin, 1993; Kazdin et al., 1993; Kazdin et al., 1995; Kendall &
Sugarman, 1997).
Because African American families may be more likely to encounter
obstacles to mental health services, SAAP strives to address such treatment barriers.
All SAAP workshops are scheduled after obtaining parent input on ideal workshop
times, with scheduling options including evening and weekend hours. Transportation
is provided for all participants experiencing difficulties commuting to the workshop
and childcare is available during program hours. Additionally, to address concerns
about missing or rescheduling family meals, food is provided for all participants and
their children before the start of the workshop.
SAAP is principles-oriented. SAAP focuses on helping parents adopt and
execute 6 principles for effective childrearing. These principles were derived
primarily from a content analysis of 15 biographies of “successful” African
Americans. The biographies focused on African American political figures (e.g.,
Colin Powell, Douglass Wilder), entrepreneurs (e.g., John H. Johnson, Oprah
Winfrey), physicians (e.g., Ben Carson, Yvonne Thornton), and other individuals
who excelled in their particular professions (e.g., Johnnie Cochran, Bill Russell).
Each principle was also consistent with literature on factors that promote positive
development in children and adolescents regardless of ethnicity. For example,
Positive Expectations (Principle 1) was a common theme in many of the biographies
reviewed for this intervention (e.g., Carson & Murphey, 1990; Jordan & Gordan-
Reed, 2001), but is also consistent with the extensive literature linking positive

15
expectancies with higher levels of academic achievement (Weinstein, 2002). All
principles, as well as empirical support for each, are briefly summarized below.
Additionally, sample vignettes and information pertaining to the manner in which
each principle is incorporated into the workshop, are described in Table 1.
Principle 1 (Positive Expectations) supports parents’ communication of high
but reasonable expectations, aspirations, and goals for their children.
Parental/teacher communication of high expectations is generally linked to favorable
behavioral and academic outcomes (Weinstein, 2002). Principle 2 (Commitment to
Learning/Education) encourages parents to show commitment to youth learning and
education by engaging in literacy activities with their children, encouraging critical
thinking, and collaborating with school officials, among other practices. These
strategies are generally linked to higher academic gains in high- and low-risk youth
(e.g., Rodick & Henggeler, 1980; Steinberg & Belksy, 1996). Principle 3
(Supportive Environment) emphasizes the importance of providing a loving and
supportive environment that reinforces parents’ goals for their children. Given the
influence of deviant peers on youth behavior (Hawkins et al., 1998; Steinberg &
Belsky, 1996), SAAP is particularly focused on involving youth in “growth”
activities where prosocial peers predominate.

16
Table 1: SAAP Principles, Sample Vignettes, and Strategies
Principle Sample Vignettes Intervention Focus
Principle 1: Positive
Expectations
“[Oprah’s father] answered simply enough.
‘If you were a child who could only get C’s
then that is really all I would expect of you.
I wouldn’t demand any more from you than
C’s. But you are not. And so in this house,
for you, C’s are not acceptable.’ That was
enough for Oprah. She was smart and she
was sensitive, and, above all, she had pride
in her intelligence. And so she did the one
thing she could do. She changed her ways.”
(Oprah Winfrey, Entrepreneur and Talk
Show Host)
Description: (1) high standards for child behavior in public
spaces; (2) emphasis on independence training, (3)
knowledge/use of aphorisms about importance of high
expectations [e.g., “I was raised to believe that excellence is
the best deterrent to racism or sexism. And that's how I
operate my life”].

Strategies: (1) use of positive [vs. negative] labeling, (2)
focus on effort rather than ability, (3) expectancy
communications, (4) reframing.
Principle 2:
Commitment to
Education/Learning
“My father was a stickler about homework.
You had to do your school assignments
before anything else – before you went out,
before you sat on the stoop. I would later
make this a rule for my own children. I also
had to recite my lessons to my father to
show him that I’d learned them and to prove
I’d read the books. Later, I would read those
same books to my own kids.” (Herman
Williams, former fire chief of Baltimore).
Description: (1) parents want children to do well in school,
go to college, and achieve success, (2) most already have
rules regarding school attendance and homework, (3)
knowledge/use of aphorisms about importance of education,
(4) prior allocation of resources towards school
activities/supplies.

Strategies: (1) encourage literacy rituals, (2) field trips that
promote learning, (3) collaborative relationship with school,
(4) reshape contingencies around education, (5) taking
homework seriously, (6) “invest” in education, (7) “talking”
vs. “doing” education

17
Table 1, Continued: SAAP Principles, Sample Vignettes, and Strategies
Principle Sample Vignettes Intervention Focus
Principle 3: Supportive
Environment
“People often ask me how I avoided getting
caught up in some of the negative things that
many of the guys in my neighborhood were
doing when I was growing up. . . . There
wasn’t anything special about me. But I’d
have to say that the kinds of friends I chose –
positive guys who wanted to do the right
things – made a huge difference in how my
life turned out.” “In my experiences, friends
have more influence on one another’s lives
than almost anyone else does, especially in
those teenage years when kids are trying to
discover who they really are. So hooking
up with the wrong crowd can really drag you
down.” (Sampson Davis, physician)
Description: (1) presence of family or friendship network to
tap, (2) presence of friends or family members who are
doing well, (3) resources available in community and at
school, (4) knowledge/use of aphorisms regarding
importance of supportive environment [“For every one of us
that succeeds, it's because there's somebody there to show
you the way out; it takes a village to raise a child”].

Strategies: (1) restructure peer context – prosocial peers
should predominate, (2) facilitate contact with prosocial
adult models, (3) utilize network of family/friends who
support your efforts, (4) control where child is and who
he/she is with, (5) be liberal with warmth/affection.
Principle 4: Stability
/Security
“The routine of walking to Sunday school
with my father…and listening to him talk at
the dinners with Sister Green or other
members of our church, gave me a strong
sense of security. I never had to wonder
about what we were going to do, whether he
would be there or not. With that issue
settled, I could concentrate on being a
kid…” (Vernon Jordan, attorney and former
director of Urban League).
Description: (1) existing routines that family members
engage in (e.g., mealtimes together; regular church
attendance), (2) parents generally providing for child’s basic
needs [e.g., food, shelter], (3) existing rules [explicit or
implicit] that parents already have in place.

Strategies: (1) develop clear rules and consequences –
consistency and follow-through, (2) minimize violence
exposure in multiple forms, (3) control where child is and
who he/she is with.

18
Table 1, Continued: SAAP Principles, Sample Vignettes, and Strategies
Principle Sample Vignettes Intervention Focus
Principle 5: Modeling “My parents did not recognize their own
strengths. It was nothing they ever said that
taught us. It was the way they lived their
lives. If the values seem correct or relevant,
the children will follow the values. I had
been shaped not by preaching, but by
example, by moral osmosis.” (Colin Powell
– U.S. Secretary of State).
Description: (1) presence of or knowledge of other models
that parents can emulate, (2) knowledge/use of aphorisms
regarding importance of modeling good behavior, (3) most
parents already model many appropriate behaviors [although
perhaps inconsistently]

Strategies: (1) learn awareness of self behaviors and what
messages. (2) model desired behaviors [e.g., sobriety,
appropriate interpersonal interactions, effective problem-
solving, industry, literacy/learning, financial management],
(3) seek help to alter some undesired behaviors [e.g., anger
control issues].

Principle 6: Persistence “Over a period of years, with Mother’s
constant encouragement, both Curtis and I
started believing that we really could do
anything we chose to do. Maybe she
brainwashed us into believing that we were
going to be extremely good and highly
successful at whatever we attempted. Even
today I can clearly hear her voice in the back
of my head saying, ‘Bennie, you can do it.
Don’t you stop believing that for one
second.” (Ben Carson, neurosurgeon).
Description: (1) most can think of things they wanted badly
and worked hard to achieve, (2) prior sacrifices made for
benefit of child(ren) (3) knowledge/use of aphorisms about
importance of effort, hard work, and persistence [e.g., “Tears
will get you sympathy; sweat will get you change”; “When
you’re a black woman, you seldom get to do what you just
want to do; you always do what you have to do”].

Strategies: (1) deliberate practice of new skills, (2)
emphasizing effort [vs. luck, chance, ability], (3)
overcorrection.

19
Principle 4 (Stability) focuses on providing a safe, structured, and predictable
environment for children. This principle is based on research showing that low levels
of parental monitoring, structure, and rule-enforcement are associated with higher
levels of problem behavior and poorer school performance in youth (Hawkins et al.,
1998; Horn & Trickett, 1998; Lipsey & Derzon, 1998). Principle 5 (Modeling
Appropriate Behavior) encourages parents to serve as positive role models for their
children. Research spanning several decades indicates that children’s behavior can
be strongly influenced (positively and negatively) by observing the behavior of
others in their immediate social environment (e.g., Bandura, 1965; Kazdin, 1977;
Ollendick, Dailey, & Shapiro,1983). Finally, Principle 6 (Persistence)
communicates the importance of hard work, effort, and task mastery, which can be
achieved using strategies such as overcorrection and positive practice, approaches
linked to increases in youth academic achievement and decreases in disruptive
behavior (e.g., Ollendick & Matson, 1978). All 6 principles may be applicable to
many different types of families. During the workshop, however, examples of the
ways African American families have utilized these strategies are presented.
SAAP uses diverse African American families as examples. Unlike most
interventions for non-minorities, the SAAP principles are communicated to parents
by way of brief written and film vignettes derived from African American
biographies and popular films. Each vignette contains the experiences of individuals
representing different levels of income and social class. Although not all vignettes
or examples may resonate for all African American families, parents may identify

20
with a portion. Limited evidence suggests that families will be more likely to stay in
treatments that use culturally relevant stories, examples, and pictures (e.g., see
Kumpfer et. al, 2002). Additionally, individuals may be more likely to emulate those
perceived to be demographically similar to them (Kazdin, 2001). If parents perceive
depicted families as being similar to their own, they may be more likely to follow
through with exemplified strategies (Kazdin, 2001; Ollendick, 1983).
SAAP assumes and emphasizes competency. The SAAP program is
“strength-focused” in that it attempts to link the principles to competencies many
parents are believed to already possess. For example, the module on Principle 2
(Commitment to Education/Learning) begins with a discussion of how African
American parents are just as likely as those from other ethnic groups to report that
educational success is an important goal they have for their children (e.g., Blau,
1981). Parents are also asked to briefly discuss some of their mundane daily
practices that reflect these values (e.g., getting children to school every day, telling
children to do homework). The workshop facilitator then attempts to build on these
“strengths” by discussing individualized strategies that reflect a commitment to
Principle 2 (e.g., ensuring that homework is done correctly, taking regular trips to the
library; daily reading assignments). Related to the assumption of competency, SAAP
emphasizes self-generated solutions. During the workshop, the facilitator works
with parents to generate plans to integrate the 6 principles into their daily routines.
Parents are prompted throughout the workshop to communicate specific strategies
for executing each of the principles in a way consistent with their own interests,

21
competencies, and resources. In a survey of community-based parent-oriented
mental health programs, strengths-based approaches were identified across program
directors as critical to intervention success (Hinden, Biebel, Nicholson, Henry, &
Katz-Leavy, 2006). Moreover, self-directed treatments, in which parents select their
own optimal strategies to carry out the main premises of intervention content have
been linked to participants’ feelings of competence (Connell, Sanders, & Markie-
Dadds, 1997).
SAAP provides tangible links to community resources. Once the workshop
ends, SAAP parents are given a booklet containing an extensive summary of free or
low-cost resources in Los Angeles (e.g., budgeting, childcare, and tutoring resources)
relevant to parenting needs. The list of resources was created as a means to empower
participants in their own contexts, an approach that may be particularly relevant for
traditionally underserved populations (Hudley, 2001) (see Appendixes A and B for
SAAP workshop slides and take-home booklet, respectively). Providing families
with tangible links to community agencies is associated with decreases in child
behavior problems (Yoshikawa, 1994); additionally, limited evidence suggests that
youth with increased access to community resources are less likely to engage in
problematic behaviors (Kowaleski-Jones, 2000).
SAAP uses tangible prompts. Once the workshop ends, SAAP parents are
mailed two items that should serve as prompts to integrate the 6 principles into their
daily routines. One item is a letter thanking them for their participation, encouraging
implementation of the principles, and reminding them of any preliminary plans they

22
generated during the workshop. The other item is a refrigerator magnet summarizing
the SAAP principles. Research supports the use of prompting as a method for
initiating desired behaviors (Houten, 1998; Planos & Glenwick, 1986).
Promoting Self-Efficacy and Service Utilization
SAAP avoids presenting parents with rigid guidelines on how to address
child issues. Rather, SAAP was designed to build on existing parenting
competencies and promote the use of resources that parents may already possess or
have access to. The hope is that this “empowerment” approach will lead to increases
in the extent to which parents feel they can effectively address child problems;
additionally it may foster the pursuit of various community supports. The sections
below explore ways in which participation in SAAP may positively impact self-
efficacy and service utilization.
Parental Self-Efficacy
Parental self-efficacy is the belief parents have in their ability to influence
children and their environments in ways that foster positive development (Ardelt &
Eccles, 2001). Efficacy beliefs work very much like self-fulfilling prophecies
(Bandura, 1989). Parents who feel efficacious about their parenting behaviors are
likely to engage in promotive strategies (i.e., strategies that support a child’s
academic and psychological well-being) (Ardelt & Eccles, 2001).
High parental self-efficacy predicts responsiveness to children’s needs
(Donovan & Leavitt, 1985; Donovan, Leavitt, & Walsh, 1997; Unger &
Wandersman, 1985), positive parental coping strategies (Wells-Parker, Miller, &

23
Topping, 1990), and fewer child behavior problems (Gibaud-Wallston, 1978;
Johnston & Mash, 1989). Also, high parental self-efficacy has been linked to lower
parental depression (Cutrona & Troutman, 1986), lower parental defensiveness
(Donovan, Leavitt, & Walsh, 1990), decreased parental perceptions of child
difficulty, and lower levels of parental stress (Bugental & Shennum, 1984; Halpern,
Anders, Garcia Coll, & Hua, 1994). Gondoli and Silverberg (1997) reported similar
findings in their research on parent-adolescent relationships. Emotionally distressed
mothers who had a positive sense of capability and skill in handling parenting
challenges were more responsive when talking to their adolescents than were
mothers with lower self-efficacy (Gondoli & Silverberg, 1997). Parent training
interventions that change efficacy beliefs carry the potential to positively alter
parenting behaviors (Elder, 1995).
Self-efficacy may play a qualitatively different role in African American
parenting behavior in comparison to European Americans. Indeed, research by
Eccles and colleagues (Ardelt & Eccles, 2001; Elder, Eccles, Ardelt, & Lord, 1995)
found that parental efficacy was predictive of promotive parenting practices (parent-
initiated activities designed to cultivate children’s skills, talents, and interests and to
prevent the occurrence of negative events and experiences) for African American but
not European American parents (Furstenberg, Cook, Eccles, Elder, & Sameroff,
1999). African American mothers who described themselves as efficacious tended
to be more involved in promotive parenting than less efficacious mothers, whereas
parental efficacy was unrelated to such strategies for European American mothers.

