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Powerlessness and violence: Contemporary trends of the French Caribbean novel

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Powerlessness and violence: Contemporary trends of the French Caribbean novel

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Content POWERLESSNESS AND VIOLENCE:
CONTEMPORARY TRENDS OF
THE FRENCH CARIBBEAN NOVEL
by
Annie M arie M ille r
A D i s s e r t a t i o n P r e s e n te d t o th e
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY' OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
I n P a r t i a l F u l f i l lm e n t o f th e
R eq u irem en ts f o r th e D egree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(C o m p arativ e L i t e r a t u r e )
May 1983
UMI Number: DP22546
All rights reserved
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UNIVERSITY O F SO U TH ER N CALIFORNIA
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
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Ph-D
Co
f a - 1
03
This dissertation, written by
* £ 9 3 y g
Annie.-Manie.-Mi-lLer.
under the direction of hex..... Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by The Graduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements of
the degree of
D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y
Dean
^FEE— -
Chairman
T a b le o f C o n te n ts
Page
I n t r o d u c t i o n . . . ........................................................................................................ 1
P a r t One: P r e s e n t a t i o n o f th e F ren ch C a rib b e a n T e r r i t o r i e s and
o f t h e i r L i t e r a t u r e . 6
C h a p te r One: Four T e r r i t o r i e s i n S e a rc h o f T hem selves:
M a rtin iq u e , G uadeloupe, F rench G uiana and
H a i t i ............................................................... . 7
I . M a rtin iq u e , G uadeloupe and F rench G uiana:
D e p a r tm e n ta liz a tio n and Dependence
a ) A s t a t e o f dependence
b) D e p a r tm e n ta liz a tio n and i t s consequences
1) M a rtin iq u e : The fa v o re d i s l a n d
2) G uadeloupe: A d a r k e r r e a l i t y
3) F rench G uiana: I s o l a t i o n and s t a g n a t i o n
I I . H a i t i : The P o l i t i c s o f D i s a s t e r
1) The D u v a lie r regim e— i t s consequences
2) Je a n -C la u d e D u v a lie r: Baby Doc i n power
3) A f t e r t w e n ty - f iv e y e a rs o f o p p re s s io n :
S o c i a l and c u l t u r a l a s p e c ts o f H a i ti a n
S o c ie ty
a) S o c ia l s t r u c t u r e s
b) Language
c ) E d u c a tio n and L i t e r a c y
I I I . H a i t i and t h e F rench D ep artm en ts: S i m i la r o r
O p p o site F a te s?
C h a p te r Two: E v o lu tio n o f t h e Novel i n H a i t i and
t h e F rench A n t i l l e s ........................................................... 56
l i
I . A C entury o f H a i ti a n N ovels (1859-1969)
a) The e l i t e a g a in s t th e w h ite w o rld
b) The H a i ti a n w r i t e r and h i s a u d ie n c e
1) 1859-1915; A d i f f i c u l t b i r t h
2) 1915-1946; The A m erican o c c u p a tio n and
th e I n d i g e n i s t movement
a) The r u r a l novel
b) The p r o l e t a r i a n n o v e l
3) 1946-1969; The p o s t - I n d i g e n i s t y e a rs
I I . Survey o f t h e N ovels from t h e F rench
D epartm ents (1806-1969)
1) The C re o le n o v e l
2) The b la c k n o v e l
a) B i r th o f th e n o v e l
b) The N e g ritu d e movement and i t s o f f s p r in g s
c) A lo n g sid e N e g ritu d e ; d i v e r s e i n s p i r a t i o n s
d) Beyond N e g ritu d e ; t h e 1 9 6 0 's
I I I . T hem atic A n a ly s is o f t h e H a i ti a n and F rench
C a rib b e a n Novel
1) The p a s t
a) The C re o le S o c ie ty
b) The S la v e t r a d e
c ) The S tr u g g le o f th e s la v e
d) The A b o litio n o f s la v e r y
2) R a c ia l p r e j u d i c e
a) The I m i t a t i o n o f t h e fo rm er m a s te r
b) The R e l a tio n s h ip betw een M u la tto e s and
B lacks
3) R u ra l L i f e
a) The B eauty o f n a tu r e
b) The F ig h t f o r t h e la n d
c) The C urse o f th e la n d
d) The l i f e and p e r s o n a l i t y o f th e p e a s a n t
i i i
Page
e ) T r a d i t i o n s and d i s t r a c t i o n s
4) The S u p e r n a tu r a l
5) The C ity
6 ) S o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l commentary
a) S o c i a l c r i t i c i s m
b) P o l i t i c a l c r i t i c i s m
c ) C r i t i c i s m o f th e c o lo n i a l r u l e
d) Im m ig ra tio n and e x i l e
7) A f r ic a
a) The P re s e n c e o f A f r ic a in t h e H a i ti a n
n o v e l
b) The P re s e n c e o f A f r ic a i n t h e n o v e l from
th e F ren ch A n t i l l e s
c) Im ages o f th e o r i g i n a l A f r ic a
d) Im ages o f contem porary A f r ic a
P a r t Two; P o w e rle s s n e s s and V io le n c e . . . . ................................... 167
C h a p te r T h re e; The P a s t ; The Roots o f P o w e rle s s n e s s . . 172
I . Le N egre du g o u v e rn e u r o r th e P unishm ent o f
E x c e s s iv e n e s s
I I . L es A rb res de l a l i b e r t e . The F a i l u r e of
Freedom
I I I . La M u la tre s s e S o l it u d e ; The Q uest f o r th e
S e l f
IV . M alem ort; C ycles o f O p p ressio n
V. La Case du commandeur: The O b se ssio n w ith
O rig in s
V I. H is to r y as Legend; Le Flam boyant a f l e u r s
b le u e s
V II. Aude e t s e s fan to m es: The O r ig in s o f th e
H a i ti a n M u la tto B o u rg e o is ie
iv
C h a p te r Fours P o w e rle s s n e s s : C auses and C o n s e q u e n c e s .-.
I . S o c i a l , P o l i t i c a l and Economic Causes
1 ) P o l i t i c a l o p p r e s s io n o r u n co n cern
2) Economic c o n d itio n s
3) R a c ia l antag o n ism and s o c i a l i n e q u a l i t i e s
4) The v i o l a t e d la n d
5) E d u c a tio n ; in s tr u m e n t o f s o c i a l p ro g re s s
o r o f a l i e n a t i o n ?
6 ) The c i t y as symbol o f a l i e n a t i o n
I I . P s y c h o lo g ic a l M a n if e s ta tio n s and R e la te d
A t t i t u d e s
1) The m a le d ic tio n o f th e Negro
2 ) R e s ig n a tio n
3) E v a sio n s
4) D eath w ish
5) S t e r i l i t y : th e r e f u s a l t o g iv e b i r t h
6 ) I n s a n i t y
C h a p te r F iv e ; M a n if e s ta tio n s o f V io le n c e ...................................
I . A cts o f A g re s sio n
I I . V io le n c e as S o c ia l P r o t e s t
I I I . V io le n c e as a Means o f L i b e r a t i o n
C h a p te r S ix : A l t e r n a t i v e s ; A f r ic a o r E x i le . .................... .
I . A f r ic a
1) Scenes o f co n tem p o rary A f r ic a
2) The " d e m y t h if ic a ti o n " o f A f r ic a o r " 1 ' in u
t i l e du r e v e n i r "
Page
245
324
358
Page
I I . The P ro m ises and th e Traps, o f E m ig ra tio n
C o n c l u s i o n ........................ 4 0 9
G l o s s a r y ............................................................................................................................ 422
B i b l i o g r a p h y ...................................................... 4 2 5
v i
Introduction
The end o f th e 1 9 7 0 's b ro u g h t p ro m is in g changes t o t h e p o l i t i c a l
la n d s c a p e o f t h e C a rib b e a n . One o f th e m ost s i g n i f i c a n t e v e n ts o f 1979
was t h e coming t o in d ep en d en ce o f th e i s l a n d o f G ranada, fo rm e rly a
B r i t i s h p o s s e s s i o n , c l o s e l y fo llo w e d by S a n ta L u c ia and Dom inica r e s p e c
t i v e l y . The C a rib b e a n n a ti o n s a re slo w ly em erging as c u l t u r a l u n i t s .
The o ld o r d e r o f d o m in a tio n i s u p s e t and new i s l a n d s a re b o rn , l e s s
d ependent upon E urope b u t f a c in g new d i f f i c u l t i e s and new forms of
c o l o n i z a t i o n , such as economic s u b s e r v ie n c e , f o r exam ple.
I n th e m id st o f th e s e c h a n g e s, a c e r t a i n number of t e r r i t o r i e s
have rem ained s t a t i c : nam ely th e F ren ch o v e rs e a s d e p a rtm e n ts o f
M a rtin iq u e , G uadeloupe and F rench G uiana, as w e ll as th e in d ep e n d e n t
r e p u b l i c o f H a i t i . The E n g lis h sp e a k in g i s l a n d s a re slo w ly p u l l i n g out
of th e E n g lis h s p h e re o f i n f l u e n c e , b u t th e F rench t e r r i t o r i e s seem
t o have e v o lv ed i n t h e o p p o s ite d i r e c t i o n : M a rtin iq u e , G uadeloupe and
F rench G uiana have now been F rench d e p a rtm e n ts f o r about t h i r t y - f i v e
y e a r s , and t h e r e i s no a p p a re n t s ig n t h a t t h i s m ight soon be o th e r w is e .
As i n t e g r a l p a r t s o f th e F ren ch n a t i o n , th e y have n e i t h e r p o l i t i c a l nor
economic autonom y. H a i t i , on t h e o th e r han d , h a s been in d ep e n d e n t
s in c e 1 8 0 5 ,.I t s a tta c h m e n t to F ra n ce i s now p u r e ly c u l t u r a l : on ly
t h e l i n k o f lan g u a g e re m a in s. I t h a s , how ever, been s u b m itte d t o
1
t h e same d i c t a t o r i a l regim e f o r th e p a s t tw e n ty - f iv e y e a r s , and t h e r e
i s no f o r e s e e a b l e change i n t h e n e a r f u t u r e .
H a i t i and t h e F re n ch d e p a rtm e n ts a p p a r e n tly s ta n d a t two o p p o s ite
ends o f th e p o l i t i c a l sp ectru m : from in d ep en d en ce ( H a i t i ) t o dependence
( t h e F ren ch d e p a r tm e n ts ) . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , th e y have more i n common th a n
w hat p o l i t i c a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s seem t o i n d i c a t e . Beyond th e most o b v i
ous d iv e r g e n c e s , t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e e v o lu tio n s have fo llo w e d s i m i l a r
p a th s . T h is i s e v id e n c e d i n t h e i r l i t e r a t u r e . I t i s g e n e r a l l y b e lie v e d
t h a t a n a ti o n r e v e a ls i t s e l f th ro u g h i t s l i t e r a t u r e and t h a t th e l a t t e r
echoes c u r r e n t n a t i o n a l p r e o c c u p a tio n s and p ro b le m s. The aim o f t h i s
s tu d y w i l l be t o s e e how t h e n o v e l o f th e p a s t decad e p r e s e n t s l i f e
i n H a i t i and i n t h e F ren ch C a rib b e a n d e p a rtm e n ts . B ecause o f th e abun
dance o f C arib b ean F rancophone l i t e r a t u r e , i t was n e c e s s a r y t o s e l e c t
a t e n y e a r p e r io d ; t h i s may seem l im it e d i n s c o p e , b u t we s h a l l se e
t h a t , i n f a c t , t h e n o v e ls w r i t t e n d u rin g t h a t tim e b e n e f i t from a
re m a rk a b le u n i t y o f i n s p i r a t i o n . The n o v e l was c h o sen b e c au se i t i s
t h e g e n re c o n tem p o rary a u th o r s have m ost c o n s i s t e n t l y f a v o r e d and u se d
t o v o ic e t h e i r c o n c e rn , a t l e a s t i n t h e F ren ch la n g u a g e . T h is stu d y
w i l l l e a d t o a l i t e r a r y e v a lu a ti o n o f th e p r e s e n t s t a t e o f th e coun^::,
t r i e s in v o lv e d , t o t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e i r new p r i o r i t i e s and o f th e
a l t e r n a t i v e s w hich co n tem p o rary a u th o r s have p r e s e n te d i n t h e i r w orks.
Through a d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s o f th e n o v e ls o f th e l a s t d e c a d e , i t
s h o u ld be p o s s i b l e t o a s s e s s why co n tem porary a u th o r s a r e overwhelm
i n g ly p re o c c u p ie d w ith two m ajo r them es: v io le n c e a t t h e n a t i o n a l and
a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l l e v e l , and i t s c a u se and c o n seq u e n c e , t h a t i s ,
2
an o v erpow ering f e e l i n g o f p o w e rle s s n e ss and s t a g n a t i o n .
The e v o lu tio n o f t h e C a rib b e a n has been a c t i v a t e d by v i o le n c e ,
and H a i t i i s a p rim e exam ple. V io le n c e i s n o t i n g r a i n e d i n th e n a tu r e
o f t h e i n h a b i t a n t s th e m s e lv e s , b u t i t i s t h e c o n ti n u a ti o n o f th e
p h y s ic a l and p s y c h o lo g ic a l v io le n c e once u se d by c o l o n i a l powers t o
e s t a b l i s h t h e i r suprem acy, m a in ly th ro u g h s l a v e r y . T h is v io le n c e i s n o t
alw ays d i r e c t e d to w a rd r e v o l u t i o n a r y a c t i o n , but i t h as p ro v en t o be
th e o n ly means c h o sen t o a c h ie v e th e l i b e r a t i o n o f th e p e o p le . T hat
t h e r e i s no a l t e r n a t i v e was made c l e a r by F r a n tz Fanon i n h i s s tu d y o f
B lack R e v o lu tio n , The W retched o f th e E a r t h ; "The c o lo n is e d man f in d s
h i s freedom i n and th ro u g h v i o le n c e . T h is r u l e o f c o n d u c t e n lig h te n s
t h e a g e n t b e c au se i t i n d i c a t e s t o him th e means and t h e end."'*' A ll
non-E uropean t h e o r e t i c i a n s on d e c o lo n i z a t io n a g re e on t h i s p o i n t .
"La r e v o l t e , " w r i t e s A. Memni, " e s t l a s e u le i s s u e a l a s i t u a t i o n
e o l o n i a l e q u i ne s o i t p a s un t r o m p e - l 'o e i l , e t l e c o lo n i s e l e deco u v re
t o t ou t a r d . Sa c o n d it io n e s t a b so lu e e t rec lam e une s o l u t i o n a b s o lu e ,
2
une r u p tu r e e t non un com prom is." V io le n c e i s e x p e rie n c e d a t th e
i n d i v i d u a l l e v e l as a form o f r e l e a s e and a t t h e n a t i o n a l l e v e l as a
c o h e s iv e f o r c e . I t p e rm e ate s e v e ry day l i f e i n th e C a rib b e a n and i s
a c c o r d in g ly g iv e n an im p o r ta n t r o l e i n th e works o f C a rib b e a n a u th o r s .
I t rem ains t o be s e e n -w h e th e r v i o le n c e as a means o f n a t i o n a l l i b e r a
t i o n can s u c c e e d . The exam ple o f H a i ti shows t h a t i t o n ly does so i n
a l i m i t e d m anner. I n f a c t , v io le n c e and r e v o l u t i o n th e m s e lv e s a re no
s o l u t i o n s . They m ust be accom panied by an e v a lu a ti o n o f th e problem s
o f th e c o u n tr i e s in v o lv e d , som ething w hich d id n o t happen i n H a i ti
3
where v io le n c e o n ly l e d t o t h a t u l t i m a t e form o f v i o l e n c e , t h e D u v a lie r
reg im e. W ith t h e F rench d e p a rtm e n ts , th e problem i s even more com plex:
what i f a v i o l e n t r u p tu r e w ith t h e d o m in a tin g power m eant s u ic id e ? What
w i l l happen i f a l l c u l t u r a l l i n k s a re se v ere d ? What a re t h e a l t e r n a
t i v e s t o th e p r e s e n t s i t u a t i o n ?
F ragm ented answ ers t o th e s e q u e s tio n s can be found i n l i t e r a t u r e .
Even th o u g h one m ust be aware t h a t th e n o v e l i s n o t r e a l i t y b u t i t s
r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , i t i s one means o f e v a lu a ti n g a p e o p l e 's p e r c e p ti o n
o f i t s e l f as w e ll as th e d i r e c t i o n o f i t s h o p e s. The r o l e o f t h e w r i t e r
i s t o u n v e il a s p e c ts o f r e a l i t y w hich he c o n s id e r s c r i t i c a l . He ta k e s
e v e ry day l i f e and em phasizes problem s w hich a r e som etim es b u r ie d
u n d e r s u r f a c e p r e o c c u p a tio n s . T h is p a r t i c u l a r l y a p p li e s t o th e contem
p o r a r y F ren ch C a rib b e a n novel:. A uthors who w r i t e d u rin g t h e 1 9 7 0 's
a n a ly z e th e com ponents o f t h e i r s o c i e t y and t r y t o p i n p o in t i t s s h o r t
com ings. They a r e co n c ern e d w ith th e e x is t e n c e o f s e r i o u s m a lf u n c tio n s
r e s u l t i n g i n m a t e r i a l i n e q u a l i t i e s and p s y c h o lo g ic a l im b a la n c e .
F u rth e rm o re , th e r e l a t i o n s h i p . o f th e C a rib b e a n w r i t e r t o h i s t e x t
r e f l e c t s r e a l l i f e ; h i s i s a c o n s ta n t s t r u g g l e w ith an a c q u ir e d
la n g u a g e w hich he m a n ip u la te s , a l t e r s and v i o l a t e s t o f i t h i s own
p u rp o se s and h i s own c u l t u r e .
The s e e d o f v i o le n c e i s p o w e r le s s n e s s . The p o lic y o f a s s i m i l a t i o n
has damaged th e p sy c h e o f t h e C a rib b e a n man. As a s l a v e , h a v in g t o
choose betw een d e a th and s u b m is s io n , a c e r t a i n a t t i t u d e o f r e s i g n a t i o n
s e t i n among s u r v i v o r s . As a modern man fa c e d w ith c r u e l a l t e r n a t i v e s ,
i t i s te m p tin g t o ta k e r e f u g e i n o b l iv i o n o r m adness. I n th e i s l a n d s ,
4
o u t b u r s t s o f v i o le n c e su c ce e d p e r io d s o f u n c e r t a i n t y and f r u s t r a t i o n .
T hese two c o n s ta n t f e a t u r e s c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e c o n tem p o rary n o v e l o f th e
F ren ch d e p a rtm e n ts and o f H a i t i ; th e y w i l l c o n s t i t u t e t h e c e n t r a l
them es o f t h i s s tu d y . B ut, b e fo r e a p p ro a c h in g th e co n te m p o ra ry n o v e ls
th e m s e lv e s , i t seems n e c e s s a r y t o d e f in e th e background a g a in s t w hich
th e y t a k e p l a c e . What a re th e F ren ch o v e rs e a s d e p a rtm e n ts and what i s
t h e i r p r e s e n t s t a t u s ? Where does H a i ti s ta n d now?- At th e h e a r t o f th e
C a rib b e a n dram a, th e p o l i t i c a l , s o c i a l and economic q u e s ti o n s w eigh
h e a v il y . Once t h e i r p h y s ic a l c o n te x t p r e s e n t e d , th e n o v e ls w i l l be
s i t u a t e d w i t h in t h e i r l i t e r a r y b ackground. I t w i l l th e n be d e te rm in e d
w h e th e r c o n tem p o rary them es have t h e i r r o o ts i n p a s t w orks and a re th e
consequence o f a le n g th y e v o lu t io n o r w h e th e r t h e i r b lu n tn e s s i s due
t o t h e sudden aw areness of u r g e n t l y needed change.
PART ONE
PRESENTATION OF
THE FRENCH CARIBBEAN TERRITORIES
AND OF THEIR LITERATURE
C h a p te r one
Four T e r r i t o r i e s i n S earch o f T hem selves:
M a rtin iq u e , G uadeloupe, French G uiana and H a i ti
I . M a rtin iq u e , G uadeloupe and F rench G uiana: D e p a r tm e n ta liz a tio n and
Dependence
I n th e minds o f many, th e names o f M a rtin iq u e and G uadeloupe
s t i l l c r e a t e im ages o f t r o p i c a l p a r a d i s e : warm s e a s , palm t r e e s and
n o n c h a la n c e . I n c o n t r a s t , F ren ch G uiana w rongly rem ains t h e la n d o f
c o n v ic t s , o f f a n t a s t i c and d angerous a d v e n tu re s a l a " P a p i l l o n " ,
o f h o s t i l e ju n g le and p r e d a t o r s t o w hich can p e rh a p s be added th e
modern myth o f th e sp a c e c e n t e r C .N .E.S. (C e n tre N a tio n a l d 'E tu d e s
S p a t i a l e s ) .
From th e p o in t o f view o f t h e t o u r i s t who o n ly s e e s a p p e a ra n c e s ,
t h e two i s l a n d s g iv e an im p re s s io n o f p r o s p e r i t y , e s p e c i a l l y when
com pared t o th e p o v e rty o f t h e s u rro u n d in g c o u n tr i e s ( C e n tr a l and
L a t in A m erica, th e g r e a t e r C a rib b ean i s l a n d s ) . The b e a u ty o f th e la n d
scap e and th e g e n tle n e s s o f t h e l i f e s t y l e h id e w e ll a l a t e n t d i s c o n t e n t
and v i o le n c e w hich e r u p t o n ly o c c a s i o n a l l y . The a p p a re n t la c k o f h o s
t i l i t y i n th e p o p u la tio n and i t s g e n e ra l i n d i f f e r e n c e seem t o
r e i n f o r c e t h i s im p r e s s io n . F ren ch G uiana, on th e o th e r h a n d , rem ains
i s o l a t e d and i s u s u a l l y m en tio n ed o n ly on two o c c a s io n s : t h e o f f i c i a l
t r i p o f some p o l i t i c a l f i g u r e o r th e la u n c h in g o f some s a t e l l i t e as
to o k p la c e a t th e end o f 1979 and i n th e summer o f 1981. T hese a p p e a r
ances mask more com plex and som etim es sh o c k in g r e a l i t i e s .
a) A S t a t e o f Dependence
M a rtin iq u e , G uadeloupe and F rench G uiana a re u n iq u e i n th e West
I n d ie s as th e o n ly t e r r i t o r i e s p o l i t i c a l l y i n t e g r a t e d w ith t h e i r c o lo
n i z in g pow er. One s h o u ld t h e r e f o r e n e v e r f o r g e t t h a t t h e French
C a rib b e a n d e p a rtm e n ts a re d ependent on a faraw ay p o l i t i c a l a d m in is tr a
t i o n ; t h e i r e v o lu tio n and t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith th e s u rro u n d in g
c o u n tr i e s can o n ly be u n d e rs to o d i n th e l i g h t o f t h i s d ependence. I f i s
s t r i k i n g t h a t , as t h e c e n tu r y ap p ro ach es i t s c l o s e , th e F rench C a rib
bean d e p a rtm e n ts a r e as s u b je c t now t o e x t e r i o r i n i t i a t i v e s and
d e c is io n s as th e y w ere as c o lo n i e s . One can o n ly a g re e w ith M aryse
Conde when sh e d e c l a r e s : "T o u te l ' h i s t o i r e des A n t i l l e s se s i t u e sous
l e regim e de l a depen d an ce. C e tte dependance c o n s t i t u e une lo u rd e
h e r e d i t e s u r t o u t s i l'on^ s a i t que l e system e de p r o d u c tio n e t l e
r a p p o r t des f o r c e s en p re s e n c e aux A n t i l l e s n 'o n t g u e re change en
3
d e p it de l 'e v o l u t i o n du s t a t u t p o l i t i q u e . "
The t h r e e d e p a rtm e n ts must cope w ith d i s t o r t e d c irc u m s ta n c e s :
th e y f l o a t a t t h e p e r i p h e r y o f a c u l t u r e d i f f e r e n t from t h e i r s ; th e y
a re i n e v i t a b l y rem ote from t h e m e t r o p o lita n d e p a rtm e n ts b e cau se o f
h i s t o r y , d i s t a n c e , l o c a t i o n and c u l t u r e . T h e ir h i s t o r y has been seen
by Aime C e s a ir e , p r e s e n t mayor o f F o r t- d e - F r a n c e as t h e s u c c e s s io n o f
8
t h r e e m yths: 1 ) t h e myth o f freedom w hich k e p t hopes a l i v e u n d e r a
f e u d a l regim e and th e system o f s la v e r y from 1635 t o 1848) 2) t h e myth
o f s o c i a l j u s t i c e , o f e q u a l i t y and o f F ren ch c i t i z e n s h i p born from
s u b s e r v ie n c e t o an a u t h o r i t a r i a n regim e from 1848 to 1948; 3) t h e myth
o f in d ep e n d e n c e w hich h as been t h e dom inant hope o f th e p e r io d o f 1948
t o th e p re s e n t.. The q u e s ti o n re m a in s: w i l l t h i s t h i r d myth have enough
power t o im pose i t s e l f ? T here i s y e t no answ er t o t h i s q u e s t i o n . The
o n ly a l t e r n a t i v e a t t h i s p o in t i s t o examine th e p r e s e n t c o n d itio n s o f
th e F ren ch A n t i l l e s , t o se e what t h e a re a s o f w eakness i n th e c u r r e n t
regim e a r e and w h e th e r a l t e r n a t i v e s o l u t i o n s a r e p o s s i b l e .
b) D e p a r tm e n ta liz a tio n and i t s C onsequences
The law o f 1946 (w hich became e f f e c t i v e i n 1948) was m eant t o p u t
M a rtin iq u e , G uadeloupe and F ren ch G uiana on a l e v e l o f e q u a l i t y w ith
t h e m e t r o p o li ta n F re n ch d e p a rtm e n ts . As a r e s u l t , th e t h r e e t e r r i t o r i e s
became p a r t o f a v a s t econom ic and p o l i t i c a l sy stem , w hich c o u ld have
g iv e n them th e n e c e s s a r y b o o st to w ard f r u i t f u l d ev elopm ent. However,
th e y w ere n e v e r i n t e g r a t e d — how c o u ld t h i s be p o s s ib l e c o n s id e r in g
th e w o rld o f d i f f e r e n c e s e p a r a t i n g a E uropean-bound " m o th e r-c o u n try "
and t h r e e i s o l a t e d t r o p i c a l i s l a n d - t e r r i t o r i e s ? The f i r s t m is ta k e made
by t h e F ren ch governm ent was t o assume t h a t one c o u ld , w ith one p ie c e
o f l e g i s l a t i o n , l e v e l o f f c e n t u r i e s o f h i s t o r y . The seco n d m is ta k e was
t o o v e r e s tim a te t h e b e n e f i t s d e p a r t m e n t a l i z a t io n c o u ld b r in g t o th e
F ren ch A n t i l l e s and t o u n d e r e s tim a te i t s d e s t r u c t i v e p o t e n t i a l .
The change o f p o l i t i c a l s t a t u s undergone by th e t h r e e d e p a rtm e n ts
d id n o t o n ly have a t e c h n i c a l and economic im p a c t. I t s f i r s t consequence
was t o d e s tr o y th e f r a g i l e s a fe g u a rd s b e h in d w hich th e l o c a l c u l t u r e
co u ld s u r v i v e . The a r c h a ic c h a r a c t e r o f th e s t r u c t u r e s w hich governed
l o c a l l i f e b e fo r e d e p a r t m e n t a l i z a t io n d id c a l l f o r a change, and t h e
new s t a t u s c o u ld a p p e a r as a means t o b r in g about t h e n e c e s s a r y r e f o r m s ,
B ut, i f i t has bro ad en ed p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r a c e r t a i n number o f i n d i v i d
u a l s , i f i t has a llo w e d l o c a l t e c h n i c a l im provem ents, i f i t has made
p o s s i b l e p o s i t i v e changes i n th e l o c a l l i f e s t y l e such as a c e r t a i n
amount o f modern c o m fo rt, t h e c o s t o f th e s e tr a n s f o r m a t io n s has been
highs n o ta b ly t h e d i s s o l u t i o n o f th e p r e v io u s l o c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n and
th e d is a p p e a ra n c e o f many o f th e o r i g i n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e l o c a l
c u l t u r e . ^
T h e ir new i d e n t i t y i s im posed on t h e F ren ch A n t i l l e s from th e
o u t s i d e . They have t o a b s o rb a s e t o f new s t r u c t u r e s d e s ig n e d t o re g u
l a t e t h e f u n c t i o n in g o f a d e v e lo p e d European c o u n try and th u s n o t
a d a p te d t o t h e i r own p e c u l i a r i t i e s . The F ren ch a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s t r u c
t u r e s have alw ays been known f o r t h e i r cumbersome and h ig h ly c e n t r a l ^ ,
iz e d n a t u r e . A ll a tte m p ts a t r e d i s t r i b u t i n g d u t i e s betw een P a r i s and
th e p r o v in c e s have alw ays been met w ith t h e utm ost r e s i s t a n c e . T h is
s t a t e o f a f f a i r s c o u ld n o t but a f f e c t t h e o v e rs e a s d e p a rtm e n ts . The
c e n t r a l i z e d n a tu r e o f t h e s t r u c t u r e s im posed on th e F ren ch A n t i l l e s
a llo w e d c e r t a i n c o n t r a d i c t i o n s t o r e a s s e r t th e m se lv e s w ith renew ed
i n t e n s i t y .
L o c a l c i v i l s e r v i c e s n e c e s s a r i l y f o llo w d i r e c t i o n s w hich have
been d e s ig n e d f o r t h e F ren ch n a ti o n as a w h o le. A ttem p ts a t a d a p tin g
10
th e s e d e c is io n s t o th e l o c a l environm ent have been made w ith l i t t l e
c o o r d in a tio n among t h e v a r io u s s e r v i c e s such as h e a l t h , e d u c a tio n ,
employment o r a g r i c u l t u r e and have r e s u l t e d i n f a i l u r e . As e a r l y as
1955, V i c to r S a b le , a l o c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , was le d t o c o n c lu d e :
"A pres d i x a n s , l e s A n t i l l e s n 'o n t pas e n c o re t i r e t o u t l e p r o f i t
q u 'e l l e s e t a i e n t en d r o i t d ’ a t t e n d r e d e . l a d e p a r t e m e n ta l iz a ti o n q u i a
b o u le v e r s e l e fo n c tio n n e m e n t des m ecanism es a d m i n i s t r a t i f s , m ais n 'a
pas e n c o re ren o v e l e s s t r u c t u r e s e t l e dynamisme de l 'e c o n o m ie ." ^
T h at d e p a r t m e n t a l i z a t io n i s condemned as a f a i l u r e by an i n c r e a s
in g number o f l o c a l i n t e l l e c t u a l s and p o l i t i c i a n s i s p r i m a r i l y due t o
t h e la c k o f c o n s i s t e n t a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p o l i c i e s and p ro c e d u re s i n th e
F ren ch go v ern m en t’ s d e a lin g s w ith i t s o v e rs e a s d e p a rtm e n ts : I n 1968,
C h r i s t i a n L a i g r e t , fo rm e r a d m i n i s t r a t o r o f M a rtin iq u e , w ro te :
" L ' i n s t a b i l i t e g o u v e rn e m en ta le e t l a v a l s e des p r e f e t s s o n t de t o u t e
e v id e n c e a l ’o r i g i n e de l 'e c h e c d e l ' a p p l i c a t i o n de l a l o i de m ars
1 9 4 6 ."^ A n other c a u se o f i l l f e e l i n g s i s t h a t most d e c is i o n s c o n c e rn in g
th e F re n ch A n t i l l e s a r e a r r i v e d a t w i t h in th e s e c r e c y o f a d i s t a n t
m i n i s t r y w ith o u t p r i o r c o n s u l t a t i o n w ith th e l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s .
I n a c t i o n , as w e l l, seems t o c h a r a c t e r i z e th e a t t i t u d e o f t h e F ren ch
governm ent to w ard th e t h r e e t e r r i t o r i e s . Because o f a l a c k o f r e f o r m s ,
t h e o b j e c t i v e s s e t up when d e p a r t m e n t a l i z a t io n was im plem ented i n 1948
have rem ain ed th e same. I t i s u n f o r t u n a te t h a t one s h o u ld have t o re a d
such comments as A la in V iv ie n made i n . Le Monde: "P en d an t des s i e c l e s ,
en e f f e t , l a F ra n ce a , p lu s ou m oins s e lo n l e s l i e u x , t i r e p a r t i m oral
e t m a t e r i e l de se s p o s s e s s io n s d ’ o u tre - m e r. S i e l l e p e u t se f l a t t e r
*
11
i ' a v o i r e t e I ’i n i t i a t r i c e de c e r t a i n s p ro g re s hum ains, e l l e p o r te a u s s i
l a r e s p o n s a b i l i t e de g ra v e s ech ecs d em o g rap h iq u es, c u l t u r e l s e t s o c io -
econom iques q u i o n t c o n d u it a l ' e t a t de c r i s e ou se d e b a t t e n t a c t u e l l e -
.,8
ment ces p a y s.
The p o p u la tio n o f t h e t h r e e d e p a rtm e n ts e a g e r ly a w a ite d th e bene
f i t s t h a t would s u p p o se d ly flo w from t h e i r change of s t a t u s . A number of
p o s i t i v e developm ents to o k p la c e : p r o l i f e r a t i o n of a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a c t i v
i t i e s , i n c r e a s e i n s c h o o l a tte n d a n c e and l i t e r a c y , a m e l io r a ti o n of com
m u n ic a tio n s and im provem ent of s a n i t a r y as w e ll as h e a l t h c o n d it io n s .
At t h e same tim e , th e fo rm er c o lo n ie s w itn e s s e d an i n f l u x o f French
c i v i l s e r v a n ts come t o occupy th e newly opened p o s i t i o n s i n a d m i n is t r a
t i v e o f f i c e s and th u s com peting f o r employment w ith t h e l o c a l p e o p le .
The c i v i l s e r v i c e d e v e lo p e d t o th e p o in t o f h y p e rtr o p h y . Those i n need
o f employment d i r e c t e d th e m s e lv e s tow ard c i v i l s e r v i c e p o s i t i o n s o r
e l s e ch ose e m ig r a tio n as t h e i r o n ly means t o a c h ie v e s o c i a l p r o g r e s s .
E m ig ra tio n became o rg a n iz e d and encouraged by th e F rench a u t h o r i t i e s ,
a s t a t e o f f a c t w hich i s b i t t e r l y r e s e n te d and c r i t i c i z e d by l o c a l
l e a d e r s . Now, w ith th e s p re a d o f e d u c a tio n , more and more young p e o p le
come t o th e employment m arket w ith e x p e c ta tio n s t h a t c a n n o t be f u l
f i l l e d f o r la c k o f a v a i l a b l e jo b s . The o t h e r s e c t o r s o f th e economy
b e in g on th e d e c l i n e , a l t e r n a t i v e s become few er and fe w e r. The la n d does
n o t o f f e r th e s u p p o rt i t once d id because o f th e grow ing a tro p h y o f
l o c a l c u l t u r e s and c r a f t s . As a r e s u l t , th e F ren ch A n t i l l e s become
i n c r e a s i n g l y d e p en d en t upon m e tr o p o lita n F ra n c e even f o r a r t i c l e s such
as d a i l y fo o d ite m s . T h is f e e l i n g o f dependence deepens as one r e a l i z e s
12
t h a t t h e r e does n o t seem t o be a m id d le way betw een a s s i s t a n c e and
p o v e r ty . A lth o u g h th e l o c a l p o p u la tio n s h av e b e n e f i t e d from th e im port
o f s o c i a l s e c u r i t y , t h i s a ls o b rin g s more dependence and g e n e r a te s a t
. 9
th e same tim e p a s s i v i t y and a c e r t a i n b i t t e r n e s s .
D e p a r tm e n ta liz a tio n a ls o i n t e r f e r e s w ith t h e c u l t u r a l l i f e o f t h e
t h r e e t e r r i t o r i e s . Eyes a r e now tu rn e d to w a rd P a r i s f o r c u l t u r e . Many
s e e th e a tte m p ts a t developm ent i n th e A n t i l l e s as e f f o r t s t o s u b s t i
t u t e t h e m e t r o p o li ta n c u l t u r e f o r th e l o c a l c u l t u r e , w hich i s i n many
a s p e c ts w eakened. One ca n n o t a r b i t r a r i l y s u b s t i t u t e one c u l t u r e f o r
a n o th e r w ith o u t c r e a t i n g i l l f e e l i n g s . U n e a sin e ss and s e l f - d e f e a t i n g
a t t i t u d e s can r a p i d l y become t h e norm u n d e r c irc u m s ta n c e s such as th e
ones d e s c r ib e d and may c r e a t e a background f o r p o t e n t i a l v i o l e n c e . . T h is
k in d o f s i t u a t i o n sum m arizes b e s t t h e mood o f th e F ren ch C arib b ean
d e p a rtm e n ts cau g h t betw een dependence upon th e h e lp from th e m e tro p o le
and a d e s i r e t o make t h e i r own c h o ic e s . The e x te n t t o w hich th e c u l
t u r a l c o l o n i z a t i o n o f th e A n t i l l e s has' gone i s so m ething t h a t l i t e r a
t u r e w i l l h e lp us e v a l u a t e . B ut, f i r s t , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o d e s c r ib e
b r i e f l y th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f each one o f th e t h r e e d e p a rtm e n ts
c o n c e rn e d .
1) M a rtin iq u e ; The F avored I s l a n d
M a rtin iq u e h as lo n g had th e r e p u t a t i o n o f b e in g th e m ost fa v o re d
o f th e t h r e e t e r r i t o r i e s . I t i s t r u e t h a t i t s e v o lu t io n has fo llo w e d
a d i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n th a n t h a t of G uadeloupe o r F re n ch G uiana. I n s t e a d
o f u n d e rg o in g r a d i c a l changes a f t e r th e a b o l i t i o n o f s la v e r y ,
13
M a rtin iq u e seems t o have k e p t g o in g i n a d i r e c t i o n i n h e r i t e d from th e
p l a n t a t i o n e r a .
I n s p i t e o f th o s e tr a n s f o r m a t io n s made i n e v i t a b l e by.m odern l i f e ,
th e s o c i a l system o f M a rtin iq u e shows a f a s c i n a t i n g c o n t i n u i t y . The
economy c o n tin u e s t o 'b e dom in ated by th e l o c a l W h ite s, t h e b e k e s ,
whose p r e s e n c e i s v i s i b l e i n alm ost a l l . a r e a s . The economic sy ste m ,
d i r e c t l y i n h e r i t e d from t h e c o l o n i a l e r a , r e s t s upon a c e r t a i n number
o f p r i v i l e g e s , o f sm a ll m onopolies w hich do n o t seem t o be e v e r q u e s
t i o n e d . L i f e i n th e c o u n tr y s t i l l c e n te r s around t h e ■ p l a n t a t i o n o w n e r's
h o u se , t h e h a b i t a t i o n , and i t . i s u n l i k e l y t h a t t h e f u t u r e o f a g r i c u l
t u r a l p r o d u c tio n w i l l t h r e a t e n t h i s d i s t r i b u t i o n o f pow ers. R e t a i l
t r a d e and to u ris m a re s lo w ly i n c r e a s i n g i n volume w ith o u t b r e a k in g t h i s
re m a rk a b le s o c i o l o g i c a l c o n t i n u i t y . .Both c a p i t a l and la n d a re owned by
t h e bekes who, even th o u g h th e y r e p r e s e n t an o b s o le te econom ic reg im e,
c an n o t be e n t i r e l y r e j e c t e d , s in c e th e y a r e M a rtin ic a n s and p e r c e iv e d
as su c h .
The landow ners form a v e ry c o h e re n t a r i s t o c r a c y , and few a c t i v i
t i e s have d e v e lo p e d w hich a r e n o t s u b m itte d t o t h e i r c o n t r o l . F o re ig n
c a p i t a l i s r a r e i n M a rtin iq u e . As a r e s u l t , th e beke has an o v e rw h e l
ming i n f l u e n c e o v e r th e l i f e o f t h e p o p u l a t io n . T h is r o l e i s , i n many
w ays, ambiguous and goes f a r beyond p u r e ly economic f u n c t i o n s . I n a
s o c i e t y of t h i s ty p e w here t h e p l a n t a t i o n system has rem ained alm o st
unchanged, g r e a t im p o rta n c e i s g iv e n t o . t h e .c o n tr o l o f fa m ily o r ig i n s s
an i n d i v i d u a l i s n o t a c c e p te d i n t o th e beke m ilie u u n le s s h i s g e n e a l
ogy i s known. C o n se q u e n tly , l i f e i n M a rtin iq u e i s o rg a n iz e d a c c o rd in g
_____________________________________________________________________________________ U
t o p r i n c i p l e s e s t a b l i s h e d o v e r many y e a r s . T h is i s a h in d ra n c e to
s o c i a l p r o g r e s s .
The bekes a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a v e ry slow a c c e p ta n c e o f change.
T h is c o u ld be a consequence o f th e i n s u l a r i t y o f t h e i r w o rld ; i t i s
a ls o due t o t h e i r i n s t i n c t o f p r e s e r v a t i o n . I s o l a t e d , f i g h t i n g a g a in s t
th e in v a s io n o f t h e m e tr o p o lita n F ren ch way of l i f e and w o rrie d b y .th e
i n c r e a s i n g i n f l u e n c e o f th e b la c k b o u r g e o is ie , th e y have d e v e lo p e d a
v e ry s tr o n g i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith t h e i r group and l i v e in c lo s e d c i r c u i t ?
They d e s c r ib e th e m s e lv e s as t h e h e i r s o f t h e s la v e -o w n e rs and p la c e
th e m se lv e s above everybody e l s e , s in c e th e y once w ere a b s o lu te m a s te r s .
They s t i l l b e li e v e i n t h e n e c e s s i t y o f r a c i a l s e p a r a ti o n ; f o r them ,
s o c i e t y i s d iv id e d i n t o two g ro u p s: th e W hites on one sid e ,, th e B lacks
and th e M u la tto e s on th e o t h e r . T hese two groups do n o t m ingle e x c e p t
in b u s in e s s m a t t e r s . Any k in d o f c a s u a l s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p i s
fo rb id d e n , e s p e c i a l l y when i t comes t o women.
Next t o th e b e k e s , who a r e l i m i t e d i n number, i f n o t i n i n f l u e n c e ,
a c l a s s o f b la c k p r o f e s s i o n a l s and i n t e l l e c t u a l s as w e ll as a commer
c i a l b o u r g e o is ie a re d e v e lo p in g . The e x is t e n c e o f o t h e r w h ite g ro u p s,
m o stly c i v i l s e r v a n t s from F ra n ce more commonly c a l l e d m e t r o p o li ta i n s
o r m etro s who come t o r e s id e , on t h e i s l a n d f o r a l i m i t e d le n g th of
tim e , c o m p lic a te s, m a tte r s even f u r t h e r . The number o f m etros i s r a p i d l y
grow ing. They do n o t b le n d w e ll i n t o .the l o c a l s o c i e t y and t h e r e a r e ,
f o r exam ple, r e p o r t s o f i n c r e a s i n g numbers of i n c i d e n t s betw een m etro
t e a c h e r s and M a rtin ic a n p u p ils ,, as w e ll as betw een m etro t e a c h e r s and
t h e i r M a rtin ic a n c o l l e a g u e s , ^
•
15
Such a s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e can o n ly g e n e r a te t e n s i o n s . T hese t e n s i o n s
a re n e v e r p r e c i s e l y d e fin e d b u t r e f e r r e d t o as " l e m a la is e m a r t in i q u a i s "
T h is atm o sp h ere o f u n e a s in e s s i s d i s c e r n i b l e i n th e l i t e r a t u r e o f t h e
i s l a n d . P e r i o d i c a l l y , v io le n c e e r u p ts i n a c o l l e c t i v e c r i s i s , but
m o s tly i t i s a b so rb e d more o r l e s s e a s i l y a t th e p e r s o n a l l e v e l . I n
d a i l y i n t e r c o u r s e , , th e p o p u la tio n shows a m ix tu re o f i n d i f f e r e n c e ,
c o u r te s y and p a s s i v i t y w hich c o n c e a ls more d e s p a i r th a n happy s a t i s f a c
t i o n .
W hile t h e p o p u la tio n o f t h e c i t i e s i n c r e a s e s , t h e r u r a l p o p u la tio n
d im in is h e s e v e ry day. As t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r d e c l i n e s , r u r a l
unemployment grow s. The h e lp p ro v id e d by t h e s t a t e does n o t i n s u r e
d e c e n t l i v i n g : " F o r many r u r a l f o l k s , t h e w o rst e f f e c t s o f p o v e rty a re
p a l l i a t e d by fa m ily a llo w a n c e s and f r e e m ed ic al a id b u t, i n o r d e r t o
r e c e iv e such h e lp , th e head of th e fa m ily must be g a i n f u l l y employed
f o r a c e r t a i n number of. days p e r y e a r , a q u a l i f i c a t i o n t h a t many M a r ti-
12
n ic a n s l i v i n g i n d e p re s s e d a g r i c u l t u r a l a re a s a re u n a b le t o f u l f i l l . "
The harmony o f t h e p e a s a n t community, g u a rd ia n of a l l t h e com ponents o f
t h e l o c a l c u l t u r e , i s b e in g s lo w ly d i s r u p t e d by t h e d e g r a d a tio n o f i t s
u s u a l way o f l i f e . For many, t h e o n ly s o l u t i o n seems t o be e m ig r a tio n
to w ard t h e c i t y , and th e n F ra n c e .
As o rg a n iz e d by t h e F ren ch governm ent, e m ig ra tio n does n o t l i m i t
i t s e l f t o th e most f a v o re d or b e s t e d u c a te d p o r t i o n o f t h e p o p u l a t io n .
I t r e a c h e s t o t h a t p a r t o f t h e p o p u l a t io n d e p riv e d o f la n d o r work by
t h e r e c e n t econom ic c h a n g e s. A lth o u g h ..the i s l a n d may seem more p r o s
p e ro u s now th a n i t was b e fo re becoming a d e p a rtm e n t, n o t enough jo b s
16
a r e c r e a t e d t o employ t h e p o p u la tio n d i s p l a c e d by t h e d e c li n e o f a g r i
c u l t u r e , Those e v e n tu a ll y have no c h o ic e but t o le a v e and j o i n t h e
ran k s o f th e P a r i s i a n p r o l e t a r i a t . W hile t h e governm ent agency
B.U.M.T.D.O.M. (B ureau p o u r l e developpem ent des m ig r a tio n s - en p ro v e
nance des d e p a rte m e n ts d 'o u t r e - m e r ) f i n a n c e s . t h e t r i p t o F ra n ce o f new
e m ig r a n ts , i t does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y f in a n c e t h e i r . r e t u r n t o ; t h e i s l a n d .
Many e m ig ra n ts th u s f in d th e m s e lv e s fo rc e d t o .rem ain i n a c o u n try
w hich does n o t alw ays t r e a t them w ith d ecen cy .
The i l l e f f e c t o f i n t e n s i v e e m ig r a tio n was t h r o w n .in t o s h a rp r e l i e f
d u r in g t h e t r i p t o M a rtin iq u e (March 3 , 1980) o f P a u l D ijo u d , m i n i s t e r
i n c h a rg e of t h e o v e rs e a s d e p a rtm e n ts and t e r r i t o r i e s u n d e r P r e s i d e n t
G is c a rd d 'E s t a i n g . P a u l D ijo u d was n o t welcome i n t h e way he m ight have
e x p e c te d and had t o f a c e v i o l e n t c r i t i c i s m from Aime C e s a ir e . T hat i t
has become n e c e s s a r y t o c o u n te r a c t t h e economic c r i s i s w hich c a u se s
th e m assiv e d e p a r t u r e o f.m o re th a n 5 ,0 0 0 M a rtin ic a n s a y e a r i s , f o r
Aime C e s a ir e , a q u e s ti o n o f l i f e and d e a th : "La d e p a r t e m e n ta l is a ti o n
a r u in e l'e c o n o m ie de ce pays e t m a in te n a n t e l l e l e v id e de s e s f o r c e s
v i v e s . On a e r i g e l 'e m i g r a t i o n en d o c t r i n e . . . Le p e u p le m a r t in i q u a i s
e s t a t t e i n t dans s a v i t a l i t e b io lo g iq u e hum aine. C 'e s t un p e u p le en
' * - i .,13
p e r i l .
A ll a g re e t h a t t h e c u r r e n t s i t u a t i o n o f M a rtin iq u e i s s e r i o u s .
F rench new spapers do n o t h e s i t a t e t o d e s c r i b e i t as a p u t r e f a c t i o n
("u n p o u r r is s e m e n t" ) o f th e l o c a l c li m a t e . I t i s u n d e r s ta n d a b le i f one
makes a l i s t o f th e problem s w hich p la g u e th e i s l a n d to d a y : economic
c r i s i s , p o l i t i c a l u n r e s t , r a c i a l i n c i d e n t s , s o c i a l t e n s i o n s ,
17
w id e sp re a d d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n o f t h e l o c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s and of th e
g e n e ra l p o p u la tio n w ith g o v ern m en tal p o l i c i e s . Many e x p lo s iv e e le m en ts
a re now b ro u g h t t o g e t h e r . M a rtin iq u e has re a c h e d a f l a s h - p o i n t , and th e
outcome i s e n t i r e l y u n p r e d i c t a b l e .
2) Guadeloupe? A D arker R e a l i t y
The problem s w hich t h r e a t e n M a rtin iq u e can a ls o be e n c o u n te re d i n
G uadeloupe, s in c e i t i s and has been s u b je c te d t o th e same k in d of
p o l i c i e s . However, some a s p e c ts of t h e G uadeloupean s o c i e t y and
c u l t u r e rem ain u n iq u e .
G uadeloupe h as e v o lv e d d i f f e r e n t l y from M a rtin iq u e . The im pact o f
th e F ren ch r e v o l u t i o n was much more b r u t a l on G uadeloupe. As a r e s u l t ,
th e w h ite landow ners w ere a lm o st c o m p le te ly e lim in a te d . The shock was
to o sudden and G uadeloupe e n te r e d th e t w e n ti e th c e n tu r y e c o n o m ic a lly
t o r e d im in is h e d th a n M a rtin iq u e . Today, t h e s o c io -e c o n o m ic p i c t u r e o f
Guadeloupe i s c l o s e r t o what i s n o rm a lly se e n i n a c o lo n y . A d u a l s t r u c
t u r e h as d e v e lo p e d : on one hand t h e r e a re e x te n s iv e p l a n t a t i o n s u s u a l l y
owned by f o r e i g n i n v e s t o r s ; opposed t o them a re sm a ll e x p l o i t a t i o n s
which te n d t o re d u c e i n s i z e as th e y a r e d iv id e d among members o f a same
f a m ily . The s m a lle r p a r c e l s b elo n g e i t h e r t o b la c k o r w h ite p l a n t e r s
( B la n c s-M a tig n o n s) . The f a c t t h a t th e l a r g e p l a n t a t i o n s b e lo n g m o s tly to
f o r e i g n e r s c r e a t e s a dan g ero u s co lo n ia l s i t u a t i o n . T h is i s a l l t h e more
d ra m a tic s in c e th e s m a l le r e x p l o i t a t i o n s a re v i r t u a l l y in c a p a b le of
a s s u r in g th e s u b s is t e n c e o f t h e m a j o r it y of t h e p o p u l a t io n . S e v e ra l
e th e r f a c t o r s as w e ll make th e economy o f Guadeloupe p r e c a r io u s :
18
i t i s d e p e n d e n t. on two b a s ic c r o p s , s u g a r cane and b a n a n as, b o th o f
w hich a r e " f r a g i l e ; " A ttem p ts a t d i v e r s i f y i n g p r o d u c tio n h ave n o t y e t
been s u c c e s s f u l . ^
The m ain c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e G uadeloupean economic sy stem i s t h a t
i t i s t o t a l l y d e c e n t r a l i z e d . The w hole s o c i e t y i s o r g a n iz e d and d i r e c
te d from t h e o u t s i d e f o r - t h e o u t s i d e . T h is i s a ls o th e c a s e f o r
M a rtin iq u e and F ren ch Guiana,, but i t i s more s t r i k i n g .in G uadeloupe
s in c e so much, o f th e economy i s i n . f o r e i g n h a n d s. The f r a g i l i t y o f i t s
economy was once more r e v e a le d when th e is la n d , was s t r u c k .b y h u r r i c a n e
"D avid" i n August 1979 and m ost o f th e banana cro p was d e s tr o y e d .
D ependent on c ro p s w hich a re p e r i o d i c a l l y t h r e a te n e d by w e a th e r c o n d i
t i o n s o r by th e v a r i a t i o n s o f t h e m a rk e t, th e economy o f G uadeloupe i s
i n c o n s ta n t d a n g e r.
The s e r i o u s n e s s o f t h i s s i t u a t i o n ; i s . e v id e n c e d by t h e many i n c i
d e n ts w hich have d i s r u p t e d G uadeloupean l i f e , i n p a r t i c u l a r s t r i k e s
among s u g a r- c a n e c u t t e r s . I n 1967, i n c i d e n t s r e s u l t e d i n . t h e : d e a t h o f
f i f t e e n p e o p le . Many t r y t o b e li e v e t h a t t h e s e a re .only s ig n s o f th e
tim e w hich w i l l soon be ab so rb e d : " I I e x i s t e in c o n te s ta b le m e n t un
m a la is e p o l i t i q u e e t s o c i a l aux A n t i ll e s , f r a n g a i s e s e t p lu s p a r t i c u l i e -
rem ent en G uadeloupe, ou l e s d e r n i e r e s m a n i f e s t a t i o n s . s p e c t a c u l a i r e s
de v io le n c e d a t e n t .d e 1967, a l a f o i s a B a s s e -T e rre e t "a P o i n t e - a r P i t r e .
I I ne f a u t pas d ' a i l l e u r s d r a m a tis e r l a s i t u a t i o n , v i o l e n c e s .: e t - r e p r e s -
s io n s a y a n t t o u jo u r s ja lo n n e l ' h i s t o i r e p o l i t i q u e a n t i l l a i s e sans
jam a is r e m e tt r e en c a u se 1 ' a p p a rte n a n e e des ;A n t il le s a 1 '.ensem ble
f r a n g a i s . . . Le m a la is e p o l i t i q u e d o i t s 'a t t e n u e r e t d i s p a r a i t r e avec
19
1 *e l e v a t i o n du n iv e a u de v i e , l a sym biose de p lu s en p lu s e t r o i t e avec
l a M e tro p o le , l a r e a l i s a t i o n d 'u n n o u v e l e q u i l i b r e p o l i t i q u e e t
s o c i a l . T h i s s ta te m e n t r e v e a ls t h e s p e a k e r 's la c k o f u n d e rs ta n d in g
o f th e G uadeloupean s i t u a t i o n . He a c c e p ts much t o e a s i l y v io le n c e as a
g iv e n w ith o u t a tte m p tin g t o . s e a r c h f o r d e e p e r c a u s e s . M oreover, f o r
him , G uadeloupe does n o t e x i s t o u t s i d e o f th e F ren ch s p h e re o f in f lu - i.
e n c e. He does n o t r e a l i z e t h a t a c l o s e r s y m b io sis o f G uadeloupe w ith
F ra n ce w ould o n ly t h r e a t e n more th e b a la n c e .o f t h e .d e p a r tm e n t and
w h a te v e r c u l t u r a l i n t e g r i t y i t has l e f t a f t e r more th a n t h i r t y y e a rs o f
d e p a r t m e n t a l i z a t io n . T h at n o th in g h a s been s o lv e d i s made obvious by
th e f a c t t h a t e v e ry y e a r , betw een 1970 and 1974, G uadeloupe has been
th e sc en e o f r e p e a te d s t r i k e s a t t h e c u t t i n g s e a s o n . " I I ne p e u t y
a v o ir de t r a n s f o r m a t io n v e r i t a b l e de l a s i t u a t i o n des o u v r ie r s e t des
pay san s s a n s t r a n s f o r m a t io n r a d i c a l e d e l 'e n s e m b l e de l a s o c i e t e
g u ad elo u p een n e" c la im e d a f l i e r d i s t r i b u t e d i n t h e s t r e e t s o f th e
c a p i t a l on May 1, 1 9 7 5 . ^
Whereas M a rtin iq u e has a r a t h e r s tr o n g l o c a l b o u r g e o i s ie , Guade
lo u p e does n o t . I t s s o c i a l e l i t e i s n u m e r ic a lly sm a ll and made up
e s s e n t i a l l y o f p r o f e s s i o n a l s , t h a t i s , o f p e o p le who a re n o t n e c e s s a
r i l y aware o f th e d i f f i c u l t i e s o f t h e r u r a l m a j o r i t y . C o n tr a s ts betw een
B lacks and W hites a re s t a r k e r i n Guadeloupe s in c e t h e r e does n o t e x i s t
a c l a s s o f l o c a l W hites t o s e rv e as b u f f e r . T h is makes r a c i a l te n s i o n s
even more a p p a r e n t .
A ll i n a l l , i n G uadeloupe, th e problem s w hich c r i p p l e t h e d e p a r t
m ents a re more c l e a r l y v i s i b l e , e s p e c i a l l y s in c e t h e economic
20
developm ent of t h e i s l a n d i s b e h in d t h a t o f M a rtin iq u e . The s i t u a t i o n s
of b o th i s l a n d s a re m arked by d i f f e r e n c e s w hich a re d e e p ly i n g r a i n e d i n
t h e i r s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s , i n t h e i r r a c i a l r e l a t i o n s and i n t h e i r d e a l
in g s w ith F ra n c e . These d i f f e r e n c e s o f te n make com m unication and u n d e r
s ta n d in g betw een th e two i s l a n d s d i f f i c u l t . Thus a l l a tte m p ts a t
s o lv in g t h e i r .problem s on a common b a s is a r e e a s i l y d is c o u r a g e d . Such
l a c k o f w i l li n g n e s s t o f a c e common d i f f i c u l t i e s t o g e t h e r i s even more
o b v ious when one c o n s id e r s t h e t h i r d F ren ch d e p a rtm e n t: F ren ch G uiana.
3) F ren ch G uiana: I s o l a t i o n and S ta g n a tio n
I n t h e mid 60*s , when t h e s p a c e - c e n t e r p r o j e c t was n o t y e t o p e ra
t i o n a l , b u t when i t was enough o f a r e a l i t y t o b r in g e f f e r v e s c e n c e t o
th e c o u n tr y , t h e r e w ere g r e a t hopes f o r F ren ch G uiana. C o n s tr u c tio n
was a c t i v e , new shops w ere o p e n in g , and one th o u g h t t h a t th e C .N .E .S.
(C e n tre N a tio n a l d 'E tu d e s S p a t i a l e s ) would b r in g new l i f e t o t h i s
r a t h e r som nolent d e p a rtm e n t. Now, more th a n t e n y e a rs l a t e r , th e
i l l u s i o n has d i s s o l v e d . The c i t y o f Kourou i s an a r t i f i c i a l im p lan
t a t i o n w hich seems r a t h e r odd i n th e la n d s c a p e . I t s p o p u la tio n o f
t e c h n i c i a n s and s p e c i a l i s t s does n o t m ix w ith t h a t o f t h e a r e a o r of
Cayenne and l i v e s i n c lo s e d c i r c u i t . Even w h ile t h e b a se was b e in g
b u i l t , one c o u ld a lr e a d y se e t h a t i t would n o t be what F re n ch G uiana
had been w a itin g f o r : i n s t e a d o f u s in g t h e l o c a l p o p u l a t io n t o do th e
c o n s t r u c t i o n w ork, w o rk ers from V en ezuela and Colom bia w ere im p o rte d
a t c h e a p e r r a t e s , c a u s in g i n c i d e n t s w ith th e l o c a l p e o p le .
The sp a c e c e n t e r i s n o t i n t e g r a t e d i n t o th e F rench G uianese
21
l a n d s c a p e . F o r e s e e a b ly , th e Kourou base i s n o t c a p a b le o f t r i g g e r i n g
economic developm ent i n F ren ch G uiana. The f a c t t h a t h e te ro g e n e o u s
e th n i c gro u p s w ere c a l l e d upon t o work t h e r e has c r e a t e d s o c i a l d i f f i
c u l t i e s and problem s o f p r o m is c u ity . T h is sudden im p o rt o f a work
f o r c e , when added t o t h e i n f l u x , o f M e tr o p o lita n s who came t o work on
t h e b a s e , c r e a t e d a h ig h e r demand upon th e l o c a l m ark et and cau sed a
r a p i d i n c r e a s e o f p r i c e s i n t h e d e p a rtm e n t. U n t i l now, Kourou seems t o
have c r e a te d more problem s th a n i t has s o lv e d .
The f a i l u r e o f a l l e f f o r t s t o b r in g F ren ch G u ia n a ,o u t of .its s le e p
r e s u l t s from s e v e r a l c a u s e s ; i n n e r f a c t o r s such as a perm anent u n d e r
developm ent c h a r a c t e r i z e d by s t a g n a t i o n o f t h e s ta n d a r d o f l i v i n g and
a l a c k o f e f f o r t t o i n v e s t i g a t e th e G uianese p o t e n t i a l . Only a r a t h e r
t h i n p o r t i o n o f t h e la n d a lo n g t h e c o a s t i s e x p l o i t e d . The g r e a t e r
p a r t o f th e t e r r i t o r y has rem ained m o stly u n to u ch ed s in c e th e end o f
th e e x p l o i t a t i o n o f g o ld . To t h i s must be added t h e f a c t t h a t f o r a
lo n g tim e F rench G uiana had t h e r e p u t a t i o n of. b e in g i n h o s p i t a b l e and
t h i s d is c o u ra g e d p r o s p e c t i v e im m ig ra n ts. U n f o r tu n a te ly , i t s t i l l
s u f f e r s from th e co n seq u en ces o f h a v in g been a p e n a l c o lo n y . I f any
th i n g i s t o be done, F ren ch G uiana m ust s to p b ro o d in g o v e r i t s bad
r e p u t a t i o n and i t s p a s t . T h is a t t i t u d e has enco u rag ed s t a g n a t i o n . The
c lim a te i s no w orse th a n t h a t o f much o f A s ia o r A f r ic a and i t has t h e
a d v a n ta g e o v e r G uadeloupe and M a rtin iq u e o f b e in g s h e l t e r e d from
to rn a d o e s and h u r r i c a n e s and o f b e n e f i t i n g from s t a b l e c l i m a t i c c o n d i
t i o n s .
A f t e r t h e w ar, F rench G uiana i n h e r i t e d th e s t a t u s o f F rench d e p a r t -
22
m ent. As i n th e o t h e r two d e p a rtm e n ts , t h e change sounded p ro m is in g
but d id n o t b e a r any f r u i t s . The t i g h t e n i n g o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s betw een
F rench G uiana and F ra n ce c r e a te d a s t a t e o f i n a c t i o n i n t h e d e p a rtm e n t.
S in c e a l l d e c is i o n s a r e made in F ra n c e , no l o c a l i n i t i a t i v e o r in n o
v a ti o n i s p l a u s i b l e u n le s s approved b e fo re h a n d . Such a ,p r o c e s s ta k e s
tim e b e c au se o f t h e d i s t a n c e betw een t h e two c o u n t r i e s . The f a c t t h a t
t h e F ren ch a d m i n i s t r a t i v e system i s b urdened by i t s own c o m p le x itie s
has f l a g r a n t r e p e r c u s s io n s i n F ren ch G uiana. I t i s . a h in d ra n c e t o any
a tte m p ts a t sp o n ta n e o u s a c ti o n .
F re n ch G uiana i s u n d e rp o p u la te d : 6 3 ,0 0 0 i n h a b i t a n t s f o r a t e r r i -
2
t o r y o f 90,000 km . Most o f th e p o p u la tio n i s c o n c e n tr a te d m
Cayenne, S t . L a u ren t,. Sinnam ary and Kourou w hich a re t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
c e n te r s of t h e d e p a rtm e n t, a l l l o c a t e d a lo n g th e c o a s t . As i n t h e o t h e r
d e p a rtm e n ts , t h e p o p u la tio n m ig r a te s from t h e c o u n try t o th e c i t y .
A g r i c u l t u r e has n e v e r been r e a l l y p la n n e d and has rem ained, u n d e r
d e v e lo p e d . T h is i s g e t t i n g w orse and t h e d ep a rtm e n t i s more and more
d ependent upon F ra n ce f o r a l l means o f .l i v e l i h o o d . W ith t h e exodus o f
th e r u r a l p o p u l a t io n , t h e t r a d i t i o n a l way o f l i f e i s d i s r u p t e d and
th r e a te n e d .
R e c e n tly , th e F ren ch governm ent has b eg u n -a new p o l ic y of immi
g r a t i o n t o F rench G uiana. The d e p a rtm e n t has been ch o sen as a r e l o c a
t i o n a r e a f o r L a o tia n re f u g e e s b e lo n g in g t o t h e Hmong g ro u p . As f a r as
t h e r e f u g e e s th e m s e lv e s a re c o n c e rn e d , t h e e x p e rie n c e seems s u c c e s s f u l .
But t h e l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s do n o t s e e i t w ith th e same optim ism :
"Les c o n d itio n s dans l e s q u e l l e s 1 ' im m ig ra tio n e s t menee p re se n te m e n t
23
p a r l e g o u v ern em en t. . . e q u iv a u t a une s u b s t i t u t i o n de p o p u l a t i o n . " ^
They do n o t t h i n k t h a t th e e x p e rie n c e i s sim p ly a h u m a n ita r ia n g e s tu r e
but a c c u s e F ra n ce o f m ixing i t s p r i o r i t i e s . Young. G u ian ese have t o
e m ig ra te b e cau se n o .jo b s a re a v a i l a b l e i n . t h e i r c o u n try ; how ever,
i n s t e a d . o f t r y i n g t o f in d s o l u t i o n s t o t h i s p r e s s i n g p ro b le m , t h e
F ren ch a u t h o r i t i e s e n c o u rag e t h e coming o f o th e r s e t t l e r s such as t h e
Hmongs o r t h e m e t r o p o li ta n F re n c h . A lthough th e l o c a l l e a d e r s r e c o g n iz e
t h a t im m ig ra tio n i s n e c e s s a r y t o t h e developm ent o f F re n c h G uiana,
th e y w ant c o n t r o l o v e r i t . They a ls o want th e im m ig ran ts t o be b e t t e r
i n t e g r a t e d w ith t h e l o c a l p o p u l a t io n . At t h i s p o i n t , t h e Hmongs l i v e
i n t h e i r own v i l l a g e s , grow t h e i r own food and keep t h e i r own t r a d i
t i o n s .
The a r r i v a l o f t h e Hmongs i n 1976 has a d d e d .a new e th n i c component
t o a s o c i e t y w hich was a lr e a d y fra g m e n te d . The b la c k p o p u la tio n i s
d iv id e d i n t o two g ro u p s: an u p p e r c l a s s o f means w hich c o m p rises
p r o f e s s i o n a l s and c i v i l s e r v a n t s , and a poor low er c l a s s made o f sm a ll
fa r m e r s , w o rk ers and o th e r s who a r e i r r e g u l a r l y em ployed. T h ere i s no
e q u iv a le n t t o th e beke group of M a rtin iq u e , b u t th e u p p e r c l a s s i s
r a t h e r numerous compared t o t h e r e s t o f th e p o p u la tio n . Among th e o th e r
e th n ic gro u p s w h ic h .s h a r e t h e F ren ch G uianese t e r r i t o r y a r e t h e I n d ia n s
who a r e slo w ly d im in is h in g i n num ber, and b la c k t r i b e s , , d e sc e n d a n t o f
maroon s la v e s who l i v e m o stly on th e b o r d e r w ith S urinam . T hese v a r io u s
e th n i c g ro u p s , t o w hich can be added th e w h ite p o p u l a t io n , do n o t m ix,
and one can h a r d ly t h i n k o f t h e French G u ia n e s e ,p o p u la tio n as. a u n i t .
The b a la n c e betw een th e s e gro u p s has become even more f r a g i l e w ith t h e
24
im p l a n t a ti o n o f K ourou, w hich has n o t im proved r a c e r e l a t i o n s .
The s e m i - c o l o n ia l s t a t u s o f th e d e p a rtm e n t and i t s underdevelopm ent
e x p la in th e s u ll e n n e s s o f some o f th e l o c a l l e a d e r s and t h e u n e a s in e s s
o f many o f th e W hites l i v i n g t h e r e . Whereas i n M a rtin iq u e and Guade
lo u p e , th e h o s t i l i t y o f th e p o p u la tio n o f te n comes th ro u g h , French
G uiana seems t o be a l l q u i e t n e s s . T his i s o n ly an a p p e a ra n c e . T here i s
among t h e p o p u la tio n a f e e l i n g o f b ein g e x p l o i t e d . T his im p re s s io n i s
r e i n f o r c e d by th e ab sen c e o f a t r u l y d e m o c ra tic s t r u c t u r e w hich would
a llo w th e F rench G u ian ese t o e x p re s s t h e i r d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n . The regim e
i s o f te n th o u g h t r e p r e s s i v e and th e e l e c t i o n s n o t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e ,
l a r g e l y b e c au se o f t h e l a c k o f e d u c a tio n and o f p o l i t i c a l aw areness o f
, . 18
t h e p o p u la tio n .
The f u t u r e o f F ren ch G uiana can ta k e two d i r e c t i o n s : e i t h e r some
t h in g i s done t o b r in g th e t e r r i t o r y t o b e t t e r c o o p e r a tio n w ith M a r ti
n iq u e and G uadeloupe, o r i t i s r e i n t e g r a t e d w i t h in t h e L a t i n Am erican
c o n t i n e n t . The f i r s t s o l u t i o n seems t o be t h e m ost l o g i c a l . However,
a f t e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n , i t may n o t seem .re a s o n a b le b e cau se o f .t h e d i s t a n c e
w hich s e p a r a te s t h e t h r e e d e p a rtm e n ts and b e c au se o f v a rio u s' a n ta g o
nism s betw een t h e G uianese and t h e p o p u la tio n o f th e i s l a n d s . T here a r e
v e ry few exchanges betw een t h e t h r e e t e r r i t o r i e s a t th e moment. T h is
m ight mean t h a t t h e s o l u t i o n l i e s e lse w h e re : F ren ch G uiana c o u ld be
d i s s o c i a t e d from th e i s l a n d s and r e s i t u a t e d w i t h in i t s S outh Am erican
c o n te x t. As a f i r s t s t e p , i t would be n e c e s s a ry t o c o n c e n t r a t e t h e
e f f o r t o f th e c o u n tr y i n t o m aking i t a v a l i d economic u n i t l i k e i t s
n e ig h b o r , Surinam . I t c o u ld th e n t r a d e w ith Surinam and i t s o th e r
25
. __ . _ JT J
n e ig h b o r , B r a z i l . The d a n g e r o f such a s o l u t i o n would be t h e t o t a l
s e p a r a t i o n o f F re n ch G uiana from t h e A n t i l l e s and t h e F ren ch n a t i o n .
I t seems obvious t h a t i f F re n ch G uiana e v e r re a c h e d t h e aim s t a t e d
above, i t s c o n n e c tio n w ith F ra n ce would be t o t a l l y a n a c h r o n i s t i c and
u n n e c e s s a ry .
At p r e s e n t , F ren ch G uiana rem ain s i n i t s s t a t e o f som nolence.
I t o f te n seems t o be a f o r g o t t e n d e p a rtm e n t.. I t s h i s t o r y and l o c a t i o n
m a k e 'i t an i s o l a t e d c a s e , and i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o f o r e s e e w ith any
c e r t a i n t y what new developm ents t h e f u t u r e c o u ld b r in g .
Under fo rm e r g o v ernm ents, p o l i t i c a l o p p o s itio n s t e a d i l y d e v e lo p e d
i n th e t h r e e d e p a rtm e n ts , and c r i t i c i s m a g a in s t d e p a r t m e n t a l i z a t io n
and t h e F rench i n f l u e n c e became more and more a c u te . The d i f f i c u l t i e s
e x p e rie n c e d by M a rtin iq u e c a u se d Aime C e s a ir e t o make th e fo llo w in g
b i t t e r s ta te m e n t: "Le d ia lo g u e n ' e s t p lu s p o s s i b l e p u is q u e l e g o u v e r-
nement n i e absolum ent q u ' i l y a i t un problem e p o l i t i q u e m a r t i n i q u a i s .
Done i l c r e e une im passe e t e n g en d re l a v io le n c e de l a p a r t de ceux
q u i s ' y s e n te n t a c c u l e s . La t e n s i o n .r .a c ia le r e s u l t e de ce s e n tim e n t
d 'im p u is s a n c e q u i p e u t donner l i e u a des a c te s de d e s p e r a d o s . N 'im p o rte
20
quoi p e u t a r r i v e r a n 'i m p o r te q u e l m oment."
W ith t h e r e c e n t coming t o power o f a l e f t - w i n g governm ent, one
w hich m ight be more i n c l i n e d t o l i s t e n t o th e g rie v a n c e s o f th e t h r e e
d e p a rtm e n ts , one m ight e x p e c t changes t o be u n d e r way. As y e t , no
c l e a r - c u t p o l ic y has been d e fin e d r e g a r d in g t h e s t a t u s o f t h e o v e rs e a s
d e p a rtm e n ts . One f a c t i s known: th e p r e s e n t governm ent i s opposed t o
26
th e i d e a o f in d e p e n d e n c e . L o c a l l e f t - w i n g a u t h o r i t i e s and groups
n e c e s s a r i l y go a lo n g w ith t h i s o r i e n t a t i o n . They t h e r e f o r e p ro p o se t h a t
th e t h r e e d e p a rtm e n ts be g r a n te d a c e r t a i n d e g re e o f autonomy w i t h in
t h e F ren ch n a t i o n . The governm ent ap proves o f t h i s o p tio n w hich f a l l s
i n w ith i t s p o l i t i c s o f d e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n o f power t o l o c a l a s s e m b lie s .
The i d e a o f autonomy i t s e l f rem ain s t o b e ; . c l a r i f i e d . I t h as been
d e fin e d as t h e maximum am ount. o f lo c a l, d i r e c t i o n c o m p a tib le w ith th e
m a in te n a n c e o f some form o f r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith F ra n c e . Those i n fa v o r
o f autonomy se e i t as a f i r s t s te p to w ard in d ep en d en ce a lth o u g h
n o th in g i s s a id as t o how in d ep en d en ce can be re a c h e d by means o f autcr.
autonom y.
R ecent e l e c t i o n s ( r e g i o n a l a s s e m b lie s ) , h e ld i n F e b ru a ry 1983,
e n su re d t h e v i c t o r y o f l e f t - w i n g p a r t i e s i n M a rtin iq u e a n d .F re n c h
G uiana, but n o t i n G uadeloupe. However, due to th e p r o p o r t i o n a l ty p e
o f b a l l o t u se d f o r t h e s e e l e c t i o n s , th e s o c i a l i s t s and t h e i r l o c a l
a l l i e s w i l l n o t be a b le t o c o n tr o l a lo n e t h e r e g i o n a l a s s e m b lie s . The
r e s u l t s of, th e s e e l e c t i o n s h i n t a t t h e p r e c a r io u s n e s s o f t h e im p lan
t a t i o n o f s o c i a l i s t p a r t i e s i n th e o v e rs e a s d e p a rtm e n ts , a f a c t .w h i c h
w i l l endanger, t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f s o c i a l i s t p o l i c i e s . . Through th e
newly c r e a te d r e g i o n a l a s s e m b lie s , t h e governm ent p ro p o se d t o d e le g a te
e x te n s iv e powers t o l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s . T h is i n t e n t i o n seem s,, how ever,
compromised by th e f a c t t h a t r e g i o n a l a s s e m b lie s m ight v e ry e a s i l y
p ro v e d i f f i c u l t t o g o v e rn . The e x a c t r o l e and powers o f t h e s e r e g i o n a l
a s s e m b lie s a re s t i l l t o be d e te rm in e d . A doubt rem ain s a s t o w h e th e r
t h i s i n i t i a t i v e o f t h e F rench governm ent w i l l have any p o s i t i v e
27
r e s u l t s f o r t h e t h r e e o v e rs e a s d e p a rtm e n ts .
I d e a l l y , i f t h e t h r e e d e p a rtm e n ts a re t o r e g a i n and m a in ta in t h e i r
s p e c i f i c i t y , th e y s h o u ld become in d ep e n d e n t n a ti o n s and, e v e n tu a ll y ,
f in d t h e i r p la c e w i t h i n t h e o t h e r i s l a n d - n a t i o n s o f t h e C a rib b e a n .
For th o s e i n f a v o r o f in d e p e n d e n c e , i t i s n o t an a l t e r n a t i v e , . but a
n e c e s s i t y . To t h e p i c t u r e s o f doom drawn by t h e i r op p o n en ts who se e
in d ep en d en ce i n term s o f econom ic d i s a s t e r , th e y r e p l y t h a t th e p r e s e n t
s i t u a t i o n o f t h e t h r e e d e p a rtm e n ts i s a lr e a d y e c o n o m ic a lly d i s a s t r o u s .
Indep en d en ce would mean a t l e a s t th e r i g h t t o d e te rm in e o n e 's own
p r i o r i t i e s and th e p o s s i b i l i t y t o a c h ie v e c u l t u r a l c o h e s io n . Edouard
G l i s s a n t n o te s i n Le D is c o u rs a n t i l l a i s t h a t i " L 'o u v e r t u r e c a r a l b e ,
l o i n t a i n e , i n c e r t a i n e , e s t a m em ede p o r t e r n o t r e p e u p le a son re n o u -
v e lle m e n t e t de l e d o t e r d 'a m b itio n n euve, en l e r e n d a n t p r e s e n t a son
esp ac e e t a' s a r e l a t i o n vecue ( 1 ’ a n t i l l a n i t e e s t p r e s e n t e e n . l u i ) e t
en l e re n d a n t p r e s e n t a ceux q u i p a r t a g e n t c e t e sp ac e avec l u i ( i l e s t
* 21
p r e s e n t dans 1 ' a n t i l l a n i t e ) . . " For G l i s s a n t , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o
impose t o t h e " o th e r " (F ra n c e , th e o th e r C a rib b e a n n a t i o n s ) th e image
o f t h e s p e c i f i c F ren ch C a rib b e a n r e a l i t y . T h is can o n ly be .a c h ie v e d
th ro u g h in d e p e n d e n c e .
I n a c t u a l f a c t , in d e p e n d e n c e rem ains n o th in g but a .re m o te p o s s i
b i l i t y . E xcept f o r l i v e l y , but s m a ll, l o c a l p o l i t i c a l g ro u p s, th e
o p in io n i s n o t o v erw helm ingly i n f a v o r o f in d ep en d en ce i n t h e t h r e e
d e p a rtm e n ts . T h e ir ambiguous p o s i t i o n to w ard l i b e r a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i z e s
th e F ren ch C a rib b e a n . H is to r y has shaped m e n t a l i t i e s to w ard depen d en ce.
The i d e a o f in d ep e n d e n c e g iv e s b i r t h t o f e a r and u n c e r t a i n t y . T h is
28
s t a t e o f f a c t has been a g g ra v a te d ov er t h e p a s t t h i r t y - f i v e y e a rs
s in c e d e p a r t m e n t a l i z a t i o n has i n c r e a s e d t h e p o l i t i c a l , econom ic and
even c u l t u r a l dependence o f t h e t h r e e d e p a rtm e n ts on F ra n c e . U n less th e
v a rio u s movements f o r in d ep en d en ce u n i t e and c o n v in c e t h e p o p u la tio n
of t h e t h r e e d e p a rtm e n ts t h a t in d ep en d en ce i s in d e e d p o s s i b l e , i t w i l l
ro t be a c h ie v e d . The F re n ch C a rib b e a n p e o p le h ave t o u n d e rs ta n d and
accept t h e f a c t t h a t , a lth o u g h in d ep e n d e n c e w i l l mean h a rd economic
s a c r i f i c e s , i t i s b e t t e r i n t h e lo n g ru n t o pro d u ce o n e 's , own means o f
L iv e lih o o d th a n t o rem ain u n h a p p ily s u b je c te d t o th e F re n ch i n f l u e n c e ,
is f a r as th e p o s i t i o n o f F ra n c e i t s e l f i s c o n c e rn e d , t h e s p e c u l a ti o n s
of R ic h a rd D.E. B urton i n A s s im ila tio n o r Independence? P r o s p e c ts f o r
M a rtin iq u e about th e p o s s i b l e a t t i t u d e o f a l e f t - w i n g governm ent tow ard
independence m ight v e ry w e ll come tru e s
A l e f t - w i n g governm ent would u n d o u b te d ly be more s y m p a th e tic
t o t h e a n t i - d e p a r t m e n t a l i s t view b u t, so d e e p -r o o te d i s th e
c e n t r a l i s t a s s i m il a t i o n is m o f th e F ren ch l e f t , t h e r e can be
no g u a ra n te e t h a t i t would lo o k fa v o u ra b ly upon 'f i s s i p a r o u s
t e n d e n c ie s ' t h a t s e r i o u s l y t h r e a te n e d t h e i n t e g r i t y o f what
l i t t l e i s l e f t o f t h e i l l - f a t e d Union F r a n g a is e . And even i f ,
as i n th e c a s e o f t h e Comores, F ra n ce d id d e c id e t o w ith d ra w ,
e i t h e r i t would c o n tin u e t o c o n tr o l M a rtin iq u e i n d i r e c t l y
( as i t does D j i b o u t i ) o r i t would a b r u p tly and c y n i c a l l y
d i s c o n t in u e a l l f i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e and t h e im b a la n c e s
o f th e l o c a l economy— w hich F ra n c e i t s e l f h as c r e a t e d — would
i n e v i t a b l y l e a d t o m ajo r c a t a s t r o p h e . ^2
At t h i s p o i n t , t h e coming t o power o f th e l e f t - w i n g governm ent
la s had one conseq u en ce i n th e F ren ch d e p a rtm e n ts : v o te s a re g o in g t o
th e l e f t b u t away from th e movements f o r in d e p e n d e n c e . Aime C e s a ire
bas a c c e p te d t o p r e s i d e th e r e g i o n a l assem bly o f M a rtin iq u e and s t a t e d
h is p o s i t i o n i n t h e s e te rm s: " J e p r a t i q u e r a i l a p o l i t i q u e de l a main
29
i 23
t e n d u e .^ ." Asked h i s o p in io n r e g a r d in g t h e e a g e rn e s s o f m ost t o
e n t r u s t th e f u t u r e o f t h e t h r e e o v e rs e a s d e p a rtm e n ts t o th e F rench
governm ent, a d i s a p p o in te d M a rtin ic a n in d e p e n d a n ti s te d e c la re d !
" C e r ta in s o n t p r e f e r e a t t e n d r e s u r l e p as de l e u r p o r te que p a s s e
d e v an t eux l e c a d a v re de l ’E ta t C o lo n ia l. C 'e s t l e u r r e s p o n s a b i l i t e
m ais nous sommes p r e t s a assum er l a n o t r e quand s u r v i e n d r a 1 'e c h e c
* + 2k
i n e l u c t a b l e de c e t t e r e g i o n a l i s a t i o n . "
I I . H a i t i ! The P o l i t i c s o f D i s a s t e r
I n t h e e a r l y 1 9 8 0 's , t h e number o f . H a itia n s e m ig ra tin g t o F l o r i d a
has r a p i d l y i n c r e a s e d . P o v e r t y - s t r i c k e n , th e y have been coming t o t h e
U n ite d S t a t e s f o r n e a r l y a d e c a d e , c la im in g t o have f l e d p o l i t i c a l
p e r s e c u t i o n . B e sid es t h e h a rs h n e s s o f t h e p r e s e n t reg im e, t h e s e H a i t i a n
re f u g e e s a ls o f l e e a c o u n try w hich i s on th e b r in k o f d i s a s t e r .. The
p o p u la tio n i n c r e a s e on an i s l a n d w ith a v e ry l i m i t e d a r e a i s m aking
l i v i n g c o n d itio n s more and more p ro b le m a tic .. T hat t h e governm ent i s
n o t p re o c c u p ie d w ith o v e r p o p u l a t i o n 'i s , u n f o r t u n a t e l y , r e v e a le d by t h e
f a c t t h a t no a c c u r a te s t a t i s t i c s can be o b ta in e d as t o t h e a c tu a l
p o p u la tio n o f H a i t i . The f i g u r e m ost o f te n q u o te d i s around 5 m i l l i o n
o r s l i g h t l y o v e r. T h e re a r e th o s e who b e lie v e t h a t an e s tim a te o f
7 m i l l i o n i s c l o s e r t o r e a l i t y . N e ith e r t h e la n d n o r t h e economy o f
H a i ti can fe e d t h a t many p e o p le . No o t h e r o u t l e t i s l e f t but e m ig r a tio n
w hich i s r e s o r t e d t o by a l l c l a s s e s o f th e p o p u la tio n . I n t h i s p e r i o d
o f r e l a t i v e p e a ce on th e i s l a n d , t h e o u tp o u rin g o f re f u g e e s i s th e
_________________________ 30
o n ly s ig n t h a t d i f f i c u l t i e s m H a i ti a re s t e a d i l y grow ing.
H a i ti s h a re s w ith t h e o v e rs e a s d e p a rtm e n ts o f F ra n c e bo th geo
g r a p h ic l o c a t i o n and h i s t o r i c a l p a s t . But i t i s a s o v e r e ig n la n d w hich
has f i e r c e l y g a in e d . i t s in d e p e n d e n c e . As a n a t i o n , i t i s , t h u s , q u i t e
removed from t h e t h r e e d e p a rtm e n ts , w hich s t i l l f e e l c o lo n iz e d and
som etim es i l l - d e f i n e d . . W hereas H a i t i i s pro u d o f i t s i d e n t i t y , th e
p e o p le o f t h e F re n ch d e p a rtm e n ts have been robbed, o f t h e i r s and d e s i r e
t o r e i n s t a t e i t a t a l l c o s t s . F or th e p o p u la tio n o f t h e s e t e r r i t o r i e s
w hich a re s t i l l u n d e r c o l o n i a l r u l e , H a i t i c o u ld c o n s t i t u t e a fo c u s
o f f a s c i n a t i o n and a t t r a c t i o n . A f te r a l l t h e i r t r i b u l a t i o n s , t h e
H a itia n s r e p r e s e n t a symbol o f e n d u rin g d i g n i t y , r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e i r
p r e s e n t s t a t e . T h e ir c o u n tr y i s th e one w h e r e .th e b la c k c u l t u r a l
t r a d i t i o n s have been b e s t p r o t e c t e d and m a in ta in e d . T hat H a i ti i s a
sym bol, t h e r e i s no d o u b t. T hat i t i s a model i s . l e s s l i k e l y , e s p e
c i a l l y i n t h e l i g h t o f t h e e v e n ts w hich have ta k e n p la c e t h e r e i n th e
p a s t t w e n ty - f iv e y e a r s .
H a i t i ' s p a s t i s one o f i n c r e d i b l e v i o l e n c e , i t s h i s t o r y one o f
p o i n t l e s s d e a th and t e r r o r . T h is v io le n c e seems t o have l e d now here:
"T here a re deep f e e l i n g s o f i n s e c u r i t y and i n f e r i o r i t y , . r a r e l y acknow l
edged, t h a t t y p i c a l l y a p p e a r i n t h e p e o p l e 's r e l u c t a n c e i f n o t i n a b i l
i t y t o r e c o g n iz e , l e t a lo n e a c c e p t, th e H a itia n , s i t u a t i o n a s . i t r e a l l y
e x i s t s . They r a r e l y acknow ledge H a i t i 's n a t i o n a l in co m p eten ce o r th e
f a c t t h a t t h i s p o o r b la c k c o u n tr y , no m a t te r why, i n alm o st two
25
c e n t u r i e s o f freedom h as l i t t l e t o show but u n i n t e r r u p t e d f a i l u r e . "
Today, H a i t i i s i s o l a t e d from th e r e s t o f th e C a rib b e a n . I t s
31
a t t i t u d e to w a rd t h e C a rib b ean econom ic i n s t i t u t i o n s w hich l i n k some
o f th e n e a rb y i s l a n d s , i s one o f t o t a l i n d i f f e r e n c e . T h is m ain ly comes
from t h e f a c t t h a t , t r a d i t i o n a l l y , t h e H a i ti a n e l i t e has n e v e r been
in v o lv e d i n t h e problem s o f i t s a r e a b u t has r e a c h e d .o u t tow ard
g r e a t e r la n d s such as F ra n c e , Canada o r t h e U n ite d S t a t e s f o r s o l u t i o n s .
Today th e i n f l u e n c e . o f F ra n ce upon H a i ti i s m in im a l, i f in d e e d one can
even c a l l t h e f a c t t h a t F rench i s s t i l l . t h e . o f f i c i a l la n g u a g e t h e r e
an " i n f l u e n c e . " H a i t i ' s p r e s e n t ,. from t h e . econom ic p o i n t o f view ,
i s dom inated by i t s g i a n t n e ig h b o r , t h e U n ite d S t a te s ,, w ith w hich i t
does m ost o f i t s t r a d e and whose i n t e r e s t i n H a i ti stem s m ain ly from
t h e f a c t t h a t i t l i e s n e x t t o Cuba.
To u n d e rs ta n d H a i t i ' s c u r r e n t s t a t e o f s t a g n a t i o n , i t i s n e c e s s a r y
t o go back and e v a lu a te what w ere and a r e t h e co n seq u en ces o f th e
D u v a lie r regim e and what t h e coming t o power o f h i s so n , Je a n -C la u d e
D u v a lie r , has b ro u g h t. From th e p o in t o f view o f an o u t s i d e r , i t seems
t h a t H a i t i has r e g a in e d a c e r t a i n p e a c e f u ln e s s and t h a t th e a u ra of
blood and v io le n c e w hich su rro u n d e d i t u n t i l D u v a l i e r 's d e a th has
re c e d e d . The t o u r i s t who s t e p s . down from t h e p la n e a t t h e a i r p o r t o f
P o r t- a u - P r i n c e and w a l k s . i n t o th e c i t y i s f i r s t s t r u c k w ith th e d e n s i t y
o f t h e p o p u l a t io n . The s t r e e t s a r e c o n s t a n t l y b u s t l i n g . Young women
c a r r y huge b a s k e ts o f m is c e lla n e o u s g o o d s..on t h e i r h e a d s . S t r e e t
v e n d o rs o f f e r t h e p a s s e r b y e v e r y th in g from c i g a r e t t e s and c o o k ie s t o
shaved i c e c o n e s ..T h e p o p u la tio n i s v e ry young and th e number of
c h i l d r e n i n t h e s t r e e t s i s overw helm ing. The o v e r a l l im p re s s io n i s one
o f calm p o v e r ty , s u p p o r tin g th e s u p p o s it io n t h a t l i v i n g c o n d itio n s.
32
are perhaps b e tte r than a n tic ip a te d .
1) The D u v a lie r Regime and i t s C onsequences
I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o p i n p o in t t h e d o c t r i n e o f "P apa Doc" D u v a lie r .
At t h e b e g in n in g o f h i s c a r e e r , D u v a lie r worked w ith J e a n P rie e -M a rs
and J a c q u e s Roumain, and p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e I n d i g e n i s t movement-. He
was a q u i e t man w ith a r e p u t a t i o n f o r -h atm le ssn ess who w orked h i s way
up q u i t e u n d b s tr u s iv e l y . I n . t h e c o u rs e o f h i s a s s o c i a t i o n w ith P r i c e -
Mars and Roumain, D u v a lie r soon r e a l i z e d t h e a d v a n ta g e s o f e x p l o i t i n g
th e s c i e n t i f i c aims o f e th n o lo g y t o a c h ie v e p o l i t i c a l g o a ls and of
u s in g t h e s o c i o - c u l t u r a l s t r u c t u r e s o f Voodoo as an in s tr u m e n t o f power
I n th e words o f Rene D e p e s tr e , " D u v a lie r e t l e s a u tr e s hom onales q u i
c o l o n i s e r e n t l ' i n s t i t u t d 'E t h n o lo g i c , i n e l i n e r e n t l e c o n c e p t de n e g r i -
tu d e q u i r e p o n d a it a un l e g i t i m e souci. de v a l o r i s a t i o n de nos compo-
s a n te s a f r i c a i n e s v e r s une m y th o lo g ie t o t a l i t a i r e q u i s ’ e s t a e h a rn e e a
.* 26
e t o u f f e r l e s a s p i r a t i o n s r e e l l e s du ..peuple h a i t i e n . " I n o th e r w ords,
D u v a lie r u se d th e them es o f Voodoo and b la c k suprem acy to. deny t h e
p e o p le econom ic and p o l i t i c a l c o n t r o l ov er t h e i r c o u n tr y . The accom
p lis h m e n ts .of. th e D u v a lie r regim e a re summed up q u ite , s u c c i n t l y by
L. M an ig ati
Le r o l e h i s t o r i q u e de l a p a p a d o c ra c ie a u ra e t e , sur. l e p la n
c o l l e c t i f , l a d e p o l i t i s a t i o n des f o r c e s t r a d i t i o n n e l l e s ,
l a m is e .a nu des c o n t r a d i c t i o n s du sy stem e t r a d i t i o n n e l
p o r te e s "a l 'a b s u r d e p a r l e reg im e, 1 'i n s e r t i o n des m asses
p a y san n es dans l e mouvement p o l i t i q u e sa n s e d u c a tio n n i
c o n s c ie n c e p o l i t i q u e v e r i t a b l e s , un c e r t a i n b r a s s a g e s o c i a l
33
au sommet p a r l a m ontee de q u e lq u e s s e c t e u r s s o c ia u x m o d estes
au c e r c l e des p r i v i l e g i e s de l a f o r t u n e e t de l a p o l i t i q u e ,
l'h y p o th e q u e de l 'a v e n i r econom ique n a t i o n a l au p r o f i t de
l 'e t r a n g e r e t 1 ' e v id e n c e que D u v a lie r lui-m em e, a d e fa u t
d * a v o ir e t e un r e p a r a t e u r ou meme un j u s t i c i e r , a e t e pour
beaucoup un r e v e l a t e u r des maux s t r u c t u r e l s d 'H a i t i dont
l a g r a v i t e e s t i l l u s t r e e p a r I 'e x o d e de nos e e rv e a u x e t
d 'u n e p a r t i e a la rm a n te de se s f o r c e s v i v e s , l a i s s a n t san s
encadrem ent p o l i t i q u e s u f f i s a n t e t sa n s s tim u la n t e f f i c a c e
un p o t e n t i e l humain p o u r ta n t r i c h e en v i r t u a l i t e s , de 5
m i l l i o n s d 'h a b i t a n t s , l e pays r e e l . ^ '■
T hus, t h e D u v a lie r regim e o n ly made more ov io u s th e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s
a lr e a d y e x i s t i n g w i th in H a i ti a n s o c i e t y w ith o u t e v e r b e in g a b le t o
m a in ta in any k in d o f p o l i t i c a l and economic s t a b i l i t y , w ith o u t e v e r
p ro m o tin g any k in d o f p r o g r e s s —- t h i s d e s p i t e i t s v i o le n c e and i t s
b r u t a l i t y .
The r i s e t o power o f D u v a lie r was no a c c i d e n t. He came from a lo n g
l i n e o f d i c t a t o r s who r u le d H a i t i f o r a c e n tu r y and a h a l f . The f a c t
t h a t su c h a regim e can e x i s t r e v e a ls th e fu n d am en tal d e fo rm a tio n o f
H a i t i a n s o c i e t y . When D u v a lie r came t o pow er, H a i ti a n s o c i e t y was i l l ,
and t h e r u l i n g c l a s s e s w ere u n a b le t o s o lv e i t s c o n t r a d i c t i o n s w ith
t r a d i t i o n a l m eans. D u v a lie r o f f e r e d new fo rm u la s and th e w i l l i n g n e s s
t o u se v io le n c e t o a d e g re e n e v e r c o n c e iv a b le b e f o r e . When a c o u n try
re a c h e s such a s t a t e o f d e m o r a liz a tio n , d i c t a t o r s h i p i s u s u a l l y t h e
r e c o u r s e — as was t h e c a s e i n t h e German r e p u b l i c o f Weimar.
D u v a lie r s k i l l f u l l y made u s e o f h i s own background t o e s t a b l i s h
h is regim e: f a c in g p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s t r a d i t i o n a l l y in t h e hands o f th e
m u la tto e l i t e , he prom oted b la c k suprem acy. I n d o ing s o , he drew t o
h im s e lf t h e d i s s a t i s f i e d b la c k m a j o r it y . He r a p i d l y became th e symbol
o f b la c k advancem ent and s u b s e q u e n tly denounced th e c o n d e sc e n d in g
34
a t t i t u d e s o f th e M u la tto e s to w ard t h e " a u t h e n t i c " B la c k s. By th u s
d iv id i n g t h e p o p u la tio n i n t o two opposed f a c t i o n s , he m a in ta in e d power.
Power had th e n p a s s e d from th e hands o f th e t r a d i t i o n a l m a s te r s , th e
M u la tto e s , t o th o s e o f th e b la c k m a s te r s . To th e s t a r v i n g m asse s, th e
28
d i f f e r e n c e was n o t v e ry g r e a t .
D u v a l i e r 's d i s c o u r s e s l e d - t h e p o p u la tio n t o b e li e v e t h a t he was
a c ti n g on t h e i r b e h a l f . I t was n o t to o d i f f i c u l t f o r him t o co n v in c e
l a r g e l y - i l l i t e r a t e a u d ie n c e s w ith o u t any k in d o f p o l i t i c a l fo rm a tio n .
By m aking h i s sp e ec h e s i n F re n c h , w hich i s o n ly u n d e rs to o d by a m inor
i t y , he d id n o t im prove h i s r e l a t i o n s w ith t h e m a sse s. T hat in i t s e l f
was a s ig n o f h i s l i m i t e d s i n c e r i t y . He c la im e d t o be one o f th e
d e fe n d e rs o f n e g r i t u d e , b u t o n ly as a s t r a t e g i c move. J e a n P ric e -M a rs
h i m s e lf , a t th e age o f 92, denounced th e D u v a l i e r i s t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
o f n e g r i t u d e . I n a b i t t e r l e t t e r t o P r o f e s s o r Rene P i q u i o n , . he r e v e a le d
by p u t t i n g t h e q u e s ti o n i n t o p r o p e r p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e n o n - s c i e n t i f i c
c h a r a c t e r o f D u v a l i e r 's id e o lo g y , w hich t r i e d t o tr a n s f o r m H a i t i 's
29
h i s t o r y i n t o one o f r a c i a l c o n f l i c t betw een B lacks and M u la tto e s .
I t i s t r u e t h a t th e D u v a lie r regim e a llo w e d th e coming t o power
o f e le m en ts o f t h e p o p u la tio n w hich had been k e p t a s id e u n t i l th e n ;
t h e b la c k m id d le c l a s s e s . But t h e i n d i v i d u a l s who su c c e e d e d i n becoming
p a r t o f t h e p o l i t i c a l m achine d id so o n ly as D u v a l i e r i s t a g e n ts . They
became su b m is s iv e and d id n o th in g t o prom ote t h e w e l l- b e in g o f th e
m a j o r i t y . They had no o t h e r o p tio n t o im prove t h e i r s o c i a l s t a t u s .
I n o t h e r w ords, th e y s u p p o rte d th e regim e i n . o r d e r t o g a in from i t a t
th e p e r s o n a l l e v e l . I n most c a s e s , t h e i r m o tiv a tio n s w ere p u r e ly
35
p ra g m a tic . One o f D u v a l i e r 's s t r e n g t h s was t h a t h e was a b le t o m anip
u l a t e t h e s e p a r t i s a n s ., by d i s t r i b u t i n g f a v o r s and e n c o u ra g in g
j e a l o u s i e s , t o p r e v e n t any a tte m p te d p l o t a g a in s t h is .p e r s o n ,.
I n o r d e r t o keep t h e r u r a l p o p u la tio n s u n d e r c o n t r o l , D u v a lie r
s p re a d rum ors o f - h i s a s s o c i a t i o n w ith th e Voodoo g o d s. He d e c la r e d t h a t
he was endowed w ith s p i r i t u a l p o w e rs,:‘and he u se d t h e s t r u c t u r e s . o f th e
Voodoo c u l t as an. in s tr u m e n t o f d o m in a tio n . At th e same, tim e , h i s
a g e n ts i n f i l t r a t e d a ll . l e v e l s o f th e Voodoo o r g a n i z a t i o n and e s t a b l i s h e d
t h e i r suprem acy o v e r t h i s m ain a s p e c t of c o u n try l i f e . . H aving th u s
p e n e t r a t e d even th e d e e p e s t r e a c h e s o f H a i t i a n s o c i e t y , D u v a l i e r 's
power was s o l i d l y a n c h o re d .
One w onders how D u v a lie r was a b le t o m a in ta in h i s regim e f o r as
lo n g as he d i d . The t r u t h i s t h a t t h e o p p o s it i o n was. n e i t h e r o r g a n iz e d
n o r s tr o n g e n o u g h .to f i g h t him w ith any chan ce o f s u c c e s s .. A ll s o c i a l
f o r c e s w hich t r a d i t i o n a l l y fom ent r e v o l t s o r r e v o l u t io n s rem ained q u i e t ,
The u p p e r c l a s s , which, had had i t s power ta k e n away.,, was .e ith e r i n
e x i l e o r view ed i t s econom ic s i t u a t i o n as c o n s t a n t l y . t h r e a te n e d , w hich
d i s s i p a t e d i t s in flu e n c e ,. The r e s t o f t h e b o u r g e o i s ie , th ough i t d id
n o t a c t i v e l y p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e re g im e , c o lla b o r a te d , w ith i t i n o r d e r
t o p r o t e c t i t s b e lo n g in g s . D u v a lie r n e v e r t r u s t e d t h e Army and he
c r e a te d h i s own m i l i t a r y c o r p s , th e w ell-know n T o n to ns-M aeoutes. Many
o f f i c e r s o f th e r e g u l a r army gave t h e i r l i v e s i n a tte m p ts a t o v e r
th ro w in g t h e d i c t a t o r s h i p . They i n t u r n w ere r e p la c e d by D u v a lie r
f a v o r i t e s . T h is soon n e u t r a l i z e d th e Army as a f o r c e o f o p p o s itio n ..
The C a th o lic C hurch, a f t e r den o u n cin g t h e e x c e s s e s o f th e regim e and
36
b e in g s e v e r e ly p u rg e d , ren o u n ced th e h o p e le s s t a s k o f r e s i s t i n g and
s u b m itte d t o th e reg im e. The w orking f o r c e , which, was n e v e r p o l i t i c a l l y
o r g a n iz e d , d id n o t c o n s t i t u t e a v i a b l e o p p o s it i o n . A m in o r ity o r g a n iz e d
i t s e l f i n t o c l a n d e s t i n e a c t i v i t i e s , b u t . t h i s rem ained a t m ost a m ar- ..•
g i n a l movement. As f o r th e s t u d e n t s , th e y n e v e r .had. a c h a n ce . The
s tu d e n t m il ie u was im m ed ia te ly perm eated by a g e n ts o f t h e reg im e.
A dm ission t o t h e u n i v e r s i t y became o n ly p o s s i b l e t h r o u g h .'c a r e f u l
s c r e e n in g , e l i m i n a t i n g . a l l p o t e n t i a l l y d angerous e le m e n ts . S lo w ly , key
p o s i t i o n s i n t h e c i v i l s e r v i c e w ere handed o v e r t o p r o te g e s o f th e
re g im e , th e p r e s s was s u b ju g a te d when i t showed s ig n s o f o p p o s it i o n ,
and many a new spaper o f f i c e was in v ad e d and ra n s a c k e d by armed com
mando groups o f T onton M acoutes. When h i s regim e was th u s f ir m l y e s t a b
l i s h e d , D u v a lie r d e c id e d t o ap p e ase i n t e r n a t i o n a l o p in io n and made h i s
r e p r e s s i v e m achine l e s s v i s i b l e , hoping, t h a t t h i s w ould h e lp .d ev elo p
t o u ris m and a t t r a c t ,f o r e ig n in v estm e n ts..
D e s p ite D u v a l i e r 's p o l i c y o f charm tow ard th e U n ite d S t a t e s , w hich
d id a t t r a c t some A m erican b u s in e s s , th e conseq u en ces o f h i s regim e
w ere d i s a s t r o u s f o r H a i t i . I n t e n y e a r s , t h e i s l a n d r e g r e s s e d tre m e n
d o u s ly . The i n d u s t r i a l developm ent bro u g h t by th e U n ite d S t a t e s was
o n ly s u p e r f i c i a l , u t i l i z i n g t h e l a b o r f o r c e o f th e c o u n tr y , but
b r in g in g v e ry l i t t l e i n r e t u r n . The H a i ti a n s ta n d a r d o f l i v i n g c o n ti n
ued t o d e c l i n e . By th e end o f 1970, th o u sa n d s o f p e a s a n ts w ere p la g u e d
by fam ine and many d ie d . N o th in g was done t o h e lp an a g r i c u l t u r e
doomed by t h e im poverishm ent o f t h e la n d .a n d la c k o f w a te r . The d e g re e
o f i l l i t e r a c y o f t h e p o p u la tio n ro s e from 85% t o 92%. The w hole
37
c a la m ito u s s t a t e o f t h e H a i t i a n economy b e tr a y e d t h e in co m p eten ce o f
th e H a i ti a n governm ent. W hatever p r o f i t s t h e r e w ere im m e d ia te ly went
i n t o t h e hands o f a few fa v o re d men who accu m u lated p r o d ig io u s w e a lth .
When D u v a lie r d ie d , i t was th o u g h t t h a t freedom would come, but h is
regim e has s u rv iv e d h i s d is a p p e a ra n c e .
2) Je a n -C la u d e D u v a lie r : Baby Doe i n Power
I n H a i t i , t h e p e o p le a w a ite d D u v a l i e r 's d e a th as t h e end o f a
n ig h tm a re . When D u v a lie r d id f i n a l l y d i e , t h e la c k o f change to o k them
by s u r p r i s e and g e n e r a te d a b u r s t o f a n g e r, w hich was s o o n .r e p r e s s e d
by t e r r o r i s t m eans. Some hope was l e f t , s in c e m ost o f th e h a tr e d was
bred, by D u v a lie r h i m s e lf . H is h a t e f u l p e rs o n gone, t h e i l l i t e r a t e
members o f th e p o p u l a t io n welcomed t h e son and h i s p s e u d o - l i b e r a l
p ro p ag an d a w ith t h e i l l u s i o n t h a t t h in g s would ch an g e. D is illu s io n m e n t
came f a s t e r th a n e x p e c te d .
As a man who has n e v e r s u f f e r e d , Je a n -C la u d e D u v a lie r i s l e s s
l i k e l y t o fe e d on v i o le n c e . H is l i f e i s t h a t o f a p la y -b o y e n jo y in g
t h e p l e a s u r e s o f w e a lth . U n f o r tu n a te ly , h i s p e r s o n a l im pact on p u b lic
l i f e i s s l i g h t . I f he had enough a u t h o r i t y t o im pose h i s own w i l l ,
he m ight have a. p o s i t i v e i n f l u e n c e . B ut, h i s o n ly p u b l ic f u n c tio n i s
t o be p h o to g ra p h e d f o r t h e new spapers d u r in g o f f i c i a l cerem o n ies and
t o r e a d th e sp e ec h e s w r i t t e n f o r him by o t h e r s . I t i s unanim ously
re c o g n iz e d t h a t Je a n -C la u d e D u v a lie r i s a puppet t r y i n g t o r e c o n c i l e
th e d e s i r e s o f h i s m o th e r, h i s f a t h e r 's l a s t w ish e s and th e recommen
d a ti o n s o f h i s a d v is o r s . H is m o th e r 's i n f lu e n c e i s p re d o m in a n t, and
38
he obeys h e r w i l l i n g n e s s t o keep i n t a c t w hat was i n h e r i t e d from
30
D u v a lie r . I n f a c t , t h e power r e s t s i n t h e hands o f Madame D u v a lie r
and i n t h o s e o f D u v a lie r* s s u r v iv in g f a v o r i t e s . T hus, t h e p o l i t i c a l
m achine c r e a te d and i n s t a l l e d by th e d i c t a t o r s u r v i v e s , and th o s e who
w ere f a v o re d u n d e r t h e f a t h e r have no re a s o n t o oppose t h e so n . A f t e r
to o many y e a rs o f s u b m issio n and t e r r o r , th e p o p u la tio n was re d u c e d
t o a s t a t e o f r e a d i n e s s t o a c c e p t t h i s new reg im e, and i t does so .
The e l i t e , be i t b la c k , w h ite o t m u la tto , has renew ed i t s s o l i d a r i t y
w ith t h e reg im e, and so have a l l th e s o c i a l f o r c e s .
I n t e r n a t i o n a l o p in io n i s p a c i f i e d by th e f a c t t h a t H a i t i does n o t
seem t o be u n s ta b l e anymore. A few s u r f a c e m o d if ic a tio n s have been
acco m p lish ed w hich r e f l e c t a f a l s e l i b e r a l i z a t i o n of t h e reg im e: th e
Arm y's wages have been in c r e a s e d t o hush any p r o s p e c t iv e o p p o s itio n }
th e m ost b l a t a n t e le m en ts o f th e D u v a lie r reg im e, such as some o f h i s
more b r u t a l and u n c o n d itio n a l a s s o c i a t e s , have been d is p o s e d o f ; th e
T o n to n s’M acoutes have been r e i n t e g r a t e d w ith t h e r e g u l a r .army; th e
c o u n try has been opened t o f o r e i g n v i s i t o r s , who a r e c a r e f u l l y p a rk e d
i n s p e c i a l r e s o r t a r e a s , and some p ro m ises have been made t o t h e e x i l e s
(b u t no g u a ra n te e s g iv e n ) . The s a l a r y o f w o rk e rs has a ls o o f f i c i a l l y
been i n c r e a s e d , b u t t h i s m easure i s n e i t h e r fo llo w e d by. e m p lo y e rs, n o r
e n fo rc e d ; and n o th in g can be done, s in c e l a b o r i t s e l f has no v o i c e .
F o re ig n in v e s tm e n ts a re s o l i c i t e d and en c o u ra g e d : ads a p p e a r i n
f o r e i g n new spapers p ro m o tin g c e r t a i n a d v a n ta g e s o f t h e H a i ti a n m ark et
such as "une main d *oeuvre ab ondante e t t r e s bon m arche, i n t e l l i g e n t e
e t d o c i l e ; a p te a l a fa v e u r des c o n ta c ts avec des econom ies p lu s
39
* ^ + 31
av a n ce e s a s 'a d a p t e r ra p id e m e n t aux m ethodes m odernes de 1 ' i n d u s t r i e ; "
The p o p u la tio n i s e x p lo i te d w ith c y n ic ism by b ig com panies t h a t p o c k e t
th e money. The p e a s a n t s , f o r c e d t o abandon a la n d w hich can no lo n g e r
fe e d them , have no c h o ic e but t o work i n t h e c i t y as u n d e rp a id l a b o r .
A g r i c u l t u r a l re fo rm has n o t even been s l i g h t l y e n c o u ra g e d ; th e
la n d s lo w ly d e t e r i o r a t e s from la c k o f f e r t i l i z e r , o v e r c u l t i v a t i o n and
la c k o f w a te r. The m a j o r it y o f t h e p o p u la tio n i s th u s s u b je c t e d t o th e
f l u c t u a t i o n s o f an u n f o r g iv in g economy and c o n s ta n t ly on t h e v e rg e o f
fam in e. Je a n -C la u d e D u v a l i e r 's c re d o , when he came t o pow er, was:
"My f a t h e r b ro u g h t about t h e s o c i a l r e v o l u t i o n ; I w i l l b r in g about t h e
i n d u s t r i a l r e v o l u t i o n . " U n f o r tu n a te ly , he does n o t seem t o have gone
beyond t h a t fo rm u la .
3) A f t e r T w e n ty -fiv e Y ears o f O p p re ssio n : S o c ia l and C u l t u r a l
A sp e c ts o f H a i ti a n S o c ie ty
a ) S o c i a l S t r u c t u r e s
EVen though H a i t i ’ s p e a s a n t p o p u la tio n i s and h a s o f t e n been
f o r g o t t e n , i t form s th e mass and th e s o u l . o f th e c o u n tr y . Over th e
y e a r s , i t has a s s i m i l a t e d some o f th e a s p e c ts of F ren ch c u l t u r e
im p o rte d th ro u g h s l a v e r y and has am algam ated them w ith i t s A f r ic a n
t r a d i t i o n s , th u s c r e a t i n g a u n iq u e ly H a i ti a n c u l t u r e . Opposed t o t h i s
m a j o r it y (75%) i s t h e m in o rity , o f M u la tto e s (25%) who l i v e m o stly in
th e u rb a n c e n t e r s . They c o n s t i t u t e an ..e lite w hich o f t e n has d i f f i c u l t i e s
i n d e a li n g w ith i t s c u l t u r a l a m b iv a le n c e . The two c u l t u r a l e le m e n ts ,
40
th e F ren ch and th e A f r ic a n , have n o t y e t m ixed i n an harm onious
m anner w i t h in th e members o f t h e e l i t e . . They rem ain t o r n ..between th e
e d u c a tio n th e y r e c e iv e as c h i l d r e n from t h e i r b la c k s e r v a n t s and t h a t
o f t h e i r E u ro p e a n iz e d p a r e n t s . W ith in t h i s e l i t e , n uances o f ..pigmen
t a t i o n have g r e a t s o c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . Even on an i s l a n d l i k e H a i t i ,
w here W hites d is a p p e a re d o v e r 1 5 0 .y e a rs a g o , c o l o r :d i s t i n c t i o n rem ain s
e a s i l y p e r c e p t i b l e . .The v o c a b u la ry d e s c r i b in g l e v e l s of p ig m e n ta tio n —
m ulat.ro ( m u l a tt o ) , q u a r t e r o n ( q u a d ro o n ), g r i f f e . . . — show t h a t th e s e
p h y s ic a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s have a s o c i a l m e a n in g ..
Even though ra c is m i s a f o rb id d e n t o p i c o f c o n v e r s a tio n , d is c r im
i n a t i o n e x is t s .. T h is i s c o n firm e d .by th e e x is t e n c e i n P o r t- a u - P r i n c e
o f c u l t u r a l and s o c i a l c lu b s s p e c i a l i z e d f o r e i t h e r B lacks o r M u la tto e s
M oreover, some e d u c a tio n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s , more p a r t i c u l a r l y , r e l i g i o u s
i n s t i t u t i o n s , s t i l l a v o id m ix in g B lacks and M u la tto e s and p r a c t i c e
32
d i s c r i m i n a t i o n i n a d is g u is e d , f a s h io n . T h is n o tio n o f c o lo r ,, how ever,
rem ains am biguous. F or some, i t i s n o th in g b u t ra c is m ; f o r o t h e r s , t h i s
c o lo r c o n s c io u s n e s s . r e f l e c t s a system o f c l a s s . o r even c a s t e . The
m a j o r i t y , i f a s k e d , do n o t deny t h a t t h e r e i s i n H a i ti a form o f
d i s c r i m i n a t i o n based on s k i n - c o l o r .
As th e r u r a l p o p u la tio n m ig r a te s toward, t h e u rb a n c e n t e r s , a
"m id d le " o r t r a n s i t i o n a l c l a s s b e g in s t o a p p e a r. I t i s made up m o stly
o f f a m i l i e s who have had t o abandon im p o v e rish e d p a r c e l s o f la n d and
a re moving t o t h e c i t y i n t h e hope o f a c h ie v in g somewhat more d e c en t
l i v i n g c o n d it io n s . Some e le m en ts o f .t h i s "m id d le " c l a s s have succeed ed
i n moving from th e slum a r e a s p o p u la te d by th e r e c e n t l y a r r i v e d
41
p e a s a n ts t o b e t t e r q u a r t e r s ; t h e r e , th e y i m i t a t e t h e m anners o f t h e
e l i t e i n i t s outw ard b e h a v io r. I n such f a m i l i e s , t h e women work as
c le r k s o r i n e q u iv a le n t p o s i t i o n s . The f a m i l i e s rem ain l a r g e , a v e ra g in g
f i v e c h i l d r e n . T h e ir members r e a d new spapers and l i s t e n t o t h e r a d i o
w h ile t r y i n g t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n th e c u l t u r a l l i f e o f th e c i t y . C re o le
i s spoken w i t h in t h e fa m ily c i r c l e , , w h ile F rench i s u se d f o r s o c i a l
c o n t a c t s . T h is same c l a s s a ls o in c lu d e s sons o f p e a s a n ts who have come
t o th e c i t y , lo o k ed f o r work as s e r v a n ts o r become s o l d i e r s , d r i v e r s ,
w orkers o r c ra f ts m e n . For m o st, how ever, f in d i n g a jo b i s d i f f i c u l t ,
and th e y o f te n have t o a c c e p t lo w -p a id p o s i t i o n s w hich b a r e ly a llo w
them t o s u r v iv e . T hese form a m is e r a b le and s h i f t l e s s u rb a n p r o l e t a r i a t
w orking f o r t h e e l i t e . T h is t r a n s i t i o n a l c l a s s i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by
i t s p o t e n t i a l m o b il it y and a b e t t e r aw areness o f s o c i a l i n e q u a l i t i e s
a c q u ir e d a t th e c o n t a c t . o f t h e c i t y ; i t s members a re no lo n g e r
a tt a c h e d t o th e la n d and have few p o s s e s s i o n s . P o l i t i c a l l y , th e y a re
more l i k e l y t o be c r i t i c a l and i n c l i n e d t o r e v o l t . F i n a l l y , t h i s
t r a n s i t i o n a l group w ants t o d i s a s s o c i a t e i t s e l f from i t s r u r a l back
ground: i t s a c c e p ts Voodoo as a c u l t u r a l phenom enon,. b u t d e n ie s p a r t i
c i p a t i n g i n i t s cerem o n ies w h ile o s t e n s i b l y becoming a.member o f a
C h r i s t i a n c h u rc h .
T h is s o c i a l group rem ains to o fra g m en te d and to o v u l n e r a b le t o
have a dynamic i n f l u e n c e on H a i t i a n s o c i e t y . I t s members a re com peting
f o r s u r v i v a l and a r e , t h u s , im p e rv io u s t o any s u g g e s tio n o f s o l i d a r i t y .
B ut, t h e v e ry e x is t e n c e o f t h i s g ro u p , even i f i t rem ains l i m i t e d i n
num ber, im p lie s t h a t p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f m o b i l i t y e x i s t w i t h in H a i ti a n
42
s o c i e t y . A lthough t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e does n o t e n co u rag e such c h a n g e s,
i t c a n n o t p r e v e n t th is , consequence o f t h e f a i l u r e o f t h e regim e i n
th e a g r i c u l t u r a l f i e l d . P o t e n t i a l l y , i t i s from t h i s "m id d le " c l a s s
t h a t changes c o u ld come, as th e e l i t e and t h e .p e a s a n t s a r e s t a t i c
groups a tt a c h e d t o t r a d i t i o n s th e y a re n e i t h e r w i l l i n g n o r c a p a b le o f
r e l i n q u i s h i n g .
b) Language
The dichotom y w hich c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e H a i ti a n s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e
i s r e f l e c t e d by t h e two lan g u a g e s commonly u se d by t h e p o p u la tio n :
F rench and C re o le . The e l i t e s a r e b i l i n g u a l , sp e a k in g b o th F rench and
C re o le . The low er u rb a n c l a s s e s and th e r u r a l m asses s p e a k .o n ly C r e o le .
A command o f b o th lan g u a g e s c h a r a c t e r i z e s o n ly a s m a l l.m in o r i ty o f
H a i t i a n s . The m o n o lin g u a l p a r t o f th e p o p u la tio n i s . t h u s e x c lu d e d
from p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n p u b lic o r fo rm a l s i t u a t i o n s , s in c e .F r e n c h i s
s t i l l t h e o f f i c i a l la n g u a g e . As a r e s u l t , an i n d i v i d u a l can. be p a r t
o f t h e t o t a l l i f e o f t h e community o n ly i f he speaks t h e v e r n a c u la r
( C re o le ) and speak s (and r e a d s ) th e su p erim p o sed o f f i c i a l lan g u a g e
(F re n c h )
I t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t H a i t i w i l l e v e r abandon F rench as i t s o f f i c i a l
la n g u a g e , f o r t h a t i s i t s l i n k w ith th e o u t s i d e w o rld . However,
F rench i s l o s i n g ground as a means o f e x p r e s s io n i n a l l but p u b lic
f u n c t i o n s . Only C re o le i s h e a rd i n th e s t r e e t s o f P o r t - a u - P r i n c e ,
and th e i n h a b i t a n t s ' know ledge o f F ren ch i s red u c e d t o :the few words
n e c e s s a r y t o com m unicate w ith t h e t o u r i s t s . F ren ch i s spoken i n s h o p s,
43
b u t i t i s m o stly spoken and h a n d le d as a f o r e i g n la n g u a g e . At t h e same
tim e , C re o le i s a c q u ir in g r e s p e c t a b i l i t y . Numerous m agazines a re now
p u b lis h e d i n C re o le . A d v e r tis in g i s a l s o 1an im p o rta n t s o u rc e o f
d i f f u s i o n o f C re o le : about 50% o f a l l r a d i o a d v e r t i s i n g i s now i n
C r e o le , n o t i n F re n c h , b e c au se a d v e r t i s e r s want t o s e l l .
I t has now become n e c e s s a r y t o acknow ledge th e f a c t t h a t C re o le ,
r a t h e r th a n F re n c h , i s t h e c o u n t r y 's n a t i o n a l la n g u a g e . I f a n y th in g i s
t o be done t o make i t a more e f f i c i e n t means o f com m unication, a
s ta n d a r d form o f C re o le w i l l have t o be a d o p te d . T h ere a r e a t th e mo
ment s e v e r a l v a r i e t i e s o f C re o le spo k en , depending on t h e g e o g ra p h ic
a r e a and s o c i a l e n v iro n m en t. F or example,, th e C re o le o f P o r t - a u - P r i n c e
d i f f e r s s i g n i f i c a n t l y from t h a t u se d by t h e r u r a l p o p u l a t io n s . I t w i l l
be n e c e s s a r y t o d e te rm in e w hich v e r s i o n o f C re o le i s m ost a d a p te d t o
modern l i f e , t o f i n d a s te a d y fo rm u la of t r a n s c r i p t i o n b e fo r e C re o le
can be made a lan g u a g e i n t h e f u l l s e n se o f th e te rm .
T h ere a r e many o b s ta c l e s t o t h e a d o p tio n o f C re o le as th e second
o f f i c i a l la n g u a g e . A m a j o r it y o f t h e e d u c a te d c l a s s e s i s opposed t o i t .
T h e ir a t t i t u d e i s a s u r v i v a l o f c o l o n i a l a t t i t u d e s . L e a rn in g French
c o rre s p o n d s t o a k in d o f " r i t e o f p a s s a g e " , w hich means a c c e p ta n c e by
t h e F re n c h -s p e a k in g e l i t e . I n th e i n t e r e s t o f s e l f - p r e s e r v a t i o n , t h i s
e l i t e w ants F rench t o be m a in ta in e d , s in c e i t s e x c lu s iv e u se as a
fo rm a l and w r i t t e n lan g u a g e i s w h at.m o st, c l e a r l y d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h i s
e l i t e from t h e r e s t o f th e p o p u l a t io n . M oreover, th e b ro a d e n in g o f t h e
b ase o f e d u c a tio n and l i t e r a c y w hich t h e a d o p tio n of C re o le as a
n a t i o n a l la n g u a g e would e n t a i l , i s l i k e l y t o underm ine t h e c e n t r a l i
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z a t i o n o f power and, i n t h e lo n g ru n , t o t h r e a t e n t h e p r i v i l e g e d
p o s i t i o n o f t h e r u l i n g e l i t e . C o n se q u e n tly , even a governm ent d e d ic a te d
t o s o c i a l change w ould ap p ro ach th e r e c o g n i t i o n o f C re o le as a n a t i o n a l
la n g u a g e w ith some h e s it a n c y . Under t h e p r e s e n t governm ent, i t seems
im p ro b a b le t h a t su ch i n i t i a t i v e c o u ld be ta k e n . A lth o u g h more and more
l i t e r a t u r e o f a l l k in d s i s b e in g p u b lis h e d i n C re o le , t h i s lan g u a g e
i s .l i k e l y t o r e t a i n i t s ambiguous d e f i n i t i o n f o r s t i l l some tim e .
c ) E d u c a tio n and L i t e r a c y
To b r in g C re o le t o t h e l e v e l o f a n a t i o n a l la n g u a g e would mean
tr a n s f o r m in g an e n t i r e e d u c a tio n a l sy ste m . At t h e moment, th e H a i ti a n
e d u c a tio n a l system i s n o t re a d y t o undergo such ch an g e. Two d e cad es o f
d i c t a t o r s h i p have r e s u l t e d i n t h e d ra m a tic d e c li n e of e d u c a tio n in
H a i t i . When D u v a lie r came t o pow er, he announced p ro fo u n d refo rm s of
th e system and made p u b l ic h i s w i l li n g n e s s t o prom ote l i t e r a c y among
th e r u r a l m a sse s. N o th in g was done. On t h e e o n t r a f y , D u v a lie r pu rg ed
th e t e a c h in g c i r c l e s o f h i s en em ies, i n e v i t a b l y t r i g g e r i n g a m assiv e
exodus from t h e t e a c h in g c o rp s . I n th e c o u n tr y , s c h o o ls a r e few. and
t h e i r a tte n d a n c e i s l i m i t e d , as m ost p e a s a n t f a m i l i e s need t h e h e lp o f
t h e i r c h i l d r e n t o s u r v i v e . The s c h o o l sy stem i s n o t a d a p te d t o t h e
m i l i e u , and m ost t e a c h e r s a re n o t q u a l i f i e d . But th e b ig g e s t o b s t a c l e
t o any e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e e d u c a tio n a l s y s te m .is t h a t i n s t r u c t i o n i s
g iv e n i n F re n c h .w h ile m ost o f t h e p u p ils sp e ak o n ly C re o le . Modeled
on t h e F ren ch sy ste m , t h e H a i ti a n e d u c a tio n a l system i s o b v io u sly
t o t a l l y u n a d a p te d t o t h e H a i ti a n e n v iro n m e n t. I n f a c t , i t i s a
45
c a r i c a t u r e o f what was done in F ra n ce more th a n f i f t y y e a r s ago.
The i l l i t e r a c y o f th e H a i ti a n p o p u la tio n i s n o t o n ly t h e r e s u l t
o f e i t h e r l i n g u i s t i c o r econom ic d i f f i c u l t i e s . The e d u c a te d few p r o f i t
by t h e f a c t t h a t th e m a j o r it y i s i n c a p a b le o f p a r t i c i p a t i n g in t h e
d e c is io n -m a k in g p r o c e s s . As lo n g as th e r u r a l p o p u la tio n i s c o n fin e d
i n a d i f f e r e n t w o rld , t h e power of th e e l i t e i s g u a ra n te e d and t h e
c o u n tr y w i l l f u n c t i o n a c c o rd in g t o t h i s e l i t e ' s u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f w e a lth and power.. Qne can go so f a r as t o sa y t h a t th e
ig n o ra n c e o f th e p o p u la tio n and th e f a i l u r e o f th e e d u c a t io n a l sy stem
a re p a r t o f th e " l o g i c " o f t h e H a i ti a n sy stem o f g overnm ent. I l l i t e r a c y
and Voodoo a re u se d as e x c u se s f o r th e e x c lu s io n o f t h e p e o p le from th e
p o l i t i c a l s c e n e , and n o th in g i s b e in g .d o n e t o change t h i s . U n fo rtu
n a t e l y , i t would be a m is ta k e t o t h i n k t h a t th e e d u c a tio n o f t h e popu
l a t i o n , a lo n g w ith an e r a d i c a t i o n of Voodoo (as i t i s u se d and p e r v e r t
t e d by t h e re g im e ), c o u ld of th e m s e lv e s b r in g any r a d i c a l c h a n g e s.
The m a j o r it y o f H a i t i ’s i n h a b i t a n t s spend t h e i r l i v e s i n a
h o p e le s s s t r u g g l e f o r s u r v i v a l w h ile t h e m in o r ity e n jo y s t h e p r i v i l e g e s
money can buy. The D u v a lie r regim e p r e s e n t s H a i ti a n y o u th w ith o n ly
t h r e e c h o ic e s ; p e r s o n a l s a l v a t i o n th ro u g h e m ig r a tio n (.although emi
g r a t i o n does n o t e n s u re a b e t t e r l i f e ) , a c c e p ta n c e o f t h e regim e and
o f i t s d e n ia l o f l i b e r t i e s (w hich has been r e f e r r e d t o as " z o m b if ic a -
t i o n " ) , o r r e v o l t . I f a r e v o l u t i o n i s t o be e f f e c t i v e , i t has i n some
way t o in v o lv e th e t o t a l i t y o f t h e p o p u la tio n . H e r e to f o r e , r e v o l u t i o n s
have been le d by o p p o s ite f a c t i o n s o f t h e e l i t e , f i g h t i n g each o t h e r
46
f o r p o l i t i c a l and econom ic suprem acy. W hatever th e outcome o f such
b a t t l e s , i t i s alw ays a f r a c t i o n o f t h e e l i t e w hich triu m p h s , le a v i n g
th e lo w er c l a s s e s t o t h e i r p o v e r ty . The p o s s i b i l i t y o f o rg a n iz e d
combat by th e p e a s a n t o r t h e u rb a n p r o l e t a r i a t i s im p ro b a b le , s in c e
th o s e groups have no p o l i t i c a l c o n s c io u s n e s s . B e s id e s , a t . t h i s moment,
no segm ent o f t h e o p p o s itio n has s u f f i c i e n t . s t r e n g t h t o o v e rth ro w t h e
reg im e. T h ere i s b u t one c e r t a i n t y ! th e o n ly way t o tr a n s f o r m th e
s t r u c t u r e s o f H a i ti a n s o c i e t y i s th ro u g h t h e u se o f v i o le n c e .
I I I . H a i t i and th e F ren ch D epartm ents! S i m i l a r o r O p p o site F a t e s ?
The m ain l i n k betw een H a i t i and the. t h r e e F rench d e p a rtm e n ts i s
th e i d e n t i t y o f t h e o r i g i n a l c o lo n i z e r : F ra n c e . E a c h ,c o lo n ia l power
had i t s own t a c t i c s t o occupy a t e r r i t o r y .and subdue a p e o p le . I t i s
l i k e l y t h a t th e i n f l u e n c e o f F ra n ce has l e f t b o th i n H a i t i and i n
th e F ren ch A n t i l l e s s i m i l a r t r a c e s which, can become p o i n ts o f com par
is o n , e s p e c i a l l y s in c e c o l o n i z a t i o n by th e F rench has alw ays had an
a s s i m i l a t i o n i s t o r i e n t a t i o n w hereby t h e F re n ch aimed a t s u b s t i t u t i n g
t h e i r c u l t u r e f o r t h a t o f th e c o lo n iz e d p e o p le . But t h e q u e s tio n th e n
i s : Has th e long-w on in d ep e n d e n c e o f H a i t i a f f e c t e d i t s developm ent
i n such a way t h a t i t i s n o t com parable t o t h e F rench A n t i l l e s ?
From an econom ic p o in t o f view , b o th H a i t i and th e F ren ch d e p a r t
m ents a re f a c in g a s e v e r e economic c r i s i s . T h e ir t e r r i t o r i e s a r e u n d e r
th e i n f l u e n c e o f a f o r e i g n power., be i t F ra n ce o r .the U n ite d S t a t e s ,
w hich e x p l o i t s t h e i r v i t a l f o r c e s w ith o u t s h a r i n g th e p r o f i t s w ith
47
t h e l o c a l economy. T hese c o u n t r i e s a re th u s d r a in e d o f t h e i r few
r e s o u r c e s w ith o u t much a p p r e c ia b l e com pensation o r w ith in a d e q u a te
c o m p e n sa tio n . The p o p u la tio n is. dependent, for. i t s s u r v i v a l upon f o r c e s
i t c a n n o t e a s i l y c o n tro l;.. A c e r t a i n amount o f c o n tr o l' i s a v a i l a b l e t o
t h e F ren ch C a rib b e a n w o rk ers th ro u g h t h e i r tr a d e - u n io n s ,. b u t none t o
t h e H a i t i a n worker:. . T h is econom ic c r i s i s t h r e a t e n s a g r i c u l t u r e most
and d i s r u p t s t h e t r a d i t i o n a l way. o f l i f e . The u rb an p r o l e t a r i a t o f
t h e s e c o u n t r i e s grows l a r g e r e v e ry day, a phenomenon r e c o g n iz e d by
c o n tem porary a u th o r s who m o stly choose an u rb an s e t t i n g f o r t h e i r
n o v e ls . As a c o n se q u e n c e , t h e p o p u la tio n i s f o r c e d t o e m ig r a te .. T h is
problem, o f e m ig r a tio n i s common.to H a i ti and th e F re n ch A n t i l l e s and i s
t h e s o u rc e o f much b i t t e r n e s s . T hese m ig r a tio n s f i t i n t o t h e v a s t e r
netw ork o f m ig r a tio n s t h a t a f f e c t th e t o t a l i t y o f t h e C a rib b e a n .
H a i ti a n s m o stly choose th e U n i t e d .S t a t e s as t h e i r f i n a l .d e s t i n a t i o n ,
n o t o n ly f o r g e o g ra p h ic a l r e a s o n s , b u t b e cau se th e y f e e l t h a t t h i s
c o u n try o f f e r s t h e best, chances o f r e l o c a t i o n .. T h ere is ' an im p o rta n t
H a i ti a n s e tt le m e n t i n New York City... Those who have gone t o .F rance
w ish e v e n tu a ll y t o s e t t l e down .in th e U n ite d S t a t e s . - F r a n c e i s con
s id e r e d as a p la c e , t o study., w hereas t h e U n ite d S ta te s , a r e th o u g h t t o
34
o f f e r more o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r s o c i a l advancement., T h is c o n c e p tio n o f
F ra n ce as a c u l t u r a l g o a l i s a t r a d i t i o n i n h e r i t e d from t h e o ld H a i ti a n
e l i t e . . The younger generation.,., when i t can a f f o r d , a choice., makes o f
th e U n ite d S t a t e s or. Canada t h e i r m ain d e s ti n a ti o n s .. E m ig ran ts fro m
th e F ren ch d e p a rtm e n ts go t o F ra n c e , s in c e t h e y .a r e o f f i c i a l l y F ren ch
c i t i z e n s and s in c e t h e i r e m ig r a tio n i s o r g a n iz e d by t h e F ren ch
48
governm ent. For t h e m ost p a r t , th e y s e t t l e i n th e a r e a o f P a r i s o r i n
th e S o uthw est o f France...
The c o n s e q u e n c e s -o f t h i s e x te n s iv e , e m ig r a tio n a r e - t h e same f o r
t h e f o u r t e r r i t o r i e s : l o s s o f v i t a l human, r e s o u r c e s , e s p e c i a l l y as f a r
as t h e young m ale p o p u la tio n i s . c o n c ern e d ; t h i s l o s s n o tic e a b ly , a f f e c t s
th e developm ent o f th e c o u n tr y by d e p r iv in g i t . o f i t s m ost dynamic
p o p u la tio n ;. A t . t h e p e r s o n a l l e v e l , t h e e m ig ran t commonly e x p e rie n c e s
l o s s and d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t ; the. "w elcom ing". c u l t u r e i s n o t alw ays as
f r i e n d l y as one could, e x p e c t, and t h i s i n c lu d e s .F ran ce. D isplacem ent,
i s , more o f t e n th a n n o t,, accom panied by a l i e n a t i o n and l o s s o f c u l t u r a l
i d e n t i t y . The e m ig ra n t who e v e n tu a ll y f in d s i t p o s s i b l e t o r e t u r n home
has become c o n s c io u s o f t h e d e p lo r a b le c o n d it io n s o f h is c o u n try and
i s l i k e l y t o be more c r i t i c a l o f t h e s t a t u s quo. I n l i t e r a t u r e , , , he i s
o f te n a dynamic f i g u r e who f i g h t s th e l e t h a r g y o f h i s f e llo w c i t i z e n s
and t r i e s t o prom ote change,, a lth o u g h n o t alw ays s u c c e s s fu lly ..
S o c ia lly ., b o th H a i t i and th e F rench d e p a rtm e n ts a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d
by f l a g r a n t i n e q u a l i t i e s . The p o p u la tio n i s d iv id e d i n t o t h e v e ry r i c h
and the. v e ry p o o r. Some m id d l e - c la s s e le m e n t s . e x i s t i n t h e F rench
d e p a rtm e n ts — c i v i l s e r v i c e em ployees f o r th e m o s t.p a rt- —but th e y do n o t
form an homogeneous group.. T hese . d i s t i n c t i o n s a r e r e f l e c t e d by co lo r..
The p o p u la tio n i s d iv id e d i n t o f in e ly , sh ad ed s o c i a l groups, which, do n o t
e a s i l y mix.. S o c ia l problem s a re f u r t h e r c o m p lic a te d by, r a c i a l t e n s i o n s
and become r a p i d l y d ra m a tic and som etim es ex p lo siv e ... Even i n 'H a i t i ,
we have se e n t h a t r a c i a l d i s t i n c t i o n s , a r e e a s i l y p e r c e p t i b l e ,, though
t h e i r s o c i a l i m p l ic a ti o n s a re b l u r r e d a t tim e s . The lo n g - s ta n d in g
49
contem pt f o r d a rk s k i n - c o l o r has had s e r i o u s r e p e r c u s s io n s on th e
*
p sy c h o lo g y and s e l f - e s t e e m of t h e C a rib b ean p o p u l a t io n . I t has become
p a r t o f t h e c o n s c io u s n e s s o f t h e p e o p le . As we s h a l l s e e , t h e n e g a tiv e
and a l i e n a t i n g a s p e c ts o f t h i s problem a re s t r e s s e d i n a l l co n tem p o rary
n o v e ls and c o n s t i t u t e an im p o rta n t l i t e r a r y them e.
C u l t u r a l l y , we a re d e a li n g w ith s o c i e t i e s w here two c u l t u r e s e x i s t
s id e by s i d e ; a l o c a l c u ltu r e :d o m in a te d by an im p o rte d one. F rench
c u l t u r e i s s p re a d - th r o u g h th e e d u c a tio n a l sy ste m , th e C a th o lic and
P r o t e s t a n t C hurches, and t h e u se o f ,F re n c h as t h e o f f i c i a l la n g u a g e .
I n H a i t i , t h e l o c a l c u l t u r e i s s t r o n g , but i t la c k s means o f e x p r e s s in g
i t s e l f , s in c e most i n t e l l e c t u a l s b elo n g t o th e E u ro p e a n iz e d e l i t e . I t
i s t h e r e f o r e n o t g iv e n t h e im p o rta n c e i t . sh o u ld have c o n s id e r in g th e
f a c t t h a t i t in v o lv e s t h e m a j o r it y o f t h e p o p u la tio n . Those who have
t h e e d u c a tio n a l fo rm a tio n t o p u b l is h in fo r m a tio n on th e t r u e H a i ti a n
c u l t u r e , o r make i t a v a i l a b l e by o t h e r m eans, a l l have t o do so in
F re n c h . They u se as a v e h i c l e a la n g u a g e f o r e ig n t o t h e c u l t u r e i t
in te n d s t o d e s c r i b e w h ereas C re o le i s m o stly c o n fin e d t o o r a l i t y . T h is
c o n t r a d i c t i o n i s f l a g r a n t and w i l l rem ain so u n t i l H a i ti a n C re o le i s
g iv e n t h e l i g u i s t i c s t a t u s i t d e s e r v e s . T h is same s i t u a t i o n is- r e p e a te d
i n t h e t h r e e d e p a rtm e n ts t o a g r e a t e r d e g re e o f a c u i t y . The l o c a l
c u l t u r e i s . f r a g i l e and v u l n e r a b le t o t h e d i f f u s i o n o f M e tr o p o lita n
v a lu e s and c u l t u r a l s ta n d a r d s by th e mass m edia. I t i s t h r e a t e n e d by
th e E u r o p e a n iz a tio n o f t h e l i f e s t y l e and t h e c o n s ta n t comings and
g o in g s o f t h e v a rio u s r a c i a l and s o c i a l components o f t h e p o p u la tio n .
The h i s t o r y o f t h e f o u r t e r r i t o r i e s p r e s e n t s s i m i l a r s u c c e s s iv e
50
c h an g es: p r o g r e s s io n from a s t a t i c c o l o n i a l s o c i e t y t o th e a b o l i t i o n
o f s la v e r y and th e n t o a c o n f r o n t a t i o n w ith i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n . I f th e
F ren ch d e p a rtm e n ts a r e s t i l l i n a s e n s e " o c c u p ie d " t e r r i t o r i e s , H a i t i
had t o f a c e and e x p e rie n c e sudden c o l o n i z a t i o n ,b y t h e U n ite d S t a t e s
a t th e b e g in n in g o f t h e c e n tu r y . I t s t i l l has t o cope w ith Am erican
i n f l u e n c e to d a y .
T hus, t h e s e c o u n tr i e s a re e x p e rie n c in g a. d o u b le l o s s : f i r s t , t h a t
o f t h e i r b a s ic c u l t u r e , t h e one b r o u g h t,w ith them and f a s h io n e d by t h e
s la v e s } s e c o n d ly , b e c au se o f i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n , t h a t o f th e s y n c r e t i c v
c u l t u r e w hich d e v e lo p e d a f t e r y e a rs o f s u b m issio n t o F rench i n f l u e n c e .
We a re c o n s e q u e n tly d e a li n g w ith c u l t u r a l l y u n s ta b l e s o c i e t i e s t h a t
a re t r y i n g t o r e c o n c i l e t e n s i o n s betw een a p a s t t h a t has n o t y e t
d is a p p e a re d and an i n d u s t r i a l and s e lf - d e p e n d e n t f u t u r e t h a t has n o t
y e t been r e a c h e d . T h e -h e te ro g e n e o u s elem ents, w hich compose t h e c u l t u r e
o f t h e s e t e r r i t o r i e s have n e v e r been c o m p le te ly f u s e d . As a r e s u l t ,
t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s c o n s t a n t l y s u b j e c t e d . t o i n n e r c o n f l i c t s w hich e i t h e r
e r u p t v i o l e n t l y o r a r e r e p r e s s e d and c a u se m a la is e and a m b iv a le n c e .
T h is c u l t u r a l a l i e n a t i o n i s more v i s i b l e i n . t h e F rench d e p a rtm e n ts
s in c e th e F re n ch i n f l u e n c e p e rv a d e s every d ay l i f e . In H a i t i , t h i s
c u l t u r a l am b iv alen ce i s l i v e d most a c u te ly by th e e l i t e , w hereas
among th e r u r a l p o p u la tio n i t i s l e s s p e r c e p t i b l e s in c e t h e r e th e
F rench i n f l u e n c e has become n e g l i g e a b l e . However, becau se o n ly mhmbers
o f t h e e l i t e can w r i t e i n H a i t i , t h e theme o f c u l t u r a l am bivalence
w i l l be a n .im p o r ta n t one i n t h e H a i ti a n n o v e l and p rese n t, c h a r a c t e r i s
t i c s s i m i l a r t o th o s e o f t h e F ren ch d e p a rtm e n ts . To t h i s m ust be added,
51
i n th e c a s e o f H a i t i , t h e problem o f c u l t u r a l s e g r e g a ti o n betw een t h e
E u ro p e an iz ed e l i t e and th e r u r a l and u rb an m a s s e s . .
I t i s u n d e n ia b le t h a t t h e f o u r t e r r i t o r i e s i n q u e s ti o n p r e s e n t
common f e a t u r e s . D if f e r e n c e s a r e m o stly a q u e s tio n o f d e g re e .. Econonom-
i c a l l y , H a i t i 's c o n d itio n i s w orse t h a n ‘t h a t o f t h e F re n c h d e p a rtm e n ts ,
w h ile c u l t u r a l l y i t h as a c h ie v e d m o r e . o r i g i n a l i t y . T h is i s r e f l e c t e d
i n t h e a t t i t u d e o f t h e H a i ti a n tow ard th e M a rtin ic a n o r t h e G uadelou
pean: he f e e l s c lo s e t o him b e cau se o f a common g e o g ra p h ic l o c a t i o n ,
h i s t o r i c a l p a s t and econom ic s t r u g g l e ; y e t th e H a i ti a n f e e l s rem ote
b e c au se h i s p e o p le have a c h ie v e d in d ep en d en ce w h i l e .t h e i n h a b i t a n t s
o f th e F ren ch d e p a rtm e n ts a re s t i l l " c o l o n i z e d ." As a r e s u l t , t h e to n e
o f th e H a i ti a n n o v e l som etim es d i f f e r s from t h a t o f th e A n t i l l e a n
n o v e l: b e in g in d e p e n d e n t a llo w s th e H a i ti a n w r i t e r more s p o n ta n e i ty
and more c e r t a i n t y , e v e n .in t h e f a c e o f t h e . t e r r i b l e p l i g h t o f h is
c o u n tr y . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e sp e ctru m of th e H a i ti a n n o v e l seems w id e r:
i t d e s c r ib e s a l l a s p e c ts o f . H a i t i a n s o c i e t y and sheds l i g h t on i t s
c o m p a r tm e n ta liz a tio n . A u th o rs from th e F rench d e p a r tm e n ts . te n d t o be
more in v o lv e d in. p o l i t i c a l i s s u e s r e g a r d in g th e s t a t u s o f t h e i r
c o u n t r i e s . I n b o th c a s e s , we a re d e a li n g w ith t e r r i t o r i e s w hich t h e i r
F re n c h -b a s e d c u l t u r e and p o l i t i c a l s t a t u s i s o l a t e from t h e r e s t of
t h e C a rib b e a n . I t i s p e rh a p s t h i s i s o l a t i o n t h a t makes t h e i r l i t e r a t u r e
s tr o n g and o u tsp o k e n and g iv e s i t u n d e n ia b le o r i g i n a l i t y .
52
Notes
^ F r a n tz Fanon, The W retched o f th e E a rth (New York: Grove P r e s s ,
1 9 6 8 ), p. 8 6 .
2 +
A. Memni as q u o te d i n J a c k G o rz a n i, La L i t t e r a t u r e des A n t i l l e s -
Guyane f r a n g a i s e s ( F o r t- d e - F r a n c e : Desormeaux, 1 9 7 8 ), V, p . 170.
3 ..
Mary.se Conde, La C i v i l i s a t i o n du b o s s a le ( P a r i s : L 'H a rm a tta n ,
19 7 8 ), p . 5.
4 *
Q u o ta tio n from a sp e ec h g iv e n by Aime C e s a ir e a t t h e 52nd
Annual C ongress o f th e A m erican A s s o c ia tio n o f T e a ch e rs o f F re n ch ,
H o te l M e rid ie n , P o in te du B out, M a rtin iq u e on Ju n e 25, 1979.
^ J e a n B e n o is t, e d . , L e s 'S o c ie t e s a n t i l l a i s e s : e tu d e s a n th r o p o lo -
g iq u e s (M o n tre a l: U n i v e r s i t e de M o n tre a l, C e n tre de R echerches
C a r a ib e s , 1 9 7 5 ), p . 176.
^ V i c to r S a b le , Les A n t i l l e s sans com plexes' ( P a r i s : M aisonneuve e t
L a r o s e , 1 9 7 2 ), p . 8 .
7 ^
"La d e p a r t e m e n t a l i s a t i o n aux A n t i l l e s , " Le Monde, 29 niars 1968,
p . 9.
A la in V iv ie n , "L arg ag e?" Le Monde, 12 decem bre 1974, p. 10.
^ J e a n B e n o is t, L * A rc h ip el in a c h e v e : c u l t u r e e t s o c i e t e aux
A n t i l l e s f r a n q a i s e s (M o n tre a l: U n i v e r s i te de M o n tre a l, 1 9 7 2 ), pp. 50-51
P I b i d . , pp. 113-14.
A la in R o l l a t , " M a r tin iq u e , 1 ' i l e e c o r c h e e ," Le Monde, 6-12 mars
1980, p . 5.
12
R ic h a rd D.E. B u rto n , A s s im ila tio n o r Independence? P r o s p e c ts f o r
M a rtin iq u e (M o n treal:. M cG ill U n i v e r s i ty , C e n te r f o r D ev e lo p in g -A re a
S t u d i e s , 1 9 7 8 ), pp. 2 7 -2 8 .
13
R o l l a t , p. 5.
53
"La F in .d e l a G uadeloupe de p a p a ," Le Monde, 7-8 j a n v i e r 1979,
p . 7.
15 + ■
Guy L a s e r r e , "Le M a la ise p o l i t i q u e e t s o c i a l , " Les D ep artem en ts
d 'o u t r e - m e r - l a G uadeloupe, N otes e t E tudes D o c u m e n ta ire s, 22 novembre
1974, pp. 78 -7 9 .
IS
Dany B e b e l - G is l e r , C u ltu re s e t p o u v o ir dans l a C a ra ib e ( P a r i s :
L ’H a rm a tta n , 1 9 7 5 ), pp. 73-74.
^ J e a n O c to b re , "Une a u tr e communaute de r e f u g i e s s ’ e s t i n s t a l l e e
dans l a f o r e t g u y a n a is e ," Le Monde,- 6-12 mars 1980, p. 5.
18
D enis G ayet, "Le Raeism e en Guyane f r a n g a i s e , " Temps M odernes,
2 3 ’(m ars 1 9 6 8 ), p . 1676.
^ P i e r r e D upont-G onin, La Guyane f r a n g a i s e (Geneve: D roz, 1970),
p . x x i .
^ R o l l a t , p . 5.
21
Edouard G l i s s a n t , Le D is c o u rs a n t i l l a i s ( P a r i s : S e u i l , 1 9 8 1 ),
p. 424.
22
B u rto n , p . 62.
23 % ^ +
"A pres l e s e l e c t i o n s r e g i o n a le s o u tr e - m e r ," Le Monde,
23 f e v r i e r 1983, p . 7, c o l . 2.
^ I b i d . , p . 7, c o l . 2.
25
R o b e rt D. H e in l and Nancy G. H e in l, W ritte n i n B lood:
The H is to r y o f th e H a i ti a n P e o p le , 1492-1971 (B oston: Houghton M i f f l i n ,
1 9 7 8 ), p. 6 .
2S
Rene D e p e s tre as q u o ted i n R oger B a s tid e , H a itie n s en F ran ce
( P a r i s : M ounton, 1 9 7 4 ), p . 47.
27 ,
L . M anigat as q u o te d i n G erard P i e r r e - C h a r l e s , R a d io g ra p h ie
d 'u n e d i c t a t u r e (M ontreal.: N o u v e lle O p tiq u e , 1 9 7 3 ), pp. 16 6 -6 7 .
^ P i e r r e - C h a r l e s , p . 58.
29
I b i d .
30
I b i d . , p . 169.
31
Guilhem D ezeuze, " D u v a lie r e t l a p in ta d e m a rro n e ," E s p r i t ,
j u i n 1975, p . 1073.
54
32
B a s tid e , p . 17.
33
A lb e r t Valdman, "The Language S i t u a t i o n i n H a i t i , " i n
The H a i ti a n P o t e n t i a l , ed. Rubin V era and R ic h a rd S c h a e d e l (New York
and London: T e a c h e rs C o lle g e P r e s s , 1 9 7 5 ), pp. 6 6 -6 7 .
34
B a s tid e , p . 96.
55
Chapter Two
E v o lu tio n o f th e Novel i n H a i ti
and th e F ren ch D epartm ents
C a rib b e a n l i t e r a t u r e h as alw ays been c h a r a c t e r i z e d by d i f f i c u l t i e s
i n overcom ing th e i n f l u e n c e o f c o l o n i a l c u l t u r e . Even now, th e m a j o r it y
o f C a rib b e a n w r i t e r s compose and p u b l is h i n t h e lan g u a g e o f t h e c o lo
n i z i n g n a t i o n . F u rth e rm o re , a w r i t e r m ust o f te n have p r e v i o u s ly been
re c o g n iz e d and a c c e p te d i n th e s o - c a l l e d m other c o u n try t o g a in n o to
r i e t y i n h i s own la n d . T h is phenomenon i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s t r i k i n g i n th e
F rench D epartm ents due t o t h e i r s p e c i a l s t a t u s . The l o c a l la n g u a g e ,
C re o le , has g e n e r a ll y n o t been acknow ledged as a la n g u a g e i n i t s own .
r i g h t ; some a tte m p ts have r e c e n t l y been made a t w r i t i n g i n C re o le , but
th e y rem ain i s o l a t e d .
The te n d e n c y o f th e C a r ib b e a n .w r it e r to i m i t a t e E uropean l i t e r a r y
movement's and t r e n d s has been c a l l e d a form o f bovarysm e. I n F l a u b e r t 's
n o v e l, Madame Bovary came t o a bad end becau se sh e im ag in ed h e r s e l f
t o be th e k in d o f p e rs o n sh e i n f a c t was n o t. P e r c e iv in g t h a t t h i s i s
a w id e sp re a d human te n d e n c y , J u l e s de G a u l ti e r u sed h e r name t o c r e a t e
th e word bovarysm e. Such phenomenon i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y d i s a s t r o u s .
56
On t h e c o n t r a r y , i t can be an e f f e c t i v e mechanism o f e d u c a tio n . I t a l l
depends on t h e model c h o sen . I f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n t o th e model re a c h e s th e
p o in t o f t o t a l n e g a tio n o f o r i g i n a l p e r s o n a l f e a t u r e s , bovarysm e become:;
an a c t o f s e l f - d e s t r u c t i o n . U n f o r tu n a te ly , t h i s i s o f te n t h e c a s e i n
C a rib b e a n l i t e r a t u r e . A f t e r th e a b o l i t i o n o f s l a v e r y , th e o n ly a l t e r n a
t i v e o f f e r e d t b th e l i b e r a t e d s la v e was t h e i m i t a t i o n o f th e fo rm er
m a s te r . T h is same a t t i t u d e p e rv a d e s th e C a rib b e a n n o v e l i n i t s form and
c o n te n t , e s p e c i a l l y i n . t h e e a r l y y e a rs o f i t s d ev elo p m en t. As tim e
p a s s e d , some w r i t e r s t r i e d t o g iv e i t . o r i g i n a l i t y and c h a r a c t e r and t o
e li m i n a te a l l dependence upon th e fo rm e r c u l t u r e . T here alw ays rem ained)
by c o n t r a s t , th o s e who a c c e p te d th e s t a t u s quo and d id n o t s e e any
u r g e n t n eed f o r change.
A phenomenon w hich Laennec Hurbon c a l l s " c u l t u r a l v io le n c e " ^
f u r t h e r c o m p lic a te s th e t a s k o f t h e C a rib b e a n w r i t e r . T h is phenomenon
can be d e f in e d as t h e p r o c e s s o f i g n o r in g a n d /o r d e s tr o y in g t h e
e s s e n t i a l e le m en ts w hich shape th e c u l t u r e o f a g iv e n g ro u p . T h is o r i g i
n a te d i n th e p a s t th ro u g h s la v e r y , t h e advent o f c o l o n i a l id e o lo g y and
t h e i n f l u e n c e o f c o l o n i z a t i o n and C h r i s t i a n i z a t i o n . I t has re a c h e d new
h e ig h t s to d a y th ro u g h th e p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f mass m edia. C o n se q u e n tly ,
th e m a j o r it y o f th e common p e o p le a r e s lo w ly drawn t o a c c e p t as t h e i r s
a su p erim p o sed f o r e i g n c u l t u r e . One o f . t h e most f l a g r a n t m a n i f e s t a t i o n s
o f t h i s phenomenon i s th e q u a s i n o n - e x is te n c e of. a l i t e r a t u r e t h a t can
be s a i d t o be d i r e c t l y aimed a t t h i s m a j o r it y .
Bovarysme and c u l t u r a l v i o le n c e a re com plem entary phenomena. One
e x i s t s t o f i l l th e v o id c r e a te d by th e o t h e r . As th e o r i g i n a l c u l t u r e
57
o f th e m a j o r it y g a in s a sce n d e n c y , t h e ten d e n c y t o i m i t a t e t h e s u p e r
im posed c u l t u r e sh o u ld d is a p p e a r . T h is c o n s ta n t c o n f l i c t betw een two
c u l t u r e s has shaped th e n o v e l from H a i t i and th e F ren ch d e p a rtm e n ts
and e x p la in s some o f i t s m ost i n t e r e s t i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
I . A C en tu ry o f H a i ti a n n o v e ls (1859-1969)
The H a i ti a n i n t e l l e c t u a l e l i t e h a v in g been d e cim ated on th e b a t t l e
f i e l d s o f th e r e v o l u t i o n , v e ry l i t t l e was w r i t t e n im m ed ia te ly a f t e r
1804 f o r la c k o f w r i t e r s and o f a u d ie n c e . D uring th e e ig h t e e n t h
c e n tu r y , H a i t i had had a v e ry l i v e l y c u l t u r a l l i f e : i t had i t s own
t h e a t r e s , a c t i n g com panies, i t s own p r i n t shops and b o o k s to re s and was
c u l t u r a l l y in d e p e n d e n t from F ran ce even though i t s c u l t u r a l i n s t i t u t i o n s
fo llo w e d F ren ch m odels and used th e F ren ch la n g u a g e e x c l u s i v e l y . Twenty
y e a rs o f war a n n i h i l a t e d a l l t h i s . A f t e r a f a i r l y lo n g c u l t u r a l v o id ,
a few new spapers began t o a p p e a r. T h e ir l i t e r a r y in v o lv em en t was m o stly
l i m i t e d t o poems o f p a t r i o t i c i n s p i r a t i o n c e l e b r a t i n g th e H a i ti a n
h e r o e s . Though some e x p lo i te d H a i ti a n t o p i c s , t h e s e poems rem ained
fa s h io n e d a f t e r .F r e n c h exam ples. I n 1836, how ever, Em ile Nau, member o f
a group o f p o e ts c a l l e d ”Le C enacle^" e x p re s s e d h i s c o n c ern o v e r th e
la c k o f o r i g i n a l i t y o f H a itia n p o e tr y and s h a r p ly c r i t i c i z e d contem
p o r a r y p o e ts :. ”L 'i m i t a t i o n de l a m a n ie re e t du f a i r e des p o e te s e u ro -
* - . 2
peens e s t p lu s i n g r a t e e t s t e r i l e i c i q u '. a i l l e u r s . " He th u s l a i d th e
f o u n d a tio n f o r what was t o become a r e c u r r e n t p r e o c c u p a tio n among
H a i ti a n w r i t e r s and c r i t i c s .
I t i s o n ly much l a t e r t h a t th e n o v e l became s i g n i f i c a n t as a g e n re
58
i n H a i ti a n l i t e r a t u r e . I t s o r i g i n can be found i n t h e f o l k t a l e (w hich
rem ains t h e e q u iv a le n t o f th e n o v e l i n C re o le o r a l l i t e r a t u r e ) . I n h is
H i s t o i r e de l a l i t t e r a t u r e h a i t i e n n e , D u racin e Vaval d a te s .th e b i r t h
o f th e H a i t i a n n o v e l from th e p u b l i c a t i o n o f S t e l l a by Em eric Bergeaud
i n 1859. He e x p la in s how ever t h a t t h i s work m ixes d i f f e r e n t g e n re s and
c o u ld be c l a s s i f i e d e i t h e r as a t a l e , a h i s t o r i c a l s tu d y o r a n o v e l.
T h is d a te i s s t i l l s t i g n i f i c a n t as th e s t a r t i n g p o in t o f any s tu d y o f
th e H a i ti a n n o v e l, r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e a c tu a l v a lu e o f t h i s f i r s t w ork.
From th e n on, t h e h i s t o r y o f th e H a i t i a n n o v e l can be d iv id e d i n t o t h r e e
p e r io d s : 1) 1859-1915. som etim es c a l l e d H a itia n ro m a n tic is m and charac-^
t e r i z e d by w id e s p re a d bovarysm e; 2) 1915-1946 o r th e aw akening o f th e
H a i ti a n c o n s c io u s n e s s t r i g g e r e d by t h e A m erican o c c u p a tio n ; 3) 1946-1969
o r p o s t - i n d i g e n i s t y e a r s .
The H a i ti a n n o v e l i s th e p ro d u c t o f an e l i t e . As s u c h , i t has a
number o f p e c u l i a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s born from two c a u s e s ; t h e d e s i r e of
th e e l i t e t o p ro v e i t s e l f e q u a l to th e fo rm er c o l o n i z e r and th e gap
e x i s t i n g betw een t h i s e l i t e and th e m a jo r ity o f th e H a i ti a n p o p u la tio n .
a ) The E l i t e a g a in s t th e W hite W orld
U lr ic h Fleishm an., who le d a s u rv e y on t h e n a tu r e o f w r i t t e n
H a i ti a n l i t e r a t u r e , shows t h a t , i n s p i t e o f i t s s o c i a l p r e o c c u p a tio n s ,
t h e n o v e l rem ain s h a u n te d by th e d e s i r e o f i t s . a u th o r s t o p ro v e t h a t
H a i t i i s a " c i v i l i z e d ” c o u n tr y . W hatever i t s c o n te n t o r i t s m essage,
i t aims a t b e in g "une m a n i f e s t a t i o n de I ’e d u c a tio n f a c e au monde
3
b l a n c . ” T hroughout t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y , th e H a i ti a n e l i t e d e v elo p ed
59
a r e l a t i o n s h i p o f a d o r a t io n tow ard e d u c a tio n w hich was n o th in g b u t th e
d e s i r e t o p rove t o th e f o r e i g n e r t h a t th e H a itia n n a ti o n was n o t i n t e l
l e c t u a l l y i n f e r i o r t o any w h ite n a t i o n . The t i t l e s , o f th e m ost im por
t a n t e s s a y s p u b lis h e d a t t h a t tim e b e tr a y t h i s p r e o c c u p a tio n :
Les T h e o r ic ie n s au p o u v o ir by Desmevar Delorme (1 8 7 0 ); L 'E g a l i t e des
r a c e s by L o u is Jo s e p h J a n v i e r (1 8 8 2 ); L 'E g a l i t e des r a c e s hum aines
by A ntenor F irm in (1 8 8 5 ); De l a R e h a b i l i t a t i o n .de l a r a c e n o i r e p a r l a
r e p u b liq u e d 1H a i ti by H a n n ib a l P r i c e (1 8 9 3 ). H an n ib al P r i c e made i t
c l e a r : "L o rsq u e l a R e p u b liq u e n o i r e a u r a accom pli s e s d e s t i n e e s . . .
lo r s q u e l e n e g re s e r a p a r t o u t l ' e g a l du b la n c d e v a n t l a c i v i l i s a t i o n
c h r e t ie n n e comme i l l ' e s t d e v a n t D ieu , t o u te s l e s r a c e s s e r o n t
r a c h e t e e s , s e r o n t r e h a b i l i t e e s , c a r l a r a c e n o i r e e s t l a d e r n i e r e . " ^
As a c o n seq u e n c e , u n t i l 1915, t h e image of th e B lack g iv e n by th e
H a i t i a n 'w r i t e r is,, g e n e r a l l y sp e ak in g ,., t h a t o f a s a t e l l i t e ; th e B lack
i s t h e a l t e r ego o f t h e W hite, th e " o t h e r . " A f t e r 1915, u n d e r th e
i n f l u e n c e o f th e I n d i g e n i s t movement, w r i t e r s tu r n e d t o t h e p o r t r a y a l
o f th e B lack.-'him self, w ith o u t any, th o u g h t o f co m p a riso n . B u t, a t tim e s ,
th e s e a u th o r s s t i l l f i n d t h e need t o j u s t i f y th e m se lv e s and t h e i r
c o u n tr y .
b) The H a i ti a n W r i t e r and h i s A udience
I n h i s book De S t . Domingue a H a i t i , J e a n P ric e -M a rs n o te s t h a t
th e H a i ti a n w r i t e r more o f te n w r i t e s f o r a f o r e i g n a u d ie n c e th a n f o r
h i s f e llo w countrym en. The s t a t u s o f t h e H a itia n w r i t e r who, i n most
c a s e s , b e lo n g s t o th e e l i t e , i s u n u s u a l becau se o f h i s c o u n t r y 's
60
overw helm ing i l l i t e r a c y . He can o n ly hope t o re a c h th o s e o f h i s compa
t r i o t s who a r e e d u c a te d , th o s e o f h i s own c l a s s . E du cated i n F re n c h ,
t h i s l i t e r a r y e l i t e does n o t u s e C re o le , w hich f u r t h e r c o m p lic a te s t h e
pro b lem . H is H a i ti a n a u d ie n c e b e in g l i m i t e d , th e w r i t e r t r i e s t o
p u b l is h i n F ra n ce o r i n Quebec f o r a p u b l ic w h ich , more o f t e n th a n n o t ,
i s c o m p le te ly i g n o r a n t o f t h e H a i ti a n en v iro n m en t; T h is p u ts him i n an
awkward s i t u a t i o n : i f i t i s h i s i n t e n t i o n t o c r i t i c i z e H a i t i a n s o c i e t y ,
he can o n ly do so i n a l i m i t e d m anner, s in c e he c a n n o t d im in is h h i s
c o u n try i n t h e eyes o f t h e f o r e i g n e r s who w i l l r e a d him; i f he cho o ses
t o fa v o r h i s f o r e i g n a u d ie n c e o v e r h i s l o c a l a u d ie n c e , he w i l l have t o
e x p la in i n h i s n o v e l c e r t a i n a s p e c ts o f h i s s o c i e t y , w hich m ight
a l i e n a t e t h e l o c a l r e a d e r . I t i s a d e l i c a t e c h o ic e t o make and i t has
o f te n l e d t o r a t h e r s t r a i n e d w o rk s. R e c e n tly , a few H a i ti a n w r i t e r s
have made th e d e f i n i t e c h o ic e o f u s in g C re o le , b u t even t h e s e w i l l
rem ain a c c e s s i b l e o n ly t o t h e l i t e r a t e few u n t i l t h e b u lk o f t h e popu
l a t i o n i s t a u g h t t o re a d and g iv e n th e means t o a f f o r d b uying books.
H a i t i has few p u b l is h i n g h o u s e s . B e s id e s , a work i s r a r e l y p r i n t e d
i n e d i t i o n s o f more th a n f i v e h u ndred c o p ie s and r e p r i n t i n g s a r e few.
I t o f te n happens t h a t an a u th o r w i l l have h i s work p u b lis h e d a t h i s own
e x p e n se . As a r e s u l t , many H a i ti a n n o v e ls have f o r e v e r d is a p p e a r e d o r
w i l l f o r e v e r rem ain i n m a n u s c r ip t.
F i n a l l y , t h e d i c t a t o r i a l regim e o f H a i ti does .not alw ays en c o u ra g e
c r e a t i v i t y . Many H a i ti a n works c o n s id e r e d as p o l i t i c a l l y b ia s e d a re
banned. The l o c a l l i t e r a t u r e i s n o t g iv e n p re c e d e n c e o v e r i t s F rench
c o u n te r p a r t i n s c h o o ls , and i t s som etim es c r i t i c a l n a tu r e makes i t
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even l e s s a c c e p ta b le as p a r t o f th e s c h o o l c u rr ic u lu m . The D u v a lie r
regim e c a u se d th e d e p a r t u r e o f a number o f w r i t e r s who now p u b l is h from
a f o r e i g n c o u n tr y . A lth o u g h t h i s e x p a t r i a t i o n means freedom o f e x p re s
s io n , i t a ls o means s e p a r a t i o n (som etim es f o r e v e r ) from th e H a itia n
r e a l i t y . C o n se q u e n tly , n o v e l i s t s who have l i m i t e d c o n ta c ts w ith t h e i r
hom eland o f te n come t o d e p i c t a r e a l i t y a t t e n u a t e d and i d e a l i z e d by
d i s t a n c e and tim e .
The p e c u l i a r s i t u a t i o n o f th e H a itia n w r i t e r g iv e s t h e H a itia n
n o v e l i t s o r i g i n a l i t y and d e te rm in e s i t s c o n t e n t . I t i s th e n i n t e r e s
t i n g t o d i s t i n g u i s h betw een th e a u th o rs who have conform ed t o th e c i r
cum stances d e s c r ib e d above and th o s e who have t r i e d t o go beyond them
and aimed a t g iv in g th e H a i ti a n n o v e l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a l l i t s own. The
fo llo w in g c h r o n o lo g ic a l s u rv e y o f th e H a i ti a n n o v e l w i l l show i t s
p r o g r e s s io n from s e r v i l e i m i t a t i o n t o an i d e n t i t y o f i t s own.
1) 1859-1915: A D i f f i c u l t B ir th
I n 1859, th e f i r s t H a i t i a n n o v e l, S t e l l a by Em eric B ergeaud, was
p u b lis h e d i n P a r i s . I t t e l l s th e s t o r y o f an A f r ic a n s l a v e , S t e l l a , and
o f h e r two s o n s , and how th e y s u r v iv e th e e v e n ts w hich le d t o in d ep e n d
e n c e . I t seems p r o m is in g , s in c e th e a u th o r h a s c h o sen a t y p i c a l l y
H a i ti a n t o p i c . But t h e a u th o r f a l l s i n t o t h e t r a p o f j u s t i f y i n g th e
n o b i l i t y o f t h e s la v e by t h e n o b i l i t y o f h e r o r i g i n s : S t e l l a i s th e
d a u g h te r o f a K ing. B e s id e s , she i s p i c t u r e d as a n a iv e woman and h e r
c h a r a c t e r does n o t grow. B ergeaud d e p ic t s h e r a c ti o n s from a r a t h e r
c o n d e sc e n d in g p o i n t o f view t h a t b e tr a y s h i s l a c k o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n
62
w ith h i s s u b j e c t .
U n t i l 1901, few n o v e ls w ere p u b lis h e d . Those w hich rem ain show
t h a t t h e i r a u th o r s w ere i n t e r e s t e d i n t o p ic s removed from t h e H a i ti a n
s c e n e . F ra n c e s c a (1872) by Desmevar Delorme ta k e s p la c e i n I t a l y d u rin g
t h e f i f t e e n t h c e n tu r y . I t i s a r a t h e r m e lo d ra m a tic s t o r y w hich c o u ld
have been w r i t t e n by any n o n - H a itia n w ith a t a s t e f o r ro m a n tic f r e n z y .
H is second n o v e l, p u b lis h e d i n 1877 and e n t i t l e d Le Damne, i s o f th e
same n a tu r e b u t s i t u a t e d i n S w itz e r la n d . Une C hercheuse (1884) by
L o u is J o s e p h J a n v i e r a ls o d e a ls w ith w h ite c h a r a c t e r s i n an e x o ti c
s e t t i n g , t h i s tim e E g y p t. I n h e r a n th o lo g y Of t h e H a i ti a n n o v e l,
G h is la in e Rey s u g g e s ts t h a t th e f o r e i g n s i t u a t i o n d e s c r ib e d i n th e
n o v e l a c t u a l l y r e v e a ls t h e a u t h o r 's c o n c ern f o r h i s own c o u n try : he
knew t h a t f o r e i g n o c c u p a tio n t h r e a te n e d H a i t i and v o ic e d h i s f e e l i n g s
th ro u g h a young E g y p tia n h e ro f i g h t i n g t h e B r i t i s h i n v a s i o n .^ These
t h r e e a u th o r s s p e n t a g r e a t p a r t o f t h e i r l i v e s i n F ran ce o r t r a v e l i n g
i n E urope, w hich may e x p la in why t h e i r n o v e ls a re f a r from r e f l e c t i n g
d i r e c t in v o lv e m e n t w ith th e H a i ti a n r e a l i t y .
Amedee Brun, who p u b lis h e d Deux Amours i n 1895, d id spend h i s l i f e
i n H a i t i and d e p ic t s th e H a i ti a n s o c i e t y i n h i s n o v e l.. But h i s v i s i o n
rem ain s fra g m e n ta ry : Deux Amours p a i n t s t h e l i f e o f w h ite p l a n t a t i o n -
owners j u s t b e fo r e t h e R e v o lu tio n , as w e ll as t h e s la v e r e v o l t s w hich
f o llo w e d . I t s h e ro in e i s th e p la n ta tio n -o w n e r* s d a u g h te r , lo v e d and
sav ed by one o f h e r f a t h e r ' s d e v o te d s l a v e s . The s la v e s do c o n s t i t u t e
th e background o f th e n o v e l, b u t t h e i r l i f e s t y l e i s d e a l t w ith v e ry
l i t t l e , and th e y a r e se e n th ro u g h th e eyes o f t h e w h ite ow ners. Brun
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th u s g iv e s a s te r e o ty p e d image o f th e s l a v e s .
The t u r n o f th e c e n tu r y b ro u g h t s i g n i f i c a n t changes t o t h e n o v e l.
N o v e lis ts became more and more i n t e r e s t e d i n v a r io u s a s p e c ts o f th e
H a i ti a n s o c i e t y : u rb a n l i f e , r u r a l l i f e , p o l i t i c a l h a b i t s and Voodoo.
They te n d e d to w ard a more a u t h e n t i c k in d o f l i t e r a t u r e r e f l e c t i n g th e
p a r t i c u l a r i t i e s o f t h e i r co u n try .. T h is a tte m p t, i f o f te n l i m i t e d by th e
s o c i a l background o f t h e a u th o r s i n q u e s ti o n , paved th e way f o r what
was l a t e r t o become t h e I n d i g e n i s t movement.
The f i r s t decad e o f th e c e n tu r y was m arked by an o u t b u r s t o f
l i t e r a r y c r e a t i v i t y . F r e d e r i c M a rc e lin p u b lis h e d T h e m is to c le Eparainondas
L a b a s te r r e i n 1901, La Vengeance de Mama i n 1902, M a r i l i s s e i n 1903}
J u s t i n L h e r is s o n w ro te La F a m ille des P i t i t e - C a i l l e i n 1905 and Zoune
chez s a n in n a in e i n 1906} F ernand H ib b e rt p ro d u ced Sena (1 9 0 5 ),
L es T h azar (19 0 7 ) and Romulus (1908) and f i n a l l y , A n to in e In n o c e n t
p u b lis h e d Mimola i n 1906. T hese a u th o r s a r e u s u a l l y grouped u n d e r th e
name o f E c o le R e a l i s t e s in c e th e y in te n d e d t o g iv e t h e i r a u d ie n c e a
r e a l i s t i c p i c t u r e o f H aiti... T h e ir n o v e ls t h e r e f o r e e x p lo re th e main
s o c i a l and econom ic problem s o f t h e i r c o u n tr y . They a ls o began t o u se
C re o le i n t h e i r works and t o d e fe n d i t as an e le m en t e s s e n t i a l to th e
t r u e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e H a itia n c u l t u r e .
Among th e n o v e ls o f th e E co le R e a l i s t e , one c a n 'd i s t i n g u i s h 't w o
te n d e n c ie s : d e s c r i p t i o n s o f th e l i f e o f th e b o u r g e o is ie and d e s c r i p
t i o n s o f t h a t o f t h e u rb a n and r u r a l p o o r. M a rc e lin and H ib b e rt ch ose
t o d e a l w ith th e problem s o f t h e s o c i a l and economic e l i t e , w h ile
L h e r is s o n gave p re c e d e n c e t o th e common p e o p le and d e s c r ib e d t h e i r
64
s t r u g g l e t o c lim b t h e s o c i a l l a d d e r . H is h e r o , E l i e z e r P i t i t e - C a i l l e ,
i s o f humble o r i g i n . B efo re a c h ie v in g s o c i a l s u c c e s s , he worked, a t odd
jo b s i n o r d e r t o s u r v iv e ; c a r p e n te r ,, .blacksm ith,, h a t t e r and s a i l o r . ^
Zoune, t h e m ain p r o t a g o n i s t o f L h e ris s o n * s o t h e r n o v e l, i s a t r a n p l a n t e d
p e a s a n t.. A r b i t r a r i l y p la c e d as a s e r v a n t .in .th e c i t y , sh e does h e r b e s t
t o a d a p t t o a co m p le te ly , d i f f e r e n t way o f l i f e .
L h e r is s o n i s among, t h e f i r s t t o com prehend and e x p la in some o f th e
m ost o r i g i n a l f e a t u r e s o f th e H a i ti a n p e r s o n a l i t y . He, f o r example,,
g iv e s g r e a t im p o rta n c e to. the. i n f l u e n c e o f th e s u p e r n a t u r a l upon th e
l i v e s o f h i s c h a r a c t e r s ; t h e su c c e ss..a n d w e a lth o f E l i e z e r P i t i t e -
C a i l l e and h i s a s c e n s io n from sim p le s a i l o r . t o man o f means a r e g r e a t l y
d e te rm in e d by h i s w i f e 's c a r d - r e a d in g t a l e n t s .. Very H a i ti a n a l s o i s t h e
la c k o f c o n c e r n ,w ith w hich he e n t e r s p o l i t i c s - and t h e n . l o s e s .p a r t o f
th e f o r t u n e he had acquired... I t i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f m ost o f L h e r i s -
s o n 's c h a r a c t e r s t h a t th e y do n o t know t h e r e a l v a lu e o f m oney.and
r e v e a l t h e m s e lv e s . in c a p a b le o f d i s t i n g u i s h i n g betw een .what i s n e c e s s a r y
and what i s n o t , what i s r e a l and what i s appearance.:
The same c r i t i c i s m o f t h e H a i ti a n p e r s o n a l i t y can b e .fo u n d in t h e
n o v e ls d e s c r i b in g t h e b o u r g e o is ie . I n F ernand H i b b e r t 's Les T h a z a r,.
T h azar a ls o l o s e s . h i s money i n p o l i t i e s . H is w i f e , a v a in and s e l f i s h
woman, spends what l i t t l e i s l e f t 'to m a in ta in h e r s o c i a l s t a t u s a n d .
p r o v id e h e r d a u g h te r w ith a s u i t a b l e h u sb a n d . The c h o ic e o f th e husban d
makes up th e core, o f th e n o v e l; he h a s . t o be r i c h and w h ite . I t i s
u n th in k a b le t h a t Madame T h a z a r 's d a u g h te r m arry a H a i t i a n , f o r H a i ti a n s
have no f u t u r e . H ib b e rt th u s d e p i c t s a c l a s s w hich i s c r i p p l e d by a c u te
65
bovarysm e and whose m ain p re o c c u p a tio n s a r e t o o r d e r t h e l a t e s t
f a s h io n s from F ra n ce and q u o te F ren ch p o e ts . H is h e ro e s have a l l
s tu d i e d i n P a r i s , a r e a l l p r o f e s s i o n a l s o r r i c h m erc h an ts and l i v e a
l i f e o f l e i s u r e and i n t r i g u e . Among them , s p e a k in g C re o le i s a d i s g r a c e ,
and q u o tin g L a t i n i s th e ep ito m e o f r e f in e m e n t. A lth o u g h H ib b e rt o c c a
s i o n a l l y denounces th e h y p o c ris y and s e l f i s h n e s s o f t h i s s o c i e t y ,
a lth o u g h h is p o r t r a i t s b o r d e r on c a r i c a t u r e , h i s c r i t i c i s m rem ains some
w hat i n e f f e c t i v e b e c au se i t i s n o t backed by any a p p a re n t d e s i r e f o r
re fo rm . The same h o ld s t r u e o f th e n o v e ls w r i t t e n by F r e d e r i c M a rc e lin ,
J u l e s Domingue ( Deux amours d 'A d r i e n , 1902) o r F ra n g o is L a v e la n e t
( C o rin n e , 1907), w hich a l l c o n c e n tr a te on t h e l i f e o f t h e H a itia n
b o u r g e o is ie .
A nother two n o v e ls s ta n d o u t among th e p r o d u c tio n o f th e E co le
R e a l i s t e : La N o ire by M a s s illo n Coicou and Mimola' by A n t o i n e .I n n o c e n t .
La N oire., w hich was p u b lis h e d as a s e r i a l in- t h e new spaper: Le S o i r
from November 1905 u n t i l Ju n e 1906, d e s c r ib e s th e l i f e o f a s la v e on a
p l a n t a t i o n , h e r ra p e by th e p la n ta tio n - o w n e r and t h e b i r t h o f h e r
m u la tto d a u g h te r . I t a l s o d e a ls w ith t h e l i f e o f a group o f maroon
s la v e s le d by J e a n , f r i e n d o f A t t i c a , t h e b la c k woman. C oicou r e a l i s
t i c a l l y r e c r e a t e s t h e i n e v i t a b l e b r u t a l i t y o f t h e f i g h t o f th e m aroons
b u t does n o t p r e s e n t i t as a n e c e s s i t y . I n s t e a d h i s h e ro wonders about
w hat j u s t i f i e s h i s a c t i o n s , a b o u t how l e g i t i m a t e h i s a t t a c k s on th e
c o l o n i a l i n s t i t u t i o n a r e . The n o v e l a ls o c o n ta in s some i n t e r e s t i n g
p ages on th e b i r t h o f H a i ti a n C re o le . Coicou was among t h e f i r s t t o
f i g h t f o r th e a c c e p ta n c e o f C re o le i n H a itia n l i t e r a t u r e . A n to in e
66
I n n o c e n t 's n o v e l, M imola, was a ls o f i r s t p u b lis h e d as a s e r i a l . I t s
m ain theme i s Voodoo. I t t e l l s th e t a l e o f th e t r a n s m i s s io n o f th e
Voodoo c u l t among t h e women o f one fa m ily and throw s l i g h t upon th e
p ro fo u n d i n f l u e n c e o f Voodoo on th e H a i ti a n p e o p le .
A lthough i t s scope i s l i m i t e d , th e E c o le R e a l i s t e can be c r e d i t e d
w ith a number o f i n n o v a tio n s : i t g .('.writers fo cu s o n 't h e H a i ti a n r e a l i t y ,
even i f th e s u b j e c t s th e y choose a re som etim es lim ite d ,, and even i f
t h e i r c r i t i c a l a b i l i t y rem ains hampered by t h e i r s o c i a l background and
th e e s s e n t i a l l y F re n c h e d u c a tio n th e y have r e c e iv e d . They t im id l y i n t r o
duce th e u s e o f C re o le i n th e n o v e l: e x p r e s s io n s , s e n te n c e s i n C re o le
a p p e ar h e r e and t h e r e , b u t th e b u lk o f th e t e x t i s i n F re n c h . T h is does
d e m o n s tra te t h e i r budding aw areness o f th e d u a l i t y o f H a i ti a n s o c i e t y .
T h is l i t e r a t u r e i s , . how ever, s t i l l t h e p ro d u c t o f an e l i t e and r e f l e c t s
i t s m e n t a l i t y , th u s g iv in g a som etim es b ia s e d r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f th e
H a i ti a n r e a l i t y . T hese n o v e ls a re ta u g h t i n H a i ti a n s c h o o ls and have
r e c e n t l y been r e p r i n t e d by a H a i t i a n p u b l is h i n g h o u s e , th e E d itio n s
F a r d in , and by t h e group "C o n n a issa n c e d 'H a i t i " i n New York (1 9 7 5 ).
Many s t i l l c o n s id e r th e s e books d a n g e ro u s . The c r i t i c Henock T r o u i l l o t
ju d g es a l l l i t e r a t u r e p ro d u ced p r i o r t o th e I n d i g e n i s t movement as
u n r e l i a b l e and b ia s e d : " C 'e s t 1*e s p r i t de c e s hommes (M u la tre s p e t i o -
n i s t e s e t r i g a u d i n s ) q u i a predom ine dans l a p o l i t i q u e h a i t i e n n e . C 'e s t
ce meme e s p r i t q u i a p r o d u it nos o e u v re s l i t t e r a i r e s . C 'e s t p o u rq u o i,
en a l l a n t au fond des c h o s e s , on p e u t d i r e que l a l i t t e r a t u r e
h a i t i e n n e , s a u f q u e lq u e s r a r e s e t n o b le s e x c e p tio n s , e s t une l i t t e r a t u r e
e la b o r e e en fa v e u r d 'u n e p e t i t e e l i t e r a p a c e , a n t i - p r o g r e s s i s t e , a n t i -
67
p e u p le . Et c e t t e l i t t e r a t u r e , l a n o u v e lle g e n e r a tio n d o i t l 'a b o r d e r
avec p r e c a u ti o n . Car e l l e a t o u jo u r s v o i l e l a r e a l i t e s o c i a l e t r a g i q u e
de ce p a y s ." ^ T h is condem nation o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e w r i t t e n b e fo r e 1915
i s n o t based upon a r t i s t i c c r i t e r i a n o r upon th e im pact o f a work upon
8
i t s tim e , b u t upon i t s p o s s i b l e s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l i n f l u e n c e to d a y .
2) 1915-1946: The A m erican O ccu p atio n and th e I n d i g e n i s t Movement
I n 1915, H a i ti a n s o c i e t y was th e c a r i c a t u r e o f a democracy? i t s
p o p u la tio n was d iv id e d i n t o two d i s t i n c t g roups w hich b e lo n g e d t o two
d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r a l sy ste m s— on th e one hand, th e e l i t e , and th e r u r a l
and u rb a n m asses on th e o t h e r . The e l i t e r e f u s e d i t s H a i t i a n i d e n t i t y
and t r i e d t o e sc a p e th e H a i ti a n m ilie u m o stly th ro u g h t r i p s t o Europe
and c o n fo rm ity t o E uropean fa s h io n s .. I t was c r i p p l e d by an a c u te i n f e
r i o r i t y com plex w hich made i t ashamed o f i t s o r i g i n s and k e p t i t from
f e e l i n g any u n i t y w h a ts o e v e r .w ith i t s homeland.: T h is la c k o f i n t e r e s t
f o r n a t i o n a l c irc u m s ta n c e s r e s u l t e d in t h e t o t a l i n a b i l i t y o f th e
H a i ti a n r u l e r s t o m a in ta in any k in d o f o r d e r in t h e i r c o u n tr y , w hich
c ir c u m s ta n c e , i n t u r n , paved th e way f o r th e Am erican o c c u p a tio n .
The Am erican o c c u p a tio n r a p i d l y u p s e t t h i s r i g i d s o c i a l o r d e r .
The A m erican p re s e n c e once more c r e a te d a c o lo n i a l s i t u a t i o n . i n H a i t i
and d is c o u r a g e d th e e l i t e , w hich soon found i t s e l f ro b b ed o f a l l i t s
p r i v i l e g e s . I t c o u ld n o t a c c e p t b ein g t r e a t e d l i k e t h e r e s t o f th e
p o p u l a t io n . For th e A m erican o c c u p a n t, nuances o f c o lo r m eant a b so
l u t e l y n o th in g . I t was t h i s d i s o r i e n t e d e l i t e w hich J e a n P ric e -M a rs
ch ose as th e aim o f h i s campaign* He w anted t o make them u n d e rs ta n d
68
t h a t i t had become n e c e s s a r y t o c o n fr o n t th e w h ite suprem acy w ith a
s p e c i f i c a l l y H a i t i a n c u l t u r e , t h a t any a tte m p t a t r e s i s t i n g o r s t r i k i n g
*
back c o u ld n o t be made w ith o u t t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f th e m a sse s. The t r a d i
t i o n a l H a i ti a n c u l t u r e w hich has i t s r o o ts i n A f r ic a , s u rv iv e d m o stly
among t h e p e a s a n t s . The e l i t e had. t o a c c e p t t h i s A f r ic a n h e r i t a g e as an
e s s e n t i a l elem en t o f i t s c u l t u r e .
I t i s t h i s a s p e c t o f t h e work of. J e a n .P ric e -M a rs w hich Vere W.
K n ig h t, i n h is e v a l u a t i o n o f A in s i p a r l a .l'O n c le , d e s c r i b e s as h a v in g
had d e c i s i v e i n f l u e n c e upon t h e H a i ti a n n o v e l and i t s r o l e i n p ro m o tin g
a n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e :
P r ic e - M a r s 's work p u t t h e b la c k p e a s a n t f ir m l y on t h e c u l t u r a l
map o f H a i t i , i f i t d id l i t t l e t o a l t e r h i s s o c i a l and eco
nomic c ir c u m s ta n c e s . The t r a d i t i o n a l c u l t u r e o f th e p e a s a n ts
p ro v id e d an a t t r a c t i v e a l t e r n a t i v e , a t t h e p s y c h o lo g ic a l
l e v e l i f n o t a t th e p r a c t i c a l l e v e l , t o th e o b s tr u s iv e
w h ite n e s s o f th e A m ericans and th e b l a t a n t m a te r ia lis m of
t h e i r c u l t u r e . C u l t u r a l n a tio n a lis m was a s a f e a l t e r n a t i v e
t o th e more a g g r e s s iv e o p p o s itio n w hich t h e A m ericans had
e a r l i e r s u p p re s s e d . P r ic e - M a r s ' s u g g e s tio n t h a t a r t i s t s c o u ld
f in d a r i c h m ine o f m a t e r i a l s i n th e t r a d i t i o n s o f th e
p e a s a n ts was a d o p te d by n o v e l i s t s , p o e t s , p l a y w r ig h ts ,
p a i n t e r s and m u s i c i a n s .9
P ric e -M a rs was th e f i r s t t o p r e s e n t t h e I n d i g e n i s t th o u g h t as a.
sy stem . But th e movement i t s e l f was n o t b o rn a t once betw een 1925 and
1927. I t to o k sh ap e p r o g r e s s i v e l y , i n t e g r a t i n g e x p e rie n c e s from th e
p a s t and from th e p e r io d o f th e A m erican ..o ccu p atio n . I n 1925, t h e
m agazine La N o u v e lle Ronde was p u b lis h e d . But i t s t i l l e x p re s s e d th e
I n d i g e n i s t th o u g h t i n a v e i l e d and c o n fu se d m anner. I t was l e f t t o be
g u e sse d a t th ro u g h t h e t e x t s p r e s e n te d . B a s i c a l l y , t h e rev ie w was m eant
t o t r y and m a t e r i a l i z e a w ish form ed by A n to n io V ieux and P h i li p p e
69
T h o b y -M arc e lin : ” 11 f a u d r a i t , p o u r que l a l i t t e r a t u r e h a i t i e n n e e x i s t a t
que l e s o e u v re s r e f l e c h i s s e n t d a v a n ta g e l e s a s p i r a t i o n s , l e s te n d a n c e s ,
1'am e meme du p a y s .” ^ I t s t i l l rem ained t o d e f in e e x a c t l y what t h i s
" H a it i a n s o u l ” w as. T h is f i r s t group o f w r i t e r s was n o t a b le t o a c h ie v e
c l a r i t y o f i n t e n t i o n , and t h e rev ie w soon d is a p p e a re d .
I n 1927, t h e Revue I n d ig e n e was c r e a t e d . I t was head ed by p o e ts
Em ile Roumer, C a rl B rouard and Norm il S y lv a in and n o v e l i s t s P h i l i p p e
T h o b y -M arcelin and J a c q u e s Roumain. I t s o b j e c t i v e s w ere b e t t e r d e f in e d
th a n t h e N o u v e lle Ronde's : i t so u g h t an u n d e rs ta n d in g o f t h e p o p u la r
c u l t u r e and aimed a t u s in g i t as a s o u rc e o f i n s p i r a t i o n . The a u th o r s
who w ro te i n th e re v ie w w anted t o ta k e p a r t i n t h e jo y s and th e
s u f f e r i n g s o f th e H a i ti a n p e o p le , t o make room i n t h e i r w r i t i n g s f o r
th e e v o c a tio n o f t h e l i f e o f t h e p o o r, and t o show t h e d a i l y l i f e o f
th e p e a s a n t . S t i l l , t h e i r in v o lv e m e n t o f te n rem ained h e s i t a n t and t h e i r
p o s i t i o n t h a t o f o u t s i d e o b s e r v e r s .
What made J e a n P ric e -M a rs th e t h e o r e t i c i a n o f t h e I n d i g e n i s t
movement was t h e l a c k o f a m b ig u ity o f h i s p u rp o se as opposed t o th e
h e s i t a t i o n s o f th e o t h e r s . H is m ajo r w ork, A in s i p a r l a l 'O n c le (1 9 2 8 ),
a ls o came a t a tim e when t h e r e s i s t a n c e a g a in s t th e A m erican o c c u p a tio n
had had tim e t o c r y s t a l l i z e and w h e n ,th o s e who had f i r s t been i n f a v o r
o f i t f o r m a t e r i a l re a s o n s w ere b e g in n in g t o u n d e rs ta n d t h e i r m is ta k e .
P r ic e - M a r s ' work ta u g h t t h e H a i ti a n s t o lo o k a t th e m se lv e s w ith o u t
s h a m e ,^ t o d is c o v e r t h a t t h e i r p a s t was n o t d e v o id o f s i g n i f i c a n c e ,
b u t t h a t i t was t h e s o u rc e o f a c u l t u r e w hich, i f acknow ledged, c o u ld
d e v e lo p i n t o so m eth in g u n iq u e . A in s i p a r l a l 'O n c l e a p p e a rs as a
_______________________ 70
v ig o u ro u s d e fe n s e o f th e b la c k r a c e and o f A f r ic a n c u l t u r e . I t p ro v ed
t h a t t h e o n ly way f o r t h e e l i t e t o r e c o v e r in d ep e n d e n c e and d i g n i t y
was t o s to p b e in g " s u b s t i t u t e " Frenchmen and t o become H a i ti a n s i n th e
f u l l s e n s e o f t h e te rm . The r e c o v e r y .o f an a u t h e n t i c H a i ti a n i d e n t i t y
e n t a i l e d coming t o te rm w ith t h e H a i ti a n c u l t u r e as i t had been p r e
s e rv e d by t h e p e o p le . T hat became th e aim o f th e Revue I n d ig e n e .
A lthoug h i t a p p e a re d b e fo re th e p u b l i c a t i o n o f A in s i p a r l a l 'O n c l e , i t s
members soon a d o p te d th e p r i n c i p l e s e s t a b l i s h e d by P ric e -M a rs and
a p p lie d them t o t h e i r w r i t i n g s .
The I n d i g e n i s t movement re a c h e d f u l l developm ent around 1938 w ith
th e p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h e re v ie w Les G r i o t s .. I n i t , C a rl B rouard d e fin e d
t h e b a s is and th e p u rp o se o f t h e movement as f o llo w s :
Nous a u t r e s g r i o t s h a i t i e n s d e v ro n t c h a n te r l a s p le n d e u r de
nos p a y s a g e s , l a d o u ceu r des aubes d ' a v r i l b o u rd o n n an te s
d 'a b e i l l e s e t q u i o n t l 'o d e u r v a n i l l e e des k e n e p ie r s en
f l e u r s , l a b e a u te de nos femmes, l e s e x p l o i t s de nos a n c e t r e s ,
e t u d i e r p a ssio n e m e n t n o t r e f o l k l o r e e t nous s o u v e n ir que
c h a n g er de r e l i g i o n e s t s 'a v e n t u r e r dans un d e s e r t in c o n n u ,
que d e v a n c e r son d e s t i n e s t s ’ e x p o s e r a p e r d r e l e g e n ie de s a
r a c e e t de se s t r a d i t i o n s . ^
The I n d i g e n i s t movement i n s p i r e d a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f n o v e ls w hich
e x p l o i t e d t h e them es a n a ly z e d by J e a n P ric e - M a r s . They can be ro u g h ly
c l a s s i f i e d .in to two g ro u p s: t h e r u r a l n o v e l w hich fo c u s e s on th e
d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e p e a s a n t 's l i f e , o f Voodoo and o f H a i ti a n f o l k l o r e a s ,
f o r exam ple, Le Drame de l a t e r r e (1933) by J e a n - B a p t i s t e C ineas and
C anape-V ert (1944) by th e M a rc e lin b r o t h e r s ; and th e p r o l e t a r i a n n o v e l
w hich i s e i t h e r a s a t i r e o f H a i ti a n p o l i t i c a l h a b i t s su c h as Le Choc
en r e t o u r (1948) by C in e a s, o r w hich p r e s e n t s s o c i a l i s t s o r M a rx ist
71
id e a s such as V ie jo (1935) by M aurice C a sse u s, G ouverneurs de l a r o s e e
(1944) by J a c q u e s Roumain and L es Semences de l a c o l e r e (1949) by
A nthony L e s p e s. A lth o u g h t h e n o v e ls named above a r e but a few among
th o s e p u b lis h e d a t th e tim e , th e y a r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e v a r io u s
d i r e c t i o n s i n w hich I n d i g e n i s t n o v e l i s t s moved.
a ) The r u r a l n o v el
Le Drame de l a t e r r e and C anape-V ert bo th o f f e r a d e s c r i p t i o n o f
t h e l i f e o f th e H a i ti a n p e a s a n t. They a r e n o t meant to d e v is e s o l u t i o n s
t o th e problem s th e y expose b u t sim p ly t o d e s c r ib e them , th u s a llo w in g
th e r e a d e r t o d is c o v e r a way o f l i f e ig n o re d f o r a lo n g tim e . D e s p ite
t h e s i m i l a r i t y o f t h e i r th em es, th e s e two n o v e ls a re opposed i n to n e
and m essage.
J e a n - B a p t i s t e C ineas g iv e s a b i t t e r s w e e t v i s i o n of. p e a s a n t l i f e .
At th e b e g in n in g o f th e n o v e l, th e p e a s a n ts a re u n ite d , in th e t r a d i
t i o n a l c o u m b ite . But soon one r e a l i z e s t h a t t h i s u n i t y i s n o th in g b u t
an a p p e a ra n c e and t h a t th e p e a s a n t community i s t o r n by an e n d u rin g
c o n f l i c t betw een t h e l o c a l h e u n g an , M apou-L aloi, and th e p o l i t i c a l and
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e h ead o f t h e v i l l a g e , F re -D u b re . T his c o n f l i c t le a d s t o
v i o le n c e and d e a th : F re-D ubre d i e s a t th e hand o f M apou-L aloi. Mapou-
L a lo i u s e s h i s r e p u t a t i o n as a houngan and th e c r e d u l i t y o f th e
v i l l a g e r s t o c o v e r up h i s c rim e . The w hole n o v e l i s th u s dom inatedi'by
t h e i n f l u e n c e o f Voodoo upon t h e c h a r a c t e r s : t h e a u th o r w ants t o p ro v e
t h a t Voodoo i s a r e l i g i o n , t h a t s u p e r s t i t i o n i s a u n i v e r s a l phenomenon,
b u t t h a t i t s h o ld o v e r th e p e a s a n t a ls o has o th e r c a u s e s . The c o re o f
th e n o v e l i s t h e r e f o r e th e t r i a l o f th e m u rd e re rs , d u r in g w hich a young
d e fe n s e a tt o r n e y e x p la in s Voodoo as a consequence o f d e f i n i t e s o c io
economic c o n d i t i o n s . Voodoo i s th e p e o p l e 's answ er t o such problem s as
u n d e rd e v e lo p m e n t, h u n g e r, d i s e a s e and p o v e r ty . As lo n g as n o th in g i s
done t o a l l e v i a t e t h e s e p ro b le m s, Voodoo w i l l r e t a i n i t s i n f l u e n c e upon
th e p e a s a n t.
Voodoo a ls o p la y s a m ajo r p a r t i n C a n a p e -V e rt„by th e M a rc e lin
b r o t h e r s . I t i s th e o n ly e le m en t o f r u r a l l i f e th o ro u g h ly e x p lo i te d in
th e n o v e l. What s t r i k e s th e r e a d e r about t h i s work i s th e a p p a re n t la c k
o f in v o lv em en t o f th e a u th o r s w ith t h e i r s u b j e c t : t h e i r a cco u n t i s
c l o s e r to a s a t i r e th a n t o a s y m p a th e tic e x p o s it io n o f t h e l i f e o f th e
r u r a l m asse s. The c h a r a c t e r s th e y p r e s e n t la c k d i g n i t y and a re o f te n
se e n from a g ro te s q u e p o in t o f v iew . Does t h i s comes from t h e a u th o r s '
s t y l e o r from t h e i r la c k o f u n d e rs ta n d in g o f t h e p e a s a n t c o n d itio n ?
Vere W. K night answ ers t h i s q u e s ti o n i n a r a t h e r v i r u l e n t a r t i c l e w hich
condemns th e work o f t h e M a rc e lin b r o th e r s f o r i t s s e n s a t io n a l is m and
la c k o f c o n c ern f o r t h e p l i g h t o f th e p e a s a n ts :
The M a rc e lin b r o th e r s show an o b s e s s iv e f a s c i n a t i o n w ith
p o p u la r c u l t s b u t i t i s d o u b tfu l w h e th e r th e y w ere e x p e r t s ;
t h e i r h a n d lin g o f f o l k c u l t u r e shows e v id e n c e o f a w e a lth of
d o c u m e n tatio n but l i t t l e o r no a n a ly s i s o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g ...
The M a rc e lin s a p p e a r t o be la c k in g any form o f co m m itm en t...
I t i s r e g r e t t a b l e t h a t th e y won a p r i z e w ith C anape-V ert
s in c e th e y a re th u s enco u rag ed t o c o n tin u e ,:w ith o u t ch a n g in g
t h e i r p e r s p e c t i v e o r d e e p en in g t h e i r themes.-*-^
And he c o n tin u e s :
T h is e s s e n t i a l l y m u la tto m id d le c l a s s v i s i o n o f grow ing up
i n th e c o u n tr y does n o t even a tte m p t t o come t o g r ip s w ith
73
w ith r e a l i t y . I t i s a t moments l i k e th e s e t h a t t h e M a rc e lin s
b e tr a y t h e i r b ack g ro u n d , o r r a t h e r t h a t t h e i r background
b e tr a y s th e M a rc e lin s and shows them c o m p le te ly la c k in g in
s o c i a l v i s i o n .
A lthough th e y g iv e i n t e r e s t i n g d e t a i l s about some a s p e c ts o f r u r a l
l i f e , i t i s t r u e t h a t t h e M a rc e lin b r o t h e r s ' p o r t r a y a l o f t h e p e a s a n t
i s d e v o id o f co m p assio n . H is p o v e rty i s d e s c r ib e d as i n e v i t a b l e ; h i s
l i f e i s dom inated and d e te rm in e d by Voodoo, le a v in g him no p o s s i b i l i t y
o f c h o ic e . C o n se q u e n tly , he i s s u b m is s iv e and u n c r i t i c a l o f t h e f o r c e s
w hich in e x o r a b ly d r iv e him t o h i s d e a th . T h is f a t a l i s m o f t h e H a i ti a n
p e a s a n t i s n o t a new them e; i t r e c u r s i n th e m a j o r it y o f I n d i g e n i s t
n o v e ls . O th er a u th o r s , how ever, denounce i t as one o f t h e m ain c a u se s
o f t h e s t a g n a t i o n o f r u r a l l i f e .
b) The p r o l e t a r i a n n o v e l
Le Choc en r e t o u r by J e a n - B a p t i s t e 'C i n e a s d e s c r i b e s t h e p o l i t i c a l
in co m p eten ce o f t h e H a i ti a n r u l e r s . A lthough i t does n o t a g a in o f f e r
a l t e r n a t i v e s , t h e a u th o r condemns th e c o r r u p t io n o f t h e men i n power
and blam es them f o r th e econom ic and s o c i a l im m o b ility o f h i s c o u n tr y .
H is h e ro , P e r n i e r , i s th e t y p i c a l c o r r u p te d s ta te s m a n , p a ra d in g in
a m il ie u w hich c o p ie s E uropean a t t i t u d e s and f a s h i o n s . By c o n t r a s t , th e
p e o p le lam ent t h e i r m is e ry and v e n t t h e i r a n g e r at- t h e lo c k e d g a te s o f
h i s p a la c e . H is aw akening comes as he i s e x il e d i n F ra n c e a f t e r h i s
governm ent i s o v e rth ro w n . T h e re , he d is c o v e r s how i g n o r a n t he was o f
th e r e a l n a tu r e of H a i t i and b e l a t e d l y l e a r n s about h i s hom eland. H is
new -found i n t e r e s t f o r th e good o f th e c o u n try u n f o r t u n a t e l y comes to o
l a t e . U nable t o r e g a i n power upon h is r e t u r n t o H a i t i , he d i e s a lo n e
74
and m is e r a b l e . Through t h i s d e s p e r a te e n d in g , C ineas c o ld l y p a s s e s
s e n te n c e on h i s c o u n tr y , a c o u n tr y c r i p p l e d by i n t e r n a l r i v a l r i e s and
headed f o r s e l f - d e s t r u c t i o n .
The f o llo w in g two n o v e ls a ls o d e a l w ith t h e aw akening o f t h e
H a i ti a n p o l i t i c a l c o n s c io u s n e s s , but a t a d e e p e r l e v e l : t h e s o c i a l
c irc u m s ta n c e s o f H a i t i a re e x p la in e d i n te rm s o f c l a s s s t r u g g l e and
M a rx ist id e o lo g y . I t i s o f prim e im p o rta n c e , th e n , in o r d e r t o p r e p a r e
f o r t h e n e c e s s a r y r e v o l u t i o n , t o u n i t e a l l th e u n d e r p r i v il e g e d and
e d u c a te them t o t h i n k i n p o l i t i c a l te r m s . The r a c i a l problem a ls o
becomes p o l i t i c a l and i s i n t e r p r e t e d as a s t r u g g l e betw een o p p r e s s o r
and o p p re s s e d . T hese t h e o r i e s a re a p p lie d t o . t h e c i t y i n V ie jo by
M aurice C asseus and t o th e c o u n tr y i n G ouverneurs de l a ro s e e by
Ja c q u e s Roumain. The h e ro e s o f b o th n o v e ls a re m ig ra n t w orkers r e t u r n
in g t o H a i t i a f t e r a s t a y i n Cuba., The e x p e rie n c e a c q u ir e d i n Cuba i s
o f u tm o st im p o rta n c e s i n c e , t h e r e , f o r t h e f i r s t tim e , th e y w orked f o r
c a p i t a l i s t f ir m s . They l e a r n th e n t o se e t h e i r c o n d it io n as t h a t o f
e x p lo i te d l a b o r e r s and t o u n d e rs ta n d i t i n s o c i a l i s t te r m s .
The p u b l i c a t i o n o f V ie jo i s an im p o rta n t e v e n t i n H a i ti a n l i t e r a
t u r e : i t i s t h e f i r s t n o v e l i n w hich t h e s o c i a l i s t them e o f c l a s s
s t r u g g l e becomes c e n t r a l , i n w hich th e u s e f u l n e s s o f Marxism f o r t h e
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f s o c i a l c o n d itio n s i n H a i t i i s p r e s e n te d c o n v in c in g ly
and i n w hich L e n in and Marx a re a c t u a l l y q u o te d as exam ples.. F u r t h e r
m ore, two new them es o f th e H a i ti a n n o v e l emerge from M a rio 's t r i p t o
Cuba: H a i t i ' s a s s o c i a t i o n w ith th e U n ite d S t a t e s b e cau se o f i t s geo
g r a p h ic l o c a t i o n , and t h e a s s o c i a t i o n o f t h e H a i ti a n p e o p le w ith t h e
75
b la c k r a c e as a w hole.
M ario r e t u r n s from Cuba m arked by h i s work. When he r e a l i z e s t h a t
he m ust now l i v e u n d e r t h e A m erican r u l e i n h i s own c o u n tr y , he f e e l s
b e tr a y e d and h i s h a tr e d f o r t h e Am erican in c re a s e s .. T h is e v e n tu a ll y
le a d s him t o th e communist C laude S e r v in who h e lp s h im . u n d e rs ta n d h i s
f e e l i n g s i n term s o f o p p r e s s io n . When M a rio 's woman, O liv e , abandons
him f o r th e A m erican Cap, t h e s t o r y t u r n s t o tr a g e d y : M ario m urders h is
r i v a l . C asseus makes i t c l e a r t h a t M a rio 's crim e s h o u ld n o t be condem
ned on m o ral grounds} i t i s an a c t o f j u s t i c e , a m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f h i s
r e v o l t a g a i n s t ‘t h e o p p r e s s o r , a p o l i t i c a l a c t .
The m ain p r o t a g o n i s t o f G ouverneurs de l a r o s e e , M anuel, comes
back from C uba-w ith a th o ro u g h u n d e rs ta n d in g o f M a rx is t id e o lo g y .
C o n fro n te d upon h i s r e t u r n w ith t h e d i v i s i o n of h i s v i l l a g e i n t o two
r i v a l g ro u p s , he s t r i v e s t o make t h e v i l l a g e r s u n d e rs ta n d t h a t t h e i r
s a l v a t i o n l i e s i n u n i t y . He has l e a r n e d , d u r in g a s t r i k e i n Cuba, t h e
s t r e n g t h t h a t can be d e r iv e d from a common e f f o r t .
The n e c e s s i t y o f u n i t y and s o l i d a r i t y among th e p e a s a n t s , an i d e a
w hich was n e g a te d by th e M a rc e lin b r o t h e r s ' n o v e l, i s t h e m ain them e
o f th e n o v e l. One way t o r e u n i t e t h e v i l l a g e r s is . t o r e d i s c o v e r an o ld
H a i ti a n custom , t h e c o u m b ite . But Manuel, h as t o f a c e t h e la c k o f u n d e r
s ta n d in g and c o n f l i c t i n g i n t e r e s t s o f th e v i l l a g e r s . I t i s o n ly th ro u g h
p e r s o n a l s a c r i f i c e t h a t t h e v i l l a g e i s e v e n tu a ll y r e u n i t e d i n a common
e f f o r t t o b r in g w a te r t o t h e f i e l d s .
I n h i s n o v e l, Roumain com bines th e them es o f th e p r o l e t a r i a n n o v e l
( p o l i t i c a l in v o lv e m e n t) and th o s e o f th e r u r a l n o v e l ( d e s c r i p t i o n o f
76
l i v i n g c o n d itio n s i n t h e c o u n tr y and o f p e a s a n t c u s to m s ). Because of
i t s w ide a p p e a l, G ouverneurs de l a ro s e e i s o f te n c o n s id e r e d as ofte o f
t h e m a s te rp ie c e s o f H a i ti a n l i t e r a t u r e .
Anthony L espes i n Les Semences de l a c o le r e p i c t u r e s a p e a s a n t
community th r e a te n e d t h i s tim e by th e i n c o n s i s t e n t p o l i c i e s o f th e
governm ent. He a l s o p r e s e n t s a new a s p e c t o f th e p l i g h t o f th e p e a s a n t:
h i s e m ig r a tio n t o t h e Dom inican R e p u b lic i n s e a r c h o f means o f s u b s i s t
e n c e. W herever he g o e s , t h e p e a s a n t i s an o b je c t o f p e r s e c u t i o n and th e
h e l p l e s s v i c t im o f p o l i t i c a l c o n f r o n t a t i o n s .
The n o v e l t e l l s o f t h e a tte m p t t o c r e a t e an a g r i c u l t u r a l community
to r e l o c a t e t h e p e a s a n ts f l e e i n g th e Dom inican R e p u b lic a f t e r a wave of
p e r s e c u t i o n s . The o b s ta c l e s t o overcome a re num erous: c l i m a t i c c o n d i
t i o n s , l a c k o f f u n d s , r i v a l r i e s among th o s e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e im p le
m e n ta tio n o f o f t e n fra g m e n ta ry p o l i c i e s , h o s t i l i t y o f t h e l o c a l in h a b
i t a n t s . . . The p r o j e c t i s soon, t h r e a te n e d w ith t o t a l f a i l u r e m ain ly
b e cau se t h e governm ent has u se d i t as a p o l i t i c a l m aneuver and soon
c e a s e s t o be i n t e r e s t e d i n i t . L espes e x p la in s th e c a t a s t r o p h i c co n se
q uences o f th e i r r e s p o n s i b l e b e h a v io r o f th e H a i ti a n r u l e r s . By
c o n t r a s t , he p r a i s e s th e c o n tin u o u s e f f o r t s o f t h e p e a s a n ts t o c u l t i v a t e
a la n d th e y lo v e .
The s i x n o v e ls p r e s e n te d a n a ly z e th e m ost a c u te problem s o f th e
H a i ti a n s o c i e t y . They t e l l o f th e s u f f e r i n g s o f t h e r u r a l and u rb an
p r o l e t a r i a t s , o f t h e i r hopes and o f t h e i r f a i l u r e s w h ile condemning t h e
g re e d and t h e s e l f i s h n e s s o f th e r u l i n g e l i t e . T h e ir a u th o r s , members
o f t h e e l i t e th e m s e lv e s , t r y t o f u l f i l l J e a n P r ic e - M a r s ' w ish t h a t
77
t h e i r c l a s s be more co n c ern e d w ith t h e w e l l- b e in g o f t h e H a i t i a n n a t i o n
as a w h o le, th e m a rg in a l f a i l u r e o f t h e M a rc e lin b r o th e r s n o tw ith
s ta n d i n g .
3) 1946-1969; The p o s t - i n d i g e n i s t Y ears
A f t e r th e flo w e r in g o f th e I n d i g e n i s t movement, th e H a i ti a n n o v e l
c o n tin u e s on th e same p a th w ith few s i g n i f i c a n t i n n o v a t io n s . T hese
tw e n ty y e a r s s e e t h e em ergence o f tw o..m ajor a u th o r s ; J a c q u e s S te p h en
A le x is and M arie C hauvet. Most o f th e n o v e ls p u b lis h e d go on a p p ly in g
t h e p r i n c i p l e s e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e I n d i g e n i s t movement.
Bon D ieu R it ( 1 9 5 2 ) .by E d ris. S t . Amand h as f o r c e n t r a l them e th e
d o m in a tio n o f a p e a s a n t v i l l a g e by .a p la n tu tio n - o w n e r who m a n ip u la te s
t h e l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s , t h a t i s , t h e c h e f de s e c t i o n and t h e ju d g e . .The
a u th o r shows th e d e c l i n e o f th e v i l l a g e by d e s c r i b in g t h e f i g h t o f one
f a m ily whose f a t h e r h as l o s t m ost o f h i s la n d t o pay a c cu m u lated d e b ts .
H is o l d e r son i s p e r s e c u te d .b y t h e p l a n t a t i o n owner b u t f a c e s h i s
p re d ic a m e n t w ith s t r e n g t h and c o u ra g e u n t i l t h e on ly a l t e r n a t i v e l e f t
t o him i s t o le a v e th e v i l l a g e and se ek f o r t u n e e ls e w h e re .
S t . Amand draws a r e a l i s t i c p i c t u r e o f t h e m ise ry o f t h e v i l l a g e r s
and e v a lu a te s th e d e s t r u c t i v e conseq u en ces o f t h e g r e e d in e s s o f l o c a l
a u t h o r i t i e s . He a ls o d e p lo r e s t h e e x i s t e n c e o f r e l i g i o u s an tag o n ism s
among t h e p e a s a n ts ; Voodoo a d e p ts s u s p e c t C h r i s t i a n c o n v e r ts and v i c e -
v e r s a . These d i s s e n s io n s o n ly i n t e n s i f y t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s th e p e a s a n ts
have t o f a c e and e n d a n g er th e s u r v i v a l o f th e community... T here i s
l i t t l e hope i n t h i s n o v e l, w hich i n s i s t s on t h e d e s p e r a te c o n d itio n
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o f t h e p e a s a n t b u t s e e s no s o l u t i o n s .
M arie Chauvet p u b lis h e d f o u r n o v e ls : F i l l e d * H a !ti (1 9 5 4 ),
La Danse s u r l e v o lc a n (1957) w hich was t r a n s l a t e d i n t o s e v e r a l l a n
g u a g e s, Fonds des n e g re s (1961) f o r w hich sh e r e c e iv e d t h e l i t e r a r y
p r i z e F r a n c e - A n t i l l e s , and Amour, c o l e r e , f o l i e (1 9 6 9 ). She i s a good
example o f a H a i t i a n a u th o r l i v i n g and w r i t i n g o u t s i d e o f h e r c o u n tr y .
Her n o v e ls w ere p u b lis h e d i n F ra n c e , th o u g h she r e s i d e d i n th e U n ite d
S t a t e s u n t i l h e r d e a th . T h is may e x p la in why she has g a in e d more re c o g
n i t i o n as a w r i t e r i n F ra n ce th a n i n H a i t i .
Her f i r s t n o v e l, F i l l e d ' H a i t i , r e v o lv e s a ro u n d .th e c h a r a c t e r o f
L o tu s , a r a t h e r c o r r u p t and s e l f i s h m u la tto g i r l . Under th e i n f l u e n c e
o f h e r l o v e r , G eo rg es, who te a c h e s h e r t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f s o c ia l is m , and
o f a n e ig h b o r who p re a c h e s C h r i s t i a n c h a r i t y t o h e r , she slo w ly changes
A f te r G eo rg es' d e a th , due t o h i s p o l i t i c a l in v o lv e m e n t, sh e d e c id e s t o
d e v o te h e r s e l f t o t h e w e l l- b e in g o f d i s i n h e r i t e d H a i ti a n c h i l d r e n .
The h e ro in e o f h e r second n o v e l i s an a r t i s t , a s i n g e r , who,
d e s p i t e h e r t a l e n t , has t o f a c e th e p r e j u d i c e s o f th o s e around h e r .
The a c t i o n ta k e s p l a c e i n S aint-D om ingue b e fo r e th e F ren ch r e v o l u t i o n
and t h e n o v e l r e c r e a t e s i n an i n t e r e s t i n g m anner t h e s o c i a l en v ironm ent
o f S aint-D om ingue a t th e tim e : c la s h e s betw een s o c i a l c la s s e s ,, l i f e
s t y l e o f th e p l a n t a ti o n - o w n e r s , t h e i r p l e a s u r e s and t h e i r c o r r u p t io n
and, by c o n t r a s t , t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n o f th e s la v e s and t h e i r m is e r a b le
l i v i n g c o n d it io n s . A f te r d is c o v e r in g t h a t some o f t h e f r e e B lacks t r e a t
t h e i r s la v e s as b a d ly as t h e W h ite s, t h e h e r o in e abandons h e r c a r e e r
and s e c r e t l y j o i n s t h e f i g h t f o r th e a b o l i t i o n o f s la v e r y .
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Fonds des n e g re s i s t h e n o v e l f o r w hich M arie-C hauvet i s b e s t
known. I t b e lo n g s t o th e I n d i g e n i s t t r a d i t i o n and fo c u s e s on t h e l i f e
of a p e a s a n t v i l l a g e . The c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r , M arie-A nge, i s a young
woman from t h e c i t y who moves i n w ith h e r g ran d m o th er a t t h e d e a th o f
h e r m o th e r. She soon becomes in v o lv e d i n e v e ry e v e n t o f th e v i l l a g e ,
a c irc u m s ta n c e w h ic h ; g iv e s th e a u th o r .th e o p p o r tu n ity t o d e s c r i b e some
o f th e t r a d i t i o n s o f th e r u r a l H a i t i a n s . The a c t i o n i t s e l f c e n t e r s upon
th e f i g h t o f th e v i l l a g e r s t o keep th e la n d t h a t i s b e in g ta k e n away
from them . W ith t h e h e lp o f t h e l o c a l houngan and o f an e d u c a te d young
man from t h e v i l l a g e , th e y e v e n tu a ll y w in t h e i r b a t t l e a n d .u n it e t h e i r
e f f o r t s t o r e v iv e t h e l a n d . One can s e e t h a t t h i s n o v e l i s a v a r i a t i o n
on t h e them e p r e v i o u s ly d e v e lo p e d by Roumain: th e n e c e s s i t y f o r s o l i
d a r i t y among t h e p e a s a n t s , i f . they, a re t o s u r v iv e .
Her l a s t and m ost o r i g i n a l w ork, Amour, c o l e r e , f o l i e , i s a
c o l l e c t i o n o f t h r e e s h o r t n o v e ls o f more a b s t r a c t i n s p i r a t i o n . Amour
d e a ls w ith t h e l i f e o f a m u la tto b o u rg e o is fa m ily o f t h r e e s i s t e r s .
The o l d e s t , C l a i r e , h as rem ained u n m a rrie d b e c au se o f h e r d a rk c o l o r ,
h e r l i f e r u in e d by t h e p r e j u d i c e s o f h e r c l a s s and h e r r e s u l t i n g
a l i e n a t i o n . . C l a ir e h a te s h e r s e l f b e c au se o f h e r c o l o r , w hich sh e con
s t a n t l y com pares w ith th e l i g h t e r com plexions o f h e r s i s t e r s . The
second most im p o rta n t them e o f t h i s s h o r t n o v e l i s t h a t o f t h e p a s s i v
i t y and r e s i g n a t i o n o f th e M u la tto e s i n th e f a c e o f a regim e o f b la c k
m u rd e re rs . C l a ir e s p i t e f u l l y d e s c r ib e s t h e c o n c e s s io n s o f h e r own c l a s s
t o a regim e w hich means t o h u m il ia t e and e v e n tu a ll y d e s tr o y i t . The
t e n s i o n o f t h e s t o r y i s f i n a l l y r e s o lv e d when C l a ir e m urders t h e b la c k
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l e a d e r o f t h e new reg im e. But h e r v i o l e n t g e s tu r e w i l l rem ain i s o l a t e d ,
th u s u s e l e s s . T h is s t o r y le a v e s a b i t t e r t a s t e : i t shows a s o c i e t y i n
d e c o m p o sitio n w here r a c i a l h a tr e d and v io le n c e ta k e p re c e d e n c e o v e r th e
w e ll- b e in g o f a l l .
C o le re i s a k in d o f K afkaesque t a l e , t h e s t o r y o f t h e p e r s e c u ti o n
of a m u la tto b o u rg e o is fa m ily by u n i d e n t i f i e d and m onstrous b la c k men.
I t r e l a t e s th e b a t t l e o f . t h i s fa m ily t o r e g a i n t h e la n d w hich h a s been
ta k e n away from them , t h e t e n s i o n s t h i s s i t u a t i o n .c r e a t e s .a m o n g th e
fa m ily members and th e r e a c t i o n s o f t h e i r f r i e n d s and a s s o c i a t e s . T h e ir
e f f o r t s a r e v a in ; even t h e s a c r i f i c e o f t h e d a u g h t e r .t o one o f th e
o f f i c i a l s o f th e regim e w i l l rem ain u s e l e s s . .D eath, v io le n c e and t e r r o r
p e rv a d e t h i s d e s p e r a te s t o r y .
F o l i e has f o r c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r , a p o e t , Rene, who, s lo w ly s in k i n g
i n t o i n s a n i t y , exam ines h i s p a s t o f c o w ard ice and r e s i g n a t i o n . He f in d s
h im s e lf g u i l t y o f p a s s i v i t y and condemns h im s e lf b e c au se he n e v e r d id
a n y th in g t o oppose a regim e o f b r u t a l i t y and i n j u s t i c e . Locked in h i s
room, no e x i t i s p o s s i b l e , and he to o w i l l be d e s tr o y e d .
M arie Chauvet p i c t u r e s H a i ti a n s o c i e t y as a k in d o f h e l l w hich
b r in g s e i t h e r d e a th o r m adness t o i t s i n h a b ita n ts .. Her v e r s i o n o f th e
H a i ti a n regim e i s a b l i n d , a b s o lu te and d e s t r u c t i v e power w hich k i l l s
w ith o u t aim , r e l e n t l e s s l y . I n th e f i n a l a n a l y s i s , H a i t i has pro d u ced
th e o n ly k in d o f regim e i t d e s e r v e s b e cau se o f t h e s e l f i s h n e s s , i r r e
s p o n s i b i l i t y and g re e d o f i t s s u c c e s s iv e r u l e r s .
W ith Ja c q u e s S te p h e n A l e x is , p o l i t i c a l commentary i s t h e c o n se
quence o f h i s own p o l i t i c a l in v o lv e m e n t, w hich e v e n tu a ll y c a u se d h i s
81
d e a th and made him a m a rty r o f t h e H a i ti a n t r a g e d y . I n h i s t h r e e n o v e ls
A le x is p r e s e n t s v a r io u s a s p e c ts o f bo th r u r a l and u rb a n H a i t i . H is work
c o n ta in s d e s c r i p t i o n s , p o r t r a i t s o f H a itia n p e o p le and t h i n g s , as w e ll
as p s y c h o lo g i c a l , s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l a n a ly se s..
H is f i r s t n o v e l, Compere G en eral S o l e i l . (1 9 5 5 ), t e l l s th e t a l e o f
a man o f th e p e o p le , H i l a r i o n , who, throw n i n p r i s o n f o r t h e f t , m eets
t h e r e a member o f t h e communist p a r t y , P i e r r e Roumel. B eing s u b je c t
t o f i t s o f e p i l e p s y , H i l a r i o n soon e n c o u n te rs D r. J e a n M ic h e l, a l s o o f
communist p e rsu a sio n :. Under, t h e i n f l u e n c e o f th e s e two men, H i l a r i o n
becomes p o l i t i c a l l y in v o lv e d . Compromised by h i s i d e a s , he le a v e s H a i ti
f o r t h e Dom inican R e p u b lic w here h e . p a r t i c i p a t e s i n a s t r i k e o rg a n iz e d
by t h e l o c a l communist g ro u p . As t h e s t r i k e i s p i t i l e s s l y r e p r e s s e d by
th e Dom inican p o l i c e , H i l a r i o n t r i e s t o e sc a p e and r e t u r n t o H a i t i , but
he i s s h o t w h ile c r o s s i n g t h e b o rd e r. H is l a s t w ords c o n ta i n a m essage
o f c o n fid e n c e i n t h e v a lu e .of r e s i s t a n c e as i t was t a u g h t t o him by
P i e r r e Roumel and J e a n M ic h e l.
H is second n o v e l, Les A rb re s m u sic ie n s (1 9 5 7 ), d e s c r ib e s l i f e in
H a i t i d u rin g t h e y e a r s 1941-42, w hich w itn e s s e d th e a n t i - s u p e r s t i t i o n
cam paign and th e i n s t a l l a t i o n i n H a i ti o f t h e A m erican ru b b e r company
SHADA. Opposed t o th o s e who w ork f o r t h e :A m ericans and want t o ro b
H a i t i o f i t s Voodoo c u l t u r e i s th e f i g u r e o f G onaibo. Gonaibo belo n g s
t o t h e H a i ti a n la n d and i s d e s c r ib e d as re s e m b lin g t h e f i r s t in h a b
i t a n t s o f th e i s l a n d s t h e C a r ib s . The p a s t and th e p r e s e n t o f H a i ti
a r e h a rm o n io u sly b len d e d i n him , th u s m aking him t h e s y m b o l.o f th e
c o n t i n u i t y o f t h e H a i t i a n d e s t i n y . W ith th e h e lp o f Voodoo p r i e s t s and
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o f an o ld g e n e r a l a tt a c h e d t o t r a d i t i o n , G onaibo f i g h t s th o s e who w ant
t o a p p r o p r i a t e t h e la n d and t h e c u l t u r e o f h i s c o u n try and w in s . H is
e v e n tu a l r e t u r n t o t h e woods c o n firm s h i s u n iq u e communion w ith th e
e s se n c e o f H a i t i , th e la n d . I n t h i s n o v e l, A le x is s t r e s s e s t h e co m p o site
n a tu r e o f H a i ti a n c u l t u r e and t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r th e H a i ti a n p e o p le t o
r e c o n c i l e i t s v a r io u s e le m e n ts . I n th e r e l i g i o u s s e n s e , he th u s w ish e s
f o r a harm onious c o m b in a tio n o f H a i t i 's Voodoo and C a th o lic h e r i t a g e s .
L 'E s p a c e d 'u n c ille m e n t (1959) r e l a t e s t h e lo v e s t o r y betw een a
p r o s t i t u t e , l a N in a E s t r e l l i t a , and. a m ec h a n ic , El Caucho. She f e e l s f o r
him th e Kind o f lo v e she had n e v e r been a b le t o e x p e rie n c e b e fo r e and
e v e n tu a ll y f in d s t h e s t r e n g t h t o p u l l o u t o f h e r environm ent and s t a r t
a new l i f e w hich w i l l make her. w orthy o f E l Caucho. She has been s a i d
t o " sy m b o liz e t h e West I n d ia n c o n d it io n w ith a l l i t s e x t e r n a l o f
p r i v a t i o n , ra p e and f r u s t r a t i o n . " From t h e w o rld o f t r a g e d y , as r e p r e
s e n te d by t h e s u i c i d e o f one o f th e o t h e r p r o s t i t u t e s , i n w hich l a N in a
E s t r e l l i t a l i v e s , she emerges as " a p e r s o n a l i t y who has n o t o n ly
endured b u t p r e v a i l e d . " 1^
J a c q u e s S te p h e n A l e x is ' work t e s t i f i e s t o h i s a tta c h m e n t t o th e
t r a d i t i o n s o f H a i ti and t o h i s lo v e f o r h i s c o u n tr y . He th u s c r i t i c i z e s
a l l t h a t t h r e a t e n s t h e f u t u r e o f H a i t i : t h e i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e
governm ent, th e s e l f i s h n e s s o f th e e l i t e and t h e . l i f e o f .l u x u r y th e y
le a d i n P o r t - a u - P r i n c e , t h e n e g a ti v e i n f l u e n c e o f a Church whose r e p r e
s e n t a t i v e s a r e n e v e r H a i t i a n s , t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n i n H a i t i o f f o r e i g n
i n v e s t o r s who do n o t b r in g a n y th in g t o t h e c o u n try but e x p lo it, i t s
cheap l a b o r f o r t h e i r own b e n e f i t .
83
W ith B ernard Posy and J u s q u 'a u bout du chem in: (1 9 6 6 ), one r e t u r n s
t o a more t r a d i t i o n a l k in d o f i n s p i r a t i o n . The n o v e l d e s c r i b e s t h e l i f e
o f a fa m ily o f Ja c m e l, i t s d e s t i t u t i o n and e v e n tu a l s a l v a t i o n . The
f a m ily b e lo n g s t o t h a t c a te g o ry o f th e p o p u la tio n w hich s u r v iv e s j u s t
above t h e p o v e rty level... The i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f th e f a t h e r and h i s
s u b s e q u e n t abandonment o f h i s f a m ily , throw s i t i n t o t h e tr a g e d y o f
p r i v a t i o n , h u n g er and d e a th . The a u th o r m e tic u lo u s ly d e s c r i b e s th e
l i f e o f t h e town o f Jacm el and t h e c o n s ta n t s t r u g g l e o f i t s u n d e r p r iv
i l e g e d p o p u l a t io n . A lthough i t som etim es la p s e s i n t o m elodram a, th e
n o v e l i s i n t e r e s t i n g as a docum entary b e c au se o f t h e o b v io u s sym pathy
and com passion o f th e a u th o r f o r th e p e o p le he p o r t r a y s .
An i n t e r e s t i n p o p u la r c u l t u r e a lr e a d y c h a r a c t e r i z e d a u th o r s l i k e
J a c q u e s Roumain and J a c q u e s S te p h e n .A le x is. I n t h a t , th e y a re fo llo w e d
by a v e ry o r i g i n a l n o v e l i s t , F ra n ck E tie n n e , who r e v i t a l i z e s p o p u la r
c r e a t i v i t y i n o r d e r t o combat t h e d e b i l i t a t i n g i n f l u e n c e o f th e
D u v a lie r reg im e. To a c h ie v e h i s aim , F ran ck E tie n n e f i r s t o f a l l w r i t e s
i n C re o le and,, s e c o n d ly , t r i e s t o a d a p t t h e n o v e l form i n such a way as
t o a llo w i t t o become a more p r e c i s e r e f l e c t i o n o f l i f e .
Le roman e s t une v i s i o n de l a v i e . Or, que j e s a c h e , c e l l e - c i
n ' e s t n i un segm ent, n i un v e c t e u r , n i une sim p le c o u rb e .
C’e s t une s p i r a l e en mouvement. ga s ’o u vre e t g a s e ferm e en
des v r i l l e s i r r e g u l i e r e s .. I I s ' a g i t done de s u r p r e n d r e a
temps q u e lq u e s b o u c le s de l a s p i r a l e . Done, j e c o n s t r u i s
mon roman en s p i r a l e , avee en p o r t e - a - f a u x des s i t u a t i o n s
d i v e r s e s t r a v e r s e e s p a r l'humain... E t l e s t o u r s e l a s t i q u e s de
l a s p i r a l e , e m b ra ssa n t l e s e t r e s e t l e s c h o ses dans des
p o r t i o n s d ' e l l i p s e e t de c e r c l e , d e f i n i s s e n t l e s mouvements
de l a v i e . C 'e s t ce que j e d e s ig n e r a i s sous l e n eo lo g ism e
de s p i r a l i s m e . ^ '7
84
F ra n ck E tie n n e a p p lie s t h i s te c h n iq u e i n t h e n o v e l Mur, a c r e v e r .
The m ain p r o t a g o n i s t , a w r i t e r i n th e p r o c e s s o f c r e a t i n g a n o v e l, i s
p r e s e n te d as t h r e e c h a r a c t e r s , each one r e p r e s e n t i n g an a s p e c t o f h i s
p e r s o n a l i t y . A s e r i e s o f f la s h b a c k s and a s s o c i a t i o n o f id e a s r e c o n s t i
t u t e h i s l i f e up t o th e moment when he f in d s a t i t l e f o r h i s n o v e l and
th u s g iv e s i t s i g n i f i c a n c e . W hile showing h i s h e ro w a lk in g th ro u g h
P o r t- a u - P r i n c e i n s e a r c h o f h im s e lf,, th e a u th o r engages i n a r a t h e r
v i r u l e n t c r i t i c i s m o f l i f e i n th e c a p i t a l and i n H a i ti as a w hole.
W ith F ranck E tie n n e , a new a s p e c t o f t h e H a i ti a n n o v e l i s b o rn .
His c h o ic e o f s t y l e and lan g u a g e a llo w s him t o d e ta c h h im s e lf from an
a r t - f o r m , t h e n o v e l, w hich i s to o o f te n l i m i t e d by E uropean c r i t e r i a . .
*
Franck E tie n n e g iv e s t h e n o v e l a new d im e n sio n . He n e v e r f a l l s i n t o
i m i t a t i o n , and th e somewhat o b sc u re and c h a o ti c form o f h i s work i s
b e s t a t r e f l e c t i n g t h e e q u a lly d i s t u r b i n g and c h a o ti c n a tu r e o f th e
H a itia n r e a l i t y .
I I . Survey o f th e n o v e l from t h e F ren ch D epartm ents (1806-1969)
D u rin g t h e e ig h t e e n t h c e n tu r y , c u l t u r a l l i f e i n th e F ren ch A n t i l l e s
as a p a r t from S ain t-D o m in g u e, rem ained, alm o st n o n - e x i s t e n t . Whereas
Saint-D om ingue had t h e a t r e s , l o c a l a c t i n g g ro u p s, p r i n t e r s and book
sh o p s, t h e o t h e r A n t i l l e s knew n o th in g o f th e k in d . Most, o f t h e C re o le s
were n o t i n t e l l e c t u a l s . They had l i t t l e l i t e r a r y i n t e r e s t and d id
n o th in g t o en c o u ra g e o r prom ote c u l t u r a l e n d e a v o rs . R e g u la r t r i p s t o
F rance s a t i s f i e d w h a te v e r c u l t u r a l and e d u c a tio n a l needs th e y f e l t .
85
As a r e s u l t , i f one e x c e p ts a few p la y s ( s ta g e d i n P a r i s ) and some
p o e t i c w o rk s, l i t e r a r y p r o d u c tio n rem ained v e ry l i m i t e d .
The t u r n o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y b ro u g h t p ro fo u n d m o d if ic a tio n s
t o t h e i s l a n d s . S o c ia l and econom ic s t r u c t u r e s underw ent n o t a b l e a l t e r
a ti o n s as power s h i f t e d from p la n ta tio n - o w n e r s t o m e t r o p o lita n - b a s e d
com panies. E d u c a tio n became a c c e s s i b l e t o m ost o f t h e p o p u la tio n i f
o n ly w ith l i m i t e d r e s u l t s , and l i t e r a r y p r o d u c tio n bloom ed. One
q u e s ti o n rem ain ed however! who w o u ld ' rea d , t h e work o f l o c a l a u th o rs ?
I n t h a t r e s p e c t , t h e problem was t h e same as i n H a i t i . E a r ly a u th o r s
w ro te e x c lu s i v e l y f o r a F re n ch a u d ie n c e . As th e d e s i r e t o re a c h l o c a l
r e a d e r s became more and more i n t e n s e , one had t o f a c e t h e l i n g u i s t i c
s i t u a t i o n o f t h e A n t i l l e s w here most o f t h e p o p u la tio n sp e ak s C re o le .
Even to d a y , t h e w r i t e r knows t h a t he w i l l on ly re a c h t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l
e l i t e o f h i s i s l a n d - c o u n t r y . A few co n tem porary a u th o r s se e a s o l u t i o n
t o t h i s problem i n th e " c r e o l i z a t i o n " o f a l l l i t e r a r y p r o d u c tio n . T here
a r e many o b s ta c l e s t o such a c h o ic e , th e m ain one b e in g t h a t C re o le
does n o t y e t have a s ta n d a r d iz e d w r i t t e n form . A lth o u g h C re o le s t u d i e s
a r e i n c r e a s i n g , th e A n t i l l e a n w r i t e r s t i l l has t o f a c e t h e d i s t u r b i n g
f a c t o f w r i t i n g f o r an a u d ie n c e he can n o t r e a c h , e i t h e r f o r economic
o r l i n g u i s t i c r e a s o n s .
When one t r i e s t o d a te t h e a p p e ara n ce o f th e f i r s t n o v e l i n th e
F ren ch A n t i l l e s , a q u e s ti o n comes t o mind!, sh o u ld i t be .th e f i r s t
n o v e l p u b lis h e d i n t h e i s l a n d s r e g a r d le s s o f t h e r a c i a l a f f i l i a t i o n
of i t s a u th o r o r s h o u ld i t be t h e f i r s t work p u b lis h e d by a b la c k
a u th o r? Among t h e s t u d i e s d e a li n g w ith t h e n o v e l, b o th p o i n t s o f view
86
have been ad o p te d : J a c k C o rzani i n La L i t t e r a t u r e des A n tille s -G u y a n e
18
f r a n g a i s e s o p ts f o r a c o m p le te su rv e y o f a l l w o rk s, r e g a r d l e s s o f
t h e i r o r i g i n , as lo n g as th e y show l a s t i n g in v o lv e m e n t w ith th e
A n t i l l e s ; M aryse Conde, on th e o t h e r hand, i n h e r a n th o lo g y , Le Roman
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a n t i l l a i s , c h o o ses as h e r s t a r t i n g p o in t t h e p u b l i c a t i o n s o f Oruno
and S u l ly L a ra , th e f i r s t b la c k a u th o rs o f im p o rta n c e . The re a s o n s
b eh in d th e s e c h o ic e s a re m u l t i p l e and have been e x p la in e d by b o th
a u t h o r s .
A b r i e f a c co u n t o f t h e works w r i t t e n by C re o le n o v e l i s t s w i l l show
w hat d i f f e r e n t i a t e s them from th o s e of b la c k a u th o r s . T h is s u rv e y w i l l
t h e r e f o r e be d iv id e d i n t o two p a r t s of u n e q u a l l e n g t h , th e seco n d p a r t
d e a lin g w ith th e b la c k n o v e l' b e in g more im p o rta n t i n volume and more
d e v e lo p e d i n c o n te n t , s in c e i t l i e s c l o s e r t o t h e c e n t r a l c o n c ern o f
t h i s p a p e r.
1) The C re o le Novel
The b u lk o f t h e C re o le n o v e l a p p e ars as th e f r a g i l e h i e r a r c h y o f
C re o le s o c i e t y i s b e g in n in g t o d e s i n t e g r a t e . I t s r e c u r r e n t them e i s
th u s t h e n o s t a l g i a f o r t h e "good o ld d a y s” when t h a t s o c i e t y was f l o u r
i s h i n g and u n d i s t u r b e d .
I n t h e f i r s t n o v e l t o be p u b lis h e d i n M a r tin iq u e , Les Amours de
20
Zeinedare e t C a rin a (1 8 0 6 ), P r e v o s t de T r a v e r s a y p r e s e n t s t h e C re o le
s o c i e t y a t i t s b e s t: s la v e r y i s an a c c e p te d f a c t , t h e C re o le i s th e
p r o t e c t o r o f th e s l a v e , e v ery o n e rem ains i n h i s a l l o t e d p la c e and ta k e s
what f a t e h as p r o v id e d . A lth o u g h t h i s work was c o n c e iv e d d u rin g th e
87
r e v o l u t i o n a r y p e r i o d , i t r e f l e c t s i n no way t h e i n s e c u r i t y th e C re o le s
w ere b e g in n in g t o f e e l .
J . C oussin from G uadeloupe goes even f u r t h e r i n h i s e sc a p e from
th e p r e s e n t . I n Eugene de C e r c e i l ou l e s C a ra ib e s (1 8 2 4 ), he p a i n t s th e
G uadeloupean r e a l i t y i n i t s p r i m i t i v e s ta g e i n th e e a r l y days o f c o lo
n i z a t i o n . The n o v e l i s a ro m a n tic a c co u n t o f t h e l i f e o f t h e C a r ib s ,
th e " n o b le sa v a g e s " who w ere t h e f i r s t i n h a b i t a n t s o f . t h e i s l a n d . H is
p u rp o se seems more t o f in d a p r e t e x t f o r d e s c r i b in g th e b e a u ty o f th e
i s l a n d , i t s E d enic n a t u r e , th a n f o r g iv in g t h e r e a d e r e x a c t in f o r m a tio n
By r e f u s i n g t o s e e t h e i s l a n d o b j e c t i v e l y , he g iv e s i n t o an e a sy
t e m p ta tio n : i g n o r in g th e t h r e a t e n i n g n a t u r e o f r e a l i t y .
Obvious changes c a n n o t, how ever, be d is r e g a r d e d v e ry lo n g , and
J . L e v i ll o u x from M a rtin iq u e p u b l i s h e s . i n 1835 Les C re o le s ou l a v i e
aux A n t i l l e s , th e f i r s t n o v e l d e a lin g w ith m u la tto h e r o e s . H is c h o ic e
o f s u b j e c t r e v e a ls t h e grow ing im p o rta n c e o f th e M u l a t t o e s i n th e
c o l o n i a l s o c i e t y . Even though t h e i r c i v i l r i g h t s rem ain as l i m i t e d as
th o s e o f t h e s l a v e s , t h e i r i n c r e a s i n g econom ic r o l e g iv e s them pow ers
t h e C re o le s can no lo n g e r deny. The n o v e l p r e s e n t s t h e f r i e n d s h i p
betw een a young M u la tto , E s te v e , and a young C re o le , B rid a n , as w e ll as
t h e lo v e a f f a i r in v o lv in g E s te v e w ith B r i d a n 's s i s t e r , L e a . Such a
romance i s , o f c o u r s e , im p o s s ib le , and i t ends t r a g i c a l l y w ith t h e
d e a th o f b o th L ea and E s te v e . T h is n o v e l i s an ambiguous w ork:, i t
acknow ledges t h e r i g h t s o f th e m u la tto c l a s s w hich, a f t e r a l l , has
become a p ro p e rty -o w n in g c l a s s , w h ile s t i l l d e fe n d in g t h e C r e o le s .
L e v i ll o u x se n se d t h a t i n e v i t a b l e changes w ere t a k in g p la c e but was
88
u n w i l li n g t o t a k e s i d e s . He may have t r i e d , t o a . c e r t a i n e x t e n t , t o
come t o g r ip s w ith th e problem o f ra c is m , but o n ly in c o m p le te ly , s in c e
f o r him t h e b la c k s la v e s a r e n o t y e t t o be se en as hum an.b e in g s . As
su c h , t h e M u la tto e s a re more a c c e p t a b l e , s in c e th e y have w h ite blood
i n t h e i r v e i n s .
The same y e a r , L o u is M aynard de Q u e ilh e p u b lis h e d O u tre -m e r. The
n o v e l i s a d e fe n s e o f t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f s la v e r y now t h r e a t e n e d by
F ren ch a b o l i t i o n i s t s who do n o t u n d e rs ta n d t h e a d v a n ta g e s o f t h e k in d
o f s o c i a l o r d e r th e y w ish t o d e s tr o y . The h e ro o f t h e n o v e l, a M u la tto ,
M a riu s, comes back t o M a rtin iq u e a f t e r h a v in g been e d u c a te d i n E u ro p e.
He r e t u r n s f u l l o f p r o g r e s s i s t i d e a s . H is lo v e f o r a C re o le g i r l ,
J u l i e , makes him e n t e r t h e C re o le m il ie u , and he s lo w ly becomes con
v in c e d t h a t i t s j u s t i f i c a t i o n s o f s la v e r y a re n o t as a b s u r d .a s many
b e l i e v e . M a riu s ' s t o r y ends t r a g i c a l l y . I t c o u ld n o t end any o t h e r way
s in c e h i s lo v e was v i o l a t i n g t h e r u l e s o f C re o le s o c i e t y . The n o v e l
a tte m p ts t o p ro v e t h a t t h e C re o le s can be u n d e r s ta n d in g , t o some l i m i t s ,
and would be w i l l i n g t o a c c e p t changes as lo n g as th e y d id n o t t h r e a t e n
t h e i r suprem acy.
The u n w illin g n e s s o f th e C re o le s t o a d a p t t o change i s a g a in p i c
t u r e d by Rosamond de B e a u v a llo n i n H ie r, a u jo u r d 'h u i,d e m a in (1 8 8 5 ).
B elo n g in g t o a fa m ily r u in e d by economic c h a n g e s, de B e a u v a llo n s e t s
h im s e lf as th e w itn e s s o f t h e decadence o f th e C re o le a r i s t o c r a c y .
A rth u r and L o u is e , t h e two p r o t a g o n i s t s o f h i s n o v e l, l o s e t h e i r
f o r t u n e i n th e s u g a r c r i s i s . T h e ir h a p p in e s s i s t h r e a t e n e d by th e
p r e t e n t i o n s o f t h e new s u g a r k in g . A f t e r many t r i b u l a t i o n s , th e y
89
r e c o v e r t h e i r f o r t u n e and t h e i r s o c i a l s t a t u s th r o u g h .a n u n e x p e c te d
i n h e r i t a n c e . What makes t h i s work i n t e r e s t i n g i s th e d e s c r i p t i o n i t
g iv e s o f C re o le f a m i l i e s who r e f u s e to adm it t h a t tim e s have changed.
A lth o u g h th e y a r e no lo n g e r w e a lth y , th e y c o n tin u e t o , l e a d t h e i r l i f e
o f lu x u r y , t h e r e f o r e p r e c i p i t a t i n g t h e i r own d e s t r u c t i o n . T h e ir men
t a l i t y rem ain s t h e same: th e C re o le s a re r e a d y . t o c o o p e ra te w ith th e
B lacks as lo n g as t h e s e do n o t f o r g e t t h a t th e y a r e i n f e r i o r and need
th e g u id a n c e o f t h e i r fo rm e r m a s te r s .
The new c e n tu r y s t a r t e d i n M a rtin iq u e w ith two e v e n ts o f im por
ta n c e : t h e W orld F a i r o f 1900, w hich aimed a t m aking known th e c u l t u r a l
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e F ren ch A n t i l l e s , and, s e c o n d ly , th e e r u p t i o n of
t h e M ontagne P e le e i n 1902. The hopes t h a t th e W orld F a i r would open
new h o r iz o n s f o r C re o le a u th o r s w ere a n n i h i l a t e d when th e e r u p t i o n
d e s tr o y e d S t . P i e r r e , t h e C re o le c a p i t a l o f M a rtin iq u e , and m arked th e
d is a p p e a ra n c e o f th e C re o le i n t e l l e c t u a l e l i t e . M a r tin iq u e , i n i t s t u r n ,
was s t r u c k by n a tu r e as G uadeloupe had been s t r u c k by p o l i t i c a l and
econom ic ch an g e. Rene B o n n e v ille , who w i l l be p r e s e n t e d n e x t, d ie d i n
t h e c a ta s tr o p h e ,, a lo n g w ith, many o t h e r s .
L ik e Rosamond de B e a u v a llo n , B o n n e v ille p i c t u r e s t h e d e c li n e of
t h e C re o le s i n Le Triom phe d 'E g l a n t i n e (1 8 9 9 ). Because o f t h e i r in a d a p t f
a b i l i t y , th e W hites s lo w ly saw th e m se lv e s e v ic te d , from p o l i t i c a l l i f e .
B o n n e v i ll e 's h e ro , R ao u l, i s t h e son o f a w e a lth y C re o le and o f a
m u la tto woman. R e je c te d by h i s fa th e r,, he n e v e r t h e l e s s su c ce e d s in
becoming t h e mayor o f S t . P i e r r e . As su c h , he i s t h e symbol o f th e new
g e n e r a ti o n . I t i s t o be n o te d t h a t , a lth o u g h B o n n e v ille has more
90
l i b e r a l id e a s th a n h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s , he does n o t choose a b la c k man as
h i s h e r o . The B lacks have n o t y e t a p p e are d on t h e l i t e r a r y scen e and
y e a rs w i l l e la p s e b e fo re th e y do.
I n 1911, t h e G uadeloupean Leon Belmont p u b lis h e s Mimi. . He b r in g s a
new a s p e c t t o th e C re o le n o v e l: h i s h e ro e s a re M u la tto e s p r e s e n t e d as
su c h , and n o t i n c o n s ta n t c o n f r o n t a t i o n w ith t h e C r e o le s . He d e s c r i b e s
th e l i f e and m anners o f t h e m u la tto b o u r g e o is ie ! t h e d e t a i l s he g iv e s
o f t h e i r e v ery d ay l i f e a re more i n t e r e s t i n g th a n t h e s t o r y i t s e l f , t h a t
o f M im i's l o v e s . But th e book rem ain s t h e i d e a l i s t i c c o n c e p tio n o f a
man who r e g r e t s t h e d is a p p e a ra n c e o f t h e o ld o r d e r , when C re o le s and
M u la tto e s c o u ld i d e a l l y s h a re t h e power and p r o f i t a c c r u in g from t h e
work o f t h e s l a v e s .
C oeurs m a r t in i q u a i s p u b lis h e d i n 1922 by Clemence C a ssiu s de
L in v a l i s a n o th e r p ro d u c t o f n o s t a l g i a .. I t i l l u s t r a t e s t h e l o s s t h e
C re o le s f e l t a t t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f S t . P i e r r e . The a u th o r had w itn e s s e d
th e l a s t moments o f t h e c i t y , and h e r n o v e l i s a r e g r e t f u l r e n d i t i o n of
th e b e a u t i f u l l i f e t h e C re o le s le d i n S t . P i e r r e b e fo r e th e c a ta s tro p h e *
I t i s t h e s t o r y o f a p io u s young woman, G in e tte ,. and o f th e lo v e she
has u n w i l li n g ly awakened i n the- h e a r t o f R oland F o u g e ra s. I t i s f u l l o f
n o b le s e n tim e n ts and ro m a n tic a b n e g a tio n . The d e a th o f G in e tte i n th e
e r u p tio n w i l l a llo w R oland, a f t e r many d e v e lo p m en ts, t o m arry t h e one
who r e a l l y lo v e s him . A lthough th e p l o t t u r n s t o m elodram a, th e n o v e l
rem ain s i n t e r e s t i n g as t h e te s tim o n y o f a c l a s s . Clemence de L in v a l
fo c u s e s on t h e C re o le s and on t h e i r l i f e s t y l e . C o n se q u e n tly , t h e B lacks
have no p h y s ic a l p r e s e n c e i n h e r n o v e l, and ra c is m has no o b j e c t . I n a
91
n o v e l w hich i s m eant t o g iv e a p i c t u r e o f l i f e i n S t . P i e r r e , t h e
a u th o r ig n o re s th e e x is t e n c e o f a w hole p o r t i o n o f th e p o p u l a t io n , a
f a c t w hich g iv e s h e r work a s i n g u l a r l y b ia s e d a s p e c t .
I n c o n t r a s t w ith Clemence de L in v a l, D r a s ta Houel. i n C ru a u te s e t
t e n d r e s s e s (1925) shows an u n d e rs ta n d in g o f t h e e v o lu t io n o f A n t i l l e a n
s o c i e t y . She p o i n ts o u t t h e e r r o r s o f t h e C re o le s and c o n s id e r s as
l e g i t i m a t e t h e grow ing im p a tie n c e o f t h e B la c k s. The n o v e l t e l l s o f
t h e lo v e betw een Z i l d a and h e r m a s te r, Renaud, and o f t h e je a l o u s y o f
h e r u n f o r t u n a te husband. The a u th o r c o n c e n tr a te s on d e s c r i b in g l i f e on
t h e p l a n t a t i o n s . She c r i t i c i z e s t h e a u t h o r i t a r i a n a t t i t u d e o f th e
C r e o le s . Her e v o c a tio n o f t h e o u tra g e o u s b e h a v io r o f some o f t h e C re o le s
b o rd e rs on c a r i c a t u r e and s e rv e s t o u n d e r lin e th e f o o l i s h n e s s o f a
c l a s s w hich l i v e s o n ly by p r e t e n s e . Her b la c k c h a r a c t e r s a r e f i g h t e r s
who s t r u g g l e f o r t h e c o n q u e st o f e q u a l i t y and want t o t e a c h a l l B lacks
d i g n i t y and p r i d e . As an arg um ent, th e y u se th e exam ple o f A f r i c a , a
theme w hich a p p e a rs h e r e f o r t h e f i r s t tim e i n t h e C re o le n o v e l. D r a s ta
Houel t r i e d t o come t o term s w ith th e m o d if ic a tio n s o f t h e s o c i e t y i n
w hich she l i v e d . She d id n o t r e f u s e t o expose t h e d e f o r m it ie s i t had
t h r i v e d upon f o r c e n t u r i e s , even i f som etim es sh e seems t o r e g r e t th e
o ld M a rtin iq u e o f h e r f a t h e r s .
The N e g ritu d e movement o f t h e t h i r t i e s and th e f o r t i e s , w hich w i l l
be d is c u s s e d p r e s e n t l y , was n o t w e ll r e c e iv e d among C re o le w r i t e r s .
They saw i t as a new k in d o f ra c is m and r e a c te d w ith a j u s t i f i c a t i o n
o f t h e w h ite r a c e . They d id n o t u n d e rs ta n d why b la c k i n t e l l e c t u a l s
d e c la r e d t h a t th e y w ere c l o s e r t o t h e i r A f r ic a n b r o th e r s s in c e C re o le s
92
and B lacks had alw ays been so t i g h t l y l in k e d on th e i s l a n d s . They
denounced what th e y c a l l e d th e r e j e c t i o n o f t h e i r own c o u n try by N e g r i-
tu d e w r i t e r s and c e l e b r a t e d t h e b e a u ty o f th e i s l a n d s as a r e a c t i o n
a g a in s t t h e im p o rta n c e A f r ic a ,h a d ta k e n among young N e g ritu d e w r i t e r s .
I n 1948, D a n ie l de G randm aison p u b lis h e d R endez-vous au M acouba.
I t i s b a s i c a l l y a d e t e c t i v e s t o r y t a k in g p l a c e i n t h e C re o le m il ie u .
F o llo w in g t h e a s s a s s i n a t i o n o f one o f t h e C reoles., Guy de L ongpre, t h e
e n q u ir y le d by a F re n ch d e t e c t i v e ta k e s t h e r e a d e r i n t o th e m id st of
C re o le s o c i e t y . De G randm aison d e s c r ib e s th e n t h e l i f e s t y l e o f th e
C re o le s o f M a r tin iq u e , t h e i r t r a d i t i o n s , t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith t h e i r
b la c k and m u la tto s u b o r d i n a te s , t h e i r ;p r e j u d i c e s . . The n o v e l i s , t o a
c e r t a i n e x t e n t , a s a t i r e o f t h a t s o c i e t y , even th o u g h th e a u th o r s t i l l
c o n s id e r s t h a t i t i s an a s p e c t o f M a rtin iq u e w hich s h o u ld n o t d is a p p e a r
s in c e i t c o n t r i b u t e s t o th e o r i g i n a l i t y o f th e i s l a n d . De G randm aison
can c a s t an i r o n i c lo o k a t h i s own c l a s s , b u t he c a n n o t condemn i t
c o m p le te ly . At any r a t e , he does n o t o f f e r an a l t e r n a t i v e o r p ro p o se
refo rm s w hich would hum anize th e e x i s t i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s betw een r a c e s
and c l a s s e s .
G i l b e r t de C ham bertrand e x p re s s e d h i s o p p o s itio n t o t h e N e g ritu d e
movement i n a n o v e l e n t i t l e d C oeurs c r e o l e s , . p u b lis h e d i n 1958. T h is
s e n tim e n ta l s t o r y exposes t h e d ise n c h a n tm e n t o f a c l a s s . A lthough
de C ham bertrand hoped t h a t t h e f u t u r e would b r in g new harmony t o
G uadeloupean s o c i e t y , a lth o u g h he t r i e d t o c o n v in c e h im s e lf and o t h e r s
o f h i s l a c k o f p r e j u d i c e s , he u l t i m a t e l y b e tr a y e d h i s r e g r e t s f o r t h e
o ld o r d e r in w hich t h e B lacks w ere d e v o te d t o t h e i r m a s te rs and N e g ri-
93
tu d e d id n o t e x i s t
I n s p i t e o f t h e e f f o r t s o f some o f i t s w r i te r s ', th e C re o le n o v e l
shows l i t t l e e v o lu t io n . I t s i n s p i r a t i o n rem ain s r a t h e r u n ifo rm ,, and i t s
a u th o r s a r e a l l tem p te d t o f l e e from t h e r e a l i t y of. t h e i r country.. The
ro m a n tic movement gave e a r l y w r i t e r s t h e o p p o r tu n ity t o c e l e b r a t e t h e
E d enic n a t u r e o f t h e i s l a n d s . . T h is i n c l i n a t i o n t o d w e ll u p o n -th e . e x o ti c
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e la n d and o f i t s p e o p le i s a common d e n o m in a to r
t o a l l t h e n o v e ls . As y e a r s p a s s e d and t h e h i s t o r i c a l e v o lu t io n made i t
more and more d i f f i c u l t t o ig n o re th e p r e s e n c e o f th e B la c k s, th e y
became se c o n d a ry f i g u r e s i n th e n o v e ls b u t n e v e r d id th e y o b t a i n f u l l
s t a t u s . Even th o u g h some C re o le a u th o r s a tte m p te d t o a d a p t t o change and
ac co u n t f o r i t , i t rem ain ed e x tre m e ly d i f f i c u l t f o r them t o r e l i n q u i s h
ways o f t h i n k i n g , a c o n c e p tio n o f th e w o rld in b r e d f o r g e n e r a ti o n s .
2) The B lack Novel
At t h e b e g in n in g o f th e c e n tu r y , u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e Guade
lo u p e a n Oruno L a r a , a number o f i n t e l l e c t u a l s s e t o u t t o prom ote
c u l t u r a l dev elo p m en ts on th e is la n d .. They encouraged l o c a l w r i t e r s t o
t a l k a b o u t G uadeloupe,, i t s b e a u ty , i t s p o p u la tio n and i t s t r a d i t i o n s .
They c r i t i c i z e d t h e l a c k o f i n i t i a t i v e o f . p o t e n t i a l a u th o r s by
d en ouncing th e i n f e r i o r i t y com plex w h ic h .p a ra ly z e d , t h e i r c r e a t i v i t y . .
They w orked a t r e b u i l d i n g t h e c o n fid e n c e o f t h e i r c o m p a trio ts 'a n d .a t
d e e p en in g t h e i r know ledge o f t h e i r own la n d . Oruno L a ra to o k t h e l e a d
and w ro te H i s t p i r e de l a G uadeloupe w hich, f o r th e f i r s t tim e , t r a c e d
t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e B la c k s. H is m essage in f l u e n c e d a number o f w r i t e r s
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and f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s , a r t i c l e s and s t u d i e s o f a l l k in d s d e a li n g w ith
a s p e c ts o f th e G uadeloupean r e a l i t y w ere p u b lis h e d .
a) B i r th o f t h e Novel
S e v e ra l y e a rs e la p s e d b e fo r e Oruno L a ra p u b lis h e d h i s f i r s t n o v e l,
Q u e s tio n s de c o u le u r ; B lanches e t N o irs (1 9 2 3 ). I t i s t h i s d a te w hich
M aryse Conde c o n s id e r s as t h e b i r t h d a t e o f th e n o v e l in. t h e A n t i l l e s ,
b e in g t h e f i r s t tim e a work o f th e k in d was p u b lis h e d by a b la c k
21
a u th o r . The n o v e l d e a ls w ith two main: c h a r a c te r s ! Rene F r a u l t , a
M u la tto , and N e lly G u e rin , a c o m p a trio t he m eets i n P a r i s . At th e
b e g in n in g o f h i s s t a y i n th e c a p i t a l , Rene f ir m ly b e li e v e s i n h i s
a f f i n i t i e s w ith th e W h ite s, b u t r e a c t i o n s around him l e a d him t o th e
r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h e f a l s i t y o f t h i s c o n c e p tio n . He becomes aware o f h is
r a c e , pro u d o f i t , and c o n v in c e s N e lly o f th e same. She th e n goes back
t o t h e i s l a n d i n th e hope o f p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e e d u c a tio n o f h e r
p e o p le . T h is p l o t i s m e re ly a p r e t e x t f o r le n g th y d i s c u s s io n s oh c o lo r
and ra c is m w hich make up th e c o re o f t h e n o v e l. The i d e a o f a s p e c i f i c
b la c k c u l t u r e , w hich w i l l be one o f t h e m ain a s p e c ts o f th e N e g ritu d e
movement, does n o t y e t a p p e a r i n L a r a , who se e s h im s e lf as p a r t o f
F rench c u l t u r e .
Many o f th e n o v e ls p u b lis h e d betw een th e two W orld Wars p r e s e n t
t h e F ren ch A n t i l l e s as th e y a p p e a r i n th e im a g in a tio n , o f th e M etro
p o l i t a n s , t h a t i s , as p a r a d i s e s . They i n s i s t upon t h e b e a u ty o f th e
i s l a n d and t h e i r p i c t u r e s q u e a s p e c t s . They d e s c r ib e t h e custom s o f t h e
p o p u l a t io n , som etim es engage i n l i g h t c r i t i c i s m , b u t n e v e r go as f a r
95
b r in g in g i n t o q u e s ti o n t h e e s t a b l i s h e d s o c i a l o r d e r . T h is does n o t
mean t h a t th e s e n o v e ls can be a s s i m i l a t e d t o t h o s e w r i t t e n by C re o le
a u th o r s . T h e ir c e n t e r o f i n t e r e s t has s h i f t e d : th e m ain c h a r a c t e r s a r e
b la c k and t h e W hites a re se c o n d a ry f i g u r e s . They a r e c l o s e r t o r e a l i t y ,
a lth o u g h th e y o f te n p i c t u r e i t i n an i d e a l i z e d m anner.
A good exam ple o f t h i s k in d o f w r i t i n g i s th e n o v e l by Irm in e
K om ahette, Sonson de l a M a rtin iq u e (1932).. The h e ro i s a man o f th e
p e o p le who dreams o f becoming an owner, th u s r e a l i z i n g h i s f a t h e r 's
a m b itio n . When h i s w ife s to p s s u p p o r tin g h i s e f f o r t s , he becomes an
a lc o h o l i c and e v e n tu a ll y d i e s m u rd ered . The a u th o r evokes a number o f
im p o rta n t problem s r e l a t e d t o th e economic s t r u c t u r e o f th e i s l a n d ,
but t h e s e a re n e v e r d e v e lo p e d , n o r a re th e p ro fo u n d r e a s o n s f o r th e
f a i l u r e o f t h e h e ro e v e r a n a ly z e d . Irm in e R om anette p r e f e r s t o g iv e an
a t t r a c t i v e p i c t u r e o f t h e i s l a n d . She w r i t e s f o r a w h ite a u d ie n c e and
i n i t i a t e s i t t o t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f h e r c o u n tr y . She shows i t s good
and some o f i t s bad a s p e c t s , but n e v e r e x p re s s e s any d e s i r e f o r ch an g e.
I n 1935, S u l ly L a r a , th e b r o th e r o f Oruno L a r a , p u b lis h e d Sous
1 ' e s c l a v a g e . I t t e l l s t h e s t o r y o f a s la v e who avenges h i s d a u g h te r
who h as been sed u ced by t h e m a s t e r 's so n . When t h e l a t t e r ' s s i s t e r
h e r s e l f g iv e s b i r t h t o a m u la tto c h i l d , t h e s l a v e 's vengeance i s tw ic e
a c co m p lish e d . The e x a c e r b a te d ro m a n tic ism o f t h i s n o v e l r e l a t e s i t t o
th o s e w r i t t e n i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y . I t i s t r a g i c , v i o l e n t and
n e v e r q u i t e b e l i e v a b l e . But t h e a u t h o r 's i n t e n t i o n i s t o r e c r e a t e f o r
h i s c o n te m p o ra rie s t h e i r own p a s t , w hich he d o e s . I n t h e c o n c lu s io n o f
th e n o v e l, B lacks and W hites a r e u n i te d i n a gruesom e d e a th cau sed by
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t h e i r l a c k o f u n d e rs ta n d in g f o r one a n o th e r and th e h a tr e d w hich
consumes them a l l . S u lly L a r a 's m essage i s t h a t tim e has come t o
s i l e n c e a l l p a s s io n s and b u i ld a f u t u r e t o g e t h e r .
As opposed t o Irm in e R om anette, t h e n o v e ls o f t h e L a ra b r o th e r s
e x p re s s th e p r e o c c u p a tio n s w hich w e r e . b e g in n in g t o s p re a d among b la c k
i n t e l l e c t u a l s around t h e w o rld . T h is fe rm e n t gave b i r t h t o t h r e e l i t e r
a ry movements! t h e Harlem R e n a iss a n c e i n th e U n ited S t a t e s , th e I n d i -
g e n i s t movement i n H a i t i and, l a t e r , t h e N e g ritu d e movement. The Harlem
r e n a i s s a n c e blossom ed i n th e 1 9 2 0 's . Harlem became t h e symbol o f t h e
e v o lu t io n o f t h e b la c k w o rld and numerous b la c k w r i t e r s a p p e a re d who
w ere e x p r e s s in g t h e h o p e s, t h e d e s i r e s and t h e d e s p a i r o f b la c k w o rk e rs
They w ere o f te n c r i t i c i z e d , f o r th e r e a l i s m , o f t h e i r works i n w hich th e y
d e s c r ib e d th e b la c k g h e tto e s o f b ig A m erican c i t i e s o r th e extrem e
p o v e rty o f th e b la c k l a b o r e r s o f th e S o u th e rn s t a t e s . T h is movement
c r e a t e d an atm o sp h ere p r o p i t i o u s t o th e b i r t h o f o th e r s around t h e
w o rld : i t had t a l k e d o f ra c is m , o f th e p a s t , o f th e b la c k c o n t i n e n t .
I t had g iv e n a l l b la c k i n t e l l e c t u a l s t h e d e s i r e t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n some
t h i n g a few th o u g h t c o u ld become an i n t e r n a t i o n a l b la c k movement. The
I n d i g e n i s t movement o f H a i t i had t h e same p r e o c c u p a tio n s . (See c h a p . l ,
pp. 6 8 -7 8 )
As e a r l y as 1924, one o f t h e f i r s t n o v e ls w r i t t e n by a b la c k
woman was p u b lis h e d : C la ir e - S o la n g e , ame a f r i c a i n e by Suzanne L a c a sc a d e
I t i s th e s t o r y o f a m u la tto g i r l whose f a m ily moves t o F ra n c e . She
lo o k s a t P a r i s w ith a c r i t i c a l eye and s e e s n o th in g th e re , t h a t c o u ld
make i t more d e s i r a b l e th a n h e r n a t i v e i s l a n d . She r e f u s e s t o be
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a s s i m i l a t e d t o t h e F rench w h ite sid e, o f h e r fa m ily and c la im s h e r
p r id e i n h e r A f r ic a n a n c e s t o r s . She e v e n tu a ll y f a l l s i n lo v e w ith h e r
c o u s in and m a r r ie s him when he r e t u r n s , m u t i l a t e d , from th e w ar. T h is
n o v e l i s im p o rta n t becau se i t i s th e f i r s t tim e a woman w r i t e r shows
p r id e i n h e r A f r ic a n d e s c e n t, even th ough C l a i r e - S o l a n g e 's a n c e s to r s
a re o f r o y a l o r i g i n s . She d e s c r ib e s t h e lu x u r io u s l i f e s t y l e th e y le d
and d e c la r e s th e A f r ic a n a r i s t o c r a c y s u p e r i o r t o i t s E uropean c o u n te r
p a r t . The f a c t i s t h a t t h i s n o v e l had a s e r i o u s im pact upon i t s r e a d e r s
and t h a t i t c r e a te d a s c a n d a l i n G uadeloupe a t th e tim e o f i t s p u b l i
c a t i o n .
A few y e a rs e a r l i e r , Rene Maran had re c e iv e d , th e P r i x G oncourt
f o r h i s n o v e l B a to u a la (1 9 2 1 ). I t i s a ls o an im p o rta n t work, n o t o n ly
by i t s c o n te n t b u t by what i t r e v e a ls ab o u t t h e C arib b ean w r i t e r 's
a t t i t u d e tow ard A f r i c a as w e l l.
A c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t o r i n A f r ic a , Maran had o b se rv e d t h e t r i b e s
o f th e Ubangui r e g i o n , and h i s n o v e l t e l l s t h e s t o r y o f th e c h i e f of
a Banda v i l l a g e , B a to u a la . B a to u a la speaks o f h i s p e o p le , o f t h e p e r
t u r b a t i o n s i n t h e i r l i f e s t y l e c a u se d by th e W h ite s, o f t h e w rongdoings
o f th e c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and o f t h e slow d e s t r u c t i o n o f i n d i
genous c u l t u r e s . B a to u a la g r a d u a lly r e a l i z e s t h a t he has become
" th e k e e p e r o f o b s o le t e c u s to m s ."
T h is n o v e l has been much d is c u s s e d and c r i t i c i z e d . I n an a r t i c l e
i n t h e m agazine B lack Im ag es, Randolph H ezekiah w r i t e s t h a t " t h e
a u t h o r 's p rim a ry aim i s t o p r e s e n t th e p r i m i t i v e B la c k 's g r ie v a n c e s
a g a in s t th e E uropean and an a c co u n t o f th e fo rm e r’ s l i f e , custom s,
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------------------------------ — --------- 22---------------------------------------------------- _ _ _ _ _ — --------
and c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s . " O th e rs t h i n k t h a t , even th o u g h M aran 's
n o v e l d i d , t o a c e r t a i n p o i n t , re a c h t h i s g o a l, i t s im pact and s i g n i f i
can ce w ere a l t e r e d by M a ra n 's p e r s o n a l p r e o c c u p a tio n s . F. Ojo-Ade, f o r
exam ple, d e c la r e s !
The famous p r e f a c e and t h e r e p u t a t i o n i t stam ped on Maran a re
r a t h e r m is le a d in g . A c lo s e re a d in g o f t h e t e x t and o f th e
o th e r s w r i t t e n by th e a u th o r r e v e a ls t h a t an a s to n i s h in g
myth i s in v o lv e d . The f a c t i s , Rene Maran i s f a r from b e in g
s o c i a l l y , p s y c h o lo g i c a l ly and p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y b la c k . He shows
in h i s work a f l a g r a n t la c k o f com prehension and., a t tim e s ,
a t o t a l m i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e v e ry c u l t u r e whose d e fe n d e r
he i s supposed t o b e . 23
As an exam ple, he shows how .d i s t a s t e f u l l y t h e cerem ony o f th e g a n 'z a
i s t r e a t e d i n B a to u a la . The ex trem e and o f te n c o n t r a d i c t o r y i n t e r p r e
t a t i o n s t o w hich B a to u a la was s u b je c te d r e v e a l t h e a m b ig u ity o f th e
n o v e l w h ich , i n t u r n , r e f l e c t s th e ambiguous p o s i t i o n o f i t s a u th o r .
Maran n e v e r q u e s tio n e d t h e .c i v i l i z i n g .r o l e o f c o l o n i z a t i o n , n o r d id he
d oubt th e s u p e r i o r i t y o f E uropean c u l t u r e , b e in g h im s e lf a p ro d u c t o f
t h a t c u l t u r e .
A n o th e r two o f h i s n o v e ls throw l i g h t on t h e s e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s !
Le Coeur s e r r e (1931) and Un Homme p a r e i l aux a u t r e s . (1947),. The f i r s t
work d e a ls w ith t h e c h ild h o o d and a d o le s c e n c e o f G eorges L in d re a f t e r
h i s d e p a r t u r e from Lima and h i s move t o F ra n c e . I t i s a l a r g e l y a u to
b i o g r a p h i c a l n o v e l w hich echoes t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s Maran h im s e lf encoun
t e r e d w h ile a t s c h o o l i n B ordeaux, m a in ly , i s o l a t i o n . S in c e th e h e ro i s
n o t b la c k , th e problem o f ra c is m does n o t need t o be m en tio n e d .
M a ra n 's c h o ic e o f a w h ite h e ro f o r an a u to b io g r a p h ic a l n o v e l s u g g e s ts
t h e s p l i t i n h i s p e r s o n a l i t y and th e g ra v e p e r s o n a l c r i s e s he had t o
99
fa c e as a b la c k member o f a w h ite c u l t u r e . Un Homme p a r e i l aux a u tr e s
t e l l s o f J e a n V eneuse, a M u la tto , u p ro o te d from h i s n a t i v e A n t i l l e s
and w orking i n A f r i c a as a F re n ch c o l o n i a l c i v i l s e r v a n t . The p l o t
r e s t s on t h e lo v e o f J e a n V eneuse f o r a w h ite woman. At one p o i n t i n
t h e n o v e l, he ad m its t h a t h i s work i n A f r ic a has o n ly one aim; t o f o r
g e t A ndree. Veneuse i s an a l i e n a t e d man. Being re fu se d , a d m issio n t o
European s o c ie ty ,, he makes t h e jo u rn e y t o A f r ic a o n ly to., d is c o v e r
t h a t h i s mixed o r i g i n s p r e v e n t him from b e lo n g in g t h e r e to o . He f in d s
i t im p o s s ib le t o r e l a t e t o t h e A f r ic a n man o r t o th e A f r ic a n woman.
The o n ly a f f a i r he has w ith a b la c k woman i s an u t t e r f a i l u r e ; he th e n
e x p la in s t h a t he h a s n o th in g i n common w ith h e r e x c e p t c o l o r . He
e v e n tu a ll y m a r r ie s A ndree h o p in g t h a t lo v e w i l l s o lv e t h e problem o f
r a c i a l d i f f e r e n c e .
R e a c tio n s t o Un Homme p a r e i l aux a u t r e s once a g a in go t o e x tre m e s .
W hile some, l i k e H e z e k ia h , se e i n Veneuse somebody who w ants t o be
a c c e p te d as a man l i k e any o t h e r man r e g a r d l e s s o f s k in c o l o r , o t h e r s ,
l i k e O jo-A de, s e e i n him a b la c k man who r e f u s e s . h i s b la c k n e s s . In
Peaux n o i r e s , masques b l a n c s , F ra n tz Fanon s t u d i e s V e n e u s e 's psy ch o
l o g i c a l problem s and c o n c lu d e s t h a t Veneuse m a r r ie s a w h ite woman
b e c au se i t g iv e s him " a g u a ra n te e o f d e r a c i a l i z a t i o n . " ^
One u n d e rs ta n d s now why Maran r e f u s e d t h e . t i t l e . o f P r e c u r s o r of
N e g ritu d e i n t h e F r e n c h -s p e a k in g w o rld . W hile r e g r e t t i n g th e c o n s e
q uences o f c o l o n i z a t i o n i n A f r i c a , he was n e v e r re a d y t o q u e s tio n
o c c id e n ta l v a lu e s . H is dream was n o t o f an in d e p e n d e n t b la c k w o rld o r
b la c k c u l t u r e , b u t o f a harm onious f r a t e r n i z a t i o n betw een th e B lacks
100
and th e W h ite s. F or M aryse Conde, Rene Maran rem ain s t h e v e ry symbol
o f th e F rench C a rib b e a n a m b ig u ity and o f t h e u n s o lv e d p e r s o n a l c o n f l i c t
25
which p e r t u r b t h e i r w r i t e r s .
The n o v e ls by t h e b r o th e r s L a r a , Rene Maran and Suzanne L a e asc a d e
show, i n t h e i r own d i f f e r e n t ways,, t h a t b la c k i n t e l l e c t u a l s were
becoming more c r i t i c a l o f th e c o n d itio n o f c o lo n iz e d p e o p le s and more
aware o f t h e i r own h i s t o r y and p a s t . They announce what w i l l d e v e lo p
i n t o . t h e N e g ritu d e movement and. em phasize s i m i l a r them ess th e n o b i l i t y
o f th e b la c k r a c e , th e p r i d e i n o n e 's p a s t and th e n e c e s s i t y t o re c o n
s t r u c t t h a t p a s t , th e im p o rta n c e o f A f r ic a as th e elem en t l i n k i n g a l l
B lacks i n a common h e r i t a g e . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t i c e t h a t o n ly one
o f t h e f i v e n o v e ls c i t e d above ta k e s p la c e i n t h e A n t i l l e s , t h a t o f
S u lly L a r a , and t h i s n o v e l b e tr a y s th e d i f f i c u l t i e s t h e a u th o r had i n
d e a lin g w ith h i s t o p i c . A ll t h e o th e r s d e s c r i b e s i t u a t i o n s i n e x i l e
In F ra n ce o r i n A f r i c a as i f t h i s a llo w ed b e t t e r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e
h e r o e s ' p re d ic a m e n t. N ovels t a k i n g p la c e on t h e i s l a n d s rem ain u n c r i t
i c a l f o r t h e m ost p a r t .
b) The N e g ritu d e Movement and i t s O f f s p r in g s
The N e g ritu d e movement was born i n P a r i s i n t h e 1 9 3 0 's . P a r i s was
th e n th e m ee tin g p l a c e o f s tu d e n t s and i n t e l l e c t u a l s from A f r ic a , th e
U n ite d S t a t e s and th e C a rib b e a n . They w e re , as a g ro u p , s e n s i t i v e t o
th e changes g r a d u a l ly t a k i n g p l a c e , and s lo w ly t h e i r w orks converged
tow ard th e d e f i n i t i o n o f th e b la c k man. What th e y w anted was t o compose
an a u t h e n t i c p o r t r a i t o f th e B la c k , o f t h e " a b s o l u te " N egro. He emerged
101
as t h e a n t i t h e s i s o f th e w h ite /E u ro p e a n man. The Negro was u n iq u e
b e cau se o f h i s r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e s , of h i s i n t e l l e c t u a l c a p a c i t i e s
w hich d id n o t re sp o n d t o c l a s s i c E uropean c r i t e r i a b u t rem ained c l o s e r
t o r e a l i t y ; b e cau se o f h i s e m o tio n a l a b i l i t i e s w hich a llo w e d him to
r e a c t more t r u l y , l e s s a r t i f i c i a l l y th a n t h e w h ite man— m eaning i n
g r e a t e r communion w ith t h e w o rld around him . The N e g r itu d e movement was
a c h a ll e n g e , a d e s i r e t o g iv e a l l B lacks a f e e l i n g o f p r i d e i n t h e i r
own r a c e . B e sid es i t s a n a l y s i s o f t h e b la c k p e r s o n a l i t y , i t a ls o w ish ed
t o p r o c la im t h e u n i t y o f t h e b la c k w o rld . N e g ritu d e i n t e l l e c t u a l s
em phasized t h e common o r i g i n s o f a l l b la c k p e o p le , t h e i r s h a r in g th e
same h e r i t a g e , t h e i r g e n e r a l s u b s e r v ie n c e t o some k in d o f c o l o n i a l
r u l e . The N e g ritu d e movement r e p r e s e n t e d t h e a b s t r a c t a s p i r a t i o n s o f a
group o f i n t e l l e c t u a l s and was o f te n c r i t i c i z e d f o r i t s l a c k o f c l o s e
n e ss t o t h e p e o p le . A f t e r W orld War I I , t h e r e was a s h i f t , i n th e p re o c
c u p a tio n s o f N e g ritu d e i n t e l l e c t u a l s . They became in v o lv e d i n p o l i t i c s
i n t h e hope o f g e n e r a ti n g change f o r t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e n a t i o n s . Each
t u r n e d t o n a t i o n a l problem s and t h e N e g ritu d e movement to o k on v a r y in g
a s p e c t s , each one g e n e ra te d by n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
What d i s t i n g u i s h e d t h e N e g ritu d e movement from t h e Harlem R e n a is
s a n ce o r t h e I n d i g e n i s t movement was t h a t th e s e l a t t e r w ere l o c a l i z e d
t o two c o u n t r i e s , w hereas th e N e g ritu d e movement was n o t . Both b la c k
A m ericans and H a i ti a n s b e lo n g e d t o a n a t i o n . As such th e y d e n ie d any
p o s s i b i l i t y o f r e t u r n i n g t o a m y th ic a l A f r ic a w here a l l B lacks would
u n i t e . They c o n c e n tr a te d upon aw akening b la c k aw areness i n t h e i r
n a ti o n s and c la im in g t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r change w i t h in them . N e g ritu d e
102
w r i t e r s , on t h e o t h e r hand, b e lo n g e d t o A f r i c a and t h e C a rib b e a n . They
had l i t t l e i n common but s k in c o lo r and- a d i s t a n t p a s t . T h is fu n d a
m en ta l d i f f e r e n c e e x p la in s why N e g ritu d e w r i t e r s w ere o f te n t o r n
betw een t h e i r i d e a l s and t h e n e c e s s i t y o f r e c o n c i l i n g t h e s e i d e a l s w ith
l i f e i n t h e i r own c o u n tr y . T h is was m o stly f e l t among C a rib b ean w r i t e r s
who rem ained d iv id e d betw een t h e i r b la c k i n h e r i t a n c e and t h e i r F re n ch
i n h e r i t a n c e .
T h is b r i e f a c co u n t does n o t r e f l e c t t h e c o m p le x ity o f t h e N e g ri
tu d e movement but o n ly a few o f i t s a s p i r a t i o n s . What i s im m e d ia te ly
im p o rta n t i s t o e v a lu a te t h e im pact of t h i s movement upon th e F ren ch
C a rib b ean n o v e l. For w h a te v e r r e a s o n s , i t i n s p i r e d few n o v e ls . I n t h e
i n t r o d u c t i o n t o Le Roman a n t i l l a i s ,. M aryse Conde n o te s t h a t t h e r e i s
no n o v e l i s t . o f t h e s t a t u r e o f C e s a ir e i n p o e t r y , and sh e c o n tin u e s :
"P o u rq u o i l e roman e s t - i l m oins v i o l e n t e t r e v e n d i c a t i f ? E s t- c e p a r c e
que l e c r i p o e tiq u e exprim e m ieux l a r e v o l t e e t l e r e f u s ? T o u jo u rs
e s t - i l que l e s t e n t a t i v e s rom anesques de v a l o r i s e r 1 ' h e r i t a g e a f r i c a i n
e t 1 ' elem en t n e g re de l a s o c i e t e a n t i l l a i s e dem eurent des dem i-
... > „ 26
s u c c e s .
P a u l N ig e r, an a rd e n t d i s c i p l e o f N e g r itu d e , l e f t Guadeloupe f o r
A f r ic a i n an a tte m p t t o e x p e rie n c e a. r e a l, c o n ta c t w ith t h e Black
c o n t i n e n t . H is f i r s t n o v e l, Les P u i s s a n t s , p u b lis h e d i n 1958, i s a
h a l f - f a i l u r e . The A f r ic a w hich he w ants t o p o r t r a y does n o t come t o
l i f e i n t h e n o v e l i n s p i t e o f t h e a u t h o r 's u n q u e s tio n e d s i n c e r i t y .
I t seem s, r a t h e r , t o be t h e p ro d u c t o f h i s d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t . N ig e r
i n s i s t s upon t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s N e g ritu d e i s c o n fr o n te d w ith and u n a b le
103
t o overcom e. He e v a lu a te s t h e p ro fo u n d d i f f e r e n c e t h e r e i s betw een t h e
c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n s o f N e g ritu d e and t h e A f r ic a n r e a l i t y and seems o v e r
whelmed by t h e number o f p h y s i c a l , econom ic and p o l i t i c a l o b s ta c l e s
w hich w ould have t o be e li m i n a te d i n o r d e r t o b u ild a new, l i b e r a t e d
and s e l f - r e l i a n t A f r ic a .
I n 1961, B e rte n e Jum iner,. a G uianese d o c to r p r a c t i c i n g f i r s t i n
T u n i s ia , th e n i n S e n e g a l, p u b lis h e d h i s f i r s t w ork, Les B a t a r d s . The
t i t l e o f t h i s l a r g e l y a u to b io g r a p h ic a l n o v e l r e f l e c t s t h e d o u b le o r i g i n
o f t h e F re n ch C a rib b e a n c u l t u r e . The c u l t u r a l b a ta r d can o n ly l i v e i n
f r u s t r a t i o n . T here i s no o t h e r s o l u t i o n t o h i s t r a g i c c o n d it io n th a n
N e g r itu d e . T hat i s t o say t h a t t h e b a ta r d who r e a l i z e s and e x p e rie n c e s
h i s a m b ig u ity can o n ly s o lv e h i s i n n e r c o n t r a d i c t i o n s th ro u g h th e
s a c r i f i c e o f t h e E uropean s i d e o f h i s p e r s o n a l i t y . T h at i s w hat th e
two c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r s r e s o l v e t o do by r e t u r n i n g t o t h e i r n a t i v e
G uiana. T h e re , Chambord h as t o f a c e t h e p e r s e c u tio n s o f a b ia s e d and
im p o te n t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n b u t d e c id e s t o s ta y i n o r d e r t o c o n t r i b u t e t o
th e w e l f a r e o f h i s p e o p le . Cam bier j o i n s him a f t e r h a v in g p a r t i a l l y
s o lv e d h i s p e r s o n a l problem s i n F ra n c e , a lth o u g h h i s r e t u r n seems more
an a tte m p t a t p e r s o n a l s a l v a t i o n th a n a c o n t r i b u t i o n t o h i s c o u n t r y . •
The p r e f a c e by Aime C e s a ir e u n d e r l i n e s th e l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h i s work
w hich " f a i l s t o e x t r a c t p r e c i s e l y th e l e s s o n o f th e i n d i v i d u a l 's
f a i l u r e and p r e p a r e us t o move on t o t h e g r e a t e r problem s o f t h e
27
g ro u p ." J u m in e r, a lo n g w ith N ig e r, i s th e o n ly n o v e l i s t t o have been
d i r e c t l y i n s p i r e d by t h e id e a s o f th e N e g ritu d e movement. T h e ir n o v e ls
b e tr a y t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s th e y had i n a p p ly in g such id e a s t o r e a l i t y .
104
c ) A lo n g sid e N e g ritu d e : D iv e rs e i n s p i r a t i o n s
I n 1948, M ayotte C ap e c ia p u b lis h e d an a u to b io g r a p h ic a l n o v e l,
J e s u i s m a r t i n i q u a i s e , w hich e x p re s s e d e v e r y th in g t h e N e g ritu d e move
ment fo u g h t a g a i n s t . She has become t h e symbol o f C a rib b e a n a l i e n a t i o n .
She r e v e a ls w ith o u t shame h e r a d m ir a tio n f o r t h e w h ite man, h e r d e s i r e
t o be w h ite h e r s e l f . She has o n ly .o n e w ish — t o m arry a w h ite man—
w hich sh e t r i e s t o r e a l i z e th ro u g h h e r l i a i s o n w ith A ndre. She lo v e s
Andre b e cau se he i s w h ite and has b lu e e y e s , n o t f o r h i s p e r s o n a l i t y .
When he abandons h e r t o go t o war,, she i s n o t e s p e c i a l l y u p s e t: she
has a m u la tto , c h i l d who h as b e t t e r c h an ces th a n h e r b e c au se o f h i s
l i g h t e r co m p lex io n . She e v e n tu a ll y le a v e s f o r F ra n ce i n t h e hope o f
f in d i n g a w h ite husband and o f becoming p a r t o f th e s o c i e t y she
adm ires so .
Her second n o v e l, La N e g re sse b la n c h e (1 9 5 0 ), i s o f t h e same
i n s p i r a t i o n . I s a u r e , a m u la tto woman, i d e n t i f i e s w ith t h e W h ite s. She
ad m its t h a t she c a n n o t g e t a lo n g w ith th e B lacks and i s a f r a i d of
them . She i s in c a p a b le o f h a v in g a r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith a b la c k man and
o n ly c h o o ses w h ite l o v e r s . Condemned by h e r own p e o p le f o r h e r
b e h a v io r and s c o rn e d by t h o s e she a d m ire s , sh e to o le a v e s th e i s l a n d .
T h is n o v e l g iv e s a r e a l i s t i c ac co u n t o f t h e s o c i a l t e n s i o n s i n M a r ti
n iq u e a f t e r t h e war and m easu res th e im p o rta n c e o f r a c i a l h a tr e d and
s k in c o lo r i n t h a t s o c i e t y .
W hile M ayotte C a p e c ia a n a ly z e d , p e rh a p s u n w i l l i n g l y , th e p sy ch o
lo g y o f a l i e n a t i o n , t h e n o v e ls o f Jo s e p h Z obel gave t h e o p p o s ite
m essage: th e y c e l e b r a t e th e c o m b a tiv ity o f t h e b la c k p e o p le and t h e i r
105
d i g n i t y .
J o s e p h Z obel w r i t e s h i s f i r s t n o v e l, D i a b 'l a , d u r in g t h e war
y e a r s . The n o v e l i s c o n c e iv e d w h ile M a rtin iq u e i s . i s o l a t e d from th e
M e tro p o le , th u s b e fo r e N e g ritu d e has had an im pact u p o n .th e l i t e r a r y
p r o d u c tio n o f t h e French. A n t i l l e s . F in is h e d i n 1942, P i ab * l a was n o t
p u b lis h e d u n t i l 1946, th e V ichy a d m i n is t r a t io n , h a v in g found i t o f a
s u b v e r s iv e n a tu re .. The m ain p r o t a g o n i s t o f th e n o v e l, D ia b ’ l a , i s a
s tr o n g Negro who comes t o a v i l l a g e o f fis h e rm e n and s t a r t s c u l t i v a t i n g
a p ie c e o f la n d , th u s g o ing a g a in s t th e t r a d i t i o n s o f t h e v i l l a g e r s .
W ith t h e h e lp o f h i s w if e , F i d e l i n e , he c o n v in c e s th e v i l l a g e r s t h a t
w orking t h e la n d can b r in g s a t i s f a c t i o n and 'f u l f i l l m e n t ., D i a b 'l a s e t s
th e exam ple f o r a l l by h i s c o u ra g e , i b i s t e n a c i t y and b i s g e n e r o s i ty .
H is c h a r a c t e r d e m o n s tra te s t h a t th e b la c k man can be a f u l f i l l e d i n d i
v i d u a l as lo n g as he can f i n d s a t i s f a c t i o n i n h i s w ork. D ia b ’ l a l e f t
th e p l a n t a t i o n b e c au se he h a te d .s e r v itu d e and w anted t o work f o r him
s e l f . H is b e h a v io r i s a c h a lle n g e t o ■ th e w h i t e . suprem acy upon th e
i s l a n d , t h e l i v i n g p r o o f th a t., i f th e la n d belo n g ed t o t h e p e a s a n t , i f
he c o u ld c u l t i v a t e i t f o r h i s b e n e f i t and t h a t o f h i s com m unity, many
o f t h e i s l a n d 's problem s would be s o lv e d . The Vichy governm ent saw how
dan g ero u s such a p r o p o s a l c o u ld become f o r t h e e x i s t i n g o r d e r , e s p e
c i a l l y . s in c e th e n o v e l e x p re s s e d i t . a l l w ith a s i m p l i c i t y and a
s i n c e r i t y w hich made i t a l l th e more c o n v in c in g .
H is second n o v e l, La Rue C a s e s -N e g re s , ap p e are d i n 1950. The d e c o r
ch an g es; t h e a u th o r now d e a ls w ith t h e h a r s h e r r e a l i t i e s o f t h e c i t y ,
but h i s to n e rem ain s d e v o id o f v i o le n c e . I t i s th e s t o r y o f J o s e Hassam
106
r a i s e d by h i s g ran d m o th er, Man T in e , who works i n th e f i e l d o f a
s u g a r cane p l a n t a t i o n w h ile h i s m other i s employed as a m aid by a
C re o le f a m ily . The s a c r i f i c e s o f th e two women a llo w him t o g e t an
e d u c a tio n . L a t e r , he u se s t h i s e d u c a tio n t o work a lo n g w ith t h e p e a s - 1
a n ts and l a b o r e r s o f th e i s l a n d and h e lp them r e a l i z e t h e i r p o t e n t i a l .
As D ia b * la , t h i s n o v e l p ro v es t h a t t h e B lacks can g e t o u t o f t h e i r
m is e ry , w hich a lo n e i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e i r a l i e n a t i o n , i f th e y a re
g iv e n th e means t o do s o . Z obel r e a l i s t i c a l l y d e s c r ib e s t h i s m is e ry ,
th e p o v e rty o f th e p o p ulous a r e a s as opposed t o t h e o p u le n c e o f th e
C r e o le s , th e e x p l o i t a t i o n o f t h e s e r v a n t s and t h a t of t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l
w o rk e rs , t h e r e s u l t i n g a p a th y o f th e B la c k s. He c r i t i c i z e s th o s e who
deny t h e i r b la c k o r i g i n s and abandon t h e i r c o u n try t o se e k f o r t u n e
e ls e w h e re . For him , so c io -e c o n o m ic c o n d ito n s make th e b la c k man. I f
th o s e a re im proved, h i s w e l l- b e in g w i l l n e c e s s a r i l y f o llo w .
The p la c e o f J o s e p h Z obel i n C arib b ean l i t e r a t u r e i s a p ro m in e n t
one. He e x p re s s e s w ith s i m p l i c i t y and r e a l is m th e n eeds and hopes o f
th e p e o p le o f M a rtin iq u e t o whom h i s n o v e ls a r e a d d re s s e d . M aryse
Conde c o n s id e r s him as t h e g r e a t e s t n o v e l i s t o f t h e F ren ch A n t i l l e s
b e c au se "Z obel a r e s o l u l a c o n t r a d i c t i o n q u i se p o se a b ie n des e e r i -
v a in s a n t i l l a i s : comment p a r l e r du p e u p le — e t au p e u p le , sans se
% 28
l i v r e r a des r e c o n s t i t u t i o n s h a b i l e s m ais a r t i f i c i e l l e s ." J a c k
C o rzani c l a s s i f i e s him as a " r e g i o n a l i s t e " — an a p p e l l a t i o n w hich
Conde f in d s l i m i t i n g — and i n s i s t s on t h e f a c t t h a t , even th o u g h h is
n o v e ls a re c r i t i c a l o f th e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f th e s o c i e t y o f M a rtin iq u e ,
th e y do n o t c a l l i n t o q u e s ti o n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f th e i s l a n d w ith th e
107
H e tro p o le . For him , Zobel. w ish e s t o prom ote t h e f r a t e r n i t y o f a l l
29
r a c e s and rem ains c o n f id e n t i n th e h e lp of F ra n c e .
Among o t h e r a u th o r s who choose t h e i r own way i n s t e a d o f t h a t o f
th e N e g ritu d e movement, R aphael Tardon o c c u p ie s an im p o r ta n t p l a c e . H is
la c k o f e n th u s ia sm f o r . n a t i o n a l i s m can be e x p la in e d b y * h is s o c i a l
a r i g i n s : he comes from a: w e a lth y m u la tto f a m ily . A sid e from a l l p o l i t
i c a l in v o lv e m e n t, he’, rem ain s an e n e r g e ti c c r i t i c o f a l l form of. r a c is m .
He i s t h e a u th o r o f many s h o r t s t o r i e s and o f two n o v e ls : S t a r k e n f i r s t
'1947) and La C a l d e ir a (1 9 4 8 ).
S t a r k e n f i r s t i s t h e name o f an A m erican s la v e t r a d e r who c o n tin u e s
w ith h i s a c t i v i t y .a t t h e tim e o f th e .a b o l i t i o n o f s la v e r y .. The a u th o r
n a r r a t e s h i s l a s t t r i p b e fo r e he abandons an o c c u p a tio n w h ic h .h a s
aecome f a r to o dangerous.. The n o v e l i s f u l l o f r e a l i s t i c d e t a i l s about
•;he s la v e t r a d e and th e h o r r o r s o f th e A tla n tic , c r o s s in g ., I t s documen
t a r y a s p e c t .drowns t h e p l o t and none o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s r e a l l y come t o
'L ife. The s la v e s a r e p r e s e n t , b u t n e v e r as . f u l l y d e v e lo p e d personali-H
t i e s . . The f r e n e t i c , n a tu r e o f t h e a c t i o n p r e v e n ts th e r e a d e r from u n d e r
s ta n d in g what t h e a u t h o r 'h a s t o s a y , o r p r e v e n ts t h e a u th o r from s t a t i n g
h i s i n t e n t i o n s w ith, c l a r i t y . .
H is n e x t n o v e l, La C a l d e i r a , i s more e x p lic it... I t p i c t u r e s th e
coming t o power o f th e M u la tto e s in th e s o c i e t y o f M a rtin iq u e and th e
a a r a l l e l d e c li n e o f th e C r e o le s . The s t o r y c lim a x e s , w ith ..the e ru p tio n .
3f t h e M ontagne P e le e ,. w hich comes j u s t in. tim e t o help. th e . .t r a n s f o r
m a tio n o f t h e s o c i e t y o f M a r t i n i q u e .. R aphael T ardon d e p i c t s th e C re o le
a r i s t o c r a c y o f S t . P i e r r e , i t s p r e j u d i c e s and i t s i n t o l e r a n c e as w e ll
108
as th e a m b ig u ity o f t h e p o s i t i o n o f th e M u la tto e s , T h is group o s c i l
l a t e s betw een t h e B lacks and th e W h ite s; a m a jo r ity e m u la te s t h e
W hites even th o u g h t h e W hites n e v e r acknow ledge them as members o f th e
e l i t e . The n o v e l u n d e r l i n e s th e a b s u r d i ty o f th e c a ta s tr o p h e o f
S t . P i e r r e , whose p o p u la tio n c o u ld have been saved had i t n o t been f o r
t h e p o l i t i c a l m a c h in a tio n s o f t h e C r e o le s . T ardon g iv e s a r e a l i s t i c
p i c t u r e o f what S t . P i e r r e was and e x p re s s e s th e hopes a n d .th e d i s a p
p o in tm e n ts o f t h e r i s i n g m u la tto c l a s s a t t h e t u r n o f t h e c e n tu r y .
The n e x t y e a r , a n o v e l i s t from G uadeloupe, J e a n -L o u is B a g h io 'o ,
p u b lis h e s a work o f a t o t a l l y d i f f e r e n t n a t u r e , I s s a n d r e l e M u la t r e .
y
I t i s n o t q u i t e a n o v e l, but r a t h e r , a s e r i e s o f ju x ta p o s e d sc e n e s
t a k i n g p la c e i n t h e M atouba f o r e s t o f G uadeloupe w here a l l th e s p i r i t s
o f th e l o c a l f o l k t a l e s m eet. T h is p o e t i c t e x t e x p l o i t s t h e le g e n d s o f
th e i s l a n d and a l l t h e e le m en ts w hich make t h a t c u l t u r e o r i g i n a l . I t
t h e r e f o r e in te n d s t o p lu n g e t h e r e a d e r i n t o a k in d o f f a i r y - t a l e s
r e a l i t y w hich he s h o u ld be a c q u a in te d w ith i f he w ants 't o u n d e rs ta n d
th e s p e c i f i c e le m e n ts o f h i s own c o u n tr y . The a u th o r makes no p o l i t
i c a l s ta te m e n t b u t p a r t i c i p a t e s i n t h e d e s i r e o f a l l C a rib b e a n i n t e l
l e c t u a l s t o r e c r e a t e and c e l e b r a t e t h e i r own c u l t u r e .
I n t h e m eantim e, Clement R ic h e r exam ines M a rtin iq u e w ith a
s a r d o n ic g a z e . H is work c o m p rise s , among o t h e r s , t h r e e n o v e ls d e a li n g
w ith th e i s l a n d and i t s p o p u la tio n ; T i-C oyo e t son r e q u in (1 9 4 1 ),
F i l s de T i-C oyo (1945) and L*Homme a l a C a r a v e lle (1 9 5 2 ). A ll t h r e e
n o v e ls a r e w r i t t e n i n t h e s a t i r i c mode. N othing e sc a p e s t h e n o v e l i s t 's
s a r c a s t i c humor. T h is a t t i t u d e drew a l o t o f c r i t i c i s m upon him ,
109
e s p e c i a l l y from h i s c o m p a trio ts who d id n o t u n d e rs ta n d h i s d e r o g a to r y
rem arks about th e B la c k s. The p l o t o f th e f i r s t two n o v e l s . i s as
f o llo w s : T i-C o y o , who makes a l i v i n g by d iv in g f o r th e c o in s t h e
t o u r i s t s throw i n t h e bay o f S t . P i e r r e , r a i s e s a s m a ll s h a rk and
te a c h e s him t o e li m i n a te a l l h i s c o m p e tito r s . Ti-C oyo makes a f o r t u n e
w ith t h e h e lp o f h i s s h a rk w hich g l a d l y devours a l l h i s m a s t e r 's
e n e m ies. T i-C oyo, t h e M u la tto , g e ts h i s rev en g e upon t h e b e k e , a c q u ir e s
h i s w e a lth and m a r r ie s h i s d a u g h te r: t h e e x p lo i te d u nderdog triu m p h s .
At t h e same tim e , R ic h e r c r i t i c i z e s t h e a d v e rs e e f f e c t s o f e d u c a tio n ,
t h e p r e t e n t i o n s t o w h ite n e s s o f th e M u la tto e s , th e r i d i c u l o u s n e s s o f
th e C r e o le s . But t h e r e i s no l i m i t t o h i s sa rc a sm , and i t does n o t
seem t o be o r i e n t e d to w ard any c o n s t r u c t i v e g o a l.
L*Homme a l a C a r a v e lle s t a r t s w ith a lu d ic r o u s lo v e s to r y :
P a c i l l o , th e i l l i t e r a t e h e r o , f a l l s i n lo v e w ith t h e s c h o o lt e a c h e r o f
h i s v i l l a g e , C ora. A f t e r many t r i c k s and i n t r i g u e s , he su c ce e d s in
m a rry in g h e r . The n o v e l ta k e s p la c e d u rin g th e Second W orld War, and
soon i t s to n e changes as i t p i c t u r e s t h e a r r i v a l of th e V ichy r e p r e
s e n t a t i v e s on t h e i s l a n d . P a c i l l o th e n h e lp s t h e o p ponents t o t h e
regim e t o e sc a p e t o S t . L u c ia . The background o f th e n o v e l i s d a r k e r
th a n i n th e p r e v io u s one as R ic h e r d e s c r ib e s th e o p p r e s s iv e h o ld o f
t h e V ichy p o l i c e upon th e is la n d ., and v o ic e s th e b i t t e r th o u g h ts o f
some o f t h e i s l a n d e r s who b e g in t o doubt t h e i n t e n t i o n s o f t h e F re n c h .
Through th o s e c h a r a c t e r s , R ic h e r e x p re s s e s h i s d is a p p o in tm e n t: h i s
hopes t h a t th e i s l a n d e r s would be t r e a t e d as e q u a ls a r e s h a t t e r e d by
th e a t t i t u d e o f th e V ichy governm ent. He does n o t , how ever, s u g g e s t
110
a b re a k w ith th e M e tro p o le , b u t rem ains c o n v in c e d t h a t im provem ents
c an be b ro u g h t t o t h e i s l a n d i f i t s p e o p le a r e g iv e n more r e c o g n i t i o n
and c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n t h e f u t u r e .
T hese a u th o r s expose t h e d e f o r m itie s o f a s o c i e t y w hich i s s t i l l
s u b je c te d t o a c o l o n i a l ty p e o f r u l e . A l t o g e t h e r , th e y g iv e a r a t h e r
c o m p le te p i c t u r e o f t h e F ren ch A n t i l l e s ! r u r a l and u rb a n l i f e , r a c e
r e l a t i o n s and t h e i r d e s t r u c t i v e c o n seq u e n c e s, o r i g i n a l i t y o f th e b la c k
c u l t u r e . P o l i t i c a l l y , t h e n o v e ls r e f l e c t t h e i n f l u e n c e F ren ch c u l t u r e
had upon t h e i r a u th o r s and th e l a t t e r s ' d e s i r e t o f i n d a s o l u t i o n t o
t h e problem s o f t h e i r c o u n tr i e s i n c o o p e ra tio n w ith th e M e tro p o le .
d) Beyong N e g ritu d e ! t h e 1 9 6 0 's
I n h e r t h r e e n o v e ls , M ic h e le L a c r o s i l a n a l y z e s .th e com ponents of
G uadeloupean s o c i e t y . I n 1960, she p u b lis h e s S a p o t i l l e e t l e s e r i n
d 1a r g i l e w hich d e t a i l s t h e p sy c h o lo g y o f a young woman. On t h e b oat
w hich ta k e s h e r t o F ra n c e , S a p o t i l l e r e c a l l s a l l t h e im p o rta n t e p i
so d es o f h e r l i f e , a l l th e trau m as w hich e v e n tu a ll y d rove h e r i n t o
e x i l e . The a u th o r f i r s t denounces th e a l i e n a t i n g i n f l u e n c e o f t h e edu
c a t i o n S a p o t i l l e has r e c e iv e d . Because h e r fa m ily w ants h e r t o be w e ll
e d u c a te d , S a p o t i l l e i s s e n t t o a sc h o o l m o s tly r e s e r v e d f o r C re o le
g i r l s . T h ere sh e s u f f e r s from b e in g o s t r a c i z e d b e cau se o f h e r c o lo r
w h ile b e in g ta u g h t t o t h i n k o f h e r s e l f as i n f e r i o r . H er e d u c a tio n o v e r,
S a p o t i l l e fa c e s th e e q u a lly a l i e n a t i n g e x p e rie n c e o f h e r r e l a t i o n s h i p
w ith two men: P a t r i c e , th e M u la tto , th e n B e n o it, t h e B la c k . She lo v e s
P a t r i c e who, b e c au se o f h i s r a c i a l and s o c i a l l o y a l t i e s , w i l l n o t
111
m arry h e r . T h in k in g she can a t l a s t f i n d p e a ce w ith B e n o it, sh e m a r r ie s
him . But B e n o it i s a com plex and t o r t u r e d man w h o .b e a ts h e r i n an
a tte m p t t o e x o r c iz e a l l t h e f r u s t r a t i o n s and f a i l u r e s o f h i s own l i f e .
S a p o t i l l e r e a l i z e s t h a t she c a n n o t rem ain i n Guadeloupe and l e a v e s f o r
F ra n c e w here she hopes t o e s c a p e th e d e f o r m it ie s o f t h e C a rib b e a n
s o c i e t y . Her h o p e s , how ever, a re f a l s e , s in c e she c a r r i e s w i t h in h e r
s e l f t h e s o u rc e o f a l l h e r p ro b le m s.
C ajou, w r i t t e n i n 1961, a n a ly z e s a p a t h o l o g i c a l c a s e . C ajou, born
from a b la c k f a t h e r and a w h ite m o th e r, i d e a l i z e s h e r m o th er whose
w h ite n e s s r e p r e s e n t s f o r h e r th e epitom e o f b e a u ty . By c o n t r a s t , she
f in d s h e r b la c k n e s s d e g ra d in g and r e j e c t s a l l th e b la c k e le m en ts i n h er
own p e r s o n , h e r f a t h e r and h e r p a s t . C o n se q u e n tly , she f a l l s i n lo v e
w ith a w h ite man, G erm ain, whose l i g h t h a i r and l i g h t eyes f a s c i n a t e
h e r . She does n o t lo v e him as a p e rs o n , m isju d g e s him and m isu n d e r
s ta n d s th e s i n c e r i t y o f h i s f e e l i n g s . I n h e r m a s o c h is tic i n c l i n a t i o n
t o deny h e r s e l f a l l human v a lu e , she r e f u s e s h i s h e lp . The tr a g e d y
o f C ajou ends w ith h e r i n e v i t a b l e s u i c i d e . C a jo u ’ s c a se i s , o f c o u rs e ,
e xtrem e b u t d e p i c t s a c c u r a t e l y th e co n seq u en ces upon t h e i n d i v i d u a l
o f th e s o c i a l c li m a t e o f G uadeloupe.
M ich ele L a c r o s i l 's t h i r d n o v e l, Demain Jab-H erm a (1 9 6 7 ), d e a ls
more w ith s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l p ro b le m s. G uadeloupe i s se en th ro u g h
t h e eyes o f P h i l i p p e B o n n ie r, a F ren ch e n g in e e r new ly a r r i v e d on th e
i s l a n d . The p l o t i s t h a t o f a d e t e c t i v e s t o r y ; two women a r e m urdered
and B o n n ier becomes t h e prim e s u s p e c t . The s e a r c h f o r th e m o tiv es o f
t h e c rim e s a llo w s th e a u th o r t o d e p ic t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s betw een
112
i n d i v i d u a l s o f v a r io u s r a c i a l and s o c i a l o r i g i n s , as w e ll a s t o d e l i n
e a te t h e im p o rta n t r o l e p la y e d by h i s t o r y and t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l i n t h e
l i v e s o f each one. The c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r , t h e M u la tto C ra g g e t, r e f l e c t s
a l l t h e a m b ig u itie s o f su ch a s o c i e t y . E d u c a te d i n F ra n c e by a w h ite
f o s t e r - p a r e n t , th e n r e j e c t e d by h e r , he f in d s no p la c e i n h i s n a t i v e
c o u n tr y . D is e n c h a n te d , C rag g et se e k s f o r t u n e by a l l means t o e s c a p e a
m il ie u he has come t o h a t e . T h is com plex n o v e l d e s c r i b e s t h e c o n fu s io n
o f a w o rld w here B la c k s , M u la tto e s , • Cfeol.es and m e t r o p o li ta n W hites
a r e i n c o n s ta n t c o n f r o n t a t i o n . The economic c r i s i s o f t h e 1 9 5 0 's
c o n s t i t u t e s i t s background and makes a l l r e l a t i o n s h i p s even more t e n s e .
G uadeloupe a p p e a rs as a s o c i e t y w here p a s t and p r e s e n t a r e c l o s e l y
l in k e d , as sy m b o lized i n t h e f i g u r e o f t h e s o r c e r e r Jab-H erm a.
The y e a r b e f o r e , F r a n g o is e Ega had p u b lis h e d Le Temps d es m a d ra s .
The n o v e l p i c t u r e s M a rtin iq u e betw een t h e two w o rld w a rs . A young g i r l
slo w ly awakens t o t h e w o rld around h e r and t o th e m is e ry o f some o f
h e r c o m p a tr io ts . She d is c o v e r s t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f th e p a s t and th e
d i s t o r t i o n s o f th e p r e s e n t . T hrough h e r , t h e a u th o r c r i t i c i z e s t h e
u s e le s s n e s s o f an e d u c a tio n a l sy stem u n a d a p te d t o r e a l i t i e s , t h e o f t e n
n e g a ti v e i n f l u e n c e o f th e C a th o lic c h u rc h , th e power o f t h e C re o le s
and r e s u l t i n g i n e q u a l i t i e s . A lth o u g h th e n o v e l p r o v id e s some i n t e r
e s t i n g in f o r m a tio n about th e M a rtin iq u e o f th e tim e , i t la c k s in v o lv e
ment and does n o t p r e s e n t problem s i n as e f f e c t i v e a way as M ichele
L a c ro s i 1 ’ s w o rk s.
The f o re g o in g n o v e ls o f f e r a c r i t i c a l e v a lu a ti o n o f t h e s i t u a t i o n
o f th e F re n c h C a rib b e a n t e r r i t o r i e s but do n o t go as f a r a s d e v is in g
113
s o l u t i o n s . W ith a u th o r s l i k e N ig e r, Ju m in e r and G l i s s a n t , th e a n a l y s i s
i s c a r r i e d one s te p f u r t h e r .
P a u l N i g e r 's second n o v e l, Les G r e n o u ille s du Mont Kimbo, pub
l i s h e d posth u m o u sly i n 1964, shows th e e v o lu tio n o f h i s th o u g h t. He no
l o n g e r a tte m p ts t o p u t i n t o p r a c t i c e th e id e a s o f th e N e g ritu d e move
ment b u t d e a ls w ith th e more im m ediate problem o f how t o o r g a n iz e a
c o u n tr y w hich h a s r e c e n t l y g a in e d i t s in d ep e n d e n c e. W hereas Les P u i s -
s a n ts ended w ith t h e hope t h a t t h e c o o p e r a tio n o f W hites and B lacks
c o u ld e n g en d er so m eth in g f r u i t f u l , t h i s work r e j e c t s such a s o l u t i o n .
On t h e c o n t r a r y , h a tr e d a g a in s t, t h e W hites i s u sed by a group o f young
p r o g r e s s i s t l e a d e r s as a t o o l t o g a lv a n iz e th e p o p u l a t io n . V io le n c e
and t h e s a c r i f i c e o f i n d i v i d u a l l i v e s m ust be u sed f o r t h e w e ll- b e in g
o f t h e new n a t i o n . For N ig e r, i t i s now tim e t o b u i ld r e g a r d l e s s of
t h e p a s t , r e g a r d l e s s o f what th e r e s t o f th e w o rld .m ight t h in k o r s a y .
B e rte n e J u m in e r 's second n o v e l, Au S e u i l d 'u n nouveau c r i , a l s o
goes beyond N e g r itu d e . At t h e same tim e , i t a tte m p ts t o show t h a t
group in v o lv em en t o n ly can have some im pact u p o n .th e c o n d it io n o f th e
C a rib b e a n p e o p le . Group in v o lv e m e n t means v i o le n c e , even i f i t i s
o r g a n iz e d v i o l e n c e . The f i r s t p a r t o f t h i s w ork, "Le C r i " i ta k e s p la c e
i n t h e p a s t and d e p i c t s t h e s la v e u p r i s i n g s . Ju m in e r ap p ro v e s o f t h e
f i g h t o f th e s l a v e s , o f th e e x p e d ie n ts th e y u se d , s in c e i t was t h e -only
way t o overcome s l a v e r y . The second p a r t , "L 'E c h o ", tr a n s p o s e s t h e
same p r i n c i p l e s t o modern tim e s and u t i l i z e s many o f F a n o n 's id e a s J
o n ly v io le n c e can be u se d a g a in s t r e p r e s s i o n . I t d e fe n d s combat as a
•means o f l i b e r a t i o n , a lth o u g h Ju m in e r does n o t go as f a r as Fanon d i d .
114
He s t i l l b e l i e v e s . i n t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a c e rta in .h u m a n is m , o f a
f r a t e r n i z a t i o n b e tw e e n .th e r a c e s as e x e m p lif ie d by t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f
some o f h i s h e ro e s w ith w h ite women o r by t h e f r i e n d s h i p betw een
D e la n g re s and M o d estin i n "Le C r i . " Ju m in e r a l s o d e v e lo p s o t h e r them es
such as t h e in ad e q u a c y o f ed u catio n ^ , th e p r o h i b i t i o n o f th e u se o f
C re o le and th e d a n g e rs o f a s s i m i l a t i o n .
I n h i s t h i r d n o v e l, La Revanche de Bozambo (1 9 6 8 ), Ju m in e r o p ts
f o r a comic tr e a tm e n t o f c o lo n iz a tio n .. ISy . r e v e r s in g th e r o l e s , he
denounces th e a b s u r d i ty o f t h e system .; P a r i s becomes B a n to u v ille ,
F ra n ce i s o c c u p ie d -b y A f r i c a , t h e ■ c o lo n i z e r s a r e i n t u r n c o lo n iz e d . A ll
l i n g u i s t i c sy m b o ls. a re e q u a l l y . r e v e r s e d , p r o v in g what, an im p o rta n t
weapon lan g u a g e can be f o r t h e colonizer.:., The. a u th o r exposes t h e hypo
c r i t i c a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n s f o r c o lo n i z a t i o n ; c i v i l i z a t i o n , o r d e r , p r o g r e s s .
He d e s c r i b e s t h e n e c e s s a r y e v o lu tio n o f a c o lo n iz e d c o u n try ,- t h e o rg a n
i z a t i o n of. r e s i s t a n c e .and t h e . r e p r e s s i o n t h a t follows^. He a ls o c r i t i
c iz e s t h e p o w e rle s s n e s s o f c u l t u r a l l i b e r a t i o n , movements., denouncing
what i n t h e n o v e l s ta n d s f o r th e N e g ritu d e movement as a .d e l u s i o n , as
th e a r b i t r a r y c r e a t i o n o f i n t e l l e c t u a l s who h a v e - n o .c o n t a c t w ith
r e a l i t y . The n o v e l ends w ith t h e d e c o lo n i z a t io n .of Europe and t h e
coming t o power o f a w h ite r u le r .. I t. i s an i n t e r e s t i n g n o v e l w hich
lo s e s some o f i t s . im pact as a s a t i r e when, t h e a u th o r g e ts in v o lv e d in
h i s , own s tra ta g e m : to ' th e p o in t .of tu r n i n g c r i t i c i s m , i n t o r a t h e r ' a im le s s
w ittic is m .. I t . show s, how ever, t h e e v o lu tio n .of ..Bertene. Ju m in e r from
a d i s c i p l e o f N e g ritu d e t o a d e fe n d e r o f more d i r e c t ty p e s o f a c t i o n .,
115
Edouard G l i s s a n t s e e s a t o t a l .break w ith F ran ce as t h e on ly
s o l u t i o n f o r th e F ren ch C a rib b e a n t e r r i t o r i e s * I n 1948, h e r e f u s e d th e
a s s i m i l a t i o n o f .M artinique t o th e M etro p o le as a d e p a rtm e n t. .F or him ,
such a s s i m i l a t i o n . w i l l only, p e r p e t u a t e ' t h e problem s t h e i s l a n d h as t o
f a c e . I n h i s f i r s t n o v e l, La L e z ard e (1 9 5 6 ), he a tte m p ts t o awaken th e
y o u th o f th e 1 9 5 0 's who have l o s t th e e n th u s ia sm o f th e p o s t-w a r y e a r s .
The p l o t of. th e n o v e l re v o lv e s around' a. p o l i t i c a l murder, com m itted by
a group o f young: p e o p le on th e p e r s o n ,o f ; a. t r a i t o r to. t h e i s l a n d . I t
i s a sy m b o lic e x e c u tio n w ’h ic h i s . a c c o m p lis h e d : w ith t h e c o m p lic ity o f
t h e p e o p le and r e a f f i r m s t h e i r d e s i r e f o r freedom . The n o v e l goes
beyond t h i s p o l i t i c a l p l o t . G l i s s a n t a ls o sp eak s o f l o v e , o f t h e . l a n d ,
o f i t s p o s s e s s io n and d e g r a d a tio n . Through h i s h e r o e s , he dream s o f
s o l i d a r i t y betw een a l l T h ird W orld peoples., betw een a l l . t h e . m e n who
have t o f i g h t f o r t h e i r freedom and t h e i r . d ig n ity .. He c e l e b r a t e s th e
la n d s c a p e s of. M a rtin iq u e : t h e m o u n ta in , t h e s e a , t h e :p l a i n and t h e
r i v e r , l a L e z a rd e , w hich a l l p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e m aking of. t h e l o c a l man.
He opposes th e m ountain,, symbol o f t h e f l i g h t .f o r freedom , as th e r e f u g e
o f th e maroon s l a v e , t o th e p l a i n , domain o f t h e p l a n t a t i o n and symbol
o f e x p l o i t a t i o n and s u f f e r i n g . The r i v e r l i n k s b o th e le m e n ts,, b o th
s id e s o f t h e p e r s o n a l i t y o f t h e i s l a n d e r . S y m b o lic a lly , i t i s t h e man
who w ants t o a p p r o p r i a t e t h e riv e r-w h o d ie s a s s a s s i n a t e d .. A ll th e
themes d e v e lo p e d i n , t h i s n o v e l w i l l r e c u r . i n G l i s s a n t 's l a t e r works
w ith , o v e r a l l , th e d e s i r e t o e s t a b l i s h t h e p o r t r a i t o f t h e C a rib b e a n
nan as t h e p ro d u c t of. a d e f i n i t e p a s t ,, c u l t u r e and la n d .
I n 1964, G l i s s a n t p u b lis h e d a second n o v e l, Le Q u a trie m e s i e c l e .
116
I t r e p r e s e n t s th e a u t h o r 's f u r t h e r e f f o r t s a t h e lp in g h i s c o m p a trio ts
r e d i s c o v e r t h e i r p a s t and, c o n s e q u e n tly , b e t t e r u n d e r s ta n d t h e i r
p r e s e n t c o n d it io n . The n o v e l r e t r a c e s th e h i s t o r y o f two f a m i l i e s , th e
L ongoues: and t h e B e lu s e s , w hich sym b o lize t h e two f a c e s o f th e C a rib
bean mans th e Longoues r e f u s e o p p r e s s io n and ta k e r e f u g e i n th e woods,
w h ile t h e B e lu ses a c c e p t s u b s e r v ie n c e t o t h e m a s te r . T h e ir members
q u a r r e l and i n t e r a c t u n t i l t h e f i n a l m e e tin g o f M athieu B elu se w ith
P ap a Longoue, two com plem entary c h a r a c t e r s . M athieu B e lu se se ek s t h e
know ledge o f h i s la n d and p e o p le and can o n ly g a in i t by l i s t e n i n g t o
t h e lo n g and com plex r e c o u n tin g o f th e p a s t by th e o ld q u im b o is e u r.
P apa L o n g o u e 's t o r t u o u s n a r r a t i v e r e f l e c t s t h e o p a c it y o f h i s t o r y
i t s e l f and te a c h e s M athieu t h a t i t ta k e s tim e , p a ti e n c e and p a in t o
come t o an u n d e r s ta n d in g o f h i s a n c e s tr y and o f h i s la n d . Through
P apa Longoue, he r e l i v e s num erous sc e n e s o f t h e C a rib b e a n p a s t : th e
s la v e t r a d e and t h e A t l a n t i c c r o s s i n g , p l a n t a t i o n l i f e , th e r e l a t i o n
s h ip betw een t h e C re o le s and t h e B la c k s, s la v e r e v o l t s , th e r e v o lu
t i o n a r y p e r i o d , t h e a b o l i t i o n o f s l a v e r y , th e two w o rld w a r s . . . M athieu
a ls o g e ts a c q u a in te d w ith th e l i f e o f t h e la n d , th e rhythm s o f n a tu r e
as Papa Longoue em braces t h e w hole la n d s c a p e o f th e i s l a n d in h i s
ram b lin g r e f l e x i o n s . Such th o ro u g h n e s s r e f l e c t s t h e a u t h o r 's d e s i r e
t o g iv e h i s r e a d e r s th e know ledge w hich s h o u ld h e lp them , as i t h e lp e d
M a th ie u , u n d e rs ta n d th e m s e lv e s and s t a r t b u i ld i n g from t h e r e .
W ith a u th o r s l i k e Edouard G l i s s a n t o r M ichele L a c r o s i l , t h e
F re n ch C a rib b e a n n o v e l has e v o lv e d f a r from th e p i c t u r e s q u e r e n d i t i o n s
o f l i f e on t h e i s l a n d s i t was a t t h e b e g in n in g . By th e end o f th e
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1 9 6 0 's i t d e a ls r e a l i s t i c a l l y w ith th e problem s o f p e r s o n a l , c u l t u r a l
and s o c i a l a l i e n a t i o n . As lo n g as F rench C a rib b e a n s o c i e t y rem ain s
d e p e n d e n t, i t s l i t e r a t u r e w i l l d e a l w ith t h i s d ependence, e i t h e r t o
m odify i t s term s o r t o denounce i t c o m p le te ly and o f f e r a l t e r n a t i v e s .
I l l . T hem atic A n a ly s is o f t h e H a i ti a n and F ren ch C a rib b e a n Novel
T h e re rem ain s t h e t a s k o f com plem enting th e fo re g o in g s u rv e y w ith
a s tu d y o f th e them es w hich l i n k a l l t h e n o v e ls t o g e t h e r . T hese them es
o r i g i n a t e from c o u n t r i e s w ith s i m i l a r d e s t i n i e s . Y e t, t h a t H a i t i and
th e F re n ch A n t i l l e s h a v e , from t h e b e g in n in g o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y ,
ta k e n d i f f e r e n t p a th s s h o u ld a l s o be r e f l e c t e d i n th e th e m a tic c h o ic e s
o f t h e i r n o v e l i s t s . A p r i o r i , s i m i l a r i t i e s a re s t r i k i n g and o u r s tu d y
s h o u ld c o n firm t h a t f a c t . W e f o llo w , w ith some a d d i t i o n s , a c l a s s i f i -
* 3 )
c a t i o n s i m i l a r t o t h a t a d o p te d by M aryse Conde i n Le Roman a n t i l l a i s .
1) The P a s t
The r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e p a s t stem s from t h e C a rib b e a n a u t h o r 's
d e s i r e f o r know ledge o f t h e s e l f as d e te rm in e d by th e many e le m en ts
o f h i s t o r y . I t th u s becomes n e c e s s a r y t o go beyond p e r s o n a l m em ories.
Only t h e e x p l o r a t i o n o f th e communal p a s t can le a d t o a b e t t e r u n d e r
s ta n d in g o f o n e 's o r i g i n s and o n e 's la n d . A c a r e f u l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n
o f t h e p a s t w i l l a n a ly z e th e r o l e s p la y e d by a l l g ro u p s, w h ite o r
b la c k , as w e ll as th e c o n seq u en ces o f y e a r s o f c o h a b i t a t i o n .
4
118
a) C re o le S o c ie ty
Alm ost e v e ry n o v e l d e a lin g w ith an a s p e c t o f th e p a s t m en tio n s
th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f C re o le s o c i e t y . E a rly C re o le a u th o r s n a t u r a l l y
d e s c r i b e i t as a w e l l- o r g a n i z e d and p r e f e c t l y j u s t i f i e d s t r u c t u r e re g u
l a t e d by economic n e c e s s i t i e s ; t h e s la v e s a re t o o l s i n t h e m aking o f
new com m unities w hich behave a c c o rd in g t o t h e ru le s o f n o b i l i t y , h o s p i
t a l i t y and g e n e r o s i t y . T h e ir n o v e ls th u s e x p lo r e t h e p a r t i c u l a r i t i e s
o f a c e r t a i n l i f e s t y l e w ith o u t q u e s tio n in g th e means by w hich i t
s u r v i v e s . When t h e C re o le o r d e r i s t h r e a t e n e d , t h e i r a c c o u n ts become
n o s t a l g i c . a n d r e v e a l a f e a r o f th e f u t u r e and o f th e t r a n s f o r m a t io n s
i t w i l l b r in g a b o u t.
S u r p r i s i n g l y , th e same d e s c r i p t i o n o f l i f e on t h e p l a n t a t i o n can
be found i n t h e H a i ti a n n o v e l Deux Amours by Amedee Brun (1 8 9 5 ).
A lthough th e a c t i o n ta k e s p la c e a t th e moment s la v e r e v o l t s s t a r t t o
s p r e a d , th e n o v e l d e a ls m o s tly w ith t h e l i f e o f l e i s u r e and e a se of
t h e w h ite ow ners. The p T a n ta tio n -o w n e r and h i s d a u g h te r a r e n o b le
f i g u r e s who t r e a t t h e i r s la v e s w ith a l l p o s s i b l e h u m an ity . The r e v o l t
o f t h e i r s la v e s and t h e b u rn in g o f th e p l a n t a t i o n th u s comes as a
tra g e d y t o be d e p lo r e d .
L a t e r ..novels become c r i t i c a l o f t h e d e c l i n i n g C re o le o r d e r .
R aphael T ardon i n La C a l d e ir a g iv e s a d e v a s t a t i n g p i c t u r e o f th e
a r i s t o c r a c y o f S t . P i e r r e . He exposes t h e s t u p i d i t y , t h e p e t t i n e s s and
t h e in h u m a n ity w hich d r iv e s i t t o r e j e c t .one o f i t s members b e cau se
he i s s u s p e c te d o f h a v in g a drop o f b la c k b lo o d i n h i s v e i n s . H is
d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e C re o le woman i s e q u a lly s h a t t e r i n g ; she i s s e l f i s h ,
119
o b s e s s e d by ra c is m and s e x u a l l y p e r v e r te d .
E douard G l i s s a n t i n Le Q uatriem e s i e c l e b r in g s a new elem ent t o
t h e p o r t r a y a l o f t h e C r e o le s . H is two w h ite c h a r a c t e r s a re o p p o s ite :
La Roche i s s t r o n g , b rav e and w e l l - b u i l t w h ile S e n g lis i s weak,
co w ard ly and p h y s i c a l l y deform ed. La Roche shows u n d e r s t a n d i n g .f o r t h e
d e te r m in a tio n and th e f r e e s p i r i t o f th e f i r s t o f th e L ongoues, w hich
does n o t p re v e n t him from b r u t a l l y t r e a t i n g h i s o t h e r s l a v e s . He has
w e a lth and power and does n o t im agine one s i n g l e i n s t a n t t h a t t h e s e
c o u ld be ta k e n .a w a y from him. A ll h is e f f o r t s c o n c e n t r a t e .on b u i ld i n g
h i s em pire and he e v e n tu a ll y d i e s b ra v in g th e law s o f a b o l i t i o n . The
p a s s i o n a te La Roche i s n o t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f h i s s o c i e t y , w hich i s seer
i n th e background as m o tiv a te d by C u p id ity and, as tim e p a s s e s , by
f e a r .
What seems t o c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e C re o le s o c i e t y i s th e way i t
s u r v iv e d , k e e p in g i t s economic power and sy m b o lized by t h e h a b i t a t i o n
w hich up t o t h i s day o v e rlo o k s th e la n d s c a p e o f th e i s l a n d s .
b) The S la v e T ra d e
The n ig h tm a r is h q u a l i t y o f t h i s e p is o d e o f th e p a s t makes i t th e
m ost d i f f i c u l t t o r e c a p t u r e . I t meant th e l o s s o f th e n a t i v e la n d and
th e s c a t t e r i n g o f a now r o o t l e s s p e o p le , t h e c a p tu r e , th e im prisonm ent
and t h e A t l a n t i c c r o s s i n g w ith i t s h u n g e r, d i s e a s e and d e a th , t h e
a r r i v a l i n a new c o u n tr y from w hich t h e r e was no r e t u r n , th e s a l e and
th e b e g in n in g o f a l i f e o f t o i l , th e l o s s o f c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t y . . .
The e a r l y H a i ti a n n o v e l S t e l l a (1859) r e t r a c e s th e a r r i v a l upon
120
t h e i s l a n d o f a young s l a v e , S t e l l a . She t e l l s h e r two sons o f h e r
c a p tu r e by an enemy o f h e r t r i b e and s u b se q u e n t s a l e t o t h e s la v e
t r a d e r s . She evokes th e A t l a n t i c c r o s s i n g w hich c a u se d th e d e a th o f hei
m o th e r, Her a cco u n t in c lu d e s t h e c h a in s , th e la c k o f a i r , t h e la c k of
l i g h t and th e u n b e a ra b le s m e ll o f h e r p r i s o n . She s u r v iv e s b e c au se th e
b i r t h o f h e r son d u r in g th e t r i p g iv e s h e r t h e w i l l t o l i v e . H ers i s a
s t r a n g e l y d e ta c h e d n a r r a t i v e w hich does n o t re n d e r t h e h o r r o r o f th e
t r i p b u t t r e a t s i t as an e p is o d e t o be f o r g o t t e n . The a u th o r i s a p p a r
e n t l y n o t i n t e r e s t e d i n g iv in g a more r e a l i s t i c p i c t u r e o f t h e e v e n t,
a f a c t w hich may be e x p la in e d by th e e a r l i n e s s o f th e n o v e l.
S t a r k e n f i r s t by R aphael T ardon f a l l s i n t o th e o p p o s ite e x c e ss and
p r o v id e s a w e a lth o f d e t a i l s o f t e n so b r u t a l t h a t th e y become u n b e a r
a b le . He does n o t s p a r e t h e r e a d e r sc e n e s o f m u t i l a t i o n , r a p e , ex ecu
t i o n and c a r e f u l l y d e s c r ib e s t h e c o n d itio n s i n w hich t h e s la v e s w ere
c h a in e d t o t h e b o a t and t h e t e r r i b l e t r e a tm e n ts i n f l i c t e d upon them
d u r in g th e c r o s s i n g . A lthoug h t h e s e g r a p h ic d e s c r i p t i o n s a re a c c u r a te
and c o n s c i e n t i o u s l y r e s e a r c h e d , th e y l a c k th e e m o tio n a l in v o lv em en t
w h ich , w ere i t com m unicated t o th e r e a d e r , would a ro u s e d e e p e r f e e l in g s
th a n sim p ly d i s g u s t .
Such i s n o t t h e c a s e i n Edouard. G l i s s a n t ’ s, n o v e ls . B r i e f l y evoked
by P apa Longoue on h i s d e a th b e d i n h a L e z a r d e , t h e s l a v e - t r a d e i s more
l e n g t h i l y d e a l t w ith i n h e Q u atriem e s i e c l e . A lth o u g h .th e a c tu a l
c r o s s i n g i s n o t d e s c r i b e d , i t can be im agined th ro u g h th e p re s e n c e of
th e o b j e c t s o f th e t r a d e on th e deck o f t h e s h ip as i t a r r i v e s ! th e
ro p e u se d t o subm erge th o s e who d is o b e y , t h e w h ip s, t h e g a llo w s ,
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t h e s t i c k u se d t o p r e v e n t t h e p r i s o n e r s from sw allo w in g t h e i r to n g u e ,
t h e b ra n d in g i r o n f o r th o s e who r e f u s e t o e a t and th e n e t u se d t o g iv e
t h e s la v e s t h e i r m onthly s a l t - w a t e r b a th . The c r u e l t y o f t h e s e o b j e c t s
i n th e m s e lv e s i s enough t o s u g g e s t t h e s u f f e r i n g s e n d u re d by th e Lv.
s l a v e s . T h e ir s i l e n c e as th e y come t o t h e deck f o r th e . f i n a l c o u n tin g ,
t h e s m e ll o f b lo o d , d i s e a s e and d e a th w hich im p re g n a te s th e s h ip a re
f u r t h e r t e s t im o n ie s o f what happened. Such d e s c r i p t i o n s a r e more d i f f i
c u l t t o b e a r b e c au se o f t h e i r . subdued c h a r a c t e r .
c) The S tr u g g le o f th e S la v e -
The r e s i s t a n c e o f th e s l a v e to o k s e v e r a l fo rm s. I t s t a r t e d w ith
t h e p a s s i v e a c t o f s u i c i d e on th e s h ip and c o n tin u e d w ith m arronnage
and l a t e r , armed r e v o l t . M arronnage s t a r t e d as soon as s la v e r y was
i n s t i t u t e d . I t e x i s t e d i n a l l t h e F ren ch t e r r i t o r i e s , in c lu d in g
F ren ch G uiana, and was e s p e c i a l l y p r e s e n t i n H a i ti w here i t c o n tin u e d
u n t i l th e In d ep e n d e n c e w ar. T h is phenomenon was n a t u r a l l y n o t a d m itte d
by t h e p l a n t a ti o n - o w n e r s , who k e p t i t as s e c r e t as p o s s i b l e . I n l i t e r
a t u r e , th e maroon s la v e i s th e symbol o f th e w i l l f o r s u r v i v a l o f th e
B la c k s, o f t h e i r d e s i r e f o r freedom and th e m a in te n a n c e o f t h e i r own
c u l t u r e .
One Of t h e c e n t r a l f i g u r e s o f Le Q u atriem e s i e c l e i s t h a t o f th e
maroon s la v e Longoue, named L a p o in te by t h e C r e o le s . Longoue c a te g o r
i c a l l y r e f u s e s t o be s u b ju g a te d and e sc a p e s as soon as he r e a c h e s th e
p l a n t a t i o n . From h i s r e f u g e i n t h e woods, he f a m i l i a r i z e s h im s e lf w ith
h i s new c o u n try and, more im p o r ta n t ly , p a s s e s on t o h i s d e s c e n d a n ts
122
t h e know ledge a c q u ir e d th ro u g h h is many a d v e n tu re s and e x p e r ie n c e s . I t
i s t h a t know ledge w hich P apa Longoue t r a n s m i t s in. t u r n t o M a th ie u .
The n e x t s t e p i s o rg a n iz e d r e v o l t . Im ages o f s la v e r e v o l t s a r e
t h e same i n a l l w orks: th e p o is o n in g o f t h e c a t t l e , t h e b u rn in g o f th e
p l a n t a t i o n s , t h e rev e n g e upon th e m a s te r and s u b se q u e n t r e t a l i a t i o n s .
B e rte n e Ju m in e r evokes th e s e e p is o d e s i n th e f i r s t p a r t o f Au S e u i l
d 'u n nouveau c r i . He d e s c r ib e s t h e v i o le n c e o f t h e s la v e u p r i s i n g s
and t h e d e s i r e f o r rev e n g e o f t h e s la v e who w ants t o se e th e m a s te r
e n d u re t h e same s u f f e r i n g s he i n f l i c t e d upon o t h e r s . I n Deroain, J a b -
Herma, C ragget r e l i v e s one o f th e m ost g l o r i o u s and t r a g i c e p is o d e s o f
th e r e s i s t a n c e o f G uadeloupe, t h a t o f D e lg r e s ' l a s t moments and f i n a l
s a c r i f i c e as he i s overwhelm ed by th e a rm ies o f B o n a p a rte . I n b o th
n o v e ls , m em ories o f th e p a s t a r e u se d t o i n s p i r e r e v o l t a g a in s t
p r e s e n t c o n d it io n s .
d) The A b o l i ti o n o f S la v e r y
R e s is ta n c e and r e v o l t s h o u ld have l e d t o freedom , but th e a b o l i
t i o n o f s la v e r y was n o th in g but a c a r i c a t u r e of what i t sh o u ld have
been; t h e c o n d it io n o f th e l i b e r a t e d s la v e rem ain ed t h e same as b e f o r e .
E douard G l i s s a n t i n Le Q uatriem e s i e c l e exp o ses t h e ir o n y o f t h e
s i t u a t i o n when he s u g g e s ts t h a t th e a b o l i t i o n c o n s is t e d o f l i t t l e e l s e
b u t an e n d le s s and r a t h e r c o m ical ceremony t o g iv e t h e s la v e s names
and r e g i s t e r them as F rench c i t i z e n s . But he a ls o t e l l s o f th e jo y o f
t h e l i b e r a t e d s l a v e s , o f th e s p e c i a l s t a t u s o f th e m aroons who saw th e
end o f a l i f e o f d a n g e r and g l o r y , o f t h e co n d e sc e n d in g a t t i t u d e o f
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.t h e M u la tto e s and o f th e r e s o l u t i o n o f th e p l a n t e r s n o t t o l e t t h i s
p a s s in g fan c y o f t h e F rench t h r e a t e n t h e i r power.
M arie C h a u v e t's n o v e l, La Danse s u r l e v o lc a n , ta k e s p la c e j u s t
b e fo r e t h e F ren ch r e v o l u t i o n and e x p re s s e s a l l t h e hopes t h e s la v e s
and t h e i r d e fe n d e rs p u t i n t h e a b o l i t i o n . The d e s p e r a t i o n o f t h e i r
s t r u g g l e c o n t r a s t s w ith t h e l i m i t e d s u c c e s s i t le d t o .
M ichele L a c r o s i l i n S a p o t i l l e e t l e s e r i n d ' a r g i l e .d e s c r ib e s th e
o b s t i n a t e d e s i r e o f one o f S a p o t i l l e ’ s a n c e s to r s t o buy h i s freedom .
When, a f t e r t h i r t y - t h r e e y e a rs o f lab o r., Ti J e a n f i n a l l y o b ta in s h i s
freedom p a p e r s , he r e a l i z e s t h a t i t s t i l l means d e p r i v a t i o n , h unger
and work i n th e same c o n d it io n s as b e f o r e . The o n ly d i f f e r e n c e i s t h a t
he now r e c e iv e s a m inim al sum o f money f o r h i s w ork. T h is e v e n tu a ll y
a llo w s him t o buy t h e freedom o f h i s w if e . Y e t, t h e r e i s l i t t l e jo y
in t h i s a c c o u n t, o n ly t h e b i t t e r r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t a l i f e o f s t r u g g l e
co u ld do l i t t l e t o change t h e c o n d itio n o f t h e s l a v e , l i b e r a t e d o r n o t ,
im p ris o n e d i n a sy stem w hich l e f t him no c h o ic e s .
2) R a c ia l P r e ju d i c e
One o f t h e m ost d ra m a tic conseq u en ces o f t h e i n s t i t u t i o n of
s la v e r y was t h e d i s t o r t i o n o f r a c i a l v a lu e s . Those who had th e power,
t h e W h ite s, became th e norm by w hich one s h o u ld behave. T h e ir c u l t u r e
became th e o n ly one w o rth b e in g m a in ta in e d . The a rro g a n c e o f t h e p l a n
t e r s was -in i t s e l f l e s s dan g ero u s th a n c e n t u r i e s of. d o m in a tio n w hich
le d th e s la v e s i n t o h a ti n g t h e i r own c o lo r and a s s i m i l a t i n g w h ite n e s s
t o th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a c q u ir in g pow er. Copying t h e ways o f t h e m a s te r
124
le d at le a s t to lim ite d a ccep ta n ce.
a) The I m i t a t i o n o f th e Former M aster
I n th e n o v e l Les T h a z a r , F ernand H ib b e rt i l l u s t r a t e s t h e d e s i r e o f
t h e b o u r g e o is ie o f P o r t - a u - P r i n c e t o adopt th e m anners o f t h e W h ite s.
He shows th e en d u ra n c e o f t h i s i l l u s i o n and d e s c r i b e s t h e rid ic u lo u s ^ - ■
n e s s o f th e p r e t e n t i o n s o f th e T h a z ars one c e n tu r y a f t e r t h e in d ep e n d
ence o f H a i t i . Madame T h a z a r r e j e c t s a l l t h a t i s H a i ti a n as o f no
v a lu e . Having s p e n t s e v e r a l y e a r s i n P a r i s t o e d u c a te h e r c h i l d r e n , she
w ants t o r e c r e a t e i n H a i t i t h e k in d o f l i f e she had t h e r e , in s p i t e o f
h e r h u s b a n d 's f a i l i n g s o c i a l s t a t u s . She p u sh e s h e r d a u g h te r t o m arry
a w h ite f o r e i g n e r and c a u se s h e r u n h a p p in e ss as th e d a u g h te r r e a l i z e s
t h a t money and r a c e a re n o t enough t o make a m a rria g e s u c c e s s f u l .
H ib b e rt n e v e r denounces r a c i a l p r e j u d i c e , but he a c c e n tu a te s Madame
T h a z a r 's v a n it y and h e r g r e e d . A lthough he o f f e r s no a l t e r n a t i v e s t o
t h e k in d o f b e h a v io r he d e s c r i b e s , h is p i c t u r e o f th e H a i ti a n b o u r
g e o i s i e r e v e a ls h i s d i s g u s t and h i s b i t t e r n e s s a t h i s own p e o p le .
I t i s t h i s a t t i t u d e w hich J e a n P ric e -M a rs fo u g h t i n A in s i p a r i a
l 'O n c l e .- I n o r d e r t o c o u n te r a c t th e a tta c h m e n t o f t h e H a i ti a n e l i t e
t o F rench c u l t u r e , he rem inded th e e l i t e t h a t Europe had d e l i b e r a t e l y
s u p p o rte d i n t e r n a l w ars i n A f r ic a i n o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e th e number o f
a v a i l a b l e s l a v e s , t h a t i t had d e s tr o y e d many A f r ic a n c u l t u r e s and
e x te r m in a te d a l l t h e in d ig e n o u s p o p u la tio n s o f t e r r i t o r i e s i t in te n d e d
t o c o l o n i z e . ■
M ayotte C a p e c ia i s p r o b a b ly th e a u th o r who h as b e s t exposed th e
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th e d e s t r u c t i v e co n seq u e n c e s o f r a c i a l a l i e n a t i o n . The h e r o in e s o f
h e r two n o v e ls , J e s u is m a r t in i q u a i s e and La N e g re sse b la n c h e , have
a sy stem o f v a lu e d i s t o r t e d by t h e i r i n f e r i o r i t y com plex. They c a n n o t
i d e n t i f y w ith t h e i r own r a c e . T h e ir a d m ir a tio n f o r t h e W h ite s, t h e i r
i n c l i n a t i o n t o ch oose t o s o c i a l i z e w ith them le a d s t o t h e i r r e j e c t i o n
by t h e i r own s o c i e t y . T h e re i s no a l t e r n a t i v e f o r them b u t e x i l e to
F ra n ce and t o a s o c i e t y w hich w i l l p ro b a b ly o s t r a c i z e them as w e l l.
M ich ele L a c r o s i l 's S a p o t i l l e and C ajou s h a re t h e same a l i e n a t i o n .
I f S a p o t i l l e e v e n tu a ll y le a v e s f o r F ra n c e , Cajou does n o t even have
t h i s c h o ic e . The d e p th o f h e r a l i e n a t i o n d r iv e s h e r t o s u i c i d e . Her
t r a g i c end shows th e s e v e r e c o n seq u en ces o f a l i e n a t i o n when i t re a c h e s
e x c e s s iv e p r o p o r t i o n s .
b) The R e l a ti o n s h i p betw een M u la tto e s and B lacks
I n H a i t i , J e a n P ric e -M a rs d e v o te d some o f h i s w r i t i n g s t o th e
a t t i t u d e o f t h e m u la tto e l i t e to w ard t h e b la c k m asse s. H is e x p e rie n c e s
ab ro ad had ta u g h t him t h a t t h e o u t s i d e w o rld makes no d i s t i n c t i o n
betw een M u la tto and B lack and t h a t b o th groups s h o u ld c o o p e ra te f o r th e
w e lf a r e o f th e n a t i o n as a w h o le. He i n s i s t e d upon t h e l e a d e r s h i p r o l e
o f th e e d u c a te d e l i t e , t h e n e c e s s i t y t h a t i t be aware o f i t s c u l t u r a l
c o n n e c tio n s w ith th e b la c k m a sse s. The hopes o f J e a n P ric e -M a rs w i l l
n e v e r come t r u e . The gap betw een M u la tto e s and B lacks i n H a i t i n e v e r
n a rro w e d , even when th e power changed h a n d s.
I n Amour, c o l e r e , f o l i e , M arie C hauvet draws a p e s s i m i s t i c p i c t u r e
o f th e c o n f r o n t a t i o n betw een t h e two g ro u p s. C l a ir e o f Amour i s th e
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ty p e o f t h e a l i e n a t e d woman, d a r k - s k in n e d among h e r alm o st w h ite fam ily,
She n e v e r m a r r ie s b e c au se she i s a f r a i d sh e w i l l be ch osen f o r h e r
money, n o t f o r h e r s e l f . I n h e r u n h a p p in e s s , she r e j e c t s e v e r y th in g t h a t
c o n n e c ts h e r w ith h e r b la c k a n c e s t o r s . The background o f t h e n o v e l i s
th e coming t o pow er o f t h e B lacks who t h r e a t e n t o d e s tr o y t h e m u la tto
e l i t e and t h e s u b m is s iv e n e s s o f t h a t e l i t e f o rc e d t o bow b e fo r e th o s e
i t c o n tin u e s t o h a t e . C o le re e l a b o r a t e s upon t h a t h a t r e d by p i c t u r i n g
th e t e n s i o n s i n s i d e o f a fa m ily on th e v e rg e o f b e in g d i s p o s s e s s e d .
F o l i e i s t h e l a s t s ta g e : Rene, th e m u la tto p o e t, s e e s i n s a n i t y o r d e a tt
as t h e o n ly a l t e r n a t i v e s t o h i s c o w a rd ic e and r e s i g n a t i o n i n t h e f a c e
o f a new b la c k regim e o f t e r r o r . T h is d a rk n o v e l i s t h e s tu d y !o f th e
f a t e H a i t i has b ro u g h t upon i t s e l f b e c a u se i t s r a c i a l groups have
n e v e r been a b le t o come t o an u n d e rs ta n d in g . M arie Chauvet condemns
th e H a i ti a n community as a w hole and h o ld s i t r e s p o n s i b le f o r th e
h o r r o r s i t has g e n e r a te d . R a c ia l p r e j u d i c e , g re e d and s e l f i s h n e s s
c a u se d i t s r u in ; b o th M u la tto e s and B lack s a r e t o be blam ed.
W hile M arie C hauvet p i c t u r e s th e d o w n fa ll o f th e m u la tto e l i t e ,
she n e v e r t h e l e s s i n s i s t s on t h e f a c t t h a t i t rem ains co n v in c e d o f i t s
s u p e r i o r i t y . T h is s u p e r i o r i t y com plex, as w e ll as t h e d e s i r e t o
m a in ta in s k in c o l o r , i s what makes i t im p o s s ib le f o r t h e m u la tto man
t o be s e r i o u s l y in v o lv e d w ith a ,b l a c k woman. S a p o t i l l e , i n S a p o t i l l e
e t l e s e r i n d ' a r g i l e , th u s has t o f a c e t h e f a c t t h a t P a t r i c e , th e
m u la tto d o c to r sh e i s i n lo v e w ith , w i l l n e v e r m arry h e r . P a t r i c e i s .
n o t w i l l i n g t o t a k e th e r i s k o f b e in g r e j e c t e d by h i s own c l a s s . I n
I s a u r e o f La N e g re sse b la n c h e , t h e problem ta k e s a d i f f e r e n t t u r n :
127
h e r a l i e n a t i o n i s so t o t a l t h a t she r e a c t s l i k e a r a c i s t w h ite woman
and ca n n o t b e a r t h e i d e a o f h a v in g a r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith a b la c k man.
T hese t h r e e n o v e ls denounce th e d e s t r u c t i v e conseq u en ce o f r a c i a l
p r e j u d i c e b o th a t th e p e r s o n a l and a t th e n a t i o n a l l e v e l . W h ile , in
H a i t i , t h e w h ite e lem en t has d is a p p e a r e d , th e a t t i t u d e s i n h e r i t e d
from s la v e r y have rem ain ed s tr o n g enough t o p u t a w hole n a ti o n in
je o p a rd y .
3 ) R u ra l l i f e
The m a j o r it y o f t h e p o p u la tio n o f t h e F re n c h -s p e a k in g t e r r i t o r i e s
— and t h i s e s p e c i a l l y t r u e o f H a i t i — i s o f r u r a l e x t r a c t i o n . B e s id e s ,
th e p e a s a n t p o p u l a t io n has b e s t m a in ta in e d t h e t r a d i t i o n s w hich g iv e
th e s e t e r r i t o r i e s t h e i r c u l t u r a l s p e c i f i c i t y . I t i s t h e r e f o r e n o t
s u r p r i s i n g t h a t a g r e a t number o f n o v e l i s t s have ch o sen t o d e a l w ith
one o r s e v e r a l a s p e c ts o f n a t u r e and r u r a l l i f e .
a) The b e a u ty o f n a tu r e
C re o le n o v e l i s t s o f M a rtin iq u e and G uadeloupe p u t th e em phasis on
t h e e x o ti c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e i r i s l a n d s . A d d re s sin g th e m e tro p o l
i t a n p u b l i c , th e y want t o r e v e a l , f o r th o s e who do n o t know them , th e
b e a u ti e s o f th e t r o p i c a l la n d s c a p e . Such i s p ro b a b ly t h e i n t e n t o f
C o u ssin when he d e p i c t s , i n Eugene de C e r c e i l ou l e s C a r a ib e s , th e
v o lc a n o S o u f r i e r e , th e p l a i n s o f th e Grande T e r r e , th e v e g e t a t i o n , th e
j u n g l e , th e whole ro m a n tic and untam ed la n d s c a p e o f t h e i s l a n d o f
G uadeloupe.
128
I n I s s a n d r e l e M u la tr e , th e p o in t o f view c h a n g es. The a u th o r no
lo n g e r d e s c r ib e s n a tu r e f o r f o r e i g n im a g in a tio n s , but p r e s e n t s i t as i t
i s l i v e d and a p p r e c ia t e d by t h e p r o t a g o n i s t s o f t h e n o v e l. He th u s
ta k e s th e r e a d e r th ro u g h t h e f o r e s t . o f M atouba as i t i s appreh en d ed i n
th e le g e n d s about i t , o r le a d s him up t o t h e v o lc a n o and a c ro s s t h e
f a n t a s t i c la n d s c a p e s c r e a te d by n a tu r e i n c o n s ta n t e v o lu t io n . I f th o s e
la n d s c a p e s seem t o come out o f a to rm e n te d im a g in a tio n , i t i s o n ly t o
r e f l e c t t h e m a g ic a l s i g n i f i c a n c e th e y have ta k e n on i n t h e c u l t u r e of
th e i s l a n d .
For E douard G l i s s a n t , t h e la n d s c a p e o f M a rtin iq u e i s an i n t e g r a l
p a r t o f i t s h i s t o r y ; " N o tre p ay sag e e s t son p ro p re monument; l a t r a c e
31
q u ' i l s i g n i f i e e s t r e p e r a b le p a r d e s s o u s . C 'e s t t o u t e h i s t o i r e . "
I t i s t h e r e f o r e n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e l o c a l i n h a b i t a n t t o u n d e rs ta n d th e
la n d s c a p e o f h i s i s l a n d , f o r i t c o n ta in s a l l th e e le m en ts o f h i s t o r y .
The m ain p r o t a g o n i s t o f La L e z a r d e , T h a e l, i s p r e s e n te d , a t th e b e g in
n in g o f th e n o v e l, as a man i n com m unication w ith n a tu r e as he a p p re
c i a t e s th e b e a u ty o f th e la n d he t r a v e r s e s . But i t i s o n ly once he has
come t o know a l l t h e e le m en ts o f th e la n d s c a p e o f M a rtin iq u e , th e
o c e an , th e p l a i n and th e r i v e r as w e ll as th e m o u n ta in s, t h a t he w i l l
have t h e know ledge n e c e s s a ry t o a c co m p lish t h e a c t e x p e c te d from him.
The r i v e r ta k e s on c e n t r a l s i g n i f i c a n c e s in c e i t l i n k s a l l t h e s e e l e
m en ts, th e m o u n tain s ( th e p a s t ) , th e c i t y and th e p l a i n ( th e p r e s e n t )
and t h e ocean ( t h e f u t u r e ) . T h a e l 's d e s c e n t a lo n g t h e r i v e r i s th u s
a ls o a voyage th ro u g h h i s t o r y and marks h i s p ro g re s s i n th e p e r c e p ti o n
o f h i s own la n d .
129
I n Le Q u atriem e s i e c l e , Longoue, M e lc h io r and A p o stro p h e a re a l l
vag ab o n d s. A ll h i s l i f e , Longoue r e l e n t l e s s l y e x p lo r e s t h e f o r e s t and
th e c o a s t ; M e lc h io r i s e q u a lly a t t r a c t e d by n a tu r e i n i t s raw s t a t e ,
and A p o s tro p h e , th e dream er, goes f o r lo n g s o l i t a r y w a lk s . The know l
edge th e y t r a n s m i t t o one a n o th e r alw ays in c lu d e s t h a t o f th e l a n d , o f '
e v e r y th in g t h a t moves and b r e a t h e s . Knowing th e la n d i s knowing o n e s e l f
and t h e la n d i t s e l f r e f l e c t s t h e a n g u ish and th e s o l i t u d e o f t h o s e who
d w e ll on i t . C o n se q u e n tly , Papa Longoue w ants t o t e a c h M athieu t o
o b se rv e what s u rro u n d s him and ta k e th e tim e t o l i s t e n t o what th e la n d
has t o s a y . And he t e l l s him o f th e la n d , o f th e i n t r i c a c i e s o f th e
f o r e s t , o f th e s e a and o f th e c o a s t l i n e ; he t e l l s him o f th e su n , th e
wind and t h e w a te r; and, i n th e mouth o f t h i s man who u n d e rs ta n d s th e
h id d e n m eanings .of a l l t h i n g s , t h e s e d e s c r i p t i o n s become i n f i n i t e l y
p o e t i c .
The same a tta c h m e n t t o th e la n d can be found i n G ouverneurs de l a
r o s e e , b u t t h e r e i t s b e a u ty i s c o n s t a n t l y c o n t r a s t e d w ith i t s s t e r i l i t y ,
When Manuel goes i n s e a r c h o f w a te r , he can n o t but s to p t o adm ire t h e
la n d s c a p e around him , th e h i l l s i d e s and t h e i r p in e f o r e s t s , t h e moun
t a i n s and t h e i r to rm e n te d s h a p e s . P e rh ap s th e m ost p o e t i c moment o f
t h e n o v e l i s M a n u e l's e n c o u n te r w ith th e w a te r. T h e re i s an a u ra of
u n r e a l i t y about t h e g rove w here th e s p r in g l i e s w ith i t s c e n tu r y - o l d
t r e e s and th e c o o ln e s s o f th e a i r b e n e a th them . D e s p ite t h e damage
done t o t h e la n d , t h e r e i s s t i l l an i n d e s t r u c t i b l e b e a u ty about i t
w hich o n ly th o s e who l i v e by i t can r e a l l y a p p r e c i a t e .
J a c q u e s S te p h e n A le x is , i n Les A rb res m u s ic ie n s , in d u lg e s in
130
sum ptuous d e s c r i p t i o n s o f th e H a i ti a n la n d s c a p e . Seen th ro u g h th e eyes
o f G onaibo, th e c h i l d o f th e l a k e , i t becomes an e n c h an tm e n t. As i n d i
c a te d by t h e t i t l e o f t h e n o v e l, th e f o r e s t p la y s an im p o rta n t, r o l e .
I t i s a p la c e o f harmony and b e a u ty , c o lo r e d by p r e c io u s o r c h i d s , where
b i r d s and t r e e s engage i n m u s ic a l d ia lo g u e s and where man can f in d
h a p p in e s s and p e a ce o f t h e h e a r t .
b) The f i g h t f o r t h e la n d
The p e a s a n t l i v e s by t h e la n d and f o r t h e la n d , b u t i t r a r e l y
b e lo n g s t o him. The n o v e l w hich b e s t e x p l o i t s t h i s them e .is p e rh a p s
P i a b ' l a by J o s e p h Z o b e l. D i a b 'l a r e b e l s a g a in s t h is c o n d it io n as a
l a b o r e r . He w ants t o c u l t i v a t e h i s own la n d b e c au se work s h o u ld be an
e n r ic h in g and re w a rd in g e x p e rie n c e ,, n o t a s o u rc e o f h u m il ia t io n .
D i a b 'l a i s an exam ple t o th e r e s t o f the. v i l l a g e r s , t o whom he t e a c h e s
th e v a lu e o f s o l i d a r i t y . The n o v e l i s a p l e a f o r t h e b la c k p e o p le . I t
shows t h e b a la n c e th e i s l a n d c o u ld f in d i f i t s p e o p le owned t h e i r la n d
and w orked f o r th e m s e lv e s . Z o b el b e lie v e s t h i s can be ac co m p lish e d
w ith o u t v i o le n c e .
By c o n t r a s t , th e p r o t a g o n i s t s o f La L e z a fd e t h in k t h a t o n ly a
v i o l e n t a c t can b r in g r e s u l t s . The d e a th o f G arin.m eans t h e end o f
one t h r e a t t o t h e l a n d . For G a rin has a sy m b o lic v a lu e ; he has im p r i
soned th e s o u rc e o f th e r i v e r i n h i s house and in te n d s t o r e q u i s i t i o n
th e la n d w hich b o rd e rs th e r iv e r .. T hael i s chosen as t h e e x e c u tio n e r
b e c a u s e , more th a n th e o t h e r s , he knows th e v a lu e o f . t h e la n d . He
b e n e f i t s from t h e t a c i t c o m p lic ity o f Lome, th e v o ic e o f th e p e o p le ,
131
who u n d e rs ta n d s t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e a c t as one e p is o d e o f t h e f i g h t
f o r t h e la n d th e p e o p le have p a r t i c i p a t e d i n a l l t h e i r l i v e s .
One c o u ld sa y t h a t Le Q u atriem e s i e c l e i s th e c o m p le te s t o r y o f
th e f i g h t f o r th e la n d l e d by t h e p e o p le , b e cau se t h e la n d , and th e
la n d o n ly , has a llo w e d t h e s u r v i v a l o f t h e s la v e and o f th e m aroon.
M a th ie u , a f t e r h a v in g l i s t e n e d t o Papa Longoue, becomes c o n v in c e d t h a t
a l l h i s s u f f e r i n g s s h o u ld have won th e la n d f o r th e p e a s a n t , b u t comes
to t h e b r u t a l r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t i t s t i l l does n o t b e lo n g t o him . And
t h e T a r g in fa m ily sy m b o lize s a l l th o s e who depend upon t h e la n d f o r
mere s u r v i v a l ; R a p h a e l, t h e l a s t o f th e T a r g in s , has i n him a l l t h e i r
d e s p e r a te p a ti e n c e and o b s ti n a c y , q u a l i t i e s w hich w i l l e v e n tu a ll y b rin g
him back t o th e la n d o f h i s a n c e s t o r s .
I n H a i t i , J e a n - B a p t i s t e C ineas r e l a t e s a f a m i ly ’ s f i g h t t o keep
th e la n d w hich i s b e in g ta k e n away from them i n La Vengeance de l a
t e r r e (1 9 4 0 ). V ic tim s of. g o v ern m en tal g re e d , th e T u rin s s e e p a r t o f
t h e i r p r o p e r ty r e q u i s i t i o n e d . U nable t o p ro v e an o w n ersh ip o n ly c o n se
c r a t e d by tim e , th e y t u r n t o Voodoo f o r h e lp i n r e g a i n in g t h e i r la n d ,
and th e y s u c c e e d . T h is n o v e l a c t u a l l y p r e s e n t s a v a r i a t i o n o f t h e same
them e. I n H a i t i , a f t e r In d e p e n d e n c e , some, la n d was d i s t r i b u t e d t o th e
p e o p le . I n tim e , i t was r e t r i e v e d by th o s e p o s s e s s in g enough means to
make i t f r u c t i f y and ta k e n away from i t s o r i g i n a l o w ners. T h is novel,
c e l e b r a t e s th e d e te r m in a tio n o f th e p e a s a n t t o d e fe n d h i s means o f
s u b s i s t e n c e . The r e c o u r s e t o Voodoo shows t h a t th e H a i t i a n p e a s a n t 's
u n d e rs ta n d in g o f r e a l i t y i s alw ays in term s o f h i s own m ythology.
R e lia n c e on Voodoo i s a r e c u r r e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e H a i ti a n r u r a l
.132
n o v e l .
Fonds des N egres by M arie Chauvet s t a r t s from t h e same p re m ise s :
v i l l a g e r s a re t h r e a t e n e d w ith th e l o s s o f t h e i r la n d . But h e re th e y
o r g a n iz e th e m s e lv e s , r e a l i z i n g t h a t th e y c a n n o t triu m p h i n d i v i d u a l l y .
They t a k e th e m a t t e r t o c o u r t and w in. L a t e r , th e y o r g a n iz e a c o o p e r
a t i v e t o e x p l o i t t h e la n d i n common.
Not a l l a u th o r s a r e t h a t o p t i m i s t i c . J a c q u e s S . A le x is d e s c r ib e s
t h e d e c li n e o f a p e a s a n t v i l l a g e i n Bon D ieu r i t . The v i l l a g e i s b e in g
p r e s s u r e d by th e l o c a l landow ner w ith t h e c o m p lic ity o f th e p o l i c e and
j u d i c i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . The n o v e l d e a ls w ith t h e d e s p e r a te f i g h t o f a
fa m ily t h a t l o s e s i t s p r o p e r t y because o f h a v in g t o pay u n ju s t t a x e s .
T h e ir r e s i s t a n c e i s u s e l e s s , and t h e fa m ily d i s i n t e g r a t e s when t h e
o l d e s t son le a v e s t o t r y t o make a l i v i n g away from t h e v i l l a g e .
The H a i ti a n n o v e l t r e a t s t h i s theme more c o n c r e t e l y t h a n i t s
A n t i l l e a n c o u n t e r p a r t . T h is d i f f e r e n c e stem s from h i s t o r i c a l c irc u m
s t a n c e s . Whereas th e F re n ch C a rib b e a n p e a s a n t c o u ld n o t e a s i l y own
h is l a n d , t h e H a i t i a n p e a s a n t was once g iv e n t h i s o p p o r tu n i ty . The d i f
f i c u l t i e s b o th f a c e rem ain t h e same, how ever, s in c e b o th have t o f i g h t
p o w e rfu l landow ners w ith v e ry l i m i t e d m eans. I n m ost c a s e s , t h i s f i g h t
le a d s t o v i o l e n c e . The o n ly way t o su c ce e d i s t o o r g a n iz e ; t h e theme
o f s o l i d a r i t y i s th u s a c o r o l l a r y t o t h a t o f t h e f i g h t f o r th e la n d .
c ) The c u r s e o f t h e la n d
The la n d becomes t h e m a le d ic tio n o f t h e p e a s a n t f o r s e v e r a l
r e a s o n s . I n th e F re n ch t e r r i t o r i e s , th e la n d i s c u rs e d b e cau se i t
133
b e lo n g s t o t h e C re o le w h ile t h e p e a s a n t has t o work i t f o r n o th in g .
I n H a i t i , th e la n d i s c u rs e d becau se i t i s p o o r, u n r e l i a b l e and c a n n o t
a s s u r e t h e s u b s i s t e n c e o f th e p e a s a n t . A lthough n a t u r a l c o n d itio n s
p la y a p a r t i n t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s e n c o u n te re d by t h e p e a s a n t in t h e
F re n ch C a rib b e a n n o v e l, t h e problem i s m o s tly se en from a p o l i t i c a l o r
s o c i a l p o in t o f v iew .
I n La Rue C a s e s -N e g re s , J o s e p h Z o b el d e s c r ib e s how t h e la n d and
t h e s u g a r cane c a u se th e d e a th o f h i s h e r o 's g ran d m o th er. The n o v e l
a l s o d e a ls w ith t h e in h u m a n ity o f t h e work i n th e f i e l d s and i t s
d e s t r u c t i v e co n seq u en ces upon t h e w o rk e rs: th e y become m achines a t th e
s e r v i c e o f th e p l a n t a ti o n - o w n e r . I n La L e z a r d e , G l i s s a n t evokes th e
sm e ll o f d e a th s u rro u n d in g th e rum f a c t o r y and shows M ath ieu , l o s t in
h i s dream s, m e e tin g a s o l i t a r y cane w o rk e r c o v e re d w ith t h e d u s t o f th e
la n d , h i s body confounded w ith t h e e a r t h and d r e s s e d w ith th e r a g s o f
m is e ry . And t h e T a r.g in s, f i g h t i n g a g a in s t, th e d ro u g h t, th e h e a t and
e v e r l a s t i n g h u n g e r, a g a in sy m b o lize t h e d e s p e r a ti o n and d e te r m in a tio n
o f t h e p e a s a n t i n Le Q u atriem e s i e c l e .
Le Drame de l a t e r r e by J e a n - B a p t i s t e C ineas shows th e p e a s a n t a t
th e m ercy o f th e e le m e n ts . The b e g in n in g o f t h e n o v e l m easures h i s
h e l p l e s s n e s s as t h e d ro u g h t r u in s e v e ry p l a n t i n g . What f u r t h e r a g g ra
v a te s th e s i t u a t i o n o f th e p e a s a n t i s h i s r e l i a n c e upon th e f o r c e s o f
Voodoo and h i s te n d e n c y t o s o lv e h i s problem s w ith u n r e l i a b l e s u p e r
n a t u r a l t o o l s i n s t e a d o f s e e in g t h e i r n a t u r a l c a u s e s . I n G ouverneurs
de l a r o s e e , Roumain lik e w is e i n s i s t s upon th e d e s t r u c t i v e h o ld o f
Voodoo on th e p e a s a n t b u t a l s o a n a ly z e s t h e n a t u r a l c a u se s o f h is
134
p o v e rty !, th e d ro u g h t c a u s e d .b y t h e o v e r e x p l o i t a t i o n o f t h e la n d and
th e c a r e l e s s c u t t i n g o f t h e t r e e s , th e e r o s i o n t a k i n g away th e f e r t i l e
e le m en ts o f th e s o i l ; a l l t h i s i s compounded by t h e d i s s e n s io n s o p p o sin g
t h e p e a s a n t s . Anthony L espes i n Les Semences de l a c o l e r e draws a
t r a g i c p i c t u r e o f t h e c o n d it io n o f t h e u p ro o te d p e a s a n t , .v ictim o f th e
i r r e s p o n s i b l e d e c is i o n s o f th e governm ent. He s t r e s s e s as w e ll th e
h o s t i l i t y o f th e 1 and; t h e i n s t a b i l i t y o f t h e c lim a te r e g u l a r l y de
s tr o y s c ro p s a lr e a d y made v u l n e r a b le by th e a r i d i t y o f t h e la n d .. The
d e s p e r a te f i g h t o f th e p e a s a n t i s sy m bolized by th e image o f th e g r a s s
w hich c o n s ta n t ly grows b ack, in v a d e s t h e f i e l d s , d e s tr o y s t h e r o a d s ,
t a l l e r and s t r o n g e r e v e ry day.
d) The l i f e and p e r s o n a l i t y o f th e p e a s a n t
T h is i s a r i c h l y d e v e lo p e d them e; a l l r u r a l n o v e ls w i l l e v id e n t ly
a tte m p t t o p i c t u r e t h e d a i l y o c c u p a tio n s o f t h e p e a s a n t . In, H a i t i , th e
I n d i g e n i s t movement gave s p e c i a l im portance, t o t h e . l i f e o f th e p e a s a n t
b e cau se he r e p r e s e n t s t h a t p o r t i o n o f th e p o p u la tio n u n s p o ile d by
w h ite c u l t u r e o r f o r e i g n i n f l u e n c e . The to n e o f t h e s e n o v e ls w i l l
v a ry as th e y o s c i l l a t e betw een d e s p e ra tio n , and hope, a c c e p ta n c e and
r e v o l t . The p e a s a n t community, w i l l . b e shown as e i t h e r d iv id e d o r . u n i t e d
a c c o rd in g t o th e c o n c e p tio n o f t h e a u th o r . F u rth e rm o re , one must n e v e r
f o r g e t t h a t t h e a u th o r h im s e lf n e v e r belo n g s t o t h e community he
d e s c r i b e s and t h a t h i s s o c i a l background w i l l o f te n i n f l u e n c e h i s
u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e p e a s a n t.
H a i t i has p ro d u ced two k in d s o f p e a s a n t n o v e ls ! th o s e w hich
135
p i c t u r e th e p e a s a n t as a f a t a l i s t i c man whose a c c e p ta n c e o f h is c o n d i
t i o n le a d s t o s t a g n a t i o n , and th o s e w hich se e i n him th e d e s i r e t o
f i g h t a g a in s t a l l odds t o a m e lio r a te h i s l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s . Canape-
V e rt and La B ete de M usseau (1946) by t h e M a rc e lin b r o th e r s view th e
m is e ry o f th e p e a s a n t as v i n w i t a b l e . C o n se q u e n tly , he i s c o m p le te ly
p a s s i v e and s u b ju g a te d by f o r c e s which le a d him t o d e a th . His l i f e i s
dom inated by r i v a l r i e s and d i s p u t e s w hich - r e g u l a r l y end i n tr a g e d y .
V io le n c e e r u p ts and b lood flow s b e cau se t h i s seems t o be t h e o n ly means
t h e p e a s a n t h as t o s o lv e h i s p ro b le m s. On t h e c o n tr a r y , C ineas i n
Le Drame de l a t e r r e comes c l o s e r t o th e p e a s a n t. He d e s c r ib e s how he
works th e la n d , h i s d e s p e r a ti o n when h i s f i e l d s do n o t y i e l d , h i s hopes
when t h e r a i n s come .and f i n a l l y make p l a n t i n g p o s s i b l e . C ineas a n a ly z e s
t h e tem peram ent o f t h e H a i t i a n p e a s a n t w hich com bines h a p p in e s s and
s a d n e s s . The p e a s a n t i n t u i t i v e l y f e e l s t h e w eig h t o f a p a s t o f m is e ry
and e x p l o i t a t i o n and f e a r s t h e morrow. He th u s l i v e s from day t o day,
t a k in g jo y s and p a in s as th e y come and m aking no p la n s f o r t h e f u t u r e .
Les Semences de l a c o l e r e d e v e lo p s a c c o rd in g t o th e rhythm o f th e
s e a s o n s . Each s e a s o n b r in g s dream s and f a i l u r e s , h a p p in e s s and m is e ry .
T h is p r e s e n t a t i o n s t r e s s e s t h e dependence o f t h e p e a s a n t upon th e la n d
b u t g iv e a r e a l i s t i c p i c t u r e o f h is o r d e a l s . T hus, th e n o v e l c e l e b r a t e s
h i s o b s tin a c y and h i s lo v e f o r t h e la n d . A l t i d o r sy m b o lize s t h i s lo v e j
h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e la n d i s t h a t o f a man t o h i s m i s t r e s s . The la n d
i s a woman, c a p r i c i o u s b u t f a i t h f u l i n i t s way b e c au se i t i s alw ays
t h e r e w ith i t s b e t r a y a l s and re w a rd s. The c o n s ta n c y o f th e p e a s a n t i s
t h e m ain m essage o f t h e n o v e l w hich ends on th e image o f a l l th e
136
p e a s a n ts u n ite d ,, re a d y t o f i g h t t o t h e end a g a in s t th o s e who would ta k e
t h e i r la n d and t h e l i t t l e hope th e y have l e f t ..
G ouverneurs de l a r o s e e g iv e s a d e t a i l e d p i c t u r e o f t h e l i f e o f
t h e v i l l a g e o f Fonds-R ouge. We s e e t h e v i l l a g e r s make c h a r c o a l, weave
h a t s , go t o th e m ark et t o s e l l t h e i r g oods. They work t o g e t h e r and
a t t e n d c erem o n ies t o g e t h e r , Each c h a r a c t e r i n th e n o v e l r e p r e s e n t s an
a s p e c t o f th e p e a s a n t m e n t a l i t y : D e l i r a i s t h e ty p e o f t h e f a t a l i s t i c
p e a s a n t who u n d e rs ta n d s, r e a l i t y i n te rm s o f Voodoo;, h e r h u sb an d , B ie n -
Aime, i s o b s t i n a t e , g ru d g in g , h a rd to c o n v in c e ; G e rv ile n i s b i t t e r ,
s e l f i s h , je a l o u s and d a n g e ro u s; Manuel i s th e symbol o f p r o g re s s
b e c au se he u n d e rs ta n d s t h e la n d and can th u s do what, i s n e c e s s a r y t o
make i t y i e l d ; Annai.se i s a l l woman and c a r r i e s th e hopes o f t h e
fu tu r e ,. The a u th o r im p lie s t h a t a l l th e s e .o p p o s e d p e r s o n a l i t i e s can be
b ro u g h t to g e th e r- and made to work f o r a common f u t u r e .
J o s e p h Z o b e l 's n o v e l,. D ia b 1l a , a ls o p a r t i c i p a t e s i n th e l i f e o f a
v i l l a g e . I t s t a r t s w ith th e d e s c r i p t i o n o f the. b a z a a r - e a f e w here t h e
v i l l a g e r s m ee t, r e c r e a t e s t h e m ix tu re o f s m e lls i n t h e a i r w hich g iv e s
t h e c a f e i t s s p e c i a l a tm o s p h e re . The l i f e o f t h e v i l l a g e u n f o ld s b e fo re
th e r e a d e r : t h e w ork, t h e d a n c e s , th e f a m i l i a r i t y o f t h e v i l l a g e r s w itf
one a n o th e r , t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n s and t h e i r q u a r r e l s . P o v e rty i s alw ays
p re s e n t, b u t i t . i s m ixed w ith a d e s i r e f o r : l i f e w hich makes i t . b e a r a b le .
I n La L e z a r d e ,. Myeea e x p e rie n c e s t h e sim p le ..lif e o f Lome and h i s
f a m ily .. T h e ir h o s p i t a l i t y i s im m ediate and. r e q u i r e s no e x p la n a ti o n .
W hile Lome works i n t h e f i e l d s , h i s w ife ta k e s c a r e o f t h e house and
Mycea p la y s w ith t h e c h i l d r e n and fe e d s t h e an im als th e fa m ily k e e p s .
137
Lome p e r s o n i f i e s th e wisdom o f the. p e o p le ; he te a c h e s t h e young men and
women o f t h e c i t y t h e im p o rta n c e o f sim p le jo y s such as m usic and a
d r in k o f rum and th e h a p p in e s s one, can f i n d i n s h a r in g t h e s e , j o y s . From
him em anates a p e a c e f u ln e s s w hich he c o m m u n ic a tes,to t h e o th e r s when he
f e e l s th e y need i t .
The e p is o d e s o f r u r a l , l i f e d e p ic te d , i n t h e s e n o v e ls a r e th e same:
t h e h a rd n e s s o f t h e work i n t h e f i e l d s r e l i e v e d o n ly when i t i s s h a re d ;
t h e g o in g o f th e women t o t h e m arket t o s e l l t h e .p r o d u c t s o f t h a t work;
t h e m eager l i f e ; th e food and th e d r in k o f rum when work i s o v e r. The
n o v e ls v a ry i n r e a l is m and i n t e n s i t y , H a i ti a n n o v e ls p u t t i n g th e
em phasis on som etim es g r a p h ic d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e m is e ry o f t h e p e a sa n t.
e) T r a d itio n s , and d i s t r a c t i o n s
The rhythm of. th e l i f e o f th e p e a s a n t i s d e te rm in e d by a number o f
t r a d i t i o n s m o stly l in k e d t o t h e c e l e b r a t i o n o f l i f e and d e a th . The most
im p o rta n t i s th e wake.. I t g iv e s th e p e a s a n ts t h e o p p o r tu n ity t o .come
t o g e t h e r .. I t i s u s u a l l y n o t a sa d e v e n t but a llo w s t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s
t o sp e ak o f th e dead and o f h i s acco m p lish m e n ts, t o t e l l s t o r i e s and
engage i n c a rd o r d ic e games w h ile e a ti n g and d r in k in g ..M o re o f t e n th a n
n o t , d e a th i s s e e n as a l i b e r a t i o n from th e h a rd s h ip s o f l i f e , . and th e
wake becomes th e c e l e b r a t i o n o f a n e w b e g in n in g . Le Drame, de l a t e r r e ,
C anape-V ert and Fonds des N egres a l l g iv e d e s c r i p t i o n s o f a wake. So
does La L e z a r d e .
The coumbi.te o r coup de .main p la y s an im p o rta n t r o l e in t h e r u r a l
n o v e l. The coum bite has become th e symbol o f th e s o l i d a r i t y o f th e
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p e a s a n ts and o f t h e i r w i l l t o f i g h t . Roumain makes i t t h e c e n t r a l
image o f G ouverneurs de l a r o s e e . For him , i t i s an image o f hope, th e
f i r s t s ig n t h a t t h e la n d can be re v iv e d p r o v id e d t h e p e a s a n ts , become
aware o f th e im p o rta n c e o f common in v o lv e m e n t. I n h e Drame de l a t e r r e ,
th e cournbiLe i s a ls o ,, a t f i r s t , a s ig n o f hope. I t c e l e b r a t e s ’t h e r e
v i v a l o f th e la n d b ro u g h t about by. th e .- r a in . C ineas c a r e f u l l y de
s c r i b e s i t w ith i t s abundance o f fo o d , rum and s o n g s. A s e r i e s o f q u a r
r e l s and i n c i d e n t s , as w e ll as th e sudden d e a th o f one o f th e p a r t i c i
p a n t s , e v e n tu a ll y d e s tr o y s a l l jo y and seems t o p r e s a g e t h e i n a b i l i t y
o f t h e p e a s a n ts t o overcom e t h e i r d i s s e n s i o n s . The M arcel in b r o th e r s
a ls o d e p ic t a co u m b ite i n C a n a p e -V e rt, a lth o u g h th e y t r e a t i t as a
sim p le e p is o d e o f r u r a l l i f e and n e v e r g iv e i t sy m bolic s i g n i f i c a n c e .
D e sc rib e d m o stly i n H a i t i a n n o v e ls , th e c o u m b ite , c a l l e d coup de
m ain in M a rtin iq u e , i s g i v e n .i m p o r t a n c e .i n P i a b ' l a w here . i t i s se e n as
a j o y f u l c e l e b r a t i o n . Food, m u sic .a n d rum a re a b u n d a n t; t h e men who
f i r s t came b e c au se th e y had no c h o ic e , p r o g r e s s i v e l y d is c o v e r th e
s a t i s f a c t i o n s w orking th e la n d can b r in g . A f te r .a day o f w ork, e v e ry
body le a v e s w ith a. s e n s e o f accom plishm ent and t h e hope t h a t t h e la n d
w i l l r e w a r d .t h e i r e f f o r t s .
The d i s t r a c t i o n s o f th e p e a s a n t, in c lu d e c o c k f ig h ts ,, d an ces and
m u sic . I n h is n o v e l , . La Case de Dam ballah (1 9 3 9 ), f e t i o n S a v a in s ta g e s
a c o c k f i g h t. He d e s c r i b e s t h e p r e p a r a ti o n o f t h e b i r d s , t h e t a k i n g o f
t h e b e ts and a l l th e commotion around t h e p i t t , w h ile rum h e ig h te n s
t h e comments o f t h e s p e c t a t o r s . The same f e e l i n g o f e x c ite m e n t and
a g i t a t i o n comes th ro u g h i n M ayotte C a p e c ia 's a c co u n t o f a c o c k f ig h t
139
i n J e s u i s m a r t i n i q u a i s e , a lth o u g h i t i s se en th ro u g h t h e ey es o f an
o u t s i d e r , w hereas S a v a in a tte m p ts t o r e c r e a t e w ith g r e a t e r im m ediacy
t h e e f f e r v e s c e n c e o f t h e crowd and to t r a n s c r i b e a l l t h e e x c la m a tio n s
o f t h e s p e c t a t o r s . I n C a n a p e -V e rt, a group o f v i l l a g e r s o r g a n iz e s a
c o c k f i g h t , b u t t h e f i g h t i s a f r a u d and becomes an o p p o r tu n ity f o r two
v i l l a g e r s t o e x p l o i t and ro b t h e o t h e r s . The e p is o d e a l s o s e rv e s t o
em phasize th e c h a r a c t e r P r e v i l o n 's dependence on g am bling. To b e t on
th e f i g h t , he s t e a l s money and n a t u r a l l y l o s e s i t . I n t h i s n o v e l, th e
c o c k f ig h t i s no lo n g e r a d i s t r a c t i o n but a b i t t e r comment upon t h e la c k
o f u n d e rs ta n d in g and r e s p e c t t h e v i l l a g e r s have f o r one a n o th e r .
Two a d d i t i o n a l them es r e c u r i n r u r a l n o v e ls (a lth o u g h th e y a r e n o t
l i m i t e d t o t h o s e ) : t h e dance and t h e drum. The drum accom panies a l l
c e l e b r a t i o n s , from t h e wake t o t h e c o u m b ite . I t i s t h e in s tr u m e n t
t y p i c a l o f th e b la c k r a c e and a means o f l i b e r a t i o n . I t i s th e sound
o f t h e drum w hich Lome u s e s t o d i s p e r s e t h e m elancholy, o f th e l a s t
m e e tin g o f t h e group i n La L e z a r d e ; i t i s t o th e sound o f th e drum
t h a t Manuel f i n a l l y l e t s h im s e lf b re a k i n t o a dance i n G ouverneurs de
l a r o s e e . The drum i s u sed i n a l l th e Voodoo cerem o n ies o r r e l i g i o u s
r i t u a l s , a lo n g w ith th e d a n c e. D ancing has a r i t u a l s i g n i f i c a n c e ; i t
a ls o p la y s th e r o l e o f th e s ig n o f r e c o g n i t i o n and t h e s ig n o f commu
n i t y o f a l l Blacks.. D uring t h e i r f i n a l m e e tin g , a l l t h e p r o t a g o n i s t s
o f La L e z a rd e j o i n i n a l a s t d a n c e , and t h e v i l l a g e r s o f D i a b 'l a ta k e
t u r n s a t o r g a n iz in g community d ances w hich p e r i o d i c a l l y b r in g t o g e t h e r
t h e w hole v i l l a g e .
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4) The S u p e r n a tu r a l
To v a r io u s d e g r e e s , a l l F ren ch C a rib b e a n n o v e ls d e a l w ith t h e
s u p e r n a t u r a l b e c au se i t i s an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e p e o p l e ’s u n d e r
s ta n d in g o f th e w o rld . The q u im b o ise u r i n th e F ren ch A n t i l l e s o r th e
houngan i n H a i t i a re alw ays p r e s e n t and a r e se e n e i t h e r as a s o u rc e o f
a d v ic e , b e c au se th e y have know ledge o f a l l t h i n g s , o r as a c au se f o r
f e a r . The s u p e r n a t u r a l a ls o a p p e a rs i n t h e t a l e s t o l d a t wakes o r o th e r
g a th e r in g s and i n t h e b e l i e f s , c o n s c io u s o r u n c o n s c io u s , o f m ost o f th e
c h a r a c t e r s in t h e n o v e ls .
I n H a i t i , Voodoo has c o n s id e r a b le im p o rta n c e . I t s u se o r r e j e c t i o n
r e f l e c t s s o c i a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n th e p o p u l a t io n . The h ig h e r c l a s s e s
ig n o re i t , o r p r e te n d t o do s o , b e cau se th e y b e lie v e i t i s th e symbol
o f t h e d eb ased p r i m i t i v e s t a t e o f th e low er c l a s s e s . B efo re 1915, th e
n o v e l b a r e ly m en tio n e d Voodoo; i t spoke i n s t e a d o f p e a s a n t s u p e r s t i
t i o n s . A few f o r e i g n a u th o r s u sed i t t o em phasize th e e x o tic a s p e c t
o f t h e i s l a n d . J e a n P ric e -M a rs aimed a t r e h a b i l i t a t i n g Voodoo and
compared i t w ith o t h e r r e l i g i o n s . Most I n d i g e n i s t a u th o r s fo llo w e d h is
exam ple by a tte m p tin g t o g iv e a c c u r a te r e n d e r in g s o f Voodoo cerem o n ies
and t o e x p la in t h e i r m eaning f o r th e p e o p le . T h e ir e v a lu a ti o n o f Voodoo
v a r i e s w ith t h e i r s o c i a l in v o lv e m e n t. Communist a u th o r s r e j e c t i t and
f i g h t i t b e c au se th e y f e e l i t h in d e r s th e p e o p l e 's u n d e rs ta n d in g o f
t h e i r c o n d it io n , w hich communist a u th o rs s e e as t h e consequence of
s o c i a l i n e q u a l i t i e s .
J a c q u e s Roumain c a t e g o r i c a l l y condemns th e h o ld Voodoo has upon
t h e p e a s a n ts and blam es i t f o r t h e i r a c c e p ta n c e o f t h e i r f a t e and t h e i r
141
a p a th y . T h e ir f a t a l i s m can be s e e n , how ever, as an a tte m p t t o come t o
g r ip s w ith a c r u e l r e a l i t y w hich th e y can on ly e x p la in as th e r e s u l t
o f some d i v in e w i l l . T h is i s M a n u el's m o th e r 's b e l i e f ; Manuel r e v o l t s
a g a i n s t h e r when sh e d e c la r e s t h a t n o th in g can be done f o r th e v i l l a g
e r s o f Fonds-R ouge, f o r t h e i r l i v e s a re th e hands o f God and o f th e
l o a s . She ta k e s r e f u g e i n h e r p r a y e r s w h ile Manuel i n s i s t s t h a t o n ly
n a t u r a l c a u se s have b ro u g h t on t h e i r m is e ry and. t h a t th e y can t h e r e f o r e
f i g h t a g a in s t i t .
The n o v e ls o f J e a n - B a p t i s t e C ineas s t r e s s th e s o c i a l r o l e o f t h e
houngan and h i s i n f l u e n c e upon t h e p e a s a n t s , f o r th e y f e a r h is pow ers.
I f C in eas condemns t h e u se o f Voodoo by c e r t a i n a m b itio u s and g ree d y
i n d i v i d u a l s , he a l s o o f f e r s an e x p la n a tio n f o r i t s im p o rta n c e i n
H a i ti a n s o c i e t y . He s i t u a t e s i t i n a h i s t o r i c and s o c i a l c o n te x t as a
m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f d e f i n i t e econom ic and s o c i a l c o n d it io n s . By c o n t r a s t ,
th e M a rc e lin b r o th e r s s e e Voodoo as a b l i n d f o r c e w hich d e te rm in e s t h e
f a t e o f t h e p e a s a n t . C anape-V ert d e p ic t s a s u c c e s s io n o f v i o l e n t d e a th s
and s u i c i d e s w hich a re a l l r e l a t e d ' t o Voodoo p r a c t i c e s . The houngan
i s e x tre m e ly p o w e rfu l and u t i l i z e s th e c r e d u l i t y o f t h e v i l l a g e r s f o r
h i s o w n .p u rp o se s. F a t a l i t y and g u i l t p la y an im p o rta n t r o l e , f o r th e
v i l l a g e r s a r e c o n v in c e d t h a t th e y th e m se lv e s must be. t o blame f o r what
h a p p e n s. T hus, th e y t r y by a l l means t o a s s u r e th e good w i l l o f th e
gods and a r e c a u g h t in an e n d le s s c y c le o f f e a r .
Voodoo i n te r v e n e s i n a l l a s p e c ts o f th e l i f e o f t h e p e a s a n t . I t i s
u se d t o f i g h t i l l n e s s , t o p r o t e c t o n e s e l f from en em ies, t o a p p e ase th e
l o a s b e fo r e one a tte m p ts a n y th in g . For exam ple, b e fo r e a c o c k f i g h t,
142
t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s o f f e r t h r e e d ro p s o f t h e i r rum t o t h e gods f o r good
lu c k . When n a t u r a l d i s a s t e r s s t r i k e , such as d ro u g h t o r f lo o d , th e
p e a s a n ts a g a in t u r n t o Voodoo r i t u a l s t o com m unicate w ith t h e lo a s and
a sk them t o r e s t o r e th e p r o d u c t i v i t y o f th e la n d . The u s e o f Voodoo i s
n o t l i m i t e d t o th e r u r a l m a sse s. The u rb an p o p u la tio n a l s o r e v e r t s t o
i t i n tim e s o f n e c e s s i t y and s e v e r a l H a i ti a n n o v e ls d e s c r i b e t h e con
d i t i o n s i n w hich i t a f f e c t s t h e l i v e s o f c i t y d w e l le r s .
J u s t i n L h e r is s o n , i n La F a m ille des P i t i t e - C a i l l e , t e l l s o f th e
s o c i a l r i s e o f a fa m ily o f P o r t - a u - P r i n c e . The b e g in n in g o f t h e i r
f o r t u n e i s due t o th e s u p e r n a t u r a l g i f t s o f Madame P i t i t e - C a i l l e , a
c a r d - r e a d e r and a m a g ic ia n , whose numerous c l i e n t e l e i n a s h o r t w h ile
p u t h e r i n p o s s e s s io n o f s u b s t a n t i a l amounts o f money. M imola, by
A n to in e I n n o c e n t, n a r r a t e s t h e t r a n s m is s io n o f t h e Voodoo c u l t . among
t h e women o f a f a m ily , from t h e g randm other who comes from A f r ic a , to
t h e g ra n d d a u g h te r who e v e n tu a ll y becomes a mambo.. I n V i e j o , O liv e ,
M a rio 's woman, t u r n s t o Voodoo i n tim e s o f d i f f i c u l t i e s . Having d e c id e d
t o go w ith t h e A m erican Cap b e c au se he has th e means t o g e t h e r o u t of
p o v e r ty , she c o n s u lt s a houngan t o make s u r e t h a t she w i l l .s e d u c e Cap.
The houngan a s s u r e s h e r t h a t she w i l l su c ce e d a t t h e c o s t o f som ebody's
l i f e . T hese t h r e e n o v e ls p r e s e n t Voodoo i n t h r e e d i f f e r e n t l i g h t s : as
a means t o g a in s o c i a l s t a t u s ; as an elem ent o f H a i t i a n c u l t u r e t o be
p r e s e r v e d and t r a n s m i t t e d ; as a way t o e sc a p e p o v e r ty . I t i s t h i s l a s t
a s p e c t o f t h e u se o f Voodoo w hich i s th e m ost d e v e lo p e d i n th e H a i ti a n
n o v e l, as t h e p e o p le t u r n t o t h e lo a s in th e hope o f im p ro v in g o t h e r
w is e d e s p e r a te l i v i n g c o n d it io n s .
143
I n t h e F ren ch A n t i l l e s , th e q u im b o ise u r i s a man who n o t o n ly
h a s s u p e r n a t u r a l powers b u t a ls o a deep u n d e rs ta n d in g o f h i s c o u n try
and o f i t s p ro b le m s. For exam ple, Jab-H erm a, i n M ich ele L a c r o s i l 's
n o v e l, d e r iv e s much o f h i s i n f l u e n c e from h i s know ledge o f G uadeloupe.
Jab-H erm a a l s o h as t h e s o u l o f a l e a d e r and, as th e t i t l e o f th e n o v e l
seems t o i n d i c a t e , knows t h e p a th w hich w i l l e v e n tu a ll y le a d t o f r e e
dom. P apa Longoue, i n Le Q uatriem e s i e c l e , does n o t have th e same a c t i v e
r o l e as Jab-H erm a, y e t , as he t r a n s m i ts h i s know ledge t o M ath ieu , he
g iv e s him t h e t o o l s t o i n f l u e n c e th e f u t u r e . I n La L e z a r d e , Papa
Longoue u se s h i s pow ers t o t r y t o s to p T h a e l and G a rin , b u t he ca n n o t
a l t e r th e c o u rs e o f e v e n ts , f o r h i s know ledge and h i s powers r e p r e s e n t
b u t a p a r t o f h i s c o u n t r y 's r e a l i t y ; t h e p r e s e n t does n o t b elo n g t o him
but t o th o s e whom he has t a u g h t .
The s u p e r n a t u r a l n o t o n ly r e s i d e s i n th e powers o f a few ch o sen
men b u t a ls o i n t h e s o u ls o f th e p e o p le and i n th e l a n d . V a le rie ,,
in La L e z a r d e , i s drawn t o P apa Longoue i n th e hope t h a t he w i l l h e lp
h e r q u i e t h e r a n x i e t i e s abou t th e f u tu r e .. Her u n c o n t r o l l a b l e f e a r when
she s e e s th e f l a m e - t r e e w hich announces h e r d e a th shows t h a t ,, even
th ough she p r e te n d e d n o t t o b e li e v e i n P apa L o n g o u e 's p r e d i c t i o n s , th e y
have l e f t a deep im p re s s io n upon h e r . She c a n n o t e s c a p e h e r f a t e . I n
th e same n o v e l, Lome, t h e p e a s a n t , i s h im s e lf th e c e n t r a l ' f i g u r e o f a
t a l e . As a symbol f o r th e w hole p o p u la tio n o f th e i s l a n d , he p a r t i c i
p a te s i n one o f t h e s t o r i e s t h e p e o p le a c c e p t and b e li e v e i n and th u s
c o n s t i t u t e t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e i r c u l t u r e . A few a re ch o sen t o t e l l th o s e
t a l e s , such as M onsieur S c e p tiq u e i n La L e z a rd e o r V i r e i l i n La Rue
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C a s e s -N e g re s .
I t i s th e w hole r e p e r t o r y o f th e t a l e s o f G uadeloupe w hich
J e a n -L o u is B a g h io 'o cho o ses as th e background o f h i s n o v e l I s s a n d r e l e
M u la t r e . The s t o r y p r e s e n t s a v a r i e t y o f m ag ic al b e in g s : v o l a n t s , so u -
c o u g n a n ts and 2 om bis, and d e s c r ib e s t h e r o l e o f c e r t a i n e x t r a o r d i n a r y
la n d s c a p e s in th e b e l i e f s o f t h e p o p u la tio n . As s u c h , t h e n o v e l i s a
r e c o r d o f a l l t h e t a l e s and b e l i e f s o f th e G uadeloupean B la c k s.
From a l l t h e s e n o v e ls , we s e e t h a t th e q u im b o ise u r o r th e houngan
p la y s a d o u b le r o l e i n h i s s o c i e t y : he tr a n s m i ts a c e r t a i n know ledge
w hich alw ays goes back t o A f r ic a ; he a ls o p la y s an a c t i v e s o c i a l r o l e
as he i n f l u e n c e s th e d e c is i o n s and a c ti o n s o f h i s f e llo w men.
5) The C ity
The H a i ti a n n o v e l g iv e s more im p o rta n c e t o t h e c i t y as a theme
th a n does t h e n o v e l from t h e F ren ch A n t i l l e s . The p o p u l a t io n e x p lo s io n
in H a i t i f o r c e s more and more p e o p le t o e m ig ra te from t h e c o u n tr y t o
th e c i t y i n t h e hope o f f in d i n g a b e t t e r way o f l i f e . The d e s p e r a te
l i v i n g c o n d itio n s o f t h e s e newcomers has been a c o n c e rn f o r many
n o v e l i s t s . 'T h e ir d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e c i t y w i l l r e f l e c t t h e hopes and t h e
f a i l u r e s o f t h e i r p r o t a g o n i s t s as w e ll as t h e i r s o c i a l c o n d it io n .
I n Le Choc en r e t o u r , C in eas d e s c r i b e s t h e l i f e o f t h e p o l i t i c i a n
P e r n i e r i n P o r t - a u - P r i n c e . P e r n i e r r e s i d e s .i n ? a sum ptuous house w here
he g iv e s m a g n if ic e n t r e c e p t i o n s . Through th e g a te s o f h i s p r o p e r t y ,
t h e p e o p le w atch w ith a n g e r t h o s e who sq u a n d er th e c o u n t r y 's money f o r
t h e i r own e n jo y m en t. C ineas h e r e comments on th e gap w hich e x i s t s
145
betw een t h e h ig h e r c l a s s e s and th e s t a r v i n g u rb a n m a s s e s . I n V i e jo ,
C asseus d e p ic t s t h e l i f e o f t h e p o p u la tio n o f t h e p o o r e s t s e c t i o n s of
P o r t - a u - P r i n c e . As M ario w alks th ro u g h th e s t r e e t s o f h i s c h ild h o o d ,
he r e d i s c o v e r s t h e i r p o v e r ty , th e c h i l d r e n p la y in g i n th e g u t t e r and
t h e sm e ll o f d e g r a d a tio n and m is e ry p e rv a d in g t h e a i r a ro u n d .h im . I t
i s th e same s t r e e t s w hich B ernard. Posy d e t a i l s in JusquV au bout du
chem in, b u t i n t h e p r o v i n c i a l town o f J a c m e l. The fa m ily whose s t o r y
■ he t e l l s l i v e s on t h e p o o r e s t s t r e e t o f t h e c i t y . The s t r e e t i s l i n e d
by s m a ll houses o f i r r e g u l a r sh a p es b u i l t o u t o f a l l . k i n d s o f m a t e r i a l s
and i s encumbered by o b j e c t s l y in g i n th e g u t t e r w here t h e r a i n s have
c a r r i e d them . T h e re r e s i d e a m u ltitu d e o f s m a ll sh o p k e e p e rs and c r a f t s
men whose l i f e i s c o n s t a n t l y a t th e mercy o f h unger and p o v e r ty . The
c i t y i s n e v e r t h e l e s s t h e l a s t hope f o r d e s p e r a te p e o p le . I n La Case de
D am ballah, R eb eln e le a v e s h i s v i l l a g e f o r th e c i t y a f t e r th e d ro u g h t
has d e s tr o y e d a l l h i s c r o p s . But th e c i t y i s , i n r e a l i t y , th e c u r s e o f
th e p e a s a n t, f o r t h e r e he has no r e c o u r s e . R ebelne f in d s o n ly d e a th i n
th e c a p i t a l .
I n La Rue C a s e s -N e g re s , J o s e Hassam d is c o v e r s t h e c i t y o f F o r t - d e -
F ra n c e . I t i s a r e v e a l i n g e x p e rie n c e , f o r th e c i t y r e f l e c t s th e i n e
q u a l i t i e s betw een t h e v a r io u s p o r ti o n s o f t h e p o p u l a t io n . The D id ie r
a r e a i s r e s p le n d e n t w ith w e a lth and lu x u r y , w h ile Le C arenage i s
n o th in g b u t a s e r i e s o f d e r e l i c t houses b u i l t from odds and e n d s. The
a u th o r r e a l i s t i c a l l y d e s c r i b e s th e p o p u la r q u a r t e r s w here th e m a j o r it y
o f th e p o p u la tio n o f th e c i t y s u rv iv e s on swampy g ro u n d s. J o s e l i k e s to
w atch t h e poor b e c a u s e , i n s p i t e o f t h e i r m is e ry , th e y s t i l l f in d t h e
146
tim e t o lo v e and la u g h .
The c i t y T h a e l d is c o v e r s i n La L e z a rd e i s shown as an a c c u m u la tio n
o f r o o f s , a m ain s t r e e t and a c a n a l from w hich em anate u n p le a s a n t
s m e lls . I n i t s m is e ry , T h a e l f in d s t h a t t h e c i t y has charm b e c au se i t
p a r t i c i p a t e s i n th e l i f e o f h i s c o u n try ; th e c i t y i s t h e p r e s e n t ; i t
j o i n s i n t h e o u t b u r s t o f jo y f o llo w in g t h e e l e c t i o n s as i t s p o p u l a t io n
d ances and s in g s i n t h e s t r e e t s . By c o n t r a s t , from h i s r e f u g e on t h e
m o u n ta in , Papa Longoue throw s a b i t t e r g la n c e a t th e c i t y . C i t i e s do
n o t change t h e m is e r a b le c o n d it io n s o f t h e i r i n h a b i t a n t s ; a few s te p s
b e h in d t h e i r fa c a d e o f glam our, t h e p e o p le s t i l l f i g h t f o r s u r v i v a l i n
d w e llin g s made o f c a rd b o a rd and c o r r u g a te d i r o n . The c i t y d e c e iv e s men,
and th e y f o r g e t t h e i r t r a d i t i o n s and t h e i r p a s t . For P apa Longoue,
S t . P i e r r e rem ain s t h e symbol o f t h e e v i l and o f t h e d e p r a v i ty o f t h e
c i t y . I t s d e s t r u c t i o n s h o u ld have been a w arning t h a t n o th in g good can
come from th e c i t y . The f a c t t h a t t h e o n ly s u r v i v o r o f th e c a ta s tr o p h e
was a N egro, u n to u ch e d by t h e w ra th o f t h e lan d , i s , how ever, sy m b o lic
o f t h e c a p a c i ty f o r s u r v i v a l o f t h e b la c k man u n d e r a l l c ir c u m s ta n c e s .
Most a u th o r s i n s i s t upon th e a l i e n a t i n g i n f l u e n c e o f th e c i t y
whemman l o s e s h i s system o f v a lu e s i n t h e d a i l y f i g h t f o r s u r v i v a l .
But t h e r e i s a ls o i n t h e c i t y a s e n se o f community among th o s e who
share, th e same d i f f i c u l t i e s . L ik e a l l sym bols, t h a t o f t h e c i t y i s am
b i v a l e n t , s ta n d in g f o r a l i e n a t i o n but a ls o f o r h i s t o r i c a l c o n t i n u i t y .
6 ) Socia.l and P o l i t i c a l Commentary
The n o v e l i s t s a tte m p tin g t o d e s c r i b e t h e C a rib b e a n r e a l i t y , one
147
made up o f v io le n c e and a l i e n a t i o n , a re o f n e c e s s i t y l e d t o some form
o f p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l com m entary. Rene P iq u io n o f H a i t i b e lie v e s t h a t
a l i t e r a t u r e w hich does n o t d e a l w ith t h e p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l a s p e c ts
o f r e a l i t y i s n o th in g but a l i e o r a d i s t o r t i o n . T h is in v o lv e m e n t of
th e a u th o r w i l l o f c o u rs e t a k e v a r io u s s h a p e s . H is c r i t i c i s m can be
i m p l i c i t as he d e s c r i b e s s o c i a l c o n d itio n s w ith r e a l is m w h ile l e t t i n g
th e r e a d e r draw h i s own c o n c lu s io n s ! o r i t can be e x p l i c i t , t h e nov
e l i s t th e n e x p r e s s in g h i s o p in io n s th ro u g h h i s c h a r a c t e r s .
N ovels such as J u s q u 'a u bout du chemin by B ern ard Posy and th o s e
o f t h e M a rc e lin b r o th e r s r e s p e c t i v e l y d e s c r i b e t h e p l i g h t o f an u rb a n
fa m ily and t h a t o f a group o f p e a s a n t s . They do n o t a tte m p t t o e x p la in
t h e s i t u a t i o n s th e y d e a l w i t h . They rem ain a t th e d e s c r i p t i v e l e v e l ,
g iv in g th e r e a d e r t h e e le m e n ts he needs t o p a s s ’ h i s own judgm ent. Such
a p o s i t i o n c a n , o f c o u r s e , be c r i t i c i z e d , b e cau se i t r e f l e c t s a l a c k of
commitment on th e p a r t o f th e a u th o rs who s e e s o c i a l problem s as sim p le
a s p e c ts o f t h e i r c o u n t r y 's r e a l i t i e s . A number o f n o v e l i s t s chose a
more d i r e c t a p p ro a c h .
a) S o c ia l c r i t i c i s m
V ie jo i s th e H a i ti a n n o v e l w hich has been h a i l e d as one o f th e
b e s t w orks o f s o c i a l c r i t i c i s m . The i n f l u e n c e o f s o c i a l c irc u m s ta n c e s
upon th e l i v e s o f t h e two c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r s , M ario and O liv e , i s shown
as i n e v i t a b l e . O liv e abandons M ario f o r th e A m erican Cap b e c au se she i s
w eary o f p o v e rty and has l o s t h e r w i l l t o f i g h t a t M a rio 's s i d e . D uring
one o f t h e dances d e s c r i b e d i n th e n o v e l, M ario has a v i s i o n i n w hich
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he s e e s h i s l i f e w ith O liv e as a dance u n d e r t h e d i r e c t i o n o f a w h ite
m a e s tro . The v i s i o n comes t r u e ; O l i v e 's b e t r a y a l i s u n a v o id a b le . So i s
th e l a s t sc en e o f t h e n o v e l i n w hich M ario commits h i s second m urder
on t h e p e rs o n o f t h e A m erican Cap. (The f i r s t m urder had been an a c t o f
r e v o l t a g a in s t a Cuban s u p e r v i s o r . ) T hroughout t h e n o v e l, M ario i s
p i c t u r e d as a b a s i c a l l y n o n - v io l e n t man who e x p re s s e s h im s e lf th ro u g h
h i s m usic and h i s s o n g s , but s o c i a l c irc u m s ta n c e s compel him tw ic e t o
an a c t o f v i o le n c e and e v e n tu a ll y c a u se h i s d e g r a d a tio n .
I n La Rue C a s e s -N e g re s , i t i s th e d e a th o f Man T in e w hich comes as
th e f i n a l s te p i n t h e developm ent o f J o s e Hassam. Y ears o f f a m i l i a r i t y
w ith t h e p o o r p o p u l a t i o n .o f F o r t- d e - F r a n c e had b red r e v o l t i n t h e h e a r t
o f J o s e and t h e hope t h a t , one d ay , he would be a b le t o rep a y h i s
m other and gran d m o th er f o r t h e i r s a c r i f i c e s . D eath ro b s him o f t h i s
hope, b u t he now h a s th e t o o l s t o h e lp h is ' p e o p le out o f t h e i r m is e ry .
The same d e s i r e d r iv e s C ham bord.in Les B a ta rd s t o s ta y i n F ren ch
G uiana t o work f o r t h e p r o g r e s s o f h is p e o p le . H is e x p e rie n c e as a
d o c to r has a llo w e d him t o w itn e s s th e p o v e rty and m a l n u t r i t i o n o f h i s
p a t i e n t s , t h e slow d e c li n e o f th e G uianese I n d i a n s , t h e i n s a l u b r i o u s
c o n d itio n s in w hich th e m a j o r it y o f t h e F ren ch G uianese p o p u la tio n
l i v e s .
I n Le Drame de l a t e r r e , th e young a t t o r n e y i n c h a rg e o f th e
d e fe n s e o f t h e m u rd e re rs o f t h e l o c a l c h e f de s e c t i o n e x p la i n s t h e
s o c i a l c irc u m s ta n c e s w hich le d t o t h i s a c t o f v io le n c e .. He d e s c r i b e s ’
th e i s o l a t i o n o f t h e p e a s a n t , h i s d a i l y f i g h t w ith a h o s t i l e la n d , th e
s e l f i s h n e s s o f t h e e l i t e and th e i n d i f f e r e n c e o f a c o r r u p t g o v e rn m e n t.,
149
He t e l l s o f th e s t a t e o f s e r v i t u d e i n w hich th e p e a s a n t i s m a in ta in e d
and o f th e m o ral d e g r a d a tio n w hich e n s u e s . These problem s would d i s a p
p e a r i f e f f o r t s w ere made t o im prove t h e l i v i n g c o n d itio n s o f th e
p e a s a n t and h i s e d u c a tio n , and i f m ed ic al c a r e was g iv e n t o him as w e ll
as means t o com m unicate w ith t h e r e s t o f t h e c o u n tr y . But nobody c a r e s ,
and t h e s e s o l u t i o n s rem ain u n r e a l i z e d a b s t r a c t i o n s .
b) P o l i t i c a l c r i t i c i s m .
P o l i t i c a l c r i t i c i s m ta k e s two form s; t h e d e n u n c ia tio n o f an i n c a
p a b le o r i n a p p r o p r i a t e regim e and th e e x p r e s s io n o f s o c i a l i s t o r com
m u n ist i d e a s . They a r e o f te n com plem entary.
I n Le Choc en r e t o u r , C in eas draws th e p o r t r a i t o f t h e H a i ti a n
p o l i t i c i a n P e r n i e r , who i s c o r r u p t , u n s c ru p u lo u s and i g n o r a n t . P e r n i e r
has u s e d t h e p e o p le t o come t o power and th e n b e tra y e d t h e i r c o n fid e n c e
i n him . He i s now o n ly c o n c e rn e d w ith h i s a m b itio n , h i s s o c i a l s t a t u s ,
h i s lo v e a f f a i r s . He n e g le c ts th e w a rn in g s o f h i s s e r v a n t s and i s
e v e n t u a l l y o v erth ro w n and e x i l e d . When he r e t u r n s t o h i s c o u n tr y , a f t e r
h a v in g l e a r n e d t h e t r u t h ab o u t h im s e lf , he i s in t u r n p e r s e c u te d by an
in c a p a b le and o p p r e s s iv e new reg im e. I n t h i s n o v e l, C in eas condemns
h i s c o u n tr y w ith o u t a p p e a l. I n th e words o f th e c a r d - r e a d e r P e r n i e r
c o n s u lt s i n P a r i s t o know t h e f u t u r e o f H a i t i , i t has become " t h e k in g
dom o f t h e D e v i l." T h is image r e c u r s i n M arie C h a u v e t's n o v e l Amour,
c o l e r e , f o l i e . She p a i n t s t h r e e p i c t u r e s o f t h e H a i ti a n h e l l as th e
exposes t h e d e s t r u c t i v e co n seq u en ces o f i n t e r n a l p o l i t i c a l c o n f l i c t s .
The s o l u t i o n t o H a iti's p o l i t i c a l problem s has been s e e n i n term s
150
o f s o c ia l is m and Marxism by s e v e r a l a u th o r s . I n V i e jo , M ario m urders
a w h ite s u p e r in te n d e n t w h ile w orking i n Cuba. O r i g i n a l l y , i t i s an a c t
o f .p u r e h a t r e d . B ut, when M ario m eets t h e communist C laude S e r v in ,
S e r v in g iv e s t h e m urder an i d e o l o g i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . The d e s t i n y o f th e
b la c k man can be e a s i l y a s s i m i l a t e d t o t h e id e o lo g y o f o p p re s s e d v e rs u s
o p p r e s s o r . The B lack i s t h e w o r l d 's p r o l e t a r i a n , and t h e H a i t i a n 's con
d i t i o n i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f a l l B lacks s in c e th e y a r e a l l s u b je c t e d t o
t h e r u l e s o f t h e W h ite s. M arxism i s . n o t o n ly a way o f e v a lu a ti n g c l a s s
s t r u g g l e i n H a i t i , i t a ls o makes t h e f a t e o f a l l B lacks u n d e r s ta n d a b le .
T h is i s what S e r v in te a c h e s M ario i n V i e jo .
T h at a l l B lacks s h o u ld u n i t e t o c o n fr o n t t h e i r problem s i s a l s o
th e m ain theme o f two o t h e r n o v e ls : F o n d s-d es-N e g res by M arie Chauvet
and G ouverneurs de l a r o s e e by Ja cq u e s Roumain. Both n o v e ls s t a r t by
d e s c r i b in g th e d e s t r u c t i v e co n seq u en ces o f p e a s a n t r i v a l r i e s . ; .The r o l e
o f t h e h e ro i s th e n t o overcome th e s e r i v a l r i e s and e x p la i n t o th e
p e a s a n ts t h e b e n e f i t s o f community in v o lv e m e n t. The coum bite sy m b o lizes
i n t h e end th e r e b i r t h o f f r a t e r n i t y . Lebas i n Les Semences de l a co- e
l e r e a ls o dreams o f s o l i d a r i t y . D i a b 'l a p ro v e s t o th e v i l l a g e r s t h a t
th e y can su c ce e d i f th e y u n i t e t h e i r e f f o r t s . H is d i s c u s s io n s w ith
C a p i t a i n - l a , who t e l l s him o f t h e s i m i l a r f a t e o f a l l B la c k s , r e i n f o r c e
h i s c o n v ic t io n t h a t freedom w i l l o n ly come i f a l l f i g h t t o g e t h e r .
D ir e c t c o n f l i c t w ith th e o p p r e s s o r i s shown i n d e s c r i p t i o n s oof
s t r i k e s . I n V i e jo , . th e s t r i k e o f th e a g r i c u l t u r a l s c h o o l o f Damien
p r o t e s t s th e Am erican o c c u p a tio n . I n Compere G e n e ral S o l e i l , cane
w o rk ers le d by th e communist D etan ces go on s t r i k e a g a in s t th e f a s c i s t
151
Dom inican governm ent. I n Demain Jab -H erm a, s t r i k e s a r e a ls o d e p ic te d
as w e ll as th e p r e c a u tio n s o f t h e p la n ta tio n - o w n e r s who m a in ta in th e
w o rk e rs i n f i n a n c i a l s u b s e r v ie n c e so as t o e lim in a te any p o s s i b i l i t y
o f a s t r i k e . The s t r i k e is . a co n tem p o rary m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f th e r e s i s t
ance a g a in s t th e o p p r e s s o r w hich s t a r t e d . a s e a r l y as t h e b e g in n in g o f
s la v e r y w ith t h e phenomenon o f t h e maroon s la v e .
c ) C r i t i c i s m o f c o l o n i a l r u l e
The c r i t i c i s m o f c o l o n i a l r u l e i s i m p l i c i t in. m ost C a rib b e a n
n o v e ls s in c e th e y d e a l w ith s o c i e t i e s e v o lv e d from c o lo n i a li s m and
s t i l l s t r i v i n g t o e li m i n a te t h e s o c i a l and p s y c h o lo g ic a l s tig m a o f
y e a r s o f s u b s e r v ie n c e ; A few n o v e ls t r e a t t h i s them e d i r e c t l y .
I n th e p r e f a c e o f B a to u a la , Rene Maran denounces t h e e v i l s o f
c o l o n i z a t i o n . The n o v e l th e n goes on t o expose th e ra v a g e s o f c o lo
n i a l i s m i n t h e A f r ic a n t r i b e o f t h e B andas. He shows t h e i r s u f f e r i n g s
u n d e r w h ite ' r u l e and t h e i r d e s p e r a te e f f o r t s t o s a f e g u a rd t h e i r t r a d i
t i o n s and t h e i r l i f e s t y l e . B a to u a la i s co n c ern e d w ith t h e m a in te n a n c e
o f e v e ry t r a d i t i o n a l g e s tu r e ,, however s m a ll i t may b e , b e c au se i t i s
t h e o n ly weapon he can u se a g a in s t t h e im p o s itio n o f f o r e i g n v a lu e s .
But h i s f i g h t i s h o p e le s s , and he slo w ly becomes aware t h a t he does
n o t b e lo n g any. m ore. A lthough t h e r e a re no W hites i n B a t o u a la 's v i l
l a g e , t h e i r i n f i l t r a t i o n i s t o t a l . T heir, p re s e n c e has d i s t u r b e d c e r e
m onies and t r a d i t i o n s . T h is p r o c e s s o f d e s t r u c t i o n c a n n o t be s to p p e d .
At t h e tim e o f t h e n o v e l, B a t o u a la 's v i l l a g e has a lr e a d y l o s t 90% o f
i t s p o p u la tio n o v e r se v en y e a rs o f c o l o n i a l r u l e .
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I n La Revanche de Bozambo, B e rte n e Ju m in e r a t t a c k s t h e problem
from a d i f f e r e n t a n g le : t h a t o f s a t i r e . . Through a r e v e r s a l o f th e
r o l e s , t h e B lacks becoming t h e c o lo n i z e r s and th e W hites t h e c o lo n iz e d ,
he ex p o ses t h e a b s u r d i t i e s o f t h e system .. I n an e a r l i e r n o v e l, :Les Ba-
t a r d s , he had c r i t i c i z e d t h e p e r s i s t e n c e o f a c o l o n i a l ty p e o f r u l e
o v e r F re n ch G uiana. Upon h i s r e t u r n t o h i s n a t i v e c o u n tr y , Chambord has
t o f i g h t t h e w h ite c o l o n i a l s who r e f u s e .him h i s l e g i t i m a t e p o s i t i o n
i n t h e l o c a l h o s p i t a l . The c o l o n i a l s a r e more i n t e r e s t e d i n m a in ta in
in g t h e s t a t u s quo and t h e i r p e rso n a l, p r i v i l e g e s th a n i n th e w e lf a r e
o f th o s e th e y a d m i n is t e r . Chambord i s i s o l a t e d i n h i s f i g h t a g a in s t th e
c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , h is c o lle a g u e s b e in g to o a f r a i d o f r e p r i s a l s
t o s u p p o rt h i s e f f o r t s . Chambord however d e c id e s t o s t a y but r e a l i z e s
t h a t t h e r e i s o n ly one way t o end c o l o n i a l r u l e : th e u s e o f v i o l e n c e .
d) M ig ra tio n and e x i l e
T h is theme h a s two a s p e c t s : a p s y c h o lo g ic a l a s p e c ts and a m a t e r i a l
one. The p s y c h o lo g ic a l c a u se s le a d in g one t o e x i l e have been a n a ly z e d
by M ayotte C a p e c ia and. M ichele h a e ro s .il.
The two h e r o in e s o f M ayotte C a p e c ia have no p la c e i n t h e i r own
c o u n try w here b o th B lacks and W hites r e j e c t them . The o n ly a l t e r n a t i v e
f o r them i s e x i l e t o F ra n ce w here th e y hope t o f in d ' a p la c e among th e
W h ite s. S a p o t i l l e i s a more com plex c h a r a c t e r . She u n d e rs ta n d s t h e
mechanism o f a l i e n a t i o n and .s e g re g a tio n : b u t s h e c a n n o t .f i g h t i t . She
can n o t l i v e i n a s o c i e t y go verned by ra c is m e i t h e r . She to o le a v e s
f o r F ra n c e i n th e v a in hope o f f in d i n g p e a c e . These c h a r a c t e r s ' c h o ic e
153
i s e v i d e n t l y an i l l u s i o n .
T h e re a re th o s e f o r whom e x i l e i s n o t a c h o ic e but an economic
n e c e s s i t y . Such i s t h e c a s e o f P r e v i l i e n i n Bon JDieu R it who, r e a l i z i n g
th e h o p e le s s s i t u a t i o n o f h i s v i l l a g e , d e c id e s t o le a v e .. I s o l a t e d from
th e v i l l a g e r s and from h i s fam ily, becau se he r e f u s e s t o be e x p lo i te d
by l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s , he has no c h o ic e ..
H i l a r i o n o f Compere G e n e ral S o l e i l , a ls o l e a v e s , f o r t h e Domini
can R e p u b lic , t h i s tim e f o r p o l i t i c a l r e a s o n s . But t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
betw een th e Dom inican R e p u b lic and H a i t i has n e v e r been good; e v e ry
t h in g opposes th e two c o u n t r i e s : la n g u a g e , c u l t u r e , h i s t o r y and th e
s k in c o l o r o f t h e i r i n h a b i t a n t s ; and H a i ti a n s a r e n o t welcome t h e r e .
As many o t h e r s , H i l a r i o n d ies., a v i c t im o f t h e h a tr e d w hich e x i s t s
betw een t h e two c o u n t r i e s . The n o v e l w hich p e rh a p s d e s c r i b e s i t b e s t
i s Les Semences de l a e o l e r e . I t r e l a t e s a t r u e event.,, t h e m a s s a c re by
t h e D om inican R e p u b lic i n 1937 o f th o u sa n d s o f H a i ti a n s i n s t a l l e d on
i t s t e r r i t o r y . Those, who, i n t h e novel,, have e s c a p e d , a r e h a u n te d by
im ages o f th e a t r o c i t i e s com m itted by. th e Dom inican s o l d i e r s . Having
l e f t , b e h in d te n y e a r s o f l a b o r and a l l t h e i r p o s s e s s i o n s , th e y once
a g a in have t o s t a r t anew.
F i n a l l y , t h e r e a r e th o s e who le a v e and r e t u r n . I f one compares
th e im ages o f h e ro e s i n t h e H a i ti a n n o v e l, i t a p p e a rs t h a t , i n most
c a s e s , a s t a y i n th e f o r e i g n c o u n try i s im p o rta n t f o r . t h e e v o lu tio n
o f t h e h e r o . T hese voyages a r e . t h e consequence o f a c e r t a i n s o c ia l,
s t r u c t u r e b u t, a s .h e le a v e s .h is hom eland,, th e h e ro is . n o t aware o f i t .
I n th e new c o u n tr y , he i s exposed t o id e a s w hich ca n n o t p e n e t r a t e th e
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H a i ti a n comm unity. H is p o s i t i o n ab ro ad i s t h a t o f an o u t s i d e o b s e r v e r ,
w hich a llo w s him t o s e e how t h e l o c a l , s o c i e t y f u n c tio n s and t o com pare
i t w ith t h a t o f h i s own c o u n tr y . Those w ho.go t o Cuba come back w ith
r e v o l u t i o n a r y id e a s which, th e y want t o a p p ly as soon as th e y come back
home. The m o st.w e ll-k n o w n e x a m p le .is t h a t o f Manuel i n G ouverneurs de
l a r o s e e . M a rio .o f V ie jo i s a ls o in f lu e n c e d by h is work i n Cuba,
a lth o u g h h i s p o l i t i c a l id e a s have n o t m atu red as much as th o s e o f
M a n u e l.. But he has g ained, enough i n s i g h t t o u n d e rs ta n d what t h e Amer
ic a n o c c u p a tio n means t o H a i t i . T h is e v e n tu a ll y le a d s him t o t h e com
m u n ist C laude S e r v in . A s -th e y t r a v e l , t h e s e h e ro e s become c o n s c io u s o f
H a i t i ' s p o s i t i o n on th e C a rib b e a n map, and. a t th e .sa m e tim e t h e y d i s
c o v e r t h e s i m i l a r i t y o f t h e H a i ti a n 's , c o n d it io n t o t h a t o f t h e r e s t o f
th e b la c k r a c e . T h is i s new. t o t h e H a itia n , n o v e l which., u n t i l t h a t
tim e , had rem ained m o stly c o n c e rn e d w ith H a iti; i t s e l f .
I n Le Q u atriem e s i e c l e , T h a e l a ls o l e a v e s h i s c o u n tr y . H is d e p a r
t u r e m arks th e b e g in n in g o f a more p e r s o n a l q u e s t . T h a e l, a man o f
p a t i e n c e and o b s ti n a c y , n eeds t o exam ine h i s c h o ic e s and p e rh a p s e v a l
u a te t h e c o u n try o f h is f a t h e r s b e fo re .th e tim e comes t o r e t u r n . When
P e r n i e r goes i n t o e x i l e i n Le Choc en r e t o u r and f in d s h im s e lf i s o l a t e d
i n P a r i s , he a ls o f in d s th e •tru th '.a b o u t h i m s e l f . I n c a p a b le o f answ ering
t h e q u e s ti o n s s tu d e n t s a sk him about H a i t i , he m easures th e d e p t h .o f
h i s ig n o ra n c e and o f h i s s e l f i s h n e s s and d e c id e s , b u t to o l a t e , t o
make am ends.
The them e o f e x i l e has been a c o n c ern t o many H a i ti a n n o v e l i s t s
b e c au se i t i s a p roblem H a i t i h as alw ays had t o f a c e . The p o v e rty o f
155
t h e la n d , t h e e x p lo s io n o f t h e p o p u la tio n and . a d i c t a t o r i a l regim e
have throw n th o u sa n d s o f H a i ti a n s on t h e p a th o f e x i l e . M ig r a ti o n .a ls o
a f f e c t s th e F ren ch A n t i l l e s ( a s we s h a l l s e e l a t e r ) , b u t , as M aryse
Conde rem arks i n .h e Roman a n t i l l a i s , t h e g r e a t m ig r a tio n n o v e l s t i l l
32
rem ain s t o be w r i t t e n t h e r e .
7) A f r ic a
a ) The p r e s e n c e o f A f r ic a i n t h e H a i ti a n n o v e l
Today, t h e a t t i t u d e o f H a i ti a n a u th o r s tow ard A f r ic a i s s t i l l
d iv id e d . On one h a n d , p r e j u d i c e a g a in s t t h e A f r ic a n h e r i t a g e s u b s i s t s .
I n t h e n o v e l i t i s r e v e a le d .b y a c e r t a i n a rro g a n c e to w a rd A f r ic a n b a r
b a rism and t h e r e j e c t i o n o f a l l th e v a lu e s i n h e r i t e d from A f r ic a . On
th e o t h e r hand, some t u r n t o A f r ic a f o r t h e re a s o n s e x p la in e d by J e a n
, P ric e -M a rs : t o f i g h t t h e ' i n f e r i o r i t y com plex o f t h e H a i t i a n by a r e - ■ .
e v a lu a ti o n o f h i s A f r ic a n h e r i t a g e and t o se e A f r ic a as t h e p o in t o f
d e p a r t u r e f o r c u l t u r a l , and s o c i a l ch an g e. I n any c a s e , A f r ic a i s r a r e l y
se en o b j e c t i v e l y . I t rem ain s a d ream lan d , a rem ote p a r a d i s e p e o p le d by
f r e e and u n i n h i b i t e d men. But t h e r e c o g n i ti o n o f A f r ic a a llo w s t h e H ai
t i a n n o v e l i s t t o .p a in t h i s p eo p le, m o r e : r e a l i s t i c a l l y a s .h e becomes
pro u d o f t h e i r e s s e n t i a l l y A f r ic a n c u l t u r a l and p h y s ic a l c h a r a c t e r i s
t i c s .
S in c e no H a i t i a n n o v e l ta k e s p la c e i n A f r ic a , th e a u th o r s co n cen
t r a t e on what th e p e o p le have r e t a i n e d fro n r.A fric a : r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s ,
t r a d i t i o n s , d a n c e s . . . T h i s . r e a l i t y c o n t r a s t s , w ith th e i d e a l i z e d image
o f th e r e a l A f r ic a ; in H a i t i t h e r e a re no h a p p ily f r e e men.
156
b) The p resen ce o f A fr ic a in th e n o v el from th e French A n t ille s
B ecause o f h i s t o r i c a l c ir c u m s ta n c e s , t h e F ren ch A n t i l l e s have
e v o lv e d f u r t h e r from A f r ic a th a n H a i ti h a s . For a lo n g tim e , A f r ic a
rem ained t h e symbol o f th e shame o f th e B lack man, u n t i l t h e N e g ritu d e
movement made i t a dream land t o w hich r e t u r n m ight be p o s s i b l e . E douard
G l i s s a n t , who e x p lo r e s i n h i s n o v e ls t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f A f r ic a i n th e
m aking o f t h e C a rib b e a n man, r e c o g n iz e s t h a t A f r ic a has o f te n been an
o b j e c t o f f a s c i n a t i o n f o r C a rib b e a n a u th o r s . A f r ic a th e n r e p r e s e n t s
what c o u ld be o r c o u ld have b een. Such i d e a l i z a t i o n i s no lo n g e r p o s s i
b l e . What i s h a p p e n in g i n A f r ic a to d a y , i t s r e v o l u t i o n s , t h e c o n s ta n t
e v o lu t io n o f i t s p o l i t i c a l map, th e s u c c e s s e s and f a i l u r e s e x p e rie n c e d
by A f r ic a n n a t i o n s , can no lo n g e r be ig n o r e d . The A f r i c a o f th e p a s t i s
d ead . The new A f r i c a does, n o t i n v i t e f a s c i n a t i o n o r i d e a l i z a t i o n . I t
le a v e s i t s fo rm er i d o l a t e r s t o t h e t a s k o f b e in g th e m s e lv e s . The hope
o f e v e r r e t u r n i n g t o t h e m o th e rla n d has now f a d e d , but A f r ic a rem ain s
an i n e r a d i c a b l e elem ent o f t h e p a s t o f t h e C a rib b e a n man.
c ) Im ages o f t h e o r i g i n a l A f r ic a
Few novels- d e a l w ith A f r ic a i t s e l f , e s p e c i a l l y i n H a i t i . A lth o u g h
A f r i c a i s alw ays p r e s e n t i n th e b e l i e f s o f t h e p e o p le — f o r exam ple,
t h e b e l i e f t h a t th e y w i l l go back t o G uinea a f t e r t h e i r d e a th — i t i s
r a r e l y d e s c r ib e d .
S t e l l a , t h e h e r o in e o f Em eric B e rg e a u d 's n o v e l, b r i e f l y s h a re s
w ith h e r sons h e r m em ories o f h e r n a t i v e l a n d . She b elo n g ed t o a pow er
f u l fa m ily o f r o y a l d e s c e n t, was i d o l i z e d by h e r p a r e n t s , th e n m a r r ie d
157
t o t h e m ost ac co m p lish e d o f h e r f a t h e r 's o f f i c e r s . Em eric B ergeaud
p a i n t s t h e t y p i c a l p i c t u r e o f an i d e a l i z e d A f r i c a , la n d o f h a p p in e s s
and n o b i l i t y . S t e l l a i s more concerned:, by. h e r n o b le o r i g i n s - t h a n
m o tiv a te d by t h e d e s i r e t o g iv e h e r sons a r e a l i s t i c p i c t u r e o f th e
la n d o f h e r a n c e s t o r s . P h y s ic a l A f r ic a does, n o t a p p e a r in her. b r i e f
a c c o u n t. The same p r i d e d r iv e s C la ir e - S o la n g e , th e h e r o in e o f Suzanne
L a c a s c a d e 's n o v e l. She to o c la im s t o be o f r o y a l d e s c e n t , and sh e l i k e s
to evoke th e s u m p tu o s itie s s u rro u n d in g one o f h e r a n c e s t o r s , t h e p r i n
c e s s o f t h e T s in Saloum. L ik e S t e l l a , she sp eak s w ith n o s t a l g i a o f a
l i f e o f e a s e and h a p p in e s s , u n c o n c ern e d by what th e r e a l A f r i c a c o u ld
have b een.
Rene M aran, i n B a to u a la , t r i e s t o g iv e as . r e a l i s . t i c a p i c t u r e o f ar
A f r ic a n v i l l a g e as he c a n . The n o v e l i l l u s t r a t e s th e c y c l i c a l n a tu r e
o f t h e l i f e . o f t h e v i l l a g e r s as i t d e p ic t s th e ,m o s t i m p o r t a n t . e le m e n ts
o f t h i s c y c le : r i t e s o f p a s s a g e , m a r r ia g e , d e a th .a n d p u r i f i c a t i o n
r i t u a l s . Maran a ls o r e c o r d s e le m e n ts o f . t h e c u l t u r e o f t h e v i l l a g e —
f o l k l o r e , p ro v e rb s and so n g s —-and shows th e i n t e r a c t i o n o f t h e v i l l a g e r s
w ith n a t u r e i n h u n tin g s c e n e s and i n d e s c r i p t i o n s o f a n im a ls a n d .o f
t h e i r h a b its .. I n t h e c h a r a c t e r o f B a to u a la , he a n a ly z e s, t h e system o f
v a lu e s o f t h e v i l l a g e r s as i t c o n t r a s t s w ith t h a t o f t h e su p erim p o sed
w h ite c u l t u r e . However, much Maran may .have been c r i t i c i z e d , , he .rem ains
one o f t h e few n o v e l i s t s t o have g iv e n an u n i d e a l iz e d p i c t u r e o f
A f r ic a . The d i f f i c u l t y o f su ch a t a s k i s , r e f l e c t e d by t h e f a c t t h a t h i s
work i s t a i n t e d by a num ber, o f s t e r e o t y p e s and p r e j u d i c e s , w hich
seems t o c o n firm t h e e x is t e n c e o f an u n b r id g e a b le gap betw een
158
A fr ic a and th e Caribbean.
d) Im ages o f c o n tem p o rary A f r ic a
I n h i s two n o v e ls , Les P u i s s a n t s and Les G r e n o u ille s du Mont Kimbo
P a u l N ig e r p i c t u r e s an A f r ic a i n e v o lu t io n , '-.trying t o f i n d i t s e l f
am id st th e t u r m o ils o f d e c o lo n i z a t io n . The f i r s t n o v e l em phasizes th e
d i f f i c u l t i e s w hich w i l l have t o be overcome i f a new A f r ic a i s t o be
c r e a t e d ; la c k o f f a c i l i t i e s such as r o a d s , s c h o o ls and h o s p i t a l s , la c k
o f m e d ic a l c a r e , i n s u f f i c i e n c y o f food t o meet th e n eeds o f an u n d e r
n o u r is h e d p o p u l a t io n , i n t e r n a l f i g h t i n g among t r i b e s , i n a d a p t a t i o n o f
t h e c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e . Being h im s e lf an a d m i n i s t r a t o r ,
N ig e r u n d e rs ta n d s thfese problem s w e ll b u t i s n e v e r a b le t o fo re g o h i s
i n t e l l e c t u a l ap p ro a c h i n h i s e f f o r t t o g e t t o t h e h e a r t o f A f r i c a . His
second n o v e l shows A f r ic a i n r e v o l u t i o n , re a d y t o u se a l l means t o
co n q u er i t s freedom . An atm osphere o f v io le n c e p e rv a d e s th e n o v e l,
and t h e m ain p r o t a g o n i s t s go as f a r as t o e x p l o i t t h e r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s
o f th e m asses t o re a c h t h e i r g o a l. The n o v e l c lim a x e s i n t h e r i t u a l
i s t i c s a c r i f i c e o f a group o f w h ite i n t r u d e r s by a t r i b e en couraged
by th e r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s .
The A f r ic a p i c t u r e d i n t h e s e two n o v e ls i s f a r from th e i d e a l
la n d c h e r is h e d by e a r l i e r a u th o r s . I t i s a w o rld o f c r u e l t y and
v io le n c e w here a n y th in g w i l l be s a c r i f i c e d t o a s i n g l e g o a l; freedom
and in d ep e n d e n c e.
159
La l i t t e r a t u r e h a i t i e n n e a e t e a v a n t t o u t une l i t t e r a t u r e
d 'a c t i o n . La p l u p a r t de nos a u te u r s o n t e e r i t beaueoup p lu s
pour a g i r que p o u r f a i r e o e u v re l i t t e r a i r e . ,1:1s s e s o n t i n s
p i r e s de l a l u t t e h e ro iq u e p o u r l a l i b e r t e e t 1 *in d e p e n d e n c e
ou se s o n t e o n s a e re s a d e b r o u i l l e r nos o r i g i n e s : h i s t o r i q u e s
e t a d i s c u t e r des p la n s d 'o r g a n i s a t i o n s o e i a l e . P re sq u e to u s
o n t m i l i t e dans l a p o l i t i q u e . C 'e s t p o u rq u o i l e g roupe d 'h i s -
t o r i e n s e t de s o c io lo g u e s e s t p a r t i c u l i e r e m e n t im p o sa n t. Et
c ’ e s t a u s s i po u rq u o i l e u r s p r o d u c tio n s , riees dans l a f i e v r e
de l a p o lem iq u e , m anquent s o u v e n t de c e s q u a l i t e s de fond
q u i donnent une v a l e u r d u r a b le aux o eu v res d ’e s p r i t . ^
What D r. D antes B e lle g a rd e sa y s h e re about t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f h i s
c o u n tr y a c c u r a t e l y d e s c r i b e s t h e m ajo r e le m en ts and t h e o r i e n t a t i o n o f
t h e n o v e l from H a i t i as w e ll as from t h e F rench A n t i l l e s . I t i s n o t ne^
t o r e g a r d C a rib b e a n l i t e r a t u r e as a l i t e r a t u r e o f commitment.. A lth o u g h
t h e n a tu re , and i n t e n s i t y o f t h i s commitment v a ry as t h e n o v e l e v o lv e s
i n t im e , th e F ren ch C a rib b e a n n o v e l has rem ain ed l a r g e l y engage as i t
d e a ls w ith th e n a t u r e o f h i s t o r y and i t s c o n se q u e n c e s, and th e s o c io
econom ic c o n d it io n s o f t h e c o u n t r i e s i n q u e s ti o n . I n t h i s r e s p e c t ,
V ere W. K night n o te s t h a t : "From i t s o r i g i n s , th e H a i ti a n n o v e l i s d e
f e n s i v e , n a t i o n a l i s t i c and r a c i s t . More modern w r i t e r s from th e F re n ch
A n t i l l e s , who a r e f r e q u e n t l y engaged i n movements for. t h e in d e p e n d e n c e
o f t h e i r t e r r i t o r i e s , a r e e q u a lly n a t i o n a l i s t i c a lth o u g h more a g g r e s
s i v e and l e s s r a c i s t b e c au se th e y a r e alm o st w ith o u t e x c e p tio n
s o c i a l i s t
The i n c l i n a t i o n o f th o s e w r i t e r s t o i n s e r t s o c i a l commentary i n
t h e i r work m ight som etim es e x p la i n t h e awkward n a tu r e o f t h a t work.
I t i s n o t e a sy t o f i c t i o n a l i z e r e a l e v e n ts o r u s e th e n o v e l as a means
o f e x p r e s s in g s o c i a l o r p o l i t i c a l i d e a s . The works o f J e a n - B a p t i s t e
160
C in e a s, Anthony L esp es o r J a c q u e s S tep h en A le x is ( H a i t i ) , B e rte n e J u -
m in er (F re n c h G uiana) o r P a u l N ig e r.(G u a d e lo u p e ) som etim es s u f f e r from
th e s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l commitment o f t h e i r a u th o r s so f a r as p u r e . l i t e r
a ry achievem ent i s c o n c e rn e d . They rem a in , n e v e r t h e l e s s , r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
o f th e k in d o f l i t e r a t u r e born o u t o f t r o u b l e d :c o u n t r i e s .
The H a i ti a n n o v e l s ta y s p e r s i s t e n t l y , attached to n a t i o n a l p ro b
lem s, d e s c r ib e s o r c r i t i c i z e s n a tio n a l, c i r c u m s t a n c e s ,. and t r i e s t o
d e v is e s o l u t i o n s w hich w ould prom ote th e w e ll- b e in g o f th e m a j o r it y .
A lth o u g h e q u a lly n a t i o n a l i s t i c in i n t e n t i o n , i f m o re.am b ig u o u sly so ,
th e n o v e l from t h e .F r e n c h A n t i l l e s d e a ls l e s s p e r s i s t e n t l y w ith th e
c o u n t r i e s th e m se lv e s and o f te n show, c h a r a c t e r s i n s e a r c h o f a n a t i o n ,
a tte m p tin g t o cope w ith a s e n s e o f r o o t l e s s n e s s .born, o u t o f th e q u e s
t i o n a b l e s t a t u s . o f th e t h r e e d e p a rtm e n ts . T hus, more o f t h e s e n o v e ls
w i l l d i s c u s s , f o r exam ple, t h e s i t u a t i o n o f th e F rench C arib b ean man
i n F ra n ce o r i n A f r ic a and t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s he e n c o u n te rs i n t r y i n g
t o l o c a t e h i s o r i g i n s . T h is d i f f e r e n c e stem s from, n a t i o n a l circu m
s t a n c e s , H a i ti h a v in g been in d e p e n d e n t s in c e 1804 whereas. M a rtin iq u e ,
G uadeloupe and F ren ch G uiana a r e s t i l l c l o s e l y t i e d t o F ra n c e .
The p a s t o ccupies, an im p o r ta n t p la c e i n th e n o v e l from th e F ren ch
A n t i l l e s . I t i s to w ard th e p a s t t h a t one t u r n s when t h e p r e s e n t o f f e r s
few rew ards a n d .th e f u tu r e .f e w hopes.. F u rth e rm o re , th e. r e c a p t u r i n g o f
h i s p a s t a llo w s th e F ren ch C a rib b ean man t o b e t t e r d e a l w ith h i s need
f o r b e lo n g in g somewhere and h i s need f o r p r i d e and d ig n ity .. I n th e .
H a i ti a n n o v e l, th e p a s t i s a l s o u s e d .a s a means f o r r e a s s u r a n c e : i t i s
m o stly se en th ro u g h th e p o r t r a y a l and g l o r i f i c a t i o n o f th e h e ro e s o f
161
th e H a i ti a n r e v o l u t i o n .
The h i s t o r y o f t h e C a rib b e a n i s made up o f a s u c c e s s io n o f v i o l e n t
e p is o d e s : th e s la v e t r a d e and s la v e r y , t h e r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e B lacks
a g a in s t t h e i r o p p r e s s o r s , The H a i ti a n r e v o l u t i o n and t h e u p r i s i n g s
t h a t p re c e d e d i t , t h e s a c r i f i c e of. D e lg re s i n G u a d e lo u p e .. . To t a k e th e
H a i ti a n r e v o l u t i o n as an exam ple, one m ight r e c a l l t h e p ro c la m a tio n
w r i t t e n and r e a d by B o isro n d -T o n n e rre on J a n u a r y 1 s t , 1804, t o c e l e - c .
b r a t e t h e in d e p e n d e n c e o f H a i t i : "P our d r e s s e r l ' a c t e d 'in d e p e n d e n c e ,
i l nous f a u t l a p eau d 'u n b la n c pour p a rc h e m in , son c ra n e p o u r e c r i -
t o i r e , son sang p o u r e n c re e t une b a io n n e t te p o u r p lu m e."
Such v i o le n c e p e rv a d e s t h e H a i ti a n n o v e l as w e ll a s t h a t o f t h e
F ren ch A n t i l l e s . I t i s p a r t o f a l l h i s t o r i c a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s . I t i s
a ls o p a r t o f ev e ry d a y l i f e , , p a r t o f th e f i g h t f o r t h e la n d , o r a g a in s t
n a t u r a l c o n d i t i o n s , g e n e ra te d by s o c i a l o r p o l i t i c a l c ir c u m s ta n c e s ,
o r se e n as t h e o n ly means o f r e a c t i n g a g a in s t p o v e r ty , hunger and
o p p r e s s io n . T h is v io le n c e i s n o t on ly p h y s i c a l , . i t can a ls o be psy ch o
l o g i c a l ( a l i e n a t i o n ) and i t i s alw ays r e f l e c t e d i n t h e la n g u a g e of
t h e a u th o r s . Aime C e s a ir e u se d such v i o l e n t la n g u a g e in h i s e s s e n r
t i a l i y p o e t i c C a h ie r d 'u n r e t o u r au pays n a t a l , as an o u t l e t f o r h i s
f r u s t r a t i o n a t a tim e.w h en n o th in g c o u ld be done i n t h e F rench A n t i l l e s
th ro u g h p o l i t i c a l m eans. The F ren ch C a rib b e a n n o v e l i s t 's u se o f
v i o le n c e a t t h e l i n g u i s t i c l e v e l e x p re s s e s h i s f e e l i n g o f p o w e rle s s n e s s
a t h i s i n a b i l i t y t o o r i g i n a t e change, j u s t as th e u s e o f v io le n c e by
h i s c h a r a c t e r s r e f l e c t s t h e i r f r u s t r a t i o n i n t h e f a c e o f c o n tin u in g
e x p l o i t a t i o n .
T h e re a re few a l t e r n a t i v e s t o v i o le n c e , o n ly r e v o l t o r a c c e p ta n c e ,
162
a l i e n a t i o n o r i n s a n i t y . C o n fro n te d w ith v i o le n c e , one can o n ly resp o n d
w ith v i o le n c e — a c h o ic e w hich a u th o rs l i k e G l i s s a n t , N ig e r, Ju m in e r
have made. Those who r e f u s e t o do s o , o r c a n n o t do s o , may end as t h e
c h a r a c t e r s o f M arie C h a u v e t's l a s t n o v e l, in s a n e o r d ead.
T h is n o v e l, t h e most r e c e n t among th o s e su rv e y e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r ,
e x p l o i t s them es su ch as u l t i m a t e and u n j u s t i f i e d v i o l e n c e , a l i e n a t i o n
and i n s a n i t y . I t r e p r e s e n t s a g r a d a tio n i n th e m a tic c o n te n t and comes
as th e l o g i c a l b u t r a t h e r f r i g h t e n i n g consequence o f th e e s c a l a t i o n
o f f e e l i n g s e x p re s s e d i n t h e v a r io u s n o v e ls s tu d i e d up t o now. We
s h a l l s e e w h e th e r i t i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f th e e v o lu t io n o f t h e F ren ch
C a rib b e a n n o v e l i n th e p a s t d e c a d e . P o l i t i c a l l y , th e s i t u a t i o n o f
M a rtin iq u e , G uadeloupe, F ren ch G uiana and H a i t i has c o m e .to a s ta n d
s t i l l . The s o c i a l c o n seq u en ces o f such s t a g n a t i o n w ere a n a ly z e d i n
th e f i r s t c h a p te r . How r e c e n t n o v e ls d e a l w ith th e s e c ir c u m s ta n c e s ,
w h e th e r th e y have e v o lv e d d i f f e r e n t l y , , found new i n s p i r a t i o n s o r k e p t
in l i n e w ith t h o s e s u rv e y e d , w i l l be t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e f o llo w in g
c h a p t e r s .
163
■Notes
^ Laennec H urbon, C u ltu r e e t d i c t a t u r e en H a i t i ( P a r i s : L 'H arm at-
t a n , 1 9 7 9 ), p . 33.
2
E m ile Nau as q u o te d i n P r a d e l Pom pilus and F .R a p h a e l B e rro u ,
H i s t o i r e de l a l i t t e r a t u r e h a i t i e n n e i l l u s t r e e p a r l e s t e x t e s ( P o r t -
a u - P r in c e : E d itio n s C a r a ib e s , 1 9 7 7 ), I I I , , p . 8.
3 * *
U lr ic h F le ish m a n , E c r iv a in e t s o c i e t e en H a i t i (Fonds S t . J a c
q u e s , M a rtin iq u e : C e n tre de R ech ereh es C a r a ib e s , 1 9 7 6 ), p.. 12.
4
H a n n ib a l P r i c e , De l a R e h a b i l i t a t i o n de l a r a c e n o i r e p a r l a
R e p u b liq u e d 'H a i t i ( P o r t - a u - P r i n c e , 1 8 9 3 ), p p. 143-45 as q u o te d i n
P r a d e l P o m p ilu s, L i t t e r a t u r e h a i t i e n n e , I , pp. 68 5 -8 6 .
^ G h is la in e Rey, A n th o lo g ie du roman h a i t i e n (S h e rb ro o k e , Q uebec,
Canada; Naaman, 1 9 7 8 ), p . 32,
^ P r a d e l P o m p ilu s, "Perm anence de J u s t i n L h e r is s o n " , C o n jo n c tio n ,
No. 143 (May 1 9 7 9 ), p . 42.
7
Henock T r o u i l l o t , Les O rig in e s s o c i a l e s de l a l i t t e r a t u r e
h a i t i e n n e ( P o r t - a u - P r i n c e ; Im p rim e rie A. T heodore, 1 9 6 2 ), p . 98.
g
U l r ic h F le ish m a n , I d e o l o g i e und W ir k lic h k e it i n d e r L i t e r a t u r
H a i t i s ( B e r l i n : C olloquium V e r la g , 19 6 9 ), p . 169.
9
V ere W, K n ig h t, J e a n P r ic e - M a r s " , B lack Im a g e s, 5, No. 1 (1 9 7 5 ),
p . 13.
A n to n io V ieux and P h i l i p p e Thoby M a rc e lin as q u o te d in P r a d e l
P o m p ilu s, L i t t e r a t u r e h a i t i e n n e , I I I , p . 9.
^ K n ig h t, " P ric e - M a r s " , p . 13
^ C a rl B ro u ard , "Que s o n t l e s g r i o t s ? " Les G r i o t s , No. 4 (1 9 3 9 ),
p . 65.
13
V ere W. K n ig h t, " P i e r r e M a rc e lin and P h i l i p p e T h o b y -M arc e lin :
S e n s a tio n a lis m o r R ealism ?" B lack Im ages, 2, No. 1 (1 9 7 2 ), p . 31.
164
K n ig h t, " S e n s a t io n a l is m " , p . 39.
33 P o m p ilu s> L i t t e r a t u r e h a i t i e n n e , I I I , p . 596.
^ M ichael D ash, "M arvelous R ealism ; The Way Out o f N e g r itu d e " ,
B lack Im a g e s, No. 3 (1 9 7 4 ), p . 93.
32 F ran ck E tie n n e as q u o te d i n P r a d e l P o m p ilu s, L i t t e r a t u r e
h a i t i e n n e , I I I , p p . 6 0 9 -1 0 .
18
J a c k C o rz a n i, La L i t t e r a t u r e des A n tille s -G u y a n e f r a n g a i s e s
( F o r t- d e - F r a n c e : Desorm eaux, 1 9 7 8 ), 6 v o l s .
19 -
M aryse Conde, Le Roman a n t i l l a i s ( P a r i s ; Fernand"'.Nathan, 1 9 7 7 ),
2 v o l s .
20
F or d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s o f a l l C re o le n o v e ls , s e e C o rz a n i, I ,
p p . 301-58; I I , pp. 257-97.
21 Conde, I , p . 8.
22 «
R andolph H e z e k ia h , "Rene Maran and t h e S e a rc h f o r I d e n t i t y " ,
B lack Im a g e s, 2 , No. 1 (S p rin g 1 9 7 3 ), p . 21.
23
F. O jo-A de, " S o c ia l and P s y c h o lo g ic a l A l i e n a t io n o f t h e B lack
W rite r : A S tudy o f Rene Maran (1 8 8 7 -1 9 6 0 )," Manna, No. 3 (1 9 7 2 ),
pp. 6 -7 .
24
■ F ra n tz Fanon, Peaux n o i r e s , m asques b la n c s ( P a r i s : S e u i l , 1952),
p . 60.
25 Conde, I I , p . 41.
26 Conde, I I , p . 10.
22 B e rte n e J u m in e r, Les B a ta rd s ( P a r i s : P re s e n c e A f r i c a i n e , 19 6 1 ),
p . 9.
23 Conde, I , p. 11.
29
C o rz a n i, V I, p . 126.
30 Conde, I , p . 19.
31
E douard G l i s s a n t , Le D isc o u rs a n t i l l a i s ( P a r i s ; S e u i l , 1 9 8 1 ),
p . 21.
165
32 Conde, I , p . 18.
o o + +
D antes B e lle g a r d e , E c r iv a in s h a i t i e n s ( P o r t - a u - P r i n c e ; S o c i e t e
d 'E d i t i o n s e t de L i b r a i r i e s , 1 9 4 7 ), p . 4.
3^ V ere W. K n ig h t, "A L i t e r a t u r e o f Commitment", R e v i s ta I n t e r -
a m e ric a n a , 5, No. 1 (S p rin g 1 9 7 5 ), p . 67.
166
PART TW O
POWERLESSNESS AND VIOLENCE
167
The m a j o r it y o f co n tem p o rary F ren ch C arib b ean n o v e ls convey n e g a
t i v e , e x p e rie n c e s . The vague - b u t ■.real hopes w hich d rove t h e c h a r a c t e r s
o f La L e z a rd e , P i a b ' l a o r G ouverneurs de l a ro s e e as w e ll as th o s e o f
many H a i ti a n n o v e ls have fa d e d and a re r e p la c e d by a s e n s e o f doom and
a b i t t e r n e s s w hich c o u ld a lr e a d y be s e n se d i n e a r l i e r w o rk s ,b u t n e v e r
so o v erw h e lm in g ly .
T h is s h i f t in t h e th e m a tic c o n te n t o f t h e n o v e ls d id n o t o c c u r
a b r u p t l y . E v id en ce o f d e s p a i r and o u t b u r s t s o f v io le n c e a r e common t o
t h e C a rib b e a n novel,.. A lre a d y , a t t h e , end o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y ,
Rene B o n n e v ille n o t e d . t h a t '* a u j o u r d 'h u i , e n .d e h o rs de t o u t e t p a r des-
su s t o u t , nous ne pouvons e t r e que des r e v o l t e s . '; ’^ I n a v e ry p e s s i m is
t i c n o v e l, L * I le q u i m e u r t, w r i t t e n im m ed ia te ly a f t e r t h e .d r a m a t i c
e v e n ts o f 1925-28, Renee L a e a sc a d e denounced t h e m ise ry o f t h e p e o p le
o f M a rtin iq u e and t h e i r e x p l o i t a t i o n , s e e in g v e ry l i t t l e hope f o r im -
2
provem ent i n th e f u t u r e . A few y e a rs l a t e r , . Irm in e R om anette p o rtra y e c .
i n Sonson de l a M a rtin iq u e a man b a f f l e d by th e e v e n ts g o v e rn in g h i s
l i f e , u n a b le to c o n t r o l them , and e v e n tu a ll y le d to a c c e p te n c e , r e s i g
n a t i o n , a lc o h o lis m and a s e n s e l e s s d e a th . M ario i n V ie jo • :i s a ls o th e
v i c t i m o f s o c i a l c irc u m s ta n c e s and, d r iv e n t o m urder and d e g r a d a tio n by
f o r t u i t o u s e v e n ts . Most o f th e r u r a l n o v e ls w r i t t e n by I n d i g e n i s t au
t h o r s i n H a i t i a tte m p t t o a n a ly z e :t h e f a t a l i s m o f . th e p e a s a n t and h i s
f e e l i n g t h a t he i s doomed, and th e y d e p i c t moments o f extrem e
168
v io le n c e w hich su d d e n ly d i s r u p t t h e l i f e o f w hole v i l l a g e s f o r no
a p p a re n t re a s o n ( s e e th e M a rc e lin b r o t h e r 's n o v e ls ) . A bsurd and u n m it
i g a t e d v io le n c e p e rv a d e s n o v e ls such as Le Choc en r e t o u r , o r Amour,
c o l e r e , f o l i e . I n t h e f i r s t i s s u e o f La Revue du monde n o i r , Rene M enil
i n s i s t s upon th e atm o sp h ere o f v io le n c e w hich seems t o c h a r a c t e r i z e th e
3
e v e ry d a y l i f e o f t h e b la c k r a c e .
S im u lta n e o u s ly , how ever, o t h e r works e x p re s s e d t h e hope t h a t th e
B lacks s t i l l had t h e means t o f i g h t t h e c irc u m s ta n c e s a t t h e o r i g i n of
t h e i r p o v e rty and o f t h e i r o p p r e s s io n . Manuel i n G ouverneurs de l a ro s e e
o r D i a b 'l a i n Z o b e l 's n o v e l th o u g h t t h a t , th ro u g h u n i t y and s o l i d a r i t y ,
th e y c o u ld g iv e t h e i r c o m p a trio ts n o t o n ly a s e n s e o f s e l f - e s t e e m but
a ls o th e w i l l t o overcome t h e i r d i s s e n s io n s and t o f i g h t m is e ry and
e x p l o i t a t i o n t o g e t h e r . They b e lie v e d t h a t t h i s c o u ld be done w ith o u t
t h e u s e o f v i o l e n c e . I n La L e z a rd e , w r i t t e n a p p ro x im a te ly tw e n ty y e a r s
l a t e r , R a p h a e l, M athieu and t h e i r f r i e n d s a ls o b e li e v e t h a t t h e f u t u r e
can b r in g f a v o r a b le c h a n g e s, b u t th e y a lr e a d y se e and u s e c a l c u l a t e d
v io le n c e as a means o f l i b e r a t i o n .
W ith th e a r r i v a l o f D u v a lie r and h i s d i c t a t o r i a l regim e i n H a i t i
and e s p e c i a l l y a f t e r t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e hopes g e n e ra te d by h i s
d e a th , and f o llo w in g t h e d e p a r t m e n t a l i z a t io n o f t h e F re n ch A n t i l l e s
and i t s o b v io u s ly n e g a tiv e im pact on t h e i s l a n d s a f t e r tw e n ty y e a r s ,
th e to n e o f t h e novels has changed. They no l o n g e r e x p re s s hope, but
r a t h e r d is a p p o in tm e n t, th e y a r e no lo n g e r p re o c c u p ie d w ith th e e v o c a tio n
o f r u r a l l i f e and th e c e l e b r a t i o n o f i t s s p e c i f i c c u l t u r e , but r a t h e r
d e p lo r e t h e l o s s o f t h i s c u l t u r e , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e F re n ch d e p a rtm e n ts .
169
The s e r e n i t y o f t h e p e a s a n t i s r e p la c e d by an u n d e f in a b le a n g u is h ;
th e b e a u ty o f t r o p i c a l n a t u r e , by t h e u g l i n e s s o f u rb a n p o v e rty .
The co n tem p o rary F rench C a rib b e a n n o v e l, w ith .a few e x c e p tio n s ,
has an u rb a n s e t t i n g . Such a c h o ic e i s i n d i c a t i v e o f t h e changes w hich
have ta k e n p l a c e , econom ic and s o c i a l changes w hich have l e d t o th e
a l t e r a t i o n o f t h e s t r u c t u r e o f s o c i e t y i n t h e C a rib b e a n . The c i t y has
n e v e r been a symbol o f p r o g r e s s i n th e C a rib b e a n n o v e l; e a r l i e r works
a lr e a d y p i c t u r e d i t as a s o u rc e o f d e g r a d a tio n . I t i s now th e symbol
o f t h e ongoing d e g r a d a tio n of t h e modern C a rib b ean man. Such a c h o ic e
a ls o h i n t s a t t h e d e a th o f a way o f l i f e , o f t h e s p e c i f i c p h ilo s o p h y
c e l e b r a t e d i n t h e f i g u r e o f t h e p e a s a n t d u rin g th e f i r s t h a l f o f t h e
c e n tu r y . I t may r e v e a l as w e ll t h e more r e a l i s t i c ap p ro a c h o f a u th o r s
o f u rb a n o r i g i n who choose t o d e a l w ith t h e m ilie u th e y know b e s t ,
t h e problem s o f w hich th e y can ap p rehend w ith o u t i d e a l i z a t i o n o r m is
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n .
The p a s t s t i l l o c c u p ie s a u n iq u e p l a c e i n th e p r e o c c u p a tio n s o f
co n tem p o rary a u th o r s but i n a d i f f e r e n t way and l e s s p e r s i s t e n t l y th a n
b e f o r e . Among th e t h i r t y n o v e ls u n d e r s c r u t i n y i n t h e p r e s e n t s tu d y ,
o n ly t h r e e d e a l s o l e l y w ith t h e p a s t , one o f them b e in g t h e p e r s o n a l
r e c o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e i r p a s t by a group o f h ig h -s c h o o l s tu d e n ts from
M a rtin iq u e ., What i s c e r t a i n i s t h a t th e n a tu r e o f p a s t e v e n ts i s an
i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e f e e l i n g o f doom w hich p e rv a d e s th e co n te m p o ra ry
n o v e l. I t i s a l s o c e r t a i n t h a t t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e p a s t i s s t i l l a
d e fe n s e a g a in s t t h e t e r r o r o f th e p r e s e n t moment. But t h e p a s t h as
l o s t i t s d i g n i f y i n g i n f l u e n c e . P a s t and p r e s e n t b e a r t h e same m ale-
170
d i c t i o n f o r t h e B la c k s.
The p e s s i m i s t i c o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e co n tem porary n o v e l stem s from
i t s p r e o c c u p a tio n w ith two a s p e c t s o f th e b la c k f a t e : f i r s t , th e power
l e s s n e s s o f t h e b la c k man, and se c o n d ly t h e co nsequence as w e ll as th e
c a u se o f t h i s p o w e r le s s n e s s , v i o le n c e . The theme o f p o w e rle s s n e s s i s
o b s e s s i v e ly p r e s e n t u n d er v a r io u s form s: i s o l a t i o n , l o s s o f i d e n t i t y
and o f w i l l ( " z o m b i f i c a t i o n " ) , r e s i g n a t i o n and a c c e p ta n c e , la c k o f
c h o ic e s , d e a th w ish and i n s a n i t y . An a n a l y s i s o f t h e s e subthem es as
e x p re s s e d and d e v e lo p e d i n t h e chosen n o v e ls w i l l l e a d t o a p o s s i b l e
e x p la n a tio n o f why v io le n c e e r u p ts i n th o s e n o v e ls som etim es w ith o u t
a p p a re n t c a u s e s . The f i n a l c h a p te r w i l l th e n d e a l w ith th e a lte r n a tiv e s :,
i f any, a v a i l a b l e t o t h e b la c k C a rib b ean man. B ut, f i r s t , an a n a l y s i s
o f th o s e n o v e ls d e a li n g w ith t h e p a s t w i l l show how co n tem p o rary
a u th o r s d e f in e i t s in f lu e n c e ,, what e p is o d e s o f th e p a s t th e y s e l e c t
and why, and how t h e s e have sh aped th e m e n t a l i t y o f t h e B la c k s. In
o t h e r w ords, i t i s i n t h e p a s t t h a t t h e r o o ts o f p o w e rle s s n e s s a re t o
be fo u n d .
171
Chapter Three
The P a s t ; The R oots o f P o w e rle s s n e s s
The h i s t o r y o f th e C a rib b e a n i s t h a t o f a d i s p o s s e s s i o n . Seen i n
t h i s way, i t may convey n e g a ti v e m essag es, u n le s s i t s a n a ly s i s i s u sed
as a means t o t r i g g e r t h e r e a c t i o n s o f t h o s e in v o lv e d and coax them
i n t o a c ti o n o r r e f l e c t i o n . I n Le D isc o u rs a n t i l l a i s , E douard G l i s s a n t
exp o ses t h e d a n g e r o r f u t i l i t y o f c e r t a i n m a n ip u la tio n s o f h i s t o r y ;
S e r a i t - i l d e r i s o i r e ou o d ieu x de c o n s id e r e r n o t r e h i s t o i r e
s u b ie comme cheminem ent d 'u n e n e v ro se ? La T r a i t e comme choc
tr a u m a tiq u e , 1 ' i n s t a l l a t i o n ( d a n s i l e nouveau p a y s ) comme
p h a se de r e f o u le m e n t, l a p e rio d e s e r v i l e comme l a t e n c e , l a
" l i b e r a t i o n " de 1848 comme r e a c t i v a t i o n , l e s d e l i r e s c o u tu -
m ie rs comme symptomes e t j u s q u 'a l a repu g n an ce a " r e v e n i r
s u r c e s c h o se s du p a s s e " q u i s e r a i t une m a n i f e s t a t i o n du
r e t o u r du r e f o u le ? Sans d o u te n ' e s t - i l pas u t i l e e t ne d e v ie n -
d r a i t - i l pas p ro b a n t de f o u i l l e r un t e l p a r a l l e l e . " ^
What i s im p o rta n t i s how h i s t o r y in f l u e n c e s th e p s y c h o lo g y o r th e con
c e p ti o n o f t h e w o rld o f t h o s e i t a f f e c t s . The l e s s o n s o f h i s t o r y can
be o f a d o u b le n a t u r e : th e y can y i e l d e n li g h te n i n g e x p e rie n c e s a llo w in g
t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o f in d h i s r o l e and p la c e i n t h e e v o lu t io n o f tim e and
t o s e e h im s e lf as t h e p r o d u c t o f a s te a d y , i f n o t alw ays l o g i c a l ,
p r o c e s s ; t h e y can a l s o be o f a m y s tif y in g and a l i e n a t i n g n a tu r e i f t h e
i n d i v i d u a l i s u n a b le t o f i n d m eaning i n t h e p a s t and o n ly r e t a i n s i t s
s u c c e s s iv e f a i l u r e s , th e r e b y a d d in g t h e d e m o r a liz a tio n s o f th e p a s t t o
t h o s e o f t h e p r e s e n t .
172
What does t h e co n tem p o rary n o v e l r e t a i n o f th e p a s t? An a n a l y s i s
o f t h e e p is o d e s r e t r a c e d , w ith s p e c i a l em phasis on t h e i r outcom e f o r
t h e c h a r a c t e r s in v o lv e d , s h o u ld p ro v id e e le m en ts f o r an answ er t o th e
q u e s ti o n : I s a c e r t a i n v i s i o n o f t h e p a s t p a r t l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e
p essim ism o f co n tem p o rary C a rib b e a n a u th o rs ?
I . Le N egre du g o u v e rn e u r o r t h e Punishm ent o f E x c e s s iv e n e s s
I n t h i s s h o r t n a r r a t i v e , S e rg e P a t i e n t , a F rench G u ian ese w r i t e r ,
d e s c r i b e s t h e r i s e and f a l l o f th e s la v e D'Chimbo i n t h e m id s t o f t h e
F ren ch G uianese c o l o n i a l s o c i e t y . I t i s a r a p i d and p e n e t r a t i n g i l l u s
t r a t i o n o f t h e w ell-know n f a c t t h a t th e w h ite c o l o n i a l s w anted t o
f a s h io n t h e i r s la v e s t o t h e i r l i k i n g but d id n o t f o r g i v e them i f th e y
a tte m p te d t o behave as e q u a ls . The c i r c u l a r p a t t e r n o f t h e n o v e l, t h e
f i r s t c h a p te r b e in g a t t h e same tim e i t s c o n c lu s io n , r e v e a l s t h a t t h e r e
i s no e sc a p e p o s s i b l e f o r D'Chimbo, a t r a i t o r t o h i s r a c e b e c au se he
w ants t o i m i t a t e t h e W hites and t o t h e W hites b e cau se he a s p i r e s t o
become t h e i r e q u a l.
D'Chimbo i s c a p tu r e d d u r in g th e a c t o f lo v e . P a s s io n w i l l be th e
c e n t r a l elem ent o f h i s s h o r t l i f e . At t h e o r i g i n o f h i s c a p t u r e , i t
w i l l a l s o be a t th e o r i g i n o f h i s s o c i a l a s c e n t and o f h i s f a l l . T h ree
women s h a r e h i s l i f e : N a k e te , h i s A f r ic a n .w i f e , who i s se em in g ly
r a p i d l y f o r g o t t e n ; Lady S t a n le y , h i s B r i t i s h m i s t r e s s and e d u c a to r;
and V i r g i n i e , t h e young w h ite g i r l he f a l l s in lo v e w ith and whose love
c a u se s h i s dem ise. N akete i s n o th in g b u t t h e in n o c e n t v i c t im o f th e
s l a v e - t r a d e r s ' b r u t a l i t y . O b liv io u s o f B akota*s w arn in g t h a t he s h o u ld
173
n e i t h e r f o r g e t n o r f o r g i v e N a k e te 's ra p e by t h e w h ite man, D'Chimbo
f in d s h im s e lf r e p e a t i n g th e v e ry g e s tu r e w hich had e n s la v e d him , th e
u se o f th e w hip, and w hich sy m b o lizes h i s seco n d e n sla v e m e n t— th e im i
t a t i o n o f th e m a s te r — and s u b se q u e n t f a l l . A lthough t h e image o f1 h i s
c a p tu r e f la s h e s b e fo r e him a t t h e s i g h t o f th e w hip, D 'C him bo's f i n a l
c o n s e n t t o u se i t f o r Lady S t a n l e y 's m a s o c h is tic p u rp o se s comes as t h e
s ig n o f h i s im pending r u i n . The s i m i l a r i t y o f t h e two e p is o d e s a p p e a rs
as t h e p ro o f t h a t he has f i n a l l y become t h e shadow o f t h e w h ite man,
t o t h e p o in t o f i m i t a t i n g h i s v e ry g e s t u r e s . By becom ing Lady S t a n l e y 's
l o v e r , D'Chimbo may have p a r t i a l l y acco m p lish ed t h e .r e v e n g e B akota had
i n m ind: p o s s e s s in g th e w h ite woman as th e W hites had p o s s e s s e d h i s
A f r ic a n w if e , b u t h i s v i c t o r y i s o f l i t t l e im p o rta n c e s i n c e , in th e
p r o c e s s , he has l o s t h i s i d e n t i t y as a b la c k man.
H is e n c o u n te r w ith V i r g i n i e o ccu rs a t a tim e when D'Chimbo has
shed h i s d e fe n s e s and e n jo y s a s o l i t a r y moment o f freedom on t h e b each.
H is sh o es o f f and h i s j a c k e t u n b u tto n e d , D'Chimbo becomes a g a in th e
l i v e l y young man he i s i n r e a l i t y u n d er t h e p r o t e c t i v e arm or and th e
d i s g u i s e o f h i s u n ifo rm , f o r t h e u n ifo rm i s t h e symbol o f h i s a l i e n a
t i o n : " I I l u i f a l l a i t l e tem ps de c e s s e r d ' e t r e lui-m em e, a u ta n t d i r e
l e tem ps de s ' a l i e n e r , e t d 'a b o r d de s ' h a b i l l e r , de se d e g u is e r en
b l a n c ." The few m in u te s o f in tim a c y t h a t D'Chimbo and V i r g in i e s h a re
w h ile b o th unencum bered by t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e i r s o c i a l and r a c i a l
o r i g i n s a r e enough t o t r i g g e r t h e i r im p o s s ib le lo v e .
A f t e r h i s c a p t u r e , D'Chimbo a c c e p ts t h e e v e n ts w ith a k in d of
r e s i g n a t i o n : "Le coup de c h i c o t t e , l e v i o l de N ak ete, l e moignon de
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D akota, il. l u i f a l l a i t a c c u e i l l i r t o u t c e l a comme une f a t a l i t e " (p . 19),
T h is a t t i t u d e le a v e s him rea d y f o r h i s n e x t s te p : f in d th e s e c r e t b e
h in d t h e a p p a re n t .power o f .t h e .W h i t e s , w hich.m eans, f i r s t . p o s s e s s i n g
t h e i r la n g u a g e . W hile D’Chimbo i s p r e s e n te d to th e crowd of.,, p o t e n t i a l
b u y ers as. th e s t a l l i o n th e y need t o i n c r e a s e the-.num ber o f t h e i r
s l a v e s , he t r i e s , t o .u n d e rs ta n d th e words around him . The l o s s o f h i s
name d u r in g t h e sa le ., h i s b e in g e q u a te d , t o an animal:, a l l t h i s g iv e s
him .th e d e te r m in a tio n to . r e g a i n h i s s ta tu s , as an in d iv id u a l, by any
means t h a t may be o f f e r e d t o him . T h is i s w here D’ C him bo's r e a s o n in g
f a i l s , s in c e he does n o t have th e power t o r e g a i n . h i s fo rm er i d e n t i t y ,
b u t o n ly t o adopt a s u b s t i t u t e , w hich,, m oreover., w i l l be im posed upon
him. D 'C him bo's c h o ic e i s made: " P e n e t r e r dans l a s o c i e t e du m a i t r e , y ‘
p e n e t r e r sa n s e f f r a c t i o n . La la n g u e e t a i t l a c l e de c e t t e s o c i e t e f e r -
mee au s e u i l de l a q u e l l e i l e t a i t l a s de c r o u p i r . I I v o u l a i t e c h a p p e r
a l a m a le d ic tio n du ' p e t i t - n e g r e ' , ce s a b i r d 'e s c l a v e s voues au m arro n -
nage” ( p . 2 6 ). Lady S ta n le y i s h i s s te p p in g - s to n e ., He s e e s th e l o v e -
h a te r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a t d e v e lo p s betw een them as a p r o o f o f h i s huma
n i t y and a c c e p ts h e r h u m i l i a t i o n s . A lthough t h e t e m p t a t i o n ,t o r e v o l t
comes t o him a t t im e s , .it i s n o t s tr o n g enough t o d e f l e c t him from h i s
g o a l. D'Chimbo has se em in g ly no memory o f t h e n o t - s o - d i s t a n t p a s t , o f
h i s l i f e b e fo r e h i s c a p tu re ,: o f th e v a lu e s w hich governed i t . a t th e
tim e . The memory o f h i s s a l e , o f th e s a l e o f h i s powers ,of p r o c r e a t i o n ,
o n ly r e i n f o r c e s h i s a m b itio n " d 'e t r e - e t de f a i r e comme eux. Car i l ne
v o u l a i t p as s 'a c c e p t e r t e l q u ' i l e t a i t de t o u t e e v id e n c e , non comme
une b e t e , m ais comme un n e g r e , i l n 'a d m e t t a i t pas l a r ig o u r e u s e a l t e r -
175
n a t i v e d ’ e t r e e s c la v e ou m arron" (p . 4 7 ).
D'Chimbo f in d s a ro le -m o d e l i n t h e p e rs o n o f V i c to r Hughes whose
v o ic e , e le g a n c e and p o is e f a s c i n a t e him . From th e moment th e y m eet,
D'Chimbo d e d ic a te s h i s e f f o r t s t o i m i t a t i n g him , unaw are o f o r n n e o n r .
c e rn e d by what V i c to r Hughes may s ta n d f o r w ith r e g a r d t o t h e b la c k
r a c e . F l a t t e r e d by th e f a v o r s V i c to r Hughes bestow s upon him , D'Chimbo
abandons h im s e lf t o h i s new r o l e . D azzled by h i s new c o n d it io n as a
s o l d i e r and by t h e p r e c a r io u s freedom h i s u n ifo rm a llo w s , D'Chimbo goes
so f a r as t o r e j e c t h i s p a s t as sym bolized by h i s A f r ic a n name: "Son
nom l u i s e m b la it a p e in e s u p p o r t a b le . I I ne s e r e c o n n a i s s a i t pas en
D'Chimbo, ce nom d 'e s c l a v e ” (p . 4 8 ). H is e v o lu tio n i s th u s th e o p p o s ite
o f t h a t o f t h e m aroon s l a v e s , whose f i r s t im p u lse was t o r e t u r n t o
t h e i r A f r ic a n names.
The e n c o u n te r w ith V i r g i n i e pushes D'Chimbo t o r e f l e c t upon r a c i a l
d i f f e r e n c e and upon t h e r o l e he i s p l a y i n g . I n a f l a s h , D'Chimbo r e a l
i z e s h i s a l i e n a t i o n and d is c o v e r s t h a t he i s m e re ly "une m a r io n n e tte ,
v o i l a ce q u ' i l e t a i t sous son a c co u tre m e n t m i l i t a i r e . . I I a v a i t v o u lu
e c h a p p e r a l a f a t a l i t e du n e g r e - e s c l a v e , s 'a f f r a n c h i r de c e t t e r a c e
q u i , on ne s a i t p a r q u e l l e m a l e d ic t io n , s e m b la it vouee aux p e s t i l e n c e s
de l 'e r g a s t u l e , rom pre l e p a c te de 1 ' i n v i o l a b l e c o n n iv e n c e ” (p . 7 7 ).
T h is f e e l i n g t h a t he has been m a n ip u la te d g iv e s b i r t h i n him t o a
d e s i r e f o r v io le n c e aimed a t V i r g i n i e , s in c e he c a n n o t have h e r by
r e g u l a r means— a d e s i r e t h a t i s m in g led w ith an u rg e t o h u m ilia te
V i c to r Hughes and s h a t t e r , i f o n ly f o r an i n s t a n t , h i s com posure. But
D'Chimbo dreams o n . . . and hopes t h a t m i l i t a r y ra n k w i l l sa v e him from
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th e m a le d ic tio n o f b e in g b la c k , t h a t th ro u g h who knows what l a s t
m ir a c le o f d e g r a d a ti o n , he w i l l o b ta in t h e one he l o v e s . The e x c e s s iv e
n e s s o f D 'C him bo's d e s i r e s has no l i m i t : "La n o b le s s e du s e n tim e n t p e u t
c o n d u ire a i n s i a l a p r o s t i t u t i o n . Au v r a i , D'Chimbo p e r d a i t l a t e t e "
(p . 8 1 ).
I n s p i t e o f h i s o b s e s s io n s , D'Chimbo i s aw are, i f o n ly f o r a
b r i e f moment, o f h i s ambiguous p o s i t i o n betw een W hites and B la c k s. The
m is s io n he i s g iv e n by V i c to r Hughes— t o go t a l k t o Pompee, t h e head
o f t h e maroon s la v e s o f F re n ch G u ian a-.-is n o t w ith o u t d a n g e r t o a
c o l l a b o r a t o r o f t h e W h ite s. He knows h e .d e s e r v e s t h e m a ro o n 's s p i t e and
w onders how he i s g o in g t o f a c e t h i s new o r d e a l . But t h e a p p e a ra n c e o f
t h e p a s s i o n a te Lady S ta n le y soon d i s t r a c t s him from t h e s e p reo ccu p a-:
t i o n s . Overcome by t h e p r i d e o f h a v in g e sc a p e d h i s c o n d it io n as a
s la v e and f l a t t e r e d by t h e a t t e n t i o n s o f h i s fo rm er ow ner, he f o r g e t s
h i s a n x i e t i e s u n t i l t h e sudden m a s o c h i s t i c . im p u lse o f Lady S ta n le y
b r in g s him back t o th e sad r e a l i z a t i o n o f what h as a c t u a l l y been done
t o him.
For D'Chimbo h as been n o th in g but an o b je c t i n t h e hands o f b o th
Lady S ta n le y and V ic to r H ughes. Caught betw een t h e i n d i f f e r e n c e o f h e r
husband and t h a t o f h e r l o v e r , V ic to r H ughes, Lady S ta n le y se es
D'Chimbo as th e means o f h e r rev en g e o v e r t h e two men. D 'C him bo's tr iu m
p h a n t s e x u a l i t y ‘.p e rsu a d e s h e r t h a t , t h i s tim e , she w i l l have a w i l l i n g
4
and s u b m is s iv e l o v e r . I t th u s comes t o h e r as a s u r p r i s e t o h e a r
D'Chimbo a sk h e r t o t e a c h him F ren ch i n exchange f o r h i s s e rv ic e s .. She
d is c o v e r s i n him a s e c r e t a m b itio n sh e deems out o f p l a c e i n a s l a v e .
177
As h i s knowledge p r o g r e s s e s , h e r d e s i r e t o humble him i n c r e a s e s , and
t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p t u r n s i n t o a c o n te s t o f h u m i l i a t i o n s , Lady S t a n le y
w a n tin g t o d e m o n s tra te t o h e r l o v e r t h a t , f o r a l l h i s new know ledge,
he i s n o th in g b u t a s la v e and D'Chimbo r e f u s i n g t o conform t o h e r i d e a
of what he s h o u ld b e. Lady S ta n le y c a n n o t u n d e rs ta n d t h a t D’Chimbo may
want t o r i s e above h is e o n d it io n o f s u b s e r v ie n c e and c o n s id e r s t h a t he
s h o u ld be s a t i s f i e d t o be th e o b je c t o f h e r a t t e n t i o n s . On t h e o t h e r
han d , D 'C him bo's p r o g r e s s f l a t t e r s h e r v a n i t y . The day she g iv e s
D'Chimbo a l i v e r y , she l o s e s him as a s u b m is s iv e s e r v a n t s in c e h e r
d e c is i o n i n d i c a t e s t o him t h a t he i s now re a d y f o r g r e a t e r a c c o m p lish
m ents .
The e n c o u n te r betw een V ic to r Hughes and D'Chimbo i s t h a t o f two
a m b itio n s . D'Chimbo s e n s e s t h a t b e in g a s o l d i e r can a llo w him t o t r a n s
cend h i s c o n d it io n as a s l a v e , w h ile V i c to r Hughes f e e l s t h a t D'Chim
b o 's a m b itio n can s e r v e h i s p u rp o se s and t h a t he can u s e him t o oppose
b la c k t r o o p s t o t h e m aroons, th u s w eakening t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a b la c k
i n s u r r e c t i o n i n F rench G uiana. T h e ir r e l a t i o n s h i p i s am biguous. The
g o v e rn o r i s n e v e r a b le t o r i s e above h i s p r e j u d i c e s and c o n s id e r
D'Chimbo e i t h e r as a f r i e n d o r even as a man. R a th e r, he s e e s him as
t h e p r o o f t h a t he can m a n ip u la te men t o h i s l i k i n g and make them f i t
h i s p u r p o s e s . For a l l h is a d m ira tio n f o r t h e g o v e rn o r, D'Chimbo n e v e r
su c c e e d s i n im p o sin g h im s e lf as an e q u a l and, d e s p i t e h i s . i l l u s i o n s
o f s u c c e s s , he rem ain s a s u b s e r v i e n t s o l d i e r b e cau se he a c c e p ts t h e
r o l e V ic to r Hughes w ants him t o p la y w ith o u t q u e s tio n in g t h e g o v e rn o r's
i n t e n t i o n s . The one se em in g ly norm al d i s c u s s io n th e y have d e a ls w ith
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how t o make a good rum punch. I t i s o n ly a t a s u p e r f i c i a l l e v e l t h a t
th e two men a re a b le t o com m unicate f o r a b r i e f moment. But V ic to r
H u g h e s's o p in io n o f t h e B lacks and h i s r e a l , i f h id d e n , p r e j u d i c e s
i n t e r f e r e and p r e v e n t any d e e p e r u n d e r s ta n d in g . The r e v u l s io n o f h i s
f e e l i n g s to w ard D'Chimbo when he h e a rs o f h i s in v o lv e m e n t w ith V i r g in i e
shows how s u p e r f i c i a l and o p p o r t u n i s t i c h i s i n t e r e s t i n D'Chimbo was.
M oreover, V i c to r Hughes i s h u r t i n h i s p r id e when he r e a l i z e s t h a t
D'Chimbo i s Lady S t a n l e y 's l o v e r . D'Chimbo has com m itted two m is ta k e s
w ith r e g a r d t o V i c t o r Hughesi he has d a re d sed u ce h i s m i s t r e s s and he
has made him v u l n e r a b le t o t h e a t t a c k s o f h i s je a l o u s and v e n g e fu l
c o ll e a g u e s . V i c to r Hughes was pro u d t o have im posed h i s c h o ic e upon
t h e o t h e r s , proud t o have d a re d choose a b la c k man as h i s c o l l a b o r a t o r
i n th e m id st o f r a c i s t c o l o n i a l s , proud o f t h i s p r o v o c a tiv e g e s tu r e
w hich s i n g l e d him o u t. But he has su cceed ed to o w e ll w ith D'Chimbo,
f o r D'Chimbo has become a t h r e a t t o t h e e q u ilib r iu m o f t h e s o c i e t y he
has chosen t o e n t e r .
The c o l o n i a l s o c i e t y which. D 'C him bo's o u tra g e o u s b e h a v io r alarm s
so i s p r e s e n te d as d e e p ly r a c i s t , p e t t y and h y p o c r i t i c a l . H aving l i t t l e
e l s e t o do, th e c o l o n i a l s spy upon one a n o th e r , d e l i g h t e d t o have
m a t te r f o r g o s s ip when th e y d is c o v e r th e s m a l le s t w eakness i n t h e i r
n e ig h b o r s . The news o f D 'C him bo's i n d i s c r e t i o n comes a t an o p p o rtu n e
tim e f o r th o s e who h a te t h e g o v e rn o r and would l i k e t o s e e h i s d em ise.
D'Chimbo c o n v e n ie n tly becomes a means o f a t t a c k i n g V i c to r Hughes and
o f s a t i s f y i n g o n e 's a m b itio n . No one even c o n s id e r s th e f e e l i n g s
D'Chimbo and V i r g i n i e may have f o r each o t h e r . D 'C him bo's b e h a v io r
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i s p e r c e iv e d as a c o n s c io u s p r o v o c a tio n w hich must be p u n is h e d , as w e ll
as as a t h r e a t t o t h e suprem acy o f t h e W h ite s. V ilo u in , who s p re a d s
t h e new s, i s p i c t u r e d . a s a weak and h y p o c r i t i c a l man, s u b m itte d t o th e
w i l l o f h i s s h a rp -to n g u e d w ife and re a d y t o e x p lo i t a n y o n e 's m is ta k e
t o a c h ie v e w hat he cannot a c h ie v e on h i s own. H is w ife f i t s t h e s t e r e o
ty p e o f t h e j e a l o u s , p r e j u d i c e d and b o red woman who l i v e s by and f o r
g o s s ip . The o n ly f a i r l y l i k e a b l e c h a r a c t e r , th e p r o c u r a t o r B a re l and
V i r g i n i e 's f a t h e r , i s an o u t c a s t in t h e c o l o n i a l c i r c l e s b e cau se he has
rem ained f a i t h f u l t o th e p r i n c i p l e s o f t h e F rench r e v o l u t io n .. P r e s e n te d
i n a r a t h e r c o m ic al m anner, he lo o k s more l i k e th e v i c t im o f o ld -
f a s h io n e d id e a s th a n l i k e a man t o be adm ired f o r h i s f i d e l i t y t o h i s
own c o n v ic t io n s . V i r g i n i e , h a v in g i n h e r i t e d th e l i b e r a l id e a s o f h e r
f a t h e r , i s from t h e b e g in n in g condemned t o becoming h e r s e l f t h e t a r g e t
o f h e r c o m p a t r i o ts ' a t t a c k s . Both D'Chimbo and V i r g in i e s ta n d o u t s i d e
o f t h i s s o c i e t y , D'Chimbo b e c au se o f h i s c o l o r , V i r g i n i e b e c au se o f h e r
i d e a l is m . Drawn t o one a n o th e r b e c au se o f t h e i r p e c u l i a r s i t u a t i o n s ,
th e y f a l l t o g e t h e r ; th e co n seq u en ces o f t h i s f a l l w i l l be d ra m a tic
o n ly f o r D'Chimbo; V i r g i n i e , b e in g w h ite , w i l l e v e n tu a ll y be f o r g iv e n .
T orn o u t o f h i s own m il ie u by th e s l a v e - t r a d e r s , D'Chimbo l o s e s
a l l p o i n t s o f r e f e r e n c e , s in c e th e v a lu e s w hich gov ern ed h i s fo rm er
l i f e c o u ld n o t a p p ly t o h i s new s i t u a t i o n . H is m is ta k e was t o t r y t o
f i l l t h e v o id th u s c r e a te d by a d o p tin g th e v a lu e s o f t h e c o l o n i a l
s o c i e t y . H is f a t a l i s t i c a t t i t u d e tow ard h i s c a p tu r e makes him an e a sy
t a r g e t t o o u t s i d e i n f l u e n c e s . From t h e b e g in n in g , he s e n s e s t h a t he i s
b e in g t r e a t e d l i k e an o b je c t and t h a t h i s s e x u a l i t y i s im p o rta n t t o
180
t h e W h ite s: ” 11 l u i s e m b la it q u e ...n o n settlem ent l e s m u se le s, m ais l a
m oindre p a r c e l l e de son e t r e , . . . t o u t c e l a n ' e x i s t a i t d e so rm a is que
p o u r c o n c o u r ir a l ’ e p a n o u isse m e n t de c e t o b je t u n iq u e , son s e x e , que
des c e n ta in e s d 'y e u x . . . c o n te m p la ie n t avec une s tu p e u r q u i t e n a i t a l a
f o i s du s c a n d a le e t de l a f a s c i n a t i o n ” (p . 2 2 ). C l a s s i f i e d as an anim al
b red f o r r e p r o d u c tio n , D'.Chimbo w i l l u s e h i s s e x u a l pow ers t o g e t what
he w ants out o f Lady S t a n le y . He l e a r n s t o p la y h e r game. His d e s i r e t o
l e a r n F re n c h , a c o r o l l a r y o f h i s d e s i r e t o conform t o w h ite s ta n d a r d s ,
comes from th e f a c t t h a t D'Chimbo b e lie v e s what t h e o t h e r s t h i n k and
say o f him . T h is i s h i s seco n d m is ta k e . The W hites s e e in g him as an
a n im a l, D'Chimbo in te n d s t o p ro v e t o them t h a t he i s t h e i r e q u a l, f o r e
g o in g h i s own p e o p le and h i s own d i g n i t y . O bsessed by h i s a m b itio n , he
does n o t r e a l i z e t h a t he i s b e in g m a n ip u la te d o r , w o rs e , he a c c e p ts
b e in g m a n ip u la te d t o r e a c h h i s g o a l. A lthough he i s r e c o g n iz e d as a
l e a d e r by h i s man, D'Chimbo n eeds th e r e c o g n i ti o n o f t h e W h ite s. Con
v in c e d t h a t th e b la c k r a c e i s th e v ic tim o f some i l l - d e f i n e d m a le d ic
t i o n , t h a t b e in g b la c k i s b e in g i n f e r i o r , D'Chimbo c h o o ses t o become
w h ite . T h is i s h i s t h i r d m is ta k e . W anting t o be w h ite , he i s a t t r a c t e d
t o w h ite women. The p rom iscu ous fa v o rs o f Lady S t a n le y a re n o th in g but
an e p is o d e . V ic to r y would come w ith h i s m a r r ia g e t o V i r g i n i e . A lthough
h i s lo v e f o r V i r g i n i e seems r e a l , one w onders what p a r t h i s a m b itio n
p la y s i n i t . What i s c e r t a i n i s t h a t t h i s lo v e p u sh e s him t o abandon
a l l h e s i t a t i o n s and d r iv e s him t o a co m p lete d e n ia l o f h i s r a c e :
"Son amour p o u r V i r g i n i e l ' e n t r a i n a i t a s o u h a i t e r on ne s a i t q u e l
baptem e q u i l e l a v e r a i t du pech e o r i g i n e l d ' e t r e mal n e , d ' e t r e ne
181
n o i r " ( p . 8 1 ). D'Chimbo has now a b so rb e d t h e p r e j u d i c e s o f th e s o c i e t y
t o w hich he w ants t o b e lo n g . He i s t h e v i c t im o f a d o u b le r a c is m , t h a t
o f t h e W hites and h i s own, th u s c o m p le te ly i s o l a t i n g h i m s e lf . Alm ost
a s s i m i l a t e d , d e p e r s o n a liz e d t o t h e p o i n t o f a c c e p tin g t o f i g h t h i s own
p e o p le , D'Chimbo w ants to b e li e v e t h a t i m i t a t i n g th e W hites w i l l g iv e
him a new and more h o n o ra b le i d e n t i t y .
Le N egre du g o u v e rn e u r exp o ses t h e d a n g e rs o f a s s i m i l a t i o n and
p ro v e s i t a d e lu s i o n . D 'C him bo's p a s s i o n a t e and a m b itio u s p e r s o n a l i t y
d r iv e s him t o make th e wrong c h o ic e s . R e fu s in g t o be b la c k , he can on ly
become a n o n -p e rs o n . He a d o p ts th e v a lu e s o f a s o c i e t y w hich s u r v iv e s
by e x p l o i t a t i o n and com prom ise. The r e a l i z a t i o n o f what he has become
comes to o l a t e u n d e r th e whip o f Lady S ta n le y a t a moment when h i s
f a t e has a lr e a d y been d e c id e d by t h e g o v e rn o r. D'Chimbo w i l l d ie
b e c au se he r e f u s e d t o be h im s e lf .
S e rg e P a t i e n t p i c t u r e s t h e d o w n fa ll o f h i s h e ro w ith a s u r e n e s s
t h a t i s n o t q u i t e a condem nation. D'Chimbo i s a young and v u l n e r a b le
man who u s e s th e means a v a i l a b l e t o him t o re a c h what he b e li e v e s i s
s u c c e s s . T h e re a r e few c h o ic e s f o r him i n th e c o l o n i a l s o c i e t y : be a
s la v e and le a d a l i f e o f s u b m is s io n ; be a maroon i f p o s s i b l e o r coop
e r a t e w ith t h e s o c i e t y i n w hich he has been th ro w n . W hatever h i s c h o ic e
may b e , i f in d e e d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f c h o ic e e x i s t s , f u l f i l l m e n t i s
d o u b t f u l . D'Chimbo i s a v i c t im more th a n a n y th in g e l s e , a v i c t im o f t h e
s te r e o ty p e d a t t i t u d e o f th e W h ite s , a v i c t im o f h i s own i l l u s i o n s , a
v i c t im o f an o r d e r w hich a llo w s f o r no m is ta k e s and w arps a l l v a lu e s .
182
I I . Les A rb res de l a l i b e r t e : The F a i l u r e o f Freedom
T h is s h o r t h i s t o r i c a l n a r r a t i v e i s o r i g i n a l s in c e i t p r e s e n t s th e
view t h a t a group o f h ig h - s c h o o l s tu d e n ts has o f t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e i r
c o u n tr y . The s tu d e n ts r e t r a c e t h e main e v e n t s ' t h a t have shaped t h e
i s l a n d o f G uadeloupe w h ile th e y a r e g e t t i n g t o know a h i s t o r y o f te n
ig n o re d by te x tb o o k s . The c o re o f t h i s work d e a ls w ith t h e p e r io d o f
1789 t o 1802, a p e r io d o f hope w hich ended w ith N a p o le o n 's b e t r a y a l o f
t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y id e a s and t h e r e s t o r a t i o n o f s la v e r y .
The c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r i s th e s la v e and h e ro Ig n a c e whose l i f e i s
r e c o n s t i t u t e d from th e moment o f h i s c a p tu r e t o t h a t o f h is s e l f - s a c r i
f i c e i n 1802, h i s u l t i m a t e g e s tu r e of r e v o l t a g a in s t s la v e r y . I g n a c e 's
c o n s c io u s n e s s o f t h e e v e n ts d e te rm in in g h i s l i f e grows th ro u g h o u t th e
n o v e l, a m ix tu re o f hopes and doubts, w hich makes him a v e ry human c h a r
a c t e r , one aware o f th e sh o rtc o m in g s o f t h e s la v e s as w e ll as o f ' t h e i r
c o u ra g e . U nable t o p e r c e iv e p r e c i s e l y what I g n a c e 's c o n c e p tio n o f t h e
w o rld m ight h ave been a t th e tim e,, th e a u th o r s have g iv e n him some o f
t h e i r modern t h o u g h ts , w hich i n t e r e s t i n g l y r e f l e c t t h e i r modern p r e o c
c u p a tio n s .
The s t o r y b e g in s w ith an account o f t h e M iddle P a s s a g e w hich
r e c a p tu r e s some o f t h e w ell-know n e p is o d e s o f t h e jo u rn e y . I t d e s c r i b e s
t h e p h y s ic a l d e g r a d a tio n endured by th e s la v e s c h a in e d , t o th e b o a t and
im m o b iliz e d i n a c o n fin e d s p a c e , la c k in g a i r and h y g ie n e , u n d e rn o u ris h e d
and s u f f e r i n g from s e a s ic k n e s s . By c o n t r a s t , one s e e s t h e r e l a t i v e l y
lu x u r io u s q u a r t e r s o f th e c a p ta in and h i s s a t i s f a c t i o n a t th e f i n a n c i a l
p r o s p e c ts o f t h e t r i p . The l a s t days o f th e jo u rn e y a r e th e most
183
e v e n tf u l: a f t e r a b r i e f e v o c a tio n o f th e p a r i a d e , a s la v e r e v o l t ta k e s
p l a c e , le d by an e x c e p tio n a l s la v e nicknam ed S a n s - Q u a r tie r , th e f u t u r e
I g n a c e . I g n a e e 's s u b s e q u e n t punishm ent and , t o r t u r e are. d e s c rib e d , i n
d e t a i l as a c e l e b r a t i o n o f h i s c o m b a tiv it.y , c o u ra g e ,a n d d e te r m in a tio n .
The r e v o l t r e v e a ls t h e atm o sp h ere o f f e a r i n w hich t h e s h i p 's crew
l i v e d and w hich.m ade r e v o l t s p o s s ib le , and e x c e s s e s common. H a tre d and
f e a r a r e f e e l i n g s s h a re d by b o th W hites and B lacks and r e s u l t i n b r u t a l
and bloody c o n f r o n t a t i o n s . A lthough t h i s : a c c o u n t i s l i m i t e d in scope
and d e a ls w ith w ell-know n f a c t s , i t r e c r e a t e s th e in h u m an ity o f th e
e p is o d e i n a r a t h e r m a t t e r - o f - f a c t m anner.
The a r r i v a l i n G uadeloupe and s a l e o f t h e s la v e s follow s.. T hese
e p is o d e s s e r v e as a p r e t e x t f o r d e s c r i b in g t h e v a rio u s: t r i c k s u se d by
th e s l a v e - t r a d e r s t o tr a n s f o r m t h e i r c a rg o i n t o s a l a b l e goods, t h e
d i s t r a c t i o n th e s a l e r e p r e s e n t s f o r t h e l o c a l s o c i e t y , and th e m o ti
v a ti o n s o f t h e b u y e rs . T h is moment comes as a r e p r i e v e i n th e new l i f e
o f t h e s la v e s w h ile th e y l e a r n t o a d a p t t o t h e i r en v ironm ent and a re
i n i t i a t e d t o t h e i r work by an o ld s la v e who f i r s t te a c h e s them t h e
rudim ents: o f t h e C re o le la n g u a g e . I n s p i t e o f h i s shame, a t b e in g a
s l a v e , Ig n a c e c o o p e r a te s , i n t r i g u e d by t h e k in d o f a c t i v i t i e s he i s
t a u g h t . T h is s u p e r f i c i a l a d a p ta ti o n does n o t come e a s i l y , how ever. I t
i s h a rd t o a c c e p t b e in g i s o l a t e d from t h e .f o r m e r c o u n try w ith o u t any
hope o f e v e r r e t u r n i n g : " L 'A f r iq u e e t s e s d i e u x .s e m b la ie n t. l o i n , comme
s ' i l s n 'a v a i e n t ja m a is e x i s t e , e t l e .d o u t e eommengait a. e n v a h ir
S a n s - Q u a r tie r ." ^ ' T h is f e e l i n g t h a t th e y have b e e n abandoned, by God
and men a l i k e g e n e r a te s a s e n se o f l o s s in t h e s la v e s as w e ll as
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d o u b ts about t h e i r a b i l i t y as p e o p le . The economic s u p e r i o r i t y o f th e
W hites comes th e n t o be se e n as r a c i a l s u p e r i o r i t y , as t h e model t o be
i m i t a t e d : "Nous sommes f a i t s p o u r I 'e s c l a v a g e . Comment nous comparer a
l'homme blanc? Nous re sse m b lo n s a des b e t e s , nous ne savons pas ce que
c ' e s t que l i r e , p a r l e r , r i r e , m arc h er. I I f a u t i m i t e r l e m a i tr e , a l o r s
p e u t - e t r e q u 'u n j o u r . . . " (p . 4 8 ). C onvincing men,who have l o s t t h e i r
u n d e rs ta n d in g o f t h e w o rld t h a t th e y a re i n f e r i o r i s made e a s i e r by t h e
f a c t t h a t t h e s la v e s f in d l i t t l e com fort i n t h e m a in te n a n c e o f t h e i r
t r a d i t i o n s , such as m usic and d a n c e, s in c e t h o s e have lik e w i s e l o s t
t h e i r o r i g i n a l m eaning and no lo n g e r c e l e b r a t e l i f e but s u f f e r i n g :
"On ne c h a n t a i t p lu s l e s d ie u x d 'A f r iq u e : i l s e t a i e n t t r o p l o i n . A lo r s ,
s u r c e t t e l i e sa n s d ie u n o i r , i l ne r e s t a i t p lu s a c h a n te r que l a s o u f -
f r a n c e du n e g re " ( p . 4 9 ). I g n a e e 's i n t e r r o g a t i o n s ab o u t t h e m eaning
o f h i s new l i f e rem ain w ith o u t answ ers d e s p i t e t h e e x p la n a tio n s o f
Tongue, th e o ld s l a v e , who a tte m p ts t o i n i t i a t e him to. t h e custom s and
t h e r e l i g i o n o f t h e W h ite s. T h is r e l i g i o n can b r in g no r e l i e f , b e in g
o f a c r u e l and d i s c o n c e r t i n g n a tu r e t o I g n a c e . H is hopes t h a t h i s
q u e s tio n s m ight be answ ered one day seem f u t i l e , s in c e t h e s o c i e t y
t o w hich he h as been in tr o d u c e d does n o t p r o v id e su ch an sw ers.
The y e a r 1792 b r in g s changes t o t h e p l a n t a t i o n s . The atm osphere
o f econom ic s u c c e s s and l e i s u r e in w hich th e p l a n t e r s l i v e d t u r n s i n t o
one o f f e a r and u n c e r t a i n t y . The r e v o l u t io n a r y id e a s im p o rte d from
F ra n c e t h r e a t e n t h e c o l o n i a l o r d e r . I n s p i t e o f t h e f a c t t h a t communi
c a t i o n betw een t h e h a b i t a t i o n and th e s la v e s i s l i m i t e d , t h e . s l a v e s
sp e a k in g on ly C r e o le , th e y s lo w ly become a b le t o u n d e rs ta n d t h a t
185
f a v o r a b le changes a r e t a k i n g p la c e as th e y l i s t e n t o what t h e house
s la v e s t e l l them o f c o n v e r s a tio n s o v e rh e a rd among th e W h ite s. The
r e a c t i o n o f th e p l a n t e r s i s v i o l e n t : - th e y do n o t c o n s id e r t h e i r s la v e s
as men but as a n im a ls w hich s h o u ld be p u n ish e d f o r t h e i r i n s u b o r d i n a t io n
and l a c k o f g r a t i t u d e to w ard th o s e who fe e d them . Envoys o f t h e r e v o lu
t i o n a r y power a re t r e a t e d w ith i r o n y and d e s p is e d f o r t r y i n g t o i n t e r
f e r e w ith t h in g s th e y do n o t u n d e r s ta n d . T h is a t t i t u d e o f re s e n tm e n t
was c l e a r l y d e s c r ib e d i n e a r l i e r C re o le n o v e ls (See c h ap . 2 ) . The
s la v e s th e m se lv e s a r e a t a l o s s : t h e r e a r e th o s e who c a n n o t tr a n s c e n d
t h e i r c o n d it io n o f s u b m is s iv e n e s s and c a n n o t but obey th e m a s t e r 's
o r d e r s , w h a te v e r th e y may be. H aving known no o th e r s o c i a l o r d e r th a n
s la v e r y and h a v in g l o s t a l l d e s i r e t o f i g h t a f t e r y e a r s o f fo rc e d
p a s s i v i t y , " i l s n 'e t a i e n t p lu s en e f f e t que des anim aux, comme l e
d i s a i t son o n c le , d r e s s e s a o b e i r , q u e l que s o i t l ' o r d r e donne, e t
in c a p a b le s de s e re n d r e compte du t o r t q u ' i l s se f a i s a i e n t a eux-
memes" (p . 6 4 ).
W ith a few o t h e r s , Ig n a c e cho o ses th e p r e c a r io u s freedom o f t h e
woods, p r e c a r io u s b e c au se th e y know l i t t l e o f t h a t new environm ent and
have few means o f g e t t i n g th e n e c e s s a ry u n Q u ris h m e n t.S te a lin g food from
n e a rb y p l a n t a t i o n s i s t h e i r o n ly a l t e r n a t i v e . As t h e l e a d e r o f one o f
th e grou ps chosen t o r a i d a p l a n t a t i o n , Ig n a c e r e a l i z e s t h a t s u r v i v a l
c a n n o t be a c h ie v e d w ith o u t a c e r t a i n amount o f d i s c i p l i n e . F a c in g
o r g a n iz e d p l a n t e r s , th e m aroons s ta n d l i t t l e chance o th e r w is e . I t a ls o
becomes obvious t h a t th e f i g h t w i l l be c r u e l and inhum an, n e c e s s i t a t i n g
such d i f f i c u l t c h o ic e s as th e s a c r i f i c e o f th e l i f e o f one man f o r th e
186
s a f e t y o f t h e o t h e r s . W hile th e y s e t f i r e t o p l a n t a t i o n s , th e m aroons
know v e ry w e ll t h a t t h e i r g e s t u r e w i l l c o s t t h e l i v e s o f th o s e B lacks
s t i l l on th e p l a n t a t i o n . B ecause o f th e n a t u r e o f t h e o r d e r th e y a re
f i g h t i n g a g a i n s t , t h e m aroons a re le d i n t o , t h e v i c i o u s c y c le o f
v i o l e n c e , r e t a l i a t i o n and more v i o le n c e . Such i s th e m eaning o f th e
sc en e w here Ig n a c e and h i s com panions d i s c o v e r th e dism em bered b o d ies
o f s la v e s and d e c id e t o d e s tr o y th e p l a n t a t i o n i n q u e s ti o n .
What t o do w ith t h e i r new freedom i s a q u e s ti o n t h e m aroons f in d
d i f f i c u l t t o answ er. I t i s n o t easy f o r them t o im a g in e a s o c i e t y f r e e
o f s l a v e r y , e s p e c i a l l y f o r t h o s e who w ere b o rn u n d e r t h a t system .
R e l a t i v e newcomers such as Ig n a c e can t a l k o f d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e la n d ,
but o th e r s can o n ly p i c t u r e th e m se lv e s as w orking f o r t h e W h ite s, f o r
a s a l a r y maybe, b u t u n d e r c o n d itio n s w hich would s t i l l be c lo s e t o
s la v e r y . Once a g a i n , t h e i r d i s c u s s io n s r e v e a l how d i f f i c u l t i t i s t o
shed a t t i t u d e s i n g r a i n e d by y e a r s o f s la v e r y . I t becomes u n d e rs ta n d a b le
why t h e l e a d e r s o f maroon o r in s u r g e n t s la v e s a re alw ays men who have
s p e n t t h e l e a s t tim e u n d e r th e d o m in atio n o f th e W hites and have th e
l e a s t been s u b m itte d t o t h e i r ways o f t h in k i n g . The s u b v e rs iv e
i n f l u e n c e o f s l a v e r y h a sn ev en to u ch e d I g n a c e , who a d m its h i s shame a t
n o t b e in g a b le t o sp eak F re n c h , s in c e t h i s makes him f e e l i n f e r i o r t o
th o s e who can m a n ip u la te th e lan g u ag e o f t h e m a s te r s .
The a r r i v a l i n G uadeloupe o f V ic to r H ughes, s e n t by R o b e s p ie rre
t o im plem ent t h e . a b o l i t i o n o f s la v e r y and t h e l i b e r a t i o n o f th e i s l a n d
from t h e B r i t i s h , t r i g g e r s a new c y c le o f v i o l e n c e . As th e g u i l l o t i n e
t o u r s t h e i s l a n d t o e li m i n a te a l l th e enem ies o f t h e new r e p u b l i c ,
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one l e a r n s t h a t freedom c a n n o t be e s t a b l i s h e d w ith o u t b lo o d sh e d . The
new freedom a ls o means t h a t a l l must work t o r e s t o r e t h e s h a t t e r e d
economy o f t h e i s l a n d , and t h e g u i l l o t i n e h e lp s c o n v in c e th o s e who
m ight be tem p te d t o e q u a te freedom w ith l e i s u r e . One i s rem inded o f
t h e m easures H enri C h risto p h e . o f H a i t i to o k u n d e r s i m i l a r c irc u m s ta n c e s
t o im pose work upon t h e new ly l i b e r a t e d s la v e s o f h i s c o u n try .
When i t becomes obv io u s t h a t t h e new r e p u b l i c w i l l n o t l a s t lo n g ,
t h e b la c k l e a d e r s s e p a r a te i n t o two f a c tio n s ! : th o s e who want., t o rem ain
a tt a c h e d t o F ra n c e , and t h o s e who demand t h e i r in d e p e n d e n c e . S t i l l
c o n v in c e d t h a t F ra n ce w ants n o th in g b u t t h e good of t h e i s l a n d , P e la g e ,
t h e b la c k g e n e r a l a p p o in te d as commander o f t h e G uadeloupean r e v o l u
t i o n a r y tr o o p s by V i c to r H ughes, i s d e te rm in e d t o ,p r e v e n t any r a d i c a l
m o tio n by th o s e whose t r u s t i s . n o t so c e r t a i n . T h is need f o r th e p r o
t e c t i o n o f a g r e a t e r power can be se e n as a conseq u en ce o f s la v e r y
w hich a n n i h i l a t e d p e o p l e 's c o n fid e n c e i n th e m s e lv e s . I n 1802, Guade
lo u p e had been a F ren ch c o lo n y f o r o v e r a c e n tu r y , and i t s h i s t o r y o f
dependency t o t h e F ren ch c o u ld n o t be e ra s e d a t o nce. A lthough t h e r e
was l i t t l e chance f o r G uadeloupe t o e v e r become in d e p e n d e n t a t t h e
h e ig h t o f N apoleon B o n a p a r te 's c a r e e r , i t i s p r o b a b le t h a t th e d i v i s i o n
o f th e l o c a l l e a d e r s p r e c i p i t a t e d t h e r e i n s ta t e m e n t o f . s l a v e r y . As
opposed t o P e la g e , Ig n a c e i s re a d y t o u se any means t o keep t h e i s l a n d
f r e e , in c lu d in g th o s e he used as a maroon as i s shown i n h i s d e s i r e
t o e x e c u te th e F ren ch g o v e rn o r o f t h e i s l a n d , L a c ro s s e . He b e li e v e s that,
o n ly v io le n c e can make known t o F ra n ce t h e B la c k s' d e te r m in a tio n n e v e r
t o be s la v e s a g a in . But he h a s t o c o n te n d w ith P e la g e . H elped by th e
188
w e a r in e s s o f th e p o p u l a t io n a f t e r y e a rs o f b a t t l e , P e la g e has g a in e d
i t s c o n fid e n c e and a d m ir a tio n . P e la g e i s p o r tr a y e d as a man o f good
m i l i t a r y a b i l i t y b u t who h as l o s t h i s in d ep e n d e n c e o f th o u g h t, and
f ir m ly b e li e v e s i n t h e n e c e s s i t y .f o r G uadeloupe t o ’ r e m a in .F re n c h . Re
g a r d l e s s o f w h e th e r h i s c o n v ic tio n s w e r e ’s in c e r e , o r n o t , he a p p e ars
d e v o id o f t h e w i l l w hich d r iv e s I g n a c e , D e lg re s and t h e i r com panions,
and he i s to o e a g e r t o subm it t o t h e w i l l o f t h e F ren ch envoy, R ic h e -
p a n c e.
The a r r i v a l o f R ichepan ce le a d s t o a b loody c o n f r o n t a t i o n betw een
b la c k and w h ite s o l d i e r s . A lthough Ig n a c e j o i n s D e lg re s i n an u l t i m a t e
e f f o r t t o d e fe n d t h e p r i n c i p l e o f freedom , th e n u m e ric a l i n f e r i o r i t y
and l a c k o f t r a i n i n g o f t h e i r t r o o p s foreshadow s t h e i r e v e n tu a l d e f e a t .
The l a s t c h a p te r o f t h e n o v e l, e n t i t l e d "L a h a in e " , d e s c r i b e s th e l a s t
days o f freedom and t h e r e i n s ta t e m e n t o f s l a v e r y . By c o n t r a s t .w ith t h e
bloody d e s c r i p t i o n s o f th e l a s t b a t t l e , / t h e new s la v e r y seems a monu
ment o f p e a c e . B u t:th e co n seq u en ces o f B o n a p a r te 's b e t r a y a l a re d e e p e r
th a n what th e eyes can s e e , as th e t i t l e , o f t h e c h a p te r, s u g g e s ts .
What c a u se d t h e d e f e a t o f t h e B lacks? F i r s t , Ig n a c e and D e lg re s
commanded men who w ere n o t t r a i n e d s o l d i e r s , w hich ham pered them in
b a t t l e a g a in s t v e te r a n s o f .th e N apo leo n ian army., T h e ir a d v a n ta g e s —
knowledge, o f th e c o u n tr y and f a m i l i a r i t y , w ith t h e c lim a te - - w e r e n o t
enough. Ig n a c e h i m s e lf , u se d t o .the k in d o f g u e r i l l a w a r fa r e p r a c t i c e d
by t h e m aroons, f e l t h e l p l e s s when i t came, to , o rg a n iz e d b a t t l e s . For
a l l t h e i r co u rag e,, th e b la c k s o l d i e r s w ere n o t s k i l l e d enough t o o v e r
come t h e enemy. S e c o n d ly , P e l a g e 's b e t r a y a l fe d t h e enemy w ith t r o o p s
189
who knew t h e c o u n tr y , th u s re d u c in g t h e a d v a n ta g e o f t h e r e b e l s .
T h i r d l y , y e a rs o f f i g h t i n g , th e b e t r a y a l o f P e la g e , one o f t h e i r own
k in d , and a s u c c e s s io n o f l o s s e s , e ro d e d t h e m o rale o f t h e r e b e l s . The
a t t i t u d e o f t h e p o p u l a t io n , s u p p o r tiv e b u t n o t w i l l i n g t o g e t in v o lv e d ,
b ro u g h t d o u b ts t o Ig n a c e h im s e lf as t o t h e v a l i d i t y o f h i s f i g h t :
" Ig n a c e , p lo n g e dans ces t r i s t e s p e n s e e s , s o u p i r a i t , d o u ta n t p re s q u e
de lui-m em e, de l a v a l i d i t e de s a l u t t e , f a c e a c e t t e dou ceu r des
m ornes, f a c e a c e s p a y san s t r a n q u i l l e s q u i a c c e p t a i e n t l e u r d e s t i n "
(p . 1 3 7 ). The. b a t t l e ends i n t h e d e f e a t o f th e r e b e l s and t h e i r imme
d i a t e e x e c u tio n . The l a s t sc en e d e s c r ib e s how l i f e s t a r t s a g a in around
th e d i s f i g u r e d head o f Ig n a c e and seems t o h i n t a t t h e f u t i l i t y o f th e
f i g h t o f t h e B la c k s , a t t h e d e r i s i o n o f t h e i r h o p e s. B ut, j u s t as th e
freedom t r e e s p l a n t e d by V i c to r Hughes s u r v iv e d and grew , d e e p ly
r o o te d i n t h e s o i l o f G uadeloupe, t h e r e i s s t i l l hope t h a t freedom
may become a r e a l i t y .
T h is l i t t l e n o v e l e n v is io n s t h e h i s t o r y o f G uadeloupe as a s e r i e s
o f f a i l u r e s and h u m i l i a t i o n s . H eroes such as Ig n a c e o r D e lg re s r i s e
and f a l l , b u t t h e i r e f f o r t s a re in c a p a b le o f ch anging a s i t u a t i o n
e s t a b l i s h e d f o r many y e a r s . I n t h e background o f th e n o v e l, t h e
c o l o n i a l p l a n t e r s a p p e a r and d is a p p e a r a t t h e m ercy o f e v e n ts , but
t h e i r p r e s e n c e i s alw ays f e l t as p r o o f t h a t n o th in g r e a l l y c h a n g e s.
The problem s w h ich , f i r s t th e s l a v e s , th e n t h e r e b e l s have t o f a c e ,
a r e s t i l l v e ry much p r e s e n t : m oral a t t i t u d e s born o f s la v e r y , l a c k o f
s o l i d a r i t y among t h e members o f v a r io u s g ro u p s, la c k o f t o o l s t o
b r in g t h e f i g h t a t an e q u a l l e v e l w ith t h e W h ites. T r a in e d as a maroon,
190
Ig n a c e rem ain s one t o th e end. H is d e te r m in a tio n n o t t o comprom ise
makes him a d m ira b le , but does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y p r e p a r e him t o d e a l w ith
t h e c o m p le x ity o f p o l i t i c a l o r m i l i t a r y e v e n ts . I n f a c t , h i s id e a lis m
can o n ly l e a d t o d e f e a t b e c au se i t can n o t overcome t h e o p p o rtu n ism of
men l i k e B o n a p a rte , P e la g e o r V ic to r Hughes.
The s i m p l i f i c a t i o n o f h i s t o r y n e c e s s a r y t o t h e w r i t i n g o f t h i s
work as w e ll as t h e age o f i t s a u th o r s may acco u n t f o r c e r t a i n n a iv e
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f th e e v e n ts such as th e s t r i c t l y R o u s s e a u is t i n s p i
r a t i o n o f t h e F re n ch r e v o l u t i o n , t h e c h a r a c t e r o f the. M u la tto Gedeon,
o r t h e t o t a l l y M anichean v i s i o n o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een W hites
and B la c k s. The c h a r a c t e r s o f th e n o v e l a r e more ty p e s th a n i n d i v i d
u a ls b e c au se o f t h e scope o f t h e work: Ig n a c e i s th e maroon s la v e ;
Gedeon, t h e e d u c a te d M u la tto ; P e la g e i s t h e t r a i t o r t o h i s r a c e , a man
o f comprom ise who i s se en as t h e main re a s o n f o r th e r e b e l s ' f a i l u r e ;
V i c to r Hughes i s a man o f d u ty b u t, as se en i n Le N egre du g o u v e rn e u r,
he i s more d e v o te d t o d u ty i t s e l f th a n t o t h e c a u se b eh in d i t ; f i n a l l y
B o n a p a rte i s p r e s e n te d as an o p p o r tu n i s t d e v o te d t o t h e a c q u i s i t i o n
o f power f o r h i s own p u rp o s e s .
I n s p i t e o f t h e s e s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s , t h e n o v el i s i n t e r e s t i n g
b e c au se i t does n o t f a l l i n t o an o v e r g l o r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e e v e n ts
in v o lv e d . T h e re i s an a tte m p t t o a n a ly z e t h e f e e l i n g s o f t h e s l a v e s ,
t h e re a s o n s b e h in d t h e i r o f t e n d e f e a t i s t a t t i t u d e s , as w e ll as t h e
human c o n seq u en ces o f s l a v e r y such as d isc o u ra g e m e n t, w e a r in e s s and
d o u b ts as t o o n e 's p e r s o n a l v a l u e . . . a t t i t u d e s w hich a re s t i l l t o be
found i n th e i s l a n d s to d a y . T h e ir a n a ly s i s by a group o f young p e o p le
191
shows an aw areness o f t h e c o m p le x ity o f t h e problem s t h a t a r e , a t l e a s t
i n p a r t , a t t h e o r i g i n o f t h e u n easy s o c i a l c lim a te o f t h e F rench
o v e rs e a s d e p a rtm e n ts .
I I I . La M u la tre s s e S o l it u d e : The Q uest f o r t h e S e l f
I t i s t h i s n o v e l by Andre Schw arz— B a rt w hich i n s p i r e d th e h ig h -
s c h o o l s tu d e n t s whose work i s s tu d i e d above. They u se d i t as a m odel,
and b o th n o v e ls d e a l w ith t h e same moment o f h i s t o r y . A lthough Andre
S c h w a rz -B art i s n o t o f G uadeloupean o r i g i n , h i s n o v e l was s e l e c t e d f o r
t h i s s tu d y b e c au se o f i t s c o n t i n u i t y o f to n e w ith t h e w orks o f Simone
S c h w a rz -B a rt, w hich w i l l be a n a ly z e d l a t e r . Coming from a r e a l i t y
removed from t h a t o f t h e C a rib b e a n , Andre' S c h w a rz -B art adm its h a v in g
e n c o u n te re d d i f f i c u l t i e s a t w r i t i n g about th e G uadeloupean c o n te x t.
I n an in te r v ie w w ith H e lia n e and Roger Toumson, he e x p la in s t h e n a tu r e
o f t h e s e d i f f i c u l t i e s ;
J ’ a i r e n c o n tr e beaucoup de d i f f i c u l t e s , pas t a n t au n iv e a u de
l a d o c u m e n ta tio n , m ais j e r e s s e n t a i s que j e r e s t a i s a 1 ’ e x te
r i e u r e t que j e r i s q u a i s de som brer dans 1 ' e x o t i s m e .. . , o r
j e v o u l a i s l a v e r i t e , 1 ' a u t h e n t i c i t y du la n g a g e . I I f a l l a i t
t r o u v e r l e la n g a g e i n t e r i e u r . C o n n a itre l e C r e o le , en m e tro -
p o l e , ce n ' e s t pas l a meme c h o se . Simone c o n n a it l e C re o le
comme une lan g u e t o t a l e , une e x p r e s s io n v e r i t a b l e . ^
W orking w ith h i s w ife on t h e i r common n o v e l, Un P l a t de p o re aux
bananes v e r t e s , w hich was p u b lis h e d in 1967, e n a b le d t h e a u th o r t o
u n d e rs ta n d th o s e e le m en ts o f t h e G uadeloupean m ilie u w hich he c o u ld n o t
p r e v i o u s ly g r a s p , b u t w hich Simone S ch w arz-B art knows i n t u i t i v e l y .
Andre S c h w a rz -B art may n o t su c c e e d a t tr a n s p o s in g t h a t r e a l i t y as w e ll
192
as h i s w ife does by means o f h e r o r i g i n a l c o m b in a tio n o f F rench and
C re o le , but h i s a c co u n t o f S o l i t u d e 's l i f e does r e c r e a t e th e a m b ig u ity
o f th e G uadeloupean p a s t , an a m b ig u ity w hich p e r s i s t e n t l y to rm e n ts th e
c h a r a c t e r s o f Simone S c h w a rz -B a rt' s l a t e r n o v e ls . S o l i t u d e and Telumee
( s e e c h a p s. 4 and 5 f o r an a n a ly s i s o f S. S c h w a rz -B a rt' s n o v e l, P l u i e
e t v e n t s u r Telumee M ir a c le ) a r e l i n k s o f th e same c h a in . They b e lo n g
t o a lo n g l i n e o f c o u ra g e o u s , y e t som etim es r e s i g n e d , women who rem ain
s o l i t a r y i n t h e i r q u e s t f o r m eaning and i n t h e i r f i g h t a g a in s t s e l f
doubt as w e ll as a d v e rs e l i v i n g c o n d it io n s .
A s t o r y o f m arronnage a t a l l l e v e l s , La M u la tre s s e S o litu d e i s
b a sed on a t r u e e v e n t, th e e x e c u tio n o f a M u la tto woman named S o l it u d e
im m ed ia te ly a f t e r h e r d e l i v e r y . S o l i t u d e 's l i f e and a c ti o n s b elo n g t o
th e o r a l t r a d i t i o n , endowing h e r c h a r a c t e r w ith th e m y ste ry and wonder
o f a le g e n d . She goes th ro u g h h i s t o r i c a l e v e n ts .w hile l i v i n g h e r own
dream o f becoming one w ith th e i d e a l r e p r e s e n t e d by h e r m o th er. Thus,
i n t h i s n o v e l, h i s t o r y i s n o t d e a l t w ith p e r s e , but th ro u g h i t s
in f l u e n c e on t h e c h a r a c t e r s in v o lv e d .
The n o v e l s t a r t s w ith t h e r e l a t i o n o f t h e l i f e o f Bayangumay,
S o l i t u d e 's m o th e r, b e fo re h e r c a p tu re .. T h is p a s sa g e d e s c r i b e s th e
v a lu e s l o s t by t h e s la v e s as a r e s u l t o f t h e d i s r u p t i o n o f t h e s l a v e -
t r a d e , and i t m easu res th e im p o rta n c e o f t h i s l o s s . The gap betw een
th e s o c i e t y d e p ic te d t h e r e and th e c o l o n i a l s o c i e t y a llo w s one t o
u n d e rs ta n d th e d e p th o f t h e d is p la c e m e n t o f th e B la c k s.
Bayangumay' s v i l l a g e i s a s t r u c t u r e d s o c i e t y gov ern ed by s t r i c t
t r i b a l la w s. I n su ch an e n v iro n m en t, th e i n d i v i d u a l i s r e s t r i c t e d but
193
g u id e d and p a r t i c i p a t e s i n t h e l i f e o f t h e v i l l a g e as a member w ith h i s
own r o l e . From th e day o f h e r b i r t h , Bayangumay*s p a s t and f u t u r e a r e
s e t ; b e lie v e d t o be t h e r e i n c a r n a ti o n , o f h e r g ran d m o th er, sh e ta k e s h e r
p l a c e i n a h i e r a r c h y o f a n c e s to r s and f e e l s t h a t she i s one o f th e
l i n k s o f an e t e r n a l c h a in ; "D epuis son p lu s je u n e age,, l a p e t i t e f i l l e
r e v a i t de s a grandm ere Pongwe q u i e t a i t l e r e f l e t d 'u n e g ran d -m ere
p lu s a n c ie n n e , q u i elle-m em e e t a i t l e r e f l e t d 'u n e gran d -m ere p lu s
8
a n c ie n n e e n c o re , e t a i n s i de s u i t e , a l ' i n f i n i . " P ro m ised t o one of
h e r f a t h e r ' s f r i e n d s , h e r s i t u a t i o n i n l i f e i s s e t and r e q u i r e s no
e x p la n a ti o n . I n t h e m id st o f t h i s s t a b l e e n v iro n m en t, Bayangumay f e e l s
sh e h a s a r o l e t o f u l f i l i n l i f e , a lth o u g h sh e c a n n o t alw ays a n a ly z e
what i t i s ; " . . . e l l e se t r o u v a i t d e r e c h e f s a t i s f a i t e de s a .p o s i t i o n ,
un peu a c r o b a ti q u e , dans l ' e c h e l l e m y s te r ie u s e e t m ouvante des e t r e s "
(p . 1 5 ). Whenever som ething o c c u rs t o b re a k t h i s c h a in o f e v e n ts , such
as Bayangum ay's e sc a p a d e w ith Komobo, t h e v i l l a g e r s r e l y on t h e i r law s
and custom s t o r e s o l v e th e d i f f i c u l t y . The r e s p e c t th e v i l l a g e r s have
f o r Dyadyu, t o whom Bayangumay i s p ro m is e d , makes them se e th e.w isd o m
o f h i s f o r g i v in g b e h a v io r to w ard h e r . Once h i s d e c is i o n has been r a t i
f i e d by t h e g o ds, th ro u g h Bayangum ay's su b m issio n t o .th e t e s t o f t h e
w h ite h e n , th e y a r e s a t i s f i e d t h a t a l l i s w e l l. T h e ir r e l i g i o n p r o v id e s
t h e v i l l a g e r s w ith means o f e x p l a n a t i o n , . and th e y t u r n t o i t when, th e y
need a d v ic e as t o w hich a t t i t u d e t o adopt f o r t h e w e ll- b e in g o f a l l .
The r o l e o f t h e women and, more p a r t i c u l a r l y , t h a t . o f th e m o th e r, i s to
s e e t h a t t h e c h i l d r e n behave a c c o rd in g t o t h e r o l e s e t f o r them . Conse
q u e n tl y , Bayangum ay's m other r e s t r i c t s t h e young g i r l ' s im p u lses by
194
c o n s t a n t l y rem in d in g h e r . o f h e r p o s i t i o n i n l i f e and o f t h e u n b re a k a b le
law s g o v e rn in g i t . The l i f e o f th e v i l l a g e r s i s se e n as. one o f p e a ce
and harm ony. .Time flows, e v e n ly g i v i n g - t h e . v i l l a g e r s a n .im p r e s s io n o f
c o n t i n u i t y u n d is tu r b e d f o r c e n t u r i e s . The a u th o r p o r t r a y s an i d y l l i c
A f r ic a w here th e l i f e o f men h as a m eaning and w here th e y know them
s e lv e s -fo r what th e y a r e .
T h is v i s i o n i s b r u t a l l y s h a tt e r e d , by th e s l a v e - t r a d e r s , , and Bayan
gumay s e e s h e r s e l f ’ u p ro o te d from a l l she knew a f t e r h a v in g w itn e s s e d
t h e d e s t r u c t i o n . o f t h e v i l l a g e and o f a l l t h a t gave h e r l i f e m eaning
and d i r e c t i o n .. When, o n .t h e s l a v e - s h i p , she t r i e s t o m a k e .h e r i d e n t i t y
known,, f i r s t by g iv in g t h e name, o f h e r p a r e n ts , and t h e n t h a t o f h e r
husb an d , t h e r e i s no r e s p o n s e . She c a n .n o lo n g e r r e l y on h e r h i s t o r y
s i n c e , s e p a r a te d from h e r p e o p le , i t has become m e a n in g le s s . When she
h e a rs Komobo' s v o i c e , sh e b a r e l y re c o g n iz e s i t , f o r Komobo i s no lo n g e r
th e boy she knew;, b u t a man who, l i k e her., has l o s t a l l u n d e rs ta n d in g
o f h i s s u rro u n d in g s.. The r u p t u r e w ith h e r p a s t i s th u s consummated.
When one r e c a l l s Bayangumay*s dreams about h e r f u t u r e d a u g h te r ,,
"une p e t i t e f i l l e . . . q u i p o r t e r a i t l e meme n e z , l e s merries yeux, l e s
memes epaul.es f r i s s o n n a n t e s au v e n t, l e meme s ig n e de f r a i s e ou
p l u t o t de mure b l e u i s s a n t a- son v e n t r e . . . ." ( p . 1 2 ) , one u n d e rs ta n d s
h e r m ixed f e e l i n g s to w ard h e r m u la tto d a u g h te r . L i t t l e R o s a lie , has
none o f th o s e f a m i l i a r f e a t u r e s : o f p a le co m p lex io n , th e mark o f t h e
M u la tto e s on h e r b ack, and eyes of. d i f f e r e n t c o l o r s , sh e b e tr a y s h e r
m o th e r 's hopes o f f i n d i n g a c o n ti n u a ti o n o f h e r s e l f i n h e r d a u g h te r .
195
The a m b ig u ity o f Bayangum ay's f e e l i n g s to w ard R o s a lie r e f l e c t s
t h e a m b ig u ity o f h e r b e h a v io r . H aving two nam es, Bayangumay, now c a l l e d
Man B o b e tte , has two l i v e s , an i n t e r n a l and an e x t e r n a l one. A p p a re n tly
sh e has been broken by s l a v e r y , has aged p r e m a tu r e ly and has l o s t a l l
d e s i r e t o f i g h t . The s c a r s w hich c o v e r h e r body add t o h e r a p p e ara n ce
o f p h y s ic a l d e g r a d a tio n . B ut, as R o s a lie knows, Man B o b e tte le a d s a
s e c r e t l i f e w i t h in h e r s e l f . S le e p r e v e a ls h e r h id d en y o u th , and she
som etim es s p o r t s an a i r . o f d e f ia n c e w hich i s a s ig n o f th e l a t e n t
r e v o l t i n s i d e h e r . But i t i s i n h e r eyes t h a t h e r h a t r e d shows m ost;
"d eu x p e t i t s c ra b e s de t e r r e , b ie n t a p i s sous l e u r s p a u p ie r e s e t q u i
n 'a r r e t a i e n t ja m a is de b o u g e r, de f u r e t e r , de c i s a i l l e r I ' a i r am biant"
(p . 5 2 ). Man B o b e tte and t h e o ld N egro, h e r com panion, keep t h e i r
h a t r e d a l i v e d u r in g lo n g c o n v e r s a tio n s a t n ig h t w h ile w a i ti n g f o r th e
o p p o rtu n e moment t o escape,. I t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g th e n t h a t , when Man
B o b e tte i s h e a rd o f a g a in s e v e r a l months a f t e r h e r e s c a p e , she i s s a id
t o have "d e s ch ev eu x , un s u r p r e n a n t a i r de je u n e s s e , e l l e d o rm a it avec
un g ran d n e g re A rada e t v e n a i t de m e ttr e au monde un e n f a n t , a u s s i
j o l i e t n o i r q u ’une g r a in e d 'i c a q u e " (p . 7 2 ). Among t h e m aroons, she
has found a p la c e w here sh e can be h e r s e l f and w here, f i n a l l y , th e
c h i l d o f h e r dream s has come t o h e r .
R o s a lie u n d e rs ta n d s Man B o b e tte ’ s e sc a p e as a .p e rs o n a l f a i l u r e .
She has n o t been a b le t o g a in h e r m o th e r 's lo v e and f e e l s t h a t she i s
now r e j e c t e d a seco n d tim e b e c au se she has n o t o n ly f a i l e d t o f u l f i l
h e r m o th e r 's dream s, but sh e has a ls o f a i l e d t o r e t a i n h e r by h e r s i d e .
R o s a lie was d e e p ly h u r t by Man B o b e t te 's i n d i f f e r e n c e to w a rd h e r
196
d u r in g h e r e a r l y y e a r s . Now, she i s s h a t t e r e d by what she c o n s id e r s
t o be h e r m o th e r 's f i n a l abandonm ent. However, s u s ta i n e d by t h e hope
o f f in d i n g h e r m o th er a g a in , R o s a lie s t a r t s w a i ti n g , su b m its t o .th e
W hites and does what she i s t o l d . Having le a r n e d from t h e . o l d Negro
a n d .fro m h e r m other n e v e r t o . t r u s t h e r s e l f .because, she c a r r i e s i n h e r
th e b e t r a y a l o f h e r o w n -rac e , she d e c id e s t o com ply, t o dance th e dance
o f t h e W h ite s, but. "av e c un p e t i t a i r d 'a t t e n d r e q u i ne d i s a i t r i e n q u i
v a i l l e " (p . 6 3 ) . The name Deux-ames g iv e n t o h e r b e c au se o f th e c o lo r
o f h e r eyes e x p re s s e s h e r d u a l i t y . j u s t as h e r s t u t t e r i n g i s p r o o f t h a t
t h e r e i s w i t h in h e r som ethin g t h a t does n o t want t o a c c e p t t h e r e a l i t y
sh e bends t o . Her s e c r e t c o n v e r s a tio n s w ith Man B o b e tte te a c h h e r t h a t
a c c e p ta n c e can be a weapon, and she behaves a c c o r d in g ly . But she n e v e r
f in d s p e a ce b e c au se nobody s ta n d s a t h e r s id e who c o u ld t e l l h e r o f th e
v a l i d i t y o f h e r t h o u g h ts . Man B o b e t te 's seco n d b e t r a y a l u n le a s h e s
R o s a l i e 's a m b ig u itie s . She goes from s e r v i l e a c c e p ta n c e t o sudden
v i o l e n c e . The f i g h t i s to o h a rd f o r h e r , and she w ish e s t o become some
t h in g a l s e , w h ile f e a r i n g t h e outcome o f a m etam o rp h o sis. What i f
s e r v i l i t y i n s t e a d o f r e v o l t to o k o v e r and she became a dog, t h e suprem e
symbol o f h u m il ia t io n f o r her? E l l e c r a i g n a i t m a in te n a n t de d e v e n ir
a u t r e , e l l e l e c r a i g n a i t e t e l l e l e d e s i r a i t . . . m ais s u r t o u t e l l e l e
c r a i g n a i t a tro c e m e n tj q u e lq u e ch o se de t e r r i f i a n t , un c h ie n p a r
exem ple, comme on d i t que c e r t a i n e s p e rs o n n e s m au vaises to u r n e n t"
( p . 7 5 ). R o s a l i e 's s o u l i s n o th in g b u t c o n fu s io n ov er what she i s and
what sh e sh o u ld b e . In c a p a b le o f c h o o sin g betw een th e tw o w o rld s
o f f e r e d t o h e r , i n c a p a b le o f su rm o u n tin g t h e a m b ig u ity o f h e r blood.
197
and o f h e r th o u g h ts , sh e s in k s i n t o a k in d o f m adness w hich i s p u re
d e n i a l o f t h e w o rld , and ta k e s th e name o f " S o li t u d e " t o s i g n i f y h e r
e stra n g e m e n t from h e r s u rr o u n d in g s .
S o l i t u d e 's slow r e b i r t h t o t h e w o rld s t a r t s w ith t h e a b o l i t i o n o f
s la v e r y when she i s f i n a l l y a b le t o weep, a s ig n o f h e r budding new
hu m an ity . She s t i l l s ta n d s on t h e edge o f t h e w o rld as an o b s e rv e r ,
but h e r a t t i t u d e r e v e a ls moments o f a w aren ess as i f b lood w ere s lo w ly
r e t u r n i n g t o h e r s le e p i n g body. When,s h e ,s e e s o t h e r women f a l l i n g i n t o
t h e t t r a p o f b e l i e v i n g i n th e m a le d ic tio n o f t h e i r c o l o r , " e l l e r e s s e n -
t a i t un p ic o te m e n t s u r l e c o t e , une s i m i l i d o u le u r d'am e" (p . 8 3 ).
When s la v e r y i s r e i n s t a t e d , S o l it u d e a c c e p ts i t b e c au se i t i s l e s s
dan g ero u s t o th e B lacks th a n freedom and r e i n f o r c e s t h e t i e s betw een
them : " S o li t u d e r e s s e n t i t une n o u v e lle f o i s , m ais de fag o n p lu s p r o -
fo n d e , e s s e n t i e l l e , l e l i e n que c e t t e c o rd e a u to u r du. cou e t a b l i s s a i t
avec se s sem blables} e t , sa n s que n u l ne s 'e n a p e r g u t, un vague s o u r i r e
s 'e s q u i s s a s u r s e s l e v r e s . . . " (p . 8 4 ). But i t i s h e r s tr a n g e r e l a t i o n
s h ip w ith t h e n e g ro woman F r o s ia n e w hich f i n a l l y b r in g s Man B o b e tte
back i n t o S o l i t u d e 's l i f e and s e t s h e r a g a in on h e r p a th .
The s ig n o f h e r co m p lete r e c o v e ry comes a g a in w ith t e a r s as she
f i n a l l y j o in s th e m aroons o f t h e Moudongue Sanga. I t i s n o t e a sy t o
g a in t h e i r a c c e p ta n c e b e cau se o f h e r s k in c o lo r and o f th e sm e ll o f
s e r v i t u d e w hich em anates from h e r , but t h e r e i s a v u l n e r a b i l i t y about
h e r , as o f a newborn c h i l d , w hich ..softens them t o h e r p l i g h t . She i s
s t i l l h a u n te d by d o u b ts about h e r s e l f and t r i e s t o f i l l th e v o id w i t h in
h e r by i m i t a t i n g t h e n e g ro women about h e r , w hich i s im p o s s ib le b e c au se
198
t h e r e i s so l i t t l e A f r ic a l e f t i n h e r and she does n o t know w here she
comes from . I t i s th ro u g h t h e t e s t o f v io le n c e t h a t she f i n a l l y becomes
an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e m aroons as she k i l l s a w h ite s o l d i e r . A lth o u g h
h e r s i s n o t a c o n s c io u s g e s t u r e , s in c e a t th e moment o f h e r a c t sh e
se e k s t h e d e a th w hich would f r e e h e r from h e r d o u b ts and from h e r n ig h t
m a re s, i t i s s e e n and u n d e rs to o d as such by t h e maroons f o r whom
v io le n c e i s a way o f l i f e and a s ig n o f i d e n t i t y .
But i t i s o n ly th ro u g h h e r e n c o u n te r w ith t h e C ongolese Maimouni
t h a t she w i l l e x p e rie n c e l i f e t o i t s f u l l e s t . Maimouni. i s t h e i d e a l
man t o h e r , h e r a n t i t h e s i s , b e c a u se he h a s rem ained u n to u ch e d by t h e
W hites and has r e t a i n e d a l l t h e g e s tu r e s and modes o f t h i n k i n g o f
A f r ic a . T h e re a r e no h e s i t a t i o n s i n Maimouni, and h i s l i f e has t h e
s a m e .e te r n a l rhythm as t h a t o f th e D io la s d e s c r ib e d e a r l i e r i n t h e
n o v e l. M alm ouni's eyes e x p re s s h i s l i n n e r p eace and h i s a b i l i t y t o f i n d
jo y i n sim p le t h i n g s . F or S o l i t u d e , th e s e eyes c o n t r a s t w ith t h o s e
she h as alw ays known, th o s e o f Man B o b e tte , w hich r e v e a le d e i t h e r
n o th in g o r t e r r i f y i n g th o u g h ts . I t i s i n M alm ouni's eyes t h a t sh e f in d s
th e r e a s s u r a n c e she n e e d s. T h e re i s , how ever, more aw aren ess o f th e
p r e s e n t i n Maimouni th a n i t may seem a t f i r s t , and S o l it u d e r e s p e c t s
him f o r h i s a b i l i t y t o d e a l w ith t h a t p r e s e n t c a lm ly . R e a l iz in g th e
f e a r o f th e m aroons a f t e r th e y h e a r g u n s h o ts , and more p a r t i c u l a r l y
S o l i t u d e 's a n g u is h , he d e m o n s tra te s h i s lo v e t o h e r .w i t h a seem in g ly
c h i l d i s h g e s t u r e , t h a t o f p u l l i n g h e r h a i r , th u s b r in g in g h e r back
t o th e g r e a t e s t t r u t h she has known u n t i l now, t h a t o f man and woman
t o g e t h e r . Maimouni l i v e s i n t h e p r e s e n t , but t h e f u t u r e h o ld s no
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c e r t a i n t y f o r him , a f a c t t h a t i s shown by h i s d i s t r e s s a t n o t knowing
what t h e f a t e o f t h e i r f u t u r e c h i l d can be o r w i l l be; " . . . i l ne s u t
jam a is q u e l c o e u r a t t r i b u e r a 1 ' e n f a n t . I I ne l u i v o u l a i t pas un c o e u r
d 'A f r iq u e , q u i ne s e r v i r a i t de r i e n en t e r r e e t r a n g e r e , e t non m oins ne
se r e s i g n a - t - i l a un c o e u r de b la n c , de n e g re ou de m u la tr e , un c o e u r
b a t t a n t au rythm e o b s c u r de l a G uadeloupe” (p . 1 2 0 ). Maimouni d i e s a t
t h e h e a r t o f a b a t t l e he does n o t w ish t o j o i n b e c au se he has n e v e r
known th e h u m il ia t io n s o f s la v e r y ; he o n ly w an ts t o s h a r e one l a s t
moment o f p e a ce w ith S o l i t u d e , knowing t h a t t h e end h as f i n a l l y come.
T h ere i s i n h i s l a s t g e s tu r e a g r a c e f u ln e s s which, makes him u n iq u e in
th e m id st o f t h e v i o le n c e , h a t r e d and d e s p a i r o f t h e r e b e l s ' l a s t s a c
r i f i c e .
The end o f S o l it u d e comes q u ic k ly . The f i n a l p ag es o f th e n o v e l
r e c o r d th e v i o le n c e o f t h e l a s t com bats, t h e d e s p a i r o f t h e B lacks
b e tr a y e d by t h e i r own k in d , and th e se em in g ly g r a t u i t o u s b lo o d sh ed
w hich f o llo w s . S o l i t u d e 's b e h a v io r c o n t r a s t s w ith h e r s u rr o u n d in g s .
I n h e r e y e s , d e a th becomes a c e l e b r a t i o n . U n lik e h e r c o m p a n io n s ,.s h e
i s a b le t o d ie i n b ro ad d a y l i g h t , k e e p in g h e r d i g n i t y t o t h e end. Her
l a s t e n c o u n te r w ith th e " n e g r e s s e a m adras p e rv e n c h e " comes as a
c o n fir m a tio n o f w hat she had le a r n e d w h ile w a tc h in g Man B o b e tte — t h a t
su b m issio n can be an a p p e a ra n c e t o h id e d e s i r e s t h a t b id e t h e i r tim e s .
A lthough th e n o v e l ends on th e b i t t e r s w e e t n o te o f S o l i t u d e 's calm
d e a th , i t a ls o makes a r a p i d in v e n to r y o f a l l t h e a t r o c i t i e s com m itted
a t t h e end o f t h e c o n f r o n t a t i o n . T h is c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e to n e o f t h e
n o v e l w hich p r e s e n t s c h a r a c t e r s c o n s t a n t l y t e e t e r i n g betw een hope and
200
d e s p a i r , , betw een d i g n i t y and s u b s e r v ie n c e and e v e n ts b o th t r a g i c and
p e a c e f u l. S o l it u d e h e r s e l f , i n s p i t e o f t h e e q u ilib r iu m sh e f in d s w ith
M aimouni, can n e v e r g e t r i d o f h e r do u b ts about h e r s e l f . As opposed t o
Bayangumay i n t h e b e g in n in g o f t h e n o v e l, she n e v e r knows what h e r
p la c e i s i n t h e o r d e r o f t h i n g s ; " S o l i t u d e . . . se d i s a i t en s o u r i a n t
q u 'e l l e n ' e t a i t p as g ra n d -c h o s e , v r a im e n t, s u r l a t e r r e d e s hommes, ne
s a c h a n t meme pas a l ' i n t e r i e u r de q u e l re v e e l l e se t r o u v a i t " (p . 1 1 7 ).
H er f a i t h i n h e r s e l f has been d e s tr o y e d , and t h e r e i s alw ays i n h e r
t h e l a t e n t a n g u is h t h a t sh e m ight have been i n f lu e n c e d by w h ite th o u g h t
and th u s become u n a b le t o f o rm u la te a p u re b la c k th o u g h t. The Moudongue
Sanga a t t r i b u t e s th e c o n tin u o u s d e f e a t o f t h e B lacks t o t h e same causes
"T out c e l a a r r i v a i t b e l e t b ie n a c a u se du m y ste re de l a p e n s e e b la n c h e
e t c e u x - l a e t a i e n t b e l e t b ie n p e rd u s q u i e n t r a i e n t dans c e t t e p e n s e e ,
i l s d e v e n a ie n t comme des om bres, des m ario n n ett.e s a l ’ i n t e r i e u r du
rev e; des hommes b la n c s " (p . 109) . I t i s b e cau se o f t h i s i n s i d i o u s
i n f l u e n c e t h a t t h e b la c k man i s l o s t , , b e c au se he c a n n o t, u n d e r t h e sy s
tem o f s l a v e r y , r e t a i n h i s a u t h e n t i c i t y . T h is e x p la in s th e r e t u r n t o
t h e p l a n t a t i o n o f t h e e sca p e d s la v e C a rro u s e l th ro u g h whom S o l it u d e
l e a r n s o f Man B o b e tte ; i t e x p la in s th e b e t r a y a l o f P e la g e and o f h i s
t r o o p s ; i t e x p la in s t h e a t t i t u d e o f su b m issio n o f t h e t h r e e C ongolese
who f o llo w S o l it u d e i n h e r c o n s ta n t f l i g h t and th e d e s p a i r o f th e
B lack s o v e r th e m s e lv e s ; " . . . u n p ro fo n d decouragem ent s 'e m p a r a des a u tre s
q u i v o y a ie n t p o u r l a p re m ie re f o i s se d r e s s e r c o n tr e eux l e u r p r o p re
c o u le u r . I l s vous r e g a r d a ie n t avec des yeux f o u s , s o u r i a i e h t , v e r s a i e n t
des p l e u r s , s o u r i a i e n t a nouveau p o u r d i r e que ce n ' e t a i t p lu s l a p e in e ,
201
c a r l e n e g re e s t m au d it de t o u t e e t e r n i t e " ( p . 1 2 6 ). P e la g e i s t h e
r e c u r r i n g symbol o f t h i s m a l e d ic t io n , "m elange s i n g u l i e r de g ra n d e u r
e t de s e r v i t u d e " , a l i v i n g exam ple o f s e l f - d e s t r u c t i v e com portm ent.
T hus,' th e n o v e l exp o ses t h e a m b ig u itie s w hich t e a r t h e B lacks
a p a r t , tr a n s f o r m them i n t o "zom bis" such as S o l i t u d e , l e a d them i n t o
t h e p a th o f s e l f - d e n i a l and r e n d e r them p o w e rle s s t o f i g h t f o r an
e lu s i v e freedom . A lthough S o l it u d e f i g h t s t o d is c o v e r h e r s e l f , sh e can
n e v e r r e g a i n t h e s e r e n i t y w hich c h a r a c t e r i z e d Bayangumay d u rin g h e r
fearly y e a r s i n A f r i c a o r even M aim ouni's s h e l t e r e d w o rld .
IV. M alem ort: C y cles o f O p p re ssio n
At t h e c o re o f M alem ort, a complex n o v e l i n w hich Edouard G l i s s a n t
r e c a p tu r e s fra g m en ts o f t h e h i s t o r y o f M a rtin iq u e and t r i e s t o f i t them
t o g e t h e r l i k e p ie c e s o f a p u z z le , i s a d en se p a s s a g e e n t i t l e d : " V is io n
de ceux q u i sa n s c e s s e tom bent e t se r e l e v e n t f u s i l l e s . " T his c h a p te r
c o v e rs th e y e a r s 1788 to 1974 and shows th e h i s t o r y o f t h e i s l a n d as
t h a t o f a s u c c e s s io n o f o p p re s s io n s and f a i l u r e s , d e f in e d as " c e d e f i l e
de m ort - q u i. . . . l e s a v a i t menes ou ou o u . . . " ^
T h ree unnamed men, t h r e e f u g i t i v e s , ru n th ro u g h se v en e p is o d e s o f
th e h i s t o r y o f th e i s l a n d , unnamed b e cau se th e y r e p r e s e n t th e p e o p le as
a w hole and become a u n i v e r s a l symbol o f th e o p p r e s s io n o f th e b la c k
man. The ch ro n o lo g y o f t h e e v e n ts i s r e s p e c te d b u t th e y a r e . l i n k e d
t o g e t h e r i n a c o n tin u o u s flo w a t th e same b r e a t h l e s s p ace a t t h a t o f
t h e f l i g h t o f t h e t h r e e men in v o lv e d . The u se o f m inim al p u n c tu a tio n
202
makes th e w hole c h a p te r one s i n g l e s e n te n c e which, m ust be re a d a t one
go, le a v in g th e r e a d e r h im s e lf b r e a t h l e s s , w ondering a t t h e r e p e t i t i o n
o f h i s t o r y , w ondering when th e f l i g h t o f t h o s e men w i l l s to p ; b u t i t
does n o t s to p . The e n d le s s s e n te n c e rem ain s u n f i n i s h e d , s i g n i f y i n g t h a t
t h e f u t u r e may v e ry w e ll r e p e a t t h e p a t t e r n o f v i o le n c e , d e a th and
o p p r e s s io n fo llo w e d by t h e p a s t .
F i r s t , t h e t h r e e men a r e m aroons; th e y r e c a l l th e a b o m in a tio n o f
th e M iddle P a s s a g e and r e f u s e t h e f a t e im posed upon them , r e f u s e t o be.
ro bbed o f t h e b a s ic p le a s u r e s o f l i f e such as l i g h t , r e s t and lo v e .
They h id e f o r a moment w ith two s i l e n t s l a v e s , a man and a woman, who
r e c o g n iz e t h e i r need f o r freedom s in c e t h e y , th e m s e lv e s , w a it f o r th e
u l t i m a t e l i b e r a t i o n , d e a th , on a p l a n t a t i o n w here, f o r t u n a t e l y , one
d ie s f a s t , "un e n d r o i t ou on m o u ra it en p i l e h eu reu sem en t" .(p . 1 1 6 ).
They f i n d a moment o f p e a ce a t t h e warmth o f t h i s u n c o n d itio n a l, h o s p i
t a l i t y , knowing w e l l .t h a t i t w i l l c o s t them a l l t h e i r l i v e s . When th e
s la v e - h u n te r s * dogs a r e h e a r d , d e a th comes f a s t , b u t n o t f a s t enough,
s in c e t h e t h r e e f u g i t i v e s have tim e t o h e a r t h e c y n ic a l comments o f
t h e i r m u rd e re rs and t o w itn e s s th e agony o f t h e i r momentary h o s t s .
R eborn, th e y p a r t i c i p a t e i n th e e x h i l a r a t i o n o f th e a b o l i t i o n ,
t h e i r new freedom b e in g sy m b o lize d by t h e f a c t , t h a t th e y can p e n e t r a t e
t h e fo rb id d e n c i r c l e o f th e m a s t e r 's h o u se . But t h i s freedom i s s h o r t
l i v e d , f o r th e y le a v e th e h o u se , symbol o f th e i n s t i t u t i o n , i n t a c t :
" . . . i l s ne v i r e n t pas q u ' i l s a v a ie n t l a i s s e l a m a is o n .d e b o u t" ( p . 1 1 7 ).
D eath comes a g a in , i r o n i c a l and e n d le s s , a t th e moment when t h e a b o l i
t i o n i s f i n a l l y v o te d and has become a f a c t t h e p l a n t e r s w i l l have
203
t o c o n te n d w ith . They d i e , v ic tim s o f th e a n g e r o f th e m a s te rs who ta k e
ad v a n ta g e o f t h e i r l a s t moments o f suprem acy t o a c co m p lish a f i n a l
v e n g e fu l a c t .
S la v e r y i s a b o lis h e d , b u t n o th in g changes and e x p l o i t a t i o n c o n t i
n u e s . The t h r e e f u g i t i v e s go about denouncing th e b e t r a y a l o f freedom ,
th e f a c t t h a t th e y a r e s t i l l f o rc e d t o t o i l w ith o u t p a y . They sh o u t
t h a t t h i s m ust s to p , t h a t t h e B lacks m ust s t a r t w orking f o r th e m se lv e s
and r e f u s e t o su b m it t o t h o s e who c o n tin u e t o e n s la v e them . They c a l l
t h e i r com panions, i n v i t i n g them t o f l e e t h e p l a n t a t i o n s i f th e y a re n o t
p a id f o r t h e i r w ork. But t h e r e a r e th o s e who ca n n o t l i v e o u t s i d e th e
c o l o n i a l o r d e r and who do n o t w ish t o le a v e t h e p l a n t a t i o n . The b r i e f
i l l u s i o n o f freedom ends a g a in in d e a th .
Time p a s s e s and th e B lacks a r e now b e tr a y e d by p e o p le o f t h e i r
own r a c e , th e M u la tto e s , who c la im t o be w orking f o r t h e -b e n e f i t o f
a l l w h ile o n ly r e v e a l i n g t h e i r c o l l u s i o n w ith th e W h ite s . T h e ir
sp e ec h e s about e q u a l i t y and f r a t e r n i t y and t h e need f o r a l l t o p a r t i c i
p a te i n t h e m aking o f t h e c o u n tr y a re d e v o id o f s i g n i f i c a n c e s in c e con
d i t i o n s have n o t changed f o r t h e B la c k s. The t h r e e c o n tin u e t o v o ic e
t h e i r r e f u s a l t o s u b m it, t h e i r r e f u s a l t o work w ith m a c h in e s .t h a t maim
and k i l l : " I l s ne v o u l a i e n t p lu s t r a v a i l l e r s i c ' e t a i t t r a v a i l l e r a l a
d i s t i l l e r i e de M e ss ie u rs l e s f r e r e s du P la n , chaque m ois q u e lq u 'u n
to m b a it dans une cuve a c e n t d ix d e g re s ou c a l a i t son b ra s dans une
p r e s s e ou s ' e b o u i l l a n t a i t dans l a v a p e u r ou s 'e n v o l a i t dans une c o u r-
r o i e " (p . 1 2 2 ). The i s l a n d i s now d iv id e d i n t o two camps, th e W hites
and t h e M u la tto e s a g a in s t t h e B la c k s, d iv id e d by f e a r and h a t r e d ,
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b u t alw ays t h e same ones l o s e and t h e t h r e e a r e m assa c re d i n t h e name
o f law and o r d e r .
T h is r a c e th ro u g h h i s t o r y b r in g s t h e f u g i t i v e s t o modern t i m e s .
They a r e now t r a d e - u n i o n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s le a d i n g a s t r i k e w ith a l l t h e
p r i v a t i o n s i t c a u se s f o r th o s e who have t o u s e i t a s . a. weapon. ..But th e
s t r i k e means, more t h a n . t h a t , more th a n what can be e x p la in e d w i t h .
w ords, M. . . l a la n g u e ne p e r m e t t a i t pas d 'e x p o s e r l e s .p ro b lem es"
(p . 1 2 4 ),, more th a n w hat can be s a i d 'i n , th e . lan g u a g e a v a i l a b l e ; one
would have t o i n v e n t new w ords t o e x p re s s th e h u m i l i a t i o n s , th e f r u s
t r a t i o n s , t h e p a in , and t h e a n g e r, .'"to u t c e t i n t e r d i t de memoire q u i
so u d a in e x p l o s a i t a l a g o rg e en un en c h ev e tre m en t sa n s s u i t e , n i l o g i -
que" ( p . 1 2 4 ), w hich a re summed up i n t h e g e s tu r e o f th e s t r i k e . D eath
comes a g a in i n t h e name o f law and o r d e r .
Slow ly th e econom ic s t r u c t u r e o f t h e i s l a n d c h a n g e s. The s u g a r
cane f a c t o r i e s become abandoned s t r u c t u r e s s a c r i f i c e d f o r th e sak e o f
p e r s o n a l g a in by t h e i r .ow ners.. The t h r e e ,, s t i l l on the. r u n , now have
t o f a c e th e l o c a l p o l i c e as r e p r e s e n t e d by Tigamba,. Tigamba i s no
lo n g e r t h e d u t i f u l b u t human, c h a r a c t e r o f La L e z a r d e , b u t a m e r c il e s s
man who knows t h a t he i s b e in g p r o t e c t e d by. t h e law and t h a t h is a c
t i o n s w i l l n o t be ju d g ed e x c ep t by h i s own p e o p le — w hich m a tte r s l i t t l e
t o him . Now, even v io le n c e becomes m e a n in g le s s ,, and nobody knows any
lo n g e r why i t o c c u r s , why. o p p r e s s io n c o n tin u e s ,, why men d ie ,, " n u l ne
s a v a i t p o u rq u o i une f o i s de p lu s l e s gens de l a f o r c e p u b liq u e a v a ie n t
tir e i dans l e s r u e s . . . " ( p . 1 2 8 ). S e l f - s a c r i f i c e a n d 'h e ro is m , to o have
become m e a n in g le s s as sy m b o lize d -b y th e name o f A n to in e S i g e r ,
205
f o r g o t t e n by h i s p e o p le b e c au se l o c a l h i s t o r y i s s u p e rs e d e d by m e tro
p o l i t a n h i s t o r y . The f u g i t i v e s d ie a g a in , u n a b le t o make t h e i r own
p e o p le u n d e rs ta n d why th e y have chosen d e a th .
On an i s l a n d d i s f i g u r e d by r e a l e s t a t e d e v e lo p e rs and e x p l o i t e r s
o f to u r is m , w hich i s . b e i n g m a n ip u la te d t o th e e x te n t t h a t even t h e
c a r n i v a l h as l o s t i t s t r u e m eaning, " t r i s t e c a rn a v a l m an ip u le comme une
b o i t e de d e r i v a t i o n ” (p . 1 2 9 ), th e t h r e e s t i l l w ander. T h e ir new t a s k
i s t o c o n v in c e t h e i r p e o p le n o t t o abandon t h e i r l a n d , n o t t o l e t i t
d i e , b e c au se th e la n d i s what th e y have s tr u g g l e d f o r and:;rem ains th e
o n ly m e a n in g fu l t h i n g i n a s o c i e t y o f m a k e -b e lie v e , a s o c i e t y w hich has
become an a b s u rd r e p l i c a o f t h a t o f F ra n c e . I n t h i s s o c i e t y , v i o le n c e
now s t r i k e s t h e in n o c e n ts on t h e s t r e e t s , a im le s s ly and w ith o u t p u n is h
ment.- Even t h e la n d i t s e l f no lo n g e r o f f e r s p r o t e c t i o n ; when th e t h r e e
f u g i t i v e s f l e e th e doomed c i t y t o f i n d r e f u g e i n th e woods w hich, u n t i l
now, had alw ays been th e l a s t s h e l t e r o f th e m aroons o f a l l a g e s , th e y
f in d nowhere t o go, f in d n o th in g b u t empty sp a c e w here d e a th w a its f o r
them.
H i s to r y does n o t s to p t h e r e : th e t h r e e a r e now re a d y t o s te p i n t o
th e f u t u r e and c o n tin u e t h e i r f i g h t th ro u g h a n o th e r c y c le o f o p p re ssio n ,
h o p in g t h a t , some d ay , th e y w i l l be a b le t o p a tc h t o g e t h e r th e p ie c e s
o f t h e i r e n d le s s s a c r i f i c e t o make i t . m e a n in g fu l.
Each one o f th e sev en e p is o d e s ends w ith th e image o f th e c o n fro n
t a t i o n o f in n o c e n t c h i l d r e n w ith u n a c c o u n ta b le v io le n c e and d e a th .
From t h e p a t h e t i c h e l p l e s s n e s s of. th e c h i l d o f th e f i r s t two .s la v e s
who w a tc h es h i s p a r e n t s d i e i n t h e b u rn in g o f t h e i r c a b in , t o th e
206
a s to n is h m e n t o f t h e c h i l d who w itn e s s e s th e f u g i t i v e s ' l a s t agony,
th e c h i l d r e n a r e s i l e n t s p e c t a t o r s o f th e s u f f e r i n g s o f t h e men and
women o f t h e i s l a n d . The eyes o f th e s e c h i l d r e n s t o r e im ages o f t h e
s u f f e r i n g s w hich w i l l be t h e i r s i n th e f u t u r e , t h e i r s to .re m em b e r and
t h e i r s t o d e a l w ith i n w h ic h e v e r way th e y can, knowing from now on
t h a t t h e r e a r e o n ly two a l t e r n a t i v e s , p a s s iv e a c c e p ta n c e o r v i o le n c e .
The h o r r o r r e a c h e s i t s g r e a t e s t h e ig h t when t h e c h i l d r e n th e m s e lv e s
s t a r t d y ing f o r no re a s o n ; " I I y a v a i t q u e lq u e ch ose de change . . . l e s
e n f a n ts ne r e g a r d a i e n t p lu s i l s m o u ra ie n t a u s s i" (p., 1 2 9 ). Edouard
G l i s s a n t comments upon t h i s t r u e e v e n t i n Le D isc o u rs a n t i l l a i s : "Ce
q u i fra p p e l e p lu s dans ce m e u rtre y c ’ e s t son c a r a c t e r e t r a n q u i l l e ,
d e r i s o i r e . " ^ T h is comment can c h a r a c t e r i z e as w e ll t h e s u c c e s s iv e
d e a th s o f th e f u g i t i v e s th ro u g h o u t h i s t o r y who d ie q u i e t l y w h ile t h e i r
m u rd e re rs lo o k on.
W hereas th e t h r e e f u g i t i v e s have as t h e i r o n ly p r o t e c t i o n t h e
s w i f t n e s s o f t h e i r f l i g h t , th e y c o n fr o n t i n c r e a s i n g l y d e a d ly w eapons.
A f t e r t h e d o g s, w hich w ere th e d e a th of.m any a m aroon, th e o p p r e s s o r s
u s e more and more s o p h i s t i c a t e d w e a p o n ry ^ -a ll m a n n e r'o f guns; " f u s i l s " ,
" c h a s s e p o ts " , "m o u sq u e to n s", " la n c e -g re n a d e s " " —w hich h i n t s a t th e
e s c a l a t i o n o f v i o le n c e and i t s more and more o rg a n iz e d c h a r a c t e r .
J e e p s , L a n d ro v ers and h e l i c o p t e r s complement t h e modern a r s e n a l t o
make a l l e sc a p e im p o s s ib le . T h is overarm am ent r e v e a ls t h e b a s ic f e a r
o f th e o p p re s s o rs who need th e c o n s ta n t r e a s s u r a n c e o f t h e i r weapons to
f i n d a f r a g i l e p e a ce o f m ind. T h is dependence i s so g r e a t t h a t , i n th e
t e x t , t h e men d is a p p e a r b e h in d t h e i r w eapons, and th e guns and v e h i c l e s
207
independently pursue the chase o f the f u g it iv e s across the f i e l d s .
The c ro p s grown i n t h e f i e l d s c r o s s e d by th e f u g i t i v e s r e f l e c t
th e ch a n g in g econom ic s t r u c t u r e o f th e i s l a n d . I t s t a r t s w ith to b a c c o
and c o f f e e and c o n tin u e s w ith s u g a r c a n e , t o end w ith p in e a p p le s and
b a n a n a s ,. a l l . e q u a l l y t r a p s i n w hich th e b la c k man i s c a u g h t f o r l a c k o f
a l t e r n a t i v e s . M eanw hile, t h e s m a lle r c r o p s —m anioc, sw eet p o t a t o e s ,
c h r i s to f i n e s . . . — upon w hich t h e 'd a i l y s u r v i v a l o f p e a s a n ts and o th e r s
has depended f o r a lo n g tim e a r e r e p la c e d by im p o rte d goods. The v eg e
t a t i o n o f th e i s l a n d p la y s an im p o rta n t p a r t i n t h i s p a s s a g e . I t i s th e
f o r e s t w hich h a rb o re d th e m aroons, o r th e palm t r e e s and t h e h i b is c u s
bushes w hich, f o r a l l t h e i r b e a u ty , can p r o v id e no p r o t e c t i o n . The la n d
has many c o lo r s and many f a c e t s : i t i s a t once th e m a le d ic tio n o f th e
b la c k man b e cau se o f t h e c ro p s i t has been made t o y i e l d , a n d .h is s a l
v a t i o n as w e l l , b e c au se i t rem ain s th e o n ly s ta b l e , elem ent o f h i s
h i s t o r y ; but th e la n d i s now t h r e a t e n e d , d ise m b o d ie d , b a re , i n need o f
r e g e n e r a t io n , o r e l s e i t w i l l d ie w ith i t s p e o p le .
The c h o ic e o f th e e p is o d e s t h a t compose t h i s p a s sa g e was n o t made
random ly. I t i s p a r t o f E douard G l i s s a n t 's i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e
h i s t o r y o f t h e i s l a n d , a h i s t o r y w hich becomes m e a n in g le s s i f made to
fo llo w th e E uropean c h ro n o lo g y . The a u th o r e x p la in s i n Le D isc o u rs
a n t i l l a i s what t h e c r i t i c a l moments o f t h e h i s t o r y o f M a rtin iq u e a r e ,
as w e ll as t h e i r s o c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e i n term s o f o p p r e s s io n and a s s im i
l a t i o n :
S i done on abandonne l 'a b s u r d e c a ta lo g u e de l ' h i s t o i r e o f f i -
c i e l l e . . . e t que l ' o n ta c h e de v o i r ce q u i s ' e s t r e e lle m e n t
208
p a s s e dans ce p a y s , j e suppose que 1 ' on to m b era d 'a c c o r d s u r
l e s " p e r io d e s " de I ' h i s t o i r e m a r t in i q u a i s e :
La T r a i t e , l e peuplem ent
L 'u n i v e r s s e r v i l e
Le system e des p l a n t a t i o n s
L 'a p p a r i t i o n de 1*e l i t e e t des bourgs
La v i c t o i r e de l a b e t t e r a v e
L 'a s s i m i l a t i o n ^
La n e a n t i s a t i o n ?
Through t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f h i s t o r y — w hich does n o t t a k e i n t o
ac co u n t e v e n ts such as th e F re n ch r e v o l u t i o n o r th e ephem eral a b o l i t i o n
o f s l a v e r y b e c au se th e y rem ain ed p r a c t i c a l l y w ith o u t conseq u en ces f o r
th e i s l a n d , and w hich i s an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h a t em phasizes th e s o c i a l
r e p e r c u s s io n s o f m ajo r economic c h a n g es— E douard G l i s s a n t f i g h t s
a g a in s t t h e s u p e r im p o s itio n o f F ren ch h i s t o r i c a l c a t e g o r i e s i n o r d e r t o
d i s c l o s e t h e r e a l h i s t o r y o f t h e is l a n d s "P our n o u s, r e c o n q u e r ir l e sens
de n o t r e h i s t o i r e , c ' e s t c o n n a i t r e l e d i s c o n t in u r e e l p o u r ne p lu s l e
.. 12
s u b i r p a ssiv e m e n t
The l e s s o n s o f h i s t o r y as se e n in t h i s p a s sa g e a re a l l n e g a ti v e
and can be summed up i n t h e f o llo w in g w ords: s u c c e s s iv e r e v o l t s , s u e -
13
c e s s i v e a b o r t i v e f a i l u r e s , " . . . n o s r e v o l t e s sans c e s s e a v o r t e e s ."
The r e p e a te d a t t e m p t s .o f t h e t h r e e f u g i t i v e s a re made a l l th e more i n e f
f e c t u a l by th e f u t i l i t y o f t h e i r d e a th s , w hich o n ly pro v o k e th e d e r i
s iv e comments o f t h e i r a g g r e s s o r s . The t h r e e r e p r e s e n t th o s e who n e v e r
w anted t o a c c e p t t h e i r r e p e a te d e n sla v e m e n ts but whose e f f o r t s w ere
th w a rte d by t h e la c k o f in v o lv e m e n t o f t h e m a j o r it y , a p a s s i v i t y due t o
w e a r in e s s , d e s p a i r , d i s u n i t y and a l i e n a t i o n . T h is p a r a l y s i s can be se en
as h a v in g one m ain c a u se : th e i n a b i l i t y o f th e p e o p le o f t h e i s l a n d t o
u n d e rs ta n d t h e i r c o n d it io n , t o v o ic e t h e i r m a la is e , t o a ro u s e th em selv es
209
o t h e r th a n f i t f u l l y from t h e i r s t a t e o f p r o s t r a t i o n . The en erg y
d is p la y e d by t h e f u g i t i v e s d i v e r t s a t t e n t i o n from t h e p a s s i v i t y o f th e
g r e a t e s t num ber. T here a r e no more h id in g p l a c e s . The g e s tu r e s o f
r e v o l t o f a few a r e acknow ledged, but n e i t h e r u n d e rs to o d n o r i m i t a t e d .
V. La Case du commandeur: The O b se ssio n w ith O rig in s
I n t h i s n o v e l, h i s l a t e s t t o d a t e , Edouard G l i s s a n t c o n tin u e s h i s
i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e p a s t , i n t h i s i n s t a n c e , th ro u g h p r e s e n t a t i o n o f
th e fa m ily o f M arie C e l a t, Mycea o f La L e z ard e and Le Q u atriem e s i e c l e .
T h is new f a c e t o f t h e s a g a o f th e p e o p le o f M a rtin iq u e p r e s e n t s f a m il
i a r c h a r a c t e r s su ch as Papa Longoue, th e bekes L a ro ch e and S e n g lis on
whose p l a n t a t i o n s th e f a m i l i e s Longoue, B eluse and C e la t i n t e r a c t e d
f o r c e n t u r i e s . La Case du commandeur i s a c i r c u l a r n o v e l c e n te r e d on
t h e c o n s c io u s n e s s of. M arie C e l a t , an a tte m p t a t a n sw erin g t h e q u e s tio n s
and e x p la in in g th e o b s e s s io n s w hich d r iv e h e r t o th e v e rg e o f i n s a n i t y .
W ith h e r and f o r h e r , th e a u th o r t r a c e s t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e s u c c e s s iv e
g e n e r a tio n s o f h e r fa m ily back t o th e a n c e s t o r Aa who e n g en d ered t h e
l i n e . T h is s e a r c h ta k e s t h e form o f a p r e c i s e r e c o n s t i t u t i o n o f th e
l i n e back t o L i b e r t e Longoue, d a u g h te r, o f M e lc h io r, one o f t h e main
c h a r a c t e r s o f Le Q u atriem e s i e c l e , as w e ll as t h e e v o c a tio n o f fragm en
t a r y e p is o d e s w hich b e lo n g t o t h e common h e r i t a g e . Mycea*s d e s i r e t o
u n d e rs ta n d t h e word "O dono", p a s s e d on from g e n e r a ti o n t o g e n e r a tio n
b u t w hich has l o s t i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e i n th e c o u rs e o f tim e , c o n s t i t u t e s
th e a x is o f t h e s e a r c h , a lo n g w ith t a l e s w hich aim a t b e in g an e x p la
n a ti o n o f th e o r i g i n s b u t w hich have become opaque and s t y l i z e d th ro u g h
210
p r o c e s s o f o r a l t r a n s m i s s io n .
Mycea i n h e r i t s h e r o b s e s s io n from h e r f a t h e r , P y th a g o re C e la t,
whose s e a r c h f o r A f r ic a d o m in ates h i s l i f e . He knows t h e word "Odono"
w ith o u t u n d e rs ta n d in g i t s m eaning, b u t.h e f e e l s i n t u i t i v e l y t h a t i t i s
th e key t o h i s s e a r c h , th e know ledge o f w hich would d i s s i p a t e th e con
f u s io n o f h i s th o u g h ts and b r in g o r d e r to th e fra g m e n ta ry memories t h a t
su rg e w i t h in him: " I I v o i t p a r s a c c a d e s j ga f o u r m il le a l a g o rg e . Ni
o uvrage t r a n q u i l l e , n i e n q u e te m in u tie u s e , m ais un d e b o u le r de f e u , l e
A 14
l i n g e de p im en ts a meme l a p e a u ." P y th a g o re a tte m p ts t o p u t t o g e t h e r
what th o s e around him m ight know o f t h e i r A f r ic a n p a s t : " Q u e lq u 'u n
p e u t - i l me r e c i t e r ce q u 'o n c o n n a it p a r i c i a p ro p o s de l a Guinee ou du
Congo?" (p . 2 6 ) , b u t o n ly t o f i n d h i s q u e s tio n s unan sw ered . He th e n
t r i e s t o im ag in e what i t m ight have been l i k e ,, p i c t u r e s A f r ic a i n t h e
image o f t h e i s l a n d , lo o k s i n M ycea's s c h o o l books f o r in fo r m a tio n t h a t
m ight c o r r o b o r a t e h i s im aginings., b u t a l l i n v a in . H is f i n a l . a tte m p t
comes when he h e a r s o f t h e y e a r s th e k in g o f Dahomey s p e n t on th e
i s l a n d . H aving f i n a l l y so m eth in g c o n c re te t o h o ld on t o , he o b s t i n a t e l y
t r i e s t o f in d t h e t r a c e o f t h i s e x tr a o r d i n a r y c h a r a c t e r , hoping t h a t
t h i s m ight p r o v id e a n sw e rs. But t h e r e a r e no t r a c e s l e f t o f B ehanzin in
o f f i c i a l r e c o r d s , h i s coming h a v in g had no s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r th o s e who
make h i s t o r y and s u r v iv in g o n ly i n th e m em ories o f a few p e o p le . D is
c o u ra g e d by t h i s l a s t f a i l u r e , P y th a g o re l o s e s hope: " E t de ne p a s l e
s a v o i r , e t a n t t o r t u r e du b e s o in de ce s a v o i r , enferm a done P y th a g o re
dans l 'e r r a n c e du s o n g e . . . Ce q u i r e s t a du to u rm e n t de P y th a g o re s e con--
c e n t r a dans l e b a lb u tie m e n t o b s ti n e du mot (meme pas un m ot, un e c l a i r
211
r e p e t e de s o n s ) Odono, O d o n o ..." (p p . 4 2 - 3 ) .
P y th a g o r e 's f a t h e r , Ozonzo, i s d r iv e n by a s i m i l a r o b s e s s io n ,
a lth o u g h i t c e n te r s on th e p e rs o n o f Cinna Chimene, f u t u r e w ife o f ;
P y th a g o re , whom he f in d s one day on th e s id e o f th e r o a d . "T ourm ente
p a r l e b e s o in d ' e c l a i r e r l e s o r i g i n e s de Cinna Chimene, i l ne r e f l e -
c h i s s a i t pas q u ' i l n 'e n s a v a i t g u e re p lu s s u r l e s s ie n n e s p r o p re s n i
s u r c e l l e s d 'E p h r a is e Anathem e. Le p o id s n 'e n e t a i t que p lu s lo u r d a
p o r t e r . A u s s i. . . t e n t a i t - i l d 'e n t r a x n e r 1 ' e n fa n t dans l a te m p e te de
q u e lq u e r e s s o u v e n ir d o u lo u re u x e t i n c e r t a i n " (p . 6 3 ) . Ozonzo p a r t i c i
p a te s i n h i s own w a y .in t h e common s e a r c h by t r a n s m i t t i n g t o C inna
Chimene, whose uncommon f a t e and m y s te rio u s o r ig i n s make o f h e r a p r i v
i l e g e d r e p o s i t o r y , t h e t a l e he has h im s e lf i n h e r i t e d , a d i s g u i s e d and
s t y l i z e d v e r s i o n o f t h e M iddle P a ssa g e and o f t h e h i s t o r y o f h i s a n c e s
t o r s . Once O zonzo's r o l e o f t r a n s m i t t e r i s ac co m p lish e d and when C inna
Chimene has gone th ro u g h h e r own s e a r c h , he d i e s , t a k i n g h i s s e c r e t
l i f e w ith him— a s e c r e t l i f e o n ly h i n te d a t by th e s e c r e t name he g iv e s
h i s donkey: M ackandal, t h a t o f th e u l t i m a t e m aroon, p o s s e s s o r o f powers
o v e r l i f e and d e a th .
O zonzo's f a t h e r , A u g u stu s, i s h im s e lf an uncommon c h a r a c t e r ;
"A ugustus s a v a i t r e g a r d e r dans l a n u i t . Nous e ti o n s 1 'o e i l d 'A u g u s tu s ,
e t t o u t e l a t e r r e a v e c. Son o e i l f i x e e t f r a g i l e , d 'u n e c o r i a c e
p a ti e n c e a s u r p r e n d r e 1 ' i n s a i s i s s a b l e " (p . 8 4 ). I t i s t h i s g i f t o f
u n d e rs ta n d in g w hich a llo w s him t o l i n k t o g e t h e r a l l t h e e le m en ts o f t h e
s o c i e t y i n w hich he l i v e s : t h e d a u g h te r o f th e b ek e; E u lo g e , th e com
m andeur, who i s o l a t e s h im s e lf from h i s p e o p le ; t h e woman w ith o u t a
212
name who i s t h e m o th er o f h i s w ife A d o lin e , and A d o lin e h e r s e l f . A lso
a s t o r y - t e l l e r , A ugustus t r a n s m i t s h i s know ledge t o h i s f u t u r e w ife i n
th e form o f a p e c u l i a r m a r r ia g e p r o p o s a l t h a t encom passes h i s own i n t e r
p r e t a t i o n o f t h e p a s t , w hich t i e s h e r i n t o t h a t p a s t and w hich she
a c c e p t s , r e t a i n i n g o f i t th e word "O dono.” H is g i f t o f u n d e rs ta n d in g
s e t s A ugustus a p a r t from h i s com panions who c a n n o t com m unicate a t h i s
l e v e l and whom he r e p ro a c h e s f o r making no e f f o r t t o t i e t o g e t h e r th e
e le m e n ts o f t h e i r p a s t and o f t h e i r p r e s e n t . A u g u stu s' r o l e i n l i f e i s
se e m in g ly , n o t t o e x p la i n , but t o . e n t i c e t h e o th e r s i n t o em erging from
t h e i r ig n o ra n c e t o w a it f o r t h e " d e s c e n d a n te " , t h e woman who w i l l
i n h e r i t t h e s c r a p s o f know ledge p r e s e r v e d by a l l and d e c id e f o r h e r s e l f
" J e v a i s p o u r c o n n a i t r e un j o u r une d e s c e n d a n te q u i s a u r a . Une madame
q u i v a com prendre comment l a t e r r e a marie: l e s eaux p r o fo n d e s , e t ou
h a b i t e n t l e s pays q u i nous p a r l e n t dans l 'e s p a c e , e t p o u rq u o i nous m ar-
chons s u r l a c a t a s t r o p h e , e t quand a q u e l moment dans q u e l l e annee nous
a ll o n s p o u r commencer a com pter nos an n ees" ( p . 9 6 ). Thus A ugustus se es
h im s e lf as p a r t o f a flo w , th e flow o f h i s t o r y t o w hich he c o n t r i b u t e s
h i s s h a r e i n t h e hope t h a t an answ er w i l l be fo u n d . " I I d i s a i t , j e s u is
un s e u l p a s sa g e e t une s e u le r i v i e r e . Ma v i e e s t d e c id e e p o u r ga"
( p . 1 0 6 ). H is own a p p a r e n tl y v o lu n ta r y d e a th i n a r i v e r i n flo o d
c o n firm s t h i s v i s i o n he had of. h i s p la c e i n h i s t o r y .
A n a to lie C e l a t , A u g u stu s' f a t h e r and a n o th e r c o m p u lsiv e s t o r y
t e l l e r , i s t h e l a s t l i n k o f t h e c h a in . H is own s t o r y i s a c o l l e c t i o n
o f fra g m e n ta ry e p is o d e s w hich he c a n n o t p ie c e t o g e t h e r by h im s e lf and
so r e c o u n ts on e v e ry s i d e . I t i s a s t o r y w hich u n d e rg o e s many changes
213
as i t i s p a s s e d a lo n g t o h i s many women, th e n t o th e p la n t a ti o n - o w n e r ,
th e n t o t h e l a t t e r ' s w ife who r e c o r d s i t s l a s t , w arped v e r s i o n , b u t i s
u n a b le t o f i n d any c o n t i n u i t y i n i t . A n a t o l i e 's s t o r y rese m b le s himi a
r e s t l e s s man, he i s t h e a n t i t h e s i s o f h i s so n , t h e c o n te m p la tiv e and
s e c r e t i v e A u g u stu s; b u t h i s a c ti o n s have a p u rp o se : t h a t o f p a s s in g on
h is s t o r y t o th e many women he s e d u c e s , who w i l l, in t u r n tr a n s m i t i t
t o t h e i r c h i l d r e n . H is s t o r y i s t h a t o f th e o r i g i n s , one as c o n fu se d
and as u n d e c ip h e r a b le as t h e r e a l f a c t s .
A lthough t h e men a re s t o r y - t e l l e r s , i t i s th e women who b e s t
u n d e rs ta n d t h e s t o r i e s th e m s e lv e s . I t ta k e s L i b e r t e Longoue t o p i e c e
t o g e t h e r t h e fra g m e n ts o f A n a t o l i e 's s t o r y , a lth o u g h even h e r more
c o h e re n t v e r s i o n can n o t a c c o u n t .f o r t h e o r i g i n s : " L i b e r t e .lu i m o n tra
l e d eb u t e t 1 ' enchainem ent de l ' h i s t o i r e r a p i e c e e q u ' i l a v a it d e b it e e
avec t a n t de p r o f i t . Mais l e d eb u t to m b a it dans un t r o u san s fo n d , ou
p lu s p e rs o n n e n 'e f t a i t v i s i b l e " ( p . 1 2 3 ). I t ta k e s L i b e r t e t o c o n v in c e
him t h a t th e s t o r y i s i n t i m a t e l y in v o lv e d w ith t h e la n d w here th e y a re
and c a n n o t be s e p a r a te d from i t , im p ly in g t h a t any o t h e r s e a r c h w ould
be f r u i t l e s s . I t ta k e s L i b e r t e t o c o n v in c e him t h a t one sh o u ld n o t be
a f r a i d o f t h e o p a c it y o f t h e b e g in n in g s s in c e t h e unknown a n c e s to r s
c a r r i e d o u t t h e same t r a d i t i o n and m a n if e s te d t h e same s tu b b o rn n e s s
th e y th e m s e lv e s had i n h e r i t e d . She u n d e rs ta n d s t h a t th e y a l l have
do u b le o r i g i n s , t h e s e d o u b le o r i g i n s m aking i t a l l th e more d i f f i c u l t
t o d i s e n t a n g l e th e p a s t but r e f l e c t i n g and e x p la in in g t o a c e r t a i n
e x te n t t h e c o m p le x ity o f th e p r e s e n t , t h e d u p l i c i t y o f the- C a rib b e a n
D e r s o n a lity as sy m b o lized by th e common f a t e o f th e t r a i t o r and o f th e
214
v i c t im i n A n a t o l i e ’ s s t o r y . (T h is n o t io n o f d o u b le o r i g i n s can a l s o be
found i n Le Q uatriem e s i e c l e i n t h e two b r o th e r s a t t h e o r i g i n o f t h e
Longoue and B e lu se f a m i l i e s . T h e re to o t h e b r o th e r who was t o become
B e lu se s o ld h i s b r o th e r t o t h e s l a v e - t r a d e r s and was i n t u r n c a p t u r e d .)
L i b e r t e p a s s e s on h e r know ledge t o h e r so n , A ugustus? " L ib e r te
a v a i t s o u f f l e au p re m ie r j o u r dans l e t r o u de s a t e t e " (p . 1 2 8 ). Ado
l i n e w a its f o r Ozonzo, t r a n s m i t t i n g i n h e r q u e s tio n "Odono, k i Odono?"
t h e s t o r y p a s s e d on t o h e r . E p h ra'ise re c o g n iz e s th e " d e s c e n d a n te "
A ugustus and A d o lin e had been w a itin g f o r and knows t h a t th e women a r e
t h e c a t a l y t i c e le m e n ts o f th e fa m ily and o f th e p e o p le as a w hole.
C inna Chimene, whose o r i g i n s a r e unknown, ta k e s t h e s t e p o f r e t u r n i n g
to. th e woods t o m eet Papa Longoue and s e e k th e o r i g i n s : " I l s commen-
c e r e n t a i n s i l a lo n g u e p a r o l e q u ' i l s d e f i l e r a i e n t d 'a n n e e en annee a
t r a v e r s t a n t de d e s c e n d a n ts de p lu s en p lu s ig n o r a n ts des m ots v r a i s e t
p a r q u o i i l s e s s a i e r a i e n t , l 'e n n u i des jo u r s e t l a fam ine d 'ig n o r a n c e
l e s r a v a g e a n t, de s a v o ir au m oins pouquoi i l s a v a l a i e n t l ' a i r de c e t
e n d r o i t " (p . 7 5 ). L ik e L i b e r t e , C inna Chimene t r a n s m i ts h e r know ledge
and d o u b ts t o Mycea b e fo re r e t i r i n g i n t o s i l e n c e . I n c a p a b le o f f in d i n g
a n s w e rs , " e l l e s 'i n v e n t a i t d es q u e s tio n s q u ’ e l l e ne p r o p o s a i t a p e r -
sonne m ais q u ' e l l e e n t a s s a i t en form e de m au so lee. P u is e l l e d e p a s s a
ce moment de l a d e s o l a t i o n , s ' i n t a l l a tr a n q u i ll e m e n t dans l e d e n ig r e -
ment de t o u t e s ch o ses a u to u r d ' e l l e . . . " (p . 3 1 ) , she p a s s e s on t o h e r
d a u g h te r t h e b u rden o f f in d i n g t h e answ ers f o r h e r s e l f .
As one goes back i n tim e , th e t a l e o f t h e o r i g i n s g a in s i n c l a r i t y
but i s n e v e r w h o lly e l u c i d a t e d . From O zonzo's f a b l e t o L i b e r t e 's more
215
d e t a i l e d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , doubt and u n c e r t a i n t y re m a in . A n a t o l i e 's
s t o r y t e l l i n g shows how o r a l t r a n s m i s s io n can c r e a t e c o n fu s io n . T h e re i s
no o t h e r s o u r c e , s in c e th e re c o rd e d v e r s i o n s , such as t h e one by t h e
p l a n t e r 's w i f e , o n ly r e t a i n what makes s e n se t o th e t r a n s c r i b e r . The
f i r s t a n c e s t o r h im s e lf had many nam es, w hich become i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e ,
and he le a v e s no le g a c y b u t t h e memory o f h i s s u f f e r i n g s : " A in si m ourut
A a .. . ; a l o r s l e to u rm e n t se r e p a n d i t a l e n t o u r , s ' a l e n t i t e t dorm it: pen
d a n t des tem ps, r e j a i l l i t avec des e c la b o u s s u re s de lu m ie r e e t d ’ a rd e u r
d i s p a r u t e n c o re p o u r fla m b e r a nouveau dans une p o i t r i n e ou lines t e t e
ou une f o u le exaspe're*e" ( p . 1 6 7 ). I t i s t h e i r e x a s p e r a tio n w hich g iv e s
t h e s e a r c h o f t h e f o u r s u c c e s s iv e g e n e r a tio n s i t s p a t h e t i c and an
g u ish e d a s p e c t, f o r no one can f in d t h e answ er and no one r e a l l y knows
e x a c t ly what t o lo o k f o r . Even P apa Longoue can n o t e x p la i n t o Cinna
Chimene why th e y a r e w here th e y a r e and why t h e s e a r c h rem ain s f r u i t
l e s s . The i n a b i l i t y o f th e f o u r g e n e r a tio n s t o make t h e p a s t y i e l d i t s
s e c r e t d r iv e s them t o v a r io u s form s o f r e n u n c i a t i o n : s i l e n c e l i k e Cinna
C him ene's o r th e k in d o f d re a m lik e s t a t e t o w hich P y th a g o re abandons
h im s e lf and w hich can be i n t e r p r e t e d as a s ig n o f a p p ro a c h in g i n s a n i t y .
As f o r M ycea's own s e a r c h , i t w i l l be ta k e n up i n t h e n e x t c h a p te r .
V I. H i s to r y as Legend: Le Flam boyant a f l e u r s b le u e s
T h is n o v e l by J e a n -L o u is B a g h io 'o c o n t r a s t s w ith t h o s e a lr e a d y
s t u d i e d by th e l i g h t n e s s o f i t s to n e and i t s humor, some c h a r a c t e r s
b e in g v e ry c lo s e t o c a r i c a t u r e . I t s o r i g i n a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f h i s t o r y ,
216
which le a v e s room f o r f a n t a s t i c e v e n ts and u n e x p la in a b le o c c u rr e n c e s ,
i s l ik e w i s e a d i s t i n g u i s h i n g f e a t u r e . I t i s th e s t o r y o f two f a m i l i e s ,
th e b la c k f a m ily o f th e O 'o s , w hich expands and g a in s pow er, and t h e
w h ite fa m ily o f th e de L e r i v , w hich e v e n tu a ll y m in g les w ith th e O 'os anc
becomes e x t i n c t . The s a g a spans c e n t u r i e s , from t h e b e g in n in g o f c o l o n i
z a t i o n t o th e second w o rld w ar. I t i s th u s a n o th e r exam ple o f th e con
tem p o rary a u th o r s ' s e a r c h f o r a p a s t w hich rem ain s u n c le a r b e cau se i t
has v a r io u s v e r s i o n s . H ere, th e d i s t a n t p a s t ta k e s on a m y th ic a l c h a ra c
t e r as i t i s i n h a b i t e d by h e r o ic f i g u r e s whose a c ti o n s have been em bel
l i s h e d by o r a l t r a d i t i o n .
"En r e g a r d a n t l a p a s s e , on v o y a it s u r t o u t du s a n g ." 1'* U n t i l th e
end o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y , th e h i s t o r y o f th e O 'os i s made o f c y c le s
o f v io le n c e and b e t r a y a l and r e c o r d s th e f a i l u r e o f t h e i r v a r io u s
a tte m p ts a t f in d i n g a p la c e i n s o c i e t y , fo llo w e d by t h e i r m arro n n ag e .
The f i r s t O’o, a p i r a t e , i n i t i a t e s a s e r i e s o f c o n f r o n t a t io n s w ith th e
W hites by, i t i s s a i d , u s in g t h e i r s k in t o make th e p a n ts he w ore. H is
sym bolic g e s tu r e i s remembered by h i s d e s c e n d a n ts who, as a s ig n of
f i d e l i t y t o th e t r a d i t i o n o f r e v o l t he i n s t i t u t e d , keep on w e a rin g th e
garm ent w hich made him fam ous. T h is m y th ic a l c h a r a c t e r , who ta k e s on
s e v e r a l i n d e n t i t i e s i n c l u d in g t h a t o f M ackandal, i s n o t m eant t o be a
d e f i n i t e p e rs o n , b u t r a t h e r a s t a t e o f m ind, th e symbol o f th e non-
a c c e p ta n c e o f t h e B la c k s, o f t h e i r cu n n in g and o f t h e i r d e te r m in a tio n .
His p o s i t i o n i s a p r i v i l e g e d one, s in c e he i s l o c a t e d o u t s i d e o f th e
system he i s f i g h t i n g , and th u s n o t s u b je c t t o i t s law s.
His s o n s , tw in s o f e x t r a o r d i n a r y s t a t u r e th e m s e lv e s , who g a in
217
I n f lu e n c e b e c au se o f t h e i r u n u su a l p h y s iq u e , a tte m p t t o d e a l w ith t h e
economic sy stem o f t h e i s l a n d , o n ly t o be e v e n tu a ll y b e tr a y e d . T h is
f o rc e s them t o become m aroons, i n s t i g a t i n g r e v o l t s a t e v e ry o p p o r tu n i ty .
The h i s t o r i c a l c y c le o f l i b e r a t i o n s and e n sla v e m e n ts le a d s t h e i r
d e s c e n d a n ts down t h e p a th o f r e v o l t u n t i l s la v e r y i s f i n a l l y a b o lis h e d
in 1848. The t h r e e g e n e r a tio n s o f m aroons v a ry l i t t l e i n t h e i r b e h a v io r ,
n e v e r a llo w in g f a i l u r e t o g e n e r a te d e s p a i r . They would be i n d i s t i n
g u is h a b le i f t h e i r name d id n o t l o s e a s y l l a b l e a t each g e n e r a ti o n ,
s t a r t i n g w ith O 'B a in d in d in g u e , t o c u lm in a te i n O 'D ingue. But t h e r e i s a
d e f i n i t e g r a d a t io n i n t h e i r f e e lin g s , to w ard t h e o p p r e s s o r . I f , a t th e
b e g in n in g , t h e f i r s t tw in s w ere w i l l i n g t o c o o p e ra te w ith th e system
and re a p s i t s b e n e f i t s , O 'D ingue r e f u s e s a l l compromise w ith th e W h ite s;
"Le g o u v e rn e u r L a y r le donna 1 ' a c c o la d e a O 'B a in d in g u e ; m ais O 'D ingue ne
se l a i s s a p a s a p p ro c h e r. Une epee dans l a m ain d r o i t e , un c o u te l a s dans
1 ' a u t r e m ain, i l e r o i s a s e s armes j u s t e d e v a n t l e g o u v e rn e u r q u i s 'a p -
p r o c h a i t" ( p . - 3 9 ) . More th a n b e in g a p r e c i s e r e c o n s t i t u t i o n o f h i s t o r y ,
th e s e p ages c e l e b r a t e t h e t e n a c i t y o f t h e s la v e s and show them
unabashed by t h e i r many f a i l u r e s : "Une r e v o l t e a v a i t beau e t r e menee a
b ie n , i l n * a p p a r a i s s a i t pas g ran d e d i f f e r e n c e e n tr e l a v e i l l e e t l e
j o u r de l a v i c t o i r e ! t o u t d e v a it e t r e recommence, m ais l e s s e n tim e n ts , s<
f o r t i f i a i e n t e t re d o n n a ie n t un c o u ra g e , d e c u p la n t l e s ra n c u n e s ” (p . 3 8 ).
The a u th o r d e v e lo p s them es a lr e a d y se en i n p r e v io u s n o v e ls : t h e tw in s
o f th e second g e n e r a ti o n a r e made up o f a c o m b in a tio n o f s u b m is s iv e n e s s
and v io le n c e w hich r e n d e r s them v u l n e r a b le a t tim e s , e s p e c i a l l y when
h a tr e d i s n o t enough t o overcome t h e i r com pulsion t o subm it t o t h e
218
w h ite c o l o n i a l s . V io le n c e p e rv a d e s e v e ry page and i s u n d e rs to o d as th e
o n ly e f f i c i e n t weapon, and h a tr e d i s f e l t t o be th e o n ly d r iv i n g f o r c e .
I n s p i t e o f o c c a s io n a l w e a k n e ss, th e su c c e e d in g O 'os a r e h e ro e s i n
e v e ry s e n se o f t h e w ord, e ach h a v in g an uncommon d e s ti n y and b e in g a b le
t o p a s s h i s d e te r m in a tio n on t o h i s d e s c e n d a n ts , th a n k s t o t h e i r e x t r a
o r d in a r y lo n g e v i ty . T hus, t h e s e h e ro e s tr a n s c e n d tim e i t s e l f , t r a n s
form ing a s e r i e s o f r u p t u r e s i n t o a s i n g l e c o n t i n u i t y .
O 'D ingue i n h e r i t s t h i s s t r e n g t h ; t h e r e i s no p i t y and no d e s i r e t o
comprom ise in him . L iv in g a f t e r t h e a b o l i t i o n , he c o n tin u e s th e f i g h t
by t r y i n g t o e li m i n a te th o s e who to o k a d v a n ta g e o f t h e B la c k s. He f i g h t ;
them w ith t h e i r own weapons by means o f h i s e c o n o m ic a lly t h r i v i n g p la n
t a t i o n , n o t h e s i t a t i n g t o e x p l o i t th e o th e r s t o re a c h h i s g o a ls . Having
g a in e d pow er, he i s f o r c e d t o u se t h e same m ethods as h i s fo rm e r o p p r e s
s o r s : "R ien en O 'D ingue ne d i s p o s a i t a l a . p i t i e . On l ' a v a i t dom ine. I I
v o u l a i t dom iner. A yant longtem ps tre m b le p o u r son ame, i l co m m ettait
a son t o u r des c r u a u t e s . Du p lu s l o i n q u ' i l s 1 ' a p e r c e v a i e n t, l e s Bekes
r o u g i s s a i e n t de se r e t r o u v e r en l u i ; e t l e s n e g re s s 'e n f u y a i e n t b ie n
v i t e " ( p . 4 5 ). H im self t h e p ro d u c t o f r a c i a l c o m b in a tio n s , he i s n o t
d r iv e n by any f i d e l i t y t o t h e b la c k t r a d i t i o n o r c u l t u r e , but by an
i r r e s i s t i b l e h a t r e d f o r a l l t h a t i s w h ite , w hich m ust be e lim in a te d a t
a l l c o s t s . One i s l e d t o b e li e v e t h a t , when he s e e s th e d e f i a n t and
u n c o n v e n tio n a l a t t i t u d e o f M arie de L e r i v , h i s enem y's d a u g h te r , he
s e e s h i s chan ce o f d e p r iv in g h i s enemy o f any d e sc e n d a n c e .. The c h a r a c
t e r o f O 'D ingue i s b e s t sy m b o lized by th e weapons he c h o o ses t o oppose
t h e g o v e rn o r a t t h e a b o l i t i o n cerem ony: a m ach ete and a sw ord. The
219
m achete i s th e weapon o f th e s l a v e , w h ile th e sword i s t h a t o f th e
W h ites, t h e l a t t e r show ing h i s w i l l i n g n e s s t o u s e th e m ethods o f t h e
W hites i f n e c e s s a r y .
O 'D ingue i s a s s i s t e d by two e x t r a o r d i n a r y c h a r a c t e r s ; T onton-H ube,
t h e M u la tto , and O 'B a lo u , th e b la c k s m ith , two opposite?: c h a r a c t e r s , one
b e in g a l l i n t e l l i g e n c e and cunning and th e o t h e r a l l b r u te f o r c e .
S ta n d in g a t each s id e o f O 'D ingue, th e y complement h is w i l l and d e t e r
m in a tio n . Tonton-H ube i s a l l n u a n c e s; he o s c i l l a t e s betw een c r u e l t y
and k i n d n e s s , betw een o b e d ie n c e and in d e p e n d e n c e . Because o f h i s m id d le
p o s i t i o n , he i s a l o n e r , a f a c t r e i n f o r c e d by h i s r e p u t a t i o n as a
q u im b o is e u r . He p e r p e t u a t e s th e t r a d i t i o n begun by th e P i r a t e , p i c t u r e d
as h a v in g d e v i l i s h p o w ers, by t h e f i r s t g e n e r a ti o n o f tw i n s , d e s c r ib e d
as " p lu s ou m oins s o r e i e r s " and c o n tin u e d by O 'o S o u f, t h e r e c l u s e o f
t h e v o lc a n o , l a S o u f r i e r e . Next t o O 'D ingue, w ith whom he was r a i s e d as
i f he had been h i s tw in , Tonton-H ube re p ro d u c e s t h e re se m b la n c e t i n t e d
w ith d i f f e r e n c e s o f th e f i r s t tw in s , " l e u r g e m e l li te e t l e u r d i c h o t o -
m ie" (p . 1 8 ), a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t o be found i n a l l th e g e n e r a tio n s
th ro u g h th e l a s t o n e. One s u s p e c ts him o f b ein g O 'D in g u e 's "em inence
g r i s e " , s in c e h i s p o s i t i o n as an o u t s i d e r a llo w s him a b e t t e r u n d e r
s ta n d in g o f th e s i t u a t i o n . I n s p i t e o f O 'D in g u e 's s t a t u r e , Tonton-H ube
somehow em erges as th e m ost p ro m in en t c h a r a c t e r i n th e n o v e l, b e c au se
he s ta n d s a t t h e p o i n t w here a l l r a c i a l and c u l t u r a l i n f l u e n c e s con
v e rg e . O 'B a lo u , th e b la c k s m ith , on th e o t h e r han d , i s d r iv e n by a k in d
o f madness w hich came upon him when he w itn e s s e d th e t o r t u r e o f h is
woman by t h e c o l o n i a l s . His h a tr e d g iv e s him v i s i o n s ; "E m paler un beke
220
s u r une lo n g u e p iq u e , l e r o t i r au d e s s u s de l ' a t r e , e t l e p l a c e r l a ,
b ie n a p o i n t , e n t r e l'e n c lu m e e t l e m a rte a u , p o u r I ' a p l a t i r menu, l ' a l -
l o n g e r , l e t o u r n e r e t l e r e t o u r n e r . . (p . 7 7 ), b u t i t i s a w eakness
more th a n i t i s a s t r e n g t h , s in c e he i s u n a b le t o c a r r y o u t h i s p la n s
f o r re v e n g e ; h i s v i s i o n s s u f f i c e t o s a t i s f y h i s b l o o d t h i r s t i n e s s .
What t y p i f i e s th e t h r e e b r o th e r s i s t h e i r h a tr e d f o r th e b e k e s , a
h a tr e d w hich i s b e s t e x p re s s e d d u rin g th e d u e l w hich opposes O 'D ingue
t o S a in t- H o u e l, whom t h e b r o th e r s have ro b b ed o f h i s p ro m ised w if e ,
M arie de L e r i v . O 'D in g u e 's h a tr e d i s t h e m ost a c u te : " I I e p r o u v a it un
s e n tim e n t d o n t i l n ' e t a i t pas l e m a i tr e : t o u t e s l e s f o i s q u ' i l v o y a it
un B lanc i l a v a i t e n v ie de l e t u e r . Pas de r e c o n c i l i a t i o n p o s s i b l e "
( p . 1 0 5 ). The a u th o r i n s i s t s - u p o n t h i s h a t r e d , w hich becomes o b s e s s iv e
i n O 'D ingue and e a rn s him th e nicknam e o f " l e f o u " , f o r i t i s a k in d of
m adness s i m i l a r t o t h a t w hich e n g u lf s O 'B alo u .
T h is h a t r e d seems t o s to p when i t comes t o w h ite women. The t h r e e
b r o th e r s u s e t h e women as a means o f u n d erm in in g t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e
W h ite s. Tonton-H ube and O 'D ingue g iv e re f u g e t o M arie de L e r i v , w h ile
O 'B alou h e lp s t h e C re o le women go u n t h r e a te n e d t o t h e i r n i g h t l y re n d e z
v o u s. T h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith M arie de L e r iv i s o f a s p e c i a l n a t u r e ,
b u t i n t e r a c t i o n w ith w h ite women i s common t o a l l g e n e r a ti o n s . The
t h r e e b r o th e r s a r e th e m s e lv e s th e p ro d u c t o f m ixed m a rria g e s w hich
began w ith t h e m a rria g e o f one o f t h e f i r s t tw in s w ith " l a r o u q u in e ."
O’D in g u e 's son m a r r ie s th e a lm o s t- w h ite d a u g h te r o f M arie de L e r iv
and dream s o f p o s s e s s in g th e r e a l t h i n g i n t h e p e rs o n o f C l a i r e G o stze
f o r r e a s o n s w hich w i l l be se en l a t e r , w h ile h i s so n , Choutoumounou,
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c o n s id e r s h e r as th e woman o f h i s dream s. As M aryse Conde s t a t e s i n th e
p r e f a c e o f th e n o v el,, i t d e s c r i b e s " l e p e u p le a n t i l l a i s dans son m e t is -
sag e e t sa, c o m p le x ite c u l t 'u r e l l e " ( p . 6 ) . The c e n t r a l symbol o f th e
n o v e l, t h e one t h a t gives, i t i t s . t i t l e , i s t h e f l a m e - t r e e ,w ith b lu e
f lo w e r s — i n s t e a d o f the. u s u a l r e d — w hich c o r r o b o r a t e s / t h e union, of
w h ite and b la c k b lo o d and. i t s n e c e s s i t y f o r a more p ro m is in g f u tu r e .,
The r a c e s i n t e r a c t o n ly th ro u g h t h e women, but, not. o n ly th ro u g h w h ite
women. Women o f o t h e r o r i g i n s a ls o p la y a p a r t such as Q 'D in g u e ’ s
I n d ia n w ife ,, whose r o l e i s t o r a i s e t h e v a r io u s p r o d u c ts o f h e r h u s
b a n d 's e s c a p a d e s .
The c e n t r a l fe m in in e f i g u r e of. th e . n o v e l i s M arie de L e r iv .
A lthough she i s a C r e o le , she to o has among h e r a n c e s t o r s a p i r a t e ,
t h e " C o r s a i r e r o u g e " , a c irc u m s ta n c e t h a t s t r e s s e s t h e s i m i l a r i t y o f
t h e f a t e s o f t h e W hites and o f t h e B lacks and t h e i r p a r a l l e l e v o lu t io n .
The p r o d u c t o f two c u l t u r e s , t h e m e tr o p o lita n F rench and t h a t . o f Gua
d e lo u p e , she o p ts f o r t h e seco n d and makes her. c h o ic e known when she
p la y s a b ig u in e on h e r v i o l i n d u r in g her.w elcom e-hom e r e c e p ti o n .. She,
o f c o u r s e , b e tr a y s h e r f a t h e r ' s h o p e s, de L e r iv b e in g in c a p a b le o f un
d e r s ta n d in g h i s d a u g h t e r 's e v o lu tio n .. I n s t i n c t i v e l y , he knows, t h a t she
w i l l mark t h e end. o f th e fa m ily t r e e . ; Marie. i s f u n d a m e n ta lly . a r e b e l ,
a g a in s t t h e beke s o c i e t y w hich confines.w om en t o t h e r o le , o f o b j e c t s
r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e i r t a l e n t s o r a s p i r a t i o n s , and a g a in s t t h e .s y s t e m o f
r a c i a l c a s t s w hich keeps; t h e i s l a n d under, th e . c o n s ta n t .t h r e a t of. p o s s i
b le v i o l e n c e - She means t o l i v e w here sh e f e e l s sh e b e lo n g s ,... t h a t i s ,
among t h e p e o p le o f G uadeloupe and on O 'D in g u e 's p l a n t a t i o n . I t i s n o t
222
e x a c t ly known what r o l e th e two b r o th e r s p la y e d i n M a r i e 's d e f e c ti o n
from h e r own m i l i e u . T h e ir i n f l u e n c e o r la c k t h e r e o f i s c a r e f u l l y k e p t
i n th e d a rk u n t i l th e end o f t h e n o v e l, when i t i s f i n a l l y r e v e a le d
t h a t Tonton-H ube i s Anne de L e r i v 's f a t h e r . T h is r e f u s a l t o e x p la in
M arie de L e r iv * s e x a c t p o s i t i o n i n t h e m id st o f O 'D in g u e 's h o u se h o ld
le a v e s h e r su rro u n d e d by an a u ra o f m y ste ry , t h e n a tu r e o f h e r i n v o lv e
ment re m a in in g u n e x p la in e d w h ile h e r i n f l u e n c e i s f e l t by a l l . More
th a n a p h y s ic a l p r e s e n c e , she seems t o be. t h e s o u l o f th e h a b i t a t i o n
w hich, d u r in g h e r l i f e t i m e , u n d e rg o e s s i g n i f i c a n t ch a n g es: i t becomes
a haven o f peace and harmony t h a t l i v e s t o th e rhythm o f M a r i e 's m u sic .
Even O 'B a lo u , th e b e a s t , can n o t rem ain i n s e n s i t i v e t o h e r m u sic , f o r i t
e x p re s s e s t h e e s s e n c e o f t h e m ixed C a rib b e a n c u l t u r e . M arie b r in g s o u t
t h e b e s t i n everybody: O 'D ingue te m p o r a r ily f o r g e t s h i s h a t r e d t o ta k e
h e r aro und th e i s l a n d s ; O 'B alou l e a r n s t o com m unicate w ith t h e w o rld
around him , and Tonton-H ube becomes l e s s o b se sse d w ith t h o s e t r e s p a s s
in g t h e l i m i t s o f t h e p l a n t a t i o n . Her i n f l u e n c e expands beyond t h e p l a n
t a t i o n t o t h e o t h e r i s l a n d s w hich she v i s i t s w ith O 'D ingue, s p re a d in g
th e m essage t h a t t h e u n io n o f r a c e s i s p o s s i b l e . Her p h y s iq u e i t s e l f
com bines th e l i g h t e s t h a i r w ith t h e d a r k e s t ey es and i s a te s tim o n y t o
th e b e a u ty t h a t can r e s u l t from t h e u n io n o f se em in g ly o p p o s ite and
c o n t r a d i c t o r y f e a t u r e s . M arie de L e r i v 's t o t a l r e j e c t i o n o f h e r o r i g i n s
i s co m p leted by h e r r e f u s a l t o e v e r r e t u r n t o th e p l a n t a t i o n o f h e r
f a t h e r s o r t o even c o n s id e r m a in ta in in g i t . F u rth e rm o re , sh e c a t e g o r i
c a l l y r e f u s e s t o send h e r d a u g h te r t o F ran ce f o r h e r e d u c a tio n : " P u is s e
s a d e s c e n d a n te n 'a v o i r p as l 'o c c a s i o n de d e c o u v r ir P a r i s ” ( p . 1 1 7 ).
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H aving e l e c t e d G uadeloupe as h e r home and h e r o n ly home, she in te n d s
to p a s s t h a t h e r i t a g e on t o h e r d a u g h te r .
M arie de. L e r i v 's u n o f f i c i a l u n io n to. O 'D ingue i s r a t i f i e d by h e r
d a u g h t e r 's m a rria g e to O 'D in g u e 's o l d e s t so n , B aindingue... Anne de L e r iv
i s a p u re p ro d u c t, o f r a c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n t o t h e p o in t o f n o t b e in g c l a s
s i f i a b l e : " . . . n i b la n c h e , n i m u la tr e s s e , n i n e g r e s s e ; e n c o re m oins une
c a p r e s s e ou une mamelouque, m ais q u e lq u ’un: une femme h a r d i e eomme s a
m e r e " .( p . 1 2 1 ) . . A lthough she h e r s e l f tr a n s c e n d s c o l o r , Anne de L e r iv i s
d i s a p p o in te d when she g iv e s b i r t h t o two v e ry d a rk boys: " C e r t e s , e l l e
a v a i t s e c re te m e n t so u h aite: des m u la tr e s , comme Tonton-H ube . . . e t , ne
v o i l a - t - i l pas q u ' e l l e m it au monde des m o n s tre s !" (p . 144) W ithout h er
m o th e r 's a r t i s t i c q u a l i t i e s and h e r a b i l i t y t o bend l i f e t o h e r d e
s i r e s , Anne de L e r iv i s a l e s s s t a b l e c h a r a c t e r . Her r a c i a l o r ig in s ,
c o n f l i c t , and she f e e l s t h e c l a s h deep w i t h in h e r . "Comme sc s f : i l s ,
e l l e s o u f f r a i t so u v e n t d 'h a l l u c i n a t i o n s s u b i t e s , i n e x p l i c a b l e s , d e c le n -
e h ees p a r un s i m p l e . o b j e t " (p . 1 4 6 ). She ca n n o t r e c o n c i l e t h e le g e n d of
th e p i r a t e w ith h e r know ledge o f h e r w h ite o r i g i n s . The t r o u b l e d c i r
c um stan ces o f h e r b i r t h and t h e f a c t t h a t th e i d e n t i t y o f h e r f a t h e r
rem ain s unknown a r e a d d i t i o n a l s o u rc e ’ s o f c o n f u s io n . Anne i s s u b je c t t o
f i t s o f a n g e r w hich h i n t a t h e r in n e r, im b a la n c e and w hich m ostly .co m e
d u rin g c o n f r o n t a t io n s w ith h e r pow er-hungry husband. I f i t w ere n o t f o r
th e se em in g ly im m ortal T onton-H ube,. sh e :m ig h t become t h e v i c t im o f
B a in d in g u e 's a m b itio n and o f h er.o w n o b s e s s io n s .
F o r B ain d in g u e i s a l l a m b itio n and d e s i r e t o d o m in a te .. T h e .l e a s t
s y m p a th e tic o f a l l t h e c h a r a c t e r s as w e ll as th e l e a s t d e a l t w ith ,
224
he has e v o lv e d to o f a r from h i s b ackground. M arie de L e r iv knew what
she m eant when sh e r e f u s e d t o send h e r d a u g h te r t o F ra n c e . E du cated
t h e r e , B ain d in g u e has a d o p te d v a lu e s w hich e n d a n g er th e c o h e s io n o f th e
f a m ily . Both h i s w ife and h i s sons r e a l i z e th is , and a c c u s e him of
b eh av in g l i k e , and i d e n t i f y i n g w it h , t h e W h ite s. B ain d in g u e i s th e
f i r s t o f h i s fa m ily t o d e l i b e r a t e l y a s s o c i a t e w ith t h e W h ite s, an .- in c li
n a t i o n w hich c a u se s him t o r e j e c t a l l t h e v a lu e s and t r a d i t i o n s o f h i s
f a m ily and t o se e them as sym bols o f d e g r a d a tio n and s a v a g e ry . B a in d in
g u e ' s c h a r a c t e r d e m o n s tra te s th e d a n g e rs o f a s s i m i l a t i o n . C o n se q u e n tly ,
he c a n n o t be a llo w e d t o su c ce e d i n d i s r u p t i n g t h e f a m ily , a t l e a s t as
lo n g as Tonton-H ube, t h e r e p o s i t o r y o f t h e f a m i l y 's h i s t o r y and t r a d i
t i o n s , can s to p him.
The l a s t tw in s , t h e sons o f B aindingue and Anne de L e r i v , a re as
f a r removed from t h e i r f a t h e r as he i s from h i s a n c e s t o r s . They,
c o n tr a r y t o t h e i r f a t h e r , p e r p e t u a t e t h e fa m ily le g e n d , f i r s t i n t h e i r
c o l o r , w hich shows no h i n t o f w h ite n e s s and, s e c o n d ly , in t h e i r r e b e l
l i o u s b e h a v io r . A p p r o p r ia te ly , th e y w ear th e garm ent o f t h e i r a n c e s t o r ,
t h e p i r a t e . F u rth e rm o re , th e y a r e u n d e r th e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e i r m o th er
and o f Tonton-H ube who m a in ta in them w i th in t h e s p i r i t o f t h e i r r a c e .
As u s u a l , one o f th e tw in s p re d o m in a te s , th e o t h e r b e in g more o r l e s s
u n d e r t h e r u l e o f h i s b r o t h e r 's w i l l . Choutoumounou i s t h e m ost extrem e
i n h i s f e e l i n g s , as w e ll as th e m ost c o n t r o l l e d , b e in g l e s s p h y s ic a l in
h i s r e a c t i o n s th a n h i s b r o t h e r . He has i n h e r i t e d h i s g r a n d f a t h e r 's
h id d en s e n s i t i v i t y a lo n g w ith h i s i n s a t i a b l e h a tr e d f o r t h e W hites:
225
I I c o n n a i s s a i t , dans s a p e a u , l a h a in e , t r o p ! Qa p a s s e
dans l e sa n g , g a r e g i e l e rytbm e du c o e u r; on i n s p i r e , h a l e -
t a n t ; on e x p i r e , des flaimnes; l e s o u f f l e s 'a c c e l e r e e n c o re ,
sonne l a f o r g e ; un trem b lem en t n e rv e u x a g i t e l 'e p i d e r m e ;
e t ga m onte a l a t e t e e t s u i n t e du r e g a r d ; e t l e d e s i r
j a i l l i t de s a i s i r n 'i m p o r te q u o i, pourvu q u ' i l s o i t un beke,
de f r a p p e r , de f r a p p e r ; de b r i s e r , de b r i s e r ; de d e c h i r e r ,
de b ro y e r; de t u e r , de t u e r , de t u e r . C 'e s t une m a la d ie .
C 'e s t l a h a in e . (p . 143)
I t i s t h i s f e e l i n g w hich d r iv e s him t o throw h i s t u t o r o v e rb o a rd , w h ile
h i s r e l u c t a n c e to subm it t o any im posed a u t h o r i t y makes him oppose h i s
u n c le and h i s f a t h e r . Both tw in s r e s e n t t h e i r f a t h e r ' s d e s i r e t o mold
them i n h i s own im age. F o r i n t h e i r v e in s flow s t h e b lood o f t h e p i r a t e
and t h a t o f a l l th e m aroons o f t h e f a m ily . Maroons th e m s e lv e s , th e y
s u c c e s s iv e l y e sc a p e from i n s u f f e r a b l e s i t u a t i o n s t o f i n d r e f u g e i n
n a t u r e — t h e beach f o r Pampou and t h e s e a f o r Choutoumounou— w here t h e i r
e x p e rie n c e s t a k e on e r o t i c o v e r to n e s . T h e ir e v e n tu a l d e p a r t u r e for:.
F ra n c e , B a in d in g u e 's v i c t o r y , v a g u e ly r e c a l l s t h e M iddle P a s s a g e ,
w hich makes one wonder w h e th e r th e y w i l l s u rv iv e t h i s f i n a l a s s a u l t on
t h e i r i n t e g r i t y .
The f a n t a s t i c g a l l e r y o f p o r t r a i t s p r e s e n te d i n th e n o v e l shows
t h e e v o lu t io n o f th e B lacks as th e y become an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e
economy o f th e i s l a n d . The r i s e o f t h e O 'os p a r a l l e l s t h a t o f t h e
m u la tto b o u r g e o is ie a lth o u g h t h e n o v e l c o n s t a n t l y s t r e s s e s th e predom
in a n c e and e v e n tu a l v i c t o r y o f b la c k b lood r e s i s t i n g a l l t h e i n t e r
a c ti o n s n e c e s s i t a t e d by h i s t o r y . I n t h e b ackground, th e beke s o c i e t y
i s se en w ith an i r o n i c a l e y e . The a u th o r denounces th e a b s u r d i t y of
th e f o u n d a tio n o f th e sy stem o f s la v e r y and throw s l i g h t on t h e weak
n e s s e s o f t h e s o c i e t y w hich depends upon i t . W hile t h e O 'o s have h e ro ic
226
s t a t u r e , t h e bekes a re c a r i c a t u r e d . C o n s ta n tly h o v e rin g above a l l th e
c h a r a c t e r s i s th e g h o s t o f th e c o u n t de L e r i v , a re m in d e r o f t h e p e r-,
s i s t e n c e o f p r e j u d i c e and r a c i a l h a t r e d and o f th e e n d u rin g p r e s e n c e o f
th o s e who c a n n o t a b id e by t h e symbol o f th e b lu e f l a m e - t r e e , such as
de L ^ r iv , o f whom Tonton-H ube sa y s t h a t " l e fla m b o y an t b le u l 'a v e u g l e "
( p . 1 1 9 ).
The n o v e l opposes two k in d s o f c h a r a c t e r s , th o s e who w ant t o r e t a i n
th e q u a l i t i e s o f t h e i r r a c e and c u l t u r e l i k e Tonton-H ube, and th o s e
who t r y t o a p p r o p r i a t e f o r e i g n e le m e n ts l i k e B a in d in g u e . O’D ingue and
de L e r iv a r e th e e x tre m e s , w h ile Anne de L e r iv o s c i l l a t e s betw een t h e
two c u l t u r e s th e y r e p r e s e n t , w hereas h e r m o th er i s t h e p e r f e c t c a t a l y s t ,
Both ty p e s o f c h a r a c t e r s a r e t h e r e s u l t o f r a c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n and o f
th e m ix tu re o f h e te ro g e n e o u s c u l t u r a l e le m e n ts , b u t th e y r e a c t i n oppo
s i t e w ays, and th e n o v e l h i n t s a t some f u t u r e c o n f r o n t a t i o n . W hile
Tonton-H ube t r i e s t o p a s s on to h i s g ran d so n s t h e t r a d i t i o n s o f h i s
a n c e s t o r s , B ain d in g u e l o s e s h im s e lf i n t h e dream s o f th e W h ites— t o u s e
t h e e x p r e s s io n o f S o l i t u d e i n La M u la tre s s e S o l i t u d e . The t a c i t condem
n a ti o n o f su ch an a t t i t u d e by th e a u th o r , who p o r t r a y s B ain d in g u e a s a
r a t h e r pompous and o p p o r t u n i s t i c f o o l , i s h i s commentary on th e d a n g e rs
o f a s s i m i l a t i o n . I n t h e m eantim e, he a ls o d e s c r i b e s t h e v a r io u s e l e
m ents o f th e A n t i l l e a n p e r s o n a l i t y , a m ix tu re o f c o n t r a d i c t o r y h e r i t
ages w hich do n o t b le n d w e ll and r e s u l t i n c o n t r a d i c t o r y a t t i t u d e s .
Choutoumounou, th e m ost com plex o f t h e " P e t i t s Jum eaux", h as a d o u b le
p e r s o n a l i t y made o f o u t e r k in d n e s s and s o p h i s t i c a t i o n and i n n e r b r u t a l
i t y . The r e c u r r e n t image o f th e tw in s i n t h e n o v e l i s a n o th e r way o f
227
e x p r e s s in g and sy m b o liz in g t h e d u a l i t y o f t h e A n t i l l e a n p e r s o n a l i t y —
a theme w hich i s common t o a l l th e w orks s tu d i e d .
V I I . Aude e t se s fan to m es: The O r ig in s o f th e H a i ti a n M u la tto
B o u rg e o is ie
T h is n o v e l by A d e lin e M oravia i s a n o th e r g e n e a lo g y , a n o th e r h i s ^
t o r y o f th e r i s e o f a b o u r g e o is ie — t h a t o f t h e m u la tto b o u r g e o is ie o f
H a i t i . A lthough t h e s t o r y fo llo w s c l o s e l y t h e h i s t o r y o f H a i t i , some o f
i t s c h a r a c t e r s b e in g in v o lv e d w ith r e a l h i s t o r i c a l f i g u r e s , i t b e g in s
i n 1810 and so le a v e s b e h in d t h e d a r k e s t and b lo o d ie s t e p is o d e s o f th e
b a t t l e f o r th e in d ep e n d e n c e o f H a i t i . As a r e s u l t , t h e to n e i s more
p e a c e f u l th a n t h a t o f t h e o t h e r n o v e ls , and v io le n c e i s o n ly p r e s e n t
i n th e m em ories o f some o f th e c h a r a c t e r s . Aude, th e n a r r a t o r , i s h e r
s e l f a ro m a n tic , and h e r ap p ro a c h t o l i f e i n f l u e n c e s h e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
o f h i s t o r y . U nable t o know h e r s e l f , f e e l i n g t h a t she b e lo n g s nowhere
b e c au se o f a c h ild h o o d s p e n t w an d erin g from c o u n try t o c o u n tr y , she
a tte m p ts t o f i n d answ ers t o h e r q u e s ti o n s by i n v e s t i g a t i n g h e r f a m i l y 's
p a s t i "S e p e u t - i l , me d e m a n d a i-je , que j ' a i e , moi a u s s i , une p e rs o n n a -
l i t e , moi q u i f o u i l l e dans l e p a s s e p o u r e x p li q u e r mes g e s te s e t mes
* 16
p e n s e e s ? " I n h a b i t e d by an u n e x p la in a b le a n g u is h , Aude t r i e s t o f i n d
p o i n ts o f r e f e r e n c e i n t h e p a s t and se e k s among h e r many a n c e s to r s one
t o whom she c o u ld f e e l c l o s e .
To g iv e l i f e t o h e r g h o s ts , h e r " fa n to m e s ” as she c a l l s them , Aude
r e l i e s h e a v il y upon q u e s ti o n in g h e r g ra n d m o th e rs, t o whom a l l th e t a l e s
228
o f t h e fa m ily have been t r a n s m i t t e d . But t h e s e r e c o l l e c t i o n s do n o t go
as f a r back as she would l i k e , and she c a l l s upon h e r r e a d in g s and h e r
im a g in a tio n t o summon t h e f i g u r e o f h e r f i r s t H a i ti a n a n c e s t o r , th e
s la v e f r e s h l y a r r i v e d from h i s n a t i v e Gambia. As a r e s u l t , h e r e v o c a tio n
i s vague. T h is a n c e s t o r rem ain s a g h o s t known o n ly th ro u g h fra g m e n ta ry
t a l e s o f t h e tr a g e d y o f s l a v e r y , a lm o st anonymous, h i s name h a v in g n e v e r
been r e c o r d e d . He l i v e s b e c au se o f A ude's d e s i r e t o r e c r e a t e h e r
h i s t o r y , b u t h e r i n t e n t i o n s a r e l i m i t e d by t h e l a c k o f a v a i l a b l e docu
m e n ta tio n . A cknow ledging t h e im p o rta n t p la c e o f t h a t unknown s la v e in
h e r g e n e a lo g y , Aude endows him w ith c o u rag e and d i g n i t y , as w e ll as w ith
a slow a c c e p ta n c e o f th e new c o u n tr y , an a c c e p ta n c e born o u t o f th e
r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t t h e r e can be no r e t u r n t o th e o r i g i n a l A f r ic a .
The f i r s t c l e a r c h a r a c t e r i n t h e g e n e alo g y i s D i n e t t e , born Aman
d in e de l a B o r d e rie , i l l e g i t i m a t e d a u g h te r o f t h e owner o f t h e p l a n t a
t i o n w here h e r m o th er l i v e d , t h e c irc u m s ta n c e s o f D i n e t t e 's b i r t h a re
o n ly b r i e f l y r e c a l l e d b u t a re a te s tim o n y t o t h e v io le n c e o f s la v e r y :
born d u rin g a r e v o l t , D i n e tt e i s th e p ro d u c t o f i n c e s t . A lthough she
does n o t deny h e r t r a g i c p a s t , D i n e tt e — and h e r d e s c e n d a n ts — a re r e l u c
t a n t t o d e a l w ith i t a t any l e n g t h , t h e page h a v in g been tu r n e d when
h e r r e a l name was abandoned and tra n s fo rm e d i n t o " D i n e t t e ." T h is e p is o d e
d e m o n s tra te s , how ever, t h e humble o r i g i n s o f t h e H a i ti a n e l i t e , w hich
t h e n a r r a t o r , u n l ik e many o f h e r c o m p a tr io ts , i s w i l l i n g t o r e v e a l:
" J e com prenais e n f i n l e peu d 'e n th o u s ia s m e de t a n t d 'H a i t i e n s a
f o u i l l e r l e p a s s e p o u r r e c h e r c h e r l e u r s o r i g i n e s . C ela gene n o t r e e l i t e
d 'y r e t r o u v e r non se u le m en t des e s c la v e s t r a i t e s en b e t a i l , m ais a u s s i
229
l e s e n f a n ts d 'e s c l a v e e t de m a i tr e . (p . 1 0 3 ). I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o
n o te t h a t t h i s e l i t e i s l e s s c o n c e rn e d by what i t does n o t know about
i t s e a r l y a n c e s to r s th a n by what th e y m ight have been i n s o c i a l te r m s .
Such an a t t i t u d e c o n t r a s t s w ith t h a t o f Edouard G l i s s a n t 's c h a r a c t e r s ,
f o r exam ple, whose need t o know tr a n s c e n d s a l l p o s s i b l e s o c i a l b a r r i e r s .
From D i n e tt e on, W hites and B lacks w i l l n o t m ix, each g e n e r a ti o n
becoming l i g h t e r i n co m p lex io n . D i n e tt e e s t a b l i s h e s h e r s e l f w ith
P i e r r e c h , a s a i l o r who came u n d e r h e r c a r e d u rin g a b o u t w ith y e llo w
f e v e r , th u s f u l f i l l i n g t h e p r e d i c t i o n o f h e r g r a n d f a th e r , t h e houngan,
t h a t she w i l l have a f a m ily from a w h ite f o r e i g n e r . T h e ir s o c i a l a s c e n t
i s f a c i l i t a t e d by t h e c a p a c i ty f o r a b s o r p tio n o f H a i ti a n s o c i e t y a t th e
tim e and i s r a t i f i e d by t h e i r p u rc h a s e o f th e p l a n t a t i o n on w hich
D in e tte was b o rn . C l a r i s s e , D i n e t t e 's d a u g h te r , m a r r ie s Yves P lo e rm e l,
a u s s i b la n c que l e p l u s b la n c des B la n c s. Blanc aux yeux b le u s ,
e n c o re " ( p . 4 4 ). T h e ir m a rria g e i s n o t due t o c h a n ce , b u t w i l l e d by
b o th f a m i l i e s . C l a r i s s e 's d a u g h te r and h e r d a u g h te r , M e lis s a , m arry
i n t o th e M e rr iv a le fa m ily o f B r i t i s h e x t r a c t i o n . Aude, t h e n a r r a t o r , i s
t h e d a u g h te r o f M e lis s a and o f h e r c o u s in . A u d e's b la c k b lo o d i s th e n
b a r e ly n o t i c e a b l e , p r e s e n t o n ly i n t h e d e l i c a t e nuances o f h e r
co m p lex io n . A lthough t h e s e m a r r ia g e s a r e t h e r e s u l t o f e ach g e n e r a ti o n 's
d e s i r e t o b e t t e r i t s e l f e c o n o m ic a lly and r a c i a l l y , t h e c h i l d r e n a re
r a i s e d in t h e know ledge o f t h e i r o r i g i n s ! "L e u rs m eres e t l e u r s g ra n d -
m eres, f id e le m e n t, l e u r a v a i t t r a n s m i s . . .q u e lq u e ch ose du rythm e e n d ia -
b le que l e tam bour vaudou im prim e aux f r e n e s i e s a f r i c a i n e s " ( p . 7 9 ).
D i n e tt e and G u e d e lla , h e r m o th e r, a r e an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e f a m i l y 's
230
g e n e a lo g y . W ith th e em ergence o f t h e w h ite b lo o d , how ever, t h e o r i g i n a l
t r a d i t i o n s , t h o s e o f t h e houngan, a r e l o s t i n f a c t , even i f th e y a r e
m a in ta in e d i n memory, as th e v a r io u s g e n e r a ti o n s t u r n t o C a th o lic is m o r
P r o t e s t a n t i s m . What em erges i s a fa m ily t h a t w i l l i n g l y em braces i t s
H a i ti a n h e r i t a g e and s e e s i t s m ixed o r i g i n s as th e s ig n and p r o o f o f
t h i s h e r i t a g e .
The e v o lu t io n o f th e fa m ily d id n o t alw ays p ro c e e d sm o o th ly . T here
was P i e r r e c h , C l a r i s s e 's so n , who was u n a b le t o r e c o n c i l e h i s b la c k and
w h ite o r i g i n s and rem ain ed i s o l a t e d a l l h i s l i f e ; "Q u e lq u ' a n c e t r e
a f r i c a i n a du me t r a n s m e t t r e son ame sa u v ag e . J e n ' a i tr o u v e un peu de
bonheur q u ’ a u p re s d 'h u m b le s n o i r s , p ^ c h e u rs ou p a y s a n s . H e la s , parm i
eux mon masque d 'E u ro p e e n f a i s a i t de moi un e t r a n g e r . . . J ' a i veeu en
p a r i a dans l e s deux mondes q u i se d i s p u t a i e n t mon c o rp s e t mon ame"
(p p . 7 2 -7 3 ). T h ere was a ls o Y ves, C l a r i s s e 's h u sb a n d , who f o r a lo n g
tim e drowned h i s f a i l u r e s i n a lc o h o l . And t h e r e i s G ra n n 'L in a , a v i c t im
o f t h e c r u e l t y o f H a i ti a n h i s t o r y , who l o s t f a m ily , lo v e and h a p p in e s s
d u r in g one o f i t s v i o l e n t e p is o d e s . Of t h e s e t h r e e d ram as, t h a t o f
P i e r r e c h i s t h e m ost t r a g i c , f o r i t has no s o l u t i o n . As a M u la tto , he
belo n g ed now here; as a man drawn t o th e c i r c l e s o f h i s a n c e s t o r s , he
c o u ld n o t p a r t i c i p a t e i n th e l i f e o f h i s f a m ily ; h o p e le s s ly l o n e ly
and d e s p e r a te , he d ie d p r e m a tu r e ly . I n a s o c i e t y w hich may seem d e v o id
o f ra c is m , P i e r r e c h 's f a t e r e v e a l s th e r i g i d sy stem o f r a c i a l c a s t e s
w hich has sh aped t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e o f H a i ti s in c e i t s in d e p e n d e n c e .
T here i s i n Aude some o f P i e r r e c h 's u n e a s i n e s s . She does n o t a n a ly z e i t
i n term s o f r a c i a l b e lo n g in g , but sh e f e e l s em pathy f o r him.
231
As M aryse Conde s t a t e s i n La P a r o le des femmes, i t i s t h e women
who c o n t r o l t h e h i s t o r y o f A u d e 's f a m ily . ^ The men b r in g new b lo o d ,
but th e women have t h e more im p o rta n t t a s k o f t r a n s m i t t i n g t h e v a lu e s
and th e t r a d i t i o n s o f t h e f a m ily . "L es meres, a s s u r a i e n t l a s o l i d i t e de
l a f a m i l l e h a i t i e n n e , c r e a n t e t n o u r r i s s a n t de l e u r p r o p r e s u b s ta n c e
l e s f o y e r s d o n t f i l s , f r e r e s e t m a ris a v a ie n t l e p r i v i l e g e de s 'e v a -
18
d e r . " F or exam ple, i t i s C l a r i s s e who assum es t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r
h e r l a r g e f a m ily , w h ile Y ves, h e r h u sband, spends h i s days and n i g h ts
d r in k i n g . As a r e s u l t , th e m a te rn a l a n c e s tr y ta k e s p re c e d e n c e o v e r th e
p a t e r n a l a n c e s t r y , as Aude e x p la in s ! " C e la m'am use un peu d 'e n te n d r e
e x p liq u e r t Aude M e rr iv a le e s t P lo e rm e l p a r s a m ere, f i l l e u n iq u e de
M elan ie P lo e rm e l, Madame Luc Rameau— comme s i ma f a m i l l e p a t e r n e l l e
ne c o m p ta it p a s" ( p . 1 4 0 ).
A u d e 's n a r r a t i v e g iv e s a good i d e a o f how t h e H a i t i a n e l i t e
e v o lv e d , a b s o rb in g f o r e i g n e le m e n ts , slo w ly a d a p tin g t o E uropean
f a s h io n s and t r a d i t i o n s and m a in ta in in g i t s r a c i a l c o h e sio n th ro u g h
c a r e f u l l y s e l e c t e d u n io n s . A lth o u g h sh e c la im s h e r p r id e i n h e r mixed
o r i g i n s , Aude i s aware o f t h e s u p e r i o r i t y h e r l i g h t com plexion c o n fe r s
on h e r and, u n w i l li n g ly o f th e l a t e n t ra c ism w hich p la g u e s H a i ti a n
s o c i e t y . The r o l e o f l e a d e r s h i p o f th e e l i t e i s a r e c u r r e n t p re o c c u
p a ti o n from Yves P lo e rm e l t o A u d e 's f a t h e r , b o th o f whom d e v o te t h e i r
l i v e s t o t h e good o f th e c o u n tr y . B ut, h e re a g a in , t h e r e a r e doubts as
t o t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h e i r hopes and th e r e a l acco m p lish m en ts o f an
e l i t e s e v e re d from t h e p e o p le by y e a rs o f a s s i m i l a t i o n t o f o r e i g n
c u l t u r e s . Aude h e r s e l f a d m its t h e gap e x i s t i n g betw een h e r c l a s s and
232
t h e r e s t o f t h e H a i ti a n p o p u la tio n : " I I n ' e s t pas j u s t e , j e l e s a i s
b ie n , que j e s o is a i n s i d is p e n s e e au d e p a r t de l a l u t t e a l a q u e l l e t a n t
de mes co n g e n ere s p a r t i c i p e n t avec p lu s ou m oins de b o n h eu r. Que c e s
i n e g a l i t e s e x i s t e n t e s t . i n d i s c u t a b l e . A p p o rte r un soulagem ent aux
m is e re s do n t j e s u i s te m o in , o u i . . . l e s p a r t a g e r , j e n 'y songe p o i n t"
(p . 1 6 0 ).
Aude o c c u p ie s an ambiguous p o s i t i o n i n t h e m id s t o f t h e s o c i e t y
t o w hich she w ish e s t o b e lo n g . R a is e d o u t s i d e o f H a i t i , she does n o t
f i t among h e r c o m p a tr io ts . Even i n h e r own f a m ily , she f e e l s e x c lu d e d :
"A l e s e n te n d r e r i r e t o u t e s l e s t r o i s , j 'e u s un f r i s s o n de s o l i t u d e ,
me s e n t a n t , comme c e l a m’ a r r i v a i t s o u v e n t, e x c lu e d 'u n s o u v e n ir com-
mun" (p . 1 3 2 ). S in c e sh e c a n n o t a p p r o p r i a t e t h e p r e s e n t , she t u r n s t o
t h e p a s t i n t h e hope t h a t i t w i l l p r o v id e h e r w ith t h e s e n se o f b e lo n g
in g she s o r e l y m is s e s . Among h e r a n c e s t o r s , i t i s D in e tte t o whom she
f e e l s c l o s e s t , a d i f f i c u l t c h o ic e , s in c e D i n e tt e was h e r o p p o s ite i n
way o f l i f e , b e l i e f s and b e h a v io r . But h e r c h o ic e i s i n d i c a t i v e of
A ude's f e e l i n g s o f e x c lu s io n : u n c o n s c io u s ly , sh e re a c h e s f o r th e m ost
s o l i d l y H a i ti a n e lem en t o f h e r f a m ily . But t h i s i s n o t enough t o g iv e
h e r s t a b i l i t y . I n s p i t e o f h a v in g i n h e r p o s s e s s io n a l l t h e e le m en ts o f
s u c c e s s — s t a t u s , w e a lth and b e a u ty — Aude i s o b s e ss e d by a l a t e n t a n g u is h
and p re m o n itio n s o f d e a th . Her' p re m a tu re d e a th i n c h i l d b i r t h th u s comes
as no s u r p r i s e . I t i s a b rea k w ith t h e fa m ily t r a d i t i o n o f r o b u s t and
s tr o n g women who l i v e t o s e e t h e i r own c h i l d r e n d i e . C h r i s t i n e , h e r
c o u s in , s h a r e s th e same f a t e and d i e s p r e m a tu r e ly i n a sup p o sed a c c i
d e n t. Of t h e t r i o she form ed w ith M arie-A ndre and C h r i s t i n e , o n ly
233
M arie-A ndre s u r v iv e s a f t e r a norm al l i f e — M arie-A n d re, t h e b la c k g i r l
who p o s s e s s e s t h e s t a b i l i t y t h a t Aude and C h r i s t i n e b o th la c k e d and an
unambiguous p a s t w hich Aude e n v ie d h e r: " J 'e n v i a i s p re s q u e aux deux
je u n e s n o i r e s l a p u r e t e de l e u r s o r i g i n e s , 1 ' a b sen c e dans l e u r d e sc e n
dance des p i r a t e s , des f o rm a ts , des p r o s t i t u e e s que l a i s s e s u p p o s e r un
sang m ele" ( p . 1 0 3 ). The t r a g i c d e s ti n y o f Aude and o f h e r c o u s in h i n t s
a t t h e end o f t h e way o f l i f e Aude d e s c r ib e s i n h e r d i a r i e s , an anach
r o n i s t i c way o f l i f e in c o m p a tib le w ith t h e needs o f h e r c o u n tr y .
F or t h i s n o v e l re a d s as t h e te s tim o n y o f a c l a s s , t h e m u la tto
b o u r g e o i s ie . I t e x p la in s i t s p e c u l i a r i t i e s , i t s b e lo n g in g t o t h e H ai
t i a n n a t i o n , as w e ll as i t s e stra n g e m e n t from th e h a r s h e r r e a l i t i e s o f
t h a t n a t i o n . Aude h e r s e l f i s t y p i c a l o f a c l a s s whose members a re
r a i s e d i n f o r e i g n c o u n t r i e s , who know th e custom s o f t h e i r l a n d , but
who r e f u s e t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e d e s ti n y o f t h e m a j o r i t y . Aude s e n s e s
t h e s e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n r e l a t i o n t o h e r f a t h e r : "Meme parm i l e s i n t e l -
l e c t u e l s h a i t l e n s , on l u i a so u v e n t j e t e a l a f i g u r e q u e , n 'a y a n t de
s e s c o m p a trio te s n i 1 ' a s p e c t p h y s iq u e — l a c o u le u r , comme i l s d i s e n t —
n i l e s p roblem es econom iques, i l f a i t f i g u r e d * o b s e rv a te u r e t n ' e s t pas
un H a i ti e n a u th e n tiq u e ” ( p . 1 2 3 ). T h is q u e s t f o r a u t h e n t i c i t y i s a t
t h e r o o t o f A u d e 's p r e o c c u p a tio n w ith t h e p a s t , b u t she i s to o
e s tr a n g e d from t h a t p a s t t o f i n d 'a n y com fort i n i t ; she c h o o ses n o t t o
f a c e th e o b v io u s. I n s t e a d , she m a r r ie s a f o r e i g n e r as r o o t l e s s as h e r
s e l f and le a v e s h e r c o u n tr y .
A lth o u g h A u d e's problem s o f te n seem f u t i l e i n th e c o n te x t o f
H a i t i , t h e r e i s i n h e r t h e same h e lp l e s s n e s s as t h a t found i n o th e r
234
c h a r a c t e r s . U nable t o p in p o in t th e s o u rc e o f h e r m a la is e , she does n o t
make t h e c h o ic e s h e r i n c l i n a t i o n s c o u ld le a d t o . C h r i s t i n e , h e r a l t e r
ego, o p ts f o r no commitment o f any k in d , r e j e c t s b o th p a s t and f u t u r e —
a n o th e r form o f e v a s io n w hich le a d s t o a s i m i l a r tr a g e d y . T h e ir ambi
g u i t y i s t h e i r doom; th e y n e i t h e r h ave t h e w i l l n o r t h e s t r e n g t h to
choose betw een th e d i s c o r d a n t e le m e n ts o f t h e i r p a s t and f a c e th e
c h o ic e s w hich would make t h e i r l i f e m e a n in g fu l.
The n o v e ls s tu d i e d i n t h i s c h a p te r can be d iv id e d i n t o two g ro u p s:
th o s e d e a li n g w ith p a r t i c u l a r e p is o d e s o f th e h i s t o r y o f s la v e r y and
e m p h asizin g th e r e v o l u t i o n a r y p e r i o d , such as l e N egre du g o u v e rn e u r,
Les A rb res de l a l i b e r t e and La M u la tre s s e S o l i t u d e , and th o s e l e s s
c o n c e rn e d w ith c h r o n o lo g ic a l h i s t o r y and more w ith h i s t o r i c a l c o n ti n u
i t y and i t s c y c l i c a l n a t u r e . The r e v o l u t i o n a r y p e r io d i s ch o sen b e c a u se
i t a llo w e d t h e s la v e s t o come o u t o f t h e i r p a s s i v e anonym ity and gave
them an o p p o r tu n ity t o p ro v e th e m s e lv e s as human b e in g s . T h is e p is o d e
o f h i s t o r y p r o v id e s t h e b la c k p e o p le w ith m em ories' o f courag eo u s a c ts
t o w hich th e y can lo o k back i n tim e s o f d o u b t. Those m emories r e p r e s e n t
t h e i r c o l l e c t i v e p a s t , a tim e when th e y a l l came t o g e t h e r as a p e o p le
t o f i g h t f o r com m on.ends. The u n i f y i n g i n f l u e n c e o f t h i s common h i s t o r y
i s underm ined by two f a c t s : i t re c o r d s m o stly f a i l u r e s , a n d . i t i s th e
p ro d u c t o f a su p erim p o sed h i s t o r i c a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o r c h ro n o lo g y . We
have se en .t h a t E douard G l i s s a n t r e b e l s a g a in s t an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f
h i s t o r y r e l y i n g upon d a te s and e v e n ts w hich he deems m e a n in g le s s t o a
235
r e c o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e C a rib b e a n . The n e x t s t e p i s , t h u s ,
t o fo re g o p a r t i c u l a r e p is o d e s and t o t r y t o g ra s p th e h i s t o r y o f th e
C a rib b e a n i n i t s e n t i r e t y , t h a t i s , from th e tim e o f th e M iddle P a ssa g e
t o th e p r e s e n t , t a k i n g i n t o ac co u n t economic and s o c i a l changes w hich
m ight have in f lu e n c e d t h e e v o lu tio n o f th e c o n d it io n o f .the B la c k s. I n
h i s n o v e ls , E douard G l i s s a n t c o n c lu d e s t h a t s u c c e s s iv e econom ic and
p o l i t i c a l changes have r e s u l t e d i n no m o d if ic a tio n o f th e c o n d it io n o f
t h e b la c k p e o p le as a w hole. The l a s t two n o v e ls s tu d i e d a r e c l a s s -
o r i e n t e d and d e a l w ith p a r t i c u l a r a c h iev em en ts o f a b la c k and a m u la tto
m id d l e - c la s s f a m ily . W hether th e y have t o do w ith a v e ry l i m i t e d p e r io d
o r span c e n t u r i e s , w h e th e r th e y s t r e s s t h e d e te r m in a tio n o f t h e B lacks
o r t h e i r d e s p a i r , a l l th e works s tu d i e d unco v er and a n a ly z e t h e complex--
i t y o f t h e C arib b ean p e r s o n a l i t y , i t s co m b in a tio n o f h e te ro g e n e o u s and
o f te n i r r e c o n c i l a b l e e le m e n ts , and i t s co n seq u e n t a l t e r n a t i n g betw een
p o w e rle s s n e s s and v i o l e n c e .
The c a u se s o f t h e i r r e g u l a r p a t t e r n s o f b e h a v io r d e m o n s tra te d by
t h e v a r io u s c h a r a c t e r s o f t h e n o v e ls a re many: dam aging conseq u en ces
o f o p p r e s s iv e re g im e s , e x a c e r b a tio n o f th e em otions due t o an i n a b i l i t y
t o a l t e r t h e c o u rs e o f e v e n ts , r a c i a l and c u l t u r a l i n t e r a c t i o n r e s u l t
in g in t h e f a i l u r e t o i d e n t i f y and d e f in e th e s o u rc e s o f o n e 's o r i g i n s ,
and f a i l u r e t o d e r iv e any k in d o f m e n ta l s u p p o rt from t h e knowledge
o f th e p a s t . A n other e lem en t seems o f p a r t i c u l a r im p o rta n c e : th e p s y c h o
l o g i c a l vacuum c r e a te d by th e b r u t a l en slavem ent o f th e b la c k p e o p le .
The M iddle P a ssa g e i s more th a n a b loody e p is o d e o f t h e p a s t , i t i s an
i n t e r r u p t i o n o f l i f e , an e p is o d e o f t o t a l l o s s — l o s s o f c o u n tr y , l o s s
236
o f th e p a s t and, more im p o r ta n t ly , l o s s o f th e v a lu e s g o v e rn in g o n e 's
l i f e and g iv in g i t m eaning and d i r e c t i o n . The t r a g i c co n seq u en ces o f
t h i s r u p tu r e a re . b e s t a n a ly z e d i n th e f i r s t group o f n o v e ls . How th e
v o id th u s c r e a t e d i s t o be f i l l e d , w hat new s e t o f v a lu e s w i l l be
chosen i f any, w i l l d e te rm in e th e c o u rs e o f o n e 's l i f e . T h ere a r e t h r e e
a l t e r n a t i v e s p o s s i b l e : w i l l i n g n e s s t o conform w i t h . t h e v a lu e s o f th e
W hites as does D'Chimbo; n o n -a c c e p ta n c e o f t h e new e n v iro n m e n t, r e b e l
l i o n and m arronnage (Bayangumay, S o l i t u d e , t h e f i r s t O 'o s ) , w hich l a t e r
le a d s t o t h e more o r g a n iz e d ty p e o f f i g h t i n g p e r s o n i f i e d by Ig n a c e ;
abandonment and d e s p a i r em bodied by th e c a s t o f shadowy f ig u r e s
h o v e rin g around S o l i t u d e o r I g n a c e , u n d e te rm in e d , n o t knowing how t o
r e a c t , f o r th e y no lo n g e r have t h e w i l l o r th e s t r e n g t h t o make t h e i r
own d e c i s i o n s . W hatever c h o ic e i s made, th e outcom e i s o f te n th e same:
d e a th , d e a th w ith d i g n i t y o r w ith shame. Those w ho.compromise w i t h . t h e
c o l o n i a l o r d e r a re many; D'Chimbo, P e la g e , Tigam ba, E u lo g e, B a in d in g u e ,
and th e y a re a l l p o r tr a y e d w ith a k in d o f s a d n e s s , f o r th e y a re shown
i n th e p r o c e s s o f l o s i n g th e m s e lv e s . P e la g e i s a h i s t o r i c a l symbol o f
s u r r e n d e r , w h ile D'Chimbo i s se en as a v i c t im and B aindingue as a
f i g u r e o f m ockery.
Why i s t h e p a s t u n a b le t o p ro v id e m en ta l su p p o rt? Because o f i t s
a m b ig u ity and o f i t s d u a l i t y . A f r i c a , th e A f r ic a n dream as i t i s p i c
t u r e d i n L a M u la tre s s e S o l i t u d e , i s an i l l u s i o n . A f r ic a may be an i d e a l
but i t i s a t t h e same tim e a s o u rc e o f f e a r , th e f e a r o f t h e unknown.
The vague m em ories o f t h e d i s t a n t p a s t w hich have been r e t a i n e d by a
few, such as P apa Longoue, a r e no lo n g e r s u f f i c i e n t l y m e a n in g fu l. T h e re
237
o n ly rem a in t h e im ages t r a n s m i t t e d i n t a l e s , c a r e f u l l y p r e s e r v e d w ords
w hich do n o t y i e l d t h e i r m eaning, songs and d ances w hich no lo n g e r
r e f e r t o a n y th in g c o n c r e te , b e l i e f s w hich no lo n g e r apply.. Thus,, c ru
c i a l q u e s ti o n s rem ain unansw ered: What was A f r ic a lik e ? What happened
t h e r e w hich c o u ld j u s t i f y t h e M iddle P assag e? What c a u se d t h e d i s p l a c e
ment o f t h e B lacks? The r u p t u r e o f ,th e M iddle P a ssag e i s so co m p lete
t h a t i t e r a s e s m em ories o f . t h e p a s t : D’Chimbo r a p i d l y f o r g e t s h i s A f r i
can p a s t , as do Bayangumay and I g n a c e , b e c au se i t does n o t r e l a t e t o
th e p r e s e n t . As soon as i t becomes c l e a r t h a t no r e t u r n i s p o s s i b l e ,
s u r v i v a l i n t h e new c o u n try makes i t n e c e s s a r y t o f o r g e t . F u rth e rm o re ,
th e s la v e s w ere n o t a llo w e d t o m a in ta in the, tr a d itio n s - .w h ic h m ight have
e n a b le d them t o keep t h e i r m em ories as a c o h e re n t, whole.. The d i s t a n t
p a s t i s a b la c k h o le r e s u l t i n g from th e shock o f d i s p l a c e m e n t : . su ch a
p a s t c a n n o t be r e c a p tu r e d . What rem ains a r e ambiguous m em ories y i e l d i n g
c o n t r a d i c t o r y in f o r m a tio n t h a t c a n n o t be r e c o n c il e d w ith what one
w ish e s t h e p a s t c o u ld have b een . Simone S chw arz-B art. a tte m p ts t o re c o n
s t r u c t t h e A f r ic a o f t h e .t i m e o f s la v e r y i n Ti J e a n 1 ' H o rizo n b u t , as
we s h a l l s e e , h e r A f r ic a s t i l l . b e lo n g s .t o t h e realm o f im a g in a tio n and
does n o t p r o v id e s a t i s f a c t o r y a n sw e rs. (See chap. 6 )
The them e o f la n g u a g e , w hich i s p r e s e n t i n . a l l t h e n o v e ls , .is a
f u r t h e r c o m p lic a tin g f a c t o r . I n Le N egre du gouverneur. and Les A rb res
de l a l i b e r t e , t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f th e F ren ch lan g u a g e i s re g a r d e d as
d e s i r a b l e . D 'C him bo's a s s i m i l a t i o n p a r a l l e l s h i s p r o g r e s s i v e m a ste ry
o f th e c o l o n i a l la n g u a g e up t o th e moment when he ta k e s i n t h e v a lu e s
r e p r e s e n t e d and e x p re s s e d by t h a t la n g u a g e . I g n a c e , on t h e c o n t r a r y ,
238
does n o t a c h ie v e command o f t h e 'F r e n c h la n g u a g e and i s a b le t o r e t a i n
c l a r i t y o f th o u g h t. I n Le Flam boyant a f l e u r s b l e u e s , B a in d in g u e ,c.a
k in d o f modern D'Chimbo, m a n ip u la te s F rench i n a t o r t u o u s f a s h io n w hich
r e f l e c t s h i s own t o r t u o u s n a tu r e ,: h i s am bition, and h i s l o s s of u n d e r
s ta n d in g o f h i s own back g ro u n d . M eanw hile, h i s two sons c r e a t e . t h e i r
own c o m p o site la n g u a g e s : Choutoumounou e x p re s s e s h im s e lf i n a s o p h i s t i
c a te d and o ld - f a s h i o n e d way w hich s i n g l e s him o u t as th e .r e p o s i to r y o f
m ixed t r a d i t i o n s , b u t he r e v e r t s t o C re o le to. v o ic e h i s in n erm o st
th o u g h ts ; h i s b r o t h e r , Pampou,. am algam ates i n h i s own c o l o r f u l v e r s i o n
words borrow ed from a l l th e com ponents o f t h e p o p u la tio n o f h i s i s l a n d ;
he th u s r e p r e s e n t s t h e modern c o s m o p o lita n C a rib b e a n man. I n Edouard
G l i s s a n t 's n o v e ls , la n g u a g e r e f l e c t s a l o s s and i s i n s u f f i c i e n t t o
e x p re s s th e a n g u is h o f th e B lacks b e cau se i t i s a la n g u a g e o f r u p tu r e
and o f d i s p o s s e s s i o n and can n o t a cco u n t f o r o r i g i n s . The few t r u e words
i n h e r i t e d from th e a n c e s to r s have become l o s t , o r have l o s t t h e i r
m eaning, and r e c a p t u r i n g i t i s an im p o s s ib le t a s k . T h is t a s k i s r e n d - r
e re d a l l th e more im p o s s ib le by th e overw helm ing i n t e r f e r e n c e o f F ren ch
w o rd s, " l e s mots de F a ran c e " as C inna Chimene c a l l s them i n
19 .
La Case du commandeur. Thus l a n g u a g e .c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e m y s t i f i c a t i o n
o f th e B la c k s. I n Aude e t se s fa n to m e s ,. t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f th e F ren ch
la n g u a g e s i g n a l s t h e p r o g r e s s iv e e s tra n g e m e n t o f th e H a i t i a n m u la tto
b o u r g e o is ie from i t s o r i g i n s . W hile D in e tte spoke o n ly C re o le and
ta u g h t i t t o h e r husband P i e r r e c h , h e r d e s c e n d a n t, Aude, i s th o u g h t.
in c a p a b le o f u n d e rs ta n d in g i t . Although, sh e d o e s , sh e n e v e r u s e s i t .
I n s t e a d , she e x p re s s e s h e r s e l f i n F re n ch , E n g lis h o r S p a n is h , a f a c t
239
Arhich h i n t s a t h e r la c k o f b e lo n g in g t o any n a t i o n , m ost p a r t i c u l a r l y
h e r own, and shows how rem ote t h e H a i t i a n b o u r g e o is ie i s from t h e m a jo r
i t y o f t h e H a i ti a n p o p u l a t io n . Thus t h e a t t i t u d e o f t h e s e v a r io u s c h a r
a c te r s to w a rd th e c o l o n i a l la n g u a g e r e f l e c t s t h e i r p e r s o n a l e v o lu t io n
tow ard o r away from t h e i r own p e o p le . A la n g u a g e t r a n s c r i b e s c e r t a i n
/lays o f t h in k i n g and im p lie s a s e t o f v a lu e s ; th u s t h e c o l o n i a l language
e x p re s s e s t h e l o g ic o f t h e c o l o n i z e r . As such i t i s a d a n g e ro u s weapon
ivrhich can be m is ta k e n f o r a means o f s o c i a l p r o g r e s s . The c h i e f o f th e
maroons i n La M u la tre s s e S o l i t u d e u n d e rs to o d t h i s when he d e c la r e d t h a t
a b la c k man c a u g h t i n t h e w h ite man’ s th o u g h ts was l o s t t o h im s e lf and
t o h i s p e o p le .
T hese n o v e ls r e c o r d f a i l u r e s ; f a i l u r e o f D'Chimbo who succumbs t o
th e p ip ed ream s o f a s s i m i l a t i o n ; f a i l u r e o f t h e r e b e l s su ch as Ig n a c e o r
S o litu d e i n t h e i r q u e s t f o r freedom ; f a i l u r e o f P y th a g o re i n h i s s e a r c h
f o r th e m eaning o f t h e p a s t ; f a i l u r e o f th e t h r e e f u g i t i v e s i n t h e i r
b a t t l e a g a in s t o p p r e s s io n ; f a i l u r e o f Aude i n h e r s e a r c h f o r p e r s o n a l
b a la n c e . The a u th o r s ' ap p ro a c h e s v a ry ; S e rg e P a t i e n t p i c t u r e s D'Chimbo
as r e l e n t l e s s l y d r iv e n t o h i s own p e r d i t i o n , w h ile Ig n a c e and S o l i t u d e
f in d d i g n i t y i n t h e i r f i g h t and g a in a s t a t u r e w hich makes them le g e n d
a ry f i g u r e s . E douard G l i s s a n t 's two n o v e ls a re t h e d a r k e s t , e s p e c i a l l y
M alem ort, w hich a llo w s f o r l i t t l e hope i n th e b a t t l e a g a in s t o p p re s s io n .
The q u e s t f o r o r i g i n s w hich d r iv e s th e c h a r a c t e r s o f La Case du comman-
deurt i s e q u a ll y p a i n f u l and f r u i t l e s s ; each g e n e r a tio n hopes t h a t th e
n e x t w i l l be a b le t o p i e c e t o g e t h e r t h e p u z z le o f h i s t o r y , b u t, as tim e
p a s s e s , su ch an achievem ent becomes more and more u n l i k e l y . Cinna
240
Chimene and P y th a g o re g iv e up t h e i r s e a r c h and r e t i r e i n t o a c c e p ta n c e
and r e s i g n a t i o n , a lth o u g h t h i s does n o t r e l i e v e th e t o r t u r e o f t h e i r
s o u l .- F o r a l l t h e i r e f f o r t s , t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s a r e v ic tim s o f a sy stem
w hich a llo w s f o r l i t t l e hope: i t e r a s e s th e p a s t , th u s c r e a t i n g a h i s
t o r i c a l vacuum im p o s s ib le t o f i l l } i t im poses f o r e i g n v a lu e s upon a
p e o p le w hich becomes l o s t i f i t a c c e p ts them and l o s t i f i t does n o t .
Even Le Flam boyant a f l e u r s b le u e s ends on a b i t t e r n o te as t h e tw in s
a re e x i l e d t o F ra n ce by t h e i r fa th e r} , t h e r e i s no c e r t a i n t y as t o
w h e th e r th e y w i l l r e t a i n t h e i r i n t e g r i t y o r u n dergo changes f o r th e
w orse w h ile away. The p a s t i s h e re a s o u rc e o f a n g u ish and u n c e r t a i n t y .
I f i t p r o v id e s s t o r i e s o f s u c c e s s a t t h e p e r s o n a l l e v e l , such as t h a t
o f S o l i t u d e , i t m o s tly shows d e s p a i r and p o w e rle s s n e s s a t th e l e v e l o f
t h e b la c k p e o p le as a w hole. I t d e m o n s tra te s t h e i r i n a b i l i t y a t im pos
in g th e m s e lv e s as a p e o p le w ith i t s own v a lu e s , c u l t u r e and lan g u a g e
becau se t h e s e c la s h w ith t h e su p erim p o sed e le m e n ts o f th e o t h e r c u l t u r e .
T hroughout h i s t o r y , t h e s ig n o f t h e r e s i s t a n c e o f c o lo n iz e d p o p u la tio n s
has alw ays been t h e d e g re e t o w hich th e y were a b le t o m a in ta in t h e i r
c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e and th u s p ro c la im t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l i t y and t h e i r d i f
f e r e n c e . I n t h e c a s e o f t h e F rench C a rib b e a n , such m ain te n a n c e has been
made d i f f i c u l t } a f e e l i n g o f r o o t l e s s n e s s and l o s s r e s u l t s , w hich
h a u n ts m ost o f t h e n o v e ls i n q u e s ti o n . I n o th e r words,, t h e a n a ly s i s o f
th e p a s t p r o v id e s no answ ers b e c au se o f t h e o p a c it y o f h i s t o r y , o r o f
what rem ain s o f i t . C o n s id e ra tio n o f th e p a s t o c c a s i o n a l l y a llo w s f o r
tem p o rary r e l i e f , b u t on t h e w hole, i t s ambiguous n a tu r e g iv e s b i r t h to
a f e e l i n g o f v e r t i g o w e ll e x p re s s e d by A le x is A c c iu s, t h e c e n t r a l
241
c h a r a c t e r o f G erard E t i e n n e 's m ost r e c e n t n o v e l, Un Am bassadeur m acoute
a M ontreal? ” 11 a e n c o re l e s e n tim e n t de n ' e t r e q u 'u n e p e l o t e de p a i l l e
b a l l o t t e e s u r l e s c o u ra n ts de l ' h i s t o i r e . D 'une h i s t o i r e q u i l u i e c h ap -
p e . D 'une h i s t o i r e q u i a t o u jo u r s echappe aux n e g re s de son p a y s ,
d e p u is que l e s D ieux de s e s a n c e t r e s o n t du s e c a c h e r l a t e t e so u s l a
20
mer p o u r e c h a p p e r aux b o u le ts de canon des g ro s B la n c s ."
242
Notes
^ R egis A n to in e , Les E c r iv a in s f r a n q a i s e t l e s A n t i l l e s ( P a r i s :
P.-G . M aisonneuve e t L a r o s e , 1 9 7 8 ), p . 286.
2
A n to in e , p . 249.
3
A n to in e , p . 360.
^ E douard G l i s s a n t , Le D isc o u rs a n t i l l a i s ( P a r i s ; S e u i l , 1 9 8 1 ),
pp. 133-34.
S e rg e P a t i e n t , Le Negre du G ouverneur ( P a r i s : L 'H a rm a tta n ,
1978), p . 77.
^ L yceens de B aim b rid g e, Les A rb res de l a l i b e r t e ( P a r i s : E d itio n s
C a rib e e n n e s, 1 9 7 9 ), p . 45.
^ H e lia n e and R oger Toumson, " I n t e r v i e w avec Simone e t Andre
S chw arz-B art s u r l e s pas de F a n o tte " ', T e x tes e t Docum ents, No. 2
(1 9 7 9 ), p . 14.
8 A
Andre S c h w a rz -B a rt,-L a M u la tre s s e S o l i t u d e ( P a r i s : S e u i l , 1972),
p . 1 2 .
9
E douard G l i s s a n t , M alemort ( P a r i s : S e u i l , 1 9 7 5 ), p. 132.
^ G l i s s a n t , P i s c o u r s , p . 55.
^ G l i s s a n t , D is c o u r s , pp. 155-56.
12
G l i s s a n t , D is c o u r s , p . 157.
13
G l i s s a n t , D is c o u r s , p . 157.
Edouard G l i s s a n t , La Case du commandeur ( P a r i s : S e u i l , 1 9 8 1 ),
p. 18.
^ -Jean -L o u is B a g h io 'o , Le Flam boyant a f l e u r s b le u e s ( P a r i s :
E d itio n s C a rib e e n n e s , 1 9 8 1 ), p. 115.
^ A d e lin e M o rav ia, Aude e t se s fantom es ( P o r t - a u - P r i n c e : E d itio n s
C a r a ib e s , 1 9 7 7 ), p. 227.
243
^ M aryse Conde, La P a r o le des femmes ( P a r i s ! L 'H a rm a tta n , 1 9 7 9 ),
p. 91.
18
M oravia, p. 40.
19
G l i s s a n t , Commandeur, p . 78.
20 *■ *
G erard E tie n n e , Un A m bassadeur m acoute a M o ntreal (M o n trea l!
N o u v e lle O p tiq u e , 1 9 7 9 ), p . 17.
244
C h a p te r Four
P o w e rle s s n e s s : C auses and Consequences
G ran ted th e i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f r e c o v e r in g t h e p a s t , o f u n d e rs ta n d in g
i t and assum ing i t ; g r a n te d th e vacuum th u s l e f t i n t h o s e who would
need a j u s t i f i c a t i o n o r an e x p la n a tio n o f t h e i r s i t u a t i o n i n tim e and
s p a c e , one m ust s t i l l t u r n t o t h e p r e s e n t and exam ine what i t may have
t o o f f e r . The f i r s t and m ost obv io u s elem ent f o r an answ er i s g iv e n by
a r a p i d g la n c e a t t h e t i t l e s o f a s i g n i f i c a n t p e rc e n ta g e , o f t h e n o v e ls
p u b lis h e d w i th in t h e l a s t t e n y e a r s : F i l s de m is e re and Le Negre c r u c i -
f i e b o th h i n t a t th e w ell-know n f a c t o f H a i t i 's econom ic and p o l i t i c a l
d i s t r e s s ; M a rtin iq u e des c e n d r e s , M alem ort and Le F o lilo q u e en ou, d i e s e
m in eu r: f o s t e r im ages o f d e a th and p h y sic a l- and p s y c h o lo g ic a l d e s t r u c -
t i o n ; Mere l a m ort and La M e u rtritu d e (from M a rtin iq u e w ith some r e s e r
v a t i o n s ) im ply a w ish f o r d e a th and m urder as w e ll as f o r s u i c i d e ;
f i n a l l y , L 'E a u -d e -m o rt g u i l d i v e s u g g e s ts t h e p e r s i s t e n c e o f s la v e r y i n
a modern form and d e a th . F u r th e r i n d i c a t i o n s o f th e a u t h o r s ' p re o c c u
p a ti o n w ith l o s s , i n s a n i t y and d e a th .c a n be found i n t h e names o f t h e
p la c e s th e y e l e c t t o d e s c r i b e i n t h e i r n o v e ls : L 'A bandonnee, Fond-
Zombi and M o r n e - la - F o lie i n P l u i e e t v e n t s u r Telumee M ir a c le ,. Fond-
Zombi a g a in i n T i J e a n 1 ' H o riz o n , and B o u r g - la - F o lie i n M a rtin iq u e des
c e n d r e s . The c i t i e s th e m s e lv e s , P o r t - a u - P r i n c e , P o i n t e - a - P i t r e and
245
F o r t- d e - F r a n c e i n p a r t i c u l a r , a r e p e r s o n i f i e d i n l i v i n g f i g u r e s of
d e g r a d a tio n and a b j e c t n e s s .
The common l i n k j o i n i n g t h e s e v a r io u s id e a s i s t h a t o f i r r e t r i e v -
a b i l i t y , d e p r i v a t i o n and h o p e le s s n e s s o r , i n o t h e r w ords, p o w e rle s s n e s s
a t b o th t h e p h y s ic a l and p s y c h o lo g ic a l l e v e l s .
T hese n o v e ls d e s c r i b e e v e n ts and a t t i t u d e s w hich have a d o u b le
o r i g i n : t h e s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l and economic s t a t e o f t h e c o u n t r i e s i n v o l
ved and t h e p s y c h o lo g ic a l r e p e r c u s s io n s o f t h a t s t a t e on t h e p o p u l a t io n
I n th e t e x t s , c a u se s and c o n seq u en ces a r e i n te r m in g le d , b u t f o r th e
sa k e o f a n a l y s i s , i t w i l l be b e s t t o s e p a r a te them u n d e r two h e a d in g s :
so c io -e c o n o m ic c a u se s o f p o w e rle s s n e s s and p s y c h o lo g ic a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s .
I . S o c i a l , P o l i t i c a l and Economic Causes
I n any c o u n tr y , i t i s im p o s s ib le t o s e p a r a te th e l i t e r a t u r e i t
p ro d u ce s from th e a c t u a l l i f e o f th e c o u n tr y i t s e l f . What g iv e s l i t e r
a t u r e i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e i s th e f a c t t h a t i t e x p re s s e s a c t i o n s o r r e a c
t i o n s , v o l u n ta r y o r i n v o lu n t a r y d e ta c h m e n t■and in v o lv e m e n t. Even th o s e
w orks w hich a r e l a b e l l e d o r l a b e l th e m se lv e s as a p o l i t i c a l o r non
engages c a n n o t o b j e c t i v e l y be s o . A m an 's w r i t i n g i s a comment upon h i s
c u l t u r e and h i s s o c i e t y . I n t e r r i t o r i e s such as t h e C a rib b e a n , w here
l i t e r a t u r e i s now one o f r e a c t i o n a f t e r h a v in g been one o f d e s c r i p t i o n ,
th e p o l i t i c a l , s o c i a l and econom ic e v e n ts w i l l be o f p rim a ry im p o rta n c e
t o t h e th e m a tic c o n te n t o f th e n o v e ls , s in c e th o s e e v e n ts a r e a t t h e
b a s is o f th e a u th o r s ' in v o lv e m e n t. Such i s th e c a se w ith co n te m p o ra ry
246
lo v e ls w here t h i s in v o lv e m e n t m a n if e s ts i t s e l f i n th e r e c u r r e n c e o f t h e
fo llo w in g them es: p e r s i s t e n c e o f o p p r e s s iv e re g im e s, d e p lo r a b le economic
c o n d it io n s , s o c i a l i n e q u a l i t i e s and r a c i a l a n ta g o n ism , c u l t u r a l genocide
and o u t s i d e i n t e r f e r e n c e .
1 ) P o l i t i c a l o p p r e s s io n o r u n co n cern
I n M e re -1 a -m o rt, Je a n n e H yvrard u s e s t h e i n t e r e s t i n g image o f th e
c h e ss game t o d e s c r i b e h e r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o th e w o rld . One may o b je c t
t h a t t h i s a u th o r i s n o t o f C a rib b e a n o r i g i n and s h o u ld h av e no p l a c e i n
t h i s s tu d y . However, she has i n t e r i o r i z e d th e e x p e rie n c e o f d e p r i v a t i o n
o f th e B lacks and c a r r i e d i t t o an e x tre m e , t h a t o f i n s a n i t y . F u r th e r
m ore, h e r w orks, w hich d e a l w ith o p p r e s s io n and a l i e n a t i o n i n g e n e ra l
and borrow sym bols from-.a v a r i e t y o f h i s t o r i c a l exam ples o f o p p r e s s io n ,
i n c lu d in g t h a t o f / t h e Jews and o f th e B la c k s, a r e , in t h a t r e s p e c t ,
r e l e v a n t . The image o f t h e c h e ss game, o f w h ite' p i tc h e d a g a i n s t b la c k ,
1
o f "un je u dont l ’ o b j e t e s t de d e t r u i r e I 1a u t r e " , a c c u r a t e l y c h a r a c
t e r i z e s what i s h ap p en in g bo th i n H a i t i and i n th e F re n ch A n t i l l e s
to - d a y .
T here i s h e re no n eed t o r e c a l l t h e n a tu r e o f th e p o l i t i c a l regim e
o f H a i t i . Not a l l H a i t i a n a u th o rs ta k e a s ta n d a g a in s t i t . The d e g re e
o f c r i t i c i s m d is p la y e d i n t h e i r work depends o n ,w h e th e r th e y w r i t e from
th e i n s i d e o r from th e o u t s i d e . I n Ma F ia n c e e des g r a n g e r s , f o r example;
a n o v e l p u b lis h e d i n H a i t i w hich s t i l l belo n g s t o what has been c a l l e d
" l a l i t t e r a t u r e d o c u m e n ta ire ” , Rene Delmas n e v e r a n a ly z e s what m ight be
th e c a u se o f th e d e s t i t u t i o n he d e s c r i b e s . He makes one o f h i s c h a ra c -
247
t e r s a w r i t e r who a tte m p ts a n o v e l about r e v o l t and j u s t i c e but ex
p r e s s e s h i s id e a s i n su ch vague term s t h a t i t i s im p o s s ib le t o d e t e r
mine what h i s p o s i t i o n m ig h t.b e . W h a te v e r.th e n a tu r e o f t h e r e v o l u t i o n
t h a t A lfre d ,, t h e w r i t e r , may w a n t, he n e v e r d i r e c t l y t a l k s .about p o l i t
i c a l in v o lv e m e n t, even th o u g h h i s f r i e n d and c r i t i c H en ri re p ro a c h e s
him f o r h i s a g g r e s s iv e te rm in o lo g y a n d . h alf-rb ak ed r e v o l u t i o n a r y id e a s
2
borrow ed from " c e r t a i n ..re a d in g s" — "des l e c t u r e s p a r t i c u l i e r e s ."
A l f r e d 's su b s e q u e n t and r a t h e r m y s te rio u s d e a th le a v e s t h e im p re s s io n
t h a t th e a u th o r may n o t be s a y in g a l l he would l i k e t o s a y .
M a rie -T h e re s e Colim on, a u th o r o f F i l s de m is e r e , d e v o te s, t h e f i n a l
c h a p te r o f h e r n o v e l t o th e d e s t r u c t i v e i n t r u s i o n o f p o l i t i c s i n t o th e
l i v e s o f h e r c h a r a c t e r s . " M a rie -T h e re s e Colim on, q u i v i t en H a i t i , ne
c o n s a c re a c e t t e se q u en c e que d ix pages de son l i v r e . C ependant, l e
p o u v o ir p o l i t i q u e e s t p r e s e n t e dans t o u t e son a b s u r d i t e e t s a n o c i v i -
3
t e . " A lthough sh e c a n n o t r i s k a d i r e c t c o n d e m n a tio n . o f t h e regim e o f
h e r c o u n tr y , t h e b r i e f p o r t r a i t sh e draws o f t h e "C hef v e n e re e t b ie n -
« A
aime" as w e ll as t h e v o c a b u la r y . f u l l o f innuendoes, w h ic h . sh e u s e s , a re
t e l l i n g i n th e m s e lv e s : "O m nipotent e t s u r de. l u i , il. ne s.e d o u t.a it pas
que s e s cher.s a d m in is tr e s ne se denommaient p lu s que d e .'p a u v r e s o p p r i-
m es’ e t que son 'r e g n e ' e n f i n , a s e s yeux s i b e n e fiq u c , n ' e t a i t p lu s
c o n s id e r e que comme un ,'j o u g o d ie u x '" (p . 1 9 1 ). L a m e rc ie , r e a l i z i n g
t h a t h e r so n , t o whom.she h as d e v o te d h e r l i f e and by means o f whose
e d u c a tio n she hopes. 't o e s c a p e h e r m is e ra b le c o n d i t i o n , i s in v o lv e d i n a
s tu d e n t r e v o l t , t r i e s t o r e a c h him and i s k i l l e d , b y t h e p o l i c e . She i s
an in n o c e n t v i c t im , a f a c t w hich makes th e c rim e a l l t h e more a b s u rd .
248
F u rth e rm o re , h e r d e a th i s n o th in g but d i s g u i s e d m urder, P i e r r e l u s ,
t h e o f f i c e r who s h o o ts h e r , h a v in g ta k e n t h i s o p p o r tu n ity t o s a t i s f y
h i s h a t r e d f o r h e r . Her s a c r i f i c e i s u s e l e s s , th e a u th o r h a v in g a c c e n t
ed t h e i l l u s o r y q u a l i t y o f th e re v o lt, i t s e l f , , and i t is. d e s t r u c t i v e t o
h e r son b e cau se i t means t h e l o s s o f h i s o p p o r tu n ity f o r s o c i a l p ro g
r e s s . L e f t a lo n e , T i-T o n to n w i l l n o t be a b le t o p u rsu e h i s e d u c a tio n
and w i l l be condemned f o r e v e r t o a l i f e o f m ere s u r v i v a l . By t h i s
b r u t a l en d in g o f an o th e r w is e h o p e fu l s t o r y , M arie-T h erese. Colimon.
r e v e a ls th e h a rm fu l n a tu r e o f a p o l i t i c a l regim e w hich s y s t e m a t i c a l l y
m a in ta in s below t h e p o v e rty l e v e l th o s e who, l i k e L a m e rc ie , a r e p o o r
i n a p o o r c o u n tr y , " . . . en b u t t e a t o u t e s l e s f o r c e s d e s t r u c t r i c e s ,
a c h a rn e e s p a r t i c u l i e r e m e n t e t lach em en t s u r l e s e t r e s que l e u r p h y s i
q u e , l e u r m e c o n n a issa n c e des l o i s e t des c o n v e n tio n s hum aines d e s ig n e n t
comme des p r o ie s " ( p . 1 8 1 ).
G e ra rd E tie n n e goes much f u r t h e r i n h i s c r i t i c i s m o f h i s own
c o u n tr y , w hich has f o rc e d him i n t o e x i l e . Le N e g r e ,c r u c i f i e i s a
v i o l e n t d i a t r i b e a g a in s t H a i t i , " c e pays ou l e crim e e s t a f l e u r de
te r r e ." " * He th u s a d o p ts t h e same c r i t i c a l s ta n c e as C ineas and Chauvet
had e a r l i e r , b u t w ith o u t r e s o r t i n g t o f i c t i o n a l names and c h a r a c t e r s
o r f i c t i o n a l i z e d e v e n ts . E tie n n e i s d i r e c t i n h i s a c c u s a ti o n s , and h i s
book comes a c ro s s as t h e d e s p e r a te o u tc r y o f an e x a s p e r a te d man who
can no lo n g e r h o ld b a c k . H is d i c t a t o r i s a b l o o d - t h i r s t y m o n ste r who
has d e s tr o y e d what H a i t i may have s to o d f o r i n th e hopes o f t h e B la c k s.
Non, F r a n g o is , t u es f a i t d 'a c i e r . A f o r c e de c rim e s , t u ne
r e g a r d e s pas en h a u t de t a t e t e . Tes p e n s e e s , c ’ e s t l a
249
m echancete e t l a m o rt. Tu es p r i s o n n i e r de t a n e g r e r i e . Tu
es p r iv e de l 'e s p a c e q u i l i b e r e l a c o n s c ie n c e . P r i s o n n i e r de
t e s demons, de ceux q u i ram pent d e v a n t t o i e t que t u f o u e t t e s
quand t u veu x . Tu f a i s dans l e pays une p l u i e e n ra g e e . Tu
a s s a s s i n e s de s a n g - f r o i d . J e t e h a i s , F r a n g o is . J e t e
m audis. ( p . 133)
He denounces t h e b la c k l e a d e r s who ro b th e p e o p le and have c r e a t e d i n
t h e i r c o u n try a system o f modern s la v e r y ; he c u rs e s a regim e w hich
t h r i v e s upon b lo o d , t o r t u r e , m urder and d e a th . H is l a t e s t n o v e l,
Un Am bassadeur m acoute a M o n tre a l, c o n tin u e s t h e d e n u n c ia tio n o f th e
H a i ti a n re g im e , r i d i c u l e d in t h e p e rs o n o f t h e am bassador i t sends t o
M o n tre a l t o a d v is e t h e l o c a l l e a d e r s on how t o s u p p re s s mass u p r i s i n g s .
The A m b assad o r's p h y s iq u e i s a s tr a n g e c o n g lo m e ra tio n o f non-human
f e a t u r e s w ith "d eu x g ran d sv y eu x ro n d s comme des b a l l o n s . Une bouche
a u s s i l a r g e que l e p l a t e a u d 'u n p ic k - u p . De lo n g u es o r e i l l e s de b o u r-
6
r i q u e . " C h a r a c te r iz e d by an i n s a t i a b l e a p p e t i t e f o r th e p l e a s u r e s o f
l i f e and pow er, he d e v o u rs m o u n tain s o f o b j e c t s i n a G u l l i v e r - l i k e
manner i n a v a in e f f o r t t o s a t i s f y h i s c r a v in g s . The w a i f - l i k e and
m a ln o u ris h e d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e H a i ti a n p e o p le , A le x is A c c iu s , i s
p i tc h e d a g a in s t t h i s o g r e . S u re o f h i s power backed up by s u p e r n a t u r a l
s u p p o r t, t h e am bassador f r e e l y d i s c o u r s e s upon th e a t r o c i t i e s he has
com m itted, t h e a s s o rtm e n t o f t o r t u r e s he u se s and f o r w hich he h as t o
th a n k th e r e s s o u r c e f u ln e s s o f th e fo rm e r c o lo n i a l m a s t e r s , and t h e most
e f f e c t i v e way o f re d u c in g p e o p le s t o s la v e r y . F r ig h te n in g i n h is
h id e o u s n e s s and s e l f - r i g h t e o u s n e s s , t h i s c h a r a c t e r , w ith h i s army of
f o u l- b r e a th e d T o n ton-M acoutes, em bodies a l l t h a t G erard E tie n n e a b h o rs .
U prooted from t h e H a i ti a n s o i l , shown i n an environm ent w here h is
250
d o m in a tio n i s n o t as c o m p le te , t h e a m b a s s a d o r's p o s i t i o n i s w eakened.
T h ere i s i n th e n o v e l a d e f i n i t e p r o g r e s s io n i n th e o u tlo o k o f th e
a u th o r who can now exam ine t h e s i t u a t i o n o f h i s c o u n tr y i n a more
d e ta c h e d m anner th a n i n Le N egre c r u c i f i e . T h is a llo w s one t o b e li e v e
t h a t , a t t h i s p o i n t , he w i l l a tte m p t t o o f f e r some s o l u t i o n t o th e H ai
t i a n p ro b lem , w h ic h .h e , i n f a c t , does as t h e n o v e l p r o g r e s s e s .
S i g n i f i c a n t l y , X a v ie r O r v i l l e u s e s th e same im ages i n h i s d e s c r i p
t i o n o f t h e d i c t a t o r s h i p o p p r e s s in g a f i c t i o n a l c o u n try named " P a y s -
des e a u x - e n t r e - l e s - i l e s " i n La T a p i s s e r i e du tem ps p r e s e n t .. P r e s e n te d
i n t h e form o f a som etim es c r u e l f a n t a s y , t h e n o v e l s ta g e s a p r e s i d e n t
who b e li e v e s h im s e lf t h e e q u a l o f God and c r e a t e s a w o rld i n h i s l i k e
n e s s , t h a t i s , a w o rld w hich c e a s e s t o f u n c t i o n a c c o rd in g t o th e n a t u r a l
law s o f l i f e . T h is w o rld i s r e g u l a t e d by an army o f men i n th e p r e s i
d e n t 's p ay , t h e Tontonss "L es hommes du S o l e i 1 - P r e s i d e n t . Tous g r o s .
G ras. R epus. L u is ants-. La f e s s e e n t r e l e l a r d e t l e cochon. La fa c e
e n t r e l e cochon e t l e l a r d . Armes ju s q u 'a u x d e n ts d 'u n r i c t u s f a i s a n t
l e t o u r de l a t e t e . Les yeux deicores de fa b u le u x c e r c l e s d 'e n c r e . Le
c o e u r en form e de g a c h e t t e . " ^ Upon t h e adv en t o f t h i s d i c t a t o r s h i p ,
th o u g h ts a re v i o l a t e d , dream s a r e i n t e r r u p t e d and s p o n ta n e i ty and lo v e
a r e o u tla w e d . The new regim e d e n ie s i t s c i t i z e n s t h e b a s ic r i g h t s of
l i f e , e s t a b l i s h e s a r b i t r a r y and r i d i c u l o u s la w s , b a n is h e s th o s e who do
n o t obey and k i l l s th o s e who m ight want t o . b e c r e a t i v e . The a u th o r^
g iv e s le n g th y d e s c r i p t i o n s oE l i f e comingv.to a h a l t u n d e r th e r e ig n o f
t h e S o l e i l - P r e s i d e n t , th u s s t r e s s i n g h i s d e s t r u c t i v e p u r p o s e s . A lthough
t h e p r o to ty p e o f t h e regim e he d e s c r i b e s i s o b v io u s ly H a i t i , O r v i l l e 's
251
i n t e n t goes beyond t o encompass a l l th e t e r r i t o r i e s b e in g s u b m itte d
by f o r e i g n la w s, in c l u d in g th e F re n ch A n t i l l e s , w hich he s e e s as h a v in g
been b lin d e d by " d e s m ira g es t r i c o l o r e s " (p . 1 7 ). A w r i t e r from M a rti
n iq u e , X a v ie r O r v i l l e cho o ses h e r e t o v o ic e h i s a c c u s a tio n s by means of
a s t y l i z e d p ro s e poem. I n D e lic e e t l e fro m a g e r, he i s more d i r e c t as
he goes back t o th e p o s t- w a r y e a r s t o unco v er t h e f u t i l i t y o f th e prom
i s e s made a t t h e tim e . The t h i r d s e c t i o n of. t h e n o v e l d e a ls w ith th e
p o l i t i c a l , economic and s o c i a l r e a l i t y o f M a rtin iq u e from th e t u r n of
t h e c e n tu r y u n t i l t h e d e * p a rte m e n ta lis a tio n o f t h e i s l a n d . H.e enum erates
th e d i f f i c u l t i e s e n c o u n te re d by th e i s l a n d e r s d u r in g t h a t tim e :
d e c l i n i n g f i s h i n g r e s o u r c e s , r i s i n g c o s t o f l i v i n g , la c k o f b a s ic s o c i a l
e q u ip m e n t. . .w h ile p o l i t i c i a n s seem o n ly c o n c ern e d w ith t h e i r p e t t y
p e r s o n a l q u a r r e l s . He r e c a l l s t h e C o lo n ia l F a i r w hich acco m p lish ed
n o th in g and gave b i r t h t o re s e n tm e n t i n i n d i v i d u a l s l i k e D e lic e , f o r
whom l i f e was a c o n s ta n t f i g h t : " D e lic e tr o u v a que c ' e t a i t du g a s p i l l a g e
e t de 1 'in d e c e n c e , s u r t o u t a un moment ou p e rso n n e ne m a n g e a it a s a
fa im , e t a l o r s q u 'o n c i t a i t des sommes enormes donnees a un a r c h i t e c t e
8
e tr a n g e r q u i a v a i t un nom comme un e te r n u e m e n t." A g a in s t a background
o f g re y s k ie s and m is e ry , co m p leted by th e a c co u n t o f D ^ l i c e 's s u f f e r
i n g s , more e v e n ts , such as t h e m urder o f Andre A l i k e r , t h e T r ic e n te n
n i a l , t h e r a c i s t d e c l a r a t i o n s o f A dm iral R o b e rt, th e atm o sp h ere of
i n q u i s i t i o n w hich s e t t l e d upon th e i s l a n d d u r in g W orld War I I and th e
r e v o l t i n g b e h a v io r o f t h o s e who c o o p e ra te d w ith t h i s s t a t e o f t h i n g s ,
a r e evoked. Here th e to n e becomes more v i o l e n t and c o n t r a s t s w ith t h a t
o f th e r e s t o f th e n o v e l; t h e p o e t i c i z e d r e a l i t y o f t h e f i r s t two
252
s e c t i o n s g iv e s way t o t h e e v o c a tio n o f raw f a c t s : r e v o l t s and r e t a l i a
t i o n s , p r o s t i t u t i o n , h u n g er and b l a t a n t i n j u s t i c e . . . I n t h i s atm os
p h e re , t h e m o d if ic a ti o n o f th e s t a t u s , o f th e i s l a n d i s barely , f e l t a n d '
b r in g s no ch an g e. " J e c ru s moi-meme que t o u t a l l a i t changer.. P o u r ta n t
l e s jo u r s f o n d a ie n t l ' u n s u r 1 ' a u t r e sa n s tr a n s f o r m e r 1 *e x is t e n c e s in o n
en gadoue" (p'« 1 6 6 ). Throughout t h i s s e c t i o n , O r v i l l e b i t t e r l y q u o te s
th e p ro m ise s made t o t h e p e o p le by .su c c e e d in g p o l i t i c i a n s and n o t k e p t .
E douard G l i s s a n t q u o te s, and mocks as w e ll t h e p ro m ises and
s ta te m e n ts o f a h a lf - d o z e n p o l i t i c i a n s .i n a p a s s a g e o f M alemort
^ 9
e n t i t l e d " T e l e s . ” I m i t a t i n g t h e p o l i t i c a l ja r g o n , he denounces th e
h y p o c ris y and t h e s h a llo w n e s s o f su ch d e c l a r a t i o n s . P o l i t i c i a n s a re
more i n t e r e s t e d i n buying p r o p e r t y on t h e i s l a n d s th a n i n m aking them
l i v e a b l e f o r t h e i r i n h a b i t a n t s ; th e y ig n o re t h e e x i s t i n g problem s and
h id e t h e i r i n d i f f e r e n c e b eh in d h y p o c r i t i c a l l y , p a t e r n a l i s t i c .s ta t e m e n ts ;
th e y i n s i s t o n .f o r m u la s , such as " n o t r e h i s t o i r e commune", w hich a re
in te n d e d t o d e c e iv e ; th e y a r e i g n o r a n t and r e p e a t what th e y a re fe d :
none o f th e h e ro e s th e y g l o r i f y as b e in g t h e p r i d e o f M a rtin iq u e have
t h e i r r o o t s i n t h e p e o p le o f t h e i s l a n d . T hese p o l i t i c i a n s u se th e
i s l a n d f o r t h e i r own p u rp o se s w h ile p r e t e n d in g t o a c t f o r t h e b e n e f i t .
o f a l l . L o c a l l e a d e r s th e m s e lv e s a r e taken, i n b y ,th e p ro m ises made t o
them>. e i t h e r i n n o c e n t ly o r b e c au se th e y .h a v e no c h o i c e ; . and th e y r e p e a t
ad lib id u m th e same s e n s e l e s s d e c l a r a t i o n s . But freedom o f ..e x p re ssio n
and o f a c t i o n i s n o t g iv e n t o a l l . The s ta te m e n ts and g e s tu r e s o f th o se
who oppose t h e s t a t u s quo a re s u p p re s s e d , and t h e s e n s e l e s s ro u n d o f
s e n s e l e s s o f f i c i a l v i s i t s ends w ith t h e b r u t a l image o f p o l i c e r e p r e s
253
s io n . E douard G l i s s a n t q u a l i f i e s t h e p ro c e s s o f d e p a r t m e n t a l i z a t io n as
" l a c o rd e " ( t h e ro p e ) — an image a ls o u sed by X a v ie r O r v i l l e f o r whom
a s s i m i l a t i o n i s " l e l i c o u " , a ro p e used f o r le a d i n g o r c o n f in in g a
h o rs e o r o t h e r a n im a l. 1 ^
The u n w illin g n e s s o f th e a u t h o r i t i e s t o f a c e l o c a l .problem s o r
even t o h o n e s tl y acknow ledge t h e i r e x is t e n c e is . once more exposed i n
Mon Examen de b l a n c . The d e m o n s tra tio n w hich c a u s e s th e d e a th of
G i l b e r t , M a d e v ie 's l o v e r and th e l e a d e r o f a l o c a l group c a l l e d
" L i b e r t e " , i s im m e d ia te ly d is g u i s e d as th e m aneuver o f e x tr e m i s ts and
l e f t i s t s . L o c a l l e a d e r s a r e r a p i d l y q u i e t e d down w ith t h e p ro m ise o f a
m o d if ic a tio n o f t h e p o l i t i c a l s t a t u s o f t h e i r i s l a n d . What i s i n t r i n s i
c a l l y c r i t i c i z e d h e re i s t h e l a t t e r ’ s r e a d in e s s t o a c c e p t m easures o f
c o n c i l i a t i o n t o a v o id c o n f r o n tin g r e a l i t y .
T hat th e s o l u t i o n t o th e p o l i t i c a l problem s o f th e F ren ch A n t i l l e s
i s n o t sim p le i s made e v id e n t in Le F o lilo q u e en ou d i e s e m in e u r. The
damages o f c o l o n i z a t i o n a r e l o n g - l a s t i n g . Those i s l a n d s w hich have
o b ta in e d t h e i r in d e p e n d e n c e e x p e rie n c e d i f f i c u l t i e s w hich a r e n o t f a r
removed from th o s e o f t h e o t h e r A n t i l l e s . L e a rn in g t h a t T r in id a d i s n o t
t h e p a r a d i s e in d ep e n d e n c e s h o u ld have made i t a c c o rd in g t o th e p ro m ises
o f p o l i t i c i a n s , t h e n a r r a t o r i s b a f f l e d and d i s t r e s s e d : "A utonom ie,
in d ep en d an ceI Le combat p o u r l a d i g n i t e , pour l a l i b e r t e e t l a d i g n i t e ,
ne s e r a i t done pas a u s s i f a c i l e , en v e r i t e , que c e q u ' i l s a n n o n c e n t,
i n t e l l e c t u e l s en t e t e l " T here i s nobody t o t u r n t o i f even th o s e
who a d v o c a te l i b e r a t i o n a r e l y i n g .
What rem ain s i s th e o v e r a l l d e s t r u c t i v e n e s s o f th e p o l i t i c a l
254
reg im es o f H a i t i and o f th e F ren ch A n t i l l e s : a p r o c e s s io n o f s e n s e l e s s
d e a th s su ch as t h a t o f L a m erc ie , o f G i l b e r t , and o f Doudou i n Le F o l i -
lo q u e , b la z e s a t r a i l th ro u g h th e n o v e ls .
2) Economic c o n d itio n s
% * * 12
"La m is e re t u e so u v e n t r e s i s t a n c e e t b e a u te ." The s t a t e o f
p o v e rty i n w hich a number o f th e c h a r a c t e r s o f t h e H a i ti a n n o v e ls l i v e
d e te rm in e s th e c o u rs e o f t h e i r e x i s t e n c e . T h e ir w hole l i f e i s g e a re d
tow ard m a in ta in in g th e f r a g i l e b a la n c e betw een s u r v i v a l and s t a r v a t i o n .
I n F i l s de m is e r e , L a m e r c ie 's sudden i l l n e s s comes v e ry c lo s e t o
r u in i n g t h e e f f o r t s o f a l i f e t i m e : h e r s t r e e t s ta n d lo s e s i t s c u sto m e rs
and h e r fa m ily s u f f e r s from h u n g e r. U nable t o f i n d work upon h e r r e t u r n
from th e h o s p i t a l , L am ercie i s tem p te d t o s t e a l t o fe e d h e r son and i s
o n ly sav ed from im prisonm ent by th e b e n e v o le n t i n t e r v e n t i o n o f t h e
c h i l d 's godm other. L e f t t o h e r own d e v ic e s , L am ercie would have been
u n a b le t o r e b u i l d h e r l i f e . O th e rs c a n n o t g e t o u t o f th e v i c i o u s c i r c l e
o f m is e ry . I n Ma F ia n c e e des G ra n g e rs , O x ilie n does n o t e a rn enough t o
s u p p o rt h i s l a r g e fa m ily and none o f h i s c h i l d r e n a r e o ld enough t o
c o n t r i b u t e t h e i r e f f o r t s t o common s u r v i v a l . When a l l e l s e f a i l s ,
O x i l i e n 's o n ly a l t e r n a t i v e i s t o s e l l h i s blood u n t i l he im p a ir s h i s
h e a l t h and n e a r l y d i e s . Those c h i l d r e n who a r e o ld enough a r e immedi
a t e l y p u t t o w ork. M a rie -T h e re s e Colimon d e s c r ib e s i n h e r n o v e l th e
many t a s k s a t w hich young c h i l d r e n a r e em ployed: s e l l i n g goods i n t h e
s t r e e t s , c a r r y in g l o a d s , s h in in g s h o e s , c le a n in g c a r s and d iv in g f o r
th e c o in s t o u r i s t s th rb w i n t o t h e bay o f P o r t- a u - P r i n c e from t h e i r
255
c r u i s e s h i p s . A le x is A ccius t r i e s t o e ff a c e , from h i s memory th e image
o f th o s e c h i l d r e n , im ages w hich to rm e n t him , b u t he c a n n o t f o r g e t th e
m is e ry o f h i s c o u n try a n d .th e c o n s ta n t s u f f e r i n g s and h u m il ia t io n s one
must a c c e p t f o r t h e sa k e o f s u r v i v a l . "Quoi d i r e s u r l e s jambes e t l e s
b ras, c a s s e s . Sur ce b o l de m ais que 1 ' on j e t t e aux m e n d ia n ts debout
s u r l e p e r r o n de l a c a t h e d r a l e de P o r t - a u - P r i n c e . Quoi d i r e s u r ces
e n f a n ts q u i se donnent des coups de p o in g p o u r e s s a y e r d ' a t t r a p e r un
c e n tim e que v i e n t de l e u r l a n c e r un t o u r i s t e a m e ric a in s u r l a r P l a c e des
^ + 13
Heros de 1 ' In d e p e n d a n c e ." These m em ories, as w e ll as t h a t o f h i s
m o th er h a v in g t o s e l l h e r b e a u t i f u l body t o an o f f i c i a l o f t h e regim e
i n exchange f o r h e r l i f e , m o tiv a te .A le x is A ccius i n h i s b a t t l e a g a in s t
t h e am bassador. I t . i s t o h e lp h i s m other t h a t G a b r ie l Donat i n L*Amour,
o u i. La m o rt, non, d e c id e s t o le a v e H a i t i , f o r New York w here he hopes
t o f in d a jo b w hich w i l l a llo w him t o send money, home. Madame.Donat has
a l i t t l e shop, b u t i t i s n o t enough t o h e lp h e r r a i s e h e r s i x re m a in in g
c h i l d r e n . G a b r ie l h as no c h o ic e . None o f t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s h as any
c h o ic e . And many f a i l i n t h e i r f i g h t f o r s u r v i v a l .
Whereas, th e H a i ti a n n o v e ls s t r e s s th e h o p e le s s n e s s o f t h e economic
f i g h t w ith d e s c r i p t i o n s o f u rb a n p o v e r ty , th e p r e v a i l i n g image u sed by
w r i t e r s from th e F re n c h A n t i l l e s i s t h a t o f th e s u g a r- c a n e f i e l d s and
o f t h e s u g a r f a c t o r y , a l i t e r a r y m o tif w hich goes f a r back i n C aribbean
l i t e r a t u r e . The s u g a r- c a n e i s a c r u e l t r a p t h a t c u t s , ” i l re g a r d e s e s
g ran d e s m ains n o i r e s b l e s s e e s p a r l a p a i l l e c o u p a n te de l a t i g e s u -
„ 14
c r e e " , s t i n g s and l a c e r a t e s , " l e s p iq u a n ts v o l t i g e a i e n t , . s ' i n s i -
n u a ie n t p a r t o u t , dans mes r e i n s , mon d o s, mon n e z , mes jam b es, p a r e i l s
256
a des e c l a t s de v e r r e " , t h a t i n f l i c t s n o t o n ly p h y s ic a l p a in but
m e n ta l p a in as w e ll: " J e s o n g e a is a l o r s q u 'a r o u l e r a i n s i dans l e s
Cannes je me changerais en bete et la mere des hommes elle-meme ne me
r e c o n n a i t r a i t p lu s " (p . 2 0 0 ). As soon as she e n t e r s th e cane f i e l d ,
T elum ee’ s l i f e t u r n s i n t o a s u c c e s s io n o f m onotonous and numbing
g e s tu r e s : rum, to b a c c o , w ork, s l e e p . The s u g a r f a c t o r y i s a d e v o u rin g
m o n ste r w hich f r i g h t e n s I b a when he b r in g s h i s f a t h e r 's lu n c h t h e r e ,
in Agodom e-Dachine: " E l l e m’ a p p a r a i t comme un m o n stre g ig a n te s q u e , n o i r
de s u i e , e t j ' a i to u jo u r s p e u r d ’ e n t r e r dans s e s e n t r a i l l e s , b ie n
q u 'a p r e s j e r e s s e n t e une c e r t a i n e f i e r t e lo r s q u e j e r e t r o u v e papa
parm i l e s enormes d e n ts e t m an d ib u le s m e t a l l i q u e s . . . " ^ and w hich he
d e s c r ib e s as re a d y t o sw aliow and d i g e s t th o s e who o p e r a te i t . I n
M a rtin iq u e des c e n d r e s , t h e f a c t o r y i s p i c t u r e d as a m o n stro u s p r e d a t o r
re a d y t o pounce on t h e cane w o rk e rs , p o is o n in g th e a i r and k i l l i n g th e
f i s h i n t h e r iv e r } i t i s d e s t r u c t i v e o f men and o f t h e la n d — t h e v e ry
*
symbol o f economic e x p l o i t a t i o n . W orking i n t h e cane i s ' a d o u b le m ale
d i c t i o n : th e l i f e o f t h e c a n e - c u t t e r i s one o f h u m il ia t io n and p a in ;
b u t, w ith o u t t h e c a n e , he has no means t o s u r v i v e . When t h e s u g a r- c a n e
c ro p i s s t o r e d , t h e r e i s no w ork, no money and no food t o be had.
Unemployment i s t h e i n d i r e c t c a u se o f A n g e b e r t's d e a th i n P l u i e e t v e n t
s u r Telumee M ir a c le ; A ngebert d i e s b e c a u se t h e p ro d u c t o f h i s f i s h i n g
i s robbed from him d u r in g a p e r io d o f p e n u ry , and a f i g h t w ith th e
t h i e f e n s u e s . I n Mon Examen de b l a n c , t h e m e c h a n iz a tio n o f cane c u l t i
v a t i o n i s s e e n as a d i s a s t e r , s in c e many w o rk ers depend on th e can e f o r
a m ed io c re s u b s i s t e n c e . " A u t r e f o i s , l a r e c o l t e , s i du re q u ' e l l e f u t
257
p o u r l e s co u p eu rs de c a n n e , p e r m e t t a i t aux t r a v a i l l e u r s a g r i c o l e s de
g a g n e r un peu d 'a r g e n t e t de v i v o t e r p e n d a n t l e s m ois d 'h i v e r n a g e . Avec
l a c o n c e n t r a t io n des u s in e s e t de l a m e c a n is a tio n , l a m is e re e t l e sous
em ploi se g e n e r a l i s e n t . " ^ I n E douard G l i s s a n t 's n o v e ls , th e aban
doned s u g a r f a c t o r y becomes th e symbol o f t h e d e s p e r a te s t a t e o f Mar
t i n i q u e , o f t h e n e g lig e n c e o f t h e p o l i t i c a l po w ers, and o f t h e i r la c k
o f c o n c ern f o r t h e t r u e i n t e r e s t o f t h e i s l a n d . . I n La Case du comman-
d e u r , G l i s s a n t r a p i d l y t e l l s t h e s t o r y o f a man who had h e lp e d b u ild
th e s u g a r f a c t o r y , s u s t a i n e d by th e hope o f f in d i n g em ploym ent, and
who s e e s i t ta k e n away from him s h o r t l y a f t e r p r o d u c tio n has begun.
" I I s o u f f r i t de c e t t e a f f a i r e b ie n p lu s que l e c o lo n p r o p r i e t a i r e de l a
r a f f i n e r i e , l e q u e l f u t dedommage. L'homme o u b lie e s t l'homme dem uni,
18
dont l a m achine e t a i t un r e v e , d e m o li."
For t h e r e a r e few a l t e r n a t i v e s t o s u g a r cane,. R e fu sin g a t f i r s t
t o work i n t h e c a n e , Telum ee f in d s a p l a c e as a s e r v a n t on t h e D e s a ra -
gne p l a n t a t i o n . T h e re , s h e i s s u b je c t e d t o t h e h u m i l i a t i n g ram b lin g
rem arks o f th e m i s t r e s s o f th e house and h e r d e r o g a to r y s ta te m e n ts on
t h e B la c k s, t o i n q u i s i t i v e eyes re a d y t o n o t i c e h e r f i r s t m is ta k e and
t o th e advances o f Mr. D esa ra g n e , who i s co n v in c e d t h a t he can buy h e r
body w ith a b la c k s i l k d r e s s . E l i e to o w ants t o e sc a p e t h e cane in d u s
t r y and su c c e e d s f o r a w h ile i n lu m b er. But E l i e ' s h a p p in e s s and p r o s
p e r i t y a r e r u in e d by f r e a k w e a th e r; when d ro u g h t fo llo w s th e t o r r e n t i a l
r a i n s i n Fond-Zom bi, nobody can buy E l i e ' s wood any m ore, l e t a lo n e
employ him a t b u i ld i n g h o u s e s . H is d e s p a i r le a d s him t o a b o t t l e of
rum and l a t e r t o i n s a n i t y , f o r he i s n e v e r a b le t o r e g a i n c o n t r o l o v e r
258
h i s l i f e . Both E l i e a n d .h is f r i e n d Amboise a re t h e v i c t im s o f a c e r t a i n
s o c i a l o r d e r w hich f o r c e s them i n t o f a i l u r e and p o v e rty .,
M a rtin iq u e des c e n d re s p r e s e n t s a d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t o f t h e economic
t
p l i g h t o f M a rtin iq u e . B o u r g - la - F o lie i s a v i l l a g e o f fis h e rm e n who
depend on t h e s e a f o r t h e i r l i v e l i h o o d . But th e l i f e o f a fis h e rm a n has
changed for th e w o rse. T h e o lu ce , t h e m ost e x p e rie n c e fis h e rm a n i n th e
v i l l a g e , e x p la in s how s c a r c e t h e f i s h a re becoming b e c au se o f i n t e r n a
t i o n a l c o m p e titio n , how e x p e n siv e f i s h i n g equipm ent i s and how h a rd i t
i s t o buy o n e 's own boat.. When T h eo lu ce i s u n a b le to pay f o r th e b oat
he r e n t s from t h e b e k e , i t i s ta k e n away from him , a lth o u g h i t i s h i s
o n ly means o f s u b s i s t e n c e . L a t e r , h i s w if e , S te p h a n is e , d i e s b e c au se
t h e r e i s no money t o g iv e h e r p r o p e r m ed ic al tr e a tm e n t. Thomas 1 ' Euge
n i e , t h e m ain p r o t a g o n i s t o f t h e n o v e l , d re a m s .o f a c o o p e r a tiv e w hich
w ould make t h e fis h e rm e n in d e p e n d e n t. The n a r r a t o r o f Le F o lilo q u e
s h a re s t h a t dream 'fo r t h e p e o p le o f M a rtin iq u e ! "E t s i l e s m a rin s ,
a b o rd , r e v e i l l e s de l e u r lo n g cauehem ar, se r e m e tt a ie n t au t r a v a i l !
Et c e t t e f o i s - c i , p e c h a ie n t p o u r l e u r p ro p re com pte, oh o u i, to u s u n i s ,
to u s e n se m b le ." ^ But t h e dream i s b e tr a y e d . N e ith e r Thomas l 'E u g e n i e ,
n o r l e Fou w i l l e v e r s e e i t come t r u e .
"Man Ciment e s t une femme enorme e t f o r t e comme un c h e v a lj t e n e
ment f o r t e que l e s s a c s de cim ent q u ' e l l e p o r te s u r son dos de g e a n te ,
e l l e l e s a p p e ll e mes p e t i t s p o u s s i n s . . . T r e n te ans aux c im e n te r ie s
L e fe b u re ; r e g a r d e , mes cheveux s o n t g r i s , mes d e n ts se d e c h a u s s e n t, mes
20
yeux o n t p e rd u l e u r e c l a t . " T h is q u o t a t io n from a V in c e n t P la c o ly
n o v e l shows how th e y a r e co n c ern e d w ith l e s s t r a d i t i o n a l form s o f
259
employments th o s e w hich have r e p la c e d th e s u g a r c a n e . I n L 'E a u -d e -m o rt
g u i l d i v e , P la c o ly d e a ls w ith th o s e B lacks w o rking on c o n s t r u c t i o n s i t e s
and in cement f a c t o r i e s . T h ere to o , e x p l o i t a t i o n r u l e s . When f o u r
em ployees o f th e c o n s t r u c t i o n b u s in e s s T.D. H am elin a r e ac cu se d of
t h e f t , th e y o n ly m eet w ith a sem blance o f j u s t i c e . When one o f them t e s
t i f i e s t o th e d e p lo r a b le w orking c o n d it io n s , w hich even make him lo n g
f o r t h e s u g a r c a n e , he i s s i l e n c e d . When he m en tio n s f e llo w w orkers
wounded b e c au se o f t h e n e g lig e n c e o f th e ow ner, he i s c a l l e d a l i a r .
V in c e n t P la c o l y d e s c r i b e s t h e t r i a l as overw helm ed by t h e buzz o f u n re
l a t e d c o n v e r s a tio n s and g o s s ip about form er b e t r a y a l s o f j u s t i c e ,
p r e s id e d o v e r by a ju d g e " s u a n t 1 ' i n j u s t i c e " ( p . 5 0 ), w h ile , i n th e
back g ro u n d , th e m onologue o f one o f th e d e fe n d a n ts conveys a t r u t h w hich
noboby h e a r s . The a c c u se d w i l l be im p riso n n e d w h ile th e s u p e r v i s o r ,
known t o a l l as h a v in g been in v o lv e d i n a number o f d u b ious d e a ls and
as b u ild in g r e n t a l h o u se s t o h i s own b e n e f i t s , rem ain s f r e e — t h i s
b e c au se t h e ac cu se d a re p r i s o n e r s o f a system "ou v e r i t e , j u s t i c e e t
p a r o l e s o n t t r o i s s o e u r s . L 'u n e ne d i t jam a is r i e n . L ’ a u t r e p a r l e connne
un l i v r e . La t r o i s ie m e b u te s u r l e s m o ts, confond l e s s i g n i f i c a t i o n s
e t m elange son v o c a b u la ir e " (p . 4 8 ).
F i n a l l y , t h e r e a re th o s e who ca n n o t f in d any w ork, su ch as Rou,
t h e a d o le s c e n t o f Le F o l i l o q u e . Born i n a v i l l a g e w here b e in g employed
i s a lu x u r y , Rou has come t o th e c i t y i n th e hope o f f i n d i n g som ething
t h e r e , b u t i n v a in .b e c a u s e he i s u n e d u c a te d , to o young, n o t w e l l - -
d r e s s e d , n o t s tr o n g enough o r s u f f i c i e n t l y e x p e rie n c e d . Rou l i v e s i n
th e s t r e e t s , s u r v iv e s on odd jo b s and, when a l l e l s e f a i l s and t h e r e i s
260
no fo o d , begs o r p r o s t i t u t e s h i m s e lf . Rou i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e
i n a c t i v e and u n d i r e c te d y o u th found in a l l th e c i t i e s o f t h e C a rib b e a n .
T hese same young men roam t h e s t r e e t s o f . F o r t- d e - F r a n c e in L 'E a u - d e -
m ort g u i l d i v e . Having no o t h e r o c c u p a tio n , th e y engage i n a game o f
w ords, an exchange o f r a p i d th o u g h ts d u p l i c a t i n g th e o r d e r found in
s t o r y t e l l i n g ; th e y i n v e n t words t o e x p re s s t h e i r hopes and t h e i r h a t r e d ,
f o r lan g u a g e i s t h e i r s o l e weapon, and jo k e s and i n s u l t s a r e a means of
v e n tin g t h e i r f e a r s , t h e i r f r u s t r a t i o n and t h e i r d i s g u s t .
The q u e s ti o n o f what i s l e f t f o r t h e c h i l d r e n , o f what th e y w i l l
become when th e y grow u p , a r i s e s o f te n i n th e n o v e ls . When O sana, i n
M a rtin iq u e des c e n d r e s , d is c o v e r s t h a t sh e i s p r e g n a n t, she i s an
g u ish e d a t t h e th o u g h t o f t h e f u t u r e o f h e r c h i l d . I b a 's f a t h e r r e v o l t s
a g a in s t t h e i d e a t h a t h i s sons may be condemned t o th e same l i f e as h i s .
W hile M adevie h e lp s d e l i v e r i n g a baby, she b i t t e r l y rem arks t h a t t h i s
baby w i l l have t h e c h o ic e betw een t h e cane and t h e g a rb a g e .of P a r i s .
But H e n r i 's v i s i o n o f t h e f u t u r e o f a H a i ti a n c h i l d i n Ma F ia n c e e des
o ra n g e rs i s t h e d a r k e s t o f a l l : "Vous l e r e c o n n a it r e z dans ce p e t i t
v a g a b o n d - p ie d s - s a le s , v e tu d 'u n p a n ta lo n e c u le , s 'e x e r c e a n t a l a r a p in e
dans l e s e t a l a g e s de l a C r o ix - d e s - B o s s a le s , ce l a i s s e r - p o u r - c o m p t e , q u i
21
d e v ie n d r a p lu s t a r d c i r e u r de s o u l i e r , a s s a s s i n , p o r t e - f a i x . " I n
D e lic e e t l e fro m a g e r, D e lic e h e r s e l f w itn e s s e s th e u n f o r t u n a t e l i v e s
o f h e r c h i l d r e n . She l o s e s m ost o f them one a f t e r t h e o t h e r ; Numas,
n o t knowing what t o do, becomes a s a i l o r and n e v e r r e t u r n s ; T heobal and
R u fin drown w h ile f i s h i n g n e a r D om inica; B ib ia n e goes away and n e v e r
r e t u r n s ; J o d ia s i s m urdered; S o l i t u d e can n o t cope w ith l i f e , t u r n s
261
t o r e l i g i o n and becomes a nun. D e lic e rem ain s w ith one d a u g h te r a f t e r
h a v in g r a i s e d se v en c h i l d r e n .
Common t o a l l t h e s e n o v e ls i s a v e ry d a rk p i c t u r e o f th e econom ic
c o n d it io n s o f t h e c o u n t r i e s in v o lv e d . A lthough a l l t h e c h a r a c t e r s a re
shown as m aking im p o s s ib le e f f o r t s t o cope w ith h a rd l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s ,
a s e n se o f doom p r e v a i l s b e c au se t h e i r f a i l u r e s a r e alw ays th e c o n se
quence: o f e v e n ts th e y c a n n o t c o n t r o l — i l l n e s s , w e a th e r, p o l i t i c s — and
a r e u n a v o id a b le , f o r t h e i r l i v e s a r e p r e c a r io u s from t h e s t a r t , and t h e
s m a l le s t e v e n t can u p s e t th e f r a g i l e b a la n c e betw een s u r v i v a l and d e a th
3) R a c ia l a n ta g o n ism and s o c i a l i n e q u a l i t i e s
D i s i l l u s i o n e d rem arks about th e la c k o f c o o p e r a tio n betw een
d i f f e r e n t r a c i a l c a t e g o r i e s and s o c i a l c l a s s e s , r i c h B lacks and p o o r
B l a c k s . . . p u n c tu a te t h e n o v e ls . I n La Case du commandeur, M a rtin iq u e i s
l a b e l l e d as " c e pays ou en e f f e t pas un ne r e t r o u v e dans son p a s s e
p ro ch e ou l o i n t a i n q u e lq u e r a i s o n que ce s o i t de v i v r e avec son v o i -
22
s i n . " S i l a c i e r rem arks i n M alem ort: " I I y a to u jo u r s un n e g re p o u r
„ 23
a s s e r v x r ou m a s s a c re r un n e g re .
I n t h e s t r a t i f i e d s o c i e t y o f . H a i t i , d i s t i n c t i o n s a r e q u i t e c l e a r .
As H enri s t a t e s i n Ma F ia n c e e des o r a n g e r s , s in c e In d e p e n d e n c e , th o s e
he c a l l s F r a n c o - H a itia n s have s e g r e g a te d th e m s e lv e s from t h e p e o p le o r
A f r o - H a i t ia n s . Aude e t s e s fantom es a lr e a d y o f f e r e d a d e s c r i p t i o n o f .
t h e p e c u l i a r i t i e s o f t h e H a i ti a n b o u r g e o is ie w hich no lo n g e r m ixes
w ith t h e r e s t o f th e p o p u l a t io n and l i v e s i n and o u t o f t h e c o u n tr y ,
a lth o u g h i t p r o f e s s e s t o b elong t o t h e H a i ti a n n a t i o n . (S ee chap. 3)
262
A nother H a i ti a n n o v e l , ‘.Ninon,, ma s o e u r by A lic e H ip p o ly te , a ls o re a d s
as t h e te s tim o n y o f a c l a s s . I t c o n c e n tr a te s on th e problem s o f an
e l i t e w hich has l i t t l e c o n c ern f o r money. I t i s a E u ro p e a n iz e d s o c i e t y
w hich s h a re s i t s l i f e betw een New Y ork, P a r is and H a i t i . P h y s i c a l l y
s e p a r a te d from t h e p e o p le , i t l i v e s i n w e ll- a p p o in te d h o u se s i n s e c lu d e d
a re a s such as T u rg eau , B a b io ie o r P e t i o n v i l l e , has i t s own c lu b s ,
r e s t a u r a n t s and c a fe s} m e n ta lly s e p a r a te d , i t has few c o n ta c ts w ith t h e
r e s t o f t h e p o p u la tio n and no d e s i r e t o m u lt ip l y th o s e c o n t a c t s . The
c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r , J o s e e , r e t u r n s t o H a i t i , a f t e r h a v in g been r a i s e d
i n F ra n c e . A f t e r a few days i n t h e s o c i e t y t o w hich she now b e lo n g s ,
she a tte m p ts t o a n a ly z e i t s h y p o c r i s i e s and i t s c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n h e r
d i a r y . She r a p i d l y comments on t h e c o lo r p r e j u d i c e o f t h i s e l i t e , th e
s t r a t i f i c a t i o n o f th e H a i ti a n s o c i e t y and t h e t o t a l ig n o ra n c e o f th e
e l i t e r e g a r d in g t h e p o v e r ty o f t h e m a jo r ity ; "A ce s u j e t , Ninon sem ble
n 'e n e t r e a v is e e que p a r o u i - d i r e , e t pas seu lem en t N inon, j ' e n a i
24
p e u r ." But h e r s o c i a l p r e o c c u p a tio n s a r e l i m i t e d t o b r i e f n o te s i n
h e r d i a r y w h ile h e r s o c i a l l i f e r a p i d l y conform s t o t h a t o f h e r new
en v iro n m en t. The b u lk o f t h e n o v e l i t s e l f d e a ls w ith a number o f lo v e
a f f a i r s — in v o lv in g th e e t e r n a l t r i a n g l e o f h u s b a n d - w if e - lo v e r — and t h e i r
e v e n tu a l r e s o l u t i o n . The a u th o r b r i e f l y com m ents. on t h e c o lo r-c o n s c io u s --
n e s s o f an e l i t e w hich m a r r ie s " w h ite " and on i t s f e a r o f a new c l a s s
o f b la c k i n t e l l e c t u a l s and p r o f e s s i o n a l s who t h r e a t e n i t s pro m in en ce.
One c a n n o t say t h a t t h i s e l i t e i s p r e s e n t e d i n a v e ry p o s i t i v e manner}
i t s i n t e l l e c t u a l s a r e f a g a d e - c o n s c io u s i n d i v i d u a l s , i t s b u sin essm en a re
v u lg a r and g re e d y , i t s y o u th i s o n ly i n t e r e s t e d i n p l e a s u r e and e a sy
263
l i v i n g . Only J o s e e , who i s somewhat o f a s t r a n g e r t o t h i s s o c i e t y ,
works f o r h e r l i v i n g , and e v e n tu a ll y she m a r r ie s one of t h e young b la c k
i n t e l l e c t u a l s h e r f a t h e r ' s r e l a t i v e s h a te so f e r o c i o u s l y . A lic e H ippo-
l y t e u s e s a s i m i l a r ap p ro a c h t o t h a t .of F ernand H ib b e rt i n h e r d e s c r i p
t i o n o f t h e bovarysm e o f th e H a itia n , m u la tto b o u r g e o is ie . Most o f h e r
c h a r a c t e r s a re v a g u e ly u n p le a s a n t, s u g g e s tin g t h a t she d is a p p r o v e s o f
th e ty p e o f b e h a v io r sh e d e s c r i b e s . H er work "re m ain s, how ever, s u p e r
f i c i a l i n c h a r a c t e r developm ent and s o c i a l a n a l y s i s .
One g e ts a n o th e r g lim p se a t th e H a i ti a n b o u r g e o is ie i n F i l s de
m is e r e . I n a lo n g i n t e r i o r m onologue, Madame L e d e s t i n , - l a m e r c i e 's
em ployer, r e f l e c t s on t h e h y p o c ris y o f h e r own c l a s s , w hich i s p e rs o n
i f i e d by h e r husband; h e r husband i s a man who r e l i e s on a p p e a ra n c e s —
t h e b ig c a r , th e n i c e h o u s e , th e r e c e p tio n s ., a man " a c h e v a l s u r l e s
p r i n c i p e s (p o u r l e s a u t r e s ) e t s o ig n a n t , f i g n o l a n t l a fa g a d e ( l a g ra n d -
m esse e t l e cinem a d o m in ic a l, l e s a t t i t u d e s d ig n e s , l e s g ran d s s e n t i -
25
m e n ts )" , an e x - p o l i t i c i a n who ta k e s a d v a n ta g e o f th e s t a t u s he once
h ad .
L*Amour, o u i. La m o rt, non, p i c t u r e s R a c h e l's f a m ily , a b o u rg e o is
fa m ily o f P e t i o n v i l l e , as c o lo r - c o n s c io u s as w e l l . R a c h e l's m other
ca n n o t a c c e p t t h a t h e r d a u g h te r may c o n te m p la te m a rry in g a b la c k man.
She w ants f o r h e r a young man o f t h e same c o lo r (M u la tto ) and o f th e
same s o c i a l b ack g ro u n d , b u t R achel r e v o l t s ! "T ant de h a in e s , t a n t de
h a in e s i n u t i l e s , p o u r t a n t de r a i s o n s s t u p i d e s . T an t de h a in e , t a n t de
g u e r r e s , e n t r e p a y s , e n t r e r a c e s , e n t r e .c l a s s e s , e n t r e c l a n s , e n tr e
j r ■» 26
f r e r e s .
264
The p o r t r a i t V in c e n t P la c o ly d raw s, i n L ' E au-de-m ort g u i l d i v e ,
o f t h e i n f l u e n t i a l members o f t h e s o c i e t y 1 o f .M a r tin iq u e i s n o t , i n any
way, more f l a t t e r i n g . Dolm inche i s v u lg a r i n a p p e a ra n c e , b e h a v io r and
la n g u a g e ; he has th e k in d o f s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e born from money and makes
c e r t a i n t h a t i t be known. H is w if e , R e in e , o n ly a s p i r e s t o e n jo y th e
l u x u r i e s money can buy and i s p r e p a r e d t o s e l l h e r s e l f f o r t h a t p u rp o se
i f n e c e s s a r y . B ro c k h e a rs t i s s l y and d e v o id o f s c r u p l e s , re a d y t o t a k e
a d v a n ta g e o f anyone, s h o u ld .t h e o p p o r tu n ity a r i s e . F i n a l l y , C lem ent,
t h e s u p e r v i s o r , i s a q u i t e d e t e s t a b l e c h a r a c t e r r e s p o n s i b le f o r th e
u n w a rra n te d im prisonm ent o f f o u r c o n s t r u c t i o n w o rk e rs; h e .w o u ld r a t h e r
g iv e up h i s w ife t o h i s b o s s , H am elin, th a n l o s e th e p o s i t i o n w hich
a llo w s him t o become r i c h a t t h e w o rk e rs ': e x p e n se . F a s c in a te d by R e in e ,
he makes h im s e lf even more r i d i c u l o u s b y . l i s t e n i n g t o t h e . in c o h e r e n t
a d v ic e o f th e n o t - s o - r e s p e c t a b l e q u im b o is e u r, -Emehu. A ll o f t h e s e c h a r
a c t e r s a re d i s h o n e s t , p e t t y a n d " th o ro u g h ly h a te d by th e p e o p le whom th e y
e x p l o i t w ith im p u n ity .
N e s t o r e t , t h e mayor o f B o u r g - la - F o lie i n M a rtin iq u e des c e n d r e s ,
b e lo n g s t o th e same c a te g o ry o f p e o p le . L iv in g o n ly f o r money and
pow er, N e s to r e t n e v e r f o r g i v e s th o s e who p u t o b s ta c l e s i n h i s way, does
n o t know p i t y and has no c o n s c ie n c e , " l u i , l'homme de p a i l l e . du beke
dont l a p u is s a n c e r e p o s a i t ' ju s te m e n t s u r c e s barques, q u ' i l p r e t a i t ,
moyennant t r i b u t , . aux p e c h e u rs du b o u rg , t r o p demunis p o u r e s p e r e r
+ ■ . 27
jam a is d e v e n ir p r o p r i e t a i r e s a l e u r t o u r . " N e s to re t c a u se s t h e r u i n
o f T h e o lu c e , e x p l o i t s A l c i b i a d e 's a m b itio n and b r ib e s him f o r th e
d e n u n c ia tio n w hich condemns Thomas 1 ' E ugenie to. d e a th . N e s t o r e t i s s a id
265
t o have s ig n e d a p a c t w ith th e d e v i l s w hich a llo w s him t o e li m i n a te a l l
h i s en em ies. I n r e a l i t y , h i s power comes from t h e f a c t t h a t he knows
t h e w eaknesses o f h i s own p e o p le , he knows how t o m a n ip u la te them so
th e y w i l l t u r n a g a in s t th e m s e lv e s , he knows how t o m a n ip u la te Thomas
1 ' E ugenie so he w i l l s a c r i f i c e h i s own l i f e . And he s u c c e e d s .
N e s to r e t has a llo w e d h im s e lf t o be bought by t h e beke t o s a t i s f y
h i s l u s t f o r power and money, and he i s n o t t h e o n ly o n e. I n La Case du
commandeur, G l i s s a n t t e l l s t h e s t o r y o f H iero n im u s, a p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r
w o rsh ip p e d by t h e p e o p le who d is a p p e a rs , a f t e r h a v in g been b r ib e d by
t h e b e k e . T h e re i s a ls o V ito r b e . L ured by t h e p r o s p e c t o f becoming a
s h a r e h o ld e r o f th e b e k e ' s company, V ito rb e a l t e r s th e r e s u l t o f e l e c
t i o n s h e had won t o g iv e way t o th e b e k e 's c a n d id a te . F i n a l l y , t h e r e
i s P am phile who stu m b les on t h e dream o f becoming t h e e q u a l o f t h e beke
and s to p s f i g h t i n g him i n t h e hope o f b e in g a d m itte d i n t o h i s fo rb id d e n
c i r c l e o f f r i e n d s . Mycea u s e s t h e exam ple o f t h o s e t h r e e men t o b o l s t e r
h e r b i t t e r n e s s and h e r s k e p tic is m , b e c au se t h e s e men p a r t a k e o f h e r
own d e s p a i r , h e r l a t e n t c o n v ic tio n t h a t t h e i r b e t r a y a l stem s, from
som ething more th a n money o r p r e s t i g e . Thomas 1*E ugenie t o o u n d e rs ta n d s
t h a t t h e d i v i s i o n s o f t h e B lacks a r e n o t on ly due t o th e d e lu s io n s o f
g ra n d e u r o f a few i n d i v i d u a l s ; th e y a r e e n g in e e re d by t h e g o v e rn in g
system t o p r o t e c t i t s e l f and keep t h e p o p u la tio n i n check: " I I s ont
f a i t de chacun de nous un b a s ti o n i s o l e , , r e p l i e a l ' a b r i de s e s m urs,
a v e u g le a t o u t ce q u i n ' e s t pas son i n t e r e t , s a p ro p re s u r v i e . C 'e s t
dans n o t r e d i v i s i o n q u ' i l s tr o u v e n t l a f o r c e de nous r e d u i r e au
s i l e n c e . ” ^
%
266
The condem nation o f th e l e a d e r s and o f t h e e l i t e c o n tin u e s in
Le F o lilo q u e en ou d i e s e m in e u r, aim ed a t th e p e rs o n o f T o u to u , member
o f a r i c h fa m ily whose a t t i t u d e th e n a r r a t o r v eh em en tly c r i t i c i z e s :
"Comme c e s b o u rg e o is o n t p e u r de l a c h e r l e u r s g ros s o u s ! . . . La pharm a-
c ie n n e e t l 'a v o c a t , l e s deux c o u s in s de T o u to u , g a m 'e t o n n e r a i t q u ' i l s
d e c id e n t de r e m e tt r e l e u r t e r r e en v a l e u r . Au l i e u de c e l a , i l s se
f e r o n t p l u t o t c o n s t r u i r e un c h a te a u avec p i s c i n e e t g o l f e m i n i a t u r e .
Pas v r a i , l a Cour? C 'e s t pas ce q u ' i l s f o n t t o u s , m u la tr e s a u s s i b ie n
% 29
que n e g re s f o r tu n e s ? " Then he c o n c lu d e s : "P ays de compromis e t de
c o m p ro m is s io n s .. . " (p . 158)
S o c i a l and r a c i a l i n e q u a l i t i e s e x i s t a t a l l l e v e l s o f s o c i e t y
and I b a , i n Agodom e-Dachine, i s g iv e n s e v e r a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o d i s c o v e r
t h i s f a c t w i t h in t h e s c h o o l e n v iro n m e n t. One o f h i s t e a c h e r s has n o th in g
b u t contem pt f o r c o u n try c h i l d r e n , " c e s p e t i t s n e g re s q u i r e v ie n n e n t de
- 30
l a b ro u s s e avec des m a n ie re s de b r u te s e t l a la n g u e l o u r d e " , and
n o th in g b u t p r a i s e f o r t h o s e w ith p a t e n t l e a t h e r shoes whose e d u c a tio n
i s bought w ith many h o u rs o f p r i v a t e t u t o r i n g ; sh e c a n n o t d e s p is e th o s e
who make h e r r i c h a t t h e end o f t h e m onth. And t h e r e i s Harpon who
w rongly a c c u s e s I b a o f h a v in g h u r t him , b u t I b a can n o t d e fe n d h im s e lf
b e cau se t h e o t h e r c h i l d 's f a t h e r i s r i c h and p o w e rfu l. F i n a l l y , t h e r e
i s Caco, t h e s a d i s t i c h e a d m a ste r who b e a ts w ith a cane anyone who does
n o t s a l u t e him p r o p e r l y , w ith a few e x c e p tio n s : t h e sons and d a u g h te rs
o f t h e r i c h la n d o w n e rs, o f th e sh o p k e e p e rs and o f th e w h ite p o l i c e
o f f i c e r s .
D iv is io n s a re n o t o n ly s o c i a l and r a c i a l , b u t a ls o i n t e l l e c t u a l .
267
I n Le F o lilo q u e en ou d i e s e m in e u r, l e Fou rem arks upon t h e gap w hich
s e p a r a te s him from h i s b r o t h e r , a t e a c h e r , and, more g e n e r a l l y w hich
s e p a r a te s t h e p e o p le from th o s e who sp e ak i n t h e i r s te a d b e c a u se th e y
a r e s a id t o be more q u a l i f i e d t o do s o . The n a r r a t o r o f Le N egre c r u -
f i e e x p re s s e s v e ry d i r e c t l y h i s h a t r e d f o r a l l b la c k i n t e l l e c t u a l s : .
" J e ne veux pas v o i r des i n t e l l e c t u e l s a ma v e i l l e e . M ais des p a y san s
d ’H a i t i dans l e u r s v a r e u s e s , avec l e u r s l e v r e s q u i p e s e n t t r e n t e l i v r e s
31
de v i a n d e ." But t h e m ost s e v e r e a c c u s a tio n i s pronounced m Un Ambas--
s a d e u r m acoute a M o n tr e a l: d u rin g a c l a n d e s t i n e m e e tin g i n a ch u rc h in
M o n tre a l, a l l t h e f a c t i o n s o f H a i t i a r e c o n fr o n te d . " I I y a dans l a
s a l l e p l u s i e u r s camps: l e camp des m u la tr e s , l e camp des n e g re s p u r
s a n g , l e camp des d o c t r i n a i r e s m a r x i s t e s . Chaque camp f o u r b i t se s
32
a rm e s ." Each f a c t i o n r e f u s e s t o l e t t h e o t h e r sp e a k , and th e y a l l
spend th e tim e th e y s h o u ld u se t o work a t th e l i b e r a t i o n o f t h e c o u n try
in v o lv e d i n p e t t y q u a r r e l s , b e cau se power i s more d e s i r a b l e t o them th a n
t h e c a u se th e y a d o p te d as a p r e t e x t . The c u lm in a tin g moment o f th e
p a s sa g e i s t h e le n g th y sp e ec h o f a M a rx is t t h e o r i z e r who l i s t e n s t o h i s
own v o ic e w h ile a s u b ju g a te d a u d ie n c e allo w s I t s e l f t o be h y p n o tiz e d
by words i t does n o t u n d e rs ta n d ; i t i s e a s i e r t o fa k e b e l i e v i n g th a n t o
f a c e r e a l i t y . T h is p ie c e o f b i t t e r s a t i r e i s m eant t o r e v e a l t h a t a l l
t h e w o n d e rfu l fo rm u la s a b o u t th e good o f th e p e o p le h id e a d e s i r e t o
a p p r o p r i a t e pow er. G erard E tie n n e condemns th e ra c is m o f t h e i n t e l l e c
t u a l s and l e a d e r s o f a l l s p e c i e s , t h e i r s e l f i s h n e s s , t h e i r c o l l u s i o n
w ith t h e o p p r e s s iv e n a ti o n s and t h e i r h a tr e d f o r t h e p e o p le as r e p r e
s e n te d by A le x is A ccius whom th e y would r a t h e r m urder th a n s u p p o r t.
268
When A le x is A ccius s te p s i n t o t h e c h u rc h , th e a u d ie n c e v a n is h e s b e c au se
i t i s n o t i n t e r e s t e d i n l i s t e n i n g t o what . ” un p a y s a n -c a c a -t-te rre -n e g re -
b o s s a l" m ight have t o say ,( p . 1 4 8 ), The p e o p le o f H a i t i i s l e f t , a lo n e
t o f i g h t f o r i t s e l f ; none o f i t s l e a d e r s have t h e s l i g h t e s t d e s i r e t o
le a d th e b a t t l e o f w hich th e y c la im th e m s e lv e s th e cham pions. Beyond
th e c a s e o f H a iti., o r even t h a t o f th e C a rib b e a n o r o f Quebec (from r
w here he w r i t e s ) , what G erard E tie n n e w ants t o denounce i s a l l form s o f
o p p r e s s io n , o f c o l o n i z a t i o n and o f c o l l u s i o n as th e y a r e p r a c t i c e d by
th e l e a d e r s o f a l l c o u n t r i e s , r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e d e s i r e o r o f th e needs
o f th e s i l e n t m a j o r i t y .
4) The v i o l a t e d la n d
D e s p ite a l l t h e u n c e r t a i n t i e s born from h i s t o r y and p r e s e n t
e v e n ts , one elem ent rem ain s c e n t r a l ? .the hom eland. A f t e r h i s f a n t a s t i c
voyage th ro u g h A f r ic a ..in s e a r c h o f h i s l o s t a n c e s t r y , T i J e a n l 'H o r i -
zon, th e c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r o f Simone S c h w a rz -B a rt' s l a t e s t n o v el,, r e a l
i z e s t h a t t h e r e i s o n ly one p la c e .w h e r e he can be a t peaces G uadeloupe.
"O ui, l a - b a s e t a i t . s a p l a c e , d e e id a - " t - i l t o u t a coup, sous q u e lq u e
m o tte d e t e r r e ro u g e ex p o see au v e n t, avec des m orts q u i l e r e e o n n a i-
% 33
t r a i e n t e t ne l u i d i r a i e n t p a s: e t r a n g e r , d 'o u v i e n s - t u ? " Because
o f a l l t h e s u f f e r i n g en d u re d on t h a t la n d and f o r t h a t la n d , becau se
i t has been made w ith t h e i r b lo o d , a l l c h a r a c t e r s f e e l; an i n a l i e n a b l e
bond w ith t h e i r c o u n tr y , w h e th e r i t be H a i t i o r th e F re n ch A n t i l l e s ;
th e y a l l s h a re t h e f e e l i n g t h a t t h i s one t h i n g th e y have l e f t i s now
b e in g ta k e n away from them by o u t s i d e r s , and t h a t t h e i r e x is te n c e
269
i s t h r e a t e n e d by t h e i n f l u e n c e o f f o r e i g n i d e a l s and modes o f t h i n k i n g . ,
T h is f e e l i n g i s s t r o n g e r i n t h e n o v e ls from t h e F ren ch A n t i l l e s th a n
i n th e H a i ti a n w orks, t h i s b e in g p ro b a b ly due t o th e f a c t t h a t H a i t i i s
an in d e p e n d e n t n a t i o n r e g a r d l e s s o f how. p r e c a r io u s i t s s i t u a t i o n m ight
be.
The c o u n tr y and th e la n d a r e v i o l a t e d by th e i n t e r v e n t i o n o f
f o r e i g n e r s , w h ite f o r e i g n e r s who immerse th e m s e lv e s i n i n t e r n a l a f f a i r s
and m a n ip u la te them t o t h e i r own p u rp o se s w ith o r w ith o u t t h e c o n se n t
o f th e l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s . G erard E tie n n e denounces th e c o l o n i z a t i o n o f
H a i t i by t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , " p u is s a n c e q u i nous e c r a s e , nous a v a le e t
34
nous r e d u i t en b o u i l l i e " , t h e power r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e o p p r e s s io n
o f t h e H a i t i a n p e o p le b e cau se i t h e lp e d th e i n s t a l l a t i o n o f t h e D u v a lie :'
regim e t o a p p e ase i t s f e a r o f a n o th e r Cuba. E tie n n e s t i g m a t i z e s th o s e
who s u p p o rt th e d i c t a t o r s h i p and h e lp keep i t i n p l a c e , t h o s e who
p r o v id e t h e m achine g u n s ,- th e ta n k s a n d .o th e r l e t h a l weapons w hich
k i l l d e m o n s tra to rs i n t h e s t r e e t s o f P o r t - a u - P r i n c e . He a c c u se s of
economic vam pirism th o s e who come t o H a i t i t o p r o f i t from i t s cheap
l a b o r and re a p immense b e n e f i t s : "A vant q u ' i l s ne t e s a ig n e n t , i l f a u t
que l e s B lancs q u i t t e n t to n p a y s . I I f a u t q u ' i l s l i b e r e n t c e s f o u le s
d 'e s c l a v e s a u x q u e ls i l s donnent a m anger de l a p o u s s ie r e au fond des
m ines de l a S e d re n , q u ' i l s t e re n d e n t l a t e r r e q u ' i l s t ' ont v o le e . I l s
a r r i v e n t l e s m ains v id e s e t r e p a r t e n t e o u rb e s so u s l e p o id s des sa c s
35
d 'o r q u ' i l s ont s u r l 'e p a u l e . " A n c e s tr a l v o ic e s g u id e A le x is A ccius
on t h e p a th o f r e v o l t by w h is p e rin g t o him t h a t h i s c o u n tr y , t h e coun-:_
t r y f o r w hich th o u sa n d s o f N egroes have d ie d , i s now b e in g bought by
270
f o r e i g n e r s and tra n s fo r m e d i n t o a p a r a d i s e f o r t h e v e ry men who have
c a u se d i t s dow nfall.. They r e p e a t t h e w arning a lr e a d y v o ic e d by th e
n a r r a t o r o f Le Negre c r u c i f i e , t h a t H a i t i i s b e in g a u c tio n e d o f f t o
th e enemy.
I n t h e f i n a l p ag es o f M alem ort, S i l a c i e r ' r e f l e c t s upon h i s i s l a n d
and s lo w ly r e a l i z e s t h a t he does n o t re c o g n iz e i t any l o n g e r . I t i s n o t
t h e c o u n tr y he had known, but a d i s f i g u r e d la n d ta k e n o v e r by " l e s ' <
cubes de b e to n a t r a f f i c i n t e n s e , l e s p a rk in g s s u r p e u p l e s , l e s t o u r s a
e t a g e s , l e s h o t e l s c a r r e s dans l e s h a u ts de p la g e , l e s s o c i e t e s SO MI
DO VAG DE RAG M E SI D A M CA M AG REM NO PAM p lu s t a s s e e s que t i t i r i s . . . " 3
A ll t h e s e a r e in s tr u m e n ts o f m o d e r n iz a tio n w hich d e fa c e t h e i s l a n d
w ith o u t any economic j u s t i f i c a t i o n . The symbols o f modern M a rtin iq u e
a r e a ls o t h e s ig n s o f i t s decadences th e freew ay k i l l s and t h e f a c t o r y
p r o v id e s no w ork. M a rtin iq u e i s b e in g tra n s fo r m e d n o t f o r t h e w e llb e in g
o f i t s p o p u l a t io n , even th ough b u i l d e r s 't a l k about i l l u s o r y employment
o p p o r t u n i t i e s , but f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f o th e r s who w i l l u se t h e i s l a n d as
a r e n te d p a r a d i s e f o r t h e i r v a c a t io n , t u r n i n g i t i n t o ” un t e r r i t o i r e
37
p o u r r e s i d e n c e s s e c o n d a ir e s e t com plexes t o u r i s t i q u e s . "
I n th e p a s t , i t was t h e beke who c laim ed ow nership o f t h e la n d
b e c au se he i n s i s t e d t h a t he had c r e a t e d i t . "D epuis p lu s de c e n t l u n e s ,
nous avons p o se l e p ie d i c i au nom du Roy p ro c e d a n t au p a r t a g e de l a
t e r r e e t des eaux. Tout e s t jo u e d e s o rm a is . Douze f a m i l i e s u n ie s se
p a r t a g e a n t l e b u t i n , e t p a s un pouce de can n e, de m anioc ou de m ais
+ 38
q u i n ’ a i t e t e d i s t r i b u e . " I t i s t h e power o f th e beke w hich Thomas
I 1E ugenie t r i e s t o e x o r c i s e w ith h i s dreams o f a c o o p e r a ti v e . But th e
271
t h e beke i s n o t a lo n e any m ore. O th e rs a r e coming t o t a k e a d v a n ta g e o f
t h e c o u n tr y , t h o s e whom.Edouard G l i s s a n t c a l l s " l e s a r r i v a n t s " , th e
F rench c i v i l s e r v a n t s , c o o p e ra n ts and fo rm e r c o lo n ia ls , whose i n f l u x has
been e n co u rag ed by th e d e p a rtm e n ta l s t a t u s o f t h e fo rm e r o v e rs e a s , t e r
r i t o r i e s . . They a r e th e ones whom G l i s s a n t b i t t e r l y c a r i c a t u r e s . i n
M alem ort: th e y a r e c o n v in c e d t h a t th e y u n d e rs ta n d t h e " l o c a l m e n t a li ty "
and t h a t what w orks i n F ra n c e s h o u ld work here:; th e y come t o ta k e ad
v a n ta g e o f th e c o u n tr y f o r one o r two y ears., . th e n th e y go away uncon
c e rn e d . Such i s t h e a t t i t u d e o f t h e n u rse . M arie-D om inique o f Mon Exa-
men de b la n c ; she has come to . G uadeloupe f o r one re a s o n o n ly : " E ll e
e t a i t venue gagner. de 1 ' a r g e n t au s o l e i l . . E l l e . v e u t p r o f .i t e r au m axi
mum des p la g e s b lo n d es q u i re s s e m b le n t a s e s cheveux. J e s a i s q u 'e l l e
pense que toutes ces plages lui conviennent. mieux qu*aux .Negres, qui ne
a , 3 9
s a v e n t meme pas a p p r e c i e r . " C o n se q u e n tly , t h e r e a r e now i n th e F re n ch
A n t i l l e s two c o m m u n ities, one o f w hich i s w a s tin g away u n d e r th e eyes
o f t h e o t h e r .
Edouard G lis s a n t * s re s e n tm e n t i s s h a re d by X a v ie r O r v i l l e who
r e c a l l s t h e human c o n trib u tio n s M a rtin iq u e , G uadeloupe and F rench
G uiana made t o w ars w hich d id n o t c o n cern them: "Sonson. L a lan d e a v a i t
p e rd u s a jambe p o u r r i e n — m ise a p a r t une m is e r a b le p e n s io n .q u i b o i t a i t
e l l e a u s s i a p re s l e c o u rs de l a v i e . D e lic e a v a i t p e rd u s e s deux f r e r e s
pour r i e n . P a u l i u s , L ad a, Edmond, C e l e s t in (n e p a r lo n s pas des a u t r e s )
, 40
s ' e t a i e n t f a i t g a z e r p o u r r i e n . " The c h i l d I b a w a tc h es one o f h i s •
h e r o e s , T i J u l i e n , le a v e f o r V ietnam . Ti J u l i e n i s a w onderful, s t o r y
t e l l e r , and he d e l i g h t s th e c h i l d r e n w ith t h e many s t o r i e s th e y alw ays
272
l i k e t o h e a r . T i J u l i e n i s l i f e i t s e l f ; he d i s t r i b u t e s h a p p in e s s j u s t as
he d i s t r i b u t e s candy, l o l l i p o p s and b i c y c l e r i d e s . But Ti J u l i e n n e v e r
comes b ack. He d ie s f o r a r e a s o n I b a does n o t u n d e rsta n d ,, j u s t as
Yiadame A d e lic e does n o t u n d e rs ta n d why b o th h e r husband and h e r son
have been s e n t t o f i g h t i n faraw ay w a rs . R achel knows t h e same d e s p a i r
and th e same a n g e r when sh e l e a r n s t h a t G a b r ie l has e n l i s t e d i n th e
American army and i s now i n Vietnam,. She u n d e rs ta n d s t h a t he had l i t t l e
c h o ic e : even t h e army i s b e t t e r t h a n 'a New York f a c t o r y . What sh e does
not com prehend i s why he s h o u ld f i g h t f o r t h e v e ry n a ti o n w hich keeps
H a iti u n d e r o p p r e s s io n . And G a b rie l d i e s . He to o was a man who w anted
Co c r e a t e l i f e and t o f o r g e t a l l h a t r e d , w a rs, r a c e s and c o l o r s .
The v i o l a t i o n o f th e la n d , th e t h e f t o f i t s v i t a l f o r c e s a re o n ly
one a s p e c t o f t h e pro b lem , f o r t h e F re n c h -s p e a k in g t e r r i t o r i e s a r e a ls o
s u b je c te d t o c u l t u r a l g e n o c id e and t h e s u p e r im p o s itio n o f f o r e i g n
v a lu e s . Ways o f th in k i n g and b eh av in g w hich t h r e a t e n t h e l o c a l c u l t u r e
a re im p o rte d and made th e norm i n th e F rench A n t i l l e s and, t o a l e s s e r
s x t e n t , i n H a i t i . T h is i s n o t a,new i d e a . I t was a lr e a d y e x p re s s e d by
t h e Moudongue Sanga i n La M u la tre s s e S o l i t u d e . R e s is ta n c e a g a i n s t th e -
o p p re s s o r m ust b e g in by d i s c a r d in g h i s v a lu e s and n e g a tin g th e U nder-
Lying f o u n d a tio n o f h i s b e h a v io r . So does th e swimmer, th e p r o to ty p e o f
man i n r e v o l t and h e ro o f La T a p i s s e r i e du tem ps p r e s e n t : he d e f i e s
Logic, ta k e s p l e a s u r e i n m y s tif y in g " l e s lo u rd a u d s des s c ie n c e s e x a c -
te s " ^ and o t h e r " g a n g re n e s de l a r a is o n " (p . 72 ); he r e b e l s a g a in s t
a regim e w hich h as k i l l e d ho p e, im a g in a tio n , h a p p in e s s and s o l i d a r i t y .
The B lacks m ust alw ays o n ly co u n t on th e m s e lv e s . Such i s t h e c o n c lu s io n
273
one m ust draw as w e ll from t h e e p is o d e o f th e h u r r i c a n e i n Agodome-
D a c h in e . W ondering w h e th e r th e y s h o u ld b e lie v e th e r a d a r o f M onsieur
L udovic o r th e s ig n s n a t u r e sends them , th e p l a n t a t i o n w o rk e rs choose
t h e l a t t e r and w ith good r e a s o n , f o r t h e s a c r o s a n c t r a d i o o f th e w h ite
man on ly d iv u lg e s i n s i g n i f i c a n t p ie c e s o f news about M e tr o p o lita n
F ra n c e . I t g iv e I b a th e o p p o r tu n ity t o l e a r n abnew l e s s o n : n e v e r t r u s t
th e in s tr u m e n ts o f th e w h ite man, "S a c h e .q u e l e s n e g re s d o iv e n t t o u -
„ 42
jo u r s com pter s u r eux-memes.
The i m p o r ta tio n o f w h ite ways o f l i v i n g has c r e a te d a v o id i n a
w o rld w hich was fo rm e rly r e g u l a t e d by m e a n in g fu l o c c u p a tio n s . I n an
a tte m p t t o u n d e rs ta n d t h e n a tu r e o f t h i s l o s s , M athieu B elu se enumer
a t e s , i n La Case du commandeur, t h e l i s t o f p a s t g e s t u r e s —-p re p a rin g
and c u l t i v a t i n g a p ie c e o f la n d , b u i ld i n g a co o k in g p i t , w o rking wood—
w hich rhythm ed l i f e and gave i t some k in d o f d i r e c t i o n o r some s e n se of
a c h ie v e m e n t. But l i f e i t s e l f has gone w ith t h e g e s tu r e s w hich c h a ra c
t e r i z e d i t and have been r e p la c e d by m a k e -b e lie v e i n a c o u n try w hich
S i l a c i e r d e f i n e s as Hl e pays en s u r f a c e ou chacun f a i t . sem b lan t de
f a i r e . " I n M a rtin iq u e des c e n d r e s , t h e c o n f r o n t a t i o n o f l o c a l and.
im p o rte d v a lu e s i s embodied by Thomasj 1*E ugenie and A l c ib ia d e . W hereas
Thomas l 'E u g e n ie b e li e v e s t h a t none o f t h e im p o rta n t a s p e c ts o f l i f e
have t o do w ith money and m a t e r i a l p o s s e s s i o n s , A lc ib ia d e i s c o n v in c e d
t h a t h a p p in e s s can be bought and d e s p a i r s becau se he does n o t have t h e
money n e c e s s a r y t o th e f u l f i l l m e n t o f his. dream s. A lc ib ia d e i s th e
p r o to ty p e o f a g e n e r a ti o n whose d e s i r e s and hopes have been f a s h io n e d
by a m a t e r i a l i s t i c s o c i e t y and who t u r n s b i t t e r a t i t s i n a b i l i t y t o
274
i m i t a t e t h e a c c e p te d m o d els. Thomas l 'E u g e n ie a tte m p ts t o make him
C')
u n d e rs ta n d t h a t he i s b e in g m a n ip u la te d ;. " T a n t que t u c o n tin u e r a s de
p e n s e r que l ' e s s e n t i e l de t a v i e depend des p r o d u it s de lu x e q u e v e n -
d e n t l e s m a g a s in s, t u n 'a u r a s r i e n c o m p ris, A lc ib ia d e . P a rc e que c e t t e
c r o y a n c e - la es.t ju s t e m e n t .e e q u i f a i t l a f o r c e de 1 'e t r a n g e r s u r
45
n o u s .” But A lc ib ia d e does n o t l i s t e n ; he h a s been c o n v in ced t h a t
r e s p e c t depends upon ( -e x te rio r s ig n s o f w e a lth and, more i m p o r ta n t ly , he
b e lie v e s w hat t h e o t h e r s say o f him and t h in k s i n term s o f - t h e im ages
t h a t have been im p la n te d i n h i s b r a i n by t h o s e who .m easure s u c c e s s
w ith m a t e r i a l p o s s e s s i o n s . A lc ib ia d e e v e n tu a ll y s e l l s h i m s e l f . and
b e tr a y s t h e .v i l l a g e r s f o r p ro m ises o f lu x u r y .
A l i n e 's d o w n f a ll, i n Ma F ia n c e e des g r a n g e r s , fo llo w s t h e same
p a t t e r n and p a r a l l e l s h e r a d o p tio n o f A m ericano-E uropean i d e a l s . I t a l l
s t a r t s when h e r fa m ily moves t o P o rt-a u -P rin c e -, and A lin e i s p u t i n
c o n ta c t w ith what sh e c a l l s " p r o g r e s s i v e i d e a s ” and " c i v i l i z e d a t t i
t u d e s ; " She p r o g r e s s i v e l y a c q u ir e s a t a s t e f o r lu x u ry w hich she s a t i s
f i e s by t u r n i n g t o p r o s t i t u t i o n . When she f i n a l l y comes t o term s w ith
h e r m oral and p h y s ic a l d e g r a d a tio n , she s e e s no a l t e r n a t i v e b u t d e a th .
Between m a t e r i a l and p s y c h o lo g ic a l i n f l u e n c e , i t i s u n d o u b te d ly
th e l a t t e r w hich i s t h e m o st-d an g e ro u s b e c a u se i t o p e r a te s i n s i d i o u s l y .
Only th o s e who have t r a v e l l e d l i k e Thomas l'E u g e n ie o r Amboise a r e
a b le t o s e p a r a t e r e a l i t y from t h e myth c r e a t e d by th e W h ite s. Thomas
i s alm o st t h e same age as A lc ib ia d e ; he l i v e s i n th e same v i l l a g e , b u t
he a lo n e can s e e beyond th e m ira g e , f o r he has been t o F ra n ce a n d .h a s
se e n how th e w h ite man l i v e s in h i s own c o u n tr y . O v e rse a s, however:,’
275
t h e myth i s s t r o n g , f o r t h e r e i s n o th in g t o m easure i t a g a in s t b u t th e
c o n d itio n o f t h e B lacks and b e c au se t h e m y s t i f i c a t i o n s t a r t s e a r l y and
i s a c c e n tu a te d by e d u c a tio n . The i n f l u e n c e o f s c h o o l o v e r t h e th in k i n g
p r o c e s s o f t h e B lacks i s an im p o rta n t them e i n a l l t h e n o v e ls} i t i s
t h e one n e c e s s a r y elem en t w hich a llo w s f o r a b e t t e r u n d e r s ta n d in g of
what p s y c h o lo g ic a l i n d o c t r i n a t i o n can b e .
5) E d u c a tio n ; in s tr u m e n t o f s o c i a l p r o g re s s o r o f a l i e n a t i o n ?
L am ercie has f a i t h i n e d u c a tio n as a means o f s o c i a l p r o g r e s s .
W orking f o r a b o u rg e o is f a m ily , L am ercie g iv e s e d u c a tio n t h e power t o
tr a n s f o r m o n e 's l i f e i n t o t h e l i f e o f e a s e le d by h e r em p lo y e rs; she
s e e s i t as a m ag ic al d o o r t o a b e t t e r w o rld . T h is b e l i e f m o tiv a te s h e r
th ro u g h s u c c e s s and f a i l u r e . She i n s t i l l s in h e r son t h i s c o n v ic t io n
by r e p e a ti n g t o him t h a t , w ith o u t e d u c a tio n , a l l he can e v e r hope t o be
i s a beg g ar o r an a l c o h o l i c o r som eone's humbled s e r v a n t . She does not
heed t h e c a p t a i n 's w a rn in g t h a t e d u c a tio n i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y t h e key
46
t o success.. T h is w a rn in g i s c o r r o b o r a te d by h e r d e a th . L am ercie
g iv e s so much im p o rta n c e t o e d u c a tio n because sh e s e e s i t as t h e only
a l t e r n a t i v e . She cannot a c h ie v e m a t e r i a l s t a b i l i t y by h e r s e l f and has
t h e need t o b e li e v e i n s o c i a l m o b il it y th ro u g h e d u c a tio n . Those f o r
whom sc h o o l i s r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e do n o t v a lu e i t so much, as can be
se e n i n t h e n o v e ls d e a li n g w ith t h e e l i t e . For G erard E tie n n e , th o s e
members o f t h e e l i t e who b e n e f i t from a m o stly f o re ig n , e d u c a tio n a re
n o th in g but t r a i t o r s . They adopt t h e v a lu e s o f t h e s o c i e t y w hich
276
e d u c a te s them and become d i s a s s o c i a t e d from t h e i r p e o p le whom th e y
o f te n c o n s id e r as an im a ls w allo w in g i n ig n o ra n c e and s a v a g e ry . Hence
h i s condem nation o f " l e s n e g re s s a v a n ts " , who sp e ak F re n c h , "une lan g u e
* 47
de t a u r e a u a d ix c o rn e s , a la n g u a g e o f d e c e i t w hich c a n n o t e x p re s s
th e r e a l i t y o f H a i t i , and who w r i t e books w hich c a n n o t be t r u s t e d
b e cau se th e y s e r v e . t h e reg im e. When one b e lo n g s t o t h e u n d e r p r iv ile g e d
p o r ti o n o f th e p o p u l a t io n , t h e r e a r e few p o s s i b l e m ir a c le s t o g e t o u t
o f p o v e r ty , and b e in g e d u c a te d i s n o t alw ays b e in g s a v e d . G a b r ie l i s
sucked back i n t o t h e c y c le o f o p p r e s s io n r e g a r d l e s s o f th e f a c t t h a t he
i s e d u c a te d , sim p ly b e c au se he comes from a p o o r f a m ily . L a m e rc ie ’ s
dream i s j u s t t h a t , a dream , e s p e c i a l l y w i t h in a so c ie ty , as h e a v il y
s t r a t i f i e d as t h a t o f H a i t i , w here s o c i a l m o b il it y has m o stly become
a m yth.
I n th e F re n ch A n t i l l e s , t h e c a s e a g a in s t e d u c a tio n i s much s t r o n g e r
f o r two r e a s o n s : f i r s t , b e c au se s c h o o l- a tte n d a n c e i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y
h ig h e r th a n i n H a i t i , and th u s th e e f f e c t s o f s c h o o lin g a r e more w id e
s p re a d ; s e c o n d ly , b e c au se o f th e preem in en ce o f F ren ch c u l t u r e over
th e l o c a l c u l t u r e , w hich i s - le f t few c h a n n e ls t o e x p re s s i t s e l f . Je a n n e
48
H yvrard u s e s t h e image o f t h e r o l l i n g - m i l l , " l e la m in o i r " , t o q u a lif }
th e i n f l u e n c e o f sc h o o l b e c au se i t im poses c e r t a i n modes o f t h in k i n g .
But she i s m o stly co n c ern e d by form and o r g a n i z a t i o n o f th o u g h t:
"Tant d 'a n n e e s p a s s e e s a r e f u s e r l e s t r o i s f o l l e s t h e s e a n t i t h e s e l e s
deux s ia m o is e s e t l e u r f i l l e l a s y n th e s e " (p . 9 7 ) , ' becau se such s t r u c
t u r e s h in d e r o r i g i n a l i t y and s p o n ta n e ity and f o r c e one t o t h i n k i n
term s o f o p p o s it e s . The o t h e r a u th o rs d e a l w ith t h e c o n te n t o f e d u c a tio r
277
and, more p a r t i c u l a r l y , w ith what s c h o o l te a c h e s t h e B lacks about
th e m s e lv e s .
A lthough s c h o o l o c c u p ie s a v e ry sm a ll s p a c e in P l u i e e t v e n t s u r
Telumee M ir a c le , i t i s c l e a r l y condemned by th e a u th o r , f o r i t le a d s
t h e c h i l d r e n t o se e th e m s e lv e s as i n f e r i o r , w hereas th e m o th e r-c o u n try
i s endowed w ith a l l t h e q u a l i t i e s born o f e n lig h te n m e n t. Telum ee, who
b e n e f i t s from t h e te a c h in g s o f R eine s a n s Norn, i s a b le t o s ta y o u t o f
t h e s p h e re o f i n f l u e n c e o f th e s c h o o l and o f th e c u l t u r e i t r e p r e s e n t s .
Her s i s t e r , R e g in a , who l i v e s i n F o r t- d e - F r a n c e , f a l l s p re y t o i t s
.. .. 49
t e a c h i n g s , becomes "une dame e le g a n te de l a v i l l e " , and, when
Telumee a p p ro a c h e s -h e r one d a y , R e g in a f e e l s shame a t b e in g s e e n i n the
company o f such an u n c i v i l i z e d p e rs o n . By c o n t r a s t , th e them e o f ed u c a
t i o n f i g u r e s p ro m in e n tly , i n Agodom e-D achine. I b a 's f a t h e r v a lu e s edu
c a t i o n n o t n e c e s s a r i l y f o r w hat i t te a c h e s o r f o r what d o o rs i t may
open i n t h e f u t u r e , b u t a s .a n e y e -o p e n in g e x p e rie n c e w hich s h o u ld g iv e
h i s c h i l d r e n th e t o o l s t o u n d e rs ta n d t h e i r c o n d it io n o f s u b s e r v ie n c e
and r e a c t a g a in s t it... The c o n te n t o f e d u c a tio n i s t o t a l l y i r r e l e v a n t
t o I b a ' s way o f l i f e f o r i t im p lie s t h a t t h e knowledge o f l o c a l t h in g s
i s a p r o o f o f s t u p i d i t y . B ut, i n I b a 's c a s e , th e s c h o o l i s im p o rta n t
f o r o t h e r r e a s o n s : he l e a r n s t h e r e a c e r t a i n number o f t r u t h s about
t h e s o c i e t y i n w hich he l i v e s . He u n d e rs ta n d s t h a t t h e s c h o o l system
p e r p e t u a t e s b e h a v i o r - p a t t e r n s i n h e r i t e d from s la v e r y by u s in g m ethods
w hich a re n o t f a r removed from i t , su c h a s , c o r p o r a l punishm ent and
t h e " c a r t e de c r e o l e " w hich in d u c e s c h i l d r e n t o t e l l upon one a n o th e r
and w hich I b a r a p i d l y d i s c a r d s . I n t h i s n o v e l, t h e s c h o o l i s s e e n as
278
a p r i s o n , a punishm ent w hich must be en d u red i n t h e hope o f b e in g
s p a re d t h e can e f i e l d o r t h e s u g a r f a c t o r y . The i n s t i t u t i o n i s
d e s c r ib e d n e g a t i v e l y and a n a ly z e d as h a v in g an a d v e rs e i n f l u e n c e on th e
c h i l d r e n .
Thomas l 'E u g e n i e , t r a i n e d t o be a s c h o o lt e a c h e r , draw s s i m i l a r
c o n c lu s io n s r e g a r d in g th e s u b v e rs iv e n a tu r e o f e d u c a tio n and s e ts , out
t o m odify i t s c o n te n t: he s t a r t s t e a c h in g the. c h i l d r e n t h e know ledge
o f t h e i r la n d and o f t h e i r h i s t o r y and i n tr o d u c in g them t o r e v o l u t i o n
a ry i d e a s . What he w ants them t o know above a l l i s th e i n t e r n a t i o n a l
c h a r a c t e r o f t h e f i g h t of t h e b la c k man and th e s o l i d a r i t y w hich should
p r e v a i l betw een a l l B lacks i f th e y want t o f r e e th e m s e lv e s from o p p re s
s i o n . When t h e n a tu r e o f h i s te a c h in g s becomes known, Thomas l 'E u g e n ie
i s summoned by th e p o l i c e and th e n .c o m m itte d t o an asylum .
I n Le F o lilo q u e en ou d i e s e m in e u r, m em ories o f h i s c h ild h o o d
e x p e rie n c e s come back t o l e Fou i n t h e form o f a dream . I t i s a v i o l e n t
and o b s e s s iv e dream about a c la ssro o m o f t e r r o r i z e d c h i l d r e n f a c in g a
t h r e a t e n i n g t e a c h e r y e l l i n g a t them t h a t t h e t r u t h i s t o be found i n
books. T h is s ta te m e n t i s b e in g hammered i n t o t h e i r heads w ith t h e h e lp
o f a w hip. Le Fou can n o t r e c o n c i l e th o s e words} th e y p o is o n him b o th
p h y s i c a l l y and p s y c h o lo g i c a l ly . T he.dream becomes a s u b je c t o f c o n f l i c t
w hich r e s u l t s i n h i s i n t e l l e c t u a l p a r a l y s i s and p h y s ic a l im p o ten c e .
The c o n c lu s io n o f t h i s e p is o d e i s e a sy t o draw: t h e im p o s itio n o f th e
f o r e i g n c u l t u r e h as a n e g a tiv e i n f l u e n c e on t h e i n d i v i d u a l s in c e i t
f o r c e s him t o a c c e p t and i n t e r i o r i z e c o n c e p ts w hich a re n o t p a r t o f
h i s e x p e rie n c e .
279
For Mycea, i n La Case dur .comm andeur, t h e r e i s no su ch c o n f l i c t ,
f o r , a lth o u g h - s h e a s s i m i l a t e s t h e form o f th e knowledge w hich i s g iv e n
t o h e r , sh e does n o t a s s i m i l a t e i t s c o n te n t; she i s im p e rv io u s -to w hat
h e r t e a c h e r s c a l l . t h e c i v i l i z i n g m is s io n o f e d u c a tio n : "M arie C e la t
b a i s s a i t l a t e t e , non p o u r a v o u e r son i n s u f f i s a n c e n i e a c h e r s a d e -
f a i t e : p o u r s e fe rm e r a ee d is c o u r s q u 'e l l e n 'a u r a i t su c o n t r e d i r e m ais
q u 'u n e d i s p o s i t i o n d o u lo u re u s e de son c o rp s d 'e n f a n t r e f u s a i t . " ^ ^ She
r e s i s t s w hat she i s b e in g t a u g h t b e cau se i t does n o t f i l l th e e m p tin e ss
w i t h in h e r , but o n ly adds t o i t , and b e c au se she u n c o n s c io u s ly , u n d e r
s ta n d s t h e d a n g e r th o s e t e a c h in g s r e p r e s e n t f o r h e r and f o r th e o t h e r s .
Her a t t i t u d e i s one o f s e l f - d e f e n s e .. I t i s o n ly l a t e r t h a t she f u l l y
r e a l i z e s t h e i n s i d i o u s i n f l u e n c e o f th e know ledge she h as r e j e c t e d ,
when M athieu d e c id e s to s-le a v e t h e i s l a n d , lam e ly e x p la i n in g h i s f l i g h t
w ith t h e fo llo w in g s ta te m e n t: " l a p o u r s u i t e de l a c o n n a is s a n c e e n t r a i n e
au l o i n " ( p . 1 9 0 ).
I n M alem ort, G l i s s a n t decodes th e b e h a v io r o f t h e t e a c h e r s o f
M a rtin iq u e who l i v e t h e i r l i v e s as an i l l u s i o n . "Une c u re de s i l e n c e "
t e l l s t h e s t o r y o f L annec, an E n g lis h t e a c h e r , and o f h i s sudden
s i l e n c e : one m o rn in g , a s .h e i s ab o u t t o le a v e f o r s c h o o l, t h e e m p tin e ss
w i t h in h im s e lf overwhelm s him a l l a t once and he becomes u n a b le t o
sp e a k ; in v o lv e d as he i s i n h i s dream o f u n i v e r s a l know ledge,. Lannec
does n o t r e a l i z e w hat i s .h a p p e n in g t o him and f a i l s t o u n d e rs ta n d t h e
s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e e v e n t. T h is b r i e f e p is o d e r a p i d l y f o r g o t t e n , he
c o n tin u e s m a n ip u la tin g t h e words, and t h e id e a s t h a t a r e fe d t o him:
"M onsieur Lannec p e n se t o u jo u r s avec l e s id e e s des a u t r e s
280
G l i s s a n t t r e a t s w ith com passion t h e fo u r c h a r a c t e r s — L an n ec, Belem,
Chadin and Quebec—-whom he p o r tr a y s i n t h i s p a s s a g e . They a r e p r e s e n te d
as m ild ly r i d i c u l o u s .and p a t h e t i c f i g u r e s l o s t i n t h e i r own d e r i s i v e
dream s o f g r e a t n e s s b e cau se t h e y , a r e ta k e n i n by th e m yth:w hich o n ly
Lannec has t h e o p p o r tu n ity t o d e c ip h e r and n e g a te th e day he f i n a l l y
goes t o P a r i s , b u t to o l a t e : " . . . M onsieur Lannec c h a v ir a , quand 11 se
r e t r o u v a , un m idi bleme e t s a l e , au bas des g r i l l e s du met.ro, La M o tte -
P i q u e t- G r e n e l le a P a r i s , abandonne du monde e t a y a n t d e j a d e p a sse l e s
l i m i t e s de l a d e t r e s s e . Le re v e de l ' a i l l e u r s f i n i s s a i t l a ( p . 1 6 3 ).
J u s t as Thomas l'E u g e n ie and Amboise, M onsieur Lannec u n d e rs ta n d s
a t l a s t t h a t a l l t h e g r e a t n e s s he had. b a sed h i s l i f e upon was n o th in g
b u t a c r e a t i o n o f h i s own mind en couraged by th e e d u c a tio n a l system
t o w hich he b e lo n g e d .
6 ) The c i t y as symbol o f a l i e n a t i o n
A ll th e e le m e n ts s tu d i e d above a re t r a n s l a t e d i n t h e m a jo r ity o f
th e n o v e ls i n t o one r e c u r r e n t sym bol, t h a t o f t h e t u r p i d c i t y , e v i l
and u g ly m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f t h e agony o f i t s p e o p le and p r i v i l e g e d
l o c a t i o n o f t h e i r m y s t i f i c a t i o n .
I n Le Negre c r u c i . f i e , P o r t - a u - P r i n c e a g o n iz e s . .A c o n tin u o u s r a i n
v a g u e ly re m in is c e n t, o f t h e G reat Flood f a l l s on th e c i t y , , c a r r y in g
p re m o n itio n s o f c a t a s t r o p h e . The c i t y i s s i l e n t , j u s t a s . i t s p e o p le are
s i l e n c e d by a c r im in a l regim e and by t h e i r own ih e lp le s s n e s s .. The c i t y
i s o b s c u re and i t s p e o p le l o s e th e m se lv e s i n a d a rk n e s s w hich p a r a l l e l s
281
t h e d a rk n e s s i n w hich th e y a re k e p t. The c i t y o s c i l l a t e s betw een r e v o l t
and a b j e c t n e s s : " E t P o r t - a u - P r i n c e s 'e n t i r e avec son rhum, s e c o n s o le ,
se g r a t t e , s e c o n s o le , f a i t des c h a te a u x de s a b l e , des s y p h i l i s , des
* 52
le p r e u x , n o u r r i t au j o u r l e j o u r s e s c r i m i n e l s ." Jacm el to o ago
n iz e s . Symbol o f p a s t s p le n d o r s , i t i s . now t h e 'v i c t i m o f i n t e r n a l
5"
s t r i f e , w hich le a v e i t s i n h a b i t a n t no tim e t o b u i l d , r e p a i r o r c r e a t e .
I n F i l s de m is e r e , t h e lo o k o f th e c i t y r e f l e c t s th e e v o lu t io n o f th e
' *
n o v e l. P r e s e n te d i n th e b e g in n in g i n a l l i t s c ru d e b u t d i g n i f i e d
p o v e r ty , P o r t- a u - P r i n c e i s d e p ic te d ' as a d y ing b i r d i n th e l a s t chap
t e r , i t s s t r e e t s empty and s i l e n t , , f o llo w in g t h e f l i g h t o f i t s in h a b
i t a n t s , th e m s e lv e s d e s c r ib e d as h u n te d a n im a ls , to w ard any p o s s i b l e
s h e l t e r . No a b j e c t a c c e p ta n c e i n t h i s s c e n e , how ever, j u s t t h e f e a r
t h a t so m eth in g m o n stro u s, u n e x p e cte d * an d d e a d ly i s on t h e v e rg e o f
h a p p e n in g .
For J a c q u e l in e Manicom, i n Mon Examen de b l a n c , P o i n t e - a - P i t r e i s
a c i t y o f d e r i s i o n ; even i t s name was born from a m is p r o n u n c ia tio n . I t
i s an u g ly and t r a n s i e n t c i t y made o f c a rd b o a rd ho u ses p r e c a r i o u s l y
p i l e d on r o c k s , a l i f e l e s s c i t y . For V in c e n t P l a c o l y , F o r t- d e - F r a n c e
b e lo n g s i n t h e same v i s i o n : " F o r t- d e - F r a n c e p o u r r i t comme un r e s t e de
v ia n d e . F o r t- d e - F r a n c e , v i l l e des mouches e t du nauseabond s u r q u i
tom bent s e lo n l e s epoques des b e n e d ic tio n s d 'e a u e t des ra g e s de
54
v e n t . " I n M alem ort, b e s id e s b e in g a c i t y o f p u t r e f a c t i o n , i t i s a ls c
a p la c e o f p h y s ic a l and m en ta l d e g r a d a tio n w ith i t s p r o s t i t u t i o n and
c r i m e - f i l l e d s t r e e t s ; i t i s a c i t y w hich 'liv e s a l i e m a t e r i a l i z e d i n
s u p e rm a rk e ts , p a rk in g l o t s and b i l l b o a r d s ; a c i t y w hich p e r p e t u a t e s
282
a myth and e n s n a re s th o s e who f o r g e t th e r e a l v a lu e s o f l i f e , t u r n i n g
them i n t o " d e s n e g re s q u i o n t o u b lie j u s q u 'a u s o u v e n ir d ' e t r e n e g r e ,
des n e g re s q u i ne s a v e n t p lu s q u ’une fem m e.est f a i t e de t e r r e , e t q u i
se to u r n e n t r i g o l a r d s s u r l e u r f i g u r e p a s s e e , sa n s v o i r l a l e p r e i n s i -
* 55
d ie u s e q u i l e s a t t e n d l a - b a s , a 1 ' h o r iz o n de l e u r no u v el e s e l a v a g e ."
W hether i t be P o r t - a u - P r i n c e , F o r t- d e - F r a n c e o r P o i n t e - a - P i t r e y
i t i s th e same c i t y , t h e m ir r o r o f t h e s o c i e t y i t h a r b o r s , a s o c i e t y
w hich has l o s t i t s s e n se o f d i r e c t i o n , w hich i s b e in g ta k e n i n t o a r t i
f i c i a l dreams o f dem ocracy, s u c c e s s and lu x u ry , w hich i s b e in g f o o le d
i n t o o b l iv i o n . These c i t i e s r e e k o f n a u s e a , r o t and d e a th b e c a u s e th e y
a r e t r a p s . V in c e n t P la c o ly c a l l s them "d e s v i l l e s fo n d ees s u r du f r a
g i l e " , d e c e iv in g , dan g ero u s and re a d y t o e x p lo d e , j u s t as P o r t - a u -
P r in c e i n F i l s de m is e re o r F o r t- d e - F r a n c e i n L 'E a u -d e -m o rt g u i l d i v e .
Each one o f t h e n o v e ls d e s c r ib e d g iv e s an o p p r e s s iv e e v a l u a t i o n o f
l i f e - c o n d i t i o n s i n th e F re n c h -s p e a k in g C a rib b e a n . The exam ples g iv e n
a re s e l f - e x p l a n a t o r y and h e lp u n d e rs ta n d in g why a s e n se o f doom and
h e l p l e s s n e s s p e rv a d e s t h e c h a r a c t e r s in v o lv e d . D e fe a te d by p o l i t i c s ,
by econom ic and c u l t u r a l d e p r i v a t i o n ,, f o rb id d e n t h e r i g h t t o e x p re s s
t h e i r s e n s e o f la c k and t h e i r d i s a p p r o v a l, th e y d r i f t i n t o s u p in e
a c c e p ta n c e and o b l iv i o n . I n H a i t i , m a t e r i a l c o n s id e r a t io n s t a k e p r e c e d
ence ov er c u l t u r a l n e e d sj i n t h e F re n ch A n t i l l e s , b o th a s p e c ts a re
g iv e n e q u a l im p o rta n c e . T h ere rem ain t o be a n a ly z e d th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l
com ponents o f t h i s p o w e rle s s n e s s and how i t m a n if e s ts i t s e l f .
283
I I . P s y c h o lo g ic a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s and r e l a t e d a t t i t u d e s
One f in d s i n t h e s e n o v e ls a number o f symptoms i n d i c a t i n g t h e
p r e s e n c e o f m e n ta l c o n fu s io n : unansw ered i n t e r r o g a t i o n s , u n e x p la in a b le
a n g u is h , ram b lin g d i s c o u r s e s and b i z a r r e b e h a v io r . Most o f . t h e tim e ,
t h i s m en ta l c o n fu s io n i s n o t e x p re s s e d , but f e l t a t th e i n d i v i d u a l
l e v e l as a k in d o f m a la is e c o n d u civ e t o s e l f - d e n i g r a t i o n , as a vague
f e e l i n g t h a t one d o e s . n o t f i t w it h in o n e 's e n v iro n m e n t. One o f th e
im ages w hich b e s t e x p re s s t h i s s t a t e o f mind i s t h a t o f v u l n e r a b i l i t y ;
i t i s i n th o s e term s t h a t Simone S ch w arz-B art d e s c r i b e s t h e i n h a b i t a n t s
o f Fond-Zombi i n T i J e a n l 'H o r i z o n . "C ependant q u e lq u e ch ose de f r a g i l e
s e d e g a g e a it in s id ie u s e m e n t de l u i , l a je u n e f i l l e ne s a v a i t t r o p q u o i.
E t s o u d a in e l l e c o m p rit q u ' i l a p p a r t e n a i t b e l e t b ie n a l a r a c e n eb u -
l e u s e des n e g re s d 'E n - b a s , a c e s c r e a t u r e s de s a b le e t de v e n t q u i
v e r s e n t a chaque mouvement de l a t e r r e . " I n a s i m i l a r v e i n , V in cen t
P la c o ly draws t h e p o r t r a i t o f t h e F ren ch C a rib b e a n man: "N egre to u jo u r s
e n t r e deux p o r t e s , f r a g i l e des bro n eh es e t p o r t e u r de v i r u s , b ip e d e en
e q u i l i b r e i n s t a b l e s u r l e t r i c y c l e des p o r te u r s de l i b e l l e s d e p e ch e u rs
de m essages dem archeurs m essa g e r du d e s t i n o su b lim e a c r o b a t e . . ." ^
T h is v u l n e r a b i l i t y m a n if e s ts i t s e l f i n f i t s o f a n x ie ty w hich t h e c h a r
a c t e r s th e m s e lv e s a re u n a b le t o e x p l a i n - o r c o n t r o l . Even d u r in g moments
o f h a p p in e s s and f u l f i l l m e n t , t h i s a n g u ish s t r i k e s , g iv in g b i r t h t o th e
f e e l i n g t h a t h a p p in e s s w i l l n o t l a s t and can n o t l a s t . At th e b e g in n in g
o f h e r r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith E l i e , a tim e w hich she r e c a l l s as t h e H a p p ie st
o f h e r l i f e , Telumee f e e l s th e w e ig h t o f t h i s a n g u is h and l e a r n s ,
284
d u r in g a c o n v e r s a tio n w ith E l i e , t h a t a l l f e e l i t , t h a t som etim es Abel
scream s b e c au se o f i t and t h a t even E l i e i s n o t f r e e from i t and w ish e s
t o w arn h e r t h a t " i l s e p e u t q u 'u n jo u r j e me trom pe de t r a c e s au
a 58
m il ie u de l a f o r e t . " I n an a tte m p t t o e x o r c is e t h i s a n g u is h w hich
has k e p t him s i l e n c e d f o r a lo n g tim e , l e Fou w r i t e s h i s " f o l i l o q u e . "
A lthough he h as a c c e s s . t o s o p h i s t i c a t e d p s y c h o lo g ic a l e x p la n a tio n s f o r
t h i s p a in w hich i n h a b i t s him , "une s o r t e de g en e, comme une p re s e n c e
e tr a n g e r e au n iv e a u du l a r y n x " , l e Fou f e e l s t h a t th e y do n o t p e r t i
n e n tl y e x p la in h i s u n e a s i n e s s , th e c a u se o f w hich l i e s beyond a l l
s c i e n t i f i c r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n s . I t i s a s i m i l a r d e s i r e t o f i n d out th e
o r i g i n o r t h e n a tu r e o f t h i s p a in t h a t d r iv e s Mycea t o th e c a b in o f
P apa Longoue i n La Case du commandeur, as i t had d r iv e n C inna Chimene
and M athieu b e fo r e h e r . But t h e p a s t y i e l d s .n o a n sw er, and Mycea*s
s e a r c h rem ain s f r u i t l e s s , le a v in g h e r w ith one q u e s t i o n , "A qu o i ga
s e r t t o u t ga?" ^ H is w a n d e rin g s do n o t p ro v id e A le x is A ccius w ith any
c e r t a i n t y as t o h i s p o s i t i o n i n t h e w o rld , " i l a v a i t vecu sa n s in d e n -
t i t e s u r e " , ^ a s i t u a t i o n w hich n e i t h e r t h e p a s t n o r t h e p r e s e n t can
e n a b le him t o c l a r i f y , f o r th e y b o th b e a r te s tim o n y t o t h e o p p r e s s io n
o f t h e b la c k r a c e .
I n ev e ry d a y l i f e , t h i s m en ta l c o n fu s io n i s r e v e a le d i n a number
o f anomalous a t t i t u d e s o f w hich E douard G lis s a n t g iv e s s e v e r a l exam ples
i n M alem ort. T h ere i s i n M a rtin iq u e a k in d o f m orbid f a s c i n a t i o n f o r
62
f u n e r a l s w hich have become, "une s o r t e de s p o r t n a t i o n a l . " P e o p le
g a th e r around c o f f i n s t o sp e ak o f t h e i r l i v e s as i f th e y c o u ld f in d
i n th e v i c i n i t y o f d e a th some k in d o f r e a s s u ra n c e and as i f t h e r e were
285
c o m fo rt t o be found i n t h e o r d e r l y arran g em en t o f t h e flo w e rs and i n
t h e geom etry o f t h e c r o s s e s and o f th e tombs o f t h e c h u rc h y a rd . More
o v e r, G l i s s a n t d e s c r i b e s b r i e f l y a c o u p le o f e p is o d e s w hich a r e s u re
s ig n s t h a t so m eth in g i s w rong, b u t i n t a n g i b l y so: t h e r e i s t h e man who
s t r i p s h im s e lf o f a l l h i s c l o t h e s , one by o n e, r e p e a t i n g , as he d rops
each g a rm e n t, t h a t i t does n o t b elo n g t o him b e cau se i t comes from th e
"m e tro p o le"} t h e r e i s th e man w h o .s i t s down one day and r e f u s e s t o move
as a s ig n o f r e j e c t i o n o f t h e w o rld around him. Nobody u n d e rs ta n d s th e
s ta te m e n t he i s t r y i n g t o make., and he may n o t q u i t e comprehend him - .1:.
s e l f . Only an o ld man i n t h e crowd g e ts a g lim p se a t t h e t r u t h and
e x p la in s : " C 'e s t un Ib o " (p.- 175),. E douard G l i s s a n t c l a r i f i e s t h e image
he u s e s h e re i n Le D is c o u rs a n t i l l a i s : "L es c h ro n iq u e u rs du XVIIe
s i e e l e a v e r t i s s e n t l e s a c q u e re u rs d '.e s c la v e s d 'a v o i r a se m e f ie r des
I b o s . . . I l s d e c id e n t s o u d a in de ne p lu s b o uger; r i e n ne l e s en s o r -
63
t i r a . " R e f u s a l , im m o b ility and d e a th a re some o f th e symptoms in d i- f;
e a t i n g t h a t t h e s o c i e t y o f th e F rench C arib b ean i s decom posing b e cau se
i t s p e o p le c a n no lo n g e r make t h e i r l i v e s m e a n in g fu l. The c a se o f H a i t i
m ight d i f f e r , as we s h a l l s e e i n t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e v a r io u s m a n if e s
t a t i o n s o f t h e p o w e rle s s n e s s w hich seems t o i n c a p a c i t a t e t h e c h a r a c t e r s
o f co n tem p o rary n o v e ls .
l ) The m a le d ic tio n o f t h e Negro: an a tte m p t a t e x p la n a tio n
B ecause o f t h e c o n fu s io n w hich i n h a b i t s them , many o f th e c h a ra c
t e r s o f t h e n o v e ls , f in d i n g n o th in g e l s e t o r e l y on, a tte m p t t o e x p la in
t h e i r r e p e a te d f a i l u r e s by blam ing them on a c u rs e p u t on t h e b la c k
286
r a c e as a w h o le. T h is c u r s e i s i n f a c t b o th a c a u se and a c o n seq u en ce;
no j u s t i f i c a t i o n can be found f o r t h e m a l e d ic t io n , w hich i s s e l f - p e r p e
t u a t i n g and p e r p e t u a t e d by th o s e who f e e l a n eed t o b e li e v e i n i t .
Thomas l 'E u g e n ie knows how d an g ero u s such an a ssu m p tio n i s and w ants t o
i n v a l i d a t e t h e b e l i e f by w hich h i s p e o p le j u s t i f y t h e i r p a s s i v i t y . The
v e ry im ages he u s e s t o d e s c r i b e h i s r a c e , " r a c e - s e r p e n t d r e s s a n t s a
d o u b le t e t e p a r - d e s s u s l e s d o u le u r s ! Deux t e t e s p o u r e t r e c e r t a i n de ne
p a s s a v o i r q u e l l e e s t l a bonne, a f i n d ' e t r e j u s t i f i e de p a ta u g e r h o n te u -
64
sem ent a l a rem orque de l ’h i s t o i r e " , h i n t a t h i s u n d e r s ta n d in g o f t h e
s e l f - d e s t r u c t i v e q u a l i t y o f t h i s b e l i e f and a t t h e p e r s i s t e n c e o f th e
b e l i e f . M adevie to o denounces w i t h in h e r s e l f t h e f a l s e n e s s o f t h e
s a y in g "neg n i m a le d ic tio n " by e x p la i n in g i t s o r i g i n : "Ce d i c t i o n n 'e s t
q u 'u n mensonge v ie u x d e ja de q u a tr e s i e c l e s , que l ' o n r e p e t a i t a nos
a ie u x venus d o u lo u reu sem en t d ’A f r iq u e , p o u r l e u r f a i r e a c c e p t e r l a
m i s e r e " , ^ b u t t h e r e i s a to u c h o f d i s b e l i e f i n h e r v o i c e , f o r she
knows how d i f f i c u l t i t w i l l be t o p e rs u a d e p e o p le t h a t i t i s a d e c e i t
f u l and u n w a rra n te d in v e n t io n .
I n t h e n o v e ls o f Simone S c h w a rz -B a rt, th e theme o f t h e m a l e d ic t io n
o f t h e b la c k man i s th e s u b je c t o f i n te r m in a b le d i s c u s s io n s a t t h e l o c a l
c a f e . T hus, Gros Edouard d e c la r e s t h a t " l e n e g re e s t a lui-m em e s a
m a l e d ic t io n , un l u n a t i q u e , un decousu e t un fla m b o y a n t, un t a r e j u s q u 'a
l a p ro fo n d e u r de son s a n g , un sauvage j u s t e bon a f a i r e des c a b r i o l e s
e t des g r i m a c e s . H e has a s s i m i l a t e d a l l he has been t o l d ab o u t h is
r a c e and now b e lie v e s i t b e c au se t h e r e i s n o th in g i n h i s l i f e t o p ro v e
t h a t i t i s u n t r u e . I n s p i t e o f F i l a o 's a s s e r t i o n t h a t t h i s b e l i e f has
287
been b e a te n i n t o t h e i r heads by c e n t u r i e s o f e n s la v e m e n t, Gros Edouard
does n o t seem c o n v in c e d , and t h e s i l e n c e o f th e o t h e r s around him
besp eak s t h e i r own d o u b ts . Telumee to o presum es t h a t h e r h a p p in e s s w i l l
be ta k e n away from h e r and t h a t she w i l l n o t e s c a p e d iv in e r e t r i b u t i o n ,
s in c e i t has a lr e a d y ta k e n th e l i f e o f A n g e b e rt, a lth o u g h he was a
k in d , c o n s id e r a t e and n o n - v io le n t man. T e lu m e e 's f a t a l i s m does n o t k i l l
h e r d e s i r e t o l i v e , b u t i t makes h e r w i l l i n g t o a c c e p t m is f o rtu n e
w ith o u t lo o k in g f o r p r o b a b le c a u s e s .
The l i f e o f M arcel G o n s tra n , i n La V ie e t l a m ort de M arcel Gons-
t r a n by V in c e n t P l a c o l y , u n f o ld s u n d e r th e i n f l u e n c e o f t h a t same m ale
d i c t i o n . He blam es h i s c h i l d 's m a lfo rm ity on some u n f o r g e t t a b l e c u rs e
t h a t a f f l i c t s t h e e n t i r e b la c k r a c e , and he e n v is io n s h i s f a t e as t h a t
o f t h e f i s h i n . t h e f is h e r m a n 's n e t w hich s t r u g g l e and m u t i l a t e them -
6 7
s e lv e s o n ly t o f in d d e a th i n th e end. T h is same image r e c u r s in
M a rtin iq u e des c e n d re s t o q u a l i f y l i f e : "... e t 1'homme e s t un p o is s o n
v iv a n t c e r c l e p a r l e f i l e t . " ^
When L am ercie f a l l s i l l , she does n o t im pute h e r i l l n e s s t o some
i l l - d e f i n e d m a l e d ic t io n , b u t b e lie v e s t h a t she has been s tr u c k by
voodoo gods je a lo u s o f h e r s u c c e s s . One f in d s h e re a g a in t h e i d e a o f
f a t a l i t y w hich was d e v e lo p e d a t l e n g t h by th e I n d i g e n i s t w r i t e r s o f
H a i t i . L am ercie i s a sim p le woman1 who does n o t u n d e rsta n d , t h e m echanics
o f o p p re s s io n and econom ic d e p r i v a t i o n . She s e e s h e r m is e ry and ex
p l a i n s i t i n h e r own way: d i v in e r e t r i b u t i o n . She a c c e p ts i t a lth o u g h
sh e does n o t know what f a u l t she has t o e x p ia t e . F o r G erard E tie n n e ,
Voodoo i t s e l f i s th e m a l e d ic t io n , n o t as a r e l i g i o n but as a t o o l used
288
by t h e d i c t a t o r s h i p t o m a in ta in t h e p e o p le o f H a i t i i n p a s s i v e a c c e p t
a n c e , j u s t as th e n o tio n o f a g e n e r a li z e d m a le d ic tio n o f t h e b la c k
r a c e was u se d t o j u s t i f y s la v e r y
The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e i d e a of, m a le d ic tio n i s t h a t , i f one
a c c e p ts i t s i m p l i c a t i o n s , t h e r e i s no p o s s i b i l i t y o f r e v o l t . H a rd s h ip
i s im puted t o i n t a n g i b l e f o r c e s t h a t a r e o m n is c ie n t and c a n n o t be
w rong. The i d e a o f m a le d ic tio n i s a p a s s i v e j u s t i f i c a t i o n w hich f a c i l
i t a t e s t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f t h e s t a t u s quo and w hich can be a f o rm id a b le
t o o l . Once E l i e , i n P l u i e e t v e n t s u r Telumee M ir a c le , ad m its t h e i d e a ,
"Qui de vous p e u t me r e p o n d re , me d i r e e x actem en t p a r q u o i nous sommes
69
p o u r s u i v i s , c a r nous sommes p u r s u i v i s , n 'e s t - c e - p a s ? " t h e r e i s no
s o l u t i o n t o h is d e s p a i r , and he abandons t h e f i g h t f o r l a c k o f an
a d v e r s a r y . The a c c e p ta n c e o f th e i d e a o f m a le d ic tio n i s th u s th e
a c c e p ta n c e o f o n e 's p o w e r le s s n e s s .
2) R e s ig n a tio n
P a r t l y b e cau se o f t h e b e li e f , i n some k in d o f m a le d ic tio n and
p a r t l y b e c au se th e y do n o t u n d e rs ta n d t h e p r o c e s s e s w hich d i c t a t e t h e i r
f a t e o r , i f , u n d e rs ta n d in g them , th e y s e e no way o f a l t e r i n g them ,
p e o p le g iv e in t o r e s i g n a t i o n and s u b m is s io n . The danger, o f r e s i g n a t i o n
i s t h a t i t makes one a c c e p t any m is f o r tu n e , any p a in , any d e a th . I t i s
m e r c il e s s b e cau se i t s lo w ly p e n e t r a t e s th e mind and grow s, n o u r is h e d
by u n a w a ren e ssj even i f one d is c o v e r s t h a t he h as i t i n him , h i s mind
i s a lr e a d y so a d ju s t e d t o i t , h i s a c ti o n s a r e so. c o n d itio n e d by i t
t h a t r e a c t i n g becomes a l l b u t im p o s s ib le . T h ere i s an abundance o f
289
o f exam ples o f t h i s a t t i t u d e i n th e n o v e ls s t u d i e d , w ith a few n u a n c e s,
d ep en d in g on th e l e v e l o f com prehension a c h a r a c t e r h as o f h i s s u r
ro u n d in g s .
I n Agodom e-Dachine, I b a ' s f a t h e r a c c e p ts b e in g e x p l o i t e d by t h e
beke b e c a u se he w ants h i s c h i l d r e n t o be e d u c a te d and e s c a p e h i s f a t e .
A lthough he does n o t know e x a c t ly how t h i s w i l l come a b o u t, he i s
d r iv e n by a k in d o f b lin d f a i t h t h a t th e c o n d it io n o f h i s c o u n try w i l l
change i n th e f u t u r e . L a m erc ie i s m o tiv a te d by t h e same f a i t h , a lth o u g h
s h e i s on ly c o n c ern e d w ith achievem ent a t th e p e r s o n a l l e v e l , w hereas
I b a 's f a t h e r e n v is io n s changes a t th e n a t i o n a l l e v e l . T h e ir d i f f e r e n t
a p p ro a c h e s stem from t h e f a c t t h a t I b a ' s f a t h e r h as an u n d e rs ta n d in g o f
t h e econom ic b a s is o f e x p l o i t a t i o n w hich L am ercie does n o t h a v e . The
t r u t h i s , how ever, t h a t I b a 's f a t h e r s e e s no p o s s i b i l i t y o f change in
t h e p r e s e n t and t h a t t h e o n ly t h i n g t h a t sa v e s him from d e s p a i r i s h is
v i s i o n o f t h e f u t u r e and t h e t r a n s f e r o f h i s own u n f u l f i l l e d hopes to
h i s c h i l d r e n .
Telumee e x p re s s e s no su ch hope, but h e r s u b m is s iv e n e s s i s some
tim e s p u n c tu a te d w ith i n t e r r o g a t i o n s . She has no answ ers t o h e r own
q u e s t i o n s , b u t t h e s e n se o f doom w hich g r ip s h e r a t tim e s i s tem pered
by a c e r t a i n l u c i d , i f l i m i t e d , p e r c e p ti o n o f l i f e - c o n d i t i o n s i n h e r
c o u n try : " J e p ense a ce q u ’i l en e s t de 1 ’i n j u s t i c e s u r l a t e r r e , e t
de nous a u t r e s en t r a i n de s o u f f r i r , de m o u rir s ile n e ie u s e m e n t de
l 'e s c l a v a g e a p re s q u ' i l s o i t f i n i , o u b l i e ." ^ The s e n s e o f doom i s
l ik e w i s e tem p ered by h e r f a i t h i n t h e s u r v i v a l o f th e b la c k r a c e . B ut,
m ost im p o r ta n t ly , she b e n e f i t s from t h e a d v ic e o f R ein e sa n s Norn who
290
t e a c h e s h e r n e v e r t o e x p e c t to o much o u t o f l i f e , f o r t h a t w ould be h e r
r u i n . Armed w ith t h i s r a t h e r b le a k o u tlo o k , t h e o n ly one w hich can
g u a ra n te e any h a p p i n e s s .a t a l l , Telumee fa c e s a d v e r s i t y and n a rro w ly
e sc a p e s doom t h r e e t im e s . T e lu m e e 's r e s i l i e n c e i s e x c e p tio n a l; around
h e r l i v e t h o s e who have abandoned a l l hope, th o s e such as " l e s E g a res"
o f M o rn e - la - F o lie who l e a d a v e g e t a t i v e l i f e m e re ly s u p p o r tin g th e most
e le m e n ta l n eed s o f t h e i r b o d ie s . They have l o s t t h e a b i l i t y t o commu
n i c a t e w ith t h e r e s t o f t h e w o rld .
A l i e n a t io n , t h a t i s , w a n tin g t o become o t h e r th a n one i s , i s
a n o th e r form o f s u b m is s io n . D uring h e r u n f o r t u n a te in v o lv em en t w ith
X a v ie r, and u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f h i s p r e j u d i c e , M adevie f e e l s th e
need t o be w h ite i n o r d e r t o conform t o h i s i d e a o f what h i s w ife
s h o u ld be. She a ls o f e e l s t h e need t o be o f a d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l back
g ro u n d , a f a c t w hich c a u s e s h e r t o r e j e c t h e r p a r e n t s and t o om it
t e l l i n g X a v ie r t h a t th e y a r e b o th s e r v a n t s . She r e a l i z e s , but to o l a t e ,
t h a t h e r a t t i t u d e i s s e l f - d e s t r u c t i v e . E lia n e o f Agodome-Dachine a ls o
a b d ic a te s h e r d i g n i t y i n h e r d e s i r e t o make h e r s e l f w h ite t o p le a s e
h e r w h ite l o v e r . I n I b a 's w o rd s, she i s r i d i c u l o u s and p a t h e t i c , f o r
h e r w hole l i f e i s d i r e c t e d to w ard a man.who d e s p is e s h e r . E lia n e i s
b ro u g h t back t o r e a l i t y by t h e v e ry p r e j u d i c e h e r b e h a v io r seemed t o
e n c o u ra g e , and she l e a r n s t o h a te what she p r e v i o u s ly c h e r is h e d . Both
M adevie and E lia n e u n w i t t i n g l y su c ce e d i n t h e i r q u e s t f o r i d e n t i t y ,
b u t a t a h ig h c o s t . I t s c o s t s M adevie th e l i f e o f h e r baby as w e ll as
h e r s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e ; i t c o s t s E lia n e h e r y o u th as sh e i s tra n s fo rm e d
from a f u n - lo v in g young g i r l i n t o a b i t t e r and v e n g e fu l woman. I n th e
291
c a s e o f Caco, t h e h e a d m a ste r o f I b a 's s c h o o l, "un n e g re q u i se l i s s e
l e s cheveux a f i n de r e s s e m b le r a un m u la tr e e t p o u r fin a le m e n t se t e n i r
p lu s p r e s du b la n c ! I I h a i t l e s n e g re s e t en ro b e s a h a in e d 'h y p o c r i -
s i e " , ^ t h e c o n seq u en ces o f a l i e n a t i o n a r e even more dam aging, f o r
Caco v e n ts h i s h a t r e d by p e r s e c u ti n g t h e c h i l d r e n o f th e s c h o o l who,
u n d e r h i s i n f l u e n c e and t o a v o id c o n s ta n t p h y s ic a l p u n ish m e n t, become
v i c i o u s ,' b i t t e r and v i o l e n t .
F i n a l l y , t h e r e i s t o t a l r e s i g n a t i o n i n w hich no more q u e s tio n s .
a re a s k e d , no more e f f o r t s a r e made. One l i v e s c o m p le te ly a t t h e mercy
o f c o n d it io n s im posed from th e o u t s i d e , no lo n g e r r e a c t i n g t o a n y th in g ,
but m e re ly s u r v i v i n g on a d ay -b y -d a y b a s is w ith o u t any e x p e c t a t i o n s .
T h is i s w hat happens t o C inna Chimene, M ycea's m o th e r, i n La Case du
commandeur. A f te r a l i f e t i m e s p e n t t r y i n g t o f i n d answ ers t o h e r q u e s
t i o n s , (s h e to o v i s i t e d Papa Longoue i n t h e w oods), C inna Chimene a l l
o f a sudden abandons h e r s e a r c h and s e t t l e s i n a c o n s ta n t d e n ia l o f
h e r r a c e and o f t h e w o rld around h e r : "C in n a Chimene s ' i n s t a l i a t r a n -
q u i l l e dans l e d e n ig re m e n t de t o u t e s c h o se s a u to u r d ’ e l l e e t o r g a n i s a
72
se s q u e s t i o n s . . . en une somme som ptueuse de r e n ie m e n ts ." . Around Cinna
Chimene, th e m a j o r it y o f t h e p e o p le o f M a rtin iq u e behave i n s i m i l a r
f a s h i o n , k e e p in g th e m s e lv e s .busy a t s m a ll t a s k s so as t o have no tim e
t o t h i n k about th e d e s p e r a te e m p tin e ss o f t h e i r l i v e s . M arie C e la t
h e r s e l f , whose c l a r i t y o f mind had a llo w e d h e r t o expose t h e am bigui
t i e s o f h e r com panions, d e c id e s one day t h a t h e r s e a r c h f o r th e meaning
o f th e p a s t and o f t h e p r e s e n t i s s e n s e l e s s and commits h e r s e l f t o t h e
c a r e f u l c u l t i v a t i o n o f th e same busy b a n a l i t y w hich she w itn e s s e s
292
i n th e o t h e r s : "M ais e l l e n ' a l l a i t pas j u s q u 'a u com ble de ce f ig e m e n t,
q u e lq u e ch o se t r e s s a i l l a i t q u e lq u e p a r t , I I f a l l a i t s 'e n f o n c e r p lu s
o u t r e dans 1*i n c o l o r e . A llo n s - y , p lo g e o n s , d e c i d a i t - e l l e , i l e s t tem ps.
Et un m a tin , comme sa n s s ' a v e r t i r elle-m em e, M arie C e la t s e l a i s s a
c o u le r " (p . 1 9 8 ). As i n S i l a c i e r ' s v i s i o n , th e M a rtin iq u e o f Mycea i s
a c o u n try o f shadows who go th ro u g h t h e g e s tu r e s o f l i f e t o h id e t h e i r
v e ry l i f e l e s s n e s s . I n h i s " f o l i l o q u e " , l e Fou a r r i v e s a t t h e same con-
73
e lu s i o n : "En M a rtin iq u e , on s e jo u e l a com edie", b e c au se p e o p le do
n o t d a re t o be d e e p ly in v o lv e d i n a n y th in g ; i t i s to o p a i n f u l and to o
d a n g e ro u s; i t c o u ld to o e a s i l y u p s e t t h e b a la n c e o f l i v e s b u i l t on
m a k e -b e lie v e . Le Fou blam es t h i s on t h e f a c t t h a t a c e r t a i n amount o f
m a t e r i a l c o m fo rt has been made to o e a s i l y a v a i l a b l e t o t h e p e o p le o f
t h e F ren ch d e p a rtm e n ts , k i l l i n g a l l c r e a t i v e im p u lses and a l l d e s i r e
t o r e s i s t t h e slow d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e i r way o f l i f e and o f t h e i r c u l
t u r e . From t h i s rem ark t o th e d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e i s l a n d e r s as "zo m b is",
t h e r e i s o n ly one s t e p . F or what a r e zom bis but p e o p le b ro u g h t t o a
s t a t e o f t r a n c e - l i k e a n im a tio n and made t o obey t h e commands o f an
e x t e r n a l pow er. M arcel G o n s tra n , th e p r o t a g o n i s t o f V in c e n t P l a c o l y 's
f i r s t n o v e l, i s such a man. At th e b e g in n in g o f t h e n o v e l, t h e r e a d e r
i s w arned t h a t "M arcel G o n stra n f a i t p a r t i e de c e s gens q u i o n t vu
l e u r v i e s e p a s s e r a 1 'e x t e r i e u r d ' eux-memes." ^ L a t e r , t h e a u th o r
expands t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t o in c lu d e th e e n t i r e b la c k r a c e . I t i s
t r u e t h a t M arcel G o n stra n w anders about th e s t r e e t s o f E urope l i k e
an au to m ato n . Even i n d e a th , he i s u n a b le t o r e g a i n - h i s d i g n i t y , f o r
h i s l a s t w ords a re n o th in g but d e r i s i o n .
293
" I l s nous t u e n t e t nous d is o n s m e r c i" , sa y s J e a n n e H y v rard in
M e re - la - m o r t. G erard E tie n n e s i m i l a r l y d e s c r i b e s t h e p a s s i v i t y o f th e
H a i t i a n p e o p le i n Le N egre c r u c i f i e . One o f t h e dom inant im ages o f th e
n o v e l i s t h a t o f th e " z o m b if ic a tio n " o f th e p e o p le o f P o r t - a u - P r i n c e .
A lthough a s i g n i f i c a n t p o r t i o n o f t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e c a p i t a l sh o u ld
have enough p o l i t i c a l aw aren ess t o u n d e rs ta n d t h e n a tu r e o f t h e H a itia n
reg im e, th e y have a llo w e d th e m se lv e s t o be cowed by t h i s reg im e. v .
B ecause o f t h e i r f e a r , ; th e y s e e no a l t e r n a t i v e but t o subm it u n d e r
p e n a lt y o f t o r t u r e and d e a th . The r e s t o f t h e p o p u l a t io n , t h a t i s , th e
u rb a n p r o l e t a r i a t and t h e r u r a l m a s s e s , f o llo w s . As "zom bis sous l e s
b o t t e s du c h e f " ,'7^ and a l s o b e cau se t h e en erg y o f t h e m a j o r it y i s
d i r e c t e d to w ard b a s ic econom ic s u r v i v a l , th e H a i ti a n s have l o s t a l l
w i l li n g n e s s t o r e v o l t . When th e y a re t r o u b l e d , th e y t u r n t o t h e Voodoo
w hich c o n v e n ie n tly f u l f i l l s t h e i r need f o r e s c a p e . F or E tie n n e , th e y
a r e a p e o p le o f " m o rfre z e s " ( p . 1 1 ) , t h a t i s , th e y have grown t i r e d
o f b e in g human b e in g s and have sig n e d , a p a c t w ith t h e d e v i l t o be
tu r n e d i n t o p a s s i v e a n im a ls . The n a r r a t o r o f t h e n o v e l r e p r e s e n t s th e
p e o p le o f H a i t i : he comes from a fa m ily o f p e a s a n t w o rk e rs . N a ile d t o
h i s c r o s s , he i s t h e v e ry image o f p o w e r le s s n e s s . He a tt e m p t s , how ever,
t o b re a k th e s i l e n c e t h a t has f a l l e n o v e r H a i t i i n t h e hope t h a t h is
angry v o ic e w i l l awaken h i s fe llo w -c o u n try m e n . From h i s c r o s s , he
s h o u ts h i s d i s g u s t a t l i v i n g i n a c o u n tr y w hich has d is h o n o re d i t s e l f .
He denounces th o s e (B la c k s o r M u la tto e s ) who have a c q u ir e d power on ly
t o l i v e o u t t h e i r dem ented dream s o f d o m in a tio n . F u rth e rm o re , he h o ld s
a l l H a i ti a n s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e regim e w hich o p p re s s e s them , and
294
m a in ta in s t h a t i t i s to o e a sy t o a b s o lv e th e p e o p le b e c au se i t i s
e x p l o i t e d , m a n ip u la te d and o p p re s s e d , and th e r e b y a b s o lv e i t o f t h e
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i t s h a re s b e c au se o f i t s s u b m is s iv e n e s s . A b so lv in g i t
means o n ly e n s la v in g i t f u r t h e r t o e x p l o i t i t s t i l l m o re . The n a r r a t o r
ad m its h i s g u i l t and shame a t b e in g born from a p e o p le o f b l o o d - t h i r s t y
demons, "un p e u p le de dem ons", (a n image a lr e a d y found i n th e works o f
C inSas and C h a u v e t); he a l s o r e a l i z e s t h a t , a lo n e , he i s p o w e rle s s to
change a n y th in g and can o n ly h u r l im p r e c a tio n s a t t h e m urderous regim e
w hich has c r u c i f i e d him . T orn betw een t h e d e s i r e t o r e v o l t and h i s
p h y s ic a l i n a b i l i t y t o do s o , t h e n a r r a t o r i s a t r u l y t r a g i c f i g u r e .
The c e n t r a l image o f t h e n o v e l i s t h a t o f t h e c r u c i f i x i o n . As a
C h r i s t - l i k e f i g u r e , th e n a r r a t o r hopes t h a t h i s s a c r i f i c e w i l l redeem
h i s p e o p le , b u t, moments b e f o r e . h i s d e a th , he comes t h i t h e r e a l i z a t i o n
t h a t i t w i l l be u s e l e s s : " J e s u is e n c o re b o u le v e rs e a l ' i d e e de m o u rir
po u r un pays de n e g re s i n s e n s i b l e s aux s u p p lic e s e t a ma condam nation"
( p . 1 3 7 ). The image o f t h e c r u c i f i x i o n a ls o conveys t h e id e a o f a man
p u n ish e d a lth o u g h he i s in n o c e n t; but t h e c r u c i f i e d 'N e g r o d e n ie s him
s e l f a l l in n o c e n c e b e c a u s e , as a H a i t i a n , he p a r t i c i p a t e s i n a l l t h e
t o r t u r e s , i n a l l th e m urders and a l s o i n a l l t h e r e s i g n a t i o n s . H is
t o r t u r e , symbol o f h i s h e l p l e s s n e s s , im p lie s t o t a l im m o b ility ; from h is
c r o s s , he can o n ly w a it f o r d e a th w h ile s t r i v i n g t o d e a l w ith h i s
m e n ta l and p h y s ic a l agony. The n o v e l i s an a n a ly s i s and a d e n u n c ia tio n
o f t h e c o n d itio n s i n H a i t i u n d e r t h e d i c t a t o r s h i p o f D u v a lie r ; th e
a u th o r does n o t t r y t o f i n d ex c u se s t o j u s t i f y what i s h ap p en in g i n h is
c o u n tr y , b u t h i s i s a d e s p e r a te c ry o f a n g u is h , b e c au se t h e r e i s no
295
d e s i r e t o r e v o l t l e f t i n H a i t i . Hence h i s c h o ic e o f a t o r t u r e f o r h i s
h e ro who i s b e in g k i l l e d s lo w ly by t h e reg im e, n o t o n ly w ith p a i n , but
a ls o w ith h e l p l e s s n e s s , s in c e th e p e o p le rem ain s s i l e n t .
3) E v a sio n s
Those who c a n n o t f a c e th e b le a k n e s s o f t h e i r l i v e s f in d means o f
e v a s io n i n such t h in g s as a lc o h o l t o r e l i e v e t h e i r a n g u is h . R e s ig n a tio n :
i t s e l f i s an e s c a p e , s in c e i t a llo w s p e o p le t o r e f u s e a s k in g th e m s e lv e s
q u e s t i o n s . Some, how ever, a r e i n c a p a b le o f a c o n s c io u s e f f o r t l i k e
M ycea's t o re a c h o b l iv i o n . Such i s t h e c a s e o f T onton C h a r io t, I b a 's
u n c le i n Agodome-^Dachine, whb t r i e s t o f o r g e t w ith rum th e d ra b n e s s o f
th e c a n e - c u t t e r ' s l i f e . T onton C h a rio t l i v e s o u t h i s dreams i n th e
s t o r i e s he t e l l s h i s nephews about Com pe-Tigre and Compe-Lapin and i n
m ovies such as "Le Golem", h i s f a v o r i t e , w hich a l l p i c t u r e th e v i c t o r y
o f th e o p p re s s e d o v e r t h e o p p r e s s o r . M ycea's b r o t h e r to o d r i f t s i n t o
ap a th y u n d e r th e i n f l u e n c e o f a lc o h o l and becomes i n d i f f e r e n t t o th e
w o rld around him and t o h i s s i s t e r ' s a n g e r. I n Le F o lilo q u e en ou d i e s e
m in e u r, You a d m its t o b e in g tem p ted t o le a v e h e r c o u n tr y and o f on ly
r e s i s t i n g t h e te m p ta tio n by smoking m a r iju a n a b e c au se she does n o t
want t o w itn e s s t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f h e r i s l a n d , T r in id a d , and b e cau se
she has l o s t f a i t h i n t h e a b i l i t y o f h e r c o m p a trio ts t o make in d e p e n d
ence w ork. I n La Case du commandeur, M a th ie u r R e lu se and R aphael
T a rg in le a v e M a rtin iq u e ; th e y ca n n o t b e a r th e th o u g h t o f s e e in g a l l
t h e i r dream s v a n is h . Mycea, who s ta y s b eh in d b e c au se sh e i s c o n v in c e d
t h a t th e s o l u t i o n l i e s on th e i s l a n d a lth o u g h she does n o t know why,
296
how o r when, re p ro a c h e s them f o r t h e i r co w ard ice and t h e i r u n w i l li n g r ?
n e s s t o f a c e f a c t s . I n D e lic e e t l e fro m a g e r, S o l i t u d e , D e l i c e 's
d a u g h te r , f in d s r e l i e f i n r e l i g i o n . A f t e r an u n f o r t u n a te lo v e a f f a i r ,
she g iv e s i n t o d e p r e s s io n , s h u t h e r s e l f o f f and e v e n tu a ll y e n te r s a
c o n vent i n G uadeloupe. D e lic e , who w itn e s s e s h e r d a u g h t e r 's d e s p a i r ,
u n d e rs ta n d s t h a t th e c a u se o f S o l i t u d e 's abandonment goes beyond th e
mere d e p a r t u r e o f h e r l o v e r : "Une ch ose l u i a v a i t m anque, c ' e t a i t de
c r o i r e en e lle -m e m e ." ^
I n H a i ti ,, i t i s Voodoo t h a t p r o v id e s th e p e o p le w ith t h e e sc a p e
th e y n eed . G erard E tie n n e acknow ledges t h i s f a c t when he d e s c r i b e s th e
regim e as one ,w h ic h " la is s e se u le m en t aux n e g re s d 'H a i t i l a m a le d ic tio n
e t l a m agie, l a r e s i g n a t i o n de p a s s e r des jo u rs sa n s un g r a i n de s e l
^ 78
aux l e v r e s , sa n s un f r u i t a m anger, une t o r t u e a d e c a i l l e r . " One
may r e c a l l h e r e th e a t t i t u d e o f D e l i r a , M a n u el's m o th er i n G ouverneurs
de l a r o s e e , whose r e l i a n c e on p r a y e r i s - c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f e sca p e
th ro u g h r e l i g i o n .. R achel h e r s e l f , i n L'Amour, o u i . La m o rt, n o n . , t u r n s
t o Voodoo and i t s b e l i e f i n zombis when, u n a b le t o f in d o u t w h e th e r
G a b r ie l i s dead o r a l i v e , sh e resum es h e r s e a r c h f o r h e r l o s t b r o th e r .
She n eed s t o a c t t o f i g h t t h e a p a th y w hich overwhelm s h e r a f t e r th e
announcem ent o f G a b r i e l ’s d is a p p e a ra n c e i n V ietnam and h e r d is c o v e r y
t h a t t h e r e i s no hope o f knowing w here he i s th ro u g h r e g u l a r c h a n n e ls .
Being from a b o u rg e o is f a m ily , R achel has n o t been r a i s e d i n t h e knowl
edge o f Voodoo, and h e r r e a d i n e s s t o b e li e v e i n t h e s t o r y t h a t h e r
b r o t h e r has been tu r n e d i n t o a zombi i n d i c a t e s t h a t she needs an in c e n
t i v e , however vague o r a b s u rd , t o m a in ta in h e r m en ta l b a la n c e a t a
297
moment when sh e i s re a d y t o s u r r e n d e r t o d e s p a i r . She needs t o f e e l
t h a t sh e has some k in d o f c o n t r o l o v e r d e a th . R a c h e l's s e a r c h l e a d s h e r
t o a c c e p t h e r b r o t h e r 's d e a th , a r e a l i t y w hich she had r e f u s e d t o f a c e
d u r in g th e f i v e y e a r s f o llo w in g h i s presum ed, but n o t p ro v e n , drow ning.
T h is , i n t u r n , makes h e r a c c e p t t h e f a c t ’ o f G a b r i e l 's d e a th .
E v a sio n s a r e o f many k i n d s , but th e y a l l c o rre s p o n d t o a r e f u s a l
t o f a c e a c r u e l r e a l i t y . A lc o h o l, d ru g s o r r e l i g i o n a re a l l s ig n s t h a t
r e s i g n a t i o n h as s e t i n and t h a t t h e p e o p le who t u r n t o them have made
t h e c h o ic e , c o n s c io u s ly o r n o t , t o s to p , f i g h t i n g .
4) D eath w ish
When a l l e l s e f a i l s , d e a th i s t h e o n ly s a l v a t i o n . The c r u c i f i e d
Negro se ek s d e a th as t h e f i n a l l i b e r a t i o n from p a in , g u i l t , h a te and
h e lp le s s n e s s ? i n d e a th , he find's th e b e a u ty o f t h e w orld.. When h i s
w if e S te p h a n is e , d i e s , T h e o lu ce does n o t g r ie v e b e c au se now h e r s u f
f e r i n g s a r e o v e r, and he t e l l s Osanas " . . . e t s i l a m ort n ’e t a i t que
l a j o i e de l a d e li v r a n c e de l ' e t r e aim e?" ^ Hence t h e im p o rta n c e o f
t h e wake as a c e l e b r a t i o n and. t h a t o f f u n e r a l s , i n t h e modern M a rti
n iq u e o f E douard G l i s s a n t , as s o c i a l g a th e r in g s .
When d e a th does n o t come r e a d i l y , i t i s p ro voked. I n P l u i e e t v e n t
s u r Telumee M ir a c le , T i P a i l l e has re a c h e d th e l i m i t s . o f d e s p a i r and.
p ro v o k es th o s e around him , d a r in g them i n t o s t r i k i n g him . No re a s o n s
a r e g iv e n f o r t h e young m an 's d e s i r e t o d i e , s in c e t h e e v e n t i s w i t
n e s s e d by Telum ee w hen.she i s a c h i l d . The b r e v i t y o f th e e p is o d e , th e
seem in g ly c a s u a l way i n w hich t h e tr a g e d y i s t r e a t e d , make t h e sc e n e
298
a l l t h e more d ra m a tic and h i n t a t t h e f a c t t h a t su ch b e h a v io r may n o t
be r a r e ; "M ais T i P a i l l e r e p o n d it q u ' i l a v a i t e n v ie de m o u rir, que
c ’ e t a i t §a meme q u ' i l a i m a i t , d e s i r a i t , e t l o r s q u 'o n l 'e m p o r t a avec
* a 80
une b l e s s u r e a l a t e t e , un peu p lu s t a r d , i l s o u r i a i t . "
The o b s e s s io n o f s u i c i d e and s u i c i d a l b e h a v io r a r e c l e a r l y exposec
i n Mon Examen de b la n c , M alem ort and La Case du commandeur. Locked in
h e r c u b i c l e , w hich has a w om b-like q u a l i t y , M adevie c o n s id e r s t h e id e a
o f s u i c i d e w h ile Demian v i s i t s h e r and a tte m p ts t o d i s t r a c t h e r from
t h e c o n ta i n e r o f s le e p i n g p i l l s w hich tem p ts h er.. She a n a ly z e s h e r
f e e l i n g s o f in a d e q u a c y , t h i n k s about h e r l o s t c h i l d and c a s t s a lr e a d y
i n d i f f e r e n t g la n c e s a t h e r p e c u l i a r com panion. But t h e v e ry p a s s i v i t y
o f w hich sh e a c c u se s h e r s e l f when i t comes t o h e r m e d ic a l d u t i e s
to w ard t h e women o f h e r c o u n tr y seems t o p re v e n t t h e f a t a l g e s t u r e .
M adevie to y s w ith th e i d e a o f d e a th , but o t h e r s , in t h e n o v e l of
Edouard G l i s s a n t , p la y w ith d e a th i t s e l f on t h e s t r e t c h o f freew ay in
M a rtin iq u e ; " . . . l a h a n t i s e meme de l a m ort q u i l e s p o u s s e r a i t to u s a
o r g a n i s e r s u r l e s r o u te s a l a c e t s e t s u r 1 ' a u to r o u te f u t u r e l e s a b b a t
de l a v i t e s s e , a s 'a t t r o u p e r e n s u i t e f e b r i l e s en g ra p p e s e t ru c h e s
81
v i v a n t e s a u to u r des f e r r a i l l e s to r d u e s e t des c o rp s d e c h iq u e te s ."
S i l a c i e r a ls o engages i n t h e game o f d e a th ; he s t e a l s a C itr o e n and
embarks on a dem ented r a c e w ith h im s e lf i n a f r e n z i e d p a s sa g e o f
M alemort p u n c tu a te d w ith s c e n e s o f t h e l i f e o f M a rtin iq u e p a s s in g by
as i f se e n th ro u g h t h e windows o f a c a r a t f u l l s p e e d . I n s i d e t h e c a r ,
S i l a c i e r ' s mind i s bombarded w ith im ages o f dead c h i l d r e n , s u g a r- c a n e
f i e l d s , l e t h a l w eapons, and o f t h e t o t a l d e f e a t o f h i s p e o p le , more
299
p a r t i c u l a r l y t h a t o f R aphael T a r g in — a l l im ages o f d e s p a i r w hich push
him t o ap p ly more and more p r e s s u r e on t h e a c c e l e r a t o r , as i f he w ere
s e e k in g l i b e r a t i o n by means o f a f a t a l a c c i d e n t. The s t y l e o f t h i s
p a s s a g e , w hich has no p u n c tu a tio n , i m i t a t e s th e c o n fu s io n o f S i l a c i e r ': .
mind and has a h a u n tin g q u a l i t y w hich d u p l i c a t e s t h e o b s e s s iv e q u a l i t y
o f S i l a c i e r ' s fra g m e n te d t h o u g h ts . D uring th e se v en and a h a lf .m in u t e s
o f th e r a c e , S i l a c i e r s e e s a l l th e m is e ry o f h i s i s l a n d , but t h e r e i s
no l o g i c a l o r d e r , no way t o a c co u n t f o r w hat s tre a m s p a s t h i s e y e s,
no way f o r him t o f i n d any an sw er. H is mad r a c e le a d s t o n o th in g , n o t
even d e a th ; i t i s one o f t h o s e s e l f - d e s t r u c t i v e g e s tu r e s w h ich , i n
Edouard G l i s s a n t 's n o v e ls , t y p i f y t h e r e n u n c i a t i o n o f th e p e o p le o f
M a rtin iq u e .
Odono C e l a t, M ycea's y o u n g e r so n , l i v e s i n h i s own dream , i n d i f
f e r e n t t o th e w o rld around him . He h as r e j e c t e d t h a t w o rld f o r th e
o c e an , w here he f in d s t r a n q u i l l i t y and o b liv io n ;. "Donou C e la t y
s 82
d e s c e n d a it p o u r b a ig n e r dans l e b le u ou on d an se a t ou on o u b lie -."
He d ie s i n t h e ocean w here he seemed t o have d is c o v e r e d th e t r u t h he
was lo o k in g f o r , o r a t l e a s t t h e e v e r l a s t i n g p e a ce w hich l i f e c o u ld
n o t o f f e r . T h e re i s so m eth in g d e l i b e r a t e about h i s d e a th , w hich i s
d e s c r ib e d as i f i t w ere e x p e c te d as t h e l o g i c a l consequence o f Odono
C e l a t 's a lo o f n e s s .
By way o f c o n t r a s t , R o u 's s u i c i d e i n Le F o lilo q u e en ou d i e s e
m in eu r i s to o sudden and to o - a b s u r d t o be c o m p re h e n s ib le . He had
re a c h e d to o c l o s e t o th e bottom o f d e s p a i r t o be sav ed by t h e i d e a l s
o f h i s f r i e n d l e Fou; no e f f o r t c o u ld have g iv e n him back th e c o n f i -
300
dence and t h e f a i t h w hich he had l o s t i n t h e s t r e e t s o f F o r t- d e - F r a n c e .
R o u 's d e a th , j u s t as t h a t o f Odono C e la t o r o f T i F a i l l e , i s an
u l t i m a t e g e s tu r e o f r e f u s a l o f a w o rld w hich has n o th in g t o o f f e r . No
e f f o r t s o r r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n s can e x t r i c a t e th e t h r e e young men from
t h e i r h o p e le s s n e s s , w hich i s f e l t by o t h e r s as w e ll but d e a l t w ith
d i f f e r e n t l y . S u ic id e s t r i k e s t h e young b e cau se th e y have n o t y e t
le a r n e d t o r e l i n q u i s h t h e i r h o p e s.
The i d e a o f s u i c i d e i s n o t as o m n ip re se n t i n t h e n o v e ls o f H a i t i .
Even among th e c h a r a c t e r s o f F i l s de m is e r e , i t i s n e v e r c o n te m p la te d ,
f o r one does n o t t h in k o f s u i c i d e when one i s in v o lv e d i n t h e e n d le s s
e f f o r t o f b a s ic s u r v i v a l . I t ta k e s a c e r t a i n amount o f u n d e rs ta n d in g
o f o n e 's s i t u a t i o n i n s o c i e t y t o become t o t a l l y d e s p e r a t e . L am ercie
does not- have t h a t u n d e rs ta n d in g ; h e r son embodies a l l h e r hopes and
g iv e s h e r l i f e , h e r s t r u g g l e s and even h e r d e s p a i r a p u rp o s e . N e ith e r
R a c h e l, a f t e r t h e d e a th o f G a b r ie l, n o r R e z ia R e g u lie r ,. a f t e r th e
d e a th o f h e r f u t u r e h u sb an d , e v e r c o n s id e r s u i c i d e , f o r t h e r e i s
a lr e a d y enough d e a th i n H a i t i and one m ust c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e common
f i g h t a g a in s t m is e ry . R e z ia t u r n s t o t h o s e who, l i k e L a m e rc ie , need
h e lp when l i f e i s about t o e n g u lf them , w h ile R achel f in d s co m fo rt i n
th e p r a c t i c e o f m e d ic in e . R e g a rd le s s o f t h e d e s p e r a te s t a t e o f t h e i r
c o u n try and o f t h e i r p e o p le (an d we s h a l l s e e t h a t even G e ra rd E tie n n e
has e v o lv e d i n t h a t d i r e c t i o n ) , H a i t i a n a u th o r s s t i l l b e li e v e t h a t
t h e r e i s r e l i e f t o be found i n t h e e x e r c is e o f s o l i d a r i t y and m u tu al
h e lp , k e e p in g i n mind to o t h a t b o th R e z ia R e g u lie r and R achel b e lo n g
t o t h e e c o n o m ic a lly in d e p e n d e n t p o r t i o n o f t h e p o p u l a t io n . A lin e o f
301
Ma F ia n c e e des g r a n g e r s commits s u i c i d e . When sh e a n a ly z e s h e r re a s o n s
f o r t u r n i n g t o p r o s t i t u t i o n — g re e d and lo v e o f lu x u r y — she l o s e s a l l
s e l f - e s t e e m and a l l d e s i r e t o l i v e . H er g e s tu r e i s one o f p e r s o n a l
d e s p a i r and i s n o t u n d e rs to o d as h a v in g any k in d o f s o c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e
i n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r w ork. H e n r i, who c o n s id e r s s u i c i d e a f t e r h a v in g
l e a r n e d o f A lin e * s d e a th , f in d s co m fort i n human s o l i d a r i t y as he t u r n s
t o h e lp in g th e p e a s a n ts o f h i s comm unity. F i n a l l y , C h r i s t i n e , A ude's
c o u s in i n Aude e t s e s fa n to m e s , i s th o u g h t t o have com m itted .s u ic id e ,
a lth o u g h h e r d e a th i s d i s g u i s e d as an a c c i d e n t. C h r i s t i n e had i s o l a t e d
h e r s e l f from h e r fa m ily and f r i e n d s . I t i s t h i s v e ry s e l f - c e n t e r e d
a t t i t u d e , o r i g i n a t e d by t h e f a c t t h a t sh e f e e l s t h a t sh e does n o t
b e lo n g anywhere o r w ith anyone, w hich c a u se s h e r d e a th .
The k in d o f a n a ly s i s o f t h e i r , s o c i e t y and o f aw areness o f i t s
d e c l i n e w hich d r i v e s t h e c h a r a c t e r s o f t h e n o v e ls from M a rtin iq u e and
G uadeloupe t o d e s p a i r and s u ic id e , does n o t have t h e same conseq u en ces
i n t h e i r H a i ti a n c o u n t e r p a r t s . A lthough t h e r e i s d e s p a i r and t h e
f e e l i n g t h a t one c a n n o t c o n t r o l o n e ’ s own d e s t i n y , t h e H a i ti a n s r e t a i n
a k in d o f b l in d f a i t h i n t h e i r n a t i o n . Even th e c r u c i f i e d Negro expe
r ie n c e s moments o f hope d u r in g w hich he a n a ly z e s what c o u ld sa v e H a i ti
from th e d i c t a t o r s h i p and from m is e ry . The v e ry i d e a o f c r u c i f i x i o n
in v o lv e s t h a t o f re d e m p tio n and o f r e b i r t h .
5) S t e r i l i t y ; t h e r e f u s a l t o g iv e b i r t h
I t was u n d e rs to o d among t h e women o f t h e p e r io d o f s la v e r y t h a t
g iv in g b i r t h was a m a le d ic tio n ; "m anje t e pa f e y ic h pou l e s c l a v a j " ,
302
---------------------------------------------
(E a t d i r t , d o n ’t make c h i l d r e n f o r s l a v e r y . " ) Edouard G l i s s a n t makes
t h i s tra g e d y an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f th e f a t e o f th e b la c k p e o p le as he
r e c a l l s one such e p is o d e i n La Case du commandeur. A woman g iv e s b i r t h
o n ly t o k i l l h e r c h i l d a n d .th e n h e r s e l f b e c a u se she u n d e r s ta n d s , h a v in g
c a r e f u l l y w atched th e l i f e o f t h e p l a n t a t i o n , , t h a t t h e r e i s no hope
t h e r e f o r e i t h e r o f them . T h is theme, r e c u r s i n o th e r contem porary.
n o v e ls as t h e i n a b i l i t y t o g iv e b i r t h , t h e c h o ic e o f . a b o r t i o n o r th e
d e a th o f t h e c h i l d b e fo r e o r im m e d ia te ly a f t e r he i s b o rn .
Telumee n e v e r h a s a c h i l d . L i f e h as k i l l e d h e r c a p a c ity , t o g iv e ,
l i f e , b u t she n e v e r d e s p a i r s , b e c au se sh e does n o t w ant t o add t o t h e
e x i s t i n g m is e ry . When Sonore i s p u t i n h e r c a r e , she becomes t h e s p a rk
o f l i f e Telumee had f o r g o t t e n c o u ld e x i s t . But t h e r e i s a f r a g i l i t y
i n t h e c h i l d , a t r a c e . o f u n c e r t a i n t y w hich makes h e r v u l n e r a b le t o t h e
a t t a c k s o f l 'a n g e M edard. Sonore l o s e s h e r c o n fid e n c e i n Telum ee, h e r
lo v e t u r n s i n t o f e a r u n t i l she f i n a l l y g iv e s up and l e a v e s . Telumee
a c c e p ts t h e f a c t b e c au se she has d e v e lo p e d .a k in d o f i m p a s s i b i l i t y
tow ard l i f e and no lo n g e r r e a c t s t o t h e r e p e a te d blows i t d e a ls h e r ;
h e r s u r v i v a l depends upon such an a t t i t u d e .
M adevie a b o rts,. I t i s h e r d e c i s i o n b e c au se h e r c h i l d would have
been s u b je c t e d t o h a t r e d and h u m i l i a t i o n s . T h is d e c is io n , to rm e n ts h e r ,
f o r she h as been ro b b ed o f h e r c h i l d by a sy ste m , t h e same sy stem w hich
has f a v o re d h e r a t t r a c t i o n . t o X a v ie r. She e n v ie s and h a te s t h e women
who come t o s e e h e r f o r p r e n a t a l c o n s u l t a t i o n s , and she f a n t a s i z e s
about a w o rld w hich would n o t c o n c e iv e , a w o rld w here g iv in g b i r t h
would be a c rim e . As she h e lp s d e l i v e r baby a f t e r baby, she c a n n o t s to p
303
t h in k i n g t h a t t h e r e i s no hope f o r t h e s e c h i l d r e n .
I n Mere l a m o rt, J e a n n e l a F o l le to o r e j e c t s b i r t h and slo w ly
a tte m p ts t o sm o th e r t h e f o e t u s i n s i d e h e r b e cau se h e r l i f e i s a d i s
g u is e d d e a th , and d e a th c a n n o t accom odate l i f e . She r e f u s e s t o d e l i v e r
l i f e i n t o t h e hands o f t h o s e who have i n f l i c t e d upon h e r th e slow d e a th
o f i n s a n i t y , th o s e who have robbed h e r o f h e r name, h e r la n g u a g e and
h e r memory. By r e f u s i n g t o g iv e b i r t h , sh e m a t e r i a l i z e s h e r d e s i r e to
s e p a r a te h e r s e l f as c o m p le te ly as p o s s i b l e from t h e s o u rc e o f h e r
o p p r e s s io n , f o r g iv in g b i r t h would be p e r p e t u a t i n g , th ro u g h a n o th e r
body, h e r own e n s la v e m e n t.
I n Le F o lilo q u e en ou d i e s e m in e u r, l e Fou hopes f o r a c h i l d but
ca n n o t c o n c e iv e . S i g n i f i c a n t l y h i s im potence i s b ro u g h t about by a
dream s y m b o liz in g t h e d e s t r u c t i v e n e s s o f th e s o c i e t y i n w hich he l i v e s .
I n A le x is A ccius to o , p o w e rle s s n e s s t r a n s l a t e s i n t o im potence b e cau se
i t b re e d s f e a r and t h e d e s i r e f o r s e l f - d e s t r u c t i o n . I t i s h i s d e c is i o n
t o w r i t e h i s " f o l i l o q u e " a s a r e a c t i o n a g a in s t m e n ta l p a r a l y s i s t h a t
c u re s l e Fou o f h i s im p o ten c e . But t h e n e w ly -c o n c e iv e d c h i l d d i e s w ith
h i s m o th er d u r in g a p o l i t i c a l d e m o n s tra tio n , and l e F o u 's l i b e r a t i o n
i s ended b e fo re i t can be a c c o m p lish e d . Combined w ith t h i s f i r s t d e a th ,
t h e s u i c i d e o f Rou, whom l e Fou had come t o c o n s id e r as h i s so n ,
becomes h i s own d e a th as he abandons a l l r e s i s t a n c e and i s overwhelm ed
by d e s p a i r ; " I I e s t m ort 1 ' a d o le s c e n t , 1 ' e n fa n t d ' h i e r , l'homme d 'a u -
84
j o u r d 'h u i . Et de quoi? e t POURQUOI?"
O s a n a 's a n g u is h when sh e l e a r n s o f h e r p re g n a n c y , th e h o r r i b l e
d e a th o f M arcel G o n s tr a n 's m alform ed c h i l d , a r e two o t h e r m a n i f e s t a
304
t i o n s o f t h e same them e. Osana g iv e s b i r t h and f in d s f u l f i l l m e n t i n
m otherhood j u s t as L am ercie do es; b u t t h e two women d i e , le a v in g th e
c h i l d a lo n e i n t h e h o s t i l e w o rld w hich k i l l e d them . M arcel G o n s tr a n 's
c h i l d seems t o be th e p h y s ic a l image o f h i s f a t h e r ’s t o r t u r e d s o u l ,
and t h e i r d e a th s echo one a n o th e r ; M arcel G o n stra n , "C et hom m e...
% 85 %
m ourut dans une m is e re e p o u v a n ta b le " ; t h e c h i l d , " . . . a p r e s q u e lq u e s
m ois d 'e p o u v a n ta b le s m is e r e s , i l m ourut" ( p . 2 8 ).
6 ) I n s a n i t y
I n s a n i t y i s t h e u ltim a te , form o f e v a s io n o r o f r e f u s a l . I n i n s a n
i t y , one n o t o n ly s e p a r a t e s o n e s e l f from t h e o u t s i d e w o rld but from
t h e w o rld w i t h i n as w e l l , b e c au se th e y a r e b o th e q u a lly im p o s s ib le t o
d e a l w ith . Once t h e t e n s i o n s have become u n b e a ra b le , a l l r e s i s t a n c e
b re a k s down and t h e mind l o s e s c o n tr o l and i s ta k e n o v e r by i t s own
o b s e s s io n s .
"Nous sommes to u s des gens g a g e s " , sa y s l e Fou. B eing employed i n
a p s y c h i a t r i c h o s p i t a l , he i s a t l e i s u r e t o o b se rv e th e v a r io u s a s p e c ts
o f i n s a n i t y and d e v o te s a le n g th y c h a p t e r . o f h i s " f o l i l o q u e " t o h i s
re m a rk s. He s e e k s t o e x p la in t h a t th e v a r io u s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s o f i n s a n
i t y a r e n o t as rig o u r o u s as th e y seem and t h a t b e h a v io r w hich i s
c l a s s i f i e d as in s a n e o r as abnorm al i s o f t e n no more t h a n a r e a c t i o n
a g a in s t t h e su p erim p o sed norm s. The u n d e rly in g them e o f h i s d is c o u r s e
i s t h a t s o c i e t y m a n u fa c tu re s i t s madmen f o r i t s own p r o t e c t i o n t o
e li m i n a te i n d i v i d u a l s who r e f u s e t o conform t o t h e a c c e p te d r u l e s o f
b e h a v io r . I n s t e a d o f q u e s ti o n in g t h e i r r e a s o n s f o r r e b e l l i o n , i t i s
305
e a s i e r t o l a b e l them as i r r a t i o n a l and t o commit them t o an asylum .
The p s y c h i a t r i c h o s p i t a l a ls o ' s e rv e s as a d e t e r r e n t t o th o s e who m ight
be tem p ted t o l i v e a c c o rd in g t o t h e i r own s ta n d a r d s b u t l e a r n t o c o n - - ,
form t o a v o id b e in g c a te g o r i z e d as abnorm al. Le Fou i s o b s e ss e d by
i n s a n i t y , m ost p a r t i c u l a r l y h i s own,, f e a r i n g t h a t he m ight be p ro n e t o
i t . I n s p i t e o f th e s t a b i l i z i n g i n f l u e n c e o f h i s w r i t t e n c o n f e s s io n s ,
he s lo w ly p r o g r e s s e s to w ard d e p r e s s io n . I t s t a r t s w i t h - t h e c h ro n ic
i n s t a b i l i t y o f h i s c h ild h o o d and i s a g g ra v a te d by t h e r e p e a te d f a i l u r e
o f h i s dream s. H is la c k o f c o n fid e n c e i n h i s own judgm ent i s r e v e a le d
by h i s need t o lo o k a t t h e m a il o f o t h e r s , b u t, i n s t e a d o f f in d i n g
s a t i s f a c t i o n i n th o s e i n q u i r i e s , th e y o n ly b r in g t o h i s know ledge
e v e n ts w hich u p s e t him f u r t h e r . The i d e a t h a t he i s f a i l i n g i n h i s own
l i f e i s a n o th e r c o n s ta n t: he w r i t e s h i s book n o t o n ly t o l i b e r a t e him
s e l f from h i s o b s e s s io n s , b u t a ls o t o p ro v e t o h im s e lf t h a t he i s
c a p a b le o f d o in g i t . A lth o u g h he s t a t e s ' t h a t th e e d u c a t io n a l sy stem o f
M a rtin iq u e i s a sham and t h a t i t s t i f l e s c r e a t i v i t y , he r e g r e t s not
b e in g as e d u c a te d as h i s b r o t h e r and f e e l s t h a t t h i s makes him i n f e r i o i
— a c o n f l i c t w hich he e x p re s s e s as he a p o lo g iz e s t o h i s a u d ie n c e ,
” l a Cour” , f o r n o t b e in g alw ays a r t i c u l a t e . H is n eed f o r r e a s s u r a n c e
i s a c u te and q u a l i f i e s h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith Doudou. When sh e d i e s ,
he f a l l s i n t o a k in d o f f r e n z y r e s u l t i n g from h i s g u i l t and h i s h e lp
l e s s n e s s . He f e e l s caged u n t i l he i s a b le t o t e l l h i s a u d ie n c e t h a t
Doudou was p re g n a n t a t t h e tim e o f h e r d e a th , and he e x p re s s e s h i s
d e s p a i r a t . l o s i n g th e c h i l d who would have l i v e d t h e l i f e a t w hich he
so m is e ra b ly f a i l e d . (See t h e s i m i l a r a t t i t u d e o f I b a 's f a t h e r
306
d e s c r i b e d e a r l i e r . ) His e n c o u n te r w ith t h e a d o le s c e n t Rou, on whom he
t r a n s f e r s a l l h i s h o p e s , makes i t p o s s i b l e f o r l e Fou t o c o n fe s s what
i s b o th e r in g him . When Rou commits s u i c i d e , i t i s t h e f i n a l blow:
d e s p a i r , g u i l t and h e l p l e s s n e s s overpow er him . H is s e n s e o f f a i l u r e
was a lr e a d y r e i n f o r c e d by t h e monotony o f h i s l i f e , th e i n d i f f e r e n c e
o f o t h e r s , t h e i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f e x p r e s s in g h i m s e lf . His s e n se o f g u i l t
comes from t h e im p re s s io n t h a t he had n o t t r i e d h a rd enough t o commu
n i c a t e w ith h i s f a t h e r , h i s b r o th e r and Rou. H is f e e l i n g o f h e l p l e s s
n e s s a r i s e s from h i s la c k o f u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e two d e a th s , as w e ll
as from t h e know ledge t h a t he c o u ld n o t have p r e v e n te d them b e cau se
th e y w ere c a u se d by c ir c u m s ta n c e s beyond h i s c o n t r o l . Le Fou ta k e s
r e f u g e w ith h i s g ran d m o th er, s e e k in g h e r lo v e and t h e i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
o f c h ild h o o d .
D e p re ss io n a ls o s t r i k e s Man E lo is e i n th e f a n t a s t i c l i f e s t o r y
o f T i J e a n 1 ' H o riz o n . I t i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by an i n d i f f e r e n c e t o a l l
around h e r and by h e r w ith d ra w a l from t h e w o rld a f t e r a p erio d so fiin ew
s la v e r y has come t o d a rk e n t h e sky o f G uadeloupe. When T i J e a n v i s i t s
h e r , she g iv e s him a b a th and w ashes him c a r e f u l l y as i f t o make s u re
t h a t he i s n o t i n f e c t e d w ith t h e i n f e r n a l sm e ll o f s la v e r y w hich
S o l it u d e c a r r i e d around w ith h e r i n La M u la tre s s e S o l i t u d e . Man
E l o i s e 's i n s a n i t y i s a r e f u s a l o f th e d e s t r u c t i o n o f h e r w o rld . I n long
m onologues w hich a r e a k in t o v e r b a l d e lir iu m i n t h e i r in c o m p r e h e n s ib il
i t y and c o n f u s io n , she r e t u r n s t o t h e i d e a l la n d o f A f r ic a and t o th e
f i g u r e o f Wademba, t h e l a s t o f t h e maroon s l a v e s . I n t h e i d y l l i c p a s t
o f h e r fra g m e n ta ry m em ories, she f in d s t h e r e a s s u r a n c e w hich th e
307
p r e s e n t does n o t o f f e r . Man E l o is e w a its f o r d e a th i n t h e same k in d o f
s i l e n c e w hich b o th T o u ssin e. and Telumee e x p e rie n c e d and c o n q u e re d i n
P l u i e e t v e n t s u r Telumee M ir a c le —T o u s s in e a f t e r th e d e a th o f h e r
d a u g h te r M eranee, and Telumee a f t e r . h e r abandonment by E l i e . F or i t i s
ea sy t o f a l l i n t o the. d e p th o f d e s p a i r when t h e r e i s n o th in g i n th e
w o rld t o r e l y on. Telumee u n d e r s t a n d s ,t h i s when, a t t h e end o f h e r
l i f e , she e x p re s s e s t h e f r a g i l i t y o f h e r p la c e in t h e w o rld : "J'e me
se n s im p u is s a n te , d e p la c e e , sa n s aucune r a i s o n d 'e t r e parm i e e s a r b r e s ,
.,86
ce v e n t, c e s n u a g e s.
The d e a th o f h e r second so n , Odono, u p s e ts th e f r a g i l e b a la n c e of
M arie C e l a t 's r e n u n c i a t i o n and sh e resum es th e q u e s ti o n in g w hich had
c h a r a c t e r i z e d h e r y o u th and w hich sh e had b ro u g h t t o a s t o p , knowing
t h a t h e r s a n i t y was a t s ta k e . O dono's i n e x p l i c a b l e drow ning f o r c e s h e r
back i n t o t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e p a s t , i n t o t h e s e a r c h f o r t h e l o s t
a n c e s t o r whose name she had g iv e n h e r so n . However., i n h e r s t a t e o f
d e s p a i r , e x a s p e r a ti o n and c o n fu s io n , she can only e x t r a c t from h e r
memory fra g m en ts o f m a le d ic tio n : "E t un j o u r e l l e c r i a que nous a v io n s
d e p u is t o u jo u r s t u e nos e n f a n t s , que l e s m eres l e s e t o u f f a i e n t a l a
* * % 87
n a is s a n c e , que l e s f r e r e s t r a f i q u a i e n t l e s f r e r e s . " She blam es h e r
s e l f and h e r f a l l e n r a c e f o r t h e d e a t h .o f h e r two sons and f a l l s i n t o
a k in d o f s tu p o r and monomania as h e r c o n fu s io n c r y s t a l l i z e s i n t o one
q u e s tio n : " E l l e r e p e t a i t Rodono, ou p e u t - e t r e Dorono. E l l e d em an d ait:
'E t t o i , ou e s - t u a l a f i n ? ’" ( p . 11) She i s com m itted t o a p s y c h i a t
r i c h o s p i t a l a t th e r e q u e s t o f h e r n e ig h b o r s , whose p e a c e f u l b u t v u l
n e r a b l e l i v e s o f d e n i a l and s u b m issio n she was d i s t u r b i n g . "Chacun
308
r e d o u t a i t de s e t r o u v e r denude, peu a 'peu d e p o u il le de l a fo rc e n e e
p e lu r e sous l a q u e l l e nous re n o n c io n s a nos v e r i t e s e n f o u i e s , l e u r p r e -
f e r a n t c e t t e d e b o n n a ire q u ie tu d e au bord de l a q u e l l e nous e t i o n s t a n t
f o r c e s , m alg re n o u s, de v e i l l e r " (p . 2 2 6 ). The h o s p i t a l seems once
a g a in t o have t h e f u n c t i o n o f p r o t e c t i n g s o c i e t y from th o s e whose
m adness m ight be a l i t t l e to o l u c i d f o r e v e ry b o d y 's c o m fo rt. I n M arie
C e l a t 's c a s e , how ever, th e t r i p t o th e h o s p i t a l has u n e x p e c te d c o n s e
q u e n c e s , f o r she does n o t s t a y t h e r e . Upon a r r i v a l a t t h e h o s p i t a l ,
she s e e s t h e r e c i d i v i s t C herubin whose d e l i r i o u s s p e e c h a ls o d e a ls w ith
t h e p a s t , th e need t o go back i n tim e , t o d e f in e and name t h e lo n g l i n e
o f a n c e s to r s o f h i s own f a m ily . She i n t e r r u p t s h e r s i l e n c e b r i e f l y and
te m p o r a r ily i n an in c o m p re h e n s ib le b a rr a g e o f words w here one s e n s e s
h e r d e s p a i r and e x a s p e r a ti o n a t h e r i n a b i l i t y t o f in d t h e answ ers she
n e e d s . I t i s d u r in g h e r e s c a p e from th e h o s p i t a l w ith C herubin t h a t ,
w ith h i s h e lp , she f i n a l l y f in d s t h e - tr u th w hich w i l l make l i f e b e a r
a b le t o h e r . C h eru b in p o i n ts o u t t o h e r , d u rin g t h e i r r a c e th ro u g h t h e
ta n g l e d v e g e t a t i o n o f t h e f o r e s t , th e a l i e n a t i n g i n f l u e n c e o f t h e
p r e s e n t system o f s o c i a l w e l f a r e , w hich tr a n s fo r m s p e o p le i n t o b e g g a rs
and h u m il ia t e s them . By c o n t r a s t , he evokes th e b e a u ty t h a t can be
found i n lo v e , u s in g as. an exam ple h i s own u n f u l f i l l e d lo v e f o r th e
b e a u t i f u l T o tim e. C h eru b in c o n v in c e s h e r t o r e c o n s i d e r t h e p a s t , t o
lo o k a t i t n o t f o r i t s h u m il ia t io n s but f o r i t s b e a u ty . A ndishe..under
s ta n d s t h a t sh e had been c a u g h t i n a d e c e iv in g v i s i o n o f t h e p a s t:
" J ' e t a i s dans l e c o n te , j e r e v a i s que j e r e v a i s " , sh e s a y s ; she u n d e r
s ta n d s t h a t she m ust go beyond what she c a l l s " l e T r a i t e du D e p a rle r"
309
(p . 2 3 5 ), t h a t i s , a l l t h e su p erim p o sed i d e a s , n o t i o n s , p r e j u d i c e s ,
w hich keep t h e c o u n try s i l e n t and s u b m is s iv e f o r " s i t u n 'a im e s pas
l e pays ou t u v i s , p e rso n n e ne l 'a i m e r a p o u r t o i " (p . 2 3 8 ). L ik e
T o u s s in e and Telum ee, she co n q u e rs h e r im pending i n s a n i t y and, f u r t h e r
m ore, sh e l e a r n s t h a t she has a r i g h t f u l p l a c e , even i f i t i s a p la c e
o f s u f f e r i n g w here t h e l u r e o f m a t e r i a l p o s s e s s io n s and power has
d e c e iv e d t h e p o p u la tio n i n t o p a s s i v i t y , a c c e p ta n c e and o b l i v i o n . The
new spaper a r t i c l e q u o te d a t t h e end o f t h e n o v e l k eeps M arie C e l a t 's
v i c t o r y i n p e r s p e c t i v e : p s y c h i a t r i c i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e b e in g d e v e lo p e d
on t h e . i s l a n d s and a re e n jo y in g a grow ing r e p u t a t i o n f o r e f f i c i e n c y ;
t h e t h r e a t t o th o s e who, l i k e M arie C e l a t , a r e made v u l n e r a b le by
t h e i r a w a re n e s s . rem ains r e a l .
Madness s t r i k e s r e l e n t l e s s l y , and t h e r e a re th o s e who c a n n o t o v e r
power i t , ‘ su ch as l 'a n g e M edard, E l i e and Thomas 1 ' E u g e n ie. L 'a n g e
Medard i s t h e n o t-q u ite -h u m a n o ld man who s t e a l s Sonore from Telum ee.
He has been m arked by m is f o r tu n e t h e day h i s b r o t h e r i n f l i c t e d upon
him a t e r r i b l e wound i n t h e h e a d . A ll b e lie v e t h a t he i s e v i l and shun
h i s p r e s e n c e . T h is has made him a l o n e r . A l i f e o f m is e ry and i s o l a t i o n
has re n d e re d l 'a n g e Medard h a l f mad w ith b i t t e r n e s s and t h e d e s i r e to
d e s tr o y th e h a p p in e s s o f o t h e r s . Telum ee, becau se sh e h a s shown k in d
n e s s to w ard him , h as made h e r s e l f v u l n e r a b le t o h i s m a c h in a tio n s and
becomes h i s v i c t im . When, a f t e r h a v in g c o n v in ced S onore t o le a v e h e r ,
he r e t u r n s t o e n jo y T e lu m e e 's d e s p a i r and se e s t h a t she shows no s ig n s
o f i t , he goes i n t o a f re n z y o f d e s t r u c t i o n aimed a t Telum ee h e r s e l f .
B ecause he has been dom in ated a l l h i s l i f e , he w an ts t o dom inate h e r
310
and t o t a k e h e r f a t e i n t o h i s own hands': " I I g e s t i c u l a i t , h u r l a i t q u ’i l
e t a i t mon m a i tr e e t me j o u e r a i t aux d e s , o u i, quand i l l e v o u d r a i t ,
e t que j ’ a l l a i s b a s e u l e r l a , m oi, ma e a s e e t mon l i t , b a s c u l e r t o u t
88
en bas de ce morne e t p o u r l ’ e t e r n i t e . " H is environm ent has tu r n e d
l ’ ange Medard i n t o a m u rd e re r, and h i s d e lu s io n s o f power c a u se h i s
d e a th .
E l i e succumbs t o h i s h e l p l e s s n e s s , t o h i s la c k o f c o n fid e n c e i n
h im s e lf , t o t h i s la c k o f d i r e c t i o n w hich was a lr e a d y m a n if e s t i n t h e
w arn in g he once gave Telumee ab o u t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t he m ight lo s e
h i s t r a c k i n l i f e . When h i s t r a d e i s r u in e d , E l i e im m ed ia te ly d o u b ts
h i s a b i l i t y t o s u r v i v e , s lo w ly g iv e s up t h e f i g h t f o r th e b o t t l e o f
rum and in d u lg e s i n s e l f - d e s t r u c t i v e c o n v e r s a tio n s and d e a t h - o r i e n t e d
p r o v o c a tio n s a t t h e l o c a l c a f e , " l a f a c e c re u s e e t l e s .yeux. r o u g i s , l e s
v e in e s de s e s te m p le s g o n f le e s de r a g e e t d ’im p u issa n c e " ( p . 1 4 7 ).
Even when c o n d it io n s im prove f o r t h e v i l l a g e , E l i e c o n tin u e s t o be
p u rsu e d by h i s o b s e s s io n s o f p e r s e c u t i o n , h i s b e l i e f t h a t h e has been
c u r s e d . He i s o l a t e s h im s e lf by h i s h o s t i l e a t t i t u d e tow ard o t h e r s and,
e v e n tu a ll y , comes t o rese m b le t h e man i n t h e t a l e t h a t R eine sa n s Norn
t e l l s Telum ee, a man who had a llo w e d h im s e lf t o g iv e i n t o h a t r e d and
m is f o r tu n e . E l i e was to o v u l n e r a b le t o t h e i n f l u e n c e o f o t h e r s , to o
r e c e p t i v e t o t a l k s about th e m a le d ic tio n o f t h e Negro and h i s i n f e
r i o r i t y . I t i s t h i s w eak n ess, as w e ll as th e r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t he i s
p o w e rle s s t o a l t e r h i s f a t e and t h a t he l i v e s i n a w o rld w here s u r v i v a l
i s dep en d en t upon f o r c e s he c a n n o t c o n t r o l , w hich a re a t th e r o o t o f
h i s i n s a n i t y .
311
Thomas 1 ' E ugenie i s a s t r o n g e r c h a r a c t e r who overcom es m adness
once b e fo r e h i s f i n a l d e f e a t . He u n d e rs ta n d s t h e p o l i t i c a l and economic
c a u se s o f h i s c o u n t r y 's p o v e r ty , r e a l i z e s t h a t i t m ust p r e s e r v e i t s
own c u l t u r e i f i t w ants t o s u r v i v e . Because o f h i s s u b v e r s iv e i d e a s ,
Thomas 1 ' E ugenie e x p e rie n c e s th e p s y c h i a t r i c h o s p i t a l w here he l o s e s
h i s f a i t h i n m ankind. When he e sc a p e s from t h e asylum , Thomas w ithdraw s
from th e w o rld and l i v e s a s o l i t a r y l i f e i n t h e f o r e s t . I t i s O sa n a 's
lo v e w hich p u l l s him o u t o f h i s r e t r e a t and r e s t o r e s h i s c a p a c i ty t o
e n jo y l i f e and t o dream o f m aking i t b e t t e r f o r a l l . H is hopes a re
b e tr a y e d by t h e c u p i d i t y o f th e pow er-hungry mayor o f B o u r g - la - F o li e ,
N e s t o r e t . As he r e a l i z e s t h a t h i s dream w i l l n e v e r come t r u e , Thomas
1 ' E ugenie g iv e s i n t o m adness i n t h e form o f an o b s e s s io n : he i s b ent
on r e t r i e v i n g le g e n d a ry g o ld from t h e ocean i n o r d e r t o sa v e h is
p e o p le . I t i s t h e know ledge o f h i s p o w e rle s s n e s s t h a t d r iv e s Thomas
1 ' E ugenie t o b e l i e v i n g i n an im p o s s ib le dream . He c l i n g s t o th e le g e n d
b e c au se he can n e i t h e r a c c e p t t h e i n e v i t a b i l i t y o f m is e ry and e x p lo i
t a t i o n n o r t h e th o u g h t o f d e f e a t . I n h is m adness, he f in d s t h e p o s s i
b i l i t y o f f u l f i l l m e n t : "Ma r e v o l t e e s t n ee de ma p r o p re f a i b l e s s e e t
v o i s , quand j e l a seme en t e r r e , i L ne p o u sse r i e n de p lu s que l e s
h e rb e s f o l l e s q u i e n v a h is s e n t to u s l e s j a r d i n s . Un i n s t a n t c o u ra g e u x ,
l e lendem ain p lu s la c h e e t v e u le q u 'u n m auvais c h ie n de g a rd e , j e ne
89
tr o u v e de l i g n e d r o i t e q u 'e n ma f o l i e . " Torm ented by im ages o f th e
m is e ry and of t h e p a s s i v i t y o f M a rtin iq u e , Thomas, w ith d raw s from t h e
w o rld , s to p s w o rking t h e l a n d , and se e k s com fort and o b l i v i o n i n
a lc o h o l u n t i l Osana d e l i v e r s him from h i s o b s e s s io n s w ith a cup o f
312
p o is o n and f o llo w s him i n d e a th .
I n La M e u r t r i t u d e , J e a n n e l a F o l le t r a c e s th e ro ad w hich le a d s t o
i n s a n i t y o r t h e d e a th o f t h e s p i r i t as a jo u rn e y in c l u d in g se v en p o s s i
b le s t o p s , each s to p b e in g as d e a d ly and d e s t r u c t i v e as t h e o t h e r s . The
f i r s t d e a th i s r e s i g n a t i o n , d o in g what th e o th e r s t e l l you t o do and
t h i n k i n g w hat' th e o th e r s t e l l you t o t h i n k . The second d e a th i s subm is
s iv e n e s s o r th e o b l i g a t i o n t o e x e c u te t h e t a s k s g iv e n b e cau se t h e r e i s
no o t h e r c h o ic e . The t h i r d d e a th i s o p p r e s s io n o r b r u te f o r c e and t h e
e n s u in g d e f e a t . The f o u r t h d e a th i s p o s s e s s io n o r t h e d e a th o f th o s e
whose s o u l and body a re p o s s e s s e d by o t h e r s . The f i f t h d e a th i s tem p
t a t i o n , t h e t e m p ta tio n t o a c c e p t o r subm it so as t o p u t an end t o s u f
f e r i n g . The s i x t h d e a th i s f u s io n o r l o s s of. i d e n t i t y , w hich comes,
from t h e i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f s e p a r a t i n g o n e s e l f from t h e o p p r e s s o r . The
f i n a l d e a th , t h e s e v e n th one, i s c o n fu s io n , t h e l o s s o f hope and t h e
l o s s o f d e s i r e t o l i v e . H er e n u m e ratio n a p p lie s t o th e c h a r a c te r s
a lr e a d y se e n and sums up t h e v a r io u s o r d e a ls each one goes th ro u g h
b e fo r e e i t h e r v i c t o r y i n some o r c a p i t u l a t i o n and d e a th in t h e o t h e r s
r e s u l t s .
I n s a n i t y i n th e way i t i s e x p e rie n c e d by Thomas l 'E u g e n i e , f o r
exam ple, does n o t o c c u r i n t h e H a i ti a n n o v e ls . Tem porary l o s s o f
c o n t r o l i s what b o th L am ercie and R achel e x p e rie n c e when th e y a r e o v e r
whelmed by t h e i r h e l p l e s s n e s s . When L am ercie r e a l i z e s t h a t she has no
fo o d f o r h e r son and no hope o f f i n d i n g employment i n th e n e a r f u t u r e ,
/
sh e l o s e s h e r h e a d , and t h e n eed t o f in d food becomes an o b s e s s io n
w hich sh e c a n n o t c o n t r o l . L am ercie s t e a l s t h e food she can n o t buy i n
313
a s o r t o f t r a n c e , o b l iv i o u s t o a l l around h e r , lo c k e d i n h e r own
d e s p a i r , b e c au se u n c o n s c io u s ly sh e f e e l s t h a t she has no o t h e r c h o ic e .
L am ercie i s b ro u g h t back t o re a s o n a f t e r h e r a r r e s t by t h e p o l i c e and
th e b e n e v o le n t i n t e r v e n t i o n o f R e z ia R e g u lie r . T h is e p is o d e shows,
how ever, how v u l n e r a b le she i s i n s p i t e o f h e r c o n v ic tio n s about h o n e s
ty and p r i d e .
R a c h e l's o b s e s s io n i s of. a d i f f e r e n t n a tu r e but obeys th e same
l o g i c , a c c o rd in g t o w h ich , so m e th in g , a n y th in g m ust be done. A f t e r t h e
announcem ent t h a t G a b r ie l i s m is s in g , R achel f a l l s i n t o a k in d o f
a p a th y p u n c tu a te d by n ig h tm a re s in v o lv in g h e r - l o s t b r o t h e r . She does
n o t have t h e a b i l i t y t o a c c e p t d e a th as i n e v i t a b l e w hich c h a r a c t e r i z e s
G a b r i e l 's m other b e c au se she i s n o t u sed t o m is f o r tu n e and does n o t
have a f a t a l i s t i c c o n c e p tio n o f l i f e , ' due t o . h e r s o c i a l background.
She c l i n g s t o th e unfounded hope t h a t l i f e must p r e v a i l and t r i e s t o
s u p p o rt t h a t hope by a f r a n t i c and i l l u s o r y s e a r c h f o r h e r b r o t h e r ,
s in c e sh e can do n o th in g a b o u t G a b r ie l. Her b e h a v io r becomes i r r a
t i o n a l ; sh e in v e n ts s c e n a r io s i n w hich h e r b r o th e r somehow escap ed
d e a th , and she d e c id e s t o make s u r e t h a t he i s n o t t h e zombi g o s s ip has
him t o b e . Her c o n fu s io n b r u t a l l y ends w ith h e r d is c o v e r y t h a t h e r
b r o th e r has been k i l l e d by h e r c o u s in and t h a t G a b r ie l i s d ead.
R achel and L am ercie b o th e x p e rie n c e tem p o rary m e n ta l c o n fu s io n
born from t h e i r s e n s e o f h e l p l e s s n e s s , but i t n e v e r becomes s e l f
d e s t r u c t i v e . On t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e i r c o ll a p s e r e s u l t s i n t h e i r f in d i n g
new e n e rg y .
The c r u c i f i e d Negro o f G erard E t i e n n e 's n o v e l e x p r e s s e s and f i g h t s
314
h i s h e l p l e s s n e s s th ro u g h v e r b a l d e li r iu m . N a ile d on h i s c r o s s , he
in v e n ts a c h a r a c t e r , a d o u b le , g iv e s him m o b il it y and sends him t o w i t
n e s s what he h im s e lf denounces! th e p a s s i v i t y o f th e p e o p le , t h e coop
e r a t i o n o f t h e e l i t e w ith t h e d i c t a t o r s h i p , th e a t r o c i t i e s com m itted
by t h e T ontons M acoutes, t h e c o r r u p t io n , t h e m is e ry , th e d e a th w hich
l i t t e r t h e s t r e e t w ith c o r p s e s . He v e n ts h i s a n g e r and h i s ra g e th ro u g h
languages v i o l e n t and g r a p h i c , . f u l l o f im ages o f d i s e a s e , r o t and
s te n c h , o f i n s u l t s aimed a t th o s e who o p p re s s H a i t i w h e th e r th e y be
H a itia n s o r f o r e i g n e r s . But h i s im p r e c a tio n s do n o t b r in g him r e l i e f ,
f o r th e y u n v e il d i s q u i e t i n g f e e l i n g s : h i s shame a t h i s p o w e r le s s n e s s ,
h i s shame a t h i s p e o p le , h i s g u i l t a t b e in g H a i t i a n , h i s f e a r t h a t th e y
have ta u g h t him t o l i k e b lo o d and m u rd er, and h i s d e s p a i r a t h a ti n g h i s
own c o u n tr y . He i s tw ic e c r u c i f i e d , once by th e reg im e, t h e second
tim e by h i m s e lf . He s h o u ts h i s t r u t h s and s e l f - a c c u s a t i o n s , h o ping
t h a t h i s v o ic e w i l l be h e a rd o r rem ain i n t h e c o n s c ie n c e o f h i s p e o p le
u n t i l i t s t i r s them i n t o s e e in g t h e i r own g u i l t and coaxes them i n t o
a c t i o n . H is d e n u n c ia tio n s a r e a l t e r n a t e l y c h a rg e d w ith t h i s hope and
a d e s p e r a ti o n born from th e know ledge t h a t he h as com m itted h im s e lf t o
a t a s k beyond h i s s t r e n g t h . H is d e li r iu m , as t h a t o f M arie C e la t o r o f
C h e ru b in , i s an e x p r e s s io n o f h is m e n ta l e x a s p e r a tio n .
D e liriu m i s g iven, t h e d im ension o f a w hole n o v e l i n th e two works
o f Je a n n e H y v ra rd , Mere l a m ort and La M e u r t r i t u d e . These n o v e ls
p r e s e n t no l o g i c a l c o n t i n u i t y . Thoughts a r e e x p re sse d ' i n s h o r t , choppy
s e n te n c e s , unansw ered q u e s tio n s w hich a r e a r e a c t i o n a g a in s t t h e s u p e r
im posed l o g i c and c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s of. a la n g u a g e t h a t she r e f u s e s . The
315
two n o v e ls form a th e m a tic w hole i n w hich th e same p r e o c c u p a tio n s
r e c u r : r e f u s a l o f th e la n g u a g e o f a l i e n a t i o n , r e f u s a l o f t h e im posed
i n d e n t i t y , and a s e a r c h f o r th e a u t h e n t i c " j e " w hich has been s u p p re s
s e d , p lu s t h e d e n u n c ia tio n o f econom ic en slav em en t p e r s o n i f i e d by th e
c h a r a c t e r o f F ra n g o is i n La M e u r t r i t u d e , and t h e d e n u n c ia tio n o f t h e
means u se d by c o lo n iz in g re g im e s: " J e s u i s condamnee a p e r p e t u i t e .
L 'i n te r n e m e n t. L ' a s i l e . L es p o r te s de b e to n . Les b a r b e l e s . Les crem a-
90
t o i r e s " , and, f i n a l l y , d e n u n c ia tio n o f a l l t h e p e r s e c u ti o n s w hich
have d r iv e n h e r t o i n s a n i t y , b e cau se i n s a n i t y was b o th h e r form o f
r e f u s a l o f a l l im p o s itio n s and h e r l a s t r e f u g e . T hese n o v e ls , w hich
a r e w r i t t e n i n a s t y l e t h a t a tte m p ts t o r e c o n s t r u c t t h e m en ta l p r o c
e s s e s o f i n s a n i t y , d i s c l o s e t h e u l t i m a t e co n sequences o f a l i e n a t i o n :
i n s a n i t y , d e a th w ish and s u i c i d e . W hile b e in g l e s s s p e c i f i c th a n t h e
exam ples a n a ly z e d above, th e y e f f e c t i v e l y convey t h e same a tm o sp h ere
and draw t h e same c o n c lu s io n : t h e c o m b in a tio n o f l o s s o f c u l t u r a l
i d e n t i t y and o f s o c i a l p a r a l y s i s le a d s t o an e x a c e r b a te d f e e l i n g o f
h e l p l e s s n e s s am ounting t o , o r r e s u l t i n g i n , t h e 's l o w d e a th o f i n s a n i t y .
The v a r io u s a t t i t u d e s a n a ly z e d i n t h i s c h a p te r a l l stem from th e
i n a b i l i t y o f th e c h a r a c t e r s t o cope w ith bo th t h e p a s t and t h e p r e s e n t
e le m en ts o f th e r e a l i t y i n w hich th e y l i v e . The n a tu r e o f t h e e s c a p e
c h o sen , o r a r r i v e d a t , depends upon t h e i n d i v i d u a l 's p e r c e p ti o n o f
h i s w o rld and o f h i s p l a c e i n t h i s w o rld . The more a c u te o r l u c i d
t h i s p e r c e p ti o n i s , th e more r a d i c a l t h e s o l u t i o n s w i l l b e . The d e s i r e
316
f o r s u i c i d e a r i s e s i n i n d i v i d u a l s who have a more s o p h i s t i c a t e d u n d e r
s ta n d in g o f t h e i r c o n d it io n s th a n th o s e who f i n d "refuge in a lc o h o l,
f o r exam ple. T hus, s u i c i d e w i l l fee more common among t h e b e t t e r edu
c a te d p o p u la tio n o f th e F re n ch d e p a rtm e n ts th a n i t w i l l be among t h e
m o stly i l l i t e r a t e H a i t i a n p o p u l a t io n , and i t w i l l o f te n o c c u r among
younger p e o p le who have a more r a d i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f who and what
th e y s h o u ld be. I n s a n i t y r e s u l t s from l o n g - l a s t i n g i n n e r c o n f l i c t s —
such as l e F o u 's o r M y c ea 's— i n i n d i v i d u a l s who a r e t o r n betw een t h e
d e s i r e t o u n d e rs ta n d and change t h e i r en v iro n m en t and t h e r e a l i z a t i o n
o f t h e i r i n a b i l i t y t o do s o . I n a l l c a s e s , c a u s e s a re s i m i l a r even
th o u g h th e y a r e ap p ro a c h e d a t d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s . To e ach l e v e l o f com
p r e h e n s io n c o rre s p o n d s a means o f e v a s io n . I n d iv i d u a l r e a c t i o n s a re
d e te rm in e d as w e ll by t h e c a p a c i ty f o r e n d u ra n c e o f e a ch o f t h e c h a r a c
t e r s in v o lv e d .
T hese n o v e ls a l s o d e s c r i b e t h e s p e c i f i c econom ic, s o c i a l and
p o l i t i c a l c o n d itio n s w hich e v e n tu a ll y l e a d t o t h e v a r io u s form s o f
s o c i a l and m e n ta l in ad e q u a c y i l l u s t r a t e d , i n t h i s c h a p te r . Imposed
re g im e s , w h e th e r th e y be a d i c t a t o r s h i p as i n H a i t i o r r e l i c s o f th e
c o l o n i a l o r d e r as i n th e F ren ch d e p a rtm e n ts , o f t e n c a u se th e w ith
draw al o f th e p o p u l a t io n , a s t a t e o f a f f a i r s r e s u l t i n g from i t s power
l e s s n e s s a t ch a n g in g th e e n v iro n m e n t. T h is f e e l i n g o f p o w e rle s s n e s s can
be compounded by b r u t a l i t y ( H a i t i ) o r th ro u g h t h e more i n s i d i o u s b ia s
o f c u l t u r e and dependence (F re n c h A n t i l l e s ) . I n H a i ti a n - n o v e ls , th e
an g er i s d i r e c t e d a t th e re g im e , and th e demands a re c l e a r - c u t , th e
most u r g e n t b e in g t h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f th e d i c t a t o r s h i p and t h e n e c e s
317
s a r y im provem ent o f m a t e r i a l l i f e - c o n d i t i o n s . P o w e rle s s n e s s t h e r e f o r e
comes from a p h y s ic a l i n a b i l i t y t o o r i g i n a t e t h e f a l l o f t h e h a te d
regim e and t o f i n d c o n s i s t e n t means o f s u b s i s t e n c e . I n th e n o v e ls from
t h e F re n ch A n t i l l e s , t h e s i t u a t i o n i s more b l u r r e d . T h e re i s an u n c e r
t a i n t y as t o how l i b e r a t i o n can be o b ta in e d and as t o t h e means t o
employ i n t h a t aim . Such u n c e r t a i n t y r e s u l t s i n more com plex psy ch o
l o g i c a l p a t t e r n s . I n b o th c a s e s , t h e c a u se s o f p o w e rle s s n e s s a r e n o t
t o be found o n ly i n t h e p r e s e n t , b u t a ls o in. t h e p a s t , and m ost o f
a l l i n t h e l o n g - l a s t i n g i n f l u e n c e o f a t t i t u d e s b red by s l a v e r y .
H e lp le s s n e s s can be t o t a l l y p a r a l y z i n g b u t, m ost o f t e n , i t le a d s
t o an a l t e r n a t i o n o f p a s s i v i t y and v i o le n c e . T h is v io le n c e can be
e i t h e r t h e outcome o f d e s p a i r , and th u s d e v o id o f p o l i t i c a l m eaning,
o r a means o f s o c i a l p r o t e s t , t h e o n ly s o l u t i o n th o u g h t p o s s i b l e
a g a in s t a regim e o r a form o f governm ent im posed by v i o l e n c e , be i t
p h y s ic a l o r c u l t u r a l .
318
N otes
1 Je a n n e H y v rard , Mere l a m ort ( P a r i s : M in u it, 1 9 7 6 ), p . 96.
2
Rene' Delm as, Ma F ia n c e e des o ra n g e rs ( P o r t - a u - P r in c e : F a r d in ,
1 9 7 8 ), p . 112.
3 *
M aryse Conde, La P a r o le des femmes ( P a r i s : L 'H a rm a tta n , 19 7 9 ),
p. 94.
^ M a rie -T h e re s e Colim on, F i l s de m is e re ( P o r t - a u - P r i n c e : E d itio n s
C a r a ib e s , 1 9 7 4 ), p . 191.
G erard E tie n n e , Le N egre c r u c i f i e (M o n trea l: N o u v e lle O p tiq u e ,
1 9 7 4 ), p. 14.
^ G erard E tie n n e , Un A m bassadeur m acoute a M o n tre a l (M o n tre a l:
N o u v e lle O p tiq u e , 19 7 9 ), p . 29.
^ X a v ie r O r v i l l e , L a T a p i s s e r i e du temps p r e s e n t ( P a r i s : G r a s s e t
e t F a s q u e lle , 1 9 7 9 ), p . 37.
8
X a v ie r O r v i l l e , D e lie e e t l e fro m a g er ( P a r i s : G r a s s e t e t
F a s q u e ll e , 1 9 7 7 ), p . 136.
9
E douard G l i s s a n t , M alem ort ( P a r i s : S e u i l , 1 9 7 5 ), p . 194.
^ O r v i l l e , D e l ic e , p . 165.
L o u is -C h a r le s W illia m , Le F o lilo q u e en ou d i e s e m in eu r ( P a r i s :
L 'H a rm a tta n , 1 9 7 8 ), p . 187.
12
E tie n n e , A m bassadeur, p . 182.
13
E tie n n e , A m bassadeur, p . 78.
14
J a c q u e l in e Manicom, Mon Examen' de b la n c ( P a r i s : P r e s s e s de l a
C i t e , 1 9 7 5 ), p. 72.
15
Simone S c h w a rz -B a rt, P l u i e e t v e n t s u r Telumee M ira c le ( P a r i s :
S e u i l , p . 199.
H o n o re -A lfre d S e i t u , Agodome-Dachine ( P a r i s : L 'H a rm a tta n , 1 9 7 8 ),
p. 99.
319
17 Manicom, p . 152.
18
Edouard G l i s s a n t , La Case du commandeur ( P a r i s ! S e u i l , 1 9 8 1 ),
p. 142.
19 W illia m , p . 108.
20
V in c e n t P l a c o l y , L 'E a u -d e -m o rt g u i ld i v e ( P a r i s : D enoel, 1 9 7 3 ),
p. 192.
21
Delmas, p . 80.
22
G l i s s a n t , Commandeur, p . 186.
23
G l i s s a n t , M alem ort, p . 216.
2 j
A lic e H ip p o ly te , N inon, ma s o e u r ( P o r t - a u - P r i n c e : H enri
Deschamps, 1 9 7 6 ), p . 12.
25
Colim on, p . 134.
26
L i l i a n e D evieux Dehoux, L*Amour, o u i. La M ort, non. (S h e rb ro o k e ,
Quebec: Naaman, 1 9 7 6 ), p . 18.
27
R oland B r i v a l , M a rtin iq u e des c e n d re s ( P a r i s : O l i v i e r O rban,
1 9 7 8 ), p . 164.
28
B r i v a l , p . 155.
2 9 W illia m , p . 155.
30
S e i t u , p . 8 8 .
31 « « .
E tie n n e , N e g re , p . 103.
32
E tie n n e , A m bassadeur, p . 138.
33
Simone S c h w a rz -B a rt, T i J e a n 1 ' H o rizon ( P a r i s : S e u i l , 19 7 9 ),
p . 197.
34
E tie n n e , N e g re , p . 78.
35
E tie n n e , A m bassadeur, p . 212,
36
G l i s s a n t , M alem ort, p . 205.
37 W illia m , p . 155.
320
33 B r i v a l , p . 122.
39
Manicom, p . 67.
40 - „
O r v i l l e , D e l ic e , p . 85.
O r v i l l e , T a p i s s e r i e , p. 38.
^ S e i t u , p . 107.
^3 G l i s s a n t , Commandeur, p. 192.
/[/(
G l i s s a n t , M alem ort, p . 226.
^3 B r i v a l , p . 135.
^ Colim on, p . 64.
^ E tie n n e , N egre, p . 41.
Je a n n e H y v rard , La M e u r tr itu d e ( P a r i s : M in u it, 1 9 7 7 ), p . 97.
^ S c h w a rz -B a rt, T elum ee, p . 6 6 .
G l i s s a n t , Commandeur, p. 48.
33 G l i s s a n t , M alem ort, p . 162.
52 %
E tie n n e , N egre, p . 8 8 .
53 Delmas, p . 23.
3^ P l a c o l y , E a u -d e -m o rt, p . 67.
33 B r i v a l , p . 46
56
S c h w a rz -B a rt, T i J e a n , p . 22.
3^ V in c e n t P l a c o l y , La V ie e t l a m ort de M arcel G o n stra n ( P a r i s :
Deno&l, 1 9 7 1 ), p . 31.
C O
S c h w a rz -B a rt, T elum ee, p . 72.
3^ W illia m , p . 22.
^ G l i s s a n t , Commandeur, p . 172.
33 E tie n n e , A m bassadeur, p . 217.
321
62
G l i s s a n t , M alem ort, p . 185.
63
Edouard G l i s s a n t , Le P is c o u r s a n t i l l a i s ( P a r i s ; S e u i l , 19 8 1 ),
p . 290.
8 4 B r i v a l , p . 96.
3 3 Manicom, p. 47.
66
S c h w a rz -B a rt, Ti- J e a n , p. 50.
37 P l a c o l y , M arcel G o n s tra n , p p . 4 5 -4 6 .
68 . Q
B r i v a l , p . 91.
S c h w a rz -B a rt, T elum ee, p. 147.
73> S c h w a rz -B a rt, T elum ee, p . 244.
71
S e i t u , p . 147.
72
G l i s s a n t , Commandeur, p . 31.
73 W illia m , p. 133.
74
P l a c o l y , M arcel G o n s tra n , p . 10.
73 H y v ra rd , Mere l a m o rt, p . 71.
73 E tie n n e , N egre, p . 42.
77 O r v i l l e , D e l ic e , p . 61.
78 * *
E tie n n e , N e g re , p . 147.
7^ B r i v a l , p . 152.
80
S c h w a rz -B a rt, T elum ee, p . 54.
81
G l i s s a n t , M alem ort, p . 221.
82
G l i s s a n t , Commandeur, p. 219.
83
G l i s s a n t , Commandeur, p. 155.
8 4 W illia m , p . 209.
85
P l a c o l y , M arcel G o n s tra n , p . 11.
322
86
S c h w a rz -B a rt, T elum ee,
87
G l i s s a n t , Commandeur, p
88
S c h w a rz -B a rt, Telum ee,
89
B r i v a l , p . 179.
90
H y v rard , Mere l a m o rt,
p . 244.
. 224.
p . 236.
p . 16.
323
C h a p te r F iv e
M a n if e s ta tio n s o f V io le n c e
U n d e rly in g a l l t h e a t t i t u d e s o f r e s i g n a t i o n and p a s s i v i t y
d e s c r ib e d i n t h e p r e v io u s c h a p te r , t h e r e i s a l a t e n t v i o le n c e . For
exam ple, even when M arie C e la t, i n La Case du commandeur, r e s o l u t e l y
d e c id e s t o l e t h e r s e l f go i n th e flow o f l i f e , she does v io le n c e t o
h e r i n q u i s i t i v e i n c l i n a t i o n s and i n t e l l e c t u a l c u r i o s i t y and d e n ie s h e r
s e l f th e r i g h t t o d e te rm in e h e r own l i f e . T h is s e l f - i n f l i c t e d a p a th y
i s one o f th e c a u se s o f h e r tem p o rary l o s s o f m ind. The r e s u l t a n t
d e li r iu m i s a form o f v io le n c e th ro u g h la n g u a g e , as w e ll as an o u t l e t
f o r a c u te i n n e r c o n f l i c t s . I n becoming p a s s i v e o r r e s ig n e d , one a l s o
goes a g a in s t m an's n a t u r a l d e s i r e t o have c o n t r o l o v e r h is l i f e , how
e v e r i l l u s o r y and p r e c a r io u s such c o n t r o l may be. F i n a l l y , t h e u l t i m a t e
form o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l v io le n c e i s i n s a n i t y , f o r i t s d i s r u p t s t h e i n t e g
r i t y o f t h e s e l f .
The aim o f t h i s c h a p te r i s t o lo o k a t p h y s ic a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f
v io le n c e as p i c t u r e d i n th e contem porary F rench C a rib b e a n n o v e l. T hese
m a n i f e s t a t i o n s r e s u l t from p o w e r le s s n e s s; v io le n c e i s th e n u se d as a
s u b s t i t u t e f o r im p o s s ib le a c tio n s w hich would b r in g d e s ir e d c h a n g e s.
I n Le D isc o u rs a n t i l l a i s , Edouard G l i s s a n t r e c o g n iz e s v io le n c e as
in h e r e n t t o t h e s o c i a l sy stem o f M a rtin iq u e :
324
D is p e rs e dans son h a b i t a t a r u r a l , ne b e n e f i c i a n t d 'a u c u n e
p u is s a n c e de c o n c e n t r a t io n dans 1 ' o r g a n i s a t i o n du t r a v a i l ,
en p r o ie au chomage, l i v r e aux t e n t a t i o n s de l a m e n d ic ite
o f f i c i e l l e ( q u 'o n a p p e ll e i c i 1 * " i n d i s p e n s a b l e s o l i d a r i t e
n a t i o n a l e " ) , e n f i n ne v o y a n t s e d e s s i n e r d e v a n t l u i aucune
p e r s p e c t i v e d e f i n i e , l e p e u p le m a rtin j,q u a is repond a 1 *a l t e r
n a t i v e p a r des p o u s s e e s de v io le n c e i n c o n t r o l e e , a l a p e r i o -
d i c i t e q u a s i m etronom ique, s u i v i e s de lo n g s p a s s a g e s de
p r o s t r a t i o n e t de co n sentem ent p a s s i f . " ^
T h is r e a c t i o n o f t h e p e o p le o f M a rtin iq u e t o t h e a m b ig u ity o f i t s f a t e
a p p li e s t o t h e F ren ch A n t i l l e s as a w hole s in c e t h e t h r e e t e r r i t o r i e s
s h a re th e same d e s t i n y , and t o H a i t i as w e l l, although,., t h e r e , i t w i l l
ta k e d i f f e r e n t fo rm s, more p a r t i c u l a r l y t h a t o f t h e Voodoo r e l i g i o n .
To t h e i n n e r v io le n c e o f a l i e n a t i o n and f r u s t r a t i o n c o rre s p o n d s an
o u t e r v io le n c e i n w hich t h e i n d i v i d u a l r e l e a s e s h i s t e n s i o n s by t u r n i n g
on th e o t h e r s . Such a c ts o f a g g r e s s io n a re n o t r e l a t e d t o any v i s i b l e
c a u se and can be i n t e r p r e t e d as g r a t u i t o u s v i o l e n c e . They a r e aimed a t
fa m ily members, f r i e n d s and. n e ig h b o rs and a re i l l u s t r a t e d i n a l l t h e
n o v e ls in v o lv e d .
B e sid es b e in g an i n d i v i d u a l form o f r e l i e f , v io le n c e i s a ls o seen
as a means o f s o c i a l p r o t e s t and, u l t i m a t e l y , as a means o f l i b e r a t i o n .
When a governm ent i s im posed by v io le n c e and v i o l e n t l y p r e v e n ts i t s
c i t i z e n s from e x p r e s s in g th e m s e lv e s and from o p p o sin g i t , th e n t h e u se
o f v io le n c e i s n e c e s s a r y and, i n f a c t , i n e v i t a b l e . . T h is i s c l e a r i n th e
^ ^ 2
c a s e o f H a i t i . "T o u te b e te a c c u le e f i n i t t o u jo u r s p a r m o rd re ", sa y s
G erard E tie n n e t o whom v io le n c e seems th e on ly r e l i a b l e .way o f r id d i n g
H a i t i o f i t s d i c t a t o r s h i p . I n th e c a s e o f th e F ren ch A n t i l l e s , p o l i t i
c a l v io le n c e i s o f a d i f f e r e n t s o r t , due t o t h e n a tu r e o f a system
3
c h a r a c t e r i z e d by i t s " v io l e n c e f e u t r e e e t s t r a t e g i q u e . " The most
325
fr e q u e n t e x p r e s s io n o f t h i s . s p e c i a l k in d o f v io le n c e i s t h e l a b o r -
s t r i k e . The p e r v a s iv e them e o f t h e s t r i k e in t h e n o v e ls from t h e French
A n t i l l e s d e p i c t s bo th th e d e s p e r a ti o n o f th o s e d r iv e n t o v i o le n c e as
t h e m ajo r means o f s o c i a l p r o t e s t p o s s i b l e , and th e v i o l e n t r e t a l i a
t o r y b e h a v io r o f th e sy stem fo u g h t a g a i n s t .
I n b o th c a s e s , a t th e i n d i v i d u a l and a t th e n a t i o n a l le v e l;, t h e
u s e o f v i o le n c e i s f o s t e r e d by p o w e rle s s n e s s and a p p e a rs i n t h e r e -
p e a te d c y c le o f v i o l e n c e - r e t a l i a t i o n - r e s i g n a t i o n ; f o r v i o le n c e i t s e l f
p ro v e s u s e l e s s i n b r in g in g about t h e changes i t i s in te n d e d t o o r i g i
n a t e .
I . A cts o f A g g re ssio n
" . . . l e r a p p o r t q u o t i d i e n a a u t r u i e s t en M a rtin iq u e s a t u r e de
4
v io le n c e an a c t e s . . . " T h is s ta te m e n t i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n M alem ort w here
D lan makes a l i s t o f a c ts o f a g g r e s s io n p e r p e t r a t e d by f r i e n d s o r
a s s o c i a t e s a g a in s t p a r e n t s o r r e l a t i v e s :
Un, P a p iu s , q u i a t u e s a c o n cu b in e a p re s combien d 'a n s de
m is e re e t d 'a c c e p t a t i o n i l a d e r a c in e en v e n tr e e t deux,
F o c i l l o n q u i a d e r a t e son f r e r e d ’un m o u lin e t p o u r un m or-
ceau de mur de c a s e e t t r o i s , Choucoune q u i a fen d u l a t e t e
de son papa p o u r l a d e fe n s e de s a g e n i t r i c e d 'u n s e u l t r a n -
c h a n t e t s i x mi l ie ., V in o lo q u i a coupe r a s l e s deux b ra s
de son v o i s i n p o u r une p o u le q u i a v a i t v o le t r o i s m e tre s
t r o p l o i n . . . ^
I n each c a s e , t h e a c t i s d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e t o th e a p p a re n t c a u s e , w hich
may be a mere q u a r r e l about an anim al o r an. u n f o r t u n a te i n s u l t , o r
may have no c a u se a t a l l as i n t h e c a s e o f P a p iu s , q u o te d .a b o v e . Each
tim e , th e a c t i s one o f d e s p a i r , a means o f r e l e a s i n g a n g u is h , a r e a c
326
t i o n a g a in s t p o w e rle s s n e s s tra n s fo r m e d i n t o a need t o a c t a t a l l c o s t s ,
even i f i t means t r a n s f e r r i n g o n to th e o th e r o n e 's own d e s i r e f o r s e l f -
d e s t r u c t i o n . I n each c a s e , th e p r o t a g o n i s t i s a t a l o s s t o e x p la in th e
m o tiv a tio n o f h i s a c t i o n b e c au se i t i s done b l i n d l y i n a moment o f
suprem e r a g e . The num bering o f D la n 's l i s t im p lie s t h a t i t i s s e l e c t i v e
and o n ly a c c o u n ts f o r a few among th e t r a g i c e p is o d e s w hich p u n c tu a te
t h e s o c i a l l i f e o f M a rtin iq u e . I n d i s c r i m i n a t e l y , i t i s p a r e n t s or
f r i e n d s who a r e s t r u c k , b e c au se t h e a g g re s s io n i s n o t r e l a t e d t o lo v e
o r f r i e n d s h i p b u t d i r e c t e d a t w hoever i s c l o s e s t a t t h e tim e .
I f Dlan on ly t e l l s o f such h a p p e n in g s , S i l a c i e r , who i s a more
d e m o n s tr a tiv e ly to rm e n te d c h a r a c t e r , a c ts one o u t. D u rin g a d ice -g am e ,
S i l a c i e r su d d e n ly a t t a c k s Nega and c u ts him a c ro s s t h e c h e s t , w h ile
Nega d e fe n d s h im s e lf w ith a r a z o r , s la s h i n g S i l a c i e r ' s w r i s t . When t h e
two men meet l a t e r a t t h e h o s p i t a l and d is c u s s t h e f i g h t , S i l a c i e r i s
u n a b le t o e x p la in why he t u r n e d on Nega. He does i t i n a k in d of
t r a n c e , h i s eyes b l u r r e d by a v i s i o n i n w hich B eautem ps, a modern ma
ro o n , N a in f o l, an a s s a s s i n a t e d p o l i t i c i a n and O d ib e r t, t h e man who v
t r i e d t o k i l l them b o th , a r e in te r m in g le d . Beautemps a tt a c k e d th e beke
who had ra p e d h i s w if e , th e n f l e d f o r sev en y e a r s , p u rsu e d by a p o l i c e
u n a b le t o t r a c e him and th u s becom ing, i n S i l a c i e r * s e y e s , a symbol o f
s u c c e s s f u l r e s i s t a n c e . N a in fo l was a s s a s s i n a t e d by, o f f i c i a l l y , nobody
knows who, i n f u l l view o f th e p o l i c e who c o u ld have s to p p e d th e k i l l e r
but d id n o t , b e c au se N a in fo l would have been e l e c t e d a g a i n s t th e w ish
o f h i s o p p o n e n t, M onsieur L e s p r.it, who had s o ld out t o t h e sy stem .
O d ib e r t, whom Beautemps r i g h t f u l l y s u s p e c ts o f b e in g t h e unknown
327
a s s a s s i n , s t a r t s c h a s in g him w ith a s i l v e r b u l l e t , u n d e r t h e p r e t e n s e
o f l e g a l l y a r r e s t i n g t h e b e k e 's a g g re s s o r; he i s d e te rm in e d t o s to p
B eautem ps' i n c r e d i b l e lu c k a t e s c a p in g h i s p u r s u e r s , b e c au se he, i s
a f r a i d o f b e in g e x e c u te d by him. Beautemps a n d .N a in fo l a r e b o th k i l l e d
a t t h e o r d e r o f M onsieur L e s p r i t , t h e s e c r e t a r y t o th e mayor and r e a l
h o l d e r o f th e p o l i t i c a l pow er, f o r whom O d ib e rt a c ts as an a p p o in te d
k i l l e r . T hus, i n th e s e t h r e e c h a r a c t e r s a r e embodied a l l t h e am b ig u i
t i e s o f t h e i s l a n d : t h e c o r r u p t io n o f th o s e p o l i t i c i a n s s o ld o u t t o t h e
a u t h o r i t i e s , t h e h e l p l e s s n e s s o f t h e i r o p p o n e n ts, and th e p e r v e r s i o n
o f a system o f j u s t i c e w hich s e r v e s t h e p o w e rfu l. A lthough S i l a c i e r
i s n o t aware o f i t , i t i s t h e s e im ages w hich im pel him to w ard Nega,
who happens t o be c lo s e by, i s M o n sie u r. L e s p r i t *.s d r i v e r and who, as
S i l a c i e r ' s a n g e r and f r u s t r a t i o n grow, su d d e n ly "becom es" O d ib e r t, th e
t r a i t o r . . The s u c c e s s io n o f m em ories w hich a s s a i l s S i l a c i e r ' s mind i s
t r i g g e r e d by .th e sound o f a drum, w hich he i n t e r p r e t s as two s h o ts
s i m i l a r t o th o s e t h a t k i l l e d N a in fo l.. S i l a c i e r ’ s g e s tu r e i s t h e c o n se
quence o f h i s u t t e r h e l p l e s s n e s s — O d ib e rt i s nowhere t o be found-— and
i s sim p ly an a tte m p t a t f r e e i n g h im s e lf , from t h e b i t t e r n e s s and d i s
couragem ent w hich have come o v e r him and w hich he c o n fe s s e s t o Nega
a f t e r th e f i g h t : " V o ila comment nous sommes, d i t - i l . I l . f a u t que l ’un
c r i e s u r 1 *a u t r e . I I f a u t que l ' u n m o n tre 1 ' a u tr e avec son d o ig t p o u r
l e d e n o n c e r. I I f a u t que l 'u n amene 1 ' a u t r e p a r l e b ra s p o u r l e f a i r e
v o t e r . I I f a u t que l 'u n dans son c o e u r m onte un monument p o u r a t t i r e r
l a m ort de 1 ' a u tr e " (p . 2 2 0 ) .
I n t h e c h a p te r o f L a V ie e t l a m ort de M arcel G o n stra n e n t i t l e d
328
"L a poupee m ex ic ain e " w hich in c lu d e s s e v e r a l s c e n e s o f l i f e i n M a rti
n iq u e , V in c e n t P la c o ly d e s c r i b e s a s t r e e t f i g h t betw een two men. I t i s
a f i g h t i n w hich b o th p a r t n e r s have o n ly one o b j e c t : t o g iv e o r . r e c e i v e
d e a th . T h ere i s no c a u se t o t h e i r c o n f l i c t . The a u th o r p r e s e n t s th e two
men as two f i g h t i n g c o c k s , th u s s i g n i f y i n g t h a t t h e i r a n g e r i s n o t
p e r s o n a l but t r i g g e r e d by o u t s i d e f o r c e s , and t h a t th e y aim t o k i l l ,
I n d e a th o n ly w i l l th e y f i n d p e a ce and b ro th e rh o o d . T h e ir v io le n c e i s
t h e i r m essage and d e a th i s t h e i r o n ly means o f s p re a d in g i t : " M a i s av an t
de m o u rir, q u ’i l p a r l e au monde de t o u t s u r l e to n de l a c o l e r e , c o le r e
o u v e r te , champ de t e r r e s a n s b o r n e s ." ^ The anonym ity o f t h e two men
g iv e s t h e sc e n e a g e n e r a l s i g n i f i c a n c e and s u g g e s ts t h a t su ch f i g h t s
a r e n o t an uncommon s i g h t i n th e s t r e e t s o f F o r t- d e - F r a n c e .
I n a n o th e r sc e n e w hich M arcel G o n stra n r e t a i n s as c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
o f l i f e i n h i s c o u n tr y , he r e c a l l s t h e e x e c u tio n o f a man by h i s two
b r o t h e r s . The m urdered man Ted a l i f e o f e x c e s s e s , d e d ic a ti n g h im s e lf
t o p l e a s u r e s as i f he had l i t t l e tim e t o e n jo y them o r as i f he w ere
t r y i n g t o f o r g e t h i s v e ry e x i s t e n c e . H is m other d e s c r i b e s him as a
demon, a man d r iv e n t o a n g e r by so m ething she ca n n o t u n d e r s ta n d . The
i n c i d e n t i s once a g a in t r i g g e r e d by an o th e r w is e i n s i g n i f i c a n t rem ark
o f t h e m o th er t o th e son who t u r n s on h e r . The t r a g i c a s p e c t o f th e
sc e n e i s h e ig h te n e d by th e a u t h o r 's d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e v a r io u s p r o ta g
o n i s t s : th e m o th er who i n a d v e r t e n t l y provokes h e r s o n 's a n g e r, h e r
shocked so rro w and h e r c o n fu s io n a t th e tra g e d y w hich s t r i k e s h e r fam
ily } th e d a u g h te r , h o r r i f i e d and p a r a ly z e d by fe a r} t h e two. b r o t h e r s ,
calm and e s t a b l i s h e d fam ily -m e n , who seem ingly k i l l t o p r o t e c t t h e i r
329
m o th e r, but w ith a d e te r m in a tio n and a s a v a g e ry w hich c a n n o t o n ly
stem from t h a t d e s i r e but rese m b le an a c t o f rev e n g e o r o f d e s p e r a t i o n .
M a rtin iq u e des c e n d re s opens w ith Z e p h y r in 's welcome t o a new
d ay . Z e p h y rin i s t h e o ld q u im b o is e u r whose power i s n o t g r e a t enough,
how ever, t o p r e v e n t Thomas l'E u g e n ie from succum bing t o i n s 'a n i ty .
Z e p h y r in 's s a l u t e t o t h e sun i s a p r e lu d e t o t h e l a t e n t v i o le n c e o f t h e
n o v e l, a c o n f e s s io n o f h i s h a t r e d f o r t h e beke and o f h i s d i s g u s t a t
t h e b e t r a y a l s o f h i s c o m p a tr io ts . Z e p h y rin em bodies t h e s o u l o f h i s
p e o p le , a m ix tu re o f h a t r e d , f e a r and d e s i r e f o r rev en g e w hich he s a t*
i s f i e s by means o f h i s m a g ic a l p o w ers, a lth o u g h even th o s e c a n n o t h e lp
him c o n q u er h i s a n g u is h . The o t h e r i n h a b i t a n t s o f B o u r g - la - F o lie do n o t
have Z e p h y r in 's s t r e n g t h and, one d a y , an un lu ck y l o v e r i s found d ead ,
h i s t h r o a t s l i t open by an e n ra g e d h usband; a n o th e r day, two women
have a h a n d -to -h a n d f i g h t i n f r o n t o f t h e c h u rc h , h u r li n g i n s u l t s a t
each o t h e r w h ile t h e i r a u d ie n c e ta k e s b e ts on t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e chan ces
o f w in n in g . A g ain , t h i s sc e n e i s im m e d ia te ly fo llo w e d by t h e d e s c r i p
t i o n o f a c o c k f ig h t d u r in g w hich a l l p a s s io n s and a l l a n g e rs a r e un
le a s h e d . The bloody v io le n c e o f 't h e c o c k f i g h t, w hich i s more th a n p u re
e n te r ta i n m e n t , i s o f th e same c h a r a c t e r as th e c o n f l i c t s w hich w i l l ,
l a t e r i n t h e n o v e l, t e a r t h e v i l l a g e a p a r t and w hich t h r e a t e n t h e l i f e
o f a l l th e v i l l a g e r s , f o r v io le n c e can s t r i k e anyone a t a n y tim e . J u s t
as f i g h t i n g c o c k s, t h e v i l l a g e r s a r e p i t t e d a g a i n s t one a n o th e r by t h e i :
p a s s i o n s , unaw are t h a t t h e s e a r e b e in g m a n ip u la te d from t h e o u tsid e ..
Thomas l 'E u g e n ie u n d e rs to o d t h i s phenomenon, as he once t o l d A lc ib ia d e
t h a t t h e i r c o n f l i c t s w ere e n g in e e re d by a system o f d iv id e - a n d - c o n q u e r .
330
I t i s i n such a random way t h a t J o d i a s , D e l i c e 's son i s a s s a s s i
n a te d . D e lic e f in d s h i s body h a n g in g from a tre e } she i s u n a b le t o
d i s c o v e r why he has been k i l l e d . No r e a s o n i s e v e r g iv e n f o r J o d i a s '
s e n s e l e s s d e a th . I t i s o n ly known t h a t th o s e who com m itted t h e crim e
d id n o t n e c e s s a r i l y n eed a m o tiv e , s in c e th e y l a t e r k i l l one a n o th e r
o v e r a p o r t i o n o f m eat.
One common d e n o m in a to r t o th e a c ts o f a g g r e s s io n d e s c r i b e d i n th e
n o v e ls i s t h e b e h a v io r o f th e o n lo o k e r s . When S i l a c i e r a t t a c k s Nega,
t h e o t h e r s make room f o r t h e f i g h t , form a c i r c l e ( t h e p i t t ) and w atch
i n s i l e n c e . No one a tte m p ts t o s e p a r a t e th e two men f i g h t i n g t o th e
d e a th i n th e s t r e e t . When Germain t h r e a t e n s A ngebert i n P l u i e e t v e n t
s u r Telumee M ir a c le , a g a in nobody t r i e s t o p r e v e n t t h e i n e v i t a b l e
f i g h t : "D epuis t o u j o u r s , chacun en a v a i t c o n n a is s a n c e au fond de l u i -
meme: Germain d e v a it t u e r - u n j o u r ou 1 ' a u t r e , i l e t a i t ne p o u r g.a, e t
ce p en d a n t n u l n 'a v a i t bouge lo r s q u e l e s deux hommes e t a i e n t s o r t i s de
l a b u v e t t e . ” ^ A ngebert h im s e lf se em in g ly ta k e s t h e c h a lle n g e l i g h t l y
and d is m is s e s t h e t h r e a t , w ith l a u g h t e r . But h i s b e h a v io r on t h e f a t a l
e v e n in g b e tr a y s h i s u n d e rs ta n d in g o f what i s t o come; he d r e s s e s c a r e
f u l l y and g e ts p s y c h o lo g i c a l ly re a d y f o r th e c o n f r o n t a t i o n as i f he
knew t h a t he was g o ing t o h i s d e a th .a n d a c c e p te d i t . To t h e s i l e n c e
w hich s u rro u n d s t h e b r i e f b a t t l e su c ce e d s chaos as t h e o t h e r s p ic k up
t h e f i g h t w hich A n g e b e rt, d y in g , can no lo n g e r c o n tin u e . Germain
becomes t h e i r s c a p e g o a t, t h e embodiment o f th e m a le d ic tio n w hich th e y
a l l f e a r and w hich ev e ry o n e ta k e s th e o p p o r tu n ity t o f i g h t a g a in s t
b e fo r e t h e a r r i v a l o f t h e p o l i c e . Germain h im s e lf seems t o have u n d e r
331
s to o d t h a t h i s r o l e was t o k i l l o r 'b e k i l l e d and t o subm it t o t h e
b e l i e f t h a t t h e c o u rs e o f h i s l i f e i s p re d e te rm in e d . A lthough he had
been w arned by A ngebert t h a t , i f he s t o l e h i s c r a y f i s h , he would be
k i l l e d , one d a y , he d e l i b e r a t e l y does s o , knowing t h e u n a v o id a b le con
seq u en ce o f h i s t h e f t . A ngebert and Germain w alk t o t h e i r d e a th w ith o u t
c o n s id e r in g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e outcome o f th e e p is o d e c o u ld be
o t h e r th a n what has been s e t . T h e ir a c c e p ta n c e o f t h e i r v i o l e n t end
t i e s i n w ith t h e i d e a o f f a t a l i t y and o f m a le d ic tio n a lr e a d y a n a ly z e d .
L a t e r i n t h e n o v e l, th e m urderous im p u lse s o f l ’ ange Medard a re a ls o
t h e f u l f i l l m e n t o f a r o l e w hich he h as been a s s ig n e d : "D ieu a v a i t f a i t
l ’ ange Medard p o u r co rro m p re l e monde e t c ’ e s t pouquoi l e monde! 1 ’ a v a i t
m arque, a v a i t p o se s u r l u i un coup de g r i f f e s d e f i n i t i f " (p p . 2 3 0 -3 1 ).
L ’ ange Medard was t h e v i c t i m o f u n w a rra n te d a g g r e s s io n o f t h e k in d
d e s c r i b e d e a r l i e r and w hich has l e f t him p h y s i c a l l y and p s y c h o lo g i c a l ly
m arked. From t h a t moment, h i s d e s ti n y i s .e s t a b l i s h e d . The o t h e r s se e
him as t h e b e a r e r o f a m a l e d ic t io n , as a man b e n t f o r v i o l e n c e , s e l f -
d e s t r u c t i o n and t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f o t h e r s . By t h e i r . a c t s o f r e j e c t i o n ,
th e y f o r c e l ’ ange Medard t o u se v io le n c e t o g a in r e c o g n i ti o n and th e y ,
make him f i t i n t o h i s r o l e by a g g r a v a tin g h i s n a t u r a l i n c l i n a t i o n f o r
e v i l . I n l ’ ange M edard, t h e v io le n c e and d e s t r u c t i v e n e s s o f t h e o th e r s
a r e c r y s t a l l i z e d . They w atch him , know t h a t he w i l l c a u se s o rro w , b u t
n e v e r t r y t o s to p himj j u s t as th e y n e v e r t r y t o s to p G erm ain, b e cau se
b o th men a re o u t l e t s f o r t h e i r own d e s p a i r , in s tr u m e n ts f o r t h e i r own
v i o l e n t i n c l i n a t i o n s . As th e y w itn e s s v i o l e n t a c t s , t h e s p e c t a t o r s
m o m e n ta rily f e e l a r e l e a s e o f t h e i r own d e s t r u c t i v e im p u ls e s ; t h a t i s
332
why th e f ig h t s are never stop p ed .
The v io le n c e o f l'a n g e Medard cannot be r a tio n a liz e d . I t i s born
o u t o f a l i f e o f .d e f e a t. By c o n t r a s t , t h e p o t e n t i a l v io le n c e w hich
i n h a b i t s Amboise i n t h e form o f m u rd e r-w ish e s can. be t r a c e d back t o h i s
s ta y i n F ra n ce and t o t h e h a t r e d he d e v e lo p e d from c o n ta c t w ith th e
W h ite s. T h is h a tr e d m a n if e s ts i t s e l f upon two o c c a s io n s : f i r s t , d u rin g
a s t r i k e , as he a t t a c k s a p o licem an w ith o u t knowing what im p e lle d himj
s e c o n d ly , i n t h e s t r e e t s o f P o i n t e - a - P i t r e , as he i s s e iz e d by an
u n c o n t r o l l a b l e u rg e t o m urder a w h ite man w a lk in g by: "Un j o u r , comme
i l v o y a it l ' u n d 'e u x s 'a v a n c e r l e lo n g du t r o t t o i r , i l r e s s e n t i t t o u t
a coup I 'e n v i e m y s te rie u s e de l u i o u v r i r l a g o rge avec un p e t i t co u -
8
t e a u . " Amboise cannot u n d e rs ta n d t h i s im p u lse , f o r he i s b a s i c a l l y
n o n - v io le n t and more drawn t o i n t r o s p e c t i o n th a n t o d e m o n s tra tiv e g e s
t u r e s . H is r e l u c t a n c e t o t a l k about h i s p a s t i n F ra n ce i s p r o o f t h a t
t h e s o u rc e o f h i s h a tr e d can be found t h e r e . I t i s born from h i s b e in g
t r e a t e d as non-hum an, as i n v i s i b l e i n th e s t r e e t s o f P a r i s , from b e in g
ig n o re d and h u m ilia te d by t h i s d e n ia l o f M s e x i s t e n c e . A g g re s sio n
would be a way o f s a t i s f y i n g h i s h a t r e d and o f m aking h i s p r e s e n c e
known t o th o s e W hites who a re i n h i s c o u n try but c o n tin u e t o behave
as i f i t w ere t h e i r s . A lthough A m boise's v i o le n c e i s n o t d i r e c t e d a t
h i s own k in d , as i n p r e v io u s e x am ples, i t i s j u s t as o b s e s s i v e , some
t h in g he can n e i t h e r command n o r d is m is s and, from w hich he has t o run
away. H aving a more s o p h i s t i c a t e d u n d e rs ta n d in g o f h i s •environm ent th a n
Germain o r l 'a n g e M edard, Amboise i s a b le t o d i s c e r n t h e d a n g e r o f
y i e l d i n g t o h i s m urderous d r i v e . He d e c id e s t h a t he must i s o l a t e h im s e lf
333
from th e W hites and le a v e s th e c i t y fo r th e woods.
I s o l a t i o n i s a ls o Thomas 1 ' E u g e n ie 's c h o ic e i n M a rtin iq u e des
c e n d re s a f t e r h i s b r i e f b u t d e s t r u c t i v e commitment t o an in s a n e asylum .
He r e g a in s h i s b a la n c e by c o n ta c t w ith n a t u r e , away from th e b r u t a l i t y
o f th e s o c i e t y i n w hich he l i v e s . R e tu rn in g t o t h e v i l l a g e , he s ig n s
h i s own con d em n atio n , f o r h i s id e a lis m has no p l a c e among o t h e r men and
t h e i r b a t t l e s f o r power and money. A lthough Thomas i s a p e a c e f u l man a t
h e a r t , he to o r e s o r t s t o v io le n c e when th e b e t r a y a l o f h i s hopes has
l e f t him p o w e r le s s , and he n eeds more th a n a lc o h o l t o r e l i e v e t h e t e n - ,
s io n s w i t h in him . I n a moment o f b l in d and unprovoked a n g e r, he t u r n s
a g a in s t O sana, s e e k in g t o s h a t t e r h e r a t t e n t i v e com posure. Osana r e s i s t s
however} she knows what d r iv e s Thomas on, h a v in g e x p e rie n c e d as a c h i l d
th e a n g e r and d e s p e r a ti o n o f h e r f a t h e r , h i s b e a tin g s and h i s q u a r r e l s
w ith h e r b r o t h e r , and h a v in g f l e d i t a l l o n ly t o f i n d i t a g a in i n
Thomas' i n s a n i t y . E l i e to o r e g u l a r l y b e a ts Telum ee, when he needs t o
v e n t h i s a n g e r and h i s h e l p l e s s n e s s . He ta k e s p l e a s u r e i n o v erp o w erin g
h e r b e cau se sh e i s t h e o n ly p e rs o n he can c o n t r o l i n h e r d e s i r e t o see
him w e ll a g a in . S e n sin g h e r p i t y , he becomes a l l t h e more f u r i o u s a t
h e r and, u n c o n s c io u s ly , a t h im s e lf ; When sh e shows s ig n s o f re c o v e ry
and o f w a n tin g t o c o n tin u e w ith h e r l i f e , he comes back t o d e f e a t h e r
and h u m il ia t e h e r , b e c au se sh e does n o t know t h e k in d o f w eakness he
knows and has n o t g iv e n u p . Telumee i s E l i e ' s s c a p e g o a t,, th e one p e rs o n
he can blam e, i n s u l t and h u r t now t h a t he h im s e lf h a s l o s t a l l a b i l i t y
t o r e a c t and no lo n g e r knows who he i s and w here he b e lo n g s .
T h is v i o le n c e and a g g r e s s i v i t y t a k e many fo rm s, from v e r b a l abuse
334
t o m u rd er. T hese a c tio n s a r e p a r t o f t h e " la n d s c a p e " o f t h e F ren ch
A n t i l l e s . C h ild re n grow up w itn e s s in g them w ith o u t u n d e rs ta n d in g what
i s h a p p e n in g , i n t e r i o r i z i n g p a t t e r n s o f b e h a v io r w hich may l a t e r
become t h e i r s . I b a 's r e c o l l e c t i o n s of- such e v e n ts a re o n ly im ag es, but
t h e s e im ages a r e t e l l i n g i n t h e i r b r e v i t y : " J e me r a p p e l l e quand meme
un homme fo u q u i c i r c u l e , c o d te l a s a l a c e i n t u r e , p r e t a d e g a in e r ;
de je u n e s femmes q u i c o u re n t dans l e s ru e s to ta le m e n t n u es; de com bats
s a n g la n t s e n t r e bandes r i v a l e s , sa n s com pter l e s non m oins t e r r i b l e s
^ 9
com bats de la n g u e q u i s e d e r o u le n t q u o tid ie n n e m e n t p a r d i z a i n e s . "
P a t r i c e C e l a t, M ycea's o l d e r so n , makes o f v i o le n c e a way o f l i f e .
I t i s h i s o n ly i n t e r e s t and t h e f a v o r i t e t o p i c o f h is r e a d i n g s . He
f i l l s th e v o id i n s i d e .h im w ith n o is e and sp e ed ; h i s f a s c i n a t i o n f o r
d a n g e r and d e a th i s t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f h i s unavowed but r e a l d e s i r e
t o d i e . P a t r i c e C e la t i s o l a t e s h im s e lf i n th e company o f h i s m a c h in e s,
com m unicating o n ly w ith h i s m o th er who t r i e s i n v a in t o make him u n d e r
s ta n d h i s own b e h a v io r: " E x p liq u a n t a P a t r i c e l a v io le n c e sans, c a u s e ,
e t q u ' i l n ' e t a i t pas o r i g i n a l dans s e s d e b o rd em en ts, pas p lu s que ceux
q u i aux a l e n t o u r s s 'e n t r e t u a i e n t . p o u r une a i l e de v o i t u r e c a b o s s e e ou
p o u r un m outon e g a re dans une l i s i e r e . " ^ She a tte m p ts t o d i r e c t h i s
a t t e n t i o n t o o t h e r t h i n g s , but t o no a v a i l . She p e r c e iv e s t h e re a s o n
f o r h e r s o n 's b e h a v io r and knows t h a t he i s o n ly t r y i n g t o f o r g e t t h e
m e a n in g le s s n e s s o f h i s l i f e , but sh e can do n o th in g t o h e lp him , s in c e
sh e h e r s e l f s u f f e r s from t h e same a f f l i c t i o n . P a t r i c e C e la t i s k i l l e d
in a m o to rc y c le a c c i d e n t. M arie C e la t* s two s o n s , P a t r i c e , t h e v i o l e n t
one and Odono, t h e i n d i f f e r e n t one, a r e k i l l e d by t h e i r o b s e s s io n s ;
335
th e y have made o p p o s ite c h o ic e s t o cope w ith t h e vacuum o f t h e i r l i v e s :
P a t r i c e chooses n o i s e , w h ile Odono l o s e s h im s e lf i n t h e s i l e n c e o f th e
o cean . But n e i t h e r c h o ic e i s good} and bo th le a d t o t r a g e d y . M arie
C e la t s ta n d s midway betw een t h e m . o s c i l l a t i n g betw een O dono's i n d i f f e r
ence and P a t r i c e ’ s o u t b u r s t s , t h e two a t t i t u d e s m ost c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f
th e l i f e sh e knows. She i s w a i ti n g , t r y i n g t o go beyond a p p e a ra n c e s t o
d e te rm in e w hich d i r e c t i o n t o t a k e . T hat h e r p o s i t i o n i s t h e m ost d i f f i
c u l t i s p ro v en by h e r bout w ith i n s a n i t y , f o r she c a n n o t f in d re fu g e
i n i l l u s o r y dream s. But .it p ro v e s to be th e o n ly f r u i t f u l o n e, f o r she
e v e n tu a ll y co n q u ers i n s a n i t y and d e c id e s t o l i v e f o r h e r c o u n tr y .
W hether th e y r e s u l t i n d e a th o r n o t, a g g r e s s iv e a c t s a re .a lw a y s
p r i m a r i l y s e l f - d e s t r u c t i v e . They can be p r o v o c a tio n s r e s u l t i n g i n
in te n d e d d e a th o r g e s tu r e s o f r e v o l t born from t h e i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f
b e in g h e a rd o r u n d e rs to o d , i n w hich c a s e th e y a p p e a r as t h e o n ly way
o f c o n f r o n tin g p o w e rle s s n e s s in o n e s e l f o r i n th e o t h e r s . When t h e r e
a re no o t h e r a l t e r n a t i v e s , t h e need t o a c t p r e v a i l s 1 , " . . . e t i l s c h e r -
c h e n t dans l ’e n to u r i l s c h e rc h e n t sans v o i r i l s ne v e u le n t p lu s v o i r
i l s tom bent i l s s 'a c c r o c h e n t a n 'i m p o r te qu o i q u i t a i l l e tr a n c h e co u -
t e a u r a s o i r c o u te l a s n 'i m p o r te q u o i q u i coupe l a d r i s s e l e cordon i l s
f r a p p e n t dans l 'e a u t r o u b l e e de l e u r v is a g e . .
V io le n c e a t th e p e r s o n a l l e v e l i s n o t found i n t h e n o v e ls o f
H a i t i , j u s t as s u i c i d e i s n o t , and f o r t h e same r e a s o n s . W hateverr.vio-
le n c e and r e v o l t may e x i s t i n th e i n d iv i d u a l i s r e l e a s e d th ro u g h Voo
doo, a r e l i g i o n o f v i o l e n t and r e t a l i a t o r y n a t u r e . The b lo o d in e s s o f
t h e p e a s a n t n o v e ls o f th e f i r s t h a l f o f t h e c e n tu r y was blamed
336
on Voodoo p r a c t i c e s w hich a llo w f o r p e r s o n a l rev e n g e and j u s t i f y i t .
I t was e s t a b l i s h e d , how ever, t h a t Voodoo was n o t t h e c a u se o f such
v io le n c e b u t an e a sy j u s t i f i c a t i o n , t h a t t h e c a u se was t o be found i n
t h e m is e ry and i n t h e h e l p l e s s n e s s of: t h e p e a s a n t . (See c h ap . 2) I n
co n tem p o rary n o v e ls , t h e p e r v a s iv e v i o le n c e o f th e regim e d e s c r ib e d by
G erard E tie n n e , as w e ll as th e d a i l y f i g h t f o r s u r v i v a l i n w hich t h e
m a j o r it y o f t h e p o p u la tio n i s engaged, le a v e few o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r
s e l f - d e s t r u c t i v e a c ts o f v io le n c e o r a g g r e s s iv e b e h a v io r i n t h e i n d i
v i d u a l . C o n sta n t c o n f r o n t a t io n s born o u t o f m is e ry e x i s t a t th e v e r b a l
l e v e l , exam ples o f w hich can be found i n F i l s de m is e re o r i n Ma F ia n
c e e des g r a n g e r s , a g g r e s s iv e im p u lse s a r e v e n te d th ro u g h Voodoo c u r s e s ,
b u t t h e s e do n o t end i n a c t u a l p h y s ic a l c o n f l i c t s . M oreover, t h e d i c t a
t o r s h i p h a s u n d e rs to o d t h e u s e f u l n e s s o f Voodoo as a means o f c o n t r o l
l i n g p o t e n t i a l v i o l e n c e , and i t s encouragem ent u n d e r c u l t u r a l p r e t e n s e s
f u l f i l l s t h i s p u rp o s e . Hence G erard E t i e n n e 's condem nation o f t h e
p e r v e r s io n o f th e Voodoo r e l i g i o n i n co n tem porary H a i t i .
I I . V io le n c e as S o c ia l P r o t e s t
I f a regim e o r a governm ent i s f e l t t o be v i o l e n t , o p p o s itio n
w i l l i n e v i t a b l y t a k e th e form o f v i o l e n t c o n f r o n t a t io n o r o f a c ts t h a t
a r e th e o c c a s io n f o r r e t a l i a t i o n . T h is exchange o f v io le n c e i s e n d le s s
and n o t n e c e s s a r i l y aimed a t o b t a in in g p r e c i s e s o c i a l c h a n g e s. O fte n
tim e s i t w i l l happen i n r e a c t i o n t o a s e t o f e v e n ts le a d in g t o sudden
u p r i s i n g s o r m assiv e g e s tu r e s o f r e v o l t w hich sim p ly ru n t h e i r c o u rs e
and d ie o u t. To t h i s k in d o f sp o n ta n e o u s v io le n c e sh o u ld be opposed
337
t h e s t r i k e , w hich i s alw ays d i r e c t e d to w ard a g o a l. I n co n tem p o rary
n o v e ls , how ever, th e s t r i k e has come t o embody t h e v io le n c e o f th e
regim e more th a n th e r e s i s t a n c e o f an o rg a n iz e d o p p o s it i o n .
The s p o n ta n e i ty and su d d en n ess o f v i o l e n t p o p u la r re s p o n s e s i s
shown i n an e p is o d e o f V in c e n t P l a c o l y 's n o v e l La V ie e t l a m ort de
M arcel G o n s tra n . On h i s way back from a v i s i t t o h i s f i a n c e e , a man
comes a c ro s s b a r r i c a d e s . No e x p la n a tio n i s g iv e n as t o t h e r e a s o n f o r
t h e s e b a r r i c a d e s . They a r e a f a c t opposed t o th e h a p p in e s s o f t h e man
who i s re a d y t o b u r s t i n t o song when he .e n c o u n te rs v io le n c e b o th in
h im s e lf and o u t s i d e . S e e in g a man s h o t from b e h in d , he im m e d ia te ly
k i l l s t h e k i l l e r as i f he had been i n r e a d in e s s f o r t h i s o r any o t h e r
c o n f r o n t a t i o n . The b r u t a l i t y o f b o th d e a th s j o l t s him , a lth o u g h he does
n o t im m ed ia te ly r e a l i z e t h a t he h im s e lf has k i l l e d . He w i t n e s s e s t h e
a c t as i f i t w ere com m itted by a n o th e r , o r by a n o th e r p a r t o f h i m s e lf ,
w h ile he i s s t i l l e n g ro s s e d i n t h e m em ory/of h i s r e c e n t v i s i t . "E t v o i -
l a , quand j e v i s c e t homme t u e , m a s s a c re a bout p o r t a n t , mon p e t i t
bo u t de r a s o i r m 'a saute* dans l a m ain, courbe comme une v o i l e , s u r ,
12
r a p id e e t b ie n t r a n c h a n t . " The b lo o d he has shed does n o t f r i g h t e n
him; he a c c e p ts i t as n e c e s s a r y and i n e v i t a b l e , as p a r t o f h i s d e s ti n y .
The e p is o d e i s t o l d i n t h e f i r s t p e r s o n , s o b e r ly and d e l i b e r a t e l y , th e n
s w itc h e s t o t h e second p e rs o n as th e n a r r a t o r a d d re s s e s th e a g g r e s s o r ,
t h a t i s , th e p o l i c e whose r e a d in e s s t o f i g h t d u p l i c a t e s h is own,
a l t h o u g h ,' from th e b e g in n in g , t h e f i g h t i s n o t on e q u a l te rm s : " F u s i l s ,
c a s q u e s , a u t o m i t r a i l l e u s e s c o n tr e c e bout de r a s o i r q u i c h a u f f a i t comme
un p e t i t s o l e i l dans ma poche ( p . 5 8 ). The e p is o d e ends w ith t h e m an's
338
im p riso n m en t. He f e e l s n e i t h e r rem orse n o r g u i l t s i n c e , v io le n c e b e in g
f o rc e d upon him , a l l he d id was re s p o n d w ith t h e same v i o l e n c e . The
c o n c is e n e s s o f t h i s s h o r t e p is o d e r e i n f o r c e s i t s i n e v i t a b i l i t y . I t
comes th ro u g h as a s o r t o f f a b l e d e f i n i n g th e n a tu r e o f s o c i a l r e l a *
t i o n s i n M a rtin iq u e and t h e i r c o n se q u e n c e s.
The e r u p t i o n o f mob v i o le n c e i n F o r t- d e - F r a n c e i n th e f i n a l chap
t e r o f l/E a u - d e - m o r t g u i l d i v e i s a ls o u n a v o id a b le . T e n sio n betw een th e
p o o r and t h e r i c h , t h e e x p l o i t e r and t h e e x p l o i t e d , t h e p e o p le and th e
p o l i c e , b u i ld s th ro u g h o u t t h e n o v e l. I t a l l b e g in s w ith th e t r i a l o f
f o u r c o n s t r u c t i o n w o rk ers and t h e i r u n w a rra n te d im p riso n m en t. T h ere
fo llo w s an e p is o d e o f sudden v io le n c e r e s u l t i n g from t h e c o n f r o n t a t i o n
o f Dolm inche w ith an o r d in a r y man o f t h e p e o p le whom he a c c u se s o f
t h e f t . The u n s c ru p u lo u s Dolm inche i s n o t l i k e d ; he has a c q u ir e d w e a lth
th ro u g h d u b io u s d e a lin g s and i s f e l t t o be a t r a i t o r t o h i s c o m p a trio ts
D uring t h e q u a r r e l , i t i s im p o s s ib le t o d e te rm in e who t e l l s t h e t r u t h
and, i r o n i c a l l y , th e o n ly man who c o u ld t e s t i f y f o r th e a c cu se d i s h i s
d e a f and dumb em ployer, Synge. M eanw hile, th e a n g e r o f t h e crowd grows
s t e a d i l y . F i r s t , scream s a r e h e a rd , th e n i n s u l t s d i r e c t e d a t Dolm inche;
s u d d e n ly , so m ething i s throw n a t a p o l i c e o f f i c e r who c o l l a p s e s ; a s h o t
im m e d ia te ly f o llo w s , k i l l i n g Synge, whose f o rc e d s i l e n c e made him
i n n o c e n t. The sc e n e i s one o f t o t a l c o n fu s io n w here h a tr e d ta k e s o v e r.
The two men a r e k i l l e d by p e rs o n s unknown, f o r re a s o n s unknown. Conse
q u e n tl y , t e n s i o n mounts on b o th s i d e s , t h e p o l i c e w a n tin g t o rev e n g e
t h e i r dead w h ile th e p o p u la c e w an ts t o make them pay f o r S y n g e 's d e a th .
The e s c a l a t i o n o f v io le n c e c o n tin u e s w ith th e d is c o v e r y , som etim e l a t e r
339
9
o f th e body o f Giap, one o f th e n ow -released c o n str u c tio n workers
who had sworn t o avenge h i m s e lf . The' sc en e o f t h e a s s a s s i n a t i o n i s
d e s c r ib e d ! " T r o is hommes aux yeux m in c is l e f r a p p a n t sa n s ra g e n i h a i n e ,
m ais avec une p a ti e n c e surhum aine de l e s u iv r e e t de l e p o u r s u iv r e
% 13
p a r - d e l a s a m o rt." Of t h e two w itn e s s e s o f t h e e v e n t, one i s b l in d
and th e o t h e r i s s i l e n c e d w ith a t h r e a t . (The im ages o f p h y s ic a l hand
ic a p u se d i n t h e c a s e o f Synge and in t h i s c a s e sy m b o liz e t h e h e l p l e s s
n e s s o f t h e humble p e o p le i n th e f a c e o f o rg a n iz e d e x p l o i t a t i o n . ) I t i s
n e v e r known who com m itted t h e c rim e , a lth o u g h i t i s assumed t o be some
one i n th e pay o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n company w hich em ployed and p r o s e c u te d
G iap. T h is l a s t ev e n t in fla m e s F o r t- d e - F r a n c e . The f i n a l c h a p te r, o f t h e
n o v e l p i c t u r e s th e c i t y d e v o u red by f i r e , w ith t h e r a t t l e o f m achine
guns i n t h e b ackground, and in v a d e d by a p o p u la tio n w hich aims a t
d e s t r u c t i o n , " . . . u n p e u p le aux d e n ts de lo u p , p o r t a n t a bout de b ra s
des nuages d ’ in c e n d ie e t des bombes m e u r t r i e r e s , f e i n t a i t l a n u i t ,
c o n fo n d a it s a defgaine a l a m o ite u r du j o u r , s e f a i s a i t p o u r d e f a i r e ,
a v a n g a it p o u r r e c u l e r , accum ulant des jo n ch e e s de t e r r e u r . . . " (p . 213)
I n th e m id s t o f t h i s d i s o r d e r , y o u th s ro b th e s t o r e s w hich d is p l a y
i n a c c e s s i b l e l u x u r i e s . When one o f them , H a n d -B a ll, i s k i l l e d , th e up
r i s i n g s t a r t s anew, w ith t h e d e c l a r a t i o n t h a t h i s d e a th and t h a t o f
Giap w i l l be aven g ed . But t h i s r e v o l t is . i n e f f e c t u a l , as t h e p o l i c e '
r e g a in c o n t r o l . The b la z e o f v io le n c e w i l l be e x ti n g u is h e d and d ie of
i t s own a c c o rd , h a v in g f u l f i l l e d i t s f u n c tio n as an o u t l e t f o r accumu
l a t e d a n g e r and d e s i r e t o d e s tr o y . The c i t y w i l l be p e a c e f u l u n t i l
o t h e r i n j u s t i c e s and o t h e r a c ts o f e x p l o i t a t i o n make t e n s i o n grow t o
340
th e p o in t o f e x p lo s io n .
Such sp o n ta n e o u s u p r i s i n g s le a d now here. A lthough th e y may tem po
r a r i l y f u l f i l l a need f o r a c t i o n , th e y a r e i n e f f e c t u a l i n c h a n g in g th e
sy stem ; on th e c o n tr a r y , th e y g iv e t h e a u t h o r i t i e s i n p la c e an ex cu se
f o r t i g h t e n i n g t h e i r g r i p . They a re as u s e l e s s as th e o t h e r a g g r e s s iv e
a c t s , as f u t i l e as A le x is A c c i u s 's p e r s o n a l g e s t u r e o f r e v o l t " l e j o u r
ou i l q u i t t a l a p l a i n e , a p re s a v o ir c re v e l e s yeux d 'u n g ro s v o le u r
14
de t e r r e . " R io ts alw ays provoke r e p r e s s i o n and. c a u se s e n s e l e s s d e a th s
among t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s , such as t h a t o f H a n d -B a ll, t h a t o f t h e man
f i g h t i n g t h e b a r r i c a d e s , o r t h a t w itn e s s e d by I b a i n Agodome-^Dachine:
"Un j o u r , f l e s gendarmes] s e s o n t e n f u is sous une g r e l e de p i e r r e s
en t i r a n t s u r l a f o u le . J l a i s u r s a u t e au b r u i t des d e to n a t io n s , m ais l a
c u r i o s i t e a e t e l a p lu s f o r t e e t j ' a i re g a r d e p a r l e s p e r s i e n n e s : un
homme, d e b o u t, p e r d a i t t o u t son sang p a r l a g o rg e .
The b e s t example o f th e f u t i l i t y o f such d e m o n s tra tio n s i s t o be
found i n F i l s de m is e r e . As p r e v i o u s ly m e n tio n e d , th e a u th o r s t r e s s e s
from t h e b e g in n in g t h e i l l u s o r y q u a l i t y o f th e r e v o l t : l e d by young
men who c a n n o t e v a lu a te t h e s o l i d i t y o f t h e regim e th e y a re s e e k in g t o
c h a ll e n g e , i t i s b o u n d ,to f a i l . B e s id e s , th e y a re unaw are o f t h e i r
b e in g m a n ip u la te d by dem agogues, by th o s e who a re " ...r o m p u s a ce je u
g ra m m a tic a l, t r a d i t i o n n e l e t s e c u l a i r e , l e s p o l i t i c i e n s p r o f e s s i o n n e l s ,
l e s e t e r n e l s o p p o sa n ts a to u s l e s r e g i m e s " , ^ whose u l t i m a t e end i s t o
a p p r o p r i a t e pow er. The p o p u la tio n i s m y s t i f i e d by p o l i t i c a l te rm s i t
does n o t u n d e rs ta n d and w hich M a rie -T h e re s e Colimon r i g h t f u l l y p e r
c e iv e s as b e in g n o th in g b u t m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s , " . . . l a te r m in a is o n en
341
'i s t e * a c c o le e au nom de son l e a d e r , ce q u i d o n n a it une n o u v e lle a p p e l
l a t i o n dont i l s s ' a f f u b l a i e n t chacun s u iv a n t son groupe" ( p . 1 9 2 ).
D uring such e v e n ts , i t i s alw ays t h e in n o c e n t who p ay , th o s e who have
been made t o b e li e v e in f a ls e h o o d , th e p a s s e r s - b y , o r th o s e who, l i k e
L a m e rc ie , a r e co n c ern e d f o r th e w e l l- b e in g of t h e i r c h i l d r e n , husband
o r r e l a t i v e , but n e v e r t h e i n s t i g a t o r s who, from above, p u l l th e
s t r i n g s . R e z ia R e g u lie r , who l o s t h e r f ia n c e i n one o f t h e s e i l l u s o r y
u p r i s i n g s , u n d e rs ta n d s t h i s s t a t e o f a f f a i r s : "E t ces a d u lt e s q u i ,
t a p i s dans 1 ' ombre, a v a ie n t consciem inent ou non p o u sse s au b o rd de
l 'a b i m e des je u n e s e t r e s i n s o u c i a n t s du d a n g e r, ne s e n t a i e n t - i l s pas
que l e moment e t a i t a r r i v e p o u r eux de jo u e r l e u r p a r t i t i o n ? Ou se
c a c h a i e n t - i l s ? Q u 'a t t e n d a i e n t - i l s ? ( p . 196) The f a t e o f th e s tu d e n t s i s
s e a l e d and r e p r e s s i o n w i l l f o llo w .
A ll p o l i t i c a l games a r e s u f f u s e d w ith v i o le n c e ; t h i s means t h a t
n o th in g can be o b ta in e d th ro u g h p o l i t i c a l c h a n n e ls . N a in fo l i s k i l l e d
i n M alemort b e cau se he had w anted t o speak f o r h i s p e o p le i n s t e a d o f
c o o p e r a tin g w ith th e sy ste m . I n D e lic e e t l e fro m a g e r, O r v i l l e r e c a l l s
t h e a s s a s s i n a t i o n s o f A n to in e S ig e r and Andre A l i k e r . I n b o th c a s e s ,
d e a th was tra n s fo r m e d i n t o a t r a v e s t y o f j u s t i c e .
The n e x t weapon i s t h a t o f t h e s t r i k e . I t i s a v i o l e n t a c t i n i t
s e l f , but i t i s a r i g h t g r a n te d by t h e law and an o rg a n iz e d form o f
p r o t e s t and r e d r e s s . B ut, i t s e f f e c t i v e n e s s i s p r o b le m a t ic a l as th e
f o llo w in g exam ples w i l l show.
M arie C e la t i s b r i e f l y in v o lv e d i n l a b o r b a t t l e s . She o r g a n iz e s
c o n f e r e n c e s , g iv e s sp e e c h e s i n th e hope o f s e e in g t h e suprem acy o f th e
342
beke o v e rth ro w n . But h e r e n th u sia sm i s soon r e p la c e d by th e s k e p tic is m
w hich w i l l s u b s e q u e n tly c h a r a c t e r i z e h e r a t t i t u d e tow ard p o l i t i c s and
s o c i a l m ovem ents. Le Fou s h a re s t h i s s k e p tic is m : "J* a i 'g r e v e ' a
chaque f o i s que l e mot d 'o r d r e e t a i t donne, meme s i a l a lo n g u e , j 'a v a i s
de m oins en m oins l a c o n v ic t io n que nos a r r e t s de t r a v a i l s i g n i f i a i e n t
q u e lq u e chose e t s e r v a i e n t a q u e lq u e c h o s e . T h e i r s k e p tic is m i s
j u s t i f i e d by t h e f a c t t h a t most s t r i k e s f a i l t o p ro d u ce r e s u l t s and a l l
end i n tr a g e d y .
Doudou, i n Le F o lilo q u e en ou d i e s e m in e u r, was among th o s e who
b e lie v e d t h a t a s t r i k e can s e rv e t o d e m o n s tra te t h e urg en cy o f s e e k in g
change. She saw i t as a g e s t u r e , n o t n e c e s s a r i l y aimed a t o b t a in in g
im m ediate s o c i a l im provem ent, b u t a t m aking th e a u t h o r i t i e s aware o f
th e e v e n tu a l dan g ero u s conseq u en ces o f t h e i r la c k o f c o n c ern f o r th e
economic, s i t u a t i o n o f t h e i s l a n d . I n h i s n a r r a t i v e , l e Fou i n s i s t s upon
h e r e n th u s ia sm and h e r jo y a t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t th e day o f g e n e r a l
p r o t e s t i n w hich sh e i s t o p a r t i c i p a t e m ight be s u c c e s s f u l . Memories
o f h e r l o v e l i n e s s and v i t a l i t y p re c e d e th e b r u t a l announcem ent o f h e r
d e a th d u rin g th e d e m o n s tra tio n . T here was no d e s i r e f o r v io le n c e i n her.
j u s t t h e c o n v ic t io n t h a t she was w orking a t th e im provement o f t h e
s o c i e t y o f h e r c o u n tr y . D oudou's d e a th i s u s e l e s s and m e a n in g le s s .
W ith in t h r e e months i t i s f o r g o t t e n , and a l l h e r f r i e n d s and c o lle a g u e s
have gone back t o t h e i r l i v e s o f d e l i b e r a t e i n d i f f e r e n c e . For l e Fou,
t h e v io le n c e o f t h e sy ste m and th e a p a th y o f th e p o p u la tio n a r e b o th ,
and e q u a ll y , t o be blam ed.
A m boise's d e a th , i n P l u i e e t v e n t s u r Telumee M ir a c le , comes j u s t
343
as su d d e n ly d u rin g a s t r i k e m eant t o o b t a i n a n .i n c r e a s e i n t h e .c a n e -
c u t t e r s ' s a l a r y . Amboise i s ch o sen t o sp eak t o t h e beke b e c a u se he can
e x p re s s h im s e lf i n F ren ch and b e cau se o f h i s q u i e t a u t h o r i t y . Amboise
i s n o t k i l l e d by th e p o l i c e b u t b u rned t o d e a th by steam s u r r e p t i t i o u s l y
r e l e a s e d o v e r th e d e le g a ti o n by someone i n s i d e t h e f a c t o r y . H is h o r r i
b le d e a th c o n t r a s t s w ith t h e p e a c e f u ln e s s o f h i s sp eech and h i s non
v i o l e n t a t t i t u d e d u rin g h i s b r i e f b u t u n p ro d u c tiv e c o n v e r s a tio n w ith
t h e f a c t o r y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e . As i n D oudou's c a s e , th e k i l l e r i s n e v e r
a p p re h e n d e d ,c a h d A m boise's d e a th i s l e f t u n p u n ish e d . H is t r a g i c end
i s n o t how ever, c o m p le te ly u s e l e s s . A lthough i t i s fo llo w e d by r e p r e s
s io n and t h e im m ediate r e t u r n t o work o f t h e s t r i k e r s , t h e s e a r e l a t e r
aw arded t h e r a i s e th e y had r e q u e s te d , as soon as th e y ..resume w o rk in g .
O f f i c i a l l y , o f c o u r s e , A m boise’ s d e a th has n o th in g t o do w ith t h i s
d e c is i o n ; i t i s p r e s e n t e d .a s t h e f a c t o r y 's g e s tu r e o f g o o d w ill tow ard
t h e s t r i k e r s . The f a c t o r y th u s means t o s i g n i f y t o them t h a t th e y
c a n n o t, as Amboise had hoped, ta k e t h e i r f a t e i n t o t h e i r own hands
a n d , a t t h e same tim e , c a r e f u l l y a v e r t s t h e r i s k o f a n o th e r s t r i k e by
f u l f i l l i n g t h e demands o f th e w o rk e rs , b u t a t t h e c o s t o f A m boise's
l i f e .
I t i s t h e f e a r o f r e t a l i a t i o n o f th e p o p u la tio n w hich c h a r a c t e r
i z e s I b a 's ac co u n t o f a s t r i k e i n Agodom e-Dachine. As th e w o rk e rs
d e m o n s tra te i n t h e s t r e e t s , th e i n h a b i t a n t s o f th e town lo c k th e m se lv e s
i n s i d e t h e i r h o u s e s . T h e ir f e a r f u l a t t i t u d e i s opposed t o t h e i v i o l e n c e
and t e m e r i ty o f th e s t r i k i n g w o rk e rs who show f r i g h t e n i n g d e te r m i n a ti o n ,
" . . . p a r l a v ig u e u r de s e s m ains d 'a c i e r trem p e, b r a n d ie s j u s q u 'a u c i e l ,
344
e l l e f a i t f r e m ir de h o n te ce bourg a b o u liq u e e t am orphe!" From I b a 's
p o i n t o f v iew , th e s t r i k e r s a re h e ro e s who, t o his;.am azem ent b elo n g t o
h i s own w o rld as he r e c o g n iz e s h i s g randm other among th e d e m o n s tra to rs .
I n t h i s n o v e l, t h e s t r i k e i s n o t c h a r a c t e r i z e d as an i s o l a t e d e v e n t,
b u t p r e s e n te d as a g e s tu r e o f r e v o l t fo re b o d in g o t h e r r e v o l t s t o come.
At t h e same tim e , t h e r e i s a b i t t e r n e s s i n th e to n e o f th e p a ssa g e
w hich im p lie s t h a t t h e c ry f o r j u s t i c e o f t h e s t r i k e w i l l n o t be met
w ith s u c c e s s and t h a t th e d a n g e r o f r e p r e s s i o n and tr a g e d y looms o v e r
t h e e n th u s ia sm and id e a l is m o f a l l , e s p e c i a l l y s in c e t h e i r g e s tu r e i s
i s o l a t e d by t h e m a jo r ity o f th e p o p u l a t i o n 's f e a r .
D e te rm in a tio n t o be h e a rd a ls o m o tiv a te s t h e p e a s a n ts o f th e group
" L ib e r te " headed by G i l b e r t i n Mon Examen de b l a n c . D i s tr e s s e d by th e
m e c h a n iz a tio n o f t h e c u t t i n g o f t h e c a n e , th e y want t o make t h e i r
d is a p p r o v a l known by d e s tr o y in g t h e m achines and s e t t i n g , t h e c a n e - f i e l d s
on f i r e . U n d e rsta n d in g t h a t v io le n c e i s n o t t h e an sw er, G i l b e r t o f f e r s
t o v o ic e t h e i r c o n c e rn th ro u g h a cam paign o f in f o r m a tio n . T h is p e a c e
f u l s o l u t i o n f a i l s , s in c e G i l b e r t i s n e x t se en p r e p a r in g t h e o c c u p a tio n
o f a f i e l d by th e c a n e - c u t t e r s . From th e n on, th e end comes v e ry f a s t ,
and i t i s G i l b e r t 's body w hich M adevie fa c e s i n t h e em ergency room of
t h e h o s p i t a l w here she w o rk s. G i l b e r t , among o t h e r s , has been k i l l e d
by tro o p s im p o rte d from F ra n ce a t t h e r e q u e s t o f t h e p l a n t a t i o n , m anager.
The m eaning G i l b e r t had w anted t o g iv e t o t h i s s t r i k e i s im m e d ia te ly
p e r v e r te d as t h e blame i s p u t on e x tr e m is t groups b o th .b y t h e a u t h o r i
t i e s o f t h e i s l a n d and by t h e l o c a l p o l i t i c i a n s . The r e a l c a u se o f t h e
s t r i k e i s n e v e r m en tio n e d , th u s le a v in g i t an empty g e s tu r e o f p ro v o
345
c a t i o n and m aking G i l b e r t 's d e a th as u s e l e s s as t h e o t h e r s . M adevie
w i l l remember G i l b e r t 's i d e a l , but sh e i s t h e o n ly one t o do s o . Demian,
who r e t u r n s t o F ra n ce a f t e r th e s t r i k e s and v o ic e s t o M adevie h i s d i s a p
p r o v a l o f such p r o c e d u r e s , can n o t r e l i n q u i s h h i s b o u rg e o is and w h ite
h e r i t a g e t o j o i n h e r i n h e r f i g h t t o come. H is d e p a r tu r e i s a g e s tu r e
o f s u p p o rt t o M adevie, but she i s l e f t a lo n e t o l i s t e n t o th e empty
words o f a new m u la tto su rg e o n co n c ern e d o n ly w ith h is brand-new
P o rs c h e . The n o v e ls ends on t h i s d is s o n a n t n o t e .
" A u s s it o t que t u d i s j e ne coupe p a s / t u v o is deux gendarm es l a
a u / b o u t/ e t deux gendarm es e t deux g en/ darm es e t deux gendarm es/ p a r -
c i p a r - l a " , ^ rem arks S i l a c i e r d u r in g h i s dem ented c a r - r a c e . D eath i s
what comes t o t h e t h r e e f u g i t i v e s when th e y have become t r a d e - u n i o n
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s f o r t h e banana w o rk e rs . (S ee c h ap . 3) D eath i s what
rew arded th e s t r i k i n g c a n e - c u t t e r s i n " l a g rev e du Sud" i n l a V ie e t
l a m ort de M arcel G o n stra n as th e y m arched to w ard t h e f a c t o r y b ra n
d is h in g t h e i r m achetes and w ere r e c e iv e d by g u n sh o ts a t a tim e when
t h e p o l i c e was s t i l l on h o rs e b a c k b u t a lr e a d y had t h e a d v a n ta g e o f
s u p e r i o r w eaponry and sp e e d . D eath i s a ls o what J e a n n e l a F o l le ' remem
b e rs o f a s t r i k e — "Deux a d o le s c e n ts e t un o u v r ie r a s s a s s in e s p a r l e s
20
p o l i c i e r s " — and w hich sh e c a n n o t f o r g e t a lth o u g h she has been r e p e a t
e d ly t o l d t h a t i t i s n o t t r u e but o n ly t h e p r o d u c t o f h e r to rm e n te d
im a g in a tio n and o f h e r n ig h tm a r e s .
W hatever t h e i r d a te o r t h e i r o b j e c t , s t r i k e s alw ays end i n t r a g e d y .
The b r e v i t y o f t h e exam ples g iv e n , and t h e i r s u d d e n n e ss, r e i n f o r c e s
t h e i r d ra m a tic im p a c t. No e x p la n a tio n s a re e v e r g iv e n , f o r t h e r e a re
346
none a v a i l a b l e . The p e r v a s iv e v io le n c e o f a l l th e in s tr u m e n ts o f power
i s shown i n a l l i t s a b s u r d i t y . The f a c t t h a t none o f th o s e r e s p o n s i b le
f o r t h e d e a th s i l l u s t r a t e d above a r e e v e r cau g h t o r t h a t , i f th e y a re
c a u g h t, th e y b e n e f i t from t h e c o m p lic ity o f t h e j u d i c i a l sy ste m , im p lie s
t h a t t h e a u t h o r i t i e s t a c i t l y approve o f t h i s k in d o f v i o le n c e . A s t r i k e
i s a v i o l e n t but l e g a l a c t . H ere, i t becomes t h e symbol o f t h e b r u t a l
i t y o f t h e sy stem and o f t h e u s e l e s s n e s s o f i n d i v i d u a l s a c r i f i c e . The
s t r i k e i s i n e f f e c t u a l b e c a u s e , i n m ost c a s e s , i t rem ain s an i s o l a t e d
a c t o f r e v o l t t h a t i s n o t r e i n f o r c e d by th e a p p ro v a l o r c o o p e r a tio n of
t h e m a j o r i t y , f o r l a c k o f in f o r m a tio n o r p o l i t i c a l a w a re n e ss, o r sim p ly
o u t o f f e a r . M oreover, t h e p u rp o se o f t h e s t r i k e i s o f te n p e r v e r te d
a f t e r t h e f a c t , as i n t h e c a s e o f Amboise and o f G i l b e r t . C o n se q u e n tly ,
t h e s t r i k e f a i l s as a t o o l f o r s o c i a l p r o t e s t and becomes one more
bloody e p is o d e o f an a lr e a d y bloody h i s t o r y . "Les f a i t s r a c o n te s so n t
des f a i t s de c h ro n iq u e e t de f a b l e , c a r po u r l a c o n s c ie n c e i n d i v i d u e l l e
p r i s e e n t r e l a l e t h a r g i e de son p a s s e e t l ' i n c e r t i t u d e q u a n t a l 'a v e -
n i r , l e d e s t i n ne p e u t s e c o n c e v o ir que dans 1 ’ i n e x t r i c a b l e a r r o i des
21
s o u f f r a n c e s e t du m a rty r c o l l e c t i f . "
I l l . V io le n c e as a Means o f L i b e r a t i o n
"M ais i l s t ' o n t ren d u v i o l e n t e t l a v io le n c e e s t tons.arm ej.desor-
22
m a is” , say s an a n c e s t r a l v o ic e t o A le x is A ccius t o j u s t i f y t h e u se
o f v io le n c e a g a in s t t h e am bassador o f H a i t i . I t i s o b v io u s from th e
v a r io u s e p is o d e s o f u p r i s i n g and s t r i k e d e s c r ib e d above t h a t r e t a l i a
t o r y v io le n c e I s w id e ly u se d i n t h e name o f law and o r d e r . C o n se q u e n tly ,
347
many t h i n k t h a t v i o l e n c e , i n t h e form o f armed r e v o l t , i s th e o n ly t o o l
t h a t m ight b r in g about f i n a l l i b e r a t i o n . I t rem a in s t o be se e n w h e th e r
t h i s t o o l can be s u c c e s s f u l l y u sed and, i f n o t , w hat a l t e r n a t i v e s a re
o f f e r e d .
I n La T a p i s s e r i e du temps p r e s e n t , th e swimmer and t h e woman who
r e p r e s e n ts r e s i s t a n c e and freedom f a c e a regim e o f i n c r e d i b l e c r u e l t y
and v i o l e n c e . When th e woman d i e s a t t h e hands o f th e d i c t a t o r s h i p , t h e
swimmer r e f u s e s t o acknow ledge h e r d e a th and t o g iv e i n t o d e s p a i r .
T h is a c t o f f a i t h i s a t t h e b a s is o f h i s s t r e n g t h . X a v ie r O r v i l l e be
l i e v e s t h a t such an a t t i t u d e i s n e c e s s a r y t o p ro m o te . e v e n tu a l s u c c e s s !
" I I nous e s t p lu s f a c i l e de c e d e r a l'a m e rtu m e q u 'a u l a i t c ru de c a i l -
l e r . Mais r e s i s t e r a l a n o i r c e u r . . . v o i l a q u i e s t bon e t m e r i te que
23
l ' o n s ' y e m p lo ie ." The swimmer r e s i s t s by becoming a f u g i t i v e , a new
k in d o f m aroon, e sc a p e s t h e many t r a p s s e t f o r him by t h e T ontons o f
t h e re g im e -a n d , d r iv e n by h i s f a i t h , e v e n tu a ll y d e s tr o y s t h e d i c t a t o r .
Of c o u r s e , t h i s i s a f a n t a s y , b u t i t c a r r i e s a m essage o f hope: t o - d a y ,
t h e i s l a n d s a r e s i l e n c e d , " A u jo u rd ih u i, e n c h e v i l l e e s , e l l e s t o u r n e n t
s u r p la c e " ( p . 1 1 9 ); t o - d a y , t h e B lacks a re s t i l l e n s la v e d , "En p lo n -
gee dans l a mer l u i p a r v i e n t l e c r i immense de l a n e g r a i l l e " ( p . 1 1 9 ).
But one m ust n e v e r f o r g e t , n e v e r g iv e u p , n e v e r s to p re a c h in g f o r
freedom , o r e l s e " . . . j a m a i s vous ne l a v e r r e z s i v o t r e c o e u r se c r o i s e
l e s b ra s d e v a n t l e s d i c t a t e u r s a v i e " (p . 1 4 0 ).
Thomas 1 ' E ugenie b e li e v e s t h a t v i o le n c e m ust be th e r e s p o n s e t o
v i o le n c e , b lo o d t o b lo o d , and t h a t th e o n ly way t o freedom i s armed
r e v o l t a g a in s t th e o p p r e s s o r . I n a v i s i o n , he s e e s and h e a rs t h e v o ic e
348
o f a b la c k man " B r a n d is s a n t s a h a c h e t te / P o u r f a u c h e r l e s f a i s e u r s de
24 .
l o i . " But o t h e r v o ic e s tem p e r h i s e n th u sia sm by p o i n t i n g o u t how d i f
f i c u l t i t i s t o know w here t h e law i s and who t h e law i s . Thomas 1 ' Eu
g e n i e 's dream i s n e v e r r e a l i z e d , how ever, f o r t h e r e i s no u n i t y among
t h e p e o p le o f M a rtin iq u e , no f a i t h i n th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f s u c c e s s , some
a llo w in g t h e i r p e r s o n a l a m b itio n t o s u p e rs e d e t h e good o f a l l .
I n Agodom e-Dachine, I b a 's f a t h e r i s slo w ly d y in g t o g iv e h i s c h i l
d re n a chance and has f a i t h i n t h e f a c t t h a t , one d ay , t h e f i n a l r e v o l t
w i l l t a k e p l a c e . He i n s t i l l s t h i s hope i n h is s o n s , t e l l i n g them t o
o b s e rv e and t o l e a r n i n o r d e r t o be re a d y when t h e day comes: " I I d o i t
c o n n a it r e a f i n de f a i r e p a r t i e de c e t t e ra c e de n e g re s nouveaux q u i,
s u iv a n t l'e x e m p le de l e u r s a n c e t r e s , s e m e ttr o n t debout comme un s e u l
homme p o u r d e t r u i r e d e f i n i ti v e m e n t n o t r e e s c la v a g e t r o i s f o i s c e n te -
25
n a i r e . . . " H is b r o t h e r , O ncle C h a r io t, l i v e s h i s r e v o l u t i o n th ro u g h
p o p u la r h e ro e s such as Com pe-Lapin, a f o l k t a l e h e ro , o r J u l e s V e rn e s'
M ichel S t r o g o f f , and i s c o n f id e n t i n t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e m ac h e te .
When I b a t e l l s him t h a t t h e r e a re no m achetes i n h is . h i s t o r y books,
O ncle C h a rio t answ ers " p a s e n c o re " , m eaning t h a t e v e n tu a ll y r e v o l t w i l l
come and make h i s t o r y . The n o v e l c lo s e s on th e image o f l a L e z a rd e i n
s p a t e , sw eeping away a l l t h e d e b r i s l i t t e r i n g i t s embankments and t u r n
i n g , i n Ib a '.s im a g in a tio n , i n t o a f u r i o u s crowd o f N egroes i n r e v o l t ,
b r a n d is h in g t h e i r c a n e - c u t t e r s * weapons as he h e a r s , as a l e i t m o t i v ,
t h e words h i s p a r e n t s and r e l a t i v e s c o n s ta n t ly r e p e a t t o r e k i n d l e t h e i r
h o p es: "Nou neg nou, ce de c h ie n s , m ais ga pa c a i l l e d i r e longtem ps"
(p . 1 4 9 ).
349
S i l a c i e r to o has v i s i o n s i n t h e p r i s o n c e l l w here he i s throw n
fo llo w in g h i s f i g h t w ith Nega i n M alem ort. He s e e s h is c o u n try ta k e n
26
o v e r and su b ju g a te d ^ he s e e s th e Enemy, th e sn a k e , " l a b e te lo n g u e " ,
w hich sy m b o liz e s t h e e v i l i n f l u e n c e t h r e a t e n i n g h i s c o u n try and h is
p e o p le as w e ll as t h e f i g u r e o f O d ib e rt, t h e t r a i t o r . F or S i l a c i e r ,
O d ib e rt em bodies a l l t h a t d e f e a ts h i s c o u n try : c o w a rd ic e , a l i e n a t i o n ,
and c o l l u s i o n , and w hich he m ust d e s tr o y . S i l a c i e r dreams o f re v e n g e ,
and w h ile t h e s e th o u g h ts c r o s s h i s m ind, he s lo w ly sh a rp e n s t h e c u t t i n g
edge o f h i s k n i f e . S i l a c i e r , j u s t l i k e M a rie .C e la t o r th e o t h e r c h a ra c
t e r s o f E douard G l i s s a n t 's n o v e ls , h a s i n h e r i t e d t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r
r e v o l t w hich c h a r a c t e r i z e d th e f i r s t a n c e s t o r Aa and m o tiv a te d him in
s p i t e o f h u n g e r, c a p tu r e and t o r t u r e u n t i l h i s e v e n tu a l d e a th by f i r e .
A a 's s p i r i t rem ain s im m o rtal i n s p i t e o f t h e t r a p s o f o b l iv i o n and
su b m is s io n , b e c a u s e , a f t e r h i s d e a th , h i s s p i r i t became p a r t o f th e
la n d .
T i J e a n l 'H o r i z o n and h i s f r i e n d Ananze a r e p o s s e s s e d by t h e same
s p i r i t o f r e v o l t . C o n fro n te d w ith t h e p h ilo s o p h y o f th e e ld e r s who
acknow ledge t h e i r d e f e a t and e x p la in i t as t h e consequence o f t h e l i f e
lo n g e x p l o i t a t i o n o f a fo rm e rly pro u d p e o p le , th e y d is a p p r o v e . T i J e a n
and Ananze b e li e v e t h a t t h e tim e has come t o r e a c t , even i f i t means
t h e s a c r i f i c e o f a w hole g e n e r a tio n — t h e i r s . But th e y a re in e x p e r ie n c e d
and h e s i t a t e as t o how t o a c co m p lish t h i s t a s k . Ananze i s c o n v in c e d
t h a t " . . . d e s f u s i l s e t des b a l l e s , v o i l a l a s e u le s o r c e l l e r i e q u i
% 27
f a i s a i t b e s o in au n e g r e ,s e l o n l u i " , b u t he h as no i d e a about how t o
u s e th e s e weapons e f f i c i e n t l y .
350
"La r e v o l u t i o n - q u i - r e g l e r a - t o u t " i s t h e dream o f a l l . I n Le Fo-
l i l o q u e en ou d i e s e m in e u r, You even d r a f t s a p r o p o s a l d e s c r i b i n g th e
n e c e s s a ry p r e p a r a to r y s t e p s , but h e r id e o lo g y makes a l l r e v o l u t i o n
dep en d en t upon t h e developm ent o f p o l i t i c a l aw areness i n t h e p o p u la tio n
T h is i s a m is c o n c e p tio n o f w hich l e Fou i s aware when he opposes t o h e r
s ta te m e n t, w hich he deems " n a i f , i d e a l i s t e , u t o p i s t e e t a n a r" ( p . 1 9 2 ),
th e k in d o f g u e r i l l a w a r fa r e p r a c t i c e d by t h e e a r l y maroon s la v e s and
t h e i r d r i v e , t h e i r " e s p r i t c o m b a tif e t i n v e n t ! f " w hich no lo n g e r e x i s t s
i n a p a s s i v e p o p u la tio n r e a c t i n g i n s p u r t s , o n ly t o f a l l back immedi
a t e l y i n t o a p a th y . Le Fou b e li e v e s t h a t r e v o l u t i o n w i l l o n ly be p o s s i
b l e t h e day t h e p o p u la tio n as a w hole r e g a in s t h e w i l l t o f i g h t and
w in.
The c r u c i f i e d Negro t ii u s ts t h e power o f v i o le n c e . " I I f a u t s a u v e r
29
ce p a y s , non p a r des p r i e r e s , p e n s e - t - x l , m ais p a r des c r i m e s ." He
r e a l i z e s t h a t th e H a i t i o f to -d a y i s so d e e p ly c o r r u p te d t h a t i t w i l l
have t o be ra z e d b e fo r e i t can be r e b u i l t . He c o n c e iv e s t h e program o f
w hat s h o u ld be done t o make a r e v o l u t i o n s u c c e s s f u l : t e r m in a te Voodoo
as i t i s now b e c au se i t i s one o f th e weapons o f t h e d i c t a t o r s h i p ; r e
c o n s t r u c t t h e p a s t i n o r d e r t o e l i m i n a t e th e n o tio n t h a t t h e B lacks a r e
i n f e r i o r ; expose th e h y p o c ris y o f a n a t i o n w hich c la im s t o have been
t h e f i r s t in d e p e n d e n t b la c k s t a t e , and d e s tr o y th e m yth; e x e c u te a l l
th e b la c k c r i m in a ls who d a re sp eak o f th e m se lv e s as th e fo u n d e rs o f a
b la c k dem ocracy. But h i s p r a y e r s t o t h e God o f th e r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s
rem ain u n answ ered, and he i s l e f t a lo n e t o d e a l w ith h i s p o w e r le s s n e s s .
He to o i n s t i n c t i v e l y knows t h a t no r e v o l u t i o n i s p o s s i b l e w ith o u t t h e
351
p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e e n t i r e n a ti o n and i s , th u s im p o s s ib le , b e cau se
t h e n a ti o n i s p a r a ly z e d by f e a r and v io le n c e and b e c au se i t s l e a d e r s
f i n d i t e a s i e r t o c o o p e ra te w ith th e regim e th a n t o r i s k t h e i r l i v e s .
"M ais comment d i s c u t e r quand on s a i t q u 'o n p e rd d 'a v a n c e , q u 'a u dehors
p e rso n n e n 'o s e f a i r e un g e s t e p o u r l i b e r e r des c r u c i f i e s ; quand on s a i t
que l e s i l e n c e de P o r t - a u - P r i n c e e s t un a c c o rd avec l e s sa n sv e rg o g n e s
du P r e s i d e n t , un a c te de c o n t r i t i o n q u 'o n d o i t r e c i t e r a genoux a to u s
l e s p r e t r e s c o m p lic e s du regim e" (p . 1 1 0 ).
At t h e b e g in n in g o f h i s q u e s t in M o n tre a l, A le x is A ccius i s a ls o
to rm e n te d by a p o w e rle s s n e s s born o f t h e u n c o n t r o l l a b l e f e a r provoked
by th e d i s p l a y o f c o l l u s i o n , t o r t u r e and m urder w hich he w itn e s s e d
w h ile i n H a i t i and by h i s c o n s ta n t su b m issio n t o th e d e g ra d in g p r a c
t i c e s o f im m ig ra tio n o f f i c e r s d u rin g h i s jo u rn e y from H a i t i t o M o n treal
The b e g in n in g o f h i s t r a n s f o r m a t io n o c c u rs when he m eets a p o o r w h ite
man, " l e p e t i t b l a n c ." He l e a r n s t h a t th e y have a common f i g h t a g a in s t
a l i e n a t i o n , f e a r and d e a th , t h a t t h i s w h ite man to o knows o p p r e s s io n
i n h i s p r o v in c e (Q uebec) i s o l a t e d on th e edge o f a p re d o m in a n tly
A nglo-Saxon c o n t i n e n t , t h a t he to o s u f f e r s from econom ic e x p l o i t a t i o n
a lo n g w ith a l l th o s e who l i v e i n th e m ost m is e r a b le s e c t i o n s o f Mont
r e a l . T h is e n c o u n te r s a v e s A le x is from th e i s o l a t i o n o f t h e e x i l e
w hich had k e p t him s i l e n c e d u n t i l th e n and g iv e s .h im t h e c o n fid e n c e t o
c o n q u e r h i s f e a r and p u rs u e h i s g o a l, t h e e x e c u tio n o f th e am bassador
from H a i t i . The " p e t i t b la n c " s u p p o rts A le x is , h e lp s him when he i s
tem p te d t o s u r r e n d e r ; "Le p e t i t b la n c s e n t q u 'A l e x is e s t a b o u t. R e s a i-
s i s - t o i . Comme g a. R elev e l a t e t e . P lu s h a u t e n c o re . Nous commengons
352
a p e in e . L a g ran d e b a t a i l l e , Le v e r i t a b l e e s p o i r . . . Tu ne peux p lu s
r e c u l e r . . . T o u te s l e s r a c e s du monde p eu v en t e n t r e r dans l a meme bou-
30
t e i l l e . " The r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een A le x is and t h e p o o r w h ite man
a b o lis h e s a l l ra c is m and a l l n a ti o n a li s m . T h e ir f i g h t a g a in s t t h e ambas
s a d o r i s t h a t o f a l l o p p re s s e d o r c o lo n iz e d p e o p le . The am bassador does
n o t o n ly r e p r e s e n t th e d i c t a t o r s h i p o f H a i t i b u t, as t h e a l l y o f th e
Am erican and C anadian a u t h o r i t i e s , he em bodies a l l th e regim es w hich
c o o p e ra te t o m a in ta in p o p u la tio n s i n s u b m is s io n . N e i th e r A le x is n o r
t h e p o o r w h ite man can co u n t on t h e h e lp o f th e i n t e l l e c t u a l s and o t h e r
demagogues who aim t o t a k e th e power f o r t h e i r own p u rp o s e s . I t i s i n
t h e p e o p le as r e p r e s e n t e d by A le x is and t h e w h ite man t h a t r e s t s t h e
power t o o r i g i n a t e th e needed r e v o l u t i o n ; "on n 'o s e pas b o uger dev an t
l a f o r c e du r e g a r d d 'A l e x i s . . . On ne p e u t pas r e g a r d e r A le x is c a r i l
r e n v o ie t o u t e s l e s t e t e s f o r t e s de l a s a i n t e communaute des s a v a n ts a
l e u r c a c a t e r i e . A le x is n ' a pas l e tem ps de f a b r i q u e r l e s m o ts. I I n ' a
p as de la n g u e . I I n ' a q u 'u n la n g u a g e , c e l u i d 'u n e te m p e te , d ’un in c e n -
d ie " ( p . 1 5 1 ). A l e x is ' v i c t o r y w i l l be h e lp e d by th e c o w a rd ic e o f th o s e
o f f i c i a l s who, as soon as t h e a m b a s s a d o r's p o s i t i o n i s w eakened, as
soon as th e y r e a l i z e t h a t he ca n n o t win a g a in s t A le x is , s to p s u p p o rtin g
him , th u s h a s te n in g h i s f a l l . A l e x is ' v i c t o r y a g a in s t t h e am bassador
c a r r i e s a m essage o f hope— but a hope t h a t depends upon t h e hum anity
and t h e s o l i d a r i t y o f t h e r e b e l s .
R e v o lu tio n can n o t be made t o o r d e r . As soon as r e v o l u t i o n i s
l a b e l l e d , c la im e d by a group o r g iv e n an id e o lo g y , i t i s ta k e n away
353
from th o s e f o r whom i t i s m ean t, nam ely, th e p e o p le . T here i s n o t a
d i c t a t o r who does n o t u s e th e word r e v o l u t i o n . Even th o s e who c a l l
th e m s e lv e s r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s — and t h a t i s made c l e a r i n F i l s de m is e re — ■
do n o t a c h ie v e a n y th in g , b e c au se t h e i r r e v o l u t io n s change n o th in g but
th e m a s te r o r t h e reg im e. Hence G erard E t i e n n e 's d i s t r u s t o f a l l i n t e l
l e c t u a l s and t h e o r i z e r s . T h ere e x i s t s o n ly one p o s s i b l e r e v o l u t i o n ,
t h e one t h a t i s made th ro u g h p e r s o n a l r e s o l v e , t h a t ta k e s p l a c e w ith in
t h e i n d i v i d u a l . I t i s t h i s kind, o f r e v o l u t i o n t h a t i s a t t h e b a s is of
A le x is A c c iu s ' s t r e n g t h and was t h e f o r c e o f t h e e a r l y maroon s l a v e s .
T h is r e v o l u t i o n ta k e s tim e and p a t i e n c e , a f a c t u n d e rs to o d by M arie
C e la t a f t e r h e r e x p e rie n c e w ith C h eru b in . I t has t o be th e r e s u l t o f
a p a i n f u l p r o c e s s o f s e l f - e v a l u a t i o n such as th e one d e s c r ib e d i n
Edouard G l i s s a n t 's n o v e ls , a p r o c e s s compound o f f a i l u r e s and d o u b ts:
"Nous q u i avec t a n t d 'i m p a t ie n c e rasse m b lo n s c e s moi d i s j o i n t s , dans l e s
re to u rn e m e n ts t u r b u l e n t s ou c a h o te r a gran d s b r a s , p io c h a n t a u s s i l e
tem ps q u i tombe e t q u i m onte sa n s r e p i t ; a c h a rn e s a c o n t e n i r l a part--.
% + 31
i n q u i e t e de chaque c o rp s dans c e t t e o b s c u r i t e d i f f i c i l e de n o u s ."
Such r e v o l u t i o n can ta k e t h e form o f d is o b e d ie n c e , c i v i l d is o b e d ie n c e
su ch as t h a t recommanded by l e Fou when he p ro p o se s t o b o y c o tt a l l th e
i n s t i t u t i o n s o f t h e re g im e , t o r e f u s e t o u se a l l th e in s tr u m e n ts o f
a l i e n a t i o n : c a r s , s u p e rm a rk e ts , c in e m as, m a s s -m e d ia .. . What l e Fou has
i n mind i s , i n f a c t , a form o f modern m arronnage i n w hich i n d i v i d u a l
g e s tu r e s o f r e f u s a l w ould come t o g e t h e r t o work a t u n d e rm in in g th e
s t r e n g t h o f t h e system i n p l a c e . When t h e r e i s h a s te o r e x p lo s io n ,
r e t a l i a t i o n and d e f e a t im m e d ia te ly f o llo w , f o r t h e sy stem i s armed t o
354
f i g h t u p r is in g s } b u t i t may n o t be armed t o f i g h t t h e many form s o f
d is o b e d ie n c e , s in c e th e y a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e i r d i s p e r s i o n . Those
who p ro m ise m ir a c le s a re d e c e i v e r s , b e c au se m ir a c le s do n o t h appen.
T h e re a re no easy s o l u t i o n s . Thus the. n o v e ls o s c i l l a t e betw een hope and
d e s p a i r . V io le n c e i s alw ays a te m p ta tio n when one f e e l s caged and la c k s
v i s i b l e a l t e r n a t i v e s ; i t can be a t o o l , but i t f a i l s i f u se d f o r and
i n i t s e l f } i t may su c ce e d i f combined w ith p a s s i v e r e s i s t a n c e , s o l i d a r
i t y and f a i t h .
355
Notes
^ Edouard G l i s s a n t , Le D isc o u rs a n t i l l a i s ( P a r i s : S e u i l , 19 8 1 ),
p . 172.
2 ^
G erard E tie n n e , Un Am bassadeur macoute^'a M o n tre a l ( M o n tre a l;
N o u v e lle O p tiq u e , 1 9 7 9 ), p . 216.
3
G l i s s a n t , D is c o u r s , p . 292.
l \
G l i s s a n t , D is c o u r s , p . 290.
^ E douard G l i s s a n t , M alem ort ( P a r i s ; S e u i l , 1 9 7 5 ), p . 203.
^ V in c e n t P l a c o l y , La V ie e t l a m ort de M arcel G o n stra n ( P a r i s :
D en o el, 1 9 7 1 ), p . 35.
^ Simone S c h w a rz -B a rt, P l u i e e t v e n t s u r Telumee M ira c le ( P a r i s :
S e u i l , 1 9 7 2 ), p . 40.
Q
S c h w a rz -B a rt, T elum ee, p . 217.
9 A
Honored A lf r e d S e i t u , Agodome-Dachine ( P a r i s : L 'H a rm a tta n , 1 9 7 8 ),
p . 46.
E douard G l i s s a n t , La Case du commandeur ( P a r i s : S e u i l , 19 8 1 ),
p . 205.
^ G l i s s a n t , M alem ort, p . 203.
12
P l a c o l y , M arcel G o n s tra n , p . 59.
13
V in c e n t P l a c o l y , L 'E a u -d e -m o rt g u i l d i v e ( P a r i s : Denofel, 1 9 7 3 ),
p . 188.
14
E tie n n e , A m bassadeur, p . 71.
S e i t u , p . 47.
16 < • * %
M a rie -T h e re s e C olim on, F i l s de m is e re ( P o r t - a u - P r i n c e ; E d i ti o n s
C a r a ib e s , 1 9 7 4 ), p . 191.
^ L o u is -C h a r le s W illia m , Le F o lilo q u e en ou d i e s e m in e u r ( P a r i s :
L 'H a rm a tta n , 1 9 7 8 ), p. 196.
356
18 . _.
S e x tu , p . 74.
19
G l i s s a n t , M alem ort, p . 104.
20 «•
Je a n n e H y v rard , Mere l a m ort ( P a r i s : M in u it, 1 9 7 6 ), p . 83.
21
P l a c o l y , M arcel G o n s tra n , p . 113.
22
E tie n n e , A m bassadeur, p . 216.
23 *
X a v ie r O r v i l l e , La T a p i s s e r i e du temps p r e s e n t ( P a r i s : G ra s s e t
e t F a s q u e lle , 1 9 7 9 ), p . 107.
2 4
R oland B r i v a l , M a rtin iq u e des c e n d re s ( P a r i s : O l i v i e r Orban,
1 9 7 8 ), p . 124.
^ S e i t u , p . 110.
26
G l i s s a n t , M alem ort, p . 227.
27
Simone S c h w a rz -B a rt, T i J e a n 1*H orizon ( P a r i s : S e u i l , 1979),
p . 53.
28
W illia m , p r e f a c e , p . i v .
29 % ^
G erard E tie n n e , Le N egre c r u c i f i e (M o n tre a l: N o u v e lle O p tiq u e,
1 9 7 4 ), p. 44.
30
E tie n n e , A m bassadeur, p . 75.
31
G l i s s a n t , Commandeur, p . 239.
357
C h a p te r S ix
A l t e r n a t i v e s ! A f r i c a o r E x ile ?
I t h as been p r e v i o u s ly m en tio n ed t h a t p o w e rle s s n e s s o f t e n d e r iv e s
from th e n o n - e x is te n c e o f c h o ic e f o r th e c h a r a c t e r s in v o lv e d : th e y
f e e l tr a p p e d i n a c o u n tr y o f narro w d im e n sio n s w here o p p o r t u n i t i e s a re
few. E c o n o m ic a lly s p e a k in g , b o th i n H a i t i and i n t h e fre n c h A n t i l l e s ,
one has t o t a k e w h a te v e r i s a v a i l a b l e . What i s a v a i l a b l e , s in c e i t i s
d ependent on th e econom ic s i t u a t i o n o f th e c o u n tr y , i s i t s e l f l i m i t e d .
When i t becomes o b v io u s t h a t means o f s u b s is t e n c e a r e n o t t o be found
w i t h in o n e 's own c o u n tr y , e m ig r a tio n and e x i l e a r e se e n as t h e on ly
p o s s i b l e a l t e r n a t i v e s . F o r m o st, how ever, i t i s n o t a c h o ic e but an
economic n e c e s s i t y . Drawn by p ro m ises o f a b e t t e r l i f e , th o u sa n d s o f
men and women le a v e t h e i r c o u n try and f lo c k t o M a r s e i l l e , Le Havre o r
P a r i s i f th e y a re from t h e F rench A n t i l l e s , and t o F l o r i d a , New York
and M o n treal i f th e y a r e from H a i t i . So t h e r e rem ain s t o be a n a ly z e d ,
th ro u g h th e exam ples g iv e n i n t h e n o v e ls , u n d e r what c o n d itio n s such
e m ig r a tio n ta k e s p l a c e , what i s e x p e c te d o f l i f e i n t h e " o t h e r " coun
t r y and w hat th e co n seq u en ces o f e m ig r a tio n f o r th o s e in v o lv e d and
f o r t h e c o u n tr y i t s e l f a r e .
The r e t u r n t o A f r ic a i s a r a d i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t m a t te r and s c a r c e ly
a r e a l a l t e r n a t i v e . I t i s a re s p o n s e t o th e myth o f t h e A f r ic a n p a r a -
358
d i s e as i t has been c u l t i v a t e d i n t h e C arib b ean f o r c e n t u r i e s . I t does
n o t have an econom ic b u t r a t h e r a p s y c h o lo g ic a l b a s i s ; i t stem s from
t h e need t o la u n c h on a s e a r c h f o r s e l f - i d e n t i f i c a t i o n i n o r d e r t o
f i g h t a l i e n a t i o n and l o s s . H is to r y re n d e r s t h e d e s i r e t o r e t u r n alm o st
i r r e s i s t i b l e , f o r t h e m yth, l i k e h i s t o r y , i s t a i n t e d w ith a m b i g u it i e s .
On one h and, A f r ic a i s s e e n as an Eden o f freedom and b e a u ty t h a t a n - 1
sw ers t o a need t o b e li e v e i n o n e ’ s h um anity somewhere i n tim e . But
A f r ic a has a ls o been d e p ic t e d , u n d e r th e i n f l u e n c e o f w h ite c u l t u r e ,
as th e t h e a t e r o f b a rb a ro u s a c t s and h o r r i f y i n g c a n n ib a lis m . T hus, i t
becomes n e c e s s a r y t o e l u c i d a t e t h e r e a l n a tu r e o f A f r ic a . T h is s e a r c h
f o r t h e t r u e A f r ic a im p lie s knowing t h i s la n d b o th i n i t s p a s t and in
i t s p r e s e n t form . I t i s m o tiv a te d by t h e d e s i r e t o a c co m p lish a m atin g
o f t h e s o u ls o f s o r t s w ith t h e A f r ic a n p e o p le i n o r d e r t o combat th e
f e e l i n g s o f i s o l a t i o n and abandonment d e e p ly i n g r a i n e d i n t h e C a rib
bean p e r s o n a l i t y . I t i s a l s o m o tiv a te d by th e d e s i r e t o f i n d n o b le n e s s
e i t h e r i n a rem ote p a s t o r i n a rem ote la n d t o n e u t r a l i z e t h e a l i e n a
t i n g i n f l u e n c e o f l i f e in t h e C a rib b e a n .
But w h e th e r one s e e k s economic o r p s y c h o lo g ic a l s a t i s f a c t i o n , th e
d i f f i c u l t i e s e n c o u n te re d a r e g r e a t , s i n c e , i n b o th c a s e s , hope i s
founded upon an i l l u s o r y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f what i s t o be found i n th e
o t h e r c o u n tr y . The jo u rn e y i s th u s one o f " d e m y t h i f i c a t i o n .”
I . A f r ic a
Four n o v e ls d e a l w ith A f r ic a ; two o f them p i c t u r e A f r i c a i n i t s
modern s t a t e as s e e n th ro u g h t h e eyes o f C a rib b ean a u th o r s who have
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a c t u a l l y s o jo u rn e d t h e r e and have been in v o lv e d i n th e l i f e o f one of
t h e many A f r ic a n n a t i o n s . The o t h e r two d e p ic t a jo u rn e y t o A f r ic a
m o tiv a te d by th e q u e s t f o r t h e A f r ic a n r o o ts o f t h e C a rib b e a n p e r s o n a l
i t y .
1 ) Scenes of co n tem p o rary A f r ic a
Roger D o r s i n v i l l e , n a t i v e o f H a i t i , chooses L i b e r i a as t h e s e t t i n g
f o r h i s n o v e l Kimby ou l a l o i de N ia n g . I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o d e te rm in e
w h e th e r D o r s i n v i l l e 's c h o ic e o f L i b e r i a i s on ly t h e r e s u l t o f h i s expe
r ie n c e s t h e r e o r i s r e l a t e d t o t h e f a c t t h a t L i b e r i a was c r e a t e d t o
r e c e iv e t h e B lacks o f th e d i a s p o r a , a lth o u g h he n e v e r once r e f e r s t o
t h e sym bolism o f t h i s s t a t e i n th e n o v e l. He a tte m p ts t o d e s c r i b e o b je c
t i v e l y t h e l i f e o f t h e L i b e r i a n - H i n t e r l a n d as w e ll as t h e p e r s o n a l i t y
o f i t s i n h a b i t a n t s and t h e i r r e a c t i o n s t o th e c u l t u r a l and economic
changes undergone by t h e i r c o u n tr y . V ery few H a i t i a n a u th o r s have
a c t u a l l y w r i t t e n about A f r ic a i t s e l f , p ro b a b ly b e c au se th e e l i t e , t o
w hich most H a i ti a n w r i t e r s b e lo n g , have a n e g a tiv e view o f A f r ic a as a
b a rb a ro u s la n d whose p r a c t i c e s and h e r i t a g e a r e r e s p o n s i b le f o r th e
p r im it iv e n e s s o f . t h e m a j o r it y o f t h e H a i ti a n p o p u l a t io n . T h is o c c id e n -
t a l i z e d e l i t e t u r n s n o t t o t h e E a st o r A f r ic a , b u t t o t h e W est and th e
i d e a l o f p r o g re s s embodied by th e U n ite d S t a t e s . S e c o n d ly , i n view o f
t h e e v e n ts i n H a i t i d u rin g t h e p a s t t w e n ty - f iv e y e a r s , i t has become
more im p o rta n t t o d e a l w ith t h e s t a t e o f t h e H a i ti a n n a ti o n i t s e l f th a n
w ith a p a s t o r a p r e s e n t w hich r e p r e s e n t l i t t l e t o th e p o p u la tio n as a
w hole. T h is n o v e l i s , how ever, e s p e c i a l l y i n t e r e s t i n g b e c a u s e , u n t i l
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now, A f r ic a had n e v e r been d e a l t w ith o b j e c t i v e l y i n H a i ti a n l i t e r a t u r e
b u t a l t e r n a t e l y se e n as an i d e a l i z e d o r a sa v ag e la n d . What D o r s i n v i l l e
who had r e s i d e d i n A f r i c a — i n S e n e g a l, th e n L i b e r i a , th e n S en eg al a g a in
— f o r f o u r t e e n y e a rs when he p u b lis h e d t h i s n o v e l, w ants t o a c co m p lish
i s t o lo o k a t an A f r ic a n c u l t u r e w hich throw s l i g h t on t h e H a i ti a n c u l
tu r e s ” 11 aime a p e n s e r que d 'e t r e d evenu, d e p u is q u a to r z e a n s , A f r i -
c a i n , n ' a f a i t que m ieux s i t u e r , e c l a i c i r e t a p p ro f o n d ir une h a i t i a n i t e
i n s e p a r a b l e de se s s o u rc e s a f r i c a i n e s
Roger D o r s i n v i l l e c h o o ses as t h e main them e o f t h e n o v e l t h a t o f
t h e dance as a m ajo r elem en t o f A f r ic a n c u l t u r e and as an i l l u s t r a t i o n
o f th e tr a n s f o r m a t io n s t o w hich t h a t c u l t u r e has been s u b je c te d in t h e
p a s t tw e n ty o r t h i r t y y e a r s . Dance i s an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f A f r ic a n l i f e .
I n f a c t , i t i s th e symbol o f l i f e . I t has s u r v iv e d th e many o r d e a l s o f
t h e A f r ic a n c o n ti n e n t b e c au se i t i s a way o f e s c a p in g t h e im p o s itio n s
o f th e o u t s i d e w o rld and b e c au se a c e r t a i n freedom o f body and mind
can be a c h ie v e d th ro u g h t h e p r a c t i c e and t h e v io le n c e o f d ance.
Kimby i s t h e drummer and d a n c e -m a s te r o f a L i b e r i a n v i l l a g e c a l l e d
N iang. He i s i n c h a rg e o f t r a i n i n g t h e young boys o f t h a t v i l l a g e , a
p r o c e s s d u rin g w hich th e y l e a r n t h e m eaning and t h e p r a c t i c e o f th e
t r a d i t i o n a l d ances o f t h e i r v i l l a g e . The l e a r n i n g o f t h e s e dances i s
a ls o t h e f i r s t o f a s e r i e s o f r i t e s o f p a s sa g e w hich w i l l le a d th e
young boys i n t o a d u lth o o d . I t i s an arduous e x p e rie n c e in v o lv in g a
f o u r - y e a r s e p a r a t i o n from o n e 's fa m ily and e n v iro n m e n t, a l i f e of
s e c l u s io n n e c e s s a r y t o t h e a tta in m e n t o f p e r f e c t i o n .
I n a c o u n try i n t r a n s i t i o n w here m o d e rn iz a tio n and com m unications
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r a p i d l y tr a n s f o r m a n c ie n t ways o f l i f e and cu sto m s, " . . . d a n s l 'e t r a n g e
sym biose e t a b l i e e n t r e l a coutume e t l a l o i p a r l e gouvernem ent c e n -
2
t r a l " , K im by's v i l l a g e i s s t i l l on t h e f r i n g e o f m ajo r c h a n g e, and
Kimby h im s e lf c l i n g s t o t r a d i t i o n s w h ile w ondering what may be a w a itin g
h i s p e o p le i n th e n e a r f u t u r e . Yanga, th e v i l l a g e c h i e f , i s r e p r e s e n t
a t i v e o f th o s e who t h i n k t h a t a d o p tin g modern w ays, su ch as o c c i d e n t a l
c l o t h i n g and an a n g li c iz e d name,, im p lie s a s u p e r i o r i t y o v e r t h e o t h e r s ,
w hich i s s tr o n g l y r e s e n t e d by th e v i l l a g e r s . I n him , t h e s y m b io sis i s
awkward and c a r i c a t u r a l , b e in g n o t th e r e s u l t o f any r e f l e x i o n but o f
b l in d a c c e p ta n c e . He t h e r e f o r e becomes a d e r i s i v e f i g u r e , an o b je c t of
m ockery t o h i s f e llo w v i l l a g e r s , who a re a p t a t d e t e c t i n g h i s b ra g g in g
and h i s u n c e r t a i n t i e s as to h i s l e g i ti m a c y .
Change comes t o t h e v i l l a g e when t h e c e n t r a l governm ent d e c id e s t o
s e l e c t some o f K im by's d a n c e rs t o become members o f a n a t i o n a l dance
company w hich w i l l r e p r e s e n t L i b e r i a a t v a r io u s dance f e s t i v a l s around
t h e c o n t i n e n t . K e ta , t h e o ld r e t i r e d c h i e f and Y a n g a 's c o u n s e l l o r when
i t comes t o m ajo r d e c is i o n s b e cau se he has th e a u t h e n t i c i t y Yanga la c k s
i s a f r a i d o f t h e co n seq u en ces f o r t h e young boys o f a t r i p t o t h e c i t y .
A f e r v e n t o b s e rv e r o f th e t r a d i t i o n , he r e f u s e s even t h e s m a ll n o v e lt
t i e s t h a t have come t o t h e v i l l a g e , such as " c a n e - j u i c e ” t o r e p l a c e
palm w ine o r b o t t l e s t o r e p l a c e th e t r a d i t i o n a l c a la b a s h . Knowing t h e
a t t r a c t i o n t h e c i t y has f o r t h e young, he b e lie v e s t h a t o n ly t h e ob
s e rv a n c e o f t r a d i t i o n a l ways can e f f e c t i v e l y c o u n te r b a la n c e t h e a d v e rs e
i n f l u e n c e o f " c i v i l i z a t i o n " , and he d e c la r e s t h a t th e le n g th y r i t u a l
o f g r a d u a tio n i n t o a d u lth o o d can n o t be a l t e r e d , even i f i t means
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d is o b e y in g M onrovia, t h a t i s , th e c e n t r a l governm ent.
The m o d e rn iz a tio n K e ta f e a r s a f f e c t s th e v i l l a g e and t h e c o u n try
as a w hole i n more s e r i o u s ways th a n c a n e - j u i c e o r b o t t l e . I n : t h e c a s e
o f Yanga, e d u c a tio n , even i f l i m i t e d , has made him u n s ta b l e and s t u - -
p i d l y c re d u lo u s o f books w hich i n no way p e r t a i n t o th e a c t u a l l i f e o f
th e v i l l a g e . On a l a r g e r s c a l e , t h e p r e v io u s econom ic o r d e r h as been
u p s e t . The d is a p p e a ra n c e o f lo c a lly ^ g ro w n c ro p s su ch as r i c e i s one o f
th e symptoms o f ongoing change: "D epuis que F i r e s t o n e a v a i t c o u v e rt l a
t e r r e de s e s p l a n t a t i o n s , e t que l e s m ines s ' e t a i e n t em parees des e n -
t r a i l l e s du r e s t e , on a c h e t a i t l e r i z dans l e s m oindres v i l l a g e s , du r i 2;
t o u t b la n c avec de d r o le s de noms" (p . 5 2 ). T h is has f u r t h e r c o n se
qu en ces i n t h e s e n se t h a t i t f o r c e s i n a c t i v e young p e o p le t o se e k em
ploym ent in t h e c i t y .
The c i t y i t s e l f , a lth o u g h i t i s o n ly two h o u rs from N ian g , i s
t o t a l l y f o r e i g n t o t h e v i l l a g e r s . N e i th e r Kimby n o r h i s d a n c e rs a re
a b le t o im a g in e what t h e c i t y may be l i k e f o r la c k o f p o i n ts o f r e f e r
e n c e . I t s u r p r i s e s them in i t s d i v e r s i t y b e cau se th e y a re u s e d t o th e
a r c h i t e c t u r a l u n if o r m ity o f t h e i r v i l l a g e . M onrovia, on t h e c o n tr a r y ,
i s made o f c o n t r a s t s betw een th e m odern— th e p r e s i d e n t i a l p a la c e , th e
T r ib u n a l , t h e I n f o r m a tio n b u i ld i n g — and t h e more t r a d i t i o n a l , betw een
t h e p o o r and th e r i c h . Thus th e c i t y i s sym bolic o f th e t r a n s i t i o n a l
s t a t e o f L i b e r i a and o f K im by's g e n e r a ti o n , w hich l i n k s th e t r a d i t i o n a l
as r e p r e s e n t e d by K e ta and t h e modern as t y p i f i e d by K im by's open-
m inded and e a g e r a s s i s t a n t drummer, Boma.
K im by's t r a n s i t i o n a l p o s i t i o n i s r e v e a le d t o him th ro u g h th e
363
changes t h a t a f f e c t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o h i s d a n c e rs as th e y move from
t h e v i l l a g e t o th e c i t y t o b e g in t h e i r t r a i n i n g . I n th e v i l l a g e ,
K im by's a u t h o r i t y o v e r th e young d a n c e rs i s u n c o n d it io n a l : he r u l e s
and th e y obey. H is know ledge o f t h e r i t u a l ' and o f t h e t r a d i t i o n i s
n e v e r c o n te s te d and m arks h i s s u p e r i o r i t y . I n t h e c i t y , how ever, th e
more a d a p ta b le young boys e s c a p e h i s c o n t r o l . H is r o l e as l e a d e r i s
d im in is h e d by h i s la c k o f know ledge o f th e new environm ent and h is d i f
f i c u l t i e s a t a d a p tin g as f a s t as h i s p u p i l s : "Dans ce chem in nouveau,
q u a n t a s e r v i r de p e r e , i l se v o y a it p l u t o t comme c e s v ie u x que de
je u n e s f i l s p re n n e n t p a r l a m ain p a rc e q u ' i l s n 'y v o ie n t p lu s " (p . 99) ,
The problem o f la n g u a g e c h a r a c t e r i z e s w e ll t h e s e m o d if ic a ti o n s : Kimby
speak s alm o st no E n g lis h , w hereas h i s p u p ils can e a s i l y com m unicate in
t h a t la n g u a g e . He th u s r e l i e s upon them t o t r a n s l a t e what i s b e in g
s a id around him . When C a s s e l, th e f o r e i g n e r who i s t o s u p e r v is e t h e i r
t r a i n i n g , a r r i v e s , t h e young boys s p e a k : d i r e c t l y t o t h e new m a s te r,
th u s re d u c in g K im by's r o l e from t h a t o f a g u id e t o t h a t o f a sim p le
drummer. Under th e s e c ir c u m s ta n c e s , K im by's a t t i t u d e slo w ly d e t e r i o
r a t e s . He l o s e s to u c h w ith t h e w o rld around him . H aving no r u l e s by
w hich t o f a s h i o n h i s b e h a v io r , s in c e th e v i l l a g e r u l e s do n o t ap ply
and he does n o t u n d e rs ta n d t h e new o n e s , Kimby i s overwhelm ed by a
s e n s e o f d e f e a t : "Un Kimby q u i n ' e t a i t d e so rm a is s u r de r i e n ne prom e-
n a i t p lu s parm i l e s hommes que 1 ' ombre de son moi a n c ie n t" (p . 1 3 8 ).
The changes g e n e r a te d by th e b o y s' s ta y i n t h e c i t y e q u a lly
a f f e c t t h e i r p a r e n t s i n t h e v i l l a g e . Having r a p i d l y u n d e rs to o d t h a t
t h e law o f N iang does n o t a p p ly t o M onrovia, t h e boys d e c id e t o keep
364
h a l f o f t h e s a l a r y th e y a re p a id i n s t e a d o f s e n d in g a l l o f i t t o t h e i r
p a r e n t s . When Kimby e x p la in s why t o th e p u z z le d v i l l a g e r s , th e y r e a l i z e
t h a t i r r e v e r s i b l e tr a n s f o r m a t io n s a r e t a k i n g p l a c e . T h e ir sons now
sp e ak E n g lis h , have l e a r n e d t o re a d and c o u n t, a re f a m i l i a r w ith a u to
m o b ile s , d e n t i s t s , d o c t o r s . . . a l l t h in g s w hich rem ain f o r e i g n t o t h e i r
p a r e n t s . "Nous sommes devenus l e s f i l s de nos f i l s " , c o n c lu d e s one
f a t h e r (p . 1 2 9 ). A lthough th e y do n o t d i r e c t l y e x p re s s t h e i r c o n s t e r
n a t i o n , t h e men b e tr a y i t by en g aging i n heavy d r in k in g a f t e r t h e i r
r e v e a li n g c o n v e r s a tio n w ith Kimby,. a b e h a v io r w hich i s t o t a l l y u n n a tu
r a l o u t s i d e o f f e s t i v a l s .
K im by's w if e , T e n in , moves t o M onrovia t o be w ith h e r husband and
f a l l s p re y t o t h e same f e e l i n g o f d is p la c e m e n t. D ep riv ed o f a l l th e
a c t i v i t i e s w hich f i l l e d h e r days i n N ian g , sh e becomes i n a c t i v e and
s tu b b o r n ly r e f u s e s t o tr a n s p o s e and a d a p t h e r fo rm e r t a s k s t o h e r new
e n v iro n m e n t. Her b e h a v io r i s c o n t r a s t e d t o t h a t o f Beka, a woman b o rn
i n M onrovia who has l e a r n e d t o come t o term s w ith c i t y l i f e and t r a d i
t i o n and has found t h e s t a b i l i t y w hich T en in l a c k s . The t r a n s p l a n t e d
T e n in ta k e s re fu g e i n s tu b b o rn r e f u s a l , becau se sh e does n o t u n d e rs ta n d
t h e b e h a v io r o f h e r new com panions and does n o t know how t o d e a l w ith
t h e freedom she now h a s , away from t h e c l o s e l y - k n i t s o c i e t y o f h e r
v i l l a g e .
A ll t h e s e changes a r e m ir ro r e d i n t h e t r a n s f o r m a tio n s b ro u g h t t o
t h e t r a d i t i o n a l a r t o f dance u n d e r G a s s e l's s u p e r v i s io n . As t h e o rg an
i z e r o f t h e dance company, C a s s e l p r i m a r i l y s e e s dance as p e rfo rm a n c e
in d e p e n d e n tly o f th e m eaning o f each d an ce. T r a d i t i o n a l l y , each dance
365
i s t h e s t y l i z e d r e -e n a c tm e n t o f an e p is o d e o f l i f e and can n o t be al-^
t e r e d w ith o u t l o s i n g some o f i t s m eaning. A lthough C a s s e l u n d e rs ta n d s
t h i s , he n e v e r t h e l e s s has t o e d i t and m ix dances o f v a r io u s s o r t s t o
compose a c o h e re n t show w i t h i n t h e p r e s c r ib e d tim e l i m i t . H aving t o
d e a l w ith an a u d ie n c e w hich i s n o t aware o f t h e s p e c i f i c s i g n i f i c a n c e
o f each dance and does n o t r e l a t e t o i t th ro u g h t r a d i t i o n , C a s s e l
cho o ses among th e dances f o r t h e i r e s t h e t i c and e n t e r t a i n i n g q u a l i t i e s .
T hus, f o r t h e d a n c e r s , from r i t u a l , t h e dance slo w ly becomes a t h e a t
r i c a l p r o f e s s i o n as th e dan ce company g a in s i n c o h e s io n and t e c h n i c a l
s h i l l .
The c lim a x o f t h e n o v e l comes w ith th e t r i p t o t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l
dance f e s t i v a l o f D akar w hich r e i n f o r c e s a l l th e s u b t l e and o b v ious
changes w hich have ta k e n p la c e d u rin g t h e t r a i n i n g p e r i o d . Boys and
g i r l s , who had begun t o m in g le i n M onrovia a lth o u g h th e y rem ain ed
s e v e r e ly w atch ed i n a c c o rd a n c e w ith t r a d i t i o n a l r u l e s , now f r e e l y i n t e r
a c t d u r in g t h e jo u rn e y t o t h e f o r e i g n c i t y . They d is c o v e r t h e d i v e r s i t y
o f t h e A f r ic a n c o n tin e n t b o th i n t h e s t r e e t s o f .Dakar and i n t h e d ances
o f o t h e r com panies p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e f e s t i v a l . F or Kimby, D akar i s
an e y e -o p e n in g e x p e rie n c e . C o n fro n te d w ith c o u n tle s s d i f f e r e n c e s , he
u n d e rs ta n d s t h a t one has t o a d a p t o n e 's b e h a v io r t o th e en v iro n m en t;
" La l o i de N iang, e l l e e s t p o u r N i a n g ... La l o i de N iang n e p e u t pas
v e n i r j u s q u 'i c i , d i t Kimby avec une s u r p r e n a n te f i n a l i t e " (p . 1 8 5 ).
He s t i l l f e e l s , how ever, t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r a g o v e rn in g law and can n o t
h id e h i s c o n c ern as t o w hich law can encompass a l l t h e changes he has
w itn e s s e d . He t u r n s t o C a s s e l f o r an answ er, but C a s s e l has none;
366
" Q u e lle l o i? H onnetem ent, q u e l l e l o i? Pour i c i e t l a , D akar and Monro
v i a , p o u r l e chaume e t 1 ' a v io n , q u e l l e l o i ? " (p . 187) I n a s o c i e t y in
t r a n s i t i o n , su ch as t h a t o f modern A f r ic a where t r a d i t i o n l o s e s ground,
p e o p le e v o lv e f a s t e r th a n t h e law . K im by's u n c e r t a i n t i e s th u s r e f l e c t
th o s e o f th e g e n e r a tio n s w hich have t o e s t a b l i s h a code o f b e h a v io r
t o b rid g e t h e gap betw een t r a d i t i o n and m o d e rn ity .
Roger D o r s i n v i l l e 's A f r i c a i s th u s a la n d t u r n e d in w ard i n an
a tte m p t t o c o n t r o l i t s own c h a n g es. As a H a i t i a n , he can f in d i n t h i s
s o c i e t y r e f e r e n c e s w hich b e lo n g t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l , such as t h e l i b a
t i o n s t o t h e gods o r t h e s a l u t a t i o n c o d e, and w hich a ls o e x i s t in
H a i t i . Beyond t h e s e l i m i t e d c u l t u r a l a f f i n i t i e s , t h e two la n d s have
ta k e n d iv e r g in g p a th s , and D o r s i n v i l l e n e v e r a tte m p ts i n t h e n o v e l t o
la u n c h i n t o any co m p a riso n . T hat t h e r e would be no p la c e i n t h i s s o c i
e ty f o r t h e C a rib b e a n man s e e k in g com fort and s o l i d a r i t y i s made
e v id e n t; a p o p u la tio n w hich s u s p e c ts C a s s e l, a c i t i z e n o f a n o th e r
A f r ic a n n a t i o n , and c a l l s him " l 'E t r a n g e r " , would have d i f f i c u l t i e s
a c c e p tin g someone who may b e lo n g t o t h e same r a c e , b u t n o t t o th e same
c u l t u r e and t h e same h i s t o r y . The A f r ic a t h e a u th o r d e p ic t s th ro u g h
sc e n e s o f L i b e r i a and D akar i s l e a r n i n g t o know i t s e l f i n i t s d i v e r s i t y
and d i f f e r e n c e and has s c a r c e l y any d e s i r e t o know o r be in v o lv e d w ith
o t h e r b la c k n a ti o n s o f t h e w o rld .
I t i s D akar a g a in w hich i s th e m ain p r o t a g o n i s t o f B e rte n e
J u m i n e r 's n o v e l Les H e r i t i e r s de l a p r e s q u ' i l e . The c o n t r a s t s o f th e
c i t y , i t s p o p u la tio n o f d i v e r s e e th n i c and r e l i g i o u s b ack g ro u n d s, th e
367
tu r m o il o f i t s s t r e e t s t y p i f y a c o n ti n e n t u n d e rg o in g a c u l t u r a l and
s o c i a l r e v o l u t i o n . W ith in th e c i t y , d i f f e r e n c e s a r e made more a p p a re n t:
"A l ' a b r i d e r r i e r e se s f a l a i s e s e n t a i l l e e s d 'o r g u e s b a s a l t i q u e s e t p ro -
j e t e e s v e r s l ' i n f i n i sous d 'i n t e r m i n a b l e s m o rsu res o c e a n e s, l a v i l l e
f a s c i n e d e j a d 'a m b ig u ite . D i v e r t i c u l e de l 'E u r o p e e t f i g u r e de p roue
de 1 'A f r iq u e , e l l e assume to u s l e s a p p o rts du monde e t , p a r a l l e l e m e n t ,
ne re sse m b le q u 'a e lle -m e m e ." ^
Bob Yves Bacon, by r e a l name Mamadou Lamine N’D iay e, i s , w ith h i s
d o u b le i d e n t i t y , r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e c i t y . S y m b o lic a lly born on a
sh ip , midway betw een A f r ic a and E urope, he does n o t know where he
b e lo n g s , and he u s e s h i s a m b ig u ity as a t o o l , p la y in g i n t u r n t h e A f r i
can o r t h e E uropean a c c o rd in g t o c ir c u m s ta n c e s . However, t h i s v e ry
a d a p t a b i l i t y makes him a s o l i t a r y man who was n o t i n t e g r a t e d i n F ra n ce
and d id n o t w ish t o be, and y e t i s n o t one w ith h i s A f r ic a n e n v iro n m en t,
a lth o u g h he had hoped t o be: " A u jo u r d 'h u i, se s r a c i n e s p o u r ta n t r e t r o u -
v e e s , i l e n d u r a i t neanm oins l e s memes f r u s t r a t i o n s ; e t l e q u o t i d i e n ,
d e so rm a is denue du p a t h e t i q u e a p p e l du l a r g e , l ' i n c l i n a i t a d e s t e r i l e s
a c c e s d 'am ertum e q u 'a g g r a v a i e n t s a s o l i t u d e parm i l e s s ie n s e t s e s
s i l e n c e s en f a c e d 'e u x " ( p . 3 6 ). Made m a rg in a l by h i s d o u b le b e lo n g in g ,
he r e i n f o r c e s h i s o th e r n e s s by c h o o sin g a p r o f e s s i o n , t h a t o f p r i v a t e
i n v e s t i g a t o r , w hich i s n o t r e l e v a n t t o th e s o c i e t y i n w hich he l i v e s
and f o r c e s him t o u se e x p e d ie n ts t o s u r v i v e . B aco n 's la n g u a g e r e f l e c t s
t h e d o u b le i n f l u e n c e o f F ra n ce and S e n e g a l; h i s F ren ch i s a m ix tu re o f
P a r i s i a n s la n g and V o lo f e x p r e s s io n s and v i c e - v e r s a . H is p e r s o n a l i t y
to o i s d o u b le , s in c e he i s a t t h e same tim e m e tic u lo u s i n h i s work
368
and d i s o r d e r l y i n t h e c o n d u ct o f h i s p r i v a t e l i f e . B a c o n 's p o s i t i o n as
an o u t s i d e r a llo w s him , how ever, t o be c r i t i c a l o f th e s o c i e t y in
w hich he h as chosen t o l i v e .
Hoping t o t a l k somebody i n t o g iv in g him a f r e e ad f o r h i s p r i v a t e
i n v e s t i g a t i o n b u s in e s s , Bacon t o u r s t h e v a r io u s new spaper and r a d io
o f f i c e s o f Dakar and i s a b le t o c a s t a c r i t i c a l g la n c e a t t h e i r execu
t i v e l e v e l s . A d m in is tr a to r s a r e r a p i d l y c l a s s i f i e d i n t o t h r e e c a te g o
r i e s : t h e S e n e g a le s e , t h e to u b a b o r F ren ch t e c h n i c a l a d v is o r , and th e
m akafoute coming from t h e F ren ch A n t i l l e s . He d e t e c t s t h e p o s i t i o n o f
suprem acy th e W hites s t i l l e n jo y i n th e d e f e r e n t a t t i t u d e s o f f i c e
p e rs o n n e l have to w a rd them and w hich he r i g h t l y knows t o be a s u r v i v a l
from th e c o l o n i a l p e r i o d . So he b i t t e r l y o b j e c t s t o t h e c o n tin u in g
p re s e n c e o f th e W hites i n h i s c o u n try :
N aguere, i l a v a i t tr i m e sous l e s yeux du monde b la n c j de
r e t o u r parm i l e s N e g re s, s e s problem es m a t e r i e l s I 'a c c u l a i e n t
a une m e n d ic ite d e g u is e e ; s ' i l n 'y a v a i t pas p r i s g a rd e ,
c ' e s t e n c o re un B lanc q u i a u r a it, pu d e c id e r de son s o r t .
E t a i t - i l done d e f i n i ti v e m e n t condamne a l ' e x i l h o rs de l u i -
meme, de son e s p a c e .e t de son temps? ( p . 53)
A lthough he i s h im s e lf g u i l t y o f t a k i n g a d v a n ta g e o f t h e s u p e r f i c i a l
s u p e r i o r i t y c o n f e r r e d by an o c c id e n ta l costum e and o c c i d e n t a l m anners,
he n e v e r t h e l e s s r i d i c u l e s th o s e who make th e m is ta k e o f t a k in g what
he c o n s id e r s as a s u b te r f u g e s e r i o u s l y . At t h e n a t i o n a l r a d i o o f f i c e ,
i t i s t h e suprem acy o f t h e F re n c h lan g u a g e o f w hich t h e a u th o r , th ro u g h
Bacon, sp e ak s i r o n i c a l l y as he d e s c r i b e s th e v a r io u s e r r o r s made by a
young in e x p e r ie n c e d r e p o r t e r d u r in g t h e news b r o a d c a s t and th e s u b s e
q u e n t s c o ld in g he r e c e i v e s . The e p is o d e i s t o l d w ith humor but t a i n t e d
369
w ith acrim ony. The o f f i c e i t s e l f i s a m icrocosm o f th e s o c i e t y o f
D akar i n i t s d i v i s i o n s : on one s i d e , one s e e s t h e Moslem a d m i n is t r a t iv e
em ployees g a th e r e d i n t h e b u i l d i n g 's sm a ll c o u r ty a r d f o r t h e i r d a i l y
p r a y e r s , and on th e o t h e r , t h e s t a r - r e p o r t e r and h e r v i c t im q u a r r e l i n g
about t h e p u r i t y o f t h e F ren ch la n g u a g e .
Such d i v i s i o n s a r e o b v io u s w i t h in th e p r e c i n c t s o f t h e c i t y . The
p o p u la tio n o f Dakar i s g e o g r a p h ic a lly d i s t r i b u t e d i n t h r e e s e p a r a te
a r e a s a c c o rd in g t o i t s r e l i g i o u s , s o c i a l and econom ic back g ro u n d . The
M edina i s " . . . l e c o e u r de l 'A f r i q u e t o u t e e n t i e r e avec se s a ta v is m e s ,
son f a t a l i s m e e t s a g e n e r o s i te " (p . 1 3 ) . I t i s t h e home o f a p o p u la tio n
w hich has le a r n e d t o s u r v iv e a t p o v e rty l e v e l , w ith o u t r e g u l a r employ
m ent, b u t b u sy in g i t s e l f a t a v a r i e t y o f odd jo b s : w a tc h in g c a r s w h ile
t h e owner i s sh o p p in g , o f f e r i n g i t s s e r v i c e s as cook o r h o u s e k e e p e r,
s h in in g s h o e s , c a r r y in g l o a d s . . . T h e re one m eets t h e g r i o t s who se ek
t o s o f t e n t h e h e a r t and open th e w a l l e t o f t h e p a s s e r - b y by c e l e b r a t i n g
h i s g l o r i o u s a n c e s t o r s . F i n a l l y , i t i s th e haven o f p ic k p o c k e ts and
th i e v e s o f a l l ages and a l l q u a l i f i c a t i o n s , s id e by s id e w ith c r a f t s
men, s m a ll sh o p k e e p e rs and sm a ll b u s in e s s e s o f a l l k in d s . I n t h e Medi
n a , m is f o r tu n e i s a way o f l i f e tem p ered by t h e w i l l to s u r v iv e and
th e know ledge t h a t d e p r i v a t i o n i s s h a re d by a l l . C olobane i s t h e l a s t
s to p o f t h e p e a s a n t drawn t o t h e c i t y by p ro m ises o f a b e t t e r l i f e and
d is c o v e r in g to o l a t e t h a t th e c i t y h as n o th in g t o o f f e r . Above p o v e rty
i s th e r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a o f Le P l a t e a u , w here lu x u ry a p a rtm e n ts a d jo in
w e a lth y v i l l a s i n h a b i t e d by o c c i d e n t a l i z e d b usinessm en and p o l i t i c i a n s .
Few a re th o s e who c r o s s th e b o r d e r betw een t h e M edina and l e P l a t e a u .
370
S in c e i t can n o t be done th ro u g h r e g u l a r , c h a n n e ls , s o c i a l p r o g r e s s i s
so u g h t by o t h e r means: t h e d r i a n k e , f o r exam ple, buys th e l u x u r i e s she
c a n n o t a f f o r d on t h e m eager s a l a r y o f a s e c r e t a r y and advances by
becoming th e m i s t r e s s o f h e r em ployer whom she th e n o u tr a g e o u s ly e x - 1 : .
p l o i t s t o s u p p o rt h e r f a m ily . Between th e w e s te r n iz e d u p p e r c l a s s e s
and t h e u rb a n p r o l e t a r i a t o f t h e M edina and C olobane, t h e r e i s a s e v e r e
econom ic and c u l t u r a l gap i n w hich m aneuver th e d r i a n k e s , th e p r o s t i
t u t e s and a v a r i e t y o f m a rg in a l i n d i v i d u a l s t y p i f i e d by Bacon.
Urban p o v e rty and c u l t u r a l a l i e n a t i o n a re t h e symptoms o f a s o c i
e ty i n t r a n s i t i o n betw een c o l o n i a l dependence and in d e p e n d e n c e , r u r a l
l i f e and i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n , a s o c i e t y i n s e a r c h o f i t s e l f w here c u l t u
r a l t r a d i t i o n s and th e demands o f m o d e rn iz a tio n have n o t y e t re a c h e d
a com prom ise. I n t h i s p r e c a r io u s s o c i a l o r d e r , few i n d i v i d u a l s a r e a b le
t o a c h ie v e a p o s i t i o n o f b a la n c e betw een W estern a n d .A f r ic a n i n f l u e n c e s ,
Bacon, how ever, m eets such a man i n t h e p e rso n o f M ansour Faye:
” Q u 'a v a i e n t - i l s done de commun horm is l a c o u le u r? L 'u n s 'a c c e p t a i t ,
d e m e u ra it f i d e l e a lui-m em e e t aueun s ig n e d 'i n c o n f o r t n ' a f f e c t a i t
c e t t e f i d e l i t e . L ' a u t r e .s ’ e t a i t d e lib e re m e n t o c c i d e n t a l i s e ; ce fra n c h is--
sem ent de l a l i g n e , p o u sse j u s q u 'a l a c a r i c a t u r e e t assume dans se s
c o n seq u en ces s o c i a l e s , l e p a r a i t de t r o u b l a n t s a t t r i to u t s .d:*imposture"
( p . 1 0 2 ). M ansour Faye i s n o t tem p te d by what th e O c c id en t has t o o f f e r ;
h i s o n ly c o n c e s s io n t o w h ite t a s t e r e s i d e s i n h i s p a s s io n f o r d e t e c t i v e
s t o r i e s . As opposed t o Bacon’ s c r i t i c a l s k e p tic is m , M ansour Faye has
f a i t h i n t h e p o t e n t i a l o f h i s c o u n try w h ile r e a l i z i n g t h e d a n g e r o f i t s
b e in g t h e p re y o f demagogues and pow er-hungry p o l i t i c i a n s . He b e lie v e s
371
t h a t , s o o n e r o r l a t e r , i t s p e o p le w i l l t u r n S en eg al i n t o a n a t i o n ,
however weakened i t m ight be by t h e d e s t r u c t i v e i n f l u e n c e o f c o lo n i z a
t i o n . A lthough Bacon a c c u se s him o f blam ing t h e f a i l u r e s o f S e n e g a l
upon c o lo n i a li s m , th u s s im p l if y in g th e problem and m aking e a sy ex c u se s
f o r t h e m is ta k e s o f i t s p r e s e n t governm ent, he concedes t h a t M a n so u r's
f a i t h i n t h e f u t u r e o f h i s c o u n tr y , w hich n eeds no i d e o l o g i c a l j u s t i
f i c a t i o n s , m ight be t h e o n ly a t t i t u d e c a p a b le o f b r in g in g about p o s i
t i v e c h an g e. F a c in g t h i s composed and c o n f id e n t man, Bacon b e g in s t o
p e r c e iv e t h e p r e c a r io u s n e s s o f h i s own c h o ic e s and t h e f a ls e h o o d o f
h i s p r e t e n s e s .
Bacon m eets Mansour Faye i n c o n n e c tio n w ith h i s f i r s t , and l a s t
assig n m en t as a p r i v a t e i n v e s t i g a t o r . The u n f o ld in g o f th e i n v e s t i g a
t i o n i t s e l f i s o f l i t t l e im p o rta n c e t o t h e n o v e l and i s n e v e r c o n - . ,
e lu d e d . What c o u n ts i s t h a t i t g iv e s Bacon t h e o p p o r tu n ity o f g e t t i n g
a c q u a in te d w ith t h e s o c i e t y on t h e edge o f w hich he s t a n d s , and o f r e
f l e c t i n g on t h e c o m p o n e n ts:o f a c u l t u r e w hich he does n o t know w e ll
enough t o a c c e p t as h i s own. H is c l i e n t i s A la ssa n e Ib o u N 'D iaye who i s
e x p e r ie n c in g d i f f i c u l t i e s w ith h i s second w i f e , t h e young F a tim . I b o u ’ s
l i f e s t o r y i s an i r o n i c a l and p a t h e t i c O dyssey w hich has ta k e n him t o
a l l t h e F ren ch b a t t l e f i e l d s f o r a d u r a t i o n o f tw e n ty - th r e e y e a r s as an
army v o l u n t e e r . As a r e a c t i o n a g a in s t h i s le n g th y and a b s u rd e x i l e and.
a l l th e h o r r o r s and s t u p i d i t i e s he has been fo rc e d t o w i t n e s s , Ib o u h as
become "un z e l a t e u r a c h a rn e de l a t r a d i t i o n , d o te d 'u n e e to n n a n te c e -
c i t e v i s r a - v i s de t o u t ce q u i ne g r a v i t a i t pas a u to u r d ' e l l e " ( p . 1 0 2 ) .
Ib o u d e c id e s t o t a k e a n o th e r w ife when he l e a r n s t h a t h i s f i r s t w ife
372
can no lo n g e r have c h i l d r e n . B e lie v in g , as he d o e s , i n th e t r a d i t i o n
a c c o rd in g t o w hich th e number o f h i s c h i l d r e n a r e t h e p r o o f o f a m an 's
v i r i l i t y , Ib o u c h o o ses F a tim f o r h e r y o u th -and i s d i s t r e s s e d when th e
young woman su d d e n ly r e f u s e s t o bend t o h e r m a s t e r 's d e s i r e s . F atim i s
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a new g e n e r a ti o n o f A f r ic a n women who have been
r a i s e d t o obey th e t r a d i t i o n but who r e v o l t a g a in s t t h e i r r o l e as th e
s u b m is s iv e and p a s s i v e w ife and want t o f i n d t h e i r own p la c e i n s o c i
e t y . Ib o u i s in c a p a b le o f u n d e rs ta n d in g h e r m o tiv a tio n s and s u s p e c ts
f o u l p l a y . Hence h i s u s e l e s s v i s i t t o Bacon, who has been recommended
by M ansour F aye, h im s e lf a t a l o s s about F a tim 's b e h a v io r.
F a tim i s e n co u rag ed i n h e r r e s i s t a n c e t o m ale suprem acy by h e r
a u n t, Mado. Having h e r s e l f had an u n f o r t u n a te c o n ju g a l e x p e rie n c e and.
b e in g a d iv o rc e e i n a c u l t u r e w here d iv o rc e i s a m ale p r e r o g a t i v e ,
Mado i s a l o n e r . Her i s o l a t i o n i s compounded by h e r s o c i a l , r e l i g i o u s
and r a c i a l background: "Dans ce pays ou l a m a j o r i t e des femmes e t a i e n t
des n e g r e s s e s p u r e s , i s l a m i s e e s e t so u v en t peu i n s t r u i t e s , Mado e t a i t
m e t is s e , c a th o l iq u e e t c u l t i v e e " ( p . 1 2 7 ). I n s p i t e o f h e r d i f f e r e n c e , '
she h as been a b le t o re a c h a b a la n c e betw een h e r A f r ic a n background
and h e r w e s te r n ty p e o f s o c i a l r o l e as a j o u r n a l i s t and a rd e n t sup
p o r t e r o f t h e fe m in in e c a u s e . Mado, whom Bacon t r i e s t o c o n s u lt i n
o r d e r t o g a in in f o r m a tio n about F a tim , r a p i d l y s e e s th ro u g h h i s game,
d e c id e s t o g iv e him th e le s s o n he d e s e rv e s and h as him a r r e s t e d .
F or Bacon, t h e w hole c o m p lic a te d a f f a i r i s an e y e -o p e n in g e x p e r i
e n c e. S u rro u n d ed by i n d i v i d u a l s who, a lth o u g h th e y have been s u b je c t e d
t o w e s te r n i n f l u e n c e s , have c h o sen a. way o p p o s ite t o h i s own, he i s
373
a b le t o a n a ly z e h i s b e t r a y a l ; " Ja m a is Bacon, p r im itiv e m e n t p reo ccu p e
de rompre avec l a m e d i o c r i te , n * a v a it im agine c e t a b o u tis s e m e n t marque
au c o in de l a t r a h i s o n e t de l a veulerie'-? (p . 1 0 2 ). He has a llo w e d him
s e l f t o b e li e v e t h a t he c o u ld su c ce e d by u s in g t r i c k s i n s p i r e d by h is
s t a y i n F ran ce as w e ll as by h i s p a s s io n f o r d e t e c t i v e s t o r i e s and
f i l m s . T hat t h i s c h o ic e goes a g a in s t h i s more o r l e s s c o n s c io u s d e s i r e
t o be i n t e g r a t e d i n t h e A f r ic a n s o c i e t y i s r e v e a le d by th e f a c t t h a t
he e l e c t s t h e M edina as h i s r e s i d e n c e , b e cau se t h e r e he f e e l s a t e a s e .
B e s id e s , h i s g e o g ra p h ic w a n d e rin g s ta k e him t o p la c e s w here he s ta n d s
o u t and w here h i s r o l e - p l a y i n g h a s t h e b e s t chan ce o f f a i l i n g . From
f e e l i n g s o f v i c t o r y when h e b e lie v e s t h a t he has h i s f i r s t g e n u in e
a s sig n m e n t, he slo w ly t u r n s t o s e l f - c r i t i c i s m and d i s g u s t a t h i s p e t t y
m a c h in a tio n s . I b o u ’ s l i f e s t o r y te a c h e s him t h a t i t i s p o s s i b l e t o
r e t u r n t o o n e ’ s s o u rc e s even a f t e r t w e n ty - th r e e y e a r s o f e x i l e , but
t h a t t h i s h as t o be done j u d i c i o u s l y . M ansour’ s f a i t h makes Bacon
r e a l i z e t h a t he i s a v o id in g th e m ain i s s u e s r e g a r d in g h i s c o u n try and
t h a t i t i s p o s s i b l e t o f i n d s e l f - s a t i s f a c t i o n p r o v id in g one i s w i l l i n g
t o rem ain f a i t h f u l t o o n e s e l f . Mado’ s d e d i c a t i o n ,a s w e ll as t h e f a c t
t h a t she has n o t g iv e n i n t o h e r f a i l u r e s , make Bacon p o n d e r about h is
own p o s i t i o n . F a tim , whom he n e v e r m eets b u t who comes t o e p ito m iz e
t h e A f r ic a n woman i n h i s im a g in a tio n , shows him t h a t f i g h t i n g f o r
p e r s o n a l c o n v ic tio n s r e q u i r e s e f f o r t s he has been u n w illin g to make.
Added t o h i s w a n d e rin g s i n a s o c i e t y where m a k e -b e lie v e and h y p o c ris y
d i c t a t e th e b e h a v io r o f t h o s e who a re i n a p o s i t i o n o f pow er, a l l th e s e
d i s c o v e r ie s s lo w ly c r y s t a l l i z e . H is a r r e s t b r in g s i t a l l t o t h e s u r f a c e
374
as he f a c e s t h e c o n seq u en ces o f h i s f r a u d u l e n t conduct and i s f o rc e d
t o r e - e v a l u a t e h i s l i f e :
I I n 'y r e n c o n t r a n i s a je u n e s s e vagabonde a M e d in a - s u r - S e in e ,
n i se s d e r i s o i r e s i v r e s s e s de m ig r a n t, m ais C olobane dont
i l a l l a i t e t r e s e v r e , C o lo b a n e -le -C o u p -a u -C o e u r, C olobane-
s u r - P e s t i l e n c e , avec l a g a r g o t t e de Mammy e t to u s ces v i s a
ges r e n i e s , e c r a s e s p a r s a s u f f i s a n c e de p a r v e n u . . . I I ne
r e n c o n t r a i t que l a p u l s a t i o n d 'u n p a y sa g e , l e s o u f f l e d 'u n
pays de c h a i r e t de s a n g , l e s i e n . ( p . 217)
I n t h e wake o f t h i s r e a l i z a t i o n , Bacon sh ed s h i s A m ericano-E uropean
pseudonym f o r h i s a u t h e n t i c S e n e g a le s e name, s ig n o f h i s n e w ly -fo u n d
A f r ic a n i d e n t i t y .
By means o f t h i s c o m p lic a te d and humourous s t o r y , B e rte n e Ju m in e r
draws t h e p i c t u r e o f a s o c i e t y i n t r a n s i t i o n r id d e n w ith c o n t r a d i c
t i o n s . L ik e Bacon, i t i s a s o c i e t y i n s e a r c h o f i t s t r u e i d e n t i t y ,
h a v in g t o cope i n th e p r o c e s s w ith th e p e r s i s t e n t i n f l u e n c e o f t h e
w e s te r n w o rld . T h is a llo w s Ju m in e r t o c r i t i c i z e a t t i t u d e s i n h e r i t e d
from c o lo n i a li s m , a t t i t u d e s w hich he had p r e v io u s ly c h a s t i s e d i n n o v e ls
such as Les B a ta rd s and La Revanche de Bozambo. S e n e g a l, a fo rm er
F ren ch c o lo n y , s u f f e r s from problem s s i m i l a r t o th o s e t h a t can be en
c o u n te re d i n t h e s t i l l F rench o v e rs e a s d e p a rtm e n ts o f M a rtin iq u e , Gua
d e lo u p e and F ren ch G uiana. Due t o i t s g e o g ra p h ic p o s i t i o n , S e n e g a l, and
i n p a r t i c u l a r D akar, a r e a t t h e p o in t o f c o n flu e n c e o f " o u ts i d e " i n f l u
e n ces coming from t h e ocean and " i n s i d e " i n f l u e n c e s coming from t h e
i n t e r i o r o f th e A f r ic a n c o n t i n e n t . From t h i s c o n s ta n t c la s h r e s u l t th e
a m b ig u itie s d e s c r ib e d in t h e n o v e l. A lth o u g h th e c h a r a c t e r s 's q u e s t i s
d i f f i c u l t , i t i s n e v e r h o p e l e s s . l t i s M ansour who e x p re s s e s t h e hope
375
t h a t th e changes undergone by each one o f th e c h a r a c t e r s a r e r e p r e s e n t
a t i v e , -.of th o s e o f t h e n a t i o n as a w hole and t h a t each i n d i v i d u a l has a
r o l e t o p la y i n t h e em ergence on t h e S e n e g a le s e n a ti o n : "Q u'on l e
v e u i l l e ou non, a f f i r m a - t - i l avec f o r c e , c ' e s t nous l e s h e r i t i e r s , nous
t a n t que nous sommes, e t l a b a r r e e s t e n t r e nos m ains" (p . 1 0 6 ).
T hese two n o v e ls a tte m p t t o p r e s e n t a r e a l i s t i c p i c t u r e o f modern
A f r i c a and o f t h e t e n s i o n s i t e x p e r ie n c e s . I n t h i s c o n te x t , t h e r e i s
no room f o r in v o lv e m e n t i n t h e p l i g h t o f o t h e r p e o p le s . I n f a c t , B er-
t e n e Ju m in e r b r u t a l l y e x p r e s s e s , th ro u g h Bacon, t h e co n te m p t th e Sene
g a le s e have f o r t h e i r F re n c h C a rib b e a n c o u n t e r p a r t s : " . . . l e s M akafoutes
( c e u x - l a , i l ne p o u v a it l e s s e n t i r l ) imbus de l e u r im p o rta n c e de m erce-
n a i r e s e t se p r e n a n t p o u r p lu s b la n c s que l e s v r a i s " ( p . 6 0 ) . A lthough
b o th w r i t t e n by C a rib b e a n a u th o r s , t h e two n o v e ls a r e m o stly co n c ern e d
w ith t y p i c a l l y A f r ic a n p ro b le m s. They c o n c e n tr a te on t h e c u l t u r a l
d i f f i c u l t i e s o f n a ti o n s o f C o n tin e n ta l A f r ic a w hich have been s u b je c te d
t o t h e c o l o n i a l e x p e rie n c e and a r e t r y i n g t o e s t a b l i s h a c o n t i n u i t y
w ith t h e p a s t and i t s t r a d i t i o n a l c o n te n t as w e l l - a s to i n t e g r a t e , as
h a rm o n io u sly as p o s s i b l e , changes w hich can p o t e n t i a l l y e n d a n g er th e
c o h e s io n o f t h e i r p o p u la tio n
4
2) The " d e m y t h if ic a ti o n " o f A f r ic a o r " l 1i n u t i l e du r e v e n i r "
The A f r ic a n myth s u r v iv e s i n C a rib b e a n l i t e r a t u r e as t h e dream o f
a la n d w here one would f e e l a t home, w here t h e r e would be no im p o s itio n s
o f any k in d , and w here t h e p a s t w ould be one o f d i g n i t y and c o n t i n u i t y
376
i n s t e a d o f one o f h u m il ia t io n s and r u p t u r e s . T h is A f r ic a n dream i s
d e s c r ib e d by A ndre S c h w arz-B art i n t h e f i r s t p a r t o f L a M u la tre s s e
S o l it u d e and r e c o u n ts t h e c h ild h o o d o f Bayangumay, S o l i t u d e ’ s m o th e r.
I t i s i n t h e memory o f t h a t A f r ic a t h a t Man E lo is e ta k e s r e f u g e when
th e p r e s e n t becomes to o d i f f i c u l t t o d e a l w ith . The d e s i r e t o r e t u r n
t o th e n a t i v e la n d i s i t s e l f " m y th ic iz e d " b e cau se i t i s i n t u i t i v e l y
known t o be an i m p o s s i b i l i t y . To be p o s s i b l e , th e r e t u r n would have t o
be t o A f r i c a as i t was a t th e tim e t h e a n c e s to r s were ta k e n from i t ,
As tim e p a s s e s w ith o u t th e aw aren ess o f w hat th e o r i g i n a l c o u n try h a s
become, b e c au se t h e memory o f t h i s c o u n try i t s e l f fa d e s away, and
b e cau se th e e x i l e d p e o p le s a r e s u b je c te d t o f o r e i g n i n f l u e n c e s and
e v o lv e d i f f e r e n t l y , t h e r e t u r n becomes u n a c h ie v a b le . But even i f i t
w ere p o s s i b l e , i t would i n e v i t a b l y f a i l : t h r e e hundred y e a r s o f s e p a
r a t i o n and i n c r e a s i n g d i f f e r e n c e s can h a r d ly be e ra s e d . However, th e
myth e n d u re s , and i t becomes n e c e s s a r y t o e r a d i c a t e i t i n o r d e r t o
a llo w f o r new b e g in n in g s . The d e s t r u c t i o n o f th e myth i s b ro u g h t about
i n two ways: by a r e - e v a l u a t i o n o f th e p a s t and an e x a m in a tio n o f i t s
t r u e n a t u r e , and, s e c o n d ly , by an a n a l y s i s o f th o s e co n tem porary
f e a t u r e s o f A f r ic a w hich p r e v e n t c lo s e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith i t . One can
say t h a t T i J e a n I ’H o rizo n by Simone S c h w a rz -B art r e c o n s t r u c t s t h e p a s t
t o a llo w T i J e a n t o s e e i t as i t w as. I n Heremakhonon, M aryse Conde
c o n f r o n ts h e r h e r o in e w ith a s e t o f p r e s e n t c irc u m s ta n c e s w hich
e v e n tu a ll y f o r c e h e r t o r e c o n s i d e r h e r own b e l i e f s about A f r i c a . Both
s i t u a t i o n s a re c o n f r o n t a t i o n s s i n c e , i n each c a s e , t h e p r o t a g o n i s t i s
r e l u c t a n t t o a c c e p t t h e r e a l i t y w ith w hich he o r she comes i n c o n t a c t .
%
377
Ti J e a n 1 ' H o rizon i s a c h a r a c t e r o f le g e n d , t h e h e ro o f many a
f o l k t a l e i n t h e F ren ch A n t i l l e s . By u s in g t h i s c h a r a c t e r , t h e a u th o r
d e s tr o y s a myth w ith a m yth, i n t e g r a t e s i n t o t h e le g e n d t h e d e s t r u c t i o n
o f what le g e n d and o r a l t r a d i t i o n have p e r p e t u a t e d . T i J e a n l 'H o r i z o n 's
le g e n d a ry s t a t u s g iv e s him a m o b ility w hich a llo w s t h e a u th o r t h e f r e e
dom o f s h u t t l i n g betw een p r e s e n t and p a s t and from c o u n tr y t o c o u n try .
T i J e a n hops from p r e s e n t - d a y G uadeloupe t o p a s t A f r ic a t o a t i m e l e s s ,
s u r r e a l and d i s q u i e t i n g F ra n c e , d is c o v e r in g e a ch tim e t h a t h i s im a g in a
t i o n had t r i c k e d him i n t o b e li e v in g i n m ira g e s .
T i J e a n 1 ' H o rizo n i s a m ix tu re o f p a s t and p r e s e n t , b e in g b o m
from a man " d 'E n -B a s" and a woman " d ’E n -H a u t." B elow ,("E n-B as” ) l i v e
th o s e who have f o r g o t t e n t h e i r p a s t and le a d f r a g i l e l i v e s o f s e lf - d o u b t
and s e l f - d e n i g r a t i o n . Above, ("E n -H a u t") l i v e t h e d e s c e n d a n ts o f t h e
maroon s la v e s who have m a in ta in e d t h e i r in d ep e n d e n c e and t h e i r d i g n i t y .
S ta n d in g midway betw een them , T i J e a n b elo n g s t o n e i t h e r group and i s
c u rio u s about b o th . As he grows u p , T i J e a n l e a r n s about t h e w h ite
w o rld i n s c h o o l and about t h e m ag ic al w o rld o f Wademba, h i s g r a n d f a th e r !
b u t he a ls o l e a r n s ab o u t h i s c o u n try by h e lp in g Man E l o is e c o l l e c t
p l a n t s and h e rb s and by sp e n d in g h o u rs h u n tin g i n t h e f o r e s t . H is t r i p i p
know ledge g iv e s him a s p e c i a l s t a t u s and p r e p a r e s him f o r f u t u r e
c h o ic e s .
When T i J e a n i s b o rn , h i s m o th e r w ants him t o have an A f r ic a n name
as a p r o t e c t i o n a g a in s t th e v u l n e r a b i l i t y o f h i s f a t h e r ' s p e o p le . But
Wademba r e f u s e s t o g iv e him such a name: " I I n 'y a pas de nom po u r c e t
e n f a n t , c a r son nom 1 ' a t t e n d d e v an t l u i , son nom e s t q u e lq u e p a r t
378
d e v a n t l u i e t l e moment ven u , i l v i e n d r a s e d e p o s e r s u r s a t e t e . . . "
Ti J e a n w i l l have t o se e k h i s name and h i s a l l e g i a n c e . Wademba had s e n t
h i s m o th er t o th e v a l l e y b e c au se t h a t was w here t h e r e a l i t y o f th e b la c k
p e o p le was t o be fo u n d , n o t among d e s c e n d a n ts o f t h e maroon s la v e s who
a re n o th in g b u t r e l i c s o f a f o r g o t t e n p a s t . I n T i J e a n , he hopes t o
w itn e s s t h e b i r t h o f a new b la c k man who w i l l h a rm o n io u sly combine p a s t
and p r e s e n t and d e te rm in e h i s p l a c e . i n t h e w o rld . Knowing t h a t th e
f u t u r e o f h i s g ran d so n depends upon h i s c o n f r o n t a t io n w ith t h e A f r ic a n
m yth, Wademba g iv e s him t h e t o o l s w hich w i l l h e lp him i n h i s q u e s t —
m a g ic a l o b j e c t s t o i n s u r e h i s p r o te c tio n :— as w e ll as in f o r m a tio n about
h i s a n c e s t o r s : "M ais s i t u t e p r e s e n t e s un j o u r l a - b a s , t o i ou to n f i l s ,
t o n p e t i t f i l s j u s q u 'a l a m illie m e g e n e r a ti o n , i l vous s u f f i 'r a de d i r e
que v o t r e a n c e t r e se nommait Wademba p o u r e t r e a c c u e i l l i s comme des
f r e r e s " (p . 6 5 ) , and a w arn in g : "Ton c h e m in .. . se nomme t r i s t e s s e ,
o b s c u r i t e , m alh e u r e t sang" ( p . 6 5 ) .
F ollow s t h e a r r i v a l on th e s o i l o f G uadeloupe o f a g r e a t w h ite
m a g ic a l B east w hich b r in g s d e s t r u c t i o n . I t c o in c id e s w ith s u b t l e but
d e f i n i t e changes i n t h e m e n t a li ty o f a p o p u la tio n w hich i s i n c r e a s i n g l y
in f lu e n c e d by w h ite th o u g h ts and id ea s.. The p r e s e n c e o f th e B east p r e
c i p i t a t e s t h e in c id e n c e o f e v i l , th ro w in g t h e p o p u la tio n i n t o a p a n ic
w hich c u lm in a te s w ith t h e B e a s t ’s sw allo w in g th e su n . G uadeloupe i s
th e n overcome by t o t a l d a rk n e s s s y m b o lic a l o f b o th a p h y s ic a l and a
p s y c h o lo g ic a l s t a t e . R endered p o w e rle s s by a phenomenon i t i n t e r p r e t s
as d i v in e p u n ish m e n t, th e p o p u la tio n o f t h e i s l a n d i s s e iz e d by th e
w h ite m in o r ity and red u c e d once a g a in t o s la v e r y .
379
Ti J e a n b e li e v e s t h a t th e t a s k o f s a l v a t i o n Wademba h a s e n t r u s t e d
t o him i n vague and o b sc u re term s l i e s i n d e l i v e r i n g h i s p e o p le from
t h e B e a s t. But t h e l i b e r a t i o n i n q u e s ti o n i s t o ta k e a n o th e r form as
T i J e a n , d r iv e n by some unknown and c o m p e llin g f o r c e , p e n e t r a t e s i n t o
t h e enormous mouth o f th e B east a n d . . . l a n d s in A f r ic a . Ti J e a n 's wan
d e rin g s i n A f r ic a occupy th e m ajo r p a r t o f th e n o v e l; h i s e x p e rie n c e s
t h e r e w i l l d e te rm in e t h e c o u rs e o f h i s l i f e .
Upon a r r i v a l - i n A f r i c a , T i J e a n i n s t i n c t i v e l y r e c o g n iz e s t h e la n d
sc ap e : " i l r e s s e n t a i t j u s q u ’ au bout des d o ig ts l e s e n tim e n t t r o u b l a n t
de f a i r e p a r t i e du^paysage" (p . 1 2 7 ). Ti J e a n d is c o v e r s an A f r ic a
s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f Man E l o i s e 's s t o r i e s . I t i s a f a m i l i a r la n d w hich
he has l e a r n e d t o know i n h i s books and dream s. But Ti J e a n i s soon to
have p r o o f t h a t n e i t h e r h i s books n o r h i s dreams gave him a t r u e p i c
t u r e o f l i f e i n A f r ic a . He e n c o u n te rs a young boy nam ed.M aiari who
w i l l r e v e a l t o him th e t r u t h o f h i s la n d , d e s tr o y in g Ti J e a n 's i l l u s i o n s
i n th e p r o c e s s .
M a ia ri t e l l s Ti J e a n th e s t o r y o f h i s p e o p le , th e B a'S o n an q u es,
who w ere e n s la v e d by th e Sonanques, t h e a g g r e s s iv e and c o n q u e rin g t r i b e
from w hich Wademba came. T h is f i r s t t r u t h , th e en slav em en t o f th e
B lacks by th e B la c k s, d i s t u r b s Ti J e a n and a t f i r s t he r e f u s e s t o
b e li e v e i t : " H e la s , l e n e g re p e u t - i l s e m e ttr e lui-m em e dans l e s
c h a in e s ? " (p . 139) B ut, t o M a ia r i, t h e e p is o d e i s p a r t o f th e h i s t o r y
o f h i s p e o p le , one t o be a c c e p te d as i r r e v e r s i b l e , n o t a s o u rc e o f
shame o r n o s t a l g i a . Ti J e a n n e x t h e a rs t h a t B lacks s o ld B lacks t o th e
W h ite s, t h a t th e y u sed i n c r e d i b l y c r u e l t o r t u r e s t o p u n is h th o s e who
380
d id n o t behave a c c o rd in g t o t h e law . F i n a l l y , he i s t o l d o f Wademba's
f a t e and o f t h e s p i t e f u l a c t o f rev e n g e w hich made him a s l a v e . Wademba
was t h e son o f a h e ro who h e lp e d end th e w ar b ro u g h t on by th e r e v o l t
o f t h e B a'Sonanques a g a in s t t h e i r m a s te r s . I n tim e , th e g lo r y o f th e
h e ro became to o g r e a t , and he was e x e c u te d by th o s e he had sa v e d , and
h i s son was s o ld t o th e s l a v e - t r a d e r s . When Wademba r e t u r n s t o A f r ic a
a f t e r h i s d e a th t o j o i n h i s p e o p le (Wademba d ie s i n G uadeloupe b e fo re
t h e a r r i v a l o f th e B e a s t) , he i s h im s e lf e x e c u te d b e c au se " l e s Sonan-
ques d i s e n t que l 'e s c l a v a g e e s t une l e p r e du sang e t c e l u i d 'e n t r e eux
q u i e s t s a i s i p a r l'e n n e m i, f u t - c e p o u r une h e u re , i l n ' a p lu s l e d r o i t
de r e v e n i r dans l a t r i b u . . . c a r i l e s t d e ja a t t e i n t de l a s o u i l l u r e "
( p . 1 4 4 ). L i s t e n i n g t o M a i a r i 's n a r r a t i v e , Ti J e a n d is c o v e r s an A f r ic a
r i d d l e d w ith b r u t a l i t y , i n j u s t i c e , and i n t o l e r a n c e , an A f r ic a o s c i l l a t i n g
betw een war and p e a c e , betw een d i g n i t y and d i s g r a c e much l i k e th e r e s t
o f th e w o rld , b u t w hich does n o t l i v e up t o h i s e x p e c t a ti o n s . Conse
q u e n tl y , he r e f u s e s M a i a r i 's t r u t h : " J e v ie n s dans mon. pays e t c ' e s t
dans mon pays que j e v i e n s , sous mon p r o p re t o i t l . . . J e ne s u is p a s un
e t r a n g e r , p as un e t r a n g e r . . . Vous m 'avez vendu a l ’ en c an , vendu e t l i - :
v r e aux B lancs de l a C ote; m ais j e ne s u is p a s . . . pas un e t r a n g e r j e
vous d i s , non, bande de f i l o u s , ra p a c e s en dem angeaison p e r p e t u e l l e ! "
( p . 146) I t i s o b v io u s, how ever, t h a t M a i a r i 's s t o r y has f i l l e d him
w ith doubt and t h a t , a lth o u g h he p ro c la im s h i s A f r ic a n h e r i t a g e , he
i n t u i t i v e l y knows t h a t th e young boy has spoken t h e t r u t h . C o n tin u in g
a lo n e h i s s e a r c h , he r e c e iv e s th e f i n a l blow. The Sonanques he encoun
t e r s have n o th in g but contem pt f o r himj th e y do n o t f e e l c lo s e t o him,
381
f o r f r e e p e o p le have no r e g a r d f o r th o s e who have been sla v e s } th e y
f e e l n e i t h e r r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e s a l e o f t h e i r own k in d , n o r in d e b te d
t o them: "Wademba a e t e vendu avec 1 ' a s s e n tim e n t des d ie u x . H e la s , j u s -
q u 'a quand d u r e r a v o t r e f o l i e ? Et combien de f i l s du neant. r e n a i t r o n t
parm i n o u s, a v e u g le s p a r l e d e s i r de c o n fo n d re l e u r sang avec l e n o tr e ? "
( p . 149) As Wademba b e fo r e him , T i J e a n i s s t r u c k by t h e s p e a r o f th o s e
he b e lie v e d t o be h i s p e o p le . When Wademba p r e p a r e d and equip p ed Ti
J e a n f o r h i s r e t u r n t o A f r ic a , he was n o t a s s u r e d o f what t o e x p e c t
t h e r e . He t h e r e f o r e p r o v id e d Ti J e a n w ith t h e m a g ic a l p r o t e c t i o n o f
h i s weapons t o e n s u re h i s s a f e r e t u r n home. When Eusebe l 'A n c ie n ,
Wademba's l i f e - l o n g f r i e n d , h e a rs T i J e a n ’ s ac co u n t o f t h e i r , t r a g i c
e n c o u n te r s , he rem arks t h a t , f o r c e n t u r i e s , t h e maroon s la v e s d e c e iv e d
th e m se lv e s by t r y i n g t o m a in ta in t h e i r fo rm er t r a d i t i o n s and l i f e
s t y l e . They s h o u ld have j o in e d t h e i r p e o p le i n t h e v a l l e y i n s t e a d o f
l i v i n g o u t t h e i r f a n t a s i e s . Now t h a t Ti J e a n has l e a r n e d th e t r u t h ,
he has t o r e t u r n t o G uadeloupe t o t r a n s m i t h i s n e w ly -a c q u ire d wisdom,
w hich he w i l l e v e n tu a ll y d o, th a n k s t o Wademba's p r o t e c t i v e weapons and
m a g ic a l pow ers.
B ut, b e fo r e T i J e a n can r e t u r n t o G uadeloupe, he h as t o p ro lo n g
h i s e x p e rie n c e and ‘ l i v e o u t h i s l i f e i n A f r ic a . M a i a r i 's p e o p le welcome
him as a g u e s t, as a s t r a n g e r t o be g iv e n h o s p i t a l i t y , n o t as one o f
t h e i r own, and o n ly b e c au se th e y to o have known s l a v e r y and a r e moved
by th e s i m i l a r i t y o f t h e i r f a t e s . A lthough t h e v i l l a g e and i t s a c t i v
i t i e s a r e s i m i l a r t o what T i J e a n knew on th e i s l a n d , he has t o l e a r n
custom s w hich a r e f o r e i g n t o him and c o n fu se him. He slo w ly r e a l i z e s
382
t h a t he has r e t u r n e d t o t h e A f r ic a o f t h e e a r l y days o f s la v e r y ; t h i s
d is c o v e r y e m b itte r s him , f o r he u n d e rs ta n d s t h a t th e p r o c e s s o f s la v e r y
was i r r e v e r s i b l e , a f a c t co n firm e d by h i s know ledge t h a t a r e t u r n w ould
have been im p o s s ib le even th e n . H is m em ories o f G uadeloupe o b s e ss him
and d i s t u r b h i s p r e c a r io u s p e a c e . He ta k e s a w if e o n ly b e cau se sh e has
E g e e 's v o ic e and a c e r t a i n o b s c u re re se m b la n c e t o h i s fo rm er l o v e . When
she d i e s , he i s l e f t i s o l a t e d , s t i l l a s t r a n g e r , " I ' i n v i t e du r o i " :
"T i J e a n c o m p rit s o u d a in que s e s m ains e t a i e n t r e s t e e s vid es., d e s e s p e -
rem ent v i d e s , d e p u is l e j o u r de son a r r i v e e chez l e s B a'S onanques"
( p . 1 7 9 ). N othing t i e s him t o t h i s p e o p le e x c e p t h i s f r i e n d s h i p w ith
M a ia r i, now become k in g a f t e r h i s f a t h e r . When t h e w ar i s d e c la r e d
betw een t h e B a'Sonanques and t h e S onanques, T i J e a n e n g in e e rs th e
f o rm e rs ' v i c t o r y by. u s in g t h e m a g ic a l pow ers p a s s e d on t o him by
Wademba. When th o s e a r e d is c o v e r e d , he i s s to n e d t o d e a th . Thus h i s end
r e - e n a c t s t h a t o f Wademba*s f a t h e r , and Wademba's p r e d i c t i o n t h a t
T i J e a n would o n ly f i n d s a d n e s s , s o l i t u d e , in c o m p reh e n sio n and d e a th
i s a c c o m p lish e d . T i J e a n e n t e r s t h e Kingdom o f th e Dead, b u t, even
t h e r e , he i s s t i l l a f o r e i g n e r , f o r t h e dead o n ly re c o g n iz e th o s e who
b elo n g t o t h e i r own b lo o d .
E v e n tu a lly , a f t e r more a d v e n tu r e s , T i J e a n re a c h e s th e i s l a n d arid
d e l i v e r s i t from t h e B e a s t. R e u n ite d w ith Egee, he s t a r t s o v e r.-W h a t
e v e r t h e n a tu r e o f h i s jo u rn e y t o A f r ic a , dream o r s u p e r n a t u r a l adven
t u r e , i t h a s l e f t him u n to u ch e d by age b u t armed w ith wisdom t o a c c e p t
r e a l i t y as i t i s , n o t as t h e p e r v e r s io n o f an i d e a l i t y . For i t i s i n
G uadeloupe t h a t l i f e ta k e s on i t s f u l l m eaning, a f a c t w hich he had
383
a lr e a d y s t a r t e d t o com prehend a f t e r t h e death' o f h i s A f r ic a n w if e :
" P e u t - e t r e , s ' i l a v a i t aime l a p e t i t e G uadeloupe comme ga s e d o i t , s ' i l
n 'a v a i t pas p o r t e e n . l u i ce v e r s c a c h e , c e t t e t r a h i s o n i n c o n n u e ..."
(p . 1 8 6 ). D e liv e r e d from t h e o b s e s s io n o f th e p a s t and from t h e w o r r ie d
s e a r c h f o r so m ething he d id n o t know, w hich c h a r a c t e r i z e d h i s c h i l d
hood, Ti J e a n i s re a d y t o c o n c e n t r a t e on m aking l i f e o u t o f w hat h i s
i s l a n d has t o o f f e r , w ith t h e h e lp o f h i s p e o p le .
By means o f t h i s f a n t a s t i c s t o r y , th e a u th o r exposes t h e d a n g e rs
o f s e l f - d e n i g r a t i o n and p ro p o se s t h a t th e p a s t s h o u ld be assum ed i n a l l
i t s i n j u s t i c e and b r u t a l i t y w ith o u t g u i l t o r b i t t e r n e s s , j u s t as M a ia ri
d id . She a f f ir m s t h a t t h e c o u n try i s th e on ly t r u t h and t h e o n ly c e r
t a i n t y , a c o n c lu s io n a ls o re a c h e d by M arie C e la t i n La Case du coroman-
d e u r.
Heremakhonon d e a ls w ith a n o th e r q u e s t , in d e e d one o f a d i f f e r e n t
n a t u r e , b u t prom pted by t h e same m yth. V e ro n ic a , t h e m ain p r o t a g o n i s t
o f th e n o v e l, i s a G uadeloupean woman who has n o t s e t f o o t on t h e
i s l a n d i n n in e y e a r s . T h is r e j e c t i o n i s th e consequence o f h e r a n a l y s i s
o f th e G uadeloupean s o c i e t y w hich, as h e r own fa m ily w as, i s w arped
by a l i e n a t i n g c o n t r a d i c t i o n s . V e ro n ic a r e f u s e s t o r e t u r n t o G uadeloupe
b e cau se i t p a in s h e r and a n g e rs h e r t o w itn e s s i t s sh o rtc o m in g s . Her
s e lf -im p o s e d i s o l a t i o n le a v e s h e r , how ever, d i s s a t i s f i e d and r e s t l e s s ,
i n doubt as t o w here she r e a l l y s t a n d s . She a c c e p ts a tem p o rary t e a c h in g
p o s i t i o n i n - an A f r ic a n c o u n try i n t h e hope t h a t a r e t u r n t o t h e r o o ts
o f h e r p e o p le m ight h e lp h e r : "R a iso n du voyage? Ni com m ergante. Ni
384
m is s io n n a i r e . Ni t o u r i s t e . T o u r is t e p e u t - e t r e . Mais d 'u n e e s p e c e nou-
v e l l e , a l a d e c o u v e rte de soi-m em e."^ The term s o f t h i s p ro p o se d d i s
c o v e ry a re unknown t o h e r . When S a l io u , h e r A f r ic a n h o s t , a sk s why she
came, she i s u n a b le t o answ er. She r e f u s e s t o acknow ledge h e r f a i n t
d o u b ts as t o th e outcom e o f h e r q u e s t a lth o u g h sh e i s aware t h a t , i n
t h r e e and a h a l f c e n t u r i e s , th e gap betw een h e r s e l f and h e r A f r ic a n
c o u n te r p a r t s has i n a l l p r o b a b i l i t y become im m easu rab le.
The s o c i e t y V e ro n ic a e n te r s i s f o r e i g n t o h e r , n o t t h a t she i s
d i s a p p o in te d , s i n c e , as sh e h e r s e l f re m a rk s, sh e c o u ld n o t know what
t o e x p e c t, but sh e i s d i s o r i e n t e d . She exam ines h e r env iro n m en t as one
w ould examine an u n f a m i l i a r monument and a c c e p ts i t ; she a n a ly z e s i t s
com ponents but does n o t know how th e y f i t t o g e t h e r : " . . . c e p e u p le
g a rd e dans son denuem ent une r e e l l e b e a u te . De q u o i e s t - e l l e f a i t e ? J e
ne l e s a i s p a s . J e l a s u b i s , comme t o u t e b e a u te " (p . 6 7 ). She c i r c u
l a t e s among c h a r a c t e r s whom she does n o t u n d e rs ta n d and w ith whom she
f in d s i t h a rd t o com m unicate, n o t o n ly because o f a lan g u a g e sh e cannot
sp e a k , but a l s o b e c au se o f t h e i r c u l t u r e and m e n t a l i t y . She s e e s th e
p o v e rty o f t h e p o p u la tio n ; she s e e s t h e p r i v i l e g e d m in o r ity w hich
r u l e s th e c o u n try and t h e l i m i t e d m id d le - c la s s w hich s e e k s e n t e r t a i n
ment i n n i g h t - c l u b s , She ta k e s n o te o f th e i n e q u a l i t i e s and c o n t r a s t s
w hich in d e p e n d e n c e has n o t h e lp e d red u c e and o f t h e predom inance o f
p o l i t i c s , b u t she does n o t g ra s p th e m echanics o f t h a t s o c i e t y and
te m p o r a r ily r e f u s e s t o .be i n t e r e s t e d i n them: " J e s u is venue c h e rc h e r
une t e r r e non p lu s peupleie de n e g r e s — meme s p i r i t u e l s , ah, s u r t o u t pas
s p i r i t u e l s — m ais de N o ir s . C’e s t - a - d i r e , en c l a i r , que j e s u i s a l a
385
re c h e r c h e de ce q u i p e u t r e s t e r du p a s s e . Le p r e s e n t ne m 'i n t e r e s s e
p a s" (p . 1 0 4 ).
The p r e s e n t , w hich she r e j e c t s , i s fo rc e d upon h e r by two men:
Ib ra h im a S o ry , M in i s te r o f D efense and h e i r t o th e reg im e, and S a l io u ,
h e r h o s t , D i r e c t o r o f t h e sc h o o l t h a t h as h i r e d h e r and who i s an oppo
n e n t o f t h e reg im e. V e ro n ic a goes back and f o r t h betw een t h e s e two men
who a re s i m i l a r i n o n ly one r e s p e c t : t h e i r s e n se o f p u rp o s e . A lthough
n e i t h e r demands t h a t she be in v o lv e d i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e c a u s e s , th e y
e ach c r i t i c i z e h e r f o r b e in g on f r i e n d l y term s w ith t h e o t h e r , th u s
a d d in g to h e r c o n fu s io n and m aking s e l f - d i s c o v e r y , as she f a i n t l y imag
in e d i t , im p o s s ib le . The vague p a s t w hich she se e k s i s no l o n g e r a
f a c t o r in an environm ent w here a c t u a l i t y r u l e s and w here p o l i t i c s p e r
vade a l l .
V e ro n ic a i s f i r s t i n t r i g u e d by Ib ra h im a Sory becau se o f h i s a r r o
gance and o f h i s n o b le p a s t ; sh e c a l l s him " c e n e g re avec a ie u x ."
Beyond t h i s , he f a s c i n a t e s h e r b e c au se he i s a l l sh e i s n o t : a f r e e man
m aking h i s own c h o ic e s , unencum bered by d o u b ts , p a s t , h i s t o r y o r fa m ily ,
a man w ith a p u rp o se and th e d e te r m in a tio n t o c a r r y i t out r e g a r d l e s s
o f what o t h e r s m ight say o r t h i n k , a man w ith no u n c e r t a i n t i e s who lik e s
t o dom inate and who l i v e s f o r power. Thus Ib ra h im a Sory n eeds g iv e no
e x p la n a tio n f o r h i s b e h a v io r , s m o th e rin g from th e o u t s e t V e r o n ic a 's
c o n fid e n c e s and r e f u s i n g t o answ er h e r q u e s ti o n s . I n no way can he r e s
pond t o o r meet h e r e x p e c t a ti o n s : " Ib ra h im a Sory s e r a , j e l e s a i s , l e
g r i - g r i du m arab o u t. Nous e c h an g ero n s nos e n fa n c e s e t nos p a s s e s . P a r
l u i , j ’ a c c e d e ra i e n f i n a l a f i e r t e d ' e t r e moi-meme''> t h in k s V e ro n ic a .
386
(p . 81) But Ibrahim as.Sory i s n o t i n t e r e s t e d i n h e r i d e n t i t y problem s
and, b e cau se th e y mean n o th in g t o him , re g a r d s h e r c o n c e rn s as unim por
t a n t . I t ta k e s V e ro n ic a some tim e t o adm it t o h e r s e l f t h a t Ib ra h im a
Sory i s n o t what she w ants him t o b e , but a man o f q u e s ti o n a b le methods
and g o a ls . H er r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith him , however s a t i s f a c t o r y i t m ight be
i n some r e s p e c t s , soon t u r n s i n t o a t r a p , and she i s f o rc e d i n t o th e
n e c e s s i t y o f c h o o s in g , fo rc e d t o ta k e s i d e s , i n h e r own way, even
though she d id n o t want t o a t th e b e g in n in g o f h e r s t a y .
W hereas Ib ra h im a S ory a d v is e s h e r n o t t o ju d g e e v e n ts w hich she
does' n o t u n d e r s ta n d , S a l io u would l i k e t o se e h e r in v o lv e d i n th o s e
e v e n ts and hopes t o make h e r u n d e rs ta n d what m o tiv a te s him and where
th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r h i s c o u n t r y 's o p p r e s s io n r e s t s . But he does n o t
s u s p e c t h e r r e a s o n s f o r w a n tin g t o rem ain i n d i f f e r e n t . V e ro n ic a n e v e r
t e l l s him th e p u rp o se o f h e r v i s i t t o A f r ic a b e c au se she r e a l i z e s t h a t
he would n o t g ra s p i t o r would i n t e r p r e t i t i n p o l i t i c a l term s and th u s
f a i l t o u n d e rs ta n d th e p u r e ly p e r s o n a l n a tu r e o f h e r p r e s e n c e . I n a
way, S a lio u i s j u s t as b l in d as Ibrahi:mae\Sory i n h i s p u r p o s e f u ln e s s .
H is w hole l i f e has one aim: th e l i b e r a t i o n o f h i s c o u n tr y , and t h a t
a t t i t u d e c o n d itio n s h i s u n d e rs ta n d in g o f h is e n v iro n m e n t. V e ro n ic a
and S a lio u a r e bound by f r i e n d s h i p and r e s p e c t f o r one a n o th e r , but
th e y have n o th in g e l s e i n common.
I n t h i s d iv id e d s o c i e t y , V e ro n ic a i s s u s p e c t and rem ain s a
s t r a n g e r . I n s t e a d o f f in d i n g r e l i e f , sh e i s c o n fr o n te d w ith a new s e t
o f problem s w hich sh e had n o t a n t i c i p a t e d ; "En f i n de com pte, j ' a i
deux m eutes a mes t r o u s s e s . La m eute f a m i l r e r e , c e l l e q u i s e t r a i n e
387
a p re s moi d e p u is des a n n e e s. Une n o u v e ll e , t o u t e n o u v e ll e , dont j e ne
c o n n a is pas e n c o re l e s m o rsu res" ( p . 1 1 6 ). She c a n n o t i n s t i n c t i v e l y
f e e l t h e problem s o f an A f r ic a w hich i s rem o te from h e r own e x p e r ie n c e ,
c u l t u r e and background-—a l l th e m em ories o f h e r p a s t l i f e w hich punc
t u a t e t h e n o v e l. I n t e l l e c t u a l l y o f c o u r s e , she can u n d e rs ta n d th e
s i t u a t i o n b u t, i n a d d i t i o n t o h e r u n w i llin g n e s s , sh e i s to o l u c i d and
to o c r i t i c a l t o be c a p a b le o f in v o lv e m e n t. I t i s t h i s v e ry l u c i d i t y
w hich prom pted h e r d e p a r t u r e from G uadeloupe and w hich w i l l c a u se h e r
t o le a v e A f r i c a p r e m a tu r e ly . Her p o s i t i o n as an o b s e rv e r i r r i t a t e s and
p u z z le s even Ib ra h im a S o ry , who rem ark s one day t h a t he would l i k e t o
u n d e rs ta n d h e r . W hether she i s w ith h e r f a m ily , i n F ra n ce o r i n A f r ic a ,
she s ta n d s t o one side,. She i r r i t a t e s h e r p a r e n t s n o t o n ly b e c au se she
r e v o l t s a g a i n s t t h e i r i d e a l s , b u t a ls o b e c au se th e y f e e l c r i t i c i z e d
and v u l n e r a b le t o h e r a t t a c k s . J e a n -M ie h e l i s p u z z le d , b e c au se h e r
u n c e r t a i n t i e s a r e t h e o p p o s ite o f h i s own s e l f - a s s u r e d n e s s . S a lio u i s
d i s t u r b e d b e cau se he i s b l in d t o n o n -in v o lv e m e n t, w h ile Ib ra h im a Sory
i s amused by h e r e m o tio n a lism and i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s , w hich a r e c o n t r a d i c
t o r y t o h i s d e te r m in a tio n and r a t i o n a l i s m .
V e ro n ic a d e s c r i b e s h e r s e l f as "un anim al ambigu m i- p o is s o n , m i-
o i s e a u , une c h a u v e - s o u r is nouveau m odele. Une f a u s s e s o e u r . Une f a u s s e
e tr a n g e r e " ( p . 2 4 3 ). She had come t o A f r ic a i n t h e hope o f p u t t i n g t o
g e th e r t h e p ie c e s o f h e r own p u z z le . She had e x p e c te d t o f i n d a p o s s i
b le answ er from an im a g in a ry and o b sc u re p a s t , b u t t o no a v a i l . "Mes
a ie u x , j e ne l e s a i pas t r o u v e s . T r o is s i e c l e s e t demi m 'en a v a ie n t
s e p a re e .Ils * n e i:m e r e c o n n a i s s a i e n t p a s p lu s que j e ne l e s r e c o n n a i s s a i s .
388
J e n ' a i tr o u v e q u ‘un homme avec a ie u x q u i l e s g a rd e ja lo u s e m e n t pour
l u i , q u i ne songe pas a l e s p a r t a g e r avec moi" (pp. 2 4 2 -4 3 ). She has
found a c o u n try t r y i n g t o r e s o lv e i t s i n n e r c o n t r a d i c t i o n s , d iv id e d
i n t o t h r e e f a c t i o n s ( t h e reg im e, t h e o p p o s itio n and an immense and
m is e r a b le s i l e n t m a j o r it y ) in v o lv e d i n and s e p a r a te d by t h e same c a u se
— i n o t h e r w ords, a c o u n tr y w hich o n ly has tim e f o r i t s e l f . F o r tu n a te ly ,
h e r jo u rn e y i s a ls o one o f i n t r o s p e c t i o n . What she s e e s aro u n d t r i g g e r s
memories o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n h e r own c o u n tr y . She does n o t f i n d a-
re a d y s o l u t i o n t o h e r i d e n t i t y p ro b le m s, but she makes one im p o rta n t
d is c o v e r y : on h e r way o u t o f A f r i c a (one more f l i g h t , she s a y s ) , she
s e e s t h a t le a v i n g G uadeloupe f o r F ra n ce and F ran ce f o r A f r ic a was n o t
t h e answ er, t h a t n e i t h e r c o u n try can o f f e r h e r a n y th in g but s u p e r f i c i a l
freedom o r i l l u s o r y s o l i d a r i t y . She n eeds t o go back t o G uadeloupe and
f a c e t h e r e a l i t y w hich has made h e r .
T hese two n o v e ls d e p i c t an A f r ic a w here t h e r e i s no room f o r th e
B lacks o f t h e d ia s p o r a . The A f r ic a n dream has tu r n e d i n t o a n ig h tm a re
and an an ach ro n ism . T h e ir c o n ta c t w ith t h e A f r ic a n r e a l i t y a llo w s t h e
c h a r a c t e r s t o r e c o g n iz e t h e d e c e p tiv e q u a l i t y o f t h e dream and i t s
m is le a d in g i n f l u e n c e . The dream was o n ly an e sca p e w hich c o u ld b rin g
no c o m fo rt. However, i t ta k e s c o u ra g e t o abandon an i l l u s i o n and fa c e
a r e a l i t y w hich can be d i s t a s t e f u l a t tim e s . Both c h a r a c t e r s acco m p lish
t h i s i n t h e i r own way, th u s d is c o v e r in g w here th e y a c t u a l l y b e lo n g .
T h e ir d is c o v e r y i s t h e i r f i r s t s te p to w ard s e l f - f u l f i l l m e n t .
389
I I . The Prom ises and th e Traps o f Em igration
T r a v e r s e r l a m er, d i t S i l a c i e r . . .
( E t p o u r t r o u v e r q u o i, d i t D l a n ) . . .
Mais c ' e s t p o u r a l l e r en F ra n c e .
C 'e s t p o u r v o t e r p o u r un t e l .
C 'e s t p o u r b l a n c h i r dans l a - b a s .
C 'e s t p o u r m anger s a l s i f i s .
C 'e s t p o u r m o u rir pas a p a s .
C 'e s t p o u r o r n e r l e t r e p a s . . . ^
E m ig ra tio n i s alw ays based on t h e f a l s e assu m p tio n t h a t som ething
b e t t e r i s a w a itin g , an assu m p tio n prom pted by t h e v i s i o n o f t h e w h ite
s o c i e t y o f t h e C a rib b e a n , one w here m ost W hites occupy p r i v i l e g e d
p o s i t i o n and b e n e f i t from b e t t e r l i v i n g c o n d itio n s th a n th e r e s t o f th e
p o p u l a t io n . I t i s a n o th e r myth w hich m ust be u p ro o te d b u t i s d i f f i c u l t
t o e r a d i c a t e s in c e i t i s b a sed upon t a n g i b l e e v id e n c e and p e r p e tu a te d
by t h e sy stem . T h e ir s t a t u s as F rench c i t i z e n s f u r t h e r c o n v in c e s th e
e m ig ra n ts from th e F ren ch d e p a rtm e n ts t h a t what l i e s on t h e o t h e r s id e
o f t h e ocean i s n o t r e a l l y a f o r e i g n la n d but one t o w hich th e y more
o r l e s s b e lo n g . T hus, t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f F ra n c e as a p la c e o f
8
g r e a t e r m a t e r i a l c o m fo rt, " l e pays du caeo doux", p e r s i s t s , e n co u rag ed
by t h e p ro m ises o f t h e l o c a l M ig ra tio n Bureau (BUMIDOM) w hich p r e s e n t s
F ra n ce as a la n d o f o p p o r tu n ity .
W ith t h e w o rse n in g o f economic c o n d itio n s i n t h e F re n ch A n t i l l e s
and t h e r i s e o f unem ploym ent, e m ig r a tio n i s f o r many a n e c e s s i t y . I n
Mon Examen de b l a n c , t h e m e c h a n iz a tio n o f cane p r o c e s s in g i s one such
i n s t a n c e s . When t h e r e a r e no l o c a l a l t e r n a t i v e s , e m ig r a tio n i s seen as
i n e v i t a b l e ; "Un je u n e o u v r i e r a g r i c o l e e s t au bord des l a m e s e t i l
e n v is a g e , nous d i t - i l , de p a r t i r p o u r l a F ra n c e . Le b u reau de l a
390
M ig ra tio n l u i prom et m onts e t m e r v e il le s s ' i l s e d e c id e a a l l e r f a i r e
g
un s ta g e de magon a N a n te s ." J a c q u e l in e Manicom exp o ses th e f a l s e
p re m ise s o f o r g a n iz e d e m ig r a tio n , w hich i s t h e p ro d u c t o f p o l i t i c a l
i n d i f f e r e n c e and p o o r econom ic management, and f u r t h e r h a n d ic a p s th e
c o u n try by f o r c i n g i t s young p o p u la tio n i n t o e x i l e . Rou, t h e a d o le s c e n t
o f Le F o lilo q u e en ou d i e s e m in e u r, c o n s id e r s e m ig r a tio n as h i s o n ly
c h o ic e , even th o u g h he i s w e ll aware o f what a w a its him i n F ra n c e ,
th a n k s t o th e te s tim o n y o f h i s two s i s t e r s who a r e employed i n a P a r i
s i a n h o s p i t a l : " I I eomprend que se s deux s o e u rs m enent l a une v i e e p u i-
s a n t e , une v i e sans s a v e u r , sa n s h o r i z o n . . . Mais v o i l a ! i l l e s e n v ie
p a rc e q u 'a u m oins e l l e s o n t un s a l a i r e . . . " ^
The n e c e s s i t y o f e m ig r a tio n i s alw ays tem p ered by th e i d e a t h a t i t
i s tem p o rary and t h a t , e v e n tu a ll y , one w i l l be a b le t o r e t u r n t o th e
n a t i v e la n d . When su ch a r e t u r n i s p o s s i b l e , t h e s ta y i n F ra n ce can
have p o s i t i v e c o n seq u e n c e s: i t i s an e y e -o p e n in g e x p e rie n c e r e s u l t i n g
i n an aw areness o f econom ic e x p l o i t a t i o n and t h e r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t F ra n c e
i s n o t a f e a s i b l e s u b s t i t u t e f o r t h e o r i g i n a l c o u n tr y .
Ti J e a n l 'H o r i z o n 's p a s sa g e th ro u g h F ran ce i n th e c o u rs e o f h i s
w a n d e rin g s back t o G uadeloupe c o n firm s him i n h i s new -born b e l i e f t h a t
h i s i s l a n d i s h i s o n ly home. The F ra n ce he d is c o v e r s b e lo n g s more t o
t h e realm o f n ig h tm a re s th a n t o t h a t o f dream s: " C 'e t a i e n t des e n f i l a d e s
de v i e i l l e s r u e s m a ls e a n te s , m a lo d o ra n te s , ou s t a g n a i e n t des b la n c s
comme T i J e a n n 'e n a v a i t ja m a is vu, de v r a i s fan to m es de b l a n c s , o sse u x
e t p o u i l l e u x , en l o q u e s . . . " ^ T h is d i s p l a y o f p o v e rty and f i l t h makes
him change h i s o p in io n about w h ite s u p e r i o r i t y . More im p o r ta n t ly , he
391
r e a l i z e s t h a t t h e W hites a r e e x p lo i te d by t h e W hites and t h a t s o c i a l
d i s t i n c t i o n s and economic i n e q u a l i t i e s r u l e i n F ra n ce as much as i n
G uadeloupe. T h is g e n e r a te s i n him a f e e l i n g o f s o l i d a r i t y f o r th e ex
p l o i t e d , r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e i r r a c e , an i d e a w hich i s a ls o e x p re s s e d by
A le x is A ccius i n Un A m bassadeur m acoute a M o n tr e a l. But Ti J e a n 's
a d v e n tu re s b elo n g t o th e im a g in a tio n ; n o t a l l e x p e rie n c e s i n F ra n ce
l e a d t o such id e a lis m .
I n t h e c a s e o f Thomas 1 ' E ugenie and Amboise, on t h e c o n t r a r y ,
c o n ta c ts w ith t h e F re n ch a r e a t f i r s t d e v a s t a t i n g , even th o u g h i l l u m i
n a t i n g . Thomas' e x p e rie n c e s a re n e v e r d e s c r ib e d i n th e n o v e l, but he
r e t u r n s h a l f i n s a n e . He has se en t h e m is e ry o f t h e w h ite man i n h i s own
c o u n tr y , and he has l e a r n e d h a t r e d . Amboise to o l e a r n s h a t r e d d u r in g
h i s sev en y e a rs i n F ra n c e . He le a v e s G uadeloupe u n d e r th e i n f l u e n c e o f
t h e myth t h a t " w h ite i s b e t t e r " and t h a t becoming w h ite would be h i s
s a l v a t i o n . I n s t e a d , he d is c o v e r s t h a t , t o t h e W h ite s, he i s a n o n - p e r
so n , an o b j e c t t o be u se d a t m en ia l t a s k s and s u b je c te d t o c o n s ta n t
h u m i l i a t i o n s . The f a c t t h a t h i s e x is t e n c e i s n o t acknow ledged t r i g g e r s
A m boise's h a t r e d . " I I n e s u t ja m a is d i r e ce q u i s e p a s s a en l u i e t
comment i l en v i n t , s u r l a f i n de son s e j o u r , a c o n s id e r e r l e s b la n c s
comme des bouches q u i s e g a v e n t de m a lh e u r, des v e s s i e s c re v e e s q u i s e
^ 12
s o n t e r i g e e s en l a n t e r n e s p o u r e c l a i r e r l e m onde." I t i s upon h i s
r e t u r n t o th e i s l a n d t h a t he i s g iv e n th e o p p o r tu n ity t o e v a lu a te th e
e x te n t o f th e d e s t r u c t i v e n e s s o f h i s s t a y i n F ra n c e , th e day h i s h a tr e d
comes t o t h e s u r f a c e and t u r n s i n t o a d e s i r e t o m urder a w h ite man. He
u n d e rs ta n d s t h a t g iv in g i n t o h a tr e d would be h is d em ise, and he
392
s tr u g g l e s t o . c o n t r o l h i s im p u ls e . Amboise f i n d s , d u rin g t h i s e x p e rie n c e ,
t h e b a s is o f h i s p h ilo s o p h y o f l i f e : t h a t t h e b la c k man i s h i s own
m a le d ic tio n and needs t o overcome h is . s e l f - d e f e a t i n g a t t i t u d e s . Thus,
h i s s ta y i n F ra n ce t r i g g e r s t h e p r o c e s s w hich l e a d s t o h i s v i c t o r y o v e r
h i s own d o u b ts arid d e lu s i o n s .
G u sta v e, j e . . . , a n o v e l by A dolphe P a r i l l o n from G uadeloupe a n a ly
z e s th e t r a n s f o r m a t io n o f a young G uadeloupean man who r e s i d e s in..
F ra n ce t o com plete, h i s e d u c a tio n in 1949. The d a te i s im p o r ta n t, s in c e
i t c o rre s p o n d s t o a .p e r i o d when t h e F ren ch A n t i l l e s f e l t t h e i r t i e s
w ith F ra n ce as i n a l i e n a b l e and when t h e r e was hope t h a t t h e M etro p o le
would be a c t i v e l y and p o s i t i v e l y in v o lv e d i n t h e s o c i a l and economic
b e tte rm e n t o f i t s o v e rs e a s d e p a rtm e n ts.' G ustave i s w e ll i n t e g r a t e d i n
t h e stu d e n t, m il ie u o f A ix -e n -P ro v e n c e and le a d s, a r a t h e r ■l e i s u r e l y l i f e ,
He has t r a v e l l e d e x te n s i v e l y from one F ren ch t e r r i t o r y t o a n o th e r
d u rin g h i s c h ild h o o d ,, h i s f a t h e r h a v in g been a l i e u t e n a n t i n . t h e F ren ch
army. His a t t i t u d e t o h i s f a t h e r 's in v o lv em en t, i n th e army i s c r i t i c a l ,
s in c e th e l a t t e r ' s e n lis tm e n t was th e conseq u en ce o f a l a c k o f o t h e r
a l t e r n a t i v e s a t t h e tim e..
I t i s th ro u g h h is r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith a German woman t h a t G ustave
becomes aware o f t h e e x is t e n c e o f r a c i a l p r e j u d i c e i n a d o u b le form:
a g a in s t him as a b la c k man and a g a in s t M arthe. as a German woman and
t h e t a r g e t o f th e an ti-G e rm a n f e e l i n g s o f p o s t- w a r F ra n c e . F o llo w in g
t h i s e p is o d e , G ustave abandons h is s t u d i e s and moves t o P a r i s , w here
he s u r r e n d e r s t o an empty l i f e o f d i s s i p a t i o n ,.
B efo re h i s d e p a r t u r e f o r P a r i s , G ustave had few p ro b le m s. A lthough
393
he was a t tim e s s u b je c t e d t o a number o f s te r e o ty p e d a t t i t u d e s , he d id
n o t r e a c t i n d i g n a n t l y but seemed more i n t e r e s t e d i n m anaging h i s c o u n t
l e s s fe m in in e a d v e n tu re s and i n c u l t i v a t i n g h is m u sic a l t a l e n t s th a n
i n m aking p la n s f o r th e f u t u r e . I n A ix -e n -P ro v e n c e , among f r i e n d s o f
d i v e r s e backgrounds,. G ustave l i v e d i n th e somewhat re la x e d , lim bo o f
s tu d e n t l i f e . Asked about h i s e v e n tu a l re tu rn , t o G uadeloupe, he rem ained
n o n -c o m m itta l, o n ly rem a rk in g t h a t "quand on se ra p p ro c h e de l a p a t a t e ,
13
on s 'e l o i g n e de l a b a n a n e ."
His a b ru p t d e p a r t u r e from A ix -e n -P ro v e n c e i s n e v e r c l e a r l y e x - " '
p l a i n e d b u t m arks th e b e g in n in g o f h i s t r a n s f o r m a t io n . G uadeloupe .
b e lo n g s now more and more t o h i s m em ories and daydream s. Not h a v in g a
p r e c i s e image o f th e i s l a n d w here he has n e v e r l i v e d and w hich he o n ly
knows th ro u g h h i s m o th e r’ s l e t t e r s , he p i c t u r e s i t as an i d e a l la n d ,
a t r o p i c a l p a r a d i s e o f h ap p in ess.. He f i n a l l y p u ts h i s m o tiv a tio n s i n t o
w ords when h i s u n c le .c o m e s t o c o n f r o n t 1 him. r e g a r d in g h i s s t u d i e s :
"A pres l e d o c t o r a t , que s e r a i - j e devenu? . . . J e me s e r a i s engage dans l a
m a g i s t r a t u r e , .dans 1 ’ arm ee, dans 1 ’ enseignem ent?. Q uoi, e t r e un e lu p o l i
tiq u e ? En s u iv a n t l e s gouvernem ents a l a t r a c e ? Combien de n e g re s. me
f a u d r a - t - i l v e n d re ? " ( p . 109) O b v io u sly , he r e j e c t s th e k in d o f c h o ic e s
h i s e d u c a tio n would g iv e him but. does' n o t , as y e t , have a p r e c i s e n o tio r
o f w here t h i s r e j e c t i o n m ight l e a d him . At t h i s p o i n t , h i s r e v o l t i s
l i t t l e but an i n t e l l e c t u a l c o n s t r u c t .
I t i s i n a poem, w r i t t e n a f t e r s e v e r a l days o f r e f l e x i o n upon h i s
c o n v e r s a tio n w ith h i s u n c le , t h a t G ustave e x p la in s th e term s o f h is
r e v o l t . The poem i s a p e s s i m i s t i c and a c c u s a to r y t i r a d e a g a i n s t h i s own
394
e v a s io n s and i r r e s p o n s i b l e a t t i t u d e s ; , i t denounces a sy stem w hich
f a v o r s r e s i g n a t i o n and en c o u ra g e s th o s e who s e rv e i t r e g a r d l e s s of
t h e i r m o tiv a tio n s ; i t ends w ith h i s r e c o g n i ti o n o f h i s i s o l a t i o n and
a l i e n a t i o n .
He does e v e n tu a ll y d e c id e t o r e t u r n t o G uadeloupe, b u t n o t to
become t h e p o l i t i c i a n he had once th o u g h t t o b e, b e c a u se , he s a y s ,
l o c a l p o l i t i c s a re im p a ire d by F ren ch r u le s w hich do n o t a llo w f o r th e
n e c e s s a r y changes.. The a r r i v a l o f h i s b r o th e r h e lp s him make a d e c is io n
and th e y a g re e th a t, th e y w i l l c u l t i v a t e t o g e t h e r t h e la n d th e y have
i n h e r i t e d from t h e i r f a m ily .
I t i s an uneven novel:. G u s ta v e 's t r a n s f o r m a t io n from a p l e a s u r e -
o r i e n t e d young man t o a p o l i t i c a l l y aware and r e s p o n s i b l e man i s r a t h e r
sudden and u n e x p la in e d . The .c irc u m sta n c e s s u r r o u n d i n g 'h is m ain d e c i
s i o n , th e abandonment o f h i s s t u d i e s , a r e l e f t i n t h e d a rk . H is l i f e
p r o g r e s s e s by f i t s and s t a r t s , from one a f f a i r t o . t h e o t h e r , from one
o p in io n t o a n o th e r , from F ra n ce t o G uadeloupe, b u t h i s moves a r e n e v e r
m o tiv a te d by any k in d o f s u s t a i n e d r e f l e x i o n . G ustave r e a c t s more th a n
he a c t s , and h i s i n i t i a t i v e som etim es does n o t seem s u f f i c i e n t enough
t o j u s t i f y h i s r a d i c a l c h a n g e s. However, t h e n o v e l b e lo n g s t o a l i t e r
a ry t r a d i t i o n i n w hich th e e s tr a n g e d h e ro r e t u r n s t o h i s c o u n try w ith
a d e s i r e h e ig h te n e d by c o n ta c t w ith th e o u t s i d e t o l i v e t h e r e and work
a t i t s b e tte r m e n t. One c a n n o t say t h a t G ustave h as a c q u ir e d i n F ran ce
an aw areness o f l o c a l c o n d it io n s w hich m ight prom pt h i s in v o lv em en t
s in c e he has n o t l i v e d i n G uadeloupe f o r many y e a r s . H is d e c i s i o n i s
i d e a l i s t i c . I f G u s ta v e ’ s r e v e r s a l s seem im p ro b a b le and f a r f e t c h e d ,
395
i t i s b e c au se th e y a re t h e r e s u l t o f i n t e l l e c t u a l i z a t i o n s r a t h e r th a n
o f d i r e c t c o n f r o n t a t i o n w ith p o l i t i c a l o r econom ic e x p l o i t a t i o n .
S ta y s i n F ra n ce w hich end i n p o s i t i v e d i s c o v e r i e s and prom ote -
aw areness a r e , how ever, t h e e x c e p tio n and n o t t h e r u l e , I n m ost c a s e s ,
r e t u r n i s an e v e n t u a l i t y w hich p r o g r e s s i v e l y becomes i l l u s o r y . Under
t h e a u s p ic e s o f th e M ig r a tio n b u re a u , one can be g r a n te d a p a s s a g e t o
F ra n c e , p r o v id e d , o f c o u r s e , one a g re e s t o re p a y th e c o s t l a t e r . I t i s
t h i s d e b t w hich can tr a n s f o r m t h e im agined p a r a d i s e i n t o a p r i s o n .
Added t o th e d is c o v e r y t h a t P a r i s o r o t h e r c i t i e s a re n o t t h e e x p e c te d
Edens o f c o m fo rt, t h a t m aking a l i v i n g t h e r e w i l l r e q u i r e a c c e p tin g
e x h a u s tin g and o f te n i l l - p a i d work as. w e ll as d e a li n g w ith r a c i a l
p r e j u d i c e ,a n d u n f a m i l i a r s u rr o u n d in g s , t h e s ta y t u r n s o u t t o be a t r a p .
" L 'o u v r i e r g u ad elo u p een nVim agine meme .pas q u ’ i l p u i s s e e x i s t e r
en F ra n ce une c l a s s e o u v r r e r e ... . L 'O .S . de B o u lo g n e -B illa n c o u rt ou de
F l i n s , l e G uadeloupeen p r o l e t a i r e ne l e d eco u v re que lo r s q u e l e b u rea u
de m ig r a tio n l u i f a i t c r e d i t d 'u n p a s s a g e P o i n t e - a - P i t r e - O r l y , p u is
l ' o r i e n t e e n s u i t e v e r s l e s u s in e s de l a b a n lie u e p a r i s i e n n e , l e m e tro ,
A . 14 < »
l e s h o p i ta u x ." F or M adevie, t h e d a n g e rs o f e m ig r a tio n a re embodied i n
t h e Boeings w hich she can s e e t a k e o f f from h e r h o s p i t a l c u b i c l e . The
r e p e a te d d e p a r t u r e s o f b ig j e t s lo a d e d w ith men and women s p o n so re d by
th e M ig ra tio n b u rea u become symbols o f th e d e f e a t and o f t h e e x p l o i t a
t i o n o f h e r c o m p a tr io ts . T h is image r e p l a c e s t h a t o f t h e t r a n s a t l a n t i c
l i n e r s o f . a few d e cad es e a r l i e r , a tr a n s f o r m a t io n w hich Edouard G lis s a n t
evokes i n La Case du commandeur: "L es g ran d s t r a n s a t l a n t i q u e s l e n t s ,
comme su sp en d u s dans un tem ps q u i ne f i n i s s a i t p a s , f u r e n t rem p lac e s pax
396
l e s l a t e c o e r e s j a i l l i s s a n t s p u is l e s a v io n s a r e a c t i o n de p lu s en p lu s
r a p id e s e t bondes: nous nous s a t i s f a i s i o n s de nous y e n fo u rn e r., p o u r l a
s e u le d e s t i n a t i o n edeniqueJ de l a m etropole.""*'“* The i n c r e a s i n g r a p i d i t y
o f t h e s e d e p a r t u r e s , w hich seem t o be com p u lsiv e e s c a p e s r a t h e r : th a n
c o n s c io u s d e c i s i o n s , i s o n ly m atched by t h e i n c r e a s i n g num bers o f t h o s e
who le a v e . For T h e o lu c e , t h e o ld fis h e rm a n o f M a rtin iq u e des c e n d r e s ,
t h e e m ig ra n ts th e m se lv e s a r e p a r t i a l l y t o be blamed f o r t h e i r la c k o f
f a i t h i n t h e i r c o u n try and t h e i r w i l l i n g n e s s t o l e t th e m s e lv e s be ta k e n
i n t o th e dream s o f o t h e r s . They a r e d r iv e n t o th e f i n a l d e s p e r a ti o n o f
e x i l e by t h e i r d e s i r e t o e q u a l t h e W hites and i m i t a t e t h e i r l i f e s t y l e :
" I l s v e n d e n t l e u r d e r n i e r e chem ise p o u r p a r t i r en F ra n c e , a P a r i s . Im
b e c i l e s ! Au l i e u d 'a p p r e n d r e a c u l t i v e r l e u r t e r r e , a p e c h e r l e p o is s o n
de l e u r m e r .. . Et i l s s e r e t r o u v e n t e n s u i t e a b a la y e r l e t r o t t o i r des
B l a n c s . . . M alheureux, v e n d u s, e x p l o i t e s , e r r a n t s , l in c a p a b l e s d ' e t r e
s a t i s f a i t s i c i ou a i l l e u r s . .
I t i s on one o f t h e s h ip s w hich Edouard G l i s s a n t evokes t h a t
M arcel G o n stra n le a v e s M a r tin iq u e , a lth o u g h t h e Colombie h a r d ly c o r r e s
ponds t o h i s image o f slow m a je s ty ; "h e Colombie e s t un r a f i o t sauve
de l a c a s s e p a r l a p i n g r e r i e des s e c r e t a i r e s d 'E t a t aux C o l o n i e s " , ^
w here second and t h i r d - c l a s s p a s s e n g e r s s le e p on t h e b r id g e f o r la c k
o f a v a i l a b l e c a b in s . A f t e r t h e f i r s t t h r i l l o f d e p a r t u r e , M arcel Gons
t r a n i s overcom e by an u n d e f in a b le s a d n e s s and n o s t a l g i c m em ories o f
t h e c o u n try he has j u s t l e f t . I n F ra n c e , Le H avre, th e n P a r i s , a re
so ak ed w ith r a i n and th e y r e l u c t a n t l y r e c e iv e p a s s e n g e r s s t i l l c a r r y in g
w i l t i n g bunches o f t r o p i c a l f lo w e r s . I n V in c e n t P l a c o l y 's d e s c r i p t i o n s ,
397
t h e s e a r r i v a l s c a r r y o v e rto n e s o f d e f e a t and h i n t s o f d e g r a d a tio n t o
come. The sc e n e s o f M arcel G o n s tr a n 's l i f e i n t h e c a p i t a l a r e gloomy:
he w orks f o r R e n a u lt and spends h i s days on t h e assem bly l i n e ; h is
amusements a r e few.—m a in ly d ances w here s o l i t a r y B lacks come t o meet
and e x p re s s t h e i r n o s t a l g i a f o r t h e n a t i v e la n d ; " C 'e t a i e n t de v e r i t a -
b le s f o u r n a i s e s ou des n e g re s h a g a rd s v e n a ie ftt p l e u r e r , s o l i t a i r e s ,
s u r un v e r r e " ( p . 3 9 ) . The f a v o re d com panions o f M arcel G o n s tra n 's
i s o l a t i o n a re p r o s t i t u t e s ; he i n s t i n c t i v e l y u n d e rs ta n d s them b e c au se
t h e y a re th e m s e lv e s s o l i t a r y , d is e n c h a n te d and p r o v id e e a sy i f on ly
tem p o rary com fort.. The c i t y i s a m o n ste r i n w hich M arcel G o n stra n
s t r i v e s t o l o s e h im s e lf so as t o f o r g e t t h e r e c u r r i n g m em ories o f
happy c h ild h o o d d a y s . He goes th ro u g h l i f e as an o u t s i d e r and he
w anders th ro u g h t h e s t r e e t s o f P a ri-s, w a tc h in g th e p e o p le around him
i n t e r a c t i n g w ith them b u t n e v e r on a b a s is o f . u n d e r s ta n d in g . He expe
r i e n c e s o n ly one l a s t i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p , w ith E le o n o ra , w hich ends in
d i s a s t e r . M arcel G o n stra n i s a s tr a n g e r , i n F ra n ce and w i l l rem ain one
when h e , r e t u r n s t o M a r tin iq u e , c a u g h t betw een two w o rld s w here t h e r e i s
no p la c e f o r him.
To have a r e a l i s t i c p i c t u r e o f what an im m igrant h as t o f a c e i n
F ra n c e , one can r e f e r t o F r a n g o is e E g a 's n o v e l, L e t t r e s a une N o ir e .
I n th e form o f l e t t e r s w r i t t e n t o M aria C a r o lin a de J e s u s , a B r a z i l i a n
woman who su c ce e d e d i n k e e p in g a j o u r n a l w h ile t r y i n g t o s u r v iv e day by
day i n th e f .a v e lla s o f Rio de J a n e i r o , t h e n a r r a t o r d e s c r i b e s h e r expe
r ie n c e s as a c le a n in g woman i n t h e su b u rb s o f M a r s e i l l e . F ra n g o is e
Ega h e r s e l f e x p e rie n c e d t h e l i f e she r e c o u n ts th ro u g h h e r n a r r a t o r ,
398
and h e r n a r r a t i v e i s l i v e l y , hum ourous, and c r i t i c a l , s e e in g t h e jo y s
and t h e p a in s o f t h e im m ig ra n ts , r e s p e c ti n g t h e i r e f f o r t s and c o u ra g e ,
bu t denouncing t h e i r r e s i g n a t i o n .
The n a r r a t o r h e r s e l f i s i n a p r i v i l e g e d p o s i t i o n , h a v in g a husband
and f i v e c h i l d r e n t o r e t u r n t o a f t e r h e r s o u r e x p e r ie n c e s w ith h e r
em p lo y ers, and a c e r t a i n freedom .of movement p e r m itte d by t h e more
s t a b l e economic s i t u a t i o n o f h e r f a m ily . She does n o t have t o work on
a r e g u l a r b a s i s . However, prom pted by what she i s t o l d by th o s e of- h e r
c o m p a trio ts who have t o a c c e p t any jo b w h a te v e r t o s u p p o rt th e m s e lv e s ,
sh e d e c id e s t o become a c le a n in g woman f o r w h ite f a m i l i e s t o s e e f o r
h e r s e l f . She th e n re c o r d s h e r d i s c o v e r ie s and r e f l e x i o n s in-.a d i a r y .
Her c h i l d r e n e n c o u rag e h e r i n h e r w r i t i n g and a c t as h e r c o n f i d a n ts ,
w h ile h e r h u s b a n d 's u n w illin g n e s s t o r e a d h e r and h i s l a c k o f f a i t h
i n th e u s e f u l n e s s o f h e r p u rp o se o n ly s p u r h e r on.
From w h ite em ployer t o w h ite em ployer,, from dame t o dame, she en
c o u n te r s th e same a t t i t u d e s ; d o m in e e rin g g e s tu r e s re s p o n d in g t o s t e r e o
t y p e s , a r e a d in e s s t o e x p l o i t th o s e c o n s id e r e d as i n f e r i o r s and who
need t o work a t any c o s t , overw ork and m eagre pay.. She i s t r e a t e d as
an o b je c t w ith o u t a name t o be u se d t o i t s lim its :-a n d d is c a r d e d when
i t m a lf u n c tio n s o r i s no lo n g e r n e ed ed . Used t o o r e x p e c tin g t o t a l
o b e d ie n c e and h u m i l i t y , h e r em ployers a re d i s c o n c e r t e d by h e r e n e r g e t i c ,
even a g g r e s s iv e r e a c t i o n s i n th e f a c e o f t h e i r h u m i l i a t i o n s . She i s
w i l l i n g t o a c c e p t t h e i r whims t o se e how f a r th e y can go on t h e i r
d e s i r e t o b re a k h e r ; " S i j e r e s t e chez m oi, j e ne p o u r r a i ja m a is v o i r
ju s q u 'o u p e u t a l l e r l a b e t i s e h u m a i n e ...J e s u is un cobaye v o l o n t a i r e ,
399
j e re n g a in e mon e n v ie de m e ttr e mon t a b l i e r au.m ur e t j e recommence a
18
b r o s s e r . " I n h e r own way, she ta k e s rev en g e f o r a l l h e r c o m p a trio ts
who have no c h o ic e but t o obey by d i s a p p o i n ti n g th e women who a re
s t r i v i n g t o make h e r unhappy.
H er freedom t o le a v e h e r employment when i t becomes u n b e a ra b le
makes h e r an i s o l a t e d c a s e . Most o f t h e women who a r e c o n fin e d t o house
c le a n in g c h o re s have no su ch c h o ic e . "L a j e me demande comment e e l a
d o i t s e p a s s e r p o u r mes s o e u rs q u i n 'o n t n u l l e p a r t ou s e r e f u g i e r en
c a s de r e v o l t e , q u i s o n t o b lig e e s de r e s t e r jo u r e t n u i t en com pagnie
de t e l l e s bonnes femmes p a r c e q u 'e l l e s o n t un voyage a rem b o u rse r"
( p . 1 5 ). I n t h e c o u rs e o f h e r w a n d e rin g s i n t h e s t r e e t s o f M a r s e il l e
from jo b t o jo b , she e n c o u n te rs many o f th o s e d e s p e r a te women. Y o lan d e,
f o r exam ple, has abandoned a b e t t e r p o s i t i o n i n M a rtin iq u e i n t h e hope
o f m aking more money i n F ra n ce and s e n d in g some t o h e r m o th er who i s
r a i s i n g h e r c h i l d r e n . But she d is c o v e r s t h a t she can h a rd ly s u p p o rt
h e r s e l f ! " J e d o is rem b o u rse r c e n t c in q u a n te f r a n c s p a r m ois; j ' e n gagne
deux c e n t v i n g t , i l m 'en r e s t e s o ix a n t e d ix p o u r m 'e q u ip e r..... J e ne
v o y a is p as l a F ra n ce a i n s i ! " ( p . ' 13) Y olande i s d i s i l l u s i o n e d , subm is
s i v e and a f r a i d . She ta k e s ab use b e c au se sh e s e e s no o th e r a l t e r n a t i v e
and i s unaw are o f t h e e x is t e n c e o f l e g a l r e c o u r s e s . Her em ployer ta k e s
a d v a n ta g e o f h e r d e s p a i r , o f h e r i s o l a t i o n and o f h e r f e a r . Renee to o
i s a f r a i d . a n d bound hy h e r d e b t. She c a n n o t summon enough c o u ra g e t o
t e l l h e r em ployer t h a t she i s s i c k and needs t o be h o s p i t a l i z e d ; h e r
e m ployer, a lth o u g h she knows o f R e n e e 's i l l n e s s , , c o n tin u e s t o make
h e r work as i f n o th in g was w rong. C e c i le , who was. an a c c o u n ta n t i n
400
F o r t- d e - F r a n c e , has t o f a c e r a c i a l p r e j u d i c e and c a n n o t f i n d a p o s i t i o n
c o rre s p o n d in g t o h e r q u a l i f i c a t i o n s ; she a c c e p ts a n y th in g and i s soon
ru n down by c o ld and i n s a l u b r i o u s l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s . T hese women make
t h e n a r r a t o r angry b e c au se th e y a re to o w i l l i n g t o adm it t h e i r d e f e a t
and s to p f i g h t i n g a g a in s t e x p l o i t a t i o n . At t h i s p o i n t , she does n o t
u n d e rs ta n d y e t t h a t t h e i r d e f e a tis m i s a p s y c h o lo g ic a l consequence o f
th e sub-human tr e a tm e n t t o w hich th e y have been r e p e a te d l y s u b je c t e d .
She d is c o v e r s t h a t sh e to o has been in f l u e n c e d by t h e contem pt
o f h e r em ployers when she i s o f f e r e d a tem p o rary p o s i t i o n i n an
a t t o r n e y 's o f f i c e . A lth o u g h h e r em ployer i s c o n s i d e r a t e , she does n o t
f e e l up t o t h e t a s k . She lo s e s h e r a s s u ra n c e and becomes f e a r f u l .
" J 'a v a i s e n v ie de p l e u r e r , e t j ' a i com pris que mon p a s sa g e dans l 'o d e u r
de l a v i e des a u tr e s me m a r q u a it, me c o m p le x a it" (p . 1 4 7 ). Most im por
t a n t l y , t h e r e p e a te d h u m il ia t io n s she has borne as a c le a n in g woman
have alm o st c o n v in c e d h e r t h a t she i s in c a p a b le o f d o in g a n y th in g e l s e .
She knows, th e n , t h a t , i f sh e i s i n f lu e n c e d by t h e image t h e o th e r s
have o f h e r even th o u g h sh e has t h e s u p p o rt o f h e r fa m ily and th e
c o m fort o f p a s t e x p e r ie n c e s , i t i s i n e v i t a b l e t h a t women who have j u s t
a r r i v e d and a r e i s o l a t e d w i l l g iv e i n t o r e s i g n a t i o n . T h is d a n g e r i s
r e i n f o r c e d by th e p r e v io u s p ro lo n g e d e x p o su re t o c o l o n i a l a t t i t u d e s .
T hus, when sh e l a t e r s e e s Renee a g a in , sh e rem a rk s; " . . . e n f a c e de m oi,
un v iv a n t p r o d u it c o l o n i a l s u i v a i t sa n s r i r e des p a tro n s , i n t r a n s i -
g e a n ts " (p . 1 9 1 ), Her f r i e n d , S o la n g e , who has r e s i d e d in F ra n ce f o r
tw e n ty y e a r s , h a s l e a r n e d from p a s t d e c e p tio n s t o c o u n te r a c t t h e
a d v e rs e i n f l u e n c e o f h e r em p lo y ers. She has c lo s e d h e r s e l f t o t h e i r
401
a b u ses and t o any p o s s i b i l i t y o f f r i e n d s h i p , e s p e c i a l l y w ith c h i l d r e n .
She has c u l t i v a t e d i n d i f f e r e n c e and l e f t s i t u a t i o n s w here she had f e l t
h e r s e l f w eakening. B ut, i n t h e p r o c e s s , she h as become b i t t e r , even i f
she a p p e a rs e x u b e ra n t and c o n te n te d . " S o la n g e .. . p r e te n d a v o i r a p p r is
a v i v r e au c o n ta c t de se s p a tr o n n e s i 'Quand on a e t e bonne a. t o u t f a i r e
on e s t v a c c in e p o u r to u s l e s evenem ents de l a v i e f u t u r e , c a r c ' e s t l a
q u 'o n a r r i v e a se d e p o u i l l e r l e p lu s aisem en t de t o u t e p r e t e n ti o n - .a l a
d i g n i t e hum ainej on e s t une c h o s e , comme un b a l a i ou un, r e f r i g e r a t e u r ! "
(p . 132)
What a p p l i e s t o t h e women a ls o a p p lie s t o t h e men. The n a r r a t o r 's
husband m o o n lig h ts as a d o c k e r. T h e re , he m eets men who a re unem ployed
and h a u n t t h e docks i n s e a r c h o f any jo b f o r any l e n g th o f tim e . When
t h e r e i s no w ork, th e y g a th e r i n H arlem , a s e c t i o n o f M a r s e i l l e where
d e s p a i r o f t e n t u r n s i n t o v i o l e n c e . R oland i s k i l l e d i n Harlem w here,
i n t h e company o f p r o s t i t u t e s and hoodlum s, he had t r i e d t o f o r g e t
h i s dream s o f r e t u r n i n g home.
I n s p i t e o f h a r d s h ip , s o l i d a r i t y e x i s t s among men and women
s h a r in g a common e x i l e . I t m o tiv a te s t h e n a r r a t o r who, w i t h in th e
l i m i t s o f h e r a b i l i t i e s , h e lp s young g i r l s on th e v e rg e o f d e s p a i r ,
t e l l s them ab o u t t h e i r r i g h t s , f o r c e s them t o r e a c t and s e e k o t h e r jo b s
when th e y a r e tra p p e d i n a h o p e le s s s i t u a t i o n . R oland and h e r husband
h e lp stow aw ays, g iv in g them s h e l t e r and p r o c u r in g p a p e rs and jo b s f o r
them . U n f o r tu n a te ly , t h i s s o l i d a r i t y does n o t e x i s t a t a l l l e v e l s .
The b la c k o f f i c i a l s whose r o l e i t i s t o d efen d th e im m ig ran ts have
n e i t h e r tim e n o r sympathy f o r t h e m ost hum ble. They do n o t w ant t o
402
a s s o c i a t e w ith them , f o r su ch a s s o c i a t i o n s would be d e g ra d in g . "P our
eux, ces f i l l e s e t a i e n t des p l a i e s , eux q u i s e v a n t a i e n t d ' e t r e l e s i n
tim e s des p e r s o n n a l i t e s l e s p lu s en v u e . I l s s e c r o y a ie n t o b lig e s d ' a r -
b o r e r une c e r t a i n e r a i d e u r , de p e u r d 'e n t e n d r e une f i l l e an n oncer:
' c ' e s t mon c o u s i n ! '" (p . 133) The n a r r a t o r l a b e l s them " l e s s u p e rb e s"
and denounces t h e i r h y p o c ris y and t h e i r i n d i f f e r e n c e t o th e p l i g h t o f
o t h e r s ,
Thus, t h e a u th o r e x p o ses th e d e s t r u c t i v e co n seq u en ces o f im m igra
t i o n . She b i t t e r l y rem arks upon t h e c o n tin u o u s a r r i v a l o f more and more
o f h e r c o m p a trio ts i n M a r s e il l e and Le H avre, drawn by t h e pro m ises
o f th e M ig r a tio n b u rea u and by th e. o p t i m i s t i c d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e i r
r e l a t i v e s a lr e a d y i n F ra n c e who a r e to o ashamed t o adm it t h e i r f a i l u r e s
The BUMIDOM b r in g s men and women who w i l l be tr a p p e d on t h e f o r e ig n
s o i l u n t i l th e y can re p a y t h e i r d e b t and sav e enough money t o r e t u r n .
But r e t u r n i n g i s n o t p o s s i b l e , as th e n a r r a t o r h e r s e l f r e a l i z e s , even
th o u g h she i s e c o n o m ic a lly b e t t e r o f f th a n m ost o f h e r c o m p a trio ts ? and
sh e' d e s p a i r s o f e v e r b e in g a b le t o b r in g h e r c h i l d r e n t o t h e i r g ra n d -
m o th er.
H a i ti a n im m ig ran ts t o th e U n ite d S t a t e s o r Canada a re f a c in g even
w orse c o n d it io n s . S e p a ra te d by la n g u a g e and c u l t u r e , t h e i r s u r v i v a l i s
a t b e s t p r e c a r i o u s . I t i s th o s e who need i t t h e m ost who can th e l e a s t
f i n d , i n t h e f o r e i g n c o u n tr y , t h e econom ic o p p o r t u n i t i e s w hich would
a llo w them t o s u p p o rt th e m s e lv e s and send money home. G a b r ie l , i n
L*Amour, o u i, La m o rt, n o n ., e x p e rie n c e s t h e u n b e a ra b le f a t e o f th e p o o r
403
H a i t i a n im m igrant i n New York o r H arlem , " . . . l e t r a v a i l a l a c h a in e ,
l 'e s c l a v a g e a l a c h a in e , s o n n e r ie s d 'h o r l o g e s , s i r e n e s de t r a i n s , d ’u s i-
n e s , l e tem ps q u i 'h u r l e , l e temps q u i se p r e c i p i t e a g ran d f r a c a s dans
19
un g o u f f r e i n f e r n a l . " G a b r ie l i s f o r c e d t o e n l i s t and d i e s m V i e t
nam.
A le x is A ccius has t o b e a r th e p e r s e c u tio n s o f t h e A m erican Immi
g r a t i o n S e r v ic e when he a r r i v e s by b o a t on th e c o a s t o f F l o r i d a . The
f a t e o f t h e H a i ti a n b o a t- p e o p le i s p u b l ic know ledge, b u t few a re
w i l l i n g t o t h i n k about t h e d e t e n t i o n camps w hich have a p p e a re d i n F l o r
i d a t o s to p t h e im m ig ra tio n o f re f u g e e s f l e e i n g from t h e H a i t i a n p o l i t
i c a l and economic d i s a s t e r . Baby Doc w ants t h e im m ig ran ts t o be s to p p e d
and h as co n c lu d e d ag reem en ts w ith t h e A m erican a u t h o r i t i e s t o p r e v e n t
20
f u r t h e r a r r i v a l s . I t i s t h i s " c o l l u s i o n des c l a s s e s d i r i g e a n t e s "
w hich G erard E tie n n e denounces when he m en tio n s t h e " d i r e c t e u r de l a
C .I .A ., q u i a d e c la r e q u ' i l n ’y a v a i t p as de p la c e dans l e s m e tro p o le s
du c o n tin e n t p o u r l e s n e g re s p a y s a n s , l e s n e g re s s a l e s , l e s n e g re s s a u -
v a g e s , l e s n e g r e s - f e u i l l e s d 'H a i t i " ( p . 4 5 ). Canada to o p a r t i c i p a t e s
i n t h e p e r s e c u t i o n o f A le x is A c c iu sj the. C anadian Im m ig ra tio n o f f i c e r s
i n s u l t him , q u e s ti o n him and d e t a i n him f o r no re a s o n i n an e f f o r t t o
d r iv e him t o d e s p a i r and s u i c i d e : "L es o f f i c i e r s de 1 ' Im m ig ra tio n l u i
f o n t e n te n d r e que t o u t s e r e g l e r a i t s ' i l m o u ra it en s e l a i s s a n t tom ber
p a r l a f e n e t r e du neuviW ie e ta g e . Tous se s m alh eu rs s e r a i e n t f i n i s "
( p . 2 0 3 ). I s o l a t e d on t h e huge A m erican c o n t i n e n t , A le x is A cciu s i s ’
d i s o r i e n t e d and p a r a ly z e d by f e a r u n t i l he m eets " l e p e t i t b l a n c ."
Through e x i l e , A le x is A ccius l e a r n s t h a t s o l i d a r i t y e x i s t s and t h a t i t
404
e x te n d s beyond r a c i a l b a r r i e r s to t h o s e who s h a r e a common o p p r e s s io n .
T h is know ledge g iv e s him t h e s t r e n g t h t o v o ic e h i s a n g e r and c o n fro n t
h i s enemy. A le x is A ccius w i l l r e t u r n t o H a i t i t o c o n tin u e h i s f i g h t
u n t i l t h e a d v en t o f t h e f i n a l r e v o l u t i o n o f t h e H a i ti a n p e o p le .
E n lig h te n in g t o th o s e who r e t u r n , e m ig r a tio n i s , more o f t e n th a n
n o t , t h e doom o f th o s e who h a v e ’ t o s t a y in th e o t h e r c o u n tr y and d e a l
w ith economic e x p l o i t a t i o n and r a c i a l p r e j u d i c e . The f a t e o f th e immi
g r a n t from t h e F ren ch A n t i l l e s i s e s p e c i a l l y am biguous: he e x p e c ts
r e c o g n i t i o n as a F ren ch c i t i z e n but d is c o v e r s t h a t he h as t o f a c e th e
same p r e j u d i c e as im m ig ran ts o f o t h e r r a c e s and n a t i o n a l i t i e s . Even i f
a c e r t a i n i n t e g r a t i o n t a k e s p la c e e i t h e r th ro u g h m ixed m a r r ia g e s o r
th ro u g h perm anent i n s t a l l a t i o n i n F ra n c e , a m a la is e re m a in s . A s s im ila
t i o n i n t o th e F ren ch en v iro n m en t th ro u g h m a rria g e w i l l le a v e s e v e r a l
g e n e r a tio n s i n lim bo betw een two la n d s and two c u l t u r e s .t o n e i t h e r o f
w hich th e y b e lo n g . Perm anent i n s t a l l a t i o n , w hich seems t o be t h e c a se
o f th e n a r r a t o r o f L e t t r e s a une N o ir e , i s no more s t a b i l i z i n g becau se
o f th e p e r s i s t e n c e o f a f e e l i n g o f d i f f e r e n c e , n o t o n ly r a c i a l but
p s y c h o lo g ic a l as w e l l , p e r p e t u a t e d by t h e a t t i t u d e s o f t h e host-commu
n i t y . The ambiguous s t a t u s o f t h e n a t i v e la n d does n o t h e lp becau se i t
does n o t e n c o u ra g e a s tr o n g s e n se o f b e lo n g in g . Thus t h e e m ig ra n t from
t h e F rench A n t i l l e s i s c a u g h t betw een two a m b i g u i t i e s .. H a i t i b e in g a
n a t i o n , t h e H a i ti a n e m ig ra n t c o n f r o n ts a d i f f e r e n t s e t , o f problem s
j u s t a s , o r even m ore,, a c u te b e c au se r e t u r n i s a p o l i t i c a l , economic
o r m oral i m p o s s i b i l i t y , and b e cau se l i f e i n t h e o t h e r c o u n tr y i s as
405
o p p r e s s iv e and .-harassing as i t was i n th e n a t i v e c o u n tr y .
The n o v e ls a n a ly z e d i n t h i s c h a p te r d i s p e l two m yths t h a t a re
m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f t h e d e s i r e t o le a v e th e n a t i v e but a l i e n a t i n g la n d
in o r d e r t o se e k s a t i s f a c t i o n e ls e w h e re . They p r e s e n t th e im p u lse t o
le a v e as an i l l u s o r y s o l u t i o n , im p ly in g th e r e b y t h a t , i d e a l l y , d i f f i
c u l t i e s s h o u ld be fa c e d w i t h i n t h e c o u n try i t s e l f . A u th o rs from th e
F ren ch A n t i l l e s s h a r e t h e d e s i r e t o en co u rag e t h e c i t i z e n s o f th o s e
t e r r i t o r i e s t o s ta y home and keep i n check what Aime C e s a ir e c a l l s
" l e g e n o c id e p a r s u b s t i t u t i o n " t a k i n g p la c e i n t h e F rench d e p a rtm e n ts ,
m eaning by t h i s fo rm u la , t h e slow rep la ce m e n t o f th e p o r ti o n o f t h e i r
p o p u la tio n f o rc e d t o e m ig r a te by F ren ch w h ite r e s i d e n t s , As f a r as
H a i ti i s c o n c e rn e d , and k e e p in g i n mind t h e problem s stemming from th e
e x p lo s io n o f i t s p o p u l a t io n , e m ig ra tio n may be n e c e s s a r y , but d e f i n i t e l y
n o t i n i t s p r e s e n t form .
406
N otes
^ Roger D o r s i n v i l l e , Kimby ou l a l o i de Niang ( P a r i s : P re s e n c e
A f r i c a i n e , 1 9 7 3 ), back c o v e r.
2
D o r s i n v i l l e , p . 19.
3 A
B e rte n e J u m in e r, L es H e r i t i e r s de l a p r e s q u 'i l e ( P a r i s : P r e
se n c e A f r i c a i n e , 19 7 9 ), p . 12.
^ Edouard G l i s s a n t , M alem ort ( P a r i s : S e u i l , 1 9 7 5 ), p . 216.
^ Simone S c h w a rz -B a rt, T i J e a n l 'H o r iz o n ( P a r i s : S e u i l , 1 9 7 9 ),
p . 28.
^ M aryse Conde, Heremakhonon ( P a r i s : Union G e n e ra le d 'E d i t i o n s ,
C o l l e c t i o n 1 0 /1 8 , 1 9 7 6 ), p . 12.
^ G l i s s a n t , M alem ort, p . 183.
g
J a c q u e l in e Manicom, Mon Examen de b la n c ( P a r i s : P r e s s e s de l a
C i t e , 1 9 7 5 ), p . 72.
9
Manicom, p . 150.
L o u is -C h a r le s W illia m , Le F o lilo q u e en ou d i e s e m in eu r ( P a r i s :
L 'H a rm a tta n , 1 9 7 8 ), p . 111.
S c h w a rz -B a rt, T i J e a n , p. 227.
12
Simone S c h w a rz -B a rt, P l u i e e t v e n t s u r Telumee M ir a c le ( P a r i s :
S e u i l , 1 9 7 2 ), p . 216.
13
A dolphe P a r i l l o n , G u sta v e, j e . . . (S h e rb ro o k e , Quebec: Naaman,
1 9 7 8 ), p . 64.
14
Manicom, p . 105.
E douard G l i s s a n t , La Case du commandeur ( P a r i s : S e u i l , 1 9 8 1 ),
p . 187.
16
Roland B r i v a l , M a rtin iq u e des c e n d re s ( P a r i s : O l i v i e r O rban,
1 9 7 8 ), p . 161.
407
^ V in c e n t P l a c o l y , L a V ie e t l a m ort de M arcel G o n stra n ( P a r i s :
D enoel, 1 9 7 1 ), p . 74.
18 « *
F ra n g o is e Ega, L e t t r e s a une N o ire ( P a r i s : L 'H a rm a tta n , 1978),
pp. 1 4 -1 5 .
19 „
L i l i a n e D evieux Dehoux, L'Amour, o u i. La m o rt, non. (S h e rb ro o k e ,
Quebec: Naaman, 1 9 7 6 ), p . 49.
20 % *
G erard E tie n n e , Un Am bassadeur m acoute a M o n treal (M o n tre a l:
N o u v e lle O p tiq u e , 1 9 7 9 ), p . -46.
C onclusion
Knowing t h e p r o b a b le c a u se s f o r t h e a l t e r n a t i o n o f a p a th y and
v io le n c e i n t h e F re n c h -s p e a k in g C a rib b e a n , and in view o f t h e la c k o f
v i a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e s , w here does th e f u t u r e l i e ? I t may seem from th e
a n a l y s i s o f contem porary n o v e ls t h a t t h e mood i s m a s s iv e ly p e s s i m i s t i c
and t h a t p r o s p e c ts f o r im provem ent a r e few. T h is a p p a re n t d e f e a tis m i s
tem p ered how ever by a v a r i e t y o f more o r l e s s c l e a r l y e x p re s s e d h o p e s.
The v e ry e x is t e n c e o f a body o f l i t e r a t u r e as dynamic as t h e one j u s t
p r e s e n t e d i s i n i t s e l f a te s tim o n y t o th e v i t a l i t y and e n d u ran ce o f
th e F ren ch C a rib b e a n . I f a l l hope w ere abandoned, s i l e n c e w ould p r e v a i l .
The n o v e ls from th e F ren ch A n t i l l e s s h a r e a .re m a rk a b le th e m a tic
u n i t y i n t h e i r e x p o s it io n o f t h e d e b i l i t a t i n g q u a l i t y o f l i f e i n th o s e
t e r r i t o r i e s . The n o t i c e a b l e a b sen ce o f F rench G uianese works d e a lin g
w ith t h i s p a r t i c u l a r s t a t e o f a f f a i r s , may i n d i c a t e t h a t i t s h a re s th e
same f a t e . The i s o l a t i o n o f t h i s t h i r d d e p artm en t and i t s " f r i n g e "
p o s i t i o n as p a r t o f a c o n tin e n t t o w hich i t does n o t b elong and p a r t
o f th e A n t i l l e s from, w hich i t i s q u i t e fa r-re m o v e d , a re added t o t h e
c irc u m s ta n c e o f a l i m i t e d p o p u la tio n . Can th e s e f a c t o r s e x p la i n why
th e two F ren ch G uianese a u th o r s q u o te d i n t h i s s tu d y , S erg e P a t i e n t and
B e rte n e J u m in e r, seem t o a v o id th e s u b j e c t o f contem porary l i f e i n
F ren ch Guiana? One w r i t e s about th e p a s t and t h e o th e r about A f r ic a ,
b o th f a r removed from th e F ren ch G u ian ese p r e s e n t . I t i s t r u e t h a t
409
B e rte n e Ju m in e r d e a ls w ith a theme r e l e v a n t to t h e F ren ch A n t i l l e s as
a w hole and F re n ch G uiana i n p a r t i c u l a r , t h a t o f t h e s u r v i v a l o f a t t i
tu d e s i n h e r i t e d from t h e c o l o n i a l p e r io d ; b u t he cho o ses n o t t o u se
t h e F rench G u ian ese c o n te x t t o do s o . I s i t b e c au se i t s g e o g ra p h ic a l
p o s i t i o n makes o f F re n ch G uiana an econom ic and c u l t u r a l dead .end that:
i t s l i t e r a r y p r o d u c t i v i t y i s c u r t a i l e d ? Or, i s i t becau se t h e l i t e r a r y
c r e a t i v i t y o f M a rtin iq u e and G uadeloupe f o r c e s w ould-be G uianese
a u th o r s i n t o a r e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e i r own c r e a t i v e p o t e n t i a l and
i n s p i r a t i o n ? T hat t h i s p o t e n t i a l e x i s t s i s c o n firm e d by p a s t a n d .p r e s
e n t a u th o r s . T hat t h e s e h av e a te n d e n c y t o evade t h e r e a l i t y o f t h e i r
c o u n try i s e q u a lly c o n firm e d by t h e i r m arked p r e f e r e n c e f o r t o p i c s
removed from t h a t r e a l i t y . T h is s i l e n c e o r t h i s c h o ic e b e sp ea k s th e
a n a c h r o n i s t i c and anaem ic s i t u a t i o n o f F rench G uiana, even though th e
e x i s t e n c e — but lik e w is e t h e " a p a r tn e s s " :— o f t h a t d ep a rtm e n t i s acknow l
edged by E douard G l i s s a n t :
M ais a l o r s , l a Guyane? Une i n f i n i t e que nous nous im aginons
g o rg ee d 'e a u e t de b o is , Les G uyanais demandent que l e s
M a r tin iq u a is e t l e s G uadeloupeens l e s l a i s s e n t en p a ix .
Nous avons pas m al " c o l o n i s e " de ce c o te . C 'e s t p o u r ta n t
comme une a t t a c h e s e c r e t e que nous avons avec l e C o n tin e n t.
Une a t t a c h e p o e tiq u e d 'a u t a n t p lu s c h e re que nous y re n o n -
g o n s. D’ a u ta n t p lu s f o r t e que f o r t s e r a l e p o id s des Guya
n a i s dans l e u r p a y s . Des c h a n ts commes des r a p id e s a remon-
t e r , des poemes comme a u ta n t de b o is sa n s fo n d .
The u n i t y o f o p in io n found i n th e n o v e ls from t h e F rench A n t i l l e s
does n o t h o ld f o r H a i t i . We have n o te d t h a t t h e a t t i t u d e o f th e v a r io u s
a u th o rs to w a rd t h e s i t u a t i o n o f t h e i r c o u n try depends on w h e th e r th e y
r e s i d e t h e r e o r n o t — a f a c t w hich i s u n d e rs ta n d a b le u n d e r t h e circum
410
s t a n c e s . I t does n o t however f u l l y e x p la i n t h e s u r p r i s i n g l a c k o f
com m ittm ent o f some o f t h e s e w r i t e r s . One can i n f e r from t h e s e d i f f e r
e n ces t h a t s o c i a l background has a g r e a t in f l u e n c e on t h e s u b j e c t s
ch o sen and t h a t i t g e n e r a te s b lin d n e s s o r i n d i f f e r e n c e to w ard t h e eco
nomic d i f f i c u l t i e s e x p e rie n c e d by th e m a j o r it y . M oreover, one must
n e v e r f o r g e t th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f r e t a l i a t o r y a c ti o n from t h e p r e v a i l i n g
reg im es i f an a u th o r becomes to o c r i t i c a l . The H a i ti a n a u th o r , who i s
s i n c e r e , m ust choose betw een p e r s e c u t i o n and e x i l e . G erard E t i e n n e 's
a c c u s a to r y s ta n c e f o r c e d him i n t o e x i l e . M a rie -T h e re se Colimon w ish e s
t o rem ain i n H a i t i , and h e r n o v e l shows t h a t she i s c a r e f u l , a lth o u g h
sh e su c ce e d s i n m aking h e r p o i h t . I n t h e i r d i v e r s i t y , how ever, H a i ti a n
n o v e ls a llo w t h e r e a d e r t o p i c t u r e t h e v a r io u s e le m en ts o f H a i t i a n s o c i
e ty and t o form an o p in io n o f t h e v a s t d i f f e r e n c e s e x is tin g - betw een
them .
I f one c o n s id e r s o n ly th o s e w orks w hich s t r e s s th e n e c e s s i t y o f
ch a n g in g l o c a l c irc u m s ta n c e s f o r th e w e ll- b e in g o f a l l — and th e y form
an overw helm ing m a j o r it y — t h e i r u n i t y o f i n s p i r a t i o n seems t o s to p
when one g la n c e s a t t h e i r outcom e. I t i s som etim es n e c e s s a r y , how ever,
t o lo o k beyond t h e u n r a v e lin g o f th e a c t i o n i t s e l f , f o r t h a t can be
m is le a d in g . Beyond t h e v i o le n c e and d e s p a i r , one can d e t e c t a f a i n t
hope, a p e r s i s t e n t f a i t h i n t h e s u r v i v a l o f t h e b la c k p e o p le o f th e
F ren ch C a rib b e a n i n s p i t e o f c u l t u r a l a l i e n a t i o n and econom ic s ta g n a
t i o n , i n s p i t e o f m is f o r tu n e and d e a th .
M a rtin iq u e des c e n d re s can be u n d e rs to o d as th e acknowledgm ent o f
a f a i l u r e , t h a t o f Thomas 1 ' E ugenie and o f t h o s e who, l i k e him , have
411
and se e i t r u in e d by t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s and th e b e t r a y a l s o f o t h e r s .
Thomas 1 ' E ugenie d i e s f o r h i s c a u se ; h i s dream h as o v e rta k e n h i s l i f e
and d e s tr o y e d h i s w i l l t o s u r v iv e . Osana g iv e s him d e a th as a l i b e r a - ’
t i o n , . but h e r g e s tu r e o f lo v e and p i t y c o n firm s h i s d e f e a t . Thomas and
Osana n e v e r t h e l e s s s u r v iv e i n t h e memory o f t h e i r sort, whose lo v e i s
p a t i e n t l y c u l t i v a t e d and r e k i n d l e d by Z e p h y rin . T hus, t h e f i n a l scen e
o f t h e n o v e l s u g g e s ts t h a t , d e s p i t e th e absen ce o f any m a t e r i a l t e s t i
mony t o t h e i r e x is t e n c e and t h e i r d e a th , and p e rh a p s becau se o f t h i s
ab sen c e w hich p r e v e n ts a l l c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n o f memory on one o b j e c t ,
Thomas and Osana w i l l m erge w ith t h e la n d s c a p e o f t h e i s l a n d and
become p a r t o f t h e h i s t o r y o f i t s p e o p le , n o t b e c au se o f t h e i r a c h ie v e
m en ts, but b e c au se th e y p a r t i c i p a t e d , i f on ly b r i e f l y , i n th e making
and i n t h e p e r p e t u a t i o n o f M a rtin iq u e . T h e ir d e a th , t h e t r a g i c outcome
o f t h e i r com m ittm ent t o one a n o th e r and to t h e i r la n d , i s sym bolic o f
an ongoing f i g h t f o r t h e p e r s i s t e n c e o f M a rtin iq u e as a p e o p le and
as a c o u n tr y . I n s a n i t y and d e s p a i r may win te m p o r a r il y , b u t, i n th e
lo n g ru n , l i f e p r e v a i l s .
A ccording t o Edouard G l i s s a n t h im s e lf , M alem ort i s t o be t h e d e - -
s c r i p t i o n o f t h e slow agony o f t h e p e o p le o f M a rtin iq u e ;
Ce l i v r e en g ra n d e a m b itio n t a c h a i t de s u r p r e n d r e q u e lq u e s
a s p e c ts de n o t r e u s u re c o l l e c t i v e e t p e u t - e t r e p a r l a de
c o n t r i b u e r a r a l e n t i r c e t t e u s u r e , a c o n t e s t e r l e ^renonce-
m e n t./ J e v o u l a i s y d i r e l e s tu r b u le n c e s comme f i g e e s du
d e ra c in e m e n t a n t i l l a i s . S u p p u te r ce d e p e ris s e m e n t im p ercep
t i b l e ; l ' e n - a l l e r d 'u n p e u p le q u i ne d i s p a r a i t c e r t e s pas
m ais a m esure s ' e f f r i t e dans l e s o l e i l , ombre a i g r i e e t
c o n te n t e e .^
Beyond t h i s a c h ie v e d p u r p o s e , th e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a p e o p le i n th e
412
humourous and t r a g i c moments o f i t s l i f e , t h e r e i s t h e h i n t o f a n o th e r
t r u t h . One image rem ain s i n mind among th o s e o f t h e n o v els t h a t o f
S i l a c i e r s lo w ly and d re a m ily s tr o k i n g t h e b la d e o f h i s m ac h e te . I t i s
an image o f c o n ta in e d v i o le n c e and u n e x p re s s e d hope. The m achete has a
do u b le i m p l ic a ti o n : i t i s t h e t o o l o f th e c a n e - c u t t e r , t h e .in stru m e n t
o f h i s e x p l o i t a t i o n , but i t i s a ls o a weapon. The d u a l i t y o f t h e weapon
r e f l e c t s t h e d u a l i t y o f t h e C a rib b e a n p e r s o n a l i t y and im p lie s t h e
p e r s i s t e n c e o f r e v o l t . W ith in th e c o n f in e s o f h i s p r i s o n , S i l a c i e r
dream s o f a n o th e r w o rld , n o t t h e one he knows, b u t one i n w hich he
w i l l be a b le t o a c co m p lish h i s re v e n g e . Hope p e r s i s t s , i n one form o r
a n o th e r , even i f i t i s n o t c l e a r l y d e f in e d ,
Le Fou i s lo c k e d i n a d i f f e r e n t k in d o f p r i s o n to w ard th e end o f
h i s n a r r a t i v e , t h a t o f h i s own m en ta l a n g u ish a t t h e f a i l u r e o f a l l
h i s dreams and fo llo w in g t h e d e a th s o f Doudou and Rou.. A lthough th e
n o v e l ends on a t r a g i c n o t e , t h a t o f l e F o u 's avowed d e s p a i r , he i s n o t
a lo n e . T here i s th e lo v e o f h i s g ran d m o th er, w hich he s e e s as a p o s s i
b le s a l v a t i o n , and th e unknown c h a r a c t e r , t h e r e a d e r p e rh a p s , t o whom
he g iv e s t h e t a s k o f c o n tin u in g w ith t h e t a l e , o f k e e p in g th e v o ic e
a l i v e , f o r o n ly t o t a l s i l e n c e means d e f e a t . As lo n g as t h e s t o r y i s
t o l d , th e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t i t w i l l be h e a rd e x i s t s .
I t i s p r e c i s e l y th e f a c t t h a t he I s n o t h e a rd .th a t makes M arcel
G o n stra n a d e s p e r a te c h a r a c t e r . M arcel G o n stra n i s n e v e r a b le t o f in d
a s e n se o f p u rp o se i n h i s l i f e o f w a n d e rin g , n o t o n ly p h y s ic a l b u t a ls o
p s y c h o lo g ic a l w a n d e rin g , t r y i n g t o e s t a b l i s h a d i r e c t i o n i n w hich t o
go and a way o f com m unicating w ith th e w o rld around him . "Ma v i e n 'a u r a
413
e t e q u 'u n c h a p e le t d 'i l l u s i o n s e t de d i s i l l u s i o n s se s u c c e d a n t sans.
se ism es m aje u rs n i ehez moi n i chez l e s a u t r e s . E tr a n g e r a t o u t e t
3
p a r t o u t , a u r a i - j e e t e a u t r e ch ose q u 'u n badaud?" M arcel G o n stra n moves
about i n a k in d o f no m an 's la n d w hich he c r e a t e s h im s e lf th ro u g h h i s
f e a r o f b e in g in v o lv e d . Nowhere can he f in d a n y th in g t h a t would f o s t e r
a s e n se o f h i s own d i g n i t y . M arcel G o n stra n i s c u rs e d by h i s s e l f -
im posed m e d io c r ity and t h e f a c t t h a t he p e r c e iv e s h im s e lf as a se co n d -
c l a s s i n d i v i d u a l . He has n o th in g t o sa y i n h i s own d e fe n s e .
The c r u c i f i e d N egro, on t h e c o n t r a r y , i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by th e
v o l u b i l i t y o f h is d i s c o u r s e , t h e d e c is iv e n e s s of. h i s a c c u s a tio n s a g a in s t
t h e d i c t a t o r s h i p and t h e l u c i d i t y o f h i s a n a l y s i s o f H a i t i ' s d e c l i n e .
But he s ta n d s a lo n e , t h e m a rty r o f an un h eard c a u s e . N am eless, he r e p r e
s e n ts t h e H a i ti a n n a ti o n c r u c i f i e d by i t s p o l i t i c a l regim e and economic
f a i l u r e . H is r e v o l t i s i s o l a t e d and n u l l i f i e d by t h e s i l e n c e o f a l l .
The c r u c i f i e d Negro i s doomed by h i s own c l a r i t y o f th o u g h t, f o r he
u n d e rs ta n d s t h a t he h as come to o e a r l y and t h a t h i s s a c r i f i c e w i l l b e a r
no f r u i t i n t h e im m ediate f u t u r e . T here i s no d en y in g th e t r a g i c dimen
s io n o f h i s n a r r a t i v e i n s p i t e o f th e f a c t t h a t he can n e v e r r e l i n q u i s h
w hat h e , a t tim e s , c o n s id e r s a f o o l i s h hope, t h e hope t h a t H a i t i w i l l
e v e n tu a lly f in d a u n iq u e way o f p u t t i n g an end t o i t s b loody d e s ti n y .
M a rie -T h e re s e Colimon e x p re s s e s no such hope i n F i l s de m is e r e .
Seen w i t h in th e c o n te x t o f H a i ti a n h i s t o r y , t h e e v e n t w hich ta k e s
L a m e r c ie 's l i f e i s j u s t one o f th e many v i o l e n t im p u lse s w hich have
ro ck e d t h e H a i t i a n n a ti o n s in c e t h e e a r l y s la v e u p r i s i n g s . R e z ia
R e g u lie r r e c a l l s th e s i m i l a r e p is o d e d u rin g w hich h e r f i a n c e was k i l l e d
414
T h ere i s , how ever, a d i f f e r e n c e ; F e rd in a n d was imbued w ith r e v o l u t i o n
a ry id e a s and knew t h e r i s k s in v o lv e d , w hereas L am ercie i s an in n o c e n t
b y s ta n d e r . M a rie -T h e re s e Colimon p a s s e s judgm ent on th e d e s t r u c t i v e n e s s
o f t h e reg im e, j u s t as M arie Chauvet and J e a n - B a p t i s t e C ineas had i n
t h e i r e a r l i e r n o v e ls and w ith t h e same d e c is i v e n e s s as G erard E tie n n e .
But t h e b r u t a l i t y o f h e r s c e n a r io i s n o t tem p ered by any hope. The p o o r
a r e alw ays v ic tim s i n s p i t e o f t h e i r c o u ra g e . The a u th o r has f a i t h i n
them b u t does n o t a n t i c i p a t e t h e end o f t h e i r m is e ry and o f t h e i r o p - '
p r e s s i o n u n d e r p r e s e n t c o n d it io n s and s e e s no p o s s i b l e a l t e r n a t i v e .
T hese n o v e ls a re c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a la c k o f fo rm u la te d s o l u t i o n s .
They r e c o r d f a i l u r e s a t t h e p e r s o n a l l e v e l and, a lth o u g h i t i s im p lie d
t h a t t h e s e f a i l u r e s and s a c r i f i c e s m ight add up p o s i t i v e l y i n t h e lo n g
r u n , th e y do n o t o f f e r answ ers o r even s p e c u l a ti o n s as t o w here a
change m ight come from o r who m ight o r i g i n a t e . i t . They a r e r e a l i s t i c
i n t h e i r i n d e c i s i o n , f o r i t a c c u r a te l y e x p re s s e s and r e f l e c t s t h e p r e
v a i l i n g atm o sp h ere o f th e F re n c h -s p e a k in g C a rib b e a n .
O th e r a u th o r s choose more p r e c i s e p a t h s , w hich i s n o t t o say t h a t
th e y a r e i n c l i n e d t o u n c o n d itio n a l optim ism , f o r such an a t t i t u d e w ould
be p u re b l in d n e s s . But th e y e l e c t t o c h a n n e l t h e i r hopes i n to n e d i r e c
t i o n and t o e x p re s s more d i r e c t l y t h e i r f a i t h i n th e f u t u r e . Thus
M adevie has w itn e s s e d th e d e a th o f G i l b e r t and th e ruin, o f h i s hopes o f
p o s s i b l e r e v o l u t i o n , but sh e w i l l remember h i s m essage, "Kimbe r a i d ’ I” s
"O u i, G i l b e r t , j e s e r a i f o r t e , j e t i e n d r a i . . . Car j ’ a i r e t r o u v e to n
r e g a r d c o n f i a n t dans des c e n ta in e s d 'y e u x d 'e n f a n t s n o i r s , m e tis e t
h in d o u s. Et p e u t - e t r e meme q u ' i l p o u r r a i t n a x t r e , ce re g a r d dans l e s
415
p r u n e l l e s d 'u n p e t i t e n f a n t b e k e ." M adevie i s now aware o f h e r p o s i
t i o n i n th e s o c i e t y o f G uadeloupe and, from h e r own v i c t o r y a t a c h ie v in g
a s e n se o f s e l f , sh e i n f e r s th e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t i t w i l l happen t o
o t h e r s , t o th o s e new g e n e r a tio n s whom she se e s come t o l i f e . R e v o lu tio n
f a i l s i n t h e p r e s e n t , b u t i t rem ains a r e a l p o s s i b i l i t y and. r e s t s i n
t h e hands o f t h e g e n e r a tio n s t o come. T h is same hope g iv e s m eaning t o
t h e l i f e o f I b a 's f a t h e r i n Agodom e-Dachine. He p a s s e s on h i s f a i t h t o
h i s c h i l d r e n , whom he p i c t u r e s as b e in g t h e e v e n tu a l r e c i p i e n t s o f th e
freedom he has been d e n ie d . L 1E au -d e-m o rt g u i ld i v e s h a r e s t h e same hope,
A lthough th e n o v e l ends on one more u s e l e s s r e v o l t and t h e know ledge
t h a t i t w i l l be r e p r e s s e d , V in c e n t P la c o ly e x p re s s e s h i s f a i t h i n th e
c r e a t i v i t y o f th e y o u th o f M a rtin iq u e : " J e u n e s s e , quand aux m a tin s
d 'o c t o b r e , s u r l e s chem ins de I ’ e c o l e , l e p ie d l a c e de f r a i s , t u t ' e n
v a s v e r s l a v i e , a r r e t e - t o i , e c o u te l a p o e s ie ; e l l e c e s t f a i t e de b a r -
re a u x de p r i s o n , de c i e l s e n tr e v u s e t de rondes de n u i t . E ssay e d 'e n
f a i r e des dim anehes dans t o n . c i e l . " ^
At th e end o f La Case du eommandeur, th e i d e a o f in d ep e n d e n c e i s
b r i e f l y evoked. For E douard G l i s s a n t , t h e f u t u r e o f th e i s l a n d and of
t h e o t h e r two F ren ch o v e rs e a s d e p a rtm e n ts , l i e s t h e r e . I t i s n o t a mere
p r o p o s a l b u t a n e c e s s i t y . A lthough t h i s id e a i s n o t d e v e l o p e d - - i t can
n o t be a t t h i s p o in t i n t h e e v o lu t io n o f th e c h a r a c t e r s o f th e n o v e l—
i t i s t h e se e d o f a lo n g -te rm o b j e c t i v e . However, t h e o n s e t o f in d e p e n d
ence depends on a t r a n s f o r m a t io n o f t h e m e n t a li ty o f th e p e o p le as a
w hole, a t r a n s f o r m a t io n o f th e k in d undergone by M arie C e la t as she
becomes aware o f th e predom inance o f th e c o u n try o v e r a l l dream s and
416
f a i l u r e s . W hatever t h e f u t u r e may b r in g , i t can o n ly be acco m p lish ed
on t h e s o i l o f M a rtin iq u e . Ti J e a n re a c h e s t h e same c o n c lu s io n as he
e v a lu a te s what n eed s t o be done t o r e b u i l d a G uadeloupe d e v a s ta te d by
th e p a s sa g e o f th e w h ite B east and th e l o s s ' o f s e l f - e s t e e m o f i t s
i n h a b i t a n t s . Such a g o a l can o n ly be a t t a i n e d th ro u g h a common e f f o r t ,
m eaning th e s o l i d a r i t y o f a l l . t h o s e in v o lv e d . T hat th e f u t u r e l i e s i n
th e s o l i d a r i t y o f t h e o p p re s s e d i s a ls o t h e m essage conveyed by G erard
^E tienne th ro u g h A le x is A ccius i n Un A m bassadeur m acoute a M o n tr e a l.
I t i s a p r o p o s a l , n o t a c o n v ic t io n , s in c e A le x is A ccius* v i c t o r y i s
o b ta in e d o u t s i d e o f H a i t i , and u n c e r t a i n t y rem ain s as t o w h e th e r some
t h in g can be a c c o m p lish e d on H a i ti a n s o i l . G erard E tie n n e c e l e b r a t e s
th e v i c t o r y o f human d i g n i t y . A le x is A ccius i s no superm an but an o r d i
n a ry man w ith h is. s h o rtc o m in g s , h i s f e a r s and h i s d o u b ts . Yet he
su c ce e d s b e c au se he keeps f a i t h in th e m e a n in g fu ln e ss o f h i s f i g h t .
He cann ot su c c e e d a lo n e , f o r he i s n o t a h e ro ; b u t he does su cceed
w ith t h e h e lp and th e s u p p o rt o f th o s e who, r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e i r r a c e
o r n a t i o n a l i t y , s h a re t h e same f a t e .
Beyond a l l p o s s i b l e o r i d e a l s o l u t i o n s , t h e n o tio n o f endurance
p r e v a i l s . E douard G l i s s a n t s a y s o f th e F rench A n t i l l e s t h a t th e y a re
+ + 6
"u n e r e a l i t e m enacee, q u i s 'o b s t i n e p o u r t a n t ." O b s tin a c y , p e r s i s t e n c e
and en d u ran ce a r e p e r s o n i f i e d i n t h e C arib b ean woman. She i s th e one
who c o n f r o n ts a d v e r s i t y and, m ost o f th e tim e , s u r v iv e s when th e man
y i e l d s .T h e s p e c i a l r o l e o f th e woman i n th e F ren ch C a rib b e a n n o v e l
p ro b a b ly stem s from h e r s o c i o l o g i c a l r o l e as th e s t a b l e e lem en t o f t h e
f a m ily . I n v o lv e d i n th e t a s k o f p ro v id in g d a i l y s u r v i v a l f o r h e r
417
c h i l d r e n and h e r s e l f , she has l i t t l e tim e f o r im p o s s ib le dream s and
rem ain s anch o red i n r e a l i t y . Such i s th e s t r e n g t h o f Telum ee. M arie
C e la t a l s o s e e s M athieu B elu se and R aphael T a rg in le a v e M a rtin iq u e ,
c r i t i c i z e s t h e i r l a c k o f f a i t h i n th e m se lv e s and i n t h e i r c o u n try and
unmasks t h e i r p r e t e n s e s . She s ta y s b e h in d . She w itn e s s e s t h e d e a th o f
h e r two s o n s , b u t i s s tr o n g enough t o conquer h e r im pending i n s a n i t y .
R e u n ite d w ith h e r d a u g h te r , she i s re a d y t o f a c e l i f e once a g a in .
D e lic e to o s u r v iv e s h e r c h i l d r e n and d ances t o h e r d e a th s ” E l l e d a n s a it
de c o u ra g e . Du fond de l a m is e r e , e l l e o p p o s a it a 1 ' acca b lem e n t l a
f l e u r v iv a c e que t r a g a i e n t s e s p ie d s s u r l e s a b l e , e t l a mer ne p o u v a it
1 'e f f a c e r . " ^ The woman o f La T a p i s s e r i e du tem ps p r e s e n t tr a n s c e n d s
m u t i l a t i o n and d e a th t o d e l i v e r t h e m essage o f hope w hich w i l l f o r t i f y
th e swimmer i n h i s d e te r m in a tio n t o w in. C l a i r e 's p r e s e n c e r e v iv e s
A le x is A c c iu s , " l e s to u rm e n ts d 'A l e x i s , l e s s o u f f r a n c e s d ’A le x is s ' e f -
g
f a c e n t en r e n c o n t r a n t l a g ra c e de C l a i r e . " She s u p p o rts him when he
f a i l s , p r o v id e s u n d e r s ta n d in g , sym pathy and warmthj she b r in g s s o f tn e s s
and hum anity t o th e f i g h t a g a in s t th e o p p r e s s o r . Osana r e v i v e s Thomas
1 ' E ugenie and p u l l s him o u t o f h i s s e lf -im p o s e d i s o l a t i o n . She p a r t i c
i p a t e s i n h i s b r i e f g lo r y and s h a r e s w ith him th e few moments o f p l e n i
tu d e he i s g iv e n t o know d u r in g h i s s h o r t l i f e . F i n a l l y , sh e a llo w s
him t o d ie w ith d i g n i t y by d e a li n g him th e blow which, w i l l b r in g de
l i v e r a n c e b e fo re i n s a n i t y d e s tr o y s h is h u m an ity . Telumee s u r v iv e s when
E l i e f a i l s , d e s p i t e him , d e s p i t e A m boise's d e a th and d e s p i t e S o n o r e 's
abandonm ent. I n F i l s de m is e r e , t h e c a p ta in rem a rk s, "Femme g a in s e p t
9
s a u t s ! " He means by t h i s t h a t i t i s a woman's d e s ti n y t o e x p e rie n c e
418
f a ilu r e s and lo s s e s and to overcome them to fin d d ig n ity and p ea ce.
The p e r e n n i a l p e r s i s t a n c e o f t h e b la c k woman e x te n d s beyond t h e C a rib
bean t o A f r i c a , f o r F a tim o f Les H e r i t i e r s de l a p r e s q u 'i l e p o s s e s s e s
t h e same m a g ic a l q u a l i t i e s , A id a shows th e-sa m e o b s tin a c y , w h ile Mado
s u r v iv e s th ro u g h h e r a d a p t a b i l i t y . The woman r e s t a i n s t h e p a s t , b e a rs
th e p r e s e n t and p e r f i g u r e s t h e f u t u r e ;
... p a r m i t a n t d 'e te n d u e s de t e r r e e n to u r e e s de mer e l l e a
c h o i s i d i r a i t - o n c e t t e le c h e de ro c h e b la n c h e p ro lo n g e e d 'u n
s i lo n g s i l e n c e po u r y a c c r o u p ir a ja m a is s a f a t i g u e son
renoncem ent ou p o u r y p l a n t e r p e u t - e t r e , au bout de c e t t e
t r a c e r a v i n e e s u r combien d ' l l e s Dominique H a i t i ou Cuba
j u s q u 'a u x c o n t r e f o r t s du P e ro u , l'e n o r m e im m obile p a ti e n c e
q u i d e p u is com bien de d e ro u le m e n ts d 'a n n e e s sa n s o r d re n i
memoire l u i p erm et de t e n i r e t de r a s s e m b le r , femme de
c o u l j y r i n d e f i n i s s 'a b l e l e s m ains b le m ie s s u r 1 ' o c e an , l a
mer
F i n a l l y , i t may be t h a t t h e pessim ism o f t h e c o n tem p o rary F rench
C a rib b e a n n o v e l i s n o t o n ly th e consequence o f an a c t u a l s t a t e o f
a f f a i r s , b u t a ls o th e m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f th e w r i t e r ' s d e s i r e t o b rea k
th ro u g h h i s r e a d e r 's i n d i f f e r e n c e o r a p a th y and f o r c e him t o r e a c t to
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s and id e a s w hich he m ight deem e x c e s s iv e o r w hich he
m ight acknow ledge, a f t e r r e f l e x i o n , as u n f o r t u n a t e l y t r u e . The cruel-"
f i e d N e g ro 's i m p r e c a tio n s , i n s u l t s and a c c u s a ti o n s , th e v e ry e x c e s s iv e
n e s s and g r a p h ic n e s s o f h i s d i s c o u r s e , i n c o n te n t and i n form , stem
from a d e s i r e t o shock. By means o f t h i s n a r r a t i v e , G erard E tie n n e
i n d i c a t e s t h a t i t i s tim e t o change t h e c irc u m s ta n c e s d e s c r ib e d
and means t o f o r c e t h e r e c o g n i ti o n o f such a n e e d . I n th e same s p i r i t ,
E douard G l i s s a n t f o r c e s h i s c h a r a c t e r , M arie C e l a t, t o tr a n s f o r m h e r
s e l f . The d e a th o f h e r second son throw s h e r i n t o shock and, by
419
d e e p e n in g h e r u n t i l - t h e n a p a t h e t i c d e s p a i r , f o r c e s h e r t o f a c e a
r e a l i t y sh e had w i l l i n g l y r e f u s e d t o c o n fr o n t by a llo w in g h e r s e l f t o
fa d e i n t o i t . The w r i t e r ' s i n t e n t can be p a r a l l e l : by p i c t u r i n g f o r
h i s r e a d e r s , however few th e y may b e , h i s c o u n try i n i t s w o rs t s t a t e
and i n i t s d e e p e s t f a i l i n g s , he in te n d s t o keep them aware o f th e
d e f e a t i n g q u a l i t y o f t h e i r l i v e s and t o g iv e them th e c o u ra g e t o r e
e v a lu a te t h e i r own p o s i t i o n . The d i d a c t i c a s p e c t o f th e F re n ch C a rib
bean n o v e l m ust n o t be ig n o red ;, i t a c c o u n ts f o r i t s r ic h n e s s and p ro
v o c a ti v e n e s s , i n s p i t e o f t h e d e b i l i t a t i n g n a tu r e o f t h e en v iro n m en t
i t d e s c r i b e s .
420
N otes
E douard G l i s s a n t , Le D is c o u rs a n t i l l a i s ( P a r i s ; S e u i l , 1 9 8 1 ),
p . 450.
2
G l i s s a n t , P i s c o u r s , p . 15.
3
V in c e n t P l a c o l y , La V ie e t l a m ort de M arcel G o n stra n ( P a r i s :
D enoel, 1 9 7 1 ), p. 101.
^ J a c q u e l in e Manicom, Mon Examen de b la n c ( P a r i s : P r e s s e s de l a
C i t e , 1 9 7 5 ), p . 185.
5
p . 209.
5
V in c e n t P l a c o l y , L 'E a u -d e -m o rt g u i ld i v e ( P a r i s : D enoel, 1973),
G l i s s a n t , P i s c o u r s , p . 465.
^ X a v ie r O r v i l l e , Deilice e t l e f rom ager ( P a r i s : Gras s e t e t F a s-
q u e l l e , 1 9 7 7 ), p . 84.
8
G erard E tie n n e , Un Am bassadeur m acoute a M o n tre a l (M o n tre a l:
N o u v e lle O p tiq u e , 1 9 7 9 ), p . 134.
^ M a rie -T h e re s e Colim on, F i l s de m is e re ( P o r t - a u - P r i n c e : E d itio n s
C a r a ib e s , 1 9 7 4 ), p. 130.
E douard G l i s s a n t , M alem ort ( P a r i s : S e u i l , 19 7 5 ), p . 187.
421
G lo s s a ry
Beke: C re o le te rm d e s ig n a t in g W hites born i n t h e A n t i l l e s , who g e n e r
a l l y a r e d e s c e n d a n ts o f t h e fo rm e r p l a n t e r s .
B ig u in e : C re o le d a n s e .
C h r i s t o f i n e : C hayote s q u a sh .
Commandeur; A k in d o f o v e r s e e r w orking i n d i r e c t c o n ta c t w ith th e
s la v e s on p l a n t a t i o n s .
C o o p e ra n ts : Young F ren ch men w orking a b ro a d i n l i e u o f m i l i t a r y s e rv ic e ]
a s i g n i f i c a n t p o r t i o n o f t e a c h e r s i n t h e F ren ch o v e rs e a s d e p a r t
m en ts.
Coum bitei A c o o p e r a tiv e l a b o r system o f A f r ic a n o r i g i n s t i l l t o be
o b se rv e d (th o u g h t o an e v e r d e c r e a s in g e x te n t ) i n H a i t i . The
work i s done i n common i n exchange f o r t h e d a y 's m eals and on
c o n d it io n o f r e c i p r o c i t y . H a i ti a n te rm .
C oup-de-m ain; M a rtin ic a n term f o r coum bite
C r e o le : O r i g i n a l l y , a p e rs o n o f p u re E uropean (w h ite ) d e s c e n t born i n
th e C a rib b e a n , A lso u sed to -d a y t o r e f e r t o p e rs o n s n a t i v e o f
th e C a rib b e a n w ith o u t im p ly in g r a c e . Used i n i t s f i r s t s e n s e in
t h e t e x t .
D ria n k e : S e n e g a le s e term u se d t o d e s ig n a te e le g a n t and som etim es
d i s s o l u t e young women.
422
F a v e ll a ; Slums o f th e b la c k a re a s o f Rio de J a n e i r o .
G a n 'z a : A f r ic a n ceremony d u r in g w hich young men u n d erg o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l
r i t e s o f c ir c u m c is io n and g i r l s th o s e o f e x c is i o n .
G r i o t ; A f r ic a n p r o f e s s i o n a l s t o r y - t e l l e r and s i n g e r .
G u ild iv e J Rum.
H a b i t a t i o n ; Term u se d i n t h e F ren ch A n t i l l e s t o r e f e r t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l
s e l f - c o n t a i n e d p l a n t a t i o n ; t h e p l a n t e r 's hou se as w e ll as th e
la n d and t h e d i s t i l l e r y . T o -d ay , o n ly t h e m ain house s u b s i s t s .
Houngan; Voodoo p r i e s t .
Loa: Voodoo d i v i n i t y .
M acoute; Huge bag ( H a i t i a n te r m ) . The "Tonton-M acoute" was o r i g i n a l l y
a s o r t o f o g re who su p p o se d ly g rab b ed d i s o b e d ie n t c h i l d r e n and
th re w them i n h i s b ig bag o r m ac o u te .
Mambo; Voodoo p r i e s t e s s .
M aroon; F u g i ti v e s la v e .
M arronnage; F l i g h t f o r freedom o f th e s l a v e s .
M o rfre z e ; I n d i v i d u a l s who s ig n a c o n t r a c t w ith a d e v il t o r e l i n q u i s h
t h e i r human shape and m etam orphose a t n ig h t i n t o a donkey, a
c ra b o r a b i r d .
P a r ia d e ; On s la v e s h i p s , s a i l o r s w ere a u th o r iz e d t o u se t h e women f o r
t h e i r p l e a s u r e to w a rd t h e end o f th e t r i p , f o r one day.
423
P i t t : A rena u se d f o r c o c k f i g h t s . C a lle d g a g u e re i n H a i t i .
Q uim boiseur; S o r c e r e r and h e a l e r o f th e F ren ch A n t i l l e s .
S ou co u g n an t: S o r c e r e r who, w ith th e h e lp o f S a ta n , has th e power o f
c a s t i n g o f f h i s s k i n . He th e n m etam orphoses i n t o a w inged
c r e a t u r e .
T ra c e : D i r t t r a c k .
V o la n t: D i a b o l i c a l b e in g .
Zom bi: I n Voodoo c u l t , an a n im ated c o rp s e b ro u g h t back t o v e g e t a t i v e
l i f e by a s o r c e r e r and made t h e obey th e l a t t e r ' s commands. More
g e n e r a l l y , a zombi i s an e v i l s p i r i t c a p a b le o f t a k i n g on human
o r anim al sh ape a t w i l l .
424
B ibliography-
P rim a ry S o u rc e s
B a g h io 'o , J e a n - L o u is . Le Flam boyant a f l e u r s b l e u e s . P a r i s : E d i ti o n s
C a rib e e n n e s, 1981.
B r i v a l , R oland. M a rtin iq u e des c e n d r e s . P a r i s : O l i v i e r Orban, 1978.
Colim on, M a rie -T h e re s e . F i l s de m i s e r e . P o r t - a u - P r i n c e : E d i ti o n s
C a r a ib e s , 1974.
Conde M aryse. Heremakhonon. P a r i s : Union g e n e r a le d 'E d i t i o n s , 1976.
Delm as, Rene. Ma F ia n c e e des g r a n g e r s . P o r t - a u - P r i n c e : l e s A t e l i e r s
F a r d in , 1978.
D evieux Dehoux, L i l i a n e . L'Amour, o u i. La m o rt, n o n . S h e rb ro o k e ,
Quebec: Naaman, 1976.
D o r s i n v i l l e , R oger. Kimby ou l a l o i de N ia n g . P a r i s : P re s e n c e
A f r i c a i n e , 1973.
Ega, F r a n g o is e . L e t t r e s a une n o i r e . P a r i s : L 'H a rm a tta n , 1978.
E tie n n e , G e ra rd . L e.N egre c r u c i f i e . M o n tre a l: N o u v e lle O p tiq u e , 1974.
------------------. Un A m bassadeur m acoute a M o n tr e a l. M o n tre a l: N o u v e lle
O p tiq u e , 1979.
G l i s s a n t , E douard. M alem ort. P a r i s : S e u i l , 1975.
------------------ . La Case du commandeur. P a r i s : S e u i l , 1981.
H ip p o ly te , A l i c e . N inon, ma s o e u r . P o r t - a u - P r i n c e : H enri Deschamps,
1976.
H y v ra rd , J e a n n e . Mere l a m o rt. P a r i s : M in u it, 1976.
------------------ .

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Asset Metadata

Creator Miller, Annie Marie (author)

Core Title Powerlessness and violence: Contemporary trends of the French Caribbean novel

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Comparative Literature

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Literature, Caribbean,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

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Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c17-736817

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Legacy Identifier DP22546.pdf

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Document Type Dissertation

Rights Miller, Annie Marie

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

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