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The sources of impact on first-generation Latino college students' identity development: from the students' perspective
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The sources of impact on first-generation Latino college students' identity development: from the students' perspective
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Content
THE SOURCES OF IMPACT ON FIRST-GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE
STUDENTS’ IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT: FROM THE STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVE
by
William Paul Harrington
_______________________________________________________________________
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2009
Copyright 2009 William Paul Harrington
ii
DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to my family, particularly my grandfather, who has
always supported and taken great interest in my education.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thank you to Dr. Rodney Goodyear, chair of my dissertation committee, for
providing ongoing support and encouragement. I am also very grateful to Dr. Dennis
Hocevar and Dr. Donahue Tuitt, the other two members of my dissertation committee.
Their experience and confidence was invaluable to this process. Further, I am grateful to
my dissertation team of 10 doctoral students who provided ongoing support, a wealth of
ideas, and an opportunity to share resources.
This dissertation would not exist without the love and support of so many friends
and family members. I am lucky to have parents who continue to encourage me to take
on new challenges and cheer me along the way.
It is with my greatest love and appreciation that I acknowledge my wife, Wendy,
for her encouragement and patience through this process. I would have never made it this
far without her.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication ii
Acknowledgements iii
List of Tables v
List of Figures vi
Abstract vii
Chapter 1: Conceptual and Empirical Foundations for the Study 1
Chapter 2: Methods 36
Chapter 3: Results 44
Chapter 4: Discussion 62
References 84
Appendix A: College Years Experience Questionnaire 92
Appendix B: Paired Comparison Questionnaire 93
Appendix C: CYEQ Responses 102
v
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Category Abbreviations, Category, Frequency of 45
Category, Year of Occurrence, Positive Value,
and Eventual Effect
Table 2: Dimension Values 56
Table 3: Clusters of Categories 71
vi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Euclidean Distance Model 57
Figure 2: Dendrogram Using Ward Method 59
Figure 3: Concept Map 61
vii
ABSTRACT
Despite the growing number of First-Generation Latino undergraduates enrolled
at Loyola Marymount University (LMU), the effect of their college experiences on the
development of identity in this subgroup of students has limited studies.
This two-phase, mixed methods study examined (a) the sources of impact that
first-generation Latino undergraduate students perceived to have affected their personal
identity development and (b) how they conceptually organized these experiences.
Through a purposeful sampling strategy, 89 Latino undergraduates at LMU participated
in the first phase of the study by completing the College Years Experience Questionnaire
(CYEQ). Using a variant of Flangan’s (1954) Critical Incident Technique, the CYEQ
asked participants to reflect on their experience as a college student and report
experiences that had affected their sense of who they are. A team of three doctoral
students identified 13 categories of impact in the incidents. In Phase Two, the 13
identified categories of experience were then assigned similarity ratings by a small
sample of study participants.
Using multidimensional scaling (MDS), a two-dimensional concept map was
created from Phase Two data to illustrate how these undergraduates organized the
experiences. The dimension weights were used to plot the coordinates of the 13 themes
and the dimensions were named Validation through Change versus Validation through
viii
Relationships and Validation through Achievement versus Validation through Social
Organizations. Hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) was used to define a three cluster
solution that illustrated how the themes were qualitatively different. The raters named
the three clusters to describe the types of themes contained in each cluster.
The 13 themes that emerged during the analysis of Phase One data were
associated with key factors that theory and prior research identified as influencing
personal identity development. The resulting concept map displayed in graphic form
how these first-generation Latino undergraduates conceptually organized their
understanding of the impact of college on their identity development. Limitations of the
study, suggestions for further research, and implications for college faculty, staff, and
administration is delineated.
1
CHAPTER 1:
Conceptual and Empirical Foundations for the Study
A major developmental task for older adolescents and young adults is the
formation of a unique and stable identity (Erikson, 1968; Marcia, 1980). This endeavor
makes the time that students are in college, usually between the ages of 18 to 22 years, a
critical period for identity development (Muuss, 1996). According to Erikson (1950,
1968), an integrated and functional sense of identity helps to unify the various aspects of
an individual’s life and provides a sense of personal meaning and direction. Forming a
sense of identity helps to maintain consistency in one’s sense of self across
developmental transitions and predicts successful resolution of subsequent developmental
challenges.
The research and literature is full of references to the critical role college plays in
developing students’ identities (Hamrick, Evans, & Schuh, 2002; Madison, 1969;
Montgomery & Cote, 2003; Nakkula, 2003). Researchers have described the first few
years in college as perhaps being the most tolerant, facilitative, societal context for
developing self-definition and identity formation (Kroger, 1997). This response occurs
because college provides unique and appropriate settings that expose students to a
combination of skills, relationships, and extended opportunities in which they can explore
personal identity.
Before 1990, few studies had examined the long term-effects of college on
identity development (Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005). Although student development was
studied extensively in the 1970s and the 1980s, the focus was mainly on the institutional
2
and programmatic factors that facilitated student growth and development across a wide
range of outcomes. Pascarella and Terenzini reviewed nearly 2,500 student development
studies in their 1991 work, How College Affects Students, but found that only a few dealt
with identity development. Perhaps this dearth was because many in higher education
doubted that colleges and universities should be concerned about students’ personal
values, ways of thinking, modes of learning, or interpersonal and intercultural skills
(Chickering & Reisser, 1993).
Since the 1990s, there has been an increase in the number of studies of university
students’ identity development. This upsurge has coincided with the accumulation of
evidence that college has a great influence on student learning and development,
including “development of personal identities and more positive self-concepts”
(Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991, p. 563-564). There was recognition among administrators
and faculty that higher education should not restrict itself simply to information transfer
and cultivating the intellect and that schools and colleges should become learning
centered organizations committed to the development of the whole student (Chickering &
Reisser, 1993).
Torres, Howard-Hamilton, and Cooper (2003), and Pascarella and Terenzini
(2005) have reviewed some important identity development studies. These reviews
include articles focused on first-year university students (Baxter Magolda, 1998) and
multiple dimensions of the identity of college students (Jones & McEwen, 2000).
Notably, however, these studies are not reported from the students’ own
perspective on the impact of college on their identity development. Pascarella and
3
Terenzini (2005) have reported only a handful of studies examining students’ reports of
changes in their self-understanding (Bauer, 1992, 1995; Flowers, 2002; Kuh,1999). Many
of these studies used the College Student Experiences Questionnaire (CSEQ), which asks
students about gains they believe they have made in several areas since entering college.
Some of the more recent studies have used both qualitative and mixed methods
approaches, and have brought in students’ perspective by using student interview
techniques (Jones 1997; Jones & McEwen, 2000; Kroger & Green, 1996; Kuh, 1999;
Schwartz, Kurtines, & Montgomery, 2005).
Distinguishing Features of This Study
One of the prominent features of this study will be the use of the student’s
perspective. Students themselves will identify the sources of impact on their identity
development in a four-year private university setting. They will undertake this self-
assessment by focusing on one or more critical incidents they personally experienced that
had an significant effect on their identity. This Critical Incident Technique was developed
by Flanagan (1954). The incidents will be analyzed statistically and synthesized into a
number of relationships, which can then be represented by concept maps.
Another important feature of this study is that it will focus on first-generation
Latinos at a four-year private and religiously affiliated university. Most student
development studies have been conducted on traditional, predominately white, 18-22 year
old students in universities or four-year colleges. They generally study full time, live on
campus, often do not work, and have relatively few family responsibilities. This profile
4
differs from that of many Latino students who attend college. Clark (2005) suggested that
social identity related to gender, race, and ethnicity affects students’ perceptions of, and
interactions with, people and services internal and external to the campus environment. If
the impact of college on students is variable, then an examination of who constitutes the
student population in the nation’s colleges and universities is warranted. So, too, is a
much closer scrutiny of the differential experiences that result from diverse identity
statuses.
According to data from the U.S. Department of Education, 67% of all
undergraduates enrolled in postsecondary institutions in 1999-2000 were White, non-
Hispanic. Of the remaining 33%, African Americans accounted for 12%; Latina/os for
11%; and Asian Americans accounted for 5% (NCES, 2002). Since most institutions
across the U.S. have a predominantly White student population, there may not be many
opportunities for cross-racial interaction to occur. However, most students enter college
eager to expand their knowledge, broaden their experiences, and develop new
friendships. Twenty-nine percent of all students enrolled in degree-granting institutions
in 2002 were identified as racial/ethnic minorities, although the percentage of 18-24 year-
olds who attend college differs significantly by racial/ethnic category (U.S. Department
of Education, 2004).
In 2003, 41% of White, 32% of Black, and 23% of Hispanic 18-24 year-olds were
enrolled in a degree-granting institution (U.S. Department of Education, 2004).
Educational participation for Latino students is the lowest among major ethnic groups in
the United States, with Latinos having both the highest high school drop out rate of any
5
group and one of the lowest college graduation rates (Torres, 1999). Zalaquette (2005)
attributes these figures to a number of factors, including racism, poverty, and inadequate
early literacy development. Total postsecondary student enrollment, calculated at
14,257,000 in 2002, is projected to continue to increase for the next decade, although at a
slower rate of growth, reaching 16,593,000 students in 2014 (U.S. Department of
Education, 2005). This growing diversity among the college student population
underscores the need for more fine-grained studies of student experiences, taking into
account gender, racial, and ethnic differences.
Rodriguez, Guido-DiBrito, Torres, and Talbot (2000) highlighted the scarcity of
research on Latino college students. The authors described a literature search conducted
among the four major student affairs research journals using the search terms “Hispanic”
and “Mexican-American,” producing slightly more than a dozen articles over a 20-year
period. Even among those articles, Hispanic students were often used only peripherally as
a comparison group rather than as the substantive focus of the research.
This lack of mainstream research on Latino college students is remarkable,
considering that the population designated as Hispanic was estimated to have reached 38
million in the United States in 2005, and is projected to become the largest ethnic
minority group in the U.S. in 2010, when Latinos will comprise nearly 14% of the total
population (Rodriguez et al., 2000). Torres and Phelps (1997) classify education as one
of the most critical issues faced by Latinos today, and concur, “student affairs research
has not attempted to explore the development of Hispanic American students” (p. 54).
6
The need, therefore, to expand the knowledge base of college’s impact on Latino
student development is substantial and immediate. The state of the field is such that
studies are necessary simply to begin to define constructs that will shape the parameters
of a foundation from which to build. It is in this context that this study focuses on first-
generation Latino college students and the influence of college on the development of
identity.
The qualitative nature of exploratory research adopts a perspective wherein those
who experience an event or process validate the resulting knowledge claims by assigning
meaning to them (Creswell, 2003). In that tradition, therefore, I focus in this study on the
perspective of first-generation Latino college students in describing and defining the
impact of college on the development of their sense of self.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this descriptive study was to address this deficiency in the
literature by utilizing a two-phase, mixed-method process that asked undergraduate
students, ages 18-24, to identify and conceptually organize the sources of impact (both
positive and negative) they perceive to have fostered their personal development. In the
first phase, students were asked to identify incidents or experiences that influenced their
sense of who they are. During the second phase, students were asked to rate paired
themes that emerged from the incidents for similarity. Concept maps of the student
experiences were thus created. The methodology used to create the concept maps is fully
described in a later section of this paper.
7
This study adds to the literature by providing a more detailed, personal view of
the effects that college has on the development of first-generation Latino undergraduates,
18-24 years old, and an understanding of how these participants conceptually organize
those experiences. This study also provides information that education professionals,
faculty and administrators, can use to enhance learning and maximize positive outcomes
for this population of students.
Because the participants were men and women with a variety of Latin American
heritages, the term Latino was used as a general group label for the purpose of this paper.
When speaking of a specific student, the terms Latino or Latina were used to identify
gender. Furthermore, when identified, specific cultural groups, like Mexican-American
were referenced throughout this paper.
Literature Review
Literature that contributes to an increased understanding of the overall effects of
college on students’ development and the particular sources of impact on their
development is relevant to this study. The literature reviewed to facilitate this deeper
understanding is grouped into three sections: the foundational theories and types of
impact of college on students, the sources of impact on development, and the means of
assessing the impacts.
The first section of the review examines foundational theories and types of impact
of identity development in college. Section two reviews the sources of impact on
8
development, exploring the factors that theories have identified as contributing to
personal development and the research that examines how some of these factors influence
personal development. This section highlights ethnic and racial identity development. It
was chosen because of the limited indications that this body of literature is relevant to the
identity development of first-generation Latino students during college. This section also
reviews the types of impacts that are particularly important to this study and discusses the
developmental theories that provide foundational information to help understand these
types of impacts. The final section examines the different means that have been used to
assess the effect of college on students.
Foundational Theories and Types of Impact
The review of psychosocial-identity development theories and research on the
theories begins with Erik Erikson and James Marcia. Evans, Forney, and Guido-DiBrito
(1998) wrote that Erikson was the first psychologist to address the identity development
journey from adolescence through adulthood and most of the research done on
psychosocial maturity and identity development stems from his theoretical framework.
Marcia’s model of ego identity status elaborates and refines Erikson’s identity theory and
provides a model to study Erikson’s stage theory empirically (Kroger & Green, 1996;
Maier, 1998; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991, 2005; Torres, Howard-Hamilton, & Cooper,
2003). Arthur Chickering is one of the most widely cited student development theorists
(Evans et al., 1998, p. 10) and his theory is reviewed next. Chickering’s model expands
9
Erikson’s theory to student development. The final theorist included in this section is
Nancy Schlossberg, whose transition theory explores the concept of adulthood as a period
of change and development (Schlossberg, 1981).
Erik Erikson. According to Erikson (1980), identity develops through a series of
psychosocial crises over a life span. Crisis, in Erikson’s theory, means a time for decision
that requires serious consideration about significant choices of alternative actions.
Erickson theorizes that there are eight stages from infancy to mature age in which identity
develops. Stages one through four (basic trust vs. mistrust; autonomy vs. shame and
doubt; initiative vs. guilt; and industry vs. inferiority) are experienced during childhood.
Identity versus identity diffusion, stage five, is the transition between childhood and
adulthood and has been identified as the dominant developmental task for “traditional”
aged college students (Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005). Successful mastery of the identity
stage is a sense of purpose in life and a consolidated ego identity. From Erikson’s
perspective, adulthood occurs during three stages. Stage six, intimacy versus isolation,
occurs during young adulthood. The traditional college student experiences this crisis
along with identity versus identity diffusion, and resolution of these crises will lead to the
development of identity and the capacity for intimacy (Maier, 1998). Generativity versus
stagnation (stage seven) happens during middle age (the 40s), and integrity versus despair
occurs in old age.
Erikson’s theory states that during adolescence, development differs between
boys and girls, as girls focus more on relationships or intimacy before forming identities
(Erikson, 1968). Critics have argued that this infers that women must be rescued from
10
their emptiness and loneliness before they can pursue identity formation (Gilligan, 1993)
or that women’s development is delayed because they are focusing on interpersonal
aspects. Other theorists have declared these interpretations inappropriate and perceive
that Erikson was simply appreciating the significance of relationship to female
development (Maier, 1998).
James Marcia. Marcia (1966) refers to ego identity and identity diffusion as
“polar outcomes” (p. 551) of the hypothesized psychosocial crisis that Erikson theorized
as occurring in late adolescence. Unlike Erikson, who viewed development as movement
through hierarchical stages, Marcia allows movement in the two task areas of exploration
and commitment simultaneously (Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005).
Marcia’s model includes four distinct statuses along the identity continuum. The
four statuses are:
1. Identity Achievement-individuals have experienced a crisis period and are
committed to an occupation or ideology.
2. Moratorium-individuals are in a crisis period and are experiencing an active
struggle.
3. Foreclosure-individuals have not experienced a crisis, but express firm
commitments
4. Identity Diffusion-individuals have no apparent commitments.
In this framework, crisis and commitment in political, religious, occupational, and
sexual decisions are the primary content of identity development.
11
Kroger and Green (1996) explored the situational or contextual variables
associated with transition in the identity formation process from adolescence through
middle adulthood for a sample of 100 mid-life adults (men and women). The
components of occupation, religion, politics, sex role values, and attitudes toward
intimate relationships were assessed from study participants’ descriptions of what they
perceived to be the primary sources of influence when identity status change occurred.
Seven categories (age-graded event, history graded event, critical life event, stage of the
family life cycle, exposure to different cultural/social sources of knowledge, direct
influences of significant other, and internal change) emerged as primary sources of
influence. The study findings indicated that the seven categories were associated
differently with the various domains of identity development and that internal change
process plays a very strong role in transitions to all identity statuses within all identity
domains.
A challenge to Marcia’s model of four identity statuses came from Valde (1996),
who reviewed findings of identity status regression, the situation in which an individual
who has reached identity achievement re-enters the crisis of identity versus identity
confusion. Valde theorized a fifth identity status: closure, where, “an individual would be
considered closed who, though having experienced a period of exploration in life and
made commitments at that time, is presently disregarding identity alternatives” (Valde, p.
247). This status would include those who had become inflexible or rigid in their identity
commitments and more closely resemble those in foreclosure status.
12
Valde’s (1996) contribution of closure status required that the achievement status
be redefined to include three rather than two elements: an exploration period, selection of
identity-defining commitments, and openness to continuing exploration. Based on
Erikson’s conception that identity requires continual re-evaluation, Valde hypothesized
that the identity achieved status (open-achieved) would be the superior status to identity
closure status (closed-achieved). Using a measure of self-actualization with 21 male and
20 female participants between the ages of 25 and 35, he found that in three of five
identity domains (religion, politics, and allegiance) open-achieved status participants
scored significantly higher than closed-achieved participants.
Arthur Chickering. Chickering and Reisser (1993) admitted that at a generalized
level, all seven of the developmental vectors they outlined in their theory of student
development could be characterized as aspects of the identity formation vector because
such formation depends on the other vectors, like competence, emotional maturity,
autonomy, and developing mature interpersonal relationships. They also acknowledged
that movement in one vector could interact with movement along another vector,
producing complex interaction effects.
Chickering and Reisser (1993) included a vector termed establishing identity,
which included seven distinct markers: comfort with body and appearance; comfort with
gender and sexual orientation; sense of self in a social, historical, and cultural context;
clarification of self-concept through roles and life-style; sense of self in response to
feedback from others; self-acceptance and self-esteem; and, personal stability and
integration. Unlike many other theories of identity formation, vocational and ideological
13
values and commitments were not included in this definition of identity, but were
separated into other vectors: developing purpose and developing integrity.
Chickering and Reisser (1993) advocated that the essential purpose of education
is to support the identity development of students. Consequently, they expanded their
work to address the key influences of educational environments on human development.
Rather than supporting the prevailing notion that two- and four-year colleges should be
structured as socializing institutions to assist students to “learn the attitudes, actions, and
skills necessary for a satisfying and productive fit with society” (p. 208), Chickering and
Reisser described seven institutional attributes and functions, which they termed key
ingredients that can be designed to contribute positively to student development.
For Chickering and Reisser, the institution should support the needs of the
student, not fit the student to the needs of the institution or the needs of society. The
seven institutional key ingredients are: institutional objectives, institutional size, student-
faculty relationships, curriculum, teaching, friendships and student communities, and
student programs and services. It is a reasonable prediction that given the role of
institutional and social environments on identity development, one or more of these
institutional attributes and functions will appear in the critical incident questionnaires
generated by study participants.
The three psychosocial theories together provide very important insights into
understanding the identity formation issues that students face in the college. According to
Erikson, individuals face a watershed change during their adolescence years. Different
14
students may be at different stages of development. They may be dealing with
determining vocational direction, or identifying a personal set of beliefs and values. They
may be facing different developmental crises from conditions and pressures present in
their environment, such as those related to family. Their attitudes toward developmental
issues may be influenced by their family, community, or church. They may belong to a
minority community and may be struggling to survive and find a place in a
predominantly White college. Some may not be able to resolve issues, such as finding
acceptable career, and may give up the struggle to succeed in college and therefore drop
out (Evans et al., 1998).
Some college students may be facing an identity crisis stemming from the
struggle to form identifications with both the college culture and the self. Some may not
be able to reconcile the identification of childhood with the expectations of adulthood.
They may not feel at ease in their environment and find it difficult to engage in
meaningful relationships with people or ideas. They may see conflicting demands
between the culture they were raised in and the culture into which one seeks entry as an
adult. Thus, these students may lack the commitment necessary to integrate within the
college environment (Witte, Forbes, & Witte, n.d.).
Marcia (1966) assumes that adolescents would tend to move from one of the low-
identity statuses (diffusion and foreclosure) to one of the high-identity statuses
(moratorium and achievement) because of growing external and internal pressures on
them to enter the adult world.
15
A valuable feature of the psychosocial theories is that they recognize the
importance of the role of environment in an individual’s creation of a sense of identity.
Students come to educational institutions, are exposed to the environment of the
institution, and respond to the challenges or stimulation provided by the college
environment; this process helps the development of identity (Alessandria & Nelson,
2005). Chickering and Reisser (1993) suggest that if the right mix of the institutional
supports exists on the campus and the students are influenced by these services, they will
more likely develop along the seven vectors.
These theories also recognize that not every person will experience the
environment in the same way (Evans, et al., 1998, p. 25). These theories recognize that
characteristics of the students entering the institutions will be different and, depending
upon their reactions to the environment prevalent at the institution, there will be varying
degrees of impact on their identity development. Students are unique and are not a
homogeneous population. In fact, Chickering’s model has the central thesis that
individuals are at different developmental points, since the vectors are not age specific,
but rather based on individual life experiences (Alessandria & Nelson, 2005).
Nancy Schlossberg. The entire notion of identity development rests on the
assumption that change is occurring within the individual, fostered by internal and
external forces and events. In other words, students are undergoing transition from one
identity stage or status to another identity stage or status. Schlossberg (1981) wrote that a
transition “can be said to occur if an event or non-event results in a change in
16
assumptions about oneself and the world and thus requires a corresponding change in
one’s behavior and relationships” (p. 5).
Like other developmental theories, Schlossberg (1981) believes that the event
precipitating the transition may be due to biological, sociological, or environmental
factors. It may be perceived as negative or positive, may be obvious to others or hidden,
and may be sudden or gradual. Regardless of its source, duration, onset, timing, or affect,
the event will produce a state of disequilibrium. However, “the end of a transition state is
usually marked by a stable new life organization and by a stable new identity”
(Schlossberg, p. 6) and can result in either growth or deterioration.
Schlossberg (1981) clearly marked identity and identity change as central to her
model for analyzing adaptation to transition. Because college is a major transition point
for students (Hurtado, Carter, Spuler, Dale, & Pipkin, 1994; Kalsner & Pistole, 2003;
Toray & Cooley, 1998), Schlossberg’s model, and its components, warrant further
examination for indications of potential impacts that may be relevant to study participants
and can be anticipated to appear on the critical incident questionnaires. Schlossberg
outlines three major sets of factors that influence the transition, and presumably the
identity-defining, experience: the characteristics of the transition, the characteristics of
the individual, and the characteristics of the pretransition and post-transition
environments.
The first set of factors, characteristics of the transition, are described by a
common set of variables (role change, affect, source, timing, onset, duration, and degree
of stress) and are defined by the individual experiencing the transition event. In this
17
study, the characteristics of the transition event will be described by the Latino
participants through the critical incident questionnaire. This critical incident technique
offers a data collection instrument that is well matched to the Schlossberg model.
For the second set of factors, the characteristics of the individual experiencing the
transition, Schlossberg (1981) selected eight variables she considered particularly
significant: psychosocial competence, sex and sex role identification, age and life stage,
state of health, race-ethnicity, socioeconomic status, value orientation, and previous
experience with a transition of a similar nature.
The third set of factors in Schlossberg’s (1981) model is of interest in this
literature review: characteristics of the pretransition and post-transition environments.
Schlossberg discussed that environment should be understood in its broadest sense and
included three aspects: interpersonal support systems, institutional supports, and physical
setting. These same three factors appear throughout the student development literature,
including Chickering and Reisser’s (1993) institutional key ingredients, thus giving
credence to their significance. More importantly, the effects of these environmental
factors on Latino students have been examined, most often in the context of adjustment to
college.
Sources of Impact
A review of literature shows that in general many influences factor into identity
formation, such as family, friends, communities, race, gender, sexual orientation, political
beliefs, socioeconomic status, personal beliefs, religion or spiritual beliefs, regionality,
18
and life experiences (Erikson, 1968; Collier & Thomas, 1990, as cited by Alessandria and
Nelson, 2005). Chickering and Reisser (1993) have added community colleges and four-
year institutions to this list, as they influence several of these factors. In her qualitative
research on college students, Moran (2003) studied college related contextual influences
that can nurture or spoil identity development. In her study, she has placed these
influences into four categories:
1. events (getting accepted into college, resigning from fraternity, breaking up
with boy/girlfriend)
2. experiences (being enrolled in a particular class, study abroad experience,
living in residence halls, being involved in campus organizations, reading certain
type of literature, tutoring or other volunteer work)
3. relationships (boy/girlfriends, friends, college faculty and staff, roommates,
college classmates)
4. emotional reactions evoked by college experience (pride, challenged, happy,
unhappy, ashamed, capable, insecure)
Chickering and Reisser (1993) have organized these college-related sources of
impact into the following major categories: student-faculty relationships; teaching;
diversity; student development programs and services; curriculum; friendships and
student communities; institutional size; and, clear and consistent institutional objectives.
Student-Faculty relationships. Positive components include: accessibility,
authenticity, knowledge about students and their development, ability to communicate
with students, respecting students, recognizing each students’ worth and uniqueness, and
19
active listening (Chickering & Reisser, 1993). When student-faculty interaction is
frequent and friendly, and when it occurs in diverse situations in varied roles and
relationships, development along many vectors takes place, such as intellectual
competence, sense of competence, autonomy and interdependence, and, purpose and
integrity. Faculty members have an effect both on students’ competence and sense of
competence, and also on the clarification of purpose (Chickering & Reisser). A teacher
may also serve as an antimodel: “whatever he is, I will not be; whatever, he is for I will
be against, ” as cited by Chickering & Reisser, 1993, p. 270. However, they state that
“teachers who are such a force for repulsion also provoke development,” as cited by
Chickering & Reisser, 1993, p. 270. Faculty is particularly important in influencing
occupational decisions and educational aspirations, almost as much as— or even more so
than— parents (Feldman & Newcomb, 1969). In their synthesis of various college impact
studies, Pascarella and Terenzini (1991) have stated that research findings indicate there
is a significant interaction between student faculty contact and changes in student’s
occupational values.
Teaching. Teaching can be a significant source of identity development and can
foster intellectual and interpersonal competence, sense of competence, mature
interpersonal relationships, autonomy, identity, and purpose. Identity development
happens when teaching calls for active learning, encourages student-teacher contact and
cooperation among students, gives prompt feedback, emphasizes high expectations, and
respects diverse talents and ways of knowing (Chickering & Reisser, 1993) Teachers can
help create learning communities of which students can feel a part. College gives students
20
the opportunity to explore ideas confidently with other people. The most influential
formal and incidental interactions are those focusing on ideas or intellectual matters
(Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005).
Diversity. Erikson theorized that identity develops best when young people are
given a psychological moratorium—a time and a place in which they can experiment
with different social roles before they make permanent commitments to an occupation, to
intimate relationships, or to social and political groups and ideas. Gurin, Dey, Hurtado,
and Gurin (2002) have argued that diversity and complexity on a campus is part of such a
moratorium. When there are not only diverse groups represented on a campus, but also
informal interactions between racially diverse peers in many campus contexts, and
experience with diverse peers in the classroom, students are challenged not to make
commitments passively based on past experiences, but rather to think actively and make
decisions based on new, more complex perspectives and relationships. They empirically
tested their hypothesis in a longitudinal study, Michigan Student Study, at the University
of Michigan, and found that actual experiences students had with diversity on the campus
consistently and meaningfully affected important learning outcomes (such as active
thinking, intellectual engagement), and democracy outcomes (perspective taking,
racial/cultural engagement). These outcomes belong to the vectors of developing
competence and mature interpersonal relationships, according to Chickering and Reissser
(1993).
Student development program and services. When student affairs administrators
or student services staff think of themselves as educators working collaboratively with
21
the faculty and apply student development theory, they directly and indirectly help the
movement of students along all seven vectors of identity development. These staff
members play a major role in establishing the cultures and climates of the college. They
dispense services to their consumers and convey an impression of whether the system is
going to support the students or frustrate them; whether it is a place of chaos or a lively,
inviting, user-friendly place, inspiring pride in the campus, conveying orderly efficiency,
stimulating, friendly, and fostering student success (Chickering & Reisser, 1993).
Schlossberg, Waters, and Goodman (1995) have a counseling model for college
personnel to assist students’ identity development. It includes: build relationships with
students; assess students’ environments, their internal and external resources and coping
skills; refer students to support groups; generate problem-solving strategies; and,
intervene by reframing students’ interpretations of the meanings of various experiences.
Curriculum. Colleges that include an educationally powerful curriculum impact
the development of such vectors of identity as intellectual and interpersonal competence,
sense of competence, identity, purpose, and integrity. Such a curriculum has content that
serves several purposes: it is relevant to students’ backgrounds and prior experiences;
recognizes individual differences among students; includes diverse perspectives that
challenge preexisting information, assumptions, and values; and provides opportunities to
integrate diverse perspectives, assumptions, and values. This curriculum also includes
how the students learn and how the professors call for the critical examination of diverse
ideas, for creating one’s own analyses and synthesis, and for originality and developing
one’s own perspective (Chickering & Reisser, 1993). Rhoads (1998) concluded from a
22
qualitative study of more than 200 students who participated in various university
sponsored community service projects from 1991 to 1996, that such activities promoted
change by bringing students into contact with people from diverse backgrounds and by
forcing them to confront their own stereotypes. Similarly, Musil (1992) indicates that
majoring in women’s studies may be a transformational experience for some students.
Another study that has identified effects of curriculum on identity development includes
that done by Batchelder and Root (1994). They reported results of their empirical study
on service-learning on undergraduate students that support the hypothesis that service-
learning programs appear to influence a student’s tendency to reflect on occupational
identity issues.
Friendships and student communities. Development along all the seven identity
vectors is fostered when students form friendships and participate in communities with a
diversity of backgrounds and attitudes, and when significant interchanges and shared
interests exist. Personal connections formed during college can have lifelong
ramifications. Whether they relate to each other as casual acquaintances, classmates in
small group discussions, team mates, roommates, club members, best friends, or
committed partners, they learn more from each other than from teachers. Communities on
campus include informal reference groups, student organizations, classes that emphasize
student connections to each other, and residence halls. Once they identify with a
particular group, it becomes their anchor and reference point. It influences their behavior
and thinking powerfully if their older ties to family and friends have loosened and if the
group supports the individual goals (Chickering & Reisser, 1993). Pascarella and
23
Terenzini (1991) emphasize the importance of socializing agents--the people with whom
students come into contact--as playing a critical role in identity and ego development
during college. Kaufman and Feldman (2004) studied a randomly selected sample of
college students and, using the data from 82 in-depth interviews, studied college as an
arena of social interaction in which individuals come in contact with a multitude of
people in various settings, and found that these social interactions in turn affect the
formation of their identities. Alessandria and Nelson (2005) have cited Collier and
Thomas (1990) that individuals develop their identities by comparing themselves with
others on an individual level as well as on a group basis. By interacting with individuals
different from and similar to one, identity may be challenged, confirmed, or modified.
Pascarella and Terenzini (2005) have cited several studies (Mitchell & Dell, 1992;
Parker, Moore, & Neimeyer, 1998) to report that membership in racial-ethnic
organizations appears to promote racial identity development and comfort with that
identity and that even White students may also derive racial identity benefits through
participation in multicultural training activities.
Institutional size. Chickering and Reisser (1993) have hypothesized that the size
of an institution sharply affects institutional impact. As the number of persons exceeds
the opportunities that the institution can provide for significant participation and
satisfaction, the developmental potential of available settings is reduced for all and
“development of competence, mature interpersonal relationships, identity, and integrity
decreases” (p. 268). Kezar (2006) has reported results from an in-depth multi-site case
study of 20 institutions that indicate that the institutional size is related to four
24
benchmarks: faculty-student interaction, active and collaborative learning, academic
challenge, and supportive educational environment.
Clear and consistent institutional objectives. There is an impact on students when
an institution states its objectives clearly, takes them seriously, and when its policies,
programs, and practices are internally consistent. From their synthesis of research studies,
Pascarella and Terenzini (1991) have stated that the educational impact of a college
increases when its policies and programs are diverse, broadly conceived, consistent, and
integrated.
Ethnic, Racial, and Social Identity
To understand the identity development of Latino college students, it important to
understand ethnic identity, as that aspect of identity is vital to the sense of self. Most
definitions of ethnic identity suggest that it is a reference group orientation, an
understanding of self in relation to a group, and thus is an orientation to difference rather
than similarity (Jones, 1997; Thompson & Akbar, 2003). Included in ethnic identity are
components of ethnic self-identification (also called self-labeling), ethnic constancy,
ethnic belonging or pride, ethnic role behaviors, ethnic knowledge, and ethnic
preferences.
Unlike identity formation theory, social identity theory focuses less on the
intrapersonal, psychological, and cognitive aspects of identity and more on the social
dimensions of identity, especially intergroup relations. According to Phinney (1990),
social identity theory begins with the assumption that identity is derived from group
25
membership and “it further proposes that people strive to achieve or maintain a positive
social identity (thus boosting self-esteem), and that this positive identity derives largely
from favorable comparisons that can be made between the ingroup and relevant
outgroups” (p. 747).
Hurtado, Gurin, and Peng (1994) maintain that social identity is the result of three
processes: social categorization based on nationality, language, race, ethnicity, skin color,
or any other social or physical characteristic; social comparison, which inevitably follows
social categorization; and cognitive and emotional work to achieve a positive sense of
distinctiveness.
In applying social identity theory to ethnic and racial identity, the oppressed status
of minority ethnic/racial groups becomes most important. A dominant social group that
assigns negative traits to a racial or ethnic group threatens the identity of the minority
group members. Various strategies adopted by members of the low-status group to
counteract the threat include leaving the group and affiliating with the dominant group,
developing ethnic or racial pride in one’s group, and recasting group attributes
characterized as negative by the dominant group as positive distinctions (O’Dougherty,
Wright, & Nguyen Littleford, 2002; Phinney, 1990).
A consequence of social identity theory is that the most problematic social
identities, those that are most devalued, are the most powerful (Hurtado, Gurin, & Peng,
1994). Because social identity is context dependent, that is, a change in context will make
a given social category more or less problematic, the maintenance of identity in the new
context of college is of interest to social identity theorists.
26
Ethier and Deaux (1994) found that the Hispanic students with high ethnic
involvement prior to college showed the increase in identification that social identity
theory would predict. They believed this was due to high salience in a predominantly
White college environment. But the prediction did not hold for Hispanic students who
did not have a strong cultural background. The authors suggested that the less culturally
identified students felt conflict about being categorized as Hispanic because of the weak
social identity, were less likely to speak Spanish, and were unable to gain acceptance and
support among students of their ethnic group.
Torres (2003) conducted a longitudinal qualitative study with 10 Latino college
students to examine the intersection of ethnic identity and acculturation, charting the
influences on change in identity development over the first two years of college.
Refuting Phinney’s (1990) three-stage model of identity formation, Torres found that not
all Latino students begin college with an unexamined ethnic identity, as predicted in the
model.
Rather, three conditions influenced the situating identity or starting point for the
Latino students: cultural diversity of the environment where they grew up prior to
college; family influence and generation in the United States; and, self-perception of
status in society. Two subprocesses interacted with the situating/starting identity to
produce conditions for change in ethnic identity; these subprocesses were the subjective
experience of cultural dissonance or conflict between one’s own sense of culture and the
expectations of others, and a change in relationships within the college environment, such
as new friendship and affiliation groups. As with Chickering and Reisser (1993),
27
institutional influences are again in the foreground and will be discussed in a separate
section later in the literature review. From her study, Torres (2003) developed a matrix
of six possible outcomes resulting from the interaction between the situating identity
condition and the influential subprocesses.
Vera and de los Santos (2005) and Kaufman and Feldman (2004) have provided
two important critiques of the ethnic and racial identity formation paradigm. Vera and de
los Santos contended that women of color have been ill-served by traditional identity
development theory, even when the contributions and challenges posed by feminists and
ethnic identity formation theorists are included because they “describe the processes that
occur within the subculture but do not reflect the effect of interactions with the dominant
culture and their effect on identity formation” (p. 105). Suggesting that multiple identities
(race, ethnicity, class, and gender) situated in the specific cultural experience of Chicana
women lead to a unique mestiza or hybrid identity, Vera and de los Santos used border
crossings as a central metaphor of the experience of identity. They also advocated for
research based on a Chicana feminist epistemological framework that will accurately
document the lives and identities of that group of women, conducted by Chicana scholars
whose cultural insight is “emphasized and valued” (Vera & de los Santos, p. 110).
Kaufman and Feldman (2004) decried the dominance of developmental and
psychological frameworks for explaining student change in college while the sociological
perspective is devalued; this is particularly evident in the examination of how college
affects student identity. Kaufman and Feldman viewed college as “an arena of social
interaction in which the individual comes in contact with a multitude of actors in a
28
variety of settings, emphasizing that through these social interactions and other social
influences the identities of individuals are, in part, constituted” (p. 464).
Using social-structural analysis, the authors viewed the notion that students
simply develop in college as an inaccurate oversimplification and examined the processes
and mechanisms that create change in felt identities, including imputation of identity,
reflected appraisal, and social comparison. As they argued, it is not that sociological
influences in college are completely ignored, rather, “their consideration appears to be
basically secondary” (Kaufman & Feldman, 2004, p. 464). Their critique suggested that
the structural opportunities afforded to different students in college reinforce class-linked
social statuses and positions, all of which contribute to changes in identity beyond those
described in the ego-identity literature.
Finally, a limited number of studies have explored the relationship between racial
and ethnic identity and ego or personal identity among students of color. Miville,
Koonce, Darlington, and Whitlock (2000) suggested that conflict, as described within the
collective or group identity models, and crisis, as described in traditional ego identity
models, are analogous processes. They found that among a Hispanic sample of primarily
Cuban and Central American origin, cultural identity conflicts predicted ego identity
crises and similarly, cultural identity resolutions predicted ego identity resolutions.
In a study of the impact of college on the identity development of Latino students,
issues of race and ethnicity are likely to be of great importance in the critical incidences
reported by participants.
29
Means of Assessment
There are a number of ways to assess the impact of the college experience on
identity development, a few of which were referenced in the literature review above. Yet
many assessment processes fail to capture the nuanced descriptions necessary to fully
describe identity development (Vera & de los Santos, 2005), especially of members of
ethnic minority groups. Peter (2003) critiqued the more traditional impact evaluation
designs, finding such research “inherently reductionist, and, as a result, coercive in its
practical implications” (p. 9) as well as ill-equipped to describe the complexities of
human nature.
My approach in this study was to use a mixed-method strategy and to implement
it in two steps, which can be summarized as follows.
Step One: Qualitative Analysis. This phase was designed to find out the factors
that first-generation Latino college students themselves perceive to have impacted their
identity development. This step was student-centered, in which the primacy was assigned
to them to understand them from inside out, through their perceptions, understandings,
and beliefs (Rich & Ginsburg, 1999). The students looked at their college experience
retrospectively and identified what were the strong positive or negative influences on
their identity development. This narrative inquiry dealt with descriptions of events,
happenings, and actions (Polkinghorne, 1995). The subjective descriptions I sought were
certain critical experiences of students. This methodology is based on Flanagan’s (1954)
Critical Incident Technique (CIT). With help from a team of raters, I then analyzed the
critical incidents to extract categories of perceived impacts embedded within.
30
Step Two: Quantitative Analysis for Concept Maps. The starting point for this
analysis was to go back to a group of student participants to learn from them how they
would rate the similarity or distance of each theme from Step One to every other theme.
These ratings became the data for multidimensional scaling analysis (MDS). The
objective was to produce a visual representation of the pattern of proximities between the
themes or categories in a two-dimensional space. These two-dimensional maps show
how the students mentally represent these themes. The next step was to divide the data
set of themes into subsets or clusters, so that each subset or cluster of themes shares some
common trait. I accomplished this by performing hierarchical cluster analysis on the
impact categories obtained in step one. Through this technique, the categories or themes
were tested for similarities by a measure of the distances between them. This produced a
picture that accomplished many purposes:
1 permitted rapid inspection of relationships among concepts, both from the
perspective of the context and the ideas linking adjacent concepts
2 allowed for clustering or contextual organizing according to themes
3 permitted estimation of similarity between concepts and clusters of
concept categories
4 allowed multiple ways of constructing meaning; combined respondent
experience and statistical analysis (Jackson & Trochim, 2002).
Critical Incident Methodology. The critical incident technique (CIT) was
developed by Flanagan (1954), and has been in wide use in qualitative research for the
31
last 50 years. It provides a rich source of descriptive data in the form of critical incidents
from the participants’ perspective and in their own words (Gremler, 2004). It facilitates
the investigations of significant occurrences (events, incidents, processes, or issues)
identified by the respondent, the way they are managed, and the outcomes in terms of
perceived effects. The objective is to understand the incident from the perspective of the
individual, taking into account cognitive, affective, and behavioral elements (Chell,
1998). CIT has been widely used in many disciplines, such as education, health,
information systems development, and customer service (Anderson & Wilson, 1997).
Flanagan (1954) has defined an incident as any observable human activity that is
sufficiently complete in itself so that inferences and predictions can be made about the
person performing the act. To be critical, the incident must be real and not a vague
opinion, and must make a significant contribution, either positively or negatively, to an
activity or phenomenon (Gremler, 2004). These incidents can only be recognized
retrospectively.
CIT is an inductive method. It does not need any hypotheses and patterns to
emerge from the responses. The stories provide powerful and vivid insights into the
phenomenon under study. Another advantage is that it is a culturally neutral method,
well-suited to assess perceptions of college students from different cultures. They can
share their own perceptions rather than indicate their perceptions to researcher-initiated
questions (Gremler, 2004).
There has been some criticism of the method on such issues as: validity and
reliability of respondent stories, misinterpretation or misrepresentation of incidents, or
32
that the category labels drawn from the incidents may be ambiguous. Several concerns
arise out of its being a retrospective research method and, as such, there may be flaws due
to recall bias and other undesirable biases such as consistency factors or memory lapses.
Other concerns include: the method depends on respondents remembering the events and
reporting them truthfully and accurately; an incident may have taken place some time
before the data is collected and the respondent may subsequently have reinterpreted the
incident; or, the respondents may not be accustomed to or willing to take time to tell the
complete story when describing a critical incident (Gremler, 2004). However, as
Gremler (p. 67), has stated: “CIT has been demonstrated to be a sound method since
Flanagan (1954) presented it” (Gremler, p. 67), and in the last fifty years relatively few
modifications and “minimal changes have been made to Flanagan’s approach.”
Critical incidents can be gathered in various ways. The general approach is to ask
respondents to tell about a critical experience they have had. To obtain this information,
the students selected for the study were asked to report college related critical incidents
and experiences affecting the participants’ identity development in college. Once the
critical incidents were collected, their contents were analyzed to identify themes or
categories that summarized and described the incidents (Gremler, 2004). The main
categories were deduced either from theoretical models or formed on the basis of
inductive interpretation (Stauss, 1993, as cited by Gremler).
Concept Mapping Methodology. The technique of concept mapping has been
well described in literature, such as: Bedi (2006); Goodyear, Tracey, Claiborn,
33
Lichtenberg, and Wampold (2005); Jackson and Trochim (2002); Tracey, Lichtenberg,
Goodyear, Claiborn, and Wampold (2003).
A concept map is a visual representation of the relationship between one or more
concepts. It can be used to identify knowledge structures of individuals (ideographic
approach) or small homogeneous groups of individuals (nomothetic approach) by using
spatial and discrete models (Goodyear et al., 2005).
There are many forms of concept mapping. One very widely used form is an
informal process in which an individual draws a picture of all the ideas that are related to
some general theme or question and shows how they are related. Each idea is shown in a
separate box or oval and lines connect related ideas (Jackson & Trochim, 2002).
However, there is a more formal statistical group-oriented approach to concept
mapping. Instead of representing mental models of individuals, it depicts a collective
representation of the ideas across the whole group in the form of thematic clusters. It is a
structured conceptualization of the group’s ideas (Jackson & Trochim, 2002). This
approach was used in this study.
The process involved, first, sorting the responses from participants into piles
based on conceptual similarity and, then, developing themes from each pile. Another,
smaller, set of participants then rated themes for similarity. This data was assembled in
the form of a matrix and was analyzed through a non-metric two-dimensional MDS and
clustering analyses.
MDS arranged the themes spatially in two dimensions by the differences of the
amount between the themes. MDS allowed each theme to be represented by a point in a
34
two-dimensional space with the whole structure approximating the distances between the
pairs of themes. The points were arranged in this space so that similar themes were
represented by points that are close together, and dissimilar themes were represented by
points that are farther apart.
Cluster analysis, on the other hand, focuses on the differences of type among the
themes and how they are qualitatively different (Goodyear et al., 2005). The whole
process, instead of using the human similarity judgment to cluster the themes, objectively
clusters them into larger categories by using statistical methodology (Jackson & Trochim,
2002).
The final four steps involved concept mapping; labeling the clusters and
interpreting them. The steps involved in operationalizing the methodology are described
in Daughtry and Kunkel (1993), Jackson and Trochim ( 2002), and Goodyear et al.
(2005).
1. A team of raters reduced participants’ written responses from CIT to a set of
representative themes, which became items for further analysis. The themes or
items were compiled into a rating form.
2. A sample group of student-participants was then asked to pair every theme with
every other theme on a Likert type scale, with items “not at all alike” at one end,
and items “very much alike” at the other end. This method indicated the ways in
which students interpret these themes to be interrelated in their individual
experiences.
35
3. From the inter-relationship of themes, a matrix of similarity ratings was
generated (Goodyear et al., 2005). Each rating in this matrix can be looked at as a
distance between the two pairs of themes.
4. To produce concept maps, the similarity ratings were subjected to two-
dimensional MDS and a hierarchical cluster analysis of the MDS coordinates.
Research Questions
This study used the information gained from the literature review as foundational
knowledge to describe and map the sources of impact of college on first-generation
Latino undergraduates, 18-24 years old. The research questions that guided my study
are:
1. What categories of college-related impacts will first-generation Latino
undergraduates report as having been particularly important to the development of
their sense of self?
2. What conceptual map do first-generation Latino undergraduates use to organize
their experience of these categories of experiences?
36
CHAPTER 2:
Methods
Participants
Participants for Phase One were 89 first-generation Latino undergraduate
students attending Loyola Marymount University, a Los Angeles area, private and
religiously affiliated, four-year university, who met the following criteria: (a) they had
completed two or more years of college and had attained junior or senior class
standing, and (b) they self-identified as Hispanic, Latino, Chicano, or other similar
ethnic background.
Located in Los Angeles, LMU was founded in 1911 and is the largest Catholic
university on the West Coast, LMU prides itself on its mission: “the encouragement of
learning, the education of the whole person, the service of faith and the promotion of
justice.” LMU is sponsored by the religious orders of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) and
the Religious of the Sacred Heart of Mary. LMU offers more than 80 undergraduate
degrees and programs. The Graduate Division offers more than 30 master's degrees, 1
doctoral degree, and 15 credential programs. Nineteen residence halls and apartments
house about 3,200 students. There are 144 active clubs and organizations and 15 national
Greek fraternities and sororities on campus. With 5,500 undergraduates and a student to
faculty ratio of 13:1, the ethnicity of students breaks down as follows: American
Indian/Alaska Native: 1%; African American: 8%; Asian/Pacific Islander: 12%;
Hispanic: 20%; White/Non-Hispanic: 56%; Unknown/Decline to state: 3%. Further,
37
students volunteer more than 170,000 service hours a year with 350 community
organizations.
Participants for Phase Two were a subset of 12 of the original participants from
Phase One who volunteered to continue with the next phase of the study. Bedi and
Alexander (2004) allow that not all participants need to be included in every phase,
but advise that the participants who generated the statements engage in the concept-
comparison task to reduce the possibility that a new set of participants will bring
different conceptual structures and understandings to the process.
Raters
The critical incidents reports were read and analyzed by three doctoral students
familiar with the critical incident technique and concept mapping methodology. All three
raters participated in mock rating sessions that used data collection from a CYEQ pilot
experiment. A faculty member, well-trained and versed with the critical incident
technique and concept mapping, supervised the raters. The raters coded the incidents and
eliminated possible redundancies among the reports.
Measures
This study utilized two measurement strategies. During Phase One, a variation of
Flanagan’s (1954) Critical Incident Technique was used to collect experiences that had
occurred during college that the respondents stated to have had a direct impact on their
identity development. A paired comparison questionnaire was developed for Phase Two
38
of this study, using Phase One categories. These two instruments used for data collection
allowed for multidimensional scaling (MDS) and cluster analysis to create the conceptual
map that participants used to organize their experiences.
Critical Incident Technique
The Critical Incident Technique developed by Flanagan (1954) was adapted for
use in phase one of this study. The technique was used to determine incidents or
experiences during college that had a particular influence on the participants’ personal
development. A College Years Experience Questionnaire (CYEQ) was developed that
asked participants to reflect on their experience as a college student and identify one
incident or experience that had affected their sense of who they are. The CYEQ
explained to the participants that the incidents can be either positive or negative.
Participants were asked to describe what the incident was, if another person or persons
were involved, why the incident was important to them, and what they believe the long-
term effect to have been. The form also requested basic demographic information about
the participants. The raters examined the completed incidents and created categories for
the paired comparisons questionnaire.
The initial CYEQ was constructed by 11 doctoral students and was piloted twice
to test for instruction and question clarity. The doctoral students participated in the first
pilot. Participants in the second pilot were acquaintances of the doctoral students. The
Critical Incident form is included as Appendix A.
39
Paired Comparisons Questionnaire
The Paired Comparison Questionnaire consisted of relevant assertions (González,
2002, p. 201), each an exemplar of a concept mined from the College Years Experience
Questionnaire, framed in the language of the participants. In contrast to the qualitative
open-ended responses generated by the College Years Experience Questionnaire, the
Paired Comparison Questionnaire restricted participants’ responses to indicating their
judgment about the degree of similarity between pairs of exemplar statements.
The 13 categories of critical incidents identified during the first phase of the study
constituted the concept elements used in developing the statements for the paired-
comparison questionnaire. Each category was paired with each of the others and
participants were instructed to rate the similarity between them on a 7-point scale (1 = not
at all alike; 7 = very much alike). There were 78 items on this questionnaire. The Paired
Comparison Questionnaire is included as Appendix B.
Data Analyses
After data collection, the similarity ratings of participants were arranged into a
similarity matrix. Each category was listed both vertically and horizontally in the matrix,
and the similarity score for each paired comparison was entered in the appropriate cell,
below the diagonal. These data served as the basis for the concept mapping analyses.
The similarity ratings of participants were subjected to both nonmetric
Multidimensional Scaling (MDS) and clustering analyses, with the overall aim of
40
depicting the structures participants used in thinking of the impacts that college has had
on them. All analyses will employ SPSS.
Multidimensional Scaling
With Multidimensional Scaling (MDS), it has been recommended not to interpret
more dimensions than the number of elements (in this case, categorical exemplar
statements) divided by four (Kruskal & Wish, 1978). Thus, for example, eight exemplar
statements should have no more than two dimensions. Also, because its representations
are spatial, MDS is not generally useful with greater than three or four dimensions.
Kruskal and Wish (1978) have recommended interpretability, ease of use, and
stability as other criteria to use in selecting dimensions. Interpretability refers to the
solution that makes the most sense conceptually. Ease of use refers to parsimony. Fewer
dimensions are preferable because they depict the structure more simply. Stability refers
to the reliability of the structure, which can be affected by minor movement of items.
For interpretability, we decided to follow Trochim’s rule of using only two
dimensions.
Clustering
Clustering analyses were used to explore whether the data are better depicted with
a discrete, rather than dimensional, representation. Clustering focuses on differences of
“type,” in contrast to MDS’s differences of “amount,” and thus allows examination of
how the conceptual categories generated are qualitatively different. Several alternative
41
clustering methods are available (Borgen & Barnett, 1987), and for this study hierarchical
clustering, using Euclidean distance and Ward’s method of linkage, was selected.
The selection of the number of clusters is rarely clear (Borgen & Barnett, 1987),
and selection procedures range from informal to statistical. Given the focus on
interpretability and ease of use, an informal approach was most appropriate. The logic is
similar to that of the scree test in factor analysis. Hierarchical clustering presents the data
in the form of a dendrogram, which is a representation of the distance of each theme from
each other theme. The fusion coefficient (i.e., the value of the distance parameter listed
in the clustering dendrogram for each number of clusters) is examined for an “elbow,” as
in MDS, using the criteria of interpretability and ease of use to yield the final cluster
representation.
Procedures
Participants for the study were recruited at Loyola Marymount University.
Contact was made through the office of Chicano-Latino Student Services, a Mexican-
American student organization, and the Chicano Studies department. Through these
groups, permission was secured to attend organizational functions and classes to
distribute and collect the College Years Experience Questionnaire (CYEQ). At the
organizational functions or classes, I explained the purpose of the study to students and
solicited their participation. Contact was also made through the Office of Residential
Life to identify Latino students to participate in the study.
42
In both instances, the voluntary nature of participation was stressed. Because
limited demographic information but no personal identifying information was collected
on the CYEQ, participants’ anonymity was preserved.
At the time they completed the CYEQ, participants were also invited to continue
onto Phase Two of the study. Those who chose to do so provided personal information,
including a method for future contact, on a document separate from the CYEQ. There
was no identification system used to connect the CYEQ to the contact information
provided by participants who volunteered for Phase Two.
Students were asked to complete one or two CYEQ data collection forms,
depending on the total number of students participating in the study. The intention was to
collect 100 completed questionnaires, with no student completing more than two of the
critical incident reports.
After data collection, the three raters created a set of statements that became the
units of analysis for the paired-comparison task by using the techniques of analysis and
synthesis (Gonzalez, 2002). The three raters each read all of the College Years
Experience Questionnaires completed by Phase One participants. Statements made by
participants that were logically and semantically complete were identified by the raters as
relevant assertions (Gonzalez, 2002). Following that analysis, synthesis occurred through
a process of data reduction. These statements became the units of analysis for the Paired
Comparison Questionnaire.
Because Phase Two participants were a smaller subset of the students who
completed the CYEQ, they were recruited from the original pool of students who
43
participated in Phase One. At the time the CYEQ was collected, study participants were
asked to volunteer for Phase Two. Those who did so completed a contact card, which
was collected and stored separately from the CYEQ.
The Paired Comparison Questionnaire was distributed electronically and in print
to Phase Two participants, with verbal and/or written instructions on completing the
instrument. Distribution and collection of the Paired Comparison Questionnaire was
done in person, through the mail, or online, depending on the availability and preference
of the study participants.
44
CHAPTER 3:
Results
Because the research design of multivariate concept mapping (MVCM) employed
a sequential exploratory approach with qualitative data analysis being the focus of Phase
One and quantitative data analysis being the focus of Phase Two, the results of each
phase are reported separately below.
Phase One Results
The 89 responses collected through the CYEQ used in Phase One were grouped
into 13 categories of experiences that participants identified as significant in the
development of their identity during college. Table 1 lists the 13 categories, as well as
abbreviations that were used to identify the categories on the concept map. This table
also summarizes the frequency of categories found in the Phase One CYEQ responses, as
well as the mean values of the year during college in which the experience occurred, the
positive value attributed to the incidents, and the eventual effect on sense of self—
findings that are reported in the following sections.
45
Table 1: Category Abbreviations, Category, Frequency of Category, Year of
Occurrence, Positive Value, and Eventual Effect
Description of Categories
Whereas the category titles represent a summarization of the major themes
contained within each classification, the descriptors that clarify the categories for the
Paired Comparison Questionnaire utilized excerpts as written by participants on the
CYEQ. This protocol was in keeping with the study’s intent to capture the perspective of
first-generation Latino students as directly as possible, and preserving the students’ words
in the descriptors was one way to do so. In the descriptions of the 13 categories below,
selected responses from the CYEQ are again used to illuminate the range of experiences
included in each category. All responses from the CYEQ are included in Appendix C.
46
Joining an organization or activity committed to social justice
Seven out of 89 incidents fit into this category. In this category, students joined
service organizations and attended social justice events.
Excerpts include:
“During my freshman year, I had the great privilege of getting involved with an
organization that gave me the opportunity to learn more about social justice.”
“I went to the March this past year for worker’s rights. Many of the students in
the LMU community were involved, some were my friends and others were
strangers. It really made me think about how this has affected my life.”
Participating in a community service or outreach activity
Ten of the 89 incidents fit into this category, making it the most frequently cited
category of experience that affected the identity of study participants. Students who
wrote about service often cited events like Alternative Spring Break and DeColores trips.
Excerpts include:
“…one of the biggest impacts on my college experience was going on my first
alternative spring break.”
“Attending a DeColores trip really had an impact on my sense of self.”
47
Finding community in a social club, sorority, or fraternity
Six of the 89 incidents fit into this category. In this category, students wrote
about feeling accepted, welcomed, and comforted by sorority/fraternity members.
Excerpts include:
“I joined a fraternity because I sought a level of brotherhood and camaraderie that
I wasn’t finding at school.”
“Being involved in the school soccer team. I’m going to be involved in more
sports in the future”
Having college experiences that broadened my understanding of Latino culture
Eight of the 89 incidents fit into this category. Students who wrote about their
culture stated that they learned about their culture from Latino/a professors, roommates,
and classes.
Excerpts include:
“I had to look at my culture…I had to take a careful look at my life experiences,”
“[B]eing at LMU I suddenly became aware of my ethnicity and my heritage. I
was proud of being different”
48
Receiving inspiration and support from my father
Four out of 89 incidents fit into this category, making it one of the smaller
categories. Students who wrote about their fathers, felt inspired and encouraged by their
father.
Excerpts include:
“An experience that I had that influenced me to be who I am is my father… He
has been a great support and has made me continue w/ school and getting into
college.”
“The person that had the greatest influence on my identity is my father”
Developing a network of college friends
Nine of the 89 incidents fit into this category. Students who wrote about friends
cited close friendships built on trust that will last a lifetime.
Excerpts include:
“As a freshman, I went to an “out of staters” meet and greet. I think it was
important because I was able to connect with people.”
“My friend I met on campus. It was important to me because they showed me
around”
49
Making the transition from home to college
Seven of the 89 incidents fit into this category. Students who wrote about
transition often cited the many changes (positive and negative) associated with a move to
campus.
Excerpts include:
“Getting ready to enter college I was excited and ready to move out of my
parent’s house.”
“[T]he transition from living at school from home. I am a very family oriented
person and it was difficult to get accustomed to my new life at school”
Receiving encouragement from university staff and faculty members
Six out of 89 incidents fit into this category. Students who wrote about
encouragement had received advice and support from faculty, RAs, and student affairs
professionals.
Excerpts include:
“I had several conversations with my freshman RA. She has been a huge
motivational factor for me to do my best and live healthily and work hard for
what I want.”
“I was constantly seeking counsel from an administrator from a student services
department. He has always been helpful, made me aware of my options”
50
Having academic experiences that allowed me to know myself better
Six of the 89 incidents fit into this category. In this category, students
experienced classes that fostered personal growth and exposed them to new things.
Excerpts include:
“After the end of my first semester, my GPA was higher than I expected…It was
at this point that I realized how much potential I had.”
“I once took a theology class entitled, ‘Ignatian Spirituality.’ This class was
semester long, yet the result the class had for me was beyond rewarding”
Dealing with situations involving alcohol
Six out of 89 incidents fit into this category. In this category, students struggled
with personal drinking problems or witnessed and assisted close friends dealing with
drinking issues.
Excerpts include:
“I am currently a junior who regularly deals with difficult situations with my
peers such as drinking and partying in the dorms.”
“I struggled with drinking and using it to cover up how I feel for most of my
college career”
51
Feeling out of place or invisible because of my ethnicity
Nine out of 89 incidents fit into this category. Students who wrote about feeling
invisible wrote that they felt judged by others and out of place because of their ethnicity.
Excerpts include:
“I was given a very rude awakening. I was in my philosophy class and we were
placed into groups to do some discussion…it was very awkward to be sitting in a
classroom that was 95% white…I was the only Latina in the group.”
“Sophomore year there was an incident of racism...this made me angry to know
that even at LMU, an incident like this could occur”
Learning about myself by coping with unexpected adversity
Nine of the 89 incidents fit into this category. In this category, students were
often dealing with personal struggles that may have hindered academic achievement, for
example some students explained how they had to take a semester off due to financial
struggles.
Excerpts include:
“My sophomore year of college I got my heart severely broken and I went first
through a period of depression.”
52
“It was my grandmother’s death, last May. I realized that college life itself was
not all about studying and focusing on school. I realized that I also needed to take
time to spend with my family and friends.
Confronting difficult academic experiences
Two of the 89 incidents fit into this category. In this category, students dealt with
failure and academic weaknesses.
Excerpts include:
“I’ve always felt that math has been my weakness. I’m not very good at it.”
“Failing my first test made me realize the seriousness of college and how much
effort it requires to succeed.”
Year of Occurrence
The College Years Experience Questionnaire asked respondents to identify in
which year of college the significant incident they described had occurred. Using a
coding system where 1 = Freshman, 2 = Sophomore, 3 = Junior, and 4 = Senior class
standing, the mean value of the occurrence of the reported incidents was 1.72, between
the freshman and sophomore year of college. However, variation exists in time of
occurrence between the 13 categories of experiences.
As shown in Table 1, the mean year of occurrence for the category of experience
ranged from a low of M = 1.00 for Confronting difficult academic experiences to M =
53
2.50 for Receiving inspiration and support from my father. Eight categories had a mean
value below 2.00 (Receiving encouragement from university staff and faculty; Having
college experiences that broadened my understanding of Latino culture; Feeling out of
place or invisible because of ethnicity; Joining a social justice organization; Finding
community in a fraternity; Making the transition from home to college; Coping with
adversity; and, Confronting difficult academic experiences), and five categories had a
mean value of 2.00 or higher (Participating in a community service or outreach activity;
Receiving inspiration and support from my father; Dealing with situations involving
alcohol; Developing a network of college friends; and, Having positive academic
experiences).
The three categories with the lowest mean values, Having negative academic
experiences; Finding community in a social club, sorority, or fraternity; and, Feeling out
of place or invisible because of ethnicity, indicated that the included experiences occurred
early in the college going experience and also had relatively small standard deviations
(SD = .00, SD = .37, and SD = .42 respectively). The category with the highest mean
value (Receiving inspiration and support from my father, M = 2.50), indicated that the
experiences occurred in the later years of college, had a standard deviation of 0.87, with
three-fourths of respondents reporting that an experience within this category took place
during the junior year.
54
Positive Value Rating
Two additional questions were included on the CYEQ. The first asked
respondents to assess “the degree to which you experienced this incident or experience as
positive” on a continuum, with a scale ranging from 1 = Very Negative to 7 = Very
Positive. The second asked the respondents to assess “the eventual effect this incident or
experience had on your sense of self,” and used the same seven-point scale.
As summarized in Table 1, nine categories of experiences were perceived as
generally positive, with mean values ranging from 5.00 to 7.00 on the seven-point scale.
Participating in a community service or outreach activity; Joining an organization or
activity committed to social justice; and, Finding community in a social club, sorority, or
fraternity were perceived as the most positive categories of experience. Four categories
were perceived as generally negative, with mean values ranging from 2.00 to 3.17.
Having negative academic experiences was the category that received the most negative
rating by Phase One respondents.
Eventual Effect of Experience on Sense of Self
This query on the CYEQ assumed the respondents would differentiate between
the perceived positive or negative quality of the described incident as it was experienced
at the time and its effect on sense of self from a perspective of distance, that is, “eventual
effect.” Overall, there was little difference between the initial assessment of the positive
value of the incident and the eventual effect of the incident, except for the increase from
55
2.22 to 4.56 for Learning about myself by coping with adversity and 2.44 to 5.00 for
Feeling out of place or invisible because of ethnicity.
In nine categories (Receiving encouragement from university staff and faculty;
Receiving inspiration and support from my father; Feeling out of place or invisible
because of ethnicity; Making the transition from home to college; Dealing with situations
involving alcohol; Learning about myself by coping with adversity; Developing a network
of college friends; Having positive academic experiences; and, Having negative academic
experiences) the eventual effect was rated more positively than the initial experience. In
four categories (Participating in a community service or outreach activity; Joining an
organization or activity committed to social justice; Having college experiences that
broadened my understanding of Latino culture; and, Finding community in a social club,
sorority, or fraternity) the eventual effect was perceived as being less positive than the
initial experience. The ratings are summarized in Table 1.
Phase Two Results
The MDS and cluster analyses conducted on the similarity data collected during
Phase Two resulted in a concept map that attempts to answer a question posed as central
to this study; that is, what graphic representation in the form of a concept map best
describes the impact of college on identity development of first-generation Latino
students at LMU? The results of the procedures conducted as part of the overall analysis
process are presented below.
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Multidimensional Scaling (MDS)
Nonmetric MDS used the summed similarity ratings from respondents on the
Paired Comparison Questionnaire to represent the numerical values as points on a plane
figure. While any number of dimensions is theoretically possible, because there were 13
categories that were subjected to MDS, the decision to constrain the solution to two
dimensions was straightforward and resulted in a set of x-y values, or dimensional
weights, shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Dimension Values
Category
Dimension
1
Dimension
2
SERVICE - 0.12 1.38
ENCOURAGE - 0.72 - 0.28
FATHER - 0.88 - 0.11
CULTURE 0.05 - 1.16
INVISIBLE - 0.36 - 1.01
JUSTICE - 1.40 - 0.03
FRAT - 0.01 1.38
TRANSITION - 0.69 0.55
ALCOHOL - 0.92 - 0.31
ADVERSITY 0.67 1.36
FRIENDS 2.44 - 0.18
POS ACADS 0.62 - 2.00
NEG ACADS 1.32 0.42
Although a three-dimensional solution was also examined, in such instance the
ratio of objects (13) to dimensions (3) was low, calling into question whether the lower
stress value obtained in the three-dimensional solution actually indicated a better fit to the
data. The three dimensional solution produced a stress value of .16, while the two-
57
dimensional solution produced a stress value of .26. Both met the .30 threshold for
solution stability. The two-dimensional solution produced the scatter plot in Figure 1,
using the Euclidean Distance Model.
Figure 1: Euclidean Distance Model
Labeling the dimensions is an important step in making sense of the concept map
and requires interpretation. The category of Joining an organization or activity committed
to social justice is at one end of the continuum represented by Dimension 1, while
Developing a network of college friends appears at the other end. Dimension 1 was
labeled Validation through Change versus Validation through Relationships. Dimension 2
58
was anchored by the two categories of Having positive academic experiences and
Finding community in a social club, sorority, or fraternity. Examining the categories
arrayed along this dimension seemed to indicate the polarity between the self in the
private, personal, academic world and the self in the public, social, external world. This
dimension was labeled Validation through Achievement versus Validation through Social
Organizations.
Cluster Analysis
The complementary nature of MDS and hierarchical cluster analysis stems from
their ability to reveal different structures in data. “An important reason why a
neighborhood interpretation can reveal other patterns in the data is that its focus is
primarily on the small distances (large similarities), while a dimensional approach attends
most to the large distances” (Kruskal & Wish, 1978, p. 44). The Ward Linkage Method
was used to evaluate the distance of each concept from the others, forming a dendrogram,
displayed in Figure 2.
59
Figure 2: Dendrogram Using Ward Method
At point 18 on the dendrogram, three clusters are apparent, and upon further
examination, the three clusters appeared to have within-group conceptual homogeneity.
In other words, there is a commonality among the categories within the cluster that is the
defining attribute of that particular cluster.
Cluster 1 is titled Identity and includes the categories Receiving inspiration and
support from my fathe; Dealing with situations involving alcohol; Feeling out of place or
invisible because of ethnicity; Having college experiences that broadened my
60
understanding of Latino culture;Receiving encouragement from university staff and
faculty; and, Joining an organization or activity committed to social justice. Each of these
six categories of experience aligns with one of the necessary processes of social identity
theory, discussed earlier in the literature review.
Cluster 2 is titled Environmental and is comprised of the categories of
Participating in a community service or outreach activity; Having negative academic
experiences; Finding community in a social club, sorority, or fraternity; Making the
transition from home to college; and, Learning about myself by coping with adversity.
Each of these five categories of is a mechanism whereby new information from the
environment is being received by the student, potentially reframing his/her sense of self
in relation to that social context.
Cluster 3 is composed of only two categories, Having positive academic
experiences and Developing a network of college friends. This cluster is titled Growth
because the essence of the incidents in these two categories is connected. Respondents
cited the development of close relationships that fostered trust, along with academic
experiences that fostered personal growth and exposed them to new things.
The combination of the MDS and the cluster analysis resulted in the concept map
shown in Figure 3, graphically representing how First-Generation Latinos at LMU
conceptually organize their understanding of the impact of college on their sense of self.
61
Figure 3: Concept Map
62
Chapter 4:
Discussion
The first research question articulated for this study was answered through Phase
One data, whereas answers to the remaining question emerged from the analyses
conducted on data collected during Phase Two. In this chapter, explanation of findings in
relation to the research questions will be followed by a brief discussion of the limitations
of the study, directions for future research that surfaced from the findings, and
implications and recommendations for higher education practitioners.
Findings in Relation to Research Questions
College experiences that first-generation Latino students at LMU perceive as
influential on identity. The CYEQ responses that form the foundation of this study
present the events, experiences, and relationships that the Latino undergraduate
participants identified as influential on their sense of identity/sense of self. Although
each of the responses was unique, through the process of analysis and reduction, 13
general categories of experience surfaced; these categories are listed in Table 1. Whether
and how the categories of experience align with what was known through previous
research is discussed herein.
It was not surprising to find the categories of Participating in a community
service or outreach activity and Joining an organization or activity committed to social
justice in 19.1% of the responses generated by Phase One participants. LMU prides itself
on community service and social justice. LMU’s mission states, “It is institutionally
committed to Roman Catholicism and takes its fundamental inspiration from the
63
traditions of its sponsoring religious orders. Loyola Marymount has always been, above
all, a student-centered university. Loyola Marymount understands and declares its
purpose to be: the encouragement of learning, the education of the whole person, and the
service of faith and the promotion of justice.” The experiences included in these
categories were all perceived as very positive by respondents.
