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A cross-ventilation study on a building with skip-stop corridors
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A cross-ventilation study on a building with skip-stop corridors
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A CROSS-VENTILATION STUDY O N A BUILDING W ITH SKIP-STOP CORRIDORS by H si-C heng W ang A T hesis Presented to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial F ulfillm ent of the R equirem ents for the D egree MASTER OF BUILDING SCIENCE A ugust 1990 C opyright 1990 H si-C heng W ang UMI Number: EP41421 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Publishing UMI EP41421 Published by ProQ uest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQ uest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United S tates Code ProQ uest LLC. 789 E ast Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 4 8 1 0 6 -1 3 4 6 U N IV E R SITY O F S O U T H E R N C A L IF O R N IA T H E G R A D U A T E S C H O O L U N IV E R S IT Y PA R K L O S A N G E L E S . C A L IF O R N IA 9 0 0 0 7 .S . ’90 W 2 4 6 This thesis, written by Hsi-Cheng Wang under the direction of h.}.f. Thesis Committee, and approved by all its members, has been pre sented to and accepted by the Dean of The Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master o f Building S c ie n c e Dean Date ..... THESIS C O M M O T E E man Ac k n o w l e d g e m e n t s I am very grateful to m y thesis advisor, Prof. M arc Schiler, for his support and careful guidance. I w ould like to thank Prof. Pierre Koenig for his guidance and use of the w ind-tunnel. T hanks to Prof. Ralph K now les for his inspiration in m y thesis topic. M any thanks to Prof. G o etz S chierle for his g u id a n c e , e n c o u ra g e m e n t a n d s u p p o rt th ro u g h o u t my g rad u a te study. I also w ant to thank Prof. Baruch Givoni for his being a m em ber of m y thesis com m ittee. Special thanks to my parents, C hih-M ing and Ping-H siu W ang, and the entire W ang fam ily for their concern and encouragem ent, and m y girlfriend, Yuh- Mei, for alw ays cheering m e up. ABSTRACT M any m o d ern architectural designs are sh o rt of energy conservation concerns and cause the w aste of electric pow er and natural resources. To f m in im ize the in ad e q u ate energy co n su m p tio n an d im p ro v e hum an j com fort, a clim ate-responsive design is valuable. Since the o p tim al clim ate-responsive design strateg y in a h o t-h u m id clim ate is v en tilatio n , the p u rp o se of this thesis is to ex p lo re the p o ssib ilities of using sk ip -sto p system s to im p ro v e the v en tilatio n problem s in m id to high-rise buildings w hich respond effectively to the hot-hum id clim ate of Taipei, Taiw an, R. O. C. The study includes several series of tests based on three p ro to ty p ica l cross-sections a n d som e suggestions are given at the end. KEYWORDS: C ross-ventilation, Passive C ooling M ethods, Skip-stop Systems TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. TAIW A N, R. O. C. 1.1 Introduction to Taiw an 1.2 Present Energy C onservation N eeds 2. CLIM ATIC ANALYSIS 2.1 Clim atic Data 2.2 A nalysis of Clim atic Data 2.3 W ind Rose 3. H O U SIN G IN TAIW AN 3.1 Traditional Dwellings 3.2 M odern H ousing 4. REQUIREM ENTS FOR THERM AL COM FO RT 4.1 H um an Com fort 4.2 T em perature 4.3 H um idity 4.4 Air M ovem ent 4.5 Ventilation 4.6 Clothing 5. PASSIVE COOLING M ETHODS 5.1 Convective Cooling 5.2 R adiant Cooling 5.3 E vaporative Cooling 5.4 Earth Cooling 5.5 W ind Scoop 2 5 7 10 14 20 28 31 36 38 40 43 44 47 48 50 54 58 V 6. PROPOSED SOLUTION 6.1 H ypothesis 64 6.2 Goals 64 6.3 Introduction to Skip-Stop Systems 66 6.4 W ind Tunnel Test M ethodology 72 7. RESULTS A N D OBSERVATIONS 7.1 Results of Experim ents 80 7.2 O bservations and Propositions 94 7.3 Design G uidelines for H ot-H um id Clim ates 98 8. APPENDIX 103 9. REFERENCES 131 10. BIBLIOGRAPHY 137 LIST OF FIGURES 1.1 Taiw an, R. O. C. 2 1.2 Prevailing W inds in Taiw an 3 1.3 Taipei, Taiw an 4 2.1 A nnual A verage W ind Velocity in T aiw an 8 2.2 A nnual A verage Relative H um idity in Taiw an 9 2.3 Clim atic D ata A nalysis #1--Tem perature C urve & Relative H um idity 10 2.4 Clim atic D ata Analysis #2— Bioclimatic Tim etable 10 2.5 Clim atic D ata Analysis #3— Psychrom etic C hart 11 2.6 Clim atic D ata Analysis #4— Bioclimatic C hart 12 2.7 Clim atic D ata A nalysis #5--W ind Velocity, Insolation & Precipitation 13 2.8 W ind Roses in Taiw an [ 6(5) a.m. in sum m er tim e ] 15 2.9 W ind Roses in Taiw an [ 2 p.m . in sum m er tim e ] 16 2.10 W ind Roses in Taiw an [ 10(9) p.m. in sum m er tim e ] 17 2.11 W ind Roses in Taipei 18 3.1a Traditional D w elling #1 : Plan 22 3.1b T raditional Dw elling #1 : Elevation 23 3.2a Traditional D w elling #2 : Plan 24 3.2b Traditional Dw elling #2 : Elevation 25 3.3 Traditional Dw elling #3 26 3.4 Traditional Dw elling #4 27 3.5 Typical A partm ent H ouse in Taipei 29 4.1 Safe Periods of Exposure for Extrem e E nvironm ental T em peratures 31 4.2 H eat Balance of the H um an Body Interacting W ith its E nvironm ent 32 4.3 Bioclimatic C hart 34 4.4 Psychrom etic C hart 35 4.5 H eat Exchange at N oon for Sum m er Days 36 4.6 Effect of Sub-D ivision of the Interior on the D istribution of Internal Air Speeds 42 4.7 Exam ples of a Range of Clo Values 45 5.1 R adiant Cooling 49 5.2 Exam ple of the Process of Evaporation 51 5.3 Indirect Evaporative Cooling 53 5.4 Direct Earth-C oupled Cooling 56 5.5 Indirect Earth-C oupled Cooling 57 5.6 Exam ples of the W ind-Scoop 59 5.7 W ind-Scoop in H yderabad, Pakistan 60 6.1 Vertical D istribution of W ind 65 6.2 Basic Skip-Stop Schemes 66 6.3 Skip-Stop System s 67 6.4a U nite D 'habitation for M arseilles : Cross-Section 68 6.4b U nite D 'habitation for M arseilles : Perspective 69 6.5-la Exam ple #1 of the Skip-Stop System : Cross-Section 69 6.5-lb Exam ple #1 of the Skip-Stop System : Plan 70 6.5-2 Exam ple #2 of the Skip-Stop System 71 6.6 Types of the Cross-Section Studies 72 6.7 Series 1 Study 73 6.8 Series 2 Study 74 6.9 Series 3 Study 75 6.10 Locations of the Tufts 76 6.11 Installation of the Pitot-Tube 77 6.12 Locations of Presssure Readings 78 6.13 Sim ulating C ity M odel in the W ind-Tunnel 78 7.1 Locations of the M easuring Points in Series 1 & 2 84 7.2 Locations of the M easuring Points in Series 3 85 7.3 Pressure C urve 1-1, 1-n, l-III 87 7.4 Pressure C urve 2-1, 2-II, 2-III 88 7.5 Pressure C urve 3-1,3-Et, 3-III 89 7.6 Pressure C urve l-(O'), l-(5'), 1-(10') 90 7.7 Pressure C urve 2-(5'), 2-(l O') 91 7.8 Pressure C urve 3-(5'), 3-(10') 92 7.9 Pressure C urves in Series 4 93 7.10 A Proposed Layout for Skip-Stop Schemes 95 7.11 Internal Air Speeds in A Room W ith An External W all 96 7.12 A ppropriate D epth of The W ing-W all 97 7.13 A P roposed Solution for The V entilation Problem in The Efficiency U nit 97 7.14 Double W alls & Exterior Screens 98 7.15 T em perature V ariation C urve 99 7.16 Layout of Buildings 100 7.17 Planning for H igh Residential Density 101 7.18 D isposition of H igh- and Low-Rise Buildings 101 7.19 R elationship Betw een High-Rise and Low-Rise Buildings 102 7.20 Effect of The D epth of The Building on The Extent of The Shadow 102 xi LIST GF TABLES 2.1 Clim atic Data in Taipei 7 41 The C apacity of the Air for W ater V apor (lbs. /1000 cu. ft.) 38 5.1 Preferred Air Velocities 62 7.1 The Pressure Readings of Series 1 80 7.2 The Pressure Readings of Series 2 & 3 81 7.3 The Pressure Readings of Series 4 93 1 TAIWAN R. O. C. 2 1.1 IN T R O D U C T IO N TO TAIW A N T aiw an is situated in the SE coastal region of C hina, an d lies betw een longitudes 119° and 124° East of the G reenw ich M eridian and betw een latitu d es 21° and 26° N o rth of the E quator. It is w ithin the seas and there are a few ranges of m ountains going through the island in north- so u th direction. —USSR JAPAN ’ KOREA A--XP' \j PACIFIC C . -V o c e a n <1TAIWA Fig. 1.1 Taiw an, R. O. C. O ne of p red o m in an t factors of the clim ate of T aiw an is the M onsoon. T he N E M onsoon W ind th riv es in w in ter, so w in ter is th e rain y season in the NE p art of the island. The SW M onsoon W ind prevails in sum m er and causes rain in the SW p a rt of the island. Because the direction w hich the NE T rade W ind com es from is in accord w ith that of the N E M onsoon W ind , the n o rth p a rt an d coastal region of the isla n d e n c o u n te r stro n g e r w in d forces. G en erally sp e ak in g , the blow ing period of the NE M onsoon W ind is O ctober th rough A pril and the d o m in an t m onths are O ctober, N ovem ber and D ecem ber; that of the SW M onsoon W ind is M ay th ro u g h Septem ber, an d its d o m in an t m onths are June, July and A ugust. 3 B o T z 6 W 1Z5. Sum m er W inter M onsoon ____ T rade W ind ____ Fig. 1.2 Prevailing W inds in Taiw an N oticeably, the strength an d stability of the SW M onsoon are inferior to those of the NE M onsoon , and som etim es its force is over-w eak and d istu rb ed by other w in d s (ex. local w ind) , so its perform ance is not obvious. F urtherm ore, T aiw an is on the p a th of typhoons, so typh o o n s often pass th rough the island in sum m er. Taipei is situ ated in the center of Taipei Basin in N o rth T aiw an, and lies on latitude 25° N o rth of the E quator and longitude 121 °31' East of the G reenw ich M eridian. O w ing to the o b stru ctio n of the volcanic ran g e of M o u n tain D ah-T w en, the N E M onsoon tu rn s a ro u n d and keeps going w estw ards along C hilung River; the SW M onsoon, d u e to the o b stru ctio n of Lin-K oou tab lelan d an d its inferior stab ility an d strength, can only dom inate in July and A ugust. The d o m in an t w ind in the rem aining m onths of the year is the East W ind, its yearly m ean velocity is 2.9 m /s e c ; the m onthly m ean velocity in blow ing period of the NE M onsoon W ind is 3.1 m /sec , that in SW 's is 2.5 m /sec. 4 TAIPEI J f c ^ _ t. D ah-Tw en iC hilung River Fig. 1.3 Taipei, Taiw an 1.2 PRESENT ENERGY CO N SERVA TION NEEDS Taiw an is a hot-hum id island. In o rd er to create a com fortable living space, keeping out heat gain and excluding the unnecessary h eat and h u m id ity are the m ain objectives. Since the air-conditioner cam e out, it becam e the m ain solution to keep the interior space cool. O w ing to its m ass-application, electric pow er consum ption has increased largely; im p o rta n tly , th e released h e a t from co n d itio n ers also causes the d e te rio ra tio n of the environm ent. Since the energy crisis existed, en erg y conservation has becam e th e m ain issue. In ad d itio n , the T aiw anese oppose the establishm ent of nuclear pow er plants. The best w ay to m aintain the quality of the en v iro n m en t an d red u ce energy co nsum ption in air-conditioning is to p ro m o te n atu ral v en tilatio n in buildings. In Taiw an m ost of the buildings have been poorly designed in term s of n a tu ra l v en tilatio n , so I w an t to explore the possibility of n a tu ra l v en tilatio n in resid en tial space by m eans of a ltern a tin g floors an d corridors, and present som e criteria for architects' use. CLIMATIC ANALYSIS 7 2.1 CLIM ATIC DATA The clim atic d ata included here w ere g ath ered over a p eriod of fifteen years by the N atio n al M eteorological B ureau in T aiw an. The d ata show m on th ly values for tem p eratu re, h u m id ity , w in d velocity and in so latio n . TRIPS 1 JRN 1EB m u r RPH MRY JUN JUL RUG SEP OCT NOU DEC VERR MONTHLY RUE. 5 9 .4 5 9 .4 63.1 69 .0 7 5 .7 00.1 03.1 0 2 .0 7 9 .9 73.9 6 8 .4 62.6 7 1 .6 MBII.flUE.HIGH 6 6 .4 6 6 .2 7 0 .T 77 .7 04 .0 00 .7 92 .3 9 1 .0 0 8 .5 01.5 7 5 .4 69.6 7 9 .3 MIN.RUE .LOUI 54.0 54.1 37 .6 63 .7 6 9.6 73 .0 76.1 76.1 7 3 .6 6 8 .4 63.1 57.6 6 3 .7 EWTREME HIGH 8 9 .4 OR.5 9 5 .0 97 .2 9 8 .4 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 1 .5 1 00.6 9 8 .0 97 .0 93 .7 0 8 .7 101 .5 EHTT1EME LOU) 3 1 .0 3 1 .6 3 4 .5 40 .5 58 .0 60.1 67.1 6 6 .0 5 6 .3 5 0 .4 3 4 .0 3 5 .2 31 .6 DHY 0 1 Tf EHENCE 12 .4 12.1 13.1 14.0 1 4 .4 14.9 16.2 15.7 14.9 13.1 12.3 12.0 13.6 REMRRKS PERIOD: 10 9 7 - 1 9 0 0 u n it : d e g r e e r T E M P E R RTURE TAIPEI JRN i e d 1 MRR RPR MRY JU N 1 JUL RUG SEP OCT NOU DEC VERR MONTHLV RUE. 03 0 4 | 03 02 02 02 | 70 70 79 00 01 02 01 r e m a r k s PERIOD: 1 8 9 7 -1 9 8 0 UNIT: 7 ■ R t L n T i U E Hu m i d i t y TBIPII JRN TED MRR RPR MRY JUN JUL RUG SEP OCT NOU DEC VERR MERN 6 .5 6.5 6 .3 6 .0 5 .6 4 .9 5 .2 5 .0 6 .7 0 .3 7 .0 6 .9 6 .5 MRU. 30.0 2 8 .6 3 2 .4 37.6 33.6 4 2 .5 61.1 73.0 6 8 .5 5 2 .6 3 9 .2 30 .9 7 3 .0 PREUfllLING C E E E E E SSE ESC E E E E E REMARKS PERIOD: 1 8 9 7 -1 9 8 5 ON IT: MPH WIND UeLOCITY and DIRECTION TRIPE 1 JRN 1ED MHR RPR MRY JUN JUL HUG SEP OCT NOU DEC VEHR HS INSOLRTION 5 3 3 .0 6 1 6 .7 6 6 6 .4 0 8 5 .2 0 8 0 .5 1 D01 12 6 0 1 1 6 5 ID 79 0 2 7 .0 5 5 2 .9 517 .1 032 .1 REMRRKS PERIOD: 1 9 7 5 - 1 9 8 4 UNIT: B lU /s q . f t . p e r d ay INSOLRTION TRIPE 1 JRN CEB MRR RPR MRY JUN JUL RUG SEP OCT NOU DEC VERR PRECIPITOTION 3 .6 5 .2 6 .6 6 .3 0 .6 11.7 9.3 11.0 9 .5 4 .0 2.0 2.9 0 2 .5 DfllLV MRR. 3 .0 2 .4 4 .6 9 .6 6 .9 7 .0 14.1 11.3 13.1 7 .0 4 .7 3.1 14.1 HOURLY MRII. 0 .0 0 .9 1.3 4 .3 2 .7 3 .4 4.0 3 .4 4 .2 2 .2 1 .4 O.B 4 .3 onvs 16 16 17 14 16 16 14 14 14 15 15 16 183 REMARKS PERIOD: 109 7 - 190 0 UNIT: INCH P R E C I P I T A T I O N Table 2.1 Clim atic D ata in Taipei " ■ > / •\Rauj Fig. 2.1 A nnual A verage W ind Velocity in T aiw an [1] 80% Fig. 2.2 A nnual A verage Relative H um idity in Taiw an [2] 10 2.2 ANALYSIS OF CLIM ATIC DATA In review ing the clim atic d a ta of Taipei city, som e factors becom e apparent: 1) M onthly average tem peratures ap p ear to go u p from 60 °F till the highest July( 83 °F ), and then com e dow n on a y ear-round basis. From the tem p eratu re curve figure, w e can find th a t it m ight be overheating from M ay to O ctober, th a t is, w e n eed cooling to m ake occupants com fortable. 2) The m o n th ly average h u m id ity rem ains b etw een 78% and 84% year-round. F TEMPERATURES REI. HUMIDITY 1 2 8 REC HI j MAX DAY MIN LO REC 1 ■ui inn 4 . 1 - ■ m * * - » 1 1 | { | | 100 h : 5 0 LO ! JFMAMJJASOND JFMAMJJASOND Fig. 2.3 Clim atic D ata A nalysis # l~ T e m p e ratu re C urve & Relative H um idity TOO HOT COMFORT TOO COLD FRIGID H >81 F H 6 8 - 8 1 F □ 4 0 - 6 8 F f < 4 0 F 12 NOON NOON 12 J F M A M J J A S O N D Fig. 2.4 Clim atic D ata A nalysis #2— Bioclimatic Tim etable 3) The m o nthly average w in d velocity ranges betw een 5 m p h an d 9 m ph. M ost of the tim e the w ind com es from the east. 4) The m onthly daily difference of tem p eratu re is betw een 12°F and 16 °F. This indicates a very low d iu rn al tem p eratu re sw ing, w hich is typical in hot-hum id clim ates. 5) The distribution of tem p eratu re and hu m id ity on the Psychrom etric C h art show s th a t the best solution for this k in d of clim ate in sum m er sh o u ld be ventilation. Ren-Jeng Yang, in his p ap ers " P otentiality of N a tu ra l V entilation in E nergy-C onserving A rchitecture in T aiw an— by the A nalysis of the W eather in Sum m er " [3], said there are ab o u t 1436 hours( 65% of the daytim e ) in the range of ventilation. Also, on the Bioclim atic C hart w e find th at w in d is desirable for keeping people in th e com fort zone. MONTHLY NAME:HSI-CHEN DATA . ‘TAIPEI R. H.(X) 100 80 60 40 COMFORT MB 0 T e w p l-di I DB 0 60 / J F M A M J J A S O N D Do you want a copy (y/n) ? 80 100 120 Fig. 2.5 Clim atic D ata A nalysis #3— Psychrom etic C hart PRY8ULB' TEMPERATVRB F* PROBAVLC SvMkT*OK» try/HOM i * A » t* T tO M 'M C W * U N * R tL A T I V t H U M ID ITY % Fig. 2.6 Clim atic D ata Analysis #4--Bioclimatic C hart [4] 13 WIND VELOCITY IN TAIPEI MPH 10 .............................. ................................................................. . _________ __ y JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JU N JU L AUG 9 E P OCT NOV DEC INSOLATION IN TAIPEI 1 4 0 0 1200 1000 8 0 0 6 0 0 4 0 0 200 B T U /8Q .FT . DAY . ........................ .......... z C : rT T 'x y .. \ y \ .............. \ A - J-- _ J —L .. . 1 . I t l i i JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JU L AUQ 9 E P OCT NOV DEC PRECIPITATION IN TAIPEI INCH 1 4 12 10 JA N FEB MAR A PR MAY JUN JUL AUQ S E P OCT NOV DEC MONTH Fig. 2.7 Clim atic D ata A nalysis #5--W lnd Velocity, Insolation & Precipitation 4 j ! ! 2.3 W IN D ROSE i The w ind roses in m y thesis w ere m ade by Jia-Ji C hern according to the m onthly average and yearly average w ind roses over a ten-year period( i 1971-1980 ) from " W eather R eport E dition, Section 4 T hese w in d j l s roses show the annual direction, velocity, and frequency of w in d in J Taipei. i £ A / TA»P&I -v.^jtT ' r" .•^ V ' r ' . j V Fig- 2-8 W ind Roses in Taiw an [ 6(5) a.m. in sum m er tim e ] [5] Fig. 2.9 W ind Roses in T aiw an [ 2 p.m. in sum m er tim e 1 [61 Fig. 2.10 W ind Roses in Taiw an [ 10(9) p.m . in sum m er tim e ] [7] iIf A • 0 2 . 90 X '■ .m.. Jan, Feb (Winter), 2 p.m., Jan, Feb (Winter) 1 1 .2 0 I 10 p.m.. Jan, Feb (Winter); m., Jul, Aug (Summer) 2 p.m.. Jul, Aug (Summer) 10 p.m. Jul, Aug (Summer)! c o i Fig. 2.11! Wind Roses in Taipei! [8] HOUSING IN TAIW AN 20 3.1 TRA D ITIO N A L DW ELLINGS The dw elling in Fig. 3.1 is located in South T aiw an, and is m ainly built of bam boo-clay. The prevailing w ind directions are W at noon, and SE in the e v en in g in sum m er. T he an aly sis of the v e n tilatio n is as follow s: 1) A lthough there are openings oriented to the prevailing w ind, they should be larger. 2) The sm all courtyards actually interfere w ith ventilation in som e room s. The south w alls of the courtyards should be opened to I 5 induce w in d and their dim ension m ust be adjusted. j j The dw elling in Fig. 3.2 is situ ated in South T aiw an, and is prim arily j b u ilt of bam boo-clay. The p revailing w in d directions are W at noon, j a n d SE in the e v en in g in su m m e r tim e. T he a n a ly sis of th e j ventilation is as follows: j 1) The house is divided into three parts. This helps ventilation in room s at the corner. j 2) The courtyard's dim ension is good, b u t it should be adequately I oriented tow ard the prevailing w ind direction to prom ote j ventilation. j 3) There are enough openings for ventilation use. { j ! T he d w ellin g in Fig. 3.3 is located in N o rth T aiw an, an d is b u ilt of j sandstone. The prevailin g w inds are from NE at noon, an d S in the | evening in sum m er time. The analysis of the ventilation is as follows: 1) O penings in w ind directions are inadequate and too sm all. They should be larger and m ore . j 2) P artitions should not be too solid to block ventilation. j The house in Fig. 3.4 is also situ ated in N o rth T aiw an, and is prim arily j b u ilt of sandstone. The prevailing w inds are from E at noon, an d SE in j j the evening in sum m er. The analysis of the ventilation is as follows: 1) The quantity of openings should be increased and those in the u p w in d direction should be larger. 2) The courtyard should be oriented into the w ind direction, w hich increases its function of ventilation . A s a re su lt, w e g o t som e conclusions from a n aly zin g trad itio n a l dw ellings in Taiw an, they are as follows: 1. The dim ension of the courtyard m ust be adequate, and the courtyard should be oriented to the prevailing sum m er w ind. 2. Partitions should not be too solid; they should have som e apertures. 3. O penings should be larger, but those oriented into the p re v a ilin g w in d s h o u ld be re la tiv e ly sm a lle r th a n th e do w n w in d ones to increase w ind velocity indoors. 4. There should be appropriate shading devices around openings. 5. The heat resistance of the roof m aterial m u st be im proved to keep out solar heat in sum m er. r- 7 » 369 371 300 370 873 82 i r i r NO.6 D O -J m 310 • 328 * • NO,1 1 NO.3 • I i ■ ■ s v m m m iM ttititl 1317 U - 1 0 3 Fig. 3.1a Traditional Dwelling #1: Plan. [9]: •CT* r i r r1 ia us l M il i n i r Jill I I — rr 'u— lim n --- | T — 1 lU l * n ir~ IH 4 “_ l — i It N u » 0 1 2 3 4 5 M I E Fig. 3.1b Traditional Dwelling #1: Elevation. [10]' M ¥--------317 383* 316 278 74 77- 400 I T\ JYl , C l . IY1 133 296 323 433 w f S ? ) 0 1 2 3 4 5 H V j y Fig. 3.2ai Traditional Dwelling #2 : Plan; [11] Fig. 3.2b Traditional Dwelling #2 : Elevation: [12]: m s B B m agm M W M m w w r j } J L a • N anL k l , •Jn o . 6 • N l W / / / / / / / / / / / / A I — I »M Fig. 3.31 Traditional Dwelling #3 [13] Fig. 3.4! Traditional Dwelling #4! [14]' 3.2 M O D ERN H O U SIN G Figure 3.5 show s a typical ap artm en t house in Taipei. It results from the req u ire d h ig h resid en tial d e n sity — to m axim ize the scarce lan d so u rces, b u ild in g s te n d to be h ig h -rise. S u p er-b lo ck p la n n in g techniques have been ad o p ted in large project sites, in o rd er to relieve the o vercrow ded situation. In view of the plan, w e can perceive th at the ventilation conditions are very p o o r in th at w e can not o b tain m uch cross-ventilation. A nd ow ing to the use of R einforced C oncrete as a construction m aterial, it w ill o v erh eat indoors at night w h en occupants com e hom e. T he best w ay to get rid of the u ndesirable h eat and save energy is to enhance C ross-V entilation. T hat is w hy I w ould like to explore the perform ance of cross-ventilation in buildings w ith skip-stop floors and corridors. 29 Ba Ba K iBa hall PLAN A-A SECTION Fig. 3.5 Typical A partm ent H ouse in Taipei 30 REQUIREMENTS FOR THERMAL COMFORT 4.1 H U M A N CO M FO RT T h ro u g h the cen tu ries m an k in d has successfully liv ed in d ifferen t regions of th e earth, no m atter the equator or the poles. This attributes to their ad ap tab ility of the clim ate, how ever, physiologically, m en can only com fortably resist a sm all range of clim atic variation. M an has to use fire, clo th in g , sh elters o r o th er mfeans to h elp a d ju st to local clim ates. If the environm ental tem perature is 105'F, the safe period of exposure at 100% RH is about 0.25 hr, b u t at 60% RH it is 1 hr (see Fig 4.1); this m eans th a t a m an can e n d u re extrem ely high tem p eratu re w ith low er hum idity. V arious races or cultures have different feelings of com fort; tolerance for heat is alw ays larger in hot cultures of the tropics, w hile cold is less b o th erso m e to th o se acclim ated to arctic conditions. T here is no "ideal tem p era tu re " for any h u m an being, three categories of factors w ill affect com fort: personal, measurable environmental an d psychological. [15] 145 Subjects at rest — Subjects at wort 88 Htu(ftJ)(hr). 140 145 130 125 UL ->30% RH a > < 9 a . E a > c I D E '60% RH. c o 105 > c U J 1 0 0 95 100% RH 9 0 85 15 2-5 3 2 0 5 1 0 Fig. 4.1 Safe Periods of Exposure for E xtrem e E nvironm ental T em peratures [16] Safe exposure, hr | In order to be com fortable, the h u m an body has to obtain a heat balance ! w ith its en v iro n m en t. A ccording to V aughn B ra d sh aw 's "B uilding | C o n tro l S y stem s", the re la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n h u m a n b o d y 's h e a t I pro d u ctio n and its other heat gains an d losses can be represented as: | M=E ± R ± C ± S (Fig 4.2) j i w here: M =M etabolic rate E=Rate of heat loss by evaporation, respiration, and elim ination R=Radiation rate C =C onduction and convection rate S=Body heat storage rate M = E » B t C * S Fig. 4.2 H eat Balance of the H u m an Body Interacting W ith its E nvironm ent [17] p ro d u ces heat. W hile en v iro n m en tal conditions cause the rate of the com bined heat loss from rad iatio n , conduction, an d convection to be less th an that of the b o d y 's h eat p ro d u ctio n , the excess h eat w ill be stored in the body tissue. O n account of the lim ited therm al storage Radiation Evaporation H eat Storai (§) T he m etabolic rate (M) is alw ays positive because th e b o d y alw ays capacity of th e body, the body h eat storage rate (S) is alw ays sm all. H ence, to correct this situation, the b o d y increases the rate of blood flow to raise the skin tem p eratu re, an d th en the skin releases heat by conduction, convection an d radiation; m oreover, pores o pen to sw eat an d the sw eatin g dissipates h eat by ev ap o rativ e cooling of the skin. This is especially im p o rtan t in a ho t-h u m id clim ate. T he b o d y can g ain or lose h eat by ra d ia tio n (R) an d co n d u ctio n - c o n v e c tio n (C), d e p e n d in g o n th e s u rro u n d in g s . H o w e v e r, e v a p o ra tio n is d e fin ite ly a cooling p ro cess. W h en the a m b ien t te m p e ra tu re becom es so high th at ra d ia n t or convective h eat losses cannot take place, ev ap o ratio n becom es the d o m in a n t factor to keep body cool. In h o t-d ry clim ates ev ap o ratio n occurs so easily as to be invisible, w hile it becom es visible in the form of p ersp iratio n in a hot- h u m id clim ate because of the high m o istu re content in the air. Since evaporation is difficult in hot-hum id clim ates, w e need to accelerate its progress to keep com fortable. H ence, it becom es necessary to create air i m ovem ents across the skin surface. B asically, the in h ab itan ts in h o t-h u m id areas e n co u n ter tw o m ajor problem s: high solar rad iatio n an d high m o istu re content. They have to avoid excessive solar rad iatio n an d ev ap o rate the p e rsp ira tio n by breezes to keep in com fort. The m ajor elem ents of clim atic e n v iro n m en t w hich influence h u m an com fort are air tem p eratu re, rad iatio n , h u m id ity , and air m ovem ent. F ig u re 4.3 sh o w s th e h u m a n co m fo rt c h a rt w h ich o u tlin e s th e re la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n te m p e ra tu re , h u m id ity , air m o v e m e n t a n d h u m an com fort. It indicates that above the com fort zone it is essential to in tro d u c e som e cooling m eth o d s such as sh a d in g , v en tilatio n or ; h u m id ific a tio n to re sto re com fort. T his c h a rt is a p p lic a b le to j in h a b ita n ts of th e te m p e ra te clim ates in th e U n ited States, w ith I custom ary clothing, doing sedentary or light w ork. Since people in | various cultures have different tolerance for the clim ate, the r 34 I in h a b ita n ts in h o t-h u m id clim ates are m o re to le ra n t to h ig h er | tem p eratu re an d hum idity. W ei-Yu H ung, in his thesis “R esearch on [ the C lim atic A d a p ta b ility of T rad itio n a l D w ellin g s in T aiw an " , | suggested the com fort zone range as show n in the oblique-line area: I DBT=68°F ~ 81 °F, RH=40% ~ 80%. I | In a d d itio n , G iv o n i a n d M u rra y M iln e e la b o ra te d on th e ? “p sy c h ro m etric ch art" by p lo ttin g the co m fo rt zo n e a n d d esig n | stra te g ie s on it (as sh o w n in Fig 4.4); it n o t o n ly in d ic a te s the j relatio n sh ip betw een DBT, WBT, RH, absolute h u m id ity an d h u m an J com fort, b u t also p resen ts d esig n strateg ies for a specific clim ate, j T herefore, w e can select som e a p p ro p ria te strategies to a p p ly to our j designs to achieve h u m an com fort in different clim ates. 120 §no 20 40 60 20 9 0 100 iteLAWt HUMpcrr% ' Fig. 4.3 B iodim atic C hart Conve.rrhonal DUiumidiPicabon and Air Condi+iomnc| VerrVda-hovv Comtbr-t Zone. * \ 5°i‘ * * e n0. Conventional Heahncy> ' \0 O - 10* 2° o r t- tf) “ 2 o / ln+<triial Gamt= > Passive. Solar* Active. Solar S h a d e — oil O - 5 — oTO W ET BUL& \ ~ j .f.-W ^Air ^ 1 ^Conditioning T" H i qh Thermal - ' M a ^ U //M lqh: -ooi Ventilation 0° io° 20“ 30“ 40" 50° fA60° DRTT BULB TEMPERATURE Humid ifi cation' Hiqh . Thermal M a w 1 ■ Evaporative. Cooling Fig. 4.4! Psychrometic Chart -D esign Strategies; 36 j 4.2 TEM PERATURE | C lim ate an d w eath er are greatly affected by the sun. In th e daytim e, I w h en solar rad iatio n p en etrates the e arth 's atm o sp h ere, its intensity is | greatly red u ced an d the spectral d istrib u tio n is ch anged o w in g to the \ atm o sp h ere's absorption, reflection an d scattering. (Fig 4.5) T hen, the ■ i j rem aining solar rad iatio n heats u p the surface of the earth an d changes | I the air tem perature above it. Since the air is tran sp aren t to m ost of the j j j so lar ra d ia tio n , so lar ra d ia tio n has only an in d ire c t effect on air j ! i \ te m p e ra tu re . 1 to th e *urfoc* Surface Universal space Heal tronipoH by: Fig. 4.5 H eat Exchange at N oon for Sum m er D ays [18] The rate of heating an d cooling of the earth surface is the p red o m in an t factor of th e air tem p eratu re. In the d a y tim e th e air layer w hich directly contacts w ith the w arm g ro u n d is h eated by conduction; the h e a t is th e n tran sfe rred to the u p p e r layers m ain ly by convection. W inds bring large m asses of air th ro u g h the earth surface to be heated in this w ay. D uring the nighttim e, ow ing to longw ave re-radiation to the sky, the surface of the earth is u su ally cooler th an the air, so the h eat exchange is rev ersed an d the air in contact w ith the g ro u n d is cooled. T hus, the d iu rn al an d an n u al p a ttern s of air tem p era tu re d e p en d on the altern atio n of the tem p eratu re of the earth surface. In this aspect, th ere are w id e differences b etw een lan d a n d w a te r surfaces. G reat bodies of w ater such as seas an d lakes are affected m ore slow ly than lan d m asses because of the w ater's high heat capacity. Therefore, these w ater surfaces are cooler in su m m er a n d w arm er in w in ter th an land surfaces on th e sam e latitude, that is, the average air tem p eratu re over the lan d is h ig h er in su m m er an d low er in w in ter th an that over the w ater. F urth erm o re, the a ltitu d e also affects the air tem perature; the rate of te m p e ra tu re change is ab o u t 5.4°F p e r 1000 ft (1°C p er 100 m eters). [19] In h o t-h u m id clim ates, the o u td o o r air te m p e ra tu re is o ften high. Even th o u g h w e can utilize high-m ass construction m aterials to m ake in terio r spaces cool d u rin g daytim e, these m aterials w ill sto re u p so m uch h eat as to create w orse th erm al conditions in d o o rs th an those w hich prevail ou td o o rs at night. Since the tem p eratu re sw ing is sm all in a h o t-h u m id clim ate like T aiw an's, the best strateg y is to use low - m ass m aterials to have th e in d o o r tem p era tu re ten d to ap p ro x im ate o u td o o r tem p era tu re and to p rom ote cross-ventilation sim ultaneously. B esides, b u ild in g o rien tatio n seem s im p o rta n t to the in d o o r clim ate because of the heating effect of the solar radiation on w alls and room s facing different directions. H ow ever, as long as w e shade the building effectively, the in te rn a l te m p e ra tu re s are v irtu a lly in d e p e n d e n t of o rien tatio n . 4.3 H U M ID ITY A tm ospheric h u m id ity is the w ater v ap o r content of the atm osphere. W ater v ap o r in the air com es from ev ap o ratio n , p rim a rily from the surfaces of the oceans b u t also from vegetation, other w ater bodies, etc., an d is carried and distributed over the earth surface by w inds. The capacity of the air for w ater v ap o r increases w ith its tem perature. (Table 4.1) H ence, the d istrib u tio n of the w ater vapor over th e earth is n o t u n ifo rm b u t is h ig h in h o t reg io n s a n d low in cold reg io n s, d e p en d in g on the a n n u al p a tte rn of solar rad iatio n an d tem p era tu re averages. W hen the air contains the all possible w a ter v a p o r at a specific tem perature, it is said to be satu rated and its relative h u m id ity is 100%. W hen the actual w ater vapor th at the air holds is less than the potential content at the sam e tem p eratu re, the relative h u m id ity is less than 100%. Temperature Relative Humidity (%) (° F ) 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 70 0 0.012 0.015 0.018 0.021 0.024 0.027 0.029 0032 0.035 0.041 10 0.020 0.025 0.029 0.034 0.039 0.044 0.049 0.054 0-059 0.069 20 0.031 0.039 0.047 0.055 0.063 0.071 0.079 0.087 0.095 0.110 30 0.051 0.064 0.077 0.089 0.103 0.116 0.128 0.141 0.154 0.180 40 0.077 0.097 0.117 0.135 0.155 0.174 0.193 0.213 0.233 0.272 SO 0.123 0.141 0.171 0.198 01227 0.259 0.284 0.312 0.341 0.399 60 0.162 0.205 0.246 0.288 0:329 0.370 0.412 0.453 0.495 0579 70 0.232 0.291 0.349 0.408 0.467 0527 0585 0.645 0.704 0.824 72 0.249 0.312 0.375 0.438 6.501 0564 0.628 0.691 0.755 0.884 74 0.267 0.334 0.401 0.469 0.536 0.605 0.671 0.740 0.809 0547 76 0.285 0.357 0.429 0.502 6.574 0.647 0.720 0.792 0.866 1.012 78 0.305 0.382 0.458 0-535 0.614 0.692 0.769 0.848 0.925 1.082 80 0.326 0.408 0.490 0.574 0.656 0.740 0.823 0.906 0.991 1.160 86 0.389 0.496 0.597 0.698 0:799 0.901 1.003 1-105 1.212 1.418 90 0.450 0.563 0.678 0.793 0.908 1.024 1.141 1558 1.375 1.613 Table 4.1 The C apacity of the A ir for W ater V apor (lbs. /lOOO cu. ft.) [20] 39 From th e physiological p o in t of view , th e v ap o r p ressu re of th e air is th e b e st w a y to e x p re ss th e h u m id ity c o n d itio n s b e c a u se th e e v ap o ratio n from the b o d y d ep en d s on th e v apor p ressu re differences b etw een the skin surface and the am bient air. The relative h u m id ity h as m o re in flu en ce on th e b eh av io r of b u ild in g m aterials an d th eir rate s of d e te rio ra tio n . T he v a p o r p re ssu re is subject to seasonal v a ria tio n s a n d is u su a lly h ig h er in su m m er th a n in w in ter, b u t its d iu rn al differences are sm all. The relative h u m id ity m ay suffer w ide variations even w h en th e v apor p ressu re is alm ost stable. This results fro m th e d iu rn a l an d changes in air tem p era tu re . L arge d iu rn al changes in relativ e h u m id ity are fo u n d m ainly in continental regions w h ere it has large d iu rn al tem p eratu re sw ing. In ho t-h u m id clim ates, th e d iu rn a l v a ria tio n s in re la tiv e h u m id ity are sm all d u e to the n a rro w d iu rn al tem p era tu re range. H u m a n to le ran c e to h u m id ity v a ria tio n s is m u ch g re a te r th a n to tem p era tu re variations. G ivoni has established certain b o undaries for d e te rm in in g the effect of h u m id ity — at air tem p era tu re b etw een 68 °F an d 77°F, th e h u m id ity does not affect the physiological an d sensory responses, an d it is alm ost im perceptible betw een 30% RH an d 85% RH. H o w ev er, h u m id ity control is still im p o rtan t because high h u m id ity red u ces h u m a n e v ap o rativ e h e at loss for cooling; this causes a large area of th e akin to be thickly covered w ith perspiration. As long as the p ersp iratio n cannot be evaporated, people w ill not feel com fortable. Since the w ater content of the air in a h o t-h u m id clim ate is high, the rate of ev ap o ratin g p ersp iratio n is lim ited. In this situation, usin g air m ovem ents w ill be an effective m ethod. 40 4.4 AIR M O V EM EN T A ir m ovem ent resu lts from n a tu ra l or forced convection, an d the air m asses m ove from h ig h er p re ssu re to low er p re ssu re zones. Such m ovem ent significantly affects the heat transfer of the h u m an body by ev ap o ratio n an d convection. The faster the air m ovem ent, the larger the rate of heat transfer, the u p p e r com fort lim it is th u s raised. Hence, air m ovem ent has an im p o rtan t effect on h u m an body cooling. The effect of th e air m o v em en t on the rate of conductive-convective h e at tran sfer is g o v ern ed by d ry b u lb tem p era tu re . In creasin g air velocity increases the rate of h eat transfer, b u t h eat flow betw een the sk in a n d th e air is d e p e n d e n t on the air te m p e ra tu re . If air tem p era tu re is less th an skin te m p e ra tu re (ab o u t 90 - 9 5 °F), h eat is rem o v ed from th e body; w hile h eat is a d d e d to the b o d y w h en air te m p e ra tu re reach es sk in te m p e ra tu re . T he ra te of e v a p o ra tio n d ep en d s on both air speed and v apor pressure. Increasing air velocity a lw ay s s tre n g th e n s e v a p o ra tiv e effect, a lth o u g h at h ig h v a p o r pressures; it m ay be offset by the effect of a high hum idity. Therefore, w hen the air tem p eratu re is below skin tem perature, the tw o effects of air sp eed go in the sam e direction; th a t is, an increase in air speed alw ays generate a cooling effect. Since b o th air te m p e ra tu re an d h u m id ity are h ig h in h o t-h u m id clim ates, w e n eed to u tilize th e air m o v em en t to cool o u r bodies. A ccording to "B uilding C o n tro l System s" by V aughn B radshaw , the b o d y can sense a I T te m p e ra tu re d ro p p er 15 fpm increase in air m ovem ent above a velocity of 30 fpm . To the very tru th , at h igher tem perature there is an optim al air velocity for the highest cooling; how ever, this o p tim al velocity is not co n stan t b u t d e p e n d e n t on the tem perature, h u m id ity , clothing and m etabolic rate. A irflow th ro u g h a b u ild in g is in d u ced by p ressu re differences w hich b u ild u p from tw o sources: wind forces and temperature gradients . 41 between the indoor and outdoor air. [21] These tw o forces m ay operate in the sam e or opposite direction, d ep en d in g on the w ind direction and o n w h e th e r th e in d o o r or o u td o o r te m p e ra tu re is th e h ig h er. C o m paring w ith the th erm al force, the w in d force is m ore pow erful. H ence, w h a t concerns us in a h o t-h u m id clim ate is h o w to indu ce w inds or breezes into the bu ild in g 's occupied spaces. Those factors that affect this induction are b u ild in g orientation, w in d o w designs and the division of in terio r spaces. As I discussed before, solar orientation is n o t im p o rtan t if the b u ild in g is ap p ro p riately shaded. A t this point, w in d orientation should be taken into m ore consideration. If a b u ild in g is o rien ted in p re v a ilin g w in d s, p ro p e r d esig n s of w in d o w s can obtain m ore benefit. F rom a h u m an com fort p o in t of view , the airflow should pass th ro u g h occupied areas, w hich d epends on the sill h eig h t and th e type of th e w in d o w . The p a tte rn of the airflow th ro u g h a space is m ainly determ ined by its entering direction, an d the w indow type determ ines its entering direction. For instance, a horizontal p ivoted w in d o w can direct airflow d o w n w ard s or u pw ards. The m o st effective sill height, according to G ivoni, is ab o u t 0.5 -1.5 m eters above the floor; th at is exactly in the occupied zone. Therefore, the in terio r airflow p a ttern is p rim arily g o v ern ed by th e p a tte rn and the location of the inlet opening. A ccording to G ivoni, in a cross-ventilated room , changing th e size of the w in d o w s has a significant effect on the in terio r air velocity— the larger the w indow , the faster the interior airflow . H ow ever, it happens only w hen the inlet an d o u tlet openings are increased sim ultaneously. If the size of the inlet opening is increased and the outlet is kept fixed, the average indoor air velocity does not change significantly, w hile the in d o o r air velocity increases if th e size of th e in let o p e n in g k ep t constant an d the outlet is increased. If there is only one open in g in the room , th e air velocity is approxim ately 10 to 15% of the o u td o o r w ind speed, no m atter w hat direction w inds com e from. In o rd e r to c ro ss-v en tilate a b u ild in g , a p p ro p ria te d e sig n s of the in te rio r p a rtitio n s m u st be tak en in to c o n sid e ra tio n , a n d correct p o sitio n in g a n d sizes of o p e n in g s n e ed to be e n su re d to achieve effective air m ovem ent. G ivoni h a d d e m o n stra te d th at the velocities w e re lo w e st w h e n the p a rtitio n w as in fro n t a n d n e a re r the inlet opening, and the velocities w ere larger w hen the p artitio n w as nearer th e outlet. (Fig 4.6) It inferred th at the u p w in d room h ad better be larger to obtain satisfactory ventilation. 9, z 4 4*5*/. 66 23 46 34 14 20 96 21 84 25 V. = 4 2 V . = 56 21 54 18 22 12 10 5 91 7 V , = 30-7V. V. r 3 6 4 V. t 7, = 30-5*/. 15 32 47 40 7 11 73 28 93 9 P| = 31-0V. V . = a 9-9 V 28 16 35 21 9 19 70 28 85 21 t V, = 3 6 -2 7 . Fig. 4.6 Effect of Sub-D ivision of the Interior on the D istribution of Internal Air Speeds [22] F urtherm ore, the fly-screen is an im p o rtan t device of the openings in a h o t-h u m id clim ate; the re d u c tio n in in d o o r air velocity d u e to the screens is g reater w ith an oblique th a n a p e rp e n d ic u la r w ind. To red u ce the influence of the fly-screens, G ivoni su g g e ste d w e a p p ly screens to a w hole balcony in front of the openings in stead of directly to Jh e l w indow s. ____________ — ________ —, 4.5 V EN TILA TIO N V entilation is the process of air exchange by n a tu ra l or m echanical m eans. It serves three im p o rtan t functions as described below: 1) Health Ventilation This is to m aintain the air p u rity in a building by rem oving odors and o th er particles from the air. In a h o t-h u m id clim ate if the indoor air is still, it w ill p ro m o te th e g ro w th of fungi an d cause sickness am o n g th e occupants. M oreover, th e sta g n a n t air also m akes the occupants lethargical. 2) Thermal Comfort Ventilation This is to increase the h eat loss from the body by evaporation. In h o t-h u m id clim ates w h e re th e d a y tim e te m p e ra tu re is h ig h , air m oving over the skin surface w ill cause com fort because it rem oves m o istu re . 3) Structural Cooling Ventilation This is to cool the stru ctu re of the b u ilding by exchanging w arm indoor air for cooler o u tdoor air. In h o t-h u m id zones th e m ain fu n ctio n of v en tilatio n is to achieve therm al com fort th ro u g h p ro v isio n of the air m otion; the air velocity is m ore critical, rath e r th an the am o u n t of air change. A ccording to G ivoni, the air velocity sh o u ld ap p ro ach 400 ft/m in (2 m /se c ) d u rin g the o v erh eated p erio d s, an d the p rev ailin g w in d s sh o u ld be u se d to achieve this air m ovem ent. From an en erg y co n serv atio n p o in t of view , cross-ventilation is very helpful. C ro ss-v en tila tio n is a term w h ich refers to c o n d itio n s w h e re the ventilation of a space is achieved by the provision of b o th leew ard- and w in d w a rd -fac in g o p enings. It is a ste ad y w in d -d riv e n v e n tilatio n w hich occurs because of p re ssu re differences acting on o u tle ts an d inlets. In h o t-h u m id areas, for reasons of cross-ventilation, o p p o site openings of room s require m axim um openable areas. H ow ever, care s m u st be tak en w ith so lar ra d ia tio n , p riv a c y a n d so u n d transm ission. A lso, the obstruction to air flow in sid e the stru ctu res sh o u ld be m inim ized. To m inim ize the o b stru ctio n , b u ild in g s h ad better be p lan n ed one-room deep. 4.6 CLOTHING C lothing is not only a b arrier to the heat exchange betw een the body an d its en v iro n m en t b u t also an ob stru ctio n to the process of sw eat ev ap o ratio n , it th u s affects h u m an com fort. H ow ever, the restriction on sw eat ev ap o ratio n d e p en d s on the h u m id ity level. In a h o t-arid clim ate, ad eq u ate ev ap o ratio n can be m ain tain ed even though clothes are w orn. The reason is the reduction of the h eat gain outw eighs the effect of re d u c tio n in ev ap o rativ e capacity. In h o t-h u m id clim ates clothing reduces the ra d ia n t heat gain, b u t the efficiency of sw eating cooling is also reduced, an d the net result is an increase in heat stress. The therm al resistance of clothing is m easu red by the "clo" u n it w hich is d e fin e d as the th erm al resistan ce of s ta n d a rd A m erican in d o o r clothing, and its value in physical term s is 0.88 deg F h ft */B tu (0.18 deg C h m 2 /K cal) F igure 4.7 show s the relative clo values of different clothing. Since c u rren t T aiw anese clothing is very sim ilar to th at in w e stern co u n tries, w e can perceive the m ore clothes w e w ear, the sm aller the clo value. The effects of air sp eed on the heat transfer b etw een the body and the clo th in g d e p e n d o n the air p erm eab ility of th e clothes. W hen the clothing is perm eable to the air, increasing air velocity w ill reduce the therm al resistance of the clothing, th at is, low er the clo value. This is w hy p e o p le w ear few clothes to keep co m fo rtab le in a h o t-h u m id clim ate. 45 [v 1.0 C lo 3 .0 C lo Fig. 4.7 Exam ples of a Range of Clo Values [23] PASSIVE COOLING METHODS 47 5. - 1 CONVECTIVE COO LIN G T he term "convective cooling" m eans th at h e at from a b u ild in g is rele ased to th e a m b ien t air b y v e n tila tio n w h e n ev e r th e o u td o o r tem p era tu re is low er than the indoors, th at is, it applies to the cooling of the stru ctu ral m ass at night. In the d ay tim e the cooled m ass of the b u ild in g w ill serve as a h eat sink, absorbing the heat p en etratin g the b u ild in g an d generated inside the b u ild in g ; at night, the h eated m ass w ill d isch arg e th e h e at to the am b ien t air by circulating o u td o o r air th ro u g h it. A rela te d cooling m eth o d , d irect p h y sio lo g ical cooling by n a tu ra l v en tilatio n d u rin g d ay tim e, is different from the convective cooling, b e ca u se th e b u ild in g itself is n o t co o led in d a y tim e by n a tu ra l v e n tilatio n b u t often is h e a te d up. H ow ever, this m e th o d is very effective for p ro v id in g h u m an com fort in h o t-h u m id clim ates. C onvective cooling can be reg ard ed as the sim plest cooling m ethod, but its ap p licab ility is lim ited. T he lim ita tio n s are b a sed on climatic conditions a n d the comfort and functional needs of occupants. [24] T he c lim a tic c o n d itio n s w h ic h d e te rm in e c o n v e c tiv e c o o lin g 's a p p lic a b ility a re the ambient air minim um temperature, the temperature range, an d the water vapor pressure level. [25] The am bient air m in im u m tem p era tu re decides the te m p e ra tu re to w hich the m ass can be b ro u g h t at the en d of the night. G ivoni th o u g h t that the m inim um tem p eratu re sh o u ld be below about 68 °F (20 °C) in view of the h u m a n com fort range. The tem p eratu re ran g e d eterm in es the p o ssib ility of lo w e rin g the in d o o r m ax im u m b e lo w th e o u td o o r m axim um . A n d the v apor p ressu re determ ines the u p p e r tem p eratu re lim it of in d o o r com fort w ith o u t daytim e ventilation. Since convective cooling is applicable to regions w hich hav e a large d iu rn al tem p eratu re range an d in w hich the am bient air m inim um 48 te m p e ra tu re in su m m er is b elo w a b o u t 68 °F (20 °C), th is cooling m eth o d can not be ap p lied to T aipei's (T aiw an's) clim ate because of its high am bient air tem p eratu re an d sm all tem p eratu re sw ing. 5.2 RA D IA N T CO O LIN G R ad ian t cooling is also referred to as "n o ctu rn al re-rad iatio n " w hich m eans h e at from the b u ild in g is d isch arg ed to the sky by n o ctu rn al lo n g -w av e ra d ia tio n . W hen a su rface faces o th er su rfaces w hich alm o st h av e the sam e tem p eratu re, the rad ia tio n em itted by the given surface an d that em itted by o th er surfaces w ill ap proxim ately balance o u t so th at the net gain or loss betw een surfaces is very sm all. W hile th e su rface is ex p o sed to th e sky, the situ atio n is different. Even th o u g h so m e p a rts of th e a tm o sp h e re em it lo n g -w av e ra d ia tio n , g en erally speaking, the flow o f atm ospheric rad iatio n is w eaker than th at of em itted u p w ard . This causes a net long-w ave ra d ia n t h e at loss of surfaces exposed to the sky. E m ission of long-w ave ra d ia tio n is h eld c o n tin u o u sly all d ay long. H ow ever, d u rin g the daytim e surfaces of the b u ild in g are exposed to solar rad iatio n , and solar rad ia tio n is absorbed at the surfaces (w hich d e p e n d s o n th eir absorptivity) to p ro d u ce heat, w hich in m o st cases o v erlap s th e cooling effect p ro d u c e d by the em ission of long w ave radiation. If w e could get a surface w ith high reflectivity in the solar sp e ctru m (0.35 - 3 jum) a n d w ith h ig h em issivity in the lo n g -w av e ran g e (5 - 30 jum ), this situ atio n in the d ay tim e w ill change. W ith m aterials available at p resen t, ra d ia n t cooling can be ach iev ed only d u rin g the n ig h ttim e. T h at is w h y it is often k n o w n as n o c tu rn a l radiation. The typical schem e of rad ia n t cooling w ith a solid roof w ith m ovable insulation is show n in Fig 5.1. As m en tio n ed above, the long-w ave rad iatio n em itted by a b u ild in g is continuous over 24 hours, the spectrum of the radiation em itted by the Fig. 5.1 R adiant C ooling [26] [27] atm o sphere, how ever, m ay or m ay not be continuous. It d e p en d s on th e moisture content of the air an d cloudiness conditions. [28] W hen the m oisture content of the air rises and / or th e sky is cloudier, th e a tm o sp h e ric back ra d ia tio n increases, th at is, the effect of the ra d ia n t cooling is reduced. In o th er w ords, n et ra d ia n t loss decreases w ith cloudiness and the hu m id ity of the am bient air. In Taipei (Taiw an) the h u m id ity of the air is very high an d the sky is seldom clear (except in South and East T aiw an), so the effect of rad ian t cooling is lim ited. F u rth erm o re, since the roof is u su ally u se d as a n o ctu rn al rad iato r, ra d ia n t cooling is applicable only to b u ild in g s of one- or tw o-storey, not to m id- or high-rise housing. 5.3 EVAPORATIVE C O O LIN G As the w o rd "ev ap o rativ e" revealed, ev ap o rativ e cooling is to utilize the process of w ater ev ap o ratio n to cool b u ild in g s. C o m p ared w ith o th er m o d es of h eat tran sfer com m on in a b u ild in g , the a m o u n t of heat absorbed in the process of w ater evaporation is very large. W hen a gram of w ater is e v ap o rated w ith o u t external h eat in p u t, it extracts nearly 0.6 K calory (about 0.66 w hr) from the am bient air o r a m aterial over w hich the ev ap o ratio n takes place. A t th e tim e of ev ap o ratio n , the te m p e ra tu re of th e a m b ien t air is lo w e re d a n d its m o is tu re c o n te n t rise s, k e e p in g its "w e t b u lb tem p era tu re " (WBT) constant. The changes in the te m p e ra tu re and relative h u m id ity of the air d u rin g the process of ev ap o ratio n can be seen in Fig. 5.2 (a p sy c h ro m e tric chart) T he a m b ie n t air w ith te m p e ra tu re an d m o istu re c o n te n t is sh o w n at p o in t A: DBT=94°F, RH=20% , WBT=65°F. W hen it passes th rough a w e tte d p a d of fibers w ith a large surface area at low speed, its tem p eratu re is decreased and m o istu re content is increased along the constant WBT of 65 °F. 9 0 . T o o 1 PSYCHROMETRIC CHART - 1 8 0 •160 -8 0 -75 -7 0 -6 5 - 80 -6 0 > 60 - 5 0 - 3 0 -2 0 100 no 120 D R Y B U L B T E M P E R A T U R E - * i 1 ------1 ------1 ------r 0 S 10 15 20 i I r 25 OKI S U B T I M P f B « n j B E - ° C 30 35 40 45 Fig. 5.2 Example of the Process of Evaporation; T he W BT of the o u td o o r air is not co n stan t, as a m a tte r of fact, it changes w ith the d iu rn al p attern of the am bient air tem p eratu re (DBT)- -The m in im u m WBT u su ally em erges in the m o rn in g a n d m axim u m in the early afternoon. The d iu rn al p attern of the WBT determ ines the perform ance of direct evaporative cooling system s because the WBT is the low est tem p eratu re attainable for air or shallow p o n d s cooled by evaporation. In practice the tem p eratu re of the cooled air of w ater is a little h ig h er th an the am b ien t WBT. H ow ever, if th e w a ter layer is d eeper (above 1') , the situation is different. O w ing to the high capacity of the deeper p o n d , the tem p eratu re range of the w ater is red u ced and tends to stabilize a ro u n d the average am bient WBT. Basically, there are tw o differen t ev ap o rativ e cooling m ethods; one is c a l l e d direct evaporative cooling, th e o th e r is c alled indirect evaporative cooling. [29] The form er is to cool directly by ev ap o ratio n the am bient air and to blow it th ro u g h the building. The h u m id ity in the build in g goes u p w hile the air tem perature is low ered. The latter is to cool the roof or a w all of the b u ilding by ev ap o ratio n . T he roof or w all th en serves as a h eat sink an d absorbs h eat p e n e tra tin g into the b u ild in g th ro u g h the ceiling or internal surface of the w all. W ith such an ap p ro ach the indoor tem p era tu re is low ered w ith o u t increasing the in d o o r h u m id ity . Fig. 5.3 show s an in d ire ct m e th o d — a seco n d ary lig h tw e ig h t in su la te d ro o f o v er the roof p o n d , w ith larg e in su lated openings at the sides. In sum m er these openings are k ep t op en all the tim e to enable air flow over the w ater. But in w in ter th e p o n d is d rain ed an d the openings are closed to m ake the roof act as an o rd in ary in su lated roof. A ccording to "Passive C ooling of B uildings" by G ivoni, tw o im p o rtan t factors w ere rev ealed — "... direct evaporative cooling can be ap p lied in 0 regions an d seasons w h en the WBT of the am b ien t air does n o t rise above about 68°F" a n d "... they (indirect e v ap o rativ e cooling) can be o „ a p p lie d ev en in reg io n s w ith a WBT m a x im u m of a b o u t 71.5°F (22 °C)". In a hot-hum id clim ate like T aipei's, the w et bulb depression Fig. 5.3 Indirect E vaporative C ooling [30] [31] 54 is very sm all, that is, the WBT is very close to the DBT. In view of the clim atic d a ta in T aip ei, I p e rc e iv e d th a t th e a v e ra g e m o n th ly tem p eratu re is high above 68°F in sum m er and the relative hu m id ity is v ery high. T herefore, concerning the d irect e v ap o rativ e cooling, positively, it is n o t applicable to Taipei because of the high h u m id ity of the air. W ith regards to indirect evaporative cooling, its applicability is still lim ite d b e ca u se th e W BT is p ro b a b ly h ig h ab o v e 71.5°F in sum m er, even at night. Furtherm ore, since m ost of the system s use th e roof as a h eat sink, th eir applicability is lim ited to single story, or the top story of a building. 5.4 EARTH CO O LIN G The earth m ass can serve as a n atu ral cooling source for the b u ild in g in m o st clim atic regions. In su m m er the soil te m p e ra tu re , at som e d e p th u n d e r the earth surface, is alw ays below th e average am bient tem p eratu re, an d especially below the d ay tim e air tem p eratu re. It is also p o ssib le to lo w er th e e a rth te m p e ra tu re below the "n a tu ra l" tem p eratu re typical to a specific location. For instance, w e can cool the earth surface of a given area below its "n atu ral" level by shading it to elim in ate h e atin g by th e su n , w hile en ab lin g e v a p o ra tio n from the earth surface. E xperim ents in Israel an d N o rth F lorida have verified th a t the e a rth average surface tem p era tu re can be lo w ered by about 14.5-18 °F (8-10 °C) below the sum m er tem p eratu re of exposed soil. The difference b etw een the am b ien t m ax im u m air te m p e ra tu re an d the e a rth te m p e ra tu re can be u p to 27°F (15°C) in m id -su m m e r; this provides a potential to use the earth as a heat sink for the building. [32] T he "n atu ral" te m p e ra tu re of the g ro u n d d e p e n d s on tw o b o u n d a ry situ atio n s; one is the cyclic annual pattern of the surface temperature, the o th er is the constant temperature at a depth of several meters. [33] The tem p eratu re at a d e p th of several m eters is equal to the long-term an n u al av erag e of the surface te m p e ra tu re ov er larg e ho m o g en eo u s areas; how ever, in a sm all-scale area the surface tem perature m ay be 55 affected by local factors, such as the color of the g ro u n d cover, etc. Besides, the annual precipitation an d large-scale reg u lar irrigation m ay influence the "n atu ral" tem p eratu re of the soil. The surface tem p eratu re is u su ally h ig h est in sum m er, m ainly in arid regions, and it is low est in w inter, especially in cold regions w ith snow covering o n the g round. The d iu rn al range of the surface tem p eratu re m ainly d ep en d s on the vegetation of the g ro u n d (bare, grass, shrubs, trees, etc.), the reflectivity of the surface and the diffusivity of the soil (k /c: the ratio of the conductivity to the specific heat capacity). W ith a h ig h diffusivity h eat is easily exchanged b etw een the surface an d the layers below , and this resu lts in sm all surface tem p eratu re fluctuations. A ctually, w et soil has higher diffusivity th an d ry soil; hence, the w etter the soil, the sm aller the d iu rn al range of the surface tem p eratu re, and the faster the pro p ag atio n of h eat th ro u g h the g ro u n d in the daytim e. T he g ro u n d surface absorbs solar rad ia tio n and re-rad iates the h eat to the sky as b u ild in g envelopes do; therefore, the n et ra d ia n t balance, b etw een solar gain an d longw ave loss, is u sually positive in su m m er an d n egative in w inter. T hat m eans heat flow is d o w n w a rd in to the soil in su m m e r a n d u p w a rd to th e su rfa ce in w in te r. A s an a p p ro x im a tio n , th e a n n u a l p a tte rn of th e su rface te m p e ra tu re is re g a rd ed as a sine w ave ab o u t the an n u al average of the am b ien t air tem perature. As a m atter of fact, th e surface daily average tem p eratu re in su m m er is h igher th an the average of the am b ien t air tem p eratu re, w hile in w in ter it is so m ew h at low er. If the g ro u n d is sh a d e d by vegetation, the average soil surface tem p eratu re is alm ost the sam e as the av erag e air tem p era tu re d u rin g the h o tte st m o n th , an d the soil's surface tem p eratu re range is ab o u t the sam e as that of the am b ien t air (usual in h u m id regions). In m ost cases, the d iu rn al ran g e of the earth tem p eratu re w ave is d am p ed at a d ep th of 30 cm (T) or so. [34] 56 T h ere a re tw o p a ssiv e m e th o d s u tiliz in g th e e a rth for co o lin g b u ild in g s. O ne is id en tifie d an d d efin e d as direct earth-coupled system s, the o th er is indirect earth-coupled system s. [35] In a direct earth -co u p led system (Fig. 5.4), the b u ild in g is coupled to the subsoil an d its in terio r space is cooled by co n d u ctio n th ro u g h the b u ilding envelope. In the case of earth -in teg rated buildings, in w hich the roof is covered and the w alls are berm ed by earth, the cooled earth m ass adjacent to the building provides a direct passive cooling effect to the building, b u t in m ost of the earth-sheltered buildings conduction occurs only th ro u g h the w alls and floor. In an in d irect earth-coupled system , the b u ild in g 's in terio r space is cooled by air convection to a heat exchanger in the soil. The hot interior air is circulated th rough air pipes in the soil, and the earth m ass serves as a heat sink to cool the air w hich is then introduced into the building (Fig. 5.5). 1 Chamber: windowless (A) Berm <B) Subgrade 2 Atrium or courtyard r * l = rx — 3 Elevational: wall exposed 4 Penetrational: wall openings Fig. 5.4 D irect E arth-C oupied C ooiing [36] L r 57 > A l l ,, .« c - • ■ : ; / Fig. 5.5 indirect E arth-C oupled C ooling [37] Since earth cooling m ethod can be ap p lied to m ost clim atic regions, it sh o u ld be able to be a p p lied to T a iw a n 's clim ate. R eview ing the clim atic d a ta in T aipei, I th o u g h t th e m o istu re c o n te n t of the soil w o u ld be the largest problem in using earth as a cooling source, because its h u m id ity is high in T aiw an. F urther, th e earth m ass w e in ten d to use as th e cooling source is th a t at som e d e p th u n d e r the g ro u n d surface; according to G ivoni's "P assive C ooling of B uildings", if the "n atu ra l" soil te m p e ra tu re in su m m er, at a d e p th of 1-3 m eters, is above 68 °F (20 °C), th e earth w ill n o t be effective as a source of cooling unless it is cooled by som e treatm en t. Since th e m o n th ly av erag e tem p eratu re in Taipei is high above 80 °F in sum m er, I could not m ake su re the soil tem p era tu re at 1-3 m eters' d e p th is below 68 °F w ith o u t cooling treatm ent. Even though earth cooling is applicable to T aiw an's clim ate, I su p p o se th a t th e in d ire c t e a rth -c o u p le d sy stem is m ore a p p lica b le th a n d ire c t sy stem s b ecau se th e air in e a rth -sh e lte re d buildings will be very dam p an d the built stories are lim ited. N oticeably, w h ile u sin g in d irect system s, w ater c o n d en satio n in the subsoil pipes should be solved. 5.5 W IN D SC O O P The w in d scoop is an architectural device b u ilt above the roof line of buildings. Its o riginal d ev elo p m en t w as in the East an d M iddle-E ast centuries ago. This system , w hich looks like a large periscope, is o rie n te d in th e d irectio n of th e p re v a ilin g w in d an d circulate air th ro u g h the building. E xam ples of w ind-scoops are show n in Fig. 5.6. Fig. 5.7 show s a typical section of the w ind-scoop w hich resem bles a chim ney, w ith one end on the g ro u n d floor of the b u ild in g an d the o th er ex te n d ed above the roof. T his system has d e m o n stra te d the 120°F o u td o o r te m p e ra tu re can be d ecreased to 95 °F in the in te rio r e n v iro n m e n t. 59 D p v / c p s t h a t COOE P O t/S E S j3 Y 2 > /£ £ C 7 V 4 /6 7A7E1 tr/A /D /A/SSZ>£ SJSE A / tzseo sop cea/evp/e s . £ ^ W / 4 / V S O U S E H '/E S W /A /fi SC O O P S /f/Z> D i.E fcu S 6 J> C /-f f3 s /? U tS 7 /h A / I W Z b S C O O P f PEE - A D . 700) / V / M O SCOOP W TM rpAP £OOP W e s t /%*'/sx*// ( u s e * s z /v c e sPbosscA/’ s: W /T A / if/A A A S C O O P S S /a /d D/srp/cr, hfssr /%k/s 7 am ( A 7//V D S C O O P S o/v poo a rops A /e pAT , /jpST/AP/srAM Fig. 5.6 Exam ples of the W ind-Scoop 138] j Fig. 5.7 W ind-Scoop in H y d erab ad , Pakistan [39] j T he o p eratio n of the w ind-scoop d e p en d s on w ind conditions a n d tim e of the day. W hen the inlet of the scoop is facing the p rev a len t w in d , it j in d u ces w in d to m ove d o w n w ard s into th e room s, an d finally to exit j th ro u g h th e w in d o w s or d o o rs w h e re th ere is a n e g ativ e p ressu re . W hen the p revailing w in d is in th e o p p o site direction, th at is, th ere is a negative p ressu re in front of the scoop, th e in terio r w arm air w ill be p u lled u p through the tow er an d cooler am bient air w ill be sucked into th e b u ild in g th ro u g h d oors an d w in d o w s. A ctually, th e w alls of the w ind-scoop absorb solar h eat d u rin g the daytim e and a t n ig h t th e w alls transfer the heat to the cooler air in an d a ro u n d the tow er. This causes the p ressu re at the top of the tow er to be red u c ed because of the low er density of the w arm air. This particular m ode of ventilation is also kn o w n as the "stack effect" w hich occurs in a b u ild in g w h en there is a n atu ral tem p eratu re gradient; h o t air rises an d stratifies on the tops of elevator shafts a n d stairw ells. C ooler air is p u lle d in from o u tsid e of the b u ild in g at the bottom of the shafts an d stairw ells, an d rises as it w arm s up. H ow ever, the n atu ral convective u p w a rd airflow is not so strong, it sh o u ld d ep en d on an ad d ed effect of the apertures, on the top of the shafts an d stairw ells, w hich p ro d u ce n eg ativ e p re ssu re zones w hen w in d flow s over the them . In her thesis "Passive C ooling M ethods for M id to H igh-R ise B uildings in H o t-H u m id C lim ates of D ouala, C am ero o n , W est A frica", L ucy N k u o did several experim ents to justify her beliefs: "... th e w in d -sco o p can be u se d in a h o t-h u m id clim ate m ainly to v e n tila te the in te rio r e n v iro n m e n t a n d to flu sh th e b u ild in g of excessive heat, m ore th an to cool or low er the tem p era tu re of the air." [40] The objective of each set of her tests is to d eterm in e w h eth er a velocity of 246-289 fpm can be m aintained in each room to cool occupants. The reason for his trying to m aintain the velocity of 246-289 fpm is because the p re fe rre d air velocity for com fort (w hen DBT=84°F, RH=80%) is about 268 fpm . (see Table 5.1) H e fo u n d th at w e can really extend the trad itio n al use of the w ind-scoop for red u cin g tem p era tu re in h o t-d ry clim ates to be used solely for ventilation req u irem en ts w ith in a space. In m y o p in io n , this p assiv e m eth o d sh o u ld be feasible for T aiw an 's clim ate, especially su b u rb a n b u ild in g s. As for u rb an b u ild in g s, the utilization should be based on a good urb an planning. 62 Female Male Male and Female 81° F 50%RH 197fpm 195fpm 195fpm 84° F 50% RH 266fpm 224fpm 244fpm 88° F 50% RH 295fpm 325fpm 311fpm 84° F 80% R H 289fpm 246fpm 268fpm Table 5.1 Preferred A ir Velocities [41] 63 PROPOSED SOLUTION I 6.1 HYPOTHESIS i i I J C ro ss-V en tilatio n can b est be a ssu re d in a b u ild in g w ith sk ip -sto p I corridors. (Fig. 6.2) | 6.2 GOALS | 1 ! W e have seen th at T aiw an is a h o t-h u m id island. In o rd e r to create a | j com fortable living space, keeping o u t th e h eat g a in a n d ex clu d in g the | u n n ecessary h eat a n d h u m id ity are the m ain objectives. Since the I o u td o o r air tem p eratu re is high all d ay long in su m m er, v en tilatio n is j the best strategy to exclude the un d esirab le h eat an d h u m id ity to cool j | people. j i j Since in d u stry boom ed in T aiw an, there hav e been few sites th at could J be b u ilt on in th e city o r ev en its su rro u n d in g area. H en ce, th e j ‘ ' | re q u ire d d e n sity of resid e n tia l c o n stru ctio n b ecom es an im p o rta n t issue, an d it becom es im p ossible for p eople to live in a single house. D w ellings m u st be d en se an d b u ilt u p to the sky. W h at follow s this conclusion is an im p o rta n t p ro b lem , th a t is " H o w can w e achieve b etter conditions for v e n tilatio n in m id- to high- rise h o u sin g o th er | th an those in trad itio n al dw ellings? ". A s w e know , w in d velocity increases w ith b u ild in g h e ig h t (Fig. 6.1); th a t is a d v a n ta g e o u s for p ro m o tin g n a tu ra l v en tilatio n . I w a n t to investigate the possibility of n a tu ra l ventilation in resid en tial space by m ean s of a lte rn a tin g floors a n d co rrid o rs, a n d th en , p re s e n t som e criteria for architects. 65 OPEN COUNTRY Gr*d-en1 Wind Gr*d>en T v*ioc-i> — 1 -- / a .< T j y . . 4 V - Wind Vctoc'tv G ra d * m V elocity 1200 Gradient Wind G rad*ni V U x 'ty CITY Fig. 6.1 V ertical D istribution of W ind [42] 99999999 66 6.3 IN TR O D U C TIO N T O SKIP-STOP SYSTEMS In com m on m id - to h ig h -rise h o u sin g , e le v ato rs re g u la rly sto p at every floor. W hen th e p la n is such th at o n ly ev ery seco n d o r th ird elev ato r sto p is necessary, w e call it a sk ip -sto p system . W ithin this system , m ost o r all ap artm en ts are on m ore th an one level; hence, the n am e " m u ltilev el a p a rtm e n t schem e " is o ften u se d for sk ip -sto p system s. S kip-stop schem es u su ally g en erate th ree basic m u ltilev el a p a rtm e n t types: ( see Figure 6 .2) [43] 1. Regular apartments that are entered on the floor above or below by way of a two-story interior stair hall. 2. Apartments on two or three levels. The levels relate to one another with one half floor difference. 3. Truly two-story apartments with interior stairs. ----P < Fig. 6.2 Basic Skip-Stop Schemes 67 C om bining the three basic types w ith reg u lar ap artm en ts can g en erate m any com binations ( see Figure 6.3 ) ■ m - f f r . CDmtAi co*intXM 111 22 — \ i 2 J - i - < . ~ =? T ~ F - .....' ..., . ^ ------------- * z -----------^ y / z / M / z e - ■///////, m m A mmcwcooiooii ¥ Fig. 6.3 Skip-Stop System s [44] 68 | In his U nit£ d 'h a b ita tio n for M arseilles, Le C o rb u sie r in c o rp o ra te d j energy-conserving features w ith th e use of a skip-stop schem e in w hich | he w as able to p ro v id e cross-ventilation in each of the dw elling units. ( j | see F igure 6.4 ) E levators stop every th ird floor in the b u ild in g an d { op en onto a central corrido r w ith un its on eith er side. O ccupants can | get to th e u n its fro m the co rrid o r a n d go u p an d d o w n floors by ! • j | in tern al stairs. ! s . ! \ j I M ore exam ples of th e skip-stop system are sh o w n in Figure 6.5. I ■ ■ i i I- - - - - - C B - H P y - l . C O R P J O f - , I j \ i w n w m x x y N r r s Section of Typical Units Fig. 6.4a U nit£ D 'habitation for M arseilles : Cross-Section [45] Fig. 6.4b U nite D 'habitation for M arseilles : Perspective [46] 2 2 3 2 2 1 2 Fig. 6.5-ia E xam ple # i of the Skip-Stop System : Cross-Section [47] t a t_r s .1 3 m T3 o r A -'-'— .-. A . Fig. 6.5-lbi Example #1 of the Skip-Stop System : Plan: [48] 71 IL-p i i LINE OF GALLERY ABOVE | UPPER LEVEL LA LR LR LR BR/LR LR LR p q PATIOS TO ELEVATORS WALKWAY LOWER LEVEl Fig. 6.5-2 Exam ple #2 of the Skip-Stop System [ 49 ] 6.4 W IN D TUNNEL TEST M ETH O D O LO G Y T he sk ip -sto p system I stu d ie d w as T ype 2 as d iscu ssed above in Section 6.3. T hree series of ex p erim en ts w ere d o n e to o b serv e the p erfo rm an ce of cross-ventilation in the u se of a ltern a tin g floors an d corridors. The general p lan w as as follows: W ithin p relim in ary studies, I changed the d e p th of the room in three d ifferen t p ro to ty p e cross-sections as m y Series 1 studies. In Series 2 studies, I fixed the d ep th of the d o w n w in d room in Series 1 a n d m ad e th a t of the u p w in d room variable. A t last, in Series 3, I n o t only rev ersed the original w in d direction into the o pposite, b u t also fixed the d ep th of the u p w in d (form er d o w n w in d ) room and got th at of the d o w n w in d (form er u p w in d ) room v ariab le. T hese specific cross- section studies are as follows: 7 J T tLS1 TYPE I . TYPE i t . 1 5 * TYPE 111- 1 0 ' 5 * 1 — r 1 0 10' 10‘ 10 ' 10' 10' Fig. 6.6 Types of the Cross-Section Studies 73 10 ' 1 0 ’ 1 0 ‘ a 5' a 5' 1 0 ’ 10 ' 5' * U ariable a=15, 20, 25 ft. 2.5' 10' 12.5' 10 12.5 10 ' 2.5' 10 ' 10 1 0 ’ a 5' a 15' 15' Fig. 6.7 Series 1 Study 10 ' 10 10 10 1 0 10' a 74 * 0=15 ft. b=20, 25 ft. 10' 10 10 ' a Fig. 6.8, Series 2 S tudy 75 a * a=20, 25 ft. b = 1 5 ft. 8 . a Fig. 6.9 Series 3 Study 76 The objectives of these tests are to determine whether the depth of the room and the magnitude of the opening can affect the interior air velocity to cool the occupants. Equations used to find velocity are: V=y9069097~PvT'T J Fb'” =Feet / min Feet/min = Fprn ( Feet/min )/88 = Mph Where Pv = velocity pressure in inches of water Pb = barometric pressure in inches of mercury T = absolute temperature ( indicated temperature plus 460 ) Pressure readings on models were measured in the wind-tunnel as described below. The pressure reading is a differential pressure which comes from the difference between barometric pressure and the pressure measured at the indicated point of airflow. Each model was constructed of 1/8" plexiglass at l"=5'-0" scale in the USC School of Architecture Model Shop. Plexiglass was used to keep the inside air movement smooth and frictionless. All edges were sanded smooth and glued together. In order to observe the air flow pattern, 1 / 16"-diameter-holes were drilled at 1" intervals on all horizontal plexiglass, and at 1/2" intervals on some vertical plexiglass! see Figure 6.10 ), and 3/4" long red yarn was inserted into the hole with half of the length on each side. Fig. 6.10 Locations of the Tufts 77 Tests were conducted in the USC School of Architecture Wind-Tunnel which has a dimension of 10" (height) x 18" (width) x 30' (length) for all model testing, and all my model tests were done within this constraint. Pitot lubes were attached to the model as shown in Figure 6.1 1 and connected with rubber tube to the tunnel's manometer. This way, pressure readings at all l/4"-points of the inlet and outlet (Fig. 6.12) were recorded and used to calculate velocity. The models were secured to the base of the tunnel with clear tape and the tunnel was turned on at its highest speed. The velocity gradient in the tunnel is simulated to that in a city by putting a real city model of small scale (Fig. 6.13) on the base of the tunnel between the testing area and the comb-shaped inlet. _________________________ Fig. 6.11 Installation of the Pitot-Tube Fig. 6.12 Locations of Presssure R eadings Fig. 6.13 Sim ulating C ity M odel in the W ind-T unnel RESULTS A N D OBSERVATIONS 80 7.1 RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS | Follow ing the test m ethodology, I got the d ata as sh o w n in A ppendix j w hich d isp lay ed the experim ental situ atio n s an d air flow p a ttern s in | every series of tests. Table 7.1 & 7.2 show all the p ressu re read in g s J m ea su re d in every series of stu d ies. ( see F ig u re 7.1 & 7.2 for the J locations of those m easuring points ) I I | E valuating the test data, I obtained som e conclusions described below . 1. D epth of the room has little effect on interior air velocity. 2. To som e extent, the sm aller the central opening, the larger the velocity at the outlet ( except Series 3: Section I I I ). 3. T he results of every series of studies have a sim ilar V enturi Effect. 4. A2 > B2 ( except Series 3 ), see Table 7.2. SECTION URRIRTION ON EACH SIDE ft 111 PRESSURE REMRRKS R 1 H2 HI B2 1 O' 0.12 0.27 0.13 0.265 <------------------ +5' 0.12 0.26 0.125 0.255 1 1/2*-------- ---------- 1 1 + 10 0.13 0.255 0.13 0.25 1 II O' 0.135 0.25 0.135 0.25 <------------------ +5' 0.125 0.25 0.125 0.25 1 ----1 . 3 /4 5/ 4 + 10' 0.13 0.25 0.13 0.24 1 _____ III O’ 0.135 0.24 0.145 0.235 ■ < ------------------ +5' 0.135 0.24 0.14 0.23 t 1 3/2 + 10’ 0.13 0.24 0.145 0.23 1 _____ fa b le 7.1 The P ressure R eadings of Series 1 81 SECTION URRIRTION ON RIGHT SIDE RIR PRESSURE REMARKS fll R2 B 1 B2 1 +5' 0.13 0.26 0.13 0.25 1 f --------- 1 _____ + 10 0.13 0.26 0.13 0.25 > r 4 .......... i i II + 5' 0.125 0.255 0.125 0.245 1 t — ._____ , 5/4 + 10 0.13 0.25 0.135 0.24 3r4 1 III +5' 0.135 0.24 0.15 0.23 i <------------------ i 1_____ 3/2 + 10 0.135 0.24 0.145 0.235 SECTION URRIRTION ON LEFT SIDE RIR PRESSURE REMARKS R1 R2 B1 B2 1 +5’ 0.07 0.25 0.1 1 0.25 i ----------------L > + 10' 0.075 0.24 0.1 1 0.25 IrZ 1 i... .. t II +5’ 0.17 0.24 0.17 0.24 i — ■ > 5/4 + 10' 0.16 0.23 0.17 0.24 1 III + 5' 0.30 0.245 0.28 0.275 t ------------------* i 1 3/2 + 10' 0.30 0.245 0.28 0,28 Table 7.2 The Pressure R eadings of Series 2 & 3 82 I further infered the follow ing facts: 1) The Effect of Ceiling H eight I Since the sm aller the central op en in g , the larger the velocity at the o u tle t, a n d since c h a n g in g th e ceilin g h e ig h t w ill v a ry the m a g n itu d e of the cen tral o p e n in g , I in fere d th at the lo w er the ceiling, the larger the velocity in the d o w n w in d room . H ow ever, the ceiling heig h t cannot be too sm all to im p e d e in d o o r h u m an activities. 2) The Effect of W ind Velocity In view of the d ata, I fo u n d th at the p ressu re read in g at the inlet ranges from 0.07 to 0.30 (in*HaO), and that at the outlet it is from 0.23 to 0.28. T hat is, the air velocity is from 1063 fpm to 2200 fpm at the inlet, and that at the outlet ranges from 1926 fpm to 2125 fpm . (based on: Barom eter=30.13, T em p.=76 °F, T unnel Velocity=1672 fpm ) f i l Since the yearly average w in d velocity in T aipei is 6.5 m p h (572 { fpm ), w e need to adjust the velocity in T unnel by 0.342 to sim ulate real situations. T herefore, the real air velocity at the in let ranges from 364 to 752 fpm , and th at at the o utlet is from 659 to 727 fpm . R eview ing Fig. 2.6, I knew these velocities can keep occupants cool. (NOTE: This ad m itte d ly d isre g a rd s the R eynolds n u m b er scaling effects.) 3) The Effect of the W indow For security and privacy reasons, the exterior o p en in g s can n o t be left com pletely open (100%). H ow ever, w e m ay use louvers, grilles an d sh ad es to obtain the m axim um o p en in g to achieve o p tim u m v e n tila tio n . 4) The Effect of W ind D irection G enerally speaking, no m atter w hich exterior o p en in g w in d hits, cro ss-v en tilatio n can be ach iev ed because there are big p re ssu re differential in alm ost all series of tests. In a real case, for the 83 o v e rh e a t-p re v e n tio n rea so n , w in d d irec tio n in T aipei c an n o t be p e rp e n d ic u la r to o p e n in g s, b u t c ro s s-v e n tila tio n still can be obtained. P erhaps, its effect is m uch b etter because w in d is oblique to openings. This deserves fu rth er study. 84 B2 - B 2 ‘ fl2 • B 2 • 02 • B 2 • Fig. 7.1 Locations of the M easuring Points in Series 1 & 2 85 02 - B2 02 B2 • 02 • B 2 Fig. 7.2 Locations of the M easuring Points in Series 3 86 The follow ing d iag ra m s show the relatio n sh ip s am o n g sections an d variables. E very series of tests show s certain tendencies; Fig. 7.3~7.5 show the effect of changing the d ep th of room (O', 5', 10') in every series of study, and Fig. 7.6-7.8 reveal how the central o p en in g of each section type (Fig. 6.6) affects air velocity in the d o w n w in d room based o n the v a rie d d e p th of ro o m in ev ery series. T he Y -axis re p re se n ts the negative p ressu re differential m easu red in inches of w ater, a n d the X- axis represents the chosen variable. NEGATIVE PRESSURE DIFFERENTIAL 0 .3 0 .2 5 0.2 0 .1 5 0.1 0 .0 5 0 SERIES 1 SECTION I PRESSURE CURVE 0 . . x_ _ _ 5 1 0 0 .3 0 .2 6 0.2 0 .1 6 0.1 0 .0 5 0 SECTION II PRESSURE CURVE 10 SECTION III PRESSURE CURVE 0 . 2 6 r 0.2 0 .1 5 0.1 0 .0 5 0 0 5 VARIATION ON EACH SIDE (FT) - A 2 B 2 10 Fig. 7.3 P ressure C urve 1-1,1-ii, 1-IH NEGATIVE PRESSURE DIFFERENTIAL 88 0.3 0 .2 6 0.2 0 .1 6 0.1 0 .0 5 0 0 .2 6 0.2 0 .1 6 0.1 0 .0 6 0 SERIES 2 SECTION I PRESSURE CURVE 10 SECTION II PRESSURE CURVE SECTION III PRESSURE CURVE 10 VARIATION ON RIGHT SIDE (FT) A 2 - B2 0 .2 5 0 .1 6 Fig. 7.4 Pressure C urve 2-1, 2-11, 2-III NEGATIVE PRESSURE DIFFERENTIAL 89 0.3 0 .2 6 0.2 0 .1 6 0.1 0 .0 6 0 0 .2 6 0.2 0 .1 6 0.1 0 .0 6 0 0 .3 0 2 6 0.2 0 .1 6 0.1 0 .0 6 0 SERIES 3 SECTION I PRESSURE CURVE 10 SECTION II PRESSURE CURVE 1 0 SECTION H I PRESSURE CURVE 1 0 VARIATION ON LEFT SIDE (FT) A 2 —' - B 2 & R " R Fig. 7.5 Pressure C urve 3-1, 3-II, 3-III NEGATIVE PRESSURE DIFFERENTIAL SERIES 1 SECTION PRESSURE CURVE (O') 0.3 0.26 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 I I I I I ! SECTION PRESSURE CURVE <5') 0.3 0.26 0.2 0.16 0.1 0.06 0 0.3 0.26 0.2 0.16 0.1 0.06 0 i . . I II M l SECTION PRESSURE CURVE (10’) i n hi SECTION TYPE A2 B2 Fig. 7.6 Pressure C urve l-(O'), 1 -(5*), l-(lO ') NEGATIVE PRESSURE DIFFERENTIAL NEGATIVE PRESSURE DIFFERENTIAL 0 .3 0 .2 5 0.2 0 .1 6 0.1 0 .0 6 0 I SERIES 2 SECTION PRESSURE CURVE (5 ) It SECTION TYPE A2 B2 III SERIES 2 SECTION PRESSURE CURVE (10 ) 0 .3 r- 0.26 r 0.2 - 0.16 - 0.1 0 . 0 6 - 0 - I Fig. 7.7 Pressure C urve 2-(5} ), 2-(10') ii in SECTION TYPE A2 - B2 NEGATIVE PRESSURE DIFFERENTIAL NEGATIVE PRESSURE DIFFERENTIAL 92 SERIES 3 SECTION PRESSURE CURVE (S ’) 0 .2 6 0 .1 6 0 .0 6 SECTION TYPE - - - A 2 B 2 SERIES 3 SECTION PRESSURE CURVE (10') 0 .3 — 0 .2 6 ~ 0.2 - 0 .1 6 0.1 0 .0 6 0 I Fig. 7.8 P ressure C urve 3-(5'), 3-(i0') ii in SECTION TYPE . — A 2 * B 2 9 3 — In o rd er to explore the extent of Result N o. 2 , 1 d id Series 4 tests further. I picked u p p ro to ty p e cross-section II as the stu d y case to fig u re o u t "how sm all can the central opening be ?" by p u ttin g 2 /1 6 ", 5 /1 6 ", 7 /1 6 ", 10/16", and 12/16" -height plexiglass in the central opening. As I d id in those form er studies, I also recorded those p ressure readings (Table 7.3). W hat concerns us is the air speed in the living zone (3 '— 5' above the floor), th a t is , the velocity at the h e ig h t of l / 4 " ~ l / 2 " ab o v e the h o rizo n tal plexiglass ih the m odel. T herefore, I re v ie w e d p re ssu re read in g s of the o u tlets on the u p p e r level, an d I fo u n d the p ressu res h ard ly low ered until C ase 4 sh o w ed up. H ow ever, those on the low er level w en t up w ith the sm aller central opening. CASE URRIRTION IN THE MODEL (H) RIR PRESSURE REMRRKS R1 R2 B1 B2 1 2 /1 6 “ .065 .27 .10 .24 < ------------------------ 2 5/16" .05 .27 .09 .25 ■ 1 ______ . B2 H 3 7/1 6" .04 .27 .075 .26 4 10/16" .04 .26 .065 .26 ..2 ” .. . .».!_• 5 12/16" .035 .255 .06 .265 Table 7.3 The P ressure R eadings of Series 4 0 . 3 --------------------------- i-J >_( 0 .2 5 - ........................................ — t - ' E -< S w ° 2 -.............................. \— i r * 4 1>J M 0 .0 5 - ........................................................................................................................................... S 3 # D CO 0 ----------------------- 1 ----- ---------------J ---------------------J --------------------- 1 ---------------------1 --------------------- w 0 1 2 3 4 8 6 g VARIATION CASE A 2 ~ t— B2 Fig. 7.9 P ressure C urves in Series 4 94 7.2 OBSERVATIONS A N D PROPOSITIONS Since the d e p th of th e ro o m h as little effect o n in te rio r air velocity (v en tilatio n ), m o re a tten tio n sh o u ld b e p a id to so lar ra d ia tio n . In su m m er, th e d e p th of room s m akes no b ig differences w ith in te rio r spaces b ecau se w e alw ays k eep so lar ra d ia tio n a w a y to p re v e n t the spaces from overheating. H ow ever, the d e p th m akes big differences in w in ter; th e d e e p e r th e ro om , th e m o re d ifficu lt for th e s u n to h eat d eep er spaces. T herefore, in the desig n p ro g ress, architects sh o u ld be m uch concerned ab o u t the d e p th 's effects on solar h eat gain for h u m an com fort in w inter. In an a ctu al sk ip -sto p schem e, th e cen tral o p e n in g , for reaso n s of spatial uses, is seldom com pletely open. I suggest it is better to have the central o p en in g be larger and use h a n d racks in th e open in g in stead of a solid p a ra p e t because a solid p a ra p e t w ill in terfere w ith the airflow a n d cause a "w in d -sh ad o w " b eh in d it. A s w e kn o w , th e extent of the w in d -sh a d o w in creases in p ro p o rtio n to th e h e ig h t of a b u ild in g ; th e re fo re , th e e x te n t of th e w in d -s h a d o w e n h a n c e s in a ra tio co rresponding to the h eig h t of the parapet. In m y stu d ies, the extent of th e sh a d o w b e h in d th e p a ra p e t is b e tw e e n 5' a n d 20' (w hole room depth). A beneficial re su lt in m y stu d ies is th a t e v e ry series h as a sim ilar V enturi Effect. T hat is , the air velocity a t the o u tle t is larg er th an th at a t the inlet. Since larger velocity is useful for h u m a n com fort in a hot- h u m id clim ate, w e sh o u ld try to increase air velocity. From this p o in t of view , C ross-section I is m ost useful to create h ig h air velocity an d III is m o st useless; how ever, III could b e m o st u sefu l w h en w in d com es fro m th e o p p o site d irectio n . To c re ate h ig h air velo city in d o o rs, architects hav e to be careful a b o u t d e sig n of p a rtitio n s at th e sam e tim e. The p lan of Fig. 7.10 is an exam ple of careful p artitio n design. Ba ST L MB r5' 4 D ■ p - f Ba ttj -....... ..................................... T ------- UP D ------- i................ J TTfrn K ------- UN | Plan Ba A-A Section Fig. 7.10 A P roposed L ayout for Skip-Stop Schemes 96 T he m ajor v e n tilatio n p ro b le m in sk ip -sto p system s is in th e u n it "efficiency". T here m ig h t be tw o so lu tio n s to solve the v en tilatio n problem in the efficiency. O ne is to div id e the w indow on th e external w all into tw o lateral w in d o w s a n d p ro v id e each of tw o w in d o w s w ith one "w ing-w all" , as show n in Fig. 7.11, w hich has been d em o n strated by G ivoni. In this case, the w in d direction sh o u ld not be p erp en d icu lar b u t sh o u ld be oblique to th e exterior w all. Since the p rev ailin g w ind directions are E, SSE, ESE in sum m er, I th in k it is useful to a d o p t the w ing-w all. H o w ev er, th e d e p th of th e w in g -w all , for a b u ild in g containing several room s, sh o u ld n o t interfere w ith the ventilation of adjacent room s. G ivoni su ggested th at it sh o u ld be no m ore th an one- half the distance b etw een th e w ing-w all of the o u tlet w in d o w of the first room and the beginning of the inlet of the second room , as show n in Fig. 7.12. T he other is to u se "double-floor", as show n in Fig. 7.13, to h e lp w ith th e c ro ss-v e n tilatio n of th e efficiency u n it. Its actu al efficiency deserves fu rth er study. jv, : 4 - 7 * /. n 4 2 I 3 « 5 J 3 8 3 LL 6 7 C ,r 3 S V . / V - 1 1 1 I D 5 3 3 * /. = 3 8 V . ?, = 3 S V . 7 6 1 3 9 8 9 to 6 3 : 7 7 2 1 4 7 7 5 1 6 1 3 3 3 7 1 2 8 . |* 3 t ' * 5 7 . f , M I-4 7 . / y = 1 5 - 7 7 . * V \i \ Yt 4 3 V 1 3 1 3 4 3 1 9 1 < 7 1 1 4 0 1 2 3 2 1 0 1 6 1 4 1 3 5 7 1 3 5 6 2 0 9 1 1 6 7 4 3 1 4 4 i t* V M 2< v . r, * ; c 3 0 * 7 7 / / < » P , : 3 5 -8 7 . < I 1 3 4 27. . Lr 1 3 - 7 V n 1 3 to 2 1 5 2 1 6 4 1 1 0 I 5 4 9 1 6 1 6 1 8 7 1 0 T O 5 4 2 2 1 7 9 1 8 9 6 1 4 | 9 6 r ? n s v t M O -4 7 . Kj s 3 0 -0 7 . F j r3 S 2*/, K , = 3 5 -7 7 . V f z 6 - 1 7 . Fig. 7.11 Internal A ir Speeds in A_Ro_om W ith _An_Fxt.pr-na.l-W.al-l [-5 0 .]. 97 a < = b / 2 Fig. 7.12 A p propriate D epth of The W ing-W all G ivoni (i976) su g g ested th a t this distance sh o u ld be i8 " m inim um . — EFFICIENCY CORRIDOR Fig. 7.13 A P ro p o sed Solution for The V entilation P roblem in The Efficiency U nit 98 7.3 DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR A HOT-HUMID CLIMATE G enerally speaking, the desig n g u id elin es for a h o t-h u m id clim ate are described below: 1. M inim ize Solar G ain 1-1 Shading: a. Roof shading— double roofs T he o u tsid e lay er of th e roof has a reflectiv e su rface to th ro w off m o st of th e solar heat, an d th e accu m u lated hot air betw een tw o roofs is allow ed to escape at the o pen ends. H ow ever, according to tests an d analysis by C h an d ra, Fairey, an d H o u sto n ( 1984 ), a ra d ia n t b arrier in th e attic space is v ery co st-effectiv e w h e n c o m p a re d to th e d o u b le -ro o f design. b. W all shading— double w alls, exterior screens (Fig. 7.14) s o u # m m r m w m f m i s s c / ? £ £ £ s Fig. 7.14 D ouble W alls & Exterior Screens [51 j 99 The double-w all design is generally n o t cost-effective, b u t it w ill be if a rad ia n t barrier is used, c. W indow shading — overhangs an d fins 1-2 R estrict solar heat conduction: ( b u t use low -m ass construction m aterials to p rev en t h eat from being tra p p e d in b u ild in g s— in lig h tw eig h t stru ctu res, the in d o o r te m p e ra tu re curve closely follow s the o u td o o r tem p era tu re cycle an d is alw ays above it at m ax im u m conditions an d th ro u g h o u t the n ig h t as sh o w n in Fig. 7.15) - — — O utdoor air — Heavyweight house Lightw eight house 6o Noon 5 2 0 2 4 Tim e of day (hr$) ii 9 0 8 0 AJr tem perature U F T im e of day (hrs) H O T H U M ID C L IM A T 8 Fig. 7.15 T em perature V ariation C urve [52] a. Insulation on roof and east& w est w alls b. L ight color & high reflectivity for exterior finishing m aterials a n d low em issivity in te rn al surface m aterials c. H eat absorbing reflective glass d. A ir space betw een the roof an d th e ceiling As a usual, m any feel th at v en tilatin g the air space w o u ld reduce h eat gain. H ow ever, recent testing and analysis by M cQ uiston, D er, an d Sandoval( 1984 ) have d em o n strated th at the p red o m in an t h eat transfer m o d e in attic spaces is rad iatio n , th a t is to say, n a tu ra l v e n tilatio n th ro u g h the a ir space h as no effect on th e in d o o r te m p e ra tu re in sum m er. T hus it is an effective m eans of red u c in g h eat g ain to g et a ra d ia n t b arrier( a lu m in u m foil w ith an air sp a c e ). e. R aised floors on the g ro u n d level__________________________ T OO ' 2. P rom ote V entilation 2-1 im prove orientation to prevailing w inds: It is n o t of g re a t im p o rta n c e to o rie n t lo w b u ild in g s to p re v a ilin g w in d s b e c a u se th e u se o f v e g e ta tio n , th e arran g em en t of o p en in g s in the high an d lo w -p ressu re areas, an d the p ro p er design of w in d o w inlets can help am elirate the airflow . H o w ev e r, for h ig h b u ild in g s, su c h as a p a rtm e n t h o u ses w h e re s u rro u n d in g te rra in h as little effect o n the h ig h er flo o rs, o rie n ta tio n to p re v a ilin g w in d s s h o u ld be carefully considered. W hereas, o rien tatio n to w in d s does not m ean to be exactly p e rp e n d ic u la r to the w in d directions. In fact, G ivoni (1976) has sh o w n th at if w in d o w s are o b liq u e to the w ind direction at 45° angle, the average in d o o r air velocity will be increased and a better d istribution of air m o v em en t can be achieved. 2-2 A dequate V entilation a. C ross-ventilation b. Stack-effecl ventilation The gu id elin es described above are m ainly d ealin g w ith th e b u ild in g itself. F u rth erm o re, w e sh o u ld k now so m eth in g a b o u t u rb a n design gu id elin es and n eighborhood planning. 1) Lay out buildings in a d isp ersed w ay (Fig. 7.16)— according to Victor O lg y a y 's "D esign w ith C lim ate", th e o p tim a l ro w sp a cin g am o n g b u ild in g s to secure satisfactory v en tilatio n is seven tim es resp ectiv e heights. Wind D irectio n E levation' Plan Fig. 7.i6 L ayout of Buildings [53] 101 2) H ig h resid en tia l d e n sity m u st be ach iev ed by h eig h t ra th e r th an occupation of the w hole site. (Fig. 7.17) 3) D isposition of high- and low -rise buildings should be carefully stu d ied to avoid ' calm ’ w in d zones in the low er floors. (Fig. 7.18) . , 1 * f t * ; m m K M w m BETTER k - 4 b h h w h b NO Fig. 7.17 P lanning for H igh R esidential D ensity [54] — —- ✓ // // < < * > ) v. Z . — 1 > 1 > — { > > 1 > £ > Fig. 7.18 D isposition of H igh- and Low-Rise Buildings [55] — 102 4) R elationship b etw een H igh-rise an d Low -rise B uildings 4-1 W ith ad eq u ate relationship in heights b etw een a highrise in front of a low rise bu ild in g , it is possible to create air m ovem ent in the low rise bu ild in g , opposite to the p rev ailin g breezes. (Fig. 7.19) 4-2 The extent of w in d shadow increases in p ro p o rtio n to the height of a building, this is also affected by the slope of the roof. The w id th of the b u ild in g has little effect on th e extent of the shadow . (Fig. 7.20) 5) The arran g em en t of streets an d o th er open spaces sh o u ld enable the passage of w ind am ong buildings. Wind Direction Fig. 7.19 R elationship Betw een H igh-R ise an d Low-Rise B uildings [56] Fig. 7.20 Effect of The D epth of The B uilding on The E xtent of [57] The Shadow T03 APPENDIX D iag ram s in this a p p en d ix are d ra w in g s of th e ex p erim en ts. T hey sh o w the situ atio n d u rin g each ex p erim en t, for instance, b a ro m e te r, tem p era tu re , relative h u m id ity , air-flow p a tte rn a n d d istrib u tio n , etc. P age 104 also sh o w s th e v ertical p re ssu re d istrib u tio n in sid e a n d w ith o u t the m odel. T he sym bol ' — • ' in d icates th e d irectio n of air-flow , a n d ' C>* ' sym bolizes tu rb u len t air-flow . Sym bol " X " rep resen ts the re d y arn is straig h t u p an d p erp en d icu lar to the p la n or section; in o th er w o rd s, it m eans th at specific sp o t is in a suction zone. L etter " W " indicates the a ir-flo w on th a t specific sp o t is w eak, w h ile " D " m ea n s n o air m ovem ent exists on th at specific spot. 104 BAROMETER: TEMPERATURE: SCALE: RELATIVE HUMIDITY: ' STATIC PRESSURE: F DATE: TIME: UPPER PLAN LOWER PLAN 0.275 ( M o M o J e J ) SECTION 9510^6 105 EXPERIMENT NO.: L D BAROMETER: io .\3 TEMPERATURE: <XC.3 eP RELATIVE HUMIDITY: 41.*5#STATIC PRESSURE: 0-165 DATE: U / iV B R TIME: l<3=oo(5U0 SCALE: UPPER PLAN LOWER PLAN SECTION 106 EXPERIMENT NO.: L g BAROMETER: 3>o.i3 RELATIVE HUMIDITY: DATE: H/13/gfl TEMPERATURE: STATIC PRESSURE: o.tft*5 TIME: |4 !(0 ~ l4 -;2 o o - 1 .....I 1 A a = a 26 r .......... “ n i " - J H \ A . ^ V „ > ! --------------- — © 2 = 0 .2 5 5 ' 3 T . S 1 ■ ? v 12 T 7 Z T - Bi =O.I2»5 SCALE: i / g ^ r UPPER PLAN LOWER PLAN SECTION io 7 EXPERIMENT No .: L i BAROMETER: 5o.i3 RELATIVE HUMIDITY: 4 1 *?% DATE: 1 1 / 13/ 0*? TEMPERATURE: 7£.5 6P S T A TIC PRESSURE: o.fl TIME: 13:2 0 ^ 1 3 = 35 SCALE: UPPER PLAN LOWER PLAN SECTION 108 EXPERIMENT No.: i J BAROMETER: 30.B TEMPERATURE: % 3 eF SCALE: RELATIVE HUMIDITY: 4 2 ° / ST ATI C PRESSURE: o.l^ l / f a l " DATE: U / 19/g ^ TIME: I ^ O - I ^ O t* X ;< O ' UPPER PLAN LOWER PLAN SECTION 109 EXPERIMENT N O .ifL i BAROMETER: 30.13 RELATIVE HUMIDITY: DATE: H /1 3 /fM TEMPERATURE: ? £ 5 ° F STATIC PRESSURE: o.\9S TIME: 15=30-15^40 SCALE: i ^ r B r UPPER PLAN LOWER PLAN A z= 0 .2 5 T I I S>2~c .2 5 ^ / ' 7 ...^ _ T 1 — r^ A i= a i, 2 ) 5 . C l5 r~ ' 7 / ~ T 7 “ / B i-0.|2^ . --H "N SECTION n o EXPERIMENT NO.: i „ 3 BAROMETER: 30.is RELATIVE HUMIDITY: 4 -2 X DATE: ll/l TEMPERATURE: 76.5 eP SCALE- STATIC PRESSURE: 0.185 O W b IT TIME: t6 = o 5 -l6 = l5 UPPER PLAN LOWER PLAN A2= 0.2*5 A = o.I3 1 8 1“ 0.( 3 SECTION i i i EXPERIMENT NO.: I J BAROMETER: 30.13 TEM PER A TU R E:^.^eP SCALE: RELATIVE H U M ID ITY :42^ S TA TIC PRESSURE: o. l4 M g - a l T DATE: H /1 3 /g ^ TIME: T6M*5'v4£>:zo UPPER PLAN LOWER PLAN SECTION i i 2 EXPERIMENT N O g . g BAROMETER: 3o.(3 RELATIVE HUMIDITY: & 1% DATE: H / l V a 1 TEMPERATURE: r?£.5*P STA TIC PRESSURE: 0.(85 TIME: (6 ;3 0 -l6 --4 O SCALE: i / r B i " UPPER PLAN LOWER PLAN SECTION 113 EXPERIMENT Nd.:S,3 BAROMETER: 30.13. RELATIVE HUMIDITY: 4*2% DATE: H / 1 3 / 0 ^ TEMPERATURE: STATIC PRESSURE: 0.1*1 TIME: |6 = 5 o ~ » T ; 00 SCALE: UPPER PLAh LOWER PLAN A2 = 0-24- T N i \ % Z 7 7 A 1= 0. 13, B 2 -0 .2 3 Bt— 0.14-5 .SECJ_L0.I1 114 EXPERIMENT NO.: 4 J BAROMETER: 30.13 RELATIVE HUMIDITY: 2 &.z% DATE: ( 1 / 2 0 / 3 1 TEMPERATURE: STA TIC PRESSURE: c u q TIME: \A-\ty ^ \ A . - z 3 SCALE: r e r UPPER PLAN LOWER PLAN SECTION i i 5 EXPERIMENT NO SCALE: TEMPERATURE: STATIC PRESSURE: o.\<\ TIME: \4 --oo ~ \4 - : { o BAROMETER: 3 0 .13 RELATIVE HUMIDITY: z£. DATE: 11/2 o/l<\ UPPER PLAN LOWER PLAN SECTION EXPERIMENT NO.: § J 116 BAROMETER: Zo aZ RELATIVE HUMIDITY: DATE: (I / 2 0 / # j TEMPERATURE: T6.5°f STATIC PRESSURE: o.(i TIME: SCALE: UPPER PLAN LOWER PLAN SECTION 117 EXPERIMENT NO.: i SCALE: TEMPERATURE: STATIC PRESSURE: o.l^ BAROMETER: 3o.l3 RELATIVE HUMIDITY: 2 DATE: U / 2 o / V \ UPPER PLAN LOWER PLAN SECTION 118 EXPERIMENT NO.: ©J BAROMETER: 30.13 RELATIVE HUMIDITV: 2 ^ DATE: 1 1 / 2 0 / ^ TEMPERATURE: 76.*3C P SCALE: STATIC PRESSURE: o . i ^ TIME: l 2 . : l o ~ l 2 : 2 5 UPPER PLAN LOWER PLAN SECTION i i 9 EXPERIMENT No.: ©M BAROMETER: 3 o j3 RELATIVE HUMIDITY: ZG% DATE: H /20/81 TEMPERATURE: STATIC PRESSURE: TIME: \2 :$0 ^ 12 -4-0 SCALE: w rs r e~ — <r* — X ^_w vJ ^ _ ___ — • p " X tp* ^ < r p=- o - X N. ____________ — — X — ____. e=w _ — i UPPER PLAN LOWER PLAN ^2=0.24- A = o.(3*5 B2 -0 .2 ? t3 SECT ON EXPERIMENT NO.: ? J BAROMETER: 30.26 RELATIVE HUMIDITY: 30% DATE: 12/ l l /%f\ TEMPERATURE: 76.5 T STA TIC PRESSURE: o.lg*5 TIME: »2S 5 5 ^ \ Z -o 5 120 SCALE: V a f X X X — — . — — X X X p — . X X X P — . c = - X X X p p > - ■ — ■ UPPER PLAN — — X — — . . . — . — „ — ■ X ^ — — . — X — . c ^ . _ _ _ . — ■ X — . — ■ — • — ■ LOWER PLAN / ^ ......../ I o o j 5 A, - 0.07 A z= 0.2 0.035 fe2=0.25 0-15 r B1 — 0 . SECTION i l l EXPERIMENT NO.: f . I BAROMETER: 30.26 RELATIVE HUMIDITV: l&fo DATE: 12/ t l / g ^ TEMPERATURE: SCALE: ST A TIC PRESSURE: d?.i^ II W a l T TIME: 14--4 0 'v. t4-:^o UPPER PLAN LOWER PLAN Ai-o.c/fc AafcO . 24 I 8 2 = 0 . 2 5 B i=oj| SECTION 122 EXPERIMENT NO.: @ J BAROMETER: 3026 RELATIVE HUMIDITY: 2 %% DATE: TEMPERATURE: STATIC PRESSURE: TIME: SCALE: u H ” • 7 7 7 7 7 A j - 0 . 2 4 V o - 0.24- ^ B ,= o .i T T ^ % . - y - s r UPPER PLAN LOWER PLAN A 1 - 0.17 ,, I I r r 7 SECTION 123 EXPERIMENT NO.: ®„g BAROMETER: 3 0 .2 6 TEMPERATURE: SCALE: RELATIVE HUMIDITY: 26^ STATIC P R E S S U R E : 1 ^ 1 “ DATE: I3L /H /& 1 TIME: \4 ^ o ^ --(O UPPER PLAN LOWER PLAN SECTION 124 EXPERIMENT NO.: § J BAROMETER: 50.24 RELATIVE HUMIDITY: 2%% DATE: l2/il/g<? TEMPERATURE: STATIC PRESSURE: o. \<\ TIME: l 5 4 5 ~ l 5 - ’ 2 5 SCALE: 1 1 f W a V UPPER PLAN LOWER PLAN SECTION 125 EXPERIMENT No .: §.S BAROMETER: 5 0 .2 6 RELATIVE HUMIDITY: DATE: i 2 / i i / 6 T TEMPERATURE: Y 6 .5 T SCALE: .STATIC P R E S S U R E ^ TIME: \4-■ 13 ^ \ 4 :2 . 0 X p X p y P x P G>- 0 -. UPPER PLAN LOWER PLAN 0 : ^ 5 ^ A i = 0 .2 4 5 0 .2 5 B2 =0.2?) Z I ^ I Z &( =o.2g, - i s ' “ Ni SECTION 126 EXPERIMENT No.: W A BAROMETER: 30. 24- TEMPERATURE: 7 SCALE: RELATIVE HUMIDITY: 2.2% ST ATI C PRESSURE: A ^ b I T DATE: 1 / 2<\/<\o TIME: UPPER PLAN LOWER PLAN O.IO SECTION 127 EXPERIMENT NO.: WM BAROMETER: 30.24 TEMPERATURE: SCALE: RELATIVE HUMIDITY: 21% ST ATI C PRESSURE: DATE: 1 / 2<\/<\o TIME: 15*-0 0 - 1 5 : 2 0 UPPER PLAN LOWER PLAN O.06 0.055 SECTION 128 EXPERIMENT NO.: BAROMETER: 3o.2<7 TEMPERATURE: 76eF SCALE: RELATIVE HUMIDITY: S TA TIC PRESSURE: DATE: 2 / 5 / 1 0 TIME: 13 = ( 5 - 1 3 • ' 40 UPPER PLAN LOWER PLAN 0.30 0 . 2 7 0 . 2 7 SECTION i29 EXPERIMENT NO.: t){Do<€ SCALE: < 1 jP tfa ™ — < TEMPERATURE: BAROMETER: 3o.2<| RELATIVE HUMIDITY: ST ATI C PRESSURE: TIME: \ 4 : 10 ^ { A '-Z o m DATE: 2 / ^ / q o UPPER PLAN LOWER PLAN SECTION 130 EXPERIMENT NO.: ij®D § BAROMETER: 3o .^ TEMPERATURE: SCAlE: RELATIVE HUMIDITY: Z < \% ST ATI C PRESSURE: i / | nB r DATE: 2 / 9 / T o TIME: 14 UPPER PLAN 0. 25-026 0.25- 0.26 0.25— 0-26 0.26- 0.27 0.26- 0.27 0, 26- 0. 2j ■ • • ■ • * • • • • ■ d Week I ( ), f i It Aw A A X * L..'■ ! .............. D r 1 1 i Aw A A ~rw '..i " r “ 1 * X J ......J . . X X 7 7 LOWER PLAN 0.D4 0 .0 4 0.035 0 .0 5 0 .0 5 5 0 .0 6 SECTION 131 REFERENCES 132 1. C hern, Jia-Ji, A S tudy on the C lim ate for A rchitectural A pplication in T aiw an. M aster's Thesis at C heng-K ung U niversity in T aiw an, 1987, p. 75 2. C hern, Jia-Ji, A S tudy on the C lim ate for A rchitectural A pplication in T aiw an, M aster's Thesis at C heng-K ung U niversity in T aiw an, 1987, p. 35 3. Yang, Ren-Jeng, P otentiality of N atu ral V entilation in Energy- C onserving A rchitecture in T aiw an— by the A nalysis of the W eather in Sum m er, R esources Periodical, D ep artm en t of E nergy in T aiw an, J u ly /1987, p. 41 4. O lgyay, Victor, D esign W ith C lim ate, Princeton U niversity Press, 1963, p. 22 5. C hern, Jia-Ji, A S tudy on the C lim ate for A rchitectural A pplication in T aiw an, M aster's Thesis at C heng-K ung U niversity in T aiw an, 1987, p. 64 6. C hern, Jia-Ji, A S tudy on the C lim ate for A rchitectural A pplication in T aiw an, M aster's Thesis at C heng-K ung U niversity in T aiw an, 1987, p. 65 7. C hern, Jia-Ji, A S tudy on the C lim ate for A rchitectural A pplication in T aiw an, M aster's Thesis at C heng-K ung U niversity in T aiw an, 1987, p. 66 8. C hern, Jia-Ji, A Study on the C lim ate for A rchitectural A pplication in T aiw an, M aster's Thesis at C heng-K ung U niversity in T aiw an, 1987, p. 106 9. C hergn, Jiing-Shyuan, A S tudy on the T herm al Perform ance of T raditional D w ellings in T aiw an, M aster's Thesis at C heng-K ung U niversity in T aiw an, 1988, p. 78 10. C hergn, Jiing-Shyuan, A S tudy on the T herm al P erform ance of T raditional D w ellings in T aiw an, M aster's Thesis at C heng-K ung U niversity in T aiw an, 1988, p. 79 133 11. C hergn, Jiing-Shyuan, A S tudy on the T herm al Perform ance of T raditional D w ellings in T aiw an, M aster's Thesis at C heng-K ung U niversity in T aiw an, 1988, p. 86 12. C hergn, Jiing-Shyuan, A S tudy on-the T herm al Perform ance of T raditional D w ellings in T aiw an, M aster's T hesis at C heng-K ung U niversity in T aiw an, 1988, p. 87 13. C hergn, Jiing-Shyuan, A S tudy on the T herm al Perform ance of T raditional D w ellings in T aiw an, M aster's T hesis at C heng-K ung U niversity in T aiw an, 1988, p. 76~77 14. C hergn, Jiing-Shyuan, A S tudy on the T herm al Perform ance of T raditional D w ellings in T aiw an, M aster's T hesis at C heng-K ung U niversity in T aiw an, 1988, p. 74~75 15. S tein /R ey n o ld s/M cG u in n ess, 7th Ed. M echanical a n d Electrical E q uipm ent for B uildings. John W iley & Sons, 1986, p. 34 16. A ugus, T.C., The C ontrol of Indoor C lim ate, P ergam on Press, 1968, p. 36 17. B radshaw , V aughn, B uilding C ontrol System s, John W iley & Sons, 1985, p. 16 18. K ukreja, C.P., T ropical A rchitecture, M cG raw -H ill Book C om pany, 1978, p. 10 19. G ivoni, Baruch, M an, C lim ate and A rchitecture, Science Publishers Ltd., 1976, p. 7 20. Egan, D avid, C oncepts in Therm al C om fort, Prentice-H all, 1975, p. 17 21. G ivoni, Baruch, M an, C lim ate and A rchitecture, Science Publishers Ltd., 1976, p. 281 22. G ivoni, Baruch, M an, C lim ate an d A rchitecture, Science P ublishers Ltd., 1976, p. 302 134 23. B radshaw , V aughn, B uilding C ontrol System s, John W iley & Sons, 1985, p. 25 24. G ivoni, Baruch, P assive C ooling of Buildings, G S A U P/U C L A , C hapter 2, p.24 25. G ivoni, Baruch, Passive C ooling of Buildings, G S A U P/U C L A , C hapter 2, p.24 26. G ivoni, Baruch, Passive C ooling of Buildings, G SA U P/U C L A , C hapter 3, p. 67 27. Givoni, Baruch, Passive C ooling of Buildings, G SA U P/U C L A , C hapter 3, p. 68 28. G ivoni, Baruch, Passive C ooling of Buildings, G SA U P/U C L A , C hapter 3, p. 3 29. G ivoni, Baruch, Passive C ooling of B uildings, G S A U P/U C L A , C hapter 1, p. 4 30. G ivoni, Baruch, Passive C ooling of Buildings, G SA U P/U C L A , C hapter 5, p. 62 31. G ivoni, Baruch, Passive C ooling of Buildings, G SA U P/U C L A , C hapter 5, p. 63 32. G ivoni, Baruch, Passive C ooling of Buildings, G S A U P/U C L A , C hapter 6, p. 1 33. G ivoni, Baruch, Passive C ooling of Buildings, G S A U P/U C L A , C hapter 6, p. 3 34. G ivoni, Baruch, Passive C ooling of Buildings, G SA U P/U C L A , C hapter 6, p. 7 35. Cook, Jeffrey, Passive C ooling, MIT Press, 1989, p. 200 36. Cook, Jeffrey, Passive C ooling, MIT Press, 1989, p. 198 135 37. G ivoni, Baruch, Passive C ooling of B uildings. G SA U P/U C L A , C hapter 6, p. 94 38. Taylor, John, C om m onsense A rch itectu re, W .W . N o rto n & Co., 1983, p. 62 39. M elaragno, M ichele, W ind in A rchitectural a n d E nvironm ental D esign, V an N o stran d R einhold C om pany, 1982, p. 339 40. N kuo, Lucy, Passive C ooling M ethods for M id to H igh-R ise B uildings in the H o t-H u m id C lim ate of D ouala, C am eroon, W est Africa, M aster's Thesis at USC, 1988, p. 44 41. K ukreja, C.P., T ropical A rchitecture, M cG raw -H ill Book C om pany, 1978, p. 96 42. M elaragno, M ichele, W ind in A rchitectural a n d E nvironm ental D esign, Van N o stran d R einhold C om pany, 1982, p. 47 43. M acsai, John, H o u sin g , John W iley & Sons, 1976, p. 231 44. M acsai, John, H o u sin g , John W iley & Sons, 1976, p. 233 45. ALA, E nergy in A rchitecture, A shton-W orthington, Inc., 1981, p. 26 46. Besset, M aurice, Le C obusier— To Live W ith the Light, Rizzoli International Publications, Inc., 1987, p. 136,157 47. M acsai, John, H o u sin g . John W iley & Sons, 1976, p. 386 48. M acsai, John, H o u sin g , John W iley & Sons, 1976, p. 387 49. M acsai, John, H o u sin g , John W iley & Sons, 1976, p. 385 50. G ivoni, Baruch, M an, C lim ate and A rchitecture, Science P ublishers Ltd., 1976, p. 296 136 51. A ntonio, Jose, H ow to D esign in a H o t-H u m id C lim ate, M aster's Thesis at UCLA, 1986, p. 32 52. Saini, Balw ant, A rchitecture in Tropical A ustralia, G eorge W ittenborn Inc., 1970, p. 26 53. A ntonio, Jose, H ow to D esign in a H ot-H um id C lim ate. M aster's Thesis at UCLA, 1986, p. 42 54. A ntonio, Jose, H o w to D esign in a H ot-H um id C lim ate, M aster's Thesis at UCLA, 1986, p. 42 55. Konya, A lan, D esign Prim er for H ot C lim ates, M cG raw -H ill, 1982, p. 55 56. A ntonio, Jose, H ow to D esign in a H ot-H um id C lim ate, M aster's Thesis at UCLA, 1986, p. 43 57. Konya, A lan, D esign P rim er for H ot C lim ates. M cG raw -H ill, 1982, p. 55 137 BIBLIOGRAPHY T38 A ugus, T.C., The C ontrol of Indoor C lim ate, P ergam on Press, 1968 A ntonio, Jose, H ow to D esign in a H ot-H um id Clim ate, M aster's Thesis at UCLA, 1986 B rad sh aw , V aughn, B uilding C ontrol System s, John W iley & Sons, 1985 .... B row n, G.Z., Sun, W ind an d Light, John W iley & Sons, 1985 B esset, M au rice, Le C o b u sie r— To L ive W ith th e L ig h t, R izzoli In tern atio n al Publications, Inc., 1987 Cook, Jeffrey, Passive Cooling, M IT Press, 1989 C h e rg n , Jiin g -S h y u an , A S tu d y on th e T h erm al P e rfo rm a n ce of T ra d itio n a l D w ellings in T aiw an , M a ste r's T hesis a t C h en g -K u n g U niversity in T aiw an, 1988 C hern, Jia-Ji, A Study on the C lim ate for A rchitectural A p p licatio n in T aiw an, M aster's Thesis at C heng-K ung U niversity in T aiw an, 1987 C h an d ra, S., P. Fairey, and M. H ouston, A nalysis of R esidential Passive D esign T echnique for the F lorida M odel E nergy C ode, F lorida Solar Energy Center, 1984 D avid, A lbert J., A lternative N a tu ra l E nergy Sources, B lackburg, Va., 1974 E gan, D avid, C oncepts in T herm al C om fort, Prentice-H all, 1975 F lynn, John, Segil, A rth u r, A rc h ite c tu ra l In te rio r S y stem s, V an N o stra n d R einhold C om pany, 1970 G ivoni, B aruch, M an, C lim ate an d A rc h ite c tu re , Science P u b lish ers Ltd., 1976 G ivoni, Baruch, Passive C ooling of Buildings, G SA U P/U C L A 139 H u n g , W ei-Yi, R esearch on th e C lim atic A d a p tab ility of T raditional D w ellings in T aiw an , M aster's T hesis at C heng-K ung U n iv ersity in T aiw an, 1986 K ukreja, C.P., Tropical A rchitecture. M cG raw -H ill Book C om pany, 1978 Konya, A llan, D esign P rim er for H ot C lim ates. M cG raw -H ill, 1982 M e lara g n o , M ichele, W in d in A rc h ite c tu ra l a n d E n v iro n m e n ta l D esign. 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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Wang, Hsi-Cheng
(author)
Core Title
A cross-ventilation study on a building with skip-stop corridors
Degree
Master of Building Science
Degree Program
Building Science
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
engineering, architectural,OAI-PMH Harvest
Language
English
Contributor
Digitized by ProQuest
(provenance)
Advisor
Schiler, Marc (
committee chair
), Givoni, Baruch (
committee member
), Knowles, Ralph (
committee member
), Koenig, Pierre (
committee member
)
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c17-783329
Unique identifier
UC11347988
Identifier
EP41421.pdf (filename),usctheses-c17-783329 (legacy record id)
Legacy Identifier
EP41421.pdf
Dmrecord
783329
Document Type
Thesis
Rights
Wang, Hsi-Cheng
Type
texts
Source
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
Access Conditions
The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...
Repository Name
University of Southern California Digital Library
Repository Location
USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA
Tags
engineering, architectural