24
This difference may actually reflect the higher risk environments of low-income
African American families, given that African Americans tend to live in more
socially isolated and dangerous neighborhoods than European Americans (Ardelt &
Eccles, 2001; Elder et al., 1995). Although European American mothers may have
high or low self-efficacy, the relatively supportive nature of their neighborhoods may
buffer against the negative consequences of low self-efficacy. Parent training
interventions that change efficacy beliefs carry the potential to positively alter
parenting behaviors (Elder, 1995). Because SAAP assumes and builds upon family
competencies, SAAP’s strength-based approach may enhance parents’ beliefs in
their ability to influence child outcomes.
Service Utilization
For this evaluation, service utilization encompasses use of counseling and
community-based services thought to foster positive child development. African
Americans report higher levels of mistrust towards the mental health system relative
to European Americans (Biafora et al., 1993; Nickerson, Helms, & Terrel, 1994);
these negative attitudes may be linked to a history of discrimination and differential
treatment in medical settings (Breland-Noble, 2004; Tucker, 1999; Turner, Wieling,
& Allen, 2004). Pursuing mental health services is stigmatizing for many African
Americans, who instead prefer to pursue help from informal supports (e.g., church or
kinship networks) (Matthews & Hughes, 2001). SAAP may serve as a bridge to
extant community based programs as it may make the prospect of pursuing and
enrolling in such services less stigmatizing and potentially less burdensome.

25
Empowering parents is a concept that is consistent with the empowerment
framework explicated in the social work literature; as part of this process, service
providers assist families in identifying and utilizing resources within their immediate
family and neighborhood contexts (Kaplan & Girard, 1994, Saleeby, 1996). SAAP
provides parents with practical means of pursuing prosocial activities (e.g., the
workshop booklet includes lists of mental health services and child-oriented
activities in the Los Angeles area) as well as guidance, if necessary, through the
enrollment process. Moreover, each listing was prescreened for cost, eligibility
criteria, typical wait time, etc. in order to increase the likelihood of each participant
finding a good fit and receiving a timely response once they pursued services. For
example, when selecting resources, the research team eliminated any programs that
were not responsive to inquiries within 24 hours.
Reducing enrollment waiting time and prescreening referral lists are provider
strategies that have been linked to higher attendance and consumer satisfaction
among families pursuing outpatient mental health services (Jones, Lucey, &
Wadland, 2000; Subotsky & Berelowitz, 1990).

Once parents secure such services,
they may be more successful in identifying ways to enroll their child in prosocial
activities within their community. Therefore, participation in SAAP should facilitate
higher levels of mental health service use and youth prosocial involvement.
Goals of the Present Study
There were two main goals of the present research. The first goal was to
assess the acceptability of SAAP for participating families, as well as the feasibility

26
of conducting the intervention. The second goal was to assess the extent to which
SAAP leads to increases in parenting efficacy and greater service utilization relative
to UCS. Phase 1, a preliminary evaluation of SAAP, assessed satisfaction with
SAAP immediately following the workshop and again 1 month later. Phase 2 tested
the extent to which participation in SAAP (vs. UCS) impacted self-efficacy and
service use.

27
CHAPTER 1: SAAP STUDY PHASE 1
Method
Participants and Design
Parents were recruited through flyers, announcements, and word of mouth at
LAUSD elementary schools (with 30% or greater African American enrollment) and
various community-based organizations in Los Angeles (e.g., National Coalition for
African American Parent Involvement in Education, local Boys and Girls Clubs).
Parents contacted the investigator by phone to indicate interest. The investigator
then explained study procedures to all potential participants. Consenting participants
were 10 caregivers and their children who met the following inclusion criteria: (1)
child was identified by parent as having behavioral or academic problems, (2) parent
identified as African American, (3) child was in the 1
st
through 6
th
grade, (4) parent
and child were English fluent, and (5) parent and child resided in Los Angeles
County.
Eight of the 10 consenting parents attended the workshop. The 2 absentee
participants explained they could not attend due to major scheduling conflicts.
Therefore, the final group of workshop attendees consisted of 8 participants. Of
those 8 participants who attended the workshop, 2 parents dropped out before
completion of the follow-up assessment due to persistent scheduling conflicts and
immediate need for more intensive services than SAAP could provide. Participant
flow is summarized in Figure 1.

28
The 6 parents completing the follow-up assessments consisted of 5 biological
mothers and 1 biological father. Mean parental age at study enrollment was 38.6
years (SD = 8.1). Males comprised half of the child participants. Mean child age
was 11.3 years (SD = 3.2). Regarding highest education level completed, 5 parents
completed some college and the remaining parent obtained a high school diploma.
The median gross annual household income range was $30,000-$34,999. Fifty
percent of the parents were employed full time; the remaining participants were
either not working by choice (33.3%) or not working /looking for a job (16.7%).
Thirty-three percent of the participants were single, never married; the remaining
parents were either divorced (16.7%), married (16.7%), living together as if married
(16.7%), or widowed (16.7%).
Measures
Demographics. Following informed consent, information concerning age,
income level, marital status, occupation status, and education level was obtained
through a demographics questionnaire completed by caregivers.
Consumer Satisfaction. Immediately after the workshop and at 1-month
follow-up, parents completed a consumer satisfaction questionnaire developed by
Webster-Stratton (2001). The questionnaire measures parents’ perceptions of
changes in children’s behavior, program difficulty, and program utility along a 7-
point scale. Sample items include “Would you recommend this program to a relative
or friend?” and “How confident are you in your ability to manage future behavior
problems in the home using what you learned from this service?” Additionally,

29
parents answered open-ended questions assessing ways the workshop could be
improved (e.g., “What part of the workshop did you like the most?” and “What did
you like least about the workshop?”).
Principle implementation difficulty. Parents reported on the extent to which
they found the SAAP principles difficult to implement. These items were adapted
from program implementation questions developed by Webster-Stratton (2001). The
questions measure perception of difficulty along a 7-point scale (1=extremely
difficult; 7 = extremely easy). Sample items include “How difficult has it been for
you to communicate positive expectations to your child?” and “…for you to be
persistent in your efforts to help your child succeed?”

30

Figure 1: Phase 1 Flow Diagram of Participants. SAAP = Successful African
American Parenting Program.
Eligible and screened (n=20)
Excluded (n=10)
• Irresolvable schedule
conflicts (n=8)
• Declined Participation (n=2)

Pre-workshop assessment/
Invited to SAAP (n=10)

Absent (n=2)
(Irresolvable schedule
conflicts)

1-month follow-up assessment
(n=6)
Attended SAAP (n=8)
Excluded (n=2)
• Irresolvable schedule
conflicts (n=1)
• Referred out (n=1)

31
Procedure
The investigator met with each parent individually to explain study
procedures in detail. After parents completed consent forms, the investigator
administered the demographic form verbally to ensure thoroughness and to avoid
problems with participant comprehension. Each parent was then called to identify
workshop times that would work well for all participants. Once an ideal meeting
time was established, parents were invited to attend the SAAP workshop. (The
workshop was scheduled approximately 1 month after consenting.) Parents were
informed that transportation would be provided if they anticipated any difficulties in
traveling to the intervention site.
The intervention took place at the USC psychology training clinic after
business hours. All parents and children were served dinner at the very beginning of
the workshop. Children participated in various activities (e.g., drawing, playing
games, etc.) in a separate room with members of the research team. Workshop
content was delivered using power point slides containing the following information
for each principle: (1) detailed description, (2) examples from the biographies of
African American families, (3) empirical support based on psychology research, (4)
videotaped vignettes of African American families addressing various child
problems, and (5) take-home messages. Throughout the workshop, parents were
invited to share experiences in addressing their child’s issues. The leader identified
principles that could be utilized to enhance parenting effectiveness. Parents then

32
engaged in collaborative discussions with the leader, which focused on concrete
steps they could take to address their child’s behavioral or academic issues.
Immediately following the workshop and at 1-month follow-up, all attendees
completed consumer satisfaction and principle implementation difficulty
questionnaires. All parents who could not attend assessments due to transportation
difficulties were offered and agreed to home visits. Parents were paid $25 for each
of the two assessment meetings with the investigator.
Results
Parent satisfaction post-workshop. Overall, participants had positive
impressions of the workshop. Parents rated lecture information as “somewhat easy”
(37.5%), “easy” (37.5%), or “extremely easy” (25%) to follow; they rated lecture
content as “useful” (60%) or “extremely useful” (20%). Eighty-seven percent of
parents had an “optimistic” expectation of results and felt “confident” about their
ability to manage current and future behavior problems using information learned
from the workshop. Seventy-five percent of participants found the approach used to
address child problems “appropriate”. Regarding their overall feelings about the
workshop, all of the attendees found it “positive” and all parents indicated they
would “recommend the program to a friend”.
In response to open-ended questions about what they enjoyed most about the
program, common answers included: “when parents were able to share experiences
with each other”, “the [principle-specific] take home messages”, and “the entire
workshop”. In response to open-ended questions about what they liked least about

33
the workshop, the most common answers were “nothing” and “there was not enough
time to go through all the information” (See Table 2 for a breakdown of each
participant’s response to open-ended satisfaction questions).

Table 2: Post-Workshop Participant Feedback for SAAP Evaluation, Phase 1
Participant Liked the Most Liked the Least Areas of Improvement
A. Parents sharing
information.
Nothing. Nothing.
B. All parts were
interesting and
helpful.
No discussion of
how to address
self-esteem issues.
Nothing at this time.
C. Discussion of
challenges for Black
children.
Nothing. Nothing.
D. When parents were
able to share their
experiences and
information.
That there wasn't
enough
information on
places to get
assistance.
I believe it would be
helpful to have a
follow up within a
month to see if the
information was
helpful and/or if more
assistance is needed.
E. The discussions and
examples.
Nothing. Nothing.
F. Visual aids, and
especially the
knowledge of [the
workshop leader]
and how well the
[workshop] team
worked together.
Nothing. Great
information and a
good environment
on the campus.
Great food, nice
people.
The information and
resources.
G. The take home
messages of each
principle.
Nothing. Nothing.
H. Discussions about
behaviors and ways
to encourage
children to take
school work
seriously.
There just was not
enough time.
More time to discuss
major problems.

34
Parent satisfaction at1-month follow-up. To assess intervention acceptability
over time, parents’ impressions of the workshop were obtained 1 month after the
intervention. Regarding quality of service, 50% found the program “good” and the
rest found it “fair”. Eighty-three percent of parents felt most or all of their needs had
been met. All would “recommend the program to a friend”. Eighty-three percent
were either “very satisfied or “mostly satisfied” with the amount of help they had
received; all would return to the program in the future. Regarding their child’s
problems, 83% stated their child’s major problems had improved, 33% were satisfied
with their child’s progress, and 77% felt the workshop helped with other general
personal or family problems not directly related to their child. Eighty-three percent
felt “confident” in their ability to manage current and future behavior problems in the
home using workshop content. All parents found the workshop booklet “useful”.
Difficultly implementing workshop content at 1-month follow-up. Parents’
perceptions of principle implementation difficulty were obtained to assess the extent
to which they found principles accessible and easy to use in their daily lives (see
Table 3). In addition to having favorable impressions of the workshop, parents
found the 6 principles relatively easy to implement. Across parents, Commitment to
Learning and Education (Principle 2) was perceived as the easiest principle to
implement and Providing a Supportive Environment (Principle 3) was considered the
most difficult.

35
Table 3: Ease of Implementing Each Principle at 1-Month Follow-Up
Principle M SD Range
Positive Expectations 5.82 1.17 5-6
Commitment to Learning and
Education
6.46 .52 5-7
Supportive Environment 5.73 1.20 5-6
Stability/Security 6.20 .92 5-7
Modeling 5.64 .68 4-6
Persistence 5.82 .98 4-7
Note: 1 = extremely difficult; 7 = extremely easy

Discussion
This phase of the study was designed to test the feasibility and acceptability
of the SAAP workshop for African American parents. Immediately following the
workshop, parents expressed general satisfaction with services and valued several
aspects of the program (i.e., ease of following the material, usefulness of topics
covered, and appropriateness of parenting strategies discussed). One month after the
workshop, parents’ impressions of the workshop remained favorable. Additionally,
parents found workshop principles relatively easy to implement.
In response to open-ended satisfaction questions, parents made reference to
appreciating being able to share experiences with each other and enjoying the-take
home messages. However, some expressed that they would have liked to have more

36
time to go over information. Two minor adaptations were planned for future
workshops based on this input gathered from participants. First, smaller groups were
organized in order to increase the amount of time dedicated to incorporating
experiences from attendees. Second, the number of quotations and vignettes
presented were scaled down, thereby allowing more time to cover take-home
messages.

37
CHAPTER 2: SAAP STUDY PHASE 2
Method
Participants and Design
Participants were recruited using the same strategies and inclusion criteria
described in Phase 1. Twenty-three families consented to the study. One family was
excluded following consent after the parent informed the investigator that her
daughter was engaging in self-harm behaviors. This parent was immediately
escorted to the university psychology clinic where she received an intake assessment
and appropriate follow-up referrals. All other consenting parents (n=22) were
randomly assigned to either the SAAP workshop (n=12) or UCS (n=10).
Of the 12 parents assigned to SAAP, 2 did not attend the workshop and 1 did
not attend the 1-month follow-up assessment. Of the 2 SAAP parents who did not
attend the workshop, 1 parent received workshop materials (i.e., handouts containing
workshop content and the take-home booklet); these materials were delivered to the
parent’s home and reviewed briefly in person. Of the 10 parents assigned to UCS, 2
did not attend the follow-up assessment due to schedule conflicts and 2 were
unresponsive to scheduling attempts. Therefore, the final sample consisted of 17
parent-child pairs.
Participant flow is summarized in Figure 2. The mean parental age of the
final sample was 37.7 years (SD = 6.7). The mean child age was 9.2 years (SD =
2.7). The median gross annual household income range was $60,000 and over.
Other sample characteristics are presented in Table 4.

38

Figure 2: Phase 2 Flow Diagram of Participants. SAAP = Successful African
American Parenting Program.

Eligible and screened (n=46)
Excluded (n=24)
• Referred out (n=1)
• Declined Participation (n=2)
• Unresolvable schedule conflicts (n=21)

•

Randomized
(n=22)
Assigned to SAAP (n=12)
Assigned to UCS (n=10)
Did not attend SAAP (n=2)
• Schedule conflict (n=1)
• No response/status unknown
(n=1)
1-month follow-up assessment
(n=11)
No response/status unknown (n=4)
Contacted UCS site (n= 4)
• Attended a UCS program (n=3)
• Did not attend UCS program
(n=1)
1-month follow-up assessment (n=6)
Pretest assessments (n=22)
Analyzed (n=11)
Analyzed (n=6)

39
Table 4: Selected Participant Characteristics for SAAP Evaluation, Phase 2
Variable n %
Parent Relationship to Child
Biological Mother 14 82.4
Biological Father 3 17.6
Child Sex
Male 12 70.6
Female 5 29.4
Parent Education
Some college 7 41.2
College graduate 7 41.2
Post-college degree 3 17.6
Parent employment status
Full-time 14 82.4
Part-time 1 5.9
Not working by choice (homemaker, retired) 2 11.8
Family structure
Single, never married 6 35.3
Separated 1 5.9
Divorced 4 23.5
Married 5 29.4
Widowed 1 5.9

40
Measures
Unless otherwise noted, the measures below were administered at both time
periods.
Demographics. At baseline only, caregivers completed a demographic
questionnaire identical to the one administered in Phase 1. The questionnaire
assessed income level, marital status, and occupation status, among other
characteristics.
Client Satisfaction. Immediately after the workshop and at 1-month follow-
up, SAAP parents completed the same consumer satisfaction questionnaire
administered to Phase 1 participants. Among other constructs, the questionnaire
measured parents’ perceptions of program difficulty and program utility.
Parental efficacy. Caregivers rated their general sense of self-efficacy using
the 7-item Efficacy subscale of the Parent Sense of Competence Scale (PSOC;
Gibaud-Wallston, 1978). Items were answered on a 6-point scale (1=strongly
disagree; 6=strongly agree). Sample items included “I honestly believe I have the
skills necessary to be a good parent to my child” and “The problems I face when
taking care of my child are easy to handle.” The Efficacy subscale has an alpha of
.76. Scores are calculated by summing all items. Higher scores indicate stronger
perceptions of parental efficacy.
Mental health service utilization. Participants indicated whether they were
actively involved in mental health services over the past month. Specifically, parents
were asked “In the past month, have you spoken to a mental health professional

41
about any personal problems you had?”, “….have you spoken to a mental health
professional about issues you have faced when addressing your child’s behavioral or
academic problems?”, and “…has your child spoken to a mental health
professional?” Parents indicated “yes” or “no” for each item. These items were
created by the investigator.
Child involvement in prosocial activities. Parents reported on youth prosocial
involvement using the Activities subscale of the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL/6-
18; Achenbach, 1994). The Activities subscale consists of items representing the
child's involvement in a number of activities including sports and special interest
organizations (e.g., Girl Scouts). For each item listed, respondents rate how much
time their child spends in each activity compared with other children using a 3-point
scale (1 = less than average; 3 = more than average). For each organization,
respondents rate their child's level of activity compared with other children using a 3-
point scale (1 = less active; 3 = more active). Raw activity scores are based on two
factors—participation time and activity level relative to other children their age; raw
scores are then converted to age-standardized scores (T-scores). T-scores have a
mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10. The CBCL has a test-retest reliability
range of .80 to .94 and an internal consistency range of .63 to .97 (Achenbach, 1994).
Principle implementation difficulty. At follow-up, parents reported on the
extent to which they found each principle easy or difficult to implement. Parents
indicated perceptions of ease using the same principle difficulty items administered
to Phase 1 participants.

42
Utilization of workshop materials. At follow-up, parents reported on the
frequency with which they used the workshop take-home booklet on a 5-point scale
(1=never; 5=very often). The items were as follows: “How often have you used the
booklet to refer to or read the principle descriptions?”, “How often have you referred
to or read the principle-related quotes?”, “How often have used any of counseling
resources?”, and “How often have used any of the activity resources?” These items
were developed by the investigator.
Procedure
The investigator met with each family individually to explain study
procedures in detail. After completing consent and assent forms, the research team
administered all measures verbally to ensure thoroughness and to avoid problems
with participant comprehension. The author conducted all parent interviews.
Assessments were scheduled according to parent availability, including evenings and
weekends. When possible, all interviews were conducted at the USC psychology
training clinic. All parents who could not attend assessment sessions due to
transportation difficulties were offered and agreed to home visits.
Participants were randomly allocated to treatment conditions immediately
following completion of the baseline assessment. Randomization was assigned in
sealed envelopes, which were opened by participants immediately following the
baseline assessment. If a participant was assigned to SAAP, they were scheduled for
a workshop which occurred after the initial assessment. As in Phase 1, the workshop
was scheduled after asking all SAAP parents about their availability and all parents

43
were informed that transportation to the workshop was available. The SAAP
workshop followed the same format as Phase 1 except that, in response to feedback
from Phase 1 participants, workshop groups were limited to 5-6 parents; additionally,
less time was spent on the presentation of quotations and examples, which allowed
more time for parent participation and review of take-home messages. Two separate
workshops were held, with each including 5 parents.
Those in the control group received a list of local organizations that offer
free/low-cost support or guidance to parents who need help with their children. If
UCS parents expressed interest in any services on the list, the investigator offered
help setting up an initial appointment. The investigator also informed UCS
participants that she would intervene if agencies were unresponsive to their inquiries
or scheduling attempts. Additionally, if listed services were not in close proximity to
their home, alternative referrals were provided. Parents were paid $25 for each
assessment meeting.
Results
The primary goal of Phase 2 was to determine whether SAAP participation
would lead to increases in self-efficacy, service utilization, and prosocial
involvement, when compared to UCS. The secondary goal was to identify
intervention processes and family experiences that might elucidate between-group
findings.

44
Preliminary Analyses
Baseline data were analyzed to test for group differences in demographic
characteristics (e.g., age, income and education level, etc.) and the dependent
variables. T-tests and one-way analyses of variance (ANOVAs) revealed no
significant group differences at baseline.
Primary Analyses: Intervention Findings
Overall, more favorable outcomes were expected for SAAP compared to
UCS. To examine group differences, treatment effects on self-efficacy and child
prosocial involvement were tested through a series of analyses of covariance
(ANCOVAs), with pre-treatment scores as covariates for corresponding posttest
scores. Chi-square analyses were used to test for group differences in mental health
service use. Analyses included all participants who completed the follow-up
assessment.
Self-efficacy at follow-up. SAAP families were expected to have higher self-
efficacy at follow-up relative to UCS participants. ANCOVA analyses revealed no
significant group differences, F (1, 14) = 1.10, p=.312, suggesting that SAAP was
not effective at increasing parental self-efficacy. Possible explanations for this null
finding will be explored in the secondary analyses section.
Mental health service utilization at follow-up. Next, differences in mental
health service use were explored. More SAAP families were expected to utilize
counseling services at follow-up relative to UCS participants. Chi-square analyses
revealed no significant group differences in the following domains: parent

45
counseling for personal problems, X
2
(1, 4) = 0.5, ns, parent counseling for child
issues, X
2
(1, 5) = .07, ns, and child counseling, X
2
(1, 5) = .07, ns. To further
explore patterns of service use between groups, percentages of families involved in
parent and child counseling were plotted using a bar graph. As shown in Figure 3,
the percentages of counseling use across groups was very similar with only a
nominally higher percentage of SAAP families using mental health services relative
to UCS participants. Thus, SAAP did not appear to have a significant impact on
mental health service utilization at follow-up.
Child involvement in prosocial activities. It was also hypothesized that
SAAP parents would more frequently seek out and engage their children in prosocial
activities. Treatment effects for child prosocial involvement were evaluated using an
ANCOVA test. Significant treatment effects emerged, F(1, 13) = 6.54, p < .05, with
greater prosocial involvement for SAAP youth (Figure 4), suggesting that SAAP was
more effective at motivating parents to seek out and utilize community-based youth
activities. The observed effect size for this outcome was 1.26. Standard deviations
for SAAP and UCS prosocial involvement scores were 6.49 and 3.93, respectively.

46

Figure 3: Percentage of Families Receiving Mental Health Services at 1-month
Follow-Up, by Treatment Condition
Percentage of Families Receiving Services

47
Activities Subscale Score

Figure 4: Mean Child Prosocial Involvement at Baseline and Follow-Up, by
Treatment Condition

48
Secondary Analyses
Overall, the primary findings were disappointing. Although participation in
SAAP resulted in higher prosocial involvement than UCS, there were no significant
group differences for parenting efficacy or mental health service use. Supplementary
qualitative data were reviewed to identify any trends that would help elucidate the
between-group findings presented above. Questions related to alternative hypotheses
are presented and explored below.
Were SAAP parents dissatisfied with the workshop? One possible reason for
poor outcomes is that Phase 2 SAAP parents were generally disengaged from the
workshop experience and found the intervention unsatisfactory. To assess this
possibility, we reviewed parents’ standardized and open-ended evaluations of SAAP,
immediately following the workshop and again 1 month later. Regarding their
overall feelings about the workshop, parents either found it “positive” (55.6%) or
“very positive” (44.4%). Parents rated workshop information as “easy” (55.6%),
“extremely easy” (33.3%), or “somewhat easy” (11.1%) to follow. Parents indicated
that workshop information was “extremely useful” (55.6%) or “useful” (44.4%). All
parents had an “optimistic” expectation of results and found the approach used to
address child problems “appropriate”. All parents would “recommend the program
to a friend”. Regarding their ability to manage current behavior problems in the
home using what they learned from this workshop, 77.7% felt “confident” or
“somewhat confident” whereas 22.2% felt “somewhat unconfident” or “neutral”. In
terms of participant ability to manage future behavior problems in the home using

49
what they learned from this workshop, 77.8% felt “very confident” or “confident”
and 22.2% felt “somewhat unconfident” or “neutral”.
In response to open-ended questions about what participants enjoyed most
about the program, common answers included: “group conversations with other
parents”, “the breakdown of each principle and examples of what not to do”, “the
videotape examples and take-home booklets”, and “the entire workshop”. In
response to open-ended questions about what they liked least, the most common
answers included: “there being only one workshop”, “not enough time for all parents
to talk with the leader and to other parents”, and “everything was good.” Table 5
provides a breakdown of each participant’s response to open-ended satisfaction
questions. These responses show that none of the parents were overtly dissatisfied
with SAAP, although most gave specific suggestions for improving the structure or
content of the workshop.

50
Table 5: Post-Workshop Participant Feedback for SAAP Evaluation, Phase 2
Participant Liked the Most Liked the
Least
Areas of Improvement
I. The group
conversation with the
parents.
Everything
was good.
Nothing.
J. The take home
messages! The way
everything was broken
down in the
presentation and we
were given the
paperwork to follow
along.
That there is
only one.
More sessions to go in
depth with our issues.
K. The entire workshop!
I feel like I have
something to work on.
Nothing. The workshop was really
more than I expected.
L. I enjoyed the quotes,
videotape examples,
and just the examples
in general.
I’d like more
time more
dialogue with
the leader.
More discussion on real
life experiences.
M. The handbook of
resources and the time
at the end to share
about family issues.
It was helpful. It was helpful but more
visual examples of
situations on how to deal
with misbehaving
children. Also I came late
so maybe there was more
that I missed in the
beginning.
N. Discussing each
principle and ‘what
not to do.’
No formal
introduction of
the parents.
Nothing.
O. The take home
handouts and movie
clips.
I enjoyed the
whole
workshop.
More interaction or
involvement in the
workshop.
P. The workshop helped
me identify my strong
parenting practices.
A little too
long but it was
great.
Weekend time frame or
during school hours.
Q. All of it. It was a little
long,
especially after
work.
I thought it was helpful,
but updates would be
helpful.

51
Generally, SAAP parents were just as satisfied with the workshop 1-month
later. Regarding quality of service, 50% found the program “excellent” and 50%
found the program “good”. All parents felt they “got the kind of services they
wanted”, 50% felt most of their needs had been met, 25% felt only a few of their
needs had been met, and 8.3% felt almost all of their needs had been met. All would
“recommend the program to a friend”. Ninety percent of the parents were either
“very satisfied” or “mostly satisfied” with the amount of help they received by
participating in the workshop; 75% would go back to the program in the future.
Regarding their child’s problems, 90% reported their child’s major problems had
improved, 70% were satisfied with their child’s progress, and 70% felt the workshop
helped with other general personal or family problems not directly related to their
child. Ninety percent of parents felt “confident” about their ability to manage both
current and future behavior problems in the home using what they learned from the
workshop. All attendees found the workshop booklet “useful”.
Overall, SAAP participants were generally satisfied with the services they
received. However, as in Phase 1, some parents were interested in having more time
to discuss SAAP content in further depth. High levels of satisfaction did not wane
over time as indicated by favorable feedback attained at follow-up. Thus, low
satisfaction levels do not appear to be the source of poor outcomes.
Did SAAP parents find workshop content and materials difficult to
implement? Another possibility is that SAAP parents found the 6 principles
intimidating and difficult to carry out. Although the workshop leader attempted to

52
relate each principle to parents’ experiences, parents may have encountered barriers
to carrying out strategies after the workshop. To test this possibility, participants
were asked about the extent to which they found each workshop principle easy or
difficult to implement at 1-month follow-up. Results for each principle are presented
in Table 6. Overall, participants found all principles relatively easy to implement.
Among principles, Modeling (Principle 5) was the most difficult to implement,
whereas providing Stability and Security (Principle 4) was the easiest. These
findings indicate that parents may have found the principles relatable and easy to
utilize. Therefore, it seems unlikely that poor outcomes were attributable to content
difficulty.

Table 6: Ease of Implementing Each Principle at 1-Month Follow-Up
Principle M SD Range
Positive Expectations 5.82 1.17 3-7
Commitment to Learning and Education 6.46 .52 6-7
Supportive Environment 5.73 1.20 3-7
Stability/Security 6.20 .92 4-7
Modeling 5.64 .68 5-7
Persistence 5.82 .98 4-7
Note: 1 = extremely difficult; 7 = extremely easy

53
In order to assess utility of workshop materials, participants were also asked
about the extent to which they referenced the program manual and community
resource lists (see Table 7). On average, parents referred to principle descriptions
and quotes only sometimes and reported that they used counseling and community
resources relatively infrequently.

Table 7: Participant Use of the Take-Home Booklet at 1-Month Follow-Up
Resource Type M SD Range
Principles 3.20 1.14 1-5
Quotes 3 1.63 1-5
Counseling 1.5 1.08 1-2
Tutoring resources 1.10 .32 1-2
Prosocial activity resources 2.30 1.25 1-4
Note: 1 = never; 5 = very often

Thus, despite workshop emphasis and later prompts (i.e., letters and
magnets), parents reported that they referred to or read principle descriptions and
quotes sometimes and used the rest of the booklet infrequently. Notably, participants
seemed to find the SAAP principles relatively easy to implement and rated the

54
booklet favorably despite infrequent use of the take-home booklet. Barriers to use of
the booklet may have contributed to poor outcomes.
Were some parents particularly unresponsive to SAAP? As reported earlier,
analyses revealed no significant between-group differences in self-efficacy,
suggesting that SAAP did not have an impact on parenting beliefs. To understand
why SAAP participants may have been unresponsive, self-efficacy scores for each
SAAP family were plotted on a line graph to examine individual patterns of change
over time (see Figure 5). The bolded line represents the mean parental self-efficacy
score over time. The mean data plot indicates that SAAP parents, on average,
showed a negligible decrease (difference=-0.37) in self-efficacy from pre-treatment
to follow-up. However, several participants reported substantial decreases
1
in self-
efficacy scores over time (parents K, P, and Q in Figure 5), which may have
contributed to the overall flat pattern of self-efficacy scores between baseline and 1-
month follow-up.

1
The criterion for a substantial self-efficacy decrease was individual change over time greater than
the overall standard deviation of 4.92.

55

Figure 5: Parental Self Efficacy Scores for Each SAAP Family. Bolded line
indicates overall mean. Data for Parents K, P, and Q are labeled.

To determine why self-efficacy decreased for these families, qualitative data
(collected from interviews and informal contacts) for Parents K, P, and Q were
reviewed closely. Immediately following the workshop, Parent K revealed that she
was not satisfied with the counseling services she pursued for her child prior to
SAAP study enrollment. Based on her post-workshop report, Parent K was “in the
middle of a 3-week intake process” with a previous mental health center. At the time
of the follow-up interview, she seemed doubtful of her abilities to change or speed
16
20
24
28
32
36
40
Baseline 1-Month Follow-Up
Self-Efficacy Score
Parent P
Parent Q
Parent K

56
up the treatment process, and seemed anxious to contact some of the centers listed in
the SAAP booklet. The parent agreed to contact the investigator if she needed
further assistance. It is possible that Parent K’s lower post-workshop efficacy
resulted less from workshop deficiencies, and more from perceived inadequacy of
the mental health services she received.
Parent P is the second participant who reported a decrease in self-efficacy.
Curiously, this decrease contrasted with her consumer satisfaction feedback, where
she indicated that SAAP “helped [her] identify her strong parenting practices.”
Notably, during the follow-up interview, Parent P expressed concern over her
teenage daughter’s (the older sibling of the target child) mental health needs. Parent
P may have felt relatively confident about her ability to manage the target child’s
issues after attending SAAP; however, she still lacked confidence in her ability to
address her older daughter’s needs. The investigator provided parent P with
assistance in finding an appropriate setting for her daughter. In sum, Parent P’s
lower self-efficacy scores could be attributed to doubts pertaining to whether she
could effectively address her other child’s mental health issues.
Parent Q, the last parent who indicated a decrease in self-efficacy, expressed
uncertainty during the follow-up interview regarding whether any interventions
existed that would be effective with her child. Specifically, her child’s behavioral
problems at school did not decrease in response to resources she previously pursued.
Parent Q clearly wanted more direct child services than SAAP could provide; thus,

57
her decrease in self-efficacy may have been linked to unfulfilled expectations of the
program’s effectiveness.
Notably, despite concerns about identifying appropriate services for their
children, all nonresponders parents indicated generally high levels of satisfaction
with the SAAP program. However, Parent P thought the length of the workshop
may have been too long and Parent Q felt that future versions of the intervention
should integrate advice on child self-esteem issues.
Given that the experiences of Parents K, P, and Q were unlike those of other
SAAP participants, self-efficacy data were plotted again, but with data from these 3
families removed (see Figure 6); this change resulted in a slight increase in the self-
efficacy mean. Between-groups ANCOVA analyses were again conducted without
data from Parents K, P, and Q. However, between-group differences remained non-
significant, F (1, 11) =.061, p=.810.
In sum, the 3 parents with discernable decreases in self-efficacy over time
experienced negative service utilization experiences. One parent was distressed over
poor services received prior to SAAP participation. The second parent was
concerned about another child’s need for intensive mental health treatment. The last
parent seemed doubtful about whether SAAP would be successful with her
“resistant” child given the failure of prior interventions. With the data for these
parents removed, overall self-efficacy increased noticeably, although between-group
differences remained nonsignificant. The hypothesis that “negative responders” led
to null treatment effects was not supported.

58

Figure 6: Mean Parental Self Efficacy Over Time for Each SAAP family. Bolded
line indicates overall mean. Data for Parents K, P, and Q removed.

59
Discussion
As in Phase 1, parents evaluated SAAP favorably immediately following the
workshop and at 1–month follow-up. No significant group differences were found
for self-efficacy or mental health service use at follow-up. However, a significant
group difference emerged for child prosocial involvement, with SAAP children
demonstrating greater participation in prosocial activities relative to UCS children.
Secondary analyses revealed that 3 SAAP participants displayed substantial
decreases in self-efficacy score over time; however, even after the removal of the
data for these nonresponders, group differences in self-efficacy did not emerge.
Additionally, data plots revealed that the proportion of SAAP families using mental
health services was similar to that of UCS families.

60
GENERAL DISCUSSION
Summary
This study evaluated a novel, culturally sensitive program for African
American families. Phase 1, a feasibility study, assessed participants’ satisfaction
with SAAP. Results revealed positive impressions of the intervention immediately
following the workshop and again 1 month later. Phase 2 evaluated SAAP’s impact
on self-efficacy and service utilization. As anticipated, SAAP parents reported
greater child involvement in prosocial activities compared to UCS participants.
However, no group differences in parental self-efficacy or use of mental health
services emerged.
Secondary analyses were performed to better clarify null findings. Consumer
satisfaction results indicated that SAAP parents were generally pleased with the
workshop and found principles easy to implement. Regarding self-efficacy, data
plots revealed that 3 SAAP parents showed substantial drops in self-efficacy over
time. However, even when these non-responders were removed from analyses,
treatment effects on self-efficacy remained non-significant. In terms of mental
health service use, data plots revealed similar patterns of participation in counseling
across conditions.
Interpretation
Several possible explanations for the lack of treatment effects on self-efficacy
and mental health service use are explored below. First, SAAP’s brevity may limit
its potential to strongly influence parenting beliefs. Several SAAP parents indicated

61
a desire to spend more time talking to each other and reviewing intervention material
during the workshop. This feedback was obtained from parents during both study
phases, even though Phase 2 allotted additional time for discussion and review of
principles. Perhaps a longer version of SAAP, with content presented over the
course of several days or weeks, would have been more appealing to some families
and ultimately lead to better parenting and service use outcomes. Yet, as noted
earlier, African Americans in traditional parenting interventions show higher
premature termination than European American participants (Kazdin, 1993; Kazdin,
Mazurick, & Bass, 1993; Kazdin, Stolar, & Marciano, 1995; Kendall & Sugarman,
1997). Therefore, an extended version of SAAP may have enhanced intervention
efficacy but probably at the cost of higher participant attrition.
Second, treatment effects may have been weak because the control condition
was unexpectedly more robust than planned. Qualitative data indicated that parents
in the UCS condition may have benefited substantially from their referral lists.
Informally, many UCS parents expressed gratitude for “finally” receiving a list of
tangible resources, and indicated relief that the researcher was available to facilitate
enrollment in these services. For these parents, this experience was in contrast to
previous encounters with mental health professionals who often failed to provide
explicit information on free/low-cost referrals. The frequency of positive responses
from UCS participants was unanticipated since they received what might be
considered a helpful, but less appealing group assignment. It is possible that referral
materials provided in the UCS condition, as well as access to the investigator,

62
provided parents with a new source of support, thereby altering parents’ expectations
of what they could provide for their child (Burchinal, Follmer, & Bryant, 1996).
However, this does not fully explain why their self-efficacy and counseling use was
similar to that of SAAP participants given that UCS parents received a list with far
fewer resources.
Lastly, regarding service utilization, we gathered information on mental
healthcare use without formally assessing whether families were in the process of
enrolling in services. Perhaps if data had been gathered concerning the steps prior to
receiving mental health services (e.g., asking “How many mental health centers have
you contacted in the past month?”, or “How many programs are you planning to call
over the next month?”), more informative mental health service use patterns would
have emerged. Unexpectedly, parents in both conditions made requests from the
investigator for additional referrals both within and outside the domain of mental
health (e.g., information on local African American therapists, counseling for other
members of the family, child and adult tutoring services, youth summer programs,
college preparatory programs, etc.), indicating that many families were still in the
process of identifying potential services 1 month after the workshop. Future SAAP
evaluations should include more comprehensive assessments of all stages of service
enrollment.
Although there were no treatment effects on self-efficacy and mental health
service use, one anticipated group difference emerged at follow-up. SAAP children
demonstrated greater involvement in prosocial activities relative to UCS youth. This

63
was an expected finding given that SAAP explicitly encourages parents to engage
their children in age-appropriate and educational activities in and outside of the
home. For example, Principle 2 (Commitment to Learning and Education)
encourages parents to take children on trips to sites that are educational as well as
enjoyable (e.g., the museum, library, or zoo). Additionally, the SAAP resource
booklet provided parents with lists of family-friendly and child-oriented activities in
the Los Angeles area. UCS families did not receive an equivalent listing of youth
activity resources. As a result, SAAP parents may have found the process of
identifying, enrolling, and encouraging their child’s participation in such activities
less burdensome relative to UCS parents. Parenting strategies that foster youth
prosocial involvement have been linked to increases in cognitive and social
competence and decreases in externalizing behavioral problems for youth (Brody,
Dorsey, Forehand, & Armistead, 2002; Brody et al., 2004; Kim & Brody, 2005).
Therefore, programs such as SAAP that support engagement in positive youth
activities have the potential to decrease youth maladaptive behavior in the future.
Strengths
The present study has two primary strengths. First, qualitative findings help
shed light on two intervention elements that may play an integral role in making
treatments more acceptable to African American parents: encouraging participants to
share experiences with each other and delivering treatment in a principles-based
format. Although research suggests that African Americans are more likely than
European Americans to believe that problems should not be discussed outside of the

64
family (Alvidrez, 1999; Thompson, Bazile, & Akbar, 2004), in this study, SAAP
parents indicated that they enjoyed speaking to other participants about problems
they faced with their children. Additionally, most participants found the principles-
based format appealing. Ultimately, presenting principles-guided intervention
material and encouraging parents to share experiences may be key to enhancing
engagement and retention rates among African Americans in long run.
Second, the inclusion of middle-income African Americans contrasts with the
almost exclusive focus on poor African Americans in the intervention literature
(Bluestone & Tamis LeMonda, 2007; Hill, 2001). SAAP consumer satisfaction
feedback was obtained from participants representing a range of income levels.
Importantly, high levels of satisfaction were obtained for lower SES (Phase 1) and
middle SES (Phase 2) participants, and both groups perceived program content as
easy to comprehend and implement. High levels of acceptability across groups could
be attributed to SAAP’s use of stories from lower to higher SES families. For
example, when describing each principle, quotes from affluent African American
figures are presented in conjunction with vignettes from African Americans who
grew up poor or were otherwise disadvantaged. Narratives from socioeconomically
diverse African American families were utilized throughout the workshop to foster
participant identification with the selected figures.
Limitations and Future Directions
This investigation has several methodological limitations that merit
consideration. First, given that we lacked an adequate sample size for a rigorous

65
evaluation of SAAP, power to detect significant treatment effects was likely very
low. Cohen (1992) argues that intervention studies require approximately 50 clients
per condition to have the conventional 80% power needed to detect a medium
difference between two treatment groups at the p<.05 significance level. Because
the final sample size was substantially smaller than this target number, final results
should be interpreted with caution.
Notably, issues related to inadequate size are not unique to the current
investigation. Indeed, in a meta-analysis of comparative treatment outcome research
(Kazdin & Bass, 1989) found that the median sample size per condition was only 12.
However, their findings indicated that the power of studies to detect significant
differences with medium to large effect sizes was still quite adequate. For the
present study, a significant difference with a large effect size emerged for prosocial
involvement despite a very small sample size. However, overall group differences
were disappointing. To avoid issues associated with low power, a future
examination of SAAP with a larger sample size is warranted.
Several obstacles to participant recruitment contributed to the difficulty in
obtaining an adequate sample size. With African American children making up only
10% of students in the Los Angeles Unified School District (LAUSD, 2007),
identifying schools with 30% or more African American student enrollment proved
difficult. Moreover, of the small group of schools falling into this category, only a
select subgroup was receptive to serving as a recruitment site. Interestingly, many
school officials expressed a desire to increase parental involvement and engagement,

66
specifically among African Americans. Indeed, principals, teachers, and counselors
explained that African Americans were relatively less active in school meetings and
activities compared to parents from other ethnic groups. However, despite their
interest in identifying interventions that might increase parental involvement, many
principals declined to participate because they did not want to exclude non African
American parents. Thus, in addition to schools, the researcher contacted and met
with leaders of community-based organizations with high African American
membership to enhance recruitment. Although this strategy increased our ability to
target African Americans, identifying individuals with elementary school-aged
children proved more difficult when recruiting outside of schools.
A second limitation of the present study is its limited generalizability. For
example, the applicability of the present study to Blacks from other regions of the
U.S. or from immigrant backgrounds may be limited. Participants from both phases
consisted almost exclusively of Los Angeles residents whose parents were born in
the United States. A future evaluation of SAAP with a larger, more culturally
diverse sample size may help determine whether the intervention would be effective
for a wider range of families (e.g., descendants of immigrants from the Caribbean).
More generally, there is a dearth of literature addressing subgroup variation
(i.e. differing education levels, religious backgrounds and practices, family
structures, and acculturation statuses) among African Americans (Dillon, 1994;
Littlejohn-Blake & Darling, 1993; Tucker, 1999). Lack of information on within-
group variation may further contribute to the difficulty in identifying clear guidelines

67
on the most effective ways to incorporate cultural sensitivity into intervention and
prevention programs (Graham, 1992; Iwamasa & Smith, 1996; Lau, 2006;
Nagayama Hall, 2001; Tucker & Herman, 2002).
Third, this study did not assess whether a more universal approach (i.e., one
which targets families of multiple ethnic backgrounds), would be perceived as
acceptable to African American parents. Limited data suggests that programs that
contain multiethnic elements may enhance responsiveness within this population
(Reid et al., 2004). Future work should determine whether multicultural versions of
SAAP, in which multiethnic vignettes and biographies are utilized, might be rated
just as favorably as the current version.
Connected to the limitation above, not all participants may have found
SAAP’s culture-specific elements compelling. We asked open-ended questions
tapping into the utility and appropriateness of principles, vignettes, video clips, and
many other aspects of intervention content. However, we did not explicitly assess
parents’ reactions to the use of African American figures and families throughout
treatment. When SAAP is assessed in future investigations, more information will be
gathered on parents’ reactions to the explicit use of African American graphics and
narratives as a means of delivering treatment content (e.g., asking parents the
following: “Please provide feedback on the use of African American graphics and
biographies throughout the program. Did you find this approach appropriate and/or
helpful? Please explain.”).

68
Lastly, no data were systematically collected on why each participant chose
to enroll in a study specifically targeting African American families. Periodically,
participants informally explained the importance of participating in a project that
“made [them] feel welcomed”. Therefore, there may be a selection bias of parents
actively pursuing culture-specific treatments. Obtaining more information on which
African American subgroups tend to find culture-specific intervention efforts
appealing may help inform future intervention research efforts. Future SAAP
evaluations will more formally assess current patterns of self-selection.
The results of this study show promise for designing brief, culturally
sensitive programs for African American families from diverse SES backgrounds.
However, a more powerful study design would include replication using a larger
sample size and incorporate longer-term follow-up data. Notably, several studies
suggest that some interventions may show poor initial outcomes yet demonstrate
substantial “sleeper” effects months or years later (e.g. see Fairburn, et al., 1993;
Henggeler et. al, 2002; Weissman & Markowitz, 1994). Currently, 1-year follow-up
data are being collected from Phase 2 participants to examine possible long-term
benefits of participating in SAAP.

