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"Emilia Galotti" and its aesthetic response: A case study for the reader-response criticism

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"Emilia Galotti" and its aesthetic response: A case study for the reader-response criticism

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EMILIA GALOTTI AND ITS AESTHETIC RESPONSE:
A CASE STUDY FOR THE READER-RESPONSE CRITICISM
by
Tin-Yu Tseng
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(German Literature-Drama)
May 1998
© 1998 Tin-Yu Tseng
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UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
THE g r a d u a t e s c h o o l
u n iv e r s it y Park
LOS ANGELES. CALIFORNIA 90007
This dissertation, w ritten by
Tin-Yu Tseng
under the direction o f hsr. Dissertation
Committee, and approved by all its members,
has been presented to and accepted by The
Graduate School in partial fulfillm ent of re
quirements for the degree of
DOCTOR O F PH ILO SO PH Y
Dean of Craduau Studies
A p r il 17. 1998
Date
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
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S > u d £ M b ; Twi-^m A d M f w ü t ; p r . C o /n ^ j ii ts S4inflMl«4.
Emilia Galotti and its Aesthetic Response:
A case Study for the Reader-Response Criticism
The primary intent of this thesis is to address the
ontological and epistemological problems of literary
interpretation: how is the "meaning" of a literary text
defined?
In contrast to the traditional literary hermeneutics,
the radical deconstructionist decentralizes "meaning" by
raising the status of the readership, thereby declaring the
death of the author. In other words, in accordance with the
letter's critical postulate, "meaning," the once static,
one-and-only "truth" is, hence, transmuted an act of
unstable, relative and most of all, subjective creativity.
In negotiating between these two opposite camps, this thesis
endeavors to look at the issue possibly from an eclectic
perspective. That is, by including both authorship and
readership, meaning becomes the product of their mutual
participation; the process of communicative dynamics is
generated between both referents.
In chapter one, by exploring and revising Wolfgang
Iser's conception of "aesthetic response," a theoretical
assumption on textual communicative structure and reader
responsive act toward such a textual prestructure is to be
established. Most important of all, Iser's concepts
directed to the narrative fiction are modified in accordance
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with dramatic formal principles. This is due to the fact
that the literary texts selected for this study are
restricted to dramatic discourse only.
In the ensuing three chapters, the actual literary text
are examined as the typological paradigm for the proposed
theoretical assumption. Two chapters are dedicated to
explore Lessing's rationale on tragic composition and the
communicative prestructure of his domestic tragedy, Emilia
Galotti respectively. The presumption is that the tragedy in
question is characterized and identified by its textual
ambiguity, decisively engendered by the uncertainty/flaw of
authorial compositional tactics.
The concluding chapter explores the reader's role as
regards its participation in activating the assumed
communicative correlation between the "response-inviting"
textual prestructure (identified as textual ambiguity) and
the reading act. The aesthetic response selected for the
concluding chapter includes critical reviews, literary
correspondences, and dramatic imitations by eminent literary
authors from different historical epochs: ranging from the
Age of Enlightenment to Realism. In spite of the great
diversity of the formal distinctions, they all respond to
the tragedy in question as readerly act.
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u
Table of Contents
Page
Introduction.................................................1
Chapter One
Theory.......................................................6
Chapter Two
Writerly Strategy: Formalistic and Generic Concerns.......55
Chapter Three
Drama: The Realm of Personal Revelation and Interpersonal
Interaction — the Writerly text and the Textual Ambiguity
Engendered by Its Compositional Tactics — ................97
Chapter Four
Readerly Texts: the Aesthetic Response................... 155
Work Cited.................................................229
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Introduction
In her article "The Spectator in Drama/Drama in the
Spectator," Una Chaudhuri identifies drama's problematic
status as a discipline in contemporary literary discourse,
especially, discourse surrounding reader-response criticism:
The preponderance of words like 'events,'
'participation' and 'happens* in Fish's discourse,
as well as that of words like 'performance,'
activity' and 'process' in the discourse of
reader-response criticism in general, would lead
one to expect this criticism to be particularly
suited to and productive in the study of drama. In
fact, however, the drama is conspicuous by its
absence from the concerns of reader-oriented
criticism. Neither as literary type nor as
theoretical model does drama enter here.
At issue is the long recognized struggle among the drama
theory practitioners that drama as a studied discipline is
distinctively different from other literary genres, such as
narrative fiction. The application of any type of literary
theoretical discourse directed at narrative fiction to
drama, assumingly has to first overcome the obstacle
engendered by drama's inherent textual idiosyncrasy. As
Chaudhuri points out in the same article, reader-orientation
in drama criticism is hampered by the fact that the dramatic
texts appear to have at least three addressees: namely, the
performers, the spectators and the readers. And such a
complexity brings to the fore one of the most crucial
^ Una chaudhuri, "Spectator in Drama/Drama in Spectator" in Modern Drama
28, no. 4 (1984): 282.
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2
attributes of dramatic text, that there is, to various
extents, an inscribed response-inviting structure within
dramatic text, since a literary text written to be performed
in the public arena is by nature endowed with distinguished
communicative function and objective. To avoid the problem
evoked by the cross-referential complexity in two different
systems of signification - the dramatic and the theatrical,
I intend to stay within textual analysis by treating the
three different addressees as one perceiving subject posited
within a communicative framework of dramatic art. Such a
conceptual adjustment/simplification aims to restrict a
potentially problematic task of conceptualization to a
textual-centered only inquiry. Precisely for this reason,
the first chapter of the present project will employ
Wolfgang Iser's "theory of aesthetic response," notably
distinguishing itself from other reader-oriented theories
with its particular stress on textual structure as a basic
theoretical model to be revised so as to establish an
investigative framework specifically for dramatic discourse.
In this chapter, topics such as the phenomenology of drama
reading, the conjecture on the interactive relation between
dramatic text and its aesthetic response will be explored.
Based on the conceptual presumption proposed in the
first chapter, the investigative objective in the ensuing
chapters will focus on exploring the actual literary
examples as theoretical models: to investigate the
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3
communicative prestructure inscribed within the tragedy in
question, I will first examine Lessing's own dramaturgical
thesis, conveyed in his theoretical writing; with
Heaaburgische Dramaturgie as the major source and other
critical comments documented in his literary correspondences
and notes as supporting data, in the second chapter I will
study a number of issues, such as Lessing's conception on
the affective response (pity and fear) as tragedy's primary
purpose, the interdependent relation between reason/moral
and emotion reflected in his dramaturgical ideation. In the
third chapter, the tragedy in question, Emilia Galotti, is
analyzed in conjunction to its authorial strategy and
compositional tactics. Given the fact that this famous
middle-class tragedy has remained a highly enigmatic work,
for it attracts many great literary minds throughout
different historical epochs to search for the answer to its
mystery,^ it lends itself perfectly to a research interest
in which the literary paradigm due to its inherent textual
idiosyncrasy opens up an enormously active communicative
channel for dynamic responses. My investigative focus in
this section is to observe how such a tremendous
communicative capacity might be engendered and what sorts of
interactive topics, referred to as "spots of indeterminacy"
by Iser, might present themselves to the readers. At last.
2
Edward Dvoretzky, The Enigma of Emilia Galotti (Netherlands: The Hague
Martlnus Nijhoff, 1963), vii.
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4
in the fourth chapter, around 45 selected reviews,
criticisms and studies will be presented in accordance with
their respective focus of interest in the tragedy in
question. The present project, thus, is to be concluded with
the dialogues between the dramatic text and its critiques,
and among the critics themselves, as well.
On account of the particular dramaturgical form of the
tragedy in question, the term "(absolute) Drama" throughout
the entire discussion infers dramatic paradigm designated
strictly in accordance with neo-classical normative, based
on Aristotelian legacy.^ And all of the employment of the
terms — (absolute) Drama, drama or the adjective "dramatic"
— refer to the same temporal form, distinguishing itself
from narrative fiction as a different literary genre within
a specific historical frame of reference.
In order to sustain stylistic clarity, all of the usage
of the German sources in the main discursive pages will be
quoted with English translation. For the most part, the
footnotes only indicate the source of the citation. However,
in the final chapter, in which the readers' opinions, other
than my own ideation and argument, constitute the major body
of the discussion, the readers' remarks will be summarized
See Peter Szondi, Theory of the Modern Drama, ed. and trans. Michael
Hays (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1987). Szondi's thesis
on the generic and formal definition of the drama after Renaissance will
be reviewed in the third chapter.
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5
and rephrased in English, with the original German
discourses selectively presented in the footnotes, as well.
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Chapter on#
Theory
My interest in Emilia Galotti and its historical
reception lies in the fact that these two sets of literary
documents provide excellent literary examples for an
intended theoretical investigative purpose. My investigative
objective throughout is to establish a different perception
of literary text by posing questions, such as, "what does
the literary text mean to the readers?" as opposed to
traditional inquiry of "what does the literary work mean?"
The characteristics of the first type of theoretical premise
distinguishes itself from the second virtually through its
inclusion of both the primary literary text and its reader
response as two cooperative participants in the act of
meaning-making. In other words, two separate textualities,
that claim mutual referential impact, will be examined in
accordance with its respective configurative signification
within the interactive network.
Prior to the close study of the selected literary
texts, I would like to first examine the validity and the
theoretical construct of this type of critical postulate. My
theoretical survey in this chapter endeavors to accomplish
the following: first through a brief recapitulation of some
major assumptions available in the reader-oriented critical
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7
practice, I intend to define my own interpretative strategy
by modifying the applied theory in accordance with the
formalistic and generic idiosyncracy of the literary
examples selected for this project. In order to achieve this
aim, I will first argue that regardless of the prevailing
academic fashion to preclude the author in literary
interpretation, authorial impact is still a crucial element
in the act of meaning-making for the reasons to be discussed
later in this chapter. Based on my preference to treat
authorship as an indispensable, yet non-predominant factor,
Wolfgang Iser's "Wirkungstheorie" (theory of aesthetic
response) will be rendered as an exemplary model for my
theoretical assumption. The emphasis of my investigation in
the latter part of this chapter, thus, will center on the
examination of this much debated, controversial theory. By
thinking along with its key concepts and arguing against
certain unsettling aspects of this theory, I attempt to
reshape a theory specifically directed toward narrative
fiction so as to apply it to drama, a literary genre that
invokes different phenomenological questions in regards with
reading act - the processing of the dramatic text.
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8
X. Tejct as a aetbodologicHl field - the consideration of the
reader's participation
In Reception Theory: A critical introduction,^ Robert
C. Holub examines the social, political and, most of all,
academic circumstances for the rise of the reception theory
in Germany in the beginning of 1970s. He embarks his
historical survey on the rise of reception theoretical
practice by introducing Hans Robert Jauss's essay of 1969
entitled "The change in the paradigm of literary
scholarship."^ Jauss's essay "sketched the history of
literary methods and postulated that the beginning of a
•revolution' in contemporary literary studies were at hand"
(Reception Theory, 2) . According to Holub's observation,
Jauss divides the history of the literary criticism into
four paradigms. "Each paradigm defines not only the accepted
methodological procedures with which critics approach
literature... but also the accepted literary canon" (1-2).
The literary scholarship begins with the so-called pre-
scientific phase. It is followed by the emergence of the
classical'-humanist paradigm. "This norm for literary studies
involved a procedure whereby works were compared with the
approved models of the ancients" (2). The breakdown of the
^ Robert C. Holub, Reception Theory, A critical Introduction (London and
New York: Methuen, 1984)
2
Hans Robert Jauss, "Paradigmawechsel in der Literaturwissenschaft," in
Llngulstlsche Berlchte, no. 3, 1969, 44-56, qtd. in Holub: 1-4.
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9
first paradigm in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries is
"a part of the 'scientific revolution* of historicism, which
arose in the weüce of the establishment of nation-states and
the strivings for national unity throughout Europe" (2).
Thus, methodologically, the second paradigm promotes the
historicist-positivist approach. However, this norm is
usually characterized by its narrow, almost chauvinistic
outlook. Then out of the growing discontent with the
positivist asceticism rises the third paradigm, that is
labeled as aesthetic formalist. There are diverse methods
and "...what connects these various critics and schools is a
turn from historical and causal explanations to a
concentration on the work itself.... At the same time this
approach legitimized a preoccupation with literature as such
by raising the literary work to the status of a self-
sufficient object for research" (3) . Finally, by the end of
the Second World War, the new (fourth) paradigm deriving
from the exhaustion of this overly intrinsic approach toward
literature was anticipated. In accordance with Holub's
account, in spite of the fact that the school of
structuralist/poststructuralist critical practice was
distinguishedly active and popular then, it was not
considered the most ideal resolution by Jauss on account of
its much too diversified ramification. "Its [the
structuralist's] primary value thus far has been its
challenge to literary scholarship to incorporate categories
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10
and procedures developed by linguistics into the analysis of
literary works" (3).
What Jauss personally considers relevant for the new
paradigm and, according to him, which school of thought and
practice should be taking the lead in the new phase in fact
do not speak for my primary concern. However, his following
quoted proclamation is instructive due to its revelation of
a general anticipation and direction, to which the trend of
literary method was then heading. And this critical outlook
continues to share the concern of today's literary
discourse.
This specific accomplishment [of the alleged new
literary paradigm]... is the ability to wrest
works of art from the past by means of new
interpretations, to translate them into a new
present, to make the experiences preserved in past
art accessible again; or, in other words, to ask
the questions that are posed anew by every
generation and to which the art of the past is
able to speak and again to give us answers.
(54-55)^
Even though Jauss did not explicitly refer Reception theory as the
representative of his new literary paradigm, the intention was rather
self-evident. However, my purpose of introducing the reception theorist
approach toward literature as the starting point in this chapter mainly
is to emphasize its concept of interaction and communication between
text and reader; and by bringing in Jauss's insightful survey on the
historical development of the "literature paradigms", I aim to point out
an on-going trend among the literary critical practice (since World War
Two) to treat the literature as an open methodological field instead of
a book with fixed, imputed meaning. Even though, later in this chapter I
will introduce Wolfgang Iser's aesthetics of response to establish my
theoretical assumption about textual analysis in regards to the act of
reading, I do not intend to accentuate the academic affiliation between
Iser and Jauss so as to insinuate any preference for this particular
school of thought, in spite of their common German Constance School
background.
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The statement conveys the common intention shared by various
critical schools of thought in turning literature's
monuments 1 ity as a museum piece into lively discourse. In
other words, the concept of literary “work" is challenged
and questioned. As Roland Barthes laconically puts it, "The
difference [between work and text] is as follows: the work
is concrete, occupying a portion of book space (in a
library, for example); the text, on the other hand, is a
methodological field.In accordance with
poststructuralist, the text invites dynamic interaction,
which is affected by contingent, subjective factors, thereby
is subject to perpetual changes.^
II. The contention on redefining authorship — do we still
need author?
One might very roughly periodize the history of
modern literary theory in three stages: a pre
occupation with the author (Romanticism and the
nineteenth century); an exclusive concern with
the text (New Criticism) ; and a marked shift of
attention to the reader over recent years.
4
Roland Barthes, Image-'Muaic-Text, trans. Stephen Heath (New York: Hill
and Wang, 1977), 157.
^ "And now, in the wake, come linguists, philosophers, semioticians,
such as Jakobson, Derrida and Barthes, dancing on the grave of The
Author, proclaiming that He never exists, that all we have is ’the free
play of the signifier'. All we are left with is The Text.” R. S. White,
"The birth of the reader," in Reception and Response, Hearer Creativity
and the Analysis of Spoken and Written Texts, eds. Grahm McGregor and
R.S. White (London and New York: Routledge, 1990), 243.
^ Terry Eagleton, Literary Theorys An Introdution (Minneapolis:
University of Minnesota Press, 1983), 74.
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12
Debatable as Terry Eagleton's observation might seem;
together with Jauss's "paradigms", nevertheless, we find a
common indication pointing to a distinct drift in critical
orientation that is difficult to overlook: the increasing
significance of the role of reader in the epistemological
and ontological discussion on literary method and
aesthetics. However, this shared proclivity does not speak
for an uniformed or systematic school of thought that ensues
a common mode of discourse and methodology. In accordance
with Peter J. Rabinowitz's survey, in addition to reception
theory, which is "probably best reserved for the member of
the so-called Konstanz School, the most prominent of whom
are Wolfgang Iser and Hans-Robert Jauss, there are also
Reader-response criticism and audience-oriented criticism,
that do not share identical concern and assumption.
Curiously, the above three schools of critical practice,
motivated more or less by the same theoretical preoccupation
and impulse, do not have the same view of what constitutes
literature, epistemologically and ontologically. As
Rabinowitz observes,
A text can exist (and, for the New critics,
largely did exist) without a reader. But as soon
as we begin to talk about a text's reception, we
come up against our first basic question. Reading
requires a reader. But when we talk about reader,
whom or what are we really talking about? Recent
theorists have posited a surprisingly large number
Peter J. Rabinowitz, "Whirl without End: Audience-oriented Criticism,"
in Contemporary Literary Theory, eds. G. Douglas Akins and Laura Morrow
(Amherst: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1989), 95.
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13
of answers, but they can be divided into two basic
categories: hypothetical and real.... The first
group includes all those "ideal" readers whose
existence is created by a critic himself or herself
.... Whatever their differences, all of the
aforementioned "readers" - narratees, implied
readers, intended readers, competent readers,
informed readers - are hypothetical constructs,
products of the theorist's mind, critics who focus
on them thus differ markedly from those concerned
with real readers, the actual people who pick up
the text. (83-85)
Apparently the way the reader is defined determines how
literature itself and the activity involving it as an
experience are perceived. What seems crucial is the typical
awareness shared by the theorists that "As soon as the
literary paradigm is opened up to include readers as well as
texts, however, the source of meaning becomes problematical.
Do readers make meanings, or do texts? Or authors?" (Whirl
without End, 86) This series of inquiry eventually leads to
a much more fundamental concern — what is meaning? Is the
concept of meaning still valid at all? The legitimacy of
meaning, according to poststructuralist's premise, is no
more valid since it suggests outdated mode of perception - a
static, absolute value system, posited by the
traditionalist.
The denial of "meaning" in poststructuralist literary
paradigm apparently infers a decentralization of authorial
predominance. In other words, text should stand for nothing
else but itself, which is merely a serial of undecided codes
waiting to be signified by the readers. In short, in the new
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14
game of making sense of a text, the author is out and the
reader is in. This unsettling, deconstructive energy sets
out to redefine the traditional status of production and
reception, thereby subverts the traditional definition and
status of subject and object. Since the expropriation of the
author's control over the text's meaning intends to turn the
passive act of reading into active creativity, "meaning," is
transmuted as relative interpretation, which infers a more
open, contra-stable type of theoretical outlook. In spite of
the fact that not all of the reader-centered theorists agree
to such a radical outlook, it goes without saying that in
order to redefine the nature of the relation between text
and reader, the question about the legitimacy of the
author's status becomes decisively crucial and increasingly
ambiguous, as well. In fact, apart from poststructualist's
radical anti-authorial premise, most of the reader/audience-
centered theories also distinguish themselves by the
different ranges of authorial impact, negotiated and
restricted in each theory.
Rabinowitz categorizes the reader/audience-centered
theory into three different modes: the first category
stresses the text's governing structure to guide the reader
into more or less agreeable interpretation and evaluation on
the text. This type of discourse was criticized for putting
a coat of new terminology onto a body of old, conservative
ideology. In other words, the reader is still directed by
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15
the authorial intent in a specific way. Consequently, it
does not really render the reader an active participant in
the process of reading. Wolfgang Iser's "implied reader" is
referred as the representative of this category. The second
category emphasizes on the radical individuality of readers
and insist that there are no ultimate grounds on which to
argue for one interpretation over another. "As Bleich
provocatively puts it, 'Reading is a wholly subjective
process and ... the nature of what is perceived is
determined by the rules of the personality of the
perceiver'" (87). This type of presumption, akin to
poststructualist's mode of thought, insists that reader
produces/constructs the meaning of the text, thereby
granting the reader the full control of the meaning-
production of the text. The third category concerns largely
with the intertextua 1 ity. It extends the referents from the
reader, the author and the text to the other texts, both
literary and nonliterary, which usually involves "the
community norms (the interpretive conventions, the reading
strategies) that allow the act of interpretation to take
place" (87).
Among the above three modes, the third category, due to
its cross-referentiality betwee literary and non-literary
signification, exceeds beyond the scope of my current
investigative concern. Apparently, what is left is a choice
between two rather contradictory types of approach. And
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16
their difference lies precisely in the way the status of the
author is defined.
My point of view throughout is that the authorial text
does exist prior to the reception of it. The very concept of
literary "reception” unmistcücenly implies an act of
"response to" and "receiving from" an aesthetics object,
created by and conceived with a subjective aesthetic devise.
It is important to note that the emphasis of the aesthetics
of "reception" does differ itself greatly from that of the
radical reader-oriented premise: the former stresses on the
reader's interaction with the text, on which the author has
doubtlessly left his personal imprint, whereas the latter
sets out to defy the authorial control by granting the
reader, who is now left alone with a completely neutral,
non-intended text, absolute autonomy.^
Evidently, my explicit focus on the concept of
"reception" and "interaction" tends to imply that among the
three aforementioned theoretical models claimed by
Rabinowitz, the first model should come closest to my
critical point of view, since it deals primarily with
textuality without losing sight of the aspect of interactive
communication between the reader and the authorial text. In
Q
The semiological assumption about the preeminence of the reader's
power to freely decode the text and "the desire to look not at imputed
or intended meaning but at the forms which carry what some call meaning"
tends to dotmplay the impact of the authorial intention and textual
strategies, thereby declares "the death of the author." See White, "The
birth of the reader," in Reception and Response, Hearer Creativity and
the Analysis of Spoken and Written Texts, 244.
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17
order to effectively probe into the truth of this matter, it
is necessary for us, at this point, to first return to my
previous, unanswered incpiiry: "Do readers make meanings, or
do texts? Or authors?" By addressing this issue again as the
starting point of my attempt to answer the above question, I
will also try to define and select the participants involved
in the interactive process of the reading act and its
meaning making.
In Toward the Aesthetics of Reception, Hans Robert
Jauss contends.
In the triangle of author, work, and public the
last is no passive part, no chain of mere
reactions, but rather itself an energy formative
of history. The historical life of a literary work
is unthinkable without the active participation of
its addressees. For it is only through the process
of its meditation that the work enters into the
changing horizon-of-experience of a continuity in
which the perpetual inversion occurs from simple
reception to critical understanding, from passive
to active reception, from recognized aesthetic
norms to a new production that surpasses them....
The concept of decentralization implicitly employed by Jauss
in his account of the interactive relation among the author,
work and public (the reader) points to some crucial aspects
of the aesthetics of reception, that I found perceptive and
instructive: firstly, as opposed to ultimate, absolute
meaning, the historical life of a literary work comes to the
fore, whereby the idea of dynamic "continuity" is
9
Jauss, Toward an Aesthetic of Reception, 19.
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18
introduced. Secondly, the reader's critical vindersteuxding
replaces the perpetual excavation of the imputed and
intended meaning. Thirdly, the participation of the reading
act includes author, work and the reader. In other words,
none of them should be excluded from this referential field.
By separating the work from the author and, in the mean
time, including them together with reader in the tripartite
interactive framework, Jauss's postulate differs itself from
that of the deconstructionist, which is, the declaration of
the death of the author.
Curiously, the survival of the authorship in Jauss's
overall theoretical conjecture does not result in the
clarification of issues, such as, since the intimidation of
the controlling authorship does not vanish simply by being
rhetorically modified and conceptually redefined, how
involved the authorship in the new literary paradigm should
be in technically concrete terms? Eventually we would still
have to ask the following question: Jauss's assumption of
tripartite framework seems perfectly sound; however,
epistemologically speaking, literary presumption, after all,
unlike geometries, can not be applied to literary study in a
precise, formula manner. At issue is that, with Jauss's
suggestion, which tends to address the ontological issue of
the relation among the author, work and public, we are still
White, "The birth of the reader,” in Reception and Response, Hearer
Creativity and the Analysis of Spoken and Written Texts, 243.
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19
not told how each participant takes part in the reading act,
and what is the author's epistemological status after his
separation from the work. Frankly, what can we expect from
the author?
Ill, The textualization of both the status of reader and
author
One has to admit that even if one does "dance on the
grave of the Author, proclaiming that He never exists,
his apparition will still come creeping back and thereby
cause great paranoia and uneasiness, since the text, in my
opinion, is substantially contoured by its authorial-
cultural-historical configuration, aside from being an
assembly of mere language signification. In agreeing with
Jauss's view, I would assert that the acknowledgement of the
author's participation in the changing of horizon^of-
experience in a continuity would render the literary text
more than a mere instrument for guaranteeing the reader's
autonomy and, in the meantime, the authorship could take
part as a referent but not necessarily control the
interactive process and its result. Hence, as Jauss
postulates, literary text, not only should be viewed
together with the active participation of its addresses, but
See footnote 5.
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20
also together with the thought that has made its existence
possible in the first place.
In order to acquire a lucid, pragmatic methodology that
would avoid the entangled theoretical ambiguity and
effectively serve the purpose of my textual analysis in the
later chapters, I will thus convert the tripartite situation
into a balanced, two poles nexus: the text no longer stands
on its own; it merges together with the author and the
reader, yet, separately. In Dramatic Closure, June Schlueter
introduces a very functional distinction between writerly
text and readerly text. "By a 'writerly' text, I mean a
literary text before it is read; by a 'readerly' text, I
mean that text as it comes into being, necessarily
reconstituted, in the reading"Her idea of distinguishing
two textualities in accordance with the nature of their
creative acts - writerly versus readerly - turns out to be
an astonishingly convenient and comprehensible conceptual
apparatus, an augmentation upon the basis of Wolfgang Iser's
terminology,^^ with which she works effectively on dramatic
12
June Schlueter, Dramatic Closure, Reading the End, (London:
Associated University Presses, 1995), 27.
In his theoretical construct on "aesthetics of response,” Wolfgang
Iser intends to ally authorial intention and rhetoric with text and
treats the reader as a separate subject, that responds to textual
strategy. Therefore, the tripartite situation, a concept employed by
Jauss, in Iser's terminology, is transmuted a twosome correlative, in
which reader as a perceiving subject interacts with the authorial text
(even though critics consider his reader an integrated part of the
writerly textuality). See Wolfgang Iser, The Act of Reading (Baltimore
and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978)
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21
textual analysis. By employing Schlueter*s terminology and
concept, I mean to modify the ambiguity of trichotomy into a
tangible mode. In other words, my intention is to establish
two sets of textualities — the aesthetics object (writerly
text) and its reception (readerly text) . The reason for my
preference in textual study lies in the fact that even
though the meaning comes into being while the reader engages
in reading, we have no way of telling what really goes
through the "real reader's mind" in the real reading moment.
Hence, the only possible way of recapturing this experience
is to look into the concluded record/document of that
reading act.
In addition, due to my textual emphasis, some
adjustments on Schlueter's definition of "readerly text"
needs to be made. According to her, the "readerly text" is
the text "as it comes into being, necessarily reconstituted,
in the reading.... The readerly text is an imaginary or
virtual text, created by the reader's engagement with the
writerly text" (Dramatic Closure, 27-28). Within our
context, however, the "readerly text" is the critical text
produced by the "real reader" as the historical reception
and response to the "writerly text" and therefore itself can
also be deemed as a "writerly text" to be read.^*
In contrast with my view, Schlueter does not consider the critical
text as the "readerly-text” because of its "writerly" nature. "Were the
reader to write about the writerly text, this third, critical text could
only be the product of the reader-turned-writer ' s mediation of the
reading. In turn, the "critical text" would itself become a writerly
text, a prestructure inviting a reading and beginning the construction
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22
My emphasis of the act of ''interaction" within an
interpretive field suggests that meaning does not
arbitrarily exist prior to the interaction. This presumption
helps to clarify the previous question about the legacy of
"meaning-making."' Meaning in this sense is rather relative
since different readings of the writerly text infer various
responses and interpretations. Therefore, no one has
complete control over the meaning-making. The simultaneously
complementary and subversive impacts mutually imposed by the
authorial intention manifested in the writerly text and the
subjective interpretation revealed in the readerly text
speak for the interactive nature of the literary
productivity in terms of meaning-making.
IV. The controversy on Iser's premise of literary text as
prestructure and on the concept of "implied reader"
In the preceding discussion, I mentioned briefly about
the three modes of critical discourses that are commonly
practiced by the reader/audience-oriented theorists. The
first mode, in accordance with Rabinowitz's assumption,
stressing the text's governing structure and its controlling
impact on reader's reading, is widely accused of being
mendacious on the extent of reader's freedom to employ
his/her imaginative activity to participate in meaning-
of another triad of texts - the model of literary criticism" Schlueter,
Dramatic Closure, 28.
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23
making. Rabinowitz's evaluation on Iser's theoretical model
reflects the majority of the reader-oriented practitioners'
skepticism toward any type of pro-textual postulation. The
unsettling controversy about textual device and the
suspicion of its control over the reader's interpretive
activity renders Iser the easy target for relentless
criticism. Schlueter, in defending Iser's critical
enterprise, asserts: "whether one acknowledges the presence
of a prestructure in the writerly text or in the reader, one
implicitly admits that language relies on consensus in order
to mean." (29) She further argues.
Acknowledging the presence and effect of a
prestructure in a writerly text, however, does
not grant prescriptive force to it, any more than
acknowledging the presence of indeterminacies
renders meaning arbitrary. In the process of play
reading, determinations continually shift and
interact within the interpretive field. Moreover,
the indeterminacies, or gaps, that the writer
leaves unfilled provide space for the reader to
admit properties that complement or subvert the
work of the schematized structure. (29)
Schlueter is not entirely clear when she makes connection
between language's dependence on consensus to mean and the
prestructure in the writerly text or in the reader. One
supposes that she might infer the "prestructure" as a
requisite in any type of text. If this is the case, then,
according to her assumption, prestructure is unavoidable in
textual construct since it is synonymous with "recjuisite
expectations, conventions, and codes," what Jauss coins as
"horizon of experience." Therefore, the authorial intent or
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24
rhetorical device of the writerly text should be deemed as
the necessary construct, that will not disappear just by
being repudiated. And instead of pretending it does not (or
should not) exist, one should accept it as part of the
textuality. However, by simply regarding prestructure as the
language requisite, Schlueter overlooks one crucial factor
that remains disconcerting: her strategy to legitimize the
function of prestructure does not necessarily alleviate the
problem about the stark suggestion of authorial control in
the "implied reader" — the infamous Iserian terminology. In
other words, within the alleged impact of the textual
prestructure, a question, such as, how much freedom is left
for the reader to exercise his/her imagination and
creativity, remains debatable.
Most of all, the concept of "implied reader" suggests
that Iser's theory of aesthetics of response deals with a
textually prestructured "perceiving subject" instead of
"real reader" or "empirical reception/response." As Robert
Holub rightly observes,
Iser thereby endeavors to distinguish it [the
implied reader] from the various categories and
typologies of readers that have arisen in recent
years.... What Iser wants is a way to account for
the reader's presence without having to deal with
real or empirical readers, as well as the various
abstract readers, whose characters have been
predetermined.... In other words, he seeks a
"transcendental model" (38), what might also be
called a "phenomenological reader," one that
"embodies all those predispositions necessary for a
literary work to exercise its effect" (34), while
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25
precluding empirical interference.^^
The problem lies in the fact that, according to Iser's
model, the readerly response, instead of having the
significant partial autonomy of its own, is largely implied
or encoded within the writerly text. Its relation with the
writerly text is thereby symbiotic, rather than interactive.
Interestingly enough, such a writerly textual-centered
assumption is also explicitly indicated in The Implied
Reader: "The term [of implied reader] incorporates both the
prestructuring of the potential meaning by the text, and the
reader's actualization of this potential through the reading
process.Rabinowitz's seemingly harsh criticism might
contain a grain of truth, when he argues: "[Iser's] The
reader may have, to use a James Bondian phrase, license to
fill - but that license is ultimately granted by the
authority of the text" (87) .
In chapter two of The Act of Reading, Iser discusses
"the rudiments of a theory of aesthetic response" by
introducing some commonly accepted definitions of Reader
types. He divides the types of readers into two categories:
real reader and hypothetical reader. His lack of interest in
the first category is rather evident, when the subject is
Holub, Reception Theory, A critical introduction, 84-85.
Wolfgang Iser, The Implied Reader, Patterns of Communications in
Prose Fiction From Buyan to Becket, (Baltimore and London: The Johns
Hopkins University Press, 1974), xii.
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26
glossed over by being faintly indicated as the manifestation
of the historical reception of the literature; and then
swiftly, he contends that reconstruction of any historical
reception earlier than eighteenth century would become
technically difficult due to the general unattainability of
the documentation. With the above assumption as his
conclusive attention to the "real reader," he then goes on
to explain in detail the conceptual contents of various
hypothetical readers and their theoretical validity. The way
Iser downplays the significance of "real reader" in favor of
the hypothetical models, is highlighted by his devotion to
the constitution of the concept, the "implied reader."
As observed, the "implied reader," an ideal reader type
selected and conjured up to cope with, thereby support
Iser's thesis of aesthetic response, inevitably causes great
controversy, due to its implicit passivity unfavorably
transgressing the premise of reader-centered discourse.
However, within our context, the aspect of the functionalist
approach toward literary study in his theory is rather
instructive for reasons on a more technical level: the
primary concern about how literature functions as a text and
how reader is affected (please note: not controlled) by its
prestructure/schematized structure points to the direction I
happen like to look at.
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27
V. Wandering viewpoint and Image-building: readerly
cognitive activity
As mentioned, Iser's theory of aesthetic response
discusses the phenomenology of reading in close conjunction
with literary prestructure. Regardless of the controversial,
disconcerting nature of its supposition on "implied reader,"
the theory's focus on textual ity is instructive for our
context, since the readerly act is deemed as an act of
"response" within an interactive field rather an act of
independent creativity free of any correlative restrain.
Thematically, the content of The Act of Reading is
roughly divided into two parts (in fact there are four
chapters); the first part centers on the clarification of
the definition of literary interpretation, the second on
phenomenology of reading, and most of all, on how reading,
through the communicatory structure of the literary text, is
both affected by and interacts with the literary text. The
Act of Reading*s schematic layout suggests that,
strategically, by first introducing implied reader as the
most theoretically relevant reader type for his
preoccupation with exploring the semantic and pragmatic
potential of the text,Iser intends to render the reader
"It is evident that no theory concerned with literary texts can make
much headway without bringing in the reader, who now appears to have
been promoted to the new frame of reference whenever the semantic and
pragmatic potential of the text comes under scrutiny. The question is,
what kind of reader? ... We may call him, for want of a better term, the
implied reader." Iser, The Act of Reading, 34.
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28
an immanent part of the textual structure and his reading
act a prestructured act.^® Thus the introduction of the
theoretical premises on the various reader models in the
first part of his discussion is merely a necessary tactics
to foreground the significance of "the implied reader" as
the most pertinent reader model so as to accentuate his
postulate on the primacy of writerly predominance over
19
reading. Conclusively, according to Iser, in the process
of reading, (the implied) reader's cognitive and emotive
states would be directed to respond to the textual designs,
such as "indeterminacy" and "gaps," which is the partial
concret i z at ion of the textual "schematized structure" or
prestructure.However, in the following discussion, I
intend to explore the supposition of communicative
interaction between the writerly and readerly acts based on
Iser's ideation of phenomenology of reading, by bypassing
the disconcerting segment of his theory (which refers, above
all, the premise of the implied reader) so as to be able to
Ibid, 36.
19
Iser's account on the phenomenology of reading centers on the nature
of wandering viewpoint and reader's tendency for consistency-building in
the act of reading, which perfectly responds to/interacts with the
textual designs such as, "indeterminacy" and "gaps."
Even though throughout his ideation on the phenomology of reading, he
never specifically infers "the implied reader" as the only reader type
to whom the theory is applied, his intention is subtly, if not
explicitly suggested. In order to be consistent with my view of reading
act as an inspired, affected, but not controlled activity, I choose to
ignore the stark implication of Iser's conceptual preference for "the
implied reader," thereby go along with his logic of ideation as a
generalizing abstraction applicable to all reader types.
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29
establish an appropriate theoretical assumption about the
communicative act for dramatic discourse, in particular. In
order to do so, I will leave out the entire first part of
his discussion (including literary interpretation and the
definitions of reader types) and focus my attention to the
subject of phenomenology of reading.
Wandering viewpoint and image-building
Iser's account on the phenomenology of reading centers
on two factors: "grasping a text" and "passive syntheses in
the reading process." On grasping a text, he refers
"wandering viewpoint" and "consistency-building" as two
major cognitive activities that happen to the reader. And on
the passive synthesis in the reading process, "image-
building" is taken up as a basic feature of ideation. In
this section I will first discuss wandering viewpoint and
image-building, for they both, directly or indirectly, deal
with the shaping of an imaginai abstraction in processing
(grasping) a literary text.
Throughout the entire discussion, Iser refers
explicitly narrative fiction as the literary paradigm for
his theoretical construct. In other words, his reader reads
novel/fiction, specifically. Since the real readers in my
present study read drama, it seems to be necessary for us to
guestion: does novel read differently from other literary
genres, such as, drama? If so, how should we (or if we could
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30
at all) translate Iser's phenomology of narrative fiction-
reading into that of drama-reading?
In his brief examination on the process of reading
drama, Herbert Grabes makes the following insightful
comment.
In reading dramatic dialogue we often have to
synthesize sec[uence of words of phrases allocated
to various names in order to reach the degree of
autonomy of meaning guaranteed by the sentence in
narrative prose. Thus the demands on the basic
synthesizing faculty of the reader are
considerably greater. Nor does the reader get the
benefit of guidance through a predominant
perspective when trying to form larger units of
meaning. It is true that the perspective for each
utterance is much more clearly marked than in
narrative prose, but none of the subsequently
encountered perspectives can prima facie be
considered predominant. With each new allocation
of a verbal unit to a name, the reader has to
relate it to the immediately preceding allocation,
and frequently to even earlier ones, in order to
build a semantic unit of what is to become the
larger whole of verbal action and finally plot. At
the same time he has to relate this new allocation
to earlier verbal groupings allocated to the same
name in order to becomes the larger unit of a
dramatic character. And on top of this he has to
probe the newly established actional figurai
syntheses for their contribution to a larger
thematic synthesis without being guided by any
narratorial mediation.
The above lengthy quotation repeats Grabes' view on why
narrative fiction usually attracts more readers than the
play does, since, according to him, play-reading is a much
more technically-demanding and arduous task. Most important
21
Herbert Grabes, "Staging plays in the theater of the mind," in
Reading Playa, eds. Hanna Scolnicov S Peter Holland (Cambridge,
Caunbridge University Press, 1991), 95.
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31
of all, Grabes*s observation suggests candidly that
technically and aesthetically speaking, the process of
reading play differs greatly from that of reading novel.
Even though his paradigmatic model strictly sticks to
Aristotelian mode of dramatic discourse, it generally
reflects the distinction of the linguistic structure between
narrative fiction and drama. According to Grabes, the
drama reader depends largely upon dialogues to carry on
his/her reading process, since the absolute dramatic mode^^
is constituted virtually by dialogues, with little side text
(or didascalia)In other words, as compared to
22
My intention to point out Grabes's employment of the Aristotelian
dramatic model as his literary paradigm is to accentuate the possible
incongruity in regards to structural and linguistic patterns between
modern/postmodern drama and Aristotelian five-act drama. For detailed
discussion on the definition of "absolute drama", please see Peter
Szondi, Theory of the Modern Drama, eds. 6 trans. Michael Hays,
(Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1987); for survey on
modern/postmodern drama, please see Michael Vanden Heuvel, Performing
Drama/Dramatizing Performance, Alternative Theater and Dramatic Text,
(Michigan, University of Michigan, 1991)
23
A term coined by Peter Szondi. "The Drama is absolute. To be purely
relational - that is, to be dramatic, it must break loose from
everything external. It can be conscious of nothing outside itself."
Peter Szondi, Theory of the Modern Drama, 8. Throughout my entire
discussion, I will adopt Peter Szondi's model of "absolute Drama" as the
prototypical definition of the Aristotelian/neo-classical drama. In
accordance with his Theory of the Modern Drama, (the absolute) Drama,
includes following attributes: 1. absolute Drama reaches the realm of
interpersonal interaction. And the verbal medium for this world of the
interpersonal is the dialogue; 2. its internal time is present. Time
unfolds as an absolute, linear sequence in the present; 3. the dramatist
is absent from the Drama; 4. the absolute Drama is primary. It presents
nothing else but itself; 5. it possesses none of the epic
characteristic, such as narrative point of view, unrestricted shifting
of time and location; 6. it insists on motivation and excludes
accidence. (7-10).
24
"The didascalia include stage directions as well as any indication
(such as a name) identifying speakers and place of utterance." Michael
Issacharoff, Discourse as Performance, (Standford, Standford University
Press, 1989), 16.
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32
traditional narrative fiction, in which the narrative voice
provides unified perspective for the story/plot,^® the
Aristotelian/neo-classical drama unfolds the action by
displacing interpersonal dialogue. In order to come up
with satisfying thematic synthesis, the drama reader has to
actively employ his/her synthesizing faculty so as to puzzle
together the visually scattered (here I mean how it is laid
out on the page), often unrelated individual verbal
utterances, whereby the interpersonal situations in each
dramatic segment could become concrete and sensible. Since
those individual verbal utterances are not syntactically
connected sentences, Grabes claims: "This much higher demand
on the synthesizing faculty of the reader is responsible for
the impression that dramatic texts read less fluently and
more slowly than narrative prose, that they contain more
obstacles to being quickly absorbed" (95-96). At this point,
I would like to return to Iser's discussion on the feature
25
This argument certainly does not apply to the modern/postmodern
narrative fiction, in which the narrative point of views often are not
unified.
26
In Distance in the Theatre: The Aesthetics of Audience Response,
Daphna Ben Chaim also notes the difference in presentation of "point of
view" between novel/film and theater, "The novel and film, however,
share a different attribute: they make the creation of point of view
easy (in both, eliminating point of view is difficult). In theatre,
however, the creation of point of view is difficult; theatre has been
classically known as the objective art form. Whereas in the novel,
someone tells viewer where to look, thereby directing perception and
enforcing a point of view; in theatre, however, though the director can
draw attention to specific aspects of the production, it is more
difficult to control the perceptual activity of the spectator for the
purpose of creating point of view." Daphna Ben Chaim, Distance in the
Theatre: The Aesthetics of Audience Response (Michigan: UMI Research
Press, 1984), 65.
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33
of "wandering viewpoint" when processing (grasping) a text.
According to Iser, "every moment of reading is a dialectic
of protention and retention, conveying a future horizon yet
to be occupied; along with a past (and continually fading)
horizon already filled" (112). The main point of wandering
viewpoint lies in the fact that while processing the text,
one can never perceive the whole text at any one time. No
matter if it is executed by grasping the semantic unit of
the sentence in narrative fiction or by the thematic
synthesis of the dramatic segment, the processing of the
text is a continual operation constituted by moments of
discontinuities. Certainly, the phenomenon of interruption
and discontinuity in reading results largely from the nature
of literary representation in general (literary
representation is an imitation of reality, but neither
reality itself nor its exact reproduction). That the
literary representation consists of deliberate selections of
fragments and how the fragments are aesthetically assembled
and organized is crucial in regards to the way the reader's
wandering viewpoint is guided to travel. Based on its non
concrete, non-physical characteristics, the literary text in
general, as Iser assumes, is not to be perceived from
without, since mind's construction of the fictional world
while reading is by nature not an act of object-observation
rather an act of object-creation. In other words, the
aesthetic object is only concretized through language-
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34
processing, whereas its process and result vary from person
to person, from time to time, and from place to place.
Therefore, according to Iser, the perceiving faculty
(wandering viewpoint) of literary text's reader is
assuming ly situated within the textual world. Hence he
claims: "The relation between text and reader is therefore
quite different from that between object and observer:
instead of a subject-object relation, there is a moving
viewpoint which travels along inside that which it has to
apprehend. This mode of grasping an object is unique to
literature" (109) . It is again important to note that Iser's
conception of wandering viewpoint is suspicious of being
designated to correspond his assumption of "the implied
reader," assumingly encoded within the writerly
prestructure, therefore the wandering viewpoint travels
"inside" of the text. His intention to blur the distinction
between perceiving subject and aesthetic object is obvious,
for the aim is to somehow merge these two separate entities
into one unified functionalist aesthetic model.However,
it seems not all that simple when we try to convert the
literary model from narrative fiction to drama, for the
nature of the dramatic discourse is far more complicated
than the other literary discourses on account of the inter-
referential correlation between drama and theater.
27
Please see page 22-26 and footnote 17 for the discussion on Iser's
intention on textual ity and the "implied reader."
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35
As mentioned earlier, in accordance with Una Chaudhuri,
dramatic texts appear to have more than two addressees:
performers, spectators and readers, whereas the addressee of
the narrative fiction infers only the reader. Not only is
drama generally read less fluently and smoothly than the
narrative fiction, but inherently it also demands the reader
to synchronous ly process its textuality in accordance with
theatrical signification. Furthermore, in order to fully
explore the theatrical potential in reading a dramatic text,
the reader can not simply be satisfied with imagining what
happens, rather how it might happen on a theatrical space,
in terms of representation. In other words, in the process
of reading a play, the imagination of a virtual stage
reality is all very crucial to the aforementioned three
types of dramatic addressees. In his essay, "Diderot,
Brecht, Einstein," Roland Barthes speculates on the common
feature of representational, geometrical expressions in the
art of theater, painting, cinema, and literature.
The scene, the picture, the shot, the cut-out
rectangle, here we have the very condition that
allows us to conceive theatre, painting, cinema,
literature, all those arts, that is, other than
music and which could be called dioptric arts,
... The tableau (pictorial, theatrical, literary)
is a pure cut-out segment with clearly defined
edges, irreversible and incorruptible; everything
that surrounds it is banished into nothingness,
remains unnamed, while everything that it admits
within its field is promoted into essence, into
light, into view.
28
Barthes, Image-Music-Text, 69-70.
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It is precisely this rectangle, tableau, frame, upon which
the perceiving subject casts his/her gaze. To Barthes, the
non-visual aesthetic object, such as literature, is as
substantial as painting, cinema, and theater, since they are
all representational, geometric discourse.
The substance of the various arts will therefore
be of little importance; certainly, theatre and
cinema are direct expressions of geometry..., but
classic (readable) literary discourse, which has
for such a long time now abandoned prosody, music,
is also a representational, geometrical discourse
in that it cuts out segments in order to depict
them: to discourse (the classics would have said)
is simply 'to depict the tableau one has in one's
mind.' (70)
What intrigues me is the idea of perceiving discourse as
geometric expression. It implies a sense of substantial
physicality, which perfectly describes the common feature of
various arts, such as painting, cinema, theater, etc. —
they are different expressions all being defined within a
concretely cut-out frame. Such an aesthetics is entirely
different from Iser's conception on perceiving literary text
as non-concrete, non physical. Even though literary
discourse, in general, on account of their written
textuality, displays less obvious such a physical attribute,
absolute drama alone implicitly calls for a special
conceptualization, by means of which reader envisions an
image, framed within a rectangular tableau. This tableau of
enacted image is not the actual reproduction of the textual
world, since it is not necessarily endowed with
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37
semantic/thematic meaning: to envision a tableau is
primarily to manifest the theatrical physicality. The
wandering viewpoint travels, thus, back and forth between
textual world (the semantic synthesizing process) and image-
building (the depiction of the tableau). This phenomenon
permits a process through which the form and content of an
aesthetic object is constantly being structured and
restructured. Given that the text can not be grasped at any
moment as a whole, the depiction of a tableau in one's mind,
in which the dialogue and action are imaginatively played
out, is essential to the aesthetic and thematic grasping of
the dramatic text, since the absolute drama unfolds itself
through linear time-sequences; and besides, the dramatic
formal structure divided by segments, scenes and acts are
congenial to such type of image-building.^®
It is interesting to note that what Barthes coins as
"tableau" is "image" in Iser's terminology: "The imagistic
vision of the imagination is therefore not the impression
objects make upon what Hume still called 'sensation' ; nor is
it optical vision, in the true sense of the term; it is, in
29
Bernard Beckerman, Dynamics of Drama (New York: Alfred A. Knopf,
Inc., 1970) Formally speaking, the traditional dramatic structure is
constituted by scenes and acts only. In his "active analysis," Beckerman
further divides the scene into dramatic segments, in which the common
tendency is both intended and resisted by involved characters,
conceptually grouped in accordance with their assigned agendas. A
smaller structural unit than scene, the concept of "dramatic segment" is
most effective when employed in active analysis on observing the flow
and formation of the characters' psychological and physical energy
within various dramatic moments.
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38
fact the attempt to ideate that which one can never see as
such." {Act of Reading, 137). Iser further states that the
image is basic to ideation. "It relates to the nongiven or
to the absent, endowing it with presence" (137). Even though
both tableau and image are the reader's cognitive endeavor
to convert the absense or non-substantiality into a present
vision, there is difference between them — the major
difference lies in the fact that Barthes' notion of teibleau
designates a virtual rectangular frame suggesting imagistic
vision, whereas Iser's image mainly infers semantic
abstraction:
Our mental images do not serve to make the character
physically visible; their optical poverty is an
indication of the fact that they illuminate the
character, not as an object, but as a bearer of
meaning, [my emphasis] Even if we are given a
detailed description of a character's appearance, we
tend not to regard it as pure description, but try
and conceive what it actually to be communicated
through it. (138)
Since mental image, in accordance with Iser, only serves to
elucidate "meaning" other than to create visual image, there
is no surprise that it is conceived as "passive syntheses"
30
in the reading process. The "passive syntheses" infers a
non-active cognitive activity, that just so happens as one
of the basic features of ideation. Intriguingly, here one
can easily detect Iser's intention to preclude any necessary
association between the act of image-building and physical
Iser, The Act of Reading, 135-162.
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39
visualization. Besides, unmisteücenly, Iser's conception of
mental image is designated for a literary model, such as
modern narrative fiction, that invokes a sense of
fragmentation and abstraction. However, it does not speak
for absolute drama, that depends on the unity of time, place
and action to secure its implication of physical
substantiality and "realness", that is supposed to be
concretized on stage. Further, in spite of the fact that,
according to Iser, in the course of reading (the novel) , the
images occur to the reader, at one moment, are pictorial and
at another, semantic, he does not discuss so much about the
aspect of pictorial moments. In fact, the whole weight of
his concern on the subject of image-building is laid upon
the semantic and thematic aspects. It is no surprise that he
asserts: "Theme and significance are, then, constituents of
the image" (147). Even though "theme and significance" does
affect the way image is built, unlike narrative fiction, the
construct of dramatic tableau also depends greatly upon the
non-semantic, such as pictorial element. In other words, for
dramatic image building, both visual tableau and semantic
construct are essential.
When Iser asserts that wandering viewpoint defines
itself by way of the changing perspectives, one assumes that
modern narrative fiction with its feature of multiple plot-
lines and its often unstable narrative perspective is
rendered here as the explanatory paradigm. Given that, in
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40
the process of reading, the narrative voice only offers a
guidance by providing viewing perspective and even in the
case of modern fiction, such a guidance very often tends to
sabotage itself and become rather unreliable, the reader
often has to engage in the complex synthesizing act by
organizing and assembling the multifarious layers of actions
and thoughts in order to produce meaning and built the
image. And according to Iser, the process of searching for
meaning is the process of adjusting perspective, since
reader's perspective will change according to the change of
his horizon through the continual dialectics of protention
and retention.
However, in the case of drama reading, in addition to
the fact that it demands greater synthesizing task in
reading drama than fiction, the way wandering viewpoint
defines itself, is also distinctively different. My previous
premise about the readerly cognitive activity in reading
drama - a tableau (a rectangular frame) existing outside of
the textual world, yet correlatedly with the
semantic/thematic abstraction - is crucial for our further
probing into the matter of wandering viewpoint. Since drama
unfolds itself not through narration but through the
interpersonal dialogue and action, it is rather self-evident
that reader is not guided by any specific viewing
perspective, thus, his/her sense of orientation depends
entirely on how the immediacy of the "happening" makes the
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41
impression on him/her. That is to say, the reader/spectator
him/herself produces the only "viewing perspective," since
there is no narrator as a mediator, going between the reader
and the textual world. The difference between the two genres
could be perceived as if, with narrative-fiction reading, we
are told a story by a person (or more), and with drama-
reading, we witness the occurrence on our own. When Iser
points to the difference between perceiving a given object
and a text: the former can "generally be viewed or at least
conceived as a whole, while the "object" of the text as a
perceived "object" can only be imagined by way of different
consecutive phases of reading" (109), he also stresses the
fact that the literary reader does not stay with one
specific prospective throughout the entire reading. As the
story/plot unfolds, reader is constantly filled in with new
information and, perhaps, surprises, whereby he/she will be
gaining new insight on the characters and the situation. In
other words, the wandering viewpoint moves accordingly as
the reader adjusts his/her prospective. However, since the
drama reader relies on the tableau to establish the sense of
immediacy and presentness, and since the tableau itself
consists in several related images of dramatic segments
instead of thematic abstraction, the wandering viewpoint
follows the course of the event, while obtaining the sense
of orientation by observing chains of cause and effect in
order to form/acquire a perspective. Therefore, if the
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wandering viewpoint in narrative-fiction reading manifests
itself in the process of adjusting perspective, then the
wandering vie%fpoint in drama reading expresses itself mainly
in the way of obtaining a perspective.^^ With the
impression of inevitability due to the tightly linked chains
of cause and effect, the absolute drama invites the reader
to follow closely the development of the happening. In other
words, the aesthetics of the drama reading tends not to
stimulate an unconstrained, free-flow of contemplation
rather an intensive alertness/curiosity for what is to
follow immediately, and above all, what happens at the end?
Therefore, in the case of drama-reading, the wandering
viewpoint is not as Iser claims, *'a means of describing the
way in which the reader is present in the text” (118),
rather a means of being aware of the presence of an enacted
image.
yjT. Communicative Structure
Readerly Act : consistency-building
On the topic of consistency-building, Iser stresses the
fact that the consistency-building is essential to the
In my view, unlike fiction, in which there is always a
narrator/narrators who tell(s) story from his/her/their perspective(s),
there is actually no perspective offered to the drama reader in the
(absolute) dramatic representation. (If any, it should be the
playwright's perspective). Therefore, the process of "gaining
prospective" is really only a process of "forming" or "shaping" the
reader's own individual perspective.
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43
classical literary representation of a constructed reality,
in which "the contingent elements are removed and seems to
have been selected and united in a plot" (125) .
Thus the gestalten of memory extract meaning from
and impose order on the natural heterogeneity of
life. If this is so, then the traditional
realistic novel can no longer be regarded as a
mirror-reflection of reality, but is, rather,
a paradigm of the structure of memory, since
reality can only be retained as reality if it is
represented in terms of meaning. This is why the
modern novel presents reality as contingent and
"meaningless", and in so doing it shows a reaction
to conventional habits of perception by releasing
reality from the illusion-making structure of
memory. (125)
The whole point of the above statement is that consistency-
building both within the textual construct and reader's
readerly act reflects the habit of meaning-making in
classical aesthetics, that contradicts the modern/postmodern
mode of perception: reality is fragmentary, incoherent,
unharmonious, meaningless and full of contingency. It is
noteworthy that, in accordance with Iser, consistency-
building is an indispensable basis for all acts of
comprehension or meaning-making, and this in turn depends
upon process of selection. The act of selection, when
conveyed through the text, is manifested by textual
strategies: "This basic structure is exploited by literary
texts in such a way that the reader's imagination can be
manipulated and even reoriented" (125) . As far as the reader
is concerned, the act of selection in favor of specific
connections is fundamental for consistency building so that
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the configurative meaning can be formed. However, selection
automatically involves exclusions. As Iser asserts, the
reader is drawn into a textual world, a literary construct
of another person's thought, he/she will tend to first
select the elements which are familiar to him/her: "They
[the familiar experiences] will influence the gestalt we
form, and so we will tend to leave out of account a number
of other possibilities which our selective decisions have
helped to formulate but have left on the fringes. But these
possibilities do not disappear; in principle they always
remain present to cast their shadow over the gestalt that
has relegated them" (126).
The entangled networks of selections (both by the
reader and the text) creates an interactive typological
model for individual reading act. This typological model
designates a perpetual renewal reading experience,
engendered by each new operation of selections and
exclusions. And it is precisely the gap between what has
been included and what not that creates a communicative
channel for the reader to activate his/her critical
imagination. In order to illustrate the concept, let's take
the absolute drama as an explanatory paradigm. The way this
literary genre is constructed — five acts, absolute
presentness, interpersonal dialogue, etc. — depends greatly
on the economy of strict selection and exclusion.
Intriguingly enough, the present actions automatically
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suggests the absence. In other words, what is not enacted in
reader's imaginary tableau would likely manifest itself in
the process of meaning-meücing. The discrepancy between the
imaginary tableau and the thematic/semantic synthesis
happens to agree to the concept of "alternative
ambiguities,” a reader ly self-inflicted ambiguity,
introduced in The Act of Reading,
But as the excluded possibilities become more and
more obtrusive, so they may come more and more to
take on the status of alternatives rather fringe
influences. In everyday language we call these
alternatives ambiguities, by which we mean not
just the disturbance but also the hindrance of the
consistency-building process. This hindrance is
particularly noticeable when the ambiguity is
brought about by our own gestalt-forming, for then
it is not merely the product of the printed text
but that of our own activity. Obvious textual
ambiguities arising from our puzzle which we have
to solve ourselves; ambiguities arising from our
own gestalt-forming, however, stimulate us into
trying to balance all the more intensively the
contradictions that we have produced. (129)
Based on the above passage, "alternative ambiguity" is
understood as the readerly self-inflicted ambiguity derived
from the act of gestalt-forming. Apparently, in accordance
with Iser, the perception of consistency and ambiguity is
all very subjective. What seems to be consistent to one
person might appear rather ambiguous to another. Given that
the act of selection and exclusion inevitably creates "gap,"
the conflicting ambiguity, it seems to suggest that reader's
active participation in the act of gestalt-forming manifests
itself most actively when the ambiguity arises.
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Writarly design: tsntusl structure and indstarainaey
On the other hand, the communicative "gap" could also
results from the nature of the "indeterminacy" of the text.
As Schlueter puts it: "For the writerly text is an idiotext,
peculiar to the writer and, in the strictest sense,
inaccessible; no one, not the first time reader, the tenth
time reader, or even the writer-after-the-fact, can have
unmediated access to it. What Schlueter considers as
inaccessible is well explained in Ingarden's concept of
"Unbestimatheitsstellen" (spots of indeterminacy), examined
in The Act of Reading,
When Ingarden tries to describe the specific
manner in which a work of art is given to us,
he harks back to the phenomenological frame of
reference for defining objects. According to this
there are real objects, which are universally
determinate, and ideal objects, which are
autonomous. Real objects are to be comprehended,
and ideal objects are to be constituted. In both
cases the outcome in principle is final: the real
object can be completely comprehended, and the
ideal object can be completely constituted. The
work of art differs from these two types in that
it is neither universally determinate nor
autonomous, but intentional. The literary
intentional object lacks total determinacy in so
far as the sentences in the text function as a
guideline, which leads to a schematic structure
that Ingarden calls the "represented objectivity"
of the work. (170)
The act of (readerly) consistency building does not
eliminate the inaccessibility of the writerly-text. In fact,
it validates the textual indeterminacy by arresting, arguing
32
Schlueter, Dramatic Closure, 27.
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against, compensating and negotiating with each identified
ambiguity or "gap." As Ingarden observes: ", every literary
work is in principle incomplete and always in need of
further supplementation; in terms of the text, however, this
supplementation can never be completed. Therefore, each
supplementation is induced and concretized by the act of
consistency building. And it is, after all, a perpetual
circulation of subjective argument. In spite of the fact
that readerly consistency building is concretized by each
readerly subjective judgement/evaluation, Iser also
foregrounds the writerly factor that makes the interaction
possible - the "inherent," "designed" communicative
prestructure in a literary text. In criticizing Ingarden's
criteria of adequacy/inadequacy for reader's concretization
of the literary work, Iser repulses the suggestion of
conservatism in Ingarden's theory.However, he does take
on the letter's concept of "the spots of indeterminacy,"
with which the indetermined intentional object could
possibly be concretized as the real object, and further
Roman Ingarden, The Literary Work of Art, trans. by George G.
Grabowicz (Evanston, 1973), 251.
34
Iser argues that Ingarden endows the text with too much authorial
primacy by making distinction between "true" and "false" concrétisations
of the work. "He does so because he clearly feels the need to endow the
work... with the finality he ascribes to the comprehension and
constitution of real and ideal objects respectively.... To puts it
bluntly, he uses it [the concept of concretization] as if it denoted the
act of communication, whereas in actual fact, it merely describes the
actualization of schemata potentially presented by the text. In other
words. Ingarden is referring to a one-way incline from text to reader
and not to a two-way relationship." Iser, The Act of Reading, 171-173.
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48
asserts that blank and negation are the two basic structures
of indeterminacy in text:
Blanks and negations both control the process of
communication in their own different ways: the
blanks leave open the connections between
perspectives in the text, and so spur the reader
into coordinating these perspectives - in other
words, they induce the reader to perform basic
operations within the text. (169)
Iser's delineation of blanks recapitulates a crucial focus
in his entire theoretical preoccupation: the meaning comes
into being when the communicative act embarks. The
conceptual structure, such as blanks, designates a
communicative channel, through which the reader and the text
interact. Once the reader begins to make connection, fill
the gap, synthesize/combine different perspectives, the
textual coherence will emerge and the meaning will be
produced, accordingly. In participating in the communicative
interaction, textual designs, such as structured blanks
(spots of indeterminacy) leave open the connections of
perspectives in the text.
Now indeterminacy arises out of the communicatory
function of literature, and as this function is
performed by way of the formulated determinacies
of the text, clearly, the indeterminacies arising
from the formulated text cannot be without a
structure. (182)
The formulated determinacies of the text guarantee certain
degree of observed connectabi1ity. "Blanks, however, break
up this connectability,..." (183). According to Iser, the
break of connectibility arises from the fact that literary
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language, unlike everyday language, is not governed by
pragmaticality, instead, by constructed design. Therefore,
"their depragmatization creates a blank which, at best,
offers possibilities of connection" (184). Iser's entire
theoretical assumption about "blanks" seems to restate what
he has already discussed before about consistency building.
Apparently, he is tedcing up the same concept, and tries to
explain it from the perspective of the textual strategy. By
glossing over the textual indeterminacy's unintentional,
unstructured configuration in Ingarden's theory, Iser
suggests the authorial intention in its concretization as
textual prestructure - the authorial strategy of selection
and exclusion - naturally results in connectability and the
break of the connectability, as well. In elaborating on the
concept of blanks, Iser lays the entire weight of the
discussion on his observation of the disconnectabi 1 ity
caused by the multifarious perspectives in modern narrative
fiction. He refers Joyce's works as the best example to
illustrate the concept of "blanks."
Intriguingly enough, the blanks/gaps designate thematic
vacancies in the overall system of the text, also serve to
be the linking joints, since the reader has to employ
his/her imagination to fill the blanks so that the
consistency can be built.
The blanks break up the connectability of the
schemata and thus they marshal selected norms and
perspective segments into a fragmented,
counterfactual, contrastive or telescoped
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50
sequence, nullifying any expectation of good
continuation. As a result, the imagination is
automatically mobilized, thus increasing the
constitutive activity of the reader, who cannot
help but try and supply the missing links that
will bring the schemata together in an
integrated gestalt. The greater the number of
blanks, the greater will be the number of
different images built up by the reader,... (186)
In other words, where there is blank, there is potential of
connectability, and above all, communication. Iser further
makes an interesting connection between reader's employment
of his/her imagination to fill the blanks and the act of
image-building. Since, in accordance with my previous
presumption on the phenomology of drama reading, our mental
image is the bearer of not meaning alone but also the
pictorial vision, the act of filling the blanks infers
significantly the act of composing a mental mosaic in both
senses. And this mental mosaic is framed within a
rectangular tableau. My assumption, thus, suggests that the
blanks — both the linking joints and the interrupter of the
text — is greatly contoured by the dramatic formal
principle.
Even though drama does not present its indeterminacy
the way narrative fiction does, it is also a constructed
representation strictly constrained by the principal of
economy, thereby produces blanks for very different
aesthetic reasons and necessity. In order to determine the
general functional structure of the blank/gap in a dramatic
text, it is necessary for us to first investigate the formal
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structure of the drama, in particular. Formally speaking,
the structural organization of the absolute drama is
constituted by the division of acts, scenes and dramatic
segments. Usually complying with the unities of time, place,
action and standard thematic structural division (the
traditional five phases — exposition, complication, climax,
precipitation and catastrophe/denouement, respectively
assigned to each act in a consecutive order) , the
absolute dramatic form designates an unique type of literary
representation to closely imitate the reality. In such a
structured condensity, the characters will experience
conflict/complicated situations, which, in the case of
tragedy, ultimately leads to a tragic ending.^®
"Durch die beiden Halften der Handlung, welche in einem Punkte
zusammenschlielSen, erhalt das Drama - wenn man die Anordnung durch
Linien verbildlicht - einen pyramidalen Bau.... Diese Teile des Dramas,
a) Einleitung, b) Steigerung, c) Hohenpunkt, d) Fall Oder Umkehr, e)
Karastrophe, haben jeder Besonderes in Zweck und Baueinrichtung." Gustav
Freytag, Die Technik des Dramas (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche
Buchgesellschaft, 1982), 102.
When Peter Szondi defines the term, absolute Drama, he did not
explicitly assign tragedy alone as the normative paradigm. However, his
ideation throughout seems to rule out comedy as a pertinent genre, since
this particular dramatic form is anything else but "éüDsolute. " Such a
proclivity corresponds to my intent to focus on tragedy exclusively,
given that the selected writerly text of this project, Emilia Galotti,
is tragedy. Further, from the emotive theoretical point of view, it
might be easier for the comedy to accomplish the task within the same
formal structure and restriction than the tragedy, since the aim of this
particular genre tends to be less spiritually and emotionally up
lifting. The tragedy, on the contrary, has to present a well-rounded
plot, by means of which the reader/audience is moved emotionally,
rationally and very frequently, spiritually as well. In other words, the
cause of an unavoidable tragic ending needs to be presented in a
convincing manner, however, within a very restricted form and length.
Such a technical difficulty evidently also creates one of the most
problematic aspects in the work of Emilia Galotti, to which I shall
return shortly in the third chapter.
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Given that the drama presents perpetual presentness,
the blanks emerge when the continuity of presentness is
interrupted, which causes unknown hiatus between different
temporal moments. Further, the absolute drama focuses on
exploring the realm of the interpersonal relationship. The
blanks thus appear when the individual motivation is not
sufficiently explained. In other words, even though the act
of decision and self-disclosure needs to be perceived in
relation to others, the individual thought and motivation
will not gain its clarity and thereby create ambiguity
unless he/she is given the opportunity to convey his/her
inner thought. Besides, "The Drama is not written, it is
set," claims Peter Szondi, "All the lines spoken in the
Drama are dis-closures. They are spoken in context and
remain there. They should in no way be perceived as coming
from the author. The blanks arise when the author's
thought intrudes the internal sphere of the interpersonal
communication of the absolute drama. Since the drama is a
self-contained dialectics, it should be treated as a
completion without any external interference. In other
words, any imposing comment or point of view from the author
will be violating contextual integrity, whereby the logic of
the internal affair in this absolute world will be disturbed
and confused by the idea alien to it. Finally, the
Szondi, Theory of the Modern Drama, 8.
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53
consideration of contingency. The drama also insists on
motivation and the exclusion of accidence. When the factor
of contingency becomes indispensable and essential to the
development of the tragedy, in other words, without it the
ending would not produce the alleged tragic effect, the
blanks then surface. The blanks, thus are created by the
incongruity between the chain of cause and effect and the
strange factor outside of this logical chain, whereby, the
determination of meaning could turn problematic to the
reader.
In the course of thinking along and arguing against
Iser's conception on the phenomology of reading and textual
communicative structure, I endeavored to translate and
convert such a theoretical assumption designated
specifically for narrative fiction into dramatic mode of
discourse. Since our readerly text will be critical text
expressed by literary critics and authors, the critical
opinions conveyed will mostly address to the aesthetic and
dramaturgical issues engendered by the phenomenon of textual
connectability/disconnectability. On account of its
structural condensity, the break of connectability is
essential and inevitable in almost all the dramatic
representation — there are, for instance, actions and
thoughts that need to be left out because the dramatic
representation is, like all the other arts, a constructed
design. However, precisely through such an authorial design
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54
— the writerly act of selection and exclusion, that
subjectively contours the textual connectability and
disconnectibi 1 ity — the enticing idiosyncracy of each
individual dreuna uniquely expresses itself and
distinguishedly leaves its own mark. Logically, it also
teüces readerly perspective (the perceiving subject) to
identify the connectability/disconnectability, which is all
the more subjective, since the readerly perspective also
involves the act of selection and exclusion. Therefore, my
task of investigation on the writerly design in the third
chapter becomes extremely problematic, since my own
approach/perspective in identifying the writerly
communicative structure will automatically assume the role
of readerly act, which suggests subjectivity, as well. To
possibly overcome such a problem, the literary source,
Livy's account, will be employed as a major supporting
document to assure the objective intent of my observation:
given that our writerly text, Emilia Galotti, is based on
Livy's account and the nature of the literary adaptation
must involve formal, thematical modification for necessary
generic and aesthetic reasons, the ancient legend will be
rendered a major reference to track down authorial
intentions and objectives. And through the reconstruction of
the writerly strategy, its textual communicative structure
will be explored.
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55
Chapter Two
Writerly Strategy:
Formalistic and Generic Concerns
In her discussion on Iser's response theory
(Wirkungstheorie), Schlueter points out the resemblance
between Iser's concept of "implied reader" and Aristotle's
affective response.
For Iser, the literary text is a restructure,
which, through its intentions and strategies,
"anticipât[es] the presence of a recipient" and
"designates a network of response-inviting
structure." Iser's comments help clarify the
problematic nature of Aristotle's affective
response, which provocatively suggests, two
millennia before reader-response theory was
formulated, that the reader's reaction is
essential to the definition of tragedy. For both
Aristotle and Iser, the play is structured so as
to orchestrate response; it is attentive for our
purpose, to how the reader feels at the end.^
Schlueter's purpose here is to bring to the fore Iser's
close affinity with Aristotle, especially, with the
suggestive response-inviting nature so eminently underscored
in the letter's theory on tragedy. However, she is not
interested in giving Aristotle's affective response an
"Iserian" reading/interpretation, whereby this point, at
least on the part of Aristotelian theory, is soon dropped
and never taken up again in her explication. Even though it
is highly arguable whether such a comparison is
^ Schlueter, Dramatic Closure, 27.
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56
appropriate,^ Schlueter*s observation is astonishingly
instructive, since such a connection-drawing (the
acknowledgement of their common interest
in the literary text's responsive structure) suggests a
conceptual affiliation between modern reader-response theory
and classical literary outlook (dramatic literature, in
particular is not entirely impossible. However, what seems
to be really crucial to us is perhaps how such a connection
heuristically affects the way we posit, Emilia Galotti, a
neo-classical writerly text, within our current critical
framework.
In order to gain insight, my investigative interest at
first will not focus on the writerly text itself, instead,
on the critical perception behind it. My presumption is that
Lessing's neo-classical writerly strategy is largely
affected by a literary outlook that directly descends from
Aristotelian legacy. And in this tradition, reader's
reaction is essential to the definition of tragedy. For the
same reason, our drama in question, viewed in terms of
writerly rhetorics, is intrinsically didactic, thereby is
imputed with responsive structure, as well.
What I would like to examine first in this chapter is
2
Unlike Aristotle who only deals with the generic and formal principles
of literary text, iser claims to acknowledge the primacy of readership.
Besides, the complexity of Iser's theoretical construct in regards to
textual responsive structure mostly concerns narrative instead of
dramatic text.
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57
how neo-classical aesthetics and Lessing's own
interpretation of Aristotelian theory affect his view on the
theory of tragic composition. It goes without saying that
such an investigative approach is nothing new at all.
Scholars have long noticed that, based on the evidences
shown in Hamburglsche Dramaturgie, Lessing's concept of
tragic emotions is nothing more than his own remaking of
Aristotelian theory of affective response. The most
canonical consensus should be that Lessing's interpretation
modernizes Aristotelian doctrine by rendering it more
suitable to an age, in which the reader/audience is mostly
constituted by middle class populace. What I intend to do,
however, is in the process of thinking along with the "set
horizon," I also mean to look beyond such a horizon by
posing different inquiries. My initial questions are, as far
as the subject of tragedy concerns, how does Lessing's
critical outlook relate to the norm (that of Enlightenment
and Aristotelian doctrine) and how "modern" is his
conceptual probing on the meaning of tragedy.
In Tragic Conflict, Michelle L. Gellrich first points
out the fact that there is a distinguishable difference in
classical concept of "tragedy" and the modern one. The
difference lies in the fact that "conflict" is actually not
part of the classical definition, whereas it is almost
synonymous to the term of tragedy in our time. The modern
perception of tragedy, in accordance with Gellrich, is as
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58
follows.
As a literary genre, with particular
characteristics and a certain kind of subject
matter, tragedy is thought to be concerned
with ethical or moral dilemmas and is usually
defined as a form that treats of man's
confrontations with forces antagonistic to
his desires, rights or obligations. Because it
dramatizes the dark, disruptive side of the
world, tragedy has found a special place in the
mental configurations of our time.^
What intrigues me about Gellrich*s study on the subject
matter is her thesis on the historical emergence of the
concept of "tragic conflict." In accordance with her
observation, tragedy and conflict actually did not coalesce
in the critical language of dramatic theory until the late
18th century. Before then, there was practically no
elaboration on the concept of conflict in the discussion of
theory of tragedy. She further asserts that the concept of
"tragic conflict" is first addressed by Schiller in his
theoretical essays and later systematically structured by
Hegel in the Vorlesung fiber die Aesthetik.* Gellrich points
out the common mistake of our imposing on documents before
^ Michelle Louise Gellrich, "Tragic Conflict: Studies of a Problem in
the History of Dramatic Theory." Dies. University of Berkeley, 1982, 3.
4
"The reach of my argument is that the focus on tragic conflict needed
specific and propitious conditions in order to come into view and that
these condition did not appear in literary study until the late
eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. It is the dramatic essay of
Friedrich Schiller, first and more importantly, in the Vorlesung Ober
die Aesthetik of Georg Wilhelm Hegel that Kollision find a place - and
it is a central one - in the theory of tragedy. Before that time,
critical discussions took their bearings from principles of organization
which, as in the Poetics, were unfavorable to an emerging view of
conflict, or, as in Renaissance and Neoclassical criticism, were more
overtly against an aesthetic geared toward the perception of harsh
tensions and jarring contradictions." Ibid., 7.
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59
the late 18th century a way of thinking about tragedy that
is basically alien to them. The whole point about
Aristotle's rationalist legacy, in accordance with Gellrich,
at the outset is to argue against Plato's serious
condemnation on the irrational nature of drama. "The mimetic
art, he [Plato] says, does not originate in or appeal to the
highest faculty in the soul, the logical. It takes its
subject matter from the fretful, complaining temper, one not
law-abiding and prepared to listen to the authority of
reason...."® In short, the experience of conflict — being
at odds, either with oneself, with others, is regarded as a
lapse from reason and order. In the fourth chapter where she
discusses Renaissance and Neoclassical dramatic theory in
conjunction with the ethical approach in this period, she
states that due to Aristotle's influence, writings on
tragedy in this period pay remarkably little attention to
conflict in plays. It is also noteworthy that this period
not only takes on the tradition of Aristotle's formalistic
and generic approach toward drama but also further its
rationalist propensity by being distinctly rhetorical and
ethical-oriented. In my view, Lessing's critical writing on
tragedy is exactly the case in point. His discussion on the
aesthetics of tragedy, most notably in Hamburglsche
Dramaturgie is predominantly formalistic/generic and, above
® Ibid., 115.
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60
all, ethical.^
At issue is that since affective-response illuminated
so eminently in the subject of tragic emotions, is esteemed
as one of the major concerns in Lessing-Aristotelian
discourse, it is utterly intriguing to observe how Lessing,
goes about the subject matter while bypassing potentially
correlated issues, such as, conflict, disonnance, guilt,
etc. Given that he lives in an age when the intellectual
climate so intensely glows with optimism about human
rational faculty, "conflict," the term suggests troubled
human existence, in which "the soul is tortured by a
consciousness of the irresolvable ambiguities in choice"
(Tragic Conflict, 2), is simply not part of his critical
vocabulary. Such a conceptual approach toward tragedy no
doubt decisively affects his own creative writing as a
dramatist.^ However, the rational, ethical propensity so
rigidly inherent in his intellectual temperament is not
As opposed to Lessing, Goethe, who belongs to a younger literary
generation, states in March 28, 1827, in a conversation with Eckermann,
that the manifestation of the irresolvable conflict is the kernel of the
tragedy: "Freilich leben wir alle in Familien und im Staat, und es
trifft uns nicht leicht ein tragisches Schicksal, das uns nicht als
Glieder von beiden trüfe. Doch kânnen wir auch ganz gut tragische
Personen sein, und waren wir blofie Familien» Oder waren wir bloBe
Staatsglieder. Denn es kommt im Grunde blofi auf den Konflikt an, der
keine Aufldsung zulüEt, und dieser kann entstehen aus dem Widerspruche
welcher Verh<nisse er wolle, wenn er nur einen echten Naturgrund
hinter sich hat und nur ein echt tragischer ist.” Goethe, Goethea
Geaprache, zweite, durchgesehene und stark vermehrte Auflage, dritte
Band (Leipzig: F. W. v. Biedermann, 1910), 353.
^ My assumption is that Lessing's dramatic writing is greatly, if not
entirely, affected by his theoretical supposition, which is most evident
in his composition of middle-class tragedy, Emilia Galotti.
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61
necessarily an uneunbiguous one. In the following discussion,
I also would like to explore such a possible ambiguity,
subtly suggested in his appreciation of Shakespeare. My
assumption throughout is that in spite of the fact that his
critical approach toward the definition of tragedy is all
rational and ethical, Lessing does notice and acknowledge
the profound aesthetics quality in the work of Shakespeare,
which is evidently not formalistically/generically "correct"
and anything but what he takes for g r a n t e d .^ However, his
adoration of Shakespeare's mastery is never interlaced with
his rational/ethical argument in the entire discussion on
tragedy: they are treated separately. In other words, he
does not read, comprehend Shakespeare by the same standard
he strives so hard to set up. What seems to be crucial
within our context is that apparently Lessing is unaware of
such a discrepancy, or at least to a critical and
intellectually conscious extent so as to radically question
or examine his own pan-rational/ethical point of view. Thus,
I will assume that such an ambivalence - the choice of
succumbing to two contradictive forces, namely, the rational
versus the irrational -, if not in his critical writing,
becomes problematic and essential in his own composition of
a
For the discussion on the irrationality in Shakespeare, please see
Harriett Hawkins, Strage Attractora: Literature and Chaos Theory
(Hertfordshire: prentice Hall/Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1995), 75-167.
Hawkins discusses the irrational factors, such as themes of chaos,
chance, antithesis, amorality and unresolvable strife, that, according
to Hawkins, distinctly characterizes Shakespeare's drama.
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62
tragedy. In other words, the tragedian Lessing kindles a
creative spark that is entirely alien to the dreunaturg
Lessing's critical conviction. The fact that our writerly
text, Emilia Galotti, is a composite of two opposite
elements (rational vs. irrational), that curiously coexist
in a rather unsettling fashion, renders the meaning-making
problematic, since it is highly dubious and arguable whether
the tragedy in proper can be dissected according to two
clear-cut, contradictive terms, when, due to the
idiosyncracy of Lessing's writerly temperament, these two
elements refuse to be diaphanously definable.
I. Lessing's reading of Aristotle: the rational/ethical
critical outlook
As John G. Robertson keenly observes in Lessing's
Dramatic Theory,^ Lessing's interpretation of Aristotle has
gone through a few elusive modifications under notable
influence of his contemporaries, Mendelssohn and Nicolai,
through their intermittent literary correspondences between
1756 and 1757. Robertson insinuates that in Hamburgische
Dramaturgie, Lessing's somewhat congruous, though
unsystematic premise on the purpose and definition of
tragedy making close reference to Aristotle's Poetics, is an
affirmative conclusion of the productive intellectual
9
John George Robertson, Lessing's Dramatic Theory, (Bronx: Benjamin
Blom Inc., 1965), 333-389.
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63
interaction among the three. In accordance with
Robertson, their discussion on the nature of tragedy lays
much emphasis on 1) the observation of morality; and 2) the
purification of passions,which conveys, not
surprisingly, strong accentuation on drama's didactic
objective. In spite of the fact that the core of Aristotle's
thought is in principle kept intact, it is interpreted in
accordance with the ethical code of their time - frankly,
their sole concern was how tragedy, the serious drama, is
to teach morality. As Gellrich states.
But the characteristically ethical solutions
developed by later critics to the problems of
tragedy mark the point at which they and
Aristotle part way. For although ethical
assumptions, as we have seen, are discernible
in several of the Greek philosopher's poetic
terms, they do not serve a rhetorical conception
of drama, as they frequently do in the
Renaissance.... (209-210)
... it also serves as a concise reminder that
the eighteenth century continues to affirm the
necessity of dramatic laws for securing
regularity — structural and ethical — in
tragedy. (256)
Nicolai endorses the view held by Curtius, the translator of
Ibid. 337-342.
Ibid., 339-340.
10
11
12
"... Tragedy, then is an imitation of an action that is serious,
complete and of a certain magnitude; in language embellished with each
kind of artistic ornament, the several kinds being found in separate
parts of the play; in the form of action, not of narrative; through pity
and fear effecting the proper purgation of these emotions.... Every
tragedy, therefore, must have six parts, which parts determine its
quality - namely. Plot, Character, Diction, Thought, Spectacle, Song.
Two of the parts constitute the medium of imitation, one the manner, and
three the objects of imitation. And these complete the list." (23-25)
Aristotle, Aristotle's Theory of Poetry and Fine Art, trans. by S. H.
Butsch. 4th ed. (London: Macmillan and Co., 1922), 23-25.
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64
Poetics into German in 1753, that Aristotle is guilty of
inconsistency in asserting that there can be tragedy without
morals and at the same time requiring tragedy to purify
p a s s i o n s . what Nicolai tries to argue is that there can
be no passions to purify if there is no moral. And Lessing's
own interpretation of Aristotle's nature of tragedy in
Hamburgische Dramaturgie reflects an even stronger
proclamation on the issue of its moral purpose. In 78th
essay, he argues,
[Since] Aristotle's doctrine of the purification
... rests in nothing else than in the
transformation of passions into virtuous habits,
and since according to our philosopher each virtue
has two extremes between which it rests, it
follows that if tragedy is to change our pity into
virtue it must also be able to purify us from the
two extremes of pity, and the same is to be
understood of fear. Tragic pity must not only
purify the soul of him who has too much pity, but
also of him who has too little; tragic fear must
not alone purify the soul of him who does not fear
any manner of misfortune but also of him who is
terrified by every misfortune, even the most
distant and most improbable. Likewise tragic pity
in regard to fear must steer between this too much
and too little, and conversely tragic fear in
regard to pity.i*
According to my reading, Lessing covers the following
topics in Hamburgische Dramaturgie with close reference to
Aristotle's theory in regards to the nature of tragedy: l)
For detailed discussion on the subject of tragedy among Lessing,
Mendelssohn and Nicolai, see Briefwechsel Ober Dae Trauerapiel in
Gotthold Ephraim Lessing: Werke, vol. IV, 155-227.
Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, Hamburgische Dramaturgie, St. LXXVIII, from
Selected Prose Works of G. E. Lessing, trans. E. C. Beasley and Helen
Zimmern. Ed. Edward Bell (London: George Bell and Sons, 1879), 421.
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65
stage, the school of moral, should produce in accordance
with strict probability arising from natural causes (236,
279, 311) ; 2) drauna is akin to Aesopian fable, therefore
tragedy is tragic fable (328-329, 335); 3) the effect of
surprise is not desirable, since it does not activate the
audience's rational faculty (376-377, 381-382); 4) the logic
of the three unities is examined according to rule of
probability, or the moral (363-366); 5) what generates the
audience's primary tragic emotion, pity (266-267); 6) why
fear, instead of terror, should be the accompanying effect
to pity (403-410, 433-437); 7) what types of tragic
character can best arouse the audience's tragic emotions
(266-267) ; 8) tragedy only arouse two kinds of emotions:
pity and fear, and nothing else (love, hate, and anger, etc.
are not tragic emotions (417-418) ; 9) pity and fear are
inseparable (433-437) ; 10) the realization of catheursisi
purification of two extremes of emotions should lead to
virtue (421-422); 11) the depiction of tragic hero's
suffering is essential for awakening pity and fear (338) ;
12) in addition to undeserved misfortunes, the tragic hero's
suffering should also result from committing a mistake due
to either his weakness or his tortured innocence (333-
336,408-410) ; 13) gallantry and politics are not proper
subjects for tragedy because they always leave us cold
(428) .
Hamburgische Dramaturgie was a weekly publication and a
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66
collection of essays on the contemporary theaters
(including, German, English, French, Italian and Spanish
dramas) and the ancient Roman and Greek dramas. The themes
of Lessing's weekly critique was largely decided by the
repertory of the theater production.^® Even though he was
employed as a critic to conduct a journal published by the
theater, the Dramaturgie is in fact much more than a
critical index (critisches Register), a regular and punctual
chronicle of the performances, as he officially claims in
the preface of Dramaturgie.^^ As Robertson rightly
observes, the Dramaturgie turns out to be a complex
expression of Lessing's dramaturgical preoccupation.^^ Due
to the indeterminate nature of the purpose of the journal
and Lessing's often much too self-absorbed intellectual
curiosity, its style in general oscillates between critical
review and subject-oriented treatise. As my synopsis in page
64-65 indicates, most of the topics erratically hop among
essays, passages and very frequently, they are not all
For detailed discussion on the organization and repertory of the
Hamburg Theater, see Lessing's Dramatic Theory, 13-193.
Ml This Dramaturgie ' is to form a critical index of all the plays
performed, and is to accompany every step made here either by the art of
the poet or the actor. " Leasing, Selected Prose Works of G. E. Lessing,
231.
17
"His journal was not merely to record the performances of the Hamburg
playhouse; it was also to discuss the nature of the drama; and it was to
be of practical aid to poet and actor, and help to educate the taste of
the public by stimulating an appreciation for what was good - thus
contributing to the ultimate aim of the Hamburg undertaking, the
creation of a national theatre." Robertson, Lessing’s Dramatic Theory,
121.
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67
treated through structured elaboration: fragmented
impressions, ideas and erratic commentaries constitute the
basis of this journal. Except for certain key issues, such
as the definition of tragic emotions, due to repeated
explication, therefore sustaining certain clarity, his
general conceptual presumption, frequently in the form of
aphorism, unpredictably lurks about the lengthy, swarming
expository literary details, thereby is often indiscernible
and difficult to follow. However, on the whole, no matter
how he approaches his topics, his elaboration on the subject
of tragedy always boils down to the negotiation of two
seemingly contradictive elements: reason and passion.
Theater is the school of the moral
Unsurprisingly, Lessing brings to the fore the ethical
precept right away in his second essay,
... on the stage, where everything that has to do
with the character of the personages must arise
from natural causes. We can only tolerate
miracles in the physical world; in the moral
everything must retain its natural course,
because the theatre is to be the school of the
moral world. The motives for every resolve, for
every change of opinion or even thoughts, must be
carefully balanced against each other so as to be
in accordance with the hypothetical character, and
must never produce more than they could produce in
accordance with strict probability. (236)
The pith of this message is, in short, that theater is the
school of the moral; to be moral is to follow the rule of
probability. It is understood that in the age of
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68
Enlightenment, morality and rationality/reason are two sides
of one coin, they mutually define one another. Theoretically
speaking, Lessing's concept on the didactic function of
theater is expressed by two operational systems: the systems
of production and reception. These two interact to
constitute a communicational mechanism, that presumedly aims
for fulfilling the ethical assumption. What Lessing
explicates in the afore-mentioned passage is a proclamation
for a communicational framework, within which the system of
production employs rationality to teach morality, which is
precisely the rationality itself, as well. As a simplified
dramatic communicational model illustrated by Thorsten
Roelcke in Dramatische Koimunikation demonstrates, the
process of communication starts off from the production, and
then, through the transmission of signal and channel, ends
when it reaches the recipient.^®
Signal Signal
Kanal Produzent Rezipient
Such a basic diagram can be extended by adding the "source
of the information prior to the sender and the "aim of the
1Ô
Thorsten Roelcke, Dramatische Kommunikation, Modell uncf Reflexion bei
Dürrenmatt, Handke, Weiss (Berlin, New York: de Gruyter, 1994), 11.
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69
information” following the recipient.
19
Signal Signal
Kanal Sendee Informations-
quelle
Informations-
ziel
Notably, the interactive transmissions of both typological
models travel only one direction - from the production to
the recipient - which is typical for Aristotelian theater,
given that it usually has a conclusive ending and a salient
intention to instruct. Such a one-way didactic
communicational pattern is even more explicit in Lessing's
conceptual enterprise, due to his distinct ethical approach.
The "moral principle," which signifies the
Informationsqaelle and Informationsziel in the second model,
both starts and concludes the instructive process.
The whole business of tragedy is to purify passions by
passions
However, as one reads on, one realizes that moral
principle and its technical application (such as the rule of
probability) alone do not render theatrical art complete -
19
Ibid., 11
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from time to time, the emotive factor is brought to the fore
in regards with the purpose of tragedy. In chapter IV of
Laocoon, Lessing holds: "But pity, the very thing which
should not be aroused here,... is the sole aim of the tragic
stage. Its heroes must show feeling, must give utterance to
their pain and let nature work unadorned. As stated,
affective factors, are vital, indispensable to render the
theatrical chemistry efficacious. Here, Lessing seems to
employ the same argumentative method to introduce the
curiously uncongenial factor (in contrast to rationality)
into his communicative framework: to arouse "pity" (directed
toward reader/audience), "feeling" (directed toward the
actors' performance) should be also utilized as a tool. It
is, however, entirely unclear whether pity (Mitleid) is
employed as the synonym of passions (Leidenshaften) by
Lessing in his overall ideation on the subject matter. In
any case, one could certainly assume that, based on
contextual evidences, they are both referred to as non-
rational factors. Intriguingly enough, in the second essay
Dramaturgie, Lessing discusses the affective factor (this
time "passions," instead of "pity," is employed as the
signifier) from a quite different angel.
Is not the character of a true Christian something
quite untheatrical? Does not the gentle
pensiveness, the unchangeable meekness that are his
essential feature, war with the whole business of
20
Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, LaocoSzi, trans. Edward Allen McCormick
(London: The Johns Hopkins Press Ltd., 1984), 29-30.
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71
tragedy that strives to purify passions by
passions? Does not his expectation of rewarding
happiness after this life contradict the
disinterestness with which we wish to see all great
good actions undertaken and carried out on the
stage? ... my advice is this, to leave all existent
Christian tragedies unperformed.... This advice,
deduced from the necessities of art, .... (237)
In this passage, Lessing not only refers passions as a
performative technique, like reason, he also brings out a
major significance of this element - to be passioned is to
be "involved" with this life. As noticed, the reason why
Lessing expresses stark disapproval about Christian tragedy
on the stage, as he clearly states, is because of its lack
of expression of passions and genuine enthusiasm about "this
life," since the whole business of tragedy, in accordance
with him, is to purify passions by passions. However, it is
important for Lessing that one must not be completely
carried away emotionally. Even though passions, like
sensation, should be awakened (from the reader/audience) and
expressed (by the actors), it should be purified, as well.
According to my reading, the whole point of Lessing's
argument on the subject of affective motif is to stress on
the indispensability of affective factors on the one hand;
on the other, to remind his reader of the danger of
excessive, unpurified passions/sensation. In other words,
they need to be properly monitored and controlled.
As much as Lessing explicates on the purpose and
didactical function of theatrical art, he never directly
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72
elaborates on the connection between the two different
factors he brings out: the rational and affective factors.
However, one thing is clear - passion, in a sense, is only
partially antithetical to morality/rationality (to be moral
means to purify, not eradicate passions. It is important to
note that passions, especially appropriate passions, is
indispensable to both theater as a moral institution and
lived world outside of it) . Speaking of the nexus of the two
uncongenial factors, Lessing spends rather long passage in
the third essay to explain how actors should employ
appropriate emotional and rational faculties to achieve
perfect expression when uttering lines of moral maxims.
Why is it that we like to hear the commonest maxim
spoken by this actor (Herr Eckhof ) ? ... All maxims
must come from the abundance of the heart with
which the mouth overflows. We must appear to have
thought of them as little as we intend to boast of
them. It therefore follows as a matter of course
that all the moral parts must be very well learnt
by heart. They must be spoken without hesitation,
without the faintest stammer, in an unbroken easy
flow of words, so that they may not appear a
troublesome unburdening of memory but spontaneous
promptings of the actual condition. It must also
follow that no false accentuation lead us to
suspect that the actor is chattering what he does
not understand. He must convince us by a firm
assured tone of voice that he is penetrated by the
full meaning of his words.... (240)
From these principles of feeling in general I
have endeavored to ascertain what external tokens
accompany those feelings with which moral axioms
should be spoken, and which of these tokens are
within our command, so that every actor, whether
he have the feeling himself or not, may represent
them. I think they are the following. Every moral
maxim is a general axiom, which as such demands a
degree of calm reflexion and mental composure.
It must therefore be spoken with tranquility and a
certain coldness. But again, this general axiom is
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73
also the result of impressions made by individual
circumstances on the acting personages. It is no
mere symbolical conclusion, it is a general
sensation and as such it requires to be uttered
with a certain fire and enthusiasm. Consequently
with enthusiasm and composure; with coldness and
fire? Not otherwise; with a compound of both, in
which however, according to the conditions of the
situation, now one and now the other,
predominates. (242)
As a matter of fact, this is one of the few essays, in which
the subject of acting is given in-depth illumination.
Generally speaking, in this essay, Lessing does touch upon
some crucial issues, such as the theoretical concern about
actor's feelings and its external express ion it is.
21
The 5th essay, for example, discusses whether the actor can have too
much fire. In quoting Shakespeare, Lessing points out the importance of
"moderation" in the art of acting: "... it is easy to discover why,
where the poet has not observed the least moderation, the actor must yet
moderate himself in both points.... The art of the actor here stands
midway between the plastic arts and poetry" (Selected Prose Work, 246-
247). Lessing uses plastic arts (painting and sculpture) and poetry as
two contradictive examples of the employments of fire to argue why the
"offensive element" (247) is a concern for theatrical art, in which the
stage movement should neither be overbearingly powerful (like the
strength which the poet is allowed to use in his treatment due to the
non-sensuous, abstract nature of the poetry) nor entirely calm and
composed (like the moderate stamina used in creating plastic arts. Due
to their "tactile posture", the strength used in creating plastic arts,
needs to be kept in check so as to be not offensive to the viewer),
since stage performance is both corporeal and temporarily transitory.
22
In the third essay he also briefly deals with the question how far an
actor should "feel" his role. "And yet even then the actor may really
feel very much and still appear to have no feeling. Feeling is
altogether the most controverted among the talents of an actor. It may
be present where we do not recognize it, and we can fancy we recognize
it where it does not exist. For feeling is something internal of which
we can only judge by its external signs” (240). Lessing points out that
the art of acting is fundamentally an acquired skill. It is not enough
that the actor expresses himself in accordance with his feeling, he must
procure the technique of using physical signs to express his inner
feeling. In fact this art is more essential than his subjective
response. Even though Lessing is of the opinion that definite rules of
acting is necessary, he claims not being able to find an satisfatory
answer for it. See G. E. Lessings, SSmtliche Schrxften, X, ed. K.
Lachmann, 3rd ed. revised by F. Muncker (Stuttgart, 1886-1924), 212. J.
G. Robertson, the author of Leasing’s Dramatic Theory, maintains that no
aspect of the Hamburgische Dramaturgie feels more disappointing than
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74
however, noteworthy how the ethical motif again assumes the
primacy, to which Lessing's points of reasoning always
return. What appears to be vital is that moral principle is
inferred as a general principle, thereby has to be expressed
with calmness. However, since it is spoken in a mundane
situation, the abstraction is transmuted, thereby is
concretized by the circumstantial sensation and emotion.
Evidently, for Lessing, the entire operation of theatrical
art, both theoretically and practically, follows only one
conceptual rule: the ethical principle designates a general
metaphysical framework. This abstract principle curiously
presides over all actuality and triviality; it is also
deemed as an ultimate ideal, to which humanity should
eventually return. However, it is clear that Lessing does
not lose sight of the crucial fact that the nature of the
theatrical art is to portray human world, in which passions
are the major driving force. By bringing up the distinction
between Aesopian fable and a drama, he elucidates in the
35th essay that drama does not only intend to instruct, but
to entertain, as well.
... The poet [of fable] may conclude wherever he
wills as soon as he sees his goal. It does not
concern him what interest we may take in the
persons through whom he works out his intentions;
he does not want to interest but to instruct us,
he has to do with our reason, not with our heart,
that of the art of acting. For a more comprehensive survey on the
subject, see otto G. Graf's "Lessing And The Art of Acting" in Papers of
The Michigan Academy of Science, Arts, And Letters, Vol. XI. (1955):
293-301.
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75
this latter may or may not be satisfied with so
long as the other is illuminated. Now drama on the
contrary makes no claim upon a single definite
axiom flowing out of its story. It aims at the
passions which the course advents of its fable
arouse and treat, or it aims at the pleasure
accorded by a true and vivid delineation of
characters and habits. Both require a certain
integrity of action, a certain harmonious end
which we do not miss in the moral tale because our
attention is solely directed to the general axiom
of whose especial application the story affords
such an obvious instance. (328)
Curiously, this passage seems to somehow ease off
Dramaturgie's overly pan-moral intonation. It explicitly
suggests that Lessing does realize that if morality were
what theater/drama all about, then there were practically no
difference between fable and drama. In accordance with him,
the sole purpose of fable is to instruct, to work with our
reason. And drama, on the contrary, in addition to its
didactic function, speaks to our heart, as well. Here, a new
thesis is brought up regarding the nature of
theatrical/dramatic art: the accentuation of the pleasure
(Vergniigen) principle.
In spite of the fact that Lessing does not further
elaborate on the pleasure principle, it seems to be clear
that it is inferred as a correlative of emotive effect. A
"true and vivid delineation of characters and habits" that
will arouse passions should provide the spectator/reader
with pleasure. Such a glaring emphasis on the affective
response culminates in two passages respectively in chapter
IV of Laocodn and the essays of Dramaturgie, in which
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Lessing defines the purpose/nature of tragedy exclusively
according to affective concern.
But pity, the very thing which should not be
aroused here,... is the sole aim of the tragic
stage and consequently demands a diametrically
opposed attitude. Its heroes must exhibit
feeling, must give utterance to their pain and
let nature work unadorned. If they betray any
training and constraint, they leave our hearts
cold. {Laocoôn, 37-38)
A tragedy is a poem which arouse compassion.
According to its genus it is the imitation of an
action, like the epopee and comedy, but according
to its species, the imitation of an action worthy
of compassion. From these two definitions all the
rules can be perfectly deduced and even its
dramatic form may be determined.
{Selected Prose Work, 415)
Genius is only busy with events that are rooted in one
another, that form a chain of cause and effect
On a more technical level, the moral principle is
concretized through the utilization of reason and it usually
resists excessive emotion and sentiment. Earlier I
mentioned, in accordance with Lessing, that rationality and
passions/sensation are two distinct factors that constitute
and complete the ethical assumption of theatrical art.
However, within the alleged moral hierarchy, rationality has
more immediate logical nexus with the moral than passions.
Frankly, rationality operates as a regulating force to keep
passions in check: ”... when the situation is turbulent, the
soul must appear to recall itself by means of the moral
axiom ... ; it must seem to give to its passions the
appearance of reason and to stormy outbursts the look of
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77
premediated resolves” (242). Where Lessing sees differences
between drama and fable, he accentuates the former's appeal
to our affective response and the latter our rational
penchant. There is, however, a fundamental consideration
they commonly share: they all tell a story, to which a theme
of the general axiom (or a specific axiom) is applied.
Drama's pleasure principle, no doubt a correlative of
affective objective, nenetheless, is by definition exercised
according to the rule of probability. Hence, "a true and
vivid delineation of characters and habits" strategically
appeals to the taste of middle-class aesthetics, whereby it
also corresponds to the didactic purpose of tragedy. In the
14th essay, he holds.
Domestic tragedies found a very thorough defender
in the persons of the French art critic who first
made ' Sara ' known to his nation.... The names of
princes and heroes can lend pomp and majesty to a
play, but they contribute nothing to our emotion.
The misfortunes of those whose circumstances most
resemble our own, must naturally penetrate most
deeply into our hearts, and if we pity kings, we
pity them as human beings, not as kings. Though
their position often renders their misfortunes
more important, it does not make them more
interesting. Whole nations may be involved in
them, but our sympathy requires an individual
object and a state is far too much an abstract
conception to touch our feelings. (266-267)
What is "true and vivid" to the audience is what interests
him/her the most. The representation of likable dramatic
figures, with whom the audience can identify him/herself,
and action, which are probable, are fundamental to the
pleasure principle. This circular interlinkage pays its
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78
ultimate homage to the moral: "... in the moral everything
must retain its natural course, because the theatre is to be
the school of the moral world" (236).
The steadfast tenacity of probability in dramatic
action is expressed in his concept of "genius." In the 30th
essay, he points out the importance of forming the chain of
cause and effect, thereby avoiding contingency,
Here [in the history of Cleopatra] there is no
love, no entanglement, no recognition, no
unexpected marvelous occurrence; everything
proceeds naturally. This natural course tempts
genius and repels the bungler. Genius is only
busied with events that are rooted in one another,
that form a chain of cause and effect* To reduce
the latter to the former, to weigh the latter
against the former, everywhere to exclude chance,
to cause everything, that occurs to occur so that
it could not have happened otherwise, this is the
part of genius when it works in the domains of
history and converts the useless treasures of
memory into nourishment for the soul... Genius
loves simplicity, and wit complication. (311)
For Lessing, chance, does not speak to the genius, since it
can not be harnessed by rationality/reason. Intriguingly, in
his 48th essay Lessing once again makes a crucial connection
between our rational faculty and feeling/emotion:
And why need the poet surprise us? He may surprise
his personages as much as he likes. We shall still
derive our advantage therefrom, even if we have
long foreseen what befalls them so unexpectedly.
Nay our sympathy will be the more vivid and
the stronger, the longer and more certainly we have
foreseen it. (376)
In accordance with Lessing, our sympathy can only be
effectively aroused through our full knowledge of the
dramatic situation. It is, therefore, essential for us to
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first comprehend/know so as to sympathize. Lessing spends
ten essays (no. 40 - no. 50) on discussing three adaptations
of the 184th Fable of Hyginus, respectively by Euripidus,
Maffei and Voltaire. The lengthy explication at last leads
to the comparison of the three various treatments of the
mistaken-identity plot. In the 47-50th essays, Lessing
explores the dramatic situation, in which Herope, queen of
Messene, in the fit of fear and anxiety, is on the verge of
killing her son, Aegisthus, whom she does not recognize due
to years of separation. Among the three different versions
of treatment, Lessing favors Euripides' the most because of
his avoidance of the effect of surprise.
With Euripides the spectators knew from Aegisthus
himself that it was Aegisthus, and the more
certainly they knew that Herope was coming to
murder her own son, the greater necessarily must
be the horror that possesses them on this account,
the more torturing the pity which befell them lest
Herope should not be hindered in time from the
execution of her deed. Now Haffei and Voltaire, on
the contrary, only let us suspect that the assumed
murderer of the son may be the son himself and our
greatest terror is therefore reserved for the sole
moment in which it ceases to be terror. (376)
Suspense would be taken away from the spectator, had they
not yet known the truth about the dramatis personaes ' true
relation. To Lessing, it is crucial at this point for the
reader/spectator to scream: "Stop! He is your son!" The
passage, thus, reflects Lessing's general dramaturgical
precept: The spectator should be intellectually prepared for
every impending emotional moment. In the same essay, Lessing
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elucidates further his view on the treatment of suspense. He
restates the idea of not pulling the wool over the
spectator's eyes,
I am far removed from believing with the majority
of those who have written on the dramatic art that
the denoument should be hid from the spectator. I
rather think it would not exceed my powers to
rouse the very strongest interest in the
spectators even if I resolved to make to work
where the denouement was revealed in the first
scene. Everything must be clear for the spectator,
he is the confidant of each person, he knows
everything that occurs, everything that has
occurred and there are hundreds of instances when
we cannot do better than to tell him straight out
what is going to occur. (377)
He distinguishes a real "genius" from the "manufacturers of
general rules" by arguing that the genius is aware of the
fact that the cultivation of the spectator's enduring
emotional response is consummated through his timely
acquisition of the knowledge about the "secrecy" rather
through momentary surprise/shock,
By means of secrecy a poet effects a short
surprise, but in what enduring disquietude could
he have maintained us if he had made no secret
about it! Whoever is struck down in a moment, I
can only pity for a moment. But how if I expect
the blow, how if I see the storm brewing and
threatening for some time about my head or his?
For my part none of the personages need know each
other if only the spectator knows them all. (377)
Furthermore, he considers "the subject which requires such
secrecy is a thankless subject, that the plot in which we
have to take recourse to it is not as good as that in which
we could have done without it" (378) . The effect of short
surprise, to Lessing, is nothing more than minor artistic
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gimmicks. He then goes on to maintain that the source of the
most violent emotions for the spectator/reader is derived
from his intimate knowledge about the dramatis personae.
Here, he takes the monologue as an example for the effective
dramatic device in achieving such a purpose,
Why have certain monologues such a great effect?
Because they acquaint me with the secret
intentions of the speaker and this confidence at
once fills me with hope or fear. If the condition
of the personages is unknown, the spectator cannot
interest himself more vividly in the action than
the personages. But the interest would be doubled
for the spectator if light is thrown on the
matter, and he feels that action and speech would
be quite otherwise if the personages knew one
another. (378)
On the whole, Lessing denies such a domain of dramatic
sensitivity incited by uncontrollable factors. With this, he
concludes his critique on the different treatments of Merope
fable by Euripidus, Maffei and Voltaire. He praises for
Euripides' straightforwardness because "he almost always
showed his spectators the goal whither he would lead them"
(379). Besides, he defends for Euripides' employment of
prologue, that is much criticized on account of the alleged
fault for mixing the dramatic and narrative genres together.
Lessing concedes that the Higher Being who appears in the
prologue to address the spectator and acquaint him with not
only what has occurred but with what will occur, is a rather
sensible device for preparing the spectator for their tragic
emotions, pity and fear,
Euripides knew as well as we that his 'Ion' for
instance could stand without the prologue, that
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without this it was a play which sustained the in
terest and uncertainty of the spectator to the clo
se, but he did not care for this uncertainty and
expectation. For if the spectator only learned in
fifth act that Ion was the son of Creusa, then it
is not for them her son, but a stranger, an enemy,
whom she seeks to make away with in the third act;
then it is not for them the mother of Ion on whom
Ion seeks to avenge himself in the fourth act, but
only a murderess. When then should fear and pity
arise? (381)
Every tragedy must have some form of suffering
As mentioned earlier in this chapter, the general
disinterest in the subject of "tragic conflict" in the line
of Aristotelian critical legacy, is explicitly reflected in
Lessing's theoretical preoccupation. The theme of
"suffering" might be the only thematic discussion in
Dramaturgie that comes close to the idea of tragic conflict
or dramatic dissonance. However, whoever wishes to find the
allusion of antithesis - the conflict of two inimical forces
- within this specific area of Lessing's critical inquiry is
doomed to be disappointed. Frankly, his approach to the
subject matter is again nothing more than formalistic. In
the 38th essay, he examines the definition of tragic action
with reference to Aristotle's theory. Among the three
classes of tragic events, he considers suffering most
important for constituting the tragical action,
Aristotle classes the events that can take place
in a tragic action under three main heads: change
of circumstances; cognition; and suffering. What
he means by the two first the names sufficintly
reveal. Under the third he comprehends all that
can occur of a painful and destructive nature to
the acting personages; death, wounds, martyrdom
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and so forth. Change of circumstances and
cognition are ...no essential part of the fable,
they only make action more varied and hence more
interesting and beautiful, but an action can have
its full unity, completion and greatness without
them. But without the third we can conceive of no
tragical action; every tragedy must have some form
of suffering, be its fable simple or involved, for
herein lies the actual intention of tragedy, to
awaken fear and pity,... he finds that the best
treatment of suffering in the same sense is when
the persons whom suffering threatens, do not know
each other or only recognize each other at the
moment when this suffering is to become reality
and it is therefore stayed. (337-338)
In accordance with Lessing's interpretation, Aristotle's
definition of suffering infers "all that can occur of a
painful and destructive nature to the acting personages." It
is, however, not clear, what causes such an (painful,
destructive) experience. What becomes crucial in his
sequential discussion is again the assertion of affective
response (the actual intention of tragedy): the entire
weight of his investigative interest here is laid on his
evaluation of various scenarios of "suffering" as dramatic
action. And the agenda is to decide which scenario can best
arouse the reader/audience's compassion. Unmistakenly, in
Aristotle-Lessingian discourse, "suffering" is perceived as
a painful "event/action" {Begebenheit/Heuidlung) rather than
an existentially troubled experience. In accordance with
Lessing, its best treatment is even prescribed in a highly
concrete term: when the persons who are related do not know
each other, or only recognize each other at the moment when
this suffering is to become reality. In short, the lethal
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strife is most emotionally provocative when it occurs
between related persons.
When an enemy kills his enemy neither the attack
nor the execution of the deed awaken other pity
than that common feeling which is connected in
general with pain and destruction. The same is
true of indifferent persons. Consequently
tragical events must occur between friends, a
brother must kill, or wish to kill his brother,
a son his father, a mother a son,.... This may
occur with or without intention or knowledge,
and since the deed must be either consummated
or not, four kinds of events arise which more or
less express the intention of tragedy. (334)
The above prescribed scenarios as his initial attempt to
define the theme of "suffering” in terms of dramaturgical
treatment is further rendered the focus of a conceptual
exploration in the 75th essay, in which the emotion of
"fear" is brought to the fore. By witnessing a "fearful"
dramatic event, the spectator/reader learns a moral lesson,
thereby becomes better enlightened.
..., why tragedy could not and should not excite in
us compassion and admiration as well as compassion
and fear?
All this depends on the conception Aristotle had of
compassion. It was his opinion that the misfortune
that becomes the object of our compassion must
necessarily be of such a nature that we can fear it
might happen as well to us or ours. Where this fear
is not present compassion does not arise.... (408)
Clearly, the "fearful" event is defined strictly in terms of
middle-class spectator/reader psychology — what is fearful
should be probable, thereby pitiable. The (virtual) stage
thus becomes a mirror, from which we see the image of
ourselves go through suffering and misfortune, just like the
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tragic figure on the stage. It is noteworthy that here a
different term "misfortune" (das Ungliick) is introduced. As
compared to "suffering," misfortune suggests even stronger
situational manifestation. In other words, the thematic
focus of the discussion on the dramatic dissonance is still
more about "situation" than "cause." It never reaches the
level of abstraction elaborated in Schiller and Hegel's
critical writings on tragic conflict.Further, in the
same essay, Lessing fleetly touches upon the issue of
"justice" by accentuating on the "deservedness" of the
tragic figure's misfortune.
All that, he [Aristotle] says, is fearful to us,
which if it had happened to another, or were to
happen to him, would excite our pity; and we find
all that worthy of our compassion, which we should
fear if it were threatening us. It would not
therefore be enough that the unfortunate person
who excites our compassion does not deserve his
misfortune; he may have drawn them down upon
himself by his own weakness, his tortured
innocence or rather his too severely punished
guilt would lose their effect upon us, would be
incapable of awakening our pity if we saw no
possibility that his sufferings might ever befall
us. (408-409)
In this passage, two points are crucial: firstly, a tragic
figure is not a guiltless victim. His/her misfortune must be
self-induced. Secondly, the self-induced misfortune should
result from human mistakes; in other words, it could happen
to any average person. Therefore these two supposition lead
23
For a detailed study on Schiller and Hegel's theories on tragic
conflict, see Gellrich, Tragic Conflict: Studies of A Dramatic Theory.
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86
to a logical conclusion, that is, a guiltless victim is not
a pitiable object (at least not within the context of
domestic tragedy, from which the reader/audience is supposed
to learn a moral lesson). Among the human mistakes that
cause misfortune, Lessing mentions two possible instances:
he may have drawn them down upon himself by his own
weakness, [and] his tortured innocence....'* Again, such an
overly introspective, one-sided pressumption on tragic guilt
suspiciously overlooks the consideration of
conflicting/confrontational situation, in which the external
antithetical factors outside of the unfortunate subject
assumes partial significance.
On the whole, there is a substantial lack of
ontological probing in Lessing's discussion on the issue of
tragic dissonance. Firstly, the expressions, such as,
"suffering" and "misfortune" are signifiers that denote
nothing more than formalistic, didactic and, most of all,
response-inviting rhetorics: through the negative examples
of the tragic figure's suffering/misfortune, the audience
should learn a moral lesson. Further, on account of the
accentuation of an identified “I" (between the suffering
tragic figure and the audience), the reason for the tragic
consequences - suffering, misfortune - is primarily
personal, introspective other than confrontational. However,
curiously enough, the self-inflicted, introspective human
mistakes - one's own "weakness" and “tortured innocence” -
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87
are far from being clear as for what they really entail.
II. A different inspiration: the enigma of Shakespeare
Based on our preceding observation, Lessing's theory of
the aesthetics of dramatic art, that favors probability,
chain of cause-and-effect, thereby defies unpredictable
factors, such as chance, surprise, is entirely opposite from
the aesthetics of Shakespeare.^* Within our current
context, what seems intriguing, however, is Lessing's highly
claimed admiration for Shakespeare — he considers the
latter a much more faithful observer of Aristotle's rule
than Corneille.25 As Robertson puts it, "This was the first
time that a classically minded critic pinning his faith to
Aristotle - no irresponsible rebel or unbalanced enthusiast
- had broken a lance for Shakespeare; Lessing's defence of
the English poet penetrated to circles that had hitherto
only seen him with Voltairean eyes."2® Robertson's
observation foregrounds a very crucial point: Lessing's
24
"Chaos theory, with its stress on butterfly effects which have
nothing to do with individual morality, but everything to do with the
subsequent course of events, has affinities with the drama as well as
with real life where a chance encounter, an accidental convergence, the
state of the weather at a given time, can irrevocably (as it were
deterministically) alter what happens next." Hawkins, Strange
Attractors: literature, culture and chaos theory, 145. That Hawkins
applies the theory of chaos to the reading on Shakespeare drama is quite
instructive, for it points to the fact that mysterious chaotic factors,
either in the form of characterization or plot, cause vital, sudden
transmutation of dramatic situation, whereby the direction of the
ensuing development is unpredictable.
25
Selected Prose Works of G. B. Lessing, 433.
26
Robertson, Lessing's Dramatic Theory, 245.
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68
siding with Shakespeare is rather unusual, since the two do
not share a common line of aesthetic outlook. As a matter
of fact, when examined closer, Lessing's discussion on
Shakespeare is not at all systematic and thorough. Most of
the time, his sporadic, fleeting remarks on the English
dramatist's prodigy, unlike his other critical discussion,
seems to be more of instinctual, impressional exclamation
than logical, reasoned observation. In the I7th letter of
the Literaturbriefe, he states.
If some significant changes would be made to our
German translation of Shakespeare's master works,
I know for sure that it would have better result
than what has been so well-knownly accomplished
with the translation of Corneille and Racine....
Also in accordance with the rule of Antiquity,
Shakespeare is a far greater tragic poet than
Corneille; although the ancient rule is familiar
to the latter, not to the former. Corneille
approaches it from the mechanical perspective,
whereas Shakespeare comes closer to its essence.
The English man almost always reaches the
objective of the tragedy, while remaining uniquely
himself. Despite of the fact that the French man
follows the path of the Antij^ity, he almost never
reaches the aim of tragedy.^
If Lessing finds Shakespeare worthy of a status superior to
Corneille, it is because he finds it possible to fit him
27
"Wenn man die Meisterstiicke des Shakespeare, mit einigen bescheidenen
Verënderungen, unsern Deutschen Obersetzt hâtte, ich weiss gewiss, es
würde von bessern Folgen gewesen seyn, als dass man sis mit dem
Corneille und Racine so bekannt gemacht hat.... Auch nach den Mustern
der Alten die Sache zu entscheiden, Shakespear ein wait grosserer
tragischer Dichter als Corneille; obgleich dieser die Alten sehr wohl,
und jener fast gar nicht gekannt hat. Corneille kommt ihnen in der
mechanischen Einrichtung, und Shakespear in dem Wesentlichen naher. Der
Engl&nder erreicht den Zweck der Tragëdie fast immer, so sonderbare und
ihm eigene Wege er auch w&hlet ; und der Franzose erreicht ihn fast
niemals, ob er gleich die gebahnten Wege der Alten betritt." Gotthold
Ephraim Lessing, Oesammelte Werke, vol. IV, (Berlin: Aufbau Verlag,
1955), 137-138. The English translation of this passage is mine.
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89
into Aristotle's concept of tragedy. As the above statement
indicates, Lessing recognizes that the greatness of
Shakespeare lies in something other than clever technicality
and mechanical allure and something that almost always (fast
immer) reaches the goal of tragedy. In other words,
Shakespeare comes closer to "the essence" of the tragedy.
However, Lessing does not provide any lucid explanation,
within this context, as for what "the essence" actually
entails and how Shakespeare achieves such a success. In his
essay "Lessing und Shakespeare," 6. Kettner suggests that
the great values of Shakespeare for Lessing were his realism
- producing a complete illusion in the spectator - and his
power of "moving" us, of fulfilling the sole end of tragedy,
which is to arouse compassion ( M i t l e i d ) However, in
principle, Shakespeare is not comprehended in concrete terms
according to Lessing's often rather dubious statement. In
the 69th essay of Dramaturgie, he quotes a long passage from
Wieland's Agathon in defense of the mixture of the comic and
the tragic in Shakespeare. Without adding his own comment,
Lessing repeats Wieland's view word by word,
Shakespeare, of all poets since Homer the one who
has known men best, who has looked them through
and through with a kind of marvelous intuition,
from king to the beggar, from Julius Caesar to
Jack Falstaff, Shakespeare has been blamed that
his plays have a very faulty, irregular or badly
devised plot; that comic and tragic are together
28
G. Kettner, "Lessing und Shakespeare” in Neue Jahvbiicher fiir
klasaiachm Altertum, Geachichte und deutache Literatur und fiir
P&dagogik, xlx (1907), 289.
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90
in the strangest manner; ... people blame this and
do not consider that just on this account his
plays are such natural representations of human
life. (396)
In the 81st essay, Shakespeare is ranked with the ancients
against the French dramatists: "only their Corneille and
Racine, their Crebillon and Voltaire have little or nothing
of that which makes Sophokles Sophokles, Euripides
Euripiedes, Shakespeare Shakespeare. These latter are rarely
in opposition to Aristotle's essential demands, the former
are so constantly" (433). Further, in a comment on Euripides
in the Philologischer Nachlass Lessing tfrites.
People criticize much about Shakespeare's mistakes.
They just name one of those to me to prove their
point. Nonetheless, I always can venture a reason
for Shakespeare's mistake. He makes the mistake in
order to further a main point, and also to more
vivaciously move the audience
Here his elucidation is somewhat less obscure. He recognizes
that the "rules" so faithfully observed by the Neo-
classicist can not be applied to Shakespeare. Whatever
"mistakes" are committed, Shakespeare is pardoned for his
genuine capability to ebulliently move the spectator.
Another more in-depth discussion in deviated conjunction to
Shakespeare could be found in his 73rd essay, in which he
comments on Weiss's Richard III. At first he mentions that
29
"Man sagt so viel von den Fehlern des Shakespeare. Man nenne mir nur
Einem der diesem das Gewlcht halte. Von Shakespeares Fehler getraue ich
mir fast immer einen Grund angeben zukonnen. Er begeht sie, urn die
Hauptsache zu befdrdern, und die Zuschauer desto lebhafter zu rUhren"
Lessing, ahrlften, vol. XV, 428. The translation of this passage is
mine.
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Weiss had not been aware of Shakespeare's play until his
work of the same title was completed. Then he proceeds to
assert that Shakespeare in fact can not be plagiarized.
What has been said of Homer, that it would be
easier to deprive Hercules of his club, than
him of a verse, can as truly said of
Shadcespeare .... Shaücespeare must be studied,
not plundered. If we have genius, Shakespeare
must be to us what the camera obscura is to the
landscape-painter. He must look into it
diligently to learn how nature reflects herself
upon a flat surface, but he must not borrow from
it. (401)
The metaphor he employs to depict Shakespeare's genius is
rather peculiar. Shakespeare's artistic mastery is perceived
as the camera obscura, that can miraculously make the image
of the nature reflect itself authentically upon a flat
surface, whereas the average poets with mere mediocre
talent, like the landscape-painters possessing nothing but
human, ordinary faculty, can only witness the marvel of the
photographic re-presentation of the nature without being
able to imitate it.
In the ensuing essays, Lessing continues his criticism
of Weiss's Richcurd III by focusing his discussion on the
nature of tragedy. Shakespeare, curiously, is not mentioned
as a direct reference this time. In his explication, Lessing
points out a problematic aspect of Weiss's drama: the
characterization of Richard III,
It is notably Richard's character about which I
should like to have the poet's explanation.
Aristotle would have rejected it unconditionally.
Now as far as Aristotle's authority is concerned
I could as easily set aside his reasons. Aristotle
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assumes that a tragedy must evoke our terror and
pity and from this he infers that the hero must be
neither a wholly virtuous nor a wholly vicious
man, for by the ill-fortunes of neither can this
aim be attained. If I grant this definition,
'Richard III* is a tragedy that has missed its
aim. If I do not grant it, then I no longer know
what a tragedy is. (403)
It goes without saying that, to Lessing, the most pressing
issue here is again the concern of affective response.At
issue is the fact that a wholly vicious character does not
accord with Aristotle's rule for a tragic hero. In other
words, the diabolical Richard III might arouse the emotion,
terror, but not fear. Based on such a consideration,
Lessing thus regards Richard III a tragedy that has missed
its aim.
It is interesting to note that, in his usual
argumentât ive fashion, he criticizes Weiss's play candidly
and strictly according to his assumption of affective
response. Given that he is aware of the fact that
In the 74th and 75th essays, Lessing states that the emotion "terror"
is only the modification (Modifikation) of pity. "Aristotle would not
say pity and fear, if under fear he understood nothing more than a mere
modification of compassion (405). "It is the fear which arises for
ourselves from the similarity of our calamities pending over the
sufferers might also befall ourselves.... In a word this fear is
compassion referred back to ourselves" (407). It is also crucial to note
that Lessing considers our passion resulting from a rather self-
reflective motivation: "..., would be incapable of awakening our pity if
we saw no possibility that his suffering might ever befall us" (409).
"Host certainly he awakens our terror, if we understand by terror,
amazement at such inconceivable crimes, horror of such wickedness as
surpasses our comprehension, if we are to understand by it the shudder
that seizes us at the sight of terrible deeds that are executed with
glee. Of this terror I experienced my fair share at the performance of
'Richard III'" Dramaturgie, St. LXXV, in The Selected Prose Work of O.
E. Lessing, 403.
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93
Shakespeare also wrote a drama with the same title and
assumingly identical characters and plot treatments, his
avoidance in drawing direct reference to Shakespeare while
expressing disagreement with Weiss's treatment of the
character, Richard III, seems to be rather peculiar. The
reason could be two fold: it could suggest that he is
unwilling to be critical of a genius he has high opinion of,
or, he simply places Shakespeare in an entirely isolated
category, to which the common rule can not be applied.
Certainly, to him, Shakespeare's art speaks for a true
universal rule, however, assumingly to his awareness, this
rule does not quite fit into the familiar framework of his
rationalist outlook. The point is, if he insists on
analyzing Shakespeare strictly in accordance with
Aristotelian law, he would not be able to come to a
satisfactory conclusion. However, with an exception of the
unconventional subjects such as, ugly, pathos, the
repulsive^z and the supernatural^^ does Lessing's reference
to Shakespeare show certain lucidity and fluency.
Such a poet is Shakespeare and Shakespeare only
and alone. His ghost in 'Hamlet' makes our hairs
stand on end, whether they cover a believing or
an unbelieving brain... Shakespeare's ghost
appears really to come from another world. For it
comes at the solemn hour, in the dread stillness
of night, accompanied by all the gloomy.
32
In LaocoSn, XXIII, Shakespeare is quoted to illustrate Lessing's
views on the aesthetic use of the ugly and the repulsive in literary
creation (Poesle). See Sëmtliche Schriften, vol. XI, 141.
Dramaturgie, St. XI, XII, from Selected Prose Work, 259-264.
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94
mysterious accessories wherewith we have been
told by our nurses that ghosts appear. Now
Voltaire ' s ghost is not even fit for a bugbear
wherewith to frighten children. It is only a
disguised actor, who has nothing, says nothing,
does nothing that makes it probable that he is
that which he pretends to be. All the
circumstances moreover, under which he appears,
disturb the illusion and betray and creation of a
cold poet who would like to deceive and terrify
us without knowing how to set about it....
Shakespeare let only Hamlet see the ghost, and
in the scene where his mother is present, she
neither sees nor hears it. All our attention is
therefore fixed on him, and the more evidences of
terror and horror we discover in this
fear-stricken soul, the more ready are we to hold
the apparition that has awakened such agitation as
that for which he holds its. The spectre operates
on us, but through him rather than by itself. The
impression it makes on him passes on to us, and
the effect is too vivid and apparent for us to
doubt its supernatural cause. (261-263)
In the next essay (12th) Lessing continues to elaborate on
the superiority of Shakespeare's poetic insight in
conjunction with the theme of "ghost":
Shakespeare's ghost, on the contrary, is a real
active personage, in whose fate we take an
interest, who excites not only our fear but our
pity.... Voltaire looked upon the reappearance
of a dead man as a miracle [my emphasis];
Shakespeare as quite a natural occurrence [my
emphasis].... Shakespeare thought the more
poetically. (263)
A similar penetrating appreciation of Shakespeare in detail
can also be found in Laocoôn, where he discusses the
aesthetics of the ugly and repulsive. Otherwise, on the
whole, most of the references to Shakespeare, as we have
noticed, are rather general or obscure.
If we induce the above commentaries made by Lessing
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95
from various contexts, we could notice certain consistency
in his opinion of Shakespeare: he is a genius 1) who
recognizes "the essence" of art, which runs contrary to the
French obsession with mechanical, technical glamour, whereby
the spectator is genuinely moved; 2) who possesses marvelous
"intuition" that gives natural representation of human life;
3) who possesses impeccable photographic vision, in which
the nature's image is authentically reflected; 4) who is
able to create satisfactory theatrical illusion, that seems
probable to the spectator. All the above attributes in fact
corresponds to Lessing's pleasure principle for the tragic
stage, that is, "to awaken pity".^*
If pleasure principle, in which the affective factors
assumes the primacy, is what virtually relates him to
Shakespeare, moral precept should be the unovercomable gap
standing between the two. What we learn from his reference
to Shakespeare is the confirmation of a non-rationalist side
of his creative mind. This uncongenial element at times
appears in the disguise of affective necessity and more
often is adamantly monitored by ethical assumption; in any
case, it has no legitimate autonomy of its own in Lessing's
intellectual enterprise. Intriguingly, such an intellectual
idiosyncracy translates itself into a highly enigmatic
drama, Emilia Galotti, a curious composite of two
34
See the section "The whole business of tragedy is to purify passion
by passion" in this chapter for detailed discussion.
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96
contradictory forces. What interests me is how the readers
response to the tragedy in question by critiquing,
evaluating, reinforcing and questioning the theoretical
presumption underlining it and, at the same time, helps to
define it.
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Chapter Thraa
Drama: the Realm of Personal Revelation
and Interpersonal Interaction
— the Writerly Text and the Textual
Ambiguity Engendered by Its
Compositional Tactics —
X. ffhat is (absoluts) Drama? — Tbs historical configuration
What Peter Szondi coins as "(absolute) Drama" infers
the dramatic discourse that begins at Renaissance. After its
exclusion of prologue, chorus and epilogue, it distinguishes
itself from antique tragedy, medieval clerical plays,
baroque world theater, and from Shakespeare's drama.
", dialogue became, perhaps for the first time in the history
of the theater (excluding the monologue, which remained
occasional and therefore did not constitute the form of the
Drama), the sole constitutive element in the dramatic
web.The term, "(absolute) Drama", actually refers to
what is commonly known as neoclassical drama. In accordance
with Szondi's thesis, the neoclassical drama is to be
characterized according to the following attributes: 1) the
Drama reaches the realm of interpersonal relation — the
sphere of the "between" is the main concern; 2) the internal
time is present, in other words, time unfolds itself in an
absolute, linear sequence in the present; 3) the absolute
^ Peter Szondi, Theory of the Modern Drama, 8.
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98
dominance of dialogue in the interpersonal communication; 4)
the author is excluded from the Drama; he has no part of
what happens in it; 5) the theater goer is an observer,
whereby he has no part of the dramatic representation; 6)
the Drama is primary without quoting anything else; 7) it
possesses none of the epics qualities, such as narrative
point of view or multiple story lines; 8) it insists on
motivation and excludes accidence.
Szondi's thesis is based on the presumption that the
drama of modernity emerging in Renaissance abandons the long
dominant religious motif and returns to the theme of
humanistic concern: "It was the result of a bold
intellectual effort made by a newly self-conscious being
who, after the collapse of the medieval world view, sought
to create an artistic reality within which he could fix and
mirror himself on the basis of interpersonal relationships
alone. In the introduction of his Theory of the Modern
Drama, he stresses the significance of correlation between
literary form and content. The dramatic art, as he asserts,
embodies a preexisting form "through its union with a
subject matter chosen with this form in mind" (3). Thus, the
subject matter of (absolute) drama should illustrate the
mode of interpersonal communication; it should not be
associated with the complexity of historical/epic account.
^ Ibid., 7.
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99
The above observation points to the fact that the
restriction of unfolding "most compound" of actions
constitute the contra-epic nature of this particular
dramatic mode. Therefore, to examine the content/subject
matter of the drama is to examine its form, or vice versa.
II, The subject matterz personal revelation and
interpersonal interaction
Based on Szondi*s thesis, the emphasis of the proper
subject matter for the neoclassical dramatic discourse
serves quite appropriately as the point of departure for my
study of the writerly text, Emilia Galotti, in this chapter.
What seems to be both instructive and problematic is, first
of all, its accentuation on interpersonal motif alone. At
issue is that even though Szondi asserts that, in (absolute)
drama, the image and meaning of the individual existence is
defined based on the interpersonal relationships alone, one
crucial factor about "the" individual in neo-classical
tragedy still waits to be clarified. Given that in neo
classical tragedy, the individual is not "any" individual,
rather an assigned, identified object, in other words, there
is a pre-defined, collective significance in "the"
individual before he/she is thrown into an interpersonal
web, we need to first explore such a "pre-defined,"
"collective" relevance.
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Suffering - the direct access to tragic emotion
Speaücing of the mot if/subject matter of drama both on
the levels of personal revelation and interpersonal
interaction, it is crucial for us to inquire what are the
thematic motifs, that are essential to Lessing for the
literary representation in his study of human existence. In
Laocoôn, Lessing's most important work on the comparative
study of visual art (die Malerei) and poetics (die Poeie),
the sculpture of the group of Laocoôn dated approximately 50
B. C., is rendered as an example of the artistic expression
to be compared to the literary treatment of the same
mythological theme. It is noteworthy that he starts out in
the first chapter by bringing up the significance of the
difference in the expressions of "suffering" (das Leid or
Pathetische des Schmerzes) between literary and (visual)
artistic depictions. "The poet's meaning goes deeper: he
wants to tell us that only the civilized Greek can weep and
yet be brave at the same time, while the uncivilized Trojan,
to be brave, must first stifle all human feeling.While
in the realm of ancient Greek art, beauty represents the
absolute truth, its literary counterpart was not constrained
by the same "high" standard.
There is even a Laocoôn among the lost plays of
Sophocles. If only fate had saved this one for
us!... But of this much I am certain: he
Lessing, Laocoôn: An Eaaay on the Limit of Painting and Poetry, trans
Edward Allen McCormick (Baltimore f i London: Johns Hopkins University
Press), 10.
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101
[Sophocles] did not portray Laocoôn as more
stoical than Philoctetes and Hercules. Stoicism
is not dramatic, and our sympathy is in direct
proportion to the suffering of the object of our
interest" (Laocoôn, 11)
It seems to me there is no coincidence that throughout the
entire discussion in Laocoôn, Lessing persistently explores
the motif of suffering and the aesthetic expression of
ugliness (das HaBliche) and the horrible (das Gra&liche) in
both disciplines, since such a thematic orientation is also
reflected in his Hamburgische Dramaturgie, most notably, in
his discussion on the essense of tragedy. In Laocoôn, the
motif of suffering is spoken solely in the matter of formal
expression of physical lamentation. It is no surprise that
its explicit accentuation on the formalistic question and
its lack of conceptual depth in regards to the philosophical
meaning of suffering is rather in tune with Dramaturgie* .
However, his distinguished consistency in foregrounding the
theme of suffering/pathos in both critical works deserves
our attention. As suggested in the thirty-eighth essay of
Hamburgische Dramaturgie: every tragedy must have some
form of suffering, ... for herein lies the actual intention
of tragedy, to awaken fear and pity, ...." In Laocoôn, he
also states: "But pity, ... is the sole aim of the tragic
4
Laocoôn was written in the period while Lessing stays in Breslau and
it is published in 1766. The first essay of Hamburgxache Dramaturgie was
issued in May 1767 and the complete edition was not published until
Easter 1769. For the brief introduction of the background, see Laocoôn,
xi-xxi and Selected Prose Works of Leasing, 227.
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102
stage, ..." (29). Suffering, inferred as a generic idiom, is
the essential of tragedy - to achieve the sole aim of the
tragic stage, the depiction of suffering is indispensable.
As mentioned in the previous chapter, suffering, in
accordance with Lessing's explication, seems to be
synonymous to misfortune, since these two terms are both
employed to infer the object of the reader/audience's
compassion. However, there is still subtle differentiation
suggested in the way Lessing prefers one to another for
different significations: suffering is utilized when
inferred virtually as the tragic figure's subjective state
of being, whereas misfortune is mostly applied to signify
the unfortunate situation, in which the tragic figure finds
him/herself.^ Such a supposition further gains its clarity
when the correlative assumption of personal and
interpersonal motifs is to be brought in: assumingly, the
personal motif in Lessing's domestic tragedy is manifested
by the tragic figure's suffering, while the misfortune is
brought upon to the individual as extraversial or
interpersonal impact. Evidently, there are two levels of
complexity involved when it comes to the tragic essential:
personal and interpersonal.
See page 82-87, for the discussion on suffering and misfortune. In
this section, the sources of evidence from 37th, 38th and 75th essays
are compared in terms of how they are defined according to dramaturgical
treatment for the purpose of arousing the reader/audience's compassion.
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III. Tbo communicative structure in writerly text
In accordance with our discussion on Iser's theory of
the aesthetic response in the first chapter, the
communicatory structure of the literary text such as blanks
and gaps in the writerly text, based on the functionalist
model, is engendered largely by the author's strategy.
Iser's own selection of literary texts as the writerly
models in The Implied Reader supports and reinforces such a
view: the spots of the blanks/gaps often are the author's
deliberate design for guiding the readers to make their own
judgement and connection. In her article "Is There Anything
Left To Read For Iser's Reader?"* Dagmar Barnouw argues
that the reader disappears in the process of reading on
account of the alleged textual guidance. Robert Holub also
asserts: "Even his implied reader is ultimately an immanent
construct. What we wind up with is, on the one hand, a model
premised on textual qualities like gaps and vacancies and,
on the other hand, the response of a reader who, since Iser
shuns the historical reader, is the product of an abstracted
performance.”^ It does not strike us as a surprise that the
above two critics both focus their critiques on the problem
of textual preeminence in the so-called interactive process
Dagmar Barnouw, "Is There Anything Left To Read For Iser's Reader?" in
Literary Coamunicatlon And Recaption, eds. Zoran Konstantinovic, Manfred
Neumann, Hans Robert Jauss (Innsbruck: University Innsbruck, 1979), 45-
50.
^ H o lu b , Reception theory: A Critical Introduction, 9 9 .
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104
of reading in Iser's theory, since Iser's writerly text, as
contended, is a "designed" construct. Nevertheless, as
mentioned before in the first chapter, according to Iser, in
addition to designed textual prestructure, there are also
other factors that set off the communicative act between the
readers and writerly text, such as, the reader ly nature of
consistency building, the indeterminacy of the writerly
text, etc. What I would like to investigate in the following
section is to tone down the Iserian presupposition of
designed textual prestructure through exploring the problem
of "unintentional" writerly ambiguity engendered by the
textual indeterminacy — I will argue that, in spite of the
constraint of textual prestructure, there is in fact a great
amount of space for the readers to develop their imagination
and interact with the type of writerly text, like Emilia
Galotti, due to its inherent ambiguity, which is by nature
very different from deliberate textual strategy designed to
guide, shape and influence readerly response.
Ambiguity instead of deliberate strategy and design
Based on Iser's reference to Ingarden, the
communicatory structure of the literary text is first
induced from the very concept of textual indeterminacy : the
textual qualities, such as blanks and gaps are designated to
concretize and locate the spots of the indeterminable.
However, within Iser's theoretical enterprise, these textual
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105
qualities, prestructured through authorial deliberation,
lose their neutrality. As a result, the indeterminacy is
determinated as part of authorial strategy. In order for us
to return to the less arbitrary, controversial surmise (the
non-intentional indeterminacy), and in the mean time,
foreground the idiosyncracy of our writerly text, a shift of
emphasis from authorial design to ambiguity will be a
necessary strategy. The ambiguity here denotes an
inadvertent, almost accidental quality. In fact such a
supposition points to the fact that the distinguishedly
communicatory capacity of the text in question is engendered
not by the prestructured authorial strategy, rather
substantially by the very uncertainty/flaw of the authorial
tactic.
It is noteworthy that in the letter of Jan. 25, 1772,
to his publisher, Christian Friedrich Vofi, Lessing expresses
pessimism and increasing discontent the closer he comes to
the completion of Emilia Galotti.^ This subtle evidence
insinuates that Lessing, at some point, feels unsure about
his near-finishing work. In spite of the fact that it is not
entirely clear whether Lessing is perfectly satisfied with
the completed version, some documentation of his literary
o
In a letter to Christian Friedrich Vofi in Jan. 25, 1772, Lessing
states: "Die erste Hülfte meiner neuen Tragôdie werden Sie nun wohl in
HSnden haben. Ich habe Ihnen eine neue Tragôdie versprochen; aber wie
gut Oder wie schlecht - davon habe ich nichts gesagt. Je naher ich gegen
das Ends komme, je unzufriedner bin ich selbst damit. Und vielleicht
gef&llt Ihnnen auch schon der Angang nicht." Lessing, OeaammeltB Werke,
IX, (Berlin: Aufbau Verlag, 1957), 489.
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106
correspondence suggest that he is open to criticism, that is
inspiring and receptive to the finished play's minor
"flaws."* As mentioned earlier in the second chapter that
if we go by his theory, Lessing's drama, the tragedy in
particular, is to be endowed with response-inviting intent:
the fact that the reader/audience is supposed to be led on
to emotionally respond to the tragedy, thereby come to terms
with him/herself morally/rationally suggests a stark Iserian
"prestructure." What I intend to accomplish in the following
discussion, however, is to investigate the immanent
"response-inviting" structure within his middle-class
tragedy, Emilia Galotti, from a different angel — a shift
of emphasis from authorial design to unintentional
ambiguity. Given that there is very little literary evidence
from Lessing himself can be employed to track down his
9
In February, 1772, Lessing completed Emilia Galotti, on which he had
worked sporadically since 1757. In his letter of March 15, 1772 to Eva
konig, he mentioned that, due to ill health, he was absent from the
play's first production: "Es [Emilia Galotti] ist am 13ten dieses
vorgestern, als an dem Geburtstage der regierenden Herzogin, in
Braunschweig aufgefiihrt worden. Ich bin aber nicht bei der Auffiihrung
gewesen; denn ich habe seit acht Tagen so rasende Zahnechmerzen, dafi ich
mich bei der eingefallenen strengen Kalte nicht heriiber getraut habe."
{Gesanmelte Werke, 505). His rather insecure feeling toward the play is
further suggested in the way he changed his opinion about the impact of
critic's review on improving his work. In a letter of April 21, 1772, to
Karl Wilhelm Ramier, at first he professed: "Kritik, will ich Ihnen nur
vertrauen, ist das einzige Mittel mich zu mehrerem aufzufrischen, oder
vielmehr aufzuhetzen. " Then, as he continued, he contended that he would
not consider the revision of any dramatic work necessary if it already
attained a certain degree of perfection: "Denn da ich die Kritik nicht
zu dem kritizierten Stiicke anzuwenden im Stande bin; da ich zum
Verbessern Uberhaupt ganz verdorben bin und das Verbessern eienes
dramatischen StUcks insbesondere fast fur unmëglich halte, wenn es
einmal zu einem gewissen Grade der Vollendung gebracht ist, und die
Verbesserung mehr als Kleinigkeiten betreffen soil: so nutze ich die
Kritik zuverl&ssig zu etwas Neuero." (Geaammalte Werke, 516).
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107
composi'tional tactics, my best choice is to stay close to
the text itself. The above literary evidences that convey
Lessing's own ambiguous feeling toward the tragedy in
question at the different stages of his writing mainly serve
as instructive references to support my initial assumption.
In addition to the close study of the dramatic text
itself, Livy's account will also be persistently utilized as
a primary source so that Lessing's compositional tactics
could be possibly paraphrased, reconstructed. My presumption
throughout will be that Emilia Galotti, a dramatized version
of Livy's narrative account, has to be composed in
accordance with the logic of literary adaptation. The
modification of the story's literary genre inevitably
results in necessary adjustment in its form and content. My
initial inc[uiry on the textual ambiguity is, therefore,
based on our writerly text's problematic nature as a
literary adaptation. As Szondi keenly asserts: "The
assumption was that a preexisting form was embodied in
dramatic art through its union with a subject matter chosen
with this form in mind. If the preexistent form was not
adequately realized, ... the error was attributed to the
selection of subject matter" {Theory of the Modern Drama,
3).
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1. subject matter:
What Lessing truly sees in the ancient story as the
appropriate subject matter for his middle-class tragedy
after Miss Sara Sampson is not at all clear. In his letter
of March I, 1772, to his brother Karl, Lessing writes that
the play is a "modernized Virginia, freed from everything of
interest to the state.Further, as we have observed in
the first chapter, Lessing asserts in Dramaturgie that
gallantry and politics are not proper subjects for tragedy
because they always leave us cold: ", and as yet no poet in
the world has succeeded in combining with them [gallantry
and politics] the excitation of pity and fear" (428).
However, Lessing's claim in depriving his own domestic
tragedy of political relevance does not necessarily
guarantee him the wishful result, since the original theme
of class barrier, which causes the unresolvable enmity
between two groups of characters (ruler versus plebeian and
slave) in the story of Virginia, remains intact in his drama
(aristocrat versus bourgeois). Intriguingly, this seemingly
minor ambiguity in regards to author's choice on thematic
emphasis could potentially obfuscate textual signification.
In order to illustrate this point, a brief account of the
legend, Virginia, and its comparison to Emilia Galotti shall
"...Du siehst %fohl, daB es welter nichts, als eine modernisierte, von
allem Staatsinteresse befreiete 'Virginia' sein soli." Oesammelte Werke,
IX, 502.
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109
be introduced here. As observed, Livy's account is based
largely on an old Roman custom and legal tradition: being
socially oppressed and passively engrossed in a fatal
conflict with the tyrant, the utterly helpless Roman slave
has no other choice than to seek death. Virginia, the
daughter of a centurion, Virginius, was to marry Icilius. In
the mean time, she was also desired by Appius, the hated
ruler of Decemvir in Rome. In order to possess Virginia,
Appius accepted his aide's scheme to gain her as his slave.
The intrigue was conducted with perfect legal procedure so
that, in her father's absence on a national service away
from home, Virginia could be brought to Appius's tribunal
for the legal investigation of her social status — was she
a slave or a commoner by birth? The focus of the succeeding
account lay in the drama of Icilius's defiance against
Appius and his tribunal. The former challenged the ruler and
his court to allow the presence of the father in the court
to defend his own right for his daughter. Although the wish
was granted and the legal proceeding of this case was
temporarily in recess until Virginius's arrival at the
court, the ensuing situation did not change for the benefit
of the defendants — upon the return of the father, Appius
and his accomplice, indifferent to the protest and
increasing detest from the agitated crowd, still managed to
present indisputable evidence to their advantage, thereby
declared that Virginia was a slave. At the moment of extreme
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110
anguish, the father in a composed posture asked to be alone
with the daughter before she was to be taken to where she
allegedly belong. So they walked together to the shops by
the shrine. While at the butcher's, he snatched a knife, and
said to her: "There is only one way, my child, to make you
free," thereafter stabs her to the heart.After Virginia
died, Virginius and Icilius continue to fight the tyrant and
in the end the corrupted power is overthrown, whereby the
justice is served.
The above summary of the ancient legend, as compared to
Lessing's dramatized version, conveys a number of
distinctions: firstly, throughout the entire account, there
is no direct portrayal of the alleged victim, Virginia. She
is merely treated as a controversial focal point and yet her
supposed subjective will and emotion is nullified in the
roar of patriarchal dispute. Secondly, the gist of the
narrative account lies in the genesis and the development of
the trial, and most important of all, its consequential
political impact — the overthrow of decemvir's power. In
other words, the story bears explicit political overtone.
Thirdly, the motif of the account is not expressed in
personal or interpersonal terms, since there is no in-depth
delineation of interaction between father and daughter;
between lovers; between seducer and the desired object.
Livy, The Early History of Rome, trans. Aubrey de Sel incourt
(Baltimore: Penguin books, 1960), 215-222.
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Ill
Further, the epic attributes of the narrative account
extends its narrative time to more than one day and it also
switches its localities freely. The above comparison of the
two literary treatments inevitably raises the ensuing
question: How did Lessing adapt the story so as to achieve
his aim? And precisely, what is his aim?
Apparently, in Lessing's dramatized version of the
ancient tale, the panoramic sense of narrative distance is
zoomed into a sequential of interpersonal close-ups ; the
tightly linked dramatic tableaus conveys a rather private
realm of (inter)personal contact; the dramatic personae,
completely tuning out from the interference of the big crowd
and public scrutiny, are caged indoors in secluded spaces
engaging in impassioned argument, cunning scheming and
solitary confession — what is presented to us is a rather
high-strung, breathless battle and no-way-out calamity,
whereas Livy's story, after the death of Virginia, still
goes on. My observation suggests that the subject matter of
Lessing's dramatized version is deliberately tailored to be
suitable for the (absolute) dramatic mold. That is to say,
in accordance with the preceding presumption that literary
form and content are correlative, the change of formal
expression will result in the necessary modification of the
subject matter itself. Further, as Lessing himself claims
that politics is not a proper subject for drama, the
original emphasis of the courtroom episode is entirely
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112
eliminated and the drama ends shortly after Emilia is
stabbed to death. What follows is not explicitly suggested
in the play and assumingly is not meant to be a major
concern, either.
On the whole, as observed, Lessing indeed changes quite
a few things to downplay the original story's political
factor, thereby render it to be fitting for the dramatic
mode. However, a fundamental issue remains problematic with
regards to the selection and treatment of its subject
matter: is a subject matter tailored for dramatic discourse
necessarily a suitable material for a (middle-class)
tragedy? My question, in fact, infers that a satisfactory
dramatization of a narrative account, in this case, rec[uires
complex modification on at least two levels: the dramatic
and the tragic.
As the earlier recapitulation of Livy's account shows,
Virginia's death is a political consequence and decision,
whereas, Emilia's death, in accordance with Lessing's
intent, should be a (inter)personal, ethical resolution. At
issue is whether a tragic catastrophe immediately caused by
court intrigue, further complicated by (inter)personal,
ethical resolution, can consummate satisfyingly and
convincingly without addressing its inherent political
implication just because the playwright considers it
irrelevant/inappropriate? My presumption maintains that, the
ambiguity of our writerly text primarily results from its
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113
involuntary swing between public (political) and private
(personal and interpersonal) thematic emphases, whereby it
affects the lucidity of the overall dramaturgical treatment.
In the following discussion, the problem will be studied
respectively in the areas of characterization and plot.
2. Characters
In writing an absolute drama, Lessing makes a few
adjustments on Livy's narrative story in regards to the
concern of characterization: first of all, most of the major
characters are presented in an equally magnified manner;
secondly, new characters are introduced for a brand new
dramaturgical purpose. Thirdly, the respective developments
of characters and plots are mutually reinforcing, which
means, unlike the Rome legend, in which the narration pays
less attention to character than plot, Emilia Galotti gives
equal emphasis on both, by employing highly economical
expositional technique — the drama unfolds itself
progressively, while releasing in-depth information about
the characters. However, the highly condensed dramatical
treatment, in which a number of major characters, in the
midst of tragical twist, more or less have their fair share
of "the floor," gives rise to another ambiguity : who is
actually the protagonist/hero of the play? In order to probe
into this matter, each major character will be first
examined in regards to his/her function in the play.
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1. fKbo is the protagonist/tragic hero?
As our previous recapitulation of the Roman legend
suggests, the only female character, Virginia, without any
substantial psychological or emotional profile, exists in
the narrative merely as an object of patriarchal dispute. In
Lessing's drama, on the contrary, the desired female is
endowed with distinguished psychological complexity, even
though her sophisticated silhouette is more suggested than
delineated in any concrete term.
If in accordance with Jiri Veltrusky's view: ”... the
principal character is always present, either actually or
virtually, as the axis of the whole dramatic plot,"^^
Emilia should be the top of the list to be considered as the
protagonist. Nevertheless, the answer is not at all clear,
when we take Lessing's own view into consideration. In the
letter of February 10, 1772, to Karl, Lessing argued that
the fact that the tragedy is named after Emilia does not
necessarily mean that she should be the leading figure.
However, since the play is named after Emilia, regardless of
Lessing's partial denial in appointing her to the hero of
the play, the question remains legitimate — what is
12
Jiri VeltruBky, Drama As Literature (Lisse: Peter de Ridder Press,
1977), 76.
"Weil das Stuck Emilia heisst, ist es darum mein Vorsats gesewen,
Emilian su dem hervorstechendsten, oder auch nur einem hervostechenden
Charakter zu machen? Ganz und gar nicht. Die Alten nannten ihre Stuck
wohl nach Personen, die gar nicht aufs Theater kamen. " Qesammelte Werke,
497-498.
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115
Emilia's drematurgical function in the play, if not the
principle role? Further, if Emilia is not the alleged
protagonist, as Lessing's own statement indicates, we can
not help but assume that the dramatist must have another
character in mind. Curiously enough, Lessing himself never
addresses this issue, whereupon it remains as one of the
play's enigmas. In principle, the concern of a protagonist
in the neo-classical program is, in all cases, necessary. In
the realm of dramatic art, the play/stage reflects a very
private world, where the image of the individual is
reflected through him/herself alone and his/her interaction
with fellow human beings. In other words, idiomatically,
there is a personal "I" involved within the context of
dramatic representation. And my inquiry, thus, points to the
intended identification of this personal I. On the other
hand, in the realm of tragedy, this private, personal I has
to suffer or incur vital guilt to attain his/her tragic
status. In accordance with Lessing, this individual's
suffering, in great part, results from his/own weakness:
"The reason is evident, a man can be very good and yet
possess more than one fault, by means of which he throws
himself into an immeasurable misfortune, and excites our
pity and sorrow without being in the least terrible, because
it is the natural consequence of his errors." (Dramaturgie,
St. LXXXII)^^ It is also important to know that, for
14
Selected Prose Works of a. E. Lessing, 436.
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116
Lessing, the hero of tragedy is never a person whose
qualities are either entirely good or entirely bad, since
such a person is not likely to arouse pity. The hero must,
however, be the "best person" of the play.^® Such a view
held by Lessing back in 1756, more than ten years before
Dramaturgie is written, is considered of secondary
importance. The fact that the emphasis of "the best person"
is not taken up again in Dramaturgie, while the first part
of the statement is sustained throughout his interpretation
of Aristotle's theory, foregrounds his conviction on the
direct nexus between human frailty and tragedy, thereby
explicitly explains his insistence on a pitiable tragic hero
who should incur misfortune and suffer in part due to
his/her own weakness.
Without any doubt, among all of the major characters,
Emilia's suffering is impeccably intense. On the surface,
she seems to embody the true sense of tragic character:
being the victim of the external circumstances, she also has
her own inner demon to blame. Strikingly, her famous
confession to her father before her death reveals such an
unexpected introvertial complexity: "But not against any
In a letter to Nicolai written in November, 1756, Lessing writes:
"Das Trauerspiel soli so viel Mitleid erwecken, als es nur immer kann:
folglich miissen alls Personen die man ungliicklich werden lal3t, gute
Eigenschaften haben, folglich mufi due beste Person auch die
unglücklichste sein, und Verdienst und Unglück in bestSndigem
VerhSltnisse bleiben. Das ist, der Dichter muB keinen von alls, Guten
entblSBten Bdsewicht auffuhren. Der Held oder die beste Person muB
nicht, gleich einem Gotte, seine Tugenden ruhig und ungekrïnkt
übersehen." Oesammelte Werke, 79.
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117
seduction. Brute force 1 Brute force! Who can not stand up to
brute force? What men call brute force is nothing; the
seduction is the true force. I have blood in my veins too,
father, warm young blood like any other girl. My senses are
senses too.In order to persuade her father into killing
her, suddenly, she lets on a secret, that shows an entirely
different side of her character, an attribute, assumingly
entirely unfamiliar to her father. This drastic twist of her
character toward the end of the drama gives rise to problems
on two counts: firstly, the author's abrupt imposition of
Emilia's major tragic guilt by exposing the secret of her
human weakness at the very end seems rather unconvincing.
The ambiguity arises because the rather unknown side of her
nature (her weakness/guilt) is far from being adequately
integrated with the other plot-lines and it is never allowed
to be fully expressed. Consequently, her final death wish is
not sufficiently motivated. In short, since her suffering
and tragic guilt do not seem to come together early in time,
reader/spectator is not well prepared to accept or
comprehend the outcome. Despite the fact that she has strong
potential to be the tragic hero, one thing remains uncertain
- if she were the protagonist, with whom reader/spectator
"Aber nicht über allé Verführung. - Gewaltl Gewalt! Wer kann der
Gewalt nicht trot sen? Was Gewalt heiAt, ist nichts: Verführung ist die
wahre Gewalt. - Ich habe Blut, mein Vater, so jugendliches, so warmes
Slut also eine. Auch meine Sinne sind Sinne" (Emilia Galotti, V,vii).
The English translation of this line is mine.
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118
should identify himself/herself, what could arouse the
letter's tragic emotions, whereby a moral lesson is learned?
In other words, what should her death teach? Secondly,
instead of committing suicide, Emilia urges her father to
assist her in fulfillling her death wish; on the other hand,
without Emilia's insistence, Odoardo would likely not end up
killing her. It seems that the tragic catastrophe is the
result of an incorporated act of both. At this very aspect,
Lessing indeed makes a major alteration of Livy's account.
Instead of being entirely responsible for the death of his
daughter, like Virginius in Livy's account, the father in
Lessing's drama is rendered a helping hand, an instrument
for the realization of the daughter's will. The ambiguity,
thus arises: who (the assumed protagonist), should be
responsible for the tragic act, if not Emilia alone?
Further, what is Odoardo's share of tragic guilt in this?
Apparently, Odoardo also suffers tremendously, if no
less than Emilia. His suffering is induced from his very
moral predilection against the corrupted ruling power and
culminates in his devastating act of murdering his daughter.
It is no doubt that in Odoardo, the embodiment of bourgeois
value, the 18th century middle class reader/spectator finds
his/her social-political identity. In other words, he would
not only represent the private I, but also the bourgeoisie,
the very social class itself. If we read this character from
the allegedly writerly ethical perspective, his tragic
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119
guilt, is certainly not induced from the lack of integrity
in virtue and moral principle. However, in spite of his
dignified middle-class image, he is, as compared to Livy's
Virginius, remarkably insecure and, thereby, easily to be
intimidated and manipulated. Apparently, his character flaws
(being morally rigid, insecure, easily intimidated, quick to
jump into conclusion, etc.) directly cause him the life of
his daughter. Could we then claim that his tragic guilt,
induced from his character flaws, eminent enough to earn him
the title of the tragic hero? The ambiguity arises from the
fact that it is entirely uncertain whether the moral
rigidity and other character flaws of Odoardo are Lessing's
target of criticism. From an anachronistic hindsight, it is
more or less transparent for the later readers that the
honor codes and ethical value embodied by Odoardo is rather
culturally disturbing and patriarchally suppressive.
However, Lessing, an 18th century author living in an age
where the reason and moral are hold up as the ultimate
ideal, could not necessarily be aware of such a conservatism
and "negativeness" in bourgeois value, as critically
observed by the reader/audience after the Age of Reason.
Hence, our question remains unanswered: what would Lessing
want his reader/audience to learn from Odoardo's misfortune,
if he were the chosen tragic hero?
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120
il. The villains - antagonists
Interestingly enough, the Prince, the villain who
causes others' misfortune, can not avoid to suffer, either.
At the very end of the drama, as he witnesses the death of
Emilia and Odoardo's bitter accusation, he concludes the
play by questioning the divinity: "Oh God, oh God! Princes
are human beings too. Is it not enough, some of them are so
unfortunate; must the devil also pretend to be their
friend?Hardly a heart-felt repentance, his
disillusioned expression insinuates that he perceives
himself as one of the unfortunate victims of the vindictive
schemer — Marinelli, the courtier. As the ending shows,
Lessing is very vague on the Prince's tragic guilt, that
consequently results in the unsettling problem of poetic
justice. In fact, the trace of such an ambiguity is to be
detected in Lessing's curious treatment in the
characterization of the character Prince. On the one hand,
he is unlikely to be considered the tragic hero of the play
virtually because of the negative image as a whimsical
aristocrat projected by him in a tragedy mainly written for
the bourgeoisie. Assumingly, the chance for the general
reader to deem him as the protagonist is rather slim, even
Gotti Gotti - 1st es, zum Ungliicke so mancher nicht genug, daB
FUrsten Menschen sind; miissen sich auch noch Teufel in ihren Freund
verstellen?" {Emilia Galotti, V,viii). The English translation of this
line is mine.
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121
though it is not entirely impossible. On the other hand,
in spite of the fact that, being the reason of others'
suffering and misfortune, he is assigned as the antagonist
to fulfill an antithetical function, he is not exactly a
villain and antagonist in a typological sense. First of all,
as a villain, he is not entirely bad. His soft-heartedness
and frequent hesitation in coping with Marinelli's diabolic
scheme reflects an intriguingly dubious conscience
oscillating between good and evil. And there is no doubt
that his major sin inducing from his weak spot for young,
beautiful women, is not unusual for common human
weakness. In short, he is an empowered antagonist with the
least intention to harm. Such an obscurity leads to a major
ambiguity in regards with the design of writerly rhetorics:
what does the author intend to achieve in humanizing an
originally cold-blooded despot in Livy's legend?
Furthermore, in contrast with Appius, the Prince is
unpunished for his crime. Does such a distinctive adjustment
in poetic justice simply infer the author's intent to
downplay the Prince's tragic guilt or is it rather an
indication of his inability to conclude a tragedy, in which
the political figure is ripped of his political status
within a personal and interpersonal context of Neo-Classical
18
Shopenhauer is one of the few critics who are of the opinion that the
play is about the Prince's suffering and misfortune. For detailed
discussion, please see the 4th chapter: readerly response.
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122
drama, thereby remains awkwardly alive and unpunished at the
end, since any further treatment on the Prince after
Emilia's murder so as to satisfy poetic justice would
automatically imply political overtone, which is definitely
not what Lessing has in mind?
Since the Prince's antithetical force alone is not
destructive enough due to his soft-heartedness, to
compensate, Lessing renders his accomplice, Marinelli, a
much more malevolent villain. On the whole, the profile of
Marinelli as a shrewd, cold-blooded schemer comes across as
rather transparent and convincing. Without any doubt, his
function as an antagonist is very clearly defined. However,
there is also a spot of ambiguity in him: the fact that he
is simply let go at the end does not allow the
reader/audience to fully come to term with the resentful
emotion provoked by the former's dirty deed.
It is interesting to note that most of the principle
characters of this play are paired up according to their
common dramaturgical function and characterization. Such a
writerly strategy is notably effective, since it reinforces,
deepens a major character's psychological silhouette and
frequently compensates, fulfill its dramaturgical
abstraction. Emilia and Odoardo, for instance, are paired up
for completing the tragedy's ethical metaphor. And in the
category of antagonist, apparently, the Prince's possessing
actual political power, on the one hand, and Marinelli's
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123
impeccable mental power, on the other, are concomitant and
mutually compensatory to create external strife and
complication.
Hi. Other principal characters
One of Lessing's major modification of Livy's account
is the murder of Appiani. In the Roman legend, Icilius is
the one who takes the place of Virginius while he is away
and works closely with the latter throughout the entire
story to fight the tyrant and also stay alive to the end to
see their final victory. On the contrary, Lessing's Appiani
is sacrificed early on to fulfill an entirely different
dramaturgical arrangement. Without his murder, the original
tribunal scene could not be smoothly replaced by the
abduction of Emilia. And because of this abrupt occurrence
the tragedy takes a sharp turn, by means of which it creates
needed complication and final catastrophe, that all take
place in the Prince's private residence. His death is, so to
speak, a necessary device, to render the seemingly drastic
transaction of the tragic actions probable. In terms of
characterization and dramaturgical function, he is also
paired up with another major character, Odoardo. They have
strong affinity with each other not only because they share
common social status, moral values and also because they
both directly related to the same woman. Without Appiani and
his death, Adoardo's defense of the bourgeois value will
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124
likely be weakened, since he earnestly defies the corrupted
ruling power to protect his daughter's virtue, largely in
the name of her obligation toward her deceased fiancee.
In spite of the fact that the murder of Appiani allows the
tragedy to develop itself the way Lessing wants it to, a few
minor details concerning the character Appiani seem obscure,
as well: firstly, due to the drastic adjustment, he is no
longer a leading character as in Livy's account, how much do
we need to know about him; or, how much does Lessing's text
allow us to know about him? Secondly, if the love between
him and Emilia is crucial as a reference for the readers to
interpret the letter's attitude toward the Prince, then do
we have sufficient information about it, based on few
interactions between the two? The answers, again, are not at
all clear.
As noticed, Claudia is Lessing's own invention. The
reason for Lessing to add her to the play is quite evident:
based on the preceding premise — the (absolute) drama
reaches the realm of the personal revelation and
interpersonal relation — Emilia needs a confidant to reveal
her inner thought, fear and doubt. Meanwhile, by employing
the technique of mirror image (doubleganger), Lessing
19
In Act V, when Odoardo realizes that Appiani is dead and Emilia is
abducted by the Prince and his subject, he insists that she should not
stay at Guastalla, instead, she should go with him and be confined in a
convent. Such a thought certainly has everything to do with his intent
to protect her from being disgraced by the villain after her fiancee's
death.
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125
insinuates Emilia's weakness and unknown nature such as
feminine vanity, through the character of Claudia. In other
words, Claudia is Emilia's alter ego. Assumingly from the
writerly point of view, without Claudia, we will not be able
to acquire the early hint of her later confession (even
though, as discussed earlier, the hint itself is not all
that clear). Therefore, she is indispensable for extending
the dimensions of Emilia's character so that the side of the
letter's weakness can be discerned. However, her function as
Emilia's doubleganger is no more than an assumed writerly
strategy - a reader ly assumption, which is virtually mine.
The general readers need not necessarily recognize or agree
to such a correlation between the two. Therefore, from the
general reader ly perspective, the ambiguity of Emilia's
characterization would not necessarily be alleviated through
the introduction of Claudia.
The character Orsina is also Lessing's own invention.
Being once mentioned in the first act by the Prince, she
does not show up until the fourth act. However, her role has
significant function in two folds: firstly, by filling
Odoardo in with unpleasant information, she directly causes
the tragic strife. Secondly, without her, Odoardo would not
have the dagger, whereupon the tragedy would assumingly end
differently. Thus, as far as dramaturgical function
concerns, she is indispensable. On the other hand, in order
to render her a character of substantiality, rather a mere
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126
convenient device, Lessing endows her with distinguished
strength and sharp intellect. In other words, her almost
intrusive appearance is abrupt, yet drastically fatal. Such
a writerly strategy could entice extremely contradictory
reader ly response. Most important of all, the introduction
of the character Orsina creates ambiguity on the disputive
issue of probability versus contingency, to which I will
return shortly in the next section on the discussion of
plot.
The above study of the major characters in the play is
conducted by thinking along with its intrinsic dramaturgical
logic and against the grain of its implicit ambiguity.
Certainly, every character has his/her indispensable
function so as to render the drama the way it is, called
Emilia Galotti, My purpose of reading each character in
nexus with other characters is to foreground the factor of
interpersonal interaction, while simultaneously
investigating the introversial dimension of the character in
question, by means of which I also endeavor to seek out the
"hero" of the play. Even though I have categorized the major
characters in accordance with the alleged writerly concept,
it is no doubt that such a categorization might not
necessarily be agreeable to the readers, especially the non
contemporary readers. Interestingly enough, based on the
criterion Lessing has set for the alleged tragic hero: a
character who is neither entirely good nor bad; who suffers
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127
from misfortune, resulting from both the evil-designs of
others and self-inflicted guilt, I discover that there are
more than one characters would fit into such a definition.
It is noteworthy that in the searching for the central
figure of the tragedy, one automatically attempts to endow
the text with meaning. It also points to the fact that the
ambiguity of our writerly text with regards to its
protagonist seems to create a very functional communicatory
gap/blank, by means of which the reader can come up with
his/her o%m version of meaning while trying to fill in the
blank/gap. As Iser suggests:
A Novel without a Hero .... Thus the reader's
viewpoint became less clearly oriented, which
meant correspondingly greater demands on his own
structuring activity. With this multiple
combination of equal-ranking perspective
segments, patteri^ of interaction become a great
deal more open.
3. plot
1. Seduction and the motivation of Emilia's death
As far as the plot concerns, a thematic focus -
seduction - is introduced. Livy's account merely tells:
"This, then, was the girl - at that time a beautiful young
woman - who was the object of Appius' s passion. His attempts
to seduce her with money and promises failed,... he had
recourse to a method of compulsion such as only a heartless
20
leer. The Act of Reeding, 205.
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128
tyrant could devise" (215). Consequently, "seduction" is
soon abandoned in the account as a thematic emphasis; what
follows is the political actions of force and counter-force.
In Lessing's drama, the character, Emilia, on the contrary,
is dramaturgically prominent precisely on account of the
introduction of seduction as the major thematic interest.
Developed by having the seducer and seducee encounter one
another only once very briefly, the act of seduction is
mostly uttered either by the Prince privately as a desiring
intention or expressed by Emilia as an agitating experience.
That is to say, the theme of seduction is not represented
through the involved parties' immediate interaction. Rather,
it is a thematic necessity for rendering the tragic
complication probable. In spite of the fact that the theme
of seduction is not sufficiently explored at the
interpersonal level, it is crucial in terms of introvertial
revelation: the fact that Emilia is first genuinely troubled
by it and later on her suicidal intent is suggested to have
something to do with it infer its decisive relevance.
However, it is all very uncertain whether Lessing succeeds
in giving the matter its deserved transparency. My question
lies in the fact that we are told that her final death wish
is to avoid any further seduction. Does it then indicate
that she feels guilty because she has doubt about herself?
Or does the innocent martyr simply wish to die as a virtuous
person rather than live to be disgraced? The inquiries leads
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129
to a fundamental question: is she, after all, seduced?
Apparently, this is entirely open to interpretation, since
there is no direct evidence to provide a definite answer.
What appears to be intriguing, however, is its decisive
impact on the reader ly act of meaning-making. In the process
of making sense of a very disconcerting tragic ending, one
can not avoid asking, how significant is its (the theme of
seduction) connection with Emilia's will to die? Since
Lessing contends that the hero must bring misfortune upon
him/herself, the motivation of Emilia's death becomes
extremely crucial because, supposedly from the writerly
point of view, her death should not become a "terrible"
action (das Grâfiliche) That is to say, the tragic hero
must somehow "deserve" the misfortune; otherwise, it is
merely "terrible" but not tragical. Whether the tragedy in
question's ending in fact appear to be "terrible" or
"tragical" is entirely a "readerly" question and, as
mentioned earlier, is open to interpretation; one thing is
certain: it is highly unsettling and ambiguous. Its
ambiguity lies in the fact that the theme of seduction is
not satisfactorily treated first on an interpersonal level.
As a result, the motivation of Emilia's death is obscured.
21
In the 82th essay, he states: "Aristotle says the wholly unmerited
misfortune of a virtuous man is no matter for a tragedy, because it is
terrible.... Aristotle says: It is entirely terrible and on that account
untragical.... Aristotle sees the terrible in the misfortune itself; "
Selected Prose Works of G. E. Lessing, 435.
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130
Such an obscurity becomes a major writerly flaw on account
of its failure to imbue the tragedy with clarity on the
personal level: the return to the very fundamental concern
of the private J.
ii. The preeminent ending and its impact on the genesis of a
middle-’ Class tragedy
It is noteworthy that, in accordance with the gathered
evidences, Emilia's tragic death is predetermined before the
rest of the plot is to be conceived.In his 37th essay,
Lessing states that it is most emotionally tantalizing when
the lethal strife happens between two closely related
persons: "Consequently tragical events must occur between
friends, a brother must kill, or wish to kill his brother, a
son his father, a mother a son ..." (334). Thus, in spite of
its overall political overtone, the catastrophic ending
about a father kills his daughter to save her from being
disgraced must have been deemed as a fitting material for a
domestic tragedy to Lessing. Moreover, the perfect scenario
for a tragic strife simultaneously brings about the genesis
of a potentially poignant story: a story about why and how a
young, beautiful middle-class woman dies, who is betrothed
22
In accordance with Livy's account, one notices that the scenario of
class-conflict and the tragic ending of Emilia's death are preserved in
Lessing's drama. One can likely assume that Emilia's death should remain
intact in his drama is decided prior to all other dramaturgical concern
with regards to the plot.
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131
to a young man of her social rank but also strongly desired
by a despotic aristocrat? In other words, from writerly
point of view, the tragic ending pragmatically coaches how
the drama begins and develops. Or we could also put it this
way: the process of writing the tragedy is to create
probable plot lines that should explain its ending.
Lessing's curious preference for the transparency of a
forseeable ending, is subtly inferred in the 48th essay: "I
am far removed from believing ... that the denouement should
be hid from the spectator. I rather think it would not
exceed my powers to rouse the very strongest interest in the
spectator even if I resolved to make a work where the
denouement was revealed in the first scene....
In his comment on Lukacs' views on death in tragedy, E.
Bloch's penetrating statement perfectly translates Lessing's
referred perception: "... death is merely the making visible
of a shape which is already present anyway, in its essence;
just as, for example, Michelangelo already saw the statue in
the block and all his chisel had to do was to remove the
superfluous material around it.In other words, ideally,
Emilia's death should be foreshadowed early on from the
minute the drama begins. However, such a presupposition is
23
Selmcted Proae Works of G. E. Leasing, 377.
24
Ernst Bloch, "Death as the Chisel in Tragedy" in The Principle of
Hope, vol. 3, trans. N. Plaice, S. Plaice and P. Knight (Oxford, 1986),
1169 «
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132
established exclusively on the ground that Emilia should be
the tragic hero, whereby as the drama unfolds itself, we
should gradually gain in-depth insight of her.
Unfortunately, based on my previous discussion, it is never
certain whether Emilia is the leading figure, since we know
too little of her. Even though she is always there (more
virtually than actually), her existence is violently
overpowered by what is going on externally to constitute the
circumstantial reason of her final death. Consequentially,
the alleged thematic focus — Emilia and her guilt — is
dispersed. In other words, we lose sight of the "process of
dying" of a tragic character and her reason to die
(assumingly, the reason lies in the fact that she feels
guilty because she is seduced. Or she chooses to die rather
than to be disgraced) . As F. Macintosh observes in her Dying
Acts I "The process - for Lukacs, the tragedy proper - begins
at the moment when enigmatic forces have distilled the
essence from a man, [and] have forced him to become
25
essential," this process, if based on Lessing's own view,
should be made explicit right from the beginning. However,
we only have very swift glances of Emilia and her emotion a
few times: when she first tells Claudia her "frightening"
encounter with the Prince at the church mass, then her dream
about how the jewels given by Appiani turning into pearls
25
Feona Macintosh, Dying Acts, Death In Ancient Greek And Modern Irish
Tragic Drama (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1995), 78.
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133
that symbolize tears, and later her hasty face-to-face
contact with the Prince, when she appears entirely disturbed
and in a lost, finally the very moment prior to her death —
the time when she and her father reunite, when she is all of
a sudden ready to die as a martyr of the moral principle. It
seems not too farfetched to say, based on all her presences,
her inclination toward the Prince is anything but
transparent.^^ It is even difficult for one to see a clear
process of tragedy proper, in which "the enigmatic forces"
have distilled the essence from her and have forced her to
become essential. Frankly speaking, one misses a gradual
process of dying act; instead, what we see, is a female
character helplessly victimized by the external
circumstances: she has every reason to blame the "brute
force" for her ill-fate; but as for the real reason of her
own weakness, it is more obscurely suggested than
sufficiently portrayed.
26
A brief comment on Schiller's tragedy, Maria Stuart, might better
illustrate my view here. Like Emilia Galotti, Schiller's tragedy also
ends in Maria Stuart's death. However, the motif of death is made very
distinctive from the very beginning. The whole drama is a process of
dying act, while numberous subplots and characters are simultaneously
introduced. Intriguingly, in the seemingly complicated dramatic web
(such as political intrigues, love, jealousy, etc.), we do not lose
sight of the main theme: Maria Stuart's existential struggle and her
enlightened journey toward a peaceful death. In fact, Maria, as a
character, is distinctively delineated. Her tragic guilt is rendered
less ambiguous because it is a persistent subject addressed either in
the introvert ial moments or within interpersonal interaction.
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134
111. Hour does the exposition affect the action and the
meaning of the tragedy?
On April 22, 1797, Goethe wrote Schiller mentioning
that exposition is a difficult dramaturgical concern for the
dramatist "because he is expected to produce a constant
forward movement, and I would say that dramatic material is
best when the exposition is already part of the
development."^^ In Classical idea, the exposition should be
well integrated to the ensuing dramatic actions and is
rendered an indispensable element in the composition of
dramatic plot, which seems to find its paradigmatic model
early in Lessing's dramatic writing. Apparently, Emilia
Galotti provides an extraordinary example.
In the first Act, the motif of "seduction" is brought
to the fore from the perspective of the Prince and his
courtly environment. Besides, through him, we attain crucial
information about other major characters and what is to
anticipate in the up-coming act, as well. On the whole, this
Act exemplifies the idea of dramatic economy, by means of
which "the exposition is already part of the development."
Most distinguishedly, in this Act, through the discussion
27
"SO hat auch das epische Gedicht den groOen Vorteil dafl seine
Exposition, sie mag noch so lang sein, den Dichter gar nicht geniert, ja
daS er sie in die Mitte des Werks bringen kann, wie in der Odyssee sehr
kunstlich geschehen ist. Denn auch diese retrograde Bewegung ist
wohlt&tig; aber eben deshalb diinkt mich macht die Exposition dem
Dramatiker viel zu schaffen, weil man vom ihm ein ewiges Forschreiten
fordert und ich vriirde das den beaten dramatischen Stoff nennen wo die
Exposition schon ein Teil der Entwicklung ist.” Goethe, Goethes Briefe.
Band XI, (Hamburg: Christian Wegner Verlag, 1964), 265.
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135
between the Prince and the court painter, the concept about
the subjectivity of individual perception on the idea of
beauty and its transient, erratic nature is introduced. E.
L. Stahl maintains that, given its distinctive preoccupation
in the topic of art. Act I is likely written at a date near
2&
the composition of Laocoôn. Even though art as a thematic
factor is nicely integrated to the entire dramatic material
of the first Act in conveying the arbitrariness of a
prince's state of mind and, above all, his relation with
29
Emilia and Orsina, I can not but wonder whether such a
lengthy conceptual deliberation on art and the delineation
of the courtly point of view is requisite in terms of what
is deemed crucial to the economy of the actual tragedy
proper - a middle-class individual's suffering and
misfortune. Certainly, the tyranny of a prince is, in this
case, the main reason for the letter's misery, whereby the
representation of princely behavior and psychology is, to a
certain extent, necessary. However, Lessing's decision to
open the curtain with courtly setting, which is followed by
the Galotti's passive resistance to the aggression of the
courtly intrigue inevitably suggests that the
transformation/development of the tragic individual's inner
28
See E. L. Stahl, introduction to Emilia Galotti, (Oxford: Basil
Blackwell, 1946), xxx-xxxi.
29
Of course, there are other relevant discussions on art, such as the
nature of artistic creation; the act of painting — the difficulty of
transforming inspiration into paint on canvas: "so much is lost on the
way," etc. See Emilia Galotti, I,iv.
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136
landscape is somewhat overpowered and neglected by the
imposition of external force.
The first Act, with the Prince alone taking the
dominant position, its contra-bourgeois setting and peculiar
thematic preferences, could be seen as an independent
structural unity for its contrast to the second Act, where
the bourgeoisie in turn takes the floor. However, in
adopting again Lukacs* idea of **process of dying act," we
notice that, the tragedy proper of the Emilia Galotti is
deferred exclusively for expository consideration. And
curiously, we continue to experience in the second, third
and fourth Acts such a deferral until shortly prior to the
end the very dying act officially happens, and yet it seems
to be too condensed and sudden to be absorbable. The
ambiguity lies in the fact that by the end of the second
Act, in which all of the major characters have made their
appearance, the exposition finally comes to the end while
the dramatic action/complication suddenly makes a drastic
turn. From here on we are much too preoccupied with the
scheme which goes wrong and finally is out of control: the
death of Appiani, the abduction of Emilia, Orsina's stormy
interference and Adoardo's reaction toward what has
Here, I try to think along with Lessing's theoretical supposition in
Dramaturgie about how a tragic figure should deserve his/her misfortune
mainly because of his/her own human weakness: he/she should be primarily
the victim of his/her mistake, not so much of other's evil-doings. The
whole point of my argument in this paragraph, thus, is that Lessing's
strategy in plot development seems contradict such a view.
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137
happened. Ironically, we do not know what to expect at the
end, let alone foresee it from the very beginning. In other
words, for some reasons, along the way, we lose the private
"I" that supposedly to sustain both the personal and
interpersonal dimensions of the drama; the dying "I” that is
to be distilled by an enigmatic forces and becomes
essential; the tragic "I" that is to lead us to take part in
experiencing the catharsis of tragic climax.
In a letter to Karl, Lessing mentions that he was not
certain what role he would assign to the Prince concerning
the tragic catastrophe.^^ The then uncertainty seems to
remain intact in the completed text. The Prince's partial
reluctance in participating Marinelli's scheme and his
unwillingness at the end to take full responsibility for the
catastrophe indicate a general passiveness toward the end,
which strongly contradicts his early activeness in the first
Act. As Kettner also acknowledges, the Prince occupies a
much less important position in the last Act of the play
32
than he does in the first. In fact, as the drama's
exposition comes to an end, whereby the tragic catastrophe
"Allerdlngs hatte ich lieber ein Urteil von unserm Moses gehabt.
Seine Aninerkung iiber den Character des Prinzen ist nicht so ganz ohne:
denn ich erinnere mich sehr wohl; daB ich ihn, so wie er jetzt in dem
ersten Akte ist, zu einer Zeit angelegt habe, als ich noch nicht ganz
gewiB bei mir war, wie viel Anteil ich ihn an dem Ausgange wUrde kônnen
nehmen lassen." Geaammelte Vevke, 519-520.
32
"Nur noch in der ersten HAlfte des III. Aktes spielt er, wenn auch
bereits wesentlich matter, seine Rolle weiter. Dann steigt er vom
Protagonieten zum Tritagonisten herab." G. Kettner, Lesaing'a Dtamen im
Lichte Hirer und unaerer Zeit, 183.
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138
and tragedy proper begin to surface, the Prince, on the
contrary, curiously loses the fortitude to err. At the end,
he completely denies the role he initially presents himself
as the curtain first rises. Even though he is there to lead
in, to instigate conflict and to conclude the drama, the
weight of his role shrinks as the drama progresses. Such a
transmutation of a major character's image and his self
perception is rather ambiguous, since it is not adequately
illuminated through the evolution of the tragedy proper's
innate logic. Further, the whole objective of the first Act,
in terms of the Prince's role in the entire tragedy, becomes
rather uncertain.
iv. Probability or contingency?
In accordance with Lessing, everything on the stage
should be produced according to strict probability.^^ And
the rule of probability is best associated with the idea of
"natural cause", which runs counter to the effect of
"miracle". As indicated later in the 30th essay, the term
"miracle" is to be clarified and further defined by the
concept of chance: "... Genius is only busied with events
that are rooted in one another, that form a chain of cause
and effect. To reduce the latter to the former, to weigh the
latter against the former, everywhere to exclude chance, to
Dramaturgie, St. II, in Selected Prose Works of G. E. Leasing, 236.
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139
cause everything that occurs to occur so that it could not
have happened otherwise..." (311). Intriguingly, what
Lessing might not realize is that, in dramatic idiom, the
demarcation between probability and chance is actually not
as obvious and definite as one's intellect like to believe.
First of all, since the dramatic reality, like all other
literary fictions, is by nature a writerly
assertion/creation, the logic of its happening and
development is, in essence, arbitrary. What considers to be
probable from writerly prospective frequently has to be a
mere subjective, willful/wishful design and conviction.
Thus, literary probability, that in principle can not
(should not) be measured by empirical logic, by nature is
nothing but an idiosyncratic/aesthetic compound of numerous
contingencies. Chance, likewise, could be easily mistaken
for probability. Such an ambiguity happens frequently when
chance as a dramaturgical tactics is employed to achieve
convenient design. And Lessing's introduction of the
character Orsina is exactly a case in point.
Since Emilia's death, as discussed earlier, is
dramaturgically predecided, what follows is to rationalize
her death and this is supposedly what this drama all about.
The weapon that kills Virginia in the original legend is
snatched by her father from a butchery while they are at the
market together. Since the formal prerequisite of the
absolute drama affects Lessing's choices of the scenery
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140
backdrops, the outdoor scenes of the narrative account are
moved indoors, whereupon the advantage of being able to
convincingly present the lethal weapon for the completion of
the tragedy proper now is lost — the ensuing concern is
where could Odoardo acquire his dagger, if not from a
butchery at a market? Trapped in closed spaces, the physical
mobility of tragic characters is slowly diminishing until
finally they are mentally paralyzed, as well. Interestingly,
a dagger, a seemingly unimportant hard object needs to find
its way to this inaccessible territory, otherwise, the
tragedy would have to end differently (such as the
employment of poison in Schiller's Love and Intrigue as an
alternative).^^ Thus, the question about how dagger is
brought to the hands of Odoardo and Emilia becomes extremely
crucial. As the completed text shows, Lessing overcomes the
assumed obstacle by introducing the character Orsina.
Seemingly, her appearance and action are included in the
drama logically: firstly, she is no complete stranger to the
reader/audience, since she is mentioned right in the first
Act, and secondly, her abrupt intrusion is granted with
sound motivation (her jealousy of Emilia). And right after
the accomplishment of her alleged dramaturgical "mission" —
34
Whether Odoardo should be armed with a weapon is a debatable issue.
Some critics argue that it is utterly odd for the fact that Odoardo has
to acquire the murder weapon from Orsina. Apparently, it seems not
unusual for an old soldier, like him, to carry something such as sword
as a symbol of his status/profession. However, it is highly probable
that for the security reason, no one is allowed to carry weapon of any
sort when entering a prince's private residence.
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141
to inform Ordoardo of what really goes on and to provide him
with a dagger — she immediately leaves the scene. Without
any doubt, her position in the drama is purely
instrumental/functional. In other words, the necessity of
this character is largely based on dramaturgical
convenience. However, a functional, probable arrangement is
not necessary a non-contingent arrangement, because in
literary fiction, anything "could" happen. The point is "how
likely" do they happen and how this particular happening
affects the reading of the whole matter. In other words,
there is no absolute probability or contingency in literary
fiction. Their definition is mostly relative, which depends
on, from purely readerly point of view, how well they
satisfy the "organic" logic of the dramatic plot. Based on
this reason, the convincibility of the character, Orsina, is
not quite definite. And the reason is at least two fold:
firstly, her impact on the tragic catastrophe seems overly
decisive and fatal to be fitting to a character who only
appears once and relatively late in the play; secondly,
viewed within the closed context of what has gone on between
the two groups of people, her intrusion is entirely
unanticipated, thereby is an alien factor, suddenly thrown
into an energy field, causing drastic change of its order
and regulating pattern.A peculiar ambiguity thus arises
"Maybe for a while things can go round and round in a nice smooth
orbit ... But then some unknown factor interferes and attracts the
particles - pulls them out of the pattern. And it all goes haywire. We
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142
from the fact that the design of character Orsina (and her
action) is a curious hybrid of both probability and
contingency. Besides, the eunbiguity is further suggested in
our problem to determine whether the tragic catastrophe
would still happen, were the drama to proceed without
Orsina.
Another major ambiguity arising from the dialectical
tension between probability and contingency is to be found
in the handling of the murder weapon. In the midst of
confusion, anger, despair, fear and disillusionment, both
father and daughter go through violent emotional fluctuation
in Scene vii of Act v. This is so-called the scene of climax
and catastrophe, in which the tragedy proper reaches its
crux. In this scene the intensive interaction between the
father and the daughter proceeds like a tango of exchanging
information: the daughter learns from the father that she
alone is in the hands of brute force. In return, the father,
for the first and the last time, has the glimpse of his
daughter's inner secret. And the tragic catastrophe is
precisely the result of their information exchange. In the
mean time, in the midst of emotional delirium, the dagger
has been switched hands twice. At first Odoardo shows it to
call that factor a strange attractor. It's strange in the sense of
alien, something that can't be included in the original equation,"
Desmond Cory, The Strage Attractor [1991], quoted in Strage Attractors,
126. Orsina and her intruding action is far from a part of the so-called
"original equation." The problem lies in the fact that her actual
participation in the action does not happen until shortly before the
tragic catastrophe.
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143
indicate his initial intent to kill the villains. Then
Emilia urges him to give the dagger to her after her
confession. Before she succeeds in stabbing herself, Odoardo
snatches the dagger from her and finally the dagger is back
to him. In this curious entanglement of simultaneous verbal
and physical interactions the dagger is endowed with notable
symbolic significance. It symbolizes the key for the
conclusion of both tragic characters' moral and emotional
struggle. In other words, some one has to die to end the
suffering.
As our previous presumption indicates, that Emilia
should die at her father's hand is a preconceived writerly
decision.^® Ideally, Lessing has the liberty to render the
incident probable anyway he considers dramaturgically
appealing and appropriate, as long as the scene ends the way
it should be. However, in the dramatic idiom, the scene
itself does not exist isolatedly. It is the sequence of what
has happened prior to it. When Odoardo waits for his
daughter alone with a dagger on him, the suspenseful
situation actually opens up to a number of possibilities as
consequence. In other words, Emilia's death in her father's
hand should not be the only possible/probable result. One
supposes that, in realistic dramatic discourse, whatever
Notably, there is still a major difference between Livy and Lessing's
treatment : in the former's account, the father acts on his own will to
kill the daughter, whereas in the letter's drama, the daughter urges the
father to kill her - it is a result of mutual effort.
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144
happens can be retrieved from the earlier actions is most
likely to be acceptable or comprehensible to the
reader/spectator, which is precisely the so-called principle
of "chains of cause and effect" so eminently pronounced by
Lessing in Dramaturgie. And yet, curiously, this scene of
"climax" has a peculiar arbitrary twist, if not improbable.
In addition to the lack of explicit evidence to support
Emilia's motivation to die, Odoardo's murder is another
example, that suggests the writer ly insistence on a pre
fixed idea, since Ordoardo could have chosen to kill the
Prince, for instance, instead of his own daughter. The
problem lies in the fact that there is no solid argument to
support Lessing's choice, except for the very narrow premise
of ethical imperative, which does not have to be part of the
readerly conviction. In other words, the scene happens the
way the author wants it to, regardless of the action's own
existing, evolving logic,thereby runs counter to
Lessing's own principle of probability.
37
I am not suggesting that there is a tangible logic, with which we can
foresee the development of the action. Quite on the contrary, because of
a series of accidents (such as Appiani's murder, Orsina's interference,
Ordoardo's acquirement of the information and dagger, etc.) one might
find the prediction of a logical consequence is rather out of the
question. Certainly, what happens in this scene might well be another
example of the unexplainable twist. If this is valid, then logic or
probability is altogether an irrelevant factor. However, given that the
principle of probability is an important part of his theoretical
postulation, I prefer to treat the discrepancy between the creative and
theoretical writings as a type of ambiguity derives from the flaws of
writerly strategy. Since assumingly from writerly point of view, there
should be an evolved logic within the action. My opinion is that such an
existing logic does not strongly support the tragic catastrophe and its
outcome. As for what it does support is not truly a legitimate question
here, since it should lead to entirely subjective judgements.
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145
When Emilia is about to stab herself, Odoardo snatches
the dagger out of her hand and says: "See, how rash! No,
this is not for your hand" (V,vii). Instead of telling her
not to toy with her life, he warns her to keep away from the
dagger — it is not for her hand. Except for sparing her
from killing herself, such an admonition hardly excludes his
consensus to her death. If Lessing were to consider Emilia's
suicide an option, the bodkin she wears on her hair
doubtlessly could be also utilized as a lethal weapon. And
yet, when she reaches to her hair for bodkin, instead she
finds rose,
EMILLIA. That is true. With a bodkin I was to do
it. (She raises her hand quickly to her hair
for one, and finds the rose.) Still here?
Down with you! You have no place in the hair
of a - what my father desire that I become.
(V,vii)3*
Finally when she provokes him by mentioning the legend, in
which the courageous father stabs his daughter into the
heart so as to save her from disgrace, his moral imperative
promptly takes over and reacts, thereby kills her
impulsively,
ODOARDO. There are, my daughter, there are.
(Stedsbing her)
O God, what have I done? (V,vii)
3â
The Oenius of the German Theater, ed. Martin Esslin (New York: Mentor
Books, 1968), 93.
Ibid. 93.
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146
At last, after quite a long strife, Emilia is killed, and by
her father, as Lessing prefers.
The whole point of my inquiry on the issue of
probability and contingency lies in the fact that the
literary fiction, in essence, is a product of writerly
assertion/creation. As mentioned earlier, Lessing has
decided first that Emilia should willingly die in her
father's hand at the end. To Lessing's writerly conviction,
the occurrence of the alleged tragic catastrophe and its
consequence are probable, since he composes it from a
subjective prospective and preference, which is not
necessarily shared by his reader/audience. Consequentially,
the logical, probable choice to one person (the author),
might be illogical, improbable to another (his readers).
V . Dramatic dissonance
Intriguingly, the missing of conceptual probing on
issue of dramatic dissonance, such as conflict, strife in
Lessing's theoretical writing is reflected in the tragedy in
question's dubious construct of tragic complication: there
is an implicit dearth of clarity in the treatment of
antithetical forces, whereby it creates problem and
ambiguity for determining the tragedy's meaning.
In accordance with Lessing's intent, since the
political implication is to be eliminated (despite the fact
that the antagonism between the ruling power and middle
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147
class still remains in the drama as a social backdrop), the
drama in question should be all about personal and
interpersonal strife. As the text shows, Lessing's strategy
in constituting the tragic complication is by employing the
so-called court-intrigue scenario, which virtually divides
the principle characters into two groups: one is the
powerful aristocrat, the suppressor; and the other one is
the powerless victim, the oppressed. On the one hand, such a
design, even though, from the writerly point of view, might
mean nothing more than the historical/social backdrop of the
tragedy, it automatically infers class demarcation and
political discordance. Therefore the political implication,
against Lessing's intent, remains in the drama in question
as an intrinsic element, thereby sustains its inherent
significance. On the other hand, because of its non-intended
nature, it does not receive the full-scale treatment as a
thematic motif deserves.Moreover, since the court-
intrigue scenario intends to only incite tragic complication
rather conflict, another dramatic factor is directly
affected: the reading of one of the tragic characters,
Odoardo, becomes problematic. Unlike the father in Hebbel's
19th century middle-class tragedy, Maria Magdalene, who
40
This problem is reflected in the non-political conclusion of the
tragedy, in which the suppressors are not punished for their crime and
the defenseless victims destroy themselves to seek moral self-
realization.
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148
characterizes the stagnation of the austere bourgeois value,
thereby is meant to be the object of writerly criticism,
Odoardo, on the contrary, represents the enlightened 18th
century reader/spectator, who holds onto ethical value as
the source of his strength to assert (political) autonomy
from the tyrannical dominance. In other words, the bourgeois
ethical value embodied by the character, Ordoardo, is most
unlikely the target of Lessing's criticism. Rather, it is
esteemed positively as a desirable virtue. Now, one has to
ask, what makes Odoardo tragic, if not his ethical
sternness? As discussed earlier in the "character” section,
it is difficult to decide the nature of Odoardo*s tragic
guilt, whereby his status as the tragic hero is all the more
uncertain. However, it is noteworthy that, unlike Emilia, in
addition to the personal, private dimension, there is also
strong social, political implication to his character. Most
intriguingly, without his being politically oppressed, both
his and Emilia's misfortune on a private level can not be
appropriately illuminated. Therefore, it becomes a circular
argument when we try to read dramatic dissonance into the
tragedy so as to determine its meaning: on the one hand,
without the relevance of political conflict, the ethical
motif can not be properly interpreted; on the other hand,
even though the ethical issue enters the sphere of dramatic
dissonance through the channel of political strife, it
actually only becomes a thematic emphasis when it merges
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149
with the private issue on a personal, non-political level:
seduction and the strength to defy it.*^ Curiously, none of
the three thematic factors attains sufficient clarity,
whereby their interactive conjunction is all the more
dubious.
Such a conceptual complexity assumingly is not induced
from the writerly deliberation. In fact it arises from the
dramatist's own uncertainty in his choice of thematic focus
with regards to the emphasis of dramatic dissonance.
Therefore it engenders ambiguity. As the text shows, it is
both Emilia and Odoardo's task to merge two different levels
of strife together to render them an unified thematic accent
— the tragic suffering. While Odoardo fights up front as a
political dissent, Emilia strives from inward to meet the
external pushing forces. However, as observed earlier,
Emilia's internal conflict within herself, the essence of
the tragedy proper, unfortunately, is not sufficiently
explored and besides, the ending of the tragedy indicates
its negligence of the resolution of the political strife
that is rather essential to the tragedy proper. Being vague
in the major conflicting situations, Lessing's treatment of
the dramatic dissonance in Emilia Galotti, is thus
accomplished primarily in the formal tactics, understood as
tragic complication rather than tragic conflict.
41
In my opinion, this is where Emilia's tragic meaning comes in.
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150
vi. Poetic Justice or a moral lesson: what does the tragedy
intend to teach?
At last, on the subject of writerly text, I would like
to investigate the issue of poetic justice, in conjunction
to the tragedy in question's didactic objective. As the
drama itself shows, in addition to Emilia's tragic death,
most of the other principle characters' fate also go through
drastic changes: Appiani is murdered; Odoardo has committed
a crime, thereby will be brought to justice; Marinelli is
blamed for causing what has happened and let go; the Prince
regrets for Emilia's death without repenting his own guilt.
Suppose, as Lessing asserts in his Hamburgische Dramaturgie,
tragedy is to change our pity and fear into virtue; that
is to say, after reading/watching the tragedy, the
reader/audience would be moved, whereupon his/her compassion
is aroused for the tragic heros' misfortune and suffering,
and as a consequence, in order not to make the same mistake
like the tragic figures, he/she would fear for immoral
conducts, then what precisely are the alleged objects of the
enlightened spectator's compassion and fear that Lessing has
in mind? In other words, what does this tragedy intend to
teach?
Ironically, its moral implication would be somehow more
accessible to us were this play written by Schiller, or in
Werke, vol. 4, 592-596.
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151
accordance with his theory of aesthetics. To a great extent,
the drama's ending, in respect of Emilia and Odoardo's
incorporative act, points to schillerish spiritual triumph,
that overcomes sensous tendency thereby attains moral
freedom. It is tragic not only because the harmonious
concomitance of both "moral" and "sensuous" instincts are
destroyed but also because the conflict ends up with
undesirable death, which manifests "the most extreme example
of freeing oneself from the compulsions of the sensuous.
Even though such an interprétâtiona1 approach might seem
quite fitting, it in fact erroneously reads Schiller's
philosophical concept of dramatic conflict into Lessing's
work. I would say it is inappropriate since the concept of
conflict (between two antagonistic forces) and its dramatic
manifestation are never part of Lessing's conceptual domain.
Besides, were the tragic hero's inner conflict a thematic
focus, the portrayal of the transformation of the
character's spiritual landscape would have been more
consistent and essential, which is, as observed earlier,
missing in the tragedy in question.
By bringing in Schiller's aesthetics, and in the
meantime, denying the validity of such a conceptual
framework employed to read the tragedy in question's ethical
issue, I intend to stress the parculiar mode of Lessing's
43
Cornelius Schnauber, "Friedrich Schiller," the introductory article
for the Maria Stuart Production at Ahmaneon Theater, 1981.
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152
moral teaching strictly in accordance with his neo-classical
proclivity: the reaffirmation to his concern of tragic
emotions: pity and fear. The major difference between
Lessing's moral teaching and Schiller's ethical aesthetics
is that unlike the letter's protagonists, who are the moral
subject - the martyr of moral imperative, Lessing's
protagonists should be primarily the victim of deserved
misfortunes. In other words, the final assertion of moral
imperative - the attainment of sublimity - is not what
Lessing's middle-class tragedy strives for. What makes
Lessing's tragedy tragic is that there is a stark suggestion
of negativity in the example of the tragic hero's "mistakes"
or "weakeness." And virtually from this negative example, we
should learn the lesson, thereby improve our ethics. My
assumption is that the whole weight of Lessing's writerly
strategy aims at presenting a dramatic plot, in which the
suffering is significantly incited by the tragic hero's flaw
and weakness, aside from other's evil-doings. Such a
strategy, however, could neglect a very crucial factor in a
tragedy: the issue of poetic justice. The problem lies in
the fact that a broken, disastrous ending, in which the main
focus rests on the tragic hero's suffering for the
consequence of his/her mistake/weakness, could likely leave
the reader/audience's resentment toward the villains
bitterly unresolved, since the latter are not fairly
punished for their crime.
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153
As Yaffa Weisman observes in her study of Dürrenmatt *s
preoccupation with tragedy and its ingredients: "Questions
of morality inevitably lead to the theme of justice,...."**
Within our present context, the issue concerning poetic
justice might not be so crucial, if the reader/audience of
the tragedy in question is restricted to what is called "the
intended reader."*^ At issue is, what happens when the
"real" reader/audience of this tragedy is critical rather
than consenting — the ethical agenda of the play simply
does not register to them as a thematic significance? In
other words, a tragic catastrophe originally justified by
its didactic objective now loses what sustains its
convincibility. Apparently, such a supposition challenges,
undermines the drama's inherent writerly thesis on affective
response, whereby engenders an ambiguity, that, as a result,
renders the making of its meaning difficult. Furthermore,
suppose we are willing to follow Lessing's writerly train of
44
Yaffa Weisman, "Grotesque Transformations of the Mythical Woman: From
August Strindberg to Nissim Aloni." Diss. University of Southern
California, 1994, 132.
"Wolff - with his intended reader - sets out to reconstruct the idea
of the reader which the author had in mind. This image of the intended
reader can take on different forms, according to the text being dealt
with: it may be the idealized reader; or it may reveal itself through
anticipation of the norms and values of contemporary readers, through
the assigning of attitudes, or didactic intentions, or the demand for
the willing suspension of disbelief. Thus the intended reader, as a sort
of fictional inhabitant of the text, can embody not only the concepts nd
conventions of the contemporary public but also the desire of the author
both to link up with these concepts and to work on them - sometimes just
portraying them, sometimes acting upon them." Iser, The Act of Reading,
33-34. My employment of the concept here is to point out the fact that
Lessing's tragedy is written for a particular type of reader he has in
mind: they learn a moral lesson through his text by the conceptual rules
he sets up for them.
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154
thought so as to be prepared to be emotionally moved, what
would possibly motivate our fear? In other words, what do we
leam from the tragedy as negative examples for our own
moral self-advancement? What are the protagonists' mistakes?
Are these mistakes clearly presented to us?
Without attempting to answer any of these questions, my
observation in this section meant to illuminate the drama's
inherent enigma with regards to its ethical thesis, didactic
intent, Lessing's writerly strategy to attain the alleged
effect and consequential problem of the reader's
interpretation of its meaning in terms of the issue of
poetic justice.
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155
Chapter Four
Reader ly Texts: the Aesthetic Response
since the communicative structure of the writerly text
is engendered and activated by "textual ambiguity” rather
than "designed prestructure,” the Iserian reader type - "the
implied reader" is not methodologically relevant and
pertinent within our context. Instead, the unpredictable
"real reader,” who does not necessarily follow the
deliberate authorial guidance, is most appropriate for the
present study of reader response. The readerly response to
be studied in this chapter are textual evidences produced by
literary figures (dramatists, authors, literary historians,
etc.) from various historical epochs. They are the so-called
"real reader" with distinguished literary competence. In
Edward Dvoretsky's The Enigma of Emilia Galotti, the
historical receptions of Lessing's tragedy in question are
compiled according to chronological order with emphasis of
epochal divide, namely from the age of Enlightenment to
Realism.^ Its epochal grouping foregrounds each historical
reception's synchronical collective attribute in terms of
its cultural-social-political configuration. However, its no
more than mere honest recount of the primary sources does
not provide us with any deeper insight concerning the
interactive dynamic between readerly text and writerly text.
^ Dovretzky, The Enigma of Emilia Galotti.
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156
What I intend to accomplish in this chapter is to concretize
the dynamic of the interactive process by, above all,
avoiding the rigidity of epochal boundaries through
obliterating the readerly texts' chronological relevance.
The various readerly texts from different historical eras
will be categorized and compared in accordance with the
nature of their approaches to the writerly text. It is my
intent to investigate how the readerly text respond to the
factor such as ambiguity, concretized as "blank" and "gap"
within the writerly text. And through the communicative
structure (designated by the writerly text's inherent
blank/gap), the readerly text activates its impact by
commenting, inquiring, questioning, and criticizing.
Intriguingly enough, the textual discourse as literary
responsive act to the tragedy in question is represented
through diversified expressions and styles. Even though most
of them are critical texts with distinctive essayistic
modes, some of them are fragmentary comments mingled with
other discussive subjects in the form of literary
correspondences and some are elusive opinions documented in
the scattered literary notes. It is noteworthy that, in
addition to the above-mentioned conventional critical
practice, there are also critical suppositions, expressed in
the mode of dramatic discourse, such as parody, rewrite and
the continuation of the tragedy in question. In spite of the
great diversity of the formal distinctions, they all have
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157
one thing in common: they all respond to the tragedy in
question as readerly act, whereby the latter is rendered a
common referent, to whom the former claim their own
relevancy. Most important of all, they are all engendered,
evoked by the critics' (our "real readers'") response to the
textual ambiguity of the tragedy in question. That is to
say, by commonly treating the writerly text as a meaning
entity, they locate the spots of blank/gap in their initial
attempt on meaning making, whereupon the communicative
structure between the readerly and writerly texts is
established. It is also important to note that our writerly
text's status as a meaning entity - a thesis implied in most
of the readerly texts - is also signified by its dramatic
form/frame, although such a supposition is sometimes more
explicitly beheld in some of the readerly texts than others.
Based on the above observation, there are, hence, two
types of readerly texts, that will be investigated in this
chapter: one is critical text and the other one is dramatic
text. These two types of text will be treated separately,
due to their generic distinction. In accordance with the
analytical methods employed, the critical texts introduced
in this chapter will be further subdivided into two
categories. They are texts of "intrinsic analysis" and
"extrinsic analysis.The first analytical approach tends
^ Richard Hornby, Script into Performances A Structuralist View of Play
Production (Austin 6 London: University of Texas Press, 1977), 15-16.
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158
to be more textual-centered. Its investigative objective
stays solely within the textual world. Hence, the framework
of the readerly comprehension is established largely
according to the inherent logic of the text itself. However,
when the writerly inherent logic appears fallacious to the
perceiving subject, which happens very frequently, the
comprehensive freumework turns investigative. Intriguingly,
such a dialectics might reverse its pattern when the same
reader rereads the writerly text years later and have
different opinion of the writerly text. The second
analytical approach focuses on the writerly text's relation
to its contextual/intertextua 1 references. With the
textuality as the primary referent, it usually extends its
investigative objective to the factors such as, authorial
historical status, genre definition and the impact of the
source on the tragedy in question, etc.
My investigation on the historical receptions of the
tragedy in question will not include those which happen
after the epoch of Realism. The reason is based on the
observation that the ideologically conservative "absolute
drama" loses its appeal by the end of the nineteenth century
when bourgeois aesthetics is superseded by the antithetical
trends roaring from the lower segment of the social class.
Consequently, the reception of Lessing's middle-class
tragedy since then, as Goethe keenly observes as early as in
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159
1830,^ loses its historical and cultural dynamics. It is,
however, noteworthy that after World War Two, the tragedy in
question continues to be a highly discussed, studied and
performed work. Given the current project's intent to stay
focused within the absolute drama's historical frame of
reference both intertextually and contextully, the readerly
texts from the twentieth century will not be included in
this chapter.
I. Critical text
1.) intrinsic analysis
For the purpose of my study, the topics of our readerly
texts that dedicate their critique to intrinsic analysis
will be divided into four areas : i.) character; ii.)
dramatic composition; iii.) plot; iv.) meaning. Such a
topic-accented device, in spite of its shortcoming for
removing each readerly remark out of its original context,
would serve to highlight the linking points, at which the
readerly texts of the same interest meet and also the
In his correspondence with Zelter in 1930, the aged Goethe considered
Emilia Galotti a work of only limited, historical importance. To him,
the play could no longer appear new to the more developed culture of
1830. "Dein reines signes Verhïltnifi zu Emilia Galotti soil Dir nicht
verkiimmert werden. Zu seiner Zeit stieg dieses Stuck wie die Insel Delos
aus der Gottsched"Gelehrt»Weissischen pp.... Wir jungen Leute
ermuthigten uns daran and wurden Lessing deshalb viel schuldig.... Auf
dem jetzigen Grade der Kultur kann es nicht mehr wirksam sein.
Untersuchen wir's genau, so haUsen wir davor den Respekt wie vor einer
Mumie, die uns von alter hoher Wurde des Aufbewahrten ein Zeugnis gibt."
Bviafvachaal zwischsn Goethe und Zeiter, vol. Ill, hg. von Max Hecker
(Leipzig: Insel Verlag, 1918), 272.
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160
communicative spots that connect readerly and writerly text.
In spite of the investigative convenience rendered possible
by such a design, I eua aware of the intersective potential
among the four factors in terms of what each category would
entail - it seems technically impossible to define one
factor without involving the others (character, plot and
meaning are correlative dramatic idioms). Nevertheless, I
will go along with such a conceptual design by categorizing
the readerly opinion according to the explicit emphasis of
its analysis.
i. ) Character
In my previous discussion on the writerly text, I mentioned
that Emlia Galotti*s major ambiguity in the subject of
character is its uncertainty about the choice of principal
character. Such an uncertainty causes extensive problem in
defining characters' relations and consequentially the
meaning of the tragedy proper. This ambiguity thus creates
an initial blank/gap, through which some readers find the
channel to interact with the writerly text.
Who is the leading character?
Jakob Mauvillon (1743-1794), Lessing's contemporary, in
his critique of the tragedy in question states that the main
character must "hit you in the eye." He maintains that
Emilia should be an obvious choice on account of the play's
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161
title, and, most important of all, the purpose of the
tragedy. He adds that even though the Prince is the "real"
main figure, his passion, showing itself in a malicious
light, does not win our sympathy.^ He also points out that
more action focusing on Emilia would be instructive and
would render the entire situation with greater validity.^ A
similar opinion is uttered by Adolf Müllner (1774-1829), the
dramatist, who is sure that Emilia is the main figure and
the Prince, a subordinate one. Moreover, the latter must be
portrayed according to his proper relation to Emilia.^ The
"Ein theatralisches Stuck mus seine Ordonnanz haben wie ein Gemalde.
Es mus in demselben die Hauptfiguc Oder wenigstens die Hauptgruppe sein,
die gleich in die Augen fait, und sich vor alien andern hebt. Die
Ubrigen mUssen nach dem verschiedenen Antheil, den sie an der Sache
haben, in ihr gehoriges Licht gesetzt sein, und dennoch alle samtlich
zur Hebung der Hauptperson oder Gruppe concurriren. Das ist aber hier
gar nicht beobachtet. Denn wer ist die Hauptperson? Billig solte es wohl
Emilia sein, nach dem Titel, doch der 1st eine Kleinigkeit; aiber auch
nach dem Zweck des Stückes. Denn der Prinz, der wirklich die Hauptperson
ist, auf den kan, wegen des gehassigen Lichtes, in welchem sich seine
Leidenschaften zeigt, kein Intéressé fallen.” Julius H. Braun, Lssalng
im Ortheile seiner Zeitgenossen (Berlin: Friedrich Stahn, 1884-1893),
vol. I, 426.
^ "Eine falsche Figur zur einzigen Hauptfigur, das ist der Prinz. Um den
Fehler noch zu vergrdBern, ist neben dem Prinzen eine Figur gestelt, um
diesen noch mehr zu heben, die aber mit ihm fast in gelichem Lichte zu
stehen komt, so dafi diese untergeordnete Person, nemlich der Kammerherr
Marinelli, sich vor alien viel wichtigern vorstelt, und sie verdukelt.
Die Ubrigen sind alle weit hinter diese beiden zurUckgeworfen, und
nehmen sich noch dazu fast keine vor der andern aus: die einzige Emilia
ist ein klein wenig vor den andern hervorstechend, aber doch so, daQ man
sie vor dem Prinzen und vor Marinelli lange nicht genau genug bemerken
kan. Denn, ohngeachtet es das viel auf dem Theater seyn nicht ausmacht,
daB eine Person uns intéressant wird, so kan sie es doch nicht werden,
wenn sie uns zu sehr aus dem Gesicht gerUcket wird, indem wir nur uns
alsdenn fUr die Leute interessiren, wenn wir von ihrer Denkungsart
genugsam unterichtet sind, so daB wir genau wissen, welche Wirkung die
ZufUlle, die ihnen begegnen, auf sie machen, und daB wir alsdenn mit
deisen ihren Empfindungen und daraus entstehenden Handlungen
sympathisiren." Ibid., 427.
^ "Letzteren Falls ist entweder der Prinz als ein Kerl angesehen, der
ohne viel UmstUnde zur Notzucht schreitet, oder E. ist eine Gans, dass
sie davon lUuft...; so kann davon, wie der Prinz genomen oder gespielt
wird, nicht die Frage seyn; denn da Emilia die Hauptperson ist, so muss
er, die Nebenfigur, nothwendig sogenommen und gespielt werden, wie er am
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162
difference between Mauvillon and Milliner's views lies in the
fact that the latter takes interest in utilizing the factor
of theatrical representation as a supplemental reference in
reading the play. Georg Gottfried Gervius (1805-1871),
confirms Emilia's leading position by praising Lessing's
artistic mastery in toning down the old tale's distinctive
interest on the character of the father. His interpretation
of Lessing's reason for making such a shift of emphasis is
because there is great discrepancy between modern concept
and old Roman law in viewing patriarchal power, specifically
over the daughter.^ Gustav Freytag (1816-1895), on the
other hand, in his Die Technik des Dramas, indicates that
Emilia and the Prince are both typical of the leading female
and male characters in Lessing's drama.^
Intriguingly, in their common consensus about Emilia's
eminent role, all of the afore-mentioned critics, yet, pair
beaten zu ihr paast, i. e. llebenawiirdig bia auf die moderne
Prinzlichkeit. " Related by Theodor Diatel in the article "Kleine
Leaefriichte und Archivaplitter" in Zt. fur vergleichende
Literaturgeschichte, N.F. XIII (1899), 93.
^ "Schon daa iat ein Meiatergriff, daS Leaaing in dem einmal gegebenen
Stoffe daa Kind zur tragiachen Figur machte, da ea in der alten Fabel
der Vater iat, waa nach den neuen Begriffen, die dem Vater nicht ao viel
Macht Uber die Tochter geben, zu ungeheuer auagefallen aein wurde."
Georg Gottfried Gerviua, Geschichte der deutschea Dlchtung (Leipzig:
Wilhelm Bngelmann, 1853), vol. IV, 370.
O
"Die Zahl aeiner dramatiachen Grundformen iat nicht gro8; um daa
zSrtliche, edle, entachloaaene Madchen, Sara, Emilia, Minna, Recha, und
ihren Schwankenden Liebhaber, Melfort, Prinz, Tellheim, Templer, atelien
aich die dienenden Vertrauten, der wiirdige Vater, die Buhlerin, der
Intrigant, alle nach den T&chern der damaligen Schauapielertruppen
geachrieben. Und doch gerade in dieaen Typen iat die Mannigfaltigkeit
der Abwandlungen bewunderungawiirdig. " Gustav Freytag, Die Technik des
Drama, aechate, verbeaaerte Auflage (Leipzig, 1890), 226.
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163
Emilia with another candidate of principle character for
various reasons. Such a common premise - the fact that
Emilia is not alone - insinuates incompleteness of her
status as a tragic figure/hero. In other words, her lack of
sufficient independence to endow the tragedy a concrete
meaning needs to be compensated by being paired up with
another compatible character. Curiously, each critic's
consideration in the compatibility of a suitable match to
the female figure constitutes the idiosyncracy of his
criticism on the tragedy in question.
By diverting the attention away from Emilia, Johann
Gottfried Herder (1744-1803) and Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-
1860) both contribute rather ground-breaking insights to the
subject. Without entirely eradicating Emilia's eminence,
they both endow the play with distinguished sexual overtone
through raising the status of the Prince to the center.
According to both critics, the Prince, a powerful man with
royal prestige, is irresistible because he surely has a lot
to offer to the women. Herder, for instance, states that the
princely charm is so overwhelming, whereby it makes the
female characters lose their heads. And because of this
reason, the behavior of Emilia, Claudia and Orsina can be
fully understood and justified, since the portrayal of the
female weakness toward the lure of the princely power is
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164
merely an honest delineation of human nature.*
Schopenhauer, on the other hand, furthers Herder's view by
rendering it a even more provocative issue of ”sexual
politic.In his definition of "sexual honor,"
Schopenhauer defines the marital relationship as female and
male's exchange of honors, which resembles a kind of
reciprocal pact, whereby each one equally gives and takes.
The manly honor is inferred as man's earthly possessions and
womanly honor, on the other hand, refers to the female
partner's dedication to the relationship. Our drama in
question becomes relevant when Schopenhauer discusses man's
natural inclination to pursue and marry the woman of his
choice.Every man, except one "poor man," the Prince, is
9
"Und welcher Stand hütte auf den Charakter mehr Einfluh, ale der Stand
eines Prinzen?... Wie dem auch sei, in diesem Stuck getraute ich mir den
charakter der Emilie, Orsina, geschweige der Claudia vollig vertheidigen
zu kânnen; ja es bedarf dieser Vertheidigung nicht, da sich hier ailes
in der Sphïre eines Prinzen, um seine Person um seine Liebe, Treue und
Affection drehet. Wer kennt die Uebermacht dieses Standes beim schdnen
Geschlechte nicht?..." Herders SSmmtliche Werke, hg. Bernhard Suphan
(Berlin, 1881), vol. XVII, 183-185.
"Die Sexsualehre zerfallt ihrer Natur nach in Weiber- und Manner-Ehre
und ist von beiden Seiten ein whlverstandener esprit de corps
[Gemeingeist ]. Die ersterer ist bei weitem die wichtigst von beiden,
weil im weiblichen Leben das SexualverhXltnis die Hauptsache ist.... Das
weibliche Geschlecht verlangt und erwartet vom mannlichen allés, namlich
allés, was es wiinscht und braucht; das m&nnliche verlangt vom weiblichen
zunSchst und unmittlebar nur eines. Daher muBte die Einrichtung
getroffen werden, daB das mSnnliche Geschlecht vom weiblichen jenes eine
nur erlangen kann gegen Übernahme der Sorge fur allés and zudem fur die
aus der Verbindung entspringenden Kinder: auf dieser Einrichtung beruht
die Hohlfahrt des ganzen weiblichen Geschlechte. Um sie durchzusetzen,
mufi notwenig das weibliche Geschlecht zusammenhalten und esprit de corps
beweisen." Arthur Schopenhauer, Samtliche Werke, vol. IV, hr. Wolfgang
Frhr. Von Lôhneysen (Stuttgart/Frankfurt: Cotta-Insel, 1963), 437
"Ferner ist zu erwâgen, daB jeder im Lande das Weib seiner Wahl
ehelichen kann bis auf einen, dem dieses natiirliche Recht benommen ist:
dieser arme Mann ist der Fiirst. Seine Hand gehërt dem lande und wird
nach der Staatsrason, d.h. dem Wohl des Landes gemSB, vergeben. Nun aber
ist er doch ein Mensch und will auch einmal dem Range seines Herzens
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165
granted such a right, since the latter does not have the
freedom of choice concerning to whom he wants to marry.
Therefore, it is only human and fair for him to keep a
mistress. Evidently, for both critics the issue on seduction
between the Prince and Emilia is entirely amoral. By teücing
the Prince's unusual status into consideration, they justify
his/women's desire based on honest human inclination.
In a conversation with Rudolf kôpfe, Ludwig Tieck
(1773-1853) expresses his preference for the character
Marinelli.He is of the opinion that Marinelli is the
most consistent and developed character, who is actually the
leading figure. Tieck's choice of the major character
reflects his predilection for theatrical effect. Unlike the
other afore-mentioned critics, he does not deem the major
character as the suffering soul that determines the meaning
of tragedy, rather as a principal theatrical personae, that
has the best stage charisma. Johann Jakob Engel (1741-1802),
folgen. Daher iat ea ao ungerecht und undankbar, wie ea apieBbiirgerlich
iat, dem Fiiraten daa Halten einer Matreaae verwehren oder vorwerfen zu
wollen - verateht aich, aolange ihr kein Einflufl auf die Regierung
geatattet wird. Auch ihreraeita iat eine aolche MAtreaae hinaichtlich
der Sexualehre gewiaaermaBen eine Auanahmaperaon, eine Eximierte von der
allgemeinen regel: denn aie hat aich blo8 einem Manne ergeben, der aie
und den aie 1ieben, aber nimmermehr heiraten konnte.” Ibid., 439-440.
Even though here Schopenhauer did not directly uae Emilia Galotti as an
example, his reference to the play in the same article, "Von Dem, Was
Einer vorstellt" suggests that his reading of the character, the Prince,
and the "affair" between him and Emilia is explicitly implied in this
paragraph.
12
"In der 'Emilia Galotti' iat der vo 1 lender ate und in aich aebat
einigate Charakter Marinelli; er iat ganz aus einem Guaae, eigentlich
die Hauptrolle, und daher auch fUr den Schauspieler die dankbarate."
Rudolf kôpfe, Ludwig Tieck - Eriimerungen aus dem Leben dea Dichters
nach dem desaen miindlichen und achriftlichen Hittheilungen (Leipzig,
1855), vol. II, 183 f.
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166
director of the Berlin National Theater from 1787-1793,
dedicates four articles (letters) on reviewing Emilia
Galotti. With exalted enthusiasm he also praises Lessing's
remarkable artistry in delineating the character, Marinelli.
Like Tieck, he reads the character strictly from the
theatrical aesthetic point of view, even though he does not
explicitly indicate that Marinelli should be the leading
character. From the moral point of view, Engel says,
Marinelli, the cold, scheming villain, deserved to be
condemned. However, viewed from a strictly poetic
perspective, he is the most splendid and most well
delineated character on the stage ever.To Engel, what
seems to be so appealing about Marinelli is the fact that
the latter, a skilled, crafted but vile courtier, radiates
his poetic quality as a dramatic personae in the art of
seduction. His venomous quality, fused with cold,
calculating bearing make him stand out from the rest of the
characters in the play.^^ Engel further states that the
portrayal of evil/immoral characters could have a very
positive effect on the audience, in terms of their moral
”... ; so bewundre ich doch noch mehr den in alien seinen kleinsten
Theilen so wahren, so ausgefiihrten, von Anfange bis zu Ende so wohl
erhaltnen Charakter dee Marinelli. Von der moralischen Seite betrachtet,
sei er so schwarz, als er wolle; ich bin der erste, ihn zu verwunschen;
aber von der poet ischen ist er einer der schonsten und ausgeführtesten,
die nur je auf der Bühne erschienen sind." Der Philosoph fiir die Welt,
herausgegeben von J.J. Engel (Leipzig, 1775), vol. I, 111-112.
14
"Gleich zu Angange erscheint Marinelli als der gewandte und
verschlagene Hdfling, als der niedertràchtige und durch lange üebung im
Laster ausgelernte Verführer, der er das ganze Stuck hindurch bleiben
wird." Ibid. 112. Engel refers to Marinelli as a "poisonous insect" in
the second of the "Briefe uber Emilia Galotti." Ibid. 133.
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167
amelioration.^^ Even though his view on didactic strategy
seems quite insightful, it certainly does not intend to go
along with Lessing's original thesis on affective response.
Like Engel, some critics do not explicitly name their
choice of the major character, either. While reading the
tragedy in question from a specific interprétâtiona1 angel,
they take a character as the representative model to
illustrate their points of view. Ferdinand Lassalle's (1825-
1864) reading of Emilia Galotti is precisely a case in
point. In his article on Lessing, he focuses his analysis
on exploring the political implication of the play.
According to Lassalle, the play is virtually an expression
of political self-assertion. The conflict in Emlia Galotti
is that of the individual inner freedom and right to
independence and honor with a superior external power. At
the end, if his heros do not break through the external
obstacle, they at least attain the inner freedom. Lassalle
further states that Lessing's portrayal of the soldier,
Odoardo, and his will to defend his right, embodies such a
concept.
"Auch haben vergleichen Schilderungen unmoralischer Charaktere auf
den Zuachauer einer sehr moralische Werkung." Ibid. 120.
"Gotthold Ephraim Leasing" in Ferdinand Lassalle, Redon und
Schriften, hg. Eduard Bernstein (Berlin, 1892), vol. I, 407 f.
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168
G#n#ral eharaetarliation
The opinions on the play's general characterization
also varies. Critics like Rambler and Eschenburg give very
positive reviews. However, unfavorable remarks are also to
be found in Hebbel and Gervius ' comments. In his discussion
of characterization, Karl Wilhelm Rambler (1725-1798)
maintains that the characters in Emilia Galotti are
realistic. They are real, imperfect human characters, who
possess both good and bad qualities, just like the figures
brilliantly delineated in Homer and Shakespeare.^^ In his
remark in the Neue Braunschveigische Zeitung from March 24
to April 2, 1772, Johann Joachim Eschenburg (1743-1820)
states that every scene is constituted by logical actions
and proper characters.^* Freytag, in praising Lessing's
excellency in portraying his characters in the swell of
intense excitement, he asserts that Lessing's figures show
profusion of details and expressions, which are better than
in Goethe and more often than in Schiller.^* Friedrich
"Sle flnden darin wahre Charakter geschildert: nicht solche, die gar
keinen Schein von Fehler haben; auch nicht solche, die keinen Anstrich
von irgend einer Tugend haben: sondern solche, wie sie die Natur
geschaffen hat, und noch schaffen kann. Sie finden ferner, dafi die
Charakter vortrefflich von einander abstechen, und zwar nicht so, wie
Schwarz und Weifi, (welches gar keine Kunst erfodert), sondern so wie sie
Homer und Schakespeare zu schattiren wissen." Braun, Loaaing im OrthsilB
seiner Zeitgenoaaen, vol. I, 366-367.
18
"...; sondern in welchem allés aus dem zum Grunde liegenden Stoffe in
der natiirlichsten Folge herausgezogen, jede Scene durch Handlung, durch
Aeusserung der treffendsten Charaktere belebt, der Ton des Gesprkchs
diesen Charakteren und der Natur hochst gemaB ist, jeder Umstand der zur
Bntwickelung des Subjekts gehdrte,...." Ibid., 355.
19
"... ; der Reichtum an einzelheiten, die Hirkung schlagender
LebensauBerungen, welche sowohl durch Schdnheit als wahrheit
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169
Schlegel (1772-189) who in general holds unfavorable opinion
on the tragedy in question, comments that its
characterization oscillates between generality and
individuality.
Friedrich Hebbel (1813-1863), the realist, rebukes the
play for lack of true sense of naturalness. On the subject
of characterization he asserts that the characters in Emilia
Galotti are too calculated to serve their final destiny,
namely, the catastrophe.^^ Hebbel*s opinion is supported by
Gervinus* criticism on the extremity in Lessing's character
delineation.^^
Such a strong contrast of opposite opinions regarding
the same issue of our tragedy in question is actually rather
typical throughout its historical receptions. It becomes
Uberraschen, 1st beim ihm in dem beschrankten Reife seiner tragischen
Figuren grofier als bei Goethe, gehaufter als bei Schiller." Freytag, Die
Technik des Dramas, 226
"Ich mochte es [Emilia Galotti] eine prosaische Tragodie nennen.
Sonderbar, aber nicht eben intéressant ists, wie die Charaktere zwischen
Allgemeinheit und Individualitat in der Mitte Schwebenl” Friedrich
Schlegel, Friedrich Schlegel - Kristische Schriften (München: Carl
Hanser, 1964), 364.
21
"Jedenfalls sind diese Characters zu absichtlich auf ihr endliches
Geschick, auf die Katastrophe, berechnet, und dies ist fehlerhaft, denn
dadurch erhalt das ganze Stuck die Gestalt einer Maschine, worin
lebendige Menschen die fur einander bestimmten und nothgedrungen auf den
Glockenschlag in einander reifenden R&der vorstellen." Friedrich Hebbel,
SSmtliche Werke: ragebiicher, hg. Richard Maria Werner (Berlin, 1905)
vol. I, 330.
22
"Das Thema des Verwandtenmords griff tief in die Zeit ein, obwohl
anders gefaBt; die Charakterformen wirkten am wenigsten welter, well sie
nirgends auf âhnliche Energies in den Dichtern trafen, sie waren den
Leidenschaftlichen zu natürlich, und den Schwachen wie Claudius u. A.
unheiffllich und hart." Georg Gottfried Gervius, Geschichte der deutachen
Dichtung, vol. IV, 370.
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170
even more obvious in the discussion of individual
characters.
Emilia
In regards to the character of Emilia, there are two
most prevalent though contradictory opinions expressed by
the critics concerning her virtue and chastity. Christian
Heinrich Schmid (1746-1800) holds that the character of
Emilia is interesting by virtue of her suffering. Her fine
qualities of sensitivity, submissiveness to her parents,
pious innocence, and demureness render her an perfect object
of our sympathy, who suffers without guilt.Schmid's
uncritical reading of Emilia's character is contrasted by
the acute observations of Sulzer and Bodmer. In his letter
of December 24, 1774, to Bodmer, Johann Georg Sulzer (1720-
1779) expressed his discontent with Emilia's weakness, such
as her inability to believe in her own virtue.For Johann
23
"Der Charakter der Emilia Galotti intereOirt, gleich der Deademona,
nicht durch ihre Handlungen, sondern durch ihre Leiden. Von dieser Seite
betrachtet sind Frauenzimmer die beaten tragischen Personnen, da sie die
Natur mehr zu leiden als zu handeln bestiimnt, und uns ein gewisses
Mitleid gegen sie eingepflanzt hat. Emiliens Leiden sind uns desto
empf indlicher, je liebenswürdiger uns ihr Charakter geworden.... Ihre
Z&rtlichkeit, ihre Unterwiirsigkeit gegen ihre Aeltern, ihre fromme
Unschuld, ihre Bescheidenheit, alle ihre Tugenden, aufiern sich nicht in
kalten Reden, wie bei der Virginia, sondern theilen uns die Warme des
Herzens mit, aus dem sie quellen , und bezaubern selbst durch die Ziige
weiblicher Schwachheit, die darunter gemischt sind." Christian Heinrich
Schmid, Ober einige SchSnheiten der Emilia Galotti (Leipzig: J.G.
Muller, 1773), 25-26.
24
"Jetzt, da Sie auch das BekenntniB thun, daB Sie LeBings Stdrke in
dem Pathos erkennen, will ich auch Ihnen bekennen, daB ich in dem, was
Sie an der Emilia Galotti aussetzen, besonders in dem Punkte, da Sie die
Emilia zu schwach finden, an ihre eigene Tugend zu glauben, vëllig
Ihrer Meinung bin. dieses ist mir in dem Charakter de Emilia immer
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171
Jakob Bodmer (1698-1783), as well, the ideal Emilia, would
never have lost her faith in God and her own virtue.
Intriguingly, as their remarks shown, both Sulzer and Bodmer
see the virtuous nature in Emilia's character, which
unfortunately is lost due to her alleged "low self-esteem."
Such a hypothesis regarding Emilia's innate ability to be
virtuous is entirely denied by Nüllner. In his view, out of
pure feminine vanity, Emilia desires the Prince.
Hüllner's interpretation reminds us of Herder's assertion.
They both agree upon the irresistible allurement of the
princely power to womanly conceit. Emilia, for the first
time, is read as a "social climber" under the direct
influence of her mother.
austdfiig gewesen.” Briefe deutacher Gelehrten, Aus Gleima litterariachem
Nachlaaae, hg. Wilhelm Kôrte (Zurich, 1804), vol. I, 422.
25
"Da ich [Emilia] aeinen Tod in den nassen und wilden Augen meiner
Mutter las, hatte ich gern überlaut geweint, und nicht den geringsten
Gedanken gehabt, den Affect zurück zu halten, damit ich die Umstehenden
mit meinen Klagen nicht aufhielte. Und als allés verloheren war, stieg
meine Furcht vor meinem R&uber nimmer auf den Grad der Heftigkeit, daB
mich allés Vertrauen auf Gott, oder nur auf meine Tugend, verlessen
h&tte. Ich war zu christlich, den Selbstmord in meine Gedanken zu
nehmen; meine ganze Entshlossenheit war fur tugendhafte, nicht fur
verzvreifelte Thaten.” See epilogue in Johann Jakob Bodmer, Odoardo
Galotti, Vater der Emilia, Ein Pendant au Emilia, In einem Auf auge und
Epilogue aur Emilia Galotti. Von einem langst bekannten Verfasser
(Augusburg, 1778), 28-29.
26
"Er [Müllner] schreibt unterm 10. M&rz 1818 an Bâttiger also: Sie
liebt den Prinzen, wenn man es anders liebe nennen will, was so recta
aus der weiblichen Eitelkeit herfliesst, die an dem Gedanken schwindelt,
von einem Prinzen geliebt, ist zu sagen, begehrt zu werden....'" Related
by Theodor Distel in the article "kleine Lesefriichte und Archivsplitter"
in Zt. fiir vergleichende literaturgeachichte, vol. XIII, 92.
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172
The Prince
In addition to the previous comments on the Prince's
preeminent significance as a major character, most of the
opinions about the character Prince center on the nature and
incentive of his impassioned act and its consequences. Such
an approach usually leads to a deeper exploration on his
share of guilt. Unsurprisingly, he earns some critics'
sympathy as a likable human being unfortunately trapped in
his royal status. Herder and Schopenhauer's unconventional
points of view are most distinguished among all. The
anonymous author of the play, Biemka, points out that the
Prince is more a suffering than an active, overbearing
27
person as he seems to be. Eschenburg also comments that
27
"Dieser Mangel eines moralischen Z%*eckes hat, dUnkt mir, zur Folge,
daB in den Karakteren selbst manches Schwankende und Widersprechende
gefunden wird. - So 1st der Prinz ein mehr leidendes als
selbsthandelndes oder selbststSndiges Geschôpf, zwar nicht bos genug,
aber wenigstens zu hoflich um hassenswerth zu sein, aber doch so
verdorben, daB er allés Bose, was geschieht, und in seinen Namen gewirkt
wird, wirklich will und veranlaBt, getreulich befordert und meisterhaft
benutzt; und kann sich dabei nicht einmal mit dem Vorwande decken, déU3
er von seinem nichtswürdigen Günstlinge dazu verleitet worden sei."
Bzanka. Bin tragischea QemBlde in fiinf Aufziigen. Seitenstiick zur Emilia
Oalotti. Habst einer kurzen kritiachen Beleuchtung dieses Lessing’schen
Heisterstiicks. Zweite Ausgabe (Lepzig, 1802), 7. The preface to the work
is signed "Der Verfasser R. " The date of the first edition is unknown.
In spite of the fact that Bianka is a drama written as a readerly
response to Emilia Galotti, it retains very little from the original
character relations and tragic complication. All is left to be
recognized as a sort of "Seitenstiick" to our tragedy in question is the
so-called love-triangle between a duke, his son and their common desired
object, named Bianka, listed in the dramatis personae as an unknown
person (eine Unbekannte). As far as its plot concerns, the tragic
conflict does not go beyond the leading female character's struggle for
her love to the duke's son and her resistence to the duke's brute force.
The play ends with Bianka's tragic death as the victim of the duke's
tyranny. However, the latter also stabs himself to death after realizing
the mistake he makes. Since this play does not substantially intersect
with Lessing's tragedy in terms of tragic complication, I will not
discuss it again in the latter section of "dramatic text as readerly
response."
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173
even though the Prince is characterized by his
lasciviousness, he shows traits of goodheartedness and a
soft, amiable way of thinking, as well. It is quite apparent
that his motivation, calculation and determination are
subservient to his passion.C. H. Schmid's view on the
sensuality of the character Prince is identical to
Eschenburg's. He also sees the character a young, sexually
aggressive person, who is helplessly susceptible to
Marinelli's instigation. In addition, he points out the
Prince's inactivity toward the end. To this noticeable
change of the character's behavior, Schmid offers his own
explanation: he is very confused himself, since he
mistakenly allows himself to fall for Marinelli's malevolent
scheme, which is set into motion before he is aware of its
full significance.^® However, Christoph Friedrich Nicolai's
(1733-1811) similar comment on the character's increasing
passivity takes on a much more critical overtone. Nicolai
considers the shrinkage of the Prince's magnetism has much
to do with the final revelation of his true character - his
incapability to take the matter into his own hand.
28
"Hettore Xonzaga,... ein Prinz von Guastalla, desaen herrechender
Charakter Sinnlichkeit und Wolluet iat, und der dabei alle die Niiancen
der Cut her z igkeit und der weichen, nachgebenden Denkungaart hat, welche
in den jUngern Jahren dea Lebena mit einem aolchen Charakter verbunden
zu aein plegen. Sein Veratand, aeine Ueberlegung, aeine EntachlUsae,
allea iat aeiner Leidenschaft untergeordnet; diese ist jetzt fUr auf
Emilien gerichtet; und nun wendet sich allés bei ihm nach dieser
Richtung." Braun, Lessing im Ortheile seiner Zeitgenossen, vol. I, 359.
29
"..., daB des armen Prinzen Erziehung so viele Fkden vor und
rUckwSrts in seinem Herzen gesponnen, daB ein elender Kammerherr
Marinelli mit seinem Herzen machen kann, was er will." Schmid, Ober
einige Schônheiten der Emilia Galotti, 44.
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174
Ironically, as a ruler of a land, the Prince has to let
himself led by the nose by his courtier in a minor matter,
such as seducing a young woman.
Odoardo
Most of the attention on the character of Odoardo lies
in the controversial nature of his killing act. To stay with
our current focus on the subject of characterization, I will
save the discussion on this particular issue in the "plot”
section.
It seems to be a common consensus that his strong,
respectable profile has much to do with the honor code that
Lessing intends to bring to the fore. Engel, for instance,
regardless of his skepticism about the motivation of
Odoardo*s daughter-stabbing act, rules out the possibility
of an alternative scenario: he kills the Prince instead of
Emilia out of pure vengeance. To Engel, such a scenario is
considered improbable, for Lessing wished to portray him as
a honorable and highly respectable person.
30
"Der Prinz 1st meines Erachtens ganz nach der Natur geehildert. Man
findet, dafi er am Ende gar zu matt und unthatig wird, und im fiinften
Acte nichte mehr von dem Geiste hat, den er in der ersten Scene
verspricht. Aber dies ist eben der Wahre Charakter gewisser Prinzen,...
Nur das Einzige wunschte ich, daB der Prinz bei der Emilia thatiger
wAre; die kleinen SuBigkeiten und Schmeicheleien, die ein Prauenzimmer
Ubertdlpeln, pflegen ja sonst den Piippchen nicht zu fehlen, die LSnder
regieren, und sich von ihren Kammerherren regieren lassen. " see
Nicolai’s letter to Lessing on April 7, 1772 in 6. E. Lessing' SSmtliche
Schriften, hr. Karl Lachmann, vol. XX (Leipzig: G. J. Goschen'sche
Verlagshandlung, 1905), 158.
"Ich will glauben, mein Freund, daB eine Rachsucht moglich ist, die
fiir ihre Befriedigung allés, selbst ein einziges Kind, dahingiebt; aber
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175
Marinelli
Like Engel, Theodor Fontane (1819-1898) is also drawn
to this character for his theatrical charisma and his sharp
contrast with the seemingly over-agitated, imprudent
Odoardo, who is described as "being ridiculous" for his
excitement. He maintains, "being excited is almost as
ridiculous as being Odoardo; it is not worthwhile, since the
most supreme aspect of world history is, after all,
tedium. What Fontane intends to drive at is the
superiority of sedateness to agitation, for it shows a sense
of self-reliance and being in control. Such a quality
characterizes Marinelli, the villain. However, it is
important that the "dull" calmness has to be imbellished
with diabolic strength. In his review on Richard Kahle's
portrayal of Marinelli, he claims that the actor's
performance lacks the quality of "Devilness." Fontane states
that de-devilizing Marinelli is not an advancement, since we
reconcile with this figure by recognizing his
gewlB ist der Mensch, der ihrer fâhig ist, einer der schwarzesten,
verhaBtesten Menschen: und doch ist es deutlich, daB der Dichter den
Odoardo vielmehr als einen edlen und hochachtungswiirdigen habe schildern
wollen." Engel, Der Philosoph fiir die Welt, vol. II, 123.
32
"Das Beste des Lebens ist ein kammerherrnschlUssel, ein ganz junger
KuB, ein Jeu; unter alien Spielen aber steht das Spiel mit Menschen
wieder obenan. Reite sie, sporne sie, foppe sie, vor allem maltratiere
sie; aber immer ruhig; Aufgeregtsein ist fast so l&cherlich wie
Odoardosein; es verlohnt sich nicht; denn das Souver&nste der
weltgeschichte ist doch schlieBlich die Langeweile. "The statement
appears in his review on the theatrical performance of Emilia Galotii
[Richard Kahle's Marinelli; Frau Erhartt’s Orsina], dated March 4, 1871.
Parkettplatz 231 Theodor Fontane iiber Theaterkunat, Dichtung und
Wahrheit, hg. E. Welk (Berlin, 1949), 151.
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176
fiendishness.C.H. Schmid, while pointing out Marinelli's
overpowering shrewdness as the driving force of the whole
action, does not overlook the fact that the figure's
diabolical power depends on the Prince's very weakness.
Therefore, he is, in essence, a "petite spirit" with nothing
more than slyness. Schmid further asserts that even if he
were meant to be deemed as a person of intellect like
Richelieu, we would hate him even more for the way he makes
use of his sagacity. And a hateful person can never be a
major character.
Orsina
Intriguingly, Orsina, a character which does not have
frequent appearance throughout the entire drama is one of
"Etwa aus dieser Grundstinmung heraus ist der Marinelli des Herrn
Kahle konstruiert. Vieles davon deckt sich mit dem wirklichen
Lessingschen Marinelli; aber es fehlt nocht etwas, es fehlt, was uns, so
paradox es klingen mag, mit dieser Gestalt wieder versohnt, es fehlt der
Teufel. Das Entteufeln des Marinelli 1st nicht ein Fortschritt, sondern
ein Riickschritt; was an einem Menschen dégoûtant ist, kann an einem
Teufel verhaltnismafiig angenehm und kleidsam sein. Dafür ist er Teufel.
Das bloEe Hineinpfuschen ins Teuflische aber, ohne es zu was Reellem zu
bringen, ohne ebenbiirtig eingereiht zu werden in die grofie Gesellschaft
der Verneiner, das bloBe menschlich-mesquine ' Abgebriihtsein' an Stelle
des hôllischen Feuers, das erlabt nicht, davor steht man nicht in
poetsichen Schauder.” Ibid, 151.
34
"Der Sittenspruch, womit sich das ganze Stuck schlieAt: '1st es, zum
Ungliickliche so mancher, nicht genug,...?' flieOt natürlich aus dem
Charakter des Marinelli, der nicht, wie Klaudius in den Virginien, ein
müfiiger Konfident, sondern das Triebrad der ganzen Handlung ist....
Allein ohne die Leidenschaft des Prinzen würde er es [Feinheit und
Scharfsinn des Verstandes hStte] gewifl nicht haben.... Alle Intriguen
des Marinelli sind nicht sovrohl sein als arglistig angelegt, bei aller
seiner Verschmitztheit ist er ein kleiner Geist.... Und w&re er ein
Richelieu am Verstande, so wurden wir ihn wegen des Gebrauche, den er
davon macht, nur desto mehr has sen, und eine hasseswurdige Person ist
nie eine Hauptperson. ” Schmid, Ober einige Schônheiten der Emlia
Oalotti, 22-25.
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177
the focal points of critics' attention. Freytag, who makes a
penetrating remark on Lessing's mastery in the treatment of
Orsina ' s characterization, claims that the drawback of
introducing Orsina as late as in the fourth act is overcome
by allowing her impassioned frenzy to dominate it.
Eschenburg also holds that in spite of her episodic role,
Orsina shows the most originality in concept and treatment,
since her presence is well interwoven into the textile of
the main action. Doubtless, due to her lack of comparable
precedent, Orsina's impassioned expression and idiosyncratic
attribute turn out to be monumental, when viewed within the
category of womanly figures in dramatic literature.^®
The general opinions on this female figure who does not
have a very conventional profile happen to be rather
contradictory. Many interesting speculations are centered on
her unusual eloquence and sharp intelligence, conveyed in
her famous brief encounters with Marinelli and Odoardo.
"Die Gaste des vierten Aktes müssen rasch und stark in die Handlung
eingreifen und durch kraftige Wirksamkeit ihr Erscheinen rechtfertigen.
- Der vierte Akt in Emilia Galotti ist zweiteilig. Auf die vorbereitende
Unterredung zwischen Marinelli und dem Prinzen tritt der neue Charackter
der Orsina als Gehilfin in das Gegenspiel ein. Den Übelstand der neuen
Rolle weifi Lessing sehr gut dadurch zu iiberwinden, daQ er der
leidenschaftliche Bewegung dieses bedeutsamen Charakters die Leitung in
den folgenden Szenen bis sum Schlufi des Aktes ubergibt. Auf ihre groBe
Szene mit Marinelli folgt als zweite Stufe des Aktes der Eintritt
Odoardos: die hohe Spannung, welche die Handlung dadurch erhklt,
schlieBt den Akt wirksam ab. " Freytag, Die Tecnik des Dramas, 176
"Von alien Charakteren dieses meisterhaften Trauerspiels hat keiner
mehr Originalit&t, ist keiner mit grësserer kunst gedacht und behandelt,
und mit st&rkern treffendern Ziigen gezeichnet, als der Charakter der
Gr&fin Orsina.” Braun, Lessing im Ortheile seiner Zeitgenossen, vol. I,
362.
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178
Franz Christoph Horn (1781-1837), for instance, considers
Orsina a colorful character, endowed with rich
spirit/intellect (Geist), a contrast to the soulless,
shallow Prince.By coupling her with Marinelli, Schmid
confirms her antithetical inclination, to which only female
depravities are attributed: pride, scorn, vindictiveness out
of pure jealousy, etc — it is a symptom of depression
38
bordering on total insanity. Similar to Schmid's emphasis
of psychological factors. Herder's reading of this character
also hints at her role as a victim of Prince's
lasciviousness. However, unlike Schmid, who evidently doubts
the countess's mental normalcy. Herder considers her
exaggerated ravings understandable and reasonable.
"Wir werden dann eehen, daB nicht der bloBe Verstand jenes Werk
hervorbrachte, sondern eien groBartige Vernunft. Wir werden die
herrliche Ironie nicht verkennen, mit der L. seinen Prinzen Hettore
zeichnete, nicht die Poesie vermissen in dem VerhaltniB der mild frommen
und sinnlich feurigen Emilia..., vor allem aber den reichen Geist
anerkennen müssen, der bei der Zeichnung der Orsina aufgewandt worden
ist, deren Farbenglanz fast brennend erscheint; wenn wir sie uns im
Verh<niB zu dem gemüthlos»hohlen Hettore denken. Die Beziehung zu
diesem ist uns stets als ein tragisches Empigramm vorgekommen, wo
Lacheln und ThrSnnen zugleich hervorbrechen mochten." Franz Christoph
Horn, Die Poesie und Brsdsamkext der Deutschen, von Luthers Zeit bis zur
Oegeavart (Berlin, 1824), vol. Ill, 113.
38
"Orsina allein würde die Emilia über alle Virginien erheben. Die
H&Blichkeit des Marinelli etwas zu mildern, muBten ihm untergeordnete
BSsewichter zur Seite gestellt werden; dazu dienen Angelo und Pirro.
Aber, um auch seinen Ranken entgegen zu arbeiten, muBte ein andrer
schwarzer Charakter zu seinem Gegenbilde gemacht werden. In vollig
gleichem Grade durfte dieser aber nicht bose seyn, wenn nicht
Einformigkeit entstehen sollte.... Um der Wahrscheinlichkeit willen
werden ihr nur weibliche Laster beigelegt, als da sind: Stolz, Hohn,
Schadenfreude, Rachsucht vregen einer fehlgeschlagnen Hoffnung, Alle
diese erzeugen zusammen eien Schwermuth, die nahe an den Wahnsinn
granzt,...." Schmid, (fber einige Scbô'nbeiCen der Emilie Galotti, 30.
39
"So erlaube ich auch der Orsina, (die nothwendig mit M&Bigung
gespielt wrden muB) ihre Verhdnung des Marinelli, selbst ihre hôllische
Phantasie im siebenden Auftritte des vierten Acts. Wenn sie nicht den
Mund dffnet, wer soli ihn Bffnen? Und sie darfs, die gewesene Gebieterin
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179
On the other hand, several critics' views on the
character are swayed to another extreme in their complete
denial of her convincibility. Nicolai, for example, attacks
Orsina's intellectual eloquence in her conversation with
Marinelli. His reasons to rebuke the appropriateness of
Lessing's treatment are two fold: first of all, one only
hears of her in the first scene, consequently she is a
stranger to the reader/audience. Secondly, her erudition can
only be read as a radical attempt to gain personal status.
Therefore it is a sign of fanaticism out of twisted
ambition.As compared to Nicolai, Otto Ludwig's (1813-
1865) criticism seems even more relentless. However, his
harsh, hostile phraseology is supported by rather well-
structured, reasonable argument. Despite the beauty of the
finished work, he said, Orsina is Lessing's greatest
dramaturgical sin, for she is "artificial." Her function is
eines Prinzen, die in aeiner Sphere an Willkiihr gewohnt ist. Als eine
Beleidigte, Verachtete muA sie anjetzt iibertreiben, und bleibt in der
grôBesten Tollheit die redende Vernunft selbst, ein Meisterwerk der
Erf indung.” Herders SSmmtliche Verke, vol. XVII, 183f.
40
”, dafi der Charakter der Orsina nicht durch Handlung vorbereitet ist;
denn in den ersten Auf ziigen wird nur von ihr erzalt. Daher kommt sie dem
Zuschauer viel fremder vor.... NSmlich: Orsina ist eine Femme &
Prétension. Sie hat sich auf Gelehrsamkeit beflissen, um etwas zu sein;
aber sie hat viel zu viel Weltlebensart, um Gelehrsamkeit gl&nzen zu
wollen. Das verspart sie, wenn sie sich selbst geniefien will, aber wenn
sie einmal etwa im kleinen Zirkel von Gelehrten bewundert sein will,
Oder wenn ihre Eitelkeit, die sich auf allés erstreckt, etwa gar einmal
wollte, auch ein Mann wie z. B. Tasso, sollte ihr Anbeter sein.... und
weichen Liebhaber konnte auch Orsina haben wollen, die einen Fiirsten zu
ihren FUBen sah, der sie verlieBl - VerlieB? - Dies bringt sie ganz
aufier Fassung, macht sie halb wahnsinnig. In diesem Wahnsinne vergifit
dieser Frau von feiner Weltlebensart, daB es sich fiir eine Dame nicht
schickt, gelehrte Dinge einzumischen, und stoBt im Wahnsinne, da sie
sich ganz selbst vergiBt, diese Gelshrtsamkeit aus.” Nicolai made the
above remark on Orsina to Lessing when they spoke in 1775 in Berlin. See
Lessings SHamtliche Verke, vol. XX, 158. footnote.
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180
only 1.) to conceal Lessing's ineptitude; 2.) to extend the
action; 3.) to provide Odoardo with the dagger. And in order
to introduce this figure at an appropriate time, her letter
has to lie unread.Ludwig thus concludes that without
Orsina, this drama will fall apart.Curiously, in his
later correspondence with Julian Schmidt in 1862, while
expressing his admiration for Lessing's extraordinary skill
in portraying character, he mentions that Orsina has no
match in German dramatic literature.
Appiani
The general feelings about Appiani is his pensiveness
and melancholic temperament. Critics tend to speak of him as
an isolated study object who is somewhat independent from
the complicatedly interwoven character relations. Berthold
41
"Da mufi eine ganze Figur erfunden werden, die, so schon sie erfunden
ist, doch nur das Bediirfnis des Dichters, das sie maskieren soil,
bloBlegt, die Handlung zu strecken und dem Odoardo den Dolch zu geben,
den dieser spater haben mufi, und um diese Figur zur rechten Zeit, wo man
sie bracht, einzufUhren, mufi ein Brief von ihr ungelesen liegen
blieben." Otto Ludwig, Ludvigs Verke, hg. Arthur Eloesser (Berlin,
Deutsches Verlagshaus Bong 6 Co., n.d. ), vol. IV, 178.
42
"Man nehme die Orsina heraus und sehe, wie die Masse des Stückes
zusammenschmilzt. Wie kiinstlich und geschickt hat er sie mit dem ganzen
zusammengenietet und geschmolzen! - Hie trefflich ist die Tat
vorbereitet 1 - Jeder Entschlufi, jede Tat in einem Trauerspiele, und je
n&her und von je mehr Einflufi auf die Katastrophe, mufi so sein, wie ein
unbefangener Zuschauer nach Mafigabe von Charakter und Situation sie
erwartet." Ibid., 229.
43
"Betrachtet man ubrigens die Gestaltungskraft, die besonders in der
Gestalt der Orsina einen Hohepunkt erreicht, der noch fiber alle Geburten
der deutachen dram. Literatur siegend hinwegschaut, so mochte man
bejammern, dafi dieser Lessing nicht noch einmal in Goethe geboren
wurde." Otto Ludwig, Studies, hg. Adolf Stern (Leipzig, 1891), vol. II,
423.
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181
Auerbach (1812-1882), for instance, views the character as a
poetic figure, who is honorable, melancholic and
sentimental. In him, there is something of that oppressive
feeling and Rousseauean estrangement. Interestingly enough,
Auerbach further indicates that he is more married to
Odoardo than to Emilia.Engel is intrigued by the
character's distinguished unhappiness. Such a peculiar mood,
Engel states, is not sufficiently motivated. His sullenness
neither derive from the natural inclination nor from the
character flaw, therefore rather reflects a "state of mind."
However, without being able to pin down the factors which
causes such an imbalanced mood, Engel concludes that
Appiani's ominous sentiment obscurely forecasts the upcoming
catastrophe and most of all denotes Lessing's own
dramaturgical intent to render the action convincing so as
to reach to his death easily and quickly.Tieck, on the
44
"Appiani iat wie ein Vogel, der zu Neste fliegen will und den
kreiaenden Geier in der Lu ft wittert. Er, deaaen Schwermut bei allem und
allem immer eine atarke poetiache Lizenz bleibt, wird als Bhemann und
Patriot ganz deraelbe aein wie Odoardo. Wie er jetzt ala Liebhaber
erscheint, heiratet er mehr den Vater ala die Tochter, er verehrt den
Mann so warm, da8 er vor allem aein Sohn aein will." Auerbach, "Leasings
Emilia Oalotti" in Dramatische Eindriicke, aus dem Nachlaaae, hg. Otto
Neumann-Hofer (Stuttgart, 1893), 169.
45
"Der Mann (Appiani] hat alle moglichen Uraachen zum Vergniigen; ...;
und bei alle dem iat er nicht nur ernst, er iat tiefainnig, mUrriach.
Wenn die Uraache davon nicht in einem naturlichen Hange zur Melancholia
Oder in einem Fehler dea Charakters liegt - und das acheint hier nach
alien UmatAnden der Fall nicht zu aein; - so mufi aie nothwendig in
aeiner jetzigen partikulAren Verfaasung liegen;... Wie aber der Lichter
auf diesen Zug im Charakter gerathen aei? Ob er durch dieses Mittel blofi
den Eindruck schwAchen wollen, den der nachherige Tod des Appiani macht,
damit er uns nicht zu aehr wider den Endzmck dea Stiicka interesaire?
Oder ob er den Charakter dea Graf en, den er so wenig Raum zu entwickeln
hatte, durch diesen frappanten Zug nur mehr herauaheben wollen? oder ob
er vielleicht diesen Zuaatz ndthig fand, um zu einem gewisaen Ziele, zu
dem er nothwendig hin mufite, deato leichter und kUrzer hinzukomnen:
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182
other hand, considers the treatment of Appiani a "great
mistake," for he is unfathomable. On this problem, Tieck
contends that the characterization of the secondary
character should be made transparent so as to avoid
unnecessary confusion.
Claudia
As compared to other characters, Claudia is considered
a straight minor figure, thereby is given relatively little
attention by the critics. However, Nicolai, who generally
expresses favorable opinion on the play as a whole, would
prefer the reappearance of Claudia and Orsina in the last
Act, because the drama loses some of its impetus in the last
two acts after the excellent scene between Claudia and
Marinelli.Quite at variance with Nicolai's view,
Eschenburg maintains that Claudia, a shallow woman whose
darüber mSgte sich ohne seine eigne Erklarung echwerlich entscheiden
lassen." Engel, Der Philosoph fiir die Welt, 123-126.
”12. Tybalt, ein wilder, rauher Mensch, der nur immer in wenigen
Ziigen gezeichnet ist, Nebebpersonen, denen der Dichter doch einen
grossen EinfluB in die Handlung giebt, diirfen nicht leicht einen
versteckten Charakter haben, dies ist in Emilia Galotti ein grosser
Fehler, daB man den Appiani nicht recht versteht, da sie bloB Maschine
zur Handlung sind, und die Handlung selbst den Empfindungen, oder
tragischen Charakteren untergeordnet ist, so diirfen ihre Leidenschaften
und Gefiihle nicht leicht in die Extreme hiniiberschweifen, wenigstens
nicht solche Leidenschaften, die sich lange in den Extremen aufhalten."
Tieck, Das Such iiber Shakespeare, 35-36.
47
"W&re es Zhrem Vorhaben gem&B gewesen, die Claudia und Orsina in dem
letzten Acte wieder vorzubringen, so wiirde es vielleicht groBe Wirkung
gethan haben; denn ich will Ihnen nicht verbergen, daB nach der
vortrefflichen Scene der Claudia mit dem Marinelli, das Stuck im vierten
und fiinften Acte etwas an Feuer verliert." See Nicolai's letter to
Lessing on April 7, 1772, in Leasings SHamtliche Schriften, vol. XX,
157.
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183
virtues should supersede all her feminine vanity, is removed
from the action in a very appropriate and probable
48
manner.
ii.) Dramatic composition and technic
The exposition end first act
In accordance with Freytag, the key-note of the
exposition is not struck immediately at the very beginning.
It is actually a process of gradual build-up. His comment
implies that one can not grasp the motif of the drama's
initial intent immediately from the very beginning. The
message starts to come across, says Freytag, in the scene,
in which the Prince speaks to Marinelli and learns about
Emilia's wedding.Besides Freytag, Ludwig also mentions
that the beginning of the drama seems awkward to him.
"Reine romanhafte Frau, deren erkiinstelte Tugend alle Spuren
weiblicher Eitelkeit und Nachgebung verdrkngt hatte.... Die Entfernung
der eretern von der Theilnehmung an dem iibrigen Verlaufe des Stücks wird
auf die Bchicklichste und wahrscheinlichste Art verbreitet." Braun,
LBSsJjig im Ortheile aeiner Zeitgenoaaen, vol. I, 358-359.
49 I t
Der Akt der Einleitung erhklt in der Regel noch den Anfang der
Steigerung, also im ganzen folgende Momente: den einleitenden Akkord,
die Szene der Erposition, das aufregende Moment, die erste Szene der
Steigerung. Er wird deshalb gern zeitellig werden und seine Wirkungen
auf zwei kleine Hdhenpunkte sammeln, von denen der letztere der st&rker
hervorgehoben sein mag. - So ist in Emilia Galotti die Szene des Prinzen
am Arbeit St isch der stimnende Akkord, die Unterredung des Prinzen mit
dem Haler Erposition; in der Szene mit Marinelli liegt das erregende
Moment: die hevorstehende Verm&hlung der Emilia. Die erste Steigerung
aber liegt in der folgenden kleinen Szene des Prinzen, in seinem
Entschlufi, Emilia bei den Dominikanern zu treffen.” Freytag, Die Technik
dea Dramaa, 173.
Ludwiga Werke, 247.
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184
Hermann Hettner (1821-1864)^ on the contrary, feels that the
exposition is perfection itselfAugust Friedrich
Christian Vilmar (1800-1890) joins Hettner by declaring the
drama an unique model of expositional clarity and of
classical action and plot.®^ The two contradictory opinions
expressed by the above critics suggest that it is difficult
to evaluate the expositional effect of a play like Emilia
Galotti, since the actual exposition extends itself and
merges with the development of the plot/action.
The logic of complication
In accordance with Mauvillon's criticism, vagueness is
the most obvious defect of the drama in question. He asserts
that there are several "major defects." The first one lies
in the general outline: it is understood that something
unfortunate might happen, but one can not be sure what the
consequence will be. In other words, the reader's curiosity
is aroused, yet his true interest [the understanding of the
"Was SchrSder... insbesondere von der Exposition rühmte, dafi sie in
alien einzelnen Ziigen und Worten viollendet, obgewogen und erschopfend
sei, sogleich in Handlung Ubertrete, Allés vorbereite. Allés anmelde und
doch Nichts verrathe, das gilt von der ganzen Komposition ohne
Unterschid." Hermann Hettner, Geschichte der deutschen Literatur im
achtzehnten Jahrhundert (Braunschweig, 1879), vol. II., 535.
52
"Vertritt Minna die lebendigen, nationalen, begeisternden Stoffe des
Dramas, so vertritt Emilia die strenge, feste Regel, die
undurchbrechlichen aber klaren und durchsichtigen Formen, in denen sich
eine warhafte Tragëdie zu bewegen hat, und von dieser Seite der wird,
wie von jener Minna, Lessings Emilia Galotti noch auf lange Zeit hinaus
das bedeutendste Vorbild bleiben, an dem trait mehr zu lernen ist, als an
alien Dramen Schillers zusanmengenonimen.” August Friedrich Christian
Vilmar, Oeshichte der deutschen tfational-Literatur, vierzehnte vermehrte
Auflage (Marburg & Leipzig, 1871), 427.
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185
drama's message] is ignored. The vagueness can also be
detected in Lessing's treatment of complication, realized in
Appiani's death, which strategically divides the drama into
two parts — a new center of interest is created, Mauvillon
continues, however, the reader no longer knows what to
expect for the catastrophe. Besides, there are too many
divergent strands, unsuccessfully interwoven, lead to
nowhere. To illustrate his point of view, Mauvillon names
quite a few examples: the court artist, the discussion of
the pictures, Orsina's dispensibility, the unnecessary
complication evoked by her encounter with Odoardo, and the
vagueness about Emilia's motivation etc.Intriguingly
enough, what Mauvillon calls vagueness is proper motivation
in Hettner's view. Besides, the improperly forged "divergent
strands" is considered by the latter as lively dramatic
antitheses, that creates increasing tension scene by
scene.In spite of his positive comment on Lessing's
"Ein andrer Hauptfehler dieses Stücks, welcher auch das intéressé in
demselben mit vernichten hilft, ist, daB der Gegenstand dessen, was man
zu fUrchten hat, nicht bestimnt ist. Han sieht vrol, daB es vielleicht da
ein groB Ungluck geben kan, aber man sieht gar nicht ein, was wol
eigentlich daraus entstehen kônte.... Nun aber, da durch Appianis Tod
sich gleich zeigt, daB die Heirath nicht vor sich gehen wird, so gerath
der Leser in eine ganze Ungewisheit, über dem was sich noch zutragen
wird.... Bei dem Tode des Appiani geht ein neu stück an, da noch dazu
kein bestimtes Intéressé hat.... Doch einen [Hauptfehler] merken wir
noch an, der bestehet darinnen, daB so viel FAden angesponnen werden,
die zu nichts führen...." Braun, Leaaing im Ortheile aeiner
Zeitgenoaaen, vol. I, 425-431.
54
"Von Scene zu Scene steigert sich die Spannung der dramatischen
GegensAtze; sorgsam motivirt und doch Uberraschend lebendig. Es giebt
vielleicht in der ganzen deutschen dramatische Literatur kein zweites
Stück, das sich von alien die dramatishe Entwicklung henmenden und
verzSgernden oder, wie sich die Kunstsprache ausdruck, von alien episch
retardirenden Motiven so fern hAlt wie Emilia Galotti." Hettner,
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186
treatment of dreunatic complication, Hettner is unsatisfied
with the "essence” of tragedy itself. He maintains that
Lessing's tragedy remains stagnant, it does not delve into
the depth of passion, whereby his intrigue is superficial,
studded with coincidence (536) .
The hypothesis of catastrophe
In general, the term, "catastrophe, " infers the
dramatic moment, where the complication of intrigue and
conflict reaches its crux, thereby causes calamitous
consec[uence. In spite of the fact that there is no definite
way in determining exactly when the dramatic segment starts
and ends, it seems to be a common consensus that the
catastrophe of our tragedy in question is to be found in
Scene vii of the last Act, where Emilia and Odoardo reunite.
In this brief but highly intense scene, there are numerous
thematic issues involved. To save the discussions for the
later plot section, here I will only present the readerly
opinions that employ the term, catastrophe, in their
discussion on the subject matter.
Miachel Bernay (1834-1897) claims that due to the
defect of catastrophe, Lessing is no real poet. The problem
of the catastrophe, he pronounces, lies in the ambiguity of
Emilia's tendency toward the Prince. If one could foresee
Geschichte der deutsche Literatur in achtzelinten Jahrjundert, vol. II,
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187
for certain that Emilia would yield to the Prince's
seduction, her fate would not be worthy of the subject for a
tragedy. On the other hand, if her innocence is beyond all
the force and enticement, the tragedy is then altogether
impossible.In fact, Bernay's criticism comes across as
rather obscure. While expressing his problem with Emilia's
inclination, he somewhat concedes that it is necessary to
render her chastity uncertain (because neither complete
innocence nor straight impurity can make the tragedy
convincing). His argument curiously implies that after all
Lessing's treatment of the character is actually a necessary
and fitting choice. August Wilhelm Schlegel (1767-1845), who
generally shows hostility toward Lessing and his work,
"Ich habe in der katastrophe des Trauerspiels immer einnen
unwiderleglichen Beweis dafür gefunden, daB Lessing berechtigt und
befugt war, am SchluB der Dramaturgie... sich den Namen eines Dichters
abzusprechen. Denn in der That, kein ganzer wahrer Dichter hatte sich so
rücksichtslos gegen die Reinheit der jungfraulichen Natur, gegen die
Wahrheit jungfraulicher Empfindung versündigen konnen. Es hilft nichts,
man mag der Emilia die Richtigkeit ihres bündigen Raisonnements noch so
entschieden zugeben,... Allés, was ich gesagt, fasse ich in den Satz
zusammen: Konnen wir mit GewiBheit voraussehen, daB Emilia den
Verlockungen des Prinzen unterliegen wird, so ware ihr Schicksal kein
wurdiger Gegenstand einer Tragëdie; kënnte hingegen Emilia, in
untruglichem SelbstbewuBtsein, ihre Unschuld, wie über alle Gewalt, so
auch über alle Verführung in jedem Fall erhaben glauben, so ware
überhaupt keine Tragodie môglich." "Über den Charakter der Emilia
Galotti" in Schriften zur Kritik und Literatur Qeachichte, aus dem
NachlaS, hg. von Georg Wikowski (Berlin: B. Behr's Verlag, 1903), vol.
Ill, 187-206.
Schlegel claims that Lessing had a retarding effect on German drama.
"Auf miBverstandene Grunds&tze der TSuschung und Natürlichkeit führt
Schlegel auch Diederots Verwerfung der Versifikation im bürgerlichen
Trauerspiele zurück. Andere, leider auch Lessing, seien ihm hierin
gefolgt. Diederot habe sich mit Recht gegen die Fërmlichkeit des allzu
strengen Versbaues aufgelehnt, aber er habe zugleich alle theatralische
Erhëhung verworfen und wolle den Personen keine vervollkommnete
Mitteilungsweise ihres Innern gënnen.... Bine ïhnlichen Vorviurf erhebt
Schlegel gegen Lessing in den Berliner Vorlesungen, wo er sagt, Lessing
habe auf das Drama sehr retardierend eingewirkt." August Volkmer, A. W.
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188
daims that Emilia Galotti is a "little" drama. Without
giving any concrete example, he holds that one can easily
overlook the author's deliberately planned hypothesis on
which the necessity of the catastrophe rests, for it is
conceived artificially.^^ Tieck also feels that the
catastrophe is arbitrary, given that the play is better
characterized as the drama of intrigue than a tragedy.In
praising Lessing's masterful skill in portraying passion and
excitement, Freytag also ascribes the weakness of the
tragedy's catastrophe to his characters' violent passion
which shows no firmed will power, whereby their disastrous
actions often lack the highest justification.^^
Schlegels Auffassung des Dramas Im Vergleich zu der Lessings (Zaborze,
1906), 8.
57
"Die sichtbare Sorgfalt, Allés zu motivieren, fordert zu nâherer
Prüfung auf, wobei man durch keinen Zauber der Einbildungskraft gestort
wird; und dieser Prüfung kann der innere Unzusammenhang in dem mit so
ungemeinem Verstande herausgerechneten Drama nicht entgehen." August
Wilhelm von Schlegel, SSmmtliche Werke, hg. Eduard Bocking, dritte
Ausgabe (Leipzig, 1846), vol. VI, 409.
58
"Aber die Katastrophe hat dennoch etwas Willkurliches; die ihrer
selbst gewisse Unschuld muhte dies Allés überwinden. Ueberhaupt ist das
Stuck bei ailler Trefflichkeit zu sehr ein zugespitztes Intriguenspiel,
um eine Tragodie zu sein; beides vertragt sich nicht miteinander."
Kopke, Ludwig Tieck - Eriiuieru/igeji aus dem Leben des Dichters nach
dessen miindlichen und schriftlichen Hittheilunge, vol. II, 183.
59
"Denn darin irrte noch der kr&ftige Mann, daB heftige Leidenschaft
hinreiche, den poetischen Charakter zum dramatischen zu machen, wShrend
es viel mehr auf das verhaltnis ankommt, in welchem die Leidenschaft zur
Willenskraft steht. Seine Leidenschaft schafft Leiden und erregt im
Zuschauer zuweilen ein abweisendes Mitleid. Noch schwanken seine
Hauptpersonen - und dies ist nicht sein Kennzeichen, sondern das der
Zeit - , durch stürmische Bewegung hin* und hergetrieben, und wo sie zu
verhkngnisvoller Tat kommen, fehlt dieser zuweilen die hochste
Verechtigung." Gustav Freytag, Die Technik des Dramaa, 227
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189
D#nou#m#nt
Schopenhauer, in his VereinzeltB, jedoch systematisch
geordnete Gedanken iiber vielerlei Gegenstânde, states:
"every beginning is difficult. However, it is quite the
contrary in the field of dramaturgy: — the ending is
difficult" (Sâmtliche Werke, 519). Schopenhauer continues to
extend this view by making direct reference to Emilia
Galottii it is like rest of other countless number of dramas
— its beginning seems promising, but then it becomes
"overcast, stagnate and totter, particularly in the famous
fourth Act, and finally degenerates into a contrived and
unsatisfactory ending long foreseen by everyone." With its
disgusting ending, Schopenhauer asserts, it sends the
spectator home completely despondent. Vilmar, while
praising the drama's expositional clarity, finds faults with
its ending. Regardless of its impeccable mastery in the
matters of dramatic rules and forms, from which one can
learn much more than from Schiller's drama, Vilmar
maintains, the ending is its major defect, for it fails to
satisfy and appease. Vilmar ascribes the problem to the
ending's anachronistic heroic tone, which has its origin in
"Dies belegen die unz&hligen Dramen, deren erste HSlfte sich recht
gut anl&Bt, die aber sodann sich triiben, stocken, schwanken, ziunal im
verrufenen vierten Akt, und zuletzt in ein bald erzwungenes, bald
unbefriedigendes, bald von jedem l&ngst vorhergesehenes Ende auslaufen,
mitunter gar wie >Emilia Galotti< in ein empôrendes, welches den
Zusachuer vëllig verstimmt nach Hause schickt." SSatliche Verke, vol. V,
5 1 9 .
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190
the ancient Roman story, however is no more adequate and
valid in the modern eyes.
iii.) Plot
Emilia's love
Most of the discussion on Emilia's love centers on her
relationship with the Prince. Curiously enough, few of the
critics take interest in her emotional inclination toward
Appiani. Even when it is mentioned, it is spoken in
connection with the issue of seduction initiated by the
Prince. Engel, for instance, in his inquiry on the
controversial passage, where Emilia philosophizes about
force and seduction, he asks how could she talks to her
father about her warm blood, her sensuality and her
knowledge about the house of Grimaldis at the time when she
should lament about Appiani's death? Could it be true that
her love for Appiani is only coquetry? Engel's presumption
is that Emilia might or might not fall for the trap set up
by the Prince later on. However, she does not have to
” ... : der SchluB der Tragodie befriedigt und versôhnt wenigstens
nicht hinreichend - wollen wir Andere hôren: er ist das Gegenteil von
dem SchluBe einer wahren Tragëdie, er ist herbe; ja sehr entschiedene
Anh&nger Lessings haben ihn geradezu "verletzend* genannt. Es liegt ih
ihm eben die Dissonanz, von der ich vorher zu sprechen mit erlaubte; das
gewaltsame zuruckgreifen auf das rëmische Beispiel der Virginia... blieb
freilich allein iibrig, wenn man zu einer aus hëheren Regionen
herbeizuführenden Lôsung nicht greifen %rollte, und zu der groAartigen
Plastik der Griechen vrerden in Stoff noch Form direct zurück gelangen
konnte.” Vilmar, aeahichte der deutachen Vationai-Literatur, 428-429.
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191
recognize or contemplate such a possibility at the most
inappropriate moment.Hebbel, who taüces a great interest
in Emilia's emotional self, studies her as a sensual subject
whose libido is awakened by the Prince's pursuit.
"Without any doubt, it is indicated right in the scene,
where Emilia first enters," claims Hebbel, "that she has
feeling for the Prince." (Tagebiiche, vol. 1, 334) In
accordance with Hebbel, her sensual aweikening is probably
nurtured by the approaching marriage but repressed by the
frigid prescience of her finance, whose only concern is her
soul. Two possibilities regarding her tendency toward the
Prince, states Hebbel, then arise: l.) the Prince is only
the spark that inflames Emilia's passion, which eventually
is turned to Appiani; 2.) Emilia is thus aware of the fact
that her relationship with Appiani is superficial and
predetermined. In fact, she realized that she is not in love
with him. Hebbel further contends, if the second hypothesis
speaks the truth, she should not be afraid of unfastening
the knot that should have never been tied, since she is
portrayed as a young woman of strong will. However, if her
love for the Prince is noble, then her sensual tendency must
be transformed into something beyond raw desire. In other
62
"Wenn ich sie sagen hëre: 'Ich habe Blut, mein Vater;...' Ich môgte
fast argwfihnen, dafi ihre Liebe su Appiani blofie Koquetterie gewesen.... "
Engel, Der Philosophie fiir die Welt, vol. I, 112.
Hebbel, SUmtliche Werke: Tagebiiche, I, 334-335.
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192
words, in Hebbel*s view, she must see good qualities in the
Prince other than a mere seducer and sensualist. At this
point, she should have no fear for the seduction, since her
will transforms it into something valuable, whereupon the
dramatic thesis of catastrophe thus collapses. Hebbel, thus
concludes that her "suicide”, which is acted out of the
reason to defend her own innocence, is then not worthwhile
at all: "It is not worth the effort to kill herself only
because she thinks if she does not kill herself then she is
not strong enough to protect her innocence."®^ It is
evident that Hebbel's analytical approach takes the liberty
to downplay the ambiguity of Emilia's inner struggle. His
insistence on the premise of the nobility in Emilia's
tendency toward the Prince constitutes a rather
idiosyncratic reading on this unsettling, disconcerting
subject.
Nicolai's response to this issue, on the other hand,
typifies another type of readerly approach. He treats the
enigma of Emilia's love as a dramaturgical problem induced
by the lack of clarity in the theme of seduction as a plot
treatment. Nicolai maintains that it would be less confusing
1.) if some part of the seduction would appear on the stage;
2.) if the Prince were more forward and aggressive; 3.) if
"Sich zu tôdten, well man fiihlt, dafi man, wenn man sich nicht todtet,
nicht stark genug seyn wird, die Unschuld zu bewahren, ist %*ohl kaum der
MOhe wert.” Ibid., 335.
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193
Emilia were not so hesitant and would show some sign of
becoming entangled, the audience would regard Emilia's plea
for dagger a justified act.^^ What Nicolai hints at is the
fact that the situation between Emilia and the Prince is not
clear at all, for it is not endowed with sufficient
information. As a result, one can not possibly justify what
happens to Emilia at the end.
Odoardo's killing act
The problem about Odoardo's killing act are generally
discussed on two levels: one is the nature of the daughter-
killing itself and the other one is the logic leads to the
necessity of murder so that "something" can be saved. The
author of Bieuika bitterly guestions, first of all, how could
Odoardo rush into a princely residence, supposedly
garrisoned with vast armed force, to search for his family
without having any weapon on him: "he has to beg for a
dagger from the woman because the author feels more like to
"Viele haben es nicht begreifen kënnen, und halben es für
unnatürlich, dafi der Vater seine geliebte Tochter bios aus VersorgniB
der Verfiihrung erstechen kënne. Disse aber sehen die grofie Wahrheit
nicht ein, die Emilia sagt, daB Gewalt nicht Gewalt, sondern daB
Verfiihrung, liebreizende Verfiihrung, Gewalt ist.... Dies gilt unter
andern auch von der letzten Scene. Sollte ich aber etwas auf dem Theater
h&tten vorgehen lessen, daB Sie den Prinzen h&tten in einer Scene
pressant sein lessen, und daB Emilia zwar nicht gewankt h&tte, aber doch
in einige Verlegenheit gerathen whre. Alsdann wiirde das Publicum die
bitte der Emilia urn den Dolch gerechter gefunden haben, ale jetzt, da es
die gef&hrlichen Grimaldis nicht vor Augen sieht, und den Prinzen noch
lange nicht dringend genug findet." Leasings Sëmtliche Schriften, vol.
XX, 157.
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194
arm the women as soldiers. With the above biting
comment, he concludes that the fact a father kills his child
to protect her from seduction is rather "peculiar" (31).
Jakob Michael Reinhold Lenz (1751-1792), expresses different
opinion on this particular point. Unlike the author of
Bieuika, he claims that it is not very rare for a father to
kill his daughter. However, the improbability about this
matter lies in the fact that the weak and indecisive Prince,
oscillating between good heartedness and vileness, never
really causes immediate threat to the daughter.Tieck
also points out that Lessing commits a mistake here by not
offering his reader any opportunity to foresee Ordoardo's
murder of his daughter. Friedrich Wilhelm Basilius von
Ramdohr (1757-1822) asks different question on this matter:
why does not Odoardo seek different ways to save his
daughter? Is Emilia's seducibility so hopeless? And is it
not more natural to kill the Prince, the seducer, instead of
his daughter? He thus concludes, the catastrophe - Emilia's
"Odoardo braust zwar auf, aber handelt and wirkt bis an*a Ende nicht,
wo er wieder zu viel that, er kSimnt herbei gesprengt, urn seine Familie
(die er von Raubern angefalien glaubt) zu retten, und konunt (er, ein
Soldat und Italianer) ohne Gewehr, nicht einmal mit einem mitleidigen
Stilett versehen, er mufi einen Dolch von einem Weibe erbetteln, weil dem
Autor schicklicher schien, vielmehr die Weiber, ale die Soldaten zu
bewaffnen.” Blank», 9.
67
"Unwahrscheinlich ist der Mord der Emilia Galotti: Nicht, weil es
selten ist, daJ3 ein Vater seine Tochter umbringt, sondern weil bei dem
schwachen, zwischen Tugend und Laster wankenden unthtigen Prinzen keine
Gefahr war." Jakob Michael Reinhold Lenz, Oeaammelte Schriften, hg.
Franz Bleich (München und Leipzig: Georg Muller, 1909), vol. II, 474.
68
"Fehler im Odoardo, man hat keine Gelegenheit, die Ermordung seiner
Tochter von ihm zu vermuthen,...." Tieck, Daa Such iiber Shakeapeare, 56.
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195
death by her father's hand is not sufficiently motivated and
consequently has little tragic effect.®® on the motivation
of Odoardo's killing act, Ludwig Borne (1786-1837) offers an
interesting explanation. He views Odoardo's act as horrible
and unnatural, because he only kills her for protecting her
"physical purity," since the purity of her heart is not
considered by him as being capable of corruption. Therefore,
his act is found horrible and inadequately motivated.
Auerbach indicates that since Lessing's adaptation of the
Roman legend takes on a non-political overtone and the fact
that Odoardo does not represent the masses, like Virginius
does in the original story, his conflict with the Prince is
seen in a more personal light. If he were to kill the
Prince, the latter would die as Emilia's future seducer. In
other words, the assassination itself would not imply any
greater significance other than private revengeance. Even
though Auerbach does not grant the catastrophe in Emilia
69
"War mufi aber nicht bel der Auffiihrung dieses Schauspiels die Frage
aufwerfen: warum versuchte der Vater nicht vorher Alias, urn die Tochter
zu retten? War as denn so ausgemacht gewl8, daQ seine Tochter im Hause
des Kanzlers Grimaldi verfiihrt warden muAte? ... Und wenn er es konnte,
wenn er ein Tyrann war, wird dann nicht die natürlichste Empfindung bei
jedem Zuschauer diese sein, den Morder des Appiani, den Verführer
Emiliens eher ale das eigene Kind zu ermorder? GewiQi" Friedrich Wilhelm
Basilius, "Odoardo und seine Tochter" in Moralische Erzahlungen
(Leipzig, 1799), vol. II, 297.
"Bei Virginius, dem Vorbilde Odoardo's, stand der Vater im Solde des
Burgers, und man sieht nur mit freundiger Ruhrung ein fromnes Lamm auf
dem Altare der Freiheit bluten. Aber wenn die schreckliche, unnatur 1 iche
That, wie hier, vergebens geschieht, wenn der Vater seine Tochter
ermordet, nicht fur die Gdtter Oder das Vaterland, nicht um ihre
Herzensreinheit zu bewahren, die er keiner VerderbniB fahig halt,
sondern nur um ihre anatomische Unschuld zu retten, so wendet man sich
mit Abscheu vor einem solche Anblicke zurUck." Ludwig Borne, OBsammelte
Schriften (Hamburg & Frankfurt a. M., 1862), vol. IV, 262-263.
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196
Galotti any political ramification, he does not associate
Odoardo's daughter-killing act with ethical issue, either.
Without specifically rationalizing the fatherly character's
motivation, he claims that Odoardo's act could only be
impulsive; it could not be calculated: in spite of the
previous hesitation and inner-struggle he kills his daughter
in a fit of emotion.The above comments all seem to point
to the problem on justifying Odoardo's participation in the
tragic necessity. However, there are also critics who
considers Odoardo's act probable. C. H. Schmid, for example,
holds that Odoardo is not the kind to take recourse in
trickery and deception. Nevertheless, he is too skeptical to
believe that virtue can resist continued temptation. Since
the immediate danger becomes extremely pressing, he then
stabs Emilia in a probable circumstance.^^
"Nun steht zwar Odoardo einem Pursten gegeniiber, der auf dem L ' Etat
c'est moi fuflt, aber er steht ihm nur ale Individualitat gegeniiber,...,
und wenn auch politische Motive bei ihm wie bei Appiani mitspielen, so
hat er doch seinerlei Mandat und seinen andren bew<igenden Drang ale
den des individuellen Gewissens. Es ist leicht gesagt: wir wAren
befriedigter, wenn Odoardo den Prinzen erst ache. Er wAre aber doch nur
ein Meuchelmërder.... Viele Motive machen die Begriindung weder stArker
noch zwingender, denn das Volk hat ihn nicht beauftragt, in seinem Namen
Rache zu nehmen.... Wie jetzt die Affaire steht, ist trotz der
'geknickten Rose, ehe der Sturm sie entblAttert', unser innerer
Widerspruch nicht beseitigt. Die That kann nur geschehen, aber nicht
kalkuliert werder, nach allem Kalkiil geschieht sie zuletzt doch im
Affekt und die vorher gewaltsam aufgebrachten Motive fallen ab."
Auerbach, Dramatiache Eindriick, 164.
72
"Dennoch haben viele mit dem Odoardo gefragt:... "Was? dahin wAre es
gekommen? ' Ein Odoardo, meinten sie, sollte doch wohl mehr auf die
Tugend einer solchen Tochter bauen. So ist wahr, er kennt den Werth
seiner Tochter, aber ein Glauben an eine uniiberwindliche Tugend, die
anhaltenden Versuchungen nicht unterliegt, reimt sich mit seinem
argwfihnischen Charakter nicht. Selbst ihre groBen Gesinnungen
Uberraschen ihn daher: "Hal wenn du so denkst 1 ' ... Sehr natürlich sind
sie fUr ihn nur Oel ins Feuer." Schmid, Ober einige Schônhaitmn der
Emilia Galotti, 9-10.
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197
Franz Nehring (1846-1919) approaches this problematic
matter from an entirely different angle. He asserts that the
father-killing-daughter act is predetermined as soon as
Lessing sets his mind on adapting Livy's Roman legend.
Mehring contends that Lessing took from Livy's account only
the fact that a father kills his daughter to protect her
honor, in other words, the dramatist sees in this old story
the universally valid tragedy: the social oppression, the
rape of woman.To Mehring, this part of the plot
designates the central thought of the tragedy, since his
reading on the drama in question is more
ideologically/politically than dramaturgically oriented.
Emilia's death
Herder, in praising Lessing's tragedy for speaking to
the true sense of the human being's honesty, comments on
Emilia's death as "didactically horrible” (lehrreich~
schrecklich) In Goethe's (1749-1832) Strum und Drang
73
"Mit Recht hat achon Stahr hervorgehoben, daJ3 Leasing aua dea
romischen Hiatorikera bekannter Erzahlung von der Virginia nichta
entnonmen babe ala die Tat sache, daS ein Vater seine Tochter tSte, um
ihre jungfr&uliche Ehre vor der Vergewahltigung einea Tyrannen zu
retten. Oder noch genauer: in der berühmsteaten Erzahlung dea Liviua
erkannte der junge Leasing zuerat die empSrendate und erachütterndate
Beg le iter ache inung der aozialen Unterdruckung, die Vergewaltigung der
jungfrSulichen Ehre, die im achtzehnten Jahrhundert so modern war wie
vor zweitauaend Jahren, wie aie heute noch iat und wie aie immer sein
wird, so lange aoziale Unterdruckung beateht." Frana Mehring, Die
Lemaing-Legende, zur Oeahichta und Kritik dea preuaaiachen Deapotiamus
und der klaaaiachen Literatur, Bûcherai dea Marxiamua-Leniniamua,
(Basel: Mundua-Verlag AG., 1946), 372.
74
"Hie veratandvoll hat Leasing das Herz der Emilie mit Religion
verwebet, um auch hier die Stkrke und SchwSche einer solchen Stiitze zu
zeigenl Hie iiberlegt l&Bt er den Prinzen aie am heiligen Ort aufauchen.
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198
phase, his view on the matter of Emilia's death is
significant due to its relevance to the death of his
melancholic hero of the celebrated novel. Die Leiden des
jungen Werthers. Even though Goethe has never directly
addressed to the subject of Emilia's death, his reading of
it is implicitly suggested in the ending of the novel, in
which the young man shoots himself with the play next to
him.^^ Like Emilia, Werther "chooses" death as the solution
of his dilemma. And moreover, for the Strum und Drang
Goethe, they both are perceived as the martyr of their own
unsuppressible passion.
On the motivation of Emilia's death, Tieck holds that
her reflective side oversteps a young girl's mentality: her
admission of being hot-blooded and her fear of the
temptation of the Grimaldi house are implausible. In his
view, such an exaggeration only serves as the rhetorical
device to render her death convincing.^* Like Tieck, Hebbel
sie in der Kapelle vor aller Welt anreden, und stellt die schwache
Mutter, den strengen, grollhaften Fiirstenfeind, Odoardo neben sie. Ihr
Tod ist lehrreichschrecklich, ohne aber dah dadurch die Handlung des
Vaters sum akbsoluten Muster der Besonneheit werde." Herders SSmmtliche
Werke, vol. XVII, 186.
"Aus dem Glut auf der Lehne des Sessels konnte mann schlieBen, er
babe sitzend vor dem Schreibtisch die Tat vollbracht, dann ist er
heruntergesunken, hat sich konvulsivisch um den Stuhl herumgewAltzt....
Vom dem Weine hatte er nur ein Glas getrunken. Emilia Galotti lag auf
dem Pulte aufgeschlagen." Goethe, Die Leiden dea jungen Werther in
Johann Volfgang Von Goethe Werke, vol. V., hr. Gisela SpiekerkStter
(Zurich: Stauffacher publishers Ltd., 1970.), 152.
"In dem Charakter der Emilia selbst tritt ebenfalls das Reflectirte
zu sehr hervor; sie geht Uber die Grenzen eines jungen Madchens hinaus.
Aeuflerungen, wie 'Auch ich habe helQes Slut', ihre Schilderungen der
Gesellschaft bei Grimaldi sind auffallend und stark. So hâtte
Schakespeare kein junges Madchen reden lessen. Aber Lessing wollte ihren
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199
also questions Emilia's peculiar statement in the peeüc of
her fear. Hebbel assumes that without any doubt she and
Appiani are in love with each other. He maintains that she
is thus a contradictory figure, because of her unnatural
confession about her seducibility at the time when she is
supposed to lament over her finance's death. Therefore, one
has to wonder why she dies in order to save what might never
be possessed.
iv.) Meaning
Tragic guilt and poetic justice
The ending of Emilia Galotti seems to be highly
disconcerting to numerous critics. To Herder, the Prince's
instant dissociation from the catastrophe after his plans
have failed indicates his inability to cope with his
responsibility for the ugly consequence: "I am afraid, in a
few days, he would resolve his guilt in his confession and
find himself completely clean again.He feels that two
Tod dadurch motiviren. " Kôpke, Ludvig Tieck - Erinnerungen aus dem Leben
dea Dichters nach desaen miindlichen Hittheilungen, vol. ii, 184.
77
In February, 16, 1839, Hebbel commente in his diary that Emilia’s
behavior is not at all natural for a bride-to-be in several incidents
{Tagebiiche, vol. I, 332). Nevertheless, he changes his view on Emilia's
relationship with the Prince and Appiani, when he comes back to the
subject on February, 19. His new insight is discussed in previous
section of "Emilia's love".
78
"Am Ende des Stiicks aber, wenn der Prinz sein verSchtliches Werkzeug
selbst verachtend von sich weiset, und dabei ausruft: 'Gotti Gotti ist
es zum UnglUcke so manche nicht genug....' und die unschuldige Braut
dabei im Slut liegt,... ; wer ist, dem wenn in solcher situation der
Vorhang sinkt, nicht noch andre Bedanken, auBer dem, den der Prinz sagt.
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200
fundamental questions need to be asked concerning the
outcome of the play: 1.) What will happen to Odoardo? 2.)
How long will it take until Marinelli is back again? (184).
Herder's subtle pronouncement on the drama's problematic
ending is contrasted by Auerbach's strong accusation. By
comparing the drama with Livy's account, Auerbach proclaims
that Virginia's death is the turning point of the story,
whereas Emilia's death ends the drama discordantly. The play
is even less satisfying, he continues, since the other
characters' fates are left untold.Hebbel also stresses
the Prince's guilt by suggesting a revision of the ending
through the Prince's renouncement of his position. Later
in his correspondence with Hettner, topics about the play's
ending and its poetic justice are mentioned as well. Hettner
questions in his letter, dated November 8, 1859, that he is
in die Seele stromen? Nothwendig fragt man sich, wie wird das Gericht
iiber den alten Odoardo ablaufen? wie lange wird Marinelli entfernt sein?
d. i. wie bald wird er, wenn sein Dienst abermals brauchbar ist,
wiederkehren? u. f." Herders siamtliche Werke, 183-184.
79
"Wir erkennen vollkommen den moralischen Protest gegen die
Korruption, den Lessing so scharf und volltonend gibt. Es ist grofi aus
dem Grundfafie: ich gebe mein Kind lieber dem Tod als der Schande preis -
ein Faktuffi zu machen. Aber der moralischen Emporung, die sich hier
abspielt, fehlt das erlôsende Korrelat.... Die Ermordung der Virginia
ist nicht eine SchluBhandlung, sondern die Feripetie eines Stiickes; und
auch darum, weil hier die Ermordung des MAdchens an den SchluB gefeBt
ist, werden wir die Unbefriedigtheit nicht los. Der Dichter bewirkt eine
groBe Erschiitterung, aber er lABt uns in der Erschiitterung stehen, er
entbindet sie nicht. Es ist kein SchluBakkord da. Has wird nun aus dem
Prinzen, aus Marinelli, aus Odoardo, aus der Kluadia und der Orsina?”
Auerbach, Dramatische Eindruck, 165.
80
"Sah heute eine vortreffliche Darstellung der Emilia Galotti. An
dieses Stuck konnte ich jenes, daB ein Fürst seiner Wiirde entsagt, weil
er sieht, daB ein Stand, wie der seinige, die Ungeheuer mit
Nothwendigkeit erzeugt, ankniipfen. Der Prinz, erschiittert durch Emilias
Tod, giebt seinem Lande eine Verfassung." Hebbel, Samtliche Werke:
Tagebiicher, vol. Ill, 67-68.
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201
genuinely troubled by the fact that there is no tragic guilt
- Emilia dies as the victim of villainous intrigue and the
criminals get away unpunished. On this specific issue,
Hebbel also expresses his doubt without offering any
pi
additional comment. In his own study of the history of
the drauna's composition, Hettner holds that in order to
appease the sense of wrath in the audience at the end of the
tragedy, it might be appropriate to portray Marinelli as
82
thoroughly broken. By diverting our attention from the
Prince alone, he indicates that Marinelli should share the
responsibility of causing the tragedy.
Morality as the focal point
Intriguingly enough, most of the readings which touch
upon the issue of morality do not treat it as the drama's
major focal point in terms of thematic concern. It is
81
"Ueber Leeeings Emilia denke ich ganz so, wie Sie; was ich Uber seine
Motivirung im Allgemeinen sagte, gait nicht seinen Zwecken und dem
VerhUltnifi seiner Zwecke zur eigentlichen Aufgabe der Kunst, sondern nur
den Mitteln, durch die er seine Zwecke realisirt, und war eigentlich nur
ein Wurf mit dem PrUgel unter das Heer der ' UrsprUnglichen ' die sich bei
uns auf schrecken erregende Weise vermehren. " See his letter of Dec. 31,
1859 to Hettner, in Friedrich Hebbel: SSmtliche Werke, Briefe, vol. VI,
300.
82
"Marinelli wird in die Verbannung geschickt. Her aber steht dafUr,
daB er nicht sogleich wieder zurUckberufen wird, sobald der prinz seiner
Hilfe zur befriedigung Uhnlicher Launen wieder bedarf ?.. .Und es war ein
Uberaus feiner Zug Dawison's, wenn er als Marinelli in dem Augenblick,
da er sein Verbannungsurtheil vernimmt, trostlos erschUttert in sich
zusammenbrach. Dieses stumme Spiel des Darstellers ist durchaus
naturwahr, denn der Hdfling, dem sein PUrst sein Gott ist, ist
vernichtet, wenn die Sonne der fUrstlichen Gnade erbleicht; und
zugleich ist es trefflich geeignet, das GefUhl der Empôrung, das Uder
racheheischenden Le iche Emilia's im Zuschauer aufflanmt, zu lUutern und
zu mildern.” Hettner, Geschichte der deutache Literatur im achtzehnten
Jahrhundert, vol. II, 539-540.
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202
usually glossed over by critics' concern on the truth of
Emilia's innocence, which is often narrowly treated as a
matter of feminine virtue. The difficulty for most of the
critics to deal with the ethical motif of the tragedy in
question lies in its mixed signal indicated by the moral
subjects' self-claimed weeücness and her timely radical act
as ethical resolution. The transition and motivation behind
this drastic change seems unclear to them. As mentioned
before, Sulzer, for instance, expresses his dissatisfaction
with Emilia's inability to believe in her virtue.His
comment typifies a common "male" readerly response toward
the ambiguity of Emilia's moral integrity and the readerly
plea for a pure, spiritual female role model. In his
criticism on Emilia's inappropriate preoccupation with her
senses immediately after Appiani's death, Hettner indicates
his discontent with the drama's general deficiency in
establishing convincing motivation for the painful
catastrophe. He maintains that the play is just the opposite
of what the "moralizing" poet has intended; it is the
victory of evil over innocence, crime over virtue, an
offense against all poetic and moral justice.
83
See footnote 24.
"Jedoch alle diese hohen Vorziige vennSgen nicht, uns Uber die
SchwUche des Grundmotivs hiUberzuheben.... Auch hier daher wieder nur
eine Intriquentragodie. Die Intriquentragddie aber ist ihrer innersten
Natur nach vom Hesen Schter Tragik ausgeschlossen. Die Aeuflerlichkeit
ihrer Motivirung besagt selbst, daB sie nicht innerlich nothwendige,
ewige, allgemein menschliche Kkmpfe und Gegensktze darstellt, sondern
nur zuf&llige, rein persdnliche, bei gutem Hillen ausgelichbare.”
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203
2.) Extrinsic analysis
Even though the following extrinsic analysis does not
necessarily respond to the blahk/gap of the writerly text
and their critical focuses are largely laid on the
comparative survey between the text and its references, they
still respond to the ambiguities of our tragedy in question
in respect of various aesthetic concerns.
i.) Dreuna and its source
Engel, assuming that Lessing only takes the last part
of Livy’s account, the catastrophe, as the foundation of his
drama, claims that the catastrophe in Lessing's drama is,
however, not well established and motivated like in Livy's
story. He then compares the daughter-stabbing act in both
cases: What Virginius faces is an immediate threat from the
Roman judicial system where a tyrant has the right over his
subjects and slaves, whereby the justice can not be restored
by the law. Virginius thus has sufficient reason to take
recourse to the terrible deed; Odoardo, on the contrary, has
none. Engel maintains that Odoardo simply gives up hope too
quickly.Schmid, in his criticism, briefly states that
Hettner, Geschichte der deutschen Literatur im achtzehnten Jahrhundert,
vol. II, 537.
85
"Auch AppiuB war die hdchste Obrigkeit Roms, und Virginius gewifi ein
eben so edeldenkender mann, wie Odoardo: gleichwohl stand er keinen
Augenblick an, das Volk gegen den Tyrannen aufzuwiegeln, und wiirde eben
so wenig angestanden sein, wenn es ihm sonst w&re mdglich gewesen, ihn
zu ermorden." Engel, Der Philosophie für die Welt, 116 £.
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204
Lessing's departure from Livy's treatment of the legend
reveals his belief that the theme of horror alone does not
ÛA
meüce a tragedy. Schmid's rather succinct remark would
have been far more instructive, had he extended his inquiry
a bit further: what exactly, in his opinion, is the theme of
horror in Livy's account; and how is Lessing's own treatment
different from Livy's? Like Schmid, without giving any in-
depth explication, F. C. Horn asserts that Virginia story is
a detrimental burden to Lessing.*^ One assumes that Horn
must have made the observation based on some concrete
reasons, which are unfortunately not deliberately explored.
Ramdohr, on the contrary, by comparing the two texts, comes
up with a solid argument to attack the weakness of the
drama's catastrophe. Ramdohr maintains that if Virginius
were physically as close to Decemvir as Odoardo to the
Prince, he would kill the seducer instead of his own
OQ
daughter. As compared to the above criticisms, Auerbach's
86
"Die Geschichte dec Virginia ward bei ntehrern Nationen nur deswegen
bearbeitet, weil ein Vater seine Tochter ermordet. Desto lehrreicher ist
es dafi uns Herr Lefiing an einer so bekannten Geschichte zeigt, dafi das
Grausends des Themas allein noch kein Trauerspeil mache. Schaudern
vriirden wir, aber gewifi nicht sympathisiren, wenn wir nicht empfanden,
dafi wir an des Vaters Stelle selbst den Dolch zUcken wvirden.” Schmid,
Ob»r sinipe SchSnhBiten der Emilie Gelotti, 6-7.
87
"Das einzige was dem Stuck Schaden thun kann, ist die Erinnerung an
Virginia, die leider, wie nicht zu leugnen ist, auch den Dichter
mitunter ein wenig gehemmt hat." Die Poeaie und Beredaamkeit der
Deutachen, vol. Ill, 113-114.
88
"Wenn Virginius dem Decemvir so nah h&tte kommen kdnnen, als Lessing
den Odoardo mit dem FUrsten zusammenbringt, er wiirde den Stahl gegen den
Unterdriicker gekehrt, und nicht die Tochter durchbohrt haben, um jenem
die Frucht des Verbrechens zu entziehen." Moreliahce ErzHhlungen, vol.
II, 297-298.
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205
reading bears a greater political overtone. He holds that
Lessing's adaptation of Livy's historical account does the
story violence. By separating the catastrophe and the
reactions of the masses from their historical bases and
transferring the catastrophe alone to a private domain - the
chateau of a prince -, Lessing misses the point of a
historical legend, in which a revolution is precipitated by
Virginius's stabbing his daughter. The fact that Virginius
is a common man lends a more fundamental and powerful impact
to his action. Furthermore, Virginia's death is the turning
point of the story; the action takes a dramatic turn and
continues. On the contrary, Emilia's death ends the drama,
nevertheless the reader's expectation and discontent are not
OQ
resolved properly. Mehring, on the other hand, gives
Lessing's adaptation a rather positive evaluation. He
contends that those critics who attack Emilia Galotti from
the historical perspective of the original legend and
accusing it of being an artificial transposition are
mistaken. As mentioned earlier, Mehring asserts that what
89
"Ein Menschenleben kann in erhebender Weise geopfert werder, aber nur
für mehr als ein Menschenleben und aua einer handelnden Individualit&t
heraus, die für mehr als ein Menschenleben dasteht. Virginius, der die
Tochter mordet, um sie vor Schande zu retten, ist geschieht 1 ich kein
eximierter Mensch, kein überlegter Führer, sondern ein Stück aus dem
Volke; damit wird die That elementarischer und nach Ur sache und Wirkung
gewalt iger. Hier aber steht Mensch gegen Mensch und sei auch einer von
ihnen ein füurstlichee 'Wir', der Einsatz ist aufier allem Verh<nis....
Ja, dieser Ausdruck der Individualit&t als Wir' scheint mir wichtig;
eine Masse sagt naturnotwendig 'Wir'; ein Fürst sagt dies traditionell
Oder ideell. Wer als Wir handelt, hat einen andern MaEstab als das
einfache Ich. Nun steht zwar Odoardo einem FUrsten gegenUber,..., aber
er steht ihm nur als IndividualitSt gegenUber,...." Auerbach,
Dramatische Eindriicke, 163-164.
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206
Lessing sees in the Roman legend is the universally valid
issues: the social oppression and the rape of women.
ii.) Shakespeare
As some critics commented before, there is no lack of
impassioned moments in Emilia Galotti, where one feels the
dramatist has indeed endowed the tragic characters with
profound poetic quality, so genuinely reflected in their
impassioned expressions in the moments of despair,
melancholy or emotional turbulence. What I intend to present
in this section, however, is the readerly opinions that are
intrigued by a stylistic quality entirely opposite to that
of emotion/passion - namely, the rational, logical side of
Lessing's intellectual temperament. Intriguingly, this type
of criticism tends to disapprove than favor the play's
rational overtone, which is, ironically, the alleged trade
mark of Lessing's literary legacy. And frequently,
Shakespeare is held up as a supreme ideal of exact opposite
in their comparative study for contradictive reason.
Lessing and the tragedy in question is discussed by
Tieck in connection with his study on Shakespeare.
Interestingly enough, his opinion of Lessing as a dramatist
is rather ambivalent. On the one hand, he praises for his
90
"Lessing bewShrte seinen sozialen Scharfblick, wenn ihm jenes
tragische Moment in seiner weltgeschichtlichen Allgemeinheit unendlich
viel bedeutsamer erschien als der einzelne Fall, der den zuf&lligen
Anstofi zu einer politischen Umwalzung gegeben hatte." Mehring, Die
Leaaing-Legende, 372-373.
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207
valuable qualities of acute observation, intellectual
prudence, and impeccable scholarly competence; on the other
hand, he deems the latter not a true poet on account of his
lack of poetic inspiration.*^ F. Schlegel's criticism on
Lessing and the play is expressed in a more general term.
Unlike the other afore-mentioned critics, he does not
examine Lessing's dramaturgical art in terms of
compositional strategy rather of "tone” and related
qualities. Schlegel sees in Emilia Galotti a "good example
of dramatic algebra."*^ He further contends that one must
admire this cold masterpiece of pure intellect produced in
"sweat" and "pain." And it cannot penetrate the soul because
it does not originate from the soul. In a more concrete
terms, says F. Schlegel, it lacks the poetic understanding
evident in the work of Guarini, Gozzi, or Shakespeare (364).
The lack of poetic understanding infers, in accordance with
Schlegel, that the play lacks of inner harmony and profound
necessity. And such a weakness is to be discerned from the
fragility of its cold logic, with which alone the play's
91
"Bs ist achwer, ihn [Lessing] ganz als kunst1er zu wurdigen. Das
hëchste, was Kritik leisten kann; moralische Tendenz. In "Emilia"
Situation.... Seine Tragodie erfordert keine Stinmung, paSt fur jede,
man kann es zu Ende geniefien. Es ist ein Dichter, den sein Zeitlater
hervorgebracht hat.... Schrieb nichts unwillkürlich; Ailes mit der
hëchsten Besonnenheit.... Vom wahren Dichter aber ISfit sich Inspiration
unmôglich trennen." Tieck, Das Buck uber Shakespeare, 373.
92
"Unstreitig ein grofies Exempel der dramatisceh Algebra. Man mufi es
bewundern, dieses in SchweiB und Pein produzierte MeisterstUck des
reinen Ver standee ; man muB es frierend bewundern, und bewundernd
frieren; denn ins GemQt dringts nicht und kanns nicht dringen, weil es
nicht aus dem Gemiit gekommen ist. Es ist in der Tat unendlich viel
Verstand darin, nkmlich prosaischer, ja sogar Geist und Witz." Friedrich
Schlegel - Kritiache Schriften, 364.
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208
essence is allegedly to be sustained.Ludwig's opinion on
Emilia Galotti, as compared to Shakespearen drama, is that
of a mechanism, much like a game of chess with an obvious
"frigid symmetry" and superficiality. The concept of
"organism" referred by Ludwig in his study of Shakespeare is
employed repeatedly as a contradictory quality in accusing
Lessing's dreunaturgical composition of being "artificial"
{kiinstlich). "To both Lessing and Schiller," Ludwig asserts,
"the machinery is the gist, whereas what actually
constitutes the essence of the dramatic work is ignored.
On the other hand, Ludwig praises for Lessing's employment
of monologue in Emilia Galotti. He considers monologue, a
dramaturgical technic utilized to illuminate the character
thoroughly, one of Shakespeare's greatest artistic
qualities. Another acute and insightful observation made by
Ludwig is that Lessing differs from Shakespeare in his very
economical treatment of "timing," (Zeitrechnung). The
element of perfect timing is so crucial in Emilia Galotti
93
"In den genialischen Werken des von diesem poetiachen Verstande
geleiteten Instinkts enthiillt allés, was beim ersten Blick so wahr, aber
auch so inkonsequent und eigensinnig wie die Natur selbst auffallt, bei
gründlicherem Porschen stets innigere Harmonie und tiefere
Notwendigkeit. Nicht so bei Lessing1 Manches in der Emilia Galotti hat
sogar den Bewunderern Zweifel abgedrungen, die Lessing nicht beantworten
zu kSnnen gestand." Ibid., 364.
94
"Hie bei Lessing ist es bei Schiller; the Maschinerei ist das Stuck,
und das, was eigentlich das Stuck sein sollte, geht nebenher." Ludwigs
Herke, vol. IV, 55.
95
"Lessing hat die Monologe ebenso angewandt wie Shakespeare. In der
Emilia sind unter zweiundvierzig Szenen acht Monologe. - Die
Nebenpersonen bringen die AnlSsse, die steigernden Motive, die die
Hauptperson jederzeit nach ihrem Abgange verarbeitet." Ibid., 139.
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209
that, without it, the play's machinery is in trouble. Ludwig
thus names a few sequential dramatic segments as examples to
illustrate his point: Marinelli does not confront Appiani
until after his intrigues against him are completed; Odoardo
happens to leave his house before Emilia returns from
church. However, Ludwig holds, dramatic tension based on
perfect timing or other externalities is miscast in tragedy,
96
because it impedes the internal development of the drama.
He then lists numerous "externalities," which renders the
"mechanism" of the play possible: Odoardo has to live in the
countryside and he only discovers his wife's vanity now;
Emilia has to go to the church alone on the day of her
wedding against normal custom and her father's consent;
Appiani has to fight with Marinelli so that his dying words
reveal vital information to Claudia.*^ On the whole, the
"calculating passion" of Lessing's characters is foreign to
"Wie z. B. in der Emilia Galotti, daB Marinelli, nachdem sein Plan
gegen Appiani achon fertig ist, sich erst mit Appiani so iiberwirst, daB
jener plan motiviert erschiene, wenn er ihn nun erst machte? Doch wohl,
weil auf den Augenblick im Julius Casar kein Wert we iter gelegt, die
Spannung nicht darauf gegründet ist, wie bei Lessing, weil bei
Shakespeare Nebensache, bei Lessing aber Hauptsache ist; weil ein
Augenblick friiher oder spAter auf das Ganze keinen EinfluB hat. Dagegen
kommt es bei Lessing viel darauf an, daB odoardo sein Haus verlABt, ehe
Emilia aus der Kirche kommt. Im Trauerspiele wird uberhaupt die Spannung
peinlich, wenn sie an Zeit oder sonstige auBere Dinge gekniipft ist."
Ibid., 141.
97
"Da muB der alte Galotti auf dem Lande wohnen, muB dem Dichter zu
gefallen tun, als machte er erst jetzt die Erfahrung, daB seine Frau
leichtsinnig, er muB fortgehn, ehe Emilia aus der Hesse kommt; da muB
die Emilia gegen alle italienische Sitte und noch obendrein gegen Wissen
und Willen des Vaters gewohnt sein, allein in die Hesse zu gehn, sie der
es so schwer fAllt, etwas zu verheimlichen; da muB Marinelli - ebenso
t&richt und noch %#eit mehr als des Prinzen Attacke auf Emilia wAhrend
der Hesse -, wo's gar nicht notig, ja wo es unklug ist und gegen seinen
Plan, den Krafen zum Zorne reizen, damit Claudia erraten kann, was
dieser meint, %#enn er sterbend Harinellis Namen ausspricht." Ibid., 178.
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210
the world of Shakespeare, since the latter reflects nothing
but the hero's true conscience.** In his criticism of
Emilia Galotti, Hettner also compares Lessing with
Sheücespeare. However he takes Shakespeare as a reference to
praise for the play's excellent characterization. Marinelli
and Orsina, he states, are especially endowed with
99
Shakespearean greatness.
iii.) The generic issue and other related theoretical
concerns
In disparaging Emilia Galotti*s "cold intellect," F.
Schlegel claims that the play is a "prosaic tragedy"
(Kritische Schriften, 364). His brother, August W. Schlegel,
also takes up the genre issue and makes additional remark on
it. He claims that the play is written with assiduity and
thought, however, it is less a tragedy than Minna von
Barnhelm a comedy. The problem lies in the fact that Lessing
98
"Lessing in der Emilia hat den Verstand zum Medium zwischen dem
Dichter und Zuschauer gemacht, d. h. bei ihm herrscht die Maschine, der
pragmatische Nexus iiber den idealen; er hat mehr den psychologischen als
den ethischen Gehalt entfaltet; nicht das Gewissen, sondern der Bereich
der berechnenden Leidenschaft, der handelnden Affekte ist der innere,
der eigentliche Schauplatz des Vorganges. Bei Shakespeare dagegen ist
die eigentliche BUhne das Gewissen des Helden, der Grund der Aktion des
Gewissens Leiden." Ludvigs Verke, 230.
99
"Noch bis auf den heutigen Tag bewAhrt dieses Trauerspiel seine
unverwiistliche Anziehungskraft und wird sie für alle Zeit bew&hren. Eine
solche lebendige, naturwahre, fein individualisirende, bis in das
kleinste ausgefUhrte Charakterzeichnung war se it Shakespeare nicht mehr
gewollt und erreicht worden. Charaktere wie Marinelli und die Grafin
Orsina, an Lebnsfulle und packender Wahrheit von keinem spateren Dichter
übertroffen, sind und bleiben die unerschopflichen, ewig neuen
Lieblingsaufgaben aller groQen Charakterdarstel1er;...” Hettner,
Oeschichte der deutschen Literstur im achtzehnten Jahrhundert, vol. II.,
534-535.
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211
mistakenly transfers the cold detachment of the comic
writing into the realm of tragedy, whereby the passions in
Emilia Galotti are "characterized more wittily than
eloquently. Besides, A. W. Schlegel states, it is not a
tragedy of middle-class life, rather "a court-mourning
tragedy in conversational tone" (ein Hof trauerspiel im
Conversationstone). It is such a small drama with a small
thought (409). One of Ramdohr*s dissatisfaction with the
play concerns its style. His criticism on this specific
aspect of the drama is almost identical to A. W. Schlegel's:
Ramdohr feels that the style of the play is not
distinctively different from that of comedy because it lacks
the proper dignity of true tragedy. Apparently, says
Ramdohr, Lessing entirely misses the tone of the great
world. Hebbel's interest in history and its dramatic
significance lends much emphasis to his consideration on the
play's style. He claims that Emilia Galottie fails to
"Daa letztgenannte Werk (Emilia Galotti] ist vielleicht mit noch
mehr Ueberlegung entworfen und mit noch mehr Fleifi auagefiihrt ala jenes;
aber Minna von Barnhelm entapricht weit mehr dem Schten Begriffe dea
Lust spiels, ala Emilia Galotti dem dea Trauerspiele.... Er übertrug die
kalte und lauschende Beobachtung dea Komikera in daa tragische Gebiet;
die Leidenachaften sind in der Emilia Galotti mehr acharfainnig und
witzig charakter is iert, als beredt auagedriickt. " Schlegel, Sammtliche
Werke, vol. VI, 408.
"Leasings Emilia Galotti hat unter meinen Landesleuten den Ruf einea
der grSBten NeiateratUcke dramatischer Kunst.... Aber ea hat mir immer
geachienen, daB die letzten Aufzuge den ersten an Werth nicht gleich
kSmen: daB der Styl dea StUcka, ala Trauerspiel, sich von dem dea
Luatapiela nicht hinreichend durch Wiirde unteracheide: daB der Verfaaaer
den Ton der groBen Welt, aua der die mehreaten handelnden Personen
hergenommen sind, ganz verfehlt habe: and daB beaondera die Kataatrophe,
- der Tod der Emilia Galotti durch ihrea Vaters Hand - nicht hinreichend
motiviert aei, und daher wenig tragische Wirkung hervorbringe."
Moralishce ErzHhlungen, vol. II, 295-296.
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212
achieve the status of Shakespearean historical drama, but it
still succeeds in arousing feelings of pity and fear.On
the same issue, Ludwig simply denounces the play as a
"salvation comedy" (Rettungskomôdie) . He does not consider
this play a tragedy, since the Galottis pay the price for
the Prince's guilt. In other words, Emilia's death is hardly
tragic.
Another tragic element touched upon by some critics is
the play's alleged affective assumption: pity and fear. This
subject also causes great controversy, since most of the
critics respond to the sensitivity of the play differently.
Rambler, for instance, points out that the play has
significant position in the classical theater because of its
strikingly moving power. He claims that the character,
Emilia, arouses overwhelming emotion - the welling-up of
tears and a hailing feeling of horror.Schmid's view on
102
"Was ich iiber die historische Tragodie, als Gattung genonunen,... und
wenn der Schatz der neueren Geschichte Englands auch nur durch einen
Schakespeare ganz gehoben werden kann, so ist damit nicht gesagt, daB
die Wiinschelruthe in minder vornehmer Hand gar nicht schlagen wird. Wer
wollte Lessing's Emilia Galotti entbehren, weil sie die geschichtliche
Wurzel der Fabel unterbindet und die ungeheuren Consequenzen der
rSmischen Urzustande aus den Diplomatenkünsten einer kleinen Hofwelt
abzuleiten sucht, und wer mdgte Stiicken die Existenzberechtigung
absprechen, die in Shnlichem Oder verwandtem Sinne, dem historischen
St off zwar nicht vollkommene Berechtigkeit widerfahren lassen, aber
nichtsdestoweniger Purcht und Nittleid zu erregen wissen?" Friedrich
Hebbel: SMmntliche Verke, Brief, vol. VI, 336-337.
"Das MiBlichte ist, daB der Prinz die Schuld hat, und die Galotti
das Leiden. Darum wirkt das Ganze nicht tragisch. Das Stuck ist nun
keine Tragôdie, sondern eine sogenannte RettungskomSdie dem Sinne nach."
Ludviga Verke, vol. IV, 228.
104
"Emilia Galotti behauptet, eben so wie Minna von Barnhelm, nicht
bloB auf dem deutsche Theater, sondern auf dem groBen klassischen
Theater der gelehrten Welt, einen vorzUglichen Rang.... Unser Dichter
giebt ihnen hier eine Emilia, die keinen Strom von Thrknen, sondern
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213
this specific subject is insinuated in his discussion on the
play's relation to Livy's story. He asserts that Lessing
extends the theme of "horror" from the original story and
renders Emilia Galotti a tragedy.Intriguingly enough,
Schopenhauer's famous comment on the effect of Emilia
Galotti's ending contradicts entirely what Lessing has
championed enthusiastically in his theoretical proclamation.
Schopenhauer asserts the play's unsatisfying ending sends
the spectator home completely "depressed.Apparently,
the philosopher is not of the opinion that the play evokes
any tragic emotion, but rather a feeling of shock (etwas
Emporendes) and disappointment. Paul Heyse's (1830-1914)
biting inquiry on Emilia's plea for death because of her own
fear for seduction indicates his strong skepticism on the
play's effect in evoking sympathy. He claims that how can
anyone have a spark of sympathy for Emilia if she is nothing
but a seducible sensualist.Wilhelm Scherer (1841-1886)
gleichsam nur Reime von Thr&nen, und einen heilaamen Schauer von
Schrecken erregt." Braun, Leasing im Urtheile seiner zeitgenossen, vol.
I, 366.
See footnote 84.
"Daher eben hat der SchluB der >Bmilia 6alotti< etwas so Emporendes,
daB man das Schauspielhaus in vôlliger Verstimmung verlaBt." SSmmtlicher
Werke, vol. IV, 438.
"Unnennbare Gefuhle voll Angst und Lust, Abscheu und Sehnsucht
durch«rogen sie, ihr selbst ein R&tsel. Es w&re gewiB ein grober Fehler,
wenn Emilia jetzt schon mehr als eine dumpfe BestUrzung gestehen wollte
und kdnnte, wenn sie nicht erst in den letzten Minuten, durch furchtbare
Begebnisse gereist, es in Horte faBte, welchen Samen der Besuch jener
Begghia in ihre Seele geworfen hat: .... In dieser Auffassung der Emilia
begegnen wir uns auch mit dem Urteil berufenster Dichter: Heyee hat nie
verstanden, wie man noch einen Punken von Teilnahme für die Braut des
Grafen Apppiani haben kdnne, wenn sie «wnige Stunden nach dem Tode des
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214
touches upon the issue of tragic emotion in his insightful
discussion on the motivation of catastrophe. He states that
the murder of the Prince would be impossible, since Lessing
is incapable of portraying a prince's murder
sympathetically. His comment on the play's dramaturgical
necessity evidently is based on Lessing's writerly
conviction - the emotional impact as an indispensable tragic
element. Intriguingly, Johannes Volkelt (1848-1930)
categorizes this play as "the tragedy of oppressive mode"
(das Tragische der niederdrückenden Art) as opposed to "the
tragedy of liberating mode" (das Tragische der befreienden
Art). In the former category, one leaves the theater
1 no
completely despondent, crushed. Hence, he writes:
"Without any doubt, it is an absurdly terrible fate that
stares at us as the curtain falls.Vokelt's view
Brüutigams in den Tod fliichte vor der Macht der Verfiihrung, ohne diese
schon friiher empfunden zu haben;" Quoted in Erich Schmidt, Lessing:
Geschichte seines Lebens und seiner Schriften (Berlin: Weidmannsche
Buchhandlung, 1909) vol. II, 26.
108
"Die Allmacht des absoluten FUrsten, die undurchdringliche Mauer,
mit der er seine Person umgeben kann, die Aussichtslosigkeit eines
Angriffes auf ihn wird von Lessing nicht so anschaulich gemacht, als sie
gemacht werden miiBte, um uns vollig zu Uberzeugen, daB dem Vater nichts
Ubrig war, als seine Tochter aufzuopfern. Hier bleibt also fiir den
kUhlen Zuschauer, der nicht in die Befangenheit der Situation
hineingerissen ist, eine LUcke der Motivirung. Denn verandern konnte
Lessing das Ende unmoglich. Nicht weil aus der Sage von Virginia
featstand; sondern weil er unmoglich einen FUrstenmord sympathisch
darstellen konnte." Wilhelm Scherer, "Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, Zum 15.
Februar 1881" in Deutsche Rundschau, XXVI (1881), 289.
Johannes Volkelt, Xsthetik des Tragischen (München, 1917), 276-295.
"In der tat, es 1st ein widersinnig grausames Schicksal, das uns aus
dem Ausgange der TragSdie anstarrt." Ibid., 280.
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215
genuinely summarizes the majority of the afore-mentioned
critics' feeling toward the ending of the play.
Finally, the issue of contingency. This specific topic
is important, since it converses with the writerly concern
and debates against his rationalist proclamation for
probability and logic. Even though none of the readers
quoted below draws Lessing's theory as a reference to
comment the play, it is nevertheless interesting to observe
the discrepancy between writerly expectation and its
readerly response.
The author of Bianica criticizes the overall flaws of
the play's characterization and plot, such as Odoardo's
dependence on Orsina to acquire the dagger for his
subsequential murder, Orsina's purely instrumental function,
etc., whereby he bitterly questions where is "Nature" in the
plot, where is truth or even mere probability.On the
contrary, Goethe praises for Lessing's mastery in bringing
the element of "fate" into the play by making Orsina's
letter lie unread. The Prince's indifference to the note,
says Goethe, lays the groundwork for Orsina's appearance in
the vital moment. This shows Lessing's profound
understanding of the essence of dramatic art.^^^ On the
"Noch einmal also: wo ist da in der Fabel wohl Natur? wo Wahrheit,
Oder auch nur Wahrscheinlichkeit?" Bianka, 25. For the author's detailed
conments on plot discrepancy, see page 9-25 of Bianka.,
112
In 1809 Goethe mentioned to J. D. Falk: "In der Emilie Galotti sei
ebenfalls das Motiv meisterhaft und zugleich hëchst charakteristisch,
dafi der Kanmerherr dem Prinzen Emilie Galotti sicher auf seinem wege
zugefUhrt haben wiirde; daB aber der Prinz dadurch, daB er in die kirche
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216
subject of "fate," Hebbel is of rather different opinion. He
considers the characters overly calculated to serve the
catastrophe: within this perfectly designed machinery, men
are only cogs. Ideally, man and fate should meet
unexpectedly without the suggestion of caprice. In Emilia
Galotti, however, fate has its way too easy. As noticed,
Ludwig's strong dissatisfaction with the play lies in its
calculated intellect, as well. In his comparative study on
Shakespeare and Lessing, he also touches upon the same issue
by pointing out that "chance and expedient devices" are
never noticeable in the former, whereas in Emilia Galotti,
they hit you in the face.Gervinus holds that the
geht und in den Handel hineinpfuscht, dem Marinelli und sich selber das
Spiel verdirbt. Nicht minder schon sei die Art, wie Lessing das
Schicksal in der Emilie Galotti einführt. Ein Billet, das der Prinz an
seine ehemalige Geliebte, die Gr&fin Orsina, schrieb, und worin er sich
ihren Besuch auf morgen verbittet, wird eben dadurch, d«LB es zufallig
liegen blieb - wenn Zufall, wie die Grâffin selbst sogleich hinzusetzt,
in solchen Dingen nicht Gottesl&aterung genannt werden miifite - die
gelegentliche Ursache, dafi die gefUrchtete Nebenbuhlerin, weil man ihr
nicht abgesagt, gerade in demselben Augenblicke ankommt, wo Graf Appiani
erschossen, die Braut in das Lustschlofi dea FUrsten durch Marinelli
eingefUrt und so dem Morder ihrea Br&utigama in die Hande geliefert
wird. Dies sind ZUge einer Meisterhand, welche hinlUnglich beurkunden,
wie tiefe Blicke Lessing in das Wesen der drzumatischen Kunat vergdnnt
waren. Auch seid veraichert, wir wiaaen recht wohl, was wir ihm und
aeinesgleichen, insbesondere WinckeImann, achuldig sind." Goethes
Geaprëche, hg. Flodoard Frhr. von Biedermann, Zweite Auflage (Leipzig,
1909), vol. II, 108.
"Ein Vater, der sich leichter zum Aeufiersten, als zu etwaa Anderem
entschliefit; eine Tochter, die um ihren Tod bettelt, wie Laufende um's
Leben betteln wUrden; eien Mutter, die an aich Nichts bedeutet, deren
breites Dasein aber Gelegenheit giebt, dafi Andere sich entfalten; ein
hitziger Graf, der %*eifi, dafi die Affen hUmisch sind und der aie dennoch
aufs Aergste reizt,... ; das Schicksal hatte es doch gar zu leicht 1 "
Hebbel, SSmtliche Werke: Tagebiicher, vol. I, 331-332.
114
"Bei Shakeapeare fUllt kein Zufall, kein Behelf auf, well be ides fur
nichts andres ausgegeben wird, als es 1st; in der Emilia Galotti
schlagen einem die Behelfe und ZufAlle in die Augen, eben weil sie nicht
als solche eracheinen sollen. - Shakeapeare hat von einem absoluten
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217
employment of fate in Emilia Galotti according to Christian
ideal probably makes it the most tragic of all German
tragedies. And the demonic Orsina is "the hand that tears
off the invisible thread and fabric which seal the
characters' fate."
iv. Conflict as a thematic focus
Most of our readerly texts do not employ the term or
concept of "conflict" in their analytical task. However, it
is evident that their readings insinuate an implicit
awareness of such a thematic potential, since most of them
point out the antithetical tension illustrated in the chains
of action. Such an antithetical tension is frequently
referred as follows: Emilia's inner struggle between her
sensual tendency and moral imperative, Odoardo's antagonism
against the Prince, Orsina's hatred and enmity toward the
Prince, and Appiani's head on confrontation with Marinelli
etc. All the above antithetical factors are already explored
in our preceding discussion in this chapter. It is
Drama nichts gewufit, und das war gut für ihn." Ludwigs Warke, vol. IV.
234.
"Was aber das Stuck vielleicht zum tragischsten aller deutschen
Trauerspiele macht, ist der Gebrauch dee Schicksals nach den
Christ1ichsten Begriffen, nach denen sich hier die Menschen mit
offenbaren Thaten ihre Geschicke selbst knüpfen, bis an der
verborgensten Stelle das unsichtbarste Fadchen, zu plump geschlungen,
reifi, und das Gewebe unter den HSnden jener dSmonischen Orsina sich
auflSst, die auf eine treffliche und viel feinere Weise jene Wahrsager
der antiken Tragodie vorstellt, als die Margarete in Shakespeare's
Richard." Gervius, Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung, vol. IV, 370.
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218
interesting to note that most of the critics, in spite of
their awareness of such antithetical forces, do not utilize
it as an interpretational framework in their reading of the
play. Among my selected readers, Lassalle is the only one
who directly employs "conflict" as the conceptual tool in
his interpretation. In accordance with his point of view,
the play is primarily about self-assertion in the face of
opposing political force.
II. Dramatic text
The following dramatic texts will be discussed
primarily in conjunction with their affiliation with Emilia
Galotti. In spite of being a very different mode of critical
discourse in response to the tragedy in question, they are,
viewed within our context, readerly texts, as well.
Therefore, my investigation will focus on how they differ
from the writerly text and what they intend to achieve in
terms of rectifying the "alleged flaws" in Lessing's drama.
1. Odoardo Galotti
The author of Odoardo Galotti is J. J. Bodmer.This
parody of Lessing's drama was published anonymously in
Reden und Schriften, I, 407.
Jakob Bodmer, Odoardo Galotti, Vater der Emilia, Bin Pendant zur
Emilia. In einem Aufzuge und Epilogue sur Emilia Galotti, (Augsburg:
Mauracher, 1778).
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219
1778.^^* Bodmer's play is actually a continuation of Emilia
Galotti, in which Emilia is no longer part of the dramatis
personae. Its actions, happening in five scenes, teüce place
in the antechamber of the Galotti house. In the beginning of
the play, Claudia laments about her thoughtlessness to have
abandoned her daughter in the hands of the Prince. It is
then followed by Odoardo*s appearance. A man of pride, he
speaks of himself as a strong spirit with honest integrity.
His initial presence is mainly to explain and reassure the
necessity of his crime. Most of all, he truly believes that
he has surpassed Virginius, since he himself kills Emilia
not due to the pressure from external circumstances
(Virginius realizes there is no other way out except killing
Virginia) rather due to his adamant sense of moral
imperative. What is most unusual about Bodmer's play is the
return of Appiani. The deceased young count in Lessing's
tragedy now revives, yet severely wounded. When asked by
Appiani about Emilia's whereabouts, Odoardo is then forced
to reveal that Emilia had demanded the knife. What follows
is their fervent argument on the justification of Ordoardo's
crime. In spite of Odoardo's conviction of his own
righteousness, Appiani, in anger and despair, insists that
118
"Warum habe Odoardo nicht lleber den Prlnsen eretochen? Das schien
dam guten Bodmer ale die eigentliche crux der Tragddie, die grade bei
den Dichtern (noch Hebbel nennt aie eine 'Maschine') wenig Sympathie
fand....” Hans Landsberg, "Bodmers Parodie der Emilia Galotti" under
"Deutsche literatische Zeitgem&lde, Parodien und Travestien" in
ZeitMChrift fiir Bucherfreunde, vol. VI (1902/1903), 349.
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220
the former could have sought for other measures instead of
killing his own daughter. As far as the punishment for the
Prince is concerned, Odoardo claims that the latter is
sufficiently punished by his failure in possessing Emilia.
The last scene is basically a morally didactic scene of
penitence. Odoardo and the Prince both realize that they are
responsible for Emilia's death. The Prince, above all,
admits his guilt and recognizes that he has made a terrible
mistake by following Marineli's diabolic plan. In the
epilogue, an actress, assumingly coming out of her role as
Emilia, confesses that she is glad that no one throws apples
and oranges at her for the stupid remarks she made during
the performance. Her speech virtually points to the problem
of Emilia and Odoardo's unnatural emotions, that cause the
final catastrophe. And most important of all, she criticizes
the motivation of the catastrophe being unchristian, which
shows the lost of faith in God.^^*
By allowing Odoardo and the Prince to speak out in this
continuous version, Bodmer tends to clarify some unsolved
issues, such as tragic guilt and poetic justice. Besides,
119
In the epilog addresses the actress to the audience, "So eine
Tochter ist nicht mehr, die den Vater urns Himmels Willen bittet, den
Dolch nicht gegen das Herz des Verbrechers, sondern gegen sie zu wenden,
und so ein Vater ist nicht mehr, Oder weniger Soldat als die Tochter,
der sich fiirchtet, an dem ttbelth&ter sich zu vergreifen.... Ich habe ein
gnSdiges Parterre gehabt, ich fUrchtete sehr, dass ich nicht mit
gesunden Gliedmassen von der SchaubUhne kommen würde, als ich sagte,
'Bhedem gab es einen Vater,der der Tochter den ersten beaten Stahl in
das Herz senkte....' Solche unsinnige Aufmunterungen verdienten ein paar
Dutzend Xpfel und Citronen an meinen Kopf....” Bodmer, Odoardo Galotti,
32.
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221
the return of Appiani and his anxious inquisition on the
cause of Emilia's death provides Bodmer, the reader of the
original Emilia Galotti, with the opportunity to restate
certain problematic aspects of the heroin's murder, such as,
whether Emilia's death is avoidable at all, since she could
have also killed herself with her hair pin, if not with the
dagger? Frankly, there is not much of action in the entire
play created by Bodmer. What the characters mostly are
engaging is speak their minds concerning their
responsibility for Emilia's death. Their final repentance
and acknowledgement of their guilt seem to be a logical
conclusion of this rather insipid, predictable play of
Bodmer's. Besides, the epilogue is nothing more than a
satirical gimmick to convey Bodmer's criticism on the
motivation of the catastrophe in Lessing's drama.
2. Virginia
Feeling that Emilia Galotti fails to reflect the true
Roman spirit, Graf Friedrich Julius Heinrich von Soden
(1754-1831) writes Virginia as a correction to it.^^° This
play is solely based on Livy's account and is much more in
tune with Roman custom and legal tradition. As a
contradiction to Emilia Galotti's ethical ambiguity, its
moral austerity characterizes its quintessence. It retains
Graf Heinrich von Soden, Virginia, TragSdie in fiinf Aufziigen
(Berlin, 1805).
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222
most of the major characters from Livy's legend. The general
plot line follows the legendary story; however, it lends a
much greater depth to the character, Virginia, who exists in
the original story merely as a silent object. By letting her
express her unwavering confidence in her virtue and in gods,
Soden adds a fearless, spiritual profile to the character.
In addition, the political theme is also retained so that
the ending is concluded with the arrival of Roman legions to
overthrow the corrupted Decemvir power. In the end, Virginia
is rescued and Rome is set free. Even though Soden also
plays with the element of catastrophe, in which the daughter
implores the father to stab her to avoid certain rape, the
situation is resolved by the changing of the external
circumstances - the final interruption of the Roman legions.
As Soden himself indicates, his play is a model tragedy of
tragic and poetic quality, which, is allegedly missing in
121
Lessing's drama. Apparently, Soden's tragedy aims at
restoring the antique tragic greatness, as opposed to
Lessing's modern, middle-class tragedy. He also strives to
recapture the uncompromising ethical value that evidently is
never made clear in Emilia Galotti,
121
"Klarer drUckt sich Soden schon vorher, S. VIII, aus: 'Nur die
Bevninderung kann unsre Theilnahme zu dem Grade des tragischen Effekts
spannen, und sie ist von dem Geiste der Tragddie untrennlich. '.... Soden
beteuert selbst, er habe Lessing nicht herabsetzen wollen: er thut es
auch wirklich nicht; im Gegenteil, er bringt dem Laser durch den
Vergelich mit 'Emilia Galotti' von neuem ins Bemsstsein, wie einzig
dieses Drama in seiner geistreichen Knappheit dasteht." Otto Hachtmann,
Graf Hminrich von Soden ala Dramatiker, Dise., Gdttingen, 1902, 119-121.
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223
3. Orsina
Like Bodmer's parody, Gustav Anton Freiherr von
Seckendorff s (1775-1823) Orsina is also a continuation of
1.22
Lessing's play. In Orsina, as suggested by the title of
the play, the future of the Prince and especially, Orsina,
are treated as the central concern. In order to create a new
conflicting situation, Seckendorff introduces a new main
character, Appiani, the brother of the murdered young count.
In this play, the new Appiani seeks for the answers to the
old unsolved issues from the original tragedy, such as, why
is his brother murdered; whom does Emilia really love, etc.?
Through his conversations and encounters with the Prince,
Orsina and other minor characters, the truth is faintly
revealed from each individual's point of view. And the most
intriguing and unusual twist of all the confessed insights
might be the rumor about Harinelli's secret love for Emilia,
which suggests that his intrigue to murder the young count
is actually engendered by a purely selfish incentive. Even
though he is never present throughout the entire play,
Marinelli is often brought up in the dialogues. Toward the
end of the play, we know that he is defeated in a duel with
Appiani. Curiously enough, Seckendorff leaves Odoardo, the
most important survivor of the catastrophe, out of his
122
Guatav Anton Freiherr von Seckendorff, Oraina, Ein Trauerspiel in
fUnf AufcUgen, als Folgestuck aus Lessings Emilia Galotti (Braunschweig,
1815)
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224
continuous version by vaguely indicating that he becomes
insane soon after Emilia's death and he and Claudia die two
years after the tragic incident. In the meantime, the
Prince, married to the Princess of Massa, is not content.
And the vindictive Orsina, who is married to the widower of
Grimaldi, still plans revenge. However, she stabs herself
after her attempt to murder the Prince fails.
One notices that Orsina as a continuation carries on
and expands the theme of seduction and sensual passion,
thereby renders it the primary thematic focus of the
dramatic plot. Most important of all, except the new
Appiani, all the figures are virtually characterized in
accordance with their sensual inclination. When the curtain
first arises, they are still entangled with one another
within the old webs of love and hatred. Without any doubt,
Emilia still lives on in their thought as an unresolved
issue, upon which the meaning of their dramatic existence in
Orsina depends. In the meantime, it also intends to resolve
the issue of crime and punishment. The above three villains
who directly and indirectly cause the death of Emilia all
end up either in misery or misfortune. For Seckendorff, the
punishment befalling each of them might infer his own answer
to the long overdue poetic justice.
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225
4. Der Freund
Der Freund^^^ is written by Gottfried Keller (1819-
1890) when he was seventeen. In this adaptation, Keller
renders the Prince, a duke this time, a worse hedonist by
emphasizing his hopeless indulgence in sensual pleasure
between two mistresses. Marinelli, the former cunning
intriguer, renamed as Grinelli. He wins the courtly favor by
his singing talent. One of Keller's most distinguished
changes in regards to characterization is that he makes
Grinelli a "friend" of Rômer, an artist and old widower, who
123
Gottfried Keller, Der Freund, in Gottfried keller. Die Jugenddramen,
hg. Laurence A. Rickels (Zurich: Ammann Verlag, 1990), 73-130. In
accordance with this collection, Der Freund was not completed as Keller
first planned. In addition to the dramatic text itself, Rickels includes
some introductory documents related to the creation of this fragmentary
play. The supplementary documents include: an abstract stating the
complete plot, a list of dramatis personae, a descriptive introduction
of each character and, most of all, a list of short summary for each
scene, which tells us there should be three acts. However, we only find
two Acts (three scenes in the first Act and four in the second) in this
edition. The entire third Act is either never written or missing.
124
"... Die erste Ausfahrt in die Welt der Biihne war kindliches Spiel.
Wie der Jungling mit tastender Schopferkraft den Weg zu seinem Beruf
suche, knupfte er nicht an die Romantik an, in deren Dunstkreia sein
Geist sonst atmete, sondern an Lessing, den Begriinder des deutschen
Dramas. In seinem Aufsatz "Autobiographisches" erzahlt der Dichter, er
habe einst, nachdem, er die "Emilia Galotti" gelesen, plotzlich
wochenlang ein dickes Manuskript mit der krassesten Nachahmung
angefiillt. "Allé Gestalten, der Fiirst, der Hofling, die Matresse usw.
fanden sich vor. Nur war der Vater des virginischen Opfers ein furchtbar
ernster Historienmaler mit republikanischer Gesinnung und Witwer, so dafi
er ganz allein iiber die Tochter wachen mufite. Indem, mein Marinelli dem
Fürsten den furchtbar ernsten Charakter des Alten beschrieb, sieht er
ihm einen ziemlichen Vortrag iiber den Unterschied der Historien» und der
Landschaftsmalerei, wie diese ein sorgloses lustiges Volklein
hervorbr&chte, w&hrend jene nur von düsteren, wo nicht blutgierigen
Graub&rten betrieben vriirde, mit denen sich nicht spaBen lieBe.... Statt
Lessings einer Orsina schuf ich zwei M&tressen, welche fortw&hrend
miteinander zankten und sich PuDtritte versetzten. * Dies stuck hat sich
in Keller Papieren erhalten. Es heiftt "Der Freund" und ist am 28. Januar
1837 nach Inhalt, Charakter ist ik der Personen und Akt» und
Szeneneinteilung skizziert worden." Jakob Baechtold, Gottfried Kellers
Leben, Briefe und Tsgebiiche, hr. Emil Ermatinger (Stuttgart u. Berlin:
I. G. Cotta'sche Buchhandlung Nachfolger, 1924), vol I., 263.
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226
has a daughter, Anna. Because of the personal connection
between Grinelli and Rômer, Keller's drama renders the minor
character, Appiani, dispensable. In other words, this time,
through Grinelli, the Duke has the chance and excuse to meet
and approach Anna, the beautiful, young daughter of Rômer,
who deems her father as her entire world. Unlike Emilia,
there is a great transparency about Anna's naivety and
purity. She is also desired by the tyrant and forced to
choose between the Duke or the execution of her father. In
order to save her father, Anna is obliged to submit to the
Duke's wish. Before the latter is able to lay his hands on
Anna, the father escapes from the prison and stabs the
seducer to death. In the end, Anna is rescued and the
corrupted power is also overthrown by the angry masses.
It seems that Keller's aim in creating this play is to
endow the story with greater transparency in regards to
overall characterization and motivation. For instance,
instead of a seducer with soft, good nature, the Duke is an
all time sensualist, who shows no hesitation or guilty
conscience in his brute force. And precisely for this
reason, Grinelli plays a much more minor role in this play
in the operation of intrigue, since the Duke needs no push
in acting on his scheme of seduction. He is there mostly as
a go-between to introduce, connect the victims (Rômer and
Anna) and the Duke. Since the catastrophe is caused mostly
by Grinelli's betrayal to his "friend" Rômer, the drama is
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227
ironically called The Friend (Der Freund). Besides, Anna is
an innocent young girl, who does not know the first thing
about sexual temptation and erotic drive - such as "the warm
blood in her vein, " so daringly confessed by Emilia in her
dying moment (Emilia Galotti, V,viii). She is, therefore,
saved from the cruel murder by her father, whereby the
ending is justified by the death of the Duke and the removal
of his power.
III. Conclusion
In order to possibly sustain consistency in regards to
the referred texts' correlative readerly status in this
chapter, thereby avoid turing them into writerly texts (to
be read and interpreted by me), the selected documents are,
for the most part, presented as they are so that the
responsive nature of this set of literary documents could
clearly be expressed. My intent was to illuminate the
readerly communicative dynamics through its immediate
textual transparency, especially through the at times
electrifying, at times detached, at times admiring, at times
disdainful tones revealed in the incredibly diverse readerly
approaches. Certainly, it is epistemologically impossible to
entirely exclude my "editorial" point of view in terms of
how each readerly opinion should be categorized.
Furthermore, since each "topic-classified" comment is
translated, selected out of its original context and
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228
intertextualized with other remarks, the readerly
textuality, to a certain extent, has inevitably lost its
originality in the process of intertextualization.
However, it is interesting to note how these
intertextualized texts gain fresh, unexpected significance
through their new status as a correlative referent within a
communicative framework. The most distinguished examples
could be found in the group of dramatic discourse: if
deprived of their current intertextual and contextual
signification, they are nothing more than undervalued
dramatic works, likely lost and forgotten in the selective
memory of literature history. Yet, as the aesthetic response
to Emilia Galotti, a new quality then shines through —
there is a critical subtext inscribed in all of them.
Curiously, this critical subtext endowes the dramatic text
with new layers of meaning. It explains each play's
dramaturgical intent and design: a seemingly humdrum plot
line becomes meaningful, since it addresses the unsolved
mysteries of a commonly read tragedy, called Emilia Galotti.
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229
Works Cited
I. Primary sources in German
Auerbach, Berthold, Dreuaatische Eindriicke. Aus dem
Nachlasse. Hg. Otto Neumann-Hofer. Stuttgart: Cotta, 1893.
Bianka. Ein tragisches Gem&lde in fünfAufzügen. Seitenstück
zur Emilia Galotti. Nebst einer kurzen kritische Beleuchtung
dieses Lessing'schen Meisterstücks. Zweite Ausgabe. Leipzig:
bei G. Benj. MeiBner, 1802.
Bodmer, Jakob, Odoardo Galotti, Vater der Emilia, Ein
Pendant ur Emilia, In einem Aufzuge und Emipogus zur Emilia
Galotti. Von einem langst bekannten Verfasser. Augsburg:
Mauracher, 1778.
Borne, ludwig, Geseamelte Schriften. Wien: Tendler&Comp.,
1868.
Briefe deutscher Gelehrten/Briefe der Schweizer Bodmer,
Sulzer, GeBner, Aus Gleims litterarischem Nachlasse. Hg.
Wilhelm Korte. Zürich: bei Heinrich GeBner, 1804.
Briefwechsel ztfischen Goethe und Zelter. Hg. Max Hecker.
Leipzig: Insel Verlag, 1918.
Freytag, Gustav, Die Technik des Dramas, sechste,
verbesserte Auflage. Leipzig: Hirzel, 1890.
Goethe, Goethes Gesprache. zweite, durchgesehene und stark
vermehrte Auflage. Leipzig: F. W. v. Biedermann, 1910.
Friedrich Hebbel: Samtliche Werke. Hg. R. M. Werner. Berlin,
1906.
Herders Samtliche Werke. Hg. Bernhard Suphan. Berlin:
Weidmannsche Buchhandlung, 1881.
Lenz, Jakob Michael Reinhold, Gesammelte Schriften. Hg.
Franz Blei. München und Leipzig, 1909.
Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim, Emilia Galotti. Ed. E. L. Stahl.
Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1946.
, Gesammelte Werke. vol. IV. Berlin: Aufbau Verlag, 1955.
, Gotthold Ephraim Lessing: Werke. München: Carl Hanser
Verlag, 1973.
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230
— -, Lessings Briefwechsel mit Karl Wilhelm Ramier, Joachim
Eschenburg und Friedrich Nicolai. Berlin und Stettin, 1794.
, Sâmtliche Schriften. vol. X. Ed. K. Lachmann.
Stuttgart, 1886-1924.
Ludwig, Otto, Studien. Hg. Adolf Stern. Leipzig: Grunow,
1891.
— -, Ludwigs Werke. Hg. Arthur Eloesser. Berlin: Deutsches
Verlagshaus Bong&Co., n.d.
Parkettplatz 23: Theodor Fonteuie iiber Theaterkunst, Dichtung
und Wahrheit. Hg. E. Helk. Berlin:bRuno Henschel und Sohn,
1949.
Der Philosoph fiir die Welt. Hg. J. J. Engel. Leipzig: Dyk,
1775&1777.
Von Ramdohr, Friedrich Wilhelm Basilius, Odoardo und seine
Tochter. Leipzig, 1799.
Roelcke, Thorsten, Dramatische Kommunikation, Modell und
Reflexion bei Diirrenmatt, Handke, Weiss. Berlin, New York:
de Gruyter, 1994.
August Wilhelm Schlegel: Sammtliche Werke. Hg. Eduard
Bôcking, dritte Ausgabe. Leipzig: Weidmann, 1846.
Friedrich Schlegel - Kritische Schriften. Hg. Wolfdietrich
Rasch. München: Carl Hanser, 1964.
Schmid, Christian Heinrich, Über einige Schbnheiten der
Emilia Glotti, an Herrn Friedrich Wilhelm Getter,
Archiverius zu Gotha.
Leipzig: J. G. Müller, 1773.
Arthur Schopenhauers Sëmmtlcihe Werke. Hg. Eduard Grisebach.
Leipzig: Philipp Reclam, n.d.
Von Seckendorff, Gustav Anton Freiherr, Orsina, ein
Trauerspiel in fünf Aufzügen, als Folgestück aus Lessings
Emilia Galotti. Braunschweig: Vieweg, 1815.
Graf Von Soden, Heinrich, Virginia, Tragbdie in fiing
Aufziigen. Berlin: Fr. Maurer, 1805.
Lugwig Tieck: Das Such iiber Shakespeare. Hg. H. Lüdecke.
Halle a. S., 1920.
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231
II. Prim&rmry Sources in English
Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim, Laocoôn. Trans. Edward Allen
McCormick. London: The Johns Hopkins Press Ltd., 1984.
Five German Tragedies, Trans. F. J. Lamport. Baltimore &
Maryland: Penguin Books, 1969.
The Genius Of The German Theater. Trans. Charles Lee Lewes,
ed. Martin Esslin. New York: The New American Library, 1968.
Goethe, Johannas Wolfgang, Conversation of Goethe with
Eckermann and Soret. Trans. Johan Oxenford. London: George
Bell, 1883.
Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim, Selected Prose Works of G. E.
Lessing. Trans. E. C. Beasley and Helen Zimmern. Ed. Edward
Bell. London: George Bell and Sons, 1879.
Livy, The Early History of Rome. Trans. Aubrey de
Selincourt.
Baltimore/Maryland: Penguin Books, 1960
III Secondary sources in German
Bernays, Michael, Schriften zur Kritik und
Litteraturgeschichte, Aus dem NachlaB. hg. Georg Witkowski.
Berlin: B. Behr, 1903.
Braun, Julius W., Lessing im Urtheile seiner Zeitgenossen.
Berlin: Friedrich Stahn, 1884-1897.
Distel, Theodor, "Kleine Lesefriichte und Archivsplitter, "
Zeitschrift fiir vergleichende Literaturgeschichte, N.F.
XIII. 1899.
Ermatinger, Emil, Gottfried Kellers Leben, zweite Auflage.
Stuttgart und Berlin: Cotta, 1916.
Gervius, Georg Gottfried, Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung.
Hg. Karl Bartsch, fUnfte Auflage. Leipzig: Engelmann, 1873.
Hachtmann, Otto, Graf Heinrich von Soden Als Dramatiker.
Diss., Gottingen, 1902.
Hettner, Hermann, Geschichte der deutschen Literatur im
achtzehnten Jahrhundert. zweite ungearbeitete Auflage.
Braunschweig, 1872.
Horn, Frans Christoph, Die Poesie und Beredsamkeit der
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Deutschen, von Luthers Zeit bis zur Gegenwert. Berlin,
1824.
Jauss, Hans Robert, "Paradigmawechsel in der
Literaturvissenschaft,” Linguistische Berichte, no. 3, 1969.
Kettner, G., "Lessing und Shakespeare" in Beue Jahrbiicher
für klassische Altertum, Geschichte und deutsche Literatur
und für Püdagogik, xix, 1907.
Kôpke, Rudolph, Ludvig Tieck - Erinnerungen aus dem Leben
des Dichters nach dessen mündlichen und schriftlichen
Mittheilungen. Leipzig: Brockhaus, 1855.
Landsberg, Hans, "Bodmers Parodie der Emilia Golotti" under
"Deutsche literarische Zeitgemâlde, Parodien und
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Lassalle, Ferdinand, Reden und Schriften. Hg. Eduard
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Mehring, Frans, Die Lessing~Legende, zur Geschichte und
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Scherer, Wilhelm, "Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, Zum 15.
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Schmidt, Erich, Lessing, dritte Durchgesehene Auflage.
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Vilmar, A.F.C., Geschichte der deutschen National-Literatur,
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Volkelt, Johannes, j^sthetik des Tragischen. München, 1897.
Volkmer, August, A. W. Schlegels Auffassung des Dramas im
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Aristotle, Aristotle's Theory of Poetry and Fine Art. Trans.
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Barthes, Roland, Image~Music~Text. Trans. Stephan Heath. New
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Beckermann, Bernard, Dynamics of Drema. New York: Alfred A.
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Bloch, Ernst, "Death as the Chisel in Tragedy," The
Principle of Hope. Trans. N. Plaice, S. Plaice and P.
Knight, Oxford, 1986.
Chaim, Daphna Ben, Distance in the Theatre: The Aesthetics
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Chaudhuri, Una, "The Spectator in Drama/Drama in the
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Dogmar Barnouw, "Is There Anything Left To Read For Iser's
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Zoran Konstantinovc, Manfred Naumann, Hans Robert Jauss.
Innsbruck: University Innsbruck, 1979.
Eagleton, Terry, Literary Theory: An Introduction.
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GelIrich, Michelle Louise, Tragic Conflict: Studies of a
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Crabes, Herbert, "Staging plays in the theater of the mind,"
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Graf, Otto G., "Lessing and The Art of Acting" in Papers of
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Hawkins, Harriett, Strange Attractors: Literature and Chaos
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Holub, Robert C., Reception Theory, a critical introduction.
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Ingarden, Roman, The Literary Work of Art. Trans, by George
G. Grabowicz. Evanston, 1973.
Iser, Wolfgang, The Act of Reading. Baltimore and London:
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, The Implied Reader, Patterns of Communications in Prose
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Issacharoff, Michael, Discourse as Performeuice. Stanford:
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Macintosh, Feona, Dying Acts, Death In Ancient Greek And
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1995.
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Asset Metadata

Creator Tseng, Tin-Yu (author)

Core Title "Emilia Galotti" and its aesthetic response: A case study for the reader-response criticism

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program German Literature-Drama

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Literature, Germanic,OAI-PMH Harvest,Theater

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Schnauber, Cornelius (committee chair), [illegible] (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c17-361819

Unique identifier UC11353794

Identifier 9902878.pdf (filename),usctheses-c17-361819 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 9902878.pdf

Dmrecord 361819

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Tseng, Tin-Yu

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA