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A study of the emulsification of edible oils

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A study of the emulsification of edible oils

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Content A
STUDY OF THE EMTJL8IFI CATION OF EDIBLE OILS
c / C
______________ 3 5
M lit*
A T h e s is
P r e s e n t e d t o th e D e p a rtm e n t o f C h e m istry
U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a
I n p a r t i a l f u l l f i l l m e n t
o f th e
R e q u ire m e n ts f o r t h e
D eg ree o f M a s te r o f A r ts -
By
G e o rg ia M iriam H u to h is o n
S e p t e m b e r, 19 34
UMI Number; EP41466
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•lhide
Master ..o.f...Ar.ts...........................................................
Dean
Date..
( J ?-1
Faculty Committee
Chairman
i
CONTENTS
SECTION Page
INTRODUCTION...................................... i v
I . DISCUSSION OF THE THEORIES OF EMULSIFICATION 1
D e f i n i t i o n s .................................................................................. 1
E m u ls io n s ................................................................................ 1
P h a s e s ....................................................................................... 2
T h e o r ie s o f E r a u l s i f i c a t i o n ............................................ 3
Adsorbed, f i l m a n d I n t e r f a c i a l T e n s io n T h eo ry 4
O r i e n t e d Wedge T h e o r y ................................................. 5
V i s c o s i t y T h e o ry .............................................................. 6
P h a se volum e T h e o ry ...................................................... 7
H y d r a tio n T h e o r y .............................................................. 8
A Newer T h e o r y ................................................................... 8
T ypes o f E m u ls io n s ................................................................ 9
S im p le ....................................................................................... 9
Kind,..................................................................................... 9
P r o p e r t i e s ..................................................................... 9
C om plex.................................................................................... 9
K in d ..................................................................................... 10
P r o p e r t i e s ...................................................................... 10
T y p es o f E m u l s i f i e r s .................................................... 10
Means o f D e te r m in in g T ypes o f E m u ls io n s .. 11
I I . MAYONNAISE AS AN EMULSION............................ 13
Type o f E m u ls io n ...................................................................... 13
i i
The T h eo ry o f E m u l s i f i c a t i o n o f M a y o n n a is e ... 14
P ro b le m s o f M ayonnaise M a n u f a c t u r e . . . . ................ 15
P r e p a r a t i o n o f T a s t e f u l and S t a b l e P r o d u c t 15
K ind o f U t e n s i l s ............................‘........................... 16
M ethod o f M ix in g ......................................................... 17
Q u a n t it y o f O i l Added F i r s t ............................ 18
K ind o f O i l U s e d . . . ................................................. 1 9
M ethod o f A d d in g V i n e g a r .................................... 31
E m u l s i f i e r U s e d . ................................................. 31
K ind o f Eggs U sed ...................................................... 33
T e m p e r a tu r e ................. 33
Amount o f V in e g a r an d S p ic e U sed ................ 33
K e e p in g Q u a l i t y ............................................................... . 33
De e m u ls if i c a t i o n ......................................................... 33
C a u s e s ............................................................................. 33
P r e v e n t i t i v e s ........................................................... 33
S p o ila g e Due t o R a n c i d i t y .................................. 24
F e r m e n t a t i o n ............................................. 25
D i s c o l o r a t i o n and D a r k n e s s ............................... 25
I I I COMMERCIAL MAYONNAISE AND SALAD DRESSING....................... 27
D e f i n i t i o n o f M a y o n n a ise .................................................... 27
C o m p ariso n o f M ay o n n aise an d S a la d D r e s s i n g . . 31
M ayonnaise A n a l y s i s Found i n L i t e r a t u r e . 31
E x p e r im e n ta l Work on M ay onnaise A n a ly s is 33
l i i
IV . EXPERIMENTAL W ORK ON THE PREPARATION OF AN EDIBLE
AND STABLE MAYONNAISE...................................................................... 33
P r e p a r a t i o n Frbm Q om m eroial S a la d O i l ................... 34
P r e p a r a t i o n W ith V a ry in g Q u a n t i t i e s o f
Egg Y o lk .................................................................................. 36
P r e p a r a t i o n W ith V a ry in g Q u a n t i t i e s o f O i l . 38
V a r i a t i o n o f M ethod o f A dding V i n e g a r . . . . 40
• V a r i a t i o n o f S p e e d ........................................................ 42
V a r i a t i o n o f M o is tu r e C o n t e n t........................... 44
V a r i a t i o n o f E m u l s i f i e r s ........................................ 46
P r e p a r a t i o n From Avocado O i l ........................................ $&(
C om parison o f Q u a l i t y ................................................. 550)
C om parison o f S t a b i l i t y ............... 50)
V; SUM MARY AND CONCLUSIONS..................................................................... 51
BIBLIOGRAPHY.................................................................................................
■ ‘ iv r
INTRODUCTION
R e s e a rc h h a s h e e n done i n t h i s l a b o r a t o r y b y L a m b e rt,
2 3
V o lz , and S a n b o rn , on th e e x t r a c t i o n an d r e f i n i n g o f an
e d i b l e o i l from t h e a v o c a d o . Such an o i l was s u c c e s s f u l l y
4
r e f i n e d b y S a n b o rn , p r o d u c in g an o i l o f b l a n d and p l e a s a n t
f l a v o r .
P r e v io u s i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n t h i s l a b o r a t o r y h a v e p ro v e n
5 6 7
th e p r e s e n c e o f v i t a m i n s A, B, D, an d E in th e avocado
i t s e l f .
L a t e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , on th e v i ta m in c o n te n t o f th e o i l ,
Q
h av e shown th e p r e s e n c e o f v i t a m i n A t o a c o n s i d e r a b l e e x -
A .L. L a m b e rt, " E x t r a c t i o n and U t i l i z a t i o n o f
Avocado O i l " , M a s te r T h e s is (1 9 2 9 ) U .S .C .
2
J . L . V o lz , " U t i l i z a t i o n o f C u ll A vo cad os1 .' A r e
p o r t to th e d e p a r tm e n t o f c h e m is tr y . (1 929 ) U .S .C .
3
R.H. S a n b o rn , "R e co v e ry o f Avocado O i l " , A r e p o r t
to t h e d e p a rtm e n t o f c h e m is tr y . (1933) U .S .C .
4
R.H . S a n b o rn , "The R e f i n i n g o f Avocado O i l " ,
M a s te r T h e s is (1 9 3 4 ) U .S .C .
5
J . E . Y o u tz , "The P r e s e n c e o f V ita m in A i n A v o c ad o s."
M a s te r T h e s is U .S .C . (1929)
6
E.W. W aterm an, "The D e te r m in a tio n o f V ita m in B i n
A v o c a d o s." M a s te r T h e s is U .S .C . (19 27)
* 7
■E.>K; s> P rice, "The V ita m in D C o n te n t o f A v o c a d o s."
M a ste r T h e s is U .S .C . (1939)
8
F.M. S h e l l e y , "The D e te r m in a tio n o f V ita m in E i n
A v o c ad o s." M a ste r T h e s is U .S .C . (193 9)
9
R a ia J o f f e , "The D e te r m in a tio n o f V ita m in A i n r e f i n e d
and D e o d o riz e d Avocado O i l . " M a s te r T h e s is U .S .C .
(1 934)
- - w
1
t e n t and v i ta m in D, t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t .
A f t e r su c h an o i l h a s b e e n p r e p a r e d , t h e n e x t s t e p
i s t o f i n d a u s e f o r i t i n i n d u s t r y . S in c e th e m ay o n n aise
i n d u s t r y consum es q u a n t i t i e s o f o i l , i t f o l lo w s t h a t t h i s
o i l m ig h t be u s e d i n th e p r e p a r a t i o n .o f a d e s i r a b l e mayon
n a i s e .p r o d u c t .
An avocado m ay o n n a ise h a s a p p e a re d on th e m a rk e t b u t
i t i s s p e c i f i e d to c o n t a i n a v o cad o p u lp . I n v e s t i g a t i o n s have
b e e n made on th e p r e p a r a t i o n o f su c h a p r o d u c t , in w h ich i t
was s u g g e s te d t h a t one p a r t o f avo cad o p u lp b e a d d ed t o two
p a r t s o f m ay o n n a ise and t h a t th e v i n e g a r c o n te n t b e i n c r e a s -
p
e d . J Such a p r o d u c t was p r e p a r e d and fo u n d to “k eep " w e ll
a t o r d i n a r y t e m p e r a t u r e s .
The p u rp o s e o f t h i s r e s e a r c h , was to p r e p a r e a mayon
n a i s e , u s i n g a v o cad o o i l , in p l a c e o f th e u s u a l c o rn o r
c o t t o n s e e d o i l .
The s tu d y o f m ay o n n aise p r e s e n t s a two f o l d p ro b le m .
I t i s n o t o n ly n e c e s s a r y to p r e p a r e a p r o d u c t w hich i s a c
c e p t a b l e a s a t a s t y fo o d , b u t a l s o , one t h a t " s t a n d s up"
u n d e r C om m ercial c o n d i t i o n s . T h e r e f o r e , t h i s work i n c l u d e s
a s tu d y o f th e c h e m is tr y o f m ay o n n aise w h ich in v o lv e d e m u l s i -
f i c a t i o n o f o i l s an d a s tu d y o f e m u ls io n s , t y p e s , p r e -
1
S id n e y H o rn e , " V ita m in D c o n te n t o f R e fin e d Avocado
O i l . " M a ste r T h e s i s . U .S .C . (1934)
2
W.V. C ru e ss and E l i z a b e t h H a r o ld , " I n v e s t i g a t i o n on
th e U t i l i z a t i o n o f C u ll A v o c ad o s." F r u i t P r o d u c t s
J o u r n a l and A m erican V in e g a r I n d u s t r y . 3 1 , U nion
S q u a re , Hew York C i t y .
vdi
p a r a t i o n and f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f s t a b l e
e m u ls io n s . E x p e r im e n ta l w ork was done a lo n g th e s e l i n e , un
t i l a s a t i s f a c t o r y p r o d u c t was o b t a i n e d u s i n g th e a v o cad o
o i l .
B ecau se o f th e s u p e r i o r n u t r i t i v e v a lu e o f a v o cad o
o i l , s u c h a p r o d u c t s h o u ld be a b le to b e p l a c e d on th e
m a rk e t to com pete w ith p r e s e n t co m m ercial m a y o n n a is e s , and
i t s h o u ld have a s u p e r i o r v a lu e from a n a d v e r t i s i n g s t a n d
p o i n t .
1
SECTION I
DISCUSSION OF THE THEORIES OF EMULSIFICATION.
" E m u l s i f i c a t i o n i s th e a r t o r p r a c t i c e o f d i s p e r s i n g
a g iv e n l i q u i d a s m ore o r l e s s p e rm a n e n t g l o b u l e s i n a n o th e r
l i q u i d m ed iu m ."1 S e v e r a l t h e o r i e s o f e m u l s i f i c a t i o n
h av e b e e n a d v a n c e d , b u t s i n c e t h e r e a r e so many f a c t o r s
w h ich i n f l u e n c e t h e f o r m a tio n o f a n e m u ls io n , no t h e o r y
h a s b e e n a b le to a p p ly to a l l e m u ls io n s , b u t a l l th e t h e o r i e s
c o n t r i b u t e so m e th in g to th e s tu d y o f e m u ls io n s .
The p ro b le m o f e m u l s i f i c a t i o n l i e s i n t h e f i e l d o f
c o l l o i d c h e m is tr y , s i n c e , b y d e f i n i t i o n an e m u ls io n i s
" a s y s te m c o n t a i n i n g two im m is c ib le l i q u i d p h a s e s , one o f
w h ic h i s so i n t i m a t e l y d i s p e r s e d a s g l o b u l e s i n th e o t h e r
t h a t t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f e a c h i n any b u lk o f th e m ix tu r e i s
n o t a p p r e c i a b l y a l t e r e d by t i m e . "3 e m u ls io n , a s by
d e f i n i t i o n , i s a l i q u i d - l i q u i d s u s p e n s io n , d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g
i t from an e m u ls o id w hich i s a s o l v a t e d c o l l o i d , l i k e g e l a -
t i n e . 'When two im m is c ib le l i q u i d s a r e i n c o n t a c t , th e
b o u n d a ry s u r f a c e b e tw e e n them i s r e f e r r e d to a s th e l i q u i d -
l i q u i d i n t e r f a c e .
T h is i s n o t an a b s o l u t e l y d i s t i n c t l i n e b u t a r a t h e r
t h i n l a y e r .
1
W. C la y to n , "The P r e p a r a t i o n o f E m u ls io n s " ,
C h e m istry and I n d u s t r y , 51, 1 2 9 -3 9 (1932)
2
W. C la y to n , op. c i t . , p . 1 2 9 -3 9 .
3
Jo h n C. W are, The C h e m is try o f t h e C o l l o i d a l
S t a t e , p . 2 2 4 , ( 1 9 3 0 ) .
2
B u t i t i s to t h i s t h i n l a y e r a ro u n d th e o i l g l o b u l e , t h a t
t h e e m u ls io n owes i t s p r o p e r t i e s . ^ The l i q u i d w h ic h i s
b ro k e n i n t o g l o b u l e s i s te rm e d t h e d i s p e r s e d , i n s i d e o r
2
d i s c o n t i n u o u s p h a s e , w h ile t h e l i q u i d s u r r o u n d in g t h e
g l o b u l e s i s known a s th e d i s p e r s i n g m e d iu m ,3 o u t s i d e ,
o r c o n tin u o u s p h a s e . 4
From th e above d e f i n i t i o n s , i t d e v e lo p s t h a t , i n
o r d e r t o form 'a n e m u ls io n , t h e r e m ust b e p r e s e n t , two l i q u i d s
w h ich a r e i m m is c ib le . Such a n e m u ls io n w ould be fo rm ed
b y r e f l u x i n g t h e two im m is c ib le l i q u i d s f o r s e v e r a l h o u r s ,
b y s te a m d i s t i l l a t i o n o r by p o u r i n g a n a l c o h o l i c s o l u t i o n
o f one i n t o t h e o t h e r . Such a n e m u ls io n w ould b e te rm e d
a s im p le e m u ls io n . T hese e m u ls io n s a r e a lw a y s v e r y d i
l u t e , te m p o ra ry and a r e n o t v e r y s t a b l e . ^
■^Werner D u e c k e r, ”Our P r e s e n t Know ledge o f
E m u ls io n s ” . S p ic e M ill 50 2 4 3 6 -3 9 (1927)
^ B e lle Lowe, E x p e r im e n ta l C o o k e ry , p . 231 (1 9 3 2 )
3
W erner D u e c k e r, o p . c i t . , p . 2 4 3 6 -3 9
4
B e l l e Lowe, o p . c i t . , p . 231 .
5
J .C . R o b e r t s , ’ ’E m u ls io n s ” , C h e m is try and I n d u s t r y .
51 9 9 9 -1 0 0 0 (1 9 3 2 )
3
I n o r d e r t o p r e p a r e a s t a b l e e m u ls io n , a t h i r d su b
s t a n c e i s n e c e s s a r y and i s known a s an e m u lg e n t, a s t a b i
l i z e r o r a n e m u l s i f i e r . The f u n c t i o n o f t h i s a g e n t , b e
in g t o form a f i l m a ro u n d th e d r o p l e t s o f th e d i s p e r s e d
phase'?1 T hese e m u ls io n s a r e u s u a l l y fo rm ed b y v i o l e n t
a g i t a t i o n , r a n g i n g from s h a k in g b y hand f o r s m a ll q u a n t i t i e s
to u s i n g c o l l o i d m i l l s i n c o m m e rc ia l m a n u f a c tu r e . The
f o r m a tio n o f an e m u ls io n i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h i s e m u ls if y
i n g a g e n t h a s b e e n i n v e s t i g a t e d by num erous i n v e s t i g a t o r s ,
w ith t h e ad v an cem en t o f s e v e r a l t h e o r i e s o f e m u l s i f i c a t i o n ,
a l l o f w hich c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e f i e l d an d none o f w h ic h
seem t o be c o m p le te i n th e m s e lv e s . At t h i s p o i n t a few
o f t h e s e t h e o r i e s w i l l be m e n tio n e d and b r i e f l y d i s c u s s e d .
A ll o f t h e t h e o r i e s change from tim e a s r e s e a r c h on
e m u ls io n s c o n t i n u e s .
WareS h a s c l a s s i f i e d t h e t h e o r i e s f o r th e a c t i o n
o f e m u l s i f i e r s i n t o th e f o l l o w i n g g ro u p s . The f i r s t g ro u p
o f t h e o r i e s c la im s t h a t t h e r e i s a ch an g e i n th e i n t e r
f a c i a l t e n s i o n b e tw e e n th e two p h a s e s . The se c o n d g ro u p
^ B e l l e Lowe, E x p e r im e n ta l C o o k e ry » p . 231 (1 9 3 2 )
2
J o h n C. W are, The C h e m is try o f th e C o l l o i d a l
S t a t e , p . 229 (1 9 3 0 )
4
c la im s t h a t t h e v i s c o s i t y o f a t l e a s t one o f th e p h a s e s
i s a f f e c t e d , o r a v i s c o u s p r o t e c t i v e f i l m i s fo rm e d , and
t h e t h i r d g ro u p c la im s t h a t a p r o t e c t i n g f i l m i s fo rm ed
"by a b s o r b i n g m a t e r i a l a t th e i n t e r f a c e b e tw e e n th e d r o p
l e t s and t h e d i s p e r s i o n medium.
U nder t h e g ro u p s one and t h r e e o f t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
o f th e t h e o r i e s , i s th e a b s o r b e d f i l m and i n t e r f a c i a l
t e n s i o n t h e o r y . I t i s a c o m b in a tio n o f t h e s u r f a c e t e n s i o n
phenom ena i n v e s t i g a t e d b y Q u in c k e , H i l l y e r , Donnan and
P o t t s , an d th e a b s o r p t i o n f i l m phenom ena i n v e s t i g a t e d
b y B a n c r o f t , a s r e p o r t e d i n W a re .l
As h a s b e e n s a i d b e f o r e when two im m is c ib le l i q u i d s
a r e i n c o n t a c t , t h e b o u n d a ry s u r f a c e b e tw e e n them i s r e
f e r r e d t o , a s t h e l i q u i d - l i q u i d i n t e r f a c e . Now, a c c o r d
i n g t o t h e i n t e r f a c i a l t e n s i o n phenom ena, i f th e s u r f a c e
t e n s i o n s b e tw e e n th e two l i q u i d s a r e th e sam e, t h e r e w i l l
be no e m u ls io n . T h is seem s to b e t r u e o f two p u re l i q u i d s .
H ow ever, w ith th e a d d i t i o n o f an e m u l s i f y i n g a g e n t , t h e
c o n d i t i o n s a r e c h a n g e d . A c c o rd in g t o t h i s t h e o r y , th e
e m u l s i f y i n g h g e n t: i s a b s o rb e d b y t h e two p h a s e s o f th e
e m u ls io n a t th e i n t e r f a c e . The f a c t t h a t i t a i d s i n
e m u l s i f i c a t i o n i s , t h a t i t i s a b s o r b e d b y one o f t h e p h a s e s
t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t th a n th e o t h e r and t h u s r e d u c e s th e
Ijo h n 0. Ware, Chem istry o f th e C o llo id a l S ta te
pp. 2 3 0 -3 3 .
s u r f a c e t e n s i o n o f t h a t p h a se in w h ich i t i s m ost s o l u b l e .
T h is d i f f e r e n c e i n s u r f a c e t e n s i o n a t th e i n t e r f a c e g i v e s
r i s e t o th e f o r m a t i o n o f a p r o t e c t i v e f i l m a ro u n d th e
d i s p e r s e d p h a se whose s u r f a c e t e n s i o n h a s b e e n d e c r e a s e d
b y a d s o r p t i o n o f t h e e m u l s i f y i n g a g e n t . I n a l l e m u ls io n s ,
t h e d i s p e r s e d l i q u i d i s on th e s i d e o f th e f i l m h a v in g
t h e h i g h e r s u r f a c e t e n s i o n . 2 T h u s, th e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e
u n d e r l y i n g t h i s p h e o ry i s , t h a t th e e m u l s i f i e r lo w e r s
t h e s u r f a c e t e n s i o n o f one o f t h e p h a s e s , a t t h e i n t e r f a c e
th r o u g h a d s o r p t i o n , to su c h a n e x t e n t t h a t a s u f f i c i e n t l y ,
c o h e r e n t p r o t e c t i v e f i l m i s fo rm ed and t h u s s t a b i l i z e s th e
e m u ls io n . Such f i l m s have b e e n o b s e r v e d a n d t h e i r c o n te n t
rem oved a n d a n a ly z e d .'® R am sden, a s r e p o r t e d i n W a re ,^
p ro d u c e d v i s i b l e f i l m s o f S a p o n in an d c e r t a i n p r o t e i n s
a b o u t d r o p l e t s o f o i l i n w a t e r .
A n o th e r t h e o r y w hich i s a m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e p r e
c e d i n g o n e , i s known a s t h e O r i e n t e d Wedge T h e o ry . T h is
t h e o r y was b a s e d on t h e work done b y H a r k in s and L an g m u ir.
•^B elle Lowe, E x p e r im e n ta l C o o k e ry , p . 233 (1 9 3 2 )
^W.D. B a n c r o f t , and C.W. T u c k e r, "G ib b s on E m u ls i-
f i c a t i o n " , J . P h y s . Ohem. . 3 1 , 1 6 8 1 -9 2 (1 9 2 7 )
3Jo h n C. W are, The C h e m is try o f t h e C o l l o i d a l S t a t e ,
p . 233 (1 9 3 0 J”
^ Jo h n C. W are, The C h e m is try o f t h e C o l l o i d a l S t a t e ,
p . 233 (19301
6,
They p ro v e d t h a t t h e m o le c u le s o f t h e e m u l s i f i e r o r i e n t e d
th e m s e lv e s i n th e i n t e r f a c e "between t h e d i s p e r s e d an d con
t i n u o u s p h a s e s , fo rm in g a w edge, t h e c u r v a t u r e o f w h ic h ,
d e te r m i n e s t h e s i z e o f th e m o l e c u l e s .^ The m o le c u le s
o r i e n t a t e th e m s e lv e s a t t h e s u r f a c e a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r
n e g a t i v e an d p o s i t i v e p a r t s , i n su c h a way a s to g iv e th e
3
maximum l o w e r in g o f s u r f a c e e n e r g y . The d e c r e a s e i n
f r e e e n e rg y when a l i q u i d comes i n t o c o n t a c t w ith a p o l a r
l i q u i d l i k e w a t e r , d e p e n d s e s s e n t i a l l y upon t h e m ost a c t i v e
o r p o l a r g ro u p p r e s e n t i n t h e m o le c u le and up on th e s i z e
an d sh a p e o f t h e m o le c u le . E x p e rim e n ts show t h a t th e
p r e s e n c e o f su c h a c t i v e p o l a r g ro u p s i n a l i q u i d i s i n
t i m a t e l y c o n n e c te d w ith i t s s o l u b i l i t y i n w a te r .
The v i s c o s i t y t h e o r y r e g a r d i n g e m u ls io n s i s b a s e d
on i n v e s t i g a t i o n s made by H i l l y e r . T h is t h e o r y e x p l a i n s
e m u l s i f i c a t i o n th r o u g h th e p r o p e r t y known a s v i s c o s i t y .
I t p ro p o u n d s t h a t v i s c o s i t y i s an a i d t o e m u l s i f i c a t i o n
t h r o u g h i t s h i n d r a n c e to t h e c o a le s c e n c e o f t h e d i s p e r s e d
d r o p l e t s , r a t h e r th a n a s an a c t u a l a i d t o d i s p e r s i o n .
■^Belle Lowe, E x p e r im e n ta l C ookery p . 333 (1 9 3 2 )
2
W.D. H a r k in s and E ;B ; K e i th , "The O r i e n t e d , Wedge
T h eo ry o f E m u lsio n s an d th e I n v e r s i o n o f E m u lsio n s"
S c ie n c e , 59 4 6 3 -7 (1 9 2 4 )
3
J o h n C. W are, The C h e m is try o f th e C o l l o i d a l S t a t e
p . 332 ( 1 9 3 0 T ”
7
T h is i s shown i n th e f o l l o w i n g q u o t a t i o n o f H i l l y e r , a s r e
p o r t e d by W a re ,1 " E m u l s i f i c a t i o n i s due l a r g e l y t o th e
s m a ll s u r f a c e t e n s i o n b e tw e e n o i l and an e m u l s i f y i n g a g e n t ,
w h ic h a llo w s th e e m u l s i f y i n g a g e n t t o be s p r e a d o u t i n t o
t h i s f i l m s e p a r a t i n g o i l d r o p l e t s . The s u r f a c e t e n s i o n
i s n o t s t r o n g en ough t o w ith d ra w th e f i l m from b e tw e e n
t h e d r o p l e t s e x c e p t s lo w ly , and i f th e e m u l s i f y i n g a g e n t
h a s g r e a t i n t e r n a l v i s c o s i t y , th e t h i n n i n g o f th e f i l m i s
so s lo w t h a t t h e e m u ls io n i s p e r m a n e n t."
A n o th e r t h e o r y an d one w h ich i s no l o n g e r c o n s i d e r e d
v a l i d , i s known a s th e p h a se -v o lu m e t h e o r y and was a d v an c
e d b y O s tw a ld . I t i s b a s e d on th e p r i n c i p l e t h a t th e
maximum sp a c e w h ic h s m a ll s p h e r i c a l d r o p l e t s c a n o ccu py
when p a c k e d c l o s e l y t o g e t h e r , i s , a b o u t 74$ o f th e t o t a l
v o lu m e . A c c o rd in g t o O stw a ld t h e maximum am ount o f d i s
p e r s e d l i q u i d i n t h e c o n tin u o u s p h a s e c o u ld n o t e x c e e d
74$. As so o n a s t h i s maximum was e x c e e d e d , a r e v e r s a l
w ould o c c u r and th e c o n tin u o u s p h a s e w ould becom e t h e d i s
p e r s e d p h a s e an d v i c e v e r s a . T h is p o i n t i s c a l l e d th e
c r i t i c a l i n v e r s i o n p o i n t , c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f e a c h e m u l s i o n .^
T h is t h e o r y was n o t v e r y s a t i s f a c t o r y s i n c e , i n th e f i r s t
p l a c e , t h e d i s p e r s e d p h a se d o e s n o t re m a in r i g i d , i n s h a p e ,
b u t t h e s p h e r e s f l a t t e n o u t an d a r e n o t o f t h e same s i z e .
The t h e o r y c a n n o t e x p l a i n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f o v e r 9 0 $ .
■^John 0 . W are, The C h e m is try o f t h e C o l l o i d a l S t a t e
p . 332 (19301------------------------------------------------------------------
2
J o h n C. W are, The C h e m is try o f th e C o l l o i d a l S t a t e
p . 234 (1 9 3 0 )------------------------- " -------------------------------
3
J o h n C. W are, o p . c i t . , p . 234.
8
F i s c h e r a d v a n c e d w hat i s known a s t h e h y d r a t i o n
t h e o r y . T h is t h e o r y p re su m e s t h a t th e e m u l s i f y i n g a g e n t
fo rm s a h y d r a t i o n compound w ith t h e c o n tin u o u s p h a s e .
F o r e x a m p le , a n o i l i n w a te r e m u ls io n w ould more c o r r e c t l y
b e te r m e d , a n " o i l - i n - h y d r a t e d - c o l l o i d . 111
Among th e t h e o r i e s o f e m u l s i f i c a t i o n i s a new er
t h e o r y s u g g e s te d by 0 . H. M. R o b e r t s . ^ He s u g g e s t s
t h a t e m u l s i f i c a t i o n s i s a m a t t e r o f p o l a r m o le c u le s and
i o n i c a t t r a c t i o n . A c c o rd in g t o t h i s t h e o r y , a t t h e moment
o f f o r m a tio n o f a n i n t e r f a c e , th e e l e c t r o k i n e t i c p o t e n t i a l s
o f t h e m o le c u le s on b o th s i d e s o f th e i n t e r f a c e a r e e q u a l ,
n a m e ly , z e r o . B ut im m e d ia te ly th e io n s an d m o le c u le s
i n v o lv e d b e g in t o move to w a rd t h e i n t e r f a c e , b u t t h e i o n s
a r r i v e f i r s t due t o t h e i r h i g h e r m o b i l i t i e s . The io n s
o f h i g h e r p o l a r i t y , t e n d to a c c u m u la te i n th e i n t e r f a c e
o f t h e o i l s i d e , w h ile t h e i o n s o f low p o l a r i t y t e n d t o
a c c u m u la te i n th e i n t e r f a c e o f th e w a te r s i d e . From t h i s ,
i t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e s t a b i l i t y o f th e e m u ls io n fo rm e d , i s
due t o t h e io n a b s o r p t i o n fro m th e e x t e r n a l p h a s e , m o d if ie d
by t h e e f f e c t o f io n s and m o le c u la r a b s o r p t i o n on th e
i n n e r , o r o i l s i d e o f th e i n t e r f a c e .
1
Jo h n C .W are, o p . c i t > , p . 234.
2
G.H.M. R o b e r t s , “A Hew T h eo ry o f I m u l s i o n s " ,
J . o f P h y s . Ohem. 36 3 0 8 7 -1 0 7 (1 9 3 2 )
9
E m u lsio n s may be c l a s s i f i e d i n t o two b i g c l a s s e s ,
n a m e ly , s im p le e m u ls io n s and co m p lex em u lsio n s.'* ' S im ple
e m u ls io n s a r e form ed from two l i q u i d s w it h o u t th e a d d i t i o n
o f a n y f o r e i g n s u b s t a n c e . I n t h i s c l a s s , o n ly th e o i l
o
i n w a te r e m u ls io n s a r e known. T h ese e m u ls io n s a r e a lw a y s
d i l u t e an d f r e q u e n t l y u n s t a b l e . The s i z e o f th e g l o b u l e s
com es u n d e r th e c l a s s o f m ic r o b e s , b e in g a b o u t o . l . ^ i . The
g l o b u l e s a r e n e g a t i v e l y c h a r g e d and e x h i b i t t h e phenom ena
o f c a t a p h o r e s i s an d B row nian Movement.
Com plex e m u ls io n s a r e m ore s t a b l e a n d more c o n c e n t r a t
e d . They may be one o f t h e two t y p e s , e i t h e r o i l - i n - w a t e r .
I n t h i s w ork, th e te rm o i l i n c l u d e s o i l o f any k in d an d
4
o r g a n i c s u b s t a n c e s . By o i l - i n - w a t e r e m u ls io n s i s m eant
t h a t e m u ls io n i n w h ich th e o i l g l o b u l e s a r e d i s p e r s e d i n
th e c o n tin u o u s w a te r p h a s e . W hereas i n a w a t e r - i n - o i l
e m u ls io n th e w a te r g l o b u le s a r e d i s p e r s e d i n th e c o n tin u o u s
o i l p h a s e . I n t h e s e com plex e m u ls io n s , t h e p r e s e n c e o f a
t h i r d s u b s ta n c e , known a s th e e m u l s i f i e r , i s n e c e s s a r y t o
^■J.C. R o b e r t s , " E m u ls io n s ’ ' , Chem .and I n d . 51,
9 9 9 -1 0 0 0 (1932)
2
B e l l e Lowe, E x p e r im e n ta l C o o k e ry , p . 332 (1 9 3 2 )
3
J . C . R o b e r t s , "E m ulsions'} Chem. a n d I n d . 51,
9 9 9 -1 0 0 0 L (1932)
4
W . C layton , "P reparation o f E m ulsions", Chem.
and Ind. 51 129-139 (1933)
10
s t a b i l i z e th e e m u ls io n . The ty p e o f e m u ls io n t h a t i s
fo rm e d , t h a t i s , o i l - i n - w a t e r o r w a t e r - i n - o i l , i s d e p e n d e n t
on t h e n a t u r e o f t h e e m u l s i f y i n g a g e n t , an d t h e n a t u r e o f
th e e l e c t r o l y t e .
T h e re a r e two ty p e s o f e m u l s i f i e r s , t h e s o l u b l e and
t h e i n s o l u b l e , t h e l a t t e r b e i n g t h e l e s s i m p o r t a n t .
K i e s e l g u h r , pum ice p o w d er, la m p b la c k , e t c . , b e in g u s e d a s
1
i n s o l u b l e e m u l s i f i e r s . The s o l u b l e e m u l s i f i e r s a r e b y
f a r , th e m ost i m p o r t a n t . They a r e c o l l o i d a l i n n a t u r e
an d o f two t y p e s : t h o s e w h ich g iv e o i l - i n - w a t e r e m u ls io n s
an d t h o s e w hich g iv e w a t e r - i n - o i l e m u ls io n s . I n g e n e r a l ,
e m u l s i f y i n g a g e n t s w hich a r e s o l u b l e i n w a te r a r e a d s o r b e d
on t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e o i l , an d t h e r e f o r e fo rm an e m u ls io n
o f o i l i n w a te r w h e re a s a g e n t s w h ich a r e s o l u b l e i n o i l
a r e aldsorbed on th e s u r f a c e o f t h e w a te r a n d t h e r e f o r e fo rm
2
e m u ls io n s o f t h e w a t e r - i n - o i l t y p e . The m ost i n p o r t a n t
e m u l s i f l e r s h t h a t g iv e o i l - i n - w a t e r e m u ls io n s a r e , gum-
a c a c i a , g u m - tr a g a c a n th , i r i s h m o ss, s a p o n i n s , so a p s and p r o
t e i n s , e a c h o f w h ich h a s i t s p a r t i c u l a r a d v a n ta g e o r
d i s a d v a n t a g e . E m u l s i f i e r s w h ich g iv e r i s e t o w a t e r - i n -
o i l e m u ls io n s a r e m o s tly o f im p o rta n c e i n p h a rm a cy . They
a r e o f v a lu e i n i n c o r p o r a t i n g a l a r g e q u a n t i t y o f an a q u e o u s
“ SiT. O la y to n , op. c i t . , p . 129 -1 3 9 (1932)
2
D.M.Gkray, "Chemical A sp ects o f Mayonnaise"
Spice M ill 50 350-361 (1927)
11
medium i n t o an o i l y o r f a t t y o in tm e n t b a s e . T hose commonly
u s e d a r e l a n o l i n e and o t h e r w axes and so m e tim es c a lc iu m
s o a p s .^
The f o l l o w i n g m eth o d s o f d e te r m i n i n g th e ty p e o f
2
e m u ls io n i s t a k e n fro m Lowe.
MEANS OF DETERMINING THE TYPE OF EMULSION
I . D rop d i l u t i o n ( C la y to n )
P l a c e p o r t i o n s o f t h e e m u ls io n s i t a t e s t t u b e . To
one t e s t t u b e , add a s m a ll p o r t i o n o f o i l and sh a k e
g e n t l y . I f t h e o i l and e m u ls io n b l e n d t o g e t h e r , th e
e m u ls io n i s a w a te r d i s p e r s e d - i n - o i l t y p e .
To a se c o n d t e s t tu b e c o n t a i n i n g a p o r t i o n o f t h e
e m u ls io n , a d d a s m a ll am ount o f w a te r an d sh a k e g e n t l y .
I f t h e e m u ls io n and w a te r b le n d u p o n s h a k in g , th e
e m u ls io n i s a n o i l - d i s p e r s e d - i n - w a t e r t y p e .
An a d d ed p o r t i o n o f t h e o u t s i d e p h a se w i l l b le n d w ith
t h e e m u ls io n when sh a k e n g e n t l y , b u t a n added p o r t i o n
o f t h e i n s i d e p h a s e w i l l n o t b le n d w it h o u t w ork b e
in g done t o d i s p e r s e i t .
I I . D rop d i l u t i o n u s e d w ith t h e m ic r o s c o p e .
To a s m a ll p o r t i o n o f t h e e m u ls io n p l a c e d on a s l i d e
ad d a d ro p o f w a te r w i t h a p i n p o i n t , and s t i r
s l i g h t l y . I f t h e w a te r b l e n d s w ith t h e e m u ls io n ,
i t i s an o i l - i n - w a t e r e m u ls io n . B ut i f o i l b l e n d s
w ith th e o u t s i d e p h a s e , i t i s a w a t e r - i n - o i l e m u ls io n .
I I I . Use o f Sudan I I I o r S c h a r l a c h R r e d d y e s s o l u b l e i n
o i l b u t n o t i n w a te r .
A s m a ll p o r t i o n o f th e f i n e l y po w d ered dye i s d u s t e d
o v e r th e s u r f a c e o f t h e e m u ls io n . I f o i l i s th e
C la y to n , " P r e p a r a t i o n o f E m u ls io n s " , Chem. an d
I n d . 51 350-3 61 (1 937)
o
B e l l e Lowe, E x p e r im e n ta l C o o k e ry , p . 335 (1 9 3 3 )
13
e x t e r n a l p h a s e , t h e c o l o r g r a d u a l l y s p r e a d s th r o u g h o u t
t h e e m u ls io n . B ut i f w a te r i s th e e x t e r n a l p h a s e ,
t h e c o l o r d o e s n o t s p r e a d o u t b u t i s c o n f in e d t o t h e
o i l w ith w h ic h i t comes i n c o n t a c t on t h e s u r f a c e .
IV . Use o f d y e s w ith t h e m ic ro s c o p e .
I f t h e o i l i s d y ed r e d , a r e d f i e l d w ith c l e a r g lo b
u l e s i n d i c a t e s a w a t e r - i n - o i l e m u ls io n . Red g l p b u l e s
i n a c l e a r f i e l d show an o i l - i n - w a t e r e m u ls io n .
V. I f th e e m u ls io n w i l l c o n d u c t e l e c t r i c i t y , i t i s a n
o i l - i n - w a t e r ty p e o f e m u ls io n . I f n o t , i t i s o f
t h e w a t e r - i n - o i l t y p e . 1
^D.M. Gray, "Chemical A sp ects o f M ayonnaise."
S pice M ill 50 350-361 (1927)
1 3
SECTION I I
MAYONNAISE AS AN EMULSION
The p r o d u c t i o n o f m a y o n n a ise i s a p ro b le m u p o n w h ich
c o n s i d e r a b l e r e s e a r c h h a s b e e n d o n e . T h ere a r e , h o w e v e r,
many a s p e c t s o f t h e p ro b le m w h ic h h i n d e r th e p r o d u c t i o n o f
a more d e s i r a b l e p r o d u c t . Much s tu d y i s s t i l l n e c e s s a r y o
b e f o r e an e n t i r e l y s a t i s f a c t o r y p r o d u c t c a n be m a n u f a c tu r e d .
M ayonnaise comes u n d e r t h e c l a s s o f s u b s t a n c e s known
a s e m u ls io n s . The g e n e r a l t y p e s and c o n d i t i o n s n e c e s s a r y
f o r t h e f o r m a tio n o f e m u ls io n s h a s b e e n p r e v i o u s l y d i s c u s s e d ,
so a t t h i s p o i n t m ay o n n a ise a s a n e m u ls io n w i l l be d i s c u s s e d .
1 2 3 4
M ayonnaise i s an o i l in w a te r ty p e o f e m u ls io n : *
The t i n y d r o p l e t s o f o i l a r e e a c h s u rr o u n d e d w ith a t h i n mem
b r a n e o f th e e m u l s i f y i n g a g e n t , w h ic h k e e p s th e d r o p l e t s from
c o a l e s c i n g and fo r m in g l a r g e r d r o p s and f i n a l l y s e p a r a t i n g
a s a l a y e r o f S i l . T hese d r o p s a r e s u s p e n d e d i n t h e w a te r
p h a s e w h ich i s m a in ly d e r i v e d from t h e v i n e g a r .
^ B e lle Lowe, E x p e r im e n ta l C o o k ery , p . 241 (1 9 3 3 )
2
D.M. G ra y , “C h em ical A s p e c ts o f M a y o n n a is e ."
S p ic e M ill 50 350-361 (1927)
3
R .O . B ro o k s , "The C h e m is try o f M ayon naise e t c . "
S p ic e M i l l 50 1 5 6 8 -6 9 (1927)
A
P r o f . M ark e, " R e s e a rc h i n t o M a n u fa c tu re o f
M a y o n n a is e " , S p ic e M ill 50 756-58 (1 927)
14
The th e o r y o f th e e m u l s i f i c a t i o n o f m a y o n n a ise i s
som ewhat a s fo llo w s:^ "
The e m u l s i f y i n g a g e n t w ith th e am ount o f w a te r
n e c e s s a r y t o d i s s o l v e i t , o r m ore w a te r i f d e s i r e d '* c i s
p l a c e d i n th e m ix e r o r a g i t a t o r . The o i l w h ic h i s a d d ed
s lo w ly w ith s t i r r i n g , i s b r o k e n up i n t o d r o p l e t s . T hese
d r o p l e t s im m e d ia te ly become c o a t e d w ith a f i l m o f th e
e m u l s i f y i n g a g e n t , a s egg y o l k , o r w h a te v e r i s u s e d . T h is
f i l m o f egg y o lk k e e p s th e d r o p l e t s o f o i l from c o a l e s c i n g
when th e y come in c o n t a c t w ith e a c h o t h e r , an d t h u s make
t h e e m u ls io n p e rm a n e n t.
I t i s c la im e d t h a t t h e e g g i s a d s o r b e d on th e s u r
f a c e o f th e o i l d r o p l e t s . The eg g d o e s n o t d i s s o l v e i n th e
o i l d r o p l e t s b u t c o n d e n s e s o r c o n c e n t r a t e s on t h e s u r f a c e
t o su c h an e x t e n t t h a t a p r o t e c t i n g f i l m i s form ed a ro u n d
th e o i l d r o p l e t .
C e r t a i n s u b s ta n c e s a d d ed to m ay o n n a ise h a v e a t e n
d e n c y to c o n c e n t r a t e more e g g on t h e s u r f a c e o f th e o i l ,
o r c h e m ic a lly s p e a k in g th e y i n c r e a s e th e a d s o r p t i o n o f t h e
egg on t h e o i l an d t h e egg b e n d s a ro u n d i t . T h is c a u s e s
t h e e m u ls io n to be t h i c k e r and more p e rm a n e n t due t o t h e
f i l m fo rm e d . O th e r s u b s ta n c e s d e c r e a s e th e a d s o r p t i o n and
t h r u t h e b e n d in g te n d e n c y th e e m u ls io n i s made t h i n n e r and
. ^D.M. Gray, "Chemical A spects o f Mayonnaise" Spice
M ill 50 pp. 350-361 (1927)
15
l e s s p e rm a n e n t s i n c e t h e e g g f i l m d o e s n o t re m a in i n t a c t .
The a d d i t i o n o f v i n e g a r to m ay o n n a ise h a s t h e l a t t e r e f f e c t ,
s i n c e i t c a u s e s t h e d r o p l e t s o f o i l to he f a r t h e r a p a r t
hy f lo w in g i n b e tw e e n them . The o i l d r o p l e t s a r e o f no
d e f i n i t e s i z e , b u t when th e y r u b one a n o t h e r c l o s e l y , th e y
h a v e a te n d e n c y to h a n g t o g e t h e r . The a d d i t i o n o f s a l t ,
m u s ta r d , p a p r i k a an d p e p p e r , g iv e r i s e t o d i f f e r e n t r e s u l t s , 1
a c c o r d i n g t o e m u l s i f i e r u s e d and c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t h e sub
s t a n c e s a d d e d . B ut i n g e n e r a l i t may b e s a i d t h a t t h e s e
s u b s t a n c e s have a s t a b i l i z i n g e f f e c t .
In m a y o n n a ise m a n u f a c tu re i t i s n o t o n ly n e c e s s a r y
t o make a t a s t y p r o d u c t , b u t i n a d d i t i o n , one w hich i s a
s t a b l e e m u lsio n w h ic h c an s t a n d e x tre m e s o f t e m p e r a tu r e and
a g i t a t i o n w hich w ould c a u se i t t o b r e a k . The d i s c u s s i o n
w hich f o l lo w s d e a l s w ith th e f a c t o r s i n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f
a m a y o n n a is e , w h ic h , i f n o t o b s e r v e d , may c a u se th e e m u ls io n
t o b r e a k . T hese f a c t o r s a r e : ^
a . K in d s o f u t e n s i l s u s e d
b . M ethods o f m ix ih g
c . Q u a n t it y o f o i l a d d ed f i r s t
d . K ind o f o i l u s e d
e . M ethod o f a d d in g v i n e g a r
f . E m u l s i f i e r s u s e d
g . K ind o f e g g s u s e d
h . T e m p e ra tu re
i . Amount o f v i n e g a r and s p i c e u s e d .
^ e l l e Lowe, E x p e r im e n ta l C o o k e ry , p . 245 (1 9 3 3 )
2
B e lle Lowe, Experimental Cookery, p. 240 (1932)
IS
(a)
The ty p e o f u t e n s i l u s e d o f c o u r s e d e p e n d s on t h e
q u a n t i t y o f m ay o n n a ise to be m ade. When i t i s made i n t h e
hom e, a s m a ll bow l a n d a b e a t e r w hich c an come i n t o c o n t a c t
w ith a l l t h e i n g r e d i e n t s i s d e s i r a b l e . T h is p r i n c i p l e i s
c a r r i e d o u t i n th e c o m m erc ial p r o d u c t i o n o f m ay o n n aise
th r o u g h th e u s e o f c o l l o i d m i l l s and h o m o g e n iz e rs . I n so
f a r a s p o s s i b l e , m e ta l u t e n s i l s s h o u ld be a v o id e d . The
m e ta ls w h ic h a r e e s p e c i a l l y d e t r i m e n t a l a r e i r o n and c o p p e r .^
I t h a s b e e n fo u n d t h a t th e p r e s e n c e o f a s m a ll am ount o f
i r o n i n a n o i l y fo o d p r o d u c t i n c r e a s e s th e p r o c e s s o f r a n -
o
c i d i t y o f th e p r o d u c t . The a c i d i s a l s o fo u n d to r e a c t
w ith any c o p p e r o r i r o n w hich m ig h t come i n c o n t a c t w i t h
th e p r o d u c t i n th e p r o c e s s o f f o r m a t io n , and th u s i n c r e a s e
•z
th e te n d e n c y to w a rd s p o i l a g e . I t i s s u g g e s te d t h a t t i n
l i n e d u t e n s i l s be u s e d . T in an d alum inum h av e no i l l
e f f e c t s , b u t su c h u t e n s i l s s h o u ld b e r e l i n e d f r e q u e n t l y .
A lso t h a t , i f e n am el w are i s u s e d i t s h o u ld be f r e q u e n t l y
r e - e n a m e le d s i n c e t h e a c i d w ould d i s s o l v e o u t th e i r o n and
•'•A lbert K .E p s t e in , ’ ’The E f f e c t o f M e ta ls on th e
K eep in g Q u a l i t i e s an d N u t r i t i o n a l V a lu e s o f Mayon
n a i s e a n d S a la d D r e s s i n g . " S p ic e M ill 52 - 1 6 9 6 -9 7
1939.
2
A l b e r t K. E p s t e i n , "The E f f e c t o f M e ta ls on th e
K eep in g Q u a l i t i e s and N u t r i t i o n a l V a lu e s o f Mayon
n a i s e an d S a la d D r e s s i n g ." S p ic e M i l l 53 - 1 6 9 6 -9 7
3
A l b e r t K. E p s t e i n , "The E f f e c t o f M e ta ls on th e
K eep in g Q u a l i t i e s and N u t r i t i o n a l V a lu e s o f Mayon
n a i s e an d S a la d D r e s s i n g . " S p ic e M i l l 52 - 1 6 9 6 -9 7
17
c o p p e r from th e m e ta l u n d e r n e a t h . B ra s s o f c o u rs e i s a l s o
d e t r i m e n t a l to t h e f o r m a tio n o f m ay o n n aise s i n c e i t i s an
a l l o y o f c o p p e r, ^ h e o i l m e a s u r e rs and v a l v e s s h o u ld h e p r e
f e r a b l y o f g l a s s o r n o n - c o r r o d a b le m e ta l a n d s h o u ld be
c le a n e d an d d r i e d e v e r y d a y .
^ i h e r e a r e two ty p e s o f m ix in g : c o n tin u o u s and
i n t e r m i t t e n t . B o th h a v e b e e n s t u d i e s and b o t h h av e b e e n
fo u n d to g iv e good r e s u l t s . C o n tin u o u s b e a t i n g w ith a m o to r-
d r i v e n b e a t e r , h a s b e e n fo u n d t o g iv e a s .g o o d r e s u l t s a s
i n t e r m i t t e n t b e a t i n g . ^ H ow ever, i n t e r m i t t e n t b e a t i n g h a s
b e e n shown i n some c a s e s to p ro d u c e e m u l s i f i c a t i o n much
more r a p i d l y th a n c o n tin u o u s b e a t i n g ; s i n c e tim e i s g iv e n
f o r t h e p a r t i c l e s o f th e e m u ls io n medium to r e u n i t e d u r i n g
2
t h e p e r i o d o f r e s t . I t h a s b e e n fo u n d t h a t t h e r e i s l i t t l e
d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e s i z e o f th e o i l p a r t i c l e s and s t a b i l i t y
o f t h e e m u ls io n fo rm ed i n c o n tin u o u s an d i n i n t e r m i t t e n t
3
b e a t i n g .
Too v i o l e n t a g i t a t i o n an d to o s l i g h t a g i t a t i o n b o t h
c a u s e d e - e m u l s i f i c a t i o n . ^ - ’ T h is a g a in i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f
t h e a p p a r a t u s i n v o lv e d .
■^Belle Lowe, E x p e r im e n ta l C o o k e ry , p . 341 (1 9 3 3 )
2
P r o f . M a rk e , " R e s e a rc h i n t o M a n u fa c tu re o f Mayon
n a is e " , S p ic e M ill 50 75 6-58 (1 9 3 7 )
3
B e l l e Lowe, o p . c i t . p . 241
4
D.M, Gray, "Chemical A spects o f Mayonnaise" Spice
M ill 50 350-61 (1927) -----
18
(o)
The q u a n t i t y o f o i l t h a t may h e a d d ed to e g g y o l k
a t f i r s t i s o f c o n s i d e r a b l e im p o r ta n c e , th o u g h th e f a c t o r
i s d e p e n d e n t on s e v e r a l o t h e r s , n a m e ly : com bined volum e
o f e g g y o lk and v i n e g a r , t e m p e r a t u r e o f i n g r e d i e n t s and
o t h e r f a c t o r s . I f t h e w rong p r o p o r t i o n o f o i l , w a te r a n d
e g g o r e m u l s i f y i n g a g e n t a r e u s e d , th e e m u ls io n w i l l b r e a k .
F o r a p e rm a n e n t e m u ls io n o f t h e s e t h r e e i n g r e d i e n t s , t h e r e
seem s t o be a c e r t a i n d e f i n i t e p r o p o r t i o n f o r e a c h o n e ,
w hich c a n be v a r i e d o n ly b e tw e e n f a i r l y n a rro w l i m i t s an d
s t i l l m a i n t a i n a p e rm a n e n t e m u ls io n . I t i s im p o s s ib le
to g iv e e x a c t o r e v e n a p p ro x im a te r a t i o n o f o i l , w a te r and
eg g w h ic h w i l l h o ld f o r a l l k in d s o f m ix t u r e s o f m a y o n n a is e s ,
b e c a u s e t h e k in d o f o i l , th e c o n d i t i o n o f t h e egg o r o t h e r
e m u l s i f y i n g a g e n t , th e p r e s e n c e o r a b s e n c e and c h a r a c t e r o f
t h i c k e n i n g m a t e r i a l s i f any a r e u s e d , and many o t h e r f a c t o r s
make e a c h c a s e a s p e c i a l c a s e , f o r w h ich no g e n e r a l r u l e can
be g i v e n .
I t h a s b e e n s a i d t h a t m ay o n n a ise i s fo rm ed more r e a d
i l y i f th e q u a n t i t y o f o i l a d d e d a t f i r s t i s s m a l l ,* 5 Ac-
1
c d o r d in g to - R o b in s o n i f th e o i l i s a d d ed to o r a p i d l y , t h e o i l
■^D.M. G ray , C h em ical A s p e c ts o f M ayonn aise"
S p ic e M i l l 50 3 5 0 -6 1 (1 9 2 ?)
2
B e lle Lowe, Experimental Cookery, p. 241 (1932)
19
1 2
p h a s e may u n i t e and. th u s "break th e e m u ls io n fo rm ed .
Of c o u r s e t h e rem edy f o r t h i s i s t o add th e o i l s lo w ly ,
d e t e r m i n i n g by e x p e r i e n c e th e maximum s p e e d a t w h ich i t c a n
be a d d e d t o g iv e a p e rm a n en t e m u ls io n .
U )
A n o th e r im p o r ta n t f a c t o r i n m ay o n n a ise m a n u fa c tu re
i s th e k in d o f o i l u s e d . I t i s w e ll known t h a t t h e r e i s a
d i f f e r e n c e i n th e e a s e i n w h ic h o i l s w i l l fo rm e m u ls io n s
w ith w a t e r . T h u s, c o t t o n s e e d o i l e m u l s i f i e s and fo rm s a
s t i f f e m u ls io n q u i c k e r th a n o l i v e o i l . 1 ' I n v e s t i g a t i o n s
have shown th e f o l l o w i n g am ounts o f o i l t h a t c a n be e m u l s i -
4
f i e d i n 1 5 .5 g. e g g y o lk .
P u re I t a l i a n o l i v e o i l 296 g.
O a l i f o r n i a n o l i v e o i l 344 g .
S p a n is h o l i v e o i l 441 g.
F re n c h o l i v e o i l 450 g .
M azo la 399 g .
W esson o i l 432 g .
T h is f a c t may be due to s e v e r a l f a c t o r s i - f c
S.K . R o b in s o n , " P r a c t i c e i n M ayonnaise M a n u f a c tu r e " ,
S p io e M ill 50 35 0-61 (1927)
2
D.M. G ra y , "C h em ical A s p e c ts o f M a y o n n a ise ",
S p ic e M i l l 50 op . c i t .
3
D av id W esson, " O il t h e Most I m p o r ta n t P a r t o f
M a y o n n a is e ." S p ic e M i l l 52 p . 7 4 4 -4 6 (1 9 2 9 )
4B e l l e Lowe, E x p e r im e n ta l C o o k e ry , p . 242 (1 9 3 2 )
5
D avid W esson, " O il t h e Most I m p o r ta n t P a r t o f
M a y o n n a is e ." S p ic e M i l l 52 p . 7 4 4 -4 6 (1929)
20
may be due t o i m p u r i t i e s , o r t o th e u n s a p o n i f i a b l e m a t t e r ,
p h y t o s t e r o l , w hich h a s a m arked a f f i n i t y f o r w a te r . O th e r
o i l s c o n t a i n l e c i t h i n b o d i e s , c h e m ic a lly a l l i e d t o th e
l e c i t h i n i n egg y o l k . T h ere i s a l s o th e m a t t e r o f t h e
d i f f e r e n c e in c h e m ic a l c o m p o s itio n o f th e m ixed g l y c e r i d e s
co m p o sin g th e v a r i o u s o i l s . T h is l a s t f a c t o r i s som ew hat
ta k e n c a r e o f i n w h at i s known a s a " w i n t e r i n g p r o c e s s " in
w h ich t h e r e f i n e d o i l i s s u b j e c t e d to low t e m p e r a t u r e s w hich
c a u se t h e s t e a r i n e s t o c r y s t a l l i z e o u t . T h is p r o c e s s i s
n e c e s s a r y f o r o i l s o f h ig h s t e a r i n e c o n te n t i f th e y a r e to
be u s e d f o r m a y o n n a is e , s i n c e th e t e m p e r a t u r e s to w h ich
m a y o n n a is e s a re s u b j e c t e d a r e lo w e r th a n t h e te m p e r a t u r e a t
w h ic h t h e s t e a r i n e c r y s t a l l i z e s o u t .
S ta n d a r d s f o r o i l to be u s e d f o r m ay o n n a ise a r e a s
f o l l o w s : 1
1 . I t s h a l l com ply w i t h th e r u l e s a n d r e g u l a t i o n s
o f th e N.Y. p ro d u c e e x c h a n g e .
2 . I t s h a l l be u n a d u l t e r a t e d e x c e p t when m o d if ie d
by g o v e rn m e n t a u t h o r i t y .
3. I t s h a l l n o t be d a r k e r th a n th e com bined g l a s s e s
o f 35 y e ll o w and 7 .6 r e d , n o r l i g h t e r th a n th e
com bined g l a s s o f 35 y e llo w an d 5 .5 r e d o f th e
lo v ib o n d c o l o r s c a l e . A r e l a t i v e l y d a r k o i l i s
b e s t .
4 . I t s h a l l be b r i l l i a n t , f r e e from w a te r and
s e t t l i n g s and sw e e t i n o d o r an d f l a v o r . A b la n d
and t a s t e l e s s o i l i s b e s t .
R o s a l in g U. U o r r i s , " S t a n d a r d i z a t i o n o f O i l f o r
M a y o n n a is e ." S p ic e M i l l 51 p . 1 0 6 8 -7 0 (1 928)
21
5. I t s h a l l s t a n d lim p e d f o r 5 h o u r s a t th e f o l lo w
in g t e m p e r a t u r e ; f o r w i n t e r c o t t o n s e e d o i l , 32 °F ;
f o r c o rn o i l , 3 2 -2 7 ° F ; f o r sesam e o i l , 2 1 -2 5 ° F .
6 . I t s h a l l n o t c o n t a i n o v e r 1 $ f r e e f a t t y a c i d a s
o l e i c a c i d , w ith t h e s t a n d a r d s e t f o r .0 5 $ .
7. I t s h a l l g iv e a n e g a t i v e K r e i s t e s t .
(e )
T h e re a r e t h r e e ways i n w h ic h t h e v i n e g a r may h e
a d d e d . 1 I t may he a d d ed t o th e eg g y o lk a l t e r n a t e l y w ith
t h e o i l , i t may h e add ed a f t e r c o n s i d e r a b l e o i l i s a d d ed to
t h e e g g y o l k , o r b e f o r e an y o i l i s a d d e d . I f v i n e g a r i s
a d d ed b e f o r e th e a d d i t i o n o f o i l , l a r g e r am ounts o f o i l may
he a d d ed from th e b e g in n i n g an d th e m ay o n n aise made more
r a p i d l y . The s i z e o f th e o i l p a r t i c l e s , t h a t a r e f i r s t
e m u l s i f i e d i n t h i s m anner a r e q u i t e l a r g e , h u t d e c r e a s e i n
s i z e on e a c h f u r t h e r a d d i t i o n o f o i l , an d t h e m ay o n n a ise b e
comes more s t i f f . H ow ever, when th e same p r o p o r t i o n o f egg
y o l k , o i l a n d v i n e g a r a r e u s e d an d o t h e r c o n d i t i o n s s t a n d a r d
i z e d , th e s i z e o f t h e o i l g l o b u l e s i n th e f i n i s h e d m ay o n n a ise
i s a b o u t th e same no m a t t e r when t h e v i n e g a r i s a d d e d .
( f )
Among t h e e m u l s i f y i n g a g e n t s u s e d i n m ay o n n aise
m a n u f a c tu r e , e g g y o lk was fo u n d to hav e f o u r tim e s th e p r o -
^ B e l l e Lowe, E x p e r im e n ta l C o o k e ry , p . 342 (1 9 3 2 )
32
1 2 3 :
t e c t i n g pow er a s an e m u lg e n t a s eg g w h ite .* * **"* W hole
eg g r a n k e d s e c o n d , b e in g th e sum o f egg w h ite and e g g y o l k ,
s e p a r a t e l y . Egg w h ite ra n k e d t h i r d , g e l a t i n f o u r t h an d
s t a r c h p a s t e f i f t h . Twice a s much o i l c o u ld b e a d d ed t o
a p r o d u c t e m u l s i f i e d w ith f l o u r b u t i t was fo u n d t o m ould
r a p i d l y l f
M ayonnaise c o n t a i n i n g t h i c k e n i n g a g e n t s hav e b e e n
fo u n d t o “b r e a k 1 e a s i l y . T h is h a s b e e n e x p l a i n e d a s b e in g
5
due t o a c h e m ic a l r e a c t i o n , h y d r o l y s i s t a k i n g p l a c e .~
A ls o , i f t h e e m u l s i f y i n g a g e n t d e c o m p o se s, t h e e m u ls io n i s
a p t t o b r e a k . T h is i s e x p la in e d b y s a y in g t h a t th e e m u ls i
f y i n g a g e n t l o s e s i t s e m u l s i f y i n g pow er s i n c e th e f i l m
fo rm ed b y i t becom es s o l u b l e i n t h e w a te r a n d e n t e r s t h e
g
w a te r p h a s e , a ll o w i n g th e d r o p l e t s o f o i l to c o a l e s c e .
1
R e p o rt on C o o p e r a tiv e R e s e a r c h i n M ayonnaise
S p ic e M ill 50 7 58-62 (1927)
2
B e ll e Lowe, E x p e r im e n ta l C o o k e ry , p . 246 (1 9 3 2 )
3
R .O . B ro o k s , "The C h e m is try o f M a y o n n aise, e t c '. 1
S p ic e M i l l 50 1 5 6 8 -6 9 (1927)
4
R e p o rt on C o o p e r a tiv e R e s e a rc h i n M ayonnaise
S p ic e M i l l 50 7 58-6 2 (1927)
5
D.M. G ra y , "C h em ical A s p e c ts o f M ayonnaise"
S p ic e M ill 50 3 50-6 1 (1927)
R.O. Brooks, "The Chemistry o f Mayonnaise e tc ."
Spice M ill 50 1568-69 (1937)
A c c o rd in g t o Lowe, t a k e n from J o h n s o n , Mark a n d
B ra n c h , c o ld s t o r a g e e g g s a r e i n f e r i o r t o f r e s h eggs."*"
(h)
The f a c t o r o f t e m p e r a tu r e h a s n o t b e e n a s e r i o u s
one s i n c e th e o r d i n a r y t e m p e r a tu r e a t w h ich m ay o n n a ise i s
p r e p a r e d seem s t o h a v e v e ry l i t t l e i n f l e u n c e on th e p r o d u c t .
( i )
The am ount o f v i n e g a r a n d s p i c e s i s a m a t t e r o f
p e r s o n a l o p i n io n and t a s t e . The s p i c e s a s h a s b e e n s t a t e d
b e f o r e seem s t o h a v e a s t a b i l i z i n g e f f e c t w h e re a s a n e x c e s s
o f v i n e g a r , t e n d s to t h i n t h e m a y o n n a is e , w h ich e n a b l e s th e
p r o d u c t t o " b re a k " more e a s i l y .
I n a d d i t i o n t o th e f a c t o r s p r e v i o u s l y d i s c u s s e d
% A .
w h ich c a u s e d e e m u l s i f i c a t i o n , t h e r e a r e o t h e r s . ’^ '
E v a p o r a tio n o f w a te r fro m t h e s u r f a c e w h ereby t h e
d r o p l e t p r o t e c t i n g m a t e r i a l o r f i l m d r y o u t and become
b r i t t l e and b r e a k , a llo w in g t h e o i l d r o p l e t t o flo w t o
g e t h e r i s one o f th e o t h e r c a u s e s o f m ay o n n a ise b r e a k i n g .
V i b r a t i o n i n h a n d li n g t h e p r o d u c t a l s o g i v e s r i s e
t o b r e a k i n g .
^ B e lle Lowe, E x p e r im e n ta l C o o k ery , p . 242 (1 9 3 2 )
2
R e p o rt on C o o p e r a tiv e R e s e a rc h i n M a y o n n a ise ,
S p ic e M i l l 50 7 58-62 (1927)
3
R.O . B ro o k s , "The C h e m is try o f M ay o n n aise e t c . "
S p ic e M ill 50 1 5 6 8 -6 9 (1927)
4
D.M. Gray, "Chemical Aspects o f Mayonnaise",
Spice M ill 50 350-61 (1927)
84
A n o th e r o f t h e s e f a c t o r s i s t h e t e m p e r a t u r e t o w hich
th e f i n a l p r o d u c t may h e s u b j e c t e d . M ay o n n aise s u b j e c t e d
t o h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e s b r e a k . A c c o rd in g t o Gray,'*' t h i s
i s due to th e d i f f e r e n c e i n th e c o e f f i c i e n t s o f e x p a n s io n
o f t h e two l i q u i d s i n v o lv e d . The c o e f f i c i e n t o f o i l b e
i n g g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t o f w a t e r , i t w i l l , f o r a g iv e n tem
p e r a t u r e , ex p an d to a g r e a t e r e x t e n t . T h is t e n d s to s e t
up f o r c e s i n t h e e m u ls io n , w h ic h b r e a k th e p r o t e c t i n g egg
f i l m , and f o r c e t h e o i l d r o p l e t s to u n i t e , th u s b r e a k i n g
th e e m u ls io n . A ls o , m ay o n n a ise s u b j e c t e d to low t e m p e r a t
u r e b r e a k s . The e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h i s i s much th e sam e,
a c c o r d i n g to G ray? When M ay o n n aise i s c o o le d , t h e o i l d ro p
l e t s c o n t r a c t t o a g r e a t e r d e g r e e , th a n d o e s th e w a te r
s u r r o u n d in g th em . T h is i s t r u e down t o 3 9 ° F . , w hich i s
7 abo ve f r e e z i n g . But a f t e r t h e e m u ls io n r e a c h e s 3 9 ° ,
t h e w a te r b e g in s to e x p a n d , so t h a t b y t h e tim e th e f r e e z
i n g p o i n t i s r e a c h e d , th e e m u ls io n seem s t o be c o m p le te ly
b r o k e n .
I n a d d i t i o n t o d e e m u l s i f i c a t i o n , t h e r e i s a s e c o n d
p ro b le m w hich h a s to be c o n s i d e r e d in r e l a t i o n t o t h e
k e e p in g q u a l i t y o f m ay o n n a ise w h ich i s s p o i l a g e o f th e
p r o d u c t due to r a n c i d i t y . T h is i s due t o th e o i l s , i n
1
D .M .G ray, "C h em ical A s p e c ts o f M a y o n n a is e " ,
S p ic e M i l l 50 3 50-61 (198 7)
2
DM . Gray, "Chemical A spects o f Mayonnaise",
Spice M ill 50 350-61 (1987)
25
t h e m a y o n n a is e , t a k i n g up o x y g en an d b e co m in g o x i d i z e d .
R a n c i d i t y i n o i l i n m ay o n n a ise i s a l s o c a u s e d by t h e
s e c r e t i o n o f b a c t e r i a .^ - R a n c id o i l a d d ed t o m a y o n n a is e ,
a l s o c o n t r i b u t e s t o th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f r a n c i d i t y i n t h e
m a y o n n a is e , t h a t i s why d e f i n i t e s t a n d a r d s h av e b e e n s e t
down f o r o i l f o r m a y o n n a is e .
One means s u g g e s te d t o overcom e t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f
r a n c i d i t y due to th e o x i d a t i o n o f th e o i l w i t h i n t h e p r o
d u c t was t o p r e p a r e m ay o n n a ise i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f i n e r t
2
g a s e s . A lso a l l p o s s i b l e p r e c a u t i o n t o a ll o w a s l i t t l e
a i r t o e n t e r t h e p r o d u c t and c o n t a i n e r a s p o s s i b l e .
A t h i r d p ro b le m met in th e s tu d y o f th e k e e p in g
q u a l i t i e s o f m a y o n n a ise i s s p o i l a g e due t o f e r m e n t a t i o n .
F e r m e n ta tio n o r b lo w in g up c a u s e d by l i v i n g o rg a n is m s b e
in g i n t r o d u c e d i n t o th e p r o d u c t e i t h e r w ith th e i n g r e d i e n t s
3
o r raw m a t e r i a l s fro m some o t h e r so u rc e w i t h i n th e f a c t o r y .
A f o u r t h p ro b le m to b e m et i s d i s c o l o r a t i o n an d d a r k
e n in g o f th e f i n a l p r o d u c t .
^M.O. R e y n o ld s , " F a c to r y P la n n in g and S a n i t a t i o n
o f M ay onnaise F a c t o r i e s " • S p ic e M ill 50 3 6 7 -7 0 '2 7
2U .S . 1 ,9 4 9 ,7 9 1 M arch 6 , 1 9 3 4 , A l b e r t K .E p s te in and
M.O. R e y n o ld s " S t a b le M ayonnaise E m u lsio n " ( P a t e n t )
3
M.C. R e y n o ld s , " F a c t o r y P la n n in g and S a n i t a t i o n
o f M ayonnaise F a c t o r i e s " S p ic e M ill 50 3 67-7 0 '2 7 .
36
One o f th e f a c t o r s t h a t c a u s e s th e p r o d u c t to d a r k
en i s o x i d a t i o n o f th e o i l . The e x t e n t o f d a r k e n in g i s i n
p r o p o r t i o n to t h e exygen a b s o r p t i o n o f oil'*' and t h e e x t e n t
to w h ic h th e o i l a b s o r b s t h e o x y g en i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f
th e o i l , c o rn o i l a b s o r b i n g m ore th a n t h e c o t t o n s e e d . I n
i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e o t h e r i n g r e d i e n t s w h ich m ig h t have a
d a r k e f f e c t on t h e p r o d u c t i t was fo u n d t h a t s a l t h a d no
e f f e c t , t h a t s t e r i l i z e d v i n e g a r was no b e t t e r th a n o r d i n a r y
v i n e g a r b u t t h a t a c e t i c a c i d h a s l e s s d i s c o l o r i z i n g e f f e c t
2
t h a n an y k in d o f v i n e g a r . N e i t h e r lem o n j u i c e o r c i t r i c
a c i d w ere fo u n d to be a s good a s a c e t i c a c i d . I t was fo u n d
t h a t th e m u s ta r d a n d o t h e r s p i c e te n d e d t o d i s c o l o r i z e and
d a r k e n th e p r o d u c t , b e in g d u e , p e r h a p s , to th e n o n - v o l a t i l e
o i l p r e s e n t i n t h e s e i n g r e d i e n t s .
1
D.M. G ra y , " C hem ical A s p e c ts o f M a y o n n a is e ,"
S p ic e M i l l 50 p p . 3 50-61 (1 9 2 7 )
2
D.M. Gray, "Chemical A spects o f Mayonnaise,"
Spice M ill 50 pp. 350-61 (1927)
SECTIOH I I I
COMMERCIAL MAYONHAISE AND SALAD DRESSING,
The te rm s a l a d d r e s s i n g i n c l u d e s m ay o n n a ise b u t a l l
s a l a d d r e s s i n g s a r e n o t m a y o n n a is e s . 1 S a la d d r e s s i n g s
h av e n o t b e e n l e g a l l y d e f i n e d o r s t a n d a r d i z e d . The te r m ,
2
m a y o n n a is e , i s h i s t o r i c a l l y an d p r o p e r l y r e s t r i c t e d , how ever
t o an e m u l s i f i e d m ix tu r e o f e d i b l e o i l , v i n e g a r , e g g , mus
t a r d , s a l t , and s p i c e s . The minimum o f 78$ f o r e g g y o lk
an d o i l s p e c i f i e d i n an e a r l i e r d e f i n i t i o n h a s b e e n d e l e t e d .
"The a r t i c l e m ust now c o n t a i n a t l e a s t 5 0^ v e g e t a b l e o i l ,
and enough eg g t o form a s t a b l e , s e m i - s o l i d e m u ls io n . I t
may c o n t a i n s a l t o r o t h e r s e a s o n i n g , s u g a r o r d e x t r o s e ,
a n d t h e r e m a in d e r m ust be u n d i l u t e d lem on j u i c e an d / o r
v i n e g a r o f a t l e a s t 4 f o a c e t i c a c i d s t r e n g t h . " 4
A c c o rd in g to t h i s d e f i n i t i o n , m ay o n n a ise c o n t a i n s t h e s e
i n g r e d i e n t s o n l y , how ever some ty p e s o f d e v i a t i o n from th e
5
s t a n d a r d w hich may o c c u r a r e :
1 . D e f ic i e n c y i n v e g e t a b l e o i l
2 . W ater i n e x c e s s o f t h a t n o rm a l t o t h e % g and
a c i d c o n s t i t u e n t s p r e s e n t .
3. E x c e ss o f eg g w h ite
4 . D e f ic i e n c y o f egg to p r o p e r l y form and s t a b i l i z e
th e e m u ls io n .
^ . 0 . B ro o k s , " C h e m is try o f M ay o n n aise"
S p ic e M i l l , 50 1 5 6 8 -6 9 (1 9 2 7 )
3
A l b e r t M u sh er, "The M ayonn aise Way to H e a l t h " ,
S p ic e M i l l 51 p p . 5 0 8 -5 7 8 , 7 0 4 -7 1 0 (1 9 28)
3
E.M. B a i l e y , "M a y o n n a ise " , C onn. E x p t. S t a . B u l l .
341 7 1 3 -7 1 5 (193 3)
4
H .A .L e p p e r, F .A .V o rh e s , J r . , " R e p o rt on A n a ly s is
and I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f M ay onnaise" A s s .o f O f f .A g r .
Chem. 16 5 4 8 -5 6 . (1 9 3 3 )
5
H .A .L e p p e r, F .A .V o rh e s , J r . , o p . c i t .
In a p r o p e r l y made m a y o n n a is e , no s t a r c h o r c e r e a l
p a s t e i s n e e d e d a n d s u g a r i s u s e l e s s , i n f a c t i t h a s a t e n
d e n c y to i n c r e a s e th e f e r m e n t a t i o n p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f t h e
1 2
p r o d u c t . I t h a s b e e n s u g g e s te d t h a t m ay o n n a ise c o n t a i n
now o v e r 1 5$ w a t e r , com ing fro m th e v i n e g a r an d e g g u s e d ;
n o t l e s s th a n 75$ f a t t y a c i d w h ich i n c l u d e s e d i b l e o i l and
eg g y o lk and t h a t t h e l i p o i d - p h o s p h o r i c a c i d c o n t e n t w h ich
i s a m ea su re o f t h e egg y o lk p r e s e n t b e n o t l e s s t h a n .0 3 5 $ .
F o r o t h e r s a l a d d r e s s i n g s n o t te rm e d m a y o n n a is e , i t i s s u g -
3
g e s t e d t h a t n o t o v e r 50$ w a t e r , w hich i n c l u d e s a n a d d i t i o n
a l q u a n t i t y o f w a te r p l u s th e w a te r p r e s e n t i n th e v i n e g a r
and e g g , b e p r e s e n t .
M ethods o f a n a l y s i s f o r s a l a d d r e s s i n g s h a v e b e e n
d e te r m in e d and may be fo u n d i n th e M ethods o f A n a l y s i s .
J . o f A ss. o f O f f . Ag. Ohem. ( 1 9 3 0 ) , p u b l i s h e d by th e U .S .
g o v e rn m e n t, from tim e to tim e . B r i e f l y t h e m eth o d s i n c l u d e :
1 . A n a ly s is f o r t o t a l s o l i d s . T h is i s a m a t t e r
o f d r i v i n g o u t th e m o is tu r e a n d c a l c u l a t i n g
from t h e r e s i d u e . F u l l p a r t i c u l a r s a re g iv e n on
p a g e 2 4 4 , "M ethods o f A n a l y s i s " , A .O .A .O .(1 9 3 0 )
^ H 'iA .L ep p a r, F .A .V o rh e s , J r , " R e p o rt on A n a l y s i s an d
I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f M a y o n n a is e " , A s s . o f O f f . Chem.
16 5 4 8 -5 6 (193 3)
o
H .A .L e p p a r, F .A .V o rh e s , J r . , ''o p . j . o i t . n :
3
H .A .L epper., F .A .V o rh e s , J r . , O p ., o i t .
4
H .A .L e p p e r, F .A .V o r h e s , J r . , O p ., c i t .
29
2 . A n a ly s is f o r t o t a l f a t i n v o l v e s t h e e x t r a c t i o n
o f th e v e g e t a b l e o i l and eg g f a t b y m eans o f e t h e r
and a l c o h o l a s d i r e c t e d u n d e r t h e J o u r n a l o f
O f f i c i a l A g r i c u l t u r a l O h e m is ts , V o l. 1 5 , p a g e
313, (1 9 3 2 )
3 . The t o t a l a c i d i t y i s d e te r m in e d b y t i t r a t i o n
o f a w e ig h ed sam ple o f th e m a y o n n a is e , a g a i n s t
a .IN s o l u t i o n o f NaOH aid c a l c u l a t i n g a s a c e t i c
a c i d .
4 . A n a ly s is f o r t o t a l n i t r o g e n i s done by. th e
K j e ld a h l m ethod a s fo u n d on p a g e 2 4 5 . s e c t . 5 ,
o f "M ethods o f A n a l y s i s " , A .O .A .O . (1 9 30)
5. The eg g c o n t e n t i s c a l c u l a t e d fro m th e t o t a l
P 2O5 c o n t e n t . F u l l p a r t i c u l a r s a r e g iv e n i n
v o l . 1 6 , p a g e 2 4 8 , "M ethods o f A n a ly s is " A .O .A .C .,
( 1 9 3 0 ) . The t o t a l ? p 0 5 b e in g c a l c u l a t e d fro m
th e l e c i t h i n - p h o s p h o r i c a c i d c o n t e n t .
U sin g th e above m eth o d s o f a n a l y s i s , th e com
p o s i t i o n o f th e s a l a d d r e s s i n g i s c a l c u l a t e d
i n t h e f o l l o w i n g d a t a , - 1 - w hich i s an o u tg r o w th
o f work done b y M i t c h e l l . *
When P e q u a l p e r c e n t o f P 0 an d N e q u a l s p e r
c e n t o f t o t a l N i t r o g e n th e n :
1 . P e r c e n t eg g y o lk 7569P-1802N .
2 . P e r c e n t e g g w h ite 60BN-11459P
3 . P e r c e n t t o t a l e g g per.; c e n t - 1 y o lk p l u s p e r
c e n t w h ite .
4 . P e r c e n t w h ite i n eg g com ponent P e r c e n t
w h ite / p e r c e n t t o t a l x 1 0 0 .
5 . V e g e ta b le O i l t o t a l f a t - ( y o l k x 0 .3 1 8 8 )
6 . V in e g a r ( 4 s t r e n g t h ) t o t a l a c i d i t y a s
A c e t i c x 25.
7. M inor c o n s t , t o t a l s o l i d s - (Y xQ .5 0 4 7 )-
w h ite x 0 . 1 2 2 1 ) - v e g e t a b l e o i l .
8 . Added w a te r 1 0 0 $ - t o t a l e g g - v e g e t a b l e o i l -
m i n o r s .
H.A. L e p p a r , F .A .V o r h e s , J r . , " R e p o rt on A n a l y s i s and
I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f M a y o n n a is e " , A s s .o f O f f . Chem. 16
5 4 8 -5 6 (1 9 3 3 )
2
H.A. L e p p e r , F .A .V o r h e s , J r . , O p ., c i t . p . 316.
T hese m eth o d s o f a n a l y s i s a r e b e i n g c o n t i n u a l l y m odi
f i e d in o r d e r t h a t a more a c c u r a t e e s t i m a t i o n be made o f
c o n s t i t u e n t s o f s a l a d d r e s s i n g s . The p h a s e o f th e a n a l y s i s
w h ic h h a s g iv e n r i s e to th e g r e a t e s t e r r o r i s i n t h e a n a l y
s i s o f th e eg g c o n t e n t , t h r o u g h th e l e c i t h i n - p h o s p h o r i c
1 2
a c i d c o n t e n t . R e c e n t w ork don e b y M i t c h e l l , B a i l e y ,
3
and P e rlm a n . M i t c h e l l r e p o r t s a n enorm ous l o s s o f l e c i
t h i n - ^ Q5 on b a c t e r i a l s p o i l a g e o f m ixed ag e o f e g g s .
B a il e y r e p o r t s l o s s e s o f a s much a s 30$ o f th e l i p o i d P 2O5
i n m ay o n n a ise s t o r e d o n ly s i x w eeks and P e rlm a n p r e s e n t s a
t h e o r e t i c a l m echanism f o r th e l o s s o f l i p o i d P 2O5 w hich
i n v o l v e s th e p r o d u c t i o n o f c h o l i n e i n s u s p e c t e d s a m p le s .
H is r e s u l t s show t h a t t h i s l o s s o f l i p o i d P 2O5 i n e g g s
may b e a c c e l e r a t e d by s h a k in g . He f i n d s t h a t th e l o s s o f
l i p o i d P o0 c - i n m ay o n n a ise i s p r o g r e s s i v e a t room t e m p e r a t -
2 5
u r e an d i s a p p a r e n t l y a cc o m p a n ie d b y a n in c r e a s e , t o t a l
l i p o i d s . H ow ever, th e m eth o d s o f c a l c u l a t i o n s a s c i t e d
a b o v e , a s s e t f o r t h by M i t c h e l , seem t o be t h e m ost s a t i s
f a c t o r y y e t s u b m i tt e d .
^ L lo y d 0. M i t c h e l l , " D e c o m p o sitio n o f L e c i t h i n i n
Eggs'.' A s s , o f O f f . A g r. Ohem. J . 6 5 . 2 8 2 -8 4 (1932)
2
E.M. B a i l e y , "M ayonnaise" Oonn. E x p t. S ta . B u l l .
341 7 1 3 -1 5 (1 9 3 3 )
3
J . L . P e rlm a n , "A s tu d y o f th e A n a l y s i s o f M ayonnaise
a n d The V a r i a b i l i t y o f i t s Egg C o n s t i t u e n t s " . A s s ,
o f O f f. A g r. Chem. 1 5 4 6 6 -8 3 (1932)
31
The f o l l o w i n g a n a l y s i s ^ o f m a y o n n a is e s and s a l a d
d r e s s i n g s s e rv e to i l l u s t r a t e c l e a r l y th e d i f f e r e n c e i n
t h e s e p r o d u c t s . T w elve s t a n d a r d m a y o n n a is e s w ere a n a ly z e d
a n d t w e n t y - e i g h t sa m p le s o f s a l a d d r e s s i n g s w ere a n a ly z e d
w ith t h e f o l lo w in g r e s u l t s :
M ayonnaise________________________ S a la d D r e s s in g
M in. 4>
fo u n d
Max. tfo
fo u n d
A v e . ' f o
fo u n d
M in .4
fo u n d
Max. $
fo u n d
« 5 n f
M o ist 1 0 .7 1 5 .9 8 1 3 .9 2 4 .1 8 7 4 .3 7 4 7 .2 8 .
j p & V o l.
T o t a l Ash
.59 1 .7 7
1 .2 1 .7 3 6 .6 2 3 .1 5
( M in e r a l S a l t s )
H a d .3 0 1 .4 1 .8 6 . 60 5 .7 2 ....2 . 4 1 _____ _
F a t t y M at. 7 5 .1 3 8 7 .3 0
8 1 .8 3 3 .3 4 7 3 .0 5
4 0 .1 9
( O i l & Egg f a t )
A c e t i c A cid .2 6
. 6 .6 0 _
.4 1 .48 2 .4 6 1 .3 7
N itr o g e n .1 9 .4 4
.2 7
.1 7 .7 7 . . .4 1 ..........
(E gg & M ust)
P r o t e i n 1 .1 9 2 .7 5
1 .6 9 1 .0 6 4 .8 1 2 .5 6
(N x 6 .2 5 )
Lipoid-HPO.. .0 2 .0 6
.0 5 .0 0 .1 6 .0 4
From th e above t a b l e i t i s e a s i l y s e e n w hich i s th e
m ore v a l u a b l e p r o d u c t a s a fo o d . The h i g h m o is tu r e c o n t e n t
a n d c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y low o i l c o n t e n t o f th e s a l a d d r e s s i n g
show s t h e i n f e r i o r i t y o f t h i s p r o d u c t a s a fo o d . The h ig h
p e r c e n t a g e s o f s a l t , a s h an d a c e t i c a c i d , g iv e th e s a l a d
d r e s s i n g s a m ore d e c i d e d f l a v o r th a n t h e m il d e r m a y o n n a is e s .
1
R.O. Brooks, "The Chemistry Mayonnaise"
Spice M ill 5 0 . 1568-69 (1937)
32
I n t h i s s t u d y o f m a y o n n a is e s , e x p e r i m e n t a l w ork was
done on t h e a n a l y s i s o f s a l a d d r e s s i n g s now fo u n d on t h e
m a r k e t.- Two p r o d u c t s , c o m m e rc ia lly te rm e d a s m a y o n n a is e s and
two p r o d u c t s c o m m e rc ia lly te rm e d a s s a l a d d r e s s i n g s , t o g e t h e r
w ith a p r o d u c t p r e p a r e d i n th e l a b o r a t o r y , w ere a n a l y s e d . Ac-
1
c o r d i n g to th e m eth o d s fo u n ff i n M ethods o f A n a ly s is f o r a c i d
i t y a n d o i l c o n t e n t and th e r e s u l t s a r e a s f o l lo w s :
S am ples I I I I I I IV V
A c e t i c A cid .1 0 2 .4 641 .3 0 6 .759 .7 2 4
% V in e g a r 7 .3 9 1 1 .6 7 .6 1 8 .9 9 1 8 .1
O i l C o n te n t 87 7 2 .5 85. 55 60
One o f t h e c o m m erc ial m a y o n n a is e s was a n a l y s e d , f o r l i p
o i d - p h o s p h o r i c a c i d c o n te n t an d th e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d , . o46 p e r
c e n t , f e l l w i t h i n t h e ra n g e c i t e d i n th e t a b l e c i t e d p r e v i o u s l y .
From t h i s w o rk , i t f o l lo w s t h a t th o u g h t h e r e a r e m in i
mum s t a n d a r d s s e t f o r m a y o n n a is e , t h e r e i s a w ide v a r i a n c e i n
t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f s u c h a p r o d u c t . A ll th e p r o d u c t s a n a l y s e d a r e
l e a d i n g b r a n d s , b u t e a c h i s th e r e s u l t o f a s e p a r a t e l y .d e v e lo p
ed fo r m u la f o r w h ic h im p ro v em en ts a r e s o u g h t . T h e re i s o b v io u s
l y no d e f i n i t e p r o c e d u r e o r r e c i p e t h a t c a n be te rm e d th e
" b e s t " .
1
M ethods o f A n a ly s is J . o f O f f . A g r. Ohem. 1930
SECTION IV
EXPERIMENTAL "W O R K ON THE PREPARATION OF AN EDIBLE AND STABLE
MAYONNAISE.
I t was th e c h i e f p u r p o s e o f t h i s p ro b le m to p r e p a r e
a s a t i s f a c t o r y an d s t a b l e m ay o n n a ise u s i n g avocado o i l i n
p l a c e o f th e s a l a d o i l s now fo u n d on t h e m a r k e t.
B ecau se o f th e s m a ll q u a n t i t y o f a v o cad o o i l
a v a i l a b l e f o r t h i s r e s e a r c h , i t was n e c e s s a r y to p l a n
t h e w o rk , i n o r d e r t h a t th e q u a n t i t i e s o f o i l r e q u i r e d
m ig h t b e re d u c e d t o th e minimum.
In o r d e r t o p r e p a r e a s a t i s f a c t o r y m a y o n n a is e , u s i n g
an y o i l c e r t a i n f a c t o r s h av e t o b e s t u d i e d . The f i r s t p a r t
o f t h i s work was t o s tu d y and e x p e rim e n t w i t h th o s e f a c t o r s
i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f m a y o n n a is e s , w hich h a d v a r i a t i o n s in
th e r a t i o n and num ber o f i n g r e d i e n t s and m eth o d s o f m ix in g .
The m e th o d ^ o f p r o c e d u r e was to t a k e a g i v e n - f a c t o r
and v a r y i t i n a s many ways a s p o s s i b l e , p r e p a r i n g a p r o
d u c t u s i n g e a c h v a r i a t i o n . T h is p r o d u c t was s t u d i e d a s t o
i t s s t a b i l i t y and q u a l i t y and com pared w ith o t h e r p r o d u c t s
p r e p a r e d i n t h e c o u rs e o f t h e work d o n e .
S in c e by d e f i n i t i o n , m ay o n n a ise m u st c o n t a i n e g g a s
th e e m u l s i f i e r , a g r e a t e r p r o p o r t i o n o f th e sa m p le s c o n t a i n
ed e g g a s th e e m u l s i f i e r .
P r e l i m i n a r y w ork was d o n e , i n w h ich t h r e e s a m p le s
w ere p r e p a r e d . The f o l lo w in g fo r m u la and m eth od o f p r o c e d u r e
rr r*
a r
was followed:**"
PART - I -
S e r i e s No.. I ; P r e l i m i n a r y Work
I n g r e d i e n t s :
A B 0
Egg 18 g .( v o l k ) 18 g .( w h i t e ) .36 g. ( whole)
V in e g ar 1 T b l s p . 15 g. 1 T b l s p . 15 g.
1 T b l s p . 15 g.
O il £ 0 108 g. .... 4-0 108 g. 1 0 216 g.
S a l t £ t a p .
... £ t s p ..... ...........
£ t s p .
M ustard £ t s p . £ t s p . £ t s p .
P a p r i k a
£ t s p . £ t s p . £ t s p .
Sugar
£ t s p . £ t s p . £ t s p .
P r o c e d u r e ;
A '
The s p i c e s and su g a r were added to th e egg y o lk
and b e a t e n w ith a r o t a r y egg b e a t e r . Then th e
o i l was added, t s p . a t a tim e and a l t e r n a t e d w ith
th e o i l and v i n e g a r . A f te r a l l o f th e v i n e g a r had
b e en ad d ed , th e q u a n t i t i e s o f o i l were i n c r e a s e d
u n t i l th e o i l had a l l b een added.
3:
Same a s i n A.
0 !
Same a s i n A.
R e s u l t :
A:
The p r o d u c t was v e ry s a t i s f a c t o r y a s to s t a b i l i t y .
I t had shwon no s i g n s o f b r e a k i n g a f t e r a p e r i o d
o f t h r e e m onths. The amount o f p a p r i k a gave an
e x c e s s i v e p in k t i n g e to th e p r o d u c t . When f i r s t
p r e p a r e d , i t had a m ild p l e a s a n t f l a v o r , b u t a f t e r
two m onths i t was no lo n g e r p l e a s a n t to th e t a s t e .
"*"Belle Lowe, Experim ental Cookery, p. 252 (1932)
355
At th e end o f f o u r m onths i t h a d n o t b ro k e n b u t
had begun to o x i d i z e .
T h is p r o d u c t was n o t q u i t e a s s t i f f a s th e one
p r e p a r e d from th e i n g r e d i e n t s in A. I t was n o t
e s p e c i a l l y a p p e t i z i n g a s a s a l a d d r e s s i n g . I t s
s t a b i l i t y , how ever, was a s g r e a t a s t h a t o f th e
one p r e p a r e d a c c o r d i n g to d i r e c t i o n s fo u n d i n A.
I t s f l a v o r d e t e r i o r a t e d much more r a p i d l y , t h a n
d i d th e f l a v o r o f A. At th e end o f f o u r m on th s,
t h i s p r o d u c t had n o t b ro k e n , b u t i t had d e ca y ed
and t u r n e d d a rk and had a v e ry u n p l e a s a n t f l a v o r
and o d o r ,
C:
In th e p r e p a r a t i o n i t was found n e c e s s a r y t o u se
1 0 o f o i l i n o r d e r to g e t a m ayonnaise o f th e
d e s i r e d c o n s i s t e n c y . The a d d i t i o n o f a cup o f o i l ,
how ever, d i d n o t r e s u l t in a s s t i f f a p r o d u c t a s
was form ed in A w i t h th e egg y o lk . However, a s
f a r a s f l a v o r was c o n c e rn e d , i t was th e b e s t p r o
d u c t o f t h e t h r e e , and i t 1 1 s to o d u p ” v e ry w e ll i n
b o th i t s f l a v o r and c o n s i s t e n c y . At th e end o f
f o u r m onths, t h i s p r o d u c t had n o t b ro k e n b u t h a d
begun to o x i d i z e on th e to p .
C o n c lu s io n s :
From t h i s work, i t was d e c id e d to u s e egg y o lk a s
th e m ost e f f i c i e n t e m u l s i f i e r and red u c e th e
q u a n t i t i e s o f p a p r i k a u s e d s in c e th e q u a n t i t y
s u g g e s te d p ro d u ce d a p ro d u c t o f a d e e p e r shade o f
p i n k , th a n i s o r d i n a r i l y found i n com m ercial
m ay onn aise.
S e r i e s Ko, I I : V a r i a t i o n o f Egg C o n t e n t .
The f i r s t s t e p a f t e r c h o o s in g egg y o lk a s th e m ost e f f i c i
e n t e m u l s i f i e r i n r e l a t i o n to whole egg and egg y o l k ,
u s e d , k e e p in g th e o t h e r i n g r e d i e n t s in a c o n s t a n t p r o
p o r t i o n to e a c h o t h e r , was to v a ry th e q u a n t i t y o f egg
y o l k u s e d . The f o l lo w in g d a t a l i e s th e p r o c e d u r e and
r e s u l t s :
I n g r e d i e n t s :
A__________JB_________ Q __________ S__________ S L
Egg Yolk 4 .5 g. 3 .5 g 2 . 5 g ..... 5. 5 g .. 6 . 5 g ............
V in e g a r
(4 cc)
3 .7 5 g 4 cc 4 cc 4 cc 4 cc
O i l
(31 cc)
37. g 31 cc
o
o
H
to
31 cc 31 cc
S a l t
( 1 /8 t s p )
.75 g .7 5 g .7 5 g .7 5 g .7 5 g .
M u sta rd
(1 /1 6 t s p )
.1 6 g t .16 g .16 g
.......16 g ...... .16 g
Sugar
( l / 8 t s p )
.48 g .48 g .48 g .48 g .. .48 g
P a p r i k a ( sm a ll) ( sm a ll) ( s m a ll) ( sm a ll) ( s m a ll)
P r o c e d u r e :
The egg y o lk was w eighed i n t o a 159 cc b e a k e r .
To t h i s , , th e w eighed amounts o f s p i c e and s u g a r were
add ed . The b e a k e r was tlhen p l a c e d i n a s u p p o r t .
The b e a t e r which was u s e d , c o n s i s t e d o f a p y r e x
g l a s s d o u b le c r o s s b a r . T his was m otor d r i v e n by a
m otor t h a t c o u ld be a d j u s t e d to v a r y i n g s p e e d s .
For t h i s phase o f th e w ork, i t was a d j u s t e d to h ig h
sp e e d . The egg y o lk and s p i c e s were b e a t e n w e l l.
Then th e o i l was a llo w e d to d ro p slo w ly i n t o th e
b e a k e r , c o n t a i n i n g th e egg and o t h e r i n g r e d i e n t s ,
by means o f a g r a d u a t e d b u r e t t e . The b e a t i n g was
c o n tin u o u s th r o u g h o u t. 'When a b o u t 4 cc o f o i l
had b e e n a llo w e d to d ro p i n t o th e b e a k e r c o n t a i n
in g th e s p i c e s and egg y o l k , th e v i n e g a r was a l
lowed to d ro p i n by means o f a n o th e r g r a d u a t e d
b u r e t t e . When a l l th e v i n e g a r , r e q u i r e d h ad b e e n
add ed , i t was s to p p e d and th e o i l c o n tin u e d to be
added u n t i l a l l t h a t was r e q u i r e d had b e e n
added. The p ro d u c t was b e a te n f o r s e v e r a l s e c
onds a f t e r th e o i l had been added i n o r d e r to
e m u ls if y t h e l a s t a d d i t i o n o f o i l . Then th e m otor
was s h u t o f f and th e sample was exam ined and s e a l e d
i n a 4 o z. m ayonnaise c o n t a i n e r and k e p t in an
e l e c t r i c r e f r i g e r a t o r f o r f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
Sarjje a s 11-A
Same a s 11-A
Same a s I I - A
E:
Same a s II - A
R e s u i t :
T h is sam ple was o f medium c o n s i s t e n c y . I t h a s a
p l e a s a n t f l a v o r and v e ry good k e e p in g q u a l i t i e s .
I t " s t o o d up" f o r two months w ith o u t b r e a k i n g ,
a t w hich tim e th e f l a v o r had j u s t begun to d e t e r
i o r a t e . An o b s e r v a t i o n o f th e p ro d u c t made,
J u l y 31. th e end o f t e n w eeks, showed s i g n s o f
b r e a k i n g .
T h is r e s u l t e d i n a p r o d u c t , w hich was n o t q u i t e a s
s t i f f a s th e p r o d u c t formed i n A. I t c o u ld n o t be
p o u re d how ever. The t a s t e was m ild . I t s k e e p in g
q u a l i t i e s , how ever, were n o t a s good a s A, b e ca u se
a t th e end o f f i v e w eeks, i t b r o k e , th e o i l r i s i n g
to th e to p .
An e m u ls io n form ed f o r a w h ile d u r i n g th e fo r m a tio n
58B
' *
o f th e p r o d u c t . Then th e o i l was i n e x c e s s and
what e m u lsio n had form ed, "broke, The f i n a l
product- was n o t an e m u lsio n and th e sam ple was
d i s c a r d e d .
D:
T h is p r o d u c t h ad more body to i t th a n any p r o
d u c t p r e v i o u s l y made. I t was v e ry s t i f f and o f
good c o n s i s t e n c y , th e f l a v o r was p l e a s a n t and s a t
i s f y i n g 1 ; y At th e end o f t e n w eeks, i t was s t i l l
" s t a n d i n g u p " , w ith o u t any s i g n o f b r e a k i n g o r
o f d e t e r i o r a t i o n . The f l a v o r was s t i l l p l e a s a n t .
T h is was th e b e s t p r o d u c t form ed from th e s ta n d
p o i n t o f c o n s i s t e n c y , t a s t e , and s t a b i l i t y .
E:
A c o m p le te e m u ls io n n e v e r was form ed, i n t h i s
e x p e rim e n t and th e sam ple was d i s c a r d e d .
C o n c lu s io n s ;
From th e s e e x p e rim e n ts i t was c o n c lu d e d t h a t u n d e r
th e e x i s t i n g c o n d i t i o n s o f th e e x p e r im e n t, t h a t th e
f o rm u la i n which th e p e r c e n t o f o i l s was 7 1 .6 ,
t o 1 4 .6 o f egg and 9 .9 o f v i n e g a r , was th e most
s a t i s f a c t o r y . . T h is i s a s was done in I I - D . The
sample c o n t a i n i n g o n ly 4 .4 $ egg t o 78$ o i l and
1 0 .8 1 $ o f v i n e g a r , a s in sam ple I I - C , c o n ta in e d
to o l i t t l e egg f o r th e o i l , w h ereas th e c o n d i t i o n s
in sam ple E in w hich t h e r e was 1 6 .8 $ eg g , 67$ o i l
and 9 . 6 $ v in e g a r c o n ta in e d an e x c e s s o f egg i n
c o m p a riso n w ith o i l .
S e r i e s Ho. I l l ; V a r i a t i o n o f O il C o n te n t:
A f te r v a r y i n g th e q u a n t i t i e s o f egg u s e d , v a r y i n g
q u a n t i t i e s o f o i l ' w e r e u s e d and c o n c lu s io n s drawn
from th e d a t a a s f o l lo w s :
I n g r e d i e n t s :
3®
( I n g r e d i e n t s ) :
Egg Yolk 5. 5 g 5 .5 g 5 .5 g 5 . 5 g 5 .5 g
V in e g a r 4 cc 4 cc 4 cc 4 cc 4 cc
O il
( 3 3 . 6 cc)
30 g.
( 2 7 .5 cc)
34 g.
(31 cc)
27 g.
( 3 3 .7 cc)
30 g.
( 4 0 .3 cc)
35 g.
S a l t .75 g. .75 g.
.. , 75 g.
75 g. ....7 5 g ........
M u sta rd
• 16 g. ....16 g....... .16 g. .... .16 g. .16 g.
S ugar • 48 g. .48 g. .48 g.
• 48 g.
....48 g . ........
P a p r i k a ( some) ( some) ( some) ( some) ( some)
P r o c e d u r e :
A:
Same as in I I - A .
S i
Same a s in I I - A .
S i
Same a s in I I - A .
S i
Same as in I I - A .
1 1
Same a s in I I - A .
R e s u l t :
A:
The f i n a l p r o d u c t was o f p o o r c o n s i s t e n c y . I t
c o u ld he p o u re d from th e c o n t a i n e r . I t t a s t e d
q u i t e s a l t y h u t i t was p u t away f o r f u r t h e r
o b s e r v a t i o n . At th e end o f f i v e weeks i t had
j u s t begun to show s i g n s o f b r e a k i n g and a t t h e
en d o f s i x weeks i t had b ro k e n .
B ±
T h is f i n i s h e d p r o d u c t had more body t h a n I I I - A ,
y e t i t c o u ld s t i l l be p o u re d . I t was o f some
what b e t t e r f l a v o r , b u t n o t e s p e c i a l l y a p p e t i z i n g .
m 40D
At th e end o f f i v e w eeks, i t had begun to b r e a k
and a t th e end o f s i x weeks i t had b ro k e n .
H i
T h is p r o d u c t was o f v e ry good c o n s i s t e n c y , which
was much b e t t e r th a n th e two p r e c e d i n g sa m p le s,
(B and A ). I t c o u ld n o t be p o u re d . I t had a
p l e a s a n t f l a v o r . At th e end o f t e n w eeks, i t was
s t i l l s t a n d i n g up and th e f l a v o r was s t i l l m ild .
H i
T h is p r o d u c t was o f b e t t e r c o n s i s t e n c y th a n any o f
th o s e p r e c e d i n g . I t s f l a v o r was p l e a s a n t and m ild .
I t s k e e p in g q u a l i t i e s , how ever, were n o t a s good a s
th o s e o f sam ple 0, s in c e a t th e end o f 5 w eeks, i t
showed s i g n s o f b r e a k i n g and a t th e end o f s i x
w eeks, i t had b r o k e n , p r o b a b ly due to im p ro p e r p r o
p o r t i o n s o f o i l , egg and v i n e g a r .
l i
T h is p r o d u c t was v e ry s t i f f and had a p l e a s a n t and
m ild f l a v o r . I t s k e e p in g q u a l i t i e s were f a i r l y
good. At th e end o f n in e weeks i t showed no s ig n s
o f b r e a k i n g , b u t a t th e end o f t e n weeks t h e r e were
s i g n s o f th e o i l b e g in n i n g t o s e p a r a t e from th e
r e s t o f th e p r o d u c t .
O o n c lu s io n s :
From t h i s s e r i e s o f e x p e rim e n ts i t was fo u n d t h a t
th e m ost s t a b l e and m ost s a t i s f a c t o r y p r o d u c t , was
th e one form ed u n d e r th e c o n d i t i o n s g iv e n i n sample
G. As f a r a s c o n s i s t e n c y was c o n c e rn e d , sam ple E
seemed th e b e s t , and f u r t h e r e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n was
done on t h a t b a s i s , b u t th e s t a b i l i t y o f sam ple D
was much b e t t e r t h a n E.
S e r i e s No. IV: V a r i a t i o n o f Method o f Adding V i n e g a r :
A f t e r th e q u a n t i t i e s o f i n g r e d i e n t s had b een d e te rm in e d ,
th e n e x t s t e p was to e x p e rim e n t w ith th e m ethod o f add
in g th e i n g r e d i e n t s . T h is work i s g iv e n i n th e fo llo w
in g :
I n g r e d i e n t s :
A B _____________ 0
Egg Yolk ....... 5 .5 g 5 .5 g 5 .5 g
V in e g a r 4 cc 4 cc 4 cc
O il 35 g............... 35 g 35 g
S a l t .7 5 g . 75 g .75 g
M u sta rd .1 6 g .16 g .1 6 g
S Sugar .48 g .48 g •
CD
n
i
P a p r i k a ( some) ( some) ( some)
P r o c e d u r e :
A:
The egg was w eighed i n t o a b e a k e r and t h e s p i c e s
added. The m is tu r e was th e n b e a t e n w ith th e b e a t e r
and a t th e same sp e e d a s i n th e p r e c e d i n g sa m p le s.
Then a l l o f th e v i n e g a r was added a t o n ce. T h is
was t h e n w e ll b e a t e n , t h e n th e o i l was added slow
l y , b e a t i n g th e p r o d u c t u n t i l a l l o f th e o i l was
t h o r o u g h ly e m u l s i f i e d .
B ±
The egg was w eighed i n t o a b e a k e r and t h e s p i c e s
added. T h is was b e a t e n as in th e p r e c e d i n g ex
p e r im e n ts and th e n th e o i l was a llo w e d to d ro p i n t o
th e b e a k e r . A f t e r a b o u t 10 cc o f o i l had b een
add ed , th e v i n e g a r was a llo w e d t o d rop i n t o th e
e m u ls io n . The b e a t i n g was c o n tin u e d u n t i l a l l o f
th e o i l had been c o m p le te ly e m u l s i f i e d .
The p r o c e d u r e was th e same a s i n IV-8 e x c e p t t h a t
th e o i l and v i n e g a r were added s i m u lt a n e o u s ly .
R e s u l t ;
A:
The p r o d u c t was o f v e ry good c o n s i s t e n c y and h ad
a p l e a s a n t f l a v o r and a t th e end o f n in e w eeks,
t h e r e was no s i g n o f b r e a k i n g and th e f l a v o r was
s t i l l p l e a s a n t .
1 1
E xcept t h a t i t was more s t i f f , t h i s p r o d u c t c l o s e
l y re se m b le d t h a t o f IV-A.
1 1
The p r o d u c t d i f f e r e d v e ry l i t t l e from t h a t p ro d u ce d
in I I I - A . I t was n o t q u i t e a s s t i f f a s t h a t form ed
i n I I I - B . I t s s t a b i l i t y , a f t e r n in e weeks was ase
t h e two p r e c e d i n g sa m p le s.
O o n o lu s io n s :
From t h i s e x p e r i m e n t a t io n i t was c o n c lu d e d , t h a t th e
m ethod o f a d d in g v i n e g a r and o i l was o f no g r e a t im
p o r ta n c e i n th e p r e p a r a t i o n o f a s t a b l e p r o d u c t . Add
i n g t h e o i l f i r s t seemed to p ro d u c e a p r o d u c t w ith
more body th a n when added e i t h e r ; w ith t h e v i n e g a r or
a f t e r a d d i t i o n o f th e v i n e g a r h a s b e e n s t a r t e d .
S e r i e s No.V; V a r i a t i o n o f Speed o f M ix e r;
The n e x t f a c t o r t h a t was v a r i e d , was th e sp e e d a t which
th e e m u lsio n was b e a t e n in th e f o r m a tio n . The f o llo w
in g d a t a shows th e work done;
I n g r e d i e n t s :
A B 0 Y
Egg Yolk
5 .5 g 5. 5 g 5 .5 g
V in e g ar 4 cc 4 cc 4 cc
O i l
35 g 35 g 35 g .....
S a l t
.7 5 g .7 5 g .7 5 g
M ustard
.16 g .16 g .16 g
Sugar .48 g •
0 0
w
.48 g
P a p r i k a ( some) ( some) ( some)
45?
P r o c e d u r e :
The egg was w eig h ed i n t o a b e a k e r and th e s p i c e s
ad ded. The m ix tu r e was th e n b e a t e n w ith th e b e a t -
e r and a t th e same sp eed a s i n th e p r e c e d i n g samp
l e s . Then abo ut 10 cc of o i l was a llo w e d t o d ro p
i n w i t h th e b e a t e r g o in g a t slow sp e ed . Then th e
v i n e g a r was added w ith th e b e a t e r c o n t i n u i n g a t
slow speed and t h i s sp eed was k e p t th r o u g h o u t th e
a d d i t i o n o f th e r e s t o f th e o i l .
Same a s i n V-A, u n t i l th e a d d i t i o n o f th e o i l .
The b e a t e r was s t a r t e d a t low sp eed on a d d i t i o n
o f th e o i l and g r a d u a l l y i n c r e a s e d to th e h ig h
e s t sp e e d .
9 1
Same a s in V-A u n t i l a d d i t i o n o f o i l . At t h i s
p o i n t th e b e a t e r was s t a r t e d a t low sp e e d ,
g r a d u a l l y i n c r e a s e d t o medium, th e n r e d u c e d to
low a g a in .
R e s u l t :
A:
A c o m p lete e m u l s i f i c a t i o n c o u ld n o t .b e e f f e c t e d ,
th e o i l re m a in in g in a l a y e r on th e to p .
An e m u lsio n form ed b u t w ith d i f f i c u l t y . The
f i n a l p r o d u c t lo o k e d much th e same as IV-A.
I t s s t a b i l i t y was l e s s th a n t h a t o f IV-A, s i n c e
a t t h e end o f f o u r w eeks, i t showed s i g n s o f
b r e a k i n g and a t th e end o f f i v e w eeks, was com
p l e t e l y b ro k e n .
I t was h a r d e r to e m u ls if y a l l o f th e o i l i n t h i s
p r o d u c t , th a n i n V-B. The f i n a l r e s u l t was n o t
a s s t i f f a s V-B and th e s t a b i l i t y was l e s s . At
th e end o f f o u r w eeks, i t had b ro k e n .
4 4
C o n c lu s io n s ;
From t h i s w ork, i t was c o n c lu d e d , t h a t f o r th e
ty p e o f h e a t e r u s e d , th e b e s t m ethod was to ru n
i t a t f u l l sp e e d , i n o r d e r to form a s t a b l e
e m u lsio n , s i n c e any v a r i a t i o n o f t h e speed r e
duced th e s t a b i l i t y and th e e a s e w ith w hich th e
o i l was e m u l s i f i e d .
S e r i e s Ho. VI: V a r i a t i o n o f M o is tu re C o n t e n t :
A nother v a r i a t i o n t r i e d , was th e s u b s t i t u t i o n o f
w a te r f o r th e o i l i n th e p r e p a r a t i o n o f s e v e r a l
sa m p le s. C om parison was made o f th e u se o f a p a t e n t
e m u l s i f i e r w ith egg y o lk and c o m b in a tio n o f th e two .
a s th e e m u l s i f y i n g a g e n t , w ith p a r t o f th e o i l su b
s t i t u t e d by w a te r . Cum t r a g a c a n t h s o l u t i o n was th e
e m u l s i f i e r u s e d . The d a t a i s a s f o l lo w s :
I n g r e d i e n t s :
A B C D
Egg Yolk . 2 .7 5 g ..... ( none) 2 .7 5 g ( n o n e )
E m u l s i f i e r 2 .7 5 g 5 .5 g 2 .7 5 g _ _ 5 .5 g
V in e g a r 4 cc 4 cc 4 cc 4 c c
O il 20 cc 20 cc 30 cc 30 cc
W ater 20 cc 20 cc 10 cc 10 cc
S a l t .7 5 g .75 g . 75 g .7 5 g
M u stard :1 6 g .16 g
.....-»1 i f ............
.16 g
Sugar .48 g .48 g .48 g .48 g
P a p r i k a ( some) ( some) ( some) ( some)
P r o c e d u r e :
AL
Same a s in I I - A . The w a te r was added to th e
v i n e g a r and added a s th e v i n e g a r .
Same a s i n VI-A.
Same as in VI-A.
Same a s i n VI-A.
R e s u l t :
The p r o d u c t w ould n o t e m u l s i f y , so th e sam ple
was d i s c a r d e d .
The p r o d u c t would n o t e m u ls if y so the sam ple
was d i s c a r d e d .
0 1
An e m u lsio n was form ed, b u t th e f i n a l p ro d u c t
was o f p o o r c o n s i s t e n c y , and c o u ld e a s i l y be
p o u re d . I t s a p p e a ra n c e and t a s t e were n o t
p a r t i c u l a r l y a p p e t i z i n g . I t s s t a b i l i t y was low
a s a t th e end o f t h r e e vjeeks i t showed s i g n s o f
b r e a k i n g and a t th e end o f f o u r weeks i t had
b r o k e n .
S i
An e m u lsio n was form ed, b u t th e f i n a l p r o d u c t
was o f p o o r c o n s i s t e n c y . I t was somewhat more
s t i f f th a n V I-0 b u t was n o t o f any b e t t e r f l a v o r ,
a p p e a ra n c e o r s t a b i l i t y . I t b ro k e a t th e end
o f f o u r weeks.
O o n c lu s io n s :
Since t h e o b j e c t o f t h i s e x p e r i m e n t a t io n was t o
o b se rv e th e e f f e c t o f th e s u b s t i t u t i o n o f w a te r
f o r o i l , t h a t p o i n t w i l l be d i s c u s s e d . When
h a l f th e o i l was r e p l a c e d by w a t e r , no e m u ls io n
form ed. The s u b s t i t u t i o n o f a t h i r d , re d u c e d th e
s t a b i l i t y g r e a t l y , a s w e ll a s th e t a s t e and th e
a p p e a r a n c e .
S e r i e s No. V II: V a r i a t i o n o f E m u l s i f i e r s :
A nother f a c t o r t h a t was v a r i e d , was th e typ e o f e m u ls i
f i e r u s e d . . The f o l l o w i n g d a t a shows th e work done:
I n g r e d i e n t s :
A B 0 D E
E gg
(w hole)
5 . 5g None None
(y o lk )
3 .2 5 g
(w hole)
2 .2 g
C o r n s t a r c h s o l ' n None
5 .5 g None None None
G . T ra g a c a n th " None None 5 .5 g 2 .2 5 g. 2 .2 5 g
O il 35 g..............35 g . 35 g 35 g 35 g
V in e g a r 4 cc 4 cc 4 cc 4 cc 4 cc
S a l t .7 5 g • 75 g „ .75 g . .75 g . 75 g
M u sta rd .16 g
. .1 6..g ..... .16 g .16 g. .1 6 g
Sugar .4 8 g . .48 g _
1
. !
€ 0 !
J i 1
1
.48 g. . 48 g
P a p r i k a
( some) ( some) ( some) ( some) ( some)
P r o c e d u r e :
A:
Same a s i n 11-A.
ILL
Same a s i n I l- A .
C l
Same a s i n II- A .
S i
Same a s i n II-A .
1 1
Same a s i n II-A .
R e s u l t :
The p r o d u c t was n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y s t i f f , y e t i t
c o u ld n o t be p o u re d . I t had a p l e a s a n t f l a v o r
and good a p p e a ra n c e . I t s s t a b i l i t y , how ever,
was low , compared w ith th e o t h e r s . At th e end
o f t h r e e weeks i t had b ro k e n .
The p r o d u c t was v e r y s t i f f . N e i t h e r th e a p p e a r
ance o r f l a v o r were s a t i s f a c t o r y . I t s s t a b i l i t y
was a l s o low s i n c e i t b ro k e a t th e end o f t h r e e
w e ek s.
G j_
T h is p r o d u c t was much more s t i f f th a n th e p r e c e d
in g p r o d u c t s . The t e x t u r e and a p p e a ra n c e , was
a l s o much b e t t e r . The f l a v o r was n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y
a p p e t i z i n g . I t s s t a b i l i t y was a l s o b e t t e r th a n th e
two p r e c e d i n g s a m p le s. I t " s to o d up" f o r f o u r
w eeks, w h ile th e o t h e r s b ro k e a t th e end o f t h r e e
weeks.
T h is p r o d u c t was n o t s t i f f a s sam ple C, b u t th e
t e x t u r e and a p p e a ra n c e were a b o u t th e same. I t s
s t a b i l i t y ra n k e d w ith sam ples A and B s i n c e i t
b ro k e a t th e end o f t h r e e w eeks.
T h is p r o d u c t was n o t v e ry s t i f f . I t was o f th e
same c o n s i s t e n c y , appea.rance and s t a b i l i t y as
V II-A . I t b ro k e a t th e end o f t h r e e weeks.
C o n c lu s io n s :
Of t h e s e e m u l s i f i e r s u s e d , gum t r a g a c a n t h s o l u t i o n
p ro d u c e d th e m ost s t a b l e e m u ls io n . None o f them ,
how ever, were a s good e m u l s i f i e r s a s egg y o l k ,
o t h e r f a c t o r s r e m a in in g th e same.
PART - 2 -
S e r i e s Ho. I : PREPARATION OF A MAYONNAISE USING AVOCADO OIL
A f te r s t u d y i n g and e x p e r im e n tin g w ith th e v a r i o u s
f a c t o r s i n th e p r e p a r a t i o n o f a s t a b l e m ay o n n aise,
th e n e x t s t e p was to p r e p a r e a m ayonnaise u s i n g th e
avocado o i l t h a t h a d b e e n p r e p a r e d i n t h i s l a b o r
a t o r y . The f o l lo w in g d a t a shows th e work done:
I n g r e d i e n t s :
A B C ....... D..............
Egg Yolk 5 .5 g 4 . 5 g 4 . 5 g ... 4 . 5 g
O il
(N o .324)
4 0 .2 cc
(N o .325)
31 cc
( 28 g)
2 8 .7 cc
( 23 g)
2 6 .4 cc
V in e g a r 4 cc 4 cc ( none) 3. 5 cc
S a l t .75 g .7 5 g .7 5 g ..75 g
M u sta rd .16 g .16 g .1 6 g ..........1 6 g
Sugar .48 g .... ...... .4 8..g . .. ... .48 g .48 g
P a p r i k a (some) ( some) ( some) ( some)
W ater (none) ( none) ( n o n e ) 2 . 5 cc
Lemon J u i c e (none) ( none) 4 cc ( none)
P r o c e d u r e :
A:
Same a s i n II-A .
Bj_
Same a s i n Hr-:A.
ilL
Same a s i n I I- A .
D:
Same a s i n II-A .
A v e ry s t i f f p r o d u c t was form ed. I t h a d , a good
t e x t u r e and a p p e a r a n c e . I t was p l e a s a n t and b l a n d
to t h e t a s t e . At th e end o f e i g h t w eeks, i t had
shown no s i g n s o f b r e a k i n g o r d e t e r i o r a t i n g i n
any way.
1 1
A v e r y s a t i s f a c t o r y p r o d u c t was form ed. I t was o f
good c o n s i s t e n c y . I t was n o t q u i t e a s s t i f f a s A.
The a p p e a ra n c e was a l s o good. I t had a m ild f l a v o r .
At th e end o f f i v e weeks i t had shwon no s i g n s o f
b r e a k i n g o r d e t e r i o r a t i n g i n any way.
£ i
The p r o d u c t was o f good c o n s i s t e n c y . I t was n o t
q u i t e a s s t i f f a s B, y e t i t c o u ld n o t be p o u re d .
The t a s t e was r a t h e r u n p l e a s a n t . The lem on j u i c e
d i d n o t b r i n g o u t th e t a s t e o f th e o i l as was a n t i
c i p a t e d . N e i th e r d i d i t i n s u r e th e s t a b i l i t y o f
th e p r o d u c t , s i n c e a t t h e end o f two weeks i t had
b ro k e n and a t th e end o f t h r e e weeks a b l a c k mold
had begun t o form .
1 1
T h is m ayonnaise was a b o u t th e same ty p e o f p r o d u c t
a s A and B. I t was a l i t t l e l e s s s t i f f . I t s
k e e p in g q u a l i t i e s , how ever, were t h e same. At
th e end o f f i v e weeks i t showed no s ig n s o f b r e a k
in g o r d e t e r i o r a t i n g in any way.
C o n c lu s io n :
From t h i s work, i t i s c o n c lu d e d t h a t avocado o i l can
be s a t i s f a c t o r i l y s u b s t i t u t e d f o r any com m ercial
s a l a d o i l now on th e m ark et f o r p r e p a r a t i o n o f mayon
n a i s e . The k e e p in g q u a l i t i e s o f th e p r o d u c t compare
f a v o r a b l y w ith th e k e e p in g q u a l i t i e s o f th e p r o d u c t
p r e p a r e d w ith Wesson O i l .
W )j
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
In t h i s r e s e a r c h th e t h e o r i e s o f e m u l s i f i c a t i o n , ty p e s
o f e m u ls io n s , th e f o r m a tio n and m ethods o f d e te r m i n i n g ty p e s
o f e m u lsio n were s t u d i e d .
The p ro b le m s o f m ayonnaise m a n u fa c tu re were s t u d i e d
and t h e p h a s e s o f e a c h pro b lem have b e e n ta k e n up and d i s
c u s s e d and w h e rev e r p o s s i b l e , a i d s in o v erco m ing such p r o b
lem s were s u g g e s te d .
Commercial s a l a d d r e s s i n g s and m ay o n n aises have been
d i s c u s s e d and c o m p a riso n s c i t e d . E x p e r im e n ta l work on
a n a l y s i s o f s a l a d d r e s s i n g s was p e rfo rm e d .
E x p e rim e n ta l work on th e p r e p a r a t i o n o f a s t a b l e
m a y o n n a ise , u s i n g com m ercial s a l a d o i l was done and th e
f o l l o w i n g p ro c e d u r e f o r th e c o n d i t i o n o f th e e x p e rim e n t was
fo u n d to p rodu ce th e b e s t e m u ls io n .
I n g r e d i e n t s :
5 .5 g egg y o lk
4 0 .2 cc o i l
4 cc v i n e g a r
.75 g s a l t
.16 g m u sta rd
.48 g su g a r
p a p r i k a
P r o c e d u r e :
W eighed egg y o lk was p la c e d in b e a k e r t o g e t h e r
w ith s p i c e s and s u g a r . T h is was p l a c e d i n th e
a p p a r a t u s , p r e v i o u s l y d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s p a p e r ,
and b e a t e n a t th e h i g h e s t sp eed o f th e b e a t e r .
A sm a ll q u a n t i t y ’ ? o f o i l b e in g added slo w ly b e
f o r e any v i n e g a r ad d ed . Then c o n tin u e a d d in g b o t h
v i n e g a r and o i l , u n t i l a l l th e v in e g a r was ad ded,
b e a t i n g th e whole c o n t i n u o u s l y . The b e a t i n g con
t i n u e d u n t i l a l l o f th e o i l was added and e m u l s i f
i e d .
The p r o d u c t t h a t form ed u n d e r t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s was
o f good t e x t u r e , c o n s i s t e n c y and f l a v o r . I t had th e h i g h e s t
s t a b i l i t y o f any o f th e p r o d u c t s k e p t i n t h e c o n d i t i o n o f
t h i s s tu d y .
E x p e r im e n ta l work was t h e n done on th e p r e p a r a t i o n o f
a s t a b l e m ay o n n a ise, u s i n g avocado o i l . I n g r e d i e n t s were
v a r i e d u n t i l th e q u a l i t y and t a s t e compared f a v o r a b l y w ith th e
b e s t m ay o n n a ises on th e m a rk e t. The k e e p in g q u a l i t i e s o f th e
p r o d u c t ran k e d a lo n g w ith th e k e e p in g q u a l i t i e s o f th e p r o d u c t s
p r e p a r e d w ith Wesson O i l .
From t h i s r e s e a r c h i t i s c o n c lu d e d t h a t a m ayonnaise
c o n t a i n i n g 7 6 .1 p e r c e n t avocado o i l , form ed th e b e s t p r o d u c t ,
and t h a t avocado o i l can be s a t i s f a c t o r i l y s u b s t i t u t e d f o r any
com m ercial s a l a d o i l now on th e m ark et f o r th e p r e p a r a t i o n o f
m ayonnai s e .
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Creator Hutchison, G. M (author)

Core Title A study of the emulsification of edible oils

Degree Master of Arts

Degree Program Chemistry

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag agriculture, food science and technology,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor [illegible] (committee chair), Johnstone, George R. (committee member), Stabler, Laird J. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c17-786162

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Rights Hutchison, G. M.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

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