69
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APPENDIX A: SUCCESSFUL AFRICAN AMERICAN PARENTING (SAAP)
SLIDES

SAAP Slide 1

SAAP Slide 2

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APPENDIX B: SUCCESSFUL AFRICAN AMERICAN PARENTING (SAAP)
PRINCIPLES AND RESOURCES

SUCCESSFUL AFRICAN AMERICAN
PARENTING (SAAP):
PRINCIPLES AND RESOURCES

STAN HUEY, PH.D.
&
ALISHA ALLEYNE, M.A.
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA

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SAAP PRINCIPLE 1: POSITIVE EXPECTATIONS
DESCRIPTION: Communicate high but reasonable expectations, aspirations, and goals for
child.
WHAT YOU CAN DO: Communicate high expectations for child through words and actions;
build on child’s positive characteristics; be motivator for your child; praise/reward
success.
LESSONS FROM LIVES OF SUCCESSFUL AFRICAN AMERICANS:
At times my (mother) refusing to allow me to settle for less than the best came across as
nagging, demanding, even heartless to me. When she believed in something she held on
and wouldn’t quit. I didn’t always like hearing her say, “You weren’t born to be a
failure, Bennie. You can do it!” Being kids, we didn’t always welcome her lessons and
advice. Resentment and [obstinacy] crept in, but my mother refused to give up. (Ben
Carson, Neurosurgeon)
I wasn’t any smarter or more special than the guys around me. For some reason, throughout
my life I was blessed with people who told me positive things, and I believed them. I
believed my third-grade teacher when she told me that I could go to college and have a
great career someday if I just stayed out of trouble. So I hung out with kids who were
like me, trying to do the right thing. (George Jenkins, Physician)
When we were little boys, my mother would talk about the Lab High School, and
experimental school affiliated with Atlanta University. She had heard it was a good
program and that was all she needed to know. “If it’s still open when you’re old enough,
I want you to go to the Lab school,” she would say, making it sound like the best thing

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in the world. Her ambition for us was just enormous, and she never missed the
opportunity to let us know that. (Vernon Jordan, Attorney & Director of Urban
League).
[Oprah’s father] answered simply enough. “If you were a child who could only get C’s then
that is really all I would expect to you. I wouldn’t demand any more from you than C’s.
But you are not. And so in this house, for you, C’s are not acceptable.” That was enough
for Oprah.… And so she did the one thing she could do. She changed her ways. (Oprah
Winfrey, Entertainment Executive)
Holding up Jackie Robinson’s example gave my dad another opportunity to repeat his
favorite message: “Your horizons are unlimited. But you must be disciplined and
hardworking to attain them. Never forget, though, that you can attain them.” Nowadays,
they call that self-esteem, and it was one of our parents’ most precious gifts to us.
(Johnnie Cochran, Attorney).
My parents didn’t accept just passing…. You were expected to excel. (Douglas Wilder,
Virginia Governor).
Mr. Jackson always let me know he believed in me. When I told him while I was in high
school that I’d enrolled in the Pre-Medical/Pre-Dental Plus Program at Seton Hall with
two of my friends, he wasn’t surprised. From that point on, when he talked about my
future, he always prefaced his remarks with “When you become a doctor. . .” (George
Jenkins, Physician).
At every school – as well as in all of her extracurricular activities – she was told to go
beyond what was expected of her, always hand in work that was above average, always
rise to the top. This was the unwritten yet firm law of Titusville families: to raise

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children who were “twice as good” as white kids to gain an equal footing and “three
times as good” to surpass them. This was the driving force behind the high,
uncompromising standards that the Rays and the Rices expected of their children. By
encouraging them to always be far above average, they gave them the best shot at
competing at an equal level when they left the secure enclave of Titusville and their
families. (Condoleezza Rice, Secretary of State).

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SAAP PRINCIPLE 2: COMMITMENT TO LEARNING & EDUCATION
DESCRIPTION: Maximize educational/learning opportunities for child.
WHAT YOU CAN DO: Make privileges depend on school success; check homework; bedtime
stories; child reads daily; trips to library, university, museums; contribute to college
fund; cooperative relationship with school; move to better school or school district;
explain importance of education.
LESSONS FROM LIVES OF SUCCESSFUL AFRICAN AMERICANS:
I grew up in a house where reading was like breathing (LeVar Burton, Actor).
No matter how tired she was, if we were still up when she got home, Mother didn’t fail to
ask about school. As much as anything, her concern for our education began to impress
on me that she considered school important. (Ben Carson, Neurosurgeon)
His mother’s daily crossword puzzles played a big part in his childhood routine. One reason
he has the vocabulary he has is his mother used to work the crossword puzzle all the
time. She . . . made him learn a new word every day from the crossword puzzle. At the
end of the week she’d give him a test and he had to give her the definition. (Douglas
Wilder, Virginia Governor).
[Daddy said] “The white people see to it that they get the best, so if we want our kids to do
well, they’ve got to go where the white kids are.” This meant, not to Liberty Street
School [the “Black” school], but to Garfield School [the “White” school], which was a
mile and a half away. Somehow Daddy wangled it so that Donna, and later Jeanette and
I, started out there. Daddy’s theory was that we should go to school with children who

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had goals, or whose parents had goals for them. “Our kids’ll watch the white kids,” he
predicted, “and they’ll hitch a ride on their wagon.” (Yvonne Thornton, Obstetrician).
My father was a stickler about homework. You had to do your school assignments before
anything else – before you went out, before you sat on the stoop. I would later make this
a rule for my own children. I also had to recite my lessons to my father to show him that
I’d learned them and to prove I’d read the books. Later, I would read those same books
to my own kids. (Herman Williams, Baltimore Fire Chief).
At an earlier point in [Malcolm’s] life his mother had passed on to him the importance of
literacy and reading…. In the evening his mother would read to him and his siblings the
Garvey Papers and The Negro World. When they were young children, they would
gather around the stove and sing the alphabet, as well as math and French songs
(Malcolm X).
As a result of my mother’s encouragement and prodding, books became a gratifying
diversion for me. Mother taught me how to read when I had hardly reached my fourth
year and eventually, when I was a little older, we both established a quota system for the
number of books I should be reading per week. (Angela Davis, Activist & Professor).
Both [of Condi’s parents] had summers off from teaching, and most years they packed up
their Dodge for long road trips. These outings usually involved stopping along the way
to visit a college campus or two. The Rices couldn’t resist strolling through a famous
university or college…. “We almost always stopped on college campuses,” said Condi.
“I remember us driving 100 miles out of the way to visit Ohio State in Columbus.”
(Condoleezza Rice, Secretary of State).

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Oprah was forced to spend her entire summer learning the multiplication tables – what she
always termed her “times tables.” [Her stepmother] was, as Oprah explained, “real
tough, a very strong disciplinarian, and I owe a lot to her because it was like military
school there. I had to do book reports at home as well as in school and so many
vocabulary words a week.” (Oprah Winfrey, Entertainment Executive).

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SAAP Principle 3: Supportive Environment
DESCRIPTION: Create a loving and supportive environment for child that reinforces your
goals for child.
WHAT YOU CAN DO: Be generous with praise, love, and affection; highlight child’s special
qualities; have conversations with child; involve child in “growth” activities (e.g., music
lessons, dance, scouts, school clubs); allow child to engage with positive but not negative
youth.
LESSONS FROM LIVES OF SUCCESSFUL AFRICAN AMERICANS:
Even today, when I think about my mother for any reason, what first jumps to mind are
memories of her telling me that she loved me more than anyone else in the world (Bill
Russell, NBA Star & Coach).
At the dinner table we were encouraged to talk about what went on in school or in the
neighborhood. After dinner these conversations often turned into debates. Mom often
rested in the bottom bunk bed in the boys’ bedroom as the debates got underway…. You
could make the most outlandish, ridiculous statements as long as you could make them
sound reasonable or logical in some way…. I sometimes walked to school the next day
thinking about what was said in yesterday’s debate and how to counter it in the
upcoming debate that evening. (James Comer, Psychiatrist).
[My mother] used to tell me, you can do it all…. She would tell a story about a “great little
boy.” I would say “am I that great little boy?” “Oh yes.” “Do you know any other great
little boy?” (Douglas Wilder, Virginia Governor).

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From the very beginning, I felt the tug of my mother’s hope. It could not have been missed.
I moved forward, propelled by her deep ambition and love for me – two things I never
had a moment’s doubt about and that moved me to accept her guidance and to want to
vindicate her faith in me. It is an almost irresistible challenge when you have someone
who thinks you are special and who works to see to it that you get the chance to shine.
A bargain is struck, sometimes silent, sometimes spoken: their faith and commitment for
your effort and success. If success is at all possible, you do not want to fail. You do
everything you can to not fail. If there are times when things don’t work out as you plan
(and that often happens), a hard and honest effort fulfills the bargain. No matter what,
you never break faith with those who support you. (Vernon Jordan, Attorney &
Director of Urban League).
[My father would say] “Whatever pertains to you, Cookie, is like there’s been a magic.
Maybe it was luck sloshing around in that bucket and it splashed on you.” . . . I loved
the story. It’s been like an umbrella keeping the rain off my parade all my life. It is so
wonderful for a child to grow up with a belief in her specialness, her luck, it provides
such courage to risk, to overleap, that I have sometimes wished that all parents could tell
comparable stories to their children, even if they have to invent them – stories to serve as
a talisman all their lives. (Yvonne Thornton, Obstetrician).
John and Angelena [Condi’s parents] showered their daughter with love, attention, praise,
and exposure to all the elements of Western culture – music, ballet, foreign language,
athletics, and the great books. “I had parents who gave me every conceivable
opportunity,” she said. When Condi was born, Angelena devoted herself to her
intellectual artistic development. With piano lessons and a full schedule of training in

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other subjects, Condi gained self-discipline long before she started attending school. “It
was a very controlled environment with little kids’ clubs and ballet lessons and youth
group and church every Sunday,” Condi said. “The discipline comes from that.”
(Condoleezza Rice, Secretary of State).

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SAAP PRINCIPLE 4: STABILITY
DESCRIPTION: Provide a safe, structured, and predictable environment for child.
WHAT YOU CAN DO: Protect child from danger and from adult responsibilities; provide clear
rules for appropriate behavior and consistent consequences for breaking rules; involve
child in daily/weekly positive activities; have routine family activities.
LESSONS FROM LIVES OF SUCCESSFUL AFRICAN AMERICANS:
Because of her steady job, our pantry and refrigerator were always full of food. We didn’t
move around constantly like some families did but lived in the same apartment for the
rest of my childhood. And Mom kept the utility bills paid, too. I was fortunate; most of
the guys I know who got into trouble in my neighborhood had circumstances at home
that weren’t as stable. Many guys I knew sold drugs because they felt they had no
choice. And I believe that kids who grew up in less stable environments were more
susceptible to pressure from friends to do the negative things that everyone else seemed
to be doing. (George Jenkins, Dentist)
[Oprah’s stepmother] took her teenage daughter to the library every two weeks. She was…
required to choose five books, read them, and write book reports about them every two
weeks…. “Not only did I have homework from school, but homework at home!” Oprah
recalled. “Plus, I was allowed [only] an hour a day to watch television…. I hated that!”
Oprah said…. From all this work on her studies, Oprah developed into an A student.
(Oprah Winfrey, Entertainment Executive).
The routine of walking to Sunday school with my father, of sharing a soda with him and
listening to him talk at the dinners with Sister Green or other members of our church,

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gave me a strong sense of security. I never had to wonder about what we were going to
do, whether he would be there or not. With that issue settled, I could concentrate on
being a kid, learning all the things I needed to learn in order to become an adult.
(Vernon Jordan, Attorney & Director of Urban League).
Like nearly all parents of their generation, my mother and father were firm believers in
corporal punishment. Discipline in our family never was arbitrary, but it was swiftly and
sometimes painfully administered. (Johnnie Cochran, Attorney).
My father provided for us, and he did so well. I can’t remember a time when the icebox
wasn’t filled with food. (Herman Williams, Baltimore Fire Chief).
[Oprah’s father] had a very clear idea of what he was doing. For the rebellious child who
had been having a field day in breaking to bits all the rules and regulations her mother
had set up for her, her father’s way of life was a revelation. “I knew exactly what I
could and what I couldn’t get away with,” Oprah said. “I respected his authority. His
discipline channeled my need for love and attention into a new direction.” (Oprah
Winfrey, Entertainment Executive).
[Paul’s] grades were good by normal standards but not up to the elder Robeson’s
expectations: He earned all As and Bs, except in English composition, where he got a C.
That grade upset William Drew [Paul’s father] so much that he made Paul [give up]
tryouts for the basketball team. Forced to concentrate fully on his studies, Paul achieved
stellar second-term grades. William Drew [then] allowed Paul to play varsity baseball in
the spring. (Paul Robeson, Actor/Activist).
We learned something at each institution, and they all provided much-needed stability.
Whatever the season, I knew that every Monday and Friday at five o’clock, we were

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going to go to choir rehearsal at St. Paul. My brother and I sang in the St. Cecelia Choir.
. . . Although sometimes it was a grind, being in the St. Cecelia Choir and attending the
Vespers services gave me some of the happiest memories of my childhood. (Vernon
Jordan, Attorney, Director of Urban League).

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SAAP PRINCIPLE 5: MODELING APPROPRIATE BEHAVIOR
DESCRIPTION: Serve as a positive role model for your child; have child interact with people
who serve as good role models.
WHAT YOU CAN DO: In your personal conduct and relationships with others, behave as you
would like your child to behave.
LESSONS FROM LIVES OF SUCCESSFUL AFRICAN AMERICANS:
Mama didn’t talk much about religion; she just lived it. Her piety wasn’t for show. Nor did
she talk about other people’s faith or whether they had it or not. (Joycelyn Elders,
Surgeon General).
No matter how difficult the moment, [my parents] treated each other with unfailing affection
and respect. They set a powerful example, and we children deviated from it at our peril.
(Johnnie Cochran, Attorney).
By encouraging me to look things up in the dictionary, even when I was not sure how to
spell the word, my mother taught me the importance of research and self-reliance. She
always read about all kinds of subjects, read books, newspapers, magazines, and kept
abreast of current events. (Mae Jemison, Astronaut).
My parents did not recognize their own strengths. It was nothing they ever said that taught
us. It was the way they lived their lives. If the values seem correct or relevant, the
children will follow the values. I had been shaped not by preaching, but by example, by
moral osmosis. (Colin Powell, U.S. Secretary of State).
In those days, we didn’t have to look far for a model of academic diligence. Tired as he was
from his work in the shipyard, my father spent most evenings studying. His frustration

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over his own aborted school career never sapped his belief in unceasing self-
improvement. He was always engrossed in his correspondence courses, the Bible, or his
writing, which by then included religious and philosophical poetry. At the dinner table,
he spoke to us frequently about the overriding importance of education and simply took
it for granted that I would attend college. (Johnnie Cochran, Attorney).
Through daily interaction with his father, Paul began to absorb, mostly by example, the
credo that was to last a lifetime. First was the importance of living up to his individual
potential, rather than worrying about winning for its own sake. Next came the strong
belief in his ability to achieve. . . . Paul also noticed that William Drew was a model of
compassion for others. Paul observed his dedication and accountability to the
community, not merely to the pursuit of wealth and influence, but to his commitment to
principle as well, even at the cost of personal sacrifice. (Paul Robeson, Actor/Activist).
For as long as I can remember, my mother devoured books, often reading one a day. And
she spoke well – with a Southern drawl, to be sure – and always with perfect grammar.
She loved to work crossword puzzles, too, and had a gift for understanding the meaning
of words. We always had a highly visible dictionary in the house. (Charleyne Hunter-
Gault, Journalist).
I had the example of my parents, along with many of the adults who lived in University
Homes, to give me an idea about how I should go through the world. These were not
some distant figures designated by the media as ‘role models.’ They were in my life on
a day-to-day basis, flesh and blood. I could talk to them. Even if I didn’t talk to them, I
could observe them. Sometimes they did the right thing. Sometimes they made
mistakes. The important point was that most of them were in there trying. This made a

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big, and very positive, impression on me. (Vernon Jordan, Attorney, Director of Urban
League).

