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The possible impact of elements of institutional culture on women students' higher education attainment in Hawaii
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Content
THE POSSIBLE IMPACT OF ELEMENTS OF INSTITUTIONAL CULTURE ON
WOMEN STUDENTS’ HIGHER EDUCATION ATTAINMENT IN HAWAII
by
Carol A. Parker
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
(LEADERSHIP)
December 2008
Copyright 2008 Carol A. Parker
ii
Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to the courageous women in my family –
my mother Mary Adelaide Parker Braxton,
my grandmother Margaret Savilla Ammerman Parker,
my great grandmother Jane Adelaide Tracy Parker.
iii
Acknowledgements
So many people encouraged me along this journey in this dissertation and there are
so many to thank. First, I want to thank Dr. Guilbert Hentschke, my doctoral dissertation
chair, and my doctoral committee—Dr. Melora Sundt, Dr. Felicia Hunt, and for a short
time Dr. Linda Hagedorn. Without their support, I could not have completed this
dissertation.
My family has been incredibly encouraging throughout this process. My sons,
Chris, Kevin and Robert Jaros have had unwavering faith in me and at times told me they
would never let me quit. They have supported me in every way possible throughout the
process. My mother, who believed that I could do anything even when I could not quite
believe in myself, encouraged and supported me and I dedicate this dissertation to her.
My editors Heather Sikas, LaNae Vinson and Karen Glenn Bancroft who
proofread and helped me think through several ideas from a different perspective.
The acknowledgements would not be complete without a heart felt thanks to two
very good friends, Joy Collins and AnnaMaria Preston, who have supported me through
all the challenges and helped me to remember to put it all in perspective. .
Finally, I am forever grateful to my Heavenly Father, and my Lord and Savior
Jesus Christ for the blessings and gifts they have given me throughout my life.
I am eternally grateful to you all and the many others who have helped and
encourage me along this path.
MAHALO NUI LOA
Carol A. Parker
iv
Table of Contents
Dedication ........................................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ iii
List of Tables......................................................................................................................vi
Abstract ............................................................................................................................ viii
Chapter 1 ........................................................................................................................... 1
Elements of Institutional Culture ..........................................................................………2
Culture and Women in Higher Education .........................................................................4
Observation and Women Role Models in Higher Education ............................................6
Critical Mass of Women in Higher Education Institutions ...............................................7
Women Students’ Participation in Higher Education .......................................................9
Higher Education Student Participation in Hawaii ........................................................ 12
Women’s Higher Education Enrollment in Hawaii ........................................................13
The Problem Statement ...................................................................................................15
Purpose of the Study .......................................................................................................16
Research Questions .........................................................................................................17
Significance of the Study ................................................................................................18
Chapter 2 ......................................................................................................................... 20
Literature Review........................................................................................................... 20
Institutional Culture in Higher Education .......................................................................20
Understanding Institutional Culture ................................................................................21
Figure 2-1: Institutional Culture - Kuh and Whitt, 1998; Schein, 1992 ..................... 22
Other Aspects Of Institutional Culture In Higher Education .........................................26
Women’s Higher Education Attainment At Women’s Colleges ....................................26
Hawaii’s Multicultural Women ......................................................................................31
Social and Cultural Barriers to Higher Education Attainment .......................................35
Cultural and Academic Self-Efficacy .............................................................................36
Culture and Educational Attainment Rates .....................................................................44
Summary.........................................................................................................................45
Chapter 3 ......................................................................................................................... 49
Research Design and Methodology ............................................................................... 49
Institution Selection Criteria ...........................................................................................50
Data Collection and Analysis..........................................................................................51
Sample Selection .............................................................................................................53
Higher Education Institutions in Hawaii.........................................................................54
Instrumentation ...............................................................................................................57
Data Collection Procedures .............................................................................................57
v
Data Analysis Procedures ...............................................................................................58
Trustworthiness and Authenticity of Data ......................................................................61
Limitations ......................................................................................................................62
Chapter 4 ......................................................................................................................... 64
Findings.......................................................................................................................... 64
Chapter Organization ......................................................................................................64
Research Questions .........................................................................................................65
Discussion. ......................................................................................................................65
First Research Question ................................................................................................. 65
Second Research Question:............................................................................................ 68
Institutional Findings ......................................................................................................70
University of Hawaii – Manoa (UHM) ...........................................................................70
Hawaii Pacific University .............................................................................................. 75
Brigham Young University – Hawaii .............................................................................81
Chaminade University of Honolulu ................................................................................85
Summary of Comparisons...............................................................................................89
Ranking of the Institutions ..............................................................................................92
Summary of Findings ......................................................................................................94
CHAPTER 5 .................................................................................................................... 96
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 96
Results from Research Literature ....................................................................................96
Limitations ......................................................................................................................98
Findings.........................................................................................................................100
Questions Unanswered..................................................................................................102
Bibliography .................................................................................................................. 104
vi
List of Tables
Table 1.1: Degrees Conferred by Title IV Degree-Granting Institutions & Percent
Distribution ............................................................................................ 11
Table 1.2: Enrollment and Earned Degrees Conferred, for Private Colleges and
Universities: 1997-2002 ......................................................................... 14
Table 2.2: Ethnicity in Hawaii, U.S. Census Bureau, Census 2000 ............................. 31
Table 2.3: Enrollment by Racial/Ethnic Category – University of Hawaii . ................ 33
Table 2.4: QT-P20. Educational Attainment by Sex: 2000 Data Set: ......................... 34
Table 2.5: Educational Attainment of the Population 25 Years and Over .................... 35
Table 2.6: Affordability of College and Universities in Hawaii and Financial Aids ... 39
Table 2.7: Family Ability to Pay for College and Universities in Hawaii .................... 39
Table 2.8: 4 Year College Degree or Higher Educational Attainment – Ages 25 ........ 41
Table 4.1: Comparison of Institutional Elements and Assigned Rankings of Selected
Hawaii Institutions........................................................................................67
Table 4.2 Comparison of Women Student / Women Faculty Ratio,
Graduation, and Ranking at the four Hawaii institutions…….........………..68
Table 4.3 Focus of Comparison – Six-Year Women’s Graduation Rate
Compared to Percent Full Time Women Faculty………............…...........…69
Table 4.4 Focus of Comparison –Results of Six-Year Women’s
Graduation Rate and Enrollment Rate Comparison…….........……………...70
Table 4.5– Organizational Elements University of Hawaii – Manoa ............................ 75
Table 4.6 – Organizational Elements Hawaii Pacific University .................................. 80
Table 4.7 – Organizational Elements Brigham Young University Hawaii ................... 84
Table 4.8 - Organizational Elements Chaminade University of Honolulu .................... 89
Table 4.9 - Comparison of Findings: UHM, HPU, BYUH, CUH .................................91
vii
Table 4.10 - Summary of Rankings for Each Rank and Each of the Four Hawaii
Institutions.................................................................................................92
viii
Abstract
Women in Hawai`i graduate at slightly higher rates than men at three of the four
major institutions of higher education in Hawai`I (Institute for Women’s Policy Research
The Status of Women in Hawaii 2006) as compared to up to seventy-three percent of men
at these same Hawaii institutions and compared to nearly eighty-five percent of women
who enroll at women-only colleges.
With fewer than half of all enrolled women students at the four major Hawai`i
institutions graduating it is important to understand the possible influences that may
contribute to this problem -- one of which is observable institutional culture.
Considerable research on the influence of elements of institutional culture has been done
at most major institutions of higher education in the continental United States. However,
little research is available at the four major institutions of higher education in Hawai`i on
this topic as it relates to women students.
This dissertation attempts to recognize and assist in understanding elements of
institutional culture on women’s graduation rates at four multicultural coeducational
higher education institutions in Hawai`i.
A study of elements of observable institutional culture, which appeared to affect
higher education attainment (i.e. artifacts, values, basic assumptions and beliefs), was
conducted through a review of literature in the fields of institutional culture, and higher
education attainment in Hawai`i. A review and document analysis of publicly available
data, publications, existing research analysis and secondary data analysis from sources
that yield statistical data was undertaken to identify and explore observable elements of
ix
institutional culture at four major institutions of higher education in Hawai`i that may be
associated with women’s graduation rates in Hawai`i.
A constant comparative methodology was applied to the study to determine
answers to the following questions:
1. Using document analysis, what is revealed about elements of institutional
culture (i.e., artifacts, values, basic assumptions and beliefs) at the four major
institutions of higher education in Hawaii; University of Hawaii – Manoa, Hawaii
Pacific University, Brigham Young University – Hawaii, and Chaminade
University of Honolulu?
2. More specifically, does document analysis hold any promise for revealing an
association between elements of institutional culture at the four major institutions
of higher education and women's graduation and retention rates?
The study focused on identifying and understanding the effect of three elements
of institutional culture on women’s higher education attainment in Hawaii. These
specific elements were defined by: (1) mission (symbols, values & beliefs), (2) role
models and mentors, and (3) female faculty/female student ratio. The four major
institutions of higher education in Hawaii were selected on the basis of (1) WASC
(Western Association of Schools and Colleges) accreditation as a bachelor degree
granting, not-for-profit, liberal arts university within the state of Hawaii; (2) a university
recognized by the State of Hawaii Post Secondary Education Commission, and (3) NCES
(National Center for Educational Statistics) data participation. The four universities
studied included one public research university, one private liberal arts college, and two
x
religiously affiliated liberal arts colleges. All four universities had coeducational and
multi-cultural student and faculty populations.
A profile was developed for each of the four universities using publicly available
information and data from each university, WASC and NCES. The profile identified
criteria by using a comparative approach to interpret the observable elements of
institutional culture (i.e., artifacts, values, basic assumptions and beliefs) of these
institutions. This was done by examining the observable artifacts (values, basic
assumptions and beliefs) as found in their academic expectations; mission and history
which support women; female role models; student body statistics; caring, supporting
environment; opportunities for involvement; opportunities to learn about oneself; and
actual educational attainment. The study will compare, contrast and connect the findings
in order to show the differences between and similarities among the four major
institutions of higher education in Hawaii, and to ascertain which elements of
institutional culture may have the strongest impact on higher education attainment for
their women students.
The results of this research should be interpreted with some caution, due to the
small number of Hawaii institutions studied. Nevertheless, the results are thought
provoking and suggest several possible associations that await support by additional
studies.
First, the institutional culture at the four institutions differed in only the most
general ways when it came to their stated mission and yet the difference in six-year
graduation rates of women was substantial.
xi
Second, a higher women students’ enrollment rate by itself did not appear to be
associated with higher graduation and retention rates.
Third, the ratio of women student to women faculty appeared to have a higher
influence on graduation rates than the percentage of total woman faculty within the
institution. It is surprising the degree to which this appears to be associated with women
students’ graduation rates at the four Hawaii institutions. There is much more to learn
about the interaction of female students and female faculty within institutions that may
explain this phenomenon.
This study was designed to present a better understanding of the possible effects
that the elements of institutional culture at four major institutions of higher education in
Hawaii have on women students’ graduation and retention rates by finding one or two
elements that may be more strongly associated with those same rates.
• The study identified one characteristic, namely women student to women faculty
ratio that appeared to be more highly associated with women’s graduation and
retention rates than the several others that were explored.
• A second characteristic, which may be strongly associated, was that of a women’s
studies program or a women’s center at the institution. The association of this
characteristic was harder to observe since only one of the institutions had either a
women’s studies program or a women’s center.
No other strong associations were observed among the four Hawaii institutions, and
further, the influence of student socio-economic background and prior academic
achievement on graduation and retention rates were not considered in this study. The
xii
study explored the literature which identified the most prominent elements associated
with women’s higher education graduation rates and retention at institutions not located
in Hawaii.
By identifying the elements of institutional culture, which may be associated with
women’s higher education attainment in Hawaii, and by revealing the negative and
positive aspects these elements have on women’s education, schools of higher education,
may profit from this study. Knowing more about the institutional elements of Hawaii’s
colleges could assist Hawaii’s institutions of higher education in serving their women
students better. It is hoped that increased understanding of these elements could lead to
the development of unique policies and procedures that would increase women’s higher
education attainment within Hawaii.
1
Chapter 1
In a world where education is becoming recognized as one of the most important
factors in the elimination of poverty and in the successful progress of nations, research
has shown that it is important to educate women (Gannicott & Avalos, 1994). Investing
in women’s education has a high return on investment in that educating one woman will
educate additional women as they share their knowledge and skills (Cole, 2004; Earl
2001; Rizvi 2006). A meaningful education provides women with the knowledge and
skills to succeed in their critical roles in family structures, child rearing, social networks,
and household economics (Cleveland, 1998; David, 2000: Koehn, 2001). The more a
nation empowers and educates its women, the more likely that nation will grow and
prosper (Gannicott & Avalos, 1994).
Earning a bachelor’s degree is associated with long-term cognitive, social, and
economic benefits that are passed on to future generations (Kuh, Kinzie, Buckley,
Bridges, Hayek 2007). The majority of adults need some form of higher education to live
and work productively in a rapidly changing, information-based economy (Kuh, Kinzie,
Buckley, Bridges, Hayek 2007). This is especially true for women. Higher education
provides women with much needed knowledge and skills to succeed in an ever-changing,
fast-paced, information-based world (David, 2000; Koehn, 2001). Studies indicate
women’s higher education attainment may be influenced by many factors related to the
individual student, including educational background of parents, intellectual self
confidence, socio-economic status, cultural heritage and personal educational
experiences, as well as those related to elements of institutional culture (Kuh, Kinzie,
2
Buckley, Bridges, Hayek 2007; Hafner, 1985; Bayley, 1992; Astin, 1992; Pascarella &
Terenzini, 1991; and Cushner, McClelland & Safford, 1992). Elements of institutional
culture influence the mission of the institution as it relates to women; relationships with
women role models; opportunities to observe the symbols, values and beliefs of the
institution as they relate to women, a less than supportive or chilly climate, and a critical
mass of women students and faculty (Whitt, 1992; Hall & Sandler, 1982; Tidball, 1980).
It is important for women enrolled in higher education to successfully attain
graduation and the benefits that will follow. One influence on a woman’s successful
attainment of a higher education degree is the culture of the institution which she chooses
to attend. As institutions work to ensure that their students have positive learning
experiences, the role of the institution’s own culture as a means to explain student
behavior (Neff and Underwood, 1990) is often overlooked. Student accomplishments are
impacted by the culture of the institutions they attend (Neff and Underwood, 1990;
Nichols, 1995 and Dennis, 1998), as the learning environment created by the institutions’
cultures has a strong impact on student confidence and academic performance (Nichols,
1995; Dennis, 1998).
Elements of Institutional Culture
Many definitions of institutional culture are used in literature, although exact
definitions of culture are always changing. Kuh and Whitt (1988) define culture in
higher education as:
3
the collective mutually shaping patterns of norms, values, practices, beliefs, and
assumptions that guide the behavior of individuals and groups in an institute of
higher education and provide a frame of reference within which to interpret the
meanings of events and actions on and off campus (p. 127).
The essence of culture can be examined through three levels comprised of observable
materials, artifacts, values, basic assumptions, and beliefs (Kuh & Whitt, 1988; Schein,
1985). This definition will be used for this study.
Culture provides the “central tendencies” which make it possible to generalize
about the elements of an institution of higher education (Birnbaum, 1988). The culture of
an institution is reflected in its mission, and in the makeup of its faculty and student
populations.
Many colleges have similar guiding principles, yet each has a unique culture
which produces its own power and influence on its students’ behaviors (Tierney, 1988).
Within each institution’s makeup are individuals who may or may not believe all of the
institution’s values, artifacts, or beliefs. Institutions of higher education are not
homogenous entities; they are made up of many diverse groups (Martin & Siehl, 1983;
Tierney, 1988; VanMaanen & Barley, 1984), such as student peer cultures, faculty
cultures, and academic field cultures.
An institution’s published artifacts reflect its institutional culture and
communicate powerful, important messages. These artifacts include its brochures,
annual catalog, and annual report, which convey its mission statement, goals, and self
descriptions. It is also reflected in the institution’s data, which gives a view of the
institution that is based more on fact and less on conjecture.
4
There is little research available which specifically compares the elements of
institutional culture between the major Hawaii institutions of higher education or their
effect on Hawaiian women’s education attainment. This study seeks to identify the
degree which elements of institutional culture at major Hawaiian colleges and
universities are associated with higher education attainment for female students in
Hawaii. By studying institutions’ cultures, women can make well-educated choices when
planning their higher education, and choose an institution that best reflects their own
culture.
Culture and Women in Higher Education
There are select factors that pertain to the culture of women attending higher
education institutions. The way that culture affects these women students actually begins
at home (Hafner, 1985; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991; Bayley, 1992). The level of their
fathers’ and mothers’ education predicts students’ endeavors for higher education
(Hafner, 1985). Those students whose parents attended college have a 75% higher
chance of higher education attainment than those whose parents did not attend (Hafner,
1985). There is a significant difference in how this applies to male and female students.
Females are less likely than males to be encouraged by their families to obtain higher
levels of education. The educational background of the parents has an especially positive
impact on African American women and other minorities (Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991).
Women of these minorities of lower socio-economic status are more likely to use higher
5
education attainment as a way to improve their social status; consequently, they often
achieve higher levels of education than their parents (Bayley, 1992) do.
There are additional factors that indicate differences between male and female
students, including intellectual self-confidence (Astin, 1992). Men seem to have higher
self-confidence in their ability to achieve a higher education (Hafner, 1985). When
students were asked to rate their intellectual abilities in order to assess the intellectual
self-confidence of students, Hafner (1985) found that women often underrate their
academic abilities, while men often overrate theirs. Even in American schools, males
tend to attribute their failures to external factors, such as a bad teacher or spending study
time playing sports, while females are more likely to blame themselves, attributing failure
to lack of intelligence or ability. When the boy does well, however, he will often attribute
his success to his own personal traits (Cushner, McClelland and Safford, 1992, p. 32).
Educational theorists are also concerned with females' "hypothesized fear of
success" (Betz & Fitzgerald, 1987; Teglasi, 1978; Weiner, 1979, p. 182). The original
concept of "fear of success" is credited by Betz & Fitzgerald (1987) to Horner (1968)
who describes it as the motive to avoid success. In women, this is ". . . characterized by a
stable dispositional tendency to become anxious about achieving success, which tendency
is thought to reduce achievement motivation and inhibit achievement-related behavior"
(Betz & Fitzgerald, 1987, p. 153). These negative internal attitudes of many women may
have been formed by observation in the home and during early years of education.
6
Observation and Women Role Models in Higher Education
It is critical to women students’ retention and persistence that they have the
opportunity to observe women who are in positions of authority who would be good role
models (Goodman, 2002), such as faculty and administrators. People learn by observing.
In a study by Maccoby and Jacklin, they state that although ". . . various theorists of child
development have differing theoretical viewpoints; all stress the influence of imitation
and identification" (Basow & Howe, 1980, p. 559; Maccoby & Jacklin, 1974). Bandura
(1977) reports "most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from
observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed . . . . Models
who possess engaging qualities are sought out . . . (p. 22).” Muss (1975) believes that a
student's observation of her teacher may have a greater affect on the student than
instructional methods. Using interviews with 135 female students from a wide range of
educational institutions, Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger, and Tarule (1986) found that
these types of relationships were significant to cognitive development for females. They
conclude females have a way of “connected knowing” (p. 117) based on their experiences
and relational modes of thought (Belenky et al., 1986). Additionally, they found that
females are especially influenced by relationships and are positively influenced by having
professional female role models in their lives.
The issue of role modeling greatly effects achievement for women. There is
significant evidence presented in studies of students and teachers in the United States,
Canada, England, and Nigeria that indicates a positive relationship between same-sex
role modeling and academic achievement (Johnson, 1973-74). Women students view
7
their professors as advisors and role models (Seymour & Hewitt, 1997). Those who
support women’s colleges stressed the importance of female faculty not only as
successful, competent role models but also as sources of encouragement for women
students (Colangelo, Dustin, & Foxley, 1979; Block, 1979). Female students are more
concerned about being liked and respected by their teachers, more reliant on teachers for
emotional support, and more easily influenced by their teachers, than male students
(Colangelo, Dustin, & Foxley, 1979; Maccoby & Jacklin, 1974). Additional studies
substantiate that same-sex role modeling is especially important for women students and
that female role models reinforce achievement in female college students (Basow &
Howe, 1980; Canes & Rosen, 1995; Douvan, 1976; Ehrenberg, 1995; Lentz, 1980;
Solnick, 1995; Tidball, 1980; Finn, 1980). In general, females seem to value relationships
and cooperation more than males. Female psychological and moral development places
relationships and caring for others at the center of the developing female self (Gilligan,
1982).
Critical Mass of Women in Higher Education Institutions
Critical mass is defined in the The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English,
as “the amount of substance necessary for a reaction to begin” (p. 327); the term has been
adapted within the field of education to indicate a level of representation that brings
comfort or familiarity within the education environment (Laden & Hagedorn, 2000). The
original idea of critical mass may have been conceived with a study of students in the
natural sciences by M. Elizabeth Tidball (1986). By studying the graduation and
8
persistence patterns of women students attending several coeducational and women’s
colleges and universities over a period of more than 10 years, she found that the
institutions that had more women (students and faculty) produce a greater proportion of
women who become doctoral scientists (Tidball, 1986). Other studies indicate that having
a large percentage of women in faculty and administrative positions may have a greater
effect on women’s persistence in a major than peer group proportionality (having a large
percentage of female student peers) (Sax, 1996; Ivey, 1988; Meihnholdt & Murray, 1999;
Sharpe & Sonnert, 1999). They also found that the number of women in faculty and
administrative positions may have a greater effect on women’s graduation and
persistence in higher education than previously thought. When women students are able
to observe women in positions of authority, they feel that they too can succeed in that
field (WSSE. 2002).
It has been assumed that critical mass promotes retention and persistence by
nurturing a “staying environment” for those students who align themselves with their
campus’s dominant culture (Myers & Caruso, 1992). As the number of students from
previously excluded social minority groups’ increase, it is surmised that they will foster
inclusion of others from the same or similar backgrounds (Etzkowitz et al, 1994, pg. 53).
On the other hand, when a critical mass is not achieved, as is often the case for minority
students, marginalization is the most likely result (Etzkowitz et al, 1994). A lack of
sensitivity and understanding may result without a critical mass of minority students
and/or faculty (Myers & Caruso), along with feelings of “loneness” and isolation (Laden
& Hagedorn, 2000). The dynamics between the minority and majority group changes as
9
a marginalized group approaches critical mass within an educational institution
(Etzkowitz et al, 1994). “In the vernacular one often hears that there is power in numbers.
This power, be it true or imagined, is the result of a critical mass of individuals”
(Hagedorn et al, 2005).
A student’s individual characteristics – his or her self-esteem, self- concept, self-
efficacy, and attitudes -- affect their higher education attainment through the their
willingness and ability to associate with successful mentors and peers, and to major in
‘non-traditional’ courses of study that may require a more competitive attitude (Becker,
1984; Jones & Lamke, 1985; Zuckerman, 1988). There are additional elements of
institutional culture -- such as faculty-student interaction, selectivity and size, classroom
climate, and leadership opportunities -- that affect the higher education attainment of
college students (Astin, 1993; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1992) by encouraging or
discouraging students to interact with mentors (faculty and administration), recognizing
the students achievements in the classroom, and encouraging the student to take on
leadership roles. Studying how the results of these research studies may be associated
with higher education attainment in Hawaii institutions of higher education will bring a
greater understanding of the barriers that affect Hawaiian women’s higher education
achievement.
Women Students’ Participation in Higher Education
Women are increasingly seeking higher education at higher rates, and make up
the largest proportion of the student population (Shavlik, Touchton, & Pearson, 1989;
10
Zusman, 1999; National Commission on Educational Statistics 2004). In 2000, the
enrollment of women in college increased from 7.5 million in 1990 to 8.6 million
(National Commission on Educational Statistics (NCES) 2004, Enrollment by Degree
Granting Institutions Report, Enrollment, by Sex of Student). Their study also indicated,
using moderate projections, that the enrollment of women is expected to increase to 10.1
million by 2012, an increase of 18% from 2000. As a share of total college enrollment,
women were 56% of all college students in 2000, compared with 55% in 1990, and are
projected to be over 57% by 2012. In comparison, the enrollment of men in college
increased from 6.3 million in 1990 to 6.5 million in 1992, before decreasing to 6.3
million in 1995. Thereafter, it increased to 6.7 million in 2000, and after experiencing
another decrease in enrollment; moderate projections indicate enrollment of men is
expected to increase to 7.5 million by 2012, a 12 percent increase from 2000. Men still
earn the majority of doctoral degrees - 60% versus 40% for women (U.S. Department of
Education, National Center for Education Statistics (NCES 2004); Integrated
Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), Fall 2002, Table C). Projections suggest
that women will earn an increasing percentage of doctoral degrees in the future, but will
not reach parity with men until long after 2012 (U.S. Department of Education, National
Center for Education Statistics (NCES 2004); Integrated Postsecondary Education Data
System (IPEDS), Fall 2002, Table C). Therefore, although increasing numbers of women
participate in higher education, they still have not reached parity with men in higher
degrees.
11
Table 1.1: Degrees Conferred by Title IV Degree-Granting Institutions & Percent
Distribution
(By level of degree, control of institution, gender, and race/ethnicity: U.S., academic year 2001–02)
Control of institution, gender, and race/ethnicity
Total degrees Associate's degrees Bachelor's degrees
Number Percent of total Number Percent of total Number
Percent
of total
All institutions 2,494,009 100.0 595,133 100.0 1,291,900 100.0
Control of institution
Public 1,623,721 65.1 471,660 79.3 841,180 65.1
Private not-for-profit 751,019 30.1 45,761 7.7 424,322 32.8
Private for-profit 119,269 4.8 77,712 13.1 26,398 2.0
Gender
Men 1,053,260 42.2 238,109 40.0 549,816 42.6
Women 1,440,749 57.8 357,024 60.0 742,084 57.4
Race/ethnicity
White, non-Hispanic 1,696,327 68.0 401,196 67.4 914,660 70.8
Black, non-Hispanic 220,561 8.8 64,704 10.9 111,177 8.6
Hispanic 162,176 6.5 57,604 9.7 79,029 6.1
Asian/Pacific Islander 143,197 5.7 29,692 5.0 79,130 6.1
American Indian/Alaska Native 18,441 0.7 6,565 1.1 8,743 0.7
Race/ethnicity unknown 123,079 4.9 23,095 3.9 57,705 4.5
Nonresident alien 130,228 5.2 12,277 2.1 41,456 3.2
Control of institution, gender, and race/ethnicity
Master's degrees Doctor's degrees
First-professional
degrees
1
Number Percent of total Number Percent of total Number
Percent
of total
All institutions 482,118 100.0 44,160 100.0 80,698 100.0
Control of institution
Public 249,820 51.8 27,622 62.5 33,439 41.4
Private not-for-profit 218,034 45.2 15,882 36.0 47,020 58.3
Private for-profit 14,264 3.0 656 1.5 239 0.3
Gender
Men 199,120 41.3 23,708 53.7 42,507 52.7
Women 282,998 58.7 20,452 46.3 38,191 47.3
Race/ethnicity
White, non-Hispanic 299,373 62.1 25,319 57.3 55,779 69.1
Black, non-Hispanic 36,906 7.7 2,268 5.1 5,506 6.8
Hispanic 20,450 4.2 1,352 3.1 3,741 4.6
Asian/Pacific Islander 23,015 4.8 2,184 4.9 9,176 11.4
American Indian/Alaska Native 2,405 0.5 175 0.4 553 0.7
Race/ethnicity unknown 36,286 7.5 1,933 4.4 4,060 5.0
Nonresident alien 63,683 13.2 10,929 24.7 1,883 2.3
1
First-professional degrees are awarded after completion of the academic requirements to begin practice in the following professions:
chiropractic (D.C. or D.C.M.); dentistry (D.D.S. or D.M.D.); law (L.L.B. or J.D.); medicine (M.D.); optometry (O.D.); osteopathic medicine
(D.O.); pharmacy (Pharm.D.); podiatry (D.P.M., D.P., or Pod.D.); theology (M.Div., M.H.L., B.D., or Ordination); or veterinary medicine
(D.V.M.). NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for
Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), Fall 2002
12
Since graduation from institutions of higher education has become so critical to
the future success of individuals, their families, and communities, their efforts have been
explored by researchers (Kuh and Whitt, 1988; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991; Schein,
1992; Eckel, Green, Hill, & Mallon, 1999; Hagedorn 2005, and others) and government
and private agencies (U.S. Census Bureau; U.S. Department of Education, National
Center for Educational Statistics; Institute for Women’s Policy Research; and others) for
several decades. Their findings indicate that there are two dominant groups of factors
which are associated with the endeavors of college students: the first relates to
institutional culture and environment, and the second relates to the individual student
(Kuh and Whitt, 1988; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991; Schein, 1992; Eckel, Green, Hill, &
Mallon, 1999)
Higher Education Student Participation in Hawaii
The population of Hawaii is not like the other states due to its cultural diversity,
which is one of the most diverse in the nation. There is no clear cultural majority in
Hawaii: Hawaiian/Part Hawaiian (22.1%); Caucasian (20.5%); Japanese (18.3%);
Filipino (12.3%); and Chinese (4.1%). In 2000, the State of Hawaii’s resident population
was 1,211,537; 50% male and 50% female, with a median age of 36.2 years. According
to the U.S. Census 2000, more than twenty-one percent of the people living in Hawaii are
multicultural, compared to the 2.4 percent of the United States as a whole. As a result,
students at Hawaii’s universities tend to be multi-cultural and multi-ethnic.
13
According to a national study “Measuring Up 2002: The State-by-State Report
Card for Higher Education” the following statistics apply to Hawaii: A fairly low
proportion of high school students go to college immediately after high school -- 37%
compared to 42% nationwide. However, Hawaii is a top performer in the percentage of
young adults who graduate from high school and eventually enroll (ages 18-24) in
college level education -- 42% compared to 39% nationwide. In addition, the percentage
of Hawaii residents who have a bachelor’s degree has increased (29%), compared to 23%
nationwide. Lastly, Hawaii has 11 Postsecondary Institutions (3 public, 8 private) with
approximately 27,000 students enrolled.
Women’s Higher Education Enrollment in Hawaii
The multicultural influences felt by women in Hawaii guide their choices for
pursuing higher education. These women live in an environment where some cultures
value education, some cultures value work, some cultures value family, and some who
are multicultural value two or all three. These values influence the likelihood of Hawaiian
women’s enrollment in higher education institutions. The number of women enrolled in
colleges and universities in Hawaii can be broken down even smaller to represent female
ratios, even though there are no women-only colleges in Hawaii. Although not unique to
Hawaii, only 22.9% of the total female population over the age of 25 years have a
Bachelors Degree or higher in Hawaii (U.S. Census Bureau, 2004). This leaves the state
over 77% or 451,500 of the total number of women 602,800 without higher education.
14
There are slightly more men, 26.9%, over the age of 25 years who have a Bachelors
Degree or higher in Hawaii (U.S. Census Bureau, 2004).
Table 1.2: Enrollment and Earned Degrees Conferred, for Private Colleges and
Universities: 1997-2002
15
There are four major institutions of higher education in Hawaii: one large public
college/university system – University of Hawaii at Manoa, one large private non-
denominational university – Hawaii Pacific University, and two private, religious
universities – Chaminade University of Honolulu, and Brigham Young University
Hawaii. All of these institutions have multi-ethnic, multi-cultural student populations
and are classified as liberal arts colleges/universities. The cultural values of these
institutions which influence women students can be examined in such things as the
structure of the courses, student populations and faculty ratios.
Less than one fourth (23%) of women in Hawaii attended four or more years of
college in 2000 (Institute for Women’s Policy Research, 2002; U.S. Census Bureau,
2000). The 1995 data showed 22.9% of the total female population in Hawaii attained a
bachelor’s degree or higher, with an ethnic breakdown of 30.2% Caucasian; 15.2%
black/African American; 10.3% Hispanic; and 19.4% Asian/Pacific Islanders (NCES
Digest, 1997).
The Problem Statement
In spite of the increasing numbers of women who enroll at Hawaii’s four major
institutions, less than fifty-five percent of those women students graduate within six years
(IWPR, 2004), as compared to up to seventy-three percent of male students who graduate
at these same Hawaii institutions, and compared to nearly eighty-five percent of women
who graduate from women-only colleges. With more than half of all enrolled women
students at these four Hawaii institutions not graduating at all, it is important to
16
understand the possible influences that institutional culture may contribute to this
problem.
Women represent approximately 56% of the total student population in Hawaii,
yet only 33% to 53% of these women graduate within six years of enrollment (U.S.
Census Bureau, 2004; NCES, IPEDS, 2004). This data indicates the four major
institutions of higher education in Hawaii do not graduate 47% to 67% of their female
students within six years of enrollment compared to 53% to 67% of males (The
Education Trust 2007, U.S. Census Bureau, 2004; NCES, IPEDS, 2004). Often students
and researchers overlook elements of institutional culture as an influence on the success
or failure of students reaching graduation. It is important to consider this influence of
observable elements of institutional culture (i.e., artifacts, values, basic assumptions and
beliefs) in obtaining higher education (Eckel, Green, Hill, & Mallon, 1999; Kuh and
Whitt, 1988; Schein, 1992).
Purpose of the Study
Although there is considerable qualitative research using student and institutional
surveys, little research has been done that uses document analysis to identify observable
elements of institutional culture that may influence women’s graduation rates, especially
at the four major institutions of higher education in Hawaii.
Using publicly available data and informational documents, the purpose of this
study is to identify observable elements of institutional culture (i.e., artifacts, values,
basic assumptions and beliefs) at the four major institutions of higher education in
17
Hawaii (University of Hawaii - Manoa, Hawaii Pacific University, Brigham Young
University – Hawaii, and Chaminade University of Honolulu), which may also be
associated with graduation and retention rates of their women students. The findings will
offer the women of Hawaii additional information on the association institutional culture
may have on their higher education attainment opportunities.
Research Questions
By answering the following research questions, this study contributes to the
knowledge on higher education institutions in Hawaii, and also on the effect institutional
culture has on women’s higher education attainment:
1. Using document analysis, what is revealed about elements of institutional
culture (i.e., artifacts, values, basic assumptions and beliefs) at the four major
institutions of higher education in Hawaii; University of Hawaii – Manoa, Hawaii
Pacific University, Brigham Young University – Hawaii, and Chaminade
University of Honolulu?
2. More specifically, does document analysis hold any promise for revealing an
association between elements of institutional culture at the four major institutions
of higher education and women's graduation and retention rates?
18
To answer these questions, a wide variety of data and documents were gathered.
A study of the institutional culture at each university was conducted, covering the
following areas: a review of literature in the fields of institutional culture, higher
education attainment and higher education in Hawaii, a review of collected publicly
available data and documents, existing research analysis and secondary data analysis
from sources that yield statistical data. In addition to identifying relevant elements of
individual institutional cultures at the four major institutions of higher education in
Hawaii, the study was expanded to determine if an association existed between their
women students’ graduation rates and those specific elements of institutional culture.
Most research separates domestic and international students (Pascarelli and
Terranzini 1991; Hagedorn, 2005), but this study does not separate them. This study
dealt with the women student population as a whole, and consequently is not likely to
ascertain any affects associated with variations in individuals.
