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Preparing students for a twenty-first century global workplace in an era of accountability

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PREPARING STUDENTS FOR A TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY GLOBAL
WORKPLACE IN AN ERA OF ACCOUNTABILITY

by
Sebastian Cognetta

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2010

Copyright 2010 Sebastian Cognetta

ii
Dedication

This dissertation is dedicated to my wife, Susie, and our daughter, Belén. Without their
unwavering support and patience, this accomplishment would never have been possible.
They’ll never be as proud of me as I am of them.

iii
Acknowledgments

Dr. Pedro Garcia: dissertation chair, mentor, and motivator

Dr. Tatiana Melguizo and Dr. Greg Bowman: panel members and consummate
professionals

Steve Regur, Ed.D. and Antonio Gonzalez, Ed.D.: fellow doctoral candidates,
accomplished educators, and incredible friends with whom I’ve been fortunate enough to
share this journey

iv
Table of Contents
Dedication ii
Acknowledgments iii
List of Tables vi
List of Figures vii
Abstract viii

Chapter 1: Overview of the Study 1
Introduction 1
Background of the Problem 1
Statement of the Problem 9
Purpose of the Study 10
Research Questions 11
Limitations 11
Delimitations 11
Assumptions 12
Definitions 12
Organization of the Study 15

Chapter 2: Literature Review 16
Introduction 16
Historical Initiatives Addressing Skills and Literacy 17
Global Forces and Trends Defining the Twenty-First Century Workplace 22
District-Wide Reform 31
California School Finance 37
Time Line of Educational Finance in California 38
Current Landscape of School Finance in California 43
The Role of Leadership 46
Gaps in the Literature 51
Summary 52

Chapter 3: Methodology 53
Introduction 53
Sample and Population 55
Data Collection 61
Data Analysis 67
Ethical Considerations 68

v
Chapter 4: Data Analysis and Interpretation of Findings 69
Introduction 69
Question One: What is the District’s Plan for Identifying and
Implementing Twenty-First Century skills? 71
Findings for the Genesis and Elements of District Plan 72
Question Two: To What Extent Has the District Plan for
Twenty-First Century Skills Been Implemented? 81
Findings for the Extent of Implementation for the Plan 82
Question Three: How Does the District Measure the Effectiveness
of the Twenty-First Century Skills Plan? 87
Findings Regarding the Measuring and Monitoring of the Plan 87
Question Four: What are the Traits of the District’s Leaders and
How Have Those Traits Influenced the Plan for
Twenty-First Century Skills? 92
Findings for the Traits of District Leadership’s
Influence on the Plan 94
Conclusion 101
Theme One: The Influence of Local Social and
Political Pressures 102
Theme Two: Data Analysis as Integral Component of
Continuous Improvement Cycle 103
Theme Three: Expanded Student Expectations by
District Leadership 104

Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations 106
Summary of Findings 106
Implications of Findings 108
Areas for Future Research 109
Conclusion 109

References 111
Appendixes 119
Appendix A: Consent Form 119
Appendix B: Information/Facts Sheet for Non-Medical Research 120
Appendix C: 124: Informed Consent for Non-Medical Research 124
Appendix D: 124: Pre-Visit Form 130
Appendix E: 124: Interview for District Leaders 132
Appendix F: 124: Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire 134

vi
List of Tables
Table 2.1: Key Documents Defining 21
st
Century Skills 18
Table 2.2: 21
st
Century School Movement Compared to No Child Left Behind 21
Table 2.3: U. S. 15-Year-Old Performance Compared with Other Countries 26
Table 2.4: Public School Income (in millions of nominal dollars) 40
Table 3.1: District List of School 2008 API and Program Improvement 57
Table 3.2: District List of Schools 2008 Adequate Yearly Progress 58
Table 3.3: Students by Ethnicity-Hansen Unified School District 59
Table 3.4: Special Programs- Hansen Unified School District 60
Table 3.5: Triangulation of Data 66
Table 4.1: Research Question One 71
Table 4.2: Research Question Two 81
Table 4.3: Frequency of Global or International Content Inclusion 86
Table 4.4: Research Question Three 87
Table 4.5: Excerpt from Hansen Unified School District Principal Evaluation 90
Table 4.6: Research Question Four 92
Table 4.7: Transformational Leadership Framework 94
Table 4.8: Section One of Transformational Leadership Survey 96
Table 4.9: Section Two of Transformational Leadership Survey 97
Table 4.10: Section Three of Transformational Leadership Survey 99

vii
List of Figures
Figure 2.1: Global Labor Force and Global Capital/Labor Ratio 28
Figure 2.2: California School Funding Sources 2008-09 43
Figure 2.3: Per-pupil Revenue Changes 44
Figure 2.4: CA Education Funding 2007-08 Through 2009-10 45
Figure 4.1: Survey Question – Impact on Student Achievement 80

viii
Abstract
The purpose of the study is to thoroughly examine a school district’s plan for
developing, implementing, and monitoring a strategic plan for adequately preparing
students with twenty-first century skills or the marketable skills students will need in
order to contribute to the dynamic twenty-first century workplace while meeting federal
and state accountability mandates. Incorporated into the study is the analysis of
leadership qualities believed to be associated with the realization of the twenty-first
century skills plan.
Qualitative case study research methodology was utilized to accomplish the
collection, analysis, and interpretation of the relevant data for the study. The study
focused in on a single public school district Hansen Unified School District selected on
the basis of the district’s sustained academic achievement results as measured by
standardized assessments of content and skills as well as having an established strategic
plan for preparing students with twenty-first century marketable skills.
The analysis revealed three principal findings:
1. The strategic plan’s original intentions was to continue to improve student
achievement motivated by influential local stakeholders, including board members,
parents, and community organizations, as opposed to the increasingly clearer demands of
the twenty-first century workplace. Local social and political pressures influenced the
development of the plan greater than federal or state accountability mandates,

ix
international benchmarking assessments, or global economic pressures,
2. As an integral component of a continuous improvement cycle, data analysis is
directly tied to aligned district, school, and classroom goals.
3. By expanding expectations for all students, as opposed to narrowing
expectations, the district leadership assuaged the local social and political pressures and
experienced sustained student achievement growth.
Suggestions for future studies include focusing on urban districts with similar
plans, and districts significantly impacted by budget reductions and economic strife as
Hansen Unified a basic aid district effected considerably less than many districts by the
economic crisis at the time of the study.

1
Chapter 1: Overview of the Study
Introduction
As federal and state accountability mandates emphasize the important and arduous
task of having all students demonstrate proficiency in the basic content areas of English
and mathematics, American schools face the challenge of preparing students for an
increasingly interdependent world. In what can be considered an accountability infancy
for public education in the United States a significant number of public school districts
have narrowed curricula to focus on what is measured on standardized assessments of
learning (Levister, 2006). As a result this has limited the opportunities for students to
acquire the skills necessary to participate productively in an increasingly interconnected
world.
Background of the Problem
The world in which America’s current public school students will graduate into is
increasingly interconnected and demands a fundamentally different set of skills from its
workforce (Stewart, 2007). While many factors have been explored in attempts to explain
the nature of the twenty-first century workplace four global forces, believed to be well
within the sphere of influence of public school districts, will be discussed. The four
forces are: (a) an increasingly global economy, (b) advances in science and technology,
(c) national security matters, and (d) changing demographics due to increased migration.
Evidence of the first global force, a global economy, is varied and abundant. One
indicator of an increasingly interdependent world economy can be found in the effects
financial markets have on one another. Major markets from Japan to the United States

2
have influenced the rise and decline of one another (Chan, 2002). The U. S. Census
Bureau (Fronczek & Johnson, 2003) maintains that one in five U. S. jobs are currently
tied to international trade, a proportion expected to only increase. The economies of
China, India, and the former Soviet bloc, representing approximately 18 % of the world’s
gross domestic product in 2004, are expected to represent over 50 % of the world’s gross
domestic product by 2034, as these countries transition from once closed economies to
open economies (Wilson, 2005).
The advances in science and technology serve as a second global force. Friedman
(2005) stated that the wiring of the world has facilitated the capability for corporations
and individuals to complete work tasks anytime anywhere and with just about anyone.
More common are corporate tasks being executed by international teams collaborating to
meet a common end. Recent technological advances have granted access to an
unprecedented amount of information. The overabundance of information at the virtual
fingertips of many people around the world is unparalleled in comparison to generations
past.
The third global force involves national security matters for the United States and
other nations. Every major issue that people face has an international element to it.
Whether the issue is water shortages in Bolivia, energy production in Iran, or terrorism
threats to the United States the solutions will require the involvement of international
teams (Stewart, 2007). In a recent Reuters' (2008) article former Secretary of State
Condoleezza Rice stated that:
The lack of quality education for all children jeopardizes the fundamental
American belief that every citizen has the opportunity for success, no matter

3
their background or place of origin. If we can't keep that true for every
American, we're going to lose who we are, and then we won't lead -- and so it is,
for me, the most pressing national security issue.

The increasingly global economy has accelerated international migration. The
fourth global force international migration may well be the most concrete and visible of
the four global forces, as it is evident throughout the world. In the United States alone
immigrants from Asia and the Americas have established communities that help mirror
the diversity of the world (Stewart, 2007). Americans are working abroad in
unprecedented numbers and is expected to increase according to a 2005 publication by
Shelter Offshore (Shelter Offshore, 2005) an offshore banking and investment firm for
Americans working and living abroad.
As the world continues to grow more interconnected and American students find
themselves competing against and collaborating with individuals from every corner of the
globe, it is necessary to understand how American students fare in comparison to their
international counterparts. When compared to the educational gains of developed and
developing nations the United States is being eclipsed in its ability to prepare students for
their own and our collective futures (Schleicher, 2006). The desire of government
officials, educators, and many in the general public to surpass the performance of the
United States’ economic rivals has fueled the interest in the use of international
comparisons of student learning for more than one-half a century.
Recognizing the opportunity to use the world as an educational laboratory the
International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement established the
first international mathematics study in 1964 and the trends in mathematics and science

4
study. The trends in mathematics and science study is administered every 4 years and
designed to measure what students have learned from each participating country’s
implemented mathematics and science curricula (Scott, 2004). The study indicated that
the United States, while making modest gains at fourth and eighth grade in science and
mathematics, continues to trail countries including Singapore, Chinese Taipei, and the
Russian Federation (Scott, 2004).
While the purpose of the study is to evaluate how well students have learned the
content and skills taught in their respective mathematics and science curricula the
purpose of the program for international student achievement, an international
benchmarking assessment, is to measure the extent to which students are able to apply the
mathematics and science they have learned. The program is administered by the
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development an intergovernmental
organization of developed countries. The program's findings for the United States are
concerning, as American students scored lower than the Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development's [OECD] (2006) average, the mean of 30 organization
countries, on the combined science literacy scale and the mathematics literacy scale. A
comparison of high school graduation rates shows the United States performing well
below the average among participating Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development countries.
The results from international assessments of student learning reveals a negative
display of how American students compare to the very individuals they will be
collaborating with and competing against for jobs. While the trends in mathematics and

5
science study and the Program for International Student Achievement help to understand
American students’ mathematics and science skills set and knowledge base the measures
do not explain how well American students are informed about the world they live in.
The results from a 2006 geography survey taken by approximately 5 hundred 18
to 24-year-old students suggest that American students are uninformed (National
Geographic Society [NGS] , 2006). Some disturbing results from the survey indicate that
87 % cannot identify Iraq on a map regardless of the amount of news coverage the Iraq
war receives, and 75 % failed to locate Indonesia despite the recent tsunami that has
crippled large parts of that nation. The majority of those surveyed could not identify
Indonesia as the largest Muslim country in the world in spite of the prominent role this
particular religion plays in current world affairs.
The inadequate geographical skills of many young Americans do not solely apply
to knowledge beyond our borders. The survey included questions regarding the role of
the United States in the world and questions on United States geography. The survey
divulged that a majority of young adults overestimate the population of our country while
less than one-half correctly located the states of Ohio and New York (NGS, 2006). A
majority of young adults could not correctly identify the United States as the largest
exporter of goods and services in the world.
The argument could be made that perhaps American schools could do a better job
teaching geography. These findings reveal how Americans know little about the world
and the lack of appreciation and understanding of America’s place within the global
community.

6
The effectiveness of America's schools found to be relatively static in comparison
to that of several rapidly improving countries over past decades. The significant
deficiency in global knowledge among many recent graduates indicate that what is
currently emphasized in U. S. schools is not adequately serving American industries, the
general welfare of the U. S., nor many of its individual citizens (Jackson, 2009).
This is by no means the first examination of the vulnerability in America’s
education system. The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 was a
cornerstone of President Johnson’s war on poverty; whereby, the origins of the act can be
traced to the public perception that American schools were inferior (Jeffrey, 1978).
This landmark federal act represents the first local, state, and federal shared
initiative to ensure that the products of American schools were the best in world in their
respective fields. The particular legislation continues to be in effect today through the
dissemination of funds, particularly Title 1 funds which target schools serving high
poverty populations.
The substantial increase in federal spending on education brought with it the
expectation of improved student outcomes from government and many in the general
public (Thomas, 2005). Initially schools were held accountable for ensuring that the
students for whom the funding was allocated for were truly receiving services. Over the
past few decades accountability began to shift away from focusing on spending audits
towards student outcomes. In 1983 the National Commission on Excellence in Education
published its report A Nation at Risk which further escalated the need to reform public

7
schools and hold schools accountable for the achievement of their students (Kirst &
Meister, 1985).
The current education policy known as No Child Left Behind (NCLB), was
another response to the declining quality of American education in a global context. The
cornerstones of the legislation are the unprecedented accountability targets almost
entirely tied to student achievement and the requirement of districts and schools to
disaggregate and report data on the groups of students they serve. In 2001 President Bush
signed No Child Left Behind into law requiring states to develop grade level standards,
assessments tied to these standards, and adopt curricular materials aligned to the
standards (U. S. Department of Education, 2006). Pronounced in the language of No
Child Left Behind is the assumption that in order for the United States to maintain its
competitive advantage in the world core competencies in mathematics, science, and
English must be guaranteed (U. S. Department of Education, 2006).
The impact No Child Left Behind has had on public schools has received
significant attention and the merits of the act continue to be a strong point of contention
among educators, policymakers, and countless concerned citizens (Linn, 2005).
Opponents of the act claim that the increased emphasis on standardized test scores in a
few content areas notably language arts and mathematics has resulted in a narrowing of
curricula in many school districts across the United States.
The narrowing of curricula has had adverse effects on student outcomes. The
common practice among districts of prioritizing certain concepts over others based on
what is assessed on standardized measures of student learning and minimizing or even

8
eliminating concepts that are not assessed continues to be on the rise as results on
standardized assessments support the practice (Thomas, 2005). The externality of a
practice may well be the elimination of opportunities for students to learn the necessary
concepts and skills to compete in a global economy. The dilemma presented by No Child
Left Behind is that the legislation itself was a federal response to the threat of America
losing its competitive edge. Districts have conjured strategies that, while increasing
student achievement on standardized assessments, result in students being ill-prepared for
an increasingly global and interconnected twenty-first century world. Many districts have
forgone teaching twenty-first century skills in order to ensure achievement on high stakes
assessments.
While many have attempted to define a finite set of skills necessary for twenty-
first century work few have truly examined multiple cross sections of the current and
future workplace. By interviewing industry leaders from Apple to the U. S. Army and a
comprehensive analysis of literature regarding the skills employers desire in their
employee Wagner (2008) identified the emergence of seven skills. Wagner’s contribution
can be interpreted as the skills necessary in order to adapt to a rapidly changing world.
The essential skills identified by Wagner extend beyond the skills necessary to
properly perform increasingly internationalized job duties to participate in a democracy
and value life-long learning (Wagner, 2008). The skills are: (a) critical thinking and
problem solving, (b) collaboration across network and leading by influence, (c) agility
and adaptability, (d) initiative and entrepreneurialism, (e) effective oral and written
communication, (f) accessing and analyzing information, (g) curiosity and imagination.

9
The skills and other similar frameworks are gaining recognition across America as
necessary tools to respond to the twenty-first century workplace.
Educational leaders at the federal, state, and local levels are becoming
increasingly aware of the demands of the twenty-first century workplace and the need for
educational institutions to adapt to meet the demands according to the National
Association of State Boards of Education (2006). Recommendations such as infusing
classroom instruction with a strong global perspective are on the rise and have been
disseminated by a host of organizations ranging from national organizations to concerned
parents (Stewart, 2007). As the number of stakeholders interested in the preparedness of
America’s students rises, district leaders are better equipped to respond to the demands of
the twenty-first century workplace and being held accountable to do so.
Statement of the Problem
Despite the fact that the demands of the twenty-first century workplace extend far
beyond core content knowledge a significant number of public school districts continue
to focus valuable resources primarily on high stakes test performance. The emphasis
placed on high stakes tests has hindered the capacity of many districts to identify and
implement the necessary initiatives to effectively teach twenty-first century skills. A
multitude of definitions of twenty-first century skills appear to have only obstructed the
intent of many school districts to prepare students for a more interconnected, global, and
dynamic twenty-first century workplace.
While few school districts have developed a vision and initiatives targeting
twenty-first century skill instruction they continue the nonexistence of appropriate

10
monitoring tools in order to evaluate effectiveness. Models for identifying, implementing,
and monitoring the acquisition of twenty-first century skills are scarce. As a result, many
school districts continue to narrow their curricula to highly tested content areas.
While literature on the merits of high stakes testing and twenty-first century skills
are numerous analysis of school districts are unavailable that are effectively meeting
accountability targets without abandoning opportunities for students to acquire the skills
and knowledge that will allow them to successfully compete and contribute in a twenty-
first century workplace.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study is to identify a public school district that is meeting or
exceeding the federally mandated student achievement targets while providing a robust
education aimed at preparing students for a twenty-first century workplace. It was the
intent of the study to identify how a public school district ensures adequate standardized
assessment results and grants students access to twenty-first century skills. The research
examines: (a) the process in which a district identifies twenty-first century skills and (b)
the development, implementation, and monitoring of their plan to teach students twenty-
first century skills. The primary objective of the study was to offer a template for other
districts seeking to exceed accountability targets while ensuring that the education
provided to students prepares them for the global demands of the work force.

11
Research Questions
1. What is the district’s plan for identifying and implementing twenty-first century
skills?
2. To what extent has the district’s plan for twenty-first century skills been
implemented?
3. How does the district measure the effectiveness of the twenty-first century
skills plan?
4. What are the traits of the district leadership and how have those traits
influenced the plan for twenty-first century skills?
Limitations
Limitations are discussed to analyze possible threats to the study's validity and to
acknowledge existing flaws to the research design of the study. The data collected in the
study have been collected during a 4-month period. As a result, relevant findings may not
have been identified due to the limited window for data collection. Due to the focus on
one district those participating in surveys and interviews may have limited perspectives
based on their experience levels, role in the district, and commitment to the initiative. The
accuracy to which the participants truthfully conveyed their intentions may be considered
a possible limitation as well.
Delimitations
Delimitations or boundaries imposed by the researcher prior to the study are
discussed in order to address threats to validity. The study has gathered qualitative data,
including questionnaire and interview protocols from one school district in Southern

12
California meeting a specific requirement, as opposed to a random sampling of school
districts. While triangulation of data was utilized researcher bias and subjectivity cannot
be dismissed as potential threats to validity. Though generalization for the study’s
findings to dissimilar districts may not be appropriate the selection of the particular
district was purposefully done to gather relevant data for the study. Included in the
sample are the superintendent, director level administrators, and several site
administrators.
Assumptions
Assumptions have been made on behalf of the researcher. The data collected
through participant survey and interviews are assumed to be truthful. The district selected
for the study is assumed to be implementing the plan for twenty-first century marketable
skills at an adequate level.
Definitions
Twenty-first century skills: The future demands on workers in an increasingly
global job market (Neuen & Giasolli, 2008; Partnership for 21
st
Century Skills, 2004;
Wagner, 2008). At the core the definition is the need for international knowledge and
skills (Asia Society, 2008).
Global competitiveness: The demand for globally competitive workers is applied
to the discussion of education including college, college preparation, and kindergarten
through Grade 12 education. The primary argument lies in the assumption that global
markets are increasingly interconnected, including labor markets. The notion of global

13
competitiveness assumes that increasing competition with other nations requires U. S.
citizens to improve their ability to compete for jobs with workers from any country.
Goals 2000: President Bill Clinton signed the Goals 2000: Educate America Act
(Federal Education Program, n. d.) on March 31, 1994. The purpose of the federal
legislation was to help students achieve their full potential. The legislation included a
variety of funding initiatives including a strong emphasis on the use of technology to help
students achieve high standards at the dawn of the twenty-first century skills. Many view
Goals 2000 as the precursor to No Child Left Behind.
National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP): In order to compare
students in the United States across states and territories using different standards and
standardized tests the national assessment of educational progress is a standardized test
administered nationally. The results of the test include periodically assessment in
mathematics, reading, writing, science, and other areas such as world history and foreign
language. Though not required of all students the test represents the primary national
standardized test in the United States.
New forms of literacy: In some of the literature the discussion of future demands
for competencies in the job market are educational settings offered in terms of literacy.
Such an approach identifies a range of literacy such as technology literacy, multicultural
literacy, electronic media literacy, and literacy in a foreign language.
No Child Left Behind (NCLB): The reauthorization of the Elementary and
Secondary Education Act (ESEA) by President George W. Bush in 2001 is known as the
No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act. The federal act mandates standards-based education

14
reform and standards-based assessment for all states and territories. The parameters for
spending federal money to support education, often referred to by the Title of the
legislation that authorizes its use, is defined and described by No Child Left Behind. The
legislation does not authorize national standards but requires states and territories seeking
federal dollars to set standards and define standardized assessments.
Program for international student assessment (PISA): The program for
international student assessment includes 57 participating countries and represents an
effort to compare student outcomes across countries. The program collects data on
various student, family, institutional factors, student outcome data in the subjects of
mathematics, science, and literacy as well as application of knowledge in these topics to
new situations.
Standards-based education reform: In the United States since the 1980s
standards-based reform has increased to become the dominant approach to improving
kindergarten through Grade 12 student performance. The approach demands clearly
defined standards of what students should be able to know and do as well as an
accountability system to measure performance. In contrast to norm-reference approaches
which measures students relative to other students the standards-based approach requires
all students to reach the same level of predefined proficiency relative to the standards.
Standards-based subject matter: Sometimes referred to as content standards or
standards, the standards-based education reform requires a clear statement of the
knowledge and skills students need to be successful.

15
Standardized testing: Standardized tests are tests that are administered, scored,
and interpreted under consistent conditions. Many industrialized countries use
standardized tests as a means of measuring and comparing student performance. In the
United States since the authorization of No Child Left Behind all states and territories
must administer standardized tests in core subject matter such as language arts, science,
mathematics, and the social sciences in Grades 2 through 12, including graduation exams.
The reliance on standardized testing is a key component of standards-based education
reform.
Third international mathematics and science study (TIMSS): A study comprised
of 50 countries includes student performance on mathematics and science and
educational practices such as instructional techniques, materials, and time. The study is
used to compare student outcomes and educational inputs.
Organization of the Study
A review of the pertinent literature is organized around the following five
sections:
1. Historical initiatives addressing new skills and types of literacy.
2. Global forces and trends defining the twenty-first century workplace.
3. Effective practices for district-wide reform efforts.
4. Role of leadership within districts.
5. Current economic climate and educational funding.
The rationale for the methodology is explored, namely the sample population and
the research design, including processes for collecting and analyzing data.

16
Chapter 2: Literature Review
Introduction
Concerns about the achievement of American students continue to rise with
disconcerting intensity across the United States. As a result, reform efforts meant to
address student achievement shortcomings and inequities have impacted educational
policy since the mid twentieth century. Denning (1983) stated that “our once
unchallenged preeminence in commerce, industry, science, and technological innovation
is being overtaken by competitors throughout the world” (p. 1). Federal, state, and often
local educational policy were responses to an America perceived to be losing its
competitive edge.
The main objective of the literature review is to present a coherent framework
based on the current literature to guide the rest of the study. A review of the literature
regarding educating students for the demands of the twenty-first century indicate that
federal policy will continue to play a major role in the establishment and evaluation of
district plans for twenty-first century skill instruction. Human capital and the unique
capabilities and expertise of individuals that are productive in an economic context are
central to twenty-first century skills reform efforts. The review substantiates the generally
accepted belief that leadership in school district initiatives and reform ultimately serve as
either catalysts or obstacles to such ambitious reforms. The review of literature is
presented in five sections and includes literature that addresses current issues that districts
encounter as they embark upon preparing students for the twenty-first century.
The five sections include:

17
1. Examination of the historical initiatives addressing new skills and literacy.
2. Global forces and trends defining the twenty-first century workplace.
3. Effective practices for district-wide reform efforts.
4. Current economic climate and educational funding.
5. Role of leadership within districts.
Historical Initiatives Addressing Skills and Literacy
While many reform efforts focused on improving instruction and student learning
key skills and literacy, identified as vital in maintaining America’s dominant role in the
world, have made their way into the language of educational policy (Jackson, 2009;
Stewart, 2007). As recent as May of 2009, the United States Senate was examining a bill
that, if passed, would provide states with matching federal dollars to develop progressive
twenty-first century curricula (Prabhu, 2009).
Prior to the recent United States Senate bill a variety of initiatives, policies, and
commission recommendations have contributed to the shaping of instruction geared
towards preparing students for the demands of the twenty-first century workplace
(American Association of School Administrators [AASA], 2009; American Library
Association [ALA], 1989; U. S. Department of Education [DOE], 1996; U. S.
Department of Labor [DOL], 1996). Table 2.1 includes a summary of key initiatives,
white papers, and commission reports developed with the intention of defining key skills
and literacy to be taught in America’s schools.

18
Table 2.1: Key Documents Defining 21
st
Century Skills
Title Authors Year Background/Purpose
National Forum on
Information
Literacy
American Library
Association
1989
A Presidential Committee
on Information Literacy
charged with identifying
the skills required for
citizens to benefit in the
Information Age.
What Work
Requires of
Schools: A
SCANS Report for
America 2000
US Department of
Labor
1991
The Secretary’s
Commission on
Achieving Necessary
Skills (SCANS) was
asked to examine the
demands of the workplace
and whether our young
people are capable of
meeting those demands.
Preparing Students
for the 21
st

Century
American
Association of
School
Administrators
1996
The results of a study that
asked a panel of 55
experts from education,
business, and government
how to best prepare
students for the 21st
century.
the 21st Century
ssociation of
School
Administrators
1996
The results The report,
initiated by then Secretary
of Education, Richard
Rilthe technology
revolution for meeting the
Technology Literacy
Challenge.

19
The resources in Table 2.1 were developed in response to a growing sentiment
that Denning (1983) claimed, without reform, America would lose its competitive edge in
the world due to an inability to adequately prepare students for the workplace they would
enter upon graduation. The Delphi method was the prevalent method utilized in the
studies to determine guidelines and recommendations. The Delphi method is a
forecasting methodology consisting of a panel or panels of experts asked carefully
constructed questions and is based on the principle that forecasts from a structured group
of experts are more accurate than those from unstructured groups or individuals (Rowe &
Wright, 2001).
Emerging from the analysis of each initiative were several key skills each
supported by wide consensus to be vital skills required of the twenty-first century
workplace (AASA, 2009; ALA, 1989; DOE, 1996; DOL, 1996; Wagner, 2008).
The No Child left Behind Act of 2001 was a response to reclaiming America’s
competitive edge in the world. The legislation serves as the flagship federal education
reform for the beginning of the twenty-first century. It has been largely regarded as
inadequate in helping schools prepare students for the demands of the twenty-first
century workplace (Nichols & Berliner, 2005), as schools are identified as succeeding or
failing heavily based on the results of standardized assessments of language arts and
mathematics. Many argue that preparing students to perform well on standardized
measurements does not equate to the preparation necessary for the twenty-first century
world (Fusareli & Cooper, 2009; Thomas, 2005).
No Child left Behind, was signed into law in 2001, has dictated the majority of

20
recent school reform initiatives in the United States to focus on content standards,
standardized tests aligned to the defined content standards, and benchmarks of
achievement for student subgroups. Proponents and opponents of No Child left Behind
point to data indicating success or failure of the policy to make meaningful change
(Louis, Febey, and Schroeder, 2005). Even the strongest proponents of No Child left
Behind admit that policies and practices aimed at improving education must continue and
take into consideration the demands of the twenty-first century; in addition, to preparing
students for adequate performance on standardized assessments (U. S. Department of
Education, 2006).
In an effort to juxtapose the dichotomy Schoen and Fusarelli (2008) contrasted the
approach of the policies of No Child left Behind to the “21
st
-century school movement”
(p. 181). The approach of No Child left Behind in preparing American students is based
on teacher quality, standards, and testing the traditional curriculum of the twentieth
century. Schoen and Fusarelli (2008) described that the twenty-first century school
movement is indicative of the belief that education should help students prepare for a
rapidly changing information-rich society. A more detailed comparison of the two
approaches is summarized in Table 2.2.

21

Table 2.2: 21
st
Century Schools Movement compared to No Child Left Behind
21
st
-Century Schools No Child Left Behind
Driving Forces

Demands of the work place

Politicians, civil rights activists
Curricular
Implications
More flexibility in content,
pacing and methods; divergent
thinking is valued
Content is standardized, breadth
of coverage is important,
convergent thinking is valued
Advantages for
Students
Learning is individualized,
collective learning and
development of social skills is
emphasized
Test scores assures students,
parents, and employers that
graduates have mastered the
standard course of study
Disadvantages
for Students
Students may not be exposed to
as many topics as they would in
the traditional curriculum, putting
them at risk for lower scores on
standardized tests
Students may suffer from lack of
interest or have trouble retaining
information that is presented in
isolation. Students may lack
creativity and analytical ability.
Measures of
Success
Authentic” means are favored,
such as projects, performances, or
demonstrations
Achievement is demonstrated
primarily through standardized
test scores
Adapted from Schoen and Fusarelli (2008, pp.188-189)

At the core of Schoen and Fusarelli’s (2008) analysis of No Child left Behind and
the twenty-first century skills movement are the following three assumptions: (a) the
demands for high school graduates are changing, (b) current practices are not established
to meet the changing demands, and (c) policy drives practice. In order to allow innovative
district reform efforts to materialize at the district level the conclusion of the analysis is
that policy must change at the federal and state levels. The risk-taking and
experimentation needed to bring about change is stifled in high-threat work environments
currently established by accountability systems like No Child left Behind (Hagel &
Brown, 2002). Using the perspective the current education policy diminishes or even

22
punishes risk-taking; thus, the innovation required for improvement is stifled by the
demands to meet standardized measures.
Global Forces and Trends Defining the Twenty-First Century Workplace
The goal of education must be preparing students for living, learning, and
working in the future (Buchen, 2004). Although the future is uncertain the skill set
students should acquire to transition from secondary to post secondary education or the
workforce are multifaceted and relatively defined. Advances in technology, large-scale
migration, interconnected economies, and national security interests are the global forces
and trends effecting schooling worldwide. As a result, the forces and trends
deterritorialize the competencies that are rewarded and change the skill sets students the
world over need to learn to become productive, engaged, and critical citizens of the future
(Stewart, 2007; Suarez-Orozco, 2005).
Created by the United States Department of Labor the secretary’s commission on
achieving necessary skills was charged with researching the skills workers would need to
succeed in the workplace (Lerman, 2008). The commission’s finding that many of the
skills needed to succeed in the workplace were not directly taught in schools. The skills
included: (a) the ability to allocate time and resources, (b) to acquire and evaluate
information, (c) to participate appropriately as a member of a team, (d) to teach others,
(e) to negotiate differences, (f) to listen and communicate with customers and
supervisors, (g) to understand the basic functions of an organizational system, and (h) to
select and apply technology to specific tasks. The commission discovered that twenty-
first century skills incorporated academic skills, knowledge, interactive communication,

23
teamwork, adaptability, planning, self-direction, and responsibility (Lerman, 2008).
The Council of Chief State School Officers established a global education policy
statement addressing five issues and challenges facing today’s educators and called these
educators to action to meet the challenges. The five issues included:
1. High school graduates are not equipped with the skills necessary for success in
today’s global society.
2. Current standards and curricula do not adequately emphasize the necessity of
mastering world languages and cultures.
3. Schools are not designed and equipped to meet the reality of the demographic,
economic, technological, and political trends of the rapidly changing world.
4. Teachers are not sufficiently trained in twenty-first century skills and global
content.
5. The education system does not readily explore best practices from global
education counterparts or fully utilize leanings outside of the United States’ education
community (Council of Chief State School Officers, 2006).

The issues necessitate a radical transformation of how: (a) schools and school districts are
measured and (b) federal and state policies drive local educational initiatives.
The Partnership for Twenty-First Century Skills is a consortium of 26
organizations, including Apple, Dell Computer Corporation, and Cisco Systems, which
maintains that school reform efforts must concentrate on supplying students with the
skills required for success in the twenty-first century. The consortium recommends

24
connecting twenty-first century learning and school reform to produce students who will
be functional in the twenty-first century.
The consortium provides five recommendations listed below for establishing the
connection:
1. Designing schools to prepare all students with twenty-first century knowledge
and skills, including mastery of core subjects by using learning and thinking skills.
2. Strategically integrating twenty-first century knowledge, skills, and
assessments into schools, including raising academic standards, integrating learning and
thinking skills, information and communication technology literacy, and life skills into
the curriculum.
3. Requiring students to demonstrate achievement of twenty-first century
knowledge and skills such as those focusing on critical thinking, problem solving,
communication skills, as well as proving competency on information and communication
technology literacy.
4. Improving professional development in twenty-first century skills.
5. Partnering with the business community and community-based organizations to
help implement the twenty-first century skills strategy, and provide students with the
opportunity to work and learn in the classroom and community. (Zapf, Sradlin, and
Plucker, 2006).
Schoen and Fusarelli (2008) argued that the twenty-first century schools
movement is driven by industry and economics; whereas, No Child left Behind is argued
to be politically motivated in its approach to school improvement. Several political

25
organizations purposed that with influencing policy are publishing statements, guidelines,
and recommendations for improving the education of America’s future workforce. The
organizations claimed that the nature of the world’s global economy must compel
educational systems to emphasize different skills and competencies that are not the
current standard in public school districts (OECD, 2006).
A joint-issued report by the National Governors Association, the Council of Chief
State School Officers, and Achieve (2008) detailed the performance of the United States
on international benchmarking assessments as mediocre in comparison to other
participating and developed nations and reiterates a call for reform of the American
educational system as a key lever in the aim to maintain an economic competitive edge.
An example of the concerning rankings are provided in Table 2.3.

26

Table 2.3: U.S. 15-Year-Old Performance Compared with Other Countries

Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA)
Mathematics (2006)
Rank Score
Science (2006)
Rank Score
Reading (2003)
Rank Score
Problem Solving (2003)
Rank Score
1 Finland 548
2 Korea 547
3 Netherlands 531
4 Switzerland 530
5 Canada 527
6 Japan 523
7 New Zealand 522
8 Belgium 520
9 Australia 520
10 Denmark 513
11 Czech Republic 510
12 Iceland 506
13 Austria 505
14 Germany 504
15 Sweden 502
16 Ireland 501
17 France 496
18 United Kingdom
495
19 Poland 495
20 Slovak Republic 492
21 Hungary 491
22 Luxembourg 490
23 Norway 490
24 Spain 480
25 United States 474
26 Portugal 466
27 Italy 462
28 Greece 459
29 Turkey 424
30 Mexico 406
1 Finland 563
2 Canada 534
3 Japan 531
4 New Zealand 530
5 Australia 527
6 Netherlands 525
7 Korea 522
8 Germany 516
9 United Kingdom 515
10 Czech Republic 513
11 Switzerland 512
12 Austria 511
13 Belgium 510
14 Ireland 508
15 Hungary 504
16 Sweden 503
17 Poland 498
18 Denmark 496
19 France 495
20 Iceland 491
21 United States 489
22 Slovak Republic 488
23 Spain 488
24 Norway 487
25 Luxembourg 486
26 Italy 475
27 Portugal 474
28 Greece 473
29 Turkey 424
30 Mexico 410
1 Finland 543
2 Korea 534
3 Canada 528
4 Australia 525
5 New Zealand 522
6 Ireland 515
7 Sweden 514
8 Netherlands 513
9 Belgium 507
10 Norway 500
11 Switzerland 499
12 Japan 498
13 Poland 497
14 France 496
15 United States 495
16 Denmark 492
17 Iceland 492
18 Germany 491
19 Austria 491
20 Czech Republic
489
21 Hungary 482
22 Spain 481
23 Luxembourg 479
24 Portugal 478
25 Italy 476
26 Greece 472
27 Slovak Republic
469
28 Turkey 441
29 Mexico 400
1 Korea 550
2 Finland 548
3 Japan 547
4 New Zealand 533
5 Australia 530
6 Canada 529
7 Belgium 525
8 Switzerland 521
9 Netherlands 520
10 France 519
11 Denmark 517
12 Czech Republic 516
13 Germany 513
14 Sweden 509
15 Austria 506
16 Iceland 505
17 Hungary 501
18 Ireland 498
19 Luxembourg 494
20 Slovak Republic 492
21 Norway 490
22 Poland 487
23 Spain 482
24 United States 477
25 Portugal 470
26 Italy 469
27 Greece 448
28 Turkey 408
29 Mexico 384

OECD average 498 OECD average 500 OECD average 494 OECD average 500
Source: Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development (2007) and Baldi,
Jin, Skemer, Green, and Herget (2007).

As highlighted in the report by the Council of Chief State School Officers, the
National Governors Association, and Achieve, the ranking of the United States on

27
measures of international benchmarking raises concerns regarding the ability of
American schools to properly prepare students for the demands they will face in the
twenty-first century workplace. The report outlines the demands of a skills-driven global
economy which continues to be influenced by several factors, including technological
advances and increased innovation throughout the world.
The skills-driven economy proposed is derived significantly from the
international trend that jobs with routine tasks following predictable rules are
increasingly being automated and performed by computers or being outsourced to
developing nations where labor is considerably cheaper (Pink, 2010; National Governors
Association [NGA], the Council of Chief State School Officers [CCSSO], and Achieve,
(2008). Levy and Murnane (2004) substantiated the trend, through the analysis of
American employment data, which revealed that between 1969 to 1999 the proportion of
American workers in blue collar and administrative jobs plummeted. The share of jobs
requiring more education and specialization-work such as managerial, professional, and
technical in nature increased from 23 % to 33 % for the same period.
The decrease in demand for blue-collar jobs in the United States resulted in
Americans experiencing fierce competition for high-skilled jobs. Freeman (2005), an
economist at Harvard University, explained that as a result of the opening of economies
in China, India, and the former Soviet bloc the global labor force has doubled from what
it was prior to the opening of these economies.
Freeman stated that low skilled and low paying jobs were being acquired by
laborers in the newly opened economies. A growing number of higher skilled jobs,

28
including X-ray analysis, tax preparation, and tutoring are migrating to the same

countries. Figure 2.1 illustrates the dynamics of the global labor force as well as the ratio
of capitol to labor before and after the emergence of China, India, and the former Soviet
bloc.
Figure 2.1: Global Labor Force and Global Capital/Labor Ratio

Source: Employment from ILO Data (2000).
Included in the interpretation of the trends is the available capital to labor ratio
and how it is influenced by the inclusion of the growing economies. The capital to labor
ratio is the relationship between available money and the number of people vying to earn
that money. As illustrated in Table 2.4, the initial influence on the capital-labor ratio due
to the doubling of the global work force has been a reduction of the ratio of capital to
labor in the world economy to 61 % of what it would have been before China, India, and
the former Soviet bloc joined the global economy (Freeman, 2005).
For Americans the effect on job demand has depended largely on the capital

29
brought to the global economy by the newly opened economies. China, India, and the
former Soviet bloc contributed significant capital to the global economy; whereby,
Americans experienced an exodus of low-skilled jobs. Higher-skilled jobs are
increasingly being acquired by the economies of China, India, and the former Soviet bloc
partially because these economies continue to contribute more to global capital
(Samuelson, 2004). For Americans this phenomenon has resulted in the increase of
competition for professional and low-skilled jobs.
While the rapidly changing work environment and increased global competition
for a variety of jobs has caught the attention of those with a stake in educational reform in
the United States, the equal contribution to the urgency to reform America’s schools are
the strong correlations that exist between educational attainment and economic growth
and production (Levy & Murnane, 2004). The relationship between education and
economic growth is presented as a compelling force for improving educational outcomes.
For individuals an increase of one standard deviation in mathematics scores translates
into a 21 % boost in wages (NGA, CCSSO, and Achieve, 2008). From a national
perspective each additional year of school among the adult population raises a nation’s
economic output by between 3 % and 6 % (Levy & Murnane, 2004).
Friedman (2008) summarized his view of the emerging global world as hot, flat,
and crowded. Friedman asserted that central to responding to the global challenges of
climate change globalization that involves an increase in the number of producers and
consumers around the world and unprecedented population growth is the ability to
innovate. Friedman’s analysis leads to the conclusion that an American populace,

30

equipped with the skills to develop technologies capable of meeting the challenges, is
critical to the United States maintaining command of worldwide economic policies.
Wagner (2008) pointed to the increasing access to technology and communication
as a factor compelling education to adapt to new global competencies. Schleicher and
Stewart (2008) argued that with the increase contact between cultures physically and
through technology business success will be related directly to a person’s ability to
interact across cultures.
According to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (2006)
and Levy and Murnane (2004) education is one of the key levers to influence a country’s
economy. The demand for updating the effectiveness of education in the United States, in
order to increase the human capital among our populace, is a matter of national concern.
As education is a significant driver of economic growth and a primary determinant of the
distribution of material resources, creating effective policies for the development and
reform of educational institutions requires an understanding of the connections between
the economic and political organization of education and the economic and social
conditions they effect (Gradstein, Justman, and Meier, 2004). The awareness coupled
with an appreciation for the current and future demands of the work environment must
inform district leaders’ reform efforts towards developing a non-traditional, conceptual
framework for curriculum that focuses upon global interdependence and places teaching
and learning approaches into a global context (Ordonez & Ramler, 2004).

31

District-Wide Reform
Instrumental in the approaches to district-wide reform are the policy contexts in
which the research studies were conducted. Berman and McLaughlin (1978), for
example, found that several school districts initialized reform efforts for bureaucratic or
opportunistic motives. Berman and McLaughlin studied district reform processes
between 1973 and 1977 in an era when the Elementary and Secondary Education Act
funded specific initiatives such as the vocational education project and innovative project.
Due the compliance requirements of the vocational education project bureaucratic
initiatives aimed at ensuring appropriate allocation of federal funds towards vocational
education programs were common reform initiatives. As the innovative project called for
school districts to develop novel programs, opportunistic reform efforts germinated
aimed at addressing local challenges through innovative means.
District reform efforts in the context of the standards movement and high stakes
testing beginning in the early 1990s resulted in approaches to reform focused on raising
the achievement of poor and minority students. As the standards movement across
several states starting in the early 1990s included holding school districts accountable for
showing clear improvement among all categories of students, the Charlotte-Mecklenburg
School District in Charlotte, North Carolina undertook a centralized approach to reform.
The school district's approach involved the use of district-mandated pacing guides,
frequent assessment in order to monitor progress, and the allocation of district resources
across the schools based on need in an effort to close the achievement gap among the

32
different subgroups of students (Snipes, Doolittle, and Herlihy, 2002).
While approaches to district-wide reform were tied significantly to policy
contexts reform strategies varied from centralized top-down to decentralized bottom-up
to hybrids incorporating both became prevalent in the standards era of accountability
(Fullan & Levin, 2009). Regardless of whether reform strategies incorporated top-down,
bottom-up, or a compromise of the two, in the era of accountability brought about by the
standards movement, several components of reform emerged from the literature as
constants: (a) measurable goals, (b) efficient and effective data use, (c) accountability,
and (d) differentiated support (Elmore & Burney, 1997; Massell, 2000; Togneri &
Anderson, 2003). Although tremendous overlap exists among the four identified
constants, in order to clarify each, they will be examined independently. Given that the
study focuses on a district’s efforts to realize a plan for preparing students for the
demands of the twenty-first century, studies focused on efforts to increase the
effectiveness of schools, curricula, and instruction will be examined.
District-wide goals, establishing focus for reform, fostered alignment of resources
and clarity of purpose for all the stakeholders involved. Articulated in concrete, objective
terms, and measurable goals are far more influential in reform than ambiguous and lofty
goals (Togneri & Anderson, 2003). Taking higher precedent than endorsement of the
goals among stakeholders is the understanding of what the goals are asking of students,
teachers, and administrators.
Measurable goals allowed for resources to be allocated towards efforts to achieve
the goals. Teacher professional development opportunities, for example, were often tied

33
to district-wide goals in districts undergoing effective reform initiatives (Massell, 2000).
Districts invested financially in their goals of improving instruction and achievement.
Before allocating their dollars school boards, superintendents, and principals looked
carefully at how to maximize and prioritize their funds to address instructional needs.
Additional staff and instructional coaches were often allocated to sites, grade levels, or
content areas perceived as at risk for not meeting district-wide goals.
District-wide measurable goals established parameters and served as foundations
for locally developed school-site goals (Murphy & Datnow, 2003). Evident in district
reform approaches were well-articulated district goals that allowed for schools to set their
own aligned site goals. While district goals were centralized and developed to address
district-wide needs school-site goals allowed for site needs to be identified and targeted
within the parameters of the district goals. The top-down and bottom-up compromise is
indicative of a sophisticated blend of centralized and decentralized approach to district-
wide reform (Fullan, 1994).
While use of student data have been prevalent across school districts throughout
the United States the effectiveness and efficiency of accessibility and use of the data vary
significantly among school districts. For districts having undergone adequate reform
efforts the efforts were efficacious uses of data (Togneri & Anderson, 2003). Data
informed decisions ranging from determining district-wide goals, monitoring of progress,
and to staffing and personnel decisions contributed to the efficacious use of data. In some
districts little efficacy among educators in regards to their use was reported; whereas, in
districts having undergone commendable reform efforts teachers and administrators

34

reported accessibility to data as highly beneficial (Cawelti & Protheroe, 2001; Togneri &
Anderson, 2003).
Armstrong and Anthes (2001) of the Education Commission of the States
examined six districts in five states that used data to improve student achievement. In
each district a service orientation culture focused on supporting principals and teachers to
use student data for continuous improvement. Cawelti and Protheroe’s (2001) study of
six high-poverty districts including Sacramento, Houston, and smaller districts from
Texas, Idaho, and West Virginia, all with system-wide improvements in student
achievement, found a similar focus on equipping teachers to use data in order to target
student needs and provide appropriate instruction.
Contributing to the efficient use of data across school districts were
comprehensive data warehouses either locally developed or purchased (Wayman, 2005).
In order to readily access multiple measures of student achievement, including
assessment, attendance, and behavior data (Togneri & Anderson, 2003) school districts
provided teachers and principals with comprehensive data warehouses capable of
producing a multitude of reports. Included in the reports available for board members,
administrators, and teachers were disaggregating data by demographic filters, reports
indicating relative growth or lack thereof among student subgroups, and those designed
to improve the organization of complicated data such as pivot tables (Wayman, 2005).
Significant benefits of comprehensive data warehouses are the purposes the data
serve and for whom they serve. For district leaders systems-wide reports supported the

35
identification of trends such as subgroups of students being left out of gatekeeper courses
such as algebra (Snipes, Doolittle, and Herlihy, 2002). For site principals content area or
grade level trends such as continuous third grade decrease in literacy scores were easily
identifiable (Foster & Miller, 2007). For teachers having access to real-time student
achievement data allowed for teachers to identify discrete skills to target and repeat the
teaching process (Wayman, 2005). For districts involved in reform efforts easily
accessible and robust data demonstrated to be a key element involved in reform
initiatives.
Credited by former President George W. Bush as “incredibly important for school
systems and a useful tool to ensure that no child is left behind” (2002, p. 2),
accountability emerged as a third essential component in district reform efforts. In order
for accountability to benefit reform efforts clear and measurable goals must be
established first (Togneri & Anderson, 2003). In districts where goals were clearly
defined holding stakeholders accountable for meeting goals was feasible as the precise
language in goals clarified expectations (Massell, 2000; Togneri & Anderson, 2003).
Successful districts did not use accountability just to clarify expectations;
however, effective accountability systems developed around precise goals enabled
districts to make data-driven decisions regarding curriculum, professional development,
and interventions (Snipes, Doolittle, and Herlihy, 2002). Accountability has demonstrated
to be a valuable component of support systems in place for teachers and administrators.
When accomplished effectively, monitoring implementation and the impact of reform
efforts as components of accountability systems, less emphasis is placed on finding fault

36

and more is placed on providing guidance and support to those charged with meeting the
goals (Watson, Fullan, and Kilcher, 2000).
Evident in the literature was the recognition by district leadership of the need to
provide differentiated support to schools, principals, and teachers across the district
(Snipes, Doolittle, and Herlihy, 2002; Togneri & Anderson, 2003). Schools identified as
facing the gravest obstacles toward meeting district goals frequently received extra
support in successful case studies of district reform. For the schools additional support
imparted by district leaders has varied. Examples of differentiated support include
additional training of teachers, deployment of instructional coaches, and financial
incentives in order to attract highly qualified teachers to low performing schools. (Snipes,
Doolittle, and Herlihy, 2002).
In a study of several Canadian, English, and American district-wide reform
approaches Fullan, Bertani, and Quinn (2004) identified 10 components necessary for
change at the district level. Three of the 10 interdependent components: (a) the right bus,
(b) external partners, and (c) focused financial investments, identified the need to
differentiate support across district schools.
The right bus was coined from Collins’ (2001) landmark work on what made
some companies prosperous while others were not. Good to great in which Collins
asserted that greatness is not primarily a function of circumstance but largely a matter of
conscious choice and discipline. The author contented that getting the “right people on
the bus” (p. 42) is essential for establishing a great company. Fullan, Bertani, and Quinn

37
(2004) claimed that equally important is making sure that the organization has the right
bus in the first place, namely the right structure for getting the job done. Chicago Public
Schools, one of the districts studied by Fullan, Bertani, and Quinn, restructured its many
schools into clusters. Clusters include between 12 and 40 schools that are similar in
regards to needs allowing for easier deployment of unique and differentiated resources by
the central district.
The second component presented by Fullan, Bertani, and Quinn (2004) identified
the need to differentiate support across schools is external partners. Business groups,
foundations, community-based organizations, or universities that are used by districts to
build professional capacity must be strategically utilized. By partnering external entities
with district schools based on needs additional support is received by the schools facing
the greatest challenges.
Focused financial investments described by Fullan, Bertani, and Quinn (2004) as
the redirecting of financial resources from prior programs to new priorities serves as
another example of how differentiating support across schools contributes to realizing
district-wide reform.
California School Finance
As the study has taken place during one of the United States’ most challenging
economies in decades, it is prudent to include an overview of the economic context in
which the study has been conducted:
1. Time line of educational finance in California as the district identified for the
case study is in the state of California.

38

2. Current condition of school finance in California to explain the context of the
economic conditions under which the district operates.
Time Line of Educational Finance in California
Vote-approved measures and a history of litigation comprise a significant amount
of California’s convoluted time line of school finance. Over the past 40 years the trend in
California school finance has gone from local control over a majority of funding and
policy initiatives to marginalized local control and increasingly influential state and
federal authority over funding and policy initiatives. In 1972 Senate Bill-90 (Property
Tax Relief Act, 1972) began to shift the fulcrum of control from local school boards to
state and eventually federal entities.
The signing of Senate Bill 90 into law resulted in limits to the amount of per pupil
tax-based revenue school districts across California could receive from the state. Directly
pertaining to a litigation case Serrano versus Priest (1971) (Serrano I) filed in 1968
charged that funding levels for pupils in the state were unequal and unconstitutional.
Senate Bill 90 aimed to rectify the disparities in school funding due to districts in more
affluent areas receiving considerably higher per pupil revenue than districts in
impoverished areas. In the following year Assembly Bill 65 (EdSource, 2009b) was
passed with equalizing revenue limits per district over time, as its core purpose.
Assembly Bill 65 aimed to equalize revenue limits per district by making appropriate
inflationary adjustments based on a sliding scale.
Concurrently, California property values were growing at dramatic rates causing

39
property taxes to increase. For those on a fixed income such as the elderly property tax
increase posed a grave problem, as their home values increased so did their property
taxes. The so-called tax revolt of 1978 spurred by rising property taxes led California
voters to pass Proposition 13 (EdSource, 2009b). As a result, Proposition 13 lowered and
stabilized tax rates and established an acquisition-value assessment system. The
acquisition-value assessment system provided that properties are to be assessed at the
value when acquired through change of ownership or by new construction. Taxable
values of properties could increase annually by no more than the rate of inflation or 2 %.
A tax rate limit of 1 % of the property value was designated (Downes, 1992).
Prior to 1978 local property taxes comprised as much as two-thirds of a school’s
funding (EdSource, 2009b). The cap placed on property taxes by Proposition 13 had a
significant negative impact on revenue available for schools as two-thirds of school
revenue that previously were generated from property taxes was reduced to one-third. As
a result, state legislators were forced to make up the shortfall through state funds. The
shortfall was bridged with funds from Assembly Bill 8 (EdSource, 2009) intended to
provide California public schools with a long term and stable financing system passed
shortly after Proposition 13. Assembly Bill 8 was part of a legislative package that
appropriated billions of dollars toward public education. In a few short years the
condition of California school financing had drastically been transformed. The state took
over the primary role of funding public schools. Table 2.4 highlights the revenue
allocated to public schools for the selected years from 1976 to 1981 from local, state,
federal sources, and the percent of total revenue. Notable are the years 1977 to 1978 and

40
1978 to 1979 when the drastic shift from local to state sources of revenues began.
Table 2.4: Public School Income (in millions of nominal dollars)
Local State Federal
Year Income
% of Total
Income Income
% of Total
Income Income
% of Total
Income

1980-81 $3,032.14 25.39% $7,777.16 65.13% $1,131.15 9.47%
1979-80 $2,628.15 24.18% $7,164.45 65.92% $1,076.28 9.90%
1978-79 $2,928.80 30.25% $5,799.64 59.91% $952.46 9.84%
1977-78 $5,250.00 53.75% $3,644.67 37.31% $873.65 8.94%
1976-77 $4,792.00 53.92% $3,420.18 38.48% $675.60 7.60%
Source: California Department of Education (2009).

In 1983 Senate Bill-813 (EdSource, 2009) became law which established a longer
school day and year, content standards, higher teacher salaries, and additional categorical
programs. The bill established more rigorous graduation requirements for California
public schools in an attempt to improve the quality of instruction. Each of the new
initiatives and policies were tied to additional state provided funds which contributed
towards the shift away from local sources of revenue and control towards increasing state
sources and authority.
The California Lottery Initiative (California State Lottery Act of 1984, 1984)
implemented in 1984 supplied California schools with additional funding. While the
lottery initiative guaranteed at least 34 % of lottery receipts to be given to all public
educational institutions as supplemental revenue less than 2 % of district revenues were
derived from lottery proceeds.
Passed in 1988 Proposition 98 (EdSource, 2009) established a minimum funding
level for California public schools. Under the controversial amendment to California’s

41
constitution a minimum percentage of the state budget was required spending on
kindergarten through Grade 14 education. As a result of Proposition 98, a minimum of 40
% of California's general fund is appropriated towards public education, including tests
specifying how annual education budgets are to be calculated. For the years that followed
the passing of Proposition 98 only two of the following tests apply:
1. For years of strong economic growth requires spending on education to equal
the previous years spending plus per capita growth and student enrollment adjustment.
2. For years of weak economic growth guarantees prior years spending plus
adjustment for enrollment growth, increases for any changes in per capita general fund
revenues, and an increase by 0.5 % in state general funds.
The legislative analyst’s office (2009) determined that, although only one of the
three tests apply on an annual basis, Proposition 98 (EdSource, 2009) funding constitutes
approximately 70 % of total kindergarten through Grade 12 funding. As part of the class
size reduction program (CSR Research Consortium, 1999) of 1996, Senate Bill-1777
(EdSource, 2009) offered incentives to schools to reduce kindergarten through Grade 3
class sizes to 20 students per teacher. Approximately $800 was offered per student to
districts for enrollment ratios averaging 20 to 1. Schools received a single allocation of
$25,000 for every additional classroom necessary to accommodate the reduced class
sizes. Class size reduction aimed to raise student achievement at a time when California
was experiencing unprecedented economic growth and tax revenue brought with it some
unintended consequences. Class size reduction exacerbated existing inequities within the
state's education system, including a drop in teacher qualifications that disproportionately

42
effected school districts already struggling with overcrowding, poverty, and language
barriers (Stecher, Bohrnstedt, Kirst, McRobbie, and Williams, 2001).
The trend of increased state (and federal) influence on public schools continued
into the new millennium. Proposition 20 (EdSource, 2009) approved in 2000 required
one-half of lottery-based revenue to be designated towards the purchasing of instructional
materials. That same year Proposition 39 (EdSource, 2009) reduced the threshold
required to pass local California school district bond issues from a two-thirds vote to a 55
% vote. The impact estimated by the legislative analyst’s office (2009) included
immediate increased debt costs for many school districts as well as potentially long-term
state savings to the extent local school districts assume greater responsibility for funding
school facilities.
Settled in 2004 the Williams settlement from a 2000 case Williams versus
California (EdSource, 2009) challenged that the state was failing to provide the basic
educational necessities for all students, provided additional state funds for necessary
instructional materials, provided safe and decent school facilities and qualified teachers
(California Department of Education, 2009). Figure 2.2 provides an overview of school
funding sources for California public schools based on the state’s 2008 to 2009
kindergarten through Grade 12 school budget (EdSource, 2009a).

43

Figure 2.2: California School Funding Sources 2008-09

Source: EdSource (2009a)
California’s school financing structure has been largely transformed over the past
40 years through a combination of voter-approved measures and litigation. A locally
controlled and financed school system had been radically transformed to a predominantly
state controlled and financed system.
Current Landscape of School Finance in California
California’s school funding model has evolved into a very complex system. The
current economic and school finance condition is examined in order to clarify the context
in which school districts operate.
In the fall of 2008 the United States faced an economic crisis of historic
proportions. The impact of the economic crisis of 2008 on California was devastating.
Anticipating worse economic conditions in 2009 state leaders attempted to balance the

44
state budget, actualize savings immediately, and reduce spending into the future
(EdSource, 2009). As Figure 2.3 indicates, per-pupil funded revenue limits for the
average unified school district dropped $837 or by 14 % of what they were in the school
year 2007-2008.
Figure 2.3: Per-pupil Revenue Changes

Source: EdSource, 2010.

Revenue limits represent the amount of general purpose funding a school district
receives per student (EdSource, 2010). Had California and the nation not experienced an
economic crisis, district revenue limits would have increased from $5,821 per pupil in
2007-2008 to $6,411 in 2009-2010 school year. Cost of Living Adjustments alone would
have been responsible for the increase of $590 from the 2007-2008 limits to the
anticipated limit for the 2009 - 2010 school year. The discrepancy between the
anticipated limit of the 2009 - 2010 school year of $6,411 and the actual revenue limit of
$4,984 represents a difference of $1,427. While Figure 2.3 provides a snapshot of the
significant reduction in per-pupil expenditures the reduction of funds caused by the
economic crisis and ensuing cataclysmic drop in California tax revenue was more

45
complicated.
In 2007-2008 the portion of Proposition 98 (EdSource, 2009) spending for
kindergarten through Grade 12 was $50.3 billion. The initial budget for 2008-2009
increased compared to 2007-2008 by $1.3 billion to $51.6 billion. By February of 2009,
however, falling state revenues led to a midyear drop to $44.7 billion. The $6.9 billion
midyear reduction proved insufficient, as yet another cut followed resulting in a July
2009 budget of $43.1 billion. Funding for 2009-2010 originally rose to $48.3 billion. As
state revenues continued to plummet, the spending for 2009-2010 was reduced to $44.6
billion by July of 2009.
Figure 2.4: CA Education Funding 2007-08 Through 2009-10

Source: EdSource, 2010

In an effort to help districts deal with the substantial budget cuts legislators in
California, through changes in the state’s categorical programs, offered districts the
flexibility to use categorical funds for other purposes (EdSource, 2010). Several state
programs, including English learner student assistance and foster youth services were

46
slashed by upwards of 20 % while their accompanying requirements were maintained.
Figure 2.4 chronicles the fluctuation of funding from 2007-2008 through 2009-2010.
On February 17, 2009 President Obama signed the American Recovery and
Reinvestment Act or stimulus package in an effort to revive the nation’s dismal economy
(American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, 2009). Included in the act were billions of
dollars allocated specifically for public education. For California the act allocated $6.1
billion, $3.8 billion in 2008-2009 and $2.3 billion in 2009-2010, in additional funding to
help offset the significant state reductions described earlier.
Federal funds generally account for 10 % of California school total revenue. Due
to the state reductions and the arrival of federal stimulus funding the federal component
for California school funding was approximately 15 % of total revenue in 2008-2009. In
the same time period 2007-2008 through 2009-2010 federal funding increased by $3
billion. The reductions in Proposition 98 funding totaled $5.7 billion outpacing the
federal stimulus money by approximately $2.7 billion (EdSource, 2010).
The net loss of $2.7 billion represents nearly $470 in lost revenue per student for
school districts throughout California. For districts undertaking reform efforts such as
realizing a twenty-first century skills plan in the context of a high stakes testing
accountability, the reality of limited financial resources presents a grave challenge to
meeting such aims.

The Role of Leadership
At the core of most definitions of leadership are two functions: (a) “providing

47
direction” and (b) “exercising influence” (Yukl, 1994, p. 17). The two functions are often
executed differently resulting in many different models or theories of leadership. District
leaders, for example, wield the power to initiate reform and influence educators (Datnow
& Castellano, 2001). Although exploring the concept of leadership as two functions fails
to offer a precise definition it helps to recognize leadership as highly complex. Similar to
other complex concepts efforts to define leadership too narrowly are more likely to
trivialize its meaning (Leithwood, Louis, Anderson, and Wahlstrom, 2004). Identified
characteristics of effective leaders will be highlighted in the context of district
improvement and twenty-first century workplace demands. While a review of the
literature regarding school and district leadership revealed numerous sources the
inclusion of the source will be limited to the publications focused on high stake
accountability or the demands of the twenty-first century.
Through a meta-analysis of 27 studies involving district leadership of 2,817
school districts and the achievement scores of 3.4 million students Marzano and Waters
(2007) determined that a correlation between district leadership and student achievement
was 0.24 (95 % confidence interval: 0.19 to 0.30). The correlation was significant at the
0.05 level. The correlation can be interpreted by examining the expected change in the
dependent variable-student achievement by one standard deviation gain in the
independent variable-district leadership abilities. Waters and Marzano determined that
district leadership directly impacts student achievement. Marsh (2000) asserted that
district leadership is a crucial agent in mobilizing the human, social, and physical capital
of districts. The significance of Waters and Marzano’s interpretation is that it stands in

48
sharp contrast to what the general consensus around district leadership has been for some
time. Former Secretary of Education William Bennett, for example, went as far as
characterizing school district leaders 'as part of an amorphous blob that soak up valuable
resources" (Bennett, Finn, and Cribb, 1999, p. 628).
The meta-analysis conducted by Marzano and Waters (2007) yielded three major
findings:
1. District-level leadership matters.
2. Effective superintendents focus their efforts on creating goal-oriented districts
which validates a previously identified constant in district reform or the development and
use of measurable goals. Ineffective leaders, effective leaders, or superintendents create
coherence out of numerous and sometimes incompatible goals (Cuban, 1998).
3. Superintendent tenure is positively correlated with student achievement which
suggests that the length of superintendent tenure positively correlates with student
achievement Marzano and Waters, 2007).
Cuban, (1998) posited that superintendents must reconcile three conflicting roles:
(a) instructional, (b) managerial, and (c) political. The instructional role bears the
responsibility for meeting student achievement expectations set by federal government,
states, and local school boards. Efficiently operating a multiplex system comprised of
multiple departments and layers constitutes the managerial role of the superintendent.
The political role entails the delicate balancing act of appeasing a variety of stakeholders,
including teachers’ unions, community organizations, board members, and parents.
Nestor-Baker and Hoy (2001) determined that the political and managerial roles required

49
most of superintendents’ time.
While the literature on leadership in the context of accountability help to discern
characteristics associated with successfully executing the role of superintendent lessons
exist from outside of the public education arena. The lessons may serve district leaders in
their endeavors to radically transform their districts into institutions aiming beyond high
stakes assessments towards preparing students for the demands of the twenty-first century
workplace.
By conducting interviews with over 100 global executives throughout the world
McCall and Hollenbeck (2006) developed a list of competencies considered essential
leadership characteristics for executives. The characteristics are as follows: (a) open-
minded and flexible in thought and tactics; (b) cultural interest and sensitivity; (c) able to
deal with complexity; (d) resilient, resourceful, optimistic, and energetic; (e) honest and
authentic; (f) possess stable personal life; and (g) value-added technical or business skills.
Public school districts are becoming increasingly similar to many of the companies
employing the executives interviewed by McCall and Hollenbeck. For example,
multinational companies and districts are effected by migration trends-companies by
changing consumer and labor pools and by changing student demographics by districts
(Stewart, 2007).

Heames and Harvey (2006) described the twenty-first century working
environment as more complex, fast paced, and more culturally diverse than working
environments from the past. If school districts are to keep pace with the rapidly changing

50
twenty-first century landscape superintendents and global business leaders must be aware
of and responsive to the hyper competitiveness and rapid changes of the global business
environment.
Porter, Lorsch, and Nohria (2004) examined business leaders, specifically chief
executive officers in the global workplace in order to discern implications for emerging
twenty-first century leaders. The authors provided seven potential pitfalls for leaders of
twenty-first century organizations, as they asserted that nothing fully prepares a person to
be a chief executive officer. Three of the seven pitfalls listed below appear to have direct
implications for superintendents of public school districts:
1. You cannot run the company: Porter, Lorsch, and Nohria (2004) stated that the
volume and intensity of the demands associated with leading complex organizations is
formidable.
2. Giving orders is costly: The authors maintain that initiatives should not be
decreed unless they can be ratified with enthusiasm. Prior to leadership formally
declaring a new initiative opportunities for dissent and clarification should be granted.
3. You are always sending a message: The words and actions of leaders regardless
of how trivial are often amplified and even drastically misinterpreted.
The remaining four pitfalls listed below are potentially influential for district
leaders:
1. You are not the boss.
2. It is hard to know what is really going on.
3. Pleasing shareholders is not the goal.

51
4. You are still only human.
The seven pitfalls serve as warning signs and offer several implications for
superintendents and business chief executive officers. The most pertinent implications
may possibly be that leaders must learn to manage organization contexts rather than focus
on daily operations and they must constantly remind themselves that they are subject to a
host of limitations.
Schlechty (2005) asserted that if public school districts are to meet the dynamic
needs of the twenty-first century workplace they need to be transformed from institutions
in which the primary function is compliance to institutions fostering commitment,
engagement, and attention. This endeavor will require the kind of leadership capable of
fostering innovation that will challenge the status quo of educational delivery, demanding
changes in pedagogy, and technical skills of educators. The desire for districts to
emphasize twenty-first century skill instruction in an era of high stakes accountability is
relatively novel, and the research addressing effective leadership qualities is abound.
Gaps in the Literature
A vast amount of literature exists theoretical and empirical, on twenty-first
century skills, district reform, and on the role of leadership within district reform. Few
studies, however, exist that explore how districts identify, implement, and monitor a plan
for twenty-first century skills. This study will identify and explain the pertinent district
processes in developing and executing a plan for teaching students the skills required in
the twenty-first century workplace while simultaneously meeting state and federal
accountability targets.

52
Summary
The background to the challenge faced by school districts across the country
seeking to prepare students for the twenty-first century while meeting accountability
mandates was explored. The research provided a review of pertinent literature in an effort
to establish a framework to guide the case study of a district. As presented in the review
of literature, initiatives focused on identifying the skills required in the twenty-first
century workplace are numerous. Common skills such as collaboration, critical thinking,
problem solving, and accessing vast amounts of information emerged from the variety of
organizations, individuals, and studies tasked with identifying twenty-first century skills.
Contrasting the aims of No Child Left Behind with those of the twenty-first century skills
movement yielded opposing perspectives on how to adequately prepare students.
The forces and trends shaping the demands of the twenty-first century workplace,
and the responses in the form of commission recommendations, initiatives, and policy
were examined demonstrating that while numerous and varied, specifically, federal
policy with punitive measures significantly dictates district behavior. The literature
pertaining to district reform revealed four constants in top-down, bottom-up, or hybrid
approaches to district reform, namely measurable goals, efficient and effective use of
data, accountability, and differentiated support. A brief time line of school financing
history and the current economic condition for California were provided to set a context
for the study. The role of district leadership, including superintendents, directors, and site
administrators were examined concluding that district leadership impacts reform efforts
and student achievement.

53
Chapter 3: Methodology
Introduction
The study examined the challenges of educating students for the twenty-first
century workplace while meeting accountability mandates. Global forces defining the
work skills required in the twenty-first century were explained. Policy history, including
the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 were discussed. District-wide reform efforts aimed
at increasing the achievement of all students and economic context were examined. The
role of leadership charged with the responsibility of implementing reform efforts was
examined in an effort to develop a comprehensive understanding of how districts are to
realize large-scale reform. The methodology and the rationale for the methods used to
gather and analyze the relevant data will be explored.
The purpose of the study is to identify a public school district that is meeting or
exceeding the federally mandated student achievement targets while providing a robust
education aimed at preparing students for a twenty-first century work place. It is the
intent of the study to identify how a district’s organizational structure ensures adequate
standardized assessment results and grants students access to twenty-first century skills.
The research will investigate: (a) the process in which districts identify twenty-first
century skills and (b) the development, implementation, and monitoring of their plan to
teach students twenty-first century skills. The primary objective of the study is to offer a
template for other districts seeking to exceed accountability targets while ensuring that
the education provided to students prepares them for the global demands of the workforce
by answering the following research questions:

54
1. What is the district’s plan for identifying and implementing twenty-first century
skills?
2. To what extent has the district’s plan for twenty-first century skills been
implemented?
3. How does the district measure the effectiveness of the twenty-first century
skills plan?
4. What are the traits of the district’s leaders and how have those traits influenced
the plan for twenty-first century skills?
In order to accurately answer the research questions it will be necessary to
conduct comprehensive interviews, conduct observations, and examine pertinent
documents. Patton (2002) described qualitative methodology with interviews,
observations, and document analysis as three key elements of qualitative design.
Qualitative, analytic-case study research methods will be appropriate in order to
accomplish an in-depth study and analysis of a district’s plan for twenty-first century
skills.
Although the units of analysis are several each is essential in thoroughly
answering the research questions. The following units of analysis will provide a
comprehensive examination:
1. Efforts to realize a twenty-first century skills plan such as efforts to influence
educator’s culture and efforts to restructure.
2. Leaders such as school board members, superintendent, the individuals that
influence the twenty-first century skills plan, and leadership styles.

55
3. Educators such as individuals expected to implement, monitor, and evaluate the
twenty-first century plan.
As the purpose of the study is to examine how a district meets or exceeds federal
accountability targets while maintaining a strategic plan for teaching twenty-first century
skills, it will be appropriate to utilize purposive sampling as the sampling strategy.
Purposive sampling constructed to serve a very specific need or purpose is appropriate, as
the selected district will not represent the entire population of public school districts in
the United States. The selected district represents a very specific subset of public school
districts balancing accountability targets with a plan for twenty-first century skills.
Sample and Population
The study focused on one public unified kindergarten through Grade 12 school
district. The district was selected as it has developed a strategic plan for preparing
students for the demands of the twenty-first century workplace while establishing
sustained, academic achievement, as measured by standardized assessments, the federal
adequate yearly progress, and state academic performance index accountability formulas.
The school district has identified several success indicators focused on providing students
with twenty-first century skills or marketable skills such as bilingualism and
technological skills.
The district selected for the study Hansen Unified School District is a unified
kindergarten through Grade 12 district located in southern California. The district is
located in Hansen, San Diego county, California and has a population of approximately
100,000 residents. The median income in Hansen, as of 2008, was $80,000 per household

56
which is higher than the California's median household income of $62,000. Hansen
Unified is comprised of nine elementary schools that feed into three middle schools and
one high school. Hansen Unified has two alternative schools which is kindergarten
through Grade 12 and the other servicing tenth grade through twelve grade.
Like most districts in California the reduction to school funding due to the
economic crisis of the early twenty-first century has impacted Hansen Unified. In 2008
the school board members approved a $5.6 million cut to the $85 million annual budget.
Due to an unexpected increase in property tax revenue, however, the reduction was
reduced to $2 million for the school year. Hansen’s classification by the state of
California is a basic aid district. Approximately 10 % of school districts throughout
California are classified as basic aid meaning that the districts bring in more money from
property taxes than they would through the state's attendance-based funding system
(EdSource, 2010). While basic aid districts may not feel the impact of state budget
reductions as significantly as non-basic aid districts the effects of the global economic
downturn are evident (Brand, 2008).
The selection of a district for the study was based on four primary criteria:
1. Aggregate district's academic performance index of over 800 for 3 consecutive
years.
2. Success on adequate yearly progress exceeding similar districts, including
having no schools identified as program improvement.
3. Diverse student body with significant populations of traditionally under served
students.

57
4. Stated mission and strategic plan with a strong emphasis on twenty-first
century skills.
Purposeful sampling was used to identify several districts fitting each criterion
with final district selection guided by pragmatism and willingness to participate. Hansen
Unified School District a suburban district in southern California meets the prescribed
criteria. Table 3.1 illustrates how the selected district meets criterion one.
Table 3.1: District List of School 2008 Academic Performance Index and
Program Improvement

Students
Included
in API
2008
Base
API
2008
Statewi
de Rank
Similar
Schools
Rank
2008-09
Growth
Target
2009
API
Target PI Year
District 7,875 843 B B B B 0
Elem.
A 513 911 10 6 A A 0
B 178 797 6 4 3 800 0
C 416 863 9 8 A A 0
D 292 886 9 6 A A 0
E 346 820 7 7 A A 0
F 308 923 10 7 A A 0
G 302 849 8 3 A A 0
H 566 944 10 8 A A 0
I 242 843 8 5 A A 0
Middle
J 879 878 10 4 A A 0
K 530 843 9 7 A A 0
L 987 826 8 5 A A 0
High
M 2,129 806 9 4 A A 0
N
O 54 825 * 9 * 0 A A 0
ASAM
P 46 613 * B * B B B 0
Source: DataQuest, 2009

58
Table 3.2 illustrates how Hansen Unified meets the second established criterion,
of success on adequate yearly progress exceeding similar districts, including having no
schools identified as program improvement. While the district failed to meet adequate
yearly progress in 2008 the adequate yearly progress targets were met for the majority of
schools across the district and not a single school has been identified as program
improvement for not meeting adequate yearly progress.
Table 3.2: District List of Schools – Adequate Yearly Progress
Met 2008 Criteria for:

All
Components
English-
Language
Arts
Math
API
Graduation
Rate
Hansen
Unified No No Yes Yes Yes
Elementary
A Yes Yes Yes Yes N/A
B Yes Yes Yes Yes N/A
C Yes Yes Yes Yes N/A
D Yes Yes Yes Yes N/A
E Yes Yes Yes Yes N/A
F Yes Yes Yes Yes N/A
G Yes Yes Yes Yes N/A
H Yes Yes Yes Yes N/A
I No No Yes Yes N/A
Middle
J No Yes No Yes N/A
K No Yes No Yes N/A
L Yes Yes Yes Yes N/A
High
M Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
N Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
ASAM
O No Yes Yes No Yes
Source: DataQuest, 2009

59

The third criterion, having a diverse student body with significant populations of
traditionally under served students, is represented by Table 3.3 and Table 3.4. While
Hansen Unified School District may not share similar proportions of traditionally under
served students with many large urban districts the population of African American and
Hispanic students represents 25 % of Hansen’s student body.
Table 3.3: Students by Ethnicity-Hansen Unified School District
District County
Enrollment Percent of Total Percent of Total
American Indian 79 0.70% 0.80%
Asian 612 5.70% 5.40%
Pacific Islander 92 0.90% 0.90%
Filipino 143 1.30% 4.70%
Hispanic 2,426 22.60% 44.00%
African American 246 2.30% 7.00%
White 6,500 60.50% 34.50%
Multiple/No Response 643 6.00% 2.60%
Total 10,741 100% 100%
Source: EdData, 2009

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Table 3.4: Special Programs – Hansen Unified School District

District County
Number of Students
Percent of
Enrollment
Percent of
Enrollment
English Learners 972 9.00% 24.70%
Free/Reduced Price Meals1 2,023 18.80% 44.80%
Compensatory Education 1,168 10.90% 47.10%
Source: EdData, 2009

Highly visible on the district website and letterhead and other publications is the
district mission statement: The mission of the Hansen Unified School District (2009), a
global community of learners, is to guarantee that our students flourish in life as
enthusiastic, confident learners through a world-class educational system characterized
by vigorous personalized curriculum, dedicated teaching and total community
involvement. The mission meets the fourth and final criterion for identifying a district for
the study, as the phrase a global community of learners and a world-class educational
system imply an endeavor to prepare students for far more than meeting high-stakes
accountability targets. In fact, as stated in Chapter Two, global competencies and twenty-
first century skills overlap considerably.
Tables 3.1 and 3.4 illustrate how Hansen Unified School District meets the
criteria for serving as the focus of the study, as the district has an established record of
student achievement and a diverse student body reflective of other public school districts
throughout the country.

61
Data Collection
The primary tool used in collecting data for the study was the interview. “The
purpose of qualitative interviewing is to capture how those being interviewed view the
world, to learn their terminology and judgments, and to capture the complexities of their
individual perceptions and experiences” (Patton, 2002, p. 348). The study includes semi-
structured interviews with district leadership, including the superintendent and semi-
structured interviews with site principals. Semi-structured interviews were selected as the
interview type allows for interviewees to respond freely to open-ended questions while
the interviewer intends to achieve a specific goal. In the case of the study the goal
involved gaining insight to the four identified research questions.

Included is a survey for educators to be administered across several schools in the
district to gather insights into the perspectives of those asked to execute the district’s plan
for twenty-first century skills.
Document analysis an integral component of qualitative study will be utilized to
thoroughly examine artifacts in existence prior to the commencement of the research and
relevant to the district’s plan for twenty-first century skills. The analysis will include the
use of observation guides in order to direct the researcher through the documents. The
documents to be analyzed include the district mission statement, strategic plans, board
minutes, and professional development plans. These documents will offer insight to the
district’s process of identifying, implementing, and monitoring the plan for twenty-first
century skills.

62
People’s behavior contradicts what they say they believe or practice (Mack,
Woodsong, MacQueen, Guest, and Namey, 2005). This disparity, documented by a large
body of literature, is evident from personal health practices to behavior in the work
setting. Given the prevalence of the phenomena observation can be powerful data
collection tool to triangulate or check what people say in interviews, questionnaires, or
focus groups compared to what people actually do.
The data gathered from directly observing the district personnel performing their
relevant responsibilities will help clarify nuances that due to their limitations document
analysis and interviews may not be able to do. Direct observation will further a holistic
perspective of the case study as the context in which the observations take place will be
better understood.
The following research questions will be better answered by incorporating
observations as a means to gather data:
1. What is the district’s plan for identifying and implementing twenty-first century
skills?
2. How does the district measure the effectiveness of the twenty-first century
skills plan?
3. What are the characteristics of the district’s leaders and how have those traits
influenced the plan for twenty-first century skills?
In order to thoroughly answer the first two questions conducting observations of
site and district administrator's meetings focused on the twenty-first century skills plan
will be necessary. As the intention is to observe said meetings in the most unobtrusive

63
way, the researcher will be a nonparticipant observer. By not interacting with the
participants the researcher will likely observe authentic twenty-first century skills plan
meetings among district and site administrators.
Observations relating to the second question regarding measuring the
effectiveness of the plan will potentially involve meetings and classroom walk through
data. As classroom walk-through data can help establish patterns of practice (Ginsberg,
2001), observing site administrators conduct a classroom walk-through focused on
twenty-first century skills will offer insight on how a district measures the
implementation of the twenty-first century skills plan. Due to the limitations of the
researcher, not all schools within the district will be observed during a classroom walk-
through. Limited walk-through observations will help shed light on discrepancies
between what interviewed administrators claim took place on a twenty-first century skills
focused walk-through.
The data to be collected during the observation of a walk-through includes:
1. Time spent in classrooms.
2. Focus of the walk-through such as room environment, instruction, and student
work samples.
3. Debrief conversations among walk-through participants.
The third question will be partially addressed by observation of district leaders,
especially the superintendent meeting with district and site administrators in regards to
the twenty-first century skills plan. The aim of the observation will be to observe the
identified leader characteristics claimed by district personnel to have influenced the

64
twenty-first century skills plan.
The types of meetings that will be most relevant to the study may include, but not
be limited to, regular board meetings, executive sessions, special board meetings, and
work sessions. Due to the limitations of the researcher, specifically the inability to attend
all meetings and the times and dates on which meetings occur, meeting observations will
be determined by the participants of the meeting, focus of the meetings, and purpose of
the meetings. Data to be collected will be influenced by interview and questionnaire
findings and will include:
1. Interactions between leadership and other meeting participants.
2. Questions asked by leaders and participant's response.
3. Questions asked by participants and leader's response.
As one of the disadvantages to observations is researcher-induced bias (Patton,
2002), every effort will be made to conduct observations after conducting and examining
initial survey and questionnaires. In an effort to maintain the validity of the research
meetings will be audio recorded and transcribed for analysis. Feedback and critique by
colleagues will be obtained in order to ensure that data are reported accurately. Primary
data will be included in the final reports to support validity.
The intentions of the observations are to triangulate data from interviews,
document analysis, and to witness the district executing its plan for twenty-first century
skills. Observations have the potential of introducing relevant information that may go
unnoticed by the researcher (Patton, 2002) by simply relying on documents and interview
data. The observations will strengthen the understanding of the context, setting, and

65
interactions among those involved in developing and implementing the twenty-first
century skills plan. By incorporating observation findings into the study it is possible to
develop a more comprehensive analysis of the district and its twenty-first century skills
plan.
The data to be collected will align directly to the research questions proposed
earlier and to the units of analysis. It is the belief of the researcher that by studying the
interaction between the different units of analysis a comprehensive, in-depth
understanding of how a district meets accountability targets while providing twenty-first
century skills instruction will be realized. The types of data collected believed to
accurately depict how a district realizes a plan for twenty-first century skills learning in
the context of rigorous accountability targets are described in Table 3.5

66
Table 3.5: Triangulation of Data
Units of Analysis Research Questions
Efforts to realize
a 21
st
century
skills plan
Leaders Educators
What is the district’s
plan for identifying and
implementing 21
st

century skills?

-observation of
meeting
pertaining to the
plan
-document
analysis of plans
(all available
iterations) and
resources used
to develop plan
-interviews with
leaders focused on
the identification
and development
of plan

To what extent has the
district’s plan for 21
st

century skills been
implemented?
-document
analysis of
professional
development
provided in
support of plan
implementation
-interviews with
leaders focused on
building capacity,
developing culture
in support of the
plan

-interviews with
site
administrators,
teachers focused
on the
implementation
and perceptions
of the plan
How does the district
measure the
effectiveness of the 21
st

century skills plan?
-document
analysis of
monitoring and
evaluation tools
-interviews with
leaders focused
-observation of
monitoring (data
collection,
analysis, action,
dissemination)
-interviews with
educators
focused on
perception and
value of
monitoring and
evaluation of
plan
What are the traits of
the district’s leaders and
how have those traits
influenced the plan for
21
st
century skills?

-instrument to
identify leadership
traits and
characteristics
-interviews with
educators
focused on
leadership
within the
district

The generally accepted disadvantages of qualitative research design include
subjectivity of the inquiry leading to difficulties in establishing the reliability and validity
of the findings and difficulty in preventing or detecting researcher induced bias (Patton,

67
2002). In order to reduce the effect of researcher bias and subjectivity methodological
triangulation will be utilized. By collecting different types of information, including
primary sources such as observations and interviews and secondary sources such as
documents, the validity of the findings are addressed as the multiple sources of
information will provide a comprehensive and more accurate understanding of the district
to be studied.
Data Analysis
The study examines how one district implemented a plan for teaching twenty-first
century skills while meeting accountability mandates. The interview questions, surveys,
document analysis, and observations were generated with the express purpose of
identifying the process and understanding the practices in relation to the research
literature and in answering the research questions in the study.
Following the interviews, document analysis, and observations the data are to be
coded and analyzed. Interviews will be taped and then transcribed verbatim in order to
capture the entire conversations. In order to identify commonalities among the data the
information is to be categorized based on the developed research questions to determine
significant information. The categorization of the interview protocol corresponding to the
research questions allows for efficient use of time in the categorization process. Sub-
category codes within each of the question-based areas will be used for further coding of
the data. After manually coding the data coding software will be utilized.
HyperResearch ™ a qualitative data coding software will be used to streamline
the coding and analysis process. The software serves in the inventory process of

68
transcribed interviews into codes. The program increases the reliability and
meaningfulness of the data. Summarized analysis and direct quotations will be employed
to present the findings.
Four constants emerged from the literature review addressing district reform:
(a) measurable goals, (b) efficient and effective use of data, (c) accountability, and (d)
differentiated support will provide the vehicle to collect data. As the four constants
emerged from the literature addressing successful district reform examples, their
application in the process of interpreting the data are appropriate as the study aims to
provide guidance for for school districts seeking to execute similar reform efforts.
Ethical Considerations
The proposal was submitted to the Institutional Review Board at the University of
Southern California. Written consent from the Hansen School District superintendent and
other interviewees were obtained. The consent forms ensure that all parties involved have
participated on a voluntary basis and that the necessary permission is granted from the
participating district. All interviewees were reminded before the interview of their
signing the consent form and that all interviews have been held in the strictest of
confidence. All names were given aliases. The recording device was placed in plain view
and any request to comment off the record was granted and respected. All data collected
have been stored in a locked and secure location.

69
Chapter 4: Data Analysis and Interpretation of Findings
Introduction
The purpose of collecting data in the study was to examine one school district’s
policies and practice, as they pertain to developing and executing a district-wide plan
aimed at preparing students with twenty-first century marketable skills while meeting or
exceeding federal and state accountability targets. The study describes the process by
which the district identifies key marketable skills for all students, develops a district-wide
plan, and implements and monitors the plan while ensuring adequate standardized
assessment performance. A methodology designed to create the case study provided the
protocols for gathering data from across the district. Through research, coding, and
analysis of the data the researcher addressed the following research questions:
1. What is the district’s plan for identifying and implementing twenty-first
century skills?
2. How does the district measure the effectiveness of the twenty-first century
skills plan?
3. What are the characteristics of the district’s leaders and how have those
traits influenced the plan for twenty-first century skills?
To fully develop the case study and identify themes across data sets the
researchers used the following instruments:
1. Document analysis of relevant district documents, including strategic plans,
monitoring, and evaluation tools.
2. Evidence-based interviews with district leaders.

70
3. A Likert scale survey for site administrators.
4. A transformational leadership questionnaire adapted from the Avolio and Bass
(1995) and Northouse (2007).
The organization that participated in this study is Hansen Unified School District
a public school district located in southern California. As noted on the district’s website,
the mission of Hansen Unified states that: a global community of learners, is to guarantee
that our students flourish in life as enthusiastic, confident learners through a world-class
educational system characterized by vigorous personalized curriculum, dedicated
teaching and total community involvement. Hansen continues to exceed academic goals
as measured by federal and state accountability targets. The district's academic
performance index for 2008-2009, for example, was 858, which is considerably higher
than the state expectation of 800. Currently not a single school has been identified as
program improvement for failing to meet the federal adequate yearly progress target for 2
consecutive years.
A table identifying the question and units of analysis precedes the analysis and
interpretation of the findings for each research question. The units of analysis identify the
sources of information used to extract the relevant data in order to adequately answer the
study’s research questions. Each section then includes pertinent quotes, excerpts, and
other relevant findings used to answer the questions. A discussion of findings identified
through themes and trends extracted from the data concludes each section. A conclusion
summarizes the findings as they pertain to the purpose of the study through the lens of
four constants evident in districts undergoing effective reform efforts. The constants were

71
derived from the literature review pertaining to district reform efforts which are: (a)
measurable goals, (b) efficient and effective use of data, (c) accountability, and (d)
differentiated support.
Question One: What is the District’s Plan for Identifying and Implementing
Twenty-First Century skills?

Table 4.1: Research Question One

Units of Analysis Research Questions
Efforts to realize a
21
st
century skills
plan
Leaders Educators
1. What is the district’s
plan for identifying and
implementing 21
st

century skills?

Observation of
meeting pertaining
to the plan
Document analysis
of plans (all
available iterations)
and resources used
to develop plan
Interviews
with leaders
focused on the
identification
and
development
of plan

NA

Research question one: what is the district’s plan for identifying and
implementing twenty-first century skills? focuses on the genesis of the district-wide
comprehensive plan for ensuring that students acquire the skills set demanded by the
twenty-first century workplace and colleges. Beyond identifying the origins of the plan
the first research question specifically addresses the components of the plan and how they
are to be implemented. Artifacts such as the district strategic plan, professional
development plans, and evidence-based interviews provide the data. The variety and
quantity of data sources yielded ample data for triangulation and were sufficient to
identify common themes.

72
Findings for the Genesis and Elements of District Plan
The Hansen Unified plan for preparing students with the twenty-first century
skills consolidates internally and externally developed expectations of student
achievement and their accompanying support elements. At its core the plan is a series of
success indicators and their corresponding goals organized around two central
components: (a) student learning and (b) climate. The student learning component
focuses on student outcome data and district trends in course enrollment and completion.
The climate component addresses the expectations of district employees such as
differentiating instruction for teachers and meeting safety requirements for all employees.
For the 2009-2010 school year the success indicators organized under student learning
include:
1. The core content areas of mathematics, English-language arts, science,
and history-social science tied directly to the California content standards.
2. Physical fitness.
3. Advanced placement, including enrollment in advanced placement and
community college courses.
4. Whole child such as world language offerings, health, information
literacy, service learning, and global awareness.
For the climate component the most current iteration of the plan examined in the
study include:
1. Professional learning communities: collaboration and assessment such as
current and updated teacher websites, development-administration-analysis use of

73
common benchmark assessments.
2. Career and college readiness through a partnership with Ed Trust West.
Hansen will perform a comprehensive audit of the college course completion trends for
its recent graduates.
3. Facilities and Safety.
4. Personnel performance aimed at reducing the number of employee discipline
incidents.
Included in the plan is a time line detailing when each success indicator is
measured and what data sources will inform the process of determining whether the goals
of each success indicator have been met. The professional development offerings,
including coaching and trainings are identified and specified to each of the success
indicators. The plan contains references to previous iterations of the plans and whether or
not success indicators were met. For success indicators that have been met conclusions as
to what contributed to the success are discussed. For success indicators in which the
district failed to meet an explanation is offered and an indication as to whether the
success indicator has be modified in the current plan. The plan includes a section of how
the budget will be allocated based on the needs and initiatives of the plan.
The analysis of recent and current iterations of the plan yielded a significant
finding. The scope of the plan extends beyond that of a series of twenty-first century
skills. Included in the success indicators are aspects of the entire district believed by its
architects to have implications for student achievement. Success indicators, such as
career and college readiness which examines the percentage of Hansen graduates

74
enrolling in and completing specific college courses, allow for district leaders to examine
the long-term effects of their curricular offerings and make adjustments accordingly.
Success indicators continue to emerge as the district examines how effective the district
is at reaching goals based on student achievement. Interviews with district leaders
indicate several key points in the district history to modify priorities. Most notably is the
increasing importance of indicators beyond those of state and federal accountability
mandates.
District leaders, including the superintendent and two directors of curriculum and
instruction indicate that the origins of the plan trace back to 2003-2004. After having
experienced several years of federal and state accountability mandates board members
noticed that the district was growing increasingly fragmented rather than becoming more
aligned in its purpose and mission. Board members of Hansen Unified began to stress the
need to ensure that Hansen Unified students graduate with marketable skills that would
give them the edge over others in college and the workplace. As a result, the district hired
Superintendent Doctor Edward Couch and charged him with the responsibility of
developing and executing a plan to realign the district to its mission of developing
students prepared for a global community by receiving a world-class education.
Doctor Couch and the board recognized that the goals and success indicators in
the early iterations of the plan were tied directly to state and federal accountability
mandates and would need to be revised as the board felt that the original goals
perpetuated the fragmentation of the district rather than aid in its alignment. A sample
goal from the original plan for 2004-2005 stated that: The percentage of students scoring

75
proficient or above on the mathematics California standards test will be at least 40 %
district-wide by school and by subgroup. The mounting impact of federal and state
accountability mandates began to adversely effect the district by narrowing the focus of
instruction which Doctor Couch shared:
Many teachers tended to significantly narrow their instruction to what they
believed would be assessed. Even though most of our kids were demonstrating
they could handle these tests, a lot of our teachers essentially threw out material
that wouldn’t be assessed regardless of how important they may have believed the
content to be. Other teachers responded in the exact opposite direction almost to
the point of intentionally not teaching what was on the tests as philosophical
dissent of some sort. We started to hear concerns from parents that their children
were no longer participating in fun projects. This level of accountability was
relatively new to all of us. Clearly, we had a problem on our hands that we hadn’t
anticipated. (1/08/10)

As a result of unintended effects brought about by high stakes assessments tied to
accountability, the board asked Doctor Couch to gather data pertinent to the mission of
providing a world-class education and propose mission-aligned goals.
Doctor Kevin Vance one of the two directors of curriculum and instruction
responsible for professional development and data analysis explained the process used to
devise goals and the organization of the plan consisting of several layers of aligned goals
including district-wide, site, and department-grade level teams to individual teacher
goals. Doctor Vance stated that:
The goals that comprise the core of the plan are devised differently but I’d like to
concentrate on the district goals. The district goals are comprised of what are now
16 “success indicators”. The process we utilize is a continuous improvement cycle
involving significant data analysis. We use both what we refer to as external data
sources such as CST, CAHSEE, AP, SATs as well as internal measures. Internal
measures included locally developed benchmark assessments, grades, as well as
surveys of students and parents. This analysis for us identifies areas of need. The
process starts with an annual board workshop where, after seeing data throughout
the year, we as a staff recommend new goals to the board. We use the format of

76
SMART goals, “Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Results-Oriented, Time
bound.” Based on the board’s feedback, the goals are modified. Once the board
feels the goals adequately align to the mission, they are ratified. (1/08/10)

Evident in the data sources used by board members, directors, and the
superintendent is a consensus that assessment data required for accountability purposes
are not sufficient to evaluate the situation of how well Hansen students are prepared to
compete in the twenty-first century. The inclusion of a series of local, internal data
sources, and success indicators became prominent in the districts continuous
improvement plan.
As indicated by a longitudinal examination of success indicators tracing back to
iterations of the plan from 2004-2005 to the current plan for 2010-2011, the number of
data sources categorized as internal, or locally developed, has grown from two sources of
mathematics and language arts benchmarks to a total of eight sources. The success
indicators include parent surveys, course or grade level benchmark assessments, and local
data indicating success in college, including the number of students placed into remedial
writing and mathematics courses as college freshmen.
The expansion of local indicators of success is based on the notion that state and
federal mandates are limited and they are constrictive. Without other indicators, teachers
focused on only state and federal targets, particularly in mathematics and Language Arts.
Curriculum and instruction narrowed to a point in which parents put political pressure to
expand the goals. Doctor Couch expressed the current district-wide view on the

77
limitations of standardized assessments:
Related to what we call “marketable skills”, one of the things that is evident to
Hansen is that many of the assessments where we’re asking kids to fill in bubbles
on multiple choice tests don’t exactly translate into the kinds of thinking skills we
believe are going to be critical for kids in the future. Because of this impression,
one of our current success indicators is to develop some metrics for service
learning, information literacy skills, all of the world languages we intend to offer,
etc. so we can capture data on the areas we feel are necessary to assess and, if
necessary, improve. (1/08/10)

The emergence of internal success indicators such as information literacy or the
ability to filter through a vast amount of information for credible and useful resources has
been credited to several sources. A 2008 parent survey conducted by Hansen Unified
indicated that nearly 100 % of the homes in the district had an Internet connection of
which approximately 75 % of students had their own computers. Parents indicated in the
2006 survey that a dichotomy existed regarding student Internet use. While parents
overwhelmingly felt that the Internet served as a powerful learning tool many were
apprehensive about students being ill-equipped to responsibly and safely use the internet.
The survey finding prompted the district leaders to develop an information literacy
success indicator.
The general consensus stated that the medium in which students would acquire a
considerable amount of information would continue to be online. The growing desire to
have students safely and responsibly navigate the Internet pressed the district to promote
responsible Internet use and develop a success indicator for information literacy.
Principal Susan Wright described a conversation she had with concerned parents:
These parents had, at the time, two children in our school. They shared with me
that they were thrilled that they would come home and show us great internet sites
to practice math problems and links to interesting science videos. The children’s

78
father was a software developer so I knew that he knew his way around
computers. The parents expressed to me the concerns they, and others, had about
the dangers of unsupervised Internet use and asked what we were doing about it.
It occurred to me then, that aside from blocking sites on our district computers,
we were doing virtually nothing else to teach kids how to do what they’re
supposed to do online, correctly. (1/08/10)

The example of stakeholders or parents influencing the district’s plan is telling of
the district’s responsiveness to community needs. Other community organizations such as
the Hansen Education Foundation a nonprofit organization devoted to developing and
launching educational and enrichment programs for the more than 10 thousand Hansen
students has significantly influenced the district’s plan over the past 5 years. Hansen
Education Foundation, as stated on their website, aims to promote programs that bridge
the gap between classroom-learning and the real world.
Doctor Francine Miles one of two directors of curriculum and instruction along
with Doctor Vance chronicles a few of the ways in which Hansen Education Foundation
has shaped the direction of the district:
HEF are a wonderful resource. They’ve been able to provide programs that we are
no longer able to sustain like music and, to some extent, science. Since they bring
with them considerable capital, they have also been very clear on what they would
like our focus to be. HEF was heavily invested in the music programs and helped
shape our perception on infusing world cultures. The music program they helped
revitalize focused on music from around the world. Our kids really responded to it
and we took notice. Soon, it became clear that HEF was realizing our mission
arguably better than we were. Indirectly, they reminded us what our mission is.
Recently, HEF has developed a strategic plan of their own which have begun to
fund innovative education programs. Things like opportunities for our kids to
participate in internships, service learning and educational travel are to be
included. This, too, has already influenced our board of education and has no
appeared in the language of our plan as a success indicator. (1/12/10)

Hansen Education Foundation’s plan is one of a continuous improvement cycle.
In order for continuous improvement to be realized professional development

79
opportunities are frequent for the teachers and principals of Hansen Unified. The
implementation of the district’s plan rests heavily on teacher collaboration. Weekly
collaboration sessions, as indicated by a review of several school calendars, are where
teachers are expected to examine data, set goals, monitor goals, and develop expertise by
sharing best practices all in alignment with the plan. Several individuals in the district
acknowledge that professional development is an area of the plan that requires attention
and improvement. Doctor Vance noted that:
The board was in favor of allocating time for teachers to collaborate as we share
the belief that collaboration among educators is a very effective way to conduct
professional development. Now that we’ve given them the time, we need to be
sure they spend it collaborating around our common focus, the elements of our
plan. (1/08/10)

Principal Susan Wright shared her observation about implementing the
plan:
My teachers have found the opportunities to meet frequently invaluable. I won’t
say that it’s been an easy transition away from traditional staff meetings where
information was just dispensed but I know that giving teachers time to collaborate
is the right thing to do. What we’re still missing is the structure to make the most
of the hour per week they’re given. Too often, a good conversations gets started
and then the time’s up. The following week, when we reconvene, we’re off on
another focus. It would be nice to have some continuity. (1/08/10)

An inspection of several collaboration agendas from Coral Elementary where
Principal Susan Wright, and two other Hansen schools revealed that continuity in
collaboration sessions across weeks is rare. Reference could be found to the opportunity
to collaborate and focus on executing the means necessary to meet the goals specified in
the plan. Lacking from the district plan were indications of how teachers are to be
supported through their collaboration.

80
In contrast to what district and site administrators shared, however, teacher
collaboration is credited as having the greatest impact on student achievement,
according to a survey item completed by teachers across the district. Figure 4.1
illustrates what teachers attributed to impacting student achievement.

Figure 4.1: Survey Question – Impact on Student Achievement

Three themes emerged from the data regarding research question one. Focusing
on state and federal accountability targets lead to a narrowing of curriculum and
instruction. In response to the narrowing of focus parents put political pressure on district
leadership to makes changes and expand the focus of schools. To meet the demand, under
the leadership of the superintendent, the district identified broader, local indicators of
success based on the concept of marketable skill.
The district plan for twenty-first century skills is a far-reaching district-wide plan
incorporating several aspects of the organization. The plan developed based on the
perceived narrowing of curriculum and instruction. Pressure from parents motivated
district leaders to expand their focus and develop indicators of success beyond limited

81
state and federal mandates. The plan is built around a core of success indicators some of
which specifically address student learning while others address the district climate. The
plan is executed as a continuous improvement cycle involving frequent data analysis,
annual assessment, and revision of goals. Several stakeholders from within the district
and the community have influenced and shaped the plan since its inception. The
implementation of the plan relies heavily on the effectiveness of teacher collaboration
that, according to several sources, has yet to yield the desired results but continues to
show promise and is credited by teachers as a significant factor impacting student
achievement.
Question Two: To What Extent Has the District Plan for
Twenty-First Century Skills Been Implemented?

Table 4.2: Research Question Two
Units of Analysis Research Questions
Efforts to
realize a 21
st

century skills
plan
Leaders Educators
2. To what extent has
the district’s plan for
21
st
century skills been
implemented?
-document
analysis of
professional
development
provided in
support of plan
implementation

-interviews with
leaders focused on
building capacity,
developing culture
in support of the
plan

-interviews with
site
administrators,
teachers focused
on the
implementation
and perceptions
of the plan

Research question two asks: To what extent has the district’s plan for twenty-first
century skills been implemented? The question addresses the degree to which the plan
has been implemented district-wide in comparison to the plan’s intent and aims.
Answering question two involved inquiry into the monitoring practices of the district in

82
regards to the district’s twenty-first century skills plan. Interviews with district personnel,
including the superintendent, directors, and site administrators provided detailed
information about implementation.
In an effort to answer the second research question findings were triangulated
through document analysis, evidence-based interviews, and survey results. Documents
included professional development plan components and district instruments for
monitoring instruction such as classroom walk-through templates. Interview data
specifically referring to implementation were extracted from interviews with district
personnel, including the superintendent, directors, and site administrators. A stages of
concern questionnaire provided insight into the extent of implementation of the district’s
twenty-first century skills plan by determining the degree of stakeholders’ concerns
regarding the change that the plan entails.
Findings for the Extent of Implementation for the Plan
Hansen Unified plan is one of continuous improvement. Implied in a continuous
improvement plan is the understanding that full implementation is incompatible with
continuous improvement. The dominant theme found in the data related to research
question two is that the district is committed to continuous improvement; therefore, the
district is committed to never completing their plan. The culture and practice of the
district is to continually update, revise, and analyze results rather than reach a stage of
completion.
An analysis of annual board workshop session minutes where district leaders are
expected to present their findings regarding which success indicators of the plan have

83
been met and which have not indicate that since 2004-2005 Hansen Unified has meet
approximately 65 % of its success indicators. For success indicators addressing student
learning the percent is greater at nearly 80 % of success indicators having been met. For
success indicators focusing on district climate, however, analysis of historical annual
board workshop data indicate that 55 % of previous success indicators have been met.
The different percentages do not average 65 % collectively as there are a disproportionate
amount of success indicators addressing each theme in the district plans. The number of
success indicators has increased since 2004-2005.
One interpretation of the higher success rate associated with student learning
could involve that for each year since the inception of the plan success indicators tied to
state and federal accountability mandates have been met as Hansen Unified was selected
because of its academic success as measured by current accountability formulas. The
lower rate of success associated with success indicators addressing district climate may
be addressed by considering that Hansen, though the district climate portion of their
plans, overcame current internal obstacles such as facility maintenance or employee
discipline.
Doctor Couch addressed the discrepancy between the two themes:
We’ve been aware of the discrepancy for some time and, on one hand, are proud
of the fact that in the area that we are supposed to be all about, the reason we
exist, we are producing encouraging results. That being said, we do tend to use
this component of the plan to identify and target current issues in our district.
We’re also not known to develop undemanding goals so I can see why that may
contribute to the difficulty in meeting certain success indicators. (1/08/10)

For several of the success indicators, specifically those addressing student
learning, school leaders frequently examined student assessment data. For example, a

84
success indicator from the 2006-2007 plan stipulated that 55 % of students would score
proficient or higher on the California standards test (CST) in English-language arts. For
this success indicator determining whether or not the indicator has been met with success
is straightforward. Once California standards test data are released the district instantly
knows whether or not the success indicator has been met.
Several success indicators, however, are not as easy to evaluate as their scope
extends beyond what standardized assessments currently measure. One example of this is
the success indicator addressing information literacy. The first success indicator
developed regarding information literacy did not involve measuring student achievement
of information literacy skills. The success indicator from the 2007-2008 plan stated that:
Between August 2007 and June 2008 100 % of school Web-sites and 100 % of teacher
Web-sites will have been updated at least 40 times. The indicator, serving as a precursor
for the eventual district-wide expectation to measure students’ information literacy skills,
required the frequent monitoring of Web-sites traffic and action. The indicator and its
associated monitoring practice serves as an illustration of the flexibility of Hansen’s plan.
This observation reinforces the primary theme of continuous improvement associated
with research question two.
In the area of commonly accepted twenty-first century skills Hansen Unified is
currently developing student assessments for the following aspects of their plan: (a)
world languages though Hansen currently measures advanced placement Spanish data,
(b) service learning, (c) information technology, and (d) visual and performing arts.
Interviews and a review of primary documents indicate that the district is in the process

85
of expanding success indicators to include twenty-first century skills that have a more
global aspect than in the past. Doctor Vance charged with spearheading the development
and administration of measures to evaluate success indicators shares his enthusiasm about
developing assessments for the twenty-first century marketable skills stated that:
Evaluating whether or not we’re meeting our expectations around world
languages will be the easier of the four twenty-first century skills we are currently
not assessing. Aside from measuring enrollment, evaluating the world language
portion of our plan will be relatively simple considering these curricula have
embedded assessments we can use from the onset. What I’m excited about is
developing ways to determine whether service learning, for instance, is adequate
in Hansen. Through the support provided by HEF, we foresee students developing
a sense of community and civic responsibility and since a principle of service
learning is to promote measurable change in the community recipients of the
service as well as the students participating in service learning, measuring all of
this is going to be powerful. (1/08/10)

Contributing to the extent to which the plan has been implemented are survey data
specifically about the success indicator addressing global and international content. Site
principals were asked to estimate how often teachers in their schools incorporate global
or international content into their instruction. As the current success indicator in the plan
states that: Between August 2009 and June 2010 100 % of Hansen classrooms will
incorporate global content into instruction on a monthly basis. According to site
administrator responses, approximately two-thirds of Hansen teachers are currently
meeting or exceeding the success indicator. Table 4.3 illustrates the perceived frequency
of infusing global or international content into instruction by site administrators.

86

Table 4.3: Frequency of Global or International Content Inclusion
How often are global or international issues integrated into your site's
curriculum?
Answer Options
Response
Percent
Response
Count
At least once a day 0.0% 0
Weekly 25.0% 31
Monthly 41.7% 50
Once a trimester 0.0% 0
Rarely 16.7% 21
Never 16.7% 22

An analysis of the data pertinent to the extent of implementation of the plan
reveals that in a plan designed to be continuous and dynamic evaluating the extent of
implementation must include determining how continuous and dynamic the plan is. A
historical exploration of district artifacts revealed that Hansen Unified has developed and
implemented a plan that is significantly dynamic. The success indicators at the core of the
plan are continually examined and revised annually. Two district level administrators are
charged with regularly tracking data pertinent to the plan substantiating the plan’s
continuous nature. The flexibility inherent in the plan is demonstrated by the variety of
success indicators. The finding is reflective of a robust approach to determining what
students need, thus planning and executing according to their needs.

87
Question Three: How Does the District Measure the Effectiveness of the
Twenty-First Century Skills Plan?

Table 4.4: Research Question Three
Units of Analysis Research Questions
Efforts to
realize a 21
st

century skills
plan
Leaders Educators
3. How does the district
measure the
effectiveness of the 21
st

century skills plan?
-document
analysis of
monitoring and
evaluation tools
-interviews with
leaders focused
-observation of
monitoring (data
collection,
analysis, action,
dissemination)
-interviews
with educators
focused on
perception and
value of
monitoring and
evaluation of
plan

The third research question asks: How does the district measure the effectiveness
of the twenty-first century skills plan? The purpose of question three is to investigate the
practices and protocols in place to evaluate the impact of the district plan in the context of
imposed accountability targets through the federal No Child Left Behind Act and locally
defined success indicators. The data that were collected in order to comprehensively
answer the third research question involved document analysis. Board meeting minutes,
specifically those involving district-wide student achievement data analysis and goal
setting sessions were examined. Several aspects of the interviews with district leaders
centered on the topic of measurement and evaluation and were, therefore, included as
sources used for adequately answering research question three.
Findings Regarding the Measuring and Monitoring of the Plan
The consensus among Hansen Unified board members and district leaders
regarding the effectiveness of the plan is that although the emphasis in the district is far

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greater than high stakes tests, standardized assessments are an integral factor for
evaluating the effectiveness of the plan. The research themes that emerged for research
question three are that the district measures and monitors their plan by: (a) board review
of district success indicators, (b) principal goal setting, and (c) ongoing plan revision
based on analysis of past performance.
Doctor Couch articulated how the district reconciles the widespread belief that
Hansen attempts to do more than prepare students for high stakes while still relying on
the tests to evaluate the effectiveness of the district-wide plan:
We aren’t necessarily married to our CST and CAHSEE scores but, as a public
school district, we’d be remiss to not consider how our students are doing on
these assessments for several reasons. First off, we have a trend in Hansen that if
kids struggle to do well on the CST, they’re more likely to not pass the CAHSEE
on their first attempt than students who have a track record of scoring proficient
on the CST. Secondly, we don’t want the negative publicity nor the potential
sanctions of failing to meet the expected targets. So, while we aim to take our
students beyond standardized assessments, the impact of these scores are as
significant here as they are in just about any other district. (1/08/10)

Doctor Couch alluded to what is stated in Hansen board policy regarding the plan.
Stated in the board policy, as evidenced by board meeting minutes is that Hansen has the
ethical responsibility to grant every student access to a world-class education and to
ensure that students who are in jeopardy of not attaining a world-class education
intervention must occur early on. Doctor Miles discussed the role standardized
assessments play in the process of evaluating the effectiveness of the plan commenting
that:
I’d like to believe that our focus on success indicators that reach beyond the scope
of standardized assessments are the reason we have established a track record of
sustained high stakes assessment achievement. However, I have to acknowledge
that our kids were doing pretty well on high stakes tests before the inception of

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this plan. That being said, we have continued to enjoy gains in our API, as well as
the AYP – even with the raising bar set by No Child Left Behind. What’s evident
is that we’ve never gotten away from preparing students for these tests, we’ve just
decided that we needed to move them beyond and it appears that that has paid off.
(1/12/10)

Hansen Unified (DataQuest, n. d.) has exceeded the state accountability mandates
for 5 consecutive years. The district has had an academic performance index of over 8
hundred in that time span and for each of those years has seen its index increase. As for
federal accountability targets, Hansen Unified failed to meet its adequate yearly progress
criteria in 2008 and 2009. The English language learner subgroup failed to meet the
percent proficient criterion for 2008 and 2009. Prior to these years, however, Hansen
Unified met adequate yearly progress for 4 consecutive years between 2004 through
2007. The district’s sustained academic achievement results established that no Hansen
Unified schools were classified as program improvement which is a designation given to
schools or districts having failed to meet adequate yearly progress for 2 consecutive
years.
The success indicators are one layer of vertically aligned goals from district-wide
down to individual classroom goals. The goals constitute the bulk of what is monitored in
order to determine the effectiveness of the plan. Directors at the district level evaluate site
administrators using a district principal evaluation tool comprised of universal
expectations for all administrators and site specific goals determined by principals. An
excerpt from the principal evaluation tool is provided in Table 4.5 illustrating the
universal expectations of all administrators in Hansen Unified as well as an area
designated for principal-generated site goals.

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Table 4.5: Excerpt from Hansen Unified School District Principal Evaluation
Element Goals/Objectives/Activities Comments
2. Culture for Learning
and Professional
Growth

2.1. Create an
accountability system
of teaching and
learning based on
student learning
standards.

Source: Hansen Unified School District Administrator Evaluation Protocol
The following is an example of a site-specific goal devised by a principal due to
identified needs at her middle school: By June 2010, authentic assessment rubrics will be
developed for informational literacy in every content area at Sycamore Middle School.
The particular example of a site-specific goal was developed in anticipation of the
informational literacy focus that was being realized across the district. As Sycamore
Middle School students’ were least likely to have computers in their homes, the principal
recognized that tools such as rubrics would aid in the incorporation of information
literacy into the school’s curricula.
According to the Hansen Unified plan, a world class education: A continuous
improvement plan, the site-specific goal for Sycamore Middle School, as in every other
school in the district, will be examined periodically throughout the school year and will
be incorporated into the principal’s evaluation. Incorporating site-specific goals into a
uniform principal evaluation tool serves a dual purpose. A principal is able to focus on
the unique needs or demands of her particular school and the district leaders are given a
frame of reference for which to evaluate and collect data on the impact of the district
plan.

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Using observation tools, unique to the current school goals, principals conduct
weekly targeted classroom walk-through collecting evidence of instruction. Doctor Miles
explained the purpose of a classroom walk-through in regards to the district plan that:
Our principals are expected to conduct classroom walk-through visits daily and
ensure that every class is visited at least once per week. The focus of the walk-
through is to monitor instruction including the site-specific goals aligned to the
district plan. We have provided training on how to give brief and specific
feedback and expect principals to do so, routinely. This serves as an important
metric for us as, when principals attend principal meetings, they’re expected to
report trends observed on the walk-throughs. We try to devote ample time to
discuss the trends and determine next steps. (1/12/10)

The meetings Doctor Miles mentioned are an integral component to the district
plan. As indicated in the current iteration of the plan, the monthly meetings are strategic
planning sessions where the superintendent, directors, and site principals share data
relevant to the district and school goals. Included in the session are opportunities for
participants to interpret the data shared and develop concrete actions based on the data.
Principals are expected to evaluate teachers similarly by utilizing an evaluation
tool that, unlike the principal evaluation, is comprised of contractually approved
universal expectations. Although classroom teachers are expected to develop classroom
goals aligned to school goals that are aligned to the district goals or success indicators
classroom goals are not incorporated into teacher evaluation. Doctor Vance elaborated on
the purpose of teacher goals:
Teacher goals serve a slightly different role than some of the other goals as you
go up the “goal hierarchy”. Since teachers are responsible for carrying out the
majority of the plan’s details, the goals devised at the classroom are really there to
serve as baselines for their (teachers’) development. For example, just last week, I
met with a middle school English teacher whose goal dealt with having her
students write blogs throughout the year. For her to meet the goal, she’s been
learning more and more about online content management. This is an example of

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setting a goal aligned with our district success indicators that will help us meet
our overall aim to provide kids with marketable skills. (1/08/10)

The manner in which Hansen Unified plan measures the effectiveness of its plan
is multifaceted. Central to determining the effectiveness of the plan are high stakes
assessment results. Vertically aligned goals serve to focus the efforts from classroom
teachers to board members. The goals, specifically the district success indicators, serve as
the benchmark to the many facets of the district plan. While goals serve a slightly
different purpose depending on their level such as district, site, and classroom, the intent
of the goals, regardless of level, is to align vertically to the success indicators of the
district plan. Board meeting agendas and minutes indicate that success indicators and data
pertinent to the plan are examined monthly demonstrating the process and the district
plan is continuous.
Question Four: What are the Traits of the District’s Leaders and
How Have Those Traits Influenced the Plan for Twenty-First Century Skills?

Table 4.6: Research Question Four
Units of Analysis Research Questions
Efforts to
realize a 21
st

century skills
plan
Leaders Educators
4. What are the traits of
the district’s leaders and
how have those traits
influenced the plan for
21
st
century skills?
-observation of
meeting
pertaining to the
plan

-instrument to
identify leadership
traits and
characteristics
-interviews with
educators focused
on leadership
within the district

To maintain and further the mission and vision of any organization leaders must
provide direction and exercise influence (Yukl, 1994). Research question four asks: What

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are the traits of the district’s leaders and how have those traits influenced the plan for
twenty-first century skills? While research questions one through three focused on the
development and evaluation of the district plan research question four focused on the
characteristics of those charged with devising and executing the plan. Several data
sources were scrutinized in order to adequately detail the characteristics of the
individuals, including the district superintendent and both directors of curriculum and
instruction.
The data sources included evidence-based interviews, elements of a questionnaire
administered to site administrators, and a transformational leadership questionnaire
adapted from Avilo and Bass (1995) and Northouse (2007). Derived from the
transformational theory of leadership the transformational leadership questionnaire
Northouse (2007) was used for several reasons. Transformational Leadership as a theory
is concerned with aligning the objectives and goals of the leadership, the group, and the
larger organization (Bass & Riggio, 2006). As the scope of the plan is district-wide,
encompassing several hundred educators examining those in leadership roles through the
use of a tool designed to provide insight into how educators are empowered to realize an
ambitious transformation is the appropriate district’s plan. Tools such as the multifactor
leadership questionnaire yields trait-like findings (Northouse, 2007). The instrument
was adapted from Avilo and Bass’ (1995) questionnaire in order to obtain information
regarding elements of district leadership practices in the district.

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Findings for the Traits of District Leadership’s Influence on the Plan
The theory of transformational leadership was applied to the analysis and
interpretation of research question four as Northouse (2007) described the increasingly
popular theory as "fitting of the needs of today’s work groups, who want to be inspired
and empowered to succeed in times of uncertainty" (p. 175). Transformation leadership
theory focuses on the process that changes and transforms organizations. As a framework
for answering research question four, seven different factors spread across a continuum
between transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership styles will be used.
Transactional leadership focuses on the exchanges that take place between leaders and
followers while laissez-faire leadership represents the absence of leadership (Northouse,
2007). Table 4.7 illustrates the framework used to answer research question four,
including factors associated with each of the three leadership styles.
Table 4.7: Transformational Leadership Framework
Transformational
Leadership
Transactional
Leadership
Laissez-faire
Leadership
Factor 7
Laissez-faire
Nontransactional

Factor 5:
Contingent Reward
Constructive
Transactions
Factor 6:
Management-by-
Exception
Active and Passive
Corrective
Transactions

Factor 1:
Idealized Influence
Charisma
Factor 2:
Insipirational
Motivation
Factor 3:
Intellectual
Stimulation
Factor 4:
Individualized
Consideration

Source: Northouse, 2007.
An educator survey shown in Table 4.7 provides insight into which factors were

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evident among the Hansen Unified leadership, including the superintendent, Doctor
Couch, and directors of curriculum and instruction Doctor Miles and Doctor Vance. The
data gathered are limited to the individuals, as they are the greatest contributors to the
development and implementation of the district plan charged with setting its direction
and supporting educators in achieving the plan’s goals. Approximately 18 % of the
teachers completed the survey.
The survey was modeled after the popular transformational leadership instrument
the multifactor leadership questionnaire or MLQ (Avolio & Bass, 1995). Survey
participants were asked to consider the leadership members collectively when
responding. The purpose of conducting a survey regarding transformational leadership
qualities of district leaders was to provide insight into the perception of leadership among
the teachers across Hansen Unified.
Research questions one through three revealed several key themes. The district
responded to local pressure to increase and expand the indicators of student success
beyond state and federal mandates of accountability. In response to the pressures district
leaders developed indicators of success that change and sometimes increase in number
year-to-year. The district is committed to an ongoing process adapting priorities based on
past results. Given the expansive district priorities the characteristics of district and
school leaders are an important component of the case study, as it attempts to capture the
district’s implementation of twenty-first century expectations for students. An analysis of
traits of district leaders across three domains: (a) transformational leadership,
(b)transactional leadership, and (c) laissez-faire leadership indicates the case

96
study may provide direction for other districts.
The intent was not to provide statistically conclusive data, as the tools utilized
were developed for simple aggregate data collection nor was the survey administered to a
random sample of Hansen teachers. Teachers voluntarily participated making the
sampling method more aligned to convenience sampling than random sampling.
Although no statistical analysis were conducted the survey contributed to answering
research question four by offering teacher perceptions about specific qualities of district
leaders. The first segment of the survey involved the factors associated with
transformational leadership represented in Table 4.8.

Table 4.8: Section One of Transformational Leadership Survey
Transformational Leadership Styles
Not at all
Once in a
while
Sometimes
Fairly
often
Frequently

Idealized Influence (Attributes): go
beyond self-interest for the good of the
group.
13% 55% 32%
Idealized Influence (Behaviors): consider
the moral and ethical consequences of
decisions.
10% 68%

22%
Inspirational Motivation: talk
optimistically about the future.
25% 43% 34%

Intellectual Stimulation: re-examine
critical assumptions to question whether
they are appropriate.
5% 15% 74% 6%

Individualized Consideration: spend time
teaching and coaching others to develop
their strengths.
12% 8% 34% 45%

The data for the first section of the survey indicate that many of the participating
teachers expressed that district leaders exhibit qualities suggestive of transformational
leadership qualities frequently or fairly often. The exceptions to the finding are the
qualities of inspirational motivation and intellectual stimulation where participants

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reported slightly less frequent exhibition of the qualities than either idealized influence
such as attitudes and behavior or individualized consideration. As both qualities of
idealized influence, attitudes and behavior, received the greatest amount of responses in
the more frequent categories of fairly often and frequent, it is plausible that many
teachers across Hansen Unified perceive their district leaders as possessing qualities
affiliated with a transformational leadership style.
The second segment of the survey addressed the transactional leadership qualities
of contingent rewards and managing-by-exception. The quality of contingent rewards
represents clarity around consequences for meeting and failing to meet expectations.
Management by exception is a concept regarding leaders allocating time and energy to
areas of organizing not producing the desired results. Table 4.9 represents participant
responses regarding transactional leadership qualities.

Table 4.9: Section Two of Transformational Leadership Survey
Transactional Leadership Styles
Not at all
Once in a
while
Sometimes
Fairly
often
Frequently

Contingent Reward: make clear what
one can expect to receive when
performance goals are achieved.
6% 20% 64% 10%
Management by Exception: ( Active)
keep track of all mistakes.

10% 42% 12% 32% 4%

Participant responses regarding transactional leadership qualities suggest a
disparity between the qualities associated with transactional leadership. Approximately
three-quarters of participants indicated that district leaders clarified contingent rewards
fairly often to frequently. The data suggest that reference to the benefits or consequences

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of meeting goals may be a regular practice among Hansen Unified leadership. In regards
to management by exception, however, slightly more than one-half of the respondents
indicated that tracking mistakes was a relatively rare practice. While one survey item
addressing management-by-exception is insufficient for drawing conclusions anecdotes
taken from evidence-based interviews support the perception that district leaders
emphasize the transactional leadership quality of contingent rewards. When describing
the culture of the district prior to and after the inception of the district plan
Superintendent Doctor Couch suggested some qualities indicative of transactional
leadership styles:
The inception of the plan brought about some resistance from those happy to
preserve the status quo. Many parents, teachers, and principals didn’t see the need
for what they called “radical changes” when our students were generally
performing well. Looking back, I believe the development and constant reference
to our success indicators intimidated people who weren’t necessarily used to
being held accountable in the past. However, I’ll credit our ability to continuously
state the benefits of working towards our goals as a contributor to changing the
culture from one of apprehension of change towards one that is increasingly
embracing it. If one thing is clear, it’s the recognition our employees receive for
contributing to our shared success. (1/08/10)

Doctor Couch a transactional leadership quality contingency was credited for
quelling mounting concerns about the new direction the plan was taking the district.
Contingent rewards, a staple of transactional leadership, was evident in the remarks
shared by Doctor Couch.
A second interview offered anecdotes suggesting the evidence of transactional
leadership qualities among the district leaders. Doctor Vance director of curriculum and
instruction in realizing the plan when addressing the current challenges the district faces
stated that:

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Even though the framework or structure of our plan is pretty straightforward, its
implementation can become complicated. Over the past few years, one of our
greatest challenges has been making sure the people who are supposed to support
teachers in meeting their own, as well as school, goals are actually doing what
they’re supposed to do. Often, we find that support members such as instructional
coaches and project directors are spending a great deal of time in managerial and
administrative roles as opposed to supporting the implementation of the plan. We
find ourselves spending most of our time on the aspects of our plan, like how our
support people spend their time, that aren’t working as well as we’d like and
finding and fixing problems. (1/08/10)

Doctor Vance’s commentary supports what is known about transactional
leadership’s second principle management-by-exception or the tendency to manage
aspects of an organization that are not producing the desired results while paying little or
no attention to aspects that are producing suitable results. The final segment of the survey
focused on laissez-faire leadership or what can be considered a hands off approach where
employees are expected to meet their responsibilities with minimal leader involvement.
Table 4.11 presents the survey responses regarding laissez-faire leadership.

Table 4.10: Section Three of the Transformational Leadership Survey
Laissez-faire Leadership Style
Not at all
Once in a
while
Sometimes
Fairly
often
Frequently

Management-by-exception: (Passive) allow
for problems to be solved without (leader)
intervention

18% 52% 28% 2%
Laissez-faire: avoid making decisions

64% 25% 11%

As illustrated in Table 4.10, the majority of responses suggest that laissez-faire
leadership qualities are relatively less common than either transformational or
transactional leadership styles. A questionnaire administered to school principals
corroborated the findings from the laisse-faire section of the teacher survey. Principal

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Sandstone described the leadership style of Doctor Couch by stating that:
Dr. Couch is a hands-on superintendent. He visits our school frequently and
knows most of our teachers by name. It amazes me how entrenched he is. He’s
aware of what’s going on with so many of our students and their families. I don’t
think I’ve ever known a superintendent to be that involved at that level. My wife
is a teacher at Santiago High School and told me that he has sat in on one of her
Algebra class as if he were a student. At our strategic planning sessions, he makes
it a point to hear from everyone and is explicit with us when he intends to offer
insight to a problem or if he expects us to resolve a current challenge. He’s also
implemented recognition programs for employees across every department from
maintenance to food services to transportation. He’s even on a first-name basis
with our school’s bus driver. (1/12/10)

By examining the anecdote shared by Mister Sandstone and other principals it
appears that there is little evidence to substantiate the presence of a laissez-faire
leadership style. When asked about the degree to which the directors of curriculum and
instruction get involved in the affairs of the principals several indicated that Doctor
Couch’s influence has resulted in more involvement and access by the directors at the
school sites.
The data collected for question four was examined through the lens of a
continuum of leadership styles ranging from transformational to transactional to laissez-
faire. Survey data suggested that the district leadership exhibited more qualities
associated with transformational leadership style than either transactional or laissez-faire
styles. Virtually nonexistent in the data were evidence of hands-off approaches by the
district leaders. Evidence supporting the emergence of transactional leadership practices
were mixed. The transactional leadership principle of management-by-exception
represented the greatest range in survey responses; whereas, evidence emerged
suggesting the use of contingent rewards was considerable.

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When examining the survey data in the context of the district plan the evidence
suggesting a strong presence of transformation leadership qualities with additional
evidence of transactional qualities can be interpreted. Appropriate for a district
undertaking a continuous improvement plan, comprised of success indicators reaching far
beyond traditional content areas and assessments, are transformational leadership
qualities and behaviors. Motivating and steering the district towards the ambitious aims
of a plan requiring more than federal or state accountability targets expect requires the
moral fortitude, charisma, and influence associated with transformational leadership. As
aspects of the plan require individuals to execute specific responsibilities, is the degree of
compliance management necessary which perhaps explains the emergence of
transactional leadership qualities.
Conclusion
A description was provided for one district’s development, implementation, and
monitoring of a plan to prepare students for the demands of the twenty-first century.
Following a careful analysis of the data findings for each research question were
determined. By examining the data through the four constants emerging from the
literature review regarding district reform the analysis led to the emergence of three
major themes in the findings:
1. Local social and political pressures influenced the development of the plan
greater than federal or state accountability mandates, international benchmarking
assessments, or global economic pressures.
2. Data analysis, as an integral component of a continuous improvement cycle, is

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directly tied to aligned district, school, and classroom goals.
3. By expanding expectations for all students, as opposed to narrowing
expectations, the district leadership as assuaged the local social and political pressures
and experienced sustained student achievement growth.
Theme One: The Influence of Local Social and Political Pressures
Literature addressing the concern with the quality and focus of American
education abound. A common recommendation for schools and districts looking to
adequately prepare students has been to examine the global trends and demands of the
twenty-first century workplace as a panacea. In the case of Hansen Unified School
District it was the proliferation of local pressures from community stakeholders that
influenced the contents of their plan rather than board members or a superintendent with
an agenda to integrate twenty-first century skills.
One of the constants of district reform emerging from the literature pertains to
measurable goals which have been found to drive the core of district reform efforts. In
Hansen Unified the core of the district plan is a series of success indicators articulated in
the specific measurable attainable results-oriented time-bound or SMART goal fashion.
As the plan evolved through local influences from foundations, parents, and school
officials, new iterations of the plan incorporated additions through the form of new goals.
A second constant evident in school reform efforts is that of differentiated
support. The vertically aligned goal structure of the district’s plan allows for schools to
set their own site-specific goals. The feature of the plan supports a differentiated
approach to supporting schools as site-goals are tailored to focus on needs or challenges

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unique to the school.
The case study offered a significant finding pertinent to the theme of local social
and political pressures. Hansen Unified did not initiate a plan to incorporate twenty-first
century skills. Through the development of a dynamic plan, the district found itself
readily adaptable and responsive to external and internal demands for change or growth.
As a result, the current plan incorporates far more than twenty-first century skills but
does include these.
Theme Two: Data Analysis as Integral Component of Continuous Improvement Cycle
Data analysis continues to gain significant momentum in the high stakes
accountability era due to an increased focus on assessments and advents in technology
that facilitate their use. Evident in the successful district reform efforts were the relentless
use of data to inform decisions. In Hansen Unified the development, monitoring, and
evaluation of the plan revolved around various sources of data, including student
achievement, course enrollment, post secondary trend data, and implementation data.
Through the charismatic leadership of the superintendent and his directors the use
of data to drive the emergence of success indicators tackling ambitious efforts to
incorporate twenty-first century skills into the curriculum became possible. Data, rather
than intuition or opinions, continue to influence the plan as well as facilitate the district’s
continuing improvement as measured by accountability mandates including the
California academic performance index and the federal adequate yearly progress.
Because Hansen Unified incorporated frequent monitoring and strategic planning
sessions focused on the plan’s goals the execution of the plan became continuous.

104
Due to its continuous nature, for every success indicator in the plan, metrics are
either in use or in development.
Accountability was a constant emerging from studies of district reform efforts. As
a continuous improvement plan with frequent monitoring of implementation and
outcomes, all involved stakeholders are called to task as well as supported as
accountability has demonstrated to be a significant factor in support elements for schools,
principals, and teachers.
Theme Three: Expanded Student Expectations by District Leadership
While federal and state accountability expectations were considered throughout
the development of the district plan the collected data revealed that the prescribed federal
and state mandates were interpreted by Hansen Unified board members, leaders, and
educators, as a bottom line compared to targets to be reached. This uncommon paradigm
allowed for the plan to evolve and include expectations well beyond those that students
would encounter on a high stakes assessment. As evidenced by the iterations of the
Hansen Unified plan, student expectations grew from merely meeting the targets set by
state and federal accountability models to far more rigorous expectations involving world
languages, informational technology, and service learning. Unlike many school districts,
who in response to high stakes assessments, narrow curricula and course offerings in
order to align with what is emphasized on high stakes assessments. Hansen’s approach

entails ensuring students are exposed to rich experiences helping them acquire
marketable skills for their future.

105
The leadership of Hansen Unified has emerged as a key force in realizing a plan
that extends greater than the reach of high stakes assessments by exhibiting behaviors and
qualities commensurate with transformational leadership, specifically a theory of
leadership associated with organizations having successfully undergone change.

106
Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations
Summary of Findings
The qualitative case study examined one public school district that is meeting
federal and state accountability targets and has initiated a plan to prepare all students with
twenty-first century marketable skills. The literature is plentiful with recommendations
on what twenty-first century skills entail. The study was not conducted in order to offer
another set of traits or skills deemed necessary to survive in the twenty-first century
workplace. The intent of the study was to chronicle the process a district undertakes in
developing and executing a plan to prepare students for the demands of the twenty-first
century.
While many similar districts have responded to the pressures of No Child Left
Behind by narrowing curriculum and limiting their indicators of success by externally
imposed mandates Hansen Unified School District has instead widened its scope of
expectations for students. Students have responded as the district is experiencing
sustained achievement on federal and state accountability targets and locally developed
success indicators.
Setting the district apart from other districts with similar visions of preparing
students for an interconnected world, a global economy, or twenty-first century skills are
more than any other aspect that the origins of the plan and the success indicators devised
in the process. Hansen Unified, through local community pressure, did not initiate their
current plan with the intentions of teaching and assessing twenty-first century marketable
skills. Hansen’s intentions, similar to many districts across the United States, were to

107
respond to the mounting pressure to exceed accountability targets. Due to the systematic
manner in which all ensuing initiatives were expected to align to the district goals the
genesis of a plan reached far wider than meeting accountability targets.
The central aspect to Hansen Unified’s plan that began to hold the language and
expectations, whose reach extended greater than outside imposed accountability targets,
were the district success indicators. The success indicators developed with accountability
targets in mind extend beyond said targets and began to focus on the identified
marketable skills of the twenty-first century workplace. In contrast to other districts
Hansen had devised a tiered goal model ensuring alignment between district, school-site,
classroom, and student goals. Using a comprehensive set of data, including locally
developed common assessments for highly-assessed content areas and traditionally non-
assessed content areas such as information literacy, world languages, and dramatic arts
data analysis sessions are routine and replicated from district board meetings down to
individual classrooms across the district. Threading the analysis together is a series of
district-wide goals developed in the SMART goal format and their corresponding success
indicators.
Emerging from the analysis of the district plan and leadership traits were the
following themes:
1. Local social and political pressures influenced the development of the plan
greater than federal or state accountability mandates, international benchmarking
assessments, or global economic pressures.

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2. Data analysis, as an integral component of a continuous improvement cycle is
directly tied to aligned district, school, and classroom goals.
3. By raising expectations for all students, as opposed to narrowing expectations,
the district leadership as assuaged the local social and political pressures and experienced
sustained student achievement growth.
Implications of Findings
This case study focused on the development, implementation, and monitoring of
Hansen Unified School District’s plan for providing students access to marketable
twenty-first century skills while still meeting accountability targets. Several implications
emerged from the findings of the case study.
For practitioners the case study can provide a template for districts intending to
realize a similar plan aimed at ensuring high stakes assessment proficiency and access to
twenty-first century marketable skills. Districts seeking to actualize a dynamic and
continuous plan responsive to local or global demands would equally benefit by
reviewing the study.
For policymakers the study provides an approach in sharp contrast to what are
common district responses to the mandates imposed by accountability models. The
assumptions underlying federal amd state accountability models must be re-evaluated, as
in their current state accountability models foster highly standardized and rigid school
districts.

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Areas for Future Research
The literature indicates that the questions regarding the role of twenty-first
century skills in a climate of accountability are far from answered. Whether locally
motivated or influenced by global forces the desire to transform districts into dynamic
organizations responsive to the demands of the twenty-first century workplace is on the
rise. While the case study provides insight into how one midsize district is realizing a
plan that extends greater than imposed accountability mandates the long-term impact of
the plan remains unclear. Future research should be conducted to examine a long-term
plan and its impact on student achievement on standardized assessments and the
acquisition of the defined twenty-first century marketable skills.
From a financial aspect the district selected in the study was more affluent than
most in the state of California. Most school districts in California are impacted greater to
state financial crises than districts, as the one selected for the study. Future research
should be conducted in larger urban districts with fewer financial resources. A study
would clarify the role funding plays in developing and implementing a similar plan.
The study focused on the development and implementation of a district plan and
its key architects and district leaders. It would be beneficial to study the support teachers
receive in districts in order to shed light on teacher support structures used to realize a
twenty-first century marketable skills plan.
Conclusion
It is clear that consolidating the emerging knowledge base of the skills required to
contribute to the rapidly changing twenty-first century workplace with current

110
accountability mandates is a phenomenon only increasing in international attention and
momentum. The increasingly interconnected workplace has been well documented to be
rapidly adapting at a pace that schools and school districts have simply not been able to
keep pace with. For American students, who upon exiting our schools will compete with
individuals from across the globe for college entrance and jobs, the urgency to overhaul
our schools is of the utmost importance.

111
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Appendix A
Consent Form

October 14, 2009
UPIRB Chair
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB)
3601 Watt Way – GFS 306
Los Angeles, CA 90089-1695

RE: Sebastian Cognetta
“PREPARING STUDENTS FOR A 21
ST
CENTURY GLOBAL WORKPLACE
IN A CLIMATE OF ACCOUNTABILITY”

Dear UPIRB Chair:

1This letter is to convey that I have reviewed the proposed research study entitled
“PREPARING STUDENTS FOR A 21
ST
CENTURY GLOBAL WORKPLACE
IN A CLIMATE OF ACCOUNTABILITY” being conducted by Sebastian
Cognetta from the University of Southern California. I understand that research
activities as described in the proposed research study will occur throughout
Hansen Unified School District. I give permission for the above investigator to
conduct his study at this district. If you have any questions regarding this
permission letter, please contact me at (XXX) XXX-XXXX.

Sincerely,
Dr. Edward Couch
Superintendent, Hansen Unified School District

120
Appendix B
Information/Facts Sheet for Non-Medical Research

University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Waite Phillips Hall
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089

PREPARING STUDENTS FOR A 21
ST
CENTURY GLOBAL WORKPLACE
IN A CLIMATE OF ACCOUNTABILITY

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of the study is to identify a public school district that is meeting or
exceeding the federally mandated student achievement targets while providing a robust
education aimed at preparing students for a twenty-first century work place. It is the
intent of the study to identify how a district’s organizational structure ensures adequate
standardized assessment results and grants students access to twenty-first century skills.
The research will examine: (a) the process in which districts identify twenty-first century
skills and (b) the development, implementation, and monitoring of their plan to teach
students twenty-first century skills. The primary objective of the study is to offer a
template for other districts seeking to exceed accountability targets while ensuring that

121
Appendix B continued
the education provided to students prepares them for the global demands of the work
force.
PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you volunteer to participate in the study you will be asked to either participate in an
interview or complete a survey.

INTERVIEWS: If you are to be interviewed you will be interviewed in a one-on-one
setting in which you will be asked questions regarding the design, implementation, and
monitoring of your district plan for preparing students with twenty-first century skills.
The interview will last approximately 45 minutes and will focus on the design,
implementation, and monitoring of the the district plan. Questions such as: What
resources have the district made available to teachers to support this effort? will be
included in the interview. The interview will be recorded using an audio recording device
to be transcribed later. Both the audio file and transcription of the interview will remain
in the possession of the researcher. The intentions of the researcher are to conduct only
one interview per participant.

SURVEYS: If you are solicited for participation in a survey you will receive an email
with survey completion directions. The survey will be completed via the Internet and can
be completed in multiple sittings if necessary. The survey will take approximately 20
minutes to complete. You will not be asked to divulge any personal information as the

122
Appendix B continued
survey is intended to be anonymous. Survey results will only be available to the
researcher through the secure Internet site: www.surveymonkey.com.

CONFIDENTIALITY

Only members of the research team will have access to the data associated with the study.
The data will be stored at the private home of the primary investigator in a locked office
cabinet within a password-protected computer. The audio files of the interviews will be
destroyed upon transcription. No information will be transmitted to a third party. Coding
will be used to replace individual names of participants and the coding key will remain in
the sole possession of the primary investigator.

The collected data will be kept for 3 years. Upon 3 years of completion of the study all
collected interview, document, and survey data will be destroyed. As a participant, you
have the right to review and edit interview transcriptions. The only individuals with
access to the data are the primary investigator and faculty advisor.

There will be no identifiable information obtained in connection with the study. Your
name, address, or other identifiable information will not be collected.

INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION

123
Appendix B continued
If you have any questions or concerns about the research please feel free to contact
Sebastian Cognetta (cognetta@usc.edu or 626-831-2531) or Pedro Garcia, Ed.D,
(pegarcia@usc.edu or 213-740-1208 or 904A, Waite Phillips Hall, 3470 Trousdale
Parkway, Los Angeles, CA 90089).

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION

University Park IRB, Office of the Vice Provost for Research Advancement, Stonier
Hall, Room 224a, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1146, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu

124
Appendix C
Informed Consent for Non-Medical Research

University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Waite Phillips Hall
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089

PREPARING STUDENTS FOR A 21
ST
CENTURY GLOBAL WORKPLACE
IN A CLIMATE OF ACCOUNTABILITY

You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by Sebastian Cognetta, M.A.,
and Pedro Garcia, Ed.D., at the University of Southern California because you are
employed in a public school district which has a strategic plan for preparing students for
the demands of the twenty-first century workplace while exceeding federal accountability
targets. Your participation is voluntary. You should read the information below and ask
questions about anything you do not understand before deciding whether to participate.
Please take as much time as you need to read the consent form. You may decide to
discuss participation with your family or friends. If you decide to participate you will be
asked to sign a consent form. You will be given a copy of the consent form.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

The purpose of the study is to identify a public school district that is meeting or

125
Appendix C continued
exceeding the federally mandated student achievement targets while providing a robust
education aimed at preparing students for a twenty-first century work place. It is the
intent of the study to identify how a district’s organizational structure ensures adequate
standardized assessment results and grants students access to twenty-first century skills.
The research will examine: (a) the process in which districts identify twenty-first century
skills and (a) the development, implementation, and monitoring of their plan to teach
students twenty-first century skills. The primary objective of the study is to offer a
template for other districts seeking to exceed accountability targets while ensuring that
the education provided to students prepares them for the global demands of the work
force.
STUDY PROCEDURES
If you volunteer to participate in this study you will be asked to either participate in an
interview or complete a survey.
INTERVIEWS: If you are to be interviewed you will be interviewed in a one-on-one
setting in which you will be asked questions regarding the design, implementation, and
monitoring of your district plan for preparing students with twenty-first century skills.
The interview will last approximately 45 minutes and will focus on the design,
implementation, and monitoring of the the district plan. Questions such as: What
resources have the district made available to teachers to support this effort? will be
included in the interview. The interview will be recorded using an audio recording device
to be transcribed later. Both the audio file and transcription of the interview will remain
in the possession of the researcher. The intentions of the researcher are to conduct only

126
Appendix C continued
one interview per participant.
SURVEYS: If you are solicited for participation in a survey you will receive an email
with survey completion directions. The survey will be completed via the Internet and can
be completed in multiple sittings if necessary. The survey will take approximately 20
minutes to complete. You will not be asked to divulge any personal information as the
survey is intended to be anonymous. Survey results will only be available to the
researcher through the secure Internet site: www.surveymonkey.com.
POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
There are no anticipated risks or discomforts to you should you choose to participate.
Other than devoting some time to participating in the interview or survey no other
inconveniences are anticipated by your participation.
POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO PARTICIPANTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY
As this is a research study, the only anticipated benefits involve the findings of the study.
Your contribution to the study may potentially provide a template for other districts
seeking to implement similar initiatives. You may find the findings to have implications
for your own district.
CONFIDENTIALITY
Any identifiable information obtained in connection with the study will remain
confidential and will be disclosed only with your permission or as required by law.

Only members of the research team will have access to the data associated with the study.
The data will be stored at the private home of the primary investigator in a locked office

127
Appendix C continued
cabinet within a password-protected computer. The audio files of the interviews will be
destroyed upon transcription. No information will be transmitted to a third party. Coding
will be used to replace individual names of participants, and the coding key will remain
in the sole possession of the primary investigator.

The collected data will be kept for 3 years. Upon 3 years of completion of the study all
collected interview, document, and survey data will be destroyed. As a participant, you
have the right to review and edit interview transcriptions. The only persons with access to
the data are the primary investigator and faculty advisor.

When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences no identifiable
information will be used.
PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
Your participation is voluntary. Your refusal to participate will involve no penalty or loss
of benefits to which you are otherwise entitled. You may withdraw your consent at any
time and discontinue participation without penalty. You are not waiving any legal claims,
rights, or remedies because of your participation in the research study.
EMERGENCY CARE AND COMPENSATION FOR INJURY
If you are injured as a direct result of research procedures not done primarily for your
own benefit you will receive medical treatment; however, you or your insurance will be
responsible for the cost. The University of Southern California does not provide any other
form of compensation for injury.

128
Appendix C continued
INVESTIGATOR’S CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the research please feel free to contact
Sebastian Cognetta (cognetta@usc.edu or 626-831-2531) or Pedro Garcia, Ed.D,
(pegarcia@usc.edu or 213-740-1208 or 904A, Waite Phillips Hall, 3470 Trousdale
Parkway, Los Angeles, CA 90089).
RIGHTS OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT – IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have questions, concerns, or complaints about your rights as a research participant
you may contact the IRB directly at the information provided below. If you have
questions about the research and are unable to contact the research team or if you want to
talk to someone independent of the research team, please contact the University Park IRB
(UPIRB), Office of the Vice Provost for Research Advancement, Stonier Hall, Room
224a, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1146, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu.

SIGNATURE OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT

I have read the information provided above. I have been given a chance to ask questions.
My questions have been answered to my satisfaction, and I agree to participate in the
study. I have been given a copy of this form.

□ I agree to be audio-recorded
□ I do not want to be audio-recorded

129
Appendix C continued

Name of Participant

Signature of Participant Date
SIGNATURE OF INVESTIGATOR

I have explained the research to the participant and answered all of his or her questions. I
believe that he or she understands the information described in this document and freely
consents to participate.

Name of Person Obtaining Consent

130
Appendix D
Pre-Visit Form

Document Request List

All of these documents should be for the current 2009-2010 school year.

1. Staff List (District)

A list of all district employees who do not appear on school staff rosters but who provide
direct services to schools such as guidance counselors, psychologists, and special
education diagnosticians.

2. School Schedule(s)

It is helpful to have a copy of the bell schedule to talk through the amount of instructional
time for reading and mathematics.

3. District Calendar
A master calendar, including assessment windows, board meetings, special meetings, and
audits.

131
Appendix D continued
4. Professional Development Plan
5. Strategic Plan (District and Schools)
6. Evaluation Protocols (Teachers and Principals)

132
Appendix E
Interview for District Leaders

1. What are the goals of the twenty-first century skills plan?
a. How are the goals determined?
b. Who is involved in the development of the goals?
2. Describe the process for identifying twenty-first century skills.
a. What resources are used to identify twenty-first century skills?
3. Who is involved in determining which twenty-first century skills are to be integrated
into the twenty-first century skills plan?
4. What, if any, criteria must the identified twenty-first century skills meet in order to be
integrated into the twenty-first century skills plan?
5. How is the scope and sequence of the twenty-first century skills plan determined?
a. Who is involved in determining which skills are taught when and in which
order?
6. How does the district promote the twenty-first century skills plan to teachers?
Parents? Students? Community stakeholders?
7. How are teachers and site administrators supported in implementing the plan?
a. What professional development opportunities are provided for teachers?
b. What professional development opportunities are provided for administrators?
8. How would you describe the present culture of the district personnel as opposed to
the culture prior to the twenty-first century skills plan?

133
Appendix E continued
a. Has teacher retention changed since implementing the plan?
b. Has collaboration changed?
c. What impact has the plan had on relationships with parents? Students? The
community?
9. How is the impact of the plan monitored?
a. What are the indicators that are measured?
b. How were the indicators determined?
c. Are there protocols or instruments to evaluate effectiveness of the plan?
10. Have there been any significant changes to the plan since its inception?
a. How were the changes initiated?
11. Are there factors that have interfered with the implementation of the plan?
a. If so, how is the district addressing the obstacles?
12. To what extent do you believe the plan to have been implemented?
a. What obstacles do you foresee in the next phase of implementing the plan?
13. Who are the greatest advocates of the plan? Critics?
14. If approached by leaders from another district regarding the twenty-first century
skills plan what advice would you offer in an effort to streamline their similar efforts
in realizing a twenty-first century skills education?

134
Appendix F
Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (adapted)

(Rater)
Use the following key for the five possible responses
Not at
all
0
Once in
a while
1
Sometimes
2
Fairly
often
3
Frequently
4

Transformational Leadership Styles
Idealized Influence
(Attributes)
Goes beyond self-interest for the good
of the group.
0 1 2 3 4
Idealized Influence
(Behaviors)
Considers the moral and ethical
consequences of decisions.
0 1 2 3 4
Inspirational Motivation Talks optimistically about the future.

0 1 2 3 4
Intellectual Stimulation Re-examines critical assumptions to
questions whether they are appropriate.
0 1 2 3 4
Individualized
Consideration
Spends time teaching and coaching
others to develop their strengths.
0 1 2 3 4

Transactional Leadership Styles
Contingent Reward Makes clear what one can expect to
receive when performance goals are achieved.
0 1 2 3 4
Management by
Exception: Active
Keeps track of all mistakes.

0 1 2 3 4

Passive/Avoidant Leadership Styles
Management by
Exception: Passive
Waits for things to go wrong before
taking action.

0 1 2 3 4
Laissez-faire Avoids making decisions.

0 1 2 3 4

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of the study is to thoroughly examine a school district’s plan for developing, implementing, and monitoring a strategic plan for adequately preparing students with twenty-first century skills or the marketable skills students will need in order to contribute to the dynamic twenty-first century workplace while meeting federal and state accountability mandates. Incorporated into the study is the analysis of leadership qualities believed to be associated with the realization of the twenty-first century skills plan.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Cognetta, Sebastian (author)

Core Title Preparing students for a twenty-first century global workplace in an era of accountability

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 06/07/2010

Defense Date 04/29/2010

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag accountability,district reform,global competencies,OAI-PMH Harvest,twenty-first century skills

Place Name California (states), Hansen (city or populated place)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Garcia, Pedro E. (committee chair), Bowman, Gregory (committee member), Melguizo, Tatiana (committee member)

Creator Email cognetta@usc.edu,sebastiancognetta@aveson.org

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m3118

Unique identifier UC1122532

Identifier etd-Cognetta-3714 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-334537 (legacy record id),usctheses-m3118 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Cognetta-3714.pdf

Dmrecord 334537

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Cognetta, Sebastian

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu