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A study of the technology of color motion picture processes developed in the United States

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A study of the technology of color motion picture processes developed in the United States

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Content This dissertation has been micro&lmed exactly as received 6 7-5307 RYAN, Roderick Thomas, 1924- A STUDY OF THE TECHNOLOGY OF COLOR MOTION PICTURE PROCESSES DEVELOPED IN THE UNITED STATES. University of Southern California, Ph.D., 1966 History, modern University Microfilms, Inc.. Ann Arbor, Michigan Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. C opyright by R oderick Thom as Ryan 1967 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A STUDY OF THE TECHNOLOGY OF COLOR MOTION PICTURE PROCESSES DEVELOPED IN THE UNITED STATES by Roderick Tb.oro,as Ryan A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Coramunication-Cinema) (HISTORY) September 1966 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CAUFORNIA T H E G R A D U A T E S C H O O L U N IV E R S IT Y PA R K LO S A N G E L E S , C A L IF O R N IA 9 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, w ritten by __ R o d e r i c k . .................................. under the direction o f his. Dissertation Com mittee, and approved by a ll its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Graduate School, in p artial fulfillm ent of requirements fo r the degree of D O C T O R O F P H IL O S O P H Y Dean DISSERTATION COMMITTEE Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The writer wishes to extend grateful acknowledgment to the members of his committee for their assistance and cooperation, to Daan Zwick, Eastman Kodak Research Labora tory, for proofreading the first draft of the manuscript and his helpful suggestions, to L. W. Chase, G. F. Rackett, A. M. Gundelfinger, and the personnel of the various Hollywood motion picture laboratories who furnished infor mation for this study, and especially to Helen A. McGuffin, who worked so hard in helping me to prepare the manuscript for final typing. XI Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS............- - .................... ii LIST OF FIGURES vi ^ Chapter I. THE PROBLEM 1 i Introduction Purpose of the Study I Statement of the Problem | Importance of the Study Method of Research I Review of the Literature i Definition of Terms i II. A BRIEF EXPLANATION OF COLOR S I III. TINTING AND TONING . 20 | Pathechrome | The Handschiegl Process I IV. ADDITIVE PROCESSES (OPTICAL, MECHANICAL, | AND SHARED AREA) 42 i Kinemacolor Panchromotion Douglass Color Gilmore Color Kesdacolor Warner-Powrie Color Magnachrome Xll Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Chapter Page Rotocolor Opticolor Morgana Color Cinemacolor Cosmocolor Telco Color Thomascolor Colorvision V. ADDITIVE PROCESSES (LENTICULAR) .......... 95 Keller-Dorian Kodacolor Eastman Embossed Print Film Eastman Embossed Color Kinescope Recording Film VI. SUBTRACTIVE PROCESSES (OPTICAL, MECHANICAL, AND SHARED AREA)........................ 132 Colorgraph Process ' Kodachrome (Early Two Color) Brewster Color Polychromide Technicolor | Kelley Color Harriscolor Photocolor VII. SUBTRACTIVE PROCESSES (BIPACK) 189 | Prizma Color Color Film Process Vitacolor Sennett Color Coloratura Magnacolor Multicolor Cinecolor i Dunning Color | Fullcolor i Trucolor I I Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Chapter Page VIII. SUBTRACTIVE PROCESSES {MONOPACK OR MULTILAYERED) ............................ 247 Caspar Color Kodachrome Ansco Color Eastman Multilayer Stripping Film Americolor DuPont Stripping Negative DuPont Color Film Type 275 The Ansco Color Negative/Positive Process Eastman Color Ektachrome IX. SUBTRACTIVE PROCESSES (REHALOGENATION) ... 372 Polacolor Panacolor X. CONCLUSION................................ 383 APPENDICES......................................... 392 Appendix A: Definitions of Terms Appendix B: Patents BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................... 420 ADDENDUM.......................................... 438 V Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. White Light Passes Through a Prism and is Separated into its Component Colors, Forming the Spectrum................. 10 2. Red Light Waves Are the Longest; Blue Light Waves Are the Shortest............... 10 3a. The Spectrum of Electromagnetic Radiation . . 13 3b. The Visible Spectrum................... 13 4a. Additive Primaries, Red, Green, Blue .... 15 ; 4b. Superimposed Colored Lights Yield Mixture j Colors............................... 15 I 5a. Filters for the Subtractive Production of Color................................. 18 I 5b. Superimposed Color Filters with White Light | Yield Primary Colors by Subtraction .... 18 i 6. Handschiegl Process Film Dyeing Machine . . . 40 | i 7. Kinemacolor Camera 47 | 8. Kinemacolor Color Filter Disk 48 j 9a. Panchromotion Color Filter Disk ............. 54 9b. Position of Color Records in the Panchro motion System......................... 54 VI Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure Page 10. Douglass Color Beam Splitter Camera ......... 56 11. Douglass Color Separation Negatives and Print..................................... 57 12. Kesdacolor Optical System and Negative . . . 62 13a. Opticolor Lens System for Producing Three Separation Negatives ..................... 70 13b. Opticolor Triple Lens Arrangement ........... 70 14. Opticolor Separation Negatives, Three in the Area of a Standard Frame................ 71 15a. Cinemacolor Negative, Two Substandard Size Images Produced in the Area Normally Occupied by a Standard 35mm Frame........ 76 15b. Cinemacolor Film Coloring Machine for Dyeing Two Adjacent Substandard Size Images ^ Simultaneously and Continuously .......... 76 16. Cosmocolor Negative, Two Substandard Size Images Produced in the Area Normally Occupied by a Standard 35mm Frame......... 80 17. Cosmocolor Optical Printer; Negative Runs Horizontally and Master Positive Runs Vertically............................... 80 18. Cosmocolor Three-Color Negative, Two Normally Oriented Substandard Size Images and One Rotated 90°............................... 82 19. Machine for Applying Dye to One Side of Double Coated F i l m ....................... 85 20. Drum for Dyeing Machine Used for Dyeing Sequential Frame Prints .................. 87 VI1 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure Page 21. Four Segmented Optical Units Arranged Around a Common Axis and Separated by Septurns Are Used to Produce Four Color Separation Negatives Within a Single Frame.......... 89 22. Light Reflected from the Subject Photographed Passes Selectively Through a Banded Color Filter and Is Focused by the Camera Lens onto the Tiny Embossed Lenses Where It Is Re focused as Separate Red, Green and Blue Paravertical Bands on the Emulsion .... 102 23. The Effect That Occurs on a Single Lens Element when a Red Object Is Photographed . 103 24a. Kodacolor Banded Filter ..................... 105 24b. Kodacolor Ratio Diaphragm Cap............... 105 25. Lenticular Release Print on Eastman Embossed Print Film from Three Separation Negatives Exposed in a Beam Splitter Camera......... 112 26. Lenticular Release Print on Eastman Embossed Print Film from Three Separation Negatives Which Were Derived from a Color Negative Original.................................., 114 27. Lenticular Release Print on Eastman Embossed Print Film from Three Separation Negatives Which Were Derived from Eastman Multilayer Stripping Negative Film .................. 115 28. Lenticular Release Print on Eastman Embossed Print Film from Three Separation Negatives Which Were Derived from a Reversal Color Original................................. 116 29. Banded Tri-Color Filter .................... 120 Vlll Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure — ^ Page 30. Banded Tri-Color Filter, Projection Lens, and F i l m ................................. 120 31. Color Television Kinescope Recording by Means of a Banded Tri-Color Filter ............ 124 32. Color Television Kinescope Recording by Means of Geometrical Separation ................ 125 33. Color Television Kinescope Recording by Means of Geometrical Separation ................ 127 34. Color Television Reproduction from Embossed Film by Means of Vidicons................ 129 35. Color Television Reproduction from Embossed Film in a Television System.............. 131 36. Colorgraph Machine for Dyeing Prints Made on Duplitized Print Film.................... 137 37. Kodachrome Twin Lens Optical System........ 141 38. Kodachrome Twin Lens Optical System with Correcting Prism ........................ 141 39. Optical Printer for Printing Kodachrome Master Positive................................. 144 40. Optical System for Printing onto Both Sides of Double Coated Print Film Simultaneously 146 41. Kodachrome Film Dyeing Machine for Coloring Release Prints ........................... 149 42. Brewster Color Camera ...................... 151 43. Brewster Color Dye Transfer Machine for Application of Third Color .............. 156 IX Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure Page 44. Technicolor Three-Color Beam Splitter .... 168 45. Bipack Negative...................... 191 46. Prizma Color Four Color Filter Disk for Additive Color Cinematography ............ 201 47. Typical Monopack Construction .............. 248 48a. Caspar Color Two-Color Print Film .......... 253 48b. Caspar Color Three-Color Print Film 253 ; 49. Kodachrome Film Structure............ 259 50. Ansco Color Film Structure.......... 278 51. Eastman Multilayer Stripping Film 294 ; 52. Schematic Section of Machine Showing Roll | Down Registering Station 297 | 53. Schematic Section of Machine Showing ! Stripping Station 297 : 54. DuPont S T Tripac Film Structure... 302 ; 55. Stripping of DuPont S T Tripac...... 302 ; 56. DuPont Color Film Structure 307 , 57. Ansco Color Negative Film Structure 312 | 58. Ansco Color Positive Film Structure 317 ; 59. Eastman Color Negative Film Structure .... 328 60. Eastman Color Positive Film Structure .... 332 61. Eastman Color Internegative (False Sensitized) Film Structure.................... 336 X Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure Page 62. Eastman Color Internegative (Normal Sensi tized) Film Structure..................... 339 63. Eastman Color Intermediate Film Structure . . 341 64. Ektachrome Film Structure................... 348 XI Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Introduction Man's interest in the use of color for visual pres entation goes back in history to his earliest known attempts at pictorial representation. Its use has persisted in his art and architecture, costume and decoration up to the pres ent time. It was only natural that it should be introduced into his entertainment, games, pageant plays and finally motion pictures. The first attempts to produce color in motion pic tures were crude and far from realistic. Many color systems were invented, developed and used only to be abandoned when other systems emerged that were preferable from a technical or commercial standpoint. In the course of slightly more than sixty years the names of over one hundred color pro cesses have appeared in motion picture advertising and on the theatre screens. All of the processes were not Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. individual processes; some were merely names given by a producing company or laboratory to an existing process and still others were foreign films that utilized a process pop ular in the country in which they were produced. Elimina tion of the name only and the foreign processes leaves ap proximately fifty which originated or were used in America. Each of these systems has contributed to the technological advancement of motion pictures through photographic chemis try and/or optics. Purpose of the Study It is the purpose of this study to compile and cor relate the available technical information concerning the color motion picture processes developed in the United States. The emphasis of this study will be on the labora tory aspects of the processes studied. Statement of the Problem To achieve the purpose of this investigation the following information is needed concerning each process: 1. The name of the process. 2. The year it was introduced. 3. A description of the process. i a. Physical j Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. b. Chemical G . Mechanical 4. The extent of its use. 5. Any significant changes in methods used. Importance of this Study Man builds on the past. In order to advance and discover new methods and techniques a knowledge of previous work is important. The technology of motion picture production has ad vanced to a high degree of perfection in the lifetime of the pioneers- Unfortunately, the men responsible for the rapid advancement were researchers and technicians, not writers. Very little has been published regarding the technical de tails of the color processes developed prior to World War II. Anyone who needs detailed information concerning previous work done in this area is faced with extensive re search. At the present time there is still an opportunity to do this research, correcting the inaccuracies and filling in the gaps in the existing data through personal interviews and examination of laboratory records. Many of the men formerly associated with the early Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. color processes are still working in the motion picture in- : dustry and many are still in operation. These possible sources of information, however, are rapidly diminishing. Since 1950 several laboratories have closed. A partial list would include: Color Corporation of America Hollywood Ace Laboratory New York Warner Bros. Laboratory Hollywood Williams Laboratory Hollywood Columbia Pictures Laboratory Hollywood Consolidated Film Industries Fort Lee, N. J. Houston Color Laboratory Hollywood The closing of each of these laboratories resulted in technical and production men leaving the motion picture industry and moving into other fields. Any information they might have been able to provide concerning the early color processes is lost. This study should be made while there are still primary sources of information available. Method of Research Essentially, the approach of this study will be historical. It will attempt to describe the technology of color motion picture processes developed in the United | Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. States using previously recorded information. Since some of the technicians who worked with the early processes are still active in the motion picture industry, the historical approach will he supplemented in some cases by direct inter view. Review of Literature The considerable literature available concerning motion pictures and their history contains very little tech nical detail about the processes used. The emphasis has been on subject matter presented rather than its method of presentation. Even the purely technical literature on color photography contains little detail about the color processes used for motion picture photography. The books on photog raphy emphasize still rather than motion picture processes. A single book published in England, Colour Cinema tography by Adrian Cornwell-Clyne, appears to be the only book available that deals specifically with color motion pictures. This book, now in its third edition, attempts the; "formidable" task of describing all of the processes used for color cinematography throughout the world. Its descrip-; tion of the Dufaycolor and the English Technicolor process is very complete, comprising slightly more than a third of Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. the section describing processes- The Kodachrome and Ansco Color processes take up a second third of the section, leav ing one-third or approximately eighty pages for all the re maining American, British and European systems- Many pro cesses, therefore, are described in less than one-half of a page in referring to the history of color processes in general, the outstanding work published in America is The History of Three Color Photography by E- J- Wall- This work published in 1925 is long out of print and unavailable in general circulation- It, like Cornwell-Clyne's book, tries to be all-embracing, covering all color processes both still and motion picture, and therefore it fails to devote more than a few lines to most of the motion picture processes- The remaining book that attempts to deal with the history of color processes from a technical viewpoint is The History of Color Photography by Joseph Friedman, pub lished in 1944. This book, written twenty years ago, deals with the color processes developed during the period 1925 to 1944- The emphasis is on still photographic processes; however, considerable information concerning the chemical ; reactions in color photographic processes which are appli cable to the topic of the study is included- ! Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The above three books comprise the only formal pub lications that have attempted to cover the technology of specific color photographic processes. None of these three are attempts to probe in depth into the technical details of the color motion picture processes developed and used in the United States. The technical literature concerning color motion picture processes is spread throughout numerous journals, periodicals and general works on photography. It is pro posed in this study to collect these fragments, supplement them with patent literature and verify the results where necessary with personal interviews or correspondence with laboratory technicians and film manufacturers. Definition of Terms Because of the nature of the subject, a relatively large number of terms used may appear new to the reader. In order to facilitate ease of reading, a glossary of terms used in color photography has been included as Appendix A. Although the definitions used in this glossary were obtained from several sources, one primary source was the Report of The Colorlcommittee of the Society of Motion Picture Engi neers: "A Glossary of Color Photography," Journal of The Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 8 Society of Motion Picture Engineers, May, 1935, pp. 432-449. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER II A BRIEF EXPLANATION OF COLOR Color as we speak of it in photography is quite dif ferent from the pigments of the painter.^ Since it is a characteristic of light it is well to begin any study of color by examining the nature of light itself. Some of the 2 properties of light are: 1. It travels in straight lines. 2. It can be bent and focused by means of a lens. 3. It can be dispersed by a prism (Fig. 1). 4. It is made of waves of radiant energy of vary ing wavelengths (Fig. 2). 5. The wavelengths can be located in the electro magnetic spectrum and identified. ^Thomas H. Miller and Wyatt Brummitt, This is Pho tography (New York: Garden City Publishing Co., Inc., 1945), p. 131. 2 R. M. Evans, An Introduction to Color (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1948), pp. 7-21. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 10 Fig. 1. White light passes through a prism and is separated into its component colors, forming the spectrum, due to the fact that shorter waves are refracted more than longer waves. Fig. 2. Red light waves are the longest; blue light waves are the shortest. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 11 6. It is the physical cause of the sensation of sight. Because light is important in the lives of everyone its nature and composition have interested man from the very beginning of his scientific inquiries. Progress in arriving at valid answers to the questions concerning light, however, was very slow. The theory that is the basis for the modern theory of light and radiation was suggested only 100 years ago.^ In 1873 James Maxwell made observations and calcula tions which showed that the velocity of light waves and the velocity of radio waves were the same. His work further in dicated that the only difference between the two types of waves was in their wavelength. Because these waves are sur rounded by both an electrical and a magnetic field they are called electromagnetic waves, and the Electromagnetic Theory has been evolved to explain their various actions. The spectrum of electromagnetic radiation^ extending from extremely short wavelengths of the cosmic and gamma ray 3 W. E. Forsythe and E. Q. Adams, "The Nature and Measurement of Light," 1001 Ways to Improve Your Photographs (New York: National Educational Alliance, Inc., 1947), pp. 240-245. 4 I Adrian Cornwell-Clyne, Colour Cinematography (3rd , ed.; London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd., 1951), pp. 56-57. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 12 : radiation through the ultraviolet, infrared and radio wave radiation is illustrated in Figure 3a. Only a small band of wavelengths between 400 and 700 millimicrons affects the eye and enables us to perceive light and color. In Figure 3b the wavelength scale has been expanded to show more clearly the various colors in relation to wavelength. The longest wavelengths appear as red. Shorter ones appear orange, still shorter ones, yellow; down through green, blue-green, blue, to violet, the shortest wavelengths which we can per ceive. Each wavelength of light seen by itself results in a slightly different perception of color, resulting in a very large number of hues which are perceivable by the eye. When light consisting of a mixture of a number of different wave lengths strikes the eye, only one color is perceived, since the eye is not capable of analysing light into its component parts. When several wavelengths are involved, the resulting color of the mixture is less pure or less saturated, and a mixture of all wavelengths in approximately equal amounts gives the sensation of white or no color. While in the strictest sense color is a property on ly of light, it is customary to speak of the color of ob jects because of the ability of many objects to modify the color of the light that strikes them. When light strikes Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 13 0001 0.1 1.4 200 to 545 50 cycle 120 100000 Meters 3100 mi. Fig. 3a. The spectrum of electromagnetic radiation. 400 mu 500 mu 600 mu 700 mu Violet Blue Green Yellow Orange Red Fig. 3b. The visible spectrum. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 14 an object, it is transmitted, reflected or absorbed. If we turn a white light on a red ball, most of the red light is reflected, but large amounts of the other colors are ab sorbed so that the light reflected to our eyes is predom inantly red. The fact that most of the light emitted from natural sources is white, containing all wavelengths, and natural objects are able to modify this light in a great many ways, results in countless colors. The reproduction of all these colors with even approximate accuracy would be an impossible task for color photography were it not for a very important property of human vision. This special property of human vision makes it possible to duplicate all these colors with reasonable accuracy by means of only three colors mixed in various proportions.^ These three colors, red, green and blue, are known as primaries (Fig. 4a). This point can be demonstrated by the use of three light sources, one with a red filter in its beam, one with a green filter in its beam and one with a blue filter in its beam. Each of these fil ters covers approximately one-third of the spectrum; i.e.. Society of Motion Picture and Television Engi neers, Elements of Color in Professional Motion Pictures (New York: Society of Motion Picture and Television Engi neers, 1957), pp. 8-15. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 15 RED GREEN BLUE Fig. 4a. Additive primaries red, green, blue. YELLOW MAGENTA BLUE Fig. 4b. Superimposed colored lights yield mixture colors by addition. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 16 ;the red filter transmits most of the wavelengths above 600 mu; the green filter those wavelengths between 500 and 600 mu; and the blue filter, wavelengths between 400 and 500 mu. Likewise, each of these filters absorb all of the wave lengths transmitted by the others. Any combination of the filters with a single light source would result in black or no light. But when they are combined additively with three individual light sources they can produce any color including white (Pig. 4b). The addition of light of the three primary colors red, green and blue on a screen to produce white light is also a reversible phenomenon. Subtraction of any one of the primaries from white light results in light composed of the i other two primaries. Thus colors can be produced by the ' subtraction as well as by the addition of the components ofi white light. For the subtractive production of color a new i set of colored filters must be used. These filters are dif-- ferent from the ones used to demonstrate the production of color additively in that each one covers approximately two- ! thirds instead of one-third of the spectrum. The magenta, or minus green filter consists of the red plus the blue portions of the spectrum; the cyan or minus red filter consists of the green plus the blue portions of the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 17 spectrum? and the yellow, or minus blue filter, consists of the red plus the green portions of the spectrum (Fig. 5a). Since each of these subtractive filters covers two-thirds of the spectrum, singly they produce the same effect on the screen as two superimposed light sources each filtered with a single primary colored filter. If two subtractive filters are superimposed with a single light source they produce the same effect as a single primary colored filter and if all three filters are superimposed black or no light is obtained. For example, if magenta, which is minus green, is confined with yellow, which is minus blue, the color that remains is red; if cyan, which is minus red, is now added the result is black (Fig. 5b). The properties of light discussed above are the basis for all color photographic processes. Almost as soon as the discovery was made that the three additive primary colors could be mixed to achieve all of the colors of the spectrum plus black and white, men began to dream of making photographs in color. The principle is very simple. If three photographs could be used, one of them recording the red light that comes from the scene, one recording the green light and one recording the blue light, and if these could be projected superimposed on the screen each through its owri Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 18 CYAN MAGENTA YELLOW Fig. 5a. Filters for the subtractive production of color: CYAN, MAGENTA, YELLOW RED MAGENTA BLUE YELLOW GREEN Fig. 5b. Superimposed color filters with white light yield primary colors by subtraction. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 19 filter, the original scene would be reproduced in full color. This simple idea made it possible to invent color photography on paper^ many years before it was achieved in practice. Actually, the procedure is much more complicated than it appears to be in theory. The production of the three original pictures with the proper density, the correct contrast, and the correct image size and then projecting them onto the screen in exact superimposition proved to be a formidable task. Although several processes for additive color photography have been proposed, none of them has been able to solve all the technical problems associated with the system. Because of this, almost all of the commercially successful processes to date have been based on the subtrac tive principle. The characteristics of this system which permit the superimposition of the subtractive dyes in vary ing degrees makes a single multilayered film and a single light source for projection possible. This characteristic has resulted in the development of several color processes. In the following chapters an attempt will be made to discuss each of these processes in detail. J. S. Friedman, History of Color Photography (Boston; The American Photographic Publishing Co., 1944), p. 1. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER III TINTING AND TONING The use of single color tints and tones has paral leled and intermixed with the so-called natural color pro cesses since the introduction of color to motion pictures. Tinting, the earliest means of bringing color to the screen, was in use prior to 1900. The first attempts were hand- painted films that tried to produce natural color pictures. These later gave way to the "natural color" processes, and tints and tones were relegated to the production of color moods through the use of overall colors. In some films only one or two scenes were colored; in others the whole picture was toned a single color. D. W. Griffith used toned se quences in Birth of a Nation and Intolerance. Erich Von Stroheim used a yellow tone for his symbolic gold sequences I in Greed. ^A. R. Fulton, Motion Pictures; The Development of an Art from Silent Films to the Age of Television (Norman, Okla.: University of Oklahoma Press, 1950), p. 109. 20 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 21 The popularity of the monochrome prints became so great that the film manufacturers offered Black and White 2 positive film on tinted support in several colors. Tinted Nitrate Base* 1. Red 4. Amber 7. Green 2. Pink 5. Light Amber 8. Blue 3. Orange 6. Yellow 9. Lavender *The same colors were also offered in tinted acetate safety base. However, these tints were slightly lighter than the corresponding tints on nitrate base. By the early 1920's it was estimated that during some periods 80 to 90 percent of the total production was printed on tinted positive film.^ Then with the introduc tion of sound the existing types of tinted base became un usable. Unfortunately, the majority of the dyes used in tinting absorbed the wavelengths of radiation to which the sound reproducer cells are most sensitive. The dyes reduce the response of the cell to such a great extent that high amplification of the photoelectric currents is required to obtain sufficient volume of sound. This high amplification increases the inherent cell noises and microphonie 2 Tinting and Toning of Eastman Positive Motion Picture Film (Rochester, N. Y. : Eastman Kodak Co., 1927), p. 7. 3 L. A. Jones, "Tinted Films for Sound Positives," Transactions of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, May, 1929, p. 199. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 22 disturbances in the amplifier so that the reproduced sound is of intolerably poor quality. For this reason, the use of tinted film was discontinued entirely in the production of positives carrying a photographic sound record. Some view ers thought that this was a serious loss and that the ab sence of color impaired the beauty and dramatic power of the screen production. The producers and creative men in the studios agreed with them and requested help from the film manufacturers. A study was made of the dyes available for the pro-: duction of tinted support and in 1929 Eastman Kodak intro duced its series of Sonpchrome colored support for motion i picture positive. The Sonochrome tints were described as | ' I "a spectrum of sixteen delicate atmospheric colors keyed to : the mood of the screen, in the new series of Eastman Sono chrome Tinted Positive Films for silent or sound pic tures. A list of these appears on page 23. { In addition to the tinted supports which were avail4 able prior to the introduction of sound and the Sonochrome tints which became available after the introduction of sound, there were several formulas for the production of a "^Ibid. , p. 208. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 23 Sonochrome Tints Dominant % Trans- Color Name Wavelength mission 1. Rose Doree 633 57 Deep Warm Pink 2. Peachblow 619 61 Flesh Pink 3. Afterglow 603 66 Orange 4. Firelight 596 66 Yellow-Orange 5. Candle Flame 585 75 Orange-Yellow 5. Sunshine 579 83 Yellow 7. Vendante 520 57 Green 8- Aquagreen 505 40 Blue-Green 9. Turqoise 490 46 Blue 10. Azure 484 28 Sky-Blue 11. Nocturne 476 28 Violet-Blue 12. Purplehaze 455 38 Blue-Violet 13. Fleur de lis 575 25 Blue-Purple 14. Amaranth 557 31 Red-Purple 15. Caprice 537 53 Cool Pink 16. Inferno 508 36 Red-Magenta 17. Argent 71 Neutr?I Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 24: single overall color in motion pictures. Color could be produced either by tinting or toning or by a combination of the two. Tinting usually means immersing the film in a solu tion of dye which colors the gelatin causing the whole pic ture to have a uniform veil of color on the screen. Toning consists in either wholly or partially replacing the silver image of the positive film by some colored compound so that the clear portions or highlights remain uncolored. Dyes for tinting motion picture positive film should have the following properties: 1. The dye should not bleed when the film is washed and the rate of dye removal due to washing should be slow. 2. The dye should not be precipitated by alum, calcium, magnesium or iron salts. 3. The dye should not be "dichroic" or change color on dilution. 4. The dye should be fast to light even under the heat of projection so that local fading will not take place. 5. The dye solution should not foam readily. 6. The dye should not be affected by the acid Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 25: fixing bath. 7. The dye should not attack the gelatin coating of the film even after 24 hours incubation at 212 degrees F. On page 26 is a list of the dyes used, prior to the introduction of sound on film, for tinting or coloring film by stenciling or by hand.^ The time in solution varies from one minute to three minutes at 65 degrees depending on the shade desired. Ap proximately 20,000 feet of film may be dyed per 50 gallons of dye solution. As the rate of dyeing slows down, the solution should be replenished with concentrated dye solu tion. The amount of light cut off from the screen as a result of tinting depends on the nature of the particular dye used, the concentration of dye in the film and on the purity of color of the dye. Tests made of tinted films in dicate that screen brightness is reduced from 25 percent to ; 95 percent as a result of tinting. After the introduction of sound it was necessary to replace many of the dyes formerly used for tinting with dyes ^Tinting and Toning . . ., pp. 15-16. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CD ■ D O Q . C g Q . ■D CD C/) C/) DYES USED FOR TINTING OR COLORING FILM BY STENCILING OR BY HAND 8 ■D 3. 3 " CD CD ■D O Q . C a O 3 "O o CD Q . Dye Concentration in grams/liter Color Source Amaranth 40 F 5 gr Cine Red National Aniline & Chera. Co. Azo Rubine 2 gr Cine Red White Tar Aniline1 Corp. Crocein Scarlet MOO 2 gr Cine Scarlet National Aniline & Chera. Co. Scarlet G- R. 2 gr Cine Scarlet Levinstein, Boston, Mass. Lake Scarlet R. 2 gr Cine Orange Red National Aniline & Chem. Co. Wool Orange C. G. 1 gr Cine Orange National Aniline & Chera. Co. Quinolin Yellow 2 gr Cine Yellow National Aniline & Chera. Co. Wool Yellow Extra Cone. 4 gr Cine Yellow National Aniline & Chera. Co. Napthol Green B Cone, 4 gr Cine Light—Green White Tar Aniline Corp. Napthol Green M 4 gr Cinelight Green National Aniline & Chera. Co. IAcid Green L 4 gr Cine Green National Aniline & Chera. Co. IFast Acid Green B 4 gr Cine Green National Aniline & Chera. Co. Direct Blue 6B 2 gr Cine Blue National Aniline & Chera. Co. Niagara Sky Blue 2 gr Cine Blue National Aniline & Chera. Co. |Fast Wool Violet B 2 gr Cine Violet National Aniline & Chera. Co. National Violet 2 RD 2 gr Cine Violet National Aniline & Chera. Co. ■D CD C/) C/) to 21 \ that were more compatible with the sound reproduction sys tem. The dyes and concentrations listed on page 28 can be successfully used with present black and white films used for sound on film motion pictures.^ The time in solution is normally three minutes at a temperature of 65 degrees to 70 degrees F., but longer or shorter times can be used depending on tint desired. After tinting the film should be rinsed, squeegeed and dried. Approximately 40,000 feet of film may be dyed per 50 gallons of dye solution. As the rate of dyeing slows down the bath should be replenished with concentrated dye solution, not by adding acid. When the bath becomes muddy it should be replaced. A somewhat different effect than that obtained by tinting can be obtained by toning the film either by metal lic salts or by combinations of metallic salts and dyes, or both. A good example of toning in a major feature picture is the MGM production The Good Earth, which was given an overall brown tone with a Uranium Nitrate Toner. Regarding this film John Nickolaus states that "to the best of our "Tinting Eastman Fine Grain Release Positive Film I with Dye Solutions," (Eastman Kodak Co., Rochester, N. Y,, 1955), p. 3. (Mimeographed.) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CD ■ D O Q . C g Q . ■D C D C /) W o' 3 0 3 C D 8 "D (O ' 3" 1 3 C D "n c 3. 3 " C D C D "O O Q . C Q ■D O C D Q . ■D C D DYES USED FOR TINTING OR COLORING FILMS AFTER THE INTRODUCTION OF SOUND Concentration in Dye Weak grams/liter Medium Strong Color Source Crocein Scarlet 0.1 1.0 5. 0 Red Du Pont Crocein Scarlet 0. 5 Orange Du Pont (Flesh) Sepia Brown 5.0 Amber National Aniline & Chem. Co. #36645 Flesh Tone 1. 0 2.5 5.0 Dark Amber National Aniline & Chera. Co. #4767B Deep Yellow 2.5 5. 0 Yellow National Aniline & Chem. Co. #34795 Light Yellow 2. 5 5.0 Light Yellow National Aniline & Chem. Co. #3479B Deep Green 1. 0 2. 5 5.0 Green General Dyestuffs #1376-2 conc. Anthraquinone 1.0 2. 5 5.0 Blue Du Pont Blue 3G Acid Blue 1.0 2. 5 5.0 Cyan National Aniline & Chem. Co. B43270 Pontacyl Violet 0. 5 1.0 2. 5 Violet Du Pont HBL ( / ) ( / ) N) 00 29 knowledge this is the first complete major release to be toned in its entirety, and, furthermore, it is the first picture to be toned in a modern developing machine. The picture The Good Earth was approximately 12,000 feet long consisting of 14 reels. There were approximately 500 release prints made from the original negative, all of which were toned.^ Toning differs from tinting in that it produces a colored image embedded in a layer of colorless gelatin. Thus the highlights remain colorless while the half-tones and the shadows are colored. When a silver image is treated in a solution containing potassium ferricyanide and a metal salt, it is oxidized and converted to silver ferrocyanide and at the same time a colored metal ferrocyanide is precip itated. For example:^ Cyan-Blue Tone 4Fe(Fe (ON)5) + 4Ag 7 Manager of MGM Laboratory, 1937. Q J. M. Nickolaus, "Toning Positive Film by Machine Methods," Journal of The Society of Motion Picture Engi neers, July, 1936, p. 67. 9 Pierre Glafkides, Photographic Chemistry (London: : Fountain Press, 1960), II, 647-651. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 30 Ferrie Ferricyanide + Silver Ag^(Fe (CN)g) + Fe^ [ (Fe Silver Ferrocyanide + Ferrie Ferrocyanide Red-Orange Tone 4Ag + 2K3Fe(CN)g + 2(H0g) Silver + Pottasium Ferricyanide + Uranium Nitrate Ag^ (Fe (CN)g) + (UOgigfFe (CN)^) + ÔKNO^ Silver Ferrocyanide + Uranium Ferrocyanide + Potassium Nitrate Cyan-Blue Tone Ammonium Persulfate Ferrie Alum Oxalic Acid Potassium Ferricyanide Ammonium Alum Hydrochloric Acid (10%) Water to Grange-Red Tone Uranyl Nitrate Potassium Oxalate Potassium Ferricyanide Ammonium Alum 0.5.gram 1.25 grams 3.0 grams 1.0 gram 5.0 grams 1. 0 ml 1.0 liter 2.5 grams 2. 5 grams 1.0 gram 5.0 grams Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 31 Hydrochloric Acid (10%) 5.0 ml Water to 1.0 liter Sepia Potassium Ferricyanide 20.0 grams Potassium Bromide 5.0 grams Sol. A Water to 1.0 liter Sodium Sulfide 5.0 grams Sol. B Water to 1.0 liter Film is first bleached in solution A then toned in solution B- Red Tone Potassium Citrate 70.0 grams Copper Sulfate 12.0 grams Potassium Ferricyanide 12.0 grams Ammonium Carbonate 6.0 grams Water to 1.0 liter Because of the limited number of metallic compounds available for toning purposes it is possible to obtain only a limited range of tones by metal toning alone. The addi tion of a basic dye to the metallic salt mordanting bath in creases the range to a large number of tones that can be used singly or in combination with dye tints or tinted base.| Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 32 This addition can be accomplished in two ways: 1. The film is first immersed in a mordanting bath which converts the metallic silver image to silver ferrocyanide. Then it is washed and dyed in a basic dye solution. 2. The film is immersed in a bath which contains the mordanting agent potassium ferricyanide and a basic dye. Cabtree and Ives in their paper, "Dye Toning with Single Solution," give a list of the dyes which are suitable for dye toning with a single solution (see page 33). The au thors arrived at these ten after trying nearly 200 possible basic dyes. To the following formula the proper type and concentration of a basic dye are added to produce the de sired results. Dye X grams Acetone 100.0 ml Potassium Ferricyanide 1.0 gram Acetic Acid (glacial) 5.0 ml Water to 1.0 liter The color of the tone produced varies with the time | in solution. Dyeing continues up to a point, then the highlights begin to block up with dye and gradation is lost.j Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CD ■ D O Q . C g Q . ■D C D C /) C /) 8 c i ' 3 3 " C D C D ■D O Q . C a O Dye DYES FOR Color TONING WITH A SINGLE Concentration in grams/liter SOLUTION Source Tannin Heliotrope Magenta 2.0 grams National Aniline & Chem. Co. Safranine 6B Magenta 2. 0 grams National Aniline & Chem. Co. Safranine Base Red 1. 0 gram National Aniline & Chem. Co. Pink B Pink 12. 0 grams National Aniline & Chem. Co. Chrysoidin^— Y Base Orange 2.0 grams National Aniline & Chem. Co. Chrysoidine 3R Orange 2.0 grams National Aniline & Chem. Co. Thioflavine T Yellow 2.0 grams General Dyestuffs Corp. Auramine Yellow 4.0 grams Du Pont Victoria Green Green 4.0 grams National Aniline & Chem. Co. Rhodamine B Magenta 4. 0 grams National Aniline & Chem. Co. ■D O C D Q . ■D C D C /) C /) ÜJ W 34 The limiting point should be determined by test with short strips before the actual prints are toned. As the solution becomes exhausted it is necessary to prolong the time of toning. The solution should be discarded when the time for toning to a given color is double the time necessary in a fresh solution. Pathechrome The Pathechrome process is a dye tinting process in vented in 1905 by Charles Pathe. With this process selected portions of frames are tinted using a stencil to precisely and rapidly apply the dye. Single or multiple colors can be used provided that a separate stencil is cut for each color. Several silent features and short subjects were re leased in this process. Among those listed under Pathecolor by J. L. Limbacher are A Rose Among the Briars, The Beloved Vagabond, Queen Margaret, The Three Masks, and Cyrano De Bergerac. To produce color prints by the Pathechrome process it is necessary to prepare a stencil for each area to be colored. The stencil is prepared using a positive print as 10 J. L. Limbacher "A Historical Study of the Color : Motion Picture," 1953. (Mimeographed.) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 35 the stencil material and a second print as a guide. The operator cutting the stencil sits before a screen and fol lows the outline of the projected pxcture with the arm of a pantograph. A vibrating electronically driven needle at the opposite end of the arm cuts away the film base on the sten cil film. Each frame is individually traced in this manner until a stencil is obtained for the entire scene. After the stencil is cut, the remaining emulsion is removed from the film base and the base is cleaned, leaving a clear film with cutouts of the proper shape where the col or is to be applied. To insure proper registration the re lease prints are made on a step registering printer. These : are normal black and white prints processed in the normal manner. The color is applied after processing by bringing the stencil and the positive to be colored into contact over a sprocket wheel while a ribbon wipes the color through the i stencil onto the positive. The ribbon, a loop approximately ;12 inches in diameter, is fed the dye by a series of brushes so that it does not receive too much dye. The machine used for this purpose operates at a speed of 60 feet per : . ^ 11 minute. . V. D. Kelley, "The Handschieg1 and Pathechrome ; Color Process," Journal of The Society of Motion Picture Engineers. August, 1931, pp. 230-234. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 36 In preparing multiple color prints it was frequently the practice to tone the prints with an overall toner or to use tinted base as the first step. The choice of this over all color was governed by the scene to be toned. Dye Used for Tinting Blue Diazol Nl 5 g/1 Yellow Tartrazine 5 g/1 Amber Cocceine Orange 7 g/1 Fire-Red Ponceau NR 20 g/1 Blue-Green Acid Green Nd 4 g/1 Light-Green Naphtol Green NB 5 g/1 Rose Acid Amaranthe 2 g/1 Violet Acid Violet 5B 1 g/1 Orange-Rose Ponceau NR 7 g/1 The Handschieql Process The Handschiegl Process was invented in 1916 by Max Handschiegl and Alvin Wyckoff of the Famous Players-Lasky Corp. Studio Laboratory. In principle this process was the application of multicolor lithographing techniques to motion pictures. Dye was transferred from a matrix or color plate to selected areas of a black and white print. This process was first developed for the De Mille Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 37 picture Joan the Woman; it was advertised first as the Wyckoff Process then the De Mille-Wyckoff Process. Later it 12 became popular as the Handschiegl Process. Some of the other productions that have used this process^^ are The Red Light, Greed, Irene, The Volcano, The Flaming Forest, Phantom of the Opera, The Merry Widow, The Big Parade, Sally, Seven Keys to Baldpate, The Viennese Medley, The Splendid Road, Mike, Lights of Broadway. As used by Handschiegl the process was not an at tempt to produce natural color photography. In its early form it was used principally to apply color to selected areas within a scene. The customer furnished normal black and white prints which were colored by dye transfer with one, two or three dyes. If more than one color was to be transferred, then a separate plate was made for each of the colors. After a production has been edited a print is made of the scenes that are to be colored on a registration step printer. This print is blacked out with opaque material in 12 The Autobiography of Cecil B. De Mille, ed. D. Hayne (Englewood Cliffs, N. J. ; Prentice-Hall,1959), p.175. 13 Wm. V. D. Kelley, "Imbibition Coloring of Motion Picture Films," Transactions of The Society of Motion Picture Engineers, February, 1927, pp. 238-241. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 38 14 the area which is to be colored; this may be done by hand with a brush or other suitable instrument. From this print a duplicate negative is made. After development the dupli cate negative is clear in the areas which are to be colored. The remaining areas contain a negative silver image- At this point the process makes use of the effect that a gela tin emulsion becomes more insoluble or harder in those areas acted upon by light than in those areas where no exposure takes place. The duplicate negative is immersed in a tan ning bleach which fixes and solidifies the exposed and de veloped portions of the scene, hardening them so that they will not absorb dye but not affecting the viscous consisten cy of the unexposed or clear portions of the scene. When bleaching is completed the negative is fixed, washed and dried. The bleached negative is then immersed in a saturat ed solution of dye in water, approximately two pounds of dry dye to five gallons of water. The surplus dye is removed by squeegeeing and the negative is dried once more. It is now ready for transfer, by pressure and contact, to the positive prints. The print to be colored passes into a solution of oxgall and water which softens and wets the emulsion 14 Kelley, "The Handschiegl and Pathechrome Color Processes, " loc. cit. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 39 sufficiently to dissolve and absorb dye from the negative film. Contact time varies depending on the area and amount of dye to be transferred. Time can be changed by changing the position of the "keeper roller. One dyeing of the nega tive is good for transferring dye of equal density to two release prints. The life of the negative matrix is 40 15 runs. The machines for imbibing the dyes are described in USP 1303836. Each machine has three transferring stations consisting of a large sprocketed drum approximately 12 inches in diameter and two smaller adjustable sprockets. Both the matrix and the release print are stretched onto the large wheel to provide vertical register; horizontal register is provided by micrometer adjustment of the smaller sprockets (Fig. 6). A satisfactory bleach for the duplicate negative is: Potassium Bichromate 19.0 grams Potassium Bromide 28.0 grams Potassium Ferricyanide 19.0 grams Acetic Acid 5.0 ml Potassium Alum 25.0 grams l^Ibid. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 40 Neg/N, Supply Emul. Out / /^egT\ Take Up Emul. ^ In , Supply Emul., V InV /Tos. X Take Up Emul. . Out J Keeper Roller Adjustable Sprocket Solution Oxgall & Water 'Sprocket Tru Rubber Pressure Roller Keeper Roller Fig. 6. Handschiegl Process film dyeing machine. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 41 Water to 1.0 liter Dyes of the acid type are used such as; Pontacyl light red 4 bl Pontacyl carmine 2g Pontacyl carmine 2b Alizarin Rubinol R Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER IV ADDITIVE PROCESSES (OPTICAL, MECHANICAL AND SHARED AREA) Although the tinting and toning processes produced some interesting effects they did not produce natural color. Color photography as it is used today evolved from a demon stration prepared by James Clerk Maxwell for presentation to the Royal Institution, London, in May 1861. He stated that the visual appearance of any color could be matched by the proper mixture of three primary colors, red, green and blue. To prove his theory he took three pictures, on black and white film, from the same camera position, through three colored filters. After processing, he made positive transparencies from each of the negatives and projected them in registration on a screen. In front of the lens of each projector he placed the filter through which the original negative was taken. This result was a colored picture. In the following years workers in the field of color 42 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 43 retained the principles advanced by Maxwell but many im provements were made on his method. (1) The flat flasks containing colored solutions, that were used as filters, were replaced by sheets of gelatin containing a suspension of dye. (2) The speeds of photographic emulsions were in creased by the use of better sensitizers. (3) Other repro duction methods were devised to replace the use of three positive transparencies and three projectors. (4) Two- color systems were introduced. (5) Several variations were developed for obtaining the negatives for both the two- color and the three-color systems. These variations even tually fell into two classes: those employing special cameras or optical systems, which will be discussed in this and the following three chapters, and those employing the use of multiple coatings of emulsions, which will be dis cussed in the chapter on "Monopacks. " The first practical application of color to motion picture photography was a two-color additive system called Kinemacolor. This process was the first in a whole series of two-, three- and four-color additive systems that em ployed the use of special optics and/or mechanical devices to produce successive frame or area shared separation nega tives. It is interesting that none of the systems Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 44 discussed under this section achieved any substantial degree of commercial success with the exception of Kinemacolor, even though the time period they encompass is the entire period covered by this study. Kinemacolor The first commercially successful system of color cinematography was a two-color additive system invented in England called "Kinemacolor." Although this process was not invented in the United States and therefore does not proper ly belong in this study, it has been included because of its importance in the field of color cinematography and because it was introduced in the United States through the formation of the Kinemacolor Company of America with studios in Los Angeles and New York. The Kinemacolor process originally invented by Edward R. Turner was a three-color additive process in which successive frames were photographed and projected through red, green and blue-violet filters mounted in a rotating disk. Although the photographs were taken and projected at 48 or more frames per second, the process was subject to considerable fringeing. Turner's first backer was F. Marshall Lee, whose name appears with Turner's on Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 45 the original BP 5202 and USP 645477- Lee later sold his in terest in the process to Warwick Trading Company who after six months of trying unsuccessfully to solve the problems, resold their interest to Charles Urban. With Urban's back ing, Turner continued to work on the process, producing re sults that were encouraging but just short of success. He died in 1902 without solving the projection problem. To carry on his work Urban retained G. Albert Smith, a photog rapher and scientific experimenter. Smith was equally un successful in his attempts with a three-color process. Fi nally in 1906 he abandoned this approach and at the sugges tion of Urban he reduced the process to a two-color process by the elimination of the blue-violet filter and the substi tution of a blue-green filter for the green filter and a red-orange filter for the red filter. In July 1906 Urban and Smith produced their first successful color motion pic tures using this system. They named the process Kinema color. The first public demonstration of Kinemacolor was presented May 1, 1908 at Urbanora House, Wardour St., London. ^ 1 Terry Ramsaye, A Million and One Nights (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1926), pp. 562-572. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 6 The first American demonstration was given December 11, 1909 in the concert hall of Madison Square Garden,_-^ew York City. The program lasted approximately two hours and consisted of a variety of subject matter, including flowers, animals, birds, harvest scenes, military reviews, water- 2 falls, surf, etc. The Kinemacolor process as used commercially was a two-color additive system. The Kinemacolor camera (Fig. 7) had a shutter containing a red-orange gelatin filter in one opening and a blue-green gelatin in the other (Fig. 8). The film was exposed at a rate of 32 frames per second, giving 16 frames through the red filter and 15 frames through the green filter, the two exposures being alternated. When the pictures were projected in the same manner as photographed, persistence of vision merged the two images into a color picture. After exposure the negative was developed in a conventional black and white developer and printed on ordi nary black and white print film. Disadvantages of this pro cess were the special projection equipment required and the problem of fringeing which was experienced when fast moving 2 "An American Demonstration of the Urban-Smith Process of Animated Color Photography," Scientific American, December 25, 1909, p. 487. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 47 - Filter Disk Fig. 7. Kinemacolor Camera Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 48 Fig. 8. Kinemacolor color filter disk Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 49 objects were photographed.^ In an attempt to simplify the projection of Kinema color prints W. H. Fox of the Kinemacolor Company of America developed a system for coloring th^ alternate frame prints, thus eliminating the need for the rotating filters on the projector. He also developed a two-speed projector that could be operated at 16 frames per second for black and white projection and 32 frames per second for color projec tion. The projector is described in the patent USP 1166120 granted in 1915. The print coloring method is described in USP 1166123 granted the same year. A description of the process from the patent follows: 1. A two-color alternate frame record of the sub ject is photographed on panchromatic film through successive red and green filters at 32 frames per second. 2. The negative is developed, fixed, washed and dried in the normal manner used for black and white photography. 3. The red record negative is printed first, by skip frame printing. 3 C. L. Gregory, Motion Picture Photography (New York: Falk Publishing Co., Inc., 1927), pp. 334-335. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 50 4. This print is developed in a normal black and white print developer then immersed in an acid stop bath consisting of 1 percent acetic acid in water. 5. The developed image is toned in a solution which converts the image to ferric ferrocyanide and silver ferrocyanide. 5. The film is immersed in a 1 percent solution of sodium thiosulfate which is strong enough to dissolve the silver ferrocyanide but not strong enough to affect the unexposed silver bromide. Approximately 30 seconds is sufficient for this to take place. 7. Wash and dry. 8. The green record negative is printed in super imposition on the blue-green positive image of the red record negative. This exposure should be about one-quarter to one-half that required for a normal black and white negative. 9. Print is developed in a normal black and white developer, fixed and washed. During develop ment of the image from the green record nega tive the color of the image from the red record ; Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 0 . 11. 51 negative is almost completely bleached out. In order to restore this color the film is immersed in a bath containing a weak solution of ferric chloride and hydrochloric acid. Mordanting bleach. This bath converts the sil ver image from the green record negative to a mordanted yellow image which has the property of absorbing basic dyes. Fix. 12. Wash. 13. Dye toning— the print is immersed in a weak solution of basic red dye. 14. Wash and dry. Blue-Green Toning Bleach Ferric Chloride Potassium Ferricyanide Hydrochloric Acid Water to 10.0 grams 10.0 grams 5.0 ml 1.0 liter Yellow Mordant Bleach Vanadium Chloride Potassium Ferricyanide Oxalic Acid 2.0 grams 2.0 grams 2.0 grams Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 52 Water to 1.0 liter Dye Toner *Dye Acetic Acid Water to 5.0 grams 5. 0 ml 1.0 liter *Rhodamin Azin Red Acridin Red Safranine Panchremotion Panchromotion was the name of a company formed in 1913 by W. Van Doren Kelley for the development of an addi tive process for color cinematography.^ The process that evolved from this venture was a four-color additive system which employed a segmented rotating disk on both the camera and the projector. Exposure was made on successive frames, each frame containing a color exposure and a white light exposure. The colors used for the rotating disk were red- orange, blue-green, blue-violet and yellow; Figure 9a Adrian Cornwell-Clyne, Colour Cinematography (3rd ed.; London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd., 1951) . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 53 illustrates the position, of the filters in the color disk. Figure 9b illustrates the position of the color records in the successive frame negative and print.^ The Panchromotion Company had a very short life, failing to produce anything that was shown commercially in a theater. The process, however, lasted somewhat longer. Although it had all of the deficiencies of the original Kinemacolor process and no advantages to offset them, Kelley continued to work with this additive system and finally pro duced "Our Navy," released as Prizma Color. Douglass Color Douglass Color was a two-color additive system for color cinematography invented in 1916 by L. P. Douglass. According to the inventor his unique method of exposing the negative produced a stereoscopic as well as a color effect.^ A demonstration of the Douglass Color system was presented in New York City, February 14, 1918. Subjects included bathing beauties and scenic views of Yosemite and Yellowstone National Parks- The reviewer for the New York Times was impressed by the "apparently unlimited" range of ^USP 1216493 ^USP 1313587 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 54 Fig. 9a. Panchromotion color filter disk. □ □□□□□□□□□anaoQDGGnncrnaonaaooo DDÜDDDDOGDODODDQDDDDDDaDDDDPDa Blue Red Green Yellow Blue Red Green Fig. 9b. Position of color records in the Panchromotion system Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 55 i 7 colors obtainable with the process. The Douglass Color process was a complete system for color cinematography consisting of a method of exposing a pair of negatives, a printing method, and projection sys tem. A stereo camera exposed alternate frames on two sepa rate films, one through a red filter and one through a green filter (Fig. 10). Each film was advanced by a double frame pull down mechanism. After exposure the negatives were developed, fixed, washed, and dried in the normal manner for black and white films. The result was a red separation negative with alternate frames clear and a green separation negative with alternate frames clear. These negatives were printed onto normal black and white print film on a printer with a double frame pull down mechanism, producing a print with alternate frames containing an image from each nega tive (Fig. 11). After processing the prints were projected additively through a rotating shutter that contained a red filter in one opening and a green filter in the other open- i ing. Prints were projected at double speed. The process as described above had the same limita- : tions as the other processes that relied on a special | ^New York Times, February 15, 1918. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 56 Green Filter Red Filter Fig- 10. Douglass Color beam splitter camera Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 57 o D □ □ D D 0 D n o O □ D D □ D n Q □ D □ n □ O D a q D □ □ P □ p □ p □ n p ■ □ , □ □ □ □ □ □ □ q p D □ a q d a d d □ □ □ □ □ □ d d o □ a □ d d d a O D O a D Red Neg. O n □ □ □ D □ D O D : a D □ D D D □ □ □ a D D D O. o □ n O □ □ n □ o □ □ O n □ D □ o P □ □ □ D □ □ □ □ □ □ □ O p □ □ □ □ a □ □ D □ O D □ D D n □ □ n a □ Green Neg. Print Fig. 11. Douglass Color separation negatives and print. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 58 additive projection system. Its successful presentation de pended on the projectionist and the projection equipment and it required special equipment for theatrical presentation. Apparently Douglass soon became aware of this, because in 1819 he filed an application for a patent which described a method of producing dye toned prints from two separation 8 negatives. Prints are made from two separation negatives on normal single coated black and white print film simulta neously in a special printer having individual intensity control for each side. With the print film in the middle, the red record negative is printed in contact with the emulsion and the green record negative is printed in con tact with the base. The print is developed in a normal black and white developer, washed and bleached in a ferri cyanide toning bleach. It is then washed and dyed with a basic dye, washed and treated with a sodium hydroxide solu tion that removes the ferric ferricyanide image. The film is now rebleached in the ferricyanide toning bleach. This treatment affects the bottom image only; the top red-orange image is not affected. After washing, the bottom blue ®USP 1632278 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 59 ferrie ferricyanide image is converted to blue-green by im mersion in a toning solution. This is followed by an acid rinse, washing and drying. Bleach— one minute Potassium Bichromate Ferric Alum Oxalic Acid Potassium Ferricyanide Ammonium Alum Hydrochloric Acid Water to .01 gram 5.0 grams 12.0 grams 4.0 grams 20.0 grams 4. 0 ml 1.0 liter Red Dye Bath— five minutes Fuchin P Auramine O Alcohol Glycerin Acetic Acid (glacial) Water to .5 gram 1.5 grams 250.0 ml 15.0 ml 5. 0 ml 1.0 liter Green Toner— Converts Ferric Ferricyanide image from blue to green-blue Potassium Ferricyanide Chromic Acid 8.0 grams 8.0 grams Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 60 Water to 1.0 liter Acid Rinse 1% solution Glacial Acetic Acid Gilmore Color Gilmore color was a two-color additive process for color cinematography based on a patent granted to F. E- Ives 9 in 1918. A special optical device is used to obtain two images taken in pairs side by side on 35mm film. One of the pair is exposed through a red filter and the other through a green filter. Prints are made in the normal manner on conventional black and white print film. For projection the projector must be equipped with a special optical device which turns and superimposes the two images in register on the screen. Examination of the patent referred to above, USP 1262954, reveals a complicated optical system with several potential sources of difficulty. Perhaps this is the reason there appears to be no record of the process actually having been used for commercial production. 9 "Report of The Color Committee, " Journal of The Society of Motion Picture Engineers, July, 1931, p. 117. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 61 Kesdacolor Kesdacolor was a two-color additive line screen pro cess invented in 1918 by W- V. D. Kelley and C. H. Dunning. Although this process had a relatively short life, Cornwell- Clyne records that a 50 foot length of Kesdacolor was shown at the Rivoli and Rialto Theaters in New York, September 12, 1918.^^ The subject presented was the American Flag. The process as illustrated in USP 1431309 was a two- color additive process, but it is stated that it could be a three- or four-color process. For the original photography, the negative was exposed through a line screen composed of alternate bands of red and green filters. The film was ad vanced two frames at a time, one frame containing the pic ture image and one frame containing an image of one color of the line screen. The image of the screen was formed by a supplementary lens located above the picture-forming lens. This lens was fitted with a filter and a right-angle mirror or prism above the base of which was placed a diffusing sur face (Fig. 12). After exposure- the negative was developed in a normal black and white developer, fixed, washed and dried. At this point in the process it contained alternate ^^Cornwell-Clyne, op. cit., p. 17. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 62 Line Screen Filter Sky Light U U i J t u Prism Screen Photographing Lens Picture photographing Lens Fig. 12. Kesdacolor optical system and negative Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 63 : frames of picture and a record of one color of the screen, leaving the area of the other section of the screen clear. Prints were made on duplitized positive film. The picture was printed on one side and the screen on the other. The lines of the screen opposite the red color record lines of the picture printed in black on the positive; these lines were bleached and toned red with a uranium toner. The al ternate lines which were clear on the positive were dyed green-blue by using the dye known as acid Green L. The fi nal print is composed of a picture made up of banded red and green records on one side and a banded red and green filter on the other side. Warner-Powrie Color Process The Warner-Powrie Color process was a line screen three-color additive color process invented by J. H. Powrie in 1924. The process was first developed as a plate process for still photography, but failed to materialize commercial ly although it possessed some advantage over other existing processes. Powrie then interested Warner Bros, in the pos sibilities of the process for use in motion pictures and a pilot operation was set up at the Warner Research Laboratory! Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 54 in New York City. For the original photography, the process used 47mm panchromatic negative film having a line structure of 900 parallel lines to the inch running lengthwise on the film. The film was advanced horizontally through the camera, ex posing through the base a frame whose aspect ratio was the same as standard 35mm film but with four times greater area. This negative was printed in a special optical printer with a one-half reduction onto 35mm positive film which also had parallel lines running lengthwise on its base. Since the positive was running vertically through the printer, the lines would be vertical and cross those of the negative im age. A positive printed in this manner would normally re produce only one-third of the color of the negative; how ever, this was overcome with an inappreciable loss of sharp ness by shifting the lined structure of the negative image during the printing operation to a second and a third posi tion, the total shift being that of the period of the pat tern of the lined screen structure. The negative and the positive prints were processed in conventional black and ^E. J. Wall, History of Three-Color Photography (Boston: American Photographic Publishing Co., 1925), p. 484. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 65 white processing solutions. Color was obtained by additive 12 projection through the line screen. The line screen on both the negative and the print film consists of a series of dichromated gelatin lines coat ed on the face of the film and dyed red, green and blue. To prepare the line screen, clear film base is coat ed with dichromated gelatin. After drying, a series of tanned gelatin lines are formed by printing from a very fine grain line negative. The lines on the negative are twice the width of the intervening spaces. The excess gelatin is removed by washing and the remaining tanned lines are dyed with an opaque neutral dye. This becomes a matrix or sub master for subsequent printing. The opposite side of the base is now coated with dichromated gelatin. After drying, a series of tanned gelatin lines are formed by printing through the base with an arc light. The light is trans mitted through the transparent base .005 inches thick and forms an insoluble gelatin line on the other side. The light reaches the film not at right angles to the surface but at a predetermined angle, the thickness of the support 12 J. H. Powrie, "A Line Screen Film Process for Motion Pictures in Color," Transactions of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, April, 1928, pp. 320-334. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 66 displacing by parallax the position of the light beam. Where the first series of lines have been formed the base is washed to remove the untanned gelatin. Then, utilizing a principle disclosed in USP 802471, the insolubilized colloid was dyed first with an acid yellow dye, Aurophenin, then with a basic red dye, Safranin, and mordanted with tannic acid. The base is recoated with dichromated gelatin and an adjacent series of lines are formed by a second printing, removing the light to a position at the opposite side of the right angle. The base is washed to remove the untanned gelatin and the remaining colloid is dyed first with acid Aurophenin then with Brilliant Green, a basic dye, and mor danted with tannic acid. The temporary matrix of opaque lines that served to form the first and second colored lines is now removed by buffing in an alkaline solution. The base is washed and dried and again coated with dichro mated gelatin and a third series of lines is formed by ex posure through the base. The existing red and green lines act as a matrix and prevent any light action except in the undyed area. The excess gelatin is removed by a wash and the remaining untanned gelatin is dyed first with acid blue, then basic Methyl blue or Violamin R. The result is a screen composed of sets of colored lines without any Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 67 colorless interspaces. The film is dried and a protective coating is applied to prevent injury to the screen when the emulsion is applied. A sensitive panchromatic emulsion is coated on top and the film is ready to be slit and perforat ed for use. There is no record of this process ever being used for theatrical presentation. In the opinion of the writer, the inventor found considerable difficulty translating his process, which was quite acceptable for still photography, to use in motion picture production. Producing one picture on a glass plate does not present the same problems as pro ducing several thousand on a long roll of film. Maqnachrome Film The Magnachrome Film Process was a two-color addi tive system for color for color cinematography.^^ For this process the original photography was accomplished by expos ing bipack negative in a conventional camera. The only change in the camera was that it was fitted with a half-size aperture gate. After exposure and development the two half frame negatives were printed in sequence so that on the TO ' "Color Committee Report," Journal of The Society of Motion Picture Engineers, January, 1931, pp. 101-102. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 68 print each normal size frame contained a pair of half-size positives, one from each negative record. The prints were projected at a speed of 90 feet per minute with an intermit tent movement, using an eight-sided cam instead of the usual four-sided cam- This gave 48 pictures a second instead of the...usual 24 pictures per second- At this speed, which was effectively twice normal projection speed, many of the de fects obtained with the old two-color seguential frame ad ditive processes were eliminated- No fringeing was discern ible since the negatives were exposed in pairs at the same time- To prevent mismatch in splicing or projecting the film, frame lines were tinted with alternate spaces of red and blue-green- Experimental work on this process was done by Roy Hunter of Universal Pictures- There is no record of the process ever having been used in actual production- Rotocolor The Rotocolor process was an additive system for color cinematography- The process was announced in 1931 by H- Muller- According to an article in Film Daily, April 12, 1931, and The Motion Picture Herald, April 11, 1931, the process consisted of a shutter device attachable to a Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 69 standard projector. The device was easily removable per mitting switching between black and white and color. Appar ently the system was not commercially successful since no further mention appears in either the trade or technical literature. Examination of the patent literature 1927 to 1940 failed to uncover any patents for color motion pictures granted to Mr. Muller. Opticolor The Opticolor process was a three-color additive system for color cinematography announced in April 1933 by company president Merril Waide.^^ Through the use of spe cial optics (Figs. 13a, 13b) three substandard size pictures were obtained on 35mm black and white film (Fig. 14).^^ In corporated in the optical system were three color filters so that the result obtained was a record of the red, green and blue light components of the original scene. After pro cessing in conventional black and white processing solutions prints were made on black and white print film. This film was also processed using the normal black and white solu tions. The finished prints were projected through a special ^^Motion Picture Herald, April 11, 1933, p. 13. 15 USP 2115153. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 70 Fig. 13a. Opticolor lens system for producing three separation negatives. Blue Filter Green Filter Red Filter Fig. 13b. Opticolor triple lens arrangement. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 71 o □ a D □ a □ □ □ D cr □ D □ a a a a □ □ Fig. 14. Opticolor separation negatives, three in the area of a standard frame. 1. Red 2. Green 3. Blue-Violet Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 72 optical system similar to the camera lens which combined the; three positive records to make a full color picture on the screen. Examination of the patent literature 1930 to 1940 indicates several patents were granted to Waide for systems of color photography. Some of these were assigned to Natural Color, Inc., and some were assigned to Opticolor. One, USP 1970678, which describes a lens system for photog raphy and for projection, was divided and one-half, USP 2115153, was assigned to Opticolor. Although this process was announced as ready for production in 1933 there appears to be no further mention of it in the trade and technical papers. Because of the nature of the process, requiring a special lens for both camera and projector, the system probably failed to compete with the subtractive processes which used conventional equipment. Morgana Color Process The Morgana Color Process was a two-color additive process for 16mm color cinematography introduced in 1933 by 17 Bell and Howell Company. Like the Kodacolor Process l^ibid. 17 ^ J. A. Dubray, "The Morgana Color Process," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, November, 1933, pp. 403-412. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 73 : described in Chapter V it was not intended that this process should be used for entertainment motion pictures. It was introduced as a home movie system for motion pictures with possible application in the field of industrial and medical cinematography. In a special camera alternate frames were exposed through a red and a blue-green filter mounted in an oscil lating filter holder. Exposures were made on conventional panchromatic black and white reversal film which was devel oped normally. Because of the filter factors of the color filters used, an exposure increase of approximately three to four lens stops was required. No limits were imposed on focal length of lenses and diaphragm opening. ' After exposure and development the film is project ed on a special projector equipped with a color filter wheel. The filter wheel is divided into two color sectors,; red and blue; each of these is composed of smaller sectors | and transparent spacings. The red sector is divided into two segments, the blue sector is divided into three seg ments. The color and the area of each sector is chosen so that they will correct for the color transmission of the camera filter and the color characteristics of the projector lamp. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 74 The most unusual feature of the projector was its sequence of projection, two frames forward then one frame backward. The rate of projection at the aperture was there fore 72 frames per second although the linear motion of the film corresponded to a speed of 24 frames per second. Each frame was projected three times. The purpose of this mul tiple projection of each frame was to eliminate a problem known as "color flicker." Some of the advantages of the Morgana Process over other two- and three-color processes were: 1. Conventional film and processing are used. 2. Any focal length or aperture lens could be used. 3. Prints could be made on conventional continu ous printing equipment. 4. Less light was required for color photography using this system. 5. Flicker and color fringeing were eliminated. Some of the disadvantages of the process were: 1. It was a two-color process. 2, Special camera and projection equipment were required. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 75 3. The mechanics of projection was physically hard on the film. Cinemacolor In 1934 the Cinemacolor Corporation of Chicago, Illinois announced a two-color additive process for color cinematography. Two substandard size images were produced side by side in the area normally occupied by a standard 35mm frame (Fig. 15a).The process employed split optics and a special lens system was introduced for both the camera and the projector.Although six patents were granted to Otto C. Gilmore in 1934 and assigned to this company, a search of the patent literature 1930-1950 indicates no fur ther activity by the company. Gilmore, however, was iden tified with another very similar process, Cosmocolor, 1935- 1943. Comparison of the 1934 Cinemacolor patents with those granted to Cosmocolor in 1935 indicates a possible connec tion between the two processes. Further indication is: 1. The processes are both two-color additive processes. IBySP 1978789, USP 1958617, Otto C. Gilmore, assigned to Cinemacolor Corp. 1 Q USP 1953958, USP 1962501, Otto C. Gilmore, assigned to Cinemacolor Corp. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 76 n 0 □ □□ □ Q □ □ □ □ □ DDDnpngg DDDQQDaanaciDDaDDPPDa Fig. 15a. Cinemacolor negative, two sub-standard size images produced in the area normally occupied by a standard 35mm frame. Red- Blue- Orange Green Dye Dye Fig. 15b. Cinemacolor film coloring machine for dyeing two adjacent sub-standard size images simultaneously and continuously. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 77 2. They both employ substandard size images having the same orientation on 35mm film. 3. Otto C. Gilmore is listed as inventor on the patents assigned to both companies. An interesting device patented by Cinemacolor is a film coloring machine for dyeing the two adjacent substan dard size images simultaneously and continuously (Fig. 20 15b). The film is advanced from one rewind to another passing over two sprockets, one a guide sprocket and the other a drive sprocket connected by pulleys to a motor and the right-hand rewind. Between the two sprockets are two dyeing stations. Brushes replenished by drip bottles are used to apply red-orange dye to the image in one area of the film and blue-green dye to the image in the other area of the film. To the author this appears to be a rather com plicated method for adding color to the prints. Special optics had to be used for projection so that the images could be rotated 90 degrees and superimposed; therefore, the introduction of colored filters in the projectors instead of dyeing the prints would have produced more even color re sults and would have eliminated one step in the production : 20 USP 1964257, Otto C. Gilmore, assigned to Cinemacolor Corp. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 78 of the prints. The projector light output would have been the same if color filters or colored prints were used. Cosmocolor Cosmocolor was a two-color additive process for 21 color cinematography invented by Otto C. Gilmore in 1935. Special optics composed of a series of block prisms were re quired on both the camera and the projector. Before the process was actually used commercially it was changed to a two-color subtractive process. Special optics were still used on the camera but the prints were two-color subtractive prints on duplitized positive film. According to J. L. Limbacher the only feature motion picture on record that is known to have been filmed in Cosmocolor was The Isle of Destiny, produced and released by R-K-0 Radio Pictures in 1940,^^ The two-color additive Cosmocolor process was a sys tem which employed a series of block prisms to produce two ^^USP 205023, Otto C. Gilmore, assigned to Cosmocolor. 22 USP 205024, Otto C. Gilmore, assigned to Cosmocolor. 23 J. L. Limbacher, "A Historical Study of the Color : Motion Picture," Dearborn, Michigan, 1963. (Mimeographed.) ; Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 79 adjacent substandard size images in the area of a normal 35mm frame (Fig. 15). Exposures were made on panchromatic film,the right image through a red filter and the left image through a green filter. The negatives were processed in conventional black and white processing solutions and prints were made on normal black and white film. These prints were projected with special optics on the projector which rotat ed the two images 90 degrees and superimposed them on the 24 screen. The two-color subtractive Cosmocolor process intro duced in 1939 utilized the same optical system as the addi tive system to produce the original negatives. After the negatives were processed, a set of color master positives were made on a special step registration optical printer. In this printer the negative runs horizontally and the mas ter positive runs vertically (Fig. 17). Therefore, there was no need to rotate the image optically, although a slight enlargement was necessary. To complete a set of master pos itives, it was necessary for the film to pass through the printer two times. When this was accomplished a set of mas ter positives were produced which were normal for size and ^^USP 205023. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 80 oooQooooQoaaaQoaaaoQ Red Red Red Red Red Green Green Green Green Green DDQnaQODaDOaDQGOQD 0 0 Fig. 16. Cosmocolor negative, two sub-standard size images produced in the area normally occupied by a standard 35mm frame. <c> ■PX <o Fig. 17. Cosmocolor optical printer; negative runs horizontally and master positive runs vertically. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 81 orientation. Then prints could be made on duplitized posi- 25 tive by any of the several two-color printing systems. A third basic change in the Cosmocolor process ap peared in 1943- USP 2315783 and BP 556426 described a three-color system for color cinematography. In this system three substandard size images are produced on a normal size 35mm frame. A series of block prisms similar to those em ployed in the Cosmocolor two-color process are used to pro duce the three images, two normally oriented and one rotat ed 90 degrees (Fig. 18). There is no information concern ing the method Gilmore intended to employ in printing these negatives. Also there is no record of this process having been used for actual production. Telco Color Telco Color was a two-color additive color process 27 announced in 1936 by Leon Ungar and K. R. Hoyt. Through the use of a special optical system on both the camera and the projector, "natural color" was obtained using ^^USP 205024. ^^USP 2315783, Otto C. Gilmore, assigned to Cosmocolor. 27 New York Times, July 12, 1936, Sec. IX, p. 3. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 82 n u □ □ □ □ Q □ □ a □ Q n U □ □ n a n □ n □ D □ Fig. 18- Cosmocolor three-color negative, two normally oriented sub-standard size images and one rotated 90°. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 83 conventional equipment and ordinary black and white single coated film. No special processing or after treatments were necessary. In 1936 Universal Pictures Corporation announced its intent to use Telco for feature production; however, there is no record of its use as an additive system. The system was finally converted to a two-color subtractive process employing duplitized positive and standard bipack negative. It was used by Universal in 1938 for the short subject "Cavalcade of Texas" and later for independent feature re lease on low budget pictures. One of these. Monogram's Lure of the Wasteland, was, according to the reviewer from Parents' Magazine, "marred by unsuccessful color photog raphy. It appears that basically Telco offered no advan tages that the other two-color processes of the period did not also offer. A major disadvantage was that the emulsions available at the time were not capable of producing good quality on a large screen from a half-frame negative. As originally designed, Telco Color was a two-color system of color photography employing a special system of 28 "Family Movie Guide," Parents' Magazine, October, 1939. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 84 split optics. Two pictures of one-half the normal height were obtained side by side on a standard 35mm width panchro matic black and white film. A normal camera with conven tional pull down stroke was filled with a special aperture plate and lens system. One set of pairs was exposed on al ternate half-frames throughout the length of the roll, then the film was advanced two sprocket holes and the remaining half-frames were exposed. The interocular distance of the split optics was variable so that the objectives could be adjusted for parallax as well as focus. A camera operator photographing a moving shot from long shot to close up could adjust for both focus and parallax while the shot was 29 in progress. After its failure to achieve success as an additive system the process was changed to a subtractive process em ploying duplitized positive for release prints. The unique feature of the Telco duplitized prints was the manner of applying and controlling the color. USP 2134129 describes a machine for applying dye to one side of double or single-coated film (Fig. 19). Dye is picked up from the supply tank by a roller called the 29 USP 2090398. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 85 Take Up Transfer Roller /Fountain Applying Back Up Roller Film Fig. 19. Machine for applying dye to one side of double coated film. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 86 fountain roller. From there it is transferred to the apply ing cylinder by the transfer roller. The film which is to be dyed passes between the applying cylinder and a back up roller and on to the take up. For dyeing double-coated film, two units are used, one for each side. The machine can also be used for sequential frame dyeing by using a cylinder like the one illustrated by Figure 20. USP 2290060 described a color control inspection machine which consisted of a projector and a polishing ma chine. With this unit an inspector could locate and remove excess dye from finished release prints. A similar unit with the projector is described in USP 2125250. Information is not available concerning the dyes and the formulas used for this process but the color control units mentioned above indicate that they were probably of the Pinatype class. Thomascolor Thomascolor was a three-color additive system of color cinematography invented by Richard Thomas. Examina tion of the patents granted to Thomas, 1934-1941, indicates he started his research in an attempt to solve the parallax problem for a two-color system, and from this work evolved Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 87 Fig. 20- Drum for dyeing machine used for dyeing sequential frame prints- Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 88 a three-color system.Although demonstrated successfully several times, the Thomascolor process was never used for feature production. For original photography the Thomascolor process employed a conventional type 55mm camera equipped with a special optical system. Four segmented optical units ar ranged around a common axis and separated by septums are used to produce four color separation negatives within a single frame (Fig. 21). The upper left image is the red record, the upper right image is the green record and the two lower images are the blue record. Thomas states that two images are necessary for the blue record in order to compensate for the sensitivity of panchromatic emulsions to blue and ultraviolet light. By using very dense filters and obtaining two partially exposed violet images, much better color rendition is obtained and the process is more readily controlled. The Wratten 25 filter is suggested for the red record, Wratten 58 filter for the green record and Wratten 31 47 for the blue records. Ordinary black and white ^^The Thomascolor two-color system is described briefly in "Report of the Color Committee," Journal of The Society of Motion Picture Engineers, July, 1931, p. 116. ^^USP 2152224. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 89 H Fig. 21. Four segmented optical units arranged above a common axis and separated by septums are used to produce four color separation negatives within a single frame. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 90 panchromatic film is used in the camera. An adjustment of 1% lens stops is necessary when calculating the correct ex posure because of the light loss in the optical system. After exposure, the negative receives normal development in a conventional black and white developer. Prints are made on black and white print film by optical reduction to 35mm. A conventional reduction printer is used. A disadvantage of the Thomascolor process that pos sibly had some effect on its lack of acceptance by the motion picture industry was the need for a special optical system in order to project the Thomascolor prints in color. Its use in a production would require every theater that showed the picture to obtain the special Thomascolor optics for both projectors. Colorvision In May 1950, Colorvision, Inc., was formed for the purpose of developing a three-color additive system of col or cinematography for the newly emerging field of color television. According to the promotional literature of the company the additive system of color photography was chosen for the following reasons: 1. Maximum economy in photographing. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 91 2. Maximum color rendition. 3. Maximum scope for color control. 4. Maximum facilities for processing of film. 5. High speed in processing of film. Actual work on the proposed system began in March 1951. Studies of the additive method were made and an optical sys tem was devised which would meet the following requirements. 1. Sufficient light transmission for use at low levels of illumination. 2. Freedom from both time and spatial parallax. 3. Availability of a wide choice lens to permit a choice of angle of view. 4. Compatibility with existing equipment. To confirm the practibility of the proposed system an ex perimental model of the camera optical unit was made and a 1,000 foot test reel was prepared. This film was shown privately in four theaters in California in April 1952. Comments regarding the film were very favorable at all four showings. Therefore, work was started on the construction of regular production models of the Colorvision optical unit. 32 "Colorvision— A New Additive Process for Color Photography" (Los Angeles: Colorvision, Inc., 1954), p. 2. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 92 In October 1954 the Colorvision process was de scribed and demonstrated at the Society of Motion Picture ■3 3 and Television Engineers Convention at Los Angeles. Since then the company's efforts have been directed toward the design and construction of a complete operational system which would meet the requirements of the professional pro ducer. A status report and a further demonstration of the process was given at the Society of Motion Picture and Tele vision Engineers Convention at Los Angeles in April 1958.^^ Improvements in the basic system were shown and the practi cability of using the Colorvision system for color kinescope recording was confirmed. At this time it was announced that four Colorvision optical units for use with N. C. Mitchell cameras are operational and that an optical unit has been aligned with an Acme Process Camera for animation, titling, etc. ^^L. F. Brunswick, "Separation Process for Additive Color Motion Picture Photography on Black and White Film, " Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, March, 1955, pp. 126-128. 34 L. H. Wheeler, "A New Additive Color System for Motion Picture Photography," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, November, 1958, pp. 747-749. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 93 The third paper concerning the Colorvision process was presented at the Society of Motion Picture and Televi sion Engineers Convention at Los Angeles in March 1965.^^ This paper described an application of the process to cur rent laboratory practice. In the making of separation posi tives for protection or archival storage it is proposed that the Colorvision system of area sharing be used in place of three separate films. The Colorvision optical system is a beam splitter with a relative aperture in excess of f/2.0. The light which enters the system through a single entrance pupil is divided into its red, green and blue components by means of | multilayered interference filters and forms three geometri-| cally similar images at the film plane. Each image has an i area 40 percent greater than that of a normal 15mm frame. ; H. Wheeler, "A New Color Separation Technique for Color Negative Protection," Paper presented at the 97th Conference of The Society of Motion Picture and Television | Engineers, Los Angeles, March 30, 1965. I ^^Although this system produced excellent results | and fulfilled a real need, the Colorvision Corporation went i bankrupts The company's remaining assets were sold at | auction in April 1966. The printing equipment that Color vision had proposed to use for making protection master positives was purchased by Consolidated Film Industries. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 94 jSxposures are made on. fast black and white panchromatic negative in an unmodified N. C. Mitchell camera. Normal Mitchell accessories such as matte box, view finder, etc. , are also used. Each unit is provided with interchangeable bayonet-mounted 35mm, 50mm, 75mm and 125mm objective lenses The basic exposure level is 200 ft. candles for Eastman Tri X Panchromatic Negative Film, Type 5233 and 400 ft. candles for Eastman Plus X Panchromatic Negative Film, Type 4231 at Colorvision aperture T-2. Depth of field at this aperture is equal to a normal lens aperture of f/4- 5. After exposure the negative is processed in a conventional black and white : developer to a gamma of .60, fixed, washed and dried. Daily prints can be made by continuous contact printing on black and white print film for additive projection in color or they can be made by optical superimposition on subtractive color film. For final release printing, a 35mm superimposed ! master positive can be made on Eastman Color Intermediate Film, Type 5253, or a set of three matrices can be made for I Technicolor release. If the process is used for the making of protection master positives as proposed by L. H. Wheeler in 1965, all three master positives are produced on a single roll with a single pass through the printer. This results in a Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 95 considerable savings in labor, film cost, and processing cost, as well as a reduction by two-thirds in the amount of storage space necessary for storing the protection master positives. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER V ADDITIVE PROCESSES (LENTICULAR) One of the many methods proposed for making additive color motion pictures was the lenticular or embossed film process. In principle the process was a screen process which utilized optical means to form its screen. This was accomplished through the use of a special type of film hav ing lenticular elements or microscopic cylindrical lenses molded into its support. " The principle of lenticular film was first suggest ed by Gabriel Lippmann in 1908.^ He theorized that if a film support was impressed with a honeycomb structure each element would act as a tiny lens. Each of these lenses would image only that portion of the light which was direct ly in front of it. The final image would consist of a ^J. S. Friedman, History of Color Photography (Boston: The American Photographic Publishing Co., 1944), pp. 222-225. 96 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 97 series of dots, each dot being formed by the lens immediate ly in front of it. If the dots were beyond the resolving power of the eye they would not be seen as individuals but as a single blended picture. In 1909 Rudolph Berthon expanded on this idea and introduced a banded three-color filter placed in front of the lens. If this filter completely fills the lens aperture the final image will consist of three dots behind each lens, one formed by each of the red, green and blue light rays transmitted by the filter. Since optical processes are re versible, a color picture would be obtained if a positive image achieved by reversal development could be projected with an optical system consisting of a lens having the same focal length and aperture as the camera lens and a similar banded color filter. Although Lippmann was the first to suggest the pos sibility of lenticular film and Berthon was the first to successfully apply its use to produce color pictures, the basis for their ideas had been published several years be fore. In 1895 P. W. Lancaster, an English engineer, pro posed that a screen be placed in the rear focal plane of a camera objective where the elements of the screen would act as individual pin-hole cameras (English Patent 15548/95). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 98 In the following year the use of a banded filter was pro posed by R. E. Liesegang in an article that appeared in the British Journal of Photography, XLIII (1895). Unfortunately it is not clear whether he proposed to use the subtractive colors, cyan, magenta and yellow, for his filter, or a mix ture of the additive primaries red and blue and the subtrac tive color yellow. In either case the system he proposed would have been unworkable, since the subtractive filters each transmit two colors. Keller-Dorian Color The Keller-Dorian system of color cinematography was a three-color additive system based on the 1909 invention of Rudolph Berthon. This process used a banded three-color filter to expose black and white film through an embossed lenticular base. The first commercial use of the Keller- Dorian system was the Kodacolor process introduced in 1928. The Eastman 16mm Kodacolor lenticular film was manufactured under the Keller-Dorian patents through a license agreement 2 between Eastman Kodak and Keller-Dorian Companies. 2 G. E. Frost and S. Chesterfield Oppenheim, "Tech nical History of Professional Color Motion Pictures" (The Patent, Trademark and Copyright Foundation, George Washing ton University, Washington, D. C., 1960). (Mimeographed.) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 99 In December 1930, the Keller-Dorian Company entered into an agreement with Eastman Kodak Company and Paramount Pictures, Inc., and a research program was begun in an ef fort to utilize the lenticular process for 35mm entertain ment motion pictures. Considerable effort and money was spent, with only limited success, in an attempt to make the system practical for motion picture release prints. In 1936 Paramount withdrew from the agreement and Kodak directed its primary efforts to the future development of the new Koda- chrome color process invented in 1935 (chap. viii). Some years later, in 1951, the process was revived by Kodak and Twentieth Century-Fox in another attempt to utilize the system for making motion picture release prints (Eastman Embossed Print Film). No prints were made for theatrical release, however, and once more the system was abandoned.^ With the introduction of color television, the sys tem was revived again in the form of Eastman Embossed Color Kinescope Recording Film, introduced in 1956, This process met with very limited success; however, it was used commer cially by the National Broadcasting Company to record 3 Variety, January 14, 1953. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 0 0 several shows.^ It was finally abandoned after a few years and at the present time there is no commercial use of the lenticular process for color motion pictures. Kodacolor The Kodacolor process was a three-color additive process announced for amateur cinematography by Eastman Kodak in 1928.^ With this process all the advantages of a three-color fine line screen could be realized without ac tually ruling the microscopic filter units onto the film support. After exposure the film was developed by reversal to a black and white positive which could be projected ei ther as a black and white picture or as a color picture if a banded three-color filter was used on the projector lens. The basic element in the Kodacolor process is the film support. Through its unique optical characteristics a colored object can be photographed on black and white film and the black and white image can be projected in full C. H. Evans and R. B. Smith, "Color Kinescope Recording on Embossed Film," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, July, 1956, pp. 365-371. ^C. E. K. Mees, "Amateur Cinematography and the Kodacolor Process," Journal of the Franklin Institute, January, 1929, pp. 1-17. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 0 1 color. Microscopic cylindrical lenses 'arranged longitudi nally are embossed into the film support by passing it through steel rollers. The number of these lenses used in the Kodacolor process is 22 to the linear millimeter. When threaded in a camera the embossed support faces the camera lens and the emulsion is away from the lens. Light reflect ed from the subject photographed passes selectively through a banded color filter (Fig. 22) and is focused by the camera lens onto the tiny embossed lenses where it is re-focused as separate red, green and blue paravertical bands on the emulsion.^ Figure 23 illustrates the effect that would take place on a single lens element if a red object is photo graphed. The red light reflected from the object is trans mitted by the red portion of the banded filter and exposes approximately one-third of the area under the lens element. After reversible development this area of the film is clear and the remaining two-thirds of the film, corresponding to the blue and green segment of the filter, is opaque. In order to compensate for variations in emulsion ^J. G. Capstaff and M. W. Seymour, "The Kodacolor Process for Amateur Color Cinematography," Transactions of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, No. 36 (1928), pp. 940-947. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 0 2 Fig. 22. Light reflected from the subject photo graphed passes selectively through a banded color filter and is focused by the camera lens onto the tiny embossed lenses where it is re-focused as separate red, green and blue para-vertical bands on the emulsion. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 103 1. 2. 3. 4. Fig. 23. The effect that occurs on a single lens element when a red object is photographed. 1. The red light exposes an area about one- . third of the total area under the lens element. 2. During development in 1st MQ developer this area becomes opaque. 3. The film is then bleached and the remain ing silver salts are given a controlled exposure and developed. 4. The area affected by the red light is now clear and the areas which received no exposure are opaque. When white light is directed on this single lens section a red spot will be formed on the screen. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 104 sensitivity it is necessary to have some method of control ling the exposure for the separate colors. This is accom plished by cutting down the length of the color filters (Fig. 24a) used in the camera, with a device called a dia phragm ratio cap (Fig. 24b). After each emulsion has been tested caps are selected that correspond to the color sensi tivity of each individual batch of emulsion and packaged 7 with each roll of film. It can be seen from the shape of the aperture of the cap that a conventional iris diaphragm cannot be used for exposure control. Any closing down of aperture would change the color ratio, therefore the lens must be used at full aperture and neutral density filters must be used to control exposure. It is a well known optical principle that any opti cal system is reversible; therefore, if the developed film were re-threaded in the camera in exactly the same position it occupied during exposure, and illuminated from behind, the scene photographed could be projected on a screen in full color. The camera, however, is not normally used as a projector and projector lenses are usually of longer focal 7 Mees, "Amateur Cinematography and the Kodacolor Process," loc. cit., p. 15. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 105 Fig. 24a. Kodacolor banded filter. Fig. 24b. Kodacolor ratio diaphragm cap. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 106 length than those used in cameras. If the lenses have the same relative aperture the focal length difference can be compensated for by the addition of a plane concave lens in front of the film gate. In addition to preserving the color balance on the screen the only apparent effect of the sup plementary lens is to give a slightly smaller picture than g the same projection throw would produce without it. Although the Kodacolor process was an amateur rather than a professional motion picture process, it is worthy of mention in this report because it was the first commercially successful application of the Berthon-Keller-Dorian prin ciple. Also worthy of consideration is the reason for the success of Kodacolor as an amateur and not as a professional process. The prime reason was that Kodacolor represented a "systems" approach to motion pictures, which consisted of: 1. Film: A black and white reversal panchromatic film on an embossed lenticular support. 2. Camera: A cine-Kodak fitted with a 25irm f/1.9 lens. ^Capstaff and Seymour, "The Kodacolor Process for Amateur Color Cinematography," loc. cit., pp. 943-945. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 107 3- Banded filter: A banded three-color designed for a 25imti f/1.9 lens. 4. A diaphragm cap: A lens cap designed to fit the 25mm f/1.9 lens to compensate for emulsion sensitivity difference. 5. Processing: A black and white reversal pro cessing service. 6. Projection A: A conversion unit for existing "Model A" 15mm Kodascope projectors. 7. Projection B: A new "Model 13" Kodascope pro jector designed for Kodacolor or black and white film projectors. 8. Screen: The compatibility of a small screen with home projection. 9. Simplicity: With the simple addition of the filter and diaphragm cap it was as easy to use as black and white. 10. Cost: With a relatively small investment ex isting equipment could easily be converted to color. New equipment would cost relatively the same as black and white equipment. This "systems" approach which made Kodacolor film ideally suitable for amateur motion pictures made it Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 0 8 completely impracticable for professional motion pictures. Unfortunately, without the systems approach, Kodacolor film represented a single imcompatible unit in the total motion picture process. 1. Optics: Lenses available in studio camera de partments were optically unsuitable for the Kodacolor process. 2. Printing: A suitable system for making prints from lenticular originals had not been devised. 3. Emulsion sensitivity: A simple correction for emulsion sensitivity variations in form of a lens "diaphragm cap" was impossible due to the number of different lenses used in motion pic ture studios. 4. Process: For distribution purposes multiple copies were needed ; a negative positive process would have been more desirable than a reversal process from the standpoint of cost and in creased latitude. 5. Projection A: Projection optics available in the theaters were generally unsuitable for use with the Kodacolor process. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 109 6. Projection B: Projection light sources were inadequate for additive projection. Although the color quality produced by the Kodacolor process was excellent, the process was rapidly replaced by Kodachrome, a subtractive process which utilized multilay ered film, discussed in a later chapter. Eastman Embossed Print Film In November 1951 Eastman Kodak Company presented a method of making motion picture release prints using em bossed film, introducing for this purpose Eastman Embossed Print Safety Film, Type 5305. This method of additive col or photography differed from previous systems which used lenticular film in that the lenticular film is not used as the original camera taking material, and is not processed by reversal methods to give a direct positive image. Color release prints are made from separation negatives using a special optical printer. In developing this system Eastman 9 worked closely with Twentieth Century-Fox Corporation. Earl Sponable of the Twentieth Century-Fox Research "The liesent Status of Motion Picture Color Films and Processes for Professional Use" (Motion Picture Film Department, Eastman Kodak Company, New York, December, 1950), p. 11. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 110 Laboratory directed much of the experimental work which resulted in the development of a commercially workable pro cess. Although Twentieth Century-Fox announced in January 1953^^ that they planned to use this process as a release printing system, the project was dropped in favor of the use of Eastman Color process. The factors which brought this about were: 1. The development of a single strip color nega tive capable of good color quality. 2. The development of a companion print film. 3. The need for two and one-half times more light for the projection of the lenticular prints. 4. The need to equip the theater with projection filters and possibly new f/2.0 projection lens and high gain screens. 5. The interest in 3-D and wide screen presenta tions. 5. The introduction of the Fox "Cinemascope." To date no feature production has been released in this system by Twentieth Century-Fox, or any other company. ^‘ ^Variety, January 14, 1953. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Ill The film Eastman Embossed Print Safety Film_, Type 5306 which was the chief component of the process is de scribed by the manufacturer as a 35mm film composed of a special fine grain positive type of emulsion coated on an embossed support. The emulsion has a slightly higher contrast than regular black and white release print film and also is designed to give better image sharpness and 11 resolution. The film support is .0055 inches thick with the len ticules embossed horizontally across its width. On each millimeter of film length there are embossed 25 transverse lenticules each having a radius of approximately .032 mm and an effective aperture of approximately f/2.3. In order to prepare motion picture release prints on Eastman Embossed Print it is necessary to have three separa tion negatives. These may be obtained in any of several available ways. 1. Three-color separation negatives which are ; derived from materials exposed in a beam splitter type camera (Fig. 25). "Preparation of Release Prints on Eastman Embossed Print Safety Film for Additive Color Projection" (Motion Picture Film Department, Eastman Kodak Company, New York, ; November, 1951), p. 2. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 1 2 Red Dupe N ... Grn- Sep.N Green M P Grn.Dupe E Lent.Print Blue DupeN Fig. 25. Release print on Eastman Embossed Print film from three separation negatives exposed in a beam splitter camera. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 113 2. Three-color separation negatives which are de rived from a color negative original (Fig. 26). 3. Three separation negatives which are derived from Eastman Multilayer Stripping Negative Film, Type 5249 (Fig. 27). 4. Three separation negatives which are derived from a color reversal original (Fig. 28). The images of the blue and green separation nega tives are each split into two components and the red separa tion negative is imaged as one component for each picture element. There are therefore five component images corre sponding to each part of the picture area behind each len ticule. The component images are arranged symmetrically with the red component in the center, the two green components above and below it, and the two blue components in the top and bottom portions (Fig. 29). If the processed film is projected using a similar banded filter on the projector lens excellent color reporduction and tone quality can be obtained. At normal viewing distances no objectionable hue pattern is observed in the screen image as a result of the lenticules on the film. These lenticules are so small and their contrast is so low that on projection they can barely | Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 114 Color Neq. Blue M P Red M P Green M P Red Dupe B Blue DupeN Grn.Dupe Q Lent.Print Fig. 25. Release print on Eastman Embossed Print film from three separation negatives which are derived from a color negative original. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 115 Red Sep. N Red M P StrippinqN Grn.Sep.N Green M P Grn.Dupe N Lent.Print Blue Sep.N Blue M P Fig. 27. Release print on Eastman Embossed Print film from three separation negatives which are derived from Eastman Multilayer Stripping Negative film. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 116 Red Sep- N Rev. Color Grn.Sep.N Red M P Blue Sep.N Green M P Blue M P Red DupeN 3rn.Dupe N Blue DupeN Lent,Print Fig. 28. Release print on Eastman Embossed Print film from three separation negatives which are derived from a reversal color original. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 117 be resolved by the eye at minimum viewing distances- The fact that they are embossed horizontally across the film also aids in eliminating any objectionable line structure. For printing Eastman Embossed Print Film a specially constructed optical printer is necessary. The picture area of the film must be printed in register three times, once for each of the separation negatives. The sound track also must be printed separately, making four printing operations. Since a number of printing operations is undesirable from a laboratory production standpoint, it is desirable to use a printer containing three heads for printing the picture and a separate head for printing the sound track. Each of the three picture printing heads is essentially a one-to-one op tical printer with a special optical system plate having a fixed aperture (or two apertures in the case of the heads for the blue and green separations) placed in the optical system. The aperture plate for the red printer contains a single central aperture to correspond with the central zone of the five-banded tri-color filter on the projection lens. The plate for the green printer contains two apertures lo cated symmetrically above and below the central area used for the red printer aperture plate. The plate for the blue printer will contain two apertures above and below the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 118 positions occupied by the apertures used in the plate for 12 the green printer. The design of the printer is such that adjustment can be made in the relative exposure contributed by each of the three heads, thus permitting changes in color balance and to a certain extent contrast while release printing. The sound negative is prepared in the usual manner and printed continuously by contact in a separate head. Processing of the Embossed Print Film is accom- 13 plished in a normal black and white positive developer. A typical developer that would be satisfactory for this pur pose is; Positive Developer Elon Sodium Sulfite (anhydrous) Hydroquinone Sodium Carbonate (anhydrous) Potassium Bromide Water to Fix Sodium Sulfite (anhydrous) 1.6 grams 20.0 grams 2.6 grams 19.0 grams 1.0 grams 1.0 liter 15.0 grams 12 Ibid., p. 4. 13 Ibid., p. 5. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 119 Sodium Thiosulfate 240.0 grams Acetic Acid (28%) 48.0 ml Boric Acid 7.5 grams Potassium Alum 15.0 grams Water to 1.0 liter In projecting the embossed release print, the five component images behind each lenticule are combined to pro duce an image in full color. The projection lens is equipped with a special tri-color filter having five hori zontal bands (Figs. 29, 30), blue, green, red, green, blue. Because of the filter it is necessary to increase the light output of the projection approximately two and one-half times that required for normal projection. The modification required in the projection system in order to obtain this increase in light will vary depending on the theater. The basic items needed are: 1. A projection lens having a relative aperture of f/2.0. 2. An illuminating system that will fill the full f/2.0 aperture of the projection lens with light. 3. Optimum utilization of the available light. 4. A high gain projection screen. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 120 Fig. 29. Banded tri-color filter — 0 Fig. 30. Banded filter, projection lems and film. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 121 Eastman Embossed Color Kinescope Recording Film With, the introduction of color television on a com mercial basis a need developed for a method of recording live color television shows so that they could be stored and shown at a later time. This was desirable for two reasons: 1. The delayed re-broadcast of network shows was necessary because of the different time zones of the East and West coast of the United States. 2. Stations that did not carry the network show for its initial broadcast could, through the use of film, broadcast it at a later date. Also, the network could reuse a show if it was recorded. Because of the nature of television operations the film recording was needed as soon as possible after the live broadcast. This requirement made the use of conventional systems of color photography impossible because they were both comple:' and time consuming. A simple, easy-to-process film that could be handled like conventional black and white kinescope recording film was needed. The lenticular or em- . bossed film method of color photography which had been Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 122 known for almost fifty years appeared to be ideally suited for this purpose. Eastman Embossed Kinescope Recording Film, Type 5209, as demonstrated in 1956 consisted of a black and white emulsion coated onto an embossed film base. Unlike the 15mm lenticular film "Kodacolor," introduced in 1928 for amateur cinematography, the cylindrical lenses or lenticules extend horizontally across the width of the film. In each millimeter of film length there are embossed 25 transverse lenticules, each one .00157 inches high. Since the film width is 35mm, the active length of each lenticule is .816 inches.The film is placed in the camera with its base toward the lens so that the light entering the camera must travel through the lenticule before striking the light sensitive emulsion. Two methods of color kinescope recording using Eastman Embossed Kinescope Recording Film, Type 5209, were suggested by the Kodak Research Laboratories. 1. Color-television kinescope recording by means of a banded filter. 14 O. Tarnowski, "Color Kinescope Recording on Embossed Film," British Kinematography, May, 1958, pp. 123-136. ^^Ibid. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 123 This method makes use of a red, green and blue emitting kinescope in conjunction with a banded filter placed over the camera lens. The color separation is ac tually performed by the television system itself (Fig. 31). The red, green and blue filter bands ensure that each kine scope is separately recorded in the proper areas of the film. Disadvantages of this method are the inefficiencies of the filters and the requirement of panchromatic film to record the color images. 2. Color-television kinescope recording by means of geometrical separation (Fig. 32). This method also makes use of three separate kine scopes to present the three channels of a color television system. However, in place of red, green and blue emitting phosphors the same blue emitting phosphor is used for all three kinescope screens. Thus a color blind or blue sensi tive film can be used in place of a panchromatic film. The banded filter used in method number one is replaced with a series of apertures corresponding in size and position to the filter bands. In order to combine the images of the three kinescopes behind each lenticule, the red and green apertures are replaced by two silvered faces of a prism placed in front of the camera lens. The blue apertures Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 124 Green Kinescope Blue Kinescope Red Kinescope Fig. 31. Color-television kinescope recording by means of a banded filter Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 125 Red Signal Blue Signal Green Signal Fig. 32. Color-television kinescope recording by means of geometrical separation. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 126 are formed by the outer edges of the prism and the aperture : of the camera lens (Fig. 33). The advantage of this method over method number one is its greater photographic efficien cy. Also, since only a blue sensitive film is required it is possible to obtain electronically reversed images from the kinescope which can be handled in processing just like any standard black and white positive film. The recordings , made by NBC in their Burbank, California studios in 1957 were processed in a special laboratory set up for the pur pose by Consolidated Film Industries. Two 35mm black and white spray developing machines were employed. The embossed film was developed as a direct positive using a modified p 16 formula. ! After processing, special optics are required for ' : I televising the embossed film but otherwise any of the meth-: ods commonly used for televising motion picture film can be used.For the flying spot scanner system the emulsion side of the embossed film faces the scanning tube, with the I scanning spot focused sharply on the emulsion. Light trans mitted by the black and white recorded color separations is ! C. H. Evans and R. B. Smith, "Color Kinescope Recording on Embossed Film," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, July, 1956, pp. 365-371. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 127 Red Signal Camera Blue Signal Film Green Signal Fig. 33. Color-television kinescope recording by means of geometrical separation. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 128 then projected by the lenticules in bands corresponding to the apertures of the taking unit. These bands are focused by a lens or a system of lenses upon a plane where light from each of the three individual color records is divided and directed to three photomultipliers (Fig. 34). One meth od of accomplishing this is by means of silvered glass prisms, or integrating bars. These are arranged so that each band of light image at the plane falls on the unsil vered entrance face of an integrating bar. The unsilvered exit face of each integrating bar is placed next to the photocathode on an end-on photomultiplier. Two integrating bars are required for the blue channel because a double aperture is used in recording the blue record. To ensure efficient collection of the light, all except the entrance and exit surfaces of the integrating bars are silvered. If instead of a flying spot scanner three vidicons are used it is necessary to employ a more complicated light collecting system. The three color images must actually be formed and scanned on three storage surfaces and this introduces critical registration problems which are both optical and electronic in nature. In spite of these problems it was Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 129 Red Vidicon Embossed Film Blue Vidicon Green Vidicon Fig. 34. Color-television reproduction from embossed film by means of vidicons. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 130 felt that the high signal-to-noise ratio of the vidicon justified its use-^^ A system that proved to be practical commercially is one that is effectively the inverse of the recording system (Fig. 35). This system was used by NBC at its Burbank, California studios for more than a year. It was discontinued for a number of reasons, some technical, others purely operational. One important reason was the decline of color programming; another was the announcement of a color video tape recorder. 17 Tarnowski, "Colour Kinescope Recording on Embossed Film," loc. cit. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 131 Red Photomultiplier Embossed Film Blue Photomultiplier Flying Spot Kinescope Green Photomultiplier Fig. 35. Reproduction from embossed film in a television system. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER VI SUBTRACTIVE PROCESSES (OPTICAL, MECHANICAL AND SHARED AREA) The methods for color cinematography described in the preceding chapter all resulted in a final picture on the screen that was made by superimposing or adding lights of two or three primary colors. In nature, however, colors'are viewed by subtraction, they absorb or subtract certain com ponent parts of the visible spectrum of white light and re flect the remainder which the eye sees as color. During the period that the additive systems were attempting to pro duce natural color additively there were a whole series of processes that approached the problem by the use of subtrac tive means. This group of processes invented prior to the introduction of practical multilayered integral tripack films retained the additive method for the original photog raphy and used the subtractive method for the final prints. Some advantages of this sort of an arrangement 132 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 133 were: 1. The color, good or bad, became a part of the print before it left the laboratory. This eliminated problems introduced by the use of the wrong film/filter combination during pro jection. Also, lack of synchronization between color records and lack of superimposition of the records was eliminated. 2. The same projection equipment used for black and white films could be used to project sub tractive color prints. From the distribution and exhibition standpoint this made every theater a potential market for the product. 3. Less light was needed to project the subtrac tive prints. The importance of the exhibition aspect of the color processes was something many of the early workers in color failed to realize. Dr. Herbert T. Kalmus of the Technicolor Corporation made the following comment regarding projection difficulties that occurred during a showing of the first feature picture to be made in Technicolor additive process: During one terrible night in Buffalo I decided that such special attachments on the projector required Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 134 an operator who was a cross between a college pro fessor and an acrobat, a phrase which i have since heard repeated many times. Technicolor then and there abandoned additive process and special attach ments on the projector.1 Colorqraph Process The Colorgraph Process, also called Cinecolorgraph, was a two-color subtractive process invented by A. Hernan- dez-Mejia in 1912. Although there is evidence that a compa- 2 ny was formed to promote this process, there does not ap pear to be any record of its successful use in a motion pic ture. For the original photography two negatives are ex posed in such a manner that the images are reversed in re spect to each other. One negative is exposed through a red filter and the other through a green filter. A beam split ter camera using a semi-transparent mirror is suggested to obtain the two negatives, one reversed with respect to the ; other. Prints are made on duplitized positive film which is dyed or toned blue-green on one side and red-orange on the other side. ^H. T. Kalmus, "Technicolor Adventures in Cinema- land," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, December, 1938, p. 555. 2 The Colorgraph Company, Exchange Building, 145 West 45th Street, New York City, New York. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 135 Two different systems for coloring the prints are described by the inventor: 1. Prints are made on double-coated positive film. The two negative records pass through the print er at the same time with the print film in the middle. The print film is color blind and con tains a yellow dye to prevent print through. The prints are developed in a normal black and white developer by the rack and tank method. After development and fixing, the prints are bleached with an iodide mordant bleach and toned with basic dyes. The print from the red record | negative is dyed green with a dye of malachite | character. The print from the green record negative is dyed red with fuchsine or rhodimine. An 80 gallon tank will dye 3,000 feet of film at a cost of four to five dollars.^ 2. Prints are made on double-coated positive film, i The two negative records pass through the print er at the same time with the print film in the ^A. Hernandez-Mejia, "The Colorgraph Process of Color Cinematography," British Journal of Photography, October, 1912, pp. 805-807. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 136 middle. The print film is color blind with the substratum dyed yellow on one or both of the sides to prevent print through. Each emulsion layer contains a metallic salt in addition to silver halide. For example, cupric sulfate on one side and ferric chloride on the other side. After printing and developing in a normal black and white developer the print is immersed in a restrained potassium ferricyanide solution which will convert the image on one side to blue-green ferric ferrocyanide and silver ferrocyanide and the image on the other side to red copper ferro cyanide and silver ferrocyanide. The silver ferrocyanide can then be removed by fixing in a " sodium thiosulfate solution leaving a toned 4 image on each side. The former system appears to be the one he intended to use. This is substantiated by two patents granted to Hernandez-Mejia after his death and assigned to the Color graph Company. One describes a machine for dyeing prints on duplitized film (Fig. 36).^ The other, a method of ^USP 1174144 ^USP 1525423 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CD ■ D O Q . C g Q . ■ D CD C/) C/) 8 ■D 3. 3" CD CD ■D O Q . C a o 3 T3 O Drive Sprocket Drive Sprocket Dye Applicator Drive^l Sprocke Dye ApplicatDr Mordant Wash CD Q . T3 CD C/) C/) Pig. 36. Colorgraph machine for dyeing prints made on duplitized film. 138 making color prints on duplitized film, expands on patent 6 1174144. Kodachrome (Early Two-Color) The Kodachrome process invented by J. G. Capstaff in 1913 was a two-color subtractive process designed for still photography. The principle which made this process possible was discovered accidentally by Capstaff in 1910. He found that when a negative is treated with a tanning bleach, the negative image is removed and the area where it existed is differentially tanned. Subsequent treatment of the film with dyes capable of dying soft gelatin produced a positive 7 dye image. Examples of the results obtainable with the process were first shown publicly in November 1914 at the Memorial Art Gallery, Rochester, New York. Exhibits were also sent to London and to the Panama Pacific Exposition in San Fran cisco. Because of its success as a process for still pho tography, experiments began the following year to adapt its ^USP 1562828. 7 J. G. Capstaff, USP 1196080 applied for September 21, 1914. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 139 principles to motion picture photography. A camera was con structed which used two lenses mounted one above the other to expose two frames at the same time, one through a red filter and one through a green filter. The film was ad vanced two frames at a time. The release prints consisted of a film support having dyed gelatin images on each side composed of the images from each pair of frames printed in accurate register. The first story filmed in this process was an exper imental film approximately 600 feet long called "Concerning One Thousand Dollars," produced in July 1916. According to g G. E. Mathews it is believed that this picture was the first motion picture story to be photographed by a two-color subtractive process. Transformation of the Kodachrome process from a pro cess for still photography using glass plates into a work able process for motion picture photography presented seve ral serious problems. Solution of the problem of obtaining a red light and a green light image by the simultaneous ex posure of two frames through two lenses introduced the g G. E. Mathews, "A Motion Picture Made in 1916," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, November 1930, pp. 624-626. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 140 problem of parallax. When the object being photographed was at a distance the error due to the separation of the lenses - was quite small, but when the object was at close range it became very objectionable. One method of overcoming this difficulty was to place a beam splitter in front of the two lenses (Fig. 37). The beam splitter (Fig. 38) consisted of a system of prisms constructed in such a way that the normal light falling into one lens was blocked out and that falling into the other was divided into two beams, one entering each lens. The use of the beam splitter, however, introduces a second error, particularly in the photographing of objects at very close range, namely a difference in the magnifica tion of the two images- This is due to the fact that the optical path from the object to the lens which receives the light reflected by the prism is greater than the path from the object to the lens which receives the light transmitted by the prism. In addition to the optical errors which it intro duced, the double frame ne thod of exposure employed in the Kodachrome process introduced certain physical limitations. The maximum diameter for any circular lens used in the pro cess was the height of a single frame. Thus a two inch lens was limited to a speed of f/2.8 and a three inch lens Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 140 problem of parallax. When the object being photographed was at a distance the error due to the separation of the lenses was quite small, but when the object was at close range it became very objectionable. One method of overcoming this difficulty was to place a beam splitter in front of the two lenses (Fig. 37). The beam splitter (Fig. 38) consisted of a system of prisms constructed in such a way that the normal light falling into one lens was blocked out and that falling into the other was divided into two beams, one entering each lens. The use of the beam splitter, however, introduces a second error, particularly in the photographing of objects at very close range, namely a difference in the magnifica tion of the two images. This is due to the fact that the optical path from the object to the lens which receives the light reflected by the prism is greater than the path from the object to the lens which receives the light transmitted by the prism. In addition to the optical errors which it intro duced, the double frame me thod of exposure employed in the Kodachrome process introduced certain physical limitations. The maximum diameter for any circular lens used in the pro cess was the height of a single frame. Thus a two inch lens was limited to a speed of f/2.8 and a three inch lens Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 141 [I Fig. 37. Kodachrome twin lens optical system. Fig. 38. Kodachrome twin lens optical system with correcting prism. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 142 to a speed of f/3.7. The effective speed was even further reduced by the use of a beam splitter and the filter factors of the red and green filters. Because of the need for increased light and the general limitation of the amount of light that can be used on a subject in close up, it was frequently desirable to omit the beam splitter and thus increase the exposure ob tainable with any given amount of light. When this was done the parallax could be corrected during one of the printing steps. However, the background would be out of register by an amount which would be greater for the more distant planes. This effect was more pronounced if distinct hori zontal lines were noticeable in the background. Processing of the original alternate frame red/green negative was accomplished in normal black and white develop ing equipment using normal black and white developer. After the exposure and processing of the original negative the next step in the process is the preparation of the master positives. The camera negative contains a number of defects which must be corrected either during this stage or in the making of the final prints. These defects are: 1. Stereoscopic parallax and other horizontal errors in registry. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 143 2. Lack of vertical registration. 3. Difference in magnification. 4. Differences in frame line position. 5. Differences in exposure on the two frames. 6. Differences in contrast. In order to correct as many of these defects as possible, a special optical printer (Fig. 39) is employed for the print ing of the master positive. This printer consists of a pro jector with a film gate and pull down mechanism for advanc ing and illuminating two frames simultaneously with diffuse light. The two frames are imaged at a magnification of ap proximately one to one by two lenses upon a single frame aperture in the camera head. The raw stock is pulled down one frame at a time; once while the two frames of negative are being pulled down and once in the middle of the rest period of the negative. Shutters located in front of each lens are timed so that the frames are alternately exposed onto alternate frames of master positive raw stock. The lens system is adjustable as a unit for changes in overall magnification, or each lens can be adjusted separately along its parallel axis or at right angles to the axis to correct for differences in individual image size, parallax and lack of vertical registry. To permit individual exposure control Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 144 a D D Q □ □ Q D D D a D Fig. 39. Optical printer for printing Kodachrome master positive. The two frames are imaged at a one-to-one magnification upon a single frame. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 145 of each record, both lenses are equipped with adjustable diaphragms. Changes in overall contrast can be made by in serting filters in the beams. In the early stages of the development of this pro cess the master positives were contact printed without cor rection. Therefore, any corrections that were necessary had to be made in printing the final prints. This proved to be . both difficult and uneconomical. It soon became evident that it was more practical and economical to introduce the corrections while preparing the master positive vAiere speed ; and cost per foot were not important. Using this procedure,! the release prints could be printed on a much simpler print-i er. The optical system for such a printer is shown in Figure 40. The master positive is illuminated by a specular light system. By means of a beam splitter the alternate frames are printed on opposite sides of the double coated Q i print film. The film advance mechanism pulls down one frame of double coated film for each two frames of master positive. Shutters are included in the beams so that each frame of master positive is only printed on one side of the ^J. G. Capstaff, USP 1273457 applied for 1918. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 146 Lamps Mirror Mirror Master Positive Film Double Coated Print Film Fig. 40. Optical system for printing both sides of double coated print film simultaneously. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 147 1 0 print film. After printing, the double coated film is developed to a negative in a conventional black and white developer, washed for ten minutes, then bleached in a bath which hard ens the gelatin only in the areas where the image has been printed. Fixing after development is unnecessary since the bleach converts the silver to silver bromide which must be removed by fixing after bleaching. Bleach (Sol. A) Potassium Ferricyanide Potassium Bromide Potassium Bichromate Acetic Acid 37.5 grams 55.25 grams 37.50 grams 10.0 ml 1.0 liter Water to (Sol. B) Potassium Alum 5% solution Solutions A and B are mixed in equal proportions. When bleaching is completed the film is fixed in an acid, alum free hypo solution and washed for twenty minutes. This wash is followed by immersion in a solution of 5% ammonia for three minutes, then an additional five minutes wash before 10 J. G. Capstaff, USP 1478599 applied for 1923. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 148 it is dried. Figure 41 illustrates in diagram form the machine used to apply the dye to the finished print.As the film passes through the machine a series of roller ap plicators applies the dye to one side of the duplitized pos itive. Then the film is washed and dried and run through a second machine which applies the dye to the other side. The amount of dye is controlled by counter tension rollers. The applicator rollers are not driven; only the mordanting rollers are driven. Special dyes known as Kodachrome red and Kodachrome 12 green are used in the dye applicating machine. Although their names and formulas are not available, they are proba bly of the pinatype family since they are only absorbed by the non-tanned portions of the print in the dyeing opera tion. Brewster Color Brewster Color was a two-color subtractive color process introduced in 1915- For the original photography a red and a green separation negative was exposed in a beam G. Capstaff, USP 1351834 applied for 1920. 12 J. S. Friedman, History of Color Photography (Boston; The American Photographic Publishing Company, 1944), pp. 467-468. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 149 rJL Dye Mordant Fig. 41. Kodachrome film dyeing machine for coloring release prints. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 150 splitter camera. Prints were made on duplitized positive film. The process was extensively modified after 1930 and made into a three-color system. Although Brewster Color seems to have been used- commercially there does not appear to be any reference available regarding specific pictures or studios that made use of it. For the two-color Brewster Color process the red and green separation negatives were exposed simultaneously in a special beam splitter camera which contained a beam- splitting block prism and two film gates. The block prism was replaced by a mirror surfaced shutter (Fig. 42) mounted at an angle so that the negatives in the two film gates 13 were exposed. After exposure the negatives were devel oped separately to obtain matched gamma.Brewster is one of the few workers in the early days of color processing who identified and attempted to compensate for the defect inherent in most two color processes, i.e., mismatch of contrast which produced warm shadows and cold highlights. He proposed that sensitometric exposures be made using films and filters of the same type that were to be used for ^^USP 1752477. ^^USP 1410884. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 149 per Dye Mordant Fig. 41. Kodachrome film dyeing machine for coloring release prints. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 150 splitter camera. Prints were made on duplitized positive film. The process was extensively modified after 1930 and made into a three-color system. Although Brewster Color seems to have been used commercially there does not appear to be any reference available regarding specific pictures or studios that made use of it. For the two-color Brewster Color process the red and green separation negatives were exposed simultaneously in a special beam splitter camera which contained a beam- splitting block prism and two film gates. The block prism was replaced by a mirror surfaced shutter (Pig. 42) mounted at an angle so that the negatives in the two film gates were exposed.After exposure the negatives were devel oped separately to obtain matched gamma.Brewster is one of the few workers in the early days of color processing who identified and attempted to compensate for the defect inherent in most two color processes, i.e., mismatch of contrast which produced warm shadows and cold highlights. He proposed that sensitometric exposures be made using films and filters of the same type that were to be used for 13 14 USP 1752477. USP 1410884. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 151 I— Fig. 42. Brewster Color camera. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 152 taking the separation negatives. With these sensitometric exposures a developing time series would be processed and developing times producing matched gammas for the red and green records would be chosen. When a proper set of negatives had been obtained, prints were made on duplitized positive film. After expo sure the prints were developed in a conventional black and white positive developer to produce a low contrast, low density image, fixed and washed. This was followed by hard ening in a 10% solution of formalin, washing and bleaching. Bleach Iodine 1.0 gram Potassium Iodide 50.0 grams Water to 1.0 liter After bleaching the film was washed and cleared in a 2% solution of sodium bisulfite and dyed in basic aniline dye. The side printed from the red record negative was dyed with malachite green, the side printed from the green record was dyed with Rhodamin. The film was then washed and dried. The bleach described in the Miller patent USP 1214940 (formula above) unfortunately presented some prob lems when put into practical use. Its keeping qualities were not good; also, it had a tendency to dissolve out some Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 153 of the silver iodide from the film which caused a loss of highlight detail. Also some of the silver iodide in the solution transferred to and was retained by the film, this silver absorbed dye like the image-bearing portions of the film producing muddy white. To overcome these problems Brewster proposed a modification of the process in which the bleach was formed within the image layers. Ir the modified process the film was developed, fixed and washed, then hardened in a formal dehyde solution, cleared and dried. Next it was treated with an alkalin solution of potassium iodide and potassium iodate, 8 to 1 proportion, forming a 10% solution. From this pre-treatment it passed into a chamber where it was exposed to acetic acid fumes which reacted with the iodate and the iodide to form iodine. An alternate proposal was to bleach the image by immersion in an acid bleach instead of the acid fume treatment. When bleaching was completed by either method the excess iodine was cleared by treatment with a 2% sodium bisulfite solution, and the film was dyed in a basic aniline dye. Pre-Bath Potassium Iodide 53.5 grams Potassium Iodate 14.4 grams Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 154 Ammonium Hydroxide 28% 0.1 ml Water to 1.0 liter Bleach Potassium Iodide 50.0 grams Iodine 2.0 grams Ammonium Chrom Alum 5. 0 grams Acetic Acid 98% 5.0 ml Water to 1.0 liter As the demand for three-color in place of two-color prints increased, Brewster Color was changed from a two- color to a three-color process. Under the new system two- color prints were made in the normal manner of duplitized positive. The third color, yellow, was added by first transferring a mixture of cuprous chloride and hydrochloric acid to the print from a matrix and then dyeing in a solu tion of auramine. Prints were prepared for transfer by first "laking" the dyes to make them as insoluble as pos sible. If the dyes were basic dyes mordanted on silver iodide, "laking" was not necessary.The matrix was pre pared by printing the blue separation negative through the base of the matrix film and developing up a relief image ^^USP 2070222. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 155 through the use of a pyro tanning developer and a warm water wash off.The silver image was then removed by treatment with a ferricyanide bleach followed by fixing in a non-hard ening fixing bath. This was followed by another wash, then the matrix was soaked in the cuprous chloride solution and was ready for the transferring step. Transfer takes place very rapidly, in approximately one-tenth of a second, on a 17 machine illustrated diagrammatically in Figure 43. Im mediately after transfer the print was treated with a 20 to 50% solution of potassium iodide,washed and dyed in an aura mine dye. After dyeing the film received an acid rinse to set the dye and was washed and dried (Fig. 43). A demonstration of three-color Brewster Color was presented April 12, 1935 to a joint meeting of the Colour and Ki nema to graph groups of the Royal Photographic Seei ng ety. Among the films presented was "Let's Look at London," a film which showed interior and exterior scenes. J. Wall, History of Three Color Photography (Boston: The American Photographic Publishing Company, 1925), p. 356. ^^USP 2070222. 18 "The Brewster Colour Process," The Photographic Journal, The Royal Photographic Society of Great Britain, August, 1935, pp. 455-456. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CD ■ D O Q . C g Q . ■D CD C/) C/) 8 ■D Drive 3. 3" CD CD ■D O Q . C a o 3 T3 O (D Q . Transfer Drive Sprockets Sprocket Sprocket Roller Applicator 20-50% K I Sol. Matrix Color Sol. Water Wash T3 CD C/) C/) Fig. 43. Brewster Color dye transfer machine for application of third color. Ln 157 including a ballet performance. Comments regarding the showing were "remarkable steadiness," "extraordinarily good reds." It was believed that the lack of sharpness was due to the imbibition printing. Matrix Developer Pyro Sodium Hydroxide Ammonium Chloride Potassium Bromide Citric Acid Water to Transfer Solution Cuprous Chloride Ammonium Chloride Hydrochloric Acid Potassium Metabisulfite Water to 8. 0 grams 3.0 grams 1.5 grams 1.5 grams .2 gram 1.0 liter 25.0 grams 100.0 grams 50.0 10.0 grams 1.0 liter Polychromide The Polychromide process was a two-color subtractive system of color cinematography invented in 1918 by Aron Hamburger. While this process was invented by an American, it cannot truly be called an American process since it was Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 158 developed and used commercially in England rather than the 19 United States. For this process an orthochromatic and a panchro matic negative were exposed in a beam splitter camera. With the introduction of Bi-Pack negatives the use of a beam splitter camera was dropped in favor of conventional cameras and Bi-Pack negative films. After exposure the negatives were processed in a normal black and white developer, fixed, washed and dried. Prints were made on double coated posi tive film which was dye toned red-orange on one side and blue-green on the other side. Hamburger claimed that the dye mixture he used had special properties vdien applied to a photographic image. With his two-color process he claimed to reproduce foliage as green and the sky as pur plish blue. Yellows were reproduced due to the addition of auramine to the magenta dye. Polychromide prints were made on a Debrie printer i which exposed both sides of the positive film simultaneous-! ly. After exposure a low density, low contrast image on both sides of the film was developed by immersion in a 19 Adrian Cornwell-Clyne, Colour Cinematography (London; Chapman and Hall, Ltd., 1951), p. 19. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 159 metol developer. Next the dye was applied to each side separately by a series of application wheels. The side printed from the orthochromatic negative was dyed with a mixture of Fuchsin and Auramine. The side printed from the panchromatic negative was dyed with a mixture of Malachite Green and Helio Safranine. Dyeing was followed-by immersion into a combination bleach and mordant, then into a clearing bath, followed by a wash and drying. According to Cornwell- Clyne, the use of the dye first followed by the bleach and mordant resulted in a considerable gain in overall evenness 20 in the process. Positive Developer Metol Sodium Sulfite (anhydrous) Sodium Carbonate Potassium Bromide Water to Bleach and Mordant Potassium Iodide Potassium Ferricyanide Chromic Acid 7.0 grams 25.0 grams 125.0 grams 1.7 grams 1.0 liter 70.0 grams 10.0 grams 2.0 grams 2 0 Ibid., p. 340. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 160 Potassium Bichromate 5.0 grams Water to Clear 1.0 liter Potassium Metabisulfite Red-Orange Dye 5% i Sol. Magenta or Fuchsin 2. 0 grams Sol- A Alcohol 15.0 ml Water 100.0 ml Sol. B Auramine 0 2. 0 grams Alcohol 100. 0 ml Note: For Blue-Green use mix: 100 parts 25 parts 10 parts Dye A B Glycerine Malachite Green 40. 0 grams Sol. A. Alcohol 225. 0 ml Water 1,000.0 ml Helio Safranin 40.0 grams Sol. B Alcohol 200. 0 ml Water (212° F. ) 1,000.0 ml Note: For use mix: 100 parts 32 parts 3 parts 6 parts A B Acetic Acid Glycerine Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 161 Technicolor The Technicolor process as introduced in 1916 was a two-color additive process that employed two projectors to superimpose the two color components of the picture on the screen, one through a red filter and one through a green filter. In 1919 the process was changed to a two-color sub tractive process that employed two prints, cemented base to base. The process was changed again in 1928 to a single print film with the two colors imbibed one on top of the other. In 1932 a third color was added and since then Technicolor has been a three-color subtractive process pro- 21 ducing prints by the imbibition method. The first picture produced in the Technicolor pro cess was The Gulf Between. This was the first and only production photographed and exhibited using the Technicolor additive system. The difficulties encountered with the exhibition of this film convinced the Technicolor personnel that to be successful a color process had to employ standard projection equipment and procedures. The two component cameras used for the additive system were retained and work was begun on the development of a compatible two-color 21 Kalmus, "Technicolor Adventures in Cinemaland," loc. cit., pp. 554-584. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 162 2 2 subtractive color print system. The first Technicolor production by the subtractive method was The Toll of the Sea, released in 1922 by MGM,. The first showing was given at the Rialto Theater in New York during the week of November 26, 1922. The prints for Toll of the Sea were made at the Technicolor Laboratory in Boston at a cost of approximately 27 cents per foot. Other early Technicolor films released by the cemented together subtractive color print methods were The Wanderer of the Wasteland, The Black Pirate, and The Viking, insert portions of Cytherea and Ben Hur, and twelve two-reel short sub jects. Two-color imbibition prints using the Technicolor process were released in 1928. The first all-talking color motion picture. On with the Show, used this printing method. With the success of On with the Show (grossed over $3,500,000), interest in color increased rapidly. In August 1929 it was necessary for Technicolor to double its labora tory capacity. Print orders for 1930 amounted to approxi mately 60,000,000 feet. Outstanding examples of the two- color system released during this period were Warner Bros.' : ^^Ibid., p. 565. ^^Ibid., pp. 567-571. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 163 Wax Museum and Goldwyn's Whoopee, and several other films or portions of films for all of the major production compa nies. Three-color imbibition prints were first available in 1932. During that year Walt Disney used the sequential frame system to produce three color negatives for the three- color imbibition release of his Flowers and Trees and Silly Symphony. The first full length feature to use the three- color Technicolor system was Becky Sharp, released by Pioneer Pictures. Print cost at this time had dropped to 25 5% cents per foot. From 1932 to the present, Technicolor has continued to improye its three-color system. In an attempt to elim inate the cumbersome three-strip cameras, "Monopack," a multilayered tripack of <_he Kodachrome yariety (Chap- yiii) , was introduced in 1942. This film was first used for a full length feature production in the Twentieth Century-Fox pic ture, Thunderhead, in 1944.^^ Monopack, however, failed to match the quality obtainable with the three-strip films and the beam splitter cameras. Three-strip negative remained 24ibid., p. 573. ^^Ibid., pp. 578-580. ^^Cornwell-Clyne, op. cit., p. 457. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 154 the standard of quality until the introduction of the tung sten balanced Eastman Color Negative film in 1953. The first Technicolor system was a two-color addi tive process that employed a special camera and projector. The camera was similar to the Bell and Howell Standard in basic design although it differed in several details. Through the use of a beam splitter prism, two standard size frames were exposed simultaneously, one through a red filter and one through a green filter. The film was advanced two frames at a time so that at normal camera speed twice as much film was used as for black and white photography. The two corresponding frames were adjacent to each other on the film, one inverted with respect to the other. The registra tion relationships are symmetrical around the center line between two such adjacent frames and are controlled by the position of the pictures with respect to the sprocket holes. Registration is determined in the beginning by the accurate adjustment of the optical system or the camera, from then on it is automatic. Prints were made on conventional black and 2 7 white film. Color was introduced by projecting through two 27 C. L. Gregory, Motion Picture Photography (New York: Falk Publishing Company, Inc., 1927), pp. 338-340. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 155 apertures each with a color filter. The two component images were brought into register on the screen by means of a thin adjusting glass element. Because of the large loss of light due to the additive projection system it was neces sary to design and fabricate a horizontal magnetically con trolled arc which gave one-third more light for the same cur rent. In addition to producing the needed light increase this also greatly improved the light uniformity at the film T 28 plane. The next Technicolor system tried was a two-color subtractive process. The same beam splitter cameras used for the additive system were used for the subtractive pro cess. The change was in the manufacture of the prints. Using a special printer separate prints were made from the red and green filter negatives on relief print film that was one-half the thickness of ordinary motion picture positive film. After printing the two films were cemented together with sprocket holes in perfect registration and with the emulsion sides out. The cemented prints were then processed in a tanning developer, which tanned the image-bearing por tions of the gelatin leaving the remainder unaffected. The 28 Kalmus, "Technicolor Adventures in Cinemaland," loc. cit., p. 566. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 156 film was then washed and immersed in a ferricyanide solution which converted the developed silver to silver halide. This was followed by a hot water etch which removed the non image-bearing gelatin leaving a relief image on both sides of the film. The thickness of the relief varied with the density of the image which produced it. The silver image that had been converted by the bleach was now removed in a fixing bath and the film was washed and dried. The side printed from the red filter negative was dyed blue-green and the side printed from the green filter negative was 29 dyed red and orange. The third fundamental change in the Technicolor pro cess was the abandonment of the cemented together two-color subtractive print system and the introduction of true imbi bition color prints on single-coated positive film. For this process the first step is the preparation of a relief image print or matrix from each of the two negative records. These matrices were prepared in the same manner as the ce mented together prints. Their difference lay in the fact that they were two separate films and that each one was coated on extra thick (7 mil) base instead of the half 29 Gregory, op. cit., p. 341. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 167 thickness base used in the previous process. When finished each matrix contained a gelatin relief image of one color aspect of the scene. After development and etching to form the relief image the matrices were put on a special transfer machine where they functioned like a half-tone plate in lithography. The matrix printed from the red filter record negative was dyed with a cyan blue dye and then pressed into contact with a special transfer film. While in contact the dye trans ferred from the matrix to the transfer film producing a pos itive dye image. When the transfer was complete the trans fer film passed in contact with the matrix printed from the green filter record negative. The red dye from this matrix was transferred on top of the cyan blue image produced by the other matrix. The transferred print was now washed and dried and was ready for projection. The fourth major change in the Technicolor process incorporated fundamental changes in both the camera and the print process. In order to produce a three-color subtrac tive color process a new three-strip beam splitter camera was developed (Fig. 44), and a third matrix was added to the ^^Ibid., p. 343. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 168 Blue Record Red Recori Fig. 44. Technicolor three-color beam splitter. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 159 matrix printing and transfer system. The new camera employed a special optical system which exposed the green sensitive negative film at one pic ture aperture and a bipack at a second picture aperture. The bipack consisted of a red sensitive negative film which was placed emulsion to emulsion with a blue sensitive nega tive film. The front element of the bipack was the blue sensitive film. To prevent any blue and green light from reaching the rear red sensitive film, the blue sensitive emulsion which was exposed through the base contained a red dyed gelatin overcoating which performed the dual function of antihalation layer for the blue negative and acted as a filter which prevented all but the red light from reaching the red negative. After exposure the three negatives are developed to a gamma of .65 in a conventional black and white developer, fixed, washed and dried. From each of the separation negatives, which have been combined with three duplicate negatives containing any added special effects, a matrix is exposed through the base on an optical step registration printer. As in the two- ^^Cornwell-Clyne, op. cit., p. 463. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 170 color process these matrices are developed in a tanning de veloper which tans the gelatin in the image-bearing areas, leaving the remainder of the film unaffected. After washing the film is immersed in a ferricyanide bleach which converts the silver in the image to silver halide- This is followed by a hot water etch which removes the main image-bearing gelatin leaving a relief image. The thickness of the relief varies with the density of the image which produced it. The silver that has been converted by the bleach is now removed by immersion in a fixing bath. The three matrices now have a hardened gelatin relief image which corresponds to the red, green and blue components of the picture, and are ready for imbibition printing. Before the actual transfer is made to the blank transfer film, the sound track is printed from a black and white optical sound negative. From this a silver sound track is developed using a normal black and white developer. The track is fixed, washed and dried, and the blank is now ready for picture transfer. The three matrices pass through temperature-con trolled dye baths where the hardened images absorb dye in proportion to the degree of relief in various areas of the images. The dye transfer operation brings a dyed matrix Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 171 while still wet into contact with a blank film on which the gelatin mordant receptive layer is already swollen. Dye transfer takes place in approximately 45 seconds at a raised temperature of 110° F. The yellow dyed matrix is first to be brought into intimate contact with the blank in the transfer machine. During the transfer operation the two films are held in accurate registration on a continuous stainless steel pin belt- After the major portion of the dye is transferred from the matrix to the blank, the films are separated and the matrix passes into decroceinating solution which removes any remaining dye, then it is washed and dried and is ready for re-use. The blank is washed and • dried and is then ready to receive the cyan image which is transferred on top of the yellow image in accurate register.' Once more the blank is washed and dried and the magenta image is transferred on top of the yellow and cyan images. The film now receives a final wash and is dried ready for projection. I The fifth major change in the Technicolor process has been the replacement of the beam splitter cameras and the three-strip negative film. With the introduction of Eastman Color Negative Film, Type 5248, in 1953, producers had available to them a film capable of producing a high Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 172 quality negative color image without the use of special cameras. Further, since the processing steps used with this film were far less complicated than those required with pre vious color systems, processing was available at all of the major commercial laboratories. Eastman Color Negative has become the almost universal film used for original photog raphy. During production daily prints are made on Eastman Color Print film; when the picture has been finished and edited, matrices are made directly from the Eastman Color originals. After the matrices have been prepared the final prints are made by imbibition in the manner described pre- 1 32 viously. Developer— Negative Modified D-76 used to develop beam splitter negatives for both the two-color and three-color negatives. 33 Developer— Matrix Pyro 8.2 grams Citric Acid .2 gram Potassium Bromide 4.0 grams 32 Elements of Color in Professional Motion Pictures (New York: Society of Motion Picture and Television Engi neers, 1957), pp. 32-33. 33 USP 1535700. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 173 Sodium Hydroxide Ammonium Chloride 34 Water to Oxidizing Bath' Potassium Ferricyanide Fix Sodium Thiosulfate Decroceinating Solution Sodium Carbonate 35 Two-Color Dye System Red Fast Red S (3% Sol. ) Acid Magenta B N (6% Sol) Metanil Yellow Acetic Acid Water to Green Pontacyl Green S N (4^ Sol. ) Metanil Yellow Acetic Acid 3.4 grams 1. 7 grams 1.0 liter 15% solution 10% solution 10% solution 555. 0 ml 250.0 ml 1.7 grams 50.0 ml 1.0 liter 335.0 ml 1.2 grams 54.0 ml ^^Friedman, op. cit., p. 474. 35 Ibid., p. 480. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 174 Water to 1.0 liter Three-Color Dye System^^ Note: These dyes given as an example of what could be used (USP 1900140). There are no data published as to the actual dyes presently used by Technicolor Corp. Yellow Anthracene Yellow G R Acetic Acid Water to Magenta Acid Magenta 2B (6% Sol. ) Acid Magenta B N (6% Sol. ) Fast Red S (3% Sol. ) Acetic Acid Water to Cyan Pontacyl Green S N (4^ Sol. ) Fast Acid Green B (3% Sol. ) Acetic Acid Water to 5.0 grams 25.0 ml 1.0 liter 220.0 ml 16.0 ml 85.0 ml 35.0 ml 1.0 liter 315.0 ml 45.0 ml 35.0 ml 1.0 liter 36, USP 1900140. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 175 Kelley Color In 1925 William V. D. Kelley became associated with Max Handschiegl, and Kelley Color Films, Inc., was formed. It was the aim of this company to extend the Handschiegl system of imbibition coloring to a two-color subtractive process. In a paper presented to the Society of Motion Picture Engineers in October 1926, Kelley describes the for mer Handschiegl process and its extension from a tinting process for portions of scenes to a natural color, two-color 0 7 process. The process he describes is apparently the one covered by USP 1316791 granted to Max Handschiegl, September 23, 1919. For the original photography, panchromatic film is exposed through the two-color filters, orange-red and blue- green, using successive frame exposure. This negative is developed in a normal black and white developer, fixed, washed and dried. From this negative a positive print is made on a skip frame printer which advances two frames of negative for every frame of positive. After development the silver image is converted to silver iodide or silver ^^Wm. V. D. Kelley, "Imbibition Coloring of Motion Picture Films," Transactions of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, X, No. 28, pp. 238-242. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 175 ferricyanide and dyed green. The iodide or ferricyanide acts as a mordant for the dye and results in a uniformly dyed print which is now washed and dried. Returning to the original negative, a second print is made on a skip frame printer, this time omitting the frames that were printed previously and printing the alternate frames. From this second positive a duplicate negative is printed and devel oped in a normal black and white developer. After develop ment the duplicate negative is immersed in a tanning bleach that fixes and solidifies the exposed and developed portions of the scene, hardening them so that they will not absorb dye, but does not affect the viscous consistency of the un exposed or clear portions of the scene. When bleaching is completed the negative is fixed, washed and dried. The bleached negative is then immersed in a saturated solution of red dye in water. When it has absorbed sufficient dye it is removed, squeegeed and dried. The two films are now ready for transfer using the equipment described in USP 125028. Unfortunately this process originated by Handschiegl did not work when attempts were made to apply it to produc tion. It was not found possible to use any known color toning system without producing some relief or differential Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 177 hardness on the surface of the print, even when printed through the base. Therefore the process in this form was abandoned and a new method was attempted. Judging by a second article presented to the Society 38 of Motion Picture Engineers by Kelley, the new method was a procedure outlined in his patent USP 1505787. Printing negatives are prepared by printing the green negative and a print from the red negative superimposed to produce the red printing negative. The green printing negative is prepared by printing the red negative and a print from the green negative superimposed. The blue printing negative is pre pared by printing either the red or green negatives and the blue positive superimposed. The three printing negatives are developed normally and bleached in a tanning bleach. The negatives are then washed in warm water, dried and dyed with the appropriate dyes, squeegeed and dried. Before the transfer step a key image is printed from the red negative onto the film that is to receive the transfer. This film is developed, fixed, washed and dried in the normal manner for black and white prints. The black 38 Wm. V. D. Kelley, "The Handschiegl and Pathe- chrome Color Processes," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, August, 1931, pp. 230-234. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 78 and white key image print is now run in contact with each of the three printing negatives through the three transfer stations on the transfer machine described under USP 1295028. The finished film, "in full color,consists of a single coating containing a black and white record, and a red, green and blue record superimposed. For projection the film is handled in the same manner as black and white positives. According to Kelley the bleach used for this pro cess is the one described by E. J. Wall in his book 40 Practical Color Photography. Bleach Hydrogen Peroxide -3-0.0 ml Cupric Sulphate 20.0 grams Nitric Acid 5.0 ml Potassium Bromide 0.5 grams Water to 1.0 liter Dyes Red Printing Negative Crocein Scarlet 4BX: Sodium salt of 39 USP 1505787. J. Wall, Practical Color Photography (Boston: American Photographic Publishing Company, 1928), p. 92. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 179 p-sulphonaphthalene-azo-B-ïiaphthol- disulphonic acid. Green Printing Negative Guinea Green; Sodium salt of di-ethyl- di-benzy1-di-amino tri-phenyl carbinol tri-sulphonic acid. Blue Printing Negative Ponceau R: Sodium salt of xylene-azo- B-naphthol-disulphonic acid. Although this method produced some very excellent results, it had the disadvantage that anything black in the subject received the greatest quantity of dye from the matrix which, when imbibed to the positive print, inclined to splash over where it would show the most. This problem could have been solved by the elimina tion of the key print and the substitution of a blank. Un fortunately, at the speed of 360 feet per hour the matrices did not produce sufficient color on a blank for the trans fers to make the blacks opaque enough for projection without the black and white key prints. The death of Max Handschiegl on May 1, 1928 and the inability to solve the problems associated with the imbibi- | tion process caused the Kelley Color Company to abandon this; system and try a third system. | Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 8 0 For this new system the separation negatives are printed onto normal single-coated black and white positive film. The red separation negative is printed first with its emulsion toward the base of the print film. After exposure, the print is developed and washed, then toned blue-green with an iron toner. When toning is complete the print is washed, cleared, rewashed and dried. All these operations are performed in the dark. The film is then returned to the printer vhere the remaining silver halide is exposed from the emulsion side through the green separation nega tive. This second exposure is developed in a developer that does not destroy the blue-green image produced by the iron toner- After washing one of two separate proposals can be followed. 1. (USP 1574174) Bleach for five minutes in a chromic acid, potassium ferrocyanide, bleach, clear, wash, fix in a non-hardening hypo, wash and dry. 2. (USP 1562268) Fix in a non-hardening hypo, wash, and tone in a uranium ferrocyanide toner. The remaining silver which has been converted to silver chloride is removed by fixing in a hypo solution and the finished print is washed Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 8 1 and dried. Developer— 3 minutes Diamidophenol Sodium Sulphite Potassium Bromide Potassium Iodide 10% sol. Water to Iron Toner Oxalic Acid Vanadium Oxalate 10% sol. Ferric Ammonium Oxalate Potassium Ferricyanide Water to Clear— 10 minutes Ammonium Bromide Potassium Bichromate Water to Solutions for remaining steps USP 1674174 Bleach— 5 minutes 5.0 grams 30.0 grams 94.0 grams 1.0 ml 1.0 liter 5.0 grams 14.0 grams 5.d grams 1.0 liter 6.0 grams 6.0 grams 1.0 liter Chromic Acid 6. 0 grams Potassium Ferrocyanide 6.0 grams Water to 1.0 liter Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 182 Clear 1% Sol. Potassium Metabisulfite Fix— 5 minutes Sodium Thiosulphate Potassium Metabisulphite Water to D%e Serichrome Blue (triphenylmethane) Wool Orange A (diphenylnaphthyImethane) Water to USP 1561168 Fix— 5 minutes Sodium Thiosulphate Potassium Metabisulphite Water to Toner— 5 minutes Uranium Nitrate Potassium Oxalate Hydrochloric Acid Water to Fix— 5 minutes Sodium Thiosulphate 600.0 grams 60-0 grams 1.0 liter 1.0 gram 1.0 gram 1.0 liter 600.0 grams 60.0 grams 1.0 liter 9. 0 grams 4.0 grams 3.5 grams 1.0 liter 600.0 grams Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 183 Potassium Metabisulphite 60.0 grams Water to 1.0 liter Harriscolor Harriscolor was a two-color subtractive process for color cinematography invented by J. B. Harris, Jr., in 1929. 41 According to Cornwell-Clyne, the Harriscolor Company pur chased the Kelley Color Company. Harriscolor was a complete process for color cinema tography offering both a camera system and a printing sys tem. Two separation negatives were obtained by exposing a panchromatic and an orthochromatic film in a beam splitter camera. Prints were made on yellow dyed single-coated print film. Simultaneously the red record negative was printed emulsion to emulsion on the print film while the green-blue negative was printed emulsion to the base of the print film. The yellow dye in the print film prevented overlapping of the red and green record exposures. After exposure the latent image from the red record negative is developed in a black and white developer, washed, and toned blue-green in a ferric toner. The film then passes into a sensitizing bath that prepares the lower latent image from the green ‘ ^^Cornwell-Clyne, op. cit. , p. 18. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 184 record negative for development. The lower image is devel oped and toned red in a copper toner that does not affect the top image, washed and dried. A variation of the above printing method is de- 43 scribed in the SMPE color committee report, 1930. The red record negative is printed through the base of the pos itive film. This latent image located in the lower part of t"-e print film emulsion is developed in a black and white developer, washed, and toned blue-green in a ferric toner. The film is then washed and dried in the dark. The green- blue record negative is now' printed on the surface of the emulsion. This image is developed in a developer that does not affect the lower blue-green image. The film is now fixed and washed, then toned in a uranium toner, washed and dried. Print Developer for First Black and White Development Hydroquinone 18.0 grams Sodium Sulfite 100.0 grams Potassium Bromide 4.5 grams 42 USP 1825853. 43 "Report of Color Committee, May 1930," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, November, 1930, pp. 722-723. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 185 Sodium Hydroxide Water to Ferric Toner Ferric Ammonium Oxalate Potassium Ferricyanide Citric Acid Water to Sensitizing Bath Potassium Bichromate Ammonium Bromide Water to Second Developer Diamidophenol Hydrochloride Sodium Sulfite Lactic Acid Water to Copper Toner Sodium Citrate Cupric Sulfate Potassium Ferricyanide Water to 18.0 grams 1.0 liter 6.0 grams 6.0 grams 6.0 grams 1.0 liter 10.0 grams 10.0 grams 1.0 liter 5.0 grams 60.0 grams 5.0 ml 1.0 liter 50.0 grams 10.0 grams 5.0 grams 1.0 liter Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 186 Photocolor The Photocolor process was a two-color subtractive system of color cinematography introduced in 1930. The October 8, 1930 issue of the Hollywood Reporter carried an item that the Photocolor Corporation of New York was plan ning to build a laboratory in Hollywood with a capacity of. 1,000,000 feet of film a week. It was expected that the new plant would be in operation shortly after the first of the year. When the process was introduced photography was ac complished through the ,e of a twin lens camera operating at two and one-half times normal speed. Two frames were ex posed simultaneously, one through a red filter, one through a green filter. The wide frame line obtained between the 44 pairs of frames was eliminated during printing. This sys tem was apparently abandoned after a short time. In his re port to the Color Committee of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, January, 1931, A. G. Waddingham, technical direc tor of the Photocolor Corp., described a camera of special design which employed a beam splitter and special taking filters to produce two separation negatives. After exposure ^^A. P. Peck, "Movies Take On Color," Scientific American, April, 1930, p. 285. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 87 the negatives are developed in a conventional black and white developer, fixed, washed and dried. Prints are made on a special optical printer which prints the two images simultaneously on duplitized positive film. The print is developed in a black and white develop er, fixed, washed and dried. The side printed from the red- orange filter negative is now toned blue-green by floating it face down on the surface of the toning bath. This bath oxidizes the metallic silver image, converting it to silver ferrocyanide; at the same time blue-green ferric ferricya nide is precipitated, toning the image cyan. The film is then washed and immersed in a bath which leaves the blue- green image unaffected and tones the side printed from the green filter negative red-orange. Although there have been no details published re garding the formulas used in the Photocolor process, it can be deduced from the process information given that formulas similar to the following must have been used: Blue-Green Toner Ammonium Persulfate .5 gram Color Committee Report, " Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, January, 1931, pp. 97-98. 45 Peck, "Movies Take On Color," loc. cit. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 8 8 Ferrie Alum Oxalic Acid Potassium Ferricyanide Ammonium Alum Water to Orange-Red Toner Uranyl Nitrate Potassium Oxalate Potassium Ferricyanide Ammonium Alum Hydrochloric Acid (10%) Water to 1.25 grams 3.0 grams 1.0 gram 5.0 grams 1.0 liter 2.5 grams 2.5 grams 1.0 gram 5.0 grams 5.0 ml 1.0 liter Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER V I I SUBTRACTIVE PROCESSES (BIPACK) The role of the bipack in the development of color processes in America was important and varied. Several of the early two-color subtractive processes were based on the use of bipack negative for the original photography. The individual color processes were in reality systems for the production of release prints rather than complete systems of color cinematography. It is generally agreed that the idea of bipack was first suggested by Ducos du Hauron in his Handbook to Photography in Color and by French patent FP 250862, 1895. Several applications of this principle to still photography followed and several patents were granted. One of the first to apply the principle to motion picture photography was P. D. Brewster, USP 1222925. The bipack system of negative photography is a two- ; 189 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 190 color system which uses only two records instead of the three required for natural color photography. An ordinary motion picture camera with slight modifications is used to obtain an acceptably sharp image on both records by exposing them in the camera emulsion to emulsion. The front element of the bipack which is exposed through the base consists of a red dye overcoated orthochromatic emulsion. The rear element which is exposed in contact with the red dye over coat is a panchromatic emulsion (Fig. 45)- Both emulsions are carefully balanced for speed and contrast. The red dye overcoat on the rear of the front emulsion in addition to acting as a filter for the rear film serves as its own anti halation layer.^ As noted above, the use of bipack film in a standard 35mm motion picture camera requires slight modification of the camera. Mitchell NC^ 1. Move the lenses toward film plane a distance of ^Eastman Motion Picture Films for Professional Use (Motion Picture Film Department, Eastman Kodak Company, 1942), p. 48. 2 J. W. Boyle and B. Berg, "Studio Production with Two-Color Bi-Pack Motion Picture Film," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, February, 1947, p. 112. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 191 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 5. i Fig. 45. Bipack negative (two separate films) Front film 1. Film base 2. Orthochromatic emulsion 3. Red dye overcoat Rear film 4. Panchromatic emulsion 5. Film base 6. Anti-halation Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 182 0.0045.in., then use normal calibration for focus. Camera with standard instead of "slip-ring" lens mounts would have to be either eye-focused or re calibrated. 2. Adjusting lenses will necessitate "shimming" the ground glass back 0.0045 in. 3. Remove "stripper" shoe at back of main sprocket and replace with "cutaway" shoe. 4. Lock off clutch. 5. Substitute either four-roller pressure plate or a solid pressure plate for the usual two-roller pressure plate. In the four-roller plate the top roller is straight while the other three rollers are crowned 0.003 in. The four-rohler pressure plate is patented by Cinecolor Corpora tion and license for use must be obtained from them. The solid plate is crowned 0.003 in. and is of polished chrome. Pressure can be obtained with a solid screw or by the use of a spring twice the tension of the normal spring. In practice use is generally made of the solid screw for the four-roller plate, being careful to avoid "runouts." Bell and Howell Standard (Unit I movement)^ A. Tools— Make sure that you have available the two wrenches which are delivered as standard equipment with each camera. 1. General utility wrench. 2. Front and rear ball bearing cone wrench. Also prepare two strips of film about 5 inches long, cutting out the film perforations over a ^Adrian Cornwell-Clyne, Colour Cinematography (London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd., 1951), pp. 574-578. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 193 length of approximately 3 inches. B. Withdraw the "Unit I" intermittent mechanism and, using the general utility wrench, loosen the lock nut at the rear of the camera, turning it slightly counter-clockwise. C. The cam setting rim is then loosened and can be set at will. If it is found that it is dif ficult to loosen it use wrench. Do not force the"turning of the ring and if it still offers resistance with the use of the wrench, merely tap the lock nut with the heel of the palm of the hand to jar it loose. Note that two reference dots are engraved on the rim of the cam setting ring which are to coin cide with the edge of the casting and which by their positioning set the cam so that it will bring the film mechanism register leaves, and therefore the film emulsion or emulsions, to the focal plane with exacting precision. D. When the two dots are brought to coincide with the lower edge of the casting, the intermittent film mechanism is set to bring the first emul sion at the lens focal plane for bipack (double film) operation. When the two reference dots are brought to coincide with the lower edge of the casting the intermittent film mechanism is set to bring the film emulsion at the focal plane for "single film" operation. E. After setting the cam ring at its proper posi tion, lock the lock knob at the rear of the camera, using the general utility wrench, turn ing it clockwise. F. You are ready now to insert in the camera the film intermittent mechanism. See to it that it is pushed fully home and it can be easily locked in place with the provided locking latches. It is now possible to use the camera for either Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 194 single film or double film work according to the setting of the camera in and out register leaves cam. G- The rear register leaf is equippped with five rubber buttons which can be pushed forward to protrude from the inner face of the back leaf or retracted to be flush with this leaf surface by a combination of leaves and suitable spring. In one position of the levers the rubber buttons are flush with the inner active face of the back register leaf and are in position for "single film" operation. In the other position of the levers the rubber buttons protrude from the inner active face of the back register leaf and are in position for "double film" operation. H. Although the setting of the camera cam is very easy and accurate, if the above instructions are followed, it is good practice to check the film tension after the final adjustment of the rubber buttons is made. If the buttons are set for single film operation take one single piece of film cut as described in A and insert it in the "Unit I" film intermittent mechanism as the film would be threaded for photographing operation. The fact that the portions of the film where the perforations are, are cut away ensures that there will be no interference from either the pilot or the driving pins. Using the small crank supplied as standard equip ment with the camera at the rear single frame shaft make sure that the register leaves are in such a position that they bring the film to the lens focal plane (photographic position). Without disturbing this positioning take hold of the film strip and move it up and down in the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 195 film channel. The film must be free to move without effort but a slight resistance (film tension) must be felt. Experience, easily acquired, will tell when proper tension is applied. I. If the buttons are set for double film operation make the same film tension test, using however both strips of film instead of only one. Tension resistance must be felt in either the single or double film test. J. The double compartment double set film magazines used for double film operation are threaded so that the loops of the front film are one perfora tion longer than those of the back film. The driving and take-up sprocket film guides and the sprocket teeth are so designed and con structed that they take adequate care of either single or double film. K. For single film, the camera is threaded in the regular way using the standard film magazines. For double film, the coupled "bipack" magazines are used and the film is threaded as described in J. The film magazines coupled for bipack work can be disassembled into two single units for individual use with single film. The lower magazine is equipped with a special adapter and when used as a single magazine the opening on top of the casting must be closed with the spe cial cover plate supplied and a longer fastening rod is to be used to attach the magazine to the camera. L. From the above it is quite evident that when using the interchangeable "Unit I" film mecha nism for double films the lens focal plane of the camera is pushed back an amount sufficient to compensate for the extra thickness of the front film. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 196 Since the ground glass at the focusing aperture is precisely set for the focal plane of the emul sion of the single film, compensation must be devised for setting the lens so that it will prop erly focus at the displaced focal plane. To this effect an index marking is engraved on the lens holder identified with the reference letter B (bipack). Focus visually the object through the regular ground glass and before operating the camera rotate the lens mount so that the distance mark ing found by visual observation is switched to the B reference marking engraved in the lens mount. For extremely close-up work such as titles it is suggested that a photographic check of the "B" marking be made, and additional reference points be determined according to the particular requirements'Of the operations. The above instructions are very easily followed and all operations require only a few seconds if performed in their sequence and with normal care. Because it is a two-color process bipack does not reproduce all colors as they appear in nature. The follow ing table given in Cornwell-Clyne's Colour Cinematography lists several common colors and their reproduction through a bipack system. Color of Original Color Reproduced White White Grey Grey Black Black Red Red-Orange Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 197 Color of Original Color Reproduced Orange Light Red-Orange Yellow Very pale Orange (Pinkish) Yellow-Green Grey Green Grey Green-Blue Blue-Green Green-Blue Blue Deep Green-Blue Blue-Violet Blackish Green-Blue Violet Black Purple Reddish-Grey Rose Grey Red-Orange Flesh Color Fairly correct Foliage Grey Blackish-Green Sky-Blue Pale Blue-Green The actual shades and tones obtained will vary depending on the manufacturer of the bipack material and the print process used. Prizma Color Prizma was the name given to a series of color pro cesses invented and developed by W. V. D. Kelley. Experi mental work began in 1912. The first process that evolved was a four-color additive process called Panchromotion Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 198 (see Chap. iv).^ Some time later Prizma, Inc., was formed and all subsequent processes were called Prizma Color. After an expenditure of six years and nearly three-quarters of a million dollars,^ the company finally began producing results. The first Prizma film was "Our Navy," shown in 1917 at the 44th Street Theater, New York City.^ The process used for this showing was a four-color additive process which used a rotating color filter disk in front of both the camera and projector apertures. Color was synthesized by successive projection. This was followed by a showing of scenic views and animal pictures at the Strand Theater, February 25, 1917.^ Before this showing the process was changed to a two-color process in which the rotating color filter disk was elim inated from the projector in favor of dyed pictures on the print. The print was made up of successive frame pictures dyed red-orange and blue-green which were projected at 4 Cornwell-Clyne, op. cit., p. 17. ^Terry Ramsaye, A Million and One Nights (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1954), p. 571. ^Cornwell-Clyne, loc. cit. ^New York Times, February 26, 1917. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 199 twice normal speed. With the introduction of duplitized positive the process was again changed. The result was a two-color print, one side dyed red-orange, the other side blue-green; projection speed was returned to normal, thus the prints could be shown in any theater. This new Prizma process was introduced with the showing of "Everywhere with Prizma" at the Rivoli Theater, New York City. It is interesting to note that the advertisement for the Rivoli on opening night had no indication that a color picture would be shown. The Q review for the New York Times commented that the color varied from excellent to poor and only served to emphasize that color photography had not yet been perfected. In spite of the opinion expressed by the New York Times, the process was successful. In 1922 Prizma was used for the first full length feature picture produced in color. The Glorious 9 Adventure produced by J. Stuart Blackton was successful in England, but not in the United States. Following the in troduction to feature films, Prizma was used in several subsequent productions. In 1928 the process was sold to g New York Times, January 20, 1919. 9 Ramsaye, op. cit., p. 571. Also, New York Times, April 24, 1922. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 0 0 Consolidated Film Industries and the name was changed to 10 Magnacolor. The original Prizma Color process was a four-color additive system for color cinematography. Red, green, yellow and blue were used for the colors. Pictures were made by the sequential frame method through rotating fil ters. To obtain more exposure and more light for projection the filters were wedged from full saturation to clear (Fig. 45). The film was advanced during the opaque time when the shutter is closed. Attempting to operate as a three- or four-color pro cess by sequential frame photography, Prizma had problems similar to those that occurred in the Kinemacolor Process. Therefore, the process was changed to a two-color process using red-orange and blue-green for camera and projection filters. Also, camera and projection speed was reduced to 32 frames per second. Even as a two-color process the additive projection was difficult. In order to eliminate the rotating filter disk from the projector altogether, the alternate frame negatives were printed onto normal black and white print ^*^Cornwell-Clyne, op. cit. , p. 18. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 0 1 Fig. 46. Prizma Color four-color filter disk for additive color cinematography. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 0 ? film in superimposition. The red exposure was printed first giving less exposure than is normally required for black and white positives. After exposure the print was devel oped to convert the latent image into a gray silver image. This should be a low density contrast image. Development was followed by a clearing bath and wash. The film was then immersed in a 5% copper chloride solution, washed and im mersed in a 1% solution of potassium iodide which converted the image to silver iodide, which was removed by immersion in a clearing bath until only a faint image remained. Once more it was washed, then it was dyed green. After an additional wash the emulsion was resensitized in an ammo nium dichromate bath and dried. The film was now ready for printing of the green printing positive. After printing the excess dichromate was removed by washing in cold water and the print was dyed red. This was followed by an acid rinse to fix the pinatype dyes, then the remaining silver was removed by a fixing bath and the print was washed and dried. The pinatype dye has the property of attacking soft gelatin which has not been affected by light due to being covered by the dark portions of the printing positive, and it does not attack those portions which have become rela tively hard owing to having been exposed to light through I Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 0 3 the open portions of the printing positive. In its final form Prizma made use of duplitized positive film. As in previous Prizma systems, the original negatives were alternate frame sequential exposures. The Prizma negative was printed on both sides of the positive film in a special printer. After developing in a normal black and white developer it was bleached in a bath that converted the two images to silver iodide. Two methods appear to have been used for dyeing the duplitized prints: 1. The film was wound tightly on a drum and the exposed side was dyed. When this step was completed, the film was dried and reversed 12 onto a second drum and dyed the other color. 2, The print was coated with a removable resist on the side printed from the blue-green nega tive. The red-orange negative side was then dyed blue-green. When the dyeing was complet ed the resist was removed and the film was dried. Next the red-orange side was coated ^^USP 1278151. 12 C. L. Gregory, Motion Picture Photography (New York: Falk Publishing Company, Inc., 1927), pp. 336-337. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 0 4 with resist and the other side of the print 13 was dyed red-orange. Solutions for Single-Coated Two-Color Prints (USP 1278161) Developer Potassium Metabisulfite Distilled Water (boiling) Paramidophenol Sodium Hydroxide (add slowly enough to dissolve the precipitate formed) Note; Dilute 30 to 1 with water for use. 300.0 grams 1.0 liter 100.0 grams Clear Sodium Thiosulfate Potassium Metabisulfite Water to 600.0 grams 60.0 grams 1.0 liter Malachite Green Water to Sensitizing Bath Ammonium Dichromate Water to 25.0 grams 1.0 liter 13 USP 1278162. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 205 40.0 grams 1.0 liter Dye Pinatype Complementary Red D Water to Solutions for Duplitized Prints (USP 1411968) Developer Normal black and white developer such as D-16. Fix Normal black and white acid fix. Hardener 10% Formalin solution. Bleach Potassium Dichromate Potassium Bromide Copper Sulfate Hydrochloric Acid Water to Note: Temp. 100° to 110° F. Dyes Fast Acid Green B Ponceau NR Pontacyl Green SN Pontacyl Light Yellow 3g 4.75 grams 9.5 grams 14- 0 grams 10.0 grams 1. 0 liter Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 206 Pontacyl Carmine 2b Tartrazine Acid Green Nd Note: Dye used as ^ 5% solution at 110° to 130° F. If used at 70° F. it is necessary to add 20 ml of acetic acid per gram of dye. Color Film Process The Color Film Process was a two-color subtractive process developed in 1927 by A. G. Waddingham of Color Cinema Productions.^^ Bipack negative exposed in conven tional cameras was used for the original photography. Prints were made on duplitized positive film on a special step contact printer. The side printed from the ortho chromatic record of the bipack film was toned red in a uranium toner. The side printed from the panchromatic rec ord of the bipack film was toned blue-green with a ferrous sulfate, ferric chloride toner. The bipack negatives are developed, fixed, washed and dried in the normal manner. After processing they are printed in register on opposite sides of the duplitized positive print film. The prints are treated as follows : 1. Black and white development: normal black and ^^USP 1633652 ^^Ibid. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 0 7 white developer such as Kodak D 15- 2. Wash. 3- Fix. 4- Wash. 5. Bleach: 2 to 3 minutes at 67° F. 6. Wash: 15 minutes. 7. Red tone: 4 to 5 minutes at 67° F. The images on both sides of the duplitized positive are toned red. 8. Wash: 5 minutes 9. Fix: 1 minute at 67° F. to remove the remain ing silver and leave only the ferrocyanide image. 10. Wash: 15 to 20 minutes. 11. Dry. 12. Green tone: 6 minutes at 67° F. The green tone is applied by running the prints with the image from the panchromatic negative in contact with roller applicators that dip into the green toner. This converts the red uranyl ferrocya nide image to ferric ferrocyanide by replace ment. 13. Wash: 1 minute. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 0 8 14. Dry Bleach Potassium Ferrocyanide Ammonium Hydroxide Water to Red Toner Uranium Nitrate Hydrochloric Acid Water to Fix Sodium Thiosulfate Water to Green Toner Ferrous Sulfate Ferric Chloride Sulfuric Acid Water to 34.8 grams 43.9 grams 1.0 liter 127.2 grams 70. 0 ml 1.0 liter 195.0 grams 1.0 liter 62.0 grams 17.6 grams 7.4 ml 1.0 liter Vitacolor The Vitacolor Process was a two-color subtractive color process for making motion picture release prints. In 1930 this company purchased over thirty of the Prizma Color patents covering many stages of making additive and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 203 subtractive color motion pictures. Several of these patents were subsequently licensed to Consolidated Film Industries for the operation of its Magnacolor Process. This process was one of the several two-color pro cesses which evolved from the original Prizma Color pat ents. Its use was limited to short subjects and low-budget pictures. In his study "A Historical Study of the Color Motion Picture," J. L. Limbacher reports a reorganization of the Vitacolor Company in 1948 and the use of the process for the Columbia feature picture, The Last of the Redmen, and the Eagle-Lion picture. The Return of Rin Tin Tin. He also erroneously reports that the process employed the three primary colors in making prints. Prints made by the Vitacolor Process were made on single-coated print film rather than the double-coated type used in the Prizma and Magnacolor processes. The positive film used was a special type which contained a fugitive yellow dye such as a yellow mono azo salt of sodium that could be washed out in the first development.^^ The func- "Report of the Color Committee," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, November, 1930, pp. 723-724. ^^USP 1810180. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 1 0 tion of this dye was to slow down the passage of light through the emulsion to such an extent as to leave a sub stantial residue of sensitivity in the portion of the emul sion opposite the area where the light enters during the first exposure- The first image is printed from the red record negative through the base. At the same time a nega tive image is printed on the emulsion side from a print of the green record negative. After developing the print and washing out the fugitive yellow dye the film is placed in a hardening bleach for approximately thirty seconds. The ac tion of the bleach is to remove the negative metallic silver image by rendering it invisible and transparent and at the same time hardening or tanning the gelatin in situ with the image so that it will repel a gelatin dye. The bleach also clears the lower positive image by slight reduction of the metallic silver. After bleaching the film is washed and fixed in a plain sodium thiosulfate solution, leaving the surface hardened where the silver of the top negative image existed and an unbleached black silver positive image in the lower portion of the film. The lower image printed from the red record negative is now dye toned or chemically toned green, then it is fixed, washed and dried. If dye toning is to be used the film is first Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 1 1 bleached and fixed and dyed in basic dyes such as a mixture of chrysoidine and methylene blue. The film is then washed and dried and imniersed in a bath of Pinatype Red D dye for approximately three minutes to dye the top negative. Final ly, it is washed and dried. If chemical toning is to be used the bottom positive image printed from the red record negative is toned blue- green with a ferric nitrate potassium ferricyanide toner, and the top negative image printed from the green record positive is toned red-orange with a uranium nitrate toner. Pyro Developer Pyrogallic Acid Sodium Sulfite Sodium Carbonate Potassium Bromide Water to Bleach Potassium Ferricyanide Potassium Bromide Potassium Bichromate Glacial Acetic Acid Potassium Alum Water to 5.0 grams 20.0 grams 25.0 grams 1.0 gram 1.0 liter 4.5 grams 7.0 grams 4.5 grams 1. 5 ml 7.5 grams 1.0 liter Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 1 2 Cyan Blue Toner Potassium Oxalate Ferric Nitrate Potassium Ferricyanide Hydrochloric Acid (cone) Water to Orange Red Toner Potassium Oxalate Uranium Nitrate Hydrochloric Acid (cone) Water to Mordanting Bleach Oxalic Acid Vanadium Oxalate (10% Sol.) Potassium Ferricyanide Water to 6.0 grams 5.5 grams 5.0 grams 3.0 ml 1.0 liter 20.0 grams 60.0 grams 140.0 ml 1.0 liter 5. 0 grams 25.0 ml 5.0 grams 1.0 liter Sennett Color Sennett Color was a two-color subtractive color process announced in 1930 by the Sennett Laboratory in Studio City, California. This process used a new bipack film produced in England called "Film Pack" for the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 213 18 original photography. Prints were made on duplitized film. The films used to make up the "Film Pack" bipack consisted of a panchromatic negative and a specially made negative known as the Red Ortho Front Negative. This film had a blue sensitive negative emulsion overcoated with red filter layer. Two color separation negatives were obtained by placing these films emulsion to emulsion in the camera and exposing them simultaneously. The light coming through the camera lens passed through the base of the Red Ortho negative exposing the blue record. The red filter overcoat permitted only the red light to pass on to expose the red record. After exposure the negatives were developed in a normal black and white developer, fixed, washed and dried. The red filter dye was removed from the overcoat of the blue record negative by immersion in a 3% solution of sodium hydrosulfite. Release prints were made on duplitized positive film. After exposure on a step registration printer both 18 "Color Committee Report," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, January, 1931, p. 101. 19 Ibid. , p. 98. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 214 sides were developed in a conventional black and white pos itive developer and then toned. The side printed from the red record negative is toned blue-green and the side print ed from the blue record negative is toned red. The tones 20 are two metallic colors from iron and uranium. No further information is given concerning formulas or techniques used. A search of the patent literature 1920 to 1940 indicates that no patents for a color process were issued to the Sennett Company. Therefore, it appears that the well known ferric ferricyanide and uranium ferricyanide toners were used. Cyan-Blue Tone Ammonium Persulfate Ferric Alum Oxalic Acid Potassium Ferricyanide Ammonium Alum Hydrochloric Acid (10%) Water to Red-Orange Toner Uranyl Nitrate .05 grams 1.25 grams 3.0 grams 1.0 gram 5.0 grams 1.0 ml. 1.0 liter 2 - 5 grams 20 "Color Committee Report," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, November, 1930, pp. 721-722. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 215 Potassium Oxalate 2.5 grams Potassium Ferricyanide 1.0 gram Ammonium Alum 6.0 grams Hydrochloric Acid (10%) 5.0 ml Water to 1-0 liter Coloratura Coloratura was a two-color subtractive process for color cinematography operated by the Pathe Exchange, Bound Brook, New Jersey. Negatives were made with normal bipack film in a standard camera, adjusted for bipack. Prints were made on duplitized positive film. One side was toned blue- green and one side was dyed red-orange. According to the 21 SMPE color committee report in 1931, the prints were first given a special treatment on one side to make it dye selective and then the film was submerged for the rest of the process. Although no further information is available con cerning the process, a possible treatment would be to tone the side printed from the panchromatic negative of the bi pack blue-green by wheel application or flotation on a bath ; 21 "Report of the Color Committee," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, July, 1931, p. 116. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 216 containing potassium ferricyanide and a ferric salt- This ■would produce a silver ferrocyanide plus a ferric ferricya nide image on one side leaving a metallic silver image on the other side.^Z Subsequent immersion in an acid solution containing potassium iodide and iodine forms a transparent silver iodide-potassium iodide mordant which can be dyed 2 o red-orange with Rhodamine and Auramine. This would be followed by a wash and a fix which would remove the remain ing silver leaving the dye image on one side and the metal toned image on the other side. Magnacolor The Magnacolor process was a two-color subtractive process for color cinematography announced in 1931 by 24 Consolidated Film Industries- Bi-Pack negative film was used for the original photography- Prints were made on duplitized film- The Magnacolor process was not a unique, ^^Pierre Glafkides, Photographic Chemistry (London: Fountain Press, 1960), II, 646-649- 23 J- S- Friedman, History of Color Photography (Boston: American Photographic Publishing Company, 1944), p- 340- 24 "Magnacolor Film Announced," American Cinematog rapher, March, 1931, p- 20- Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 1 7 independently invented process. It represented the utiliza tion of Prizma and other patents which were licensed by Consolidated Film Industries. The first use of the process was for a series of short subjects released by Paramount Pictures, Inc. Its first use for feature pictures was in Westerns produced by Consolidated's parent company Republic Pictures. Among 25 those presented in Magnacolor were: Man from Rainbow Valley Home on the Range Rough Riders of Cheyenne Last Frontier Uprising Santa Fe Sunset For original photography the Magnacolor Process utilizes Bi-Pack negative which can be used in any standard camera. Two films are used in combination passing through the camera aperture emulsion to emulsion. The front film has an orthochromatic emulsion overcoated with a red-orange dye layer. The rear film has a panchromatic emulsion. Films of this type are DuPont Du-Pac Negative and Eastman 25 J. L. Limbacher, "A Historical Study of the Color Motion Picture," Dearborn, Michigan, 1963, p. 17. (Mimeo graphed. ) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 218 Bi-Pack Negative. The exposed negatives are developed in a convention al black and white developer, fixed, washed and dried. Af ter processing the two negatives are printed onto opposite sides of double sided positive film such as Eastman Dupli tized Positive or DuPont Duplicoat. Prints are made on modified Duplex Type Contact Step Printers in which the orthochromatic negative is placed in one gate of the twin head and printed onto one side of the print film and the panchromatic negative is placed in the other gate of the twin head and is printed on the op posite side of the print film. The print is developed in a conventional black and I white positive developer, fixed, washed and dried. Color is added by toning the side printed from the panchromatic negative blue-green and the side printed from the ortho negative red-orange. The blue-green image is obtained by floating the print with the side printed from the red rec- I ord negative face down on the surface of a solution contain-: ing potassium ferricyanide and a ferric salt. After wash- ! ing and fixing, the red-orange image is obtained by | - ! "Report of the Color Committee," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, July, 1931, p. 117. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 219 immersing the print in an iodide mordanting solution which converts the image from the orthochromatic negative to sil ver iodide which has the property of absorbing basic dyes. Then the print is washed and floated with the side printed from the blue-green record face down on the surface of a red-orange dye solution. After dyeing is completed the 27 print is washed and dried. Multicolor The Multicolor Process was a two-color subtractive process introduced in 1931- This process offered a complete system for color motion pictures. A new bipack, "Rainbow Negative," was used for the original photography and metal toned prints were made on duplitized positive film for the release prints. Among the advantages of this process was the fact that conventional cameras and projectors could be used. In the spring of 1931 the company opened a new $1,500,000 laboratory advertised as the most modern and best equipped in Hollywood. It had a normal capacity of 1.000.000 feet of film per week and a peak capacity of 3.000.000 feet of film per week. ^^Ibid. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 220 Although the motion picture industry expressed in terest in the process it was used almost entirely for short subjects and cartoons. Three of the major studios used Multicolor for color sequences in black and white produc tions : MGM Good News Paramount The Great Gabbo 20th Century-Fox The Fox Movietone Follies of 1929 Unfortunately no one used the process for a full feature picture. By 1932 the company failed and the labo ratory equipment was sold at auction. Howard Hughes, one of the financial backers of the company, wound up with the , .^ . 28 building. The Multicolor process used the bipack method of photography to produce two separation negatives. A special film with an orthochromatic emulsion and a standard pan chromatic film were used emulsion to emulsion. The ortho chromatic emulsion was coated with a layer of gelatin containing a red-orange dye. When this film was exposed 28 George E. Frost and S. Chesterfield Oppenheim, "Technical History of Professional Color Motion Pictures" (The Patent, Trademark and Copyright Foundation, George Washington University, Washington, D. C. , 1960), p. 37. (Mimeographed.) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 221 through the base, the dyed layer of gelatin acted as a fil ter and prevented the rear panchromatic film from receiving any blue light exposure- The exposed negative films were developed in a conventional black and white developer. The panchromatic component was developed to a gamma of .56 and the orthochromatic component to a gamma of .53. The nega tives were printed on a special step contact printer oper ating at a speed of 21 feet per minute. In printing the two negatives went through the printer together with the duplitized positive film between them. The positive emulsions were blue sensitive and con tained a yellow dye to prevent light from one side exposing both emulsions. This yellow dye washed out during develop ment. The chief problem in printing was obtaining good registration; unequal shrinkage of the two negatives was a continuing source of trouble. The sound track was printed on a Bell and Howell continuous printer as a separate opera tion. After printing the positive was developed in a black and white developer, fixed, washed and dried. It was now ready for toning. The side printed from the panchromatic negative was floated face down on the surface of the cyan toning bath. At the end of five minutes the developed sil ver in this layer is completely converted into a blue toned ^ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 222 image. The film was then washed and treated with a uranium toner which had the dual function of toning the image print ed from the orthochromatic negative and mordanting this image so that it would accept a hasic dye. The film was then washed and floated on the surface of an orange-red dye solution with the image from the orthochromatic negative face down. This was followed by a fix, wash, drying and varnishing on both sides. The varnishing greatly increased 29 the life of the print. All of the above mentioned color processing steps were performed as a continuous operation on a horizontal processing machine that was 180 feet long. The film passed in a single strand the length of the ma chine, then up to the dry box and back the length of the machine for drying. 31 Blue-Green Toner Ferric Ammonium Oxalate 9.0 grams Potassium Ferricyanide 4. 0 grams 29 R. M. Otis, "The Multicolor Process," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, July, 1931, pp. 5-10. Burns, "The Multicolor Laboratory," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, July, 1931, pp. 11-17. ^^Friedman, op. cit., p. 319. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 223 Ammonium Chloride Hydrochloric Acid Water to Uranium Toner and Mordant Uranyl Nitrate Potassium Oxalate Potassium Ferricyanide Hydrochloric Acid (cone) Water to Fix Sodium Thiosulfate Sodium Bisulfite Potassium Chrome Alum Potassium Alum Potassium Iodide Water to Dye Bath^^ Stock Solution A Basic Magenta Distilled Water Glacial Acetic Acid 8.0 grams 4. 0 ml 1.0 liter 3- 0 grams 8- 0 grams 2.25 grams 8.0 ml 1.0 liter 265.0 grams 6.6 grams 4.8 grams 4.8 grams 6.3 grams 1.0 liter 1.0 gram 250.0 ml 5.0 ml 32 USP 1897369. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 224 Stock Solution B Auramine 1-0 gram Distilled Water 250.G ml Acetic Acid 5.0 ml Note: For use mix 50 ml of Sol. A and 25 ml of Sol. B in 200 ml of water. Cinecolor The Cinecolor Process, a two-color subtractive col or process announced in 1932, is a direct descendant of the Multicolor process. When the Multicolor Company failed in 33 1932 the process was renewed under the Cinecolor name. For the original photography bipack negative films were ex posed in a conventional camera. Prints were made on posi tive film with emulsion coated on both sides; one side was toned blue-green and the other side red-orange. The process was first used by the smaller producing companies: Monogram, Producers Releasing Corporation, Screen Guild Productions, Eagle-Lion, etc. The first feature length picture to be released in the Cinecolor Process was The Gentleman from Arizona, produced by Monogram Pictures in 1940.^^ ^^Frost and Oppenheim, op. cit., p. 37. 34 - ' Limbacher, op. cit., p. IS. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 225 The popularity of the Cinecolor Process continued to grow during the next ten years, 1940 to 1950. Eventual ly the process was used by MGM, Twentieth Century-Fox, Paramount, Warner Bros., Columbia, United Artists, and Universal. At its peak the laboratory was processing ap proximately 120 million feet of release print per year. In 1950 the laboratory installed the Eastman Color process and began using Eastman Color Negative Film, Type 5247, for original photography, Eastman Color Print Film, Type 5381, for daily prints and Supercinecolor for release prints. This enabled Cinecolor to use conventional unmodi fied camera equipment for three-color photography and to produce three-color daily prints on a 24-hour delivery basis with final three-color release prints in the most economical process available. The first Cinecolor three- color feature produced in this manner was The Sword of Monte Cristo, an Alperson Production released by Twentieth _ _ 35 Century-Fox. Although the sales volume of the company increased substantially during the late forties, the company encoun tered management and other difficulties, and by 1954 had to ^^Frost and Oppenheim, op. cit., p. 38. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 226 discontinue operation. When the Cinecolor Process was introduced in 1932 Eastman Bi-Pack or DuPont Dupack films were used for the original photography. Exposures were made in a conventional camera equipped with a special Cinecolor bipack camera rol ler pressure plate and a double magazine. After exposure the negatives are processed in a normal black and white neg ative developer, fixed, washed and dried. The blue-green separation negative called the orange-red printer is printed on one side of Eastman Duplitized Safety Film, Type 5509. The orange-red separation negative, called the blue-green printer, is printed simultaneously on the opposite side. During this step the sound track is also printed onto the blue-green image side in a separate sound printing head. In order to maintain registration of the two images a specially designed step registration contact printer is used. Push down pins located just above the aperture are used rather than the conventional pull down pins which are usually lo cated below the aperture. The object of this design is to minimize wear and tear on the perforations utilized for reg istration by causing the registration pins of the printers ^^Prost and Oppenheim, op. cit., p. 40. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 2 7 to enter sprocket holes in the film which are no more than a small fraction of an inch away from the holes utilized for advancing the film. The two separation negatives are passed simultaneously through a film gate with their emul sions facing each other and with the duplitized positive film sandwiched in the middle. The sound track negative meets the duplitized positive below the picture printing aperture and passes in contact to the continuously driven master sound sprocket containing a printing aperture which is illuminated from below. The exposed duplitized positive is processed in a special continuous processing machine designed to provide means of treating individually the emulsion on both sides of the film by flotation methods. The machine consists of three long shallow horizontal troughs located one above the other with a drying chamber on top extending the entire length of the machine. During processing the film passes in a single strand through each of the troughs to the take up reel which is located right above the feed on reel. Al though the machine only operates at 12 feet per minute it is wide enough to handle ten strands at a time so that the ef fective output is 120 feet per minute vÆien all channels are running. The immersion time in each solution and wash is Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 228 held constant by the spacing between partitions or dams. The steps in the Cinecolor two-color process are as follows; 1. Black and v/hite development. The two picture records and the sound track are developed to a black and white silver image. 2. Wash and squeegee. 3. Blue-green toning. The print is floated on the surface of the cyan toning bath with the image from the red record and the sound track facing down. 4. Wash. 5. Fix. 6. Pre-dip. - 7. Mordanting. The film is immersed in a mordant ing solution which converts the silver image from the blue-green record to a silver iodide which has the property of absorbing basic dyes. The side containing the cyan ferric ferrocya nide image is not affected by this treatment. 8. Clearing bath. Clear in a 2% solution of sodium bisulfite. 9. Wash and squeegee. 10. Red-orange toning. The print is immersed in a c Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 229 orange-red dye solution. 11. Final wash and drying. Ferric Toner Ferric Ammonium Oxalate Potassium Ferricyanide Hydrochloric Acid Water to Iodide Mordant Potassium Iodide Iodine Acetic Acid 28% Sodium Acetate Water to Orange-Red Dye 1. Fuchsine Crystals Auramine 2. Safranine Y Rhodamine B (extra cone) 6.0 grams 6.0 grams 5.0 ml 1.0 liter 50.0 grams 5.0 grams 5.0 grams 5.0 grams 1.0 liter 30.0 ml 70.0 ml 70.0 ml 30.0 ml Note; Solution made by dissolving 1 gram of solid dye in 100 ml of water. Although prints by the two-color Cinecolor process were satisfactory for their purpose, the motion picture industry was insistent in its demands for a three-color Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 229 orange-red dye solution. 11. Final wash and drying. Ferric Toner Ferric Ammonium Oxalate Potassium Ferricyanide Hydrochloric Acid Water to Iodide Mordant Potassium Iodide Iodine Acetic Acid 28% Sodium Acetate Water to Grange-Red Dye 1. Fuchsine Crystals Auramine 2. Safranine Y Rhodamine B (extra cone) 6.0 grams 6.0 grams 5.0 ml 1.0 liter 50.0 grams 5.0 grams 5.0 grams 5.0 grams 1.0 liter 30.0 ml 70.0 ml 70.0 ml 30.0 ml Note; Solution made by dissolving 1 gram of solid dye in 100 ml of water. Although prints by the two-color Cinecolor process were satisfactory for their purpose, the motion picture industry was insistent in its demands for a three-color Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 230 process. To meet these demands a third color was added to the Cinecolor release print process and the process was re- 37 named Supercinecolor. For this new improved three-color process Eastman Color Negative Safety Film, Type 5247, is used as the orig inal camera taking material. In order to produce release prints with incorporated effects, it is necessary to make three-color separation master positives and corresponding three-color separation duplicate negatives from the original negatives. When Supercinecolor was introduced there was no panchromatic master positive film available, therefore it was necessary to reverse normal procedure and use Eastman Fine Grain Duplicating Panchromatic Negative Safety Film, Type 5203, as the master positive material and Eastman Fine Grain Duplicating Positive Safety Film, Type 5355, as the duplicate negative material. These films are developed in the normal manner in conventional black and white processing equipment. The next step in the process after the preparation of the three separation negatives is their transfer onto 07 A. M. Gundelfinger, "Cinecolor Three Color Process," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engi neers, January, 1950, pp. 74-86. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 3 1 Eastman Duplitized Positive Safety Film, Type 5509- The red and the green records and the sound track negative are first printed in a single pass through the special Cinecolor step contact printer in the same manner as described for the two-color Cinecolor process. The sound track is printed on the side which receives the picture exposure from the red record and which is to be toned cyan. The blue record is printed as an additional step after the first stage of the processing is completed. The duplitized positive is processed in the same horizontal machine used for the two-color Cinecolor process but the solutions and the processing steps are different. The processing steps in the Supercinecolor process are as follows ; 1. Black and white development. The red and green record prints and the sound track are developed to black and white silver images. The yellow dye contained in the print film is bleached out during development. 2. Wash and squeegee. 3. Cyan (blue-green) toning. The print is float ed on the surface of the cyan toning bath with : the image from the red record and the sound Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 232 track facing down. 4. Wash. 5. Immersion in a solution which converts the sil ver ferrocyanide to silver bromide. 5. Wash. 7. Harden. 8. Wash and dry. 9. Removal of film from the machine for the blue record printing. 10. The blue record negative in contact with a low; gamma negative mask printed from the. red sepa- | ration positive is printed onto the side of I i the duplitized positive containing the cyan | image and the re-sensitized silver bromide. I 11. Black and white development. The print is i floated on the surface of a black and white | I developer with the exposed image facing down. This results in a positive silver image which | will be dyed yellow later in the process. 12. Wash. 13. Fix. 14. Wash. 15. Pre-dip. The print is immersed in an acid Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 23 3 solution of potassium iodide- 16. Mordanting solution. Oxidizing bleach which converts the silver images (blue and green records) to a dye mordant. 17. Clearing bath. Clear in a 2% solution of sodi um bisulfite. 18. Wash, squeegee, and dry. 19. Yellow dye toning. The print is floated on the surface of the yellow toning bath with the image from the blue record facing down. The mordanted image accepts the yellow dye accord ing to the magnitude of the mordanted deposit. 20. Wash. 21. Magenta dye toning. The print is immersed in the magenta toning bath. The mordanted image accepts the magenta dye according to the magni tude of the mordanted deposit. 22. Wash. 23. Cyan regenerating bath. Print is immersed in a solution of potassium ferrocyanide (25 grams/liter). 24. Acid rinse in hydrochloric acid. 25. Wash, squeegee and dry. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 234 Ferrie Toner Ferrie Ammonium Oxalate Potassium Ferrieyanide Ammonium Chloride Hydroehlorie Aeid (eone) Water to Pre-dip Potassium Iodide Aeetie Aeid 28% Sodium Aeetate Water to Bleaeh Potassium Iodide Iodine Aeetie Aeid 28% Sodium Aeetate Water to 6.0 grams 6.0 grams 10.G grams 5.0 ml 1.0 liter 50.0 grams 5.0 ml 5.0 grams 1.0 liter 20.0 grams 5.0 grams 5.0 ml 5.0 grams 1.0 liter Dunning Color Dunning Color was a subtraetive eolor proeess for making 35mm eolor release prints. The original proeess was a two-eolor proeess for making prints from standard bipaek negatives on duplitized positive film. In 1937 a method of Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 235 adding a third color was perfected and the process became a 38 three-color system. In addition to this system for 35mm release prints the Dunning Color Laboratory also produced three-color sub tractive 16mm color prints on Kodachrome duplicating film (Kodachrome Duplicating Film, Type 5265), which were pro cessed by the Eastman Kodak Co. Prints by the three-color Dunning Color process were made on double-coated positive film from three separation negatives. The red record negative was printed on one side and after development the positive image was toned blue- green using a ferric ferrieyanide toner. The green record negative was printed on the other side and dyed magenta red. The third color, yellow, was applied by imbibition from a 39 matrix printed from the blue record negative. Fullcolor The Fullcolor Process was a subtractive color pro cess for making motion picture release prints invented in ^^Limbacher, op. cit., p. 16. J. Rose, American Cinematographer Handbook and Reference Guide (Los Angeles; Southland Press, 1939), p. 132. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 3 6 1942 by L. S. Trimble.Either two- or three-color prints could be made depending on the system used for the original photography. During the period 1942 to 1948 the process was used for several commercial films and low budget feature pic tures. In 1947 it was used for the reissue of the Techni color feature The Goldwyn Follies. Fullcolor prints were 41 also made of the United Artists picture. The Angry God. Prints made by the Fullcolor process were made on duplitized positive film. When making three-color prints the blue and the green separation negatives were printed simultaneously on opposite sides of the print film. After this first exposure the print film was developed in a con ventional black and white positive developer. This was fol lowed by a wash and a four minute immersion in a potassium dichromate bleach which according to Trimble functioned as a chemical seal. Next the film was washed and dried. The print is now ready for its second printing. The sound track is printed through an ultraviolet filter and the red separation negative is printed through the blue ^^USP 2396726. ^^Limbacher, op. cit. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 3 7 separation negative and the yellow record. In order that this printing operation can be carried out successfully the blue separation negative and the yellow positive must have matched gammas so that combined they act as neutral density. After exposure the cyan record printed from the red separa tion negative is developed in a conventional black and white positive developer. This is followed by a wash then immer sion in a ferrieyanide bleach which converts the metallic silver image, produced by development of the red separation negative exposure, to ferric ferrocyanide and silver ferro cyanide. The images produced by exposure from the blue and green negatives are left unaffected. The print now receives another wash and is immersed in a solution of sodium thio- sulfate and sodium sulfite for five minutes then the film is immersed in an iodide mordant which does not affect the ferric ferrocyanide image. This is followed by a wash and clearing in a 5% solution of sodium bisulfite. Next the side containing the exposure from the green separation neg ative is floated face down on the surface of a bath of Rhodamine dye producing a magenta dye image. Then the film is washed and squeegeed and the side containing the ex posure from the blue separation negative is floated face down on the surface of a bath of Auramine dye. This is Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 238 followed by a final wash and dry. Chemical Seal Potassium Dichromate Potassium Bromide pH Blue-Green Tone Ferric Ammonium Oxalate Potassium Ferrieyanide Sulfuric Acid (cone) Water to Bleach Iodine Potassium Iodide Aluminum Sulfate Acetic Acid 28% Sodium Acetate Water to Clear Sodium Bisulfite Water to 42 2-3% Sol. 2-3% Sol. Above 3. 5 6.0 grams 6.0 grams 1. 0 ml 1.0 liter 3.0 grams 50.0 grams 10.0 grams 5.0 ml 5-0 grams 1.0 liter 10.0 grams 1.0 liter 42 USP 2396726. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 23< Dye— Magenta Methyl Alcohol 33.0 ml Acetic Acid 28% 10. 0 ml Rhodamine 5.0 grams Water to 1.0 liter Dye— Yellow Methyl Alcohol 33.0 ml Acetic Acid 10.0 ml Auramine 5.0 grams Water to 1.0 liter Trucolor The Trucolor process was introduced in 1948 by Consolidated Film Industries, Inc., a division of Republic Pictures, Inc., as a replacement for its Magnacolor pro cess.At the time of its introduction, Trucolor was a two-color subtractive color process. Prints were made from Bipack or successive frame negatives on a special dupli tized positive film wnich contained color forming couplers dispersed in the emulsion. Approximately three years later the capability of the process was expanded to include a Fleet, "The Trucolor Process, " American Cinematographer, March, 1948, p. 79. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 240 three-color release print system which utilized DuPont Color 44 Positive Film, Type 275. This film was replaced by East man Color Print Film, Type 5382.^^ Thus in its life span of approximately twelve years, 1946 to 1958, the Trucolor pro cess was in reality three distinct systems by which color release prints were made, all bearing the same screen cred it, "Trucolor." Three different films and process were employed. 1. Eastman Two-Color Safety Film, Type 5380: Color blind duplitized positive; incorporated couplers ; two-color subtractive system. 2. DuPont Color Positive Film, Type 275: Three color sensitive layers on one side of film; synthetic polymer binders and color formers; three-color subtractive system. 3. Eastman Color Print Film, Type 5382: Three color sensitive layers on one side of film; incorporated couplers; three-color subtractive system. Some of the feature pictures released during this 44 Rose, op cit., p. 71. ■^^Personal interview with R. M. Grubel, Chief Chemist, Consolidated Film Industries. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 241 46 period in each of the three systems were: System 1 (two color) Hell's Fire System 2 (three-color DuPont) Honeychile System 3 (three-color Eastman 5382) Johnny Guitar For original photography the two-color Trucolor method utilized bipack negative which may be used in any standard camera. Two films were used in combination, passing through the photographing aperture emulsion to emul sion. The front film was orthochromatic, to record the blue-green portion of the picture. Its emulsion carried a red dye overcoat which was equivalent in color transmission to a Wratten 23A filter. The rear film was panchromatic to record the red-orange portion of the picture. Since the rear film was exposed through the red filter layer of the front film the blue and green portions of the picture were not recorded on the rear film. Films used as bipack com ponents for the Trucolor system were: Eastman Bi Pack Ortho (exterior) Negative Safety Film, Type 5234 ^^Personal interview with S. P. Solow, Vice Presi dent and General Manager, Consolidated Film Industries. 47 Rose, op. cit. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 242 Eastman Bi Pack Ortho (interior) Negative Safety Film, Type 5236 Eastman Bi Pack Panchromatic Negative Safety Film, Type 5235 The negatives were developed in a normal MQ Borax type negative developer such as; N-1 Developer Elon 1.50 grams Hydroquinone 1. 30 grams Sodium Sulfite 75.0 grams Borax 4.5 grams Potassium Bromide 0.4 gram ; Water to 1.0 liter I The orthochromatic record was developed to a gamma ; of approximately .65, fixed in a normal acid fixing bath, ! washed and dried. The panchromatic record was developed to a gamma of ; approximately .65, fixed in a normal acid fixing bath, | washed and dried. After processing the two black and white separation negatives were printed onto opposite sides of Eastman Two- Color Print Safety Film, Type 5380. This print film was similar to other duplitized positive film having an emul sion on both sides of the support. Each of these emulsion Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 243 layers contained a color forming dye coupler which formed a dye image along with the silver image obtained when the 48 film was printed and developed. Prints were made on modified Duplex Type Contact Step Printers on which the blue-green negative record was placed in one gate of the twin head and printed onto one side of the print film and the red-orange negative record was placed in the other gate of the twin head and was printed on the opposite side of the print film. The two negatives were fed into and taken up on each side of the twin head. The print film passed into one head, was looped back to the second head and there passed to the take up. In this way it was possible to expose through both picture negatives in a single pass through the printer.The side which was printed from the blue-green separation negative contained a mixture of magenta and yellow couplers which produced an orange-red dye image along with a silver image when it was developed. The side which was printed from the red-orange separation negative contained a cyan coupler Ap T. w. Gavey, "A Survey of the Factors Affecting Color Rendition of Bipack Two-Color Processes" (unpublished Master's thesis, University of Southern California, 1948). ^^Ibid. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 244 which produced a blue-green image along with a silver image when it was developed. After development the unexposed and undeveloped silver halide was removed by treatment in a normal acid fixing bath such as Kodak F-5 Fixer. The re maining developed silver was converted to silver halide by immersion in a ferrieyanide bleach and removed by a second treatment in an acid fixing bath. The film, which now con tained a cyan dye image on one side superimposed on a yellow and magenta dye image on the other side, was washed and dried. While the above system proved to be satisfactory for the picture area the dye sound tracks obtained were low in volume and showed high background noise. This problem was overcome by an edge applied sulfide treatment of the sound track area to produce a combination cyan dye and sulfide sound track. Since the bleach treatment converted all the remaining silver (both picture and sound track) to silver halide it was necessary to convert the sound track to insoluble silver sulfide with a sulfide treatment before it entered the final fix. The following is an outline of the processing steps and formulas for the two-color Trucolor process. 1. Bi Pack negative exposure. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 245 2. a. Development of orthochromatic component, b. Development of panchromatic component. 3. Wash. 4. Fix. 5. Wash. 6. 7. 8. 9. Dry. Print onto special duplitized positive in Duplex Printer. Color development. First fix. 10. Bleach. 11. Sound track application. 12. Final fix. 13. Wash. 14. Dry. Color Developer Calgon (Sodium hexametaphosphate) 2-amino-5 diethylaminotoluene monohydrochloride Sodium Sulfite Sodium Carbonate Potassium Bromide Water to 10 minutes 5 minutes 5 minutes 30 seconds 5 minutes 5 minutes 15 minutes .5 gram 2.0 grams 10.0 grams 20.0 grams 2.0 grams 1.0 liter Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 246 Bleaeh Water Potassium Ferrieyanide Potassium Bromide Water to Fixing Bath Water Sodium Thiosulfate Sodium Sulfite Aeetie Aeid 28% Borie Aeid Potassium Alum Water to 800.0 ml 50.0 grams 20.0 grams 1.0 liter 600.0 ml 240.0 grams 15.0 grams 48.0 ml 7. 5 grams 15.0 grams 1.0 liter Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER VIII SUBTRACTIVE PROCESSES (MONOPACK OR MULTILAYERED) The Monopack or Integral Tripack has become the most popular method used for color cinematography. Its use elim inates the complicated devices used in other methods and en ables both the amateur and the professional to produce pic tures in color with almost any camera. The essential principles of Monopack construction in all color processes are the same. The film consists of a base coated with three light sensitive emulsions one on top of the other (Fig. 47). To record the image in the layer where it belongs, emulsions of three different sensitivities are used, and since all emulsions are slightly sensitive to blue light some precaution must be taken to prevent blue light exposure of the other two layers. The first specific disclosure of the use of a mono pack for the purpose of color reproduction came from K. 247 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 248 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 5. 7. Pig. 47. Typical Monopack construction. 1. Blue sensitive emulsion 2. Yellow filter layer 3. Green sensitive emulsion 4. Clear gelatin 5. Red sensitive emulsion 6. Film base 7. Anti-halation backing Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 249 Schinzel.^ Unfortunately neither the photographic or the dye industry was sufficiently advanced to allow his proposal to he put to practical use. One of the biggest problems in the early develop ment of the monopack was the conversion of the three silver images into color images. This was at last solved by using organic developers whose oxidation products reacted with color couplers to form dyes which are deposited in the emul sion with the silver formed by the development of the image. In general this reaction may be performed in two ways : by incorporating the color forming couplers in the emulsion layers or by incorporating them in the developers. At the time of this study both of these methods are being used 2 successfully commercially. Caspar Color Caspar Color is a subtractive color process for making motion picture release prints invented in 1930 by Dr. Bela Caspar. In 1934 Caspar Color, Ltd., was formed in England and the process was introduced for commercial use. ^K. Schinzel, British Journal of Photography, LII (1905), p. 608. ^J. S. Friedman, History of Color Photography (Bos ton: American Photographic Publishing Co., 1944), p. 127. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 250 Special multilayer film for the process was manufactured by Gevaert of Belgium.^ According to Cornwell-Clyne, who was technical supervisor of the laboratory, "a large number of very beautiful release prints were made." During World War II Caspar moved his base of opera tion from Brussels to the United States. In 1941 the Holly wood Color Film Company announced that the Caspar Color pro cess was available in its Burbank laboratory. Both two- and three-color prints were offered in 15mm or 35mm.^ When film could no longer be obtained from Belgium because of the German occupation, Caspar entered into an agreement with the Ansco Division of General Aniline and Film Corporation, Binghamton, New York, for the manufacture of Caspar Color print film.^ The first use of the Caspar Color process in the United States vras for George Pal's "Puppetoons." There is no record of its ever having been used for feature ^Adrian Cornwell-Clyne, Colour Cinematography (London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd., 1951), p. 419. 4 A. Wyckoff, "Caspar Color Comes to Hollywood," American Cinematographer, . November, 1941, p. 510. ^Discussion with W. Hunter, formerly with Motion Picture Division of General Aniline and Film Corporation. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 251 production. ^ Although the Caspar Color process was capable of producing a very acceptable color release print, it failed to achieve commercial success in Hollywood. In the opinion of the writer, this was due to lack of sufficient capital and manufacturing facilities to exploit the possibilities of Caspar's inventions: this, plus the need to match the already satisfactory quality standard set by the Technicolor process. Since the Caspar Color process was a release print process and not a complete system of photography and print ing, several different systems could be employed to obtain the original photography. Any color photographic process that could produce a set of color separation positives could be used. The essential point was that two or three black and white color separation positives made on a step registration printer were required in order to make the re lease prints. Both types of Caspar Color print film had emulsion coated on the back side of the support. The two-color Caspar Color print film had a normal reversal-type silver ^Wyckoff, "Caspar Color Comes to Hollywood," loc. cit, p. 511, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 252 emulsion plus a cyan-blue dye on one side and normal rever sal-type silver emulsion plus a mixture of red and yellow dyes on the other side (Fig. 48a)- The three-color Caspar Color print film had a blue sensitive emulsion plus a magen ta dye coated on top of a red sensitive emulsion plus a yel low dye on one side of the support and a blue sensitive emulsion plus a cyan-blue dye on the other side (Fig. 48b).^ Each layer was printed independently in the follow ing manner: 1. Two-color. Both sides printed simultaneously on a special printer with two light sources. The three films pass through the gate at the same time. The blue separation positive is printed onto the emulsion containing the red dye at the same time the red separation positive is print ed onto the emulsion containing the cyan blue dye. 2. Three-color. Two passes through the printer are necessary ’ibid. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 253 1- 2. 3. Fig. 48a. Caspar Color two-color print film. 1. Normal reversal type silver emulsion plus a cyan-blue dye. 2. Film base. 3. Normal reversal type silver emulsion plus a mixture of red and yellow dyes. 1. 2. 3. 4. Fig. 48b. Caspar Color three-color print film. 1. Blue sensitive emulsion plus a magenta dye. 2. Red sensitive emulsion plus a yellow dye. 3- Film base. 4. Blue sensitive emulsion plus a cyan dye. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 254 to expose the three-color print film- On the first pass three films go through the gate at the same time. The green separation positive is printed with a blue filter onto the emulsion containing the magenta dye; at the same time the red separation positive is printed with a blue filter onto the emulsion containing the dyan dye. On the second pass the blue separa tion positive is printed with a red filter onto the emulsion containing the yellow dye. If a special printer having a light source on both sides of the gate is not available the films can be printed on any conventional step registration printer. Two passes will be required for the two-color film and three passes will be required for the three-color film. After printing the film is developed in a black and white developer to produce a high contrast negative silver image. This is followed by a wash, a fix and a wash. Next it passes into a dye bleach where the dyes in the emulsions are destroyed in proportion to the presence of the devel oped silver. Once again the film is washed, then bleached. The function of the second bleach is to convert the metal lic silver formed by development into silver chloride so Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 255 that it can be removed by the final fix. In order to pre vent the silver in the sound track area from also being re moved by the final fix, the sound track area is applicated with developer by means of a wheel applicator prior to fix ing. The final fix removes all the remaining silver halide in the picture area leaving a pure dye image and a silver sound track. This is followed by a final wash and the film is dried and ready for projection using normal projection equipment.^ Developer Metol Sodium Sulfite Hydroquinone Sodium Carbonate Potassium Bromide Water to Fix 1st Fix 2nd Fix Sodium Thiosulfate Sodium Metabisulfite 1.0 gram 24.0 grams 7.25 grams 15.0 grams . 1 gram 1.0 liter 9 min. 5 min. 300.0 grams .7 gram 8 Cornwell-Clyne, op. cit., pp. 424-425. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 255 Water to Dye Bleach Thiocarbamide Potassium Chrome Alum Hydroquinone Sulfuric Acid (conc.) Water to Silver Bleach Copper Sulfate Sodium TZhloride Hydrochloric Acid (conc.) Water to Sound Track Redeveloper Metol Sodium Sulfite (anhydrous) Hydroquinone Sodium Hydroxide (40% sol.) "Nekal" Dextrin Water to 1. 0 liter 11 min. 70.0 grams 50.0 grams 1.0 gram 5.0 ml 1.0 liter 5k min. 100.0 grams 100.0 grams 2.5 ml 1.0 liter 1 min. 25.0 grams 300.0 grams 75.0 grams 125.0 ml 25.0 ml 500.0 grams 1.0 liter Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 257 Kodachrome Kodachrome is the name given by Eastman Kodak to several film and process combinations introduced first in 1935. Since its introduction there have been several addi tions, revisions and improvements in both film and process so that the present products bear little resemblance to the original film and process invented by L. D. Mannes and L. Godowsky. The film bearing the Kodachrome name have all been integral tripacks of the non-incorporated coupler type which produce a three-color picture by subtractive methods, and the processes have all been reversal, producing a direct positive. Kodachrome films have been used in the production of thousands of 16mm industrial, educational and religious motion pictures. Kodachrome Commercial, the first 16mm color film designed for use by the professional cinematog rapher, was used for one of the first television series to be photographed in color. In addition to its use in 16mm, Kodachrome has been enlarged to 35mm for theatrical release in productions of varying scope from World War II combat films like The Fighting Lady to Walt Disney's Real Life adventure films such as Beaver Valley. Structurally, Kodachrome films are made up of three; Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 258 light sensitive emulsions coated one on top of the other on a single film base (Fig. 49). The emulsion nearest the base is sensitive to red light and blue light, the middle emul sion is sensitive to green light and blue light, and the top emulsion is sensitive to blue light. Between the top blue sensitive emulsion and the other two emulsions is a layer of gelatin containing finely divided silver particles called a "Carey Lea layer" for Carey Lea, the early Ameri can worker in photographic science, who discovered the ba sic method of preparation which is used. These silver par ticles absorb blue light and act as a filter that prevents blue light exposure in the middle and bottom emulsion 9 layers. After exposure Kodachrome is developed in an elon- hydroquinone black and white developer to produce a nega tive silver image. Then the film passes over a reversal exposure lamp containing a red filter. This exposes through the base the unexposed silver halide in the bottom or red sensitive layer, which is now developed in a dye coupling cyan developer, so that a positive cyan dye image is formed. ^C. B. Neblette, Photography; Its Principles and Practices (New York: D, Van Nostrand Company, Inc., 1947), p. 813. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 259 Before After After Bleach & Fix Dev. Dev. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Fig. 49. Kodachrome film structure. 1. Blue sensitive emulsion. 2. Gelatin interlayer containing Carey Lea silver which acts as yellow filter. 3. Green sensitive emulsion. 4. Colorless gelatin interlayer. 5. Blue sensitive emulsion. 6. Sub-stratum. 7. Film base. 8. Anti-halation backing. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 260 This solution is followed by a black and white clean up de veloper which develops any silver halide in the bottom layer that may have been exposed but not developed by the cyan de veloper (this solution is omitted in some processes). The film now passes under a reversal exposure lamp containing a blue filter exposing the unexposed silver halide in the top or blue sensitive layer which is developed in a dye coupling yellow developer so that a positive yellow dye image is formed. This solution is also followed by a black and white clean up developer whose function is to develop any silver halide in the top layer that may have been exposed but not developed by the yellow developer. The film now passes into a third and final color developer which contains a fogging agent that takes the place of a third reversal exposure, and a magenta forming dye coupling agent so that a positive ma genta dye image is formed in the middle or green sensitive layer. In some Kodachrome processes this is followed by a third auxiliary developer. At this point in the process the film contains three positive dye images together with the metallic silver formed by the multiple development op erations. The silver is opaque, therefore it must be re moved. To accomplish this the film passes through a ferri- cyanide bleach that converts the silver to silver bromide. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 261 then into a fixing hath where the silver salts are removed, leaving the dye images. Kodachrome Duplicating Safety Color Film, Type 5265 In 1944 Kodachrome Duplicating Safety Color Film, Type 5255, was introduced as a 15mm reversal color print film. This film was designed for making prints from rever sal color originals. A basic filter pack was required to correct for differences in individual printers and for each emulsion. In general this was the only color correction used. Individual scenes were corrected for density only. Sound tracks could be either variable area or variable den sity printed by either contact or optical printing. Since the sound track as well as the picture was processed as a reversal image it was necessary to print from a positive track. A considerable number of prints were made on this material during its period of use. In addition to industri al, educational, religious, travel and sport pictures, sev eral prints were made of feature motion pictures by E. K. Mees, "Direct Processes for Making Photographic Prints in Color," Journal of the Franklin Institute, January, 1941, pp. 45-46. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 262 reduction printing for distribution to the armed forces overseas. Kodachrome Duplicating Safety Color Film, Type 5265, was replaced in 1955 by Eastman Reversal Color Print Film, Type 5269. The following is the processing cycle and formulas for processing Kodachrome Duplicating Safety Color Film, Type 5265.^^ Solution Time Temperature Prehardener 2 min. 70° F. Wash 2 min. 70° F. First Developer 6-7 min. 70° F. Wash 4 min. 70° F. Note; Red light exposure through the base (Corning 2410 filter 3 mm thick) approximately 2,100 ft. candles. Cyan Developer 11 min. 70° F. Wash 4 min. 70° F. Note: Blue light exposure emulsion side (Wratten 39 Filter 2 mm thick) approximately 14,000 ft. candles. 11"Technical News," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, March, 1945, p. 220. 12 "A Manual for Processing Kodak Duplicating C-P Color Film, 16mm, Type 5265" (Motion Picture Film Depart ment, Eastman Kodak Company, New York). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 263 Solution Time Temperature Yellow Developer 6.2 5 min. 70° F. Wash 2 min. 70° F. Auxiliary Developer 4 min. 70° F. Wash 2 min. 70° F. Sound Track Developer Application 10 sec. 70° F. Wash 2 min. 70° F. Magenta Developer 6.25 min. 70° F. Wash 6 min. 70° F. Bleach 4 min. 70° F. Fix 2 min. 70° F. Wash 6 min. 70° F. Dry 20 min. 70° F. Prehardener Calgon .6 gram Sodium Bisulfite 5.0 grams Sodium Carbonate (monohydrate) 5.0 grams Sodium Sulfate (anhydrous) 150.0 grams Potassium Bromide 1.0 gram Formalin 20.0 ml Sodium Hydroxide .21 gram Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 254 Water to 1st Developer Calgon Sodium Bisulfite Elon Hydroquinone Sodium Carbonate (monohydrate) Sodium Sulfite Potassium Bromide Potassium Iodide (0.1% sol.) Isopropylamine (100%) Water to Cyan Developer Calgon Foamex Alkanol B Sodium Sulfite 2-amino-5-diethylamino toluene hydrochloride Sodium Carbonate (monohydrate) Potassium Bromide Sodium Thiocyanate (50% solution) Sodium Hydroxide 1.0 liter .6 gram 10.0 grams 4.8 grams 2.0 grams 30.0 grams 63.5 grams 3.25 grams 20.0 ml 6.55 grams 1.0 liter .6 gram . 4 ml .3 gram 20.0 grams 1.75 grams 25.0 grams 1.0 gram 6. 0 ml 4. 6 grams Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 265 6-nitrobenzimidazole nitrate 2, 6-dibromo-l, 5-dihydroxy naphthalene Mono-N-benzyl p-aminophenol hydrochloride Potassium Iodide (0.1% solution) Water to Yellow Developer Calgon Sodium Sulfite 2-amino-5-diethylamino toluene hydrochloride Sodium Sulfate Sodium Carbonate (monohydrate) Potassium Bromide Sodium Thiocyanate (50% solution) Potassium Iodide (0.1% solution) 6-nitrobenzimidazole nitrate (1.0% solution) Sodium Hydroxide 4-p-toluene su1fony1amino-omega- benzoyl acetanilide Water to Auxiliary Developer Calgon .3 gram 1.45 grams 1.15 grams 3.0 ml 1.0 liter .6 gram 5.0 grams .6 gram 25.0 grams 42.0 grams 1.0 gram 1.7 ml 17.0 ml 1. 0 ml 3.0 grams 2.25 grams 1.0 liter 2.0 grams Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 256 Sodium Bisulfite Elon Hydroquinone Sodium Carbonate (monohydrate) Sodium Sulfite Potassium Bromide 5-nitroindazole (0-5% solution) Potassium Iodide (0.1% solution) Isopropylamine (100%) Sodium Thiocyanate (50% solution) Water to Sound Track Developer Sodium Sulfide (NagS-BHgO) Ethyl Alcohol Distilled Water to Magenta Developer Calgon Sodium Sulfite 2-amino-5-diethylamino toluene hydrochloride Sodium Sulfate Sodium Thiocyanate (50% solution) Ethylene Diamine (58-70% by weight) 8. 3 grams 3.5 grams 2.25 grams 30.0 grams 53.5 grams 2.5 grams 2.0 ml 20.0 ml 5.20 grams 5.5 ml 1.0 liter 20.0 grams 250.0 ml 1.0 liter .5 gram 18.0 grams 1.75 grams 15.0 grams 12.4 ml 5. 0 ml Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 267 Sodium Carbonate (monohydrate) Potassium Bromide Sodium Hydroxide 1-(2 benzothiazoyl 1)- 3-amino- 5-pyrazolone Water to Ferricyanide Bleach Calgon Potassium Ferricyanide Potassium Bromide Sodium Chloride Water to Fix Calgon Sodium Thiosulfate Sodium Sulfite Water to 40.0 grams 1.45 grams 1.50 grams . 50 grams 1.0 liter 0.6 gram 100.0 grams 15.0 grams 20.0 grams 1.0 liter 1.0 gram 200.0 grams 10.0 grams 1.0 liter Kodachrome Commercial Safety Color Film, Type 5268 In 1946 Kodachrome Commercial Safety Color Film, Type 5268, was introduced as a 16mm camera film for the professional worker. It was a tungsten balanced reversal color film having a speed of E.I. 10 to tungsten illumina- Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 26 8 tion of 3,200° K. and a speed of E.I. 8 to daylight when used with a Wratten 83 filter. It differed from the other films in the Kodachrome group because it was designed to produce a low contrast original intended for printing not projection. Since its introduction this film has been used ex tensively for industrial, educational, medical, religious and travel motion pictures, also for television drama and to a limited extent for enlargement to 35mm for theater release. The Cisco Kid series, one of the first television series photographed with 16mm color film, produced over 500 episodes using Kodachrome Commercial for the original pho tography. Kodachrome Commercial Safety Film, Type 5268, was replaced in 1958 by Ektachrome Commercial Film, Type 7255. The following is the processing cycle and formulas for processing Kodachrome Commercial Safety Color Film, Type 5268.^3 Solution Time Temperature Prehardener 2 min. 72° F. ^"A Manual for Processing Kodak Commercial C-P Color Film, 16mm, Type 5268" (Motion Picture Film Depart ment, Eastman Kodak Company, New York). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 259 Solution Wash 1st Developer Wash Time 2% min. 15 min. 5 min. Temperature 70° F. Note; Red light exposure through the base (Corning 2410 filter 3 mm thick) approximately 2,000 ft. candles. Cyan Developer 10 min. 70° F. Wash 2% min. 70° F. Auxiliary Developer min. 70° F. Wash 5 min. 70° F. Note: Blue light exposure emulsion side (Wra 39 filter 2 mm thick) approximately 5,500 f candles. Yellow Developer 8 min. 70° F. Wash 2h min. 70° F. Auxiliary Developer 2^ min. 70° F. Wash 5 min. 70° F. Magenta Developer 8 min. 70° F. Wash ih min. 70° F. Bleach 5 min. 70° F. Fix 2H. min. 70° F. Wash l\ min. 70° F. Dry 25 min. 70° F. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 7 0 Prehardener Calgon Sodium Carbonate (monohydrate) Sodium Bisulfite Sodium Sulfate (anhydrous) Potassium Bromide Formalin Water to 1st Developer Calgon Sodium Sulfite (anhydrous) Elon Hydroquinone Sodium Carbonate Sodium Sulfite Potassium Bromide 5-nitroindazole (0.5% solution) Potassium Iodide (0.1% solution) Isopropylamine Sodium Bisulfite Water to Cyan Developer Calgon . 5 gram 5.0 grams 5.0 grams 150.0 grams 1.0 gram 30.0 ml 1.0 liter .5 gram 8.5 grams 4.0 grams 1.10 grams 30.0 grams 45.0 grams 15.0 grams 5.0 ml 10.0 ml 5.5 grams 8.4 grams 1.0 liter .6 gram Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 7 1 Foamex Alkanol B Sodium Sulfite (anhydrous) Resorcinol 2 amino-5-diethylaminotoluene hydrochloride Sodium Carbonate (monohydrate) Potassium Bromide Potassium Iodide Sodium Hydroxide 6-nitrobenzimidazole nitrate 2, 4-dichloro-5-p-toluene sulfonylamino-l-naphthol Water to Auxiliary Developers 1 and 2 Calgon Sodium Sulfite (anhydrous) Elon Hydroquinone Sodium Carbonate (monohydrate) Sodium Sulfite Potassium Bromide 5-nitroindazole (0.5% solution) Potassium Iodide (0.1% solution) .2 ml .2 gram 5.0 grams 0.150 gram 2.9 grams 15.0 grams 2.5 grams 2.0 ml 2.75 grams .18 gram 1.35 grams 1.0 liter .6 gram 8.5 grams 4.0 grams 1.4 grams 26.0 grams 45.0 grams 4.5 grams 4.0 ml 8. 0 ml Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 272 Water to Yellow Developer Calgon Sodium Sulfite p-aminodiethylaniline hydrochloride Sodium Carbonate (monohydrate) Potassium Bromide Potassium Iodide (0. 1% solution) Sodium Hydroxide 4-p-toluene sulfonylamino-omega- benzoylacetanilide Water to Magenta Developer Calgon Sodium Sulfite 2-amino-5-diethylamino toluene hydrochloride Sodium Sulfate Sodium Thiocyanate Ethylene Diamine (68%) Sodium Carbonate (monohydrate) Potassium Bromide Sodium Hydroxide 2-cyanoacetylcoumarone 1.0 liter .6 gram 10.0 grams 2.30 grams 20.0 grams 1.5 grams 1. 5 ml 1.7 ml 1.15 grams 1.0 liter .6 gram 5.0 grams 1.05 grams 40.0 grams 3.0 grams 5.0 ml 40.0 grams 1.10 grams 1.5 gram .95 gram Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 273 Potassium Iodide (0.1% solution) Water to Bleach Calgon Potassium Ferricyanide Potassium Bromide Borax (.10 H^O) Boric Acid Sodium Chloride Water to Fix Calgon Sodium Sulfite (anhydrous) Sodium Thiosulfate Water to 2.0 ml 1. 0 liter .5 gram 130.0 grams 15.0 grams 10.0 grams 5.0 grams 26.0 grams 1.0 liter 1.0 gram 10.0 grams 200.0 grams 1.0 liter Eastman Reversal Color Print Film, Type 5269 In 1955 Eastman Reversal Color Print Film, Type 5269, was introduced as an improved 16mm reversal color print film to replace Kodachrome Duplicating Safety Color Film, Type 5265. Structurally the new film is similar to the general family of Kodachrome films. It is composed of three light sensitive non-coupler incorporated emulsions Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 7 4 superimposed one on top of the other. The top emulsion is sensitive to blue Igiht, the middle emulsion to blue and green light and the bottom emulsion to blue and red light. Processing is similar to 5265 but a slightly different pro cessing order is followed. Also the sound track has under gone a complete revision and is no longer processed as a re versal image along with the picture. Through special treat ment during processing the positive silver image obtained in the initial black and white development step is preserved. Therefore, it is now necessary to print the sound track from a negative rather than a positive original. Other than the change in pre-print material re quired for the sound track, printing 5269 was very much like printing 5265. A basic filter pack was required to correct for differences in individual printers and for each emulsion. In general this was the only color correction used. However, new printing equipment capable of color correcting individual scenes was beginning to appear and some laboratories were offering scene-to-scene color as well as density correction. Eastman Reversal Color Print Film, Type 5269, was replaced in 1964 by Eastman Reversal Color Print Film, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 275 i Type 7387.14 The processing cycle and formulas for processing Eastman Reversal Color Print Film, Type 5259, in the RCP-1 Process,!^ and Eastman Reversal Color Print Film, Type 7387, in the RCP-2 Process,!^ are given in the processing manuals, available to all licensees. Ansco Color The Ansco Color process is a three-color subtractive system for color cinematography introduced commercially in 1945 by the Ansco Division of General Aniline and Film Corporation.17 This process, introduced originally during 14 D. S. Thomas, Jr., H. L. Rees, and R. C. Lovick, "A New Reversal Print Method for a Color Production System," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, August, 1965, pp. 571-675. 1^"A Manual Describing the Processing of Eastman Reversal Color Print Film, Type 5259 (16mm), Process RCP-1" (Motion Picture Film Department, Eastman Kodak Company, New York). 1^"A Manual Describing the Processing of Eastman Reversal Color Print Film, Type 7387 (15mm), Process RCP-2" (Motion Picture and Education Markets Division, Eastman Kodak Company, New York). l^H. H. Duerr and H. C. Harsh, "Ansco Color for Professional Motion Pictures," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, May, 1946, p. 357. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 275 World War II, was first used chiefly for military photog raphy. The films offered commercially in 1945 were a direct projection reversal color film available in 16mm and 35mm for amateur use and a group of three 35mm reversal color films for professional motion picture use. The first theatrical use of Ansco Color film was for a two-reel short subject, Climbing the Matterhorn, re leased in 1948 by Monogram Pictures. The success of this picture resulted in the release of a feature length picture in the process by Monogram, Sixteen Fathoms Deep. Other pictures made using the Ansco Color reversal color system 1 were : The Man on the Eiffel Tower New Mexico Tembo Island of Allah The Ansco Color reversal color process for profes sional motion pictures consisted of three elements that could be used either singly or together. The films were a reversal color camera original film, a duplicating film and J. L. Limbacher, "A Historical Study of the Color Motion Picture," Dearborn, Michigan, 1963, p. 19. (Mimeographed.) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 277 a release print film. Each of the three films were multi layer reversal color films which contained three light sen sitive emulsions sensitized to red, green and blue light respectively and coated on a single film support (Fig- 50). Incorporated in the emulsion layers are colorless dye coup lers which react simultaneously during development to pro duce a separate dye image in each layer complementary to 19 the sensitivity of the layer. After exposure the film is developed in a metol- hydroquinone developer which produces a negative silver image in each layer that is a record of the red, green and blue components of the original scene photographed. From the developer the film passes through a rinse and then into a short stop which arrests any further development. Next the film goes into a chrome alum hardener which is followed by a wash. From this point on, the film can be handled in normal room light. Second exposure is accomplished by ex posing both sides of the film to GE PS-25, Photoflood-type lamps. During the second exposure the silver halide re maining in the film which was not affected by the camera ^^Duerr and Harsh, "Ansco Color for Professional Motion Pictures," loc. cit., p. 358. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 7 8 After Before After Bleach Dev. Color Dev. & Fix ir iV 'v Fig. 50. Ansco Color film structure. 1. Blue sensitive emulsion plus a yellow dye forming coupler. 2. Yellow filter layer. 3. Green sensitive emulsion plus a magenta dye forming coupler. 4. Clear gelatin. 5. Red sensitive emulsion plus a cyan dye forming coupler. 6. Film base. 7. Anti-halation layer. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 279 ; exposure and first development is exposed. The positive latent image produced by this exposure is developed to a silver plus a dye image in a color forming developer. This is followed by a rinse and a second short stop which arrest any further action of the developer. After the second short stop the film is given a second hardening treatment in a chrome alum hardening bath which is followed by a wash. The metallic silver images located in all three layers are now converted back to silver halide by immersion in a ferricyanide bleach. This treatment is followed by a wash, then the silver is removed with a hypo solution, leav ing only the dye images. After a final wash the film is dried and is ready for use. The three reversal color films having the general characteristics described above have been manufactured as Ansco Color Film: 0 D Ansco Color, Type 735 Ansco Color, Type 735, is a reversal color camera film balanced for use under average daylight conditions. The speed of this film is E.I. 12. For studio exposures high-intensity carbon arcs modified by Y-1 gelatin filters ^°Ibid., pp. 359-360. | Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 280 and tungsten lamps modified by Macbeth Whiterlite filters. The contrast of this film is lower than that of films in tended for projection; also, the color balance is purposely slightly off neutral. Ansco Color, Type 132^^ A reversal color duplicating film designed for mak ing duplicates that could be undercut with reversal orig inals. The speed of this film is two to four times less than that of black and white positive release print film. The contrast of Type 132 is approximately 1.0 so that a duplicate on this film is substantially equal to the camera original. Ansco Color, Type 732^^ A reversal color print film balanced for printing with filtered tungsten illumination. The speed of this film is approximately two to four times less than black and white release print film. Several years after the introduction of Ansco Color a new improved reversal color film was introduced by the ^^Ibid., pp. 360-351. ^^Ibid. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 8 1 Ansco Division of General Aniline and Film Corporation. This film introduced in the spring of 1955 was called Ansco- chrome. Its general structure and processing was similar to Ansco Color, which it replaced. Its improved character istics were improved grain structure, greatly improved speed and an improved dye system that produced better red and blue reproductions. Although Anscochrome is available in either 15mm or 35mm, there is no evidence that it was ever used for a 35mm theatrical production. Its use in the 35mm size has been limited to military and instrumentation photography. The films manufactured as Anscochrome are: Anscochrome Daylight Types 231 (16mm) and 531 (35mm)^ A reversal color camera film balanced for use under average daylight conditions. The speed of this film is E.I. 32. Anscochrome differs from previous reversal color films in that the three emulsion layers respond alike to changes in developing time over a wide range. This makes it 23 J. L. Forrest, "Processing Anscochrome Motion Picture Films for Industrial and Scientific Applications," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, December, 1955, p. 679. ^^Ibid. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 8 2 possible to adjust processing conditions to the exposure as in black and white work. Anscochrome Tungsten Types 232 (16mm) and 532 (35mm) A reversal color camera film balanced for tungsten illumination of 3,400° K. The speed of this film is E.I. 32 Tungsten and E.I. 25 Daylight with a Wratten 85 filter. The processing steps and times for processing the Ansco Color Film are listed on page 283. Super Anscochrome Daylight Types 225 (16mm) and 525 (35mm) A high speed reversal color film of medium granu larity balanced for use under average daylight conditions. The speed of this film is E.I. 100. This film was intro duced in 1957 as a supplement to the regular Anscochrome. Super Anscochrome Tungsten Types 226 (16mm) and 526 (35mm) A high speed reversal color film of medium 2^Ibid. ^^A. F. Gifford and F. H. Gerhardt, "Characteristics of Super Anscochrome Film," Photographic Science and Engi neering, July, 1951, pp. 12-14. 9 7 "Ansco Motion Picture Films" (Professional Motion ! Picture Department, Ansco Division of General Aniline and Film Corporation, Binghamton, New York, January, 1959), p. 1. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 7) CD ■D O Q . C g Q . ■D CD C / ) o' 3 O 8 ■o (O' "O CD ( / ) ( / ) PROCESSING STEPS FOR ANSCO REVERSAL COLOR FILMS Type® Types 231 & 232® Types 225 & 224 Process 735 132 732 E.I.32 E.I.64 E.I.125 E.I.80 E.I.lOO E.I.150 E.I.200 AR 1^ AR 2^ First o developer 4 min 8 rain 10 rain 15 rain I 3 Rinse 5 sec 5 sec 5 sec 15 sec CD Short stop 3 min 3 rain 3 rain 3 rain " n c Hardener 3 rain 3 rain 3 rain 3 rain 3" Wash 3 rain 3 rain 3 rain 3 rain CD Re-exposure 4 GE PS--25 lamps CD Color "D developer 11 rain 9 rain 18 rain 15 rain O Q. Rinse 20 sec ■iO sec 20 sec 15 sec C a Short stop 3 rain 3 rain 3 rain 3 rain O 3 Hardener 3 rain 3 rain 3 rain 3 rain ■D Wash 3 rain 3 rain 3 rain 3 rain O 3" Bleach 6 rain 6 rain 6 min 6 rain g Wash 3 rain 3 rain 3 rain 3 rain â Fix 6 rain 6 rain 6 rain 6 rain g Wash 9 rain 9 rain 9 rain 6 rain 1 —H Wetting O C agent -- -- -- -- 19 rain 30 rain 14 rain 15 rain 19 rain 22 rain 8-10 rain 3-5 rain 15 sec 15 sec — — — — — — — — — — — — — — ___c 3 rain 3 rain 2 rain 2 rain 2 rain 2 rain 2-5 rain 1-5 rain 3 rain 3 rain 4 rain 4 rain 4 rain 4 rain — — — — 3 rain 3 rain 5 rain 5 rain 5 rain 5 rain 2-5 rain 2 rain 6 20 Watt fluorescent lamps ; 1200 ft./c/sec. on each side 10-12 17 rain 20 rain 14 rain 14 rain 18 rain 18 rain rain 4 rain 15 sec 15 sec — — — — — — — — — — — — ^ —— — — — 3 rain 3 rain 2 rain 2 rain 2 rain 2 rain 2-5 rain 1-5 min 3 rain 3 rain 4 rain 4 rain 4 rain 4 rain — — — 3 rain 3 rain 5 rain 5 rain 5 rain 5 rain 2-5 rain 2 rain 6 rain 6 rain 5 rain 5 rain 5 rain 5 rain 4-5 rain 2 rain 3 rain 3 rain 3 rain 3 rain 3 rain 3 rain 2-5 rain 30 sec 6 rain 6 rain 4 rain 4 rain 4 rain 4 rain 2-3 rain 2 rain 6 rain 6 rain 10 rain 10 min 10 rain 10 rain 5 rain 1 rain 10 sec 15 sec ^All solutions at 68° F. ^All solutions, except washes, at 80° F. °Wash water at 75-80° F. N) 00 w 2 8 4 granularity balanced for tungsten illumination of 3,200° K. The speed of this film is E.I. 100 Tungsten and E.I. 80 Day light with a Wratten 85 filter. Anscochrome D/50^^ A reversal color camera film balanced for use under average daylight conditions. The speed of this film is E.I. 50. Introduced in 1964, this film replaced Anscochrome 231 ; and 531. Its improved characteristics include higher speed, higher definition, finer grain and improved color reproduc- | I tion. Anscochrome D/100^^ ; A reversal color camera film balanced for use under ! average daylight conditions. The speed of this film is E.I.j 100. Introduced in 1965 as a supplement to the Anscochrome i films, this film is considered to be an intermediate speed j film even though it is as fast as Super Anscochrome. j ; I i Anscochrome D/200^^ A high speed reversal color camera film balanced for "Ansco Cine Films" (Ansco Photo Products, General ■ Aniline and Film Corporation, Binghamton, New York, 1964). ; ^^Ibid. ^°Ibid. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 285 use under average daylight conditions. The speed of this film is E.I. 200. Introduced in 1955 as a replacement for Super Anscochrome, the improved characteristics of this film include higher speed, higher definition, finer grain and higher color contrast. Ultra-Speed Anscochrome^^ An extremely high speed reversal color camera film balanced for use under average daylight conditions. The speed of this film is E.I. 250, although in practice it is used at speeds of 500 and above. Introduced in 1965, the improved characteristics of this film include high speed and moderate grain. 32 Anscochrome T/lOO A reversal color camera film balanced for tungsten illumination of 3,200° K. The speed of this film is E.I. 100 Tungsten and E.I. 64 Daylight with a Wratten 85 B fil ter. Introduced in 1965. Anscochrome Professional Type 242^3 A reversal color camera film balanced for Tungsten 31lbid. 32lbid. 3 3 J. L. Forrest, "A New 16mm Camera Color Film for Professional Use," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture ; and Television Engineers, January, 1957, pp. 12-13. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 285 illumination of 3,200° K. The speed of this film is E.I. 25 Tungsten. Originally introduced as Type 242 with a speed of E.I. 10, this film is a slow speed, fine grain, low con trast material designed for use as an original where high quality prints are desired. Anscochrome Duplicating Types 238 (16mm) and 538 (35mm) A reversal color print film balanced with filtered tungsten illumination. Introduced in 1955, this replaced Ansco Color Type 732; its improved characteristics included finer grain, greater sharpness and improved color rendition. In processing 16mm Anscochrome a conditioning bath is introduced midway in the final wash stop. This bath is a solvent water mixture which flattens the finished film and makes it more pliable. Examination of the chart containing the processing steps indicates little change in the basic number of solu tions required to process Ansco color reversal films since their introduction. Changes have been made in the film and in the chemical composition of the solutions. The first 34 J. L. Forrest, "Machine Processing of 16mm Ansco Color Film," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, November, 1945, p. 316. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 8 7 group of formulas listed below are those published with the introduction of Ansco Color in 1945. The second group of formulas listed below are those published for the AR-2 pro cess in 1965. Ansco Color Reversal Processing Formulas^^ First Developer Metol 3. 0 grams Sodium Sulfite 50.0 grams Hydroquinone 6.0 grams Sodium Carbonate 40.0 grams Potassium Bromide 2.0 grams Sodium Thiocyanate 2.0 grams Water to 1.0 liter pH 9.8-10.0 First and Second Short Stop Acetic Acid (glacial) 5.0 ml Sodium Acetate 30.0 grams Water to 1.0 liter pH 5.3-6 Color Developer Sodium Bisulfite 1.0 gram 35lbid. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 88 Colamine Sodium Carbonate Potassium Bromide Water to pH 10.0-10-3 First and Second Hardener Potassium Chrome Alum Water to pH 3.8-4.5 Bleach Potassium Ferricyanide Potassium Bromide Dibasic Sodium Phosphate Sodium Bisulfate Water to pH 6.2 Fix Sodium Thiosulfate Water to pH 7.3-8 4.0 grams 67.0 grams 1.0 gram 1.0 liter 30.0 grams 1.0 liter 100.0 grams 10.0 grams 40.0 grams 35.0 grams 1.0 liter 200.0 grams 1.0 liter Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 289 Anscochrome Process AR-2^^ First Developer Ethylenediamine tetra-acetic acid Phenidone B Metol Sodium Sulfite (anhydrous) Hydroquinone Sodium Hydroxide Borax 5H2O Sodium Bromide Sodium Thiocyanate Potassium Iodide D A-7 Water to pH (80°) 10.35 Short Stop Hardener 907 Potassium Alum Sulfate 128^0 Sodium Sulfate (anhydrous) Boric Acid .8 gram 1.0 gram 3.0 grams 50.0 grams 12.0 grams 12.0 grams 30.0 grams 2.0 grams 4.0 grams .012 gram 1.0 gram 1.0 liter 20.0 grams 20.0 grams 4.0 grams ^^"Anscochrome Motion Picture Process AR-2 (A Short Process for Anscochrome Reversal Motion Picture Films)" (Professional Motion Picture Department, Ansco Division, General Aniline and Film Corp., Binghamton, New York, May, 1964), pp. 6-12. (Mimeographed.) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 290 Sodium Acetate Acetic Acid (glacial) Water to pH (80°) 4.5 Color Developer 625 Ethylenediamine tetra-acetic acid Sodium Sulfite (anhydrous) Sodium Hydroxide Borax 5H2O Sodium Bromide Sodium Sulfate (anhydrous) D A-3 S-5 (Dicolamine) Water to pH (80°) 10.75 Bleach 718B Potassium Ferricyanide Potassium Ferrocyanide . OH^O Sodium Bromide Sodium Nitrate Sodium Acetate Acetic Acid Water to 25.0 grams 12.0 ml 1.0 liter .8 gram 2.0 grams 10.7 grams 30.0 grams .86 gram 100.0 grams 3.5 grams 5.0 grams 1.0 liter 80.0 grams 5.0 grams 15.0 grams 30.0 grams 10.0 grams 1. 5 ml 1.0 liter Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 291 pH (80°) 5.2 Fix 806A Sodium Thiosulfate (anhydrous) Sodium Sulfite (anhydrous) Borax . 5H O 2 Ethylenediamine tetra-acetic acid Sodium Hydroxide (76% flakes) Formalin (40%) Water to pH (80°) 10.0 Conditioning Bath (16mm only) Methyl Cellusolve Acetate Diethyl Carbitol Water to Wetting Agent Water (75-85° F. ) Dow Corning Silicone Emulsion 36B Water to pH (80°) 7.5 130.0 grams 4.0 grams 6.0 grams .8 gram .80 gram 15.0 ml 1.0 liter 40.0 ml 30.0 ml 750.0 ml 2.0 ml 1.0 liter Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 292 Eastman. Multilayer Stripping Film While it was generally acknowledged that the best all around results in color photography were obtained by the "three-strip" method, the problems of registration and equipment bulk experienced with the three-strip cameras caused many workers to investigate methods of producing an integral tri-pack that could be used in any standard cam era. Multilayered monopacks such as Kodachrome and Ansco Color were one approach to the problem. An entirely differ ent approach was Eastman Multilayer Stripping Film which was designed to make use of the best elements of both systems. The first and only use of this film for a feature picture was for the Columbia picture. The Stranger Wore a Gun, released in 1953. The release prints were imbibition 37 prints made by Technicolor Laboratory. In 1940 the Eastman research laboratories began work on a film which would consist of three color sensitive emul sions coated on a single base. Between each of the emul sions would be a special interlayer which would permit stripping of the two outer layers when wet. The order of the layers was the same as that used for the monopack films. 37 Personal interview with G. F. Rackett. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 293 red sensitive layer on bottom, then a stripping layer, then the green sensitive layer, then a second stripping layer, a yellow filter layer, and on top the blue sensitive layer (Fig. 51). As in the monopack the yellow filter was neces sary to prevent exposure of the red and green sensitive layers by blue light. The first experiments for this sys tem were aimed at producing a successful two-layer film, since it was assumed that if a two-layer film could not be produced successfully it would be useless to attempt a three-layer film. A successful two-layer film was produced in 1941 and a year later in 1942 a successful three-layer 38 film was available for camera testing. The overall thick ness of this film was approximately the same as Eastman Plus X Negative Film, Type 5231, thus eliminating the necessity for any special modifications of standard motion picture camera gates or mechanism. The speed and keeping character istics were approximately the same as Eastman Background X Panchromatic Negative Safety Film, Type 5230. Because of their thinness the three emulsions yield ed slightly low contrast on development: the red and green G. Capstaff, "An Experimental 35mm Multilayer Stripping Negative Film," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, April, 1950, pp. 445-453. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 294 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Fig. 51. Eastman Multilayer Stripping Film. 1. Blue sensitive layer. 2. Yellow filter layer. 3. Stripping layer. 4. Green sensitive layer. 5. Stripping layer. 6. Red sensitive layer. 7. Film base. 8. Anti-halation. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 295 sensitive layers yielding gammas of approximately 0.55 and the blue sensitive layer yielding a gamma of .30. The low contrast obtained from the blue-sensitive layer was due to the intentionally low silver halide content of this emul sion, compounded in this way to prevent excessive light scatter and resultant loss of sharpness in the green and red sensitive layers. To increase the contrast of the blue record to the level of the other two records it was neces sary to intensify it after development or to make a dupli cate negative. An important feature of this film was the provision for separating the three layers before processing. This permitted separate development of the three records thereby avoiding defects arising from developer reaction by-products diffusing from the lower layers to the upper layers. The second advantage available through separate processing, that of individual gamma control, was not realized with this film since all three films were developed to gamma infinity in order to obtain maximum emulsion speed and contrast. The separation of the multilayered film into three black and white color separation negatives was accomplished on a special stripping machine. On this machine the exposed unprocessed multilayered negative enters the feed i Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 296 elevator with two strands of a special transfer film. The multilayered film and one strand of transfer film pass into tank A (Fig. 52), which is a tank of 70° F. water in which the multilayer stripping film and the transfer film are im mersed for approximately 10 seconds. On leaving the solu tion the two films meet at the rubber covered wringer rollers, B, where they are rolled into intimate contact. Four inches beyond this point of contact the perforations of the two films are brought into accurate register by means of a specially designed sprocket C and a contact socket roller D. The sprocket roller is positively driven at a film speed of 30 feet per minute. To compensate for dif ferences in perforation pitch the shorter pitched film is stretched to match the pitch of the longer one. This is accomplished by means of two additional sprocket and contact socket rollers E-F located 18 inches above C-D, and G-H located 48 inches above E-F. These additional sprockets are driven by a friction clutch with an overdrive of ap proximately 5 percent to maintain the required tension. By the time the two films leave the water bath and reach sprocket G-H the adhesion between the top emulsion layer of the multilayer film and the transfer film is such that tension is no longer necessary although the bonding is ; Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 297 Water Fig. 52. Schematic section of machine showing rolldown registering station. O Q <30 C D Fig. 53. Schematic section of machine showing stripping station. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 298 not firm enough for stripping. The two films still in intimate contact (Fig. 53) pass over a sheave A, then through a loop system and finally up to two simple stripping rollers, B. At this point the blue sensitive emulsion layer which is now bonded to the transfer film is stripped away from the multilayer film. After separating, the two films pass through a dry cabinet and the blue record passes onto the take off at the end of the machine. The multilayer film which now contains the green and red records passes onto a second wetting and stripping station where the green record is stripped onto a transfer film using the same procedure described for the blue record. The three take up spindles on the end of the machine now contain three separation negatives ready for black and white development. The red and green record nega tives are developed to a gamma of .55 in a normal black and white developer, fixed, washed and dried. The blue record receiving the same development is developed to gamma of approximately .15. After development, fix and wash the blue record is bleached and intensified to a gamma of approxi mately .35. The solutions used to intensify the blue record are i Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 299 the following: Bleach Lead Nitrate 7.8 grams Potassium Ferricyanide 12.2 grams Acetic Acid (glacial) 4.0 grams Water to 1.0 liter Redeveloper Sodium Sulfide 5.2 grams Water to 1.0 liter The negatives are now ready for printing by one of the methods that employ three separation negatives as the original material for release printing. Americolor The Americolor process was a two-color subtractive color process announced in 1947 by the Color Film Company of America. It was not a technical success and no produc tion was released other than a demonstration roll. It was reported by Limbacher^® that this process was used previous ly in making slide films. ^^Private communication from R. G. Hufford, Eastman Kodak Company. ^*^Limbacher, op. cit. , p. 19. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 30 0 For the original photography, a black and white pan chromatic negative was exposed in a beam splitter camera at twice normal speed producing simultaneously two separation negatives. After exposure it was developed in a normal black and white developer. Prints were made on convention al black and white print film. Color was obtained by dye ing alternate frames cyan-green and red-orange. After pro cessing and dyeing the prints were projected at twice nor mal speed. The two images were superimposed on the screen by a special optical system. According to Mr. C. Bonn, Eastman Kodak Company, who attended a demonstration of the process, the system exhibited objectionable flicker and was troubled by registration problems. DuPont Stripping Negative S. T. Tripac, a black and white stripping film that produces three separation negatives, was introduced 42 by the E. I. DuPont Company in 1949. Exposure is made using a conventional motion picture camera whose gate has Private communication from C. Bonn, Motion Picture and Education Markets Division, Eastman Kodak Com pany, May 19, 1955. 42 V. B. Sease, "DuPont's New Color Film," American Cinematographer, 1949, pp. 240, 257-258. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 0 1 been adjus ted to accomodate the extra thickness of the film. S. T. Tripac has a film speed of A.S.A. 12 when ex posed to a tungsten light source having a color temperature of 3,200° K. The film speed to daylight is A.S.A. 8 when exposed through a Wratten 85B filter. The structure of the film is similar to the combina tion of a bipack and a single film cemented together (Fig. 54). The three light sensitive emulsions are in the center between two film bases. When loaded in the camera the side of the film toward the lens is the bipack with its support facing the lens and the blue and green sensitive layer fol lowing it. This is connected to the third or red sensitive layer and its support by a red filter layer. After exposure the film is developed in a conventional black and white de veloper and fixed in a hardening fixer. Then the film is immediately immersed in a fresh stop bath and the front bi pack film is stripped from the rear film and its support. The excess solution is removed and the bipack is immersed in the transfer solution for two minutes. It is then rolled in contact with a gelatin coated support and left to set for two minutes. The two layers can now be separated by pulling off at an angle, the green record being transferred to the new support (Fig. 55). The three Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 302 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Fig. 54. DuPont S T Tripac. 1. Film base 2. Blue record 3. Green record 4. Red filter 5. Red record 5. Film base 7. Anti-halation layer Blue Record /^ase\ for ' Green Record Fig. 55. Stripping of DuPont S T Tripac. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 303 separate films are now washed and dried and are ready for printing by one of several methods that employ three separa- 43 tion negatives as the original. In following the procedure outlined above consid erable difficulty was encountered. In addition to the prob lem of obtaining even development, by-products produced serious interimage effects. While attempting to overcome these problems two alternate procedures were developed. First the top layer and its support were stripped off be fore processing- The result was a noticeable improvement, but the problem was only partially solved; the development by-products of the middle and bottom layer still produced undesirable interimage effects. The next step was to re move the middle layer also, and transfer it to its support before processing. This change solved the evenness and interimage problems but introduced other problems, because using this method the stripping operations had to be accom plished in total darkness. ^^Gino Spiller, "Modern Techniques of Color Film Processing" (unpublished Master's thesis. University of Southern California, 1952). ^^Private communication from Wilton R. Holm, Motion Picture Film Department, E. I. DuPont de Nemours and Company. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 304 Developer^^ Metol Sodium Sulfite (anhydrous) Hydroquinone Potassium Carbonate Potassium Bromide Water to Stop Bath Borax Sodium Sulfate Water to Transfer Solution Glacial Acetic Acid Aluminum Chloride (32° Be solution) Alcohol 70% Water to 1.5 grams 60.0 grams 15.0 grams 64.0 grams 4.5 grams 1.0 liter 120.0 grams 10.0 grams 1.0 liter 20.0 ml 7.0 ml 800.0 ml 1.0 liter DuPont Color Film Type 275 DuPont Color Film, Type 275, is a three-color sub tractive color print film announced by E. I. DuPont de ^^Pierre Glafkides, Photographic Chemistry (London: Fountain Press, 1960), II, 559. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 305 Nemours and Company, Inc., in 1949-^^ The unique character istic of this film is that a synthetic polymer is used in place of gelatin as a vehicle for the silver halide grains. This polymer serves the dual purpose of binder and color forming coupler. Shortly after its introduction this film was adopted by Consolidated Film Industries for use in their three-color Trucolor process. Prints produced on DuPont Color Film, Type 275, and on its safety film counterpart. Type 875, have "Color by Trucolor" in their titles. DuPont Color Film is a three-color subtractive color print film composed of three emulsion layers superimposed on one side of a standard film base. The top layer which is sensitive to blue light has a binder which forms a magenta dye. The middle layer which is sensitive to red light has a binder which forms a cyan dye. The bottom layer which is sensitive to green light has a binder which forms a yellow dye. Between each emulsion layer is a separator layer which 46 A. B. Jennings, W. A. Stanton, and J. P. Weiss, "Synthetic Color-Forming Binders for Photographic Emul sions, " Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Televi sion Engineers, November, 1950, pp. 455-476. ^^J. J. Rose, American Cinematographer Handbook and Reference Guide (Los Angeles: Southland Press, 1950), p. 71- Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 305 prevents migration of oxidized developer molecules between adjacent layers. To prevent blue light exposure in the bottom two layers the top emulsion contains a yellow dye which comes out during processing (Fig. 55). To make prints on DuPont Color Film, three color separation negatives must be printed in register in the following manner. The green record negative is printed in the top layer through a blue filter. The red record nega tive is printed in the middle layer through a red filter. The blue record negative is printed in the bottom layer through a green filter. Conventional types of registration printers, either contact or optical, can be used. The neg ative contrast desirable for printing onto DuPont Color Film is slightly higher than that desirable for normal black and white printing. While negatives for black and white use normally have a contrast of .55 to .70, negatives for con tact printing on Type 275 should be .85 to .90. For print ing the three separation negatives onto the print film the following filters are recommended: Blue Corning 5113 (% normal thickness) Green Defender 50 g Red Corning 2403 After exposure the print film is developed in a dye Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 30 7 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Pig. 56. DuPont Color Film Type 275. 1. Blue sensitive emulsion plus a binder which forms a magenta dye. 2. Separator layer. 3. Red sensitive emulsion plus a binder which forms a cyan dye. 4. Separator layer. 5. Green sensitive emulsion plus a binder which forms a yellow dye. 6. Substratum. 7. Film base. 8. Substratum. 9. Anti-halation backing. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 0 8 coupling developer to form a silver plus dye image in each layer. Following a wash the film passes to the first fix where all the unexposed silver is dissolved. Once more it is washed, then it passes into a bleach which converts the silver image into silver ferrocyanide. This is followed by a wash and a second fix which dissolves the remaining sil ver, a final wash and drying. The processing cycle and formulas for developing DuPont Color Film, Type 275, are as follows: Solution Time Temperature Developer 10-12 min. 70° F. Wash 1-2 min. 70° F. First Fix 6 min. 70° F. Wash 5 min. 70° F. Bleach 5 min. 70° F. Wash 1 min. 70° F. Sound Track Application 1 min. 70° F. Wash 4 min. 70° F. Second Fix 4 min. 70° F. Wash 10 min. 70° F. Dry ' 48 Jennings et al., "Synthetic Color-Forming Binders for Photographic Emulsions," loc. cit., p. 470. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 309 Developer p-aminodiethylaniline mono- hydrochloride Sodium Sulfite (anhydrous) Sodium Carbonate (monohydrate) Potassium Bromide Water to First Fix Sodium Thiosulfate Sodium. Sulfite (anhydrous) Borax Acetic Acid (28%) Potassium Alum Water to Bleach Potassium Ferricyanide Boric Acid Borax Water to Second Fix Sodium Thiosulfate Water to 2-5 grams 10-0 grams 47.0 grams 2.0 grams 1.0 liter 240.0 grams 15.0 grams 18.0 grams 43.0 grams 20.0 grams 1.0 liter 100.0 grams 10.0 grams 5-0 grams 1.0 liter 200.0 grams 1.0 liter Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 310 Sound Developer Sodium Carboxymethylcellulose 20.0 grams Sodium Sulfide 63.0 grams Water to 1.0 liter The Ansco Color Negative/Positive Process The Ansco Color Negative/Positive Process is a three-color subtractive system for color cinematography in troduced in 1953 by the Ansco Division of General Aniline and Film Corporation.^^ When it was introduced the process consisted of three elements that could be used singly or to gether: a coupler incorporated three-color negative film for an original photography, a coupler incorporated three- color duplicating negative film, and a coupler incorporated three-color release print film. The first feature picture photographed in the Ansco Color Negative/Positive Process was the MGM picture. The Wild North. The negatives and release prints for this pic ture were processed in the MGM laboratory on converted black and white processing equipment.The success of this first H. Duerr, "The Ansco Color Negative-Positive Process," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, June, 1952, pp. 465-479. ^^A. Rowan, "The Wild North Introduces MGM's New Ansco Color Process," American Cinematographer, March, 1952, pp. 106-107, 122-124. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 1 1 venture into color processing was followed by several more features in Ansco Color at MGM. Seven Brides for Seven Brothers The Student Prince Briqadoon Kiss Me Kate Take the High Ground The Long, Long Trailer Following the introduction of its color negative film the Ansco Company continued to improve its product. Three different camera negative films were manufactured be fore the film was eventually discontinued. The camera negative films manufactured under the name of Ansco Color Negative were multilayered color films which consisted of three light sensitive emulsions sensi tized to red, green and blue light respectively, and coated on a single film support (Fig. 57). Incorporated in the emulsion layers were dye couplers which react simultaneously during development to produce a separate dye image in each layer, complementary to the sensitivity of the layer. The light and dark areas of the image are reversed with respect ^^Variety, January 6, 1954, p. 51. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 12 Before Dev. After Dev. After Bleach & Fix 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Fig. 57. Ansco Color Negative film structure. 1. Gelatin surface layer. 2. Blue sensitive emulsion plus yellow dye forming coupler. 3. Yellow filter layer. 4. Green sensitive emulsion plus magenta dye forming coupler. 5. Gelatin separation layer. 6. Red sensitive emulsion plus cyan dye forming coupler. 7. Film base. 8. Anti-halation layer. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 313 to those of the original subject. Also the various color areas of the negative are complementary in color to the corresponding areas in the original scene. In order to ob tain maximum image sharpness it is necessary to produce a dye image in closest proximity with the originally exposed silver halide grain. To accomplish this it is important that the color coupler surround the grain so that the coup ling reaction can take place in situ with the silver halide grain. The Ansco Color couplers are anchored in the emul sion layers by means of the specific chemical configuration of the color coupler molecules. A fatty acid molecule of large molecular size is chemically combined with the dye coupler molecule through a short linkage. Three different color negative films having the general characteristics described above have been manufac tured as Ansco Color Negative Film: Ansco Color Negative Film, Type 843 A color negative film balanced for use under average daylight conditions, that is, for a mixture of sunlight and some blue sky. The speed of this film was E.I. 16. For daylight or arc light exposure it was recommended that an ultraviolet absorbing filter such as the Ansco UV 16 be used Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 314 on the camera lens. Normal contrast for this film was Red 1.00, Green 1.00, and Blue 1.25. 52 Ansco Color Negative Film, Type 844 A color negative film balanced for use with 3,200° K. tungsten quality illumination. The speed of this film was E.I. 15 tungsten. According to the manufacturer this film could be used with daylight illumination without loss of speed by using a suitable conversion filter such as the Wratten 85 B. Normal contrast for this film was Red 1.00, Green 1.00, Blue 1.25. 53 Ansco Color Negative Film, Type 845 A color negative film balanced for use with 3,200° K. quality illumination. The speed of this film was E.I. 25 tungsten and 16 daylight, with a Wratten 85 filter. This film was manufactured with a safety base which contained an orange tint which remained after processing. The purpose ^^"Technical Service Bulletin #6.41" (Professional Motion Picture Department, Ansco Division, General Aniline and Film Corporation, Binghamton, New York, December 1, 1957). 53 "How to Use and Process Ansco Color Negative" (Professional Motion Picture Department, Ansco Division, General Aniline and Film Corporation, Binghamton, New York, April, 1957). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 315 ! of this tint was to match the camera negative to inter-neg ative films which have a dye mask and thus permit intercut ting of the camera negative and internegative. Normal con trast for this film was obtained by developing to a green gamma of approximately .70. The Ansco color duplicating negative film is a multilayered color negative film similar in layer arrange ment and color absorption characteristics to Ansco Color Negative Film. Its color sensitivity, however, is different from the camera negative film. It is similar to the color print film. Ansco Color Duplicating Negative Film, Type 846^4 A duplicating negative film which consists of three light sensitive emulsions sensitized to red, green and blue light, respectively. The sensitivity of this film is bal anced for exposure by a tungsten light source of approxi mately 3,000 K. The exposure index is .50 to 1.0. Normal contrast is .90 to 1.20; however, development may be carried to gamma 1.5 or higher, if necessary. ^^"Technical Service Bulletin #6.31" (Professional Motion Picture Department, Ansco Division, General Aniline and Film Corporation, Binghamton, New York, October 15, 1951). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 315 The print film manufactured to be used with Ansco Color negative and duplicate negative films was multilayered color film vrfiich consisted of three light sensitive emul sions sensitized to red, green and blue, respectively, and coated on a single film support (Fig. 58). Incorporated in the emulsion layers were dye forming couplers which react simultaneously during development to produce a separate dye ; image in each layer. When printed from a color negative, a ^ color duplicate negative or a set of tri-color separation negatives, a three-color reproduction of the original was j obtained. The couplers used in this film are similar to i those described previously for the negative film. I j Ansco Color Positive Release j Printing Film, Type 848^5 j A color positive film balanced for printing with filtered tungsten illumination. The speed of this film is similar to black and white positive, approximately E.I. 1. S.j The processing steps and time for the negative pro- i cess are given on page 318; the table on page 319 contains the processing steps and times for the positive process. 55 Duerr, "The Ansco Color Negative-Positive Pro cess," loc. cit., p. 470. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 317 Before After After Bleach & Fix Dev. Dev. i: 3 = 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Fig. 58. Ansco Color Positive film structure. 1. Gelatin surface layer. 2. Blue sensitive emulsion plus yellow dye forming coupler. 3. Yellow filter layer. 4. Green sensitive emulsion plus magenta dye forming coupler. 5. Gelatin separation layer. 6. Red sensitive emulsion plus cyan dye forming coupler. 7. Film base. 8. Anti-halation layer. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. £ o £ £ £ £ - a CD - a - a • a - a E (U CQ E S E E I D CQ r ^ £ O CO V O C O 1 v O • a P t m Ü O £ Ü £ £ £ CD CD - a CD • a a • a t n ( 0 S (U CQ E E E i n t o X o o C M £ O • a V O 0 0 CM CM r H • a p / C M o O O r 4 * a r 4 . £ 0 £ u £ £ £ •a CD -a CD •a •a •a E (Q S CQ E E E Tf CM o o V O 0 0 CO 1 —1 m o ( —I * £ O £ £ £ •a CD ■a •a •a E CD CQ E S S ro CO ' V f C M £ o 0 0 V O 0 0 r4 •a C O 1 P i £ t o A I ( U u A a ) 0 ) c ' â ( U A o I — I Q ) > CD H3 M O iH o u » c •H E £ ■H Ë C •H Ë C • H £ C •H E C • H E C • r l E 03 VÛ £ • H Ê VD £ ■ H E 00 £ • H E £ • H ^ 00 VÛ + > a N CQ CD • a £ Xi i H - P CD 0 • H a 0 3 ü tc j x : X i A 0 U CQ <D CQ X CQ t o X i a t o i H to • a t o - P CO I S m CO £ - H E i n C M £ • H E ( M £ - H E o m I o CM £ £ • r i ' H S E C M i n CM I o CM £ • H E i n CM I o CM (Ü > 1 P 318 • H m ■ Ü £ ( 0 w <D £ < D ■ O U I I £ 0 -n) + ) § - H 1 u * Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CD ■ D O Q. C g Q. ■D CD C/) o' 3 O 848 8 C Q ' 3" i 3 CD "n c 3. 3 " CD CD ■D O Q. C a o 3 ■D O CD Q. ■D CD Pre-bath 2 min. Rinse 30 sec. Color developer 11-14 min. Rinse 30 sec. Hardener fix 8 min. Wash 4 min. Bleach 6 min. Wash 4 min. Squeegee and sound track treatment 30 sec. Wash 2 min. Fix 4 min. Wash 8 rain. Stabilizing bath 2 min. Rinse 1 sec. Dry 25 min. C/) C/) CO M ID 320 Processing Formulas Pre-bath Sol. A Water Sodium Hexametaphosphate Sodium Sulfate Sodium Carbonate Sodium Bicarbonate Sol- B Water Sodium Lauryl Sulfate Add Solution A to B with manual stirring. pH 11.0 + -2 850.0 ml 1.0 gram 30.0 grams 75.0 grams 3.0 grams 100.0 ml 4.0 grams Tank Negative Color Developer— 608 Water Sodium Hexametaphosphate Sodium Sulfite Dicolamine (S5 Type) Sodium Carbonate Sodium Sulfate Potassium Bromide Ansco DA-1 Accelerator (5% sol. ) 900 ml 1.0 gram 3.0 grams 7.0 grams 75.0 grams 30.0 grams 2.0 grams 5.0 ml Repl. 750 ml 1.0 gram 3.75 grams 11.0 grams 75.0 grams 30.0 grams 1.0 gram 6.0 ml Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 321 Potassium Iodide Sodium Hydroxide Water to pH Positive Color Developer— 509 Water Sodium Hexametaphosphate Sodium Sulfite Dicolamine (S5 Type) Sodium Carbonate Potassium Bromide Potassium Iodide Sodium Hydroxide Water to Acid Rinse— 859B Acetic Acid (glacial) Water to pH 5.4-5.8 Tank .002 gram 1.0 liter 10.29 90 ml 1.0 gram 2.0 grams 5.0 grams 60.0 grams 1.0 gram .001 gram 1.0 liter 3.0 ml Sodium Acetate (anhydrous) 30.0 grams 1.0 liter Repl. 2.0 grams 1.0 liter 10. 75 750 ml 1.0 gram 750 ml 7. 5 grams 60.0 grams 2.0 grams 1.0 liter 10.0 ml 20.0 grams 1.0 liter Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 322 Hardening Fix— 804 Water Potassium Chrome Alum Potassium Alum Sodium Acetate Sodium Sulfite Sodium Thiosulfate Water to pH Bleach— 715A Water Sodium Hexametaphosphate Potassium Ferricyanide Sodium Acetate Acetic Acid (glacial) Water to pH Fix— 800 Tank 750 ml 30.0 grams 20.0 grams 10.0 grams 10.0 grams 200.0 grams 1.0 liter 4.0 750 ml .5 gram 100. 0 grams 20. 0 grams 2.25 ml 1.0 liter 4.5-4.7 Repl. Water Sodium Thiosulfate Water to 750 ml 200.0 grams 1.0 liter 750 ml .5 gram 200.0 grams 20.0 grams 9.0 ml 1.0 liter 4.5-5.0 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 323 T a n k Repl. Stabilizer Formaldehyde 2% Sol. Formulas for Processing Ansco Color Negative 845 Color Developer— 3470-62 Sodium Hexametaphosphate Sodium Sulfite Dicolamine (S5 Type) Sodium Carbonate Potassium Bromide Potassium Iodide Sodium Hydroxide Water to pH First Fix— 204 Sodium Thiosulfate Sodium Sulfite Acetic Acid (28%) Borax Potassium Alum Water to 1-0 gram 12.0 grams 4.0 grams 60.0 grams 1.3 grams . 002 gram 1.0 liter 10.80 .05 240.0 grams 15.0 grams 75.0 ml 14.5 grams 15.0 grams 1.0 liter 1.0 gram 13.0 grams 4. 0 grams 60.0 grams 1.3 grams .006 gram . 5 gram 1.0 liter 10.95 .05 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 324 Bleach— 715C Potassium Alum Acetic Acid Sodium Acetate Potassium Ferricyanide Potassium Ferrocyanide Water to pH Final Fix— 805 Sodium Thiosulfate Sodium Sulfite Sodium Acetate Boric Acid Acetic Acid Potassium Alum Water to pH Stabilizer— 951C Water Formalin (37% sol.) Dow Corning Silicone 36 Tank 10.0 grams 9. 0 ml 20.0 grams 95.0 grams 5.0 grams 1.0 liter 4.5-4.9 200.0 grams 3.0 grams 20.0 grams 7.5 grams 8.0 ml 5. 0 grams 1.0 liter 4. 7-5. 0 750 ml 2. 5 ml 2. 5 ml Repl. 15.0 grams 9.0 ml 20.0 grams 200.0 grams 1.0 liter 4.5-4.9 750 ml 12. 5 ml 10.0 ml Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 325 Tank Repl. Water to 1.0 liter 1.0 liter Eastman Color The Eastman Color Process is a three-color subtrac tive color process introduced in 1950 by the Eastman Kodak Company.When it was introduced the process consisted of two elements that could be used singly or together: a coupler incorporated, integral mask, three-color negative, and a coupler incorporated, three-color print film. The negative achieved almost immediate success and has become | the basic unit for almost 100 percent of the 35mm color i motion pictures photographed in the United States. The | ' I print film was used first chiefly for daily prints but its | popularity has consistently increased and at the present ■ time it shares the number one position for release printingi with Technicolor imbibition release print film. A large | I ipart of the success of the Eastman Color System has been i due to the steady improvement of the process. Since its introduction there have been four different camera negative W. T. Hanson, "Color Negative and Color Positive Film for Motion Picture Use," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, March, 1952, p. 223. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 326 films and four different print films; also, two different panchromatic separation films, three different inter-nega tives and a color intermediate film which can he used as either an intermediate positive or an intermediate 57 negative- During the first few years following its introduc tion, Eastman Color Negative Film, Type 5247, was used to photograph feature films released in several print pro cesses. Columbia Pictures The Redskin Rode Super Cinecolor The Texas Ranger Super Cinecolor Barefoot Mailman Super Cinecolor Hurricane Island Super Cinecolor Sunny Side of the Street Super Cinecolor Magic Carpet Super Cinecolor Warner Bros. The Lion and the Horse ,»arner Color Carson City Warner Color The Miracle of Our Lady of Fatima Warner Color Springfield Rifle Warner Color House of Wax (3-D) Warner Color Stop, You're Killing Me Warner Color S^ibid., pp. 223-224, 231-232. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 27 She's Back on Broadway Twentieth Century-Fox Sword of Monte Cristo The Robe How to Marry a Millionaire Beneath the Twelve Mile Reef Paramount Sangaree United Artists Drums in the Deep South Republic Pictures Fair Wind to Java Warner Color Super Cinecolor Technicolor Technicolor Technicolor Technicolor Super Cinecolor Trucolor Trucolor Lady Wants Mink The camera negative films manufactured under the name of Eastman Color Negative are multilayered color films which consist of three light sensitive emulsions sensitized to red, green and blue light respectively, and coated on a single film support (Fig. 59). Incorporated in the emulsion layers are dye couplers which react simultaneously during development to produce a separate dye image in each layer complementary to the sensitivity of the layer. The light and dark areas of the image are reversed with respect to those of the original subject. Also the various color areas of the negative are complementary in color to the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 328 Before Dev. After Dev. After Bleach & Fix 1. 2. 3. i: 6. 7. 8. ° o o A <3 ( » * O * 0 ^ 0 o4 4 o ^ A o Fig. 59. Eastman Color Negative film structure. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Gelatin overcoat. Blue sensitive emulsion plus colorless yellow dye forming coupler. Carey Lea silver layer. Blue and green sensitive emulsion plus yellow colored magenta dye forming coupler. Gelatin interlayer. Blue and red sensitive emulsion plus reddish-orange colored cyan dye forming coupler. Film base. Anti-halation backing. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 329 corresponding areas in the original scene. The overall orange cast of the negative film is due to the color con tributed by the unused coupler in the red and green sensi tive layers. These colored couplers act as masks to correct for the deficiencies of the dyes which form the image. Four different color negative films having the general characteristics described above have been manufac tured as Eastman Color Negative Film: Eastman Color Negative Safety Film, Type 5247 A color negative film balanced for use under average daylight conditions, that is, for the mixture of sunlight and some blue skylight. The speed of this film was E.I. 16. Introduced in 1950. Eastman Color Negative Film, Type 5248^^ A color negative film balanced for use with 3,200° K. tungsten illumination. The speed of this film was E.I. 25 Tungsten and 16 Daylight with a Wratten 85 Filter. In troduced in 1953, this film replaced the earlier type 5247 ^^W. T. Hanson and W. I. Kisner, "Improved Color Films for Color Motion Picture Production," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, December, 1953, pp. 670-680. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 330 film. In addition to having a higher speed for tungsten exposure it had finer grain and improved color reproduction compared to its predecessor. Eastman Color Negative Film, Type 525Q59 A color negative film balanced for use with 3,200° K. tungsten illumination. The speed of this film was E.I. 50 Tungsten and 32 Daylight with a Wratten 85 Filter. In troduced in 1959, this film replaced the earlier Type 5248 film. Its improved characteristics included one camera stop more film speed and a new yellow forming dye coupler which produces an image dye having less absorption for green light giving improved color reproduction. Eastman Color Negative Film, Type 5251^0 A color negative film balanced for use with 3,200° K. tungsten illumination. The speed of this film is E.I. M. L. Dundon and D. M. Zwick, "A High Speed Color Negative Film," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, November, 1959, pp. 735-738. ^^W. I. Kisner, "A New Color Negative Film for Better Picture Quality," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, October, 1952, pp. 776-779. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 331 50 Tungsten and 32 Daylight with a Wratten 85 Filter. In troduced in 1962, this film replaced the earlier Type 5250 film. Its improved characteristics were substantially im proved color balance and finer grain. The print films manufactured under the name of Eastman Color Print Film are multilayered color films which consist of three light sensitive emulsions sensitized to blue, red and green light respectively and coated on a single film support (Fig. 60). Incorporated on the emulsion layers are dye couplers which react simultaneously during development to produce a separate dye image in each layer. When printed from a color negative or three color separation negatives a three-color reproduction of the original subject is obtained. The couplers used in these films are color less. Eastman Color Print Safety Film, Type 5281 (35mm) and 7381 (16mm) A color positive film balanced for printing with filtered tungsten illumination. The manufacturer's instruc tions state that better contrast and color reproduction can be obtained if this film is printed by additive rather than ^^Hanson, "Color Negative and Color Positive Film for Motion Picture Use," loc. cit., pp. 231-238. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 332 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Before Dev. After Color Dev. After Bleach & Fix k m * : O o o m ill Fig. 50. Eastman Color Print film structure. 1. Gelatin overcoating. 2. Green sensitive emulsion plus colorless magenta dye forming coupler. 3. Red sensitive emulsion plus colorless cyan dye forming coupler. 4. Gelatin interlayer. 5. Blue sensitive emulsion plus colorless yellow dye forming coupler. 6. Substratum. 7. Film base. 8. Anti-halation backing. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 333 subtractive means. Introduced in 1950. Eastman Color Print Film, Type 5382 (35mm) and 7382 (16mm) A color positive film balanced for printing with filtered tungsten illumination. Introduced in 1953, this film replaced the earlier Type 5381 film. Its improved characteristics included better sharpness, better sound track and a new magenta dye-forming coupler which results in improved red reproduction. Eastman Color Print Film, Type 7383 (16mm) A color positive film balanced for printing with filtered tungsten illumination. Introduced in 1959, this film was only available in the 15mm size where its improved sharpness could be used with the greatest advantage. Eastman Color Print Film, Type 5385^4 (35mm) and 7385 (16mm) A color positive film balanced for printing with ^^Hanson and Kisner, "Improved Color Films for Color Motion Picture Production," loc. cit., pp. 681-692. ^^Kisner, "A New Color Negative Film for Better Picture Quality," loc. cit., pp. 779-781. G^ibid. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 3 4 filtered tungsten illumination. Introduced in 1962, this film replaced the earlier Type 5382 (35mm) and Type 7283 (16mm). Its improved characteristics included better sharpness in the 35mm size and higher effective speed and improved color balance in both the 35mm and 16mm sizes. Approximately one year after the introduction of the first Eastman Color Negative and Print Films the system was made complete by the addition of two inter mediate films: 1. A black and white panchromatic film having a contrast range intermediate between the negative and posi tive films usually used in black and white work. Eastman Panchromatic Separation Film, Type 521665 The emulsion of this film is slower, sharper and has finer grain structure than the usual panchromatic dupli cating films. Its purpose is making three color separation positives from color negatives. Introduced in 1951. C. Anderson, N. H. Groet, C. H. Horton, and D. Zwick, "An Intermediate Positive Internegative System for Color Motion Picture Photography," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, March, 1953, pp. 217-225. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 335 : Eastman Panchromatic Separation Film, Type 5235^^ A black and white panchromatic duplicating positive film used for making three color separation positives from color negatives. Introduced in 1955, this film replaced the earlier Type 5216 Film. 2. A multilayered duplicating color negative film which consists of three light sensitive emulsions sensitized to red, green and blue light respectively (Fig. 61). In corporated in the emulsion layers are dye forming couplers which react simultaneously during development to produce separate dye images in each layer. This film differs sig nificantly from its companion camera film. Type 5247, in that the dyes formed are not complementary to the sensitiv ity of the emulsion layers. The magenta dye forming coupler is in the top blue sensitive layer so that the blue light exposure leads to the formation of na genta dye. The cyan dye forming coupler is in the middle green sensitive layer so that the green light exposure leads to the formation of cyan dye. The yellow dye forming coupler is in the bottom red sensitive layer so that the red light exposure leads to ; j ^^Internal memo, Motion Picture Film Department, Eastman Kodak Company, 1956. | Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 336 Before Dev. After Dev. After Bleach & Fix 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. o® J Î o o; ov 0» V o a 4 o o A c 7 a y o a a o ! • ) i r i 1 / r y / j ' i s o s o] o o o o s . o o ’ ’ lu/i/nirNijj/jTTji Fig. 61. Eastman Color Internegative film structure (false sensitized). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Gelatin overcoat. Blue sensitive emulsion plus yellow colored magenta dye forming coupler. Gelatin interlayer. Blue and green sensitive emulsion plus reddish-orange colored cyan dye forming coupler. Gelatin interlayer. Blue and red sensitive emulsion and colorless yellow dye forming coupler. Film base. Anti-halation backing. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 337 the formation of yellow dye. This arrangement of dye form ing couplers and sensitizing is used to give maximum sharp ness. Because of this "false sensitized" arrangement, it must be printed from silver separation positives. The internegative contains colored couplers similar to those used in Eastman Color Negative which provide auto matic masking to correct in part for the unwanted absorption of the cyan and magenta dyes of the negative. Eastman Color Internegative Safety Film, Type 5243^7 A multilayered duplicating color negative film which consists of three light sensitive emulsions sensitized to red, green and blue light respectively. Introduced in 1951. Eastman Color Internegative Film, Type 5245^8 A multilayered duplicating color negative film which consists of three light sensitive emulsions sensitized to red, green and blue light respectively. Introduced in 1953, ^^Anderson et al., "An Intermediate Positive Inter negative System for Color Motion Picture Photography," loc. cit., pp. 217-225. ^^Hanson and Kisner, "Improved Color Films for Color Motion Picture Production," loc. cit., pp. 694-696. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 38 I this film replaced the earlier Type 5243 Film. Its general i characteristics were similar to those of its predecessor with improvements in graininess and sharpness. In 1955 the Eastman Color System was augmented by the addition of a duplicating negative for use with reversal color originals and a color intermediate that can be used as either a color master positive or a duplicate negative. The latter eventually replaced completely the Type 5245 Inter negative. Eastman Color Internegative Film, Type 5270^9 (35mm) and 7270 (16mm) A slow, fine grain, long latitude multilayered duplicating color negative film which consists of three light sensitive emulsions sensitized to red, green and blue ■ light respectively (Fig. 62). As in the Eastman Color Nega tive Film, colored dye forming couplers are employed to pro vide color correction for unwanted absorption of the image dyes of the reversal original. D. M. Zwick, H. I. Bello, and C. E. Osborne, "A | New Color Internegative Film for Use in Color Motion Picturei Photography," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, August, 1956, pp. 426-428. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 339 Before Dev. After Dev. After Bleach & Fix o rop o to 4 o a o A o%o o o o a ^0^2 Fig. 62. Eastman Color Internegative film structure (normal sensitized). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Gelatin overcoat. Blue sensitive emulsion plus colorless yellow dye forming coupler. Carey Lea silver layer. Blue and green sensitive emulsion plus yellow colored magenta dye forming coupler. Gelatin interlayer. Blue and red sensitive emulsion plus reddish-orange colored cyan dye forming coupler. Film base. Anti-halation backing. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 340 Eastman Color Intermediate Film, Type 525370 (35mm) and 7253 (16mm) A multilayered duplicating color film that can he used for the preparation of either a color master positive or a color duplicate negative. In addition to the color forming coupler this film contains absorbing dye which pre vents scattered light traveling within the emulsion layers. This improves image sharpness to the degree that it is not necessary to use the inverted order of layers employed in Types 5243 and 5245 (Fig. 63). The Films employed in the Eastman Color System can be processed in conventional type continuous processing machines with minor modifications to allow for all of the steps required. The processing steps have remained approx imately the same throughout the evolution of the process. The processing times for the negative process were changed substantially with the change from Type 5247 to Type 5248, and for the print process with the change from Type 5381 to 5382. Also there have been several changes in the chemical H. J. Bello, N. H. Groet, W. T. Hanson, C. E. Osborne, and D. M. Zwick, "A New Color Intermediate Positive Intermediate Negative Film System for Color Motion Picture Photography," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, April, 1957, pp. 205-209. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 4 1 After Bleach & Fix 0 0 o > O P’ 0 Od op Fig. 63. Eastman Color Intermediate film structure. 1. Gelatin overcoating. 2. Blue sensitive emulsion plus colorless yellow dye forming coupler. 3. Carey Lea silver layer. 4. Blue and green sensitive emulsion plus yellow colored magenta dye forming coupler. 5. Gelatin interlayer. 6. Blue and red sensitive emulsion plus reddish-orange colored cyan dye forming coupler. 7. Film base. 8. Anti-halation backing. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 342 formulas of the solutions used in both processes. The processing steps and times for the negative pro- cess^l are on page 343; the processing steps and times for the positive process are indicated in the table on page 344, Pre-bath (for black backing removal) Water Borax Sodium Sulfate (desiccated) Sodium Hydroxide Water to Negative Color Developer Water Benzyl Alcohol Sodium Hexametaphosphate Sodium Sulfite (desiccated) Sodium Hydroxide (10% sol.) CD-3* Potassium Bromide Sodium Carbonate (monohydrate) Water to 800.0 ml 20.0 grams 100.0 grams 10.0 ml 1.0 liter 950.0 ml 3.8 ml 2.0 grams 2.0 grams 5.5 ml 5.0 grams 1.0 grams 50.0 grams 1.0 liter 71 "Production of Motion Pictures in Color Using Eastman Color Films" (Motion Picture Film Department, East- | man Kodak Co., Rochester, N. Y., 1952, 1954, 1960, 1963). | Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 343 C J Ü c o c C G G C G G u 0 G Q ) 0 *•4 0 •H •H •i4 •rl •ri •H *d 0 0 'd r4 m 0 1 B 0 E E s E E E E 0 0 s im o o 04 O 00 r- r4 in r4 o in 04 1-4 04 r4 o O in 1-4 1-4 6 u G O G C G G G G G 0) 0 -H 0 •H ■H -H •H •rl •rl 1 I 1 •#4 o 0) 0 1 B 0 E E E E E E j j j E o o C M O Tf 00 T f r-> o in 04 H 04 O O in 1-4 1-4 Ü 6 G Ô G G G c G G G u 0 G 0) 0 •H 0 •H •rl •rl •rl •rl •rl •H 0 0 •<4 m m 0 E 0 E E s E E E E 0 0 E C v j o o ID o CO r4 in r4 o in 1 —1 04 04 04 O O in r4 1-4 . 0 0 f i o G G G G C G 0 G 0) 0 ••4 0 •H •rl •rl •rl •H •H 1 0 •H in t o 0 E 0 E E E E E E 0 E T f C N J o O a \ O 00 00 O O in 1-4 04 04 r4 04 O O in tn 1-4 fH r4 0 6 G 0 C G c G C G 0 G 0 ) 0 •H 0 • r i •H •rl *d •rl •H 0 •H 00 0 £ 0 E E E E E E 0 E o O 04 O CO CO o O in 04 m 4 04 fH 04 O O i n i n M 1-4 r4 . c G G G C c c G G 'i4 •H •i4 •rl •H •H •rl •H * d m B E E E E E E E E 04 04 CO m 1-4 O in 1 04 iH 1 in 1 — 1 . . G G G C G c C c G G •H 1 •r4 ••4 •i4 •rl •rl • r l •rl •H •H r- B 1 E E E E E E s E E 04 ' o~ T f 0 0 0 0 r4 O in I 04 04 1-4 1 T f in 04 r4 u + J 0 d A A + J 0 G 0 1-4 0 X J i 0 0 0 0 G tr» C > c X X •H d •H 0 ♦H 'H •H N 4J U 'O U 44 M4 •rl S ' r O rC r4 G c Q > 1 M > V U 1-4 •H 0 •H 1 0 0 nj 0 d d i Q 0 4 J 0 ) u r4 U 0 0 0 G 0 d G + > > 1 u Q * 0 A •i4 d r4 d • r l d • H 0 Ü & CO o CO m CO a & û Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. . . Ü U C Ü q q q q q q q Ü 0 q Q ) Q ) •H Q ) •H •H •H -H 1 1 •H •H •H 0 0 • r | o 0 1 0 1 £ 0 1 £ £ £ £ 1 1 £ £ £ 0 1 0 £ 1 I o o o C O rH in rH O m rH C M C M C M pH 1 O O in rH rH rH cî d q d q q q q d d q q d q 0) Q ) - r l 0) - r l -H • r l •H 0) 0) •H -H 0 •H m 0 1 0 1 £ 0 1 £ £ £ £ 0 1 0) £ £ 0 1 £ m O o o G O C M o o o o in rH C M rH C M C M C O p H C M O O o o m in rH rH rH rH H d d q d q q q q d d q q d q 0 1 0) •H Q ) •H • r l • r l ■ fH < u < D • r l •H 0) •d m 0 1 0 1 £ 0 1 £ £ £ £ 0 1 0 1 £ £ 0 1 £ m O o o 00 C M o o o O m rH C M rH C M C M ro rH C M o O O O in m rH rH pH pH rH 0 ■P . d c d q q q q d q q q d q c Q ) ■H 0) •H • r l •H •H 0 •H •H • r l 0 1 •p H 0 1 £ 0 1 £ £ £ £ 0 1 £ £ £ 0 1 1 ' £ ® e o in o C O C M o C M 00 o O in rH C M rH C M C M pH C M O 1 1 rH o C M o O m m rH rH rH rH pH c q q q q q d q q q d q •rH •H •H - r l •H •H < u •H •H -H 0 •H r4 £ £ £ £ £ £ 0 1 £ £ £ 0 £ 00 fO C M in 00 C M o C M 00 m o in 1 rH rH 1 C M rH 1 t-H 1 C M m rH pH 43 U 44 Q ) Id Q * 40 44 0 q Q pH 0) A : O ' 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 q 0 O ' q > q X q X •H q 0 • r l <u • pH • r l k •H •H 4J M ' O U IW 44 Lp -H O ' 43 pH q >1 u >1 -P V -D rH •rH >1 •H (0 0 « 0 1 ( t 43 q 43 (d 43 A ■p 0 1 w 1 — 1 M u 0 1 0) 0 1 d 0 1 q 0 1 0 44 >1 U A o A -H (0 rH r O 0 d •H fd 44 A 0 M A C O u C O A 3: m C O & C O C O Û 344 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 345 *4-amino-N-ethyl-N(B-methanesulfonamidoethyl) -m- toluidine sesquisulfate monohydrate Fixing Bath— 1st and 2nd Water Sodium Thiosulfate Sodium Sulfite Acetic Acid (28% sol. ) Boric Acid Potassium Alum Water to Positive Color Developer Water Sodium Hexametaphosphate Sodium Sulfite CD-2* Sodium Carbonate Potassium Bromide Water to 500.0 ml 240.0 grams 15.0 grams 48.0 grams 7.5 grams 15.0 grams 1.0 liter 800.0 ml 2.0 grams 4.0 grams 3.0 grams 20.0 grams 2.0 grams 1.0 liter *2 amino-5- diethylamino toluene hydrochloride Sound Track Developer Sol. A Water 250.0 ml Sound Coating Aid* Hexylene Glycol 2.0 grams 10.0 ml Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 346 Sol. B Water Sodium Hydroxide Sodium Sulfite Hydroquinone Ethylenediamine Water to 600.0 ml 80.0 grams 60.0 grams 60.0 grams 15.0 ml 1.0 liter *Copolymer of methyl vinyl ether and maleic anydride Bichromate Bleach Water to Potassium Bromide Potassium Bichromate Potassium Alum Water to Ferricyanide Bleach Water Potassium Ferricyanide Potassium Bromide Water to Negative Stabilizing Bath Water Bihasic Sodium Phosphate Monobasic Sodium Phosphate Sodium Hexametaphosphate 800.0 ml 20.0 grams 5.0 grams 20.0 grams 1.0 liter 800.0 ml 50.0 grams 20.0 grams 1.0 liter 800.0 ml 8.5 grams 1.3 grams 1.0 gram Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 347 Water to 1.0 liter Positive Stabilizincr Bath Formaldehyde (37% sol.) 20-0 ml Kodak Photo-Flo 2.0 ml Water to 1.0 liter Ektachrome In 1958 Ektachrome Commercial Film, Type 7255, was introduced as a 16mm camera film for the professional work er. This film is a multilayered subtractive three-color film intended as an improved replacement for Kodachrome Commercial Safety Color Film, Type 5268. ECO is balanced for exposure to a tungsten light source with a color temper-^ ature of 3,200° K. Its exposure index with this type of ; illumination is 25. For daylight exposure ECO has an ex posure index of 16 when used with a Wratten 85 Filter. Structurally ECO is similar to its predecessor KCO, j consisting of three light sensitive emulsions coated one on j top of the other on a single film base (Fig, 64). The emul-r sion nearest the base is sensitive to red light and blue 72 N. H. Groet, M. Liberman, and F. Richey, "An Improved Professional 16mm Reversal Camera Film," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, January, 1959, pp. 8-10. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 348 Before Dev. After Dev. After Bleach & Fix 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. ^ o à \ o po»o. I 4 Vo A O Y# o o w \ o A 0^ o V V / Ù.O Ù. Q A W S i i Fig. 64. Ektachrome film structure. 1. Blue sensitive emulsion plus a yellow dye forming coupler. 2. Carey Lea silver layer. 3. Green sensitive emulsion plus a magenta dye forming coupler. 4. Clear gelatin. 5. Red sensitive emulsion plus a cyan dye forming coupler. 6. Film base. 7. Anti-halation backing. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 349 light, the middle emulsion is sensitive to green light and blue light and the top emulsion is sensitive to blue light. Between the top blue sensitive emulsion and the other two emulsions is a layer of gelatin containing finely divided silver particles called a "Carey Lea layer." These silver particles absorb blue light and act as a filter that pre vents blue light exposure of the middle and bottom emulsion layers. The chief structural difference between ECO and its predecessor is that the color forming couplers are in corporated in the Ektachrome emulsions. The red sensitive emulsion layer contains a cyan dye forming coupler, the green sensitive emulsion layer contains a magenta dye form ing coupler, and the blue sensitive emulsion layer contains a yellow dye forming coupler. After exposure Ektachrome Commercial is developed in an Elon Hydroquinone black and white developer to pro duce a negative silver image. This is followed by wash to remove the excess developer then the film is hardened in a chrome alum hardener which serves as a combination hardener and stop bath. To prevent sludging in the wash after the hardener, the film first passes into an acid rinse which maintains its low pH. This is followed by a normal wash and the reversal exposure. The reversal exposure is made Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 350 with white lights and can be either from the emulsion side or the base side^ or both as long as it is sufficient to expose all the remaining silver halide in each of the three 'light sensitive layers. The white light exposure is followed by development in the color developer. During de velopment the oxidized developing agent in the developer couples with the dye forming couplers located in each emul sion layer forming a positive dye image along with the posi tive silver images. The excess color developer is removed by a wash followed by a second hardening in a chrome alum hardener. After hardening the film passes into another acid rinse and wash; then the metallic silver image is converted :to silver halide by immersion in a ferricyanide bleach and removed in the fixing bath. A final wash is followed by a 73 stabilizing bath; then the film is dried. Prints can be made in several different ways. 1. Direct reversal color prints by contact or I I optical printing onto Ektachrome Reversal Print Film, Type 7386. 2. Direct reversal color prints by contact or optical printing onto Eastman Reversal Color ^^Ibid. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 351 Print Film, Type 7387. 3. Direct reversal black and vSiite prints by con tact or optical printing onto Eastman Reversal Duplicating Film, Type 7361. 4. Color prints on Eastman Color Print Film, Type 7585, made by first printing an internegative on Eastman Color Internegative Film, Type 7270. 5. Color prints on either of the films listed in the first two methods using 7255, 7386, or 7387 as a reversal color master positive. 6. Black and white prints on Eastman Fine Grain Release Positive Film, Type 7302 or Type 7303, made by first printing a duplicate negative on Eastman Fine Grain Panchromatic Duplicating Negative Film, Type 7234. 7. 35mm color or black and white prints can be made by enlargement to the 35mm equivalents of the film listed above in methods 1, 4 and 6. 8. 35mm or 16mm Technicolor imbibition prints can be made printing three separation negatives from the Ektachrome and from these separations preparing three matrices. The following is the processing cycle and formulas Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 352 for processing Ektachrome Commercial Film, Type 7255, 74 process ECO-1. Solution Time Temperature in 1st Developer 5 min. 80° F. Wash 1 min. 30 sec. 75° F. 1st Hardener 1 min. 30 sec. 75° F. Acid Rinse 45 sec. 75° F. Wash 45 sec. 75° F. White light exposure either from the base side approximately 14, the 300 emulsion ft. cdl. Color Developer 5 min. 80° F. Wash 45 sec. 75° F. 2nd Hardener 1 min. 30 sec. 75° F. Acid Rinse 45 sec. 75° F. Wash 45 sec. 75° F. Ferricyanide Bleach 1 min. 30 sec. 75° F. Fix 1 min. 30 sec. 75° F. Wash 2 min. 15 sec. 75° F. Stabilizer 45 sec. 75° F. Dry Abridged Specifications for Processing Ektachrome Commercial Film, Type 7255 (Process ECO-1) (Motion Picture Film Department, Eastman Kodak Company, New York). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 353 First Developer Water Sodium Tetraphosphate Sodium Bisulfite Elon Sodium Sulfite Hydroquinone Sodium Sulfate Sodium Carbonate Sodium Thiocyanide Sodium Bromide Potassium Iodide (0.1% sol.) Water to Hardener— 1st and 2nd Water Potassium Chrome Alum Water to Acid Rinse— 1st and 2nd Water Glacial Acetic Acid Sodium Hydroxide Water to 800.0 ml .6 gram 2.5 grams 4.65 grams 47.0 grams 3.0 grams 59.0 grams 30.0 grams 2.6 grams 2.0 grams 4. 0 ml 1.0 liter 800.0 ml 30.0 ml 1.0 liter 800.0 ml 30.0 ml 1. 75 grams 1.0 liter Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 354 Color Developer Water Sodium Tetraphosphate Benzyl Alcohol Sodium Sulfite Sodium Bromide Ethylenediamine Potassium Iodide (0.1% sol.) Sodium Hydroxide Trisodium Phosphate (Na^PO^»I2H2O) CD-3* Citrazinic Acid Water to 8 0 0 .0 m l 5.0 grams 4.51 ml 5.20 grams .6 gram 2.50 grams 10.0 ml 1.8 grams 40.0 grams 11.3 grams 1.9 grams 1.0 liter *4-amino-N-ethyl-N- [B-methane-sulfonamidoethyl]-m- toluidene sesquisulfate monohydrate C2H5 \ / N CH2CH2NHSO2CH3 NHg"3/2H2S04‘H20 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 355 Ferricyanide Bleach Water Sodium Bromide Sodium Ferrocyanide (decahydrate) Potassium Persulfate Carbowax #1540 (50% sol. ) Water to Fixing Bath Water Sodium Thiosulfate (Na2S203'5H2O) Sodium Sulfite (desiccated) Water to Stabilizing Bath Water Formalin (Formaldehyde 37.5% sol.) Water to 800.0 ml 38.0 grams 182.0 grams 48.0 grams 10.0 ml 1.0 liter 800.0 ml 180.0 grams 9.0 grams 1.0 liter 800.0 ml 4. 0 ml 1.0 liter After the ECO-1 process had been in commercial use for ap proximately four years, a new improved process, ECO-2, was introduced. This new process operated at a higher tempera ture and featured a greatly reduced processing time and a cleaner process. A prehardener was introduced and the chrome alum hardeners were eliminated. The following are the processing cycle and formulas for processing Ektachrome Commercial Film, Type 7255, in Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 355 process ECO-2 Solution 75 Time Temperature Prehardener 2 min. 30 sec. 95° F. Neutralizer 30 sec. 100° F. 1st Developer 3 min. 100° F. 1st Stop Bath 30 sec. 100° F. Wash 30 sec. 100° F. Color Developer 110° F. 2nd Stop Bath 30 sec. 100° F. Ferricyanide Bleach 1 min. 30 sec. 100° F. Fix 1 min. 30 sec. 100° F. Wash 1 min. 100° F. Stabilizer 30 sec. 100° F. Dry Prehardener Water p-toluenesulfinic acid (sodium salt) Sulfuric Acid 18 N Dimethoxytetrahydrofuran Sodium Sulfate 800.0 ml .5 gram 5.41 ml 4.30 ml 154.0 grams ^^Abridged Specifications for Processing Ektachrome Commercial Film, Type 7255 (Process ECO-2) (Motion Picture ; Film Department, Eastman Kodak Company, New York). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 357 Sodium Bromide Sodium Acetate Formalin (37% Formaldehyde sol.) Water to Neutralizer Water Hydroxylanine Sulfate Sodium Bromide Glacial Acetic Acid Sodium Hydroxide Sodium Sulfate Water to 1st Developer Water Sodium Tetraphosphate Sodium Bisulfite Phenidone (PD-2) Sodium Sulfite Hydroquinone Sodium Sulfate Sodium Carbonate (anhydrous) Sodium Thiocyanate 2.0 grams 20.0 grams 27.0 ml 1.0 liter 800.0 ml 22.0 grams 17.0 grams 10.0 ml 6.0 grams 50.0 grams 1.0 liter 800.0 ml 2.0 grams 3.8 grams .19 gram 35.0 grams 4.0 grams 54.0 grams 30.0 grams 2.50 grams Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 358 Sodium Bromide Potassium Iodide (0.1% sol.) Water to 1st and 2nd Stop Bath Water Glacial Acetic Acid Sodium Hydroxide Water to Color Developer Water Sodium Tetraphosphate Benzyl Alcohol Sodium Sulfite Trisodium Phosphate - 125^0 Sodium Bromide Potassium Iodide (0.1% sol.) Sodium Hydroxide Citrazinic Acid CD-3 Ethylenediamine 98% Tertiary Butylamine Borane 2.0 grams 6.0 ml 1.0 liter 800.0 ml 30.0 ml 1. 75 grams 1.0 liter 800.0 ml 5.0 grams 5.6 ml 5. 5 grams 37.0 grams .90 gram 31.0 ml 3.25 grams 3.60 grams 5.50 grams 1. 76 grams .07 gram Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 359 Water to 1.0 liter Ferricyanide Bleach Water Sodium Bromide Sodium Ferrocyanide (decahydrate) Potassium Persulfate Borax (Na2B^0-y SH^O) Sodium Hydroxide Water to Fixing Bath Water Sodium Thiosulfate (pentahydrate) Sodium Sulfite Water to Stabilizing Bath Water Formalin (37.5% Formaldehyde) Water to 800.0 ml 35.0 grams 240.0 grams 67.0 grams 1.0 gram .10 gram 1.0 liter 800.0 ml 200.0 grams 9.0 grams 1.0 liter 800.0 ml 12.0 ml 1.0 liter In May 1960 two new reversal color films for use by the professional cinematographer and a new reversal color print film for laboratory use were introduced by the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 350 Eastman Kodak Company.These films, designated by the manufacturer as Ektachrome ER (Daylight) Types 5257 (35mm) and 7257 (16mm), Ektachrome ER (Type B), Types 5258 (35mm) and 7258 (16mm), and Ektachrome Reversai Print Film, Types 5386 (35mm) and 7386 (16mm), were three-color multilayered subtractive color films having incorporated color forming couplers. The camera films in this group were designed for use under difficult lighting conditions where a high film speed is necessary. The print film was designed for pro cessing in the same solutions as the camera films so that prints could be quickly made for editing and limited re lease. The daylight balanced 5257 and 7257 have been used chiefly for instrumentation and data-gathering photography. Its high film speed permits the use of high speed cameras and/or long focal length lenses. The tungsten balanced 5258 and 7258 have been used for in-plant photography, nighttime sporting events, color newsreel work and dramatic N. H. Groet, T. J. Murray, and C. E. Osborne, "Two High-Speed Color Films and a Reversal Print Film for Motion Picture Use," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, November, 1960, pp. 813-817. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 351 shows. The first use of Ektachrome ER to photograph a com plete dramatic show was the one-hour Kraft Suspense Theater 77 presentation "Once Upon a Savage Night. " This story was photographed in the Chicago area at night with existing light using 35mm Ektachrome ER (Type B), Type 5258. From this reversal original an internegative was made on Eastman Color Internegative Film, Type 5270, and prints were made in the normal manner on Eastman Color Print Film, Type 5385. While the show received considerable attention from the entertainment industry, it did not create a trend. The use of Ektachrome ER continued to be limited to the photograph ing of single difficult scenes for productions in which the normal scenes were photographed with conventional color films. Structurally these films were like Ektachrome Commercial Film, Type 7255 (Fig. 64), having the same layer arrangement and producing similar color reproduction. The general properties of the camera films were * 7 0 as follows: ^^"Eastman Videbuts Ektachrome on NBC-TVs 'Suspense Theater,'" Daily Variety (Hollywood), March 2, 1964, p. 4. 78 Groet et al., "Two High-Speed Color Films and a Reversal Print Film for Motion Picture Use,"loc. cit.,p.816. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 362 Eastman Ektachrome ER Film (Daylight Type), Types 5257 (35mm) and 7257 (16mm) A high speed reversal color camera film balanced for use under average daylight conditions. The speed of this film is E. I. 160. Introduced in 1960 as a regular product, this film was previously available on special order as Eastman Color Reversal Film, Daylight Type, SO-260 (35mm and 16mm). Eastman Ektachrome ER Film (Type B), Types 5258 (35mm) and 7258 (16mm) ^ A high speed reversal color camera film balanced for use under tungsten illumination of 3,200° K. The speed of this film is E.I. 125. Introduced in 1960 as a regular product, this film was previously available on special order as Eastman Color Reversal Film, Type B, SO-270 (35mm and 16mm). The general properties of the print film were as 79 follows : Eastman Reversal Print Film, Types 5386 (35mm) and 7386 (16mm) A reversal color print film balanced for printing 79 Ibid., p. 817. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 363 by tungsten quality illumination having a color temperature of 2,900° K., with appropriate balancing filters in the light beam. Like the film structure, the processing steps and solutions are also similar to those used for Ektachrome Commercial Film; differences are in the two developers and in the solution times and temperatures. The similarity between the Ektachrome Commercial process ECO-1 and the Ektachrome ER process ME-2A is such that the same processing machine can be used for both processes. To accomplish this it is necessary to have auxiliary storage tanks and suitable pumping arrangements so that one set of solutions can be held in the storage tanks while the other set of solutions is in use. If such an arrangement is used the times re quired in the various solutions permit operation of the ECO-1 process at 50 feet per minute at 80° and the ME-2A process at 30 feet per minute at 75° F. It is not desirable to operate the ECO-1 process at 75° F. at the same proces sing machine speed as the ME-2A process, because this would result in a loss of effective emulsion speed of the Ekta chrome Commercial Film. It is also not desirable to operate the ME-2A process at 80° F. because of the danger of reticu lation of the Ektachrome ER Films. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 354 The table on page 365 lists a comparison of the re quired times and temperatures for the use of a single ma- 80 chine for processes ECO-1 and ME-2A. Approximately four years after the introduction of the Ektachrome ER and the ME-2A process, a new medium speed reversal color camera film was added to the group. This film, called Eastman Ektachrome MS Film, Types 5256 (35mm) and 7256 (16mm), had structural characteristics similar to those of the Ektachrome ER films and was also processed in the same ME-2A process. The general properties of this third camera film 81 were as follows: Eastman Ektachrome MS Film, Types 5256 (35mm) and 7256 (16mm) A medium speed reversal color camera film balanced for use under average daylight conditions. The speed of this film is E.I. 64. Introduced in 1963, the improved characteristics exhibited by this film are lower graininess. 80 "The Use of a Single Machine for Processing of Ektachrome Commercial Film, Type 7255, and Ektachrome ER Film, Types 7257 and 7258" (Motion Picture Film Department, Eastman Kodak Company, February, 1860), Table 1. 81 "MS for Medium Speed," Kodak Tech Bits, Eastman Kodak Company, No. 3 (1963). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 355 EtCIACHROME CCHCRCIAL FIIM PROCESS ECX3-1 50 Feet Per Minute EmCHROS ER FHX PROCESS HB-2A 30 Feet Per Minute Process Step Time Temp üeaarks Tlnig Teaç Reiaarks Backing Buffer 1 sec. 1 sec. First Developer 6'00" 80 F Repl. Rate 375 ml/m (F) 50 ml/m (L) 10'00" 75 F Repl. Rate 500 ml/m (F) 50 ml/m (L) Wash 1’ 32" 75 F 2'33" 75 F First Hardener 1'32" 75 F 2*33" 75 F Acid Rinse 46" 75 F l'13" 75 F Wash 46" 75 F 1*13" 75 F Blowback Re-Exposure Prtr. 14,300 ft. cdl, sec. 14,300 ft. cdl. sec. Color Developer 5’ 00" 80 F 8'20" 75 F Wash O'46" 75 F l'13" 75 F Second Hardener 1'32" 75 F 2'33" 75 F Acid Rinse 46" 75 F l'13" 75 F Wash 46" 75 F l'13" 75 F Ferri Bleach 1*32" 75 F 2'33" 75 F Fixing Bath X'32" 75 F Repl. Rate 150 ml/m (F) 50 ml/m (1) 2'33" 75 F Repl. Rate 300 ml/m (F) 100 ml/m (L) Wash 2'18" 75 F 3'50" 75 F Stabilizer 0*46" 75 F l'13" 75 F Final Squeegee Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 355 better color reproduction and improved sharpness when com pared with the Ektachrome ER film. Concurrently with the introduction of the ECO-2 process in July 1954, a corresponding new color process for the higher speed Ektachrome films^^ was also introduced. This process, designated ME-4, was recommended for the pro cessing of: Eastman Ektachrome ER Film (Daylight), Types 5257 and 7257 Eastman Ektachrome ER Film (Type B), Types 5258 and 7258 Eastman Ektachrome MS, Types 5256 and 7256 Eastman Reversal Print Film, Types 5386 and 7385 The relationship between the ME-4 process and the ECO-2 process is similar to that which existed between the ME-2A process and the ECO-1 process. All solutions, with the ex ception of prehardener, first developer and color developer, are common to both processes. The solutions have been ad justed so that at given developing machine speed the times in solution are the same for both processes. The following are the processing cycle and formulas _ i Abridged Specifications for Processing of Ekta chrome ER, MS and Reversal Print Films Through Process ME-4 (Motion Picture and Education Markets Division, East man Kodak Company, January, 1955). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 367 for the Ektachrome ME-4 process. Solution Time Prehardener Neutralizer First Developer First Stop Bath Wash Color Developer* Second Stop Bath Wash Bleach Fixing Bath Wash 1 min. Stabilizer Dry 2 min- 30 sec. 30 sec. 3 min. 30 sec. 30 sec. 30 sec. 3 min. 30 sec. 30 sec. 1 min. 1 min. 30 sec. 1 min. 30 sec. 30 sec. Temperature o 95 F. 100° F. 100° F- 100° F. 100° F. O 110 F. 100° F. 100° F. 100° F. 100° F. 100° F. 100° F. *No reversal exposure is necessary. The reversal of the image is accomplished chemically by the inclusion of a reversal agent in the color developer. Prehardener Water p-toluenesulfinic acid (sodium salt) Sulfuric Acid 18N Dimethoxytetrahydrofuran 800.0 ml .5 gram 5.41 ml 4.30 ml Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 368 Sodium Sulfate Sodium Bromide 154.0 grams 2.0 grams 20.0 grams 27.0 ml .03 gram 1.0 liter Sodium Acetate Formalin (37% Formaldehyde sol.) N-methyl benzothiazolium-p-toluene sulfonate Water to Neutralizer— See Process ECO-2 First Developer Water Sodium Tetraphosphate Sodium Bisulfate Phenidone (PD-2) Sodium Sulfite Hydroquinone Sodium Carbonate (anhydrous) Sodium Thiocyanate Potassium Iodide (0.1% sol.) Sodium Bromide Water to First and Second Stop Bath— See Process ECO-2 Color Developer Water 800.0 ml 800.0 ml 2.0 grams 8.0 grams .3 5 gram 37.0 grams 5.5 grams 28.2 grams 2.6 grams 6.0 ml 1.30 grams 1.0 liter Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 369 Sodium Tetraphosphate Benzyl Alcohol Sodium Sulfite Trisodium Phosphate . 128^0 Sodium Bromide Potassium Iodide (0.1% sol.) Sodium Hydroxide Citrazinic Acid CD-3 Ethylenediamine 98% Tertiary Butylamine Water to Ferricyanide Bleach— See Process ECO-2 Fixing Bath— See Process ECO-2 Stabilizing Bath— See Process ECO-2 In November 1965 the Eastman Kodak Company announced that "recent advances in emulsion technology have made it | possible to produce two new high-speed color reversal films." These new films, designated Ektachrome EF, repre sent improvements in practically all the important charac teristics by which films are judged. It is significant that these improvements were accomplished without a change in | 5- 0 grams 4.5 ml 7.5 grams 36.0 grams .30 gram 24.0 ml 3.25 grams 1.50 grams 11.0 grams 3.0 grams .07 gram 1.0 liter Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 370 the processing solutions or processing steps, provided that the laboratory had already changed from the ME-2A process 83 to the ME-4 process. The general properties of these camera films were as follows: Eastman Ektachrome EF Film (Daylight Type), Types 5241 (35mm) and 7241 (16mm) A high speed reversal color camera film balanced for use under average daylight conditions. The speed of this film is E.I. 150. Introduced in 1965, this film replaced Eastman Ektachrome ER, Types 5257 and 7257. Its improved characteristics include finer grain, better sharpness and better color reproduction. Eastman Ektachrome EF Film (Type B), Types 5240 (35mm) and 7242 (16mm) A reversal color camera film balanced for use under tungsten illumination of 3,200° K. The speed of this film is E.I. 125. Introduced in 1965, this film replaced Eastman Ektachrome ER Film, Types 5258 and 7258. Its improved Q O H. R. Beilfuss, D. S. Thomas, and J. W. Zuidema, "Two New High-Speed Ektachrome Motion Picture Films," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, April, 1966, pp. 344-345. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 37 1 characteristics include finer grain, better sharpness and better color reproductions. Since its introduction Ektachrome EF, Type 7242, has been extremely popular for use as a television news film. This film's ease of handling for both the photograph er and the processor has resulted in several television stations installing their own color newsreel processing facilities. 84 "What's new in news? A report in full color," Broadcasting, January 3, 1956, pp. 62-66. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER IX SUBTRACTIVE PROCESSES (REHALOGENATION) Because the two processes described next do not properly fit into any of the broad categories discussed previously, they have been set apart into a separate sub category, "Subtractive Processes (Rehalogenation)." Re- halogenation is the practice whereby silver halide is re formed from silver by the treating of an emulsion with an aqueous solution of an oxidizing agent and with the appro priate halide ion, the oxidizing of the metallic silver to silver ion not affecting substantially the dyes formed by color forming development, and the halide ion reacting with silver to form the desired silver halide. In both of the following processes films that are essentially single layer black and white color blind emulsions are used to produce three-color release prints. 372 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 373 Polacolor The Polacolor process as a system for motion pic ture release printing was announced in 1947 by the Polaroid Corporation of Cambridge, Massachusetts. In this process conventional black and white film is used to produce three color subtractive color prints.^ Paramount Pictures used Polacolor to release several cartoons of the Screen Song and Popeye series, also one 2 Noveltoon. Although successful for this purpose, the pro cess was not extended to feature productions. The location of the laboratory far from the motion picture production centers and its limited capacity were not favorable for feature picture release. In 1949 the Polaroid Corporation was faced with the alternative of investing enough addition al money to relocate the laboratory and set up for large scale automatic production or to abandon the process. The decision was to discontinue the process and concentrate 3 on the Polaroid process for amateur still photography. _ - ■ ~ ; G. E. Frost and S. Chesterfield Oppenheim, "Tech nical History of Professional Color Motion Pictures" (The Patent, Trademark and Copyright Foundation, George Washing- |ton University, Washington, D. C., 1960), p. 40. ^J. L. Limbacher, "A Historical Study of the Color Motion Picture," Dearborn, Michigan, 1963, p. 19. 3 Frost and Oppenheim, op. cit., p. 4. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 374 A description of the processing steps and formulas is given in USP 2471574 issued to W. H, Ryan and V. K. Walworth and assigned to the Polaroid Corporation. To pro duce prints by the Polacolor process it is necessary to be gin with three separation negatives, red, green and blue. From the red separation negative a print is made on normal black and white release film such as Eastman Fine Grain Release Positive, Type 5302. This print is developed in a cyan dye forming developer which forms a silver image and a cyan dye image in the exposed portion of the emulsion layer of the film. Development is stopped by immersion in a stop bath for one minute. The film is then washed for three minutes and given a controlled flash by exposure to a fifteen watt incandescent bulb located approximately two inches from the film, which is moved past the bulb at the rate of thirty feet per minute. Rehalogenation is accom plished by treatment for three minutes in a solution which reforms silver halide in any exposed portion of the film. Following this treatment the emulsion layer contains silver halide throughout and the component image formed of cyan dye, the silver halide being substantially uniformly sensi tive and developable only upon exposure to light. The film is washed to remove any residual traces of rehalogenating Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 375 composition including oxidizing agent and any soluble reac tion products of the rehalogenating treatment, and then dried. The print is now ready for exposure from the green separation which is printed in register with the previously developed cyan image. After printing the film is developed for three and one-half minutes in a magenta dye forming color developer, then immersed in a stop bath for one min ute. The emulsion layer now contains light sensitive ha lide, the cyan component image, the magenta component image, and the developed silver image. After washing for three minutes the remaining silver is reconverted to light sensi tive silver halide by immersion for three minutes in the re halogenating solution. The film is then washed and dried and the blue separation negative is printed in register with the dye images obtained from the red and green separation negatives. The exposure from the blue separation negative is developed in a yellow dye forming developer for four min utes. Following the yellow development, the emulsion layer contains light sensitive silver halide, the cyan component image, the magenta component image and the yellow component image, also developed silver. Development is stopped by immersion for one minute in the stop bath. This is followed by a three minute wash and a three minute immersion in the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 376 rehalogenating bath. The effect of this final treatment in the rehalogenating bath is to convert the silver to silver halide so that the emulsion contains light sensitive silver halide throughout along with the cyan, magenta and yellow dye components which together form a multicolor image. Sub sequent treatment with a conventional fixing bath followed by washing and drying removes the remaining silver halide and leaves the multicolor dye images. Formulas for processing steps outlined above are as follows Cyan Color Developer Sodium Carbonate Sodium Sulfite p-diethyl amino aniline monohydrochloride Potassium Bromide 2, 4-dichlor 1-naphthol Acetone Water to Stop Bath Sodium Carbonate (desiccated) Pa ra formaIdehyde 25.0 grams 1.0 gram 0.6 gram 0.4 gram 1.0 gram 100 ml 1.0 liter 2.2 grams 5.0 grams 'USP 2471574. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 377 Water to Rehaloqenatincr Bath Potassium Bromide Cupric Chloride Water to Magenta Color Developer Sodium Carbonate (desiccated) Sodium Sulfite p-diethyl amino aniline monohydrochloride Potassium Bromide p-nitrophenylacetonitrile Acetone Water to Yellow Color Developer Sodium Carbonate Sodium Sulfite p-diethyl amino aniline monohydrochloride Potassium Bromide Ethylacetoacetate Acetone Water to 1.0 liter 200.0 grams 35.0 grams 1.0 liter 12. 5 grams 0.6 gram 0.4 gram 0.25 gram 0.25 gram 25.0 ml 1.0 liter 50.0 grams 5.0 grams 3.0 grams 2.0 grams 20 ml 80 ml 1.0 liter Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 378 Panacolor The Panacolor Process is a three-color subtractive . color process for making motion picture release prints. Panacolor, Inc., was formed June 10, 1857, for the purpose of developing and applying a color process invented and patented by Michele P. L. Martinez.^ During the period 1957 to 1962 the process was improved and techniques for its ap plication on a commercial basis were developed. Printing speed was increased and color reproduction was improved. Also a processing laboratory capable of producing 160 mil lion feet of release prints per year was constructed.® On June 27, 1962 a press preview of the process was held at the Screen Directors Guild building in Hollywood. The material used for the demonstration consisted of miscel laneous test footage plus a production reel of the MGM fea ture picture. The Horizontal Lieutenant. The following day the Hollywood Reporter announced that MGM had ordered fifty prints of The Horizontal Lieutenant from Panacolor; the remaining prints were to be made on Eastman Color Print Film ^Prospectus: Panacolor, Inc., Federhill, Stonehill & Co. , June 6, 1961. ®1961 Annual Report: Panacolor, Inc., New York, May 4, 1962. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 379 i 7 by the MGM laboratory. Other feature pictures that used the Panacolor print process were The Castilians, Pyro, Samson and Ulysses, Secret Seven, and Mother Goose a Go Go. In order to make release prints using the Panacolor process it is necessary to start with three color separation negatives. If a system that produces three separation nega tives is employed for the original photography the prints can be made directly from the original negatives. If, how ever, one of the multilayered integral tripacks is used for the original photography additional steps are necessary be fore the prints can be made. It is necessary to prepare three separation master positives and three separation neg atives, or a color intermediate positive and three separa tion negatives, if the original is a color negative. Color ; separation negatives can be made directly from the original ; if it is a reversal color film. Release prints made by the Panacolor process are made on conventional black and white film which is developed g in a series of dye coupling developers. The red separation negative is printed first on a 7 Hollywood Reporter, June 27, 1962. 8 Prospectus: Panacolor, Inc., Federman, Stonehill | & Co., June 6, 1961. I Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 380 continuous contact printer equipped with a full fitting sprocket. A silver plus a cyan dye image is produced by development with a developer which contains a cyan dye form ing coupler. This is followed by a wash, then the film is treated with an oxidizing bath which converts the metallic silver formed by development back to a light sensitive sil ver salt. Then the film is washed and dried. Next the green separation negative is printed in register with the previously developed cyan image. A silver plus a magenta dye image is produced from this printing by development with a developer which contains a cyan dye forming coupler. This is followed by a wash,then the film is treated with an oxi dizing bath which converts the metallic silver formed by the magenta development back to a light sensitive silver salt. Then the film is washed and dried. For the final picture printing the blue separation negative is printed in register with the previously developed cyan and magenta images. This is followed by sound track printing. A silver plus a yellow dye image in both the picture and the sound track area is produced from this printing by development with a developer which contains a yellow dye forming coupler. Next the film is washed and only the picture area is treated with an oxi- i dizing bath which converts the metallic silver formed by the; Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 8 1 yellow development into a silver salt. Following this treatment the film is washed and fixed with a conventional g fixing bath, washed and dried. Instead of using the immersion or spray technique for the treatment of the film with the developing and bleach solutions, the Panacolor process uses a wheel applicator to coat the film with thixotropic solutions. These thick solu tions are mixed in special tanks with counter-rotating agi tators and pumped to the coating stations where the correct amount of material is metered to an applicator of special design.Temperature is maintained plus or minus Relative humidity is maintained at plus or minus 2^% at 97%%. The three separation negatives are threaded on loop racks, one for each color printer and one for the sound track printer. The prospectus for Panacolor, Inc., states that they are printed simultaneously, indicating that the print film passes through all four printers in a single pass. The printers pictured are modified Bell and Howell Model D printers; therefore, it appears that the print film May 4, 1952, 9 Ibid. ^^1961 Annual Report: Panacolor, Inc., New York, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 382 passes through the first printer, is processed and dried, passes through the second printer, is processed and dried, passes through the third and fourth printers, is processed and dried, all in one continuous strand, at a speed of 240 feet per minute. ^^Personal interview with G. F. Rackett. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER X CONCLUSION In the preceding sections of this study the author has attempted to describe the technical characteristics of the many color motion picture processes developed in the United States during the period 1900 to 1965. The extent to v^iich each process is described is dependent on the source material which was available. In some cases a process was announced in a press release and never heard of again. In describing many of the lesser known processes, the interpre tation of patent literature has been heavily relied on as source material, also the state of the art at the time of the patent issue. Originally, it had been proposed that the written material would be supplemented with personal inter view. This, however, in most cases did not prove to be practical. It soon became evident that most of the people interviewed failed to remember technical details concerning processes that they had not worked with for over twenty 383 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 8 4 years. Although there were a multitude of patents granted during the period studied, the processes they covered can be divided into a relatively small group, each one within the group having a great deal of similarity to the others in the group. The classification of additive color pro cesses can be broken down into two sub-classes: 1. Optical, mechanical and shared area systems. 2. Lenticular film supports and associated filters. The classification of subtractive color processes can be broken down into four sub-classes: 1. Optical, mechanical and shared area systems. 2. Those employing bipack negative and double coated positive film. 3. Monopacks. a. Those employing non-coupler incorporated multilayered film. b. Those employing coupler incorporated multi layered film. 4. Rehalogenation systems employing single layer film. In general the additive processes were not Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 385 successful commercially, or those that did achieve success retained it only for a short time. This was due to many factors, the three most significant being; 1. The need for more light in projection. 2. The need for special projection devices. 3. The need for special camera devices. The subtractive processes have, on the other hand, been relatively successful. Even the two-color processes were moderately successful commercially. Although they were inferior to the three-color additive systems from the standpoint of color fidelity, their ease of operation kept them available commercially until they developed into or were replaced by three-color subtractive processes. Systems which employed standard camera and projection equipment have in general been the most successful. With the exception of Technicolor, the laboratory has not been a significant factor in the choice of a color process. Laboratories have shown willingness and a great degree of flexibility in adapting to relatively complicated processes and processing procedures. Changes in equipment and/or technique that have resulted in improved screen quality have been accepted readily. This has caused an increase in overall quality, a reduction in the cost of Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 8 6 release prints and a highly competitive situation among the laboratories. It has also resulted in a certain degree of standardization and the elimination of some processes. For the present, Eastman Color Negative has emerged as virtual ly the standard for 35mm color cinematography in the United States, It has the advantage of high quality and unifor mity, and is adaptable to use with all of the existing re lease print systems, ' - In the release print area. Technicolor imbibition and Eastman Color Print Film have emerged as the most popu lar, Panacolor, the most recent color print process to be announced, has been used very little to date. In order to be successful, it must compete with the two processes men tioned above on the basis of cost, quality and uniformity of product. Another entry into the release print area is the Gevacolor Process developed in Belgium by Agfa Gevaert. Although Gevacolor print film is an import rather than a domestic product, this process has become increasingly more important in the production of release prints for American- made feature motion pictures. In 1965, several million feet of 35mm Gevacolor Positive were used in the United States, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 387 The future of color motion picture processes seems to be committed to the use of multilayered films. This type of color system has progressed to the point -where color has become almost as easy for the cinematographer to handle as black and white photography. The over-size, cumbersome, complicated mechanical devices used for the pioneer color' motion picture processes have been replaced by the conven tional motion picture cameras used for black and white cinematography. Film speeds have increased considerably, and with this increase has come a reduction in set lighting levels and a more dramatic and interesting use of lighting. Color quality and uniformity have improved substantially. Two-color processes are a thing of the past in American theaters, and the three-color processes are producing "natural color" which is a much truer reproduction of the actual colors of the scene. Today color is so easy to handle that the average amateur can obtain better color pic tures by pointing a camera and pushing a button, than the professional could obtain forty years ago at any expense of money or effort. With all this improvement in the taking media the next logical area for improvement is in processing the film.; The practice of immersing the film in chemical solutions fori Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 388 varying amounts of time has changed very little since the beginning of motion pictures. Continuous processing ma chines which transport the film in an endless strip have been introduced and in some equipment sprays have been sub stituted for' the immersion tanks, but the basic system re mains the same. The first really new innovation in motion picture processing has been the introduction of viscous pro cessing methods. Using the viscous method, development is accomplished by extruding a viscous developing solution on to the surface of the film. The viscous solution remains on the surface for the specified reaction time, then it is flushed down the drain. Only fresh solution of the type and amount needed is actually used. This new system opens several possibilities for* the simplification of processing techniques. Small volumes of solution are used; therefore a great degree of flexibility is obtained. Using such a system, processing solutions could be compounded for a particular type of film without the compromises necessary when the solution must accomodate several types or batches of film. Also, a single processing machine could be used to process any number of dissimilar types of film. All that would be necessary are the proper solutions and a switching arrangement. This would make it Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 89 possible to program a processing machine to develop black and white and/or various types of color films consecutively on the same processing machine. This could result in an im provement in both quality and service, since viscous devel opment produces excellent uniformity and all the processing equipment in the laboratory could be used to its greatest efficiency. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A P P E N D I C E S 390 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX A 391 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX A DEFINITIONS OF TERMS Absorption Band (of a color filter).— A dark zone in a spec trum resulting from the failure of a color-filter to transmit light of wavelengths corresponding to the band. Acid Dyes.— Dyes in which the color resides in the negative ion (anion). Commonly, salts of colorless inorganic bases with colored or potentially colored organic acids. Additive Mixture.— See Additive Synthesis. Additive Primaries.— Red, green and blue. Additive Process.— A process for reproducing objects in na tural colors by means of the principle of additive syn thesis. Usually, black and white positives, printed from negatives taken through the primary color filters, are projected or viewed in register by means of light beams of the primary colors. Additive Synthesis.— The formation of a color by mixing light of two or more other colors. Any color may be formed by mixing light of three primary colors in the proper proportions. Some colors may be formed by mixing light of two other colors. Analytical Densities.— The composition of the image is ex pressed as amounts of component absorbers (that is, cyan, magenta and yellow dye deposits). Angstrom Unit.— A unit of length generally used for specify ing the wavelength of radiation, expecially light and radiant energy of wavelengths shorter than light. 392 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 393 : Numerically equal to 0.0000001 mm (10~^ mm). The unit more frequently used in colorimetries is the milli micron. Aniline Dyes.— A term broadly applied to synthetic dyes de rived from aniline or other coal-tar products. Arbitrary Three-Filter Densities.— An arbitrary kind of in tegral color density in which the color response func tions employed are those which the particular filters or photocells, etc., happen to give. Densities of this type are satisfactory for comparison of identical or nearly indentical images within a particular color system. Artificial Daylight.— Light (visible radiation) having the same (or nearly the same) spectral composition as direct solar radiation plus skylight— in practice produced by selectively absorbing some components of the light emitted by artificial sources. Banded Tricolor Filter.— See Tricolor Filter. Basic Dyes.— Dyes in which the color resides in the positive ion (cation). Commonly, salts of colored organic bases with colorless acids. Beam Splitter.— An optical system so arranged as to reflect or transmit two or more portions of a light beam along different optical axes. Such a device is frequently used in the production of color separation negatives. Bichromated Gelatin.— Gelatin sensitized to light by the incorporation of a soluble bichromate, usually ammonium or potassium bichromate. Bipack.— A unit consisting of two superimposed films or plates sensitive to different portions of the spectrum, and intended to be exposed one through the other. Biprism.— A prism having a principal section which is a triangle with a very obtuse angle and two equal acute angles, sometimes used as a beam splitter. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 39 4 : Black.— Incapable of reflecting light in an amount which will produce a visible light response. Black Body.— (1) A body which when heated radiates ideally according to fundamental physical laws (i.e., Wien radiation law), relating energy, frequency, and absolute temperature. The properties of incandescent tungsten or carbon approximate those of a black body. (2) A body which absorbs all light incident upon it. Bleach.— V.t. To remove the color by chemical means ; in photography, to remove, by chemical action (usually oxidation), the silver of an image. An image thus treated may be restored by suitable means generally leaving the gelatin film toned and/or tanned. n. A chemical reagent used for bleaching. Bleeding of Color.— The diffusing of dye away from a dye- image; most noticeable where dark areas adjoin light areas in a picture. Brightness.— The light (luminous power) per unit area, per unit solid angle, emitted from a surface in a given direction; the candle-power per unit area. Chemical Toning.— The process of converting the silver of a : photographic image into a colored substance, or replac ing it by a colored substance through the use of chemi cal reagents which are not dyes. Chromatic Aberration.— A defect of a lens resulting in a difference in focal length for light of different colors. Chromaticity.— The quality of colors that embraces hue and saturation but excludes brilliance. Colloidal Dyes.— Dyes the particles of which are submicro- scopic in size, but larger than molecules or ions. Color.— (1) The general name for all sensations (other than those related to spatial distribution) arising from the activity of the eye and its attached nervous system. Examples of color are the sensations red, yellow, blue. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 395 : black, white, grey, etc. (2) More loosely, as above but excluding the black, white, and grey sensations. Color Balance.— The adjustment of the intensities of print ing or viewing colors (of a color picture) so as to re produce properly the scale of grays, flesh tones and other important colors. Color Blindness.— An ocular defect resulting in failure of the eye to distinguish between chromatic colors. In total color blindness all colors appear as grays; the more usual partial color blindness (dichromation) is marked by inability to distinguish between certain pairs, as, for instance, red and green. Color Contrast.— See Contrast, Color. Color Developer.— A substance or mixture of substances capable of reducing silver halides with the simultaneous production of an insoluble colored oxidation product in the regions of the silver deposit. Color Filter.— See Filter. Colorimetric Purity.— The ratio of the luminosity of the dominant wavelength to the total luminosity of the color being measured. Color Mixture Curves.— See Color Sensation Curves. Color Negative.— A negative record of the brightness and color values of the original object. Color Photography.— A process in which an attempt is made to reproduce objects in their natural colors by photograph ic means. I Color Positive.— A positive photographic (print) record of color values. Color Saturation.— See Saturation, Color. Color Screen.--(1) A color filter. (2) A surface bearing Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 396 a mosaic, either regular or irregular, of minute, juxta posed, transparent elements of the primary colors; used in a screen-plate or screen-film process of color pho tography. Color Sensation Curves (excitation curves).— Curves based | upon the response of the normal human eye, showing the : relative excitations of the three elementary sensations,! according to the Young-Helmholtz theory of color vision.| Color Sensitivity, Photographic.— The sensitivity of a pho- j tographic material to light of various portions of the spectrum. i Color Separation.— The obtaining of separate photographic j records of the relative intensities of the primary | colors in a subject in such a manner that a photograph in natural colors can be produced therefrom. Color Specification.— A description of a color made in such | a way that the color sensation may be duplicated. This | may be done either with the aid of a color analyzer or by the use of certain visual color matching devices, such as colorimeters or color comparators. Color Temperature (of a source).— The temperature (expressed on the absolute scale) at which a black body radiator : will visually match the color of the source. ! Color Transparency.— A color photograph upon a glass or film support to be viewed or projected by transmitted light, I as distinguished from a color photograph on paper or | other opaque white support to be viewed by reflected I light. Complementary After-Image.— A sensation caused by ocular fatigue characterized by the persistence of an image of | the color complementary to that of the original j stimulus. ! Complementary Colors.— Two colors of light, which, \mhen added together in proper proportions, produce the sensa tion of white or gray. Also, two colors of dye or pig ment, which, when superimposed in proper concentrations, produce a gray. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 397 i Cones.— One of the two chief light sensitive elements of | the retina, frequently regarded as the seat of color vision. See Rods. Cone Vision.— Cones are one of the light sensitive elements I in the retina of the eye. They are responsible for vision under higher illumination levels, can perceive colors, and are capable of rendering good definition. Continuous Spectrum.— A spectrum, or section of a spectrum, ' in which radiations of all wavelengths are present; op posed to line spectra, or band spectra. Contrast, Color.— The ratio of the intensities of the sensa tions caused by two colors. Sometimes the logarithm of ; this ratio. Coupler.— An organic compound which reacts with an oxidized ■ form of the developer to form a dye. Couplers have been successfully incorporated in emulsion layers and also in developing solutions. Daylight.— Total radiation from the sky and sun. For stan dardization of spectral quality, measurements are made at noon. The quality of daylight matches approximately that of a black body at 6,500° K. Density.— A measure of the light stopping power of material. It is expressed as the logarithm of the opacity, which in turn is the reciprocal of the transmission. D = log^gO or D - log^gl/T. Desensitization.— Treatment of a photographic material, as with a solution of a suitable dye, to reduce its sensi tivity to subsequent light exposure without destroying the developability of a previous exposure. Developed Color Images.— Colored photographic images pro duced by direct development. Dichroic.— Pertaining to the property of certain crystals of showing different colors when viewed in different direc tions by" transmitted light; or pertaining to the prop erty of some solutions of varying color with layer thickness or concentration. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 398 Differential Hardening (of gelatin).— The production of an image in gelatin in a manner such that the hardness is proportional to the original silver density of the image; or, in other cases, to the amount of light which has fallen upon a specially treated gelatin coating. Diffuse Densities.— (1) The incident light is nearly colli mated; the receiver accepts all transmitted light fall ing normally upon the sample, or (2) the incident light is diffuse, and only the normal component of the trans mitted light is evaluated. Discontinuous Spectra Radiators.— Light sources such as neon, sodium vapor, mercury arcs and flourescent lamps which emit radiation whose energy is concentrated at a few wavelengths with little energy in between. Dominant Wavelength.— In a system of monochromatic colorim etry, the wavelength the hue of which matches the hue of the color being measured. Double Coated Film.— Film having a sensitive emulsion on both sides of the base, the emulsions or the base often being impregnated with a dye which prevents the pénétrât tion of actinic light to the opposite emulsion when ex-| posing either one of them. | Double-Image Prism.— A prism so designed that with a lens it will form two images of an object; a beam splitter. Du-Pac.— See Bipack. Duplitized Positive.— See Double Coated Film. | Dye Density.— (1) The logarithm to the base 10 of the I visual opacity of an area in a finished dye image. (2)j The density of a single component of a two- or three- color print as measured by light of the complementary color. Dye Mordanting.— Broadly, the process of fixing a dye to a substance for which it has no affinity by means of a second substance which has an affinity for both the dye and the first substance. More especially, in color Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 399 photography, the treatment of a silver image so as to replace it in -whole or part with a substance having an affinity for dyes. Dye Toning.— The process of affixing a dye to a silver image or of replacing a silver image by a dye image through the action of mordants. Elementary Colors.— See Primary Colors. Elements (of a screen-plate or lenticular color film).— The individual filter particles of a color screen, or the minute lenses of a lenticular film. Embossing.— v.t. The process of impressing minute lens ele ments upon a film base to produce a lenticular color film. n. The lens elements collectively. Emulsion.— Improperly but universally used in photography to describe the silver halide suspended in gelatin. Truly, fine droplets of one liquid dispersed in a second liquid in which it is insoluble. Equality of Brightness (of colors).— The state in which two colors have equal visual luminosity. Equivalent Neutral Densities.— The assumed components are usually the dye deposits of the color process; the amount of dyes expressed is the luminous density of the gray image that could be formed by adding to the single dye deposit under consideration sufficient quantities of other dyes of the color process. Equivalent Neutral Printing Densities.— The assumed compo nents are usually the dye deposits of the color process; the amount of dye is expressed as the printing density of the image that could be formed by adding to the single dye deposit under consideration sufficient quan tities of the other dyes of the color process to form an image with red, green and blue printing densities all equal. Etch.— To dissolve portions of a surface not protected by a ; resist, as in making a half-tone plate on copper or Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 0 0 zinc; also, to remove differentially hardened gelatin from an image. E.I. (exposure index).— A number associated with the sensi tivity and latitude of the emulsion, its development, its intended field of use, and the spectral quality of | the light which illuminates the subject. At the present time there is no American Standard covering the measure^ ment of the speed of motion picture camera films- The | Exposure Index is a guide number given to a film by the| manufacturer to assist the user in obtaining correct exposure of a particular type of film. I Filter.— A light transmitting material (or liquid solution in a cell) characterized by its selective absorption of light of certain wavelengths. A so-called "neutral gray" filter absorbs light of all wavelengths to which the eye is sensitive to approximately the same extent and so appears without hue. Filter Factor (filter ratio).— The ratio of the exposure required to produce a given photographic effect when a | filter is used to that required without the filter. Many considerations such as color-sensitivity of the | emulsion, quality of radiation, and time of development! influence the filter factor. I Filter Overlap.— The spectral region in which two or more filters transmit light effectively. Fringe.— A defect in a color picture resulting from lack of registration of the component images. A fringe may be caused by parallax, error in printing registration, or by movement in the object which has taken place between the exposure of color separation negatives. Fundamental Colors.— See Primary Colors. Gamma.— The slope of the straight line part of the curve obtained when density is plotted versus the logarithm of the exposure. Gelatin Filter.— A filter in which gelatin is used as the vehicle for the absorbing material. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 0 1 Gray Key Image.— An image of neutral color occasionally printed in register with, the images in tri-color inks or dyes. In the imbibition process, the gray key image is sometimes developed on the printing material by the ordinary photographic method. Half Silvered Mirror.— See Mirror, Semi-transparent. Halide.— A halogen with one excess electron giving a nega tive charge. Halogens.— Family of four elements'consisting of fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine. Hue.— That attribute of certain colors in respect of which they differ characteristically from the gray of the same brilliance, and which permits them to be classed as reddish, yellowish, greenish, or bluish. Hue Sensibility.— The sensibility of the eye to differences of hue. Hue Shift Mask.— One which could affect the R.G. and B. differently and is made to actually change the hues of some colors compared to the hue obtained without mask ing. A hue shift mask corrects for unwanted absorption of one dye only. Hypersensitization.— The treatment of an unexposed photo graphic material by immersion in a solution, such as ammonia, to increase its sensitivity, principally to longer wavelengths. Imbibition.— A process for producing a dye image by mechan ical printing. A dyed relief or differentially tanned matrix of some substance such as gelatin is brought into intimate contact with a moist absorbing layer such as gelatin, the dye diffusing from the matrix to the absorbing layer. Imbibition Matrix.— A coating of gelatin or other colloid upon a support having an image capable of being dyed with water-soluble dye. See Imbibition. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 0 2 Interference Colors.— Colors resulting from the destruction of the light of certain wavelengths, and the augmenta tion of the light of others in a composite beam by interference. Colors of thin films and polarization colors of doubly refracting crystals in the polarscope are examples of interference colors. Lake.— A pigment formed by the combination of an organic dye with a metallic compound or another dye with which it forms an insoluble precipitate. baking.— See Lake. Latent Image.— As used in photography: An invisible image resulting from the exposure of a light sensitive materi al to light. This latent image is transformed into a visible silver image by action of the developer. Lenticulation.— Minute optical elements having the form of cylindrical or spherical lenses embossed into the sup port side of photographic film. They serve in the pro cess of analysis and synthesis of images in an additive color process. See Keller Dorian Process. Leuco-Base.— A white or slightly colored substance which, upon oxidation, sometimes accompanied by reaction with an acid or base, yields a more highly colored dye. Light.— Radiant energy, like heat waves, radio waves, X-Rays, etc., that can be perceived by the human eye. The band of wavelengths that can be seen by the eye lies between 400 mu and 700 mu in the electromagnetic spectrum. Light Restraining Dye.— A dye used for impregnating a light : sensitive emulsion to prevent the deep penetration of light during exposure. Light Splitter.— See Beam Splitter. Line Screen Process.— A color-screen process in which the screen is formed by a regular pattern of ruled lines. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 0 3 Luminous Flux.— The flow of radiant energy evaluated in terms of the sensitivity of the eye. The unit of lumi nous flux is the lumen. A lumen is the visual interpre tation of the flux from a standard candle flowing in a steradian. Luminous Intensity.— The visual intensity of a source. The unit is the candle. It is equal to a lumen/steradian. The intensity of a source is constant with respect to distance, but usually not with direction. A tungsten lamp viewed from the direction of the base has no intensity at all. Luminous Units.— The psychophysical units corresponding to the physical units listed above. The psychophysical terms are referred to as luminous intensity, luminous flux, luminous energy. Instead of speaking of luminous irradiance, the term is illuminance. Luminance is used instead of luminous radiance. Luminance is the adopted term for what used to be called brightness, the latter word now being reserved for the psychological sensation only. Mask.— An auxiliary image used with an original picture to modify characteristics of the original for reproduction purposes. Masking.— (1) As applied to photography; A technique in making color reproductions either to fully correct or minimize the reproduction deficiencies resulting from high photographic contrast and/or optical characteris tics of the dye used in subtractive sensation only. (2) A technique of color printing by means of masks de signed to reduce color degradation by compensating for imperfect transmission characteristics of the dye in the original photograph. Matrix.— A coating of gelatin or other colloid upon a sup port having an image capable of being dyed with water- soluble dyes. See Imbibition. Maxwell Experiment The first demonstration of the prin ciple of additive synthesis with color separation nega- : tives. Clerk Maxwell and Thomas Sutton in 1861 produced Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 0 4 i a set of four plates and projected them in register before an audience. Maxwell Primaries.— The colors red, green, and blue-violet used by Maxwell to demonstrate the application of the Young-Helmholtz theory to color photography. Micron.— A unit of length equal to 0.001 mm (10~^ mm). Used frequently to designate the wavelength of radiant energy in the infra-red region. Millimicron.— A unit of length equal to 0.000001 ram (10~^ mm). This is the unit.usually used in colorimetries in expressing the wavelength of radiant energy. Minus Color.— The color which is complementary to the color that is named; for example, minus red is a color comple mentary to red. Mirror, Semi-transparent.— A mirror uniformly coated with reflecting material in such a manner that part of the light incident upon it is reflected, the other part passing through the surface. A type of beam splitter. Moire Effect.— A "watered" pattern produced when two or more screens bearing a system of fine regular lines or similar pattern are superimposed nearly but not exactly in register. Monochrome.— A picture executed in a single color. Mordanting.— See Dye Mordanting. Mosaic Screen Plate.— A color screen plate. Motion Fringe.— A fringe of color occurring at the edge of images when the color separation negatives are taken at different instants. Multilayered Interference Filter.— A filter comprised of very thin layers of alternate high and low refractive index materials deposited on glass. The transmission depends on the refractive indices, the layer thickness and the number of layers. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 405 : Neutral Color.— Gray; achromatic; possessing no hue. Neutral Filter.— See Filter. Neutral Wedge.— A wedge composed of a neutral (gray) absor bent material. Opacity.— The ratio of the incident light to the emergent light. Orthochromatic.— (1) Characterizing the equivalence between the photographic effect of various colors upon a photo graphic material and the physiological effect upon the eye. (2) By usage, characterizing a photographic mate rial sensitive to all colors except red. Panchromatic.— Characterizing a photographic material sensi tive to all colors of the visible spectrum. Parallax.— The apparent displacement of an object as seen from two different points. Primary Colors.— Three colors, which, when mixed in the proper proportions, can be used to produce all other colors. The three colors most commonly used are red, green, and blue-violet. Prismatic Spectrum.— A spectrum formed by a prism. Quality (color) . — Chromaticity. Quality of Radiation.— An expression which refers to the spectral composition of the radiation. In both photog- ; raphy and in the viewing of colored pictures the quality of the radiation used is important. Ratio Diaphragm Cap.— A mask placed over a banded tricolor filter shaped to permit a predetermined ratio of the different colors of light to pass through a filter for lenticulated film color photography. Refraction.— The bending or deviating of a light ray in going from one density medium into another; such as from air into glass. If the light ray strikes the I Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 0 6 ! medium at some angle other than perpendicular, one side | of the ray will strike the denser medium sooner than the other and will, therefore, he slowed down while the other side continues at the same velocity momentar- i ily. This uneven pull on the ray changes its direction/ If the ray goes from a less dense into a more dense medium, it will be bent toward the normal-perpendicular. If it goes from a more dense to a less dense medium, it will be bent away from the normal. Register.— v.t. To cause to correspond exactly; to adjust two or more images to correspond with each other. Such correspondence may be required either in printing or in projection. n. A state of correspondence. Rehalogenation.— The practice whereby silver halide is re formed from silver by the treating of an emulsion layer ; with an aqueous solution of an oxidizing agent and with ! the appropriate halide ion; the oxidizing of the metal- I lie silver to silver ion substantially without affecting the dyes formed by color forming development and the halide ion reacting with silver ion to form the desired silver halide. Relative Brightness Mask.— A mask affecting all three layers equally, resulting in a change in brightness of some colors compared to others without effecting a change in hue. Relief Process.— Any color process in which relief images are produced, for the purpose of matrix printing. | Resist.— A coating used to protect certain portions of a | surface upon which an image or design is to be produced ! by etching, dyeing, or other chemical or physical treat-! ment. ^ Rods.— One of the two chief light sensitive elements of the | retina. See Cones. | I Rod Vision.— One of the two light sensitive elements in the I retina of the human eye in which the nerve impulses are j generated. The rods are extremely sensitive to dim | light, and are responsible for vision at low brightness | Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 0 7 levels. Rods are insensitive to color and are not capable of good definition. Saturation, Color.— The degree of freedom of a color from admixture with vtiite. Saturation Sensibility.— The sensibility of the eye to saturation. Sensitometric Exposure.— A graduated series of exposures, usually in logarithmic steps, on a single strip of film. This type of exposure is made on a precision instrument ; in which exposure is varied by varying the intensity of : the illumination or the time of the exposure. Sensitizers.— Materials, usually dyes, used to increase the. sensitivity of photographic emulsions to light of vari ous wavelengths. Separation, Color.— See Color Separation. Shoulder.— The part of the curve representing the highlight I portions of the original subject in a photographic ; negative or the shadow in a positive. Equal log expo sure increases show decreasing density differences. i Spectral Composition (of radiation).— The specification of the relative energy at different wavelengths of radia tion emitted by a source, or reflected or transmitted by a material; usually shown graphically as a spectral dis tribution curve. Spectral Distribution Curve.— See Spectral Composition. j : i Spectral Energy Curve.— See Spectral Distribution Curve- | Spectral Sensitivity.— The sensitivity of a light sensitive material (or instrument, such as a photoelectric cell) i to radiation of various wavelengths. Spectral Transmission (of a filter).— The extent to which | a filter will transmit radiation of different wave lengths. Shown graphically as transmission, opacity, of density plotted against wavelength. I Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 0 8 Spectrogram.— A photograph of a spectrum. See Wedge Spectrogram. Spectrophotometer.— A spectroscope with a photometric attachment used to determine the relative intensity of two spectra or spectral regions. Spectrophotometry.— A method for specifying the spectral reflection, absorption or transmission characteristics of objects in terms of the fundamental physical units. It is the measurement relative to a standard of the transmission or reflection of a material at the various wavelengths of the spectrum. The result of the measure ment is a physical specification of the material inde pendent of the spectral characteristics of the source which irradiates it or the receiver. Spectrophotometric Curve.— A curve showing the transmission or reflectance of an object at each wavelength. The ordinate of the curve can be either in transmission or reflectance, or in density or reflection density. Spectroscope.— An instrument for forming a spectrum and measuring wavelengths in various regions throughout the spectrum. Spectrum.— An image of a source formed by light or other radiant energy through the medium of an optical device which refracts or diffracts the radiation of different wavelengths to different degrees. Throughout the visible spectrum of a continuous light source the spec trum appears as a number of juxtaposed areas of color varying from red to violet, e.g., the rainbow. Stereoscopic.— Applied to vision, the ability to perceive depth and thus solidity as a characteristic of objects. This visual effect is produced by the separation of the observer's eyes, each giving a different point of view of the object. In photography it is produced by taking two pictures from slightly different viewpoints and viewing them separately, one with each eye. Subtractive Primaries.— The three printing colors used in a three-color subtractive process; usually named magenta : Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 0 9 (minus green), blue-green or cyan (minus red), and yellow (minus blue). Subtractive Process.— A process of reproducing objects in natural colors using a restricted number of primary component colors in which the composite image is pro duced by passing a single beam of white light succes sively through two or more layers of colored images, each of which absorbs one region of the spectrum which is passed by the other layers. Tanning Developers.— Solutions which cause hardening, or which render insoluble the gelatin of an emulsion in proportion to the amount of latent image converted into silver. Three-Color Process.— Any process, either additive or sub tractive, for producing photographs using three primary colors. Tintometer.— An instrument for estimating or specifying color by comparison with a graded series of standard colors. Toe.— The part of the curve representing the shadow portions of the original subject in a photographic negative or the highlights of the subject in a positive. Equal log exposure increases produce increasing density differ ences. Toning.— See Chemical Toning, Dye Toning. Transfer Process.— A process in which an image, usually dyed or pigmented, is transferred from one surface to another. Transmission.— The ratio of the light transmitted by the body to the incident light. Trichromatic Process.— See Three-Color Process. Tricolor Filter.— (1) A composite filter containing areas of; three primary colors. (2) A single filter of one of three primaries. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 1 0 Tripack Process.— A process of exposing three films (or plates) simultaneously, in which the films are arranged as a pack so that the outer films (or interposed fil ters) transmit certain portions of the light to expose the following layers. See Bipack. Two-Color Process.— Any process, either additive or subtrac tive, for producing photographs using two colors. Unwanted Absorption.— The absorption of light by a subtrac tive primary in regions of the spectrum other than that considered its primary absorption. Visibility.— Of radiation: The ratio of the luminous flux (lumens) to the corresponding energy flux (watts). Visibility Curve.— A graphical representation of the rela tion between visibility (expressed relatively) and wave length. This curve has a maximum in the green at 555 mu. Visible Spectrum.— That portion of a spectrum of radiant energy having wavelengths from approximately 400 to 700 millimicrons. Wedge.— An optical device composed of absorbing material in which the transmission varies progressively from point to point. Such a device may cause a variation in either hue or intensity, or both. Wedge Filter.— See Wedge. Wedge Spectrogram.— A spectrogram produced by photographing a spectrum through a neutral wedge (sometimes an op tical wedge), placed usually over the slit of the spec trograph. Such a spectrogram shows graphically the effective photographic sensitivity vs. wavelength for the photographic material and light source used. White Light.— Radiant energy that has a wavelength- intensity distribution such that it evokes a neutral gray (hueless) sensation in the average normal eye. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 1 1 ; White Object.— An object of a color such that it reflects all wavelengths of the visible spectrum equally; an ob- ; ject which if illuminated by white light will appear without hue to the average normal eye. Wratten Filters.— A widely used commercial brand of color- filters. Younq-Helmholtz Theory (of color vision).— An explanation of phenomena of color vision assuming three separate ele ments in the normal eye, each stimulated by a different section of the visible spectrum. Note: Although the above definitions were obtained from several sources, one primary source was: Color Committee of the Society of Motion Picture Engi neers, "A Glossary of Color Photography," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, May, 1955, pp. 432- 449. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX B 412 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX B PATENTS Brewster Color 1145968 1359025 1580114 1191941 1410884 1580115 1208739 1469811 1752477 1222925 1508916 1992169 1308538 1537524 2320028 1214940 1563959 Cine Color 2016666 2511344 2141354 2272556 2295107 2272557 2183661 2281075 2218001 2587841 2226339 Color Film 1633652 1696739 1845062 Color Craft 1840524 Cinecolorqraph 1174144 1562828 1525423 413 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 1 4 Cosmocolor 2235925 2152959 2241124 2137570 2244991 2050223 2245093 2050224 2315783 Douqlass Color 1313587 1253796 1632278 Eastman Color 2262987 2150695 2322027 2169004 2336327 Re-issue 18680 Full Color 2396726 Caspar Color 1956017 2055407 2136143 2217544 1956122 2062304 2137336 2217899 1985344 2071688 2155894 2219304 1986054 2074259 2166049 2219305 1988891 2075190 2172307 2219306 2004625 2075191 2172308 2219987 2020775 2080041 2178167 2219988 2028279 2088523 2183393 2220123 2041827 2107505 2183394 2221992 2042253 2119323 2183395 2056067 2125015 2193931 2049005 2132154 2207631 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 415 Handschieql Process 1303836 1303837 1316791 1295028 Harriscolor 1825863 Kinemacolor 1166120 941960 1165121 1256675* 1166122 1685281* 1166123 1836552* 1187421 1970678* 1207527 2017190* 645477 *Natural Color Pictures Co. , Inc. Kesdacolor 1431309 Kodachrome (Early Two-Color) 1196080 1273457 1351834 1478599 1550541 Kodachrome (Multilayer) 2113329 2019718 2059887 2059884 1900859 1996928 1516824 1900870 1659148 1954452 1980941 1997493 1969469 1980941 1997493 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 1 6 Kelley Color 1505787 1561168 1615283 1674174 1729617 1787201 Kodacolor 1460703 Multicolor 1744459 Binocular Stereoscopic Film Co. of Los Angeles 1595295 1686907 1739476 1784515 Multicolor, Inc. 1897368 1897359 1893698 1927886 Hughes Industries 1927887 1992989 2008904 1998154 2005254 2009689 1922725 2001322 Opticolor 2115153 2170438 1836562 Natural Color Pictures Co., Inc. 1876806 1970678 2017190 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 1 7 Panchromotion 1216493 1217425 1278211 Panacolor 2886435 Polacolor 2471547 Polychromide 1059867 Prizma Color 1325204 1333730 1461356 1465643 1259411 1278162 1411968 1505787 1350024 1558483 1628248 1667477 1278161 135.0023 1322794 1337775 Telco Color 2125260 2129060 2134129 2090398 ThomasCOlor 2251177 2252224 1949339 2098767 2097706 2017575 2016690 2016691 2016692 2145437 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 1 8 Technicolor 1231710 1435764 1677309 1677310 1573595 1573596 1570809 1583108 1596808 1596809 1607440 1707695 1707710 1860912 1821680 1819673 1900140 1928709 2072091 2147683 2085877 2079470 Vitacolor 1712439 1810180 Warner-Powrie Process 1605062 1682415 1717404 1717405 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. B I B L I O G R A P H Y 419 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Cornwell-Clyne, Adrian. Colour Cinematography. London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd., 1951. Dunn, Carlton E. Natural Color Processes. Boston: Ameri can Photographic Publishing Company, 1936. Evans, R. M. An Introduction to Color. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1948. ________, Hanson, W. T., and Brewer, W. L. Principles of Color Photography. New York : John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1953. Forsythe, W. E., and E. Q. Adams. "The Nature and Measure ment of Light," 1001 Ways to Improve Your Photo graphs. New York : National Educational Alliance, Inc., pp. 240-246. Friedman, J. S. History of Color Photography. Boston: The American Photographic Publishing Company, 1944. Fulton, A. R. Motion Pictures; The Development of an Art from Silent Films to the Age of Television. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1960. Glafkides, Pierre. Photographic Chemistry. Vol. II. London: Fountain Press, 1960. Gregory, C. C. Motion Picture Photography. New York : Falk Publishing Company, Inc., 1927. Hayne, D. (ed.). The Autobiography of Cecil B. De Mille. Englewood Cliffs, N. J. : Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1959.; 420 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 2 1 : Miller, T. H., and Brummitt, Wyatt. This is Photography. New York: Garden City Publishing Co., Inc., 1945. Neblette, C. B. Photography: Its Principles and Practices. New York: D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc. , 1947. Ramsaye, Terry. A Million and One Nights. New York : Simon and Schuster, 1925. Rose, J. J. American Cinematographer Handbook and Reference Guide. Los Angeles: Southland Press, 1950. Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, Elements of Color in Professional Motion Pictures. New York : Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, 1957. Spencer, D. A. Colour Photography in Practice. London: Pitman and Sons, Ltd., 1938. ________. Progress in Photography, 1940-1950. London: Focal Press, 1950. Tinting and Toning of Eastman Positive Motion Picture Film. Rochester, N. Y.: Eastman Kodak Co., 1927. Wall, E. J. History of Three Color Photography. Boston: American Photographic Publishing Company, 1925. ________. Practical Color Photography. Boston: American Photographic Publishing Company, 1928. Publications of Learned Organizations Allen, Leigh. "New Technicolor System Tested by Directors of Photography," American Cinematographer, December, 1960, pp. 414, 424. Anderson, C. , Groet, N. H., Horton, C. H., and Zwick, D. "An Intermediate Positive-Internegative System for Color Motion Picture Photography," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, ; March, 1953, pp. 217-225. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 2 2 Ball, J. A. "The Technicolor Process of Three Color Cinema tography, " Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, August, 1935, pp. 127-138. Bates, J. E. , and Runyan, I. V. "Processing Control Proce dures for Ansco Color Film," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, July, 1949, pp. 3-24. Beilfuss, H. R. , Thomas, D. S. , and Zuidema, J. W. "Two New High Speed Ektachrome Motion Picture Films," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Televi sion Engineers, April, 1966, pp. 344-345. Bello, H. I., Groet, N. H., Hanson, W. T., Osborne, C. E., and Zwick, D. M. "A New Color Intermediate Positive Intermediate Negative Film System for Color Motion | Picture Photography," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, April, 1957, pp. 205-209. | Blair, G. A. "The Tinting of Motion Picture Film, " Transac- j tions of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, ! May, 1920, pp. 45-54. | Boyle, J. W., and Berg, B. "Studio Production with Two | Color Bi-Pack Motion Picture Film," Journal of the i Society of Motion Picture Engineers, February, 1947,1 pp. 111-115. I "The Brewster Color Process," Photographic Journal, The Royal Photographic Society of Great Britain, August, 1935, pp. 455-456. Brewster, P. D., and Miller, P. "Three Color Subtractive Cinematography," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, January, 1931, pp. 49-56. Brock, G. F. O. "Hand Coloring of Motion Picture Films," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, June, 1931, pp. 751-755. Brown, W. R. J., Combs, C. S., and Smith, R. B. "Densito metry of an Embossed Kinescope Recording Film," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Tele vision Engineers, December, 1956, pp. 648-651. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 423 Brunswick, L. F. "Separation Process for Additive Color Motion Picture Photography on Black and White Film," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Tele vision Engineers, March, 1955, pp. 125-128. Burns, B. "The Multicolor Laboratory," Journal of the Soci ety of Motion Picture Engineers, July, 1931, pp. 11- 17. Capstaff, J. G. "An Experimental 35mm Multilayer Stripping Negative Film," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, April, 1950, pp. 445-453. _________ , Miller, D. E., and Wilder, L. S. "The Projection of Lenticular Color Films," Journal of the Society i of Motion Picture Engineers, February, 1937, pp. 123-134. _________ , and Seymour, M. W. "The Kodacolor Process for Amateur Color Cinematography," Transactions of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, September, 1928, pp. 940-947. Clarke, C. G. "Practical Utilization of Monopack Film," : Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers,; November, 1945, pp. 327-332. Color Committee of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers.i "A Glossary of Color Photography," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, May, 1935, pp. 432-449. Coote, J. H. "Progress Report on Color Kinematography," British Kinematography, British Kinematograph Society, March, 1950, pp. 83-90. Crabtree, J. I., and Ives, C. E. "Dye Toning with Single Solution," Transactions of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, September, 1928, pp. 967-974. Crabtree, J. I., and Marsh, W. "Double Toning of Motion Picture Films," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, January, 1931, pp. 57-60. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 2 4 Craig, G. J. "Eastman Colour Films for Motion Picture Work," British Kinematoqranhy, British Kinematograph Society, May, 1953, pp. 146-158. Crane, E. M., and Evans, C. H. "Devices for Making Sensito- metric Exposures on Embossed Kinescope Recording Film," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, January, 1958, pp. 13-16. "Current Techniques of 35mm Color Film Photography and Printing," American Cinematographer, January, 1956, ^ pp. 26-27, 58- Dubray, J. A. "The Morgana Color Process," Journal of the ; Society of Motion Picture Engineers, November, 1933; p. 403. : Duerr, H. H. "The Ansco Color Negative Positive Process," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, June, 1952, pp. 465-470. Duerr, H. H., and Harsh, H. C. "Ansco Color for Profession^ al Motion Pictures," Journal of the Society of ' Motion Picture Engineers, May, 1946, p. 357. ; Dundon, M. L., and Zwick, D. M. "A High Speed Color Nega- | tive Film," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, November, 1959, pp. 735- 738. ! Du Par, E. R. "Warner Color— Newest of the Color Film Processes," American Cinematographer, September, 1952, pp. 384-385, 402-404. | Evans, C. H., and Smith, R. B. "Color Kinescope Recording! on Embossed Film," Journal of the Society of Motion | Picture and Television Engineers, July, 1956, pp. 365-371. Fleet, R. "The Trucolor Process, " American Cinematographer, March, 1948, p. 79. | Forrest, J. L. "Machine Processing of 16mm Ansco Color ; Film," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture | Engineers, November, 1945, p. 313. _ i Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 2 5 Forrest, J. L. "A New 16mm Camera Color Film for Profes sional Use," Journal of the Society of Motion Pic ture Engineers, January, 1957, pp. 12-13. ________. "Processing Anscochrome Motion Picture Films for Industrial and Scientific Applications," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, December, 1955, pp. 679-681. "16mm Super Anscochrome Films," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, October, 1958, pp. 691-693. Foster, F. "Eastman Negative-Positive Color Films for Motion Pictures," American Cinematographer, July, 1953, pp. 322-323, 348-349. Gifford, A. F., and Gerhart, F. H. "Characteristics of Super Anscochrome Film," Photographic Science and Engineering, Society of Photographic Scientists and Engineers, July, 1957, pp. 12-14. Groet, N. H., Liberman, M., and Richey, F. "An Improved Professional 16mm Reversal Camera Film," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engi neers, January, 1959, pp. 8-10. Groet, N. H., Murray, T. J., and Osborne, C. E. "Two High Speed Color Films and a Reversal Print Film for Motion Picture Use," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, November, 1960, pp. 813-817. Gundelfinger, A. M. "Cinecolor Three Color Process," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Tele vision Engineers, January, 1950, pp. 74-86. Hall, H., and Stull, Wm. "Motion Pictures in Natural Colors," Cinematographic Annual 1930, The American Society of Cinematographers, Hollywood, 1930. Hanson, W. T. "Color Negative and Color Positive Film for Motion Picture Use," Journal of the Society of | Motion Picture and Television Engineers, March, 1952, pp. 223-238. ! I Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 426 Hanson, W- T. , and Kisner, W. I. "Improved Color Films for Color Motion Picture Production," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, December, 1953, pp. 667-701. Hernandez-Mejia, A. "The Colorgraph Process of Color Cinematography," British Journal of Photography, October, 1912, pp. 805-807. Ives, F. E. "Color Photography," Transactions of the Soci ety of Motion Picture Engineers, May, 1921, p. 132. ________. "Subtractive Color Motion Picture on Single Coated Film," Transactions of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, September, 1926, p. 74. Jennings, A. B., Stanton, W. A., and Weiss, J. P. "Synthet ic Color-Forming Binders for Photographic Emul sions," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, November, 1950, pp. 455-476. Jones, L. A. "Tinted Films for Sound Positives," Transac tions of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, May, 1929, p. 199. I Kalmus, H. T. "New Technicolor System Announced," American | Cinematographer, October, 1950, p. 354. | i ________. "Technicolor Adventures in Cineraaland," Journal | of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, Decem ber, 1938, pp. 564-585. Kelley, Wm. V. D. "Adding Color to Motion," Transactions of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, April, 1919, p. 76. ________. "The Handschiegl and Pathechrome Processes," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, August, 1931, pp. 230-234. ________. "Imbibition Coloring of Motion Picture Films," Transactions of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, February, 1927, p. 238. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 2 7 Kelley, Wm. V. D. "Natural Color Cinematography," Transac tions of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, November, 1518, pp. 38-43. Kingslake, R. "The Optics of the Lenticular Color Film Process," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, January, 1958, pp. 8-13. Kisner, W. I. "A New Color Negative Film for Better Picture Quality," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, October, 1952, pp. 776- 779. Layes, L. E. "Color Dupes Require Careful Filming," American Cinematographer, November, 1948, pp. 381, 387, 388. "Magnacolor Film Announced," American Cinematographer, March, 1931, p. 20. Mannes, L. D., and Godowsky, L. "The Kodachrome Process for Amateur Cinematography in Natural Colors," j Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, | July, 1935, pp. 65-68. | I Matthews, G. E. "A Motion Picture Made in 1916 by a Two- | Color Subtractive Process," Journal of the Society j of Motion Picture Engineers, November, 1930, pp. I 624-626. ; _______ "Photography in Natural Colors," Journal of the | Society of Motion Picture Engineers, November, 1931,i pp. 188-219. I Mees, C. E. K. "Amateur Cinematography and the Kodacolor | Process," Journal of the Franklin Institute, January, 1929, pp. 1-17. ________. "Color Photography," Transactions of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, May, 1922, p. 137. ________. "Direct Processes for Making Photographic Prints in Color," Journal of the Franklin Institute, January, 1942, pp. 45-46. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 2 8 Mees, C. E. K. "The Processes of Color Photography," III, "Color Cinematography," Journal of Chemical Educa tion, 1924, pp. 44-52. Mitchell, R. A. "The New Ansco Color Film and Process, " American Cinematographer, April, 1953, pp. 155, 177- 183. "New Color Deal," American Cinematographer. May, 1952, pp. 205, 215-215. (Full text reprinted from New York Times, March 9, 1952 article by Bosley Crowthers, drama and cinema critic.) "New Eastman Color Film Tested By Hollywood Studios and Film Labs," American Cinematographer, March, 1950, pp. 95-102. Nickolaus, J. M. "Toning Positive Film by Machine Methods," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, | July, 1937, pp. 55-57. I Otis, R. M. "The Multicolor Process," Journal of the | Society of Motion Picture Engineers, July, 1931, pp. 5-10. I Powrie, J. H. "Line Screen Film Process for Motion Pictures in Color," Transactions of the Society of Motion | Picture Engineers, April, 1928, pp. 320-334. | ! Rackett, G. F. "The Production of Motion Pictures in Color,) 1930-1954," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, October, 1954, pp. 138-140 I "Report of the Color Committee, May, 1930," Journal of the j Society of Motion Picture Engineers, November, 1930,1 pp. 722-723. I "Report of the Color Committee," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, January, 1931, pp. 101- 102. "Report of the Color Committee," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, July, 1931, pp. 115, 117. ) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 2 9 Rosin, S. "Samuel B. Grimson's Investigrations of the Line Screen Method of Color Separation and Reproduction," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Tele vision Engineers, April, 1957, pp. 209-212. Rowan, A. "The Wild North Introduces MGM's New Ansco Color Process," American Cinematographer, March, 1952, pp. 106-107, 122-124. Schinzel, K. British Journal of Photography, LII (1905), 608. Sease, V. B. "DuPont's New Color Film," American Cinematog rapher , July, 1949, pp. 240, 257-258. Spencer, D. A. "The Present Position of Colour Kinematog raphy, " Photographic Journal. The Royal Photographic Society of Great Britain, February, 1937, pp. 84- 101. i Stott, J. G. "The Processing of Two Color Prints by Deep I Tank Methods," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, October, 1947, pp. 305-315. j Stull, W. "Cinematography Simplified," Cinematographic | Annual. The American Society of Cinematographers, r Hollywood, 1930. | ________. "Multicolor Introduces Improved Color Film," ! American Cinematographer, December, 1929, p. 9. Tarnowski, O. "Colour Kinescope Recording on Embossed Film," British Journal of Photography, October, 1958, pp. 123-136. "Technical News," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, March, 1945, p. 220. Thomas, Jr., D. S., Rees, H. L., and Lovick, R. C. "A New Reversal Print Material for a Color Production System," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, August, 1965, pp. 671- 675. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. .......... 4 3 0 Tuttle, H. B, "Some Experiments in Medical Motion Pictures in Color," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, August, 1930, pp. 193-200. Von Frounhofer, H. "The New Chromart-Tricolor Separation Negative Material and Process," British Kinematog raphy, British Kinematograph Society, September, 1958, p. 29. Wheeler, L. H. "A New Additive Color System for Motion Picture Photography," Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, November, 1958, pp. 747-749. | ! Wyckoff, A. "Gasparcolor Comes to Hollywood," American Cinematographer, November, 1941, pp. 510, 511. Zwick, D. M. , Bello, H. I., and Osborne, C. E. "A 16mm Color Internegative Film for Use in Color Motion I Picture Photography," Journal of the Society of | Motion Picture and Television Engineers, August, 1956, pp. 426-478. - ! Periodicals "An American Demonstration of the Urban-Smith Process of Animated Color Photography," Scientific American, December 25, 1909, p. 487. Baker, J. L. "Color of the Future," International Photog raphy Bulletin, February, 1930. Cory, A. B. "The Kodacolor Process," American Annual of Photography, 1929, pp. 9-11. Crespinel, W. T. "Illustrating Multicolor, " International Photographer, August, 1929, p. 30. "Eastman Videbuts Ektachrome on NBC-TV's 'Suspense The atre, '" Daily Variety (Hollywood), March 2, 1964, p. 4. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 3 1 Evans, R. M. "Maxwell's Color Photograph," Scientific American, November, 1951, pp. 118-122, 125, 126, 128. Eveleigh, L. "Technicolor," Bioscope Supplement, January 21, 1926. "Family Movie Guide," Parents Magazine, October, 1939. Hollywood Reporter, June 27, 1962. Motion Picture Herald, April 11, 1933, p. 13. Namias, R. "Technicolor Films and Their Projection, " Bioscope Supplement, July 17, 1926, p. 189. New York Times, February 26, 1917. New York Times, February 15, 1918. New York Times, January 20, 1919. ‘ New York Times, July 12, 1936, Sec. IX, p. 3. Peck, A. P. "Movies Take on Color," Scientific American, April, 1930, p. 285. :"A Three Day Meeting for Color Films," La Technique Cinématographique, 2nd Special Supplement, October, : 1953. "What? Color in the Movies Again?" Fortune, October, 1934. "What's New in News? A Report in Full Color," Broadcasting, : January 3, 1966, pp. 62-66. Manuals Abridged Specifications for Processing Ektachrome Commercial Film, Type 7255 (Process ECO-1). New York; Motion Picture Film Department, Eastman Kodak Company. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 3 2 Abridged Specifications for Processing Ektachrome Commercial Film, Type 7255 (Process ECO-2). New York: Motion Picture Film Department, Eastman Kodak Company. Abridged Specifications for Processing Ektachrome ER, MS and Reversal Print Films Through Process ME-4. New York: Motion Picture and Education Markets Division, Eastman Kodak Company, January, 1966. Abridged Specifications for Processing of Eastman (or Kodak) Ektachrome ER Film Daylight Type, Types 5257 and 7257, Ektachrome ER Film Type B, Types 5258 and 7258, and Ektachrome Reversal Print Film, Types 5386 and 7386 (Process ME-2A)• New York: Motion Picture Film Department, Eastman Kodak Company. Abridged Specifications for Processing of Eastman (or Kodak) Ektachrome ER Film Daylight Type, Types 5257 and 7257, Ektachrome ER Film Type B, Types 5258 and 7258, and Ektachrome Reversal Print Film Types 5386 and 7386 (Process ME-4). New York; Motion Picture Film Department, Eastman Kodak Company. "Ansco Cine Films." Ansco Photo Products, General Aniline and Film Corporation, Binghamton, New York, 1964. "Ansco Color 35mm and 16mm Motion Picture Film Processing Notes for Laboratory Technicians." Binghamton, New York: Professional Motion Picture Department, Ansco Division of General Aniline and Film Corp., October, 1949. "Ansco Motion Picture Films." Binghamton, New York: Professional Motion Picture Department, Ansco Division of General Aniline and Film Corp., January, 1959. P. 1. "Anscochrome Motion Picture Process AR-1." Binghamton, New ■ York: Professional Motion Picture Department, Ansco Division of General Aniline and Film Corp. "Anscochrome Motion Picture Process AR-2." Binghamton, New York: Professional Motion Picture Department, Ansco Division of General Aniline and Film Corp., May, j 1965. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 3 3 "Eastman Motion Picture Films for Professional Use." New York; Motion Picture Film Department, Eastman Kodak Company, 1942. P. 48. "Formulas for Processing Ansco Color Negative and Positive Motion Picture Films." Binghamton, New York: Professional Motion Picture Department, Ansco Division of General Aniline and Film Corp., June, 1956. "How to Use and Process Ansco Color Negative. " Binghamton, New York: Professional Motion Picture Department, Ansco Division of General Aniline and Film Corp., April, 1957. "A Manual Describing the Processing of Eastman Reversal Color Print Film, Type 5269 (16mm), Process RCP-1." New York: Motion Picture Film Department, Eastman Kodak Company. "A Manual Describing the Processing of Eastman Reversal Color Print Film, Type 7387 (16mm), Process RCP-2." New York: Motion Picture and Education Markets Division, Eastman Kodak Company. "A Manual for Processing Kodak Commercial C-P Color Film (16mm) Type 5268." New York: Motion Picture Film : Department, Eastman Kodak Company. "A Manual for Processing Kodak Duplicating C-P Color Film (16mm) Type 5265 (Silent and Sound)." New York: Motion Picture Film Department, Eastman Kodak i Company.... "A Manual for Processing Kodak Duplicating C-P Color Film (16mm) Type 5268." New York: Motion Picture Film I Department, Eastman Kodak Company. "Preparation of Release Prints on Eastman Embossed Print Safety Film for Additive Color Projection." New York: Motion Picture Film Department, Eastman Kodak Company, November, 1951. P. 2. "Production of Motion Pictures in Color Using Eastman Color! Films." Rochester, New York: Motion Picture Film ; Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 3 4 Department, Eastman Kodak Company, 1952, 1954, 1960, 1963. "16mm Anscochrome Processing Instructions." Binghamton, New York: Professional Motion Picture Department, Ansco Division of General Aniline and Film Corp., August, 1956. "The Use of a Single Machine for Processing of Ektachrome Commercial Film, Type 7255, and Ektachrome ER Film, Types 7257 and 7258." New York: Motion Picture Film Department, Eastman Kodak Company, February, 1960. Table 1. Unpublished Materials "Anscochrome Motion Picture Process AR-2 (A Short Process for Anscochrome Reversal Motion Picture Films)." Professional Motion Picture Department, Ansco Division of General Aniline and Film Corporation, Binghamton, New York, May, 1954. Pp. 6-12. (Mimeo graphed. ) "Colorvision: A New Additive Process for Color Photogra phy. " Colorvision, Inc., Los Angeles, 1954. Frost, George E., and Oppenheim, S. Chesterfield. "Tech nical History of Professional Color Motion Pic tures. " The Patent, Trademark and Copyright Founda tion, George Washington University, Washington, D. C., 1960. (Mimeographed.) I Gavey, Thomas w. "A Survey of the Factors Affecting Color | Rendition of Bipack Two-Color Processes." Unpub- h lished Master's thesis. University of Southern I California, 1948. Hogan, II, Chester L. "Modern Trends and Technical Devel opment in the Field of Color Motion Pictures. " Unpublished Master's thesis. University of Southern! California, 1937. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 3 5 Limbacher, James L. "A Historical Study of the Color Motion Picture." Dearborn, Michigan, 1953- (Mimeo graphed. ) "MS for Medium Speed." Kodak Tech Bits, Eastman Kodak Company, 1963, No. 3. 1961 Annual Report: Panacolor, Inc., New York, May 4, 1962. "The Present Status of Motion Picture Color Films and Pro cesses for Professional Use." Motion Picture Film Department, Eastman Kodak Company, December, 1950. Prospectus: Panacolor, Inc., Federman, Stonehill & Co., June 6, 1961. Ryan, R. T. "The Application of a Quality Control Program to a Motion Picture Laboratory with Special Emphasis on the Processing of Color Film." Unpublished Master's thesis. University of Southern California, 1956. Spiller, Gino. "Modern Techniques of Color Film Process ing. " Unpublished Master's thesis. University of Southern California, 1952. "Technical Service Bulletin #6.31." Professional Motion | Picture Department, Ansco Division of General Aniline and Film Corp., Binghamton, New York, October 15, 1951. "Technical Service Bulletin #6.41." Professional Motion I Picture Department, Ansco Division of General ; Aniline and Film Corp., Binghamton,-New York, December 1, 1957. i "Tinting Eastman Fine Grain Release Positive Film with Dye ' Solutions." Eastman Kodak Company, Rochester, New ■ York, 1955. P. 3. (Mimeographed.) Trimble, L. S. "A Study of the Relation of a Dye and the Transmission of an Image Produced by Dye Absorption i on a Suitable Mordant." Unpublished Master's thesis. University of Southern California, 1940. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 436 Wheeler, L. H. "A New Color Separation Technique for Color Negative Protection." A paper read before the 97th Conference of The Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, Los Angeles, March 30, 1966. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A D D E N D U M 437 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 3 8 r \ \ \ m m# ^ '. .* "3/. ^ . v t o S » , I U R R/4 SMITH P/ITENTSj|j THE FIRST EXHIBITION IN THE U N I T E D S T A T E S O F A M E R I C A O F MOTION PICTURES I N N A T U R A I j c o l o u r s MADISON SQUARE GARDEN C o n c e r t Hat^t,, N e w Y o r k S A T U R D A Y . D E C E M B E R 1 1 , ’0 9 . A T 9 O ’C L O C K XJNT>ER THE DIRECTION OE M r . C H A R L E S U R B A N . F . Z. s . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 3 9 **************************$$************************** : : * * * * * * KINEMACOLOR * For a proper realization of the astounding advance made by “ K ine- ^ ^ macolor” in the a rt of the camera, it must be clearly emphasized th a t the ^ * colours obtained are due to the agency of L ig h t only. No painting, 0 hand-work, stencil-w ork or sim ilar devices are used. The colours are, * 0 as it were, lyin g la te n t in the photographic picture and are brought in to ^ ^ visib ility a t th e m om ent of exhibition. I t is true th a t by the older % ^ methods coloured m oving pictures could be obtained, and are still ob * ^ tained, b u t only b y the costly process of employing numerous girls to ^ * laboriously p aint the pictures— a process often taking weeks in the case ^ 0 of long subjects. Even b y this expensive and slow process only certain * ^ classes of subjects are capable of being dealt w ith . ^ ^ B y the Kinem acolor process, the colors of nature are photographic- ^ ^ a lly recorded sim ultaneously w ith the taking of th e picture* the com- * ^ pleted picture in a ll its glowing richness of colour can be exhibited w ith in ^ * a few hours, and duplicates can be issued w ith the same celerity th a t we * are accustomed to w ith black and w hite subjects % ^ In worldng out the process, one of the most difficult problems was ^ th a t of m aking the photographic film sufficiently sensitive to red lig h t. * * As everyone is aware, the photographic film known to commerce is not * ^ sensitive to red rays, and only v e iy slightly to yellow and green ones. ^ * For th a t reason a red lig h t is used in dark rooms to watch the develop- * ^ m ent of negatives b y. The m aking fo r a colour-sensitive film necessitated ^ ^ exhaustive experiments covering a period of nearly three years, b u t ^ fin ally a product was obtained which in ordinary sunlight is sensitive * * to colour waves from the brightest of violets to the darkest of reds. ^ ^ In furth er w orking out the invention, Messrs. U rban and Sm ith kept ^ ^ steadily in view one most im portant point, nam ely; th a t any process to % * be really valuable must be readily adaptable to existing things. As a * ^ conseijuence of this determ ination, Kinem acolor can be exhibited in con- ^ * junction w ith black and w hite pictures in any m otion picture theatre in * ÿ the world. The same machine w ith a triflin g addition answers both jiu r- ^ ^ poses, and first one kind of picture and then another (black and w h ite o r ^ color) can be exhibited as the nature of the program m e demands. * ^ A fu ll description o f the process would necessitate a scientific dis- * ^ quisition of a lengthy character, and would be scarcely in place on the ^ 4 ^ present occasion. A fu ll exposition was given b y M r. Charles U rban, ^ * F .Z .S ., and M r. G. A lb ert Sm ith, P . R . A . S., to a large audience of scientist * ^ and photographic experts a t the in vitatio n of the R oyal Society of A rts, ^ ^ London, and was fu lly reported in the Journal of th a t Society, December ^ 11th, 1908, and this report m ay be consulted by those desirous of ap- ^ * proaching the subject in its scientific aspect. For the present it is suffi- ^ * cient to say th a t when the Kinem acolor camera is a t w ork a p air of care- * * fu lly selected lig h t-filters sift the colour waves of the scene and perm it ^ * * CONXIKfBD OX FOURTH PAGE Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 4 0 M A D I S O N S Q U A R E G A R D E N . N e w Y o r k ------------------------------------------------------- C X )N Œ R T H A T ltX i--------------------------------------------------------- S A T U R D A Y . D E C E M B E R 1 1 t h . N I N E P.M. KIPEnflCOLOI FR01kUCB]> X7NDSU TBB DIBGCTION OF M r . C H A R Z j E S u r b a n , f . z . s , Mr. G . A L B E R T S m i th, F. R. A. S. , E ngl and, W I L L B R I E F L Y D E S C R I B E T H E N E W A R T . P R O G R A M M E S E X jE C T T H D f r o m t h e F O L L O W I N G S E R I E S F O R T H E F U R P O S E O F D E M O N S T R A T I N G T H E W I D E S C O P E O F K I N E M A T O G R A P H Y T O W H I C H “ K I N E M A C O L O R ” I S A P P L I C A B L E 1. O U R F L O R A L F R IE N D S (10 Studies) 2. N A TU R A L COLOUR P O R TR A ITU R E (12 Studies) Dealing with details of Costumes and Flesh tints. 3. T H E S.S. “ GEORGE W A SH IN G TO N " leaving Southampton for New York. 4. SCENES ON T H E R IV IE R A , South Coast of France, including Views of Cannes, Nice and Monte Carlo. 5. C A R N IVA L AND B A TTLE OF FLOW ERS, Nice. 6. W AVES AND SPRAY, W aterfall and Mountains (French Alps). 7. T H E N E W SULTAN OF T U R K E Y going to the Semelik, Constantinople. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 4 1 8. L IF E ON T H E R IV E R TH A M E S , from the Tower of London to Henley. 9. “ O U R F A R M Y A R D F R IE N D S ’’ Luncheon on Straw, Among the Sheep, Feeding a Lamb, Donkey and Carrot, the Parrot, Mesmerized Rooster, Rabbits, Cattle, Horses, Cat a t Toilet, Edtten and Parrot, etc. -- 10. B R IT IS H RACES A N D M IL IT A R Y #■ The King's Derby, Royal Ascot, the Soldiers’ Pet, Band of the Cameron Highlanders, Sentry at Aldershot, March of Gordon Highlanders, etc. 11. T H E IR M A JESTIES, T H E K IN G A N D Q U E E N OF EN G LA N D driving through London. 12. SCENES ON G A LA TA B R ID G E , C O N S TA N TIN O P LE . 13. M O TO R BOAT A N D Y A C H T R A C IN G , England. 14. G E R M A N U H LA N S A N D IN F A N T R Y , Berlin. 15. W E S T P O IN T CADETS. 16. V IE W S OF POTOMAC FA LLS (note Rainbow) A N D T H E H O M E O F GEO RG E W A S H IN G TO N . M t. Vernon. 17. T H E H A R V E S T— Ploughing, Reaping, Loading Croos. off to the B am , Threshing, Relaxation after Labour. 18. R E V IE W OF T H E B R IT IS H N A V Y , at Spithead, England. 19. LO N D O N ZO O LO G ICAL G ARDENS Showing Pavilion and Flower Vase, Camels, Polar Bears, Buffalo, Tigers, Swans, Hippopotam i, Zebra, Brown Bear, Leopards, Flamingoes, Elephants, Giraffes, Macaws, etc. 20. “ O LD G L O R Y ,” showing 2000 Children forming the Stars and Stripes on the steps of Albany Capitol during the Hudson- Fulton Celebration. A N oticeabiliE Feature oe “ KINEMACOLOR” is its MARVELOUS Stereoscopic E feect Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 4 2 : . : * them to be recorded separately and in due proportions. W hen th e film ^ * bearing these colour records is subsequently ru n through a m otion p ictu re % It m achine fitte d w ith som ewhat s im ila r filters, th e colour waves are set ^ * in m otion again, and as th e proportion of coloured lig h t then served o u t * * to th e observers are th e same as a t th e outset, th e orig in al scene is re- # % constructed, as it w ere, to th e eye. * I t m ust be repeated th a t th e rationale of th e process is n o t easy to * 0 set fo rth in sim ple term s so th a t those unacquainted w ith th e phenornena ÿ ^ o f lig h t and colour can im m ediately understand th e scientific principles ^ * in volved . Those w ho re ally w ish to do so w ill read ily acquaint them selves * * w ith the science o f th e subject b y an excursion in to th e fascinating ^ realm s o f physics where such things are d ealt w ith . ^ * The m ain point in connection w ith the above is th a t for the practical * * working o f K inem acolor no scientific knowledge whatever is necessary. % ^ A n y photographer who understands his business can read ily take m otion ^ * pictures in n atu ra l colours, and any m an who knows enough about pro- * * jecting machines to obtain his license from city authorities can be taught $ * in ten m inutes how to e xh ib it K inem acolor pictures in conjunction w ith % * his o rd in ary program m e. * * I t has been pointed o u t in an. A m erican p rin t b y a c ritic, who, b y ^ % th e w ay. had never seen th e results, th a t “ T h e m a i n p r i n c i p l e s o f t h e ^ * U r b .^n - S m i t h p r o c e s s w e r e k n o w n t o t h e s c i e n t i f i c w o r l d b e f o r e * ^ EITHER M r . U r b a n o r M r . S m i t h t o o k u p t h e m a t t e r ! ” E xactly! ^ It Messrs. U rban and Sm ith adm it the fact and take special pride in it. ^ * T h e ir in ven tio n is based upon th e solid foundation of established scien- * È tifiç tru th s . I f it w ere based upon some fan tastic notion n ot in accordance ^ ^ w ith th e principles o f pure science th ere w ould be little hope fo r its fu tu re . ^ * I t is ju s t because K inem acolor is based upon the solid rock o f scientific ^ * fa c t th a t distinguished scientists a ll over Europe have been enthusiastic ^ % in its praise and have predicted a b rillia n t fu tu re fo r th e young a rt, w hich ^ ^ has been bo m to th e w orld fo r th e entertain m ent and in stru ction o f ^ ^ th e people. $ ^ Messrs U rb an and S m ith ’s only claim is th a t w ith the expenditure ^ * o f m uch tim e and m oney th e y are th e first to tak e up these sound scien- * ^ tific principles and m a terialize them in to p ractical, e ve iyd ay results,and ^ ^ it is fo r th a t reason th a t th e P a ten t offices of every civilized country in ^ * th e w orld have granted L etters P a ten t fo r th e process. % ¥ K inem acolor is a young a rt and a t present it is being w ith h eld except $ ^ to three o f th e w o rld ’s great cities, and because of its you th th e inventors K ^ claim some indulgence fo r th e shortcom ings in cid en tal to a ll new things. « ^ B u t it is hoped th a t the present exhibition, to which M r. Urban has the * * honour to in vite you, w ill convince you th a t a new era has dawned fo r ^ ^ the m oving picture industry; th at a new power has been placed in the ^ $ hands of those whose business or interest it is to make records of the * * w orld’s happenings; and th a t the enjoyment of the vast m ajo rity of ^ * m ankind who cannot attend these happenings b u t who delight in seeing # 0 them pictorially reproduced w ill be greatly increased by ^ 1 K I N E M A C O L O R | * * Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 4 3 KINEMACOLOR U r b a n-Smith P atents T H E O N L Y P R O C E S S I N E X I S T E N C E S H O W I N G M O T I O N P I C T U R E S I N T H E A C T U A L T O N E S . T I N T S A N D H U E S O P N A T U R E “ T h b G r k a t s s t A n v A i r c K i i i r t h e H i s t o r y OR K 1RBMA.T0 0 RAPHY.’ ' — S m ro peat* P r t t t . r Kinemacolor results are reproduced EX' MEANS OF ONE LENS, ONE PiLM AND THE Standard Projector (with S l i l G H T A D D I T I O N S T O T H E M A C H I N E ) " K I N E M A C O L O R I S R E V O L U T I O N I Z I N G K I N E M A T O G R A P H Y . " — V id e , L o n d o n P r e t t . A d d r e s s ALL Co m m o n ic a x io n s t o C H A R LES U R B A N Urbanora House, Wardour St. W., London, Eno. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Ryan, Roderick Thomas (author)

Core Title A study of the technology of color motion picture processes developed in the United States

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program History, modern

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag history, modern,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Advisor [illegible] (committee chair), [illegible] (committee member), Knight, Arthur (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c17-182265

Unique identifier UC11351649

Identifier 6705307.pdf (filename),usctheses-c17-182265 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 6705307.pdf

Dmrecord 182265

Document Type Dissertation

Rights RYAN, RODERICK THOMAS

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA