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A survey of the present educational situation in the Irish Free State

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A survey of the present educational situation in the Irish Free State

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Content A SURVEY OF THE PRESENT EDUCATIONAL SITUATION
IN THE IRISH FREE STATE
A Thesis
Presented to
the Facility of the School of Education
University of Southern California
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Master of Science in Education
Myrtle Marie Corsberg
June 1933
UMI Number: EP57104
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This thesis, written under the direction of the
Chairman of the candidate’s Guidance Com
mittee and approved by all members of the
Committee, has been presented to and accepted
by the Faculty of the School of Education in
partial fulfillment of t]ie requirements for the
degree of M aster o f U i f f in Education.
......
Guidance Committee
W m . Gr. C a m p b e l l
Chairman
T. L. Scholtz
C. C. Crawford
TABLE OP CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
I, STATEMENT OP THE PROBLEM AND METHOD OP
PROCEDURE . . ................ 1
The purpose and limitations of the thesis • 1
The data and method employed............ 2
The geography and history of Ireland . . . 2
II. EDUCATION IN IRELAND BEFORE THE SEPARATION . 7
The early period ............. ...... 7
Schools •• • •••• •• •• ••« •• • 9
General conditions ............ 10
primary education ................. 11
Schools ••••• •« ••• •• ••• •• 12
Secondary education •••••• • 18
Reorganization ••»••. ............. 19
Universities 21
Technical instruction •••••*••••. 24
Reform and Industrial schools ........... 25
III. THE IRISH LANGUAGE CONTROVERSY............. 26
History of the language controversy .... 26
The action of the government in 1922 . . . 28
The revival of the language in the second
ary schools • •• •• •••....... 30
The revival of the language in the
universities ................. ••••• 30
iii
CHAPTER PAGE
The opposition.............................. 31
The outlook................... 33
IV. PRIMARY EDUCATION........................ . . 35
The reorganization of schools............ 35
Curriculum • •• •• •• ••••••••• 37
Attendance • • • •••••• •• •• •• •. 39
Sundry problems similar in character to
those existing in the United States . . . 42
V. SECONDARY EDUCATION .•..•••.••••• 50
Curriculum................. . • • .......... 52
Finances ••••••• ..................... 54
Scholarships ....................... 55
Teachers ...•••.•• ................. 56
Organizations ............ 58
VI. UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES................... 60
Constitutional basis •••••••••••• 60
Trinity College • • • • * ................ 61
National University ............. ..... 64
Other colleges ••.••• ................. 67
VII. TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION................ 68
Conditions in 1922 ...................•••• 68
Organization and Vocational Educational
Act of 1930 69
Curriculum . . • • • ....................... 71
iv
CHAPTER PAGE
Special schools • •«•••• ............. 72
Teachers • «••.••••• 75
VIII. INDUSTRIAL AND REFORM SCHOOLS............ . . 76
History and purpose • • • • ............... 76
Administration and finances • • ............ 77
Curriculum • 78
Reform schools ............ 81
History and purpose • ••••••••• 82
Administration and finances • •••••• 83
Curriculum • •••••••• ......... •
IX. CONCLUSIONS ................... 86
BIBLIOGRAPHY . .................. 96
LIST OP TABLES
TABLE PAGE
I# Primary School Statistics • •••••.,•• 41
II. Secondary School Statistics .......... 51
III. Industrial Schools ............. 80
IV. Reform Schools 84
CHAPTER I
STATEMENT OP THE PROBLEM AND METHOD OP PROCEDURE
Ireland might readily be called an isle of conflict,
because of the struggle that is taking place in the Irish
Free State not only throughout its entire educational system
but also as to what language is to be the medium of instruc
tion in all courses in the curriculum* The contents of
this chapter are devoted to the purpose of the study, with
its limitations, the data secured, the method of procedure
adopted, and a geographical and historical background of
the country*
The purpose and limitations of the thesis * The pur-
_._pose_ of-th±s„study.was...to-present .the-Ghang©s~that have ---
taken place in the educational system of the Irish Free
State since the Separation from England, in 1922. Although
these changes are still in the process of evolution, the
probably trends can none the less be vaguely discerned*
Thus, this study after depicting the background of these
changes will conclude with a preview of the changes that
are necessary for the future welfare of the Irish Free
State*
Due to the fact that these changes are rapid, and
that a new country just becoming established rarely stops
2
to document its own development, the materials for this
study are not abundant. Moreover, the Free State is small,
with three-fourths of her people uneducated. Their main
interest has to be that of securing the means of a liveli
hood. Thus it is that the condition of the government,
finance and equipment of schools, lack of adequate books,
and the all important language dispute constitute huge
barriers in the educational development of the Free State.
The data and method employed. The data secured for
this study were found in the Public Documents of Great
Britian and the Irish Free State, Government Bulletins,
which were found to be of great value, periodicals, and
newspapers. Certain books dealing in whole or in part
with the matter of education in the Free State were also
utilized in this study and were found to be of significant
worth. The data and opinions secured from these sources
were evaluated and presented in chronological order. An
effort has been made to present these changes in such a
manner that the reader may appreciate their significance
to the future development of the Irish Free State.
The geography and history of Ireland. Ireland is
an island situated west of England. The island is saucer
shaped, and many mountains are found around its outer
edge. There are many small rivers, the principal one
3
being the Shannon, The climate is variable, with an
abundance of rainfall. The winters are quite severe, but
the summers are enjoyable.
The people of ancient Ireland were of the Celtic
race and were known as Gaels, The original language was
the Gaelic, This language disappeared when England forced
her language onto the Irish people; however, the revival of
the old Gaelic tongue has been a part of the revival of
the Irish nation.
The island was divided into four provinces; Ulster,
Leinster, Munster, and Connaught* Ulster, in the north
east, has been more under the influence of England than the
rest of Ireland* The result of this was that, in 1922,
Ulster refused to become a part of the Free State. Ulster
i3 Protestant, and is far advanced industrially. The
Irish Free State has felt keenly the loss of this province.
The other three provinces, while joined together in
the Free State, really are divided into twenty-six counties
and four county boroughs. Their combined area is 17,024,642
statute acres, of which 15,619,044 acres are agricultural
land. Their population, according to the census of 1926,
totalled 2,972,802 persons,**" practically all Roman Catholic.
t t Economie and financial history and industry and
trade.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 14th edition, 12:633-34.
With the founding of the Free State both Protestants and
Catholics have worked to establish the new commonwealth*
Even within the Free State there were those who
wished to remain loyal to the government of Great Britain.
The result has been not only a separation of the Irish
nation from England and English dominion but continuous
civil warfare, carried on openly, until 1923 and waged
secretly thereafter until 1927# nevertheless, with great
courage and independence of spihit these three million
people have undertaken to create an educational system that
will make possible a democratic control of industry and
of government*
The Constitution of the Free State provides for a
legislature of the King and two Houses--a Senate and a
House of Deputies* The Senate is elected by citizens who
are more than thirty years of age; the House of Deputies
is elected by citizens who are more than twenty-one years
of age. The executive authority is vested in a King and
an Executive Council, which is responsible to the Chamber
of Deputies. The Irish Free State is self-governing in
all internal affairs, England, of course, controls foreign
affairs, even though the Free State has been an active
member of the League of Nations since 1923.
s
Three-fourths of the wealth of the Free State i^
found in agriculture, with stock raising the chief industry
5
As the author stated, 15,619,044 acres out 17,024,642,
comprising the country, are agricultural holdings. The
economic and social life of the people can readily be seen*
It has been estimated that approximately half of the entire
population is in a state of chronic poverty on farms so
small that there is no prospect of advancement•
Even in the cities there is but little wealth or
industry. In Dublin there are terribly poor housing condi
tions, and great unemployment among its laborers. Although,
the government has adopted extreme measures to establish
local governments in the cities and to encourage local
industry, only two developments in industry have taken
place. A Belgian company established a sujar-beet factory,
which is operating successfully with the aid of a generous
subsidy, and^a hydro-electric power plant was--bui-l-t on the
Shannon river. It has been estimated that this one plant
will produce enough electricity for the whole Free State.^
It is obvious that under such conditions many years will
elapse before industry can balance agriculture as a means
of supplying a livelihood for the people of the Irish Free
State•
The history of the Irish nation goes back to the
time of the Romans, although the Romans at no time conquered
2
Encyclopedia Britannlca, op. cit., pp. 633-34
Ireland. Ireland occupies the unique position of being the
only part of the Celtic world that was not brought under the
sway of Roman arms, and at the present time does not wish
to be brought under the sway of foreign cultures. Although
practically all of the histories written up to the present
time have not given sympathetic and adequate expression to
their aspirations, the histories that are written today
are no longer biased by English viewpoint. Irish problems
and Irish educational development are being discussed by
men who are intensely interested in the development and
progress of their own country.
CHAPTER II
EDUCATION IN IRELAND BEFORE THE SEPARATION
Whatever one might be inclined to say about Irish
education at the present time, the fact cannot be gainsaid
that in ancient and medieval times its position was one of
summary of the development of education in Ireland before
the year 1922.
The early period. An examination of the discoveries
of the Bronze Age, about 350 B. C*, amply justifies the
statement that ”in point of wealth, artistic feeling and
workmanship, the Irish craftsmen of the Bronze Age surpassed
those of Britain.”- * - A valuable source of information on
the social conditions and state of culture attained by the
pagan Irish may be found in the Brehon Laws. These laws
professed to regulate domestic and social relations of
every kind, as well as the professions, trades, industries,
occupations, and wages. The stone inscriptions, known as
Ogam, are another evidence of Irish civilization. This
Ogam was a species of writing f , the letters of which were a
* * * Hugh Graham, The Early Irish Monastic Schools
(Dublin: Talbot Press,-1923), p. S.
great honor. In this chapter the writer
8
combination of short lines and points on, and at both sides
of, a middle or stem line called a flesc.”^ The Ogam
alphabet is based on the Latin alphabet * Why the Roman
letters were not used has never been ascertained, The Irish
had a learned class called druids, who were the priests,
teachers, poets, historians, and judges.
During the sixth, seventh, and eighth centuries the
greater part of Britain and Europe was overrun by the
barbarian invasion. Ireland escaped the ravages of this
invasion. It was during this period of peace that Ireland
was really the educational center of Europe. She well
deserved to be called ”the school of the west, the quiet
habitation of sanctity and literatureThis was the
period in which Saint Patrick founded schools and trained
followers in the Ghristain life. The Monastic schools
played an important part in the educational affairs of
Ireland. By 900 A. D., there were as many as 168 monaster
ies, all of which had some sort of school. Their curric-
ulums ranged from a study of the scriptures to the study of
classics, music, art, science, and mathematics. Their
influence was world wide. Numerous students came from
foreign countries to study in the schools of Ireland, and,
2 P#
3
Ibid., p. 72.
returning to their own country, transmitted Irish culture
to Great Britain and the Continent. Numerous hands of Irish
missionaries established monasteries all over Western
Europe. Their love of learning was equalled only by their
zeal for Christianity.^
Schools. There was little competition between the
lay schools of the Druids and the ecclesiastical schools,
for the students went from one to the otherThe home
also contributed to the education of the children— the boy
was trained in the matters of archery, swimming, horseman
ship, and chess-playing; the girl, in sewing, cutting out,
and embroideryEven women participated to some extent,
for, although they were not permitted in the Monastic
schools, many of them acted as scribes. Hackett has written
an interesting aeeount of this period:
. . . .It is not in ecclesiastical history that one
finds the blossoming of the Gaelic period, it is in
the founding of schools and colleges, the building of
stone churches, the illumination of beautiful missals,
and the exquisite enamel and metal handicraft of the
monasteriesj. the teaching of Greek and Latin, of
history, and of geography and mathematics and
philosophy and natural science, the enlistment of the
bards, and the conversion of kings.*7
4 Ibid., p. 37.
5 Ibid., p. 76.
6 P* 78 •
7 Frances Hackett, The Story of the Irish Hatton
(New York: C©ntury Company^ 1922), p• 42.
10
This, alas, was soon to change. In 1541, Henry VIII
made himself King of Ireland, tried to incorporate it into
his kingdom, and established a system of state education.
The Protestant incumbent of every parish was obliged Mto
endeavor himself to learn, instruct and teach the English
tongue to all and everie being under his rule. • • .and for
his own part use and exercise the English order and
habit.”® These schools were almost a complete failure,
however, because the clergy failed to carry out the wishes
of the King.
General conditions. George II revived the policy of
Henry VIII when, in 1732, he granted a charter that provided
for the establishment of a Sufficient number of English
Protestant Schools wherein the children of the Irish natives
may be instructed in the English tongue and the fundamental
principles of true religion.1 1 ® All advantages and
privileges were given to Protestants, although 0f a Cath
olic would adhere to the rules, he might attend the
established state or private lay schools.
Since the Homan Catholics had no recognized schools
of their own, and since they would not subscribe to the
8
R. M. Henry, 1 1 Irish schools of tomorrow.1 1 Survey,
47:305-6, November, 1921.
9
Ibid., p. 305.
11
educational system then established, they made provisions
to obtain secretly what formal training they could* The
priests, or other persons, would meet the children in
secret, in a barn or under a hedge; hence, the name of
f , hedgew schools became known and were used by perh^a^
three-fourths of the people. In fact, not until 1793 did
the British authorities consent to the building of schools,
and not until the early part of the nineteenth century did
there exist a lay organization of Homan Catholic teachers*
Primary education* The educational situation of
Ireland at the beginning of the nineteenth century was
indeed bad. Great unrest prevailed because of the differ
ences of race and relition, and the basenee of trade and
industry* A unified school system was impossible, ^ot
until 1831 was it possible to establish even a primary-
school system to give educational opportunity f l to the great
mass of the population under the system administered by
the state through the Board of Education.1 1 *^ Not until then
was it possible to make even a primary education available
to all creeds and classes in common* The basis of unity was
10
P. H. Bale and T* A. Stephens, 1 1 Intermediate
education in Ireland.1 1 Board of Education Report 28
(British Document, Dublin, 1905), p. 3.
12
peculiar in that far from separating church and state the
Irish people declared it to be the duty of the state to
provide moral and religious instruction in primary schools.
The opporunity for conflict is obvious, but the system
lasted until 1922. To be sure, the Protestant Clergy
believed that they saw an attack on their religious liberty;
the Catholic Clergy took offense at the Protestant Arch
bishop of Dublin, who dominated the Board of Commissioners,
and at the special privileges that the Board granted the
northern Protestant. These privileges were later granted
to the Roman Catholics.
In the original Act of 1831, a Board of Commissioners
of National Education was established, to have charge of
primary education in Ireland. The Commissioners were
nominated by the Lo**d Lieutenant of Ireland, and were
responsible to him rather than being subject to popular
control. The Commissioners drew up the rules and regula
tions which governed the schools. Parliament also gave
them theipower of distributing the grants of money to the
different schools. The Commissioners had their own
inspectors to see that the rules and regulations were obeyed.
Schools. The actual administration of the schools
was In the hands of local managers, frequently clergymen,
who maintained the buildings and appointed the teachers from
among those qualified by the Commissioners. The local
13
manager selected the location and supervised the construc
tion of the building. The Government aided with grants up
to two-thirds of the building cost. The task of maintaining
the school was a big one, for the manager had to pay the
expenses himself or secure the money in some other way.
Naturally the school suffered if the manager was not
interested in securing sufficient funds. The manager did
not take a part in the instruction; he merely took the
advice of the inspector sent out by the Central Office of
the Commissioners.
The schools were of four types; (1) those vested in
the Commissioners or in Trustees, under deeds to which the
Commissioners were a party, for the purpose of maintaining
them as National Schools; (2) the non-vested schools,
which were all other National Schools; (3) the Model
Schools, which were built, manged, and maintained by the
Commissioners; and (4) the private or partially private
schools, which were the property of Churches and individ-
uals. The schools were adequate in size, except in cer
tain parts, because of decreasing population, but there
was great room for improvement in the matters of appearance
11
P. W. Roman, The New Education in Europe (New
York: E. P. Dutton and Company, 1^24) , p.“77^
14
and sanitary conditions.
Just before the Separation in 1922, a writer makes
the following statement: 1 1 In Ireland, over 100,000 children
are not on the roll of any school. Of those enrolled, every
school day shows 220,300 absences .f , 12 average attend
ance has been estimated as only 60 per cent of the enroll
ment. In some backward rural districts, the attendance
was as low as 40 per cent. In the centers of population
the attendance was 80 per cent of the enrollments. This
condition apparently was due to the general indifference of
the parents to the welfare of their children. This indif
ference naturally brought about an increase In the cost of
education. The cost per pupil in Ireland was greater than
in Scotland or in England. Dividing the pupils along
denominational lines brought about a great overlapping of
educational effort, for often two schools were established
to do the work of one•
The government paid the teachers, and, in turn, were
subject to government regulations. These regulations
divided them into four grades. The teachers were promoted
from one grade to another on the basis of their experience
and the reports of the inspectors. The salaries varied
from a few pounds per year for assistants, to about 150
12 P. W. Roman, loa.cit.
15
pounds for teachers of the first class.
Prom 1831, the date of the organization of the
elementary school system, until 1900, schools received
their money from the state on the basis of the results of
the examinations passed by the pupils. This led to the
teachers preparing their pupils for the examinations with
out regard to other things. When the schools were placed
directly under the commissioners, the teachers were given
a capitation grant based on attendance. This was necessary
in the religious orders, for the members could not accept
a salary. Both of these sources of income were augmented
by subscriptions, school fees, and endowments. These, in
1914, however, amounted to only 2.1 per cent of the total
T 3
income. A pension system was adopted in 1914, for the
National Schools.
About thirty HModel Schools1 1 were established by
the Commissioners in the Act of 1831. Apprentice teachers,
on leaving the National Schools, worked and studied with
experienced teachers. They were then certified as assist
ants. These f l Model Schools1 1 were not satisfactory, and
they became merely high-grade primary schools.
Teacher-training colleges were established. One,
situated in Dublin, was open to any student, whether
13
P• W • Dale, oj>• cit., p. 20.
16
Catholic or Protestant. Six others were maintained for
either Protestants or Catholics, exclusively. Students
entered these colleges after advanced work in the primary
schools or directly from the secondary schools. The ones
coming from primary schools were often kept as monitors or
assistants and helped in the teaching and went on with
advanced work.
Th© curriculum of the primary school was limited.
Until 1900, history, geography, reading, writing, and
arithmetic, with agriculture for the boys and sewing for
the girls, comprised the curriculum. After 1900, singing,
manual training, physical exercise, and drawing were added.
If the teacher were able, a few extra subjects were taught,
such as French, Irish and instrumental instruction. The
convents were usually the only schools able to offer these
studies. A revival of interest in the Gaelic language and
literature was sponsored by the Roman Catholics.
Children from three to seven years of age entered
infants* classes. These correspond to the kindergarten,
first, and second grades of American schools. The curric
ulum consisted of the three *R*s*; later, singing, games,
object lessons, and drawing were added. These little
children were forced to undergo half-hour classes, which
was very hard on them. The advanced grades were divided
into six standards, or grades; in 1905, a seventh and an
17
eighth were added*
The six standards took up regular primary work* The
seventh and eighth prepared students for intermediate
examinations, in courses other then the classical* The
^Draft1 1 system of instruction was used— seats were provided
for half of the students who were writing or studying, and
the other half stood in semi-circles ready to recite when
called upon by the teacher, who stood in the center of the
circle*
At the beginning of 1900, a few evening schools were
open to working boys and-girls* Studies in English,
arithmetic, Irish, mensuration, and bookkeeping were
offered. By 1922, the movement had gained considerable
importance* The inspectors complained that too little
time was given to study of the subjects, and that courses
often lacked interest. It was suggested that travel and
science lectures be given*^4 Lack of popular interest
kept primary education from being as successful as It should
have been* The people had no control over the schools, as
long as the British Government had anything to do with it.
The resultant inertia of the people of the Irish Free
14
Report of the Vice-Regal Committee of Inquiry into
Primary Education~TIreland) 1918 * Command £aper 60, 1:47
TBubTin /“lySCT *™ ------- ----
18
State today constitutes one of the big difficulties in
furthering their education.
Secondary education. The secondary schools of today
have grown out of those authorized by Elizabeth. The Act
of 1570 permitted the founding of diocesan free schools.
These were t t Latin, f schools and were confined to Protestants,
but they soon lost their educational value. In 1608, James
I established in each of the six confiscated counties of
Ulster at least one free school ! , for the good education of
the youth of the realm of Ireland in literature and know-
h15
ledge of true obedience towards us. These were fairly
successful and were followed by private grammar schools.
Not until 1793 werethe Catholics permitted to establish
schools of their own. Although the Catholics were given
the right to attend Protestant schools, they did not do so •
Until 1879 secondary schools for Protestants were
supported mainly by endowments given by the State. The
Homan Catholics demanded a share in the funds, but they
never did secure a portion of the money intended for
endowed schools. The idea and practice of religious
toleration developed slowly. However, an Intermediate
Board of Education composed of seven, and later twelve,
15
R. M. Henry, og. cit., p. 305.
members nominated by the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, was
established (1) to hold public examinations for the pupils
of secondary schools throughout Ireland, (2) to award
prizes to the students on results of examinations, and (3)
to pay schools , f results fees1 1 based upon the number of marks
obtained by their respective pupils. After 1900, the Board
provided for the inspection of schools, in order to promote
their efficiency# The South Kensington Department, in
England, ■which fostered the teaching of science during the
middle and later part of the 19th century, offered addi
tional funds to the secondary schools in the form of grants.
These grants continued until the Department of Agriculture
and Technical Instruction was created in 1902
Reorganization. The secondary schools were divided
into four groups, the divisions corresponding to*the four
sets of examinations which were given by the Intermediate
Board. Secondary education was considered formally to
begin at the age of thirteen# Each school either provided
a preparatory department for which no grants were made, or
accepted students from National Schools, although there
was no correlation between National and secondary schools.
The other divisions were known as junior, middle and senior#
20
The teachers of secondary schools were paid by the
authorities or the school in which they taught, and, after
1914, by grants from the State. Financial difficulties
brought about the low salaries. In 1918, an additional
grant was made for the purpose of increasing the salaries
of teachers in secondary schools. A Register of Secondary
Teachers was provided for in 1914. This was necessary,
for the State had no control over the secondary teachers
or even their names. Their training usually amounted to
the regular courses of instruction in the university with,
perhaps, a course in instruction in the field of education.
The Intermediate Board dominated the curriculum of
the secondary schools because the Board gave more credit
toward grants for examinations in the classical courses.
Consequently the core of the curriculum consisted of Greek,
Latin, and English. The other courses in which examinations
were given were his|fo$y, geography, modern languages
(French, Italia^, Spanish, German), Irish, experimental
science, and mathematics, including arithmetic and book
keeping. In 1902, these studies were divided Into three
groups, for which prizes were given for exhibitions: (1)
the classical, (2) the modern literary!j and (3) the science.
All of the subjects were considered of equal value. A
year later the modern course was divided into (a) the
modern literary, (b) the mathematical, and (c) the
21
experimental science courses. These courses permitted
students to specialize. After 1913, examinations were not
offered in the preparatory courses, and the money was
given to the schools as a result of inspections and
17
attendance* Although this feature was recommended for
other grade, it was never accepted*
Schools often charged fees of variable amounts,
especially the privately maintained ones; the schools under
religious control, or endowed, were able to offer instruc
tion free to needy students. Scholarships were often
offered to brilliant students by churches, organizations,
individuals, and local authorities. The reader can readily
see that conditions were not satisfactory in regard to
secondary education. The general public had no opportunity
to take an interest in the intermediate training of their
future leaders.
Universities. University education developed under
hardships similar to primary and secondary schools, due to
religious intolerance and the difficulties brought about
through change. Not until 1907 did a satisfactory working
condition become prevalent.
17
Report of the Department of Education, 1924, 1925,
1926 (DublTnTiTEaTIonaryHP!TTce77 p~4T:------- ---- ----
22
In 1591, Queen Elizabeth established the University
of Dublin. Trinity was the first college organized and
was intended for the same class of students as the diocesan
18
secondary school. Since these were Protestant, and Roman
Catholics were excluded, there was no university for the
majority of the Irish people.
The Royal College of Maymooth was chartered in 1793,
after the Roman Catholics had been conceded the right to
an education. Because of a shortage of money, this became
a training school for priests.In 1845, Queen’s Univer
sity of Ireland was established. Colleges were organized
at Belfast, Cork, and Galway, which were to be undenomina
tional and open to all people.^ Colleges were under
government auspices and control. Roman Catholics thought
education should be under church control, so they shunned
colleges upon which the ban of the church was placed.
T&e hierarchy of the Roman Catholic church attempted
to form the Catholic University of Ireland, in order to
educate their own people. Students could not be Induced to
attend, since the University was not recognized by the
British Government
10 C. S. Brereton, "Education in Ireland." United
States Bureau of Education Report, 1910, 1:570.
19 Ibid»» P- 570.
20 Ibid., p. 571.
21 R. M. Henry, 0£. cit., p. 306.
Queen’s University was abolished in 1882, but the
colleges were permitted to retain their endowments. The
Royal University of Ireland was immediately established.
Its sole purpose was to award degrees to students of the
Queen’s Colleges and to Others on the results of public
op
examinations. In 1907, two universities were established,
the National University of Ireland, with three colleges
(Dublin, Cork, and Galway)5 and Queen’s University, of
Belfast, with one college in Belfast. The National Univer
sity was under the domination of the Roman Catholics and
was independent of all outside control. Queen’s University
in the north and Trinity College in the south served the
Protestants. Prom 1907 until the Separation, the univer
sity problem seemed to be settled.
The universities, as set up in England and Ireland,
are quite independent in all matters relating to them.
This has caused a great deal of independent thinking. The
student comes and goes as he wishes. In some cases the
students live and study at home, only appearing at the
university to take examinations. This freedom has
stimulated students and professors to do a tremendous
amount of work. The teachers have absolute academic
freedom. The courses offered before the Separation were
24
generally in the fields of the Classics, law, medicine,
and religion.
Technical instruction. Because of the haphazard
way in which the school systems of Ireland grew, it is
natural to expect a group of disconnected schools. In the
cities and towns, various groups were organized for instruc
tion in science, art, and technology. In the rural places
the people were given instruction in manual training,
rural industries, and domestic science. The work had to
be given in the evenings and was not satisfactory. Day
technical schools were-established in the centers of
population. At this time the statutory committees were
allowed by law to be set up by the county boroughs, county
councils, and urban councils. These committees, able to
get tax money from their localities, worked with the
Department to further the day and evening classes. Day
apprentice schools to take the place of the first two
years of an apprenticeship, day trades preparatory schools,
day commercial schools, residential schools of domestic
economy, and schools of art were set up and since 1914
there has been a steady growth in attendance.2^
23
Report of the Department of Education, Ireland,
1924, 1925, 1925,~p~l"F7“ pi "50."
25
A girls training school for domestic science was
24
founded in the Killarney School of Housewifery* Special
courses were held by the Department for the training of
teachers in manual instruction, art, and domestic economy.
These courses were held during the academic year or in the
25
summer.
Reform and Industrial Schools* Reform and industrial
schools first came into existence in the middle of the
nineteenth century, as a result of the work of private
philanthropists with no aid from the State* The instruction
offered consisted in training in trades for the boys and in
26
domestic science for the girls.
To unify and rsd|se t*1© standards of education was
the main problem that faced the new government of the
Irish Free State*
24
Ibid*, p. 67.
25
Ibid., p* 84.
26 Loc. cit.
CHAPTER III
THE IRISH LANGUAGE CONTROVERSY
First and foremost in magnitude and difficulty among
the problems confronting the Irish Free State in 1922 was
the problem of the language dispute— whether English or
Gaelic should be the basic, national tongue taught in the
primary school. Those in favor of the return of the Gaelic
feel strongly that the language is the root of Irish
nationality. Others feel just as strongly that the revival
of the Gaelic is a task too tremendous to warrant the
expenditures necessary for its return. The writer has
sketched the development of the dispute, as viewed by
leaders on both sides of the controversy.
History of the language controversy. The language
of the ancient people of Ireland was Gaelic# Gaelic, like
the Romance languages and English, is based on Latin. It
utilizes the Phoenician alphabet, as transmitted by the
Romans. It was taught, together with Latin, in the Monastic
schools of the fourth century and continued to be used as
a medium of instruction**’ in both the secular and religious
1
Hugh Graham, The Early Irish Monastic Schools
(Dublin: Talbot Press, 1923), p• 121.
27
schools of Ireland up to the time of the English conquest.
It was due to the policy of Henry VIII that, t t No
more# • • .was Gablic to be spoken.1 , 2 This policy was
continued until 1922. Despite that fact there were, as
late as the year 1929, 16,869 persons who spoke only Gaelic
2
or Irish, while 536,848 were bilingual. The ones who
sp&ke Irish were people living in isolated sections in
Western Ireland.
The British Government, in 1879, made its first
reference to Irish as a school study when in its programme
for that year it stated:
If there are Irish-speaking pupils in a school,
the teachers, if acquainted with the Irish language
should, whenever practicable, employ the vernacular
as an aid to the eludication and acquisition of the
English language. 4
Thereafter, Irish was added as an extra course to be taught
outside school hours, just as Latin and French were taught.
The Separation in 1922 brought about a revival of
interest in everything connected with Ireland. In 1900,
there were only about 100 school teaching Irish as a part
of the daily studies. In 1922, nearly 2,000 schools were
2 Francis Hackett, The Story of the Irish Nation
(New York: Century Company, 1922) , p • 1’ f 2•
3 Encyclopedia Brltannica, 14th edition, 12:633.
4 Report of the Department of Education, 1924-1925
(Dublin: Stationary ‘ office) , p. 27.
28
giving instruction in Irish#5 The return to Ireland of
its old language.
The action of the government in 1922# On February 1,
1922, the government enacted the following rule:
On and after the 17th of March, 1922, the Irish
language should be taught or used as medium of in
struction for not less than one full hour a day within
the ordinary school hours, in every school in which
the staff, or any member of the staff, was competent
to give such instruction#6
The primary school programme went even further, for
it prescribed the use of Irish in the teaching of other sub
jects whenever possible. All teachers under forty-five
years of age were required to prepare themselves to teach
the language# Summer courses were arranged, every year
until 1925, for that purpose. As a result, in 1925,
approximately half of the teachers possessed certificates
to teach Irish. Though this number had not increased
appreciably by 1929, the fact that all new teachers are
expected to know the language will gradually bring about
the original purpose of the act, namely, that all teachers
will be competent to give instruction in the Gaelic tongue.
The government is not attempting to instruct the
older generation, but the younger generation must learn the
5 * * P • 28 •
£ *
Ibid., p# 23#
29
language, preference is given to students* with a command
of the language who wish to enter the training colleges.
Irish is a requirement of the legal profession.^
The inspectors reports for the years 1925, 1926, and
1927, in District No. 2, mention the advance and position
of Irish in the primary schools. The 1928-1929 report
definitely shows that the question is far from being settled:
It may be taken for granted that the revival of Irish
cannot be effected without the active cooperation of the
schools, the question whether the schools* unaided
efforts can accomplish this purpose is another story,
and is a question which it seems will shortly call for
investigation. In districts in which Irish is being
taught in the schools, the language has little
existence outside the school walls, and as far as the
general use of Irish in the district is concerned,
little progress seems to have been made in the last ten
years. In spite of excellent instruction at school, it
appears to true that few of the pupils speak Irish out
side of school hours, and a still smaller number can
still be classified as Irish speakers a few years after
leaving school. The Irish they have learned at school
is lost in the amount of English with which they have
to deal on leaving school. English is the language of
their sports and pastimes and of their means of earning
their livelihood, while Irish remains a school subject
closely related to lessons and examinations— things
which every boy and girl wish to leave behind them on
passing out of school. Under such circumstances it is
inevitable that a very considerable part of the work
done by the schools must fail to bear fruit, and failing
help from outside--such help as might by some care of
a national body which would devote itself to the care of
the young people who leave school— it may well be that
the revival of the language may prove to be beyond their
powers.8
7
B* C. Waller, nFirst seven years of the Irish Free
State., f Current History, 31:942-46, February, 1930.
8
Beport of the Department of Education, 1928-1929
(Dublin: stationary Offiee) , p. £27?”fYZ
30
The revival of the language in the secondary schools.
Of the 287 secondary schools operating in 1929, only
eighteen were giving all, and sixty-five were giving a
part, of the instruction in Irish,§ while more than 200
gave no instruction at all in Irish, despite the ruling of
the Minister of Education that f , a reasonable proportion of
the pupils of a school must receive instruction in each of
the five obligatory subjects, i.e., (1) Irish, (2) English
. . . ,**10 The wisdom and economy of this measure has
been questioned by hoc less a body than the Gaeltacht
Commission, which recommends the setting up of separate
schools "which will provide for clever boys and girls of
the Irish-speaking districts and for other clever boys and
girls from all parts of the country who are highly qualified
in Irish . . . ., f l 1
The revival of the language in the universities.
Even in University Colleges of the National University
situated at Galway, Cork, and Dublin, only a beginning has
been made in the use of Irish. In 1930, it was said that
though Galway might be ready in five years of do all teach
ing in Irish, Cork University would require ten years;
9
Educational Supplement (London: Times), No. 799,
p. 362.
10 "Secondary schools and the Irish*1 1 School and
Society, 26:195-96, August, 1927.
Educational Supplement, op. cit♦, No. 210, p. 14.
31
Dublin, fifteen years, and Trinity College in Dublin, of
English Protestant tradition, more than twenty or thirty
1P
years.
Despite all these obstacles, the government of the
Free State has insisted that all learn Irish, and there is
little possibility that it will:turn from this policy* Huge
sums of money have been spent already, and the government
plans to spend much more, if necessary, even for the next
thirty or forty years **^
The opposition* Teachers, in public, are loud in
expressions of their devotion to Irish language in the
schools, but, in private, many speak differently* Scott
voiced her opinion in stating that forcing the teaching of
Irish in the schools has pushed out the possibility of
14
teaching a subject of major importance* The teachers
pointed out that their attitude to the teaching of the
language was not anti-national* They had accepted with
entire loyalty their status as Free State citizens, and
had as one of their chief aims the training of their pupils
In the ideals of citizenship. They resented the fact that
the suggestion was sometimes made that they were less Irish
Ibid., No. 771, p. 54.
Loe . ,clt. .
14 Ibid., No. 928, p. 42.
32
in sympathy and outlooks than those who expressed their
patriotism in the attempt to revive the Irish language.
The headmaster of a Protestant school might well agree with
Archbishop Greggs1 view on the matter, "that a child might
sharpen his wits as well in learning Irish as in learning
some other subject of the curriculum.ttl5
Not much comfort has been obtained from the Minister
of Education, Mr. Derrig. He stated that schools which
found themselves seriously affected by the regulation should
make representations to the Department. The policy of the
government was to make Irish a spoken language, and this
policy must either be abandoned or pushed more vigorously.
It is the duty of teachers to encourage the Irish spirit.
The teachers* suggestion that the proper Irish spirit can
be inculcated without compelling all pupils (fit or unfit)
to learn the language is, of course, completely ignored.
Not only among the teachers, however, but in other
more powerful quarters there is much opposition to the
tremendous task of reviving the Irish language. One Dublin
employer, for example, said that he had found "apprentices
with a forty per cent knowledge of drawing and a ninety per
cent knowledge of Irish, and that he was trying to knock
the Irish out of them and to put as much knowledge of
15 Ibid., No. 922, p. 479.
33
drawing and mathematics as possible in its place.
Equally loud are the protests of the average parent,
for the teaching of Irish costs time and money. Most 6f
them are poor and cannot afford to let their children take
time from necessary subjects to learn a language that may
not come back into general use. Just what the outcome will
be is very doubtful* At present eve'tff the newspapers,
according to the San Francisco Chronicle, are none too
enthusiastic. Its Irish Correspondent writes,
For a long time most Free State newspapers have
printed a half or a third of a column of news in Irish
daily. But a large number of readers would not know
the difference if the same items were reproduced day
after day.^'
The outlook. The outlook is viewed favorably by
professor 0,Maille, of University College, Galway. He
stated that the language is the root of Irish nationality.
The men who stood for Ireland and gave their lives for the
country were men who distinguished themselves by zeal for
the revival of the language. Preservation of the language
was preservation of the nation*s soul; and the fathers and
mothers of the Gaeltacht would do almost as great a service
by speaking Irish to their children as the men did who gave
Educational Supplement, oj3. cit., No. 613, p.
17
World News Section, San Francisco, California:
Chronicle, July 15, 1930.
34
their lives for the country.-^®
The dividing of the Cork Model School into Irish and
English departments marks an important step forward in the
Irish language campaign* Whether it marks an advance in
Irish education is another matter; it is, however, an
interesting experiment
It seems that the language revival can never succeed*
Compulsion napplied to any intelligent and orderly section
of the community is always an enemy to progress, and defeats
its own ends*1 1 ^0 Education has suffered and is bound to
suffer from the attempt to use Irish as a teaching medium*
It would seem that teaching mathematics through
Irish really means teaching Irish through mathematics*
18
Educational Supplement, ojd. cit *, No. 905, p* 335.
19
Loc. cit♦
20
Educational Supplement, No. 928, p. 42.
CHAPTER IV
PRIMARY EDUCATION
The record of the Irish Free State thus far has been
mainly one of failure. It may never be successful in
securing the universal use of the Irish language, but its
record in regard to its handling of conflicting administra
tive supervision and raising the standards of the educational
system in all its branches has been, on the whole, satisfac
tory. In this chapter major attention is given to primary
education, leaving secondary, university, technical, and
other types of instruction fdr subsequent treatment♦
The reorganization of schools. The primary school
system, which was inherited by the Department of Education
from the British Government, has been retained by the Irish
Free State* However, changes have gradually taken place, as
the new government has worked out schemes to meet existing
conditions and to conform to modern ideas of education.
There are four classes of schools: schools vested in the
Commissioners; those vested in trustees, under deeds to which
the Commissioners are a party for the purpose of maintaining
them as National Schools; the non-vested schools; and Model
schools. There was a total of 5,401 schools in the Free
State in 1930*
36
Each school is supervised by managers, who appoint
the teachers, care for maintainance, and carry out the
rules of the Department of Education. All control is now
exercised by the State, primarily through control of
finances. Thus all salaries are paid by the state, either
directly or by capitation grants.^
In 1922, many of the schools were small and often
there were two or more schools situated within a few miles
of each other. In order to avoid duplication of buildings
and teachers, efforts for consolidation were made. In 1929,
125 small schools were discontinued.2
A shortage of buildings brought about by the World
War and the general unrest in Ireland from 1914 to 1923
naturally created a considerable need for the erection of
new school buildings and the repairing of old ones. Further
more, certain shifts in centers of population similarly
i
called for more accommodations. Thus, in 1927, the
government found it expedient to make grants to aid in the
erection of twenty-seven new schools. In 1928, this number
was increased to thirty-three• During the year 1927, thirty-
eight schools were enlarged and 233 were improved in some
1 the Department of Education, 1924-1925
(Dublin; Stationary Office), p. 20.
2
Ibid., 1928-1929, p. 10 ff.
57
way; during 1928, twenty-seven schools were enlarged and
164 were improved.3
There is great need for improvement in the general
appearance and conditions of school bhildings. The
inspectors have tried by such inexpensive measures as paint
and shrubs to make the schools less unattractive, but, in
the main, the physical equipment still lacks much of being
standard. The heating and sanitary conditions are
especially unsatisfactory. The managers have found it
impossible to raise the funds necessary to meet high
standards•
Curriculum. When the State assumed control, it
naturally ordered a revision of the curriculum* For this
purpose it called a meeting of a committee, composed of
.representative men in the Free State educational affairs,
in June 1925* Their recommendations were reported in
March, 1926, and the program was adopted practically as
recommended# Algebra, geometry, geography, history,
rural science, music, and needlework (for girls) were made
obligatory while domestic science, physical training, and
manual instruction were made optional A For several reasons
3 Ibid., 1927, 1928, 1929, p. 10.
Report and Programme Presented by the National
Programme Corrference to the Sinister of' Education (Dublin:
TSSey, p.' w. --------------------------------------
38
all subjects not absolutely necessary were omitted. In the
first place the committee had:
to take account of the difficulties entailed by our
efforts to restore Irish as a vernacular though, of
course, we are confident that those temporary diffi
culties will be more than counterbalanced by the better
mental development which a command of two languages
confers upon young people. Secondly, there was a
general feeling that the course had been too extensive
hitherto; and, in other countries, concentration on a
essential minimum of subjects is of recent years coming
to be considered the preferable policy in primary
education.5
Religious instruction, though out of the hands of the
department, was recommended*
The work of the primary schools is now divided into
two parts: that for infants and that for the so-called
standards. The infants' program is further divided into
junior and senior parts, in which the very elementary work
is presented in conversation, object and picture lessons,
story-telling, and recitation. The work in the standards
corresponds to the eight grades in the American schools.
The pupil reaches the sixth standard about the age of
fourteen. The higher standards afford preparation for
training colleges.
A Primary-School-Certificate examination is given at
the end of the sixth standard's work for those students who
5
Ibid., p. 14.
39
wish to try for the certificate,6 About 15,000 took the
examination in 1929, the first year it was given. Another
examination is given to those students who wish to compete
for the County Council Scholarships, Very few students
take this examination, however, for only 250 scholarships
are offered and the money value is not enough to pay the
student*s expenses either at the preparatory colleges or the
secondary schools. The monetary value varies from fifteen
pounds to fifty pounds, depending on the funds available and
the proximity of the school.
realizing inadequacy of the old School Attendance Act of
1892, passed a new Attendance act which became effective
January 1, 1927, This law provided that all children
between the ages of six and fourteen were obligated to
attend some school every day that it was open for secular
instruction. Exceptions were made for children twelve
years or over who lived in rural districts. Their parents
were permitted to keep them out of school for ten days in
the autumn and spring for light agricultural work om their
own land. The civil guard enforced the law in places out
side the cities. When a child was illegally kept out of
Attendance, The Government of the Free State,
® Report ofthe Department of
(Dublin: Stationary Office), p, 21 IT
Report of the Department of Education 192861929
40
school, the parents were first to be warned, and then to be
fined, or the child could be put into an industrial school*7
In order to enable children who live far from school
to attend the nearest school, grants are made, in certain
rural districts, for the conveyance of children to school
by van services, or by boat services, in the case of chil
dren residing on islands. 0n March 31, 1930, the number
of van services in operation was twenty-four and the number
of boat services eleven.®
The results of the School Attendance Act of the
Irish Free State which came into operation in 1927 shows
an Increase in school attendance from 71.8 per cent in
1922 to 83.4 per cent in 1930.® This increase in school
attendance is clearly shown in Table I. One will notice
in this Table that there were 5,696 national schools in
operation in 1922. This number decreased to 5,401 in
1930; however, the average number of pupils on the rolls
increased from 495,863, in 1922, to 504,427, in 1930. In
spite of the fact that there was a slight decrease in the
number of schools there was an increase in the average
daily attendance from 356,115, In 1922, to 420,941, in 1930.
8 RQPQPt °f the Department of Education, 1929-1950
(Dublin: Stationary Office), p. 9.
9 Ibid., p. 123.
41
TABLE I
PRIMARY SCHOOL STATISTICSa
Year
Number of
schools
in
operation
Average
number of
pupils on
rolls
Average
daily
attendance
Percentage of
average daily
attendance to
average number
on rolls
1922 5,696 495,836 356,115 71 ,8
1923 5,684 497,146 369,401 74 ,3
1924 5,636 493,382 362,588 73,5
1925-26 5,648 518,002 399,281 77.0
1926-27 5,641 518,355 413,159 79.9
1927-28 5,555 512,333 423,974 82.7
1928-29 5,447 507,840 419,780 82.6
1929-30 5,401 504 ,427 420,941 83.4
a
Report of the Department of Education, 1929-30,
Appendix II, p. 123*
42
The percentage did not fall below 80 in any county* In the
cities of Dublin, Cork, and Wateford, it was 85 per cent
or over*-^ Even better results are anticipated in the
future, for the civil guard has a high standing with the
people.
Sundry problems similar in character to those
existing in the United States* The reorganization of the
schools and the new attendance law has necessarily brought
about a consideration of primary teachers* There are three
available sources* (1) the preparatory colleges, (2) the
pupil teacher scheme, and (3) the training college entrance
examination* In special cases places are reserved for a
limited number of untrained assistants and university
graduates *H
Most of those who enter the teacher-training colleges
come from the seven preparatory colleges, of which three
train Roman Catholic boys, three Roman Catholic girls, and
one Protestant boys and girlsIn reality these colleges
are secondary schools but with subjects much the same as
those offered in the primary school, so that the students
may get advanced training in the subjects they will teach.
' f l Recent educational progress in the Irish Free
State.” School Life, 16:37, October, 1930*
programmes of Examinations for Candidates for
Entrance to Training Colleges, etc TPublin), 1931, p. 3.
12 Loc. cit*
43
Irish is the language of all school activity* Upon
completion of the required work students are admitted to
the training colleges*
The so-called Pupil Teacher Scheme derives Its name
from the fact that in certain eases pupils are allowed to
teach their mates. They are then called pupil teachers, and
must have passed the secondary-school intermediate examina
tion with honors in Irish, and must he approved by the
department. Their service in the secondary school lasts
two years. During this time they prepare for the leaving-
certificate examination, and engage in practice teaching for
not more than three hours per week. Those of the highest
ranking are approved for entrance to the training c o l l e g e s .
The third method of gaining admittance to the train
ing college is by examination* Only a very limited number
are accepted on the basis of examination, for preference is
14
given to the first two groups mentioned.
There are five training colleges: Mary Immaculate,
at Limerick; Our Lady of Mercy, at Garysfort; St* Patricks,
at Drumcondra; De LaSalle, at Waterford; and Church of
Ireland, at D u b l i n . - ^ Four of the colleges are under Roman
^ of the Department of Education, 1928-1929
(Dublin: Stationary Office), p. 14 ff.
14 Ibid., p. 15 ff .
15 Ibid., 1927-1928, p. 117.
44
Catholic control and one under the Church of Ireland* A
two-year course is given in each school for those wishing
to become primary teachers. The following is the course of
study: (1) Irish, (2) English, (3) mathematics, (4) practice
teaching, (5) education, (6) history, (7) geography,
(8) drawing, (9) rural science, (10) music, (11) physical
training, (12) needlework and domestic economy for women.
A great deal of complaint has been manifested in regard to
the students spending too much tima on elementary courses
in the primary, preparatory, and training colleges.
The training colleges co-operate with the universi
ties* The Roman Catholics work in conjunction with the
National University, and the Protestants work with Trinity
College. Those teachers wishing to pursue work in the
universities after finishing their studies in the training
colleges are free to do so* It is the hope of the Irish
Free State that the coming teachers will be able to raise
the standards of the primary schools and meet the principal
requirement— the teaching of Irish. As has been previously
mentioned, special summer courses have been given for
17
teachers in Irish and also in rural science.
The teachers in the national schools must have
received their preparation in the training colleges* The
16 Ibid., 1928-1929, p. 37 ft.
17 Ibid., 1927-1928, p. 15 ff.
45
main exceptions are made for women who act as junior
assistant mistresses or untrained assistants who have passed
18
the training college entrance examination. Teachers are
divided into the following groups: principal teachers,
assistant teachers, junior assistant teachers, members of
religious orders of monks or nuns, and lay assistant teach
ers.
One of the blessings which the Irish Free State
obtained at the same time she obtained her independence
from Great Britain was an insolvent pension fund. So, in
order to save the fund, it was necessary to either cut down
teachers* salaries or reduce the pension benefits. Accord
ing to the report for January 2, 1952, in the Educational
Supplement of the London Times, the Irish National
Teachers* Organization agreed to accept a ten per cent cut
in consideration of the government*s promise to take over
full liability for the teachers* pensions. The latest
report taken from the Educational Supplement of the London
Times for April 1, 1933, states that the government has
introducted a bill for salary reductions during the fiscal
year beginning April 1, which will be applicable to civil
servants, soldiers, and police, as well as to those teach
ers who are paid directly by the state.Likewise teacher
18 Ibid., 1924-1925, p. 40.
19 P>ld., 1928-1929, p. 140.
88 Educational Supplement, London Times (Londons Times)
No* 935, p. 98.
46
salaries have caused a great deal of apprehension in the
United States, and the majority of schools have slashed
salaries*
Teachers* residences are connected with some schools*
There were about five hundred residences, in 1925. These
residences were built either through the aid of loans, or
by State grants (neither of which is now operative), by
21
local effort, or were given by the landowner.
It is interesting to note the similarities between the
experiences of teachers in the Irish Free State and those of
most teachers in the United States. Thus according to the
Educational Supplement in the London Times for December 17,
1932, the Department of Education announced that all women
teachers appointed on or after October 1, 1933, will, on
marriage, "cease to be eligible for recognition in any
capacity in a national school.” Teachers who shall have
qualified for teaching posts but have not secured appointment
before October 1, 1933, shall be exempt from the application.
Likewise in the United States there is a great deal of stress
and apprehension concerning the discharge of married teach
ers. Most of the schools are seriously contemplating the
the discharge of married teachers who have other means of
support because of the economic depression that is prevalent
2T
Report of the Department of Education, 1924-1925,
op. cit., p . lE tfZ
47
throughout the country*
Similarly the Irish have a National Teachers Associ
ation much like the National Education Association, the
proceedings of which deal with the same educational and
economic problems as those so copiously discussed in
American journals* Furthermore, though school medical ser
vice is organized on a national scale under the Department
of Local Government and Public Health, it performs a ser
vice very similar to that of inspection in this country.
It seeks to prevent disease, and its ideal is to insure
that every child arriving at the school-leaving age will
enjoy sound physical health. The children are examined,
and if there is need of medical attention, their parents
are advised. The Medical Officer of Health for County
Galway submitted, in October, 1923, to the County Council
a report on the conditions of primary schools. Manager and
teacher do what they can, but a bad sanitary system
frustrates their efforts. Even some of the newly-built
schools fall short of inspectors* standards. Too many of
the old-fashioned desks are being used, and in only a few
schools were physical exercises being given. During 1931,
out of 376 schools, 77 were medically inspected, and of
32,174 children enrolled, 8,087 were examined. The
inspector found that about half the number of children
examined had defective teeth, the country children*s teeth
48
being better than those of the children brought bp in
towns.22
During the year 1930 an act was passed to provide
free meals for indigent children of the area of Gaeltaeht.
This scheme is working admirably. In August 1931 efforts
were being made by the National Council of Women and the
Irish Women Citizens’ Association to stimulate local bodies
into taking full benefit of the act and for rural and
suburban districts to provide meals for needy children.
The Minister of Education has been urged to rearrange school
hours in urban districts so that pupils would have time for
a substantial midday meal.23
According to the report in the Educational Supplement
of the London Times for July, 1932, a Department Committee
has been appointed to consider a demand for books and school
supplies for needy children. The Ministry has issued a
questionnaire asking for the number of pupils who have been
unable to buy the school books and other requisites, the
number of those who have been able to buy some of the
requisites, and the probable cost of supplying these chil-
pA
dren with books.
pp
I*onfl°n Times, op. cit., No. 911, p. 390.
”Free meals for the school children of the Irish
Free State.” School and Society, 34:190, August 8, 193.
London Times, op. cit., No. 896, p. 225.
49
Naturally, as time goes on, there will be other
changes in the primary school system of the Irish Free
State• The Irish people are determined to do their chil
dren, and it seems quite certain that they will succeed.
CHAPTER V
SECONDARY EDUCATION
In the development of primary education this study
has shown that the Irish Free State proceeded cautiously
along lines previously marked out by the British« Not so
in secondary education. In 1924, the Intermediate Educa
tion Act, which revolutionized the secondary school system
from both the educational and financial points of view,
was passed. In the reorganization of the school system,
the most important reforms were: (1) a revision of the
educational basis of the system; (2) a complete reform of
the secondary program: and (3) the introduction of new
methods of determining the amount of state financial
assistance to be given to the schools.^
The fact that there were 294 recognized schools
in operation in 1930 shows that secondary education in
the Irish Free State had gained a foothold. According to
Table II there were 134 boys' schools in operation in the
year 1929-30 with a total enrollment of 15,542 students.
There were 131 girls' schools in operation during the same
year with a total enrollment of 10,593. In the 29 mixed
1
Report of the Department of Education, 1924-1925
(Dublin: Stationary~OTfice) , p. 48.
51
TABLE II
SECONDARY SCHOOL STATISTICS*
Number Number of pupils
of
schools
Boys Girls Total
1929-30
Boys* Schools 134 15,542 15,542
Girls1 Schools 131 10,593 10,593
Mixed Schools 29 823 687 1,510
Total 294 16,365 11,280 27,645
b
Report of the Department of Education, 1929-30,
Appendix IV , p • T?7•
52
schools there were 823 boys and 687 girls, making a total
of 1,510 students attending. The total number of boys
between the ages of 12 and 20 in attendance was 16,365 and
the total number of girls was 11,280, which made a grand
total of 27,645 students enrolled in the secondary schools
of the Irish Free State during the year 1929-30.
Curriculum. The old junior, middle and senior grades
of the secondary schools were abolished. In their place
a junior course of from three to four years (depending upon
previous preparation of the pupil) was substituted. This
would lead to the intermediate certificate examination,
which the pupil would probably take at the age of sixteen;
and the senior course of two years leading to the leaving
certificate examination. In order to obtain the intermedi
ate certificate, the pupil had to pass:
the examination in the same year, in not less than five
subjects, which must include a subject from each of
the following section: (a) Irish, (b) English, (c)
mathematics, provided that girls may substitute arith
metic and an additional subject for mathematics, and
(d) history and geography; or science; or a language
other than Irish or English.^
Examinations are given in Irish, English, Latin, Greek,
French, German, Italian, Spanish, history and geography,
commerce, mathematics, science, drawing, music, and manual
2
Regulations of the Secondary Education Branch of
the PeparTment of Education,""192^-1930 (Dublin: Irish
Free State), p. 10.
53
instruction
in order to obtain the leaving certificate the
candidate must pass in five subjects, Passing in four
subjects is permitted if the candidate passes two of these
subjects with honors. Every candidate is required to pass
in Irish and English.^
Under the new system there is more freedom in the
programs than there was under the old regime* The prescribed
texts have been abolished. Teachers submit their courses
of study to the department for inspection and approval so
that standards may be maintained. However, the teachers
prepare the students to take the examinations ^iven by the
department, for passing these leads to certain advantages
for the students.
Several standardizing committees of representative
educators were appointed by the department, in 1929, to
review the work of the department with regard to examina
tions, the standards of marking, and so on, in the following
subjects: Irish, English, mathematics, history, and
geography. The department considered the work of the
committees of sufficient value to warrant consideration of
3
Regulations of the Secondary Education Branch of
the Department of Education, 1929-1950, p. 10.
4 JbdLd., jgp. 11 ff.
54
other subjects from time to time*5
In order to be admitted to the secondary schools,
students are required to pass entrance examinations. These
examinations are required by the department, and grants are
paid only on pupils who have passed the examinations.®
They are based on the work of the first year of the sixth
standard, * 7 and insures properly qualified students. The
fact that the higher primary classes have the same programs
as the secondary schools makes for further co-ordination,
even making it possible for advanced primary pupils to take
the Intermediate examination without having attended a
secondary school.®
Finances. The government of the Irish Free State
now grants, funds on a capitation basis for secondary-school
pupils. The rate of capitation grant payable for pupils
following the lower or intermediate certificate course is
seven pounds; that for the pupils following the higher or
leaving certificate course is ten poundsA special bonus
® Department of Education, 1928-1929 (Dublin:
Stationary Office), p. 76 ff.
6 Ibid., 1924-1925, p. 53.
RQgul&fclona of the Secondary Education Department
of Education, 1929-1930, p. 8.
^ Report of the Department of Education, 1924-1925
(Dublin: Stationary Officel , P« V5"Tf •
^ Ibid., p. 52.
55
grant is also payable to schools in which the Irish
language is used as a medium of instruction. This bonus
takes the form of a percentage increase in the capitation
grantThe schools that use Irish as the medium of
instruction are grouped in Class A; the schools that give
instruction partly in Irish are grouped in Class B; and the
schools that use no Irish in giving instruction are in
Class C.
Scholarships♦ Scholarships are offered to boys and
girls of outstanding mental ability. These scholarships
are given by the government, by country councils, or come
from endowments. Undoubtedly some private scholarships are
given, although there is no record of them to be found.
The government scholarhips are awarded to boys and girls
who have completed the intermediate examinations with
honors. If the student writes the examination in Irish,
an extra ten per cent is added to the mark attainedIn
1929, there were eighty-nine students who achieved this
distinction. In 1929, there were 896 country-council
scholarships held by students in the secondary schools.
Report of the Department of Education, loc. cit.
RogulQf Ions of the Secondary Education Branch,
op. cit., pp . 12 ff .
Report of the Department of Education. 1928-1929.
pp. 168 ff.
56
The county-council scholarships are awarded on special
examinations equivalent to the primary school certificate
and intermediate certificate examinations. These scholar
ships permit students to engage in the junior and senior
work of the secondary schools.
Often special prizes are awarded to students for
scholarship. The French government has offered prizes to
students for outstanding work done in French. The French
prizes are usually an object of art or an engraving.^
Other prizes that are offered are usually money.
Teachers. Before the Separation there were no state
requirements in regard to teachers, though usually they were
university graduates. Now the secondary schools must employ
a certain proportion of registered teachers, that is,
teachers who have fulfilled requirements in education and
must have experience.^ Courses are given at the universi
ties in the summer to enable the old teachers to fulfill
the requirements. They are paid according to a state
salary scale which each school must adopt in order to gain
recognition by the department. The scale of salaries rises
with the length of teaching service. This incremental
13
Regulations of the Secondary Education Branch,
op. cit., ppi. 14 ft.
14
Report of the Department of Education, op. cit.,
p. 58 ff.
57
portion of the salary is paid directly to the teacher by
the department, at the conclusion of each quarter of the
school year#^
In 1929, a voluntary pension scheme was adopted for
registered secondary teachers. The teacher pays into the
fund four per cent and the school contributes two and one-
half per cent of the amount of his salary. The retirement
age is sixty, or upon the incapacitation of the individual .^6
Teacher retirement legislation is still in an early stage
of development in the United S^ate, but during the past few
years increasing attention has been given to the general
problem of old-age security# In 1932, there were thirty-
four teacher retirment systems in operation. These systems
reported a total of 18,661 members retired up to January
1, 1931. All except 2,016 of these.retirments were granted
by State or territorial systems. Many of the existing
state systems are planned so that they can grant approximate
ly one-half of the final active salary upon retirement for
superannuation or service. Many of the systems are organized
on the joint-contributory plan, whereby costs are shared
almost equally by teachers and public. Arizona and Rhode
Island, however, operate straight pension systems, no
15 Ibid., p. 53 ff.
16 Ibid., 1928-1929, p. 8 ff
58
contribution being made by members. Many states have a
minimum age of sixty for superannuation or service retire
ment, and specify that disability retirement is to be
granted in case of incapacity to perform further efficient
service in the schools.^
Organizations . An active organization for secondary
school teachers is known as the A, S. T. I*--the Association
of Secondary Teachers of Ireland. 'Though there are others,
this is by far the largest organization for secondary school
teachers in Ireland. The heads of the Protestant secondary
schools have an organization known as the Schoolmasters*
Association. In 1930, a Secondary Teachers* League of
Nations Association was founded in Dublin.^® It is of
interest to note that the W. P. E. A.— the World* s Federa
tion of Education Associations is to be held in Dublin on
July 29, 1933, and lasts for one week.-^
As has previously been noted, educational co
ordination has been effected between the primary and
secondary systems by the arrangement of a common program
—
Report of the Committee on Retirement Allowances
of the National EcTuc at ion A s s o c 1a tTon, ■presented June, 1932,
a t Atlantic City Meeting^of the National EducationAssocTa-
tTon.
18
Educational Supplement, London Times (Londons
Times), No. 860, p. 410.
19 Ibid., No. 903, p. 319.
59
for the higher classes of the primary schools and the lower
classes of the secondary schools. In addition to this,
certain primary schools have been accustomed to follow the
program of the secondary branch in their higher standards
and to present pupils for the annual intermediate examina
tions.^ Very good work may be expected from the secondary
schools in the future, for there is close supervision by
the department to see that the standards are maintained.
The main drawback is the language question. The government
has insisted that students learn the Irish language. This
takes a great amount of time from subjects that might be
of more value to the pupil in later years.
20
Report of the Department of Education. 1924-1925
(Dublin Stationary Office), p. 54•
CHAPTER VI
UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES
University education in the Irish Free State had
developed along lines similar to the British* The new
government was granted entire freedom in all matters dealing
with higher education* In this chapter the writer has
traced the development of education in the universities and
colleges of the Irish Free State, with special attention
given to Trinity College and the National University*
Constitutional basis* The two outstanding universi
ties of the Irish Free State are Dublin University, better
known as Trinity College, and the National University.
Article 27 of the Constitution of the Free State recognizes
these two universities and gives tham a definite
responsibility:
Each University in the Irish Free State, which was
in existence at the date of the coming into operation
of this Constitution, shall be entitled to elect three
representatives to the Dail Eireann upon., a franchise
and in a manner to be prescribed by law*
The new government of the Free State did not interfere with
the government each had enjoyed under the British regime*
However, both universities are dependent upon the subsidies
granted by the Dail. In spite of this fact there is ample
Par 1 iamentary Debates of the Dail Eireann, Irish
Free State, Vol. 1, pp. 1725-1726.
61
evidence that the universities are satisfied with the
existing relationship between them and the government.^
Trinity College. The University of Dublin (Trinity
College) has gained an outstanding place in the field of
higher education in the Irish Free State. It was founded
on the model of Oxford and Cambridge. It is of interest to
note that graduates of these two institutions petitioned for
the charter of Trinity College. They naturally patterned
if after the English model, that is on the principle of a
university organization. Though degrees are granted by the
university which serves as a guide and center of activity
it is in the colleges around it that the students do their
studying, teaching, and research.
Trinity College is synonymous with, and the title
used more often than Dublin University. The government of
the college is vested in a Board composed of the Provost
and seven Senior Fellows, and the University Visitors, who
are the Chancellor of the University and the Lord Chief
Justice. The Board makes all rules and regulations, except
a few that are made in conjunction with the Senate or the
Council. The position of the Provost is similar to that
of president in an Am^erjcan college; the Chancellor
f l Irish teachers’ salaries.1 1 School and Society,
18:281-82, September, 1923.
62
corresponds to the head of an American university# The
Senate elects the Chancellor, and is composed of the
Chancellor, the Doctors, and the Masters of the University#
All are eligible to be members, provided that they pay a
small fee to keep their names on the books# The Council is
composed of the Provost, Senior Lecturer, Registrar, and
sixteen members of the Senate# The Provost nominates
almost all of the professors, although the approval of the
Board is essential for election# The Provost, Fellows,
and Professors examine the students; the teaching of the
students is done by the Lecturing staff, composed of the
Junior Fellows and Professors. The degrees conferred by
the Chancellor#
The curriculum is similar to that common in English
universities# It is grouped under the five schools of
(1) divinity, (2) physics, (3) engineering, (4) law, and
(5) commerce, Forty-four professors teach the various
subjects #3
There were 1,309 students in 1930# Although there
is no religious qualification for entrance, Trinity College
is largely Protestant# The usual four undergraduate years
are divided into Junior and senior freshmen and junior and
senior sophisters • Each student upon entering is placed
in the charge of one of the Fellows, who is responsible,
not only for the beginner*s fees at the college, but also
® Minerva Year Book (Berlin, 1930) , Vol• L, p# 771#
60
for the debts he contracts during his work at the college* 4
The first two years at the college are planned for the
students. In the sophister years there is chance for
specialization* The daily routine at Trinity is:
Morning Chapel, lectures, rowing or football or
cricket, debates in the societies, Hall (gathering
place of the men) and night roll, and 'corrections1
with the Dean on Satruday mornings for delinquents*
The College gates are closed at nine-o'clock, after
which hour entry or exit is only possible through
the wicket, guarded by the sleepless College watch
in the lodge*®
Students may live in quarters on the college grounds,
in the-city of Dublin at registered residences, or with
their guardians. Some students are permitted to study at
home and come to the college only for the examinations*6
Trinity College is situated near the center of
Dublin on a large site, where there is ample room for
buildings and athletic fields* It has the best library
in Ireland. While nominally co-educational, there are not
many women in attendance, even though a special residence,
Trinity Hall, has been provided for them.
Under the British regime it received many grants in
money and land so that the income from endowments averages
^ W* M. Dixon, Trinity College Dublin (London:
Robinson and Company, T9o£), p. 77•
Ibid., p. 265.
Ibid.. p. 268.
64
about £30,000 yearly* It also owns other lands with an
income of about £6,000, and receipts from students bring in
about £20,000 more.^ Trinity is pressed financially, for
the enrollment has increased and the government grants have
not increased.®
National University* The National University of
Ireland is situated at Dublin. It is organized on the
federal plan. A Chancellor and Senate co-operate with the
constituent colleges, which have faculties in arts,
philosophy and sociology, Celtic studies, science, law,
medicine, (including dentistry), engineering, and archi
tecture, commerce, general agriculture, and dairy science.
The university being a federation, the Colleges of Dublin,
Cork, Galway, and St* Patrick’s College at Maynooth, are
practically independent.
Each College (Is) at liberty to present to the
Senate of the University its own schemes of courses
for degrees, and the University is to recognize and
approve them if they appear to be sufficient in
breadth and standard.9
Degrees may be given in one college and not in another, and
ther may even be a difference in them. Each college has a
^ W. M. Dixon, ££. eft., p. 276.
8 ^
Educational Supplement, London Times (Londons
Times), No. 792, p. 303.
9 B. C. A. Windle, 1 1 Irish university system.” Catholic
World, 88:586, October, 1909.
65
voice in the election of its own president, professors, and
independent lecturers through nomination of candiates to
the Senate.-^ The University appoints examiners, independ
ent of the colleges, who work with the professors in giving
and correcting examinations
The National University is dominated by the Roman
Catholics* It has little endowment and depends upon the
government. This naturally results in greater control
by the Department of Education, and the Department has used
this control in its plan of development for the colleges.
The intentions have been that Galway, situated in Western
Ireland in the Gaeltacht (Irish speaking district) is to
be the center for the restoration of the Irish language;
Dublin is to specialize in agriculture; and Cork in butter-
12
making and the creamery business. Maynooth, the oldest
college, is devoted to the training of priests.
University College, Dublin, in 1932, had an enroll
ment of about 1,300 students, and the faaulty numbered
fifty-three. There were 75,000 in its library, and in 1930
10 Catholic World, op. cit., 88:587, October, 1909.
11
Ibid •, p. 586•
12
Educational Supplement, London Times (London:
Times), No. 767, p. 10. ------ -----
66
its income was £117,000 Cork has an enrollment of 510
students and thirty-two professors, twenty-three lecturers,
sixteen assistants, and six demonstrators. The library
at Cork has 190,000 volumes and 200 manuscripts.^ Galway
has the smallest enrollment, with 385 students, twenty-four
professors, and five lecturers. The library contains
35,000 volumes, and its budget, in 1930, was £33,300
St. Patrick*s, Maynooth, is not as close to the university
as the other colleges; however, fifteen of its teachers
are recognized by the university and sixteen are professors
of theology and canon law.^ st. Patrick*s has faculties
in theology and canon law, and courses in arts, philosophy
and sociology, Celtic studies, science, and education. It
gives degrees in theology and canon law, and philosophy.
The government has hopes of making the National
University the center of higher learning for the Irish Free
State. Students who attend are usually from the secondary
schools of the Free State. The University and the Depart
ment of Education co-operate very well.
13
Minerva Year Book, op. cit., Vol. 1, p. 772.
^ Jtbid., p. 695,
15 Ibid., p. 904..
16 Ibid., p. 1716.
67
Other colleges. There are other colleges that
specialize in professional work: the Royal College of
Physieians of Ireland, founded in 1667; the Royal College of
Surgeons in Ireland, founded in 1784; and the Beterinary
College of Ireland, which is under the Department of Agri
culture *3*7 Other organizations, such as the Department of
Land and Fisheries, and a few public libraries constitute
the opportunities for advanced study in the Irish Free State*
However, the number of institutions is sufficient in
comparison with the papulation of the Free State. The
following quotation is worthy of comment:
It has been proved that a university is the highest
integration of the community in intellectual matters,
and that the establishment of a university in a highly
organized center of national life stimulates and
develops the spiritual and material progress of that
center in a remarkable degree.3*8
17
Minerva Year Book, ©£. cit., p. 773.
18
A. P. Newton, The Universities and Educational
Systems of the British Empire (London: W. Collins and
Company,”~T924p, p. 101 •
CHAPTER VII
TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION
Not only has th© Irish Free State progressed along
academic lines in primary, secondary, and university educa
tion, but it has given a great deal of attention to techni
cal and vocational training. This work has been carried
on with commendable success In collaboration with the
primary and secondary schools.
Conditions in 1922. A commission was appointed by
the Minister to , ! inquire into and advise upon the system
of technical education in Saorstat Eireann in relation to
the requirements of trade and Indus try., f i This Commission
made a careful study of the situation and offered its
recommendations to the Department of Education. These
recommendations met with approval and have been incorporated
in an act of the Dail. This new law attempts to provide for
the young people just out of elementary school a system of
continuation schools in Technical and Trade subjects.
The British government had appreciated the conditions
of the country and had established courses in technology,
1
Report of the Department of Education, 1927-1928
(Dublin: Stationary Office) , p. 32127
69
2
crafts, commerce, and domestic economy in the larger centers.
It encouraged the study of science and manual arts in the
primary and secondary schools organizing such instruction
under the Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction
and the Statutory Committees of the local districts, which
acted as managers of the schemes. Funds were provided by
government grants and by a small rate levied by the county
councils, county boroughs, and urban district councils.
Organization and Vocational Educational Act of 1930.
In order to meet the needs of the Irish Free State, the
following recommendations were made and incorporated in the
Vocational Education Act of 1930:
.... (That Vocational training should be) To
continue and supplement the education provided in the
elementary schools, (and should) include general and
practical training in preparation for employment in
trades, manufactures, agriculture, commerce, and other
industrial pursuits, and also general and practical
training for improvement of young persons in the early
stages of such employment*
The country has been divided into vocational educa
tional areas, consisting of county boroughs, urban districts,
and counties. The management of each scheme is to be in the
2 Ibid., 1924-1925, p. 56.
3
Educational Supplement, London Times (Londons
Times), No. 784, p. 207.
70
hands of local committees of fourteen members elected by
the local councils. Eight of each committee are to be
members of the councils, and the others are to be representa
tives of industry and agriculture. Meetings are to be held
once a month.^ This committee will sponsor schools and
classes in vocational training needed in their district.
The committee will also appoint a manager, who must be
approved by the department, and who is to make recommenda
tions to the councils for the amount of funds needed. The
grants given by the government will continue on a capita
tion basis.
As the local districts take over the work, the old
systems will disappear. The new system will attempt to
divide the work of the post-primary instruction into two
divisions: (1) vocational and cultural, for those fourteen
to sixteen years of age; and (2) vocational for those
sixteen to eighteen. The present attendance law provides
for the retention of the students until they are sixteen
years of age.® However, strict enforcement will not take
place until the schools are functioning smoothly and there
is sufficient room for the pupils. The government of the
4
London Times, loc. cit.
5
Ibid., No. 772, p. 66.
71
Free State plans to make Irish the medium of instruction
as soon as teachers are prepared to carry on the work. It
is thought that the primary students will soon have enough
Irish at their command to carry on the work; thus the
primary schools and the technical schools will be linked
together.^ There are 120,000 students of technical school
age, and over 45,000 are in school* This fact clearly
shows that technical instruction in the Irish Free State
will hold an important place in the development of educa
tion* Work will be kept up to date by committees, who will
secure information each year in regard to the occupations,
forms of skill and knowledge helpful to beginners, and the
attitude of employers and parents.?
Curriculum* In the centers of Dublin, Cork:,
Limerick, and Waterford, technical courses are offered in
subjects best fitted to the needs of the people. Among
these are electrical engineering, physics, chemistry, art,
mechanical, and motor engineering, building and printing
trades, commerce, plumbing, painting, tailoring, domestic
science, and other courses thay may arise through need.
6 No. 779, p. 150.
7
"Technical education in the Irish Free State.1 1
School and Society, 33:295, February, 1931.
72
Classes are held both day and evening.®
The usual practice of* an instructor in a rural
district is to give an intensive course during five evenings
per week for a period of six weeks, or to conduct two courses
within a reasonable distance over a double period. There is
a high average attendance at remote rural centers, which is
probably acoounted for by the comparative rarity of such
courses and the absence of counter attractions. The courses
usually given are woodwork, commerce, and domestic economy.9
Special schools. In addition to the general features
of the technical schemes, there are several special types
of schools, conducted either by the state or by private
bodies. These schools are: (a) day apprentice schools;
(b) day trades preparatory schools; (c) day commercial
schools; (d) residential schools of domestic economy; and
(e) schools of art.^
The only organized day apprentice school Is that
conducted at Bolton Street, by the City of Dublin Technical
Instruction Committee. Scholarships are granted on examina
tion to boys who have completed the sixth standard. The
0
Report of the Department of Education, 1924-1925
(Dublin; 51at'ionar y ‘ 6ffice") , p . ScTTf •
Ibid., p. 62.
10 Loc. Cit.
73
scholarships provide free training for two years, with a
payment of six shillings per week for the first year and
eight shillings per week for the second year. During the
training the pupil is virtually an apprentice, and on
entering the trade he is paid at third-year rates. During
the six years1 existence of the school pupils have been
placed Successfully, and the Department is well pleased
with the work.^-*-
The day trades preparatory schools are similar to the
day apprentice school. The boys receive no payment, but
there are small scholarships to cover the cost of books and
other supplies. There are ten of these schools in the Free
State, and they rank as secondary schools. The length of
the course normally is two years, but owing to the demand
from employers it was often difficult to retain the boys
for two years; however, in recent years depression in trade
has to some extent adversely affected the demand for train
ing, and it has become more difficult to place boys in
suitable posts. ^
The day commercial schools might be classified as
specialized continuation schools, for they provide a train
ing for junior positions in business houses just as the
^ RQP°rt of the Department of Education, loc. cit.
12 Ibid., p. 63.
74
other schools prepare for the crafts. The course lakts two
years and covers the usual commercial studies. Several of
the schools have employment bureaus, which keep complete
lists of students seeking posts5 and there has not been
great difficulty in placing successful students
The residential schools of domestic economy are
operated in rural districts by religious orders for the
purpose of training farmers* daughters in domestic economy.
There are six of these schools and they receive their
support through capitation grants and scholarships given
by the county technical committees. The object of the
year*s course is to give a training in all the domestic
duties of a country house or farm house, with the addition
14
of dairying, poultry-keeping, and gardening.
There are three schools of art in the Irish Free
State; these are situated at Cork, Limerick, and Waterford*
There is also the Metropolitan School of Art in Dublin,
which opens its<*classes to the students of architecture of
University College. The three schools mentioned obtain
special grants similar to those obtainable by the apprentice
schools, but in spite of this special encouragement the
schools have not succeeded in influencing technical
13 Ibid*. P* 64i >
14
Ibid., p. 65.
75
15
development to any great extent•
Tile primary and secondary schools of the Free State
also further the work of technical instruction. In the
primary schools the technical branch of the department has
charge of supervising the instruction given by the elementary
teachers in rural science and gardening, drawing, and
manual instruction. In the secondary schools the technical
branch of the department has charge of the experimental
science courses, and conducts the intermediate and leaving-
certificate examinations, and supervises the instruction
Teachers. Teachers must be adequately trained for
technical instruction in schools. Summer courses are given
each year in subjects such as electrical equipment of the
car, furniture, design, general art, modern concrete work,
and other courses as a need arises for them. The rapid
increase in the number of courses offered has called for a
steady demand for teachers for this field
It seems that the people of the Irish Free State
realize the stupendous problems of educating their boys and
girls along technical lines. They are striving to meet the
necessary requirements.
15
Report of the Department of Education, loo, cit.
16 PP* 67 ff.
17 Ibid., 1927-1928, pp. 69 ff.
CHAPTER VIII
INDUSTRIAL AND REFORM SCHOOLS
Much progress has been made by the Irish Free State
in its system of taking care of neglected and needy chil
dren* Industrial schools*** accommodate neglected children
under the age of fourteen, who are without a home and found
wandering and begging* Children, when found guilty of
vagrancy, disorderly conduct, or of a crime (if -under
twelve years of age) are committed to the school by a
Justice•
History and purpose * The British government
established industrial schools in Ireland after the passing
of the Industrial Schools (Ireland) Act, in 1828. After
the passing of the Children Act, in 1908, industrial and
reform schools were under the Chief Secretary of Ireland,
until 1920* After a short period under the local government
department, they came under the charge of the educational
services, and in 1924 were included in the department of
education*
^ The information in this section was obtained from
the Reports of the Department of Education, 1924-1925, pp.
84-88; 1925, 1926, 1927, pp. 86-91; 1927-1928, pp. 86-89;
and 1928-1U29, pp* 126-29; and 1929-1950, p. 109* (Dublin;
Stationary Office.)
77
The purposes of the schools are to provide the chil
dren with: (§) a proper home with suitable food, clothing,
living quarters, and moral and religious training; (b)
primary education under the national school program up to
the sixth or seventh standard; and (c) vocational training•
In order to accomplish these purposes the young people are
divided into junior and senior groups. The junior schools
are for those under the age of ten years* The boys and
girls are segregated in the senior schools*
Administration and finances* Originally no provision
was made for building and equipping schools. Local districts
did not seem interested. As a result, religious and lay
organizations took an interest in the work, secured the
necessary equipment and opened schools* Now the state has
a manager, with complete responsibility, in charge of each
school. He secures and pays the teachers, provides and
maintains equipment, and takes care of the follow-up work
done for those who have left the institution* The department
through inspection, certifies the schools as being fir for
the receiving of the children, and supervises the administra
tion of state grants. A capitation grant of five shillings,
with a supplementary grant of two shillings six pence, is
paid per week. The local authorities contract with the
managers for the young people admitted from their district*
The usual rate is five shillings per week. The parents,
78
if they are able to do so, are expected to pay a small sum*
The amount paid is usually determined by the District
Justice•
The length of term for a manager is six years. This
is a disadvantage, for it often takes a long time for new
men to become accustomed to a new system. The managers have
sincerely tried to secure the services of competent teachers
and to retain them as long as possible. The retention of
capable teachers has werved to increase the efficiency of
the schools.
Medical attention is given the pupils every three
months, and, in case of illness, oftener. Since many of
the pupils are often in need of medical attention upon
admittance, special care is taken and proper diet is
provided for them. Children who are seriously ill are
taken care of in a neighboring hospital; however, some
schools have their own nursing wards. Dentists visit the
schools and care for the children's teeth.
Curriculum. The schools endeavor to help the stu
dents to become worth-while citizens. The department does
not favor keeping up the schools by means of drudgery
tasks. The pupils under fourteen years of age are expected
to develop mentally and physically by means of the regular
primary school program and by the physical exercise that
they obtain in the playing of indoor and outdoor games.
The students who become the most successful in later life
are the ones who have had good elementary training. All
the schools provide training in several occupations. Boys
may become butchers, bakers, carpenters, painters, black
smiths, shoemakers, tailors, clerks, shop-assistants, motor-
drivers, etc. The girls are usually prepared for domestic
service of some sort, such as cooks, housemaids, laundreses,
and nurserymaids. Some girls enter other types of employ
ment, such as teaching, nursing, or working in a factory.
The latest report of the Department of Education
shows that the work of the schools is satisfactory. The
students who leave the schools become independent and law
abiding citizens. There were fifty-two schools in 1929,
and the percentage of children in them was large. This was
in the main caused by the poverty of the people and the
general unsettled conditions of the country. As shown in
Table III there were sixteen boys1 schools, thirty-five
girls* schools, and one mixed school& in operation in 1930,
The number of boys under detention on August 1, 1929
totaled 3,011* This number increased to 3,052 by July
31, 1930, which shows only a very small increase in
detentions• The number of girls under detention on August
1, 1929 were 3,590, and on July 31, 1930 the number has
increased to 3,625— an increase of only thirty-five* The
number has increased to 3,625. The number of committals,
80
(SCHOOL YEAR:
TABLE
INDUSTRIAL
AUGUST 1,
III
SCHOOLS
1929 TO JULY 31, 1930)a
Number
of
schools
Number
under
detention
on August
1st, *29
Number
under
detention
on July
31st / '30
Committals
recommittals
and readmis
sions from
Aug. 1st, *29
to July 31st,
*30
Discharges
licenses, etc.
from Aug. 1st.,
'29 to July
31st, '30
Boys 16 3,011 3,052 527 486
Girls 35 3,590 3,625 501 466
Mixed 1
Total 52 6 ,601 6,677 1,028 952
a
Report of the Department of Education 1929-1930,
Appendix Vi, p . *155.
81
recommittals, and readmissions from August 1, 1929, to
July 31, 1930 numbered 527 for the boys and 501 for the
girls, making a total of 1,028 in all. The number of
dicharges and licenses issued within that year's time was
486 for boys and 466 for girls, a total of 952. These
figures show that there were only 76 more committals,
recommittals, and readmissions issued than there were
discharges and licenses. As conditions improve, the number
of children in these schools undoubtedly will decrease.
REFORM SCHOOLS
Reform schools^ are for young people between the
ages of twelve and sixteen, who have been convisted of an
offense punishable, in the case of an adult, by imprison
ment or penal servitude. Admission is not given until
proper investigation has been made and results show that
the home cannot settle the situation. The Justice sets
the length of the term, but pupils are not kept after their
nineteenth birthday. Pupils are under the supervision of
the manager of the school for two years after they leave
the school, or until their nineteenth birthday.
2
The information in this section was obtained from
the Reports of the Department of Education, 1924-1925
(Dublin: Stationary urrice) , pp* 84-db; 192o>TT926, X927,
pp. 83-86; and 1929-1930, p. 109*
82
History and purpose. Reform schools developed with
the change that came in the middle or the nineteenth century.
An entirely different attitude was taken toward children.
At first, children convicted of crime were pardoned with the
provision that they would be placed in a voluntary institu
tion in order to learn the useful habits of industry.
Later, grants were made by the government fbr the support of
these schools which, as in the case of the industrial
schools, were private institutions.
It is the purpose of the reform schools to create in
the individual a spirit of self-respect. The schools should
not be looked upon as prisons, although many people look
upon them as such. The schools attempt to provide a
confortable and home-like place in which the students may
live. Although the food is plain, it is good and is suitable
for the building up of bodies that are often in very poor
condition. The clothing is similar to the clothing of chil
dren outside the school. The Department of Education re
quires the schools to adhere to the program of the National
Schools. This is a difficult task, for the majority of
children who are admitted lack previous adequate schooling.
A result of this naturally hinders the teaching of a
vocation into which the individual might fit himself on
leaving the school.
83
Administration and finances. The schools are
administered by managers, who secure the teachers, and pro
vide for the building, the equipment, and other essentials.
The Department of Education controls the schools by means
of inspections* Each school must be certified before the
necessaey grants are paid, A capitation grant, payable by
the department, is six shillings per week. There are
additional supplementary grants of two shillings in the case
of boys, and three shillings and six pence for girls. The
local districts that have inmates in the school usually
arrange their own contracts with the managers; however, the
usual rate is about five shillings per week.
Curriculum, There are only two reform schools in
the Free State, one for boys and the other for girls. The
principal employments found in the boys1 school are shoe-
making, farm work, and tailoring. The girls receive training
in domestic work. There has been a gradual reduction in the
number of boys and girls committed to these schools, as
shown in Table IV, The number of boys under detention on
August 1, 1929 was 101, and this number increased to 84 by
July 31, 1930, The decrease in the number of girls within
this time was one. The number of committals from August 1,
1929 to July 31, 1930 totaled 23, fourteen of them being
boys and nine girls. The discharges and licenses for the
84
TABLE IV
REFORMATORY SCHOOLS
(SCHOOL YEAR: AUGUST 1, 1929, TO JULY 31, 1930)a
Humber
of
schools
Humber
under
detention
on August
1st, *29
Humber
under
detention
on July
31st, *30
Committals
from
Aug, 1st, *29
to
July 31st,*30
Discharges,
licenses, etc.,
from Aug. 1st•,
*29 to July
31st, *30
Boys 1 101 84 14 31
Girls 1 27 26 9 10
Total 2 128 110 23 41
a
Report of the Department of Education, 1929~193Q,
Appendix VI, pT 195•
85
boys are 31, and the number fdr the girls was ten. The
number of discharges and licenses issued during the yearfs
time exceeded the number of committals by 18. The latest
report for the reform schools states that the schools are
being satisfactorily conducted. The managers are efficient
and sympathetic, and, with few exceptions, the children
respond to the care bestowed upon them.
CHAPTER IX
CONCLUSIONS
The purpose of this study was to present the changes
that took place in the educational system of the Irish Free
State between the separation from England in 1922 and the
present time* Because of the facts that these changes were
rapid and that a new country just becoming established
rarely stops to document its own development, the materials
for this study were not abundant* Moreover, the Free State
is small, with three-fourths of its people uneducated.
Their main interest has to be that of securing a means of
livelihood* Thus it is that the conditions of the govern
ment, finance and equipment of schools, lack of adequate
books, and the all-important language dispute constitute
huge barriers in the educational development of the Free
State.
The data secured for this study were found in the
Public Documents of Great Britain and the Irish Free State,
Government Bulletins, periodicals, newspapers, and certain
books, which dealt in whole or in part with education in
the Free State. The data and opinions were evaluated and
presented in chronological order*
One can appreciate the complete change that has taken
place in the Free State* With serious cultural and
governmental problems inherited from centuries of foreign
domination, these few millions of people have settled down
to the serious business of gaining a living and of governing
themselves. Many years have passed since this little
nation was self-governing, but the people have not forgotten
the past. They have tried to adapt their educational system
to their economic and political needs and their craving for
cultural self-expression.
All of the branches of educational life— elementary,
secondary, university, technical, industrial, and reformatory
— have been revised. There is no longer a conflict between
church and state, nor between agriculture and commerce. Un
doubtedly more revisions will be made as time goes on, but
so far as administration and organization are concerned, the
Irish Free State has solved its problems. With similar
success they have revised the courses of study in primary,
secondary, and technical schools, in order to eliminate
unncecessary duplication of work. The inspection system has
been improved, and the attendance law has been more
efficiently enforced.
In the development of primary education, the Free
State progressed along lines similar to the British. Changes
were made as the new government deemed necessary, but the
four classes of schools— schools investediin the Commissioners
those vested in trustees, the non-vested schools, and the
88
model schools have carried on the work successfully. All
control is exercised by the State, primarily through
finance. Thus all salaries are paid by the state, either
directly or by capitation grants. The work of the primary
schools is now divided into two parts: that for infants and
that for the so-called standards. The infants1 program is
further divided into junior and senior parts in which very
elementary work is presented. The work in the standards
corresponds with the eight grades in the American schools.
The results of the School Attendance Act of the Free State,
which came into operation in 1927, showed an increase in
school attendance from 71.8 per cent in 1922 to 83.4 per
cent in 1930.
There are three available sources for primary
teachers; (1) the preparatory colleges, (2) the pupil-teach
er scheme, and (3) the training college entrance examina
tion. It is the hope of the Irish Free State that the coming
teachers will be able to raise the standards of the primary
schools and meet the principal requirement--the teaching of
Irish. The latest report taken from the Educational
Supplement of the London Times for April 1, 1933 stated that
the government had introduced a bill for salary reductions
during the financial year beginning April 1. The Department
of Education has also announced that all women teachers
appointed on or after October 1, 1933, will, on marriage,
89
cease to be eligible for recognition in any capacity in a
national school. These are similar problems that are being
faced by the schools throughout the United States at the
present time*
Similarly the Irish have a National Teachers Associa
tion much like the National Education Association, the
proceedings of which deal with the same educational and
economic problems as those so copiously discussed in
American journals. Furthermore, though school medical
service is organized on a national scale under the Depart
ment of Local Government and Public Health, it performs a
service similar to that of inspection in this country.
Although more changes will be made in the development of
primary education in the Irish Free State, the progress
already achieved warrants commendation.
A radical change took place in secondary education
with the passing of the Intermediate Education Act, which
revolutionized the secondary system from both the educa
tional and financial points of view. In the reorganization
of the school system, the most important reforms were:
(1) a revision of the educational basis of the system;
(2) a complete reform of the secondary program; and (3) the
introduction of new methods of determining the amount of
state financial assistance to be given to the schools. Out
of the 294 recognized schools in operation in 1930, there
90
were 27,645 students enrolled.
In the curriculum of the secondary schools the old
junior, middle, and senior grades were abolished. In their
place there was substituted a junior^course of from three
to four years, which would lead to the intermediate certifi
cate examination, which the pupil would probably take at
the age of sixteen; and the senior course of two years
leading to the leaving certificate examinations. Under the
new system there was more freedom in the programs than there
was under the old regime. The prescribed tests were
abolished, and teachers submitted their courses of study to
the Department for inspection and approval so that standards
might be maintained. Educational co-ordination was found
between the primary and secondary systems by the arrangement
of a common program for the higher classes of the primary
schools and the lower classes of the secondary schools.
The government of the Irish Free State now grants
f\mds on a capitation basis for secondary school pupils.
The rate of capitation grant payable for pupils following
the lower or intermediate certificate course is £7; that
for the pupils following the higher or leaving-certificate
course is £10. A special bonus grant is also payable to
schools in which the Irish language is used as a medium of
instruction.
91
High standards have been brought about by close
supervision in the schools. The main drawback is the
language question, for the government has insisted that
students learn the Irish language.
University education developed along lines similar
to the British. The two outstanding universities, Trinity
College and the National University, have adopted curricula
similar to English universities. The new government of the
Free State did not interfere with the government of the
universities, but the universities are dependent upon the
subsidies granted by the Dail.
Trinity College is synonymous with, and the title
used more often, than Dublin University. The government of
the college is vested in a Board composed of the Provost,
seven Senior Fellows,— and the University Visitors, who are
the Chancellor of the University and the Lord Chief Justice.
The Board makes all rules and regulations, except a few that
are made in conjunction with the Senate or the Council. The
position of the Provost is similar to that of president in
an American college; the Chancellor corresponds to the head
of an American university.
The National University of Ireland is situated at
Dublin. It is organized on the federal plan, and, because
of this fact, the Colleges of Dublin, Cork, Galway, and St.
Patrick’s College, at Maynooth, are practically independent.
92
The National University is dominated by the Roman Catholics.
It has little endowment and is dependent upon the govern
ment, which naturally results in greater control by the
Department of Education. The intentions have been that
Galway is to be the center for the restoration of the Irish
language; Dublin is to specialize in agriculture; and Cork
in buttermaking and the creamery business. Maynooth, the
oldest college, is devoted to the training of priests. The
hope of the government is to make the National University
the center of higher learning for the Free State.
Technical instruction has received a great deal of
attention in the Free State, and the work has progressed
with commendable success in collaboration with the primary
and secondary schools. The Vocational Educational Act of
1930 divided the country into vocational educational areas,
consisting of county boroughs, urban districts and counties.
The management of each scheme was to be in the hands of
local committees of fourteen members elected by the local
councils. As the local cistricts take over the work the
old systems will disappear. The new system will attempt to
divide the work of the post-primary instruction into
divisions— vocational and cultural for those fourteen to
sixteen years of age and vocational for those sixteen to
eighteen. The present attendance law provides for the
retention of the students until they are sixteen years of
93
age* There has been a rapid increase in the number of
courses offered in the technical schools, which has called
for a steady demand for teachers in this field. There are
120,000 students of technical schools age, and over 45,000
are in school.- This fact shows that technical instruction
in the Free State will hold an important place in the future
development of education.
The work of the industrial and reform schools in the
Free State has been shown to be satisfactory. After the
passing of the Children Act in 1908, industrial and reform
schools were under the Chief Secretary of Ireland, until
1920. After a short period under the Local Government
Department, they came under the charge of the educational
services, and in 1924 were included in the Department of
Education. The department certifies the schools as being
fit for the receiving of the children through inspection,
and supervises the administration of state grants. Proper
medical care and the service of capable teachers have
increased the efficiency of the schools. The schools have
adapted the curricual to the needs of the students in order
to develop worth-while citizens, and the latest reports
from these schools confirm this statement. There were
fifty-two industrial schools in 1929, and the percentage
of children in them was large. This was caused mainly on
account of the proverty of the people and the general
94
unsettled conditions of the country* As conditions improve,
the number of children in these schools will undoubtedly
decrease. There are only two reform schools in the Free
State, and the enrollment is decreasing each year, which
would tend to signify success and advancement*
Much is yet to be desired in the improvement of
school buildings and their surroundings. Many buildings
should be torn down and new ones built* The surroundings
of the schools lack the touch of beauty that could be
easily attained by the addition of a few trees and shrubs.
A striking contrast can readily be seen in the beautiful
schools and surroundings in the state of California. The
sanitary conditions of the schools also call great improve
ment .
The Irish Free State, like every democracy, including
the United States, especially needs an educated adult
population which will not be influenced by fanatics who
would lead this way and that without direction.! The hard
ships of the past, the new independence, and the present
plans of the Irish people should tend to create and spur on
the leaders of the country* However, there are warnings such
^ Educational Supplement, London Times (London:
Times), Ho. 783, p. 195.
95
as that of Mr. White concerning the fascination of the past
2
and its dangers to the future. This statement refers, no
doubt, to the attempt to revive the Gaelic language.
Another writer has said, f,In order to become deeply Irish
she must become European.
The emigrations of Irish men and women in the past
have been due to economic reasons, The educational,
agricultural, and industrial developments have improved
conditions to such an extent that in the year which ended
June 30, 1929, Ireland did not send her full quota to
America. It is the hope of the future that 1 1 the time may
come when the Free State, like France, will be a land of no
unemployment, and when young Irish men and women may prefer
to stay at home rather than seek their fortunes in America.f f 5
2
Albert Clement White, The Irish Free State (London:
Hutchinson and Company, 1923), p. 121.
3 £££•
4
B. C. Waller, "First seven years of the Irish
Free State.u Current History, 31:944, February, 1930.
H. Dm 0*Sullivan, "Eight years of Irish home rule.1 1
Quarterly Review, 254:239, April, 1930.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. BOOKS
Balfour, Graham, The Educational Systems of Great Britain
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Figgis, Darrell, The Irish Constitution Explained. Dublin:
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Graham, Hugh, The Early Irish Monastic Schools. Dublin:
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Gwynn, Dennis, The Irish Free State. London: Macmillan
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Newton, A. P., The Universities and Educational Systems of
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Roman, F. W., The New Education in Europe. New York: E. P.
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White, Albert Clement, The Irish Free State. London:
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Clench, B. J., “University education in Ireland.” American
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Irish Free State Constitution Act, 1922. London: Eyre and
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D. ENCYCLOPEDIA ARTICLES
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edit ion, 12•633-34 •
E. NEWSPAPERS
London Times, Nos. 610-935, (1927-1933).
San Francisco Chronicle, July 13, 1930.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Corsberg, Myrtle Marie (author)

Core Title A survey of the present educational situation in the Irish Free State

School School of Education

Degree Master of Science

Degree Program Education

Degree Conferral Date 1933-06

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, sociology of,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Campbell, William G. (committee chair), Crawford, C.C. (committee member), Scholtz, T.L. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c30-31657

Unique identifier UC11187673

Identifier usctheses-c30-31657 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier EP57104.pdf

Dmrecord 31657

Document Type Thesis

Rights Corsberg, Myrtle Marie

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA