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From their perspective: discovering the sources of impact on older women undergraduates' identity development and mapping those experiences
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From their perspective: discovering the sources of impact on older women undergraduates' identity development and mapping those experiences
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Content
FROM THEIR PERSPECTIVE: DISCOVERING THE SOURCES OF IMPACT
ON OLDER WOMEN UNDERGRADUATES’ IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT
AND MAPPING THOSE EXPERIENCES
by
Michelle R. Stiles
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2007
Copyright 2007 Michelle R. Stiles
ii
DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to my beautiful granddaughter, Robin Burgin.
Always remember anything is possible.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank the members of my dissertation committee: Rodney K.
Goodyear (dissertation chair), Dennis Hocevar, and Adrianna Kezar. Their guidance
throughout this process was invaluable and I greatly appreciate their support.
Additionally, I want to thank Surendra Verma and Jane Robb for all the help that
they provided as raters for this project.
It is with the greatest love and appreciation that I acknowledge my husband,
Bill. Without his encouragement I could never have completed this endeavor and I
thank him from the bottom of my heart for all of the sacrifices he made for me
during this project.
Finally, I want to thank my daughter, Tammara Choate, for practicing her
version of tough love. She never doubted that I would succeed.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication ii
Acknowledgements iii
Table of Contents iv
List of Tables v
List of Figures vi
Abstract vii
Chapter I Conceptual And Emperical Foundations For The Study 1
Chapter II Method 53
Chapter III Results 67
Chapter IV Discussion 85
References 113
Appendix A Household Size and Number of Adults Bringing Income to the
Household 123
Appendix B College Years Experience Questionnaire (CYEQ) 124
Appendix C Random Paired Theme Placement Chart 126
Appendix D College Years Experience Concept Similarity Rating Scale (CSRS) 127
Appendix E Phase One Participant Solicitation Email 135
Appendix F Phase Two CSRS Notification Email 136
Appendix G Research Project Information Sheet 137
Appendix H Combined Group Similarity Matrix (GSM) 140
Appendix I Incidents Arranged By Over-Arching Theme 141
v
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Highest Grade of School Completed by Parents..........................................54
Table 2. Themes and Short Name..............................................................................68
Table 3. Number of Incidents in Category and Average Ratings of Positivity and
Long Term Impact .............................................................................................79
Table 4. Weights for Themes by Dimensions............................................................81
Table 5. Themes in Clusters.......................................................................................83
Table 6. Study Themes by Key Factor.......................................................................86
Table 7. Themes by Cluster Name...........................................................................100
vi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Euclidean Distance Model..........................................................................81
Figure 2. Dendrogram Using Ward Method .............................................................82
Figure 3. Concept Map With Named Clusters...........................................................84
vii
ABSTRACT
This two-phase, mixed methods study examined (a) the sources of impact
that women undergraduate students, 35 years old and older, perceived to have
affected their personal identity development and (b) how they conceptually
organized those experiences. Through a purposeful sampling strategy, 62
undergraduate women (whose ages ranged from 35 to 58) participated in the first
phase of the study by completing the College Years Experience Questionnaire
(CYEQ). Using a variant of Flanagan’s (1954) Critical Incident Technique, the
CYEQ asked participants to reflect on their experience as a college student and
report experiences that had affected their sense of who they are. A team of three
doctoral students identified 12 categories of impact in the incidents. These
categories were used in the Phase Two paired comparison questionnaire, in which
students were asked to rate the similarity of each possible pair of the 12 categories.
Eighteen Phase One undergraduate women participated in Phase Two and rated the
similarity of the categories.
Using multidimensional scaling, a two dimensional concept map was created
from Phase Two data to illustrate how the women organized the experiences. The
dimension weights were used to plot the coordinates of the 12 themes and the
dimensions were named (Constructive versus Destructive Experiences; External
Affirmation versus Personal Perseverance). Hierarchical cluster analysis was used to
define a three cluster solution that illustrated how the themes were qualitatively
viii
different. The raters named the three clusters to describe the types of themes
contained in each cluster.
The 12 themes that emerged during the analysis of Phase One data were
associated with key factors that theory and prior research identified as influencing
personal identity development and demonstrated the profound effect of college on
the study participants’ personal identity development. The clusters and dimensions
illustrated the importance of relationships, especially student-faculty relationships, to
the women. That the clusters and dimensions were consistent with prior theory and
research provides validation for the results. Limitations of the study, suggestions for
future research, and implications for higher education practitioners were also
discussed.
1
CHAPTER I
CONCEPTUAL AND EMPERICAL FOUNDATIONS FOR THE STUDY
The impacts of college on students have been the focus of extensive research
for the past several decades. Three comprehensive reviews of the literature on this
topic (Feldman & Newcomb, 1969; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991, 2005) not only
provide valuable syntheses of the research, but also illustrate the substantial amount
of interest this topic has generated. Feldman and Newcomb released their landmark
work, The Impact of College on Students in 1969. This publication reviewed 1,500
studies that were conducted over four decades. In 2005, Pascarella and Terenzini
published, How College Affects Students: A Third Decade of Research. This book
provided a synthesis of nearly 2,500 studies and was an update to their 1991
publication, How College Affects Students: Findings and Insights from Twenty Years
of Research, a review of over 2,600 studies.
Many have suggested that the intent of a college education is to assist in
identity development, help students to develop cognitively, intellectually and
emotionally, and form a foundation that will help to prepare them for success and
leadership in future roles (Baxter Magolda, 1999; Donaldson & Graham, 1999;
Kasworm, 1990; Kuh, 1995). Examples of the topics that have been explored in the
literature regarding the effects that college has on students include: identity
development (Côté & Levine, 1983; Levitz-Jones & Orlofsky, 1985; Prager, 1982,
1985; Straub, 1987; Straub & Rodgers, 1986; Whitbourne & Tesch, 1985; Zucker,
Ostrove, & Stewart, 2002) intellectual and cognitive growth (Baxter Magolda, 1989,
2
1999; Moss, 2003; Thompson, 2001); attitudes, values and moral development
(Graham & Cockriel, 1996, 1997; Leppel, 2005; Terenzini, 1994); and educational
attainment and persistence (Bean & Metzner, 1985; Cabrera, Nora, & Castaneda,
1993; Leppel, 2005; Rendon, 1994; Somers, Woodhouse, & Cofer, 2004; Tinto,
1997). The sources of impact on college students’ development include academic
performance; curricular and extra-curricular activity; and relationships, both college-
based that include faculty, staff and peers, and non-college-based that encompasses
parents, friends, and employers (Cabrera et al., 1993; Clark, 2005; Kuh, 1995;
Leppel, 2005; Pascarella, Edison, Nora, Hagedorn, & Terenzini, 1998; Roth & Clark,
1998; Tinto, 1997).
Indicators used in the research to examine the effect of college on students
have included courses taken and class load (Somers et al., 2004; Terenzini, 1994),
grades and assessment/test scores (Cabrera et al., 1993; Leppel, 2005; Moss, 2003;
Pascarella et al., 1998; Roth & Clark, 1998; Somers et al., 2004; Thompson, 2001),
study time (Thompson, 2001), hours worked (Leppel, 2005; Pascarella et al., 1998;
Somers et al., 2004), salaries (Roth & Clarke, 1998), or social and political
involvement (Graham & Cockriel, 1996, 1997; Terenzini, 1994). The study of
specific indicators provide a means to measure the impact of college on student
development and the importance of these perspectives and approaches are clear and
indisputably valid. However, indicators do not address how students themselves
assess their experiences and fall short of capturing the students’ perspective of
academic and personal growth (Clark, 2005; Graham & Cockriel, 1997).
3
A research strategy that captures the students’ perspective is also valid and
important. Such a strategy explores the individual student’s personal, subjective
point of view about the effects of his or her college experience and provides a better
understanding of how basic elements and individual experiences and events shaped
the outcomes for those students. This perspective also allows researchers to
understand how the individual uniquely interprets his or her experience.
Because the demographics of the college population have undergone
significant changes (Carlan, 2001; Donaldson & Graham, 1999; Jones, 1997;
Kasworm, 1990; Rendon, 1994), an approach that examines how individuals
uniquely interpret their experience has become even more important. That is, higher
education is no longer an exclusive institution for the “traditional” student whom
Pascarella and Terenzini (2005) described as a White undergraduate, age 18 to 22,
who attends a four-year institution full-time, lives on campus, does not work and has
few family responsibilities.
Women are currently the majority gender on college campuses and this has
been true since 1980. The National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of
Education Statistics, 2004 (2005) recorded 6,223,000 females enrolled in degree-
granting institutions in fall, 1980, compared to 5,875,000 males enrolled. By fall,
2002, 9,410,000 females were enrolled in degree-granting institutions and male
enrollment was 7,202,000. Women between 18 and 24 years old were the majority
of women enrolled in 2002 (5,349,000) and were projected to be in the majority
through 2005, but women over 25 years old constituted approximately 42 percent of
4
the women enrolled in degree-granting institutions in 2002 and were projected to
maintain that level of enrollment through 2005. Of these women, in 2002, 50 percent
were 35 years old or older. Although enrollment for women 35 years of age or older
was expected to decrease slightly by 2005 to 48 percent, this age group was still
expected to constitute a large portion of the college population. Despite this
evolution in demographics, much of the college student development research has
continued its historic focus on the “traditional” student.
The impetus for adult women to attend college is often different than that of
their “traditional” women student counterparts. Work-related goals, family
responsibilities, personal life-changing events, and the desire to expand their
knowledge and understanding are among some of the reasons that adult women
choose to enroll in post-secondary education (Bradshaw, Hager, Knott, & Seay,
2006; Maddox, 2006; Sheehy, 1995). Distinct characteristics of women in midlife
such as the empty nest syndrome, a desire to complete themselves, the structure of
the American household, and a need for independence also play a role in mature
women’s attitudes toward entering higher education (Bates & Norton, 2002; Bean &
Metzner, 1985; Levinson, 1996; Oplatka & Tevel, 2006; Sheehy, 1995).
Additionally, changing social perspectives on aging and maturity have helped to
encourage older women to pursue higher education (Bates & Norton, 2002; Oplatka
& Tevel, 2006; Sheehy, 1995).
Although recent years have seen a greater volume of research appear that
attempts to account for the growing diversity of the college population, there is still
5
bias in the research base towards the “traditional” population (Pascarella &
Terenzini, 2005, p. 2). Research that does look at specific segments of the college
population often uses broad categories of students or large numbers of participants,
rather than gathering deep, rich information about small, unique groupings of
students. These research trends are illustrated in some of the literature written about
women college students’ development.
Several pieces of literature have addressed identity development in
“traditional” aged women college students (Jones, 1997; Maier, 1998; Rendon,
1994), and others have examined this topic with participants from broad age ranges
(Straub, 1987) or broad age ranges using large samples (Straub & Rogers, 1986).
Research on broad categories of women students (all women, “traditional” aged, or
those over 25 years old) fails to target small, unique groups of women students and
produces deficiencies and gaps in the literature. Specifically, women students who
are 35 years old and older and attending degree-granting institutions are likely to be
at different stages of development and the sources of impact on their identity
development may be different from that of their “traditional” women student
counterparts. The effects of college can still be very profound for these older women
whose identities maybe otherwise generally resolved. However, because the
research base remains biased toward “traditional” aged students, little is known
about how college uniquely affects this grouping of women students’ identity
development.
6
Women 35 years old and older will continue to comprise a substantial portion
of the college population for some years to come, and inquiry at the personal level
into the sources of impact on this population of college students’ identity
development is long overdue. Information gathered from the students’ perspective is
needed to provide insight into ways to enhance student learning and ensure positive
outcomes for this distinct population of undergraduate students.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this descriptive study is to address this deficiency in the
literature by utilizing a two phase, mixed methods process that asked undergraduate
women students, 35 years and older, to identify and conceptually organize the
sources of impact (both positive and negative) they perceive to have affected their
personal identity development. In the first phase, students were asked to identify
incidents or experiences that influenced their sense of who they are. During the
second phase, students rated paired themes that emerged from the incidents for
similarity and concept maps of the student experiences were created. The
methodology used to create the concept maps is fully described in a later section of
this paper.
This study adds to the literature by providing a more detailed, personal view
of the effects that college has on the identity development of women undergraduates,
35 years old and older and an understanding of how women participants
conceptually organize those experiences. This study also provides information that
7
higher education student affairs professionals, faculty and administrators can use to
enhance learning and maximize positive outcomes for this population of students.
Review of the Literature
Literature that contributes to an increased understanding of the overall effects
of college on students’ development and the particular sources of impact on their
development is relevant to this study. The literature reviewed to facilitate this deeper
understanding is grouped into three sections: the types of impact of college on
students, the sources of impacts on development, and the means of assessing the
impacts. The first section of the review identifies the types of impacts that are
particularly important to this study and discusses the developmental theories that
provide foundational information to help understand these types of impacts. Section
two explores the factors that theories have identified as contributing to personal
development and the research that examines how some of these factors influence
personal development. The final section examines the different means that have
been used to assess the effect of college on students.
Types of Impacts
As was indicated earlier, the overall intent of a college education is to help
students to develop cognitively, intellectually and emotionally, and form a
foundation that will help to prepare them for success and leadership in future roles.
Specific effects that college has on students’ development include identity
development, intellectual and cognitive growth, and attitudes, values, moral
development, educational attainment, and persistence. Of these, the greatest of the
8
effects of college attendance seems to be on personal identity development and
intellectual growth (Astin, 1993; Graham & Cockriel, 1997; Kuh, 1992; Pascarella &
Terenzini, 1991). These significant outcomes are key components to this study and
two theoretical perspectives and areas of research on identity development,
psychosocial-identity development and cognitive-structural, are especially relevant
to these important outcomes.
Psychosocial-Identity Development
According to Pascarella and Terenzini (2005),
Psychosocial theories view individual development as the accomplishment of
a series of ‘developmental tasks.’ Partly through growing older, and partly
through socio-cultural or environmental influences, individuals over their life
span face several developmental challenges. (p. 20)
This perspective examines the individuals’ personal and interpersonal lives.
The review of psychosocial-identity development theories and research on
the theories begins with Erik Erikson and James Marcia. Evans, Forney, and Guido-
DiBrito (1998) wrote that Erikson was the first psychologist to address the identity
development journey from adolescence through adulthood and most of the research
done on psychosocial maturity and identity development stems from his theoretical
framework. Marcia’s model of ego identity status elaborates and refines Erikson’s
identity theory and provides a model to study Erikson’s stage theory empirically
(Kroger & Green, 1996; Maier, 1998; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991, 2005; Torres,
Howard-Hamilton, & Cooper, 2003). Arthur Chickering is one of the most widely
9
cited student development theorists (Evans et al., 1998, p. 10) and his theory is
reviewed next. Chickering’s model expands Erikson’s theory to student
development. Ruthellen Josselson used Erikson’s theory of identity development
and Marcia’s concepts of identity statuses to explore the differential pathways
women follow as they develop their identities and a review of her work follows
Chickering. Nancy Schlossberg, whose transition theory explores the concept of
adulthood as a period of change and development is the final theorist included in the
review of psychosocial identity development.
Erik Erikson. According to Erikson (1980), identity is developed through a
series of psychosocial crises over the life span. Crisis in Eriksonian theory does not
mean a sort of physical or psychological emergency, instead it means a time for
decision that requires serious consideration about significant choices of alternative
actions. Erickson theorizes that there are eight stages from infancy to mature age in
which identity develops. Stages one through four (basic trust versus mistrust;
autonomy versus shame and doubt; initiative versus guilt; and industry versus
inferiority) are experienced during childhood. Identity versus identity diffusion,
stage five, is the transition between childhood and adulthood and has been identified
as the dominant developmental task for “traditional” aged college students
(Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005). Successful mastery of the identity stage is a sense of
purpose in life and a consolidated ego identity that includes, “a feeling of continuity
with the past, of meaning in the present, and of direction in the future” (Côté &
Levin, 1983, p. 43). From the Eriksonian perspective, adulthood occurs during three
10
stages. Stage six, intimacy versus isolation occurs during young adulthood. The
traditional college student experiences this crisis along with identity versus identity
diffusion and resolution of these crises will lead to the development of identity and
the capacity for intimacy (Maier, 1998). Generativity versus stagnation (stage seven)
happens middle age (the 40s), and integrity versus despair occurs in old age.
Although Erikson’s theoretical framework is the basis for much of the
research related to identity development, the theory has several controversial aspects.
The controversy most important to this study is the applicability of the theory to
women (and other minorities) (Evans et al., 1998; Jones, 1997; Maier, 1998;
Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991; Torres et al., 2003). Marcia and Friedman (1970)
wrote that although Erikson had numerous works on ego identity, he had devoted
only one article to women and no females are included in his numerous biographic
sketches. Most of the research using his theory that was conducted in the early years
focused on young, White men at prestigious colleges and the findings were
generalized to women (Torres et al., 2003).
Erikson’s theory states that during adolescence, development differs between
boys and girls as girls focus more on relationships or intimacy before forming
identities (Erikson, 1968). Critics have argued that this infers that women must be
rescued from their emptiness and loneliness before they can pursue identity
formation (Gilligan, 1993) or that women’s development is delayed because they are
focusing on interpersonal aspects. Other theorists have declared these interpretations
11
inappropriate and perceive that Erikson was simply appreciating the significance of
relationship to female development (Maier, 1998).
Exception is also taken to Erikson’s assumption that development occurs in
distinctive stages. In an examination of separation-individuation (identity) and
intimacy capacity in 89 college women, Levitz-Jones and Orlofsky (1985) tested
Erikson’s basic premise that true intimacy calls for a strong sense of self. The results
of this study indicated that, for these college women, intimacy capacity in young
adulthood was dependent on a strong sense of identity and Erikson’s basic premise
was supported. Whitbourne and Tesch (1985) found evidence that identity and
intimacy continued to develop into adulthood, but similar to Levitz-Jones’ and
Orlofsky’s (1985) findings, this study supported Erikson’s theory that having a
strong sense of identity was important for resolution of the adult intimacy crisis.
However, Sheehy (1995) wrote that an identity struggle often recurs because people
live cyclical lives that demand they start over again and again. Zucker et al. (2002)
also found that issues such as identity, intimacy, generativity, and integrity may be
more intense during specific periods, but they preoccupy adults to differing degrees
at all ages.
Sheehy (1995) also suggested that the increasing life expectancy and
changing internal images that people have of themselves, have stretched the life
cycle timetable by five to ten years and indicated that a “Second Adulthood” should
be added to the life cycle with two distinct periods—the Age of Mastery and the Age
12
of Integrity (p. 139). Despite the stretching of the timetable, Sheehy confirmed
Erikson’s theory that there were still general stages in adulthood.
James Marcia. Marcia (1966, p. 551) refers to ego identity and identity
diffusion as “polar outcomes” of the hypothesized psychosocial crisis that Erikson
theorized as occurring in late adolescence. Unlike Erikson who viewed development
as movement through hierarchical stages, Marcia allows movement in the two task
areas of exploration and commitment simultaneously (Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005).
Marcia’s model includes four distinct statuses along the identity continuum.
The four statuses are: Identity Achievement-individuals have experienced a crisis
period and are committed to an occupation or ideology; Moratorium-individuals are
in a crisis period and are experiencing an active struggle; Foreclosure-individuals
have not experienced a crisis, but express firm commitments; and Identity Diffusion-
individuals have no apparent commitments. In this framework, crisis and
commitment in political, religious, occupational, and sexual decisions are the
primary content in identity development.
The participants in Marcia’s original 1966 study were male college students.
However, several subsequent studies added the category of “attitudes toward
premarital intercourse” to the interview in order to provide a domain that was more
suitable for capturing women’s identity-defining concerns (Marcia & Friedman,
1970; Schenkel & Marcia, 1972; Toder & Marcia,1973) and the ego-identity status
constructs were applied to college women. According to Kroger (2000, p. 145),
“This move helped to establish the relevance of this new content area as well as the
13
predictive validity of identity statuses for women.” The results of the subsequent
research indicated that women’s cognitive and personality characteristics in various
identity statuses resemble men in those statuses (Marcia & Friedman, 1970; Prager,
1982, 1985; Schenkel & Marcia, 1972; Toder & Marcia, 1973).
Kroger and Green (1996) explored the situational or contextual variables
associated with transition in the identity formation process from adolescence through
middle adulthood for a sample of 100 mid-life adults (men and women, ages 40-63).
The components of occupation, religion, politics, sex role values and attitudes
toward intimate relationships were assessed from study participants’ descriptions of
what they perceived to be the primary sources of influence when identity status
change occurred. Seven categories (age-graded event, history graded event, critical
life event, stage of the family life cycle, exposure to different cultural/social sources
of knowledge, direct influences of significant other, and internal change) emerged as
primary sources of influence. The study findings indicated that the seven categories
were associated differently with the various domains of identity development and
internal change process plays a very strong role in transitions to all identity statuses
within all identity domains.
A challenge to Marcia’s model has been raised because, “few have actually
investigated the relationship between Marcia’s measure and variables considered in
Erikson’s writings to be integral to identity formation” (Côté & Levine, 1983, p.44).
When Côté and Levine (1983) tested the relationship between Marcia’s continuum
and Erikson’s writings on the role played in development by neuroticism,
14
dogmatism, and a sense of purpose, the results indicated that ego identity statuses are
not ordered in the manner suggested by Marcia. Although the results did not support
the ordering of ego identity statuses, it was found that some of Marcia’s statuses may
classify persons in a way that is consistent with Erikson’s views on identity
development.
Arthur Chickering. Building on Erikson’s identity concept, Chickering
(1969) developed the first major theory to examine the development of college
students (Evans et al., 1998; Maier, 1998; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991, 2005). In
1993, Chickering & Reisser revised the theory to, among other things, be more
inclusive of various student populations. The revised model recognizes development
of college students as a process of infinite complexity and does not portray
development as, “one predominant challenge or crisis resolution after another, each
invariably linked to specific ages” (p. 34). There are seven vectors in the theory that
are proposed as a map to help determine where students are and where they are
headed. Reisser (1995) wrote that several writings on development provide useful
theories on intellectual and ethical development, but do not pay much attention to the
feelings and relationships that “occupy center stage in the lives of students” (p. 506).
The 1993 revision also attempted to fill this gap by tying the model to student
perceptions of their experience.
The vectors are developmental tasks and include: developing competence
(intellectual competence, physical skills and manual skills), managing emotions,
moving through autonomy toward interdependence, developing mature interpersonal
15
relationships, establishing identity, developing purpose, and developing integrity.
Accomplishment of the first three vectors will most likely mean that a sense of
identity has been formed and resolution of the first four vectors allows for the
development of the final three vectors (Maier, 1998).
Chickering also argued that educational environments influence student
development (Evans et al., 1998) and proposed seven factors of influence on student
development: institutional objectives; institutional size; student faculty
relationships; curriculum; teaching; friendships and student communities; student
development programs and services. Additionally, the basic principles of integration
of work and learning, recognition of respect for individual differences, and
acknowledgment of the nature of learning and development are also key in student
development. These seven factors and basic principles are explored more fully in the
following section on the sources of impact on college student development.
Chickering’s theory has been studied at length. According to Maier (1998),
the studies have differed according to focus, size of institution, and amount of
demographic data presented. There has been criticism that the model may be more
applicable to White, male students then other ethnicities and genders because of
differences in sequencing through stages. On the specific issue of gender, Straub and
Rodgers (1986) explored the sequencing of developmental tasks for women and
found that they differed significantly from Chickering’s theory. Straub (1987, p.
198) wrote that the specific process of developing autonomy was qualitatively
different than that described by Chickering. Reisser (1995) also cautioned that more
16
research was needed to determine the applicability of the model to various student
subpopulations and cautions are noted through out the 1993 revision about the
differences between race, age and gender.
Other criticisms of Chickering’s theory are its failure to treat cognitive or
intellectual development in detail and the lack of detailed consideration of the
underlying processes relating to change on each vector (Pascarella & Terenzini,
1991). Chickering acknowledges these criticisms and emphasizes that in his opinion,
“it is not particularly useful to try to move discussions of general theory to detailed
levels of applications that might seem prescribed or generalizable” (Thomas &
Chickering, 1984, p. 394).
Ruthellen Josselson. Josselson’s work has been described as informed by
Eriksonian thought, but it allowed for discovery (Maier, 1998). Her work adapted
Marcia’s model to a theory on identity development among women only (Pascarella
& Terenzini, 2005). According to Josselson (1987), “Identity is the stable,
consistent, and reliable sense of who one is and what one stands for in the world” (p.
10). It is also a method of preserving the continuity of the self and linking the past
and the present. The women participating in Josselson’s study assumed four
statuses:
1. Foreclosures-Purveyors of Heritage-women graduate from college with
identity commitment but have not experienced identity crisis;
2. Identity Achievers-Pavers of the Way-women break the psychological ties to
their childhood and form separate identities;
17
3. Moratoriums-Daughters of Crisis-women are experiencing an unstable time
of experimenting and searching for new identities;
4. Identity Diffusion-Lost-Sometimes Found-women have not experienced
crisis and commitment.
According to Evans et al. (1998, p. 64), much of the research on Josselson’s
theory was performed by Josselson herself. To understand the internal and
developmental roots of identity formation in women, Josselson (1973) first
interviewed 48 college senior women in their early 20s. She interviewed 34 of the
original participants 10 years later when they were in their early 30s to determine if
the identity status in college made an important difference in the life course of each
group (Josselson, 1987) and 30 of the original participants were interviewed again in
their early 40s (Josselson, 1996) in order to help understand the routes and courses of
the various identity pathways. Josselson found that women move through different
eras and continue to make and remake their identities. She also found that identity in
women is essentially relational. “In a fundamental way, identity is expressed by
joining others and taking a place within a community that is bound to others but
uniquely ones own” (Josselson, 1996, p. 209).
Josselson (1982) also conducted research to assess character structure among
the identity statuses through analysis of early memories. She indicated that
“…personal myths, embodied in early memories, must be at the nexus of a person’s
identity” (p. 294). The early memories of women in each identity status were
analyzed to gather information about how the women organized their current world
18
and what important themes from their childhood clarified their identity strivings.
This study revealed that the early memories of foreclosure status women were
concerned with basic issues of nurturance and safety. Moratorium status women’s
memories reflected an effort to “do it alone”, achievement status early memory
themes are about integration, and, like the foreclosure group, the diffusion groups
memories were on early developmental issues. These findings supported Josselson’s
(1982) hypothesis and illustrate her reference to Freud’s comparison of early
memories produced at a later age to historical writing, which compiles the past in
order to make it congruent with the nation’s contemporary goals (p. 294).
Nancy Schlossberg. Schlossberg (1981) wrote that psychic growth does not
end with adolescence and as people move through life they continually experience
change and transition that result in new networks of relationships, new behaviors and
new self-perceptions. Generally, she concurred with theorists like Erikson who take a
life-course perspective, but she believed it is not the transition itself that is of
primary importance, but how that transition fits with an individual’s stage, situation,
and style at the time of the transition. Schlossberg described transition theory as a
vehicle for analyzing human response to transition. Transition theory can be applied
to learners of any age, gender, or ethnicity, but is typically categorized as a theory of
adult development (Evans et al., 1998).
Schlossberg defined a transition as “any event or nonevent that results in
change in relationships, routines, assumptions, and/or roles within the settings of
self, work, family, health, and/or economics” (1984, p. 43). A transition is not the
19
change itself, but the individual’s perception of the change and in order to
understand a transition’s meaning for an individual, the type, context, and impact of
the transition must be considered. Three non-discrete types of transitions are used:
anticipated-transitions that are predictable; unanticipated-transitions that are not
predictable or scheduled; and nonevents-transitions that were expected but did not
occur. Context is the individual’s relationship to the transition or the transition’s
setting, and impact is the degree that the transition alters the individual’s daily life.
(Schlossberg, Waters, & Goodman, 1995).
The transition process itself contains three parts: moving in-preparation;
moving through-balancing new activities with other parts of life; and moving out-
ending the transition and asking what will come next. To assess an individual’s
readiness for the moving in stage of a transition, the framework of situation, self,
support and strategies should be used and the resources available in each component
should be evaluated to determine how the individual will cope with the transition
(Schlossberg, Lynch, & Chickering, 1989). Transition theory facilitates examination
of an individual’s progress in the transition process, provision of support for the
transition, and the opportunity to eliminate barriers to the transition.
Cognitive-Structural Theories
Virtually all cognitive-structural theories of student development owe their
origins to Jean Piaget (Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991). These theories describe the
nature and processes of change, concentrating on the knowledge structures
individuals construct to give meaning to their world and assume that individuals pass
20
through a series of stages in the development process. The common elements of
cognitive-structural theories include: hierarchical stages; passage through the stages
are sequential; and developmental change involves a chain of stimulus and
responses.
Several cognitive-structural theories address development in women and
facilitate a narrower review of only the most applicable theorists: Gilligan; Belenky,
Clinchy, Goldberger, and Tarule; and Baxter Magolda. This review begins with
Carol Gilligan’s work. Pascarella and Terenzini (2005) credited Gilligan as having
been among the most influential of cognitive-structural developmental theorists in
the study of college students. In addition to Gilligan, Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger,
and Tarule, and Baxter Magolda have all applied cognitive-structural theory to
gender differences (Evans et al., 1998) and Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger and
Tarule’s work is examined next. Marcia Baxter Magolda’s work completes the
exploration of cognitive-structural theories.
Carol Gilligan. Gilligan’s work (1993) was ground breaking in that it
disputed the “fit” of previous models of human growth with women’s experiences.
She challenged other theorists who portrayed women’s experiences as inferior and
qualitatively different than that of men (Evans et al., 1998). Gilligan, “…observed
persistent discrepancies between women’s concepts of self and morality and the
major theories of human and moral development, including those of Piaget, Erikson,
and particularly Kohlberg” (Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005, p. 43). Her conception of
development for women hypothesizes that the moral problem arises from conflicting
21
responsibilities rather than from competing rights and to be resolved contextual and
narrative thinking is required rather than formal and abstract (Gilligan, 1993).
In a Different Voice (Gilligan, 1993), presents research from three studies
that expressed Gilligan’s conclusions about the moral development of women. The
different voice is not distinguished by gender but by the themes of care and justice.
Gilligan proposes that women’s moral development includes three levels and two
transition periods. In the first level (Orientation to Individual Survival), the
individual is self-centered and preoccupied with survival. During the first transition
(From Selfishness to Responsibility) the issue is attachment and connection to
others. The second level (Goodness as Self-Sacrifice) encompasses the maternal
concept and good is equated with caring for others. The second transition (From
Goodness to Truth) seeks to resolve the conflict between selfishness and
responsibility and all is resolved in the third and final level (The Morality of
Nonviolence) when a balance is found between expectations of conformity and
individual needs (Evans et al., 1998, Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991).
According to Gilligan (1993), women perceive and construe social reality
very differently than men, with the main differences centering around attachment
and separation. Additionally, women’s sense of integrity appears to be intertwined
with an ethic of care. The shifts from childhood to adulthood and adulthood to mid-
life introduce major redefinitions of care and meaning is construed by the interaction
between structures of thought and realities of life. “Thus women not only reach mid-
life with a psychological history different from men’s and face at that time a
22
different social reality having different possibilities for love and work, but they also
make a different sense of experience, based on their knowledge of human
relationships” (p. 172).
Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger, and Tarule. In Women’s Ways of Knowing,
Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger and Tarule (1997) build on Gilligan’s work that
includes women’s voice in human development theory and Perry’s (1968) research
on what women might have in common with men to focus on what else might be
important about women’s intellectual development (Evans et al., 1998). By the late
1970s, Belenky et al. had spent a large part of the professional lives studying the
intellectual, ethical and psychological development of adolescents and adults in
educational and clinical settings and were concerned that women students spoke
frequently of problems and gaps in their learning and often doubted their intellectual
competence. They also observed that real and valued lessons did not necessarily
grow out of women’s academic work, but rather were often a result of relationships
with friends and teachers, life crises, and community involvement and formal
education was peripheral or irrelevant to their central interests and development
(1997, p.4).
Belenky et al. (1997) explored women’s experiences and problems as
learners and knowers and reviewed past histories for changing concepts of the self
and relationships with others. They interviewed 135 alumnae and current students in
formal academic settings and women from agencies that dealt with clients seeking
information or assistance with parenting and found that, “…women repeatedly used
23
the metaphor of voice to depict their intellectual and ethical development; and the
development of a sense of voice, mind, and self and intricately intertwined” (p.18).
Belenky et al. revealed that women view the world from five epistemological
perspectives: silence-mindless, voiceless obedience; received knowledge-listening to
others and truth resides in others, not in the self; subjective knowledge-truth resides
in the self, inner knowledge is considered superior to the knowledge of others;
procedural knowledge-learning and applying objective procedures for receiving and
conveying knowledge; and constructed knowledge-involves integration of subjective
and objective knowledge. Evans et al. (1998), wrote that Women’s Ways of
Knowing constitutes the entire research base on this theory and, “…can be used most
constructively as a source rather than the source of information about women and
meaning taking” (p. 153).
Marcia Baxter Magolda. Baxter Magolda was influenced by the work of
Perry (1968), Belenky et al. (1997), and Kitchener and King (1981, 1990). The
gender differences and similarities reported in these works and the model of
reflective judgment work where differing conceptions about the nature of knowledge
emerge influenced her work (Evans et al., 1998, Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005).
According to Baxter Magolda (1992), the four ways in which college students make
meaning include:
1. absolute knowing-knowledge is viewed as certain;
2. transitional knowing-acceptance that some knowledge is uncertain;
3. independent knowing-knowledge is viewed as mostly uncertain;
24
4. contextual knowing-convergence of previous gender related patterns.
Baxter Magolda finds more similarities than differences in men and women’s ways
of knowing, but there are gender-related differences in reasoning (Pascarella &
Terenzini, 2005).
Baxter Magolda’s own work is the primary research done in relation to her
models (Evans et al., 1998). In 1992, she continued to explore gender differences
and similarities in women and men’s views of knowledge and approaches to learning
and their differences within cognitive structures and learning styles. The results of
this study showed no difference in cognitive structures or learning styles, but showed
pattern differences in cognitive structures and learning orientation. Female study
participants followed a pattern of listening to and relying on authority followed by a
distinct shift to relying on their own and peers’ opinions, a pattern that matches
knowledge perspectives described by Belenky et al. (1997).
Two studies Baxter Magolda (1998, 1999) published examined how complex
thinking evolved for 39 men and women age 18 to 30, during their twenties. Students
were interviewed annually from the time they entered college until age 30. These
interviews revealed participants’ shift from accepting authority’s knowledge to self-
authoring knowledge while in college to unearthing contextual knowing after
college. Participants had not reached the mature capacity to hold firm convictions by
the end of college and they, “…stood on the threshold of relativism at the end of
college” (1999, p. 335). After college, during their twenties, Baxter Magolda found
that four dynamics were found in participants experience, initial post-college
25
success, dissonance, learning to listen to internal cues and the need to act on internal
cues. She questioned if it would be possible for institutions of higher education to
create conditions for these transformations during college and bring students’ voices,
identities and eyes to the forefront earlier.
Psychosocial and cognitive-structural development theories provide
foundational knowledge to inform this study about student development.
Psychosocial theories illustrate that a person’s development continues throughout
their life-span and as people move through life they continually experience change.
Research has determined that development may not occur in the distinctive stages
first determined by early theorists and issues such as identity, intimacy, generativity,
and integrity can wax and wane throughout an adult’s life. Changing conditions may
have extended the timetable of the life cycles, however, there are still predictable
stages in adult development. Cognitive-structural theories help us to understand how
people structure meaning as they advance through life and illustrate the uniqueness
of the individual. The theories highlight that internal change plays an important role
in development and the meaning an individual attaches to a transition.
Both theoretical perspectives illustrate that women develop differently than
men and research has determined that relationships are extremely important to
women’s personal development. Cognitive-structural theories explain how women
attach meaning to their identity and further underscore the differences in male and
female development. These theories illustrate that adult women continue to make
and remake their identities throughout their lives and help to clarify that the effects
26
of college on the personal development of women undergraduates who are 35 years
old and older, whose identities might be generally resolved, are likely to be different
than their “traditional” women student counterparts but can still be very profound.
Sources of Impact
Psychosocial and cognitive structural theoretical perspectives and research
provide a foundational understanding of the internal psychological processes
associated with change and the dynamics by which growth happens, but they do not
address the external environmental, sociological conditions and origins of change or
the interactions between students and their environments (Kuh, 1995). In order to
more fully understand the effects of college on student development, the sources of
impact on development must be explored. To provide the underpinning of this
exploration, the seven key influences on student development listed in Chickering &
Reisser’s (1993) Education and Identity and Alexander Astin’s (1999) Theory of
Student Involvement are reviewed and to further illuminate the sources of impact,
research on key factors that influence student development are also examined.
Seven Key Influences on Student Development
Chickering & Reisser (1993) tried to bring knowledge and practice closer
together by proposing primary areas where colleges and universities can encourage
student development along seven developmental vectors (Pascarella & Terenzini,
2005). The basic proposition of Chickering & Reisser’s work is that human
development should be the organizing purpose for higher education (1993, p. 265)
27
and they present key influences that they hypothesize are important for encouraging
human development. These key influences and hypotheses include:
1. Institutional Objectives: Impact increases as institutional objectives are clear
and taken seriously.
2. Institutional Size: As redundancy increases, development of competence,
mature interpersonal relationships, identity and integrity decreases.
3. Student-Faculty Relationships: Frequent and friendly student-faculty
interactions in diverse settings encourage development through varied roles
and relationships, development of intellectual competence, autonomy and
interdependence, purpose and integrity.
4. Curriculum: Educationally powerful curriculum encourages development.
5. Teaching: Methods of teaching can foster intellectual and interpersonal
competence, mature interpersonal relationships, autonomy, identity, and
purpose.
6. Friendships and Student Communities: Friendships and participation in
communities where diversity of backgrounds and attitudes and significant
interchanges occur can foster development.
7. Student Development Programs and Services: Student development
professionals work closely with faculty to apply student development theory
the increase the impact of programs and services on students’ development.
28
In addition to the key influences, the basic principles of integration of work
and learning, recognition of respect for individual differences, and acknowledgment
of nature of learning and development contribute the impact of college on students.
Theory of Student Involvement
Alexander Astin’s Theory of Student Involvement (1999) is a college impact
model of student change. Impact models concentrate on the origins and processes of
change (Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005). These models portray learning and personal
development as a function of shared influences between institutional characteristics,
student characteristics, and perceptual and behavioral environments “…produced
through contacts with peers, faculty, staff, and others including the types of activities
in which students engage” (Kuh, 1995).
Astin (1999) argued involvement is critical to students’ persistence in college
and their continued development. The factors that Astin theorized to contribute most
to students’ persistence and involvement in college were: place of residence (living
on campus versus living off-campus and commuting), honors programs, academic
involvement, student-faculty interaction, athletic involvement, and involvement in
student government. Student involvement theory links traditional pedagogical
theory variables such as subject matter, resources, and individualization of approach
and desired learning outcomes.
The theory has five basic assumptions:
1. Involvement refers to the investment of physical and psychological energy in
various objects.
29
2. Regardless of its object, involvement occurs along a continuum.
3. Involvement has both quantitative and qualitative features.
4. The amount of student learning and personal development associated with
any educational program is directly proportional to the quality and quantity of
student involvement in that program.
5. The effectiveness of any educational policy or practice is directly related to
the capacity of that policy or practice to increase student involvement.
This theory proposes that the most precious institutional resource may be
students’ time and that students’ achievement of developmental goals is a direct
function of the time and effort they devote to activities designed to produce these
gains. Additionally, psychic and physical time and energy of students are finite and
educators compete with other forces in a student’s life for a share of their time and
energy.
Research on College Impacts
In their 1991 synthesis of the literature, Pascarella and Terenzini suggested
that the students’ experiences during college have more impact on their development
than the nature of the colleges or universities themselves. This suggestion, along
with Chickering and Reisser’s (1993) and Astin’s (1999) work is used as a lens to
determine how to categorize the research on the sources of impact on student
development. Several researchers have determined that relationships are an
important component in students’ experiences that affect development during college
(Alford, 2000; Astin, 1993, 1999; Bean & Metzner, 1985; Cabrera et al., 1993;
30
Cheng, 2004; Chickering & Reisser, 1993; Hu & Kuh, 2002; Johnson,1997; Jones,
1997; Kodama, 2002; Kuh, 1995; Kuh, Hu, & Vesper, 2000; Kuh, Pace & Vesper,
1997; Lundberg, 2004; Pascarella, 1980; Pascarella, 1985; Pascarella & Terenzini,
1991; Terenzini & Pascarella, 1994; Terenizini, Springer, Pascarella, & Nora, 1995;
Thompson, 2001) and is the first category of sources of impact to be explored. This
examination includes both college-based and non-college-based relationships.
Factors that affect the development of cognitive skills and intellectual growth
are also key components of students’ college experience (Dlugos, 2003; Graham &
Cockriel, 1996, 1997; Kuh et al., 1997 Mishler, 1983a; Pascarella, 1989; Pascarella
& Terenzini 1991, 2005; Terenzini, 1994; Terenzini & Pascarella, 1994; Terenizini
et al., 1995) and sources that lead to development of these areas are the second
category explored. Activities that students experience during college and their place
of residence have also been found to affect their personal development (Astin, 1999;
Cheng, 2004; Fox, Spooner, & Utterback, 1996; Inman & Pascarella, 1998; Johnson,
1997; Jones, 1997; Kodama, 2002; Kuh, 1995; Lundberg, 2004; Pascarella, 1980,
1984; Pascarella, 1985; Pascarella, Bohr, Nora, Zusman, Inman, & Desler, 1993;
Pascarella et al., 1998; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1980; Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005;
Terenzini, 1994; Terenzini & Pascarella, 1994; Thompson, 2001; Tinto, 1997) and
make up the final portion of the examination.
Research that focuses on “traditional” college students, women students, and
“nontraditional” (adult commuter) students is included in this examination. Research
about “nontraditional” students is included because women undergraduates, 35 years
31
old and older, are more likely to be commuter students than residential students.
Nontraditional students are different from their residential counterparts. For
nontraditional students, campus is a place to visit, sometimes for a very short time.
Life circumstances among these students are extremely diverse and this diversity
creates many important distinctions between them and residential students (Jacoby,
2000).
Nontraditional students experience an environmental press that includes less
interaction with college based peers and faculty, less interaction through extra-
curricular activities, less use of campus services, class-related activities similar to
traditional students, and greater interaction with the non-college-based external
environment (Bean & Metzner, 1985). They often have several life roles and as
additional life roles are assumed by students, the complexity of their lives increase
(Wilmes & Quade, 1986). Multiple life roles result in several different factors
constantly competing for students’ time and attention. The amount of time that
nontraditional students invest in other life roles reduces the amount of time and
energy they can devote to their education. Competing needs force them to prioritize
and allocate their finite time and energy based on constantly shifting perceptions
about the value of the return-on-time-invested. Application of Astin’s Theory of
Student Involvement (1999) and Chickering and Reisser’s (1993) key influences to
nontraditional, commuter students may result in different developmental outcomes
than for traditional, residential students or they may be affected by different factors.
32
College-based relationships. Student-faculty relationships are the most
obvious type of college-based relationships. Chickering and Reisser (1993)
hypothesized that, “When student-faculty interaction is frequent and friendly and
when it occurs in diverse situations calling for varied roles and relationships,
development of intellectual competence, sense of competence, autonomy and
interdependence, propose, and integrity are encouraged” (p. 269). Astin’s Theory of
Student Involvement (1999, p. 525) states that frequent interaction with faculty is
more strongly related to satisfaction with college than any other type of involvement
or any other student or institutional characteristic.
Students’ feelings of being cared about, treated in a caring way, valued as an
individual and accepted as a part of the community contributed directly to their sense
of belonging and the interaction of faculty and students around academics is the heart
of the university community (Cheng, 2004). Faculty members exert a great deal of
influence on student development both in and out of the classroom and instruction
includes the teaching instructors do both inside and outside of their classrooms
(Terenzini & Pascarella, 1994).
Informal student-faculty interaction does influence student intellectual and
creative development and has some impact on the students’ development in college
(Johnson, 1997; Kuh, 1995; Pascarella, 1980). Informal student-faculty contact
beyond the classroom can foster feelings of affirmation, confidence and self-worth,
particularly for women (Kuh, 1995). Informal relationships between students and
faculty have also been found to be extremely important to commuter students who
33
persisted in college. Commuter students who participated in a 1997 study conducted
by Johnson, indicated that one factor in their persistence was their relationship with
faculty and adequate opportunities to interact with faculty. However, Bean &
Metzner (1985) wrote that nontraditional students have lessened intensity and
duration in their interaction with faculty and peers at the institutions they attend and
are less likely to become socialized to the values of their student peers or faculty.
Pascarella (1980) found that the extent and type of faculty impacts are dependent on
the individual characteristics of students who seek contact with faculty beyond the
classroom and are likely to affect the amount and type of informal interaction.
Institution size has been found to be a negative influence on student-faculty
interaction (Astin, 1993; Pascarella, 1985). Institutions with large enrollment, high
student/faculty ratios and public control on social integration with peers and faculty,
illustrate the issue of redundancy that Chickering and Reisser (1993) hypothesize as
a contributing factor to decreasing development and can lead to students’ feeling
isolated and anonymous.
Institutional size can also affect relationships with peers. Pascarella (1985)
found that social integration with peers and, to a lesser extent, with faculty had
significant positive direct effects on student development measures, but it appeared
that institutional size generally, though indirectly, inhibited the impact of college.
Peer culture is also a factor that can influence informal student-faculty relationships.
Student’s peer acquaintances have an important influence on acceptable modes of
interaction with faculty and their personality development (Pascarella, 1980).
34
In their sixth key influence, Chickering and Reisser (1993) hypothesized that
friendships and participation in communities where diversity of backgrounds and
attitudes and significant interchanges occur can foster development. Several studies
have validated this hypothesis, finding that relationships with peers have substantial
influence on how students spend their time and the meaning they make of their
experiences (Astin, 1993; Hu & Kuh, 2002; Kuh et al., 2000; Pascarella & Terenzini,
1991). Additionally, social interaction and cooperation with peers has a significant
direct effect on personal-social development (Kuh et al., 1997; Pascarella, 1985).
Cabrera et al. (1993) found that social integration, developing close personal
relationships with peers, and the ability to easily make friends with other students
also was an important component in students’ persistence.
Alford (2000) examined Black commuter student relationships and
associations with peers. This study revealed that participants expanded friendships
on as-needed basis and they sought relationships with college peers only for support
of college activities. External responsibilities hampered development or
continuation of college peer relationships beyond the academic setting. Kodama
(2002) found that for commuter students on-campus support is a predictor of
marginality in the negative direction. For this population of students, most support is
off-campus rather than on campus. Bean and Metzner (1985) wrote that for
nontraditional students socializing agents remain largely as they had been—non-
college influences--and they do not greatly change their social environments.
35
Non-college-based relationships. Friends and family affect students’ intent to
persist second only to institutional commitment (Cabrera et al., 1993) and are
another important source of impact on college student development. Jones (1997)
discovered that non-college-based relationships are particularly important to college
women’s identities. The women that participated in this study could not talk about
their identities without referring to experiences regarding parents, siblings and
extended family. Family reaction to nontraditional students’ college attendance is an
important aspect in the students’ satisfaction with the college experience (Bean &
Metzner, 1985) and Thompson (2001) concluded that time spent with family was not
found to negatively effect interactions with faculty.
Relationships with colleagues and supervisors in the workplace and non-
college-based friendships are other important factors in college student identity
development. Lundberg (2004) discovered that a positive factor for working
students was the support that included discussions on learning topics, gained through
work-related relationships. However, Alford (2000) determined that in an effort to
persist in college and grow personally, participants often eliminated relationships
that didn’t support college completion. These discontinued relationships were often
friends who didn’t attend college.
Cognitive skills and intellectual growth. Two of Chickering and Reisser’s
(1993) key influences apply to cognitive skills and intellectual growth. In the fourth
influence they hypothesize that educationally powerful curriculum encourages
development and in the fifth influence they assume that methods of teaching can
36
foster intellectual and interpersonal competence, mature interpersonal relationships,
autonomy, identity and purpose. Pascarella and Terenzini (1991, 2005) concluded
that college contributes to significant gains in subject matter knowledge and students
become more critical, reflective and sophisticated thinkers. Additionally, Graham
and Cockriel (1996, 1997) analyzed data from the American College Testing
Program College Outcomes Survey and found that the three top rated areas that
students perceived colleges contributed to their personal growth were acquiring a
well-rounded education, becoming academically competent, and increasing
intellectual curiosity. These results were mirrored in a study of students who
returned to college as adults and graduated with a bachelor degree (Mishler, 1983a).
Adult respondents rated the category of intellectual curiosity, discovering and
enjoying knowledge number two in benefits that they received from attending
college. Gains in intellectual understanding and knowledge are clearly an important
outcome for students and discovering the sources of these outcomes is an important
component in understanding student development.
Dlugos (2003) argued that most college professors want their students to
grow personally, become more reflective and self-aware as a result of taking their
courses and inclusion of critical thinking and reflective writing in the curriculum will
accomplish this task. Terenzini et al. (1995) found that college students experienced
significant gains in critical thinking during college. This study included data
collected from 4,500 students enrolled for their first semester and found that both
class-related (curricular exposure, formal classroom and instructional experiences)
37
and out-of-class experiences equally made positive, statistically significant and
unique contributions to critical thinking scores. Additionally, the number of hours
students spent studying also was related positively to gains in critical thinking.
Studies examining the impact of peers on critical thinking and cognitive
growth have not yielded consistent findings. Terenzini et al. (1995) found that gains
in critical thinking were negatively associated with students’ perception of their
relationships with student peers. Conversely, Pascarella (1989) found that cognitive
growth during college is fostered by social and intellectual interaction with peers and
faculty as well as coursework and academic involvement.
Coursework and other academic program involvement appear to exert
influence on political attitudes and values and the content of the class may be less
important than the way it is taught (Terenzini, 1994). Positive changes occur in
classes that encourage discussion and there is a correlation between active learning
and broad educational gains and active learning and intellectual skills (Kuh et al.,
1997; Terenzini, 1994).
Activities and place of residence. Kuh (1995) found that, “out-of-class
experiences presented students with personal and social challenges, encouraged them
to develop more complicated views on personal, academic and other matters and
provided opportunities for synthesizing and integrating material presented in the
formal academic program (classes, laboratories, studios)” ( p. 146). Astin (1999)
postulates that place of residence, honors programs, academic involvement, athletic
involvement and involvement in student government provide the most support to
38
student involvement. Chickering and Reisser’s (1993) sixth key influence also refers
to various activities under the umbrella of campus communities and include
reference groups, residence halls, student organizations and classes. On campus
communities emphasize student connections to each other and to content and
process. The focus of students’ interpersonal and extra-curricular involvements can
have a mediating influence on growth. Although intellectual growth may be
primarily a function of the student’s academic involvement and effort, interpersonal
and extra-curricular involvements can either promote or inhibit growth (Terenzini &
Pascarella, 1994). Current experiences, situational factors, critical incidents,
instructive classes that encourage personal reflection, and involvement in the
environment all provided a context to shape identity (Jones, 1997).
Astin, (1999) found several developmental benefits that living on-campus
provides to students versus living off campus and commuting. Residents show
greater gains in artistic interests, liberalism, interpersonal self-esteem and have
greater involvement with faculty, involvement in student government, participation
in fraternities and sororities, and extra-curricular activities. Residence halls can
provide ready made communities and have the potential for fostering development of
competence, management of emotions, autonomy and interdependence, and personal
relationships (Chickering & Reisser, 1993). In a study of traditional-aged college
students, Fox et al. (1996) found that students who stay on campus on weekends
during their freshman year of school reported higher levels of autonomy than
students who left campus to go home. These findings support the potential
39
developmental benefits of living on campus proposed by Astin (1999) and
Chickering and Reisser (1993).
However, the effects of structural characteristics on student development may
not be as clear cut as supposed by Astin and Chickering and Reisser. Studies by
Pascarella and Terenzini (1980) and Pascarella, (1980, 1984) suggest that the effects
of residence arrangements are indirect. Rather, it is the social interaction that has
direct effects on student development. Social interactions with peers and faculty will
be different depending on place of residence but it is the social interaction that is
important (Pascarella, 1985). These findings were echoed by Terenzini (1994) in his
examination of the effects of college on citizenship. He found that although earlier
studies had determined that students who live on-campus are more likely than
commuting students to change on a variety of personal dimensions, recent studies
suggested that the residential advantage is indirect and the advantage is really more
one of environment than physical place.
Pascarella and Terenzini (2005) found that the evidence pertaining to direct
effects of general cognitive growth of living on campus is mixed and generally
inconclusive. This observation is supported by the following two studies. Pascarella
et al., (1993) conducted a single campus study and found there were significant
differences in critical thinking between resident and commuter students. However,
other multi-institutional studies found little support for these findings (Inman &
Pascarella, 1998).
40
Chickering and Reisser (1993) and Astin (1999) proposed that involvement
in academic and extra-curricular activities is important to student development.
Student social involvement in educational life of college provides a mechanism to
engage student effort and growth occurs. Classrooms are learning communities that
serve as smaller academic and social meeting places. Membership in the community
of the classroom provides important linkages to membership in communities external
to classroom (Tinto, 1997). Cheng (2004) found that what most connected students
with the community of college, is effective programming and organized social
opportunities, as well as small circles of friends who share personal interests.
Additionally, Pascarella (1985) determined that the strongest positive impacts on the
measures of student affective development occurred at those institutions that
maximized social interaction among students. Evidence also suggests that the
breadth of student involvement in the intellectual and social experience of college
that promote gains in critical thinking (Terenzini & Pascarella, 1994).
Astin (1999) sees off-campus employment as a factor that makes students
less likely to succeed in college because the work draws their time and energy away
from college. However, Pascarella and Terenzini (2005) indicated the body of
evidence about the impact of work during college on development of general
cognitive skills and intellectual growth is inconsistent. Pascarella et al. (1998) found
only modest and inconsistent evidence that on- or off-campus work seriously inhibits
learning or cognitive development and there is some evidence that reasonable
amounts of work may actually facilitate learning.
41
Lundberg (2004) concluded that number of hours worked had a negative
effect on engagement with peers and faculty, but did not have a negative effect on
learning. Similarly, Thompson (2001) found that time at work had a significant
direct effect on informal student-faculty interaction. Work was also found to
negatively influence the time expended on studying math and science, but the quality
of the effort was positively influenced.
There is also evidence that work can sometimes be helpful to students’
development. Pascarella and Terenzini (2005) reported that recent research findings
support the proposition that, “…under certain circumstances (particularly when it is
limited in duration and on campus), [work] can enhance student progress and degree
completion” (p. 415). Students who are employed on campus experience less
marginality than those employed off-campus or not employed (Kodama, 2002). The
findings of Kodama’s study validate Chickering and Reisser’s (1993) hypothesis that
integration of work and learning can assist in development. Also, as was previously
stated, a positive factor for working students is the support they receive through
relationships with colleagues (Lundberg, 2004).
This examination of the research on the sources of impact on college student
development has revealed that multiple sources effect development. These sources
can affect development individually or combine and overlap with other factors to
create outcomes unique to the individual students. Many of the same factors that
contributed to the successful retention of traditional college students also contributed
to retention of commuter students (Bean & Metzner, 1985; Johnson, 1997).
42
Similarity of factors was also evident in Straub’s findings in a 1987 study on the
development of autonomy in women college students. Twenty-five women students
were asked to identify critical incidents that they experienced that had a significant
impact on their development of autonomy. The five categories that emerged were:
relationship events involving significant others or a relationship with another person;
educational events that focused on the college experience either in or out of the
classroom; work-related events; events that involved a change in environment or
moving; events of the internal nature focusing on self.
The information revealed in the exploration of the sources of impact provides
another level of understanding to guide the study of the sources of impact on older
(35 years old and older) undergraduate women’s personal development.
Relationships, development of cognitive skills and intellectual growth, and activities
are all important factors that the research has demonstrated uniquely effect the
personal development of all college student populations.
Means of Assessment
Theoretical perspectives provide the foundational information to interpret the
dynamics of growth and internal processes associated with personal development.
The examination of the key sources of impact on college students’ development
provides insight into external sources of influence and the origins of change. Both of
these components are extremely important in developing a comprehensive
representation of the effect that college has on students’ development, but these
43
components do not provide information about mechanisms to assess the impacts of
college on students’ personal development.
A discussion on the means of assessment is necessary to complete the
exploration of the sources that effect development. As was mentioned previously,
the impacts of college on students has been the focus of extensive research and the
expansiveness of this research indicates there is great interest in understanding the
actual changes that occur in college and determining the types of activities that will
have the most beneficial effect on students (Graham & Cockriel, 1997). However,
the complexity and impact of the college experience is somewhat difficult to assess
(Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991). In order to provide a clearer understanding of the
means used to assess the impact of college, specific indicators usually used in
research will be examined and the limitations of using such indicators will be
discussed. The alternative assessments of large-scale surveys and individual
retrospective, narrative data will also be examined. Exploration of the means of
assessment will conclude with a discussion of two items that can be gained from
retrospective, narrative data which are very important to this study--categories of
impact and the way respondents organize their thinking about these impacts.
Indicators
The study of specific indicators is often used in research to examine the effect
of college on students’ development. Grade point average (GPA), test scores,
courses taken and class load, study time, hours worked, salaries, and social and
political involvement are examples of indicators that have been used by researchers
44
to evaluate the effect that college has on development. GPA, test scores, courses
taken and class load have been used as indicators to evaluate academic achievement,
persistence, and intellectual and problem solving growth (Astin, 1993; Carlan, 2001;
Leppel, 2005; Moss, 2003; Pascarella et al., 1998; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991;
Somers et al., 2004). GPA has also been used to assess occupational outcomes such
as job success and salary (Roth & Clark, 1998) and Terenzini (1994) evaluated the
influence of students’ coursework on political attitudes and values.
Study time and hours spent working during college are indicators often used
to evaluate the role that involvement plays in students’ developmental outcomes (Hu
& Kuh, 2002; Leppel, 2005; Pascarella et al., 1998; Sommers et al., 2004;
Thompson, 2001). Occupational choice after college has also been used to
determine the impact that college has on students (Mishler, 1983a, 1983b). The
study of these indicators is very important and provides a measure of the impact of
college on student development. However, these indicators do not address how
students themselves assess their experiences and evaluate their academic and
personal growth (Clark, 2005; Graham & Cockriel, 1997). Additionally, as was
noted by Kuh et al. (1997, p. 436), “Outcomes data represent what students have
learned but they do not necessarily point to student behaviors and institutional
practices that produce the outcomes.”
Alternative Assessments
In order to address this limitation, data from large-scale, self-report surveys
such as the American College Testing (ACT) College Outcomes Survey and the
45
College Student Experiences Questionnaire have often been used to determine what
the students’ perceive their personal growth to have been (Graham & Cockriel, 1997;
Kuh et al., 1997). These instruments elicit information about the students’
perspective of their development by asking students to rate their experiences and
development in specific areas. These questionnaires provide insight into how the
students’ interpret their experience and, because many of the outcomes of higher
education cannot be measured by achievement tests, students’ self-report information
maybe the only source of useful data for some outcomes (Kuh et al., 1997).
However, although large-scale surveys collect data from the students’
perspective, these measures do not gather information about how unique subsets of
the student population would individually describe the sources that have impacted
their development during college. They do not solicit deep, rich information about
the sources of impact of college on student development, nor do they solicit
information about how students conceptually organize their thinking about these
impacts. To accomplish these goals, a mixed methods process is needed that allows
students to identify and conceptually organize the sources of impact they perceive to
have affected their personal development. In this descriptive process, qualitative and
quantitative data are combined to provide a deeper understanding of the sources that
effect individual students’ identity development and illustrate how they conceptually
organize the sources.
Using the students’ perspective to assess the impact of college permits
students to retrospectively describe how college has uniquely effected their
46
development and allows for the application of narrative to matters of development.
According to Rossiter (1999, p. 59), “Narrative is a central structure in human
meaning making; thus, the life course and individual identity are experienced as a
story.” Additionally, narrative is historical and facilitates understanding of
development retrospectively. It allows insight into how individuals craft narratives
from experiences and apply these stories to knowledge of self, other and the world
(Singer, 2004).
Retrospective data does have limitations. Henry, Moffitt, Caspi, Langley, and
Silva (1994) wrote that several cognitive and motivational factors cause people to be
inefficient and inaccurate processors of information about their past. Retrospective
errors occur because people: forget; tend to remember events as having occurred
earlier than they did; or reinvent the past to suit their current needs and
circumstances. Despite these problems, retrospective data will provide insight into
individuals’ unique perspectives.
Categories of Impacts and Conceptual Organization of Impacts
Categories of impact and how students conceptually organize the impacts are
two important components in the exploration of the sources of impact of college on
women undergraduates, 35 years old and older identity development. The basis for
the categories of impact can be gained from retrospective, narrative data by using
several qualitative methods—interviews, open-ended questionnaires or the critical
incident technique. Critical incidents can only be recognized retrospectively and the
data can be analyzed both qualitatively and qualitatively, and tends to be more
47
precise and explicit (Fivars & Fitzpatrick, 2001). These factors make this a desirable
methodology to use to gather the descriptive data that can be used to develop
categories of impact.
The critical incident technique was developed by Colonel John C. Flanagan
(1954) and is a procedure for gathering certain important facts concerning behavior
in defined situations. Brief, written, factual reports—incident reports—describe a
situation or an action that was important in determining the change of the outcome.
This technique allows researchers to collect incidents that have special significance
and meet systematically defined criteria.
According to Flanagan (1954), an incident is any observable human activity
that is complete enough to permit inferences and predictions about the person
performing the act. A critical incident is one that occurs in a situation where the
purpose or intent is clear and consequences are sufficient to leave little doubt about
its effects. The critical incident technique has been used to identify what people do
and to identify factors important in defining criteria (Fivars & Fitzpatrick, 2001).
Flanagan (1954) reported that the technique had been used in various studies and it
does not consist of a single rigid set of rules governing data collection. “Rather it
should be thought of as a flexible set of principles which must be modified and
adapted to meet the specific situation at hand” (p. 333).
The critical incident technique has participants identify specific personal
incidents that have had an important effect on a final outcome. It is an open-ended,
retrospective, qualitative method that minimized interference from stereotypical
48
reactions (Critical Incident, n.d.). Like brief, open-ended survey responses that
provide rich descriptions of respondents’ reality, elicit more honest responses
through greater anonymity, capture diverse responses and provide alternative
explanations (Jackson & Trochim, 2002) the data gathered through the critical
incident provide a mechanism to explore and explain ideas.
Developing the categories and determining how participants organize their
thinking can be analyzed using code-based techniques, word-based text techniques or
concept mapping. Jackson and Trochim (2002) argue that concept mapping offers,
“…a unique blending of the strengths of these approaches [code-based and word-
based] while minimizing some of their weaknesses” (p. 307) and is an integrated
approach to analyzing qualitative data. Several approaches can be used with this
method of research (Darcy, Lee, & Tracey, 2004). The normative or nomothetic
approach facilitates generalizations across people; the idiographic approach
highlights individual uniqueness; and the idiothetic approach combines normative
and idiographic methodologies to allow for differences on a common construct.
Goodyear, Tracey, Claiborn, Lichtenberg, and Wampold (2005, p. 236) wrote
that, “concept mapping is a methodological approach to understanding the concepts
people use to understand and interpret their worlds.” Concept mapping includes
several research methods that are geared to representing knowledge structures held in
common by individuals or groups of individuals pictorially. Jackson and Trochim
(2002) described two forms of the concept mapping process. One form has an
individual draw a picture of all the ideas related to a general theme or question and
49
shows how they are related. This “free form” version results in a map that has each
idea in a box or oval and lines connect related ideas. A more formal concept
mapping process, “…includes a sequence of structured group activities linked to a
series of multivariate statistical analysis that process the group input and generate
maps” (p. 312). This process depicts aggregate representations in the form of
thematic clusters, rather than individual models.
Most concept mapping represents information spatially, frequently in a
network representation with a web of nodes directly or indirectly linked to the central
concept being examined. An alternative to this method is one that places elements of
the central concept in some measurable relationship to one another. This method will
show the interrelatedness of elements and expands the definition of concept mapping
to include discrete categories that represent participants’ implicit grouping of
concepts (Goodyear et al., 2005).
Jackson and Trochim (2002) listed the five steps in concept mapping analysis
as: creating units of analysis, sorting units of analysis, running the multidimensional
scaling analysis (MDS), running the cluster analysis, and labeling the clusters. Using
the content generated from the qualitative instrument, units of analysis are created by
determining the concepts that emerge (a sentence or phrase containing only one
concept). Unitizing can be done by two or more researchers together or separately or
a group of respondents. If unitizing is done separately by researchers, an inter-rater
reliability check must be performed.
50
Sorting or coding can also be accomplished by different methods. The units
of analysis can be sorted into piles of similar statements by sorters who then give the
pile a name that accurately represents the statements in it. Sorters can be original
respondents or proxy sorters. Another sorting method is to use a paired comparison
format. This method asks participants to rate the degree of similarity between all
possible pairs of the units of analysis (Goodyear et al., 2005). Like sorting the units
into piles, this approach has the potential to uncover constructs that are important to
individuals and/or groups. Additionally, an advantage of the paired comparison
approach is that data can be examined for commonalities at both individual and
group levels (Tracey, Lichtenberg, Goodyear, Claiborn, & Wampold, 2003). Bias
responding is minimized with this approach and biasing factors associated with self-
rating scales such as central tendency are prevented (Darcy et al., 2004).
Using the coded data, MDS analysis is performed. An individual sort matrix
or binary similarity matrix (BSM), where rows and columns equal the number of
statements, is created for each sorter or rater’s response and MDS analysis is then
performed. If a nomothetic approach is being used, the BSM matrices are then
summed to obtain a combined group similarity matrix (GSM) and MDS analysis is
performed (Bedi, 2006). Multidimensional scaling analysis creates coordinate
estimates for each statement and multi-dimensional maps of distances between the
statements. The distance relationship between the points is the important factor in
the analysis (Jackson & Trochim, 2002). According to Goodyear et al. (2005),
choosing the optimal number of dimensions is not always easy and the relative fit of
51
the MDS solution to the data serves a the primary selection criteria. Some
researchers have recommended that two-dimensional solutions are routinely fit for
the purpose of visually displaying cluster results (Bedi, 2006; Jackson & Trochim,
2002, Trochim, 1989).
The next step is to analyze the same data using hierarchical cluster analysis.
The researcher’s decision at this point is to determine the number of clusters to select
from the results; their hierarchical order is determined by the analysis (Jackson &
Trochim, 2002). According to Trochim (1989), deciding on the number of clusters
for cluster analysis is just as essential as deciding on the number of dimensions for
MDS analysis and there is no simple way to accomplish the task. Different cluster
solutions must be examined to decide which solution makes sense for the case at
hand and relies on the discretion of the analyst.
The final step in the analysis is labeling the clusters. This involves choosing
a name that best represents each cluster (Jackson & Trochim, 2002). Trochim (1989)
suggests that this process is analogous to naming factors in factor analysis, in that,
each sorter or rater can read through the set of statements for each cluster and come
up with a short phrase or word that seems to describe or name the set of statements
as a cluster. The group then works to come to an agreement on the name.
This means of assessment is useful in exploring how unique individuals or
groups of individuals perceive different sources in their college experience to have
affected their personal identity development and provides mechanisms to illustrate
how they conceptually organize the sources of impact.
52
Research Questions
The examination of the literature reveals that identity development is a life-
long occurrence and there are differences in development between the genders. The
sources that impact development during college have been found to be similar
among student populations (traditional and nontraditional), but the effects of the
sources are unique and individual. In order to explore the sources of impact on
unique groups of students, examine the sources from their individual perspective and
learn how they conceptually organize the experiences, the means of assessment must
provide alternatives to standard indicator measurements. In this study, Flanagan’s
(1954) Critical Incident Technique was used to gather data from participants and
concept mapping using MDS and hierarchical cluster analysis as described by Bedi,
(2006), Goodyear et al., (2005), Jackson and Trochim (2003), Tracy et al. (2003) and
Trochim (1989), facilitated this examination.
This study uses the information gained from the literature review as
foundational knowledge to describe and map the sources of impact of college on
women undergraduates, 35 years old and older, identity development. The two
research questions that guided this study are:
1. What categories of college-related impacts will women undergraduates, 35
years old and older, report as having been particularly important to the
development of their sense of self?
2. What conceptual map do women undergraduates, 35 years old and older, use
to organize their experience of these categories of experiences?
53
CHAPTER II
METHOD
This chapter describes the methods used in this study. Specifically, it will
describe, in turn, the study’s participants, raters, measures, and procedures.
Participants
Phase One
Sixty-two undergraduate women participated in the first phase of this study.
Forty-five (72.6%) were of White/European ethnic backgrounds. The other
participants’ ethnic backgrounds were Hispanic/Latina (12, 19.4%), Asian/Pacific
Islander (2, 3.2%), Black/African American (1, 1.6%) and Other (2, 3.2%). The ages
of the participants ranged from 35 to 58 (M = 44.40, SD = 6.52).
All of the women were of junior or senior class standing in order to ensure
that they had been exposed to several aspects of the college environment. Fifty-eight
percent (n=36) of the participants were of senior class standing and 42% (n=26) were
of junior class standing. Most participants (n = 58, 93.5%) were from one of four
large, public West Coast universities. The remaining four were from one of the other
three universities.
Thirty-two participants (51.6%) indicated that their fathers had completed
some college; 16 (25.8%) indicated that their fathers had attended school 16 or more
years. Twenty-six (41.9%) indicated that their mothers had completed some college.
Table 1 displays the highest grade of school completed by the participants’ fathers
and mothers.
54
Table 1
Highest Grade of School Completed by Parents
Grade n Fathers % n Mothers %
01 - 11 11 17.7 10 16.1
12 18 29.0 25 40.3
13 5 8.1 4 6.5
14 11 17.7 10 16.1
15 0 --- 3 4.8
16 9 14.6 4 6.5
17 – 20+ 7 11.3 5 8.1
No Response 1 1.6 1 1.6
Most participants (38, 61.3%) were from households whose combined annual
income was over $50,000. The other participants reported household combined
annual income as follows: seven (11.3%) reported less that $24,999; 12 (19.4%)
reported $25,000 - $49,999; and five (8.1%) did not know or did not respond to the
question. Appendix A displays information about the household size and number of
adults bringing income to the household.
Phase Two
All 18 Phase Two participants -- all of whom had participated in Phase One -
- were of White/European ethnicity. Their mean age was 43.89 (SD = 6.14) with an
age range from 35 to 57.
The second phase participants were from two large, public, West Coast
universities. However, as was the case with Phase One participants, the majority of
the participants (n=16, 88.9%) were from just one of the universities. Ten (55.6%)
of the participants were of senior class standing and eight (44.4%) were of junior
class standing.
55
Raters
Three doctoral students (one of which was the author) at a large, private,
West Coast university were the raters for this study. All three raters were over 45
years old. Two of the raters were White/European females and one was a male from
the Indian sub-continent. All of the raters were engaged in mixed methods
dissertation research, had completed two inquiry courses in their doctoral program,
and had participated in mock rating sessions that utilized data gathered when piloting
the critical incident questionnaire.
Measures
This study used two measures. During the first phase, a variant of Flanagan’s
(1954) Critical Incident Technique was used to identify incidents or experiences that
had occurred during college that had a particular influence on the participants’
personal identity development. A paired comparisons questionnaire was developed
for the second phase of the study that used Phase One theme categories. This
questionnaire captured data that would be used for the MDS and cluster analysis and
determine the conceptual map participants used to organize the experiences.
Critical Incident Technique
The College Years Experience Questionnaire (CYEQ; Appendix B) was
based on Flanagan’s (1954) Critical Incident Technique. It asked participants to
reflect on their experience as a college student and report two incidents or
experiences that had affected their sense of who they are. The CYEQ explained that
the incidents could be either positive or negative. Participants were asked to
56
describe what each incident was, if another person or other persons was/were
involved, why the incident was important to them, what they believe the long-term
effect to have been, at what point in their college experience the incident occurred,
and how long ago the incident occurred. Participants were also asked to rate on a
seven point scale (1=Very Negative, 7=Very Positive) (a) the degree to which the
experience was positive and (b) the eventual effect that the experience had on their
sense of self.
Demographic information about the participants was also collected. The
information included the college or university they were attending, class standing,
gender, and age. Socio-economic status data such as combined family income, total
number of people living in the household, number of children living in household,
number of adults living in household, adults bringing income into the household,
highest grade of school their father had completed and highest grade of school their
mother had completed were collected. The final question on the CYEQ asked
participants if they would like to participate in the second phase of the study and
provided a space for them to enter an email address for notification if they were
selected for participation.
The initial CYEQ was constructed by the 11 doctorial students who were
members of the research team and was piloted twice to test for instruction and
question clarity. The doctorial students themselves participated in the first pilot.
Participants in the second pilot were acquaintances of the doctoral students.
57
After each pilot test, the CYEQ was refined. The two primary recruiting sites
also reviewed the CYEQ and in response to a request from both sites, the survey
introduction and instructions were kept gender neutral, stating that the target
population was undergraduate students, 35 years old or older and in their junior or
senior year of coursework. Potential respondents were informed that there were
other sub-groups that were target populations of other projects studying the source of
impact of college on undergraduates’ identity development, and if they were not a
member of this study’s target population but wished to continue with the survey,
their responses would be forwarded to other researchers.
Paired Comparisons Questionnaire
Twelve categories developed by the raters during the first phase of the study
from themes that emerged from the incidents reported on the CYEQ constituted the
concept elements, or categories, that were used in developing a paired-comparisons
questionnaire, the College Years Experience Concept Similarity Rating Scale
(CSRS). Each of the 12 categories were paired with each of the other categories,
resulting in a 66 items (N(N-1)/2, where N is the number of categories or 12(12-
1)/2). The placement of the paired themes on the CSRS was determined by using a
random number table and the chart in Appendix C displays the random paired
placement of the themes. Demographic data such as college or university being
attended, class standing, gender, age and ethnicity were also collected.
Descriptions of each of the 12 categories were listed on the CSRS so
participants could better understand what each category meant and participants were
58
instructed to rate the similarity between the paired themes. The initial CSRS used a
six-point scale (1=Not at all Alike; 2=Not Alike; 3=Slightly Alike; 4=Somewhat
Alike; 5=Alike; 6=Very Much Alike). The CSRS was piloted using acquaintances of
the author. Based on participants’ feedback the questionnaire was revised to use a
five-point scale anchored by 1=Not at all Alike and 5=Very Much Alike. Appendix D
contains an example of the final CSRS.
Procedures
Participant Selection
Phase One. Two large, public, West Coast universities were primary
recruiting sites for this study. Contacts at the women’s and adult reentry centers of
these universities were on-campus liaisons and helped to recruit Phase One study
participants by sending emails to their students. Both sites were unable to limit the
distribution of the email to women who were 35 and over and requested that the
correspondence and survey be gender neutral. Each of the centers sent a participant
solicitation email (Appendix E) that the author had composed. Participants from
other universities were recruited by word-of-mouth. That is, the author did not
contact the universities that the participants were attending to help with recruitment
and no recruitment emails were sent from that university.
A purposeful sampling strategy was used to select participants for the first
phase of the study. The sample selection was criterion based and there were three
criteria that participants in this study had to meet: (1) gender = female; (2) age = 35
years old or older; and (3) time-in-college = in junior or senior year of course work.
59
The demographic section of the CYEQ contained questions that addressed each
criterion.
One hundred and ninety-four individuals accessed the CYEQ. Of the
individuals who accessed the questionnaire, 118 (60.8%) respondents completed the
demographic section of the CYEQ and 90 (46.3%) elected to continue by completing
the first incident section of the CYEQ. Seventy-two (80%) of the 90 individuals who
completed the first incident section provided information in the second incident
section of the CYEQ. This resulted in 162 critical incidents. Of the 90 respondents,
62 (68.9%) individuals provided responses in the demographic section that indicated
that they met the three criteria and were selected as participants in the first phase of
the study. The CYEQs completed by these 62 participants resulted in 100 critical
incidents.
Phase Two. The final question on the CYEQ asked Phase One participants if
they were interested in participating in the second phase of this study. If the
participant answered yes to this question, they were given the opportunity to enter an
email address to be used to notify them when the CSRS was available for
completion. Forty-seven (75.8%) of the 62 Phase One participants indicated they
would like to participate in the second phase of the study and entered an email
address. When the CSRS was available, the author sent an email to the 47
individuals. An example of the email is in Appendix F.
Twenty-five people responded to the CSRS notification email. The CSRS
contained demographic items that re-addressed the Phase One criteria for
60
participation (gender = female; age = 35 years or older; and time in college = junior
or senior year of coursework). Twenty-four (96%) of the respondents completed the
demographic information, however, only 18 (75%) of these 24 respondents went on
to complete the CSRS. The 18 respondents who met all of the demographic criteria
to participate in the study and completed the entire CSRS were selected to participate
in the second phase of this study.
Measure Administration
Phase One. The CYEQ (Appendix B) was adapted to enable respondents to
access it online and it then was posted on an online survey service. The author
provided the contacts at the primary sites a solicitation email (Appendix E) to send to
potential participants. The email included the web address where the CYEQ could be
accessed. When potential participants logged in to the survey, they were given the
opportunity to either read the Research Project Information Sheet (Appendix G) or
proceed directly to the questionnaire to complete the demographic information and
the set of critical incidents.
The CYEQ remained open on the survey service until 100 useable incidents
(recorded in either the first and/or second section) were obtained. An incident was
determined as useable if the respondent’s answers to the demographic items met the
three criteria of the study and at least one incident was provided. When 100 useable
incidents were obtained, the survey was closed on the service.
Phase Two. The CSRS (Appendix D) was adapted to enable participants to
access the survey online and was posted on an online survey service. The Phase One
61
participants who had provided an email address for Phase Two notification were sent
a notification email (Appendix F) by the author. The CSRS remained open until 18
useable responses were received. As with Phase One, a response was determined to
be useable if the respondent’s answers to the demographic items met the study
criteria and they completed the 66 rating items on the questionnaire. When 18
useable responses were received, the CSRS was closed on the service.
Data Analyses
Phase One
Theme development. After the CYEQ was closed, the author downloaded the
responses from the service and generated an Excel file that contained all of the
incidents, some of the demographic information for each incident (college attending,
class standing, gender, age, and ethnicity), point in college each incident occurred,
how long ago each incident occurred, and the positive experience and effect on sense
of self ratings for each incident. This file was emailed to the other raters for theme
development.
Using the file, the raters independently generated a list of themes found in the
incidents. To prepare the list, the raters read each incident and listed the theme(s)
that they found present. Theme generation was not limited to one theme per
incident. Rather, as Jackson and Trochim (2002) suggested, the raters examined
individual sentences or phrases containing a single concept with in the incidents,
which resulted in multiple themes being generated from some of the incidents.
Additionally, the raters did not try to rank or assign importance to themes by
62
determining the frequency that the theme occurred in all incidents. All themes that
the raters found present in the incidents were placed on their individual lists.
In order to reduce bias, the raters next met as a group to review their
independent theme suggestions. The theme lists were reviewed and the themes that
were common to each list were placed on a master list. The remaining themes were
reviewed to determine if they should be placed on the master list. Three options
were employed to resolve the remaining themes: (a) themes that were similar in
meaning to a common theme that was on the master list were represented by the
existing common theme; (b) themes that were unique and fully supported in the
incidents were added to the master list; and (c) themes that were unique but not fully
supported in the incidents were discarded. When all themes had been resolved, the
master list contained 12 general themes.
After the meeting, the author compiled the list of final themes and sent the
list to the two other raters via email for review and approval. Each rater approved
the list as the 12 themes that had emerged from the 100 incidents.
Over-arching themes. Over-arching themes were assigned to the Phase One
incidents by the raters. Each rater independently read the incidents and assigned one
of the 12 themes as the over-arching theme that best represented that incident. The
individual assignments were compiled by the author and the raters gathered (in-
person and via phone) to discuss the compiled results. The raters agreed on four
rules for assigning final over-arching themes: (a) if all raters assigned the same
theme, the unanimous assignment was used as the over-arching theme; (b) if two
63
raters assigned the same theme, the common theme was used as the over-arching
theme; (c) if all raters assigned different themes, the incident was reexamined and a
theme was assigned that all raters accepted; and (d) if all raters did not assign a
theme, the theme was left unclassified.
Phase Two
After Phase Two data collection, the similarity ratings of each participant
were arranged into a separate similarity matrix. Each of the 12 categories or themes
was listed both vertically and horizontally in the matrix, and the similarity score
(five-point scale) given by individual Phase Two participants for each paired
comparison was entered in the appropriate cell, above and below the diagonal. All
similarities were based on the sum of the 18 similarity ratings in order to provide a
combined group similarity matrix (see Appendix H). These data served as the basis
for the concept mapping analyses.
Non-metric multidimensional scaling and hierarchical cluster analyses were
performed on the GSM to depict the structures that participants used in thinking of
the sources of impacts that college has had on their identity development. All
analyses employed SPSS.
Multidimensional Scaling (MDS). When using MDS, it has been
recommended not to interpret more dimensions than the number of elements or
themes divided by four (Kruskal & Wish, 1978) and because its representations are
spatial, MDS is not generally useful with greater than three or four dimensions. This
recommendation was considered in the dimension determination for this study.
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As was indicated earlier, choosing the optimal number of dimensions is not
always easy (Goodyear et al., 2005). The relative fit of the MDS solution to the data
should serve as the primary selection criterion. The common indicator of fit is
stress
1
, which is the square root of the normalized residual sum of squares. Values of
zero indicate perfect fit of the model to the data whereas, larger values indicate less
fit; a value of one indicates perfect instability. A one-dimension solution with a
stress
1
<.15 suggests that this solution is the best representation (Kruskal & Wish,
1978).
If this is not the case, solutions with more dimensions should be examined.
The “elbow” in the stress
1
fit values is examined in a manner similar to the scree test
in factor analysis. Kruskal and Wish recommended the cutoff of stress
1
<.10 as a
criterion of adequacy in deciding upon the “elbow”--i.e. asking, does the elbow
adequately accounts for the data by being below the .10 threshold. However,
according to Trochim (as cited in Bedi, 2006), a value of less than .30 represents a
stable MDS solution for multivariate concept mapping, whereas a value over .40
indicates that the data were not consistently sorted. During data analysis, the stress
1
value for a three dimensional solution and a two dimensional solution were
calculated.
Kruskal and Wish (1978) also recommended three other criteria to use in
selecting dimensions: interpretability, ease of use, and stability. Interpretability as a
criterion refers to the solution that makes the most sense conceptually. Ease of use
refers to parsimony--fewer dimensions are preferable because the structure is
65
depicted more simply. Stability refers to reliability of the structure and is important
and can be affected by minor movements of items. The focus of this study is on
interpretability and ease of use and these factors were given preference when
selecting dimensions.
Hierarchical cluster analysis. Hierarchical cluster analysis was used to
explore whether the data are better depicted with discrete rather than dimensional
representation. Clustering focuses on differences of type, rather than the differences
of amount (the focus of MDS), and allows for the examination of how the themes
generated are qualitatively different. The similarity matrix was examined using both
hierarchical clustering and add-tree clustering methods. Both of these methods
involve different assumptions and presentation of these different assumptions is
beyond the scope of this study. However, by using both methods and looking for
commonalities, there can be more confidence in any structures produced More
focus was placed on hierarchical clustering, using Euclidean distance and Ward’s
method of linkage, with the added check of complete linking.
Borgen and Barnett (1987) wrote that the selection of the number of clusters
is rarely clear and selection procedures range from informal to statistical. As was
stated above, the focus of this study is on interpretability and ease of use, so informal
procedures were used. The logic used is similar to the scree test in factor analysis
(Goodyear et al., 2005).
The data are presented in the form of a dendrogram in hierarchical clustering.
A dendrogram is a representation of the distance of each theme from each other
66
theme. The value of the distance parameter listed in the clustering dendrogram for
each number of clusters (the fusion coefficient) is examined for an “elbow,” as in
MDS, using the criteria of interpretability and ease of use to yield the final cluster
representation.
After the cluster representation was selected the clusters were named. To
accomplish this task, the raters individually reviewed the themes that formed each
cluster and the incidents that were assigned those over-arching themes. Short
phrases were composed that described the themes that made up each cluster. The
raters discussed the short phrases (in-person and via email) and a word was selected
that adequately described the themes in each cluster.
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CHAPTER III
RESULTS
This chapter presents the results of the data analyses for the two phases of
this study. Each section begins with the research question that was used to guide that
phase of the study, and then presents the results. Phase One results include
descriptive analysis, theme definitions and excerpts from the CYEQ responses that
describe the themes, and assignment of over-arching themes to the incidents. Phase
two results include the MDS and hierarchical cluster analyses results of the CSRS
data.
Phase One
Research Question
The research question that guided Phase One of this study is: What
categories of college-related impacts will women undergraduates, 35 years old
and older, report as having been particularly important to the development of
their sense of self?
The raters in this study determined that there were 12 emerging themes or
categories that respondents reported (in the 100 critical incidents that were collected)
as having been particularly important to the development of their sense of self.
Table 2 lists the themes with the abbreviated names that were used in the analyses
and presented later in the graphical representations of the results.
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Table 2
Themes and Short Name
Theme Short Name
Experiencing a self-awakening after taking a particular class SELFAWAK
Accomplishing something that had seemed very difficult DIFFICUL
Receiving validation and personal support from an instructor VALIDATE
Understanding and negotiating university policies POLICIES
Having to confront my fear of math MATH
Receiving a good grade on a project or test GRADE
Being humiliated or embarrassed by an instructor HUMILIAT
Having the support of family FAMILY
Forming new friendships FRIENDSH
Being criticized for expressing different views/beliefs BELIEFS
Participating in extra-curricular activities EXTRACUR
Feeling like an outsider because of age AGE
The majority of the 100 incidents were reported by participants to have
occurred when they were a junior in college (n = 38). The other incidents were
reported to have occurred as follows: 28 incidents occurred when the participants
were sophomores; 15 incidents occurred when the participants were freshman; 10
incidents occurred when the participants were seniors; and nine incidents were listed
as occurring at other times. The length of time (in years) that had elapsed since the
incidents occurred ranged from .08 (one month) to 30, with the mean length of time
being 3.93 years (SD = 5.57).
Theme Definitions and Incident Excerpts
Defining the themes and presenting excerpts from the CYEQ incidents
illustrate the components that contributed to the development and wording of each
theme. These components build on the examples used to describe each of the
derived themes in the Phase Two CSRS (Appendix D) and provide a more in-depth
69
understanding of what categories of college-related sources of impacts this study’s
participants -- women undergraduates who were 35 years old and older -- reported as
having been particularly important to the development of their sense of self. The full
text of the incidents, listed by over-arching theme, is displayed in Appendix I.
Experiencing a self-awakening after taking a particular class (SELFAWAK).
The incidents in this theme are defined by participants’ reports that they developed
new awareness or understanding as a result of taking a particular class. The self-
awakening experiences included: discovering a career choice, understanding family
dynamics, discovering a skill or talent, understanding cultural differences,
developing emotionally, developing political views, or becoming more aware of their
own culture; and the following excerpts illustrate this theme.
“… took a class called Character & Conflict. Each week we
discussed a different life issue.…I cannot remember the issue we were
discussing that week but it triggered the realization that school was
unfinished business for me, highlighting the fact that I was very much
on my own growing up and making decisions without input from my
parents.”
“That project gave an idea about who I was and what I always
wanted to be. That project gave me the opportunity to view my past
and to open my vision to the future.”
“During a Crisis Intervention class…I realized that due to an
alcoholic father, I had exhibited co-dependent type behavior all my
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life, which explained some of my perceived shortfalls, and took the
heavy load of blame off me.”
“In social theories class I listened to people who were not
white describe how they were treated as 'other' by whites. It was
painful.”
Accomplishing something that had seemed very difficult (DIFFICUL). This
theme reflects participants’ ability to overcome different types of challenges that
occurred while attending college. The following excerpts reveal that the incidents
addressed challenges such as: balancing work, family, and school; deciding on a
major or future course work; financing a college education; completing a difficult
course; or stepping outside a familiar environment.
“I realized that as an adult student many problems came up
with family members needing your time and taking you away from
school. I learned that making school a priority is important in order to
succeed.”
“Overall, going back to school at age 40 has helped me realize
the capabilities that I have in education.”
“My experience influenced me in such a way that I now
appreciate how hard it is to pay for college and work full-time. I now
know that I am capable of doing both…”
“I completed a difficult course and did well in that course. It
gives me self confidence and I know I accomplished a goal.”
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“Being accepted to the university after disqualifying the first
time. It gave me hope and sense of belonging to the community.”
Receiving validation and personal support from an instructor (VALIDATE).
Incidents in this theme illustrate an instructor interacting with the participant beyond
regular classroom instruction. The excerpts reveal that this interaction included
personal encouragement to continue schooling; positive feedback; and building the
student’s confidence.
“This is a significant experience because it was the end of the
semester and I was failing the class. This professor pulled me aside
and indicated to me that she knew that I was a very smart young lady
and needed to get rid of my distractions and put forth more effort to
get ahead and achieve my future goals. This was important because I
was at a point in my life where I wasn't sure that I could make it
through college.”
“…the teacher said something that I will always remember,
'No matter if it takes you, 10, 20, 30 or 50 years to finish your degree,
you should continue to pursue it. You will still be 10, 20, 30 or 50
years older whether you do it or not.' Every time I get discouraged
that I can only take one or two classes a semester I remember what he
said and know that I will continue to get older, so I might as well
finish.”
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“I asked a professor after class about my career options in the
Criminal Justice field being that many agencies make a 35 year old
cut-off for a career. My professor told me that I was a bright student
and that I should try law school. I had never thought of myself as all
that bright and I never thought I could ever attend law school. Now I
am seriously considering this option as a real possibility in my
future.”
Understanding and negotiating university policies (POLICIES). This theme
is defined by students trying to understanding what they need to do to satisfy
university policies. Understanding and being affected by financial aid and
immunization policies and graduation requirements are some of the topics addressed
in the excerpts.
“…financial aid it made me not want to finish the semester…”
“Needing to prove I had a MMR, now if I can't prove I had it
then I either have to have a blood test or another shot. I feel like I'm
not wanted at this school and that they are making it as hard as
possible to make me quit.”
“…trying to determine what I had left to take for graduation. I
meet with the advisors on several occasions and it wasn't until my
third meeting that they realized I would be short classes. The lack of
attention to detail cost me time.”
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“I have had a very positive experience since transferring
schools and pursuing my real interests. Although I have had to figure
out how things are done and have not had a lot of guidance...”
Having to confront my fear of math (MATH). The actions taken by
participants to overcome anxiety and complete math classes define in this theme. As
the excerpts reveal, these actions included re-taking a course several times, working
with tutors, and seeing a psychologist.
“I failed a math class three times….if I could get through
advanced math and pass it, then I could easily finish the rest of
achieving my degree.”
“…I was truly struggling with math… When I met with my
math tutor…I was able to understand concepts that I never understood
before.”
“I even saw a psychologist to help me get through this class
[Intermediate Algebra].”
Receiving a good grade on a project or test (GRADE). The focus of this
theme is receiving an “A” or high grade on a paper, test or project. The excerpts
illustrate how a good grade affected the participants’ self-confidence.
“When I started going to College I was afraid I wasn't going to
succeed so for my first class I studied so hard that the instructor gave
105/100 points in a project. This first class and the grades I got
increased my enthusiasm for learning and my self confidence.”
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“I was struggling through material in a Political Philosophy
course.…I did my best and was surprised to receive an A, when I
thought I was struggling to grasp concepts, apparently I was doing
better than I thought. I love it when that happens- getting a good
grade when you don't expect it.”
“My criminal law professor was pretty tough and said that in
all the years he had been teaching, no one had ever gotten a perfect
score on one of his final exams--so when I got a perfect score on my
criminal law final, I realized I could compete with much younger
students and that I really had a chance to succeed.”
“I received an A in the class and gained much needed
confidence.”
Being humiliated or embarrassed by an instructor (HUMILIAT). This theme
reflects instructors’ actions that resulted in lowering or offending the pride or self-
respect of students. The following excerpts show that these actions included insults,
lack of respect, and criticism from the instructors.
“When asked to share about an experience I used a word that
the teacher thought could be offensive to others….When class ended
she [teacher] was all laid back and said it is like the 'N' word for her.
I was humiliated and shamed.”
“So I told him what I thought. After I was finished, he went on
without even acknowledging that I had spoken. I muttered, 'Why
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should I even speak if you never listen to what I say?' I got up and left
the room.”
“I had a professor that was not personable, nor was he very
good at just answering a question without degrading the person who
was asking it.”
“The instructor liked most of my papers but one day she
insulted me in front of the whole class for no good reason.”
Having the support of family (FAMILY). This theme is defined by
participants’ reporting that a particular family member(s) was supportive or provided
inspiration to them. The following excerpts illustrate this theme.
“I have a supportive family and I have developed a supportive
community. When I lose my focus and want to just quit, I have
people who remind me that I have come this far and I can finish if I
just keep going.”
“My aunt has always told me that I can be 50 with a degree or
50 without a degree and in the long run, it's better to hold a degree.”
“I have always wanted to be a nurse and my mother was my
mentor.”
“My daughter also was very influential in my choice in
returning back to school.”
“Am sharing my successes with aging parents who are
supportive…”
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Forming new friendships (FRIENDSH). Participants meeting peers and
forming relationships are the focus of this theme. The relationships are illustrated by
the following excerpts and reveal positive one-to-one and group friendships (face-to-
face and online), as well as friendships that did not have a positive outcome.
“I love being around the other students and have made special
friends.”
“I met a young lady while attending [community college]…
We knew right away that we had some sort of bond…”
“I have been in a distance learning program for two years
which has allowed me to develop supportive relationships on line. I
now have a good friend who lives 300 miles away and we plan to
celebrate our graduation together...”
“It [the relationship] foreshadowed my future relationships
with men.”
Being criticized for expressing different views/beliefs (BELIEFS). This
theme’s definition is: instructors censuring or disagreeing with students when they
express views or beliefs that are different from the opinions or beliefs held by the
instructor. The theme is illustrated by the following excerpts from the incidents.
“The teacher was extremely liberal and started every class
with her political outlook and opinions. I am Christian and felt that I
was unfairly criticized and graded based on my views and hers.”
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“I was in a philosophy class and the instructor was very
liberal, I am very conservative. For my final project I wrote a paper
on why I was against the use of condoms and contraceptives.
Obviously my instructor was shocked and disagreed but he had said it
was okay to write whatever we wanted from his list of 50 topics. b)
The instructor was challenging me every step of the way during the
last weeks of the class.”
Participating in extra-curricular activities (EXTRACUR). This theme is
defined as students’ participation in events or activities outside the schools regular
curriculum. The excerpts illustrate the effects of extra-curricular activities on the
participants.
“The most influential events of my college experience were
the internships... In particular, my volunteer work...”
“I worked as a volunteer for ESL students. I discovered that I
was not culturally aware of culturally sensitive (and I always thought
that I was).”
“One of the best experiences I have had here at [university]
has been being an active member of the [student governing] Board.
This experience has taught me to reach out and get involved.”
Feeling like an outsider because of age (AGE). The focus of this theme is
participants being treated differently because of their age. The theme is described by
participants in the following excerpts.
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“I was so scared, feeling like an outsider (and really old) being
at school.”
“…I was 39 and felt over whelmed by all the young people…”
“I will never forget the orientation at [university] sitting
among all the young students. The speaker turned and looked straight
at me and said, 'Oh, you must be one of the mothers!' I hated being
singled out as the 'old' person in the crowd”
Over-arching Themes
Table 3 lists each theme, the number of incidents that the raters determined
had that particular theme as the over-arching theme, and the ratings that participants
gave those incidents as a positive experience and eventual effect on sense of self.
Receiving validation and personal support from an instructor (VALIDATE) is the
over-arching theme that the raters determined appeared most often in the incidents
with 24 incidents illustrating this theme.
VALIDATE was followed by experiencing a self-awakening after taking a
particular class (SELFAWAK) and accomplishing something that had seemed very
difficult (DIFFICUL). These themes were the over-arching themes in 18 and 15
incidents respectively. There was one incident that the raters determined did not
have any of the 12 themes as an over-aching theme. This incident is listed as
unclassified in Appendix I.
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Table 3
Number of Incidents in Category and Average Ratings of Positivity and Long
Term Impact
No. of Positive Exp. Sense of Self
Theme Incidents M SD M SD
SELFAWAK 18 6.95 1.50 6.84 1.22
DIFFICUL 15 5.53 1.85 6.40 .51
VALIDATE 24 6.83 .48 6.71 .62
POLICIES 4 1.75 1.50 3.25 2.87
MATH 7 6.14 2.27 6.14 2.27
GRADE 6 7.00 .00 6.67 .52
HUMILIAT 6 1.50 .84 4.33 2.16
FAMILY 5 6.40 1.34 6.00 2.24
FRIENDSH 4 5.50 3.00 5.25 2.87
BELIEFS 4 2.50 3.00 4.75 2.06
EXTRACUR 3 7.00 .00 7.00 .00
AGE 3 2.33 .58 5.00 2.00
Phase Two
Research Question
The research question that guided Phase Two of this study was: What
conceptual map do women undergraduates, 35 years old and older, use to
organize their experience of these categories of experiences?
Similarity data from the CSRS were analyzed to determine how study
participants conceptually organized their experiences. Non-metric multidimensional
scaling (MDS) and cluster analyses were performed to depict the structures
participants used in thinking of the sources of impact of college on their identity
development.
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Multidimensional Scaling (MDS)
The data in the GSM (Appendix H) were the source for the MDS and cluster
analysis. Several factors were reviewed before choosing the number of dimensions
to use in interpretation. Following the suggestion Kruskal & Wish (1978), the 12
themes were divided by four, which resulted in the indication that no more than three
dimensions should be used for interpretation. However, for concept mapping
process, only a two-dimensional solution was interpreted, as described below.
The relative fit of the MDS solutions were examined for three dimensional
and two dimensional solutions. The common indicator of fit values, stress
1
, were .16
and .24 respectively. Both of these values are above the desirable stress
1
< .10,
however they do fall below the .30 value that Trochim (as cited by Bedi, 2006) wrote
represents a stable solution.
The RSQ values indicate the proportion of variance accounted for by their
corresponding distances. For a configuration derived in three dimensions the RSQ
value was .82 whereas it was .71 for the two dimensional solution. Although the
stress and RSQ values indicate that a three dimensional interpretation would better
fit the data, the focuses of this study, ease of use and interpretability, were given
preference and a two dimensional interpretation was selected.
Table 4 displays the dimension weights for the individual themes on each of
the two dimensions.
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Table 4
Weights for Themes by Dimension
Dimension
Theme 1 2
SELFAWAK .91 -.96
DIFFICUL 1.92 -1.37
VALIDATE 1.45 1.10
POLICIES -.09 -.09
MATH -.51 1.04
GRADE .39 1.69
HUMILIAT -1.77 -.89
FAMILY .28 .01
FRIENDSH .26 .30
BELIEFS -1.83 .09
EXTRACUR -.28 .03
AGE -.74 -.93
These dimension weights are the coordinates of the themes and are plotted in
Figure 1 showing the Euclidean Distance Model.
Figure 1. Euclidean Distance Model.
Goodyear et al. (2005) indicated that the interpretation of dimensions is a
constructive task. These data suggest the participants in this study separated
82
accomplishing something that had seemed very difficult (DIFFICUL) at one extreme
of Dimension 1 and being criticized for expressing different views/beliefs (BELIEFS)
at the other, with the other themes falling between the two ends. Dimension one
illustrates constructive versus destructive experiences.
On the second dimension, the two extremes were receiving a good grade on
a project or test (GRADE) and accomplishing something that had seemed very
difficult (DIFFICUL). On this dimension raters interpreted GRADE, external
affirmation, as the opposite of DIFFICUL, personal perseverance. The dimension
then was labeled “external affirmation vs. personal perseverance.”
Hierarchical Cluster Analysis
Clustering analysis focuses on differences of type and allows for examination
of how the themes were qualitatively different (Goodyear et al, 2005). Figure 2
presents the dendrogram from the hierarchical clustering and represents the distance
of each theme from each other theme.
Figure 2. Dendrogram Using Ward Method
83
At point 19 on the dendrogram a three cluster solution that meets the study
criteria of ease of use and interpretability is apparent and this solution was selected
for the concept map. The themes that form each cluster are displayed in Table 5.
Table 5
Themes in Clusters
Cluster 1 Cluster 2 Cluster 3
POLICIES DIFFICUL AGE
EXTRACUR VALIDATE BELIEFS
MATH HUMILIAT
FAMILY
SELFAWAK
FRIENDSH
GRADE
Raters assigned labels to the three clusters based on the meaning of the
themes that comprised each cluster. The themes in cluster one represent topics that
helped participants expand their knowledge of the university environment, improve
the quality of the school experience, increase support systems, and further develop
their sense of self. All of these factors were seen by the raters to be enriching
experiences and cluster one was named Enrichment.
Cluster two themes represent incidents that increased the spiritual strength of
the participants and illustrated participants developing confidence in their own
capabilities. These themes were seen as personally empowering by the raters and
the cluster was named Empowerment.
Conversely, the themes in the third cluster represent incidents where the
participants felt dishonored, disrespected, undervalued, or slighted. Disparagement
was the label selected by the raters to represent these destructive experiences.
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The two-dimensional MDS and the cluster analysis results are presented in
the concept map shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Concept Map With Named Clusters
Dimension 1 uses constructive vs. destructive experience distinctions and Dimension
2 uses external affirmation vs. personal perseverance as distinctions. The points are
plotted and the three clusters (Enrichment, Empowerment and Disparagement) are
circled and named.
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
-2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Constructive vs. Destructive Experience
External Affirmation vs. Personal Perseverance
85
CHAPTER IV
DISCUSSION
This study provided valuable insight into a little studied area-- how older
women undergraduates perceive college to have affected their identity development.
This research had two primary goals, each represented in a separate phase of the
study: (a) to identify the sources of impact that undergraduate women students, 35
years old and older, perceive to have affected their personal identity development
and (b) to determine how these women conceptually organized those sources of
impact.
In this chapter the findings for each phase of the study are discussed and the
research question that guided that phase of the study is addressed. The study’s
limitations, suggestions for future research and implications for higher education
practitioners (student affairs professionals, faculty and administrators) are also
presented.
Phase One
The 12 themes that emerged during the analysis of the Phase One CYEQ
incidents can be associated with key factors that theory and previous research have
identified as influencing personal identity development. As was stated previously,
these factors were organized for this study into the following key factor categories:
college-based relationships, non-college-based relationships, cognitive skills and
intellectual growth, and activities and place of residence. Table 6 lists the key factor
86
categories that were identified during the literature review and the themes obtained
in this study that are associated with each.
Table 6
Study Themes by Key Factor
College-Based Relationships
Receiving validation and personal support from an instructor
Being humiliated or embarrassed by an instructor
Forming new friendships
Being criticized for expressing different views/beliefs
Feeling like an outsider because of age
Non-College-Based Relationships
Having the support of family
Cognitive Skills and Intellectual Growth
Experiencing a self-awakening after taking a particular class
Having to confront my fear of math
Receiving a good grade on a project or test
Activities and Place of Residence
Accomplishing something that had seemed very difficult
Understanding and negotiating university policies
Participating in extra-curricular activities
College-based Relationships
This key factor is evident in the over-arching themes assigned to 41 of the
100 incidents collected in Phase One. Student-faculty relationships, both positive
and negative, were the topic in the over-arching themes assigned to 34 (83%) of the
41 incidents. Student-faculty relationships have been found to be a key factor
influencing development of intellectual competence, autonomy and interdependence,
purpose, integrity, creativity, sense of belonging, confidence and self-worth (Astin,
1999; Cheng, 2004; Chickering & Reisser, 1993; Johnson, 1997; Kuh, 1995;
87
Pascarella, 1980). For women, informal student-faculty contact beyond the
classroom can foster feelings of affirmation, confidence and self-worth (Kuh, 1995).
The women who participated in this study confirmed the importance of
student-faculty relationships to their personal identity development. Receiving
validation and personal support from an instructor was the over-arching theme that
emerged in 24 of the 100 incidents submitted during Phase One data collection.
These incidents were rated by the respondents as being a very positive experience
(M=6.83; SD=.48) and the eventual effect of the incident on their sense of self as
very important (M=6.71; SD=.62). The following two quotes from the incidents
illustrate the importance of student-faculty relationships to study participants: “One
of my first Professors was very instrumental in my education path. She was
extremely encouraging and shared her vision of what I was capable of.” “I asked a
professor after class about my career options in the Criminal Justice field being that
many agencies make a 35 year old cut-off for a career. My professor told me that I
was a bright student and that I should try law school. I had never thought of myself
as all that bright and I never thought I could ever attend law school.”
Conversely, respondents rated incidents with the over-arching themes of
being humiliated or embarrassed by an instructor or being criticized for expressing
different views/beliefs as being a negative experience (M=1.50; SD=.84 and M=2.50;
SD=3.00 respectively) that had a moderate eventual effect on their sense of self
(M=4.33; SD=2.16 and M=4.75; SD=2.06 respectively). These outcomes are
illustrated in the following excerpt, “She flips out in front of the class and tells me it
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is not her problem…won't allow me to finish my work and she was going to leave
me in the dust…. I almost dropped out of [university].”
Prior research has found that another form of college-based relationships,
relationships with peers, has substantial influence on how students spend their time
and the meaning they make of their experiences (Astin, 1993; Hu & Kuh, 2002; Kuh
et al., 2000; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991). However, for nontraditional, commuter
students external responsibilities often hamper development of college peer
relationships and they will often seek relationships with college peers only for
support of college activities (Alford, 2000; Kodoma, 1985). The socializing agents
for these students remain largely non-college influences (Bean & Metzner, 1985).
The study themes of forming new friendships and feeling like an outsider
because of age are related to relationships with peers. Participants indicated that
forming new friendships was a positive experience for them in college (M=5.50,
SD=3.00) and these friendship had a fairly strong eventual effect on their sense of
self (M=5.25, SD=2.87). However, only four incidents had this as the over-arching
theme. The infrequency of incidents with this over-arching theme seems to confirm
previous research that found nontraditional college students do not develop many
college-based peer relationships and their support relationships are outside the
college environment.
The incidents that had feeling like an outsider because of age was an over-
arching theme focused more on interactions with peers than forming personal
relationships. Like forming new friendships, there were few incidents (three) where
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this theme emerged as over-arching, however, these incidents seem to confirm
previous research, in that, the interactions among peers were college-activity
focused. Unlike forming new friendships participants did not feel these incidents
were positive (M=2.33, SD=.58) but the incident did have a fairly high rating on the
eventual effect on sense of self (M=5.00, SD=2.00).
Non-college-based Relationships
As was mentioned above, previous research has found that non-college-based
relationships are very important for non-traditional students. Non-college-based
relationships have been found to be particularly important to college women’s
identities (Jones, 1997) and family reaction to nontraditional students’ college
attendance is an important aspect in the students’ satisfaction with the college
experience (Bean & Metzner, 1995).
The importance of non-college-based relationships was demonstrated by the
theme having the support of family. This was the over-arching theme in five of the
incidents, was rated as a very positive experience (M=6.40, SD=1.34), and had a
strong eventual influence on sense of self (M=6.00, SD=2.24). The women
illustrated the importance of family support to satisfaction with the college
experience in the following ways: “My family has been very supportive of my
college work and this has encouraged me to continue.” “I have a supportive family
and I have developed a supportive community. When I loose my focus and want to
just quit, I have people who remind me that I have come this far and I can finish if I
just keep going.”
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The small number of incidents that had family support as an over-arching
theme was an unexpected outcome of this phase of the study. Literature indicates
that non-college-based relationships generally, and family relationships in particular,
are very important to nontraditional students and it was surprising that this theme
was the primary focus of only five incidents. Another somewhat puzzling finding is
that no other specific non-college-based relationships emerged as primary themes
from the incidents. Given that previous research has found that other non-college-
based relationships (i.e. friends, co-workers, and employers) are also strong
influences on nontraditional students (Cabreara et al., 1993; Lundberg, 2004), it
would have been expected that these factors appear among the emerging themes.
It is possible that the wording of the CYEQ might have contributed to the
small number of incidents reported with non-college-based relationships as the over-
arching theme. The opening paragraph of the CYEQ refers to the unique ways that
college can affect the sense of self. Respondents may have interpreted this to mean
that only college-based incidents should be reported. Given that previous research
has determined non-college-based relationships are so important for nontraditional
students, it is reasonable to speculate that if the wording of the CYEQ had been clear
that incidents could be college or non-college-based more incidents with non-
college-based relationships as an over-arching theme would have been submitted by
the women.
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Cognitive Skills and Intellectual Growth
Thirty-one of the 100 incidents collected during Phase One had over-arching
themes that relate to development of cognitive skills and intellectual growth. These
themes include experiencing a self-awakening after taking a particular class (18),
having to confront my fear of math (seven), and receiving a good grade on a project
or test (six). Chickering and Reisser (1993) hypothesized that educationally
powerful curriculum encourages development and that methods of teaching foster
autonomy, identity, and purpose, among other things. Additionally, through the
curriculum students become more critical, reflective and sophisticated thinkers and
increase their intellectual curiosity (Graham & Cockriel, 1996, 1997; Pascarella &
Terenzini, 1991, 2005).
The results of this study confirmed previous research when participants
indicated that experiencing a self-awakening after taking a particular class was a
very positive experience (M=6.95, SD=1.50) and had a very important (M=6.84,
SD=1.22) eventual effect on their sense of self. The types of events that participants
reported regarding this theme included class discussion that triggered personal
realizations about family dynamics, projects that made them discover new individual
strengths and weaknesses, individuals who turned negative events into positive
learning experiences, and generally being “…a more confident and happier person”
or discovering “…what I want to be when I grow up…”
The emergence of the theme having to confront my fear of math was an
unexpected outcome of this study. This was the over-arching theme of seven
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incidents, but was found as an additional or sub-theme in several other incidents.
Math anxiety and stereotype threat in girls and women is a well known and often
studied area (Eccles & Jacobs, 1986; Hyde, Fennema, & Lamon, 1990; Nosek,
Banaji, & Greenwald, 2002; Oakes, 1990; Spencer, Steele, & Quinn, 1999) and
although the topic is beyond the scope of this study, the impact of confronting math
anxiety and stereotype threat on the study participants’ identity development is
important. In the incidents where this theme was determined to be the over-arching
theme by the raters, participants indicated that this was a positive experience
(M=6.14, SD=2.27) and had a strong eventual effect on their sense of self (M=6.14,
SD=2.27). These ratings are best illustrated by the following participant comment:
“I decided at that point if I could get through advanced math and pass it, then I could
easily finish the rest of achieving my degree.”
The final category of the study that applies to this key factor is receiving a
good grade on a project or test. The validation of a receiving a good grade seemed
very important to the women in this study who rated the positive aspect of the
experience as very high (M=7, SD=.00). The participants who submitted incidents
with this as an over-arching theme also rated the incidents very high on eventual
effect on sense of self (M=6.67, SD=.52).
Overall, participants who submitted incidents with the three over-arching
themes related to cognitive development and intellectual growth rated the
experiences as positive and as having a high eventual effect on sense of self. These
results agree with the results of previous research where adults rated intellectual
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curiosity, discovering, and enjoying knowledge as a benefit they received from
attending college (Mishler, 1983a).
Activities and Place of Residence
Because the women who participated in this study were 35 years old or older
and nontraditional, commuting students, it is not surprising that place of residence
did not emerge as a theme in the incidents. However, activities that students
experienced during college can be found in three of the themes. Accomplishing
something that had seemed very difficult, understanding and negotiating university
policies, and participating in extra-curricular activities can all be attributed to the
key factor category of activities.
Kuh (1995) wrote that out-of-class activities encouraged students to develop
more complicated views on personal, academic and other matters. Astin (1999) and
Chickering and Reisser (1993) also refer to the benefits of activities that fall under
the umbrella of campus communities. Additionally, current experiences, situational
factors, critical incidents, instructive classes and involvement in the environment
provide a context to shape identity (Jones, 1997).
The theme accomplishing something that had seemed very difficult best
reflects Jones’(1997) holistic view of activities that shape identity for the non-
traditional, women students who participated in this study. This theme also reflects
challenges faced by nontraditional, commuter students that have been outlined by
several researchers (Bean & Metzner, 1985; Jacoby, 2000; Wilmes & Quade, 1986).
The incidents that have this over-arching theme address juggling the competing
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priorities of classes, university activities, work, and family. They also illustrate the
determination of participants to find their place in the university community by
meeting educational requirements, finding the funds to pay for school, and
interacting with faculty and peers. This theme was reflected as the over-arching
theme in 15 incidents (third in frequency of themes). Participants who reported these
incidents rated them fairly positive (M=5.53, SD=1.85) and high on the eventual
effect on sense of self (M=6.40; SD=.51).
In contrast, participants rated the incidents with the over-arching theme of
understanding and negotiating university policies as not being very positive
(M=1.75, SD=1.50) and not having a strong eventual effect on sense of self (M=3.25,
SD=2.87). This over-arching theme was only evident in four incidents, but does
reflect how interaction with the institution can effect a student’s perception of their
self and is illustrated by the following comment from a study participant, “I feel like
I’m not wanted at this school and that they are making it as hard as possible to make
me quit.”
Only three incidents reflect the over-arching theme that best reflects Astin’s
(1999) ideal of extra-curricular activities. It is reasonable to assume that there are so
few incidents with this over-arching theme because of the nontraditional, commuting
characteristics of the study participants. For the women who submitted these
incidents, internships, volunteer work with ESL students, and being a member of a
student government board are the focus of participating in extra-curricular
activities. The individuals who submitted these incidents rated them as very positive
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(M=7.00, SD=.00) and a very important eventual effect on sense of self (M=7.00,
SD=.00), validating the benefits prior research has attributed to participating in the
college community.
What categories of college-related impacts will women undergraduates,
35 years old and older, report as having been particularly important to the
development of their sense of self? is the research question that guided the first
phase of this study. The 12 themes that emerged from the critical incidents provided
the data to answer this research question. As has been discovered in previous
research regarding traditional and nontraditional students, the college-based
relationships themes that focused on student and faculty were very important to the
women who participated in this study. The incidents revealed that these
relationships can be both positive and negative experiences and they have a moderate
to high eventual effect on participants’ sense of self.
Also confirming prior research was the importance of developing cognitive
skills and intellectual growth to these women. The number of incidents that could be
mapped to this key factor was second only to college-based relationships.
Participants also rated these incidents as positive experiences and as having had an
important effect on their eventual sense of self. Having to confront my fear of math
is a very important developing cognitive skills and intellection growth topic that
emerged from the incidents. Math anxiety and stereotype threat, especially as it
applies to girls and women, is a well documented topic and is beyond the scope of
this study. However, the incidents revealed what a powerful influence confronting
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this phenomenon was on participants’ sense of self and will be discussed further later
in this paper.
Several of the themes were assigned as over-arching themes to five or less
incidents by the raters and the infrequency of most of these themes may be
attributable to the fact that the participants were nontraditional, commuter students.
An exception is the infrequency of themes that focused non-college-based
relationships. Specifically, having the support of family was assigned as an over-
arching theme to only five incidents and other non-college-based relationships did
not emerge in the incidents. Theory and research indicates that these relationships
should be very important to the women who participated in this study and this
finding will be further discussed when suggestions for future research are presented.
It was not the purpose of this study to in any way test identity development
theories: the literature concerning previous research on various theories was
reviewed only to develop a foundational understanding of the types of impacts that
are important in identity development. Yet it would be remiss not to include a short
discussion of the Phase One findings as they broadly relate to theoretical
perspectives.
The identity development theories and prior research suggest that adult
women continue to make and remake their identities throughout their life span and
that the effects of college on older women undergraduates’ personal identity
development were likely to be different than their traditional counterparts. The
critical incidents and themes that emerged from the incidents revealed that for the
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women who participated in this study the effect of college on their personal identity
development was very profound.
Previous identity development research determined that relationships are
extremely important to women’s personal identity development. Belenky et al.
(1997) observed that real and valued lessons for women were often the result of
relationships. Gilligan (1993) suggested that women’s sense of experience is based
on their knowledge of human relationships. The themes that emerged from the
incidents confirmed these observations. Six of the 12 themes that emerged from the
incidents were focused on relationships. These themes were attributed as over-
arching themes to 46 of the 100 Phase One incidents. Additionally, receiving
validation and personal support from an instructor, a theme that illustrated the
importance of student-faculty relationships was determined by the raters to be the
over-arching theme that applied to the most incidents (24 of 100).
Phase Two
Concept mapping was used during the second phase of the study to determine
how study participants organized the themes that emerged from the Phase One
incidents and is an integrated approach to analyzing qualitative data. Non-metric
multidimensional scaling and hierarchical cluster analysis were used to depict the
structures that participants used in thinking of the sources of impact of college on
their identity development.
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Multidimensional Scaling (MDS)
The two-dimensional interpretation of the CSRS data presented how Phase
Two participants organized the 12 themes on two dimensions. Multidimensional
scaling analysis created coordinate estimates for each theme and by placing each
coordinate on a multi-dimensional map the distance between the statements, an
important factor in the analysis (Jackson & Trochim, 2002), is illustrated.
Figure 1 in the previous chapter displays the Euclidean Distance Model of the
12 themes. Using the distance between statements as a guide, the extremes on each
dimension indicate the women who participated in Phase Two saw accomplishing
something that had seemed very difficult as very different from being criticized for
expressing different views/beliefs on the first dimension and receiving a good on a
project or test as very different from accomplishing something that had seemed very
difficult on the second dimension.
The separation of themes on the first dimension is interpreted by the meaning
given to the dimension in the previous chapter. The two extremes illustrate a
continuum between constructive and destructive experiences with each theme
occupying a point between the two extremes. Likewise, the meaning given to the
second dimension illustrates a continuum between external affirmation and personal
perseverance.
When the themes are examined on the first dimension, constructive versus
destructive experiences, it is apparent that the women who participated in Phase Two
conceptually organize accomplishing something that had seemed very difficult,
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receiving validation and personal support from an instructor, and experiencing a
self-awakening after taking a particular class as similar because they are closer
together on the constructive experience end of the dimension and being humiliated
or embarrassed by an instructor, being criticized for expressing different
views/beliefs, and feeling like an outsider because of age are also seen as similar
because they are close together on the destructive experience end of the dimension.
However, the participants organize the first three themes as very different from the
last three because the groups are a great distance apart. The distance on dimension
one between the other themes are less pronounced but can still be interpreted. For
example, having the support of family is seen by participants to be similar or only
slightly different from forming new friendships on the destructive versus constructive
dimension.
On the second dimension, external affirmation versus personal perseverance,
receiving a good grade on a project or test, receiving validation and personal
support from an instructor, and having to confront my fear of math were seen as
similar by the women and placed at the end of the continuum labeled external
affirmation. Accomplishing something that had seemed very difficult, experiencing a
self-awakening after taking a particular class, being humiliated or embarrassed by
an instructor, and feeling like an outsider because of age were all rated as similar
and placed on the personal perseverance end of the continuum.
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Hierarchical Cluster Analysis
Trochim (1989) wrote that the appropriate number of cluster solutions must
make sense for the case at hand and selecting the number of clusters is somewhat
subjective. For this study, a three cluster solution was selected and the clusters were
labeled Enrichment, Empowerment, and Disparagement. Table 7 lists the themes by
cluster name.
Table 7
Themes by Cluster Name
Enrichment
Understanding and negotiating university policies
Participating in extra-curricular activities
Having to confront my fear of math
Having the support of family
Experiencing a self-awakening after taking a particular class
Forming new friendships
Receiving a good grade on a project or test
Empowerment
Accomplishing something that had seemed very difficult
Receiving validation and personal support from an instructor
Disparagement
Feeling like an outsider because of age
Being criticized for expressing different views/beliefs
Being humiliated or embarrassed by an instructor
Because the Enrichment cluster contains themes that seemed very diverse, the
raters discussed other cluster solutions that might result in groupings that appeared to
be more homogeneous. The dendrogram revealed that increasing the cluster
solutions resulted in clusters containing only one theme and these independent
clusters did not add to the interpretability of the map.
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The raters then reviewed each of the themes in the Enrichment cluster to
confirm that they met the definition of enrichment. The themes where enrichment is
obvious and well supported by research and theory include participating in extra-
curricular activities, having the support of family, experiencing a self-awakening
after taking a particular class, forming new friendships, and receiving a good grade
on a project or test. The enriching aspects of understanding and negotiating
university policies and having to confront my fear of math are less obvious.
Chickering and Reisser (1993) hypothesized that impact increases as
institutional objectives are clear and taken seriously. The incidents that relate to
university polices reflect this view. Participants described difficulty and frustration
understanding and negotiating the policies initially, but when an understanding was
accomplished, the experience helped them better understand the university
environment.
Another key influence states that educationally powerful curriculum
encourages development (Chickering & Reisser, 1993). As was discussed
previously, several incidents mentioned that participants had to confront their fear of
math. These incidents revealed that the idea of taking math at this stage in their life
terrified many of the women, but these women persisted and the achievement
increased their self-confidence and enriched their experience.
Because all of the themes grouped in the Enrichment cluster reflected the
definition of the term and placement of the theme in the cluster was supported by
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theory and research, the raters agreed that the cluster should remain intact and the
three cluster solution should be retained.
The Empowerment and Disparagement clusters are smaller and contain
themes that are more homogeneous. The incidents that have the over-arching themes
of accomplishing something that had seemed very difficult and receiving validation
and personal support from an instructor clearly reflect feelings of empowerment.
Similarly, the incidents that have the over-arching themes of feeling like an outsider
because of age, being criticized for expressing different views/beliefs, and being
humiliated or embarrassed by an instructor resonate with feelings of disparagement.
What conceptual map do women undergraduates, 35 years old and
older, use to organize their experience of these categories of experiences? is the
research question that guided the second phase of the study. Using MSD and
hierarchical cluster analysis, the themes were plotted on a two dimensional plane and
the clusters were selected and named to provide a representation of the conceptual
map that the women who participated in the study use to organize their experiences.
Figure 3 in the previous chapter displays the concept map with the named clusters
and provides a visual representation of the unique way that this group of women
organize their experience of these categories.
The concept map illustrates that the women who participated in this study
perceive the themes in the Disparagement cluster as very different from the themes
in the Empowerment cluster. This difference is mirrored in the mean positive
experience ratings the participants assigned to themes in the clusters. When the
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means are averaged for the themes in the Disparagement cluster are averaged the
value is 2.11, a fairly negative rating. However, the value for the averaged means of
the Empowerment cluster is 6.18 and is a very positive rating.
Limitations of Current Research
There are several methodological limitations that must be considered when
discussing the findings of this study. First the representativeness of participants must
be considered. The majority of the participants (93.5% Phase One and 88.9% Phase
Two) were from one university. Most of these women (72.6% Phase One and 100%
Phase Two) were from White/European ethnic backgrounds. The ethnic make-up of
the study participants is not reflective of the ethnic distribution of the entire student
body at this university where 32.5% are of White/European backgrounds (National
Center for Education Statistics, 2005). Additionally, most of the participants reported
a fairly high socio-economic status. Because of the homogeneity of the group, only
very cautious generalizations should be made beyond the particular sample of
women who participated in this study. It is likely that the sources of impact may
differ across ethnic backgrounds, socio-economic status, or university campus.
Second, caution should be used in interpreting the concept map of the 18
Phase Two participants. It is possible that analysis conducted on subsets of the
study’s data may provide different maps of how the women organize the sources of
impact. In a 2007 study examining the sources of impact on community college
students’ identity development, Verma randomly divided a large Phase Two sample
into two smaller samples and used MDS and hierarchical cluster analyses to develop
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concept maps for the subsets. He compared these results to the results of the
analyses for the original large sample and found that the two analyses differed to
some extent.
Third, concept mapping involves compromises between breadth and depth of
understanding. The categories of themes were not exhaustive and other important
themes could exist. Additionally, there may be other interpretations of the MDS
dimensions and clusters than those presented in this study.
Fourth, this study used self-reported, retrospective data. Several factors cause
people to be inefficient and inaccurate processors of information about their past.
Sometimes people forget important aspects or nuances of their past, or they
misremember (Nisbett & Wilson, 1977). Additionally, they may reinvent the past to
suit their current needs and circumstances. People also tend to remember more
positive than negative emotions. Participants in this study were asked to reflect on
the college experiences and it is possible that memory errors may have occurred.
Fifth, general survey limitations that specifically relate to the use of the
Internet and email for data collection are important because this study used email to
contact potential participants and the surveys were posted on an online survey
service. The most widely recognized shortcoming of Internet-based surveys is
coverage error (Fricker & Schonlau, 2002). The general population coverage for
Internet surveys is still behind what is achievable with more conventional survey
modes. Additionally, access is only one consideration—there is still a large portion
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of the population that is computer illiterate and would have trouble responding
correctly to a survey.
Another aspect of coverage error was demonstrated in this study’s response
rate from the primary recruiting sites. Each site utilized different distribution
mechanisms to send out the solicitation email. One site sent the email to all enrolled
students over 30 years of age and the other site posted the email on several campus
listservs. Fifty-eight of the 62 study participants attended the university the used the
wider distribution method, while only one participant was from the other university.
It is very likely that participant representation would not have been so heavily
weighted from one university if both sites had used similar distribution methods.
Another problem that arises using the Internet and email for surveys is how
different those who are able to access and use technology are from those who are
not. Couper (2000) wrote that the demographic differences between those with Web
access and those without are well documented and include higher household incomes
($75,000 and higher) for those with access; access is likely to be lower among Black
and Hispanic households than White households; those with college degrees are
more likely to have home Internet access. Many of these findings are validated when
the demographics of the participants of this study are examined. Most study
participants were White/European and of higher socio-economic status and, based on
previous research, it is reasonable to assume demographic differences may have been
a factor in their ability to access the study.
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Non-response error may also be an issue. This occurs when not all people
included in the sample are willing or able complete the survey. This error is a
function of the differences between those who respond to the survey and those who
do not. Several studies have shown that email surveys fail to achieve the response
rate levels of mail surveys (Couper, 2000).
Measurement error may also be present. This error occurs in self-
administered surveys and has a number of dimensions such as unit and item non-
response, honesty of responses, completeness of responses, and quality of
transcription (Fricker & Schonlau, 2002). This error may also result from the
instrument being hard to understand, poorly designed, or technically flawed.
Suggestions for Future Research
The findings of this study produced several suggestions for future research.
As was discussed earlier, the absence of incidents assigned an over-arching theme
related to non-college-based relationships was surprising given that prior research
has determined these relationships are very important to non-traditional, commuter
students like the women who participated in this study. The way the CYEQ was
worded may have contributed to the limited number of incidents submitted in Phase
One with these themes. Future research using an instrument that defines experiences
more broadly (i.e. college and non-college-based) would be important in helping to
determine what types of relationships most affect these students’ identity
development.
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The demographics of the participants of this study were very homogeneous.
This homogeneity limited the generalizability of the study’s results and future
research should be conducted to determine if the sources of impact and concept maps
are markedly different for a more diverse group of women undergraduates who are
35 years old and older. Similarly, research that examines other homogeneous groups
of older women would be valuable to determine if the sources of impact and concept
maps are similar to or different from those of the participants in this study.
Additionally, because older nontraditional students of both genders comprise a
substantial portion of the population on university campuses, future research that
studies the sources of impact and concepts maps for older men would be equally
valuable.
As was discussed earlier, confronting math anxiety and stereotype threat
emerged as a theme for many of the women participants. Future research that
explores this phenomenon in this unique population of students could provide insight
into the sources and possible solutions for the anxiety. Additionally, research that
explores how this phenomenon affects older women’s decisions to enter higher
education would be extremely important. The incidents in this study revealed how
important this theme was to women who had already entered and persisted in higher
education, but does not provide information regarding the roles that math anxiety and
stereotype threat play when older women consider entering higher education.
Accomplishing something that had seemed very difficult emerged as a theme
that described the “environmental press” that Bean and Metzner (1985) used when
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discussing the pressures that nontraditional students experience in college. Future
research should more fully explore the specific factors that make it possible for
students to be successful when juggling competing demands and priorities.
Implications for Higher Education Professionals
The findings of this study produced valuable information that can be used by
higher education professionals to enhance learning and maximize positive outcomes
for older women undergraduate students.
Faculty Development Programs
The results of this study suggest that faculty development programs that
include information and training components regarding the importance of student-
faculty interactions and effective, supportive communication would be beneficial.
Study participants indicated that student-faculty relationships were very important to
their educational experience and sense of self. This importance was illustrated by
the positive ratings participants assigned to receiving validation and personal
support from an instructor and the negative ratings given to being criticized for
expressing different views/beliefs or being humiliated or embarrassed by an
instructor. These themes were extremes of dimension one (constructive vs.
destructive experience) of the concept map and emphasize how important student-
faculty interactions were to these women. The themes illustrated how simple
encouragement or advice from a faculty member can increase self-confidence and
help to eliminate the doubt of intellectual competence that Belenky et al. (1997)
found women frequently express.
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Prior research has shown the important role that faculty-student interaction
plays in fostering feelings of affirmation, confidence and self-worth (Cheng, 2004;
Kuh, 1995), particularly for women. However, the findings of this study seem to
confirm Chickering & Reisser’s (1993) assertion that instructors may often only
focus on students’ intellectual development and may not be overly concerned with
developing relationships with students. Additionally, faculty may be unaware of the
lasting impact student-faculty interactions have on students’ sense of self. A
development program that addresses these assertions would enhance all students’
educational experience, and would be of particular benefit for students like the
women who participated in this study.
Counselor and Administrator Training
The need for training programs that sensitize counselors and administrators to
the special needs of non-traditional students was illustrated in this study by the theme
understanding and negotiating university policies and is present as a sub-theme in
incidents in other categories. Prior research regarding non-traditional students (e.g.
Bean & Metzner, 1985; Jacoby, 2000; Johnson, 1997; Wilmes & Quade, 1986) has
found that these students are different from traditional students in that they must
juggle their life responsibilities with the demands of college. Astin (1999) argued
that the physical time and energy of all students are finite and educators compete
with other forces in a student’s life, and the results of this study show the validity of
the argument for this group of non-traditional women students.
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This study’s results confirmed that counselors and administrators play and
important role in student identity development, success in college, and sense of self-
worth with the advice they give, procedures they implement, and policies they
construct. The incidents revealed that participants struggled to understand university
policies and academic requirements. In addition, counselors’ responsiveness,
support, and advice affected the students’ sense of self and determination to persist
in college. College personnel are sometimes immersed in the bureaucracies that
exist in the university environment and forget that the conversations that they have,
information they provide, procedures they use, and policies they construct have a
very profound impact on non-traditional students like the women who participated in
this study.
Develop a Better Understanding of Math Anxiety
As has been mentioned several times, math anxiety and stereotype threat was
an important theme that emerged in this study. The theme having to confront my
fear of math and references to the topic in other theme incidents provide insight into
the effect this phenomenon has on older women students. Many of the participants
wrote about their fear of math, how long it had been since they had taken a math
class, and the determination they had to muster to complete the requirements.
Higher education professionals can use this information to develop programs that
ease the anxiety over math for this population of women students.
The results of this study are also important when pre-admission policies,
procedures and programs are modified or developed for this population. As was
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previously mentioned, this theme was very important to these women who have
entered the university and persisted, this importance raises questions about the
impact math anxiety and stereotype threat have on potential students’ decisions to
explore or enroll in college.
Support a Unique Population
The results of this study demonstrate the strengths that this population of
students brings to the higher education community. Just as Mishler (1983a) found in
a previous study, these women demonstrated that they brought intellectual curiosity
and the desire to discover and enjoy knowledge to the environment. They also
brought life experience and maturity that enriched the classroom and other campus
settings. Higher education professionals can draw on this knowledge as programs,
policies and services are planned and implemented.
Prior research has found that many of the factors that contribute to the
successful retention of traditional college students also contribute to the retention of
non-traditional students (Bean & Metzner, 1985; Johnson, 1997), and the results of
this study confirmed that research. This study found that the key factors of college
that influence traditional students’ identity development, also influence the study
participants’ identity development. The themes that emerged from the incidents
confirmed that, like traditional students, the participants of this study want to matter,
be treated in a caring way, valued as an individual and accepted as part of the
community. Just like their traditional counterparts, these women were eager to
explore new experiences and expand their horizons.
112
However, the incidents also revealed the unique characteristics of these
women participants. Many of them initially lacked confidence in their academic
abilities because it had been quite awhile since they had been in school. They
indicated that they had to learn or re-learn how to study and function in the
classroom. Some also worried about competing and fitting in with the traditional
student population. By recognizing these unique characteristics and developing new
or modifying traditional support programs, higher education professionals can
demonstrate to older women that they do matter and are an important population on
campus.
113
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123
APPENDIX A
HOUSEHOLD SIZE AND NUMBER OF ADULTS BRINGING INCOME TO
THE HOUSEHOLD
Total in Adults Bringing
Household Adults Children Income n %
1 1 0 0 2 3.2
1 1 0 1 4 6.5
2 2 0 2 11 17.7
2 2 0 1 4 6.5
2 1 1 1 4 6.5
3 3 0 3 5 8.1
3 3 0 2 3 4.8
3 3 0 1 1 1.6
3 2 1 2 2 3.2
3 2 1 1 3 4.8
4 4 0 1 1 1.6
4 3 1 2 1 1.6
4 2 2 2 4 6.5
4 2 2 1 2 3.2
4 1 3 1 1 1.6
5 2 3 2 1 1.6
5 2 3 1 3 4.8
8 5 3 5 1 1.6
Not Useable 6 9.7
124
APPENDIX B
COLLEGE YEARS EXPERIENCE QUESTIONNAIRE (CYEQ)
Developing a sense of who we are occurs across time and in many situations. But college often is
unique in the ways it can affect that sense of self. Moreover, there often are particular incidents or
experiences that stand out as having been particularly influential.
Think back over your experience as a college student and identify one incident or experience that had
particular influence on your sense of who you are. This could have been either positive or negative.
Please describe that incident or experience in a few sentences. Be sure to indicate
(a) what that incident or experience was,
(b) if another person or persons were involved in this incident or experience, describe them and their
relationship to you, and
(c) what do you think was important about this experience or incident, and why?
(d) what you believe the long-term effect to have been on your sense of who you are?
At what point in your college experience did this incident or experience occur (please check one)?
Freshman year
___
Junior year ___ Other (please specify) _______________________
Sophomore year ___
Senior year ___
How long ago did this incident occur? ___________ years or ________ months
(number of) (number of)
Please respond to the questions below by circling the number that best represents your answer.
Very Negative
Very Positive
Degree to which you experienced this incident or
experience as positive
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
The eventual effect this incident or experience had
on your sense of yourself
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
125
College Years Experience Questionnaire
Demographic Information
1. Which college or university are you currently attending? _____________________
2. What is your class standing at this college or university?
□ Freshman □ Sophomore □ Junior □ Senior
3. What is your gender?______________ 4. What is your age?___________________
5. What is your ethnicity?
□ Asian/Pacific Islander □ Black/African American
□ Hispanic/Latino/Latina □ White/European American
□ Other _______________________
6. Which of the following categories best describes your total combined family income for the past
12 months?
□ Less than $5,000 □ $50,000 through $74,999
□ $5,000 through $11,999 □ $75,000 through $99,999
□ $12,000 through $15,999 □ $100,000 and greater
□ $16,000 through $24,999 □ Don't know
□ $25,000 through $34,999 □ No response
□ $35,000 through $49,999
7. How many people are currently living in your household, including yourself? _____
8. Of these people, how many are children? _______
9. Of these people, how many are adults? _________
10. Of the adults, how many bring income into the household? _______
11. Please circle the highest grade (or year) of regular school that your father completed.
12. Please circle the highest grade (or year) of regular school that your mother completed.
Elementary 01 High School 09 College 13
Elementary 02 High School 10 College 14
Elementary 03 High School 11 College 15
Elementary 04 High School 12 College 16
Elementary 05 Graduate 17
Elementary 06 Graduate 18
Elementary 07 Graduate 19
Elementary 08 Graduate 20+
Elementary 01 High School 09 College 13
Elementary 02 High School 10 College 14
Elementary 03 High School 11 College 15
Elementary 04 High School 12 College 16
Elementary 05 Graduate 17
Elementary 06 Graduate 18
Elementary 07 Graduate 19
Elementary 08 Graduate 20+
126
APPENDIX C
RANDOM PAIRED THEME PLACEMENT CHART
Theme 1
Theme 2
Theme 3
Theme 4
Theme 5
Theme 6
Theme 7
Theme 8
Theme 9
Theme 10
Theme 11
Theme 12
Theme 1 0 4 10 21 29 6 23 49 54 60 7 17
Theme 2 0 27 11 3 55 16 19 51 9 37 65
Theme 3 0 22 30 12 63 43 26 46 13 32
Theme 4 0 39 15 45 35 25 66 42 40
Theme 5 0 58 50 56 18 33 57 44
Theme 6 0 59 24 48 8 52 53
Theme 7 0 41 64 61 2 14
Theme 8 0 36 62 20 5
Theme 9 0 1 28 31
Theme 10 0 38 34
Theme 11 0 47
Theme 12 0
127
APPENDIX D
COLLEGE YEARS EXPERIENCE CONCEPT SIMILARITY RATING SCALE
(CSRS)
Welcome
Thank you for participating in the first phase of our study in which we asked you to describe
an experience that had an impact on your sense of self. A research team examined your
responses, along with many others, and classified them into the twelve categories described
below. We would now like your help for the next phase of the study.
Would you like to participate in Phase 2 of our study by completing the College Years
Experience Concept Similarity Rating Scale (CSRS)?
□ Yes □ No
College Years Experience Concept Similarity Rating Scale (CSRS) Demographics:
Before completing the CSRS, please tell us a little bit about yourself:
Which college or university are you currently attending?_____________________________
What is your class standing at this college or university?
□ Freshman □ Sophomore □ Junior □Senior
What is your gender? __________________ What is your age? ______________________
What is your ethnicity?
□ Asian/Pacific Islander □ Black/African American
□ Hispanic/Latino/Latina □ White/European American
□ Other _____________
Instructions
The CSRS is a rating task. In order to complete the CSRS, it will require you to have some
understanding of what the categories mean. Please review the following descriptions in
order to better understand each of the categories.
Category Descriptions:
1. Experiencing a self-awakening after taking a particular class.
Examples: Skills and/or information learned in a class opened the student’s mind to new
possibilities and/or capabilities. Curriculum taught in a class challenged and changed
student’s personal views or opinions. Information presented in a class prompted the student
to search deeply within themselves to better understand cultural issues that affect them and
their family. Class allowed student to view their past and provided a vision for the future.
128
2. Accomplishing something that had seemed very difficult.
Examples: Completing a difficult project for a course. Completing a class that was not
interesting. Completing a course that challenged the student’s capabilities. Working on a
group project with students who do not get along very well. Taking a class with an
instructor whom the student did not like. Juggling the demands of work, school, and family.
Participating in a class discussion the student feels self-conscious or uncomfortable.
3. Receiving validation and personal support from an instructor.
Examples: The instructor takes a personal interest in the success of the student. The
instructor recognizes individual student’s abilities and achievements. The instructor
encouraged the student to participate in extra-curricular activities to help student advance.
The instructor encouraged the student to keep trying and not give up. The instructor
encouraged student to continue and pursue graduate degree.
4. Understanding and negotiating university policies.
Examples: Misunderstanding of course requirements delayed ability to transfer to the
university from community college. Student has to figure out how things are done on their
own. Resources available to help students do not help them. Financial aid process was
frustrating. Health admission policies make success difficult.
5. Having to confront my fear of math.
Examples: Having to retake a math class several times. Looking through the algebra book
and becoming overwhelmed. Having to take algebra as an older student. Taking math is
like “having a black cloud” over their head. Being terrified of taking a math class after 20
years. Crying while studying for an algebra test. Dropping a math class three times because
student was afraid of math. Taking math is a humbling experience.
6. Receiving a good grade on a project or test.
Examples: Receiving the highest score in the class. Passing a test or class that the student
thought they would fail. Receiving a perfect score on a research paper. Receiving 105 point
out of 100.
7. Being humiliated or embarrassed by an instructor.
Examples: Instructor scolded student before the entire class. Instructor ridiculed student for
their point of view. Instructor criticized student and made student doubt self-worth.
Instructor made student feel stupid when asking questions. Instructor would not take action
against verbally abusive classmates.
8. Having the support of family.
Examples: A member of the student’s family is a mentor. Husband was influential in
student’s decision to return to school. Parent encourage student to continue in school.
Student is seen as role-model for family members. Daughter is an inspiration for student.
9. Forming new friendships.
Examples: Forming a bond with a classmate. Class cohort became student’s support
network. Developing camaraderie among classmates.
129
10. Being criticized for expressing different views/beliefs.
Examples: Classmates are disrespectful and challenge views of student. Instructor did not
respect student’s political and religious views. Being challenged for expressing political and
religious views.
11. Participating in extra-curricular activities.
Examples: Completing an internship. Performing community service. Presenting at a
professional conference. Volunteering to tutor ESL students. Applying for and receiving a
competitive grant. Participating in student organizations.
12 Feeling like an outsider because of age.
Examples: Feeling much older than others in class. Thinking career options were limited
because of age. Feeling overwhelmed by younger students. Being mistaken for a parent,
rather than a student at orientation. Being ostracized by younger members of a work group.
Instructions for Completing College Years Experience Concept Similarity Rating
Scale:
Now that you have read the 12 categories, we are interested in assessing how similar you see
these to one another.
Please look at each numbered line (1 to 66) below, and at the paired items in it. Each line
has 2 of the 12 categories. Please rate the extent to which you view these categories as alike
using the 5 point scale ranging from 1 = Not at all Alike to 5 = Very Much Alike.
For example, in line one you see two categories “Forming new friendships.” and “Being
criticized for expressing different views/beliefs.” If you think these two categories are very
much alike, you would circle 5. If you think they are not at all alike, you would circle 1.
CSRS
Paired Categories
Not
at all
Alike
Very
Much
Alike
1 Forming new friendships.
AND
Being criticized for expressing different views/beliefs.
1 2 3 4 5
2 Being humiliated or embarrassed by an instructor.
AND
Participating in extra-curricular activities.
1 2 3 4 5
3 Accomplishing something that had seemed very
difficult. AND
Having to confront my fear of math.
1 2 3 4 5
4 Experiencing a self-awakening after taking a particular
class.
AND
Accomplishing something that had seemed very
difficult.
1 2 3 4 5
130
CSRS
Paired Categories
Not
at all
Alike
Very
Much
Alike
5 Having the support of family.
AND
Feeling like an outsider because of age.
1 2 3 4 5
6 Experiencing a self-awakening after taking a particular
class.
AND
Receiving a good grade on a project or a test.
1 2 3 4 5
7 Experiencing a self-awakening after taking a particular
class.
AND
Participating in extra-curricular activities.
1 2 3 4 5
8 Receiving a good grade on a project or a test.
AND
Being criticized for expressing different views/beliefs.
1 2 3 4 5
9 Accomplishing something that had seemed very
difficult.
AND
Being criticized for expressing different views/beliefs.
1 2 3 4 5
10 Experiencing a self-awakening after taking a particular
class.
AND
Receiving validation and personal support from an
instructor.
1 2 3 4 5
11 Accomplishing something that had seemed very
difficult.
AND
Understanding and negotiating university policies.
1 2 3 4 5
12 Receiving validation and personal support from an
instructor.
AND
Receiving a good grade on a project or a test.
1 2 3 4 5
13 Receiving validation and personal support from an
instructor.
AND
Participating in extra-curricular activities.
1 2 3 4 5
14 Being humiliated or embarrassed by an instructor.
AND
Feeling like an outsider because of age.
1 2 3 4 5
15 Understanding and negotiating university policies.
AND
Receiving a good grade on a project or a test.
1 2 3 4 5
16 Accomplishing something had that seemed very
difficult.
AND
Being humiliated or embarrassed by an instructor.
1 2 3 4 5
131
CSRS
Paired Categories
Not
at all
Alike
Very
Much
Alike
17 Experiencing a self-awakening after taking a particular
class.
AND
Feeling like an outsider because of age.
1 2 3 4 5
18 Having to confront my fear of math.
AND
Forming new friendships.
1 2 3 4 5
19 Accomplishing something that had seemed very
difficult.
AND
Having the support of family.
1 2 3 4 5
20 Having the support of family.
AND
Participating in extra-curricular activities.
1 2 3 4 5
21 Experiencing a self-awakening after taking a particular
class.
AND
Understanding and negotiating university policies.
1 2 3 4 5
22 Receiving validation and personal support from an
instructor.
AND
Understanding and negotiating university policies.
1 2 3 4 5
23 Experiencing a self-awakening after taking a particular
class.
AND
Being humiliated or embarrassed by an instructor.
1 2 3 4 5
24 Receiving a good grade on a project or a test.
AND
Having the support of family.
1 2 3 4 5
25 Understanding and negotiating university policies.
AND
Forming new friendships.
1 2 3 4 5
26 Receiving validation and personal support from an
instructor.
AND
Forming new friendships.
1 2 3 4 5
27 Accomplishing something that had seemed very
difficult.
AND
Receiving validation and personal support from an
instructor.
1 2 3 4 5
28 Forming new friendships.
AND
Participating in extra-curricular activities.
1 2 3 4 5
29 Experiencing a self-awakening after taking a particular
class.
AND
Having to confront my fear of math.
1 2 3 4 5
132
CSRS
Paired Categories
Not
at all
Alike
Very
Much
Alike
30 Receiving validation and personal support from an
instructor.
AND
Having to confront my fear of math.
1 2 3 4 5
31 Forming new friendships.
AND
Feeling like an outsider because of age.
1 2 3 4 5
32 Receiving validation and personal support from an
instructor.
AND
Feeling like an outsider because of age.
1 2 3 4 5
33 Having to confront my fear of math.
AND
Being criticized for expressing different views/beliefs.
1 2 3 4 5
34 Being criticized for expressing different views/beliefs.
AND
Feeling like an outsider because of age.
1 2 3 4 5
35 Understanding and negotiating university policies.
AND
Having the support of family.
1 2 3 4 5
36 Having the support of family.
AND
Forming new friendships.
1 2 3 4 5
37 Accomplishing something that had seemed very
difficult.
AND
Participating in extra-curricular activities.
1 2 3 4 5
38 Being criticized for expressing different views/beliefs.
AND
Participating in extra-curricular activities.
1 2 3 4 5
39 Understanding and negotiating university policies.
AND
Having to confront my fear of math.
1 2 3 4 5
40 Understanding and negotiating university policies.
AND
Feeling like an outsider because of age.
1 2 3 4 5
41 Being humiliated or embarrassed by an instructor.
AND
Having the support of family.
1 2 3 4 5
42 Understanding and negotiating university policies.
AND
Participating in extra-curricular activities.
1 2 3 4 5
43 Receiving validation and personal support from an
instructor.
AND
Having the support of family.
1 2 3 4 5
133
CSRS
Paired Categories
Not
at all
Alike
Very
Much
Alike
44 Having to confront my fear of math.
AND
Feeling like an outsider because of age.
1 2 3 4 5
45 Understanding and negotiating university policies.
AND
Being humiliated or embarrassed by an instructor.
1 2 3 4 5
46 Receiving validation and personal support from an
instructor.
AND
Being criticized for expressing different views/beliefs.
1 2 3 4 5
47 Participating in extra-curricular activities.
AND
Feeling like an outsider because of age.
1 2 3 4 5
48 Receiving a good grade on a project or a test.
AND
Forming new friendships.
1 2 3 4 5
49 Experiencing a self-awakening after taking a particular
class.
AND
Having the support of family.
1 2 3 4 5
50 Having to confront my fear of math.
AND
Being humiliated or embarrassed by an instructor.
1 2 3 4 5
51 Accomplishing something that had seemed very
difficult.
AND
Forming new friendships.
1 2 3 4 5
52 Receiving a good grade on a project or a test.
AND
Participating in extra-curricular activities.
1 2 3 4 5
53 Receiving a good grade on a project or a test.
AND
Feeling like an outsider because of age.
1 2 3 4 5
54 Experiencing a self-awakening after taking a particular
class.
AND
Forming new friendships.
1 2 3 4 5
55 Accomplishing something that had seemed very
difficult.
AND
Receiving a good grade on a project or a test.
1 2 3 4 5
56 Having to confront my fear of math.
AND
Having the support of family.
1 2 3 4 5
57 Having to confront my fear of math.
AND
Participating in extra-curricular activities.
1 2 3 4 5
134
CSRS
Paired Categories
Not
at all
Alike
Very
Much
Alike
58 Having to confront my fear of math.
AND
Receiving a good grade on a project or a test.
1 2 3 4 5
59 Receiving a good grade on a project or a test.
AND
Being humiliated or embarrassed by an instructor.
1 2 3 4 5
60 Experiencing a self-awakening after taking a particular
class.
AND
Being criticized for expressing different views/beliefs.
1 2 3 4 5
61 Being humiliated or embarrassed by an instructor.
AND
Being criticized for expressing different views/beliefs.
1 2 3 4 5
62 Having the support of family.
AND
Being criticized for expressing different views/beliefs.
1 2 3 4 5
63 Receiving validation and personal support from an
instructor.
AND
Being humiliated or embarrassed by an instructor.
1 2 3 4 5
64 Being humiliated or embarrassed by an instructor.
AND
Forming new friendships.
1 2 3 4 5
65 Accomplishing something that had seemed very
difficult.
AND
Feeling like an outsider because of age.
1 2 3 4 5
66 Understanding and negotiating university policies.
AND
Being criticized for expressing different views/beliefs.
1 2 3 4 5
135
APPENDIX E
PHASE ONE PARTICIPANT SOLICITATION EMAIL
Subject: Undergraduate College Students 35 and Older -- What experiences have
occurred during college that have shaped your identity?
What experiences have you had during college that have shaped your
identity? Students 35 and older represent a significant portion of the college
population, and a research project is being conducted to explore your
experiences and discover the sources of impact of college on identity
development. If you are an undergraduate 35 years of age or older and in your
junior or senior year of course work, you are eligible to participate in this project
being conducted by Michelle Stiles, a doctoral student and member of a research
team at the University of Southern California.
Participation in this project is voluntary. The project is a two-phase study and the
phase one survey, which has two questions and demographic information, is
available at: http://www.surveymonkey.com/s.asp?u=405812819332. At the end of
this survey, you will have an opportunity to indicate if you would like to continue to
the second phase of the study.
Thank you and if you have any questions regarding this project, please contact:
Michelle Stiles at mstiles@usc.edu.
Ed.D. Candidate
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
USC UPIRB #UP-06-00355
136
APPENDIX F
PHASE TWO CSRS NOTIFICATION EMAIL
Subject: Phase Two Participants - Undergraduate College Students 35 and Older --
What experiences have occurred during college that have shaped your identity?
Hello,
Last month you completed a survey, the College Years Experience Questionnaire
(CYEQ). That survey was the first phase of a research project that is being
conducted to explore 35 and older, undergraduate, college students’ experiences and
discover the sources of impact of college on identity development. When you
completed the CYEQ, you indicated you would be interested in participating in
Phase Two of this study.
Phase Two is a College years Experience Concept Similarity Rating Scale (CSRS).
If you are still interested in participating in Phase Two, please go to
http://www.surveymonkey.com/s.asp?u=92712976529 to complete the CSRS.
Participation is voluntary and your response will be anonymous. This rating scale
should take about one-half hour to complete.
Thank you and if you have any questions regarding this project, please contact:
Michelle Stiles at: mstiles@usc.edu
Ed.D. Candidate
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
USC UPIRB #UP-06-00355
137
APPENDIX G
RESEARCH PROJECT INFORMATION SHEET
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Ed. D. Program
Waite Phillips Hall, Room 802, Mailcode 4038
University of Southern California
Los Angeles, CA 90089-4038
INFORMATION SHEET FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
Sources of Impact on College Students’ Development: Describing and Mapping
Their Experiences.
You are asked to participate in a research study conducted by Rod Goodyear, Ph.D.
and a research team, from the Rossier School of Education, Ed.D. Program, at the
University of Southern California. The results of this research study will contribute
to a dissertation.
You were selected as a possible participant in this study because you are in one of
the targeted college student subgroups who are the focus of this study. This is a two
phase study and 100 responses are necessary from each subgroup for Phase One. In
each case, 15 participants from Phase One, who indicate interest in continuing, will
participate in the second phase of the study.
Your participation is voluntary and you must be at least 18 years old to participate.
You should read the information below, and ask questions about anything you do not
understand, before deciding whether or not to participate.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
We are asking you to take part in a research study because we are trying to learn the
sources of impact (either positive or negative) that students in the targeted subgroups
perceive to have affected their sense of who they are (i.e., their personal identity).
We also are interested to learn the manner in which students organize these
categories of experiences in their thinking. That is, the “cognitive map” they impose
on them.
Completion and return of the questionnaires will constitute consent to
participate in this research project.
138
PROCEDURES
In the first phase of the study, you will be asked to reflect on your experience as a
college student and identify one incident or experience that has affected your sense
of who you are. The College Years Experience Questionnaire (CYEQ) asks you to
describe what the incident was, if another person or persons was/were involved, why
the incident was important to you, and what you believe the long-term effect has
been. The questionnaire also asks for basic demographic information. The
questionnaires should take you approximately one-half hour to complete.
If you would like to participate in Phase Two of this study, you can complete an
Intent to Continue postcard. Phase Two participants will be randomly selected from
the people who completed the Intent to Continue postcard.
If selected to continue to Phase Two and wish to participate, you will be asked rate
the similarities of the categories of sources of impacts from the CYEQ on a scale of
one to six (1=not at all alike; 6=very much alike). This paired comparison
questionnaire is (called the College Years Experience Concept Similarity Rating
Scale; CSRS) will be posted on a web-based survey service or mailed to you,
depending on your preference. If you participate in this phase of the study, the web
address will be emailed to you along with instructions for completing the CSRS.
The CSRS should also take about one-half hour to complete
POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
There are no anticipated risks to your participation. You may be inconvenienced
from taking time out of your day to complete the questionnaires. It also is possible
that in recounting an incident that was especially important to you, you may find
yourself experiencing uncomfortable memories.
POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO SUBJECTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY
You may not directly benefit from your participation in this research study.
However, there are potential benefits to the higher education community.
Specifically, it could be important to higher education professionals who work to
ensure that the college environment maximizes the opportunities to foster optimal
student development
PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
You will not receive any payment for your participation in this research study.
CONFIDENTIALITY
No information that is obtained in connection with this study can be identified with
you. Contact information that is supplied by Phase One participants on the Intent to
Continue postcard will be stored in the investigator’s office in a locked file cabinet.
139
The data from this study will also be stored in the investigator’s office in a locked
file cabinet and in a password protected computer. Only members of the research
team will have access to the data associated with this study. The data will be stored
for three years after the study has been completed. After the three year period, the
data will be destroyed.
PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
You can choose whether to be in this study or not. If you volunteer to be in this
study, you may withdraw at any time without consequences of any kind. You may
also refuse to answer any questions you don’t want to answer and still remain in the
study. The investigator may withdraw you from this research if circumstances arise
which warrant doing so.
RIGHTS OF RESEARCH SUBJECTS
You may withdraw your consent at any time and discontinue participation without
penalty. You are not waiving any legal claims, rights or remedies because of your
participation in this research study. If you have questions regarding your rights as a
research subject, contact the University Park IRB, Office of the Vice Provost for
Research, Grace Ford Salvatori Hall, Room 306, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1695,
(213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu.
IDENTIFICATION OF INVESTIGATORS
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact
the highlighted member of the research team:
Tony Arguelles – arguelle@email.usc.edu
Christopher Eaton – davideat@email.usc.edu
Roza Ekimyan – ekimyan@email.usc.edu
Paul Harrington – wharring@email.usc.edu
Merrill Irving – mirving@email.usc.edu
Jane Robb – jrobb@email.usc.edu
Virginia Sarkissian – vergenes@email.usc.edu
Michelle Stiles – mstiles@email.usc.edu
Surendra Verma – surendrv@email.usc.edu
Vincent Vigil – vincenev@email.usc.edu
Kimberlee Woods – woodsk@email.usc.edu
Rod Goodyear, Ph. D. - goodyea@usc.edu
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
WPH 1100A
Los Angeles, CA 90089-0031
(213) 740-3267
Date of Preparation: July 5, 2006 – Info Sheet USC UPIRB # UP-06-00355
140
APPENDIX H
COMBINED GROUP SIMILARITY MATRIX
(GSM)
SELFAWAK
DIFFICUL
VALIDATE
POLICIES
MATH
GRADE
HUMILIAT
FAMILY
FRIENDSH
BELIEFS
EXTRACUR
AGE
SELFAWAK 0 78 84 52 64 79 29 64 59 33 47 33
DIFFICUL 78 0 80 64 82 88 30 66 65 41 54 48
VALIDATE 84 80 0 54 58 84 25 75 68 32 49 40
POLICIES 52 64 54 0 59 59 36 49 48 36 42 52
MATH 64 82 58 59 0 58 53 39 45 39 34 64
GRADE 79 88 84 59 58 0 23 69 62 28 46 39
HUMILIAT 29 30 25 36 53 23 0 31 32 70 23 65
FAMILY 64 66 75 49 39 69 31 0 64 26 51 32
FRIENDSH 59 65 68 48 45 62 32 64 0 25 66 48
BELIEFS 33 41 32 36 39 28 70 26 25 0 31 66
EXTRACUR 47 54 49 42 34 46 23 51 66 31 0 35
AGE 33 48 40 52 64 39 65 32 48 66 35 0
141
APPENDIX I
INCIDENTS ARRANGED BY OVER-ARCHING THEME
1. Experiencing a self-awakening after taking a particular class
(SELFAWAK)
I took an Applied Psychology class about careers to fulfill a G.E.
requirement. It was taught by one of the guidance counselors. This class
influenced me in two ways. First and foremost, the class validated what I had
been considering for a long-term career choice and gave me the ability to put a
name to it.
In my first semester back to school I took a class called Character &
Conflict. Each week we discussed a different life issue. For the first part of
class the entire class met as one large process group. In the second part of class
we met in our assigned small process group. I cannot remember the issue we
were discussing that week but it triggered the realization that school was
unfinished business for me, highlighting the fact that I was very much on my
own growing up and making decisions without in put from my parents. This
came up with strong feeling of sadness. The supervisor was observing our
group at this point. I shared my story with tears. The way the teacher and
leaders and students responded to me, but especially the teacher and leaders,
really help settle something in me. I was so scared, feeling like an outsider (and
really old) being at school. This was a turning point and I felt drawn in and
accepted. I began to be more open, hence feeling more like myself, in this
group. I set small goals for myself e.g. speaking up at least once in each class
even though I feel uncomfortable. This has been very fruitful for me and my
goals have expanded. I challenged myself to give honest responses to others. I
feel so much more natural and comfortable at school. I am really enjoying
myself and plan to go onto graduate school. I am not saying it was (and is)
without struggle but I began feeling alive. My life already was okay but I could
see as you get older your world can get smaller and more insulated. I have been
able to expand my world learning things that I am stimulated by. I can apply
these things and integrate them into my life. I love being around the other
students and have made special friends. I feel more confident in more
situations and feel deeply grateful.
A class project that helped me to recognize my ability and interest in what I
wanted to be, and what I liked to do. I had to prepare an illustrated story book
of my chilhood, describing the relationship between my family and me. That
project gave an idea about who I was and what I always wanted to be. That
project gave me the opportunity to view my past and to open my vision to the
future.
142
In my first class in college I had a professor who introduced herself to the
class and told us a little bit about herself. What I learned that day has stayed
with me through out these past three years of college. What she told us that day
was that at 40 years old she decided to return to college. This was important to
me because at 39 one June afternoon I decided that my job was just that a job
and I quit and began my college career. Once I got to college I felt very
overwhelmed, I also asked myself what was someone my age doing in college;
college was for young people just out of high school. It was her story that
convinced me that I was exactly where I belonged and that I was going to be
successful, if she could do it so could I.
I was not allowed to take the math placement test at the community college I
attended. The reason given me was that I had not taken a math course in the
previous 2 years. I had been in the business world in a sales manager position
and had used math extensively over many years. I was forced to take four
semesters of math starting with math 20. It delayed my being able to transfer to
[university] by 2 years. I did turn this into a positive experience by finding
something new to learn in each class. I also helped struggling students
understand that math is something that can be used in a person's life almost
daily, and not useless knowledge. I think this experience is important because
of the positive manner I used it instead of just complaining about it. I know
that attitude can affect any situation and this proved that to me.
This is the same question as the previous question. I can only add that the
entire college experience has made me a more confident and happier person
At the age of 37 I think I already have a pretty good sense of who I am. But
the day I decided to go back to school because I discovered what I want to be
when I grow up is pretty significant.
Because I am taking Human Services classes, all of my classes have had a
positive effect on my development as a person. One course I have had,
Character & Conflict, was a group therapy class in which we explored our own
psyche, and had to open up to a group. This class was really worth going back
to college for, as it was like going to therapy, which I hadn't.
During a Crisis Intervention class, I heard the professor give a lecture on
substance abuse and co-dependents. I realized that due to an alcoholic father, I
had exhibited co-dependent type behavior all my life, which explained some of
my perceived shortfalls, and took the heavy load of blame off me.
143
A.In Social Theories I learned how to step outside of the box in which I
was socially ascribed to live in. B.[Instructor] teaches social theory, research,
and social inequality at [university]. She was instrumental in opening my eyes
and showing me how all people are equal in worth and how important it is for
us to gain valuable insights from people outside of our culture. C.I learned how
multi-culturalism social theory challenges ethnocentrism and requires us to be
accountable for how we view people who are not white. D.I had an epiphany
about my own whiteness, especially after listening to [speaker’s] speech where
he addresses ethnocentrism and white supremacy. This changed my life because
as a white child I was not socialized to consider the value of learning about
someone outside of my cultures life circumstance. I was taught to be empathetic
but not to look outside of 'the Box.'
A. In social theories class I listened to people who were not white describe
how they were treated as 'other' by whites. It was painful. B. [instructor] taught
the course and her wisdom in presenting the information was valuable for the
majority of the class C.Its one thing know a person has been mistreated, but
when you hear their voice and see their expressions as they speak about the
incidents, it changes you. D.This class and this professor cause me to search
deeply within myself and how I viewed people from other cultures, values, and
gender preferences.
In my Chicano Studies class, 'The Chicano Family' we talked about schools
that were segregated in the 30's. When I spoke to my mother about this, she
informed me that she was a Mexican American that had to attend a segregated
elementary school in Anaheim, CA. The importance of this incident is that,
although I already had a lot of respect for my mother, my respect grew from
knowing this the struggles she went through as a child. Also, in doing a
research paper for an American Studies class - American Suburbs, I have
learned even more about my family's history, especially the neighborhood that
my mother grew up it. The long term effect of this is that I have always
considered myself as just an American, without really thinking about the
history of my parents and grandparents, the culture, and the sacrifices that they
went through to make my own life a better one. This has given me a better
appreciation for my family and culture.
when I talk in class and others have respect for me it gives me a sense that I
have something to say.
I think this quarter helped me to decide that I definitely never want to go
into a research career. It's not 'my thing'. I have a class on research methods and
I also work as a research assistant for a professor (a requirement for my major)
and I really don't like either. I think I lost a little confidence in myself from the
classes this quarter because it's been such a struggle.
144
My Professor of W/St has taught us herstory not history and this has helped
me make decisions that empower me rather than validate my subordination in a
capitalist society. Most influential being my research on the militarization of
the Mexi/Cali borders, and its affects perpetuating gender and racial
inequalities. It has changed the way I vote, and made me also research where
my money goes.
(a)My experience was in developing my creativity through a drawing class.
The final product of my first project I was very surprised, and happy with my
results. (b)My teacher was very encouraging and was able to teach drawing
techniques that helped me develop drawing skills. (c)I think what was
important in this experience was opening my mind to what I was capable of,
and I was encouraged to pursue classes I would not have pursued before taking
the class. (d) The long-term effect I think has been in not limiting myself by
assuming I don't have the natural talent for it.
(a)My world history class. (b)The professor was so interesting he made
history come alive. (c)This was important to me because I had never enjoyed
history before feeling it all happened so long ago, but I couldn't wait to go to
this class to learn, somehow he made it seem relevant to my life today. (d) I
now am able to see how so many subjects are connected and am excited to learn
how art, literature, history are all intertwined.
a. Taking a class on the chicano adolescent. Especially with other students
who were chicano. b. I went to class with several chicano students in the
class and one was a gang member and a brother sister in the same class. The
sister had gone to private high schools and was extremely intelligent and
motivated towards higher education. And the brother was not motivated and
the sister was trying to get him off the streets. I was surprised how political the
brother was. Yet I understood where he was coming from. c. This incident
was important because they were both raised in the same home, yet with
completely different ideals because of their sex. They were raised differently.
Since I want to specialize and work with adolescent kids with the probation
department I found them to be fascinating. D. the long term effect on me was
not to judge people and understand how individuals culture help to shape them
and how their gender in that culture helps to shape them.
2. Accomplishing something that had seemed very difficult (DIFFICUL)
I have attended college part-time for over 12 years. This has led many
people to offer advice to me, most leaning towards quitting my job and gogin to
school full time. I prefer to work full-time and attend classes after work which
many people do not understand. This had led me to hold my resolve to finish
my degree.
145
Overall, going back to school at age 40 has helped me to realize the
capabilities that I have in education. I returned after raising four children. One
experience that I feel influenced me was when I went to see a counselor at
[community college]. I had contemplated majoring in communication disorders.
I was completing my general education credits and was trying to decided on my
major when I transferred. I asked the counselor if communication disorders was
a difficult field to get into. She looked at me and said, 'Oh yes, it is very
difficult.' At first I thought, 'Oh, then I better choose something else.' There
was no looking at my transcript or any encouragement on her part. If she had
looked at my grades, she would have seen that I had not had a grade lower than
an A since returning to school, and I had received 9 A+. So difficulty should
not have been a factor in her advice to me. She never suggested any way that I
could look into that field. I allowed her comments to dissuade me from
choosing that major. A month or so later, when i was making my decision, it
suddenly occurred to me that I had never let difficulty stop me from
accomplishing what I set out to do, so why couldn't I be one of the successful
communication disorder majors. So I decided that I would be a comm disorders
major despite her negative attitude about it. I am currently enrolled in that
major and love everything about it and have been academically successful in
the classes I have taken thus far. I know grad school admission is difficult, but I
just take it one class at a time. This experience helped me to realize that I don't
have to take others opinions about what I can do, I need to have confidence to
realize that I can accomplish what I put my mind to.
Being accepted to the university after disqualifying the first time. It gave me
hope and sense of belonging to the community.
The most important event in my college experience is being awarded a
competitive [grant]. I'm so thankful for the opportunity to continue my studies
at the university level because of this grant. I don't think I would have valued it
as much if I had received it when I was younger. This has been the most
positive experience for me and my self esteem. It is making it possible to
complete my degree program without worrying about financial constraints. It
also enabled me to study the field of study I love because I wasn't dependent on
work for tuition reimbursement. My focus of interest is anthropology which
has nothing to do with my job and wouldn't have qualified for educational
reimbursement. It gave me a sense of freedom to choose my path without being
indebted to anyone. This has changed the long-term effect on my life and my
sense of identity because now my sense of who I am and what I do with my
future are one and the same.
146
One of the experiences that I remember wel was that my father got very ill.
This caused immense anxiety for me and I was not able to pull it together. I
bombed my semester and continued on a downward spiral. It was one of the
major events in my college career that caused me not to complete my academic
endeavors at that time. I realized that my family has always come first for me,
yet the emotionalism and dynamics involved were also barriers for me to
completing my goals. The long term effect on me has been the awareness of
my upbringing and family ties and how strong the psychological and emotional
struggles I experienced prevented me from accomplishing my goals. This has
motivated me in my quest to understand the barriers and work with and around
them, and to detach myself at the expense of my family members. It has been
my destiny to chose a field in education combined with a background of
psychology and women's studies.
The first semester when I returned to [university] I was taking a couple of
classes just to explore the possibility of a career change. I was NOT even
considering getting a two-year degree, much less a bachelor's degree. After the
first week or two I knew I was not only interested in criminal justice, but that I
had an aptitude for it as well. My criminal law professor was pretty tough and
said that in all the years he had been teaching, no one had ever gotten a perfect
score on one of his final exams--so when I got a perfect score on my criminal
law final, I realized I could compete with much younger students and that I
really had a chance to succeed. After that, my goal gradually kept expanding:
first, a certificate in crime scene investigation, then my A.S. in Administration
of Justice. I never would have believed when I started that I would be this close
to completing a four-year program that is now well within my reach.
I believe that the incident that marked my life for ever was the moment I
received my Degree.
I completed a difficult course and did well in that course. It gives me self
confidence and I know I have accomplished a goal
I finally was able to transfer to [university] after completing my units
a) I was placed in beginning English and math classes upon entry as a
freshman. b) a close friend had the same classes. c) I was not as smart as I
thought I was d) I've tried harder to study and get good grades
The best thing to come out of my military experience was being offered the
GI Bill. I had no intention of going back to school, but thought it might be a
good idea to take the offer. It was the best thing I could have ever done. School
has been the most fulfilling experience in my life. It has taken me 20 years to
get to where I am now and would not change a thing. I know if I went to
college as a 'youngster' I would not appreciate it the way I do now. I love being
at [university]. I have earned it and I am very happy to be part of this academic
community.
My speech as Valedictorian at [community college] in 1997 was a
memorable experience.
147
I realized that as an adult student many problems came up with family
members needing your time and taking you away from school. I learned that
making school a priority is important in order to succeed.
My experience influenced me in such a way that I now appreciate how hard
it is to pay for college and work full-time. I now know that I am capable of
doing both, whereas the first time around in college, I had no appreciation for
all the 'returning' students and how they were working.
Graduated Nursing School in '75, learning life. went to [university] in 80's
not into it. Now work offering opportunity for Distance learning BSN program.
Emotionally and at times physically drained working bedside ICU. Recognize
need options. Took Earthwatch expedition to Rome worked with Smithsonian
researcher PHD. Cool people figured if academicians can be so down to earth
why not birth myself to the next level of personal challenge. In 2nd semester
each semester challenging ego but I'm moving on. At 55 I still have the resolve
and fire in the belly to be smarter and associate with nice students and great
supportive instructors. If I was meek and frightened of going beyond my little
world I would have felt stuck and obliged to be the donkey and have no way
out. Now it's my prerogative to stay at this time or open my options to
something interesting and creative. Am sharing my successes with aging
parents who are supportive, in nursing school to busy finding my autonomy did
not include parents in nursing school life. Parents looking at me with respect
and encouragement. Feels good.
3. Receiving validation and personal support from an instructor
(VALIDATE)
One of my first Professors was very instrumental in my education path. She
was extremely encouraging and shared her vision of what I was capable of. She
taught me that education must be balanced by family life events. And
convinced me that I am not too old for graduate school.
receiving complements from a professor in a difficult class
Secondly, the teacher said something that I will always remember, 'No
matter if it takes you, 10, 20, 30 or 50 years to finish your degree, you should
continue to pursue it. You will still be 10, 20, 30 or 50 years older whether you
do it or not.' Every time I get discouraged that I can only take 1 or two classes a
semester I remember what he said and know that I will continue to get older, so
I might as well finish.
I have experienced a positive feedback from everyone I have encountered at
school.
148
Doing a clinical rotation in Public Health, along with my classmates. The
experience was initially very uncomfortable for me because it was totally out of
my realm of clinical experience and it was also stressful because another whole
day was spent working in addition to already working full time. The reason it
was important was because as much as I didn't like it, at the midterm eval I
explained the situation to my instructor and she actually listened and changed
the program. I wasn't whining or being unreasonable (everyone else also hated
the rotation at that time). The point was, that when the situation was explained
to the instructor, she listened and valued what was said and did something
about it. I was willing to do what I needed to do to fulfill the requirement, but I
was grateful that she initiated a change. The strange thing was that I ended up
doing another rotation in Public Health (not my choice), and it ended up being
an overall positive experience. The long term effect? I believe in stating how I
feel about something and why because I am honest if nothing else. It was nice
that my viewpoint and feelings were validated.
I was encouraged by a professor who introduced herself to us and told us
that she had returned to college at 40. Since I was 39 and felt over whelmed by
all the young people I was encouraged at the idea that I too could be successful
in college.
I asked a professor after class about my career options in the Criminal
Justice field being that many agencies make a 35 year old cut-off for a career.
My professor told me that I was a bright student and that I should try law
school. I had never thought of myself as all that bright and I never thought I
could ever attend law school. Now I am seriously considering this option as a
real possibility in my future.
The incident happened at [community college] and it was in my speech
class. I really liked my professor. She was fair, interesting, and articulate. The
incident was after a speech I did and I was stressing about it. I don't remember
her exact words but she in so many words expressed confidence in me, my
ability and my future that I would go far. That has carried with me and
validated me. I have felt confidence ever since and I will be forever grateful to
her.
I needed to take a chemistry class, but needed to take college algebra first. I
missed the placement by a couple of points. At my age, delaying another
semester or two would not be a good thing, so I went to the counselor at
[university] to see what I could do to get in the math class I needed. She was
extremely discouraging, but fortunately I wasn't willing to accept her answer. I
made an appointment with the dean of math, and it was a very empowering
experience. He made me feel like I could do it and it wouldn't be any harder for
me than any other student. I promised myself I wouldn't let him down. I not
only took the class, I got an A in it. It really made me feel I was in control of
my life by not accepting the discouraging comments of the counselor and then
by proving to myself that I could accomplish what I set out to do.
149
A Crafts: Jewerly Instructor helped turn my educational life around by
allowing me to stay in his class for a semester. Because, without his help, I
would not be in education today. The long-term effect was that I am entering
the mainstream of society.
In my first semester in the BSN program, the program director had
significant influence on my return back to school after so many years. She was
an older women who was well educated and articulate and she completely
believed that each one of us in the program had what it took to succeed. This
was important to me because I felt very committed to giving 100% to my work
in order to accomplish my goal. The long term effect of this is I am nearly
finished with my undergraduate degree and I am already in the process of
applying to graduate school and continuing my education.
I took chemistry early in my return back to school. I had an amazing
instructor. I was scared to death, and was sure there was no way I could pass
that class. My patient instructor, let me come continually to his office to ask
questions. One day I received the highest grade in the class on a test. I walked
outside to the balcony, and for the first time in my life, thought, and said out
loud, 'Well, I guess you're not stupid after all!). I received an A in the class. It
helped give a little confidence to continue to pursue my goals.
One day while taking developmental psychology, the instructor told a story
that eventually ended two choices. He asked the class to choose. All but two
people choose one answer, another student and I choose the opposite. The
instructor said, 'Good for you, you chose the higher standard of morality.' (it
wasn't the legal choice.)I was important because it made me realize sometimes
it's okay to stand alone for what you believe is right. Not an easy thing to do.All
the other students disagreed with the two of us.
I experienced a feeling of positive recognition. An professor was involved.
They gave me positive feedback in regards to my participation in their class.
The professor thanked me for 'breaking the ice' in class. The long term effect
created a sense of 'That's right, I can do this and I AM an excellent and
respectful student.'
I returned to college 3 years ago. I am a single parent. A professor asked me
about graduate school. He said, 'Which one are you applying to?' Had it not
been for his influence, I would not be going to Graduate school after
[university]. Even in my 30's, I still need that influential teacher that believe in
me.
As a single parent, going to school at night, sometimes I had to bring my
daugher. I sat her in the hall way so as not to disturb anyone. Professors were so
welcoming. They invited her inside. She learned so much along with me.
Without their support I don't think I would have completed that semester
150
I had an instructor who not only taught the material for the class, but also
was a great mentor for many students. He was very positive in everything that
he said. I think of him often when the stress of getting research papers done,
etc. He was a very encouraging person. Tat is the way most students viewed
him......as a person, not just their professor
I was interested in becoming a teacher, so I spoke to a counselor specifically
for teachers at the community college I attended. She and another teacher's
mentor asked a lot of questions, reviewed my transcripts, advised me, and at the
end of the session, the counselor mentioned that she and the mentor were
talking when I left the room for a moment, and said, 'We both think you'd make
a great teacher.' This gave me a sense of purpose and validation.
I had a professor who e-mailed grades to students at the end of the semester,
and when he e-mailed my grade, he added a note that he really enjoyed having
me in the class, adding that he thought I contributed a lot to discussions.
The level of acceptance and support that I have received from my professors
throughout my undergraduate coursework has helped me accept myself as a
capable and even outstanding student. This has been influential in my decision
to pursue my dream of attending graduate school.
This experience occurred with my Biology professor in junior college. This
is a significant experience because it was the end of the semester and I was
failing the class. This professor pulled me aside and indicated to me that she
knew that I was a very smart young lady and needed to get rid of my
distractions and put forth more effort to get ahead and achieve my future goals.
This was important because I was at a point in my life where I wasn't sure that I
could make through college. She changed my mind and helped me to believe
that I was capable and needed to keep looking forward despite any road blocks
I may encounter. This definitely had a long-term effect on my sense of who I
was and who I am today. I found the confidence in my self to keep pushing
forward because of my short 5 minute experience with her.
A counselor at [community college] told me that there was a light at the end
of the tunnel. So this is my 11th year in college. She helped me realize that if I
want to make my dreams come through, I need to work at it and don't give up.
My professor and other male students were praising my work in hopes that I
would join their extra curricular writing group. After joining, I had experienced
them sexualizing me, and when I asked for the behavior to stop I received
several verbally abusive emails. I reported this to the mentioned professor who
responded, 'They are my friends.' My self esteem took a blow; therefore, my
college career confused me, because I had never experienced anything like this
situation before these incidents. Inspired by a female guest speakers lecture I
decided to email her. Although I never revealed to her what had happened she
suggested I enroll in some W/St courses. These classes have changed my life,
and my work as an artist. I have found my voice as a female writer.
151
a. I was in a divorcee class and found that I knew just as much information
or more than the teacher. And the teacher realized it and asked my opinion on
many of her lectures and that was gratifying. I was also able to give a separate
opinion to the class since the teacher was very young and recently married. I
was able to give opinions of a woman who grew up in the feminine movement
and how women felt before and after this movement. b. Professor was
involved, and several of the students in the class especially when I worked on a
group project. I felt like a leader in the class and individuals wanted to be in
my group project. c. what was important was being valued because of my age
in the classroom. Where in most classes students shy away from me since I am
over forty. To younger students its almost like why is this student still in
school. But what people don't get is I didn't get a chance to go to college back
then. So I am really enjoying learning now. d. That class made me feel
positive enough to get through the frustration of school and continue to apply
for a masters program at long beach university in social work.
4. Understanding and negotiating university policies (POLICIES)
Another incident was is trying to determine what I had left to take for
graduation. I meet with the advisor on several occasions and it wasn't until my
third meeting that they realized I would be short classes. The lack of attention
to detail cost me time. More than once this advisor was not helpful and talked
down to me. Coming back after this many years it is a new experience. I felt
that it was a poor approach to take. I had years of work experience and figured
a lot out on my own. I feel bad for the younger kids that rely on this help. I
found that other students were more helpful. Due to this I am not trusting of the
advisers unless they are in my department and I still double check responses
with another advisor.
I have had a very positive experience since transferring schools and pursuing
my real interests. Although I have had to figure out how things are done and
have not had a lot of guidance, I have managed to excel on my own. I have
noticed that some of the resources available to help students, don't help at all.
Generic answers do not provide individuals with their specific needs.
financial aid it made me not want to finish the semester and I still haven't
decided if I can afford to continue. that I may not be able to finish school at the
university level
needing to prove I had a MMR no if I can't prove I had it then I either have
to have a blood test or another shot I feel like I'm not wanted at this school and
that they are making it as hard as possible to make me quite
5. Having to confront my fear of math (MATH)
I failed a math class three times. I decided at that point if I could get through
advanced math and pass it, then I could easily finish the rest of achieving my
degree.
152
During my second semester back at school I signed up for re-entry review of
Elementary Algebra. I looked at the end of the book and became overwhelmed
and thought that I would never be able to remember how to do all of those
problems. I convinced myself I should drop out. However, I reconsidered and
stuck it out to the end. I realized that as I progressed through the book, it all
came back to me and that by the time I got to the end of the book, it was really
quite easy. This was a great lesson to me. Whenever I feel overwhelmed by the
things I have to do, especially at the beginning of a semester, I remember that
experience and all I have to do is tell myself, 'You are at the beginning of the
book, you don't have to be at the end just yet. The end will come if you just
stick with it from the beginning.' That helps me just take it a step at a time. It
has been a great inspiration to me when I think things are going to be too hard.
So far it has worked and I continue to find academic success.
The hardest part of returning to school at this late time of my life was having
to take algebra and go through the math tree. Intermediate algebra for me was
in a word traumatic. It may sound silly but it was the hardest thing I've done in
school. It required every bit of my time when I wasn't at work and always felt
like a cloud over my head. I hired a tutor - I guess I should say three tutors. I
even saw a psychologist to help me get through this class. It was not only
stressful because I had been out of school for many years but also because it
was the last class I had to get through to receive my AA degree and move on to
the university. I didn't think I would ever get through it - but I did. I made a C
in the class and was probably more elated about passing that class than
receiving my AA degree. Taking the class had a strongly negative effect on
me, but passing it had a strongly positive effect on me.
153
This incident happened in my Beginning Algebra class. The last math class
I had taken was over 20 years ago. I have never done well in math and was
terrified of this class. I knew that I absolutely had to work my was into a
statistics class for me to transfer to [university]. I did every problem in the book
to earn extra credit. I was never without my algebra book, even taking it to
church on Sundays. One day my teacher, Mr. Smith decided to teach the kids
in my class a lesson. He walked out because they would not stop talking. I was
devastated. I searched his office and surrounding area to beg him to come back.
We learned approximately three concepts a day and I knew that if he did not
teach me those concepts, I could not pass the next test. He eventually came
back to the class and started teaching, but I knew that we would never get all
through concepts in before the class ended. I scribbled furiously in my
notebook while tears ran down my face. I passed that class by sheer will. It
felt as if I put each concrete shoe in front of the other one. My tenacity was the
only reason I got through the class. Eventually, I was able to move into the
front of the class so I could see better. Mr. Smith told me about a story he had
heard about Albert Einstein. Albert started in one of his classes in the very last
seat of the last row, since they seated people according to grades. Slowly he
moved up until he was in the first seat. Mr. Smith said that is what he thinks of
when he sees me in the first row. My very first class was my hardest. I even
managed to get a B in it. I prevailed and I knew that I could prevail in any class
that followed after it.
Of particular influence was getting through my algebra and statistics classes
and receiving As in the class. I had been managing millions of dollars in
business but going back to college was a scary challenge. I was a junior
coming back but was missing certain math classes that were not required years
ago. I tried 3 times to take the class and dropped I was so scared. I took it and
struggled and learned I could do this. I could come back and finish college.
My experience was with my math tutor. This was at a time when I was truly
struggling with math and could not get to College 100 without passing this
particular class. It was suggested that I get a math tutor half way through the
semester. I was very frustrated at this point. When I met with my math tutor
she made me feel very comfortable and I was able to understand concepts that I
had never understood before. Before her, I felt that I was not smart enough to
understand math problems and complete them accurately. Through the tutor's
patience, she inspired me to continue on and finish all my math courses with
good grades. I have become very proficient in math only because she took the
time to work with me. By the time, I went into my Stats class, I was the top
student helping other students who were having problems.
154
I had a situation where I thought I would not be able to pass calculus. I felt
lost and incompetent. My professor constantly reminded me that if I could add,
I could do calculus. After a while, I began to believe it. I received an A in the
class and gained much needed confidence. This experience was extremely
important because I kept second guessing my decision to pursue higher
education. I had a great job and I made decent money. Returning to school was
a personal goal and this professor helped me realize that i can push myself to
places I've never been and I can realize any goal I set for myself.
6. Receiving a good grade on a project or test (GRADE)
Recently, and this is an experience that has happened several times when I
least expect it, I was struggling through material in a Political Philosophy
course. The instructor had us reading original sources, and they were ancient
and I was trying to grasp these ethereal philosophical concepts. After several
weeks of this we had to write our first paper. I did my best and was surprised to
receive an A, when I thought I was struggling to grasp concepts, apparently I
was doing better than I thought. I love it when that happens- getting a good
grade when you don't expect it.
I received a perfect score on a research paper I wrote. This paper included
an extensive annotated bibliography which I had never written before. Once the
semester was over I contacted my professor to get this paper back. She asked if
she could keep a copy of my paper. She was very impressed with my research
(she said that she was well versed with this particular topic) and how I wrote
my paper. This was a very important incident to me in that I had never written a
perfect paper before, a professor of such high caliber had never complimented
me on my work, and never had a professor asked to keep a copy of my paper. I
was thrilled to say the least. This incident happened almost one year ago and
since then I feel like what I have to say means something. Since then I have felt
that I can accomplish anything.
I have had many profound experiences as a college student but perhaps the
most significant was completing my first semester of college at the age of 45
with a 4.0 GPA. I had not been in school for 30 years and had never been to
college. This experience was important because it gave me confidence in my
ability to be academically successful. With respect to my sense of who I am,
this experience made positive changes to how I view my intellectual faculties,
increased my self-worth, and motivated me to pursue a 4-year degree. Now I
am applying to graduate school.
155
My first class as an older person returning to college. It was at a different
university. It was a good transition back into school because it was a small
class - just 10 students. We were in a cohort with classes that lasted for five
weeks, and then on to another subject, so we stayed with the same group. I
went to this school for one year. Receiving an A in that first class made me
realize that even though I was in my late 40's, I still had the potential to learned,
and my dream of obtaining a college degree started to become something that I
could actually obtain. It improved my self-esteem and change my identity of
being a Mom, to also being my own person.
When I started going to College I was afraid I wasn't going to succeed so for
my first class I studied so hard that the instructor gave 105/100 points in a
project. This first class and the grades I got increase my enthusiasm for learning
and my self confidence. It kind of proof that I was creative, intelligent,
hardworking, persistent and it gave me great hope for my future.
I had this very nice teacher for a psych class. I remember scoring a 100 on
his midterm. He had written on my test, '100 - perfect! and highest score in the
class.' I was so shocked, I asked him if he was sure it was my exam. He said,
'Maybe you need to change the underlying schema of how you think about
yourself.' When I thought about it, he was right. I discovered I was more
negative and pessimistic than I realized. No matter how many times I had
succeeded in my classes, I always expected to fail. I still keep that exam on my
fridge to remind me to have faith in myself.
7. Being humiliated or embarrassed by an instructor (HUMILIAT)
I was in my Intercultural Socialization class. Every week I would have to
listen to every horrible, unforgivable thing that the White/Europeans did to
everyone else. There was never anything positive, all negative. I am by nature
a positive person. It killed me to see all of these young students sucking up all
of this negativity. I used to speak up in class and try to show a positive spin and
always ended up with egg on my face. One day Mr. Jones said, 'Well, Kathy.
You are always looking for the positive in things. What do you think?' So I
told him what I thought. After I was finished, he went on without even
acknowledging that I had spoken. I muttered, 'Why should I even speak if you
never listen to what I say?' I got up and left the room. He was confused as to
what was wrong with me. That is the day that I decided that it was not my job
to teach the class. My job was to listen and take deep breaths. I cannot 'save'
everyone if they do not want to be 'saved'. I try to follow this edict as much
as I can in classes.
156
I am bi-polar and I had a manic episode, a severe episode at the beginning of
my second semester at [university] after transferring from a community college.
I was hospitalized briefly but it did not help much and when I was not excused
for my absence in a class, due to the program I was in (Theater where studio
time absences are not easily excused) I was told to drop the class or receive an
F, I was angry and threatened the teacher. I wrote long protesting narratives on
a chalk board used to post information for staff and students and campus police
was called. They took me to the counseling center. Everyone knew I was crazy
and I was off my meds. I was older than most of the other students and felt
different already. I could not go back to the Theatre department. I was
hospitalized for a long while, when I came back to school I transferred over into
the Liberal Arts department. I still feel afraid to go near the performing arts
building and hide behind sunglasses when I walk across campus and see people
that I knew in my theatre program. I came to the realization that I am bi-polar
and I needed to take meds, a fact I was not willing to accept before. I am doing
very well in my classes and I feel happy and connected to the students and
teachers in the Liberal Arts program. I think that I do well in academic courses,
quite naturally- as opposed to performance, which used to come easily to me
when I was young. I am stimulated and engaged in learning of many subjects
and varied interests and Liberal Arts provides that for me. I am under a
thematic plan, and my theme is Political Theatre, so I get to use my background
in theatre as well as my interest in Political Science in my Senior Project. I feel
that it worked out all right in the end, however, there is still shame in being the
person who was crazy. Thankfully, no one I am acquainted with now, can tell
that I have this disorder- I am blessed to have found medication that works for
me.
I had a particularly bad experience with a professor, which convinced me to
change my major. I realized I wasn't cut out to continue on the career path I had
chosen if I had to endure 100% speculative grading and biased instructors. I
know that I am much more capable than I was given credit, and since then, I
have had an overwhelmingly good experience with my new majors and the
instructors I have encountered. I am much more at ease and comfortable with
my choice.
I had a professor that was not personable, nor was he very good at just
answering a question without degrading the person who was asking it. He was
not good with discussing a matter in person. He encouraged students to leave a
voice mail or email him. Since he was one of my first instructors, I became
discouraged immediately. I was new to [university]. With that, I had a lot of
questions, but didn't feel comfortable discussing anything with this professor
157
A) I was in an english class in community college. The instructor liked most
of my papers but one day she insulted me in front of the whole class for no
good reason. b) The whole class of about 100 students witnessed this and
although shocked no body had the guts to back me or stand with me when I
objected. c) I walked out of class, then returned when I calmed down so I
wouldn't say anything stupid. I confronted the instructor when the class was
over. She realized that she had been harsh and insulting then apologized.
d)That just because a person is an instructor doesn't make them right. They are
subject to all the errors of judgment like anyone else. I learned that teachers are
human and that education doesn't make one nice, graceful or kind, no, errors
and correcting them do. Humility is a greater good that is learned when faith
and reason meet and admit to faults--thats what I learned. When I confronted
the instructor I was kind, spoke calmly and presented what I heard. She failed
to understand that her delivery of unkind words and actions (she had me stand
while she had spoken) was uncalled for. Also, it surprised her that I was a little
older than I looked. I looked 19 and was actually 25.
I was taking a class and had not completed a paper that was due to turn. I
then explained to the Prof my fan burned out on my computer the night before
but I would have it in ASAP. She flips out in front of the class and tells me it is
not her problem if my economic background won't allow me to finish my work
and she was going to leave me in the dust. She then said but what does it
matter anyway. Others in the class got so upset they dropped the class. I will
never let anyone put me down like that again. I almost dropped out of
[university].
8. Having the support of family (FAMILY)
My aunt has always told me that I can be 50 with a degree or 50 without a
degree and in the long run, it's better to hold a degree. My family has been very
supportive of my college work and this has encouraged me to continue.
I am a returning college student. I dropped out my sophomore year in 1989
to get married. I returned to college in 2004 to finish. I would say that meeting
the man who became my husband had a significant influence. Also, the fact that
he was graduating and I was not, influenced my decision to leave school. If that
didn't have a long-term effect on me in a multitude of ways, I don't know what
would.
I have always wanted to be a nurse and my mother was my mentor. she
always took the time to talk with someone and always gave of herself in every
caring way that she knew how. Yes! my mother was a nurse for 35+ years when
she passed away.
My daughter also was very influential in my choice in returning back to
school.
158
I struggle with the demands of returning to college as a mature adult
professional. I have a supportive family and I have developed a supportive
community. When I loose my focus and want to just quit, I have people who
remind me that I have come this far and I can finish if I just keep going. I
depend on this support to carry me when I fall. Both of my sons are in college
and my goal is to finish first. It looks like I will attain that goal! This reminds
me that I was created in relationship and since I have helped others, I can reach
out for help from others. I am an interdependent person.
9. Forming new friendships (FRIENDSH)
I met a young lady while attending [community college], we had a geology
class together. We knew right away that we had some sort of bond but nothing
really happened until we ended up in our first class together at [university].
This semester we have 2 classes together and we plan on taking at least one
next semester. My own daughter is back east in college and this young lady and
I have influenced each other in very positive ways. She makes me feel welcome
and included even though I am so much older than she is - I, in turn, have been
like a second mom to her, which she tells me she enjoys very much.
I dated a Japanese man who used me to get a Anglo girl for his girlfriend. It
foreshadowed my future relationships with men. In the long run, I believe that I
will not tolerate being not assertive. A sense of who I am is I am a very
assertive woman.
I have been in a distance learning program for two years which has allowed
me to develop supportive relationships on line. I now have a good friend who
lives 300 miles away and we plan to celebrate our graduation together in May
'07.
There has been a camaraderie established in our distance learning group. We
are supportive, we encourage one another, we know each one is vulnerable and
we overall are accepting of one another. I think we genuinely care about one
another and wishes everyone great success. I feel there is an umbrella of a
group willing to cover each others back.
159
10. Being criticized for expressing different views/beliefs (BELIEFS)
I am in a practicum class that in concurrent with an undergraduate
internship. When asked to share about an experience I used a word that the
teacher thought could be offensive to others. I immediately apologized and try
to make eye contact with each student to see if any one in particular was
offended. No one felt it was anything but a descriptive word and most of the
students were of that ethnicity. Not one agreed with her. The teacher is
another ethnicity. When class ended she was all layed back and said it is like
the 'N' word for her. I was humiliated and shamed. We journal each week for
this class and turn them in. I wrote about this experience and also suggested
she might think about why the word is so charged for her. I got her written
response back last night and now believe she is a bigger A-hole. She basically
had a much different experience then me. She said the students reacted which
is clearly not the case. I talked to each one in the class after class or the
following week before class. Each one said that the word did not register in
anyway until the teacher brought it up. Incidentally she did not make one good
comment on the majority of what I shared or my experience. She lacks group
leading skills. She is very casual on her end about things e.g. not having a
syllabus for the first day of class. but does not get how stressful that is for the
students who have other classes, work, etc. to time manage. This incident was
important because it was deep for me. I still feel angry, probably because of
her response reinforcing her position. She gives the impression of being a
casual individual but clearly I learned that does not mean that indicates an open
heart or spirit. I learned that just because someone ones me to journal that they
are not entitled to my private thoughts and I am quite circumspect in my
sharing. I will factor this experience in when in the future I am looking for a
graduate internship or job. I will rank humility as a high value in a potential
employer. I experientially learned that there are individuals in the helping
profession that really do not have skills to teach and would be difficult to work
with. Her degree is not the one I would be seeking so thankfully I will be
among people that are seeking to develop skills I value. With all this I just
must make it through to the class is over, get my grade and get out. I guess I
will have to live with the fact that there will be people that I will not affect and
will not hear me in professional peer relationships. My eyes though have been
opened for specific things to look for. I am learning to live with the distance
that some relationships have without changing who I am. That is an important
building block for me.
160
The experience happened during my time in a Critical Thinking and
Reading class. The teacher was extremely liberal and started every class with
her political outlook and opinions. I am Christian and felt that I was unfairly
criticized and graded based on my views and hers. I hated going to class
because of how she made her political views known. I do not feel that is
appropriate. A teacher should be neutral in class as to their political opinions.
they should not inflict their opinion on students who are a captive audience.
set my beliefs in politics got very tired of professors of poli. Sci. telling my
what students should think and how to vote.
I'm supposing this means another separate incident. Okay, this was at the
same community college. Another instructor. a) I was in a philosophy class
and the instructor was very liberal, I am very conservative. For my final project
I wrote a paper on why I was against the use of condoms and contraceptives.
Obviously my instructor was shocked and disagreed but he had said it was
okay to write whatever we wanted from his list of 50 topics. b) The instructor
was challenging me every step of the way during the last weeks of the class.
He asked me to present a respectable conclusion and research and no biblical
stuff, it had to be scientific. c) What was important was that my report made
a difference to me and funny as it seems, to the instructor. I was well
researched and I proved that condoms weren't as safe as many institutions were
saying. There was a high rate of failure in keeping people safe from AIDS,
diseases and pregnancy. I was able to provide research that surprised him. His
was a a staunch advocate of contraceptives but this report made him reconsider
and he asked for more of my research. d) That I'm not so stupid after all. I
can prove things even if I'm not an expert I can do research. I can make a good
case and that my beliefs are well founded not just because of religion. I was
able to also show that abortions caused harm to women, they found it difficult
to forgive themselves. Many people also died as a result of a failed condom
and contracted diseases. This no body wants to hear or confront. But someone
has to.
11. Participating in extra-curricular activities (EXTRACUR)
The most influential events of my college experience were the internships
that were part of the Human Service degree. In particular, my volunteer work
at [the volunteer site]. This experience helped me realize who I am and the
effect that I can have on people as I help them to become self sufficient. It was
during this internship that I gained a better idea of what my future educational
goals should be. I gained a sense of my potential to help others. This was a
positive experience that I will never forget. It truly changed my life.
I worked as a volunteer for ESL students. I discovered that I was not
culturally aware of culturally sensitive (and I always thought that I was). I am
now entrenched in intercultural communication courses and experiences.
161
One of the best experiences I have had here at [university] has been being
an active member of the [student governing] Board. This experience has taught
me to reach out and get involved. The college experience is for everyone and
your age should not keep you from possible opportunities to make a difference.
12. Feeling like an outsider because of age (AGE)
I will never forget the orientation at [university], sitting among all the
young students. The speaker turned and looked straight at me and said, 'Oh,
you must be one of the mothers!' I hated being singled out as the 'old' person in
the crowd, and NO, I wasn't representing a son or daughter (nor could I have),
I was representing myself as a student!
In one of my classes the teacher selected groups to work as groups in a
community service project. Our leader was a very competitive young woman
that would undermine my attempts to organize fun time for the group. Another
one was a rude young man and another one had some very negative personal
traits. It was a torture working with them, I endured invalidation and isolation.
But I learned to stay under the radar and pretend or show I like the others.
It was my first group project. There were seven members; 3 were 35 or
older. The remainder ranged in age from 19-25. The paper to be produced was
specific and everyone had specific responsibilities. The younger members took
the project lightly while the older members were more focused. A week before
the project was due, it was discovered that the youngest member had not
fulfilled her responsibilities. I was angry and I tactfully let her know it. She
became withdrawn and reluctant to talk to me after the incident. One of my
professors sensed that I was bothered about something. We talked and he
reminded me of the need to understand the age differences. After much
reflection, I decided to write a thank you note to every group member on the
last day of class. The experience taught me to be more understanding when it
comes to group projects. It has also made me a more patient and helpful
person.
Unclassified
This question is premature for me as I have been enrolled in college for a
mere 11 weeks. I am 39 years old and I have already developed a sense of
who I am, thus, formulating the sense to go back to school. I think I may be
excluded from this survey as I full well have a strong sense of self.
Abstract (if available)
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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Stiles, Michelle R.
(author)
Core Title
From their perspective: discovering the sources of impact on older women undergraduates' identity development and mapping those experiences
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Education (Leadership)
Publication Date
03/27/2007
Defense Date
03/06/2007
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
concept mapping,identity development,multidimensional scaling,OAI-PMH Harvest,women undergraduates
Language
English
Advisor
Goodyear, Rodney K. (
committee chair
), Hocevar, Dennis J. (
committee member
), Kezar, Adrianna (
committee member
)
Creator Email
mstiles@usc.edu
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m330
Unique identifier
UC1102725
Identifier
etd-Stiles-20070327 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-328578 (legacy record id),usctheses-m330 (legacy record id)
Legacy Identifier
etd-Stiles-20070327.pdf
Dmrecord
328578
Document Type
Dissertation
Rights
Stiles, Michelle R.
Type
texts
Source
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
Repository Name
Libraries, University of Southern California
Repository Location
Los Angeles, California
Repository Email
cisadmin@lib.usc.edu
Tags
concept mapping
identity development
multidimensional scaling
women undergraduates