The categories of Receiving encouragement from university staff and faculty and
Receiving inspiration and support from my father accounted for 11.2% of the Phase One
responses and confirmed earlier findings that the Latino cultural value of familism
(Chiang, Hunter, & Yeh, 2004; Rodriguez, Mira, Myers, Morris, & Cardoza, 2003;
Rudolph, B., Cornelius-White, C., & Quintana, F., 2005; Schneider & Ward, 2003;
Tseng, 2004) persists during college (Kalsner & Pistole, 2003). The incidents included in
this category of experience, without exception, referenced individuals in the critical
incident: a father, a mother, an RA, a professor, a counselor. There was no mention of
family or campus departments as a unit, or an idealized family as a construct; the
responses were all extremely specific, a quality that was not found in the literature
reviewed for this study.
The experiences included in these categories were generally perceived as positive
by respondents. It should be noted, however, that two responses from the CYEQ
described negative experiences. The first was when a school counselor told a student it
would be too difficult to transfer to LMU because he was Chicano, and the second when
a student learned her father was going to have another child and it caused mixed
emotions in her family. These incidents received lower ratings, a score point of 1 and 4,
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respectively, on the continuum. Although only accounting for two of the responses in
these categories, they do provide evidence that family and institutional support is not
universal and poses significant challenges to students when it is lacking. It may be that
because familism is such a highly valued quality in Latino culture, the absence of support
is more keenly felt by members of the ethnic group.
Further, Hurtado et al. (1998) identified the psychological climate of perceptions
and attitudes between and among subgroups of students as one of four institutional
components of campus climate, yet the responses on this survey centered less on
perceptions and attitudes between student groups and more on the attitudes and
perceptions between students and faculty. An earlier study by Hurtado et al. (1994)
found that Latino student perceptions of a student-centered faculty and administration
were associated with positive adjustments to college and that perceptions of a hostile
climate for diverse students were negatively associated with adjustment to college in first
and second year students.
The incidents in Finding community in a social club, sorority, or fraternity and
Developing a network of college friends differed in the types of peer relationships
described from those that were included in Having college experiences that broadened
my understanding of Latino culture, in that they were not primarily peers from the same
ethic/racial background. In fact, there was a wide range of what constituted a community
in this category: classmates, personal friends, and colleagues from student organizations.
Whereas Rendon (1994) differentiated between in-class agents and out-of-class agents in
interpersonal support systems, the study responses do not preserve that divide.
65
In the literature, interpersonal support systems have been recognized as essential
to college students, perhaps even more so to first-generation Latino students who often
face intensified challenges in a college environment. The large number of responses in
these categories (n = 15), the high positive value ratings they received (M = 7.00 and M =
5.89, respectively) and its enduring importance to the respondents’ sense of self (M =
6.71 and M = 6.44, respectively) confirms this conclusion.
Another finding in the literature that is verified by the results of this study is that
support provided by family is different in nature from that provided by others. In the
analyses conducted on Phase One data as part of MVCM, the categories of Finding
community in a social club, sorority, or fraternity and Developing a network of college
friends were perceived by respondents as distinct from one another and they were in
different sections on the resulting concept map. They may, however, complement each
other, as delineated by Schneider and Ward (2003).
The categories of Having college experiences that broadened my understanding
of Latino culture and Feeling out of place or invisible because of ethnicity appeared in
19.1% of the CYEQ responses and are very strongly associated with the racial and ethnic
identity developmental stages of immersion-emersion and ethnic identity search. This
process of building ethnic knowledge and pride and being intensely involved with one’s
racial or ethnic group is nowhere better displayed than in the incidents in these
categories. There was also evidence that participants were grappling with issues of
biculturalism, navigating between the Latino community of origin and the dominant,
White culture. Students who contributed these incidents all seem to have resolved
66
whatever conflicts may have arisen between majority cultural values and Latino cultural
values, and there was no evidence in this group that Latino students were masking or
cloaking their cultural presence (Castillo, Conoley, & Brossart, 2004). It may be that the
campus environment at LMU is inclusive enough that Latino students can exhibit their
cultural presence without fear or intimidation, and multiple on-site visits to the university
from which all of the participants were recruited provided indications to support that
proposition.
Negative experiences transformed into learning opportunities appeared in the
categories of Dealing with situations involving alcohol and Learning about myself by
coping with adversity. Here, students struggled with issues like drinking, family
illnesses, and death. Through the support of friends and family, students were able to
overcome these obstacles and focus on positive energy and influences in their lives.
The category of Making the transition from home to college included tough
decisions and learning to be self sufficient. Tornatzky, Lee, Mejia, and Tarant (2003)
found that 78% of Latinos felt it was better for children to live in their parent’s home
until they get married, compared to 46 and 47% for Whites and African-Americans,
respectively. They also maintain, “it gets more complicated. Among many Latino
communities, cultural traditions tend to create different patterns of expectation for young
women. The expected physical attachment to and expected presence in the family gets
confounded and accentuated with gender-specific roles” (p. 4).
Responses centered about academics fell into the categories of Having positive
academic experiences and Having negative academic experiences. The responses in
67
these categories that involved faculty and staff reinforced the importance of their role to
the development of student identity, as was discussed earlier. In addition, the findings
from this study support well-established and widely accepted research concerning the
effects on students of faculty-student interactions (Lamport, 1993).
Rendon’s (1994) finding that nontraditional students perceive institutional-student
involvement to occur when someone such as a professor or counselor takes an active role
in assisting them rather than the student initiating involvement was seen in some of these
incidents.
Schlossberg’s (1981) model for analyzing adaptation to transition included a set
of factors deemed characteristics of the transition, which are defined by the person
undergoing the change. One of these factors is the affect or positive versus negative value
of the change, a variable that was captured on the CYEQ. Results were included in Table
1, found in the previous chapter, and ranged from a high mean value of 7.00 to a low
mean value of 2.00.
Nine categories of experiences were perceived as generally positive, with mean
values ranging from 5.00 to 7.00 on the seven-point scale. Participating in a community
service or outreach activity; Joining an organization or activity committed to social
justice; and, Finding community in a social club, sorority, or fraternity were perceived as
the most positive categories of experience. Four categories were perceived as generally
negative, with mean values ranging from 2.00 to 3.17. Having negative academic
experiences was the category that received the most negative rating by Phase One
respondents but the small number of responses (n = 2) makes the score less meaningful.
68
There was little difference between the initial assessment of the positive value of
the incident and the eventual effect of the incident, except for the increase from 2.22 to
4.56 for Learning about myself by coping with adversity and 2.44 to 5.00 for Feeling out
of place or invisible because of ethnicity.
In the categories of Receiving encouragement from university staff and faculty;
Receiving inspiration and support from my father; Feeling out of place or invisible
because of ethnicity; Making the transition from home to college; Dealing with situations
involving alcohol; Learning about myself by coping with adversity; Developing a network
of college friends; Having positive academic experiences; and, Having negative academic
experiences, the eventual effect was rated more positively than the initial experience. In
four categories (Participating in a community service or outreach activity; Joining an
organization or activity committed to social justice; Having college experiences that
broadened my understanding of Latino culture; and, Finding community in a social club,
sorority, or fraternity) the eventual effect was perceived as being less positive than the
initial experience.
The descriptions of the incidents contained in the CYEQ that were cast with a
negative affect provide a possible explanation for this incongruity. In many cases, the
negative experience inspired defiance or redefined self-expectations within the student.
Rather than being overwhelmed by the negative experience, the participants used it as
motivation for further development.
Reading the entire set of critical incidents collected through the CYEQ, a holistic
emotional tone of strength, achievement, and perseverance was evident. There was little
69
indication of defeat in the language and descriptions of the participants, despite some
very difficult challenges they faced.
Conceptual Categories of Identity-Defining Experiences
The second research question defined for this study asked into what conceptual
map first-generation Latino undergraduates use to organize their experience of these
categories of experiences. Multidimensional scaling (MDS) and hierarchical cluster
analysis (HCA) were the tools used to extract this information from the Paired
Comparison Questionnaire used in Phase Two of the study.
Multidimensional Scaling
MDS, using the Euclidean Distance model, resulted in a two-dimensional plane
configuration upon which the 13 categories of experience were positioned; this
configuration is displayed as Figure 1 in the previous chapter. The methodology
positioned the categories such that the distance between the points on the plane represents
the degree of similarity of the categories one to another. In this way, the organizing
framework of categories used by study participants became apparent.
Participants placed Joining an organization or activity committed to social justice
at one end of Dimension 1 and Developing a network of college friends at the opposite
end of Dimension 1. Closest in proximity to Joining an organization or activity
committed to social justice along the continuum was Dealing with situations involving
alcohol, and closest to Developing a network of college friends was Having negative
70
academic experiences. The position of these categories indicates that one end of
Dimension 1 represents validation of self through change, generally positive, such as
joining a social justice organization or becoming a stronger person because of a family
member, friend, or personal experience with alcohol. The opposite end of the dimension
represents the validation of self through the relationships one establishes. Family
relationships and relationships with friends and professors nurture and solidify the
developing sense of identity for first-generation Latino students.
Dimension 2 exhibits Having positive academic experiences at one end, with
Finding community in a social club, sorority, or fraternity at the other end. The
categories closest to the two poles are Having college experiences that broadened my
understanding of Latino culture and Participating in a community service or outreach
activity, respectively. Thus, Having positive academic experiences, academic
experiences that allowed students to know themselves better, and Having college
experiences that broadened my understanding of Latino culture, broadening their
understanding of Latino culture, anchored one end of the dimension, while Finding
community in a social club, sorority, or fraternity, comfort through a social community
and Participating in a community service or outreach activity, a community dedicated to
outreach, anchored the other. Dimension 2 is interpreted to represent the student’s sense
of self through academic success and growth and through various communities.
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Cluster Analysis
Hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) attempts to locate meaningful clusters of
items that illuminate the underlying data structure, in this instance the conceptual
organization by study participants of identity-defining experiences in college.
Using Ward’s linkage, the dendrogram displayed in Figure 2 was created and
analyzed to find meaningful clusters. Three clusters of categories were identified, as
shown in Table 3, with the rationale for each described below.
Table 3: Clusters of Categories
CLUSTER
INCLUDED
CATEGORIES
Identity
JUSTICE
ALCOHOL
FATHER
ENCOURAGE
INVISIBLE
CULTURE
Environmental
TRANSITION
SERVICE
FRAT
ADVERSITY
NEG ACADS
Growth
POS ACADS
FRIENDS
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The first cluster, Identity, contains six categories: Joining an organization or
activity committed to social justice; Dealing with situations involving alcohol; Receiving
inspiration and support from my father; Receiving encouragement from university staff
and faculty; Feeling out of place or invisible because of ethnicity; and, Having college
experiences that broadened my understanding of Latino culture. Each of these categories
of experience addressed the identity of the student. These categories map to foundational
constructs of social identity theory. Within this cluster of experiences, students received
both positive and negative messages about themselves, positive and negative messages
about their ethnic group, and positive and negative messages from and about their family.
The second cluster, Environmental, is defined by the experience categories of
Making the transition from home to college; Participating in a community service or
outreach activity; Finding community in a social club, sorority, or fraternity; Learning
about myself by coping with adversity; and, Having negative academic experiences. Each
of these categories of experience changed the information or environmental feedback
provided to the student; these experiences were context dependent. Specifically, they
changed the location of their residence and presumably their previously established
routines, responsibilities, and network of daily contacts. The notion that identity
development is an internal process precipitated and mediated by interaction with one’s
social/situational context compels the conclusion that a change in the external
environment will have some effect on identity and supports the existence of this cluster.
The third cluster, Growth, includes the categories Having positive academic
experiences and Developing a network of college friends. The incidents comprising the
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cluster speak to the future potential of the students, reflected back to them from their
professors who serve as role models and guides toward a future they are beginning to
imagine for themselves. These incidents also speak to the development of a tight social
network of peers and close friends.
The overlay of clusters found through HCA on the dimensional plane formed
through MDS resulted in the concept map that answers the second research question:
What conceptual map do first-generation Latino undergraduates use to organize their
experience of these categories of experiences? The concept map is displayed as Figure 3
in the previous chapter.
Limitations of the Study
Two types of limitations of the study are addressed in this section: participant
selection and validity of survey data.
Participant Selection
A recognized limitation to the study concerns the selection of participants and,
consequently, how well they represent the first-generation Latino population. One-
hundred percent of respondents in Phase One and all respondents in Phase Two came
from a single university (Loyola Marymount University) with 21% of the undergraduate
population identified as Latino/Hispanic. The students were recruited through the
Chicano/Latino Student Services Department, and many participants were enrolled in a
course that focused on academic content from an ethnic studies perspective or were
74
student officers and leaders in Movimiento Estudiantil Chicana/Chicano de Aztlan
(MEChA), Mujeres Unidas, Latino Business Student Association, and El Espejo.
Most first-generation Latino undergraduates attend Predominantly White
Institutions (PWI). Hurtado, Milem, Clayton-Pedersen, and Allen (1998) state that
students are educated in distinct racial contexts and must be heeded in interpreting results
that may be influenced by the institutional climate encountered. Latino undergraduates at
PWI’s like LMU or those from a wider range of academic majors may experience
different events and relationships in college that have an impact on identity development,
and the results of MVCM with a different group of first-generation Latino undergraduates
might be dissimilar to those found in this study. Further, the Jesuit identity of LMU, the
spiritual influences, and the dedication to service and action within should be considered.
Thus, generalizing the findings from such a limited study should be done
cautiously, and was further complicated by the use of respondent proxies in Phase Two.
Bedi and Alexander (2004) acknowledge the reality that respondent proxies are often
necessary in the similarity rating task and advise that proxies should be carefully chosen;
even with these safeguards, they stress that the use of proxy sorters “can draw the validity
and generalizability of the results into some question” (p. 12).
Conducting separate MDS and cluster analyses on the responses from Phase One
participants and on the responses from proxies might clarify whether the results from the
two groups are similar or dissimilar. However, because the total number of Phase Two
participants was limited to 9, a further analysis of this type was not feasible because
75
MVCM is not considered valid with sample sizes of less than 10 (Bedi & Alexander,
2004).
A further limitation related to participant selection was the decision to
include only students who had achieved junior or senior class standing. In doing so, the
intent was to have students base their responses upon (and thus to select the most critical
or meaningful experiences from) a more complete and extended college experience rather
than upon only one or two years of college.
Including only junior and senior level undergraduates insured that the
perspectives of those students who never reach upper class standing, college
noncompleters, were not considered. It is plausible that whatever events or relationships
within or external to the college environments that noncompleters experience may be
relevant both to the decision to drop out of college and to their sense of self, and that
those experiences may be unlike those of students who persevered and achieved upper
class standing.
Validity of Survey Data
As Desimone and Le Floch (2004) write, the debate over the quality of
educational research has intensified over the past several years, especially in evaluating
the validity and reliability of survey data. A common criticism of the survey method, as
used in the CYEQ and the Paired Comparison Questionnaire, is that it cannot always
bring the necessary depth of understanding to complex constructs, such as the impact of
76
college on identity. Two interrelated factors in survey data validity are discussed here:
the design of the instruments and the interpretation of the collected data.
The responses collected on a survey instrument, such as the CYEQ or the Paired
Comparison Questionnaire, were valid only to the extent that the respondent “has a
similar understanding of the questions as the survey designers; and that the questions do
not omit or misinterpret major ideas, or miss important aspects of the phenomena being
examined” (Desimone & Le Floch, 2004, p. 4). This potential shortcoming to survey
research is more likely to occur when surveys are collected and data are interpreted from
ethnic minority populations, as was the case with this study.
It is possible that the CYEQ or the Paired Comparison Questionnaire posed the
survey questions in a way that undermined the validity of the responses, although it is
more likely that the open-ended response format of the CYEQ better preserved content
validity. However, the Paired Comparison Questionnaire (PCQ) presented an additional
factor that must be considered.
As detailed earlier, a research team of three doctoral students analyzed and
reduced the CYEQ responses to the 13 categories of experience, which became the items
included in the PCQ. This intermediary step between data collection in Phase One and
data collection in Phase Two injected a level of interpretation that may have omitted or
obscured important ideas contained in the Phase One responses. The possibility that
participants would have classified the incidents into different categories than the research
team did is a viable theory.
77
Incorporating a confirmatory verification procedure, such as including some of
the Phase One respondents in the data analysis and reduction process that produced the
13 categories or engaging in a member check after initial categories were proposed,
might have reduced that possibility. A verification process might also have eliminated
the CYEQ responses that did not fit into one of the 13 categories of experience.
Suggestions for Future Research
Three potential areas for future research that emerge from the current study seem
particularly promising: (a) investigating outcomes of the identified experiences of impact,
(b) exploring in greater details the timing or year of occurrence of categories of
experience, and (c) examining the impact of college experience on identity in college
noncompleters.
The primary question on the CYEQ was presented in parts and included queries
on “what do you think was important about this experience and why,” as well as “what
do you believe the long-term effect to have been on your sense of who you are.” Both of
these lead the respondent not only to describe the incident that bore an influence on his or
her sense of self, but also either to reflect on or predict the results or outcomes of that
experience.
Yet, the study design, as bounded by the research questions, did not attempt to
look at outcomes, only at perceived influences. Further research could correlate the
perceived impacts and perceived outcomes, not only to make use of existing data but also
to further the ultimate purpose of the study, which is to understand identity development
78
in the first-generation Latino undergraduate population in order to create effective
university environments that meet their academic and developmental needs.
The second area for further research concerns the timing of the different
categories of experience during the college years. Although this question was included
on the CYEQ, it was not a major focus of the study. Nevertheless, the responses revealed
suggestive patterns as to the year during college in which certain experiences occur.
Again, this question may yield important insights into the provision of student
support and academic services at the time when they may be most relevant and effective.
Programs and services delivered at a time when they are unnecessary is a waste of limited
institutional resources, whereas the absence of programs and services when they are
needed can result in underserved students; neither of those outcomes is desirable.
Investigating the impact of college on identity development in college
noncompleters who never attain upper class standing is important to first-generation
Latino students. Not only do Latino students who graduate from high school attend
college at a much lower rate than their White peers, but their completion rate is
significantly lower as well. The six-year graduation rate for Latino college students is
only 47%, compared to the 67% of White students who have earned their baccalaureate
degree by the sixth year after matriculation (Carey, 2004). Because college is presumed
to provide an optimal context for identity development, understanding the identity-
defining experiences of noncompleters may indicate avenues for retaining noncompleters
in college until they attain a degree.
79
Implications for Practitioners
Torres et al. (2003) urged faculty and administrators to attend to the identity
development of diverse students because the goal of higher education is to create a
marketplace of ideas, and the desired intellectual and social exchanges between diverse
groups of people will falter or fail when those groups disengage from one another due to
fear, misunderstanding, or ignorance. In addition to such overarching recommendations,
the implications that stem from this study’s findings give rise to four specific
recommendations for practitioners in institutions of higher education in the areas of
curriculum and service, faculty development, family outreach, and student life.
Curriculum and Service
The themes in the categories of Participating in a community service or outreach
activity; Having college experiences that broadened my understanding of Latino culture;
and, Joining an organization or activity committed to social justice were mentioned in
several Phase One questionnaires as important to first-generation Latino’s development
of sense of self, and all three were perceived as positive experiences. Participating in a
community service or outreach activity had a positive value mean score of 7.00 (SD =
0.00). Having college experiences that broadened my understanding of Latino culture
had a positive mean value of 6.88 (SD = 0.33). Joining an organization or activity
committed to social justice had a positive value mean score of 7.00 (SD = 0.00).
The implication that learning about the culture, struggles, and contributions of
one’s own ethnic group should be an experience in which all students are engaged should
80
precipitate a curriculum review by faculty and administration, with a curriculum
redesign— if deemed necessary— after the review.
The second area for curricular review and revision arises from the value that first-
generation Latino undergraduates found in making a commitment to service and taking
action for social change and justice. Service learning that teaches social responsibility
and civic engagement is an element of the curriculum that is often overlooked in
undergraduate studies. Adding a component of service learning to the curriculum may
provide students with an academic and experiential learning context that supports their
identity development.
Faculty Development
Being criticized by an instructor or counselor (Having negative academic
experiences) and meeting strong professors who became role models (Having positive
academic experiences and Receiving encouragement from university staff and faculty)
both speak to the influence faculty have on the developmental well-being of their
students, in a negative and positive way. Yet many faculty members have limited
understanding or academic preparation concerning issues of student development, unless
the topic falls within their academic discipline.
Institutions of higher education should invest in faculty development initiatives
that include the opportunity to learn about student identity development and the role of
faculty members in that process. Additional faculty development projects should support
enhanced faculty-student relationships, perhaps including formal student mentoring and
81
advising programs if not already in place. This type of activity is not always given
recognition as a component of the teaching, research, and service obligations that define
the scope of faculty work. A commitment on the part of the institution to recognize and
credit the value of these activities in tenure and promotion decisions will send the signal
of its institutional importance.
Family Outreach
Family support, both emotional and instrumental, was perceived as important by
first-generation Latino undergraduates, especially in the freshman and sophomore years
of college. Receiving inspiration and support from my father received a mean positive
value of 6.25 (SD=1.30). Yet many colleges and universities encourage students and
families to loosen the familial bonds when a student begins college. The message is often
reinforced in parent and student orientation programs, as shown in the program
characterized as exemplary by Chickering and Reisser (1993) and described in Chapter 1.
The goal of that orientation program was “bringing students to disengage from their
parents” (p. 439).
Such institutional bias towards valuing independence and autonomy over familial
support should be recognized as culturally determined and potentially detrimental to first-
generation Latino students, among others. Student services professionals need to find
appropriate ways to offer options to students about how families, including parents,
siblings, and other extended family members, are included in the academic and social
lives of those attending college.
82
Far too few first-generation Latino undergraduates achieve the baccalaureate
degree that is equivalent to professional and economic success, and the educational
attainment gap between Latino students and their White peers continues to grow.
Student Life
The categories of Finding community in a social club, sorority, or fraternity, with
a mean positive value of 7.00 (SD = 0.00) and Developing a network of college friends,
with a mean positive value of 5.89 (SD = 1.73), appeared very powerful for the
respondents. The relationships among classmates, personal friends, and colleagues from
student jobs and organizations are essential to identity development and finding one’s
niche on campus. Interpersonal support systems have been recognized as essential to
college students, perhaps even more so to first-generation Latino students, who often face
intensified challenges in a college environment. Student Affairs, Student Life, and
Residence Life professionals should facilitate a variety of social and educational
experiences for first and second-year students on campus. First-generation Latinos, often
struggling with homesickness, could benefit greatly by connecting with peers through
these outlets.
One factor that cannot be overlooked in addressing the situation is the necessity to
attend to the personal as well as to the academic development of the students who
populate colleges and universities today and will continue to do so in the coming
decades. This study captures the perspective of first-generation Latino undergraduates at
a private and religious university, highlighting their conceptual understanding of the
impact of college on their developing sense of self. These student voices, along with
83
those who are not categorized as first-generation Latino, provide critical information to
faculty, student services professionals, and university administrators in their quest to
meet the challenge.
84
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Valde, G. (1996). Identity closure: A fifth identity status. The Journal of Genetic
Psychology, 157(3), 245-254.
Vera, H., & de los Santos, E. (2005). Chicana identity construction: Pushing the
boundaries. Journal of Hispanic Higher Education, 4(2), 102-113.
Witte, J.E., Forbes, S.A., & Witte, M. M. (n.d.) Identity theory and persistence: A
tentative synthesis of Tinto, Erikson, and Houle (Electronic version). Journal
of Integrative Psychology, 2. Retrieved January 16, 2008, from http://
integrativepsychology.org/articles/vol2_article2.html
Zalaquette, C. (2005). Study of successful Latina(o) students. Journal of
Hispanic Higher Education, 5(1), 35-47.
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APPENDIX A:
College Years Experience Questionnaire (CYEQ)
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APPENDIX B:
Paired Comparison Questionnaire
Hello, this is Paul Harrington. I am a doctoral candidate at the University of Southern
California’s Rossier School of Education.
First, I would like to thank you for participating in Phase I of my dissertation study about
the college experiences of First-Generation Latino College Students.
Secondly, thank you for expressing an interest in participating in Phase II of this study.
This portion is fast, quick and easy. You just need to click on appropriate boxes.
Please click on your first instinct; there is no need to overanalyze your choices.
Your participation in Phase II will help me understand your opinion about specific
categories created by a research team. The categories are based on the previous
experiences collected from Phase I.
The following page describes the thirteen categories created by a research team.
I would greatly appreciate your participation in this final step of my study.
Please know that this survey is also anonymous and your contributions will enable me to
conduct quantitative analyses of the experienced categories. The findings of this study
will help develop intervention strategies to better serve college students like you.
If you wish to view a copy of the final and approved version, please contact me at
wharring@usc.edu
USC IRB #: UP-06-00355
* Completing this survey constitutes an agreement to participate in this study.
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Categories
1. Participating in a community service or outreach activity:
Students participate in events like Alternative Spring Break and DeColores trips
Examples:
a. “…one of the biggest impacts on my college experience was going on
my first alternative spring break”
b. “Attending a DeColores trip really had an impact on my sense of self”
2. Receiving encouragement from university staff and faculty members:
Students receive advice and support from faculty, RAs, and student affairs
professionals
Examples:
a. “I had several conversations with my freshman RA . She has been a
huge motivational factor for me to do my best and live healthily and work
hard for what I want”
b. “I was constantly seeking counsel from an administrator from a student
services department. He has always been helpful, made me aware of my
options”
3. Receiving inspiration and support from my father:
Students feel inspired and encouraged by their fathers
Examples:
a. “An experience that I had that influenced me to be who I am is my
father… He has been a great support and has made me continue w/ school
and getting into college”
b. “The person that had the greatest influence on my identity is my father”
4. Having college experiences that broadened my understanding of Latino
culture:
Students learn about their culture from Latino/a professors, roommates, and
classes
Examples:
a. “I had to look at my culture…I had to take a careful look at my life
experiences”
b. “being at LMU I suddenly became aware of my ethnicity and my
heritage. I was proud of being different”
5. Feeling out of place or invisible because of my ethnicity:
Students feel judged by others and out of place because of their ethnicity
Examples:
95
a. “I was given a very rude awakening. I was in my philosophy class and
we were placed into groups to do some discussion…it was very awkward
to be sitting in a classroom that was 95% white…I was the only Latina in
the group”
b. “sophomore year there was an incident of racism...this made me angry
to know that even at LMU, an incident like this could occur”
6. Joining an organization or activity committed to social justice:
Students join service organizations and attend social justice events
Examples:
a. “During my freshman year, I had the great privilege of getting involved
with an organization that gave me the opportunity to learn more about
social justice”
b. “I went to the March this past year for worker’s rights. Many of the
students in the LMU community were involved, some were my friends
and others were strangers. It really made me think about how this has
affected my life.”
7. Finding community in a social club, sorority, or fraternity:
Students feel accepted, welcome, and comforted by sorority/fraternity members
Examples:
a. “I joined a fraternity because I sought a level of brotherhood and
camaraderie that I wasn’t finding at school”
b. “Being involved in the school soccer team. I’m going to be involved in
more sports in the future”
8. Making the transition from home to college:
Dealing with the many changes (positive and negative) associated with a move to
campus
Examples:
a. “getting ready to enter college I was excited and ready to move out of
my parent’s house”
b. “the transition from living at school from home. I am a very family
oriented person and it was difficult to get accustomed to my new life at
school”
9. Dealing with situations involving alcohol:
Students struggle with personal drinking problems or witness and assist close
friends dealing with drinking issues
Examples:
a. “I am currently a junior who regularly deals with difficult situations
with my peers such as drinking and partying in the dorms”
96
b. “I struggled with drinking and using it to cover up how I feel for most
of my college career”
10. Learning about myself by coping with unexpected adversity:
Dealing with personal struggles that may hinder academic achievement, i.e. some
students explained how they had to take a semester off due to financial struggles
Examples:
a. “My sophomore year of college I got my heart severely broken and I
went first through a period of depression”
b. “It was my grandmother’s death, last May. I realized that college life
itself was not all about studying and focusing on school. I realized that I
also needed to take time to spend with my family and friends”
11. Developing a network of college friends:
Students build close friendships built on trust that will last a lifetime
Examples:
a. “As a freshman, I went to an “out of staters” meet and greet. I think it
was important because I was able to connect with people”
b. “My friend I met on campus. It was important to me because they
showed me around”
12. Having academic experiences that allowed me to know myself better:
Students experience classes that foster personal growth and expose them to new
things
Examples:
a. “After the end of my first semester, my GPA was higher than I
expected…It was at this point that I realized how much potential I had”
b. “I once took a theology class entitled, ‘Ignatian Spirituality’. This class
was semester long, yet the result the class had for me was beyond
rewarding”
13. Confronting difficult academic experiences:
Students deal with failure and academic weaknesses
Examples:
a. “I’ve always felt that math has been my weakness. I’m not very good at
it”
b. “Failing my first test made me realize the seriousness of college and
how much effort it requires to succeed”
Now that you have read the 13 categories, we are interested in assessing how similar you
see these to one another. Please look at each numbered line (1 to 78) below, and at the
paired items in it. Each line has 2 of the 13 categories.
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Please rate the extent to which you view these categories as alike using the scale below:
1 very dissimilar
2 not similar
3 somewhat similar
4 similar
5 very similar
For example if we ask you about “Receiving encouragement from university staff and
faculty members” and “Receiving inspiration and support
from my father” and you think that they are “very similar” you would circle a 5.
If you think that they are only “somewhat similar”, you would circle 3.
Group 1 Group 2 Scale
1 Receiving inspiration and support
from my father
Joining an organization or
activity committed to social
justice
1 2 3 4 5
2 Joining an organization or activity
committed to social justice
Learning about myself by coping
with unexpected adversity
1 2 3 4 5
3 Making the transition from home to
college
Dealing with situations
involving alcohol
1 2 3 4 5
4 Feeling out of place or invisible
because of my ethnicity
Dealing with situations
involving alcohol
1 2 3 4 5
5 Receiving encouragement from
university staff and faculty members
Receiving inspiration and
support from my father
1 2 3 4 5
6 Feeling out of place or invisible
because of my ethnicity
Having academic experiences
that allowed me to know myself
better
1 2 3 4 5
7 Receiving inspiration and support
from my father
Making the transition from home
to college
1 2 3 4 5
8 Receiving inspiration and support
from my father
Having college experiences that
broadened my understanding of
Latino culture
1 2 3 4 5
9 Joining an organization or activity
committed to social justice
Having academic experiences
that allowed me to know myself
better
1 2 3 4 5
10 Receiving inspiration and support
from my father
Learning about myself by coping
with unexpected adversity
1 2 3 4 5
11 Developing a network of college
friends
Having academic experiences
that allowed me to know myself
better
1 2 3 4 5
12 Dealing with situations involving
alcohol
Confronting difficult academic
experiences
1 2 3 4 5
13 Receiving inspiration and support
from my father
Confronting difficult academic
experiences
1 2 3 4 5
14 Feeling out of place or invisible
because of my ethnicity
Developing a network of college
friends
1 2 3 4 5
98
15 Making the transition from home to
college
Confronting difficult academic
experiences
1 2 3 4 5
16 Joining an organization or activity
committed to social justice
Making the transition from home
to college
1 2 3 4 5
17 Receiving encouragement from
university staff and faculty members
Developing a network of college
friends
1 2 3 4 5
18 Having college experiences that
broadened my understanding of
Latino culture
Finding community in a social
club, sorority, or fraternity
1 2 3 4 5
19 Participating in a community service
or outreach activity
Developing a network of college
friends
1 2 3 4 5
20
Receiving encouragement from
university staff and faculty members
Confronting difficult academic
experiences
1 2 3 4 5
21 Learning about myself by coping
with unexpected adversity
Developing a network of college
friends
1 2 3 4 5
22 Dealing with situations involving
alcohol
Having academic experiences
that allowed me to know myself
better
1 2 3 4 5
23 Participating in a community service
or outreach activity
Confronting difficult academic
experiences
1 2 3 4 5
24 Participating in a community service
or outreach activity
Finding community in a social
club, sorority, or fraternity
1 2 3 4 5
25 Receiving encouragement from
university staff and faculty members
Dealing with situations
involving alcohol
1 2 3 4 5
26 Feeling out of place or invisible
because of my ethnicity
Finding community in a social
club, sorority, or fraternity
1 2 3 4 5
27 Receiving encouragement from
university staff and faculty members
Feeling out of place or invisible
because of my ethnicity
1 2 3 4 5
28 Participating in a community service
or outreach activity
Feeling out of place or invisible
because of my ethnicity
1 2 3 4 5
29 Finding community in a social club,
sorority, or fraternity
Confronting difficult academic
experiences
1 2 3 4 5
30 Finding community in a social club,
sorority, or fraternity
Learning about myself by coping
with unexpected adversity
1 2 3 4 5
31 Receiving encouragement from
university staff and faculty members
Finding community in a social
club, sorority, or fraternity
1 2 3 4 5
32 Participating in a community service
or outreach activity
Receiving inspiration and
support from my father
1 2 3 4 5
33 Participating in a community service
or outreach activity
Having college experiences that
broadened my understanding of
Latino culture
1 2 3 4 5
34 Learning about myself by coping
with unexpected adversity
Confronting difficult academic
experiences
1 2 3 4 5
35 Making the transition from home to
college
Developing a network of college
friends
1 2 3 4 5
36 Dealing with situations involving
alcohol
Developing a network of college
friends
1 2 3 4 5
37 Receiving encouragement from
university staff and faculty members
Developing a network of college
friends
1 2 3 4 5
38 Having college experiences that
broadened my understanding of
Joining an organization or
activity committed to social
1 2 3 4 5
99
Latino culture justice
39 Joining an organization or activity
committed to social justice
Confronting difficult academic
experiences
1 2 3 4 5
40 Participating in a community service
or outreach activity
Receiving encouragement from
university staff and faculty
members
1 2 3 4 5
41 Having academic experiences that
allowed me to know myself better
Confronting difficult academic
experiences
1 2 3 4 5
42 Receiving encouragement from
university staff and faculty members
Joining an organization or
activity committed to social
justice
1 2 3 4 5
43 Having college experiences that
broadened my understanding of
Latino culture
Making the transition from home
to college
1 2 3 4 5
44 Having college experiences that
broadened my understanding of
Latino culture
Feeling out of place or invisible
because of my ethnicity
1 2 3 4 5
45 Having college experiences that
broadened my understanding of
Latino culture
Confronting difficult academic
experiences
1 2 3 4 5
46 Receiving inspiration and support
from my father
Feeling out of place or invisible
because of my ethnicity
1 2 3 4 5
47 Having college experiences that
broadened my understanding of
Latino culture
Developing a network of college
friends
1 2 3 4 5
48 Feeling out of place or invisible
because of my ethnicity
Learning about myself by coping
with unexpected adversity
1 2 3 4 5
49 Finding community in a social club,
sorority, or fraternity
Making the transition from home
to college
1 2 3 4 5
50 Learning about myself by coping
with unexpected adversity
Having academic experiences
that allowed me to know myself
better
1 2 3 4 5
51 Finding community in a social club,
sorority, or fraternity
Developing a network of college
friends
1 2 3 4 5
52 Finding community in a social club,
sorority, or fraternity
Dealing with situations
involving alcohol
1 2 3 4 5
53 Receiving inspiration and support
from my father
Finding community in a social
club, sorority, or fraternity
1 2 3 4 5
54 Making the transition from home to
college
Having academic experiences
that allowed me to know myself
better
1 2 3 4 5
55 Feeling out of place or invisible
because of my ethnicity
Joining an organization or
activity committed to social
justice
1 2 3 4 5
56 Developing a network of college
friends
Having academic experiences
that allowed me to know myself
better
1 2 3 4 5
57 Receiving encouragement from
university staff and faculty members
Having academic experiences
that allowed me to know myself
better
1 2 3 4 5
58 Joining an organization or activity Finding community in a social 1 2 3 4 5
100
committed to social justice club, sorority, or fraternity
59 Feeling out of place or invisible
because of my ethnicity
Confronting difficult academic
experiences
1 2 3 4 5
60 Joining an organization or activity
committed to social justice
Dealing with situations
involving alcohol
1 2 3 4 5
61 Finding community in a social club,
sorority, or fraternity
Having academic experiences
that allowed me to know myself
better
1 2 3 4 5
62 Having college experiences that
broadened my understanding of
Latino culture
Dealing with situations
involving alcohol
1 2 3 4 5
63 Joining an organization or activity
committed to social justice
Developing a network of college
friends
1 2 3 4 5
64 Having college experiences that
broadened my understanding of
Latino culture
Learning about myself by coping
with unexpected adversity
1 2 3 4 5
65 Receiving encouragement from
university staff and faculty members
Making the transition from home
to college
1 2 3 4 5
66 Having college experiences that
broadened my understanding of
Latino culture
Having academic experiences
that allowed me to know myself
better
1 2 3 4 5
67 Receiving inspiration and support
from my father
Having academic experiences
that allowed me to know myself
better
1 2 3 4 5
68 Feeling out of place or invisible
because of my ethnicity
Making the transition from home
to college
1 2 3 4 5
69 Participating in a community service
or outreach activity
Dealing with situations
involving alcohol
1 2 3 4 5
70 Receiving encouragement from
university staff and faculty members
Learning about myself by coping
with unexpected adversity
1 2 3 4 5
71 Receiving inspiration and support
from my father
Dealing with situations
involving alcohol
1 2 3 4 5
72 Participating in a community service
or outreach activity
Learning about myself by coping
with unexpected adversity
1 2 3 4 5
73 Making the transition from home to
college
Learning about myself by coping
with unexpected adversity
1 2 3 4 5
74 Participating in a community service
or outreach activity
Having academic experiences
that allowed me to know myself
better
1 2 3 4 5
75 Receiving encouragement from
university staff and faculty members
Having college experiences that
broadened my understanding of
Latino culture
1 2 3 4 5
76 Participating in a community service
or outreach activity
Joining an organization or
activity committed to social
justice
1 2 3 4 5
77 Dealing with situations involving
alcohol
Learning about myself by coping
with unexpected adversity
1 2 3 4 5
78 Participating in a community service
or outreach activity
Making the transition from home
to college
1 2 3 4 5
101
I am a: Freshman_____ Sophomore_____
Junior________ Senior__________
My Age:_______ Gender: Female____Male____
My Ethnicity:_______________________________
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APPENDIX C:
CYEQ Responses
Coding at the end of each incident/experience:
Category (Numbers assigned correspond to category number)
Point in college when the incident occurred- (F=Frosh, S=Soph., J=Junior, N=Senior)
Degree experienced as positive- (1-7)
Effect on sense of self- (1-7)
Current standing- (F=Frosh, S=Soph., J=Junior, N=Senior)
Gender (M=male, F=female)
1. Giving to other people through volunteer service and outreach (10)
5. I think one of the biggest impacts on my college experience was going on my first
alternative spring break. A group of about 15 students went to Navajo Nation to learn
about their culture, their lives, and the injustices they suffer from. It was the first time
social injustice was really explained to me, and was a very powerful experience
especially since it was told by native Americans experiencing it first hand. I met a student
who was and still is very involved in social justice issues and we've become very good
friends. She graduated last year but we still talk through email. The trip and my new
friend have taught me a lot about looking at life from a different perspective and i hope to
have a career that is social justice oriented.
1-S-7-7-N-F
12. An Alternative Spring Break trip to Jackson, Mississippi to work with restoring the
racially divided community of West Jackson. (b) There were 7 other people I did not
know before going on this trip. I neither liked them nor disliked them and it was hard to
bond with new people in such a short period of time and live with them for a week. (c) I
realized how important service is to my faith in Christ. When we worked in the soup
kitchen, I realized I was not scared of the homeless but joyful and touched. (d) It has
given me the desire to get more involved in service and helping others and no fearing the
poor.
1-S-7-6-J-F
15. Participating in alternative spring break in Lemont, CA. With me were participants,
the assistant director, and close friends. This experience helped me choose a career. It
gave me pride and hope.
1-S-7-7-N-F
20. Participating in alternative spring breaks here at LMU. It opened my eyes to the
reality outside of my life. The way people are affected. How everything I learned at
school is portrayed in the real world. As a political science major I saw how people,
103
minorities and others are affected by laws and the system. It added to why I want to go to
into law, especially the juvenile system.
1-N-7-7-N-F
33. I went on a service trip to the Dominican Republic where we stayed with host
families for one week. We lived in an extremely impoverished community of coffee
farmers, where we learned the injustices of the free trade global economy. Going to a
third world country and experiencing the life that most of the world does outside of my
life here in the US has made me reevaluate the way I live and the choices I make.
1-J-7-5-N-F
41. Attending a DeColores trip really had an impact on my sense of self. Because of my
background I have frequently visited Mexico with my family but I never had an
experience of Mexico like I had with DeColores. I attended with other LMU students, all
who were of different ethnic backgrounds. I felt helping others with my fellow students
really impacted me positively.
1-S-7-7-J-F
50. As a sophomore, I participated in special games where people with disabilities come
to my college to participate in games. I worked with a woman who was blind. I felt
nervous about my abilities to help her, but in the end, with patience and love and being
more sensitive to her needs. I really saw my true personality resonate and I will always
remember this moment when I’m sad or despaired.
1-S-7-7-J-F
64. Doing volunteer work in the community. It made me more grateful for the things I
have. I am better able to appreciate my life even the bad things. I want to continue
helping people in my future career.
1-F-7-7-N-F
68. Volunteering through the center for service and action at LMU opened my eyes to a
whole group of people who were so close to me and in need that I never knew about.
Furthermore, I found a close tie to my Hispanic roots while doing so. Since I am
bilingual, I found that I could be of most use in the latin community. Witnessing the
unfairness of their situation moved me to want to do more. Tutoring kids and feeding
them can only do so much. It’s nice but more like a band aid on a gushing wound. The
long-term effect of this incident has made me realize how fortunate I am and that I want
to repay God by helping others.
1-F-7-7-N-F
76. I went to an alternative break trip. Basically, students are integrated into a third
world country for about 2 weeks to learn how 80% of the world lives, which is poorly. I
went with a group of 12 students whom I really didn’t know initially. It was a humbling
104
experience that made me break away from the bubble I was living in. After that I started
doing more service. It has changed my outlook on life. I am now more politically active.
I even changed my major because of this experience.
1-S-7-7-N-F
2. Receiving advice and encouragement from university staff and faculty
members (6)
2. I had to leave the university at the end of my sophomore year. I was constantly seeking
counsel from an administrator from a student services department. He has always been
helpful, made me aware of my options and consequences. He mapped what my choices
were at the end of my tenure and was always good about it. He believed in me and was
proud of me regardless of what happened. This incident propelled me to return to the
university years later to finish. This has helped develop my growth and shape my
direction in life.
2-S-4-6-N-M
10. The university that I attend the majority of the students are white (I'm Chican@).
When I went to see my advisor about my schedule she asked me if I was doing ok. She
asked me in an odd tone and was wondering why. I soon found out with her follow up
comment she said that many minorities feel intimidated and feel that they don't belong
there and therefore many drop out. Due to her comment I felt determined to do the best
that I could and not let anybody or anything put me down or make me feel inferior on
campus or off.
2-F-6-7-N-F
11. I had several conversations with my freshman RA . She has been a huge motivational
factor for me to do my best and live healthily and work hard for what I want. Her positive
attitude toward life and her intelligence has been inspiring for me. Talking to her always
makes me want to do more with my life and keep on living well.
2-F-7-7-J-F
17. It was my first semester at college when a college counselor told me that it was too
difficult to transfer to LMU because I was a Chicano. This incident made me feel
stronger as an individual when I was eventually accepted and proved to me that I was a
strong individual.
2-F-1-7-J-M
55. The incident was a meeting I had with the director of the Center for Service and
Action. Tom is the director and he asked me a question that challenged me and changed
my view of college and many things. Do I plan to do service or volunteer work after
college? I think the most important thing from this was how it challenged me and how
105
my plans after school were affected. I think that this question along with my questioning
will forever change my outlook on post graduate service and life. I will volunteer after
graduation and I hope that what I learn will affect my life and outlook forever.
2-N-7-7-N-M
80. There’s been experiences that have impacted on what I want to do with my life as far
as studying math. My advisor has always been encouraging me to continue with math
and consider graduate school especially since she has told me that there are very few
math educators that are latinos. My advisor is an applied math person and she has told
me that in case I needed any help to come up to her. She has been the one always
pushing me and believing that I can excel in math, even when I don’t feel confident in
myself to do so. Every time I talk to her, she is always willing to help and I think her
belief in me is what has encouraged me to continue with math.
2-S-6-6-J-F
3. Receiving inspiration and support from my Father. (4)
35. An experience that I had that influenced me to be who I am is my father. He always
encouraged for me to continued school, always told me to take my time get things done
and everything will come into place. He has been a great support and has made me
continue w/ school and getting into college. It was important for me because I didn’t feel
the pressure like some of my friends were feeling. I’ve become a patient, positive, and
supportive person.
3-J-7-7-N-F
54. The person that had the greatest influence on my identity is my father. He raised me
on his own, which is different especially being Chicana. He broke all stereotypes of the
“macho” father and made it a priority in his life for me to have a positive view of myself
and remained focus on education. This is my first semester at LMU. He passed away a
few months ago.
3-J-7-7-J-F
59. I found out my dad was going to have a kid. Everyone in my family was a part of it
because of the mixed feelings about it. It made me realize that what makes you
happy/sad may be the total opposite for those closest around you. It showed me how
positive and rich life could be.
3-F-4-5-J-M
90. An experience that I had that influenced me to be who I am is my father. He always
encouraged for me to continued school, always told me to take my time get things done
and everything will come into place. He has been a great support and has made me
continue w/ school and getting into college. It was important for me because I didn’t feel
106
the pressure like some of my friends were feeling. I’ve become a patient, positive, and
supportive person.
3-J-7-7-N-F
4. Having college experiences that broadened my understanding of Latino
culture (8)
8. As a freshman at LMU, I felt that I did not belong because I was one of the few Latinas
on campus. This quickly changed when I joined a club named Nuestra Alma Latina. This
club has truly changed my life; it made me appreciate my background while it also made
me feel comfortable on campus. This experience is very important to me because it
allowed to accept myself as a Latina, it made me comfortable and confident on campus,
and it made me care less that most on campus were Euro-American and completely
different from me and the lifestyle I am used to.
4-F-7-7-J-F
21. This experience was extremely positive for me as a Latina woman. When entering
LMU I came across many strong Latina professors and it has a strong impact on my not
only as a Latina but as a woman. I share experiences and their encouragement to become
better and not to be afraid. The long-term effect is that it has made me proud to be an
educated Latina that wants to have a better life than my mother did.
4-J-7-7-N-F
27. I had to write a 15 page paper in which I defined my identity in terms of lived
experiences. I had to look at my culture. In order to complete the assignment, I had to
take a careful look at my life experiences. It forced me to address issues that I
consciously chose to ignore.
4-F-7-5-J-F
31. Coming to LMU as a freshman straight out of high school & encountering other races
helped me find my own identity among the masses. My high school was purely Hispanic
& being at LMU I suddenly became aware of my ethnicity and my heritage. I was proud
of being different and discovering the various cultures in my new community.
4-F-7-7-N-F
46. An experience that stands out significantly is an interview I conducted with my
grandmother. In order to gain information for a class project. She shared with me her
experiences as a Mexican-immigrant and the prejudices she faced and overcame for her
family. As a first-generation high school graduate and now college student, she infused
with me the need to strive for goals despite any obstacle.
4-F-7-7-J-M
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56. The latino spiritual retreat. This experience was amazing because God through nature
and the participants on the trip.
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81. Through this college was the first time I actually began to socialize and hang around
with other races beside Hispanic/Latino. My new Caucasian friends are great and I’m
glad I met them. They are there for me. What I think is important is that it helps
different races unite and let people set aside racism. The long-term effect is that it helps
me explore different ethnicities.
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89. During my freshman year I took a Chicano studies course with a male professor, I
learned so much about my culture and it made me feel proud of who I am. I think being
exposed to one’s culture is very important, this way we have a sense of identity. The long
term effect has been that I am not more proud of my ethnicity & culture, and I enjoy
learning more about it.
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5. Feeling out of place or invisible because of ethnicity (9)
3. The incident was with my roommate freshman year of college at Loyola Marymount
University. It was the first day we met and where about to sleep in the same dorm along
with a third roommate. My curious roommate wanted to know more about me and tell me
about herself. By the way she looked and spoke Spanish to her parents I assumed she was
a Latina. Because I am a Latina too I thought we were going to be best friends and get
along. I thought she thought like me. As we started asking questions and answering them
I soon discovered that she was nothing like me. I think the only thing we had in common
was that we were both women! My shy third roommate did not say anything in the whole
debate. My roommate was conservative and I am liberal and our argument as it seemed
revealed to me that not all people that may appear the same are the same. She was a
political science major and I was a studio arts major. Because we came from different
social-economic levels, ethnic backgrounds, schools, etc. she proved to me that I was in
fact closed minded when I was convinced that she was. She proved to me that Republican
Latinas do exist! She also listened to me and my struggles as a lower class Latina coming
from Los Angeles public high school. That first night has forever been in my memory as
the night that I hated my roommate and discovered that I loved her for that fact that she
actually made me realize what person I was and am today. She made me see that I was
like her; I carried my parents ideals and not until I started to educate myself did I realize
that I made up my own beliefs and identity.
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14. My first week of college I was given a very rude awakening. I was in my philosophy
class and we were placed into groups to do some discussion. Now, having come from a
High School that was about 97% Latino it was very awkward to be sitting in a classroom
that was 95% white. As we sat in groups, I was the only Latina in the group. I don't know
if it was because I was a Latina, but I was left out of the group. Everyone was discussing
and they all exchanged information and not one of them asked me. This incident was very
hurtful for me. I remember going back to my dorm room that day and crying. But from
that day forward I learned to appreciate my culture even more. It made me feel stronger
as a Latina. I was in the same school that they were in, so there was no reason why I
should feel inferior to them.
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25. Someone treated me rudely (stereotyped) as if they knew who I was and it was
obvious that they thought I wasn’t as good or was worthy of asking for what I was there
for. I was angry and offended afterwards because that person had no idea of what I’ve
been through and survived. I learned how strong I’ve become.
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42. Often I remember being in a history class and feeling out of place. Out of place
because I felt that I wasn’t a part of the history. In trying to find a sense of self I felt that I
didn’t have one, or at least was lacking information that would allow me to feel complete.
These feelings of incompleteness was actually made me want to learn about my past, and
where I came from.
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47. Being the only latino student in the hallway of the building I lived I freshman year. I
came from an extremely multicultural school and was used to seeing a diverse student
population. In my transition to college I was shocked to see less people of color in my
new environment. It made me realize that I was latino even more because everyone
around me was white. I realized that although LA and the community I grew up in may
be diverse, the rest of the country is not. It also made me want to retain my cultural roots
even more.
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63. It was a negative experience. Someone called me a beaver. The other person
involved (male) said it to me. It made me uncomfortable at first but I’m okay now. No
long-term effect…ignorant people will never win.
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79. Freshman year was shocking for me because the culture at LMU is mostly Caucasian
and I am a Latina girl from LA. In many of my classes there was no one that looked like
me and I was the darkest. I felt uncomfortable and felt like I didn’t belong.
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84. During freshman and sophomore year there was an incident of racism towards the
black people. I had black friends and this made me angry to know that even at LMU, an
incident like this could occur because of ignorant people. This just made me realize that
there are stupid people everywhere but it’s how you handle it that makes all the
difference. Whenever I hear a racist remark, whether intentional or not, I let them know
that it’s not cool.
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86. The incident was that it was my first time I was in a class where I was the only
Hispanic and everyone else was white or Asian. This was important because it made me
work herder in college overall to prove that I’m just as good or even better. It just makes
me work harder in all that I do in school work. I think twice before I try to slack off on
work.
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6. Joining an organization or activity committed to social justice (7)
24. During my freshman year, I had the great privilege of getting involved with an
organization that gave me the opportunity to learn more about social justice. I had the
privilege to go protest at Fort Bening in Georgia against the SOA. After hearing the
atrocities committed by the graduates of SOA the seniors and juniors took me under their
wings and gave me the opportunity to go with them to the protest.
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40. It was January 26, 2005; the all service organizations info night in Hilton. I knew I
wanted to do service but I didn’t know what type and I wasn’t sure what org I wanted. I
remember sitting next to my roommate and hearing about Marians-I looked at her and
said “we’re going to be Marians!” This has been the best decision I made-I work with
battered women. I teach them English , but more importantly I give them
hope…knowing that I make a difference is the best feeling. Because of time there, I
know that I want to be a family lawyer.
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49. One incident that meant a lot to me in college was when I went to the March this past
year for worker’s rights. Many of the students in the LMU community were involved,
some were my friends and others were strangers. It really made me think about how this
has affected my life. It was not only a question about workers but also about
immigration. My family members were immigrants and it is one of the things that has
driven me to work even harder in life. That is why seeing all these people stand together
made me proud and made me want to be more influential in the world.
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53. Joining a service organization has allowed me to develop a sense of who I am and the
members have been a great influence and will allow me to live a productive and fulfilling
life.
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62. A positive experience was being accepted into my service organization. It was
important to me because I wanted to be part of a group that wanted to do service with
others as much as I did. Long-term will be the experiences I will gain from helping
others.
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65. Joining Belles (service organization). My best friend also joined. Belles impacted
my college life and made me open up to the greater Los Angeles community. My
awareness of my surroundings and being able to help those in need and less fortunate.
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73. It was when I got accepted to be part of Belles Service Organization. Here I met a lot
of great people who had the same values of myself. It also allowed me to give back to
the surrounding community while creating life-long bonds with the girls in the group.
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7. Finding community in a social club, sorority, or fraternity (6)
37. I joined a fraternity because I sought a level of brotherhood and camaraderie that I
wasn’t finding at school. The older guys were people I admired for their goodwill,
kindness, leadership abilities, and positive outlook. They took me under their wing. It
was important because it shaped me to be confident, respectful, and gave me long-lasting
friendships.
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51. When I joined a fraternity. I was never really involved in school but this opened my
eyes.
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60. Joining my sorority – my sorority sisters helped me to be a happier person and work
well with others. The long term effect will be strong friendships and the ability to
communicate with anyone from any background.
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61. The very positive influence on my life here at LMU was joining my sorority. This
experience really gave me a family here. I can rely on my sisters for anything I need.
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Joining my sorority is a support base for me; and so they also encourage me to do the best
in school. I love my sisters and my sorority.
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85. My first college game. I played my first college game in water polo as a freshman
and I started. It was a much different level of water polo then what I was used to. It
made an impact on me in a sense that it showed me how hard I need to work to become
better but that anything is possible.
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87. Being involved in the school soccer team. For the first time I was playing along with
different races. I’m going to be involved in more sports in the future.
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8. Making the transition from home to college (7)
18. One incident was my decision to transfer from USF to LMU. I always wanted to stay
close to home like my parents wanted but my decision to transfer allowed me to find
myself in LA being away from home and learning how to be more independent.
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26. (a) I guess the entire freshman year was an experience that shaped who I am today.
From the people, especially my roommate (b) who is a very open minded and relaxed and
intelligent young woman who helped me cope with many other situations. (c) I believe
that freshman year helped me to become independent through the responsibilities I had of
doing laundry to doing homework. (d) In conclusion, it allowed me to transition into
becoming who I am and going to the real world.
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29. Similar to most students, getting ready to enter college I was excited and ready to
move out of my parent’s house. Once the time actually arrived leaving outside of my
parents home simply did not seem realistic, my family situation was extremely difficult.
However, my mother gave me courage and forced me to go – and I thank her for it
everyday as I prepare my applications for law school. I know I wouldn’t be in this place
if my mother wouldn’t have placed her needs after mine. This was a very difficult
situation but we overcame it and my character/person has built from it.
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48. My freshman year I lived in Hannon so I didn’t know too many people so I attended
the first year getaway and I met some amazing people- including my current boss and it
shaped who I am. It gave me a sense of self and it made me realize that in order to love
LMU I had to make it a home and I did. I got involved and I love LMU.
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72. The transition from living at school from home. I am a very family oriented person
and it was difficult to get accustomed to my new life at school. I was now on my own
taking care of myself and making my own decisions. It was quite a shock.
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83. When I finally decided to dorm at LMU for my sophomore year I was able to
experience great freedom, but a tremendous amount of responsibility as well. My
roommate was a tremendous friend to me. He was a Mexican and we straight up bonded
because he was a proud Mexican. We became proud of our race. We were proud to be
minorities. We’re real cool now. I am able to learn about my race and be truly happy to
be who I am, I am happy to be happy with myself and I can hold my head high and be a
proud Mexican and I don’t have reservations about myself.
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91. For me, my college experience has been a great one, overall. I always knew I was
going to go to college. My family, especially my mom and dad, always knew I would
graduate from college. After my dad died, in my sophomore year at LMU, I was
devastated but I always told myself I would make him proud of me so when things get
tough I think of my dad and make him proud of his little girl.
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9. Dealing with situations involving alcohol (6)
1. One night as I was with my family and boyfriend, my parent chose to take my
boyfriend to his campus dorm. It was night and about eleven o'clock. Neither my parents
nor I had never been on campus that late because I commute in the mornings and return
home every afternoon. I knew of the on campus drinking incidents, but my parents were
astounded to see so many under aged students intoxicated on campus. It stirred such
negative feelings that my parents oppose my staying on campus for my late afternoon
education classes and do not allow me to return on campus on the weekends. This
incident occurred seven months ago. I do not drink and because so many of my friends
living in dorms on campus, I was not as surprised to see this incident. I continue to
refrain from drinking out of my own choice.
9-S-1-4-J-F
6. On Halloween of 2005 I went to the Halloween Bash with friends. I got extremely
drunk, more drunk than I had ever been in my life. I didn't and still don't drink often but I
did then. I went to a party beforehand and was flirting with a guy I knew but not very
well. Then we went to the dance and I was almost not admitted. I don't remember much
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of what happened, but I was soon dancing with the guy from the pre-party and we were
making out. I had never ever done anything like that before. My friend was with me and
she began yelling at the guy, who was also very drunk. She was threatening him and we
finally left the dance. He tried to help me back and she was yelling at him nonstop, all the
while crying. She was also very drunk. She had told me before that she had been raped,
and the guy finally stopped following us after being told he'd have to urinate from a
catheter after she was done with him. She told me that she wouldn't want me to be in the
place she was where she could not say no. I was still very drunk and upset by everything,
so I also began crying. Later we went upstairs with her (then) boyfriend who was also
with us the whole time, and she threw up into my sink for a good 20 minutes. I started to
sober up and I realized what had happened. I had been raised in a very strict Catholic
home and I had never done anything close to what had happened. Being a good Catholic I
started feeling very guilty and I beat myself up for what happened a lot. The next day I
called the guy I had made out with and we talked. I was so embarrassed for what
happened not only because of my friend who had yelled at him, but also because I had
done anything like that at all. He assured me that everything was okay and he really liked
me a lot and wanted to hang out more often. I felt somewhat better but I still largely felt
ashamed and guilty. At the time I was seeing a therapist on campus and I told her what
happened. She laughed and said that was a crazy night, when I was expecting to be
lectured and to be made to feel worse. My therapist told me that perhaps the situation I
was in was somewhat dangerous, and to learn from it in that way, but to also take it as an
experience and to not beat myself up for it. I began to feel less and less bad about what
happened. I also started to learn that although I need to be more careful, it was also a very
fun experience and something new and different that I can look back on and laugh. The
guy is now my boyfriend and he is a very loving and caring person. I learned about
myself in that I will usually overreact and automatically think negatively about situations
that are not as bad as I think they are. I also learned more about other people, and how
they can project themselves onto a situation, such as the instance with my friend who was
raped and reacted to what happened. Throughout my life, I would constantly blame
myself for things, and I sometimes still do. However, it was this experience that made me
recognize my addiction to negativity and to conquer it by thinking rationally and being
more forgiving toward myself. It was a fun night, might have made a few slip-ups which
will easily be learned from for the next time I drink, but overall I had a lot of fun. I
learned I need to let myself have these crazy experiences once in a while. If I were
always that drunk, then it would be a problem, but what happened was really not as bad
as I thought. I learned to take care of myself in every sense of the phrase.
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13. I was getting into my building and this intoxicated girl was walking out and she hit
me and from then on she would give me bad looks and i always wanted to talk to her but i
was afriad that i would do something or say something i didn't want to, so instead i
decided not talk to her and practice some self control
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32. I am a resident advisor in a sophomore building. I am currently a junior who
regularly deals with difficult situation with my peers such as drinking and partying in the
dorms. One of my fellow male residents, who I am friends with, got involved in such a
situation and received probation for drinking. As I tried to help him and give him advice,
he pulled out a beer in front of me. As a RA, I needed to report his actions, but as a
friend of his, I didn’t and said nothing. This placed me in a situation where I
reconsidered my authority position and realized I really just wanted to be a student and
friend.
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43. I struggled with drinking and using it to cover up how I feel for most of my college
career. The outcomes of my being drunk and the actions I did hurt lots of other people I
care about and myself. I kept telling myself that what I did under the influence was just a
one-time-thing that could fix itself. It wasn’t. After 3 years of hurting those around me, I
realized that my drinking problem was not only mine, but also those around me when I
involved them. So I decided that I couldn’t be selfish and hurt those I love with my
alcoholism anymore. So, for others and myself, I’ve stopped drinking. (36 days).
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71. One night during freshman year, my roommate was really intoxicated to the point
where he was vomiting multiple times even in the car. I basically had to watch over him
to see that he was okay and that he wasn’t getting worse. This incident was important
because it strengthened our relationship.
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10. Learning about myself by coping with unexpected adversity (9)
4. a.) Me and my ex-boyfriend from high school broke up. b.)My ex-boyfriend was a
great guy and someone I really trusted c.)This incident really taught me to become more
independent and forced me to look at who I was outside of a relationship. It was my first
relationship and I really learned about what I wanted in a relationship and who I wanted
to be in a relationship with. d.)I've learned that I am the only person I can truly depend
on. I've also learned that I am an incredibly strong person and that I don't need other
people or a relationship to make me happy. It has given me a sense of who I am,
independent of another person.
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9. I moved 6 hours away from home, and learned that there was a possibility that I could
have breast cancer. This experience allowed me to experience life on my own and taught
me how strong of a person I really am.
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16. My sophomore year of college I got my heart severely broken and I went first through
a period of depression then through a period of being out of control. This person was
someone who was my high school sweetheart (I had been with him for 5 years) and he
mislead me through the whole relationship. Since then, I am a new person-I have learned
the value of self-esteem and I do not let people walk all over me anymore.
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28. My grandfather had been sick and I wanted to fly to Oregon over Thanksgiving to be
with him. To do this, I was going to have to miss a class and this would drop my grade in
the class from an A to a B+. The teacher would not sympathize with me and would not
make any exceptions. In the end I got a B+ anyways even though I did not go on the trip.
My grandfather passed before I ever saw him again. I blame myself for this and it made
me realize how important family and friends are. This has impacted my priorities.
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36. This is not really a specific incident, just and experience. I currently live with a girl
who is very dependent, paranoid, over emotional, and melodramatic…everything I’m not.
Living with her has made me become a better person, and has helped me mature, because
in juxta position to her persona, I realized what is actually important in life. Although
she annoys me, living with her has made me visualize the of person I don’t want to be
and has made me more mature and responsible.
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58. An ex-boyfriend broke down my door late one night and attacked a male friend that
was at my house (broke his nose, etc) and attempted to attack/threaten me. Fortunately,
neighbors called the police and he was arrested and convicted of burglary and assault
(felony charges). This experience is important because it was my first exposure to
serious violence-a crime scene (blood everywhere, cops, etc.). Long-term-I have trouble
trusting people. Still I feel guilty because my friend got hurt. I blame myself for the
situation.
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69. My girlfriend’s mom was diagnosed with breast cancer last year and later developed a
brain tumor. Very negative. This taught me to appreciate life and family more. Long-
term effect- live a healthier life to try to avoid cancer/deadly diseases.
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82. A negative experience I’ve had was come from my friends and some of their parents.
Many of them thought it was dumb of me to spend so much time, money & effort in
going to school. Listening to that made me want to go to school & continue w/ my
education. I wanted my parents to feel proud & make myself do something that others
didn’t think I could of done. It made want to complete school & have a career that I will
enjoy.
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88. It was my grandmother’s death, last May. I realized that college life itself was not all
about studying and focusing on school. I realized that I also needed to take time to spend
with my family and friend because we never know what might happen to our loved ones.
I believe that now I will put my family first and will actually care about my newly
formed relationships.
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11. Developing a network of college friends (9)
38. I came to LMU from out of state and didn’t know anyone. As a freshman, I went to
an “out of staters” meet and greet. There I was able to meet other people in my same
situation. I think it was important because I was able to connect with people and have
something in common with them. Even today, I room with two of the girls I met and am
still friends with some of the others.
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44. I’m an off-campus student so freshman year I was very detached and worked off
campus. One girl in my class told me that they were hiring where she worked and ever
since I’ve been working in that office (office of chicano latino student services) and she
is one of my closest and cherished friends. Our friendship will last a lifetime. She is my
friend but when this happened we were just acquaintances. She was willing to extend a
hand and warm welcome without even really knowing me. And she made it so personal
and from the heart. Courtesy and kindness is contagious. I will always be willing to help
someone when given the opportunity that same way she did to me. I’m here for others
the way so many others have been here for me.
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45. When I entered college I met a friend who became my boyfriend. He changed in
many ways but the most important was that he made me start standing up for myself. It
was important because in college you have to be strong and independent, and now I
consider myself a strong person compared to how I used to be.
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52. Running the LA marathon with MAGIS service organization among my best friends.
We then built a home in TJ with the funds raised from the marathon.
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66. Working over the summer with a couple of best friends. I learned something about
one of them that made me think about the people I surround myself with and now they
are making me a better person. He was a good friend of mine and I used to give him
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rides to his friend’s house after work. I later found out that it was a drug dealer’s house
and I was basically helping him get high. I don’t want to put people around me that
aren’t helping me get better as a person. It makes me want better relationships with
friends that are positive influences.
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70. In the future I want to be a psychologist/therapist but what has made me believe that I
will be good at it is that random people have come to me telling me their problems and
asking me for advice. One time I walked into class and a classmate I had talked to only
once before came and sat next to me. She started crying and describing something that
had happened to her and she was asking me about what to do. I did my best to give her
suggestions about what she could do but just listening to her helped her out a lot. I was
glad she felt comfortable enough to confide in me.
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75. Building a beer pong table in our on-campus apartment. All my roommates (3)
worked together and bonded while we built the table. We were already friends coming in
but after we built the table we really bonded. It really made my college experience and
defined my sophomore year. I am now training to go play in the world series of beer
pong where my teammate and I are poised to win the $20,000 grand prize.
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77. My friend I met on campus. It was important to me because they showed me around.
The long-term effect would be a good friend and I will continue to need them and they
will continue to need me.
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78. In one of my classes the teacher selected groups to work as groups in a community
service project. Our leader was a very competitive young woman that would undermine
my attempts to organize fun time for the group. Another one was a rude young man and
another one had some very negative personal traits. It was a torture working with them. I
endured invalidation and isolation. But I learned to stay under the radar and pretend or
show I like the others.
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12. Having academic experiences that allowed me to know myself better (6)
7. I once took a theology class entitled, "ignatian spirituality". this class was semester
long, yet the result the class had for me was beyond rewarding. every class meeting, we
would share our prayer meditations with each other, (around 15 other theology students),
and then discern each of our prayers together. this class helped me grow, GROW! events
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in my life that i had ached over for longer than half my life became clearer, and i was
able to finally resolve some important issues in my life.
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19. It was my first college class. I expected a class of 30 people in stead I was one of 800
students with a professor and a projection screen. I felt lost in a sea of people and I
couldn’t concentrate on the material. This experience led me to transfer to LMU because
of the smaller classes and better learning environment. I feel this has helped make my
college experience better and more fulfilling.
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23. The defining incident would be expulsion from school and returning 4-years later to
graduate. It was a wake up cal that reality did not care about my problems. I am
embarrassed about the expulsion but proud that I returned. Also, there was a definite loss
of the college experience, even after returning.
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30. My second year, I had taken a year off of school to determine if LMU was the school
for me. During this time, I worked a fulltime job, attended a local college and attended
night classes. This year in particular was self-discovery because I had become more
focused and more determined. That time allowed me to contemplate my career goals and
future. It reinstated that I do want to be at LMU and I do want to be a successful lawyer
and political official.
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34. The one influential moment for me in college was at the end of my first semester of
college. I didn’t find it difficult or anything, but just like my education in the past. After
the end of my first semester, my GPA was higher than I expected, which surprised me. It
was at this point that I realized how potential I had in myself to really do and be what
ever I wanted. This resulted in me deciding to transfer colleges so that I may be
academically challenged. From this I know I can take on anything in life and excel.
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74. Study abroad in Spain. Two of my closest buddies, funny sincere, genuine. This
experience expanded myself to new things. I am more culturally aware than I was
before. It allows me to appreciate everyone and everything more. I no longer have a
microprosepetive of the world, but I have a macroperspective of it.
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13. Confronting difficult academic experiences (2)
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39. I’ve always felt that math has been my weakness. I’m not very good at it and so
when it came to taking a math class in college I kept putting it aside. This actually only
helped to delay my graduation date. A fear of not being good at something created an
insecurity within myself. I’m happy to say that I finally took my math class, though it
took me two times. Finishing the class was a great accomplishment, making me feel that
if I can complete my math class I can surely obtain my degree.
13-F-3-1-J-F
57. Failing my first test made me realize the seriousness of college and how much effort
it requires to succeed. How I do here determines or is a reflection of my life in the future.
13-F-1-7-J-F
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
Despite the growing number of First-Generation Latino undergraduates enrolled at Loyola Marymount University (LMU), the effect of their college experiences on the development of identity in this subgroup of students has limited studies.
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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Harrington, William Paul, Jr.
(author)
Core Title
The sources of impact on first-generation Latino college students' identity development: from the students' perspective
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Education
Publication Date
03/12/2009
Defense Date
01/16/2009
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
college,college experiences,Development,first-generation,identity,identity development,impacts,Latino,OAI-PMH Harvest,Service,undergraduate
Place Name
educational facilities: Loyola Marymount University
(geographic subject)
Language
English
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
Advisor
Goodyear, Rodney K. (
committee chair
), Stowe, Kathy Huisong (
committee member
), Tuitt, Donahue (
committee member
)
Creator Email
pharrington@bishopdiego.org,wharring@usc.edu
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m2025
Unique identifier
UC1103173
Identifier
etd-Harrington-2648 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-206630 (legacy record id),usctheses-m2025 (legacy record id)
Legacy Identifier
etd-Harrington-2648.pdf
Dmrecord
206630
Document Type
Dissertation
Rights
Harrington, William Paul, Jr.
Type
texts
Source
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
Repository Name
Libraries, University of Southern California
Repository Location
Los Angeles, California
Repository Email
cisadmin@lib.usc.edu
Tags
college experiences
first-generation
identity development
impacts
Latino
undergraduate