Significance of the Study
With the purpose of gathering information to enable women students to make
wiser choices, and for institutions that may want further information on factors which
may be associated with improving graduation rates, this study seeks to identify the
association of elements of institutional culture with women’s educational attainment by
comparing these elements between the selected institutions through data and document
analysis. This area of research will benefit women’s higher education attainment by
providing access to data and documents to assist colleges and universities in their
19
development of programs that may increase the graduation and retention rates of their
women students in Hawaii and elsewhere. This study may also be of benefit to
government agencies and private foundations in more specifically identifying aspects of
institutional culture which can be changed or enhanced by funding expansion programs.
20
Chapter 2
Literature Review
This study explores existing research to identify the important aspects of
institutional culture in Hawaii and the possible effect on female students. More
specifically, this study involves examining the defining elements of institutional culture
to determine which elements impact women students graduation rates; identifying
women’s enrollment in higher education in Hawaii and their graduation rates; comparing
the institutional cultural factors affecting women students in four Hawaiian schools; and
identifying the influence these institutional cultures have on graduation and retention
rates of female students in Hawaii.
Institutional Culture in Higher Education
Culture is the “invisible glue” (Kuh and Whitt, 1988) which holds institutions
together by providing a common foundation and a shared interpretation and
understanding of events and actions (Kuh and Whitt, 1988). Institution-wide patterns of
perceiving, thinking and feeling; shared understandings; collective assumptions; and
common interpretive frameworks are the ingredients of institutional culture (Kuh and
Whitt, 1988; Schein, 1992; Eckel, Green, Hill, & Mallon. 1999). Culture is shaped by
commonly held beliefs, values, and underlying assumptions (Schein, 1992); and both acts
on and is acted upon. Every institution has its own unique culture shaped by
administrative, community and academic characteristics. An institution’s culture
determines what is important, what is acceptable, and how business is done at its campus.
21
To make progress on any initiative, each institution must operate in ways which are
congruent with its own unique cultural norms and standards (Eckel, Green, Hill, &
Mallon, 1999).
Institutional culture at colleges and universities may have a common central
culture determined by its history or contemporary operational style, but it also may be
strongly influenced by a collection of subcultures (Bergquist, 1992). Subcultures develop
as a result the development of different units or structures that have different purposes
(Schein, 1992). For example, one newly hired college president asked senior faculty
members to describe the institution’s culture. “I was told that they couldn’t do it,” he
said, “but when I violated it, they would sure let me know.” When we are immersed in
an institution’s culture, we often experience it as just “the way things are” or “how we do
things around here” (Eckel, Green, Hill, & Mallon, 1999).
Understanding Institutional Culture
Understanding institutional culture is like peeling away the many layers of an
onion (Kuh and Whitt, 1988). The outer skins of the onion (Figure 2-1 below) are the
organization’s artifacts, the middle layers are the espoused values, and the inner core is
the underlying assumptions (Schein, 1992).
Artifacts are those visible products, activities, and processes that form the makeup
of the institutional culture, such as insiders’ language and terminology; myths and stories;
published mission statements; and observable important rituals, ceremonies, events,
22
reward structures, and communication channels. Artifacts reveal “what is happening”
and the actual values of the institution (Eckel, Green, Hill, & Mallon. 1999).
Figure 2-1: Institutional Culture - Kuh and Whitt, 1998; Schein, 1992
Espoused values are articulated beliefs. Cultural values are sometimes manifested
in what is considered good or bad, right or wrong, and what is encouraged or discouraged
(Kuh & Whitt, 1988). For example, an institution might value promoting lifelong
learning or developing future global citizens, faculty-student contact outside of class, or
active learning over formal classroom activities (Eckel, Green, Hill, & Mallon. 1999).
An easy place to begin understanding an institution’s culture is by examining the values
of the institution. Values explain “why we are doing what we do.” Identifying artifacts
and asking, “Why is this so?” elicits what the institution values, which values are more
important than others, and whether the “espoused values” are at odds with the underlying
assumptions or beliefs of the institution (Eckel, Green, Hill, & Mallon. 1999).
ARTIFACTS
ESPOUSED VALUES
UNDERLYING
ASSUMPTIONS
23
At the inner core of organizational culture are the underlying assumptions. These
are the deepest ingrained assumptions which are rarely questioned, the taken-for granted
beliefs of the institution (Schein, 1985). They are the most difficult to identify because
only cultural insiders can truly understand them, even if they cannot readily articulate
them (Eckel, Green, Hill, & Mallon, 1999). Examples include such statements as:
“acquiring knowledge is more important than transmitting it; community welfare is more
important than individual welfare; if it’s not invented here, it will not work in our culture;
or some disciplines are more influential than others” (Eckel, Green, Hill, & Mallon, 1999,
p. 35). If the espoused values and the underlying assumptions are congruent, the
assumptions remain inconspicuous (Schein, 1992). The result is a firm cultural and
attitudinal base for action. For example, an institution awards financial aid to
international students (artifact) because it is intentional about being globally oriented
(espoused value). The inconspicuous underlying assumption might be that international
students are so valuable to a global institution that scarce resources must be spent to
ensure their presence (Eckel, Green, Hill, & Mallon, 1999).
Artifacts are explained both by espoused values and by underlying assumptions.
When inconsistencies exist between values and underlying assumptions, the assumptions
become known and understanding these assumptions becomes more critical. In instances
where certain decisions do not affect behaviors or changes do not stick, the values and
assumptions underlying the actions may be inconsistent. In the following example, the
artifacts (what people do) match the assumptions (what people truly believe), but not the
espoused values (what people profess to believe) (Eckel, Green, Hill, & Mallon, 1999):
24
Faculty who are recognized with outstanding teaching awards (artifact) do not receive
tenure even though teaching is said to be important (espoused value). The explanation
lies in the underlying assumption—that teaching is not as significant as other factors in
the tenure process (Eckel, Green, Hill, & Mallon, 1999).
Because underlying assumptions are so deeply ingrained into the organization,
they are rarely identified or questioned. It is only when artifacts are not adequately
explained by the espoused values, or when artifacts are in conflict with espoused values,
that underlying assumptions become prominent (Eckel, Green, Hill, & Mallon, 1999).
Although we say our publicly expressed values guide our actions, our underlying
assumptions are really our theories-in-use (Argyris, 1993; Eckel, Green, Hill, & Mallon,
1999).
Some negative elements of institutions which can lower women’s higher
education attainment include “chilly” environments in and out of the classroom
experiences; and male dominated hierarchical institutional structures and processes,
academic cultures and traditions, and institutional leadership positions (Whitt, 1992).
Women students and faculty members often face a chilly climate from male and other
female students alike, who treat male and female students and professors differently. For
example, women are expected to smile more than males. Because they are often devalued
and may have less credibility, women may experience hostility from male students, and
be evaluated more harshly (Sandler & Hall, 1986). In spite of laws passed, many of the
discriminatory practices of colleges and universities permeate the institutional culture
leaving women to face a chilly climate in some classrooms. This destroys women
25
students’ self-confidences and lowers their endeavors (Sandler, 1986). It is common to
see in-class behaviors such as more frequent recognition of male students, being more
attentive to male students than female students, interrupting female students more often,
and less extensive responses to female students (Hall and Sandler, 1982). Even though it
is less prevalent than in the past, women still tell stories of how some professors treat
their presence with subtle or overt hostility or condescension (Seymour & Hewitt, 1997).
Outside of the classroom, everyday behaviors are seen, including: degrading sexist
comments and jokes; less time given by faculty to meet with women students than men
students; stereotyping women; and sexual harassment (Hall and Sandler, 1984). In
addition, the increasing incidence of acquaintance and gang rapes committed by male
students against female students is further evidence of the unwelcoming environment for
women on college and university campuses (Collison, 1991).
Institutional policies and practices influence, and sometimes create, the climate
for women in colleges and universities (Shavlik, Touchton, & Pearson, 1989).
Hierarchical structures and processes (Hall & Sandler, 1984; Shavlik et. Al., 1989), and
male dominated academic cultures and traditions (Fox and Keller, 1978; Moore, 1987) all
verify that male qualities are more highly valued than female qualities and make it
obvious that women are “outsiders or marginal to the male-dominated world of
academe” (Moore, 1987, p.30). Women students are often left without female role
models in higher education due to these policies and practices.
Controversially, research by Fleming (1984) found some women still tended to
choose more female dominated areas of study and associate more with traditional gender
26
roles during their educational experience in spite of having a supportive, nurturing
environment which promotes educational attainment and success (Fleming, 1984).
Other Aspects Of Institutional Culture In Higher Education
Other aspects of institutional culture in higher education affect women students’
positively. It has already been shown that meaningful interactions with faculty enhances
the self-esteem of women students (Pascarella and Terenzini, 1991). Women who
participate in leadership experiences show evidence of higher levels of self-esteem, and
achieve at higher levels of education than those who do not participate (Astin and Kent,
1983). When women students pursue non-traditional fields of study, their efforts are
positively impacted by female role models (Ware and Lee, 1988), leadership skill
development (Astin and Leland, 1991), and self-confidence development (Josselman,
1987). These factors all play a positive role in predicting the likelihood women will
pursue higher education attainment (Astin, 1993).
Women’s Higher Education Attainment At Women’s Colleges
Although the purpose of this study is not to compare women-only schools to
coeducational schools, a brief examination of research on women’s higher education
attainment revealed specific elements of institutional culture at women’s colleges which
appear to positively affect female students’ graduation and retention. The majority of
research available on women’s colleges examines if and how the institutional elements
impact the students’ educational and occupational endeavors, and the success of
27
graduates. At least five elements -- retention and graduation rates, impact of women
faculty, institutional culture, academic expectations, mission and history that supports
women -- seem to strengthen the academic culture at women’s colleges (Astin 1992;
Astin 1977; Riordan 1992; Smith 1990; Smith, Wolf, & Morrison, 1995; Tidball, 1986;
Whitt, 1994 & 1992). Further research on these elements of women's colleges examined
their possible effect on women’s educational attainment and aspirations (Astin 1992;
Astin 1977; Riordan 1992; Smith 1990; Smith, Wolf, & Morrison, 1995; Whitt, 1994 &
1992). Most of the studies compare women’s college students and graduates with female
students and graduates of coeducational institutions to determine whether attending
women’s college effects women entering a traditionally male-dominated field of study,
and in aspiring to or attending graduate school. (Smith, Wolf-Wendel and Morrison,
1999).
Women’s colleges have a higher rate of retention and graduation than co-
educational institutions, although most researchers use other terminology (i.e. educational
attainment). Women’s college students are more likely to graduate (Astin 1992; Astin
1977; Riordan 1992; Smith 1990; Smith, Wolf, & Morrison, 1995; Whitt, 1994 & 1992),
and are one-and-one half times more likely to earn a baccalaureate degree in life and
physical sciences or math than women at coeducational institutions (Sebrechts, 1995;
Sharpe, 1995). Additional research by Miller-Bernal (1989), suggests women's colleges
have a more positive impact than coeducational institutions on promoting women’s
educational attainment when she found evidence that the environment at women's
colleges are more supportive in the development of women's abilities, particularly on
28
such measures as faculty interaction, and relationships with peers that encourage
academic work.
In the mid 1960’s there were as many as 338 womens colleges in the United
States educating nearly 200,000 women; currently there are 68 womens college with an
enrollment of approximately 93,000 women (Women’s College Coalition, 2004; NCES,
2003). The drop in the number of women’s colleges reflected the political changes in the
early 1970’s such as the women’s movement, the Equal Rights Amendment which
stimulated educational changes that recognized the economic value of increasing
women’s enrollment could bring to colleges and universities, and financial challenges
that affected most higher education institutions (Women’s College Coalition, 2004).
Many all-male colleges began to accept women students, seemingly reducing the need for
women’s colleges to continue. However, the long term effect of the closing of women’s
colleges has been to offer women fewer choices in learning environments, not more.
When women were added to all-male colleges their full potential was often lost in an
environment designed to educate men. Nevertheless, women’s access and opportunity to
complete higher education is at an all-time high in the United States (Smith, D.I. 2003).
After several years of declining enrollments, there has been a recent increase in
enrollment at many women-only colleges. The Women’s College Coalition (2004), an
organization based in Washington, D.C., reports that most women’s colleges have seen
increases in enrollment, with several reporting record high numbers that fall. The College
of Notre Dame, for example, had a 30% increase in first-year students that semester
(Seurkamp, 2004). Total women’s college enrollments experienced an increase of
29
approximately 6% , with 101,174 students enrolled in Fall 2001 (NCES. October 2003.
Table 220) as compared to 95,873 students enrolled in Fall 2000 (NCES. September
2002. Table 217). A trend that The Women’s College Coalition (2006) expects to
continue.
Research supports the idea that women’s colleges provide a uniquely supportive
climate for women, suggesting that the large number of female faculty role models may
be an important factor explaining high levels of educational attainment, and also career
aspirations and attainment (Pascarella and Terenzini, 1991, p.383). In 1999, Smith,
Wolf-Wendel, and Morrison analyzed data from the Cooperative Institutional Research
Program (CIRP, 1985, 1989), in order to compare the experiences of students who
attended women’s colleges with the experiences of women who attended coeducational
institutions. Among the recurring themes that would encourage higher retention and
graduation rates for women, women’s colleges provide an abundance of adult women
role models, such as faculty, administrators, and alumnae, who are closely related to
these colleges’ productivity of successful women (Smith, Wolf-Wendel and Morrison,
1999). A study at the Henry A. Murray Research Center at Radcliffe, by Bales and Sharp
(1981) also indicates that the presence of high percentages of female administrators at
women's colleges was associated with higher graduation, retention, and career aspirations
of women students.
Other researchers find the success of women’s college students and graduates are
related more to gender composition of the institution, selectivity, or institution type (as
most women’s colleges are relatively small, liberal arts institutions). In a report
30
presented before a roundtable discussion, “A Closer Look at Women’s Colleges” in 1998,
Emily Langdon explored Who Attends a Women’s College Today and Why She Should:
An Exploration of Women’s College Students and Alumnae. During her research,
Langdon found the women’s college cohort were students who: wanted a high quality,
nurturing, academic environment, and reported higher self-esteem and more positive
perspectives on equity in sex roles (Riordan, 1992); had more positive relationships and
interaction with faculty and peers, which encouraged academic work (Miller-Bernal,
1989); and came from higher socioeconomic backgrounds (Smith, Wolf, & Morrison,
1995) and were therefore expected to succeed in their chosen endeavors.
Concerned about the issue of role modeling and its effect on female academic
achievement, educational theorists such as Douvan (1976), Lentz ( 1980), Tidball (1980),
Basow & Howe (1980), Finn (1980), Solnick (1995), Canes & Rosen (1995), and
Ehrenberg (1995), presented evidence that same-sex role modeling is especially
important for female students and that female role models strengthen achievement in
female college students. Colangelo, Dustin, and Foxley (1979) and Block (1979) also
emphasize the importance of female faculty members as successful, competent role
models and as sources of encouragement for female students. In 1986 Belenky, Clinchy,
Goldberger, and Tarule presented a theoretical model of development using interviews
with 135 female students from a wide range of educational institutions; they conclude
that females have a connected way of knowing based on experiential and relational
modes of thought. They contend that females are especially influenced by relationships
and are positively influenced by professional female role models. (Belenky et al., 1986)
31
Hawaii’s Multicultural Women
Hawaii’s women come from many cultural backgrounds. According to the U.S.
Census Bureau, Census 2000 (Summary File 1 Hawaii) Hawaii’s female population was
602,866, with 52,620 between the ages of 18-24 years and 177,352 between the ages of
25-44 years; with the median age of females in Hawaii being 37.4 years (U.S. Census
Bureau, Census 2000). According to the same census, Hawaii is a multicultural,
multiethnic population representing approximately 152,933, or 21% of those who live in
Hawaii. According to Census 2000 (U.S. Census Bureau, Census 2000), the ethnic
breakdown in Hawaii is as follows:
Table 2.2: Ethnicity in Hawaii, U.S. Census Bureau, Census 2000
Ethnic Group Percent of
population
Total
Caucasian (haole or European-American) 25% 104,917
Japanese 17% 88,730
Filipino 15% 41,671
Native Hawaiian 7% 29,432
Chinese 5% 12,239
Korean 2% 11,441
Black (or African American) 2% 8,406
Samoan 1.9% 4,090
Vietnamese (-1%) 3,375
Micronesian (-1%) 2,076
Tongan (-1%) 1,838
American Indian and Alaska Native; (-1%) 1,777
Asian; (-1%) 957
Laotian (-1%) 907
Guamanian or Chamorro (-1%) 864
Asian Indian (-1%) 749
Thai (-1%) 654
Pacific Islander (-1%) 453
Polynesian (-1%) 305
Indonesian (-1%) 151
Table 2.2: Continued
32
Table 2.2: Continued
Cambodian (-1%) 122
Fijian (-1%) 111
Malaysian (-1%) 60
Sri Lankan (-1%) 59
Pakistani (-1%) 18
Melanesian (-1%) 14
Hmong (-1%) 11
Bangladeshi (-1%) 3
It is evident that Hawaii has a multi-ethnic, multi-cultural population with many
cultural origins and attitudes toward educational attainment. Of the 229, 972 (38%)
women of Hawaii (U.S. Census Bureau, Census 2000) between the ages of 18 and 44
years, approximately 27,029 attend the four major universities, University of Hawaii
system (including community colleges), Hawaii Pacific University, Chaminade
University, and Brigham Young University – Hawaii. The latter three institutions
(Hawaii Pacific University, Chaminade University and Brigham Young University –
Hawaii) recruit more than half of their students from the mainland United States and
internationally and consequently are not focused on educating Hawaii residents (2004
Annual Reports, University of Hawaii System, Hawaii Pacific University, Chaminade
University, Brigham Young University – Hawaii). Only about 12% of the women of
Hawaii between the ages of 18 and 44 years are being educated by Hawaii’s universities,
leaving over 202,943 (88%). The Fall 2004 “Enrollment by Ethnicity Report” of the
University of Hawaii reflected its male and female student population thus: 26.1%
Caucasian; 18.9% Japanese; 11.2% Asian; 10.4% mixed; 8.1% Chinese; 7.9% Hawaiian;
7.4% Filipino; 7.1% All Other; and 2.9% Pacific Islanders.
33
Table 2.3: Enrollment by Racial/Ethnic Category – University of Hawaii at
Manoa
B2. Enrollment by Racial/Ethnic Category.
Each of these cultures places a different value of importance on educational attainment
for women, very much depending on attitudes of previous generations. The Fall 2004
Enrollment by Gender Report for the University of Hawaii reflected an enrollment of
57% (25,794) women and 43% (19,457) men.
Degreeseeking
First-time First
yearDegree-seeking
Undergraduates
TotalUndergraduates
Nonresident aliens 35 644 673
Black, non-Hispanic 18 135 142
American Indian or Alaska Native 10 47 52
Asian or Pacific Islander 1,274 8,681 8,881
Hispanic 52 283 302
White, non-Hispanic 615 3,437 3,706
Race/ethnicity unknown 15 466 495
Total 2,019 13,693 14,251
34
Table 2.4: QT-P20. Educational Attainment by Sex: 2000 Data Set:
Census 2000 Summary File 3 (SF 3) - Sample Data
Geographic Area: Hawaii
NOTE: Data based on a sample except in P3, P4, H3, and H4. For information on confidentiality protection, sampling error,
nonsampling error, and definitions see http://factfinder.census.gov/home/en/datanotes/expsf3.htm.
Subject
Both sexes Male Female
EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT (highest level)
Population 18 to 24 years 114,735 62,315 52,420
Some college or associate degree 46,703 23,061 23,642
Bachelor's degree or higher 6,802 2,662 4,140
Population 25 years and over 802,477 394,580 407,897
Some college credit, less than 1 year 48,061 23,560 24,501
1 or more years of college, no degree 127,031 63,782 63,249
Associate degree 64,701 30,865 33,836
Bachelor's degree 142,493 69,899 72,594
Master's degree 43,665 20,923 22,742
Professional degree 16,523 10,357 6,166
Doctorate degree 7,360 5,041 2,319
Percent of population 25 years and over 100.0 100.0 100.0
Some college credit, less than 1 year 6.0 6.0 6.0
1 or more years of college, no degree 15.8 16.2 15.5
Associate degree 8.1 7.8 8.3
Bachelor's degree 17.8 17.7 17.8
Master's degree 5.4 5.3 5.6
Professional degree 2.1 2.6 1.5
Doctorate degree 0.9 1.3 0.6
Percent high school graduate or higher 84.6 85.6 83.6
Percent bachelor's degree or higher 26.2 26.9 25.5
PERCENT OF AGE GROUP
High school graduate or higher
25 to 34 years 92.1 91.3 93.0
35 to 44 years 91.1 90.4 91.9
45 to 64 years 87.0 88.1 85.8
65 years and over 64.6 67.1 62.6
Bachelor's degree or higher
25 to 34 years 26.5 23.6 29.5
35 to 44 years 27.9 27.2 28.6
45 to 64 years 30.6 32.1 29.1
65 years and over 16.1 20.5 12.6
(X) Not applicable.
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Census 2000 Summary File 3, Matrices P37 and PCT25.
From this data, we can determine that approximately 372,572 (61.8%) women are not
currently involved in higher education, adjusting for the 26.2% (157,950) who already
35
have a bachelor’s degree or higher (Table 2 - US Census Bureau. 2000. Hawaii.
Educational Attainment).
Table 2.5: Educational Attainment of the Population 25 Years and Over
for the US Regions, States, and Puerto Ricio: 1990 and 2000
Social and Cultural Barriers to Higher Education Attainment
Hawaii’s women not only come from many cultural backgrounds, but each culture
has varied attitudes toward educating women. Until recently, the majority of Asian
cultures (e.g., Japanese, Chinese, Korean, Filipino) strongly believed in higher education
for the first born son and then all other males in the household before educating women
in the family (Weinberg, 1997). The women in the family were expected to contribute to
the family’s income in order to provide a better standard of living for everyone in the
household (Weinberg, 1997). In some households, this is still the case. For women in
most cultures, the cost of lost wages while obtaining higher education is not looked on
favorably, and is often discouraged. If a woman wants to further her education she is
36
expected to make sure that none of her “more important” obligations are neglected, such
as work, family, and household duties (Stalker, 2001).
Social and cultural barriers can limit higher education attainment. These barriers
include attitudes and perceptions students have which may prevent those who are capable
from aspiring to higher education, or that undermine their motivation to take advantage of
opportunities for higher education (Stalker, 2001). As already described, in some groups,
male children are more actively encouraged to pursue higher education than female
children. There may also be a lack of understanding about the requirements to gain
access to and succeed in higher education, and there may not be sufficient information
about higher education options. These social and cultural barriers are linked to factors
such as parental education attainment, first-generation status, family income, race, limited
English proficiency and, in some cases, immigration status (Stalker, 2001).
Cultural and Academic Self-Efficacy
Throughout the literature there was concern expressed about the students’ feelings
toward their own abilities to effectively learn academics within specific cultures
(Yamauchi & Greene. 1997; Dotts & Sikkema. 1994; Johnson. 1972; Chi & Park. 1999;
Peak. 1991; Quinn, 1995; Lewis. 1995; Lasman et al., 1971; Alcantara, 1973; O'Hare &
Felt, 1991; Galang, 1998; Lin and Fan. 1990; Chen, Seitz, & Cheng 1987; Cheng. 1991;
Au and Kawakami. 1991; Hollins. 1996; Erickson & Mohatt, 1982; Au & Mason, 1981;
Wigginton, 1977, 1991). Studies by Bandura (1986; 1989; 1995) and Dweck (1986)
suggest that individuals’ beliefs about their efficacy in specific contexts influence their
37
motivation in those settings (Yamauchi & Green. 1997). This means that students’
aspirations, interest in intellectual pursuits, academic achievements and how they prepare
for careers are affected by those beliefs about themselves (Bandura 1995). Studies have
also found an individual’s perceived self-efficacy can be influenced and shaped by
parents, peers, teachers, and society (Bandura 1986; Dweck. 1986; Oettingen. 1995;
Yamauchi & Greene. 1997). Although much is yet to be learned about the specific ways
that factors, such as culture and gender, affect student’s self-efficacy, the literature on
gender and perceived self-efficacy indicates that female students tend to think they are
less able to learn or less easily than males, especially in male dominated subjects such as
math and science (Eccles, 1994). As a consequence, this perception affects females’
achievement in those subjects and in future career decisions (Betz & Hackett, 1981;
1983; Eccles, 1994; Randhawa, Beamer, Lundbert, 1993).
Studies on the return to schooling and individual-level determinants of education
in particular countries (King & Hill 1993, Stromquist 1989, Moore 1987) indicate that a
parent’s economic resources are central determining factors of educational attainment,
but this effect is often greater for girls than for boys (Stromquist 1989). The same holds
for the educational level of the parents. Young men often have more opportunity to make
money and this draws them into the labor market and out of school. Young women, on
the other hand, often have more obligations to help with housekeeping and childcare
activities (Stromquist 1989; Durbin & Kent 1989 for similar evidence on the United
States).
38
Becker (1975) supports parents’ decisions to invest less in their daughters'
schooling than in their sons, even if the percentage change in earnings with an additional
year of schooling were identical for both sexes, because their daughters could be
expected to work full time for fewer years than their sons (Jacobs 1996). "One of the
major barriers to women entering non-traditional programs has been that neither they nor
their teachers and advisors are convinced that they will be employed at the end of the
programs" (Tepperman & Wilson, 1996). Becker (1975) seemed to ignore the increased
social productivity of women who do not work (Schultz 1993a, b; Jacobs 1996). Schultz
(1993) asserts the increased productivity of women in nonmarket work is identical to that
in market work. He also emphasizes that the social returns to schooling - those reaped by
society and the community at large rather than the family itself - for women are high, and
consequently he urges more investment in their education (Jacobs 1996). This
recommendation is consistent with Benavot's (1989) findings that educating girls gives a
larger boost to economic development than does educating boys.
According to Measuring Up 2004, Hawaii’s public colleges and
universities are becoming increasingly less affordable. Forty- three percent of the
average Hawaii income is needed to pay for college expenses at a private 4-year
college/university or 23% is used for attending a public 4-year college/university
(Measuring Up 2004). The lowest-income population requires 45% of the total income,
and 20% is needed for the population with a lower-middle income. Those who are
striving to reach or stay in the middle class—the 40% of the population with the lowest
incomes—earn on average $22,226 each year (Measuring Up 2004).
39
Table 2.6: Affordability of College and Universities in Hawaii and Financial Aids
Figure 1
Table 2.7: Family Ability to Pay for College and Universities in Hawaii
40
Successful higher education attainment is often facilitated by families who make
financial sacrifices in order to finance the students’ education. Financial costs may play
little direct role in students' decisions about higher education, but they do play an
important indirect role (Tepperman & Wilson, 1996). In spite of their eligibility for
student aid and reduced tuition, lower-income students continue to feel pressure to give
up studying and contribute financially to support their families or themselves. Lower-
income students are more reluctant than others to take out student loans because of their
fear of difficulty in repaying them (Tepperman & Wilson. 1996).
According to The Status of Women in Hawaii 2000 (IWPR. 2000) and Census
2000 (U.S. Census Bureau 2000, p. 35), approximately 23 per cent of women in Hawaii
have attained four or more years of college. Although the gendered data is not broken
down by specific ethnicity, the data does show in that in 1995, 22.9% of the total
population in Hawaii had attained a bachelor’s degree or higher. This percentage was
broken down into 30.2% caucasians; 15.2% black/African American; 10.3% Hispanic;
and 19.4% Asian/Pacific Islanders (NCES Digest. 1997). Generally, in the University of
Hawaii system, enrollment rates are higher for women, at 56.4%, than men, at 43.6%
(University of Hawaii MAPPS. Fall 2004). According to the University of Hawaii
MAPPS Fall 2004 report, enrollment by ethnicity included 26.1% Caucasian, 18.9%
Japanese,11.2% Asian, 10.4% mixed, 8.1% Chinese, 7.9% Hawaiian, 7.4% Filipino, and
2.9% Pacific Islander (University of Hawaii MAPPS. Fall 2004). Additional information
from the University of Hawaii indicates that 6 years after enrollment, 66.2% of women
41
have graduated (University of Hawaii MAPPS. Fall 2004). Graduation rates for ethnic
groups are only available for combined genders as follows: with 73.2% Japanese, 75.4%
Chinese, 63.8% Filipino, 49.1% Hawaiian, 46.7% Caucasian, and 55.1% mixed ethnicity
students, graduating within 6 years of enrollment (University of Hawaii MAPPS. Fall
2004).
Table 2.8: 4 Year College Degree or Higher Educational Attainment – Ages 25
Years or Older by State and Race/Ethnicity, 2000
Women in Hawaii who successfully graduate have some common characteristics
and some differences in overcoming barriers to educational attainment. Studies have
42
shown that family (parental), cultural, and social status influences in regards to
educational attainment is high in the Japanese, Chinese, and Filipino cultures (Chi &
Park. 1999; Lin and Fan. 1990; Chen, Seitz, & Cheng 1987; Cheng. 1991; Quinn, 1995;
Peak, 1991; Lewis. 1995), and consequently is high for students of these cultures.
Students of these cultures are expected to do well in school and enter college with strong
parental support, which favorably affects how they value education and academic success
(Asakawa. 2001).
In contrast, for Caucasians educational attainment was attributed to their own
academic aspirations, reflecting differences in family socialization practices between
Asian and caucasians (Asakawa 2001). Unlike women from other cultures, for many
Caucasian women educational attainment is culturally and socially encouraged but not
necessarily supported by their families. Many find themselves in the position of being
members of the middle class, with not enough income to pay for higher education, but
too much income to qualify for financial aid grants and most scholarships (USA Funds
2005). Many women students are older and attend college part-time, are upgrading to
enter or reenter the labor force, or are seeking occupational advancement, and do not
have strict culturally dictated family responsibilities. These situations make the decision
to attain higher education a personal decision, requiring a strong personal motivation in
order to successfully persist in their education (Weis. 1988). For many Caucasian
women in Hawaii, they are first generation college attenders who see the long term
benefits of educational attainment effects on their families and community, and persist
43
through graduation (Weis. 1988). Their purposes for educational attainment tend toward
attaining higher-status, becoming better educated and increasing income (Weis. 1988).
When Native Hawaiians are asked about their success, it is necessary to keep in
mind that people in Hawaii, (and in particular, a small rural community in Hawaii) are
more collectivistic than people on the mainland (Ceppi, 1997). Research has proven that
those from collectivist cultural communities tend to downplay their personal
accomplishments and abilities, especially when interacting with other members of their
own community (Rhodes, 1989; Swisher & Deyhle, 1987; Yamauchi & Greene. 1997).
This tendency to avoid appearing better than others may affect educational attainment.
Native Hawaiian women tend to be more successful in educational attainment
than Native Hawaiian men (Yamauchi & Greene, 1997). The gender differences are
culturally derived through “rationales for compliance and achievement” (Brandon et al,
1995), To Native Hawaiians, the sibling group and kinship patterns mediate their daily
routine. Chores and other household tasks are often facilitated by the group, whose
leader is an older sibling, often the oldest girl. Girls and women also organize family get-
togethers of all kinds. This suggests that girls’ roles in both sibling groups and kinship
networks are compatible with the expectations of students in school (Brandon et al, 1995;
Yamauchi & Greene, 1997). School related tasks, especially those regarding self-
regulated learning, are similar to the tasks asked of girls at home (i.e. to organize
themselves and siblings to get work done and to interact with adults in ways that promote
group cohesion) (Yamauchi & Greene. 1997).
44
Hawaiian women develop their commitment to education over time, and their
under representation in higher education is related to: their perceptions and experiences
relative to expectations of academic success; preparation for academic studies; influence
of socioeconomic status; support and encouragement from friends, family, and teachers;
social/health issues; success in mastering the mainstream culture of the education system,
especially the English language; experiences with stereotypes and discriminatory
practices; presence or absence of role models; experiences with program admission
requirements; and ability to assimilate into the university system (Maaka, Au, and Luna,
1998). The women in this study also reported having to overcome several factors that
hindered their progress toward graduation, which included low self-expectations of
academic success, poor preparation for academic study, discriminatory treatment by some
teachers, and problems passing the admission test requirement. Some also had
difficulties with family finances and with mastering mainstream English.
Culture and Educational Attainment Rates
Educational attainment rates of the various Asians and Pacific Islander (APIAs)
groups differ widely (Schwartz, 2002). In 1999, when 6.6 million APIAs (Asian and
Pacific Islanders) and 130.4 million non-Hispanic whites 25 years and older lived in the
U.S., 42 percent of APIAs had a bachelor's degree while only 28 percent of non-Hispanic
whites had one (Schwartz, 2002). A higher proportion of men than women in both
groups earned a bachelor's degree: for APIAs, 46 percent versus 39 percent; and for non-
Hispanic whites, 31 percent versus 25 percent (Schwartz, 2002).
45
Students who have higher-status, better-educated parents and those from ethnic
groups that strongly value education end up with more of the motivation and skills
necessary to achieve educational success (Tepperman & Wilson, 1996). Students from
the higher classes seem to have something extra, which could be called "cultural capital"
(Bourdieu, 1977; Tepperman & Wilson, 1996). Those with this “cultural capital” have
greater knowledge of music and literature; frequently attend cultural events such as
concerts, museums, and plays; have an interest in reading books and listening to music;
and, equally important, tend to think of themselves as educated, artistic, and "cultured"
(Tepperman & Wilson, 1996). Students with the most cultural capital are the most likely
to obtain their degrees and be accepted for a high status job, regardless of their parents’
social status and education (DiMaggio and Mohr, 1985).
Summary
The researched literature indicates that culture has an effect on higher education
attainment of women (Kuh and Whitt 1988), including women in Hawaii. One form of
culture that appears to have an influence is institutional culture, which has observable
elements that may vary from one institution of higher education to another, depending on
the mission, policies, and climate of the institution (Kuh and Whitt 1988). Today’s
women are in the process of overcoming the cultural and educational barriers of the past,
but it may be more difficult for women with strong multicultural ties since each culture’s
attitude varies toward educating women (Weinberg, 1997). Institutions of higher
46
education can develop positive aspects of these elements of institutional culture that can
influence women in their effort to attain their higher education.
By identifying the possible specific elements of institutional culture that can
influence women students’ graduation and retention rates in Hawaii, the higher education
institutions of Hawaii can help their women students gain access to and complete higher
education degrees.
It would be helpful to study more comparisons of similar institutions in order to
determine which of them are more effective in educating women and to discover their
differences. Additional research needs to be done in order to understand which kinds of
institutions are best for educating women with differing backgrounds, and whether it is
the gender composition of an institution or the institution type (i.e. liberal arts,
public/private, regional/national, selective/non-selective, single-gender/co-ed, etc.) which
has a greater impact on college experiences and outcomes (Tidball, 1989; Pascarella and
Terenzini, 1991; Langdon, 1998). Finally, in light of recent statistics showing great
strides in degree achievement at coeducational institutions of higher education, which
enroll nearly 98% (NCES, 2004) of all female students, how might they change their
elements of institutional culture in ways that could increase the number of women who
actually achieve their degrees? It may be determined that due to the variety of campus
climates and environments, their differing missions and goals, and differing student
learning preferences, that these elements vary too greatly within campuses, and from
campus to campus to make any generalizations. Too many public, and most private,
coeducational institutions try to ‘be all things to all people’ in an effort to recruit more
47
students. Institutions have limited resources, and there is little research available on how
this affects student learning, especially women learners. Since women’s colleges focus
on the education of women students, they are able to address the needs of their students
without trying to be ‘all things to all people’.
While findings from many studies show that attending a women’s college does
impact students in positive ways -- such as student satisfaction, involvement, endeavor
for higher education attainment, and career aspirations (Astin, 1977; Bressler & Wendel,
1980; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991; Smith 1990; Smith, Wolf, & Morrison, 1995;
Tidball, 1980; Whitt, 1994), -- others indicate that there are serious methodological
problems which mitigate the positive findings (Kim & Alvarez, 1996; Miller-Bernal,
1989; Riordan, 1994; Stoecker & Pascarella, 1991). These studies suggest that the
positive results are based on individual factors, and are determined more by socio-
economic status, pre-college academic ability, and variable of institutional selectivity
rather than institutional gender. Lack of control for these background elements (socio-
economic status, pre-college academic ability, and academic ability), small sample size,
and focus on specific institutions are some of the methodological problems that are cited
(Kim & Alvarez, 1996; Miller-Bernal, 1989; Riordan, 1994; Stoecker & Pascarella,
1991).
Generally however, in spite of these causes of uncertainty, the majority of studies
on women’s colleges show statistically significant effects on opportunities for leadership,
student satisfaction, educational attainment, and career outcomes. Important elements of
institutional culture that have been found to impact higher education attainment are
48
repeatedly mentioned in their literature and include academic expectations, missions and
histories that are supportive of women, female role models, a caring environment,
opportunities for involvement, opportunities to learn about oneself, and the achievement
of degrees at all levels of educational attainment. The research on women’s colleges
indicates, for the most part, that women’s colleges create environments that offer the
above cultural elements, in turn creating conditions that support and encourage women’s
higher education attainment.
In conclusion, although there are a few contradictions, the literature and research
for the most part found that institutional culture at coeducational and women’s colleges
has an affect on student success and higher education achievement for women students.
The review of the literature strongly suggests that more women achieve their degrees in
an environment which focuses on women; provides a higher ratio of female faculty, staff
and student leader role models (who are committed to helping women’s development
through a curriculum that includes women); provides peer support; encourages
interaction with student-oriented faculty who believe women are capable learners; and
has high expectations of women students.
49
Chapter 3
Research Design and Methodology
The methodology that was applied to the study is discussed in this chapter, which
includes sample selection, instrumentation, data collection procedures, trustworthiness
and authenticity, data analysis procedures, and limitations.
Observable elements of institutional culture (i.e. artifacts, values, basic
assumptions and beliefs) may affect higher education attainment of female students. The
purpose of this study is to determine answers to the following questions:
1. Using document analysis, what is revealed about elements of institutional
culture (i.e., artifacts, values, basic assumptions and beliefs) at the four major
institutions of higher education in Hawaii; University of Hawaii – Manoa, Hawaii
Pacific University, Brigham Young University – Hawaii, and Chaminade
University of Honolulu?
2. More specifically, does document analysis hold any promise for revealing an
association between elements of institutional culture at the four major institutions
of higher education and women's graduation and retention rates?
By identifying the elements of institutional culture associated with women’s
higher education attainment in Hawaii, and by revealing the negative and positive aspects
these elements have on women’s education, schools of higher education may profit from
50
this study. Knowing more about the institutional elements of Hawaii’s colleges could
assist Hawaii’s institutions of higher education in serving their women students better. It
is hoped that increased understanding of these elements could lead to the development of
unique policies and procedures that would increase women’s higher education attainment
within Hawaii.
Institution Selection Criteria
This case study was based on an analysis of the four major institutions of higher
education in Hawaii. The study focused on identifying and understanding the effect of
three elements of institutional culture on women’s higher education attainment in Hawaii.
These specific elements were defined by: (1) mission (symbols, values & beliefs), (2)
role models and mentors, and (3) female faculty/female student ratio. The four major
institutions of higher education in Hawaii were selected on the basis of (1) WASC
(Western Association of Schools and Colleges) accreditation as a bachelor degree
granting, not-for-profit, liberal arts university within the state of Hawaii; (2) a university
recognized by the State of Hawaii Post Secondary Education Commission, and (3) NCES
(National Center for Educational Statistics) data participation. The four universities
studied included one public research university, one private liberal arts college, and two
religiously-affiliated liberal arts colleges. All four universities had coeducational and
multi-cultural student and faculty populations.
A profile was developed for each of the four universities using publicly available
information and data from each university, WASC and NCES. The profile identified
51
criteria by using a comparative approach to interpret the observable elements of
institutional culture (i.e., artifacts, values, basic assumptions and beliefs) of these
institutions. This was done by examining the observable artifacts (values, basic
assumptions and beliefs) as found in their academic expectations; mission and history
which support women; female role models; student body statistics; caring, supporting
environment; opportunities for involvement; opportunities to learn about oneself; and
actual educational attainment. The study compared, contrasted and connected the
findings in order to show the differences between, and similarities among, the four major
institutions of higher education in Hawaii, and attempted to ascertain which elements of
institutional culture may have the strongest impact on higher education attainment for
their women students.
Data Collection and Analysis
In order to ascertain the elements of institutional culture that had the strongest impact on
education attainment for women, information and data were collected which:
1. Identified the artifacts, values, basic assumptions and beliefs of the four major
higher education institutions in Hawaii - (1) University of Hawaii - Manoa, (2)
Hawaii Pacific University, (3) Brigham Young University – Hawaii, and (4)
Chaminade University of Honolulu - as portrayed by each institution’s (a)
mission, (b) academic expectations, (d) female role models and mentors, (e)
female faculty/female student ratio and (f) six-year graduation rates of its women
students.
52
2. Compared the artifacts, values, basic assumptions and beliefs at these institutions
on the basis of women student population (enrollment), women faculty
population, women’s graduation rates, and women’s retention rates:
3. Compared institutional report findings, 2003-2005 university catalogs, and annual
reports in order to ascertain women students’ enrollment, retention, persistence,
and graduation rates at the aforementioned institutions.
The researcher used existing research, and predetermined instruments from
sources which yield statistical data to support the primary intent of the purpose of the
study (Cresswell, 2003). The sources of relevant data that the researcher used were:
• U.S. Census Bureau – cultural population’s statistics in Hawaii,
• U.S. Department of Education – list of the accredited institutions of higher
Education in Hawaii, and women’s colleges,
• National Commission of Educational Statistics – detailed information on
women’s and coeducational institutions of higher education,
• Western Association of Schools and Colleges – detailed information on the four
institutions in Hawaii, and women’s colleges
• Hawaii Department of Business and Tourism – statistical information on men and
women in higher education in Hawaii;
• Hawaii Information Services, Census 2000 (U.S. Census Bureau) – statistical
information on men and women in higher education in Hawaii,
• Data Book 2000 (State of Hawaii DBEDT) - – statistical information on men and
women in higher education in Hawaii,
53
• The Status of Women in Hawaii 2004 (IWPR 2004) – statistical information on
women in higher education in Hawaii.
In addition, the researcher used existing research data and secondary data analysis
(Cresswell, 2003) available from local and university libraries and on the Internet.
All data collected includes these variables: percent of women student population,
women student to women faculty ratio, institutional affiliation, student body size, tuition
costs, diversity of ethnicity represented by the women student population, mission and
history as they relate to women, academic expectations, female role models, retention
rates, and six year graduation rates. Once obtained, the researcher analyzed these data to
determine if they supported the hypothesis of the study that there were elements of
institutional culture which seemed to impact women’s graduation rates in Hawaii.
The researcher concluded by identifying the institutional elements that appeared
to encourage and be associated with higher education attainment of women in Hawaii.
Sample Selection
The population studied included data on female students attending the four
institutions of higher education selected for this study. Institutions were studied as a
“whole” and women students at the four institutions were not studied as individuals.
Although some researchers separate out international students, this was not done for
purposes of this study. The researcher used readily available, public domain, published
information and statistics available at local and university libraries and on the Internet in
order to compare the four institutions, and support the primary intent of the purpose of
54
the study (Cresswell, 2003).. These data were derived from the above listed publications,
and also included:
• 2004 Polk City Directory,
• U.S. Department of Education 2004 Digest of Education Statistics,
• National Commission of Educational Statistics 2004,
• National Common Data Set 2000 (NCDS. 2000),
• Data Book 2000 (State of Hawaii DBEDT),
• Hawaii Information Services.
In addition the researcher used public domain, published information and statistics
provided by the University of Hawaii - Manoa, Hawaii Pacific University, Brigham
Young University – Hawaii, and Chaminade University of Honolulu.
Higher Education Institutions in Hawaii
When the study began, there were 27 institutions of higher education in Hawaii
(IPEDS 2004). Eight of these were four year, degree granting universities: Argosy
University and University of Phoenix were private, for-profit institutions; Brigham
Young University - Hawaii, and Chaminade University were private, religious, not-for-
profit institutions; Hawaii Pacific University is a private, not-for-profit institution; and
the University of Hawaii system (including Hilo, Manoa, and West Oahu colleges) is a
public, not-for-profit, state sponsored institution of higher education.
For the purpose of this study, the characteristic cultures of only four major
institutions of higher education in Hawaii were studied and compared with each other,
55
which included the University of Hawaii – Manoa, Hawaii Pacific University, Brigham
Young University – Hawaii, and Chaminade University of Honolulu. The four
institutions were all coeducational, with one large public college/university system, one
large private non-denominational university, and two private, religious universities. All
four of these institutions have multi-ethnic, multi-cultural student populations and were
classified as liberal arts colleges/universities.
Each of the four institutions of higher education in Hawaii had a women’s student
enrollment ranging from 66% to 49.1%, which was essential in selection criteria:
• 56.4% at University of Hawaii – Manoa,
• 51.8% at Hawaii Pacific University,
• 49.1% at Brigham Young University – Hawaii,
• 66% at Chaminade University.
Women’s full time faculty at the four institutions range from 43.1% to 22%, which
was important in selection criteria:
• 38% at University of Hawaii – Manoa,
• 43.1% at Hawaii Pacific University,
• 22% at Brigham Young University – Hawaii,
• 39% at Chaminade University.
(Annual Report 2004, University of Hawaii – Manoa; Annual Report 2004, Hawaii
Pacific University; Annual Report 2004, Brigham Young University – Hawaii; Annual
Report 2004, Chaminade University; and individual institution Internet pages).
56
The four institutions were compared on a number of dimensions based on
comparison data from the National Common Data Set 2000 (NCDS 2000), the U.S. News
College Ranking Data 2004 (UNCR 2004), and each institution’s Catalog 2004-2005,
Institutional Reports 2004-2005, Annual Reports 2003-2004, and individual Internet
pages (2005). The scope of comparison includes:
• Percent of women student population
• Women student to women faculty ratio
• Institutional affiliation
• Student body size
• Tuition costs
• Diversity of ethnicity represented by the women student population
In addition, the study compares the cultures of the four major institutions in
Hawaii by examining their:
• Mission and history as they relate to women,
• Academic expectations for women,
• Female role models,
• Retention rates,
• Six year graduation rates.
The study identifies similarities and differences within the stated mission and
history, academic expectations, and availability of female role models by comparing and
contrasting the results of the data gathered from each institution with the other
57
institutions selected for the study. In addition, the absence of statements indicating
support of women was also considered.
The use of the four major higher education institutions in Hawaii as sources for
this study is beneficial in several ways. First, the institutions were compared in terms of
their student population, academic capabilities, affiliation, and financial status. Second,
the study needed to focus on institutions in Hawaii to determine if there were differences
in institutional culture which set them apart from one another and may have an impact on
higher education attainment for women in Hawaii. Third, all four major higher education
institutions examined were located in Hawaii allowing for greater flexibility and access to
existing data from the institutions’ information while conducting this study.
Instrumentation
The protocol used for this study began with gathering information on the women
of Hawaii from the identified sources indicated in the above listing pertaining to the
comparisons noted above.
Data Collection Procedures
Prior to data collection, a proposal for the study was submitted to the Internal
Review Board of the University of Southern California. Once approval was received,
data collection began. The method of data collection included researching and gathering
data from the above listed publications and artifacts, and these additional sources:
• University of Hawaii Library
58
• State of Hawaii Library
• Brigham Young University Library
• Chaminade University Library
• Hawaii Pacific University Library
• the Internet
• U.S. News College Ranking Data 2005 (UNCR 2004)
• Education Statistics, the National Commission of Educational Statistics 2004.
2005
• Measuring Up 2000
Data Analysis Procedures
A comparison chart was created and then utilized to analyze gathered data from
each of the four institutions, which identified the following elements:
• Date Established
• Affiliation
• Institutional President gender
• Undergraduate Student Population – IPEDS 2005
• Undergraduate Women student population – IPEDS 2005
• Enrollment rate/women
• Retention rate – women
• Graduation rate – 6 yr, women
• Ethnic diversity
59
• Gender
• Age – average
• Family status – predominantly
• Total full time faculty
• Total full time women faculty
• Percent total women faculty
• Women student to women faculty ratio
• Tuition costs – annual
• Women’s studies programs
• Minority women student population
• Institutional culture – supportive, neutral, unsupportive
o Artifacts
o Values
o Basic assumptions & beliefs
• Mission & history that supports women
• Academic expectations for women – supportive, neutral, unsupportive
Areas of major similarity and major difference between the institutions were identified
using these as pre-established categories of elements.
A constant comparative method was used to analyze the data (described by Glaser
and Strauss, cited in Lincoln & Guba, 1985). This method is described as following four
distinct stages: comparing incidents applicable to each category, integrating categories
60
and their properties, delimiting the theory, and writing the theory. In this process
observable information and statistical data were gathered on each of the above listed
elements of institutional culture at each of the four identified institutions. The gathered
information and data were then placed in categories according to the appropriate
identified characteristic of institutional culture for each individual identified institution.
The information and data for all identified elements of institutional culture and for all
four identified institutions were then assembled. Each characteristic was compared
separately as well as collectively among the four institutions. The information and data
were then compared among the elements and institutions, identifying those elements that
appeared to have an effect on graduation and retention rates in women students, and those
elements that did not. Originally, the constant comparative method was developed by
Glaser and Straus (1967) as a means of creating grounded theory. This method has been
accepted and adapted by qualitative researchers not necessarily seeking to develop
substantive theory. This method requires constant comparison of data (Merriam, 1998).
The design of this constant comparison is modified into temporary categories which were
established for this study based on information derived from the literature. Analysis of
the data led to the addition of new categories. The added categories were compared again
to each other and to other groups which exist in the data (Merriam. 1998).
Hypotheses were drawn based on the relationships and properties of the data
categories. The comparisons of the data groups were conducted in two steps:
• The first step of data analysis was to confirm existing elements and identify
any new elements in order to answer research question number one. The data
61
were sorted according to the pre-established categories of elements which may
influence higher education attainment of women in Hawaii.
• The second step of data analysis was to compare and contrast the similarities
and differences identified in the elements of each institution’s culture
impacting women’s higher education attainment in Hawaii in step one with
the elements of each of the four major institutions of higher education in
Hawaii in order to answer research question number two.
All are described in greater detail in subsections below.
Trustworthiness and Authenticity of Data
Use of data from multiple, verifiable sources was used in order to enhance the
credibility of this study. In addition, the data comparisons were reviewed by the
committee chair in order to verify data interpretation. Copies of all data tables used were
included as exhibits in the Appendix of the study.
The researcher was concerned with making as accurate an interpretation of the
data as possible. In order to increase the credibility of the study, the conclusions that
were made were verified by the committee chair.
The researcher is aware there may be some areas where insufficient data was
available for all the elements to be examined. When this occurred, the absence of
available data for that characteristic was noted. Also noted is any case in which there is
an absence of data available for a characteristic from all four institutions. In some cases,
62
relevant data could not be found for a characteristic from all four institutions; only one or
two institutions had them.
Limitations
There were limitations to this study: It does not formally consider two of the
major individual variables that are most often cited as contributing to access,
achievement, or attainment of a college degree, namely socio-economic status (e.g.,
household elements or income) and prior academic performance (e.g., SAT scores or
GPA) because this study was focused on institutional elements only. It is clear that these
data on women may vary among the four institutions studied, and that these variables -
more than culture - may be affecting graduation rates. In addition, this study does not use
individual or group interviews as a part of the study. The study also is limited to
institutions of higher education in the state of Hawaii; no comparisons were made with
institutions of higher education in the United States or any other part of the world. The
study focuses only on the four major higher education institutions in the state of Hawaii
as selected by NCDS 2004 data and by the researcher. International students were not
separated from domestic for the purposes of this study. Although the study may unearth
some generalized findings, it is not the intent of the study to generalize findings across all
students and all institutions. Its intent is to identify elements affecting women’s
graduation and retention rates through document and data analyses of institutional culture
in Hawaii.
63
The researcher sought to control similarities and differences by using two large
higher education institutions and two small higher education institutions with comparable
student body statistics. The student bodies are very similar in some respects and different
in others. Each institution is classified as a university, but only three of the four have
graduate programs. This characteristic may impact the culture of the institution, but was
not considered in the study since the study focused on undergraduate student populations.
Like all document reviews in quantitative and qualitative research, the results
were based on the data and analysis at a given point in time. There is no guarantee the
results will continue to be true for these institutions at a later point in time. Future study
of the elements of institutional culture impacting higher education attainment of women
in Hawaii will provide information not presently available, and an opportunity to further
explore the possibilities for change.
Although the four institutions of higher education in Hawaii being examined were
all coeducational, this research provides a distinctive perspective of differences and
similarities in the elements of institutional culture within these institutions.
64
Chapter 4
Findings
The purpose of this study was to ascertain the identifiable elements of institutional
culture at four selected major institutions of higher education in Hawaii, and to determine
if they appear to be associated with higher education attainment of their women students.
Women represent the majority of students in higher education in Hawaii (IWPR 2002).
The result of this study appeared to indicate a possible association between identifiable
elements of institutional culture at the four selected major institutions of higher education
in Hawaii and educational attainment of women in Hawaii. Because of the intent of this
study as noted above, there were some aspects that were not included and not controlled
in the study; such as different individual demographics of women, women students’
socio-economic-status, entering freshman Scholastic Aptitude Test results, and interviews
with women students and women faculty at the institutions – any of which may also be
associated with women’s graduation and retention rates.
Chapter Organization
This chapter is organized as a discussion of the research questions identifying and
analyzing elements of institutional culture at four selected institutions in Hawaii-
University of Hawaii - Manoa, Hawaii Pacific University, Brigham Young University –
Hawaii, and Chaminade University of Honolulu - and the possible association these
elements have on the higher education attainment of their women students.
65
Research Questions
1. Using document analysis, what is revealed about elements of institutional
culture (i.e., artifacts, values, basic assumptions and beliefs) at the four major
institutions of higher education in Hawaii: University of Hawaii – Manoa, Hawaii
Pacific University, Brigham Young University – Hawaii, and Chaminade
University of Honolulu?
2. More specifically, does document analysis hold any promise for revealing an
association between elements of institutional culture at the four major institutions
of higher education and women's graduation and retention rates?
Discussion
First Research Question:
Four major institutions were chosen in Hawaii in order to address the first
research question, identifying elements of institutional culture (i.e., artifacts, values, basic
assumptions and beliefs). The results of this study revealed several new insights into
higher education attainment by women students in Hawaii.
First, results suggested that there appears to be several similar identifiable
elements of institutional culture at all four institutions. They were all located on the
island of Oahu, and have multi-cultural, multi-ethnic student populations Each institution
appeared to have some institutional elements which appeared to be common among all
four institutions:
66
• Each had a relatively large minority student population, ranging from 60 to 79
percent of the total student population (Table 4.1, p.67).
• Their overall missions and histories appeared to be unsupportive to some
students, especially women (Table 4.1, p.67).
• A previously unidentified element was found that attested to their mission and
history: They have campus environments in which a high majority of
buildings and statues were named for male founders, teachers, and athletes;
there was very little recognition of the women who contribute to the success
of the institution (Table 4.1, p.67).
Second, results indicate that there also appeared to be identifiable elements of
institutional culture at all four institutions which were very different:
• Two of the institutions had strong religious affiliations, Catholic and The
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.
• Three of the institutions had male leadership; only one had a female president.
• Three of the institutions were private universities, only one was public.
• One of the institutions was a research university, two were student-oriented
institutions, the fourth was a career-oriented institution.
• One of the institutions had a very low women faculty population; the rest were
higher but still well below par with women student enrollment.
• A previously unidentified element was found: Three of the institutions did not
have a women’s center or a women’s studies program, which may attract and
retain women students. The institution that had a women’s studies program
67
offers it as an integrated studies course and its women’s center also served
other student communities, not just women (Table 4.1, p.67).
Table 4.1: Comparison of Institutional Elements and Assigned Rankings of Selected
Hawaii Institutions
Comparison of Institutional Elements and Ranking of the four Hawaii institutions within each characteristic
Focus of
comparison/
Institution
Rank University
of Hawaii
Manoa
Rank Chaminade
University
Rank Hawaii Pacific
University
Rank Brigham
Young
University
Hawaii
Graduation
rate – 6 yr,
women
1 58% 2 40% 3 35.80% 4 33.80%
Enrollment
rate/women
2 56.40% 1 69% 3 51.80% 4 49.10%
Retention rate
– women
2 77.4% 4 65% 3 68% 1 78.9%
Total Full
Time Faculty
1 1169 4 77 2 225 3 115
Percent Full
Time women
faculty
3 38% -
418/1086
2 39% - 30/77 1 43.1% -
97/225
4 22% -
25/115
Percent Total
Women
Faculty
3 39% -
452/1169
2 41% -
56/136
1 42.1% -
244/582
4 37% -
82/224
Women
student to
women full
time faculty
ratio
1 6631:418 or
15.9:1
2 716:30 or
23.9:1
3 3136:97 or
32.3:1
4 1229:25 or
49.2:1
Tuition costs -
annual
1 $ 3580
resident;
$10060
non-resident
3 $13,850 2 $10,922 4 $3775
member;
$4988
nonmember
Women’s
studies
programs
1 Interdiscipli
nary
2 None 3 None 4 None
Minority
women
student
population
1 79% 4 60.1% 3 63.6% 2 77.7%
Institutional
culture –
supportive,
neutral,
unsupportive
1 Somewhat
supportive
2 Somewhat
unsupportiv
e
3 Somewhat
unsupportive
4 Somewhat
supportive
Mission &
history that
supports
women
1 Somewhat
supportive
2 Somewhat
unsupportiv
e
3 Somewhat
unsupportive
4 Somewhat
supportive
(IPEDS 2005; UH Manoa Common Data Set 2004-2005; UH Annual Report 2004-2005; UH Manoa General Catalog
2004-2005; IPEDS 2005; HPU Common Data Set 2004-2005; HPU Annual Report 2004-2005; HPU General Catalog
2004-2005; IPEDS 2005; BYUH Common Data Set 2004-2005; BYUH Annual Report 2004-2005; BYUH General
Catalog 2004-2005;IPEDS 2005; Chaminade Common Data Set 2004-2005; Chaminade Annual Report 2004-2005;
Chaminade General Catalog 2004-2005).
68
Second Research Question:
The results of the study indicated that there appeared to be a relationship between
some observable elements of institutional culture but not others at the four selected major
institutions of higher education in Hawaii. Specifically, findings from the comparisons
appeared to indicate that the fewer women faculty that were available to mentor women
students or for women students to observe in successful academic roles, and the more
likely the institution was to be unsupportive to the mission, environment, and
opportunities that contribute to women undergraduate students successful educational
attainment, the lower the graduation rates. Conversely, the more women faculty that were
available to mentor and be observed by women students, the higher the graduation rates.
Table 4.2
Comparison of Women Student / Women Faculty Ratio, Graduation,
and Ranking at the four Hawaii institutions
Institution Women Student/
Women
Faculty
ratio
Rank Graduation rate Rank
University of Hawaii
Manoa
24.3:1 1 58% 1
Chaminade University 24.8:1 2 40% 2
Hawaii Pacific University 35.4:1 3 35.7% 3
Brigham Young University
Hawaii
61:1 4 33.8% 4
(IPEDS 2005; UH Manoa Common Data Set 2004-2005; UH Annual Report 2004-2005; UH Manoa General Catalog
2004-2005; HPU Common Data Set 2004-2005; HPU Annual Report 2004-2005; HPU General Catalog 2004-2005;
BYUH Common Data Set 2004-2005; BYUH Annual Report 2004-2005; BYUH General Catalog 2004-2005;
Chaminade Common Data Set 2004-2005; Chaminade Annual Report 2004-2005; Chaminade General Catalog 2004-
2005)
In the case of Women Student / Women Faculty ratio and Six-Year Graduation
rate (Table 4.2, p. 68) among the four institutions, the institution with the highest
graduation rate had the lowest number of women students per women faculty, second
highest graduation rate had a higher number of women students per women faculty, third
69
highest graduation rate had an even higher number of women students per women
faculty, and fourth highest graduation rate had the highest number of women students per
women faculty. This was a surprising and unexpected outcome in that the rankings did
not hold true for the other elements that might seem to be associated with Women
Student / Women Faculty ration, i.e. Percent Full Time Women Faculty to Six-Year
Graduation Rates (Table 4.3, p.69) and Women’s Enrollment Rate and Six-Year
Graduation Rates (Table 4.4, p.70).
Interestingly, in the case of the Percentage of Full Time Women Faculty to Six-
Year Graduation Rates, the institution with the highest percentage of full time women
faculty had the third highest graduation rate, and the institution with the third highest
percentage of full time women had the highest graduation rate. The other 2 institutions
remained constant at second and fourth in both full time women faculty percentage rates
and graduation rates. Consequently, it appears as if it is not the percentage of full time
women faculty, but the lower number of women students per women faculty, or ratio
proportions, that may be positively associated with graduation rates.
Table 4.3
Focus of Comparison – Six-Year Women’s Graduation Rate
Compared to Percent Full Time Women Faculty
Focus of comparison/
Institution
University of
Hawaii Manoa
Chaminade
University
Hawaii
Pacific
University
Brigham Young
University Hawaii
Graduation rate – 6 yr,
women
58% 40% 35.8% 33.8%
Percent Full Time
women faculty
38% - 418/1086 39% - 30/77 43.1% -
97/225
22% - 25/115
(IPEDS 2005; UH Manoa Common Data Set 2004-2005; UH Annual Report 2004-2005; UH Manoa General Catalog
2004-2005; HPU Common Data Set 2004-2005; HPU Annual Report 2004-2005; HPU General Catalog 2004-2005;
BYUH Common Data Set 2004-2005; BYUH Annual Report 2004-2005; BYUH General Catalog 2004-2005;
Chaminade Common Data Set 2004-2005; Chaminade Annual Report 2004-2005; Chaminade General Catalog 2004-
2005)
70
These comparisons found that higher numbers and a higher percentage of
women’s enrollment by itself did not appear to be associated with increased graduation
and retention rates among women students at the four institutions in Hawaii. Chaminade
University had the highest enrollment of fulltime women students yet had a substantially
lower women’s graduation rate than University of Hawaii Manoa. Brigham Young
University Hawaii had the second highest enrollment rate of women students while
having the lowest women’s graduation rate of the selected institutions.
Table 4.4
Focus of Comparison –Results of Six-Year Women’s Graduation Rate
and Enrollment Rate Comparison
Focus of comparison/
Institution
University of
Hawaii Manoa
Chaminade
University
Hawaii Pacific
University
Brigham Young
University
Hawaii
Graduation rate – 6 yr,
women
58% 40% 35.8% 33.8%
Enrollment rate/women 56.40% 66% 51.8% 49.1%
(IPEDS 2005; UH Manoa Common Data Set 2004-2005; UH Annual Report 2004-2005; UH Manoa General Catalog
2004-2005; HPU Common Data Set 2004-2005; HPU Annual Report 2004-2005; HPU General Catalog 2004-2005;
BYUH Common Data Set 2004-2005; BYUH Annual Report 2004-2005; BYUH General Catalog 2004-2005;
Chaminade Common Data Set 2004-2005; Chaminade Annual Report 2004-2005; Chaminade General Catalog 2004-
2005).
Institutional Findings
University of Hawaii – Manoa (UHM)
Established in 1907 and currently enrolls approximately 11,789 undergraduate
students, over half of whom are women. Approximately 35% of its students come from
Hawaii, 25% are from out-of-state, and the remainder are international students, less than
30% live on campus. The university has nine colleges and 8 schools which include a
graduate school, a law school, a school of architecture and a school of medicine. Over
1086 full time faculty are employed at UHM, 418 (38%) of whom are women. The
71
University of Hawaii Annual Report 2004 describes the mission, vision, values, and basic
assumptions and beliefs of the university and illustrate an institutional culture which
emphasizes the institution, research, scholarly leaders, students and teaching.
The University of Hawaii-Manoa mission statement, vision statement and core
commitments (values) are strongly centered on depicting the university as a premier
research institution whose scholars are leaders in their disciplines; whose students are
prepared for leadership roles in society; which strives for excellence in teaching,
research, and public service; and is an innovative institution, comfortable with change;
celebrating its diversity and uniqueness as a Hawaiian place of learning and building on
its strengths including an unparalleled natural environment and tradition of outstanding
Asia-Pacific scholarship. The university is committed to research, educational
effectiveness, social justice, place, economic development, culture, society & the arts,
and technology. Strategic Imperatives of the university include recruiting, rewarding, and
supporting outstanding faculty, staff and students committed to research and graduate
education; engaging all undergraduates in research and creative scholarship; and
encouraging, supporting, publicizing, expanding and investing in research and
scholarship. It is evident that the university considers itself to be a research and scholar
(faculty) centered university. There is no mention of a caring or supportive environment
for students (University of Hawaii Annual Report 2004; UH Manoa General Catalog
2004-2005; http://www.hawaii.edu/annual_rpt2004.pdf).
As of Fall 2004, the University of Hawaii-Manoa employed 1,086 full time
faculty, of which 418, 38% were women. With a women undergraduate student
72
population of 6631, 56.4% of the total 11,789 undergraduate student population, the
women student to women full time faculty ratio was 15.9:1. The age range for UH
women students was 15 – 73 years of age, with an average age of 22.3 years of age.
Women student retention rate was 77.4%, with a 6 yr. graduation rate of 58%. UHM
students are predominately single, from many cultural and ethnic origins, and live off
campus. Tuition for the university is $3,580 per year for residents and $10,060 for non
residents. (IPEDS 2005; UH Manoa Common Data Set 2004-2005; UH Annual Report
2004-2005; UH Manoa General Catalog 2004-2005).
Women undergraduate students at the University of Hawaii-Manoa graduate at a
rate of 19% within four years and 58% within six years. Over 60% of women
undergraduate students at the University of Hawaii-Manoa who enroll as mathematics,
science, and business majors change majors to more traditionally female majors within
the education and social sciences majors after 2 years; the effect is extending the total
amount of time required to complete a baccalaureate degree. There is no data available
for those women undergraduate students who stay with the university for more than 6
years before graduating. The data indicates that 81% do not graduate with four years and
that 42% do not graduate within six years. (IPEDS 2005; UH Manoa Common Data Set
2004-2005; UH Annual Report 2004-2005; UH Manoa General Catalog 2004-2005).
Other than changing majors, there is no directly observable and available data that would
explain this phenomenon.
Further evidence is gained by walking around the campus. More than 80% of the
buildings are named after men, mostly Hawaiian royalty, politicians, and businessmen
73
from Hawaii’s early history. About 20% of the buildings are named for women from
Hawaii’s early history; all are of Hawaiian royal lineage. The few readily observable
statues and murals on the UH Manoa campus depict Hawaiian historical events involving
wars, royal ceremonies and events. The majority are male centered. The exception is the
group of bronze statues in front of the Richardson School of Law, which depicts 3
students, 2 male and 1 female, preparing to cross Dole Street. The majority of the streets
on campus are named for men in Hawaii’s history. There is very little readily observable
evidence of recognition of women involved in the history of the university; or of
welcome for women students. The physical campus environment shows little evidence
that women are welcome or respected on campus. The one exception is the Women’s
Center. The University of Hawaii – Manoa seems to present a somewhat unsupportive
environment towards women undergraduate students.
Opportunities for involvement include chances to be involved in activities such as
clubs, athletics, and student government on and off campus. Such opportunities have a
positive impact on women’s academic achievement and self esteem by giving them
opportunities to develop communication, leadership and teamwork skills that can be used
throughout their lives. The University of Hawaii – Manoa has a wide variety of activities
for women undergraduate students to become involved with; more than 60% of the clubs
currently have women leaders. (UH Manoa General Catalog 2004-2005).
The university sponsors a Women’s Center with a four member staff, including a
director, receptionist and two counselors. The Women’s Center sponsors two major
events annually, one focused on eliminating sexual violence on campus and one focused
74
on encouraging tolerance of students’ sexual orientation. In addition the center offers
regularly scheduled workshops on student safety and defense; and sensitivity training for
campus security (UH Manoa Women’s Center brochure 2004).
The University of Hawaii-Manoa offers an interdisciplinary studies program
which focuses on women but does not offer a bachelors degree in Women Studies. The
majority of courses offered within the Women’s Studies department focus on the history,
literature, and sociology of women in cultures outside of Hawaii (UH Manoa General
Catalog 2004-2005). There is little opportunity for the majority of women undergraduate
students to learn about themselves through women’s history and culture studies. Since the
university is not a liberal arts institution, exploring themselves through different fields of
study is particularly difficult and is sometimes only accomplished by changing majors.
Studies have shown that a well-defined and clearly communicated mission to
educate students; high academic expectations; positive, supportive role models;
opportunities for leadership; and a caring, supportive environment are essential for
women undergraduate students’ successful educational attainment. The university is
research, institution, and scholar (faculty) centered in its mission, vision, values, and
beliefs (UHM Annual Report 2004-2005).
The following table consolidates the above data.
75
Table 4.5– Organizational Elements University of Hawaii – Manoa
Focus of comparison/ Institution University of Hawaii – Manoa
Date Established 1954
Affiliation Public
Institutional President - gender Male
Undergraduate Student Population (FTE) –
IPEDS 2005 11,789
Undergraduate Women student population
(FTE) – IPEDS 2005 6,631
Enrollment rate of women 56.4%
Retention rate – women 77.4%
Graduation rate – 6 yr, women 58%
Ethnic diversity multicultural
Gender Co-ed
Age – average 22.3 yrs
Family status - predominantly Single – 56.7%
Total Full Time Faculty 1169
Percent Full Time women faculty 38% - 418/1086
Percent Total Women Faculty 39% - 452/1169
Women student to women faculty ratio 15.5:1
Tuition costs - annual $ 3,580 resident
$10,060 non
Women’s studies programs Interdisciplinary
Minority women student population 79%
Institutional culture – supportive,
somewhat supportive, somewhat
unsupportive, unsupportive somewhat unsupportive
Academic expectations for women –
supportive, somewhat supportive,
somewhat unsupportive, unsupportive somewhat supportive
Mission & history that supports women -
supportive, somewhat supportive,
somewhat unsupportive, unsupportive somewhat unsupportive
(IPEDS 2005; UH Manoa Common Data Set 2004-2005; UH Annual Report 2004-2005; UH Manoa General Catalog
2004-2005).
Hawaii Pacific University
Hawaii Pacific University (HPU) is an independent, not-for-profit, coeducational,
nonsectarian, career-oriented post secondary institution founded in 1965 located on two
76
campuses, one in downtown Honolulu, Hawaii and the second in Kaneohe, Hawaii
(approximately 8 miles from downtown Honolulu). HPU currently enrolls approximately
6,049 undergraduate students, over half of whom are women. Approximately 39% of its
students come from Hawaii, 37% are from out-of-state, and the remainder approximately
23% are international and Pacific Island students, less than 20% live on campus as there
is no on campus residential housing available for the downtown Honolulu campus where
the majority of students attend classes. The university has six colleges, two schools and a
center for English Language Programs, which include a graduate school, a school of
nursing and a Teacher Education Program. Its forty-year history is that of a small private
liberal arts college developing into a professional, business, and career-oriented graduate
studies university. The Hawaii Pacific University Annual Report 2004 describes the
mission, vision, values, and basic assumptions and beliefs of the university and illustrate
an institutional culture which emphasizes the institution, research, scholarly leaders,
students and teaching.
The HPU mission statement and values are strongly centered on depicting the
university as an international learning community set in the rich cultural context of
Hawaii; hosting students from around the world for an American liberal arts education;
providing innovative undergraduate and graduate programs anticipating the changing
needs of the community; and preparing graduates to live, work, and learn as active
members of a global society. The university is committed to providing career-oriented
post secondary education; one of the most culturally diverse learning communities in the
world, with students from over 100 countries; highly qualified and accredited faculty
77
with academic and business credentials that enliven the classroom experience, and no
teaching assistants in the classroom; and providing students with the skills and
knowledge to succeed, friends from around the world, and memories of living in
paradise. It is evident that the university considers itself to be an international learning
community that is a career oriented post secondary institution. There is no mention of a
caring or supportive environment for students.
As of Fall 2003, Hawaii Pacific University employed 225 full time faculty, of
which 97, 43.1% were women. With an undergraduate student population of 6,144, of
which 3,435, 55.9% were women; Hawaii Pacific University (HPU) has a women
undergraduate student to women faculty ratio of 35.4:1. the age range for HPU women
undergraduate students was 16 – 71 years of age, with an average age of 26 years of age.
Women student retention rate was 68%, with a 6 year graduation rate of 55.9%. Hawaii
Pacific University is a coeducational 4 year, private, non-denominational university
whose students are predominately single, from many cultural and ethnic origins, and most
live off campus. Tuition for the university was $10,922 per year for undergraduate
students. (IPEDS 2004; HPU Common Data Set 2003-2003; HPU Annual Report 2002-
2003; Hawaii Pacific University Annual Report 2004).
Women undergraduate students at the Hawaii Pacific University graduate at a rate
of 24% within four years and 35.8% within six years. Over 65% of women undergraduate
students at the Hawaii Pacific University who enroll as mathematics, science, and
business majors change majors to more traditional majors within communications, and
social sciences majors after 2 years; in effect extending the total amount of time required
78
to complete a baccalaureate degree. There is no data available for those women
undergraduate students who stay with the university for more than 6 years before
graduating. The data indicates that 76% do not graduate with four years and that 64.2%
do not graduate within six years (IPEDS 2004; HPU Common Data Set 2003-2003; HPU
Annual Report 2002-2003; Hawaii Pacific University Annual Report 2004). Other than
changing majors, there is no readily observable and available data that would explain this
phenomenon.
Further evidence of this is gained by walking around the campus. Hawaii Pacific
University’s main campus is literally a downtown campus with classrooms and offices
located in several large commercial office buildings in a six block downtown area.
HPU’s secondary campus is located on the windward side of Oahu and houses the social
science, nursing, and science programs. All of the buildings are named after male
business, political, and Hawaiian leaders. There are several centers named by the
university – the library, the high tech classroom center, the student center – after male
donors and trustees. No facilities are named for women. There are no statues or murals
on the main campus.
Opportunities for involvement include chances to be involved in activities such as
clubs, athletics, and student government on and off campus. Such opportunities have a
positive impact on women’s academic achievement and self esteem by giving them
opportunities to develop communication, leadership and teamwork skills that can be used
throughout their lives. Hawaii Pacific University has a wide variety of activities for
79
women undergraduate students to become involved with; more than 40% of the clubs
currently have women leaders.
The university does not have or sponsor a Women’s Center, women centered
events or rituals. All counseling is available through the universities academic counseling
office.
Hawaii Pacific University offers an interdisciplinary studies program which
focuses on women but does not offer a bachelors degree in Women Studies. The majority
of courses offered within the Women’s Studies department focus on the history,
literature, and sociology of women in cultures outside of Hawaii (Hawaii Pacific
University General Catalog 2004-2005). There is little opportunity for the majority of
women undergraduate students to learn about themselves through women’s history and
culture studies. Although the university is a liberal arts institution, exploring themselves
through different fields of study is particularly difficult due to the career oriented
curricula.
Studies have shown that a well-defined and clearly communicated mission to
educate students; high academic expectations; positive, supportive role models;
opportunities for leadership; and a caring, supportive environment are essential for
women undergraduate students’ successful educational attainment. The university is
strongly centered on its vision as an international learning community committed to
providing career-oriented post secondary education; hosting students from around the
world for an American liberal arts education; providing innovative undergraduate and
80
graduate programs anticipating the changing needs of the community; and preparing
graduates to live, work, and learn as active members of a global society.
The following table consolidates the above data.
Table 4.6 – Organizational Elements Hawaii Pacific University
Focus of comparison/ Institution Hawaii Pacific University
Date Established 1965
Affiliation Private/non denominational
Institutional President gender Male
Undergraduate Student Population (FTE) – IPEDS
2005
6049
Undergraduate Women Student Population (FTE) –
IPEDS 2005
3136
Enrollment rate/women 51.80%
Retention rate – women Not Available
Graduation rate – 6 yr, women 35.80%
Ethnic diversity multicultural
Gender Co-ed
Age – average 26.2 yrs
Family status - predominantly Single – 66.4%
Total Full Time Faculty 225
Percent Full Time women faculty 43.1% - 97/225
Percent Total Women Faculty 42.1% - 244/582
Women student to women faculty ratio 32.3:1
Tuition costs - annual $10,922
Women’s studies programs None
Minority women student population 60.10%
Institutional culture – supportive, somewhat
supportive, somewhat unsupportive, unsupportive
Somewhat unsupportive
Academic expectations for women – supportive,
somewhat supportive, somewhat unsupportive,
unsupportive
Somewhat supportive
Mission & history that supports women -
supportive, somewhat supportive, somewhat
unsupportive, unsupportive
Somewhat unsupportive
(IPEDS 2005; HPU Common Data Set 2004-2005; HPU Annual Report 2004-2005; HPU General Catalog 2004-
2005).
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Brigham Young University – Hawaii
Brigham Young University Hawaii (BYUH) is a small, religiously affiliated,
academically challenging university emphasizing the liberal arts together with
professional programs in business, education and computer technologies. BYUH services
an international student body -- over 50 percent of students come from over 70 countries
outside the United States, primarily from the nations of Asia and the Pacific. Established
in 1955 as the Church College of Hawaii, the campus is located in Laie on the windward
shore of Oahu, 35 miles from Honolulu. The university has one college, and three
schools which include a College of Arts and Sciences offering twelve majors, a School of
Business offering 3 majors, a School of Computing offering 3 majors and a School of
Education offering two majors. Its 50 year history is that of a small private religious
liberal arts college and remains much the same today. The university does not have a
graduate studies program.
The Brigham Young University Hawaii mission statement and values are strongly
centered on depicting the university as an institution which exists to assist individuals in
their quest for perfection and eternal life and in their efforts to influence the
establishment of peace internationally. Brigham Young University Hawaii believes that
this can be accomplished by educating the minds and spirits of students within an
intercultural, gospel-centered environment and curriculum that increases their religious
faith, is intellectually enlarging, is character building, and leads to a life of learning and
service; preparing men and women with the intercultural and leadership skills necessary
to promote world peace and international brotherhood; extending the blessings of
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learning to members of the Church, particularly in Asia and the Pacific; developing
friends for the University and the Church; and maintaining a commitment to operational
efficiency and continuous improvement. The university considers itself to be an
educational institution that is focused on educating students with intellectual, spiritual,
and leadership skills to promote peace in the world.
As of Fall 2004, Brigham Young University Hawaii employed 115 full time
faculty, of which 27, 23.1% were women. With an undergraduate student population of
2,703, of which 1625, 54.5% were women; Brigham Young University Hawaii (BYUH)
has a women undergraduate student to women faculty ratio of 61:1. The age range for
BYUH women undergraduate students was 16 – 62 years of age, with an average age of
22 years of age. Women student retention rate was 78.9%, with a 6 year graduation rate
of 33.8%. BYUH is a coeducational 4 year, private, religious university whose students
are predominately single, from many cultural and ethnic origins, and most live on campus
or within the immediate university community. Tuition for the university was $3,775 per
year for church members, and $4988 per year for non church members. (IPEDS 2004;
BYUH Common Data Set 2003-2003; BYUH Fact Book 2002-2003).
Women undergraduate students at the Brigham Young University Hawaii
graduate at a rate of 19% within four years and 33.8% within six years. Over 72% of
women undergraduate students at the Brigham Young University Hawaii who enroll as
mathematics and science majors change majors to more traditional majors within the
social sciences majors after 2 years; in effect extending the total amount of time required
to complete a baccalaureate degree. There is no data available for those women
83
undergraduate students who stay with the university for more than 6 years before
graduating. The data indicates that 81% do not graduate within four years and that 66.2%
do not graduate within six years. Other than changing majors, there is no readily
observable and available data that would explain this phenomenon.
Further evidence of this is gained by walking around the campus. Brigham Young
University Hawaii is located in a small rural community on the northeast shore of Oahu.
There are 38 buildings on the campus, 7 of which are named after male religious leaders
of the church. There are 2 statues and one mural on campus, all depicting male leaders of
the church, Hawaiian and Caucasian. No facilities or statues are named for women.
Opportunities for involvement include chances to be involved in activities such as
clubs, athletics, and student government on and off campus. Such opportunities have a
positive impact on women’s academic achievement and self esteem by giving them
opportunities to develop communication, leadership and teamwork skills that can be used
throughout their lives. Brigham Young University Hawaii has a wide variety of activities
for women undergraduate students to become involved in, less than 30% of the clubs
currently have women leaders.
The university does not have or sponsor a Women’s Center, women student
centered events or rituals. All counseling is available through the universities academic
counseling office.
Brigham Young University Hawaii offers no women’s studies courses. There is
no opportunity for women undergraduate students to learn about themselves through
women’s history and culture studies.
84
The university states that it is strongly centered on its vision as an institution
which exists to educate men and women who will influence the establishment of peace
internationally.
The following table consolidates the above data.
Table 4.7 – Organizational Elements Brigham Young University Hawaii
Focus of comparison/ Institution Brigham Young University –
Hawaii
Date Established
1955
Affiliation
Private/religious
Institutional President gender
Male
Undergraduate Student Population – IPEDS 2005
2486
Undergraduate Women student population – IPEDS
2005
1229
Enrollment rate/women
49.10%
Retention rate – women
Not Available
Graduation rate – 6 yr, women
33.80%
Ethnic diversity
multicultural
Gender
Co-ed
Age – average
22.1 yrs
Family status - predominantly
Single – 65.3%
Total Full Time Faculty
115
Percent Full Time women faculty
22% - 25/115
Percent Total Women Faculty
37% - 82/224
Women student to women faculty ratio
49.2:1
Tuition costs - annual
$3775 member
$4988 nonmember
Women’s studies programs
None
Minority women student population
63.60%
Institutional culture – supportive, somewhat
supportive, somewhat unsupportive, unsupportive
Unsupportive
Academic expectations for women – supportive,
somewhat supportive, somewhat unsupportive,
unsupportive
Unsupportive
Mission & history that supports women - supportive,
somewhat supportive, somewhat unsupportive,
unsupportive
Unsupportive
(IPEDS 2005; BYUH Common Data Set 2004-2005; BYUH Annual Report 2004-2005; BYUH General Catalog 2004-
2005).
85
Chaminade University of Honolulu
Chaminade University of Honolulu is a small, Catholic, comprehensive university
sponsored by the Province of the United States of America of the Society of Mary
(Marianists). The university has one college, and seven graduate programs which include
a College of Liberal Arts offering twenty majors, and graduate programs in business,
education, and accounting. Its 50 year history is that of a small private religious liberal
arts college and remains much the same today. Chaminade currently offers three
bachelors degrees in twenty-two undergraduate majors, five graduate degree programs,
and several professional certificate programs.
The Chaminade University of Honolulu mission statement and values are strongly
centered on depicting the university as an institution which exists to educate students in a
collaborative learning environment that prepares them for life, work and service, guided
by its Catholic, Marianist and liberal arts educational traditions; encourages the
development of moral character, personal competencies, and a commitment to build a just
and peaceful society; offers both the civic and church communities of the Pacific region
its academic and intellectual resources in the pursuit of common aims. The core
commitments of Chaminade University include service to students and community; a
strong social consciousness; a unified educational community; a faculty focused on
student learning and the development of the whole person; a dedication to a collaborative
and multi-cultural learning environment; a faculty committed to personal integrity,
mentoring and interaction with students; and a community that practices patience, self-
discipline and sacrifice in order to become a strong community. Chaminade University’s
86
vision is to be a quality university guided by a Catholic, Marianist and liberal arts
educational tradition as it becomes a unified educational community where members are
committed to its mission and personal self-development; and of sufficient size to possess
the needed resources to support its educational programs, be self-renewing in its
organizational life, and be financially stable.
As of Fall 2003, Chaminade University of Honolulu employed 71 full time
faculty, of which 30, 42% were women. With an undergraduate student population of
1079, of which 742, 69% were women; Chaminade University of Honolulu has a women
undergraduate student to women faculty ratio of 24.8:1. The age range for Chaminade
University of Honolulu women undergraduate students was 16 – 68 years of age, with an
average age of 22.1 years of age. Women student retention rate was 65%, with a 6 year
graduation rate of 40%. Chaminade University of Honolulu is a coeducational 4 year,
private, religious university whose students are predominately single, from many cultural
and ethnic origins, and most live on campus or within the immediate university
community. Tuition for the university was $13,850 per year (IPEDS 2004; Chaminade
University of Honolulu Common Data Set 2003-2003).
Women undergraduate students at the Chaminade University of Honolulu
graduate at a rate of 20.5% within four years and 40% within six years. Over 61% of
women undergraduate students at the Chaminade University of Honolulu who enroll as
mathematics and science majors change majors to more traditional majors within the
social sciences majors after 2 years; in effect extending the total amount of time required
to complete a baccalaureate degree. There is no data available for those women
87
undergraduate students who stay with the university for more than 6 years before
graduating. The data indicates that 79.5% do not graduate within four years and that 60%
do not graduate within six years. Other than changing majors, there is no readily
observable and available data that would explain this phenomenon.
Further evidence of this is gained by walking around the campus. Chaminade
University of Honolulu is located in about 1.5 miles from the University of Hawaii
Manoa, in the city of Honolulu. The university shares its campus with St. Louis
Academy, a boy’s middle school and high school sponsored by the Catholic church. The
buildings on campus carry names of men in whose name large donations to the university
were received. There are several statutes on campus, all depicting religious scenes. One
statue bears a resemblance to a woman religious figure.
Opportunities for involvement include chances to be involved in activities such as
clubs, athletics, and student government on and off campus. Such opportunities have a
positive impact on women’s academic achievement and self esteem by giving them
opportunities to develop communication, leadership and teamwork skills that can be used
throughout their lives. Chaminade University of Honolulu has a wide variety of activities
for women undergraduate students to become involved in, more than 60% of the clubs
currently have women leaders. There is one university sponsored, religious centered club
for women.
The university does not have or sponsor a Women’s Center, women student
centered events or rituals. All counseling is available through the universities academic
counseling office. Chaminade University of Honolulu does not have a Women’s Studies
88
program and offers no women’s studies courses. There is no opportunity for women
undergraduate students to learn about themselves through women’s history and culture
studies.
Studies have shown that a well-defined and clearly communicated mission to
educate students; high academic expectations; positive, supportive role models;
opportunities for leadership; and a caring, supportive environment, are essential for
women undergraduate students’ successful educational attainment. The university is
strongly centered on its vision as an institution which exists to provide a student centered
collaborative learning environment that prepares students for life, work and service as
guided by its Catholic, Marianist beliefs within a liberal arts tradition. The university
reflects not only its traditions but the influence of its woman president. The physical
campus environment shows some evidence that women are welcome and respected on
campus. Chaminade University of Honolulu seems to present a somewhat supportive
environment towards women undergraduate students.
The following table consolidates the above data:
89
Table 4.8 - Organizational Elements Chaminade University of Honolulu
Focus of comparison/ Institution Chaminade University of Honolulu
Date Established 1955
Affiliation Private/religious
Institutional President gender Female
Undergraduate Student Population (FTE) – IPEDS
2005
1079
Undergraduate Women student population (FTE) –
IPEDS 2005
716
Enrollment rate/women 69%
Retention rate – women Not Available
Graduation rate – 6 yr, women 40%
Ethnic diversity multicultural
Gender Co-ed
Age – average 22.6 yrs
Family status - predominantly Single – 70.1%
Total Full Time Faculty 77
Percent Full Time women faculty 39% - 30/77
Percent Total Women Faculty 41% - 56/136
Women student to women faculty ratio 23.9:1
Tuition costs - annual $13,850
Women’s studies programs None
Minority women student population 77.70%
Institutional culture - supportive, somewhat supportive,
somewhat unsupportive, unsupportive
Somewhat supportive
Academic expectations for women - supportive,
somewhat supportive, somewhat unsupportive,
unsupportive
Somewhat unsupportive
Mission & history that supports women - supportive,
somewhat supportive, somewhat unsupportive,
unsupportive
Somewhat supportive
(IPEDS 2005; Chaminade Common Data Set 2004-2005; Chaminade Annual Report 2004-2005; Chaminade General
Catalog 2004-2005).
Summary of Comparisons
A summary of the comparisons of female enrollment percentages, women’s 6
year graduation rates, percentages of women full-time faculty, and women student to
women faculty rations, by institution, indicates the following:
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The University of Hawaii Manoa, the only public university, had the second highest
enrollment percentage of women undergraduate students (56.4%), the highest 6 year
graduation rate (58%), the third highest percentage of women full time faculty (38%),
and a women student to women faculty ratio of 15.9:1 (Table 4.9, p. 91). The findings
appear to indicate a possible association between higher graduation rates for women
undergraduate students and a low ratio of women student to women faculty
Chaminade University had the highest rate of enrollment of women undergraduate
students (66%), the second highest graduation rate (40%), a second highest percentage of
women full time faculty (42%); and a women student to women faculty ratio of 23.9:1
(Table 4.9, p. 91). The findings appear to indicate that for Chaminade University there is
a possible association between the graduation rate and the low women student to women
faculty ratio.
Hawaii Pacific University had the third highest enrollment rate of women
undergraduate students of (51.8%), the highest percentage women full time faculty
(43.1%); the third highest 6 year graduation rate (35.8%), and a women student to women
faculty ratio of 32.3:1 (Table 4.9, p. 91). The findings appear to indicate that for Hawaii
Pacific University there is a possible association between the graduation rate and the
higher women student to women faculty ratio.
Brigham Young University Hawaii had the lowest enrollment rate of women
undergraduate students (49.1%), the lowest 6 year graduation rate (33.8%), the lowest
percentage of women full time faculty (22.1%); and a women student to women faculty
ratio of 49.2:1 (Table 4.9, p. 91). The findings appear to indicate a possible association
91
between low graduation rates for women undergraduate students and a high women
student to women faculty ratio.
Table 4.9: Comparison Findings: UHM, HPU, BYUH, CUH
Focus of comparison/
Institution
University of
Hawaii Manoa
Hawaii Pacific
University
Brigham Young
University Hawaii
Chaminade
University
Date Established 1954 1965 1955 1955
Affiliation
Public
Private
Private/
religious
Private/
religious
Institutional President gender Male Male Male Female
Undergraduate Student
Population – IPEDS 2005
11,789 6049 2486 1079
Undergraduate Women student
population – IPEDS 2005
6631 3136 1229 716
Enrollment rate/women 56.4% 51.8% 49.1% 66%
Retention rate – women 77.4% 68% 78.9% 65%
Graduation rate – 6 yr, women 58% 35.80% 33.80% 40%
Ethnic diversity 76.5% minority 63.6% minority 68% minority 63% minority
Gender Co-ed Co-ed Co-ed Co-ed
Age – average 22.3 yrs 26.2 yrs 22.1 yrs 22.6 yrs
Family status predominantly Single – 56.7% Single – 66.4% Single – 65.3% Single –
70.1%
Total Full Time Faculty 1086 225 115 77
Percent Full Time women
faculty
38% - 418/1086 43.1% - 97/225 22% - 25/115 39% - 30/77
Percent Total Women Faculty 39% - 452/1169 42.1% - 244/582 37% - 82/224 41% - 56/136
Women student to women full
time faculty ratio
6631:418 or
15.9:1
3136:97 or
32.3:1
1229:25 or 49.2:1 716:30 or
23.9:1
Tuition costs - annual $ 3580 resident;
$10060
nonresident
$10,922 $3775 member;
$4988 nonmember
$13,850
Women’s studies programs Interdisciplinary None None None
Minority women student
population
79% 60.10% 63.60% 77.70%
Institutional culture –
supportive, neutral,
unsupportive
somewhat
unsupportive
Somewhat
unsupportive
Unsupportive Somewhat
supportive
Academic expectations for
women – supportive, neutral,
unsupportive
somewhat
supportive
Somewhat
supportive
Unsupportive Somewhat
unsupportive
Mission & history that
supports women
somewhat
unsupportive
Somewhat
unsupportive
Unsupportive Somewhat
supportive
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Ranking of the Institutions
After comparing each of the institutions based on elements of institutional culture
that appear to have the most impact on women student’s graduation rates at the four
Hawaii institutions, the results were placed in a ranking table (Table 4.1, p.67) in order to
more easily view the rankings and results. These results were as follows:
Table 4.10
Summary of Rankings for Each Rank and Each of the Four Hawaii Institutions
Institution /
Rankings
Rank 1
1= 4 pts
Rank 2
2 = 3 pts
Rank 3
3 = 2 pts
Rank 4
4 = 1 pt
Sum of
scores
Average
University of Hawaii
Manoa
8 = 32 2 = 6 2 = 6 0 = 0 44 44/12 =
3.66
Chaminade
University
1 =4 7 = 14 1 = 2 3 = 2 22 22/12 =
1.83
Hawaii Pacific
University
2 = 8 2 = 6 8 = 16 0 = 0 30 30/12 =
2.5
Brigham Young
University Hawaii
1 = 4 1 = 3 1 = 2 9 = 9 18 18/12=
1.5
In this table, Each Rank was assigned a point value,then summed,then an average was created. Rank 1
receives a point value of 4; Rank 2 receives a point value of 3; Rank 3 receives a point value of 2; Rank
4 receives a point value of 1.
The results of the rankings indicate the following:
• University of Hawaii ranked number one among the four Hawaii institutions with
8 number one rankings, 2 number two rankings, 2 number three rankings, and no
number four rankings (Table 4.10, p. 92). The University of Hawaii Manoa, the
only public university, had the second highest enrollment percentage of women
undergraduate students (56.4%), the highest 6 year graduation rate (58%), the
93
highest percentage of women full time faculty (56%), and the highest retention
rate (77.4%) (Table 4.1, p.67). The data indicates a relationship between high
graduation rates for women undergraduate students and a high percentage of
women full time faculty, and a women student to women faculty ratio of
24.3:1(Table 4.3, page 69).
• Hawaii Pacific University ranked number two among the four Hawaii institutions
with 2 number one rankings, 2 number two rankings, 7 number three rankings,
and no number four rankings (Table 4.10, p. 92). Hawaii Pacific University had
placed second in 2 categories, with an enrollment rate of women undergraduate
students of 55.9%, and a women full time faculty of 43.1%; and third in 2
categories with a 6 year graduation rate of 35.8%, and a retention rate of 68%
(Table 4.1, p.67). The data indicates that for Hawaii Pacific University there is a
relationship between the graduation rate and the women student to women faculty
ratio of 35.4:1 (Table 4.2, page 68).
• Chaminade University ranked number three among the four Hawaii institutions
with 1 number one ranking, 7 number two rankings, 1 number three ranking, and
2 number four rankings (Table 4.10, page 92). Chaminade University had the
highest rate of enrollment of women undergraduate students (60%), the second
highest 6 year graduation rate (40%), a third place for women full time faculty
(42%); and the lowest retention rate (65%) (Table 4.1, p.67). The data indicates
that for Chaminade University there is a relationship between the graduation rate
and the women student to women faculty ratio of 24.8:1 (Table 4.2, page 68).
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• Brigham Young University Hawaii ranked number four among the Hawaii
institutions with no number one rankings, 1 number two ranking, 1 number three
ranking, and 9 number four rankings (Table 4.10, page 92). Brigham Young
University Hawaii had the lowest enrollment rate of women undergraduate
students (54.5%), the lowest 6 year graduation rate (33.8%), and the lowest
percentage of women full time faculty (23.5%); but surprisingly the highest
retention rate (78.9%) (Table 4.1, p.67). The data indicates a relationship between
low graduation rates for women undergraduate students and a low percentage of
women full time faculty, and a women student to women faculty ratio of 61:1
(Table 4.2, page 68).
Summary of Findings
The results of this research should be interpreted with some caution, due to the
small number of Hawaii institutions studied. But the results were thought-provoking and
suggest several possible associations that await support by additional studies.
First, the institutional culture at the four institutions differed in only the most
general ways when it came to their stated mission and yet the difference in six-year
graduation rates of women was substantial.
Second, a higher women students’ enrollment rate by itself did not appear to be
associated with higher graduation and retention rates.
Third, the ratio of women student to women faculty had a higher influence on
graduation rates than the percentage of total woman faculty within the institution. It is
95
surprising the degree to which this appears to be associated with women students’
graduation rates at the four Hawaii institutions. There is much more to learn about the
interaction of female students and female faculty within institutions that may explain this
phenomenon.
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CHAPTER 5
Conclusion
This study was designed to present a better understanding of the possible effects
that the elements of institutional culture at four major institutions of higher education in
Hawaii have on women students’ graduation and retention rates by finding one or two
elements which may be more strongly associated with those same rates.
• The study identified one characteristic, namely women student to women faculty
ratio which appeared to be more strongly associated with women’s graduation and
retention rates than the several others which were explored.
• A second characteristic which may be strongly associated was that of a women’s
studies program or a women’s center at the institution. The association of this
characteristic was harder to observe since only one of the institutions had either a
women’s studies program or a women’s center.
No other strong associations were observed among the four Hawaii institutions, and
further, the influence of student socio-economic background and prior academic
achievement on graduation and retention rates were not considered in this study. The
study explored the literature which identified the most prominent elements associated
with women’s higher education graduation rates and retention at institutions not located
in Hawaii.
Results from Research Literature
The research literature indicates that institutional culture has an effect on higher
education attainment of women (Kuh and Whitt 1988), including women in Hawaii.
97
There were observable elements of institutional culture which may vary from one
institution of higher education to another, depending on the mission, policies, and climate
of the institution (Kuh and Whitt 1988), which have an effect on women’s graduation and
retention rates. And although women were in the process of overcoming the cultural and
educational barriers of the past, it may be more difficult for women who have strong
multicultural ties since each culture’s attitudes vary toward educating women (Weinberg,
1997). Hawaii has a strongly multicultural women student population which presents
additional challenges to higher education attainment.
Critical mass (Tidball, 1986; Laden & Hagedorn, 2000) is an observable
characteristic of institutional culture reflected in an institution’s women’s enrollment rate,
and women student to women faculty ration. Women appear to have higher graduation
and persistence patterns at institutions with a greater number of women faculty in
positions of authority who can provide role models for their female students, an element
critical to graduation and persistence in women (Tidball, 1986; Sax, 1996; Ivey, 1988;
Meihnholdt & Murray, 1999; Sharpe & Sonnert, 1999). When women students were able
to observe women in positions of authority, they feel that they too can succeed in that
field (WSSE, 2002). “In the vernacular one often hears that there is power in numbers.
This power, be it true or imagined, is the result of a critical mass of individuals”
(Hagedorn et al, 2005).
Generally, researchers concur that certain elements of institutional culture have
been found to impact women student’s higher education attainment. These elements were
repeatedly mentioned in the literature that was reviewed, and include: academic
98
expectations; mission and history that support women; female role models; caring
environment; opportunities for involvement; opportunities to learn about oneself; and
actual educational attainment. The literature and research for the most part found
institutional culture is related to student success and higher education achievement for
women students. The review of the literature strongly suggests women’s higher
education attainment increases in an environment which focuses on women; provides a
higher ratio of female faculty, has staff and student leader role models who were
committed to helping women’s development through a curriculum that includes women;
provides peer support; encourages interaction with student-oriented faculty who believe
women were capable learners; and espouses high expectations of women students.
Knowing and identifying the possible specific elements of institutional culture
that can influence women students’ graduation and retention rates in Hawaii can help the
higher education institutions of Hawaii to help women students gain access to and
complete higher education degrees. Non-Hawaii institutions of higher education can also
develop aspects of these elements of institutional culture in their own settings that can
influence women in their effort to attain higher education.
Limitations
There were limitations to this study. Perhaps most fundamentally, the study does
not formally consider several of the major individual variables that were most often cited
as contributing to access, achievement, or attainment of a college degree, including socio-
economic status (e.g., household elements or income) and prior academic performance
99
(e.g., SAT scores or GPA). It is clear that these data on women may vary among the
four institutions studied and that these variables, more than culture, may be affecting
graduation rates. In addition, this study does not use individual or group interviews as a
part of the study. The study also is limited to institutions of higher education in the state
of Hawaii; no comparisons were made with institutions of higher education in the United
States or any other part of the world. International students were not separated from
domestic students. The study focuses only on the four major higher education institutions
in the state of Hawaii as selected by NCDS 2004 data and by the researcher. Although
the study may have unearthed some generalized findings, it is not the intent of the study
to generalize findings across all students and all institutions.
Additionally, the researcher sought to control similarities and differences by using
two large higher education institutions and two small higher education institutions with
comparable student body statistics. The student bodies were very similar in some
respects and different in others. Each institution is classified as a university, but only
three of the four have graduate programs; this characteristic may impact the culture of the
institution, but was not considered in the study since the study focused on undergraduate
student populations. Like all document review quantitative and qualitative research, the
results were based on the data and analysis available at a given point in time.
The findings in this study did not control for background elements (socio-
economic status, pre-college academic ability, and academic ability), small sample size,
or focus on specific institutions, any of which may be associated with women’s
graduation and retention rates and can be cited as a methodological problem.
100
And there is no guarantee the results will continue to be true for these institutions
at a later point in time, as nothing is more constant than change. Studying the current
elements of institutional culture impacting higher education attainment of women in
Hawaii provides information that was not previously available and an opportunity to
explore the possibilities for change.
Although the four institutions of higher education in Hawaii being examined were
all coeducational, this research provides a distinctive perspective of differences and
similarities in the elements of institutional culture within these institutions.
Findings
Women represent the majority of students in higher education in Hawaii (IWPR
2002). The results of this study appears to indicate a possible association between
observable elements of institutional culture at the four selected major institutions of
higher education in Hawaii and educational attainment of women in Hawaii.
There appears to be several similar identifiable elements of institutional culture at
all four institutions: all were located on the island of Oahu, and have multi-cultural,
multi-ethnic student populations; relatively large minority student populations; overall
mission and history which appear to be unsupportive to some students, especially
women; and campus environments with little recognition of women. Elements that
appear to be very different were religious and non-religious affiliation, gender of
leadership, orientation of the institution, and women faculty population.
101
Although the results of this research should be interpreted with some caution due
to the small number of Hawaii institutions studied and limitations cited, they are thought
provoking and suggest several possible associations that await support by additional
studies:
• The institutional culture at the four Hawaii institutions differed in only the
most general ways when it came to their stated mission
• The difference in six-year graduation rates of women was substantial
• A higher women students’ enrollment rate by itself did not appear to be
associated with higher graduation and retention rates
• The ratio of women students to women faculty appeared to be more highly
associated with a higher influence on graduation rates than the percentage of
total woman faculty within the institution. It is surprising how much this
appears to be associated with women students’ graduation rates at the four
Hawaii institutions. There is much more to learn about the interaction of
female students and female faculty within institutions that may explain this
phenomenon.
These findings have several implications for the four selected Hawaii institutions.
Recognition of the elements of the institution’s culture and how they were revealed
within the institution appears to be associated with women’s graduation and retention
rates at the institution. More specifically, women students appear to be more likely to
graduate when there were more women faculty to observe and role model.
102
Future research may reveal the extent to which these elements can be addressed,
in ways that would have a positive affect on women students’ higher education
attainment without having a negative affect on men students’ higher education
attainment.
Questions Unanswered
Several questions were raised but not answered by the study, and provide a
preliminary guide for further study of the issues.
Which aspects of an institutional culture were most important in influencing
female faculty ratio (i.e. emphasis on teacher education, liberal arts, and mathematics and
science programs)? Is it possible that there is a greater occurrence of mentoring or role
modeling at institutions with a higher female student and female faculty ratio? How do
we best evaluate that influence?
Would a qualitative study focused on interviewing students be a valid test of this
phenomenon? Or would using data from the National Study of Student Engagement
(NSSE) to assess activities of female students in relation to women student graduation
rates at the four institutions in Hawaii yield similar results taking into consideration the
multi-cultural, multi-ethnic student populations at the four Hawaii institutions?
Individual characteristics of the women students at the four institutions were not
taken into consideration in the study, although that might be a good study for the future.
Would a longitudinal study reveal similar results taking into consideration socio-
103
economic status, prior academic achievement, SAT and ACT scores, and age of the
student?
Because of the limited scope of this study, expanding the study using student,
faculty and administrative surveys; and longitudinal quantitative data studies may reveal
more in-depth results and produce different results. The hope is that this study
encourages future researchers to reflect on institutional culture and its affect on higher
education attainment of women students in Hawaii, and to advocate addressing the needs
of women students in Hawaii in order to increase their higher education attainment.
104
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Abstract (if available)
Abstract
Women in Hawai'i graduate at slightly higher rates than men at three of the four major institutions of higher education in Hawai'I (Institute for Women's Policy Research The Status of Women in Hawaii 2006) as compared to up to seventy-three percent of men at these same Hawaii institutions and compared to nearly eighty-five percent of women who enroll at women-only colleges.
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Parker, Carol A. (author)
Core Title
The possible impact of elements of institutional culture on women students' higher education attainment in Hawaii
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Education (Leadership)
Publication Date
12/11/2008
Defense Date
08/30/2007
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
Brigham Young University Hawaii,Chaminade University,educational attainment of women in Hawaii,elements of institutional culture,Hawaii,Hawaii Pacific University,Higher Education,institutional culture,OAI-PMH Harvest,single gender education,University of Hawaii Manoa,Women,women faculty to women student ratio,women's colleges,women's graduation and retention rates
Place Name
educational facilities: Brigham Young University Hawaii
(geographic subject),
educational facilities: Chaminade University
(geographic subject),
educational facilities: Hawaii Pacific University
(geographic subject),
educational facilities: University of Hawaii Manoa
(geographic subject),
Hawaii
(states)
Language
English
Advisor
Hentschke, Guilbert C. (
committee chair
), Hunt, Felicia (
committee member
), Sundt, Melora A. (
committee member
)
Creator Email
carolabparker@aol.com,profcparker@aol.com
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m1912
Unique identifier
UC1103782
Identifier
etd-PARKER-2442 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-147545 (legacy record id),usctheses-m1912 (legacy record id)
Legacy Identifier
etd-PARKER-2442.pdf
Dmrecord
147545
Document Type
Dissertation
Rights
Parker, Carol A.
Type
texts
Source
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
Repository Name
Libraries, University of Southern California
Repository Location
Los Angeles, California
Repository Email
cisadmin@lib.usc.edu
Tags
Brigham Young University Hawaii
Chaminade University
educational attainment of women in Hawaii
elements of institutional culture
Hawaii Pacific University
institutional culture
single gender education
University of Hawaii Manoa
women faculty to women student ratio
women's colleges
women's graduation and retention rates