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SAAP Principle 6: Persistence
DESCRIPTION: Model and communicate the importance of hard work, effort, practice, and
mastery.
WHAT YOU CAN DO: Use overcorrection (positive practice) as a discipline strategy; always
follow-through with consequences (i.e., don’t make threats you can’t keep); make your
child practice important skills; commit the time necessary to help child reach potential;
don’t give up on child!
LESSONS FROM LIVES OF SUCCESSFUL AFRICAN AMERICANS:
At times her refusing to allow me to settle for less than the best came across as nagging,
demanding, even heartless to me. When she believed in something she held on and
wouldn’t quit. I didn’t always like hearing her say, “You weren’t born to be a failure,
Bennie. You can do it!” Being kids, we didn’t always welcome her lessons and advice.
Resentment and [obstinacy] crept in, but my mother refused to give up. (Ben Carson,
Neurosurgeon).
His father had relentlessly demanded courtesy and restraint, and Paul had internalized the
lessons. (Paul Robeson, Actor/Activist).
As each of us started school, [my father] solemnly instructed us to “pick out a rabbit.” He
explained how, in greyhound racing, the dogs ran their hearts out because they were
chasing a rabbit that whizzed around the track ahead of them, and that’s what he wanted
us to do: study our hearts out to come in first. He said, “You’ll go to class and pretty
soon you’ll notice one of the kids does real good, out in front of the rest. That’s your
rabbit. If that kid gets an A, that lets you know you can get an A too. You just have to

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try harder.” He was right. A girl named Patricia was my rabbit, and however good her
grades were, I worked until I caught up with her, and sometimes my momentum carried
me right on past her. (Yvonne Thornton, Physician).
Condi’s year of homeschooling was regimented and intense. [Condi’s mother] organized
Condi’s day as if she were in a regular classroom, but her lessons were more rigorous.
They didn’t play.... They had classes, then lunchtime and back to classes…. Angelena
and John [Condi’s parents] were just interested in Condi maturing and getting the best of
everything. It paid off. (Condoleezza Rice, Secretary of State).
When Oprah wore a dress that had no middle and exposed her naked midriff, [her father]
ordered her to remove it and put on something else. When she put on too much makeup,
[her father] sat down with her and helped her rub it off. And whenever he caught her
doing anything he did not approve of – even in the area of her language – he corrected
her mercilessly. It was his intention to become and continue to be a strict and constant
presence in Oprah’s life – just as strict and constant as the church to which they both
belonged. (Oprah Winfrey, Entertainment Executive).
There couldn’t have been many people with less free time than my mother. It took
tremendous will to fit this into her life but she did it because she believed the stakes (her
sons’ education) were high enough to warrant the effort [to join PTA]. (Vernon Jordan,
Attorney & Director of Urban League).
Curtis, though a bit more rebellious than I was, had done better with his schoolwork. Yet his
grades weren’t good enough to meet Mother’s standards either. Evening after evening
Mother talked with Curtis, working with him on his attitude, urging him to want to
succeed, pleading with him not to give up on himself.... No matter how hard she had to

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work with him, Mother wouldn’t give up…. Through her love, determination,
encouragement, and laying down the rules, Curtis became a more reasonable type of
person and started to believe in himself. (Ben Carson, Neurosurgeon).

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PASSAGE FROM “GIFTED HANDS: THE BEN CARSON STORY”

When the mid-term report cards came out, Mrs. Williamson called me aside.
“Benjamin,” she said, “on the whole you’re doing so much better.” Her smile of approval
made me feel like I could do better yet. I knew she wanted to encourage me to improve.
Seeing that passing grade made me feel good. I thought, I made a D in math. I’m
improving. There’s hope for me. I’m not the dumbest kid in the school. When a kid like me
who had been at the bottom of the class or the first of the year suddenly zoomed upward –
even if only from F to D – that experience gave birth to hope. For the first time since
entering Higgins School I knew I could do better than some of the students in my class.
Mother wasn’t willing to let me settle for such a lowly goal as that! “Oh, it’s an
improvement alright,” she said. “And Bennie, I’m proud of you for getting a better grade.
And why shouldn’t you? You’re smart, Bennie.”
Despite my excitement and sense of hope, my mother wasn’t happy. Seeing my
improved math grade and hearing what Mrs. Williamson has said to me, she started
emphasizing, “But you can’t settle for just barely passing. You’re too smart to do that. You
can make the top math grade in the class.”
“But, Mother, I didn’t fail,” I moaned, thinking she hadn’t appreciated how much
my work had improved.
“All right, Bennie, you’ve started improving,” Mother said, “and you’re going to
keep on improving.”
“I’m trying,” I said. “I’m doing the best I can.”
“But you can still do better, and I’m going to help you.” Her eyes sparkled. I should
have knows that she has already started formulating a plan. With Mother, it wasn’t enough to

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say, “Do better.” She would find a way to show me how. Her scheme, worked out as we
went along, turned out to be the second positive factor.
My mother hadn’t said much about my grades until the report cards came out at mid-
year. She had believed the grades from the Boston school had reflected progress. But once
she realized how badly I was doing at Higgins Elementary, she started in on me everyday.
However, Mother never asked, “Why can’t you be like those smart boys?” Mother
had too much sense for that. Besides, I never felt she wanted me to compete with my
classmates as much as she wanted me to do my best.
“I’ve got two smart boys,” she’d say. “Two mighty smart boys.”
“I’m doing my best,” I’d insist. “I’ve improved in math.”
“But you’re going to do better, Bennie,” she told me one evening. “Now, since
you’ve started getting better in math, you’re going to go on, and here’s how you’ll do it.
First thing you’re going to do is to memorize your times tables.”
“My times tables?” I cried. I couldn’t imagine learning so much. “Do you know how
many there are? Why that could take a year!”
She stood up a little taller. “I only went through third grade, and I know them all the
way through my twelves.”
“But, Mother, I can’t–”
“You can do it, Bennie. You just have to set your mind to concentrating. You work
on them, and tomorrow when I get home from work we’ll review them. We’ll keep on
reviewing the times tables until you know them better than anyone else in your class!”
I argued a little more, but I should have known better.
“Besides”—here came her final shot—“you’re not to go outside and play after
school tomorrow until you’ve learned those tables.”

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I was almost in tears. “Look at all those things!” I cried, pointing to the columns in
the back of my math book. “How can anyone learn about all of them?”
Sometimes talking to Mother was like talking to a stone. Her jaw was set, her voice
hard. “You can’t go outside and play until you learn your times tables.”
I learned the times tables. I just kept repeating them until they fixed themselves in
my brain. Like she promised, that night Mother went over them with me. Her constant
interest and unflagging encouragement kept me motivated.
Within days after learning my times tables, math became so much easier my scores
soared. Most of the time my grades reached as high as the other kids in my class. I’ll never
forget how I felt after another math quiz when I answered Mrs. Williamson with “Twenty-
four!”
I practically shouted as I repeated, “I got 24 right.”
She smiled back at me in a way that let me know how pleased she was to see my
improvement. I didn’t tell the other kids what was going on at home or how much the
glasses helped. I didn’t think most of them cared.
Things changed immediately and made going to school more enjoyable. Nobody
laughed or called me the dummy in math anymore! But Mother didn’t let me stop with
memorizing the times tables. She had proven to me that I could succeed in one thing. So she
started the next phase of my self-improvement program to make me come out with the top
grades in every class. The goal was fine, I just didn’t like her method.
“I’ve decided that you boys are watching too much television,” she said one
evening, snapping off the set in the middle of a program.
“We don’t watch that much,” I said. I tried to point out that some programs were
educational and that all the kids in my class watched television, even the smartest ones.

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As if she didn’t hear a word I said she laid down the law. I didn’t like the rule, but
her determination to see us improve changed the course of my life. “From now on, you boys
can watch no more than three programs a week.”
“A week?” Immediately I thought of all the wonderful programs I would have to
miss.
Despite our protests, we knew that when she decided we couldn’t watch unlimited
television, she meant it.
Curtis, though a bit more rebellious than I was, had done better with his schoolwork.
Yet his grades weren’t good enough to meet Mother’s standards either. Evening after
evening Mother talked with Curtis, working with him on his attitude, urging him to want to
succeed, pleading with him not to give up on himself. Neither of us had a role model of
success, or even a respected male figure to look up to. I think Curtis, being older, was more
sensitive to that than I was. But no matter how hard she had to work with him, Mother
wouldn’t give up. Somehow, through her love, determination, encouragement, and laying
down the rules, Curtis became a more reasonable type of person and started to believe in
himself.
Mother had already decided how we should spend our free when we weren’t
watching television. “You boys are going to go to the library and check out books. You’re
going to read at least two books every week. At the end of each week, you’ll give me a
report on what you’ve read.”
That rule sounded impossible. Two books? I had never read a whole book in my life,
except those they made us read in school. I couldn’t believe I could ever finish one whole
book in a short week.

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But a day or two later found Curtis and me dragging our feet the seven blocks from
home to the public library. We grumbled and complained, making the journey seem endless.
But Mother had spoken, and it didn’t occur to either of us to disobey. The reason? We
respected her. We knew she meant business and knew we’d better mind. But, most
important, we loved her.
“Bennie,” she said again and again, “if you can read honey, you can learn just about
anything you want to know. The doors of the world are open to people who can read. And
my boys are going to be successful in life, because they’re going to be the best readers in the
school.”
As I think about it, I’m as convinced today as I was back in fifth grade, that my
mother meant that. She believed in Curtis and me. She had such faith in us, we didn’t dare
fail! Her unbounded confidence nudged me into starting to believe in myself.
Several of Mother’s friends criticized her strictness. I heard one woman ask, “What
are you doing to those boys making them study all the time? They’re going to hate you.”
“They can hate me,” she answered, cutting off the woman’s criticism, “but they’re
going to get a good education just the same!”
Of course I never hated her. I didn’t like the pressure, but she managed to make me
realize that this hard work was for my own good. Almost daily she’d say, “Bennie, you can
do anything you set yourself to do.”
Since I’ve always loved animals, nature, and science, I chose library books on those
topics. And while I was a horrible student in the traditionally academic subjects, I excelled in
fifth-grade science.
The science teacher, Mr. Jaeck, understood my interest and encouraged me by
giving me special projects, such as helping other students identify rocks, animals, or fish. I

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had the ability to study the markings on a fish, for instance, and from then on I could identify
that species. No one else in the class had that knack, so I had my chance to shine.
Initially, I went to the library and checked out books about animals and other nature
topics. I became the fifth-grade expert in anything of scientific nature. By the end of the year
I could pick up just about any rock along the railroad tracks and identify it. I read so many
fish and water life books, that I started checking streams for insects. Mr. Jaeck had a
microscope, and I loved to get water samples to examine the various protozoa under the
magnified lenses.
Slowly the realization came over me that I was getting better in all my school
subjects. I began looking forward to my trips to the library. The staff there got to know
Curtis and me, offering suggestions on what we might like to read. They would inform us
about new books as they came in. I thrived on this new way of life, and soon my interests
widened to include books on adventure and scientific discoveries.
By reading so much, my vocabulary automatically improved along with my
comprehension. Soon I became the best student in math when we did story problems.
Up until the last few weeks of fifth grade, aside from math quizzes, our weekly
spelling bees were the worst part of school for me. I usually went down on the first word.
But now, 30 years later, I still remember the word that really got me interested in learning
how to spell.
The last week of fifth grade we had a long spelling bee in which Mrs. Williamson
made us go through every spelling word we were supposed to have learned that year. As
everyone expected, Bobby Farmer won the spelling bee. But to my surprise, the final word
he spelled correctly to win was agriculture.

128
I can spell that word, I thought with excitement. I had learned it just the day before
from my library book. As the winner sat down, a thrill swept through me—a yearning to
achieve—more powerful than ever before. “I can spell agriculture,” I said to myself, “and
I’ll bet I can learn to spell any other word in the world. I’ll bet I could learn to spell better
than Bobby.”
Learning to spell better than Bobby Farmer really challenged me. Bobby was clearly
the smartest boy in the fifth grade. . . . Bobby Farmer impressed me during a history class
because the teacher mentioned flax, and none of us knew what she was talking about.
Then Bobby, still new in school, raised his hand and explained to the rest of us about
flax—how and where it was grown, and how the women spun the fibers into linen. As I
listened, I thought, Bobby sure knows a lot about flax. He’s really smart. Suddenly, sitting
there in the classroom with spring sunshine slanting through the windows, a new thought
flashed through my mind. I can learn about flax or any subject through reading. It is like
Mother says—if you can read, you can learn just about anything. I kept reading all through
summer, and by the time I began sixth grade I had learned to spell a lot of words without
conscious memorization. In the sixth grade, Bobby was still the smartest boy in the class, but
I was starting to gain ground on him.
After I started pulling ahead in school, the desire to be smart grew stronger and
stronger. One day I thought, It must be a lot of fun for everyone to know you’re the smartest
kid in the class. That’s the day I decided the only way to know for sure how that would feel
was to become the smartest.
As I continued to read, my spelling, vocabulary, and comprehension improved, and
my classes became much more interesting. I improved so much that by the time I entered
seventh grade at Wilson Junior High, I was at the top of the class.

129
But just making it to the top of the class wasn’t my real goal. By then, that wasn’t
good enough for me. That’s where my Mother’s constant influence made the difference. I
didn’t work hard to compete and to be better than the other kids as much as I wanted to be
the very best I could be—for me.
Most of the kids who had gone to school with me in fifth and sixth grade also moved
on to Wilson. Yet our relationships had drastically changed during that two-year period. The
very kids who once teased me about being a dummy started coming up to me and asking,
“Hey Bennie, how do you solve this problem?”
Obviously I beamed when I gave them the answer. They respected me now because
I had earned their respect. It was fun to get good grades, to learn more, to know more than
was actually required

130
BUDGETING RESOURCES
BOOKS
! Girl, Get Your Money Straight!: A Sister's Guide to Healing Your Bank Account
and Funding Your Dreams in 7 Simple Steps.
By Glinda Bridgforth, Broadway Books, January 2002, $11.95
ISBN 0767904885
In the spirit of lyanla Vanzant meets Suze Orman comes an empowering, practical
handbook for financial health from a leading source of financial advice for African
American women

! If You've Got My Dollar, I Don't.
By Jerrol M. Sanders, Lordes Publishing, $25.00
ISBN 0-970-82110-7
Jerrol Sanders has a unique idea to help black Americans become more
economically independent, while providing a novel solution for improving America's
race relations.

! The Money Book for the Young, Fabulous and Broke
By Suze Orman, Penguin Group, March 2005, $16.47
ISBN 1573222976
Suze Orman addresses the specific financial reality that young people face today,
and it offers a set of real, not impossible, solutions to the problems at hand and the
problems ahead. Suze Orman tells her young, fabulous & broke readers (18-30
years old) precisely what actions to take and why.

! Pay Yourself First: The African-American (Guide to Financial Success and
Security)
By Jesse B. Brown, John Wiley & Sons, August 2001, $14.95
ISBN 0-471-15897-6
We all could manage our money better and get out of debt, especially now with
today's economy. This step-by-step guide shows African Americans just how to do
that. The book includes helpful advice on investing, budgeting and avoiding some of
the common pitfalls people make in managing money.

! Smart Money Moves for African Americans.
By Kelvin E. Boston, Putnam Publishing Group, January 1996, $14.00
ISBN: 039914028X
Boston presents his down-to-earth advice on investment, entrepreneurship, credit
management, and tax planning, and guides readers through the systematic creation
of a reliable financial plan.

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WEBSITES
http://www.managingmymoney.com/
Includes how to reach financial goals, money management (living within your means, get out
of debt worksheets, and financial spending plans), basics about obtaining employment
(application and resume tips), investments through Individual Development Account
Programs (aimed toward low-income Americans), tips for renters and homeowners on
maintaining your housing.

http://www.moneymanagement.org/
Free information about money management. Money Management International (MMI) is a
nonprofit, community service organization that provides professional financial guidance,
counseling, community-wide educational programs and debt management assistance to
consumers.

http://dmoz.org/Home/Personal_Finance/Money_Management/
A compilation of resources available to the public about money management.

http://nj.essortment.com/personalfinance_ribg.htm
Lists 10 rules of personal finance.

http://financialplan.about.com/
Provides help with budgeting, managing credit and debt, and tips to saving money.

http://black-millionaire.com/
Helps with starting or maintaining a business (aimed toward African Americans).

http://www.blackenterprise.com/
Provides help with small business, personal finance, investing, and careers. Need to register
to access resources, Free to register.

http://www.blackrefer.com/finance.html
Includes a number of sites to help gain knowledge about African American
investments/finance, culture, economics, politics, top entrepreneurs, minority business
grants, more.

http://www.foxway.com/
Money saving tips, budget worksheets and calculators.

http://www.mymoney.gov/
Government website dedicated to helping American’s understand more about their money –
how to save it, invest it, and manage it to meet personal goals. They also offer to mail a free
tool kit if requested.

132
http://www.consumer-action.org/English/
Offers free published educational material about banking basics (checking, saving, and
investments), budgeting, controlling debt and money management.

http://www.simplemoneymanagement.info/
Offers easy ways to save money and reduce debt. They offer free money management e-
books in addition to many other resources such as coupons, saving tips, and investing
information.

133
CHILD CARE RESOURCES
Center for Community and Family Services
(310) 605-1770
Monday-Friday 8am-7pm
www.ccafs.org
Services: Free info in health, dental, prenatal, shelters and food programs. Referrals for
childcare, etc. Serves Torrance, Palos Verdes, Carson, Compton, Lomita, Culver City, South
Gate and Downey
Cost: Free.

Child Care Information Service
(626) 449-8221
Monday-Friday 8am-4pm; CAL Works Monday-Friday 8am-7pm; Periodic Saturdays
www.ccis.pasa.com
Services: Resource/referrals for parents looking for childcare. Serves Pasadena, South
Pasadena, Arcadia, Monrovia, San Marino, and La Canada.
Cost: Free.

Connections for Children
(310) 452-3202
Monday-Friday 8am-5pm, 8am-7pm on Wednesday
www.cfc-ca.org
Services: Resources/referrals service for childcare, resources library, job bank book, mobile,
toy loan program. Serves Westside area, Malibu-Redondo Beach.
Cost: Free-refer customers to a variety of child care services at varying costs.

Home Safe
(323) 934-7979
Monday-Friday 8:30am-5pm
www.vistadelmar.org
Services: Referrals of childcare, counseling, and support services (childcare, Early Headstart,
family project). Hollywood, Mid-Wilshire areas. Spanish Speaking.
Cost: Free.

International Institute of L.A. Child Development
(323) 224-3800
Monday-Friday 7:30am-4pm
www.iilosangeles.org
Services: Child care and child development services for ages 0-9. Serves Central L.A., East
L.A., SF Valley, SG Valley. Spanish, Chinese, Vietnamese spoken.
Cost: Sliding scale based on income.

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COUNSELING RESOURCES
1736 Family Crisis Center; Los Angeles Office
(323) 737-3900
2116 Arlington Avenue, Suite 200
Los Angeles, CA 90018
Services: Counseling, case management services, welfare to work program.
Cost: For counseling there is a sliding scale fee. Other services are free.

Alcott Center for Mental Health Services
(310) 785-2121
1433 S. Robertson Blvd
Los Angeles, Ca 90035
Services: Crisis Intervention, Case Mgmt., Outpatient, Partial Day Treatment
Cost: Medicaid accepted.

CA Graduate Inst. Counseling Center (have to ask for the counseling center)
(310) 208-3120
1145 Gayley Ave #322
Los Angeles, CA 90024
Services: Offer individual therapy
Cost: Sliding scale fees.

Community Counseling Center
(213) 481-1347
1200 Wilshire Boulevard, Suite 100
Los Angeles, CA 90017
Services: Currently offers individual counseling only and weekly parenting classes only
Cost: Accepts Medi-care.

Didi Hirsch CMHC Crisis Line
(310) 390-8896
Monday-Friday 8:30am-5pm
www.didihirsch.org
Services: Offers a wide range of services through six divisions –Emergency Services, Adult
Services, Family Services, Substance Abuse Services and Training.
Cost: Free.

Didi Hirsch Mental Health Center
(310) 390-6612
4760 S. Sepulveda Boulevard
Culver City, CA 90230
Services: Mostly works with chronically mentally ill adults and provides counseling to
children and families
Cost: Only accepts Medi-Cal and Healthy Families

135
Didi Hirsch Metro
(213) 385-3752
672 South La Fayette Park Place, Suite 6
Los Angeles, CA 90005
Cost: Primarily sees children with Medi-care and adults on a sliding scale only.

Families in New Directions
(323) 296-3781
Crenshaw Consortium, Inc.
3756 Santa Rosalia Drive, Suite 213
Los Angeles, CA 90008
Services: Offers a full range of services including individual and family counseling,
parenting classes, psychological assessments and bereavement counseling. Court-appointed
cases are generally accepted.
Cost: Accepts a variety of insurances including Medi-care.

Los Angeles Free Clinic
(323) 462-4158,
(323) 337-1755
Services: Mental Health and Social Services, including Crisis Intervention Counseling, Case
Management services, Information and referrals to services such as food, housing, job
training, employment, low-cost psychiatric assistance, counseling services, and other help is
available. We also provide emergency bus tokens and taxi vouchers to those in need.
Cost: Free.

Maple Counseling Center
(310) 271-9999 (24 hours a day/7 days a week)
9107 Wilshire Boulevard, Lower Level
Beverly Hills, CA 90210
Services: Offer individual, couple and family therapy in addition to senior peer counseling, a
wide range of support groups, crisis response team who support individuals impacted by
traumatic events or serious losses, parenting classes and school programs.
Cost: Sliding scale fees.

Ness Counseling Center
(310) 360-8512
8512 Whitworth Drive, #102
Los Angeles, CA 90035
Services: Offer individual therapy specifically for substance abuse and mental health
treatment.
Cost: Sliding scale fees.

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Open Paths Counseling Center
(310) 398-7877
12655 Washington Boulevard, Suite #101
Los Angeles, CA 90066
Services: Provides mental health counseling for adults, children, couples and families.
Cost: Sliding scale fees.

People Who Care Youth Center
(323) 778-8905
Monday-Friday 8:30am-5pm; Saturday-Sunday 8:30am-12:30pm
www.pwcyc.org
Services: Counseling, parenting classes, and tutoring.
Cost: Free.

Pepperdine Psychological and Educational Services
(310) 568-5752
6100 Center Drive, Suite 559
Los Angeles, CA 90045
Services: Offers individual, children, and family counseling; services are also offered in
Spanish
Cost: Cognitive and personality assessments on a sliding scale at $15.00-$90.00; Accepts
some private insurance for assessments only.

Saturday Center for Psychotherapy
(310) 829-7997
3201 Wilshire Boulevard, #201
Santa Monica, CA 90403
Services: Offer individual therapy
Cost: Sliding scale fees.

Specialties: Family Counseling, Individual,
The Rebuilding Therapy Center
(949) 380-9884
650 S Grand Ave
Los Angeles, CA 90017
Services: Mental Health Clinics, Marriage & Family Counselors, Management & Consulting
Alcohol, Stress, Child Custody, Child Therapy, Counseling, Domestic Violence Counseling,
emergency, Groups
Cost: Insurance accepted. Patients often need to partially contribute, but contribution varies.
Modified sliding scale.

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Southern California Counseling Center
(323) 937-1344
5615 W. Pico Blvd (near Fairfax)
Los Angeles, CA 90019
Services: Group counseling, Family counseling, Individual counseling (children under 18
primarily are seen with their family members in family counseling), School-based
counseling services, Abuse Prevention, Parenting classes, and Gang Recovery groups. Self
referrals, domestic violence and court-appointed cases.
Cost: Sliding scale based on income ($11-$90)

UCLA Psychology Clinic
(310) 825-2305
2191 Franz Hall, UCLA
Los Angeles, CA 90024
Services: Assessment/testing Services for adults, children, couples, and families; Mental
Health Services through therapy and counseling.
Cost: Sliding scales based on yearly income. Range from $30-$105 per session. No
Insurance accepted.

USC Psychology Services Center
(213) 740-1600
Human Relations Center (HRC) Building
1002 Childs Way (36
th
Street inside of USC)
Los Angeles, CA 90089
Services: Psychological testing and assessment of Cognitive, Memory, Neurological,
Emotional, or Social functioning for children, adolescents, younger adults, and older adults.
Cost: Sliding scale fee

Women’s Clinic/Family Counseling
(310) 203-8899
9911 West Pico Boulevard, #500
Los Angeles, CA 90035
Services: Offer counseling services for individuals, couples and families dealing with a
variety of issues, including mental health, life transitions, parenting, career issues and
parenting. Therapy support groups and workshops and medical services specifically for
females are also available.
Cost: Sliding scale fees.

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HELP LINES & INSURANCE HELP
HELP LINES
California Youth Crisis Line
1 (800) 843-5200
Services: Offers a 24 hour youth and parents in crisis hotline.

The Department of Mental Health
Los Angeles County
(800) 854-7771 – 24 Hour Hotline
Service: Helps to find mental health services through their network of clinics, field services,
and hospitals and other facilities operated by the county and contract agencies. All based on
sliding scale fee depending on ability to pay. Adults and children, including juvenile wards
of the court or special education students, may be eligible for free or low-cost mental health
services.

LA Info Line
(323) 686-0950
Los Angeles, CA
Services: Information and referral service including: emergency food and shelter, legal and
financial assistance, health services and rehabilitation, counseling, child care and family
planning, consumer advocacy, transportation, recreation, and substance abuse treatment.

Mental Health Association Information and Assistance Line
Los Angeles County
(888) 242-2522
Services: Caring, confidential help to individuals and families seeking services from LA
County’s nonprofit and public system. Their resource listing includes mental health care for
adults, teens, and children.

Suicide Prevention Center
(310) 391-1253 (24 hours/7 days a week)
Toll Free number: 1 (877) 727-4747
Services: Offers suicide and crisis hotline, crisis intervention

Women Helping Women Free Counseling Talk-line
1(877) 655-3807
543 North Fairfax Avenue
Los Angeles, CA 90036
Services: Offers a variety of counseling services including support information and
community referrals by phone.

139
INSURANCE HELP

Community Health Councils, Inc. – Covering Kids and Families Project
(323) 295-9372
3731 Stocker Street, Suite 201
Los Angeles, CA 90008
Services: Simplify enrollment processes for Medicaid and State Children's Health Insurance
Programs

140
DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITY RESOURCES
Child Health and Disability Prevention (CHDP) Program
Los Angeles County – many locations
(800) 993-2437
Services: Complete Medical and Developmental history, Medical and Dental screening
assessments. Vision and Hearing screening, Immunizations, Tobacco Avoidance and
Cessation counseling for patients and caregivers, and health education.
Cost: Free physical for assessments before program enrollment at clinics. Many clinic
locations

Department of Developmental Services
(916) 654-1897 to locate a center near you
(213) 383-1300 Frank D. Lanterman Center on Wilshire Blvd.
Monday-Friday 8am-5pm
www.dds.ca.gov
Services: Provides information on services for those with developmental disabilities:
education, treatment, referrals, and advocacy.
Cost: Free.

Learning Disabilities Association
http://www.ldanatl.org/
Services: Information on learning disabilities
Cost: Free.

141
EMPLOYMENT RESOURCES
Compton Career Link
One Stop Career Center
(310) 605-3050
700 N. Bullis Road
Compton, CA 90221
Services: Provides Resources and Computers
Cost: Free

Los Angeles Urban League Headquarters
Several offices in Los Angeles area.
(323) 299-9660
www.laul.org
Services: Job Training, Job Placement services, Adult Literacy training.
Cost: Free.

Ramona Gardens Community Service Center
(323) 223-3819
2830 Lancaster Ave.
Los Angeles, CA 90033
Services: Offers help with resumes, computers, and job assistance referrals. Also provides
youth assistance: school placement and general help depending on the individual.
Cost: Free

Employment/Job Training WorkSource Centers (Overview)
(888) 226-6300
Services: Full-service career centers offering comprehensive employment and hiring services
to workers, employers, and job seekers at no charge. Centers also have technology resource
centers with phones, fax machines, computers and copiers. Job seekers can make interview
appointments, access the internet, and view video training courses.
Cost: Free. Training sessions may require a nominal fee.

List of WorkSource Centers Located Throughout Southern California:
Central City WorkSource Center
(213) 629-5800
315 W. 9th Street, Suite 101
Los Angeles, CA 90015

South Central LA Urban League
WorkSource Center
(323) 779-2199
2930 W. Imperial Highway, 5th Floor
Inglewood, CA 90303

142
South Central LA WorkSource Center
Community Centers, Inc.
(323) 752-2115
7518-26 S. Vermont Ave.
Los Angeles, CA 90044

Southeast LA Crenshaw WorkSource Center
UAW-LETC
(213) 743-3950
3500 S. Figueroa Street, #201
Los Angeles, CA 90007

Southeast LA Watts WorkSource Center
Watts Labor Community Action Committee (WLCAC)
(323) 563-5669
10950 South Central Ave.
Los Angeles, CA 90059

West Adams-Baldwin Hills WorkSource Center
Los Angeles Urban League
(323) 732-7867
2900 Crenshaw Blvd.
Los Angeles, CA 90016

West Los Angeles WorkSource Center
Career Planning Center
(310) 309-6000
13160 Mindanao Way, Suite 240
Los Angeles, CA 90292

Westlake WorkSource Center
(213) 353-1677
1541 Wilshire Blvd. Suite 407
Los Angeles, CA 90017

Wilshire-Metro Center WorkSource Center
Community Career Development
3550 Wilshire Blvd., Suite 500
Los Angeles, CA 90010

143
LA YOUTH ACTIVITIES: EXAMPLES
Barnes & Noble or Borders bookstores
There is a section in each bookstore designed specifically for children and teens.
www.barnesandnoble.com and www.bordersstores.com

Boys and Girls Club of America
(562) 981-8855 for site nearest you
Monday-Friday from 8am-5pm
www.bgca.org.
Description: Available programs include education and career development, the arts, sports,
fitness and recreation, health and life skills and character and leadership. Depending on the
club, specialized programs offered include gang prevention and family support initiatives.
Cost: Free.

California African-American Museum
(213) 744-7432
600 State Drive, Exposition Park
Los Angeles, CA 90037
www.caamuseum.org
Description: Art exhibits focus on African-American heritage and experience. Several
programs offered include art and design classes, summer programs for students, special films
and guest lectures. Scheduled tours for groups are available.
Cost: Free admission.

California Science Center
(213) 724-3623
700 State Drive, Exposition Park
Los Angeles, CA 90037
www.californiasciencecenter.org.
Description: The largest science center on the West Coast
Cost: Free admission.

City of Los Angeles Cultural Affairs Department
(213) 473-7700
Monday-Friday 8am-5pm
www.culturela.org.
Description: City sponsored events.
Cost: Free and low-cost

144
City Scholars Foundation
(213)627-1792
900 Wilshire Boulevard
Los Angeles, CA 90017
www.cityscholars.org
Description: On-line Resource Center offers list of after-school programs within the greater
Los Angeles community.
Cost: Free.

Griffith Park
(323) 913-4688
4730 Crystal Springs Drive
Los Angeles, CA 90027
Description: Activities include camping, golfing, hiking, horseback riding, jogging,
picnicking, soccer, swimming, bicycle rentals and tennis. Griffith Park sponsored attractions
include the Autry National Center, Greek Theater, Griffith Merry-Go-Round, Griffith
Observatory, Griffith Park Southern Railroad, LA Equestrian Center, LA Live Steamers, LA
Zoo, Pony Rides and Travel Town.
Cost: Free Admission.

Kidspace
(626) 449-9144
480 North Arroyo Blvd.
Pasadena, CA 91103
www.kidspacemuseum.org
Description: Participatory museum offers hands-on exhibits designed to make learning fun
and enjoyable.
Cost: $6 Admission; $2.50 for children under 3.

Los Angeles Zoo & Botanical Gardens
(323) 644-6400
533 Zoo Drive
Los Angeles, CA 90027
www.lazoo.org
Description: Public programs include family (“Zoopendous Nights,” family overnight
outings) and youth programs catered to children age groups. Zoo shows and special lectures
are also available. Zoo Camp is also available for children ages 4-10.
Cost: Available membership packages guarantee one-year free admission. Basic packages
range from $45-$100.

Venice Beach & Boardwalk
Description: Street performers, musicians, magicians, art, & food, particularly on weekends.

145
YMCA
(800) 872-9622 for the site closest to you
www.ymca.net
Description: YMCA programs depend on site. Offered programs include aquatics lessons,
arts and humanities (writing, performing and visual arts), camping, child care, community
development (job training, drug abuse prevention, economic development), family nights,
health and fitness (group exercise, gyms), sport teams and teen leadership (Black Achievers,
Youth and Government, Model United Nations).
Cost: Free.

146
LA YOUTH ACTIVITIES: GENERAL RESOURCES
Books on Youth Activities in Southern California
Fun and Educational Places to Go with Kids in Southern California (Susan Peterson); Los
Angeles by Stroller (Shelly-Anne Wooderson); LA with Kids (Elizabeth Borsting); Tours for
Free: California (Jodi Jill).

Calendar Weekend section of Los Angeles Times
Every Thursday
Search under “Kid Stuff” or “Events” for family and child-related activities in Los Angeles.
Cost: Many are Free or lost-cost.

Los Angeles Almanac Website
http://www.laalmanac.com/calendar/ca99.htm.
Lists events and festivals throughout LA County

Los Angeles Department of Recreation and Parks
(888) LA-PARKS (1-888-527-2757).
www.laparks.org/pdf/05events.pdf or www.PAPARKS.org.
Description: Tutoring; field trips; the arts (arts & crafts; ceramics classes, drama classes),
athletics (basketball, boxing, golf, hockey, soccer)
Cost: Many Free or low cost programs for children.

Los Angeles Central Library Website
(213-228-7272)
http://www.lapl.org/kidspath/events/index.html or
http://www.lapl.org/teenscape/library/ts_events.html.
Description: has a calendar of events for young children and teens.

147
LIBRARIES
Central Library
(213) 228-7000
Monday-Thursday 10am-8pm; Friday-Saturday 10am-6pm; and Sunday 1pm-5pm
5
th
and Grand
www.lapl.org

Culver City Library
(310) 559-1676
Monday-Thursday 10am-8pm; Friday 10am-6pm; and Saturday 10am-5pm.
www.colapublib.org/libs/culvercity/

Exposition Park Regional Branch
(323) 732-0169
Monday-Thursday 10am-8pm; Friday-Saturday 10am-6pm; Sunday 1pm-5pm
www.lapl.org

Goldwyn Hollywood Regional Branch
(323) 856-8260
Monday-Thursday 10am-8pm; Friday-Saturday 10am-6pm; Sunday 1pm-5pm
www.lapl.org

Inglewood Public Library
(310) 412-5380
Monday-Thursday 10am-8pm; Friday-Saturday 10am-6pm; Sunday 1pm-5pm
www.cityofinglewood.org

Los Angeles Central Library
(213) 228-7000
Downtown LA.
There is a children’s wing isolated from rest of library.

L.A. Library
(310) 840-2147
Robertson Blvd.
www.lapl.org

West Los Angeles Public Library
(310) 575-8323
Monday-Thursday 10am-8pm; Friday-Saturday 10am-6pm; Sunday 1pm-5pm
www.lapl.org

Willowbrook Library
(323) 564-5698
Tuesday 10am-8pm; Wednesday-Thursday 10am-6pm; Friday-Saturday 10am-5pm
www.colapublib.org

148
MUSEUMS
Los Angeles Fire Department Museum
(323) 464-2727
Hollywood
www.lafd.org/museum
Description: Displays a variety of firefighting equipment in a historic fire station. Kids can
try on fire boots and pants, make up puzzles, play with toy fire engines and view the fire
engines, ambulances, and
horse-drawn ladder trucks.
Cost: Free admission.

Autry Museum of Western Heritage
(323) 667-2000
Visit website or call for various museum locations.
Tuesday-Sunday 10am-5pm, Thursday open until 8pm
www.autry-museum.org
Description: Exhibitions explore the experiences and perceptions of the American West.
Current exhibitions include Museum of the American West and the Southwest Museum of
the American Indian.
Cost: $3-$12, depending on museum and age (adult, senior, student and child)

Getty Center
(310) 440-7300
1200 Getty Center Drive
Los Angeles, CA 90049-1679
www.getty.edu
Description: Exhibitions contain special collections of European paintings, drawings,
manuscripts, sculpture and decorative arts, European and American photographs, as well as
modern architecture and gardens.
Cost: Free, Parking $7

Griffith Observatory
(323) 664-1191
2800 East Observatory Road
Los Angeles, CA 90027
Monday-Friday 8:30am-5pm
www.griffithobs.org
Description: Provide information on astronomy and related sciences to the public. The
Observatory also offers planetarium shows using full-color all-dome video projection.
Cost: Free. Currently closed for renovation until mid-2006.

LaBrea Tar Pits/George Page Museum
Description: Skeletons of large, extinct animals, & hands-on learning tools.
Cost: $7 adults, $2 children 5-12.

149
L.A. Children’s Museum
(213) 687-8800
www.childrensmuseumla.org
Description: Currently closed to the public while building new site. Museum-2-Go offers
travels to schools, community centers, festivals and shopping malls in the greater Los
Angeles area. Programs include reading and art initiatives, as well as teacher workshops.

L.A. County Museum of Art
(323) 857-6000
Monday, Tuesday, Thursday from 12pm-8pm; Friday 12pm-9pm; and Saturday-Sunday
from 11am-8pm (closed Wednesday)
www.lacma.org
www.lacma.org/education_site
Description: Offers a variety of public programs, including the film department, music
programs, art classes for children as young as 3 ! years old, weekend art history classes.
Scholarships available if low income. Call 323-857-6139. Museum tours are also available.
Cost: Adults, $9; Students/Seniors, $5; Children (17 and under), Free.

Museum of Contemporary Art
(213) 626-6222
Monday and Friday 11am-5pm; Saturday-Sunday 11am-6pm; Thursday 11am-8pm (closed
Tuesday and Wednesday)
Visit website or call for a list of museum locations.
www.moca.org
Description: Museum collections are devoted exclusively to modern art, including pop art
and visual media; MOCA Apprenticeship Program
Cost: Children under 12, free; General Admission: $8

Travel Town at Griffith Park
(323) 662-5874
5200 Zoo Drive
Los Angeles, CA 90027
Description: Outdoor museum displaying an array of vintage railroad cars, trolleys, planes,
trains and automobiles. Children are allowed to climb aboard and explore fire trucks and a
circus animal wagon.
Cost: Free Admission.

150
TUTORING RESOURCES
All Peoples Christian Center
(213) 747-6357
822 East 20th St.
Los Angeles, CA 90011
www.allpeoplescc.org
Services: Volunteer assigned to student for 10 weeks, 3 days per week, Monday - Thursday,
3 - 4 pm.
Cost: Free.

Al Wooten Jr. Heritage Center
(323) 756-7203
9106 Western Ave
Los Angeles
www.wootencenter.org
Services: Mon-Friday 2-6pm; 7yrs-15yrs; one-on-one tutoring & less structured tutoring
Cost: $70 per family per yr; all family members can use services once fee is paid.

Challengers Boys & Girls Club
(323) 971-6161
Los Angeles, CA 90037
http://www.cbgcla.org
Services: Programs include character & leadership development, education and career
development (includes tutoring), health and life skills, the arts, sports, fitness & recreation.
Cost: One-time $75 fee for whole year.

First AME Church
(323) 730-7750
Clark Vanish, Tutoring Coordinator
2270 S. Harvard Blvd.
Los Angeles, CA 90018
famechurhc@famechurch.org
Services: Classes held weekly in all subjects (general math, algebra, english, etc.).
Cost: Free.

Gwen Bolden Youth Foundation
(323) 293-6581
4315 Leimert Blvd.
Los Angeles, CA 90008
www.gbyf.org
Services: Mondays-Thursdays from 6 to 8pm Sign-up and registration; tutoring offered at 7
LA public school sites (Central, Safe Haven Center, 61
st
, 66
th
st, Raymond Ave, Baldwin
Hills); however, student does not have to attend school at the sites listed.
Cost: Free

151
Heart of Los Angeles Youth
(213) 389-1148 ext. 235
2701 Wilshire Blvd.
Los Angeles, CA 90057
www.heartofla.org
Services: K-5
th
grade; focus on math & literacy skills; 3-6pm, register, must fill out
application, have to be there everyday; if official member there are usually projects that
students have to follow through/finish.
Cost: $10/year

LA’s BEST
Corporate Office
200 N. Spring St., Suite M-120
Los Angeles, CA 90012
www.lasbest.org
Services: Part of larger program offered through school, HW assistance
Cost: Free, 45 min.

Tom Bradley Youth Center
(323) 692-0670
5213 W. Pico Blvd., LA 90019
Services: After school 4-6pm
Cost: Free

Urban Ministry of LA
(213) 389-1356
2936 8
th
St.
Los Angeles, CA 90005
Services: Students have to register by tracks; services only offered when kids are off track,
not every day.
Cost: Free

West Angeles Youth Ministry
Education Enrichment after school program
Coordinators John and Peaches Wilson
(323) 766-1476 Ext. 2512
3623 W. Jefferson Blvd.
Los Angeles, CA 90016
info@newwayexp.org
Services: Program designed to help youth to plan and complete their homework. Focus on
high school students.
Cost: Free and open to all students

152
WEBSITES FOR TUTORING INFO:

www.lausd.k12.ca.us
www.btb.lausd.net/SES
www.homeworkspot.com/

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Prior empirical work suggests that traditional parenting programs may be less successful with African American families. The current research expands on previous work by evaluating a novel, parent-focused intervention for African Americans. A two-phase study evaluated the acceptability and efficacy of the Successful African American Parenting (SAAP) program, a culturally sensitive parenting workshop. Phase 1 assessed participants' satisfaction with SAAP. Results revealed positive impressions of the intervention immediately following the workshop and again 1 month later. Phase 2 evaluated SAAP's impact on parental self-efficacy and community-based service utilization (i.e., mental healthcare use and child prosocial involvement). As anticipated, SAAP parents reported greater child involvement in prosocial activities compared to Usual Community Services (UCS) participants. However, no group differences in self-efficacy or use of mental health services emerged. Supplemental qualitative analyses helped identify intervention elements (e.g., sharing experiences with each other, providing materials in a principles-based format) that may be key for disseminating well-received parent-oriented treatments for African American families. These results hold implications for the design, implementation, and evaluation of parenting interventions for ethnic minority families.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Alleyne, Alisha Renee (author)

Core Title The successful African American Parenting (SAAP) Program: an evaluation of a culturally sensitive parenting intervention

School College of Letters, Arts and Sciences

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Psychology

Publication Date 10/31/2009

Defense Date 05/09/2007

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag African American families,African American parents,culturally sensitive,OAI-PMH Harvest,parent training,Parenting,parenting intervention

Language English

Advisor Huey, Stanley J., Jr. (committee chair), Astor, Ron Avi (committee member), Farver, Jo Ann M. (committee member), Margolin, Gayla (committee member), Schwartz, David (committee member)

Creator Email aalleyne@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m900

Unique identifier UC1115284

Identifier etd-Alleyne-20071031 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-587661 (legacy record id),usctheses-m900 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Alleyne-20071031.pdf

Dmrecord 587661

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Alleyne, Alisha Renee

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu