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The need for power, achievement and affiliation: The motivational profiles found in federal prison wardens and the relationship between motivational profiles and managerial effectiveness
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The need for power, achievement and affiliation: The motivational profiles found in federal prison wardens and the relationship between motivational profiles and managerial effectiveness
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THE NEED FOR POWER, ACHIEVEMENT AND AFFILIATION: THE MOTIVATIONAL PROFILES FOUND IN FEDERAL PRISON WARDENS AND THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MOTIVATIONAL PROFILES AND MANAGERIAL EFFECTIVENESS by C. Allan Turner A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE SCHOOL OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION May 1995 Copyright 1995 C. Allan Turner Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA SCHOOL OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION UNIVERSITY PARK LOS ANGELES, CAUFORNIA 90089 l'Ætî dissertation, written By Ç e ç ^ . , 1 , AU.aiJ. .Tvm çf.. under t d i e direction o f (Dissertation Committee, and approved B y ad its mem- B e r s , B a s B e e n presented to and acce ptëd B y t B e (facuBy c f tB e ScfooC o f ( P u B C i c J^ldininistration, in partied fdfidm ent c f requirements c f t B e d e g r e e c f DOCTOR OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION disse: IN COMMITTEE Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This dissertation could never have been completed without the contributions of several special individuals. I am grateful to Ron Stupak, Chairman, for his continued encouragement throughout this research. I am particularly grateful for his willingness to devote his valuable time to review my numerous drafts and his guidance in framing the topic of this project. I owe a special debt to William Saylor, Director of Research, Federal Bureau of Prisons, for spending considerable time with me discussing the appropriate methodology for addressing the issue of managerial effectiveness of federal prison wardens. The willingness of Mr. Saylor and his staff to make the results of their Prison Social Climate Surveys available to me was a key ingredient in the completion of this dissertation. A major factor in the successful completion of a dissertation is the support of a knowledgeable, supportive group of committee members. The feedback from my Peer Committee (Steve Harrison, Tom Hickok, and ii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Bob Neilson) and my Dissertation Committee (Bob Carter, Dave Greisler, and Ron Waldron) was essential to me throughout this entire project. I appreciate very much the timely review of dissertation drafts and the suggestions provided by each committee member. Finally, I wish to thank my wife, Joan, for her support and willingness to take care of all those details of daily family life which are my responsibility, but which I have neglected for over a year. Ill Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS LIST OF TABLES ABSTRACT Chapter I. INTRODUCTION III, Background ............... Function of Prison Warden Statement of Problem . . . Purpose of the Study . . . Theoretical Basis of Study Contributions to Field of Corrections .......... Contributions to Public Administration .... II. LITERATURE REVIEW Motivation ......................... Content Theory ................. Process Theory ................. Trichotomy of Needs Theory . . . Leadership Motive Syndrome . . . Measuring Three Needs Using the Job Choice Exercise ................. Prison Social Climate Survey . . . . RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Research Purpose ............... Sample ......................... Theoretical Framework ........ Identification and Measurement Utilizing Job Choice Exercise Research Design ............... Identification and Comparison of Motivational Profiles .... Determining Managerial Effectiveness ............... 11 vii ix 1 2 5 8 9 12 14 17 17 17 20 22 30 36 42 45 45 46 47 47 51 53 54 iv Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. IV. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS............. 62 Introduction.......................... 62 Sample Return Rate.................... 63 Demographics.......................... 64 Identification of Wardens' Motivational Profiles Utilizing Job Choice Exercise and JCESKOR . . 65 Research Question 1 ............... 67 Hypothesis 1 ..................... 70 Comparison of Wardens With Role- Similar Individuals............... 72 Research Question 2 ............... 72 Hypothesis 2 ..................... 77 Determining Managerial Effectiveness ..................... 79 Institution Operations ........... 80 Research Question 3 80 Hypothesis 3 ................... 86 Staff Satisfaction With and Commitment To Institution . . . 87 Research Question 4 87 Hypothesis 4 ................... 93 Summary............................. 94 V. CONCLUSIONS.............................. 97 Introduction ......................... 97 Statement of Problem and Purpose . . . 97 Discussion of Findings ............... 100 Motivational Profiles ............. 101 Comparison With Role-Similar Individuals................... 108 Managerial Effectiveness ........ Ill Institution Operations ........ 112 Satisfaction With and Commitment To the Institution................. 115 Comments Concerning n Achievement................. 118 Conclusions......................... 119 Applications of Research ............. 127 Contributions of Research ........... 131 Future Research ..................... 133 Closing Statement ................... 137 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................... 138 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIXES A. Authority To Conduct Research ........... 146 B. JCE Letter of Approval.................... 148 C. Job Choice Exercise...................... 150 D. Job Choice Exercise Scores ............... 169 E. Prison Social Climate Survey ............. 171 VI Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. LIST OF TABLES 1. Return Rates................................ 64 2. Demographic Information on Federal Prison Wardens in Sample....................... 65 3. Frequency of Federal Prison Wardens' Motive Needs ........................... 68 4. Federal Prison Wardens' Motive Needs Percentile Scores ....................... 69 5. Identified Motivational Profiles of Federal Prison Wardens ......................... 70 6. Average Motive Percentile Scores for Senior Executives, Air Force Colonels, School Superintendents, and Federal Prison Wardens.................................. 75 7. Frequency of High n Power, Low n Affiliation Motivational Profile Model ............. 76 8. Frequency of n Power > n Affiliation M o d e l ...................................... 77 9. Federal Prison Wardens' Profiles and Favorable to Unfavorable Ratios of Staff Perceptions of Institution Operations . . 82 10. Frequency of Motivational Profiles of Federal Prison Wardens Above Median: Institution Operations.............................. 84 11. Frequency of Motivational Profiles of Federal Prison Wardens At or Below Median: Institution Operations ................. 84 12. Frequency and Percentage of Each Federal Prison Warden's Motivational Profile Above Median: Institution Operations . . 85 Vll Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 13. Federal Prison Wardens' Profiles and Favorable to Unfavorable Ratios of Staff Satisfaction With and Commitment To the Institution..................... 89 14. Frequency of Motivational Profiles of Federal Prison Wardens Above Median; Satisfaction With and Commitment To the Institution............................. 91 15. Frequency of Motivational Profiles of Federal Prison Wardens At or Below Median: Satisfaction With and Commitment To the Institution............................. 91 16. Frequency and Percentage of Each Federal Prison Warden's Motivational Profile Above Median: Staff Satisfaction With and Commitment To the Institution........... 92 Vlll Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ABSTRACT The primary purpose of this research was to identify the motivational needs profiles existing among federal prison wardens in the United States. The secondary purpose was to determine if there is a relationship between the warden's motivational profile and effective management of a prison. The trichotomy of needs theory developed by David C. McClelland formed the conceptual framework for this study. Motivational profiles were formulated based upon need for Affiliation (n Affiliation), need for Power (n Power), and need for Achievement (n Achievement). The Job Choice Exercise was used to identify motivational profiles. The relationship between the warden's motivational profile and the effective management of the prison was examined utilizing 9,858 staff perceptions of institution operations and staff satisfaction with and commitment to each institution headed by wardens in the sample during the period of the study. The sample (n=25) consisted of all persons who continuously served as prison wardens in the Federal ix Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Bureau of Prisons between January 1990 and September 1993 and included minorities and females. The sample consisted of wardens from administrative, low-, medium-, and high-security federal prisons. The most frequent motivational profile found among the federal prison wardens was low n Affiliation, high n Power, and high n Achievement. The need for Power clearly dominates among federal prison wardens, and the need for Affiliation is the lowest. The staff perceptions of institutional operations and satisfaction with and commitment to their respective institutions were matched with the motivational profiles for each warden. The findings indicated that staff of prisons headed by wardens with motivational profiles reflecting high n Power, low n Affiliation are more likely to have a favorable perception of the operations of their institutions. Staff of federal prisons characterized by wardens with motivational profiles which reflect high n Power, high n Affiliation are more likely to be satisfied with and committed to their institutions. The high need for Power was consistently found in the most effective prison wardens. The findings suggest there is a relationship between a prison warden's motivational profile and effective prison management. X Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Background One of the most critical issues facing government at the local, state, and federal levels is the rapidly growing inmate populations in prisons and jails. The U.S. Department of Justice (1994) reported that at the end of 1993 the number of prisoners under the jurisdiction of federal or state correctional authorities reached a record high of 948,881. This represents a 188% growth in the prison population in the 13-year period since 1980 and is to a large extent the result of longer federal and state sentences, mandatory minimum prison terms, and tighter parole policies for drug and violent crimes. The cost of incarceration has risen more rapidly than the growth in population. The U.S. Department of Justice (1992) reported between 1979 and 1990 state government expenditures for prison construction increased 612% while spending to operate correctional institutions rose 328%. Total spending in state and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. federal prisons in fiscal 1990 was nearly 11.5 billion dollars. The cost of corrections has become a major economic burden for government at all levels in the United States. The increase in correctional spending for some states in recent years has been twice that for general fund increases and even larger than for education (Claiborne & Thomas, 1994). Corrections has reached such significance that it is described as "a truly big business" (Allen & Simonsen, 1989, p. 469). The rapid growth in prisoner population has led to a construction frenzy which has greatly increased the number of prisons in the United States. The federal government alone opened 32 new prisons between 1980 and 1993. As a growth industry, corrections has created a wealth of employment opportunities. This is particularly evident in the increased number of wardens needed to lead and manage institutions. Function of Prison Warden As the chief executive officer of a prison, the warden serves in a position at the top of the organizational structure of the agency or department. Most often the warden operates independently, is guided only by general policies and procedures, and reports to an agency head who is in a distant location. The warden 2 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. functions in a generalist rather than a technical position. The warden must manage all aspects of a complex organization which requires broad general knowledge and experience in a wide variety of areas including, but not limited to, counseling, financial management, food service, legal, personnel administration, public affairs, and security. Wardens must function as leader-managers. Bennis and Nanus (1985) define managers as people who do things right and leaders as people who do the right things. They argue that the difference between managers and leaders may be summarized as activities of vision and judgment (effectiveness) versus activities of mastering routines (efficiency) (Bennis & Nanus, 1985, p. 21). Hitt (1988) argues that managers must function as leaders. He defines a leader-manager as one who has both vision and the ability to transform the vision into significant action (p. 7). The role of prison warden requires both leadership and managerial skills and competencies. When applied to prison wardens, the difference between leader and manager is so slim that the terms must be considered one and the same. In fact, to become a warden at a Federal Bureau of Prisons facility, one must have demonstrated high-level Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. managerial skills before being considered for such an executive leadership position. Like leader-managers of other private and public sector organizations, prison wardens are expected to operate efficient and economical institutions. Unlike most leader-managers of other organizations, it is also well documented that prison wardens lead institutions that can be dangerous and very difficult to manage (Useem & Kimbell, 1989; Dilulio, 1987). John Dilulio (1987) very succinctly describes the difficulties facing directors of correctional agencies and institution wardens. Prison executives are subject to a variety of statutory constraints. They preside over a public agency that is, except in the days immediately following some spectacular escape or disturbance, low on the political agenda. They are generally assumed to have little to say regarding the broader issues related to imprisonment. It is not surprising therefore that their role has been ignored or downgraded (p. 188). Although much attention has been paid in recent literature to a variety of corrections topics such as prison costs (Logan & McGriff, 1989), inmate population growth (Claiborne & Thomas, 1994), and inmate violence (Toch & Adams, 1986; Larsen, 1988), little attention has been focused on the people managing the prisons (Dilulio, 1987; Cullen et al., 1993). It is against this background that this study was conducted. 4 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. statement of Problem Prison wardens perform a critical function in the criminal justice system (Dilulio, 1987; Wolford, 1988; Cullen et al., 1993). They have the responsibility of administering complex, expensive, and potentially volatile institutions which play a critical role in protecting American society by incarcerating and controlling those who threaten the well-being and safety of its citizens. Under the American criminal justice system, the time required to deal with an offender in each phase can most often be measured in days, weeks, months, or a few years. The investigative phase rarely takes longer than a few years to complete. The same applies to the judicial phase. Corrections is the exception. Prison wardens are given responsibility for the offender for periods ranging from a few months to 20, 30, 40 years, or life. They are expected to carry out that responsibility day in and day out. Perhaps one of the most demanding tasks in public service is the job of providing protection to the public by keeping the offender away from society while maintaining a safe and humane environment which meets constitutional standards. The difficulties faced by prison wardens becomes readily apparent with the realization that prisons in Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. our society are self-contained communities that offer the same services as incorporated communities ranging from utilities, medical care, and education to police and fire protection (Johnson, 1989). The prison warden must manage the complex organizational requirements of this prison community and at the same time contend with the difficulties of managing the inmate subculture (Johnson, 1989). The warden has as his responsibility the collection of all of societies' failures aggregated into the prison. The difficulty is one of getting this collection of thieves, misfits, and losers to coexist in harmony. The prison warden's performance is the frequent subject of legislative, judicial, and public scrutiny (Wolford, 1988). During the past decade, the idea that poor prison and jail conditions are produced by poor prison and jail management has been clearly documented (Dilulio, 1989). It has also been established that the quality of management distinguishes a stable prison from one which is riot-prone (Useem & Kimbell, 1989). Hawkins and Alpert (1989, p. 357) argue that the key to the conditions and the general climate of any prison is the warden. Yet, the state of the body of research on the wardens who manage prisons is poor (Cullen et al., 1993). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. In recent years more research has been focused on prison staff, but researchers tend to concentrate on correctional officers (Loza, 1993; Walters, 1992; Ulmer, 1992) or other line personnel (Saylor & Wright, 1992). Very little attention has been given to the wardens who operate the prisons (Wolford, 1988). In fact, many leading textbooks on corrections either do not mention wardens (Shover & Einstadter, 1988; Hawkins, 1976; Williamson, 1990) or discuss only the organizational role of the warden (Allen & Simonson, 1989; Hawkins & Alpert, 1989) . The focus on wardens has been largely limited to little more than surveys concerning demographic data such as salary, education, years of service, race, and experience (Wolford, 1988) . Dilulio (1987) argues that wardens are important and warrant far more study than they have received. If wardens are to be entrusted with the most complex, expensive, and potentially volatile part of the criminal justice system, much more information must be developed which provides insight into the people who have been placed in the positions and the characteristics necessary for the successful performance of the job. In a study of police, Chusmir (1984, p. 141) argues that it is an accepted concept that motivation has a substantial effect on the success or failure of Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. individuals and that individuals must possess attitudes and motivational drives which permit them to transform abilities and skills into needed action. This argument can be readily applied to prison wardens. Numerous studies have addressed the motivational needs of managers and leaders in a variety of organizations including top U.S. industrial firms (Chusmir & Azevedo, 1992), service industry (Cornelius & Lane, 1984), college administrators (Crowe, 1990), and school superintendents (Leonardi, 1992) . Studies have also related motivational needs to managerial effectiveness (McClelland, 1975; McClelland & Burnham, 1976; McClelland & Boyatzis, 1982; Ruf & Chusmir, 1991) and even performance of U.S. Presidents (Spangler & House, 1991) . Unfortunately, the literature reflects little or no attempt to identify the motivational needs of those in warden positions or whether there is any relationship between a warden's motivational needs profile and effective management of prison operations. Purpose of the Studv The primary purpose of this study was to identify the motivational needs profiles that exist among federal prison wardens in the United States by using David McClelland's trichotomy of needs theory (1961) and the Job Choice Exercise as devised by Harrell and Stahl 8 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. (1981) and Stahl and Harrell (1982). The secondary purpose was to determine if there is a relationship between the warden's motivational profile and the effective management of the prison as determined by a favorable staff perception of prison operations and the staff satisfaction with and commitment to the institution. Theoretical Basis For Studv The theoretical basis for this study is the trichotomy of needs theory developed by David C. McClelland of Harvard University. McClelland's trichotomy of needs theory has been described as "state of the art" in explaining managerial motivation (Robbins, 1988, p. 33) and has been found to be predictive in a variety of organizational settings (Stahl, 1986, p. 3). McClelland (1985) concludes that motives drive, orient, and select behavior (p. 226). He proposes that there are three major relevant motives or needs in the workplace (1961, 1985, 1975). He labeled these three needs as Affiliation (n Affiliation), Power (n Power), and Achievement (n Achievement). The need for Affiliation is defined as a desire to be with other people and to be liked and accepted by others (McClelland, 1985). Persons with a high need for 9 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Affiliation strive for friendship, prefer cooperative situations rather than competitive ones, and desire relationships involving a high degree of mutual understanding (McClelland, 1985). The need for Power is defined as influencing the activities and thoughts of a number of individuals (McClelland 1970; McClelland & Burnham, 1976). Persons with a high need for Power enjoy being in charge, strive for influence over others, prefer to be placed in competitive and status-oriented situations, and tend to be more concerned with gaining influence over others and prestige than with effective performance (Robbins, 1988) . Research has found the need for Power to be significantly associated with managerial effectiveness (McClelland & Boyatzis, 1982; McClelland & Burnham, 1976). Research also indicates that the need for Power is the single most potent characteristic discriminating between successful and unsuccessful managers (Steger et al., 1975). The need for Achievement is defined as a concern for long-term involvement, drive to excel, competition against some standard of excellence, and unique accomplishment (McClelland, 1958). It characterizes individuals who are motivated or driven by a need for personal accomplishment through their own efforts. A 10 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. negative relationship is expected between need for Achievement and performance of leaders at high levels in organizations, since such a leader will tend to do everything himself or herself and under-utilize the capacity of subordinates and superiors (House, Spangler, & Woycke, 1991). During the past twenty years, McClelland has demonstrated in a wide variety of organizational settings that leader effectiveness can be predicted by leader motives such as need for Power, Affiliation, and Activity Inhibition (House, Spangler, & Woycke, 1991, p. 3 66). According to McClelland, a certain personality profile is related to managerial effectiveness. McClelland's research, along with others, has shown that the effective leader is more likely to have a high need for Power, high activity inhibition, and a lower need for Affiliation than the ineffective leader (Cummin, 1967; Varga, 1975; McClelland & Burnham, 1976; Winter, 1973; McClelland & Boyatzis, 1982). The relationship between motive profile and leader effectiveness is more likely to be found at higher levels of an organization and in generalists rather than technical jobs (McClelland & Boyatzis, 1982). Because his theories recognize individual differences and have specified content— that is, three 11 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. needs— the theory offers considerable promise of explanatory power (Stahl, 1986). Schein (1980) states that McClelland's theory of basic needs is probably the most applicable to understanding the organizational careers of entrepreneurs and managers. Contributions to Field of Corrections In recent years, due to rapid growth and escalating costs, corrections has received a great deal of attention from politicians, the public, and academicians. As a result, there is a growing body of literature on corrections. Although much valuable literature has been generated on a variety of prison topics, persons in official prison leadership positions, who are arguably the most important participants in the corrections arena, have been virtually ignored. By focusing on prison wardens, this research contributes to a weak area in the corrections literature. In contrast to other studies, this study utilizes a well-researched theory and a valid and reliable instrument to identify the motivational profiles of prison wardens rather than simply providing a survey of demographic data. Also, it examines the relationship between the warden's motivational profile and staff perception of institution operations and staff commitment to the institution. 12 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. This research contributes to the areas of warden selection, training, and job assignment. Gaston (1993) points out that in most law enforcement agencies the management selection process is by chance. If a person is a good supervisor, one should rise through the ranks to become a good executive. Most selections are made on this premise. A similar observation has been made about the promotion of corrections managers (Duffee, 1980). There is a critical need to identify the motivational profile of prison wardens and the relationship between the warden's motivational profile and the effective management of the prison. Placing the wrong person in a warden's position can have disastrous consequences ranging from loss of life to expensive litigation. It is cost-effective and prudent for governors and directors of corrections to ensure only individuals, who possess the characteristics which will best enable them to handle the job of warden, are selected. Currently, there is very little systematic attempt at the state or federal level to identify and recruit the ablest corrections leaders. The identification of motivational profiles required for successful performance could help in: (1) selecting leaders who have a greater probability of success and (2) training prison wardens in areas which will increase their 13 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. likelihood of success. The identification of motivational profiles will aid in counseling those who aspire to managerial and executive level positions. This dissertation attempts to contribute to that effort by examining the prison warden's motivational profile. Contributions to Public Administration This study has applicability to agencies at all levels of government. It is important because the focus is on the motives of top managers rather than simply behavior or demographics. It has been strongly argued that motivation should be the basis for the selection of managers (McClelland, 1984). Top managers, whether they are wardens, police commissioners, fire chiefs, or agency directors, are expensive to select. Poor performance can add more expense to the organization. This study contributes to public administration by applying a widely researched motivational theory to a public organization. The results provide data to agencies which will enhance their manager selection, training, and job assignment. Public organizations have a need to develop individuals into capable managers. However, before this can be accomplished, there is a need to know the potential of individuals to become effective managers (Gaston 1993, p. 5). This study provides data on a 14 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. motivational profile consistent with those persons who have proven successful in top management positions. This data can be used to identify employees who can become successful managers. Job assignments can then be made to ensure the development of skills which will enable the person to be highly successful when placed in a top management position. Mintzberg (1973) states that to manage an organization within a complex environment the incumbent manager must perform a set of managerial roles. A role is defined as an organized set of behaviors belonging to an identifiable office, position, or title (Sarbin & Allen, 1968). Stupak (1994) theorizes that the nature of the requirements for success in certain roles do not automatically translate or transfer themselves into the skills needed for success in different roles. The information developed by this dissertation, concerning the relationship between the motivational needs of prison wardens and effective performance, expands role theory into the field of corrections. Consistent with Mintzberg's study (1973), wardens like other managers must perform specific managerial roles. The ability to effectively perform in these roles may be related to individual motivational needs. This research 15 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. contributes to the understanding of effective role performance by exploring that possibility. Perhaps most importantly, this research contributes to a movement currently underway in a field in public administration. The field of corrections is undergoing a shift from a focus on inmates as the determining factor in the climate of a prison to a focus on the effectiveness of the prison administration as the determining factor. Dilulio (1987) and Useem and Kimbell (1989) have argued powerfully for this shift in focus. This research contributes to that effort by examining prison wardens' motivational profiles and effective management of prison operations. Finally, this research may generate additional research into the motivational profiles of other public organization leaders including correctional agency directors and heads of police agencies. 16 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW Motivation Many competing theories of motivation claim to explain the behavior of people in organizations (Schein, 1980, p. 39). Motivation theory falls into two distinct types with each addressing a different facet of motivation— content and process (Hampton, Summer & Webber, 1982, p. 5). Content Theorv Content theories ask what motivates people and explains motivation in terms of needs. However, they specify a variety of needs and, in some cases, dynamic shifts in needs (Hampton, Summer, & Webber, 1982). The most recognized of the content theories are the hierarchy of needs theory (Maslow, 1943), motivation- hygiene theory (Herzberg, Mausner & Snyderman, 1959), and Existence, Relatedness, and Growth theory (Alderfer, 1972) . Abraham Maslow (1954) developed perhaps the best known theory of motivation. Maslow believed that all people have physical and physiological needs which 17 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. affect their behavior patterns. He argued that each person possesses a hierarchy of five basic needs (Maslow, 1954). Maslow divides his needs into higher and lower orders. Self-actualization (growth, achieving one's potential), esteem (self-respect, status, recognition), and social (affection, acceptance, friendship) are classified as higher-order needs, while physiological (hunger, thirst, shelter, sex) and safety (security, protection from physical and emotional harm) are classified as lower-order needs. According to Maslow, as each need becomes substantially satisfied the next higher need becomes dominate. The difference is that higher-order needs are satisfied internally, while the lower-order needs are satisfied externally. Some research has concluded that there is support for Maslow's conceptualization of need theory. It has been demonstrated that, when lower-level needs are not met, concern for higher-level needs decreases (Tosi, Rizzo, & Carroll, 1986). However, Robbins (1988) points out that there is little research to support that need structures are organized as proposed by Maslow or that the substantial satisfaction of a given need leads to the activation of the next higher need. Another widely recognized theory is the two-factor or motivation-hygiene theory (Hertzberg, Mausner, & 18 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Snyderman, 1959). Hertzberg et al. (1959) argued that separate and distinct characteristics lead to job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction. Hertzberg's research indicated that intrinsic factors such as achievement, advancement, recognition, and responsibility are related to job satisfaction; while factors such as interpersonal relations, company policy, supervision, and working conditions are related to job dissatisfaction. Hertzberg believed that the elimination of factors that create job dissatisfaction did not necessarily bring about motivation. In order to motivate people, the characteristics such as achievement, advancement, recognition, and responsibility, which people found intrinsically, must be emphasized. A third widely recognized content theory is the ERG Theory (Alderfer, 1972). Alderfer simplified Maslow's theory by reducing the hierarchy of needs to three levels. Alderfer (1972) argued that the three levels of needs were: existence, which corresponds to physiological and safety needs; relatedness, which corresponds to the need for love; and growth, which corresponds to esteem and self-actualization needs. The ERG theory is most useful in a context that attempts to measure how much of each need a given adult has at a 19 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. given point in time. It acknowledges the possibility that not everyone has an equal amount of each of the basic needs as Maslow's theory tends to imply (Schein, 1980). However, ERG theory as a hierarchy-of-needs theory is limited; since research studies have not consistently verified the sequence among the needs above physiological ones (Hampton et al., 1982). According to content theories, all people possess the same motives, are motivated in the same way, or follow the same development hierarchy (Stahl, 1986). This neglect of individual differences is a limitation of many content theories (Stahl, 1986). Process Theorv Process theories seek how motivation occurs (Hampton et al., 1982). The process theories explain motivation in terms of the individual's perceptions, beliefs, and expectancies about the attainability and need-satisfying value of rewards for working. Process theories argue that no two individuals are motivated by the same needs or the same perceptions of organizational rewards (Stahl, 1986). There have been several process theories developed in recent years. Perhaps the most widely known of the process theories is expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964). According to this theory, there is an expectation that 20 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. an act will be followed by a given outcome; and the attractiveness of the outcome determines the tendency of an individual to act (Vroom, 1964). Expectancy theory includes three variables: (1) the importance the individual places on potential outcome or reward (attractiveness); (2) the degree to which the individual believes performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome (performance-reward linkage); and (3) the probability perceived by the individual that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance (effort-performance linkage) (Vroom, 1964) . Goal-setting was a second process theory which received wide attention in the late 1960's and 1970's. This theory suggests intentions expressed as goals can be a major source of work motivation. Research indicates that specific goals lead to increased performance; and difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than easy goals (Tubbs, 1986). The third major process theory is equity theory. This theory holds that employees perceive what they get from a job in relation to what they put into it. They then compare their input-outcome ratio with the input- outcome ratio of relevant others (Robbins, 1988). Equity theory advances that individuals are concerned 21 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. with the amount of rewards they receive for their efforts and the relationship of this amount to what others receive. Judgments are made on these comparisons; and when an imbalance with others is perceived, tension is created. This tension provides the basis for motivation. Individuals will act to correct perceived inequities. The result might be increase or decrease in productivity or resignation. Under the process theories, each individual's perceptions and needs must be examined in order to offer a prediction of behavior (Stahl, 1986). Because they are so flexible and so mathematically complex, process theories are very difficult to operationalize; and, therefore, they offer very little power to predict behavior (Stahl, 1986). Trichotomv of Needs Theorv In 1961 David McClelland proposed a theory he called the trichotomy of needs theory. This theory fell between the content and the process theories (Stahl, 1986) . McClelland (1985) concluded that motives orient, drive, and select behavior. A motive can be differentiated from a trait in that a trait is a characteristic way in which the person responds to equivalent stimuli (McClelland, 1951). McClelland 22 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. argued that there were three basic motives or needs in the workplace (McClelland, 1975). According to McClelland these needs were the need for Achievement, the need for Affiliation, and the need for Power. McClelland emphasized that the Achievement motive involves doing something better for its own benefit— for the intrinsic satisfaction of doing something better. The Achievement incentive is one in which a person gets satisfaction from doing something better for its own benefit or to show that he or she is more capable of doing something (McClelland, 1985, p. 229). McClelland's research indicated that persons high in the need for Achievement tend to seek out and do better at moderately challenging tasks, take personal responsibility for their own performance, seek performance feedback on how well they are doing, and try new and more efficient ways of doing things (McClelland, 1985, p. 251). McClelland (1961) reported that an association between n Achievement and entrepreneurship occurred across cultures and that salespeople scored significantly higher in n Achievement than other managers. In one study, McClelland found that college students who scored high in n Achievement were more often to be found in business when a follow-up study was 23 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. done fourteen years later (McClelland 1985). Another study demonstrated that the need for Achievement was associated with promotions in a large firm only for managers who did not manage large numbers of people, but who made contributions on their own (McClelland & Boyatzis, 1882). McClelland concluded that persons high in n Achievement are likely to do well at occupations such as sales, where they do things themselves, rather than occupations such as general managers, where they are more likely to spend time trying to influence others (McClelland, 1985). The second motive is the need for Affiliation. McClelland noted some people clearly like interacting with other people, and some like it more than others (McClelland, 1985, p. 346). The need for Affiliation is the need to be with people (McClelland, 1985). McClelland's research focused on the characteristics of people with a strong need for Affiliation. People with a strong need for Affiliation perform better when affiliative incentives are present. They consider other people very important. Individuals high in n Affiliation believe that goodwill is more important than reason in resolving human problems (McClelland, 1975, 1985). McClelland also argues that persons high in n Affiliation act whenever possible to avoid conflict, and 24 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. n Affiliation is regularly negatively correlated with n Power which promotes competitiveness (McClelland, 1985, p. 355). McClelland reports that people who try to avoid conflict and criticism should not make very good managers, and men with high n Affiliation tend not to make good managers. In a study of AT&T, McClelland and Boyatzis (1982) found that young men with a high n Affiliation tended not to get promoted as often to higher levels of management. McClelland's findings indicate that people with high n Affiliation find it difficult to be effective in typical managerial jobs. This is because they wish to avoid conflict; and such positions require being competitive, influencing others, and making hard decisions which may hurt other people's feelings (McClelland, 1985). He argues high n Affiliation leads to making particular judgments about people in the firm that are viewed as unfair by others and lead to poor morale and less productivity (McClelland, 1985) . High n Affiliation managers make exceptions to rules in terms of the particular needs of individuals, which is a style of managing often seen as unjust by others (McClelland, 1985, p. 318). McClelland (1951) has suggested a two-factor theory of motivation related to Affiliation. He said there may be two types of motives: one characterized by 25 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. approach behavior, the other by avoidance behavior. This was true for both Achievement and Power as well as Affiliation. An individual may seek Affiliation motivation because of the pleasant reward value of the affiliative relationship or because of the painful value of rejection. This fact makes measurement of this motive particularly difficult. The third need is for Power. McClelland (1975) argued that individuals high in n Power exhibit certain characteristics. They are more competitive and aggressive, tend to seek positions of public influence, and like to have people around them who respect them and are loyal supporters. The Power motive leads people to collect whatever symbols of prestige are appropriate for the position they occupy in life (McClelland, 1975, 1985) . McClelland's research has focused on how the Power motive expresses itself at different stages of psychosocial maturity. McClelland (1975) classified these stages as Stage I (Intake), Stage II (Autonomy), Stage III (Assertion), and Stage IV (Generativity/ Mutuality). McClelland summarized these outlets for n Power at different stages as follows. Men with high n Power and Stage I orientation read more power-oriented material, share more secrets, and identify with their 26 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. mothers. Women with high n Power and Stage I orientation have stronger male inspiration than female inspiration, want to have more money to share, and are more bothered when their bodies do not function well. Men with high n Power and Stage II orientation control aggressive impulses, reject institutional demands on them, and no longer ask for help from parents. Women in Stage II share typical signs of independence and tend to have more aggressive impulses which they control. In Stage III, men prefer to be free to love several women at once, lie more, drink more to forget troubles, and collect valuable objects symbolic of their importance. Women in Stage III express more of their anger, like to travel, keep their sex life a secret, and are more assertive. In Stage IV, men have many organizational memberships, fewer possessions, and share more with their wives. Women in Stage IV join more voluntary organizations than women who score low in Stage IV. They share more secrets with their husbands (McClelland 1975, 1985). McClelland focused attention on the Power motive among managers. McClelland argued that since managers are particularly concerned with influencing others, they should be characterized by a high need for Power; and 27 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. the study of the Power motive was a way to determine how effective managers work (McClelland, 1975). Research was directed toward men whose assertiveness at Stage III is either impulsive (Stage Ilia) or disciplined and controlled (Stage Illb). McClelland proposed that men in Stage Ilia should not make particularly good partners or managers. Men in Stage Illb should be better officers of organizations or managers since they discipline their Power impulses (McClelland, 1985, p. 312). McClelland used a simple scoring system to substitute for the Stage Ilia and Stage Illb score to identify men at the controlled assertive stage (McClelland, 1985). The equivalent to the Ilia pattern was high n Power, low n Affiliation, and low Activity Inhibition and is called the Don Juan or conquistador syndrome. The equivalent of the Illb pattern was high n Power, low n Affiliation, and high Activity Inhibition and is called the leadership motive syndrome (McClelland, 1975). McClelland characterized Power as either negative (personal face of Power) or positive (socialized face of Power). Negative (personal face of Power) is characterized by the dominance-submission mode and is primitive in the sense that the strategies employed are learned early in life before a person is socialized 28 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. enough to learn more subtle techniques of influence. The negative face of Power leads to being aggressive and is a simple and direct means of feeling powerful. A person who exercises negative Power tends to treat other people as pawns. This behavior does not often lead to effective social leadership, since people who are treated in this manner tend to be passive and useless to the leader who gets his/her satisfaction from dominating them. Positive or socialized Power is characterized by concern for group goals, for finding those goals that will move others, for helping the group develop goals, for taking initiative in providing means of achieving goals, and for giving group members the feeling of competence they need to work hard for goals (McClelland, 1975, p. 263) . Socialized Power leads to an interest in impersonal conquests and functions in a way that makes members of a group feel like initiators of action rather than providers (McClelland, 1975, p. 263). The importance of activity inhibition within the realm of motivation has been acknowledged by researchers (McClelland, 1975; House, Spangler, & Woycke, 1991). Activity inhibition can be defined as an individual's use of Power to achieve institutional or social goals rather than personal goals. It is expected that a 29 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. positive relationship between activity inhibition and leadership performance exists because individuals with a social orientation would have a predominate concern for the group, not just their personal agenda. Leadership Motive Svndrome Based upon his previous research, McClelland identified a particular motive pattern which he argued enabled people to be effective managers at the higher levels in an organization (McClelland, 1975). This motive pattern was identified as the leadership motive pattern (McClelland, 1975). A review of the literature reveals several empirical studies which investigate the effects of the leadership motive pattern on managerial behavior. McClelland and Burnham (1976) studied a number of individual managers from different large U.S. corporations in an attempt to measure the motivations of both good and bad managers. The managers were administered the Thematic Apperception Test in which they were asked to write a number of stories to pictures of work situations. The stories were coded for the extent the individual was concerned about Achievement, Affiliation, or Power. Concurrently, McClelland and Burnham collected measures of subordinate morale and productivity. Subordinates of the managers were 30 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. surveyed in order to determine managerial effectiveness. Subordinates answered questions about their work which revealed characteristics of their supervisors along several dimensions such as the amount of conformity to rules required, responsibility they felt they were given, emphasis the department placed on standards of performance, degree to which they felt that rewards were given for good work as opposed to punishment for something that goes wrong, degree of organizational clarity in office, and team spirit. The managers who received the highest morale scores (organizational clarity and team spirit) were determined to be the best managers possessing the most desired motive patterns (p. 107). An examination of the motive scores of over 50 managers of both high and low morale units revealed that over 70% of the managers were high in Power motivation compared with men in general. The better managers scored even higher in Power motivation; but the most important determining factor of high morale turned out to be not how their Power need compared to their need to achieve, but whether it was higher than their need to be liked. In some divisions, 73% of the better managers had a stronger need for Power than a need to be liked as compared with 22% of the poorer managers. In addition, 31 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. the better managers tended to score high on both Power and Inhibition (McClelland & Burnham, 1976, p. 103). McClelland and Burnham (1976) have defined a good manager as one who helps subordinates feel strong and responsible, rewards them properly for good performance, and sees that things are organized in such a way that subordinates feel they know what they should be doing. When this type of leadership is modeled, the manager is motivated by the positive face of Power; and organizational productivity should increase. The general conclusion of the study was that the top manager of a company must possess a high need for Power or concern for influencing people. However, this need must be disciplined and controlled so that it is directed toward the benefit of the institution as a whole, not toward the manager's personal aggrandizement. The need for Power of the top manager ought to be greater than his/her need to be liked by other people. The profile of the better managers was found to be high in Power motivation, low in Affiliation motivation, and high in inhibition (McClelland & Burnham, 1976, p. 103) . McClelland and Burnham suggested the combination of high Power motivation and low Affiliation motivation predicts successful leadership among managers and high morale among followers. 32 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. In a study at American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T), McClelland and Boyatzis (1982) administered the Thematic Apperception Test to 311 entry-level managers. A follow-up was conducted with 237 managers who remained with the company after 8 and 16 years to determine their level of advancement. They found that the leadership motive pattern (moderate to high n Power, low n Affiliation and high Activity Inhibition) was significantly associated with managerial success after 8 and 16 years for managers in non technical jobs (McClelland & Boyatzis, 1982) . Men with the leadership motive syndrome were likely to be promoted to higher levels of management in the company over time. On the other hand, men with high n Achievement peaked in their careers at a lower level. According to McClelland and Boyatzis, the explanation seems to be that those with high n Achievement are used to doing things themselves and were able to advance as long as their jobs involved doing things for themselves and by themselves. The success of those with the leadership motive syndrome was based upon the fact that they are interested in influencing others (high n Power), are not overly concerned about whether they are liked or not (low n Affiliation), and are self- 33 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. controlled (high Activity Inhibition) (McClelland & Boyatzis, 1982). Cornelius and Lane (1984) examined the validity of the leadership motive pattern of two levels of technical/professional management personnel in a professionally oriented service industry organization. They sampled 39 managers and found the leadership motive pattern was not related to administrative job performance or subordinate morale. The results suggested that the leadership motive profile may not be critical for managerial success in technical/ professional settings (p. 32). In a study to determine the motivational pattern best suited for each position in the police profession, Chusmir (1984) analyzed and compared Dictionarv of Occupational Titles worker function descriptions with the Thematic Apperception Test scoring instructions for each of the three needs. Chusmir concluded high n Power is required for successful performance of nearly every position on a police force. His findings also indicated that persons with high n Affiliation probably would not make good administrators. Finally, he identified the position of police chief as requiring a high n Power, moderate n Achievement, and a low n Affiliation for successful performance (p. 143). 34 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The extent to which managers possess the need for Achievement, need for Affiliation, and need for Power has been correlated with success in profit and nonprofit organizations (Chusmir, 1985). The pattern of high need for Power, secondary need for Achievement, and low need for Affiliation has been found in college chief executive officers (Crowe, 1990), and top-rated school superintendents (Leonardi, 1992). It has also proven to be an effective means of differentiating between administrators and teachers (Kaufman, 1990). In one study, the motive scores (needs for Achievement, Affiliation and Power) of chief executive officers of the 50 largest industrial firms in the United States were determined using content analysis of letters to stockholders in the firms' annual reports. The study found that the chief executive officers were low in the need for Affiliation, and the results of the study were consistent with the McClelland and Burnham (1976) argument that the best managers should be low in the need for Affiliation (Chusmir & Azevedo, 1992, p. 610). In an attempt to further explain the interaction of these motivational profiles, a number of studies have researched profiles of past U.S. Presidents (Winter, 1987; Spangler & House, 1991). Winter, in a study of 35 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. each president from Washington to Reagan, found that performance and several of the most significant outcomes, such as war entry, were functions more of leader attributes (especially Power motivation) than of leader-situation match. The greatest presidents were those who were least congruent with the followers of their society. Spangler and House found that as much as 59% of the variance in measures of presidential performance may be explained by individual differences in Power, Affiliation, Achievement, and the number of "nots" appearing in presidential speeches and letters. Motives and the interactions of Power and "nots" independently predicted presidential performance. Measuring Three Needs Usina the Job Choice Exercise The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is a projective test in which a person writes stories about pictures. The stories are then content-analyzed by a scorer. However, this measurement approach has been shown to contain much measurement error and is unreliable and invalid (Fineman, 1977; Lundy, 1988). Much of the empirical work associated with the three needs used the TAT to measure n Achievement, n Affiliation, and n Power (Stahl, 1986). The ability of the three needs to explain behavior in organizational contexts and the measurement problems 36 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. of the TAT lead Harrell and Stahl (1981) to search for an alternate measurement approach (Stahl, 1986). Following the recommendations of previous research, they used the behavioral decision theory approach to study expectancy theory. They then applied this decision modeling approach as a methodology to measure McClelland's need for Power, need for Achievement, and need for Affiliation (Harrell & Stahl, 1981). The methodology consists of a decision-making exercise in which the subject makes decisions concerning the attractiveness of 23 hypothetical jobs which are described in terms of Affiliation, Achievement, and Power (Stahl & Harrell, 1982, p. 744). A major advantage of this approach for the investigation of human motivation is that it allows hypotheses to be examined on the basis of actual decision-making behavior exhibited by subjects rather than on subjects' self- reports of their motivation (Stahl, 1986). In an extension of their previous study, Harrell and Stahl (1982) gathered extensive psychometric data from 1,741 subjects including partners in an accounting firm, military officers and cadets, high school students, undergraduates, and graduate students. The measurement instrument. Job Choice Exercise (JCE), was 37 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. found to be reliable, valid, and free of social undesirability bias (Stahl & Harrell, 1982). Stahl (1986) provided the results of empirical data gathered in the following areas: managerial motivation, executive motivation, technical motivation, and helping profession motivation. He hypothesized that the presence of both high n Power and high n Achievement is indicative of high managerial motivation; and, conversely, the lack of both motives is indicative of low managerial motivation. He tested this hypothesis by administering the JCE to five samples consisting of three managerial subsamples from three different organizations. The result supported the presence of both high n Power and high n Achievement as indicative of high managerial motivation. Stahl again demonstrated that a combination of n Power and n Achievement effectively serves as a measure of managerial motivation through a two-year, longitudinal study involving cadets at the United States Air Force Academy. The JCE was administered to an entire 1,417-member freshman class at the Academy. The class included minorities and women. After analyzing longitudinal data with a two-year turnover, Stahl concluded that the use of managerial motivation scores from the JCE would reduce turnover, and the military 38 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. performance average and grade point average would increase. There would be no adverse impact on the selection of women or minorities. Utilizing three college samples including 44 fraternity presidents, 50 nonleaders, and 34 student senators, Stahl found that the JCE managerial motivation measure can be used to identify managerial motivation at an early age. Many organizations face a dilemma when a productive technician or specialist is promoted into a managerial job and the individual turns out to be an ineffective manager. Stahl researched the issue by administering the JCE to four samples of professional employees. The first sample was composed of 92 non- supervisory engineers and scientists. The second sample consisted of 29 second-, third-, and fourth-level managers, and 22 non-supervisory professionals. The third sample was 26 line and staff managers, and the fourth sample consisted of 13 non-supervisory professional employees. The issues were: (1) whether n Power alone differentiates between managers and non managers; (2) whether n Achievement alone differentiates between managers and non-managers; and (3) whether both motives were higher in managers than non-managers. 39 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The results of the study indicated a high level of n Achievement in both managers with professional backgrounds and the non-supervisory professionals. There was also no difference in n Affiliation. Both groups were quite low. However, there was a significant difference between the two groups in n Power. The managers of the professional employees scored higher in n Power than the non-supervisory professionals. Since both the managers and non-managers were high in n Achievement, the difference was n Power. This confirmed the McClelland and Burnham (1976) assertion that Power is the key motivator. McClelland and Burnham (1976) stated that the better managers are high in Power motivation, low in Affiliation motivation, and high in inhibition. McClelland and Boyatzis (1982) modified the model to moderate to high n Power and low n Affiliation. Stahl (1986) conducted research which compared the two models, n Power greater than n Affiliation and high n Power and low n Affiliation, in several samples of executives and managers. The JCE was administered to 47 senior Air Force officers (colonel selectees), 89 officers (majors), 105 junior officers (lieutenants), 311 first-year Air Force academy cadets, 14 senior executives (presidents, vice presidents, chairmen of 40 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. boards) from a variety of private organizations, and two other managerial sample groups. The results indicated that n Power greater than n Affiliation is the preferred model. All of the senior executives (14 of 14) and almost all senior officers (41 of 47) showed the n Power greater than n Affiliation pattern. The results supported the McClelland and Burnham (1976) position that to be effective the top manager's need for power ought to be greater than the need for being liked. Data on executives indicate that: (1) n Power is definitely dominate among executives; (2) n Achievement is somewhat satisfied; and (3) n Affiliation is the lowest (Stahl, 1986, p. 123). Based upon his research, Stahl (1986) concluded that managers who aspire to executive-level positions should have motivational profiles which reflect n Power greater than n Affiliation. His data demonstrated that an executive is almost never found with n Affiliation greater than n Power. McClelland (1981) argued that the n Power motive changes very slowly. Stahl concluded that managers who view themselves as candidates for executive-level positions should be counseled away from such aspirations if their profile reflects n Affiliation greater than n Power. 41 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Stahl was able to demonstrate that the JCE is a psychometrically sound instrument which can be utilized to operationalize McClelland's theory of n Affiliation, n Achievement, and n Power in a number of organizational contexts. Prison Social Climate Survey The measurement of the work environment of organizations has proven to be a difficult endeavor. Considerable research has shown that the concept of social climate has been useful in the measurement of organizational work environment (Saylor & Wright, 1992) . Field and Abelson (1982) argue that a wide variety of external organizational and personal factors influence climate. Considerable research indicates that a group of diverse factors, including managerial behavior and leadership patterns, influence climate (Field & Abelson, 1982, pp. 182-184). Climate determines organizational outcomes such as productivity, performance, satisfaction, and personal growth (Simms & Lafollette, 1975). The Federal Prison System utilizes a program to measure the social climate within its facilities consistent with the use of the concept in business and industry (Saylor & Wright, 1992). The Prison Social Climate Survey provides an extensive inventory of what 42 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. it is like to work in federal prisons (Wright & Saylor, 1991). The work environment section of the Prison Social Climate Survey most closely approximates the concept of social climate used by industrial psychologists (Saylor & Wright, 1992). Since 1988, the Prison Social Climate Survey has been administered to a large sample of all employees in all federal prisons on an annual basis. Each year a lengthy questionnaire is mailed to a large sample of all employees at all federal prisons (Saylor, 1983). The instrument provides critical information about staff members' perceptions and attitudes regarding the prison work environment, care and custody of inmates, and the personal well-being of the staff. The work environment section of the Prison Social Climate Survey consists of 49 specific questions which ask respondents about their impressions of the working environment at their facility. The results are organized into nine scales which are used to measure concepts that cannot be assessed reliably by one question alone. Therefore, the scale scores reflect responses to groups of questions that address a common concept. The scales are institution/organizational operations, quality of supervision, commitment to institution, commitment to Bureau of Prisons, 43 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. effectiveness in working with inmates, job satisfaction, support of training, effectiveness of training, and job stress. 44 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Research Purpose Previous studies of the individuals who serve as prison wardens have typically examined demographic issues rather than personal characteristics such as the motivational drives which transform abilities and skills into effective performance in the role of prison warden. This research addresses this shortcoming by providing insight into the people who currently function in the role of prison warden and the personal motivational characteristics necessary for effective performance in the position. The purpose of this study was to identify the motivational profiles that exist in individuals currently functioning in the role of prison warden and to determine if there is a relationship between a warden's motivational profile and effective management. McClelland and Burnham (1976, p. 101) concluded that to be effective the top manager's need for Power ought to be greater than his/her need for being liked by people. They (p. 103) also stated that the better 45 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. managers they studied were high in Power motivation, low in Affiliation motivation and high in inhibition. Stahl (1986, p. 82), through numerous tests of two models (high need for Power and low need for Affiliation and need for Power greater than need for Affiliation), expanded this conclusion to include high-ranking military officers as well as senior executives in industry. This research utilized Stahl's models to apply this theoretical concept to prison wardens. Sample The primary unit of analysis for this study was federal prison wardens. The sample (n=25) consisted of all persons who continuously served as wardens between January 1990 and September 1993 in the Federal Bureau of Prisons.' The sample consisted of wardens from administrative, low-, medium-, and high-security level institutions and included minorities and females. This purposeful sample was chosen for two reasons. First, several of the wardens who fall into this category served at more than one institution during the four ‘ Although the sample size (n=25) is relatively small, it represents over 36% of all wardens currently serving in low-, medium-, high-, and administrative- security-level facilities in the Federal Bureau of Prisons and 100% of those who served continuously in these security-level facilities during the period of the study. 46 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. years. This increased the number of institution staff perceptions which could be compared with each warden's motivational profile. Second, this particular time period for the sample was chosen because the secondary research information which was utilized to determine staff perceptions of institution operations and satisfaction with and commitment to the institution was available only from 1989 to 1993. Theoretical Framework The trichotomy of needs theory developed by David McClelland formed the conceptual framework for this study. The motivational profiles of federal prison wardens were formulated based upon the need for Affiliation (n Affiliation), the need for Power (n Power), and the need for Achievement (n Achievement). Identification and Measurement Utilizing Job Choice Exercise The instrument used to identify motivational profiles was the Job Choice Exercise (JCE) (Stahl & Harrell, 1981). The Job Choice Exercise is a decision- modeling approach to studying motivation. (See Appendix C.) The advantage of this approach is that the scores are based on the decision-making behavior of subjects rather than subjects' self-reports of their motivation (Stahl, 1986). 47 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The JCE contains clear, well-tested instructions and is designed to be self-administered by each subject. Completion takes approximately 20 to 30 minutes. The completion of the JCE required each respondent to assume that he/she was seeking a job and that all other job outcomes, such as pay and hours worked, were the same across 30 jobs. The only way the hypothetical jobs differed was in the wording of the cues for need for Affiliation, need for Power, and the need for Achievement. Each of the cues was assigned a different value of either Very High (95%) or Very Low (5%) for each job. For example, a typical job was presented as follows. In this job, the likelihood that a major portion of your duties will involve: Establishing and maintaining friendly relationships with others .... VERY HIGH (95%) Influencing the activities or thoughts of a number of individuals VERY LOW (5%) Accomplishing difficult (but feasible) goals and later receiving detailed information about your personal performance.............VERY HIGH (95%) The subject was asked to make a decision (Decision A) to indicate the attractiveness of the job to them by indicating on a scale of either 0 to -5 (Very 48 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Unattractive) or 0 to +5 (Very Attractive). Further information concerning the effort expended to get the job was also provided. Each job was assigned a likelihood of success of one of three values— very low (5%), medium (50%), or very high (95%). The subject was informed that if he/she exerted a great deal of effort to get the job the likelihood he/she would be successful would be one of the three assigned values. The subject was then asked to make a decision (Decision B) which required the subject to rate the effort he/she was likely to expend to get the job as 0 (Zero effort to get it) to 10 (Great effort to get it). The measurement methodology was regression of the Decision A values on the three cues which yielded three standardized regression coefficients (beta weights) that represent need for Affiliation, need for Power, and need for Achievement. The standardized regression coefficient (beta weight) is the motive score. Further Information and Decision B were included only as a distractor, and neither was used to compute the need for Affiliation, need for Power, or need for Achievement scores from regressions of the Decision A values on the three cues (Stahl, 1986). The basic design of the JCE is a full factorial with each of the three cues at two levels, for a total 49 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. of eight basic jobs (2x2x2). Since Further Information is presented at three levels (5%, 50%, and 95%), a triple replicate of 2^ yielded a total of 24 values of decision A (3x2x2x2). In addition to the 24 jobs associated with the triple replicate of the three cues at two levels, six additional jobs are at the front of the decision-making exercise. These six jobs are not included in the computation of the three need scores and only serve the purpose of allowing the subject to become familiar with the methodology of the JCE. Therefore, the JCE has 30 jobs of which 24 are scored (Stahl, 1986). Statistical analysis of several samples indicated the test-retest reliability of the JCE to average .82 for the three needs indicating a high degree of reliability over time. The internal consistency measurement as determined by the average individual was .77. The JCE has also been found to be free of a social desirability bias (Stahl, 1986). The Job Choice Exercise is a valid and reliable instrument which assesses the needs for Power, Achievement, and Affiliation (Stahl & Harrell, 1982) . Scoring was accomplished by use of software, JCESKOR, which has been designed for the Job Choice Exercise. The Job Choice Exercise and JCESKOR are 50 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. copyrighted instruments, and permission for their use was obtained from Dr. Michael J. Stahl. Research Design There were four research questions addressed in this study. 1. What is the most frequent motivational profile found among federal prison wardens? 2. Do the motivational profiles found among federal prison wardens exhibit a high need for Power (n Power) and a low need for Affiliation (n Affiliation) consistent with the motivational profiles exhibited by role-similar individuals in the work force? 3. Are staff of federal prisons characterized by a warden with a motivational profile which emphasizes a high need for Power (n Power) and a low need for Affiliation (n Affiliation) more likely to have a favorable perception of the operation of their respective institutions? 4. Are staff of federal prisons characterized by a warden with a motivational profile which emphasizes a high need for Power (n Power) and a low need for Affiliation (n Affiliation) more likely to be satisfied with and committed to their respective institutions? The hypotheses of this dissertation were as follows: 51 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Hypothesis 1; The most frequent motivational profile found among federal prison wardens will reflect a low need for Affiliation (n Affiliation), a high need for Power (n Power), and a low need for Achievement (n Achievement). Hypothesis 2 ; Federal prison wardens will exhibit a motivational profile which reflects a high need for Power (n Power) and a low need for Affiliation (n Affiliation) consistent with the motivation profiles exhibited among role-similar individuals in the work force. Hvpothesis 3 ; Staff of federal prisons characterized by a warden's motivational profile which emphasizes a high need for Power (n Power) and a low need for Affiliation (n Affiliation) are more likely to have a favorable perception of the operations of their institutions. Hvpothesis 4; Staff of federal prisons characterized by a warden's motivational profile which emphasizes a high need for Power (n Power) and a low need for Affiliation (n Affiliation) are more likely to be satisfied with and committed to their institutions. This research was conducted utilizing a survey research design. Each warden was personally contacted by telephone or in person and requested to complete the 52 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Job Choice Exercise. An 85% to 95% response rate was predicted, since 24 of the 25 wardens in the sample are currently employed in the Federal Bureau of Prisons, were easily contacted, and initially agreed to participate in the study.% Identification and Comparison of Motivational Profiles The relevant information on motivational profile was developed for each warden by scoring the results utilizing the JCESKOR computer software. The JCESKOR results provided standardized beta weights and percentile scores for n Affiliation, n Power, and n Achievement. (See Appendix D.) Based upon extensive experimentation utilizing regression analysis, Stahl (1986) determined that mean scores from the JCE would act as the cut-off scores when establishing significance. Stahl (1986), through reported data for 1,741 respondents from nationwide samples who completed the JCE, determined a subject who had a beta score for n Power greater than .314 was high in the need for Power. A subject with a beta score for n Achievement greater than .464 was high in need for Achievement. A subject who had a beta score greater than .48 for n Affiliation was high in need for ^One warden retired during 1994. 53 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Affiliation. Subjects were considered low in n Power if their score was less than or equal to .314 for n Power. Subjects were considered low in n Achievement if their score was less than or equal to .464 for n Achievement. Subjects were considered low in n Affiliation if their score was less than or equal to .48 for n Affiliation. The results of the JCE were examined to determine if the most frequent motivational profile reflects, as predicted, low need for Affiliation (n Affiliation), high need for Power (n Power), and low need for Achievement (n Achievement). The motivational profiles identified for prison wardens were then compared with the executive motivation profile model (high n Power and low n Affiliation) identified in extensive research by Stahl (1986) as the motivational profile for high ranking military officers and senior executives in industry, and by Leonardi (1992) as the motivational profile for top-rated school superintendents. Determining Managerial Effectiveness This dissertation utilized secondary research information obtained from the Federal Bureau of Prisons' Prison Social Climate Survey. The Prison Social Climate Survey was not specifically designed for this study; however, the information it contained is reliable, 54 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. valid, and is utilized in a wide variety of research efforts on organizations (Wright & Saylor, 1991) and is extensively used by management in the Federal Bureau of Prisons. The survey is conducted each year by the research staff of the Federal Bureau of Prisons. The survey is completed by a random sample of staff from each federal prison facility. The use of employee perceptions obtained from a climate survey as a means of determining managerial effectiveness is consistent with previous research (McClelland & Burnham, 1976; Cornelius & Lane 1984). In the real world, performance measures are hard to come by if one is trying to rate managerial effectiveness (McClelland & Burnham, 1976). One way to determine how effective managers are is to ask the people who work for them (McClelland & Burnham, 1976). This dissertation follows this approach and utilizes the information gained from the Prison Social Climate Survey work environment section scales of staff perceptions of institution operations and satisfaction with and commitment to the institution as the measure of managerial effectiveness. (See Appendix E.) The results of the Prison Climate Survey conducted for the four-year period, 1990-1993, for each federal prison in which the sampled wardens have served as 55 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. warden were obtained from Federal Bureau of Prisons archives. The staff responses for institution operations and institution satisfaction and commitment were available for each year from 1989 to 1993 for each federal prison. The institution operations scale is made up of ten items which institution staff are asked to anonymously rate as Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Somewhat Disagree, Undecided, Somewhat Agree, Agree, Strongly Agree, or No Response. The total staff rating each item favorably (Somewhat Agree, Agree, Strongly Agree), unfavorably (Somewhat Disagree, Disagree, Strongly Disagree), and Undecided is computed. A ratio of favorable to unfavorable responses for institution operations is then calculated for each scale. A favorable to unfavorable ratio of 1.0 indicates that as many staff have a favorable perception as have an unfavorable perception on the scale. A favorable perception by staff, as indicated by a favorable to unfavorable ratio of greater than 1.0, reflects successful prison operations for the purpose of this study.^ The ten items which make up the institution operations scale are; ^Favorable to unfavorable ratio was utilized because it represents a better distribution, is easily interpreted, and is convenient to use. 56 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1. The information I get through formal communications channels helps me perform my job effectively. ■ 2. In the BOP, it is usually clear who has the formal authority to make a decision. 3. It really is possible to change things in this institution. 4. I am told promptly when there is a change in policy, rules, or regulations that affect me. 5. I have the authority I need to accomplish my work objectives. 6. Employees have the opportunity to influence what goes on in the BOP. 7. Under the present system, promotions are usually related to employee performance. 8. Management at this facility is flexible enough to make changes when necessary. 9. In the BOP, authority is clearly delegated. 10. In general, this facility is run very well. The institution commitment scale consists of three items which are rated in an identical manner to the institution operations scale. The three items which comprise the institution commitment scale are: 1. This facility is the best in the BOP. 57 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2. I would rather be stationed at this facility than any other I know about. 3. I would like to continue working at this facility. The institution operations and staff satisfaction and commitment scales were utilized because they closely replicate the concepts of organizational clarity and team spirit utilized by McClelland and Burnham (1976) and identity and structure utilized by Cornelius and Lane (1984) in previous studies of managerial effectiveness. Staff perception of institution operations and staff satisfaction and commitment to the institution as indicated by the favorable to unfavorable ratio was established for a four-year period by using the results of the Prison Social Climate Survey. This included perceptions on 9,856 staff surveys from 35 separate institutions. Three institutions provided staff perceptions on two different wardens from the sample. The wardens were grouped based upon their motivational profile. Wardens with a profile of high need for Power and low need for Affiliation were placed in one group. Wardens with different profiles were placed in the other groups. Each warden's career history between 1990 and 1993 was examined based upon 58 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. the results of the annual Prison Social Climate Survey for each institution where the warden had served. This approach provided staff perceptions of each warden for up to four years. In some cases, information was available from only one institution. However, in most cases, the information was obtained from at least two institutions. No warden had served in more than two institutions during the period of the study. Five wardens had served in the same institution as other wardens in the sample. The ratio of favorable to unfavorable responses for institution operations and satisfaction and commitment for each institution for each year was totaled and divided by the number of years to establish a mean ratio for each warden. In order to allow as much time as possible for a warden to have an impact on staff perceptions, two criteria were established. First, no survey results were used unless the warden had served at least six months in the institution prior to the survey being conducted.'* Second, no results were utilized if “ *The Prison Social Climate Survey directs staff to consider work environment during only the last 6 months prior to the survey when answering questions. 59 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. the warden had transferred from the institution prior to the survey being conducted.* The average favorable to unfavorable ratio of staff perception of institution operations during the study period for each of the wardens was ordered according to the size of the ratio. When the number of favorable to unfavorable responses are equal, the ratio is one. Therefore, the higher the ratio the more favorable the response. Each ratio in the order was identified by the warden's motivational profile based on n Affiliation and n Power. The average favorable to unfavorable ratios of staff satisfaction with and commitment to the institution were handled in exactly the same manner as institution operations ratios. The results were examined to determine if, as hypothesized, staff perceptions of institution operations are more likely to be favorable and if staff are more likely to indicate a favorable level of satisfaction with and commitment to the institution in those institutions characterized by wardens with a *In the Bureau of Prisons there is very little break in time between one warden leaving and another arriving. However, even though the time between wardens is very brief, an associate warden is usually appointed as acting warden. This may effect staff perceptions of the work environment. Therefore, a more accurate response is obtained if the warden is still present in the institution at the time of the survey. 60 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. motivational profile which emphasized high need for Power and low need for Affiliation. 61 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER IV DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS Introduction Analysis of the research results are presented in Chapter 4. Findings are presented in both narrative form and in tables. Discussion of sample return rates and sample demographics is presented first. The findings of Research Question 1 and a discussion of Hypothesis 1 are then presented. These findings include identification of the most frequent motivational profile of federal prison wardens in the sample. This is followed by the findings of Research Question 2 and a discussion of Hypothesis 2. These results consist of comparison of the findings concerning wardens' motivational profiles with similar research on motivational profiles of executives in fields outside of corrections. The findings of Research Questions 3 and 4 and a discussion of Hypotheses 3 and 4 are presented last. These findings determine if staff perceptions of institution operations are more likely to be favorable 62 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. and if staff are more likely to indicate a favorable level of satisfaction with and commitment to the institution in those federal prisons characterized by wardens with a motivational profile which emphasized high need for Power and low need for Affiliation. The chapter concludes with a brief summary of the findings. Sample Return Rate The sample for this research consisted of the total population of federal prison wardens (n=25) who had continuously served as wardens for the time span of the study. The period, 1990 through 1993, was chosen due to the fact that prison climate survey data was available only during that period. Each of the 25 wardens identified for the sample was contacted personally by telephone and asked to participate in the study. All of the wardens agreed to participate in the research and subsequently completed the instrument. Participation consisted of completion of the Job Choice Exercise instrument which required approximately 25-30 minutes for each subject. The return rate for this study was 100%. This was above the 85% to 95% predicted rate of return. Many of the wardens' comments to the researcher indicated they thought a study about persons in their unique position 63 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. was very timely. This probably accounts for the high return rate. The return rate information is presented in Table 1. TABLE 1 RETURN RATES (n=25) JCE NO. % Return Rate 25 100 Useable n 25 100 Demographics The sample for this study included both male and female and consisted of Caucasian, African-American, and Hispanic wardens. However, the majority were Caucasian males. This reflects the current gender and racial composition of federal prison wardens. The sample consisted of highly experienced wardens. Twenty (80%) of the wardens have more than 20 years' service. The average number of years service in the Federal Bureau of Prisons is over 21 years and ranges from a low of 16 years to a high of 29 years. The average time served in the position of warden is 7 years, 5 months. The shortest amount of time served as a warden is 4 years, and the longest is 21 years. A 64 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. detailed breakdown of demographic information is presented in Table 2. TABLE 2 DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION ON FEDERAL PRISON WARDENS IN SAMPLE (n=25) ITEM NO. WARDENS % Years BOP 15-20 5 20 21-25 14 56 264- 6 24 Years Warden 0—5 9 36 6-10 13 52 11-20 2 8 2 04- 1 4 Race Caucasian 22 88 African-American 2 8 Other 1 4 Gender Male 24 96 Female 1 4 Identification of Wardens' Motivational Profile Utilizing Job Choice Exercise and JCESKOR As discussed in Chapter 3, Stahl (1986), through extensive nationwide testing, was able to demonstrate 65 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. that the Job Choice Exercise (JCE) is a psychometrically sound instrument which can be utilized to operationalize McClelland's theory of n Affiliation, n Power, and n Achievement. Utilizing the Job Choice Exercise instrument, Stahl gathered a substantial amount of data on managers and executives in a variety of fields. The JCE was utilized to identify n Affiliation, n Power, and n Achievement of federal prison wardens in this study. The JCESKOR microcomputer software was used to process JCE responses in this research. Each subject was asked to provide responses to 24 questions about hypothetical jobs. The only way the jobs differed was in the wording of the cues for need for Affiliation, need for Power, and need for Achievement. The subject was asked to make a decision (Decision A) to indicate the attractiveness of the job to them by indicating his/her response on a scale of either 0 to -5 (Very Unattractive) or 0 to +5 (Very Attractive). The measurement methodology was regression of the Decision A values on the three cues which yielded three standardized regression coefficients (beta weights) that represent need for Affiliation, need for Power, and need for Achievement. The JCESKOR printout provides information on standardized beta weights for need for Affiliation, need for Power, and need for Achievement; 66 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. percentile rankings for each of the three scores; and a measure of an individual's managerial motivation which was represented positively by a 1, neutral by a 0, or negatively by a -1. (See Appendix D.) Stahl (1986), after considerable testing utilizing regression analysis, determined that mean scores from the JCE would be used when establishing significance. This means that a high need for Power is represented by a beta power score greater than .314. A high need for Achievement is represented by a beta Achievement score of greater than .464. A high need for Affiliation is represented by a beta Affiliation score of greater than .48. Scores in each need equal to or below these scores are categorized as low scores. To facilitate clarity and understanding, the percentile rankings for each of the motive needs rather than beta scores are utilized throughout this study when motive needs are discussed. The mean beta score for each need is represented by the 50th percentile. Research Question 1 1. What is the most frequent motivational profile found among federal prison wardens? The results of the JCE and the JCESKOR provided detailed information on the motivational needs of each warden in the sample. 67 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. An examination of the frequency of each high motive need reveals a high need for Power was found among 84% of the federal prison wardens tested. This was followed by high need for Achievement (68%). The least frequently found motive need was a high need for Affiliation (28%). The finding that the most frequent high motivational need among the federal prison wardens in this study is a high need for Power is consistent with McClelland and Burnham's (1976) argument that power is the great motivator of top-level executives. Table 3 presents the findings concerning the frequency of each motive need. TABLE 3 FREQUENCY OF FEDERAL PRISON WARDENS' MOTIVE NEEDS (n=25) MOTIVE NEED NO. WARDENS % High n Power 21 84 High n Affiliation 7 28 High n Achievement 17 68 The results of the JCE also indicate that in addition to being the most frequent motivational need found in the federal wardens, the mean percentile score for need for Power is high in comparison to other motive 68 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. needs. The n Power mean percentile is over two times higher than the mean percentile score for n Affiliation and almost one and one-third times higher than the mean percentile score for n Achievement. The mean percentile score for each motive is presented in Table 4. TABLE 4 FEDERAL PRISON WARDENS' MOTIVE NEEDS PERCENTILE SCORES MOTIVE NEED MEAN PERCENTILE SCORE RANGE LOW HIGH High n Power 73 .82 27.10 98.50 High n Affiliation 32.79 3.80 71.60 High n Achievement 57.88 1.00 95.40 The motive needs for Affiliation, Power, and Achievement were combined to establish a complete motivational profile for each warden. The results indicated 6 different combinations of profiles among the 25 wardens. The most frequent combination identified for the federal prison wardens in the sample (48%) was low n Affiliation, high n Power, and high n Achievement. This combination was substantially more prevalent than the next two most frequent profiles which were low n Affiliation, high n Power, low n Achievement (16%), and high n Affiliation, high n Power, high n Achievement 69 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. (16%). Table 5 reflects the various profile combinations identified in this study. TABLE 5 IDENTIFIED MOTIVATIONAL PROFILES OF FEDERAL PRISON WARDENS (n=25) PROFILE NO. % Low n Aff, High n Pow, High n Ach 12 48 Low n Aff, High n Pow, Low n Ach 4 16 High n Aff, High n Pow, High n Ach 4 16 High n Aff, High n Pow, Low n Ach 2 8 High n Aff, Low n Pow, Low n Ach 1 4 Low n Aff, Low n Pow, Low n Ach 0 0 Low n Aff, Low n Pow, High n Ach 2 8 In response to Research Question 1, the results indicate that the most frequent motivational profile found among federal prison wardens is low n Affiliation, high n Power, and high n Achievement. Hvpothesis 1 1. The most frequent motivational profile found among federal prison wardens will reflect a low need for Affiliation (n Affiliation), a high need for Power (n Power), and a low need for Achievement (n Achievement). The results of this study do not support Hypothesis 1. Hypothesis 1 was assessed based on the 70 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. frequency of federal prison wardens exhibiting the hypothesized profile. The federal prison wardens' motivational profiles reflect that three times the number of the wardens in the sample have a low n Affiliation, high n Power, high n Achievement combination than have the predicted low n Affiliation, high n Power, low n Achievement combination. It was hypothesized that the most frequent motivational profile of the federal prison wardens would reflect a low n Affiliation, high n Power, and low n Achievement. This assumption was based upon several studies. McClelland and Boyatzis (1982) found that those with a moderate to high n Power and low n Affiliation were likely to be promoted to higher levels of management over time, and those with high n Achievement peaked in their careers at a lower level. Stahl (1986) argued that low n Affiliation and high n Power are most likely to be found in executives and that n Achievement may be somewhat satisfied by that stage in their career. He also found that a combination of high n Achievement and high n Power is the motivator for low and middle level managers (p. 42). Since federal prison wardens occupy executive-level positions in their organization, it was not expected that the most frequent motivational profile found among them would be one which 71 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. is more closely identified with lower- and middle-level managers than with executive-level managers. This finding will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 5. Comparison of Wardens With Role-Similar Individuals Research Question 2 2. Do the motivational profiles found among federal prison wardens exhibit a high need for Power (n Power) and a low need for Affiliation (n Affiliation) consistent with the motivational profiles exhibited by role-similar individuals in the work force? The motivational profiles identified for federal prison wardens were compared with the executive motivational profile model (low n Affiliation, high n Power) identified in extensive research by Stahl (1986) as the motivational profile found in high ranking military officers and senior executives in industry and by Leonardi (1992) as the motivational profile found in top-rated school superintendents. Stahl and Harrell (1982) reported on 1,741 subjects from seven samples who completed the JCE. These scores were utilized to identify the motivational profiles for several elements of the work force including successful senior executives from a variety of private industry organizations including manufacturing, financial, holding, and international firms and military 72 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. executives (Air Force Colonels) assigned to the Air War College (Stahl, 1986). Employing the JCE, Leonardi (1992) also identified the motivational profiles of top- rated school superintendents. Utilizing percentile scores, the findings of these studies are examined against the motivational profiles identified for federal prison wardens in this study. As discussed previously, a percentile score above 50% indicates a high motive need, and a percentile score below 50% indicates a low motive need. Examination of the results reveals that there is a substantial similarity between the average percentile scores of the wardens for all three motive needs and the average percentile scores for the motive needs of the other three groups. All of the groups reflect an average percentile score which indicates a low n Affiliation, high n Power, and high n Achievement. The average n Power percentile scores for wardens are slightly higher than those of school superintendents and slightly lower than those of military executives or senior executives. However, all scores are within 11 percentage points of each other. The n Achievement average percentile scores for wardens are consistent with those of the other three groups. The federal prison wardens' n Achievement 73 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. scores are slightly above those of the military executives and slightly below those of the school superintendents and senior executives. However, the scores among all four groups are within 7 percentage points of each other. The n Affiliation average percentile scores are very close (within 4 percentage points) for military executives, school superintendents, and federal prison wardens. However, the average n Affiliation percentile scores for all three groups are 2 0 points above those of the senior executives. The finding of the difference in the senior executive scores will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 5. Table 6 provides the average motive percentile scores for senior executives, military executives (Air Force colonels), school superintendents, and federal prison wardens. An analysis of n Power and n Affiliation reveals a substantial similarity between the percentage of wardens (64%), school superintendents (61%), and military executives (64%) who exhibit the low n Affiliation, high n Power motivational profile model. The number of senior executives (86%) exhibiting the model was slightly higher than the other groups. 74 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE 6 AVERAGE MOTIVE PERCENTILE SCORES FOR SENIOR EXECUTIVES, AIR FORCE COLONELS, SCHOOL SUPERINTENDENTS, AND FEDERAL PRISON WARDENS (n=25) MOTIVE SENIOR EXECUTIVE n=14 AIR FORCE COLONELS n=47 SCHOOL SUPERINT. n=39 FEDERAL WARDENS n=25 Need for Power 85 82 71 74 Need for Achievement 63 52 65 58 Need for Affiliation 15 37 35 33 Table 7 provides information on the comparison. As discussed in Chapter 3, Stahl (1986) operationalized a second model— need for Power greater than need for Affiliation. This model was based upon the McClelland and Burnham (1976) statement that a top manager's need for Power ought to be greater than his/her need for being liked by people. Applying this model to JCE results for 47 Air Force colonels at the Air Force War College, the Air Force's senior service school, Stahl's research indicated that 41 of 47 (87%) officers exhibited a motivational profile with n Power greater than n Affiliation. Stahl also found the model was exhibited 75 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE 7 FREQUENCY OF HIGH N POWER, LOW N AFFILIATION MOTIVATIONAL PROFILE MODEL POSITION FREQUENCY HIGH N POWER LOW N AFF. % SAMPLE AVG. % SCORE N POWER N AFF. Senior Executives 12/14 86 85 15 Air Force Colonels 30/47 64 82 37 School Super intendents 24/39 61 71 35 Federal Prison Wardens 16/25 64 74 33 in the motivational profiles for 14 of 14 (100%) of successful senior executives from private industry. Leonardi's (1992) research on motivational profiles of top-rated school superintendents found that the n Power greater than n Affiliation model applied to 85% of the superintendents. Evaluation of the JCE scores of the federal prison wardens reveals that 24 of 25 (96%) of the sample exhibit a motivational profile of n Power greater than n Affiliation. This indicates an extremely high identification, since the model applies to all but one of the federal prison wardens in the sample. This percentage is higher than that found among senior 76 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. military officers or school superintendents and slightly less than found among senior executives in industry. The frequency of the need for Power greater than the need for Affiliation model among the role-similar groups is reflected in Table 8. TABLE 8 FREQUENCY OF N POWER > N AFFILIATION MODEL (n=25) ROLE-SIMILAR POSITION NO. % Air Force Colonels (n=47) 41/47 87 Senior Executives (n=14) 14/14 100 School Superintendents (n=39) 33/39 85 Federal Prison Wardens (n=25) 24/25 96 The response to Research Question 2 provided by the findings is that federal prison wardens have a high n Power and low n Affiliation motivational profile, which is consistent with the profiles found among role- similar individuals in the work force. Hypothesis 2 2. Federal Prison wardens will exhibit a motivational profile which reflects a high need for Power (n Power) and a low need for Affiliation (n 77 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Affiliation) consistent with the motivational profiles exhibited among role-similar individuals in the work force. The findings of this study indicate substantial support for Hypothesis 2. Hypothesis 2 was assessed by a comparison of average percentile scores for need for Power and need for Affiliation between federal prison wardens, senior executives, military executives (Air Force colonels) and school superintendents. It was also assessed through an examination of the frequency in which the high n Power, low n Affiliation model was found among the groups. The intent of this comparison was not to provide an exact correlation with Stahl's or Leonardi's data but, rather, to describe their data in relation to the data in this study in order to determine consistency among the role-similar groups. The federal prison wardens' average motive percentile scores for n Power (74%) were consistent with the average percentile n Power scores (79%) of the three other role-similar groups. The average motive percentile scores for n Affiliation of the federal prison wardens (33%) were very consistent with those of the school superintendents (35%) and Air Force colonels (37%). The senior executives' average n Affiliation scores (15%) were slightly lower than the other groups. 78 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Similarities are evident when comparing federal prison wardens with senior executives, Air Force colonels, and school superintendents utilizing the high n Power, low n Affiliation model. The frequency of occurrence of the high n Power, low n Affiliation model among the federal prison warden sample (64%) is consistent with the average occurrence among the other groups (70%). Application of the n Power greater than n Affiliation model resulted in an even greater consistency among the groups as reflected in Table 8. Determining Managerial Effectiveness As discussed in Chapter 3, the use of employee perceptions obtained from a climate survey as a means of determining managerial effectiveness is consistent with previous research (McClelland & Burnham, 1976; Cornelius & Lane, 1984). This study utilized two separate favorable to unfavorable (favorable/unfavorable) ratios based upon staff perceptions which were provided by the Prison Social Climate Survey. The first was favorable to unfavorable ratio of staff perceptions of institution operations. The second was favorable to unfavorable (favorable/unfavorable) ratio of staff satisfaction with and commitment to the institution. These two ratios were calculated based upon the perceptions contained in 79 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 9,856 staff surveys from 35 institutions during the period of the study. The ratios from the annual Prison Social Climate Survey for each institution in each year the institution was headed by a sampled warden were totaled, and an average ratio was calculated for each warden. The average favorable/unfavorable ratio of staff perceptions for institution operations during the study period obtained for each of the twenty-five wardens in the sample was ordered according to the size of the ratio. When the number of favorable to unfavorable responses are equal, the ratio is one. Therefore, the higher the ratio the more favorable the staff response. Each ratio was identified by the warden's motivational profile based upon n Affiliation and n Power.* Institution Operations Research Question 3 3. Are staff of federal prisons characterized by a warden with a motivational profile which emphasizes a high need for Power (n Power) and a low need for *There were four separate combinations of n Affiliation and n Power found among the federal prison wardens in the sample. These were low n Affiliation, high n Power; high n Affiliation, high n Power; low n Affiliation, low n Power; and high n Affiliation, low n Power. These groups are reflected in the Tables in this section. 80 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Affiliation (n Affiliation) more likely to have a favorable perception of the operation of their respective institution? The results reveal a range of ratios from a high of 7.00 to a low of 1.39. The median ratio was 2.74 while the mean ratio was 3.03. The presence of an extremely high value (7.00) positively skews the distribution. In such a case, the mean may be misleading, and it is best to present the median (O'Sullivan & Rassel, 1989, p. 328). For this reason, the median rather than the mean is utilized as the midpoint in the analysis of the order of the favorable/unfavorable ratios. Table 9 reflects the range of ratios and the motivational needs of each warden in the sample. In order to address this research question, the profiles of the wardens above and at or below the median of the distribution of ratios were examined. This approach was utilized since the larger ratios are above the median, and the larger ratios indicate more favorable staff perceptions of institution operations. 81 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE 9 FEDERAL PRISON WARDENS' PROFILES AND FAVORABLE TO UNFAVORABLE RATIOS OF STAFF PERCEPTIONS OF INSTITUTION OPERATIONS (n=25) FAVORABLE RATIO STAFF PERCEPTION INSTITUTION OPERATIONS NO. STAFF WARDEN'S PROFILE N AFF. N POWER 7.00 472 High High 5.99 130 Low High 5.22 206 Low Low 5.18 384 Low High 3.99 134 Low High 3.64 502 Low High 3.63 221 Low High 3.58 289 Low High 3.15 383 Low High 3.13 699 Low High 3.02 293 Low High 2.75 345 Low High 2.74 643 Low Low 2.49 116 Low High 2.45 356 High High 2.23 368 High High 2.12 194 Low Low 2.08 669 High High 1.82 401 High High 1.80 273 High Low 1.70 462 Low High 1.61 691 Low High 82 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE 9 (continued) FAVORABLE RATIO STAFF PERCEPTION INSTITUTION OPERATIONS NO. STAFF WARDEN'S PROFILE N AFF. N POWER 1.60 331 Low High 1.55 766 Low High 1.39 528 High High The examination indicates that 84% of the wardens with average ratios found above the median have a low need for Affiliation and high need for Power profile. In fact, wardens with low n Affiliation, high n Power motivational profiles were found with ratios above the median over ten times more frequently than were wardens with different motivational profiles. An examination of ratios at or below the median reveals a more evenly divided group. Of those wardens at or below the median, 39% have a low n Affiliation, high n Power profile as do 39% with a high n Affiliation, high Power n profile. Wardens with the two remaining profiles account for 15% and 7%, respectively. Table 10 reflects the frequency of types of motivational profiles above the median, and Table 11 reflects the frequency at or below the median. 83 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE 10 FREQUENCY OF MOTIVATIONAL PROFILES OF FEDERAL PRISON WARDENS ABOVE MEDIAN; INSTITUTION OPERATIONS (n=12) MOTIVATIONAL PROFILE NO. % Low n Affiliation, High n Power 10 84 High n Affiliation High n Power 1 8 Low n Affiliation Low n Power 1 8 High n Affiliation Low n Power 0 0 TABLE 11 FREQUENCY OF MOTIVATIONAL PROFILES OF FEDERAL PRISON WARDENS BELOW MEDIAN: INSTITUTION OPERATIONS (n=13) MOTIVATIONAL PROFILE NO. % Low n Affiliation High n Power 5 39 High n Affiliation High n Power 5 39 Low n Affiliation Low n Power 2 15 High n Affiliation Low n Power 1 7 An examination of each of the four groups of identified warden profiles indicates that a larger 84 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. percentage of the group of wardens with a low n Affiliation, high n Power profile are found above the median for the institution operation ratios than any of the other profiles. Sixty-six percent of the group of wardens with a high n Power, low n Affiliation motivational profile had ratios above the median. This is a substantially greater percentage than any of the other groups and indicates the group is much more likely to head institutions where staff have a favorable perception of institution operations. Table 12 reflects this finding. TABLE 12 FREQUENCY AND PERCENTAGE OF EACH FEDERAL PRISON WARDEN'S MOTIVATIONAL PROFILE ABOVE MEDIAN; INSTITUTION OPERATIONS (n=25) MOTIVATIONAL PROFILE NO. % Low n Affiliation High n Power (n=15) 10/15 66 High n Affiliation High n Power (n=6) 1/6 16 Low n Affiliation Low n Power (n=3) 1/3 33 High n Affiliation Low n Power (n=l) 0/1 0 An analysis of ratios of favorable staff perceptions of institution operations indicates a 85 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. greater number of wardens found above the median have a low n Affiliation, high n Power motivational profile. In addition, an examination of each group reveals that two-thirds of the wardens in the low n Affiliation, high n Power group have ratios found above the median. The appropriate response to Research Question 3 is that staff of federal prisons headed by a warden with a low n Affiliation, high n Power motivational profile are more likely to have a favorable perception of institution operations. Hypothesis 3 3. Staff of federal prisons characterized by a warden's motivational profile which emphasizes a high need for Power (n Power) and a low need for Affiliation (n Affiliation) are more likely to have a favorable perception of the operations of their institutions. This hypothesis was assessed by examining the ratio of favorable to unfavorable staff perceptions for institution operations for each warden in the sample. Ratios were ordered according to size from highest to lowest. The ratios ranged from a high of 7.00 to a low of 1.39. The median was 2.74. Twelve wardens had ratios above the median ratio. Ten of the twelve wardens (84%) with ratios above the median had a low n Affiliation, high n Power 86 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. motivational profile. One warden (8%) above the median had a high n Affiliation, high n Power motivational profile, and one warden above the median had a low n Affiliation and low n Power motivational profile. Sixty-six percent of the wardens in the sample group with motivational profiles of low n Affiliation, high n Power had ratios located above the median. This is substantially higher than the group (33%) with a motivational profile of low n Affiliation, low n Power, or the group (16%) with a motivational profile of high n Affiliation, high n Power. Both findings indicate staff of prisons headed by wardens with the hypothesized profile are more likely to have favorable perceptions of the operations of the institution. These results provide substantial support for Hypothesis 3. Staff Satisfaction With and Commitment To Institution Research Question 4 4. Are staff of federal prisons characterized by a warden with a motivational profile which emphasizes a high need for Power (n Power) and a low need for Affiliation (n Affiliation) more likely to be satisfied with and committed to their respective institution? In order to address this research question, the profiles of wardens above and at or below the median of the distribution of favorable to unfavorable ratios of 87 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. staff satisfaction with and commitment to their respective institution were examined. The average favorable/unfavorable ratio for staff satisfaction with and commitment to their institution for each of the twenty-five wardens in the sample was ordered according to size. Each ratio was then identified by the warden's motivational profile based upon n Affiliation and n Power. The results reveal a range from a high of 6.00 to a low of .68. The median ratio was 2.30. Consistent with the analysis of staff perceptions of institution operations, the median is used for analysis. In this instance, this is necessary due to an extremely low value (.68) which negatively skews the distribution. Table 13 reflects the range of ratios and the motivational profile of each warden in the sample. The profiles of the wardens above and below the median of the distribution of ratios were examined. This approach was again used, since the larger ratios are above the median and the larger ratios indicate more favorable staff satisfaction with and commitment to the institution. 88 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE 13 FEDERAL PRISON WARDENS' PROFILES AND FAVORABLE TO UNFAVORABLE RATIOS OF STAFF SATISFACTION WITH AND COMMITMENT TO THE INSTITUTION FAVORABLE RATIO STAFF SATISFACTION WITH AND COMMITMENT TO THE INSTITUTION NO. STAFF N AFF. N POWER 6.00 699 Low High 5.57 221 Low High 5.37 472 High High 5.15 669 High High 4.45 116 Low High 4.00 643 Low Low 3.59 502 Low High 3.45 401 High High 3.38 691 Low High 3.33 134 Low High 3.09 206 Low Low 2.69 368 High High 2.30 273 High Low 2.25 766 Low High 2.03 384 Low High 1.93 528 High High 1.62 462 Low High 1.61 289 Low High 1.52 331 Low High 1.48 356 High High 1.37 293 Low High 1.19 130 Low High 89 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE 13 (continued) FAVORABLE RATIO STAFF SATISFACTION WITH AND COMMITMENT TO THE INSTITUTION NO. STAFF N AFF. N POWER 1.04 194 Low Low .92 383 Low High .68 345 Low High The findings indicate that of the twelve wardens above the median ratio, 50% (6) reflect a low n Affiliation, high n Power motivational profile. This compares with 33% (4) of the wardens who reflect a high n Affiliation, high n Power profile and 17% (2) of the wardens who reflect a low n Affiliation, low n Power profile. An examination of the average favorable/ unfavorable ratio for staff satisfaction with and commitment to their institution at and below the median reveals that 69% (9) have a low n Affiliation, high n Power motivational profile; 15% (2) have a high n Affiliation, high n Power profile; 8% (l) has a low n Affiliation, low n Power and 8% (1) has a high n Affiliation, low n Power profile. Tables 14 and 15 provide data on the frequency of motivational profiles above and below the median average 90 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ratio for staff satisfaction with and commitment to their institution. TABLE 14 FREQUENCY OF MOTIVATIONAL PROFILES OF FEDERAL PRISON WARDENS ABOVE MEDIAN: SATISFACTION WITH AND COMMITMENT TO THE INSTITUTION (n=12) MOTIVATIONAL PROFILE NO. % Low n Affiliation High n Power 6 50 High n Affiliation High n Power 4 33 Low n Affiliation Low n Power 2 17 High n Affiliation Low n Power 0 0 TABLE 15 FREQUENCY OF MOTIVATIONAL PROFILES OF FEDERAL PRISON WARDENS AT OR BELOW MEDIAN: SATISFACTION WITH AND COMMITMENT TO THE INSTITUTION (n=13) MOTIVATIONAL PROFILE NO. % Low n Affiliation High n Power 9 69 High n Affiliation High n Power 2 15 Low n Affiliation Low n Power 1 8 High n Affiliation Low n Power 1 8 91 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. An examination of each of the four groups of identified warden motivational profiles indicates that a greater percentage (67%) of the wardens with a high n Affiliation, high n Power profile and a low n Affiliation, low n Power (67%) profile are located above the median than are wardens with a low n Affiliation, high n Power profile (40%). Table 16 provides data on this finding. TABLE 16 FREQUENCY AND PERCENTAGE OF EACH FEDERAL PRISON WARDEN'S MOTIVATIONAL PROFILE ABOVE MEDIAN; STAFF SATISFACTION WITH AND COMMITMENT TO THE INSTITUTION (n=25) MOTIVATIONAL PROFILE NO. % Low n Affiliation High n Power (n=15) 6/15 40 High n Affiliation High n Power (n=6) 4/6 67 Low n Affiliation Low n Power (n=3) 2/3 67 High n Affiliation Low n Power (n=l) 0/1 0 Although the largest percentage (50%) of wardens with ratios above the median reflect a low n Affiliation, high n Power profile, the same group also has the largest percentage (69%) below the median. 92 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. An examination of each motivational profile group separately reveals that 67% of the wardens from the high n Affiliation, high n Power profile group and 67% of the wardens from the low n Affiliation, low n Power group have ratios above the median. This is higher than the 40% of the low n Affiliation, high n Power group. The analysis of each group shows that more wardens with a low n Affiliation, high n Power profile have ratios located below the median than above the median. The high n Affiliation, high n Power and the low n Affiliation, low n Power groups each have more members with ratios above the median than below the median. Based upon these findings, the appropriate response to Research Question 3 is staff of federal prisons headed by wardens with a low n Affiliation, high n Power profile are not more likely to be satisfied with and committed to the institution. Hypothesis 4 4. Staff of federal prisons characterized by a warden's profile which emphasizes a high need for Power (n Power) and a low need for Affiliation (n Affiliation) are more likely to be satisfied with and committed to their institutions. The hypothesis was assessed by examining the ratio of favorable/unfavorable staff responses on the annual 93 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Prison Social Climate survey concerning satisfaction with and commitment to their institution for each warden in the sample. Ratios were ordered according to size from highest to lowest. The ratios ranged from a high of 6.00 to a low of .68. There were twelve wardens with ratios above the median. Six wardens (50%) reflected the hypothesized motivational profile, while six (50%) reflected a different profile. There were thirteen wardens with ratios at or below the median. The largest percentage 69% were those with low n Affiliation, high n Power motivational profiles. An examination of each group separately revealed that the group with the hypothesized profile had only 40% of its members with ratios located above the median, while the other groups of wardens with different profiles had 67% of their members above the median. The results do not reflect support for Hypothesis 4. Staff of prisons characterized by a warden with a motivational profile which emphasizes a low n Affiliation, high n Power do not appear more likely to be satisfied with and committed to their respective institution. Summarv The data gathered to assess each research question and hypothesis was analyzed in this chapter. 94 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The data provided by the Job Choice Exercise instrument, which was completed by the subjects in this study, identified the most frequent motivational profile found among the sampled federal prison wardens as low n Affiliation, high n Power, and high n Achievement. Comparison of the motivational profiles of federal prison wardens with the motivational profiles of role- similar individuals identified in previous research by Stahl (1986) and Leonardi (1992) revealed substantial consistency among the groups. The high n Power, low n Affiliation model was the most frequent profile found among all the compared groups. The favorable/unfavorable ratio for staff perceptions for institution operations and commitment to and satisfaction with their respective institutions was obtained from the annual Prison Social Climate Survey. Institution ratios were matched with the previously identified motivational profiles for each warden. The results indicated that staff of prisons characterized by wardens with motivational profiles which reflect low n Affiliation, high n Power are more likely to have a favorable perception of the operations of their institutions. However, the findings did not indicate that staff of federal prisons characterized by wardens with motivational profiles which reflect low n 95 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Affiliation, high n Power are more likely to be satisfied with and committed to their institutions. 96 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS Introduction This chapter summarizes the findings of this study, presents conclusions drawn from the findings, recommends applications of this research, and suggests issues for future research. Statement of Problem and Purpose This research addresses an important problem in the field of criminal justice administration which is the lack of information concerning the men and women who lead the prisons in the United States. This problem was identified as a result of review of the literature on corrections and the experience of the researcher. The actions of the warden impact the conditions and the general climate of any prison (Hawkins & Alpert, 1989). It has been justifiably argued if wardens are to be entrusted with the most complex, expensive, and potentially volatile part of the criminal justice system, much more information must be developed which provides insight into the people who have been placed in 97 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. the position and the characteristics necessary for successful performance of the job (Dilulio, 1987). Researchers have noted that the state of the body of research on the wardens who manage prisons is poor (Cullen et al., 1993). Even though more research has been focused on prison staff during the past decade, researchers have concentrated on correctional officers or other line personnel rather than wardens. The small amount of attention given to the wardens who operate the prisons has been largely limited to scarcely more than surveys concerning demographic data such as salary, education, years of service, race, and experience (Wolford, 1988). The review of literature during this study provided no rationale for the insufficient attention which has been given by researchers to prison wardens. It has been argued that motivation has a substantial effect on the success or failure of individuals and that individuals must possess attitudes and motivational drives which permit them to transform abilities and skills into needed action (Chusmir, 1984). This argument can be readily applied to prison wardens. Unlike managers and leaders in a variety of other organizations, the literature reflects little or no attempt to identify the motivational needs of those in 98 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. warden positions or whether there is any relationship between a warden's motivational needs profile and effective management of prison operations. The primary purpose of this research was to identify the motivational needs profiles that exist among federal prison wardens in the United States by using the trichotomy of needs theory developed by David McClelland (1961) and the Job Choice Exercise (JCE) devised by Harrell and Stahl (1981) and Stahl and Harrell (1982). The secondary purpose was to determine if there is a relationship between a warden's motivational needs profile and the effective management of the prison as determined by a favorable staff perception of prison operations and staff satisfaction with and commitment to the institution. This study measured managerial effectiveness by utilizing data gained from a social climate survey of staff perceptions. McClelland and Burnham (1976) pointed out that in the real world, performance measures are hard to come by if one is trying to rate managerial effectiveness. They also argued that one way to determine how effective managers are is to ask the people who work for them (McClelland & Burnham, 1976). The institution operations scale was utilized because it closely replicates the concept of 99 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. organizational clarity utilized by McClelland and Burnham (1976) and structure utilized by Cornelius and Lane (1984) in previous studies of managerial effectiveness. The Satisfaction With and Commitment To scale was utilized because it closely replicates the McClelland and Burnham (1976) concept of team spirit and the Cornelius and Lane (1984) concept of identity. A favorable/unfavorable ratio of 1.0 or larger represented a favorable staff perception of institution operations and satisfaction with and commitment to the institution. Discussion of Findings There were four questions addressed by this study. These were as follows: 1. What is the most frequent motivational profile found among federal prison wardens? 2. Do the motivational profiles found among federal prison wardens exhibit a high need for Power (n Power) and a low need for Affiliation (n Affiliation) consistent with the motivational profiles exhibited by role-similar individuals in the work force? 3. Are staff of federal prisons characterized by a warden with a motivational profile which emphasizes a high need for Power (n Power) and a low need for Affiliation (n Affiliation) more likely to have a 100 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. favorable perception of the operation of their respective institutions? 4. Are staff of federal prisons characterized by a warden with a motivational profile which emphasizes a high need for Power (n Power) and a low need for Affiliation (n Affiliation) more likely to be satisfied with and committed to their respective institutions? Motivational Profiles The findings of this research indicated that the most frequent motivational profile among the federal prison wardens in the sample was low n Affiliation, high n Power and high n Achievement. This finding did not support Hypothesis 1 which stated that the most frequent motivational profile would be low n Affiliation, high n Power, and low n Achievement. Based upon his research, Stahl (1986) concluded that managers who aspire to executive-level positions should have motivational profiles which reflect high n Power, low n Affiliation. McClelland and Burnham (1976) suggested that the combination of high n Power and low n Affiliation predicts successful leadership among managers. McClelland (1975) also argued that since managers are particularly concerned with influencing others, they should be characterized by a high need for Power. 101 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. This research sampled twenty-five very experienced federal prison wardens. These wardens, based upon their successful performance, have been promoted to top-level executive positions in the Federal Bureau of Prisons. The research findings revealed that 96% of the wardens have a motivational profile which reflects n Power greater than n Affiliation, and 60% reflect high n Power, low n Affiliation. The need for Power was high in 84% of the wardens, and need for Affiliation was low in 72% of the wardens. The findings indicate that the need for Power is a much higher need among the prison wardens than n Affiliation or n Achievement. In fact, the need for Power was three times as high as the need for Affiliation. This finding supports the theories of both Stahl (1986) and McClelland and Burnham (1976) concerning n Power and n Affiliation. The need for Power definitely dominates among the wardens, and the need for Affiliation is lowest. Clearly, the need for Power is the great motivator for federal prison wardens. The findings also indicated that the high need for Achievement was very prevalent among the wardens in the sample, over two-thirds of the wardens reflected a high n Achievement score. The JCE results show that high n Achievement is found among 68% of the prison wardens 102 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. indicating that the need for Achievement has not been mostly satisfied in the majority of the federal prison wardens. (See Appendix D.) McClelland and Boyatzis (1982) demonstrated the need for Achievement was associated in a large firm only with managers who made contributions on their own and did not manage large numbers of people. Those with high n Achievement peaked in their careers at a lower level. The explanation seemed to be that those with high n Achievement are used to doing things themselves and were able to advance as long as their jobs involved doing things for themselves and by themselves. McClelland (1985) concluded that persons high in n Achievement are likely to do well in occupations where they do things themselves rather than occupations where they are more likely to spend time trying to influence others. House, Spangler, and Woycke (1991) argued that a negative relationship is expected between the need for Achievement and performance of leaders at high levels in organizations, since such a leader will tend to do everything himself or herself and under-utilize the capacity of subordinates and superiors. Stahl (1986) hypothesized that a combination of n Power and n Achievement is associated with early managerial success; but, as an individual achieves higher levels of 103 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. managerial success, n Achievement becomes less salient, and n Power dominates. He termed the high n Power, high n Achievement combination as Managerial Motivation and argued that this combination was likely to be found in low- and middle-level managers. The high n Power, high n Achievement combination was found among 16 wardens, or 64% of the sample. Since federal prison wardens occupy executive positions’ as generalist managers, which requires them to influence others, it was anticipated that the need for Achievement would not be as prevalent. This finding will be discussed again in the section of this study which examines motivational profile and managerial effectiveness. The findings indicate that almost one-third of the wardens have a high need for Affiliation. The need for Affiliation is defined as a desire to be with other people and to be liked and accepted by others. Persons with a high need for Affiliation strive for friendship, prefer cooperative situations rather than competitive ones, and desire relationships involving a high degree of mutual understanding (McClelland, 1985). The need for Affiliation has not been associated with effective ’The official job title of wardens is Chief Executive Officer. 104 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. managers. McClelland's findings indicate that people with high n Affiliation find it difficult to be effective in typical managerial jobs. This is because they wish to avoid conflict; and such positions require being competitive, influencing others, and making hard decisions. High n Affiliation leads to making particular judgments about people in the organization who are viewed as unfair by others and leads to poor morale and less productivity. High n Affiliation managers make exceptions to rules in terms of the particular needs of individuals which is a style of managing often seen as unjust by others. In a study of American Telephone and Telegraph, McClelland and Boyatzis (1982) found that young men with a high n Affiliation tend not to get promoted as often to higher levels of management. Chusmir (1984) argued that persons with high n Affiliation probably would not make good administrators. He identified the position of police chief as requiring a high n Power, moderate n Achievement, and a low n Affiliation for successful performance (p. 143). This study found that 28% of the federal wardens had a high need for Affiliation. A closer review discloses that a very high percentage of the minorities (75%) had high n Affiliation scores. However, the same 105 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. individuals also had high n Power scores. This research can provide no clear explanation concerning this finding pertaining to minorities. One might hypothesize that a high need for Affiliation must be developed by a minority who advances in a majority environment. Advancement may require a balance of need for Power with a requirement to avoid conflict and not offend in order to achieve acceptance. This is a finding which should be investigated by future research. Stahl (1986) found that a high n Affiliation, high n Power combination was primarily found in the helping professions such as ministers and teachers. Stahl also argued that high n Power and high n Affiliation lead to role conflict as a manager is torn between Affiliation and its implications of not offending and power with its implications of influencing the individual to act. However, care of the individual (n Affiliation) and change in behavior (n Power) are both appropriate in the helping professions. The finding of the high n Affiliation, high n Power motivational profile in several of the federal prison wardens was not anticipated. As indicated earlier, previous research had not found the need for Affiliation to be associated with effective managers; and the high n Affiliation, high n Power motivational 106 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. profile combination has been found to be typical of the helping professions. However, there may be two possible explanations which account for the appearance of the high n Affiliation, high n Power motivational profile combination among wardens who have successfully advanced in the federal correctional arena. The first explanation may be that social work, a helping profession, combined with emphasis on the rehabilitation model for managing offenders dominated corrections for many years. This model stressed a treatment approach to incarceration based on a variety of programs such as education, casework, counseling, and vocational training which were provided to help the offender change his or her life. This may have created an environment in corrections similar to that found in the helping professions where care for the individual (high n Affiliation) and change in behavior of the individual (high n Power) were both appropriate traits for persons at all levels, including managers. In fact, all of the wardens in this study who exhibited high n Affiliation, high n Power motivational profiles had advanced on a career track which brought them up from a programs area. The second explanation may be that prison wardens develop motivational profiles as the result of their 107 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. experience over periods of time in certain types of institutions. In the federal prison system, lower- security-level institutions have more program emphasis, less security measures, and generally an environment more conducive to affiliative behavior than high security institutions. With one exception, all the prison wardens in this study who exhibited a high n Affiliation, high n Power motivational profile had little or no experience in high-security institutions prior to promotion to warden. In addition, only one had served as a warden in a high-security institution. This implies that the type of institution experience may have an impact on motivational profile. This finding reflects the need for future research to examine how motivational profiles may change over time and the relationship between institution experience and motivational profile. The need for Affiliation and its impact on managerial effectiveness will be discussed in more detail when managerial effectiveness is addressed. Comparison With Role-Similar Individuals The findings of this study disclosed that federal prison wardens have a high n Power, low n Affiliation motivational profile which is consistent with the profiles found among role-similar individuals in the 108 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. work force. The motivational profile scores revealed a substantial similarity with the motivational profile scores identified by Stahl (1986) for military executives and senior executives and by Leonardi (1992) for school superintendents. Federal prison wardens and the three comparison groups reflected low n Affiliation, high n Power, high n Achievement as the most frequent motive need combination among members. The scores for the three public sector executive groups (prison wardens. Air Force colonels, school superintendents) were very close. The range was only eleven percentile points on n Power, thirteen percentile points on n Achievement, and four percentile points on n Affiliation. Although similar, the private sector senior executives showed the highest n Power and the lowest n Affiliation scores for any of the groups. The finding that the public sector executives had higher average n Affiliation percentile scores as a group (35% verses 15%) may be associated with the difference in the management environment between the private and public sector. This difference may be attributed to the fact that private industry executives operate in a different environment than public sector executives. Therefore, 109 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. private industry executives may have less need for affiliating behavior. However, this study is limited in that it contains a small number of public sector executives from similar professional hierarchial levels in three government organizations. The n Affiliation percentile scores may be more closely related if the private sector executives are compared with public sector executives from higher positions in the hierarchy of large departments such as Department of Transportation, Department of Energy, or Department of Defense. Nevertheless, this finding concerning the difference in n Affiliation scores cannot be explained in this limited study and indicates additional research is needed on the issue. As previously indicated there is substantial consistency among the groups when average scores of each motive need are analyzed. Application of the high n Power, low n Affiliation model developed by Stahl (1986) and based on the McClelland and Burnham (1976) argument reveals a considerable similarity between the federal prison wardens and the comparison groups. Analysis reveals 64% of the wardens, 64% of the military executives, 61% of the school superintendents, and 84% of the senior executives fit the high n Power, low n Affiliation model. 110 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Additional analysis applying the n Power greater than n Affiliation model (Stahl, 1986) shows a substantial similarity between the prison wardens and the other groups. The n Power greater than n Affiliation model applies to 96% of the prison wardens, 100% of the senior executives, 87% of the military executives, and 85% of the school superintendents. Managerial Effectiveness The purpose of this section of the research was to determine if there is a relationship between a warden's motivational needs profile and effective management of the prison as determined by a favorable staff perception of institution operations and staff satisfaction with and commitment to the institution. Utilizing the JCE and JCESKOR, this study identified four different motivational needs profiles among the twenty-five federal prison wardens in the sample. The four different motivational needs profiles were low n Affiliation, high n Power (60%); high n Affiliation, high n Power (24%); low n Affiliation, low n Power (12%); and high n Affiliation, low n Power (4%). As described in Chapter 4, the average favorable/unfavorable ratio for staff perception of institution operations and staff satisfaction with and commitment to each institution the warden had managed 111 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. was calculated. The motivational profiles and ratios for each warden were then analyzed. Institution Operations This study found that staff of federal prisons headed by a warden with a low n Affiliation, high n Power motivational profile are more likely to have a favorable perception of institution operations. As discussed, the favorable/unfavorable ratios for staff perceptions of institution operations ranged from a high of 7.00 to 1.39. When the number of favorable to unfavorable responses is equal, the ratio is 1.0. There were no ratios computed for prison wardens in this sample which were below 1.0. This finding indicates that prison operations were perceived favorably by the staff of the institutions headed by all the prison wardens in this sample. However, there was a difference in the level of staffs' favorable perceptions as indicated by the range of ratios from 7.00 to 1.39. Previous research has found that a certain motivational profile is related to managerial effectiveness. The profiles of better managers are high in n Power, low in n Affiliation, high in Inhibition, and a combination of high Power motivation and low Affiliation predicts successful leadership among managers (McClelland & Burnham, 1976). The effective 112 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. leader is more likely to have a high need for Power, high activity inhibition and a lower need for Affiliation than the ineffective leader (McClelland & Burnham, 1976; Winter, 1973; McClelland & Boyatzis, 1982). The relationship between motive profile and leader effectiveness is more likely to be found at higher levels of an organization and in generalist rather than technical jobs (McClelland & Boyatzis, 1982). The findings of this study substantiate these observations. The prison wardens who exhibited the most favorable staff perception ratio were almost without exception those wardens who possess the high n Power, low n Affiliation motivational profile. The finding that 10 of the 12 prison wardens with the largest favorable ratios of staff perceptions for institution operations have a high n Power and low n Affiliation is a substantial indicator of managerial effectiveness of executives with that motive need combination. McClelland (1975) argued that since managers are particularly concerned with influencing others, they should be characterized by a high need for Power. McClelland and his colleagues' later research found the need for Power to be significantly associated with managerial effectiveness (McClelland & Boyatzis, 1982; McClelland & Burnham, 1976). It has also been argued 113 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. that the need for Power is the single most potent characteristic discriminating between successful and unsuccessful managers (Steger et al., 1975). An examination of order of the favorable ratios revealed that the higher n Power scores of the twenty- five wardens tended to be found among the wardens with the highest favorable ratios. Eight of the twelve wardens with the highest favorable staff perception ratios averaged n Power percentile scores above 80%, while only three of the twelve wardens with the lowest favorable staff perception ratios had n Power percentile scores above 80%. This finding implies that there is a relationship between the level of n Power and managerial effectiveness. This lends some support to the previous arguments concerning n Power and successful managers. This finding should be examined in further research utilizing a much larger sample. The relationship of n Affiliation and managerial effectiveness can also be theorized based upon the findings of this study. As previously discussed, research has indicated that people who try to avoid conflict and criticism should not make very good managers, and men with high n Affiliation tend not to succeed in management (McClelland, 1984; McClelland & 114 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Boyatzis, 1982). McClelland argues that high n Affiliation leads to making particular judgments about people in the firm who are viewed by others as unfair and leads to poor morale and less productivity. The findings of this study indicate that federal prison wardens who have a low n Affiliation are more likely to head institutions in which staff have a favorable perception of institution operations. In fact, the thirteen highest favorable staff ratios for institution operations belonged to prison wardens who had a low need for Affiliation. The findings of this portion of this research clearly indicate that staff in institutions headed by a warden with a low n Affiliation, high n Power motivational profile are more likely to have a favorable perception of institution operations. Satisfaction With and Commitment To the Institution The findings of this study indicate that staff of federal prisons, characterized by wardens with motivational profiles which reflect low n Affiliation, high n Power, are not more likely to be satisfied with and committed to their institutions. The average ratios for institution staff satisfaction and commitment to the institution ranged from a high of 6.00 to a low of .68. 115 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The median ratio was 2.30. There were two scores computed for wardens in the sample which were below 1.00 indicating more staff were unfavorable than favorable about their satisfaction with and commitment to the institution. Prior research on the relationship between leaders with high n Power, low n Affiliation and employee attitudes has been mixed. On the one hand, theorists have suggested that managers with high n Power, low n Affiliation are likely to create high morale among followers (McClelland & Burnham, 1976). On the other hand, research has found that high n Power, low n Affiliation was not related to favorable subordinate attitudes. It has been suggested that need for Affiliation, not need for Power, was related to favorable attitudes, and this same study implied that the findings may be related to technical jobs and the large number of females in the study (Cornelius & Lane, 1984) . The data obtained in this study of prison wardens reveals that more of the wardens with the high n Power, low n Affiliation motivational profile are found with ratios below, rather than above, the median ratio for scores of all wardens in the sample. In addition, the only two instances in this study where federal prison 116 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. staff indicated a more unfavorable than favorable response on the Prison Social Climate Survey was in regard to staff satisfaction and commitment in institutions headed by wardens with high n Power, low n Affiliation profiles. In contrast, two-thirds of the wardens with high n Affiliation, high n Power and wardens with low n Affiliation, low n Power profiles were above the median. This suggests that an institution headed by a warden with a high need for Power, low need for Affiliation motivational profile does not necessarily mean that the staff will be satisfied with and committed to the institution. The group of wardens with a high n Affiliation, high n Power profile had a higher percentage of their members with larger ratios indicating more favorable staff satisfaction with and commitment to the institutions they headed. This finding concerning the presence of high n Affiliation is consistent with the finding of Cornelius and Lane (1984) that need for Affiliation may be the motive need in a leader/manager which indicates that staff will reflect more favorable attitudes. However, a high need for Power is still present in these wardens. Therefore, the role of n Power in the finding can not be eliminated. Unlike the Cornelius and Lane (1984) study in which the sample 117 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. consisted of managers in technical jobs and included a large number of females, the findings in this study are based on a sample of generalist managers who are predominately male. This casts additional doubt that the presence of a high n Power, low n Affiliation profile leader results in higher employee morale than the presence of a high n Affiliation, high n Power leader. The group of wardens with a low n Affiliation, low n Power also had a high percentage of members with larger favorable ratios. However, the number of wardens in the sample with this profile is so small— 3— that the high percentage may be misleading. Comments Concerning n Achievement Although not the focus of either research question concerning managerial effectiveness, the relationship of need for Achievement and managerial effectiveness was also analyzed. As previously discussed, it has been argued that a high need for Achievement is not associated with managerial effectiveness at high levels of an organization (McClelland & Boyatzis, 1982; House, Spangler, & Woycke, 1991), and a high n Power, high n Achievement combination was more likely to be found in lower- and mid-level managers (Stahl, 198 6) . 118 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The findings indicate that 17 of the 25 (68%) prison wardens in this sample had high n Achievement scores. A review of the relationship of the n Achievement scores and favorable ratios revealed that 65% of the prison wardens with high n Achievement scores had ratios below the median for institution operations. The percentage below the median for satisfaction with and commitment to the institution was 59%. This finding implies the argument that n Achievement is not associated with managerial effectiveness in large organizations also applies in the case of prison wardens. Conclusions The findings of this study provide the basis for several conclusions concerning motivational profiles of federal prison wardens and the relationship between motivational profile and managerial effectiveness. The primary purpose of this research was to identify the most frequent motivational profile found among federal prison wardens. The findings indicate that a motivational profile based upon David C. McClelland's trichotomy of needs theory can be identified for leader/managers in corrections by utilizing the Job Choice Exercise instrument. The Job Choice Exercise proved to be an easily completed 119 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. instrument (based upon feedback from the sampled wardens) which identified motive needs based upon need for Affiliation, need for Power, and need for Achievement. It was possible to identify the most frequent motivational profile found among a sample of highly experienced federal prison wardens as low n Affiliation, high n Power, high n Achievement. The frequency and percentile scores confirm that the need for Power is the dominate motive need among the federal prison wardens. A high need for Power was found in 84% of the prison wardens. This leaves little doubt that the need for Power is the principal motivator among the prison wardens studied. The need for Achievement was the second most frequently found motive need among the wardens. This implies that the need for Achievement has not been satisfied in the majority of the prison wardens even though they occupy executive-level rather than low- or mid-level management positions. As discussed earlier, previous research had lead Stahl (1986) to theorize that the need for Achievement had been largely satisfied in persons who advance to executive-level positions. The presence of n Achievement was not found consistently among the most effective wardens in the 120 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. study indicating that n Achievement may not play a major role in the managerial effectiveness of the warden. However, the presence of high n Achievement scores in this successful group of experienced prison wardens suggests that those with high n Achievement will advance to top positions in the organization and function successfully. This finding is contrary to results of some other studies concerning the advancement and success of individuals with high n Achievement (McClelland & Boyatzis, 1982; McClelland, 1985; House, Spangler, & Woycke, 1991). However, it is consistent with the research on military executives, senior executives (Stahl, 1986) and school superintendents (Leonardi, 1992) that found frequent high n Achievement. Although the need for Affiliation was the lowest motive need found among the prison wardens, there were several wardens in the sample with high n Affiliation percentile scores. However, the n Affiliation percentile scores in almost every case were lower than the n Power percentile scores. Stahl (1986) states that n Affiliation greater than n Power is almost never found in executive motivational profiles. This statement applies to the prison wardens. Only one warden in the sample was found to have an n Affiliation percentile score higher than the n Power score. This suggests that 121 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. the presence of high n Affiliation and low Power motivational profile is a strong indicator of the lack of potential for effectiveness of those aspiring to become prison wardens. The low n Affiliation, high n Power, high n Achievement profile was also found to be consistent with the motivational profiles detected most frequently among role-similar individuals in the work force. Although comparable to both public and private sector executives, the prison warden profiles are especially similar to those of other public sector executives. This indicates, regardless of their unique field, that federal prison wardens have the same motivation needs as executives in other types of organizations. This finding implies that results of research concerning motivation needs among other public sector executives can be generalized to executives in corrections. The results of this study suggest there is a relationship between a prison warden's motivational profile and effective management of prison operations. The findings imply the ability of a leader/manager to effectively perform in the role of prison warden is related to individual motive needs. The high need for Power was consistently found in the most effective prison wardens. 122 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Of the three motive needs identified, there are two identifiable motive need combinations which were related to managerial effectiveness among the prison wardens in this study. The first was a high need for Power and a low need for Affiliation. The second was a high need for Power and a high need for Affiliation. The high need for Power, low need for Affiliation wardens are more likely to head institutions which are perceived by staff as operating effectively. The high need for Affiliation, high need for Power wardens are more likely to head institutions where staff are satisfied with and committed to the institution. The conclusion that a favorable relationship exists between high n Power, low n Affiliation motivational profiles and institution operations profiles can be very clearly drawn since the data overwhelmingly indicated that high n Power and low n Affiliation wardens headed institutions where staff had a favorable perception of institution operations. The results concerning high n Affiliation, high n Power and staff satisfaction with and commitment to the institution were not as pronounced. Although the data suggest that it is more likely that an institution headed by a warden with a high n Affiliation, high n Power will have a satisfied and committed staff, the 123 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. numbers are not as substantial as the finding concerning institution operations. The results suggest that staff in institutions headed by wardens with high Power, low Affiliation motivational profiles are more likely to have favorable perceptions of institution operations, but they may not be as satisfied and as committed as staff in an institution headed by a warden with a high n Affiliation, high n Power motivational profile. As previously discussed, some research has established that a high n Power, low n Affiliation leader/manager is effective, because the low need to be liked by others allows them to make hard, unpopular decisions for the good of the organization. This leads to a more efficient, consistent operation and may explain the findings of this research which show that staff favorably perceive institution operations directed by wardens with this profile. On the other hand, high Affiliation prison wardens may be better liked by their staff. High n Affiliation wardens may be able to establish more friendly working environments which lead to more staff satisfaction and commitment. It is noted that on both the institution operations and satisfaction and commitment scales the 124 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. prison wardens with high n Power dominated the institutions reflecting the most favorable perceptions by staff. This finding supports previous research by McClelland and Burnham (1976) and McClelland and Boyatzis (1982) which found a need for Power association with managerial effectiveness. Neither n Affiliation nor n Achievement had the same level of association with managerial effectiveness as n Power. Stahl (1986) argued that the high n Affiliation and high n Power combination leads to conflict as the manager is torn between Affiliation with its implications of not offending the individual and Power with its implication of influencing the individual to act. Also, Stahl (1986) pointed out that both care for the individual (n Affiliation) and change in behavior (n Power) are appropriate in helping professions such as nursing, teaching, and the clergy. The fact that a number of persons with this profile have advanced to executive positions in the Federal Bureau of Prisons may be due to the history of the corrections field. Corrections has been influenced for years by the social work, mental health, and religious professions. The emphasis on a helping, caring correctional environment operating under the rehabilitation model may account for the presence of top-level executives with a high need 125 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. for Affiliation. This finding may be considered unique to corrections since research on executives in other types of organizations, including police departments (Chasmire, 1984), has noted a lack of high n Affiliation in top executives. After examination of the results of this study, it was apparent that some federal prisons have less favorable staff perceptions on both institution operations and satisfaction and commitment. The favorable responses in some institutions appear to be lower regardless of the motivational profile of the warden. On the other hand, some institutions had consistently more favorable responses. A close review of the favorable/unfavorable ratios for each institution revealed that the lower favorable responses were centered in older institutions with strong unions and well-established employee cultures. The higher favorable ratios were reflected by newer institutions where an employee union was not active and the employee culture was still developing. The favorable perceptions of staff appeared to be most prevalent in new institutions which have been lead by the same warden since the institution opened. This finding may imply that some federal prisons are more difficult to manage than others. There is insufficient data available, as a 126 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. result of this study, to determine the basis for this finding; and further research on this important issue is needed. Applications of Research The findings of this study have applications to the selection, training, and assignments of prison wardens. They also have an application for counseling of potential wardens. In addition, the findings have applicability for those in both public and private corrections tasked with overseeing the management of correctional institutions. The identification of motivational profiles required for successful performance could help in; (1) selecting leaders who have a greater probability of success and (2) training prison wardens in areas that will increase their likelihood of success. The identification of motivational profiles can aid in counseling those who aspire to managerial- and executive-level positions. Top managers, whether they are wardens, police commissioners, fire chiefs, or agency directors, are expensive to select. Poor performance can add more expense for the organization. This study has applied a widely-researched, motivational theory to a corrections organization. The results provide data to correctional 127 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. agencies which will enhance their ability to select, train, and assign managers. This study has shown that the trichotomy of needs theory has predictive power in correctional administration. McClelland (1984) has argued that motivation should be the basis for the selection of managers. The selection of managers is primarily done based on tangible skills, such as communications and leadership. However, research has demonstrated the critical importance of motives in managerial effectiveness. McClelland (1981) argues that motive needs are formed in childhood and, subsequently, are difficult to change. The need for Power which studies, including the present one, have shown to be so consistently associated with managerial effectiveness is especially difficult to change because it is stable, according to McClelland (1981). Therefore, motivation should be the basis for selection, and skills should be the basis for training (Stahl, 1986). The results of this research indicate there are certain motivational profiles common among those who have proven successful in the role of prison warden. This suggests the ability to effectively perform in the role of prison warden is related to individual motivational needs. Therefore, the identification of an 128 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. individual's motivational profile based upon need for Affiliation, need for Power, and need for Achievement can be of value in selecting prison wardens. The identification of motivational profiles will aid in selecting those individuals who possess characteristics which best enable them to handle the job of warden. As previously discussed, McClelland (1981) argues that motive needs change very slowly. The need for Power is almost impossible to train, while the need for Achievement can be reinforced and strengthened through intensive training (McClelland & Winter, 1969) . This suggests that training to develop n Achievement could be developed which would improve the likelihood for more effective performance in lower- and mid-level corrections managers. However, the training to develop n Power to enhance performance at the executive level would have to be of extremely long duration and probably very expensive. Considering the rapid growth in corrections and the need for correctional executives, it is doubtful that many correctional agencies have the time or the resources to develop the n Power motive in candidates for executive positions. The more realistic approach would be to examine the motivational profiles of potential warden selectees for the presence of need for Power. The results could 129 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. be used along with other criteria to select some and counsel away others who aspire to prison warden positions. Stahl (1986) concluded that those managers who have low need for Power should be counseled away from executive positions, particularly if the need for Affiliation is greater than the need for Power. Based upon the findings of this study, this approach is especially applicable in the selection process for prison wardens. The n Power greater than need for Affiliation model has excellent potential as a partial screening tool. This study found that 96% of the federal prison wardens in the sample reflect this motivational profile model. All of the wardens in the sample were effective managers based upon the criteria identified as indicators of managerial effectiveness. This finding has strong relevance to those who are tasked with selecting the individuals who lead prisons. A very important application of this research became apparent during the analysis of the findings. The favorable/unfavorable ratios for staff perception of institution operations and staff satisfaction and commitment showed a distinct difference among certain types of institutions. Older, more established institutions reflected lower favorable/unfavorable 130 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ratios on both scales. This implies that some institutions are more difficult to manage than others. Experienced federal prison wardens who have worked in a variety of institutions are familiar with the particular difficulties that various institutions present. This finding implies that the prison wardens with the motivational profile most likely to ensure success should be assigned to certain institutions. For example, an inexperienced warden with a high need for Affiliation and moderate need for Power should not be assigned to an institution with a strong union presence. The warden's inability to influence others and inability to make hard decisions due to a desire not to offend others could be viewed by union leaders as weakness and lack of leadership ability. This could result in conditions which would be disruptive to institution operations. Contributions of Research The results of this research contribute to both corrections and public administration. First, this study has focused on the motives of executives rather than simple behavior or demographics. It has utilized a well-researched theory and a valid and reliable instrument to identify motivational profiles 131 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. among public sector executives functioning in corrections. In the process, it has added corrections to a list of organizations where McClelland's trichotomy of needs theory has been found to be both useful and predictive. The findings of this research expand role theory into the field of corrections. It contributes to the understanding of effective role performance by identifying a possible relationship between motive needs of prison wardens and effective performance. Wardens, like other executives, must perform specific managerial roles. This study suggests that the ability to effectively perform in those roles may be related to individual motivational needs. This study advances the limited body of research on prison wardens. It has identified the motivational needs of those in warden positions and found a similarity between the motivational profiles of prison wardens and the motivational profiles of other private and public sector executives. This suggests that research on motive needs of executives in other organizations can be expanded to include executives in corrections. This study identifies tools to strengthen the process of prison warden selection, training, and job 132 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. assignment by relating motivational needs to managerial performance. It provides insight into the people who have been placed in prison warden positions and the characteristics necessary for the successful performance of the job. The findings of this research concerning n Power and managerial effectiveness among prison wardens reinforces the general theory of need for Power and managerial success in organizations. Future Research This investigation raised a number of issues regarding managerial effectiveness and motivational profiles of prison wardens which suggest direction for future research. This study identified motivational profiles which are reflected among federal prison wardens and related certain motivational profiles to effective management. This finding combined with the need to identify characteristics which will enhance the successful performance of persons selected for warden positions provides rationale for continued research in this area. The next research endeavor might be a replication of this study with a representative sample of prison wardens from private, local, state, and federal correctional agencies. This would provide a basis for 133 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. large-scale generalizations to be made about motivational profiles, and effective prison management. The study would require administering of the JCE to the sampled wardens and extensive surveys of prison staff. Although such a study would be time-consuming and expensive, the results would provide valuable information concerning the characteristics of effective prison managers. Such a study would lend clarity to the usefulness of motivational profiles as a means of identifying effective wardens. Future research could focus on the stability of motive needs over time. The prison wardens in the present study were all highly experienced in the role of prison warden. However, it is not clear if their individual motivational profiles evolved during their careers. Their profiles may have evolved with the level of n Affiliation, n Power, and n Achievement changing over time. Stahl (1986) points out that although short term changes are rare, career long-term evolutions are possible. A longitudinal study should be conducted which would identify the motivational profiles of wardens early in their careers. Periodic monitoring should be accomplished at set periods of time to identify any changes which may occur in profiles. The findings of 134 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. such a study would have important applications for selection and training of wardens. The present study found a high percentage of minority wardens with a high n Affiliation, high n Power motivational profile. Although the number of minorities was very small, three-fourths of them had a high n Affiliation, high n Power profile. Since research indicates people with high n Affiliation find it difficult to be effective in typical managerial jobs (McClelland, 1985; Chusmir, 1984), the issue warrants further study. Future research should be initiated utilizing a representative sample of minority prison wardens to determine the prevalence of the high n Affiliation, high n Power motivational profile among them. It was noted in this study that staff in older, higher security institutions had less favorable perceptions of institution operations and indicated less satisfaction and commitment than staff in newer, lower security institutions. This appeared to be true regardless of the motivational profile of the warden. Future research should investigate this observation. The information gained by such a study would aid in the decision to assign certain wardens to particular types of institutions. 135 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. This study utilized staff perceptions of institution operations as a criteria for managerial effectiveness. Obviously, this approach is limited since it does not consider a wide variety of objective measures which are used to evaluate a warden's effectiveness in managing institution operations. Future research should address this shortcoming by examining motivational profiles and key indicators for institution operations including safety and security issues, program efficiency, and living conditions. The need for Power was found to be the dominate need of the effective wardens in this study. High n Power scores were found in the wardens with the highest favorable/unfavorable ratios. This finding warrants further investigation using a representative sample to determine if high n Power scores can be generalized as an indicator of effectiveness among prison wardens. Such information would be of tremendous value in the selection and assignment of prison wardens in all areas of corrections. Finally, the findings of this research revealed a 20 percentage point difference between the n Affiliation scores of private and public executives. Although the difference is not particularly large, it does indicate an issue which should be investigated further. Parallel 136 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. investigations focused on motive needs of public and private executives in similar organizational contexts would be very timely considering the rapid movement toward privatization of government services. The findings of such a study could prove very valuable in corrections where privatization is a major initiative. Closing Statement This research was initiated based on an identified lack of information pertaining to the men and women who function in the role of prison warden. The investigation has resulted in two major accomplishments. First, the findings have contributed to the limited knowledge available about an extremely important group of public administrators. Second, this study has identified several key points which warrant further research in order to expand our knowledge about prison wardens, public and private sector executives, and prison operations. It is hoped that the findings presented in this report will generate additional scholarly investigations of a very important, but neglected, area of public service. 137 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY Alderfer, C. P. (1972). Existence, relatedness, and growth; Human needs in organizational settings. New York: Free Press. Allen, Harry E., & Simonsen, Clifford E. (1989). Corrections in America: An introduction. New York: Macmillan. Bennis, Warren, & Nanus, Bert (1985). Leaders. New York: Harper & Row Publishers. Berman, Frederick E., & Miner, John B. (1985, Summer). 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Mintzberg, Henry (1973). The nature of managerial work. New York: Harper Collins Publishers. Nowlin, William A. (1982, Fall). Factors that motivate public and private sector managers: A comparison. Public Personnel Management, pp. 224-227. O'Sullivan, Elizabethann, & Rassel, Gary R. (1989). Research methods for public administrators. White Plains, NY: Longman Inc. Robbins, Stephen P. (1988). Essentials of organizational behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Ruf, Bernadette, & Chusmir, Leonard H. (1991, November). Dimensions of success and motivation needs among managers. The Journal of Psvchologv. pp. 531-540. 142 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Sarbin, T. R., & Allen, V. L. (1968). Role Theory. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronson (Eds.), The handbook of Social Psychology (2nd ed.). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Saylor, W. G. (1983). Surveying prison environments. Unpublished manuscript. Washington, DC: Office of Research, Federal Bureau of Prisons. Saylor, William G., & Wright, Kevin N. (1992). Status, longevity, and perceptions of the work environment among prison employees. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation. 17(3/4), 133-160. Schein, Edgar H. (1980). Organizational Psvchologv. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Shover, Neal, & Einstadter, Werner J. (1988). Analyzing American corrections. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co. Simms, W. P., & Lafollette, W. R. (1975). An assessment of the Litwin and Stinger Organization Climate Questionnaire. Personnel Psvchologv. 28. 19-38. Spangler, William D., & House, Robert J. (1991). Presidential effectiveness and the leadership motive profile. Journal of Personalitv and Social Psvchologv. 60(3), 439-455. Stahl, Michael J. (1983, Winter). Achievement, power, and managerial motivation: Selecting managerial talent with the job choice exercise. Personnel Psvchologv. pp. 775-789. Stahl, Michael J., & Harrell, A. M. (1981). Modeling effort decisions with behavioral decision theory: Toward an individual differences version of expectancy theory. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance. 27, 23-24. Stahl, Michael J., & Harrell, Adrian M. (1982, December). Evolution and validation of a behavioral decision theory measurement approach to achievement, power, and affiliation. Journal of Applied Psvchologv. pp. 744-751. 143 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Stahl, Michael J., Grigsby, D. W., & Gulati, A. (1985, February). Comparing the job choice exercise and the multiple choice version of the Miner Sentence Completion Scale. Journal of Applied Psychology, pp. 228-232. Stahl, M. J., & Gulati, A. (1985). JCESKOR: Job choice scoring software. Clemson, SC; Assessment Enterprises. Stahl, Michael J. (1986, July/August). When selecting and training managers, remember power motivates. Research Management, pp. 26-27. Stahl, Michael J. (1986). Managerial and technical motivation: Assessing needs for achievement, power and affiliation. New York: Praeger Special Studies. Stegar, J. A., Manners, G., Bernstein, A.J., & May, R. (1975). The three dimensions of the R&D managers job. Research Management. 18. 32-37. Stupak, Ronald J. (1994, January). The successful sales manager for the 1990's. The Sales Trainer, 11.(2) . Toch, Hans, & Adams, Kenneth (1986, February). Pathology and disruptiveness among prison inmates. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 23(1) . Tosi, H. L., Rizzo, J. R., & Carroll, S. J. (1986). Managing organizational behavior. Marshfield, MA: Pitman. Tubbs, Mark E. (1986, August). Goal-setting: A meta analysis examination of the empirical evidence. Journal of Applied Psvchologv. pp. 474-483. Ulmer, J. T. (1992). Occupational socialization and cynicism toward prison administration. Social Science Journal. 2.9 (4) , pp. 423-443. Useem, Bert (1990, February). Correctional management: How do we govern our cities? Corrections Today. p. 88. Useem, Bert, & Kimbell, Peter (1989) . States of siege: U.S. prison riots. 1971-1986. New York: Oxford University Press. 144 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Varga, K. (1975). N achievement, n power and effectiveness of research development. Human Relations. 28. pp. 571-590. Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and motivation. New York: Wiley. Walters, Stephen (1992). Attitudinal and demographic difference between male and female corrections officers: A study in three midwestern prisons. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation. 18(1/2), pp. 173-189. Williamson, Harold E. (1990). The corrections profession. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. Winter, David G. (1973). The power motive. New York: The Free Press. ________ (1982). Motivation and performance in presidential candidates. In A. J. Stewart (Ed.), Motivation and societv. San Francisco: Jossey- Bass. (1987). Leader appeal, leader performance, and the motive profiles of leaders and followers: A study of American presidents and elections. Journal of Personalitv and Social Psvchologv. ^(1) , pp 196-202. (1993, September). Power, affiliation, and war: Three tests of a motivational model. Journal of Personalitv and Social Psvchologv. pp. 532-545. Wolford, Bruce I. (1988, August). Wardens and superintendents: A diverse group. Corrections Compendium. 12(2), 1, 6-7. Wright, Kevin N., & Saylor, William G. (1991, December). Male and female employees' perceptions of prison work: Is there a difference? Justice QuarterIv. 8(4), 505-515. 145 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX A AUTHORITY TO CONDUCT RESEARCH 146 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. U.S. Department of Justice Federal Bureau o f Prisons Washington, D C 20S34 May 2 0 , 1994 MEMORANDUM FOR C.A. TURNER, SENIOR DEPUTY ASSISTANT DIRECTOR COMMUNITY CORRECTIONS AND DETENTION DIVISION /ifffyioA FROM: Thomas R. Kane, Assistant Director Information, Policy, and Public Affairs Division SUBJECT: Research Proposal on Motivational Profiles of Wardens This is in response to your request to conduct a study on motivational profiles of wardens of Federal prisons. We have reviewed your proposal and have no objections to it. You are authorized to proceed with the study, subject to the review of your cover letter to wardens by the Office of Research and Evaluation. As is customary in all research projects, wardens may respond to the questionnaire on a voluntary basis. Any questions that arise may be directed to Gerry Gaes, Chief, Office of Research and Evaluation, at (202) 724-3121. cc: All Regional Directors Selected Wardens 1 4 7 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX B JCE LETTER OF APPROVAL 148 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 6021 Burnside Landing Drive Burke, Virginia 22015 May 15, 1994 Dr. Michael J. Stahl 925 Haysiope Drive Knoxville, IN 37919 Dear Dr. Stahl: Thank you for speaking with me on May 6, 1994 about my dissertation. My research project is to identify motivational profiles of federal prison wardens throughout the United States. As we discussed on the phone, I request permission to administer the Job Choice Exercise to approximately 75 wardens located in various federal prisons throughout the United States. In addition, I wish to purchase the microcomputer software and the operating manual which are designed to score the JCE results. This instrument will be utilized solely for the purpose of dissertation research. I have enclosed a check for $300. which covers cost of the software. Also, I appreciate you providing me a clean copy of the JCE from which I will produce the necessary test copies. I appreciate your assistance and will share the results of my study with you. As we discussed, I would enjoy meeting with you personally and discussing my research should you visit the Washington, D.C. area. If you have any additional questions you may contact me at 703- 764-2789 (home) or 202-514-8585 (work) or you may contact my Committee Chairman, Dr. Ronald J. Stupak, Washington Public Affairs Center, School of Public Administration, University of Southern California, at 202-638-4949. Sincerely C. Allan Turner Dr. Michael J. Stahl Permission to use Job Choice Exercise 149 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX C JOB CHOICE EXERCISE 150 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Ü ! î 11 00 O ) t X -a g Z 5 OT S © 151 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. - o A JOB CHOICE DECISION-MAKING EXERCISE This decision making exercise deals with hypothetical situations. In this way, it simulates the job preference and effort decisions most individuals encounter at some point in a career. As you complete the exercise, you should project your self into a hypothetical situation. Assume you ore seeking a job and you are in the process of judging a number of jobs available to you which you are qualified to fill. A ll of these jobs are exactly alike in the usual attributes, such as pay, benefits, etc. These jobs differ only in regards to tlic infonnalion presented to you about three key factors. A sample job is presented below for your advance examination before you begin the exercise. Please notice you are asked to arrive at two decisions in relation to each of the hypothetical jobs presented to you. The first decision involves judging the attractiveness of the job (D K C IS IO N A). The second decision involves judging how much effort you would exert to get the particular job. JO B X In this Job, the likelihood that a m ajor portion o f y o u r duties w ill involve — establishing and m aintaining frie nd ly relationships V E R Y w ith others is...................................................................... IllC ill (35%) — influencing the activities o r thoughts o f a num ber V E R Y o f individuals i s ................................................................ LO W (5%) — accomplishing d ifficu lt (but feasible) goals and later receiving detailed inform ation about y o u r V E R Y personal performance i s ................................................. H IG H (35%) D E C IS IO N A . W ith the factors and associated likelihood levels shown above In mind. Indicate tire attractiveness of this Job to you. - 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 0 -H -f-2 + 3 -f-4 -1-5 Very Very Unattractive Attractive F U R T tlE R IN FO R M A T IO N A B O U T JO B X I f you exert a great deal o f effort to get this Job, the likelihood- th a t you w ill be successful is M E D IU M (50%). D E C IS IO N B . W ith both the attractiveness and likelihood information presented above in mind, indicate the level o f effort you would exert to get this job. 0 1 2 3 4 5 G 7 8 0 10 Zero effort Great effort to get it to get it Ul CO As you arrive at your decisions, the characteristics of the information presented to you about each job should be kept in mind. If an event's likelihood is Very High (35%), then it will occur in about 35 of 100 similar situations. I f an event’s likelihood is IVfcdium (50'%), then it will occur in about 50 of 100 similar situations. If an event’s likelihood is Very Low (5'%), then it will occur in only about 5 of 100 similar situations. In each instance, consider the information presented to you and then arrive at your juilgement of the attractiveness of that particular job to you. Circle the number under D E C IS IO N A which indicates your ehoice. Remember, there are no "currect" or “incorrect” choices, so follow your ow n feelings. A fter indicating your choice under D E C IS IO N A, examine the information pre sented as K U R T H E R IN F O R M A T IO N . D ata about the likelihood you will be successful if you exert a great deal of effort to get the particular job is presented here. Circle the number under D E C IS IO N B which indicates your choice. You should now begin to make the actual decisions, starting with Job # 1. Be careful not to skip a job; you should make decisions about each of the jobs pre sented to you. Once again, remember there are no "correct ” or “ incorrect" decisions in this exercise, so express your true feelings and intentions. You should work briskly without hurrying. Please complete the exercise in a single sitting. ® M . J. Stahl and A. M . Harrell, 1381 7) C D ■D O Q . C g Q . ■D C D C /) C /) 8 (O ' 3. 3" (D (D T3 O Q . C a o 3 T3 O (D Q . T3 (D C /) (/) H W J O B # 1 In this job, the likelihood that a m a jo r portion o f y o u r duties w ill inuolue — establishing and m aintaining frie nd ly relationships V E R Y w ith others is....................................................................................... H IG H (95%) — influencing the activities o r thoughts o f a num ber ' V E R Y o f individuals i s ................................................................................ H IG H (05%) — accomplishing d iffic u lt (but feasible) goals and later receiving detailed inform ation about y o u r V E R Y personal perform ance i s ................................................................. H IG H (95%) D E C IS IO N A . W ith the factor: and oasociated likelihood levels shown above in mind, indicate the attractiveness o f this job to you. - 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 Very Very Unattractive Attractive F U ltr ilK lt INFORMATION A ltO U T M i l # / I f you exert n great deal o f effort to get this jab, the lihclihood that yuu w ill be successful is M lilJ lU M (5tt%). D E C IS IO N B . With both the attractiveness and likelihood information presented above in mind, indicate the level o f effort you would exert to get this job. 0 1 2 3 4 5 Q 7 8 9 I0 Zero effort Great effort to get it to get it J O B # 2 In this job, the likelihood that a m a jo r portion o f y o u r duties w ill involve — establishing and m aintaining friendly relationships V E R Y w ith others is...................................................................................... LO W (5%) — influencing the activities o r thoughts o f a num ber V E R Y o f individuals i s ................................................................................ LO W (5%) — accomplishing d iffic u lt (but feasible) goals and later receiuing detailed inform ation about y o u r V E R Y personal perform ance i s ................................................................. LO W (5%) D E C IS IO N A . W ith the factors and associated likelihood levels shown above in mind, indicate the attractiveness of this job to you. —5 —4 “ 3 —2 —I 0 + I + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 Very Very Unattractive Attractive F U H T IlF lt INFORMATION A lIO U T J O lt # 2 I f you exert a great deal o f effort to get this job, the likelihood that you w ill be successful is V lillY H IG H (05%). D E C IS IO N B , With both the attractiveness and likelihood information presented above in mind, indicate the level o f effort you would exert to get this job. 0 1 2 3 4 5 G 7 B 9 It) Zero effort Great effort to get it to gel it J O B # 3 In this job, the likelihood th a t a m a jo r p ortion o f y o u r duties w ill inuolue — establishing and m aintaining frie n d ly relationships V E R Y w ith others is....................................................................................... L O W (5%) — influencing the activities o r thoughts o f a num ber V E R Y o f individuals i s ................................................................................. H IG H (95%) — accomplis/iing d ifficult (but feasible) goals and later receiving detailed inform ation about y o u r V E R Y personal performance i s ................................................................. L O W (5%) D E C IS IO N A . W ith the factors and associated likelihood levels shown above in mind, indicate the attractiveness of this job to you. - 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 Very Very Unattractive Attractive F U in ilK lt INFORMATION A ltO U T J O ll # 3 I f you exert a great deal o f effort to get this jab, the likelihood that you w ill be successful is M E D IU M (5U%). D E C IS IO N B. With botli the attractiveness and likelihood information presented above in mind, indicate the level of effort you would exert to get this job. 0 1 2 3 4 5 G 7 8 9 10 Zero effort Great effort to get it to get it J O B # 4 In this job, the likelihood that a m a jo r portion o f y o u r duties w ill involve — establishing and m aintaining frie nd ly relationships V E R Y w ill, others is....................................................................................... H IG H (95%) — influencing the activities o r thoughts o f a num ber V E R Y o f indioiduats i s ................................................................................. L O W (5%) — accomplishing d ifficu lt (but feasible) goals and later receiuing detailed inform ation about y o u r V E R Y personal perform ance i s .................................................................. H IG H (95%) D E C IS IO N A . W ith the factors and associated likelihood levels shown above in mind, indicate the attractiveness of this job to you. - 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 Very Very Unattractive Attractive I'U ltT H E It INFORMATION AU O U T JOB # 4 I f you exert a great deal o f effort to get this job, the likelihood that you w ill be successful is V E R Y L O W (5%). D E C IS IO N B . W ith both the attractiveness and likelihood information presented above in mind, indicate the level of effort you would exert to get this job. 0 I 2 3 4 5 G 7 8 9 10 Zero effort Great effort to get it to get it CD -o O Q . C g Q . ■o CD C/) o' Z 5 8 S' 3 CD CD CD ■o O a . c a o 3 (D a . o 3 ■o CD (/) W o' 3 U1 J O B # 5 /n /AÛ 706, /fte likelihood that a m a jo r portion o f y o u r duties w ill inuolue — establishing and m aintaining friendly relationships V E R Y w ith others is.............................................................................. L O W (5 %) — influencing the actiuities o r thoughts o f a num ber V E R Y o f indiuiduals i s ....................................................................... LO W (5%) — accomplishing d iffic u lt (but feasible) goals and later receiuing detailed inform ation about yo ur V E R Y personal performance i s ........................................................ IIIC II D E C IS IO N A . W ith the factors and associated likelihood levels shown ahove in mind, indicate the attractiveness of this job to you. - 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 Very Very Unattractive Attractive FU H TllE H INFORMATION AISOUT JO II # 5 I f you exert a great deal o f effort to get this job, the like lilw od that you w ill be successful is V E R Y L O W (5‘ X , ) . D E C IS IO N B . W ith both the attractiveness and likelihood information presented above in mind, indicate the level o f effort you would exert to get this job. 0 1 2 3 4 5 G 7 8 0 10 Zero effort Great effort to get it ' to get it J O B # 0 In this Job, the likelihood that a m ajor portion o f y o u r duties w ill inuolue — establishing and m aintaining frie nd ly relationships V E R Y w ith others is....................................................................................... H IG H (05%) — influencing the actiuities o r thoughts o f a num ber V E R Y o f indiuiduals i s ................................................................................ H IG H (05%.) — accomplishing d ifficult (but feasible) goals and la te r receiuing detailed inform ation about y o u r V E R Y personal perform ance i s ................................................................. LO W (5%) D E C IS IO N A . W ith the factors and associated likelihood levels shown above in mind, indicate the attractiveness of this job to you. - 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 0 +1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 Very Very Unattractive Attractive FU R TH ER IN FO R M A T IO N A IIO U T J O II #G I f you exert a great deal o f effort to get this job, the likelihood th a t you w ill be successful is V E R Y H IG H (05%). D E C IS IO N B. With both the attractiveness and likelihood information presented above in mind, indicate the level of effort you would exert to get this job. 0 1 2 3 4 5 G 7 8 0 I0 Zero effort Great effort to get it to get it J O B # 7 In this Job, the likelihood that a m a jo r portion o f y o u r duties w ill inuolue — establishing and m aintaining frie nd ly relationships V E R Y w ith others is....................................................................... H IG H (95%) — influencing the actiuities o r thoughts o f a num ber V E R Y o f indiuiduals i s ................................................................. L O W (5%) — accoiniilishiag d iffin d t (but feasible) goals and later receiuing detailed inform ation about y o u r V E R Y personal performance i s .................................................. LO W (5%) D E C IS IO N A . W ith the factors and associated likelihood levels shown above in mind, indicate tlic attractiveness of this job to you. —5 —4 —3 —2 —1 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 Very Very Unattractive Attractive F U ltrilE R INFORMATION A ltO U T JO n # 7 I f you exert a great deal o f effort to gel this Job, the likelihood th a t you w ill be successful is V E R Y L O W (S/o). D E C IS IO N B . With both tlie attractiveness and likelihood information presented ahove in mind, indicate the level of effort you would exert to get this job. 0 I 2 3 4 5 G 7 8 9 10 Zero effort Great effort to get it to get it J O B # 8 In this Job, the likelihood that a m a jo r portion o f y o u r duties w ill inuoloe — establishing and m aintaining frie nd ly relationships V E R Y luith others is....................................................................... LO W (5%) — influencing the actiuities o r thoughts o f a num ber V E R Y o f indiuiduals i s ................................................................ LO W (5%) — accomplishing d ifficult (but feasible) goals and later receiuing detailed inform ation about y o u r V E R Y personal performance i s ................................................. H IG H (95%) D E C IS IO N A . W ith the faetors and associated likelihood levels shown above in mind, indicate the attractiveness of this job to you. - 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 Very Very Unattractive Attractive F U im iE R IN FO R M A nO N A IIO U T JOB # 8 I f you exert a great deal o f effort to get this job, the likelihood lh a t you w ill be successful is V E R Y H IG H (95%i). D E C IS IO N B . W ith both the attractiveness and likelihood information presented above in mind, indicate the level of effort you would exert to get this job. 0 1 2 3 4 5 G 7 8 9 10 Zero effort Great effort to get it to get it CD ■ O O Q. C g Q. ■ O CD C/) en CD 8 c i ' CD 3 . 3 " CD CD ■ O O Q. C a O 3 "O O CD Q. ■ O CD e n e n H i n üi J O B # 9 In this Job, the likelihood that a m a jo r portion o f y o u r duties w ill involve • “ establishing ond m aintaining frie nd ly relationships V E R Y w ith others is....................................................................................... L O W (5%) — influencing the activities o r thoughts o f a num ber V E R Y o f individuals i s ................................................................................ H IG H (95%) — accomplishing d ifficu lt (but feasible) goals and later receiving detailed inform ation about y o u r V E R Y personal perform ance i s ................................................................... H IG H (95%) D E C IS IO N A . W ith the factors and associated likelihood levels shown nhuvc in mind. Indicate the attractiveness of this job to you. “ 5 —4 “ 3 —2 “ 1 0 + I + 2 + 3 4 4 4*5 Very Very Unattractive Attractive FU ItTIlK Jt INFORMATION A IIO U T JO n # 9 I f you exert a gn-at deni o f effort to get this Job, the likelihood th a t you w ill be successful is M lC D IU M (50%). D E C IS IO N B . With both the attractiveness and likelihood information presented above in mind, indicate the level of effort you would exert to get this job. 0 1 2 3 4 5 G 7 8 9 10 Zero effort Great effort to get it to get it J O B # 10 In this Job, the likelihood lh a t a m a jo r portion o f y o u r duties w ill involve — establishing and momfommg frie nd ly relationships V E R Y w ith others is.................................................................... H IG H (95%) — influencing the activities o r thoughts o f a nuni6cr V E R Y o f individuals i s .............................................................. L O W ( 5 % ) — accomplishing d ifficult (but feasible) goals and later receiving detailed inform ation about y o u r V E R Y personal perform ance i s ............................................... H IG H (95%) D E C IS IO N A . W ith the factors and associated likelihood levels shown above in mind, indicate the attractiveness of this job to you. - 5 • - 4 - 3 - 2 - I 0 4*1 4*2 4*3 4*4 4*5 Very Very Unattractive Attractive FU R TH E R IN FO R M A T IO N A R O U T J O n # fO I f you exert a great deal o f effort to get this Job, the likelihood that you w ill be successful is V E R Y L O W (5%). D E C IS IO N D . W ith both the attractiveness and likelihood information presented above in mind, indicate the level of effort you would exert to get this job. 0 1 2 3 4 5 G 7 8 9 10 Zero effort Great effort to gel it to get it J O B # 11 In this Job, Ihe likelihood lh a t a m a jo r portion o f y o u r duties w ill involve — establishing and m aintaining frie n d ly relationships V E R Y w ith others is ,..................................................................................... H IG H (95%) — influencing the activities o r thoughts o f a num ber V E R Y o f individuals i s ................................................................................. H IG H (95%) — ncconipfis/iin/* d ifficult (but feasible) goals and Inter receiving detailed inform ation about y o u r V E R Y personal performance i s .................................................................. H IG H (95%) D E C IS IO N A . W ith the factors and associated likelihood levels shown above in mind, indicate the attractiveness of this job to you. - 5 “ 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 0 4*1 4*2 4*3 4*4 4*5 Very Very Unattractive Attractive F U R TH E R IN FO R M A T IO N A liO U T J O n # / / I f you exert a great deal o f effort to get this Job, the likelihood th a t you w ill be successful is V E R Y H IG H (95%). D E C IS IO N B . WiUt both the attractiveness and likelihood information presented above in mind, indicate the level of effort you would exert to get this job. 0 I 2 3 4 5 G 7 8 9 10 Zero effort Great effort to get it to get it J O B # 12 In this Job, the likelihood that a m a jo r p ortion o f y o u r duties w ill involve — establishing and m aintaining friendly relationships V E R Y w ith others is....................................................................................... LO W (5%) — influencing the activities o r thoughts o f a num ber V E R Y o f individuals i s ................................................................................. H IG H (95%) — accomplishing d ifficult (but feasible) goals and later receiving detailed inform ation about y o u r V E R Y personal perform ance i s .................................................................. LO W (5%) D E C IS IO N A . W ith the factors and associated likelihood levels shown above in mind, indicate the attractiveness of this job to you. - 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 “ 1 0 4*1 4*2 4*3 4*4 4*5 - Very Very Unultroctive Attractive F U R TH E R IN FO R M A T IO N A U O U T JO B # / 2 I f you exert a great deal o f effort to get this Job, the likelihood th a t you w ill be successful is V E R Y L O W (5%). D E C IS IO N B. W ith both the attractiveness and likelihood information presented above in mind, indicate the level of effort you would exert to get this job. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Zero effort Great effort to get it to get it ■o o Q. C g Q. ■ O CD ( / ) e n o" 3 8 c 5 ' P - 3" CD CD ■ D O Q. C a o 3 ■ D O CD Q . ■ O CD C/) C/) H m J O B # 13 In this Job, the likelihood that a m a jo r portion o f y o u r duties w ill inuolue — establishing and m aintaining friendly relationships V K IIY w ith others is..................................................................... LO W (5%) ^ in flu e n c in g the actiuities o r thoughts o f a num ber V E R Y o f indwiduafs i s .............................................................. LO W (5%) ^accom plishing difficult (but feasible) goab and later receiuing detailed inform ation about y o u r V E R Y personal performance i s ............................................... LO W (5%) D E C IS IO N A . W ith the factors and aaaociated likelihood levels shown above in mind, indicate the attractiveness o f this job to you. - 5 - 4 “ 3 - 2 - 1 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 Very Very Unattractive Attractive F U n r iiE n IN F O im A T IO N A U O U T J O n # / J tfy o u exert n great deal o f e/fart to get this Job, the likelihood that you w ill be successful is M lC D IU M (50%). D E C IS IO N D. With both the attractiveness and likelihood information presented above in mind, indicate the level of effort you would exert to get this job. 0 1 2 3 4 5 G 7 8 9 10 Zero effort Great effort to get it to get it J O B # 14 In this Job, the likelihood that a moyor p ortion o f y o u r duties w ill inuolue — establishing and m aintaining frie n d ly relationships V E R Y wüh others is..................................................................... H IG H (95%) — influencing the actiuities o r thoughts o f a num ber V E R Y o f indiuirSuals i s .............................................................. H IG H (95%) — accomplishing d ifficult (but feasible) goals and later receiuing detailed inform ation about y o u r V E R Y personal performance i s ............................................... LO W (5%) D E C IS IO N A . W ith the factors and associated likelihood levels shown above in mind, indicate the attractiveness of this job to you. - 5 - 4 “ 3 - 2 - 1 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 Very Very Unattractive Attractive F U IiT JlE H IN FO R M A T IO N A U O U T J O n # / 4 I f you exert a great deal o f effort to gel this job , the likelihood lh a t you w ill be successful is V E R Y H IG H (95%). D E C IS IO N B . W ith both the attractiveness and likelihood information presented above in mind, indicate the level o f effort you would exert to get this job. 0 I 2 3 4 5 fi 7 8 9 10 Zero effort Great effort to get it to get it J O B # 16 In this Job, the likelihood that a moyor portion o f y o u r duties w ill inuolue — establishing and m aintaining friendly relationships V E R Y w ith others is............................................................................. LO W (5%) — influencing the actiuities o r thoughts o f a num ber V E R Y o f indiuiduals is ....................................................................... LO W (5%) — accomplishing d ifficult (but feasible) goals and later receiuing detailed inform ation about y o u r V E R Y personal performance i s ........................................................ L O W (5%) D E C IS IO N A . W ith the factors and associated likelihood levels shown above in mind, indicate the attractiveness of this job to you. - 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - I 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 Very Very Unattractive Attractive F U iri'lllC ie IN FO R M A T IO N A IlO L rrjO IS # 1 5 I f you exert a great deal o f effort to get this Job, the lihetihoad that you w ill be successful is V E R Y H IG H (95%>). D E C IS IO N U . W ith both the attractiveness and likelihood information presented above in mind, indicate the level of effort you would exert to get this job. 0 1 2 3 4 5 G 7 8 9 10 Zero effort Great effort to get It to get it J O B # IG 7n this Job, the likelihood th a t a m a jo r portion o f y o u r Julies w ill inuolue — establishing and m aintaining frie n d ly relationships V E R Y w ith others is . . . . . . . LO W (5%) — influencing the activities o r thoughts o f n num ber V E R Y o f individuals i s ....................................................................... H IG H (95%) — nccum;Jis/iin;; diffletdt (but feasible) goals and ltd er receiuing detailed inform ation about y o u r V E R Y personal performance i s ........................................................ H IG H (95%) D E C IS IO N A . W ith the factors and associated likelihood levels shown above in mind. Indicate the attractiveness of this job to you. - 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - I 0 + I + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 Very Very Unattractive Attractive F U R TH E R IN FO R M A TIO N A B O U T JO U # IG I f you exert a great deal o f effort to get this Job, the likelihood that you w ill be successful is V E R Y L O W (5%). D E C IS IO N B . With both the attractiveness and likelihood information presented above in mind, indicate the level of effort you would exert to get this job. 0 1 2 3 4 5 G 7 8 9 10 Zero effort Great effort to gel it to get It U 1 J O B # 17 In Ihis Job, the likelihood th a t a m a jo r portion o f y o u r duties w ill inuolue — establishing and m aintaining frie nd ly relationships V E R Y w ith others is...................................................................................... LO W (5%) — influencing the activities o r thoughts o f a num ber V E R Y o f indiuiduals i s ................................................................................ LO W (5%) — accomplishing difficult (but feasible) goals and later receiuing detailed inform ation about y o u r V E R Y personal performance i s ................................................................ H IG H (95%) D E C IS IO N A . W ith the factors and associated likelihood levels shown above in mind, indicate the attractiveness of this job to you. - 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - I 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 Very Very Unattractive Attractive F U U T llF M IN FO R M A TIO N A ltO U T J O li # 1 7 I f you exert n great dent o f effort to get this Job. the likelihood that you w ill be successful is M E D IU M (50%). D E C IS IO N U. With both the attractiveness and likelihood information presented above in mind, indicate the level o f effort you would exert to gel this job. 0 1 2 3 4 5 G 7 89 10 Zero effort Great effort to get it to get it J O B # 18 In this Job, the likelihood that a m a jo r p ortion o f y o u r duties w ill inuolue — establishing and m aintaining frie nd ly relationships V E R Y wUh others is...................................................................................... H IG H (95%) — influencing the actiuities o r thoughts o f a num ber V E R Y o f individuals i s ................................................................................ LO W (5%) — accomplishing d ifficult (but feasible) goals and later receiuing detailed inform ation about y o u r V E R Y personal performance i s ................................................................. LO W (5 %) D E C IS IO N A . W ith the factors and associated likelihood levels shown above in mind, indicate the attractiveness of this job to you. —5 —4 —3 —2 —1 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 Very Very Unattractive Attractive FU R TH ER IN FO R M A T IO N A R O U T JO B # 1 8 I f you exert a great deal o f effort to get this Job, the likelihood that you w ill be successful is M E D IU M (50%). D E C IS IO N B . With both the attractiveness and likelihood information presented above in mind, indicate the level o f effort you would exert to get this job. 0 1 2 3 4 5 G 7 8 9 10 Zero e ffo rt Great e ffo rt to get i t to get it J O B # 19 In this Job, the likelihood that a m a jo r portion o f y o u r duties w ill inuolue — establishing and m aintaining frie nd ly relationships V E R Y uiilh others is............................................................................ LO W (5%) — influencing the actiuities o r thoughts o f a num ber V E R Y o f indiuiduals i s ..................................................................... H IG H (95%) — accomplishing d ifficult (but feasible) goals and later receiuing detailed inform ation about y o u r V E R Y personal performance i s ...................................................... L O W (5%) D E C IS IO N A . W ith the factors and associated likelihood levels shown above in mind, indicate the attractiveness of this job to you. . - 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 Very Very Unattractive Attractive F U ltT llE lt IN FO R M A TIO N A ltO U T J O lt # 1 9 I f you exert o «rent deal o f effort to get this Job, the likelihood that you w ill be successful is V E R Y H IG H (05%). D E C IS IO N B . W ith both the attractiveness and likelihood information presented above in mind, indicate the level of effort you would exert to get this job. 0 1 2 3 4 S G 7 8 9 10 Zero effort Great effort to get it to get it J O B # 2 0 In this Job, the likelihood that a m a jo r portion o f y o u r duties w ill inuolue — establishing and m aintaining frie nd ly relationships V E R Y w ith others is............................................................................. H IG H (95%) — influencing the actiuities o r thoughts o f a num ber V E R Y o f indiuidnnis i s ....................................................................... H IG H (95%) — accomplishing d ifficult (but feasible) goals and later receiuing detailed inform ation about y o u r V E R Y personal performance i s ................................................................. H IG H (95%) D E C IS IO N A . W ith the factors and associated likelihood levels shown above in mind, indicate the attractiveness of this job to you. - 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 Very Very Unattractive Attractive FU R TH E R IN FO R M A T IO N A U O U T JO B # 2 0 I f you exert a great deal o f effort to get tins Job, the likelihood that you w ill be successful is V E R Y L O W (5%). D E C IS IO N B . W ith both the attractiveness and likelihood information presented above in mind, indicate the level of effort you would exert to get this job. 0 1 2 3 4 5 G 7 8 9 10 Zero effort Great effort tu gel it to get it CD ■O O Q . C g Q . " O CD C/) C/) 8 3 3 " CD CD T3 O Q . C a o 3 T3 O CD Q . T3 CD (/) C/) U 1 00 J O R # 21 /n /Aû Job, the likelihood that a m ajor portion o f y o u r duties w ill inuolue — establishing and m aintaining frie nd ly relationships V E R Y wUh others is...................................................................................... H IG H (95%) — influencing the actiuities o r thoughts o f a num ber V E R Y o f indiuiduals i s ................................................................................ LO W (5%) — accomplishing d iffic u lt (but feasible) goals and later receiuing detailed inform ation about y o u r V E R Y personal performance i s ................................................................. H IG H (95%) D E C IS IO N A . W ith the lectors end associated likelihood levels shown above in mind, indicate the attractiveness of this job to you. - 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - I 0 + I + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 Very Very Unattractive Attractive F U ltT llE lt IN FO R M A T IO N A B O U T J O li # 2 1 I f you exert a great deal o f effort to get this job, the likelihood th a t you w ill be successful is V E R Y H IG H (35%). D E C IS IO N B . With both the attractiveness and likelihood information presented above in mind, indicate the level o f effort you would exert to get this job. 0 1 2 3 4 5 G 7 8 9 I0 Zero effort Great effort to get it to get it J O U # 2 2 In this job, the likelihood that a m a jo r p ortion o f y o u r duties w ill inuolue — establishing and m aintaining friendly relationships V E R Y w ith others is...................................................................................... H IG H (95%) — influencing the actiuities o r thoughts o f a num ber V E R Y o f indiuiduals i s ................................................................................ H IG H (95%) — accomplishing difficult (but feasible) goals and later receiuing detailed inform ation about y o u r V E R Y personal performance i s ................................................................. LO W (5%) D E C IS IO N A . W ith the factors and associated likelihood levels shown above in mind, indicate the attractiveness of this job to you. - 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - I 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 Very Very Unattractive Attractive F U R TH E R IN FO R M A T IO N A B O U T JO B # 2 2 I f you exert a great deal o f effort to get this jab, the likelihood th a t you w ill be successful is V E R Y L O W (5%). D E C IS IO N B . With both the attractiveness and likelihood information presented above in mind, indicate the level o f effort you would exert to gel liiis job. 0 1 2 3 4 5 G 7 8 9 10 Zero e ffo rt Great e ffo rt to get it to get it J O B # 2 3 In this job, the likelihood that a m a jo r portion o f y o u r duties w ill inuolue — establishing and m aintaining frie nd ly relationships V E R Y w ith others is ...................................................................................... L O W (5%) — influencing tlte actiuities o r thoughts o f a num ber V E R Y o f indiuiduals i s ................................................................................ LO W (5%) — accomplishing d ifficult (but feasible) goals and later receiuing detailed inform ation about y o u r V E R Y personal performance i s ................................................................. H IG H (95%) D E C IS IO N A . W ith the factors and associated likelihood levels shown above in mind, indicate the attractiveness of this job to you. —5 —4 —3 —2 —I 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 Very Very Unattractive Attractive F U im iE R IN FO R M A TIO N A B O U T JO B # 2 3 I f you exert a great deal o f effort to get this job, the likelihood th a t you will be successful is V E R Y L O W (5%). D E C IS IO N B . W ith both the attractiveness and likelihood information presented above in mind, indicate the level of effort you would exert to get this job. 0 1 2 3 4 5 G 7 8 9 10 Zero effort Great effort to get it to get it JO U # 24 In this job, the likelihood that a m a jo r portion o f y o u r duties w ill inuolue — establishing and m aintaining friendly relationships V E R Y w ith others is....................................................................................... LO W (5%) — iii/lticMciiig (he nctiuilies or thoughts o f a num ber V E R Y o f individuals i s ................................................................................ H IG H (95%) — accomplishing d ifficult (but feasible) goals and later receiuing detailed inform ation about y o u r V E R Y personal performance i s ................................................................. LO W (57») D E C IS IO N A . W ith the factors and associated likelihood levels shown above in mind, indicate the attractiveness of this job to you. - 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 Very Very Unattractive Attractive F U R TH E R IN FO R M A T IO N A B O U T JO B # 2 d I f you exert a great deal o f effort to gel this job, the likelihood that you w ill be successful is M E D IU M (50% ). D E C IS IO N U . With both the attractiveness and likelihood information presented above in mind, indicate the level of effort you would exert to get this job. 0 1 2 3 4 5 G 7 8 9 10 Zero effort Great effort to get it to get it U 1 U 3 J O B # 25 In this Job, the likelihood that a m a jo r portion o f y o u r duties w ill inuolue — establishing and m aintaining frie nd ly relationships V E R Y w ith others is ..................................................................................... LO W (5%) — influencing the actiuities o r thoughts o f a num ber V E R Y o f indiuiduals i s ................................................................................ LO W (5%) — accomplishing d ifficult (but feasible) goals and later receiuing detailed inform ation about y o u r V E R Y personal performance i s ................................................................. LO W (5%) D E C IS IO N A . W ith the factors and associated likelihood levels shown ohovc in mind, indicate the attractiveness of this job to you. - 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 Very Very Unattractive Attractive F U t m m ii IN FO R M A T IO N A llO U T J O li # 2 5 I f you exert a great deal o f effort to get this Job, the likelihood lh a t you w ill be successful is V lillY L O W (5%). D E C IS IO N B. W ith both the attractiveness and likelihood information presented above in mind, indicate the level o f effort you would exert to gel this job. 0 1 2 3 4 5 G 7 8 D 1 0 Zero effort Great effort to get it to get it J O B # 2G In this Job, the likelihood that a m ajor portion o f y o u r duties w ill inuolue — establishing and m aintaining frie nd ly relationships V E R Y w ith others is.................................................................... H IG H (35%) — influencing the actiuities o r thoughts o f a num ber V E R Y o f indiuiduals i s ............................................................. LO W (5%) — aeeomplishing d ifficu lt (but feasible) goals and later receiuing detailed inform ation about y o u r V E R Y personal performance i s ............................................... LO W (5%) D E C IS IO N A . W ith the factors and associated likelihood levels shown above in mind, indicate the attractiveness of this job to you. - 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 0 +1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 Very Very Unattractive Attractive F U R TH E R IN FO R M A T IO N A B O U T JOn # 2 6 I f you exert a great deal o f effort to get this Job, the likelihood that you w ill be successful is V E R Y H IG H (05%). D E C IS IO N B . With both the attractiveness and likelihood information presented above in mind, indicate the level o f effort you would exert to get this job. 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 7 8 0 to Zero effort Great effort to get it to get it J O B # 2 7 In this Job, the likelihood that a m a jo r portion o f y o u r duties w ill inuolue — establishing and m aintaining friendly relationships V E R Y w ith others is ...................................................................................... H IG H (95%) — influencing the actiuities o r thoughts o f a num ber V E R Y o f iniliuiduals i s ................................................................................ H IG H (95%) — accomplishing iliffic u lt (but feasible) goals and later reeeiuing detailed inform ation about y o u r V E R Y personal performance i s ................................................................. H IG H (95%) D E C IS IO N A . W ith the factors and associated likelihood levels shown above in mind, indicate the attractiveness of this job to you. - 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 0 +1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 Very Very Unattractive Attractive F U R TH E R IN FO R M A T IO N A llO U T JO B # 2 7 I f you exert a great deal o f effort to get this Job, the like lilw od that you w ill be successful is M E D IU M (50%). D E C IS IO N B. With both the attractiveness and likelihood information presented above in mind, indicate the level of effort you would exert to get this job. 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 7 8 9 10 Zero effort Great effort to gel it to get it J O B # 2 8 In this Job, the likelihood that a m a jo r portion o f y o u r duties w ill inuolue — establishing and m aintaining frie nd ly relationships V E R Y tuith others is....................................................................................... H IG H (05%) — influcneing the actiuities o r thoughts o f a num ber V E R Y o f indiuiduats i s ................................................................................ LO W (5%) — accomplishing d ifficult (but feasible) goals and later receiuing detailed inform ation about y o u r V E R Y personal perform ance i s ......................................... ....................... H IG H (95%) D E C IS IO N A . W ith the factors and associated likelihood levels shown above in mind, indicate the attractiveness of this job to you. - 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 Very Very Unattractive Attractive F U R TH E R IN FO R M A T IO N A B O U T JO B # 2 8 I f you exert a great deal o f effort to get this Job, the likelihood that you w ill be successful is M E D IU M (50%). D E C IS IO N B . With both the attractiveness and likelihood information presented above in mind, indicate the level of effort you would exert to get this job. 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 7 8 9 10 Zero effort Great effort to get it to get it 73 C D ■ D O Q . C g Q . ■ D C D C /) C /) C D 8 (D 3 3 " (D (D T3 O Q . C a o 3 T3 O (D Q . T3 C D (/) ( / ) a \ o J O B # 2 0 In this Job, the likelihood that a m n jo r portion o f y o u r duties w ill inuolue — establishing and m aintaining frie nd ly relationships V E R Y w ith others is........................................... ^ ........................................ LO W (5%) — influencing the actiuities o r thoughts o f a num ber V E R Y o f indiuiduals i s ................................................................................ H IG H (95%) — accomplishing d ifficu lt (but feasible) goals and later receiuing detailed inform ation about y o u r V E R Y personal perform ance i s ................................................................. H IG H (95%) D E C IS IO N A . W ith the factors and associated likelihood levels shown above in mind, indicate the attractiveness of this job to you. —5 —4 —3 “ 2 “ 1 0 + l + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 Very Very Unattractive Attractive FUItTHER INFORMATION AISOUT JOn # 2 0 I f you exert a great dent o f effort la get this Job, the likelihood that you w ill be successful is V E R Y IIIC II (05%). D E C IS IO N D . W ith both the attractiveness and likelihood information presented above in mind, indicate the level of effort you would exert to get this job. 0 1 2 3 4 5 G 7 8 9 I0 Zero effort Great effort to get it to get it J O B # 3 0 In this Job, the likelihood that a m a jo r portion o f y o u r duties w ill inuolue — establishing and m aintaining frie n d ly relationships V E R Y w üh others is.................................................................... H IG H (95%) — influencing the actiuities o r thoughts o f a num ber V E R Y o f indiuiduats i s ................................................................................ H IG H (95%) — accomplishing d ifficu lt (but feasible) goals and later receiuing detailed inform ation about y o u r V E R Y personal perform ance i s ............................................... L O W (5%) D E C IS IO N A . W ith the factors and associated likelihood levels shown above in mind, indicate the attractiveness of this job to you. - 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 Very Very Unattractive Attractive FU R TH E R IN F O R M A T IO N A B O U T JO B # 3 0 I f you exert a great deal o f effort to get this Job, the likelihood th a t you w ill be successful is M E D IU M (50%). D E C IS IO N B . W ith both the attractiveness and likelihood Information presented above in mind, indicate the level of effort you would exert to get this job. 0 1 2 3 4 5 G 7 8 9 10 Zero e ffo rt G reat e ffo rt to get i t to get it M . J. Stahl and A. M . Harrell, 1981 APPENDIX D JOB CHOICE EXERCISE SCORES 161 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. JOB CHOICE EXERCISE SCORES I/D RSO BAFF ... AFFPER BPOW POWPER BACH ACHPER MM' 1 0.12 9.00 0.61 84.80 0.61 71.60 1 2 0.20 14.90 0.69 90.30 0.64 75.50 1 3 0.25 19.80 0.51 75.20 0.65 76.70 1 4 0.35 31.20 0.89 97.70 0.16 12.30 0 5 0.26 20.60 0.85 96.90 0.18 13.60 0 6 0.37 33.70 0.57 81.10 0.69 80.50 1 7 0.04 5.00 0.47 70.50 0.83 92 .40 1 8 0.28 23.30 0.37 57.10 0.81 91.10 1 9 0.50 54.00 0.54 77.60 0.50 56.40 1 10 0.63 71.60 0.54 78.20 0.05 5.40 0 11 0.33 29.10 0.31 48.80 0.84 92.80 0 12 0.18 13.60 0.14 27.10 0.83 91.80 0 13 0.00 3.80 0.49 72.20 0.73 84.40 1 14 0.04 5.20 0.94 98.50 -0.14 1.00 0 15 0.54 59.50 0.61 84.60 0.28 23 .90 0 16 0 .59 65.50 0.22 37.40 0.42 42.90 -1 17 0.54 58.70 0.50 74.20 0.50 55.60 1 18 0.42 41.70 0.82 95.90 0.21 16.60 0 19 0.50 53.20 0.50 73.90 0.63 73.20 1 20 0.16 12.10 0.25 40.90 0.90 95.40 0 21 0.45 46.00 0.64 86.90 0.56 64.40 1 22 0.12 9.20 0.64 86.70 0.64 74.50 1 23 0.46 48.00 0.32 51.20 0.54 61.00 1 24 0.52 56.00 0.52 76.10 0.48 53.20 1 25 0.38 35.20 0.58 81.90 0.40 40.90 0 162 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPEN D IX E PRISON SOCIAL CLIMATE SURVEY 163 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Prison Social Climate Survey staff Version #3 September 1993 VERSION 3: ODD BIRTH MONTH, EVEN BIRTH DAY C om plete this version If you were bom in an odd month (Jan, M ar, M ay, Jul, Sep, or N ov) AUD on an even day (2, 4, 6, etc.). There are four versions of the questionnaire. Each version contains a different com bination of sections that com pose the entire questionnaire (Personal Safety & Security. W ork Environm ent, Quality of Life, and Personal Well-Being). In order to assure that each version has roughly the sam e num ber of staff responding to it, we have created four categories for dividing staff into groups based on their birth month and day (i.e., even birth m onth, even birth day; even birth month, odd birth day; odd birth m onth, odd birth day; and odd birth m onth, even birth day). It is im portant that you com plete the correct version of the questionnaire since your responses to this version of the survey will be interpreted to be representative of a number of sim ilar staff. Please take a m om ent now to check whether you have been given the correct version of the questionnaire according to your birui m onth and birth day. If you have not received the correct version, ask the person responsible for administering the questionnaire for the correct version. (I S. Department of Justice Federal Bureau of Prisons Office of Research and Eualuation Washington, D.C. Ilf® ■ooBoBHoBHBEBIIBooobooobo ] DO NOT VERITE IN TH IS SHADED AREA 32617 164 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Message from the Director Dear Bureau of Prisons Staff, The following survey, developed by the B ureau of Prisons and reviewed by the Council of Prison Locals, American Federation of Government Employ ees, asks your Im pressions of the living and working conditions in your current facility. This is the sixth yearly adm inistration of the Prison Social Climate Survey. Prior results have been distributed and contain inform a tion describing each security level and region, as well as each institution and the BOP overall. Your answers and those of the other survey respondents will provide Bureau adm inistrators with critical inform ation about Bureau of Prisons facilities. You have been random ly chosen to participate in this year's survey. Your participation is voluntary, however, I urge you to take advantage of this opportunity to express your views. Since it is impossible to survey all of the Bureau of Prisons staff, your responses are particularly im portant because they are representative of a num ber of sim ilar staff, lïre re are four versions of the survey, each a different com bination of the subsections that compose the entire questionnaire. The instructions at the beginning of the survey illustrate how the survey should be completed. Space for com m ents is provided at the end of the survey. We need frank and honest answers. Although it is unlikely that you will find any of these item s sensitive, we have taken steps to assure confidenti ality. Your answers will be combined w ith those of other respondents so that no individual responses will be made available to anyone. The Office of Research is collecting and autom ating the surveys for us and the reported results will be available on the Key Indicators/Strategic Support System for the B ureau overall, each region, each security level, and each institution. The survey should take about 45 minutes to complete. Please complete your questionnaire during the staff recall, place it in the enclosed envelope and deposit it in the container located at your survey site. If you were unable to attend the staff recall, please com plete the survey, place it in the enclosed envelope and either return it to the institution PSCS adm inistra tor or return it via reg^ilar mail in the pre-addressed, stamped envelope provided. Postage is prepaid. The Bureau of Prisons is facing many challenges. The inform ation obtained from the Prison Social Climate Survey enhances our ability to plan for the future and continue to provide a safe and hum ane environ m ent for our staff and the inmates for whom we are responsible. Thank you for your participation, Kathy Hawk Director 165 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. INSTRUCTIONS MARKING DIRECTIONS Use black lead pencil only (#2 or softer). Do not use ink or ballpoint pen. Make heavy dark marks that fill the oval completely. Erase cleanly any answer you wish to change. Make no stray marks on the survey. For each question, please fill in the numbered oval completely so that the number inside cannot be seen. It is important that you mark your answers carefuily. The following are examples of proper and improper ways of marking your answers. Example questions 1. Are you: PROPER IMPROPER • American Indian œ Asian or Pacific Islander Œ Black ® Eskimo or Aleut œ White ® Other ® American Indian C D Asian or Pacific Islander J S ) Black CD Eskimo or Aleut © W h ite œ Other DO NOT partiaiiy darken your choice, use "x's," circle numbers or scribble in the answer area. 2. How long have you been working for the Bureau of Prisons? This example tells us this person has worked four years and eight months. If you have worked for the BOP for less than 10 years, enter "0" in the left-most column and darken the corresponding numbered oval, as shown here. Years Mas 04 8 # C D Œ C D C D C D CDC D Œ Œ CD a œ œ C D œ CD CD a C D CD C D cm . Please write In the numbers. Please darken the numbered ovals ■ that correspond with the numbers above. If your answer doesn't require you to use ^ the available columns, enter "0" in the left-most column and darken the corresponding numbered oval. 166 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. PRISON SOCIAL CLIMATE SURVEY STAFF VERSION Before giving your opinions on the following pages, please complete these items. This information is asked for the purpose of checking whether the staff members who have responded to our survey are similar to ail other staff working in this facility. 1. Are you: CD American Indian ® Asian or Pacific islander CD Biack CD Eskimo or Aieut <D White ® Other 2. Are you of Hispanic origin? œ No œ Yes 3. What Is your sex? CD Male ( 2 Female 4. W hat is your age as of your last birthday? Years (2CD CD CD (2C2 — CD(2 œQD CD — (E œ mm (2 — — œ . Pitas» mile In the numtiers. Please darken the numbered ovals ■ that correspond with the numbers above. S. What is the highest level of education you have attained? Œ Some high schooi (no degree) CD High schooi (degree) CD Technical training CD Some coiiege ® Bacheioris degree ® Some graduate work CD Master's degree ® Ph.D. degree ® Advanced professional degree (e.g., medical doctor, lawyer) A n sw er the follow ing If you attended BOP training a t G LYNCO. Otherwise, go to question 7. 6a. What year did you attend GLYNCO? 19 (2 œ Œ Œ Œ Œ C E œ C E œ (E Œ Œ . Please write In the numbers. Please darken the numbered ovals ■ that correspond with the numbers above. 6b. W hat calendar quarter did you attend GLYNCO training? (D January-March <2 Aprii-June œ July-September Œ October-December 6c. Did you attend GLYNCO within 45 calendar days from your start date? œ No C2 Yes ® Don't remember 7. How long have you been working for the Bureau of Prisons? Years Mos CE CE C D Œ CD CD œ (2 CE CE CE C D Œ œ CD œ CD C D CD œ œ CE CE . Please write In the numbers. Please darken the numbered ovals ■ that correspond wllh the numbers above. • ••• SD-1 167 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 8. How long have you been working at this facility? Years Mos CD CD CD CD CD C D CD CD Œ) CD C D CD CD CD . P/«a»8 wr/te In the numbers. Please darken the numbered ovals ■ that correspond wllh the numbers above. How m any other adult correctional facilities have you w orked In prior to this one? (Include only facilities In w hich you worked for more than 4 w eeks.) O Only facility State, county or city facilities Federal facilities (BOP, military, etc.) Private contract facilities CD CD CD CD CD CD C D C D CD CD CD C D C D C D CD CD C D CD C D CD C D CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD C D CD 10a. Are you a supervisor of any Bureau of Prisons or UNICOR staff? CD No CD Yes Skip 10 Question 11. 10b. Are you a non-supervlsory correctional officer? CD No CD Yes 11. Please Indicate the departm ent fo r which you work. (For example. If you are a correctional officer who w orks In the UNICOR factory, Indicate that you work for Correctional S e rv lc e s -n o t UNICOR.): CD Correctional services CD Unit management CD Mechanical Services/Safety Department CD UNICOR CD Public Health Service CD Health Services CD Food Service CD EducatiorVRecreation/Reiigion/Psychology Services CD Financial Management/Human Resources/Inmate Syslems/Research/lnst. Exec. Staff/Facilities/ Inlormalion Systems/Legal US Other 12a. During the past 6 months, how often did you have contact with Inmates (not Just see them , but Interact with them)? Skip to Question 13. CD Never CD A few times CD Once a month CD A few times a month CD Once a week CD A few times a week CD Every day 12b. How many Inmates would you say you have contact w ith each day? (If you need help answering this question, please refer to the example Instructions, question 2.) C D C D C D CD CD CD C D CD CD C D C D C D C D C D C D C D C D C D CD C D CD C D CD CD C D C D CD C D CD CD CD CD CD . Please write In the numbers. Please darken the numbered ovals ■ that correspond ■ with the numbers above. S D -2 168 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 13. During tho past 6 monltia, how often did you have contact with the Cuban detainees (not Just see them, tiut Interact with them)? CD Not applicable CD Never CD A few times CD Once a month CD A law times a month CD Once a week CD A law times a week CD Everyday 14. W hat has been your predom inant shift over the past 6 months? CD Day CD Evening CD Morning CD No predominant shift 15. W hich group best represents the type of Inmates you primarily worked with In the past 6 months? CD General population (Including work cadre) CD Medical/psychiatric/dental CD Segregation/administrative detention CD Hoidover/in-lransit CD Prc-trial/detentlon CD WITSEC CD Protective custody CD Drug therapy unit CD Other (please specify:_________________________ 16. How well can you speak and understand Spanish? CD Fluently CD Passably CD Not at all 17. How well can you read In Spanish for your own use? CD Easily CD With difficulty CD Not at all The BOP has set u p s p e cial pay rates fo r c e rta in positions In various lo catio n s to recruit a n d retain em ployees. Your re s p o n s e to the follow ing q u e stio n w ill help the BO P d e te rm in e how this p o licy affe cts staff attitudes tow ard th eir Jobs. 18. Which occupational category and grade level best describe you? CD Accountant (SeriesaOOSIO), Grades 5 ,7 .9 CD Correctional Officer (Series-00007), Grades 6. 7 ,8 CD Medical Officer (Series-00602), All Grades CD Nurse (Series-00610), Grades 4-11 CD Physician Assistant (Series-00603), Grades 7, 9,11 CD Psychologist {Series-00180), Grades 1 1 ,1 2 ,1 3 CD None of the above 19a. Did you complete the Prison Social Climate Survey In 1992? CD No ■ CD Yes Skip to Question 20. 19b. Are you at the sam e facility as In 1992? CD No CD Yes 20. During the past six m onths, where did you work the majority of the tim e? CD Satellite Camp CD Intensive Confinement Center (ICC) CD Main facility (including adjacent detention center) Note: Please respond to the remaining items in the questionnaire according to the type of laciiity you indicated in question 20 above. SD-3 169 ReprocJucecJ with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproctuction prohibitect without permission. PERSONAL WELL-BEING The purpose of this section is to get information about your health during the past 6 months. Every Day A Faw Times a Week Once a Week A Few Tim es a Month O nce a Month A Few Times Never During the past 6 months, how often have you had; 1. Recurring headaches? .......................(D Œ Œ C D Œ Œ Œ ) 2. A poor a p p e tite ? ................................... Œ C S Œ G D Œ XS Œ ) 3. A disturbed or restiess steep?..........O Q) Œ) S ) CD CD Œ 4. A concern that something is wrong with your b o d y ? .......................CD O C D Œ C D œ C D 5. A feeiing of tenseness or a n x iety? .................................................... CD ( 2 CD ( D O CD CD 6. A feeiing of hop elessness?.............. (D C D G D Œ C D S X D 7. A difficulty in concentrating? (D CD (D O ) CD 3 ) CD 8. A feeiing of worthlessness? (DCDCDŒ CDŒ XD 9. A stomach problem related to dig estio n ?................................................CD CD CD (D CD CD (D 10. Muscle ach es?........................................CD CD (D CD CD CD Œ) 11. Back problems (for example, lower back pain, muscle spasms)? ................................................CDCDCDDCDCDCD 12. A feeiing of depression?.................... CD CD C D D CD CD CD 13. A feeiing that you are worrying too m u ch ? ................................................C D D D D D D ® 14. A feeiing of being weak ail over? . . D D D D D D D 15. A feeiing that nothing turns out right for y o u ? ......................................... C D D D D D D D 16. Personal worries that bothered y o u ? ................................................... . D D D D D D D 17. A wondering if anything is w o rth w h ile ? ............................................C D D D D D D D 18. An urge to smoke cigarettes? D D D D D D D Every Day A Few Times a Week Once a Week A Few Times a Month Once a Month A Few Times Never During the past 6 months, how often tiave you had: 19. A feeiing of frustration by your Job?..................................................D D D D D D D 20. A feeiing that everything is going w ro ng?......................................... D D D D D D D 21. A feeiing of worry about your fa m ily ? ......................................................D D D D D D D 22. A feeiing of worry about m oney problem s?................................................D D D D D D D 23. A feeiing of being very angry? D D D D D D D D uring the past 6 m onths, h o w often have you: 24a. Consumed more than one alcohotic beverage a day? I Question 25. I Skip to C D Never D Once or less a month D Two to three times a month D One to two times a week D Three to four times a week D Five to six times a week D Every day 24b. When you drink more than 1 alcohotic beverage a day, how many do you drink a day, on average? D Two D Three D Four D Five D Six or more 25. Which of the following best describes your use of tobacco? D Never smoked--------- D Used to smoke D Currently smoke D Chaw tobacco D Both smoke & chew ■ Skip to Question 27. PW B-1 170 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Q uestions 26 to 29 ask you abo ut any In creases or d ecreases In your consum ption o l tobacco, caffeine, alcohol or food during the past 6 m onths: Increased a Great Deat Increased Slightly Stayed the Same Decreased Slightly Decreased a Great Deal Not Applicable During the past 6 months: 26. Has your consumption of to b acc o :...................................................... CDGDCDŒ Œ CD 27. Has your consumption of caffelnated beverages (co ffee,tea,colas,etc.): .......................c d (S C D S )(D (D 28. Has your consumption of alcohol: ......................................................CDCDQ)S>CDCD 29. Has your consumption of fo o d : ..................................................................(Z)Q }C S (S 8 Inches •— CD 3 Inches cn > 9 Inches CD 4 Inches O 10 Inches CD 5 Inches ® 11 Inches 41. What Is your weight? Pounds __Plaasa tvrlla In — tha numbars. tarn CD C D CD Plaasa darken the — CD C D CD numbered ovals CD C D CD -4— that correspond CD CD CD wllh the numbars above. — CD C D œ C D C D CD — C D C D C D mm CD CD CD mm C D CD C D mm C D C D CD — P W B -3 >• « V S # 172 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 42. Do you engaga regularly In any exercise at all - either on your own or at a BOP (aclllty? (D No CD Yes 43. In the last S months, has your facility olfered any lltness, screening, or lifestyle programs? CD No - CD Yes ■ Skip to Question 46. If yes, please indicate your level of participation over the last 6 months or darken the numbered oval (I) for any program that is not available at your Institution. Fitness Program s Every Day A Few Times a Week Once a Week A Faw Tim es a Month - O nce a Month A Few Times Never Participate Not Available 43a. Physical Fitness Center . . .CDCDCDCDCDGDCDCD 43b. Recreation Programs {volleyball, soltball, etc.). . . CD CD CD CD CD CD (D CD S creening Program s . Participated at Least Once Never Participate Not Available 43c. Cholesterol.........................................................CD CD CD 43d. Blood Pressure.................................................. CDCDGD 43e. Glucose...............................................................CD CD CD 431. Physical fitness assessm ents...................... CD CD CD 43g. Health risk appraisal........................................CD CD CD For the follow ing sec tio n , p lease Indicate you r level o f participation over th e la s t 6 m onths o r darken th e num bered oval (1) fo r a n y program th at Is n o t available. If you In d ic a te th a t you participated In a program at least o n c e , p le a s e Indicate w h eth er It helped you m ake a tastin g ch an g e In you r m en tal/ physical health. Lifestyle Programs Participated at Least Once N ever Participate Not Available 43h. Stop smoking program CD CD CD 431. Weight management program CD CD CD 43). Health education seminars . . . Œ CD CD 43 k. Employee assistance program CD CD CD 431. Stress management CD CD CD 43m. Back care program CD CD CD Lasting Change Yes No CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD 44. Overall, how satisfied are you with the programs you're Involved In? CD Not applicable CD Very dissatisfied CD Dissatisfied CD Somewhat dissatisfied CD Undecided CD Somewhat satisfied CD Satisfied CD Very satisfied P W 8 -4 173 ReprocJucecj with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproctuction prohibited without permission. 45. If you don't partlclpata In any lltnesa, screening, or lifestyle program s, please Indicate the reason(s). (M ark as m any as apply.) CD Not enough lime 00 Physical limitations CD Exercise is boring CD Not allowed to use fitness center during work hours CD Not allowed to attend fitness, screening, or lifestyle programs during work hours CD No interest Œ) Family obiigalions œ Other (please specify:_____________________________________________________ ) 46. Have you had an annual physical exam (at your Institution/sponsored by the BOP) w ithin the last 12 months? CD No CD Yes W e would appreciate any comments you have on personal well-being in this prison. Please write your comments on the last page of this questionnaire. Please Do Not Write In This Area Please con tinue on the next page iS" P W B -5 174 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. QUALITY OF LIFE This section asks your impression about the overail quaiity of living and working conditions at this faciiity during the past 6 months. (Consider only the camp or main facility depending on where you worked the majority of the time during the past 6 months.) S a n itatio n : T his set of q u e s tio n s asks you to think abo ut the cleanliness of the p laces w here Inm ates have lived and w orked during the p as t S months. — All the Time Very Often Often œ CD C D Now and Then C D C D C D Rarely C D C D Very Rarely CD C D Never C D ID — No Knowledge C D CD CD C D 1. How often have Insects, rodents. C D C D dirt, or litter been a problem In C D C D the Inmate housing units?............. CDCDCDCDCDCDCDCD CD C D — 2. How often have Insects, rodents, dirt, or Utter been a problem In the Inmate dining hall?.....................CDCSCDCDCDrSCDQ} 3. How often have the Inmate housing units had too much clutter or any material that “ could feed a fire ? ........................ CDCDCDCDCDCDCDCD CD CD C D CD 4. How often have there been CD CD C D C D — accidents In the Inmate CD CD C D C D — housing u n its ? ............................ CDCDCDCDCDCDCDCD CD C D C D œ C D œ 5. How often have there been CD C D C D accidents In the Inmate C D C D C D — dining h a ll? .................................. C D C D C D CD C D C D — 6. How often have there been C D C DCD — accidents where Inmates w o rk? ..(D C D G D (D C D (D (D aD “ ■ 7. How often are Inmate housing • “ units Inspected?.................................CD CD œ 3 ) (B (D CD QD " 8. How often are adequate sanitation supplies made available In Inmate " housing u n its ? .................................... CDCDCDCDCDCDCDaD Turno ver and Crow ding: T his set o f questions asks you _ to th in k abo ut the num ber o l In m ate s In this prison. 9. During the past S months, do you think the Inmate “ population here has: CD Gone down? — CD Stayed the same? “ CD Gone up? 10. O f the Inmates who were here S months ago, what percentago do you think are still here today? Percent . Plaasa wrila In tha numt)ars. Plaasa dartcan tha numbarad ovals ■ that eorraspond wllh tha numbars above. 11. How many Inmates do you think are housed In this facility? (If you work In the adjoining camp of a main facility. Include only Inm ates housed In the camp. If you work In the main facility. Include only Inmates housed there.) . Plaasa writa In the numbars. Plaasa darken tha numbarad ovals ■ that correspond with tha numbars above. 12. How many Inmates do you think this Institution can effectively and safely m anage? C D C D C D C D C D CD C D C D CD C D C D C D C D C D 33 33 3) 33 C D Œ C D C D 33 33 C D C D C D C D 33 33 C D C D 33 . Plaasa write In the numbers. Plaasa darken lha numbered ovals ■ that correspond with tha numbers above. QL-1 175 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 13. How crowded do you think II has been In the Inmate housing units? CD Not at all crowded CD Slightly crowded but not uncomfortable CD Moderately crowded and becoming uncomfortable CD More than moderately crowded and uncomfortable CD Very crowded 14. How crowded do you think It has been outside of the Inmate housing units (e.g., where Inmates eat their meals, go to school, exercise, work, etc.)? CD Not at all crowded CD Slightly crowded but not uncomfortable CD Moderately crowded and becoming uncomfortable CD Mora than moderately crowded and uncomfortable CD Very crowded 15. The following list Identifies services and program s which m ay be provided to Inmates at your Institution. For each Item listed, please Indicate how the size ol the Inmate population during the past 6 months has Impacted the delivery ol these services. 16. Due to changing levels ol crowding at this Institution during the last six months, the level o l salety at this Institution has; CD Greatly decreased CD Moderately decreased CD Slightly decreased CD Not changed CD Slightly Increased CD Moderately Increased CD Greatly Increased 17. Due to changes In the Inmate population level during the past 6 months, the Irequency ol my Interaction with Inmates has; CD Significantly decreased CD Not significantly changed CD Significantly increased 18. Due to changes In the Inmate population level during the past 6 months, the quality ol my Interaction with Inmates has; CD Significantly decreased Made Service Delivery Much Mora DIfllcult CD Not signiricantly changed Made Service Delivery Somewhat More Dllflcult CD Significantly Increased Caused No Decline In Service Delivery < No Knowledge/Not Applicable i Medical/Health Care Services 19. How much privacy do you think Inmates have had In their housing units? General Medical Senrices ............. CD CD CD CD Dental S ervices................................ CD à ) CD CD CD None at all Gynecology Services ..................... CD CD CD CD CD Very little CD A moderate amount Educational Programs CD A great deal Adult Basic Education (ABE) CD CD CD CD CD Complete Generalized Equlv. Deg. (GEO) , CD CD CD CD Post-Secondary Education ........... CD CD CD 0 ) Psychology Services CD iD CD CD 20. How noisy do you think It has been In the Inmate housing units during the evening hours! Counseling/Therapy....................... Self-Help Groups (e.g., AA, NA) .. CD CD CD CD CD Not at all noisy Dmg Abuse Treatment Programs . CD CD CD CD CD Slightly noisy but not uncomfortable Chaplaincy S ervices....................... CD CD CD CD CD Moderately noisy and becoming uncomfortable UNICOR Programs Q ) More than moderately noisy and uncomfortable CD Very noisy Voc. Training/Apprenticeships___ CD CD CD CD — UNICOR Jobs .................................. Other CD CD CD CD 21. How noisy do you think It has been In the Inmate housing units during the sleeping hours! Recreational Programs ................. Legal Services.................................. CD Not at all noisy Visiting .............................................. CD Slightly noisy but not uncomfortable Furloughs.......................................... CD Moderately noisy and becoming uncomfortable Parenting Program ......................... CD More than moderately noisy and uncomfortable Food Services .................................. CD Vary noisy Comm issary...................................... Q L-2 # # * * # * * # # • 176 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. G rievances: T he n ext few questions ask you ab o u t the Inm ate and staff grievance procedures at this Institution. Staff G rievance Procedure 22a. Have you ever filed a formal grievance against m anagement at this Institution? CD No ■ CD Yes Skip to Question 23. 22b. When w as the last time you filed a grievance against management? CD This week CD In the past week CD In the past month CD In the past 6 months CD In the past year CD More than a year ago I Skip to Question 24. 22c. Was the problem that made you file the grievance taken care of to your satisfaction? CD Not at ail CD Partially CD Completely Now please go to Q uestion 24. The Time Idle Idle Idle % + % + % + — 23. If you have not filed a grievance against management. Q D C D G D C D CD CD C D C D C D CD CD CD which of the following reasons best describes w hy you C D C D C D C DCD CD C D C D C D CD CD CD have not? (M ark as many Items as apply.) (D C D b CD C D C D CD CD C D C D CD CD C D C D CD CD —» CD 1 have never had any major complainls. 3 ) Œ Œ CD C D Œ CD CD CD 1 thought it would be useless. C D C D CD CD C D C D CD CD — CD 1 was afraid of negative consequences from C D C D P CD C D C D CD CD — management. C D C D CD CD C D C D CD CD «— CD The problem was taken care of informally. C D C D C D CD C D C D CD CD “ CD Other C D C D P CD C D C D CD CD Inm ate G rievance Procedure 24. Weighing the benefits of the administrative rem edy procedure (I.e., Its function as a "safety valve" In handling Inmate complaints that might otherw ise result In Inmate disturbances) against the costs of responding to grievances (I.e., demands on staff time), how would you describe the overall effectiveness of the administrative remedy procedure? CD No knowledge CD Much more cosily than bénéficiai CD Somewhat more costly than beneficial CD Equally costly and beneficial CD Somewhat more beneficial than costly CD Much more beneficial than costly 25. Have you ever had an administrative rem edy filed against you? CD No knowledge CD No CD Yes Inm ate Idleness: T he next question asks y o u to con sider the Issue of Inm ate Idleness. 26. In your opinion, w hat percentage of Inm ates In this prison do you think are; Idle Ail Frequently Rarely Never . 100% Note: Please make sure percentages total 100 percent. We would appreciate any comments you have on the quality of life at this prison. Please write comments on the last page of this questionnaire. QL-3 177 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. WORK ENVIRONMENT (A) The purpose of this section is to find out how you feel about your work in this faciiity and the BOP during the last 6 months. (Consider only the camp or main facility depending on where you worked the majority of the time during the past 6 months.) Questions 1 to 34 ask you to think about communication within the BOP and about how satisfied you are with your present job. strongly Agrao Agrea Som owliat Agrea Undecided Som ewhat Disagree Disagree Strongly Disagree During the past six months, I believed that: 1. The Inlormatlon I get through formal communication channels helps me perform my job effectively. CDCSŒŒCDCSCD 2. In tha BOP, It Is often unclear who has the formal authority to make a decision..................................................C D C Z )Q D Q Q )G )0 3. It's really not possible to change things In this fa c ility ............................CDŒ O XSC SCSCS 4. I am told promptly when there Is a change In policy, rules, or regulations that affects m e.................Œ tSCSCDCSCSŒ ) 5. I have the authority I need to accomplish my work objectives. . . CD Œ CD 30. My BOP Job is usually interesting to me....................................................................................................................... CD 00 0 ) 0 ) CD (BCD 31. My BOP Job suits me very w ell..........................................................................................................................................CD 0 0 0 ) 0 ) 0 0 0 ) CD 32. My BOP Job is usually worthw hile....................................................................................................................................CDCDCDCDCSCDCZ) 33. I I I have a chance, I will change to some other Job at the same rate ol pay at this laciiity. ..................... ( 0 0 ) 0 0 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 34. I am currently looking lor or considering another Job outside the BOP. .......................................................CD O CD CD (3) CD CD T h e n ex t le w questions ask lo r yo u r opinion o l the BOP s ta ll training program during the p ast year. These questions re le r to training In policies and procedures, the use o l equ ipm ent, and anything else w h ich Is considered essential lo r the p erform ance o l your Job. Strongly Agree Agree Somewhat Agree Undecided Somewhat Disagree Disagree Strongly Disagree During the past 12 months, I believed that: 35. I receive the kind ol training that I need to perlorm my work w ell..................................................................... CD CD CD CD CD CD CD 35. Training at this laciiity has improved my Job skills................................................................................................. CD CD CD CD CD CD CD 37. The laciiity's executive stall support tho training program.................................................................................... CD CD CD CD CD CD CD 38. M y BOP training has helped me to work elfecliveiy with inmates....................................................................... CD CD CD CD CD CD CD 39. The BOP training program does not prepare me or help ms to deal with situations that arise on the Job...............................................................................................................................................................CD CD CD CD CD CD CD AW E-2 179 Reprocjucecj with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproctuction prohibitect without permission. Questions 40 to 49 ask you to think about your work with Inmates. All the Tim e Very Often Often Now and Then Rarely Very Rarely Never During the past 6 months, how often have you experienced; 40. An ability to deal very effectively with the problem s of Inmates...........................................................................C D œ C D œ c D œ œ 41. A feeling that you are positively Influencing other people's lives through your work CD 03 O ) œ CD CD <D 42. A feeling that you've become more harsh toward people since you took this Job CD 03 CD CD CD CD CD 4 3 . A feeling of worry that this |ob Is hardening you em otionally.............................................................................. CDCDCDCDCDCEaD 44. A feeling of accomplishment after working closely with Inmates (D CD CD 03 CD CD CD 45. A feeling that you can easily create a relaxed atmosphere with Inmates CD CD CD CD 03 CD CD 4 5. A feeling of being emotionally drained at the end of the w orkday. CD CD CD CD CD CD (D 47. A feeling that you treat some Inmates as If they were Impersonal objects CD CD CD CD CD CD CD 48. A feeling that working with people all day Is really a strain for you CD CD CD CD CD CD CD 49. A feeling o f being fatigued when you get up In the morning and have to face another day on the job...........................................................................................................................................................................CD CD CD CD Œ » 03 CD W e would appreciate any comments you have on the work environment In this prison. Piease write your comments on the last page of this questionnaire. Please Do Not Write In This Area P lease continue on the next p ag e ts" A W E -3 180 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Version 3 Comments We would appreciate any comments you have on the following areas. o Persona/ Wall-Beinp - If you write comments in the section below, please darken the oval on the left. o Quality of Life - If you write comments In the section below, please darken the oval on the left. o Work Environment (A) - If you write comments In the section below, please darken the oval on the left. Thank you for filling out this survey. fl7JOO*OivMar. 181 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. INFORM ATION TO USERS This manuscript has been reproduced from the microfilm master. UMI films the text directly firom the original or copy submitted. Thus, some thesis and dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may be from any type of computer printer. The quality o f this reproduction is dependent upon the quali^ of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleedthrough, substandard margins, and inq)roper alignment can adversely affect reproductioiL In the unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are reproduced by sectioning the original, beginning at the upper left-hand comer and continuing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. Each original is also photographed in one exposure and is included in reduced form at the back of the book. Photographs included in the original manuscript have been reproduced xerographically in this copy. Higher quality 6 " x 9 " black and white photographic prints are available for any photographs or illustrations appearing in this copy for an additional charge. Contact UMI directly to order. UMI A Bell & Howell information Company 300 North Zeeb Road. Ann Arbor. tV It 48106-1345 USA 313.'761-4700 800.'521-0600 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UMI Number: 9617001 Copyright 1995 by Turner, Cecil Allan All rights reserved. UMI Microform 9617001 Copyright 1996, by UMI Company. Ail rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. UMI 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arhor, MI 48103 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Turner, C. Allan (Cecil Allan)
(author)
Core Title
The need for power, achievement and affiliation: The motivational profiles found in federal prison wardens and the relationship between motivational profiles and managerial effectiveness
School
School of Public Administration
Degree
Doctor of Public Administration
Degree Program
Public Administration
Degree Conferral Date
1995-05
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
OAI-PMH Harvest,political science, public administration,psychology, industrial,sociology, criminology and penology
Language
English
Contributor
Digitized by ProQuest
(provenance)
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c17-478921
Unique identifier
UC11351980
Identifier
9617001.pdf (filename),usctheses-c17-478921 (legacy record id)
Legacy Identifier
9617001-0
Dmrecord
478921
Document Type
Dissertation
Rights
Turner, Cecil Allan
Type
texts
Source
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
Access Conditions
The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...
Repository Name
University of Southern California Digital Library
Repository Location
USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA
Tags
political science, public administration
psychology, industrial
sociology, criminology and penology