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Theoretical foundations of dance in American higher education: 1885-1932
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This dissertation has been
nücroühned exactly as received
66-8794
O’BRIEN, Dorothy A della, 1906—
THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OP DANCE IN
AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATION: 1885-1932,
U n iversity of Southern C alifornia, P h.D ., 1966
Education, h isto ry
University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Dorothy Adella O'Brien 1966
All Rights Reserved
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF DANCE IN AMERICAN
HIGHER EDUCATION: 1885-1932
by
Dorothy Adella O'Brien
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(Physical Education)
June 1966
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UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
T H E G R A DU A TE SCHO O L
U N IV E R S IT Y PARK
LOS A NG ELES. C A L IF O R N IA 9 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, w ritten by
...............
under the direction of h..ex..Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by a ll its members, has
been presented to and accepted by the Graduate
School, in p a rtial fu lfillm en t of requirements
fo r the degree of
D O C T O R O F P H IL O S O P H Y
_____
Dean
Dflfe.. £■^©...1366.................
DISSERTATION COMM.ITTI
Chairhtan
______
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"The formulation of experience which is
contained within the intellectual horizon on an
age and a society is detemined ... by the
basic concepts at people's disposal for analyz
ing and describing their adventures to their
understanding."
"Every society meets a new idea with its
own concepts, its own tacit, fundamental way of
seeing things; that is to say, with its own
questions, its peculiar curiosity."
— Suzanne Langer
ii
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter Page
I. THE NATURE OF THE PROBLEM AND THE METHOD
OF INVESTIGATION........................ 1
The Problem
Importance of the problem
Basic assumptions
Definition of Terms
Scope and Limitation of Study
Materials and Procedure
Sources of data
Method of processing data
Organization of Material
II. THE SKEINS OF LITERATURE.................. 17
Related Research Projects
Primary Source Books
Opinions of authors
Compilations
Secondary Source Books
Physical education histories
Books on dance by critics and dancers
Periodicals
III. THE THREADS OF INHERITANCE: PRE-1885 .... 40
Colonial Colleges
Benjamin Rush
Noah Webster
Thomas Jefferson
Commencement balls
Women's Academies
Emma Willard
Catherine Beecher
iii
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Chapter Page
Mary Lyon
Dio Lewis
Academy patterns and concepts
Higher Education Scene j
Morrill Land Grant Act
Tumvereln Normal School
Sargent Normal School of Physical
Education
Summary
Ballroom Dancing Masters
Edward Perrero
Allen Dodworth
Influence of dancing masters
Dramatic Expression
François Delsarte
Steele MacKaye
Genevieve Stebblns
Marlon Lowell
Influence of Delsarte System of Expression
Gathering the Threads of Inheritance
IV. THE LOOM AND THE WARP: 1885-1904 73
Inherited Threads of Dance Concepts
The Physical Education Association
Normal schools founded
Brooklyn Normal School of Gymnastics
William Anderson
Harvard Summer School
Dudley Sargent
Christian Eberhard
Melvin Gilbert
Oliver Herbert
Boston Normal School of Gymnastics
Claes Enebuske
Ethel Perrin
Some Nineteenth Century Weavers
Delphine Hanna
Harriet Ballantlne
Jessie Bancroft
Anna Barr Clapp
Isadora Duncan
Iv
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Chapter Page
Influential Opinions
Anna Tucker
John Dewey
The Warp Threads
V. THE WEAVERS: 1905-1917 97
Inherited Nineteenth Century Warp Threads
Melvin Gilbert
Conference of 1905
Dudley Sargent
Henry Taylor
Elizabeth Burchenal
Contrasting Opinions
W. W. Gardner
Martha Battle
G. Stanley Hall
Weavers of Blended Threads
Louis Chalif
Elizabeth Burchenal
Luther Gulick
C. Ward Crampton
^ri Ruef Hofer
Émil Rath
Troy and Margaret Kinney
Mary Wood Hinman
Higher Education Scene
Colleges
Universities
Normal schools
Weavers of Concepts of Dance as an
Expressive Art Form
Isadora Duncan
Emile Jacques-Dalcroze
Maud Allan
Ruth St. Denis and Ted Shawn
Irene Lewisohn
Weavers of Concepts of Dance as Education
Gertrude Colby
Bird Larson
Margaret H'Doubler
The Web of Concepts
V
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Chapter
VI. THE SEARCH FOR DESIGNS AND PATTERNS:
1918-1932 ......................
Page
155
Twentieth Century Fabric
New physical education
Natural Dancing
Gertrude Colby
Bird Larson
Margaret H'Doubler
Agnes and Lucille Marsh
Helen Norman Smith
Elizabeth Selden
Pageants and Dance Dramas
Folk Dancing
Clog Dancing
Helen Frost
Marjorie Hillas and Marian Knighton
Edith Ballwebber
Opinions of Physical Educators
Jesse Feiring Williams
Gertrude Baker
Elizabeth Alden
Concert Dancers
Doris Humphrey
Charles Weidman
Martha Graham
Louis Horst
Helen Tamiris
Esther Junger
Rudolf von Laban
Mary Wigman
Hanya Holm
Comment
The Search for New Patterns for Dance
in Higher Education
Dorothy La Salle
Ruth Murray
Martha Hill
Mary Jo Shelley
Mary O'Donnell
Boston Convention of 1930
Vi
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Chapter Page
American Physical Education Association
Convention of 1931
Barnard Dance Symposium, 1932
National Section on Dance, 1932
Designs and Patterns
VII. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS.................... 210
The Problem
Procedure
Sutmnary of Findings
The years before 1885
The years 1885 to 1904
The years 1905 to 1917
The years 1918 to 1932
Discussion of findings
Conclusions
Recommendations for Further Study
BIBLIOGRAPHY...................................... 230
APPENDICES........................................ 243
Appendix I. The People and the Concepts . . . 244
Appendix II. Concepts Charted In Time
Periods........................ 256
vll
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CHAPTER I
THE NATURE OF THE PROBLEM AND THE METHOD
OF INVESTIGATION
The Inclusion of dance as an area of study in
higher education originated in the United States. There
were no patterns of dance practice to be inherited from
European colleges and universities. During the development
of programs of dance in the curriculum of physical educa
tion certain theories and concepts evolved about the place
and value of dance in education.
The Problem
It was the purpose of this study to trace the
sequence of ideas basic to the theoretical foundations of
dance in American higher education during the years 1883-
1932.
More specifically, it was the purpose of this
study:
1
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2
1. To discover and analyze major concepts which
Influenced dance practices in the physical
education curriculum. Questions to be answered
included:
a. What beliefs about the value and place of
dance in the curriculum of higher education
were revealed in the literature of the
period?
b. To what extent was there a consistent
pattern of beliefs within an era?
c. What major concepts can be identified?
d. In what way did these concepts affect
practices?
2. To identify physical educators, dance educa
tors , and educators in higher education who
expressed the ideas about dance which were
currently influential. Answers were sought to
the following questions:
a. Who were the contributors from education
who were influential through the expression
of their ideas?
b. In what way were they influential through
their writings and the development of
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3
programs consistent with expressed beliefs?
c. What ideas were expressed which were
indicative of basic assumptions about the
nature of dance?
d. What responsibilities for teacher prepara
tion in the physical education department
seemed to influence the ideas expressed
about the function and value of dance?
3. To determine, from people outside physical
education and higher education, antecedent or
concurrent ideas which were instrumental in
shaping major concepts of the period under
consideration. Answers were sought to the
following:
a. What antecedent ideas may have influenced
current concepts?
b. Who were the people outside physical
education who expressed such ideas?
c. How was the influence of the opinions
expressed by such contributors, either
antecedently or concurrently, observable?
d. How did such ideas affect the practices
and programs of dance in higher education
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4
physical education departments?
e. To what extent were such opinions
influential?
4. To clarify the sequential development of
theories of dance as they emerged and were
prevalent during certain periods within the
time span of 1885-1932. These questions needed
answers:
a. What was the observable sequence of
theories as they emerged in the literature
of the period?
b. Did there appear to be a pattern of iden
tifiable concepts related to certain years?
c. If so, were these patterns prevalent and
consistent enough to be defined by certain
key words or phrases?
d. Within what time intervals were differing
concepts apparent?
5. And finally, to propose a temporally oriented
history of ideas and concepts about dance in
American higher education in a pattern of
sequential development. Answers were sought
to these questions:
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5
a. What were the basic assumptions about the
nature and value of dance in higher educa
tion between 1885-1932?
b. What was the pattern of sequential develop
ment during these years? ^ f
c. What were the theoretical foundations of
dance in American colleges and univecsities?
Importance of the problem.— The dance in higher
education has presented many facets. Only recently, within
the past twenty years, dance in education seems to have
assumed two distinct directions— dance as an art form
concerned with the communication of ideas, and dance as a
social or recreational form. The concepts of dance
expressed by American physical educators in the late nine
teenth and early twentieth century did not seem to make a
fine distinction between the dance as an art form, a
recreational form, or dancing per se.
Studies which were concerned with the total picture
of dance ideas and practices during its emergence in the
curriculum of higher education have not been made, though
the background of dance viewed as an expressive art form
has been well documented, as will be discussed in the
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6
chapter on related literature. The picture of the develop
ment of dance in physical education is not complete at the
present time. It is hoped that the present study will
illuminate some of the basic assumptions which have shaped
the over-all practices of dance in higher education.
It may be that the compilation of information and
the analysis of past concepts will clarify the present
views about the purpose of dance in education. Perhaps
"dancing" has received more attention and interest than
"The Dance" during the emergence of varying views on the
importance and place of dance in the physical education
curriculum.
There is current interest on the part of physical
educators concerning the background and theoretical founda
tions of the programs and areas of their profession. In
the chapter on dance in Philosophical Foundations for
Physical, Health and Recreation Education, Ziegler states
". . . a body of research knowledge is lacking" (67:271).
The research committee of the Dance Division of the
American Association for Health, Physical Education and
Recreation makes occasional reports on completed and
in-progress theses and dissertations in the Journal and
Focus on Dance, as well as in a periodic publication
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entitled Research in Dance. This committee has suggested
that historical research is an important area of investi
gation , but, to date, little has been done in this
direction.
Sherman, in Theoretical Foundations of Physical
Education in the United States; 1885-1930, stated that a
comprehensive history of the ideas and concepts of physical
education in the United States should be developed. Her
study, which is considered an outstanding contribution to
the profession, treated only briefly of dance as a specifi
cally separate area for consideration.
The compilation of information about dance concepts
should contribute to the body of knowledge, provide further
understanding of dance in education, and add theories of
dance to a comprehensive list of ideas which have shaped
the pattern of physical education.
Basic assumptions.— Operational hypotheses were
developed from the initial research and review of the
literature which clarified the structure of the study. It
was upon the following assumptions that this study was
made:
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8
1. Dance has been an important area of interest
in physical education, with a history paralleling the
development of physical education. Ideas and opinions
about the value and function of dancing in education have
been expressed from the time women were admitted to higher
education.
2. The years between 1885 and 1932 constitute the
major period of development of dance in higher education,
with stages of transition within the eras pre-1885, 1885-
1904, 1905-1917, and 1918-1932. Certain characteristic
ideas, beliefs, and opinions were expressed, forming the
foundation for dance practices of an era.
3. Concepts of dance in higher education have
been influenced by ideas presented by people from other
fields as well as from within the physical education
profession.
4. Dancing has been considered useful for differ
ent reasons in different eras, but the main emphasis has
been, with varying degrees of intensity, on the healthful
and expressive values of dance. There has been an enlarge
ment and extension of earlier ideas as well as a transition
in the implementation of such concepts.
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9
Definition of Terms
Dance, or dancing.— This term refers to the non-
utilitarian form of rhythmic patterned bodily movement
which is stylized according to its recreational value as a
social form, or its expressive, communicative function as
an art form.
When the word dance, or dancing, is used without
qualification in the text, it means moving in a thought-
directed pattern in harmony with music.
Specific types and forms of dance which have
appeared in the curriculum of higher education will be
defined within the concepts of the period when certain
nomenclature was in current use.
Dance in higher education.— The experiences in
dance for which credit may be earned through curricular
classes or course of study, and the related extra
curricular dance experiences within an institution of
higher education are referred to as dance in higher
education.
Higher education.— In this study, higher education
is used in reference to the public or private institutions
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10
of higher learning beyond the high school, such as junior
or senior colleges, normal schools or universities, where
academic credits and degrees may be earned.
Theoretical foundations of dance.— This term
relates to the fundamental groundwork of basic assumptions,
ideas, theories, concepts, and principles about the value
and function of dance, upon which the structure of dance
practices and programs in higher education was built.
Scope and Limitation of Study
This study has been designed to trace the sequence
of ideas which formed the theoretical foundations of dance
in American higher education as evidenced in the literature
of the period between 1885 and 1932, and earlier or later
literature which pertained to that period.
A factor considered in the scope of this study was
the effect which professional dance may have exerted on
educational dance. It was necessary to examine the influ
ence of professional teachers and dancers, since the
preliminary research indicated that they played a part in
shaping the concepts about dance in education during the
developmental stages.
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11 :
This study was not concerned with the practices
and programs of dance at the elementary or high school
level, except as the need for professional preparation of
teachers may have been an influential factor or when con
cepts about the place of dance in education were tangential
to higher education.
In order to test the sincerity of expressed ideas,
it was necessary to regard the evident practices with
objectivity and to be concerned with the programs which
resulted from stated concepts.
The solution of the problem posed by this study
depended on the thoroughness and objectivity of the search.
A potential limitation was presented by the fact that the
accessible and pertinent information was spread throughout
a widely divergent range of literature related not only to
dance, but also to physical education, schools of dramatic
expression, and the concert stage. The investigation was
as thorough as possible, but a critical selection of mate
rial pertinent to dance in higher education was made.
Since this study attempted to identify the concepts
and ideas presented in the records, it was in a sense a
subjective study. It was necessary for the investigator
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12
to maintain a clear and objective point of view in order
to present as accurate an interpretation as possible of
the data which were examined.
This study did not propose to be a history of dance
in America, a study of theatre dance, or a survey of dance
in all educational settings. The chief concern was an
investigation of the basic ideas and assumptions which
shaped the concepts of dance in higher education.
Materials and Procedure
Sources of data.— Material for this study was
accumulated from a thorough investigation of the literature
concerned with the people, ideas, events, practices, and
concepts of dance in higher education which were pertinent
to the period under investigation.
According to the intent of this study, it was not
necessary to construct surveys, questionnaires or experi
ments to be used as source material. It was, rather, the
purpose to trace, through the literature of the period,
the sequential development of ideas and concepts which
were the theoretical foundations of dance as it emerged in
the curriculum of American higher education during the
years 1885-1932, and to report the findings which were
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13
discovered. The literature which was the source of this
data will be reviewed in Chapter II.
Method of processing data.— The initial search of
the literature to 1945 provided the basis for the assump
tions, structure, scope, and limitations of the study, as
well as the stages of major development to be considered.
It was discovered that events and ideas antecedent to 1885
influenced later developments, although the major period of
development of dance theories occurred between 1885 and
1932. The concepts expressed seemed to have been influ
enced by certain events in 1885, in 1905, in 1918, and in
1932, thus defining the stages of gradual enlargement and
alteration of theories and practices of dance in higher
education.
The information gathered from the literature was
placed on cards, which were sorted and arranged into blocks
of material according to the determined time periods. Each
block of material was analyzed in reference to the ques
tions posed by the problem of the study. Major concepts
and influential people who made contributions to dance
philosophy and practices were identified, as evidenced by
statements which contained characteristic key words and
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14
phrases.
This information was arranged and reported in
chronological order, with a chapter for each time period
of pre-1885, 1885-1904, 1905-1917, and 1918-1932.
Each chapter includes the following information,
although not necessarily presented in the same order,
since the material for the different chapters required a
slightly different treatment for a logical development.
1. A brief review of the dance concepts which
were antecedent to the time period under consideration,
except in Chapter III, and a brief preview of the material
of the era to be dealt with in each chapter.
2. Contributors who were current to the time
interval were identified, and their assumptions about the
place and value of dance in higher education reported.
3. The major concepts, key words and phrases
which were discovered, and which became instmimental in
shaping the patterns of dance, were determined and
reviewed.
4. The manner in which programs and practices
reflected major concepts of the period were discussed.
5. The ideas which were at the leading edge of
dance theory to become the current concepts of the
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15
following period were mentioned.
6. A review of the theoretical foundations of
dance which developed within a period was presented as an
introduction tgthe subsequent chapter.
Organization of Material
Chapter I, ’ ’ The Nature of the Problem and the
Method of Investigation,” states the problem and reviews
the method of procedure.
Chapter II, ’ ’ The Skeins of Literature,” reviews
the literature related to dance in higher education to
1945.
Chapter III, "The Threads of Inheritance: Pre-1885,”
is concerned with the ideas of Beecher, Lewis, and
Dodworth; higher education before 1885; and the Delsarte
system of Harmonic Gymnastics.
Chapter IV, ’ ’ The Loom and the Warp: 1885-1904,"
relates the development of dance programs in the Harvard
Summer School and other institutions, and the concepts of
influential physical educators and dance educators.
Chapter V, "The Weavers: 1905-1917,” discusses the
concepts and influences of the educators, dance teachers,
and physical educators during the rapidly expanding period
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16
of the inclusion of dance into the curriculum.
Chapter VI, "The Search for Designs and Patterns:
1918-1932relates the search of the dance educators and
concert dancers for the significance of dance as an educa
tional tool and as an art form; and the culmination of
their efforts in 1932.
Chapter VII, the last chapter, includes the find
ings and conclusions of the entire investigation. It is
proposed as a summary and report on the identification, in
chronological order, of the basic assumptions which shaped
the patterns and practices of dance in the curriculum of
physical education; in other words, an outline of the
theoretical foundations of dance in American higher educa
tion between the years 1885-1932.
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CHAPTER II
THE SKEINS OF LITERATURE
The literature which was examined as the source of
data for this study may be divided Into four categories,
according to kind: (1) related Investigational studies of
dance In the form of doctoral dissertations and master's
theses; (2) primary source books; (3) secondary source
books; and (4) periodicals containing primary and secondary
source material. This chapter Is concerned with a further
Identification of this material.
Related Research Projects
Most dance research studies In the form of doctoral
dissertations and master's theses have been made on one
aspect of dance, the presently defined creative or art
form. None were found which were concerned with the total
dance picture In higher education, nor which particularly
sought to Identify basic concepts about dance which had
17
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18
been presented during the developmental stage of dance as
an area of study in higher education.
The related Investigations which were examined
consisted of one dissertation and one thesis available on
Inter-library loan; two dissertations and one thesis
obtained from the authors; one dissertation available In
book form; and one thesis published In a periodical. These
volumes were useful, since they were concerned, to some
extent, with the historical development of modem or
creative dance In education, or especially directed toward
the contributions and concepts of certain people who Influ
enced the change In patterns and nomenclature of the
expressive form of dance.
Two Investigations which might have been useful
were not available. The Dance Observer, February 1945,
mentioned a thesis by Edna Friedman— "American Opinions on
Dance and Dancing from 1840-1940," New York University,
1940. A thesis written by Ella Lukk-Kudu Noormets, "Modern
Dance, a Historical Survey," University of Wisconsin, 1960,
was listed In Focus on Dance, Vol. I, 1960. These were
requested through Inter-library loan, but unfortunately
found to be unavailable.
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19
The earliest dance research study examined was
"Â Survey of Modern Dance in Colleges and Universities of
California," University of California master's thesis.
May 1937, by Isabel Kane, and published in the October
1939 issue of Educational Dance. This survey included
questions about the amount and type of dance offered,
problem areas, facilities, and terminology. The study
indicated that in California there was:
... a very special participation in modern dance
which finds no parallel in folk, clog, or social.
The colleges as a group are uniting their efforts
to give as many opportunities for stimulating
interest in dance as possible, and the students
are responding in an enthusiastic manner. This
must indicate that both students and faculty con
sider it an educationally sound activity. (98:7)
A similar study was conducted by Francis Davies at
New York University in 1943, in the master's thesis
entitled "A Survey of Dance in Colleges, Universities,
Teacher Training Institutions in the United States for the
Year 1941-1942," which was obtained through inter-library
loan. Davies sent a three-page questionnaire to 139 insti
tutions, and 53 per cent replied. Information obtained
about the forms of dance taught indicated that 99 per cent
of the reporting schools included modern dance, 100 per
cent folk dance, 82 per cent tap dance, and 69 per cent
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20
social dance in the programs. Dance was the concern of
the physical education department in 98 per cent of the
cases. The average for the whole country in the number of
years some form of dance had been taught was: folk dance,
11.8 years; modern dance, including the older esthetic,
natural, and interpretative forms, 8.32 years; tap and
clog, 8.08; and social, 3.51 years, respectively (130:17).
Trends in programs may be observed in the Davies study.
The purpose of the investigation conducted by Lois
Ellfeldt, and reported in the doctoral dissertation "The
Role of Modern Dance in Selected Women's and Coeducational
Colleges and Universities," University of Southern Califor
nia, 1947, was:
(1) To bring together significant findings
from the literature in considering the place of
dance in society.
(2) To determine the origins and development
of modern dance in education.
(3) To analyze and evaluate the various con
cepts of modern dance in the light of the aims
and values as claimed by its proponents. (131:3)
This work sought to determine the status and con
cepts of dance in higher education during the mid-1940's,
and was particularly significant, since at that time there
was "... little theoretical or practical agreement as to
the place of dance in education" (131:4). Ellfeldt stated
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21
that ”... unfortunately too many teachers of dance have
seemed to consider dancing per se and have failed to recog
nize basic concepts of dance” (131:5).
The early chapters were concerned with a survey of
the origins and functions of dance In primitive societies,
and the role of dance In changing cultures. A develop
mental survey of dance from the time of the primitive to
the modern day was presented, as a background to the report
of the status of dance In higher education In 1946. The
later chapters reported the results of the survey which
was made ”. . .to analyze and evaluate the various con
cepts of modern dance In the light of the alms and values
as claimed by Its proponents” (131:3).
The report on the survey revealed:
Most of the teachers indicated that their aims
for teaching modern dance were made up of a com
bination of factors Including: the promotion of a
creative experience; to Increase appreciation of
dance; to learn to work In a group; and, to
Increase movement skills. (131:198)
The Investigation by Ellfeldt was especially
Interesting, although beyond the scope of the present
study, since It reported concepts which were directly
stated about the function and value of dance in higher
education during the mid 1940's.
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22
The Doctor of Education dissertation of Mildred
Spiesman, "Creative Dance in American Life and Education,"
1949, Teachers College, Columbia, obtained through inter-
library loan, proved to be a valuable source of information
from which to glean concepts about the expressive form of
dance. The purpose of the study was ". . .to clarify the
important contributions which this art form is capable of
making to American education" (133:ii). She discussed the
concepts and contributions of many American concert artists
and dance educators, including Duncan, Colby, St. Denis,
Larson, H'Doubler, Shelley, and Hill. Some of the report
was based on interviews with the people about whom she
wrote.
The chapters entitled "Pioneer Efforts in Educa
tional Creative Dance," and "The Professional Dancer and
the Dance Educator Unite in the School” covered approxi
mately the years under consideration in the present study,
and contributed an initial framework for the ideas and
concepts to be examined more thoroughly in this study.
Since the work by Spiesman was more closely related in its
entirety to the present investigation than any other which
was found, it was most useful as a source.
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23
The doctoral dissertation of Alma Hawkins, Modern
Dance in Higher Education, Teachers College, Columbia, was
published in 1954, beyond the years of this study, but was
interesting because the first chapter contained a brief
outline of the history of dance in education from 1900 to
1945. The primairy source references were a useful guide
for the present investigation; also, some of the concepts
held by early dance educators were clearly presented.
The purpose of Hawkins' study was:
(1) to develop a concept of modern dance as
education;
(2) to identify specific contributions of
modern dance to the goals sought through education;
(3) to determine principles that should guide
the teaching of modern dance. (22:2)
The specific contributions of modern dance to the
goals of education as presented and discussed by Hawkins
in 1954 were: developing body effectiveness; self-
expression and esthetic experience; improving human
relations through self-acceptance and social skills.
The master's thesis of Nancy Chmilowski, "Modern
Dance Programs in Physical Education Curricula of Selected
Colleges and Universities of Southern California," Univer
sity of Southern California, 1958, was concerned with the
". . . adequacy of the college preparation of physical
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24
education teachers in modern dance" (129:2). The investi
gation was limited to six colleges and universities in
Southern California. The study was made after the time
limit set for the present study, but the chapter on the
development of modern dance in physical education in the
twentieth century related some interesting information
about people in physical education who influenced dance
concepts and practices. Chmilowski included the contribu
tions of the folk and tap dance exponents, Chalif,
Burchenal, Hill, Frost, and Duggan in her discussion of
significant developments in dance, suggesting that these
areas added many intercultural and educational values to
the physical education program (129:23).
The most recent doctoral dissertation examined was
"Theoretical Foundations of Physical Education in the
United States: 1886-1930," by Atara Sherman, 1965, Univer
sity of Southern California. The nature of the present
study most closely resembles that of Sherman's investiga
tion, since the concern of both was to determine concepts
and ideas through an examination of relevant literature.
The purpose of Sherman's study was:
... to identify the major ideas, concepts,
and terms discussed in the professional litera
ture of physical education in the United States
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25
during the period 1886-1930, and to describe the
changing patterns of interpretation of physical
education during this period. (130:2)
The hypotheses were:
(1) the underlying assumptions about the nature
of man gradually shift from the dualistic interpre
tation of "mind and body" to the unified mind-body
interpretation implied by the concept of the "whole
child";
(2) this philosophical transition is implemented
in the conceptual transition from the "physical
training," as identified in European systems, to
"physical education" as a distinctly American inter
pretation of one phase of the educational process;
(3) the major stages within these transitions
may be identified in terms of three time periods:
1886-1900; 1901-1915; and 1916-1930. (132:6).
Sherman concluded:
The literature of physical education in the
years 1886-1930 exhibits a gradual modification of
the philosophical assumptions about the nature of
man. (2) This philosophical transition is imple
mented in the conceptual transition from "physical
training" as identified with the German and Swedish
systems, to "physical education," as a distinctively
American pattern of education. (132:155)
It is possible that the present study will not
find such clear-cut differences in the developing pattern
of ideas about dance, even though dancing as an area of
study was sheltered within the structure of physical educa
tion departments. Perhaps there was a different set of
assumptions about the value and function of dancing even
from the inception of the program, since there were no
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26
forms of dance practices to be inherited from European
colleges and universities.
It should be apparent from this purposely extensive
review of the related investigations that an examination of
the theoretical foundations of dance in education has not
been attempted. The present study seeks to supplement and
complement the previous studies about dance in higher
education.
Primary Source Books
This material consisted of: (1) publications about
dance wherein the authors revealed their views regarding
the nature of dance either directly through clear state
ments , or indirectly through the presentation of dances or
programs of dancing; and (2) books which were published as
compilations of articles pertinent to dance.
A survey was made of the available books dealing
with the historical and developmental aspects of dance in
order to identify dance concepts and forms in a chrono
logical order. A review of the publications which con
tributed significant information will indicate the breadth
and scope of this literature, and was reported here in ten-
year periods for ease in handling the material.
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27
Opinions of authors.— Three publications previous
to 1900 were examined, of which the earliest was the 1859
edition of The Art of Dancing, wherein the ballroom dancing
: master, Edward Ferrero, defined dancing, outlined the
I history of dancing, discussed etiquette, and described
"modern dances." Dancing and Its Relation to Education
and Social Life was first published by Allen Dodworth in
1885, with five subsequent editions. It was especially
revealing of the view of dance as a polite form of social
intercourse, with strict rules of behavior and courtesy.
Harmonic Gymnastics and Pantomimic Expression, by Marion
Lowell, 1894, presented the Delsarte system of expression
in great detail. These three books, written previous to
the twentieth century, clearly presented assumptions that
dance was social and expressive. Since these ideas were
well accepted and current to the times, they surely had
some influence on the developing practices of dance in
education.
Between 1900 and 1910, only three books, all con
cerned with folk dance, were published. Oscar Duryea
presented Dance Songs of All Nations in 1908, Elizabeth
Burchenal produced Folk Dances and Singing Games in 1909,
and C. Ward Crampton published The Folk Dance Book in 1909.
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28
The volume of primary literature about folk dancing
increased rapidly between 1910 and 1920. At the beginning
of this period, Luther Gulick wrote The Healthful Art of
!
Dancing, 1910. There were four more books by Burchenal: !
Dances of the People, 1913; Folk Dances of Finland, 1915;
Folk Dances of Denmark, 1915; and American Country Dances,
1917. The English Country Dance Book by Cecil Sharp
appeared in 1913, and Polite and Social Dances was pre
sented by Mari Ruef Hofer in 1917.
The appearance of The Festival Book in 1912 by
Jennette Lincoln of the University of Illinois, presenting
dances for May Day pageants, indicated a trend toward
college dance performance. Four books were written with
conviction and emphasis on the importance of gymnastic
dancing as a form of esthetic and expressive movement.
Emil Rath published Aesthetic Dancing in 1914, and The
Theory and Practice of Physical Education in 1916, which
included a first volume entitled Gymnastic Dancing; Mary
Wood Hinman wrote Gymnastic and Folk Dancing in 1916; and
S. C. Staley produced a Manual of Gymnastic Dancing in
1920.
Troy and Margaret Kinney discussed past and present
ballet in The Dance in 1914, while Louis Chalif published
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29
his modified version of esthetic ballet in the Textbook of
Dancing in the same year. In 1912, The Eurhythmies of
Jacques-Dalcroze appeared to influence the concepts about
dance in education.
The patterns of dance from 1900-1920 as portrayed
in the professional literature in the form of published
books seem clear— folk dance, gymnastic dancing, modified
ballet, and a glimmer of music interpretation. The con
cepts in relation to the practices are not so clear, since
the claim that dancing was expressive movement was made by
all the exponents of the different styles. Evidently
"expression” was an acceptable term in dance education.
These matters will be discussed at length in the main body
of this study, with further data gathered from periodicals
of the period.
The books used as primary source literature pub
lished during 1920-1930 were written, in most cases, by
women educators. Three significant books appeared about
the form of dance termed "natural" or "interpretative,"
which had wide influence on dance theories and practices.
Gertrude Colby, of Columbia University, wrote
Natural Rhythms and Dances in 1922. Two years later the
dance teachers Agnes and Lucille Marsh produced Dance in
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30
Education. In 1925, Margaret H'Doubler presented dance as
a creative art expression in The Dance and Its Place in
Education. The concepts of these books will be discussed
further in Chapter VI.
Three books of this period indicated that a new
form of dance was emerging in the curriculum of higher
education. Helen Frost wrote The Clog Dance Book in 1921,
and Clog and Character Dances in 1924; Marjorie Hillas and
Marion Knighton presented Athletic Dances and Simple Clogs
in 1926. Introductions to these books were written by
Jesse Feiring Williams of Teachers College, Columbia, who
stressed the importance of rhythmic expressive activity.
One more folk dance book by Burchenal, Dances of
Old Homelands in 1922; and Indian and Other Folk Dances
by Mary S. Shafter, the same year, completed the output of
books about dance during this era.
During the following ten-year period, three more
books about tap dancing appeared: one entitled Tap Dancing
by Edith Ballwebber in 1930; Tap Dances in 1932 by Anne
Schley Duggan; and in 1939, Creative Tap Dancing by Mary
Jane Hungerford. Also, in 1939 two books on American
square dance were written, which introduced another form
of dance into the school curriculum. Cowboy Dances by
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31
Lloyd Shaw and Dances of Our Pioneers by Grace Ryan were
the first of several such publications.
Evidently dance as an expressive, creative activity
received the major emphasis in this era since seven books
appeared about some aspect of dance as an art form. The
first was the 1930 American edition of Eurhythmies, Art
and Education by Emile Jacques-Dalcroze.
Elizabeth Selden wrote the Elements of Free Dance
in 1930 and The Dancer's Quest in 1935. Helen Norman Smith
of Teachers College, Columbia, with Natural Dance Studies
in 1931, and Betty Lynd Thompson of Oregon State College,
with Fundamentals of Rhythms and Dance in 1933, contributed
to the growing body of professional publications by dance
educators.
John Martin, the dance critic of the New York
Times. attempted an analysis and interpretation of the new
modern dance. His book of 1933, The Modern Dance, gained
wide acceptance, as did that of Louis Horst, the dance
musician for concert artists, who wrote Pre-Classic Dance
Forms in 1937.
The attitude of physical educators toward dance in
education during these years was revealed by Agnes Wayman
in Education Through Physical Education in 1934, and
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32
Modern Philosophies of Physical Education in 1938.
The primary literature in the form of books pub
lished later, but pertinent to the last years of the
present investigation consisted of a second book, in 1940,
by Margaret H'Doubler, Dance— A Creative Art Experience,
wherein she enlarged on her previous theories; and Dance
We Must by Ted Shawn in 1940.
Compilations.— The second type of primary source
book, consisting of compilations or direct quotations is
represented by five works. Gymnastic Textbook of German-
American System of Gymnastics, by W. W. Stecher in 1895,
included an article by Christian Eberhard entitled "Fancy
Steps." The Source Book in Physical Education, edited in
1925 by Thomas Wood and Clifford Brownell, included
quotations from Gulick, Crawford, G. Stanley Hall, and
Lucille Marsh. The Manual of Gymnastic Dance by S. C.
Staley in 1920 revealed directly expressed opinions of
Dudley Sargent and William Anderson.
J. B. Mash edited Physical Education— Interpreta
tion and Objectives in 1932, for which Martha Hill of New
York University wrote the article "Application of Criteria
to Dance." In 1941, Frederick Rand Rogers edited a
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33
compilation of articles on dance which were written by
leaders in the concert dance field, teachers of dance, and
authorities in related fields. The book Dance; A Basic
Educational Technique, recognized four areas of concern fori
college courses in dance, and presented several viewpoints ;
in regard to (a) theory, (b) teaching methods, (c) tech
nique, and (d) appreciations.
The books which contained primary material have
been discussed at some length, since such basic informa
tion , along with evidence obtained from the periodicals,
provided a major source of data for this study, and also
indicates the manner in which the investigation was
conducted.
Secondary Source Books
Physical education histories.— The following
physical education histories contributed a temporal frame
work for ideas relevant to this study: A Brief History of
Physical Education, 1926, by Emmett Rice; History of
Physical Education in Colleges for Women, 1930, by Dorothy
Ainsworth; A History of Physical Education in the United
States, 1942, by Norma Schwenderer; and A World History of
Physical Education, 1953, by Deobold Van Dalen, Elmer
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34
Mitchell, and Bruce Bennett.
I The book by Ainsworth contributed Information
about the early women educators Emma Willard and Catherine
Beecher, and the type of exercise prevalent In the women's
colleges before the twentieth century. In Rice, material
about Beecher and Dio Lewis was discovered. Schwenderer
presented some Interesting observations about Lewis,
Delsarte, Chalif, and Hinman.
These publications were Important to this study
mainly because the authors treated dance In the context of
the physical education program as a whole. However, much
of the Information covered In these books was available In
the periodicals of the era, or In the material previously
discussed.
Books on dance by critics and dancers.— Another
type of secondary source books were those written by dance
critics or dancers rather than educators. John Martin,
critic of the New York Times, published America Dancing
In 1936. He traced the background, style. Influence, and
contributions of such dance artists as Duncan, St. Denis,
Shawn, and Graham, who emerged on the scene during develop
mental periods of dance In higher education. This work
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35
; represented the most comprehensive history of American
I dance to that date and included observations about dance
I in the college program. Specific references from this
work and from Martin's The Dance, published in 1962, will
be presented in later chapters.
I
Invitation to Dance by Walter Terry appeared in
I 1942. Terry presented a resume of American dance history,
a report of the educational dance survey conducted by the
New York Herald Tribune (for which he was dance critic),
and his view of the status of dance in education in 1940.
The initial chapters of this book contributed information
for the present study.
In 1948, Chronicles of the American Dance was
edited by Paul Magriel as a series of essays about American
dancers. The articles on Allen Dodworth and Ruth St. Denis
were especially interesting. Of value was the publication
The Dance Has Many Faces, edited by Walter Sorell, since
the articles were written by such dance artists as La Meri,
Doris Humphrey, Hanya Holm, and Rudolf Laban. Statements
about the value and function of dance presented by concert
artists who influenced dance in higher education proved to
be particularly pertinent to the present study and will be
used as direct reference material in later chapters.
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36
America Leams to Dance, an historical study of
dance education before 1900, was published by Joseph Marks
III in 1957. This we11-documented book proved to be an
excellent source of information concerning dance concepts, I
as well as practices, which prevailed in the eighteenth
and nineteenth centuries. His clear presentation of the
influence of William Anderson and Dudley Sargent on devel
oping dance and gymnastic programs was especially useful
and pertinent to the 1885-1900 period of the present
investigation.
Another useful book for the early period under
consideration was Every Little Movement, published in 1954
and revised in 1963, wherein Ted Shawn reported on his
thorough examination of all the available material on the
work of François Delsarte, and traced the influence of
this system on subsequent dance practices and theories.
It was necessary to make a critical selection of
the dance books to be used as source material for the
present project, since there were many publications which
were not pertinent to this study, especially in the area
of the so-called creative rhythms for children, recent
compilations of square, round or folk dances, those which
were primarily concerned with dance artists of the concert
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37
stage, and histories of the dance in antiquity.
The books reviewed in this chapter constitute the
major works which are related to dance in higher education
to 1945. The scope of this study was determined through
the initial review of the books and periodicals.
Periodicals
A search through the periodicals which contained
material relevant to the various forms of dance in higher
education from 1880-1945 resulted in a critical selection
of pertinent articles culled from the issues of several
different publications.
The major sources of information were the four
physical education publications— Mind and Body, the
magazine of the Turners, published from 1894 to 1935; the
American Physical Education Review issued from 1896 to
1930; the Journal of Health. Physical Education and
Recreation. and the Research Quarterly, both started in
1930. All the issues of these periodicals to the date of
expiration or to 1945 were examined. In addition, volumes
of Educational Dance « The Dance Observer, and Dance
Magazine provided valuable data. Articles of interest
were found in the Atlantic Monthly of May 1871, Harper * s
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38
Weekly for December 1912, the December 1916 Issue of
Scribner's. and the Theatre Arts Monthly for July 1938.
I Some information was gathered from Playground of 1920, and |
I
from the National Education Association Addresses and
Proceedings of 1897.
The early issues of Mind and Body included informa
tion which was useful for the present study because of the
nomenclature and description of movements to be performed
to music. The 1905 issue contained two articles using the
term "dancing” for the first time— "Dancing in Relation to
Physical Training," and "Dancing Defended." In the same
year, the American Physical Education Review carried five
articles about dance, by Luther Gulick, Henry Taylor, Ward
Crampton, Elizabeth Burchenal, and Dudley Sargent. These
articles indicated a significant trend toward the accept
ance of dance in education.
The issues of these two publications provided the
major primary sources of data for the 1900-1930 periods of
the present investigation. In 1930, the Journal and the
Research Quarterly became the professional publications for
physical education. Of great importance was the monthly
column of "Dance Section News," which appeared regularly
in the Journal after 1935.
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39
The Dance Observer dated from 1933, and articles
from issues of this magazine were useful for tracing the
relationship which was developing between concert dance
and college programs. Each issue carried a review of the
concerts of dance artists and a section of college cor
respondence. Dance Magazine was more concerned with
professional dance than with dance in higher education,
but an interesting series of articles by Mildred Spiesman
on "American Pioneers in Educational Dance" appeared from
November 1950 to September 1951.
Educational Dance, a West Coast magazine, briefly
published just prior to World War II, contributed primary
source material, since the articles were written by dance
educators concerned with the various forms of dance
including tap, folk, social, and modern— which indicated
the scope of dance practices in higher education at the
middle of the twentieth century.
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CHAPTER III
THE THREADS OF INHERITANCE: PRE-1885
The Association for the Advancement of Physical
Education was founded in 1885, but twenty years passed
before a group of educators gathered together at a confer
ence in 1905 to discuss dancing as a main topic of concern.
The year 1905 was also marked by the appearance of seven
articles about dance in the professional literature of
physical education. A milestone, indeed, and it was a
temptation to set this as the date of the inception of
dance in the curriculum of higher education. Such events
do not occur without precedent, however, but are built up
from a gathering of forces based on previous ideas. This
chapter proposes to investigate the concepts and occur
rences of dancing in America prior to the conference of
1885, which led eventually, in 1905, to the recognition
of dance as an area worthy of consideration by educators.
40
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41
Colonial Colleges
Higher education was strictly the province of men
in the colonial colleges, since the main purpose of such
institutions was to provide an educated ministry (3:6). j
There was a . . deep-seated skepticism . . . with |
respect to the value of higher education for women" (3:65).'
The infrequent use of the word "dance" in the early
American colleges referred to a form of social accomplish
ment.
Higher education throughout the 18th century
still remained in the hands of, or under the influ
ence of religious organizations. The greater number
could not see dance as part of the program, and some
forbade students to go outside for instruction.
(37:65)
When dance was considered in the colonial colleges,
it was thought to have healthful value as exercise, or as
a necessary social accomplishment.
Beniamin Rush.— Ideas about the value and function
of dance were stated by Rush in an article directed to
". . . the Rich and Studious on Temperance and Exercise."
Marks quoted him as saying:
"Dancing is a salutary exercise . . . by it's
[sic] mechanical effects on the body, it inspires
the mind with cheerfulness, and this, when well
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42
founded, and properly restrained, is another name
for religion. . , . Dancing should never be used
more than once or twice a week . . . nor continued
'till weariness comes on." (37:55)
Noah Webster.— Activities which contributed to
health of body were favored by Webster. He equated sports
and games with dance, and evidently believed that vigorous
physical movement was good for men. He ". . . preferred
fencing, but running, football, quoits, and dancing were
also good in his opinion . . . , but only as substitutes
for labor in agriculture or mechanical arts" (63:375).
Thomas Jefferson.— Dancing was put in a separate
category by Jefferson, as he ". . . recognized the need
for teachers of gymnastics, music, dancing and drawing at
the University of Virginia, but they were to be paid by
the students and not by the university" (63:380).
Brubacher said:
Dancing was not welcomed as warmly [as music]
at all colleges. Jefferson permitted dancing
lessons at the University of Virginia, and many
balls were held within the precincts of that
1 istitution. (3:49)
This was an enlightened view, however, since
"... there were many colleges which maintained definite
rules against such 'Satanic' goings on" (3:49).
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43
Commencement balls,— Some administrators of
southern colleges favored balls, believing that "...
according to the English idea, a student must know . . .
basic courses . . . and bow to dance gracefully" (37:60).
The program of dances performed at the commencement balls
included "... first. Minuets 1 round; 2nd, Giggs; 3rd,
Reels, and last of all. Country Dances; though they struck
several marches occasionally" (37:62),
A member of society— and the students in these
colleges were members of upper class society— needed to
have such accomplishments as music, fencing, dancing, and
manners befitting his station in life (37:60).
Women's Academies
A scattering of female "academies" and "semi
naries" had made an appearance in the early years
of the century, the majority of them modeled on
the famous institution that Emma Willard had
founded in 1821 at Troy, New York. It is ques
tionable whether these can be characterized as
women's "colleges." Rather they seemed to be
designed to give woman a specialized kind of
instruction which would "fit" her for her estab
lished "place in society." Certainly these
early seminaries made no attempt to grant bacca
laureate degrees. (3:65)
Van Dalen said: "In view of the general status of
women at the time, exercises for women received a
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44
surprising amount of attention” (63:376). This is under
standable in light of the fact that "... the idea swept
the country that physical exercise was something of a
panacea for all problems involving the health of students”
i (3:328).
Although the puritan view of the word "dancing”
still prevailed, exercise was encouraged, and the urge to
move to music was not to be denied the girls in the women's
seminaries. Calisthenics and gymnastics were useful, and
in the select girls' schools, something was going on that
looked and felt like dancing.
Emma Willard.— Dancing as a form of exercise was
introduced into the women's academies at Westfield,
Massachusetts, and Troy, New York, by Willard (1:4), A
pamphlet written by Willard in 1819 (63:376) expressed the
view that dancing was healthful and beneficial since it
was an "ornamental grace of motion” and contributed to
"... graceful carriage, and an exercise needful to health
and recreation” (37:86).
Catherine Beecher.— Beecher conducted the Hartford
Female Seminary, and opened the Western Female Institute
in Cincinnati. Her first book, A Course of Calisthenics
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45
for Young Ladies, was produced in 1831 (45:210). She
warned teachers that ”... these movements resembling
quadrilles were not to appear to be like dancing” (1:4).
Chmilowski, quoting Bloomer, said that the calisthenics
introduced into Beecher's school were designed to give
grace, poise, and sound health to young female students.
These exercises resembled dance, and were used with music
accompaniment (129:12). Staley suggested that one of the
aims of Beecher's program of exercises was to secure the
advantages supposed to be gained at dancing school (58:12).
Rice stated that ”... she may justifiably be
claimed as the originator of the first American system of
gymnastics and as such the first woman physical education
leader in America" (45:210). In a notice concerning her
school, she made the point that the gymnastic lesson
... is rendered attractive by music and serves
at the same time as a lesson in musical rhythm.
We are assured by those who have tried both, that
it is a far more efficient means than dancing,
for improving the form and the manners, without
any of its evils. (63:370)
The opinions of Beecher revealed the attitudes of
the era toward dance. She recognized the value of dancing
movements, but respected the mores of society.
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46
Mary Lyon.— Mt. Holyoke Female Seminary was founded
by Lyon in 1837 (63;376). A description of the physical
training program at this institution indicated the calls-
thenic practices of the era. A preliminary pamphlet of
calisthenics was issued in 1845, and continued to be in
use in some form until these exercises were replaced in
1863 by the gymnastics of Dio Lewis.
These exercises were not calisthenics in the
modern sense, but were exercises resembling qua
drilles. They were written out and passed from
teacher to teacher. No one was especially quali
fied to teach them, but anyone who had taken them
was considered qualified to teach them. These
exercises were collected and printed about 1853
in a pamphlet called "Calisthenic Exercises" by
Miss Titcomb. (101:141)
These exercises were designed to educate the
muscles in grace and ease of motion. It seems
probable that the steps were based upon the
dancing of the period . . . but the teachers were
warned not to make calisthenics too much like
dancing. (101:143)
The pamphlet issued in 1853 included directions for
doing the "Nine Changes," with a second series "... per
formed with singing. . . ." Directions for a Double Side
Step were "slide, together, slide, hold"; for the Promenade
Step, "step, together, step, moving forward" (101:143).
These steps seem to be dangerously like a dance two-step.
It appears that "... the considerable objection that the
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47
calisthenics resembled dancing too closely . . (101:143)
may have been well founded.
The girls enjoyed such exercises, and "... these
figures and movements afforded a lively and beautiful
recreation and were always looked upon as 'show exercises'"!
(101:143). Exhibitions and demonstrations of the "show j
exercises" were held during Anniversary Week. |
Dio Lewis.— The "New Gymnastics" of Lewis was
introduced at Mt. Holyoke in 1863. This system consisted
of marching, running, skipping (identified by McCurdy as a
modified form of dancing), wands, and Indian clubs (101:
144). In 1861, Lewis had established a school at Lexing
ton, Massachusetts, and was joined for a short time by
Catherine Beecher, from whom he may have culled many of
his exercises (63:377). She had used music with calisthen
ics, but it was Lewis who popularized its use (37:96).
"Lewis recommended musical accompaniment with either a
drum, violin, piano, or preferably, a hand organ" (63:381).
According to Van Dalen:
Lewis appeared before the annual meeting of the
American Institute of Instruction in 1860 at Boston
and completely captivated the group. . . . before
adjourning, the Institute passed a resolution
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48
recommending the general Introduction of Lewis'
gymnastics into all the schools and for general
use. (63:371)
Schwenderer stated:
I
Of salient and far-reaching value was - and
is - the fact that the Lewis movement embodied for |
the first time an organized step toward physical
education for women ... to him must be given
credit for arousing widespread interest in their
exercise needs and in providing a system even
slightly suitable for their use. (48:82)
In the Atlantic Monthly of March 1861 an article on
gymnastics appeared in which Lewis was mentioned.
... to speak a good word for the hobby of the
day - Dr. Lewis and his system of gymnastics, or
more properly, of calisthenics ... it will espe
cially render service to female pupils, so far as
they practice it;— for the accustomed gymnastic
exercises seem never yet to have been rendered
attractive to them, on any large scale and with any
permanency. (87:300)
According to Van Dalen, Lewis "... brought an
added objective of body symmetry in his selection of exer
cises , and added this to goals of strength, flexibility,
and agility" (63:367). In addition, ". . .he sought to
maintain a spirit of joy and pleasure through the combined
use of exercises and simple games" (63:381).
The system of exercises to music, taught by Lewis,
was in all outward aspects a form of dancing: a stylized
and rhythmical body movement. The free gymnastic exercises
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49
used by Lewis and reported by Marks consisted of inarching,
leaping, and skipping. The description of the movements
for "Exercise No, 9" were: "... skip the length of hall,
right hands joined with partner . , . one of the parties
whirling . . . allowing hand to turn in partner * s hand"
(37:96). Although this exercise seems to resemble dancing,
Lewis was mindful of the nineteenth century disapproval of
the word, and said that his exercises "... possessed a
charm superior to dance and other social amusements"
(37:95).
The influence of Lewis was far-reaching, as teacher
training received its
. . . first genuine impetus from Dio Lewis when
he established a Normal Institute for Physical
Education in Boston in 1861. The first graduating
class consisted of "seven ladies and six gentlemen"
who practiced gymnastic exercises from six to
twelve hours a day for nine weeks. This school
existed for six or seven years and graduated some
250 pupils. (63:394)
According to Van Dalen, the school closed after the Civil
War (63:394).
Academy patterns and concepts.— The women's
academies, seminaries, and colleges included some form of
exercise as a part of the curricular or extra-curricular
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50
programs. The content consisted of rhythmical gymnastics
of a dance-like nature; marching, skipping, running per
formed to folk songs; and marching and broom drills with
dance steps such as follow-stepping, catch-stepping, and
chassé. The exercises were probably passed on and taught
by any skilled or interested student or teacher, as at
Mt. Holyoke, until the Lewis system came into vogue.
The basic assumptions about dance and dancing
current among the teachers at the nineteenth century
academies seem to have been that the word "dancing" was
not acceptable in education, because of the unfortunate
implications of the word; but gymnastics and calisthenics
performed to music were thought to be useful exercises for
women. Such exercises were considered to be necessary for
health, graceful carriage, grace and ease of motion; and
contributed to body symmetry, strength, flexibility, and
agility. In addition, exercises were pleasurable and
attractive when performed to music, and they would serve
as a lesson in musical rhythm. It was also believed that
dance-like exercises improved manners.
The concept of dancing as a social skill seemed to
be temporarily lost because of religious objections to such
activity. But the emphasis on the healthful and graceful
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51
aspects of calisthenics performed to music was apparent.
There were threads of growing Interest In the enjoyable
aspect of rhythmic exercises, which were also useful as an
aid to understanding music.
I
In the meantime, three developments were to have |
an Influence on dance: the expansion of higher education I
opportunities for women, the Increasing respectability of
dancing, and the stirring of curiosity about the term
"expression."
Higher Education Scene
The pattern of education In the women's academies
was reminiscent of the colonial colleges, with a narrow
curriculum of liberal arts studies aimed at preparing women
for their established place In society and the home. They
were expected to be charming, graceful, and delicately
healthy; too much knowledge was considered "unfemlnlne”
(3:66). Nevertheless, a campaign to secure the recognition
of equal educational rights for women was being carried on
by such women as Catherine Beecher and Mary Wollstencraft
(3:65), so that In the decades following the Civil War the
"... Issue had narrowed down, for the most part, not to
question 'Should women receive a college education?' but
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52
to one of 'what kind'?" (3:66).
The American impulse toward the diversification
and popularization of opportunities for higher edu
cation came, in the 19th century, to include women
as well as men. Ancient barriers due to sex, which
had hitherto limited such opportunities to one-half
of the population, fell into discard. The result
was a new kind of college— the women's college— and
a new situation in many existing colleges, namely,
the coeducation of young men and women. (3:64)
Oberlin, in 1833, was the first prototype of the
coeducational college.
This action was unprecedented in the educational
history of the English-speaking world. Even more
remarkable was the Oberlin commencement of 1841,
when three female graduates joined nine male class
mates to receive the degree of bachelor of arts.
These were the first American women to earn a
regular A.B. degree by completion of a program of
studies identical with that required of male candi
dates for the same degree. (3:66)
Separate women's colleges were the rule in the
eastern states. Wesleyan Female College was founded in
Macon, Georgia, in 1836; Rockford College, in Illinois, in
1845; Elmira College, in New York State, founded in 1835;
Vassar in 1865; Wellesley and Smith in 1875, and Bryn Mawr,
1885. Women were not admitted to Harvard and Columbia
until much later, which is interesting, in view of the
fact that these schools were to become the most influential
institutions during the developmental period of dance in
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53
the curriculum of higher education.
Morrill Land Grant Act.— In the meantime there
occurred an event of the utmost importance. The passage
of the Morrill Act in 1862 resulted in a distinctly
American pattern of higher education.
How shall we summarize the significance of the
land grant colleges? They were among the first
institutions of learning in the United States to
welcome applied science and the mechanic arts, and
to give these subjects a recognized place in the
college curriculum. They fostered the emancipation
of higher education from a purely classical and
formalistic tradition . . . knowledge should be
taught for its use, "promoting the liberal and
practical education of the industrial classes in
the several pursuits and professions of life."
Finally, these colleges stood pre-eminently for
the principle . . . that every American citizen is
entitled to receive some form of higher education.
(3:64)
The expansion of the curriculum to include scien
tific and practical subjects was used by physical educators
as an effective wedge to gain acceptance of their programs
in colleges and universities. It was claimed that the
scientific use of exercise would promote health of the
body, which was necessary to insure a clear mind. The
exercises were designed to develop a strong physique to
support the powers of the mind (132:151).
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54
Although ". . .as far back as 1825 Harvard had
Introduced methods of physical education involving mass
calisthenics modeled on those developed in Germany and
Scandinavia” (3:328), ”... the first significant college ;
program in physical education was that started at Amherst
in 1861 under the supervision of Dr. Edward Hitchcock”
(63:369).
Under Dr. Hitchcock's supervision, the typical
class period consisted of about twenty minutes of
light gymnastics with wooden dumbbells weighing
less than a pound each. . . . the exercises were
done in unison to piano music. (63:378)
These gymnastic exercises to music were not consid
ered dancing in the men's colleges, and when calisthenics
were performed with musical accompaniment in the women's
colleges, the opinion was often voiced that such exercises
were not to be considered dancing. However, Staley made
the point that ”... both the gymnastic dance, as modernly
conducted, and the use of music in the gymnasium, might
truthfully be called American contributions to Physical
Education” (58:10).
Turnverein Normal School.— The development of
gymnastic dancing in American education may be attributed
to the revival of the Turner movement. A Turnverein school
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55
for men which was established in New York, later moved to
Milwaukee in 1874, and became the Turnverein Normal School,
with George Brosius as director. The curriculum was exten
sive and included courses in gymnastic dancing. Hundreds
of teachers were trained at the school. Schwenderer said:
. . . the admission of physical education in
the state-maintained schools of America is insepa
rably associated with the expansion of the Turn
verein and the resolute leadership of Brosius.
(48:105)
Staley, in 1914, said of the term ’ ’gymnastic
dancing”:
Guts Muths is the first modern author as far
as I can find to use the term ’’ gymnastic dancing.”
In his list of definite gymnastic exercises was
included rhythmical leaping, hopping in place,
using one or both feet, kicking legs forward or
backward, . . . These, it is well to note, were
the forerunners of the modern dance. (58:9)
Music was not used with these exercises. Singing
accompanied ’ ’roundels,” which Staley attributed to Spiess
(1810-1858), who used ”... simple marching, hopping,
skipping and running movements, always accompanied with
singing” (58:9).
Sargent Normal School of Physical Education.—
Dudley Sargent founded this school in 1881. Teacher train
ing in physical education had lagged, except for the
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56
Tumverelns, from the time when Dio Lewis closed his school
after the Civil War. In fact,
. . . the pioneer work of Dr. Hitchcock and the
precedent established by Amherst in giving him
faculty status as a professor remained unique until
Dr. Dudley Sargent became assistant professor of
physical training and director of the new Hemenway
Gymnasium at Harvard University in 1879. (63:392)
Sargent wrote in 1883:
It is true that nearly all of the larger
seminaries and colleges in the New England and
Middle States are provided with gymnasiums, or
their students have access to some place for
practicing physical exercise. (110:167)
However, he believed that the gymnasiums were not
sufficiently used because they were poorly planned and
lacked leadership. He said:
. . . it is the lack of a suitable man, with
sufficient authority at the head of the department—
a man who is a college graduate— a practical gymnast,
and an educated physician. (110:175)
Sargent insisted on professional training, and to
remedy the lack of trained personnel which he observed, he
opened the Sargent School of Physical Education. It was
. . . originally called the Sanatory Gymnasium,
in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and he offered to give
his one-year normal course free to anyone who wished
to teach. Six women enrolled but only one completed
the course, the others leaving to take positions . .
. the demand for teachers made it difficult to keep
his students, so his two year course on theory and
practice was not realized until 1892. (63:394)
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57
Sargent recognized the need for professional
training for women, since they were teaching in the
women's colleges and schools. It is interesting to note
that the inclusion of dancing in the program was to be
encouraged by men at the time when women were becoming |
recognized as worthy of higher education. |
Summary.— Between 1865 and 1885 the patterns of
dance practice for women included gymnastic dances,
roundels, and musical drills, ”. . . consisting of more or
less artistically arranged exercises put to music, included
not infrequently, dance steps. Such steps were known as
rhythmical balance exercises, rather than dancing steps"
(58:13). The students at some of the women's colleges
(for example, Vassar and Mt. Holyoke) were performing
calisthenics to music, after the pattern of Dio Lewis
(37:97).
Many girls' schools and colleges patterned the
physical education practices after the seminaries, and
included three types of exercises: dancing, domestic
duties, and calisthenics. As in the earlier periods of
the women's academies, the idea persisted that calisthenics
and gymnastics were good for healthful purposes, and the
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58
addition of rhythmical balance exercises and music would
serve to make the exercises more palatable.
The American higher education scene in the late
1800's was dominated by the proliferation of institutions,
the expansion of the curriculum, and the opportunities for
women to be admitted to colleges and universities. These
events led to a search for patterns of physical education
suitable for women as well as for men, and subsequently
resulted in the development of teacher training programs.
It is probable that the practices and beliefs of the pri
vate dancing masters contributed ideas which influenced
concepts and practices of dance.
Ballroom Dancing Masters
During the great religious revival of 1858 "...
dancing was considered among the deadly sins," along
with card playing and theatre-going (37:69). Probably
such a current belief was partly responsible for the dim
view of the word "dancing" which was held in educational
circles. Dance as a social art was not lost, however, for
the private dancing masters, through their teaching and
writing, were attempting to make a strong case for the
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59
value of social dancing. As Marks said:
Dancing came to be recognized as a "good invest
ment" in health and well-being, and when the new
educational theories . . . began stressing exercises
as a valuable part of education, the private dance
teachers in America began to stress dance as a valu
able and healthy exercise. (37:79) I
Edward Ferrero.— The dancing master Ferrero wrote
a book about dancing in 1859. He said:
Dancing has been defined as a "graceful movement
of the body, adjusted to the measures or tunes of
instruments, or of voice" and again, "agreeable to
the true genius of the art, dancing is the art of
expressing the sentiments of the mind, or the pas
sions , by measured steps or bounds made in cadence,
by regulated motions of the figure and by graceful
gestures; all performed to the sound of musical
instruments or the voice."
But, although both definitions are correct
enough, might not dancing more properly be said to
be the effect of a natural and spontaneous desire
to move the limbs in harmony with the cadences of
music, and that its frequent use has resulted in
its conformation to the rules of art. (17:18)
He explained that he thought dancing "... some
thing more than mere physical exercise and amusement ..."
and regarded ". . . the dancing school of modern times . .
. valuable in forming manners and giving them the polish
of refinement" (17:85). Ferrero referred to himself as
"... the accomplished Professor of Calisthenics, of
Fourteenth Street" (17:81), and spoke highly:
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60
[of] Ferrero's Jubilee at the Academy— The first
of a grand series of entertainments ... at the
Academy of Music. . . . The Terpischorean matinee
was presumed to be private, and for the friends and
pupils of Mr. E. Ferrero, to whom all glory and
honor. (17:81)
Allen Dodworth.— The most influential dancing
master of the century was Dodworth. Terry said of him:
Holding strict to the highest standards of ball
room dance in the 19th century was Allen Dodworth,
whose Dancing Academy offered a system of instruction
which placed ballroom dancing on an educational plane
designed to promote love of beauty, rhythm, harmony,
correct social behavior and even spirituality in his
charges.
Dodworth and his family guided the course of the
Academy for almost one hundred years, from 1835 to
1920 . . . and taught an endless array of students
the quadrille, the waltz, the polka, the landers and
newer dances as they came along. (61:33)
Magriel praised the gentleman:
He battled with the world on the issue of dancing
as a medium of education and cultivated behaviour,
including health, morals and manners. (36:81)
Allen Dodworth's ideal was quite clearly one of
gentle living, good manners, and culture . . . under
his tutelage young ladies and gentlemen were trained
not only to dance, but to take their places in a
society that was still being formed and needed
authoritative leadership. (36:100)
Dodworth stated his beliefs:
. . . for I am fully in accord with the tradi
tional belief that dancing should be superior to all
other exercises in its beneficial effect upon
carriage and manners. (13:2)
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61
Motion is universal, and man is endowed with
capacity to appreciate its beauty and rhythm.
Should we doubt, then that the pleasure of motion
is part of man's nature? (13:11)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I
!
Courtesies of social intercourse should be
insisted upon, making politeness and consideration
for others habitual. (13:23)
The explanation of the positions and motions of
dance were interesting. He did not use the terms of
ballet, but the five basic foot positions were the same.
The "radical motions" were change, slide, step, hop, halt,
and leap, of which he said:
. . . the manner of its execution has a decisive
effect upon the appearance of a dancer. One may
leap with all the flexibility, lightness, and energy
of an antelope; another with the stiffness, heavi
ness, and angularity of a cart horse. (13:30)
Dodworth said: "Every dance now in use is composed
of two or more of these radical motions" (13:31).
Ferrero and Dodworth identified and described the
dances of the period as the Galop (later Two Step) , Polka,
Mazurka, Varsouviene, Schottische, Redowa, the Hop Waltz,
and the Boston. Ferrero praised the Deux Temps, a fast
waltz, but Dodworth called it the "ignoramus waltz,"
because it was simply a galop or step-together-step in
triple time.
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62
Dodworth was greatly concerned with good teaching,
”... not merely coaching transitory fads” (36:81). He
believed that teachers of dancing influenced character.
Two courses are open to those who are desirous
of following this occupation; one makes it a trade,
the other a profession. The first deals simply
with dancing, the other with all that relates to
graceful motion, or rather, let us say educated
motion, not only while dancing but at all times
with due regard to the higher duty of teaching the
morality of motions in its connection with good
manners and social intercourse, forming a system
of physical and moral instruction which has influ
ences far beyond the walls of a dancing school.
(13:267)
Influence of dancing masters.— One cannot doubt
that the polite dancing schools of the nineteenth century
were attended by many children and adults of the wealthy
and elite families of New York and Boston. There is no
reason to doubt that many of the young adults attended
seminaries and academies. The influence of the teachers
at the dancing schools and the students at the academies
must have had an interacting effect, at least to some
extent. There seemed to have been a common belief, per
haps influenced by the dancing masters, that dancing was
an important social function, contributing to grace,
morals , and manners.
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63 ;
i
Dramatic Expression
François Delsarte.— The force behind the movement
of dramatic expression was Delsarte, who lived in Paris
from 1811 to 1871. He was a
. . . teacher of singing and dramatic art, and
devised a science of movement and aesthetics which
he hoped would improve the gestures and expressive
actions of others. He did this by watching the
ways people moved in every conceivable situation.
( 86:6)
The first American article about Delsarte appeared
in the Atlantic Monthly in May, 1871. Durivage, a reporter
on a visit in Paris, met:
... a young American, Mr. James S. MacKaye,
to whom, as his favorite disciple, and one desig
nated to succeed him in his profession, Delsarte
has imparted all the minutiae of his science.
(80:613)
Delsarte performed at the gathering attended by
Durivage, and presented
... [a] specimen of his pantomimic powers. .
. . He depicted the various passions and emotions
of the human soul, by means of expression and
gesture only . . . every gesture, every movement
of a facial muscle, had a true purpose. (80:614)
Durivage quoted from an article about Delsarte
which had appeared in the Gazette Musicale:
”I believe that whoever makes the external
interpretation of the sentiments of the human soul
his business and profession, whether painter,
sculptor, orator, or actor, that all men of good
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64
taste who support them will applaud this attempt to
create the science of expressive man,” (80:620)
Rice said that during the early '90's, Delsarte
was "discovered.” He had a system for developing ideal
I poses and gestures through exercises, and ”... evolved a
system of exercises which teachers of dramatics claimed
would produce poise, grace, and health” (45:221).
The discovery of the principles whereby man,
through his body, gives form to feeling was attributed to
Delsarte by Shawn. According to him, Delsarte said:
. . . emotion produced bodily movement, and if
the movement was correct and true, the end result
of the movement left the body in a position which
was also expressive of the emotion. (55:11)
Delsarte was supposed to have defined grace as "efficiency
of movement” (55:11).
In regard to gesture, Delsarte is reputed to have
said:
Nothing is more deplorable than a gesture without
a motive, without meaning. Let your attitude and
face foretell what you would make felt . . . gesture
is the agent of the heart. . . . The basis of the
art of gesture is to make our spectators divine what
we would have them feel. Art is a regenerating or
delighting power. (55:25)
The system which Delsarte used to develop his art
and science of gesture was based on what he called the Law
of Trinity, the Law of Correspondence, and the Orders of
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65
Movement (55:33). Delsarte evolved and stated nine general
laws governing movement of the body as a whole (55:47),
with meanings attributed to certain postures of the head,
arms and hands, legs, and all parts of the body (55:33).
Steele MacKaye.— This was the basis of the system
of "Harmonic Gymnastics" developed and taught by Steele
MacKaye at the Lyceum Theatre of Acting, later the American
Academy of Dramatic Art.
Ted Shawn, in an exhaustive study on the Delsarte
system and the American exponents of his art, identified
Steele MacKaye as the instigator of the Delsarte movement
in the United States.
It seemed obvious to Steele MacKaye that if
anyone was to use these laws effectively, the
instrument of the human body had to be disciplined
and prepared. A controversy has raged for many
years as to Delsarte's own use of "exercises," but
it seems evident to me that Delsarte propounded a
pure science, and that Steele MacKaye, his famous
American pupil, worked out the system of exercises
which he called "Harmonic Gymnastics" and which,
spreading from Steele MacKaye and his pupils, swept
this country for two decades up to 1890 and was
always referred to as "Delsarte"; for in those two
decades a man's name had gradually become a common
noun in our language. (55:11)
However:
At the height of the "Delsarte craze," when there
were hundreds of teachers purporting to teach "Del
sarte" and charging high prices for their lessons,
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66
there was even the accusation made that those who did
have the true knowledge refused to publish and thus
give away their trade secrets. The fact remains,
however, that by some mysterious force, nothing was
published either by Delsarte, Steele MacKaye or
Mrs. Hovey— the three who could have given the world
something approaching a complete and true statement
of this exact science of human expression. (55:13)
Shawn said:
The teaching of a pure and exact science had
only a limited audience, but MacKaye's Harmonic
Gymnastics could be used (and abused) by millions.
While there were a number of serious students who
spent their lives learning and teaching this
science, the majority grabbed a smattering, and
then went out to cash in by teaching "decomposing"
exercises (this was the first name given to relaxa
tion exercises) and to invent "statue posing" and
to apply badly and falsely the laws of gesture and
"elocution" which was then the rage. (55:18)
Genevieve Stebbins.— Stebbins was one of the
better known and serious students of the system. She
published the Delsarte System of Expression in 1885,
". . . one of the most popular and best sellers in the
Delsarte field" (55:94), which ran to six editions. Shawn
praised the work, since she had studied drama in Paris at
the conservatory where Delsarte had taught, so she had
gathered accurate information about his theories and
teachings. The books were written in the form of lessons,
which Shawn described.
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67
. . . she opens the lessons with "Decomposing
Exercises" which today we would call relaxing
exercises. She proceeds through the statement of
the basis of the science to specific lessons on
The Legs, on Walking, The Hand, The Arm, The Torso,
The Head, The Eye and then has one lesson called
the "Grammar of Pantomime." (55:94)
In her lectures:
. . . she preceded Isadora Duncan in the wearing
of "Greek" costume, or appearing barefoot (or with
soft sandals) and in demonstrating the fluid move
ment of the whole body in successions. But she was
not a dancer, not even a theatre performer, but a
lecturer and teacher only. (55:80)
It has been said, however, that Delsarte's daughter
was outraged by the gymnastics she saw taught in her
father's name. She emphasized that "... her father never
taught gymnastics, but lectured on a science of expressions
which he had evolved" (55:93).
Shawn stated that there were literally hundreds of
books written, "... most of them second or third hand
information" and usually "... diluted by the personality
of the author" (55:97); but that the book. Harmonic
Gymnastics. by Lowell was "... obviously written by a
student of Steele MacKaye, and comes the closest to the
best source— Steele MacKaye himself" (55:97).
Marion Lowell.— The minutiae of gesture of the
nose, eyelid, and head as well as the arms, legs, and body
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68
were analyzed by Lowell. Harmonic Gymnastics, according
to Lowell, are divided into two classes of motion, which
she referred to as Decomposing motions, ”. . . the aim of
which is to free each and every agent of expression, and
to develop flexibility and pliability”; and Recomposing
motions, ”. . .to train the agent of expression to obey
instinctively those laws of nature which give precision
and harmony of action” (34:3).
Lowell stated that Harmonic Gymnastics consists of
a series of physical exercises, the aim of which is
... to perfectly fit the organization to meet
all the demands of expression, both in nature and
in art. This system of gymnastics promotes the
physical conditions essential to perfect freedom of
action, at the same time that it imbues the whole
nervous system with an instinctive obedience to
those natural laws which govern the element of
charm in action. (34:7)
Influence of Delsarte System of Expression
MacKenzie, writing in 1924, recognized the influ
ence of Delsarte.
Delsarte may be said to have been the greatest
single influence in directing attention to the value
of muscular action to express thought, and his prin
ciples continually crop out in other schemes of
gymnastics. Self-expression by movement was the
object of his teaching. (35:137)
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69
Self-expression could indeed be a very long thread
to follow through the intricate design of dance ideas,
theories and practices of the twentieth century, as it was
i blended with other threads of beliefs during the time the
i loom for dance in physical education was being erected.
Shawn, writing in 1954, said:
. . , although previous to 1900 no dancing was
taught (other than as exercise or a social accom
plishment) in any school of higher learning, in
America today there is hardly a college or univer
sity that does not have from one to a dozen courses
in the serious art of dance. The main teaching in
these colleges stems from American Modern Dance,
and so is carrying on, passing on the application
of the science of Delsarte. (55:89)
Gathering the Threads of Inheritance
The threads of ideas about the value and function
of dance in higher education before 1885 may be easily
gathered, since there are only three. One was strong and
bright and easily traced as it was woven into every period
and program of physical education for women. The concept
that exercises resembling dancing contributed to health,
grace, and agility was apparent in all the practices sup
ported by influential leaders of the era. This form of
movement was variously called calisthenics, changes, show
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70
exercises, gymnastics , free gymnastic exercises, roundels,
or musical drills— all of which were characteristically
performed with a musical accompaniment of instrument or
voice, and consisted of combinations of foot patterns
using step, change, slide, hop, and leap. These movements
closely resembled the ballroom dance steps of the period,
although they were not supposed to be similar.
The definition of the forms of dance exercises
used as physical education practices in higher education
before 1885 may be defined as stylized movements performed
to music according to the function of contributing to
health, and grace, which were considered as worthy objec
tives. In essence, this type of dance-like exercise was
useful movement directed toward a purpose; in effect, it
was probably recreational.
The second thread is lighter and thinner, and is
only a shadow in educational dance, but appears bright in
the light cast by the dancing masters. Ballroom dance as
a social accomplishment was a concept held by some members
of the pre-Victorian age, but viewed as an invention of
the devil by others. The former considered dancing to be
pleasurable motion, and, when properly performed with
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71
graceful gestures, contributed to health, manners, and
morals.
The basic patterns of ballroom dancing included
i foot movements of change, slide, hop, and leap in various
combinations for the performance of dance steps in differ
ent formations, usually in couples or occasionally longways
or square sets. The foot patterns resembled those of the
dance-like exercises of the calisthenic and gymnastic
movements, and probably influenced the physical education
practices of women.
The third thread is short and appears to be
recently spun, but is so heavy and highly colored it is
sure to be intricately woven into the fabric of dance in
higher education. It was not referred to as dancing, but
as hamonic gymnastics, and as such was acceptable to the
times. It was supposedly a science of movement, a system
of gestures and poses, to be used as a means of expression.
The object was self-expression through movement, and con
sisted of a series of physical exercises for every part of
the body, so that muscular action could express thought
through the unity of the mind-body-soul trinity.
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72
The strands of function and value comprising the
threads of concepts about dancing in educational settings
before 1885 may be identified as health, grace, manners,
ease of motion, and the new thread of expression, which
eventually led to the concept of dance as an art form.
The conceptual transition from a dualistic inter
pretation of mind and body to a unified mind-body inter
pretation may have been implemented by the science of
movement developed by Delsarte, who proposed a trinity of
mind-body-soul unity of significant gestures. He empha
sized the totality of the body as an expressive instrument.
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CHAPTER IV
THE LOOM AND THE WARP: 1885-1904
Inherited Threads of Dance Concepts
The threads of dance concepts which were apparent
on the higher education scene before 1885 were closely
related to the objectives of the physical training concepts
of the era. Exercise was thought to be useful because it
did something physiologically favorable to the body; in
addition, rhythmic gymnastics contributed gracefulness to
the posture and carriage of women, which was deemed impor
tant. Dancing masters were emphasizing dancing as a polite
and mannerly social grace. The word "expression” was not
used by educators, although it had appeared on the wider
social scene in connection with the system of Harmonic
Gymnastics attributed to MacKaye and Delsarte.
Between 1885 and 1904 the old threads of concepts
about dance were not discarded but refurbished to attain a
new lustre. It became apparent that certain forms of
73
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74
dancing were added to the physical education program
during this period for the specific purpose of contributing
to health, posture, grace, agility, and rhythm. The
objectives for dance were consistent with the physical
education objectives, based on the current dualistic mind
and body concept.
The loom for the tapestry of dance Ideas and prac
tices was designed between 1885 and 1904, within the
structure of physical education, by Dudley Sargent and
William Anderson. Fresh strands for the warp threads were
gathered by Christian Eberhard, Melvin Gilbert, and Oliver
Herbert. The effort was aided and encouraged by Delphine
Hanna, Harriet Ballantlne, and Jessie Bancroft. Threads
of concepts of dancing as a social activity and a folk
form were blended Into the pattern by Ethel Perrin and
Anne Barr Clapp.
The Physical Education Association
The first professional organization, the American
Association for the Advancement of Physical Education, was
conceived In 1885.
. . . the Initial impetus for the first meeting
was supplied by Dr. William G. Anderson who at that
time was a youthful Instructor In gymnastics at the
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75
ft
Adelphl Academy in Brooklyn. Dr. Anderson broached
the idea of such a meeting to noted people in the
New York area and, with their encouragement, wrote
to leading physical directors throughout the coun
try , asking them to attend a meeting. The national
association was thus bom with forty-nine people
attending the first meeting on Nov. 27, 1885, at
the Adelphi Academy. The following year the organi
zation changed its name to the American Association
for the Advancement of Physical Education, and in
1903, it became the American Physical Education
Association. (63:399)
Normal schools founded.— This Adelphi meeting,
... an event that was motivated largely by a desire to
determine the best methods of teaching physical training
. . .” (63:386) probably contributed the impetus for the
establishment of the Brooklyn Normal School of Gymnastics
by Anderson in 1886, the founding of the Harvard Summer
School by Sargent in 1887, and the Boston Normal School of
Gyuiiiâstics in 1889, which was founded ”... under the
benevolent sponsorship and financial assistance of Mrs.
Mary Hemenway, for the purpose of training teachers of
Swedish gymnastics” (63:395). It will be remembered that
the Sargent School of Physical Education had been founded
in 1881.
According to Schwenderer:
The years 1885 to 1897 were signally pregnant
years for American physical education. These years
witnessed the birth of normal schools designed
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76
solely for the preparation of physical education
teachers and the unprecedented increase in the
number of college and university departments of
physical education. (48:133)
Rice said that after the Sargent School of Physical;
Education, the Harvard Summer School, and the Boston Normal!
I
School were opened, ”. , . practically all of the women
teachers came from these three schools” (45:240), The
Harvard Summer School was to have a wide influence on
developing dance practices, and the other schools to a
lesser degree, although Anderson seemed to have been the
first to include dancing in the program,
Brooklyn Normal School of Gymnastics
William Anderson,— Dance exercises were used by
Anderson to arouse interest in gymnastics and he felt that
”, , , the right kind of dancing would develop the ear, as
well as add grace to my students” (58:14), He initiated
dance as a part of his program in 1885 at Adelphi Academy,
in 1886 at the Chautauqua Summer School of Physical Educa
tion which he directed, and at Yale University in 1892,
He thought that dance movements and manners would .
hasten the day for dance as a part of the school curricu
lum” (58:15),
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77
According to Marks, Anderson's first dance was a
"straight jig," and In succeeding years he ". . . studied
Russian ballet, clogs, reels, and various other types and
forms of dance" (37:99). Anderson told Staley that "...
all of this work I taught In my classes In Brooklyn, In
Chautauqua, and later at Yale and the various universities
and schools where I was a member of the faculty" (58:15).
Anderson's dance training was evidently acquired
from professional dance studios. He could not have studied
"Russian ballet, clogs, reels" In the colleges or acade
mies , since such work was not taught In these schools at
that time. Perhaps he studied with Dodworth, and with
private teachers.
Anderson seemed to have been Influenced by the
current Interest In Delsarte, since he believed that
". . . attitudes of such famous statues as the Apollo
Belvedere and Discobolus Athlete could be used for boys
and young men accompanied by appropriate music" (37:98).
The book by Genevieve Stebbins, The Delsarte System of
Expression. contained chapters on "Artistic Statue Posing"
and "Hints for Artistic Statue Posing" (55:95). In addi
tion, a book published In 1892 by Emily Bishop dealt
largely with Delsarte as a system of gymnastics or physical
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78
culture. Bishop directed the Delsarte Department of the
School of Physical Education of the Chautauqua Assembly
(55:97).
Van Dalen said:
The Chautauqua Summer School of Physical
Education . . . was begun in 1886 and was conducted
by Dr. W. G. Anderson and Dr. Jay Seaver. The
Chautauqua School , . . was part of a much larger
Chautauqua movement and had an important influence
in training the early physical education teachers.
(63:396)
This appears to be further evidence that Anderson
had some interest in the Delsarte system, since he was a
director of the division of the Chautauqua school which
included the Delsarte department.
Harvard Summer School
The Harvard Summer School was not only the largest,
but the most influential of the schools which included
dance in the curriculum before 1904.
Dudley Sargent.— The program of dance at Harvard
Summer School was instigated by Sargent. According to
Van Dalen:
The training of teachers was greatly facilitated
by summer schools. Dr. Sargent early saw the value
of summer school courses for employed teachers and
students, and he asked President Eliot about starting
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79
a summer school in physical training. Eliot approved
the plan if Sargent would assume the financial risk.
The first course, lasting five weeks, was given in
1887, and attended by a surprising total of 57 men
and women, only five less than in chemistry, the
largest course. The success of this initial session
was assured not only by the large number but also
the quality of students, most of whom held regular
positions and came from all parts of the country. I
(63:396) I
I
The Harvard Summer School trained teachers of
physical education for forty-five years, from 1887 to 1932.
Dance became a part of the program during the second ses
sion, in 1888. The first dance teacher was Christian
Eberhard, followed in 1894 by Melvin Gilbert, who developed
the system of dancing entitled "Dancing Calisthenics" which
he taught for fifteen years.
Marks suggested that Sargent introduced dancing
into the program because "... through the use of rhythmic
exercises it gave a 'means of attaining grace, suppleness
and easy carriage' not found in the gymnastic exercises as
practised" (37:101).
Christian Eberhard.— The first teacher of dancing
at Harvard Summer School was Eberhard. Marks said:
As the need for physical education teachers
became greater. Dr. Sargent started the summer
school at Harvard, and asked Christian Eberhard,
then director of the Boston Turnverein, to teach
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80
dance. Mr. Eberhard realized the value of dance,
but knew also that the church frowned upon it, and
so he titled his work "Fancy Steps" for want of a
better term. (37:96)
According to Staley, Eberhard said that the exer
cises of his Fancy Steps "... have a tendency toward the i
! i
development of grace, a good and erect bearing or carriage,!
and will be found admirable for the development of respira
tory organs" (58:136).
It was said:
Christian Eberhard served the school longer than
any other . . . equal to Dr. Sargent . . . from 1888
to 1921. His contribution to the program was made
In the field of light gymnastics and his class In
Fancy Steps was one of the most popular. (125:408)
Eberhard described these Fancy Steps In an article
which appeared In a book on gymnastics by Stecher. The
steps were presented as a series of twelve lessons, and
Included such steps as the Follow Step, Change Step, Polka,
and Galop.
The Follow Step was described as "slide together,
slide together"; the Change Step was a two-step, according
to the way the directions read; and the Cross Balance was
to be performed "with bending the trunk sideways right and
left . . . same, but both arms sideward up . . ." (59:137).
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81
These twelve lessons were followed by four lessons
of combinations of steps, which resembled the round dances
of today, composed of basic steps. Eberhard said:
Many of the exercises of these twelve lessons
may be varied by opening and closing the ranks,
changing places etc. . . . appropriate arm, trunk,
head and leg exercises or combinations of these
may be executed with many of the steps. (59:136)
Marks stated that "... the program for Visitor's
Day in 1892, shows that one of the events was 'Dancing and
Running Maze' and that Mr. Eberhard was the instructor of
the event" (37:99).
Van Dalen said that "... in the first part of
this period, girls did the so-called 'fancy steps' which
consisted mainly of stylized movements with little action"
(63:413). An analysis of these steps and combinations
showed that the movements were basically the social dance
steps of the period, with the addition of the arm posi
tions, pirouette, and pas de basque of ballet. The steps
and figures were described in the lexicon of the gymnastic
lesson.
It was interesting to compare Eberhard's Fancy
Steps and the 1853 calisthenics performed at Mt. Holyoke,
which showed a surprising similarity to each other, and to
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82
the ballroom steps of the nineteenth century. The move
ments of the two-step, the schottlsche, and waltz and the
polka were used, apparently reflecting the influence of
the dancing masters of the period.
Melvin Gilbert.— Gilbert, a dancing instructor who
had his own gymnasium for women in Portland, Maine, was
employed to introduce gymnastic dancing at the Harvard
Summer School of Physical Education. According to Van
Dalen, Sargent suggested to Gilbert that:
. . . from the physical educator's point of
view, dancing was weak because it involved only
the legs and not the trunk and arms. Gilbert
then worked out a modified ballet which omitted
toe dancing and the more intricate movements but
exercised the body and arms as well as the legs.
This new dance was first taught at the Harvard
Summer School in 1894 and became exceedingly
popular. (63:413)
Staley quoted a letter he had received, wherein
Sargent spoke of employing Mr. Gilbert to teach a form of
gymnastic dancing based on ballet, modified so the
" '. . . dancing should be combined with movements of the
arm and body in order to make the exercises more effective
for all around development'" (58:17). MacKenzie was
especially interested in the contribution Gilbert's system
made to posture. MacKenzie stated:
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83
Esthetic dancing, as developed by the late
M. B. Gilbert . . . deservedly occupies a large
place in a course. Nothing is so valuable for
freeing the awkward and stiff carriage . . .
bringing shoulders back into place and giving an
easy and elastic tread in walking. Under its
influence weak backs are straightened, and stu
dents gain in alertness, coordination, and judge
ment as well as agility, and above all, rhythm.
(35:284)
According to Marks, the 1894 announcement of the
Harvard Summer School included a course called "Calisthen
ics” which was described as follows:
"... light and simple rhythmic movements of
body and limbs for the cultivation of grace and
elegance in form and bearing, figure marching and
dancing steps." In the catalog for the same year
Gilbert had the title of "Special Instructor of
Esthetic Calisthenics," whereas the next year
lists him as "Instructor of Dancing Calisthenics."
(37:101)
"Esthetic" was a catchword of the period, and
Gilbert probably used it in reference to grace of movement,
rather than as a branch of philosophy.
Gilbert said of the system he devised:
. . . [it] consists of the long-established five
positions of the feet and the five positions of the
arms, together with the positions of the whole body
known as attitudes, arabesques , poses, elevations,
groupings, etc. From these precepts are established
whereby the steps, attitudes and motions are system
atically arranged according to method in strict
harmony with the time and cadence of the music.
(84:153)
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84
He also said: "Classic dancing was introduced . ,
. to harmonize motions of the body, and produce habits of
graceful ease" (84:151); and that:
Dancers are emblems, not persons. Classic
dancing should always be expressive, nicely
cadenced, musical and plastically irreproachable,
at any moment of the dance, and in each and all
attitudes, a dancer should be a fit subject for
statuary. (84:150)
Gilbert thought that "dancing was an expression of
inward emotions" (84:149), His classes were planned for
both men and women, but only the girls would take part
(58:14).
Van Wyck wrote of Gilbert's classes:
. . . Mr. Gilbert had coordinated certain
rhythmic art movements with modified steps of
ballet and thus produced a form of exercise which
combined vigorous activity with grace of movement.
When visitors came to the Gymnasium to see this
new kind of dancing they often found their atten
tion centered upon the technique of the instructor,
rather than upon the work of the class. There is
always a fascination in watching any performance
which approaches perfection and Mr. Gilbert was a
master of the art of teaching. A strict discipli
narian, he conducted his classes with all the
dignity and formality which is sometimes found in
the college class room. This speciality was taught
at the School by Mr. Gilbert for fifteen successive
summers, and as a result, esthetic dancing, or
classic dancing, as it was later called, became a
popular form of gymnasium exercises for girls and
women in all parts of the country. (125:411)
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85
Marks quoted Schrader, who wrote about the activi
ties of the Hemenway Gymnasium:
Dr. Sargent was a fearless pioneer and dared to
stress dancing as an important and integral adjunct
to physical education. Gilbert was the man whom
Dr. Sargent entrusted with this innovation. It was
a great success from the beginning and the Gilbert
School in Boston was the first mecca to which women
flocked to learn this new art. (37:101)
It is apparent from the evidence that Gilbert's
influence on the concepts and patterns of dance in higher
education was widespread, through fifteen summers teaching
women physical educators.
Oliver Herbert.— Herbert may have taught at the
Harvard Summer School, but it was difficult to trace the
fact. Marks said that according to Schrader, the men were
taught by Herbert, and "... may well be considered the
pioneer in dancing for men" (37:101). However, Anderson
taught dancing at Yale University in 1892, and since women
were not admitted, he taught the men.
According to Staley, Herbert said:
. . . the first class dance I taught was a
polka series of eight steps. "The Dainty Steps,"
named from the music, was the first advanced
dance given in exhibition, in 1895. (58:17)
According to Staley, "Mr. Herbert got his material
particularly through adapting folk dances to meet his
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86
needs” (58:18). The evidence is not clear or conclusive,
as Eberhard presented a "Dancing and Running Maze" in
1892; also, the polka was considered as part of the ball-
iroom programs, and the term "folk dance" appeared later.
Boston Normal School of Gymnastics
This school was developed in 1888 and 1889 from a
two-year course for a selected group of teachers under the
direction of Miss Amy Homans and Baron Nils Posse for the
purpose of offering training in Swedish gymnastics. In
1909 the Boston Normal School of Gymnastics became the
Department of Hygiene and Physical Education at Wellesley
College.
Claes Enebuske.— Enebuske became a member of the
faculty of the Boston Normal School in 1890. He was well
known in connection with his speciality, the Progressive
Gymnastic Day's Order. In regard to dancing, he thought
"... dancing should be included in aesthetic gymnastics
. . . but 'had not yet received the scientific elaboration
and finish'" (58:15).
Ethel Perrin.— The thread of social dance was
blended into the curriculum of higher education at the
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87
Boston Normal School of Gymnastics. "In 1892-93 a course
in Social Dancing was added to the Junior program, taught
by Miss Ethel Perrin, an 1892 graduate" (107:620). Perrin
said, "I taught games, dancing, and anthropometry to the
professional students from 1892 to 1906" (107:682).
Some Nineteenth Century Weavers
Delphine Hanna.— Hanna graduated from the Sargent
School of Physical Education in 1885, and while in Boston,
took work in the evenings at the Currie School of Expres
sion. "Professor Currie taught the Delsarte principles of
poise and balance. These principles were emphasized in
her early physical education courses" (103:647). Hanna
went to Oberlin in 1886, and "... started classes in
calisthenics, correctives and 'fancy steps'" (45:272).
"The faculty women . . . helped persuade the president
that there was no harm in the 'fancy steps' she taught the
girls" (103:648).
The term "fancy steps" was not used until 1888
when Eberhard is reported to have originated the term to
apply to the type of dancing he taught at Harvard Summer
School. Could the movements taught by Hanna have been
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88
similar to Harmonic Gymnastics? It seems probable, in
view of the fact that the Curry, or Currie, School of
Expression was identified by Shawn as one of the best
known of the Delsarte schools.
Delsarte had stressed the unity of the mind-body-
soul trinity. The natural gestures of emotions which
Delsarte studied led to the invention of Harmonic Gymnas
tics by MacKaye, in order ”. . . to so train and discipline
the body that it would become a responsive and expressive
instrument” (55:49). Shawn traced the various schools of
"expression” and "esthetic gymnastics” to the system
developed by MacKaye, and records:
The widespread influence of Delsarte was such
that a paper on the subject, the Delsarte Philosophy
of Expression by Moses True Brown, was considered
worth including in the official publication of the
National Education Association in 1882, and
reprinted in Education in 1883. (55:123)
Perhaps Thomas Wood and Luther Gulick who ”...
were members of the first physical education class for men
conducted by Delphine Hanna at Oberlin” (48:124), received
an initial impetus for their interest in developing a
program of Natural Gymnastics from Hanna, who had studied
the Delsarte system with Professor Curry. Perhaps not,
but in any event, these men were to influence the twentieth
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89
century concepts about dance as a natural expressive
activity of a unified mind-body.
Harriet Ballantine.— Ballantine taught at Vassar
College for Women. She enrolled in the class of Aesthetic
Calisthenics in 1894, when it was introduced at Harvard
Summer School by Gilbert, She said that ”. . .in 1898
aesthetic dancing, later known under such names as natural,
classic, interpretative and modern, was established at
Vassar" (99:656).
Jessie Bancroft.— Bancroft was a supervisor of
physical training in the Brooklyn and New York public
schools. She said that while she was at a normal school
in Minnesota, she had the
. . . opportunity outside the school to learn
another of the systems of exercises which swept the
country, the Delsarte system. The exercises were
sometimes classed with the "greenery-yallerly"
aestheticism of the Oscar Wilde craze, but they had
sound artistic aim, and were based on a knowledge
of anatomy, and laws of grace in movement. No
exercises have more directly and effectively culti
vated grace, and their aesthetic quality lured many
women into healthful exercises of this and other
types. When I later studied with Delsarte's daugh
ter in New York, I found her shocked at the emphasis
Americans had placed on exercise as the main feature
of her father's work. (69:667)
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90
Bancroft revealed a difference between gymnastic
exercises and expressive exercises when she wrote:
At the close of a lecture In those days I
usually changed to a gymnasium costume and Illus
trated practical exercises, then to a Grecian
costume to Illustrate aesthetic exercises and
expression work. (69:668)
Anna Barr Clapp.— Folk dance was Introduced at the
University of Nebraska by Clapp.
During her year In Sweden, (1897) the first
effort on the part of the Swedish government was
being made to collect native folk dances. Groups
from the various provinces would return to the
Royal Central Institute and teach the dances to
those attending the Institutes. Consequently upon
returning to the United States, Anne Barr had a
notebook full of directions and music for the
dances, together with a number of typical costumes
of provinces. Her publication of this material
the following year was the first of Its kind In
the United States. The University of Nebraska
claims the distinction of teaching these dances as
early as any other Institution In the country.
The following summer, she taught them at the
Chautauqua School of Physical Education, and "like
ripples from a stone thrown Into a pool, her Influ
ence spread as a teacher of folk dances." (127:680)
Burchenal has long received recognition as the
Innovator of folk dancing In the American schools because
she was the most active and well known as a teacher, col
lector and publisher of dances. However, this article
would Imply that she was preceded by Anne Barr Clapp, who
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91
was probably the first to teach folk dance in a university.
Isadora Duncan.— Duncan was born in 1878, and it
was during her childhood that "Delsarte reigned supreme in
America in all the fields having to do with expression
through the human body” (55:80). Although Isadora did not i
mention the name of Delsarte in her autobiography, Shawn
thought it would have been impossible for her to have
escaped the influence of Delsarte. She was the daughter
of an artistic theatre and music loving mother, who had
studied with Delsarte (55:79). Furthermore, Shawn was able
... to examine a bound volume of one of the
earliest dance magazines in the history of this
country. It was called "The Director” and was
edited and published by Gilbert. ... In the issue
of March, 1898 there appears an article called
"Emotional Expression” in which the writer tells of
a Miss Dora (sic) Duncan, who has been taken up by
the millionaire hostesses of Newport. Miss Duncan
accompanied by her mother on the piano . . . and
accompanied by her sister who recites poems,
expresses the meanings of the poetry and music in
her dances. The writer, apparently, had had a per
sonal interview with Miss Duncan, and in direct
quotation gives, in Isadora Duncan's own words:
"Delsarte, the master of all principles of flexi
bility, and lightness of body, should receive
universal thanks for the bonds he has removed from
our constrained members. His teachings, faithfully
given, combined with the usual instruction necessary
to learning to dance, will give a result exception
ally graceful and charming.” This is documentary
proof that Isadora herself was conscious of the
source of the principles which made the great change
in the art of dance. . . . (55:79)
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92
Influential Opinions
Opinions of people outside physical education were
expressed at the National Education Association and
reported in the proceedings of these meetings.
Anna Tucker.— The School of Expression in Cleve
land , Ohio, was directed by Turner, who spoke about the
Delsarte system and the contribution to physical education
in 1897.
Much has been said and written for and against
Delsarte. Those who have given it study, believing
strongly in its possibilities, regret that there
should ever be a teacher who, mistaking the form,
such as posing and aesthetic gymnastics, for the
spirit, has put these forth as Delsarte, instead of
using them simply as a means to an end, and that
end the cultivation of the individual according to
a larger ideal. (123:880)
She said:
. . . it is true that Delsarte did not found a
system of gymnastics in the ordinary acceptance of
the term, but he declared the principles underlying
all true gymnastic training. By a knowledge of the
Delsarte principles and the power to impart them we
are enabled to teach muscular control, power through
repose, grace, rhythm, and correct poise. The last
element I would name as the great vital necessity in
any system of gymnastic training. "Strength at the
center" is not alone a Delsarte law, but a great
natural law of growth. Everything depends upon the
control and exercise of the trunk and a perfectly
correct poise of the body. (123:881)
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93
Tucker believed:
. . . the prime result of physical education is
to create power, and grace, which is modified power.
Power depends upon control of the trunk, especially
at the waist. This result is largely obtainable by
the Delsarte method, or ethical physical training.
Delsarte's law of strength at the center, flexibility
at the extremeties, when properly applied, imparts
vigor, sinewiness, and grace. (123:883)
She thought:
The believers of mechanical work may claim that
Delsarte's theory belongs to the field of expression,
and call it a vagary, and hold it in derision, but
what is expression but the highest form of gymnastics,
natural gymnastics, so to speak? (123:882)
Tucker stressed expression, saying:
This system, in giving us control of our bodies,
arouses within us keener sensibilities, strengthens
the emotions, and stimulates mental life, and the
exercises, when correctly taught, are but a means to
an end, which end is the full artistic outward
expression of the inward life. (123:882)
John Dewey.— The educator Dewey commented on the
"Aesthetic Element in Education" in 1897, referring to a
". . . certain phase of all education, rather than a par
ticular group of studies" (79:329). He made two points
which seem to have had relevance to dancing.
The factors in aesthetic experience which are
especially adapted to afford the right training
are balance and rhythm. Balance implies control
or inhibition which does not sacrifice a fullness
and freedom of the experience. It is opposed both
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94
to random, undirected action and to repressed, or
undeveloped action. Rhythm involves regularity and
economy in the sequence of actions. Both balance
and rhythm are forms of variety in unity; rhythm
being temporal, balance spatial. (79:329)
Dewey also said:
The aesthetic element thus should combine free
dom of individual expression and appreciation with
the factor of law and regularity in what is
expressed. It is possible to extend the idea of
artistic production to all kinds of work. (79:330)
The opinion of this eminent educator may have
influenced the growing acceptance of dance in higher educa
tion. The words "balance," "rhythm," "expression," and
"action" seem to refer to the movements of exercises and
dance, and were probably read with interest by physical
educators.
The Warp Threads
A frame for the dance tapestry was fashioned
primarily by men, working within the structure being
erected for the professional preparation of teachers. The
health and physical well-being objectives of physical edu
cation could be met through the use of gymnastics, but, as
George Demeny said in an address at the American Associ
ation for the Advancement of Physical Education in 1900:
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95
Art should animate gymnastic education since
science alone cannot make it live, and it is to
this fact that we desire particularly to call your
attention , . . physical perfection corresponds
for the artist to an ideal of beauty ... to the
benefits of physical education since it alone con
tributes grace, elegance and form. (78:299)
The 1885-1904 period of the development of dance
as a part of the higher education curriculum was an excit
ing time, filled with events and programs which altered
and illuminated the whole field of physical education.
One could learn fancy steps, esthetic gymnastics, esthetic
calisthenics, dancing calisthenics, expressive gymnastics,
artistic poses, musical drills, or Delsarte expression,
and be in tune with the times. Any of these forms of
movement would contribute to good posture, health, grace,
agility, poise, and elegance of form. All of the exponents
of all the practices justified their programs according to
these standards and concepts about the value and function
of rhythmical movement, and some said that it might be an
esthetic expression of inward emotion.
Sherman noted that, prior to 1900, programs of
physical training and physical education were saturated
with assumptions of philosophical dualism which focused on
the development of the body, through a varying series of
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96
exercises designed to contribute health and strength to
the body (132:151).
Since dance was a part of physical education, it
was reasonable to judge this aspect of the program in the
_ !
light of physical education objectives. Sargent at Harvard:
Summer School and Anderson at Brooklyn Normal School
designed the loom of dance for the warp threads woven by
the dance teachers. They stressed the use of rhythmic
exercises as a means toward over-all development of the
body, and thus reflected the dualistic interpretation of
the era. Gilbert concurred, but he may have been edging
toward a unified philosophy when he said: "It is not a
soul, not a body, we educate, it is a man" (84:145).
Is it possible that the dance teachers were at the
leading edge of the transition from a dualistic to a
unified interpretation of physical education?
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CHAPTER V
THE WEAVERS; 1905-1917
; i
Inherited Nineteenth Century Warp Threads
The previous chapters have dealt with the concepts
of dance which were prevalent in the physical education
structure in higher education during the nineteenth
century. Dance, or dancing, which has been generally
defined in this study as a form of rhythmic bodily movement
stylized and patterned according to its value or function,
was considered a useful means for developing the body.
The various names applied to such activity, as gymnastic
dance, esthetic dancing, dancing calisthenics, or fancy
steps indicate the content and patterns of dance which were
shaped by the concepts of the era. Dancing was acceptable
as a medium for esthetic movement and a means of exercise,
as it contributed health and grace to the body. This con
cept was consistent with the beliefs of the period, and
97
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98
with the stated objectives of physical educators who
designed the frame for dance in education.
This chapter will be concerned with the emergence
of dance as an area worthy of further consideration by
educators. Between 1905 and 1917 dance gained a respect- I
able place in the curriculum of higher education. The
beliefs of the era may have been influenced by such educa
tors as Dewey and Hall. The concepts of physical educa
tors , folk dancers, professional dancers and teachers, and
dance educators influenced and shaped the programs. The
emphasis on dance values shifted from dance as a means
toward body development, to a belief that dance was a
medium of expression. The period was one of rapid expan
sion and growth, as will be seen. The warp threads of
health and grace had been laced firmly on the loom; the
twentieth century weavers created a variegated pattern of
expressive concepts.
Melvin Gilbert.— Some of the strongest warp threads
which were woven into the tapestry of dancing in higher
education at the beginning of the twentieth century were
contributed by Gilbert. The threads of concepts about
dancing at the turn of the century may be seen in
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99
characteristic excerpts from Gilbert's address on "Classic
Dancing."
Classic dancing is a medium through which the
qualifications so much sought after in the early
past, may be acquired ... by extended study and
conscientious practice . . . repetition and prac
tice and work . . . there is no royal road to the |
acquirement of aesthetic movement. . . . (84:146)
All arts have two distinct parts— the expres
sion of human passions and sentiments which consti
tute their foundation, and the peculiar mechanisms
or process of each which gives the form, and of
which the artist must be master.
One must know how to execute movements, steps
and postures, but— the peculiarity of dancing is to
evoke souls by means of bodies, to create the spir
itual and ideal by means of the material and real.
(84:149)
Gilbert was evidently aware of the artistic value
of dance movement as an expression of sentiment and
emotions, but it is interesting to note that in his address
he quoted the changes in the sizes of thirteen young ladies
who had studied with him. The chest increase, the waist
decrease, the calf increase, the ankle decrease, and the
height of the raised instep— all were reported. The
anthropometric measurements stressed by Sargent in the
physical education evidently influenced concepts about the
value and function of dancing.
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100
Conference of 1905
The concept that dancing was a valuable form of
exercise to the degree that it served the function of
contributing to health and grace was generally accepted in
higher education, but the kind of rhythmic movement that
was most useful for the purpose was debatable.
For the last few years many gymnastic teachers
have introduced dancing somewhere in the lesson.
Many teachers give a few dance steps when the arms
are tired holding Indian clubs. After the class
has rested arms by a few fancy steps the Indian
club swinging has been resumed. Many teachers
introduce some form of social dancing into the
lesson because some one in class has asked for a
two-step or waltz. The teacher understands what
the class wants, and she usually pleases them.
Many teachers think dancing should be introduced
in every lesson, from the aesthetic point of view;
hence fancy steps taken in couples around the gym
nasium are features of many gymnastic lessons.
Many people have said that dancing has no place, no
relation to formal gymnastics, whose aim is pri
marily corrective, not aesthetic, but just as many
claim that dancing gives good results, often better
results than formal gymnastics, and that dancing
has a relation to physical training. (102:54)
Dancing was to be the main topic of concern at the
1905 conference of physical educators.
Many gymnastic teachers have become interested
in the relation of dancing to physical training
and it will be a source of much pleasure to the
physical training world to learn that on April 17,
18 and 19, the Council on American Physical
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101
Education Association will hold the Annual Convention
at Thompson Memorial Building of Teachers College,
Columbia University, (102:53) !
The speakers at this conference included Melvin
Gilbert, Dudley Sargent, Henry Taylor, Elizabeth Burchenal,
and William Anderson. Four of the addresses appeared later!
as articles in periodicals, and a report of Gilbert's |
remarks has already been made. The views presented by
speakers at this meeting revealed the enlarging concepts
about the function of dancing in relation to education.
Although the main emphasis was still on physical values,
there was evidence of growing interest in the expressive
and social aspects of dance.
Dudley Sargent.— Sargent commended dancing in his
address "Useful Dancing from the Standpoint of Physical
Training.” He pointed out that voluntary movement is an
effort of the will, and directed by the will, and all
advancements are made from and through effort. He also
thought that every movement consisted of two elements put
together, a stronger and weaker, rise and fall, push and
pull, which lightens work and "... contributes a feeling
of pleasure" (111:182). He said that although Swedish
gymnastics required an effort of will and were useful, they
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102
were not rhythmical, and "... rhythmic exercises done to
music are much more attractive” (111:182).
He spoke of dancing as a ". . . combination of
graceful movements, performed for the sake of pleasure |
which the exercises affords to the dancer or to the spec- |
tator" (111:183).
i
Sargent mentioned the esthetic pleasure of ballet
as made up of:
. . . lingering, graceful movements, curves of
tzrunk and limbs, the transition steps and pirouettes,
the beautiful gestures and the perfect poise that
accompanies every figure of the dance. . . . (111:217)
He did not approve of it, because the "... ballet
girls' examples of emaciated arms and shrunken chests . . .
have made this class of artists an easy prey to consumption
and like diseases" (111:217).
He approved modern gymnasium dancing because it
used all parts of the body, developed the heart and lungs,
and improved the breathing function. He deemed an hour of
esthetic dancing the equivalent of a ten-mile walk. Never
theless , dancing should always be supplemented by other
forms of gymnastics, and he pleaded for more artistic work
in general gymnastics and athletics.
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103
In conclusion, he said:
I am pleased to note that in all forms of light
and heavy gymnastics, there is ... a growing
tendency to give more attention to precision of
movement and to grace, finish, and beauty of per
formance . . . the practice of aesthetic dancing
contributes to this. (111:221)
Henry Taylor.— An address at the conference was
made by Taylor on the subject of "The Dancing Foot.” He
discussed the importance of a straight foot, in contrast
to the turned-out position of ballet, because of the
greater purchase and more effective leverage. He thought
that the "natural method" was expressive of music, and
invigorating, and that dancing stood midway between formal
gymnastics and games. He believed that "... the present
style of social dancing is simply idiotic and inane"
(122:137).
Taylor stated:
It is evident that if dancing is to become an
important factor in physical training, it must
experience a renaissance, of which fortunately,
signs are not lacking. The dancing of the stage
or of the 400 has but little to offer to the 600
of the factory or the millions of the school.
The spontaneous and recreating elements must be
selected and combined . . . the new dancing must
be hygienic ; it must be gymnastic; it must be
recreative; it must be expressive and it must
illustrate the highest standards of beauty.
(122:138) (Italics added.)
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104
Perhaps this was the most clear-cut and forward-
looking statement presented at the conference. The con
cepts of dancing as healthful, recreative, and expressive
were to permeate most of the programs of dance developed
; I
in higher education. |
I
i
Elizabeth Burchenal.— Burchenal presented an inter
esting definition of dancing in her talk ’’ Does Dancing
Contribute to General Grace and Carriage?”
Dancing, let us understand, is that form of the
art today which corresponds most nearly to the
pantomime or the old symbolic dances— dancing in
which the head, arms and body take part in expres
sing by rhythmic movements the sentiments of the
music. (73:102)
Burchenal's chief concern at the meeting was to
present dancing as a valuable means to develop grace and
good posture, which she thought to be: ”... head and
chest lifted, spine erect without stiffness, shoulders
back, muscles elastic and not tense, absence of rigidity of
any kind” (73:102). She believed that "aesthetic” or
’ ’classic” dancing contributed to a ”. . . harmonious work
ing of mind, nerves and muscles . . . requiring perfect
control, agility and skilland said that the students who
had had three years of technical training in aesthetic
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105
dancing developed ”... health, skill, coordination, body
control, greater ease and agility in action” (73:103).
Burchenal asked:
Are these not the characteristics of graceful
carriage and are we not safe in concluding that
training in aesthetic dancing does, to some extent,
affect the general grace of carriage and posture?
(73:106)
Burchenal studied with Gilbert, and taught his
method of aesthetic dance until she turned to folk dancing
(37:103), Her influence on folk dancing in American
education will be discussed later in this study.
Contrasting Opinions
W. W. Gardner.— Despite the favorable aims and
claims presented about dancing during its emergence in the
framework of physical education, the proponents of dance
had to contend with dissenting views, which are exemplified
in an article by Gardner. The Reverend Gardner wrote:
It is a Fact That Modern Dancing Greatly Damages
the Health, Piety and Usefullness of Those Who Prac
tice It, and Especially Young Ladies. . . . There is
nothing intellectual in dancing; it is a mere bodily
exercise, and requires neither brains nor morals; a
stupid African or even a Monkey may be taught to
excel in the art. Neither is modern dance a social
amusement, in the real sense of the term; it is a
mere physical performance, and rob it of its amorous
pleasures, and there would be no occasion to preach
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106
or write against it; for it would die of itself. .
. . What is there graceful, intellectual or social
about it: A Young lady in the embrace of a man.
(20:16)
Martha Battle.— In contrast, the Reverend Battle,
a teacher and ordained minister of the gospel, wrote in
favor of dancing in 1905, stressing the physical values.
She thought that dancing cultivated the body, grace and
demeanor, and was an index of grace and ease; further, it
exercised muscles, improved circulation, suppled and
limbered the joints, and reduced flesh and weight. She
asked: "Is not happiness, to a certain degree, the result
of dance?" (70:180). She believed there was rhythm in
movement which rested and rejuvenated and led to serenity
and peace (70:180).
Battle thought that the graceful movements of the
stately minuet should be taught in schools as a part of
earliest education, since it was a duty to cultivate the
body through the grace of dancing. She saw certain weak
nesses , however, and warned that dancing must not be done
to excess, nor to a late hour, because of the possible
exposure to the cold; also, if dancing continued to the
late hours, the "... association of young men and women
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107
might in certain cases lead to improper tendencies. So
does the hammock" (70:181).
G. Stanley Hall.— Hall, the educational psycholo- I
i i
igist and president of Clark University, stressed the |
: I
importance of dance in 1907, when he said that dancing j
should be taught in every school, ". . . even if the school
had to be opened evenings for it" (88:44). He thought
Morris dances and old national and folk dances should be
taught. The objectives of dance according to Hall included
the cultivation of a sense of rhythm, ease and economy of
movement, and poise rather than posturing. He said also
that dances were, when "... rightly conducted, the best
basis on which the sexes of adolescence can meet," since
dancing "... palliates awkwardness . . . yet is formal
enough for certain regimentation" (88:45). He added that
there was "... ingenuity in making up steps, phrase by
phrase," and he would emphasize "... the historic type
as a direct antithesis to ballet, the cakewalk and ballroom
dances" (88:45).
Hall said, in 1912, that:
. . . dancing is one of the best expressions of
pure play and of the motor needs of youth. Perhaps
it is the most liberal of all forms of motor
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108
education . . . right dancing can cadence the very
soul, give nervous poise and control, bring harmony
between basal and finer muscles, and also between
feeling and intellect, body and mind. (66:88)
Weavers of Blended Threads
i
Folk dancing replaced gymnastic and esthetic I
i
dancing as a major interest of women in physical education I
during the next few years. The form of dance that had been
introduced by Anne Barr Clapp at the University of Nebraska
and the Chautauqua Summer School of Physical Education in
1898 spread rapidly and was taught and promoted by dancing
masters in their private institutions, and by dance educa
tors in schools and colleges.
Louis Chalif.— A dancer of the Russian ballet,
Chalif was primarily concerned with ballet and with the
esthetic type of dance introduced by Gilbert. He also
stressed folk and national dance (48:183).
Van Dalen said:
. . . the popular aesthetic dancing found a
rival in folk dancing, which represented a conces
sion to the play spirit. National and folk dances
were taught by Louis Chalif, a Russian, who came to
New York in 1904 and accepted an offer by Luther
Gulick to give a teachers course in the dance at
New York University the next year. (63:456)
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109
Chalif soon opened his own school, but he
. . . devoted himself wholeheartedly to the
encouragement of dance in education and published
five dance textbooks. He also modified and adapted
ballet for use in schools and colleges. (63:456)
He not only published the Chalif Textbooks of
Dancing. which presented the techniques, exercises, and
combinations of ballet movements, but also published many
volumes of specific dances which he taught at his estab
lishment on 57th Street in New York City.
An advertisement for the Chalif Normal School of
Dancing stated that courses were offered throughout the
years for:
Teachers of Dancing and Physical Culture,
Recreational Leaders and Exhibition Dancers in
Esthetic, Interpretive, Greek, National, Charac
teristic, Folk, Contra, and the Best of the Newest
Ballroom Dances ... A National Institution is
the truest title by which this School can be
described, for it has come to be in a class by
itself as regards attendance and number of courses
while its reputation for sincere art, for training
the arms and the whole body, for racially authen
tic and universally popular dances and for bril
liant instruction has won for it a rank and
ungrudged honor which are the basis of its more
than flourishing growth. (8:172)
In the foreword of his first textbook on dancing,
Chalif revealed his concept of dance:
. . . [as a] means of bringing not happiness
alone, but strength, ease and gracefulness, good
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110
carriage and good manners, expressiveness and
individuality throughout a lengthened life , . .
a medium of expression and art. (8:7)
The influence of Chalif was wide, not only as a
private dancing teacher and publisher of dances, but as a
shaper and weaver of dance concepts in education. The
term "interpretive dance" may be attributed to him. Many
teachers flocked to his school and to s ummer sessions in
New York, as they had gone in previous years to Harvard
Summer School. The habit of learning dancing, dance exer
cises , and gathering dances from private teachers which
could be taught to their students was well established.
The pupils of Chalif carried on the tradition. College
credit was not given, but dance training was sought wher
ever it could be found.
Chalif said that:
. . . our compositions are taught by our students
and their pupils, in the gymnasia of Universities,
Tumvereins, private schools etc. in every city of
America and in Europe as well. (8:206)
Schwenderer said of him:
A most prodigious worker, Chalif spread the
gospel of dance through the length and breadth of
the country through his much advertised courses
for teachers and his many publications. . . . His
pupils opened private studios, taught in schools
and colleges, and everywhere advanced the cause of
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Ill
dance. His influence was almost beyond limit or
description, for he had brought dance permanently
to the concert stage, the studio, and the school.
(48:183)
Elizabeth Burchenal.— The first woman educator to
receive national fame and accord as a teacher of dance was
Burchenal. The field of dance teaching had been influenced
almost entirely by men until Burchenal entered the scene.
According to Rice:
Elizabeth Burchenal, Inspector of Girls Athletics
for the New York City public schools, began in the
early 1900's her popular collection of folk dances of
all nations. Over a period of many years she visited
various European countries collecting these dances at
first hand. From 1908 to the 1940's she furnished
the profession a total of fifteen books covering the
folk dances of all countries of Europe and America.
Early in this period the Playground and Recreation
Association of America organized a National Folk
Dance Committee to promote folk dancing in the play
grounds of America, and in 1916 the American Folk
Dance Society was organized. Miss Burchenal served
as chairman of both of these groups. (45:279)
The scope of Burchenal's influence was indicated
by Schwenderer, who said that she not only brought folk
dance to education, but:
. . . her name became a synonym for such dance.
Her work resulted in cultural and social enrichment,
it enlarged the understanding of European tradition,
it assisted in breaking down nationality barriers,
and introduced a country-wide movement . . . she
stimulated the teaching and participation of folk
dance in all its ramifications. Her lectures and
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112
publications are authoritative in the extreme, her
knowledge obtained from sources as nearly primary
as exist today. She invigorated folk arts in
Europe as well as America ... to her unswerving
interest, to her ability in notation, to her knowl
edge of music, the field of physical education is
forever indebted for the functional development of
a conspicuously cultural tool. (48:184)
The concepts of Burchenal, regarding the value of
folk dancing, may be found in the introductions to some of
her dance books. In 1909, in the note at the beginning of
her first publication. Folk Dances and Singing Games, she
said:
The actual steps and figures of a folk dance
are more easily described than its real essence—
atmosphere and spirit. One may be fairly sure
that the spirit of the dance is caught if the
dancers laugh from sheer pleasure in the dance
itself. (7:vi)
She revealed her beliefs in the preface to the
1913 edition of Folk Dances of the People.
The Folk-Dance Movement has traveled fast and
far since its organization in this country in 1905.
The pioneer days are past. It is no longer necessary
to urge its advancement in the educational world, for
it has quickly and definitely taken its place as a
needed form of recreative activity. (6:vii)
Burchenal was concerned about the
. . . unfortunate tendency to label as "folk-
dancing” any dances invented by dancing masters, that
contain steps or movements that are characteristic of
other countries, and indeed almost any novel dances
other than those of the ball-room. (6:vii)
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113
She stated clearly that . .my interest In
dancing has been from the standpoint of its possibilities
as a form of self-expression and play ...” and:
i
It is here we can turn to folk-dances and know |
that we are on safe ground, for they are spontaneous, j
genuine and sincere. They are wild flowers of the !
dance world, unspoiled by the hand of man. They I
have sprung naturally from the hearts of simple,
wholesome country folk in response to the human need
for self-expression. (6:vii)
Burchenal stressed the play and expressive elements
of European folk dances, and in her collection of American
dances she further stated:
Every effort should be made to encourage, pre
serve and assimilate this dancing and music, so that
we may not only have these added resources for
social enjoyment and recreation, but that our
national life may be enriched with beauty and color
and joy of living. ... (4:v)
It is interesting to note that although Burchenal,
at the 1905 conference, was chiefly concerned with present
ing the values of esthetic dancing as a means toward
developing good posture and grace, she did not mention
physical values in connection with folk dance at any time.
She stressed the play spirit, and the self-expressive and
recreative values of the form of dance which became
synonymous with her name.
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114
Burchenal's contagious interest, her insistence on
the spirit of folk dance as well as on authentic form, and
her infectious laughter was caught by hundreds of women
physical education majors. There was scarcely a college
or university that did not come under her influence,
through an evening of dancing with Burchenal, or a summer
course, where she presented her dances and ideas with
verve and enthusiasm. She was the first woman to become
an outstanding dance teacher in American education.
Luther Gulick.— The healthful aspects and expres
sive elements of folk dancing were stressed by Gulick in
the introduction which he wrote for Burchenal's first
collection of folk dances:
The movement for folk-dancing in America is far
more significant and complex than appears at first
sight. Its obvious reasons lie in the healthful
exercise which the folk-dance affords, particularly
for girls under restricted conditions of city school
yards; and the fact that girls like these dances and
do them with enthusiasm, thus deriving from them
more vigorous exercise than they would through less
enjoyable movements. (7:vii)
He continued:
There is also the love of beauty and rhythm
which modern life seems to afford little opportunity,
which expresses itself spontaneously in folk-dances
containing the emotional experiences of the race . . .
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115
More people can express themselves aesthetically
through dancing than through any of the other arts
. . . the folk-dancing movement Is really a great
aesthetic folk-movement. . . . (7:vll)
Folk dancing was Introduced Into the New York City
schools by Burchenal, at the request of Gulick. He
thought the girls needed some form of organized play
comparable to the athletic program for boys. He said:
These dances are Intended to meet the needs of
American children . . . much of their value would
be lost through too strict an adherence to the
traditional letter of the performance . . . the
purpose Is the learning the lessons of cooperation,
physical vigor, and team play . . . all take part
... a measurable all around character. Involving
not merely all parts of the body but they shall
develop the qualities of skill, quickness of per
ception, readiness to meet emergencies, and the
like. (7:vll)
Gulick did not think boys needed dancing, as they
had a ”. . , highly organized system of athletic games . .
. an Innovation may not be desirable at this time” (21:22).
Dancing for girls was Introduced Into the schools as a
means to an end— the development of physical vigor and
cooperative team effort. Gulick must have been aware of
the deeper meaning of folk dance, for he said:
The old rhythmical movements which have been
found among all the primitive peoples and In all
civilization have crystallized In the dance.
These folk dances express In extraordinary com
plete form man's history. . . . (7:vlll)
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116
Nevertheless, he thought these adult dances:
. . . must be resurrected and given again to
the children as part of their birthright, as a
fundamental part of their education, not merely
muscular education, but emotional education— for
in these great plays and games of the world it is
the whole individual that is called into activity
. . . the general curriculum of neuromuscular
activities involved in physical education should
be based upon the physiological unit type found
in these plays, dances, and games. (21:186)
Thus, in his book The Healthful Art of Dancing,
published in 1910, Gulick relegated folk dances to young
girls, and did a disservice to coeducational dance in
higher education. If the folk dances which were performed
by European adults had been introduced into coeducational
classes and promoted with all the enthusiasm expended on
the elementary school girls, perhaps the pattern of dance
in higher education would have been different. Perhaps
not, however, for coeducational physical education was
undreamed of in 1910, and dance was a part of physical
education.
Gulick, who was closely connected with the recre
ation and camping movements, also had an influence on the
dance concepts of the era, since he was the first educator
to write a book about dancing, rather than merely a com
pilation of dances.
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117
C. Ward Crampton.— Crampton published a compilation
of folk dances in 1909, and in the introduction to his
book, he wrote; i
I I
Folk dances should serve only their legitimate
purpose— viz.— recreation and other results supposed |
to be derived from informal gymnastics. . . . They I
supply a charming addition to our physical training !
procedure. (10:ix)
In 1910, he clarified his views about folk dances,
stating that:
. . . [They] should be distinguished from social,
aesthetic, gymnastic, dramatic and theatrical dancing,
although they have many features in common with them.
They are often social, for they are used for pleasure
on occasions of social gatherings. They are aesthetic
to the extent that they are symbolic interpretations
and presented in art form. They are gymnastic when
used for physical training purposes and dramatic when
the interpretation element is prominent, and when
used in the theatre for display purposes may be
frankly theatrical. They may be used in several ways
for physical training purposes. (76:300)
Mari Ruef Hofer.— The concepts of Hofer were
revealed in the introduction to her book Polite and Social
Dances. She wrote: "The history of the dance is a history
of social expression of all times and of all classes of
men, and as such should hold some place in education"
(27:5). She thought that the revival of folk dancing which
was taking place in 1917 had a mixture of good and bad
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118
features, due to a lack of knowledge concerning the
history of polite dances. She hoped to clear up the
”... mystery and vagueness surrounding the old dances”
i (27:5) by presenting some having historical interest, as
ithe Pavane, Minuet, and Gavotte. She thought that:
... the new use of the dance should combine
the genius and invention of the people with the
polish and perfection of its art values. A study
of the old forms with their careful balance of
sentiment, their restraint and good manners,
refined and beautified by wholesome musical accom
paniment, will aid us in finding the higher meaning
of this revival. It is the hope of the editor that
this meager sketch may emphasize a sense of the
social implication and amenities of the dance,
thereby encouraging and furthering happy intercourse
among young people. (27:5)
Emil Rath.— Rath, a product of the Turnverein and
gymnastic school, wrote a book about esthetic dancing, and
stated that he hoped:
. . . [to] extend the work begun by the late
Mr. Melvin Gilbert, who was the first to arrange
. . . artistic steps and movements into pleasing
dances suitable for gymnastic purposes, thereby
contributing a most valuable class of exercises
to physical education. (43:2)
Rath adhered closely to the concept that dancing
was a useful activity because of its physical value, when
he said:
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119
. . . dancing may be defined or regarded as an
exercise demanding considerable endurance and a
high degree of coordination. ... a vigorous func
tional increase of the heart activity, circulation,
and respiration, and consequently increased metabo
lism. (43:vi)
Rath used the word "interpretative” in connection
with the concert dancers of the period.
Today we see in the artistic work of Isadora
Duncan, Maud Allen, and others, the use of a form
of dancing which strives to portray what the music
master expresses in his compositions— interpreta
tive dancing. (43:vi)
He wrote convincingly of dance as expression.
Dancing is rapidly becoming a universal and
popular art-form of expression. In all countries
there seems to be taking place a renaissance of
dancing, a reawakening of the love for rhythmic
movements. This new spirit seems destined to
burst the prosaic bonds of our present day mate
rialism, by giving the people a medium for artis
tic expression based upon universal, age-old,
all-permeating rhythm— dancing in its various
forms. (43:vi)
Then Rath proceeded to describe the form of dance
and dancing movements which he taught, in terms of gymnas
tic exercises that were to be performed exactly as the
teacher performed them. However, he said that after the
exercises and dances were mastered, the pupils may "...
act out some idea suggested by the music" (43:27).
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120
Troy and Margaret Kinney.— The growing interest in
the dance was indicated by the Kinneys when they wrote:
. . . let it be recalled that a dozen years ago
this art was newly aroused from a cataleptic state
in which it had lain for close to half a century.
The awakening was attended by a degree of public
interest probably keener than had attached to any
artistic movement in history. Civilization had
recaptured a half-lost idiom of poetic expression.
We seemed upon the threshold of a veritable renais
sance of a dormant department of thought. By its
own genuineness, the new-discovered beauty created
standards and developed critical discernment. The
study of dance attracted young people by the
thousands. (32:288)
They continued:
... it is sufficient to say that it will not
be for lack of quality or quantity of instruction
if the dance in America goes back to mediocrity in
the next few years. ... It has become a familiar
feature in women's colleges and girls' schools,
and is the subject of tremendous popular summer
courses in at least two of the great universities.
There need be no debate about the existence of a
great interest, on the part of both students and
of a very considerable public. (32:356)
The reference was to the programs at Harvard
Summer School under Gilbert, and at New York University
with Chalif, where the teaching of modified ballet was
characteristic of the era.
The concept of dance as a means of expressing an
idea is apparent in the Kinney statement:
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121
. . . the dance is a means of expression, not
an expression by itself. Your steps are a vocabu
lary, your form is a grammar. But do vocabulary
and grammar make a poem? Essential, yes, but not
the essence . . . there can be no intelligent
expression unless there is a thought to be
expressed. (32:319)
Since ballet was the concern of the Kinneys, it is
interesting to note the American debut of Pavlova in 1910
at the Metropolitan Opera House, which "... gave this
country its first flush of excitement over the Russian
ballet" (41:48).
Mary Wood Hinman. — Hinman studied with Gilbert,
and taught his methods until turning to folk dancing and
clogging (37:103). While at the University of Chicago,
Columbia University, Hull House, and through her own
classes, she exerted a lasting influence on the patterns
and concepts of dance in American education. Martin said:
Miss Hinman, in spite of her modesty, has been
one of the finest forces in the building of the
American dance. Always alert to new ideas, tremen
dously alive to the best possibilities of the dance
in all its departments, she has been for many years
teacher, counselor, inspirer, organizer, peace-maker
and general enthusiast, often confining her most
generous and effective activities to the sidelines,
but making nevertheless a deep impression on the
character of the dance throughout its formative
generation. (39:207)
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122
Hinman taught ballroom dancing, clog, and folk
dances from all over the world. Including the Egyptian,
Spanish, Hungarian, Polish, and Greek dances. The breadth
of her program was indicated by Martin in his remarks
about Doris Humphrey, who was a student in Hinman's
classes. Martin said of Humphrey:
. . . her first professional engagement finds
her repertoire already varied ... an "esthetic
group," a czardas, Jumping Jack with cartwheels,
Lindy Lee, and a sailor’s hornpipe. The esthetic
group was by far the most advanced and perhaps
the least appreciated, for the year was 1913.
(39:207)
Hinman was early interested in the social values
of folk dancing. She taught at Hull House from 1898, and
said in 1910 that:
... by letting the young people come for one
evening a week in a clean, well-aired hall, with
good music, good floor, and rules of politeness and
formality maintained, they lose the desire to go
elsewhere for this necessary social intercourse.
They here gain healthy exercise, social intercourse
in a pleasant setting and enough social technique
to make them self-respecting. (21:76)
Hinman stressed the value of folk dancing as an
important opportunity for social interaction between the
sexes. In 1934 she said:
Some years ago, through the efforts of John Dewey
and Luther Gulick, folk dances were given a place on
the curriculum. This subject was taken into the
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123
school but taught only to girls, and by teachers
who many times had never been in the countries
from which the dances came, and who gave little or
no background or color to the dances. We know
folk dances spring from their surroundings or they
are not folk dance, and we also know, in almost
every instance, that they spring from boys and
girls or men and women dancing together. In fact,
the joy in this wonderful corecreation game springs
from the fact that the strength and skill demanded
of the boy or the man is its challenge, and the
lightness and modesty of the woman, its charm.
Robbed of this element of interaction between the
boy and the girl, it is worthless as an expression
of joy. (92:15)
Hinman placed the greatest emphasis on the element
of joyful expression in dances, and stressed the fact that:
. . . teachers must work especially on rhythm,
analyze each movement with care and make perfectly
clear the exact count upon which every movement
takes place. Then, having memorized the steps,
mastered the technique, and grasped the rhythm,
the group will throw itself into the joy of indi
vidual expression and bring out the dramatic
possibilities contained in the dance. (26:1)
The responsibility of the teacher was clearly
stated:
Each pupil is entitled to joy when dancing. It
is the very main-spring of the art, and unless it
is present at every lesson, the teacher is misusing
a great art and the pupil is being cheated. I
believe we can invite joy into our classes, if we
bring to pass or have present, at every lesson,
certain definite conditions. (26:76)
The process involved in producing the necessary
element of joy into every lesson was outlined. Hinman said:
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124
... if at each lesson the pupil feels he has
acquired a new physical control, there is a defi
nite feeling of satisfaction or joy [because], . .
. by doing so one adds to one's self-confidence,
and to add to one's self-confidence is fundamen
tally satisfactory. (26:76)
There must be a sense of genuine progress, because
". . .we are conscious of adding to ourselves— we feel we
are arriving at our fuller possibilities." She also said
that "... joy as the result of controlled response to
rhythm is old as man, and is fundamental in its compelling
appeal" (26:76).
In addition, Hinman believed that joy was a result
of self-expression arising from the completed dance which
was comparable to the joy ". . . which follows creation in
any art ... an outlet such as dancing affords— can not
fail to result in keen satisfaction" (26:77). Hinman said:
Thus joy finds its source in three things; the
satisfaction which springs from a newly acquired
control; in response to rhythm; and in the loss of
self-consciousness in the absorption of dramatic
expression. (26:76)
Hinman wove the threads of social interaction and
joyful expression into all her programs of folk dancing
and clog dancing. The ideas of the dance educators
Hinman, Burchenal, and Hofer were probably the most affec
tive of the influences exerted on the patterns of dance
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125
which were being developed at the colleges and univer
sities.
Higher Education Scene
The Conference of 1905 did not result in complete
agreement about the value or patterns of dance to be used
in physical education, but it certainly encouraged the
expression of opinions and a veritable shower of articles
and books on the subject. The emphasis was not so much on
esthetic dancing, fancy steps or rhythmic, or the rhythmic
gymnastics of an earlier era, but on folk dancing. There
was an evident belief in the recreational and social value
of folk dancing, but the word ’’expression” was applied to
all the forms of dance which were practiced during the
early part of the twentieth century. The necessity to
express something— one’s self, an idea, or joy— was
apparent in all the concepts presented. It will be inter
esting at this point to view some practices of dance in
higher education.
Colleges.— In 1911, Oberlin had a course called
’’ Gymnastic Dancing,” but the dances presented included the
folk dances Csebogar, Norwegian Mountain March, and Komano.
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126
According to Hanna, the purpose of the lessons was to
establish poise, which ”... should lead to grace and
ease of movement” (89:515). The exercises were also
thought to contribute to good posture, correct flat feet,
relieve tension, liberate the tendons and ligaments,
loosen the joints, and give flexibility to the chest.
Dancing was also considered to have an artistic and recre
ative function (89:517).
Ainsworth said Smith College first offered esthetic
gymnastics in 1901, folk dancing in 1904, natural dancing
in 1913, and clogging in 1920 (1:29).
Tyler wrote about an exhibition by a class in folk
dances at Amherst in 1911, which he had the privilege of
attending, and said:
One of the numbers was a Spanish dance accom
panied by tambourines and singing. The girls had
had about 12 lessons. 1 asked how they had learned
even the steps in that time, and found that they
had practiced frequently at home. There was ample
light exercise. The singing was even more vigorous
than the steps. There were expanded lungs, stirring
blood, good color, a vigorous reaction. There were
rhythm, grace, artistic expression. The enthusiasm
and zest were almost as curative as the physical
exercise. It was purest recreation and keenest
enjoyment. I was persuaded that you physical edu
cators had discovered at least one exercise ideal
for the place and work, capable of endless modifi
cation and adaption. It is not the only kind.
But can we not give to our preventive, corrective,
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127
curative gymnastics somewhat of the same zest and
enthusiasm? If gymnastics must be medicine, let
us sugar-coat the pill. (124:492)
Universities.— Jennette Lincoln, at the University
of Illinois, wrote about festivals in 1912. She had evi
dently been presenting May-Day pageants since 1900, as
she said:
. . . twelve years of research in this form of
fresh-air recreation and its growing popularity in
various large educational institutions, as a bene
ficial and entertaining pageant on the playgrounds,
has proved its lasting quality . . . they have
become an interesting feature of gymnasium work in
colleges and schools. (33:viii)
She wrote the book ". . . in response to many
inquiries from schools and colleges from various parts of
the country relative to the May-Pole and May-Day customs"
(33:viii). She stated:
. . . the adaptation of all manner of games,
dances, and physical exercises arranged in figures
and forms in relation to the May-Pole, by the
ingenuity and originality of the teacher in charge,
makes the old and the new, combined for a noble
purpose, more valuable as a pastime, and at the
same time gives the teacher the benefit of educa
tional research in the highest form of artistic
exercise and pageantry. (33:viii)
A picture of girls dancing around the Maypole at
the University of Wisconsin in 1911 further indicated this
interest. "Maypole dancing became an important activity
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128
for women's departments of physical education as part of
the emphasis on dance" (95:39).
Hofer said that her collection of music and dances
for American pageants had been used in many schools,
including the University of Virginia in 1908, 1909 and
1910, and at the University of California at Berkeley in
1911 (27:5).
Normal schools.--Folk dances were performed by
women at the Iowa State Normal School, as evidenced in a
picture taken in 1907, and reprinted in the Journal in
1960 (95:39).
The pageants of Hofer were used in the History of
Oklahoma Pageant at the Oklahoma Normal School (27:5).
An announcement of the Physical Education Club of
the Los Angeles State Normal School (later University of
California at Los Angeles) reported on the George Washing
ton party and costume dance in 1916.
The gym was decorated most effectively with red
geraniums, pepper branches and American flags.
Twelve Minute Men and Dolly Varden girls danced the
Varsouvianne, the Minute Men gave the Hussar Dance,
the Dolly Varden girls gave the Ribbon Dance, and
the Martha Washington ladies did a French Minuet.
All the guests did a Virginia Reel. (108:173)
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129
The article did not say whether or not this activity was
coeducational.
These reports represent a cross section of the
country. It is obvious that dancing had a place in higher
education in all parts of the United States. Folk dancing
became a part of the programs of physical education with
the production of pageants a culminating activity. It may
be remembered that an exhibition of "show exercises" was
presented during Anniversary Week at Mt. Holyoke during
the 1850's. The practice of presenting May Day celebra
tions had a basis in history.
Weavers of Concepts of Dance as
an Expressive Art Form
A form of dance called natural dancing was devel
oped in the curriculum of higher education during the
early years of the twentieth century. The concepts of
people outside higher education or physical education
influenced this movement, reaching back to the threads
spun by Delsarte. New strands were added by the dancers
Isadora Duncan, Maud Allan, Ruth St. Denis, Ted Shawn, and
the music teacher Emile Jacques-Dalcroze. Ideas from these
sources were later woven into the fabric of dance in higher
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130
education by the educators Gertrude Colby, Bird Larson,
and ^rgaret H'Doubler.
Isadora Duncan.— Duncan brought a new concept of
dancing to the world. Martin said that ”... with the
emergence of Isadora Duncan there came Into being an
entirely American dance, Indeed, the first dance art of
any consequence. Irrespective of origin. In our history"
(39:41).
It Is difficult to assess Duncan's Influence on
dance In higher education during the early 1900's because,
as a dancer, she performed and lived most of her life In
Europe. She returned to the United States In 1908, and
her belief In an American dance art based on her concepts
was cruelly shattered, according to Splesman:
In the next five years the expressive dancer
made two more tours of America. On neither
occasion did she succeed In achieving the status
of artist with the majority of theatre goers.
(133:32)
Splesman thought that Duncan's Influence, although
universal In scope, had only a slight direct effect on
American creative dance because her theories were not suf
ficiently clear, and there were no real dancers to carry
on her tradition.
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131
Splesman wrote: ’’ Through her own dancing Isadora
eloquently pled the cause of expressive dance as an educa
tional medium, but very few educators of her generation
paid attention . . (133:37).
Duncan's concept of expressive movement was
explained by Splesman to be . . movement originating in
the emotional center of the human organism" (133:37),
which was the basis of the Duncan dance art. The search
for "authentic gestures" was the lifetime task of the
dancer, as she sought the motivating forces which would
start the "motor of the soul" (133:37).
Duncan may have been influenced by Delsarte, who
was reputed to have said that "emotion produced bodily
movement,’ ’ and the "body was expressive of emotion"
(55:11). Furthermore, "gesture is the agent of the heart.
. . . The basis of the art of gesture is to make our spec
tators divine what we would have them feel" (55:25). The
torso was the emotional center of movement, according to
Delsarte. Duncan believed the "soul" was the motivating
force of movement.
Duncan was reported to have said that:
. . . there are perhaps grown people who have
forgotten the language of the soul. But the chil
dren understand. It is only necessary to say to
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132
them, ’ ’ Listen to the music with your soul. Now,
while you are listening, do you not feel an inner
self awakening deep within you— that by its
strength your head is lifted, that your arms are
raised, that you are walking slowly toward the
light?”. . . my enraptured soul knew how to com
municate to my body . . . the only power that can
satisfactorily guide . . . the body is the inspi
ration of the soul. (15:53)
Martin said of Duncan:
The function of dance as she saw it was to
objectify in terms of the movement of the body that
inner life of man which arises from the ’ ’soul.”
For her, the soul was, of course, not an ecclesi
astic concept but almost an organic one. It was
the seat of the emotions, resident somewhere in the
body, and perhaps not very different from what more
prosaic minds have called the autonomic system.
(39:131)
Spiesman and Martin both thought that Duncan had
been influenced by the concepts of Delsarte, although,
Spiesman wrote:
It is debatable as to whether Isadora at this
time or later obtained her ideas of dance from
François Delsarte, the founder of the Delsarte
System of Oratory. It is a known fact that the
Delsarte system was sweeping across America during
the 1890's, the formative years of Isadora's dance
life. Furthermore, it is also known that Isadora
. . . wrote of organizing a dancing class in San
Francisco when she was but a child and teaching
the babies gestures to the verse I Shot An Arrow
Into The Air, a poem which is found in almost
every Delsarte recitation book. Yet Isadora in
crediting those persons who she considered were
her inspiration failed to include Delsarte. The
system to which François Delsarte devoted thirty
five years of his life has many points in common
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133
with Isadora's dance concepts. He built his system
on metaphysical and physical foundations, but for
the most part overshadowed the physical with the
metaphysical concepts ... it seems from all out
ward signs that she must have been indebted to him.
The degree of this indebtedness probably never will
be specifically ascertained. (133:24)
Martin thought there was an influence,
. . . which obviously affected her course in a
more definite manner than any . . . this was Del
sarte. It would have been impossible for anyone
bom in the late '70's into such an environment as
Isadora to escape his influence, for it permeated
the arts of the theatre . . . her mother, a pianist,
declaimed poetry . , . her aunt was a gifted actress
. . . the family participated in such activities.
In the middle '90's Isadora joined Augustin Daly's
company at perhaps the crest of the Delsarte wave.
(39:145)
It has been shown in previous chapters that the
Delsarte systems which were current in America were likely
based on MacKaye's Harmonic Gymnastics and taught as a
means of expression through physical movement. Perhaps
Duncan brought Delsarte's system of meaningful gesture and
MacKaye's theory of expression through physical movement
into a focus and form which could be adapted for use in
the developing programs of dance in schools and colleges.
In any event, Martin said:
. . . creativeness was the heart and soul of
Isadora's theory. She realized that gymnastic
training, the development of the body for strength
and suppleness, was the beginning of a dancer's
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134
education, but she was particular about the approach
to these gymnastics . . . ballet and Swedish being
equally abhorrent . . . she regarded the dancer's
body simply as an instrument for the expression of
emotional concepts. . . . (39:141)
Spiesman stated that Duncan:
. . . preceded instruction in dance with instruc
tion in gymnastics . . . based on natural movements
as walking, running, jumping . . . designed as a
means for drawing out the vital forces of the body
for their use in dance . . . how she used the gym
nastics in conjunction with emotion remains unknown.
(115:40)
Duncan explained her ideas of the relationship
between exercises and dancing in this manner:
The culture of the form and movement of the
body is practised in two ways: by gymnastics and
by dancing. Both should go together, for without
gymnastics, without the healthy and methodical
development of the body, the real dance is
unattainable. Gymnastics should form the basis of
all physical education; the body must be given
plenty of light and air; its development must be
carried out methodically; the whole vital strength
of the body must be brought to its full expansion.
This is the business of the professor of gymnastics.
Then comes dancing. Into a body that has been har
moniously developed and brought to its highest
degree of energy, the spirit of dancing enters.
Movement as culture of his body form the aim of the
gymnast; for the dancer they are only the means.
Thus, the body itself must be forgotten, for it is
only a harmonious and well-adapted instrument whose
movements express not only the movements of the
body, as in gymnastics, but also the thoughts and
feelings of a soul. (15:83)
Clearly, Duncan used the technique of exercise to
bring the body into condition for use as an expressive
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135
instrument, but Splesman pointed out: "It is very probable
that she had no system which she followed when she danced
but instead merely concentrated all her forces on the
: j
emotional center of movement" (133:22).
Spiesman also wrote: "The few teaching notes left |
were vague ... as for teaching of dance as a creative
art, it is extremely doubtful that Isadora knew of a
method or system to use" (133:22).
It has not been the purpose of this study to relate
the history of Duncan's life or dancing, which has been so
expertly done by Cheney, Martin, Spiesman, and others.
Rather, an attempt has been made to discover and report
the concepts and beliefs of Duncan which may have had an
influence on dance in higher education. Her contribution
is best summed up by Spiesman, who stated that although
there was nothing in the direct line,
... by discovering the fundamental principle
of dance to be the translation of mental and emo
tional experiences into physical form through move
ment , she made available one of the most powerful
of all educational tools. (133:37)
Martin saw the contribution of Duncan as ". . . the
uncovering of the substance of the dance as expressional
movement is one of the monumental achievements in the
history of the arts" (39:133).
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136
Emile Jacques-Dalcroze. — A branch of the Dalcroze
school was established in New York City in 1915. The
Dalcroze system, which was known as "Eurhythmies,” was
I
: well accepted in Europe and America. Dalcroze had been
teaching his method since 1906 in Geneva, and later in
Dresden and London. He lectured extensively and had pub
lished his views as early as 1909. The Dalcroze system
was taught at Bryn Mawr in 1913.
The system was devised by Dalcroze in his efforts
to train students in music, but he discovered that at the
same time ". . .it trains the sense of form and rhythm,
the capacity of analysing musical structure, and the power
of expressing rhythm through harmonious movement" (11:10).
An important contribution made to education by Dalcroze was
the analysis of the nature and value of rhythmic movement.
Quotations from Dalcroze will illuminate the meaning of
Eurhythmies. He said:
. . . rhythmic instinct is the ability, which
our muscular system possesses, of perceiving the
duration and the gradations of bodily movements,
and that the science of rhythm is the power of
appreciating the relations of movements to one
another, of bringing measured movements under the
control of the mind. Rhythm, consequently, is by
no means an exclusive appendage of the musical
art. Indeed, the teaching of rhythmic movement,
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137 I
although based on music, is not solely a preparation |
I for musical studies, but rather a system of general
I culture. (12:102) \
\ I
He said that ”... the aim of rhythmic gymnastics i
I j
; was to develop mind and feeling in everything connected
I with art and life” (12:102).
Dalcroze believed the practice of the physical
I !
techniques of Eurhythmies should ”... enable men to give
I expression to every shade of thought and emotion by means
j of the resources of the body” (12:62). The object of the ‘
I I
I method was twofold— a better coordination of mind and body,!
i i
I and to enable the body to be an expressive instrument. I
I Dalcroze described the Kinaesthetic, or movement
I !
I feeling sense.
J ' [
Bodily movement is a muscular experience and
this experience is appreciated by a sixth sense
... the muscular sense which controls the many |
shades of force and speed of the movements of the I
I body in a manner adequate to the emotions which
I inspire these movements, and which enables the
human mechanism to give character to these emo- !
I tions and thus make dance a complete and essen
tially human art. (11:26)
According to Dalcroze, the purpose of Eurhythmies
jwas to enrich the body's means of expression (12:33). The !
i i
I rhythm of music could be learned through movement, and
I :
I ideas and the rhythm of music could be expressed through
! !
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i
I i
! movement. j
1 !
I The method of developing expressive ability was |
j explained as follows: i
I i
I ... the pupil learns to realize (used in
eurhythmies in the sense express by movement of the
j body) a rhythm played on the piano or indicated by i
the movements of another person. This is something |
quite apart from mere imitation; trained by pre-
j vious exercises, the pupil first forms clear thought |
images of the movements corresponding to those
images. (11:46)
A series of exercises corresponding to the music
I i
I are used to facilitate the learning of tempo, note values, |
I rhythmic counterpoint, and rhythmic phrases, and finally, !
i”. . .an attempt is made to express the whole thought and |
I j
I structure of the music” (11:52),
An article appeared in the American Physical i
■Education Review in 1915 commending the system, and may |
I have influenced the music interpretation practice of the
I I
I era. The author of the article said that ”... eurhyth-
i I
I mics, in developing the sense of rhythm makes the body
I itself an instrument for the interpretation of music"
1(85:36). According to the article, the objectives achieved;
I from eurhythmic training were the establishment of sensi-
! bility for rhythm; understanding musical notation and
i • !
I elements of the theory; muscular and vasomotor development; I
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139
and the system was generally educative along the lines of
attention, plasticity, spontaneity, and apperception
(85:35).
Such an explanation of the Dalcroze system,
appearing in a professional publication, surely would have
had an appeal to dance educators!
Maud Allan.— Allan may have had some influence on
dance concepts of the era through the enthusiastic report
of her dancing which appeared in the popular Harper's
Weekly in 1912. The article entitled "Renaissance of the
Dance" indicated the trend of the times.
But at last dancing is coming to its own again
as one of the great arts, as ennobling in its
effect as painting, architecture, drama, music or
sculpture. Indeed, it is sculpture in motion, and
any one who has seen Maud Allan, that most exqui
site of natural dancers, or who has read her book
on My Life and My Dancing, will realize how much
of music, sculpture and painting can be conveyed
through the dance. (109:6)
The use of the term "natural dance" in this review
precedes Colby by six years, and as far as could be deter
mined , was the first time that any form of dancing was
distinctly called "natural."
Allan was highly praised in the review.
It is joy never to be lost to have seen her slip
in between the long folds of dark green hangings,
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140
after the first few bars of Grieg's "Morgen,” in
her short white tunic, with the loose belt below
the waist and a shepherd's pipe at her lips. It
is all the mornings of the world come before one's
senses as she moves, skipping gently at first,
against the green background which suggests a
forest better than any pasteboard scene could . . .
as if one might see the procession of damsels on a
Greek frieze set in motion or the figurines on the
Greek vases come to life and move to exquisite
music. (109:6)
The plain dark curtains, the short tunic, the
gentle skipping to Grieg's music— these are surely fore
runners of the natural dance performances of a later
period.
The article included a brief history of danci..g
and a resume of the Puritan tradition against dancing,
and reported:
There are not many of us who follow closely
enough the fluctuations of thought to realize how
recently a new current has invaded that great ocean
of human opinion and to note how the asceticism of
the medieval church is being mitigated by modern
thought . . . the life of the senses is being vin
dicated . . . the arts are all reviving.
A return to health and nature and the joy of
living is indicated by this great modern renais
sance of the dance, and to those who are sensitive
at all to sound and rhythm and outline the dance is
a swifter joy, a more exciting esthetic experience
than that of any of the static arts. (109:6)
Evidently the trend of the times was toward
acceptance of dance in the theatre as an art form of
expression.
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141 I
Ruth St. Denis and Ted Shawn.— These dance teachers!
I
were called the deans of American creative dance by |
Spiesman (133:39). Hastings said of them: "The great
contribution of the Denishawn dancers in their generous
absorption of the arts of our times was the establishment
of American dance as an independent art form" (36:225).
Hastings also said that the Denishawn School,
founded in 1914, was "... the first serious school of
the dance with a considered curriculum and standards of
achievement in America" (36:225).
It is not the purpose of this study to recount the
many achievements of Ruth St. Denis and Ted Shawn, but
merely to identify the contributions they made to dance
ideas and practices in higher education, and recall the
influences which contributed to their experiences.
Ruth St. Denis' early dance experience included
"... lessons in the movement technique of François
Delsarte . . ." (61:52), ballroom dancing, some esthetic
dance, and ballet. Shawn studied dancing to overcome the
effects of a paralysis, and although ballet exercises
strengthened his body, he believed, according to Terry
. . . every dance form, every technique could
and should be used by the dancer in evolving his
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142 I
i
own category of motion and that the motor manifesta- \
tions of the human body could be limited only by the j
muscular limitations of that body. (61:66)
A broad curriculum of dance experiences was
offered students at the Denishawn School, including a
regular routine of exercises at the bar done barefooted,
a little folk and national dance, Eastern dance movements,
some "Greek" patterned after what Duncan seemed to do, and
as Martin said:
. , . whatever else the situation seemed to
warrant. The system at Denishawn was designed to
produce dancers by whatever route their native
inclination indicated. (39:158)
Shawn taught the principles of the Delsarte system
to all students. St. Denis devised presentational forms
called "music visualizations" and "synchoric orchestras."
Hastings suggested that St. Denis
. . . made no conscious use of the Dalcroze
system of Eurhythmies, which gave a comment in
simple movement to every note in the musical
structure, but the Dalcroze ideas had been in the
air since the start of the century and had even
affected Nijinsky. (36:233)
Martin said of the innovation of "music visual
ization":
This was frankly influenced by Isadora's use of
music, but it added a practice instituted by Emile
Jacques-Dalcroze in his system of musical education,
whereby the form of a symphonic work was mirrored by
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I 143 i
I having each dancer follow a specific instrument in
an orchestral score note for note, under the over- |
! all direction of a choreographer. (41:142) !
i ■ I
St. Denis believed that dance should be an expres- ;
: sion of the human spirit. In 1932 she said:
The peculiar value of the dance arises from
the fact that the movements it projects in endless
variety and in every degree of dynamism are moti
vated from within and express rhythmic patterns
which are innate in our being and form a language
overlapping the handicaps of race and nation— a
communication of soul with soul. (119:11)
Of Ted Shawn, Martin said, . . from the begin
ning he has battled for the cause of men in the dance.
This has been perhaps his principal mission" (39:158).
The contributions of Denishawn were stated by
Spiesman as ", . . the organization and establishment of a
school of dance . . . which kept the expressive dance
movement from being obliterated during the critical World
War I years" (133:50), and the recognition of the human
body as an instrument of expression of the human spirit.
Through the tours, they
. . . helped break down much of the narrow
provincialism and arrogant regionalism which
existed toward dance. They spread the doctrine
of expressive movement as an art for men as well
as for women, and to those who saw them perform
they gave a message of culture and beauty.
(133:52)
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144
I Spiesman further stated:
It was at this first American dance center that
instruction was given in the use of the human body
: as an instrument of expression . . . although their
systems were almost as much pantomime and theatrical
showmanship as they were creative dance, the train
ing at the Denishawn School was far more suitable
for the development of contemporary creative dancers
than the ballet would have . . . made possible for
Martha Graham, Doris Humphrey and Charles Weidman to
design a truly great American dance art. (133:52)
Some of the next generation of concert dancers
were members of the Denishawn group— Martha Graham from
1916 to 1923, Doris Humphrey from 1917 to 1928, and
Charles Weidman from 1920 to 1928.
Irene Lewisohn. — Lewisohn, at the Neighborhood
Playhouse in New York City probably influenced dance
education concepts to some extent, through her teaching
and by her provision of a setting for dance performances.
Martin said:
In 1915, . . . the Neighborhood Playhouse opened
the doors of its charming little theatre down on
Grand Street. It was not, to be sure, a dance
organization, but a theatre in the best sense of
that rather indefinite word, which means that the
dance assumed from the start a major role in its
activities. . . . Irene Lewisohn was most deeply
concerned with dancing, though not primarily as a
dancer. When she danced, as she frequently did, it
was always with a complete devotion to the work in
hand, but her interest lay rather in building the
kind of dance she believed in and composing in its
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145 :
terms. Her first teacher was Genevieve Stebbins,
a disciple of Delsarte, and here once more is seen
at work that most potent of all European influences I
which have touched the American dance. (39:162)
Helen Tamiris, another second generation concert
dancer, studied with Lewisohn. Bird Larson and Esther
Junger, the first women physical educators to become
professional dancers, appeared in recitals at the Neighbor-:
hood Playhouse.
Weavers of Concepts of Dance
as Education
During 1916 and 1917, the three dance educators
who were to be called the "Dance Education Pioneers”
(118:25) were in New York City. All were searching for a
form of dance movement which would be natural and free,
encourage self-expression, be meaningful to the partici
pant , and founded on educational and scientific principles. ;
Spiesman said:
When a roll call of American dance educators is
compiled, the names of Gertrude Colby, Bird Larson,
and Margaret H'Doubler should be among the first to
be listed. They pioneered in the field of modern
dance during the early years of the twentieth cen
tury, and their beliefs and experiments helped this
art form become an integral part of American educa
tion. The contributions of these three teachers
served as a link between the "old” pedagogical con
cepts of Isadora Duncan and the Denishawns, and the
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146
"new educational beliefs of the professional dancers
and dance educators who coordinated their activities
in American schools during the 1930's and 1940's.
(118;25)
Gertrude Colby.— Colby attended the Sargent Normal
School of Gymnastics in 1910, and became interested in
dance during four summer sessions at the Harvard Summer
School with Gilbert. As a graduate of the Sargent school,
she was . . a competent teacher of the formal system of
physical education. She was well skilled in gymnastics
and a form of dance that was a compromise between social
and ballet dancing" (118:25).
In 1913, Colby went to the Speyer School, which
was the demonstration school of Teachers College, Columbia
University (118:25). She was asked to design a program
for children that would be ". . . natural and free, permit
self-expression and harmonize with the total school
program" (118:25). Realizing that the modified ballet and
gymnastics with which she was familiar would be unsuitable,
she began to experiment with a form of dancing based on
the interests of the children, and on their natural,
rhythmic movements (133:133)
When the Speyer School closed in 1916, "... she
[Colby] was requested to continue her work in dance at
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147 i
: i
I Teachers College, and if possible to adapt it to a teacher I
! ■ !
training program" (133:133). She knew from her past
experimentation that "... natural, rhythmic movements
should be the foundation of her educational dance program"
(118:25).
According to Spiesman, "... experimentation was
the key to all Colby's class work" (133:134). In her free
time she enrolled for dance courses at the Delsarte,
Dalcroze, and Chalif schools, but they lacked something.
She experimented with all these systems, and considered
St. Denis in her search for meaningful movement practices. :
According to Spiesman, Colby saw Duncan, and "...
received her first flash of insight as to how her educa
tional dance program should be developed" (133:135).
However, Colby maintained that:
. . . she neither accepted nor imitated any
part of Isadora's dance art. Instead, in 1918,
she succeeded in molding her own style of dance
to which she gave the name of Natural Dance.
(133:135)
According to Spiesman:
Colby inaugurated a teaching procedure which
was highly unorthodox for many American schools of
1918. Her classes were far from being teacher
dominated, they were, instead, workshops where
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148
i
student and teacher experimented together, seeking
physical movements that "would make the body a
better instrument of expression." (133:136)
Colby’s concepts of dancing will be further dis
cussed in the following chapter. Her ideas were most
influential from 1918 to 1932.
Bird Larson.— Larson has been called the First
Technician of American Dance (104:53). She grew up in
Minnesota, attended St. Cloud Normal School and taught
school for a few years. In 1912 she went to Columbia for
a master's degree in home economics, but on learning that
physical education was a coming field, she obtained her
degree in this area in 1914 (104:53). Moulton reported
that Larson was an excellent pianist and mimic, and had
drive and perserverance. "If she became aware of a new
and richer objective she was perfectly willing to change
her aims to fit new developments" (104:53).
Larson studied the Delsarte method of movement and
ultimately made a study of gesture.
This eventually led her to realize that dance
must have a meaning. Part of her early dance work
evolved from this study. Her interest in music
and her study of musical composition, harmony and
structure helped her to experiment in dance. Some
of her first work paralleled dance form with music
form. (104:54)
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' ... 149 I
She taught at Elmira College for two years, and
in 1916 went to Barnard College. While there she was in
charge of the Greek Games. "During the six years the
Games were under her direction, the emphasis switched from
athletic skills to dance pageantry" (104:54). During
these years Larson developed a form of dance which she was
to teach when she opened her studio in 1922.
Constantly searching for dance techniques based on
the laws of anatomy and physiology, she "... experimented
with a technical system of movement which had its origin
in the torso of the body" (118:26). Larson thought that
". . . movement should be beautiful . . . suitable in its
quality . . . convey to the audience . . . what a performer
feels" (133:150), Her beliefs were to have a direct
influence on dance concepts during subsequent years. The
impact of her assumptions about dance will be related in
the following chapter.
Margaret H*Doubler.— H'Doubler graduated from the
University of Wisconsin in 1911, and taught there until
she went to Teachers College, Columbia University, for her
master's degree in 1916 (118:26). At the suggestion of
Blanche Trilling, she investigated the professional dance
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150
classes in the city. She was not pleased with what she
found, according to Mary O'Donnell, who was a member of
one of the dance classes with her. O'Donnell said:
How could it be otherwise when the offerings
consisted chiefly of ballet techniques, gymnastic
exercises with a little free work thrown in.
Margaret H'Doubler found that "the so-called
dances" that came out of such training always
seemed to be nothing but a stringing together (in
an artistic manner) of the technical movements
studied. They were without significance. In a
few studios where there was a breaking away from
this formal technique there was no sound theory
or philosophy or reason for what was being done.
It was cultish or a blind imitation of person
alities. (106:99)
While H'Doubler was busy taking dance instruction,
she was a part-time teacher in the physical education
department. She had many opportunities to observe the
experimental work of Colby and Larson, but "... did not
derive her interest in the dance from either of these
dance educators" (118:25).
H'Doubler received her first insight into the
value of expressive movement from Alys Bentley. In the
introduction to her book on dance, published in 1925,
H'Doubler wrote:
Inspiration and assistance have been gained
from so many sources that it is impossible to
make complete and adequate acknowledgment of
indebtedness to individuals or to the works of
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151
others. Special mention should be made, however,
of the inspiration received from the work of
Alys E. Bentley. (23;viii)
Spiesman reported that Bentley was a teacher of
music, and
... an ardent believer in the concept of
movement as it was related to music education,
Bentley convinced H'Doubler that this same con
cept was equally as important for dancing.
(133:224)
H'Doubler returned to the University of Wisconsin
in the fall of 1918, and inaugurated the dance program on
the premise that "students need to know why they are making
movements if they are to make them with an intelligent
appreciation for their value and possibilities" (23:59).
If the teacher "... knows her physics, anatomy and
kinesiology" she will be able ". . .to give her students
a more adequate conception of what they are doing" (23:59).
"She structured her total program on a scientific
understanding of physical movement" (118:76), as did Bird
Larson. She mentioned the educational principles and
values of dancing as an art, saying that dance art was an
". . . adequate and harmonious means of expressing our
emotional life" (23:8).
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152
H’Doubler made many important contributions during
the developmental period of educational dance, which will
be later discussed.
The Web of Concepts
An intricate web of dance concepts was spun in the
seventeen years between 1901 and 1917. The weavers were
physical educators, folk dancers, professional dancers and
teachers, music teachers, and dance educators. Each gos
samer thread was so related and dependent on other threads
that it was difficult to trace the origins of the strand
of ideas and basic assumptions about dance. It was clear,
however, that the word ’’expression," traceable to Delsarte,
was the strength and core of all the dance concepts pre
sented during these formative years of dance as a part of
the curriculum of higher education.
The weavers were fairly agreed in their opinions
of dance. Gilbert was aware of dance as a vehicle of
human passions and sentiments. The physical educators at
the Conference of 1905 stressed health and grace as primary
values of dance, but Taylor stated a fourfold objective of
dance as hygienic, gymnastic, recreative, and expressive.
Chalif stressed strength, posture, manners, expressiveness.
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i ; - -. -. I
I i
I and individuality. Burchenal was interested in dancing as i
i a form of self-expression and play. Gulick saw folk dance I
as a folk expression and a contributor to physical vigor
and the team spirit. Crampton thought that dancing might
be social, esthetic, gymnastic, or theatrical. Hofer
deemed dance to be a form of social expression, while Rath
stressed self-expression in his writing and physical values
in practice.
The Kinneys viewed dance as an art. Hinman was
interested in the social aspect of dance and thought dance
should be an expression of joy. Dalcroze contributed the
strong thread of music expression.
The concert dancers Duncan, St. Denis, and Shawn
used a form of movement different from that of the folk
dancers, and the references made to the expressive value
of the art form were perhaps more accurate. Yet it is
interesting to note that the word "expression" was the key
word applied to all forms of dance between 1905 and 1917.
Evidently the idea that dance should be expressive was a
fundamental assumption of the period.
In the previous years, dance was considered as an
activity which would do something to the body. The belief
shifted so that the body itself did something— namely, it
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154
expressed. How and why and what the body should express
became the central concern in the next few years.
The dance educators Colby, Larson, and H'Doubler
were searching for a form of dance which would be truly
expressive of an idea, music or feeling, through natural
movement. This was to be the direction of developments
during the following period.
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CHAPTER VI
THE SEARCH FOR DESIGNS AND PATTERNS: 1918-1932
Twentieth Century Fabric
The idea that dancing as a form of movement useful
for contributing health and grace to the body was firmly
entrenched in the 1885-1904 era of physical education. It
was strictly a body concept. This assumption contributed
the major strands of warp threads to the dance tapestry of
ideas and patterns during the time dancing was gaining a
place in the higher education curriculum. The belief in
the healthful value of dance movement was apparent in all
forms of dance which were taught, as a result of opinions
voiced by influential physical educators before 1904.
During 1905 to 1917, the emphasis shifted to the
expressive value of dance movement, involving the whole
being in the expression of joy or the play spirit. Fre
quently these movements of expression were thought to be
related to an outward social feeling, and occasionally
155
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156
were viewed as a result of Inward emotion. Dancing as an
interpretation of musical form or mood through natural
movement was being considered by some educators.
The years between 1918 and 1932 were characterized
by a search for dance designs and patterns which could be
shaped to fit the new concept that physical education
should be based on natural activities. It was further
believed by Colby, H'Doubler, and others that dance should
be an educational and expressive form of movement. In the
meantime, concert dance artists, as Graham and Humphrey,
were searching for the significance of dance movement as a
creative art form.
This chapter proposes to present the concepts and
designs which resulted during the search for patterns in
the new era of physical education.
New physical education.— This phrase was used in
1910 by Clark Hetherington in a paper presented at the
National Education Association. He said: "Education is a
process ... in which powers are developed . . . and
adjusted to a social order for complete living" (91:350).
The aim of the paper was to identify the place of play
activities in general education. Games, athletics.
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157
dancing, and the play side of gymnastics had a place. He
said:
The interpretation given might be called the new
physical education with the emphasis on education,
and the understanding that it is "physical" only in
the sense that the activity of the whole organism is
the educational agent and not the mind alone.
(91:350)
Hetherington was a student under Thomas Wood at
Stanford from 1891 to 1895. According to Bronson:
Many of Hetherington's concepts of physical
education can be traced directly to Dr. Wood. Wood
believed that the activities of physical education
should be natural activities carried on out of
doors, they should be supervised; and they should
train the child to meet the wider opportunities and
emergencies of life. (128:9)
According to Van Dalen, Wood said:
When physical education presents a programme
which is psychologically and physiologically sound,
and therefore, pedagogically acceptable, it will
find itself in organic relationship with education
as a whole and to the other subjects or departments
represented. (63:428)
Another influence on Hetherington, and thus on the
"new physical education" and dance was Hall. Bronson
stated: "The person at Clark University who had a lasting
influence on Hetherington was of course G. Stanley Hall
with his interest in child life and a return to natural
play activities" (128:20).
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158 I
The direct influence of physical education on
emerging dance designs came from Wood, who invited Colby
to join the staff at Teachers College, Columbia University,
and to adapt dance to the teacher training program.
Natural Dancing
Gertrude Colby.— Colby went to Teachers College in
1916, where she experimented with dance movements which
would be natural, educational, and expressive. By 1918
she had developed a form of dance which she called Natural
Dancing. In the introduction to her book. Natural Rhythms
and Dances, published in 1922, Colby wrote:
The growing recognition of the need in physical
education for something less formal and more in
harmony with the interests and activities of every
day life has drawn attention to a "new" type of
dancing. (9:7)
Spiesman said that individual expression was the
goal and core of the program, and quoted Colby: "I did not
intend to turn out little Gertrude Colby's who would go out
and teach a standardized system of dance" (133:136). Colby
also said:
Naturally, I wanted and expected each student to
understand point of view concerning Natural Dance
but in addition to that I wanted each girl to work
out a philosophy and understanding of dance for her
self. (133:136)
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159
The classes were conducted as workshops, and
according to Spiesman, Colby ”... started her pupils on
composition work which was emotionally stimulated by music
of the masters” (116:43).
The concepts of Colby are best revealed through
quotations from her book. She said:
... we have adopted the name "Natural Dancing,"
feeling that this term expresses more nearly the
thing for which we are working. It is based upon
such free natural movements as walking, skipping,
running, leaping etc. By making ourselves free
instruments of expression, rhythmically unified, we
are enabled to express in bodily movement the ideas
and emotions which come from within. We dance
ideas, not steps. (9:7)
The technique of natural dancing was based on
rhythm of the music and expression, and Colby maintained
it should follow "... along the lines of natural move
ments with the purpose of developing a greater freedom, a
better poise and control— in a word, to make the body a
better instrument of expression" (9:8)
Colby explained what she meant by expression.
The ideas and emotions in most Natural Dancing
are from an external stimulus for they are suggested
by the music or be a story or idea. In which case
it can not be truly called "self-expression." How
ever , once the idea or emotion is stimulated, it
becomes a part of the individual and the resulting
expression is her own. . . . (9:9)
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160
Spiesman suggested that the program had many
educational values, but contained two defects.
First, it relied totally on music for emotional
content and thus the movements of the dancer's body
were without original meaning. Second, the dance
form was not founded on scientifically designed
technique but stemmed instead from random motions.
(118:26)
According to Spiesman, Colby made two valuable
contributions to dance in education. First:
Dance as an expressive activity was brought
into American colleges. ... It was due to the
untiring efforts and numerous experiments of Colby
that dance as a creative art medium achieved its
place in American education. (133:138)
Second, she was responsible for:
. . . the first teacher training program to be
organized in the art form. . . . Centering her work
at a teacher training institution, Colby was train
ing potential teachers. (133:138)
Colby was greatly interested in rhythms for
children, and many of her dances, such as Blowing Bubbles,
The Dead Birds, and Playing Ball, were planned for them.
She said: "In my classes at Teachers College every senior
is required to give one or more original children’s
rhythms" (9:11). Much of the thematic material for the
college classes was drawn from the playful and natural
activities of children during the era influenced by the
concepts of Colby.
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161
She taught at Teachers College, Columbia Univer
sity, from 1918 to 1931, and in 1922 to 1923 at the
University of California at Berkeley and Los Angeles.
During this period, she trained many teachers
in dance for positions in . . . schools and col
leges . Ruth Murray, Ruth Jones, Martha Deane , Mary
O’Donnell, Helen Norman Smith and Marian Strang are
but a few of the young women who learned from this
pioneer teacher that to dance is to "dance ideas,
not steps." (133:138)
Bird Larson.— Larson taught physical education and
correctives at Barnard College from 1916 to 1922. During
this period, and later, she experimented with dance forms.
Spiesman said:
She first called her form of dance Natural
Dance, but soon changed the name to Natural Rhythmic
Expression . . . her main interest was centered in
"assisting her students to gain better control of
their bodies in order that they could more adequately
translate into physical form a state of mind or
emotion." (133:150)
Larson searched for a form of dance movement which
would be based on sound scientific principles. Spiesman
said:
Her years of training in the anatomical structure,
and how the body moves . . . contributed to . . . her
belief that the student had to know what he was doing
and the reason for doing it, before the dance would
be meaningful. It was on this basic concept that she
designed scientifically constructed techniques . . .
and a system of movements which had their origin in
the torso of the body. . . . (133:150)
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162
In 1922-1923, Larson opened her own studio and
joined the teaching staff at the Neighborhood Playhouse
because, as Moulton said, "... the college atmosphere
did not allow adequate scope for the work she wanted to
do" (104:54). Martin said:
Alone of her colleagues she took her teaching
out of the educational and into the professional
field, to apply it not only to laymen but also to
dancers, and to actors and singers as well. She
thus became the first technician of the American
dance. (39:167)
Announcing the curriculum of her School of Natural
Rhythmic Expression for the season of 1922-1923, Larson
wrote:
First . . . the student will, through experi
mentation, learn of the possibilities of natural
body movement. These movements with others of
purely gymnastic origin, will be used to give mus
cular relaxation and control. Secondly, . . .
there will be the cultivation of musical feeling
and response with no attention called to the
technical construction of the music. . . . Thirdly
natural controlled bodily movements and musical
feeling and construction are woven together into
the expression of an idea. (133:153)
Spiesman discussed the progress made at her school.
In the period from 1925 to 1927 Larson began to
move forward rapidly. Her careful experiments of
the past had prepared her well for work with expan
sion and contraction, relaxation, and the tension
of bodily movements. She also started to move away
from music and other arts as the motivating source
for the dance and to use percussion accompaniment
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163 ;
for choreography, and such direct emotions such as
laughter, weeping, and anger as material of the
dance. (133:153)
Martin wrote of Larson:
... it was in the old Neighborhood Playhouse
that Bird Larson gave the only two professional
performances of her tragically brief career. Her
death in 1927 cut off one of the vital streams of
the American dance, at the very beginning of its
full power and in that period of the emergence of
the modern dance when it could in all likelihood
have swept everything before it. (39:166)
Larson's contributions to education were identified
by Spiesman.
The first was her pioneering work in establish
ing a scientific approach to dance. The second was
concerned with developing a close relationship
between the dance and dance technique and between
the dance and other art forms. Her third and most
significant contribution was her concern for the
total development of the "Self" through the dance.
(118:26)
The search for dance which was meaningful, based
on anatomically correct movement, was a distinct and unique
contribution of Larson to dance in education. Her influ
ence was through her teaching, rather than writing. As
Moulton said, ". . . like many 'doers, ' she was too busy
to analyze and record her work" (104:54).
Martin said:
It is rather extraordinary that in the few years
of her active professional work, teaching at the
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164
Neighborhood Playhouse, the Rand School, St. Mark's,
and in her own studio, she should have made so deep
an impression that now . . . she has become some
thing of an American tradition. (39:169)
Margaret H'Doubler.— In 1918, H'Doubler returned to
the University of Wisconsin and initiated a dance curricu
lum. Hawkins said:
In those early years she relied heavily upon
music for motivation, but from the first she was
concerned with developing the body as an instrument
for expression and aimed to help students acquire
kinesthetic sensitivity and ability to control move
ment. Principles of kinesiology, anatomy, and
physics guided her work. She believed that the
teacher . . . must be able to resolve her movements
into three simple elements of flexion, extension
and rotation with the realization that the mood
expressions vary according to which movement domi
nates, e.g.— one can express joy adequately only
with movements which are predominantly extensions.
She must (also) know forces which modify action.
( 22: 8)
Hawkins further stated:
At Wisconsin H'Doubler's work developed rapidly.
By 1926 she had introduced a dance major which pro
vided preparation for dance teachers. She, as well
as Colby at Teacher's College, received an increas
ing number of requests from all parts of the country
for teachers who could assume leadership for an
educational program in creative dance. (22:9)
H'Doubler published The Dance and Its Place in
Education in answer to the need for some written formula
tion of the educational and creative work which had been
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165
done In dance. She hoped the book might serve as a stimu
lus to better teaching. The concepts of dance expressed
by H'Doubler are best revealed through several quotations
from her book. She believed thoroughly in the educational
values of dance, saying:
. . . the dance is peculiarly adapted to the
purposes of education. It serves all the ends of
education— it helps develop the body, to cultivate
the love and appreciation of beauty, to stimulate
the imagination and challenge the intellect, to
deepen and refine the emotional life, and to
broaden the social capacities of the individual
that he may at once profit from and serve the
greater world without. (23:33)
H'Doubler insisted "... that the dance be an
adequate means of self-expression so that when movement of
mind, soul, and body are coordinated, rhythmical, beautiful
and expressive movements may result" (23:7).
She believed that dancing "... must be genuinely
expressive of the inner man if it is to rank with the other
fine arts" (23:8). The teacher should have a thorough
knowledge of anatomy, kinesiology and physics, but most
importantly, always remember that "... what she is
teaching is not a certain number of dances, but a creative
art" (23:163).
H'Doubler continually stressed the value of dance
as a creative and educational form of movement. Her
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166
contributions to dance in education were summed up by
Spiesman.
Probably her greatest contribution was the
organization and development of an educational dance
center in the mid-western section of the country in
which a large dance audience and a vast number of
teachers were trained to understand and appreciate
the dance. A second contribution of importance was
the clarification of the educational principle upon
which the dance is structured, and a third contribu
tion of note is Orchesis, the dance club for student
dancers in colleges and universities.
By the 1930's creative dance was beginning to
spread in education throughout America and with it
went the belief which Margaret H'Doubler had summed
up that creative dance in education was not an end
in itself, but a means toward developing the total
personality of all students regardless of their
potential dance talents. (133:168)
Agnes and Lucille Marsh.— The Marshes published
The Dance in Education in 1924, wherein they stated their
concepts of dance, presented a series of model lessons,
and discussed the correlation of dance with other subjects
in the curriculum. The Marshes conducted a dance studio;
taught at Teachers College, Columbia University; and also
at Smith College. Quotations from the introduction to
their book indicate their concepts about dance.
Dancing is a great art, full of educational
opportunities, and rich in inspiration for art and
life ... we should develop in our schools a dance
that will express the best in our present civiliza
tion. (38:xv)
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167
If dancing is to be a great instrument of educa
tion, it must satisfy these requirements— (1) It
must aid and maintain bodily growth and development;
(2) It must interest the student and offer stimulus
to the full extent of his maturity; (3) It must
further social adjustment. (38;xvi)
They believed the structure and function of the
body needed natural movements. They would use
. . . natural movements as walk, irun, skip,
leap, whirl, galop, stretch, bend, throw, grasp,
turn, and relaxation ... to bring the natural
movements to the highest point of efficiency.
(38:xvii)
Stress was placed on dance as art and education.
So, we believe, that dancing is a great art,
an art that has much to give other arts and much
to receive from them, and we believe it can be a
great instrument of education. Dancing deserves
academic recognition ... we hope it will . . .
be incorporated into the educational curriculum
with full academic standing. (38:xix)
The purposes of the model lessons presented were
stated as (1) to study natural movements; (2) to study a
variety of expressions based on movement and music inter
pretation; (3) to study body movement, with the emphasis
/
placed on the belief that movement begins with the heavy
trunk muscles and flows out to the extremeties; (4) to
study crescendo and diminuendo in movement; and (5) to
study phrasing and design.
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168 ;
The material for dance was carefully correlated
with other college subjects as poetry, prose, painting,
music, sculpture, opera, and history. Some of the sug
gested dance themes were Diana, The Storm, Dawn, and The
Hunt. The Dance Drama presented was based on the theme
Isis, from Greek mythology. The Marshes believed:
Students should be encouraged to experiment
with possible design for a dance before one is
suggested by the teacher. The dance grows out
of the student's reaction to the idea, and the
design should grow out of the dance. (38:xxiii)
Helen Norman Smith.— The book Natural Dance Studies
was presented by Smith in 1928 in answer to a demand for
material in natural dancing. Her concept of dance was
influenced by Colby, and reflected a strong Interest in
music interpretation. The opportunity for dramatic expres
sion was also stressed by Smith, who said:
. . . rhythms also form an excellent opportunity
for individual expression. In that the stories are
familiar, that they are fun to do, the student for
gets herself, and her movements and thought are free
to express themselves. These rhythms are the funda
mentals of dramatic expression in Natural Dancing.
(56:6)
It was interesting to note the material that was to
be dramatically expressed by college students. The Table
of Contents of Natural Dance Studies revealed The Windmill,
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169
Mr. Frog, Two Little Elves, Peter Rabbit, and Simple Simon
as themes. Included also were Free Rhythms and Dance
Studies, with exact directions according to the measures
of the music.
The influence of the natural dance movement from
Teachers College, Columbia, was far-reaching and strong.
Smith was also a member of this faculty. Although dance
was thought to be an educational activity for college
girls, the emphasis often seemed to be on children's
rhythms. In the meantime, another teacher was searching
for a deeper meaning of dance.
Elizabeth Selden.— Selden presented Elements of
the Free Dance in 1930. She wrote:
We are suffering from a lack of clearly recog
nized delimitations on the one hand, and on the
other, there is apparently no unified front with
respect to aims, nor a common basis of technique.
(49:vii)
The purpose of her book was to attempt a clarifica
tion and synthesis. She chose to call the form of dance
which she described the "Free Dance," until a better term
could be found, because "... the Dance of the twentieth
century was begotten by a call for freedom; and it is still
struggling both for and under this fine heritage" (49:xiii).
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170
Selden proposed to answer the question: "What
is the nature of the inner necessity which the barefoot
dancer follows in choosing his means and technique of
outward expression, and how are they dependent upon one
another?" (49:5).
Quotations from her book will illustrate her
answer.
The Dance shares with all art the aim of pro
jecting an inner vision into the world without.
The Dance does it through visible motion, and
partakes at once of the three realms: Time, Space,
Thought. (49:6)
Professional students of the Free Dance . . .
will do well to understand the unshakable fact:
that physical fitness is the first, and by far the
most important, factor in the making of a dancer.
(49:10)
Selden believed the impulse of action started with
the torso, and the "... technique of the Free Dance pro
ceeds along the avenues of muscular control" (49:98). She
said "... the office of muscular control consists in
regulating the stream of motor power by using its positive
and negative tendency: relaxation and tension" (49:99).
She discussed the importance of change of weight and change
of direction, and identified the "Main Families of Free
Action-Modes" (49:115). She thought that "... the
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171
Folding-Unfolding type of motion should be considered in
the first place, as a primary motion par excellence," and
"closely related is the family of the rise-fall motions,
embodiment of the struggle of gravity" (49:115).
Other action-modes were the press-pull motions,
bending-reaching motions, rotating and twisting and the
turn, undulating and heaving, swinging, swaying, and
vibrating and shaking (49:116).
The superstructure for the building stones were
thought to be balance and harmony between "... creative
joy, rhythmic sensibility and technical fitness, which
constitute the real dancer" (49:124).
Selden concluded that:
The three dimensions in which the dancer works
are space, time, and thought,— an infinite, limit
less realm ... he uses the Free Dance as the
instrument which will give the fullest and the
freest scope to his expression. It enables him to
become the most direct interpreter of the stress
and the joy of the present, the beauty and the
tenderness of the past, the promise and the visions
of the future— in those supreme movements when he
attains a full realization of harmony. (49:128)
The contribution of Selden to dance in education
was threefold. She was the first of the dance educators
to define dance in terms of time and space, in addition to
the "building stones" of movement technique, as a basis for
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172
! expression. Her book was the first to be written by an
educator using the words and terms of the "modern" dance,
as she searched beyond the physical education natural
movement and Dalcroze music expression characteristic of
I the era. Her comparisons of ballet and the "free" dance
I I
; sharply pointed out differences, and the defining of the |
; i
forms of dance then prevalent, as interpretative and
natural, was an honest attempt toward clarification of the
philosophy of dance in education.
Pageants and Dance Dramas
Dance performances were often presented in the
form of pageants or dance dramas. Occasionally the dances
were woven into a pattern based on an original story. The
program often included three parts composed of movement
studies, expression of ideas, and a short drama based on a
theme drawn from children's stories. Some programs were
highly elaborate and complicated productions, such as the
pageant entitled "The Torch Bearer" presented at the
Twenty-seventh Convention of the American Association for
Health, Physical Education and Recreation (AAHPER). "The
place was the Brooklyn Academy of Music, the date, April 8,
1920" (100:249). The event was reviewed by MacKenzie.
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173
The first scene depicted the Spirit of America,
Health and Education. A Messenger arrived from the Down
trodden and Foreign Peoples and pled for admission. This
was followed by a "reprisal or back look" at Greece and
Pericles with a Phyrric Dance; an English Dance on the
Village Green; a Slavic Wedding Dance; and an American
Indian Dance. Education appeared and captured all.
MacKenzie, reporting on the event, said:
. . . and this brings us to the final tableau.
Education, her point of view enlarged and enriched
. . . speedily discovers . . . Health, brings her
to America, and hands her the Torch of Truth.
(100:249)
Then, in groups , football players , snowshoers ,
golfers, riders, lacrosse players, young men and maidens
in canoeing flannels, and with tennis rackets, or fur clad
with skates— ". . . the whole youth of America filed past"
(100:249).
The director was Josephine Beiderhause of the New
York City Schools; the dancers from New York University,
the Savage School of Physical Education and the English
Folk Dance Society. MacKenzie deemed it a ". . . work of
art" (100:250).
A fanciful pageant was written and produced at
Mills College in 1927, and reported by Rosalind Cassidy.
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174
She wrote in an article, "How College Girls Make a May
Pageantthat pageantry was based on . . student
initiative and creative power" and was an outgrowth of the
daily work in art, music, and physical education. The
award theme of 1927 was entitled "The Druid Fires of
Beltane," or "The Harp of the White Thorn Tree." The
seemingly Gaelic story appeared to be set at Stonehenge.
The dances were performed by Satyrs and Fauns, Warriors,
Mermen, Mermaids, and Sea Horses. Solo dances included
those of Maev the Queen, and the Fruitful Earth, the Sky,
and the Sea. There was a procession and Invocation
including all members of the cast (75:746),
The dance production at the University of Wisconsin
in 1924 included three parts, according to the program
printed in H'Doubler's book. The first part was composed
of dance studies as "Frieze," "Nocturne,” and "Bacchanale."
The second part was entitled Petites Etudes and consisted
of children's rhythms such as "Little Miss Muffet," "Jolly
Peter," "Raggedy Ann and Andy," and "Captain Bing was a
Pirate King." The third part consisted of a drama, "The
Little Princess." As in Colby's programs the themes for
many of the dances were drawn from the interests of
children (23:284).
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...... 175
The Orchesis group at the University of Michigan
presented an informal evening of dance as a culmination of
the year's work in 1930. Included on the program was a
dance pantomime, "The Little Princess Who Could Not Dance,"
and a series of short dances composed by the dance club
members. These dances were interpretations of the music
of Schubert, Chopin, Elgar and Beethoven; studies entitled
"Rooster" and "Columbine"; and original compositions based
on epochs of history, according to lone Johnson, the
reporter of the event (94:17).
The University of Washington dance students,
including the writer, referred to the culminating event of
Orchesis as Dance Drama. One year "The Vagabond King," a
popular operetta of the era was interpreted through dance.
Another year, the Dance Drama, based on Donn Byrne's
"Messer Marco Polo," was a challenge to the dancers'
ingenuity. "The Pied Piper of Hamlin" was a pleasant small
attempt another year. The accompanist often contributed
music to fit the dances, after the mood and action were
determined by the dancers. The performances and practices
for the Dance Drama were anticipated with pleasure by the
Orchesis members. There was always an opportunity to be
imaginative and creative in the dance forms of the era.
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176 i
Folk Dancing
The tradition of folk dance was being carried on
by Burchenal and Hinman. In 1920, Burchenal was interested
in the value of folk dancing as social recreation for
adults. She said:
In particular I wish to emphasize the large
opportunities as yet not generally realized, which
folk dancing offers as Recreation for ADULTS, its
possibilities as a DEMOCRATIC SOCIALIZING AGENT,
and its value as a form of real AMERICANIZATION.
(74:405)
She was not referring to highly specialized dances,
with an audience, nor to the couple dances such as the
waltz, mazurka, polka, but to group dances, which were
”. . . true folk dances and far more 'social' than what we
call 'social dancing'" (74:405).
Hinman regarded folk dancing as a means toward
cultural understanding, a background for social dancing,
and an appealing coeducational activity (92:62).
She was also interested in clog dancing, and this
form of dance was first taught in higher education at
Columbia University during summer sessions in 1916 and
1917 by Hinman (92:14).
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177 i
Clog Dancing
Clog dancing gained a strong place in education
almost immediately upon its incorporation in the program.
Hinman first taught clog dancing in the 1916-1917 summer
session at Columbia University. The interest was furthered
by the publication of four books on the subject before
1930. The importance of clog dance during this period may
be noted in the fact that the number of publications of
four books on clogging was second only to the publication
of six books on natural dance. The proponents of clog
dancing stressed the educational values of this form of
physical education activity, and it soon became a part of
most dance programs in higher education.
Helen Frost.— The interest in clog dancing at
Columbia University was furthered by Frost. She stated:
To Mary Wood Hinman I am indebted for my first
interest in clogging. Her splendid presentation,
her spirit and love for the dance make her teaching
an inspiration. (18:v)
Frost emphasized the importance of clog dancing by
pointing out the historical value, the opportunity for
joyous expression, and the usefulness of this form of dance
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178
for boys. Quotations from her books revealed these
concepts.
Clog and character dancing has its place in
education as a wholesome means of expression. . . .
Through pantomime, tapping, and lilting steps, the
clog dance develops a response to music that is
joyous and satisfying. It appeals to all ages, and
since relaxation and perfected balance are the
basis of its practice, physical well-being is
assured. (19:iv)
She thought that clog dancing could be educational,
if the dances were a "true expression of good music"
(19:iv). The music should have a folk quality. "The form
of the dance and the pantomime introduced are consistent
with the musical form, giving the dancer an opportunity for
free and sincere expression of character" (19:iv).
She also thought that "... clog dancing is an
excellent form of class work in physical education and is
most helpful for large numbers in a small space ..."
(19:v). She believed such dancing would appeal to boys.
Clog steps are definite to the point of being
gymnastic, and demand a certain amount of accuracy;
combined as they are with large body movements
their practice entails strength, control and balance.
Because such qualities are found in the clog dance
boys are interested in its practice. There is an
age, roughly outlined as 10 to 14, when folk dancing
does not appeal to the boy; he thinks of it as
"pretty" or "girls dancing" and often he has been
allowed to omit rhythmic work altogether. There are
strong, vigorous folk dances in which he would find
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179
pleasure and benefit. In addition, clog and gym
nastic dances give him an opportunity for joyous
expression with a sense of rhythm and a grace of
carriage acquired as by-products. (18:vi)
Frost evidently thought that the same dances which
would appeal to young boys were equally valuable for
college women, since she wrote: "Many of the dances
described in this volume are useful in festival work and
have been given in various programs at Teachers College,
Columbia University" (18:vi).
The concepts of the era concerning dance in educa
tion are well stated by Colby in an introduction to Frost's
second book.
It is within the last twenty years that dancing
has been adopted as a part of a physical education
program. But until recently its value was recog
nized only on a purely physical basis as providing
good exercise and training in "coordination." With
the development of the newer educational methods,
teachers of dancing and of physical education
hastened to claim every possible educational value;
physical, mental, moral, social and esthetic. Each
type of dancing and rhythmical training was presented
by its exponents as the only one by which perfection
might be attained. As a matter of fact, no one type
can satisfy the varying factors of age, sex, interest
and previous training. Each has its own values and
a program of natural, folk and national, character
and clog dancing will most nearly measure up to edu
cational standards. (19:v)
Colby stated her belief about the value of clog
dancing.
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180
Clog dancing has a special appeal through the
primitive inborn tendency to "shake a leg" to any
alluring, well-marked rhythm. It is good training
in accuracy of rhythm as well as in the phrasing of
the simple folk type of music used. Good clogging
requires lightness with a well-poised, relaxed body
and no one could question its value as exercise. .
. . Her dances are not merely a succession of steps
but are arranged with growth and progression toward
a climax which gives artistic satisfaction. The
character element involved provides an opportunity
for dramatic expression which fills an intellectual
need that mere exercise and "steps" could never
satisfy. (19;v)
The belief of Colby that ideas, not steps, should
be danced is apparent.
Marjorie Hillas and Marian Knighton.— Hillas and
Knighton published Athletic Dances and Simple Clogs in
1926, and again emphasized the importance of such activi
ties for boys, and as an educational activity. They
recognized Frost in the foreword:
We owe our inspiration and love for clog dancing
to Helen Frost. Her spirit and her own love for
dancing, as shown in her teaching has given us the
interest and initiative necessary to make this book
possible. (25:3)
They wrote: "One of our main objectives was the
arrangement of dances vigorous enough to satisfy the needs
of a boy during the period when folk and other types of
dancing have no appeal" (25:6). And further, "... the
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181
dramatic quality of the dance and the mood of the music
should be correlative. The character-quality of a dance
is as essential educationally as practise in rhythmic
accuracy" (25:7).
Edith Ballwebber.— Ballwebber was interested in
the educational values of tap dancing for high school and
college girls. Her first book was Tap Dancing— Fundamen
tals and Routines; her second, simply Tap Dancing.
Ballwebber studied tap dancing at the professional studio
of Edna McRae in Chicago, whom she acknowledged in her
first volume. In the second book, certain dance concepts
were revealed, and creativity seems to be stressed, rather
than routine learning.
In her classes, the students built up a vocabulary
of steps, combinations and rhythms, with time in each
class for student experimentation.
Very interesting results have been obtained, and
the students have taken great pride in the routines
they have invented. Thus, classes in tap dancing
may become more than a constant process of imitation;
greater interest is aroused, individual initiative is
encouraged, and broader educational values made
possible. (2:7)
Opinions of Physical Educators
The ideas about the value and function of dance in
higher education were closely related to the objectives
generally stated for physical education. Dance was a part
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182 I
! of the physical education program, and the physical educa- :
tion departments were concerned with the professional
preparation of teachers for the lower grades. Thus, more
often than not, objectives were stated in terms of chil
dren's natural interests, and dance also seemed to be
under the same influence. These concepts of dance may be
j I
observed through opinions expressed by physical educators
of the period.
Jesse Feiring Williams.— The introductions to the
books by Frost, Colby, Hillas and Knighton were written by
Williams. In 1921 he said:
In recent years, we in Physical Education have
been coming back to fundamentals ... we have
become interested in proposing and seeking those
immemorial racial forms of activity that were not
only the means of physical education for primitive
man but indeed were important physical forces
determining the physique and development of man
himself. It is significant indeed, that we are
seeking in these days for nature's way, for the
use and development of activities that are pri
marily fundamental and racial. (18:iv)
He thought that clogging was a natural activity,
and that:
. . . the hygienic values are adequately pre
served because in this, not only is there real
physiologic work to be done, but moreover there is
joy in the doing of it. . . . there is every indi
cation that clogging as presented by the author is
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183
an acceptable part of that ideal program of physical
education that will afford to all an opportunity to
act in situations that are physically wholesome,
mentally stimulating and satisfying, and socially
sound. (18:iv)
In 1922 he introduced Colby's book with:
Natural Rhythms and Dances is symbolic of a new
spirit in Physical Education itself. It calls for
a new emphasis; it connotes new meanings. In par
ticular it says that those who dance must dance as
a child, expressing in natural outward forms, inner
thoughts and feelings. . . . They are not a passing
form but a rational approach to the expression side
of physical education. (9:6)
He praised the Hillas and Knighton book in these
words:
It is definite and precise in its directions,
detailed enough for the beginner, and yet it offers
material, free from window dressing of esoteric
arguments, based rather on the interests, urges and
desires of young people in wholesome and altogether
delightful forms of activity. (25:5)
Gertrude Baker.— Baker, of the University of
Minnesota, stated in 1923 that "... the objectives in
dancing for college women are of a highly educational
nature” (68:105). She listed these objectives as neuro
muscular control, organic vigor, a breakdown of self-
consciousness and ”... willingness and enjoyment in
expressing an idea regardless of the presence of others”
(68:105). She believed that appreciation of music, poetry
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184
and literature, and seeing beauty in the commonplace were
concomitant values of dance. Character building and
stimulation to the creative impulse completed her list of
dance objectives.
In a comment on discriminating between dancing as
a form of Physical Education and as a form of Art, Baker
said:
To my mind, there is no conflict between dancing
as an agency in Physical Education and as a form of
Art. The former, dancing as an agency in Physical
Education, is essential to the realization of the
latter, dancing as an Art. (68:106)
Elizabeth Alden.— The educational values of dance
were listed by Alden in 1924. She apparently was concerned
with physiological values and music interpretation,
although she said, "... into the field of dancing espe
cially have come new life and interest. The interpretative
dancing so many are giving now is truly educational"
(66:273).
Alden praised dancing because it was based on firm
principles of anatomy and kinesiology, with possibilities
for the correction of posture faults. She believed dancing
contributed smooth all-around development to the body, and
established habits of relaxation. She thought that
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185
technique and control were gained, and then one could
. . express what the music means to him" (66:273).
Concert Dancers
During the 1920's, dance educators were searching
for patterns of dance which would be educational and
expressive. Physical educators approved the "natural
movement" dance practices, -since they were thought to
educate the student through dance.
In the meantime, concert dancers were searching
for a philosophy of dance as an art form which would be
significant, communicative, and an end in itself. These
dancers were to have a profound effect on later patterns
and concepts of dance in higher education, beyond the
scope of this study. However, according to Martin, "...
the great period of the modern dance in America can be
said to have started in the mid-20's" (41:147). Martin
believed that
. . . many of the individual forces which have
put their mark upon the new movement began to
emerge. For example, in the spring of 1926 Martha
Graham made her New York debut as an independent
artist; the same year the dance was introduced as a
major subject leading to a degree, at the University
of Wisconsin under the direction of Margaret
H'Doubler. Tamiris made her debut in 1927, and the
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186
i
same year for the first time in history three New
York newspapers established independent departments
of dance criticism; the following spring, Doris
Humphrey and Charles Weidman left the ranks of
Denishawn and appeared with their own concert com
pany. On such bases and others like them has been
built the contemporary dance movement which has
got itself labeled as "modern.” (39:4)
It is not the purpose of this study to recount the
: many achievements of the concert dance artists of the
I period, which has been admirably done by Martin, Terry,
Sorrell, and others. Rather, an attempt will be made to
identify the concepts of the dancers of the early modern
dance era.
The aim of these dancers was stated by Frampton:
When the modern dance came into being each great
figure worked out his or her individual technique;
each was blazing a new and uncharted path. Laban,
Graham, Wigman, Holm, Weidman, Humphrey, and others
all had one aim--to develop dancers with complete
bodily control and the ability to use the body as
an expressive instrument, as demanded by this new
concept of dance. (82:29)
As Martin said, "... the dance was transforming
itself from an imitative art into a creative one" (41:147).
A brief discussion of the direction of the search and the
resulting theories of the dancers may suggest how this
transformation took place.
Doris Humphrey.— Humphrey developed a theory of
movement which was, according to Stodelle,
. . . perhaps the most choreographically con
ceived of the modern dance theories in general use.
The emphasis is not on technique as a disciplined
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Il
187
body training but on the creative exploration of
movement values. Dynamic motion, rhythmic punctu- ;
ation of timing, design as assymetrical angle or
symmetrical curve, gesture as an expression of
personality and inner motivation— all these aspects
of movement itself are dealt with as direct material
for the dance. (120:19)
Frampton thought that of the modern dance pioneers , |
. . Doris Humphrey emerges as the one who contributed |
the most ... to education in dance" (120:29).
Stodelle said of this contribution: "As educa
tional material it is replete with the excitement of the
dance itself. As educational material, too, it provides a
realistic analysis of the anatomy of natural movement"
(120:19).
Humphrey explained her theory in her posthumously
published book. "In the human animal, the walk is the key
pattern of fall and recovery, my theory of motion— that is,
the giving in to and rebound from gravity. This is the
very core of all movement, in my opinion" (30:106).
Her interest in dance in education was apparent.
I always thought students should learn principles
of movement and be encouraged to expand or embroider
on these in their own way. So, along with a theory
of movement, there was a theory of composition. It
was apparent soon that choreographic ability in stu
dents was going to be very much in demand with the
astonishing spread of the modern dance through the
educational system. (30:19)
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I 188
j
Humphrey thought choreography began with the first
most important step: ”... the decision as to the basic
idea from which the dance will spring. All else flows
from this” (30:31).
The objective of dance as seen by Humphrey was
”... the communication of the human spirit” (30:37).
Above all, Humphrey was concerned with guiding the
student toward his own unique and individual development.
According to Stodelle, Humphrey might have said:
There is no formula. But we do counsel you to
become creatively aware of the world about you and
the life within you— to sharpen your critical facul
ties , to extend your vision beyond the obvious, and
to love, purely and simply, the language of movement
which is both nature and dance. (120:20)
Many of the present dancers and teachers have used
Humphrey's theories as a departure point in developing
their own styles and theories (120:18).
Charles Weidman.— Weidman was closely associated
with Humphrey from the Denishawn days. He believed dance
should reflect ”... the life that surrounds us,” and
said, according to Spiesman:
... to be ready each year to say new things
and to say them in new ways; to keep our mode of
expression fresh and vital and to remove the dance
from pleasant entertainment . . . to be a strong.
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189
living art that touches us powerfully as we are
today. (133:77)
Martha Graham.— Graham is the artist who has come
to be most generally the symbol of modern dance in the
popular mind (41:153). She has continually searched for
movements of dance that will say what she thinks should be !
I
said, and has sought new ways of communicating her ideas.
Graham's basic concept of dance was identified by
Struppa, who quoted Graham as saying:
"The affirmation of life through movement. . . .
The stuff of the dance ... is significant move
ment. . . . Throughout time dance has not changed
in one essential function. The function of dance
is communication. ... By communication is not
meant to tell a story or to project an idea, but
to communicate experience by means of action and
perceived by action. ... To understand dance for
what it is, it is necessary we know from whence it
comes and where it goes. It comes from the depths
of man's inner nature, the unconscious, where memory
dwells. As such, it inhabits the dancer. It goes
into the experience of man, the spectator, awakening
similar memories." (121:15)
Struppa described the basis of the Graham tech
nique , and reported Graham's belief about the use of
technique.
Miss Graham put dance technique— or any other
technique, for that matter— in proper perspective
when she said "Technique only services the body for
complete expressiveness." In other words, technique
is a means toward an art and not an end in itself.
(121:16)
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190
Graham's technique is centered around basic prin
ciples of contraction and release, opposition of forces,
the body's relation to gravity and space, and rhythm.
According to Struppa, ". . . contraction and release is
; the dynamic principle at the heart of the Graham tech- j
! niquesand "... another dynamic principle operative
in the Graham technique is opposition of forces. It is I
related to the problem of gravity but not entirely depend
ent on it" (121:16).
Spiesman said that "... percussive movement
became the basis for Martha Graham's art" (133:54).
Perhaps Graham was primarily a dancer, Humphrey a
teacher and choreographer. Humphrey's search was concerned
with discovering the elements of dance and choreographical
design. Martin said that Graham "... has been working,
however subconsciously, toward the discovery of a new
heroic theatre, rather than merely the development of the
dance within its own particular limitations" (41:155).
Louis Horst. — Although not a dancer, Horst "...
received the Capezio Award in 1955 'for his unique contri
bution to modern dance as composer, accompanist, teacher,
critic and general force for progress'" (29:144). He was
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191
: the musical director for Denishawn for ten years, and in
1925 left the group, as did Humphrey, Weidman, and Graham.
Horst was a violent enemy of "self-expression,"
and began teaching his own choreographic precepts and
rules of action at the Neighborhood Playhouse in 1928.
According to his biography, he was
. . . always absorbed in the creative aspects
of dance, his suggestions and choreographic assign
ments for students are unique as guides to fresh
and provocative choreographic language, free from
outmoded sentimentality. (29:145)
Horst’s major concept of dance was revealed in his
statements about a dancer and the composition of dance.
A true dancer has a temperament which directs
him to express feelings and ideas through moving
the body in space. This instinct must be greatly
enhanced by training so that he not only lias a
strong co-ordinated instrument, but an immediate
impulse to translate his comments and reactions
into rhythms, muscular dynamics and spatial
arrangements. (29:20)
Helen Tamiris.— Tamiris had a background different
from that of her colleagues who came from Denishawn,
according to Martin (41:159). Terry said: "At eight . . .
she began her dance study at the Henry Street Settlement
under the guidance of Irene Lewisohn, who, like St. Denis,
had been guided by the principles of Delsarte" (61:121).
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192
The rich and varied experience of Tamiris with
Lewisohn, Fokine, the Metropolitan ballet and a Duncan
studio "... led her to the conviction that the kind of
dancing she wanted to do would have to be of her own
making” (41:159).
Tamiris thought that the principal duty of the
artist was to express the spirit of his race (41:161).
She stressed dances of social comment (61:126). Perhaps
the major contribution of Tamiris to modern dance was
indicated by Martin: "... she was finding herself drawn
less and less to the mere seeking of fresh methods and new
tools and more and more to the exploration and publishing
of human values" (41:161).
Esther Junger.— Junger was considered by Martin in
1933 as ". . . one of the distinguished talents of the
American dance" (39:251). Although Junger did not gain as
wide a reputation as the dancers previously discussed, she
is an interesting figure for the present study, since she
was the second physical educator to become a professional
dancer. Junger taught physical education in a New York
high school, but worked alone in attempting to develop her
theories of dance. According to Martin, she attended a
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193
lecture demonstration given by Bird Larson, and
... at last was convinced that a method
existed which answered her requirements. . . . This
was in 1925, and for the next three years she worked
with Miss Larson and appeared in the two Larson
recitals at the Neighborhood Playhouse in Grand
Street. (39:252)
The theories of dance movement evolved from her
i studies with Larson were centered around the principles of
resistance, sustained control, and the use of the body as
a unit. Her theories, perhaps, reflect the experiments of
Larson with expansion and contraction, relaxation, and the
tension of bodily movements, as well as revealing her
scientific approach to dance movement. Junger later was
to receive one of the first scholarships at the Bennington
School of the Dance.
Rudolf von Laban.— Laban was experimenting with
dance movement in Germany during, and after, the First
World War, where ". . . a phenomenal interest arose in the
dance as an expressive art," according to Martin.
Laban was virtually the father of the theory
of the German modern dance, having experimented in
the psychology of movement, the analysis of space,
and many other problems, and eventually he was to
work out the most impersonal, scholarly and prac
tical of all systems for the notation of movement
on a written score. (41:144)
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194 ;
According to Shawn, Laban studied with a disciple
of Delsarte, and then, ". . . taking these principles, and |
applying them to dance as he felt it should be, he even
tually laid down the foundation stones of German modern
dance" (55:87).
Laban's daughter, Juana von Laban, said the guiding
aim of the Laban system was "... the expression of basic
emotions through group movements" (46:195). She also said:
The true dancer will strive to understand his
own personality, thereby being able to reveal him
self to the spectators. For how could he express
himself intelligently to others if he lacked self-
knowledge: "Know thyself" is a cardinal guiding
principle for Laban dancers. (46:195)
She wrote:
A most important contribution of von Laban's
method to the development of modern dance is his
discovery of "harmony in space" . . . there is a
correlation between orientated forms of movements
and a certain harmonious arrangement of their
sequences in space . . . which includes proportion,
plasticity, perspective, and rhythm. (46:199)
Gaumer thought Laban made five discoveries:
. . . that all movement has two purposes:
functional and expressive; . . . dancing is sym
bolic action; . . . [and] all movement of a part
or parts of the body is composed of discernible
factors that are common to men everywhere. These
factors are contained in two over-all terms:
effort and shape. (83:15)
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I • .195
In addition, . . there are Inherent movement
; patterns of effort and shape which are Indicative of har-
i monlous movementand finally, he discovered a . .
; system of notation that makes It possible to record
accurately all movement of the human body" (83:15),
Mary Wlgman,— Wlgman was another of the great
German dancers who studied with Dalcroze and von Laban.
According to Martin:
Except for Isadora herself, no figure In the
history of the modern dance occupies a higher
position than Mary Wlgman, In part for her specific
artistic creations, but mainly for her widening of
the range of the art and the advancement of Its
underlying theory. (41:144)
Wlgman was concerned with dance form, free of the
domination of musical form. In many early dances she
composed without music, but when she had solved the prob
lem, she made free use of music, rather than depending on
It (41:145).
She experimented with space, and was constantly
aware of space as an antagonist, according to Sorell, and
with the relation between the dancer and the fate of
mankind.
She was the first to try to relate the ego of
the dancer to a universal Idea, and the drama of
her dance arose from this conflict of life with
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196
death— of movement the protagonist, with space, the
antagonist. This, in turn, gave rise to her unique
spatial concept, her principal contribution to the
development of meaningful dance movement. (114:15)
Hanya Holm.— Holm, another German dancer, studied
with Dalcroze and Wigman. She came to America with Wigman
in 1931, remaining in New York as head of a new branch of
the Wigman School. She soon realized that ”... although
the Wigman system had much to offer America, it would have
to be adapted to the needs and characteristics of a new
land” (61:115). She severed connections with the Wigman
School, became a citizen of the United States, and devel
oped new concepts and principles to guide her own dancing
as well as her students.
Terry identified these principles as follows:
Holm stresses the fact that the impulse to dance
action may be physical, emotional, or mental, but
that each stimulus possesses a center from which it
radiates. ... It is a concept, this centrality of
the body, which makes possible full bodied action,
which gives action a starting point, which provides
a dynamo core to dance and which enables the dancer
to maintain balance in even the most gravity-
provoking situation. (61:116)
The influence of Wigman is seen in Holm's approach
to the dancer's investigation and exploration of space:
”. . . she marks that space with formal patterns as surely
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197 :
as the painter patterns the canvas before him, but, more
than that, her travel through space reveals her purpose”
(57:117).
The purpose of Holm's dance was to . . convey
idea through form, through the form of a constantly
I
centered body, through the form of dynamic stress, through i
i
the form created by a purposeful body moving through space"!
(57:119).
In regard to the German dance and the interrelated
influences of Holm, American dance and Delsarte, Shawn
said:
At its height, the German modern dance affected
American modern dance, and through Hanya Holm, Mary
Wigman's leading disciple . . . the German modern
dance has poured into the main stream of American
modern dance. But here, too, the basic principles
are those first enunciated and systematized by
François Delsarte, and so through that German brook,
the river of Delsarte's influence on American dance
has been broadened and deepened. (55:87)
Comment.— The concepts of the concert artists have
been identified in order to show the continuation of
earlier ideas and as a background for later developments.
Dance theories evolved and emerged during the search for
meaningful movement from previously held beliefs. Each
dancer took what belonged to him, and interpreted the
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198
inheritance in terms of his own understanding in relation
to the cultural era.
The concepts which had been developed by the con
cert dancers were shaped to fit the needs of higher educa
tion by dance educators who in turn had inherited certain
beliefs. The immediate influence of the concert artists
will be noted in the sudden spurt of interest in the
emerging concepts of modern dance by the dance educators,
who began a search for philosophic concepts of their own.
The Search for New Patterns for Dance
in Higher Education
The concert dancers were at the leading edge of
dance theory and practice. Their beliefs were to exert a
strong influence on the practices of dance in higher
education. Concurrently, the interest of the dance educa
tors in the theories and performances of the concert
dancers was to become important to the success and reputa
tion of the professional dancers. George Beiswanger said:
It is not too much to say that this emergence
of a stable audience for the modern dance is the
work of college and university teachers of the
dance, seconded by cooperating directors of phys
ical education departments, and abetted by campus
faculties in the arts. (72:489)
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199
The major developments of this interaction occurred in the
years beyond the scope of this study.
In the meantime, the dance educators, in their
quest for significant and meaningful patterns for dance in
higher education, viewed the new dancers with interest.
The immediate influence of the dance artists was discussed
by Beiswanger, who said:
. . . when ; in the late twenties, the leaders
of the new dance were emerging from their lofts
near Washington Square, they were met by teachers
of the dance who came to recognize in what they
saw the fulfillment of their aim as physical
educators.
A good many of these teachers had been brought
up on the ballet. Some had studied with the Deni-
shawns; some had felt the impress of the "natural
dance" movement sponsored by Teachers College, or
had been members of Orchesis at the University of
Wisconsin; some had witnessed the German recrudes
cence under von Laban and his pupils. Thus pre
pared, these teachers went to work in the studios
of Graham, Humphrey and Weidman, or in the school
of Hanya Holm. Soon they were transmuting the
vocabulary of these artists into techniques suit
able for college students and translating their
art motives into educationally significant terms.
When they returned to their dance classes, they
began to teach in the new medium, to give programs
with their groups, and to invite the New York
artists to their campuses for lessons and public
performances. In a short time, the physical educa
tion profession found itself sponsor of a new art.
Much of the mechanism for this development
already existed in local departments and in the
district and national organizations. Dance was an
established part of the curriculum; extra-curricular
groups already existed for the purpose of giving
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200
public performances. In the late twenties, dance
groups were performing at regional conventions, or
were combining for a period of instruction under
some recognized teacher in the field. It was but
a short step from this to the organization of an
autonomous Dance Section. . . . (72:489)
According to Barbara Beiswanger,
. . . this kind of climate precipitated the need
for a council of dance educators to exert intelli
gent leadership and to promote desirable practices
in the educational field. Although many people con
tributed in various ways, it was a group of dance
teachers in the East and Midwest— Martha Hill, Mary
O'Donnell, Ruth Murray, Dorothy La Salle and Mary Jo
Shelley— who supplied the dynamic vision, the organ
ized talents, and the continuous work which firmly
established the Dance Section. (71:25)
Dorothy La Salle.— La Salle, of the East Orange,
New Jersey public schools, was interested in dance in the
elementary schools, and was chairman of the committee which
prepared the first official book of the Dance Section,
published in 1933.
Ruth Murray.— Murray, of Detroit Teachers College,
later Wayne University, believed there should be a total
dance program, from kindergarten through the university,
for all students. She stressed four important areas in
dance education.
The first category of material is that of
rhythmic fundamentals, which is that area in which
the emphasis is placed upon developing a physical
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201
response to aspects of rhythm. It would have to do,
in other words, with the time structure of dance
movement.
The second category is that of movement funda
mentals , in which the emphasis is placed upon the
exploration and execution of all types of movement.
The third category is dance composition, which
is that area in which opportunity for creative
activity is provided through the building of move
ment forms, dance sketches, and dance compositions.
The fourth and last category is the one which
may be referred to as formal dances, comprising
that area where the teaching of dances of a pre
arranged movement form is carried on. (105:13)
Martha Hill.— Hill, of New York University, was to
exert great influence on the modern dance in higher educa
tion. Hill received a Bachelor of Science and a Master of
Arts degree in physical education, but her major interest
was dance. She was influenced by Colby, but extended her
search for meaningful dance through various professional
schools. She studied with Anna Duncan, received instruc
tion in the Dalcroze system, and had intensive ballet
training. She was a member of Graham's concert dance
group for two years (133:172).
Hill was the third physical educator to move into
the professional field, but she returned to college teach
ing. With such a background of dance and education, she
logically became the leading force in the developing
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202
search for a philosophy of dance in higher education.
Hill's concepts of dance were revealed in an article she
wrote in 1932,
The creative dance may be defined as that branch
of rhythmic activity which most nearly is the syn
thesis of all forms of movement. It aims to explore
the entire range and variety of augmented movement
inherent in the human structure and in so doing not
to violate any of the mechanical principles of human
movement. It should be a mode of expression of the
whole individual, thinking, feeling, acting. It
should be an individual and group expression of our
times— a communal song through the medium of move
ment. The content of creative dance is not stand
ardized as yet. It is in a state of becoming, which
is significant in its educational implications.
(42:141)
Hill believed dance was educational because the
response to rhythm, the need to create, the urge to
gregariousness and the desire to be expressive was met
through dance. In addition, there was a wide opportunity
for the acquisition of skills of movement and rhythm, the
opportunity for organic development, and dance was poten
tially an integrating force. Hill said:
The modern dance, termed here the creative
dance, is slowly emerging again as a medium through
which the total personality is made evident. Move
ment with authority is the essence of the dance.
By authority is meant true against superimposed
expression. To move simply and directly out of
clear thinking and feeling has a cumulative power
that is potential in integrating the individual.
(42:147)
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I 203 ;
Hill was instrumental in establishing and directing
: the Bennington School of the Dance in 1934.
Mary Jo Shelley.— Shelley, a physical education
instructor of New College, Teachers College, Columbia
! University, was co-director with Hill of the Bennington
School where she used her administrative talents. This
highly successful venture was initiated beyond the time
period of the present study, but it can be noted that
Spiesman said:
Probably the greatest contribution of these
educators [Hill and Shelley] to creative dance was
the organization and establishment of an integrated
dance program which brought together the styles and
methods of outstanding artists in America, thus
permitting a non-biased point of view concerning
creative dance to be developed by their students.
(133:184)
Mary O'Donnell.— O'Donnell, of Teachers College,
Columbia, was the first national dance chairman. She was
a former student of Colby, as was Hill, and both "...
greatly enlarged the scope of dance," according to
Schwenderer, who also said:
Modern dance is further indebted to Mary Patricia
O'Donnell for the conspicuous place accorded it by
the American Association of Health, Physical Educa
tion, and Recreation. The formation of the Dance
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204
Section in 1932 as a part of this organization is
an enduring testimonial to her philosophy and
executive ability. (48:194)
Boston Convention of 1930
Previous to the formation of the National Section
on Dance, the National Society of Directors of Physical
Education for Women met for their national convention in
Boston in April, 1930, Three dance authorities appeared
on the program. H'Doubler gave a lecture-demonstration
entitled "The Dance and Its Relation to Physical Educa
tion," Smith stressed the rhythmic and musical approach to
dance, and Shelley spoke on "The Dance and Related Educa
tional Projects." O'Donnell, who was then at Barnard
College, spoke on the Greek Games (96:52).
H'Doubler said that all physical education had the
same aim, to aid the student ". . .to reach the realiza
tion of self and through this to achieve self-expression"
(90:115). She thought there were three stages in dance
education. The first was highly rhythmical and objective,
the second included expression, and the third stage was
subjective, when the "... dance becomes a fine art." In
this latter stage, there were two types of individuals,
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: 205"
i those who would become artists, and those who were
educators ”... interested in dance as a means of self-
; expression” (90:116).
Smith thought that ”... creative dance is
inseparably related to music” (96:52). She explained her
I dance method as follows:
j Listen to the music in its entirety. Feel the
I curves of the composition, the space or design,
the color or character, and the rhythm. Build the
dance on these elements, and there will be an
appreciation of the music and of the dance. (113:118)
Shelley asked the question: "Shall the values of
the dance in education be more precisely tested?” She
believed there were many imponderables, since dance was
”. . . a flexible form and ... a free channel for self
activity” (112:121). She concluded that the standardiza
tion of dance in education was a highly debatable question.
Shelley identified the whole point of necessity
when she said:
. . . the women in physical education who teach
or administer activity programs which include dance
are faced with the necessity of formulating a more
exact statement, of reaching a more general agree
ment , as to what the dance in education is, and what
it can and should accomplish. (112:125)
American Physical Education Association
Convention of 1931
The growing acceptance of dance in higher educa
tion and the heightened regard for the dance presented by
concert artists as a communicative art form resulted in
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I 206
!
I deepening concern by physical educators for the meaning
I
i and place of dance in education. The interest and efforts
; of dance educators led to the decision made at the 1931
; national convention of the American Physical Education
Association in Detroit to form a Section on Dance. It was
reported that:
Members of the American Physical Education
Association who have been especially interested in
dancing for the last thirty-six years were particu
larly happy to attend the first official sectional
meeting on dancing in the history of the National
Association and to note the size of the group
attending made that gathering look like a general
meeting. (97:52)
Barnard Dance Symposium, 1932
Another dance "first" occurred in 1932, when Agnes
Wayman arranged a dance symposium at Barnard College, for
the purpose of discussing dance in colleges. According to
V T .'' '
Wayman:
. . . teachers of dance in various women's
colleges together with representatives of the con
cert dance in its modern idiom, with groups of
their pupils, met to discuss and illustrate methods,
aims, objectives, and principles. (126:47)
The approaches to dance varied, as will be seen
from the following statements made by participants at the
symposium.
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207
Strong, from Barnard, said:
Every individual, through the medium of dance,
develops herself in a creative way. The study of
dance is a laboratory course in which the student
becomes familiar with her body. The dance with its
basic elements of design, floor pattern, line, bal
ance and music approaches the four elements of the
fine arts— form, line, design and color. (126:47)
Risely, of Vassar, discussed a procedure of tech
nique, emphasizing the ”... natural movement of the
spinal column,” and the use of such rhythmical activities
as run, leap, hop. MacEwan, of Wellesley, used a funda
mental technique based on rotary movement, and thought
there should be an "individual response to some stimulus”
(126:48).
Hill, of New York University, stated that "...
movement with authority” is the basis of dance, and that
the tools of dance are locomotor and axial movement, and
design. Holm, of the Wigman School, saw dance as an educa
tional medium, using the elements of movement which were
time, space, and energy (126:48).
National Section on Dance, 1932
The National Convention of the American Physical
Education Association recognized the culmination of efforts
of the dance educators in 1932 by authorizing the National
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208
Section on Dance. According to Beiswanger:
. . . unofficial honorable mention for pioneer
work In natural dancing was awarded to Gertrude
Colby and Margaret H'Doubler, In tap dancing to
Mary Wood Hlnman and Helen Frost, and In folk
dancing to Elizabeth Burchenal. (71:24)
The direction the Dance Section was to take was
apparent at this meeting, which Included a professional
dance artist as well as dance educators on the program.
The meeting was led by the chairman Mary O'Donnell; the
discussion leader was Mary Jo Shelley; Ruth Murray spoke
on "Dancing In the Major Course In Physical Education";
Martha Hill analyzed dance accompaniment; and Doris
Humphrey demonstrated "An Approach to Modern Dance."
The purposes of the National Section on Dance were
clearly stated by O'Donnell:
... to promote the constructive development
of all types of dance In education, and to provide
the leadership essential to the success of such a
program. It alms to serve all school levels and
all non-school groups as well. (71:23)
Designs and Patterns
The design of the dance tapestry was woven through
the fabric by the dance educators In the 1920's. The
beliefs of Colby and H'Doubler In the Importance of dance
as an activity through which education took place
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209 ;
established an educational pattern which gave substance
and weight to the fabric. The tapestry was made firm and
strong with the movement principles which were discovered
by Larson, Junger, and Graham. The concepts of Humphrey,
Horst, and Holm were gathered and woven into the pattern |
by Hill, Shelley, Murray, and O'Donnell, thereby enriching |
i
the fabric with the artistic design and communicative
meaning of an art form.
The fabric of concepts about the value and function
of dance in higher education was completed in 1932. From
this fabric many patterns were to be cut and shaped and
fitted to produce a rich and variegated array of costumes
to clothe the practices and performances of dance which
were to emerge during the following years.
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CHAPTER VII
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
This study was designed as an investigation of the
ideas basic to the theoretical foundations of dance in
American higher education, as evidenced in professional
publications in the period 1885-1932. The period of the
study was determined by an initial review of the litera
ture , which established 1885 as the first meeting of
physical educators who influenced the development of dance
in the curriculum, and 1932 as the founding of the first
National Section on Dance by dance educators. Within this
period, although influenced by previous ideas, the theo
retical foundations of dance in higher education were
shaped.
The Problem
The problem of this study was to trace the sequence
of ideas about dance in higher education through the dis
covery and analysis of key concepts presented by dance
210
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I 211
I educators, physical educators, and Influential people
outside physical education; and to clarify the emergence
i . of theories of dance in a pattern of sequential develop
ment .
This study was based on the following assumptions:
1. Dance has been an important area of interest in
physical education, with a history paralleling the develop
ment of physical education. Ideas and opinions about the
value and function of dancing in education have been
expressed from the time women were admitted to higher
education.
-2. The years between 1885 and 1932 constitute the
major period of development of dance in higher education,
with stages of transition within the years pre-1885, 1885-
1904, 1905-1917, and 1918-1932. Certain characteristic
ideas, beliefs, and opinions were expressed, forming the
foundation for dance practices of an era.
3. Concepts of dance in higher education have been
influenced by ideas presented by people from other fields
as well as from within the physical education profession.
4. Dancing has been considered useful for differ
ent reasons in different eras, but the main emphasis has
been with varying degrees of intensity, on the healthful
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212 !
; and expressive values of dance. There has been an enlarge-;
ment and extension of earlier ideas as well as a transition
in the implementation of such concepts.
This study may be construed as a history of ideas
and assumptions about the value and place of dance in
higher education to the year 1932.
Procedure
An investigation of the literature pertinent to
dance in higher education was made. The material examined
consisted of dissertations and theses on dance; books and
compilations revealing authors' opinions on dance; and
histories of physical education and dance. The profes
sional publications Mind and Body, American Physical
Education Review. Journal of Health and Physical Education,
Research Quarterly, Dance Magazine. Dance Observer, and
Educational Dance were carefully examined for the purpose
of collecting ideas on dance which were currently
expressed.
The initial search of the literature provided the
basis for the assumptions, structure, scope, and limita
tions of the study, as well as the periods of major
development to be considered.
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213
The Information, which had been placed on cards,
was sifted and sorted according to time periods and
analyzed in reference to questions posed in the problem
of the study. Key concepts and influential people who
made contributions to dance philosophy and practices in
the time intervals were identified. This material was
arranged in temporally oriented chapters which were organ
ized to include a brief review of dance concepts antecedent
to the time period, the current contributors and their *
ideas, the practices which reflected key concepts, and the
assumptions about dance which were at the leading edge of
a changing dance theory.
The last chapter was planned as a summary and
review of dance concepts presented by the people who influ
enced the emergence of dance in higher education to 1932.
Summary of Findings
The years before 1885.— Dancing was considered a
salutary exercise and a social accomplishment in the
colonial colleges for men.
Willard, Beecher, and Lewis expressed opinions
about the value of calisthenics performed with music, which
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214 i
I i
I were considered useful exercises at the women's academies. ;
These dance-like movements were healthful, contributed to
graceful carriage, body symmetry, strength and flexibility,
educated the muscles in grace and ease of motion, and
improved manners. Exercises were pleasurable when per
formed to music, and would serve as lessons in musical
rhythm.
The dancing masters, Ferrero and Dodworth, wrote
books on dancing and expressed the opinions that dancing
was graceful movement of the body as a result of the
natural and spontaneous desire to move in harmony with
music. Dancing was considered to have a beneficial effect
on manners and morals, and was thought to be pleasurable
motion combined with beauty and rhythm.
The science of expression through movement was
developed by Delsarte and introduced to America by MacKaye.
The movement, called Delsarte and Harmonic Gymnastics,
swept the country and was taught by many private teachers.
Harmonic Gymnastics was believed to develop flexibility
and pliability, and train and free the body to be expres
sive. The aim of the Delsarte system and Harmonic Gym
nastics was self-expression through movement.
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215
Movement expressed emotion, form was given to
feeling through movement, and gesture was the external
interpretation of the sentiments of the soul. The basis
of the art of gesture was communication, to ", . . make
our spectators divine what we would have them feel"
(55:25).
During these years there was a religious objection
to the word "dancing," but the gymnastic and calisthenic
movements performed to music were acceptable. The expres
sive movements taught by proponents of the Delsarte system
were accepted during the era, but were not at that time
considered to be dancing.
During this period opportunities for higher educa
tion were extended to women in separate women's colleges,
with coeducation existing in many colleges. The Morrill
Land Grant Act expanded opportunities for both men and
women, creating a need for trained personnel in physical
education. Sargent opened the Sargent Normal School of
Physical Education in 1881.
The years 1885 to 1904.— The objectives of dance
were consistent with the objectives of physical education
when dance became a part of the curriculum of Harvard
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216
Summer School in 1887. Sargent expressed the opinion that
rhythmic exercise was a means of attaining grace, supple
ness , and easy carriage. Anderson said dancing contributed
grace, manners, and developed the ear, Eberhard, the first
dance teacher at Harvard Summer School, believed dance
exercises were admirable for the development of respiratory
organs.
Esthetic dancing, a modified form of ballet, was
introduced by Gilbert at the request of Sargent, because
dancing which involved the trunk and arms was more effec
tive for all-around development, Gilbert thought esthetic
dancing, also called dancing calisthenics and classic
dancing, cultivated grace and elegance of form and bearing,
would harmonize the motion of the body, and should be
expressive of inward emotion. This latter concept
reflected the Delsarte influence, and was at the leading
edge of ideas about dance.
Women physical educators, as Hanna and Bancroft,
studied the Delsarte system in private studios while
attending normal schools. Tucker, the director of a
Delsarte school of expression, thought that the system was
based on gymnastic principles and contributed a muscular
power, with the emphasis on strength at the center of the
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217
i body. The exercises were thought to impart control to the
: body, and, when correctly taught, were a means toward the
”. . . full artistic outward expression of the inward
life” (123:882).
Dewey used the words "balance,” "rhythmic expres-
i i
; j
sion,” and "action” in reference to esthetic education,
i I
I The opinion of the eminent educator probably influenced |
physical educators.
However, in higher education, the form of esthetic
or classic dancing taught at Harvard Summer School domi
nated the period. Dancing was taught by men, but only
women would take the classes. Dance was a means toward
achieving grace and suppleness, and effective for all-
around body development. The objectives of physical
education were health, strength, and body symmetry; appar
ently dancing met these objectives.
The years 1905 to 1917.--A marked increase in the
interest and acceptance of dance in education was evidenced
by the appearance in the 1905 periodicals of the first
articles on dance, and the fact that dance was the main
topic of concern at the 1905 convention of the American
Physical Education Association. This event led to a rapid
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i “ ........ 218
i expansion of dance offerings, and the publication of dance
i books by educators. The statement by Taylor at the con
ference indicated the concepts of dance which were to
dominate the practices of the period. He said:
... the new dancing must be hygienic; it
must be gymnastic; it must be recreative; it must
be expressive and it must illustrate the highest
standards of beauty. (122:138)
The interest shifted from the esthetic dancing of
Gilbert to folk dancing during these years. The value
emphasis was placed on dance as individual and social
expression.
Burchenal stressed esthetic dancing as a means to
develop grace and posture, at the convention, but her
later concern was completely directed toward the possi
bilities of folk dance as a form of self-expression and
play, with social and recreative values. Gulick saw folk
dancing as a social expression, but he was more interested
in its effect on health. He stressed the vigorous exercise
and cooperative team effort which resulted from folk danc
ing. Gulick influenced the practices of the period, since
he was the first educator to write a book about dance.
Rath, a gymnastic teacher, defined dance as an
exercise contributing endurance, "heart activity," and
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219
increased metabolism to the body. He used the word
"interpretative" to describe the work of the concert danc
ers Duncan and Allan, and the term "expressive" in relation
to folk dance.
Hofer saw the revived polite dances as a means of
social expression. The Kinneys considered dance as an art
form, probably referring to ballet, and as a means of
expressing an idea. Hinman stressed the social values of
folk dancing, and placed great emphasis on the joyful and
expressive elements of dancing.
Chalif taught esthetic, interpretative, and folk
dance to hundreds of teachers at his private school. He
believed dancing contributed strength, grace, good posture
and manners, and in addition, dance was thought to be a
medium of expression of individuality.
Duncan performed in Europe, exhibiting a new con
cept of freedom in the dance, but had little direct effect
on American dance education at the time. She believed
that dancing was an expression of the emotions of the soul.
Dalcroze had a far greater effect, ushering in an
era of music interpretation by 1915. The purpose of
Eurhythmies was to enrich the body's means of expression.
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220
He developed the system to train music students, but soon
discovered it was a method of developing expressive
: ability. Music interpretation as a means of expression
was at the leading edge of dance practice.
Concert dance became respectable in America with
! the advent of Ruth St. Denis and Ted Shawn, who established!
I I
: a school of the dance, and, through their performances,
spread the doctrine of expressive movement as an art form.
"Expression" was the key word in relation to the
dance of the period, to supersede the previous words
"health" and "grace." Dancing was taught in the higher
education curriculum by the women educators Burchenal,
Hinman, Kinney, and Hofer, influenced by the men physical
educators Sargent and Gulick.
The years 1918 to 1932.— Dance continued to expand
both in program and concept. The influencing factor was
the concept of a new physical education, as expressed by
Wood, Hetherington, and Williams. The era was character
ized by a search for dance which would be natural, expres
sive, and educational.
The center of dance activity was New York City and
Teachers College, Columbia University. Seven books on
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221
; dance were written by women teachers during a period of
I ten years. The dance concepts of Colby, H'Doubler, Smith,
Kinney, Selden, Frost, Hillas and Knighton were made avail
able through their teaching and writing.
Colby, Smith and Frost, at Columbia, were concerned
with natural expressive movement, music interpretation,
and educational values. Colby applied the term "natural
dancing" to a form of dance based on the natural locomotor
movements, through which the ideas and emotions from
within may be expressed. Smith stressed the expression of
music, and children's dramatic themes, while Frost, and
Hillas and Knighton believed clog dancing to be a whole
some, rhythmic means of expression. The Marshes also
taught at Columbia, as well as at Smith College, and their
private studio. Their interest was in a natural form of
dance as an art form, with educational possibilities for
college girls if dance was related to college subjects.
Larson moved from Barnard College to start her own
studio, and emphasized the importance of the torso as the
originating center of movement, with naturally controlled
movement and musical feeling to give expression to an idea.
H'Doubler returned to the University of Wisconsin
in 1918, and in 1926 introduced the first dance major.
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222 !
She stressed the creative possibilities of dance, and
insisted that dance must be educational. She thought that ;
dance should be an adequate and harmonious means of expres
sing emotional life, and dancing was educational if it
promoted the growth of the individual, stimulated creative
thought and activity.
Selden suggested in 1930 that dance projected an
"inner vision— through visible motion” (49:6) in time,
space and thought, ordered by rhythm. She also believed
that the center of action started in the torso, as did
Larson, but described her technique in terms of "action
modes.” Selden based her concept of dance movement on
total body movement, beyond mere locomotor movements. She
may have been influenced by the new concert dancers, who
were beginning to perform and open dance studios.
Dance educators saw the performances of the dance
artists, found something new and exciting, and enrolled in
their short summer courses, especially in the classes of
Humphrey and Graham. Humphrey was interested in principles
of movement based on the giving in to and rebound from
gravity, or "fall and recovery." In her teaching, she was
mainly concerned with guiding students toward their own
development. Graham found significant movement to be
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223
centered around the technique principle of "contraction
and release." The purpose of her dancing was to objectify
her beliefs in physical form. The function of dance was
communication, according to Humphrey and Graham.
Tamiris, Junger, Horst, and Holm were also teach
ing, and variously emphasizing the creative aspects of
dance, choreography, dances of social comment, principles
of movement, space concepts, and the centrality of the
body, as a basis for expressing, communicating or convey
ing ideas through the form of structured dance movement.
Concert dance artists contributed theories and
practices which generated a new emphasis for the leading
edge of dance concepts in higher education. The tech
niques learned by dance educators in the classes of pro
fessional dancers were taken back to the colleges and
taught to the students. Many questioned the educational
value of such practices, which led to a council of dance
educators to determine desirable practices in dance.
Shelley said the women in physical education needed to
". . . reach a more general agreement, as to what the
dance in education is, and what it can and should accom
plish" (112:125).
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224
Dance educators met and established the National
Section on Dance in 1932. The 1932 concept of dance was
perhaps best stated by Hill, who said:
The creative dance may be defined as that branch
of rhythmic activity which most nearly is the syn
thesis of all forms of movement. It aims to explore
the entire range and variety of augmented movement
inherent in the human structure and in so doing not
to violate any of the mechanical principles of human
movement. It should be a mode of expression of the
whole individual; thinking, feeling, acting. It
should be an individual and group expression of our
times— a communal song through the medium of move
ment. The content of creative dance is not stand
ardized as yet. It is in a state of becoming, which
is significant in its educational implications.
(42:141)
Discussion of findings.— The purpose of this study
was to discover and analyze key concepts which influenced
dance practices in the physical education curriculum of
higher education; to identify educators, physical educa
tors , dance educators, and people from other areas who
expressed influential opinions; and to clarify the emer
gence theories of dance in a temporally oriented history
of sequential development.
The summary of the findings seems to indicate that
the opinions expressed by influential educators clustered
around two major concepts. Dancing was viewed as a useful
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225
form of exercise contributing to health and grace in the
women's academies. During 1885 to 1904, dancing became a
part of the higher education curriculum because it was
thought to be a useful form of exercise for women to meet
the physical education objectives of grace, health, good
posture and carriage, agility, and all-around development.
This first major concept of dance as healthful
exercise was still apparent in the early part of the period
1905-1917, to be superseded by a second concept of dance
as an expressive form of movement. In the period between
1918 to 1932, dance objectives were listed by some people
in terms of organic vigor and all-around development, but
the value of dance as stated by most of the influential
people was viewed in terms of the expressive and educa
tional possibilities of such activity.
The concept that dance was an expressive form of
movement seemed to have been initiated by influences out
side physical education, reaching back to Delsarte, who
discovered that movement was self-expressive of emotion.
During 1885 to 1904 no opinions relating dance to expres
sion were stated by physical educators, but between 1905
and 1932, most forms of dance were expected to be expres
sive of emotion, an idea, social feeling, or music. The
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226 i
; concept of dance as the expression of music through move-
I ment may be attributed to Dalcroze, the second major
influence from outside physical education.
The period between 1918 and 1932 was characterized
by the belief that dance, in addition to being a form of
I ■ '
: expression, should be based on natural movement, and must
I be educational, thus reflecting the concepts of physical ;
education.
The opinions stated by influential people about
dance from before 1885 to 1932 may be seen in Appendix I.
These opinions fell into three groups. Of the two major
kinds of ideas, the first was concerned with the contribu
tion of dance to health and grace, identified in the
Appendix as the Warp threads. The second, called Woof
threads, were related to the expressive qualities of dance
movement. The third group of opinions contributed Designs,
concerned with dance as a natural, educational medium; a
means of social recreation; and as a communicative art
form.
The patterns of dance in higher education seemed
to reflect the social scene. The "fancy steps" of Eberhard
were characteristic samples of the social dance steps of
the 1890's. The folk dance of the early 1900's reflected
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227
the interest in Americanization. The revived polite and
social dances revealed the interest in American history.
Clog dancing was an attempt at expressing the new tempo of
the 1920's. Natural dancing reflected the "new physical
education," while the stress on the educational values of
expressive movement reflected the broader educational
scene.
Two unexpected findings were of interest. One was
thé influence of men physical educators and men dance
teachers on the patterns and concepts of dance, despite
the fact that dance in physical education and higher edu
cation became almost entirely the province of women. The
second discovery of interest was the influence of Harvard
Summer School and Teachers College, Columbia University,
during the period under consideration. Most of the women
physical educators were influenced by the concepts and
practices presented by dance teachers of these two
colleges.
Conclusions
This study was attempted on the basis of certain
assumptions. First, that dancing has been an important
area of interest in higher education during the development
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228 i
of physical education between 1885 and 1932; second, the
Interest in dance could be traced through identifiable
stages; third, dance concepts have been influenced by
people from outside fields as well as the physical educa
tion profession; fourth, there has been an enlargement and ;
extension of two basic concepts regarding dance— namely,
dance is healthful exercise, and dance is expressive
movement.
The findings have indicated that the stress on the
healthful aspect of dance paralleled the physical education
objectives in the period 1885 to 1904. The new physical
education concept based on natural movement influenced
dance opinions between 1918 and 1932. From 1905 to 1917
the key word for dance was "expression," which seemed to
have come from influences other than physical education—
namely, the Delsarte system, and the Eurhythmies of
Dalcroze.
The body of the study and Appendix I support the
assumption that dancing has been an interest area in higher
education about which many opinions have been stated.
Appendix II illustrates the enlargement and extension of
the two basic concepts about the value and function of
dance in higher education.
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229
The fabric of dance in higher education was woven
on the loom of physical education with the realistic warp
of health and grace, and the idealistic woof of individual
and social expression. The tapestry was enriched with a
creative pattern of natural and educational design, deco
rated with the bright thread of recreation and embellished
with communicative design.
Recommendations for Further Study
This study has identified the people and the
concepts expressed about the value and function of dancing
in higher education to the year 1932. The next step
logically would be to examine and report the findings from
the literature of the years 1933 to 1965 and thus extend
the scope of a comprehensive history of ideas about dance
in higher education.
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B I B L I O G R A P H Y
230
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books
1. Ainsworth, Dorothy. History of Physical Education in
Colleges for Women. New York: A. S. Barnes & Co.,
1930. 115 pp.
2. Ballwebber, Edith. Tap Dancing. Chicago: Clayton
Summy Co., 1930. 70 pp.
3. Brubacher, John S. and Rudy, Willis. Higher Educa
tion in Transition. New York: Harper and
Brothers, 1958. 494 pp.
4. Burchenal, Elizabeth. American Country Dances. New
York: G. Schirmer, 1917. 62 pp.
5. ________. Dances of Old Homelands. New York:
G. Schirmer, 1922. 85 pp.
6.__________. Folk Dances of the People. New York:
G. Schirmer, 1913. 83 pp.
7.__________. Folk Dances and Singing Games. New York:
G. Schirmer, 1909. 94 pp.
8. Chalif, Louis. Chalif Text Book of Dancing, Vols. I
and II. New York: Chalif, 1914. 182 pp.; 215 pp.
9. Colby, Gertrude. Natural Rhythms and Dances. New
York: A. S. Barnes & Co., 1930. 106 pp.
10. Crampton, C. Ward. The Folk Dance Book. New York:
A. S. Barnes & Co. , 1909. 81 pp.
231
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I
232
11. Dalcroze, Emile Jacques. The Eurhythmies of Jacques-
Dalcroze. London: Constable & Co. , Ltd., 1920.
63 pp.
12. ________. Eurhythmies, Art and Education. New York:
A. S. Barnes & Co., 1930. 265 pp.
13. Dodworth, Allen. Dancing, and Its Relation to Educa
tion and Social Life. New York: Harper and
Brothers , 1905. 302 pp.
I 14. Duggan, Anne Schley. Tap Dances, New York: A. S.
Barnes & Co., 1932. 110 pp.
15. Duncan, Isadora. The Art of the Dance. Edited by
Selden Cheney. New York: Theatre Arts, Inc.,
1928. 147 pp.
16. Duryea, Oscar. Dance Songs of All Nations. Cincin
nati: John Church, 1908. 92 pp.
17. Ferrero, Edward. The Art of Dancing. New York: Dick
and Fitzgerald, 1859. 103 pp.
18. Frost, Helen. The Clog Dance Book. New York: A. S.
Barnes & Co., 1921. 40 pp.
19. . Clog and Character Dances. New York:
A. S. Barnes & Co., 1924. 65 pp.
20. Gardner, W. W. Modern Dancing. Louisville: Baptist
Book Concern, 1893. 104 pp.
21. Gulick, Luther. The Healthful Art of Dancing. New
York: Doubleday, Page & Co., 1910. 273 pp.
22. Hawkins, Alma. Modem Dance in Higher Education.
New York: Teachers College, Columbia University
Press, 1954. 123 pp.
23. H'Doubler, Margaret. The Dance and Its Place in
Education. New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co.,
1925. 282 pp.
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233
24. H'Doubler, Margaret. Dance— A Creative Art Experi
ence. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press,
1962. 168 pp.
25. Hillas, Marjorie and Knighton, Marion. Athletic
Dances and Simple Clogs. New York: A, S. Barnes
& Co., 1926. 54 pp.
26. Hinman, Mary Wood. Gymnastic and Folk Dancing.
Vol. I. New York: A. S. Barnes & Co., 1916.
78 pp.
27. Hofer, Mari Ruef. Polite and Social Dances. Chicago:!
Clayton Summy Co., 1917. 72 pp.
28. Horst, Louis. Pre-Classic Dance Forms. New York:
Kamin Dance Publishers, 1937. 139 pp.
29. Horst, Louis and Russell, Carroll. Modern Dance
Forms. San Francisco: Impulse Publications, 1961.
149 pp.
30. Humphrey, Doris. The Art of Making Dances. New York:
Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1960. 189 pp.
31. Hungerford, Mary Jane. Creative Tap Dancing. Engle
wood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1939. 213 pp.
32. Kinney, Troy and Margaret. The Dance. New York:
Frederick A. Stokes Co., 1914. 372 pp.
33. Lincoln, Jennette. The Festival Book. New York:
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234 i
37. Marks, Joseph E. America Learns to Dance. New York: '
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235
50. Selden, Elizabeth. The Dancer's Quest. Berkeley;
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51. Shafter, Mary Severance. American Indian and Other
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60. Terry, Walter. Invitation to Dance. New York:
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61. . The Dance in America. New York: Harper
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62. Thompson, Betty Lynd. Fundamentals of Rhythm and
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230 pp.
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63. Van Dalen, Deobold; Mitchell, Elmer; and Bennett,
Bruce. A World History of Physical Education.
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640 pp.
64. Wayman, Agnes. Education Through Physical Education.
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69. Bancroft, Jessie. "Pioneering in Physical Education,"
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70. Battle, Martha. "Dancing Defended," Mind and Body,
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73. Burchenal, Elizabeth. "Does Training in Dancing
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X (June 1905), 102-106.
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237 i
74. Burchenal, Elizabeth. "Folk Dancing as Social
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1920), 405-406.
73. Cassidy, Rosalind. "How College Girls Make a May
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83. Gaumer, Diane. "Laban— His Contribution to the World
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84. Gilbert, Melvin B. "Classic Dancing," American
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85. Gould, Florence. "Eurhythmies of Jacques-Dalcroze,"
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1915), 35-36.
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86. Gray, Meriam and Strasser, Rose. "Delsarte— His
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6-7.
87. "Gymnastics," Atlantic Monthly. VII (March 1861),
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88. Hall, G. Stanley. "Play and Dancing for the
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239 I
98. Kane, Isabel. "A Survey of Modem Dance In Colleges :
and Universities of CaliforniaEducational i
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240 ;
I ■ ;
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I 1909), 182-184 and (Feb. 1910), 217-221.
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of Movement,” Focus on Dance, II (1962), 18-20.
121. Struppa, Eleanor. ’’ Graham— An Interpretation of Her
Techniques and Underlying Principles,” Focus on
Dance, II (1962), 15-17.
122. Taylor, Henry. "The Dancing Foot,” American
Physical Education Review, X (June 1905),
137-138.
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241
123. Tucker, Anna. ’ ’ Delsarte and His Contribution to
Physical Education," National Education Associ
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880-883.
124. Tyler, John. "Physical Education for Girls and
Women," American Physical Education Review, XVI
(Nov. 1911), 492.
125. Van Wyck, Clarence. "The Harvard Summer School of
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Quarterly. XIII (Dec. 1942), 408-411.
126. Wayman, Agnes. "A Successful Dance Symposium,"
Journal of Health and Physical Education. Ill
(April 1932), 47-48.
127. Williams, Adellyard. "Pioneer Women in Physical
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XII (Oct. 1941), 669-681.
Theses and Dissertations
128. Bronson, Alice Oaks. "Clark Hetherington, Scientist
and Philosopher." Unpublished doctoral disser
tation, University of Utah, 1958. 131 pp.
129. Chmilowski, Nancy. "Modern Dance Programs in
Physical Education Curricula of Selected Colleges
of Southern California." Unpublished Master's
thesis. University of Southern California, 1958.
67 pp.
130. Davies, Francis. "A Survey of Dance in Colleges,
Universities and Teaching Training Institutions
in the United States for the Year 1941-1942."
Unpublished Master's thesis. New York University,
1943. 65 pp.
131. Ellfeldt, Lois. "The Role of Dance in Selected
Women's Colleges and Universities." Unpublished
doctoral dissertation. University of Southern
California, 1947. 225 pp.
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242
132. Sherman, Atara Polonsky. ’’ Theoretical Foundations
of Physical Education: 1886-1930." Unpublished
doctoral dissertation. University of Southern
California, 1965. 183 pp.
133. Spiesman, Mildred. "Creative Dance in American Life
and Education." Unpublished doctoral disserta
tion, Teachers College, Columbia University,
1949. 233 pp.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
APPENDICES
243
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
APPENDIX I
The People and the Concepts
A. The Warp
B. The Woof
C. The Designs
244
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
APPENDIX I
THE PEOPLE AND THE CONCEPTS
A. THE WARP
Influential Opinions
Pre-1885
Educators
Benjamin Rush - Dancing is a salutary exercise. 1772
Emma Willard - Dancing is beneficial exercise, needful
to health, posture, and recreation. 1819
Physical Educators
Catherine Beecher - Gymnastic exercises serve as
lessons, musical rhythm, and improve form
and manners. 1831
Dio Lewis - Calisthenics performed to music contribute
body symmetry, strength, flexibility, and
agility. 1863
1885-1904
Physical Educators
William Anderson - The right kind of dancing will
develop the ear and add grace to the
students. 1886
245
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246
Dudley Sargent - Rhythmic exercises are a means of
attaining grace, suppleness and easy
carriage, and effective for all around
development. 1887
Dance Educators |
Christian Eberhard - The exercises of fancy steps have |
a tendency toward the development of grace, !
good carriage, and admirable for the develop- 1
ment of respiratory organs. 1888
Melvin Gilbert - Dancing calisthenics are light and
simple rhythmic movements of body and limbs
for the cultivation of grace and elegance in
form and bearing. 1894
Private Teacher
Anna Tucker - Delsarte principles impart muscular
control, power through repose , grace, rhythm,
and correct poise. 1897
1905-1917
Educator
G. Stanley Hall - The objectives of dance are the
cultivation of a sense of rhythm, ease of
movement, and poise. 1907
Physical Educators
Dudley Sargent - Modern gymnasium dancing uses all
parts of the body, develops the heart and
lungs, and improves the breathing function.
Aesthetic dancing contributes to grace.
1905
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247
Henry Taylor - The natural method of dancing is
expressive of music and invigorating.
Dancing must be hygienic, gymnastic,
recreative, and expressive. 1905
C. Ward Crampton - Folk dancing may be gymnastic and
used for physical training purposes. 1909
Luther Gulick - Folk dancing affords healthful and
vigorous exercise, and provides an opportu
nity for girls to participate in cooperative
team efforts. 1910
Delphine Hanna - Gymnastic dancing, including folk
dances, will lead to grace and good posture,
and have a corrective effect. Dancing also
has an artistic and recreative function.
1911
Emil Rath - Dancing is a useful activity which has
physical value, contributing endurance,
increased circulation, and increased
metabolism. 1914
Dance Educator
Elizabeth Burchenal - Dancing is a valuable means to
develop grace and good posture. 1905
Private Teacher
Louis Chalif - Dancing is a means of bringing strength,
gracefulness, good posture, and good manners
to the individual. 1914
1918-1932
Physical Educators
Thomas Wood - Physical education activities should be
physiologically sound, circa 1918
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248
Gertrude Baker - The objectives of dancing include
neuromuscular control and organic vigor.
1923
Elizabeth Alden - Dancing corrects posture faults and
provides all-around development. 1924
Dance Educators
Helen Frost - Clog dance contributes strength, control,
and balance to the body. 1922
Martha Hill - Dance offers an opportunity for organic
development.
Be THE WOOF
Influential Opinions
Pre-1885
Private Teacher
François Delsarte - The movements of the body are
expressive of emotion, the science of move
ment is an art, and every movement and
gesture will express the emotions of the
human soul, circa 1860
1885-1904
Educator
John Dewey - The aesthetic elements of education
include balance and rhythm, in the control
and regularity of the sequence of action.
The aesthetic element should combine freedom
of expression with regularity. 1897
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249
Private Teacher
Anna Tucker - The Delsarte system of exercises is a
means toward the end of a full artistic
outward expression of the inward life. 3 897
1905-1917
Educator
G. Stanley Hall - Dancing is an expression of pure
play. 1912
Physical Educators
Henry Taylor - Dancing must be expressive--it is
expressive of music. 1905
Luther Gulick - Folk dancing is an expression of the
emotional experiences of the race, and more
people can express themselves aesthetically
through dancing than through any other arts.
1910
C. Ward Crampton - Dancing may be aesthetic, according
to use. 1910
Dance Educators
Melvin Gilbert - Dancing is an expression of inward
emotions. Dancing evokes souls by means of
bodies, and creates the spiritual and ideal
by means of the material and real. 1905
Elizabeth Burchenal - Folk dancing is a form of self-
expression and play. 1909
Margaret and Troy Kinney - Dance (ballet) is a means
of expression, with a thought to be
expressed. 1914
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250
Mary Wood Hinman - Dance is the expression of joy,
through control, rhythm, and dramatic
expression. 1916
Mari Ruef Hofer - Dance is social expression. 1917
Private Teachers
Louis Chalif - Dancing is a medium of expression and
art. 1914
Emile Jacques-Dalcroze - The aim of Eurhythmies
Gymnastics is to develop mind and feeling in
everything connected with art and life. It
is a system of general culture, and contrib
utes to the power of expressing rhythm
through harmonious movement. The purpose of
Eurhythmies is to enrich the body's means of
expression. 1912
Concert Dancers
Isadora Duncan - Dancing is harmonious movement which
expresses the emotions of the soul.
Ruth St. Denis - Dance should be free of human passions
and express the pure spirit. The human body
is an instrument of expression of the human
spirit.
1918-1932
Physical Educators
Jesse Feiring Williams - The pew spirit of physical
education says that those who dance must
dance as a child, expressing in natural
outward forms, inner thoughts and feelings.
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251
Gertrude Baker - The objectives of dancing include the
expression of an idea, the appreciation of
art, and the stimulation of the creative
impulse.
Elizabeth Alden - After technique and control are
gained, one can express what the music means
to him. 1924
Dance Educators I
Gertrude Colby - Ideas and emotions from within are
expressed in bodily movements. 1922
Bird Larson - Dance expresses ideas and emotions. 1922
Margaret H'Doubler - Dance is a means of self-
expression. 1926
Helen Smith - Dancing expresses music. 1930
Helen Frost - Clog dancing presents an opportunity for
joyful expression. 1921
Martha Hill - The desire to be expressive may be met
through dance. 1932
C. THE DESIGNS
Pre-1885
Educator
Emma Willard - Dancing is a form of exercise needful
to recreation. 1819
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252
1905-1917
Educator
G. Stanley Hall - Dance has social value. 1907
Physical Educators i
Henry Taylor - Dancing must be recreative. 1905 |
C. Ward Crampton - Dancing may be social, and it may i
be recreative. 1909 |
Delphine Hanna - Dancing has an artistic and recreative
function. 1911
Thomas Wood - Physical education activities should be
natural, psychologically and physiologically
sound, and as thus, will be educationally
acceptable, circa 1908
Clark Hetherington - "The new physical education, with
the emphasis on education, is physical only
in the sense that the activity of the whole
organism is the educational agent" (91:350).
1910
Dance Educators
Mary Wood Hinman - Dancing is a means of social
interaction. 1910
Elizabeth Burchenal - Dancing is a resource for social
enjoyment. 1917
1918-1932
Physical Educators
Jesse Feiring Williams - The ideal program of physical
education will afford to all an opportunity
to act in situations that are physically
wholesome, mentally stimulating and satisfy
ing, and socially sound. 1921
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253
Gertrude Baker - Objectives of dancing are of a highly
educational nature, including neuromuscular
control and organic vigor; expression of an
idea, appreciation of the arts, and stimula
tion of the creative impulse. 1923
Elizabeth Alden - Dancing is educational, based on
principles of anatomy and kinesiology, and
will correct posture faults and provide all-
around development. Dancing is a means by
which music is expressed. 1924
Dance Educators
Elizabeth Burchenal - Folk dancing is recreation for
adults, is useful for social enjoyment; it
is a democratic socializing agent, and
valuable for Americanization. 1920
Mary Wood Hinman - Folk dancing is a means to impart
skills of social conduct to ethnic groups.
Dancing has great social value. 1920
Helen Frost - Clog dancing provides an opportunity for
joyful expression, and is educational if the
dances are taught as an expression of good
music. Clog dance contributes strength,
control, and balance to the body. 1921
Gertrude Colby - Natural dancing is the term for the
dancing based on free natural movements.
"By making ourselves free instruments of
expression, rhythmically unified, we are
enabled to express in bodily movement the
ideas and emotions which come from within.
We dance ideas, not steps" (9:7). 1922
Bird Larson - Dance is "naturally controlled bodily
movement with musical feeling and construc
tion woven together into the expression of
an idea" (133:153). 1922
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254
Agnes and Lucille Marsh - Dance is a great art with
educational opportunities, based on natural
movements of the body, and related to college
subjects of art, religion, and philosophy.
1924
Margaret H'Doubler - Dance is an adequate and harmoni
ous means of self-expression of emotional
life. Dance is a creative, educational
activity, contributing to the fullest devel
opment of the individual. 1926
Helen Norman Smith - Dancing provides an opportunity
for the individual expression of music and
dramatic themes. 1930
Elizabeth Selden - "The Dance shares with all art the
aim of projecting an inner vision into the
world without. The Dance does it through
visible motion, and partakes at once of the
three realms: Time, Space and Thought"
(49:6). 1930
Edith Ballwebber - Tap dancing provides an opportunity
for creativity. 1930
Ruth Murray - Dance develops physical response to
rhythm; provides an opportunity for exploring
movement fundamentals and creativity; and
includes the learning of pre-arranged dances.
1930
Martha Hill - Dance is educational because the response
to rhythm, the need to create, the urge to
gregariousness, and the desire to be expres
sive is met through dance. In addition,
there is a wide opportunity for the acquisi
tion of skills of movement and rhythm, the
opportunity for organic development, and
dance is a potentially integrating force.
1932
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255
Concert Dancers
Rudolf von Laban - Dance is the expression of basic
emotions through group movements, circa 1918
Mary Wigman - Dance should be a reflection of universal
ideas, structured freely in space.
circa 1930
Louis Horst - A dancer translates his comments and
reactions in rhythmic, muscular dynamics and
spatial arrangements, circa 1930
Helen Tamiris - Dance must have a dynamic tempo, and
be a valid social comment, circa 1930
Esther Junger - Dance movement is controlled by
gravity, space, and the body. The principles
of movement are resistance, sustained con
trol, and the use of the body as an entity.
circa 1930
Hanya Holm - Dance results from physical, emotional or
mental impulses, and is presented with the
centrality of the body maintained and with
dynamic stress, purposefully moving through
space, in order to convey an idea through
form, circa 1930
Martha Graham - The material of dance is significant
movement; the principles of movement are
opposition of forces, the body's relation to
gravity and space, rhythm, and especially
the dynamism of contraction and release.
The function of dance is to communicate
experience, circa 1930
Doris Humphrey - The core of movement is found in key
pattern of fall and recovery— the giving in
to and the rebound from gravity. Students
should leam a theory of movement and a
theory of composition, and then in their own
way, meet the objective of dance, which is
the communication of the human spirit,
circa 1930
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APPENDIX II
CONCEPTS CHARTED IN TIME PERIODS
256
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■ D
O
Q .
C
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Q .
■ D
C D
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3
0
3
C D
8
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APPENDIX II
CONCEPTS CHARTED IN TIME PERIODS
Major Concept Key Words Pre-1885 1885-1904 1905-1917 1918-1932
health,
organic vigor
ee d
PPP PPPP d
W
Dance as healthful
grace, poise,
posture,
symmetry
pp e c pp dd o pp d e 0
P d
A
R
P
exercise. Some
thing imparted to
the body by
rhythmic movement.
manners,
social graces
p oo o
rhythm,
musical terms
P P o
e dd
all-around
development,
agility,
flexibility
P P o PP P d
W
Dance as expres
sion. The body
emotions,
play
o d o dd e oo dd
0
self e 0 p d o ddd
0
expresses some
thing through
group
P d
d oo
F
rhythmical
movement.
ideas,
thoughts
d o p dddd 0
_ - ' - -
7)
C D
■D
O
Q .
C
g
Q .
■D
C D
C/)
C/)
8
c i '
3
3 "
C D
C D
■D
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Q .
C
a
O
3
"O
O
C D
Q .
■D
C D
F
rhythmical
movement.
ideas,
thoughts
d o p dddd o
music
P o
p ddd
natural dddddd
D
Dance as educa
tion. A form of
rhythmical,
educational,
scientific
PPP ddd 0
E
creative movement.
creative,
rhythmical
ddddddd
S
I
Dance as an art
form of communi
cation based on
movement struc
tured in time
and space.
structured
in space
000
6
presentational o ooo
N
communicative ooooo
Dance as social.
A recreational
social e p dd e p ddd
form of rhythmic
movement.
recreational
PPP
d
Code: p = physical educator
d = dance educator
e = educator
o = other
Note: Chart indicates incidence of opinion according to kind, time period, occurrence,
and contributors.
( / )
C / )
K>
Ul
■vj
Abstract (if available)
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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
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Asset Metadata
Creator
O'brien, Dorothy Adella
(author)
Core Title
Theoretical foundations of dance in American higher education: 1885-1932
Degree
Doctor of Philosophy
Degree Program
Physical Education
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
education, history of,OAI-PMH Harvest
Language
English
Contributor
Digitized by ProQuest
(provenance)
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c17-168393
Unique identifier
UC11351819
Identifier
6608794.pdf (filename),usctheses-c17-168393 (legacy record id)
Legacy Identifier
6608794.pdf
Dmrecord
168393
Document Type
Dissertation
Rights
O'BRIEN, DOROTHY ADELLA
Type
texts
Source
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
Access Conditions
The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...
Repository Name
University of Southern California Digital Library
Repository Location
USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA
Tags
education, history of