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The Gothic world of foxes, ghosts, demons and monsters: A study of "Liaozhai zhiyi"

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The Gothic world of foxes, ghosts, demons and monsters: A study of "Liaozhai zhiyi"

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Content THE GOTHIC WORLD OF FOXES, GHOSTS, DEMONS AND MONSTERS: A STUDY OF L I AOZHAI Z H IY I by Fa t ima Y . Wu A D i s s e r t a t i o n Pres en ted to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t o f the R equirem ents fo r the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (C om p arative L i t e r a t u r e ) December 1987 UMI Number: DP22552 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. UMI DP22552 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Dissertation Publishing Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY PARK LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA 90089 This dissertation, written by Fatim a Y . wu............................................... under the direction of h e x Dissertation Committee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by The Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of re quirements for the degree of Ph. D. Co H i W5S9 3 'irfc 3 DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Dean of Graduate Studies Date December 3, 1987 DISSERTATION COMMITTEE .iftn x ju s Hr . r..vC , Chairperson ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The w r i t e r wishes to express her deep g r a t i t u d e to P ro fe s s o rs Dominic Cheung, James D u rb in , Moshe Lazar and D avid Eggenschw iIer fo r t h e i r guidance and v a l u a b le a d v ic e . S p e c ia l thanks a re g iv e n to P ro fe s s o rs Cheung, D u rb in and Lazar who have spent much o f t h e i r time in e d i t i n g and r e f i n i n g t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n . TABLE OF CONTENTS I nt roduc t i o n ............................................................................................................1 C h apter One: Moral P a tt e r n s in Chinese and Western Gothi c F i ct i o n ......................................................................................10 The Buddhist P a ra d ig m ..................................................................11 The C o n fu c ia n P a ra d ig m ............................................................... 17 The T a o i s t P a ra d ig m ........................................................................27 The B u d d h is t, C o n fu c ia n , and T a o i s t In flu e n c e in Chinese G o th ic F i c t i o n .................... 30 C h r i s t i a n i t y and G o th ic F i c t i o n in the Wes t ...............................................................................................................40 Ch apter Two: The E v il - g o o d in Li aozha i Zh i y i versus the S a ta n ic Force in W estern G o th ic F i c t i o n The B egin n in g o f W estern G o th ic F i c t i o n : The Romantic Movement and the C a s t l e o f O t r a n t o . .62 The In d u c tio n o f S a ta n ic Force: The Monk and the M an.........................................................................................................72 Me lm o th the Wand e r e r , both God and L u c i f e r Comb i n e d ......................................................................................................83 The Buddhist T r a d i t i o n and the Emergence o f Ghost T a l e s . . . 88 The R ise o f G o th ic Romanticism: Pu Song l i n g ' s Ghos t Ta I e s ...........................................................................................102 C h apter T h re e : The Inhuman-human: Foxes in Chinese S u p e rn a tu ra l T a le s The Fox Legend in C h i n a .............................................................131 The Fox Image in T r a d i t i o n a l C h inese T a l e s . ..1 4 2 . The Fox S p i r i t s in Pu Song l i n g ' s L j_a o £ha j Z h j_y j_...................................................................................15 9 Pu's Female Fox S p i r i t s ............................................................ 169 Why Female Foxes?.............................................................................184 i i i C h apter Four: The E te r n a l Double: I l l u s i o n versus Rea Ii ty The Theme o f the Double in G o th ic F i c t i o n . . . . 1 9 9 Metamorphosis in G o th ic F i c t i o n ......................................206 Dream as Myth and Dream D o u b le s ....................* ...............230 C h ap ter F iv e : The W estern versus the Chinese Man Ideo lo g y in E ast/W est G o th ic F i c t i o n ........................263 Humanism in G o th ic F i c t i o n ....................................................297 The Ideal M an........................................................................................312 Bi bI iography Chinese S o u rc e s .................................................................................. 326 W estern S o u rc e s ...................................................................................342 iv In tr o d u c t ion Ljjaozhaj Zhj_y£ or S tra n g e T a le s from t he L e is u r e Chamber by Pu Song l in g (1 6 4 0 — 1715) is a c o l l e c t i o n o f fo u r hundred and n i n e t y one s u p e r n a tu r a l t a le s w id e ly known and c i r c u l a t e d in China to t h i s day. A s p e c ia l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h i s c o l l e c t i o n l i e s in the use o f foxes, g h o s ts , s p i r i t s , f lo w e r s , b i r d s , and stones as main c h a r a c t e r s . In the p a s t, most s c h o l a r l y work d e a li n g w i t h the Li aozha i has been c o n c e n tr a te d on the s o c i a l , m o ra l, h i s t o r i c a l and b i o g r a p h i c a l a s p e c ts . The s o c ia l a s p e c t, p a r t i c u l a r l y , has become the focus fo r M a r x i s t c r i t i c i s m in re c e n t Chinese re s e a rc h on the c o l l e c t i o n . To look at the t a l e s as s a t i r e s a g a in s t the s o c ia l c o n d it io n s o f the p e r io d is a ls o a fre q u e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . A lth o u g h l i t e r a r y and c u l t u r a l s tu d ie s o f the t a l e s do e x i s t , y e t they o n ly make up a small number. In 19 78, a new study on L i aozha i was u n d e rta k e n by James Muhleman in h is Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n at In d ia n a U n i v e r s i t y , in which the t a l e s a re looked a t p r i m a r i l y as works o f a r t : how i t s a u th o r c o n s c io u s ly put t o g e th e r the elem ents o f language, n a r r a t i v e p a t t e r n s , and s t r u c t u r e to form a u n i f i e d w h o le . His t h e s is e x p lo re d the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f P u 1s an e cdotes, s a t i r e s , and s u p e r n a tu r a l t a l e s . N a r r a t i v e elem ents and s t o r y c o n s t r u c t i o n were a ls o 1 t r e a t e d in h is essay which has o f f e r e d me a c e r t a i n degree o f in s ig h t in to Pu's a r t . But t h i s is not a l l t h a t one can say about the L i aozha i Zh i y i . T here s u r e l y is more to i t than j u s t the s o c i a l , a u t o - b i o g r a p h i c a l , h i s t o r i c a l , and a r t i s t i c asp ects e v id e n t in the c o l l e c t i o n . Since the in c e p t io n o f the s u p e r n a tu r a l t a l e s in the S ix D y n a s tie s ( 3 1 7 - 5 8 8 ) , t a l e s o f monsters and m arv e ls have e s t a b l i s h e d a t r a d i t i o n s i m i l a r to the g o t h i c t a l e s o f the w e s t. A m ajo r focus o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n is to d iscu s s Chinese g o t h i c c h a r a c t e r s through a w e s te rn approach, a task which to the best o f my knowledge, has not been a tte m p te d in the l i t e r a r y f i e l d . Pu 's g o t h i c c h a r a c t e r s a re not o n ly unique in the t r a d i t i o n o f Chinese g o t h i c t a l e s , but they a ls o show a s tro n g c o n t r a s t to t h e i r w e s te rn c o u n t e r p a r t s : a) L ik e the ones in Ae so p 's f a b l e s , Pu's main g o t h ic c h a r a c t e r s a re anim als used to re p re s e n t humans. b) Many o f Pu's ghosts and s p i r i t s a re in h a b i t a n t s o f the n a t u r a l w o r ld . O ft e n th ey a re v e ry human and they do not possess much s u p e r n a tu r a l power. c) The Buddhist idea o f r e t r i b u t i o n and r e i n c a r n a t i o n , which is unique in Chinese g o t h ic t a l e s , is a p p lie d to Pu's g o t h i c c h a r a c t e r s to i l l u s t r a t e h is w o rld vie w s . 2 d) These g o t h i c c h a r a c t e r s a re e x e m p l i f i c a t i o n s o f perso nal v i r t u e s which i n f l u e n c e s o c ie t y a t la r g e . G o th ic f i c t i o n has been one o f the m ajor l i t e r a r y genres in both European and A s ia n l i t e r a t u r e . The themes in g o t h ic f i c t i o n have a v e r y c lo s e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h our subconscious e x i s t e n c e : fo r example, our most hidden th o u g h ts, and our most s e c r e t d e s ir e s which a re b u r ie d deep w i t h i n us fo r v a r io u s reas o n s. I t is these thoughts and d e s i r e s , which a re suppressed because o f moral and r e l i g i o u s o b l i g a t i o n s , th a t a re fo rc e d to f i n d some k in d o f e x p r e s s io n . Hence the emergence o f g h o s ts , m onsters, and s p i r i t s in g o t h i c f i c t i o n can be p a r t i a l l y e x p la in e d as an o u t l e t f o r our subconscious mind. Though European g o t h i c f i c t i o n may be s a id to be less v e r s a t i l e in c h a r a c t e r p r e s e n t a t i o n ( e . g . , fewer fo x e s , b i r d s , e t c . ) , y e t one cannot say th a t t h e i r ghosts and monsters are less s i g n i f i c a n t as a r e s u l t . In e i g h t e e n t h c e n tu r y B r i t a i n , g r a v e y a r d p o e tr y and s e n tim e n ta l novels paved the way fo r the g o t h i c r e v i v a l in f i c t i o n when the Romantic Movement was in f u l l swing. A unique c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f these e a r l y g o t h i c n o v els is th a t f a n t a s i e s and e x p re s s io n s o f p erso nal f e e l i n g s are g iv e n f u l l r e i n . The a u th o rs made use o f ghosts and monsters to sym bolize and p e r s o n i f y an i n d i v i d u a l ' s d e s i r e and f a n t a s y . I t is these g h o s ts , m o n sters, and 3 s p i r i t s t h a t I have d e a l t w i t h in t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n in comparison to t h e i r A s ia n c o u n t e r p a r t s . The fo xes, g h o s ts , and s p i r i t s a re m a in ly from the Li aozha i c o l l e c t i o n t o g e th e r w i t h examples from o t h e r s u p e r n a tu r a l t a l e s which go as f a r back as the S ix D y n a s t ie s . The p r i n c i p a l w e s te rn t e x t s a r e : Horace W a lp o le 's T he Cas11e o f O t r a n t o ( 1 7 6 5 ) , M atthew Lew i s ' s The Monk (17 9 5 ) , C h a r Ie s Robert M a t u r i n ' s M e lmo t h the Wanderer (18 2 0 ) , Mary S h e l l e y ' s F rankens te i n (18 18), Bram S t o k e r ' s DracuI a ( 1 8 9 7 ) , Henry James' The Turn o f the Screw ( 1 8 9 8 ) , and Isak D in e s e n 's Seven G o th ic T a le s ( 1 9 3 4 ) . I am f u l l y aware o f the f a c t th a t these n ovels cover a p e r io d from the b e g in n in g o f the e ig h t e e n t h c e n tu r y to the p re s e n t day. But the reason I have chosen them in my d is c u s s io n w i t h Pu's c o l l e c t i o n , an e ig h t e e n t h c e n tu r y work, is because o f t h e i r s i m i l a r i t y in theme, c h a r a c t e r s and s t r u c t u r e . M o re o v e r, T he C a s t l e o f O t r a n t o , T he Monk and Melmoth the Wanderer a re the fo u n ta in h e a d and a re most r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f E n g lis h g o t h ic f i c t i o n . The purpose o f my essay is to d is c u s s how g o t h i c and s u p e r n a tu r a l c h a r a c t e r s a re t r e a t e d d i f f e r e n t l y in the Chinese and European t r a d i t i o n s d e s p i t e t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e in time and a u th o rs h i p . C h apter one d e a ls w i t h moral p a t t e r n s which u n d e r l i e both A s ian and w e s te rn G o th ic f i c t i o n . In the Chinese 4 t r a d i t i o n , th e re is a moral p a t t e r n formed through the paradigms o f Buddhism and C o n fu c ia n is m . The Buddhist idea o f r e t r i b u t i o n to reward the good and punish the bad is a p e r s i s t i n g theme in L iaozha i . Pu a ls o used the idea o f r e i n c a r n a t i o n to warn the w icked th a t they m ight be reborn as lower beings ( a n im a ts , in s e c t s , e t c . ) in the next l i f e fo r the wrongs they have committed in t h i s one. The C o n fu c ia n moral code too, governs both the men and women in Pu's t a l e s . H o nesty, r ig h te o u s n e s s , and f a i t h f u l n e s s a re p r i z e d in men, w h i l e o b e d ie n ce, f i d e l i t y , and d i l i g e n c e a re v a lu e d in women. In w e s te rn g o t h i c f i c i t o n , good and e v i l a ls o form the b a s ic p h i lo s o p h i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f the g e n re . M i l t o n ' s P a ra d is e Lost and M a r lo w e 's D r . Faustus in v o lv e b a t t l e s and c o n f l i c t s between God ( t h e good and the a n g e l i c ) and Satan ( th e e v i l and the d i a b o l i c ) . These g o t h i c f i c t i o n s do not sim p ly c a r r y a moral message. But e v i l is expressed from i t s own p o in t o f v ie w , through the B y ro n ic h e ro . To be e v i l is sometimes e x c i t i n g , a t t r a c t i v e , and an e x p re s s io n o f freedom. E v i l now becomes a means fo r the s t r o n g - w i l l e d to s a t i s f y t h e i r d e s i r e s , even though they have to pay f o r the consequences as a r e s u l t o f s te p p in g o u t s id e o f s o c ia l and p h y s ic a l b o u n d a rie s . Here I have used The Monk by Lewis, Dracu I a by S t o k e r , and Dr . Faus t u s by M arlow e. In T h e Monk, Ambrosio is the 5 embodiment o f Satan h i m s e l f in ra p in g and k i l l i n g h is own a n g e l i c s i s t e r , w h il e in D rac uI a , the Count forms h is own S a t a n ic kingdom a g a in s t Cod. Though l a t e r g o t h ic f i c t i o n s more or less f o l l o w t h i s p a t t e r n o f the a n g e li c versus the S a t a n ic , y e t th ey in tro d u c e o t h e r themes. A good example w i l l be the theme o f the d ou ble as in Mary S h e l l e y ' s F rankens te i n , which w i l l be d is c u s s e d in more d e t a i l in c h a p te r fo u r . C h ap ter two is e n t i t l e d "The E v il - g o o d in Li aozha i Zh i y i versus the S a t a n ic Force in W estern G o th ic F i c t i o n . " I t c o n c e n tr a te s on ghosts in the Chinese t a l e s and the S a ta n ic fo r c e in the w e s te rn s t o r i e s . The c h a p te r opens w i t h the B u ddhist p o in t o f v ie w co n c e rn in g g h o s t s - - t h e i r form o f e x i s t e n c e , t h e i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and n a t u r e , and the i m p l i c a t i o n s t h e r e i n . U sing an a rc h e ty p e in t a le s from e a r l i e r p e r i o d s , I have shown how Pu's ghosts have taken a f u r t h e r s te p fo rw a rd . T h is leads to the d is c u s s io n o f Pu's idea o f g h o s ts . What is h is w o rld o f ghosts lik e ? Why does he use ghosts in h is s t o r i e s and what do they r e p r e s e n t fo r him? The w e s te rn m a t e r i a l s I have used fo r t h i s c h a p te r are T he Monk, Melm oth the W a n d e re r, M a r lo w e 's D r^ Faus t u s , and DracuI a . T h e re is a Satan or ghost in a l l o f these w orks: M a t i l d a and L u c i f e r in The Monk, Satan in Melmoth the W a n d e re r, M e p h is to p h e Ie s in Dr . Faus t u s , 6 and o f course Count D ra c u la in the book o f t h a t name. Are these ghosts or S a ta n ic f ig u r e s an e v i l fo rc e from o u t s i d e , or a re they personae o f the d e s ir e s from the p r o t a g o n i s t s ' subconscious mind? What a re the a u t h o r s ' purposes in p r e s e n t in g these s u p e r n a tu r a l f ig u r e s in t h e i r ta le s ? In what ways a re these s p i r i t s r e l a t e d to our d a i l y l i f e ? And f i n a l l y , how do these S a ta n ic f ig u r e s d i f f e r from the A s ia n s p i r i t s in approach and t rea tment ? C h apter th r e e d e a ls w i t h a unique phenomenon in Chinese s u p e r n a tu r a l t a l e s : foxes as the main c h a r a c t e r s . The t i t l e o f t h i s c h a p te r is "The Inhuman-human: the Foxes in Chinese S u p e rn a tu ra l T a l e s . " The i n t e r e s t i n g t o p i c o f why, o f a l l anim als foxes a re chosen to be the s u b je c t w i l l be d is c u s s e d . I have approached the issue through r e l i g i o u s ( B u d d h is t ) , and s o c ia l p o in t s o f v ie w . T h is is fo llo w e d by a p r e s e n t a t i o n o f foxes in t r a d i t i o n a l Chinese t a l e s from e a r l i e r p e r i o d s . What images do they r e p r e s e n t a t t h a t time? When i t comes to P u's hands, how a re these foxes t r e a t e d d i f f e r e n t l y from t h e i r predecessors? What a re the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f Pu's foxes? What is Pu t r y i n g to d e m o n strate by u s in g foxes as main c h a r a c t e r s in h is ta le s ? A n o th er im p o rta n t p o in t would be: why a re the foxes m o s tly female? C h ap ter fo u r is c a l l e d "The E t e r n a l D o uble: I l l u s i o n and R e a l i t y . " The double or DoppeI gan ger theme is a v e ry p o p u la r one in f i c t i o n . The theme is a c t u a l l y a m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f an i n d i v i d u a l ' s a s p i r a t i o n in c o u n t e r a c t i n g the boredom o f l i f e . A common way to a c h ie v e such an e f f e c t in f i c t i o n would be through dream in which a person is suddenly g iv e n the o p p o r t u n i t y and a b i l i t y to do the im p o s s ib le th in g s th a t he cannot do in r e a l l i f e . M etam orphosis is a n o th e r way f o r the a u th o r to c r e a t e a s u p e r n a tu r a l f i g u r e pos sessin g superhuman power. Both methods a re used in e a s t / w e s t g o t h i c f i c t i o n . The p o in t s f o r comparison in t h i s c h a p te r a r e : a) the need fo r dream or i l l u s i o n in o n e 's l i f e , b) the ways o f p r e s e n t a t i o n o f these dreams, c) what the dream and the double c h a r a c t e r s r e p r e s e n t , and d) the i m p li c a t io n s o f the dream and d ou ble m o t i f s in e a s t / w e s t s u p e r n a tu r a l t a l e s . The c o n c lu d in g c h a p te r is c a l l e d : "The W estern versus the A s ia n M an." The g o t h i c c h a r a c t e r s touched upon in the p re v io u s c h a p te rs g i v e us an idea o f the a u t h o r s ' v ie w o f an U to p ia n e x i s t e n c e . I t is not the b i r d s , nor the foxes, nor Satan t h a t they a re w r i t i n g abo ut, but a c t u a l l y man who has d e s i r e s , a s p i r a t i o n s and needs. In the e a s t , i t is the i n d i v i d u a l ' s v i r t u e and h is or her in h e re n t q u a l i t i e s t h a t makes the theme o f the 8 t a l e s . But In the w e s t, i t is the p e r s o n 's c h o ic e t h a t makes him a g r e a t man. The o v e r - r e a c h e r , though he ends up pay in g h e a v i l y fo r i t , not o n ly has f u l f i l l e d h is d e s i r e s , but a ls o has a r r i v e d a t a deeper u n d e rs ta n d in g o f l i f e a t the end than h is Chinese c o u n t e r p a r t s . By comparing L i aozha i w i t h the w e s te rn s t o r i e s , I f i n d t h a t the f u n c t io n o f g o t h i c f i c t i o n d i f f e r s in the two t r a d i t i o n s . In the w e s t, s u p e r n a tu r a l c h a r a c t e r s a re c r e a t e d to p o r t r a y r e a l i t y in i t s a b s u r d i t y , d e f i c i e n c y and p r e c a r io u s n e s s , w h i l e the ones in the e a s t a re c r e a t e d to f o s t e r hopes in a w o rld f i l l e d w i t h v i c e , g reed and s u f f e r i n g . Foxes and gho sts a re th e r e to com fort man, to take c a re o f s o c ia l i n j u s t i c e , the sadness o f s e p a r a t io n , lo n e lin e s s and d e a th . C h ap ter One Moral P a t t e r n s in Chinese and W estern G o th ic F i c t i o n Since the a n c ie n t p e r i o d , Buddhism, Taoism, and C o n fu c ia n is m have in flu e n c e d not o n ly the Chinese way o f l i f e , but a ls o i t s p o p u la r l i t e r a t u r e . Indeed these th re e r e l i g i o n s and t h e i r p h i lo s o p h i c a l paradigms have c r e a t e d a mode o f l i f e fo r the C h inese peo p le in t h e i r way o f thought and a c t i o n . Up to t h i s d a t e , the th r e e te a c h in g s , in the form o f an i d e o l o g i c a l s y n c r e tis m , s t i l l uncon s c i o u s ly or c o n s c io u s ly dom inate C h inese t h i n k i n g . Of the t h r e e , Taoism is the le a s t i n f l u e n t i a l , a l b e i t th e r e a re s t i l l T a o i s t p a t r o n s , temples and a c t i v i t i e s b eing c a r r i e d out in China or in p la c e s where Ch inese T a o i s t s happen to r e s i d e , such as o t h e r p a r t s o f S o u th e a s t A s ia . Buddhism is p r o b a b ly the most p o p u la r o f the t h r e e . D u rin g the p as t y e a r s , many B u ddh ist schools and s e c ts have been formed not o n ly in In d ia and C h in a , but a ls o in Japan, T h a i l a n d , and Korea. C o n fu c ia n is m and i t s te n e ts are a ls o h i g h l y v a lu e d in China and T aiw a n . Buddhism came in to China from In d ia around the b e g in n in g o f the f i r s t c e n tu r y A .D . along the s i l k r o u t e . 1 From the y e a r 58 A . D . , t r a n s l a t i o n s o f B u ddhist s c r i p t u r e s 10 began to appear in C h in a . The most famous and s u c c e s s fu l monk who brought the t r a n s l a t i o n o f B u ddhist s c r i p t u r e s to i t s peak is Xuan Zhuang-^ ^ ( c i r c a 645) from the Tang D yn asty ( 6 1 8 - 9 0 6 ) . I t is a ls o d u r in g t h i s p e r io d th a t Buddhism enjoyed u n r i v a l e d p o p u l a r i t y in C h in a . The B uddhist Paradigm I t is im p o ssib le to d is c u s s in d e t a i l in t h i s c h a p te r the te a c h in g o f S id d h a r ta Gotama ( 5 6 3 -4 8 3 B . C . ) , the founder o f Buddhism in I n d i a . A c c o rd in g to the D h a m m acakra-pravartana-su tta, ^ j-l? & * the world is fuI I o f s u f f e r i n g . B i r t h is s u f f e r i n g , o ld age is s u f f e r i n g , 2 sic k n e s s and d e a th a r e s u f f e r i n g . In o t h e r words, e x i s t e n c e in t h i s w o r ld is s u f f e r i n g and p a in . One must f i n d a way to renounce the w o r ld in o rd e r to r e c e iv e s a l v a t i o n . S e condly, th e r e e x i s t s a p a r a d is e in the west where the v i r t u o u s ones can e n jo y en d le s s p l e a s u r e . T here a ls o l i e s a h e l l in which the e v i l doers s ta y p e rm a n e n tly . A ls o the n o t io n o f r e i n c a r n a t i o n , or l i f e a f t e r d e a th is f i r m l y h e ld among the B u d d h is ts . I t is indeed t h i s n o t io n o f r e i n c a r n a t i o n which a c ts as a d e t e r r e n t o f e v i l and crim e among the C hinese B u d d h ists sin c e the a n c ie n t p e r i o d . 11 Because man is human, f i n i t e , and m o r t a l , l i f e i t s e l f becomes s u f f e r i n g . The r e a l i z a t i o n th a t l i f e leads to d e a th , t h a t a l l beings a re p e r i s h a b l e , th a t p le a s u r e s and happiness a re not l a s t i n g , and th a t man has to succumb to p h y s ic a l d e t e r i o r a t i o n s th roughou t h is l i f e , p r o v id e s the cause o f s u f f e r i n g . S in c e l i f e is b a s i c a l l y s u f f e r i n g , the f i r s t t h in g a devout B u d d h ist le a rn s to do is to renounce the w o rld w i t h i t s v a r io u s a t t r a c t i o n s . S id d h a r ta teaches t h a t the sooner one d e tach es o n e s e l f from mundane p le a s u r e s , the c l o s e r one is to s p i r i t u a l s a l v a t i o n . I f one is a b le to a c h ie v e t h i s goal in o n e 's l i f e t i m e , one w i l l l i v e h a p p i l y fo r the r e s t o f o n e 's l i f e w it h o u t s u f f e r i n g . In h is next l i f e , one w i l l be reborn in the w e s te rn p a r a d is e in which hap piness serves as o n e 's e t e r n a l companion. T h is idea o f r e n u n c ia t i o n in Buddhism is v e r y s i m i l a r to th a t o f the T a o i s t who a ls o advocates detachment from the f l o a t i n g w o r ld in o r d e r to j o i n the p r im o d ia l Tao jjl, . S in ce one is look in g fo rw a rd to an id eal r e b i r t h in o n e 's next l i f e , one must do e v e r y t h in g one can in t h i s l i f e in o r d e r to a c h ie v e t h i s end. Here is where the B uddhist idea o f " r e t r i b u t i o n " or baoy i ng ^ comes in. R e t r i b u t i o n works w i t h karm a, which means " a c t i o n . " What one does in t h i s l i f e has a v e r y c lo s e r e l a t i o n s h i p w j t h o n e 's next l i f e . I f one has been good and f a i r d u r in g h is 12 l i f e t i m e , one w i l l r e c e iv e o n e 's reward in h is next l i f e . What w i l l happen to him in h is f u t u r e l i f e depends on h is a c t io n s in t h i s one. The b e l i e f o f l i f e a f t e r d e a th is im p o rtan t in Buddhism in the sense th a t i t g r e a t l y a f f e c t s o n e 's moral a c t i o n d u r in g h is l i f e t i m e . The idea o f r e t r i b u t i o n f i r s t appears in the s u tra S a ta p a th a Brahmana where i t says, "For w h a te v e r food, a man e a ts in t h i s w o r ld , by the v e r y same is he e a te n 3 a g a i n . " Since j u s t i c e does not always triu m p h in p re s e n t l i f e , man can o n ly imagine th a t e v e n t u a l l y i t w i l l in the n e x t , in which the good w i l l be rewarded w h i l e the bad is p u n ish e d . The s u tr a s t a t e s : A c c o r d i n g l y , those who a re o f p le a s a n t conduct here - - t h e p ro s p e c t is , indeed, th a t th ey w i l l e n t e r a p le a s a n t womb, e i t h e r the womb o f a Brahman ( d e i t y ) , or the womb o f a K s h a t r i y a , or the womb o f a V a i s h y a . But those a re o f s t i n k i n g conduct h ere - - the p ro s p e c t is , indeed, t h a t they w i l l e n t e r a s t i n k i n g womb, e i t h e r the womb o f a dog, or the womb o f a swine, or the womb o f an o u t c a s t . The B uddhist d o c t r i n e i n d ic a t e s th a t t h e r e a re s ix p o s s ib le forms o f e x i s t e n c e ( ga t i ) : I) the d e n iz e n o f h e l l , 2) hungry g h o s t, 3) a n im a l, 4) demon, 5) human, and, 5 6) occupant o f heaven. Depending on the karma o r a c t i o n o f o n e 's l i f e , a t o n e 's d e a th , one would be a s s ig n e d to one o f the s i x ga t i . A human b ein g is l i a b l e to be reborn as one o f the above a c c o rd in g to the moral law o f ka rm a. Here is an example o f r e b i r t h found in a t a l e c a l l e d "Zhao 1 3 Ta i " /£! in the Gems o f B u d d h ist L i t e r a t u r e ( 6 6 8 ) . The p r o t a g o n i s t in the s t o r y is t o u r in g in h e l l and e y e - w it n e s s in g the d r a m a tic c y c l i c r e b i r t h o f men. . . . . T h o s e who had k i l l e d l i v i n g b ein g s were to become May f l i e s , which a re born one m orning and d i e t h a t e v e n in g ; i f th ey a g a in become human beings they w i l l o f t e n have s h o rt l i v e s . Those who had s t o l e n th in g s would become p ig s and sheep, they would be b u tc h e re d and t h e i r f l e s h used as repaym ent. Those who had spoken f a l s e l y would become barn owls or horned o w ls , and when people heard t h e i r e v i l sounds, they would a l l curse them and o r d e r them k i l l e d . Those who owed d eb ts would become t h in g s such as donkeys, h o rs e s , cows, f i sh or t u r 1 1 e s . I f the crim e com m itted is a heavy one such as m urder, the s in n e r m ight not be so lucky to be re b o rn e v e r a g a in as an animal in to the w o r ld . T h is s in n e r w i l l p ro b a b ly endure what he or she d e s e rv e s in h e l l p e rm a n e n tly . The s t r u c t u r e o f h e l l in Buddhism is a v e r y c o m p lic a te d one. There a r e e i g h t m ajo r h e l l s a c c o rd in g to the Saddharma sm rt i - u p a s t h a na or Su t r a o f the Remembrance o f the True L aw .7 W i t h i n each h e l l , t h e r e a r e as many as e ig h t e e n d i f f e r e n t s i t e s o f s u f f e r i n g , each d i f f e r s from one a n o th e r in the form o f pun ishm ent. In the s u t r a , each p a r t i c u l a r s in is accorded to a p a r t i c u l a r form o f s u f f e r ing, e . g . those who m o le s t c h i l d r e n w i l l s u f f e r in "Crowded H e l l ' s " M in o r H e ll c a l l e d " H e ll o f E v il S i g h t s , " where they w i l l wi tness t h e i r own c h i l d r e n b e in g p h y s i c a l l y torm ented by s t e e l hooks and p o k e rs . They a ls o a re h e ld u p s id e down by the demons w h i l e m o lte n l i q u i d is poured in to t h e i r anal o r i f i c e s s e a r in g through t h e i r bod ies u n t i l i t burns out o f t h e i r s k u l l s . One must say t h a t the B u d d h ist h e l l is v e r y i n t r i c a t e l y des ig n ed as i t has "som ething fo r e v e ry b o d y ." For the B u d d h is ts , i t e x i s t s f o r r e l i g i o u s and e m o tio n al purpo ses. The presence o f h e l l s tr e n g th e n s the moral law o f r e t r i b u t i o n , w h i l e the idea o f h e l l warns the l i v i n g to w atch t h e i r a c t i o n s , re m in d in g them th a t man is the u l t i m a t e w it n e s s o f h is own m o r a l i t y . He m ight succeed in d e c e iv in g the w o r ld around him, but he w i l l r e c e iv e the e f f e c t o f h is own a c t io n s under the law o f k arm ic r e t r i b u t i o n . In o r d e r to escape en d le s s c y c l i c r e b i r t h , man must aim a t e n lig h te n m e n t or n i r v a n a . E n lig h te n m e n t is a s t a t e in which an i n d i v i d u a l g a in s a new p e r s p e c t iv e in l i f e , in w hich o n e 's a tta c h m e n t to w o r l d l y p le a s u re s is v a n q u is h ed . Once one reaches the p o in t o f e n lig h te n m e n t , one is f r e e from c y c l i c r e b i r t h and w i l l j o i n the w o r ld o f the w e s te r n p a r a d is e a t the end o f o n e 's p h y s ic a l e x i s t e n c e . An i n d i v i d u a l w i t h fewer v i r t u e s w i l l be re b o rn as 1 5 a n o th e r human b e in g . Ag ain depending upon h is or her a c t io n s in the p r e v io u s e x i s t e n c e , he or she is a l l o t t e d d i f f e r e n t i d e n t i t i e s in h is or h e r nex t l i f e . For exam ple, a k in d and g o o d -n a tu r e d person m ig h t be reborn as the k i n g ' s d a u g h te r , w h i l e a cunning p r i n c e m ig h t tu rn out to be a b e g g a r 's son. A l l in a l l , f a i r n e s s is emphasized in Buddhism. One always g e ts what one d es erves in the end. The concept o f moral r e t r i b u t i o n and c y c l i c r e b i r t h g not o n ly is p o p u la r in I n d i a , but a ls o has in flu e n c e d C hinese c u l t u r e s in c e i t s i m p o r t a t io n in the a n c ie n t p e r i o d . As Buddhism had p e n e t r a t e d the whole o f China s in c e i t s f i r s t appearance and reached i t s peak in the Tang p e r i o d , i t had e f f e c t s on a l l w alks o f l i f e . T h e re were C hinese emperors and empresses l i k e Wu Z e t i a n who were devout B u d d h is ts , w h i l e monks and s c h o la rs w r i t e c a u t i o n a r y t a l e s to i n s t r u c t the p u b l i c . T h is l a t t e r p o i n t , the e f f e c t o f Buddhism on C h inese f i c t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y g o t h i c t a l e s , w i l l be d is c u s s e d l a t e r . 16 The C o n fu c ia n Paradigm C o n fu c ia n is m began w i t h the Ch inese p h ilo s o p h e r C o n fu c iu s (5 5 1 -4 7 9 B .C .) from the s t a t e o f Lu 'a" . I t is a p o p u la r b e l i e f t h a t i t is he who had e d i t e d the S ix C l a s s i c s : the Book o f Songs 14 » the Book o f H i s t o r y % , the Book o f R i tes $*£ the Book o f Mus ic ^ , the Book o f Changes % & i. and the S p rin g and Aut umn ■jfX. • C o n fu c iu s was a le a rn e d s c h o la r , and he had many d i s c i p l e s to whom he tau g h t the S ix A r t s 7 *T ^ : p o e t r y , h i s t o r y , r i t e s , m usic, d i v i n a t i o n , and p o l i t i c a l s c ie n c e . Since C o n fu c iu s ' te a c h in g in v o lv e s q u i t e an e x t e n s iv e a r e a , I would ju s t l i m i t my d is c u s s io n to two m a jo r p o in t s w hich are a p p l i c a b l e to t h i s c h a p t e r . They a re the to p ic s o f 1) j un z i , % or the g e n tle m a n , and, 2) ren and , ben evolence or r ig h te o u s n e s s . J , ^ The Ana I e c ts , w hich is b e l i e v e d to be w r i t t e n by C o n f u c iu s 's d i s c i p l e s , have re c o rd s o f what the g r e a t 1 0 sage had in mind f o r a perso n to be c a l l e d a j un z i . The term j un z i in the a n c ie n t p e r io d meant what i t says: a man o f n o b le b i r t h . C o n fu c iu s had borrowed t h i s term from the Book o f Songs and i n s t i l l e d in to j un z i a moral and v i r t u o u s c h a r a c t e r . I t is indeed a j un z i ' s moral c h a r a c t e r and conduct t h a t C o n fu c iu s was most concerned 17 w i t h in h is t e a c h in g . In o t h e r words, j un z_\_ is the id e a l man, the s u p e r io r man, an exe m p lary model o f p e r s o n a l i t y fo r C o n fu c iu s . What a re the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f human q u a l i t y t h a t the words j un z £ imply? And as I s a i d , we can f in d c lu e s f o r t h i s answer in the Ana Iec t s . F i r s t , a j un z i is a man d e d ic a t e d to the p r i n c i p l e o f Tao jjt , the way o f heaven and e a r t h . He must i n s i s t on t r u t h no m a t t e r what the s i t u a t i o n i s . Even when he is t o r t u r e d by hunger and p o v e r t y , he should not be swayed from T a o . The M a s te r s a i d , "The g en tlem an seeks n e i t h e r a f u l l b e l l y nor a c o m f o r ta b le house. He is q u ic k in a c t i o n but c a u tio u s in speech. He goes to man possessed o f the way to be put r i g h t . Such a man can be d e s c r ib e d as eag er to l e a r n . " ( I , x i v : 6 l ) M o re o v e r, C o n fu c iu s commented on the j un z i 1s re I a t i o n s h i p w i t h w e a l t h and honor as th u s: The M a s te r s a i d , "W e a lth and h ig h s t a t i o n a re what men d e s i r e but u n le s s I got them in the r i g h t way I would not rem ain in them, p o v e r ty and low s t a t i o n a re what men d i s l i k e , but even i f I The M a s te r s a i d , "The gen tlem an d e v o te s h is mind to a t t a i n i n g the Way and not to s e c u r in g f o o d . . . . The gen tlem an w o r r i e s about the Way, not about p o v e r t y . " (XV, x x x i i : 1 3 6 ) 1 8 d i d not g e t them in the r i g h t way I would not t r y to escape from them. I f a g e n tle m a n fo rs a k e s b e n e v o le n c e , in what way can he make a name fo r h im s e lf? The gen tlem an n ever d e s e r t s benevo le n c e , not even f o r as long as i t takes to ea t a m e a l. I f he h u r r i e s and stum bles one may be sure th a t i t is in b en evo len ce t h a t he does s o ." ( I V , v : 7 2 ) 4 «. ¥ i f ? «L * A t . . * - e - . * The concept o f hum an ity or ren is bro u g h t out in the above q u o t a t i o n . For C o n fu c iu s , ren is a v e r y impor t a n t elem ent in the moral c h a r a c t e r o f j un z i . To him, r en is the r o o t , the fu n dam en tals o f a l l men. The gen tlem an d ev o te s h is e f f o r t s to the r o o t s , f o r once the ro o ts a re e s t a b l i s h e d , the Way w i l l grow t h e r e f r o m . Being good as a son and o b e d ie n t as a young man is , p erh a p s , the ro o t o f a man's c h a r a c t e r . ( I , i i :59) % f . & fr *r)t £ , % $ ■<£ % • 1 i 4- 0 Ren must be su p po rte d by zhong ^ and shu , two o t h e r moral q u a l i t i e s w hich a r e h i g h l y esteemed by C o n fu c iu s . Zhong means l o y a l t y to the way o f heaven and c o n s c ie n tio u s n e s s to o n e 's own p e r s o n a l i t y . Shu means the a l t r u i s t i c way o f human r e l a t i o n s h i p and the e x t e n s io n o f c a re and c o n s i d e r a t i o n to o t h e r s . 1 9 I t is im p o s s ib le to ite m iz e a l l the moral q u a l i t i e s o f an id e a l man. Even C o n fu c iu s re g ard e d h i m s e l f as not q u a l i f i e d to be c a l l e d a j un z i ( X V I, x x v i i i : 1 2 8 ) . In a d d i t i o n to the above moral q u a l i t i e s I have m e n tio n e d , a j un z_i_ must be courageous and p o l i t e , he must s t r i v e in h is s t u d i e s , and he must be a man whose words n e v er exceed h is deeds. A l l in a l l , a j un z i in the C o n fu c ia n paradigm is a man o f many v i r t u e s and has the wisdom to a p p ly the moral p r i n c i p l e p r o p e r l y a c c o rd in g to each g iv e n c ir c u m - s t a n c e . Jun z i is not born w i t h the above m e n tio n ed moral and h u m a n is tic q u a l i t i e s . In s t e a d , one must a c q u ir e them by way o f e d u c a tio n and moral c u l t i v a t i o n . For t h i s reas on, C o n fu c iu s s t r e s s e d the importance o f l e a r n i n g as a way to a c q u ir e wisdom and knowledge. The purpose o f c u l t i v a t i o n is not o n ly fo r one to a t t a i n the moral q u a l i t i e s to be a j un z i , but i t is a ls o the o n ly way to e n a b le a man to serve h is c o u n tr y and i t s p e o p le . C o n fu c iu s s a i d , "He ( t h e j un z i ) c u l t i v a t e s h i m s e l f and th e r e b y b r in g s peace and s e c u r i t y to the p e o p le 2/ ''“ A -^T ( X IV , x l i i : 13 1 ). In t h i s r e s p e c t , C o n fu c ia n te a c h in g is c o n s id e re d h y p o c r i t i c a l by the T a o i s t who c la im s t h a t the j un z i c u l t i v a t e s h i m s e l f w i t h the purpose and a m b itio n to succeed in p o l i t i c s . He aims to be a s u c c e s s fu l and 20 w o r l d l y p o l i t i c i a n r a t h e r than to be a v i r t u o u s man. T h e re is a c e r t a i n amount o f t r u t h in the above comment, fo r C o n fu c iu s had indeed meant f o r h is d i s c i p l e s to use what they had le a rn e d in o r d e r to s e rv e the c o u n t r y . Even C o n fu c iu s h i m s e l f had been q u i t e a m b itio u s in a t t a i n i n g a s t a t u s in the p o l i t i c a l arena a t h i s tim e . D u rin g the S p rin g and Autumn p e r i o d ( 7 7 0 - 4 7 6 B . C . ) , he was the m i n i s t e r in h is own s t a t e . But when h is p o l i c i e s were r e j e c t e d by the Lu r u l e r , he l e f t h is home to t r a v e l to the n e ig h b o r in g s t a t e s , hoping t h a t he would a c q u ir e some o f f i c i a l p o s i t i o n s t h e r e , and g a in t r u s t and re s p e c t from t h e i r r u l e r s . D u rin g the tim e o f h is t r a v e l w hich la s te d as long as t h i r t e e n y e a r s , he met w i t h d i f f e r e n t s e tb a c k s . A t the end, he r e t u r n e d home to Lu where he c o n c e n tr a te d on h is te a c h in g and remained a commoner f o r the r e s t o f h is l i f e . One m ight i n t e r p r e t the s a g e 's aim as an urge to save and h e lp h is p e o p le , a n d /o r to a t t a i n an em inent p o s i t i o n in c o u r t . D e s p it e the a c c u s a t io n o f b e in g too a m b itio u s fo r w o r l d l y g a i n , the t e a c h in g o f C o n fu c iu s in ren and y.L ^as rem ained the apex o f moral s ta n d a rd in the h i s t o r y o f China to the p r e s e n t . V i r t u e s such as r ig h te o u s n e s s , c o u ra g e, wisdom, c o n c i l i a t i o n , and broadmindedness to g e t h e r c o n s t i t u t e the main e t h i c a l i n g r e d i e n t s o f j un zj_. In the modern tim e , no m a t t e r what r e l i g i o n one is 21 a f f i l i a t e d w i t h , the Ch in e se s t i l l t r e a s u r e the C o n fu c ia n code o f j un zi_ as the h ig h e s t human moral a c h ie v e m e n t. So f a r we have o n ly t a l k e d about j un z\_, who o n ly r e p r e s e n t s the male p o p u la t i o n in s o c i e t y . C o n fu c iu s was a s e x i s t in the r e s p e c t t h a t he v e r y seldom t a l k e d about women. When he d i d , he eq u ated women w i t h the "sm all men" ■J' A _ . In the Ana l e e t s : C o n fu c iu s s a i d , The M a s te r s a i d , " I n o n e 's h o u sehold, i t is the women and the small men t h a t a r e d i f f i c u l t to deal w i t h . I f you l e t them g e t too c l o s e , they become i n s o l e n t . I f you keep them a t a d i s t a n c e , they c o m p la in ." ( X V I I , x x v :1 4 8 ) ■3- & : ’“f t -* t 4- *£ ' ■ > ■ A - h % ■ -tt . i £ , i- 9 ') 7 ' 5 $ . i £ * 1 1?.. In t h i s way, the g r e a t sage put women in the s o c ie t y o f u n c u l t i v a t e d and i n f e r i o r men. In a n o th e r s i t u a t i o n , when C o n fu c iu s gave h is r e p l y to Ai Kung, he s a i d , "Women a r e those who f o l l o w the i n s t r u c t i o n s o f men, thus do they 1 1 become c a p a b l e ." I t is the idea o f t h i s s e n ten ce which has d ec id e d the f a t e o f C h in e se women f o r a long tim e to come in the h i s t o r y o f C h in a . Women a re e x p e c te d to be a b s o l u t e l y o b e d ie n t to men who a r e t h e i r "m asters" in l i f e . L a t e r a C o n fu c ia n s c h o la r L iu X ia n g % ‘ J fsj ( 7 7 - 6 B . C . ) expanded more t h i s v ie w o f women in h i s book The B io g r a p h ie s o f Women “tT . T h is book is d i v i d e d in to seven volum es, from the f i r s t to the s i x t h a re the b i o g r a p h ie s o f v i r t u o u s women, and the l a s t volume is on the 22 v i r t u e l e s s ones. T h is book leads to o t h e r e xten d ed works such as the Four Books on Women 'iC lt> w hich in c lu d e s : 1) Commandments f o r Women by Ban Cha o fjt- #5 ( ? -1 1 6) , 2) An a l e c t s f o r Women by Sung Ruohua ^ 4^ (T a n g ), 3) Tea ch in g s f o r Women £••} w r i t t e n by the Queen o f the Emperor R enxiao ^ o f the Ming D y n a s ty , and 4) A Br i e f Record o f Models f o r Women "fc" ^ by Wang X ia n g ( M i n g ) . Even though some o f the a u th o rs and d a te s a re unknown f o r the above c o l l e c t i o n s , y e t we know th a t these fo u r volumes were w r i t t e n d u r in g a long p e r io d o f tim e , from the Han to the Ming D y n a s tie s ( 2 0 6 - 1 6 4 3 ) . The c o n te n ts o f these books a r e p r e d i c t a b l e as can be seen from t h e i r t i t l e s . They a r e a l l concerned w i t h the p ro p e r way a woman should a c t w h i l e she is s t i l l s i n g l e a t home, as w e ll as a f t e r she is m a r r ie d a t her husband's house. Females in the C o n fu c ia n model a r e not looked a t as i n d i v i d u a l women but d a u g h te r s , w iv e s , and m o th e rs . A l l women a r e ass ig n e d these t h r e e r o l e s in which th e y must p e rfo rm d i f f e r e n t o b l i g a t i o n s and d u t i e s . A young g i r l w i l l be ta u g h t to do d o m es tic work and e m b ro id e ry a t an e a r l y age to p r e p a re f o r her f u t u r e r o l e as a w i f e . When she is m a r r i e d , she w i l l be in charg e in t a k i n g c a re o f the f a m i l y and be e xp e c te d to be r e s p o n s ib le in c o n t i n u i n g the f a m i l y l i n e . As a m o th e r, she must be o b e d ie n t and dependent on her son. Ch in e se women a re bound by the 23 " t h r e e obed ie n ce" > ^ p r i n c i p l e which p r o c la im s the th r e e m asters in a woman's l i f e : her f a t h e r , her husband, and her son. The w o rst t h in g is y e t to happen: women do not have a word as to t h e i r own f a t e . In the a n c ie n t p e r i o d , women a r e s o ld in exchange f o r money. They a re t r e a t e d as goods t h a t b r in g p r o f i t to men. Women a re s o ld as m aids, c o n cu b in es, and p r o s t i t u t e s , depending on the mercy o f t h e i r m a s te r s . Even h ig h born women a re not t o t a l l y f r e e o f t h i s p l i g h t . They m ig h t be b e t t e r o f f than the women who a re poor as f a r as m a t e r i a l l i f e is c o n cern ed , y e t they too a re s u b je c t to male d o m in a tio n . They a re always c o n fin e d to t h e i r bedchambers, l e a r n i n g what t h e i r f a t h e r s want them to l e a r n . Going out to meet f r i e n d s or to school is t o t a l l y f o r b id d e n . When i t comes to the most im p o rta n t t h in g in t h e i r l i f e - - t h e i r m a r r i a g e - - the d e c i s i o n rem ains in t h e i r p a r e n t s ' hands. M a r r i a g e does not improve the l i f e o f Ch inese women. But r a t h e r , the f e t t e r s w hich have been on t h e i r back now become h e a v i e r . A m a r r ie d woman must possess the so- c a l l e d " fo u r v i r tu e s " : woman's appea ranee , woman's speech, woman's c r a f t , and f i n a l l y , woman's v i r t u e F a i l u r e to m a n i f e s t one o f these fo u r v i r t u e s is enough reason f o r h e r h u s b an d /m aster to r e l e a s e her from m a r r ia g e and send her home, the r e s u l t o f 24 w hich is d e v a s t a t i n g . The " r e t u r n e d goods" w i l l bear the mark a i l h er l i f e , and she is a symbol o f shame to her h o u s e h o Id . A man can m a rry as many w ive s as he w a n ts . But a woman must be c h a s te and f a i t h f u l to her husband. No m a t t e r how many concubines h e r husband has, the m a r r ie d woman must c o n tin u e to adhere to h e r fo u r v i r t u e s w i t h no c o m p la in ts or o b j e c t i o n s . A woman's c h a s t i t y is not o n ly im p o rtan t d u r in g her hus b an d 's l i f e t i m e , but i t is a ls o o f paramount im portance a f t e r h is d e a t h . I t is o f utmost im portance t h a t a woman should s e rv e but o n ly one man in her l i f e , even i f he d ie s on the second day o f t h e i r m a r r ia g e . A woman's c h a s t i t y r e p r e s e n t s her v i r t u o u s con duct, and her f a m i l y ' s r e p u t a t i o n . Once she serves a n o th e r man, her own as w e ll as her f a m i l y ' s name w i l l be d e s tr o y e d f o r e v e r . The n e o -C o n fu c ia n Cheng I (1 0 3 3 -1 1 0 7 ) from the Sung D y n asty commented on the m a t t e r o f a w idow 's r e m a r r ia g e : "To d i e o f hunger is a t r i f l i n g m a t t e r , to lose c h a s t i t y is a g ra v e m a t t e r " P p A- * 12 In the Ming D y n a s ty , the emperor Tai Z u ' s e d i c t p r o c la im e d : Women younger than t h i r t y , who rem ain in t h e i r homes m a i n t a i n i n g the house and f u l f i l l i n g t h e i r f a m i l i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , i f upon r e a c h in g f i f t y ye a rs o f age have thus m a in ta in e d th e m s e lv e s , then t h e i r f a m i l i e s w i l l be honored and male members o f t h e i r households w i l l be e x c e p te d from government s e r v i c e . 25 A s c h o la r or an i n f l u e n t i a l i n d i v i d u a l can a d v o c ate a moral i d e a l , hoping t h a t e v e n t u a l l y i t w ould be adopted by the common p e o p le . But when an emperor p r o c la im s an id eal and o f f e r s a reward f o r i t , the whole m a t t e r is b e in g looked a t from a v e r y d i f f e r e n t p o i n t o f v ie w . Chaste women a re how v a lu e d as r a r e t r e a s u r e s . They can b r i n g honor to t h e i r f a m i l y , and th e y can be the cause fo r the exem ption from s e r v i c e f o r the male f a m i l y members. M o re o v e r, because o f women's low s t a t u s in Ch in e se h i s t o r y , t h i s is the f i r s t tim e when a woman has the chance to exc el over o t h e r s . For the above reas o n s, m i l l i o n s o f young widows a r e w i l l i n g to s a c r i f i c e t h e i r y o u th , t h e i r h a p p in e s s , t h e i r love l i f e , to suppress t h e i r f e e l i n g o f lo n e l in e s s and n a t u r a l d e s i r e s , so t h a t t h i r t y y e a rs l a t e r , th e y w i l l be honored by the emperor w i t h the t i t l e o f c h a s t i t y . T h is is p r o b a b ly the c r u e l e s t t h in g t h a t the C h inese s e x i s t s have done to women. To be a C hinese woman in the o ld days is a tr a g e d y . More o f t e n , she is t r e a t e d as what she is f o r or what she can do, r a t h e r than as a p e rs o n . She is always t h e r e to ta k e o r d e r s , from h er f a t h e r , her husband, and from her m o t h e r - i n - l a w . She co u ld be a toy or a machine to a man f o r h is sexual p l e a s u r e , and fo r the purpose o f r e p r o d u c t i o n . She is made a f e t i s h to p le a s e men in the in s ta n c e o f f o o t - b i n d i n g . The p a in and the in c o n v e n ie n ce 26 r e s u l t i n g from the bound fo o t cannot be e x p la i n e d e a s i l y . E a r l y Ch inese women a r e kep t away from s c h o l a s t i c s tu d ie s f o r i t is deemed improper f o r them. When a fem ale is b o rn , she a l r e a d y has an a s s ig n e d program w hich d e te rm in e s her whole l i f e . The p roblem is , t h i s " a s s ig n e d program" is i d e n t i c a l f o r e v e r y woman. A lth o u g h C o n fu c iu s had not se t up p a r t i c u l a r b eh av i o r a l r u l e s f o r women, y e t he was r e s p o n s ib le fo r h a v in g c r e a t e d a n e g a t i v e o u t lo o k f o r them. When he compared women w i t h i n f e r i o r men in the Ana I e c t s , he had a l r e a d y shown p r e j u d i c e a g a in s t h a l f o f the w o r l d ' s p o p u la c e . He r a r e l y m entio ned women in h is te a c h in g s because he re g a rd e d the t r a i n i n g o f the g en tlem an or j un z i as h is forem ost m is s io n . To him the program he had f o r the j un zj_ does not a p p ly to the fem ale sex. I t is the l a t e r s c h o la rs who, t a k in g up the C o n fu c ia n moral s ta n c e , imposed on women f u r t h e r e t h i c a l codes and r e s t r i c t i o n s . The T a o i s t Par adigm Taoism is founded by Lao Zi % L , who is l a t e r g iv e n the t i t l e o f the "Supreme O ld R u le r " ^ ^ 27 The T a o i s t b i b l e , Tao Te Ching , ' s e a r l i e s t T a o i s t t e x t . The te a c h in g o f Taoism c o n c e n t r a te s on the union o f man w i t h T a o , w hich is n a t u r e , heaven and e a r t h . The T a o i s t does not tak e w o r l d l y g a in s e r i o u s l y . What w o r r i e s him is how he can tra n s c e n d the mundane w o r ld and be one w i t h n a t u r e . W e a lth , name, and s t a t u s a re not im p o rtan t to him. On the c o n t r a r y to the C o n f u c i a n i s t who s t r i v e s to a t t a i n an o f f i c i a l post in o r d e r to se rv e the p e o p le , the T a o i s t is somewhat p e s s i m i s t i c in h is view s and r a t h e r u n a g g r e s s i v e . The T a o i s t s lo g an is to r e t u r n to n a t u r e and be one w i t h n a t u r e , w h i l e the u l t i m a t e aim o f a T a o i s t is s t r i v e to be a jen r en or the " t r u e man." The t r u e man is a man who is c a p a b le o f tra n s c e n d in g the l i f e and d e a th o f t h i s w o r ld and l i v e s as an i n m o r t a l . In o r d e r to a t t a i n i m m o r t a l i t y , a T a o i s t must d e v o te h i m s e l f e a r n e s t l y in two a r e a s : 1 ) the c u l t i v a t i o n o f moral c o n d u ct, and 2 ) p h y s ic a l t r a i n i n g in b r e a t h c o n t r o l , alchemy and m e d ic in e . L ik e Buddhism and C o n fu c ia n is m , Taoism a ls o s t r e s s e s good moral conduct as the base f o r the developm ent o f a t r u e man. From The M a s te r who Emb races S i m p l i c i t y ij- by Ge Hong ^ j§ > >$, ( 2 8 0 - 3 4 0 ) , one can f i n d a c o l l e c t i o n o f the methods and fo rm u la e p r a c t i s e d by the T a o i s t s in a c h ie v in g t h e i r g o a I s . 28 those d e s i r i n g f u l l n e s s o f l i f e must s t r i v e to a cc um ulate goodness, w i t h m e r i t , be k in d and a f f e c t i o n a t e to o t h e r s , p r a c t i s e the Golden R u le , love even the c r e e p in g t h in g s , r e j o i c e in the good f o r t u n e o f o t h e r s and com m iserate w i t h t h e i r s u f f e r i n g s , h e lp those in d i s t r e s s , and the p o o r, harm no l i v i n g t h i n g , u t t e r no c u r s e s , look upon the successes and f a i l u r e s o f o t h e r s as t h e i r own, not be proud, not vau n t th e m s e lv e s , not envy t h e i r b e t t e r s , and conceal no e v i l i n t e n t i o n s w i t h f l a t t e r y . In t h i s way, th ey become men o f e x a l t e d c h a r a c t e r and r e c e iv e good f o r t u n e from heaven. T h e i r u n d e r ta k in g s a r e sure to be s u c c e s s f u I , and they can seek genieh ood w i t h hope o f success. M. & I. £ # , # £*.*! 4 * * 0. A % % . -o * tfi , t ^ X * t z ^ £ k** VZ'k, ^ I I f ^ t # ( * m / fl tj r 6 #k * * f} & , tfi From the above q u o t a t i o n , we can see th a t the T a o i s t is not s im p ly a s e l f i s h h e r m it who l i v e s in the m ountains to a v o id w o r l d l y t r o u b l e s . A tr u e T a o i s t is a ls o a k in d man who care s about o t h e r s and loves a l l c r e a t u r e s g r e a t and s m a ll. A T a o i s t has b o th the C o n fu c ia n q u a l i t y o f hum anity 4^- , and the B u d d h is t n o t i o n o f goodness . B esides c u l t i v a t i n g a good r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h o t h e r s , a T a o i s t , who is a im in g a t i m m o r t a l i t y , must a ls o c u l t i v a t e s e l f - d i s c i p l i n e . In t h i s , a T a o i s t d i s c i p l e must have s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n and c o n s ta n c y . When c u l t i v a t i n g the b e s t o f d i v i n e p ro ce sses in the search f o r F u l ln e s s o f L i f e , the s e c r e t l i e s in 29 w i l l p o w e r , not in r ic h e s or h ig h p o s i t i o n . I f one is not o f the r i g h t ty p e , h ig h p o s i t i o n and g r e a t w e a l t h a re s e r io u s encumbrances. Why? The method in s tu d y in g f o r gen ieh o o d c o n s is t s o f a tr u e d e s i r e to a t t a i n calm and rep o s e , to f r e e o n e s e l f o f covetousness and f r e e d o f e m o tio n . (Ware, 42) The second p a r t o f T a o i s t t r a i n i n g in the c o n c o c tio n o f an E l i x i r o f I m m o r t a l i t y in v o lv e s m e d ic in e and the a lc h e m is t s c h o o l. T h is is not the area o f my d is c u s s io n and t h e r e f o r e I s h a ll not go i n t o d e t a i l h e r e . T he B u d d h is t, Confuc i an, and T a o i s t I n f l u e n ce in C h in e se Go th i c F i c t i on The t h r e e r e l i g i o n s and p h ilo s o p h y t o g e t h e r form ing an i d e o l o g i c a l s y n c r e t is m in C h in e se thought and c u l t u r e is e v i d e n t . The B u d d h is t and T a o i s t p i e t y f i t in w i t h C o n fu c ia n v i r t u e to c r e a t e a harmonious w hole f o r the C h in e s e . The C o n fu c ia n v i r t u e o f l o y a l t y , f i l i a l p i e t y , 30 c h a s t i t y and r ig h te o u s n e s s ; the B u d d h is t te n e t about good and e v i l ; and the T a o i s t a d v o c a tio n o f n o th in g n e s s t o g e t h e r form a c u l t u r a l c o n g lo m e r a tio n . C o n s c io u s ly and u n c o n s c io u s ly , the C h in e se common mass adopt the p h i l o s o p h ic a l v a lu e s o f a l l th r e e in t h e i r thought and l i f e . P o p u la r l i t e r a t u r e such as f i c t i o n and v e r n a c u l a r t a l e s a r e some o f the r e f l e c t i o n s o f t h i s u n iq u e phenomenon. The B u d d h is ts a re p r o b a b ly the f i r s t who u t i l i z e p a r a b le s to teach the common p e o p le . As e a r l y as the l a t e f o u r t h and e a r l y f i f t h c e n t u r i e s , c o l l e c t i o n s o f Ch in e se B u ddh ist m i r a c l e t a l e s b eg in to a p p e a r . Some o f the e a r l i e s t c o l l e c t i o n s a r e : Chen Z i l i a n g ' s ( d ie d 632) n otes to Fa L i n ' s ( 5 7 2 - 6 4 0 ) On P i a I e c t i cs Hui X i a n g 's %%%" The M a g n i f i c e n t P r a i se o f Saddhar ma- punda r i ka % ^ ^ ( c i r c a 6 8 0 ) , Dao X u a n 's %. A C o l l e c t i o n on the T h re e T r e a s u r e s in S p i r i t u al C oncordance l e c t i o n s a re re c o rd s o f B u d d h ist m i r a c l e t a l e s w hich a re a c c e p te d as re a l s t o r i e s by the devout B u d d h is t s . The c o n te n ts o f these t a l e s a re no o t h e r but to warn man o f a l l the p o s s i b l e outcomes i f he d e c id e s to a c t e v i l l y . L ik e D a n t e 's I n f erno and the t a l e o f Orpheus v i s i t i n g in Ch i na % B- ^ ^ ill ( 6 6 4 ) , and Dao Shi 's Gems o f B u ddhist L i t e r a t u r e y k wh i ch is 1 5 com pleted in the y e a r 668 . Most o f the above c o I - 31 Hades to save h is w i f e , t h e r e a re t a l e s in w hich a human is a llo w e d to to u r h e l l in a dream and w it n e s s w i t h h is own eyes d i f f e r e n t forms o f punishment i n f l i c t e d on the soul o f the s i n n e r s . in th ese c a u t i o n a r y t a l e s , the B u d d h is ts use h o r r o r to keep man away from e v i l . T h e re a r e a ls o t a l e s s i m i l a r to th e Scrooge p l o t in the west in w hich a man has seen a v i s i o n in a dream. A f t e r he wakes up, he becomes a d i f f e r e n t man, a k in d i n d i v i d u a l who d on ates h is money to b u i l d B u d d h ist tem ples and images. The emperor Tang T a iz h o n g $ci in The Monkey \s>jfrjf- g£j (1 5 7 0 ) is i n v i t e d by the r u l e r o f h e l l one e v e n in g . T h e re he is q u e s tio n e d about h is b r o t h e r ' s d e a th o f which the emperor is r e s p o n s i b l e . A f t e r he wakes up, the em peror, remembering th e f e a r f u l scenes in h e l l , becomes a devout B u d d h ist d e v o t in g h i m s e l f in s p re a d in g the f a i t h and the b u i l d i n g o f temples to ato n e f o r h is s in s . B esid es th e s e , s t o r i e s o f d i v i n e r e t r i b u t i o n a r e a ls o p o p u la r . In the B u d d h is t canon, such s t o r i e s appear over and over a g a in sometimes o n l y w i t h changes in names, p la c e s and d a t e s . T h e re a re a l s o C o n fu c ia n e lem en ts p r e s e n t in these B u d d h is t t a l e s . C o n fu c ia n v a lu e s such as f i l i a l p i e t y , c h a s t i t y , l o y a l t y and r ig h te o u s n e s s a c t as e t h i c a l c r i t e r i a . When a c e r t a i n man does not show r e s p e c t f o r h is p a r e n t s , he is then a s in n e r or a w ick ed man who is doomed 32 to p u n ishm ent. In t h i s way, b e in g r i g h t e o u s , c h a s te , and l o y a l , is not o n ly C o n fu c ia n but a ls o B u d d h is t. D u rin g the Tang Dy n asty ( 6 1 8 - 9 0 7 ) , B u d d h ist p o p u l a r i ty rose to i t s peak. For the purpose o f p r o p a g a tin g Buddhism, the r o y a l f a m i l y even encouraged the monk Xuan Zhuang on a d i f f i c u l t t r i p on fo o t to In d ia to o b t a i n some B u d d h ist s c r i p t u r e s . T h is in c i d e n t is re c o rd e d in C h in ese h i s t o r y and is put in to a d r a m a t ic t a l e by Wu Chengen^*f<.^ ( 1 5 1 0 -1 5 8 0 ) in the Ming D y n a s ty . A l s o , in the Tang D y n a s ty , B u ddhist c a u t i o n a r y t a l e s gave r i s e to v e r n a c u l a r t a l e s w hich were to f lo w e r s p l e n d i d l y in the nex t p e r i o d o f Sung ( 9 6 0 - 1 2 7 9 ) . From the B u d d h ist caves o f Dun Huang 1 1 Jtt , the v e r y e a r l i e s t t a l e s in the v e r n a c u l a r form a r e found. T h is d is c o v e r y does not o n ly t e l l us th a t j g j T f c \ v e r n a c u l a r t a l e s a r i s e out o f the B u d d h is t bj^en wen t r a d i t i o n , but i t a ls o s tr e n g th e n s my c l a im t h a t t h e r e is an in s e p a r a b le r e l a t i o n between Buddhism and p o p u la r I i t e r a t u r e . B u d d h is t and C o n fu c ia n i n f l u e n c e on Ch in e se f i c t i o n went on to the Ming D y n asty ( 1 3 6 8 -1 6 4 4 ) in w hich the developm ent o f f i c t i o n came to a h ig h p o i n t . One o f the bes t known i s G o ld e n Lotus ^ ( c i rca 1610) by X ia o X ia o Sheng ^ %. . Ximen Q in g , the p r o t a g o n i s t in the t a l e , is a w ic k e d , g re e d y and l a s c i v i o u s man. Besid es h a v in g s i x w ive s from whom he demands a b s o lu te o b e d ie n c e , 33 he a ls o takes any maids and v a l e t s in h is home as he p r e f e r s . Going to b r o t h e l s is a ls o one o f h i s r e g u l a r a c t i v i t i e s . A t the same tim e , he in v e n ts d i f f e r e n t d e v ic e s to o b t a i n o t h e r s ' w iv e s , and t h e i r money by g e t t i n g t h e i r husbands in t r o u b l e . W ith the money he makes he buys an o f f i c i a l t i t l e , t u r n in g h i m s e l f in t o a r e s p e c t a b le man in h i s a r e a . X im e n 's l i f e ends a t an e a r l y age, in the arms o f one o f h is w iv e s , the lewd J i n l i a n . O f the s i x w iv e s , o n ly one produces an h e i r . At the end o f the t a l e , the a u t h o r , in expounding the doc t r i n e o f r e t r i b u t i o n and c y c l i c r e b i r t h , c la im s t h a t X im e n 's son is a c t u a l l y a r e b i r t h o f Ximen h i m s e l f . O n ly when t h i s young boy is g iv e n to be a B u d d h is t monk w i l l X im e n 's soul be saved in h e l l . T h is novel has b o th the B u d d h ist ideas o f d i v i n e r e t r i b u t i o n and r e i n c a r n a t i o n . Throughout the n o v e l, the a u th o r d i s p l a y e d h is i n t e r e s t s and knowledge in Buddhism by many d e s c r i p t io n s o f B u ddhist mass and c e re m o n ie s . From the Ming D y n a s ty t h e r e a re f i v e c o l l e c t i o n s o f t a l e s , name I y : 1) Compr e hens i ve Words t o Admonish the Wor I d ^ % , 2 ) Las t i ng Words to Awa ken t he W orld -tfe vfgi % 3 ) I l l u s t r i o u s Words to I n s t r u c t the W orld , 4) and 5) a re the two volumes o f Amaz i ng S t o r i es jffa ^ . The f i r s t th r e e c o l l e c t i o n s w hich a re o f t e n r e f e r r e d to as the "T h ree Words" J . g , ( c i r c a 34 1624) a r e e d i t e d by Feng Meng Lung '$ } % , w h i l e the la s t two a r e by Ling Meng Chu around 1632 . The t a l e s in these f i v e volumes a r e too numerous to be examined here f o r our p u rp o s e . But many o f them a re t a l e s to w arn, awaken, and e n l i g h t e n men as t h e i r t i t l e s s u g g e s t. The Amazing S t o r i e s a re amazing in the way heaven, in a m e t ic u lo u s f a s h io n , a r ra n g e s i t s d e v ic e in r e t r i but i o n . A n o th e r p o p u la r novel w hich is g r e a t l y i n f lu e n c e d by the B u ddhist thought o f c y c l i c r e b i r t h is Dream o f the Red Chamber jk f- %% (1 7 6 5 ) or The S t o r y o f t he Stone ^ I f ( 1 6 4 4 - 1 9 1 1 ) . The theme o f the novel in w hich l i f e is re g ard e d as a dream and t h a t the w o r ld is n o t h in g but c o lo r s is v e r y B u d d h i s t i c . The m ale and fem ale p r o t a g o n i s t s in the n o v e l, Bao Yu and Dai Yu a re o r i g i n a l l y a stone and a f lo w e r r e s p e c t i v e l y . The stone w hich l i v e s in the C o urt o f Sunset Glow in heaven is g iv e n the t i t l e D i v i n e Lum inescent S t o n e - i n - w a i t i n g . He takes a fan cy to a b e a u t i f u l Crimson P e a rl f lo w e r and b eg in s to w a te r i t d a i l y . Because o f the sweet dew g i v e n , the f lo w e r soon assumes the form o f a g i r l . "I have no sweet dew h ere t h a t I can repay him w i t h , " she would say to h e r s e l f . "The o n ly way in w hich I cou ld perhaps repay him would be w i t h the t e a r s shed d u r in g the w hole o f a m o rta l l i f e t i m e i f he and I were eyen to be re b o rn as humans in the w o r ld b e lo w ." in the Qing D y n asty 35 % it : I ^ 3 ^ ^ I ^ 5 A ; £ 'f ft % a _ # < 's ) ^ - A, ^ *& & -£ ^ ^ * £ ■ A**, ^ Indeed, In the s t o r y , th ey a re re b o rn as a man and a woman to cancel o f f the k arm ic e f f e c t in t h e i r p r e v io u s e x i s tence . S in c e the a n c ie n t p e r i o d , B u d d h is t ic t a l e s , in o rd e r to ad v o c a te and s t r e n g t h e n the c l a i m o f d i v i n e r e t r i b u t i o n and c y c l i c r e b i r t h , have alw ays made use o f s u p e r n a t u r a l elem en ts to a c h ie v e t h i s end. In both C h in e se and Japanese B u ddhist l i t e r a t u r e , g h o sts and s p e c tr e s app ear q u i t e f r e q u e n t l y as age n ts to b a la n c e good and e v i l . Sometimes they a c t as an a l l - p o w e r f u l fo r c e from heaven to m a i n t a i n j u s t i c e and conquer the w ic k e d . The e x i s t e n c e o f g h o sts and s u p e r n a t u r a l fo r c e s is h i g h l y c r e d i b l e in China s in c e the a n c ie n t p e r i o d . Records o f human and animal t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a re s t i l l e x t a n t to d a y . T h is f o l k b e l i e f in t r a n s f o r m a t i o n co rres p o n d s w i t h the B u d d h ist idea o f d i v i n e r e t r i b u t i o n and c y c l i c r e b i r t h . The r e s u l t is the emergence o f numerous B u d d h is t p a r a b le s and g o t h i c t a l e s . Pu Song I i ng 1 s (16*10-1715) L i a o zh a i Zh i y i % i t , ^ or S tra n g e T a l e s from a L e is u r e Chamber (1 7 6 5 ) is not a book o f B u d d h is t p a r a b le s p e r se, y e t i t does c a r r y s e r io u s messages c o n c e rn in g B u d d h is t and C o n fu c ia n t e a c h i n g . One o f the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h i s 36 book is i t s use o f g h o s ts , foxes and o t h e r s u p e r n a t u r a l f i g u r e s as main c h a r a c t e r s in the t a l e s . Female g ho sts and foxes make up a good p e r c e n ta g e o f these s u p e r n a t u r a l f i g u r e s . The fem ale g ho sts and fox s p i r i t s t r a d i t i o n began way back in the S ix D y n a s t ie s p e r i o d ( 3 1 7 - 5 8 8 ) . The w e l l - known c o l l e c t i o n o f these t a l e s b e f o r e Pu a r e Gan B a o 1s Records o f S p i r i t s 4% % ti ( c i r c a 3 1 7 ) , and Chu Y o u 's ^ ( 1 3 4 1 - 1 4 2 7 ) T a l e s W h ile C u t t i n g the Wick fc * ¥ fcjr . In the passage o f tim e , v i c i o u s , g re e d y and lewd fem ale g h o sts and s p i r i t s a r e g r a d u a l l y changed to k i n d , s i n c e r e and lo v in g i n d i v i d u a l s . In P u 1s t a l e s , these fem ale s p i r i t s not o n l y a r e used to em phasize the d o c t r i n e o f good and e v i l , but a r e a ls o used to f i g h t a g a in s t the s t r i c t moral codes set up by the C o n f u c i a n i s t s from ages ago. Female s p i r i t s in P u 's s u p e r n a t u r a l t a l e s a re employed to be the b a l a n c in g fo r c e in a d d i t i o n to the human fo r c e which is u s u a l l y not p o w e rfu l enough to c o r r e c t s o c ia l e v i l . By u s in g these s u p e r n a t u r a l f i g u r e s in h is t a l e s , Pu is s u c c e s s fu l in b r i n g i n g the k armi c e f f e c t to i t s f u l l im p a c t. At the same tim e , C h in e se women, caged and locked in f e t t e r s by C o n fu c ia n is m , can now be f r e e , i f not in a c t u a l i t y , a t l e a s t s y m b o l i c a l l y . T h is phenomenon in g o t h i c t a l e s a ls o ap p ears in Japanese l i t e r a t u r e . Japanese women to o , have been i n f l u e n c e d by 37 s t r i c t C o n fu c ia n codes and have s u f f e r e d through tim e as t h e i r C h in e se c o u n t e r p a r t s . T h e i r T a l e s o f M o o n li g h t and Ra hi \$d ft (1 7 6 8 ) and S p i r i t s and Wonders in Japan 0 %■ % ( 7 8 5 - 8 2 2 ) a r e v e r y s i m i l a r to the C h in e se g o t h i c c o l l e c t i o n s I have m e n tio n e d . In both the C h ine se and Japanese fem ale ghost t a l e s , the oppressed sex is a b le to do a t le a s t two t h in g s : I) f o r the f i r s t tim e , they a r e now a b le to exp re ss t h e i r love and h a te f r e e l y , and 2 ) i f th e y a re wronged, th ey can now u t i l i z e t h e i r s u p e r n a t u r a l power as g h o sts to avenge them selves and to o b t a i n j u s t i c e . In e v e r y c a s e , the w ick ed man is alw ays p u n is h e d , sometimes even put to d e a t h . In many s t o r i e s from S t range T a l e s from t h e L e i s u r e Chamber , women a r e a llo w e d by the a u th o r to go v i s i t young s i n g l e men whom th e y l i k e because th e y a re g h o s ts and s p i r i t s who a r e c a p a b le o f d o in g so p h y s i c a l l y . T h is s im p le idea o f the a u t h o r seems to mean n o th in g from the modern p o i n t o f v ie w . Y e t , i t means a lo t in those C o n fu c ia n days o f s t r i c t m oral c o n t r o l . Pu S o n g lin g l e t h i s fem ale p r o t a g o n i s t s love f r e e l y and h a p p i l y , o p e n ly a d m i t t i n g t h e i r d e s i r e s f o r love and sex. Pu was a ls o r e v o l u t i o n a r y in m a r r y in g a fem ale ghost w i t h a l i v i n g le a rn e d s c h o la r in " N ie X i a o q i a n " ^ j u s t because she is a v i r t u o u s woman. T h e re a r e a number o f t a l e s in w hich an honest man is c a p a b le o f f i g h t i n g o f f the e v i l 38 s p i r i t s j u s t because o f h i s moral conduct and d e t e r m in a t i o n . As long as he upholds the C o n fu c ia n idea o f j un z\_, and a c ts a c c o r d in g to i t , he is immunized to any e v i l s p i r i t s . Some o f P u 1s s t o r i e s c o n t a i n the T a o i s t elem ent o f a v o id i n g the w o r ld to u n i t e w i t h n a t u r e . Some o f h is s u p e r n a t u r a l fem ale p r o t a g o n i s t s leave t h e i r husbands a f t e r they have m i s t r e a t e d t h e i r w iv e s , and d i s a p p e a r in the woods and w i l d e r n e s s . Y e a rs l a t e r , th ey become f a i r i e s and shed t h e i r s u p e r n a t u r a l i d e n t i t y . P u 1s g o t h i c t a l e s a re not o n ly used to d e l i g h t and e n t e r t a i n t h e i r r e a d e r s , but a r e a ls o in te n d e d f o r moral i n s t r u c t i o n . Y e t , d i d a c t i c i s m is not P u 1s o n ly aim in the t a l e s . By u s in g the paradigm s in Buddhism, C o n fu c ia n is m and Taoism , Pu was a b l e to c r e a t e s t o r i e s f o r h is p u r poses. Pu was honest and b ra v e in a t t a c k i n g the fe u d a - l i s t i c system and i t s t r e a tm e n t o f women. H is t a l e s ad v o c a te fem ale r i g h t s and freedom . In h i s t a l e s , he a llo w e d h is fem ale c h a r a c t e r s to r e a l i z e t h e i r dreams in lo v e , a lth o u g h they must a t the same tim e , uph old the v i r t u e o f c h a s t i t y and a b s t a i n from e v i l d eeds. In t h i s sense, Pu was one o f the p io n e e r s in fem ale l i b e r a t i o n in Ch i n a . 39 C h r i s t i a n i t y and G o th ic F i c t i o n in the West E a r l y E n g lis h g o t h i c f i c t i o n t h e m a t i c a l l y and s t r u c t u r a l l y resem bles the t a l e s in the O ld T e s ta m e n t. Horace W a l p o le 's The C a s t l e o f O t r a n to ( 1 7 6 5 ) , w hich is o f t e n r e f e r r e d to as the f i r s t g o t h i c novel in England a f t e r the g o t h i c r e v i v a l in the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , c a r r i e s th e m a tic and s t r u c t u r a l elem en ts s i m i l a r to those in the b i b l i c a l t a l e s . In theme, O t r a n t o is a t a l e o f good c o n q u e rin g e v i l . I t is a moral t a l e w a rn in g the e v i l and the w ic k ed t h a t no m a t t e r how w e ll they scheme, e v e n t u a l l y , th ey w i l l be d e f e a t e d by t h e i r own e v i l . The s t r u c t u r e o f the novel is v e r y much l i k e the war between God and Satan a t the b e g in n in g o f the O ld T e s ta m e n t. King M a n fre d a c ts as S a tan in d e n y in g the a n c ie n t prop h ecy t h a t he w i l l be o ve rth ro w n by the r e a l p r i n c e . Im m e d ia te ly , we can e s t a b l i s h two c o n te n d in g fo r c e s h e r e : King M a n fre d v e rs u s the r e a l p r i n c e , as in the case o f S a ta n v e rs u s God. M a n fre d , l i k e S a ta n , is the f a l s e r u l e r o f h is lan d . H is power is g iv e n to him by the o r i g i n a l owner. The o r i g i n a l owner P r in c e A lf o n s o has the image o f a m y s te r io u s and p o w e rfu l f o r c e who w atches over t h in g s and r e s t o r e s them to the r i g h t o r d e r . He pun ish e s M a n fre d f o r h is u s u r p a t i o n , by d ro p p in g the g i a n t helm et on h is puny s o n 's 40 head and c a u s in g the l a t t e r ' s d e a t h . H is is a ls o re s p o n s i b l e f o r d i f f e r e n t v i s i o n s a p p e a r in g in the c a s t l e and i t s f i n a l c o l l a p s e . P r in c e A lf o n s o is the a l l p o w e rfu l in the n o v e l, and he r e p r e s e n t s the u l t i m a t e t r u t h in men. King M a n fre d , the f a l s e k in g , f i n a l l y loses h i s b a t t l e . Ot r a n t o is a novel based on the c o n f r o n t a t i o n between good and e v i l . A l l the im p o rta n t c h a r a c t e r s in the book can be d i v i d e d in to two c a t e g o r i e s : the good and the w ic k e d . L ik e those t h a t app ear in the B i b l e , in Ot r a n t o , a c h a r a c t e r is e i t h e r good or bad, t h e r e a r e no in -b e tw e e n or r e a l i s t i c c h a r a c t e r s . Queen H i p p o l i t a , P r in c e s s M a t i l d a and I s a b e l l a , Theodore and F a t h e r Jerome a r e a l l u n b e a r a b ly v i r t u o u s c h a r a c t e r s , e s p e c i a l l y the fem ales m e n tio n e d . These women a r e so a b s o l u t e l y o b e d ie n t and c h a s te t h a t somehow they do not seem to be r e a l a t a l l . King M a n fre d and I s a b e l l a ' s f a t h e r a r e b o th w ic k e d c h a r a c t e r s . Both a re g r e e d y , ru d e , l a s c i v i o u s and c r u e l . The set up o f c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n in Ot r a n t o resem bles t h a t in the B i b l e in w hich good and bad c h a r a c t e r s a re alw ays d i v i d e d by a c l e a r - c u t l i n e w i t h no in -b e tw e e n or b l u r r e d c h a r a c t e r s . And as i t is in the B i b l e , the w ic k e d c h a r a c t e r s , u s u a l l y r e g r e t t h e i r w rongdoings and r e c e i v e punishm ent a t the end o f the s t o r y where th e y shed t h e i r p as t and become good and k in d i n d i v i d u a l s . 41 The heavy C h r i s t i a n a c c e n t o f good and e v i l in e a r l y g o t h i c f i c t i o n does not s to p a t Ot r an t o . A lth o u g h E n g lis h g o t h i c f i c t i o n d e v e lo p s i n t o a much s t r o n g e r and more m a tu re g en re a f t e r the b e g in n in g o f the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , b i b l i c a l themes and s t r u c t u r e s s t i l l form the b a s ic s k e le t o n o f g o t h i c t a l e s b e f o r e t h e i r f u l l d e v e lo p m ent. In t h i s f i r s t c h a p t e r , I wi I I b r i e f l y t r a c e the e v o l u t i o n o f g o t h i c themes from t h e i r f i r s t app earance in O t r a n t o up to those a p p e a r in g in the e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y . From the war between good and e v i l in w hich the good always p r e v a i l s , I w i l l go in to the second s ta g e o f g o t h i c f i c t i o n in w hich the war between good and e v i l becomes a p s y c h o lo g ic a l b a t t l e w i t h i n o n e s e l f . In t h i s s t a g e , what is good and e v i l is not th e im p o rta n t p o i n t . R a t h e r , humanism is the c ru x o f the m a t t e r . As the t h i r d s ta g e o f g o t h i c novel s t i l l c la im s humanism as the most im p o rta n t elem ent in o n e 's l i f e , one way to s o lv e the dilemma o f good and e v i l is f o r a perso n to s p l i t up in to two: one b e in g the s o c ia l and normal c h a r a c t e r , w h i l e the o t h e r is the s e l f , and the o u t l a w . The s p l i t can be e f f e c t e d by dream, madness or m e ta m o rp h o sis. M a tth e w L e w is 's The Monk w hich was w r i t t e n in 1795, not o n ly has a b i b l i c a l theme but a ls o a C h r i s t i a n s e t t i n g . I t is a s t o r y about the monk A m b ro s io , who is proud o f h is v i r t u e s in r e l i g i o u s a s c e t i c i s m , t u r n i n g i n t o an 42 a b s o lu t e s c o u n d r e l, r a p i s t , m u r d e r e r , and a h o p e le s s s i n n e r . T h e re is a L u c i f e r who possesses s u p e r n a t u r a l pow ers. The b e a u t i f u l and v i v a c i o u s M a t i l d a is L u c i f e r ' s agent who leads Ambrosio i n t o e t e r n a l d a m n a tio n . O b v io u s ly , t h i s is a g a in a t a l e o f good and e v i l . By a c t i n g w ic k e d , one w i l l s u r e l y g e t o n e 's due a t the end. In the f i r s t g l a n c e , t h i s t a l e is s i m i l a r in theme to O t r a n t o . But in a second c a r e f u l lo o k , one f in d s t h a t the a u th o r Lewis w anted the r e a d e r to t h i n k and go d ee per than t h a t . Good and e v i l in t h i s book do not o n ly r e f e r to the theme o f good and e v i l in C h r i s t i a n i t y , but th ey a l s o s y m b o liz e the c h o ic e w hich one has to make between s e I f and soc i e t y . A t the b e g in n in g o f the t a l e , the monk Ambrosio is p o r t r a y e d as a p e r f e c t example in the m o n a s te ry . He a b id e s by a l l the r u l e s , and is c o n s i s t e n t in h is good deeds. H is a c t i o n s always a c c o rd w i t h the church and the ten commandments. Am brosio has won h i m s e l f p r i d e and name f o r h i s v i r t u e s f o r the c i t i z e n s r e f e r him as the " S a i n t o f M a d rid " e a r l y in the n o v e l. W ith the app earance o f M a t i l d a , he is changed in to a d i f f e r e n t m a n - - t h i s tim e a human w i t h f e e l i n g s and d e s i r e s , r a t h e r than a s a i n t . M a t i l d a s a t i s f i e s h i s d e s i r e s f o r lo v e , e x c it e m e n t , sex, and fu n . But in a l a r g e r spectrum , she leads him to freedom . I t is freedom b o th in s p i r i t and 43 a c t i o n . A m brosio, who is used to b e in g c h a in e d f a s t by r e l i g i o u s f e t t e r s , is now r e le a s e d to f r e e w i l l and p h y s ic a l p l e a s u r e . As a man, i t is n a t u r a l t h a t he d e s i r e s woman and sex, w h ic h a r e d e n ie d to him by the c h u rc h . As soon as Ambrosio has y i e l d e d h i m s e l f to d e s i r e s , he is looked a t as a s in n e r and a r e b e l . L ik e C o n fu c ia n is m and Buddhism in C h in a , C h r i s t i a n i t y in the west a ls o imposes i t s commandments on the i n d i v i d u a l , r e s t r i c t i n g h is a c t i o n s . T h is way, r e l i g i o n poses a c o n f l i c t or a c h o ic e f o r man between s e l f and s o c i e t y . T he Monk is one o f the b e s t g o t h i c n o v e ls a f t e r Ot r a n t o . I t s g o t h ic n e s s l i e s in the h o r r i b l e c rim e s t h a t B r o t h e r Ambrosio has c o m m itted : t h a t he k i l l s h i s own m other and rapes and s ta b s h i s own s i s t e r . The c lim a x o f the s t o r y is t h a t Am bro s io , a d evout monk can be p o s s i b l y changed to be a c r u e l and obnoxious s c o u n d r e l. Ju s t the idea i t s e l f causes o n e 's h a i r s to stand up. But what is a l l these g o t h ic n e s s t r y i n g to t e l l us the read e r? They a r e r e f l e c t i o n s o f A m b ro s io 's s t r u g g l e w i t h i n h i m s e l f . Though he is a monk, y e t he is as human as anybody e l s e . Once h is d e s i r e s and needs a r e awakened, i t is e x t r e m e ly d i f f i c u l t to ig n o re o r to deny them. T h is is e x a c t l y where the h o r r o r i s . Am brosio is tempted by the b e a u t i f u l M a t i l d a , L u c i f e r ' s m essenger, f i r s t i n t o sexual i n t e r - 44 course and then encouraged to rape A n t o n ia , h is own s i s t e r . As E l i z a b e t h MacAndrew s a id in her book. T he G o th ic T r a d i t i o n in F i c t i o n, g o t h i c f i c t i o n evokes t e r r o r in the r e a d e r ' s mind by p o r t r a y i n g v i l l a i n s who s t r u g g l e between t h e i r good n a t u r e and t h e i r e v i l p r o p e n s i t i e s ( 8 1 ) . In r e a d in g the g o t h i c t a l e s , the r e a d e r is drawn out o f h i m s e l f and i n t o sympathy f o r the p r o t a g o n i s t s . M o re o v e r, the f a t e o f the g o t h i c v i l l a i n arouses the r e a d e r ' s t e r r o r , h is f e a r t h a t he m ig h t meet the same c a s e . T h is g o t h i c e f f e c t is v e r y s i m i l a r to the c a t h a r t i c one produced in tra g e d y a c c o r d in g to A r i s t o t l e ' s Poet i c s . By w a tc h in g the f a t e o f somebody l i k e us, we f e a r f o r our own d e s t i n y . And in the same v e i n , t h i s g o t h i c e f f e c t is s i m i l a r to t h a t in the c a u t i o n a r y t a l e s in C h in a , w h e th e r th ey a r e C o n fu c ia n , B u d d h i s t ic o r T a o i s t . G o th ic v i l l a i n s a r e a c t u a l l y the r e f l e c t i o n o f man who is b a s i c a l l y good but has e v i l t e n d e n c ie s . G o th ic l i t e r a t u r e is r e a l l y the outw ard m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f m an's d a r k and s e c r e t th o u g h ts w h ic h , under v a r i o u s c ir c u m s ta n c e s , s o c ia l or r e l i g i o u s , a re sup pressed . The c h a r a c t e r S a ta n in M i l t o n ' s P a r a d is e Lost (1 6 6 7 ) r e c e iv e s sympathy and u n d e r s ta n d in g from famous s c h o la r s such as W i l l i a m B la k e , Samuel T a y l o r C o l e r i d g e , Percy S h e l l e y , and Lord B yron. These p o e ts looked a t S a ta n as 45 " th e moral s u p e r io r to M i l t o n ' s t y r a n n i c a l G o d. " 17 S h e l l e y saw the God f i g u r e in M i l t o n ' s poem as "one who in the c o ld s e r e n i t y o f undoubted triu m p h i n f l i c t s the most h o r r i b l e revenge upon h is enemy" (Abrams, 2 : 8 5 6 ) . God is re a s o n , He is the g o v e rn o r o f a l l , p e r i o d . Under G od's law, human weakness is not ta k e n in to c o n s i d e r a t i o n . S a ta n , l i k e the monk Am b ro s io , f a i l s to suppress h is d e s i r e s , and d e c id e s to f u l f i l l them. Though S a ta n has lo s t the war w i t h God, h i s dilemma awakens the w e ll-k n o w n dreams in o t h e r s who have h e ld back because o f the law. G o th ic f i c t i o n is a good d e v ic e f o r a u th o r s who a re i n t e r e s t e d in p o r t r a y i n g the p s y c h o lo g ic a l and subcon s c io u s s id e s o f men. A l l men a re p o t e n t i a l l y S a t a n ic as th ey a l l possess the t w o - s id e d n a t u r e o f good and e v i l . The g o t h i c v i l l a i n s a l l d i s p l a y the d e e p - s e a t e d n a t u r e o f men, w hich is c u r i o u s , r e b e l l i o u s , and f e a r l e s s . On the o u t s i d e , men a r e gov ern e d by e t h i c s , law, r e l i g i o n , s o c i e t y and c i v i l i z a t i o n . I t is t h i s p e r e n n i a l s t r u g g l e in man t h a t most a u th o r s o f g o t h i c f i c t i o n a re w r i t i n g a b o u t . O t r a n t o and The Mo n k , two o f the e a r l i e s t g o t h i c n o v e ls in En gland, dea l w i t h the issues o f good and e v i l , r i g h t and wrong, from the r e l i g i o u s p o i n t o f v ie w . A l r e a d y in T he Monk, the q u e s t i o n in v o lv e d is not j u s t a r e l i g i o u s or d i d a c t i c one, but a r a t h e r p h i l o s o p h i c a l one: 46 w i l l a r e l i g i o u s man alw ays be r e l i g i o u s and good? The novel s l o w ly but s u r e l y leads the tr e n d o f E n g lis h g o t h i c f i c t i o n in t o the c o m b in a tio n o f g o t h i c and p h i l o s o p h i c a l t a l e s . Me Im o th , the Wanderer ( 1 820) by C h a r Ie s R o b ert M a t u r i n and F rankens te i n (1 8 1 8 ) by M ary S h e l l e y a re such examples o f my c l a i m . A lth o u g h in Melm ot h the W a n d e re r , t h e r e is a S a tan who a t the end g i v e s the p r o t a g o n i s t h is due p u n ish m e n t, and God is c o n s t a n t l y r e f e r r e d to in F ra n k e n s te i n , y e t these two books deal m a in ly w i t h man and h i s b a t t l e s a g a in s t h i s own d e s i r e s . Both Melm oth and the s c i e n t i s t F r a n k e n s t e i n a re c u r io u s to f i n d out the s e c r e t o f C o d - - i m m o r t a I i t y . For t h a t b o th men pay a h ig h p r i c e f o r i t . M elm oth, l i k e D r . F a u s tu s , in exchange f o r h i s one hundred f i f t y y e a r s o f l i f e on e a r t h , o f f e r s h is body and soul to S a t a n 's d i s p o s a l . F r a n k e n s t e i n , who is tu rn e d in to a f r e a k in p u r s u in g f a l s e s c i e n c e , is d r i v e n to an u n t i m e ly d e a th by h is own m onstrous c r e a t i o n . Both n o v e ls deal w i t h the u r g e n t d e s i r e in man to know the unknown, the s e c r e t o f the u n i v e r s e . Both F r a n k e n s t e i n and M elm oth, who a r e b a s i c a l l y men o f good n a t u r e , have tu rn e d in t o c r u e l and i n c o n s i d e r a t e b e in g s as th ey f a l l d e e p e r and d e e p e r i n t o t h e i r own t r a p s . M ary S h e l l e y ' s F r ankens te i n leads us in to the d i s c u s s io n o f the doppeI gan ger theme o r the d o u b le in g o t h i c f i c t i o n . MacAndrew e x p l a i n s the emergence o f t h i s theme 47 as the r e s u l t o f the a u t h o r ' s way o f k e e p in g h is p r o t a g o n i s t c o n s i s t e n t in c h a r a c t e r in the n o v e l. The d e p i c t i o n o f an o r d i n a r y man s u f f e r i n g the to rm ents o f e v i l in p l a c e o f the to w e rin g g o t h i c v i l l a i n , how ever, produced a new and s p e c ia l a e s t h e t i c p ro b le m . How co u ld the r e a d e r be made to fe e l the pathos o f a c h a r a c t e r whose c rim e s w ere to be p r e s e n te d as h o r r i b l e and b lo o d y and were supposed to f i l l the r e a d e r w i t h h o r r o r ? The s o l u t i o n to t h i s p ro b le m is j u s t one example o f the way the e n t i r e t r a d i t i o n has undergone a g ra d u a l m o d i f i c a t i o n the d e v ic e was formed o f p r o j e c t i n g the e v i l in him out o n to a s e p a r a t e c h a r a c t e r . The f i g u r e o f the d o u b le was thus born from the s p l i t and w a r r i n g f a c t i o n s o f the p e r s o n a l i t y o f the g o t h i c v i l l a i n . (5 0 ) From the above q u o t a t i o n , we can see t h a t t h e r e is s t i l l a need in the a u th o r s o f g o t h i c f i c t i o n to m a i n t a i n the goodness in man, the b a s ic goodness w hich is bestowed on men by God who has c r e a t e d H is p e o p le a c c o r d in g to H is own image. For t h i s re a s o n , e v i l has to be s e p a r a t e d from the good man and be p r o j e c t e d o n to som ething e l s e , e . g . m o n s te rs , g h o s ts , s u p e r n a t u r a l a g e n ts , and v i c i o u s men, a l l o f w hich must be and a r e u s u a l l y d e s tr o y e d a t the end. In t h i s way, l a t e r a u th o r s o f g o t h i c f i c t i o n have u t i l i z e d the e a r l y C h r i s t i a n mode o f good v e rs u s e v i l in w r i t i n g t a l e s o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l b a t t l e s w i t h i n a man. F rankens te i n and D r. Jek yI I a nd M r. Hyde ( 1 886) by R o b e rt Lou is S te v e n s o n , can se rv e as the exa m ples . The m o n s te r in F r a nkens te i n whose f i r s t ap p earan ce s t a r t l e s h is own 48 c r e a t o r is a p r o j e c t i o n o f the s c i e n t i s t ' s abnormal d e s i r e to be s u c c e s s fu l in h is a m b i t i o n . M r. Hyde, the one who must " h id e " i n s i d e , is a ls o the o t h e r s id e o f D r . J e k y l l , who has to behave a c c o r d in g to h i s s o c ia l s t a t u s . D i f f e r e n t v e r s io n s o f M r. Hyde have been c r e a t e d on the s c r e e n , but a l l o f them can be d e s c r ib e d as u g ly and u n p le a s a n t to look a t . The g ro te s q u e ap p earan ce o f b o th f i g u r e s serv es as an emphasis to the u g l y s id e o f t h e i r m a s t e r s , F r a n k e n s t e i n and D r. J e k y l l , who look r e s p e c t a b l e , and c i v i l i z e d in the eyes o f the p u b l i c . The e lem en t o f the g ro te s q u e s e rv e s an im p o rta n t f u n c t i o n in g o t h i c f i c t i o n . B e s id e s s e r v in g as a p r o j e c t i o n o f a man's o t h e r n a t u r e , i t a l s o p e rfo rm s o t h e r f u n c t io n s such as an awakening f o r c e , a moral agent and a b r i d g e to the s u b lim e . G ro te s q u e is from the word " g r o t t o " w hich means cav e. I t is in th ese caves in I t a l y t h a t p i c t u r e s w i t h i r r e g u l a r p a t t e r n s o f p l a n t s and a n im a ls a r e found. The word " g r o te s q u e " e v o lv e s out o f the a n c ie n t p i c t u r e s to mean the a b s u rd , the i l l o g i c a l and the i r r e g u l a r . But in a d d i t i o n to th ese n e g a t i v e e le m e n ts , g r o te s q u e a ls o produces an awakening f o r c e . The u n p le a s a n t ap p earan ce o f the g r o te s q u e c r e a t e s in the v ie w e r an u n s e t t l i n g f o r c e i n s id e w hich demands an a nsw er. The g ro te s q u e in l i t e r a t u r e is used as a means o f p o r t r a y i n g the human c o n d i t i o n in a u n i v e r s e in w hich 49 good and e v i l a r e i n t e r m i n g l e d and l i f e seems u n c e r t a i n and d i r e c t i o n l e s s . The g r o te s q u e m onsters in g o t h i c f i c t i o n tend to be dem onic, not o f t h i s w o r l d . They i n t r u d e upon the c h a r a c t e r s and rem ain in c o m p r e h e n s ib le , i n e x p l i c a b l e and im p e rs o n a l, l i k e M r. Hyde. V e r y o f t e n , the elem ent o f g r o te s q u e is p o r t r a y e d th ro u g h the medium o f madness. The mad man is exempted from s o c ia l c r i t i q u e and judgem ent. W h atever he says o r does is c o n s id e r e d to be i n v a l i d in the eyes o f re a s o n . Hence n o v e ls o f madness can a l s o be c o n s id e r e d as n o v e ls o f e s c ap e. I t is an escape from reason as w e ll as an escape from God who is the symbol o f reason i t s e l f . L a t e r g o t h i c f i c t i o n o f escape seems to have n o th in g to do w i t h God and the r e l i g i o u s mode, y e t i t a c t u a l l y s t i l l s t i c k s to the same t h e m e - - t h e s t r u g g l e between man and h is re a s o n . The a u t h o r who is o f t e n con cerned w i t h w r i t i n g about madness and m an's d a r k e r s id e is the A m erican w r i t e r Edgar A l l a n Poe. He is a m a s te r in w r i t i n g about the unknown g u i l t and f e a r s o f man. Poe used the g ro te s q u e to suggest g u i l t w hich is maddening because i t is i n d e f i n a b l e . At the same tim e , t h i s unknown g u i l t arouses f e a r in man. Let us ta k e h is " T e l l - t a l e H e a r t " as an e x a m p le. The n a r r a t o r , who c a l l e d h i m s e l f a madman is b o th e r e d by an o ld man whose eyes make him u n e asy. U n t i l one d ay , h is 50 u n e a s in e s s leads to the a b s o lu t e d e s t r u c t i o n o f those e y e s - - t h e p a i r o f u g l y and m onstrous eyes! He m urders the o l d man one n i g h t , a f t e r w hich he c a r e f u l l y b u r i e s him and c le a n s the b lo o d . Y e t , a t the end, prom pted by the dead m an's h e a r t b e a t , he t e l l s on h i m s e l f in f r o n t o f the p o l i c e . "The T e l l - t a l e H e a r t" is a p e r f e c t sample t a l e o f g r o te s q u e and madness in g o t h i c f i c t i o n . The madman who is d e v o id o f reason is a c t u a l l y "maddened" by h i s own in n e r f e a r . The eyes or " I " t h a t b o t h e r s him is a c t u a l l y a p r o j e c t i o n o r r e f l e c t i o n o f h i s i n s i d e s e l f whom he cannot a v o id . In d e s t r o y i n g h is o t h e r s e l f , he a r r i v e s a t r e a l madness h i m s e l f . The d a r k , m y s t e r i o u s , y e t fo u l s id e o f man is r e v e a le d h e re th ro u g h the c h a r a c t e r o f the madman. The g u i l t t h a t Poe o f t e n w ro te about con cerns unknown g u i l t , som ething not even the a u th o r or the c h a r a c t e r can u n d e r s ta n d . T h i s is p o r t r a y e d by g ro te s q u e d e s c r i p t i o n s o f the e n v ir o n m e n t, o f an o b j e c t , o r a n o th e r c h a r a c t e r . The g ro te s q u e b r i n g s the r e a d e r to a n o th e r w o r ld away from the r e a l one. T h is o t h e r w o r ld is the h id d e n w o r ld o f the s e l f who has not been r e c o g n iz e d , b u t r e p r e s s e d by s o c ia l and r e l i g i o u s o b l i g a t i o n s . I n a b i l i t y o f the i n d i v i d u a l to h a n d le h i s h id d e n th o u g h ts and d e s i r e s , w h i l e a l l o w i n g them to emerge to the s u r f a c e , leads to h i s madness and d e s t r u c t i o n . 51 The g r o te s q u e in g o t h i c f i c t i o n seems to have no r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h the theme o f good and e v i l found in e a r l i e r g o t h i c n o v e ls . But a t a c l o s e r look, a wary r e a d e r w i l l f i n d t h a t i t does as a m a t t e r o f f a c t . The g r o te s q u e is an aw akening f o r c e a c t i n g between the s e l f and the o u t s i d e w o r ld where a compromise must be made so t h a t harm onious l i f e w i l l f o l l o w . W h ile madness is a s p i r i t u a l escape from s o c ia l p r e s s u r e w hich oppresses the s e l f who c ra v e s f o r freedom , s o c i e t y in these g o t h i c t a l e s is a symbol o f e t h i c s , l o g i c and norm. The b a s ic q u e s t i o n s o f good and e v i l , r i g h t and wrong s t i l l e x i s t as the p h i l o s o p h i c a l base in the n o v e ls o f g r o t e s q u e . B esid es madness, dreams and n ig h tm a re s a re a ls o d e v ic e s w hich an a u th o r uses to e x p re s s ideas l u r k i n g in the subconscious m ind. In a dreamy a tm o sp h e re , a p r o t a g o n i s t is s e p a r a te d from c o n scio u s r e a l i t y o u t s i d e , and stands fa c e to fa c e w i t h h i s own em o tio n and d e s i r e s . Poe and Hawthorne a r e known to have drawn d e l i b e r a t e l y upon the m a t e r i a l o f t h e i r dream s, sh apin g i t in to f i c t i o n . They a re con scio u s o f the im p o rtan ce o f dream m a t e r i a l s , and on purpose d e l i n e a t e the mind th ro u g h i t s own raw m a t e r i a l s . P o e 's " L i g e i a " a t t r a c t s the r e a d e r in to the n a r r a t o r ' s dream w o r ld w h ic h is c lo s e d to the o u t s i d e and produced a f t e r the e f f e c t o f d r u g s . A lth o u g h Poe had 52 n e v er been p r e c i s e but alw a ys been s u g g e s t iv e in h is t a l e s , " L i g e i a " can be i n t e r p r e t e d as an e x p r e s s io n o f the t o r t u r e d c o n f l i c t in the n a r r a t o r ' s mind between the l i f e o f the i n t e l l e c t and l i f e o f h i s own i n a b i l i t y to u n d e rs ta n d the n a t u r e o f the c o n f l i c t . H is "The F a l l o f the House o f Usher" is a l s o in a n ig h tm a r e form in w hich the o b s e s s io n o f in c e s t and the f e a r o f i t ta k e c o n t r o l o f the human m ind. Frankens te i n can a l s o be i n t e r p r e t e d as a n ig h tm a re in w hich the p r o t a g o n i s t ' s h id d e n d e s i r e s a r e to d e s t r o y , to k i l l and to be a b e r r a n t . T h is is p o r t r a y e d in h is dream o f c r e a t i n g the m o n s te r, who upon c o m p le t io n , c a r r i e s out a l l h i s subconscious d e s i r e s . F r a n k e n s t e i n is from a r e s p e c t a b l e and m o r a I - o r i e n t e d f a m i l y . H is m o th e r, who has d i e d o f s c a r l e t f e v e r , is one o f the most k in d women in the n o v e l. She ado pts E l i z a b e t h and J u s t i n e in to her f a m i l y j u s t because t h e i r f a m i l i e s a r e not a b le to sup p o rt them. When E l i z a b e t h is s i c k w i t h s c a r l e t f e v e r , she nurses h er u n t i l she r e c o v e r s , o n l y to c a t c h i t h e r s e l f and d i e o f i t . J u s t i n e and E l i z a b e t h b o th tu rn out to be p a t i e n t , o b e d ie n t and u n d e r s t a n d in g . F r a n k e n s t e i n ' s f a t h e r , though not m e n tio n e d f r e q u e n t l y in the n o v e l, is a ls o a n i c e o ld man who t r e a t s a i l w e ll and g iv e s the b e s t he can to h i s son. En veloped in such a v i r t u o u s e n v ir o n m e n t, F r a n k e n s t e i n is e x p e c te d to t u r n out 53 to be a u s e fu l and r e s p e c t a b l e i n d i v i d u a l in the f u t u r e . The r e b e l l i o u s n o t i o n h id d e n in s i d e him c r e a t e s a p ro b lem : should he behave as v i r t u o u s as h is f a m i l y members? What is i t l i k e to a c t the o p p o s ite ? To compete w i t h Cod, h i s f a m i l y ' s i d o l , to k i l l , and to d e v i a t e from the norm must be v e r y e x c i t i n g to F r a n k e n s t e i n . In h is dream, F r a n k e n s t e i n , in the g u is e o f the m o n s te r, does what he u s u a l l y is f o r b id d e n to do. The novel can a ls o be i n t e r p r e t e d as the a u t h o r Mary S h e l l e y ' s dream in the p r o c r e a t i o n o f man w it h o u t sexual i n t e r c o u r s e and the p a in o f d e l i v e r y a f t e r her f i r s t b a b y 's d e a t h . Around the m id d le o f the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , two i n t e l l i g e n t E n g lis h l a d i e s , E m ily and C h a r l o t t e B r o n te , ado pted the g o t h i c e f f e c t in t h e i r n o v e ls , T he W u th e rin g He i gh t s ( 1847) and Jane Eyre ( 1 8 4 6 ) . In b o th s t o r i e s , t h e r e a r e the g o t h i c c a s t l e s . T h o r n f i e l d H a l l is gloom y, v a u l t - l i k e , c h e e r le s s and c h i l l y . C a t h e r i n e ' s room in the H e ig h ts is h a u n te d . I t is in t h i s hau n te d chamber t h a t H e a t h c l i f f seeks h i s l o v e r ' s s p i r i t and t h e r e he d i e s . In J a n e 's h au n te d c a s t l e , t h e r e is the c r y o f a mad woman, t o g e t h e r w i t h f i e n d i s h la u g h t e r and scream s. T h e re a r e a l s o g o t h i c c h a r a c t e r s in b o th w o rk s . H e a t h c l i f f and R o c h e s te r a re the v e r y images o f the g o t h i c t y r a n t and the B y ro n ic h e r o . Both men a r e p ro u d , d o m in a n t, and in d e p e n 54 den t o f c o n v e n t io n a l m o r a l i t y . I s a b e l l a is the v i c t i m w h i l e C a t h e r i n e can be i n t e r p r e t e d as H e a t h c l i f f ' s d o u b le . D e e p ly in love w i t h H e a t h c l i f f , C a t h e r i n e s p i r i t u a l l y l i v e s in him . She t e l l s N e l l y t h a t she is H e a t h c l i f f h i m s e l f . N a tu r e and w e a th e r a r e a ls o a d o p te d by the two n o n - g o t h i c w r i t e r s to g i v e a s p e c ia l e f f e c t and mood in t h e i r s t o r i e s . The r a i n , the w in d , the snow and the f i r e do not o n ly add to the c l im a x o f the sce n es, th e y a ls o r e f l e c t the mood o f d i f f e r e n t c h a r a c t e r s . The heavy r a i n and w ind in w hich H e a t h c l i f f y e a rn s f o r C a t h e r i n e s y m b o liz e s the i n t e n s i t y o f p a s s io n he has f o r h e r . In Jane E y r e , im p o rta n t scenes a r e com plim ented by w e a th e r and n a t u r e . The f a l l o f the c h e s tn u t t r e e s y m b o liz e s the t r a g e d y in Jane and R o c h e s t e r 's m a r r i a g e . When R o c h e s te r t h in k s o f c o m m ittin g s u i c i d e , a tempest b e g in s to r i s e . I t is e v i d e n t t h a t b o th the B ro n te s i s t e r s have u t i l i z e d c o n v e n t io n a l g o t h i c e f f e c t s in t h e i r n o v e ls f o r t h e i r own p u rp o s e s . As a r e s u l t , th e y come up w i t h works t h a t em phasize deep em otions and p a s s io n a t e lo v e . T h e i r g o t h i c w o rld s a r e sy m b o lic o f the in te n s e in n e r w o r ld o f man. The themes o f dream and the d o u b le a r e p r o b a b ly the I o n g e s t - I a s t i n g in w e s te r n g o t h i c f i c t i o n . Modern g o t h i c w r i t e r s such as Henry James and Is a k D in e s e n o f t e n use these p o p u la r themes f o r t h e i r own e x p r e s s i o n . On one 55 hand, The Tu rn o f the S c r ew (1 8 9 8 ) can be looked at as a s u c c e s s fu l h o r r o r m y s te ry s t o r y . I t is about a young g o v e r n e s s 's e x c i t i n g and h e a r t - t h r o b b i n g a d v e n tu re in a s t r a n g e p l a c e . James is v e r y good in c r e a t i n g t h i s ghost t a l e by the use o f g o t h i c m a c h in a t io n s : the q u i e t and remote a re a o f B l y , the d a r k hazy atm osphere in the c o u n t r y , and the love tr a g e d y o f a wronged c o u p le not u n i t e d . On the o t h e r hand, i t is f a r more i n t e r e s t i n g to i n t e r p r e t t h i s s t o r y as a p s y c h o lo g ic a l t a l e . Let us look a t T he T u rn o f the Screw as a t a l e on good and e v i l , r i g h t and w rong. I t is e v i l f o r the g o v e rn e s s who is a m i n i s t e r ' s d a u g h te r to h a rb o r p r i v a t e w is h e s f o r h e r e m p lo y e r. I t is a I so wrong f o r he r to p e r s i s t in her w is h a lth o u g h she knows t h a t t h e i r s o c ia l p o s i t i o n s a r e not c o m p a t i b l e . To use the c h i l d r e n as a means to a t t r a c t h e r e m p lo y e r 's a t t e n t i o n is a ls o a v e r y bad t h in g to do, a l b e i t i t is done u n c o n s c io u s ly . Pressed by h e r p a s s io n y e t r e s t r i c t e d by s o c ia l o r d e r , the g o v e rn e s s o f B ly c r e a t e s a g h o st out o f her own m ind, M iss J e s s e l . M is s Je s s e l can be seen as the g o v e r n e s s 's d o u b le , a m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f her d a r k s e c r e t s , and a symbol o f her w ic k e d th o u g h ts . T he T u rn o f t he Screw is p r e s e n te d in a v e r y in g e n io u s m anner. We have o n ly the g o v e r n e s s 's f i r s t - p e r s o n n a r r a t i o n . The s t o r y is not p r e s e n te d as a dream, b u t we a r e r e a d in g about h e r p e r c e p t i o n o f the e v e n ts hap p en in g in B l y - - in a 56 sen se, a p ro d u c t o f h e r m in d. The d r e a m - l i k e atm osphere p rovo ked by the n a r r a t i o n and the landscape o f B ly lead the r e a d e r in to the g o v e r n e s s 's m ental w o r ld and e v e n t u a l l y in t o an u n d e r s ta n d in g o f h e r s e c r e t w ish es t h a t have to be su p p res s e d . As tim e goes on, the e t h i c a l q u e s t i o n o f good and e v i l is s l o w ly changed i n t o a more p h i l o s o p h i c a l one: how can one l i v e a l i f e o f s a t i s f a c t i o n and hap piness? E . T . A . Hoffmann and Is a k D in es e n had probed in some way f o r an answer to t h i s q u e s t i o n . Hoffmann app ro ached the q u e s t i o n thro u g h the c h a r a c t e r o f an a r t i s t , w h i l e D in e s e n t r e a t e d the t o p i c from the eyes o f a woman. In th ese two a u t h o r s ' hands, the themes o f the d o u b le and the dream m o t i f in g o t h i c f i c t i o n have moved fo rw a rd to a d i f f e r e n t s p h e re . The e t h i c a l issue o f w h e th e r one should a v o id e v i l even though i t is te m p tin g and more e x c i t i n g than good is not the p o i n t h e r e . What is im p o rta n t is t h a t in o r d e r to s a t i s f y o n e s e l f and l i v e h a p p i l y , one must make a c h o ic e in o n e 's l i f e . The two n a t u r e s w i t h i n man: the a s p i r i n g , the sensual and e a r t h l y , a r e alw ays engaged in s t r u g g l e s . To p r e s e n t t h i s i n t e r e s t i n g p s y c h o l o g i c a l phenomenon, Hoffmann made use o f the d o u b le theme. H is d o u b le s in "The D o ubles" (1 8 2 2 ) a r e two i n d i v i d u a l s who have a s t r a n g e p e rs o n a l resem b lanc e to one a n o th e r and p a r t i c i p a t e in one a n o t h e r ' s th o u g h ts and d e e d s . To e x p l a i n t h i s 57 e x t r a o r d i n a r y cas e, Hoffmann r e l i e d on o c c u l t i s m , on m y s t e r io u s t e l e p a t h y and dream s. "The D o u b les" p e r t a i n s to the theme o f an a r t i s t ' s c h o ic e between a r t and l i f e . The a r t i s t must l i v e away from the o r d i n a r y and mundane in o r d e r to d e v o te h i m s e l f to a r t . He must even f o r s a k e lo v e , f o r he is doomed to be a lo n e and rem ain f a i t h f u l on Iy to h i s a r t . "The Dream ers" from Is a k D i n e s e n 's Seven Go t h i c T a l e s (1 9 3 4 ) se rv e s as a good example o f p h i l o s o p h i c a l g o t h i c 1 8 t a l e s . M o r e o v e r , i t is a t a l e seen from a woman's v i e w p o i n t , D i n e s e n ' s , as w e ll as the opera s i n g e r , P e l l e g r i n a L e o n i ' s . For the men in the s t o r y , L i n c o l n F o r s n e r , Marcus Cocoza the Jew, F r i e d e r i c k Hohenemser, the noblem an, and Baron Gui I dens t e r n , h ap p in e s s is to f i n d the woman th ey love and to s t a y w i t h h e r f o r e v e r . To them, love is the s o le purpose and reason to l i v e because i t b r i n g s hope and warmth to t h e i r e x i s t e n c e . But f o r the opera s i n g e r , l i f e is not so s im p le . L i f e to P e l l e g r i n a is som ething she can a t t a c h h e r dreams t o , h e r dreams o f v e r s a t i l i t y , o f freedom and o f l i v i n g out many l i v e s w i t h i n the tim e span o f o n ly one. To be the same perso n is b o r in g and t e d i o u s , but to have d i f f e r e n t i d e n t i t i e s t h a t a l l o w one to e x p l o r e d i f f e r e n t w o r ld s is a f a n t a s t i c dream . P e l l e g r i n a , as a woman, is r e s t r i c t e d s o c i a l l y and p h y s i c a l l y to f u l f i l l h e r dreams and d e s i r e s . In the 58 s t o r y , thro u g h the h e lp o f the Jew, she manages to l i v e a l i f e o f f a n t a s y and e x c it e m e n t . In r e a l l i f e , D in e s e n , a baroness l i v i n g c o m f o r t a b ly in Eu ro pe, m ig r a t e d to A f r i c a to run a c o f f e e p l a n t a t i o n . The w r i t e r , not o n ly e x p r e s s in g h er dreams and w ish es on p a p e r , but she a ls o took a c t i o n to f u l f i l l them in r e a l l i f e . The h i s t o r y o f w e s te r n g o t h i c f i c t i o n u n f o ld s b e f o r e us d i f f e r e n t a s p e c ts o f human n a t u r e , from themes o f good and e v i l , to t h a t o f human n a t u r e w h ic h s t r i v e s to be s a t i s f i e d and happy. U n l i k e the C h in e s e t a l e s , g o t h ic is m s in the w e s t e r n s t o r i e s a r e n e v e r d i d a c t i c a g e n ts , but o n ly m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f m an's p s y c h o lo g ic a l r e a lm . W estern g o t h i c ism aims to tra n s c e n d p h y s ic a l r e a l i t y and add mean i ng to I i f e . 59 Notes 1 M i I ton M . C h iu , T he T a o o f C h in e s e R e l i g i o n (Lanham: UP o f A m erican 19847, 34. 2 The T e a c h in g o f Buddha, 9 th ed. (T o kyo : Bukkyo Dendo Kyoka i M&. f t £ f a ^ 1981 ) , 74. 3 M a u r ic e B l o o m f i e l d t r a n s . Hymns o f the A th a rv a v e d a ( C la r e d o n : O x fo r d , 1897) 1 2 :9 + . ** R .E . Hume t r a n s . The T h i r t e e n P r i n c i p a l Upani shads (London: O x fo rd UP. 1 9 5 8 ) , 233. The concept o f C y c l i c R e b i r t h and the s e v e r a l s t a t e s i n t o w h ic h one c o u ld be re b o rn a r e d e s c r ib e d in some d e t a i l in Xi C h a o 1 s ■£} &§. ( 3 3 6 - 3 7 7 ) Im p o rta n t R u les to be Kept • T h i s book has been t r a n s l a t e d by E. Z u rc h e r in The B u d d h is t Conquest o f C h in a , Leyden: E . J . B ri I 1, 1 959 . ® Li u Y iq i ng Record o f D a rk a nd L i g h t . T a i p i n g M i s c e l l a n y Ji£ si. . Li Fang et a l . eds . % 10 b k s . 500 vo I s . (19 61 ^ B e i j i n g : Zhonghua S h u ju , 1 9 8 1 ) , I I I , 1 0 9 : 7 3 9 - 4 1 . 7 For a d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f each o f th ese e i g h t h e l l s see D a iga n and A l i c i a M a ts u n ag a , The Buddh i s t Concept o f H e l l . (New Y o rk : P h il o s o p h ic a l L i b r a r y 1 9 7 2 ), 7 5 - 1 0 6 . Q Ma t sun aga, 111. g D onald E. G j e r t s o n . M e d ie v a l C h in e se Buddhism" Ch i nese R e l i g i o n s B u l l e t i n " R e b i r t h as an Anim al in S o c i e t y f o r the Stu d y o f 8( 1980) : 57 . 60 S e v e r a l t r a n s l a t i o n s o f the A n a J _ e c t s s| a r e a v a i l a b l e . I am u s in g the one tra n s T a te c f By D .C . Lau, c a l l e d C o n fu c iu s : The A n a l e c t s , S u f f o l k : C h a u c e r-P e n g u in , 1979 . Q td . in M a r ia n H. Sung, "The C h in e s e L i eh Nu T r a d i t i o n . " Women in Ch i n a . R ic h a r d G u is s o and S t a n l e y Johannesen ed s . (New Y o rk : P h i l o P, 1981) 66. 12 Sung, 72. 1^ T h is q u o te is from M i ng Hu i P i an . q t d . in Sung, 72. 1,1 Ge H o n g l ^ , P a o - p 'u T z u : The Ne i P 1 i en o f Ko Hung b % T r a n s . James R. Ware. A lchemy, M e d i c i n e , R e l i g i o n in the China o f A . D . 3 20^ (C am b rid g e: M IT P, 1 9 6 6 ) , 116. 1 5 T h e re a r e o t h e r c o l l e c t i o n s o f B u d d h is t p a r a b le s such as Reco rd s o f D i v i n e R e t r i b u t i o n in H e l l , % %&, It, ( 6 5 3 - 6 5 5 ) by Tang L m . For more d e t a i l s , r e f e r to Lu Xun. A B r i e f H i s t o r y o f C h in e s e F i c t i o n . T r a n s . Yang H s i e n - y i and G lad ys Yang. ( W e s tp o r t: H y p e r io n P, 1973) 6 1 - 8 4 . * D a v id Hawkes t r a n s . The S t o r y o f the Stone £ #1. by Cao X u e q in % fT % . 4 vo I s . (Harm ondsworth: Cox and Wyman-Penguin, 1984) 1 : 5 3 . 17 M .H . Abrams e t a l . eds. The N o r t on A n th o lo g y o f E n g li s h L i t e r a t u r e . 3rd e d . 2 v o I s . (New Y o rk : N o rto n , 1 9 7 4 ) - 2:8 5 4 . ~ 1 8 Is a k D in e s e n . Seven G o th ic T a l e s (New Y o rk : Modern L i b r a r y , 1961) 2 7 1 - 3 5 5 . 61 C h a p te r 2 The E v i l - g o o d in L i aozha i Zh i y i v e rs u s the S a t a n i c Force in W e stern G o th ic F i c t i o n T he B e g in n in g o f W estern G o t h ic F i c t i o n : The Romantic Movemen t and The C a s t l e o f O t r a n t o The Romantic Movement w h ic h spread th ro u g h o u t w e s te r n Europe around 179 8 -1 8 3 2 was a r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t r a t i o n a l i s t i c t h i n k i n g and reas o n t h a t d o m in a te d the C l a s s i c a l P e r io d ( 1 6 6 0 - 1 7 9 8 ) . D u rin g the C l a s s i c a l e r a , human f e e l i n g s and e m o tio n a l i n s t i n c t were f o r c e d to be p en t up w i t h i n the i n d i v i d u a l because o f s o c i a l , m o r a l, and r e l i g i o u s o b l i g a t i o n s . I t can be s a id t h a t r e l i g i o n and man-made laws g overned the l i f e and th ought o f the p e o p le . The r o l e o f the le a rn e d was to expound m oral good in o r d e r to b r i n g the m a j o r i t y to a h i g h e r s p i r i t u a l e x i s t e n c e . The works o f s c h o la r s and w r i t e r s had a d e f i n i t e d i d a c t i c and r e l i g i o u s m is s io n . The r e l a t i o n s h i p between God and man was seen as t h a t o f an a l l p o w e rfu l b e in g to an o b e d ie n t s u b o r d in a t e . I t was a lm o s t i n e v i t a b l e t h a t R o m an ticism aro s e under such a r e p r e s s i v e a i r . On top o f 62 t h a t , the p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n in Europe around t h i s time was not a n y t h i n g b e t t e r . The p h ilo s o p h y b e h in d the French R e v o l u t i o n (1 7 8 9 ) in w h ic h the commoners r e b e l l e d a g a in s t t y r a n n i c a l a u t h o r i t y resem b les the c o n f l i c t betw een man and the A l m ig h t y God. The ro m a n tic eth o s o f b r i n g i n g t y r a n t s down in o r d e r to c e l e b r a t e i n d i v i d u a l d i g n i t y lu r k e d in p e o p l e 's m ind. B esid es the r e l e a s e o f in n a t e and i n s t i n c t i v e human f e e l i n g s , the Rom antic Movement a ls o r e f l e c t e d the common p e o p l e ' s z e s t in r e t u r n i n g to p a s t c u l t u r e . Near the end o f the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y in w e s t e r n Europe, e s p e c i a l l y in En gland, the s tu d y o f a r c h a e o lo g y , a n t i q u i t y , and m e d ieval c u l t u r e r e v i v e d . The p a s t became a t t r a c t i v e and i n t e r e s t ing a g a in because i t o f f e r e d the p e o p le the f e e l i n g o f n o s t a l g i a and a sense o f e x o t i c i s m . For the Rom antics a n c i e n t r e l i c s arous ed v e n e r a t i o n and awe. Moved by the m a g n if ic e n c e and g r a n d e u r , the o n lo o k e r s w ere o f t e n engaged w i t h the s u b lim e . B e s id e s the s u b lim e e f f e c t , a n t i q u i t y a ls o gave an a i r o f m y s te r y w h ic h a p p e a le d to the human s e n s i b i l i t y . A id e d by the d a r k and m y s te r io u s fo r c e s in m e d ie v a l l i t e r a t u r e , the Rom antic i m a g in a tio n now began to soar h ig h . N a tu r e a l s o took a m a jo r r o l e d u r i n g the Romantic P e r i o d . N a tu r e was no more looked a t as m e r e ly a p a s s iv e and i n s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t o f G o d 's c r e a t i o n but r a t h e r as a 63 s e p a r a t e e n t i t y t h a t embodied l i f e and c h a r a c t e r o f i t s own. More i n t e r e s t i n g was th e r e l a t i o n s h i p between n a t u r e and man who was e n v e lo p e d , enhanced and n u r t u r e d by the f o r m e r. I t became the r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een m other and son, the g i v e r o f n u t r i t i o n and the r e c i p i e n t , the c o n s o le r and the c o n s o le d . N a tu r e was a g i v e r and p r e s e r v e r o f l i f e , a haven f o r the t r o u b l e d and weak, as w e ll as a m y s t e r io u s medium t h a t e n a b le d the s p e c t a t o r to re a c h , to a c e r t a i n d e g r e e , a s p i r i t u a l e x i s t e n c e . The g r e a t n a t u r e p o e t , W i l l i am W ordsw orth ( 1 7 7 0 -1 8 5 0 ) was so much i n s p i r e d by n a t u r e t h a t he, in h i s P r e Iu d e (1 8 5 0 ) c la im e d t h a t love o f n a t u r e led to love o f m an kin d . To him , n a t u r e enhanced h i s r e l i g i o u s f e e l i n g s , and b ro u g h t him to a h i g h e r e x i s t e n c e o f s p i r i t u a l l i f e . D e a th a l s o became an i n t e r e s t i n g issue in the Roman t i c e r a . The m eaning o f d e a th was b e in g e x p lo r e d in the p h i l o s o p h i c a l and r e l i g i o u s p o i n t s o f v ie w . G ra v e y a rd p o e t r y f l o u r i s h e d w i t h i n the decade o f 17*12-51 w i t h Thomas P a r n e l l , and Edward Young as the l e a d e r s . Common e le m e n ts o f t h e i r p o e t r y in c lu d e d m e la n c h o ly , vague lo n g in g , g h o sts and tombs. T h i s l i t e r a r y g e n re invoked t e r r o r , m y s t e r y , and o t h e r - w o r I d I i n e s s . Next to the con cept o f d e a t h , t h e r e was a ls o a w id e s p r e a d b e l i e f in w it c h e s and s p i r i t s in the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y . T h is 64 a ls o s t e a d i l y i n t e n s i f i e d i n t e r e s t in q u e s t i o n o f l i f e , d e a th and i m m o r t a l i t y , a n g e ls , demons, v a m p ir e s , the o c c u l t , m a g ic , a s t r o l o g y , omens and o r a c l e s . The idea o f the o c c u l t and i m m o r t a l i t y e v o lv e d l a t e r as some o f the im p o rta n t themes in g o t h i c f i c t i o n . The l i t e r a r y phenomenon in England in th e m id d le o f e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y was o f the s e n t i m e n t a l , gloomy and c h i l v a r i c t y p e . The a u t h o r s o f th ese s e n t im e n t a l n o v e ls c a r r i e d w i t h them the b e l i e f t h a t human b e in g s were b a s i c a l l y good and t h a t th e y a l l possessed a b a s ic moral sense w hich would g u id e them back to the good p a th when th e y went a s t r a y . The s e n t i m e n t a l i s t s a l s o b e l i e v e d t h a t i f p e o p le w ere p r o p e r l y e d u c a te d and n o u r is h e d , they would become v i r t u o u s and good. T h e r e f o r e the i n t e n t i o n o f these w r i t e r s was to te a c h . These a u t h o r s used moving s e n t i m e n t , f e a r and t e r r o r to a c h ie v e t h e i r means. They w ere s u c c e s s fu l when t h e i r n o v e ls p rodu ced a c a t h a r t i c e f f e c t on the r e a d e r s . V e r y o f t e n in t h e i r w o rk s , s t e r e o type c h a r a c t e r s a r e used: the v i r t u o u s ones were p o r t r a y e d as b e a u t i f u l in a p p e a ra n c e and k in d a t h e a r t , w h i l e the v i l l a i n s w ere alw ays u g l y and d e fo rm e d . R o m anticism d e r i v e d i t s name from romances o r i g i n a t e d in the m e d ie v a l p e r i o d . The word " ro m a n tic " f i r s t a p p eared in the m id d le o f the s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y , meaning 2 " l i k e the o ld rom ances." These romances o f t e n were 65 f i l l e d w i t h e le m e n ts o f c h i l v a r y , k n i g h t - e r r a n t r y , and m a g ic . F a l s i t y , u n r e a l i t y , the f a n t a s t i c and i r r a t i o n a l « n a t u r e o f e v e n ts and s e n tim e n ts w ere d e s c r ib e d in these romances ( P r a z , 1 2 ) . B e s id e s the m e d ie v a l romances, the R om antics were a l s o i n f l u e n c e d by E l i z a b e t h a n l i t e r a t u r e , e s p e c i a l l y dram a. Scenes o f d e a t h , c rim e and v i o l e n c e from these p l a y s e x c i t e d the r o m a n tic im a g in a t i o n . S h akes p earean p la y s such as Ki ng L e a r , Romeo and JuI i e t , and M acbeth d e s c r i b e v i o l e n t p i c t u r e s o f n a t u r e , tombs, v a u l t s , a p p a r i t i o n s , and m u rd e r. L i g h t n i n g , th u n d e r and r a i n s e rv e d as the b a s ic s ta g e e f f e c t f o r a m a jo r a c t o f K i ng Le a r . In Romeo and J u l i e t , the r e a d e r is f a s c i n a t e d by f a m i l y feuds and s u i c i d e s . The s e t t i n g o f M a c b e th is a c a s t l e where m urder ta k e s p l a c e ; the v a r i o u s s p i r i t s a p p e a r in g in a f o r e s t ; the c o l d - b lo o d e d m urder o f a l l M a c b e t h 's enem ies; the a p p earan ce o f the g h o s t; Lady M a c b e t h 's i n s a n i t y ; the o r a c l e c o n c e rn in g M a c b e th 's f a t e a l l work t o g e t h e r to form a m y s t e r io u s and g o t h i c atm osphere t h a t i n s p i r e s awe and h o r r o r . W ith the r e v i v e d i n t e r e s t in Spenser and h i s Fa e r i e Queene ( 1 8 5 9 ) , England was read y to launch her f i r s t g o t h i c novel.* Edmund S p e n s e r 's Fa e r i e Queene can be looked a t as the p r o t o t y p e o f r o m a n tic and g o t h i c l i t e r a t u r e . I t is a poem t h a t teaches by d e l i g h t i n g . The poem is f i l l e d w i t h a d v e n t u r e s , j o u s t i n g k n i g h t s , c a s t l e s , and s u p e r n a t u r a l 66 e le m e n ts such as d ra g o n s , w i t c h e s , g i a n t s , and e n c h a n ted t r e e s . I t is a l l e g o r i c a l l i k e Everyman ( c a . 1485) in w hich most o f the c h a r a c t e r s in the p l a y r e p r e s e n t moral i d e a I s . The bad c r e a t u r e s , p e o p le and m o n s te rs , a r e v a r i o u s v i c e s , e v i l s , and t e m p t a t i o n s , o f t e n r e v e a l e d to the r e a d e r by t h e i r n a m e s . . . . Houses, c a s t l e s , and a n im a ls a l s o s tan d f o r a b s t r a c t v i r t u e or v i c e s . . . . The sym b o lic and a l l e g o r i c use o f c h a r a c t e r s and s e t t i n g was ado pted by l a t e r ro m a n tic w r i t e r s f o r t h e i r own p u rp o s e s . As the purpo se o f th ese a l l e g o r i c a l p la y s is to teach and e n l i g h t e n the re a d e rs ( u s u a l l y in the r e l i g i o u s s e n s e ) , e v i l and n e g a t i v e fo r c e s a r e alw ays d e f e a t e d or va n q u is h e d a t the end by the good. T h is d i d a c t i c t r a d i t i o n becomes the main theme o f e a r l y g o t h i c f i c t i o n in the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y . T h i s is e s p e c i a l l y t r u e in the t h r e e g o t h i c works I am g o in g to d is c u s s in t h i s c h a p t e r : The C a s t l e o f O t r a n t o (1 7 6 5 ) by Horace W a lp o le , T he Monk (1 7 9 5 ) by M a tth e w L e w is , and M elmoth the H W anderer ( 1 8 2 0) by Rober t Ma t u r i n . The ap p earan ce o f Ot r a n t o is by no means a c o i n c i dence in the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y l i t e r a r y sce ne. R e f e r r i n g to my e a r l i e r d i s c u s s io n o f the Rom antic t a s t e in l i t e r a t u r e and th o u g h t, i t is o n ly l o g i c a l t h a t a ro m a n tic g o t h i c novel l i k e O t r a n t o sh o uld make i t s deb ut a t t h i s t im e . A f t e r h is son d i e d in an a c c i d e n t , the u s u rp e r King 67 M a n fre d o f O t r a n t o , p la n s to m a rry h i s s o n 's f i a n c e e I s a b e l l a , so t h a t she can g i v e him an h e i r to the e s t a t e . W ith the h e l p o f some s u p e r n a t u r a l f o r c e , I s a b e l l a manages to escape from the c a s t l e . M a n f r e d 's d a u g h te r f a l l s in love w i t h T h e o d o re , a commoner. By m i s t a k e , M a n fre d s ta b s h i s own c h i l d , M a t i l d a . I s a b e l l a and T heodore become lo v e r s and f i n a l l y a r e m a r r i e d . T heodore is d i s c o v e r e d by F a t h e r Jerome to be a c t u a l l y the r e l i g i o u s m an's long lo s t son and a l s o t r u e h e i r to O t r a n t o . At the end, the g i a n t armor o f A l f o n s o moves and the w hole c a s t l e c o l l a p s e s . M a n fre d and h i s w i f e H i p p o l i t a go to r e t i r e in a m o n a s tic es tab I i sh m en t. On the s u r f a c e , O t r a n t o is a m e d ie v a l romance w i t h i t s k i n g s , queens, p r i n c e s , p r i n c e s s e s , k n i g h t s in a rm or, c a s t l e s , m a g ic , g h o s ts , and g i a n t s . The s e t t i n g o f the t a l e is in I t a l y between the tim e 1 0 9 5 -1 2 4 3 . T o g e th e r w i t h the p re s e n c e o f s to c k c h a r a c t e r s who make b o o k - l i k e and l i f e l e s s speeches, O t r a n t o rese m b les v e r y much a m e d ie v a l f a i r y t a l e w i t h a p r i n c e s a v in g the l i f e o f a b e a u t i f u l and v i r t u o u s p r i n c e s s and f i n a l l y m a r r y in g h e r ; g i a n t s and s p i r i t s h e l p i n g the good a g a in s t the p o w e rfu l v i l l a i n s ; the s k e le t o n in a monk's cowl k n e e l i n g in f r o n t o f the a l t a r ; and the armor b l e e d i n g when the g e n t l e and v i r t u o u s P r in c e s s M a t i l d a d i e s . U n d e rn e a th a l l t h i s m e d ie v a l and g o t h i c m a c h in e r y , W a lp o le had added many 68 modern e le m e n t s . The novel echoes the Romantic s p i r i t o f r e b e l l i n g a g a i n s t t y r a n n i c a l a u t h o r i t i e s r e p r e s e n t e d by M a n f r e d . A lth o u g h a t W a l p o l e 's tim e , the French R e v o lu t i o n had not b roken out y e t , the war atm osphere was t h e r e . L e s s e r p e o p le g a t h e r e d t o g e t h e r to put down t y r a n t s whose a r b i t r a r y use o f power must not be a llo w e d to go unchecked. The w h o le idea o f ro m a n tic e th o s in b r i n g i n g down the t y r a n t is d r a m a t i c a l l y r e p r e s e n t e d in the novel when M a n fre d is b ro u g h t down by the commoner T h e o d o re . The c h a r a c t e r o f M a n fre d is a l s o a shadow o f W a l p o l e 's f a th e i S i r R o b e rt W a lp o le , a s u c c e s s fu l p o l i t i c i a n o f h is tim e and the d i c t a t o r o f the f a m i l y . In the d i s g u i s e o f an o ld m e d ie v a l t a l e , W a lp o le p u r p o s e ly put in the c u r r e n t Rom antic e le m e n ts : the b e a u ty o f a n t i q u i t y , the scene o f a b e a u t i f u l fem ale a t d e a t h , wonder and awe, and an e x h i b i t i o n o f human f e e l i n g s and p a s s io n s . Even the s t r u c t u r e o f Ot r a n t o is w e ll p la n n e d in to f i v e chap t e r s to resem b le the f i v e a c t s o f a t r a g e d y . W a l p o l e 's h o r r o r t a l e d e r i v e s not o n l y from the c u r r e n t a s p i r a t i o n f o r the o c c u l t and m y s t e r io u s d u r i n g the Rom antic age, i t a ls o emerges out o f the images in h is s u b c o n s c io u s . W a lp o le was a man i n t e r e s t e d in a n t i q u a r i a n s t u d i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y m e d ie v a l a r c h i t e c t u r e . He d e s ig n e d h i s own r e s i d e n c e . S t r a w b e r r y H i l l , w h ic h became a d i s c u s s io n t o p i c in h i s tim e . He c la im e d t h a t Ot r a n t o 69 o r i g i n a t e d from a dream he had in w h ic h he saw a g i a n t hand on the s t a i r - r a i l . He then began w r i t i n g the novel and f i n i s h e d i t e i g h t days l a t e r (Varm a, 6 8 ) . Thus O t r an t o is produced th ro u g h a u t o m a t ic w r i t i n g , by a man who had not r e a l l y p la n n e d out h i s n o v e l, but had depended on i n t u i t i o n and i m a g i n a t i o n . O t r a n t o can be s a id to be the p ro d u c t o f the Rom antic s p i r i t . O t r a n t o is not a f a i r y t a l e l i k e Everyman and T he Fa e r i e Q ueene, but a moral t a l e . A lth o u g h i t s b a s ic t h e s i s is the triu m p h o f good o v e r e v i l , the c h a r a c t e r o f good is s y m b o liz e d by the v a r i o u s g o t h i c m a c h in e ry t h a t W a lp o le has i n v e n t e d . These f a n t a s t i c e le m e n ts i n c lu d e : 1) the f a t a l f a l l o f the g i g a n t i c h e lm e t on top o f the puny p r i n c e ; 2) the a n c e s t o r in the p o r t r a i t who comes out o f the fram e, s ig h s and d i s a p p e a r s ; 3) the s t a t u e t h a t b l e e d s ; 4) the g i g a n t i c fo o t in the g a l l e y and the g i g a n t i c hand on the b a n i s t e r ; 5) the s k e l e t o n i n s i d e a h e r m i t ' s c o w l; and 6) A l f o n s o ' s a p p a r i t i o n b u r s t i n g and c o l l a p s i n g the c a s t l e . A l l th ese s u p e r n a t u r a l e le m e n ts a c t t o g e t h e r to form th e m oral f o r c e b l o c k i n g M a n f r e d 's i n t r i g u e s and v i c i o u s p l a n s . In o t h e r w o rd s, we have two o p p o s it e fo r c e s h e r e : the good and the bad, s u p e r n a t u r a l e le m e n ts and M a n fre d r e s p e c t i v e l y . In O t r a n t o, the s u p e r n a t u r a l e le m e n ts and g h o s ts a c t as an e t h i c a l f o r c e t h a t r e s t o r e s s o c ia l and m oral o r d e r . N a t u r a l e le m e n ts as 70 w e ll a r e b e in g used as p a r t o f th e d i d a c t i c t o o l . Thunder and l i g h t n i n g add to the g o t h i c mood in the t a l e . They a l s o enhance the s u b lim e e f f e c t w i t h i t s power and g r a n d e u r . M a n fre d foreshadows the image o f a B y r o n ic h ero a f t e r S a ta n in P a r a d is e Lo s t ( 1 6 6 7 ) . The B y r o n ic h ero is one who, d e s p i t e s o c ia l and m oral c a s t r a t i o n , u p h o ld s , and f i g h t s f o r h i s own i d e a l . He is u s u a l l y p o r t r a y e d as a m a s c u lin e , p h y s i c a l l y s t r o n g , d a r k - c o m p le x io n e d , and m e l a n c h o li c man, y e t s e n s i t i v e and p e r s i s t e n t in h is e m o tio n s . M a n f r e d , though a n e g a t i v e c h a r a c t e r , is the main c h a r a c t e r and the m a s te r in the s t o r y . He is a d m i r a b l e in h i s d e v o t i o n and s a c r i f i c e f o r h i s i d e a l : the a m b i t i o n to i n h e r i t the t i t l e o f K in g o f O t r a n t o . I t is in the d e f e a t o f t h i s t y r a n n i c a l h e ro t h a t the r e a d e r is f i l l e d w i t h awe and p i t y . When the t i t l e o f k in g is no lo n g e r h i s , M a n fre d b e g in s to n o t i c e h i s v i r t u o u s w i f e H i p p o l i t a , f e e l the p a in o f lo s in g t h e i r d a u g h te r M a t i l d a , and the shame o f h i s v i c e s . M a n f r e d ’ s e n d in g a g ree s w i t h the s e n t i m e n t a l i s t ' s v ie w o f man h a v in g a moral sense in h i s n a t u r e . Thou g u i l t l e s s , but unhappy woman! unhappy by my c r i m e s my h e a r t , a t l a s t , is open to thy a d m o n it io n s . Oh! c o u l d - - b u t i t cannot b e - - y e t a re lo s t in wondei l e t me a t l a s t do j u s t i c e to m y s e lf ! To heap shame on my own head is a l l the s a t i s f a c t i o n I have l e f t to o f f e r to o f te n d e d Heaven. My s t o r y has drawn down th ese ju dgem en ts: l e t my c o n fe s s io n 71 a t o n e - - b u t ah! What can a to n e f o r u s u r p a t i o n , and a m urdered c h i l d ! a c h i l d m urdered in a c o n s e c r a te d p l a c e ! ------ L i s t , s i r s , and may t h i s b lo o d y r e c o rd be a w a rn in g to f u t u r e t y r a n t s ! (1 0 5 ) The r e p e n ta n c e o f a d e f e a t e d man, f i l l e d w i t h p a i n and r e g r e t , c a r r i e s a w a r n in g to h i s d e s c e n d a n t s - - t h i s is W a l p o l e 's t h e s i s in O t r a n t o , the f i r s t g o t h i c novel in England a f t e r the r e v i v a l . T h e I n d u c t io n o f S a t a n i c Fo r c e : The Monk and the Man T h i r t y y e a rs a f t e r Q t r a n t o was p u b l i s h e d , M a tth e w Lewis p r e s e n te d the g o t h i c r e a d e r s w i t h T he M o n k. A m brosio, the monk, is named " th e S a i n t o f M a d r id " by i t s i n h a b i t a n t s . He is w e ll- k n o w n f o r h i s d e v o t i o n to the chu rch and h i s a s s o c i a t e s . M a t i l d a , a n o v ic e in d i s g u i s e , seduces him, and d i r e c t s him to rape A n to n ia who tu rn s out to be h is own s i s t e r . Am brosio b re a k s h i s r e l i g i o u s vows by le a v in g the c h u rc h , k i l l i n g h i s m other and s i s t e r . In o r d e r to escape the I n q u i s i t i o n , he s ig n s a p a c t w i t h S a ta n who b r i n g s him to the p i n n a c l e o f a m o u n ta in and drops him down to d i e . A t f i r s t g l a n c e , t h i s is a r e l i g io u s t a l e set in a C a t h o l i c chu rch in S p a in , w i t h the p r o t a g o n i s t b e in g a monk, and the I n q u i s i t i o n f o s t e r i n g 72 j u s t i c e and o r d e r . i t is a m o r a l i t y novel in w h ic h the bad Am brosio is p u n ish e d f o r h i s s i n s , and m oral good is u p h e ld and t r e a s u r e d . The good and e v i l e le m e n ts in the novel a r e c l e a n - c u t and o b v io u s . E xcept the p r o t a g o n i s t Am brosio whose c h a r a c t e r changes in th e e x tre m e d u r i n g the co u rs e o f the n o v e l, a l l o t h e r m ale and fe m a le c h a r a c t e r s a r e e i t h e r good or bad, w i t h o u t any change o r d e v e lo p m e n t. In g e n e r a l term s , T he Monk seems to be a r e l i g i o u s moral t a l e in w h ic h a s i n n e r , who has ra p e d , k i l l e d and v i o l a t e d h i s r e l i g i o u s vows, meets w i t h e t e r n a l p e r d i t i o n a t the e n d . S tr a n g e enough, when one goes d e e p e r i n t o th e m eaning o f the n o v e l, one w i l l f i n d t h a t i t is a c t u a l l y an a n t i - C a t h o l i c t h e s i s . Thro u g h o u t the book, t h e r e a r e d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n s and c r i t i c i s m s o f p r i e s t s and nuns as w e l l as te n e t s o f the C a t h o l i c c h u rc h . V e r y o f t e n th e s e c r i t i cisms o r i g i n a t e from a s e c u l a r m an's p o i n t o f v ie w , r a t h e r than from the c h u r c h 's . As a m a t t e r o f f a c t , i t is the a u th o r L e w i s 's comment on c e r t a i n C a t h o l i c p e r s o n n e ls and e s t a b l i s h m e n t s . In T he M onk, th e v i l l a i n s a r e indeed the p r i e s t s and nuns o f the Roman C a t h o l i c c h u rc h ! A m b ro s io, the abbot o f the m o n a s te r y , and the " s a i n t o f M a d r i d , " tu rn s out to be the most v i c i o u s man in a r e l i g i o u s h a b i t . The fem ale c o u n t e r p a r t o f A m b ro s io , the P r i o r e s s o f S t . C l a i r e , is a l s o a n o th e r f e r o c i o u s i n d i v i d u a l d i s g u i s e d in 73 h e r w h i t e gown. The p r i o r e s s is the one who p e r s e c u t e s Agnes f o r her " s i n s . " She locks Agnes up in the d a r k dungeon w h i l e she t e l l s the w o r ld t h a t th e l a t t e r is k i l l e d by a d i s e a s e . In the co u rs e o f h e r o bn oxio us p u n ish m e n t, she k i l l s A g n e s 's new born c h i l d who d i e s in the dungeon because o f la c k o f food, w a t e r and a p p r o p r i a t e c a r e . The f o l l o w i n g q u o t a t i o n d e s c r ib e s th e p r i o r e s s in the image o f a m aniac p e r s e c u t o r in s t e a d o f an u n d e r s ta n d ing l e a d e r . . . . . S h e is i n f a t u a t e d w i t h the idea o f r e n d e r i n g h er convent the most r e g u l a r in M a d r id , and n e v e r f o r g a v e those whose impudence th re w upon i t the s l i g h t e s t s t a i n . Though n a t u r a l l y v i o l e n t and s e v e r e , when h e r i n t e r e s t s r e q u i r e i t , she w e ll knows how to assume an ap p e a ra n c e o f b e n i g n i t y . She leaves no means u n t r i e d to p e rsu ad e young women o f rank to become members o f h e r community: she is im p la c a b le when once in c e n s e d , and has too much i n t r e p i d i t y to s h r i n k a t t a k i n g the most r ig o r o u s measures f o r p u n is h in g the o f f e n d e r she w i l l use e v e r y a r t i f i c e to a v o id o b e y in g the mandate o f h is ho 1 i ness . . . . (1 7 3 ) I f one ta k e s away the m oral i m p l i c a t i o n s in The Monk, how e l s e can one i n t e r p r e t t h i s g o t h i c work w i t h S a ta n and s p i r i t s ? T h i s leads e x a c t l y to the t h e s i s I want to make in t h i s c h a p t e r : i n f l u e n c e d by the Rom antic Movement, the s tre a m o f w e s te r n g o t h i c f i c t i o n , w i t h O t r a n t o as i t s f o u n t a i n h e a d , has changed from a m o r a l-b a s e d theme to a p s y c h o l o g i c a l and human one. In O t r a n t o , W a lp o le d i d not p r e s e n t any d e t a i l o f M a n f r e d 's th o u g h ts and a s p i r a t i o n s . Nor a r e we g iv e n a good p i c t u r e o f the p r o t a g o n i s t as a 74 man o f c h a r a c t e r as he sh o uld b e . A l l we have is an u n f e e l i n g t y r a n t who has an image o f a g r e e d y u s u rp e r and l u s t f u l man. In o t h e r w o rd s, M a n fre d is not a r e a l i s t i c 5 c h a r a c t e r as he lacks em o tio n and com passion. The c h a r a c t e r o f M a n fre d as a B y r o n ic h ero is not c o n v in c in g . A lth o u g h h i s t r a g i c s i t u a t i o n a t the end o f the novel evokes sympathy in the r e a d e r , y e t he is s t i l l more a v i l l a i n than a h e r o . But in The M onk, a v e r y d i f f e r e n t t h i n g is h a p p e n in g . A m b ro s io , who changes from a s a i n t l y r e l i g i o u s a s c e t i c to a m u r d e r e r and r a p i s t , becomes a shock and e x c it e m e n t to the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y r e a d e r s . In a w e l l - t h o u g h t out s t r u c t u r e , Lewis has p r e s e n te d to us the g r a d u a l change o f t h i s monk. The a u t h o r c o n v in c e s the r e a d e r o f the p o s s i b i l i t y o f such a d r a s t i c change in Am brosio l a r g e l y by d e s c r i b i n g in d e t a i l h i s p s y c h o lo g ic a l tendenc i e s . A m bro s io , who is l e f t a t the c h u rc h d o o r when he was an i n f a n t , tu r n s out to be the most r e l i g i o u s man in the w hole o f M a d r id . H is p r e s t i g e is so o v e rw h e lm in g t h a t on e v e r y T h u rs d a y , the day t h a t he g i v e s a sermon, the w hole church o f Capuchins th ro n g s w i t h a b ig a u d ie n c e . Here is how a commoner sees him: . . . . He is now t h i r t y y e a r s o l d , e v e r y hour o f w hich p e r i o d has been passed in s tu d y , t o t a l s e c l u s i o n from the w o r l d , and m o r t i f i c a t i o n o f the f l e s h . T i l l th ese l a s t t h r e e w eeks, when he was chosen s u p e r i o r o f the s o c i e t y to w h ic h he b e lo n g s , 75 he had n e v e r been on the o u t s i d e o f the a b b e y - w a l l s . Even now he n e v er q u i t s them e x c e p t on T h u rs d a y s , when he d e l i v e r s a d i s c o u r s e in t h i s c a t h e d r a l , w hich a l l M a d r id assem bles to h e a r . H is knowledge is s a id to be the most p r o fo u n d , h i s e lo q u e n c e the most p e r s u a s i v e . In the w hole cou rse o f h is l i f e , he has n e v e r been known to t r a n s g r e s s a s i n g l e r u l e o f h i s o r d e r ; the s m a l le s t s t a i n is not to be d i s c o v e r e d upon h i s c h a r a c t e r ; and he is r e p o r t e d to be so s t r i c t an o b s e r v e r o f c h a s t i t y t h a t he knows not in what c o n s i s t s the d i f f e r e n c e o f man and woman; the common p e o p le , t h e r e f o r e , esteem him to be a s a i n t . (9 ) C l e a r l y , we can see such a man s t a n d in g b e f o r e us: a man o f solemn and s e r i o u s a t t i t u d e , a man who has s e l f - i m p o s e d r u l e s not to leave the a b b e y - w a l l s a t any tim e f o r any reason e x c e p t f o r the sermon, a man who does not v i o l a t e a s i n g l e r u l e o f h is o r d e r , a man who has t o t a l l y d e v o te d h is tim e and e f f o r t to h is r e l i g i o u s s t u d i e s and chu rc h d u t i e s , and m o re o v e r, h e r e is a man who is a c e l i b a t e , a man who does not know a n y t h i n g about sex and woman! The q u e s t i o n Lewis poses is : is Am brosio an o r d i n a r y man made o f f l e s h and b lo o d , o r is he r e a l l y a s a i n t whose a s c e t i c b e h a v io r exceeds o t h e r men in such a d i s t i n c t i v e fa s h io n ? L e w is 's p re m is e is t h i s : a monk though he i s , he is j u s t l i k e any o t h e r human b e in g who succumbs to the weakness o f f l e s h and b lo o d . The chu rch w i t h i t s s t r i c t r u l e s and r e g u l a t i o n s , cannot remove the humanness from a man. In o t h e r w ords, th e chu rc h cannot s t r i p a man o f h i s e m o tio n s , f e e l i n g s , and d e s i r e s . An o r d i n a r y man has d e s i r e s and needs: the d e s i r e to succeed in h i s c a r e e r in 76 o r d e r to b r i n g on a happy l i f e ; the w is h to be a c c e p te d and loved by h i s own group o r f a m i l y ; and the a s p i r a t i o n f o r m a t e r i a l i s t i c , p h y s i c a l , and s p i r i t u a l s a t i s f a c t i o n . An o r d i n a r y man would l i k e to be happy and c o m f o r t a b le in h is d a i l y l i f e . M o r e o v e r , he would r e q u i r e b o th m ale and fe m a le c o m p a n io n sh ip . The fe m a le co m p a n io n sh ip p a r t i c u l a r l y , w i l l be e s s e n t i a l in most c a s e s , to th e man as a sexual p a r t n e r and l i f e - l o n g companion. From the F r e u d ia n th e o r y o f the O edipus com plex, i t is o b v io u s t h a t a m an's need f o r women s t a r t s a t a v e r y e a r l y s ta g e in h i s l i f e . But Am brosio in The Monk is d e p r i v e d o f th ese b a s ic human needs. F i r s t , h i s s e l f - i m p o s e d i m p r i s o n m e n t - I i k e e x i s t e n c e in the abbey s e p a r a t e s him from the w o r ld and i t s p e o p le . Not o n l y t h a t , s in c e the C a t h o l i c chu rc h r e q u i r e s c e l i b a c y , Am brosio has been c o n s c i o u s l y c o n s id e r in g women as som ething to a v o id . The o n ly fem ales Am brosio has seen a r e the s i s t e r s from S t . C l a i r e when th e y come to c o n fe s s io n w e e k ly . The woman t h a t he sees e v e r y d a y in the abbey is th e Madonna whose p i c t u r e hangs on the w a l l in h i s c e l l . H is image o f the Madonna is n o t h in g sexual o r f e m in i n e , but r a t h e r a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f an id e a l t h a t he w o r s h ip s . She is b e a u t i f u l in the sense t h a t she is p u re and s a i n t l y . In h i s eye s, she is a model o f c h a s t i t y but not o f femi n i n i t y . 77 The r e l i g i o u s e n v iro n m e n t t h a t Am brosio is su rroun ded by d e p r i v e s him o f a l l the n e c e s s a ry e m o t io n a l , sexual and m a t e r i a l i s t i c needs w hich a r e e s s e n t i a l to a man. Because o f h i s r e l i g i o u s vows, he must be a s t u d i o u s , u p r i g h t , d e v o te d and s e x le s s b e in g . In o r d e r to m a i n t a i n h is s t a t u s and p r e s t i g e as the " s a i n t o f M a d r i d , " he must a d h e re to the a s c e t i c image t h a t the p e o p le have about him . T h i s is why h is humanness, a f t e r b e in g lo cked up and sup pressed f o r t h i r t y y e a r s , s u d d e n ly e x p lo d e s to the extre m e when i t s m a s te r reac h es a m atu re and v i r i l e a g e . M a t i l d a , the n o v ic e in the abbey, awakens in him h i s human needs and w eakne sses. H is s e c r e t r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h M a t i l d a , though i t l a s t s f o r o n l y a s h o r t tim e , g i v e s him e xtrem e p l e a s u r e and s a t i s f a c t i o n . For the f i r s t tim e in h i s l i f e , Am brosio e n jo y s a p a s s io n a t e love l i f e w i t h the woman he d e s i r e s . T h is sexual and sensual r e l a t i o n s h i p opens h i s o t h e r c h a n n e ls o f d e s i r e s : he wants to have a n o th e r woman whose name is A n t o n i a . For A n t o n ia , he has to b r e a k h is vows and le a v e s the abbey to meet her in her home. H is d e s i r e f o r A n to n ia a l s o fo r c e s him to k i l l h er m o th er who stands in h is way, to s t e a l th e m agic p o t i o n from the abb ess, and to rape h i s b e lo v e d when she r e f u s e s to have him. H is v i c i o u s deeds grow o u t o f h is d e s i r e to do the t h in g s w hich s a t i s f y and p l e a s e him. B e s id e s l u s t , 78 p r i d e is a l s o h is w eakness. A f r a i d t h a t h i s deeds w i l l w i l l be p u b l i c i z e d , he has to s ta b A n to n ia when she t r i e s to escape and seek h e l p . From a monk, Am brosio becomes a m u r d e r e r . He is j u s t a man w i t h o u t a soul w a i t i n g f o r d e a th a f t e r he s ig n s the p a c t w i t h S a ta n . The image o f Am brosio as a B y r o n ic hero is much s t r o n g e r than t h a t o f M a n fre d in O t r a n t o . M a n fre d is an a l l - p o w e r f u l k in g who can do w h a te v e r he p r e f e r s , moral or im m oral. He has no s e c r e t d e s i r e to s u p p re s s . When he w ants to m a rry h is s o n 's f i a n c e e , he proposes to h e r . A m b r o s io 's s i t u a t i o n w h ic h i n v i t e s sympathy, is c o m p l e t e l y d i f f e r e n t . Lewis wants to expose the t r u e fa c e o f man, the d a r k e r s id e o f the inward man w hich the s o c i a l s e l f must h i d e . A m b r o s io 's i d e n t i t y as a monk s e rv e s the b es t purpose f o r him . The r e a d e r w a tc h e s a man o f honor and f a i t h f a l l i n g down to r u i n and d e s t r u c t i o n j u s t because o f human f r a i l t y in lu s t and p r i d e . I t moves and shocks the r e a d e r t h a t som ething l i k e t h i s m ig h t b e f a l l him or h e r because he or she too is a l s o human. A m b r o s io 's i n t e r n a l s t r u g g l e s a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y to u c h in g . When he is f i r s t seduced by M a t i l d a , though he is v e r y much a t t r a c t e d to h e r , he fo r c e s h i m s e l f to d r i v e away the b e a u t i f u l g i r l and r e t i r e to h i s c e l l to calm down. In t h e i r n e x t m e e t in g , he t h r e a t e n s to r e v e a l h e r fe m a le i d e n t i t y u n le s s she leaves the abbey r i g h t away, whereas deep i n s i d e , he 79 longs f o r her to s t a y c lo s e to him . Am brosio is not a b a d - n a t u r e d man a t a l l . He has n e v e r p la n n e d to k i l l A n t o n i a ' s m o th e r . O n ly when she screams and he is l e f t w i t h o u t c h o ic e . He h a te s h i m s e l f and f e e l s s i c k as soon as he f i n i s h e s r a p in g A n t o n ia in the v a u l t . H is g u i l t y c o n s c ie n c e overwhelms him so much t h a t he w is h e s t h a t he had n e v er done i t . He k i l l s A n to n ia o n l y when she t r i e s to escape and expose h i s v i c e . In the b e g in n i n g , Am brosio is adamant in r e f u s i n g M a t i l d a ' s s u g g e s tio n to app eal to the d e v i l who can save him from the I n q u i s i t i o n . H is in n a te good n a t u r e alw a ys stan d s in the way e v e r y t i m e he is t h i n k i n g o f c o m m ittin g a bad d ee d . Each tim e he is h e s i t a n t and a m b i v a l e n t , o n l y to be d e f e a t e d by h i s s tr o n g d e s i r e s . He is a B y r o n ic h e ro in the sense t h a t a t le a s t he is t r u e to h is own f e e l i n g s and needs. V. Lewis had r e v e a l e d th ro u g h the c h a r a c t e r Am brosio the d a r k e r s id e o f man; the s e c r e t th o u g h ts and d e s i r e s t h a t we must h i d e ; and the unknown f e a r and w o r r i e s w hich e x i s t in our subconscious m in d . I t is m an's n a t u r e to r e b e l , to b r e a k the ta b o o , and to s a t i s f y h i s d e s i r e s . A m b ro s io , who has a b id e d w i t h s t r i c t r e l i g i o u s o r d e r s f o r t h i r t y y e a r s , f i n a l l y succumbs to sexual d e s i r e s and w ish es t h a t emerge to the s u r f a c e and r e f u s e to com prom ise. In o t h e r w ords, the " g h o s ts " i n s i d e Am brosio have to come out and be acknow led g ed . M a t i l d a is such a " g h o s t ! " 80 The v o lu p tu o u s M a t i l d a ' s i d e n t i t y is ambiguous in the n o v e l . She is c e r t a i n l y not S a ta n h i m s e l f f o r she h e r s e l f is m o r t a l . She a lm o s t d i e s o f the snake b i t e and she needs S a ta n to save h e r from the I n q u i s i t i o n . W h atever she needs, she has to s u p p l i c a t e f o r S a t a n 's f a v o r , e . g . the m y r t l e w h ic h a u t o m a t i c a l l y opens a l l doo rs f o r A m b ro s io . Lewis used the s u p e r n a t u r a l c h a r a c t e r M a t i l d a as an a n im a te d p r o j e c t i o n o f A m b r o s io 's d a r k e s t d e s i r e s . She is the embodiment o f h i s needs. M a t i l d a can be s a id to r i s e t o t a l l y out o f A m b r o s io 's f a n t a s y . When the monk f i r s t b e h o ld s h e r f a c e , he is shocked t h a t she resem b les the Madonna whose p o r t r a i t he has a d m ired f o r a long t im e . M a t i l d a r e p r e s e n t s h i s d e s i r e s f o r love and se x . The l o v e l y n o v ic e is a l s o a sou rce o f power: she has a magic m i r r o r in w h ic h Am brosio can see the naked A n t o n i a ; she c h a ll e n g e s the e v i l S a ta n and demands what she w a n ts , and, f i n a l l y she h e lp s Am brosio to escape the p r i s o n o f the I n q u i s i t i o n . The o t h e r " g h o s t" in the t a l e , L u c i f e r , ap p e a rs o n ly tw ic e in the n o v e l: the f i r s t tim e in the form o f a y o u th c l a d in g l o r y when M a t i l d a r e q u e s ts the m y r t l e , and a t the end o f the book when Am brosio a g re e s to s ig n the p a c t . In the l a t t e r scene, He ( L u c i f e r ) ap p ea re d in a l l t h a t u g l i n e s s w h ic h , s in c e h is f a l l from h ea ven , had been h i s p o r t i o n . H is b l a s t e d limbs s t i l l b o re marks o f the A l m i g h t y ' s 81 t h u n d e r. A s w a rth y d a rk n e s s sp rea d i t s e l f o v e r the g i g a n t i c form: h i s hands and f e e t w ere armed w i t h long t a l o n s . F u ry g l a r e d in h i s e y e s , w h ic h m ig h t have s t r u c k the b r a v e s t h e a r t w i t h t e r r o r . Over h is huge s h o u ld e r s waved two enormous s a b le w in g s ; and h is h a i r was s u p p li e d by l i v i n g s n a kes, w h ic h tw in ed th em selves round h i s brows w i t h f r i g h t f u l h i s s i n g s . . . . (3 4 8 ) The ex tre m e c o n t r a s t in L u c i f e r ' s a p p e a ra n c e is s y m b o lic . A m b r o s io 's s e c r e t d e s i r e s f i r s t app eal to and p le a s e the monk. But when the v i c i o u s deeds a r e done, A m b r o s io 's d i s g u s t and r e g r e t s in h i s b e h a v io r become a p p a l l i n g even to h i m s e I f . A lo n g s id e the Am brosio s t o r y , t h e r e is the t a l e o f Agnes and Don Raymond. Agnes can be re g a r d e d as the c o u n t e r p a r t o f Am brosio in the sense t h a t she is a ls o s u b je c t e d to the same c o n d i t i o n . L ik e the monk, Agnes is c a l l e d i n t o the ch u rch w i t h o u t a c h o i c e . But as soon as she r e a l i z e s t h a t she is in love w i t h Raymond, she p e t i t i o n s to le a v e her r e l i g i o u s o r d e r . I t is th e p r i o r e s s who r e p r e s e n t s the h i g h e s t r e l i g i o u s power in S t . C l a i r e , and who not o n l y b lo c k s th e b u l l from th e Pope, but a ls o does e v e r y t h i n g she can in h e r power to add to A g n e s 's d e s p e r a t e c o n d i t i o n . What Lewis w ants to say th ro u g h the t a l e o f Agnes and Raymond i s : though human b e in g s a r e f r a i l and weak, y e t i f th e y a r e w i l l i n g to f i g h t , s u f f e r , and d e v o te to a l e g i t i m a t e c a u se, th e y w i l l succeed a t the e n d . 82 *n The Monk, Lewis had p u t t o g e t h e r a p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t o r y u s in g the fram ework and m a c h in e ry o f a g o t h i c t a l e . T h is is o b v io u s in h i s use o f the s u p e r n a t u r a l b e in g s M a t i l d a and L u c i f e r , the m agic m i r r o r , the m y r t l e , the s l e e p i n g p o t i o n , the B le e d in g Nun, the W andering Jew, and the gho st o f E l v i r a , A n t o n i a ' s m o t h e r . Except f o r M a t i l d a and L u c i f e r who c a r r y s y m b o lic i m p l i c a t i o n s , the o t h e r s u p e r n a t u r a l f e a t u r e s a r e o n l y g a d g e ts t h a t a r e needed to make the s t o r y i n t e r e s t i n g . M o r e o v e r , Lewis was s u c c e s s f u l in the sense t h a t he had s h i f t e d the theme in g o t h i c t r a d i t i o n from m oral to p s y c h o l o g i c a l . M elm oth t h e W andere r , b o th God and L u c i f e r Combined Me lm o th the Wand e r e r ( 1 8 2 0 ) , a l s o a psycho Iog i caI g o t h i c t a l e in the g u is e o f a m oral one, made a b ig wave in the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y g o t h i c l i t e r a r y scene. A r e a d e r cannot h e l p but be moved by M a t u r i n ' s p o w e r fu l e lo q u e n c e and h i s e x t r a o r d i n a r y a b i l i t y in a n a l y z i n g human e m o tio n s . H is novel c o n s i s t s o f s i x in d ep e n d en t s t o r i e s . O n ly one p e r s o n , M elm o th , ta k e s p a r t in a l l s i x , g i v i n g them c o h eren ce and m eaning. M elm o th , the p r o t a g o n i s t , who has s o ld h i s soul to the d e v i l , must d i e e v e r y hundred and f i f t y y e a r s , o n l y to be r e v i v e d a g a in as a t h i r t y - y e a r - 83 o l d . In o r d e r to end t h i s m i s e r y , M elm oth ap p e a rs to those who a r e in d e s p e r a t e s i t u a t i o n s , o f f e r i n g them r e l e a s e and h e lp i f th e y w i l l t r a d e t h e i r s o u ls to him . He t r i e s to a t t a i n t h i s w i t h the s i x men and women in the s e p a r a t e t a l e s bu t none o f them a g r e e s . A t the end, M e lm o th 's nephew John f in d s out h i s s e c r e t . Y e t t h e r e is n o t h in g he can do to h e l p him . A lth o u g h the M elm oth s t o r y em phasizes s p i r i t u a l s a l v a t i o n , and w i t h the Moncada t a l e , the Guzman t a l e , and the In d ia n t a l e s e t in r e l i g i o u s e n v ir o n m e n ts , the theme o f t h i s book is d e f i n i t e l y not on good and e v i l . R a th e r M a t u r i n , a P r o t e s t a n t c le rg y m a n , in the c o u rs e o f h is book, w i t h o u t m ercy c r i t i c i z e d the C a t h o l i c chu rc h f o r i t s inhuman p r a c t i c e s , and d e s c r i b e d in d e t a i l how the d e v o te d s u f f e r e d . The b u l k o f h i s c r i t i c i s m o f the C a t h o l i c chu rc h c o n c e n t r a t e s in M o n c a d a 1s t a l e . Moncada, b e in g a monk h i m s e l f , becomes a l o g i c a l and c o n v e n ie n t m o u th p ie c e f o r M a t u r i n . V e r y o f t e n a man is f o r c e d to e n t e r r e l i g io u s o r d e r s by h i s f a m i l y or some i n f l u e n t i a l p e rs o n . The D i r e c t o r o f a m o n a s te ry has a b s o lu t e power to do w h a te v e r he p l e a s e s , ig n o r in g o t h e r s ' needs and s e l f e stee m . T h i s is r e v e a l e d in M o n cad a's own case as w e l l as from the l i p s o f a d y in g monk who happened to be w i t h him ( 1 : 1 6 8 - 3 4 1 ) . T h e re a r e in s ta n c e s in w h ic h C a t h o l i c monks and nuns a r e t r e a t e d in h u m an ly. For an o f f e n s e o f 84 d i s o b e d ie n c e , a monk w ould be d e n ie d food to the p o i n t o f s t a r v a t i o n . A l l in a l l , i n s i d e the v e n e r a b l e r e l i g i o u s w a l l s , t h e r e e x i s t s as in the s o c i e t y o u t s i d e , i n j u s t i c e , t y r a n n y , and v i c e . So j u s t l i k e The M onk, Me Imo t h is a l s o a p s y c h o l o g i c a l g o t h i c t a l e c e n t e r i n g on the s u p e r n a t u r a l b e in g M elm oth h i m s e l f . The F a u s t i a n and W a n d e rin g Jew m o t i f s combine to form the theme o f the t a l e . M a t u r i n was d e f i n i t e l y i n s p i r e d by the c h a r a c t e r o f F a u s tu s in M a r lo w e 's D r . Faus tus ( 1 5 8 8 ) . O f the W an d e rin g Jew, i t is s a id t h a t he was C a r t o p h i l u s , P o n tiu s P i l a t e ' s d o o r k e e p e r , who a c c o r d in g to the leg e n d , t o l d Jesus C h r i s t to h u r r y . C h r i s t s a id to him , "I am g o in g , but you must w a i t u n t i l I come a g a i n . " From then on, C a r t o p h i l u s l i v e s , e v e r y hundred y e a r s f i n d i n g h i m s e l f renewed as a t h i r t y - y e a r - o l d . L ik e The Monk, Me Imoth is a t a l e o f human a s p i r a t i o n s . M elm o th , l i k e D r . F a u s tu s , w ants to be God h i m s e l f who h o ld s the s e c r e t o f l i f e and is a l l p o w e r f u l . Melm oth can t r a v e l in space as q u i c k l y as the w in d , and he p o s s esses w e a l t h and y o u t h . He can be i n v i s i b l e i f he chooses. Each tim e b e f o r e h i s a p p e a ra n c e , m e lo d io u s music f i l l s the a i r . M elm oth has immortal eyes t h a t stun p e o p le ; th e y have power to h y p n o t iz e h i s e n e m ies, as in I s i d o r a ' s w edding f e a s t . But much worse than F a u s tu s , M elm oth r e v i v e s a g a in a f t e r each d e a th f o r a hundred and 85 f i f t y y e a r s , o n l y to s u f f e r o v e r and o ve r a g a in a n o th e r t r a g i c d e a t h . The g o d - l i k e M elm oth can do w h a te v e r he p r e f e r s , and t h e r e is l i k e l y no one on e a r t h t h a t can a c t a g a i n s t him. The a m b i t i o n o f M a t u r i n as a g o t h i c w r i t e r is seen in h i s m aking M elm oth a S a ta n and a g h o s t - l i k e f i g u r e a t the same t im e . M elm oth is a g h o s t f o r he is an undead b e in g and is a c t i v e o n ly in the e v e n in g . He is a b l e to c a l l upon o t h e r g h o s ts f o r h i s use when he needs a w it n e s s f o r h is w edding w i t h I s i d o r a . H is fa c e is u s u a l l y seen in the d a r k w i t h i n d i s t i n c t f e a t u r e s e x c e p t a p a i r o f s tu n n in g e y e s . He is a gh o st in the sense t h a t he d i e s l i k e a m o r ta l and comes to l i f e a g a i n . Melm oth is S a ta n h i m s e l f f o r he tempts the p r o t a g o n i s t s in the s i x t a l e s w i t h the t h in g s th e y most needed in exchange f o r t h e i r s o u ls . H is r o l e is s i m i l a r to L u c i f e r in T he M onk, l u r i n g man in to h i s e t e r n a l s n a r e . M a t u r i n ' s purpose in c o m b in in g the c h a r a c t e r s o f God and S a ta n in Melm oth is a landm ark in g o t h i c f i c t i o n s in c e i t s r e v i v a l . T h i s s y m b o liz e s the a s p i r a t i o n s o f man in i t s e x tr e m e . Always man a s p i r e s to t h in g s he cannot hav e; to the u n l i m i t e d , to be l i k e God, and to know the s e c r e t o f l i f e and d e a t h . I m m o r t a l i t y has been a theme in l i t e r a t u r e s in c e a n t i q u i t y . I t is the o n l y t h i n g t h a t man wants th e m ost. The f e a r o f d e a th and the h o r r o r o f the unknown make hum an -beings a s p i r e to 86 an imm ortal l i f e . Then comes the d e s i r e f o r power, u n l i m i t e d s u p e r n a t u r a l power l i k e G o d 's . These d e s i r e s alw ays loom in m an's f a n t a s y as he is fa c e d w i t h a monotonous and r e s t r i c t e d e x i s t e n c e . M a t u r i n , an e c c e n t r i c I r i s h cle rg y m a n h i m s e l f , longs to escape from the s t r i c t and n a rro w l i f e s t y l e p r e s c r i b e d f o r a P r o t e s t a n t . The S a ta n in M elm oth m ig h t w e ll be the p s y c h o l o g i c a l p r o j e c t i o n o f the a u t h o r who a c te d out h is d e s i r e s in the c h a r a c t e r . M e lm o th 's f a l l i n g in love w i t h an e x o t i c woman from I n d ia c o u ld be th e a u t h o r ' s p a s s io n a t e dream . P o ss e s s in g superhuman power is a n o th e r f a n t a s t i c w is h . And o f c o u rs e , l u r i n g someone i n t o s i n and p e r d i t i o n is a b s o l u t e l y e x c i t i n g f o r M a t u r i n who is a c le rg y m a n ! I t is a l l in t h i s s i n g l e book t h a t M a t u r i n e x p e r ie n c e d a g o d - I i k e e x i s t e n c e as w e l l as the p l e a s u r e o f b e in g S a ta n . At the same t im e , he a l s o p o i n t e d out the c o n t r a d i c t i o n in a l l men: even a g o d - l i k e l i f e w i l l end w i t h monotony and d i s g u s t in man who welcomes change and e x c i t e m e n t . M a t u r i n l e f t the q u e s t i o n unanswered in the book: what does man r e a l l y want? Is i t w e a l t h l i k e the G uzm an's; or freedom in S t a n t o n and M o n cad a' s c a s e s ; o r h e a l t h and s a n i t y as in the L o b e r 's t a l e ; or i m m o r t a l i t y and power in M e lm o th 's own s to ry ? The g o t h i c t r a d i t i o n in M a t u r i n ' s hands is now d e t o u r e d to a p h i l o s o p h i c a l and human one. Me Imo th is no more a s t o r y 87 o f good and e v i I or o f God and man as th e ones t h a t a r e w r i t t e n b e f o r e . R a th e r i t p robe s i n t o m an's i n t e r n a l e x i s t e n c e . Me Imo t h is an amoral t a l e in w h ic h man is s e a r c h in g f o r an answer in l i f e . S in c e M a t u r i n is u n a b le to g i v e an answer to the q u e s t i o n , he s l i p p e d out c o n v e n i e n t l y by u s in g a r e l i g i o u s s c a p e g o a t. In the n o v e l , no one a g re e s to t r a d e h i s o r h e r soul to M elm oth in s p i t e o f h i s or h e r p l i g h t and s u f f e r i n g . For M a t u r i n , a s p i r i t u a l e x i s t e n c e c o u ld be most im p o r ta n t to m an. M a t u r i n was s u c c e s s fu l in f i t t i n g such a b e in g and c o n t r o v e r s i a l p h i l o s o p h i c a l t o p i c i n t o the g o t h i c fra m e . He is c a l l e d " th e g r e a t e s t and the l a s t o f the g o th s " f o r h is g e n iu s in d e s c r i b i n g i n t e n s e , p a s s io n a t e f e e l i n g s ; h is power o f p a i n t i n g w i l d p i c t u r e s o f h o r r o r and h i s g i f t s f o r c o n v e y in g h is th o u g h ts in r o l l i n g r h y t h m ic a l p e r io d s o f e l o q u e n c e . 7 The B u d d h i s t i c T r a d i t ion and the Emergence o f Ghost T a l e s E a r l y w e s t e r n gho st c h a r a c t e r s m a i n l y d e r i v e t h e i r a r c h e t y p e from the B i b l e . S a ta n , L u c i f e r , M e p h is t o p h e Ie s and t h e i r f o l l o w e r s form the m ain s u p e r n a t u r a l c h a r a c t e r s 88 in The M onk,. Me I m o th , and D r . Faus tus . In C h in a , the idea o f g h o s ts f i r s t a ro s e from Buddhism w h ic h came i n t o C h in a from I n d i a . In the B u d d h is t t r a d i t i o n , a l l men a re due f o r r e b i r t h a f t e r t h e i r p h y s ic a l e x i s t e n c e e x p i r e s . The p ro ce ss o f t h i s r e b i r t h is c l o s e l y r e l a t e d to the B u d d h is t idea o f r e i n c a r n a t i o n - - t h a t a human b e in g , a f t e r h i s d e a t h , w i l l be re b o rn a g a in in a d i f f e r e n t e x i s t e n c e d e p en d in g on h i s karma w h ic h can be t r a n s l a t e d as a c t i o n s o f h is p a s t l i f e . I f one has been good, one w i l l be re b o r n in a more p l e a s a n t e x i s t e n c e and v i c e v e r s a . R e s p e c t i v e l y , the c o n d i t i o n in the lower w o r ld is the most u n p le a s a n t , w h i l e the one in the r e a lm o f gods is the most d e s i r a b l e and p l e a s a n t . I t is the sphere o f g h o s t - b e i n g s and demons t h a t I am co n c e rn e d w i t h in t h i s c h a p t e r . When a human b e in g e x p i r e s , he o r she w i I I be tempo- r a r y s o j o u r n i n g a t y in c a o 9 where he o r she a w a i t s the f i n a l judgement b e f o r e r e b i r t h . T h i s y i ncao can be looked a t as a p l a c e o f t r a n s i t i o n from one s t a t e o f e x i s t e n c e to a n o t h e r . Here the soul o f the dec ease d w i l l rem ain u n t i l i t e n t e r s the p ro c e s s o f r e i n c a r n a t i o n . A c c o r d in g to the B u d d h is t s , the d u r a t i o n o f tim e th e s e s o u ls r e m a in in g in y in c a o is u s u a l l y f o r t y n in e d a y s . But because o f v a r i o u s re a s o n s , t h e r e a r e s p i r i t s t h a t r e f u s e to be re b o rn u n t i l t h e i r d e s i r e s a r e f u l f i l l e d . These c o u ld be s p i r i t s who have d i e d a t r a g i c d e a t h , o f m u rd e r, o r those who have 89 d i e d w i t h u n f u l f i l l e d w is h e s . These s o u ls r e f u s e r e i n c a r n a t i o n u n t i l th e y e i t h e r have avenged th e m s e lv e s or s a t i s f i e d t h e i r d e s i r e s . For t h i s re a s o n , sometimes th e y w i l l l i n g e r in t h i s y i ncao a re a f o r as long as 8 s e v e r a l hundred y e a r s . No t e s on t h e Yuewe i Hermi t a g e P i ) ^ by J i Yun &>} ( 1 7 2 4 - 1 8 0 5 ) g i v e s us some idea on the n a t u r e and e x i s t e n c e o f th ese s p i r i t s when i t t a l k s about r e i n c a r n a t i o n . I f we say, t h e r e is no r e i n c a r n a t i o n in s p i r i t s , w e ll then from the a n c i e n t tim e to th e p r e s e n t , the g h o st s p i r i t s must have in c r e a s e d to such a number t h a t the e a r t h cannot accomodate them. But i f we say t h e r e is r e i n c a r n a t i o n in s p i r i t s , then as soon as one d i e s , o n e 's g h o st im m e d ia te ly changes i t s e x i s t e n c e and goes on i t s way. For t h i s re a s o n , t h e r e sh o uld not be a s i n g l e g h o st in the w o r l d . . . . Y e t in d e s e r t e d f i e l d s and o l d g r a v e y a r d s , we o f t e n come a c ro s s th ese s p i r i t s . I t looks l i k e t h a t somehow, t h e r e a r e s p i r i t s t h a t do not re i nca rna t e . i% % e 0 #9 < #t. * fit % % % *) I'J jpt !?h " ol. f iL % (. „ ^ ^ „ z- ' W $ X' ^ g L a t e r in the same e n t r y , the a u t h o r comments a g a in : W e l l , we can say t h a t r e i n c a r n a t i o n e x i s t s o r i t does not e x i s t . I t e x i s t s in t h r e e m anners: I) those who a r e v i r t u o u s w i l l r e c e i v e re w a rd , 2) those who a r e w ic k e d w i l l r e c e i v e p u n is h m e n t, and, 3) those who have u n f u l f i l l e d d e s i r e s w i l l g e t what th e y d e s e r v e . R e i n c a r n a t i o n does not e x i s t in t h r e e 90 m anners: I) the sage, the v i r t u o u s , f a i r i e s and Buddhas w i l l not be s u b j e c t under r e i n c a r n a t i o n , 2) those who a r e n e i t h e r w ic k e d nor good w i l l roam around empty f i e l d s and g r a v e y a r d s f r e e l y . They e x i s t as long as t h e i r s p i r i t s s t i l l l i n g e r on, and th e y d i s a p p e a r when t h e i r s p i r i t s e x p i r e . They a r e l i k e m orning dew and w a t e r b u b b l e s . . . . l i k e r o a d s id e weeds and f lo w e r s w h ic h bloom and fa d e on t h e i r own, 3) those s p i r i t s t h a t do not have a r e s t i n g p l a c e , th e y w ould a t t a c h th e m s e lv e s to human and be c o n c e iv e d . T h i s is c a l l e d s t e a l i n g i n t o the w o r Id to I i v e . From the above, we have some idea o f the n a t u r e and e x i s t e n c e o f g h o s ts and s p i r i t s in B u d d h is t th o u g h t . The g e n e r a l en d in g s o f th es e s p i r i t s a r e as we have seen: I) d i s a p p e a r as the m ornin g dew, 2) s t u b b o r n l y c l i n g i n g to t h e i r s p i r i t u a l e x i s t e n c e and r e s i d i n g in th e t r a n s i t i o n y >ncao f o r as long as s e v e r a l hundred y e a r s , 3) to be re b o rn a g a i n , 4) to b o rro w a new p h y s ic a l form to w hich th e y a t t a c h t h e i r s p i r i t s , so t h a t th e y w i l l come a l i v e in th e human w o r ld to f u l f i l l t h e i r d e s i r e s . T h i s B u d d h is t th o u g h t on s p i r i t s and r e i n c a r n a t i o n s u p p li e s more o r less 91 the b a s ic fram ew ork and s t r u c t u r a l m a t e r i a l s f o r many C h in e s e ghost t a l e s . The f a c t t h a t a la r g e c o l l e c t i o n o f g h o s t t a l e s e x i s t s in C h in e s e l i t e r a t u r e and B u d d h is t r e c o r d s shows t h a t the unknown and the o c c u l t have been a p o p u la r s u b j e c t among the C h in e s e s in c e the a n c i e n t p e r i o d . Buddh i s t ghos t t a l e s as found i n T he Gems o f Bu d d h is t Li t e r a t u r e e t c . , a r e m o s t ly t a l e s o f r e t r i b u t i o n , o f r e i n c a r n a t i o n and the s u f f e r i n g o f h e l l . These t a l e s a re u s u a l l y g iv e n w i t h names o f p e o p le and p la c e s t o g e t h e r w i t h the e x a c t tim e o f the e v e n t in o r d e r to p ro v e t h a t th e y a r e t r u e s t o r i e s . An a r c h e t y p e t a l e w i l l be l i k e t h i s . A c e r t a i n man from a c e r t a i n p r o v i n c e o r d i s t r i c t d i e s one day and h i s s p i r i t t r a v e l s to h e l l . Because o f h i s v i r t u o u s deed d u r i n g h i s l i f e t i m e , he is re w ard ed to c o n t in u e h i s l i f e . H is s p i r i t comes back to e a r t h to j o i n h i s body. From then on, he l i v e s to t e l l and w arn p e o p le o f what he has seen in h e l l . The above t a l e c a r r i e s B u d d h is t p ro p a g an d a , and f o r o v e r two thousand y e a r s i t has worked as an e f f e c t i v e d e t e r r e n t to c rim e in C h in a . T h e re a r e numerous t a l e s o f the same n a t u r e in B u d d h is t l i t e r a t u r e p e r s u a d in g i t s f o l l o w e r s to a b s t a i n from e v i l and f o l l o w good. As my purpo se in t h i s c h a p t e r is on the t o p i c o f gho st t a l e s , I w i l l now t u r n my d i s c u s s i o n to the g h o s t t a l e c o l l e c t i o n in the S i x D y n a s t ie s ( 3 1 7 - 5 8 8 ) . 92 G hosts and s p i r i t s in a n c i e n t C h in e s e f i c t i o n can be b r i e f l y d i v i d e d i n t o the f o l l o w i n g c a t e g o r i e s : w ic k e d g h o s ts , and fem ale g h o s ts who u n i t e w i t h l i v i n g men. W icked g h o s ts a r e those who r i s e from t h e i r g r a v e s and cause d an ger to man. For e x a m p le, a g h o s t alw a y s avenges h i m s e l f or h e r s e l f w henever h i s o r h e r g r a v e is d i s t u r b e d or tam pered w i t h . These g h o s ts a r e u s u a l l y p o r t r a y e d as an e v i l f o r c e w h ic h man t r i e s to a v o id o r g e t r i d o f . U s u a l l y th ese g h o s ts have no f e e l i n g s f o r man but w i l l use t h e i r s u p e r n a t u r a l power to o b t a i n what th e y d e s i r e from the human w o r l d . What th e s e g h o s ts want from man is not money but h i s f l e s h and b lo o d . In Gan B a o 's The Records o f Sp i r i t s , t h e r e is such a t a l e . In the o ld d a y s , King Chuan Chu had t h r e e sons. They a l l d i e d and became g h o s ts o f p e s t i l e n c e . One r e s i d e d in a la k e and was a gh o st o f m a l a r i a . A n o th e r one l i v e d in the R i v e r Ruo as a w a t e r m o n s te r . The o t h e r one l i v e d in p e o p l e ' s homes. He was good a t f r i g h t e n i n g l i t t l e c h i l d r e n and became a gho st p e s t e r i n g the young. For t h i s r e a s o n , a f t e r one y e a r , the K ing o r d e r e d a s o r c e r e r named Fang to c o n d u c t .a th o ro u g h e x o rc is m to d r i v e away the ghos t s . 93 A n o th e r ghost w h ic h Jan Jakob M a r ia de G ro o t has q u o te d in h is book, T he R e l i g i ous System o f Ch ina l i t e r a l l y d ev ours man f o r foo d . In the C hing Yuan p e r i o d ( 7 8 5 - 8 0 5 ) t h e r e l i v e d west o f the Wang-yuan p o s t-h o u s e one Wang Shen. W it h h is own hands he had p l a n t e d a copse o f elm s, and p u t up t h e r e some s t r a w sheds, to d i s t r i b u t e r i c e - w a t e r g r a t u i t o u s l y to t r a v e l l e r s in the sum m er-m onths. He had a son o f t h i r t e e n y e a r s , whom he o f t e n c h a rg ed w i t h m i n i s t e r i n g to the v i s i t o r s . One d a y , th e boy t o l d h i s f a t h e r t h a t t h e r e was a young woman on the ro a d , who asked f o r some w a t e r . He o r d e r e d the boy to c aI I her in . She was young, and wore a robe o f b l u i s h s t u f f and a w h i t e cap . Her house, she s a i d , stood some ten m i l e s o f f to th e s o u th ; h e r husband had d i e d c h i l d l e s s , and she was w e a r in g a l r e a d y the d re s s o f the l a s t p e r i o d o f m o u rn in g ; now she was g o in g to M a w e i, to see w h e th e r h e r f a m i l y s t i l l had so much a f f e c t i o n f o r h e r t h a t she m ig h t a p p ly to them f o r c l o t h i n g and fo o d . She t a l k e d so c l e a r l y and so c l e v e r l y , and behaved so c h a r m i n g l y , t h a t Wang Shen made her s t a y in h i s house and gave h er food; h i s w i f e too loved her more and m ore. They s a id to h e r in the c o u rs e o f c o n v e r s a t i o n : " S i s t e r , you have no n e a r e s t k i n s f o l k , can not you become h e re a b r i d e o f our son?" S m i l i n g l y she a n s w ered : "As I have nobody to depend upon, I d e s i r e to do yo u r c o a rs e work and a t t e n d to y o u r w e l l and k i t c h e n . " So Wang Shen p r o c u r e d the w edding c l o t h e s and p r e s e n t s , and she became h is s o n 's w i f e . I t was hot t h a t n i g h t ; " t h e r e a r e many t h i e v e s j u s t now," s a i d she to h e r husband, "do not le a v e the door o p e n ." A t m id n ig h t Wang S h e n 's w i f e dream t t h a t her son w i t h d i s o r d e r e d h a i r t o l d h e r t h a t he was b e in g d e v o u red a lm o s t e n t i r e l y . The a f f r i g h t e d woman d e s i r e d to go and look a t h e r son, but Wang Shen became a n g ry , and she l a i d h e r s e l f down a g a in to s l e e p . But a second tim e she had the same dream . Now b o th took t o r c h e s and c a l l e d the son and h i s b r i d e , but no answer was g i v e n . They t r i e d to open the d o o r, but i t rem ain ed f a s t as i f i t were b o l t e d , so t h a t th e y had to b a t t e r i t down. When i t f le w open, a b e in g w i t h round e y e s , tu sks and a b l u i s h body rushed out o f i t and d i s a p p e a r e d . N o th in g was l e f t o f t h e i r son but some b r a i n s , bones, and ha i r . 94 & **■ . /tf & rk. i f 1 f X - .3 £ 5f -r 2- . ^ 4" *4 $ - . ?• - 0 & $ %- % * £ & ' . ® A " >f >-. H r , J / f -. & ^ } % ■ & ft ?. il i %£.#*% T ft Z . *-%-&- 4" tt. * t * . ’ I f -f 4 .. *5 * i ^ H 4 . t ^ b 4 'rf. 5 - f 55 ^ ^ ^ 4 - '^ Hi © . *£ _ S t #. f5 i&. It & ? x ' l< -ff % -*4 + #. -* 1 »• $ **- ***•-* S. * f g ? a f *. t ?t 4 *r-4. i ? I f j f , s5i £ i t . j ± . # * < . =f- 3 § 8 f ? . * L /' W ^ ■M i t £ t f * t ** ® • * $ ■ ^ ^ $ > % .. H «t £ < ^ . * f & . -£ j* - '& if +■i» . * # £ * ^ . ** * * *- l+r ^ . & * ft fa.te.tr. * % , ?*\ fifl - • * & « 9 3 * 3 $ a * S A . I f - * - & f c . “ f o A _ 4> t . $ 3 - I f $»■ /J & f ■&- Yua n Me i 1s ^ f j L {17 1 6 -1 7 9 8 ) b o o k , What the M a s t e r D id No t Ta i k o f has g h o s ts and s p i r i t s w h ic h a r e v e r y s i m i l a r to Count D r a c u la and h i s t h r e e v a m p ire l a d i e s in the w e s t e r n t a l e . The C h in e s e v a m p ire s a r e d e s c r ib e d to have w h i t e h a i r a l l o v e r t h e i r b o d ie s w h i l e t h e i r eyes a r e g re e n and s h i n i n g (de G r o o t , 7 4 4 ) . T h e re a r e a l s o v a m p ire s w i t h b l a c k h a i r a l l o v e r t h e i r b o d ie s and fa ces (de G r o o t , 7 4 5 ) . B la c k o r w h i t e , th e y a r e b o th dangerous and v i c i o u s . In one o f the t a l e s , a man d e s c r ib e s a v a m p ire from h i s own v i l l a g e as f o l l o w s : My fami ly I i v e s in v i I I age So and so, w h ic h c o n s i s t s o f not more than a few dozen h o u ses. T h e re a k i ang sh i came from th e h i l l s s o a r i n g th ro u g h the a i r , to d ev o u r the i n f a n t s o f the p e o p le . Though d a i l y a t sunset the p e o p le e x h o r te d each o t h e r to shut t h e i r doo rs to co n ceal t h e i r c h i l d r e n , n e v e r t h e l e s s i t o c c u r r e d from tim e to tim e t h a t some w ere k id n a p p e d by the m o n s te r . The v i l l a g e r s sounded i t s g r a v e , but th e y c o u ld not f i n d the bo tto m o f i t , so t h a t nobody v e n t u r e d to ta k e any measures a g a i n s t i t . . . . ( de G r o o t , 746) % ■ . * 1 i . i t + / . & & - V I f . f e % '<1 *£ - t , j% jl. o - t , . -6 e £ * 8 # IS ) /> it « it -ff. . # . Jf. 5 4 . M . f a t e # . B e s id e s the w ic k e d g h o s ts , the u n io n betw een a ghost and a human b e in g seems to be a n o th e r p o p u la r s u b j e c t in e a r l y C h in e s e g o t h i c f i c t i o n . V e r y o f t e n , i t is the fem ale s p i r i t who o f f e r s h e r s e l f to a l i v i n g man who 96 g e n e r a l l y is not aware o f the i d e n t i t y o f h i s l o v e r . The r e s u l t o f t h i s ghost-hum an u n io n is u s u a l l y d e a th f o r the man or the e x o rc is m o f the g h o s t. Som etim es, a good ghost w i l l le a v e h e r lo v e r f o r h i s l i f e ' s sa k e , knowing t h a t her d a y . The u n io n betw een a g h o s t and a man in C h in e s e f i c t i o n has been im p o s s ib le u n le s s the g h o s t r i s e s a g a in from d e a th or is b e in g re b o rn as a human b e i n g . What f o ll o w s is a sad t a l e betw een a gho st-h u m an c o u p le who o n l y have t h r e e days o f b l i s s a f t e r t h e i r m a r r i a g e . T h e re was a c e r t a i n man c a l l e d X i n Daodu from Lungxi who t r a v e l l e d to a p l a c e f o u r o r f i v e m il e s from the c i t y o f Yangzhou. He re he saw a b ig mansion w here a t th e door was a g i r l in g r e e n . X in came to the door and asked f o r a m e a l. The g i r l went i n s i d e and r e p o r t e d to M is s Q in who gave o r d e r to r e c e i v e the g u e s t . X i n e n t e r e d r i g h t i n t o h e r chamber. M is s Q in s a t on a couch f a c i n g the w e s t . A f t e r X i n gave h i s name and g r e e t e d the la d y , he was o f f e r e d a s e a t on the e a s t s i d e . I m m e d ia t e ly , food and d r i n k w ere b ro u g h t to him . A f t e r he f i n i s h e d e a t i n g , the la d y s a i d , " I ' m the d a u g h t e r o f King M in o f Q in . I was engaged to m a r r y in th e S t a t e o f Cao. U n f o r t u n a t e l y I d i e d b e f o r e th e m a r r i a g e . I t has been now tw e n ty t h r e e y e a r s s in c e my d e a th and I ' v e been l i v i n g a lo n e in t h i s hou se. S in c e you a r r i v e to d a y . I 'm w i l l i n g to be yo u r w i f e . " A f t e r t h r e e days and t h r e e n i g h t s , th e la d y s a i d , " Y o u 'r e a l i v i n g man and I'm a g h o s t. I can o n l y s t a y w i t h you f o r t h r e e n i g h t s and no m ore. For t h e r e w ould be m i s f o r t u n e i f we do. Y e t f o r our lo v e , s in c e we a r e s e p a r a t i n g , I wonder what I s h o u ld g i v e you as a s o u v e n ir o f our lo ve? " T h e re she o r d e r e d a box from b e h in d h er bed to be b ro u g h t o u t and opened. From i t she took ou t a g o ld e n p i l l o w and gave i t to X i n . Then th e y s e p a r a t e d in t e a r s . She s e n t the lad y in g re e n to e s c o r t him to the d o o r . He was o n l y a few s te p s away when the m ansion d i s a p p e a r e d , l e a v i n g o n ly a g r a v e . In f e a r , X i n ran away in h a s t e . He or d a r k w i l l k i l l him one 97 saw t h a t the g o ld e n p i l l o w w h ic h was h e l d in h is arms rem ained unchanged. He found h i s way to the S t a t e o f Q in and t r i e d to s e l l th e p i l l o w in the m a r k e t . By c o i n c i d e n c e , the Q in empress was t r a v e l l i n g to the e a s t and she w it n e s s e d X i n s e l l i n g the p i l l o w . She s u s p e c te d him and asked to see the m e r c h a n d is e . When asked w here he had o b t a i n e d the p i l l o w , X i n t o l d the w h o le t r u t h . The empress c o u ld not h e l p bu t c r y when she h e a rd the s t o r y . Because she s t i l l had do u b ts abo ut X i n , she sen t h e r p e o p le to open the g r a v e . When the c o f f i n was opened and in s p e c te d , she found t h a t what had been b u r i e d w i t h h e r d a u g h t e r was s t i l l t h e r e , e x c e p t the g o ld e n p i l l o w . When the empress looked a t h e r d a u g h t e r ' s body, i t looked as i f a l i v e . U n t i l th e n , the empress b e l i e v e d X i n ' s s t o r y . She s ig h e d , "My d a u g h te r is a s a i n t . Though she has been dead f o r 23 y e a r s , y e t she s t i l l has c o n t a c t w i t h the l i v i n g . Y o u ' r e r e a l l y my s o n - i n - l a w . " (Gan Bao, 2 : 9 4 7 ) * j> . * f f / U . ' * i - . % #1 £ i ’ $ . ff f t . m i A t 98 ^ % r % . U . -S fiD 4* ^ ^ f c $ $ 1 „ ? £ 1^9 8 L j f . # i ^ ^ 2 & - % *- * & * & t - f c % & - # ^ & $ * t , H f ? 4 ^ . £ * | £ . 4 - * * - fc 4 i ± ' - ^ . ^< -£f ^ - % „ ^ 6 z- i ' > -ty e -$t> ffe ^ % • A- Z - ^ 'i. „ y k % , & i % - i f * £ . Though the p r i n c e s s in t h i s t a l e is a k i n d - h e a r t e d and generous woman, because she is a g h o s t , she can not and w i l l not be a b l e to s t a y w i t h th e man she lo v e s . Her i d e n t i t y as a gh o st s e rv e s as a b a r r i e r s e p a r a t i n g the c o u p le . The B u d d h is t th o u g h t on l i f e , d e a t h , and r e i n c a r n a t i o n is s t i l l the law f o r a l l b e i n g s . Love betw een a g h o st and a human can o n l y l a s t a v e r y s h o r t tim e , then i t must end w i t h o u t any p o s s i b l e chance f o r c o n t i n u a t i o n . Many a n c i e n t gh o st t a l e s on love in C h in a end w i t h such sad and inhumane p l o t s u n t i l i t comes to the Tang and Qing ( 1 6 4 4 - 1 9 1 1 ) d y n a s t i e s when new t a l e s a r e w r i t t e n w i t h more c o n cern w i t h humanism than r e c o n c i l i a t i o n w i t h the Buddh i s t I a w . in the Q ing d y n a s t y , t h e r e was a man c a l l e d Pu S o n g lin g who t r i e d h is hand on w r i t i n g s u p e r n a t u r a l t a l e s . Pu was born in the Shandong ^ ^ p r o v i n c e in the y e a r 1640 . H is f a t h e r Pu Panf^' ^ was a s c h o l a r a t h i s t im e . Under h i s f a t h e r ' s i n f l u e n c e , Pu S o n g lin g d e v o te d h i s tim e to s tu d y a im in g to be a governm ent o f f i c i a l . At 99 the age o f n i n e t e e n , Pu had passed a l l t h r e e lo c a l e x a m in a t io n s and had a c q u ir e d q u i t e a r e s p e c t a b l e r e p u t a t i o n among lo c a l l i t e r a r y c i r c l e s . But f o r the n e x t f o r t y y e a r s o r so, Pu n e v e r succeeded in p a s s in g any p r o v i n c i a l e x a m in a t i o n s . To s u p p o rt h i s f a m i l y , he had no c h o ic e bu t to t e a c h . A f t e r h i s m o th er d i e d , Pu a t the age o f f o r t y , l e f t h i s f a m i l y and ta u g h t a t h i s f r i e n d Bi J i y o u ' s % ^ ^ r e s i d e n c e . The l a t t e r was a g o v e r n o r and he adm ired P u ' s l i t e r a r y t a l e n t s . Pu spent t h i r t y y e a rs in h i s f r i e n d ' s house t e a c h in g th e m in o rs as w e ll as w r i t i n g o f f i c i a l documents when th e need a r o s e . D u r in g th e y e a r s he was t e a c h i n g , Pu n e v e r gave up h i s w is h to ta k e e x a m in a t io n s to become an o f f i c i a l . M o r e o v e r , in h i s spa re t im e , he w r o te q u i t e a number o f boo ks. Li aozha i Zh i y i is a monumental w ork t h a t c o n t a i n s fo u r hundred and n i n e t y one t a l e s c o l l e c t e d in tw e lv e vo lu m es. When Pu began to w r i t e h i s g h o s t t a l e s in Li a o z ha i Z h i y i , he d i d have a long and s t r o n g t r a d i t i o n b e h in d him. To a c e r t a i n e x t e n t , Pu d i d f o l l o w t h i s c l a s s i c a l t r a d i t i o n in w r i t i n g h i s g h o s t t a l e s . Many o f h is gho st c h a r a c t e r s s t i l l f o l l o w the r u l e s o f r e i n c a r n a t i o n . In L i aozha i , t h e r e a r e b o th good and w ic k e d g h o s ts . H is w ic k e d g h o s ts a r e e v i l , u g l y , and v i c i o u s as we have seen in the w e s t e r n e x a m p le s . The u g l i e r the g h o s ts , the b i g g e r the v i c e . U g li n e s s and v i c e seem to go hand in 100 hand f o r Pu. " S p r a y in g W a t e r " v ^ W c from volume 1 t e l l s o f an o l d woman and h e r two m aids b e in g k i l l e d a t n i g h t 1 2 by a gho st s p e c t r e who s p ra y s w a t e r a t them. From the same volum e, a n o th e r t a l e c a l l e d "The Corpse Sp ect r e " 4 t a l k s about a gho st r i s i n g from the dead k i l l i n g t h r e e s t r a n g e r s and c h a s in g the f o u r t h one u n t i l he has f a i n t e d in f r o n t o f a tem ple ( i : 5 — 7) . "The T h re e M o n s te rs from Chuzhou" from volume 11 is v e r y s i m i l a r to the one I m e n tio n e d e a r l i e r in The Records o f S p i r i t s ( 2 : 1 4 9 3 ) . In the c i t y o f Chuzhou, t h e r e a r e t h r e e mon s t e r s w h ic h p e s t e r the p e o p le . Whoever comes a c ro s s th ese s p e c t r e s w i l l d i e o f i l l n e s s . One is a g h o s t , a n o th e r one is a w a t e r g h o s t , and the t h i r d one is a duck g h o s t . P u 1s w ic k e d gh o st t a l e s a r e u s u a l l y v e r y s h o r t . I t s form is v e r y much s i m i l a r to the a n e c d o ta l form in p a s t g h o st c o l l e c t i o n s . No a t t e n t i o n s is p a i d to c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n , s t r u c t u r e o r theme o f th e s e t a l e s . These t a l e s a r e p r e s e n t as i f o n l y to r e c o r d s t r a n g e e v e n t s . A more d e v e lo p e d t a l e i f w ic k e d g h o st by Pu is the " P a i n t e d S k in " from volume 1 ( 1 : 1 1 9 - 2 4 ) . The v i c i o u s g h o s t wrapped in a b e a u t i f u l l y p a i n t e d s k in is changed i n t o a p r e t t y woman who seduces a s c h o l a r . The s c h o la r h id e s the a f f a i r from h i s w i f e and is f i n a l l y k i l l e d by the g h o s t . A t the end, i t is h i s d e v o te d w i f e who, th ro u g h many d i f f i c u l t i e s and s a c r i f i c e s , saves h i s l i f e from 101 d e a t h . ''P a in t e d S k in " is one o f the t a l e s in w h ic h Pu used the gh o st f i g u r e as a s y m b o lic d e v ic e in w r i t i n g s a t i r e s . Many t h in g s and p e o p le t h a t ap p e a r n i c e - l o o k i n g and p l e a s a n t on the o u t s i d e a r e not n e c e s s a ry good f o r us. Pu was t e l l i n g h i s r e a d e r t h a t one s h o u ld not be tem pted by e x t e r i o r q u a l i t i e s o f t h in g s b u t look more i n t o the i n t r i n s i c v a l u e . The R i se o f G o t h ic Roma n t i c i s m : Pu Song I i n g ' s Ghost T a l e s Both e a s t w est g o t h i c f i c t i o n a r i s e out o f the a u t h o r ' s d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h l i f e and r e a l i t y . When the w o r ld o u t s i d e f a i l s to p r o v i d e man w i t h e m o tio n a l and s p i r i t u a l n eeds, man has to seek s o la c e and escape to a n o th e r o u t l e t . G o t h ic f i c t i o n v e r y o f t e n a c t s as an escape v a l v e f o r the s p i r i t u a l l y s u f f o c a t e d . I t is an o p e n in g a t the top o f th e te a k e t t l e t h a t a l lo w s th e steam to escape from the b o i l i n g w a t e r . F a n ta s y s u p p l i e s what l i f e cannot g i v e . What is l a c k i n g in l i f e can be found in an im a g in a ry g o t h i c w o r l d . A ls o g o t h i c t a l e s a l l o w man to do the i m p o s s ib le , to escape from s t r i c t s o c i a l and moral cod es, and to r e l e a s e unborn g u i l t and t e r r o r . For t h i s r e a s o n , g o t h i c f i c t i o n a lw a y s is a n t i - m o r a l and a n t i s o c i a l . I t ' s most p o p u la r t o p i c s c o n c e n t r a t e on taboos 1 02 and the m o r a l l y i m p o s s ib le . In a g o t h i c f a n t a s y w o r l d , the a u t h o r r e v e a l s to the r e a d e r a d i f f e r e n t w o r ld from r e a l i t y . I t is a c t u a l l y p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e a l i t y t h a t the g o t h i c w r i t e r s a r e w r i t i n g a b o u t. They w r i t e about the th o u g h ts i n s i d e a m an's m in d, e . g . f e a r s , dreams and a s p i r a t i o n s . M a n 's f e a r in c lu d e s d e a t h , the unknown, and t e r r o r o f the f u t u r e w h ic h is u n c e r t a i n . Many o f m an's dreams and a s p i r a t i o n s a r e t a b o o - r e l a t e d t h a t have to be r e p r e s s e d . M a n 's s t r u g g l e betw een the s t r i c t and d r y r e a l i t y o u t s i d e w i t h th e i d e a l i s t i c and f a n t a s t i c one w i t h i n h i m s e l f g i v e s the impetus f o r the r i s e o f g o t h i c f i c t i o n . In a l i t e r a r y g o t h i c w o r l d , the a u t h o r , the r e a d e r , and the p r o t a g o n i s t a r e a b l e to "e s c a p e " r e a l i t y w h ic h he is not happy and s a t i s f i e d w i t h i n t o a more f l e x i b l e and d e s i r a b l e e x i s t e n c e . Pu S o n g li n g , l i v i n g in C h in a w h ic h is a c o u n t r y d e e p ly a f f e c t e d by C o n fu c ia n and B u d d h is t m o res, b o rn a t an age when she was r u l e d by a f o r e i g n power ( t h e M a n c h u r i a n s ) , and as a man who had f a i l e d in h i s exams and c a r e e r , had a l o t o f uneven e m o tio n lo cked up i n s i d e . I t is a c o n g lo m e r a tio n o f a l l th e s e f a c t o r s t h a t forms the m o t iv e o f the Li aozha i Zh i y i . The C o n fu c ia n and B u d d h is t e t h i c s w h ic h em phasize moral b e h a v i o r , f i l i a l p i e t y and s e l f - d i s c i p l i n e a r e l i k e i n v i s i b l e f e t t e r s t h a t impede m an's f r e e w i l l . C o n fu c ia n s c h o la r s and e d u c a te d men 103 e s p e c i a l l y , must ad h ere th e m s e lv e s to th e s e e t h i c a l codes in o r d e r to s e t a good exam ple f o r o t h e r s . O f t e n in d o in g so, th e y have to ig n o re t h e i r own w is h e s . The C o n f u c i a n i s t s a l s o deny the freedom to lo v e , f o r m a r r ia g e is to be d e c id e d and a r r a n g e d by o n e 's p a r e n t s o n l y . T h i s is p a r t i c u l a r l y so in the case o f women whose l i v e s a r e o f t e n c o n t r o l l e d by o t h e r s . By w r i t i n g g o t h i c t a l e s in w h ic h the im p o s s ib le can become p o s s i b l e , Pu gave women p o e t i c j u s t i c e and f u l f i l l e d t h e i r dream s. The p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n a t P u 's tim e was n o t h in g l i k e s t a b l e . The M ing d y n a s ty f e l l when Pu was o n l y f i v e y e a r s o l d and a f t e r t h a t the M a n c h u ria n s invaded and r u l e d C h in a . Local r e s i s t a n c e w ere o v e rw h e lm in g and the f o r e i g n regim e had to suppress th e s e r e b e l l i o n s in o r d e r to c o n s o l i d a t e i t s r u l e . A t the same t im e , th e Manchu governm ent saw t h a t c o n t r o l l i n g s c h o la r s and r e s t r i c t i n g what th e y w r i t e y i e l d e d a c e r t a i n e f f e c t on the commoners. Under such p r e s s u r e , i t was n e c e s s a r y f o r Pu to w r i t e s y m b o lic t a l e s o f g o t h i c f i c t i o n r a t h e r th an r e a l i s t i c and c r i t i c a l s a t i r e s . As Pu n e v e r passed a n o th e r e x a m in a t io n a f t e r he was n i n e t e e n , he h a r b o re d c o m p la in t and d is c o n t e n t m e n t tow ard the e x a m in a t i o n system . H is L iao zh a i thus becomes a c o m f o r t a b l e o u t l e t in w h ic h he launched h i s a t t a c k a g a i n s t e x a m in e r s , to the system and to o t h e r in co m p e ten t s c h o la r s who had su c ceed e d . Many o f h i s t a l e s on e x a m in a 1 04 t i o n s and s c h o la r s c a r r y g o t h i c e le m e n ts because he saw to i t t h a t the w o r th y ones a r e awarded w h i l e the in com petent ones a r e d is m is s e d f o r what th e y d e s e r v e . Pu d i d not want to w r i t e m e r e l y t r a d i t i o n a l g h o st t a l e s , he w anted to w r i t e h is own. A l t h o u g h he c la im e d in the p r e f a c e t h a t he had c o l l e c t e d th e s e t a l e s from h is f r i e n d s and r e l a t i v e s , i t is more l i k e l y t h a t he had used th e m a t e r i a l s he had h e a rd h e r e and t h e r e and m a n i p u l a t e d them a c c o r d i n g l y f o r h i s e x p r e s s i o n . U n l i k e the w e s t e r n n o v e ls in w h ic h g o t h i c i s m is u s u a l l y used to r e p r e s e n t and s y m b o liz e the unknown and th e f a n t a s t i c , Pu used i t to e x p l i c a t e th e a l r e a d y known: th e w o r ld w h ic h is in f r o n t o f ou r v e r y e y e s . In the w e s t , h e l l is an opposin g e n t i t y from the human w o r l d . The two e x i s t in a dichotom ous r e l a t i o n s h i p in w h ic h one e x c lu d e s the o t h e r . H e l l in L i a o z h a i is not j u s t a p l a c e o f punishm ent and s u f f e r i n g as d e p i c t e d in th e w e s t , i t is a r e p l i c a o f the l i v i n g w o r ld w i t h a s i m i l a r s o c ia l s t r u c t u r e and moral v a l u e s . S y m b o l i c a l l y , Pu was w r i t i n g about the l i v i n g w o r ld in the d i s g u i s e o f the lower one. In P u 1s h e l l , j u s t i c e is u p h e ld as in " J i F an g p in g " J% 7^ ( 2 , x : 1 3 4 1 - 4 8 ) ; a l o n e l y i n h a b i t a n t o f h e l l looks f o r co m panio nship w i t h a l i v i n g man as in "The G o v e rn o r Lu" J ( 1 , i i : 1 3 9 - 4 6 ) ; and a r ig h t e o u s gho st h e lp s man to escape u n j u s t punishm ent as in "Wu Q ia o y u e " f'K . $ ( 1 , 105 v : 6 6 8 - 7 2 ) . Pu no t o n l y c o n s c i o u s l y c r e a t e d a h e l l w h ic h is the same as the l i v i n g w o r l d , he a l s o combined the two in iu c h an i n t r i c a t e manner t h a t v e r y o f t e n , the r e a d e r can not f i n d the b o u n d a ry . The bo u n d ary betw een h e l l and th e l i v i n g w o r ld is b l u r r e d f o r the p u rpo se o f r e a l i s m . W e s te rn g o t h i c f i c t i o n aims a t the s u b c o n sc io u s and the p s y c h o l o g i c a l . In o r d e r to do t h i s , the a u t h o r must t r y to g e t th e r e a d e r ' s mind away from the p h y s ic a l w o r ld in t o the e m o tio n a l r e a lm . One way to do t h i s is to se t th e t a l e in an e x o t i c c o u n t r y l i k e S p a in o r I t a l y . The o t h e r is by p r e s e n t i n g th e s t o r y in jo u r n a l o r e p i s t o l a r y form w h ic h em phasizes i n d i r e c t n e s s . These methods add d i s t a n c e and u n r e a l i t y to the t a l e s . M o re o v e r many o f the w e s t e r n g o t h i c t a l e s such as Ot r a n t o and F ran k en s te i n o r i g i n a t e from dreams and f a n t a s i e s . But P u 1s gho st t a l e s a r e not f a n t a s t i c t a l e s based on dream s. They a r e based on a c t u a l l i f e . R e a l i t y in the t a l e is a c c e n t u a t e d by c r e a t i n g a n e t h e r w o r ld the e x a c t d u p l i c a t i o n o f the l i v i n g one. In e v e r y s i n g l e t a l e in P u 1s c o l l e c t i o n , the name o f the p r o t a g o n i s t as w e l l as h i s o r h e r hometown, and the y e a r and d a t e when the e v e n t ta k e s p l a c e a r e g iv e n c l e a r l y a t the v e r y b e g in n i n g . Most o f P u 1s t a l e s a r e c o n te m p o ra ry w i t h h i s t im e , and the c i t i e s used a r e m o s t ly lo c a l a re a s in Shandong, P u 's n a t i v e p r o v i n c e . In a d d i t i o n to t h a t , to enhance r e a l i s m in h i s s t o r i e s , he 106 sometimes a c t e d as an e y e w itn e s s to the e v e n t he had d e s c r i b e d . Or he w ould say t h a t the i n c i d e n t was t r a n s m i t t e d to him by h i s f r i e n d s o r r e l a t i v e s . R e a lis m is im p o r ta n t to Pu f o r i t s t r e n g t h e n s h i s m oral t e a c h i n g . I t h e lp s to c o n v in c e the r e a d e r t h a t th e e v e n t d i d ta k e p I a c e . Ghost c h a r a c t e r s in th e w e s t e r n n o v e ls a r e not s e p a r a t e i n d i v i d u a l s from th e p r o t a g o n i s t s b u t a r e p r o j e c t i o n s or e x t e n s io n s o f the m ain c h a r a c t e r ' s d e s i r e s , e . g . M a t i l d a in T he Monk and M elm o th in Me Imo t h . A lt h o u g h the w e s t e r n s p i r i t s a r e e x c l u s i v e l y p o r t r a y e d as S a ta n , L u c i f e r , and M e p h is t o p h e Ie s who o r i g i n a t e from the B i b l e , y e t th e y possess f a r more s u p e r n a t u r a l power than t h e i r C h in e s e c o u n t e r p a r t s . D r . F a u s tu s has e v e r y t h i n g t h a t can be o b t a i n e d . B e s id e s b r e a k i n g tim e and space l i m i t a t i o n s , w i t h L u c i f e r ' s h e l p , he is a b l e to c a l l f o r t h H e l e n ' s s p i r i t f o r h i s own sexual e n jo y m e n t. S a ta n is a b l e to save b o th M a t i l d a and Am brosio from the hands o f the I n q u i s i t i o n . M elm oth can be i n v i s i b l e ; he can h y p n o t iz e h i s en e m ie s ; and he is a b l e to t r a v e l l i k e the w in d . W e s te rn s p i r i t s have the power to surmount p h y s ic a l and t e r r e s t r i a l b a r r i e r s . But u g l i n e s s seems to be an i n d i s p e n s a b le c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r th e s e s p i r i t s , e . g . L u c i f e r ' s s h o ckin g image q u o te d e a r l i e r . Whoever has seen M elm oth w ould shake w i t h f e a r when h e a r i n g the name m e n t io n e d . 107 U g li n e s s and v i c e seem to be i n s e p a r a b l e in b o th e a s t west g o t h i c f i c t i o n . For Pu, the i n t e n s i t y o f v i c e and h o r r o r is e x p re s s e d by the use o f the g r o t e s q u e . The more v i c i o u s and e v i l a c h a r a c t e r i s , th e more u g l y and g r o t e s q u e she or he w i l l b e . The g h o s t in " P a i n t e d S k in " when shed o f h i s o u t e r b e a u t i f u l c o a t , is as u g l y and d a r k as h i s h e a r t . The Raksha in " N ie X i aoq i an" ^ ,J > fjf f i r s t a p p e a rs as an o ld hag . When she p la n s to a t t a c k N in g , she tu r n s i n t o a b e a s t - l i k e b e i n g . The g r o t e s q u e is used v e r y m i l d l y by Pu e x c e p t when the above e f f e c t is needed. The r e s t o f P u 1s g h o s ts have an a p p e a ra n c e p l e a s a n t to man. T h i s is because Pu s y m b o liz e d t h e i r in h e r e n t v i r t u e s w i t h t h e i r o u tw a rd b e a u t y . Not o n l y t h a t , th e y f e e l , a c t and t h i n k l i k e human b e i n g s . V e r y o f t e n t h e i r human a c t i o n s w ould make the r e a d e r f o r g e t t h e i r o r i g i n a l i d e n t i t y as g h o s t s . The C h in e s e s p i r i t s do n o t u s u a l l y possess e x c e s s i v e power l i k e S a ta n and L u c i f e r in the w e s t . They a r e more h u m a n -o r ie n t e d and o n l y have l i m i t e d power, such as f o r t e l l i n g f u t u r e e v e n t s . The ir o n y is t h a t even when th e y a r e aware t h a t a d i s a s t e r is a t hand, t h e y , j u s t l i k e the humans, a r e not a b l e to p r o t e c t t h e m s e lv e s . The two g h o s ts in " L i t t l e Xi e"'J' g e t th em s e lv e s i n t o t r o u b l e when th e y t r a v e l to the c a p i t a l t r y i n g to save t h e i r t e a c h e r and f r i e n d . S c h o la r T a o . N ie X i a o q i a n , the young and in n o c e n t g h o s t , can not a v o id or 108 c o u n t e r a c t w i t h the o l d R a k s h a . She has to beg f o r h e l p from N in g , a human. P u 1s b i g g e s t r o m a n tic a c h ie v e m e n t is h i s a b i l i t y to o v e r t h r o w the i d e n t i t y o f the e v i l s p i r i t . Many C h in e s e t r a d i t i o n a l g h o s ts a r e e v i l and v i c i o u s l i k e M a t i l d a , and L u c i f e r in T he M onk, and M elm o th in Me Imo t h . O n ly when th e y come i n t o P u ' s hands a r e th e y g i v e n a c h a r a c t e r o f t h e i r own. In L i aozha i , most o f the s p i r i t s and g h o s ts a r e good and r e s p e c t a b l e i n d i v i d u a l s . Let us look a t one example from volume 2 c a l l e d "The Poisonous W a te r Weeds" e t h i c s ( 1 , 1 8 0 - 8 4 ) . S c h o la r Zhu d r i n k s the tea made o f t h i s p o isono us weed and d i e s . T h i s is a p l a n s e t up by a p r e v i o u s v i c t i m who has been w a i t i n g f o r r e b i r t h u n t i l he o r she t r a p s a n o th e r v i c t i m to be the s u b s t i t u t e . A f t e r Zhu d i e s , he does not f o l l o w h i s f e l l o w g h o s ts ' p l a n in t r a p p i n g o t h e r s . In s t e a d he t r i e s h i s b e s t to h e l p the l i v i n g and p ersu ad e the o t h e r g h o s ts to g i v e up t h i s inhumane p r a c t i c e . M o r e o v e r , when he knows t h a t h i s w i f e has r e m a r r ie d and h i s m o th e r is l e f t to ta k e c a r e o f h is o n l y son in p o v e r t y , he ta k e s h i s w i f e from Hades home to ta k e c a r e o f h i s f a m i l y . When h i s m o th e r a d v is e s him to f i n d a s u b s t i t u t e in o r d e r to g e t on the wheel o f r e i n c a r n a t i o n , he r e p l i e s , w a t a l e loaded w i t h C o n fu c ia n and B u d d h is t 109 I d e t e s t such e v i l s p i r i t s and have j u s t been t h i n k i n g o f e x o r c i s i n g them a l l . How c o u ld I debase m y s e lf by d o in g t h i s ? . . . . B e s id e s I f i n d utm ost jo y jn w a i t i n g on you. Let me rem ain what I am. T h e r e f o r e , when someone d i e s o f t h i s p o iso n o u s weed, the v i c t i m ' s f a m i l y w ou ld o f f e r food and p r a y a t Z h u 's d o o r . Zhu succeeds in s a v in g the v i c t i m s e v e r y tim e . Because Zhu s a c r i f i c e s h i s chance o f r e b i r t h to ta k e c a r e o f h i s f a m i l y , and s to p o t h e r g h o s ts in r e p e a t i n g t h i s o b n oxio us c y c l e , a t the end, a f t e r h i s m o th e r passes away and h i s son has g o t t e n m a r r i e d , he is re w a rd e d by heaven the p o s t o f an o f f i c i a l in H ades. Pu w r o te t h i s s t o r y to show t h a t , even a gh o st who has d i e d o f h a t r e d and r e g r e t , can s t i l l be a g e n e r o u s , f i l i a l , and s i n c e r e b e i n g . H is c . c o n s i d e r a t i o n f o r o t h e r s a l s o touches h i s w i f e who has b r o u g h t him to h i s d e a t h . She to o , v o l u n t a r i l y g i v e s up h e r chance o f r e b i r t h to be h i s w i f e . A lt h o u g h in h e r l i f e , she has been the d a u g h t e r o f a w e a l t h y f a m i l y , y e t w i t h no c o m p l a i n t s , she does a l l the m e n ia l w ork in h e r i n - l a w s ' house f o r the o l d and the young, r a t h e r than g o in g back to h e r c o m f o r t a b l e home. In t h i s t a l e , one can see t h a t the r e a lm o f l i f e and d e a th means l i t t l e to Pu. What is im p o r ta n t to him is o n e 's love and c o n s i d e r a t i o n 110 f o r o t h e r s . To be a l t r u i s t i c is one o f the m ain purposes o f man, w h e th e r in l i f e o r d e a t h . The human f a c t o r t h a t is l a c k i n g in the w e s t e r n ghost c h a r a c t e r s is f u l l y expounded in the C h in e s e s u p e r n a t u r a l t a l e s to such an e x t e n t , t h a t the humanness in th e gho st a t tim es surp a sses t h a t o f the humans th e m s e lv e s . "Wang the S i x t h " ^ in volume 1, is a to u c h in g s t o r y in w h ic h a w a t e r - g h o s t , who can o b t a i n r e b i r t h and le a v e h i s p r e s e n t s t a t e o n l y when someone e l s e is drowned by the w a t e r and ta k e s h i s p l a c e , saves h i s own v i c t i m ( I , 2 6 - 3 1 ) . W ang's human f r i e n d , w a tc h in g by th e r i v e r s i d e , is w o n d e rin g why Wang w o u ld m iss t h i s chance o f r e b i r t h . L a t e r the w a t e r g h o s t t e l l s him. T h i s woman w ould have r e p l a c e d me a l r e a d y , but I p i t i e d the baby in h e r arms. I t w ould c o s t two l i v e s f o r h e r to ta k e my p l a c e . So I j u s t l e t h e r g o . T h e re is no knowing when th e n e x t s u b s t i t u t e w i l l come a l o n g . . . . (L u , 10) & ■ } ■ m a , f t k * 1 ; ^ - t , 4< ^ , In t h i s sen se, P u 1s gh o s t c h a r a c t e r s a r e e v i l - g o o d s p i r i t s and inhum an-hum ans. In many c a s e s , t h e i r v i r t u o u s c h a r a c t e r not o n l y su rp a s s e s the s p i r i t s o f t h e i r own g ro u p , but th e y even go above man who has a h i g h e r e x i s t e n c e a c c o r d ing to the B u d d h i s t . P u 's p u rp o se in m aking h i s g h o st c h a r a c t e r s more v i r t u o u s than man is t w o f o l d . F i r s t he 1 1 1 su g g ested t h a t a l l b e in g s s h o u ld be v i r t u o u s . I t is the o n l y and b e s t way to l i v e . S e c o n d ly , in g i v i n g the g h o s ts a more v i r t u o u s c h a r a c t e r than men, he was making an e m p h a tic s t a t e m e n t . T h a t a b e in g who is le s s e r than man can s t i l l r e t a i n i t s v i r t u e is som ething t h a t d e s e r v e s our r e s p e c t and a d m i r a t i o n . S in c e P u 's g h o s ts a r e s y m b o lic o f man th e m s e lv e s , the g h o s ts in t r o u b l e rese m b le men in o p p r e s s io n and s u f f e r i n g . V e r y o f t e n th e y r e p r e s e n t the weak, th e poor and the o p p re s s e d in s o c i e t y . D e s p i t e t h e i r s o c i a l p l i g h t , th e y can s t i l l m a i n t a i n a way o f l i f e w h ic h is based on p r i n c i p l e s , v i r t u e and t r u t h . T h e i r a s p i r a t i o n to be human is a s y m b o lic g e s t u r e in w h ic h the weak and the o p p re s s e d d e s i r e to t ra n s c e n d the mundane w o r ld to a h i g h e r s p i r i t - uaI ha rm ony. The humane q u a l i t y Pu i n s t i l l e d in h i s g h o s ts r e v e a l s the a u t h o r ' s v ie w o f man and h i s w o r l d . Seen in t h i s v i e w , Pu was a s o c i a l w r i t e r , w r i t i n g w i t h the i n t e n t i o n o f im p ro vin g the w o r l d f o r men. S in c e i t is men who make up the w o r l d , i t is o f param ount im p o rta n c e t h a t men sho uld b u i l d a w o r ld t h a t o f f e r s peace and r e f u g e . I t is then e v e r y m an's t a s k to be v i r t u o u s and keep away from e v i l and i n j u s t i c e . U n l i k e w e s t e r n g o t h i c f i c t i o n w h ic h d e a l s m a i n l y w i t h p e r s o n a l and p r i v a t e a c h ie v e m e n t in s p i r i t u a l s a l v a t i o n and s a t i s f a c t i o n , C h in e s e g o t h i c t a l e s 1 12 a r e more p r a g m a t ic and p r a c t i c a l , f o r t h e i r aim is m oral improvement on the c o l l e c t i v e c o n s c io u s n e s s o f a r a c e . W e s te rn g o t h i c f i c t i o n o f f e r s no s o l u t i o n to the a l i e n a t e d s e l f whose s t r u g g l e v e r y o f t e n r e s u l t s in t r a g e d y . C h in e s e g o t h i c t a l e s w i t h the i n d i v i d u a l ' s s t r u g g l e s and h i s r e w a rd , somehow o f f e r a way o u t o r su g gest some hope. The w e s t e r n s t o r i e s a r e s a y in g t h a t i f one ig n o re s human and s o c i a l v a l u e s , and does what h i s i n s t i n c t t e l l s him to do, he is bound f o r d e s t r u c t i o n . The C h in e s e t a l e s r a t h e r , a r e c l a i m i n g t h a t i f one a v o id s d o in g c e r t a i n t h i n g s , a l l th e s e good t h in g s w i l l be h i s r e w a rd . Psycho l o g i c a l l y s p e a k in g , the o r i e n t a l way is a more e f f e c t i v e way as f a r as d i d a c t i c i s m is c o n c e rn e d . Both e a s t w est g o t h i c f i c t i o n a r e t a l e s o f m an's a l i e n a t i o n from the s o c i e t y and h i s e n v ir o n m e n t. A c c o r d in g to Pu, t h i s can be c o r r e c t e d i f one is a b l e to a c h ie v e a s o c i a l c o n s c io u s n e s s based on v i r t u e . He had w r i t t e n th e L ^ a o ^ h a w i t h e x a c t l y t h i s idea in h i s m in d. By w r i t i n g d r a m a t i c , s a t i r i c and h i s t o r i c a l gh o st t a l e s , Pu meant to g u id e man to the road tow ard U t o p i a . Pu Song l i n g ' s v ie w o f human n a t u r e is o p t i m i s t i c . L ik e the C o n fu c ia n s c h o la r M e n c iu s M - - r and the a u t h o r s o f S e n t i m e n t a l n o v e ls in the w e s t , Pu b e l i e v e d t h a t human n a t u r e is b a s i c a l l y good. I t changes to the w orse o n l y when a f f e c t e d by e v i l f o r c e and s o c i a l p r e s s u r e . T h e r e 1 13 f o r e , in w r i t i n g h i s t a l e s , v e r y o f t e n , he gave h i s w ic k e d g h o s ts a chance to r e p e n t and c a r r y on a m e a n in g fu l l i f e . " L i t t l e X i e " c o n s i s t s o f two k i l l e r g h o s ts in the b e g in n in g ( 1 , v i : 7 7 2 - 7 9 ) . L i t t l e X i e and h e r companion C h iu Rong have been h a rm fu l to human b e i n g s . They ta k e o v e r o f f i c e r Z h a n g 's r e s id e n c e and k i l l w hoever is a s s ig n e d to w a tc h the hou se. These two fe m a le g h o s ts have ta k e n s e v e r a l w atc h m en 's l i v e s b e f o r e th e y come a c ro s s the ho n e s t s c h o l a r T a o . A f t e r a w h i l e th e s c h o la r b e g in s to make f r i e n d s w i t h h i s g h o s t l y room -m ates, t e a c h in g them to read and w r i t e . The two l a d i e s in r e t u r n , cook and ta k e c a r e o f him . Not o n l y t h a t , when Tao g e t s i n t o t r o u b l e in the c a p i t a l , the two fe m a le g h o s ts t r a v e l hundreds o f m i l e s and go th ro u g h a lo t o f t r o u b l e t r y i n g to h e l p him o u t from j a i l . C h iu Rong is k id n a p p e d by a b l a c k g h o s t on h e r way back to the house, w h i l e L i t t l e X i e ' s f e e t were p u n c tu re d by some w i l d g r a s s . The l a t t e r lo ses a l o t o f b lo o d and s t a g g e r s f o r a long tim e a f t e r w a r d s . The change o f the two g h o s ts r e f l e c t s P u ' s idea o f human n a t u r e w h ic h is e s s e n t i a l l y good. O f t e n , man w avers because o f s o c i a l p r e s s u r e . Pu a l s o used g h o st c h a r a c t e r s to a f f e c t s o c i a l j u s t i c e f o r the weak and h e l p l e s s . The o p p re s s e d need t h a t superhuman power to r i g h t t h e i r wrongs and a c h ie v e r e v e n g e . S c h o l a r Wang from " N ie Cheng" , whose w i f e 1 1 4 is k id n a p p e d by a lo c a l p r i n c e , h id e s b e h in d N i e ' s g r a v e in o r d e r to see h i s w i f e f o r the l a s t tim e when she passes by ( 1 , v i : 8 4 4 - 4 6 ) . When h i s w i f e and h e r e s c o r t p a r t y a r r i v e , N i e ' s gh o s t r i s e s from the g r a v e and sends a message to t h i s w ic k e d p r i n c e , s a y in g t h a t he w i l l ta k e the p r i n c e ' s l i f e i f he goes on o p p r e s s in g the common p e o p le . The e s c o r t p a r t y is a f r a i d and th e y g i v e the message to the p r i n c e who f i n a l l y checks h i s bad c o n d u c t. N ie was a man o f m e r i t and cou ra g e d u r i n g the W a r r in g S t a t e s p e r i o d (4 7 5 -2 2 1 B . C . ) . H is s p i r i t in t h i s t a l e is used as a c o r r e c t i n g f o r c e , a medium th ro u g h w h ic h the poor but lo v in g c o u p le can be u n i t e d a g a i n . In t h i s t a l e a gh o st image w h ic h is superhuman and h o r r i b l e lo o k in g is needed to o verp ow er the p r i n c e who possesses a b s o lu t e s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l po w er. In th e c h a r a c t e r N i e , Pu a l s o s i g n i f i e d t h a t m oral v i r t u e is power i t s e l f . V i r t u e a lo n e is needed to c o u n t e r a c t v i c e and i n j u s t i c e in t h i s w o r l d . A lt h o u g h N ie is o n l y an a n c i e n t s p i r i t , y e t h i s m oral image d e f i e s tim e and s p a c e . I t s e f f e c t and power a r e e v e r l a s t in g . V i r t u e in the w e s t e r n t a l e s is a d i f f e r e n t issue a l t o g e t h e r . To A m b ro s io , who is named " t h e s a i n t , " v i r t u e is monotonous and u n e x c i t i n g . I t is r a t h e r a n e g a t i v e f o r c e t h a t is a b le to d r i v e a man to h i s end. E x c e s s iv e v i r t u e is a l s o a h in d r a n c e to a f u l l m e a n in g fu l l i f e . I f 115 Am brosio had rem ained as th e s u p e r i o r o f the m o n a s te ry and kep t to a s t r i c t r e l i g i o u s l i f e , he w o u ld have been o n l y a p r i e s t w i t h o u t any r e a l u n d e r s t a n d in g o f h u m a n ity . I f M elm oth had been a v i r t u o u s man w i t h o u t s e l l i n g h is soul to the d e v i l , he w o u ld not have known ab o u t power, i m m o r t a l i t y and s u f f e r i n g . In the w e s t e r n n o v e ls , v i r t u e a ro u s es many problem s t h a t need to be s o l v e d . In the C h in e s e t a l e s , v i r t u e is the a n t i d o t e to a l l v i c e s and p a i n in the w o r l d . I t is th e o n l y p a th to a happy and s a t i s f i e d l i f e . Look a t the w e ll- k n o w n t a l e " N ie X i a o q i a n " ( 1 , Ii :160 — 68) . In the s t o r y , N i e ' s v i r t u e is h i g h l y rew arded a t the end. A lt h o u g h she f i r s t a p p e a rs to be a d an g ero u s s p i r i t t h a t lu r e s men and e v e n t u a l l y k i l l s them, she is a c t u a l l y a sweet and k i n d woman. N ie is u nd er c o n t r o l o f the o ld Raksha who uses the b e a u t i f u l young woman as a t r a p f o r men. In o r d e r to p r o t e c t h e r s e l f , she has to obey the o l d d e v i l , to k i l l in n o c e n t young men who come to the tem p le to s t a y and to g e t t h e i r b lo o d f o r th e Raksha. But when she f i n d s out t h a t N in g is an u p r i g h t man, she d e c id e s to save h i s l i f e by w a r n in g him and a d v i s i n g him to s t a y w i t h Yen f o r the n i g h t . When N in g keeps h i s p ro m is e to d i g up h e r bones and b u ry them away from the R a k s h a 's n eighbo i— hood, she vows to r e p a y him by s e r v i n g h i s f a m i l y as a m a id . W it h o u t a n y t h i n g in r e t u r n , she works a l l day a t 1 1 6 N i n g ' s house, does m e n ia l jo b s , and ta k e s c a r e o f h is m o th er and h i s s i c k w i f e . She le a v e s e v e r y e v e n in g when i t is tim e f o r N ing to r e t i r e , out to th e l o n e l y and d e s o l a t e d a rk n e s s o u t s i d e . Her s i n c e r i t y , h a rd w ork and v i r t u o u s c h a r a c t e r f i n a l l y touch th e o ld woman' h e a r t t h a t she becomes fond o f the l o n e l y young s p i r i t . H ere is w here P u 1s r o m a n tic m a n i p u l a t i o n comes in . The a u t h o r w anted to g i v e N ie a rew ard f o r what she is and what she has don e. What is the d e s i r e o f a g h o s t ? - - t o be a b l e to a c h ie v e a human l i f e . What is the d e s i r e o f a w o m a n ? --to be lu c k y enough to m a rry an u p r i g h t and k in d man, and to have a f a m i l y w i t h p ro s p e ro u s sons. In o r d e r to c r e a t e a p e r f e c t f u t u r e f o r N i e , Pu even went out o f h i s way, b r e a k in g t r a d i t i o n a l r u l e s on g h o s t c h a r a c t e r s . He l e t h e r e a t so t h a t she can a c h ie v e a p h y s ic a l body s l o w l y . Not o n l y t h a t , N ie is a b l e to b e a r c h i l d r e n who become p ro m in e n t c o u r t o f f i c i a l s . Pu d i d not o n l y a l l o w a m a r r ia g e betw een man and s p i r i t , but he a l s o made i t l a s t and blossom i n t o a s a t i s f y i n g and r e w a r d in g r e l a t i o n s h i p . N i n g ' s w i f e c o n v e n i e n t l y d i e s o f h e r i l l n e s s . A l l o f N i n g ' s r e l a t i v e s a r e shocked a t the b e a u ty and t a l e n t o f N i n g ' s new b r i d e . Pu a l s o re w ard ed N i n g ' s k in d n e s s tow ard X i a o q i a n by l e t t i n g him a t t a i n the J in s h i d e g r e e . M o r e o v e r , h i s two c o n c u b in e s each g i v e s him a son. 11 7 The i n i t i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een N in g and X i a o q i a n is not based on love but k in d n e s s and r e s p e c t . In the b e g in n i n g , X i a o q i a n c l i n g s to N in g f o r s a f e t y and company. When h e r bones a r e r e b u r i e d , she s t a y s w i t h him to s e rv e h i s f a m i l y and to l e a r n the s u t r a . O nce, she t e l l s N i n g ' s m o th er o f h e r i n t e n t i o n . " I t ' s more than a y e a r s in c e I came h e r e and you ought to know how I f e e l . As i t was a g a i n s t my g r a i n to harm in n o c e n t t r a v e l l e r s , I f o l l o w e d y o u r son h e r e and I have no u l t e r i o r m o t i v e s . Your son is an o p e n - h e a r t e d and g u i l e l e s s man, who has won a p p ro v a l b o th in Heaven and in t h i s w o r l d . A l l I want is to rem ain w i t h him f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s so t h a t h i s happy l o t c o u ld w in f o r me some k in d o f I m p e r ia l a p p r o b a t io n w h ic h w o u ld do me honor in th e n e t h e r w o r l d . " (L u , 9 7 - 9 8 ) 15 X i a o q i a n is g i v e n l i f e and a husband because o f h er h a rd w ork and k i n d h e a r t . N in g is rew arded w i t h a good w i f e and p ro m in e n t sons because o f h i s w i l l i n g n e s s to h e l p o t h e r s . Pu had j o i n e d t o g e t h e r two k i n d - h e a r t e d p e rso ns who a r e not lo v e r s to b e g in w i t h . Because o f th e v i r t u o u s c h a r a c t e r th e y have in common, the c o u p le lead a hap py, and s a t i s f y i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p . From h i s g h o st t a l e s , we can t e l l t h a t Pu was a r o m a n tic dream er in lo v e . Though h i m s e l f a C o n f u c i a n i s t 118 in h i s m oral v ie w , when i t comes to love betw een the s e x e s , he c o u ld be even c l a s s i f i e d as an a n t i - C o n f u c i a n i s t . V e r y o f t e n he l e f t h i s young s i n g l e fe m ale p r o t a g o n i s t s f r e e to v i s i t t h e i r lo v e r s in the n i g h t and b e g in a r e l a t i o n s h i p . Pu had h i s reasons f o r d o in g so. Women e s p e c i a l l y , in the o l d d a y s , w ere r e s t r i c t e d by C o n fu c ia n codes on what th e y s h o u ld l e a r n , w hat th e y s h o u ld do, and what th e y s h o u ld b e . They had no word on s e l e c t i n g the man f o r th e m s e lv e s . Pu showed h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g and d i s a p p r o v a l o f t h i s idea by g i v i n g the c h o ic e now back i n t o the women's han d s. They can now do w hat a man can do. They can p i c k t h e i r own man, and f r e e l y e x p re s s t h e i r lo v e . In t h i s way, Pu was one o f the f i r s t woman l i b e r a t o r s who showed a good u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f a woman's p l i g h t . Li aozha i 1s a u t h o r a l s o t r e a s u r e d t r u e l o v e . As he had done in th e fo x t a l e s , Pu n e v e r f a i l e d to u n i t e s i n c e r e and t r u t h f u l lo v e r s t o g e t h e r , d e s p i t e t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e in i d e n t i t y . The u n io n betw een man and s p i r i t is r a r e in w e s t e r n g o t h i c t a l e s . The love r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een Am brosio and M a t i l d a o n l y l a s t s f o r s e v e r a l weeks a f t e r w h i c h the monk q u i c k l y becomes d i s g u s t e d . The u n io n betw een I s i d o r a and M elm oth can not even be c a l l e d a harm onious one f o r i t n e v e r works o u t . In the w e s t , s in c e th e g h o st is c o n s id e r e d a d e v i l from the n e t h e r w o r l d , to be u n i t e d w i t h a g h o s t means u n io n w i t h e v i l i t s e l f . T h i s 11 9 is an i r r e v o k a b l e s i n t h a t d e n ie s s a l v a t i o n . D r . F au stu s in M a r lo w e 's p l a y commits t h i s s i n o f d e m o n i a l i t y and is beyond r e p e n ta n c e . I s i d o r a , who is p r e g n a n t by the gho st M e lm o th , meets w i t h a t r a g i c d e a th a t th e end w i t h her i n f a n t d a u g h t e r . But in P u 1s t a l e s , u n io n betw een a man and a fe m a le gh o st is c o n s id e r e d as a m e a n in g fu l r e l a t i o n s h ip as long as the lo v e r s a r e d e v o te d to each o t h e r . Pu would e x te n d h i s d r a m a t i z a t i o n to r a i s e the d e a d , k i l l the l i v i n g , or even make a s u p p l i c a t i o n to heaven as to j o i n a s i n c e r e c o u p le in lo v e . " L i t t l e X i e " m e n tio n e d e a r l i e r is such a t a l e . C h iu Rong and L i t t l e X i e b o th c a r r y the image o f s i n c e r e , h a r d - w o r k in g but h e l p l e s s f e m a le s . For t h e i r h e a r t - f e l t d e v o t i o n to w a rd T a o , Pu p r e s e n t e d a T a o i s t p r i e s t who s y m p a th iz e s w i t h th e g h o s t s . The p r i e s t t e l l s T a o : These g h o s ts a r e v e r y good, and you must n o t ^ e u n g r a t e f u l f o r t h e i r k in d n e s s . (Quong, 170) These a r e a c t u a l l y the a u t h o r ' s own w o rd s . The p r i e s t in th e t a l e is a mask f o r Pu h i m s e l f . T h ro u g h the p r i e s t , he made comments on the g h o s t s , p r a i s e d t h e i r v i r t u e s , and r e i n c a r n a t e d them w i t h m a g ic . i i i : 3 3 1 —3 7 ) . S c h o la r Yang not o n l y r i s k s h i s l i f e in t a l e o f d e v o te d love (1 120 s a v in g the h e l p l e s s s p i r i t from the u g l y Raksha, he a ls o is w i l l i n g to have i n t e r c o u r s e w i t h L ia n Suo in o r d e r to r e v i v e h e r . For t h a t he becomes v e r y s i c k . M o r e o v e r , he c u ts h is arm to g i v e h e r b lo o d . Yang does a i l th ese because he loves h e r . The e n d in g is a lm o s t p r e d i c t a b l e : she r e s u r r e c t s from d e a th and becomes h i s w i f e . In "M r. L u 1s D a u g h t e r , " g~ a -y T Pu a lm o st went o v e rb o a r d in h is m a n i p u l a t i o n f o r the u n io n o f the g h o s t o f M is s Lu and S c h o la r Zhang in the t a l e ( 1 , i i i : 2 9 4 - 9 8 ) . The s c h o la r f a l l s in love w i t h M is s Lu a t f i r s t s i g h t . Y e t she d i e s even b e f o r e he makes a move. Touched by h i s d e v o t i o n , the s p i r i t o f M is s Lu comes to him . They l i v e h a p p i l y f o r f i v e y e a r s u n t i l she t e l l s him t h a t she has to be re b o rn a g a i n . She a l s o le a v e s a d a t e f o r t h e i r r e u n io n f i f t e e n y e a r s l a t e r , d u r i n g w h ic h tim e Zhang u n e x p e c t e d l y grows younger than b e f o r e . At the a p p o in t e d d a t e , M is s Lu can not r e c o g n iz e h e r young l o v e r . She t h i n k s t h a t Zhang has f o r g o t t e n about h e r and in a n g u is h , d i e s . I t is Zhang and her f a t h e r who h e l p to r e v i v e h e r , so t h a t the c o u p le can be j o i n e d t o g e t h e r a t the end. T h i s is a moving love s t o r y in w h ic h the m ale p r o t a g o n i s t and th e fe m a le g h o st a r e u n i t e d j u s t because th e y a r e d e v o te d to each o t h e r . M is s Lu is no t a v i r t u o u s c h a r a c t e r a t a l l . She f i r s t a p p e a rs as an a c t i v e young g i r l who loves to hunt and k i l l . Pu even h i n t e d t h a t h e r sudden d e a t h is due to a 121 r e t r i b u t i v e f o r c e from heaven who is a n g e re d by h er r e c k l e s s k i l l i n g o f a n i m a l s . Because o f h e r c r u e l deeds in h e r l i f e , a f t e r h e r d e a t h , h e r soul has no r e s t i n g p l a c e but to roam around in the w i l d e r n e s s . Pu a l s o p o i n t e d out t h a t h e r r e b i r t h is t o t a l l y th e r e s u l t o f Z h a n g 's r e g u l a r r e c i t a t i o n s and o f f e r i n g s . Y e t she becomes d e v o te d to Zhang when she is abo ut to be re b o rn a g a i n . She i n s i s t s t h a t Zhang s h o u ld go to see h er f i f t e e n y e a r s l a t e r . Even though he w o u ld th en be an o ld man, she is w i l l i n g to s e rv e him as a m aid to re p a y h i s k in d n e s s . When she f a i l s to r e c o g n iz e h e r lo v e r f i f t e e n y e a r s l a t e r , she is so d i s a p p o i n t e d and w o r r i e d t h a t she d i e s . Up to t h i s p o i n t , Pu had shown h i s r e a d e r how much t h i s love r e l a t i o n s h i p has meant f o r M is s Lu, even a t a second l i f e and f i f t e e n y e a r s l a t e r . M is s Lu, a t h e r second l i f e , is a g a in an o f f i c i a I ' s d a u g h t e r who can have any man she w a n t s . Y e t she has been w a i t i n g a l l t h i s tim e f o r a man in h i s f i f t i e s . S c h o l a r Zhang is no less d e v o te d in h i s love f o r M iss L u . In the b e g in n i n g he is cau g h t by h e r b e a u t y a t a q u i c k g l a n c e . For t h i s , he p ra y s a t h e r c o f f i n f o r h a l f a y e a r e v e r y d a y , b u r n in g in c e n s e and o f f e r i n g food to h e r . F i n a l l y , h i s s i n c e r i t y touches M is s L u 's s p i r i t and she comes to him e v e r y n i g h t to accompany h im . In o r d e r to save h er from h e r s in s o f k i l l i n g , he r e c i t e s the s u t r a 122 f o r h e r . He cannot b e a r to le a v e h e r a lo n e when he goes home d u r i n g f e s t i v e d a y s , but c a r r i e s h e r w i t h him w h e r e v e r he g o e s . H is s i n c e r i t y a l s o touches the h e a r t o f C u a n y in in the South Sea w here he is r e j u v e n a t e d to a young man. When the a p p o in t e d tim e comes, he goes to v i s i t M is s L u 1s f a m i l y . Even though he is r e f u s e d e n t r a n c e by th e doorman, he does not g i v e up and le a v e , b u t s t a y s b e h in d w a i t i n g f o r h i s c h a n ce. For a d e v o te d man l i k e Zhang, Pu rew ard ed him w i t h lo v e , w e a l t h , and y o u t h . Both th e m ale and fe m a le p r o t a g o n i s t s in t h i s s t o r y can not be c a l l e d v i r t u o u s in any s en se. They a r e o n l y d e v o te d l o v e r s . For t h e i r d e v o t i o n , Pu had gone o u t o f h i s way to j o i n them. M is s Lu has d i e d t w ic e and h e r second r e s u r r e c t i o n a t the end seems a b i t u n c o n v in c in g . Pu o n l y m e n tio n e d t h a t Zhang and h e r f a t h e r summon h e r s p i r i t back to h e r body w i t h o u t any m ir a c u lo u s h e l p . As a m a t t e r o f f a c t , the l a s t p a r t o f th e s t o r y is a f a i l u r e . Pu seemed to be so c a r r i e d away in u n i t i n g h i s c h a r a c t e r s t h a t he d e c id e d to pu t them t o g e t h e r by hook o r by c r o o k . A n o th e r r e a d e r m ig h t see i t as P u 1s adamant e x p r e s s i o n o f j o i n i n g d e v o te d lo v e r s no m a t t e r what the s i t u a t i o n i s . "M iss L u 1s D a u g h te r " is a l s o a t a l e on th e c e l e b r a t i o n o f f r e e and t r u e lo v e . A l t h o u g h Zhang is a m a r r i e d man w i t h c h i l d r e n , y e t he is a l lo w e d to love 123 f r e e l y and h a p p i l y w i t h o u t any e m o tio n a l b u rd e n . I t is t h i s f r e e love w h ic h l a s t s more th a n a l i f e l o n g p e r i o d . I t e x te n d s to the n e x t w h ic h is c o m p a t i b l e w i t h the m a r r ia g e l i f e o f Z h a n g 's sons. M is s Lu, a f t e r she is re b o rn a g a i n , is a l s o f r e e to p i c k h e r husband. She t e l l s h e r p a r e n t s t h a t she is w a i t i n g f o r h e r fo rm e r f r i e n d to come to m a rry h e r and f i n a l l y , h e r p a r e n t s a p p ro ve h e r wi s h e s . W e s te rn g h o s ts t r i c k man o f h i s soul by g i v i n g him what he w ants in the b e g i n n i n g . S a ta n tu r n s d an gerous and v i c i o u s when h i s c o n t r a c t w i t h man has e x p i r e d . A t t h i s t im e , the man has e i t h e r had h i s f i l l o f power and fame or is s i c k o f i t . A m b ro s io , M elm oth and D r . F a u s tu s a l l become d i s g u s t e d w i t h th e m s e lv e s a t the end. I t is then tim e f o r S a ta n to ta k e h i s reve n g e o r r e w a rd . In the C h in e s e t a l e s , f e r o c i o u s g h o s ts a p p e a r when th e b a la n c e o f good and e v i l is d e s t r o y e d . S t r i c t l y s p e a k in g , P u ' s m oral s ta n c e is not p u r e l y C o n f u c i a n i s t , B u d d h i s t , or T a o i s t , i t is a m i x t u r e o f the t h r e e . In P u 's m oral w o r l d , t h e r e e x i s t s a b a l a n c i n g f o r c e in n a t u r e to g i v e j u s t i c e to the o p p re s s e d . T h i s f o r c e is v o l u n t a r y and a u t o m a t i c . I t is not c o n t r o l l e d by any god o r c e l e s t i a l m a n d a te, but r a t h e r an o n g oing and e v e r - e x i s t i n g po w er. T h i s power w i l l see to i t t h a t the good a r e rew ard ed w h i l e th e bad p u n is h e d . In h i s t a l e s , Pu o f t e n p r e s e n t e d t h i s power 124 a l l e g o r i c a l l y : sometimes in the d i s g u i s e o f d e s t i n y , sometimes as a gho st or a p r i e s t . T h i s b a l a n c i n g f o r c e d e f e a t s the s e l f i s h , the g r e e d y , the lewd and the c r u e l . T h i s f o r c e is g i v e n the c o n v e n ie n t B u d d h is t term : good exam ple ( 2 , x i i : 1 7 0 3 ) . M is s Wang, a young g i r l from B o x in g , is k id n a p p e d by a lo c a l power who w ants to rape h e r . In h e r s t r u g g l e , she is s t r a n g l e d . The r i c h man t i e s s to n e s to h e r body and s in k s i t i n t o a deep pond. Her f a m i l y is a t loss what to do, f o r no e v id e n c e can be fo u n d . One storm y d a y , in the m id s t o f l i g h t n i n g and th u n d e r , a drag o n a p p e a rs and c u t s o f f the r i c h m an's head. S e v e r a l days l a t e r , on a sunny d a y , on top o f the pond, the co rp s e o f M is s Wang emerges h o l d i n g in h e r hand h e r enem y's head! What a r o m a n t ic t a l e o f r e t r i b u t i o n ! A drago n is used as the r e t r i b u t i v e a g e n t f o r the v i c t i m . The d r a g o n , a c e l e s t i a l a n i m a l , is th e symbol o f the b a l a n c i n g f o r c e in the t a l e . Jjrr "Madam Dou" f ^ is a l s o a s t o r y o f r e t r i b u t i o n ( 1 , v : 7 1 2 - 1 5 ) . Madam Dou, a woman who has been j i l t e d by h e r lo v e r and l e f t f r o z e n to d e a t h a t h i s d o o r , avenges h e r s e l f on h e r lo v e r Nan. Dou, who has no one to back h e r up, not even h e r own f a t h e r , becomes a f i e r c e g h o s t a f t e r h e r d e a t h . She causes N a n 's e x e c u t i o n by g e t t i n g him in t r o u b l e w i t h the p r o v i n c i a l g o v e r n o r . In the r e t r i b u t i o n . "The G i r l from is a v e r y 125 t a l e , the fe m a le p r o t a g o n i s t is g i v e n th e power w h ic h is la c k i n g in l i f e to a c h ie v e j u s t i c e . Both C h in e s e and w e s t e r n g o t h i c t a l e s s t a r t out as a r e v i v a l o f a l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n b u t l a t e r e v o lv e i n t o a modern g e n re o f i t s own. I t is i n t e r e s t i n g to know t h a t b o th t r a d i t i o n s use r e l i g i o n as a fa c a d e f o r t h e i r e x p r e s s i o n . The m oral frame in b o th cases is based on s o c i a l and p e r s o n a l needs r a t h e r than r e l i g i o u s s t a n d a r d s . Pu can be c l a s s i f i e d as a p o s i t i v e r o m a n t i c i s t as he, th ro u g h the gh o st s t o r i e s , r e v e a l e d a p i c t u r e o f an id e a l w o r ld and the image o f a p e r f e c t man. The s o c i a l o u t c a s t and m e l a n c h o l i c B y r o n ic h e ro from the w est f i n d s no c o u n t e r p a r t in the C h in e s e t a l e s . For Pu, m oral v i r t u e , s i n c e r i t y , and love a r e enough to co n quer any d i f f i c u l t y . They can even pass the b o u n d a r ie s betw een l i f e and d e a t h . L ik e the w e s t e r n t a l e s , h is s t o r i e s a t t a c k s o c ia l i l l s . They g i v e p o e t i c j u s t i c e and freedom to the w eak. Women a r e l i b e r a t e d and t r u e love m eets w i t h a good e n d in g . P u 1s t a l e s a r e c o n s t r u c t i v e as th e y in te n d to te a c h man and to improve h i s c o n d i t i o n . P u 1s g o t h i c w o r ld is a s a t i s f y i n g , f u l f i l l i n g and r o m a n tic p l a c e . I t is an id e a l w o r ld o f m oral b a la n c e and h a p p in e s s . Though he h i m s e l f l i v e d a l i f e o f p o v e r t y and d e j e c t i o n , Pu s t i l l h a r b o re d f a i t h and hope in h u m a n ity . 126 W e s te rn g h o st t a l e s a r e t a l e s o f n e g a t i v e r o m a n t ic is m because b a s i c a l l y th e y a r e not m o r a l l y c o n s t r u c t i v e w o rk s . The Monk and Me Imoth a r e t a l e s d e s c r i b i n g m an's e m o tio n a l r e b e l l i o n and e x p l o r i n g h i s d e s i r e s and f e a r s . They expose human weakness and f r a i l t y bu t p r e s e n t no c o n c r e t e s o l u t i o n . The r e a d e r is l e f t w i t h f e a r and an u n r e s o lv e d p ro b le m . The h o r r o r o f the mind is r e v e a l e d , the p h i l o s o p h i c a l q u e s t i o n a s k e d , bu t t h e r e is no a n s w e r. In e n d le s s agony, as in the case o f Am brosio and M e lm o th , the e t e r n a l s t r u g g l e in w h ic h man is a l i e n a t e d from h i s e n v iro n m e n t goes on. T h e r e is alw a y s a t i n t o f p e s s im is m in th e s e t a l e s . W e s te rn g o t h i c t a l e s em phasize not on any s o c i a l improvement but a more p r i v a t e and p e r s o n a l e x p l o r a t i o n and p s y c h o l o g i c a l e s c a p e . These t a l e s c e n t e r on th e p h i l o s o p h i c a l and a b s t r a c t n a t u r e o f man. M a n 's r e b e l l i o u s and uncom prom ising n a t u r e is h i s own enemy. To t h i s enemy, so f a r t h e r e is no c o u n t e r i n g f o r c e . The B y r o n ic h ero must pay h i s dues. 127 No tes 1 Devendra P. Varm a, T h e G o t h i c Flame (London: A r t h u r B a r k e r , 1957) 26. 2 Ma r i o P r a z , The R o m antic A g o n y, t r a n s . Augu s D a v id so n (London: O x fo r d UP, 1933) 11. 3 Abrams e t a l . e d s . , 1:5*17. 4 H o race W a l p o le , The Ca s t l e o f O t r a n t o . T h re e G o t h ic N o v e ls . Ed. E . F . B l e T l e r . New Y o r k : D o v e r, 1966, 2 7 - 1 0 6 . M a tth e w L e w is , The M o n k . London: J o l l y - G e o r g e Rout I e d g e , 1929 . Cha r 1e s Robe r t Ma t u r i n , M e lm o th th e W a n d e r e r , 2 nd ed. 4 v o I s . E d in g b u rg h : A C o n s t a b l e , 1821. 5 T h i s a l s o a p p l i e s to a l l th e o t h e r m ain c h a r a c t e r s in the n o v e l , such as M a t i l d a , H i p p o l i t a , T h e o d o re and J e ro m e . g Brendan Hennessy, The G o t h ic Novel (E s s e x : Longman 1 978) 5 I . 7 E d i t h B i r k h e a d , T he T a l e o f T e r r o r : A S tu d y o f the G o t h ic Romance (New Y o rk : E .P . D u t t o n , 1921) 93. Q td . in Zhang Huoq i ng 1 s jK 11L i aozha i Zh i y i and Love" ,f£ Zhong Wa i Wenxue g -JtH 9 . 5 ( 1 9 8 0 ) : 7 4 . 1 * j, _,r J i Yun ' ^ ^ , N o t es on the Yuewe i Hermi tage 'JL % A C o l l e c t i o n o f No teb o o k F i c t i on ~W -J- 30 vo I s . TYangzhou: jT a n g s u G u a n g lin g tiuj i K e y in s h e , f a , 1 984) 2 0 :2 6 2 . 128 U n le s s o t h e r w i s e s t a t e d , a l l E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n in the d i s s e r t a t i o n w i l l be m in e . 10 Gan Bao "f ^ Reco rd o f Spi r i t s ^ ^ , A Co I l e c t i o n o f No tebooPc FTc tTon WT , .j • (Ta i pe i : j- , 1977) S e r . 4, 2 : 9 4 1 . 11 Jan Jakob M a r i a de G r o o t , The R e l i g io u s System o f C h in a ( L e i d e n : E . J . B r i l l , 1 8 9 2 -1 9 1 0 ) 7 6 3 - 6 4 . 1 2 T h e r e a r e q u i t e a few e d i t i o n s o f th e L ia o z h a i Zh i y i 3f#f 'fjjf' in c i r c u l a t i o n . U n le s s o t h e r w i s e s t a t e d , I w i l l be u s in g the one e d i t e d by Zhang Youhe 5-j| . Co l l e c t e d E d i t i o n s , No t_e s _a nd _C r i t j_c j_sms o f the S t r a n g e T a l e s f r om a L e i s u r e Chambe r "ft£> |£. /d jjr gjr 4 jjr . 2 b k s . 12 vo I s . T a i p e i : H a n ji n g Wenhua ^ 7f, >t 4C , 1984. " S p r a y in g W a t e r " t » | »J<. is from b k . 1 , v o l . i , 8 - 9 . 1 3 A lt h o u g h t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l t r a n s l a t i o n s o f Li aozha i Zh i y i , y e t none o f them is c o m p le te . The v a r i o u s t r a n s l a t i o n s I am u s in g a r e as f o l l o w s : H e r b e r t A. G i l e s t r a n s . S tr a n g e S t o r i e s from a C h in e s e S t u d i o , 3rd e d . S h a n g h a i: Keliy~"and WaTsh, 1 936 . Rose Quong, t r a n s . Ch in e s e G hosts a nd Love S t o r i e s , New Y o r k : P a n th eo n , 1 946 . Lu Yunzhong, Yang L i y i , Yang Z h ih o n g , and Chan T i f a n g t r a n s . S t r a n g e T a l e s o f L i a o z h a i . Hong Kong: Comm ercial P, 1982. The t r a n s l a t i o n o f "The Poinsonous W a te r Weed" ^ ^f* -t in th e t e x t is by Lu c a l l e d "The Sh ui-m ang W eed," 103. T h e r e is a n o th e r t r a n s l a t i o n by G i l e s c a l l e d "The Shui-m ang P l a n t , " 8 4 - 8 8 . 1 4 G i l e s t r a n s l a t e d t h i s t a l e as "The F is h e rm a n and H is F r i e n d , " 3 8 0 - 8 5 . 1 5 G i l e s t r a n s l a t e d t h i s t a l e as "The M a g ic S w o rd ," 77 - 8 4 . 129 1 6 in h e r t r a n s l a t i o n Quong c a l l e d the t a l e "The R e b i r t h o f S h i a o - s h i e h ." 1 30 C h a p t e r T h r e e The Inhuman Human: Foxes in C h in e s e S u p e r n a t u r a l T a l e s The Fox Legend in C h in a In a n c i e n t C h in e s e m yth , i t is b e l i e v e d t h a t b o th a n im a te and in a n im a te o b j e c t s in n a t u r e a r e c a p a b le o f t r a n s f o r m i n g i n t o a d i f f e r e n t s t a t e o f e x i s t e n c e a f t e r th e y have a s s i m i l a t e d enough ess ence from the sun and the moon in a p e r i o d o f t im e . In The Rec o rds o f Y u a n z hong -t i t from the S i x D y n a s t i e s , one can f i n d v a r i o u s a n e c d o te s abo ut o l d - a g e d a n im a ls and t r e e s t u r n i n g i n t o a sem i-g od l i k e e x i s t e n c e . For exa m p le: A h u n d r e d - y e a r - o l d r a t w i l l t u r n i n t o a g o d . 1 t fa t fa -it- b ** . In a n o t h e r , i t re a d s : A h u n d r e d - y e a r - o l d r a t w i l l a l s o t u r n i n t o a b a t (2 2 8 ) . "S f a t f a 4 0 f a . R a ts a r e no t o n l y the a n im a ls i n v o l v e d , b u t a l s o t u r t l e s : A t h o u s a n d - y e a r - o l d la r g e t u r t l e can t a l k w i t h humans ( 2 2 7 ) . 131 O th e r forms o f l i f e such as t r e e s a r e a l s o l i a b l e to t r a n s f o r m a t i o n once th e y m a tu re i n t o a v e r y o l d ag e . A t h o u s a n d - y e a r - o l d t r e e becomes a g r e e n g o a t , w h i l e a t r e e t h a t is te n thousand y e a r s o l d t u r n s i n t o a g re e n cow. V e r y o f t e n , th e y roam among th e p e o p le Who Embraces S i m p l i c i t y ( c a . 320 A . D . ) by Ge Hong a l s o c a r r i e s l i s t i n g s o f d i f f e r e n t a n im a ls c a p a b le o f m etam o rp h o sis (W are, 5 3 - 6 7 ) . In C h in e s e le g e n d , t i g e r s , monkeys, f i s h , s t o n e s , d e e r , s n a k e s , and b i r d s can a l s o assume human shape once t h e y re ac h a c e r t a i n a g e . D eer a r e s a i d to l i v e to a thousand y e a r s o l d . When th e y re ac h the age o f f i v e h u n d re d , th e y can change th e m s e lv e s i n t o human b e in g s . The d e e r - t u r n e d human, l i k e the anim al i t s e l f , is u s u a l l y r e s e r v e d and g e n t l e , w h i l e the t i g e r - t u r n e d human is f e r o c i o u s and d a n g e ro u s . Aged f i s h , sto n e s and b i r d s a l s o possess the a b i l i t y o f t r a n s f o r m i n g th e m s e lv e s i n t o a t t r a c t i v e women. Y e t , more l i s t i n g s a r e found when i t comes to fo x e s . F i r s t we go back to The Reco r ds o f Y u a n z h o n g . When a fo x is f i f t y y e a r s o l d , i t can t r a n s f o r m i t s e l f i n t o a woman; when a hundred y e a r s o l d , i t becomes a b e a u t i f u l f e m a le , o r a wu possesse d by a s p i r i t , or a g ro w n -u p man who has sex ual i n t e r c o u r s e (22 1). B e s id e s the The R ecords o f Yua n z hong, the c h a p t e r " R e j o i n d e r to P o p u la r C o n cep t i ons" in The M a s t e r 1 32 w i t h women. Such b e in g s a r e a b l e to know t h in g s a t more than a thousand m i l e s d i s t a n c e ; th e y can p o is o n men by s o r c e r y , o r possess and b e w i l d e r them, so t h a t th e y lose t h e i r memory and k n o w le d g e ; and when a fox is a thousand y e a r s o l d , i t p e n e t r a t e s to h ea ven , and becomes a c e l e s t i a l f o x . (de G r o o t , 586) S Jk - .$ - f % i, I t / C , ^ * * . m -V A. 5. £ . H * • * S f - 4 4 * £ A S. i t *S , 4 The above q u o t a t i o n g i v e s us some ideas o f how fo x s p i r i t s a r e d i f f e r e n t from the o t h e r a n im a ls d e s c r i b e d in the p r e v i o u s pag es. F i r s t , a fo x is c a p a b le o f m etam o rp h o sis when i t is o n l y f i f t y , a l o t yo u n g er than th e o t h e r s who have to w a i t f i v e hundred o r a thousand y e a r s . S e c o n d ly , a fo x a lw a y s tu r n s i n t o a b e a u t i f u l woman i f i t d e c id e s to be f e m a le . The fe m a le fo x is a b l e to b e w i t c h man and make him lose h i s s en se s . On top o f t h i s , the fo x knows what is h a p p en in g around h e r even o f t h in g s a thousand m i l e s away. As i t grows to be a thousand y e a r s o l d , i t becomes a fo x f a i r y . No o t h e r a n im a ls possess the powers m e n tio n e d above as the fo x -d em o n . In a n c i e n t C h in e s e f o l k t a l e s , fo x e s a r e p o r t r a y e d as v e r s a t i l e a n i m a l s . In o r d e r to a t t a i n i t s p u rp o s e , an o ld fo x can t u r n i t s e l f i n t o th e image o f a young b e a u t i f u l woman, a le a r n e d and handsome s c h o l a r , an o l d r e s p e c t a b l e man, the member o f a human f a m i l y , o r even Buddha 2 h i m s e l f . The f o x ' s a b i l i t y in the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n depends on i t s age and i t s power o f s o r c e r y . Compared w i t h o t h e r 133 a n i m a l s , the f o x ' s v e r s a t i l i t y in t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l lo w s i t to be c l o s e r to and more in v o l v e d w i t h men. The anim al ta k e s p a r t in a lm o s t a l l o f m en's s o c i a l a c t i v i t i e s : such as lo v e , e d u c a t io n and r e l i g i o n . I t has woven i t s e l f i n t o m an's l i f e , and by a l l means i t t r i e s to be p a r t o f m an's e x i s t e n c e . T h i s is e s p e c i a l l y t r u e when a fo x la d y f a l l s in love w i t h a m o r ta l and b e a rs him a c h i l d . The c h i l d , l i k e th e d e m i-g o d in a n c i e n t G re e k m y th o lo g y , possesses b o th fo x and human t r a i t s . He is the m i x t u r e o f the two: a human form w i t h fo x c h a r a c t e r . A good exam ple w i l l be Y a t o u ' s son Zi in th e t a l e " Y a to u " jjj|p i n L i aozha i ( 1 , v : 6 0 0 - 0 6 ) . Fox t a l e s b e g in to a p p e a r in C h in e s e l i t e r a t u r e a t an e a r l y age. In a n c i e n t w r i t i n g s such as The M a s t e r Who Embraces S i m p l i c i t y , The Records o f S p i r i t s and A Segue I to th e R ecords o f S p i r i t s , by Tao Q ia n ¥ % > ] ( 3 6 5 - 4 2 7 ) , e t c . , we a r e a b l e to f i n d v a r i o u s r e c o r d s o f f o x e s , t h e i r s o r c e r y and m a g ic . A fox w h ic h has n o t y e t a t t a i n e d i m m o r t a l i t y is c a l l e d a fox s p i r i t -a hu y ao , or a hu mo . When i t h a s , i t becomes a fox f a i r y , a hu x i an ^ , a hu shen , o r a c e l e s t i a l f o x , t i a n hu . Most o f th e fo xes in The Reco rd s o f S p i r i t s a r e fo x f a i r i e s . They a r e a b l e to t r a n s f o r m th e m selves i n t o v a r i o u s d i s g u i s e s and a f t e r w a r d s escape p u n is h m e n t. The fox in "Cang Sun J i a " T from 1 34 A C o m p rehensive Rec o rd o f M a r v e l s % . f t ( c a . 757) is s a i d to be t h i r t y thousand y e a r s o l d (L i Fang, X, 4 5 1 :3 6 8 5 - 8 6 ) . For i t s age, i t is a b l e to d e f e a t even the to u g h e s t T a o i s t e x o r c i s t w i t h i t s m a g ic . Y e t the most i n t e r e s t i n g and p o p u la r fo xes in C h in e s e s u p e r n a t u r a l t a l e s a r e tho se t h a t e x i s t in the s t a t e somewhere betw een an anim al and an im m o r ta l. I t is th e s e less p o w e r fu l f o x e s , in t h e i r a t t e m p t to a t t a i n i m m o r t a l i t y , who b e g in t h e i r two thousand y e a r s s t r u g g l e w i t h men and l i f e . In o r d e r f o r a fo x to a t t a i n i m m o r t a l i t y , i t must a s s i m i l a t e th e e n e rg y in n a t u r e , e s p e c i a l l y from th e sun and th e moon. In Ji Y u n 's N o t e s o f th e Yuewe i Hermi t a g e, he spoke o f two ways in w h ic h the fo x can a t t a i n i mmor t a I i t y . 1. The fo x sh o u ld g a t h e r ess ence and e n e r g y , w o r s h ip the s t a r s and c o n s t e l l a t i o n s . G r a d u a l l y , i t w o u ld become w is e and be c a p a b le o f t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . Then i t s h o u ld d i s c i p l i n e i t s e l f to w a rd th e r i g h t way. T h i s is a fo x s p i r i t s ' way o f a c h i e v i n g i m m o r t a l i t y . 2. F i r s t , the fo x s h o u ld p r a c t i s e a s c e t i c i s m so t h a t i t is c a p a b le o f t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n t o a human. When i t becomes a human, i t then s h o u ld w ork on an in n a t e c o n c o c t io n . T h i s is the method o f a fox a c h i e v i n g i m m o r t a l i t y th ro u g h the human form . (20 : 248) ^ f1 *1 it M . & h UpsM*. % „ . c , »% - % y f} £ 4 & * 1 35 Y e t t h e r e is a f a s t e r and e a s i e r way f o r a fo x to a c h ie v e i t s aim b e s id e s th e two I have m e n tio n e d ab o ve. A c c o r d in g to C h in e s e m y t h ic a l be I i e f s , young men and women e s p e c i a l l y , a r e f i l l e d w i t h the s p i r i t u a l e n e rg y t h a t a fo x needs in i t s s p i r i t u a l p r a c t i c e . The b e s t way f o r a fo x to o b t a i n t h i s s p i r i t u a l e n e rg y is by c lo s e c o n t a c t w i t h men. A fo x can a b s o rb human s p i r i t u a l e n e rg y j u s t by i n h a l i n g a s l e e p i n g m an's b r e a t h . To have sexual i n t e r c o u r s e w i t h man is p r o b a b ly th e s u r e s t way to i m m o r t a l i t y . For t h i s r e a s o n , most o f th e a n c i e n t fox t a l e s a r e t a l e s o f p o s s e s s io n , r a p e , and e x t r a - m a r i t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s betw een fo x and man. A t th e end, the man or woman who is d e p r i v e d o f s p i r i t u a l e n e rg y by the fo x u s u a l l y d i e s or loses h i s o r h e r s a n i t y . T h e r e f o r e , the a b i l i t y o f a fo x in c h a n g in g i t s e l f i n t o a human f i g u r e is o f utm ost im p o rta n c e in i t s a t t a i n m e n t o f i m m o r t a l i t y . I t a l l o w s the anim al to s t a y c l o s e to i t s human p r e y . T h e re is a r e c o r d o f a monk who, by a c c i d e n t , sees th e w h o le p ro c e s s o f a f o x ' s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . One e v e n in g , he happens to pass by the woods w here he sees a fox under th e moon. I t p i c k e d up a s k u l l and put i t on i t s h e a d . I t thus t u r n e d i t s head and th re w away the ones t h a t f e l l down. I t t r i e d abo ut f o u r o r f i v e and f i n a l l y i t found one t h a t f i t t e d p e r f e c t l y . Then i t c o v e re d i t s body w i t h le a v e s and f l o w e r s . In a w in k , th e y a l l tu r n e d i n t o c l o t h e s . In no t im e , the fo x t u r n e d in to a woman. (L i Fang, X, 4 5 1 :3 6 9 1 ) 1 36 Jb t &T * & - A & . $ XH& $.:£ - . n t m t - t f - tn-ty K t. P i i - pp ^ * • * - • * * ^ ^ The home f o r the foxes is the g r a v e , u s u a l l y an o ld d e s e r t e d one. For one r e a s o n , t h e r e a r e s k u l l s in the g r a v e s , and t h e r e a r e a l s o l i v i n g space in th e c o f f i n a r e a . Jan Jakob M a r i a de G ro o t in T h e R e l i g i ous System o f Ch i na a l s o m e n tio n e d t h a t fo xes love to s t a y in o l d tombs because th e y can sometimes u t i l i z e the dead body in t h e i r 4 m etam o rp h o sis ( 1 9 2 ) . V e r y o f t e n , a fo x s p i r i t e n t e r s the dead p e r s o n 's body, r e v i v e s i t and goes aro u n d w i t h h i s i d e n t i t y . The legend o f foxes in C h in a is more T a o i s t than B u d d h i s t . Tao ism c o n c e n t r a t e s on m e d i t a t i o n , a lc h e m y , and i m m o r t a l i t y . A T a o i s t a s c e t i c is a b l e to a c h ie v e c e r t a i n m a g ic a l power a f t e r a long term d e v o t i o n in the p r a c t i c e . The p ro c e s s in a fo x a t t a i n i n g i m m o r t a l i t y is the same t h i n g . H e re is a n o t h e r exam ple from T a i p in g M i s c e l l a n y ( 9 7 7 - 9 8 1 ) . T h e r e is man c a l l e d Yao Kun ^ , who a lw a y s buys foxes from h u n te r s and l a t e r r e l e a s e s them. One d a y , he is c h e a te d by an abb ot who l e t s him down i n t o a we I 1 w h i l e he is d r u n k . In the w e l l , t h e r e is some c o n c o c t io n w h ic h the ab b o t is a f r a i d to t a s t e h i m s e l f . Yao is used f o r t h i s p u rp o se w i t h o u t h i s 1 37 p e r m i s s i o n . W h i le Yao is tr a p p e d in t h i s m i s e r a b l e s i t u a t i o n , a fo x comes to him and s a y s . I'm a f o x . I a p p r e c i a t e y o u r k in d n e s s in s a v in g hundreds o f my c h i l d r e n . T h a t ' s why I ' v e come to h e l p you. Foxes t h a t a r e a b l e to f l y to heaven f i r s t s t a y in a g r a v e . U s u a l l y t h e r e ( i n the g r a v e ) is a h o le th ro u g h w h ic h th e fo x can see heaven and the s t a r s . I t a d m ire s them, r e g r e t t i n g t h a t i t c a n ' t f l y . Then i t b e g in s to s t a r e a t heaven and c o n c e n t r a t e s i t s s p i r i t . A l l o f a sudden, u n c o n s c i o u s l y , i t f l i e s o u t ( o f the h o l e ) . I t w a lk s on a i r , r i d e s w i t h the c lo u d s , and r i s e s to h e a v e n . . . . I f you can c l e a n y o u r s p i r i t , wash away you r w o r r i e s , and c o n c e n t r a t e on th e v o i d , in such a way, you w i l l be a b l e to r i s e up w i t h i n t h i r t y d a y s . No m a t t e r how sm all th e h o l e i s , i t w o n 't be a b a r r i e r to y o u . . . . D o n 't you remember a passage from the Book o f Asc e n s io n to th e W e s t , w here i t s a y s , "The s p i r i t is a b l e to le a v e i t s form and f l y o u t , i t can a l s o move a h i l l ? " You must w ork h a r d . (X , 4 5 4 : 3 7 1 0 - 1 1 ) % 7 * ¥ * I n £ • > / „ ® J=* V l 73 *% ^ % ^ % % % V p , A y*. 0 & $ £ f e i k j k s . H . f t * & . 4 + $ £ ± Z H fc. t ... • £ * ^ M K % j p * * / & % # * * * Yao f o l l o w s th e f o x ' s a d v i c e , and a t th e end he indeed r i s e s from th e w e l l to escape the a b b o t ' s t r a p . From the above, one can see t h a t i t is not e as y f o r a fo x to a t t a i n i m m o r t a l i t y . I t ta k e s t im e , p a t i e n c e , and d e v o t i o n . Y e t once i t has passed th ro u g h a l l i t s t r i a l s , th e t h o u s a n d - y e a r - o l d fo x w i l l t u r n i n t o a c e l e s t i a l fox w h ic h is u s u a l l y p u re w h i t e in c o l o r , and p o s sesses 138 s u p e r n a t u r a l pow er, such as th e a b i l i t y to t r a n s f o r m , to p r e d i c t th e f u t u r e , and the power to g e t w h a t e v e r i t d e s i r e s , e . g . w e a l t h . The less s p i r i t u a l l y c u l t u r e d foxes a r e less p o w e r fu l in p r o p o r t i o n , though th e y do in v a r i o u s ways possess superhuman power such as the a b i l i t y to be i n v i s i b l e , to f l y , and to know th e f u t u r e . From the fo x t a l e s in T a i p in g M i s c e l l a n y , we know t h a t i t is ominous to k i l l a c e l e s t i a l fox once i t is c a p t u r e d . In many c a s e s , when a c e l e s t i a l fo x is cau g h t f o r i t s immoral b e h a v i o r , i t is e i t h e r w arned o r w h ipp ed f o r p u n is h m e n t, and then r e l e a s e d . The younger ones a r e not as lu c k y . Men and e x o r c i s t s a r e u s u a l l y less l e n i e n t to them when th e y a r e found as the c u l p r i t . The g e n e r a l e n d in g o f th e s e fo xes is d e a th by k i l l i n g or c o o k in g . Men do avenge th e m s e lv e s on fo xes f o r w h a t e v e r th e y have done to them. In C h in e s e m y th o lo g y , th e fo x is s a i d to have a p e a r l hu_;z hu tytK in i t s body. T h i s p e a r l is th e v e r y t h i n g t h a t causes th e f o x - tu r n e d -h u m a n to be f a v o r e d by m o r t a l s . M i see I I a n y , the fox loses i t s p e a r l to the woman Zhongai (name l i t e r a l l y means " e v e r y o n e ' s l o v e " ) who becomes a d a r l i n g to e v e r y man she m e e ts . The fo x p e a r l is n o t o n l y good f o r e n c h a n tm e n t, b u t is a l s o used as an a n t i d o t e f o r v a r i o u s d i s e a s e s . In T he S t r a n g e T a l es from a L e i s u r e Cham ber, in the s t o r y o f " J ia o n a " , th e fo x uses h e r In the s t o r y o f " L i u from Ta i p i ng 139 p e a r l to h eal the p r o t a g o n i s t ' s abscess w h ic h is in a / s e r i o u s c o n d i t i o n . A ls o in "The M i l i t a r y O f f i c e r " ^ 4- , when the p r o t a g o n i s t Shi is d y in g o f c o n s u m p tio n , the fo x la d y saves h i s l i f e by l e t t i n g him s w a llo w h e r p e a r l . At the end, when the lad y le a v e s w i t h the p e a r l , and he is not p r o t e c t e d by i t , he d i e s . The fo x p e a r l is an e s s e n t i a l e le m e n t in the a n i m a l ' s p ro c e s s o f a c h i e v i n g i m m o r t a l i t y . I t is the s p i r i t u a l ess ence o f th e fox i t s e l f . L o s in g i t , the fo x w i l l e x p i r e . The p e a r l is u s u a l l y s t o r e d in the f o x ' s stom ach. From the c o l l e c t i o n o f fo x t a l e s in Ta i p i ng M i see I I any we f i n d t h a t fo xes a r e a f r a i d o f , o r th e y t r y t h e i r b e s t to a v o id th e f o l l o w i n g : u p r i g h t and h o n e s t men, h u n t i n g dog s, e x o r c i s t s , and men who a r e s u c c e s s fu l in t h e i r c a r e e r s . Less p o w e r fu l fo xes w o u ld e a s i l y r e t u r n to t h e i r o r i g i n a l shape when th e y a r e d r u n k , when th e y a r e a f r a i d , and when su rro u n d e d by h u n t i n g dogs. The c e l e s t i a l fo xes a r e n ot t o t a l l y p o w e r fu l e i t h e r . They can be r e t u r n e d to t h e i r shape by the f i r e l i t by a 6 t h o u s a n d - y e a r - o l d t r e e . A w e l l - t r a i n e d e x o r c i s t is a b l e to o r d e r c e l e s t i a l g u a rd s to c a p t u r e th e s e fo x f a i r i e s when th e y e r r . Foxes b i g and smaI I wi I I s t a y away from an u p r i g h t man. Not o n l y a r e th e y u n a b le to h u r t th e s e men, th e y ca n n o t even g e t c l o s e to them i f th e y want t o . Because th e s e men a r e p r o t e c t e d by t h e i r v i r t u e s . t 40 A t the end, some o f th e s e fo x s p i r i t s do make i t to i m m o r t a l i t y . They a r e now fo x f a i r i e s , hu s h e n , who a r e t r e a t e d as m in o r gods by the common p e o p l e . In the Tang w r o t e in h i s w ork An e c d o te s from Co u r t and C o u n t r y s i d e From the b e g in n i n g o f th e Tang D y n a s ty , most p e o p le w o rs h ip p e d the fo x f a i r y . They p r a y e d f o r b l e s s i n g d u r i n g t h e i r d o m e s tic w o r s h ip and o f f e r e d the same food th e y t r e a t e d th e m s e lv e s w i t h to the f a i r y . A lw ays th e y w o rs h ip p e d more than one f o x . A t t h a t t im e , t h e r e was a p r o v e r b s a y in g : " t h e r e was not a v i l l a g e w i t h o u t a fo x f a i r y . " (L i Fang, IX, 447 : 3658) The fo x f a i r i e s l i v e away from men in a h e a v e n ly abode. U s u a l l y , th e y f o r s a k e a l l human r e l a t i o n s h i p s a f t e r th e y a r r i v e a t the g o a l o f i m m o r t a l i t y . They a r e not c o m p l e t e l y f r e e from human t i e s and p h y s ic a l n eeds. The e n d in g o f many fo x t a l e s p o r t r a y s some to u c h in g scenes when the fo x f a i r y , b e f o r e i t s d e p a r t u r e to h e a v e n , comes to say goodbye to i t s b e lo v e d human com panion. In P u 1s t a l e s , i t is u s u a l l y the fe m a le fo x l e a v i n g i t s husband who loves and needs h e r . D y n a s t y , ( 6 I 8 -9 0 7 A . D . ) , a s c h o la r named Zhang Zu about a s o c i a l phenomenon t h a t he had n o t i c e d . 141 The Fox Image in T r a d i t i o n a l C h in e s e T a I e s Foxes in C h in a a r e c o n s id e r e d to be an e v i l anim al from the v e r y b e g i n n i n g . T h e i r e x i s t e n c e even in t h e i r n a t u r a l h a b i t a t p o r t e n d s e v i l to th e b e h o ld e r and even to the c o u n t r y a t l a r g e . In the s e c t i o n o f "The Wind o f P e i" /fJ- from the Book o f Songs ( c a . 600 B . C . ) e d i t e d by C o n fu c iu s h i m s e l f , in Ode #1 6 , i t s a y s: N o th in g h e r e is red but e v i l f o x e s , n o t h i n g b l a c k bu t e v i l c r o w s . ( Q td . in de V i s s e r , 5) I * S 4 . i J , ® . 1 . The s c h o l a r Zhu Xi ( 1 1 3 0 - 1 2 0 0 ) commented upon t h i s v e r s e as f o I Io w s : The fo x was an i l l - b o d i n g an im a l w h ic h men d i s l i k e d to see . The f a c t t h a t t h e r e was n o t h i n g to see e x c e p t tho se a n i m a l s , p ro v e d t h a t th e kingdom was about to be i m p e r i l l e d and thrown i n t o c o n f u s io n . ( Q td . in de G r o o t , 577) ' 9 W f t - f a . A ls o in th e t h i r d c e n t u r y B . C . , the p h i l o s o p h e r Zhuang Zi I r ( 3 6 9 - 2 8 6 B . C . ) a g a in s h a re d th e b e l i e f in i l l - b o d i n g f o x e s : In a h i l l o c k o f not more than a pu o r a jen in s i z e , no l a r g e b e a s ts co n c e a l t h e m s e lv e s , but evT l fo xes t h e r e g i v e t h e i r omens. ( Q t d . in de G r o o t , 577) 1 £ S k 1 # ^ ^ The image o f fo xes d i d n o t improve as tim e went by. As a m a t t e r o f f a c t , i t g o t w o r s e . L a t e r a u t h o r s such as 1 42 Gan Bao has re c o r d e d in h i s T he R ecords o f S p i r i t s o f e v e n ts showing what foxes can do to th e m o r t a l s . Most o f the fox s p i r i t s in h i s n a r r a t i v e s a r e causes o f i n s a n i t y , d i s e a s e and even o f d e a t h . One good exam ple in the c o l l e c t i o n re a d s : In the J i n p e r i o d , t h e r e was a man named Wuxing who had two sons. When the two w e re w o r k in g in the f i e l d s , o f t e n t h e i r f a t h e r came to c u rs e and b e a t them. The two sons t o l d the m o th e r what happened. She asked th e f a t h e r who was sh o cked . He d e c id e d t h a t the one who went to the f i e l d s was a d e v i l s p i r i t . He o r d e r e d h i s two sons to k i l l i t . For a w h i l e , the d e v i l became q u i e t and d i d not go to the f i e l d s . One d a y , the f a t h e r , w o r r i e d abo ut h i s two sons, went to th e f i e l d s h i m s e l f . The sons th o u g h t he was the d e v i l . T hey k i l l e d and b u r i e d him . The d e v i l r e t u r n e d to t h e i r house d i s g u i s e d as the f a t h e r . He t o l d the f a m i l y t h a t h i s sons had k i l l e d the d e v i l . In the e v e n in g , the sons r e t u r n e d and the w hole h o u s e h o ld c e l e b r a t e d . Y e a rs passed w i t h o u t the t r u t h b e in g d i s c o v e r e d . L a t e r , a p r i e s t happened to come by the hou se. He t o l d th e two sons t h a t th e y w ere s u rro u n d e d w i t h a hea vy e v i l s p i r i t . The sons t o l d the f a t h e r who became f u r i o u s . S e e in g t h i s , th e y w ent o u t to o r d e r th e p r i e s t to le a v e a t once. But the p r i e s t r o a r e d and e n t e r e d the house. In no t im e , the f a t h e r tr a n s f o r m e d h i m s e l f i n t o an o l d fo x and h i d u n d er the bed. He was c a p t u r e d and s l a u g h t e r e d . The two sons found t h a t the one th e y had k i l l e d b e f o r e was r e a l l y t h e i r own f a t h e r . They p r e p a r e d m o u rn in g c l o t h e s f o r t h e i r f a t h e r ' s f u n e r a l . One son k i l l e d h i m s e l f . The o t h e r a l s o d i e d o f an g e r and r e g r e t . (Gan Bao, 960) 2. % * £ -9 $ tc. £ *• %. « - & l& J t t £ # r & . %. * L % * H 4 . * 4 i % . H % * - * * '■ J . £ t % .. ^ . % % H i'S 1 4 3 %fp ^ X * % ■ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ * < ^ # f 4 & 1 ? ^ 7 3 | J ; & ' - & . ?&*%>■■& #£-, ^ $ j tfe & ^ —. & ‘t f ,tr^ . The above s t o r y shows a c u n n in g and c r u e l fo x w h ic h has r u i n e d a n i c e f a m i l y , and ta k e n t h r e e l i v e s . The image i t p r e s e n t s is a v e r y n e g a t i v e and u n d e s i r a b l e one. The n e x t s t o r y from th e same c o l l e c t i o n a l s o p u ts the fox s p i r i t r e s p o n s i b l e f o r i n s a n i t y and b e w itc h m e n t. In the L a t e r Han p e r i o d , in the y e a r o f J i a n a n , a c i t y commander o f the West Seas named Chen X i a n in the c o u n ty o f Pei w an ted to e x e c u t e one o f h is f o l l o w e r s c a l l e d Wang L i n g x i a o who d e s e r t e d w i t h no a p p a r e n t r e a s o n . Though l a t e r Wang r e t u r n e d , y e t he ran away a g a in b e f o r e long. For a long t im e , Chen d i d not see Wang and t h e r e f o r e he p u t h i s w i f e in j a i l . The woman t o l d him the t r u t h . Chen s a i d , "He was p r o b a b l y b e w itc h e d and ta k e n away. I w i l l go f i n d h im ." He went lo o k in g aroun d o u t s i d e the c i t y w i t h t h i r t y r i d e r s and h u n t i n g dogs. S u r e l y , th e y found Wang in an empty g r a v e . The d e v i l was a l r e a d y gone when i t h e a rd the n o is e o f the p e o p le and the d og s. Chen o r d e r e d h i s men to c a r r y Wang b a c k . W ang's looks res e m b le d t h a t o f a f o x . He c o u ld no lo n g e r respond n o r r e a c t to the p e o p le aroun d him , but o n l y k e p t on w h in in g f o r a p e rs o n named A z i . A zi was the name o f th e fo x s p i r i t . U n t i l more than te n days l a t e r , Wang began to r e a l i z e somewhat what had happened. (Gan Bao, 961) i f . r f l S * ? IS £ ^ « If ’f i. * • fe £ . t * * • s 0 1 f .fe. t .n * ’t . % M - i *f< f flB <•' H % 4 < V *. +$ t- - 4$. ■+ 0 • # 1 & ■ 1 44 No one e x c e p t Wang has seen o r h e a rd the s p i r i t a t a l l , b u t most o f the c h a r a c t e r s in the t a l e a r e a f f e c t e d by i t . W ang's w i f e is locked up in j a i l because o f h e r husband. Chen is a n g ry s in c e one o f h i s men Wang does n o t r e s p e c t him . L a s t l y , the w o rs t v i c t i m Wang, lo ses h i s m ental b a l a n c e , h i s i d e n t i t y , and a lm o s t h i s f a m i l y and h i s c a r e e r o v e r the s p i r i t . At the end o f the t a l e , t h e r e is no i n d i c a t i o n w h e t h e r he w ould e v e r r e g a i n h i s m en tal h e a l t h a g a i n , nor is t h e r e any g u a r a n t e e t h a t he w ould n ot be c a l l e d away by the fox s p i r i t a g a i n . When he is found by h i s s u p e r i o r , a l l he can u t t e r is the f o x ' s name A z i . G iv e n more tim e in the empty g r a v e w i t h the f o x , Wang w ould be l i k e l y to lo se h i s i d e n t i t y as w e l l as h i s human t r a i t s . The fo x s p i r i t h e r e d e f i n i t e l y g i v e s a m y s t e r i o u s , p o w e r f u l , but n e g a t i v e im p r e s s io n . A n o th e r im p o r ta n t iss u e w h ic h is c l o s e l y r e l a t e d to the fo x s p i r i t is i t s a f f i n i t y f o r sex ual p l e a s u r e s w i t h humans. I have m e n tio n e d in the p r e v i o u s pages t h a t h a v in g sex r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h humans is one o f the b e s t way f o r a fo x s p i r i t to enhance i t s v i t a l e n e r g y . T h e r e a r e numerous t a l e s t h a t d i s c l o s e the lewd c h a r a c t e r o f the a n i m a l . To c o n t i n u e the p r e v i o u s s t o r y , now Wang r e c o l l e c t s what has happened to him when he f i r s t sees the f o x : 1 45 Wang s a i d , "When the fo x f i r s t a p p e a r e d , she was a t the c o r n e r o f the house n e a r the c h i c k e n ' s den . She was a n i c e and b e a u t i f u l woman c a l l i n g h e r s e l f by the name o f A z i . M ore than once, she came and b eckoned . S u d d e n ly I f o l l o w e d h e r a lo n g and she became my w i f e . We w ere t o g e t h e r day and n i g h t . We r e t u r n e d to h e r house t o g e t h e r . . . . I was e x t r e m e l y h a p p y . . . . " % f$ j 9 /f£ ^ 4^ 4^ % % % ■ & % f t j f r Wz # — „ % ^ « , Not o n l y the fe m a le fo x s p i r i t s have a f f i n i t y f o r humans, but a l s o the m ale ones. In Tao Q i a n ' s A Segue I to th e Record o f S p i r i t s , t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l e n t r i e s in w h ic h m ale fo x s p i r i t s a r e shown to have s e x u al r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h m o r t a l women. In the C o unty o f Wu, t h e r e was a man named Gu J i a n . W h ile he was h u n t i n g on a h i l l , s u d d e n ly he h e a rd p e o p le t a l k i n g , s a y in g t h a t t h i s y e a r would be a bad y e a r . He and h i s f r i e n d s began to s e a rc h (w h e re the n o is e had come f r o m ) . On the h i l l t o p , t h e r e was an anim al t r a p w h ic h used to be an a n c i e n t g r a v e . T h e r e , an o l d fo x was s q u a t t i n g . In f r o n t o f him , t h e r e was a r e c o r d book. The o l d an im al was c o u n t in g h i s f i n g e r s a t the b oo k. He seemed to be s p e c u l a t i n g (on s o m e t h in g ) . Gu l e t o u t h i s dogs w h ic h r o a r e d and k i l l e d i t . He to o k o u t th e r e c o r d book and saw t h a t t h e r e w ere names o f women t h a t the fo x had ra p e d . The ones who had been rap ed were c i r c l e d a t th e top w i t h r e d . The names l i s t e d came up to a h u n d re d . G u ' s d a u g h t e r ' s name was r i g h t t h e r e on the n e x t p a g e . (Gan Bao, 1009) 1 46 ft V A 4- ■ & } ^ ^ % >k- -ir 2 -& /f > ! t , A l l th e o l d fo x is c o n c e rn e d w i t h h e r e is sex and young g i r l s . B e s id e s i t s l a s c i v i o u s n a t u r e , the t a l e a l s o h i n t s o f a fo x s p i r i t ' s power to p r e d i c t . At the b e g in n i n g o f th e t a l e , the s p i r i t has c a l c u l a t e d t h a t s o m eth in g e v i l w ou ld f a l l on him t h a t y e a r . Fox s p i r i t s , l i k e Count D r a c u la in the w e s t , a r e l i n k e d m o s t ly w i t h women f o r t h e i r p l e a s u r e and s u r v i v a l . D r a c u la a t t r a c t s young and b e a u t i f u l women who w i l l i n g l y o f f e r t h e i r p h y s ic a l essence and e n e r g y - - t h e i r b l o o d - - t o him . C h in e s e fo x s p i r i t s do th e same t h i n g as D r a c u l a . They t u r n th e m s e lv e s i n t o handsome and e d u c a te d young men who v i s i t the women, and coax them i n t o i l l i c i t r e l a t i o n s h i p s . I t is th ro u g h th e s e sexual r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h a human t h a t b o th m ale and fe m a le fo x s p i r i t s a r e a b l e to a t t a i n v i t a l s p i r i t and i m m o r t a l i t y . Hence s in c e the a n c i e n t p e r i o d , t h e r e is a c l o s e l i n k betw een fox s p i r i t s and young m o r t a l s in Ch i nese f i c t i o n . Fox s p i r i t s , even though th e y have a t t a i n e d c e r t a i n s u p e r n a t u r a l power such as the power to t r a n s f o r m and p r e d i c t , s t i l l possess c e r t a i n an im a l t r a i t s . F i r s t th e y a r e a f r a i d o f dogs. In many o f th e s u p e r n a t u r a l t a l e s , th e fo x s p i r i t s , no m a t t e r what form th e y have tr a n s f o r m e d th e m s e lv e s i n t o , can n o t escape the eyes o f the d o g s. I t 1 47 w ou ld be the end o f the fo x s p i r i t s i f th e y a r e l e f t to the m ercy o f the h u n t i n g d og s. E x c e p t io n s happen o n l y when the fo x s p i r i t is o v e r one thousand y e a r s o f a g e , a t w h ic h tim e even the dogs can do n o t h i n g abo ut i t . A t t h i s s t a g e , b u r n in g a p i e c e o f t h o u s a n d - y e a r - o l d wood w ould cause the s p i r i t to resume i t s shape. Foxes a r e a l s o known f o r t h e i r s u s p i c i o u s , c u n n in g and g r e e d y n a t u r e s . A t a l e from The Book o f S p i r i ts and Ma rv e I s c a l l e d "Wang Sheng" 3 -^ L wr i t te n in the Tang D y n a s ty ( 6 1 8 - 9 0 6 ) f u l l y d i s p l a y s the t r i c k y s id e o f the an im al (L i Fang, X, 4 5 3 : 3 6 9 9 - 7 0 ) . A man has s t o l e n a c e l e s t i a l document % from a fox who d e c id e s to r e t r i e v e i t by any means. I t fo r g e s a l e t t e r in the m an's m o t h e r 's hand, t e l l i n g th e young man to s e l l a l l h i s b u s in e s s and come home bec au se she is d y i n g . The m essenger who comes w i t h the l e t t e r c o n fir m s t h a t h i s m o th e r is d e a d . Q u i c k l y th e p r o t a g o n i s t s e l l s e v e r y t h i n g he h a s . Because o f h i s h a s t e , he can n o t g e t what he d e s e r v e s . On h i s way home, he comes a c ro s s h i s w hole f a m i l y who has r e c e i v e d h i s l e t t e r t e l l i n g them to s e l l e v e r y t h i n g a t home and come to meet him . Hence, the f a m i l y ends up lo s i n g much o f t h e i r p r o p e r t y , and is l e f t w i t h o u t aim in betw een two p l a c e s . A t the end, the fo x s p i r i t d i s g u i s e s h i m s e l f as th e p r o t a g o n i s t ' s b r o t h e r who has been away f o r a long t i m e . T h i s way he r e t r i e v e s h i s 148 document and goes away s a t i s f i e d w i t h r e v e n g e . The fox s p i r i t in t h i s s t o r y is not o n l y t r i c k y b u t a l s o i n t e l l i g e n t . Ju s t look a t th e way he m a n i p u l a t e s th e man and h i s f a m i l y , w i t h o u t b e in g o b n o x io u s o r d a n g e ro u s . The s t o r y p r o v i d e s some fun and e n t e r t a i n m e n t to the r e a d e r , y e t i t does not f a i l to expose to us th e power o f the s p i r i t - - i t is l i t e r a t e and c l e v e r . Foxes d i s g u i s e d as s c h o l a r s a r e a l s o common in a n c i e n t s u p e r n a t u r a l t a l e s . Sometimes th e y a p p e a r as o l d p e d a n t i c s c h o la r s l i k e D r . Hu (Hu has the same p r o n u n c i a t i o n as the word fo x in C h in e s e ) in T he Re c o rd s o f Sp i r i t s . Or th e y w ould a p p e a r as a young handsome s c h o la r d i s c u s s i n g p h i lo s o p h y and p o l i t i c s w i t h famous o f f i c i a l s a t c o u r t . M o ra l c u l t i v a t i o n and s c h o l a s t i c a c h ie v e m e n t tend to be the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e fo x s p i r i t s . A l t h o u g h we see p i g , monkey, and b i r d s p i r i t s t u r n in t o humans, y e t th e y do so o n l y f o r the p u rp o se o f food o r s e x . But fo xes l i k e to d i s p l a y t h e i r t a l e n t s and c h a l l e n g e t h e i r opp onen ts in l i t e r a r y a b i l i t y . Sometimes t h i s a c t o f showing o f f c o s ts th e s p i r i t i t s l i f e as in the s t o r y m e n tio n e d e a r l i e r w i t h th e t h o u s a n d - y e a r - o l d w ood. Fox s p i r i t s a r e a l s o fond o f r i d i c u l i n g th e proud and the g r e e d y . The anim al s p i r i t sometimes w o u ld t r a n s f o r m i n t o a c e r t a i n shape s im p ly f o r th e fun o f i t . T h e r e a r e 1 49 t h r e e t a l e s in the fo x s e c t i o n in th e T a i p i n g M i s c e l l a n y in w h ic h the fo x t r a n s f o r m s i t s e l f i n t o Buddha h i m s e l f r e c e i v i n g o f f e r i n g s and r e s p e c t s from th e d e v o te d D p a t r o n s . In one i n c i d e n t , the fo x s p i r i t d i s g u i s e s i t s e l f i n t o the T a o i s t s a i n t , the Supreme O ld R u l e r f o r a g good cause ( I X , 4 4 9 : 3 7 6 2 - 7 3 ) . The s t o r y b e g in s when a f o x - t u r n e d woman goes to a T a o i s t p r i e s t to l e a r n h i s m agic a r t . In t h r e e y e a r s ' t im e , the p r i e s t has no more to te a c h h e r . Hence she asks p e r m i s s i o n to le a v e w h ic h is r e j e c t e d . She th en a d m its f r a n k l y h e r i d e n t i t y as a f o x . Im m e d ia t e ly , the p r i e s t u t i l i z e s h i s m agic power to s u b ju g a t e the an im al who s t r a n g e l y enough e x c e l s h e r m en to r w i t h h e r a r t . In o r d e r to c a t c h th e s p i r i t , the p r i e s t s e t s up an a l t a r , p ra y s to h i s t e a c h e r Lao Zhun -^r ^ , and asks f o r h e l p . A t l e n g t h , Lao Zhun a p p e a rs w i t h a h e a v e n l y g u a rd who c u t s the fo x in h a l f w i t h h i s sword. W h i le the p r i e s t is f e e l i n g happy and s a t i s f i e d , he sees Lao Zhun t u r n i n g i n t o the fo x s p i r i t h e r s e l f and w a l k i n g away from the a l t a r . T h i s s h o r t t a l e shows the power and p a t i e n c e o f the fo x s p i r i t . O b v i o u s l y , we have h e r e a d i s c i p l i n e d s p i r i t w h ic h is o n l y i n t e r e s t e d in c u l t i v a t i n g and t r a i n i n g i t s e l f . But bec au se she is f e m a le , h e r a c h ie v e m e n t is not v a l u e d in f r o n t o f the t e a c h e r ' s e y e s . The p r i e s t h e r e is p o r t r a y e d as a b e in g w i t h no u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h i s d i s c i p l e who has s e rv e d him 150 f o r t h r e e y e a r s . As soon as he f i n d s out t h a t she is a f o x , he aims to k i l l h e r . On the c o n t r a r y , the f o x , who has more power and who is more s k i l l f u l in the p r a c t i c e o f b l a c k m a g ic , o n l y r i d i c u l e s him a t the end w i t h o u t any i n t e n t i o n o f h u r t i n g him . T h i s s t o r y does g i v e a somewhat p o s i t i v e s id e o f the s p i r i t , as an u n h a r m f u l , and d i s c i p l i n e d g e n tlew o m an . A lth o u g h most fo x s p i r i t s a r e lewd and g l u t t o n o u s in the e a r l y t a l e s , y e t t h e r e a r e a few f i n e o n e s . In "Chen F e i " ^ , a fo x s p i r i t saves h i s b e n e f a c t o r ' s l i f e by b l o c k i n g the m u r d e r e r (Tao Q ia n , 1 0 1 0 ) . The c e l e s t i a l fo x in "Yuan J i a Ze" ^ o f f e r s h i s p r e d i c t i o n to the l i a i s o n o f f i c e r who g e t s prom oted to be a g o v e r n o r a few y e a r s l a t e r . The fo x in " L i Zu L ia n g " t & f t o f f e r s the rew ard o f an o f f i c i a l p o s t to Li i f he w ould r e t u r n h i s c e l e s t i a l d o c u m e n t . 10 The two most to u c h in g s t o r y from the e a r l i e r p e r i o d a r e " J i Jen" from T he R ecor ds o f a P a la c e Chambe r % ■ & , and "M iss Jen" ' (•i. & from the Tang D y n a s t y . 11 Both t a l e s a r e c e n t e r e d on a fe m a le fo x s p i r i t who m a r r i e s th e man she loves and o f f e r s h e r w h o le l i f e to him . The fo x s p i r i t M is s Li $ in " J i Jen" f o l l o w s h e r husband in h i s p ost l e a v i n g h e r homeland and f a m i l y . She is a l s o a d i s c i p l i n e d woman f o r she p e rs u a d e s h e r husband Ji Jen to g i v e up s e n s e le s s and e x p e n s iv e T a o i s t p r a c t i c e . For 151 tw e n ty y e a r s , Li f u l f i l l s the d u t y o f an o b e d ie n t and d i l i g e n t w i f e , g i v i n g h e r husband seven sons and two d a u g h t e r s . Her love and d e v o t i o n f o r h e r husband and c h i l d r e n a r e d i s p l a y e d f u l l y in th e l a s t scene when she One e v e n in g , s e n d in g the o t h e r s away, she h e l d h i s han ds. Sobbin g and c r y i n g , she s a i d , "I know d e a t h is h e r e f o r me. Now, 1 want to t e l l you w h a t ' s in my h e a r t even though i t is a shame. I w is h t h a t you w i l l be g e n ero u s to f o r g i v e me, th e n I ' d a b l e to t e l l you e v e r y t h i n g . ” A t t h i s , she c o u ld not h e l p sob b in g and s i g h i n g . Her husband to o , was c r y i n g . He c o m fo r te d h e r and she c o n t i n u e d , "I know t h a t you a r e not happy w i t h me f o r th e one s e n te n c e I ' v e s a i d . Y e t when I see ou r n in e c h i l d r e n , I r e a l i z e t h a t th e y w ould be a b urden to you. I f e e l t h a t I s h o u ld t e l l you s o m e th in g . I am not human. I t ' s h e a v e n 's w i l l t h a t I s h o u ld be y o u r w i f e . F o r t h i s r e a s o n , I ' v e s e rv e d you f o r tw e n ty y e a r s even though I am a f o x . D u r in g t h i s t im e , I ' v e not d i s p l e a s e d you in the s m a l l e s t t h i n g , no r have I caused any t r o u b l e because I am not y o u r k i n d . I ' v e done e v e r y t h i n g I c o u ld to show a woman's d e v o t i o n . Today I ask f o r le a v e , not d a r i n g to burden you w i t h e v i l s p i r i t anym ore. The young c h i l d r e n in f r o n t o f our eyes a r e a l l human and th e y a r e y o u r h e i r s . When I b r e a t h e my l a s t , t r y to c o n s id e r t h e i r g e n t l e h e a r t s . P le a s e d o n ' t t r e a t my bones as yo u r enemy. I t w ould be a hun dred l i f e ' s b l e s s i n g i f you w o u ld b u r y my w h o le body in the d i r t " (3 7 0 9 ) d i e s . 152 it& € ■ i% it an. f * R3/-& y <T. i i . # -■ va « f & ^ . “ f f «• « ! # ? / - 3 " 9 £ t - ® - - T h i s is one o f the f i r s t s t o r i e s in w h ic h the a u t h o r in te n d e d to merge th e i d e n t i t y o f th e fo x s p i r i t w i t h t h a t o f a d e v o te d w i f e and m o t h e r . T h i s fo x s p i r i t M is s Li is d i f f e r e n t from th e t y p i c a l ones in t h a t she does no t possess any s u p e r n a t u r a l power a t a l l . She does not p r e d i c t the f u t u r e , nor does she h e l p h e r husband in h i s c a r e e r . In the t a l e , we a r e o n l y t o l d t h a t she is a v e r y b e a u t i f u l woman, who s ta y s young and l o v e l y even in h e r o l d ag e . T h a t is the o n l y " a b n o rm a l" t h in g in th e t a l e ab o u t h e r i f we i n s i s t on f i n d i n g a n y . She is v e r y human in the p h y s i c a l s e n se, t h a t she g i v e s b i r t h to c h i l d r e n , r a i s e s a f a m i l y , c a t c h e s a d i s e a s e a t an o l d age and f i n a l l y d i e s . I f she has n o t d i s c l o s e d h e r i d e n t i t y and has not changed i n t o a fo x a f t e r h e r d e a t h , h e r fo x i d e n t i t y w ould n e v e r have been known. I t w o u ld n o t have made any d i f f e r e n c e i f she w ere human a t a l l . The p u rpose o f the a u t h o r h e r e is q u i t e c l e a r : he was g l o r i f y i n g a v i r t u o u s woman who has d e v o te d h e r lo ve and h e r l i f e to the man she lo v e s . W h e th e r she is a fo x o r h u m an -b e in g is n o t i m p o r t a n t , the im p o r ta n t issue is h er f e e l i n g s f o r her man and f a m i l y . Her b e in g o n l y an an im al adds em phasis to the woman's m e r i t s . 153 T h e re is a n o t h e r t a l e s i m i l a r to th e " Ji Jen" t a l e c a l l e d "M iss Jen" w r i t t e n by Shen J i J i ' n p \ ( c a . 1 2 7 5 0 - 8 0 0 ) in the Tang D y n a s t y . "M iss Jen" is by f a r one o f the b e s t w r i t t e n fo x t a l e s in C h in a . I t is a lo n g e r t a l e in w h ic h c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n is more c o n v in c in g and r e a l i s t i c . The a u t h o r ' s e y e w itn e s s c l a i m and f r e e - f l o w i n g s t y l e draw the r e a d e r s i n t o h i s t a l e . The r e a d e r looks th ro u g h a camera w i t h th e a u t h o r , o b s e r v in g and f o l l o w i n g the l i f e o f the fo x s p i r i t M is s J e n — a w i t t y , f r i e n d l y , l o v i n g , g e n e r o u s , and t r u s t - w o r t h y woman. A b r i e f s y n o p s is o f th e s t o r y goes l i k e t h i s . Zheng, who is fond o f w in e and women, happens to come a c ro s s M is s Jen on the road one d a y . He is v e r y a t t r a c t e d by h e r and th e y go to h e r house t o g e t h e r . The n e x t m o r n in g , Zheng f i n d s out from a n e ig h b o r t h a t she is a fo x s p i r i t . Y e t he s t i l l w ants h e r because o f h e r b e a u t y . For some tim e , she has d i s a p p e a r e d u n t i l one day Zheng comes upon h e r in a m a rk e t s t r e e t . M is s Jen is q u i t e ashamed o f h e r fox i d e n t i t y , and she t r i e s to a v o id him . I t is o n l y a f t e r Zheng has e x p re s s e d h i s s i n c e r i t y in t h e i r f r i e n d s h i p t h a t she a g re e s to l i v e w i t h h im . T h i s a rra n g e m e n t is d i s c l o s e d to Z h e n g 's b e s t f r i e n d W e i, an u n d i s c i p l i n e d man in m oral c o n d u c t. He d e c id e s to go see M is s Jen who is s a i d to have unequal b e a u t y . When he sees h e r , he loves h e r so much t h a t he t r i e s to rape h e r on th e s p o t . She 154 s t r u g g l e s and a t l a s t is a b l e to c o n v in c e him t h a t i t is Zheng t h a t she loves and what f r i e n d s h i p is a l l a b o u t. A f t e r t h a t , Zheng, Jen and Wei become v e r y good f r i e n d s . M is s Jen a l s o h e lp s Zheng to make money in b u s in e s s by u s in g h e r t a l e n t in p r e d i c t i o n . At the end, when Zheng has to le a v e town f o r a p o s t , she r e f u s e s to go w i t h him , s a y in g t h a t i t is ominous f o r h e r to go in t h a t d i r e c t i o n t h a t y e a r . The two men manage to c o n v in c e h e r to le a v e . On the way, th e y meet a h u n t i n g g ro u p w i t h h u n t i n g d og s. M is s Jen f a l l s from h e r h o r s e , and t u r n s i n t o a fo x w h ic h is o v e r t a k e n and k i l l e d by th e dogs. In the t a l e , th e a u t h o r Shen f i r s t p r e s e n t e d h e r as an a r c h e t y p a l fo x la d y . He s t a r t s h i s s t o r y w i t h the w o rd s: "M iss Jen was a fe m a le s p e c t r e " ^ . In the f i r s t sce ne, th e b e a u t i f u l fe m a le p r o t a g o n i s t f l i r t s w i t h Zheng, lu r e s him home and spends the n i g h t w i t h him . M is s Jen a l s o possesses s u p e r n a t u r a l power l i k e the t r a d i t i o n a l f o x e s . When she w an ts to re p a y W e i ’ s love f o r h e r , she manages to a t t a i n the women he w ants f o r h i s p l e a s u r e . She a l s o uses h e r power o f p r e d i c t i o n to e a rn some g o ld f o r Zheng. Y e t on the o t h e r hand, M is s Jen is a l s o v e r y human. She knows h e r p l a c e as a f o x , and is ashamed o f i t . A f t e r th e f i r s t n i g h t , she t r i e s to a v o id Zheng because she does not t h i n k h e r s e l f good enough f o r th e man. But once Zheng 155 swears e t e r n a l love f o r h e r even though she is not human, she d e v o te s h e r s e l f t o t a l l y to Zheng who is poor and i n s i g n i f i c a n t . She s t r u g g l e s w i t h h e r l i f e to r e p e l W e i 's sex u al a d v a n c e . W e i, a r i c h man o f power and fame, can not move h e r h e a r t away from Zheng. But when Wei changes h i s a t t i t u d e tow a rd h e r , she a p p r e c i a t e s h i s k in d n e s s . She does e v e r y t h i n g she can to r e p a y h i s f r i e n d s h i p . M is s Jen is a s e n s i t i v e woman who sees what is r i g h t and w rong, and who knows k in d n e s s when b e s to w e d . She is g e n ero u s to w ard h e r b e n e f a c t o r s , and she shows g r e a t c o n s i d e r a t i o n f o r o t h e r s . A t th e end, though knowing t h a t i t w ould be i n a u s p ic i o u s f o r h e r to le a v e w i t h Zheng, she a g re e s to go w i t h him when he begs h e r t o . H e re is a d e v o te d woman who w ould r a t h e r p u t h e r l i f e a t s t a k e than d is o b e y o r c o n t r a d i c t h e r l o v e r . U n l i k e the t r a d i t i o n a l fo x l a d i e s who w ould h u r t t h e i r mates in o r d e r to b e n e f i t th e m s e lv e s , M is s Jen does the o p p o s it e t h i n g - - s h e g i v e s up h e r own l i f e f o r h e r m an's p l e a s u r e ! The a u t h o r Shen commented a t th e end o f th e t a l e t h a t even the humans la c k th e v i r t u e o f f i d e l i t y and s e l f - s a c r i f i c e w h ic h a r e found in M is s Jen. In the s t o r y , M is s J e n 's an im a l i d e n t i t y is o n l y known to Zheng but no t to W e i. Zheng does not even t r y to t h i n k why M is s Jen, a young and a t t r a c t i v e woman w o u ld be w i l l i n g to spend h e r l i f e w i t h a p o o r and i n s i g n i f i c a n t 1 56 man l i k e him . He does not a p p r e c i a t e M is s J e n 's love and f a i t h f u l n e s s . To him , M is s Jen is o n l y h i s f a v o r i t e c o n c u b in e . In the s t o r y , we can say t h a t he does not know M is s Jen a t a l l . W e i ' s case is d i f f e r e n t . He is a loose man and has e x p e r ie n c e d many o t h e r women in h is l i f e . A lt h o u g h in the b e g i n n i n g , he i s , l i k e Zheng, a t t r a c t e d by h e r b e a u t y , y e t l a t e r , he is more a t t r a c t e d to h e r by h e r p e r s o n a l i t y . Her words d u r i n g the rape to u ch him in th e h e a r t and f o r t h i s he r e l e a s e s h e r . I r e a l l y f e e l s o r r y f o r Z h e n g ! . . . Though h e ' s a f u l l s i x f e e t t a l l , he c a n ' t even p r o t e c t a woman. H e 's no r e a l man! Y o u 'v e had c o u ra g e and w e a l t h s in c e y o u t h , and have ta k e n many b e a u t i e s , most o f whom must have been b e t t e r th an I . But Zheng is poor and I am a I I t h a t he can c a l l h i s c o n t e n t m e n t . How can you , in s e e k in g to in d u lg e y o u r s e l f even f u r t h e r , ta k e from someone who has n e v e r had enough? I f e e l s o r r y , because h e ' s so p o o r and h u n g ry and c a n ' t s u p p o rt h i m s e l f , b ecause he w ears y o u r c l o t h e s , e a t s y o u r fo o d , and is h u m i l i a t e d by yo u . I f he c o u ld e a r n h i s own l i v i n g , t h in g s w o u ld n e v e r have g o t t e n t h i s w ay. (Ma and Lau, 342) Jen is an u n d e r s t a n d i n g , k i n d , and lo v i n g woman. When she loves a man, she w o u ld d e v o te h e r l i f e to him . 157 H ence, Wei r e s p e c t s h e r th e m o re. Now, he w an ts to ta k e good c a r e o f h e r , and sees to h e r n e e d s . He does t h i s out o f r e s p e c t , t r u s t and lo ve f o r the woman. M is s Jen to him is a r a r e woman who po s sesse s b e a u ty and r ig h t e o u s n e s s a t the same t i m e . A f t e r h e r d e a t h , he i n s i s t s on s e e in g h e r body f o r th e l a s t t im e . T h e re can be two p o s s i b l e reasons f o r t h i s . F i r s t , he can not b e l i e v e Z h e n g 's words t h a t M is s Jen has been a f o x . For t h i s he is c u r i o u s and w o u ld l i k e to see i t h i m s e l f . The second p o s s i b l e reason is t h a t he m is s e s h e r so much t h a t he w ants to see h e r f o r th e l a s t t im e . We can say t h a t he m ig h t have gone to h e r g r a v e f o r b o th r e a s o n s . At h er g r a v e , he mourns f o r h e r f o r a long tim e b e f o r e r e t u r n i n g home w i t h Zheng. Between the two men, Wei seems to u n d e r s ta n d and a p p r e c i a t e s M is s Jen m ore. On the c o n t r a r y , Zheng, who is h e r husband and is c l o s e r to h e r , can not a p p r e c i a t e and e n j o y h e r as a p e r s o n . These l a s t two s t o r i e s , " J i Jen" and "M iss Jen" c a r r y r e v o l u t i o n a r y ideas on the image o f th e t r a d i t i o n a l fo x l a d y . M is s Li and M is s Jen open up a w i d e r p r o s p e c t in c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n f o r the l a t e r a u t h o r s o f fo x t a l e s . M o r e o v e r , v i x e n s now a r e not t o t a l l y lewd, o r c u n n in g . They can be k i n d , s i n c e r e , and g e n e ro u s as humans. 1 58 T h e Fox S p i r i t s in Pu Song l i ng ' s L i a o z h a i Zh i y i I t can be s a i d t h a t Pu had w r i t t e n the most number o f fo x t a l e s up to h i s tim e in h i s one c o l l e c t i o n o f L i aozha i Z h i y i . T h e re a r e s e v e n t y one fox t a l e s in h i s book. These fo x s p i r i t s can be p u t i n t o t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s : the good, th e e v i l , and the a m b i v a l e n t on e s. The a m b iv a le n t ones a r e the ones t h a t a r e used to em phasize a s a t i r i c v i e w p o i n t such as the one in th e t a l e named HA C e r t a i n O f f i c e r " \ from volume 12 ( 2 , 1 7 0 4 - 0 5 ) , and "The T h i e v e s " ^ ¥ in volume 8 ( 2 , 1 0 8 6 - 8 7 ) . The fo x s p i r i t in the f i r s t s t o r y d a r e s speak th e t r u t h in c o n t r a s t to o t h e r s who a r e t i m i d and q u i e t . The fo x in "The T h ie v e s " is used as a m o u th p ie c e a g a i n s t the impotence o f th e governm ent o f f i c i a l s a t t h a t tim e . The fo x s p i r i t from th e t a l e "The U g ly Fox" in volume 8 is a l s o an a m b i v a l e n t c h a r a c t e r ( 2 , 1 1 0 7 - 0 9 ) . She is b o th good and bad . She is good to Mu when he a g re e s to love h e r . E v e r y t im e she comes, she w i l l g i v e p r e s e n t s o f g o ld and s i l k to the e n t i r e h o u s e h o ld . Y e t when Mu g e t s t i r e d o f h e r and p la n s to g e t r i d o f h e r , she ta k e s f u l l revenge on him . She h u r t s him p h y s i c a l l y w i t h a w i l d c a t ; she r u i n s h i s home, and s n a tc h e s a l l h i s p r o p e r t y , c a u s in g him to be as poor as he has bee n . 159 "The fo x S p i r i t C h a s t i s e s the Lewd" % *<****?% from volume 6 has a n o t h e r a m b i v a l e n t c h a r a c t e r ( 1 # 8 4 9 - 5 1 ) . In the t a l e , t h e r e is a t y p i c a l c u n n in g and d an g e ro u s fox s p i r i t . I t damages the new l a n d l o r d ' s c l o t h e s and p u ts d i r t in h i s fo o d . M o r e o v e r , i t s e c r e t l y p l a c e s a p h r o d i s i a c s in th e m i s t r e s s ' food when th e m a s t e r is away. The m i s t r e s s has to run to h e r g u e s t who i n s u l t s and r e f u s e s h e r . She a lm o s t d i e s o f shame a f t e r w a r d s . Y e t the r e a d e r must no t be d i s t r a c t e d j u s t by the f o x ' s bad b e h a v i o r , he must a l s o be aw are o f why the fo x is a c t i n g t h a t way tow ard the humans. The two fo x s p i r i t s m e n tio n e d above a r e a c t u a l l y t e a c h i n g the men a le s s o n and d o in g them a f a v o r - - t h a t th e y s h o u ld v a l u e g e n u in e lo ve to m o n e ta r y g a in s and mere p h y s i c a l p l e a s u r e . By u s in g a fox w h ic h is lewd in c h a r a c t e r to p u n is h a lewd human b e i n g , Pu showed h i s s k i l l f u l hand in w r i t i n g s a t i r e s . Can t h e r e be a w orse man when even the lewd fo x t h i n k s he is l a s c i v i o u s ? These in -b e tw e e n fo x c h a r a c t e r s above a r e im p o r ta n t c h a r a c t e r s f o r Pu f o r th e y h e l p him to i l l u s t r a t e h i s v ie w o f l i f e and comment on th e moral c h a r a c t e r o f men. In a s e n s e , th e s e fo x e s a r e good fo x es to Pu f o r th e y know what is r i g h t and w ro ng, w h i l e the m o r t a l s in the t a l e s do n o t . These fo x s p i r i t s a c t as P u ' s d i d a c t i c a g e n ts to p u n is h the bad and th e im m oral. 160 P u 1s e v i l fo x c h a r a c t e r s a r e v e r y t r a d i t i o n a l , so much so t h a t th e y a r e s im p ly r e p e t i t i o n s o f t h e i r p r e d e c e s s o r s . A few exam ples o f th e s e n e g a t i v e fo x c h a r a c t e r s from Li a o z h a i a r e found in : "The Boy from J i a F a m ily " , " S c h o la r D o n g " HL , "M iss Hu, the F o u r t h " , "The Lady kn i g h t - e r r a n t " t " S c h o la r J i " , "The F arm er" ^ , "The T a o i s t P r i e s t J i a o M in g " ^ , e t c . T he se bad fo x s p i r i t s u s u a l l y b e w i t c h and possess t h e i r v i c t i m s , r u i n i n g t h e i r h e a l t h and c a u s in g the f a m i l y c o n c e r n . In most o f th e s e t a l e s , the fo x s p i r i t s a r e e x o r c i s e d by a T a o i s t p r i e s t o r a h e l p e r who d r i v e s away o r k i l l s the s p i r i t . Many o f th e s e bad s p i r i t s d i e o f l a s c i v i o u s n e s s . In "The Boy from J i a F a m i l y , " th e young boy k i l l s the fo x because he b e w itc h e s h i s m o t h e r , and f o r c e s h e r i n t o an i l l i c i t r e l a t i o n s h i p . The fo x in "The Farm er" a l s o has h i s eyes on a young g i r l . The fe m a le fo xes in " S c h o la r Dong" and "M iss Hu, the F o u r t h " a r e a l l out t h e r e to c a t c h t h e i r v i c t i m s . In " S c h o la r D o n g ," though the fo x la d y is s u c c e s s fu l in a s s i m i l a t i n g the v i t a l s p i r i t from th e s c h o l a r and c a u s in g h i s d e a t h a t the end, y e t she is in r e t u r n avenged by a n o th e r man. T h i s second man ta k e s the p l a c e o f the e x o r c i s t in d e s t r o y i n g the fo x la d y . "M iss Hu, the F o u r t h " is an i n t e r e s t i n g s t o r y t h a t in the same s t o r y , t h e r e a r e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y good and bad fo x 161 l a d i e s ( 1 , i i : 2 0 1 - 0 4 ) . F i r s t t h e r e is M is s Hu, the F o u r t h , a good f o x . Then i t is h e r o l d e r s i s t e r , M is s Hu, the T h i r d , who p la n s to k i l l the s c h o la r a f t e r th e y have m e t. A lt h o u g h M is s Hu, the F o u r t h t r u l y loves the man, saves him from h e r v i c i o u s s i s t e r , she is a s t o n i s h e d to f i n d t h a t he is a g a in b e w itc h e d by a n o t h e r f o x . Both s i s t e r s , a t t h i s tim e j o i n f o r c e s to save him from the t h i r d s p i r i t . Pu had a l o t o f fun h e r e , c o n f u s in g the r e a d e r w i t h b o th good and bad fo x e s r e a c t i n g w i t h one man. T h i s is one o f the ways in w h ic h Pu made h i s s t o r i e s i n t e r e s t i n g , f i l l i n g them w i t h e x c it e m e n t and s u s p en se . A s i m i l a r s t o r y as th e above can be found in volume 6, "Zhou S a n " i i ( 1 , 8 3 7 - 3 8 ) . In t h i s s t o r y , a m an 's house is p e s t e r e d by a fo x s p i r i t . The m a s te r o f th e house asks a n o t h e r fo x to p e r f o r m the e x o r c is m . The second fox r e f u s e s because he t h i n k s t h a t t h e r e is a n o t h e r fo x who is b e t t e r q u a l i f i e d f o r the j o b . He recommends a t h i r d f o x , who a f t e r th e e x o r c is m , s t a y s a t the m a s t e r ' s house f o r good. Both "M iss Hu, the F o u r t h " and "Zhou San" i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e r e a r e d e f i n i t e l y d i f f e r e n t ranks e x i s t i n g among the fo x s p i r i t s . As I have d is c u s s e d e a r l i e r , t h e r e a r e fo x f a i r i e s , and fo x s p i r i t s . The f i r s t g ro u p have d e v o te d more y e a r s to t h e i r T a o i s t t r a i n i n g and hence th e y a r e more p o w e r fu l than th e second ones who a r e j u s t b e g in n i n g t h e i r s . The d i f f e r e n c e in r a n k in the fo x 162 s p i r i t s a l l o w s Pu to c r e a t e i n t e r e s t i n g s t o r i e s w h ic h sometimes a c t as a r e f l e c t i o n o f th e human w o r ld t h a t has b o th p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e c h a r a c t e r s . P u 's fo x t a l e s a r e d i f f e r e n t from th e c o l l e c t i o n found in T a i p i n g M i s c e l l a n y in t h a t th e l a t t e r c o n t a i n s m e r e l y a n e c d o te s abo ut fo x e v e n ts and m y t h i c a l t a l e s in a n c i e n t d a y s . P u 's t a l e s a r e more c r e a t i v e and i n t e r e s t i n g . H is fo x t a l e s a r e a c t u a l l y r e f l e c t i o n s o f the s o c i a l and human c o n d i t i o n s aro u n d him . I t is the w r i t i n g o f good fo x c h a r a c t e r s t h a t Pu was b e s t a t . H is good fo x c h a r a c t e r s i n c l u d e : 1) s c h o l a r s o r e d u c a te d and r e f i n e d i n d i v i d u a l s who h e l p men in t h e i r s t u d i e s , 2) d r i n k i n g fo xes t h a t d e v e lo p w i t h men a r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t r u s t and lo v e , 3) fe m a le o r m ale fo x s p i r i t s w h ic h a s s i s t men in v a r i o u s m anners, e . g . to a c h ie v e a f o r t u n e , to d r i v e away a s h r e w is h w i f e , e t c . , and f i n a l l y , 4) s i n g l e women who become i n v o l v e d w i t h men, h e l p men in t h e i r c a r e e r , and s t a r t a f a m i l y w i t h them. S in c e th e tim e o f The R ecords o f S p i r i t s, fox s c h o la r s have been p o p u la r c h a r a c t e r s in the t a l e s . Pu p i c k e d up t h i s t r a d i t i o n but added h i s own i m a g i n a t i o n to c r e a t e new fo x s t o r i e s . In volume 3, the s t o r y "M iss Hu" ^ is a good exam ple ( 1 , 3 0 2 - 0 5 ) . M r . Hu, who is a fo x s p i r i t , t u r n s h i m s e l f i n t o an e d u c a te d man and works as a m e n to r in a p ro m in e n t m an 's hou se. Even though th e f a m i l y 163 l a t e r f i n d s o ut the m e n t o r 's fo x i d e n t i t y , th e y s t i l l r e s p e c t him because o f h i s g o o d w i l l and l i t e r a r y t a l e n t . At the end, he is even a c c e p t e d as a f a m i l y member when th e m a s te r a g re e s to m a r r y h i s son w i t h M is s Hu, M r. H u 's s i s t e r . A n o th e r s t o r y " S c h o la r Lerig" Jk from volume 6, has a t a l e n t e d fo x s p i r i t ( 1 , 8 4 7 - 4 8 ) . We do not know w h e th e r t h i s fo x is fe m a le o r m a le ; we do not even g e t to see i t s f a c e . Y e t we know i t is v e r y t a l e n t e d in books because the fox has t r a i n e d th e young r e t a r d e d s t u d e n t i n t o a q u i c k and i n t e l l i g e n t s c h o l a r . B e f o r e Leng m eets the f o x , he can not f a m i l i a r i z e h i m s e l f w i t h any one o f the g r e a t books, even a t o v e r th e age o f t w e n t y . O n ly days a f t e r th e y have been t o g e t h e r , M r . L e n g ' s t o t a l p e r s o n a l i t y is changed. He loves to make h e a r t y l a u g h t e r no m a t t e r w here he is and he can f i n i s h a good e s s a y in one s i t t i n g . A t th e end, he is remembered by the books he has w r i t t e n . " S c h o la r Guo" £ from volume 5 a l s o has an i n t e l l i g e n t and w i t t y fo x ( 1 , 6 9 6 - 9 8 ) . In t h i s t a l e , we do not see the f o x ' s fa c e e i t h e r , y e t we see i t s pen s t r o k e s . Guo, the man o f the house, is v e r y u p s e t by h is essays because th e y have been messed aro u n d by a fo x who b l o t s and c o v e rs p a r t o f them w i t h in k . S l o w l y , h i s f r i e n d s r e a l i z e t h a t the fo x was t r y i n g to c o r r e c t h i s essays by c u t t i n g th e bad p a r t s o u t . S in c e t h e n , Guo f o l l o w s th e f o x ' s i n s t r u c t i o n s and he manages to pass h i s 164 exams. A g a in , we see a s c h o l a r l y fo x g u i d i n g a m an's s t u d i e s w i t h o u t any i n t e n t i o n o f h u r t i n g him o r r e c e i v i n g any rew ards from him . E d u c a te d , t a l e n t e d , and w i t t y foxes a l s o a p p e a r in "The F o x 's J o k e " i f , "M r. Hu, the F o u r t h " '‘P 28 , "The F o x 's Q u e s t io n " , and "The O f f i c i a l I n s t r u c t o r " £? . Fox s p i r i t s a d o re d r i n k i n g . T h rou gh th e medium o f w in e , fo x s p i r i t s become good f r i e n d s w i t h humans. In volume 2, a s t o r y c a l l e d "The D r i n k i n g F r i e n d s " ^ , t h e r e is a m ale fo x s p i r i t w h ic h c a r r i e s a r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h h i s d r i n k i n g f r i e n d who is m o r t a l ( 1 , 2 1 7 - 1 9 ) . In s t e a d o f h u r t i n g him , th e s p i r i t uses h i s power o f p r e d i c t i o n to make h i s f r i e n d r i c h . "M r. Hu, the F o u rth " and "The F o x 's Joke" in volume 4 a r e t a l e s o f m ale and fe m a le fo x s p i r i t s who d r i n k and w r i t e poems w i t h t h e i r human com panions. The fo x s p i r i t in " S c h o la r J i " from volume 12 a l s o loves to s t e a l w in e and food from the m a s t e r ' s house. In volume 5, " S c h o la r Q i n " ^ - ^. d i e s because he has d r u n k some p o is o n o u s w in e . A fox s p i r i t comes by and h e a ls him s a y in g t h a t she has j u s t re s c u e d h e r husband who has d i e d o f the same c a u s e . "A S c h o la r from H e j i a n " fej Hi . in volume 6 loves to d r i n k , and so is the fo x s p i r i t t h a t l i v e s in th e d r y weeds in h i s f i e l d s . In the form o f an o l d man, the fo x goes out e v e r y n i g h t to h i s f r i e n d s ' d r i n k i n g p a r t i e s . The fo x s p i r i t in 165 "A C e r t a i n Man from J i n I i ng" ^ ~ Z * s te a Is w in e from a b r e w e r . When he is c a u g h t , he has to ta k e the b re w e r to an amorous a d v e n t u r e in o r d e r to save h i m s e l f . He re is a n o t h e r exam ple in w h ic h we see a fo x s p i r i t g e t t i n g i n t o t r o u b l e because o f h i s a f f i n i t y f o r w in e . My t h i r d c a t e g o r y o f fo x s p i r i t s in the L 8 a o zha i - - m ale or fe m a le s p i r i t s w h ic h a s s i s t humans in v a r i o u s s i tua t i ons — exc I udes love r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een s p i r i t and human. The a s s i s t a n c e r e n d e r e d by the s p i r i t s in most cases is v o l u n t a r y , and th e y a r e n o t r e w a rd e d . The s p i r i t s h e l p humans f o r the f o l l o w i n g re a s o n s : a) th e y a r e r e p a y in g what the man has done f o r them in the p a s t , b) th e y do i t t o t a l l y out o f sympathy and co m p a ssio n , o r the f e e l i n g o f i n d i g n a t i o n a t th e s i t u a t i o n , and l a s t l y , c) th e s p i r i t s a r e in v o l v e d in a v e r y t r u s t i n g and c l o s e f r i e n d s h i p w i t h the humans. The " J ia o n a " s t o r y from volume 1 is a m oving s t o r y o f f r i e n d s h i p ( 1 , 5 7 - 6 5 ) . S c h o l a r Cong is in love w i t h J ia o n a a t f i r s t s i g h t , y e t he does no t p u rs u e i t when he knows t h a t she is not a v a i l a b l e . The two g e t m a r r i e d r e s p e c t i v e l y . The f e e l i n g Gong has f o r h e r e n a b le s him to f i g h t th e m o n s t e r . In r e t u r n , J ia o n a f o r the second t im e , c u re s him and saves h i s l i f e . The two le a d a r a r e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een a man and a woman found in c l a s s i c a l t a l e s . I t is a f r i e n d s h i p based on t r u s t , lo v e , and th e w i l l to s a c r i f i c e o n e s e l f . 1 66 The s t o r y "Lady Heng" in volume 10 in v o l v e s a deep and t r u s t i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een two women, a fo x s p i r i t and a h o u s e w ife ( 2 , 1 4 3 1 - 3 5 ) . The s p i r i t , in the c o u rs e o f h e l p i n g the m i s t r e s s g a i n back h e r h u s b a n d 's h e a r t from the c o n c u b in e , has become a good f r i e n d o f the l a t t e r . T h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p is d e s c r i b e d by the s p i r i t as f t * - t t w h ic h I i t e r a l l y means "two in o n e ." Because o f th e t r u s t t h a t e x i s t s betw een th e two o f them, the s p i r i t even d i s c l o s e s to h e r good f r i e n d t h a t she is a c t u a l l y a f o x . A n o th e r good s t o r y on f r i e n d s h i p is "Ma J i e Fu" f t from volume 6 ( 1 , 7 2 1 - 3 6 ) . The fo x s p i r i t , a sworn b r o t h e r to the p r o t a g o n i s t , o u t o f com passion and love f o r him , r a i s e s h i s nephew, ta k e s c a r e o f h i s f a t h e r , and h e lp s him as much as he can to c o u n t e r a c t h i s s h re w is h w i f e . M o r e o v e r , th e s p i r i t r e s p e c t s him when he chooses n o t to condemn h i s w i f e . Though p o s s e s s in g s u p e r n a t u r a l pow er, th e s p i r i t does not ta k e the l i b e r t y to g e t r i d o f t h i s v i c i o u s woman h i m s e l f . T h i s shows t h a t he c a r e s f o r and loves M a , who is a k in d b u t c o w a r d ly man. T h i s s p i r i t , l i k e the o t h e r s p i r i t s m e n tio n e d e a r l i e r , r e c e i v e s no re w a rd f o r w hat he had done f o r h i s f r i e n d . A n o th e r m oving fo x t a l e a p p e a rs in " L i u L ia n g C a i " l a s t i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h L i u ' s f a t h e r , he d e c id e s to be ( 1 , v i : 7 9 8 - 9 9 ) . S in c e the s p i r i t has made a 167 re b o r n as h i s h e i r . H is re a s o n f o r d o in g t h a t is because L iu has n e v e r r e j e c t e d o r d e s p is e d him though he knows t h a t he is a f o x . The t r u s t and r e s p e c t L iu has bestow ed on the s p i r i t move him . In r e t u r n f o r th e f a v o r , the fo x is born as the o n l y h e i r f o r h i s f r i e n d . One can see t h a t th e s e fo x s p i r i t s a r e human in the way th e y a c t , the way th e y t h i n k , and what th e y b e l i e v e i n . They v a l u e f r i e n d s h i p , t r u s t and lo v e . For t h e s e , th e y w ould show t h e i r g r a t i t u d e w i t h w h a t e v e r th e y can do: e . g . h e a l i n g th e human o f s i c k n e s s , s a v in g a man from d e a t h , g e t t i n g a man out o f p o v e r t y , t e a c h i n g man a lesson in l i f e , w a r n in g him o f imminent d a n g e r , and h e l p i n g man to have an h e i r . O t h e r fo x s p i r i t s in " S c h o la r L e n g ," "Zhou S a n ," " S c h o la r G u o ," "The O f f i c i a l I n s t r u c t o r , " " S c h o la r Q i n , " "The T r a p " & e t c . , h e l p men s im p ly out o f t h e i r good w i l l , e i t h e r i t is o u t o f com pa ssion, o r i n d i g n a t i o n , or j u s t p l a i n e n th u s ia s m . By p r e s e n t i n g foxes w i t h human q u a l i t i e s , Pu had c r e a t e d in h i s t a l e s an i n s e p a r a b l e l i n k betw een fo x and man. T h i s is so m ething th e a u t h o r s in the p a s t had f a i l e d to do. Pu had the a b i l i t y and power to make the r e a d e r f o r g e t the i d e n t i t y o f the an im al w h i l e he is r e a d i n g . He d i d so t o t a l l y by h i s n a r r a t i v e a r t . H is d e s c r i p t i o n , s e t t i n g and d i a l o g u e s a r e v i v i d and n a t u r a l . H is fo x s p i r i t s l i v e , f e e l , la u g h , and c r y l i k e men. As a r e s u l t , 168 th e y lose t h e i r anim al i d e n t i t y and merge in w i t h t h a t o f the human. Lu Xun has s a i d in h i s book, A Br i e f H i s t o r y o f C h in e s e F i c t i o n , The S t r a n g e T a l e s o f L i a o z h a i , h o w e v e r, c o n t a i n such d e t a i l e d and r e a l i s t i c d e s c r i p t i o n s t h a t even f lo w e r s p i r i t s and fo x f a i r i e s a p p e a r human and aDDroachable f2711 The r e a d e r is so a b s o rb e d by the c h a r a c t e r s such as J ia o n a w i l l f o l l o w the s t o r y w i t h o u t p a y in g a t t e n t i o n o r rem em bering t h a t b o th c h a r a c t e r s a r e not human b u t f o x e s . T h i s is e x a c t l y the i l l u s i o n t h a t Pu t r i e d to c r e a t e in h i s t a l e s . P u 's Female Fox S p i r i t s Though Pu had w r i t t e n ab o u t b o th m ale and fe m a le fox s p i r i t s in h i s Li aozha i , y e t one can n o t f a i l to see t h a t Pu had put much more e f f o r t i n t o the fe m a le o n e s . As a m a t t e r o f f a c t , the fe m a le s p i r i t t a l e s ta k e up about e i g h t y p e r c e n t o f the t o t a l o f h i s fo x t a l e s . For t h i s and th e aun t from "Wang Cheng" ^ in volume 1, t h a t he 169 re a s o n , 1 w ould l i k e to d e v o te the l a s t p a r t o f t h i s c h a p t e r to a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h i s t o p i c . Female fo x s p i r i t s , from the e a r l y Re c o rd s o f Sp i r i t s , to the "M iss Jen" in the Tang D y n a s t y , have s l o w l y a c q u ir e d o r a d a p te d a new image in t im e . G r a d u a l l y and u n k n o w in g ly , th e y b e g in to shake o f f t h e i r n e g a t i v e and b e s t i a l q u a l i t i e s w h ic h have been a t t a c h e d to them. From the d a n g e ro u s , lewd, s e l f i s h , g r e e d y , and cu n n in g a n im a ls in the a n c i e n t t a l e s , th e y have s l o w l y become k i n d , s e l f - s a c r i f i c i n g , f a i t h f u l , s i n c e r e , and c a r i n g i n d i v i d u a l s in the l a t t e r o n e s. "M iss Jen" is a v e r y good exam ple o f my s t a t e m e n t . From th e a n a l y s i s I have p r e s e n t e d e a r l i e r , one s h o u ld n o t i c e t h a t she is the image o f p e r f e c t womanhood. V e r y l i k e l y , "M iss Jen" is one o f the t a l e s Pu had in mind when he began h i s on fe m a le fo x sp i r i t s . I t is t r u e t h a t many o f P u 's fo x e s a r e v e r y human in t h a t th e y possess human t r a i t s and r e s p e c t human v a l u e s . These human f a c t o r s in P u 's foxes a r e r e v e a l e d i n t r i c a t e l y th ro u g h s o c i a l i n j u s t i c e , and human r e l a t i o n s w i t h i n the t a l e s . We see scenes o f to u c h in g f r i e n d s h i p in " J i a o n a , " "The D r i n k i n g F r i e n d s " e t c . Gong and J ia o n a can be s a id to be the most t r u t h f u l f r i e n d s bec au se th e y w o u ld do a n y t h i n g to r e s p e c t and lo v e each o t h e r , y e t th e y a r e not i n v o l v e d s e x u a l l y . J i a o n a , the fe m a le fo x h e r e has shaken 170 o f f th e t r a d i t i o n a l lewd image t h a t has been stamped on a l l fe m a le f o x e s . A l s o many o f P u ’ s fo x e s have a sense o f human d i g n i t y . In volum e 4, in 1 1 Lady X i n , th e p o r t r a y e d as a q u i e t , s u b m i t t i n g b u t d i g n i f i e d woman ( 1 , 5 3 5 - 4 7 ) . She is no t p ro m is c u o u s f o r she r e f u s e s th e m an's a d v a n c e s , and even h i s m a r r i a g e p r o p o s a l . She o n l y y i e l d s to h i s r e q u e s t when he is bac ked up by a p o w e r f u l a u n t . A t t h i s p o i n t , though she has no c h o i c e , she i n s i s t s on a d e c e n t m a r r i a g e . I t is o b v io u s t h a t th e c h a r a c t e r o f th e fo x in t h i s t a l e . Lady X i n , is a p ro u d and d i g n i f i e d p e r s o n . Even though she is f o r c e d to m a r r y a man o f low m o ral c h a r a c t e r , she has k e p t h e r v a l u e s . She is a good w i f e in t h a t she lo v e s , and obeys h e r hu s b an d . I t is a I so th e fo x s p i r i t who saves h i s l i f e from j a i l . She is sm art to know t h a t h e r husband is n o t th e man f o r h e r . Y e t she is c o n s i d e r a t e to f i n d him a m ate b e f o r e she le a v e s . T h i s s t o r y shows th e f o x ' s lo v e , c a r e and s u b m is s io n to th e man whom she does not even lo v e , but is o n l y bound by a m a r r i a g e o a t h . Though i t is an unw anted r e l a t i o n s h i p , Lady X i n n e v e r t r i e s to use h e r s u p e r n a t u r a l power to c o n t r o l o r to d e s e r t him . She is w i l l i n g to s u b m it to w hat is r e q u i r e d o f h e r , and do i t the b e s t way she c an . The "Lady X i n " t a l e le a d s ou r d i s c u s s i o n to a fo x s p i r i t ' s r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t v a r i o u s t r e a t m e n t by the human th e fe m a le fo x p r o t a g o n i s t is 171 s o c i e t y . P u 's fo x s p i r i t s h a r b o r love and t r u s t f o r t h e i r m o r t a l f r i e n d s , y e t t h e y a l s o m a n i f e s t h a t r e d and m i s t r u s t when m i s t r e a t e d . The fo x in "The U g ly Fox" has much more human d i g n i t y th a n the man she lo v e s . A lt h o u g h she is u g l y and d a r k , y e t she is g e n e ro u s to the men she l o v e s . She g i v e s them g o l d in r e t u r n f o r t h e i r lo v e . E v e r y t h i n g she does is v e r y s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d and f a i r . When d e s e r t e d by h e r man, she c o n s id e r s i t f a i r to r e t r i e v e h e r g o l d . Her c l e a n - c u t way in d e a l i n g w i t h a love r e l a t i o n s h i p a l t h o u g h is p r a c t i c a l and u n f e e l i n g , y e t i t is way b e t t e r th a n the man who w an ts to h u r t h e r w h i l e he is c l a i m i n g love f o r h e r . In t h i s s t o r y , Pu was e m p h a s iz in g h i s p o i n t by u s in g a fo x s p i r i t : th e s p i r i t , w h ic h is t r a d i t i o n a l l y r e g a r d e d as lewd, c u n n in g , and d a n g e r o u s , has changed p l a c e w i t h man who is u s u a l l y th o u g h t o f as d i s t i n g u i s h e d from b e s t i a l b e in g s bec au se o f t h e i r c o n s c ie n c e and d i g n i t y . A n o th e r s t o r y t h a t e x e m p l i f i e s a s i m i l a r idea is "The M i l i t a r y O f f i c e r " ^ % in volum e 5 ( 1 , 6 4 2 - 4 5 ) . S h i , an e d u c a te d man, a t h i s w o r s t s ta g e in l i f e , in s ic k n e s s and p o v e r t y , is re s c u e d by a woman who c u r e s and s u p p o r ts him f i n a n c i a l l y . When he becomes w e l l and has found h i m s e l f an o f f i c i a l p o s t , he d e s e r t s h i s b e n e f a c t o r and m a r r i e s a n o t h e r woman. A l t h o u g h e v e n t u a l l y , th e fox 1 72 lady comes and j o i n s him a t h i s house w i t h o u t c a u s in g any t r o u b l e w i t h th e c o n c u b in e he has a c q u i r e d , y e t she does not have h i s love o r r e s p e c t . I n s t e a d , he w a n ts to k i l l h e r when he f i n d s ou t t h a t she is r e a l l y a fo x s p i r i t . A g a in , t h i s is P u 's s a t i r e on the h u m a n ity o f th e anim al v e r s u s the in h u m a n ity o f man. Shi an e d u c a te d and renowned c o u r t o f f i c i a l is h e a r t l e s s and u n g r a t e f u l to h i s companion who has saved h i s l i f e . But th e fo x lad y is o b e d i e n t , f a i t h f u l , r e l i a n t and g e n e ro u s w i t h him . She s t a y s w i t h him and h e lp s him in h i s c a r e e r u n t i l h er l i f e is t h r e a t e n e d . U n l i k e th e u g l y fo x in volume 8, who demands a l l h e r b e lo n g in g s when she le a v e s , she o n l y asks f o r h e r m e d ic in e b a c k . She does n o t cause any t r o u b l e to anybody or to a n y t h i n g in the h o u se. The s t o r y o f "The M i l i t a r y O f f i c e r " s u g g e s ts a m oral d e g r a d a t i o n among the s c h o l a s t i c r a n k . The fo x is a symbol o f th e good w i f e t h a t is u p h e ld in C h in e s e s o c i e t y . P u 's fe m a le fox s p i r i t s a r e not j u s t d i g n i f i e d , l o v i n g , and g e n e r o u s , th e y a r e a l s o k i n d and magnanimous. J e a lo u s y is a common theme in P u 's t a l e s in L i aozha i , as polygam y is a common p r a c t i c e in o l d C h in a . When a woman is s t e r i l e , the husband has a j u s t i f i a b l e excuse in g e t t i n g h i m s e l f a c o n c u b in e f o r th e p u rp o s e o f c o n t i n u i n g th e f a m i l y name. When more th an one woman is s e r v i n g the same man in the h ou se, th e s i t u a t i o n can be v e r y 1 73 u n p l e a s a n t . J e a lo u s y p l a y s a b i g r o l e in many o f P u 's s t o r i e s , d i s c l o s i n g h i s v ie w on th e s u b j e c t . From h is t a l e s , one can see t h a t Pu th o u g h t i t is th e m an's f a u l t i f he is u n a b le to c o n t i n u e h i s f a m i l y l i n e . B u t, i t is the wom an's, e s p e c i a l l y th e s e n i o r w i f e ' s t a s k to o r g a n i z e and p a c i f y the o t h e r w iv e s by b e in g g e n e ro u s and k i n d to them. The fo x in "The M i l i t a r y O f f i c e r " is a p e r f e c t model o f a s e n i o r w i f e who c a r e s a b o u t , loves and r e s p e c t s th e c o n c u b in e Wang. The l a t t e r , to u c h e d by h e r k in d n e s s , becomes v e r y c l o s e to h e r . V e r y soon, th e y l i v e j u s t l i k e s i s t e r s in harm ony. I t is o n l y th e man who is m aking a d i f f e r e n c e b etw een the two by lo v i n g one and d e t e s t i n g the o t h e r . In "Q in g m ei" from volume 4, th e fo x s p i r i t a r r a n g e s a w edding b etw een h e r husband and h e r fo rm e r m i s t r e s s , n o t even f o r th e purp o se o f h a v in g a c h i l d . In "Chang E" from volume 8, th e fo x s p i r i t , a f t e r h a v in g a r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h h e r man, even g i v e s him money to m a rry a m o r t a l woman. A t th e end o f th e s t o r y , the two s t a y w i t h th e husband in one house le a d i n g a happy l i f e . Some o f P u 's m o r t a l women when compared w i t h the fo x s p i r i t s , a r e much n a r ro w e d -m in d e d and more venemous. A good exam ple is found "Ma J i a Fu" w h ic h I have m e n tio n e d e a r l i e r . M a ' s w i f e has no c h i l d r e n . Though h e r husband a c q u i r e s a c o n c u b in e f o r the reas o n o f p r o p a g a t i o n , y e t he n e v e r 1 74 d a r e s t a l k to the c o n c u b in e in th e w i f e ' s p r e s e n c e . When the c o n c u b in e becomes p r e g n a n t , the w i f e b e a ts h e r up w i t h an excuse and causes h e r to have a m i s c a r r i a g e . A t th e end, Pu gave h e r a m i s e r a b l e e n d in g showing d i s a p p r o v a l o f h e r b e h a v i o r . The j e a l o u s w i f e in "M iss S h ao" $ T in volum e 7 a g a in is a s e n i o r w i f e who t o r t u r e s two c o n c u b in e s to d e a t h u n t i I she is moved by the k in d n e s s o f th e t h i r d one. Many o f P u 's fo x s p i r i t s p ossess the v i r t u e s w h ic h a r e found in a m o r ta l woman. T he se inhuman b e in g s t u r n i n t o human b e in g s in P u 's h an d s. T hey become t r a d i t i o n a l v i r t u o u s C h in e s e women w i t h f l e s h and b lo o d , w i t h f e e l i n g s model o f a c h a s te and v i r t u o u s w i f e . Coming from a b r o t h e l , Y a to u is d i f f e r e n t from h e r s i s t e r in t h a t she is n ot p ro m iscu o u s even by t r a d e . Once she d e v o te s h e r s e l f to Wang, she swears f i d e l i t y to him . D e s p i t e p h y s ic a l t o r t u r e i n f l i c t e d by h e r m o t h e r , Y a to u p e r s i s t s to re m ain f a i t h f u l . She s u f f e r s u n d er h e r m o t h e r ' s hands f o r y e a r s u n t i l h e r son grows up to be a young man, and re s c u e s her from agony. Y e t , she w o u ld n o t want h e r m o th e r to be h u r t . She is h e a r t - b r o k e n when she f i n d s o u t t h a t h e r son has k i l l e d b o th h e r m o th e r and s i s t e r . Y a to u is a woman who d a r e s to lo v e , and is w i l l i n g to d i e f o r i t . She is o n l y d e f e a t e d by h e r own k in d n e s s tow ard s h e r f a m i l y . She and emot i o n s . fro m volume 5 is a p e r f e c t 175 is v e r y human, as she v a l u e s c h a s t i t y , f a m i l y t i e s , and is w i l l i n g to s a c r i f i c e h e r s e l f f o r b o t h . When Pu w r o t e abo ut f o x e s , he was a c t u a l l y w r i t i n g abo ut human b e i n g s . The human w o r ld i n v o l v e s many l i m i t a t i o n s : s o c i a l i n j u s t i c e , m oral o b l i g a t i o n s , la c k o f fre ed o m , i l l n e s s and m o r t a l i t y . Men a l s o have th e needs f o r good f r i e n d s , t r u e lo v e , an a m ia b le f a m i l y , a p ro s p e r o u s c a r e e r and w e a l t h . For v a r i o u s r e a s o n s , many o f th e s e needs and l i m i t a t i o n s w i l l n e v e r be s a t i s f i e d or f u l f i l l e d by c e r t a i n i n d i v i d u a l s e x c e p t in f a n t a s y or dream s . For e x a m p le , a man who is im p o te n t from b i r t h w ou ld in th o s e d a y s , n e v e r be a b l e to overcome the d e f o r m i t y and l i v e l i k e a normal man. In P u 's "Lady C ra f t " , the e l d e r l y g h o s t c u re s the young man Fu o f h i s im p o te n c e , w h i l e the fo x s p i r i t te a c h e s him h i s f i r s t lesso n in s e x . A n o th e r s i m i l a r exam ple can be found in th e s t o r y o f " S c h o la r L e n g ." The s c h o l a r is b o rn r e t a r d e d . In h i s l i f e he w o u ld n e v e r be e x p e c t e d to have a s c h o l a s t i c c a r e e r . U n t i l a fo x s p i r i t comes to him one d a y , and c u re s him o f h i s r e t a r d a t i o n . " X ia o Cu i " s. in volum e 7 is a lm o s t th e same s t o r y in w h ic h th e fox s p i r i t is a b l e to c u r e h e r companion Wang o f h i s im b e c i le n a t u r e ( 2 , 1 0 0 0 - 0 8 ) . P h y s i c a l d e f o r m i t y imposes a l i m i t in a p e r s o n 's l i f e in d i f f e r e n t fo rm s . In "Lady C r a f t , " F u ' s im potence d e p r i v e s him o f th e p l e a s u r e in l i f e , 1 76 w h i l e S c h o l a r Leng and Wang a r e k e p t away fro m h a v in g a c a r e e r . By p u t t i n g in h i s fox c h a r a c t e r s , Pu i n s t i l l e d hope i n t o the human w o r l d . In P u 's g o t h i c w o r l d , m i r a c l e s do happen to the h o p e le s s . The p a i n o f d e a t h and s e p a r a t i o n is a l s o so m e th in g im p o s s ib le to a v o id in th e m o r t a l w o r l d . By u s in g fo x e s w i t h s u p e r n a t u r a l p o w ers , P u 's t a l e s h e l p to r e l i e v e t h i s e m o tio n a l burden in men. In " S c h o la r Q in " ( 1 , v : 5 9 8 - 9 9 ) , th e s c h o l a r is p o is o n e d by h i s own w in e , and d i e s a t h i s p r i m e . W h ile the w i f e is m o u rn in g f o r him , a fo x s p i r i t comes by and r a i s e s him from d e a t h . In o t h e r w o rd s , the fo x s p i r i t in P u 's t a l e ta k e s c a r e o f th e agony in the w o r I d . P u 's fo x s p i r i t s a l s o h e l p man to s a t i s f y h i s s e c r e t d e s i r e f o r lo v e . A s t a b l e b u t monotonous f a m i l y l i f e som etimes causes one to d a y -d r e a m and f a n t a s i z e . "D o u ble Lamp" ^ from volume 4, is such a s t o r y C l, 5 5 0 -5 1 ) . W e i, an o r d i n a r y young man who has no p u rp o s e in l i f e e x c e p t l i v i n g and w o r k in g f o r h i s i n - l a w s , m eets th e fo x s p i r i t one e v e n in g , when he is a lo n e u p s t a i r s in th e w i n e r y . For h a l f a y e a r , he has n o t h i n g b u t fun and sex w i t h h e r . U n t i l one e v e n in g , the s p i r i t comes to say g o o d -b y e and d i s a p p e a r s in the d a r k . T h i s t a l e can be looked a t as W e i ' s i m a g i n a t i o n to b e a t the e v e r y d a y m onotony. W e i, a young man in h i s t w e n t i e s , is a l r e a d y 177 s e t t l e d down f o r l i f e . H is la c k o f e x c it e m e n t and freedom in lo ve h e l p to b u i l d t h i s f a n t a s y t a l e . “The Fox from Fenzhou" ^ is a n o t h e r t a l e w h ic h can be i n t e r p r e t e d as an e l d e r l y m an's s e c r e t w is h to have an e x t r a - m a r i t a l a f f a i r C l, i i : 2 5 5 ) . Zhu is a s t a t e o f f i c i a l . Because o f h i s s o c i a l s t a n d i n g , h i s s e c r e t d e s i r e o f h a v in g a r e l a t i o n s h i p ca n n o t be g r a t i f i e d e a s i l y . I d e a l l y , th e fo x s p i r i t a p p e a rs in h i s house r i g h t in h i s room. M o r e o v e r , she is not j u s t th e c a s u a l t y p e , bu t she c a r e s f o r and loves the man. Her s i n c e r i t y in t h i s a f f a i r shows i t s e l f when he asks h e r to go home w i t h him . A l t h o u g h i t is f o r b i d d e n f o r a fo x to c ro s s a r i v e r , she t r i e s h e r b e s t to o b t a i n a p e r m i s s i o n fro m the r i v e r god, who a l l o w s h e r to c ro s s th e r i v e r and s t a y w i t h the o f f i c i a l f o r te n more d a y s . These two t a l e s , on th e s u r f a c e , a r e s im p le s h o r t s t o r i e s . Y e t th e y a r e s y m b o lic o f a m an's a s p i r a t i o n f o r a f r e e and t r u e love r e l a t i o n s h i p . I t is f r e e b ecause i t is o u t s i d e o f w e d lo c k , and f r e e o f o b l i g a t i o n . I t is t r u e because the man and th e fo x u s u a l l y g e t t o g e t h e r f o r no re a s o n a t a l l b ut lo v e . O f t e n th e fo x s p i r i t asks n o t h i n g from the man, and when t h e i r love calms down e v e n t u a l l y , u s u a l l y the s p i r i t w i l l d i s a p p e a r , l e a v i n g no s t r i n g s nor o b l i g a t i o n to th e man, b u t b e a u t i f u l m e m o rie s . 1 78 The fo x s p i r i t w o r ld f o r Pu a l s o r e p r e s e n t s the e t h i c a l w o r l d t h a t he a s p i r e d t o . By u s in g th e s e s p i r i t s , Pu was a b l e to c r e a t e h i s idea o f an U t o p i a in f r o n t o f o ur e y e s . He used fo x e s to r e d r e s s s o c i a l i n j u s t i c e and f a m i l y d i s p u t e , to rem in d and w arn man o f h i s m oral o b l i g a t i o n , and to r e f l e c t c o r r u p t i o n in the g o v e rn m e n ta l and e x a m i n a t i o n s y s te m s . Many s c h o l a r s c l a i m t h a t P u 's t a l e s a r e v e r y d i d a c t i c , t h a t h i s s t o r i e s em pha size e s p e c i a l l y the B u d d h is t idea o f cause and e f f e c t , in w h ic h th e good w i l l be rew ard e d w h i l e th e bad w i l l be p u n is h e d f o r t h e i r d e e d s . In th e m o r t a l w o r l d , s o c i a l i n j u s t i c e is som etimes l e f t u n n o t i c e d , w h i l e wrongs a r e n o t c o r r e c t e d , and th e bad a r e not p u n is h e d . Pu, in o r d e r to g i v e the weak and o p p re s s e d e m o tio n a l and p o e t i c j u s t i c e , to o k the r e a d e r i n t o a w o r l d o f the s u p e r n a t u r a I s , in w h ic h th e s o c i a l l y weak is p r o t e c t e d by a c e r t a i n m a g ic a l po w er. Not o n l y t h a t he o r she wi I I be a b l e to escape the o p p r e s s i o n , b u t he o r she is a l s o g i v e n a chance to r e d r e s s th e i n j u s t i c e done to him o r h e r . The s t o r y o f "The K in g o f N in e M ounta i ns" ft- in volume 2 t e l l s us o f the f a t e o f th e Li f a m i l y when the m a s t e r o f th e house d e c id e s to b urn h i s t e n a n t and h i s f a m i l y to d e a t h Cl# 2 4 0 - 4 3 ) . H is t e n a n t , an o l d fo x s p i r i t , comes one day and o f f e r a hun d red p i e c e s o f g o l d to r e n t a d e s e r t e d p a r t o f L i ' s r e s i d e n c e . The fo x f a m i l y 1 79 is so n i c e t h a t , a f t e r th e y have moved i n , th e y i n v i t e M r . Li o v e r f o r d i n n e r d u r i n g w h ic h he is o f f e r e d v e r y good fo o d . T h i n k i n g i t s t r a n g e t h a t h i s te n a n t has changed th e d e s e r t e d house i n t o a fa n c y m ansion in such a s h o r t t im e , he d e c id e s t h a t h i s new t e n a n t s must be f o x e s . In s e c r e t , he buys some d y n a m ite and one day s e t s f i r e to th e w h o le h o u s e h o ld . Up to t h i s p o i n t , Pu had shown us th e i n j u s t i c e Li has done to th e f o x e s . L i , who has r e c e i v e d w e l l - p a i d r e n t from the f o x , has n e v e r been b o t h e r e d nor d i s t u r b e d by h i s t e n a n t s . R a t h e r , h i s d e s e r t e d house becomes v e r y w e l l d e c o r a t e d and ta k e n c a r e o f . M o r e o v e r , the o ld fo x s p i r i t is f r i e n d l y , and r e s p e c t f u l tow ard s L i . Li is p r e s e n t e d h e re as an o b n o x io u s , c r u e l and g r e e d y p e r s o n . A f t e r th e c o n f l a g r a t i o n , the fo x says to him . T h e r e has n ot been any r e j e c t i o n n o r c o m p la in t betw een u s , I have p a i d a hun dred p i e c e s o f g o ld f o r y o u r d e s e r t e d la n d . I t ' s not a sm all amount. How can you then b e a r to k i l l us a l l ? T h e r e is a s l i m chance t h a t I w ou ld n o t avenge f o r t h i s most o b n o x io u s feud? ( 2 4 1 ) . % if] M i V. ft fo : j * % tf & * ■#*- * . The o l d f o x ' s revenge a g a i n s t him ta k e s a d v a n ta g e o f L i ' s g r e e d i n e s s . As a f o x , he is a b l e to t r a n s f o r m h i m s e l f i n t o a r e s p e c t a b l e f o r t u n e - t e l l e r who a p p e a rs to Li a y e a r 180 l a t e r . By t e l l i n g Li t h a t he is d e s t i n e d to be k i n g , and by a s s e m b lin g f o l l o w e r s f o r him , th e fo x has t u r n e d Li i n t o a r e b e l l e a d e r . L i ' s end comes when the e m p e r o r 's army is s u r r o u n d in g h i s f o r t r e s s and th e f o r t u n e - t e l l e r has d i s a p p e a r e d . He is c a p t u r e d and e x e c u t e d t o g e t h e r w i t h h i s f a m i l y . A t the end, Pu made h i s comments in the g u i s e o f the H i s t o r i a n o f th e S t r a n g e . He c o n s id e r e d t h a t L i ' s e n d in g s e r v e s him r i g h t , f o r h i s c r u e l t y is seen when he m urders the f o x e s . I f Li has been a good man, the fox w ould n e v e r be a b l e to t r a p him . T h i s t a l e o f th e fo x in a v e n g in g h i m s e l f w ould not be p o s s i b l e i f i t had not been a s u p e r n a t u r a l c h a r a c t e r . A m o r t a l t e n a n t w o u ld have been dead and gone a f t e r th e f i r e . N e i t h e r w o u ld he be a b l e to change h i m s e l f i n t o a n o t h e r man in o r d e r to w in L i ' s c o n f i d e n c e , nor be a b l e to r e c r u i t s o l d i e r s and w in b a t t l e s f o r L i . The fo x s p i r i t h e r e is p r e s e n t e d as a r e s p e c t a b l e , p o l i t e , and e d u c a te d i n d i v i d u a l in the b e g i n n i n g . But a t the end , in o r d e r to avenge h i m s e l f , he has t u r n e d i n t o a c u n n in g and c r u e l o l d man. The fo x la d y in "The M i l i t a r y O f f i c e r " is a l s o a b l e to avenge h e r s e l f on h e r husband Shi o n l y because she is a s u p e r n a t u r a l c r e a t u r e . She demands h e r m e d i c i n e b a c k . The r e s u l t o f w h ic h lead s to S h i ' s d e a t h . I f she w ere an o r d i n a r y m o r t a l woman, she w o u ld have been d e s e r t e d , i n s u l t e d , c h e a te d or even h u r t by h im . Pu made use o f h is 181 fo x s p i r i t s as h i s d i d a c t i c t o o l s in t e a c h i n g th e s e human c ro o k s a le s s o n . A t th e end o f h i s t a l e s , th e a u t h o r was a b l e to r e i n s t a l l s o c i a l j u s t i c e to w h ere i t b e lo n g s . T a l e s l i k e the " U g ly F o x ," "The M i l i t a r y O f f i c e r , " "The K ing o f N in e M o u n t a i n s , " e t c . c a r r y a t l e a s t two messages from Pu S o n g l i n g . F i r s t , th e y a r e m oral s a t i r e s in w h ic h man, who is a t th e top s c a l e in th e a n im a l w o r l d , is compared to the f o x e s , a r a t h e r low a n i m a l . The ir o n y is t h a t man (as the p r o t a g o n i s t s Mu, Shi and Li in the above t h r e e t a l e s ) who is e d u c a te d and i n t e l l i g e n t , does not a c t th e way he s h o u ld . Y e t the f o x e s , though th e y a r e b e s t i a l , a c t w i t h human d i g n i t y and lo v e . In j u x t a p o s i n g the two p o l a r c h a r a c t e r s : the man ( e v i l ) v e r s u s th e fo x ( g o o d ) , Pu was s u c c e s s f u l in p r e s e n t i n g th e e f f e c t w h ic h is found in a n c i e n t C r e e k d ram a. In G re e k t r a g e d y , in o r d e r to i n t e n s i f y the t r a g i c e v e n t , the p r o t a g o n i s t s h o u ld be a p e rs o n o f h ig h s t a t u s f a l l i n g down to a m i s e r a b l e e x i s t e n c e . On th e c o n t r a r y , in th e comic t r a d i t i o n , to enhance th e e f f e c t , th e p r o t a g o n i s t is b e t t e r d e r i v e d from an u n p ro m in e n t s t r a t u s in s o c i e t y . Some o f P u 's fo x t a l e s can be looked a t t h i s w ay. For e x a m p le , S h i , a man w i t h a m i l i t a r y d e g re e and a governm ent p o s t , s h o u ld be a man o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g and d i s c r e t i o n . He s h o u ld be a b l e to t e l l what is wrong and w hat is r i g h t . H is u n w i l l i n g n e s s and i n a b i l i t y to 182 r e c o g n iz e the fox s p i r i t ' s v i r t u e s and a c c e p t h e r p u t him m o r a l l y and s y m b o l i c a l l y b e lo w th e a n i m a l . H is f a l l ( d e a t h ) a t the end becomes more t r a g i c as th e r e a d e r ' s sympathy n a t u r a l l y s id e s w i t h the woman. In "The U g ly F o x ," M u 's f a u l t l i e s in h i s g r e e d i n e s s , i n g r a t i t u d e and c r u e l t y . Compared w i t h him , the fo x lady is more g e n e r o u s , k i n d , f a i r and f r a n k . Pu commented in the v o i c e o f the H i s t o r i a n o f the S t r a n g e t h a t even though she is a f o x , f o r a I I she has done f o r Mu, she does not d e s e r v e such k in d o f t r e a t m e n t . The m oral c h a r a c t e r o f the fo x is e l e v a t e d above t h a t o f th e m ale p r o t a g o n i s t in the t a l e . In "The K in g o f N in e M o u n t a i n s , " Li k i l l s the o l d fo x and h i s f a m i l y f o r no re a s o n a t a l l , b u t j u s t because th e y a r e an im al s p i r i t s . He f a i l s to see them as p o l i t e , r e s p e c t a b l e and g e n e ro u s i n d i v i d u a l s . The second message o f th e s e t a l e s l i e s in P u 's i n t e n t i o n to p r e s e n t to th e r e a d e r h i s id e a l w o r l d - - a n e t h i c a l w o r l d in w h ic h lo v e , g e n e r o s i t y , and k in d n e s s a r e h i g h l y v a l u e d . In h i s U t o p i a , human o r inhuman b e in g s w i t h the above m oral q u a l i t i e s w i l l w in o v e r the inranoral. Somehow Pu was d i s a p p o i n t e d by m ankind and i t s v i c e s . So he c r e a t e d a s u p e r n a t u r a l w o r ld in w h ic h c e r t a i n im p ro b a b le t h in g s can happen to c o r r e c t th e s e w ro n g s . 183 Why Fem ale F o x e s ? When one looks a t the fo x t a l e s In Ta i p i ng M i see I I a n y , i t is n ot d i f f i c u l t to f i n d t h a t most C h in e s e t r a d i t i o n a l fo x s p i r i t s a r e in the fe m a le g e n d e r . T h i s is e s p e c i a l l y t r u e when the fo x t a l e is c o n c e rn e d w i t h a man-and -woman r e l a t i o n s h i p . The woman, th e s e d u c e r , is a lw a y s p l a y e d by th e an im a l s p i r i t . T h i s is such a t r a d i t i o n a l p a t t e r n t h a t i t has now become a modern c l i c h e w h ic h th e C h in e s e s t i l l use in t h e i r d a i l y sp e ech . The modern e x p r e s s i o n hu I i j i ng a fo x s p i r i t " r e f e r s to a "bad" woman who seduces man s e x u a l l y , and cons him i n t o g i v i n g h e r w h a t e v e r she d e s i r e s . Y e t , in modern lan g u a g e , the term is n e v e r used to r e f e r to th e m ale sex . As in the p a s t , some o f P u 's less i n t e r e s t i n g fe m a le fo x e s do c a r r y t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l lewd image, such as the two fo x e s in "The S u b j u g a t i o n o f Foxes'1^ ^ in volum e 2 ( 1 , 3 0 8 - 0 9 ) . Both men in the t a l e s come a c ro s s s e x u a l l y demanding fo x s p i r i t s . The man in the f i r s t t a l e becomes s i c k and weak as a r e s u l t . U n t i l one day a d o c t o r g i v e s him a k i n d o f a p h r o d i s i a c w h ic h makes him so p o t e n t t h a t he in r e t u r n , conquers the fo x in bed and ta k e s i t s l i f e . The man in th e second t a l e is b o rn so s t r o n g t h a t when the 1 84 fox s p i r i t goes to him , h i s s t r e n g t h is enough to s c a re h e r and d r i v e s h e r away. D e s c r i p t i o n s o f s ex u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw een fo x and man a p p e a r in many o f P u 's fo x t a l e s . As a m a t t e r o f f a c t , i t has indeed become a p a t t e r n : an i n i t i a l p ro c e s s by w h ic h the m ale and fe m a le p r o t a g o n i s t s a r e a t t r a c t e d to each o t h e r and f a l l in lo v e . Then th e t a l e s c o n t i n u e from t h a t p o i n t on. In P u 's b e s t fo x t a l e s , t h i s a p p a r e n t l y loose r e l a t i o n s h i p l a t e r d e v e lo p s i n t o a r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t r u e lo v e , d e v o t i o n and s i n c e r i t y . The fe m a le fo x s p i r i t ' s lewd image a t th e b e g in n i n g o f th e t a l e , when she comes o f h e r own a c c o r d to seduce th e man she l o v e s , can be e x p l a i n e d as a f e m a l e ’ s e x p r e s s i o n o f h e r need o f f r e e love and l u s t in a m o r a l l y r e s t r i c t e d C o n f u c ia n s o c i e t y . In such an e n v ir o n m e n t , the fe m a le does not have the r i g h t to choose h e r own l o v e r , nor the fre edom o f g o in g o u t o f h e r house to v i s i t him . The C h in e s e t r a d i t i o n r e q u i r e s the young woman to f o l l o w th e o r d e r o f h e r p a r e n t s who w o u ld d e c id e h e r m a r r i a g e and h e r l i f e . W it h C o n f u c ia n is m , two b a r r i e r s a r e e r e c t e d to in s u r e the c o h e s io n o f the fe u d a l s o c i a l o r d e r : the f i r s t is the doo r to th e bedcham ber, the second is w r i t i n g and know ledge i n ^ g e n e r a I . A woman can n o t c ro s s them b o th a t on c e. In a n c i e n t C h in e s e s o c i e t y , o n l y the m ales a r e f r e e to v i s i t f r i e n d s , roam aro u n d th e s t r e e t s , and j o i n d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l a c t i v i t i e s . Pu in h i s fo x t a l e s , bes to w ed 1 85 s u p e r n a t u r a l power on th e fe m a le f o x e s , so t h a t th e y w i l l be a b l e to e x p re s s t h e i r love and h a t e e m o tio n s w i t h o u t any p h y s i c a l h a n d ic a p . As I have m e n tio n e d e a r l i e r in th e s t o r y o f "The M i l i t a r y O f f i c e r " and "Lady X i n , the F o u r t e e n t h , " the fe m a le p r o t a g o n i s t s in th e s e t a l e s a r e a b l e to c o u n t e r a c t and avenge th e m s e lv e s on men bec au se th e y a r e p o r t r a y e d as fo x e s p o s s e s s in g s u p e r n a t u r a l po w er. T h i s is p r o b a b ly the o n l y way t h a t Pu c o u ld g i v e e m o tio n a l and p o e t i c j u s t i c e to the s o c i a l im b ala n ce t h a t he saw in the w o r ld around him : t h a t f e m a le s , the w e a k e r s e x , a r e o f t e n p u t down or o p p re s s e d by the s t r o n g e r , th e m ale sex , o r sometimes a more p o w e r fu l a g e n t , such as th e o l d a u n t in "Lady X i n , the F o u r t e e n t h . " The o l d a u n t in th e t a l e r e p r e s e n t s the p o w e r f u l , p ro m in e n t and v i c i o u s f o r c e a g a i n s t w h ic h the w eak, the poor and the p o w e r le s s has to f i g h t in s o c i e t y . So P u 1s fo x e s a r e m o s t l y fe m a le f o r th e f o l l o w i n g reasons : t ) Foxes a r e t r a d i t i o n a l l y r e g a r d e d as lewd a n i m a l s . T h e r e f o r e , fe m a le fo xes a r e id e a l c h a r a c t e r s in a f r e e lo v e r e l a t i o n s h i p . 2) These fe m a le fo xes a r e used as symbols f o r m o r ta l women who, in a s e x i s t s o c i e t y , a r e o p p re s s e d and c o n t r o l l e d by men and t h e i r s u p e r i o r s . 1 86 3) The fe m a le fo xes w i t h s u p e r n a t u r a l powers g i v e v e n t to s o c i a l i n j u s t i c e . W it h t h e i r superhuman pow er, th e y a r e a b l e to c o r r e c t th e wrongs w h ic h a r e done to them. 4) By u s in g fe m a le fo x e s in p l a c e o f m o r ta l fe m a le s in h i s t a l e s , Pu e l e v a t e d th e an im a l s p i r i t s to a h i g h e r le v e l o f e x i s t e n c e . A t the same t im e , s in c e th e s e a n im a ls a r e v i r t u o u s , th e y g i v e an e x a g g e r a t e d e f f e c t . Pu was s a y in g t h a t even among the m o r t a l s such v i r t u o u s women can n o t be fo u n d . But f o r him , such v i r t u o u s women a r e e s s e n t i a l in b u i l d i n g an e t h i c a l w o r l d . H is good fe m a le fo x s p i r i t t a l e s a r e num erous. Some o f th e s e a r e : " Q in g m e i," " Y a t o u , " " J i a o n a , " " L i a n x i a n g " ( 2 , i x : 1 1 7 7 - 8 4 ) , "Lady C r a f t , " "Hongyu" i f f-- ( 1 , i i :276 — 8 3 ) , "Lady X i n , the F o u r t e e n t h , " "M iss Feng, the T h i r d " M ^ ( 1 , v :610- 17), " X ia o C u i , " "Feng X ia n " ( 2 , i x : 1 1 7 7 - 8 4 ) , "Chang E ," and "The M i l i t a r y O f f i c e r . " Most o f th e s e t a l e s h e r e c o n s i s t o f a fe m a le fo x s p i r i t f a l l i n g in lo ve w i t h a m o r t a l , h e l p i n g him to p u rs u e h i s s t u d i e s or h i s c a r e e r , h e a l i n g h i s s i c k n e s s , s a v in g h i s l i f e from d a n g e r , and f i n a l l y e s t a b l i s h i n g a s t a b l e and l o n g - l a s t i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h h im . The e n d in g o f th e s e t a l e s in w h ic h th e fo x s p i r i t is a l l o w e d to s t a y and l i v e w i t h h e r husband o r lo v e r is so m e th in g new w i t h Pu. Among th e fo x t a l e c o l l e c t i o n in T a i p i n g M i s c e l l a n y , 1 87 t h e r e is o n l y one t a l e ( " J i Je n ") in w h ic h th e fe m a le fox is a l lo w e d to m a r r y a man and s t a y w i t h him u n t i l she d i e s . Most fe m a le s p i r i t s in o t h e r t a l e s a r e e i t h e r k i l l e d , d r i v e n away or th e y le a v e on t h e i r own a c c o rd a t the end. P u 's fo x t a l e s a r e d i f f e r e n t in t h a t he d i d s o m eth in g w h ic h the a u t h o r s b e f o r e him had n o t d o n e. He had u n i t e d man and a n im a l t o g e t h e r n o t on an o n t o l o g i c a l b a s i s , bu t on an e t h i c a l o n e . M o ra l v i r t u e s and e v e r l a s t i n g love a r e enough f o r Pu to b r e a k th ro u g h the m a n -a n im a l b a r r i e r . T h i s b a r r i e r is d i s s o l v e d in a v e r y s u b t l e way. P u 's fo x s p i r i t s a r e so hum anized t h a t th e y not o n l y look human, bu t t h e y a l s o a c t , t h i n k , and speak l i k e m o r t a l s . The fo x s p i r i t ' s d o u b le i d e n t i t y , nam ely as fo x and m o r t a l , o v e r l a p s and m ixes w e l l to form a p e r f e c t model c h a r a c t e r f o r P u . To end t h i s c h a p t e r , I w o u ld l i k e to d is c u s s two t a l e s : "Q in g m ei" and " Y a t o u . " T hey b o th i l l u s t r a t e the p o i n t s I have e x p l i c a t e d above on P u 's good fe m a le fox s p i r i t s . I) Both Qingmei and Y a to u a r e fo x s p i r i t s . Y a to u is from a f a m i l y o f f o x e s , and Qingmei is th e c h i l d o f a fox and a m o r t a l . 2) T hey b o th f a l l in love w i t h m o r t a l men who a r e r e j e c t e d by th e f o x ' s f a m i l y members. 3) Both fo x s p i r i t s f i g h t f o r the fre ed o m in lo ve in b o th t a l e s , a c t i n g a g a i n s t t h e i r own f a m i l i e s . 4) Bo th f o x e s , a f t e r much s u f f e r i n g and p a t i e n c e , a r e a b l e to r e u n i t e 188 w i t h t h e i r loved ones, and e n jo y th e f r u i t o f t h e i r s a c r i f i c e a t th e end. 5) B o th fo x e s g i v e b i r t h to c h i l d r e n . 6} Both s p i r i t s a r e v i r t u o u s , i n t e l l i g e n t , s i n c e r e and lo v i n g i n d i v i d u a l s . 7) N e i t h e r o f them has v e r y much s u p e r n a t u r a l pow er. Qingmei has none w h a t s o e v e r . 8) In b o th t a l e s , two g e n e r a t i o n s o f fo x es a r e d e s c r i b e d , and th e y c r e a t e a g r e a t c o n t r a s t from one ano the r . "Y a to u " from volume 5 is a v e r y u n iq u e fo x t a l e . Pu p l a c e d the fe m a le p r o t a g o n i s t in th e e n v iro n m e n t o f a b r o t h e l in o r d e r to em p h a s ize h e r b a c k g ro u n d . Y a to u is a fo x , as w e l l as a p r o s t i t u t e . Her m o th e r and s i s t e r a r e t y p i c a l g r e e d y and lewd women, f o r th e y o n l y c a r e abo ut m o n e ta r y g a i n s and sex ual p l e a s u r e . But from o u t o f t h i s mud and m oral p o l l u t i o n , Y a to u emerges as a p e r f e c t d a u g h t e r , w i f e and m o t h e r . She is o b e d ie n t to h e r m o t h e r . She loves and f o r g i v e s h e r f a m i l y even though th e y have t o r t u r e d h e r p h y s i c a l l y , and s e p a r a t e d h e r from h er husband and son. She is a good w i f e because she is c h a s t e . A f t e r she has spent h e r f i r s t n i g h t and has f a l l e n in love w i t h Wang, she w o u ld n o t ta k e a n o t h e r man. She w ould r a t h e r s u f f e r the b e a t i n g the t o r t u r e from h e r m o t h e r . A f t e r the e lo p e m e n t, i t is a l s o Y a to u who works h a rd to s u p p o rt the f a m i l y . As a m o t h e r , she is c o n c e rn e d about h e r son who is im p u ls iv e and b r u t a l . She uses t e a r s to te a c h him love and f o r g i v e n e s s . In the t a l e , Y a to u is 189 a s p i r i t t h a t possesses superhuman pow er, y e t she does no t use i t u n le s s she has t o . T h e r e a r e o n l y two in s t a n c e s in w h ic h she employs h e r m a g ic a l p o w er. F i r s t , she speeds up th e e lo p em e n t by t y i n g a t a l i s m a n on th e s e r v a n t and the d o n k e y 's r e a r . S e c o n d ly , she ta k e s o f f th e " e v i l tendon s" from h e r s o n 's hands and f e e t . But she has no t used any m agic to h e l p h e r s e l f w h i l e she is im p ris o n e d by h e r m o th e r f o r e i g h t e e n y e a r s . Nor has she used i t to a c q u i r e money in o r d e r to h e l p h e r husband when th e y f i r s t s t a r t ou t in a s t r a n g e c i t y . The two m a g ic a l deeds she has p e r fo r m e d can be l e f t out w i t h o u t c h a n g in g a n y t h i n g in the t a l e . The speedy e lo p e m e n t can be s u b s t i t u t e d by one t h a t is more t i r i n g and d r a m a t i c ; w h i l e the e n d in g o f the fo x p u l l i n g out h e r s o n 's " v i o l e n t tendons" can be t o t a l l y o m i t t e d . In t h a t way, t h i s t a l e w ould be j u s t an o r d i n a r y t a l e w i t h o u t any s u p e r n a t u r a l e l e m e n t s . By p u t t i n g in a f o x , the a u t h o r made the s t o r y more i n t e r e s t i n g . W it h the f o x , th e s t o r y becomes p a r t l y a f a n t a s y , a m y th , and a f a i r y t a l e . Pu em phasized Y a t o u ' s m oral c h a r a c t e r by c o n t r a s t i n g h e r w i t h h e r fo x m o th e r and s i s t e r . The fo x m o th e r in the t a l e has the image o f a n e g a t i v e , g r e e d y , and c r u e l p a r e n t . She f o r c e s h e r d a u g h t e r s to s e l l t h e i r b o d ie s to th e cu stom ers who come to th e b r o t h e l . When h e r w is h is i g n o r e d , she w i l l do a l l she can to i n f l i c t p a i n and 190 s u f f e r i n g on them. She does n o t v a l u e t r u e lo v e o r f a m i l y t i e s . A l t h o u g h Y a t o u 1s o l d e r s i s t e r , N i z i is a r a t h e r m in o r c h a r a c t e r in the t a l e , y e t she does not le a v e the r e a d e r w i t h a good im p r e s s io n . She comes to f e t c h Y a to u home a f t e r the elo p e m e n t w i t h o u t t r y i n g to u n d e r s ta n d h e r you n g er s i s t e r . When Y a to u is s u f f e r i n g a t home, she does no t even t r y to h e l p h e r . N i z i , l i k e h e r m o t h e r , does no t have love and c o n c e rn f o r h e r own f a m i l y members. Compared w i t h h e r m o th e r and h e r o l d e r s i s t e r , Y a to u is e x a c t l y th e o p p o s i t e . " Q in g m ei" from volum e 4 is a n o t h e r o f P u 's good fox t a l e s . She is h a l f human and h a l f f o x , b o rn o f a m o r ta l f a t h e r and fo x s p i r i t m o t h e r . A g a in Pu was in g e n io u s in b r i n g i n g o ut Q in g m e i's m o ral c h a r a c t e r by p u t t i n g h e r in a low s o c i a l s t r a t u m . Qingmei f i r s t s t a r t s o u t as an in n o c e n t c h i l d c a u g h t betw een h e r p a r e n t s ' d i s p u t e . Her f a t h e r Q in g , i m p a t i e n t to have a m ale h e i r , m a r r i e s Madam Wang, w h i l e Q in g m e i's m o t h e r , a n g ry a t b e in g j i l t e d by h er husband, le a v e s the i n f a n t Qingmei to h e r own f a t e and d i s a p p e a r s . When the f a t h e r d i e s , Qingmei l i v e s w i t h h er u n c le who is a h e a r t l e s s man. He s e l l s h e r as a m aid in t o a n o t h e r Wang f a m i l y in w h ic h she s e r v e s the m a s t e r ' s d a u g h t e r . Qingmei t u r n s from a happy c h i l d w i t h a f a m i l y i n t o an o rphan and a m aid in a s t r a n g e r ' s h o u s e . W ith such a c o m p l i c a t e d and d i s c o u r a g i n g b a c k g ro u n d , Qingmei 191 c o u ld have been j u s t an o r d i n a r y m aid w i t h no e d u c a t i o n , no money and no s o c i a l s t a t u s . She c o u ld have spe nt h e r l i f e s e r v i n g in the Wang f a m i l y m a r r y i n g a f e l l o w s e r v a n t . Y e t , because o f h e r m e r i t s , she t u r n s i n t o the w i f e o f a p r o m in e n t c o u r t o f f i c i a l , e n j o y i n g a happy f a m i l y and p r o s p e ro u s l i f e . A lt h o u g h she is a m aid who must obey o r d e r s , Qingmei is p o r t r a y e d as a s t r o n g c h a r a c t e r who r e c o g n iz e s w hat she w a n t s , and d e c id e s what she d o e s . Once she d i s c o v e r s t h a t th e p o o r S c h o l a r Zhang is a k i n d , h a r d - w o r k i n g and f i l i a l man, Qingmei d e c id e s to m atch him w i t h h e r m i s t r e s s . She is n o t s e l f i s h in th e sense t h a t she t h i n k s o f h e r m i s t r e s s f i r s t when she sees a good man. L a t e r , when h e r p l a n to u n i t e the two f a i l s , Qingmei v o l u n t e e r s h e r s e l f to be the b r i d e . She is c o n f i d e n t t h a t she has made th e r i g h t d e c i s i o n . No m a t t e r w hat hap pens, she w i l l not swayed by a n y t h i n g . When she t e l l s h e r m i s t r e s s o f h e r d e c i s i o n to m a r r y Zhang, h e r m i s t r e s s s a y s : "You f o o l i s h m a id , can you a c t on y o u r own?" But she an s w e rs : " I f n o t h i n g a v a i l s , I am r e a d y to d i e " & : $ fc-ttfy % % % % - 7 ^ ; "T' ^ &!) V ‘A Z, ( 4 4 7 ) . A lt h o u g h she is s u c c e s s f u l in m a r r y i n g h e r s e l f to Zhang, she has none the le s s p lu n g e d i n t o a n o th e r d i f f i c u l t s i t u a t i o n . Z h a n g 's f a m i l y is e x t r e m e l y p o o r. H is f a t h e r is v e r y s i c k and needs to be ta k e n c a r e o f c o n s t a n t l y . Zhang h i m s e l f needs th e tim e to s tu d y f o r 1 92 the exam. Once Qingmei j o i n s the Zhangs, she ta k e s up th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to s e r v e h e r i n - l a w s . A t th e same t im e , she e m b r o id e r s to make a l i v i n g , a l l o w i n g h e r husband to have the tim e and money to go on w i t h h is s t u d i e s . H e re our h e r o i n e is p o r t r a y e d as a d i l i g e n t , s e l f - s a c r i f i c i n g ( f o r she e a t s r i c e b ra n h e r s e l f and g i v e s the r i c e to h e r i n - l a w s ) and a f i l i a l d a u g h t e r - i n —I aw. Qingmei rem ain s a humble and k i n d p e rs o n a f t e r she has become a governm ent o f f i c i a l ' s w i f e . Her m a g n a n im ity is m a n i f e s t e d in h e r t r e a t m e n t o f h e r fo rm e r m i s t r e s s when the l a t t e r is in g r e a t d i s t r e s s . A J th o u g h now Axi is no lo n g e r h e r m i s t r e s s , Qingmei s t i l l r e s p e c t s and loves h e r . When she knows t h a t Axi is h o m e le s s , she i n s i s t s on b r i n g i n g h e r to h e r house. F a r from b e in g j e a l o u s , Qingmei is the one who a r r a n g e s f o r Axi to m a r r y h e r husband. We a r e t o l d in th e t a l e t h a t , f o r th e r e s t o f h e r l i f e , she s e rv e s and r e s p e c t s Axi as she has done b e f o r e , even though she is th e s e n i o r w i f e in th e f a m i l y . Qingmei is a p e rs o n who v a l u e s f r i e n d s h i p , lo ve and r i g h t e o u s n e s s . Qingmei s e r v e s as a b i g c o n t r a s t to h e r m o t h e r , the fox la d y . A l t h o u g h in th e t a l e , th e d a u g h t e r is s a i d to re s e m b le h e r m o th er v e r y much, y e t she has a c o m p l e t e l y d i f f e r e n t c h a r a c t e r . Q in g m e i's m o th e r is p ro m is c u o u s . 1 93 She hangs on a m an's b e l t and f o l l o w s him home. But when she f i n d s t h a t he is f i c k l e , she le a v e s the man and h e r own c h i l d w i t h o u t a second t h o u g h t . The fo x s p i r i t g i v e s us the im p re s s io n o f a lewd, s e l f i s h and c r u e l woman. Y e t , Q in g m e i, th e f o x ' s d a u g h t e r is v e r y human and k i n d . When she r e u n i t e s w i t h h e r fo rm e r m i s t r e s s A x i , she ta k e s up the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to m a rry h e r to h e r husband. T h i s is the c r u c i a l d i f f e r e n c e betw een th e m o th e r and d a u g h t e r . The m o th e r f o x , e n ra g e d w i t h j e a l o u s y , b re a k s up the f a m i l y and r u i n s h e r d a u g h t e r , w h i l e h e r c h i l d Qingmei h a r b o r s no j e a l o u s f e e l i n g s a t a l l , b u t love and u n d e r s t a n d i n g f o r th e new c o u p le . R a th e r th an b r e a k i n g up h e r r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h h e r husband, Qingmei u n i t e s the c o u p le and h e r s e l f i n t o one b i g happy f a m i l y , w h ic h p r o s p e r s w i t h w e a l t h and c h i l d r e n . For a l l t h i s , Qingmei t u r n s from a fo x d a u g h t e r i n t o th e p e r f e c t model o f a m o r ta l woman. The r e a d e r s h o u ld a l s o n o t i c e t h a t Qingmei has no superhuman power a t a l l . A t the b e g i n n i n g , she is n o t even a b l e to save h e r own f a t e o f b e in g s o ld as a m a id . In h e r e a r l y m a r r i e d l i f e , she has to w ork even h a r d e r than a m aid f o r a l i v i n g . Qingmei has e l e v a t e d h e r s e l f from h e r an im al s t a t u s (as a f o x ) , and h e r s o c i a l s t a t u s (as a m aid ) to an i n t e l l i g e n t , s i n c e r e and v i r t u o u s woman in P u 's w o r l d . 1 94 One can say t h a t many o f Pu S o n g l i n g ' s fo x t a l e s a r e d i d a c t i c . E v e r y t im e he t o l d a t a l e , he had in th e back o f h i s m ind an e t h i c a l fra m e w o rk out o f w h ic h he n e v e r s u r p a s s e d . In a l l o f h i s t a l e s , t h e r e e x i s t a s t r o n g te n d e n c y tow ard s cause and e f f e c t . I f a fo x s p i r i t is good, Pu n e v e r f a i l e d to re w a rd i t . I f a man is e v i l , a t the end, he w i l l s u r e l y g e t h i s d u e . T h i s has somehow become a l i t e r a r y fo r m u la w h ic h u n d e r l i e s the w h o le c o l l e c t i o n o f Li a o zha i . As C . T . H s ia has s a i d ab o u t the c o l l o q u i a l t a l e s , th e cause and e f f e c t fo r m u la l i m i t s the 1 4 r e a l i s m in the t a l e s . Not o n l y is th e r e a d e r a b l e to a n t i c i p a t e the e n d in g w h i l e he is s t i l l r e a d i n g the s t o r y , the w o r s t t h i n g is t h a t th e a u t h o r has l i m i t e d h i s i m a g i n a t i o n and h i s a r t i f he has to f o l l o w a c e r t a i n p a t t e r n . The good fo xes in P u 1s s t o r i e s a l l a r e re w a rd ed w i t h more o r less th e same t h i n g : a s u c c e s s f u l , and lo v i n g husband, w i t h a p ro s p e r o u s f a m i l y and c h i l d r e n . A p p a r e n t l y , th e s e a r e the o n l y t h in g s and e v e r y t h i n g t h a t a woman w ould want in t h a t s o c i a l e n v ir o n m e n t . Q in g m e i, Y a t o u , Lady C r a f t , e t c . , a r e exam ples o f my c l a i m . S in c e our a u t h o r i n s i s t e d in s t a y i n g i n s i d e h i s own e t h i c a l f e n c e , he w ould not be a b l e to w r i t e s t o r i e s such as "M iss Jen" from the Tang D y n a s t y . Shen w r o t e the s t o r y because he th o u g h t M is s Jen was a r a r e fe m a le who was u n d e r s t a n d i n g and r i g h t e o u s . He f e l t s o r r y f o r h e r , so he 195 w an ted to r e c o r d h e r l i f e . T h i s is so d i f f e r e n t from P u 1s pu rp o se o f e x p o u n d in g m o r a ls w i t h h i s i m a g i n a t i o n . S in c e Pu p u t more em phasis on d i d a c t i c i s m in h i s t a l e s , he had n e g l e c t e d th e is s u e o f c h a r a c t e r d e v e lo p m e n t. In Li aozha i , many c h a r a c t e r s a r e s t o c k c h a r a c t e r s l i k e th o s e t h a t have a p p e a re d in t r a d i t i o n a l C h in e s e t a l e s . L ik e M a n f r e d , M a t i l d a , H i p p o l i t a e t c . from O t r a n t o , th e y a r e good o r bad c h a r a c t e r s from b e g in n i n g to end. V e r y seldom w ould t h e r e be a change in p e r s o n a l i t y o r a g ro w th o f a c h a r a c t e r in P u 1s t a l e s . O f c o u r s e , the le n g t h o f the s t o r y , and the s i m p l i c i t y o f the p l o t m ig h t have p r e v e n t e d Pu from d e v e l o p i n g f u r t h e r h i s c h a r a c t e r s . Y e t i t is c l e a r t h a t th e e t h i c a l is s u e in h i s t a l e s is more im p o r ta n t to him than p e r f e c t i n g h i s a r t . 1 96 No tes The R ecords o f Y u a n zhong . Note b o o k F i c t i on-T a i pe i , S e r . 19, 1 : 2 2 8 . See a l s o Ta i p i ng I mper i a I Encyc I opaed i a ^ f ^ v o l . 9 1 1 . 2 For the v a r i o u s fo x d i s g u i s e s m e n tio n e d see Li Fang e t a l . e d s . B k s . I X - X . v o I s . 4 4 7 - 5 5 , 3 6 5 2 - 7 1 9 . ^ T h i s t a l e is c a l l e d "The Monk Y e n to n g " from Co l l e c t i o n o f M a r v e l s ^ . H de G ro o t commented on t h i s t o p i c on p. 192 as f o l l o w s : " . . . . t h a t fo xe s h a b i t u a l l y l i v e in o l d c a v e d - i n g r a v e s e x p l a i n s why a n th r o p o m o rp h o s is is c o n n e c te d p a r t i c u l a r l y in C h in a w i t h th e s e a n i m a l s . In those h a u n ts , R eyn ard b orrow s th e human form from th e b u r i e d c o rp s e by b r i n g i n g h i m s e l f in c l o s e c o n t a c t w i t h i t , thus i n s t i l l i n g h i m s e l f th e soul s u b s ta n c e c o n t a i n e d in th o se rema i n s . " 5 "Yao K u n " ^ <#f is from T a l e s o f M a r v e ls ^ . ® T h i s is the "Zhang H u a " ^ ^ t a l e in T he R ecords o f S p i r i t s t h • See N o te b o o k F i c t i o n -T a i pe i , S e r . 4. I I : 9 5 9 -6 0 . 7 From Zhuang Zi 's -jfe Nan Hua J en J i ng j^- $ ^ volum e 8, c h a p t e r 23. Q A l l t h r e e t a l e s o r i g i n a t e from A Comp r e h e n s ive R e cord o f M a r v e l s ♦ "Daan Hesahng" see Li Fang, IX , 4 4 7 : 3 6 6 0 ; "Tang Zan Zhun" ft; ^ Ip, X , 4 5 0 : 3 6 7 7 - 7 8 ; and "Cang Sun J i a " ^ f , X, 45 I : 3 6 8 5 - 8 6 . 9 T h i s t a l e is c a l l e d " J i a o , th e E x o r c i s t ' L ^ ' ^ ^ l 5 from A C o m p re h en sive Reco rd o f M a r v e l s . 197 "Yuan J i a Ze" ^ # R e co rd s o f E v e n ts . Li Fang, X, 4 5 1 : 3 6 8 7 - 8 8 . "L i Z u - l i a n g " & ! [ _ • The Reco rd o f Hedong ^TSj 4 5 3 : 3 7 0 0 - 0 1 . 11 " J i Jen" ^ ^ . L i Fang, X, 4 5 4 : 3 7 0 8 - 0 9 . "M iss Jen" /\ % by Shen 1\ \\ ? % % % ? % . X, 4 5 2 : 3 6 9 2 - 9 7 . W i l l i a m H. N ie n h a u s e r J r . t r a n s . "M iss J e n ." T rad i t i ona I C h in e s e S t o r i e s . Eds. Y.W . Ma and Joseph Lau, (New Y o r k : C o lu m b ia UP, I9 7 8 ) 3 3 9 - 4 5 . 1 3 J u l i u s K r i s t e v a , About Ch i n e s e Women (New Y o r k : U r i z e n , 1974) 76. C. T . H s i a , The C l a s s i c C h in e s e Novel (New Y o r k : C o lum bia UP, 1978) 27. 1 98 Ch a p t e r 4 The_EtjernaJ DoubJ_ej I l l u s io n v e r s u s R e a l i t y T he Theme o f the Do u b le in G o t h ic F i c t i o n The o r i g i n s o f th e d o u b le theme go way bac k to p r i m i t i v e b e l i e f s in s h a d o w -ta b o o s and t h e o r i e s o f the s o u l . T h e r e was a l s o th e idea o f o n e 's e r r a n t soul m a n i f e s t e d in the v a m p i r e , th e r e v e n a n t and th e w e r e w o l f . The g u a r d i a n angel too was sometimes r e g a r d e d as the d o u b le o f th e man he was g u a r d i n g . P r i m i t i v e man e a s t and w est a l s o b e l i e v e d t h a t when one s l e e p s , h i s soul sometimes le a v e s the body f o r o t h e r a c t i v i t i e s . In a n c i e n t t a l e s o f m a g ic , w i z a r d s and m a g ic ia n s o f t e n adopt a m an's form o r exchange t h e i r form w i t h t h a t o f the man in o r d e r to b e w i t c h o t h e r s . T h e re a r e a l s o t a l e s in w h ic h the m a g i c i a n c r e a t e s a c o u n t e r f e i t man such as the go lem . The golem s t o r y is p r o b a b l y one o f the most s u c c e s s fu l t a l e s on th e d o u b le from th e e a r l y p e r i o d . Rabbi Lowe is g i v e n te n a l p h a b e t s by God to c r e a t e th e g o lem . A f t e r he is c r e a t e d , th e golem w orks as Low e's m essenger in c a r r y i n g ou t h i s o r d e r s to h e l p the J ew ish r a c e . The g olem is v e r y much Low e's d o u b le f o r he is e v e r y t h i n g t h a t 1 99 the Rabbi is n o t . The l a t t e r is i n t e l l i g e n t and we I I - I e a r n e d , b ut he is o n l y human. The golem who can be i n v i s i b l e , who does not speak o r e a t , is Low e's s p i r i t t h a t p e r fo r m s m ir a c u lo u s ta s k s to save th e Jews in c r i s i s . The golem and Lowe c o m p lim e n t each o t h e r in t h e i r m i s s i o n . More l i t e r a r y d o u b le s can be found in the w orks o f e a r l y German r o m a n t ic w r i t e r s l i k e G o e th e . But th e theme does n o t re a c h i t s m a t u r i t y u n t i l th e tim e o f Jean Paul R i c h t e r and E . T . A . H o ffm an n . The word DoppeI g a n g e r was f i r s t used by th e German w r i t e r Jean Paul R i c h t e r ( 1 7 6 3 - 1 8 2 5 ) in h i s w o rk s . H is o r i g i n a l m eaning o f th e word is " f e l l o w s , two o f a p a i r , who t o g e t h e r form a u n i t , b u t i n d i v i d u a l l y a p p e a r as a ' h a l f , ' d ep e n d e n t on the a l t e r e g o ." ^ Soon a f t e r i t s a p p e a r a n c e , the idea o f the DoppeI g a n g e r became a p r e v a l e n t theme in I i t e r a t u r e - - t h e d o u b l e - - i n the e a r l y n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . E . T . A . Hoffm ann was one o f the f i r s t w r i t e r s who u t i l i z e d f u l l y the theme o f th e d o u b le in h i s c r e a t i o n s such as "The Sandman," (1 8 1 7 ) and "The D o u b le s " ( 1 8 2 2 ) . In H o ffm a n n 's t a l e s , th e theme o f th e d o u b le became an in s t r u m e n t w h ic h th e w r i t e r used to show the c o n f l i c t s e x i s t i n g betw een an a r t i s t and h i s e n v ir o n m e n t . M ust an a r t i s t choose betw een l i f e and a r t ? Can an a r t i s t le a d a norma 1 l i f e I ike h i s fe llo w m e n w h i l e d e v o t i n g h i m s e l f to h i s c a r e e r o r must he s e p a r a t e h i m s e l f from 200 mundane l i f e in o r d e r to f u l f i l l h is a r t i s t i c a s p i r a t i o n s ? In "The D o u b l e s , " Ho ffm ann p r e s e n t e d two b e in g s who a r e i d e n t i c a l : th e a r t i s t and the p r i n c e . The l a t t e r is a c t u a l l y an a n im a te d e x t e n s i o n o f the a r t i s t ' s d o u b le : th e p r a c t i c a l man. On the s u r f a c e , the t a l e is an i n t e r e s t i n g love s t o r y in w h ic h two men a r e f i g h t i n g f o r th e love o f one woman. Y e t the theme o f th e d o u b le c a r r i e s th e r e a d e r i n t o a p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e a lm o f an a r t i s t . The a r t i s t is t o r n betw een h i s a s p i r a t i o n f o r an a r t i s t i c c a r e e r , h i s p a s s io n f o r th e woman he a d o r e s , and h i s love f o r h i s c o u n t r y . The diIemm a w h e t h e r he s h o u ld be a p r a c t i c a l man o r an a r t i s t is s o lv e d by H o ffm a n n 's in g e n io u s scheme o f the d o u b le . A t th e end o f the t a l e , th e a r t i s t goes on h i s way to f u l f i l l h i s c a r e e r , w h i l e h i s o t h e r s e l f , th e p r i n c e , m a r r i e s th e woman and ta k e s up the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f r u l i n g the c o u n t r y . The theme o f th e d o u b le is s t r o n g l y t i e d w i t h F r e u d 's t h e o r y o f the p s y c h e . In F re u d , t h e r e a r e th e ego, the s u p erego and the id w h ic h c o r r e s p o n d to r e a s o n , p a s s io n and d e s i r e r e s p e c t i v e l y . T h i s idea is v e r y s i m i l a r to the o l d b e l i e f t h a t t h e r e is a soul w i t h i n each o f us t h a t o f t e n makes i t s m a n i f e s t a t i o n in v a r i o u s d i s g u i s e s w h e th e r we c a r e to or n o t . In a m a n 's m e n ta l r e a lm , h i s ego, s u p e re g o , and id o f t e n engage in b a t t l e s w i t h one a n o th e r when e m o tio n a l c o n f l i c t o c c u r s . I t is by e x p l o r i n g and 201 u n d e r s t a n d i n g the needs o f th e s e t h r e e s e l v e s o f a p a t i e n t t h a t a p s y c h o - t h e r a p i s t can hope to c u re him o f h i s p s y c h o s i s . In l i t e r a t u r e , the theme o f th e d o u b le becomes a c o n v e n ie n t to o l f o r th e a u t h o r to d r a m a t i z e and p e r s o n i f y the d i f f e r e n t s e l v e s i n s i d e u s . Sometimes the d o u b le f i g u r e s a r e so i n g e n i o u s l y w ro u g h t t h a t t h e i r f u n c t i o n as the d o u b le o f a n o t h e r c h a r a c t e r is not e as y to d e t e c t a t a l l . Much o f the t im e , th e y s im p ly a p p e a r as s e p a r a t e c h a r a c t e r s in th e s t o r i e s . The in c o n s p ic u o u s n e s s o f th e s e d o u b le c h a r a c t e r s s y m b o liz e s the l a t e n t th o u g h ts and c o n f l i c t s i n s i d e the p e rs o n who is not w i l l i n g to a d m it h i s e m o tio n a l s t r u g g l e s o r sometimes is not even aware o f them. The theme o f th e d o u b le a l s o f i t s p e r f e c t l y i n t o the fo rm a t o f g o t h i c f i c t i o n in w h ic h any im p ro b a b le e v e n ts and c h a r a c t e r s a r e p o s s i b l e . A m an's d o u b le is a h o r r o r to him when he ca n n o t f a c e , d e a l w i t h , and compromise w i t h i t . I have m e n tio n e d e a r l i e r t h a t E l i z a b e t h MacAndrew c la im e d t h a t many g o t h i c w r i t e r s s o lv e d th e p ro b le m o f p r e s e r v i n g goodness in t h e i r p r o t a g o n i s t by p r o j e c t i n g h i s o r h e r e v i l o n to a n o t h e r c h a r a c t e r . T h i s is p r o b a b l y the most l e g i t i m a t e reas o n f o r th e g o t h i c w r i t e r to p i c k up the theme o f the d o u b le . M a ry S h e l l e y ' s F ran k e n s t e i n is a good e x a m p le . A l l F r a n k e n s t e i n ' s r e b e l l i o u s w is h e s to do som eth in g u n o rth o d o x and e x t r a - o r d i n a r y a r e c a r r i e d o u t by 202 h i s d o u b le , th e m o n s t e r . A l t h o u g h h i s d o u b le t r i e s to behave and to l e a r n in th e b e g i n n i n g , e v e n t u a l l y , he becomes v i c i o u s and he k i l l s the in n o c e n t. A n o th e r in s t a n c e o f the d o u b le c h a r a c t e r is p r e s e n t e d in the theme o f the s p l i t p e r s o n a l i t y . T he se a r e l i t e r a r y themes in w h ic h the d i f f e r e n t c h a r a c t e r t r a i t s o f th e same p e rs o n a r e p r o j e c t e d o r p e r s o n i f i e d i n t o v a r i o u s o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s in the same s t o r y . In a n c i e n t l i t e r a t u r e , the theme o f s p l i t p e r s o n a l i t y is o f t e n found in m o r a l i t y p l a y s , such as Ev e r yman ( c a . 1 4 8 5 ) . In the p l a y , v a r i o u s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t r a i t s o f th e p r o t a g o n i s t a r e r e p r e s e n t e d by s e p a r a t e a c t o r s , f o r e x a m p le , Know ledge, D i s c r e t i o n , F i v e - w i t s , Good D eeds, S t r e n g t h , e t c . , each a c t i n g a c c o r d in g to i t s n a t u r e . Y e t in g o t h i c f i c t i o n , as modern man t r i e s to f i n d th e m eaning o f l i f e in a c h a n g in g s o c i e t y , the same theme becomes much more c o m p l i c a t e d and e n i g m a t i c . From th en on, a l i e n a t i o n o f the s e l f from s o c i e t y , from o n e 's own v a l u e s and s ta n d a r d s becomes an im p o r ta n t theme in g o t h i c t a l e s . The themes o f the d o u b le and s p l i t p e r s o n a l i t y a l s o add to the p urpo se o f r e a l i s m in f i c t i o n . One o f the a c h ie v e m e n ts in modern f i c t i o n is the r e a l i s t i c d e p i c t i o n o f a man as a w h o le . Fo r e x a m p le , the c h a r a c t e r s in the s e n t i m e n t a l n o v e ls from the e a r l y e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y can be c a t e g o r i z e d i n t o two m ain t y p e s : the good and th e bad . 203 *9 These c h a r a c t e r s a r e c a l l e d s t o c k c h a r a c t e r s as th e y w i l l no t and ca n n o t t r e s p a s s t h e i r m oral i d e n t i t y . A v i r t u o u s man or woman once so l a b e l l e d must a d h e re to th e q u a l i t i e s o f a v i r t u o u s b e i n g . No e v i l o r v i c i o u s th o u g h ts and a c t i o n s w i l l be a t t r i b u t e d to them. T h i s is e q u a l l y t r u e w i t h th e bad c h a r a c t e r s who a r e o n l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i m m o r a l i t y and c r i m e . Hence we have the b lo n d e p r i n c e s s and th e d a r k - h a i r e d w i t c h . The B y r o n ic h e ro e s l a t e r p o r t r a y r e a l i s t i c men w i t h f la w s and a s p i r a t i o n s , in o p p o s i t i o n to th e p u p p e t - l i k e e x i s t e n c e o f the v i r t u o u s in s e n t i m e n t a l n o v e l s . But i t is th e c h a r a c t e r o f the d o u b le and s p l i t p e r s o n a l i t y t h a t r e a l l y b r i n g s o u t th e dilemm a in man. Now the a u t h o r is a b l e to e x p re s s f u l l y and r e a l i s t i c a l l y th e fa c e o f a man l i v i n g in a p r e c a r i o u s and c o m p l i c a t e d e n v ir o n m e n t , h i s in n e r f e e l i n g s and s u b c o n s c io u s needs w h ic h m ig h t not be in a c c o rd a n c e w i t h h i s o u t e r b e h a v i o r and o b j e c t i v e s in I i f e . In C h in e s e f i c t i o n , a l t h o u g h the theme o f the d o u b le does no t e x i s t p e r se, t a l e s w i t h s i m i l a r m o t i f s d i d a p p e a r . T h i s is e s p e c i a l l y t r u e in the g e n r e o f g o t h i c f i c t i o n . The fo x c h a r a c t e r s d is c u s s e d in c h a p t e r t h r e e can be i n t e r p r e t e d as the p r o j e c t e d d o u b le o f the fe m a le c o l l e c t i v e c o n s c io u s n e s s in C h in a . In the fo x t a l e s , the f e m a le foxes a r e a b l e to lo v e f r e e l y , e x p re s s t h e i r in n e r 204 em o tio n s and needs w h ic h a r e d e n ie d to t h e i r human co u n t e r p a r t s . V e r y o f t e n , C o n f u c ia n is m and i t s m oral codes a r e causes f o r th e theme o f the d o u b le c h a r a c t e r in C h in e s e l i t e r a t u r e . Man is c o n f r o n t e d w i t h th e c h o ic e betw een h i s d e s i r e s and h i s m oral o b l i g a t i o n s . When the c o n f l i c t betw een th e two f a i l s to d i s s o l v e , th e in n e r s e l f o r th e d o u b le w i l l a r i s e to s a t i s f y th e o u t e r s e l f ' s e m o t io n a l nee d s, w h i l e the o u t e r s e l f a d h e re s to i t s much in love w i t h the young A Bao t h a t a lt h o u g h he is p r e v e n t e d by s o c i a l decorum from s t a y i n g c l o s e to h e r , y e t h i s soul le a v e s h i s body and f o l l o w s h i s b e l o v e d , w h i l e h i s p h y s i c a l s e l f s t a y s home in a coma ( 1 , i i : 2 3 3 - 3 9 ) . The C h in e s e d o u b le is a l s o a c o n v e n i e n t r e l i e f c h a r a c t e r f o r the s c h o l a r who has Just f i n i s h e d h i s exams and is w a i t i n g a n x i o u s l y f o r the r e s u l t w h ic h m ig h t a r r i v e a n y t i m e . Through a f a n t a s t i c s e t t i n g , the d r u n k a r d Wang Z i a n -£• ^ is t o l d by h i s doub I e tha t he has pas sed h i s exams and is aw arded the d e g re e o f j i n s h i ( 2 , i x : 1 2 3 8 - 4 0 ) . In " S c h o la r G u u , th e s c h o l a r Gu is i n f e c t e d in the eye w h ic h causes him much p a i n and d i s c o m f o r t ( 2 , v i i i : 1 1 5 4 - 5 5 ) . In a h a l f dream and u n c o n s c io u s s t a t e , he sees h i m s e l f g o in g i n t o an i m p e r i a l p a l a c e to ask a p r i n c e f o r h e l p . The p r i n c e sends him h i s own d o c t o r who c u re s c i v i l i z e d image. In th e young man is so 205 h i s eye d i s e a s e . When Gu wakes up and opens h i s eyes a g a i n , th e a i l m e n t is gon e. The c o n f l i c t betw een m an 's in n e r s e l f and h i s o u t e r one is a p o p u la r theme in b o th C h in e s e and w e s t e r n g o t h i c f i c t i o n . T h i s c o n f l i c t is p r e s e n t e d d r a m a t i c a l l y th ro u g h the p o r t r a y a l o f th e c h a r a c t e r o f the d o u b le . In the theme o f the d o u b le , the r e a d e r f i n d s t h a t im p ro b a b le b e in g s and e v e n ts a r e g i v e n a l e g i t i m a t e e x i s t e n c e in a g o t h i c e n v ir o n m e n t . Now th e r e a d e r must look s e r i o u s l y th ro u g h th e e n i g m a t i c b l i n d s , a t the g o b l i n s and g h o s ts who a r e a c t u a l l y p a r t o f h i m s e l f . T he se d o u b le s a r e c r e a t e d u n d er s p e c i a l c a r e and must be r e g a r d e d s e r i o u s l y . In b o th C h in e s e and w e s t e r n g o t h i c f i c t i o n , th e p r o t a g o n i s t escapes from o r f i n d s r e l i e f in h i s p l i g h t th ro u g h m adness, d r u n k e n n e s s , t r a n c e , m e ta m o rp h o s is and dream s. M etam o rp ho s i s in G o t h i c F i c t i o n One o f the e a r l i e s t m e ta m o rp h o s is a p p e a rs in G re e k m y t h o lo g y , when Daphne, d a u g h t e r o f the R i v e r God Peneus, was p u rs u e d by the p a s s i o n a t e A p o l l o . As she shunned h i s lo v e , h e r f e a r and d i s g u s t f o r him s u b j e c t e d h e r to an 206 agony t h a t t u r n e d h e r i n t o a l a u r e l t r e e . Thus she managed to escape from him and r e t a i n h e r v i r g i n i t y . The theme o f m e ta m o rp h o s is s l o w l y f i n d s i t s way i n t o g o t h i c f i c t i o n in w h ic h the p r o t a g o n i s t s a r e a b l e to f i n d r e l i e f and r e l e a s e from t h e i r p r e c a r i o u s s i t u a t i o n s . Once r e a l i t y p r e s e n t s an i m p o s s i b i l i t y , m eta m o rp h o s in g i n t o a n o t h e r d o u b le u s u a l l y o f f e r s the p r o t a g o n i s t an i l l u s i o n in w h ic h h i s or h e r a s p i r a t i o n is f u l f i l l e d . Some w e s t e r n exam ples I w i l l be d i s c u s s i n g in t h i s c h a p t e r a r e : "The Monkey" ( 1934) by Is a k D in e s e n ( 1 0 9 - 6 3 ) , T h e P i c t u re o f 2 Dor i a n G r a y (1 8 9 0 ) by O s c a r W i l d e , and R o b e r t L o u is S t e v e n s o n 1s T h e S t r a n g e Case o f D r . J jjk y H and M r . Hyde ( 1 8 8 6 ) . 3 The p ro c e s s o f m eta m o rp h o s is in g o t h i c f i c t i o n u s u a l l y d e p i c t s how an i n d i v i d u a l , unhappy o r u n s a t i s f i e d w i t h h i s o r h e r e m o tio n a l and s o c i a l s e l f , in a s y m b o lic m anner, t r a n s f o r m s h i m s e l f o r h e r s e l f p h y s i c a l l y i n t o a n o t h e r form o f e x i s t e n c e , v e r y o f t e n i n t o a lower and b e s t i a l fo rm . A m an's s y m b o lic d e t e r i o r a t i o n i n t o a b e s t i a l e x i s t e n c e n a t u r a l l y has to do w i t h the i n d i v i d u a l ' s m oral d e g r a d a t i o n , b u t i t a l s o is c l o s e l y r e l a t e d to th e idea t h a t m an's p s y c h i c o r i g i n is p a r t l y an im al and p a r t l y s p i r i t u a l . T h e r e f o r e , m e ta m o rp h o s is in g o t h i c f i c t i o n is a m e t a p h o r i c m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f man who is o u t w a r d l y p r o t e c t e d by h i s c i v i l i z e d s e l f and y e t i n w a r d ly 207 g o v e rn e d by h i s b e s t i a l i n s t i n c t s . No m a t t e r how the i n d i v i d u a l a t t e m p t s to h id e i t and a c t d e c o r o u s l y , when o n e 's b e s t i a l i n s t i n c t overw helm s th e r a t i o n a l s e l f , the an im al s id e o f the i n d i v i d u a l em erges. H ence, we see the m o n s te r in g o t h i c f i c t i o n . S t e v e n s o n 's s t o r y . D r . J e k y I I a nd M r. Hy d e i s a good examp I e . D r . J e k y l l is a m e d ic a l d o c t o r , an e s t a b l i s h e d i n d i v i d u a l from the u p p e r s o c i a l s t r a t u m who po s sesse s p r e s t i g e , w e a l t h and r e s p e c t . H is c o u n t e r p a r t , M r. Hyde, who a p p e a rs in the b e g in n i n g u nd er the power o f a p o t i o n , is an o p p o s i t e c h a r a c t e r from J e k y l l . Hyde is a s e l f i s h , c r u e l , u n c o u th , ru d e , and d a n g e ro u s man. J e k y l l c a r e s f o r the s i c k and the h e l p l e s s ; he a l s o g i v e s to c h a r i t y to a s s i s t the p o o r . But Hyde is " b a d ." When he f i r s t a p p e a rs in the t a l e , he is ch a rg e d w i t h s t e p p i n g o v e r a sm all c h i l d on the s t r e e t ! H y d e 's a p p e t i t e f o r c r im e in c r e a s e s as tim e goes on. The r o b u s t , s h o r t , and yo u n g e r Hyde is a c t u a l l y J e k y l l ' s d o u b i e - - h i s in n e r s e l f - - w h i c h is d e s c r i b e d as d e fo rm e d , b e a s t l y , and S a t a n i c . The i n t e l l e c t u a l D r . J e k y l l is r e s t r i c t e d m o r a l l y in many ways by h i s s o c i a l p o s i t i o n . He has to m a i n t a i n h i s p u b l i c image as a d i g n i f i e d p r o f e s s i o n a l . Under such p r e s s u r e , h i s in n e r s e l f who a s p i r e s to be f r e e , to do a n y t h i n g t h a t i t f e e l s l i k e d o i n g , ca n n o t be k e p t u n d e r c o n t r o l but overw helm s th e r a t i o n a l m ind ( J e k y l l ) . 208 T h a t Hyde is J e k y l l ' s in n e r d o u b le is e v i d e n t in the s t o r y . The house w here th e u g l y young man l i v e s has no d o o r s . G o in g th ro u g h J e k y l l ' s house is the o n l y passage th r o u g h w h ic h he can go " o u t s i d e . " The hou r t h a t Hyde a p p e a rs is m o s t l y a t n i g h t in J e k y l l ' s p r i v a t e room. M o r e o v e r , b o th J e k y l l and H y d e 's h a n d w r i t i n g a r e the same. T h a t Hyde is p a r t o f J e k y l l is c l e a r l y d e p i c t e d in the s t o r y because the two n e v e r a p p e a r t o g e t h e r . J e k y l l ' s m e ta m o rp h o s is i n t o Hyde is made p o s s i b l e by the use o f a s t r a n g e p o t i o n w h ic h a l s o h e lp s in th e r e v e r s a l p r o c e s s . T h i s p o t i o n is a c t u a l l y an in s t r u m e n t e n a b l i n g th e p ro c e s s o f m e tam o rp h o sis to ta k e p l a c e so t h a t J e k y l l ' s w is h can be f u l f i l l e d : t h a t he can l i v e as a n o t h e r man s in c e he is t i r e d o f b e in g a n i c e d o c t o r , and t h a t he can do w h a t e v e r he w ants to w i t h o u t the f e a r o f b e in g r e c o g n i z e d . To be tr a n s f o r m e d i n t o a n o t h e r s e l f is an escape and r e l i e f f o r the d o c t o r who must m a i n t a i n h i s image as a c i v i l i z e d i n t e I I e c t u a I . M e ta m o rp h o s is in g o t h i c f i c t i o n a l s o s e rv e s as a c o n v e n ie n t o u t l e t f o r w i s h - f u I f i I I m e n t . The p r o t a g o n i s t in a s t o r y has a w is h w h ic h is u n l i k e l y to come t r u e in r e a l l i f e . But because he o r she is so engaged w i t h th e id e a , somehow, the i n f a t u a t i o n and p a s s io n i n s i d e e n a b le the e v e n t to hap pen. A m e ta m o rp h o s is ta k e s p l a c e . In the s t o r y o f P y g m a lio n in G re e k m y t h o lo g y , th e i v o r y s t a t u e 209 t r a n s f o r m s i t s e l f i n t o a human b e in g w i t h f e e l i n g s and love because i t s m a s t e r w a n ts so much f o r i t to be so. "The Monkey" by D in e s e n and The P i c t u r e o f D o r i a n G ra y b e lo n g to the c a t e g o r y o f w i s h - f u I f i I I m e n t in g o t h i c f i c t i o n in w h ic h m e ta m o rp h o s is o c c u rs in o r d e r to s a t i s f y th e p r o t a g o n i s t ' s d e s i r e s . In many w ays, the theme o f the d o u b le in W i l d e ' s s t o r y is o v e rw h e lm in g . The p a i n t e r B a s i l H a lw a r d sees h i m s e l f in G r a y . T h a t is th e re a s o n why he is so a t t r a c t e d to G ra y d u r i n g t h e i r f i r s t m e e t in g . A f t e r he is done w i t h G r a y ' s p o r t r a i t , he r e f u s e s to show i t to anyone because i t has too much o f h i m s e l f in i t . Showing the p i c t u r e means e x h i b i t i n g h i m s e l f , h i s h e a r t and mind to e v e r y o n e . For t h i s re a s o n , he ig n o r e s the chance t h a t by t a k i n g i t to P a r i s , i t m ig h t b r i n g him fame. E v e r y t im e he looks a t the p o r t r a i t , he sees th e p a r t o f h i m s e l f t h a t he does n ot w ant to know, and i t makes h i s f l e s h c r e e p . Y et the the p a i n t i n g is a l s o a d o u b le o f i t s m a s t e r , D o r i a n G r a y . G r a y , a r i c h young man p o s s e s s in g e x t r a - o r d i n a r y p h y s i c a l b e a u t y , is w o r r i e d t h a t one d a y , he w i l l t u r n i n t o a s h r i v e l l e d o ld man. L o o k in g a t h i s n e w ly p a i n t e d p o r t r a i t , he swears an o a t h . How sad i t i s ! . . . I s h a l l grow o l d , and h o r r i b l e , and d r e a d f u l . But t h i s p i c t u r e w i l l re m a in alw a y s young. I t w i l l n e v e r be o l d e r th an t h i s p a r t i c u l a r day o f J u n e . . . . I f i t w ere o n l y the o t h e r way! I f i t w ere I who was to be a lw a y s young, and the p i c t u r e 210 t h a t was to grow o l d ! For t h a t - - f o r t h a t - - l w ould g i v e e v e r y t h i n g ! Y e s , t h e r e is n o t h i n g in th e w h ole w o r ld I w ould n ot g i v e ! I w o u ld g i v e my soul f o r t h a t ! ( W i l d e , 23) The F a u s t i a n compact is heavy in the s t o r y . By s a c r i f i c i n g h i s s o u l , th e n a r c i s s i s t i c young man does a t t a i n h i s w is h . He s ta y s young e n j o y i n g h i s b e a u ty and y o u th w h i l e h i s p o r t r a i t grows o ld and u g l y . The m eta m o rp h o s is a p p e a re d in th e p a i n t i n g is a c t u a l l y m i r r o r i n g G r a y ' s e m o tio n a l and s p i r i t u a l s t a t e . When he is b e in g c r u e l to S y b i l Vane and causes h e r d e a t h , the f i g u r e in the p o r t r a i t has " c r u e l l i p s . " The e v e n in g when G ra y comes home from the o p e ra h o u se, th e same e v e n in g when he s h o u ld have gone to c o m fo r t and h e l p S y b i l ' s d e s o l a t e m o t h e r , he f i n d s the fa c e in th e p o r t r a i t r e p e l l i n g and d i s g u s t i n g . I t is a f t e r t h i s i n c i d e n t t h a t he p la n s to h id e the p a i n t i n g in th e a t t i c so t h a t no one e l s e w ou ld see i t . As G ra y m a t u r e s , more and more he loses the in nocence and k i n d - h e a r t e d n e s s t h a t he once v a l u e d . The change in th e p o r t r a i t r e c o r d s each o f h i s m isdem eanors and s p i r i t u a l d e g r a d a t i o n s . The tr a n s f o r m e d fa c e in the p o r t r a i t s y m b o liz e s G r a y ' s in n e r e x i s t e n c e w h ic h he t r i e s to c o n c e a l and i g n o r e . The u g l i n e s s and g r o t e s q u e e x p r e s s i o n on h i s once b e a u t i f u l and in n o c e n t fa c e in the p o r t r a i t shows th e s p i r i t u a l damage he has s u f f e r e d when he l e t h i m s e l f be i n v o l v e d w i t h l i c e n t i o u s n e s s , p e r v e r s i t y and m u r d e r . 21 1 The man in th e p o r t r a i t is G r a y ' s d o u b le s e l f who f u l f i l l s h i s m a s t e r ' s w is h by b e in g th e one to grow o l d and u g l y . The d o u b le s a t i s f i e s th e w is h e s o f the o u t e r s e l f and rem ain s h id d e n and w e l l - l o c k e d up in the a t t i c , w h i l e h i s m a s t e r , w i t h a y o u t h f u l handsome f a c e , dances th ro u g h the u p p er s o c i a l c l a s s in E n g la n d w i t h c o n f i d e n c e and e a s e . The s lo w -p a c e d m e ta m o rp h o s is o f th e p o r t r a i t r e f l e c t s G r a y ' s g r a d u a l b u t d e f i n i t e a l i e n a t i o n from h is in n e r s e l f . T i l l a t l a s t , he is shocked by i t s u g l i n e s s and r e f u s e s to r e c o g n iz e the man in the p a i n t i n g as a p i c t u r e o f h i m s e l f . W i l d e ' s t a l e is u n iq u e in the sense t h a t a t the end o f the t a l e , t h e r e is a r e v e r s e p r o c e s s o f m e ta m o rp h o s is . When G ra y is shocked by th e u g l y p o r t r a i t and w a n ts to d e s t r o y i t by s t a b b i n g i t w i t h a k n i f e , s y m b o l i c a l l y he is t r y i n g to d e s t r o y h i s i n n e r s e l f . As a r e s u l t , he l i e s dead on the g ro u n d , t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o the u g l y , w r i n k l e d o l d man t h a t was in th e p o r t r a i t , w h i l e th e man in the p i c t u r e now r e t u r n s to h i s o r i g i n a l b e a u t y . T he P i c t u r e o f D o r i a n G ra y is a n o t h e r exam ple in g o t h i c f i c t i o n in w h ic h the p r o t a g o n i s t is d e a l i n g w i t h a c o n f l i c t w i t h h i s in n e r s e l f . L i k e M r . Hyde, G r a y ' s d o u b le g r a d u a l l y becomes so s t r o n g and p o w e r f u l t h a t i t ca n n o t be c o n t r o l l e d a t the end . When G ra y a t l a s t d e c id e s to behave and be k i n d , h i s d o u b le in the p o r t r a i t r e v e a l s 212 more b l a t a n t l y h i s p a s t c r i m e s . The b lo o d t h a t t r i c k l e s in th e d o u b l e ' s hands becomes more re d and v i v i d . L i k e D r . J e k y l l , G ra y can no lo n g e r go bac k and undo h i s p a s t . H is a t t e m p t to b r e a k the law o f n a t u r e , th e m oral and s o c i a l codes by w h ic h o t h e r s a b i d e , leads him to a t r a g i c e n d . Compared w i t h D o r i a n G ra y and D r . J e k y l l , the p r i o r e s s a t C l o i s t e r Seven in "The Monkey" has a much e a s i e r t im e . L i k e th e p r e v i o u s s t o r i e s , "The Monkey" a l s o c a r r i e s a heavy theme o f th e d o u b le . The p r i o r e s s , a woman l i v i n g in a c l o i s t e r in P r u s s ia d u r i n g th e e a r l y n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , s w it c h e s i d e n t i t y w i t h a monkey t h a t roams f r e e l y ou t in the woods in autumn. The monkey, w h ic h is g i v e n to h e r as a g i f t , s y m b o liz e s h e r s e c r e t a s p i r a t i o n and d e s i r e s . E v e ry f a l l , the p r i o r e s s w i l l d i s a p p e a r i n t o the w i l d e r n e s s f o r a few weeks e v e r y t i m e as a monkey, w h i l e h e r p e t w i l l t u r n i n t o th e p r i o r e s s r e s t i n g in the c l o i s t e r . The monkey r e p r e s e n t s h e r i r r a t i o n a l i t y and h e r u n c o n s c io u s f e e l i n g s t h a t long to be f r e e . I t is o n l y by t r a n s f o r m i n g h e r s e l f i n t o the a n i m a l , by the p ro c e s s o f m e ta m o rp h o s is , t h a t h e r w is h e s can be f u I f i I I e d . D i n e s e n ' s many g o t h i c t a l e s c e n t e r on th e theme o f the fe m a le c r a v i n g f o r fre e d o m in th o u g h t and a c t i o n . The f e m i n i n e sex in th e s o c i a l c o n t e x t o f the n i n e t e e n t h 213 c e n t u r y is r e s t r i c t e d by many m oral o b l i g a t i o n s . Under such s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n , many women succumb to a l i f e o f r o u t i n e and m onotony. Women a r e r e s t r i c t e d by s e x , s o c i a l c l a s s and h i s t o r y . S y m b o l i c a l l y , t h e y a r e im p ris o n e d in t h e i r " c a g e s ," j u s t l i k e th e b i r d s in C l o i s t e r Se ven . These women long to be s e t f r e e and escape from s o c i a l c o n v e n t i o n . "The D r e a m e r s ," w h ic h w i l l be d is c u s s e d l a t e r in t h i s c h a p t e r is a n o t h e r s t o r y w i t h a s i m i l a r theme. In "The M o n k e y ," the p r i o r e s s ' s f e a r o f a too n a rro w w o r ld rem ain s an u n f u l f i l l e d d e s i r e u n t i l she m etam orphoses i n t o the monkey and le a v e s f o r the o u t s i d e w o r l d . In h e r d o u b le s e l f , she is now a b l e to e x p l o r e l i f e w i t h i t s freedom and e x c i t e m e n t . The theme o f th e d o u b le in C h in e s e t a l e s can be t r a c e d back to th e S i x D y n a s t i e s when s u p e r n a t u r a l t a l e s f i r s t f l o u r i s h e d . In A Segue I t o th e Re c o rd o f Su p e r n a t u r a l s ^ % % , the w r i t e r Wu Zhun ( 4 6 9 - 520) w r o t e a s t o r y c a l l e d "The S c h o l a r from Y a n g x ia n " % !f. w h ic h c a r r i e s th e th e theme o f th e d o u b l e . 1 1 S c h o l a r Xu, t r a v e l l i n g a lo n e in the m o u n t a in s , is f i l l e d w i t h f a t i g u e . On the r o a d , he m eets a young s c h o l a r who is r e s t i n g on the r o a d s id e bec au se h i s f e e t h u r t . The two a r e more th an happy to f i n d company in one a n o t h e r . The young s c h o l a r s u g g e s ts t h a t th e y s h o u ld have a d i n n e r p a r t y , and t h e r e he r e g u r g i t a t e s w in e and d e l i c i o u s food 2 1 4 on a p l a t e . M o r e o v e r , to add to the fu n , he a l s o p ro d u ces a young lady d r e s s e d b e a u t i f u l l y to e a t w i t h them. When the young man is d r u n k , the la d y t e l l s Xu t h a t she has a n o t h e r l o v e r who a l s o a p p e a rs o u t o f h e r m outh. T h i s lo v e r w a i t s t i l l the woman is a s l e e p when he a g a in r e g u r g i t a t e s h i s own woman. The p ro c e s s r e v e r s e s i t s e l f when the s l e e p y ones wake up one by on e . A l l t h i s tim e Xu is s i t t i n g t h e r e t a l k i n g to each o f them and p r o m is in g to keep th e a f f a i r s a s e c r e t . A t the end, n o t h i n g is l e f t e x c e p t the food p l a t e w h ic h is a g i f t from th e young man to Xu. T h i s t a l e can be t r e a t e d as a s t o r y w i t h o n l y one c h a r a c t e i S c h o l a r Xu. The r e s t o f the c h a r a c t e r s in the t a l e : th e young s c h o l a r , h i s w i f e , h e r lo v e r and h e r l o v e r ' s la d y a r e a l l p r o j e c t i o n s and d o u b le s o f Xu h i m s e l f . Xu, a lo n e in the h i l l s , f i l l e d w i t h hunger and e x h a u s t i o n , longs to meet someone to keep him company. The young s c h o l a r , who is c o m p l a i n in g abo ut h i s s o re f e e t , is a c t u a l l y h i s d o u b le . Xu in h i s t r a v e l , c r a v e s f o r fo o d , w in e and women w h ic h a r e a l l m i r a c u l o u s l y p r e s e n t e d by h i s d o u b le . The s t o r y is a f a n t a s y o f a t i r e d t r a v e l l e r d a y -d r e a m in g f o r e n t e r t a i n m e n t and company. A n o th e r t a l e o f th e d o u b le is th e one w r i t t e n by Chen Xuanyou ( 7 6 6 - 7 9 9 ) c a l l e d "The P a r t i n g o f th e S o u l" ' n Tang D y n a s t y . ^ When h e r f a t h e r b r e a k s h i s 215 p ro m is e and o f f e r s h e r to a n o t h e r man, Lady Q ia n is h e a r t - b r o k e n . Her b e t r o t h e d Wang can do n o t h i n g but le a v e s in a n g e r . On th e b o a t , Wang sees Q ia n ru n n in g to w a rd him . T o g e t h e r th e y p l a n to run away and g e t m a r r i e d . F i v e y e a r s l a t e r , th e y have two sons. Q ia n m is s e s her p a r e n t s and asks to go home. When th e y a r r i v e a t the c i t y , Wang begs Q i a n ' s f a t h e r f o r f o r g i v e n e s s w h i l e she w a i t s f o r news on the b o a t . But Wang is t o l d t h a t he had done n o t h i n g wrong f o r Q ia n has been s i c k f o r the l a s t f i v e y e a r s d u r i n g w h ic h she has n o t l e f t h e r bed a t a l l . A t l a s t , th e two l a d i e s w i t h s m i l i n g f a c e s , meet each o t h e r and m i r a c u l o u s l y combined i n t o on e . The c h a r a c t e r o f th e d o u b le in t h i s s t o r y is much o b v io u s th an the ones in "The S c h o la r from Y a n g x i a n . " Lady Q ia n who is v e r y much d e v o te d to h e r b e t r o t h e d Wang, has no c h o ic e bu t to run away w i t h him when h e r f a t h e r p la n s to m a r r y h e r to a n o t h e r man. S in c e th e la d y l i v e s in the in n e r chamber o f the h ou se, i t is n o t easy f o r h e r to j o i n him . As a m a t t e r o f f a c t , i t is u n th o u g h t o f f o r a young g i r l in the o l d days to t r a v e l on h e r own. L e a v in g th e f a m i l y in d i s t r e s s and a n x i e t y is a l s o so m e th in g she w ants to a v o i d . T o rn betw een h e r lo v e f o r Wang and h e r d u t y tow ards h e r p a r e n t s , Lady Q ia n has to s p l i t h e r s e l f up so to s p e ak, i n t o two p e rs o n s to f u l f i l l h e r w is h e s . Her in n e r s e l f , th e s o u l , le a v e s home to p u rsu e 216 h a p p in e s s , w h i l e h e r o u t e r s e l f , th e body must a c t a c c o r d in g to s o c i a l decorum . The theme o f the s p l i t d o u b le in the C h in e s e t a l e s re s e m b le s t h a t in th e w e s t e r n s t o r i e s - - a p r o t a g o n i s t t r i e s to f u l f i l l h i s o r h e r w is h t h a t o t h e r w i s e can n e v e r be r e a l i z e d in r e a l l i f e . By t r a n s f o r m i n g i n t o a d i f f e r e n t s t a t e o f e x i s t e n c e , th e C h in e s e d o u b le is a b l e to succeed in i t s d e s i r e s . In L i aozha i , th e h e ro in "A Bao" m etam orphoses i n t o a p a r r o t so t h a t he can s t a y c l o s e to h i s lo v e r and move h e r h e a r t . In "The F i g h t i n g Cr i c k e t " 4%. M i C h e n g 's n i n e - y e a r - o l d boy is changed i n t o a c r i c k e t w h ic h no t o n l y saves h i s f a t h e r ' s l i f e , b u t a l s o w in s f o r him w e a l t h ( 1 , i v : 4 8 4 - 9 0 ) . In " X ia n g Gao" fa X i a n g , in o r d e r to avenge h i s h a l f - b r o t h e r ' s d e a t h , t r a n s f o r m s h i m s e l f i n t o a t i g e r and k i l l s h i s p o w e r f u l enemy ( 1 , v i : 8 3 l - 3 3 ) . Y e t one must lo o k f u r t h e r i n t o th e s e t a l e s in o r d e r to compare i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e w i t h t h e i r w e s t e r n p a r a l l e l s . A lt h o u g h the pu rp o s e o f m e ta m o rp h o s is from one s t a t e o f e x i s t e n c e to a n o t h e r is s i m i l a r in b o th t r a d i t i o n s , the manner in w h ic h the p r o c e s s ta k e s p l a c e is d i f f e r e n t . In a lm o s t a l l o f th e w e s t e r n t a l e s I m e n tio n e d , "The M o n k e y ," D r _ . JhakyN and_Mr: H y d e , and T he P i c t u re o f D o r i a n G r a y , the p r o c e s s o f m eta m o rp h o s is ta k e s p l a c e a t n i g h t in a s e c lu d e d and p r i v a t e a r e a w h ere th e p r o t a g o n i s t is 217 s e p a r a t e d from h i s e n v ir o n m e n t . V e r y o f t e n i t happens in th e d a r k and the p r o t a g o n i s t t r i e s e v e r y way to keep i t a s e c r e t from o t h e r s . in th e case o f "The Monkey" and D r . J eky i I , th e s e c r e t o f m e ta m o rp h o s is and the i d e n t i t y o f the " b e a s t s " a r e r e v e a l e d on Iy when t h e i r m a s te r s a r e no more in c o n t r o l o f them. M e ta m o rp h is m in w e s t e r n t a l e s is p r e s e n t e d as a s e c r e t i v e p ro c e s s a l s o f o r th e re a s o n t h a t i t s y m b o liz e s a change t a k i n g p l a c e in th e p r o t a g o n i s t ' s s u b c o n s c io u s w h ic h is h id d e n from s i g h t . But in the C h in e s e t a l e s , m eta m o rp h o s is ta k e s p l a c e in b ro a d d a y l i g h t , in f r o n t o f th e eyes o f th e p r o t a g o n i s t ' s f a m i l y . V e r y o f t e n , the p r o t a g o n i s t h i m s e l f w i l l t e l l h i s f a m i l y w hat is h a p p e n in g to him o r h e r . Fo r e x a m p le , in "A B a o ," when S u n 's soul f o l l o w s h i s lo v e r A Bao, he le a v e s h i s body l y i n g m o t i o n l e s s in bed . The Sun in bed t e l Is h i s fami ly t h a t he is a c t u a l ly in A B a o 's h o u se. S c h o l a r Yu in "A Crow W i f e " ^ ^ m etam orphoses i n t o a crow w hen ev er he t h i n k s o f h i s crow w i f e ( 2 , x i : 1 5 1 6 - 2 0 ) . He p u ts on the b l a c k robe and w a tc h e s f o r the f e a t h e r s to grow o ut on h i s s h o u l d e r s . When he a r r i v e s a t h i s d e s t i n a t i o n , h i s crow w i f e ' s a t t e n d a n t s w i l l come and h e l p him to t a k e o f f h i s robe and remove the f e a t h e r s from h i s body. H is m e ta m o rp h o s is is seen o p e n ly and looked a t as a n a t u r a l p ro c e s s in th e s t o r y . 2 1 8 The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h i s d i f f e r e n c e is i n t e r e s t i n g . In the w e s t e r n s t o r i e s , m e ta m o rp h o s is o f th e in n e r s e l f in a b s o l u t e p r i v a c y s y m b o liz e s the t r a n s i t i o n o f the sub con s c io u s i n t o th e c o n s c io u s m in d . T h i s p ro c e s s u s u a l l y d e a ls w i t h p e r s o n a l c o n f l i c t s w i t h i n the s e l f . The scene o f m eta m o rp h o s is is open in th e C h in e s e t a l e s because Pu meant i t to be p a r t o f r e a l i t y . The t r a n s i t i o n o f the s e l f f o r Pu is an e x t e n s i o n o f c o n s c io u s a c t i v i t y in l i f e . Seen in t h i s way, P u 1s d o u b le s d e a l more w i t h t h e i r s o c i a l e n v ir o n m e n t w h ic h e v e n t u a l l y a f f e c t s the s e l f who l i v e s in i t . A n o th e r d i f f e r e n c e we see in th e p ro c e s s o f m e tam or p h o s is is t h a t u n l i k e th e d o u b le s in w e s t e r n t a l e s , the C h in e s e d o u b le s , a f t e r t h e i r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , n e v e r p r e s e n t a g r o t e s q u e image. M r . Hyde in S t e v e n s o n 's t a l e is s h o r t , u g l y and ru d e . U t t e r s o n s a y s , "M r. Hyde was p a l e and d w a r f i s h , he gave an im p re s s io n o f d e f o r m i t y w i t h o u t any nam eable m a l f o r m a t i o n . " For some unknown r e a s o n , th e law yer is b o t h e r e d by an "unknown d i s g u s t , l o a t h i n g and f e a r " when s t a n d i n g fa c e to fa c e w i t h him ( 3 9 3 ) . D o r i a n G ra y in h i s l a s t m e ta m o rp h o s is is found " w i t h e r e d , w r i n k l e d , and loathsom e o f v i s a g e " ( W i l d e , 1 8 6 ) . In the l a s t scene o f "The M o n k e y ," the o l d woman, " w r i t h i n g , and d i s h e v e l e d , f o r c e d to th e f l o o r ; she was s c ru n ch ed and changed" i n t o a monkey ( D in e s e n , 1 6 2 ) . The g r o t e s q u e images o f th e s e d o u b le c h a r a c t e r s s i g n i f y t h e i r 219 i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h m en 's n e g a t i v e and d a r k s e l v e s . T h e re a r e m o n s te rs h id d e n i n s i d e o f man, a lw a y s w a i t i n g f o r a chance to ta k e o v e r c o n t r o l and ta k e f l i g h t from t h e i r c a g e s . They c o u ld be th e s u p p re s s e d im p u ls es w i t h i n us, o r the d e s i r e s w h ic h we n e v e r d a re a d m it and a c c e p t as long as we a r e c o n s c io u s and r a t i o n a l . The C h in e s e d o u b le c h a r a c t e r s seldom g i v e th e im p r e s s i o n o f u g l i n e s s and d e f o r m i t y . Sun in "A Bao" t u r n s i n t o a p a r r o t w h ic h im m e d ia t e ly w in s A B a o ' s f a v o r as soon as she sees i t . As a m a t t e r o f f a c t , i t is by t u r n i n g h i m s e l f i n t o a l o v a b l e b i r d t h a t Sun is a b l e to touch the b e a u t y ' s h e a r t . She s a y s , " Oh! i f o n l y you c o u ld come back to I i f e as a man, I swear I w o u ld r a t h e r d i e th a n not m a r r y you" % % % ^ , '% &<- (Quong, 2 3 ) . 6 A lt h o u g h the b o y - t u r n e d c r i c k e t in "The F i g h t i n g C r i c k e t " is not v e r y a t t r a c t i v e b u t is " s m a ll and o f d a r k red c o l o r , " $ 3 . O ' , y e t i t pos ses ses "A we I I - formed head and neck" ^5 li 41 ( G i l e s , 2 7 8 ) . I t dances in tim e to m usic and hence becomes the e m p e r o r 's f a v o r i t e . A f t e r the p r i e s t has pu t on a robe f o r h im , X ia n g in " X ia n g Gao" is t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a t i g e r . T h i s t i g e r is n o t d e s c r i b e d as a f i e r c e and d a n g e ro u s a n i m a l . R a t h e r , th e anim al t h i n k s in X i a n g ' s mind o n l y o f a t t a c k i n g i t s enemy. T h e r e is n o t h i n g b e s t i a l o r savage ab o u t the m a n - e a t e r , r a t h e r i t is v e r y human in i t s a c t i o n s . I t does not h u r t anybody e l s e b u t i t s l o n g - a w a i t e d enemy who has m urdered i t s b r o t h e r . One can say t h a t Pu, w h i l e w r i t i n g h i s t a l e s , had s e t h i s mind on th e s p l i t p e r s o n a l i t y d e s c r i p t i o n r a t h e r th an a d o u b le c h a r a c t e r who can be a t o t a l l y d i f f e r e n t p e rs o n than i t s m a s t e r . In S t e v e n s o n 's s t o r y , the c h a r a c t e r o f Hyde is a c h a r a c t e r d i f f e r e n t from h i s o r i g i n the d o c t o r in i t s e n t i r e t y . As a m a t t e r o f f a c t , one can see t h a t th e y a r e o p p o s i t e s . J e k y i l is c i v i l i z e d , i n t e l l i g e n t , c h a r i t a b l e and t a l l , w h i l e Hyde is ru d e , c r u e l , low, s e l f i s h and s h o r t . The law y er U t t e r s o n a lm o s t w re c k s h i s m ind t r y i n g to f i g u r e out how and why th e d o c t o r can a s s o c i a t e h i m s e l f w i t h such a low m oral c r e a t u r e . D o r i a n C r a y ' s u g l y p o r t r a i t r e f l e c t s i t s m a s t e r ' s m oral d e c l i n e , t h a t somehow b e h in d such a l o v e l y and b e a u t i f u l f a c e , s h o u ld lodge so m e th in g so n e g a t i v e and d e c a d e n t . In th e above two w e s t e r n t a l e s , we have b e a u t y v e r s u s the b e a s t in man. Y e t b e a u t y and th e b e a s t a r e p r e s e n t e d as two s e p a r a t e c h a r a c t e r s in the t a l e s i n t e r a c t i n g w i t h each o t h e r . In th e C h in e s e t a l e s , we see more o f a s p l i t p e r s o n a l i t y in th e m e ta m o rp h ic p r o c e s s . The m etam orphosed c h a r a c t e r does n o t i n t e r a c t w i t h i t s m a s t e r bu t r a t h e r w i t h o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s in the t a l e s to c a r r y out h i s m i s s i o n . S u n 's soul le a v e s h i s body in o r d e r to f o l l o w h i s l o v e r . He n e v e r r e t u r n s u n t i l 22 1 h i s f a t h e r asks f o r h e l p from a T a o i s t p r i e s t to r e c a l l h i s soul to j o i n h i s b od y. A f t e r he t u r n s i n t o a b i r d , he a c t u a l l y s ta y s w i t h A Bao by h e r s id e d ay and n i g h t . He o n l y e a t s when she fe e d s him . The p a r r o t is t o t a l l y s e p a r a t e d from S u n 's s l e e p i n g body w h ic h a s s e r t s no c o n t r o l w h a t s o e v e r o v e r th e b i r d . T h e re is no i n t e r a c t i o n betw een th e b i r d and Sun a t a l l . When the b i r d r e t u r n s to S u n 's h o u se, the s l e e p i n g Sun g e t s up and the b i r d dro p s dead a g a i n . The t i g e r in " X ia n g Gao" does no t do any damage to i t s m a s t e r , r a t h e r , i t g u a rd s the m a s t e r ' s body w h ic h is l y i n g in the woods u n c o n s c io u s . I t is a f r a i d t h a t some b i r d s o f p r e y m ig h t come and d e v o u r th e body. In "The F i g h t i n g C r i c k e t , " th e c r i c k e t is a s p l i t c h a r a c t e r o f th e n i n e - y e a r - o l d boy who a t t e m p t s to k i l l h i m s e l f . The t i n y in s e c t h e l p s h i s m a s t e r in s a v in g h i s p a r e n t s by f i g h t i n g c o u r a g e o u s ly w i t h o t h e r c r i c k e t s and d a n c in g to m u s ic . The s p l i t c h a r a c t e r s in the C h in e s e t a l e s a c t as a g e n ts f o r t h e i r m a s te r s to a c c o m p lis h a d i f f i c u l t and im p o r ta n t m is s io n w i t h o u t w h ic h t h e i r m a s te r s w i l l be c a s t in e x tre m e s i t u a t i o n s . T h e r e f o r e , the C h in e s e s p l i t c h a r a c t e r s o n l y a p p e a r when t h e r e is a p a r t i c u l a r need o r cause f o r them. When th ey do a p p e a r , t h e y a lw a y s a c t in a c c o rd a n c e w i t h t h e i r m a s t e r s ' w is h e s , h e l p i n g them to f u l f i l l t h e i r d e s i r e s . T h e r e is seldom c o n f l i c t o r d i s c o r d betw een th e m a s t e r and 222 h i s d o u b le . M o r e o v e r , the m a s t e r ’ s d e s i r e is v e r y o f t e n n o n - e v i l b u t r a t h e r r o m a n t ic as in "A B a o ." Hence, t h e r e is no need f o r th e g r o t e s q u e and th e d e fo rm e d in the C h in e s e s p l i t c h a r a c t e r s . The s p l i t c h a r a c t e r s in th e C h in e s e t a l e s make t h e i r a p p e a ra n c e f o r the f o l l o w i n g c a u s e s : 1) in s a t i s f y i n g a love p a s s io n as in "A B a o ," and "The Crow W i f e ; " 2) in d e m o n s t r a t i n g f i l i a l p i e t y , as in "The F i g h t i n g C r i c k e t ; " 3) in a v e n g in g a b r o t h e r ' s t r a g i c d e a t h , as in " X ia n g G ao ;" 4) f o r d i d a c t i c p u rp o ses as the p r o j e c t e d human c o n s c ie n c e in "The T a l k i n g Eye P u p i l s " ^ ( 1 , i : 1 0 - 1 3 ) ; and, 5) f o r a r e t r i b u t i v e c a u s e , as in "A Man from th e Same C o u n ty" ( 2 , i x : 1 1 9 9 ) . The l a s t two t a l e s d e s e r v e a more d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n because th e y a r e in v o l v e d w i t h the a u t h o r ' s p u rp o s e to te a c h a le s s o n . The theme o f good and e v i l g i v e s th e t a l e s t h e i r b a s i c p h i l o s o p h i c a l s t r u c t u r e . Fang in the f i r s t s t o r y , a lt h o u g h a v e r y t a l e n t e d young s c h o l a r , is a ra k e who n e v e r spends h i s tim e on b u i l d i n g a c a r e e r o r s t r e n g t h e n i n g h i s m oral d i s c i p l i n e , b u t r a t h e r on c h a s in g a f t e r and f l i r t i n g w i t h women. Once he happens to peep i n t o a l a d y ' s c a r r i a g e o n l y to be c u rs e d by h e r m aid who throw s d u s t in h i s f a c e . As a r e s u l t , he becomes b l i n d . B e in g c o n f i n e d a t home, he b e g in s to r e p e n t o f h i s p a s t m i s b e h a v i o r . S u d d e n ly , he f i n d s h i s p u p i l s in the form o f 223 t i n y b e in g s t a l k i n g to each o t h e r and e x p r e s s i n g t h e i r boredom o f c o n f i n e m e n t . They go o u t to th e y a r d to look a t th e ep iden drum s o n l y to f i n d t h a t th e f l o w e r s a r e dead because o f la c k o f c a r e . The p u p i l s a r e a c t u a l l y F a n g 's in n e r v o i c e , th e y e x p re s s how he f e e l s . " I t ' s p i t c h b l a c k h e r e , enought to k i l l o n e !" '(*'■< ' . Then the o t h e r p u p i l a n s w e rs , " L e t us ta k e a l i t t l e s t r o l l and c h e e r o u r s e l v e s u p ! " is} » J > ^ O X 'S&z $!?] ^ ( G i l e s , 2 2 8 ) . Fang, who has long been c o n f i n e d in h i s chamber because o f b l i n d n e s s , longs to go o u t a g a i n . The v e r y f i r s t t h i n g t h a t the p u p i l s long to see a r e th e f l o w e r s in the g a r d e n , h i s f a v o r i t e s . " I t ' s long s i n c e I had a peep a t th e g a r d e n ; the l o v e l y e p id en d ru m s a r e a l l w i t h e r e d a w a y !" 1 ' f t , )$ $ . A- . ( 2 2 9 ) . In h i s s o l i t u d e . Fang, l i k e th e p u p i l s , longs to b r e a k th ro u g h the d a r k w a l l t h a t s e p a r a t e s him and the o u t s i d e w o r l d . T h i s is a c c o m p lis h e d by th e p u p i l s w h ic h go th r o u g h the n o s t r i l s , and p l a n to b r e a k th ro u g h the t h i c k h a rd f i l m in th e e y e s . The p u p i l s in F a n g 's eyes a r e the m etam orphosed a n i m a t i o n o f F a n g 's d e s i r e to go o u t , to see the g a r d e n , and to be a b l e to see a g a i n . Y e t th e y a r e n o t th e v e r y re a s o n t h a t a l l o w s Fang to g a i n back h i s v i s i o n . Pu w a n te d h i s r e a d e r to know t h a t Fang is a b l e to see a g a in o n l y because he has r e p e n t e d . In h i s p l i g h t . Fang has 224 h e a rd t h a t T he Book o f C l e a r L i g h t ^ w o u ld ease m i s e r y . So he o b t a i n s a copy and asks a man to te a c h him to c h a n t . In h a l f a y e a r , he re a c h e s a s t a t e o f c a lm n e s s . I t is d u r i n g t h i s t im e , h i s p u p i l s make t h e i r move. But from then on and t i l l th e end o f h i s l i f e , Fang becomes a v i r t u o u s man, "more c ir c u m s p e c t in h is c o n d u c t, and soon a l l h i s v i l l a g e a c c l a i m h i s v i r t u e " ^ A n o th e r t a l e on the theme o f good and e v i l is "A Man from th e Same C o u n t y ." In th e s t o r y , t h e r e is a man who leads an " e x c e e d i n g l y d i s r e p u t a b l e l i f e . " One m o rn in g he f i n d s h i m s e l f m etam orphosed i n t o th e p o r k t h a t hangs out f o r s a l e in th e b u t c h e r ' s shop. A l l m o rn in g he s u f f e r s th e p a i n o f b e in g s l i c e d and c u t th ro u g h th e f l e s h . He goes home o n l y when a l l the p o r k is s o l d . T h i s s t o r y o b v i o u s l y c a r r i e s a r e t r i b u t i v e theme in w h ic h th e man is b e in g p u n is h e d s l o w l y and p a i n f u l l y f o r h i s v i l e n e s s . W h i l e the man h i m s e l f n e v e r r e p e n ts h i s s in s as Fang d i d in the p r e v i o u s t a l e , th e pu n ish m e n t is imposed on him by a much h i g h e r unknown po w er. One m o rn in g when he g o t up r a t h e r e a r l y , two men a p p e a re d and led him away to th e m a r k e t p l a c e , w here he saw a b u t c h e r h a n g in g up h a l f a p i g . As th e y a p p ro a c h e d , th e two men shoved him w i t h a l l t h e i r m ig h t a g a i n s t th e dead a n i m a l . . . . h i s own f l e s h began to b le n d w i t h the p o r k b e f o r e him , w h i l e h i s c o n d u c to r s h u r r i e d o f f in an o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n . (G i l e s , HH9) 225 - & K f e , % ^ € *, % -t , * ^ -H f t- >% M i% *1 4-, ~ 'L *' <g_ « . The i d e n t i t y o f the two men is n o t known. They c o u ld be th e g u a rd s from h e l l to c a r r y out th e o r d e r o f p u n is h m e n t, o r th e y m ig h t be the p r o j e c t i o n o f the m an 's g u i l t y c o n s c ie n c e w h ic h is b o t h e r e d by h i s e v i l d e e d s . The is s u e o f good and e v i l seen in e a s t / w e s t g o t h i c t a l e s o f m e tam o rp h o sis d e s e r v e s a c a r e f u l a n a l y s i s . W e s te rn a u t h o r s i n s i s t t h a t t h e r e is b o th good and e v i l e x i s t i n g in a man. Each m an 's c h a r a c t e r is made up o f v a r i o u s m oral i n g r e d i e n t s in w h ic h b o th good and e v i 1 a r e in c l u d e d . W e s te rn g o t h i c t a l e s a r e m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f d i s c o r d s betw een th e s e two e x tre m e m oral e n t i t i e s . The m etam orphosed d o u b le , as I have shown e a r l i e r , is a d r a m a t i z e d p o r t r a y a l o f the d a r k b e in g i n s i d e u s . T h i s e v i l b e in g is r e p r e s e n t e d by a g r o t e s q u e m o n s te r w h ic h s y m b o liz e s th e d e fo rm e d s e l f . The w e s t e r n w r i t e r s a r e s a y in g t h a t the e v i l i n s i d e us c a n n o t be s e p a r a t e d from o r ig n o r e d by us f o r we a r e a l l human. We ca n n o t d i s c a r d th e e v i l in us as i t is p a r t o f u s , p a r t o f o u r e x i s t e n c e . As D r . J e k y l l d e s c r i b e s the scene when he looks a t h i m s e l f as M r . Hyde in the m i r r o r , he s e e s , . . . . E v i l b e s id e s (w h ic h I must s t i l l b e l i e v e to be th e l e t h a l s id e o f man) had l e f t on t h a t body an 226 i m p r i n t o f d e f o r m i t y and d e c a y . And y e t when I looked upon t h a t u g l y id o l in the g l a s s , I was c o n s c io u s o f no re p u g n a n c e , r a t h e r a le a p o f w elc om e. T h i s to o , was m y s e l f . I t seemed n a t u r a l and h u m a n . . . . T h i s . . . . was because a l l human b e i n g s , as we meet them, a r e com m ingled o u t o f good and e v i l . . . . ( S t e v e n s o n , 441) I t is not a m a t t e r o f o n e 's m oral t r a i n i n g , s o c i a l b a c k g roun d and e d u c a t i o n , but r a t h e r , o n l y b ecause we a r e a l l w hat we a r e - - a human b e i n g . T h i s s t r u g g l e betw een th e two s e l v e s w i l l go on as long as t h e r e is a d i s c r e p a n c y b etw een them. Pu b e l i e v e d t h a t man is b a s i c a l l y good, t h a t the e v i l in man can be e l i m i n a t e d by the e f f e c t o f r e l i g i o n , e d u c a t i o n and s o c i a l m o r a l i t y . In P u 1s f i c t i o n a l cosmos, t h e r e is a much h i g h e r f o r c e above t h a t a s s e r t s i t s i n f l u e n c e and power to m a i n t a i n th e b a la n c e o f good and e v i l . T h i s unknown b a l a n c i n g power w i l l p u n is h the bad and rew ard th e good. T h i s p a t t e r n keeps i t s c o n s i s t e n c y in a l i ’ o f P u 1s t a l e s . L o o k in g from t h i s p o i n t o f v ie w , P u 1 s t a l e s a r e used as m o ral t o o l s by th e a u t h o r to expound the goodness in man. P u 1s d o u b le s a r e th e ones who r e c e i v e the p u n ishm e n t o f t h e i r m a s t e r s ' v i c i o u s deeds and go th ro u g h th e p a i n and s u f f e r i n g w h i l e t h e i r m a s te rs l i e s a f e l y in bed in sound s l e e p . The C h in e s e d o u b le s a r e s c a p e g o a ts f o r t h e i r m a s t e r s . For e x a m p le , in "A Man from th e Same C o u n t y ," i t is th e m a s te r whose c o n d u c t is s o c i a l l y u n a c c e p t a b l e , y e t , a t the end, i t is h i s d o u b le . 227 the metam orphosed p i e c e o f p o r k t h a t s u f f e r s . By g o in g th ro u g h p a i n and agony, the C h in e s e d o u b le leads i t s m a s t e r back to th e road o f v i r t u e . I n s t e a d o f b e in g th e e v i l e n t i t y o f a man, the C h in e s e m etam orphosed d o u b le a l s o a c t s as an a g e n t f o r th e a l l - e n c o m p a s s i n g h e a v e n ly power to b a la n c e good and e v i l . In " X ia n g G a o ," the man changes i n t o a t i g e r in o r d e r to m a i n t a i n j u s t i c e w h ic h c a n n o t be a c h ie v e d o t h e r w i s e . The f i e r c e t i g e r k i l l s , y e t i t is n o t p o r t r a y e d as a n e g a t i v e c h a r a c t e r f o r i t c a r r i e s o u t th e most l e g i t i m a t e and j u s t i f i e d cause f o r P u - - to avenge the w ro n g ed . The d o u b le s in C h in e s e f i c t i o n a p p e a r m o s t l y f o r a s o c i a l c a u s e : to c o r r e c t a p e r s o n 's c o n d u c t, o r to a c h i e v e j u s t i c e , w h i l e th e w e s t e r n d o u b le s a r i s e o u t o f a p e r s o n a l need to u n d e r s ta n d o n e s e l f . The p ro c e s s o f m eta m o rp h o s is in the C h in e s e t a l e s is p o s s i b l e because th e p r o t a g o n i s t s a r e d e v o te d and s i n c e r e in t h e i r c a u s e s . The n i n e - y e a r - o l d boy in "The F i g h t i n g C r i c k e t " u n k n o w in g ly is t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a c r i c k e t so t h a t h i s f a t h e r can escape p u n is h m e n t. For s u r e l y the c h i l d is u n d er p r e s s u r e because he jumps i n t o th e w e l l and t r i e s to k i l l h i m s e l f . But th e f e a r and th e a g i t a t i o n he end u res when he knows h i s f a t h e r wi I I be in t r o u b l e cause him s u b c o n s c io u s ly to ad o p t th e p h y s i c a l form o f a c r i c k e t to h e l p h i s f a t h e r in h i s p r e d i c a m e n t . The s c h o l a r Yu Yong 228 h in "The Crow W if e " p ra y s to h i s crow w i f e and th a n k s h e r f o r s a v in g h i s l i f e in th e p a s t . T h i s moves th e w i f e who is now a f a i r y , to come and r e u n i t e w i t h him . By g i v i n g him a b l a c k r o b e , she is the one t h a t makes i t p o s s i b l e f o r him to a c c o m p lis h the m e ta m o r p h o s is . So i t is Yu Y o n g 1s d e v o t i o n to w a rd h i s im m ortal w i f e t h a t e n a b le s the change. I t is the same w i t h the case o f "A B a o ." The s i n c e r e lo v e r no t o n l y c u t s o f f h i s d e fo rm e d f i n g e r because A Bao has e x p re s s e d h e r d i s l i k e o f i t , b u t he a l s o has t r i e d v a r i o u s methods to a p p ro a c h th e g i r l . A t l a s t , h i s lo ve f o r h e r rem ain s so s t r o n g and o v e rw h e lm in g t h a t i t e n a b le s him to assume the body o f a p a r r o t and f l y to h i s l o v e r ' s s i d e . X ia n g G a o 's p e r s i s t e n t a t t e m p t to avenge h i s b r o t h e r ' s d e a t h , w a i t i n g f o r days on th e road s i d e f o r th e chance to k i l l h i s enemy, b e a r i n g heavy r a i n and numbing c o l d , is r e a l i z e d by a T a o i s t p r i e s t who g i v e s him a r o b e . As soon as he p u ts on th e ro b e , he is changed i n t o a t i g e r w h ic h e v e n t u a l l y k i l l s th e m u r d e r e r . The f a i r y lady and th e T a o i s t p r i e s t in the t a l e a r e t a k i n g th e p l a c e o f th e p o t i o n in D r . J e k y I I and M r . H y d e . They s e r v e as a l e g i t i m a t e re a s o n o r d r a m a t i c e x p l a n a t i o n f o r th e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . S y m b o l i c a l l y s p e a k in g , th e f a i r y lady and the T a o i s t p r i e s t can be d is p o s e d o f , f o r i t is a c t u a l l y the p r o t a g o n i s t s ' mind t h a t is u r g i n g them to metam orphose and p e r f o r m th e m i s s i o n . 229 M e ta m o rp h o s is in th e w e s t e r n t a l e s ta k e s p l a c e when o n e 's s p i r i t is in t u r m o i l . The t r a n s f o r m e d s e l f i n s t i g a t e s a s p i r i t u a l r e b e l l i o n w h ic h th e o u t e r s e l f can n o t c o n t r o l . In the s t o r i e s o f "The Monkey" and Dr\. J e k y I I a nd M r . Hyde , m eta m o rp h o s is is a s p o n ta n eo u s p r o c e s s . The p r i o r e s s can n o t h e l p h e r s e l f from c h a n g in g i n t o th e monkey in f r o n t o f h e r nephew and h i s l o v e r ' s v e r y e y e s . J u s t as D r . J e k y l l a t th e end f i n d s h i m s e l f i n v o l u n t a r i l y assum ing H y d e 's form even w i t h o u t th e p o t i o n and w i t h o u t h i m s e l f b e in g aw are o f i t , D o r i a n G ra y can o n l y summit h i m s e l f th ro u g h d i f f e r e n t s ta g e s o f d e t e r i o r a t i o n s o v e r w h ic h he can n o t e x e r c i s e any p o w er. D r e am as M yth and Dream D o u b le s In e a s t / w e s t a n c i e n t m y th s , dream is o f t e n c o n s id e r e d as a s a c r e d e v e n t w h ic h is as r e a l as r e a l i t y i t s e l f . Sometimes th e c o n t e n t o f a dream is d e c r e e d as an o r a c l e or p ro p h e c y from a h i g h e r p o w er. Fo r e x a m p le , in th e O ld T e s t a m e n t , b e f o r e Joseph becomes k i n g , he has two d ream s. In the f i r s t one, he sees th e s t a p l e s he has p l a n t e d s t a n d i n g up to r e c e i v e o b e is a n c e from th e ones h i s b r o t h e r s have r e a r e d . In a n o t h e r dream , he is s u r p r i s e d to f i n d t h a t the sun, the moon, and the p l a n e t s a l l g a t h e r 230 t o g e t h e r to w o r s h ip him . V e r y soon, he does become a k i n g . Dreams o f a s i m i l a r ty p e can be c i t e d from B u d d h is t and T a o i s t s c r i p t u r e s . In d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e s , dream is a l s o looked a t as one o f th e ways to com m unicate w i t h the o c c u l t p o w e rs . In a dream o r an i l l u s o r y s t a t e , one sometimes c l a i m s to r e c e i v e a message from th e d e a d . One m ig h t a l s o d e r i v e from a dream the way to c u r e a s ic k n e s s t h a t has long been b o t h e r i n g a p a t i e n t . So m e tim es, the dream c o n t e n t g u id e s th e d re a m e r in h i s way to s o l v e a p ro b le m , o r to h a n d le some s p e c i a l d i f f i c u l t y . Examples o f th e s e p r i m i t i v e b e l i e f s in dreams a r e too many to enumera t e . The modern i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f dreams t i e s i l l u s i o n w i t h r e a l i t y . Both C a r l Jung and Sigmund F re u d b e l i e v e d t h a t dream l i f e is a c o n t i n u a t i o n and e x t e n s i o n o f w a k in g l i f e . In a dream , th e d re a m e r d e l v e s i n t o th e r e a lm o f th e su b co n s c io u s w h ic h he has to ig n o r e o r deny d u r i n g the d a y . Some o f th e most common e le m e n ts t h a t a p p e a r in our dreams a r e : f e a r from known and unknown c a u s e s , g u i l t , escape from u n p le a s a n t e v e n ts o r e n v ir o n m e n t s , and f u l f i l l m e n t o f s e c r e t w i s h e s . F re u d found t h a t in a dream s t a t e one is f o r c e d by h i s su b c o n s c io u s to fa c e the u n s o lv e d p r o b le m . I t is a l s o by d r e a m in g t h a t one can escape from an u n d e s i r a b l e s i t u a t i o n . On the c o n t r a r y , happy dreams p r o v i d e us w i t h s a t i s f a c t i o n and n o s t a l g i a . 231 A key idea t h a t is b ro u g h t o u t by th e modern i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f dreams is the e x i s t e n c e o f a n o t h e r s e l f i n s i d e each o f u s . I t is in a dream t h a t ou r o u t e r s e l f i n t e r a c t s w i t h and respo nse to o u r in n e r one. B o th s e l v e s t r y to compromise and w ork o u t a way f o r a c o e x i s t e n c e and the w e l l - b e i n g o f th e i n d i v i d u a l . In C h in e s e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , the dream r e v e a l s o n e ’ s m oral s t a t e o f m in d . T h i s is s im p ly to say t h a t when one behaves a c c o r d in g to the norm, one w i l l have p o s i t i v e and happy dream s . V i c e v e r s a , when one is i n v o l v e d in a s i n f u l s t a t e o f m in d , one is bound to have n i g h t m a r e s . A m an 's m oral s t a t e is not o n l y d i s c o v e r e d in h i s dream s, bu t can be a l s o d e t e c t e d by an o b s e r v e r w a t c h in g o v e r him when he s l e e p s . In No t e s fro m th e Yuewe i Her i ta g e by J i Yun, i t is s a i d t h a t : To l i v e man depends on a p o s i t i v e f o r c e . T h i s p o s i t i v e f o r c e r i s e s and alw a y s m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f above o n e 's h ea d . When one s l e e p s , h i s th o u g h ts g a t h e r in h i s h e a r t . The l i g h t o f h i s s p i r i t s h in e s w i t h the p o s i t i v e f o r c e , l i k e a m i r r o r r e f l e c t i n g i t s shadow. Dream o r i g i n a t e s from the h e a r t , and a l l i t s shadows a r e r e f l e c t e d in the p o s i t i v e f o r c e . These shadows come and go. S u d d e n ly th e y change i n t o m id g e ts o f one to two inches in s i z e . They g l i d e as worms, as in a p i c t u r e or in a p l a y . They r e v e a l in a l l manners even the d e e p e s t s e c r e t t h a t ca n n o t be t o l d . A l l gods and s p i r i t s a r e a b l e to see t h i s . . . . O n ly th e y a r e not a b l e to h e a r w hat the m id g e t s s a y . . . . Good and e v i l in the h e a r t is a l s o o b s e r v a b l e in o n e 's p o s i t i v e f o r c e . When one has a c h a r i t a b l e id e a , one shows a t h r e a d o f v i o l e n t fla m e in the p o s i t i v e f o r c e . When e v i l idea e x i s t s , t h e r e m a n i f e s t e d in th e p o s i t i v e f o r c e w i l l be a th r e a d 232 o f hea vy smoke. I f o n e 's head is c o v e re d by d a r k heavy smoke, b u t s t i l l a s l i m s t r e a k o f l i g h t e x i s t s , he is b e s t i a l b u t y e t p o s sesse s v i r t u e . I f t h e r e is n o t even a beam o f l i g h t , th e man is a l r e a d y l i v i n g in the d i r t o f h e l l . . . . Man is b a s i c a l l y good, he is o n l y c o n fu s e d by e v i l i d e a s . . . . The ways gods and s p i r i t s w a tc h o v e r our b e h a v i o r e x te n d even i n t o o u r d r e a m s . (2 5 1 ) If ? % ^ , 1 % ^ x 4f „ , & $' j i f # I f c /c»% '% % * ^ p % s . f # • & it? A i - > tf j - f 'D . 4'j. -*1 7 ^ i *% i-h. *T 9 -t ^ 3 & ? J? . $ u - t. . . . -T- fifl # % ^ .... *•-$■ & . # i * & & i . ■+ . - 4 . # 1 % r f J ib ?« * & „ i t — . 8>j - M - n * > £ * £ . > % K f ' ? S . - . * £ £ ■ * ■ - J L t z- ?£ . i t i H % rt*: ^ A x . ^ * # 4 * . l> 4 f. J S i i . . . . fe 2+ 73 4 . 4 IS -z , ? . One may n o t i c e from the above q u o t a t i o n t h a t t h e r e a r e many s i m i l a r p o i n t s in r e g a r d to dream in C h in e s e and w e s t e r n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . L i k e th e w e s t e r n e r s , th e C h in e s e a l s o r e g a r d dream as an im p o r ta n t so u rc e from w h ic h one is a b l e to d e c i p h e r o n e 's in n e r th o u g h ts and d e s i r e s . The C h in e s e named the in n e r s e l f in w e s t e r n t e r m i n o l o g y as " t h e in n e r th o u g h ts o f th e h e a r t . " These th o u g h ts in th e 233 passage a r e p r o j e c t e d as one to two inch m id g e t s t h a t c a r r y a m o n s tr o u s , g r o t e s q u e and abnormal c o n n o t a t i o n . These m id g e t s can v e r y w e l l be i n t e r p r e t e d as the d r e a m e r ' s d o u b le because th e y r e f l e c t and a c t out what is in th e d r e a m e r ' s m in d . For th e C h in e s e , the two s e lv e s a r e t i e d v e r y c l o s e l y w i t h th e m oral idea o f good and e v i l . W h i le man is b a s i c a l l y good in n a t u r e , he must f i g h t a g a i n s t e v i l id e a s w h ic h keep em e rg in g w i t h i n him. A lt h o u g h e v i l ideas o r i g i n a t e from the h e a r t , y e t the C h in e s e b e l i e v e t h a t i t w i l l e v e n t u a l l y f i n d i t s way o f e x p r e s s i o n in a p e r s o n 's o u tw a rd a p p e a r a n c e . Even though Ji Yun had n o t used th e te rm " s u b c o n s c io u s ," i t is c l e a r t h a t he meant t h a t when he t a l k e d ab o u t th e " i n t e r n a l id e a s o f the h e a r t . " T h e r e f o r e , in t h e i r modern i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f dream , th e C h in e s e and th e w e s t e r n e r s have a l o t o f ideas in common. But th e most p r o m in e n t o f th e s e common a s p e c ts is the theme o f the d o u b le i n v o l v e d in an i l l u s o r y s t a t e . I t is the dream d o u b le t h a t t r i e s in e v e r y p o s s i b l e way to c a r r y o u t i t s m a s t e r ' s a s p i r a t i o n s and d e s i r e s in l i t e r a t u r e . Modern man looks a t dreams as an e x t e n s i o n o f r e a l i t y a f t e r d a y l i g h t h o u r s . In d ream s , o n e 's c o n s c io u s n e s s c o n t i n u e s to f u n c t i o n and d i s g u i s e s i t s e l f by d i f f e r e n t m a n i f e s t a t i o n . The dream d o u b le , u n d e r an u n c o n s c io u s , t r a n c e - l i k e , n a r c o t i c or i l l u s o r y i n f l u e n c e , s p o n ta n e o u s ly 23H r e v e a l s i t s m a s t e r ' s m e n ta l c o n d i t i o n s . Sometimes i t is f e a r t h a t the d re a m e r is t r y i n g to o vercom e. Or i t can be a s p i r i t u a l escape from r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , d u t y and m o n o to nous r o u t i n e . But in most c a s e s , th e dream d o u b le is the one who c a r r i e s out w i s h - f u I f i I I m e n t f o r i t s m a s t e r . Now l e t us look a t how th e dream d o u b le s a r e p o r t r a y e d in C h in e s e and w e s t e r n g o t h i c f i c t i o n . Dream as th e e x p r e s s i o n o f unknown o r known f e a r h id d e n in the su b co n sc io u s s e l f is th e m ain theme in Edgar A l l a n P o e 's " L i g e i a " and "The F a l l o f the House o f U s h e r . " 7 D e s c r i p t i o n s o f L i g e i a ' s eyes o r the " I " a r e r e p e a t e d th r o u g h o u t the s t o r y . The n a r r a t o r , u n d e r the e f f e c t o f d ru g and a l c o h o l , e n t e r s i n t o the r e a lm o f h i s su b co n sc io u s in w h ic h he h a r b o r s the f e a r o f lo s i n g L i g e i a . L i g e i a , a woman o f unknown o r i g i n b u t o f a n t i q u e h i s t o r y , is th e p r o j e c t i o n o f b e a u t y , i n t e l l i g e n c e , and wisdom t h a t th e n a r r a t o r v a l u e s in h i m s e l f . The f e a r o f lo s i n g t h i s v e r y p a r t o f him as tim e and s ic k n e s s a p p ro a c h , p u ts him i n t o a g o n y. Even a f t e r L i g e i a ' s d e a t h , a f t e r h i s loss o f s a n i t y , he dreams t h a t she has r i s e n from the dead and t h a t he has r e t r i e v e d t h i s o t h e r p a r t o f h i m s e I f aga i n . Poe had s e t b o th " L i g e i a " and "The F a l l o f th e House o f U s h er" deep i n t o th e h e a r t o f th e n i g h t when th e n a r r a t o r s a r e a lo n e w i t h th e m s e lv e s s e p a r a t e d from th e o u t s i d e 235 w o r l d . For t h i s r e a s o n , b o th s t o r i e s can be i n t e r p r e t e d as dream e v e n t s . The n a r r a t o r in “The House o f U s h e r" is t r a v e l l i n g a lo n e a t n i g h t to U s h e r 's hou se. T h i s t r i p in s o l i t u d e s y m b o liz e s th e n a r r a t o r ' s jo u r n e y i n t o h i s in n e r m in d . T h i s in n e r m ind is r e p r e s e n t e d by U sher and h i s d i l a p i d a t e d c a s t l e . Usher is s i c k and he needs h e l p . The n a r r a t o r , r e c e i v i n g th e m essage, makes t h i s jo u r n e y to h e l p h i s boyhood f r i e n d . The o t h e r s e l f U sher is o b v i o u s l y u n s t a b l e in h i s e m o tio n s f o r he is o verw helm ed by an unknown f e a r . The s t o r y is a c t u a l l y a t a l e in w h ic h th e n a r r a t o r is t r o u b l e d e m o t i o n a l l y by g u i l t and f e a r o f some unknown o r i g i n . A t the end, U s h e r 's house c o l l a p s e s s i g n i f y i n g the n a r r a t o r ' s m e n ta l b reak d o w n . In Pu S o n g l i n g ' s Li a o z ha i , we f i n d the same cases o f dream d o u b le s e x p r e s s i n g f e a r and g u i l t y c o n s c i e n c e . A c e r t a i n man from " C u r s in g a b o u t the D u c k " j|| , s t e a l s a duck from h i s n e ig h b o r and p r e p a r e s i t f o r food ( 1 , v : 6 8 7 ) . In the n i g h t , the man f e e l s i t c h y a l l o v e r . When he looks a t h i s body in the m o r n in g , he f i n d s t h a t h i s s k i n is c o v e re d t o t a l l y w i t h duck f e a t h e r s . On to u c h in g the h a i r , h i s s k in h u r t s . Y e t t h e r e is n o t h i n g he can do. A t n i g h t he dreams t h a t "A man t o l d him , 'Y o u r s i t u a t i o n is a r e s u l t o f p u n ishm en t fro m h e a v e n . U n le s s you a r e c u r s e d by the owner ( o f the d u c k ) , y o u r h a i r w i l l s t a y ' " 236 ^ /3 1 % - ( 6 8 7 ) . The man in th e dream is th e p r o t a g o n i s t ' s d o u b le who a p p e a rs to w arn and h e l p i t s m a s t e r . T h i s man is a l s o th e p r o j e c t i o n o f th e h e r o ' s g u i l t y c o n s c ie n c e t h a t r i s e s to c h a s t i s e th e m an's m is b e h a v io r and t e l l s him to a c k n o w led g e h i s m is t a k e in f r o n t o f the o w ner. The p r o t a g o n i s t , a l t h o u g h e m b ar ra s s e d a t f i r s t , has no c h o ic e b u t to f o l l o w the m an's w o rd s . O n ly when he is c u rs e d by th e o w n e rs , does the h a i r a l l f a l l o f f by i t s e l f . A f t e r the m an 's g u i l t is a b s o lv e d , the w e ig h t he c a r r i e s in h i s h e a r t is l i f t e d , and he f e e l s much b e t t e r . A n o th e r exam ple o f a dream d o u b le a c t i n g as the m essenger o f o n e 's g u i l t y c o n s c ie n c e is "The B u t t e r f l y " ( 2 , v i i i : 1 0 3 5 - 3 6 ) . The g o v e r n o r o f a p r o v i n c e Wang d o t e s on b u t t e r f l i e s . He w o u ld ask f o r l i v e b u t t e r f l i e s fro m th e p r o s e c u t e d in l i e u o f p u n is h m e n t. When th e s e b u t t e r f l i e s a r e o f f e r e d to him , he w o u ld f r e e them r i g h t in the c o u rtr o o m , c l a p p i n g h i s hands in e x c it e m e n t and s a t i s f a c t i o n . One e v e n in g , he dreams o f a g i r l d r e s s e d in c o l o r f u l a t t i r e coming to him . She t e l l s him t h a t b ec ause o f h i s f e t i s h , a l o t o f b u t t e r f l i e s a r e h u r t and k i l l e d . T h e r e soon w i l l be p u n ish m e n t b e f a l l i n g him . Then she t u r n s i n t o a b u t t e r f l y and d i s a p p e a r s . O b v i o u s l y , t h i s b u t t e r f l y la d y is a p r o j e c t i o n o f h i s g u i l t y c o n s c i e n c e . H is g u i l t y mind ta k e s th e form o f a 237 b u t t e r f l y w h ic h he lo v e s most to a p p e a r in h i s dream to w arn him . I t can a l s o be i n t e r p r e t e d as the g o v e r n o r ' s p r o j e c t i o n o f f e a r . S in c e he has done enough damage to th e i n s e c t and t h a t he is v e r y w e l l aware o f i t , he is e x p e c t i n g p u n ishm ent soo n er o r l a t e r . In b o th Pu and P o e 's t a l e s , f e a r and g u i l t o f th e su b c o n s c io u s a r e d r a m a t i z e d in a v a r i e t y o f shapes and fo rm s . The more common one is the woman f i g u r e , l i k e L i g e i a , U s h e r 's s i s t e r M a d e l i n e and th e b u t t e r f l y la d y . In the C h in e s e dream t a l e s , when f e a r and g u i l t y c o n s c ie n c e in o n e 's s u b c o n s c io u s a p p e a r , th e y w i l l a c h i e v e t h e i r e f f e c t . The d re a m e rs u s u a l l y f o l l o w t h e i r a d v ic e and c a r r y o u t w h a t e v e r is needed f o r s a l v a t i o n o r a com prom ise. But in Poe, t h e r e is no compromise betw een th e dream e r and h i s d o u b le , t h e r e is o n l y d e f e a t . Once th e su b co n sc io u s d o u b le a r i s e s , th e c o n s c io u s m ind w i l l go down. And when the dream d o u b le c o l l a p s e s , th e d re a m e r a l s o loses h i s s a n i t y . The m a jo r g o t h i c w orks on th e dream d o u b le I w o u ld l i k e to d is c u s s in t h i s s e c t i o n a r e : M a ry S h e l l e y ' s F r a nk e n s te i n and Is a k D i n e s e n ' s "The D re a m e rs " from Seven g Go th i c T a I e s . These two s t o r i e s , e s p e c i a l l y the f o r m e r , c o n t a i n the most i n t e r e s t i n g and i n t r i c a t e scheme o f th e d o u b le image in a c h a in se q u e n c e . As I go a l o n g , I w i l l compare the two s t o r i e s w i t h P u ' s t a l e s o f s i m i l a r n a t u r e . 238 The C h in e s e box s t r u c t u r e o f F r a n k e n s t e i n s t r e n g t h e n s S h e l l e y ' s theme o f the d o u b le . O b v i o u s l y , F r a n k e n s t e i n a c t s as W a l t o n ' s d o u b le d e v o te d to s c i e n t i f i c d i s c o v e r y , w h i l e th e m o n s te r is F r a n k e n s t e i n ' s d o u b le c a r r y i n g o u t many o f th e l a t t e r ' s s u b c o n s c io u s w is h e s . I f one s t a r t s w i t h th e a u t h o r M a ry S h e l l e y , one can name W a lto n as w e l l as F r a n k e n s t e i n as h e r d o u b le s . Hence the c h a in looks l i k e t h i s : She I I e y - - W a I t o n - - F r a n k e n s t e i n - - m o n s t e r . S h e l l e y in th e p r e f a c e r e f e r s to h e r book as h e r p r o g e n y , a p a r t o f h e r s e l f . Q u i t e a few e v e n t s in th e s t o r y c o i n c i d e w i t h h e r l i f e . For e x a m p le , S h e l l e y ' s m o th e r Woo I s t o n e c r a f t d i e d a f t e r g i v i n g b i r t h to S h e l l e y . S h e l l e y a t th e age o f n i n e t e e n , ra n away w i t h P e rc y S h e l l e y a g a i n s t h e r f a m i l y ' s w is h e s . She had a c h i l d bu t i t d i e d when o n l y a few months o l d . W h i le S h e l l e y was w r i t i n g th e g o t h i c t a l e , she was a g a in p r e g n a n t . W it h h e r e x p e r i e n c e , i t is not s u r p r i s i n g t h a t a t t h a t tim e S h e l l e y h a r b o r e d c e r t a i n f e a r and a p p r e h e n s io n in c h i l d b i r t h . The c h a r a c t e r o f F r a n k e n s t e i n c o u ld v e r y w e l l be a shadow o f S h e l l e y h e r s e l f a s p i r i n g f o r the f o r b i d d e n know ledge o f God in o r d e r to e l i m i n a t e the p a i n o f c h i l d b i r t h . B o th W a lto n and F r a n k e n s t e i n a r e S h e l l e y ' s d o u b le s who w is h to f i n d in modern s c ie n c e the kno w ledge t h a t w i l l ta k e the p l a c e o f n a t u r e and God. A lt h o u g h S h e l l e y m ig h t not in t e n d t h i s c o n s c i o u s l y , but 239 th e n e g a t i v e e x p e r i e n c e she and h e r m o th e r went th ro u g h m ig h t have l e f t an i n d e l i b l e mark in h e r m in d . The m o n s te r is the dream d o u b le o f S h e l l e y , W a lt o n , and F r a n k e n s t e i n . He is th e d o u b le o f h i s c r e a t o r b ecause he is e v e r y t h i n g t h a t F r a n k e n s t e i n is n o t . F r a n k e n s t e i n is a w e l l - e d u c a t e d , c i v i l i z e d man w h i l e h i s d o u b le is a m o n s tro u s , rude and v i c i o u s b e i n g . The m o n s te r in t h i s t a l e is v e r y s i m i l a r to M r . Hyde in S t e v e n s o n 's s t o r y . F r a n k e n s t e i n , as an i n t e l l i g e n t and c i v i l i z e d i n d i v i d u a l must b a t t l e w i t h th o se p r i m i t i v e , b e s t i a l and i n s t i n c t i v e d e s i r e s w i t h i n h i m s e l f . I t is in a s i m i l a r way t h a t the f i g u r e o f the m o n s te r s e r v e s as a d o u b le f o r W a l t o n , who is s e l f i s h enough to f o r c e h i s crew to a s s i s t him in h i s e x p l o r a t i o n . I t is t h i s m o n s te r i n s i d e o f him t h a t causes him to lose h i s s e n s e. The m o n s te r is a d o u b le to S h e l l e y h e r s e l f f o r he r e p r e s e n t s th e u n s i g h t l y embryo t h a t lodges i n s i d e h e r bod y, som eth in g t h a t she a b h o rs b u t does n o t u n d e r s t a n d . The m o n s te r is S h e l l e y ' s c h i l d in h e r s u b c o n s c io u s . He needs lo v e , c a r e and a com panio n. In a n o t h e r way, he is S h e l l e y ' s id e a l c h i l d f o r he is n o t d e r i v e d from th e norm al p r o c e s s o f c o n c e p t io n and n a t u r a l c h i l d b i r t h . Because o f i t s C h in e s e box s t r u c t u r e d e v i c e , one can say t h a t F rankens te in is a l s o a s t o r y based on a sequence o f dream s. F i r s t , S h e l l e y , w h i l e s p e n d in g h e r summer on 240 Lake Geneva w i t h P e rc y and Lord B y ro n , o v e r h e a r d one e v e n in g th e m en's d i s c u s s i o n on E ra s m u s 1 idea o f the e v o l u t i o n o f man. A f t e r t h a t , she had a dream . Her d i a r y r e c o r d e d t h a t the s t o r y o f F ra n k e n s te i n had so m eth in g to do w i t h th e m en 's c o n v e r s a t i o n and h e r dream a f t e r t h a t . The novel not o n l y f u l f i l l s h e r w is h e s in w r i t i n g a g o t h i c t a l e , b u t a l s o a c t s as an o u t l e t f o r h e r f e a r and w o r r i e s in c h i l d b i r t h . The s t o r y is a happy dream f o r S h e l l e y as t h in g s can be a r r a n g e d h e r w ay. Y e t the m o n s te r is a n ig h t m a r e to b o th F r a n k e n s t e i n and W a l t o n , th e two s c i e n t i s t s who a r e d e f e a t e d by t h e i r s c i e n t i f i c t a l e n t s and a c h ie v e m e n t s . On the s p i r i t u a l l e v e l , the m o n s te r rem in d s th e two men o f th e b e s t i a l and u n c i v i l i z e d e le m e n ts w i t h i n th e m s e lv e s . In a dreamy a tm o s p h e re , the m o n s te r a l l o w s b o th men to see the i n s u f f i c i e n c y and p o w e r le s s n e s s o f man in f r o n t o f the w h o le u n i v e r s e . O r , t h e book can be looked a t as W a l t o n ' s n ig h t m a r e on h i s s h ip in the A r c t i c O cean. The c o n f l i c t w i t h h i s crew and th e s t r u g g l e s w i t h i n h i m s e l f to s e a r c h f o r know ledge in a d i f f i c u l t s i t u a t i o n c r e a t e F r a n k e n s t e i n , h i s dream d o u b le . And a f t e r th e n i g h t m a r e , he changes h i s mind and r e t u r n s home. I f one i n t e r p r e t s th e s t o r y t h i s w ay, one w i l l f i n d t h a t F ran ke n s te i n is W a l t o n ' s dream o f w i s h - f u I f i I I m e n t , th e r e s u l t o f w h ic h is n e g a t i v e . In h i s dream W a lto n a c t s out th e p r o j e c t o f 241 s c i e n t i f i c d i s c o v e r y ( i n a d i f f e r e n t m anner) as he a s p i r e s to and he s u c c e e d s . I t is the e n d in g o f the dream t h a t tu r n s i t i n t o a n i g h t m a r e . Pu 1 s "The S c h o l a r from F e n g y a n g " A , is v e r y s i m i l a r to F r a n k e n s t e i n in s t r u c t u r e and theme ( 1 , i i : 1 8 7 - 9 0 ) . The C h in e s e t a l e a l s o has the c h a in o f d o u b le and th e dream m o t i f . A s c h o l a r from Fengyang has l e f t h i s w i f e f o r h i s s t u d i e s . Ten months l a t e r , one e v e n in g , h i s w i f e has a dream in w h ic h a g i r l comes and g u id e s h e r to h e r husband. The t h r e e s i t down a t a d i n n e r t a b l e when th e husband b e g in s to f l i r t w i t h the s t r a n g e r . In a n g e r , the w i f e le a v e s and she comes a c ro s s h e r b r o t h e r who v o l u n t e e r s to h e l p h e r . T hey r e t u r n to the house and f i n d t h a t the husband is s l e e p i n g w i t h th e young g i r l . On an im p u ls e , th e b r o t h e r k i l l s the h u sband. The w i f e is h e a r t - b r o k e n w h i l e the b r o t h e r le a v e s in a n g e r and shame. The n e x t m o r n in g , h e r husband in d eed r e t u r n s home. What is s u r p r i s i n g is t h a t a l l t h r e e , th e w i f e , the husband, and the b r o t h e r , a l l had the same dream the p r e v i o u s n i g h t . They a l l ask the same q u e s t i o n : who is the young g i r l in th e dream? A lt h o u g h the theme o f th e d o u b le is n o t p r o m in e n t in C h in e s e l i t e r a t u r e , y e t one can see c l e a r l y i t s e x i s t e n c e in t h i s s t o r y . The young g i r l is th e dream d o u b le o f the h o u s e w ife who m is ses h e r husband who is l a t e f o r h i s 242 r e t u r n . L e t us look a t th e d i f f e r e n t h i n t s on the d o u b le t h a t Pu had g i v e n in the t e x t . F i r s t , when th e g i r l a p p e a r s , the f i r s t words she says to the w i f e i s , "My e l d e r s i s t e r , a r e you not lo n g in g to see y o u r husband?" & L jL P-f* % (Quong, 1 01) . 9 I t is c l e a r t h a t m o t h e r s , d a u g h t e r s , and s i s t e r s a r e common p a i r s o f d o u b le s in l i t e r a t u r e . S e c o n d ly , when th e w i f e f a i l s to c a t c h up w i t h the g i r l on th e ro a d , the l a t t e r o f f e r s h e r shoes w h ic h f i t the fo rm e r p e r f e c t l y . T h i r d l y , the g i r l f l i r t s w i t h the husband and goes to bed w i t h h im . T h i s is s o m e th in g t h a t the w i f e w o u ld lo ve to do once h e r husband r e t u r n s . F o u r t h l y , th e song th e s t r a n g e r s in g s a t th e d i n n e r t a b l e , a song in w h ic h a woman t e l l s how she m is ses h e r b e l o v e d , is a c t u a l l y th e w i f e ' s th o u g h ts and f e e l i n g s . The l a s t tim e when we h e a r ab o u t th e g i r l is when the b r o t h e r has a r r i v e d and k i l l e d th e husband. The g i r l s a y s , "Oh, h i s head is smashed, what s h a l l I do?" % ( 1 0 5 ) . She is a c t u a l l y s p e a k in g th e w i f e ' s w o r r i e s o v e r the h u s b a n d 's s a f e t y d u r i n g such a long a b s e n c e . L ik e F r a n k e n s t e i n, t h i s C h in e s e t a l e is a dream o f w i s h - f u I f i l l m e n t in w h ic h th e l o n e l y w i f e is a b l e to j o i n h e r husband. L ik e th e w e s t e r n t a l e s , t h i s is a dream o f n ig h t m a r e when the w i f e f i n d s t h a t h e r husband is dead and h e r b r o t h e r has d e s e r t e d h e r in a s t r a n g e p l a c e . She 243 wakes up in t e r r o r and d e j e c t i o n . But u n l i k e F r a nkens te i n , the dream in t h i s s t o r y does come t r u e . Because the husband indeed r e t u r n s th e n e x t d a y , r i d i n g the w h i t e m ule as he had done in the d ream . The f a c t t h a t a l l t h r e e p e o p le have the same dream b r i n g s up my d i s c u s s io n on i l l u s i o n and r e a l i t y in g o t h i c f i c t i o n . In th e w e s t e r n g o t h i c t a l e s o f d ream s , a lw a y s i t is im p o s s ib le f o r th e p r o t a g o n i s t to r e t u r n to r e a l i t y a f t e r the i I l u s o r y s t a t e . Let us look a t F ra n k e n s te i n as an e x a m p le . I f we ta k e ou t th e o u t e r s t o r y w i t h W a lto n and h i s s i s t e r and j u s t look a t the c e n t r a l s t o r y o f F r a n k e n s t e i n and th e m o n s te r , we w i l l f i n d t h a t F r a n k e n s t e i n who has s t a r t e d out as a young and t a l e n t e d s c i e n t i s t , can n o t go back to l i v e a r e g u l a r l i f e a f t e r h is c r e a t i o n o f the m o n s t e r . The m o n s te r , h i s dream come t r u e and h i s p r o d u c t o f h a r d w o rk , has t u r n e d i n t o a n ig h t m a r e f o r him . In th e n o v e l , F r a n k e n s t e i n s t r u g g l e s to g e t o u t o f t h i s n i g h t m a r e . He t r i e s to a v o id i t , d i s r e g a r d i t , and d i s c a r d i t , b ut he f a i l s . F r a n k e n s t e i n th en b a t t l e s th e m o n s te r and c o m f o r ts h i m s e l f w i t h f r i e n d s h i p and lo v e , but a t the end, r e a l i t y p ro v e s to be too much f o r h im . He has to pay f o r t h i s dream o f v a n i t y . R e a l i t y , w h ic h is r e p r e s e n t e d by th e d e a t h o f a lm o s t a l l o f h i s lo ved ones, by the th o u g h t o f th e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f e v i l i n t o an a l r e a d y m uddled w o r l d , and by th e r e a l i z a t i o n o f h i s own 2HH in a d e q u a c y and v a n i t y , le a v e s him no space f o r s u r v i v a l . R e t u r n i n g to r e a s o n , to r e s p o n s i b i I i t y , and to w a k in g l i f e a g a in becomes im p o s s ib le f o r F r a n k e n s t e i n a t th e en d . The c h o ic e s l e f t f o r F r a n k e n s t e i n now a r e l i m i t e d : e i t h e r i n s a n i t y o r d e a t h . M a ry S h e l l e y p r e f e r r e d th e l a t t e r . U l t i m a t e r e a l i t y is a l s o too hea vy a blo w f o r D r . J e k y l l in S t e v e n s o n 's s t o r y . In the b e g i n n i n g , th e p h y s i c i a n , by the use o f the m agic p o t i o n , is a b l e to escape and r e t u r n to r e a l i t y w h en ev er he chooses t o . In h i s i l l u s i o n , he is a b l e to be h i m s e l f , n o t a d o c t o r . As M r . Hyde, he can l i v e ou t th e o t h e r p a r t o f h i m s e l f in f r e e w i l l . W h i l e D r . J e k y l l has to a p p e a r as an i n t e l l e c t u a l s o c i a l e l i t e in f r o n t o f the p u b l i c e y e , th e p r o t a g o n i s t can o n l y l i v e h i s l i f e in M r . Hyde. In o t h e r w o rd s, he l i v e s o n l y in i l l u s i o n . In r e a l i t y , he is o n l y a p u p p e t , no t a m a s t e r o f h i m s e l f . Y e t when the p o t i o n runs o u t , when he is f o r c e d to go back to r e a l i t y , he f i n d s t h a t he is u n a b le to do so. Now the d o c t o r c a n n o t wake up from h i s dream . The d o c t o r f i n d s h i m s e l f t u r n i n g i n t o Hyde i n v o l u n t a r i l y and t h a t t h e r e is n o t h i n g he can do to h e l p i t . But r e a l i t y ca n n o t a c c e p t Hyde, a mean i n d i v i d u a l and a m u r d e r e r . D r . J e k y l l ' s o n l y way out is s u i c i d e . In th e w e s t e r n dream t a l e s , t h e r e is no compromise betw een r e a l i t y and i l l u s i o n . The 245 p r o t a g o n i s t s , once away from r e a l i t y i n t o t h e i r dream w o r l d , w i l l lose the hope o f g o in g back to i t a g a i n . 1 w ould say t h a t in th e C h in e s e t a l e s , r e a l i t y and i l l u s i o n a r e so w e l l merged t h a t one can n o t d e f i n e in i t a c l e a r d e m a r c a t i o n . I t is because when u l t i m a t e r e a l i t y r e a p p e a r s a g a in a t th e en d , i t is s t i l l v e r y much in v o l v e d w i t h the dream w o r l d . In "The S c h o l a r from F e n g y a n g ," th e n e x t m o r n in g , when the w i f e wakes up, h e r husband does r e t u r n , r i d i n g the same w h i t e m ule she has seen in th e dream the n i g h t b e f o r e . Her dream now has become r e a l i t y w h ic h is h a p p e n in g in b ro a d d a y l i g h t in f r o n t o f h e r v e r y e y e s . I l l u s i o n and dream in C h in e s e t a l e s a r e more " r e a l i s t i c " in t h i s s e n s e , f o r i t is h a rd to t e l l w here th e y b e g in and end . In C h in e s e dream t a l e s , r e a l i t y and i l l u s i o n a lw a y s come t o g e t h e r , w i t h the i l l u s o r y p a r t j o i n i n g in as a normal way o f l i f e . Even the p r o t a g o n i s t h i m s e l f c a n n o t t e l l w h e t h e r a c e r t a i n e v e n t is r e a l o r i l l u s o r y . He goes th ro u g h l i f e in the m is t o f r e a l i t y and dream , a t tim e s w i t h one d o m i n a t in g th e o t h e r and v i c e v e r s a . T h i s s y m b o liz e s a m a n 's l i f e w i t h g i v e s and t a k e s , ups and downs, e x c it e m e n t and boredom. The t a l e t h a t w ou ld v e r i f y my t h e o r y on dream and r e a l i t y is "Judge Lu" ( 2 , i i : 1 3 9 - 4 6 ) , The s c h o l a r Zhu, who is not a v e r y b r i g h t man, comes a c r o s s t h i s Judge 2 46 Lu from H ades. They become f r i e n d s and Lu s a t i s f i e s him by c h a n g in g h i s h e a r t w i t h a n o t h e r one from an i n t e l l i g e n t man. Hence th e s c h o l a r is a b l e to pass h i s exams. The Judge a l s o h e lp s him to f i n d a b e a u t i f u l g i r l ' s head f o r h i s u g l y w i f e . A f t e r th e s c h o l a r d i e s , he is s t i l l a b l e to come back home to s t a y w i t h h i s w i f e and te a c h h i s son to r e a d . I t is a f t e r h i s son has grown up and e s t a b l i s h e d h i m s e l f t h a t the s c h o l a r le a v e s f o r good f o r a c e l e s t i a l p o s t . A t once, the s y n o p s is o f t h i s t a l e b e t r a y s i t s e l f as a s t o r y o f w i s h - f u I f i I I m e n t . T h e r e a r e q u i t e a few t h in g s t h a t the p r o t a g o n i s t is n o t happy ab o u t in t h i s l i f e : t h a t he is n ot a t a l e n t e d man, t h a t h i s w i f e is not p r e t t y enough f o r him , and t h a t he w is h e s to l i v e lo n g , to e n j o y h i s w i f e and h i s son, and m o r e o v e r , t h a t he hopes to r i s e to heaven a f t e r h i s d e a t h . In th e s t o r y , the Judge who is r e a l l y h i s d o u b le makes a l l th e s e come t r u e f o r him . I say t h a t the Judge is h i s d o u b le because most o f th e t im e , he is o n l y seen by the s c h o l a r a t n i g h t . O f a l l p e o p l e , o n l y Zhu is not f r i g h t e n e d by h i s u g l y a p p e a r a n c e . Once in th e t a l e , th e Judge a p p e a rs on Z h u 1s f r i e n d s ' r e q u e s t and h i s u g l i n e s s s c a re s them away. The Judge is th e m onstro u s d o u b le who v i s i t s Zhu in th e e v e n in g s and d r i n k s w i t h him . S in c e Zhu is not a b r i l l i a n t man and h i s f r i e n d s do no t l i k e him , h i s d e s i r e f o r c o m p a n io n s h ip and success l i k e F r a n k e n s t e i n ' s c r e a t e s t h i s dream d o u b le , the J u d g e . 247 The J u d g e 's v i s i t s a r e so r e g u l a r and so common t h a t a l t h o u g h Z h u 1s w i f e n e v e r sees him , y e t she s e rv e s him as she w ou ld to h e r husband. She w o u ld s e t o u t food f o r them and le a v e them a lo n e to c h a t and d r i n k . She a l s o a c c e p ts a l l the am azing t h in g s he has done f o r h e r f a m i l y , e . g . m aking h e r husband t a l e n t e d and h e r s e l f b e a u t i f u l , as i f t h e y a r e j u s t some e x c i t i n g e v e n ts in l i f e . R e a l i t y and i l l u s i o n in t h i s t a l e a r e so w e l l - m i x e d t o g e t h e r t h a t one can n o t t e l l w here one b e g in s and the o t h e r one en d s. The g o t h i c n e s s in the t a l e , e . g . the c h a r a c t e r o f th e Judge from H ades, is j u s t a d e v i c e to make p o s s i b l e the m i r a c u lous e v e n t s . Y e t the way th e s e s u p e r n a t u r a l e v e n ts happen is no t g o t h i c a t a l l . When the Judge opens up Z h u 's c h e s t w i t h a k n i f e in o r d e r to change h i s h e a r t , t h e r e is no p a i n , no f e a r and no b lo o d , w h i l e Zhu is lo o k in g a t h i s i n s i d e w i t h s t a r i n g e y e s . When h i s w i f e ' s head is b e in g a l t e r e d . The Judge gave Zhu the head to h o ld w h i l e he drew out from h i s boo t a s t e e l b l a d e , shaped l i k e th e h a n d le o f a spoon. He l a i d t h i s on the w i f e ' s neck and c u t th r o u g h as i f he w ere s l i c i n g a m e lo n ; and th e head f e l l o f f to the s id e o f th e p i l l o w . I n s t a n t l y he to o k from Zhu the b e a u t i f u l head and f i t t e d i t to th e w i f e ' s nec k v e r y a c c u r a t e l y , c a r e f u l l y s t r a i g h t e n i n g i t and p r e s s i n g i t down f i r m l y ; then he b o l s t e r e d h e r up w i t h p i l l o w s betw een h e r s h o u ld e r s . He bade Zhu b u r y h i s w i f e ' s o l d head in some s e c r e t p l a c e , and th e n he l e f t . (Quong, 1 5 3 -5 4 ) ^ Zs , % $ 0 * & & * t , £ fi it* *** flk , & L 3 7 ^ ^ ^ ^ ***^ 248 A lt h o u g h t h i s is one o f the most g r o t e s q u e and s c a r y scenes In g o t h i c f i c t i o n , y e t t h e r e a r e no scream s, c r i e s , moans, b lo o d , d e a t h , p a i n , s to rm , f e a r , o r d a r k n e s s ! I t is p r e s e n t e d as any o r d i n a r y e v e n ts in ou r d a i l y l i f e . T h i s scene does not evoke a g r o t e s q u e mood as i t s h o u ld , y e t i t r a t h e r g i v e s f o r t h a f e e l i n g o f s a t i s f a c t i o n f o r the p r o t a g o n i s t and the r e a d e r to see a w is h a c c o m p lis h e d . Z h u 1s r e u n io n w i t h h i s w i f e a f t e r h i s d e a t h , and h i s r e g u l a r v i s i t s to h i s own home to te a c h h i s son in h i s s t u d i e s l a s t as long as he w an ts t o . G r a d u a l l y , the p r e s e n c e o f Z h u 's g h o s t in the house is no lo n g e r a t h r e a t to anyone, not even to th e c h i l d . T he se g r o t e s q u e scenes in the C h in e s e t a l e s a r e p r e s e n t e d as common e v e n ts in l i f e t h a t the r e a d e r f o r g e t s w h e t h e r th e y a r e dreams o r r e a l i t y . The purp o se o f p r e s e n t i n g g r o t e s q u e n e s s in the manner o f d a i l y e v e n t s , so as to merge i t w i t h r e a l i t y e x p l a i n s P u 1s theme t h a t l i f e is l i k e a d ream . "Judge Lu" c o u ld be the m o ro n 's dream o f a c h i e v i n g d i f f e r e n t g o a ls w h ic h he w ou ld n e v e r be a b l e to in r e a l l i f e . I t can a l s o be looked a t as Z h u 's dream escape from th e p r e s s u r e s o f h i s m ocking f r i e n d s , h i s d i f f i c u l t exams and h i s u n a t t r a c - t i ve w i f e . 249 The theme o f escape th ro u g h dream can be found a l s o in Is a k D i n e s e n ' s "The D r e a m e r s ." L i k e F r a n k ens t e i n and "The S c h o l a r from F e n g y a n g ," "The D rea m ers" c o n t a i n s a c h a in o f d o u b le s in a dream e n v ir o n m e n t . P e l l e g r i n a L e o n i, an o p e ra s i n g e r , w an ts to l i v e a I i f e o f freedom and e x c i t e m e n t . A f t e r she has l o s t h e r v o i c e in a c o n f l a g r a t i o n , she d e c id e s t h a t th e o l d P e l l e g r i n a has p e r i s h e d w i t h th e f i r e . Hence she becomes a p r o s t i t u t e in Rome, a f t e r w h ic h she is Madame L o l a , a m i l l i n e r and a r e v o l u t i o n i s t in L u c e r n e , then Madame R o s a lb a , a m i s t r e s s o f the dead S p a n is h g e n e r a l and f i n a l l y , she is th e w i f e o f H e r r C o u n c i l o r H e e r b r a n d o f A l t d o r f , th e widow o f an I t a l i a n w i n e - g r o w e r . P e l l e g r i n a l i v e s the l i f e she a s p i r e s t o . W it h the h e l p o f h e r J e w is h f r i e n d , she is a b l e to change h e r i d e n t i t y and l i v e a l i f e o f fre edom w h ic h is o n l y p o s s i b l e in a dream . The h e r o i n e o f the s t o r y is a g a in the a u t h o r Is a k D i n e s e n ' s d o u b le . B aro ness K a re n B l i x e n , whose pseudonym was Is a k D in e s e n and s e v e r a l o t h e r s , was o f th e a r i s t o c r a t i c c l a s s who t r i e d to l i v e a l i f e o f fre e d o m , a d v e n t u r e and i m a g i n a t i o n . As th e o p e ra s i n g e r P e l l e g r i n a , D in e s e n had e x p re s s e d in t h i s s t o r y th e p l i g h t o f women who a r e s o c i a l l y and m o r a l l y r e s t r i c t e d from e x p e r i e n c i n g l i f e f r e e l y . T h e r e a r e abu n d a n t usages o f th e b i r d image in th e s t o r y . P e l l e g r i n a is d e s c r i b e d as the b l a c k m a r t i n . 250 o w l, c r a n e , f a l c o n , g r e a t b i r d , w in g e d l i o n e s s , e t c . , t h a t d e s i r e to f l y away, to esc ap e from h e r o l d and monotonous s e l f . The a u t h o r in h e r t a l e t r a n s f o r m e d r e a l i t y i n t o a r o m a n t ic , d r e a m - l i k e w o r l d in w h ic h a l l is p o s s i b l e . S in c e r e a l i t y is too c r u e l , mean and u n r o m a n t ic , th e a u t h o r and P e l l e g r i n a choose to l i v e in i l l u s i o n and dream . D i n e s e n ' s book is c a l l e d Seven G o t h i c T a l e s because the t a l e s c o n t a i n i m i t a t i o n g o t h i c e l e m e n t s . She p r e f e r r e d no t to be i n c lu d e d in a c e r t a i n school o r g e n r e , r a t h e r she was i n t e r e s t e d in w r i t i n g b e a u t i f u l and s t i r r i n g s t o r i e s . In "The D r e a m e r s ," D in e s e n used the p o p u l a r theme o f escape th ro u g h dream from g o t h i c f i c t i o n to m a n i f e s t h e r v i e w o f l i f e , a l i f e in w h ic h c o n f l i c t s e x i s t betw een o l d and new v a l u e s , th e c i v i l i z e d and the d e c a d e n t , the h i s t o r i c a l and the r o m a n t ic . "The D rea m ers" is a l s o dream y in s t r u c t u r e . A t the b e g in n i n g o f th e t a l e , L i n c o l n F o r s n e r and h i s f r i e n d s a r e on b o a rd a s h ip on a f u l l - m o o n n i g h t bound f o r the e x o t i c Z a n z i b a r . Then he b e g in s to t e l I h i s s t o r y as i f i t w ere a p a s t dream . The t h r e e men, L i n c o l n , F r e d e r i c k , and the B a r o n 's s t o r i e s a r e p r e s e n t e d in a fra g m e n te d and d r e a m - l i k e m a n n e r. The B a r o n 's s t o r y is n e v e r f i n i s h e d b u t s im p ly goes i n t o a n o t h e r sce ne. PeI I e g r i n a ' s a p p e a ra n c e a f t e r so many y e a r s in th e h o t e l w h ere h e r t h r e e lo v e r s a r e t a l k i n g is s o m e th in g v e r y u n l i k e l y to happen in r e a l i t y e x c e p t in 251 dream s. B u t most o f a l l , P e l l e g r i n a ' s l i f e in m u l t i p l e i d e n t i t i e s is a m ocking o f r e a l i t y . "The D rea m ers" is not D i n e s e n 's - r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f r e a l i t y , b u t r a t h e r i t shows how she e n v i s i o n e d i t . As the p r o t a g o n i s t L i n c o l n F o r s n e r rem arks in th e t a l e : l i f e is g e t t i n g too f a m i l i a r and he no lo n g e r has the c a p a c i t y to f e a r . I t is o n l y in h i s dreams t h a t he can f e e l and l i v e a g a i n . G o t h ic t a l e s o f dream escape a l s o e x i s t in P u 1s Li aozha i Zh i y i . A g a in the d i v i d i n g l i n e betw een r e a l i t y and i l l u s i o n in the C h in e s e t a l e s is b l u r r e d . In "The W a ll P a i n t i n g " ’^ , Zhu happens to come to a tem p le w here h i s s p i r i t is c a p t u r e d by a b e a u t i f u l g i r l in a p a i n t i n g on th e w a l l ( 1 , i : 1 4 - 1 7 ) . A f t e r long c o n c e n t r a t i o n , he f e e l s he is r i s i n g to heaven to w here th e p i c t u r e d e s c r i b e s . A t t r a c t e d by the f a i r y la d y , he becomes i n t i m a t e w i t h h e r . S in c e she is a f a i r y and must a b id e by th e laws o f h e a v e n , t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p has to re m a in a s e c r e t . Once Zhu is f o r c e d to h i d e u nd er th e bed when the h e a v e n l y g u a rd s a r e c h e c k in g the f a i r i e s ' abo de. W h i l e a l l t h i s is h a p p e n in g , Z h u 's companion in the tem p le m is s e s him , and the monk p o i n t s a t Zhu in th e p i c t u r e and c a l l s him back to j o i n h i s f r i e n d . Zhu is a s c h o l a r , " j u r e n " 4 ^ -A » • When he t r a v e l s w i t h h i s f r i e n d Meng, he e n t e r s i n t o a r e l i g i o u s e s t a b l i s h m e n t - - t h e t e m p le . The te m p le is d e s c r i b e d as " n o t v e r y b i g and f a n c y , " w i t h 252 o n l y one o l d monk r e s i d i n g . From such a s i m p le , r e l i g i o u s and c i v i l i z e d r e a l i t y , Z h u 's s p i r i t esc apes i n t o a more r o m a n t ic , f r e e , and i n t e n s e dream . In t h i s dream , h i s d o u b le does the t h i n g t h a t he w o u ld n o t be a b l e to do in a r e a l i s t i c e n v ir o n m e n t . He f i n d s h i m s e l f w i t h a b e a u t i f u l f a i r y who loves and obeys him f o r no a p p a r e n t re a s o n . T h i s p l e a s a n t dream is o n l y i n t e r r u p t e d by the k n o c k in g o f the monk on the p a i n t i n g . The monk in th e s t o r y r e p r e s e n t s l o g i c , r e l i g i o n , re a s o n , and r e a l i t y i t s e l f . In Z h u 's s p i r i t u a l e s c a p e , i t is re a s o n t h a t b r i n g s him back to the w o r l d . The s t o r y o f "Peng H a i q i u " is a n o t h e r good t a l e about dream o f escape ( 1 , v : 7 Q 4 - 0 9 ) . Peng is a s c h o l a r who is s t u d y i n g away from home. On the n i g h t o f the Moon F e s t i v a l , he has a v i s i t o r whom he n e v e r met b e f o r e . T h i s v i s i t o r ta k e s Peng and h i s f r i e n d Q iu away by m agic to a n o t h e r c i t y w here th e y meet a b e a u t i f u l p r o s t i t u t e . When the e v e n in g is o v e r , the v i s i t o r even p r o v i d e s Peng w i t h a h o rs e to go home to h i s f a m i l y . The f i r s t h a l f o f th e t a l e c l e a r l y f i t s i n t o th e theme o f dream e s c a p e . Peng, a l o n e l y man in a s t r a n g e p l a c e , on a f u I I-moon n i g h t , m e n t a l l y escapes from boredom. The v i s i t o r is h i s d o u b le f o r he c la im s to have th e same surname as Peng. Not o n l y t h a t , the v i s i t o r , l i k e Peng, does n o t have a good o p i n i o n ab o u t t h e i r f r i e n d Q iu whom 253 he has j u s t m e t. When Peng f i n d s h i m s e l f a t t a c h e d to the p r o s t i t u t e , i t is h i s d o u b le who ta k e s h i s s c a r f and o f f e r s i t to h e r as a p le d g e to meet a g a i n . T h i s t a l e "Peng H a i q i u " is v e r y s i m i l a r to "The D ream ers" in the t r e a t m e n t o f i l l u s i o n and r e a l i t y . L i f e is a dream bu t a t the same tim e dream is an e x t e n s i o n o f r e a l i t y . For e x a m p le, t h r e e y e a r s a f t e r P e n g 's dream in w h ic h the p le d g e had been made w i t h the g i r l , th e y meet a g a i n . What is so r e a l ab o u t the dream is t h a t th e g i r l has been t r e a s u r i n g th e s c a r f a l l t h i s t i m e . In t h i s s e n se, the l i n e betw een r e a l i t y and dream in th e C h in e s e t a l e s is as ambiguous as t h a t in the w e s t e r n t a l e s such as "The D r e a m e r s ," F ra n k e n s te i n , and P o e 's s t o r i e s . But one t h i n g is c e r t a i n , t h a t in b o th C h in e s e and w e s t e r n g o t h i c f i c t i o n , dream and i l l u s i o n a f f o r d one a more i n t e n s i v e and m e a n in g fu l way o f l i f e . R o u t in e becomes boredom v e r y soon to b o th man and woman. I t is a lw a y s in dreams t h a t one can b r e a k t h r o u g h o n e ' s i d e n t i t y and e n a b le a s p i r i t u a l e x p l o r a t i o n o f th e s e l f . In an i l l u s o r y s t a t e , because a n y t h i n g is p o s s i b l e , one s a t i s f i e s o n e 's c r a v i n g s and d e s i r e s , be th e y i l l o g i c a l o r im p r o b a b le . From t h i s v ie w p o i n t , one can see t h a t dream is a c t u a l l y a more i n t e n s i v e way to l i v e and to u n d e r s ta n d the s e l f . T h i s s i g n i f i c a n c e o f dream is b r o u g h t ou t by th e a u t h o r s in b o th t r a d i t i o n s . To add to the exam ples 1 have a l r e a d y c i t e d , Ambrose 2 5 4 B i e r c e ' s " O c c u rre n c e a t Owl C re e k B r i d g e " and P u 1s "The Crow W i f e " b e s t e x p l a i n my p o i n t . P e y to n F a r q u h a r l i v e s more i n t e n s i v e l y and s i g n i f i c a n t l y in th e l a s t moment in h i s dream o f f l i g h t j u s t b e f o r e h i s d e a th th an a t any o t h e r tim e in h i s l i f e . In t h a t s p l i t second, fre edom and f a m i l y , w h ic h he had bu t had not t r e a s u r e d , f o r th e f i r s t t im e , become som eth in g param ount to him . They a r e w hat he r e a l l y l i v e s f o r . Yu Yong in "The Crow W i f e , " in e x tre m e h u n g e r, l i e s h a l f dead in a tem p le w here he has the dream o f t u r n i n g i n t o a cro w . I t is t h i s m eta m o rp h o s is i n t o a crow t h a t changes h i s w h o le l i f e a f t e r w a r d s . Y u 's dream d e l i v e r s him from p h y s i c a l p a i n and h u n g e r. Y e t the i n f l u e n c e o f th e dream tu r n s him i n t o a t o t a l l y d i f f e r e n t p e r s o n . I f we look a t th e C h in e s e t a l e s , we w i l l f i n d t h a t a lm o s t a l l o f the dream t a l e s have p o s i t i v e e n d in g s . Remember the man b e in g t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o p o r k and s l i c e d i n t o p i e c e s in "A Man fro m the Same C o u n ty? " A lt h o u g h he f e e l s e x tre m e p a i n as a p i e c e o f p o r k , when he wakes up a g a i n , he is as c o m f o r t a b l e as he a lw a y s has b e e n . W h ile in a c o m p la c e n t m anner, he r e l a y s to h i s f a m i l y w hat has happened in h i s d ream . In the e n d in g o f th e s t o r y o f "Peng H a i q i u " we see the c o m p l e t io n o f h i s dream by r e a l i t y . Peng is a b l e to j o i n h i s lo v e r t h r e e y e a r s a f t e r the dream . The d ream e rs in th e C h in e s e t a l e s n o t o n l y 255 r e c o v e r t o t a l l y a f t e r t h e i r dream , b u t th e y a l s o , to a c e r t a i n e x t e n t , a r e changed o r enhanced m o r a l l y by t h e i r i l l u s o r y e x p e r i e n c e . T h e i r dreams a r e v a l u a b l e e x p e r i e n c e s w h ic h r e a l i t y i t s e l f m ig h t n o t be a b l e to o f f e r . These dreams a l s o g i v e the d re a m e rs th e c a t h a r t i c e x p e r i e n c e o f p i t y and f e a r . The e v e n ts in t h e i r dreams g i v e them a chance to a c t o u t the im p o s s ib le and y e t , a f t e r the i l l u s i o n , th e y can a lw a y s go bac k to r e a l i t y wi t h o u t r e g r e t . One o f the reasons t h a t th e r e t u r n to r e a l i t y is p o s s i b l e in th e C h in e s e t a l e s is b ecause th e a u t h o r in te n d e d to te a c h a less o n w i t h th e d ream . T h i s has been a common t e c h n iq u e in C h in e s e f i c t i o n even b e f o r e P u 1s t i m e . Numerous exam ples o f d i d a c t i c dream t a l e s can be found in B u d d h is t l i t e r a t u r e w h ic h I have m e n tio n e d in c h a p t e r one. The d re a m e r r e t u r n s a f t e r h i s dream e x p e r i e n c e and c o r r e c t s h i s b e h a v i o r . M o r e o v e r , he conveys h i s e x p e r i e n c e to o t h e r s as a w a r n i n g . " D r . C e n g 's Dream" "t 7$, is a d i d a c t i c and p h i l o s o p h i c a l t a l e w h ic h c a r r i e s a heavy r e l i g i o u s c o n n o t a t i o n ( 1 , i v : 5 1 8 - 2 7 ) . The p r o t a g o n i s t , a c e r t a i n s c h o l a r named Ceng is an a r r o g a n t and c o n c e i t e d b e i n g . Once an a s t r o l o g e r t e l l s him t h a t he w ou ld r i s e to the p o s t o f S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e in the f u t u r e , th e s c h o l a r assumes g r e a t e r a i r s than e v e r . In the r a i n , he seeks s h e l t e r in a p r i e s t ' s 256 q u a r t e r s w i t h h i s f r i e n d s w here he has a dream . In h i s dream , he sees h i m s e l f b e in g pro m o ted to be the S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e , p o s s e s s in g enormous p o w e r. I t is now up to him to avenge h i s o l d g r i e v a n c e , and f o r c e th e g i r l who has r e f u s e d to m a r r y him to be h i s c o n c u b in e . H is c rim e s a r e d i s c o v e r e d by the c o u r t and e v e n t u a l l y he is s e n te n c e d to e x i l e . On h i s way, he is k i l l e d by r o b b e r s . He e n t e r s h e l l and goes th ro u g h a l l th e d i f f e r e n t p u n is h m e n ts a c c o r d in g to th e c r im e s he has c o m m itte d . From then on, he is r e b o r n as a woman in a b e g g a r 's f a m i l y . For h i s w h o le l i f e in the f a m i l y , he s u f f e r s p o v e r t y and h u n g e r. L a t e r he is s o ld to be a c o n c u b in e who is t o r t u r e d p h y s i c a l l y by the f i r s t w i f e . One n i g h t some t h i e v e s s t e a l in and k i l l h i s hu sband. He is c h a rg e d by the f i r s t w i f e f o r m urder o f the husband and is s e n te n c e d to c a p i t a l p u n is h m e n t. A t t h i s t im e , he wakes up. From then on, he is no lo n g e r i n t e r e s t e d in an o f f i c i a l c a r e e r and soon d i s a p p e a r s i n t o th e m o u n t a in s . T h i s t a l e i n v o l v e s v e r y h ea vy r e l i g i o u s ideas o f r e t r i b u t i o n and r e i n c a r n a t i o n . But we must not f a i l to see P u 1s p u rp o se in p r e s e n t i n g the s t o r y th ro u g h dream . In the dream , Ceng is g i v e n the o p p o r t u n i t y to r e a l i z e h i s v a n i t y , to be a h ig h o f f i c i a l and a p o w e r f u l man. Pu a l s o l e t Ceng see the t h i n g s he has n o t e x p e c t e d : the r e s u l t o f h i s abuse o f p ow er. T h a t he w i l l be p u n is h e d in h e l l and 257 in h i s n e x t r e i n c a r n a t i o n . The a u t h o r o f th e t a l e was a k i n d - h e a r t e d and p a t i e n t t e a c h e r who l e t h i s p r o t a g o n i s t have the b e n e f i t o f s a t i s f y i n g h i s w is h e s , b u t saved him from r e a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . A f t e r Ceng wakes up from h i s dream , he is the same man, s t i l l p o s s e s s in g f r e e w i l l in re g a r d s to h i s c h o i c e . H is dream d o u b le has ta k e n a l l the burden from h i s b a c k . I t is th e d o u b le t h a t s u f f e r s p a i n , agony and d e a t h . H e re is how th e C h in e s e dream t a l e s a r e d i f f e r e n t from th e w e s t e r n ones: t h a t the p r o t a g o n i s t s u s u a l l y a r e g i v e n t o t a l r e c o v e r y a f t e r th e i l l u s i o n . He is as normal as those who have n o t dream ed. O n ly now h i s v ie w o f l i f e is changed, Ceng had gone t h i t h e r f u l l o f p r i d e and v a i n g l o r y ; he w ent home an a l t e r e d man. From t h a t day he th o u g h t no more o f becoming a S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e , bu t r e t i r e d i n t o th e hi I I s . . . . (Gi I e s , 243) In t h i s way, Pu a r r i v e d a t th e same d e s t i n a t i o n as the w e s t e r n a u t h o r s in le a d i n g t h e i r r e a d e r s to a d e e p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f l i f e . The C h in e s e dream t a l e s a r e p o s i t i v e not o n l y in the d i d a c t i c sense as d is c u s s e d a b o v e , b u t a l s o in the a s p e c t t h a t Pu used them to g i v e s p i r i t u a l g u id a n c e and c o m fo r t to men. In Li aozha i , men in s ic k n e s s and d e s p e r a t e s i t u - 258 a t i o n s w i l l have dreams t h a t w i l l h e l p them. The s c h o la r in "Yang Dahong" ^ ( 2 , i x : 1 2 5 6 - 5 7 ) , w h i l e he is e a t i n g one d a y , g e t s too e x c i t e d when t h e r e is news o f exam r e s u l t s . D i s a p p o i n t e d because he has n o t s u c ceed ed, he is choked by a lump o f r i c e in h i s t h r o a t . T h a t lump s t a y s in h i s c h e s t and c a n n o t be g o t t e n o u t . Yang is v e r y much b o t h e r e d by i t and l i v e s in m i s e r y . In a dream , a man t e l l s him to f i n d h e l p u n d er a w i l l o w t r e e by th e l a k e . The n e x t day he does come a c r o s s a T a o i s t p r i e s t under the w i l l o w . By p a t t i n g h i s b a c k , th e p r i e s t causes him to cough and out comes th e lump o f r i c e c o v e r e d w i t h b lo o d c l o t s . On the s u r f a c e , t h i s s t o r y is about the s c h o l a r Yang r e c e i v i n g s u p e r n a t u r a l h e l p in the dream and from th e p r i e s t . Y e t i t is a c t u a l l y v e r y s i m i l a r to the dream d o u b le s t o r i e s we have been lo o k in g a t in t h i s c h a p t e r . Yang, th e s c h o l a r , who t h i n k s h i m s e l f a man o f e x c e p t i o n a l t a l e n t s , is s t u c k by an exam in w h ic h he has f a i l e d . I t is because o f t h i s sudden u n e x p e c te d s e t b a c k t h a t he has made h i m s e l f s i c k . T r a p p e d in f a i l u r e , s i c k n e s s , and p o v e r t y , Yang indeed can be d e s c r i b e d as l i v i n g in a m i s e r a b l e s t a t e . In h i s dream , h i s d o u b le makes a poem and p r e s e n t s him w i t h the h i n t o f c u r e . Once a s c i e n t i s t was p u z z l e d by a fo r m u la w h ic h he c o u ld not s o l v e . A t a p o i n t , t h i s man became t i r e d and 259 w ent to bed to r e s t . When he woke up, he had the answer to th e f o r m u la . F re u d commented t h a t cases l i k e th e s e a r e p o s s i b l e because w h i l e th e c o n s c io u s mind is r e s t i n g , the s u b c o n s c io u s s t i l l keeps w o r k in g on th e p r o b le m . The s t o r y o f "Yang Dahong" is a p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g dream . In the s t o r y o f "Yu j i ang" > J- , Yu 1 s f a t h e r is k i I I ed by a wo I f ( 1 , i i i :376 — 77) . The s i x t e e n - y e a r - o l d Y u j i a n g goes to th e f i e l d and l i e s t h e r e w a i t i n g to k i l l th e w o l f w i t h o u t h i s m o t h e r 's kn o w le d g e . He r i s k s h i s l i f e t r y i n g to avenge h i s f a t h e r ' s . In a dream , he sees h i s f a t h e r com i ng to t e l ! him wha t th e wo I f tha t has k i I I e d him looks l i k e . A t the end, he does come a c ro s s t h a t p a r t i c u l a r one and succeed in k i l l i n g i t . The f a t h e r f i g u r e in the dream can be i n t e r p r e t e d as the young b o y 's s u b c o n s c io u s . Y u j i a n g , who is v e r y u p s e t by th e way h i s f a t h e r d i e d , swears to k i l l th e v e r y w o l f t h a t has e a t e n h i s f a t h e r . He p r e t e n d s to l i e dead in o r d e r to a t t r a c t the an im al and is s u c c e s s fu l in k i l l i n g two o f them in one e v e n in g . Y e t , young as he i s , in the back o f h i s m in d , he must be w o n d e r in g i f the w o lv e s he has k i l l e d a r e indeed th e ones t h a t a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r h i s f a t h e r ' s d e a t h . T h e r e f o r e , we see him w a i t i n g in the d a r k a f t e r w a r d s f o r no a p p a r e n t r e a s o n . Then t h e r e is th e dream in w h ic h he o b t a i n s some h i n t o f th e m u r d e r e r . W it h d e t e r m i n a t i o n and c o u r a g e , he is a b l e to a c c o m p lis h h i s w is h and r e t u r n home h a p p i l y to t e l l h i s m o t h e r . In th e above C h in e s e t a l e s , when th e s e l f s u f f e r s in agony, in s ic k n e s s o r p u z z l e m e n t , h i s o t h e r s e l f w i l l a r i s e in h i s dream s e a r c h in g f o r rem edy, lo o k in g f o r an a n s w e r, g i v i n g th e o u t e r s e l f h e l p and g u i d a n c e . U n l i k e th e p r o t a g o n i s t s in th e w e s t e r n t a l e s who b a t t l e and p e r i s h w i t h t h e i r in n e r s e l v e s , the C h in e s e d o u b le s a s s i s t t h e i r o u t e r s e l v e s and b r i n g them to a more s a t i s f y i n g s t a t e o f e x i s t e n c e and a d e e p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f r e a l i t y . In t h i s s en s e , th e C h in e s e dream t a l e s a r e much more s o c i a l l y - o r i e n t e d t a l e s , w h i l e most o f the w e s t e r n ones em phasize th e p e r s o n a l l e v e l . The C h in e s e a r e more i n t e r e s t e d in m an 's r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h the s o c i e t y ; how m an's b e h a v i o r w o u ld a f f e c t the l a t t e r . W e s te rn a u t h o r s a r e more c o n c e rn e d w i t h a p e r s o n 's p u r s u i t o f h a p p in e s s , on m a n 's s e a r c h in g f o r h i s soul no m a t t e r what i t c o s t s . In o t h e r w o rd s , th e C h in e s e dream d o u b le t a l e s a r e more p r a g m a t i c w h i l e t h e i r w e s t e r n c o u n t e r p a r t s a r e r o m a n t i c . 261 Notes 1 R a lp h Tymms, D o u b le s in L i t e r a r y P s y c h o lo gy (C a m b rid g e : Bowes and Bowes, 1949) 29. 2 O scar W i l d e , The P i c t u r e o f D o r i a n C r a y . New Y o r k : E v e ry m a n 's L i b r a r y , 1976. 3 H e n ry S e id e l Canby and F r e d e r i c k E r a s t u s P i e r c e e d s . Se l e c t i ons from Rob e r t L o u is S te v e n s o n (New Y o rk : C h a r l e s S c r i b n e r , 1911) 3 7 9 - 4 5 7 . 4 'S . r fe & Z Guo Y u n lo n g 3p X fla. e d . S e l e c t e d S h o r t S t o r i e s f rom C h in a ^ l^ } 7% £ 1 % ib % ^ L .W • ( T a i p e i : Hongye B o o k s to r e % % % 1 % . 1977) 7 3 - 7 ^ 5 Guo, 1 0 6 - 0 7 . A ls o see Li Fang, V I I I , 3 5 8 : 2 8 3 1 - 3 2 u n d er the t i t l e o f "Wang Zhou" 6 Her t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h i s t a l e is e n t i t l e d "Ah Pao and Her F o o l i s h L o v e r . " 7 The C o m p le te T a l e s and Poems o f Edgar A l l a n Poe, (New Y o r k : V i n t a g e , 1975) 6 5 4 -6 6 and 2 3 1 - 4 5 . g M ary S h e l l e y , F r a n k e ns te i n . Ed. M .K . Joseph. London: O x f o r d UP, 1969. 9 In h e r t r a n s l a t i o n , th e t a l e is c a l l e d "D rea m in g o f the S c h o l a r F e n g -y a n g ." 262 Chapter 5 The W e s te rn v s . the C h in e s e Man I d e o lo g y in E a s t / W e s t G o t h i c F i c t i o n The themes o f th e f o u r h u n d re d and n i n e t y one t a l e s ' n Li aozha i can be c a t e g o r i z e d i n t o f o u r m ain a r e a s : 1) th e e x a m in a t i o n system , 2) the fre ed o m o f lo v e , 3) th e c o n d i t i o n o f th e poor and th e h e l p l e s s , and l a s t l y , 4) the p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s o f th e d a y . On th e p e r s o n a l l e v e l , as I have m e n tio n e d ab o v e , s in c e Pu n e v e r passed h i s p r o v i n c i a l exams in h i s l i f e , i t is no wonder t h a t we f i n d q u i t e a few t a l e s in L i aozha i s a t i r i z i n g the system and Pu p u t t i n g the blam e on th e e x a m in e r s ' incom petence and p a r t i a l i t y . On th e s o c i a l l e v e l , Pu r e f l e c t e d what he had seen aro u n d him ; t h a t the M a n c h u ria n s w ere o p p r e s s in g th e C h in e s e ; t h a t the poo r w e re e x p l o i t e d by the r i c h and p o w e r f u l ; and women w ere no t f r e e u n d er the f e u d a l i s t i c c a n g u e. The above d e f i c i e n c i e s in l i f e a r e amended by Pu in h i s L i a o z h a i w i t h h i s m agic w a n d - - h i s g o t h i c r o m a n t ic is m . T h rou gh h i s r o m a n t ic i m a g i n a t i o n , f a i r i e s , f o x e s , p o w e r f u l p r i e s t s and g h o s ts a r e a b l e to i n f l u e n c e men and t h e i r l i v e s . These 263 s u p e r n a t u r a l f i g u r e s a c t as a g e n ts to f u l f i l l m an's d e s i r e s . One o f the reasons f o r th e a p p e a ra n c e o f g o t h i c f i c t i o n is t h a t r e a l i t y in i t s m y r ia d names can n o t meet w i t h m an's d e s i r e s . I t is m an 's n a t u r e to p u rs u e fre ed o m , h a p p in e s s , lo v e , and i m m o r t a l i t y . When b e in g su p p re s s e d a g a i n s t h i s own w i l l , man longs to be f r e e . When b e in g d e p r i v e d o f som eth in g im p o r ta n t in h i s l i f e , such as lo v e , man w ou ld t r y e v e r y way to o b t a i n i t . When b e in g f o r c e d to fa c e som eth in g u n d e s i r a b l e , man runs away o r t r i e s to a v o id i t . A l l o f th e s e s i t u a t i o n s a r e d r a m a t i z e d in g o t h i c f i c t i o n in w h ic h p r e t e r n a t u r a l e v e n ts happen in o r d e r to r e a l i z e m an's w is h e s . For e x a m p le , Madam Dou in L i aozha i can avenge h e r s e l f o n l y when she has become a g h o s t who p o s sesses superhuman p o w e r. In "The Drea m in g o f W olves" c o r r u p t e d and u n k in d o f f i c i a l s al I a p p e a r as w o lv e s t h a t a r e e v e n t u a l l y p u n is h e d by a g e n ts from h e l l ( 2 , v i i i : 1 0 5 2 - 5 6 ) . The g o t h i c i s m in th e s e t a l e s makes up what a human ca n n o t d o . In o t h e r w o rd s , th e s e t a l e s g i v e p o e t i c j u s t i c e to th e p e o p l e , and c o m fo r t them sp i r i t u a I I y . B e s id e s b e in g th e b y - p r o d u c t in th e r e v i v a l o f an a n c i e n t c u l t , g o t h i c f i c t i o n in th e w est a l s o s e r v e s i t s r e a d e r s in a s i m i l a r manner as i t s C h in e s e c o u n t e r p a r t s . The p o l i t i c a l au ra in Europe in th e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y was 264 t h a t o f an a i r - f i l l e d b a l l o o n r e a d y to be e x p lo d e d a n y t i m e . The o v e r t h r o w o f the t y r a n t , the u p r i s i n g o f a c o n s c io u s n e s s from th e poo r c l a s s , and th e im p o rta n c e o f m an's in n a t e f e e l i n g s became param ount is s u e s o f the t im e . The F ren c h R e v o l u t i o n was a good case in w h ic h we see the t y r a n t b e in g throw n down from h i s th r o n e w h i l e the commoners rose to become im p o r ta n t members in th e s o c i e t y . K ing L o u is XVI was e x e c u t e d in 1793 and in 1815 a n o t h e r p o l i t i c a l t y r a n t , N a p o le o n was d e f e a t e d a t W a t e r l o o . The F re n c h w a r s , w h ic h w ere bought on by economic c y c l e s o f i n f l a t i o n and d e p r e s s i o n and by im p o rte d r e v o l u t i o n a r y i d e o l o g i e s , a f f e c t e d th e E n g l i s h p e o p l e . Tom P a in e , s t i m u l a t e d by th e F re n c h a u r a , w r o t e R i g h t s o f Man ( 1 7 9 1 - 9 2 ) . The s i t u a t i o n in E n g la n d a t t h a t tim e was not as u n s t a b l e as the F r e n c h ' s . Y e t e c o n o m i c a l l y , she to o , was g o in g th ro u g h an o r d e a l when she s t a r t e d to move from a p r i m a r i l y a g r i c u l t u r a l s o c i e t y to a modern i n d u s t r i a l n a t i o n . T r a d i t i o n and s o c i a l p r e s s u r e t o g e t h e r added to m an's b u r d e n . The e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y E n g lis h m a n d e s i r e d s t a b i l i t y and w is h e d to d i s c o v e r h i m s e l f as a human b e i n g , who he was, r a t h e r than j u s t th e c h i l d o f God. I t is in t h i s l a s t is s u e w h ere man longs to s e a r c h f o r h i s i d e n t i t y and th e m eaning o f e x i s t e n c e t h a t r e v e a l s th e f i r s t d i s c r e p a n c y in the i d e o l o g y o f e a s t / w e s t g o t h i c f i c t i o n . 265 P u 1s t a l e s in L i a o z ha i can be c a l l e d s o c i e t a l I y - o r i e n t e d , as th e y m o s t l y d e a l w i t h a p e r s o n 's r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h a n o t h e r , e . g . h i s o r h e r spouse, f a m i l y , f r i e n d and o t h e r s . These t a l e s s t r e s s an i n d i v i d u a l ' s v i r t u o u s co n d u ct w h ic h a f f e c t s o t h e r s and th e s o c i e t y aroun d him . T h i s is th e re a s o n why P u 1s s t o r i e s a r e s e t in the e v e r y d a y w o r l d , in the d a i l y w o r ld t h a t we see and e x p e r i e n c e . P u ' s t a l e s g i v e i n f o r m a t i o n o f the e x a c t l o c a t i o n o f the s u p e r n a t u r a l e v e n t h a p p e n in g . Names and d a t e s a r e a l s o p r o v i d e d to s t r e n g t h e n th e c r e d i b i l i t y o f the a c t u a l e v e n t h a p p e n in g in f r o n t o f our e y e s . Pu d i d a l l t h i s to make su re t h a t th e r e a d e r is g e t t i n g h i s m essage: t h a t he was r e a l l y w r i t i n g abo ut r e a l i t y , the s o c i e t y we a r e l i v i n g in , r a t h e r than an im a g in a r y o r s p i r i t u a l s p h e r e . Pu w r o t e ab o u t how women w ere t r e a t e d u n d er th e s e x i s t s ys te m . He a l s o d i s c l o s e d the u n j u s t t r e a t m e n t o f th e p o o r by th e r i c h . In many w ays, he re w a rd e d th e w o r t h y and the v i r t u o u s i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h good t h in g s in l i f e such as money, s t a t u s , and c h i l d r e n . Pu aim ed in h i s s t o r i e s to c r e a t e a happy and s a t i s f i e d ra c e o f p e o p l e . He h a r b o r e d th e a m b i t i o n o f c h a n g in g an e v i l , immoral and sad w o r ld i n t o an U t o p i a n - l i k e e x i s t e n c e . As an i n t e l l e c t u a l , Pu knew t h a t t h i s t a s k ca n n o t be c a r r i e d o u t by one man a l o n e , but i t needs the c o o p e r a t i o n o f th e w h o le human 266 r a c e . L i aozha i can be looked a t as h i s book o f h o m i l i e s . I t is a f i c t i o n a l v e r s i o n o f P u 's idea as to how man can e s t a b l i s h a d e s i r a b l e f u t u r e f o r h i m s e l f by f i r s t im p ro v ing th e s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s a ro u n d him . The s h r e w is h w i f e Y i n in "Ma J i e f u " w an ts to e s t a b l i s h h e r s t a t u s in the f a m i l y by d r i v i n g e v e ry o n e o u t o f the hou se, i n c l u d i n g her f a t h e r i n - l a w and h e r husband. She b e a ts up h e r h u s b a n d 's c o n c u b in e and d r i v e s h e r i n - l a w s o u t o f th e h o u se. Her d i c t a t o r i a l a c t i o n s s e p a r a t e h e r from h e r n e ig h b o r s and f r i e n d s . So when a f i r e b r e a k s o u t and th e house is d e s t r o y e d , no one is w i l l i n g to h e l p h e r . When h e r husband becomes poor l a t e r , she asks to le a v e and r e m a r r y . A t t h i s p o i n t , h e r n o t o r i o u s c o n d u c t b r e a k s up the f a m i l y t o t a l l y . A f t e r she le a v e h e r h usband, she m a r r i e s a b u t c h e r who t o r t u r e s h e r in r e t u r n . She s u f f e r s h i s b e a t i n g s and a t the same tim e la b o r s in th e house l i k e a s l a v e . A f t e r the b u t c h e r d i e s , she becomes a b e g g a r , b e g g in g f o r food and money from h e r f i r s t husband who now has r e - u n i t e d w i t h h i s f a m i l y . The woman in t h i s s t o r y , Y i n d e s t r o y s what s+ve has and w hat h e r h u s b a n d 's f a m i l y h a s - - a s t a b l e l i f e - - f o r a v e r y s e l f i s h re a s o n : she w an ts to be the m a s t e r o f th e h o u se. For t h a t she has r u i n e d h e r own l i f e w i t h o u t s a t i s f y i n g h e r d e s i r e s - - t o be th e queen o f th e house, to c o n t r o l and p u t e v e r y o n e u nd er her f e e t . In t h i s s t o r y , we can see P u 's p o i n t t h a t what one 267 does is t i g h t l y c o n n e c te d w i t h o t h e r s in a s o c i a l p o i n t o f v i e w . One must be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r o n e 's a c t i o n s b ecause t h e y e v e n t u a l l y w i l l a f f e c t o n e s e l f as w e l l as o t h e r s . In "Ma J i e f u " we see how a shrew a f f e c t s h e r f a m i l y and r u i n s h e r own f u t u r e p r o s p e c t s . In L i aozha i , t h e r e a r e t a l e s t h a t p o r t r a y a s i m i l a r theme by a r e v e r s e m ethod. In s t o r i e s such as "M iss S h ao " '£T ( 2 , v i i : 8 8 3 - 9 4 ) , "The P o isonous W a te r W eed," and "M r. Wang, th e S i x t h " e t c . , Pu i n t r o d u c e d i n d i v i d u a l s who a r e w i l l i n g to s u f f e r and s a c r i f i c e f o r th e b e n e f i t o f o t h e r s . Because o f t h e i r p h i l a n t h r o p i c a c t i o n s , i n d i r e c t l y , th e y c r e a t e a b e t t e r w o r l d f o r t h e m s e lv e s . M is s Shao m a r r i e s a man whose f i r s t w i f e is n o t o r i o u s f o r h e r c r u e l t r e a t m e n t o f c o n c u b in e s . V e r y o f t e n she b e a ts them up f o r no a p p a r e n t r e a s o n . In a n g e r , the husband moves out o f the house and ta k e s M is s Shao as h i s w i f e . The v i r t u o u s M is s Shao t r i e s to p e rs u a d e h e r husband to f o r g i v e h i s w i f e and move bac k home. When he d o e s , she becomes th e one to s u f f e r th e f i r s t w i f e ' s u n j u s t t r e a t m e n t . Y e t Shao is p a t i e n t and o b e d i e n t . She hopes to touch the f i r s t w i f e ' s h e a r t by h e r s i n c e r i t y . When th e l a t t e r s u f f e r s an i l l n e s s , Shao ta k e s good c a r e o f h e r by s e r v i n g a t h e r b e d s id e . In h e r i l l n e s s , th e f i r s t w i f e b e g in s to u n d e r s ta n d and f e e l ashamed o f h e r p a s t d e e d s . A f t e r she becomes w e l l , we see a f a m i l y j o i n e d in 268 harm ony. The p r o t a g o n i s t s in "The P o iso n o u s W a te r Weed" and "M r. Wang th e S i x t h " whom I have d is c u s s e d in an e a r l i e r c h a p t e r , a l s o s a c r i f i c e th e m s e lv e s f o r a good c a u s e . S c h o l a r Zhu and Wang r e f u s e to t r a p o t h e r s in o r d e r to be r e i n c a r n a t e d . They choose to s t a y as w a n d e r in g g h o s ts so t h a t o t h e r s do n o t have to go th ro u g h w hat th e y have e x p e r i e n c e d . Bo th p r o t a g o n i s t s do not w ant the p ro c e s s o f t r a p p i n g o t h e r s f o r r e i n c a r n a t i o n to be r e c y c l e d . U n l i k e M elm o th in Me Im o th , who uses e v e r y way he can to f i n d a r e p la c e m e n t f o r h i s p l i g h t , Zhu and Wang w ould r a t h e r p i c k up the b u rd e n on t h e i r own b a c k s , so t h a t o t h e r p e o p le can l i v e in p e a c e . T h e i r a l t r u i s t i c a c t i o n s f i n a l l y a r e r e c o g n iz e d by th e p e o p l e . T h e y , as w e l l as t h e i r f a m i l y a r e h i g h l y r e s p e c t e d . Not o n l y t h a t , th e ones th e y have saved from d e a th can c o n t i n u e to l i v e . In t h i s g o t h i c d i s g u i s e , Pu had c r e a t e d an U t o p i a in w h ic h e v e ry o n e is k i n d to o t h e r s , and e v e r y o n e is happy and s a t i s f i e d . P u 's g o t h i c w o r l d is a r e p l i c a o f r e a l i t y , a w o r l d c o n s c i e n t i o u s ab o u t how o n e 's a c t i o n w ould a f f e c t o t h e r s in s o c i e t y . Hence, L i aozha i is a f i c t i o n a l v e r s i o n o f C o n f u c i u s ' s lo g a n : th e G r e a t Common- w e a I t h As I have d e m o n s tr a t e d in c h a p t e r two, w e s t e r n g o t h i c f i c t i o n in i t s v e r y e a r l y s t a g e s , a l r e a d y shows a heavy te n d e n c y to w a rd a b i o g r a p h i c a l and a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l 269 f o r m a t . We see the p e r s o n a l tone in Ot r a n t o , F r a n ke n s t e i n , Dr ♦ J_ek]£jj and M r. Hyde , and "The D r e a m e r s ." T h e re a r e a l s o o t h e r a u t h o r s whom I have not c o v e r e d , such as Edgar A l l a n Poe and E . T . A . H o ffm a n n , who o f t e n used b i o g r a p h i c a l m a t e r i a l s in c r e a t i n g t h e i r w o r k s . Me Imo t h , F ran ke n s te i n , Dr . J e k y I I and M r . Hyde and "The D rea m ers" a r e s t o r i e s w h ic h em p h a size more th e s p i r i t u a l a s p e c t s o f man th a n on m oral is s u e s found in the C h in e s e t a l e s . These w e s t e r n s t o r i e s can be c a t e g o r i z e d as p e r s o n a l in th e sense t h a t th e y m a i n l y d e a l w i t h one m ain c h a r a c t e r who is s e c lu d e d in h i s own w o r l d , and p u rs u e s h i s o r h e r d e s i r e s in d i f f e r e n t m a n n e rs . M elm oth s e a rc h e s f o r a r e p la c e m e n t f o r h i s s u f f e r i n g , so t h a t he can escape p e r d i t i o n . F r a n k e n s t e i n w an ts to a t t a i n th e h i g h e s t a c h ie v e m e n t among men. Dr . Je k y I I a nd M r. Hyde is a s t o r y ab o u t a man who s t r u g g l e s w i t h h i m s e l f on th e m a t t e r o f m o r a l i t y and fre ed o m . D in e s e n in "The D rea m ers " showed c l e a r l y h e r w is h to l i v e many l i v e s o t h e r th an h e r own. A l l th e s e t a l e s a r e v e r y p e r s o n a l as w e l l as b i o g r a p h i c a l as f a r as the a u t h o r s ' m o t iv e s a r e c o n c e r n e d . S in c e th e s e w e s t e r n s t o r i e s a r e p e r s o n a l l y - o r i e n t e d , t h e y a r e c o n n e c te d t i g h t l y w i t h th e p r o t a g o n i s t o r the a u t h o r ' s m e n ta l s t a t e . As th e s p i r i t u a l sp h e re is a v e r y a b s t r a c t a r e a , the a u t h o r is f o r c e d to f i n d v a r i o u s means 270 f o r e x p r e s s i o n . C o t h i c i s m comes as a good to o l f o r th e se a u t h o r s to r e v e a l th e p s y c h o lo g y o f men. A r e a d e r m ig h t e a s i l y n o t i c e th e t y p i c a l s e t t i n g in a g o t h i c n o v e l : an o l d c a s t l e s i t u a t e d in a rem ote a r e a in an e x o t i c c o u n t r y , storm y w e a t h e r a t n i g h t , a f l i c k e r i n g l i g h t in a d a r k dungeon, s c re a m in g and w a i l i n g o f s t a l k i n g g h o s ts and so on. These e f f e c t s a r e f o r the p u rp o s e o f d r a w in g the r e a d e r away from h i s e v e r y d a y e x i s t e n c e i n t o a more p r i v a t e and s e c lu d e d a tm o s p h e re . S y m b o l i c a l l y , the r e a d e r is asked to a b o l i s h h i s e a r t h l y e x i s t e n c e f o r the tim e b e i n g , and e n t e r w i t h th e a u t h o r i n t o a p s y c h o l o g i c a l re a lm : th e m in d . In the C h in e s e t a l e s , we a lw a y s see fo x l a d i e s o r fe m a le g h o s ts v i s i t i n g young l o n e l y s c h o la r s a t n i g h t . T h i s t y p i c a l g o t h i c s e t t i n g does not in vo ke a f r i g h t e n i n g o r p r e t e r n a t u r a l e f f e c t as does th e one in the w e s t . I t is t h e r e to p r o v i d e a chance f o r the m ale and fe m a le p r o t a g o n i s t s to be a lo n e away from the m oral w o r l d , d o in g w hat th e y c a r e to d o. G o t h i c m a c h i n a t i o n s in th e s e s t o r i e s a r e not as e l a b o r a t e d as the ones in th e w est b ecause Pu p u t h i s em phasis in r e a l i t y as opposed to the m e n ta l r e a lm in the wes t . The w e s t e r n s t o r i e s d e a l w i t h the t o p i c o f how one can s a t i s f y h i m s e l f and l i v e h a p p i l y in the w o r l d . D u r in g th e R o m a ntic P e r i o d in E n g la n d , the s e l f becomes an 271 im p o r ta n t i s s u e . I n d i v i d u a l s ' f e e l i n g s now a r e more im p o r ta n t than re a s o n and m o r a l i t y . To l i v e f r e e l y and h a p p i l y becomes the u l t i m a t e p u rp o se in l i f e . In o r d e r to l i v e an id e a l l i f e , one w i l l have to s a t i s f y o n e 's d e s i r e s and a s p i r a t i o n s . P e rs o n a l s a t i s f a c t i o n and a c h ie v e m e n t become the theme in F r a n k e n s t e i n , D r . Faus t u s , "The D r e a m e r s ," Me Im o th , and Dr . J e k y I I and M r . Hy d e . The h e ro e s in th e s e s t o r i e s ig n o r e w hat s o c i e t y and i t s codes have s e t up f o r them. T h e y , f o r t h e i r own s a k e , go ahead and do w h a t e v e r th e y w ant t o . In the end, a l l o f them do succeed in s a t i s f y i n g t h e i r d e s i r e s and a r r i v i n g a t t h e i r g o a l s . These s t o r i e s p o r t r a y m an's d i f f e r e n t w is h e s , r a t i o n a l o r i r r a t i o n a l , how he f i g h t s and s t r u g g l e s to a c h ie v e them, and how he e v e n t u a l l y succeed in f u l f i l l i n g them even though a h ig h p r i c e is p a i d . These s t o r i e s a r e p e r s o n a l t a l e s in the sense t h a t t h e y d e a l w i t h d i f f e r e n t p e o p le w i t h t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e w i s h e s . In b o th e a s t / w e s t g o t h i c f i c t i o n , one o f the most common w is h e s o f man is to a t t a i n e t e r n a l y o u th and i m m o r t a l i t y . The f a c t t h a t men a r e m o r t a l has been the theme o f many f a i r y t a l e s , m y th s , and s u p e r n a t u r a l s t o r i e s . C o n f u c i a n i s t s b e l i e v e t h a t Heaven is the h i g h e s t god. T h i s Heaven to the C o n f u c i a n i s t s is an e n t i t y w h ic h is the most p o w e r f u l and m oral in c h a r a c t e r . C o n fu c iu s 272 s a i d in h i s Ana 1e c t s , "When you have o f f e n d e d a g a i n s t H eaven , t h e r e is nowhere you can t u r n to in y o u r p r a y e r s " ^ ^ ^ (L a u , i l l , x i i i : 6 9 ) . I f Heaven is a god, th en the C o n f u c i a n i s t s w o u ld have to a d m it t h a t t h e r e a r e o t h e r l e s s e r g od s. T h a t is why C o n fu c iu s s t r e s s e d h i g h l y on c e r e m o n ia l r i t e s to p a c i f y the d e i t i e s . In th e m a t t e r o f s a c r i f i c e , he s a i d , " S a c r i f i c e to the gods as i f th e gods w e re p r e s e n t " ( 6 9 ) . I f t h e r e a r e gods, t h e r e a r e a l s o d e v i l s o r s p i r i t s w h ic h c o u ld a l s o a f f e c t m an's l i f e . Y e t C o n f u c iu s ' m e t a p h y s ic a l v ie w comes to a s to p a t t h i s p o i n t , f o r he r e f u s e d to comment on the unknown. "The t o p i c s the M a s t e r d i d n o t speak o f w ere p r o d i g i e s , f o r c e , d i s o r d e r , and gods" f t ( V I I , xx i :8 8) . When asked about wisdom, C o n fu c iu s s a i d , " . . . . t o keep o n e 's d i s t a n c e from th e gods and s p i r i t s w h i l e showing them r e v e r e n c e can be ca I le d wisdom" % !■ ^ ( V I , x x i i : 8 4 ) . The g r e a t sage a p p e a re d h e re to be a man who b o re in mind the e x i s t e n c e o f gods and s p i r i t s and i n s i s t e d t h a t th e s e gods must be r e v e r e n c e d . In r e a l i t y , he was a man who had d e v o te d h i s w h o le l i f e to s e r v e h i s p e o p le and h i s c o u n t r y . T h i s is because C o n fu c iu s b e l i e v e d in man, in humanism. He aim ed to c r e a t e a commonwealth in w h ic h man can l i v e in peace and harmony, bu t he p ro p o s e d to ask and demand t h i s from man h i m s e l f , 273 not from H eaven . He was more i n t e r e s t e d in man th an in th e gods. When asked by J i l u S' on how the s p i r i t s o f th e dead and the gods sh o u ld be s e r v e d . The M a s t e r s a i d , "You a r e not a b l e even to s e r v e man. How can you s e r v e the s p i r i t s ? " "May I ask ab o u t d e a th ? " "You do not u n d e r s ta n d even l i f e . How can you u n d e r s ta n d d e a th ? " ( X I , x i i :10 7 ) $ * t r n 1 % *+. w • • #-#6 %%%-%%. fcx* £ , % « C o n fu c iu s was t e l l i n g h i s d i s c i p l e t h a t th e em phasis s h o u ld be p l a c e d on men th e m s e lv e s r a t h e r than so m e th in g t h a t is unknown and re m o te . Pu Song I i n g 1s v ie w o f Heaven and man is v e r y s i m i l a r to t h a t o f C o n f u c iu s , s im p ly f o r th e reas o n t h a t he had s t u d i e d th e C o n f u c ia n C l a s s i c s and p r a c t i s e d C o n fu c ia n i d e a l s a l l h i s l i f e . H is book L i aozha i a l l o w s us to see b e t t e r P u 1s own idea o f Heaven and th e g o d s. L i k e C o n f u c iu s , Pu t r e a t e d Heaven as th e supreme power in the u n i v e r s e . Y e t t h i s supreme f o r c e ca n n o t be known. I t ' s e x i s t e n c e is a f a c t t h a t man must a c c e p t and r e s p e c t . A lo n g w i t h Heaven t h e r e e x i s t s th e T a o , th e way o f Heaven and e a r t h w h ic h e n f o r c e s harmony betw een man and h i s e n v ir o n m e n t . A l l men must f o l l o w t h i s T a o in o r d e r to le a d a happy l i f e . I f one d e v i a t e s from th e T a o , one w i l l be damned. From h e r e Pu d e v i a t e d from C o n fu c iu s by a d d in g in B u d d h is t e le m e n ts in h i s m e t a p h y s ic a l v i e w . For Pu t h i s H e a v e n ly f o r c e a4»so a c t s as a m oral judge f o r men. 274 W h a te v e r a man does w i l l be a u t o m a t i c a l l y r e c o r d e d in Heaven w here the gods w i l l do a c a l c u l a t i o n a t the end o f the i n d i v i d u a l ' s l i f e . A c c o r d in g to v i r t u e s o r v i c e s d u r i n g h i s l i f e t i m e , he w i l l be re w a rd e d o r p u n is h e d a f t e r l i f e . H e l l , r e i n c a r n a t i o n and i m m o r t a l i t y become the t h r e e p o s s i b l e outcomes a t th e end o f l i f e . The bu rd e n is p u t on men, f o r th e y th e m s e lv e s a r e s o l e l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e i r f u t u r e . W h a te v e r th e y d e s i r e : money, fame, f o r t u n e , lu c k e t c . , th e y must w ork f o r i t . For a more d e s i r a b l e r e i n c a r n a t i o n in o n e 's n e x t l i f e , one must a c c u m u la te enough karma t h a t w i l l e n a b le him to a c h ie v e t h i s goal a t d e a t h . I m m o r t a l i t y is a common theme in L i aozha i . I t happens n o t o n l y among men b u t a l s o fo x e s and s p i r i t s . For Pu, i m m o r t a l i t y is a c c e s s i b l e to anyone as long as he i s good and c h a r i t a b l e " # . Ac t u a l l y , t h i s is n o t as s im p le as i t sounds. For b e s id e s b e in g good, in o r d e r to a t t a i n i m m o r t a l i t y , one must a l s o f o r s a k e a l l e a r t h l y c o n c e r n s . In " J o i n i n g th e im m o rta ls " 7^4*^ , when Cheng i n v i t e s Zhou to r e t r e a t i n t o th e m o u n ta in s w i t h him , Zhou e x p re s s e s h i s o p i n i o n t h a t i t is s t u p i d f o r him to le a v e b e h in d h i s w i f e and f a m i l y ( 1 , i : 8 7 - 9 4 ) . I t is o n l y a f t e r Cheng has exchanged i d e n t i t y w i t h him t h a t he is f o r c e d to look Cheng up in th e m o u n t a in s . A lt h o u g h Zhou f i n d s the w i l d e r n e s s r e l a x i n g and p e a c e f u l , he can n o t h e l p t h i n k i n g 275 about h i s w i f e . in a dream , he sees h i m s e l f r e t u r n i n g home o n l y to f i n d t h a t h i s w i f e has an i l l i c i t r e l a t i o n s h ip w i t h h i s house s e r v a n t . A f t e r t h i s Zhou r e a l i z e s t h a t w o r l d l y m a t t e r s do not l a s t and he d e c id e s to le a v e w i t h Cheng. The l a s t l i n e he says b e f o r e he d i s a p p e a r s w i t h h i s f r i e n d is "To have n o t h i n g is p e r f e c t h a p p in e s s " The im m ortal w o r ld has been d e s c r i b e d in many o f P u 1s s t o r i e s . I t is u s u a l l y a p l a c e s i t u a t e d in a s e c lu d e d h i l l s i d e w i t h a p e a c e f u l e n v ir o n m e n t . Once a m o r ta l e n t e r s i n t o t h i s r e g i o n , he w i l l f e e l i t s u n w o r I d I i n e s s . A man w ou ld f e e l f u l l w i t h o n l y a p i e c e o f b r e a d o r j u s t a coup le o f d a t e s . In " J i a Feng j i " 'jf? , th e immorta I s 1 s im p le abode in the h i l l s is d e s c r i b e d as q u i e t and f i l l e d w i t h f r a g r a n c e ( 2 , x : 1 3 5 9 - 6 6 ) . When J i a e a t s , he f i n d s t h a t the food t h e r e t a s t e s good and h i s a p p e t i t e is e a s i l y s a t i s f i e d . L i k e R ip Van W i n k l e in the w e s t , a l t h o u g h he and h i s w i f e have s t a y e d t h e r e o n l y f o r one d a y , when th e y come back to the w o r l d , th e y a r e t o l d t h a t t h e y have been away f o r o v e r a hun dred y e a r s . J i a is a man who ca n n o t r e l i n q u i s h fame, pow er, l u s t , and f a m i l y , f o r t h i s he is r e j e c t e d by the im m o rta ls th e f i r s t tim e a r o u n d . I t is o n l y a f t e r the second t im e , a f t e r he has r e t u r n e d to r e a l i t y w i t h h i s w i f e , a t t a i n e d a d o c t o r a l d e g re e and become an o f f i c i a l , and a f t e r he is b e in g p u n is h e d f o r a 276 c r im e w h ic h h i s r e l a t i v e s g o t in v o l v e d in , t h a t he r e a l i z e s the impermanence o f t h in g s in l i f e . D u r in g h i s e x i l e , he comes a c r o s s h i s im m ortal f r i e n d a g a i n , and t h i s t im e , he f o l l o w s him g l a d l y . In t h i s t a l e , J i a ' s r e n u n c i a t i o n o f the w o r ld can be lo o ked a t as an escape from w o r l d l y t r o u b l e s : h i s d i s a p p o in t m e n t a t h i s f a m i l y members, the impermanence o f fame and p o w er, and h i s e x i l e as pun ishm ent f o r the c r i m e . I m m o r t a l i t y or the f o r b i d d e n kno w led g e o f c r e a t i o n and d e a t h has alw a y s been a p o p u la r theme in w e s t e r n g o t h i c f i c t i o n . As long as man is m o r t a l and he can n o t be th e m a s te r o f h i s l i f e , he is c u r i o u s enough to go a f t e r the f o r b i d d e n kn o w le d g e . Man is a m b i t i o u s in d e f e a t i n g m o r t a l i t y and to r e b e l a g a i n s t th e norm. But man w ants not o n l y i m m o r t a l i t y f o r h i m s e l f , he w is h e s to be God! S a t a n , M e lm o th , and F a u s tu s a l l d e s i r e to possess k n o w le d g e , power and i m m o r t a l i t y as th e a l l p o w e r f u l . I t is i n t e r e s t i n g to f i n d t h a t in w e s t e r n g o t h i c f i c t i o n , one does not have to be good and c h a r i t a b l e in o r d e r to a s s o c i a t e h i m s e l f w i t h i m m o r t a I i t y . R a t h e r , S a t a n , M e lm o th , F a u s tu s , and D r a c u l a a r e e i t h e r d e v i l s th e m s e lv e s o r a r e d e v o te d to th e cause o f e v i l . O b v i o u s l y , S a ta n in Pa rad i se Los t is the d e v i l s p i r i t h i m s e l f who aims a t an e v i l r e b e l l i o n a g a i n s t th e A l m i g h t y , a symbol o f p e r f e c t goo dness. When he lo s e s th e w a r , he c l a i m s t h a t he w o u ld 277 d e v o te a l l h i s l i f e and m ig h t in s e d u c in g men i n t o h i s e v i l kingdom . M elm oth and F a u s tu s b o th a l l y th e m s e lv e s w i t h M e p h i s t o p h e I e s in r e t u r n f o r i m m o r t a l i t y and po w er. M elm oth in the s t o r y a c t u a l l y becomes S a ta n h i m s e l f in a l l u r i n g o t h e r in n o c e n t i n d i v i d u a l s i n t o th e same t r a p he is in . He has no m ercy even to w a rd th e woman he lo v e s . W it h o u t t e l l i n g h e r who he i s , he s t e a l s the young woman's h e a r t , causes h e r to b r e a k away from h e r f a m i l y and f i n a l l y l e t s h e r and h i s baby d i e t o g e t h e r in th e c e l l o f th e I n q u i s i t i o n . What M e lm o th w an ts is to escape h i s d e s t i n y by f i n d i n g h i m s e l f a r e p l a c e m e n t , w hoever he or she may b e . H is v i c t i m s , Im m alee, S t a n t o n , Moncada, W a lb e rg and Sandal a r e th e most p i t i f u l b e in g s on e a r t h . They a l l s u f f e r p h y s i c a l as w e l l as s p i r i t u a l t o r t u r e . In s t e a d o f h e l p i n g th e s e p e o p le in t h e i r p l i g h t , M e lm o th a c t u a l l y t r i e s h a rd to le d them i n t o e t e r n a l p e r d i t i o n . A lt h o u g h p o s s e s s in g fame and k n o w le d g e , D r . F a u s tu s c o v e ts im m ortal p o w er. Fo r t h i s , he s ig n s a p a c t w i t h the d e v i l . But a f t e r M e p h i s t o p h e I e s g i v e s him superhuman p ow er, he abuses i t by f o r c i n g o t h e r p e o p le i n t o h i s s e r v i c e . F a u s tu s a l s o ta k e s a d v a n ta g e o f a h o r s e - d e a l e r by s e l l i n g him a h o rs e t h a t t u r n s i n t o s t r a w in w a t e r . W it h M e p h i s t o p h e I e s , F a u s tu s makes fun o f the C a r d i n a l s and th e Pope in Rome. In th e m id s t o f w i n t e r , F au s tu s shows o f f h i s m a g ic a l power by p r e s e n t i n g a d i s h f i l l e d 278 w i t h g ra p e s to the Du chess . For sen sual p l e a s u r e s , the d o c t o r w ants H e le n o f T r o y to be h i s p a ra m o u r. A f t e r he has a t t a i n e d im m ortal po w er, F a u s tu s drowns h i m s e l f in l u s t , v a n i t y and sen su al e n jo y m e n ts . he n e v e r t h i n k s about the good l i f e he once had e x c e p t a t the end when he a p p e a ls to the A l m i g h t y f o r h e l p . D r a c u l a ' s case is s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t from the above c h a r a c t e r s f o r he is a l r e a d y an im m ortal w i t h o u t c h o ic e from the v e r y b e g i n n i n g . One can a lm o s t say t h a t h i s i m m o r t a l i t y is a c u r s e r a t h e r than a b l e s s i n g f o r h i s s u r v i v a l depends on a v e r y e a r t h l y s o u rc e : a l i v i n g m an's b l o o d . S in c e the i n h a b i t a n t s in T r a n s y l v a n i a a r e aw are o f him and know how to d e a l w i t h him, D r a c u la must s e t up h i s kingdom somewhere e l s e w h ere he can l i v e c o m f o r t a b l y . U n l i k e the C h in e s e im m o rta ls who l i v e as h e r m i t s in unknown p l a c e s c u t o f f from th e mundane w o r l d , D r a c u la moves from h i s s e c lu d e d c a s t l e in T r a n s y l v a n i a to the busy c i t y London. The p u rp o s e f o r t h i s move is to a l l o w him acc ess to more young and s t r o n g women. D r a c u l a ' s w is h is v e r y mundane and e a r t h l y : in London he w is h e s to expand h i s e m p ire in w h ic h he w o u ld be k i n g . W it h h i s two t e e t h , he p la n s to p r o p a g a t e a ra c e t h a t c o n s id e r s him as the c r e a t o r . In o t h e r w o rd s , D r a c u la w a n ts to be God. In h i s own way he c r e a t e s h i s p e o p l e . But in th e p ro c e s s o f r e p r o d u c in g a D r a c u l a r a c e , p e o p le w o u ld have to d i e . 279 In n o c e n ts l i k e Lucy, R e n f i e l d , o l d S w ales and i n f a n t s , have to end t h e i r l i v e s in a b lo o d y m an n e r. F a u s tu s , M elm oth and D r a c u la a l l lo ve th e w o r l d and i t s p l e a s u r e s too much to le a v e i t b e h in d them, n o t u n t i l t h e y a r e f o r c e d to do so. For S a t a n , p a r a d i s e la c k s l i f e ; i t is a l o n e l y and monotonous p l a c e . In the e a s t , in o r d e r to be an im m o r t a l, one must move tow ard good and s t a y t h a t way f o r e v e r . But in the w e s t , to be im m ortal is to c o n n e c t o n e s e l f w i t h th e v i l e . The reas o n f o r th e d i f f e r e n c e is t h a t in C h in a , b ecause o f B u d d h is t and T a o i s t i n f l u e n c e , i m m o r t a l i t y is b e l i e v e d to be som e th in g a c c e s s i b l e and p o s s i b l e . As a m a t t e r o f f a c t , i f one m eets the r e q u ir e m e n t o f r e n u n c i a t i o n and c h a r i t y , one s h o u ld have a chance to a t t a i n i t . M o r e o v e r , i m m o r t a l i t y is looked a t as a p o s i t i v e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n from the m o r t a l s t a t e . From th e s t o r i e s in Li aozha i , the W o rld o f Utm ost B I i s s j & h ^ is a p l a c e f r e e o f w o r l d l y t r o u b l e s . T h e r e men a r e no lo n g e r w o r r i e d by p h y s i c a l h a n d ic a p s . For t h i s r e a s o n , p u r s u in g i m m o r t a l i t y is r e a l l y a p o s i t i v e a c t i o n . T h e r e f o r e , we see f o x e s , f l o w e r s , worms, as w e l l as men t r y i n g to a r r i v e a t t h i s g o a l . For th e W o rld o f Utm ost B l i s s is the end o f a l l s u f f e r i n g , d e a t h and f a t e . Once one a r r i v e s h e r e , one has reached o n e 's e t e r n a l d e s t i n a t i o n p e r i o d . But in w e s t e r n id e o l o g y , p u r s u in g i m m o r t a l i t y is e v i l , o r i t means an 280 a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h the d e v i l . T h i s is because in C h r i s t i a n t r a d i t i o n , God is th e o n l y A l m i g h t y in h e a v e n . No one can be equal or l i k e Him. He is th e o n l y P e r f e c t One, the utm ost goo d, and the o n l y im m o r t a l. To t r y to be l i k e Him is b lasph em ous, t r e a c h e r o u s , and v a i n . For e x a m p le , F r a n k e n s t e i n s t e a l i n g th e answer to th e f o r b id d e n q u e s t i o n w i t h o u t G o d 's p e r m i s s i o n must be d e f e a t e d . M e lm o th , F a u s tu s and D r a c u l a a r e a l l wrong and e v i l f o r t h e i r a s p i r a t i o n s have n o t been a p p ro v e d by God. S in c e the w is h is so m ething wrong to s t a r t out w i t h , i t has no c h o ic e b u t e n t a n g l e s i t s e l f w i t h e v i l and v i c e . Those who look f o r i m m o r t a I i t y in w e s t e r n g o t h i c f i c t i o n , u n l i k e t h e i r c o u n t e r p a r t s in th e e a s t , e v e n t u a l l y a r e d e f e a t e d by t h e i r m o r t a l i t y and the l i m i t a t i o n o f l i f e i t s e l f . In the e a s t , i m m o r t a l i t y is o b t a i n e d when one d e v o te s o n e s e l f to i t . Y e t the d e v o te d p r o t a g o n i s t s in th e w est can o n l y meet w i t h d i s a s t e r and p u n is h m e n t. *n Li aozha i , f o r a man, th e n e x t b e s t t h i n g to i m m o r t a l i t y is h a p p in e s s and s a t i s f a c t i o n in l i f e . What m o r t a l men d e s i r e in c lu d e s s e c u r i t y and s t a b i l i t y . For t h e i r w e l l - b e i n g , th e y need a h e a l t h y body, a happy f a m i l y and lo v e . Some a l s o c o v e t fame, power and w e a l t h . L i aozha i c o n t a i n s numerous t a l e s ab o u t what men d e s i r e f o r th e m s e lv e s and how th e y a c h ie v e o r f a i l in t h e i r e n d e a v o r s . S i n c e t h e r e a r e so many t h in g s t h a t a man w o u ld want 281 w h i l e he is l i v i n g , what a r e the c r i t e r i a in d e c i d i n g who s h o u ld g e t what? Who d e s e r v e s one t h in g w h i l e a n o t h e r does not? H e re is w here th e e t h i c a l e le m e n ts come in . D i d a c t i c i s m has been the m ain p u rp o s e in w r i t i n g f o r the C o n f u c i a n i s t s . Pu, a d e v o u t f o l l o w e r o f C o n f u c ia n is m , had pu t i t i n t o h i s mind t h a t w h a t e v e r he w r o t e s h o u ld b e n e f i t the r e a d e r s . In th e d i s g u i s e o f t e l l i n g i n t e r e s t i n g s u p e r n a t u r a l t a l e s , Pu w a n ted to p u t h i s d i d a c t i c message a c r o s s to th e common p e o p le . P i c k i n g up th e fram ew ork in f o l k Buddhism, he began h i s sermon. F o lk Buddhism is v e r y p o p u la r among th e common p e o p l e , e s p e c i a l l y women and the i l l i t e r a t e . Buddhism w i t h i t s m ain t e n e t in karma and r e i n c a r n a t i o n , hopes to g u id e men to s p i r i t u a l s a l v a t i o n . The B u d d h is t b e l i e f in gods, d e v i l s and h e l l makes man abhor e v i l to embrace good. In L i aozha i , we have d i f f e r e n t g od s, s p i r i t s and d e v i l s i n t e r a c t i n g w i t h men in a c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p . I f we ta k e a c l o s e r lo o k , we w i l l f i n d t h a t th e s e gods and s p i r i t s a r e a c t u a l l y symbols o f men th e m s e lv e s . These s u p e r n a t u r a l b e in g s u s u a l l y do n o t possess too much m a g ic a l p o w er. V e r y o f t e n th e y have to s u f f e r as men do. The reas o n Pu pu t them in h i s t a l e s is bec au se th e y a r e the i n d is p e n s a b l e i n g r e d i e n t s in s u p e r n a t u r a l t a l e s . But P u 1s r e a l m o t iv e is to s e t up th e s e gods and s p i r i t s as g u id e s f o r men. He used th e s e superhumans to d e m o n s tr a t e 282 what the m eaning o f l i f e i s : t h a t one s h o u ld d i s c i p l i n e o n e s e l f so t h a t he and th e w o r l d w i l l l i v e in peace and s t a b i l i t y . Seen in t h i s r e s p e c t , h i s Li aozha i is t o t a l l y e t h i c a l in theme. I t aims a t th e s o c i e t y a t l a r g e , a d v i s i n g i t s members to u n i t e and c u l t i v a t e , so t h a t an i d e a l e n v ir o n m e n t can emerge f o r a l l . H is o b j e c t i v e is to e d u c a te th e mass, not a p a r t i c u l a r i n d i v i d u a l or c l a s s . Y e t he a l s o u n d e r s to o d t h a t he must s t a r t from the b o tto m o f the l a d d e r . H is s t o r i e s in L i aozha i a r e in te n d e d to a f f e c t men, women, young, o l d , r i c h and poor f o l k s . G hosts and s p i r i t s sometimes a p p e a r as d e v i l s , sometimes as f a i r i e s to p u n is h o r to re w a rd men. U s in g the B u d d h is t f a c a d e , Pu made th e im p ro b a b le p o s s i b l e . P u 1s d i d a c t i c t h e o r i e s a r e d i s p l a y e d a t th e end o f many t a l e s in th e L i aozha i . C a l l i n g h i m s e l f th e H i s t o r i a n o f th e S t r a n g e , Pu d i s c l o s e d and em p h a s ize d th e theme o f the s t o r y . V e r y o f t e n , he used h i s t o r i c a l i n c i d e n t s and p e rs o n a g e s as exam ples to s t r e n g t h e n h i s id e a . In o r d e r to make c l e a r the m oral o f the s t o r y in "Madam D o u ," Pu m e n tio n e d in the d i s g u i s e o f the H i s t o r i a n o f th e S t r a n g e , a n o t h e r exam ple o f a s i m i l a r e v e n t , in w h ic h the p r o t a g o n i s t r e c e i v e s the p u n ish m e n t c o r r e s p o n d in g to h i s mi s d e e d s . The H i s t o r i a n o f the S t r a n g e s a y s , " I t is not m oral to s t a r t so m e th in g wrong even i f one e x p e c t s to f u l f i l l i t e v e n t u a l l y . Not to m e n tio n 283 t h a t he had sworn e t e r n a l lo v e a t the b e g in n i n g b u t j i l t e d h e r a t the en d . He l e t h e r be b e a te n in the house. He even l e t h e r c r y a t h i s d o o r . Why is he so c r u e l ? T h a t is why what he d e s e r v e s a t the end is w orse th a n Li S h i l a n g . " ( 1 , v : 7 1 5 ) | t f k / 'S ' • • Qfo a . # 4% $ %,! ft *? $■ -f * f1$ ft. What Pu was p o i n t i n g o u t h e r e is t h a t th e h e a r t l e s s man Nan in the s t o r y is n o t w o r t h y o f sym pathy. He g e t s what he d e s e r v e s . F i r s t he is an immoral man in s e d u c in g th e v i l l a g e g i r l Dou. Nan is from a d e c e n t f a m i l y and hence he is an e d u c a te d man. Even though he has p la n n e d to m a r r y th e g i r l l a t e r , Pu s t i l l th o u g h t t h a t th e s e d u c t io n was an in d e c e n t a c t . But Nan is much w orse th an t h a t . Not o n l y has Nan l i e d to Dou, he a l s o l e t h er and t h e i r c h i l d d i e in th e c o l d . How can a human b e in g be so c o l d and h e a r t l e s s to h i s lo v e r and h i s own chi Id? For h i s c r i m e , Pu w i t h h i s m a g ic a l wand bestow ed on Dou superhuman pow er, so t h a t she m ig h t avenge h e r s e l f . Li S h i l a n g ' s end is much e a s i e r f o r the s im p le re a s o n t h a t h i s c rim e is le s s s e r i o u s . Li has f a l l e n in love w i t h a g i r l c a l l e d H u o . They b o th swear t r u e love and d e c id e not to p a r t . But when L i ' s m o th e r t e l l s him t h a t she has found the r i g h t g i r l f o r him , Li w a v e r s . In s e c r e t , he m a r r i e s t h i s new g i r l . When Huo f i n d s o u t what has 284 happened, she f a l l s i l l and d i e s . Her g h o s t w i l l not s to p p e s t e r i n g the two u n t i l th e y have s e p a r a t e d . Pu m e n tio n e d Li and the d i f f e r e n c e in th e d e g re e o f p u n ish m e n t in o r d e r to rem ind the r e a d e r t h a t once a c r im e is done, pu n ishm ent is e x p e c t e d . Punishm ent is d i s p a t c h e d by Heaven in a m e t i c u l o u s manner a c c o r d in g to th e n a t u r e o f the c r im e c o m m i t t e d . Punishm ent has a lw a y s e x i s t e d as a d e t e r r e n t to c r i m e . Pu was i n t e l l i g e n t enough to use i n f e r n a l p u n i s h ment found in Buddhism to w arn th e l i v i n g . In th e "K ing o f He I I " , L i ' s s i s t e r - i n - l a w , in h e r j e a l o u s y tow ard h e r h u s b a n d 's c o n c u b in e , s t i c k s a p i n i n t o h e r i n t e s t i n e s , c a u s in g h e r c o n s t a n t p a i n ( 1 , v : 6 5 8 - 6 0 ) . Fo r t h i s , L i ' s s i s t e r - i n - l a w ' s soul is c r u c i f i e d in h e l l . She is p in n e d to th e doo r by h e r hands and f e e t . In r e a l l i f e , h e r arm has a bad s o re w h ic h causes h e r to s t a y in bed f o r o v e r a y e a r . I t is not u n t i l L i , a f t e r he r e t u r n s from h e l l and t e l l s h e r to r e p e n t , t h a t h e r s o re h e a l s . From th en on, she becomes a n i c e and u n d e r s t a n d i n g woman. Pu commented as f o I Io w s : The H i s t o r i a n o f the S t r a n g e s a y s , "One m ig h t say t h a t t h e r e a r e many j e a l o u s w iv e s l i k e L i ' s s i s t e r - i n - l a w in t h i s w o r l d . The r e g r e t f u l t h i n g is t h a t th e n e t o f h e l I c a n n o t c o v e r them a l l . For me, I say t h a t t h e r e m ig h t be w orse pun ishm ent in h e l l th a n j u s t b e in g p in n e d to the d o o r , o n l y t h e r e is no e y e w it n e s s who comes back to t e l l us ab o u t i t . " ( 660) _ _ - iL ; / § ) % ^ ? f ' 285 B e s id e s commenting on j e a l o u s y and u n f a i t h f u l n e s s , Pu a l s o a d v is e d men on g a m b lin g as in "The G a m b le r 's T a I i sman" ( 1 , i i i : 4 1 9 - 2 1 ) , on l u s t as in "The U g ly F o x ," on g r e e d as in "The H a i r y F o x " ( 1, i i i : 4 2 9 - 3 1 ) , on how g o v ern m en t o f f i c i a l s s h o u Id t rea t th e p e o p le as in "Wang Shi " "t- ( 2 , x i : 1 5 5 9 - 6 3 ) , and on the c o n te n tm e n t in l i f e . In th e s e s t o r i e s , one must pay a t t e n t i o n to P u 1s idea o f d e s t i n y and r e t r i b u t i o n . The p r o t a g o n i s t s a r e some tim e s s a i d to be s u f f e r i n g from a c e r t a i n a i l m e n t because th e y a r e d e s t i n e d to be so in t h i s l i f e . So and so w i l l n e v e r pass h i s exams and o b t a i n an o f f i c i a l p o s t s im p ly f o r the re a s o n t h a t i t is n o t d e s t i n e d in h i s l i f e f o r th e s e e v e n ts to happen. When i t comes to r e t r i b u t i o n , Pu made i t c l e a r in h i s s t o r i e s t h a t t h i s is th e o n l y system t h a t Heaven goes b y . I t g o v e rn s men and women, men and a n i m a l s , and m an's r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h th e u n i v e r s e . A c t u a l l y , what Pu' in te n d e d to do w i t h h i s idea o f d e s t i n y and r e t r i b u t i o n a g a in is to t e a c h , to w arn and to c o m fo r t man. He b e l i e v e d t h a t by g u i d i n g men to w a rd good and away from e v i l , h i s u l t i m a t e g o a l in c r e a t i n g a commonwealth w ould s u c c e e d . For t h i s re a s o n he s t r e s s e d on the e f f e c t o f r e t r i b u t i o n and d e s t i n y . The s o - c a l l e d " d e s t i n y " in h i s t a l e s is a c t u a l l y used to s t r e n g t h e n h i s d i d a c t i c theme. A man or woman is d e s t i n e d to have a good and easy 286 l i f e i f he o r she is v i r t u o u s , w h i l e th e v i c i o u s is d e s t i n e d to be p u n is h e d . D e s t i n y and f a t e w o rk as s im p ly as t h a t f o r the a u t h o r . The H i s t o r i a n o f th e S t r a n g e in "Q i ng m ei" s a y s , W it h o u t d o u b t, Heaven in te n d s to m atch b e a u t i f u l women w i t h famous and v i r t u o u s men. Y e t th e mundane dukes and k in g s w ant to save th e s e l a d i e s f o r the sons o f the r i c h . Fo r t h i s re a s o n . Heaven must f i g h t to a c h ie v e i t s p l a n . In m a r v e l l o u s and i n t r i c a t e w ays. Heaven p u ts ou t tremendous e f f o r t to u n i t e a c o u p l e . Madam Qingmei a lo n e was a b l e to r e c o g n iz e a h e ro in the d i r t , s w e a r in g to m a r r y no one b u t him , even i f i t c o s t h e r h e r l i f e . Those who look r e s p e c t a b l e in t h e i r f i n e h a t s and gowns b u t f o r s a k e t h e i r v i r t u e f o r r i c h e s have le s s wisdom than a mere m a i d . ( 1 , i v : 4 5 3 ) t. £ I t *■/.$&.& *g; Xp&VZ- .75 % >x ?&.<& t , I t J- . I T - f e . % % . i f ) £ % % % t ill & ify t'rfc * jL , < , in va ^ f t . ' f -1ft. *r 41 i & "f % - *$ * *- In the f i r s t h a l f o f the q u o t a t i o n , Pu made th e p r e t e n s e t h a t th e u n io n betw een Q in g m e i, Axi and s c h o l a r Zhang is r e a l i z e d because i t has a lw a y s been H e a v e n 's p l a n to do so f o r b e a u t i e s and v i r t u o u s men. But i f th e r e a d e r read s c a r e f u l l y the o t h e r h a l f o f th e q u o t a t i o n he w i l l f i n d t h a t t h i s supposed " H e a v e n 's w i l l " does depend on a la r g e d e g re e on m an's w i l l , d e t e r m i n a t i o n and m e r i t . Q in g m e i, a f t e r she has d e c id e d to m a r r y Zhang, w o u ld not 287 g i v e me a l t h o u g h she comes a c r o s s many d i f f i c u l t i e s . Her p o s i t i o n as a m aid makes h e r one w i t h no fre ed o m , w h i l e Z h a n g 's p o v e r t y g e t s th e s i t u a t i o n w o r s e . But Q in g m e i's w i l l p ow er, h e r p a t i e n c e , and h e r p e r s e v e r a n c e in a t t a i n i n g h e r goal a r e w hat make h e r su c c e e d . Her w i l l i n g n e s s in s u f f e r i n g p o v e r t y w i t h th e Zhang f a m i l y evokes r e s p e c t from h e r m i s t r e s s A x i . Axi to o , in h e l p i n g a l l she can in u n i t i n g Qingmei and Zhang, l a t e r is " r e w a rd e d " w i t h w hat she w ants and d e s p e r a t e l y n e e d s - - a husband, a home and a f a m i l y . A t t h i s p o i n t , we see some s i m i l a r i t i e s in P u 1s idea o f d e s t i n y and r e t r i b u t i o n . They b o th have th e c o n n o t a t i o n o f a c t i n g m o r a l l y to r e c e i v e re w a rd and v i c e v e r s a . O n ly what is g i v e n and how i t is g i v e n a r e d e c id e d by H eaven . The fa r m e r Ma in "The H a i r y Fox" is a g r e e d y , l u s t y and s e l f i s h man. When he f i n d s out t h a t th e woman he has been in v o l v e d w i t h is a f o x , he e x p e c t s h e r to b r i n g him w e a l t h and p r o s p e r i t y w i t h h e r m a g ic . W h i l e he has n o t h i n g w h a t s o e v e r to o f f e r th e fo x la d y , he c o n t i n u e s to make demands on h e r . Not o n l y t h a t , he a l s o t e l l s h er to h e r fa c e t h a t she is d o w n r ig h t u g l y . D i s a p p o i n t e d the fo x la d y asks to le a v e and o f f e r s him a w i f e . S t i l l a l l the fa rm e r c a r e s ab o u t is w h e th e r th e new b r i d e is b e a u t i f u l . I t t u r n s ou t a t th e end t h a t h i s b r i d e is a hunchback w i t h a p a i r o f la r g e f e e t . T h ro u g h th e 288 H i s t o r i a n o f the S t r a n g e , Pu commented on the fa r m e r by c o m b in in g d e s t i n y and r e t r i b u t i o n . I t m ig h t be the fo x l a d y ' s way to r e t u r n M a 1s s n e e r (when he comments on h e r lo o k s ) in s a y in g t h a t fo x e s s a t i s f y i n g m an's d e s i r e d i f f e r s from p e rs o n to p e r s o n . But I d e e p l y b e l i e v e h e r when she says a m an 's lu c k and f o r t u n e depend on t h a t p e r s o n 's v i r t u e . I a lw a y s say t h a t u n le s s o n e 's a n c e s t o r s have d i s c i p l i n e d th e m s e lv e s f o r s e v e r a l g e n e r a t i o n s , one can n o t make i t to be a h ig h o f f i c i a l . I t is a l s o im p o s s ib le to a t t a i n a b e a u t i f u l woman u n le s s one has d i s c i p l i n e d h i m s e l f f o r s e v e r a l g e n e r a t i o n s . For th o s e who b e l i e v e in r e t r i b u t i o n , th e y w i l l n o t f i n d my words f a r from t h e i r s . ( 4 3 1 ) So P u ' s s t o r i e s a r e used to t e a c h , not j u s t f o r one g e n e r a t i o n , but f o r many many g e n e r a t i o n s to come a f t e r one is r e i n c a r n a t e d a f t e r d e a t h . H is e t h i c a l and s o c i e t a l ly o r i e n t e d s u p e r n a t u r a l t a l e s a r e not o n l y d i d a c t i c b u t a l s o e m o t i o n a l l y s a t i s f y i n g . S in c e r e a l i t y la c k s com passion and u n d e r s t a n d i n g f o r men, in a s u p e r n a t u r a l w o r l d , Pu t r i e d to r e i n s e r t love and h a p p in e s s in o r d e r to make th e w o r ld we l i v e in a more l o v a b l e abo de. In h i s t a l e s , th e dead a r i s e from h e l l to j o i n t h e i r f a m i l y ; the poor a r e a b l e to a c q u i r e w e a l t h and p r o s p e r i t y i f th e y a r e m o r a l ; and the bad a r e g i v e n what th e y d e s e r v e . The 289 a u t h o r , w i t h h i s t a l e s , f u r n i s h e d th e common p e o p le w i t h hope, p o e t i c j u s t i c e and s p i r i t u a l s a t i s f a c t i o n a m id s t the p a i n o f s u f f e r i n g , o f s e p a r a t i o n and o f l o n e l i n e s s in the w o r l d . H is o n l y r e q u ir e m e n t f o r th e s e s u p e r n a t u r a l e v e n ts to ta k e p l a c e is a p e r s o n 's s i n c e r i t y and lo ve to w a rd h i s f e I Iowmen. U n l i k e the C h in e s e s t o r i e s , w e s t e r n g o t h i c f i c t i o n o f t e n uses d i d a c t i c i s m as a fa c a d e o r a p r o l o g u e to lead th e r e a d e r i n t o the s p i r i t u a l r e a lm . Ot r a n t o , Me Imo t h , The M onk, and D r a c u I a a l l u t i I iz e the theme o f good and e v i l in C h r i s t i a n i t y as t h e i r f o r e g r o u n d . What th e C h r i s t i a n mode a c t u a l l y fo c u s e s on is th e p r o t a g o n i s t ' s s p i r i t u a l jo u r n e y in l i f e . In o t h e r w o rd s , th e n o v e ls I j u s t m e n tio n e d a r e v e r y p e r s o n a l and p r i v a t e b i o g r a p h i e s o f p a r t i c u l a r i n d i v i d u a l s . A lm o s t a l l o f them p o r t r a y a p e rs o n f a l l i n g down s o c i a l l y and e m o t i o n a l l y from a s t a b l e to an u n s t a b l e s i t u a t i o n . T hey a r e t r a g i c a l h i s t o r y o f the p r o t a g o n i s t s who, not c o n t e n t w i t h w hat l i f e has g i v e n them, f i g h t f o r what th e y w a n t , and f i n a l l y a r e d e f e a t e d by r e a l i t y . For t h i s , we can say t h a t th e s e w e s t e r n t a l e s a r e s e l f - o r i e n t e d . The p u rp o s e o f the p r o t a g o n i s t ' s a c t i o n is on the b e t t e r m e n t o f h i m s e l f and n o t o t h e r s . He is s e l f i s h , so to s p e ak. The s e l f is v e r y o f t e n e x p re s s e d and s y m b o liz e d by the " e y e s " o r " I " in g o t h i c f i c t i o n , as is found in P o e 's and Bram S t o k e r ' s w o r k s . The " I " as the 290 c e n t e r o f th e u n i v e r s e is a v e r y r o m a n t ic i d e a l . The r o m a n t ic 1 1 I " in g o t h i c f i c t i o n is not c o n n e c te d to any e t h i c a l i d e a l , bu t r a t h e r i t looks f o r w a r d to a s p i r i t u a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f i t s own. T h i s s e l f , in the c o u rs e o f f u l f i l l i n g i t s a s p i r a t i o n s , w i l l r e s o r t to any p o s s i b i l i t i e s , even e v i l . In th e C h in e s e t a l e s , the s e l f , w h i l e in s e a r c h o f im p ro v e m e n t, a t the same tim e a l s o c r e a t e s a b e t t e r w o r l d . T h a t is to s a y , the C h in e s e s e l f , w h i l e a c t i n g f o r i t s own a l s o a c t s f o r o t h e r s . But what the w e s t e r n s e l f has p la n n e d f o r i t s e l f u s u a l l y a f f e c t s i t s s u r r o u n d in g e n v ir o n m e n t in a n e g a t i v e m ann e r. K in g M a n f r e d , in o r d e r to a c q u i r e an h e i r f o r h i m s e l f so t h a t O t r a n t o w i l l not f a l l i n t o o t h e r ' s hands, d e s t r o y s h i s own f a m i l y : he d i v o r c e s h i s o b e d ie n t w i f e , s ta b s h i s own d a u g h t e r to d e a t h , and p la n s to k i l l in n o c e n t T h e o d o re and m a r r y h i s d a u g h t e r - i n - l a w I s a b e l l a . The w o r l d o r d e r in the s t o r y f a l l s a p a r t as M a n f r e d d e t e r i o r a t e s e t h i c a l l y i n t o a t y r a n n i c a l m o n s t e r . F a t h e r A m b ro s io , the s a i n t o f M a d r i d , r u i n s d e c e n t and in n o c e n t p e o p l e ' s l i f e when he t r i e s to f u l f i l l h i s d e s i r e in l e c h e r y . As a s e r v a n t o f God, he f i n d s h i s soul c r a v i n g t h in g s he can n o t h a v e . Y e t in o r d e r to a t t a i n h i s d e s i r e , he w ould have to d e s t r o y the o r d e r o f th e c h u rc h and o f the s o c i e t y . D r . F a u s tu s is a n o t h e r good exam ple in t h i s c a s e . As a l e a r n e d man, the d o c t o r longs f o r 291 m o r e - - p o w e r , w e a l t h and women. A f t e r he r e c e i v e s w hat he d e s i r e s , he has not once used h i s power to h e l p p e o p le , r a t h e r , he uses h i s superhuman power to c h e a t , to make fun o f , and to d i s p l a y h i m s e l f . W o rld o r d e r s u b j e c t s to h is whims, i t changes when he d o e s . What do men r e a l l y want? The answer to t h i s is s i m i l a r in b o th e a s t / w e s t g o t h i c f i c t i o n - - w h a t is l a c k i n g in r e a l i t y . Men c r a v e f o r what th e y ca n n o t h a v e . I t is t h i s c r a v i n g o f th e m in d , th e s p i r i t u a l t u r m o i l o f the s e l f t h a t w e s t e r n g o t h i c f i c t i o n c o n c e n t r a t e s on. C h in e s e s t o r i e s d w e ll v e r y l i g h t l y on th e t o p i c o f s p i r i t u a l s t r u g g l e , r a t h e r th e y em p h a s ize in p o r t r a y i n g the i n d i v i d u a l ' s b r a v e v i c t o r y in v i r t u e , h a rd w ork and d e t e r m i n a t i o n . The s p i r i t u a l s t r u g g l e in the C h in e s e t a l e s is cut s h o r t o r sometimes not even m e n tio n e d as an is s u e . T h i s is because Pu n e v e r looked a t i t as a p r o b le m . For him , re w a rd from Heaven is good enough to c a n c e l o u t any p a i n and loss o f the i n d i v i d u a l . Y e t the s t r u g g l e o f t h i s d a r k s e l f is th e m ain theme in w e s t e r n g o t h i c f i c t i o n . T h i s d a r k s e l f a l s o e x p l a i n s the d i f f e r e n c e in the use o f g r o t e s q u e in e a s t / w e s t g o t h i c f i c t i o n . Pu v e r y seldom used g r o t e s q u e in h i s s t o r i e s e x c e p t when he e q u a te d i t w i t h e v i l . T h a t i s , th e u g l i e r one lo o k s , th e more e v i l and v i c i o u s one i s . Many o f P u 1s g h o s ts and fo x e s a r e e x t r e m e l y n i c e - l o o k i n g women who make t h e i r men f o r g e t 292 t h e i r i d e n t i t y . G ro te s q u e f o r Pu has to do w i t h the bad, the e v i l and the u n d e s i r a b l e . But in th e w e s t , g r o t e s q u e is o f t e n used to s y m b o liz e the a b s u r d , the u n r e l e n t i n g and h id d e n s id e o f l i f e . M a n 's h id d e n s e l f is o f t e n symbo l i z e d by an u g l y i n d i v i d u a l l i k e the m o n s te r in F r a n k e n s t e i n . T h i s d a r k s e l f overw helm s the o u t e r s e l f and d r i v e s the l a t t e r i n t o a k i n d o f m adness. T h i s m addening em o tio n w i l l not s u b s id e u n t i l i t is s a t i s f i e d . In The M onk, D r . Faus t u s , and F r a n k e n s t e i n , we can e a s i l y d e t e c t t h i s e m o t io n a l s t r u g g l e w i t h i n th e p r o t a g o n i s t s ' m in d . T h i s madness r e f u s e s to compromise o r go away, i t keeps e a t i n g away th e p r o t a g o n i s t s ' h e a r t . What a r e m a n k in d 's w o r s t enemies? In b o th t r a d i t i o n s , th e y a r e p r i d e , know ledge and l u s t . The f i r s t two have to do w i t h the s p i r i t w h i l e th e t h i r d has to do w i t h the p h y s i c a l body. K in g M a n f r e d l u s t s f o r power w h i l e F a t h e r A m bros io c r a v e s to t r e s p a s s r e s t r i c t i o n s s e t on him by the c h u r c h . The c h u rc h h e r e is a symbol o f m o r a l i t y and s o c i a l norm. What A m b ro s io has y i e l d e d to is s im p ly human f r a i l t i e s . In th e l a s t s c e n e , a f t e r the D e v i l has re sc u ed him from the p r i s o n o f the I n q u i s i t i o n , he r e f u s e s to l e t A m brosio f r e e . I n s t e a d he r e v e a l s the l a t t e r ' s w eakn e ss. And you i t was who th o u g h t y o u r s e l f p r o o f a g a i n s t t e m p t a t i o n , a b s o lv e d from human f r a i l t i e s , and f r e e from e r r o r and v i c e ! Is 293 p r i d e , t h e n , a v i r t u e ? Is in h u m a n ity no f a u l t ? . . . . I saw t h a t you w ere v i r t u o u s from v a n i t y , n ot p r i n c i p l e . . . . Your p r i d e was g r a t i f i e d by h e r ( M a t i l d a ' s ) f l a t t e r y ; y o u r l u s t o n l y needed an o p p o r t u n i t y to b r e a k f o r t h ; you ran i n t o the sn a re b l i n d l y , and s c r u p le d n o t to commit a c r im e w h ic h you blam ed in a n o t h e r w i t h u n f e e l i n g s e v e r i t y . . . . B e l i e v e you t h a t y o u r s e c r e t th o u g h ts esc a p e d me? No, n o - - I re a d them a I I . . . . ( Lew i s , 354) We f i n d the same s i t u a t i o n in w h ic h th e o u t e r s e l f is d e f e a t e d by the in n e r s e l f ' s a s p i r a t i o n in Me Imoth and D r . Fau s t u s . Both men a r e w i l l i n g to g i v e up th e m s e lv e s in o r d e r to know th e answer to th e b i g q u e s t i o n - - w h a t is the s e c r e t o f God in i m m o r t a l i t y and power? When Im m alee, M e lm o t h 's l o v e r , asks him to s t a y w i t h h e r in th e p a r a d i s e i s l a n d o f the West I n d ie s in s t e a d o f r e t u r n i n g to the w o r l d o f e v i l and s o rro w , M e lm o th b r e a k s i n t o a d i s c o r d a n t I a u g h . Poor g i r l . . . . and is t h i s the d e s t i n y I am to f u l f i I I ? - - t o l i s t e n to th e c h i r p i n g o f b i r d s , and w a tc h the o p e n in g o f buds? Is t h i s to be my lo t? ( M a t u r i n , I V : 1 8 4 ) M elm oth is no t c o n t e n t w i t h an e n j o y a b l e and r e l a x i n g l i f e in n a t u r e . I t is o n l y in th e end a t h is d e a t h when he r e a l i z e s h i s v a n i t y . He t e l l s John, How my I i fe has been pas sed you know b u t too w e l l . M in e was the g r e a t a n g e l i c s i n - - p r i d e and i n t e l l e c t u a l g l o r y i n g ! I t was th e f i r s t m o r t a l s in — a b o u n d le s s a s p i r a t i o n a f t e r f o r b id d e n know I e d g e ! . . . . ( I V : 3 3 9 ) L i k e M e lm o th , F a u s tu s c o v e ts th e same t h i n g . F a u s tu s w an ts to compete w i t h God, hence he a l l i e s w i t h G o d 's 294 en e m ies: L u c i f e r , M e p h i s t o p h e I e s and B e e lz e b u b . A lt h o u g h a le a r n e d s c h o l a r , y e t he c a r e s f o r more k n o w l e d g e - - knowledge t h a t is n o t g a i n e d o r a c c e s s i b l e to m o r t a l s . For t h i s he is w i l l i n g to g i v e up the most p r e c i o u s p o s s e s s io n he h a s - - h i s s o u l . L i k e A m b ro s io and M e lm o th , F a u s tu s g i v e s up h i m s e l f f o r w o r l d l y honor and v a n i t y . In the p l a y , F a u s tu s does e n j o y a i l t h a t he longs f o r in the p e r i o d o f t w e n t y - f o u r y e a r s . He has one o f th e most b e a u t i f u l women in h i s t o r y - - H e I e n o f T r o y - - a s h i s p a ra m o u r. The d o c t o r p u ts th e P o p e - - t h e most p o w e r fu l p e rs o n in the c h u rc h and th e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f G o d - - und er h i s r i d i c u l e . Em pero rs, q u e e n s , dukes and d u c h esse s a l l crowd to him f o r fun and r a r i t i e s . In a co m ic a l sce ne, F a u s tu s shows h i s a l l - k n o w i n g power to c o u n t e r a c t h i s a s s a s s i n s ' p l a n s . F a u s tu s not o n l y d e a l w i t h r o y a l t i e s and c e l e b r i t i e s , but a l s o w i t h th e common r u s t i c s to the p o i n t o f a b u s in g h i s pow er. For no re a s o n a t a l l , but s im p ly f o r p r a n k s , he s e l l s a h o r s e - c o u r s e r a h o rs e t h a t t u r n s i n t o s t r a w in th e w a t e r . M o r e o v e r , he c h e a ts th e c a r t e r on a f u l l load o f hay f o r a v e r y sm all sum. I t is not the m o n e ta r y g a i n t h a t F a u s tu s is c o n c e rn e d ab o u t w i t h th e s e two men, bu t r a t h e r he g e t s a k i c k out o f them, and th e s a t i s f i e d f e e l i n g o f c o n f i r m a t i o n o f h i s power o v e r o t h e r s . As he p o s sesses t h a t kno w ledge and m a g ic , he seems to la c k n o t h i n g in th e w o r l d . 295 S h a l l I make s p i r i t s f e t c h what I p le a s e ? R e s o lv e me o f a l l a m b i g u i t i e s ? P e rfo rm e what d e s p e r a t e e n t e r p r i s e I w i l l ? I 1le have them f I ie to I nd i a f o r g o l d ; Ransacke th e Ocean f o r O r i e n t P e a r l e , And s e a r c h a l l c o r n e r s o f th e n e w -fo u n d w o r ld For p l e a s a n t f r u i t e s and P r i n c e l y d e l i c a t e s . 1 1 Ie have them re a d me s t r a n g e P h ilo s o p h y , And t e l l th e s e c r e t s o f a l l f o r r a i n e K in g s : I 1 le have them w a I I a l l Germany w i t h b r a s s e , And make s w i f t Rh i ne c i r c l e f a i r e W i t t e n b e r g e : I * Ie have them f i l l th e p u b l i q u e S c h o o le s w i t h si I k e, W h e r e w ith the S t u d e n ts s h a l l be b r a v e l y c l a d . I 1 Ie le a v y s o u l d i e r s w i t h the coyne th e y b r i n g . And chase the P r i n c e o f Parma from ou r Land, ^ And r a i g n e s o le K in g o f a l l our P r o v i n c e s . . . . O m n ip o ten c e is what M e lm o th and F a u s tu s d e s i r e . The t e m p t a t i o n to a c q u i r e t h i s power is so g r e a t t h a t n o t h i n g can come in the w ay, not even th e p ro m is e o f a h e a v e n ly r e w a r d . In the C h in e s e t a l e s , h e a v e n l y re w a rd s such as w e a l t h , p r o s p e r i t y and sons, a c t as a d e t e r r e n t to c r i m e . A p e rs o n who is lo o k in g f o r w a r d to th e s e w o r l d l y g a i n s must a b s t a i n from v i c e and s t i c k w i t h v i r t u e . In the w e s t e r n s t o r i e s , power o v e r o t h e r s is much more i n t e r e s t i n g than w o r l d l y p l e a s u r e s . V i r t u e , m o r a l i t y and h a r d w ork a r e b o r i n g . I t is th e p r e s e n t moment t h a t c o u n t s . O n ly a t h i s d e a th does F a u s tu s d i s c o v e r t h a t v a i n g l o r y w i l l d i s s i p a t e l i k e smoke. He w arns h i s f e l l o w s c h o la r s as f o l l o w s : . . . . 0 w ou ld I had n e v e r seen Wi t t e n b e r g , n e v e r re a d book: and what wonders 1 have done a l l Germany can w i t n e s s e , yea a l l th e w o r l d : f o r w h ic h Fa u s t us h a th l o s t b o th G ermany and the w o r l d , . . . f o r th e v a i n e p l e a s u r e o f f o u r e and 296 tw e n ty y e a r s h a t h Fa u s t u s l o s t e t e r n a l I jo y and f e I i c i t I e . . . . (Mar I ow e, V . i i . 1 8 4 1 -4 4 + ) For once F a u s tu s had e v e r y t h i n g , a t th e end, he has n o t h i n g , not even h i s own s o u l . P u 1s s t o r y w o u ld have c o n c lu d e d long b e f o r e t h i s p o i n t . Many o f h i s t a l e s s to p a t th e p r o t a g o n i s t s f u l f i l l i n g t h e i r d e s i r e s w i t h v i r t u o u s d e e d s . U s u a l l y an u n m a r r ie d s c h o l a r w i l l a c q u i r e a b e a u t i f u l and k i n d w i f e because o f h i s k in d n e s s and the f a m i l y p r o s p e r s . A good man g e t s w hat he d e s e r v e s and l i v e s h a p p i l y w i t h h i s f a m i l y e v e r a f t e r . U n l i k e the w e s t e r n s t o r i e s in w h ic h a lm o s t a l l o f th e p r o t a g o n i s t s s u f f e r and p e r i s h a t th e end, most C h in e s e t a l e s end p o s i t i v e l y . T h i s is because th e C h in e s e t a l e s a r e g e a re d to w a rd a s o c i e t a l theme, w h i l e the w e s t e r n ones p o r t r a y a p e r s o n 's p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t s o c i a l o b l i g a t i o n s and m oral cod es. Humanism in G o t h ic F i c t i o n The a u t h o r s o f g o t h i c f i c t i o n in b o th t r a d i t i o n s a r e no t r e l i g i o u s l y - o r i e n t e d . Though th e y a l l make use o f a r e l i g i o u s and p h i l o s o p h i c a l s t r u c t u r e to be the b a c kg ro und o f t h e i r s t o r i e s , th e s e w r i t e r s a r e more h u m a n is ts than 297 r e l i g i o u s o r a t o r s . They p r y i n t o th e h e a r t s o f men and s y m p a th iz e w i t h t h e i r p l i g h t . In t h e i r w o rk s , th e g o t h i c w r i t e r s p r e s e n t th e o t h e r s id e o f th e m o r t a l s , t h e i r deep and r e b e l l i o u s s e l v e s in r e l a t i o n to the p h y s ic a l e n v ir o n m e n t o u t s i d e . I t is i n t e r e s t i n g to f i n d t h a t the t o p i c o f humanism is p r e s e n t e d d i f f e r e n t l y in e a s t and w e s t e r n g o t h i c f i c t i o n . A l r e a d y in c h a p t e r s two and t h r e e , we have d is c u s s e d P u 1s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f women's p l i g h t in C h in a . In th e fox and g h o s t t a l e s , Pu, th ro u g h th e p o r t r a y a l s o f fo x e s and s p i r i t s , spoke f o r th e o p p re s s e d fe m a le p o p u l a t i o n u n d er C o n f u c ia n codes in C h in a . In showing d i f f e r e n t s i t u a t i o n s o f women u n d er p r e s s u r e , Pu w a n te d h i s r e a d e r to see the p r o b le m . A t the same t i m e , he g u id e d and u rg e d a change in the minds o f men to improve th e s e s i t u a t i o n s . A g a in , the fu n d a m e n ta l way to improve s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s is to s t a r t from th e s e l f . E d u c a t io n and t r a i n i n g a r e o f c o u rs e the p r i m a r y p r e - r e q u i s i t e s . Y e t o n e 's d e v o t i o n and s i n c e r i t y tow ard h i s b e l i e f o r g o a l a r e e q u a l l y im p o r ta n t to P u . S i n c e r i t y is a b l e to c u re s ic k n e s s and save l i f e . In "The Monkey God" ^ ^ ^ , s in c e the p r o t a g o n i s t Xu Sheng goes a g a i n s t the b e l i e f o f the M in a r e a , he d e v e lo p s a b i g w a r t w h ic h g i v e s him a l o t o f t r o u b l e and p a i n ( 2 , x i : 1 4 5 9 - 6 3 ) . Even though he s u f f e r s th e p a i n o f an o p e r a t i o n , Xu s t u b b o r n l y keeps h i s mouth s h u t , r e f u s i n g to 298 p r a y and r e p e n t . When h i s o l d e r b r o t h e r d i e s o f a sudden i l l n e s s , Xu goes to the te m p le and c u rs e s t h i s Monkey God. The god a p p e a rs in h i s dream t h a t n i g h t and re p r o a c h e s him f o r b la s p h e m y . In showing h i s d i v i n e p o w e r, t h i s god even a l l o w s X u ’ s b r o t h e r to r e t u r n to l i f e . A g a in , on th e s u r f a c e l e v e l , t h i s t a l e is a r e l i g i o u s c a u t i o n a r y t a l e in w h ic h a h e r e t i c is g i v e n a le s s o n , and l a t e r he is c o n v e r t e d . But t h i s is not what Pu S o n g lin g w a n te d at a l l . I f we look a t the comments by the H i s t o r i a n o f the S t r a n g e a t the end, we w i l l f i n d out P u 1s r e a l m o t iv e in th e t a l e . In the p a s t , a s c h o l a r happened to go by a te m p le . he p a i n t e d a p i pa on the w a l l and l e f t . For t h i s , the te m p le s u d d e n ly became famous f o r i t s w o n d er. P e o p le w ent to th e te m p le and burned in c e n s e . T h e r e a r e a l o t o f t h in g s in t h i s w o r ld t h a t do not n e c e s s a r i l y e x i s t . Y e t when man t h i n k s th e y do, th e y d o . T h e r e f o r e when a l l men p u t t h e i r h e a r t on s o m e th in g , t h a t t h i n g becomes th e o b j e c t o f b e l i e f , t h a t is a l l . J u s t l i k e t h i s man Xu, because he is an u p r i g h t and h o n e s t man, he is b l e s s e d by H e a v e n . I t is n e v e r the Monkey God who c l a i m s to put h i s weapon in th e s i z e o f an e m b r o id e r y n e e d le in h i s e a r , not he who can t r a n s f o r m h i s own h a i r i n t o h i s own image, nor he who can a lm o s t f l y w i t h h i s s o m e r s a u lt and p i e r c e th ro u g h h e a v e n . I f one e v e n t u a l l y is b e g u i l e d by the s u p e r n a t u r a l s , we can see t h a t he is n o t s i n c e r e a t a l l . (1 4 6 2 ) 299 In the above p a s s a g e , Pu was s a y in g t h a t when one is ho n est and k i n d , he s h o u ld u n d e r s ta n d and s y m p a th iz e w i t h h i s f e llo w m e n . He sh o u ld go a lo n g w i t h t h e i r b e l i e f , because one ca n n o t l i v e in harmony w i t h o t h e r s u n le s s t h e r e is a com prom ise. An h o n e s t , s t r a i g h t - f o r w a r d and o u ts p o k e n man l i k e Xu w i l l be b l e s s e d by Heaven because he is s i n c e r e in h i s a c t i o n s . A ls o in th e s e l i n e s , we see P u 1s open-m in d ed n ess as f a r as r e l i g i o n is c o n c e r n e d . He d i d not s p e c i f y a p a r t i c u l a r r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f as t he one t h a t e v e r y o n e s h o u ld d e v o te h i m s e l f t o . A l l he asked is a m an's h e a r t t h a t aims a t goodness f o r h i s fe llo w m e n . A t th e end o f th e s t o r y o f "Yang D a h o n g ," Pu e x p re s s e d a g a in h i s idea on i m m o r t a l i t y and men. I w ou ld say t h a t i t is b e t t e r to have one more v i r t u o u s man on e a r t h than to have one more im m ortal in h e a v e n . Those who u n d e r s ta n d me w i l l no t accuse me o f p r e j u d i c e . ( 2 , i x : 1 2 5 7 ) £ % % f - i - % - a. , T - - * > « J = | - » £ \ % fyt-^ tfc f t t t- -£ . I t is c l e a r h e r e t h a t w hat Pu c a r e d f o r a r e th e m o r t a l s o f t h i s w o r l d , not j u s t f o r the s p i r i t u a l l y saved o n e s. T h i s a l t r u i s t i c th o u g h t in P u 1s s t o r i e s s ta n d s out as a b i g c o n t r a s t w i t h the w e s t e r n ones w h ic h u s u a l l y c o n c e n t r a t e on the s e l f . 300 A lt h o u g h many o f P u 1s s t o r i e s a r e s e t in h e l l , Heaven o r o t h e r p l a c e s ou t o f t h i s w o r l d , h i s u l t i m a t e goal is to d w e ll on men and h u m a n ity . L i k e C o n f u c i u s , he n e v e r co n c e rn e d h i m s e l f much w i t h the s u p e r n a t u r a l s , n o t to m e n tio n t h a t he was n e v e r a s u p e r s t i t i o u s , p e d a n t i c o l d man. N e ver in any o f t h i s t a l e s had he s p e c i f i e d t h a t one s h o u ld b e l i e v e in a p a r t i c u l a r f a i t h o r w o r s h ip a c e r t a i n d e i t y . For him , th e u n i v e r s e is made up o f men, Heaven and h e l l . S in c e Heaven and h e l l a r e unknown and o n l y need to be r e s p e c t e d , the em phasis s h o u ld be on men th e m s e lv e s . "Xi F an g p in g " is a s t o r y ab o u t a man Xi g o in g down to Hades to re s c u e h i s f a t h e r from p r o s e c u t i o n ( 2 , x : 1 3 4 1 - 4 8 ) . I t is a s a t i r e a g a i n s t the c o r r u p t i o n in the g o v e rn m e n ta l sys te m . I t is a I so a t o u c h in g s t o r y ab o u t a d u t i f u l s o n 's d e t e r m i n a t i o n to save h i s f a t h e r in s p i t e o f s u f f e r i n g and d e a t h . A t the end o f th e s t o r y , Pu r e v e a l e d h i s idea on Heaven and h e l l . A l l p e o p le speak o f th e B u d d h a 's land but none knows t h a t l i f e and d e a t h r e i g n o v e r two d i f f e r e n t w o r l d s , w h e r e f o r e a l l minds a r e b l u r r e d in t h i s r e s p e c t , knowing n o t w here th e y come from and w h ere th e y w i l l g o. And i t is a l l th e more c o n fo u n d in g when a man d i e s and th e n d i e s t w ic e o r when he is born and th e n be b o rn a g a in ? Xi possessed l o y a l t y and f i l i a l p i e t y , and h i s s t r o n g d e t e r m i n a t i o n n e v e r w a v e re d in s p i t e o f in n u m e ra b le s e t b a c k s . . . . ( Lu, 2 5 7 - 5 8 ) A. A.1T '4 *- . I * 4:- * t J2- % f r r ^ ^ ; \%p 7 301 T h e r e is the same h u m a n is t i c a p p ro a c h in w e s t e r n g o t h i c f i c t i o n . W a l p o l e , S h e l l e y , M a r lo w e , M a t u r i n , and Lewis a l l a r e not r e a l l y i n t e r e s t e d in c o n v e r t i n g man to a c e r t a i n r e l i g i o u s t r a d i t i o n . As a m a t t e r o f f a c t , M a rlo w e was an a t h e i s t , and was c o n s id e r e d as an u n c o n v e n t io n a l f i g u r e in th e E l i z a b e t h a n p e r i o d . These w r i t e r s aim m a i n l y a t d e p i c t i n g men in t h e i r s p i r i t u a l d ile m m a s . In t h e i r w o rk s , th e s e a u t h o r s p o r t r a y the h id d e n man who is no t s a t i s f i e d w i t h r e a l i t y . The monk Am brosio can o n l y do w hat a monk is a l lo w e d to and t h e r e f o r e c o v e ts l u s t . F r a n k e n s t e i n a s p i r e s to fame and p o w er. In o r d e r to a c h ie v e t h e s e , he b r e a k s th e law o f h e a v e n . F a u s tu s has know ledge bu t not pow er. F o r t h i s he lo ses h i m s e l f . In b o th e a s t w est g o t h i c f i c t i o n , b e f o r e the p r o t a g o n i s t commits h i m s e l f to any c a u s e s , he a lw a y s po s sesse s a f r e e w i l l to ch o ose. A lt h o u g h t h e r e a r e s o c i a l and r e l i g i o u s o b l i g a t i o n s , the p r o t a g o n i s t is g i v e n the r i g h t and the a b i l i t y to do what he deems b e s t . The c h o ic e he makes is a b s o l u t e l y h i s own. In D r . F a u s t u s , when the m e d ic a l d o c t o r has to make a d e c i s i o n b e tw een good and e v i l , he is f r e e to j o i n e i t h e r s i d e . N e i t h e r s i d e g i v e s him any p r e s s u r e . I t is F a u s tu s h i m s e l f who, because o f power and fame, chooses h i s own f a t e . F a t h e r A m brosio to o , c o u ld have k e p t h i m s e l f away from M a t i l d a , i f o n l y he had asked h e r to le a v e the m o n a s te r y in th e f i r s t p l a c e . A m brosio 302 is th e abb ot who possesse s th e h i g h e s t power in the m o n a s te r y , he c o u ld have a v o id e d th e a f f a i r w i t h h is fe m a le n o v i c e . But he d i d not and l a t e r he chooses to go d e e p e r . The p r o t a g o n i s t s in w e s t e r n g o t h i c f i c t i o n , b e f o r e the c r i t i c a l moment when th e y d e c id e to commit th e m s e lv e s , u s u a l l y go th ro u g h a tu m u ltu o u s m oral s t r u g g l e , e . g . A m b ro s io , F a u s t u s , F r a n k e n s t e i n and W a l t o n . T h i s m e n ta l war has v e r y im p o r ta n t s i g n i f i c a n c e in th e g e n re b ecause i t shows the p r o t a g o n i s t ' s s p i r i t u a l s t a t e , as w e ll as h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h i m s e l f and the w o r l d aroun d him . In th e s e m oral s t r u g g l e s , th e r e a d e r can see what a man w a n ts , and w hat the w o r l d and r e a l i t y ca n n o t p r o v i d e . M e n ta l b a t t l e s a l s o t e l l us when man succeeds in g e t t i n g one t h i n g , he w i l l have to pay f o r i t w i t h a n o t h e r . F a t h e r A m b ro s io , a f t e r he f i n d s t h a t R o s a r io is a c t u a l l y a b e a u t i f u l la d y c a l l e d M a t i l d a , h i s f i r s t r e a c t i o n is to d is m is s h e r from th e m o n a s te r y . Y e t when he sees M a t i l d a ' s b e a u t i f u l f a c e , body and h e r love f o r him , he w a v e r s . He is t r y i n g to w e ig h s a n c t i t y a g a i n s t l u s t , fame a g a i n s t women, and con du ct a g a i n s t dem eanor. For s e v e r a l t im e s , he s w it c h e s h i s d e c i s i o n s . A f t e r he has seen M a t i l d a ' s b r e a s t s , he is l o s t . The scene in w h ic h he had been engaged had e x c i t e d such a v a r i e t y o f s e n t im e n t s in h i s bosom t h a t he was i n c a p a b le o f d e c i d i n g w h ic h was 303 p r e d o m in a n t . He was i r r e s o l u t e what c o n d u ct he ought to h o ld w i t h th e d i s t u r b e r o f h i s re p o s e ; he was c o n s c io u s t h a t p r u d e n c e , r e l i g i o n , and p r o p r i e t y , n e c e s s i t a t e d h i s o b l i g i n g h e r to q u i t the abbey: bu t on the o t h e r hand such p o w e r fu l reasons a u t h o r i z e d h e r s t a y t h a t he was b u t too much i n c l i n e d to co n s e n t to h e r r e m a i n in g . He c o u ld not a v o id b e in g f l a t t e r e d by M a t i l d a ' s d e c l a r a t i o n s , and a t r e f l e c t i n g t h a t he had u n c o n s c i o u s l y v a n q u is h e d an h e a r t . . . . The manner in w h ic h he had g a in e d h e r a f f e c t i o n s was a l s o th e most s a t i s f a c t o r y to h i s v a n i t y . . . . ( L e w i s , 4 8 - 4 9 ) A g a in when he is a lo n e in h i s c e l l , a f t e r h a v in g an e r o t i c dream in w h ic h he sees h i m s e l f in h a p p in e s s w i t h M a t i l d a , A m brosio seems to come back to h i s s e n s e s . The c lo u d was now d i s s i p a t e d w h ic h had o b s c u re d h i s judg m e n t; he shu ddered when he b e h e ld h i s argum ents b la z o n e d in t h e i r p r o p e r c o l o r s , and found t h a t he had been a s l a v e to f l a t t e r y , to a v a r i c e , and s e l f - l o v e . I f in one h o u r ' s c o n v e r s a t i o n M a t i l d a had p ro d u ced a change so r e m a r k a b le in h i s s e n t i m e n t s , what had he not to d r e a d from h e r r e m a in in g in th e abbey? Become s e n s i b l e o f h i s d a n g e r , awakened from h i s dream o f c o n f i d e n c e , he r e s o l v e d to i n s i s t on h e r d e p a r t i n g w i t h o u t d e l a y ; he began to f e e l t h a t he was not p r o o f a g a i n s t t e m p t a t i o n ; and t h a t however M a t i l d a m ig h t r e s t r a i n h e r s e l f w i t h i n the bounds o f m o d es ty, he was u n a b le to c o n te n d w i t h those p a s s io n s from w h ic h he f a l s e l y th o u g h t h i m s e l f exem pted. (5 0 ) But the n e x t day when h i s eyes s e t upon th e b e lo v e d woman a g a i n , he does no t know what to d o . T h i s t im e , he asks M a t i l d a to h e l p him by m aking the d e c i s i o n f o r h im . . . . . S t a y h e r e , and a few weeks w i l l s a c r i f i c e my h a p p in e s s on the a l t a r o f y o u r charm s, you a r e but too i n t e r e s t i n g , too a m ia b le ! I sh o u ld love you , I s h o u ld d o t e on you! My bosom w ould become the p r e y o f d e s i r e s w h ic h honour and my p r o f e s s i o n f o r b i d me to g r a t i f y . I f I r e s i s t e d them, the i m p e t u o s i t y o f my w is h e s 304 u n s a t i s f i e d w ou ld d r i v e me to madness: i f I y i e l d e d to the t e m p t a t i o n , I s h o u ld s a c r i f i c e to one moment o f g u i l t y p l e a s u r e my r e p u t a t i o n in t h i s w o r l d , my s a l v a t i o n in the n e x t . . . . G iv e me back my p r o m is e ; f l y from th e s e w a l l s . Go, and you b e a r w i t h you my w arm est p r a y e r s f o r yo u r h a p p in e s s , my f r i e n d s h i p , my e s te e m , and a d m i r a t i o n ; s t a y , and you become to me the so u rc e o f d a n g e r , o f s u f f e r i n g s , o f d e s p a i r . Answer me, M a t i l d a - - w h a t is yo u r r e s o lv e ? (5 2 ) L a t e r t h a t n i g h t , when A m b ro s io is a lo n e in h i s c e l l and can n o t s l e e p , w a t c h in g the moon, . . . . h e th o u g h t upon M a t i l d a ' s b e a u t y and a f f e c t i o n ; upon th e p l e a s u r e s w h ic h he m ig h t have s h a re d w i t h h e r ; had he n o t been r e s t r a i n e d by m o n a s tic f e t t e r s . . . . He shu ddered a t th e v o i d w h ic h h e r absence w o u ld le a v e in h i s bosom; he looked w i t h d i s g u s t on th e monotony o f a c o n v e n t, and b r e a t h e d a s ig h tow ard s t h a t w o r ld from w h ic h he was f o r e v e r s e p a r a t e d . . . . ( 6 5 ) Up to t h i s p o i n t , A m b ro s io , a t the end o f a s e r i e s o f m e n ta l c o n f l i c t s , b e g in s to see w hat he r e a l l y d e s i r e s , and why he is u n a b le to a t t a i n them. He a l s o sees h i s own f r a i l t y and weakness as a human b e i n g . The r e l i g i o u s o r g a n i z a t i o n he has a t t a c h e d h i m s e l f to asks too much o f a m o r t a l , a man made o f f l e s h and b l o o d . Vows, s a n c t i t y and fame a r e too a b s t r a c t and f a r - r e l a t e d to him than h i s p h y s i c a l need f o r love and s e x . F i n a l l y , he r e b e l s to f u I f i I I h i s des i r e s . The same happens in M a r l o w e 's p l a y . F a u s tu s is d i s a p p o i n t e d t h a t he has re a c h e d th e end o f h i s p r o f e s s i o n . He r e a l i z e s t h a t he is a p h y s i c i a n , and o n ly a man. He has no power to make men l i v e e t e r n a l l y o r to 305 r a i s e the dead to l i f e . F r u s t r a t e d he s e a rc h e s f o r mag i c aI p o w e r . I , t h e r e a r e tho se t h a t F a u s t u s most d e s i r e s . O what a w o r ld o f p r o f i t e and d e l i g h t , O f pow er, o f h o n o u r, and o m n ip o te n c e , • • • * A l l t h in g s t h a t move betw een th e q u i e t P o le s S h a l l be a t my command: Emperors and K in g s , A re bu t o b e y 'd in t h e i r s e v e r a l I P r o v in c e s : Nor can th e y r a i s e the w in d e o r rend th e c lo u d e s : But h i s d o m in io n t h a t exc eeds in t h i s , S t r e t c h e t h as f a r r e as d o th the mind o f man: A sound m a g i t i a n is a D e m i- g o d . . . . ( I . i . 7 9 - 8 9 ) The a p p e a ra n c e o f the good and bad a n g e ls in the p l a y s y m b o liz e s F a u s t u s ' i n t e r n a l s t r u g g l e to make a d e c i s i o n w h e th e r he s h o u ld s t a y as a p h y s i c i a n o r l e a r n to be a m a g i c i a n . The good a n g e ls t e l l F a u s tu s to p u t the "damned books" a s i d e and re a d the s c r i p t u r e s i n s t e a d . These a n g e ls a r e the g o t h i c p o r t r a y a l s o f h i s own c o n s c ie n c e w h ic h t r i e s to h o ld him b a c k . But h i s a m b i t i o u s s e l f sees tha t P h ilo s o p h y is o d io u s and o b s c u r e , Bo th Law and P h y s ic k e a r e f o r p e t t y w i t s : D i v i n i t i e is b a s e s t o f th e t h r e e , U n p l e a s a n t , h a r s h , c o n t e m p t i b l e , and v i l d e ; ' T i s m a g ic k , m a g ic k , t h a t h a t h r a v i s h t me ! . . . . ( I . i . 1 3 3 - 3 7 ) When he is abo ut to s ig n the c o n t r a c t w i t h M e p h i s t o p h e I e s , h i s c o n s c ie n c e emerges once a g a in not j u s t th ro u g h the good a n g e l s , b ut a l s o th ro u g h F a u s tu s ' own m outh. Now, Faus t u s , must thou needs to be dam n 'd , and c a n s t not now be s a v ' d . 306 What b o o te s i t then to t h i n k e on Cod o r Heaven? Away w i t h such v a i n e f a n c i e s , and despa i r e . D e s p a i r in GOD and t r u s t in Be I z e b u b . Now go not b a c k w a rd : no, Faus t u s , be r e s o l u t e ! Why w a v e r s t thou? O so m e th in g s o u n d eth in mine e a r e s , A b j u r e t h i s m a g ic k , t u r n e to God a g a in e , I and Faus t u s wi 1 I t u r n e to God a g a i n e . To God? he loves th e e n o t : The god thou s e r v ' s t is t h i n e owne a p p e t i t e . W h e re in is f i x t th e love o f B e lz e b u b , To him , I 1 Ie b u i l d an A l t a r and a C h u rc h , And o f f e r luke-w arm e b lo u d , o f new born e b a b e s . ( I I . i . 3 8 9 - 4 0 2 ) In t h i s p a s s a g e , we see F a u s tu s w a v e r in g back and f o r t h . Y e t a m in u te l a t e r , he s ig n s the c o n t r a c t w i t h h i s b lo o d . God, m oral o b l i g a t i o n s and th e norm a r e too monotonous f o r a soul l i k e h i s . To exchange f o r a l i f e o f e x c i t e m e n t , he j o i n s the f i r s t s i n n e r on e a r t h - - S a t a n . When one t a l k s abo u t m oral s t r u g g l e in g o t h i c f i c t i o n , F rank ens te in p r e s e n t s a good case though the p r o t a g o n i s t ' s i n t e r n a l s t r u g g l e seems to come a b i t too l a t e . O n ly a f t e r F r a n k e n s t e i n has c r e a t e d the m o n s te r who l a t e r becomes a t h r e a t to him and o t h e r s does he r e a l i z e h i s m i s t a k e . I n t e r e s t i n g l y enough, t h e r e is more o f a m oral s t r u g g l e in the m o n s t e r . In o r d e r to be a c c e p te d by o t h e r s , he f i r s t t r i e s to be n i c e and h e l p f u l as w i t h the D e l a c y s . Y e t a f t e r he is r e j e c t e d , a n g e re d by m an 's t r e a t m e n t o f him , the m o n s te r changes from a k i n d b e in g to a c r u e l , and c o l d - b l o o d e d m u r d e r e r . In h i s m e e t in g w i t h F r a n k e n s t e i n , he t e l l s th e l a t t e r how much he is d i s a p p o i n t e d and h u r t by m a n k in d . 307 The s t o r y o f F r a n k e n s t e i n and the m o n s te r can a c t as i n g r e d i e n t s in W a l t o n ' s i n t e r n a l w a r . In the l a s t ch a p t e r , I i n t e r p r e t e d i t as a d i d a c t i c dream in w h ic h W a lto n e n c o u n te r s a s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n . I t is from t h i s dream t h a t W a lto n f i n d s an answer to h i s p r o b l e m - - t o ap p ro a c h th e N o r t h P o le o r to r e t u r n home. In t h i s " d r e a m ," W a lto n w atc h e s h i s own image in F r a n k e n s t e i n , how he g i v e s a l l he can to p u rs u e an i d e a l , how he a t t a i n s i t , and how he has to d e s t r o y i t a t the end. In p u r s u in g f o r b i d d e n k n o w l edge, F r a n k e n s t e i n has l o s t a lm o s t a l l o f h i s f a m i l y and a t th e end, h i m s e l f . W a lto n in t h i s "dream" goes th ro u g h th e h o r r o r and th e e x p e r i e n c e o f b e in g a m b i t i o u s . When he wakes up from t h i s m en ta l s ce n e, he d e c id e s to r e t u r n w i t h the crew . In C h in e s e g o t h i c f i c t i o n , m o ral s t r u g g l e v e r y o f t e n does not e x i s t a t a l l . P a r t l y t h i s is because C h in e s e w r i t e r s a r e not fond o f g i v i n g p s y c h o l o g i c a l and m en tal d e t a i l s o f t h e i r p r o t a g o n i s t s . T h e r e a r e u s u a l l y d e s c r i p t i o n s o f e v e n ts and d i a l o g u e s in a s t o r y , b u t n o t a p e r s o n 's r u m i n a t i o n s . T h i s is e s p e c i a l l y t r u e in the c l a s s i c a l t a l e s . The C h in e s e c l a s s i c a l language o r wenyen £ em p h asizes te r s e n e s s and i t tends to be d e s c r i p t i v e . A n o th e r s t r o n g e r re a s o n f o r the absence o f a p s y c h o l o g i c a l a p p ro ach in C h in e s e c l a s s i c a l f i c t i o n is t h a t l i k e the c h a r a c t e r s in C h in e s e dram a, most 308 p r o t a g o n i s t s a r e g i v e n an a r c h e t y p a l image a t the b e g in n i n g o f th e s t o r y . Most o f the t im e , t h e i r a c t i o n s th r o u g h o u t the s t o r y rem a in c o n s i s t e n t to t h e i r c h a r a c t e r . *n L »aozha i , Pu f o l l o w e d t h i s o l d r u l e o f u s in g s t o c k c h a r a c t e r s . In the v e r y f i r s t l i n e o f many o f h i s s t o r i e s the a u t h o r w i l l t e l l the r e a d e r , f i r s t , the p r o t a g o n i s t ' s name, th e n , w here he is fro m , and t h i r d , what he d o e s , or what k i n d o f a man he i s . The d e s c r i p t i o n o f the p r o t a g o n i s t in the f i r s t p a r a g r a p h a lw a y s fo reshad ow s h i s b e h a v i o r in the r e s t o f the t a l e . For e x a m p le , in " N ie X i a o q i a n , " Pu d e s c r i b e d N in g as N in g C a ic h e n , a n a t i v e o f Z h e j i a n g P r o v in c e , was a man n o te d f o r h i s e as y g e n e r o s i t y and s e l f - p o s s e s s i o n . He used to s a y : " I ' v e n e v e r loved anyone e l s e b u t my w i f e . " (L u , 91) f e , m x_, > t £ si, % i t , % ** -ci t . % & , ^ f t . . As the s t o r y p r o g r e s s e s , N in g does t u r n down N i e ' s s e d u c in g advances w i t h o u t any m oral s t r u g g l e . He l i v e s up to h i s c h a r a c t e r w i t h no d i f f i c u l t y . For t h i s N ie saves h i s l i f e and p u ts h e r t r u s t in him . P u ' s n e g a t i v e c h a r a c t e r s too behave the way th e y a r e d e s i g n a t e d to b e. V e r y seldom w o u ld a bad c h a r a c t e r go t h ro u g h a m oral s t r u g g l e to r e p e n t and behave u n le s s he has le a r n e d h i s le s s o n . In the " T a l k i n g Eye P u p i l s , " the p r o t a g o n i s t ' s p e r s o n a l i t y is f u l l y r e v e a l e d in th e f i r s t few I i n e s . 309 A t Changan t h e r e l i v e d a s c h o la r by th e name o f Fang Dong, known as b e in g v e r y t a l e n t e d ; he was a r a k i s h f e l l o w , h o w e v e r, and w o u ld im p ru d e n t l y f o l l o w and make advances to any woman in the s t r e e t who chanced to c a t c h h i s e y e .( Q u o n g , 227) 4 * ; t f . & -t- £< ■ v • 1% A . ^ • When Fang comes a c r o s s the lad y in the c a r r i a g e l a t e r , the th o u g h t o f b e h a v in g h i m s e l f n e v e r c ro s s e s h i s m in d . Pu p r e s e n t e d no m oral s t r u g g l e in t h i s c h a r a c t e r i f he is d e b a t i n g w h e th e r he sh o u ld go a f t e r the la d y o r n o t . He a c t s a c c o r d in g to h i s w i s h e s , h i s te m p eram en t, and he a c t s f a s t w i t h no h e s i t a t i o n . The d i f f e r e n c e betw een e a s t / w e s t g o t h i c f i c t i o n in the m a t t e r o f m oral s t r u g g l e a g a in s t r e n g t h e n s the a u t h o r s ' t h e m a t ic a p p ro a c h . W h i le C h in e s e men a r e more c o n c e rn e d w i t h good and e v i l , m oral s t r u g g l e is o u t o f the q u e s t i o n . A good man who o b s e rv e s m o ral codes and is r e s p e c t e d by the s o c i e t y w i l l n e v e r c o n s id e r d o in g some t h i n g a g a i n s t h i s te m p e ra m e n t. H is c h a r a c t e r s h o u ld be c o n s i s t e n t th r o u g h o u t h i s l i f e ; w h i l e an u n c u l t i v a t e d man w i l l c o n t i n u e to a c t im m o r a lly u n le s s he is changed by someone o r an i n c i d e n t . In th e w e s t , i t is c l e a r t h a t good and e v i l , rew ard and pu n ish m e n t a r e n o t the iss u e s t h a t co n c e rn the a u t h o r s . R a t h e r , p e r s o n a l i t y d e v e I op- 31 0 m ent, i n d i v i d u a l g r o w th , and p s y c h o l o g i c a l s a t i s f a c t i o n a r e what th e a u t h o r and th e p r o t a g o n i s t a r e s t r i v i n g f o r . T h e r e f o r e m oral s t r u g g l e becomes an im p o r ta n t s ta g e th ro u g h w h ic h th e y must go in o r d e r to a c h ie v e an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e m s e lv e s . T h i s is a l s o the reas o n why the theme o f the d o u b le is more p r o m in e n t in w e s t e r n g o t h i c f i c t i o n . S in c e man is not s a t i s f i e d w i t h th e norm, he must f i n d some way to f u l f i l l h i s d e s i r e s . H is in n e r s e l f s t r u g g l e s w h i l e h i s o u t e r s e l f must c o n fo rm to s o c i e t y . C h in e s e g o t h i c f i c t i o n la c k s the o p p o s i t i o n o f th e in n e r s e l f v s . the o u t e r s e l f . The re a s o n b e in g t h a t good and e v i l a r e c o n s id e r e d as o p p o s i t e e n t i t i e s . One can not be one and the o t h e r a t the same t im e . The o n l y s p i r i t u a l s t r u g g l e in the C h in e s e t a l e s is seen when a n e g a t i v e c h a r a c t e r w ants to d i s c i p l i n e h i m s e l f and change f o r good. In the w e s t e r n s t o r i e s , the o p p o s it e u s u a l l y hap pens: the p r o t a g o n i s t as a h e a l t h y and happy i n d i v i d u a l d e t e r i o r a t e s p h y s i c a l l y and m o r a l l y . T h i s phenomenon shows t h a t th e fo rm e r t r a d i t i o n e m p h a size s more on d i d a c t i c i s m , w h i l e the l a t t e r in v o l v e s a more com plex c o n t e n t o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l a p p ro a c h . W e s te rn g o t h i c f i c t i o n e x p re s s e s th e t r a g e d y o f man, the l i m i t a t i o n s t h a t l i f e and r e a l i t y b es tow on the m o r t a l s . G o t h ic n o v e ls p o r t r a y m an's s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t r e a l i t y . I t ta k e s c o u ra g e and s a c r i f i c e to overcome the l i m i t a t i o n s in l i f e . 311 The IdeaI Man From th e f o u r hun d red and n i n e t y one t a l e s in the Li aozha i , Pu had c r e a t e d a model o f the id e a l man. P u 's id e a l men a r e no t p e d a n t i c s c h o la r s o r s u p e r s t i t i o u s i n d i v i d u a l s m in d fu l o n l y o f m oral re w a rd and p u n is h m e n t. They a r e p e o p le who possess a sense o f r i g h t and w ro n g . Both P u 's id e a l man and woman a r e k i n d , s i n c e r e , l o v i n g , and u n d e r s t a n d i n g . They a l s o have the d e t e r m i n a t i o n and co u ra g e to f i g h t e v i I . Pu n e v e r in te n d e d to push men in to th e B u d d h is t t r a p . As I have i l l u s t r a t e d e a r l i e r in "The Monkey C o d ," the a u t h o r v a l u e s more the s i n c e r i t y in men than a b l i n d d e v o t i o n . I t is s i n c e r i t y in d e v o t i n g o n e s e l f to a r i g h t cau s e : lo v e f o r th e o p p o s i t e sex , f o r a f r i e n d , f o r o n e 's fe llo w m e n , and f o r o n e 's f a m i l y . M ind you t h i s d e v o t i o n is a lw a y s t i n t e d w i t h a m oral to n e . T h a t one sh o u ld behave h i m s e l f , do good to o t h e r s , and f i n a l l y w i l l r e c e i v e some k i n d o f r e w a r d . I f a r e a d e r t r i e s to bui Id an image o f th e id e a l man as seen in P u 's s t o r i e s , he w i l l come up w i t h a t a b u l a t i o n o f terms o f p o s i t i v e human q u a l i t i e s . A man s h o u ld c a r e and love h i s fe llo w m a n as in "The P o iso n o u s W a te r W eed," and "Wang the S i x t h . " The p r o t a g o n i s t s in th e s e two s t o r i e s s a c r i f i c e th e m s e lv e s to save o t h e r p e o p l e ' s l i v e s . A man o f good m oral con duct s h o u ld a l s o be someone who is w i l l i n g to 312 h e l p o t h e r s w i t h o u t e x p e c t i n g a n y t h i n g in r e t u r n . N in g in " N ie X i a o q i a n " is such a man. Because o f h i s love f o r h i s f r i e n d , Cheng in the b e g in n i n g o f "Becoming an Im m o rta l" e x e r t s h i m s e l f to save h i s d e a r e s t f r i e n d from j a i l and e x e c u t i o n . A ls o the p r o t a g o n i s t in " J i a o n a , " because o f h i s a d m i r a t i o n f o r th e la d y , r i s k s h i s l i f e in k i l l i n g the m o n s te r even though he knows she is a l r e a d y m a r r i e d . S c h o l a r Wang in " X ia n g y u " and s c h o l a r Zhang in "M r. L u 1s D a u g h te r " b o th a r e s i n c e r e and d e v o te d to t h e i r l o v e r s . The l a d i e s , touched by t h e i r lo v e , t r a n s f o r m i n t o humans to g r a t i f y them. P u 's id e a l women a r e the e p ito m e o f C o n fu c ia n m o r a l i t y . They a r e u s u a l l y p r e t t y , n i c e , g e n t l e , e d u c a te d and s t r o n g e m o t i o n a l l y . M is s Shao r e s p e c t s and s e rv e s the f i r s t w i f e w i t h a l l h e r h e a r t , even she has the husband on h e r s i d e . She b e a rs the f i r s t w i f e ' s c la m o r and b e a t i n g w i t h no c o m p l a i n t . Her p u rp o s e is to use h e r s i n c e r i t y to touch the shrew , h o p in g t h a t she w i l l change and then a happy f a m i l y w i l l come i n t o a p p e a r a n c e . A l t h o u g h many o f P u 's fe m a le c h a r a c t e r s a r e the i n i t i a t o r s o f i l l i c i t r e l a t i o n s h i p , once th e y a r e d e v o te d to a c e r t a i n man o f t h e i r c h o i c e , t,hey f o l l o w the r u l e s o f a w e l l - b e h a v e d h o u s e w if e . The p r o t a g o n i s t s in " L i t t l e X i e , " "Lady C r a f t , " "The U g ly F o x ," "The M i l i t a r y O f f i c e r , " e t c . , become h a r d - w o r k i n g and f a i t h f u l w iv e s once th e y a r e 313 d e v o te d to t h e i r men. Some o f them h e l p t h e i r men in t h e i r c a r e e r s by s u p p o r t i n g them f i n a n c i a l l y , as in "The U g ly Fox" and "The M i l i t a r y O f f i c e r . " Some w o u ld r i s k t h e i r l i v e s to p r e s e r v e t h e i r m e n 's , such as the l a d i e s in " L i t t l e X i e . " A lt h o u g h many o f th e s e fe m a le s a r e not the m an's f i r s t w i f e , y e t th e y a r e n e v e r j e a l o u s o r v i c i o u s . R a t h e r , th e y t r y h a r d to l i v e in harmony w i t h th e b i g f a m i I y . I f we look c a r e f u l l y , we w i l l f i n d t h a t P u 's idea o f the good and the bad is n o t as t h e o r e t i c a l as i t sounds. Pu w ould sometimes use s t o c k c h a r a c t e r s to p r e s e n t an i r o n y . The u g l y fo x is n o t t h a t u g l y when compared to the m an's v i c e s . In the l a s t p a r a g r a p h Pu r a t h e r p r a i s e d her f o r h e r g e n e r o s i t y . When e v i l s p i r i t s a p p e a r , i t is o f c o u rs e r i g h t to k i l l them. But once one a c c e p ts t h e i r f a v o r s , one s h o u ld n o t be u n t r u e to them j u s t b ecause th e y a r e g h o s t s . . . . ( 2 , v i i i : 1 1 0 9 ) a - t ; . tf % 4 b In "The Fox C h a s t is e s the Lew d," even a fo x w h ic h is known f o r i t s l i c e n t i o u s n e s s c a n n o t b e a r to see the p r o t a g o n i s t ' s b e h a v i o r . These s t o c k c h a r a c t e r s o f le c h e ro u s fo x e s a r e f o r the f i r s t tim e tr a n s f o r m e d by Pu i n t o someone h a v in g m oral sense and keen ju d g m en t. I t is not o n e 's i d e n t i t y t h a t c o u n ts , b u t o n e 's m oral v i r t u e and 314 essence t h a t makes a man. The fo x in "The M i l i t a r y O f f i c e r " p o s sesse s more m e r i t and v i r t u e than the w e l l - l e a r n e d S h i . A lt h o u g h she is o n l y a f o x , h er c h a r a c t e r has tra n s c e n d e d i t s i d e n t i t y . She is b e in g e l e v a t e d to a h i g h e r p la n e than even a l e a r n e d m a n 's . Pu was no t a s tu b b o rn o l d man e i t h e r . He was re a d y to f o r g i v e i f one t r u l y r e p e n ts o n e 's p a s t d e e d s . The bad is g i v e n a chance to s t a r t a l l o v e r a g a in w i t h o u t g r u d g e . In "The T a l k i n g Eye P u p i l s , " a f t e r Fang r e a l i z e s h i s m is d e e d s , h i s eyes reopen and he is a b l e to see a g a i n . Not o n l y t h a t he r e g a i n s h i s l o s t e y e s i g h t , he a l s o becomes one o f the most v i r t u o u s men in h i s v i l l a g e . Even the bad can t u r n to be good, i f he w i l l s i t so. I t is P u 's u l t i m a t e pu rp o se in the Li aozha i to te a c h man to be good, to g u id e the h o p e le s s and th e l o s t back to the r i g h t t r a c k . P u 's id e a l man is one who is a p o s i t i v e and a l t r u i s t i c h u m an ist who aims a t m an 's m oral g ro w th in o r d e r to enhance s o c i a l d e v e lo p m e n t. In w e s t e r n g o t h i c f i c t i o n , p r o b a b l y th e te rm " i d e a l man" is no t s u i t a b l e f o r the p u r p o s e . Maybe the " s a t i s f i e d man" s e rv e s as th e c l o s e s t s u b s t i t u t i o n . T h e r e is no s t a n d a r d f i g u r e c r e a t e d so t h a t one can a d m ire i t as the " i d e a l man" in the w e s t e r n t r a d i t i o n . R a t h e r , we see d i f f e r e n t men, each in h i s own way, f u l f i l l t h e i r d e s i r e s and become s a t i s f i e d a t th e en d . These s a t i s f i e d i n d i - 315 v i d u a l s a l l a c h ie v e t h e i r g o a l s : to be an im m ortal ( M e lm o t h ) , to be p o w e r fu l ( F a u s t u s ) , to know the f o r b i d d e n ( F r a n k e n s t e i n ) , to do th e f o r b i d d e n ( A m b r o s io ) , and to l i v e many l i v e s d u r i n g one l i f e tim e ( P e l l e g r i n a L e o n i ) . One must say t h a t th e s e p r o t a g o n i s t s have e x p e r ie n c e d the h i g h e s t c a p a c i t y t h a t l i f e has to o f f e r . Compared to t h e i r C h in e s e c o u n t e r p a r t s , th e y l i v e a f u l l e r l i f e f o r th e y know b o th good and e v i l . They go th ro u g h b o th w o r ld s and a t th e end, th e y come to a s p i r i t u a l s a t i s f a c t i o n . They have done what th e y a s p i r e to d o . The p r o t a g o n i s t s in w e s t e r n g o t h i c f i c t i o n , th ro u g h p l e a s a n t escape and p l e a s i n g t e r r o r in t h e i r e n d e a v o r s , a r r i v e a t an a w a k e n in g . T h i s s u b l i m a t i n g f e e l i n g emerges when one comes to a p r o fo u n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f l i f e , and o f th e n a t u r e o f man. The s u b lim e is p r o b a b l y the h i g h e s t s t a t e in m an's l i f e in w h ic h he comes to an e m o tio n a l c l i m a x . T h i s i n v o l v e s th e h o r r o r o f f a c i n g o n e 's t r u e s e l f ( o f t e n s y m b o liz e d by s u p e r n a t u r a l f i g u r e s ) ; and coming eye to eye w i t h o n e 's f e a r . For e x a m p le , F r a n k e n s t e i n e x p e r ie n c e s t h i s s u b l i m a t i n g f e e l i n g on the F ren c h A lp s w here he m eets th e m o n s te r . The f e e l i n g t h a t invades him conveys to him th e power and th e g r a n d e u r o f th e C r e a t o r . What a l i t t l e p e rs o n he has been compared to the c r e a t o r o f the n a t u r a l g r a n d e u r in f r o n t o f h i s e y e s . 316 Face to fa c e w i t h the m o n s te r in th e A lp s b r i n g s him to see h i m s e l f , and h i s w o r t h l e s s a c h ie v e m e n t . I t is the m a g n i f i c e n t A lp s t h a t h e lp s him to r e a l i z e h i s ego, and th e l i m i t a t i o n o f a m o r t a l . The immense m o u n ta in s and p r e c i p i c e s t h a t o ve rh an g me on e v e r y s i d e - - t h e sound o f th e r i v e r r a g i n g among the r o c k s , and the d a s h in g o f the w a t e r f a l l s a ro u n d , spoke o f a power m ig h t y as Omn i p o t e n c e — and I ceased to f e a r , o r to bend b e f o r e any b e in g less a l m i g h t y than t h a t w h ic h had c r e a t e d and r u l e d the e le m e n t s , h e re d i s p l a y e d in t h e i r most t e r r i f i c g u i s e . . . . (She I I e y , 94) F r a n k e n s t e i n has th o u g h t in the b e g in n i n g t h a t w i t h h i s know ledge in s c i e n c e , he can compete w i t h God, the C r e a t o r . By c r e a t i n g th e m o n s t e r , F r a n k e n s t e i n t h i n k s t h a t he possesses the power to d e s t r o y the r u l e o f m u t a b i l i t y . But the n a t u r a l wonder r e v e a l e d b e f o r e h is eyes makes him r e a l i z e t h a t h i s a m b i t i o n is mere f a n c y . S t a n d in g on the summit o f th e snow m o u n ta in , F r a n k e n s t e i n comes to a p r o fo u n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h i m s e l f and man. . . . . A l a s ! Why does man b o a s t o f s e n s i b i l i t i e s s u p e r i o r to th o s e a p p a r e n t in the b r u t e ; i t o n l y r e n d e rs them more n e c e s s a r y b e i n g s . I f our im pulses w ere c o n f i n e d to h u n g e r, t h i r s t , and d e s i r e , we m ig h t be n e a r l y f r e e ; but now we a r e moved by e v e r y w in d t h a t b lo w s , and a chance word o r scene t h a t t h a t word may convey to u s . ( 9 7 ) Encased in such an e n v ir o n m e n t , F r a n k e n s t e i n s u d d e n ly r e a l i z e s t h a t "m an's y e s t e r d a y may n e ' e r be l i k e h i s s o r r o w / Nought may end u re b u t m u t a b i l i t y ! " ( 9 8 ) D r . F a u s tu s t o o , a r r i v e s a t such a s u b lim e e m o tio n a l s t a t e 317 a f t e r he has le a r n e d h i s c r a f t and p r a c t i s e d i t th e way he p r e f e r s t o . M e p h i s t o p h e I e s , L u c i f e r and B e e lz e b u b w ork u n d er h i s o r d e r . The em peror who p o s sesses le s s power th an F a u s tu s , r e s p e c t s him . F a u s tu s a l s o has much fun w i t h r u s t i c s l i k e th e h o r s e - c o u r s e r . T h e re is n o t h i n g t h a t the d o c t o r can n o t d o. Y e t in th e m id s t o f s a t i s f a c t i o n , F a u s tu s sees h i s in com petenc y f o r he is s t i l l human. A l l th e s e power and m a n i p u l a t i o n o f o t h e r s e n a b le F a u s tu s to see l i f e ' s p r o f u n d i t y . A f t e r he s e l l s th e fa k e h o rs e to the h o r s e - c o u r s e r , s u d d e n ly he is drawn i n t o a s u b lim a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f l i f e . What a r e thou Faus tus b u t a man condemn'd to d ie ? Thy f a t a l ! tim e drawes to a f i n a I I end; D e s p a i r e d o th d r i v e d i s t r u s t i n t o my t h o u g h t s . Confound th e s e p a s s io n s w i t h a q u i e t s l e e p e : T u s h , C h r i s t d i d c a l l th e T h e e fe upon th e C ro s s e , Then r e s t th e e Faus t u s , q u i e t in c o n c e i t . ( 1 V . i v . 1 4 7 8 - 8 3 ) Now o n l y in o b l i v i o n can F a u s tu s f o r g e t h i s t h o u g h t s . The s u b lim e and the e m o tio n a l c l i m a x in th e p r o t a g o n i s t a r e d r a m a t i z e d in a c r i t i c a l scene in "The D r e a m e r s ." The o p e ra s i n g e r P e l l e g r i n a L e o n i, a f t e r she is ca u g h t up in the snowy m o u n ta in s by h e r t h r e e d e s p e r a t e l o v e r s , knows t h a t i t is tim e now to fa c e r e a l i t y a g a i n . When she h e a rs the q u e s t i o n "who a r e y o u ," She d i d no t t u r n , o r lo o k a t me. But th e n e x t moment she d i d what I had alw a y s f e a r e d t h a t she m ig h t do: she s p re a d out h e r w in g s and f l e w away. Below the round w h i t e moon she made one g r e a t movement, t h r o w in g h e r s e l f away from us 318 a l l , and the w ind cau g h t h e r and s p re a d out her c l o t h e s . . . . she behaved e x a c t l y l i k e a b l a c k m a r t i n when you see i t th ro w i t s e l f o u t from a s lo p e or a r o o f to g e t o f f th e groun d and ta k e f l i g h t . For one second she seemed to l i f t h e r s e l f up w i t h the w in d , th e n , ru n n in g s t r a i g h t a c ro s s the r o a d , w i t h a l l h e r m ig h t she th re w h e r s e l f from the e a r t h c l e a n i n t o the a b y s s , and d i s a p p e a r e d from ou r s i g h t . ( D in e s e n , 327) i t w ould no t be an e x a g g e r a t i o n to c o n s id e r t h i s q u o te th e s y n o p s is o f the w h o le s t o r y . A t th e b e g in n i n g , P e l l e g r i n a f i n d s l i f e too n a rro w f o r h e r . She d e c id e s to e x p e r i e n c e the u tm ost and the most p r o f o u n d . As a b i r d , she longs to so a r up i n t o the sky to be f r e e . Because o n l y in h e r s p i r i t u a l f l i g h t w o u ld she f i n d s a t i s f a c t i o n and h a p p in e s s . She s o a rs w i t h the w in d to s p i r i t u a l r e g io n s w here no o t h e r humans have re a c h e d b e f o r e . P e l l e g r i n a o n l y f e e l s and l i v e s in h e r f l i g h t d u r i n g w hich 4 t she "th ro w s h e r s e l f from us a l l " and c lim b s tow ard h e r g o a l . She has re a c h e d h e r d e s t i n a t i o n o n l y " f o r one s e c o n d ," then she b e g in s to f a l l , t h i s tim e i n t o th e abyss l i k e F a u s tu s , M e lm o th , Am brosio and F r a n k e n s t e i n . V e r y o f t e n , the s u b lim e goes hand in hand w i t h h o r r o r . T h i s is because h o r r o r is one o f the e le m e n ts t h a t evokes the f e e l i n g o f s u b lim e . In th e w e s t e r n t a l e s , i t is the h o r r o r o f coming fa c e to fa c e w i t h o n e 's in n e r s e l f , th e h o r r o r o f c o n f r o n t i n g r e a l i t y , and the h o r r o r in r e a l i z i n g m an's l i m i t a t i o n s t h a t le a d one to the s u b lim e . T h i s h o r r o r is f r e q u e n t l y s y m b o liz e d by u g l y and g r o t e s q u e 319 b e in g s o r sometimes m a g n i f i c e n t scenes in n a t u r e . In F r a n k ens t e i n , b o th the p r e c i p i c e in the A lp s and the f i g u r e o f th e m o n s te r b r i n g F r a n k e n s t e i n to h i s e m o tio n a l c l i m a x . In The Monk, the c h a r a c t e r o f L u c i f e r a p p e a r in g the f i r s t tim e in the shape o f a handsome young lad in g r a n d e u r s i g n i f i e s A m b r o s io 's i n i t i a l d e s i r e s as a g l o r i f i e d f a n t a s y . The D e v i l ' s image a t the l a s t scene as an a b h o r r e n t f i g u r e f i l l e d w i t h b lo o d and f i l t h s y m b o liz e s A m b r o s io 's r e a l i z a t i o n o f h i s h o r r i b l e w is h e s . In "The D r e a m e r s ," Me Im o th , and D r . Faus t u s , i t is h o r r o r when one f i n d s t h a t the h i g h e r a man c l im b s , the lower he w i l l f a l l . i t is a I so h o r r o r when one r e a l i z e s and a d m its t h a t man is o n l y human who, no m a t t e r how much he h as , wi I I a lw a y s s t r i v e f o r what he does n o t . I t is h o r r o r f o r one to come to the u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t human b e in g s a r e t h e i r own e n e m ie s ; th e y a r e the v i c t i m s o f t h e i r own d e s i r e s . T h e re is a l s o h o r r o r when one is fa c e d w i t h the f a c t t h a t man is u n a b le to ig n o re th e s e d e s i r e s and l i v e in p e a c e . H o r r o r in the C h in e s e t a l e s does not le a d to the s u b lim e bu t to f e a r . In C h in e s e g o t h i c f i c t i o n , h o r r o r is evoked th ro u g h g r o t e s q u e scenes such as inhumane p u n i s h ment in h e l l in "Xi F a n g p in g " and o t h e r p h y s ic a l m a n ip u l a t i o n o f th e body. As in D a n t e ' s I n f e r no, th e d e g re e o f p u n ishm ent is in r i g h t p r o p o r t i o n to th e s e r io u s n e s s o f th e c r im e c o m m itte d . The h e a v i e r th e c r im e , the w orse the 320 p u n is h m e n t, and more h o r r o r is p ro d u c e d . H o r r o r in C h in e s e t a l e s has n o t h i n g to do w i t h f a c i n g the t r u e in n e r s e l f as in w e s t e r n f i c t i o n . R a th e r i t a c t s as a d i d a c t i c ag e n t as w e l l as a medium to awaken th e m oral sense in man. In " D r . C e n g 's D re a m ," s c h o la r Ceng , an a m b i t i o u s young man l i k e D r . F a u s tu s , f u l f i l l s a l l h i s d e s i r e s f o r pow er, woman and v a n i t y in a d ream . In t h i s dream he a l s o s u f f e r s the w o r s t pun ishm ent f o r h i s c r i m e s . The h o r r o r and the d e s p a i r he e x p e r ie n c e s do not le a d him to the s u b lim e o r a p r o fo u n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f l i f e . A f t e r he wakes up, he is d e j e c t e d and f r u s t r a t e d . From then on, he loses h i s p u rpo se in l i f e , and f i n a l l y , he r e t r e a t s i n t o the m o u n ta in s w here no one can f i n d him. Th f e a r and h o r r o r in t h i s s t o r y is not d e r i v e d from th e g r a n d e u r o f n a t u r e or a m o n s te r as in F r a n k e ns t e i n . They a r e evoked by th e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f s e v e r a l i n f e r n a l s c e n es: 1) C e n g 's head is chopped o f f by some highwaymen and i t r o l l s to the g ro u n d ; 2) Ceng is b e in g f r i e d in h e l l f o r h i s b e h a v i o r in a deep f r y i n g p an ; 3} Ceng is thrown on top o f a h i l l w i t h i t s s u r f a c e f u l l o f k n iv e s p o k in g up; and l a s t l y , 4) f o r h i s g r e e d , Ceng is f o r c e d to d r i n k o v e r t h r e e m i l l i o n d o l l a r s ' w o r t h o f m e l t e d g o l d . These g r o t e s q u e h o r r o r s do n o t lead Ceng to be a k i n d e r p e r s o n , but th e y a c t u a l l y s tu n him . A t the end, he tu r n s .away from l i f e and leads a n i h i l i s t e x i s t e n c e . 321 S u b l i m i t y and h o r r o r o b v i o u s l y p l a y a d i f f e r e n t r o l e in th ese C h in e s e s t o r i e s . T h i s is m a i n l y due to the e t h i c a l impact t h a t is p r e v a l e n t in the t r a d i t i o n . I t w i l l not be a p p r o p r i a t e to say t h a t the s u b lim e does not e x i s t in L i a o z h a i . But i t is b e t t e r to say t h a t the s u b lim e evoked t h e r e c a r r i e s a v e r y d i f f e r e n t m eaning and e f f e c t . I t becomes more o f an a w a k e n in g , an e n l i g h t e n m e n t a f t e r w h ic h the p r o t a g o n i s t is t o t a l l y changed to a d i f f e r e n t p e rs o n le a d i n g a p a s s iv e and m oral l i f e . The s u b lim e e f f e c t in L i a o z ha i can be r e g a r d e d as p a r t o f the d i d a c t i c co u rs e l a i d out by the a u t h o r . The s u b lim e is the c l im a x o f h i s le s s o n . T h i s c l im a x is v e r y o f t e n a c h ie v e d by the means o f r e t r i b u t i o n as seen in " D r . Ceng 1s D r e a m . " The s t o r i e s in Li aozha i a r e p o r t r a y a l s o f Pu Song I i n g 1s v e r s i o n o f an U t o p i a . They a r e f i c t i o n w h ic h p o r t r a y s an i d e a l i s t i c r e a l i t y . S in c e r e a l i t y is d e f i c i e n t in many w ays, s u p e r n a t u r a l e v e n ts f i l l in the g a p - - o n l y on the c o n d i t i o n s based on an e t h i c a l system . No C h in e s e s c h o la r s w i l l say t h a t P u 1s p u rpo se in g u i d i n g the common p e o p le to do good and abh or e v i l is w ro ng. But i t is c l e a r t h a t Pu was not u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f human n ee d s. To him e v e ry o n e possesses a m oral c o n s c ie n c e and a d e s i r e to a c t m o r a l l y . He r e f u s e d to a c c e p t human f r a i l t y as the cause o f e v i l , because he b e l i e v e d t h a t i t can be d e f e a t e d 322 by m an's m oral c o n s c ie n c e . To s t r e n g t h e n m an's m oral sense and v i r t u e Pu had w r i t t e n h i s L i aozha i and many o t h e r w o rk s . He deemed i t to be the most u r g e n t t a s k t h a t he was a s s ig n e d to do as a C o n f u c i a n i s t . Y e t from a n o t h e r p o i n t o f v i e w , we must say t h a t Pu was h i g h l y p r e j u d i c e d and h i s v ie w o f t e n was o n e - s i d e d . He b e l i e v e d in the a b i l i t y o f m an's wi l l in f i g h t i n g a g a i n s t e v i l , b u t he ig n o re d m an's needs in li fe w h ic h r e a l i t y can n o t p r o v i d e . Pu S o n g lin g had no sympathy f o r the B y r o n ic h e r o e s . V e r y seldom , he w ould l e t h i s p r o t a g o n i s t t a s t e th e p l e a s u r e o f s i n and s u r v i v e in h i s s t o r i e s . In h i s book, man is t r a p p e d in h i s own m oral p r i s o n . He must be a lw a y s on the a l e r t to a v o id e v i I f o r t h e r e is a m a n d a to ry p un ishm e nt from Heaven i f he d e c id e s to a c t . Pu em phasized th e wi l l power o f man. For him t h a t ' s a l l i t ta k e s to s t a y m o r a l . The p r o t a g o n i s t s in P u ' s t a l e s l i v e r a t h e r r e s t r i c t e d l i v e s than those in the w e s t e r n s t o r i e s , because the fo rm e r have n e v e r t a s t e d the o t h e r s id e o f l i f e . A lt h o u g h M elm o th , A m b ro s io , P e l l e g r i n a , and F a u s tu s a r e d e f e a t e d a t th e end, y e t one can say t h a t a t l e a s t th e y have a t t a i n e d t h e i r g o a ls and f u l f i l l e d t h e i r w is h e s . They have l i v e d a f u l l e r l i f e than t h e i r C h in e s e c o u n t e r p a r t s because th e y have been happy and s a t i s f i e d . The w e s t e r n p r o t a g o n i s t s know b o th w o r ld s o f good and e v i l . D u r in g t h e i r s t r u g g l e , th e y a r e b r a v e enough to c o n f r o n t th e m s e lv e s and f i n a l l y 323 come to an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f m an 's n a t u r e . W it h a d m i r a b l e c o u ra g e , th e y a c c e p t and a d m it the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f human f r a i l t y . They look r i g h t a t them and t r y to d e a l w i t h them. The n e g a t i v e e n d in g th e s e p r o t a g o n i s t s a r e p u n is h e d w i t h is not due to t h e i r f a u l t but r a t h e r i t is th e d e f i c i e n c y in r e a l i t y . R e a l i t y is not p e r f e c t and i t lacks many t h i n g s . The human mind w h ic h r e f u s e s to a c c e p t i m p e r f e c t i o n and f a i l u r e is s e t on a f t e r them. W e s te rn g o t h i c f i c t i o n is s u c c e s s fu l in th e sense t h a t i t p o r t r a y s r e a l i t y as i t i s . 324 Notes Chr i stophe r Ma r I owe, D r . Faus t u s . The Comp I e t e Wo rk s o f C h r i s t o p h e r M a r l ow e . EH. Frecfson S o w e r s . Vo 1 . 2 . (C a m b rid g e : Cam bridge UP, 1973) l . i . 1 0 5 -2 1 . 325 B i bI i o grap hy C h in e s e G o t h ic F i c t i o n P r im a r y T e x t s in C h in e s e Pu, Song Ii n g . ^ S t r a n g e T a l e s from a L e i s u r e Chamber, % . 4 v o l s . J i n a n : Q i l u Shushe, # . % % * * , 1981 .' S t r a n g e T a i e s f rom a L e i s u re Ch a m b e r. Hong k o n g : Comm ercial P r e s s , % % % ^ 1979 . S t r a n g e T a i e s from a L e i s u r e C h am b er. Ed. L iu X u jh i jf lr f £, . Hong Kong: G u a n g ji S h u ju ^ % , 1955 . S t r a n g e T a l e s from a L e i s u r e Chamb e r . A ^ Co l l e c t ion o f N o teb o o k F i c t i on % % J' iOL (h e r e o n r e f e r r e d to as Not e b ook F i c t i o n - T a i p e i ) . T a i p e i : X in X in g S h u ju , 1L, I f fa , 1 977 , S e r . 3, 8 : 4 9 5 9 - 5 4 9 2 . 1 ' ^ S t range T a i e s fro m _ a _ L e i su re Chambe r . Shanghai : Shangha i Guj i ^ -£■ & , 1 982 . Or i g i na i D r a f t o f L i a o z hai Zh i y i and t h e ^ Zhao^s Wood B lo c k C o - e d i t i o n l£- > . !f? /^, % < } % • Ed.gYang J i a Iuo . 4 v o l s . T a i p e i : D ing Wen jjjfi ^ , 1 978 . Se I e c t i ons o f L i a o z h a i Zh i y i ^ ^ ^ • Ed. Yen We i q i n g , I E and Cnu Q ik a i 2 ‘nL J i n a n : Q i l u Snushe, 198 4. C o l l e c t e d E d i t i o n s , N o te s and Cr i t i c i sms o f t h e S t r a n g e T a l e s from a L e i s u r e Chamber % f '& L >*■ % % W - ~ Ed7 Zhang Youhe ks . 12 vo I s . Ta i pe i : Han j i ng Wenhua , X » 1 984 . 326 Two Hund r e d S t o £_J_es_ f rom _L^aozha i Zh i j j A New A n n o t a t i o n %<r? ^ % t, % . * T & J g • Ed. L iu Lemao ^ f a , Ceng Yanghua *y f? and Lo hi • Shaoguan: Guangdong Renmin &_ fx* fc ft tfb.1 , 1 9 8 5 . X i sh i A Ta i pe i : 327 P r im a r y T e x t s in E n g l i s h T r a n s l a t i o n s G i l e s , H e r b e r t A. t r a n s . S t r a n g e S t o r i e s from a C h i n e se S tud i o . 4 th r e v . e d . S h a n g h a i: K e l l y and W a ls h , 1 936 . Lu, Yunzhong, Yang L i y i , Yang Z h ihong and Chen T i f a n g t r a n s . S tr a n g e T a l e s o f L i a o z h a i . Hong Kong: Comme r c i a l P, 1982. Pan, Z iy e n ^ t r a n s . "A Crow W i f e . " Ch i na J o u r n a I . 18 ( 1 9 3 3 ) : 1 7 5 - 7 8 . Quong, Rose ^ t r a n s . C h i n e se Ch ost and Love S t o r i e s . New Y o r k : P a n th e o n , 19 46 . Yang, H s i e n - y i and G la d y s Yang t r a n s . " T a le s from L i a o - c h a i . " C h in e s e L i t e r a t u r e . O c t . 1962: 6 9 - 8 8 . S e l e c t e d T a l e s o f L i a o z h a i . B e i j i n g : Panda Books, 1981. Yang, G la d y s t r a n s . " T a l e s o f L i a o -c h a i , A S e l e c t i o n . " C h in e s e L i t e r a t u r e . J a n . 1956: 1 1 5 - 4 3 . Yu, F a n c h in t r a n s . T h e P a i n t e d S k i n . B e i j i n g : F o r e ig n Language P, 1957. 328 S econdary M a t e r i a l s Bodde, D e r k . "Some C h in e s e T a l e s o f the S u p e r n a t u r a l : Kan Pao and H is Sou S h e n - c h i . " H a r v a r d J o u rn a l o f A s i a t i c S t u d i e s . 6 ( 1 9 4 1 - 4 2 ) : 3 3 8 - 5 7 . Chen, Luo, ^ "On the Supplem ent to L i a o z h a i Z h i y i . " m . Ren J i an Sh i ^ . 2 8 ( 1 93 5 ) : 2 3 - 2 4 . J C h e n , Na i q i a n . ffa - 13 "On Wang J i n f a n ' s Ei gh teen k Volumes B lo c k P r i n t o f L i aozha i Zh i y i . 1 1 ^ i 's w ) - t >s- %. & • Wen W u ~ ^ . Mar . 19 6 3: 1 - 6 . Chang, Chun-shu and Chang H s u e h - lu n . "The W o rld o f P 'u S u n g - l i n g ' s Li aozha i Zh i y i : L i t e r a t u r e and the I n t e I I i g e n t i a d u r i n g the M i n g - C h ' i n g D y n a s t ic T r a n s i t i o n . " J o u rn a l o f th e I n s t i t u t e o f C h in e s e S t u d i e s . 6 . 2 ( 1 9 7 3 ) : 4 0 1 - 2 3 . Cheung, D o m in ic . '"C hrysanthem um T r y s t " and "Fan C h u - c h ' i n g ' s E t e r n a l F r i e n d s h i p " : A C o m p a r a tiv e S tu d y o f Two Ghost F r i e n d s h i p T a l e s in Japan and Ch i n a ." Tamkang Rev i e w . 8 . 2 (1 9 7 7 ) : 1 2 1 - 3 2 . "A C o m p a r a tiv e S tu d y o f T h re e Ghost W ives S t o r i e s from C h in a . Japan and K o r e a ." 0 %% -£&_ % trfcj sSljf n . J MJ Even i ng News . |) 31 Aug. 1983, T a iw a n e d . "The G r e a t D i v i d e : The P o s s i b i l i t y and I m p o s s i b i l i t y o f Love Between G hosts and Human in C h in e s e and Japanese T a l e s . " % . &£? • ' 0 4% JL f a * 9 f f e 1*? $ H 4 % -ST H . U n i ted Da i I y News . 3 Nov. 1 984 , T a iw a n ed . De B a r r y , W i l l i a m T h e o r d o r e ed . The Buddh i s t T r a d i t i o n in Ind i a , Ch in a and J a p a n . 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Creator Wu, Fatima Y (author)

Core Title The Gothic world of foxes, ghosts, demons and monsters: A study of "Liaozhai zhiyi"

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Comparative Literature

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag comparative literature,Folklore,literature, Asian,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c17-738159

Unique identifier UC11344542

Identifier DP22552.pdf (filename),usctheses-c17-738159 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier DP22552.pdf

Dmrecord 738159

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Wu, Fatima Y.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

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