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A correlation of concepts found in German expressionist art, music, and literature

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A correlation of concepts found in German expressionist art, music, and literature

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Content 70-16,872 KING, E llen Frances, 1929- A CORRELATION OF CONCEPTS FOUND IN GERMAN EXPRESSIONIST ART, MUSIC, AND LITERATURE. U niversity o f Southern C a lifo rn ia , P h .D ., 1970 Education, curriculum development U niversity Microfilms, Inc., A nn A rbor, M ichigan (cl C o p y r ig h t 1 9 7 0 by E l l e n F ra n c e s K in g THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A CORRELATION OF CONCEPTS FOUND IN GERMAN EXPRESSIONIST ART, MUSIC, AND LITERATURE by E l l e n F ra n c e s K in g A D i s s e r t a t i o n P r e s e n te d to th e FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL U N IVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA I n P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t o f th e R e q u ire m e n ts f o r th e D e g re e DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (S e c o n d a ry and H ig h e r E d u c a tio n ) J a n u a ry 1970 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UN IV E R SITY O F S O U TH E R N C A LIFO R N IA TH E G R A D U A TE SC HO O L U N IV E R S IT Y PARK LOS ANG ELES, C A L IF O R N IA 9 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, w ritten by ................Ell_en Frances__K ............................ under the direction of h.QX... D hsertation C om mittee, and approved by a ll its members, has been presented to and accepted by The G ra d u ate School, in p a rtial fu lfillm e n t of require ments of the degree of D O C T O R O F P H IL O S O P H Y Dean 28, _1970 DIS5 ERTATION COMiMITTI . _______ ^ Chairm an - Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. PLEASE NOTE: S&veAccl pag&6 have m a ll, and T n d u tln c t typ e . Some pagej> e an taln eoloae.d ttlx ju b tfia tto n ^ . EÂJmed In th e b u t poi>i>ibte way. UNIVEPSUV M ÏC R O ÎFLM S. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE OF CONTENTS C h a p te r I . THE PROBLEM I I , P u rp o s e o f th e S tu d y Im p o rta n c e o f th e S tu d y D e l i m i t a t i o n s o f th e S tu d y A s su m p tio n s o f th e S tu d y D e f i n i t i o n s o f Terms O r g a n iz a t io n o f th e R e m ain d e r o f th e S tu d y REVIEW OF SELECTED LITERATURE FOR USE IN HUMANITIES COURSES .................................. Page 1 14 P u rp o s e o f th e R e v ie w Books i n W hich a B ro a d H u m a n itie s Scope i s E m phasized Books i n W hich th e F in e A r t s i n th e H u m a n itie s a re Emphasi zed Books in W hich th e V i s u a l A r t s and M u s ic a re E m phasized Books i n W hich M u s ic i n th e H u m a n itie s i s E m phasized A Book i n W hich L i t e r a t u r e i n th e H u m a n itie s i s E m p h asized F in d in g s B ased on th e R e v ie w o f S e le c t e d L i t e r a t u r e A B ib lio g r a p h y o f th e Books R e v ie w e d An A n n o ta te d B ib lio g r a p h y o f D i s s e r t a t i o n s i n W hich H u m a n itie s P ro g ram s a r e S t u d ie d , th e A r t s a r e C o r r e l a t e d , o r C o n c e p tu a l Fram ew orks a r e P r e s e n te d A S e le c t e d B ib lio g r a p h y o f D i s s e r t a t i o n s D e a lin g w i t h I n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s Among th e A r t s i n P a r t i c u l a r P h a s e s , and C o n c e rn in g German E x p re s s io n is m 1 1 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. C h a p te r I I I . SELECTED CONCEPTS IN GERMAN EXPRESSIONIST ART, MUSIC, AND LITERATURE SURVEYED AITD CORRELATED ................................................................ I V . I n t r o d u c t i o n M e a n in g o f th e Terra E x p re s s io n is ra C o n ce p ts o f German F i g u r a t i v e E x p r e s s io n isra i n A r t , M u s ic , and L i t e r a t u r e D is c u s s e d and C o r r e l a t e d Summary SELECTED CONCEPTS OF THE ABSTRACT STYLE IN GERMAN EXPRESSIONIST ART, MUSIC, AND LITERATURE SURVEYED AND CORRELATED ., Page 42 218 O r i g in o f th e Terra A b s t r a c t E x p re s s io n is ra M ea n in g o f th e Terra A b s t r a c t E x p re s s io n is ra H i s t o r y o f D e r B la u e R e i t e r D e r B la u e R e i t e r Alraanac C o n ce p ts o f Gerraan A b s t r a c t E x p re s s io n is m i n A r t , M u s ic , and L i t e r a t u r e D is c u s s e d and C o r r e l a t e d Summary V . SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY AND RECOMMENDATIONS 'BIBLIOGRAPHY 316 323 111 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM H u m a n itie s c o u rs e s a re becom ing i n c r e a s i n g l y more p o p u la r i n b o th s e c o n d a ry and h ig h e r e d u c a t io n . One d i f f i c u l t y , i n h e r e n t i n th e g ro w th o f th e h u m a n itie s p ro g ra m , i s th e la c k o f s u i t a b l e m a t e r i a l . T h is i s e s p e c i a l l y t r u e i f I th e t e a c h e r o f th e h u m a n itie s w is h e s to c o r r e l a t e th e a r t s . I Some a tte m p ts h a ve been made to i n t e r r e l a t e th e | ' I Î a r t s i n e ra s p r i o r to th e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y . H o w eve r, l i t - I I , ! I , t i e e f f o r t has been made to c o r r e l a t e th e a r t s o f th e c o n - ; ! te m p o ra ry p e r io d . M o re o v e r, c o n c e p tu a l fram ew o rks f o r th e is tu d y o f th e a r t s a re o f t e n la c k i n g i n a v a i l a b l e m a t e r i a l . | i iM u sic r e c e iv e s c o m p a r a t iv e ly le s s t r e a t m e n t th a n th e o t h e r { a r t s . I German E x p re s s io n is m i s one im p o r t a n t movement i n th e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y w h ic h s h o u ld be s t i d l e d f o r c o r r e l a - i t i v e c o n t e n t among th e a r t s . P u rp o s e o f th e S tu d y I t was th e p u rp o s e o f t h i s s tu d y (1 ) to d is c o v e r i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n German E x p r e s s i o n i s t a r t , m u s ic , and l i t e r a t u r e ; (2 ) t o o r g a n iz e th e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 d is c o v e r e d by means o f c o n c e p ts ; and ( 3 ) to c o l l a t e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e exam p les o f p a r a l l e l s i n th e a r t , m u s ic , and l i t e r a t u r e o f German E x p r e s s io n is m . Im p o r ta n c e o f th e S tu d y As f a r b a c k as 1 9 3 5 , th e c o m m itte e on c o r r e l a t i o n I I o f th e N a t i o n a l C o u n c il o f T e a c h e rs o f E n g l is h , c h a ir e d by jR uth M ary W eeks, r e p o r t e d t h e f o l l o w i n g : I The f i n e a r t s — m u s ic , p o e t r y , d e s ig n , p a i n t i n g , s c u l p t u r e , th e d a n c e , and a r c h i t e c t u r e — a l l ex p re s s a s i m i l a r a t t i t u d e to w a rd l i f e and em ploy a s i m i l a r m ethod o f m a s t e r in g e x p e r ie n c e . . . . To g a in t h i s e n r ic h e d sen se o f t h e l o v e l i n e s s o f l i f e , t h i s c a p a c i t y f o r m u l t i p l i e d e n jo y m e n t, t h i s h e ig h te n e d sense o f e s t h e t i c s ta n d a r d s , t h i s pow er o f c r e a t i v e e x p r e s s io n (e v e n i f th ro u g h mere v i c a r i o u s a p p r e c i a t i o n ) i s th e p u rp o s e o f th e c o r r e l a t i o n s o f th e f i n e a r t s . . . . Such s u rv e y s may be o r g a n iz e d i n f o u r ways: p e r io d by p e r io d , a r t by a r t , b a s ic p r i n c i p l e , o r theme by theme ( 2 9 : 1 5 6 ) | i A lth o u g h th e r e p o r t f a v o r e d t h e p r i n c i p l e - b y - I p r i n c i p l e means f o r te a c h in g c o r r e l a t e d c o u rs e s a t t h e h ig h ! I I ! s c h o o l and c o l le g e l e v e l s , i n m ost a v a i l a b l e books f o r h u - jm a n it ie s c o u rs e s o r c o r r e l a t e d a r t s c o u rs e s a u th o rs c o n - ] t i n u e to u se a f a c t u a l p r e s e n t a t i o n . I n t h i s s tu d y , one I s t a t e d p u rp o s e i s t o em p h a s ize th e t h e m a t ic o r c o n c e p tu a l ! ^ : 1 a p p ro a c h . i F u r th e r m o r e , i n 1 9 6 0 , th e M u s ic E d u c a to rs N a t i o n a l {C o n fe re n c e i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h th e N a t i o n a l E d u c a tio n A s - | s o c i a t i o n s p o n s o re d a p r o j e c t i n w h ich th e s u b je c t o f m u s ic { Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 was s t u d ie d as a means o f g ro w th f o r th e a c a d e m ic a lly t a l e n te d s t u d e n t i n th e s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l. W i l l i a m H a r t s h o r n , e d i t o r o f th e r e p o r t r e s u l t i n g fro m th e p r o j e c t , had th e f o l l o w i n g to s ay c o n c e rn in g p a r a l l e l i s m s among th e a r t s when em phasis i s p la c e d upon th e c o n c e p t o f form : P e rh a p s th e m ost p r o fo u n d s i m i l a r i t y among th e a r t s i s t h a t each o f them i s e x p r e s s iv e o f v a lu e s t h a t ! a re i n t r i n s i c . . . . The a r t s a re a ls o s i m i l a r i n ! t h a t t h e i r m a n if e s t a t io n s a re e v e r - p r e s e n t i n th e j o r d in a r y a f f a i r s o f l i f e . . . . A n o th e r b a s ic s im i l a r i t y among th e a r t s i s th e n e c e s s it y f o r an in n e r l o g i c . . . . S in c e an u n d e r s ta n d in g o f t h i s u n i t y j n e c e s s a r i l y in c lu d e s t h e v a r io u s c o n s t i t u e n t e l e - ! I m ents t h a t a re u n i f i e d , an u n d e r s ta n d in g o f fo rm i s I a n e c e s s it y common t o e d u c a tio n i n a l l o f th e a r t s . I ( 9 1 : 5 7 - 5 8 ) ! I n t h i s s tu d y , c o n c e p ts o t h e r th a n th e one o f fo rm I : a re p r e s e n t e d . T h e re i s a need to e x p lo r e o th e r th e m a tic ap p ro ac h e s t o th e c o r r e l a t i n g o f a r t , m u s ic , and l i t e r a t u r e i n German E x p r e s s io n is m , as w e l l as i n a l l phases o f i t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y a r t . I n 1 9 5 1 , th e N a t i o n a l E d u c a tio n A s s o c ia t io n con t in u e d i t s r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f d e v e lo p in g I p rogram s i n v o lv i n g t h e c o r r e l a t i o n o f two o r more a r t s . T h is tim e th e N a t i o n a l A r t E d u c a tio n A s s o c ia t io n c a r r i e d o u t th e p r o j e c t . The f a c t t h a t i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s e x i s t : among th e a r t s w i t h i n v a r io u s c u l t u r a l epochs was empha- ! s iz e d i n th e r e p o r t . I F u r th e r m o r e , w i t h i n e v e r y c u l t u r a l p e r io d t h e r e a re I r e l a t i o n s h i p s among th e v a r io u s a r t e x p r e s s io n s . I I m p r e s s i o n i s t i c m usic was w r i t t e n a t th e same tim e I t h a t i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c p a i n t i n g s w e re p a i n t e d . T h e re Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. i s b a ro q u e a r c h i t e c t u r e as w e l l as b a ro q u e m u s ic . R o m a n tic is m , as an id e a , c o lo r e d a l l th e a r t s . T hese a re e x c i t i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s w h ich c h a lle n g e b o th s e n s i t i v i t y and i n t e l l e c t . (9 2 : 4 4 ) W h ile i t i s t r u e t h a t i n some p e r io d s and s t y l e s o f th e v i s u a l a r t s , such as th e F e d e r a l i s t p e r io d , c o r r e l a t i v e m a t e r i a l i n m u sic and i n l i t e r a t u r e c a n n o t be fo u n d , i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s do e x i s t among th e a r t s i n m ost p e r io d s . Some s o u rc e s r e c e n t l y p u b l i c i z e d as s u i t a b l e m a t e r i a l f o r jh u m a n itie s c o u rs e s , a d m it no a tte m p t to i n t e r r e l a t e th e a r t s ( 35: i x ) . When th e l e a r n i n g o f mere f a c t s i s a t l e a s t f o l - 1 I lo w ed by a n a ly s is o f th e s e f a c t s , t h e r e y e t re m a in s to be 1 [ ! a t t a i n e d a s y n t h e s is o f th e s e a n a ly z e d f a c t s . A c c o rd in g to 'B e n ja m in B loom , t h e r e . . i s n eed ed a l a r g e r s y n t h e t ic ! ! th e o r y o f l e a r n i n g th a n a t p r e s e n t seems t o be a v a i l a b l e . " i ! j ( 5 : 1 7 ) T h is was f i r s t s t a t e d in 1956 in th e Taxonomy o f | jE d u c a t io n a l O b j e c t i v e s . Handbook I : C o g n it iv e D o m a in . T o - ■ I i day th e t e a c h e r o f h u m a n itie s o r c o r r e l a t e d a r t s i s s t i l l ; [fa c e d w it h th e p ro b le m o f l o c a t i n g s y n t h e s iz e d m a t e r i a l s . I n t h i s s tu d y an a tte m p t i s made t o s o lv e t h i s p ro b le m w it h i r e s p e c t to a r t , m u s ic , and l i t e r a t u r e in German E x p r e s s io n ism o f th e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y . | German E x p re s s io n is m i s an im p o r t a n t phase o f t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y a r t . I t t h e r e f o r e m e r it s s p e c ia l s tu d y , i W i t h i n t h i s movement ro s e th e German a b s t r a c t s t y l e . A lo n g [ w i t h th e F re n c h a b s t r a c t s t y l e , th e German s c h o o l o f ! Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 5 a b s t r a c t io n has g r e a t l y a f f e c t e d th e e n t i r e c o n te m p o ra ry scene i n a r t ( 4 5 : 1 4 2 ) . T h is i s n o t o n ly t r u e i n th e v is u a l a r t s , b u t a ls o t r u e i n m usic as w e l l ( 4 7 : 3 5 3 ) . As f o r l i t e r a t u r e , th e s i t u a t i o n was somewhat d i f - j f e r e n t . W hereas many German E x p r e s s io n is t p a i n t e r s and jm u s ic ia n s , who l e f t Germany d u r in g th e N a z i r u l e , c o n tin u e d to p a i n t o r compose i n an a b s t r a c t s t y l e , t h e r e was an i n - i I t e r r u p t i o n i n th e i n f l u e n c e o f German E x p r e s s i o n i s t w r i t e r s iupon a b s t r a c t l i t e r a t u r e . Even b e fo r e th e d o w n f a ll o f th e 1 iT h ird R e ic h , i n t e l l e c t u a l i n e r t i a became a p p a r e n t e s p e c i a l - ! !ly w it h r e g a r d to th e d ra m a. A ls o , th e l a r g e r t h e a t e r s Iwere d e s tr o y e d d u r in g W o rld War I I . W h at p la y s w ere p e r - iform ed w ere e i t h e r c l a s s i c a l o r f o r e i g n . I t was w i t h B e r t o l t B r e c h t 's r e t u r n to Germany i n 1949 fro m h i s e x i l e i n lA m erica, t h a t th e b o ld e x p e rim e n ts o f th e e a r l i e r l i t e r a r y German E x p r e s s io n is t s w ere r e v i t a l i z e d . " H is c o n t r i b u t i o n 'to modern dram a so f a r overshadow s t h a t o f any l i v i n g G e r - Iman p l a y w r i g h t . " (1 9 : 243) j j D e l i m i t a t i o n s o f th e S tu d y O n ly t h a t phase o f th e t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y a r t s known as German E x p re s s io n is m i s s u rv e y e d f o r th e d is c o v e r y o f c o r r e l a t i v e c o n t e n t i n a r t , m u s ic , and l i t e r a t u r e . M o re o v e r, t h i s s e a rc h f o r c o r r e l a t i v e c o n te n t i s c o n fin e d to s e le c t e d c o n c e p ts o f German E x p re s s io n is m . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. T h e s e c o n c e p ts a re m a in ly drawn fro m l i t e r a r y and a r t h i s t o r y . Movem ents i n th e v i s u a l a r t s a re u s e d as p o in t s o f r e f e r e n c e i n tim e . I m p o r t a n t and im m e d ia te a n te c e d e n ts to th e German E x p r e s s i o n i s t s c h o o l have a ls o been in c lu d e d . C o r r e l a t io n s a re t h e r e f o r e i d e n t i f i e d among s e le c t e d w o rks i n a r t , mu- j s i c , and l i t e r a t u r e fro m s e v e r a l y e a r s p r i o r to th e fo u n d lin g o f D ie B ru c k e i n 1905 th ro u g h t h a t p h a se o f a r t , w h ich i s known as German F i g u r a t i v e E x p r e s s io n is m . A ls o i n v e s t i g a t e d i s t h a t s t y l e w i t h i n German E x - ! jp r e s s io n is m w h ich i s a b s t r a c t i n n a t a r e , b e g in n in g i n th e ; v i s u a l a r t s w it h th e fo u n d in g o f D e r B la u e R e i t e r i n 1911 land e n d in g w it h th e p e r io d o f th e B a u h a u s . A ss u m p tio n s o f th e S tu d y Some may q u e s t io n th e e x t e n t to w h ic h i t i s p o s s i b l e to d e m o n s tra te v a l i d p a r a l l e l s and i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s among th e a r t s . H o w e ve r, i f one assumes t h a t s y m b o lic use o f c o lo r i s one c o n c e p t i n German A b s t r a c t E x p re s s io n is m , i t i s v a l i d to c o r r e l a t e K a n d in s k y 's P a i n t i n g w it h Red S p o t ( 1 9 1 4 ) , S c h o e n b e rg 's D ie G lu c k lic h e Hand ( 1 9 1 3 ) , and Kan d in s k y 's p la y D e r G e lb e K la n g ( 1 9 1 3 ) , s in c e i n a l l th r e e w o rks s y m b o lic use o f c o lo r i s a p p a r e n t. I n t h i s s tu d y i t i s assumed t h a t c o r r e l a t i o n s can be made among th e a r t s so lo n g as th e s e a re n o t i d e n t i f i e d a r t i f i c i a l l y . T h a t i s , Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. one m ust s e a rc h f o r p a r a l l e l s on th e b a s is o f c o n t e n t , fo rm o r s t y l e w i t h i n a c o n c e p tu a l fra m e w o rk . D e f i n i t i o n s o f Terms E x p r e s s io n is m . A te rm used i n c o n n e c tio n w i t h th e e a r l y p hase o f t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y German a r t p a r t i c u l a r l y . I n g e n e r a l , a lth o u g h i t s m eaning i s m u l t i f a c e t e d , th e c o re o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e w o rd E x p re s s io n is m as a p p lie d to t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y a r t l i e s i n th e f a c t t h a t i t was a r e a c - | t i o n a r y movement to th e I m p r e s s i o n is t s t y l e w h ic h p re c e d e d i t . T h a t i s , i n s t e a d o f o c c u p y in g th e m s e lv e s w it h p o r t r a y in g im p re s s io n s o f th e o u t e r w o r ld , a r t i s t s so u g h t t o ex p re s s th e in n e r o r s u b c o n s c io u s s e l f , f r e q u e n t l y in F r e u d ia n te r m s . I n a d d i t i o n , German E x p r e s s io n is t s w e re p r e o c c u p ie d w i t h id e a s o f W a n d lu n g , t h a t i s id e a s o f r e g e n e r a t io n , b r o u g h t ab o u t by W o rld War I . German E x p r e s s i o n i s t . R e g a rd le s s o f t h e i r t r u e I n a t i o n a l o r i g i n , th o s e a r t i s t s , co m posers, and l i t e r a r y ! f i g u r e s , who made t h e i r p r i n c i p a l a r t i s t i c c o n t r i b u t i o n s i n Germany o r A u s t r i a d u r in g th e German E x p r e s s i o n i s t move m e n t, a re c o n s id e r e d German E x p r e s s i o n i s t s . I i German F i g u r a t i v e E x p r e s s io n is m . T h a t phase o f I German E x p r e s s i o n i s t a r t i n w h ic h em phasis i s p la c e d upon th e d i s t o r t i o n o f o b je c t s r a t h e r th a n upon n o n - Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l fo rm s . D ie B r u c k e . A German p h ra s e w h ic h i s t r a n s l a t e d i n t o E n g lis h as "The B r id g e ." T h is name, d is c u s s e d i n th e body o f th e s tu d y (s e e page 1 2 9 ) , was a d o p te d by a g ro u p fo u n d e d i n D re s d e n , Germany i n 1905 by E r n s t L u d w ig K i r c h - n e r , E r ic h H e c k e l , and K a r l S c h m i d t - R o t t l u f f . M a in ly th ro u g h K i r c h n e r ' s l e a d e r s h ip , th e s e men " . . . d e v e lo p e d a p p r o p r ia t e l i n e a r and p l a n a r a b b r e v ia t io n s f o r form s i n n a t u r e . " ( 2 0 : 1 5 ) They w ere German F i g u r a t i v e E x p r e s s io n i s t s . A lth o u g h F r i t z B l e y l was one o f th e fo u n d e rs o f D ie IB r u c k e , h e d id n o t become an E x p r e s s i o n i s t i n s t y l e n o r d id |he m a in t a in c lo s e a s s o c ia t io n w it h D ie B ru c k e ( 6 5 : 7 3 - 7 4 ) . i S u r fa c e Q u a l i t i e s i n E x p r e s s i o n i s t P a i n t i n g . Two I i m p o r t a n t te c h n iq u e s used i n E x p r e s s i o n i s t p a i n t i n g w ere I jm a t tin g and s c u m b lin g . A m a tte d s u r f a c e i s e v e n , d u l l , I and n o n - r e f l e c t i n g . I n o i l p a i n t i n g t h i s e f f e c t i s p r o duced by u s in g p ig m e n ts fro m w h ic h th e o i l has been e x t r a c t e d b^ b l o t t i n g , o r by u s in g p ig m e n ts m ix e d w it h th e s m a l l e s t q u a n t i t y o f o i l . A scum bled s u r f a c e i s one i n w h ic h opaque c o lo r s a r e d ra g g e d o v e r c o lo r s a lr e a d y p a in t e d , b u t th e p a i n t i n g u n d e r th e s c u m b lin g i s n o t c o m p le te ly ob l i t e r a t e d . W o o d c u t tin g . A te c h n iq u e fa v o r e d by Munch and D ie B ru c k e a r t i s t s i n w h ic h a d e s ig n i s c u t i n t o a r e l a t i v e l y Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. s o f t wood by means o f gouges and k n iv e s . "The q u a l i t y o f th e w oodcut l i e s i n th e c r i s p c o n t r a s t o f d a rk p r i n t i n g on w h it e p a p e r ." (8 7 : 8 0 8 ) L i t h o g r a p h y . A p ro c e s s o f s u r f a c e p r i n t i n g based j upon th e m u tu a l i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y o f g r e a s e and w a t e r , th e ip r o p e r ty o f some c a lc e r o u s s to n e s to h o ld w a t e r , and th e I d i s p o s i t i o n o f g re a s y s u b s ta n c e s to a d h e re to one a n o th e r . |a f a v o r i t e p r i n t medium w it h c o n te m p o ra ry a r t i s t s , l i t h o g - I :ra p h y has many p o s s i b i l i t i e s and much f l e x i b i l i t y . L it h o g - I ra p h y g iv e s g r e a t scope to th e a r t i s t s ' " . . . p e r s o n a l e x - ; ; p r e s s io n and s t y l e . " ( 8 7 : 8 1 0 ) ! j ; A b s t r a c t E x p r e s s io n is m . A te rm u s ed i n t h i s s tu d y I to d e n o te t h a t s t y l e w i t h i n German E x p re s s io n is m i n w h ic h I I th e m e d ia became n o n - o b je c t i v e o r n o n - r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l i n ! i i Ifo rm . ! j ' I D e r B la u e R e i t e r . A German p h ra s e w h ich i s t r a n s - ! j l a t e d i n t o E n g lis h as "The B lu e R i d e r . " T h is name was ia d o p te d by a g ro u p fo u n d e d i n M u n ic h , Germany i n 1911 by iW a s s ily K a n d in s k y and F r a n z M a rc . The d e r i v a t i o n o f th e name i s d is c u s s e d i n th e body o f th e s tu d y (s e e page 2 2 5 ) . I D e r B la u e R e i t e r esp o u sed th e c o n c e p ts o f A b s t r a c t E x p re s s io n is m . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 0 B a u h au s. A s ch o o l fo u n d e d i n W eim ar, Germany i n 1919 by W a lt e r G r o p iu s . A ls o u s ed as a te rm s y m b o lic o f th e p r o g r e s s iv e t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y a t t i t u d e to w a rd d e s ig n {and a r c h i t e c t u r e i n g e n e r a l. A t o n a l i t y . M u s ic w r i t t e n w it h a "c o m p le te d i s r e g a rd " o r "c o n s c io u s r e j e c t i o n " o f t o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s i s c o n s id e r e d i n th e l i t e r a l sense as h a v in g th e "ab sen ce o f t o n a l i t y . " ( 8 5 : 5 9 - 6 0 ) P a n t o n a l i t y . A te rm p r e f e r r e d t o a t o n a l i t y by I A r n o ld S c h o e n b e rg . S cho enberg p o s t u la t e d th e u se o f th e c h r o m a tic s c a le as th e compendium o f a l l p o s s ib le t o n a l i t i e s . A s ta te m e n t in S c h o e n b e rg 's H a r m o n ie le h r e sheds f u r t h e r l i g h t upon t h i s d i f f i c u l t d i s t i n c t i o n b e tw ee n a to n a l i t y and p a n t o n a l i t y . A t r a n s l a t i o n has been made by {S u d erb u rg . A to n a l can o n ly s i g n i f y s o m e th in g t h a t does n o t { a r i s e fro m th e n a t u r e o f t o n e . A p ie c e o f m usic w i l l n e c e s s a r ily alw ays be t o n a l i n so f a r as a r e l a t i o n e x i s t s from to n e to to n e , w h ere b y to n e s , I p la c e d n e x t to o r above one a n o th e r , r e s u l t i n a p e r c e p t i b l e s u c c e s s io n . The t o n a l i t y m ig h t th e n be n e i t h e r f e l t n o r p o s s ib le o f p r o o f , th e s e r e l a - : t io n s m ig h t be o b s cu re and d i f f i c u l t to com prehend, j y e s , even in c o m p r e h e n s ib le . B u t to c a l l any r e l a t i o n o f to n e s a to n a l i s as l i t t l e j u s t i f i e d as to d e s ig n a te a r e l a t i o n o f c o l o r a s p e c t r a l o r aco m p le- m e n ta ry . Such an a n t i t h e s i s does n o t e x i s t . I n t h i s m a t t e r , th e q u e s tio n i s n o t a t a l l exam ined ( as new ch o rd s a re r e v e a le d ) w h e th e r o r n o t t h e r e i s even t o n a l i t y o f a t w e lv e - t o n e s e r i e s . P r o b a b ly i t i s so and w it h i t w ould be an a p p e a ra n c e o f i t s f o r m u la t io n p a r a l l e l to t h a t w h ich had le d to th e c h u rch modes, o f w h ich I s ay (p a g e 2 1 ) : "One Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 11 sensed th e w o rk in g o f a f u n d a m e n ta l, h ow ever w h ich i t w as, was n o t known, t h e r e f o r e one t e s t e d a l l o f th e m ." H e re one does n o t f e e l i t y e t , how ever i t i s p r o b a b ly p r e s e n t n o n e t h e le s s . I f one s e :k s a te rm p o s i t i v e l y , one c o u ld t h i n k o f p o ly t o n a l o r p a n t o n a l . (1 0 2 : 2 5 1 ) D o d e c a p h o n ic S y s te m . O th e r w is e known as th e t w e lv e - t o n e m ethod o r te c h n iq u e . I t i s a system o f m u s ic a l c o m p o s itio n a t t r i b u t e d m a in ly to A r n o ld S ch o en b erg i n w h ich c o n s t r u c t iv e m ethods a re u s ed w h ic h d i f f e r from th e compo s i t i o n a l m ethods em ployed i n p r i o r e r a s . B r i e f l y , the p r i n c i p l e s o f t h i s te c h n iq u e a re as f o llo w s : | 1 . C o m p o s itio n s a re b a s e d upon an a r b i t r a r y a r r a n g e m ent o f th e tw e lv e to n e s o f th e c h ro m a tic s c a le , c a l l e d a to n e -r o w , o r s e r i e s . 2. Any to n e i n th e s e r i e s can be tra n s p o s e d to any o c -: ta v e p o s i t i o n . ; 3. I n a d d i t i o n to th e o r i g i n a l fo rm o f th e s e r i e s , i t s fo rm i s a ls o s u b je c t to i n v e r s i o n , r e t r o g r a d e , and : r e t r o g r a d e i n v e r s i o n . 4 . The f o u r fo rm s o f th e row m e n tio n e d above can be tra n s p o s e d to any s te p o f th e c h r o m a tic s c a l e . 5 . Any m e lo d ic p r o g r e s s io n s o r c h o r d a l c o m b in a tio n s can be fo rm ed fro m th e o r i g i n a l row o r i t s b a s ic m o d i f i c a t io n s , so lo n g as th e ro w , w h e th e r a rra n g e d h o r i z o n t a l l y o r v e r t i c a l l y , o c c u rs i n th e s e r i e s . A l l tw e lv e to n e s o f th e row m ust be p r e s e n t e r b e - ■ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 12 f o r e th e s e r ie s can be u s e d a g a in . I n v e r s i o n . T h is te c h n iq u e i s a c c o m p lis h e d by c h a n g in g a s c e n d in g i n t e r v a l s i n t o th e c o rre s p o n d in g d e s c e n d in g i n t e r v a l s , and v i c e v e r s a . R e t r o g r a d e . T h is te rm d e n o te s th e b ack w a rd r e a d i r g ' o f a m e lo d y . I n o t h e r w ords w h a t was th e l a s t n o te i n a s e r i e s , becomes th e f i r s t . I R e tr o g r a d e I n v e r s i o n . The c o m b in a tio n o f r e t r o - i [g ra d e m o tio n and i n v e r s i o n . S p re c h s tim m e . A ls o known i n German as S p rec h g e san g I w h ich l i t e r a l l y t r a n s l a t e d i n t o E n g lis h means " s p e a k in g v o i c e . " D e f in e d as; . . . a ty p e o f r e c i t a t i v e in v e n t e d by S cho enberg i n w h ic h th e v o c a l p a r t i s spoken to e x a c t tim e I v a lu e s , w i t h th e v o c a ls m o m e n ta rily to u c h in g th e i n d i c a t e d p i t c h and a t once r i s i n g o r f a l l i n g away fro m i t . ( 9 9 : 1 5 ) C o n t r a p u n t a l . I n th e s t y l e o f c o u n t e r p o in t . A m u s ic a l te rm w h ic h d e s c r ib e s a c o m p o s itio n w h e re in l i n e s o r : I [p a r ts h a v in g i n d i v i d u a l m e lo d ic s i g n i f i c a n c e a re com bined j [ in t o a s i n g l e m u s ic a l c o n s t r u c t . 1 C a n o n . A c o n t r a p u n t a l c o m p o s itio n i n w h ich a l l th e : jp a r t s h ave th e same m elod y th r o u g h o u t, a lth o u g h s t a r t i n g a t - i d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s . T h e re a re many d i f f e r e n t ty p e s o f c a n o n .i i : Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 3 O r g a n iz a t io n o f th e R e m ain d e r o f th e S tu d y C h a p te r I I in c lu d e s a r e v ie w o f s e le c t e d l i t e r a t u r e p o s s i b l y a p p r o p r ia t e f o r h u m a n itie s o r c o r r e l a t e d f i n e a r t s c o u r s e s . I n C h a p te r I I I s e le c t e d c o n c e p ts o f German F i g u r a - I I t i v e E x p r e s s io n is m a r e i d e n t i f i e d . T h e se a re used as bases I f o r c o r r e l a t i n g s e le c t e d w orks i n a r t , m u s ic , and l i t e r a - I t u r e . E xa m p les o f th e s e s e l e c t e d c o r r e l a t e d w orks a r e p r e s e n te d a t th e end o f th e d is c u s s io n o f each c o n c e p t. C h a p te r IV c o n ta in s a d is c u s s io n o f th e s t y l e w i t h i n German E x p re s s io n is m w h ic h i s a b s t r a c t i n n a t u r e . S e le c t e d c o n c e p ts a re e x p la in e d and, as i n C h a p te r I I I , a re lused as f o u n d a tio n s f o r p o i n t i n g o u t i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s among s e l e c t e d w orks i n a r t , m u s ic , and l i t e r a t u r e . Exain- Ip le s o f th e s e s e l e c t e d c o r r e l a t e d w o rks i n th e a b s t r a c t I s t y l e a r e p r e s e n te d a t th e c lo s e o f th e d is c u s s io n o f each c o n c e p t. I I n C h a p te r V , a summary o f th e s tu d y , c o n c lu s io n s , and re c o m m e n d a tio n s f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h a re p r e s e n t e d . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER I I REVIEW OF SELECTED LITERATURE FOR USE IN HUMANITIES COURSES P u rp o s e o f th e R e v ie w j j T h e re a re many d i f f e r e n t ty p e s o f books w h ich may be c o n s id e r e d a p p r o p r ia t e f o r h u m a n itie s c o u r s e s . S e le c - i t i o n o f m a t e r i a l f o r such c o u rs e s depends n o t o n ly upon th e I ! I c o n t e n t b u t a ls o upon w h a t i s e m p h a s ize d . T h e re a re books - I i n w h ic h a b ro a d h u m a n itie s scope i s p r e s e n t e d , o r i n w h ich ! : o n ly th e f i n e a r t s a r e e m p h a s ize d . T h e re a r e o t h e r books ' ! i n w h ich one a r t i s e m p h as ize d o v e r o t h e r s . T h ese s o u rc e s i a re v a l u a b l e when one p a r t i c u l a r a r t i s th e c o re o f th e h u - j in a n it ie s p ro g ra m , such as m usic o r l i t e r a t u r e . I } The books s e le c t e d f o r r e v ie w i n t h i s c h a p t e r f a l l I ; i n t o one o r o t h e r o f th e c a t e g o r ie s d e s c r ib e d . The r e v ie w I i s s e l e c t i v e and by no means e x h a u s t iv e . The p u rp o s e o f t h i s s e l e c t e d r e v ie w was t o d is c o v e r (1 ) th e g e n e r a l a p - [ p ro a c h to th e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f c o n t e n t , (2 ) w h e th e r o r n o t a tte m p ts a re made to c o r r e l a t e th e a r t s , (3 ) w h a t em phasis i s g iv e n t o m u s ic , and (4 ) i f th e t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y a r t s in g e n e r a l and German E x p re s s io n is m i n p a r t i c u l a r a re a d e - i I q u a t e l y t r e a t e d . j 14 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 5 Books i n W hich a B ro ad H u m a n itie s Scope i s E m phasised The S e a rc h f o r P e rs o n a l Freedom by N e a l M. C ro s s and L e s l i e Dae L in d o v i s d iv id e d i n t o two v o lu m e s . The f i r s t volum e c o n ta in s n in e i n t r o d u c t o r y c h a p te r s i n U n i t I . {D is c u s s e d i s th e p u rp o s e and o r g a n i z a t io n o f th e h u m a n itie s c o u rs e , and th e f a c t t h a t p e r s o n a l fre e d o m i s g a in e d th ro u g h f i r s t h a n d k n o w le d g e o f th e a r t s . The " C u lt u r e - jEpoch" th e o r y i s used as an approach t o th e h i s t o r y o f th e I v a r io u s p e r io d s w h ich a re t r e a t e d c h r o n o l o g i c a l ly , fro m th e a n c ie n t G re e k s to th e p r e s e n t d a y . Form i s h e ld to be t h a t : e n t i t y w h ich i s th e common b a s is f o r u n d e r s ta n d in g th e a r t s . The e le m e n ts and p r i n c i p l e s o f d e s ig n i n th e v i s u a l I ' a r t s a re p r e s e n te d , w h ile th e r e a d e r i s r e f e r r e d to an ap- Ip e n d ix to Volum e I f o r a d is c u s s io n o f th e e le m e n ts and I 'S t r u c t u r e o f m u s ic . The a u th o rs s im p ly d i f f e r e n t i a t e among p ro g ram m u s ic , m usic w h ic h has p ro g ra m m a tic e le m e n ts o r {su g g ests id e a s , and a b s o lu te m u s ic . No a tte m p t i s made i n I th e i n t r o d u c t o r y c h a p te r s to p o i n t o u t th e i n t r i n s i c r e l a t i o n s h i p among th e a r t s i n any c o n c r e te w ay. I U n i t I I i s c a l l e d "The S e a rc h f o r Freedom i n {Greece" and c o n ta in s f o u r c h a p te r s d e v o te d to th e h i s t o r y , [p h ilo s o p h y , s c u l p t u r e , a r c h i t e c t u r e and l i t e r a t u r e o f th e i [a n c ie n t G r e e k s . No m e n tio n i s made o f th e im p o r ta n t r o l e j [th e a n c ie n t G re e k s p la y e d in o u r m u s ic a l h e r i t a g e . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 6 U n i t I I I c o n ta in s two c h a p te r s w h ic h c o v e r a n c ie n t Rome much as a n c ie n t G ree c e was d is c u s s e d , o n ly i n le s s d e p t h . One c h a p t e r , c a l l e d U n i t I V , i s g iv e n to a d is c u s s io n o f C h r i s t i a n i t y as a r e l i g i o n . U n i t V c o m p ris e s s i x c h a p te r s i n w h ic h th e h i s t o r y , I p h ilo s o p h y , c h u r c h - c e n t e r e d n e s s , and s c ie n c e o f th e M id d le I I Ages a re t r e a t e d a t le n g t h . Sym bolism i n th e v i s u a l a r t s ; as w e l l as t h e a r c h i t e c t u r e o f th e p e r io d a r e c o v e re d i n ! j Î j s u f f i c i e n t d e t a i l . M u sic o f th e M id d le A g e s , so p r o l i f i c b ecau se o f i t s im p o r t a n t r e l a t i o n to th e c h u rc h , i s d i s cussed i n le s s th a n f i v e p a g e s . The a u th o rs do r e f e r to Hugo L e i c h t e n t r i t t ' s i n d i c a t i o n t h a t G r e g o r ia n C h a n t i s c o r r e l a t i v e to th e Romanesque i n a r c h i t e c t u r e . Some s i x t y - i one pages a r e d e v o te d to exam ples fro m M e d ie v a l l i t e r a t u r e . î Volum e I I b e g in s w i t h a u n i t d e v o te d to th e R e n a is - Scince. P a i n t i n g i s d is c u s s e d i n le s s th a n te n pages w h i le | m usic o f th e R e n a is s a n c e r e c e iv e s le s s th a n t h r e e pages n o t i c e . P a r t o f t h i s d is c u s s io n r e v e r t s b a ck to m usic o f th e M id d le Ages w i t h r e fe r e n c e s to th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f no t a t i o n and a s h o r t r e i t e r a t i o n as to th e e x is t e n c e o f G r e - jg o r ia n C h a n t. I n one p a r a g r a p h , th e a u th o rs d e s c r ib e th e j m usic o f Don C a r lo G es u a ld o as f o llo w s : " . . . th e s u s - I ! p e n s io n s o f u n r e s o lv e d c h o rd s , th e s l i d i n g h a rm o n ie s , and I jth e changes o f movement and o f mood a re t r u l y i l l u s t r a t i v e Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 7 o f th e R en asc en ce [ s i c ] lo v e o f c o lo r and g o rg e o u s n e s s ." ( 9 : 3 7 ) The m u s ic h i s t o r i a n does n o t c o n s id e r th e w o rks o f G e s u a ld o t y p i c a l o f R e n a is s a n c e p o ly p h o n y . P o ly p h o n y , th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f in s t r u m e n t s , m u sic o f th e R e f o r m a tio n , and th e i n f l u e n c e o f th e dance a r e c o v e re d i n a few p a ra g ra p h s w it h o u t m u s ic a l e x a m p le s . Exam ples o f R e n a is s a n c e l i t e r a t u r e a re p r e s e n te d i n ab u n d an ce. U n i t V I I i s c o m p ris e d o f d is c u s s io n s o f th e p e r io d fro m 1650 to 1910 w i t h i n a c o n c e p tu a l fra m e w o rk c a l l e d th e {view o f th e w o r ld as a m a c h in e . The a u th o rs c o n c e iv e o f j {man d u r in g t h i s p e r io d as b r i n g i n g h i m s e l f more and more i n t o harm ony w i t h n a t u r a l la w and s c i e n t i f i c p r i n c i p l e s . H i s t o r y , p h ilo s o p h y , s c ie n c e , a b s o lu t is m , r a t i o n a l i s m , r o m a n tic is m , s o c ia lis m a re d is c u s s e d . A t t h i s p o i n t , m usic r e c e iv e s more a t t e n t i o n th a n t h a t g iv e n to th e v i s u a l a r t s . B a ro q u e , R o m a n tic , and Im p r e s s i o n is t c o m p o s itio n s a re { t r e a t e d i n a b o u t t w e n t y - s ix pages w i t h m u s ic a l exam ples i n c lu d e d . F o llo w in g t h e i r u s u a l p r o c e d u r e , th e a u th o rs p r e s e n t many exaniples fro m th e l i t e r a t u r e o f th e p e r io d . M o s t p e r t i n e n t to t h i s s tu d y i s a r e v ie w o f U n i t j V I I I w h ic h c o n t a in s s i x c h a p t e r s on th e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , 'c o m p ris in g a b o u t s e v e n t y - s ix pages o f t e x t . S c i e n t i f i c ad v a n c e , e x p l o r a t i o n i n t o th e f i e l d s o f p s y c h o lo g y and i d e - io lo g y a re p r e s e n te d i n c o n c e p tu a l fra m e w o rk s . C o n te m p o ra ry a r t i s t r e a t e d b r i e f l y as com pared w i t h th e t r e a t m e n t o f Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 8 v i s u a l a r t s o f o t h e r p e r io d s . M u s ic i n t h e t w e n t i e t h c en t u r y i s c o v e re d i n a c h a p t e r o f seven p a g e s . E x p re s s io n is m i s b a r e l y m e n tio n e d . T h e re i s no r e f e r e n c e to th e German s c h o o l even i n th e s e c t io n on th e v i s u a l a r t s . The m a te r i a l i s p r e s e n t e d f a c t u a l l y u s in g f i v e com posers as exem p l a r s : A r n o ld S c h o e n b e rg , I g o r S t r a v i n s k y , P a u l H in d e m ith , |B e la B a r t o k , and D a r iu s M ilh a u d . The a u th o r s a d m it th e a r b i t r a r i n e s s i n t h e i r s e l e c t i o n . Many l i t e r a r y exam p les o f th e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y a re q u o te d a f t e r t h e s h o r t p r é s e n t a - I t i o n o f f a c t s a b o u t m u s ic . I j I n summary, o u t o f t h r e e h u n d re d and f i f t y - e i g h t | p ages o f t e x t i n Volum e I , t h i r t e e n p ag es a re d e v o te d to m u s ic , e i g h t o f th e s e r e le g a t e d to th e A p p e n d ix w here m u s i- ' c a l s t r u c t u r e i s d is c u s s e d . The im p o r ta n c e o f m u s ic i n an c i e n t G re e c e has b een e n t i r e l y o m it t e d . O u t o f th e t h r e e I jhundred and tw e n ty -tw o pages i n Volum e I I , t h i r t y - e i g h t a re i id evo ted to m u s ic . W hat i s p r e s e n te d i s done f a c t u a l l y , w i t h o u t a tte m p t to c o r r e l a t e th e a r t s , e x c e p t f o r a few i R e fe r e n c e s t o i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n th e Im p r e s s i o n is t j s t y l e . Some a tte m p t i s made to p o i n t o u t th e r e l a t i o n s h i p lof m usic t o th e t im e s , such as i n th e d is c u s s io n o f n a t i o n - I la lis m , b u t l i t t l e e f f o r t i s made to a p p ro a c h w h a t m usic i s Ip re s e n te d by means o f c o n c e p ts . The d is c u s s io n o f I I t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y m usic i s n e g l i g i b l e . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 9 A r t s and Man by Raymond S . S t i t e s c o n ta in s th e f o l lo w in g s ta te m e n t o f p u rp o s e : 1) To in t r o d u c e a few w orks o f a r t to th e s tu d e n t i n th e c o n t e x t o f th e c u l t u r e fro m w h ic h th e y g re w , 2) to te a c h fo r m a l p r i n c i p l e s o f a r t i n th e w orks i l l u s t r a t e d , 3) t o d e m o n s tra te t h a t c r i t i c i s m enhances c r e a t i o n I and e n jo y m e n t o f a r t , and I 4) to e n c o u ra g e c r e a t i v e e n d e a v o r ( 6 9 : 1 7 ) . I : The v a r io u s a r t i s t i c p e r io d s a r e t r e a t e d c h ro n o l o g i c a l l y . P r e c e d in g th e d is c u s s io n o f each o f th e a r t s i s a b a c kg ro u n d o f p o l i t i c a l , r e l i g i o u s , and s o c i a l m ovem ents. Then l i t e r a t u r e , p a i n t i n g , s c u l p t u r e , a r c h i t e c t u r e , d ram a, 'm u s ic , and p h ilo s o p h y a re c o v e r e d . The amount o f t e x t d e - ; v o te d to each v a r i e s a c c o rd in g t o t h a t p a r t i c u l a r a r t ' s I d e v e lo p m e n t w i t h i n a p e r io d . H o w eve r, p a i n t i n g r e c e iv e s ■more a t t e n t i o n th a n th e o t h e r a r t s . T h e amount o f t e x t g iv e n t o th e a r t o f a n c ie n t G re e c e , one h u n d re d and s e v e n ty - one p a g e s , f a r o u tw e ig h s t h a t g iv e n to th e a r t o f o t h e r I p e r i o d s . I Each a r t i s d is c u s s e d as an e n t i t y . T h e re i s l i t - j t l e a tte m p t t o c o r r e l a t e them u n d e r u n i f y i n g c o n c e p ts . The h i g h l i g h t s o f a p a r t i c u l a r movement a r e f a c t u a l l y r e l a t e d by i n d i c a t i n g th e w o rk o f one o r two a r t i s t s , and th e w ork Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 20 d is c u s s e d i s a n a ly z e d a c c o rd in g to th e p r i n c i p l e s o f t h a t a r t . The a u th o r a tte m p ts to r e l a t e th e a r t to th e p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l d e v e lo p m e n ts o f th e p e r io d i n th e summary a t th e end o f each c h a p t e r , I I I l l u s t r a t i o n s a re p r i m a r i l y o f t h e v i s u a l a r t s . I 'M u s ic a l exam ples a re s p o r a d i c a ll y p r e s e n t e d . These a re j t o t a l l y a b s e n t fro m th e R e n a is s a n c e and R o m a n tic p e r io d s . I T w e n t ie t h - c e n t u r y E x p re s s io n i s m e n tio n e d , b u t ! ; t r e a t m e n t o f th e t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y a r t s i s b r i e f , and w orks I ! a re t h e r e f o r e somewhat i n a c c u r a t e l y a p p r a is e d . Books i n W hich th e F in e A r t s i n th e H u m a n itie s a re E m p h asized The Hu m a n itie s by L o u is e D u d le y and A u s t in F a r i c y i i s a book w h ich th e y h ave s u b t i t l e d " A p p lie d A e s t h e t i c s . " ■ ; I iThe ap p ro ac h ta k e n ", . . i s t h a t o f c o n f r o n t in g th e s t u - ! I d e n t w it h th e a r t o b je c t s th e m s e lv e s as th e p r im a r y c o n - : I I t e n t , n o t to in f o r m him a b o u t t h e o r ie s c o n c e rn in g them n o r Îp h i l o s o p h ic a l system s i n t o w h ic h th e y can be p la c e d . . . ." ( 1 6 : x v i ) The s t a t e d p u rp o s e o f th e a u th o rs i s t o g u id e th e | I I s t u d e n t to w a rd a r r i v i n g i n d u c t i v e l y a t c o n c e p ts a p p lic a b le : I to a l l a r t . The a u th o rs p u r p o r t to show " th e bases o f a p - | j p r e d a t i o n . . . and some o f th e q u a l i t i e s t h a t u n d e r l i e t I a l l th e a r t s . " ( 1 6 : 2 ) T h u s, th e a tte m p t i s made to d i s - jcuss s u b je c t i n a r t and i n m u sic; f u n c t i o n i n a r t and i I m usic; medium i n a r t and m u sic; e le m e n ts i n a r t , m u s ic , and| Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 21 l i t e r a t u r e ; o r g a n i z a t io n i n a r t , l i t e r a t u r e and th e dance; and fo rm i n m u s ic . One c h a p t e r i s e n t i t l e d " L i t e r a t u r e and th e Com bined A r t s , " i n w h ic h dram a, th e d a n c e , o p e r a , and th e f i l m a re d is c u s s e d . W h ile l i t t l e a tte m p t i s made to c o r r e l a t e th e a r t s i n a g iv e n e r a , and t h e r e i s no p r e s e n t a t i o n o f m a t e r i a l i n h i s t o r i c a l o r c h r o n o lo g ic a l s eq u e n c e , th e c o n c e p tu a l ap p ro a c h i s p u rs u e d as o u t l i n e d ab o ve. T w e n t ie t h - c e n t u r y a r t i s t h e r e f o r e t r e a t e d w i t h i n each o f th e s e c o n c e p ts , b u t c o n c e p ts o f th e t w e n t i e t h c e n tu r y i t s e l f a re n o t p r e s e n te d . {E x p re s s io n is m and a b s t r a c t e x p re s s io n is m a re d is c u s s e d in two s h o r t p a r a g r a p h s . An e x c e l l e n t b i b l io g r a p h y i s p r o - jv id e d u n d e r th e h e a d in g s : d i c t i o n a r i e s and r e f e r e n c e s , : a e s t h e t i c s , l i t e r a t u r e , dram a and th e f i l m , th e v i s u a l I 'a r t s , and m usic and th e d a n c e . S o u rce s f o r a r t p r i n t s , Im u s ic a l s c o r e s , and f i l m s a re a ls o l i s t e d . I A r t s and Id e a s by W i l l i a m F le m in g i s a f i v e h u n d re d and s e v e n t y - n in e page w o rk d i v id e d i n t o f i v e p a r t s : th e C l a s s i c a l p e r io d , th e M e d ie v a l p e r io d , th e R e n a is s a n c e p e r i o d , th e B aro q u e p e r io d , and th e R e v o lu t io n a r y p e r i o d . I n each p a r t , F le m in g t r e a t s th e s u b je c t s o f th e v is u a l a r t s , m u s ic , l i t e r a t u r e , and id e a s w i t h i n th e c o n - jc e p tu a l fra m e w o rk o f s t y l i s t i c e x p r e s s io n . The h i s t o r i c a l - jc h r o n o lo g ic a l a p p ro ac h i s u s e d . P a r t I in c lu d e s a d is c u s s i o n o f a n c ie n t G re e c e and Rome. P a r t I I r e v ie w s th e Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 22 B y z a n t in e , Rom anasque, G o th ic s t y l e s . P a r t I I I i s d e v o te d to th e R e n a is s a n c e , P a r t IV c o v e rs M an n e ris m and th e v a r i ous s t y l i s t i c tr e n d s w i t h i n th e B a ro q u e , P a r t V d e a ls w it h N e o - C la s s ic is m , R o m a n tic is m , R e a lis m , Im p r e s s io n , and Con- jte m p o ra ry s t y l e s , ! I T h ro u g h o u t th e w o rk , a r c h i t e c t u r e r e c e iv e s th e jg r e a t e s t em phasis among th e a r t s , w it h s c u lp t u r e c a p t u r in g ; second p l a c e . P a i n t i n g a c h ie v e s t h i r d p o s i t i o n as to em p h a s is , S e c t io n s c o n c e rn in g th e " i d e a s ," t h a t i s th e p h ilo ^ is o p h ic a l, r e l i g i o u s , s c i e n t i f i c tr e n d s o f an e r a , a re com- j 1 i p a r a b ly s h o r t . L i t e r a t u r e and m usic r e c e i v e th e l e a s t r e c - o g n i t i o n , m u sic f i g u r i n g b e t t e r th a n l i t e r a t u r e , | : A sum t o t a l o f a b o u t s i x t y - f i v e pages i s d e v o te d to I ' ;music as an a r t . No p e r io d i s e x c e p te d . M u s ic a l exam ples ! |a re a d e q u a te . I n t e r e s t i n g l y enough, B a ro q u e m u sic r e c e iv e s j jtw ic e th e am ount o f c o n s id e r a t io n as R o m a n tic m u s ic . M u s ic | i s t r e a t e d u n d e r a s e p a r a t e c a te g o r y w i t h i n each p e r io d , un-' t i l one re a c h e s th e C o n te m p o ra ry p e r io d . A t t h i s p o i n t imusic i s n o t d is c u s s e d u n d e r a s e p a r a te h e a d in g . I n s t e a d , j some a tte m p t i s made t o c o r r e l a t e tr e n d s i n m u sic w it h i ' I : {tre n d s i n p a i n t i n g . T h is i s a c c o m p lis h e d i n b r i e f p a r a - j ! g ra p h s w h ic h amount c o l l e c t i v e l y to a b o u t t h r e e pages o u t jof th e f o r t y - t h r e e d e v o te d to C o n te m p o ra ry s t y l e s i n th e [ a r t s , E x p r e s s io n is m i n p a i n t i n g and i n m usic r e c e iv e s th e |b e s t a t t e n t i o n fro m F le m in g as com pared w i t h t h a t g iv e n by Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 23 o t h e r a u th o r s r e v ie w e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r . He does make sp e c i a l n o te o f th e German s c h o o l „ A p p r o x im a t e ly seven h u n d re d a r t w orks a r e r e p r o d u c ed , s i x t y - f o u r i n c o l o r . The m a j o r i t y o f th e s e a re ex am ples o f a r c h i t e c t u r e and s c u l p t u r e . A t th e b e g in n in g o f ’ each c h a p t e r a c h ro n o lo g y i s p r e s e n te d c o n t a in in g such j I h e a d in g s as G e n e r a l E v e n ts , P h ilo s o p h e r s , H i s t o r i a n s , I A r c h i t e c t s , and S c u l p t o r s , P a i n t e r s , D r a m a t is t s , W r i t e r s , iM u s ic ia n s . Th e fo r m a t o f t h i s c h ro n o lo g y and th e v a r io u s I h e a d in g s chang es fro m c h a p t e r t o c h a p t e r as w a r r a n te d by ; th e m a t e r i a l . I ' The in d e x i s c o m p re h e n s iv e . I f a t e c h n i c a l te rm i s d e f in e d i n th e t e x t , r e f e r e n c e i s made t o t h a t p a r t i c u l a r p a g e . M o r e o v e r , a l l i l l u s t r a t i o n s a re l i s t e d as e n t r i e s . A r t s and Id e a s by W i l l i a m F le m in g i s a good s o u rc e f o r h u m a n itie s c o u rs e s w h ere th e em phasis i s on th e a r t s ! r a t h e r th a n on th e id e a s . I t s h o u ld be r e c a l l e d t h a t : a r c h i t e c t u r e i s h e a v i l y e m p h a s iz e d . Th e C o n te m p o ra ry p e - I r i o d r e c e iv e s c o m p a r a t iv e ly much le s s t r e a t m e n t th a n e a r l i e r p e r io d s , b u t i s n o n e th e le s s w e l l p r e s e n t e d fro m th e Ip o in t o f show ing i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e tw e e n p a i n t i n g and m u s ic . I I n t r o d u c t i o n t o th e H u m a n itie s by D o r is Van de I iB o g a rt c o v e rs t h e s u b je c t s o f p a i n t i n g , s c u l p t u r e , a r c h i - i t e c t u r e , m u s ic , and l i t e r a t u r e fro m a n c ie n t G re e c e th ro u g h Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 4 th e C o n te m p o ra ry p e r io d . A lth o u g h m usic does n o t r e c e i v e e q u a l t r e a t m e n t w it h th e o t h e r a r t s i n e v e r y p e r io d d is c u s s e d , i t r e c e iv e s more c o v e ra g e th a n o t h e r a r t s i n some p e r io d s . T h is i s t r u e , f o r e x a m p le , i n th e d is c u s s io n o f th e B a ro q u e . On th e w h o le m usic i s a d e q u a te ly t r e a t e d i n e v e ry p e r io d and th e b a la n c e w it h o t h e r a r t s i s b e t t e r th a n t h a t a c h ie v e d i n m ost o t h e r s o u rc e s a lr e a d y c i t e d . T h e re a re no m u s ic a l e x - j a m p le s , h o w e v e r. ! I "The M odern P e r io d " as a c h a p t e r r e c e iv e s th e m a jo r I em phasis c o m p ris in g s e v e n ty pages o f t e x t . O f th e s e , t h i r - |te e n a re d e v o te d to m u s ic , a good p r o p o r t io n s in c e f i v e I a r t s a re c o v e re d . E x p re s s io n is m i s d is c u s s e d i n p a i n t i n g , im usic, and l i t e r a t u r e . B r i e f a l l u s i o n i s made to German iE x p re s s io n is m . i L i t t l e a tte m p t i s made to c o r r e l a t e th e a r t s . Each s u b je c t i s p r e s e n te d more o r l e s s in d e p e n d e n t ly , a lth o u g h a ll u s i o n s a re som etim es made to i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s as i n th e f o l l o w i n g s ta te m e n t. I f some s tu d e n t i s s e a r c h in g f o r an e s o t e r i c t o p i c f o r a te rm p a p e r , h e r e i t i s : "W hat i s th e c o n n e c tio n , i f an y, b e tw e e n th e s t r e a m - o f - c o n - s c io u s n e s s n o v e l and th e t w e lv e - t o n e row i n m usic?" I n 1 9 5 1 , D a l l a p i c c o l a w r o te : "My p ro g r e s s a lo n g th e r o u t e o f th e t w e lv e - t o n e system i s a r a t h e r s tr a n g e and a v e r y lo n g p r o g r e s s . O u ts id e th e w orks o f S ch b n b erg , B e rg , and W eb ern , I h ave r e c e iv e d v e r y e x t r a o r d i n a r y e x p la n a t io n s , e x a c t l y i n th e t w e lv e - t o n e d o m ain , th ro u g h th e l i t e r a t u r e o f P r o u s t and James J o y c e . Such a d e c l a r a t i o n , s tr a n g e as i t may seem, s h o u ld le a d us to th e Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 5 c o n c lu s io n t h a t th e a r t s , i n a s p e c i f i c moment o f h i s t o r y , h ave a common p ro b le m . I f I w ere compe t e n t i n p a i n t i n g , I am s u re t h a t even i n t h i s a r t I c o u ld f i n d v e r y s t r i k i n g a n a lo g ie s w it h t w e lv e - to n e m u s ic ." (7 8 : 2 9 4 ) Van de B o g a r t p r e s e n ts a c h a p te r by c h a p t e r b i b l i o g ra p h y as w e l l as a r e f e r e n c e b i b lio g r a p h y c o v e r in g aes t h e t i c s and h i s t o r y , th e f i n e a r t s i n g e n e r a l, m u s ic , and l i t e r a t u r e . A g lo s s a r y o f te rm s , a l i s t o f r e c o r d in g s , and a l i s t o f a r t p r i n t s f o l l o w th e b i b l i o g r a p h i e s . I The A r t s and th e A r t o f C r i t i c i s m by T h e o d o re M. jG reene i s a w ork o f p h i l o s o p h ic a l a e s t h e t i c s . N e v e r t h e - | l e s s , because G ree n e c o l la b o r a t e d w it h o v e r a dozen e x p e r ts | 1 ' i n th e h u m a n itie s f i e l d and does in d e e d p r e s e n t ~11 th e a r t s , th e w o rk i s a p p r o p r ia t e f o r h u m a n itie s c o u rs e s . ■ G reen e e x p lo r e s each a r t , d e v o t in g a c h a p t e r to ' e a c h . T h u s, m u s ic , d a n c e , a r c h i t e c t u r e , s c u lp t u r e , p a i n t - jin g , and l i t e r a t u r e a re d is c u s s e d fro m th e p o i n t o f v ie w o f | im ed ia, fo rm , p o t e n t i a l s , l i m i t a t i o n s , and d i s t i n c t i v e c h a r - | a c t e r i s t i c s . A n a lo g o u s r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e drawn w h ic h le a d t o th e f o r m u la t io n o f b a s ic p r i n c i p l e s a p p lic a b le to a l l th e a r t s . j T h re e h u n d re d i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f th e v is u a l a r t s a re p r e s e n te d . O n ly a few m u s ic a l and l i t e r a r y exam ples a re jg iv e n . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 26 Books i n W hich th e V i s u a l A r t s and M u s ic a re E m phasized A r t and M u s ic i n th e H u m a n itie s was w r i t t e n by I P a t r i c k D . DeLong, R o b e r t Thomas, and R o b e r t E . E g n e r. The a u th o rs th e m s e lv e s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e i r book i s u s e f u l i n a h u m a n itie s c o u rs e i n w h ich " . . . em phasis i s p la c e d on lo o k in g a t a r t and l i s t e n i n g to m usic i n w e s te r n c i v i l i z a t i o n . " ( 1 2 : 3 ) T h u s , th e y p o i n t o u t th e im p o rta n c e o f th e | I I I v i s u a l and a u r a l e x p e r ie n c e on th e p a r t o f s tu d e n t s . The I one h u n d re d and f o r t y - t h r e e pages d e v o te d to th e v i s u a l | i a r t s c o n t a in many exam ples a l l i n b la c k and w h i t e . The f i r s t t h i r d o f th e s e c t io n on th e v i s u a l a r t s i s c o n c e rn e d :w ith a e s t h e t i c a l is s u e s i n c o n c e p ts such as " A r t and th e I m i t a t i o n o f N a tu r e " and " A r t and P l a y . " The "ism s" d i s - ; cussed c h a p t e r by c h a p t e r a r e Im p r e s s io n is m , E x p re s s io n is m , I iCubism , and S u r r e a lis m w it h one c h a p t e r d e v o te d to n o n - : o b j e c t i v e . Op and Pop a r t . The t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , t h e r e - ; f o r e , i s t r e a t e d i n a b o u t o n e - t h i r d o f th e s e c t io n on a r t . A ls o , th e m ain c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y "ism s" a re s u c c i n c t l y p o in t e d o u t . M u s ic r e c e iv e s le s s t r e a t m e n t th a n th e v i s u a l a r t s . [The t e x t c o m p ris e s a b o u t s i x t y - n i n e pages i n a s e c t io n s ep - |a r a t e fro m t h a t c o n c e rn in g th e v i s u a l a r t s . O f th e s e , a Ifo u r -p a g e c h a p t e r i s d e v o te d to " J a z z ," and a le s s th a n I i jth r e e - p a g e c h a p t e r to "Modern M u s ic ." O th e r c h a p te rs Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 27 in c lu d e d is c u s s io n s o f th e in s tr u m e n t s o f th e o r c h e s t r a , th e e le m e n ts o f m u s ic , fo rm i n m u s ic , a b s o lu t e and p ro g ra m m u s ic . One c h a p t e r e n t i t l e d "S u rv e y o f F i v e Im p o r t a n t E r a s ," w h ic h c o m p ris e s le s s th a n f o u r p ages a l t o g e t h e r , e x p e d it e s a summary o f th e R e n a is s a n c e , B a ro q u e , C l a s s i c a l , I R o m a n tic , and M odern E ra s i n a few p a r a g r a p h s . E x p re s s io n is m i s l i n k e d t o A r n o ld S ch o en b erg i n a s ta te m e n t com p r i s i n g one s e n te n c e . ; T h is book i s more u s e f u l i n a h u m a n itie s c o u rs e ! iw h ic h fo c u s e s upon th e v i s u a l a r t s . No a t t e m p t i s made t o i ! I c o r r e l a t e th e v i s u a l a r t s w i t h m u s ic . No a tte m p t i s made | ! t o t r e a t m usic w i t h i n a c o n c e p tu a l fra m e w o rk . C o n te m p o ra ry ! m usic i s b a r e l y m e n tio n e d . T h e re a re no m u s ic a l exam ples e x c e p t a few i n th e c h a p t e r c o n c e rn e d w i t h t h e e le m e n ts o f j m usic and two exam p les i n th e c h a p t e r on fo rm . A l i s t o f | i I ; {m ajo r com posers and t h e i r w o rks i s p r o v id e d as a g u id e f o r l i s t e n i n g e x p e r ie n c e s . ; A H i s t o r y o f A r t and M u s ic by H .W . Jan s o n and Joseph Kerman i s s e p a r a te d i n t o two p a r t s . Two h u n d re d and ! ! e le v e n pages a re d e v o te d to a r t h i s t o r y a u th o re d by J a n s o n . : {The r e m a in in g e ig h t y - t w o pages a re d e v o te d t o m usic h i s t o r y { and w ere w r i t t e n by K erm an. The a u th o rs a d m it t h a t th e y {have a v o id e d any a tte m p t to c o r r e l a t e th e a r t s . Y e t one { { fin d s some i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s m e n tio n e d i n th e t e x t . { Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 8 The a r t s e c t io n i s i l l u s t r a t e d w it h m o s tly b la c k and w h it e p r i n t s , as w e l l as some c o l o r p la t e s , e s p e c i a l l y i n th e t w e n t y - n in e pages d e v o te d to t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y a r t . O f a l l t h e s t y l e s t r e a t e d , t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y a r t r e c e iv e s th e g r e a t e s t e m p h a s is , n o t p r e c lu d in g s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y a r t . j I The m usic s e c t io n c o n ta in s o n ly two m u s ic a l exain- I I p l e s , one i l l u s t r a t i n g th e t o n a l s y s te m , and th e o t h e r i l - i l u s t r a t i n g th e d o d e c a p h o n ic s y s te m . O th e rw is e "d ia g ra m s " I I a re p r e s e n te d w h ic h a tte m p t to c l a r i f y m u s ic a l t e x t u r e s by : means o f v a r i o u s l y shaped l i n e s . A s h o r t l i s t o f s u g g e s te d l i s t e n i n g s i s p r e s e n te d a t a p p r o p r ia t e i n t e r v a l s . I t has a lr e a d y been p o in t e d o u t t h a t th e v i s u a l ! a r t s a r e t r e a t e d a t much g r e a t e r le n g t h th a n t h e m u s ic . IW it h in t h e m usic s e c t i o n , th e e a r l i e r p e r io d s o f m u s ic , i n c lu d i n g t h e s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y s t y l e , a re t r e a t e d i n a I I m a t t e r o f a few p a g e s . T h e B a ro q u e p e r io d r e c e iv e s th e i g r e a t e s t amount o f em phasis as a s e c t io n w i t h i n P a r t I I I . ; "The T w e n t ie t h C e n t u r y ," as a s e c t io n w i t h i n P a r t I V , en t i t l e d "M u s ic i n t h e M odern W o rld " r e c e iv e s r e l a t i v e l y le s s I c o n s i d e r a t i o n th a n th e B a ro q u e , a lth o u g h more th a n th e I e a r l i e r p e r io d s . E x p r e s s io n is m i s m e n tio n e d i n one p a r a g ra p h i n c o n n e c tio n w it h th e w orks o f S ch o en b erg and A lb a n B e rg . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 29 A s y n o p s is o f a r t and m u s ic a l te rm s i s p r e s e n te d im m e d ia te ly a f t e r th e fo r e w o r d . A c h ro n o lo g y o f p a i n t e r s , s c u lp t o r s , a r c h i t e c t s , com posers, m u s ic ia n s , and i n s t r u m ent m akers i s in c lu d e d a t th e end o f t h e t e x t . S u g g e s te d I { b ib lio g r a p h y f o r f u r t h e r r e a d in g i n a r t and m usic f o llo w s th e c h ro n o lo g y . I An I n t r o d u c t i o n to M u s ic and A r t i n th e W e s te rn :W o rld by M i l o W old and Edmund C y k le r i s a w ork " . . . i n - I te n d e d o n ly as an i n t r o d u c t i o n to th e s t y l i s t i c c h a r a c t e r j and c u l t u r a l c li m a t e o f th e im p o r t a n t a r t epochs o f W e s te rn { c i v i l i z a t i o n . " ( 8 0 : v ) I n f o u r t e e n c h a p t e r s , c o m p ris in g | two h u n d re d and n i n e t y p a g e s , th e v a r io u s a r t i s t i c s t y le s I fro m t h a t o f a n c ie n t G re e c e to th e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y a re }c o v e re d . i ' The fo r m a t i s a t t r a c t i v e and th e a r t exam ples i n | { c o lo r and i n b la c k and w h it e a re a d e q u a te . H o w eve r, t h e r e a r e o n ly two m u s ic a l exam ples i n th e e n t i r e t e x t . W h ile i I I th e t i t l e te n d s to make one t h i n k t h a t m u sic i s e m p h asized ; {more th a n th e v i s u a l a r t s , th e o p p o s ite i s t r u e . L ess th a n I I ! o n e - t h i r d o f th e t e x t i s d e v o te d to m u s ic = Ko g lo s s a r y o f I m u s ic a l te rm s i s p r o v id e d . I I Some a tte m p ts a re made to p o i n t o u t i n t e r r e l a t i o n - I is h ip s b e tw ee n p a i n t i n g and m u s ic , b u t n o t i n any c o n s is t e n t { f a s h io n . C o r r e l a t i o n b e tw ee n th e a r t s i s n o t e m p h a s ize d . JS lo c o n c e p tu a l fra m e w o rk i s p r o v id e d . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 30 T w e n t ie t h - c e n t u r y v i s u a l a r t s a re a d e q u a te ly t r e a t e d . H o w e ver, w h i le E x p re s s io n is m i s b r i e f l y c o v e re d , no m e n tio n i s made o f th e German s c h o o l. T w e n t ie t h - c e n t u r y m usic i s c o v e re d i n le s s th a n te n p a g e s . T h re e com posers s e le c t e d f o r d is c u s s io n a re I A r n o ld S ch o en b e rg , I g o r S t r a v in s k y , and B e la B a r t o k . An I a ll u s i o n to E x p re s s io n is m i n m usic i s made by m e re ly p o i n t - i lin g o u t t h a t a p a r t i c u l a r w o rk o f S c h o e n b e rg 's i s E x p r e s - i s i o n i s t . I Each c h a p t e r c lo s e s w it h a l i s t o f s u g g e s tio n s f o r I Im usic l i s t e n i n g . I n some cases th e l i s t c o n ta in s v e r y few I I it e m s . A ls o l i s t e d a re s u g g e s te d r e a d in g s , w i t h th e same | e n t r y o f t e n g iv e n c h a p t e r a f t e r c h a p t e r . A l i s t o f sug g e s te d exam ples f o r f u r t h e r a n a ly s is fro m p a i n t i n g , s c u lp t u r e , a r c h i t e c t u r e , and m usic i s p r e s e n t e d . I i i I I Books i n W hich M u s ic i n th e H u m a n itie s i s E m p h asized i M u s ic . H i s t o r y , and Id e a s by Hugo L e i c h t e n t r i t t i s a w ork i n w h ich th e a u th o r t r i e d " . . . t o c o n n e c t th e f a c t s |of th e h i s t o r y o f m u sic w it h th e h i s t o r y o f th e human s p i r i t , w it h g e n e r a l c u l t u r e i n i t s v a r i e d a s p e c ts , and {w ith th e h i s t o r y o f p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l c o n d it io n s . . . . " j ( 4 3 : x i i ) T h u s , m u s ic t r e a t e d p e r io d by p e r io d i s th e c o re jof th e t e x t u a l f a b r i c w h ile s o c i o l o g i c a l h i s t o r y form s a if rame o f r e f e r e n c e . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 31 B e g in n in g w i t h h i s t r e a t m e n t o f th e R e n a is s a n c e p e r io d , L e i c h t e n t r i t t draw s p a r a l l e l s b e tw e e n p a i n t i n g and m u s ic . As an exam ple he s t a t e s : P a l e s t r i n a ' s m o te ts and masses a re th e m u s ic a l c o u n t e r p a r t s o f th e p a i n t i n g s o f P e r u g in o , L e o n a rd o da V i n c i , R a p h a e l, and o f th e g r e a t F l o r e n t i n e p a i n t e r s , F i l i p p o L i p p i , F r a B a r to le m e o , and A n d re a d e l S a r t o . I n c e r t a i n s e r a p h ic sounds i n P a le s t r i n a ' s m o te ts and masses we p e r c e iv e a s p i r i t a k in to t h a t o f th e to u c h in g and a d o r a b le F r a A n g e lic o da F i e s o l e , a c e n t u r y e a r l i e r , whose fr e s c o e s i n th e c o n v e n t o f San M arco i n F lo r e n c e a re u n iq u e i n t h e i r p u r i t y and c h i l d l i k e c o n f id e n c e . W hoever has f e l t th e m y s te r io u s pow er o f R a p h a e l's S i s t i n e Ma donna i n th e D re s d e n G a l l e r y , i t s i n e x p l i c a b l e p u r i t y , g r a c e , and s i m p l i c i t y c o u p le d w i t h a s u b lim e r e l i g i o u s e m o tio n , w i l l a ls o be to u c h e d p r o fo u n d ly by P a l e s t r i n a ' s m u s ic , w h ic h i s so s i m i l a r i n e f f e c t . ( 4 3 : 8 7 ) ' F u r t h e r , i n d is c u s s in g th e m a d r ig a ls o f G e s u a ld o , M a r e n z io , and M o n t e v e r d i, o f th e B a ro q u e e r a , w h ic h some I c a l l M a n n e r is t i n s t y l e , L e i c h t e n t r i t t uses th e te rm c h i - I a ro s c u ro b o rro w e d fro m a r t w h ic h means th e c o n t r a s t in g use I o f l i g h t and d a r k . The w orks o f Bach and H a n d e l a re l i k e n e d to th e g i g a n t i c w orks o f G o th ic a r t . L e i c h t e n t r i t t a ls o p o in t s o u t t h a t th e s e n tim e n - i t a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e l a t e r e ig h t e e n t h c e n t u r y as a c o u n t e r - b a la n c e f o r th e c o ld r a t i o n a l i t y p r e v a i l i n g a t t h a t { tim e , i s fo u n d in p a i n t i n g , m u s ic , and l i t e r a t u r e . Exam- I jp le s a re c i t e d . I I T h e se c o r r e l a t i o n s a r e d is c o v e r e d s p o r a d i c a l l y I s p r in k le d th ro u g h o u t th e t e x t . D e l a c r o i x i s th e o n ly Ip a in t e r m e n tio n e d i n th e c h a p t e r e n t i t l e d "The R o m a n tic Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 2 M ovem ent" w it h r e f e r e n c e to h i s em ploym ent o f dynam ic ac c e n ts o The l a s t c h a p t e r i s d e v o te d t o t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y I m usic i n c l u s i v e to 1938 when L e i c h t e n t r i t t ' s book was f i r s t jp u b lis h e d . A t t h i s p o i n t he n o te s t h a t we " . . . l i v e i n I an age f u l l o f u n r e s t , u n c e r t a i n t y , and d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n I . . . g r o p in g i n th e d a rk i n o u r e f f o r t t o f i n d th e way o u t I o f o u r t r o u b l e s . " He goes on to s a y , j T h is i s e x a c t l y th e s i t u a t i o n i n modern m u s ic : I much a g i t a t i o n , much s p e c u la t io n and c l e v e r e x - I p é r im e n t , a p a s s io n a te s t r i v i n g a f t e r a new b a - j I s i s , b u t no c le a r n e s s ab o u t th e r e a l l y e f f i c i e n t m easures to be ta k e n , no r e a l s t y l e , no w e l l - i d e f in e d c o u r s e . T h is s i t u a t i o n g iv e s to u l t r a modern m u s ic , v ie w e d as a w h o le , a v e r i t a b l y t r a - ! g ic a s p e c t. On th e one h an d , g r e a t e n e r g ie s , s tr o n g t a l e n t s , much c o u ra g e , s i n c e r i t y , and p a s s io n consumed i n a f i e r c e s t r u g g le f o r s o m eth in g new, v a l u a b l e , r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f o u r age; on th e o t h e r , o n ly m eager a r t i s t i c r e s u l t s i n c o m p ariso n b o th w i t h th e e f f o r t expended and w i t h th e a c h ie v e ments o f fo rm e r e p o c h s , even th e now much d e r id e d ro m a n tic p e r i o d . ( 4 3 :2 4 3 ) W ith th e above q u o t a t io n i n m in d , i t i s u n d e r s ta n d a b le t h a t th e m u sic o f R ic h a r d S tr a u s s and G u s ta v M a h le r I r e c e iv e s c o n s id e r a b le a t t e n t i o n . R e g e r and D ebussy f a r e I le s s w e l l . H in d e m ith , S c r i a b i n and P r o k o f i e f f a re men t i o n e d . S c h o e n b e rg 's te c h n iq u e s a re d is c u s s e d a t some ! le n g t h w it h th e p o i n t made " . . . t h a t a r e a l l y w e l l - js o u n d in g p ie c e o f t w e lv e - t o n e te c h n iq u e i s s o , n o t on ac c o u n t o f th e a p p l i c a t i o n o f th e p r i n c i p l e , b u t i n s p i t e o f i t . . . . " ( 4 3 : 2 6 1 ) S t r a v in s k y i s p r e s e n t e d as " . . . th e Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 33 m ost s u c c e s s fu l m a s te r o f m o d e r n is t ic m u s ic ." (4 3 : 2 6 3 ) No a tt e m p t i s made t o r e l a t e t h e t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y v i s u a l a r t s o r l i t e r a t u r e w i t h th e m u s ic . E x p re s s io n is m i s s im p ly m e n tio n e d as a s t y l e o f th e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , and t h i s n o t even i n th e c o n t e x t o f th e c h a p t e r d e a lin g w it h ! ; th e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y . No a l l u s i o n i s made to German E x - Ip r e s s io n is m . I ; The Com m onwealth o f A r t by C u r t Sachs i s a w ork i n Iw h ic h m usic i s th e f o c a l p o i n t o f i n t e r e s t . S u b t i t l e d [ I " S t y l e i n th e F in e A r t s , M u s ic and th e D a n c e ," t h e r e i s no 1 la c k o f a tte m p t t o draw p a r a l l e l s among th e a r t s and con c e p ts a re p r e s e n t e d i n abundance e s p e c i a l l y in P a r t I I . I ; The w o rk i s d i v id e d i n t o t h r e e p a r t s : An O u t l i n e o f C o m p a ra tiv e A r t H i s t o r y , th e N a tu r e o f S t y l e , and th e |F a te o f S t y l e . P a r t I c o v e rs th e p r e h i s t o r i c a l , th e p r i m i t i v e O r i e n t a l , G r e e k , and Roman a r t s . B e g in n in g w i t h 800 iA .D . th e t e x t i s d i v id e d p e r io d by p e r io d , b u t e v e n ts a re I o u t l i n e d by d a t e . C o r r e l a t i o n s among p a i n t i n g , s c u l p t u r e , S a r c h i t e c t u r e , d a n c e , m u s ic , and even f a s h io n a re p r e s e n t e d . H o w e v e r, t h e r e i s l i m i t e d d e v o t io n to m ovem ents. The m a jo r p o r t i o n o f P a r t I i s g iv e n to th e R e n a is s a n c e and B aroque ip e r io d s . R e g a r d in g E x p r e s s io n is m , Sachs m e r e ly s t a t e s t h a t Van Gogh was a f o r e r u n n e r . I n th e l a s t c h a p t e r o f P a r t I , { e n t i t l e d "The L a t e s t P a s t , " he d e v o te d a l i t t l e o v e r two pages to 1 8 9 2 , and le s s th a n t h r e e pages o f t e x t to th e Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 4 p e r io d b e tw e e n 19 21 and 1 9 4 5 . I t i s i n P a r t I I t h a t one f i n d s th e m ost c o n c e p ts and c o r r e l a t i o n s . Some o f th e c o n c e p ts p r e s e n te d a re th e I d i v i n e and th e s e c u la r , s i z e and d e n s i t y , in d e p e n d e n c e and I d ep en d en ce. I I n P a r t I I I , Sachs i n t e r p r e t s th e la w s g o v e r n in g I th e a r t s draw n fro m an o v e r a l l v ie w o f h i s t o r y and th e p a t t e r n s t h a t a re fo rm e d t h e r e f r o m . i I T h e r e i s one s e c t io n o f a r t p l a t e s , c o n t a in in g no I i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f c o n te m p o ra ry a r t . M u s ic a l exam ples a re ! s p a r s e . T h is i s n o te w o rth y when one c o n s id e r s t h a t m usic r e c e iv e s th e em phasis i n th e t e x t . A Book i n W hich L i t e r a t u r e i n th e H u m a n itie s i s E m p h asized ! L i t e r a t u r e as a F in e A r t by D o n a ld J . M cGinn and ! G eo rg e H o w e rto n i s an a tte m p t to e m p h as ize l i t e r a t u r e among th e a r t s . P e r io d s and s t y l e s a re t r e a t e d c h r o n o l o g i c a l ly I b e g in n in g w i t h th e R e n a is s a n c e th ro u g h E x p r e s s io n is m . i L i t e r a t u r e i s c o r r e la t e d w ith th e o th e r a r t s a t e v e ry p h a s e , and t h is w it h in th e fra m e w o rk o f a c o n c e p t. F o r e x - I am ple, th e f o llo w in g i s n o te d r e g a r d in g th e R e n a is s a n c e Ip e r io d . T h is c o n c e p t o f p e r f e c t b e a u ty c o n s is t in g o f th e T r u e , th e Good, and th e B e a u t i f u l , as d e r iv e d fro m th e a e s t h e t i c s o f P l a t o and A r i s t o t l e , th u s becomes t h e e ss e n ce o f th e a r t i s t i c p h ilo s o p h y o f th e R e n a is s a n c e . A t th e same tim e i t s e rv e s as a : Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 35 means o f c o r r e l a t i n g l i t e r a t u r e w i t h th e o t h e r f i n e a r t s o f th e p e r io d . The b a la n c e and p r o p o r t io n i n a t y p i c a l exa m p le o f R e n a is s a n c e p a i n t i n g such as L e o n a rd o d a V i n c i ' s " L a s t S upper" a re c o m p a ra b le to th e r e g u l a r i t y and f o r m a l i t y , as w e l l as to th e e l e v a t e d c o n t e n t , o f S p e n s e r 's F o u r Hym ns. The i d e a l i z e d r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f th e human f i g u r e i n th e V enu ses o f T i t i a n and th e Madonnas o f R a p h a e l ex p re s s e s th e same i n h e r e n t a t t i t u d e to w a rd a r t as th e m a tc h le s s p e r f e c t i o n o f S id n e y 's S t e l l a and D a n i e l ' s D e l i a . P erh a p s even more c lo s e l y a k in t o th e son n e ts a re th e m a d r ig a ls and m o te ts o f R e n a is s a n c e mu s i c . In d e e d , t h e r e has p r o b a b ly n e v e r b een a more d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw een m usic and l i t e r a t u r e th a n th e one b etw een m a d r ig a l and s o n n e t d u r in g t h i s R e n a is s a n c e p e r io d . P a r a l l e l i n s t r u c t u r e , each c o n d it io n e d by th e t e c h n i c a l c o m p u lsio n s o f i t s own a r t , and s i m i l a r i n s p i r i t and to n e , th e two form s a re u n t h in k a b le w it h o u t each o t h e r . ( 5 0 ; 1 9 ) I Abundant l i t e r a r y exam ples are p r o v id e d . Each chap4 i t e r i s p r e f a c e d w it h i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f a few a r t w o rk s , b u t : no m u s ic a l exam ples a re g iv e n . The a u th o rs i n d i c a t e t h a t I t h e i r w ork i s c h i e f l y an a n th o lo g y o f l i t e r a t u r e i n w hich ! th e y b u t p o i n t o u t p a r a l l e l s to th e o t h e r a r t s . A l i s t o f | [ a p p r o p r ia t e p a r a l l e l s i n p a i n t i n g , a r c h i t e c t u r e , s c u l p t u r e , | I ! I and m usic i s p r e s e n te d a t th e end o f each c h a p t e r . The t e a c h e r o f th e h u m a n itie s c o u rs e who i s w e l l p r e p a r e d i n i a r t o r m u sic o r b o th , b u t n o t i n l i t e r a t u r e , s h o u ld f i n d t h i s w o rk u s e f u l . I E x p re s s io n is m i s a d e q u a te ly c o v e re d fro m a l i t e r a r y [ p o in t o f v ie w . The German s c h o o l i s i n c lu d e d . The u se o f i I c o n c e p ts as fra m e s o f r e f e r e n c e seems t o b r e a k down, how- i e v e r , b e g in n in g w it h th e c h a p t e r on R e a lis m and N a t u r a lis m i . I so t h a t u n d e r E x p re s s io n is m one f in d s th e l i t e r a r y exam ples Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 36 p r e s e n te d u n d e r th e h e a d in g s o f "S tream o f C o n s c io u s n e s s " and " A e s t h e t ic s o f L i t e r a r y A b s t r a c t io n is m ." T h ese a re n o t as h e l p f u l as t h e c l e a r - c u t c o n c e p ts p r e s e n te d f o r th e e a r l i e r e r a s . E x p re s s io n is m i n p a i n t i n g i s o n ly m e n tio n e d , w h ile E x p re s s io n is m i n m usic i s o m it t e d . F in d in g s B ased on th e R e v ie w o f S e le c t e d L i t e r a t u r e From th e p r e c e d in g r e v ie w o f s e le c t e d l i t e r a t u r e , I i n some books c o n s id e r e d a p p r o p r ia t e f o r h u m a n itie s c o u rs e s : I 1 . F a c t u a l p r e s e n t a t io n s o u tw e ig h th e c o n c e p tu a l ! o r b a s ic p r i n c i p l e a p p ro a c h . I 2 . T h e re i s r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e a tte m p t made to c o r r e l a t e th e a r t s i n any c o n s i s t e n t f a s i o n . I 3 . The t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y a r t s o f t e n r e c e i v e le s s i t r e a t m e n t as com pared w i t h a r t s o f p r i o r e r a s . 4 . Even when th e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y i s araply c o n - I s id e r e d , m usic o f t e n r e c e iv e s le s s t r e a t m e n t th a n th e v i s u a l a r t s . The same i s a ls o t r u e o f ! l i t e r a t u r e i n some c a s e s . j 5 . E x p re s s io n is m as a s t y l i s t i c tr e n d i n th e tw e n - I t i e t h c e n t u r y i s som etim es o n ly m e n tio n e d , e s - ; p e c i a l l y w i t h r e g a r d to m u s ic . A d is c u s s io n o f ! German E x p re s s io n is m i s o f t e n o m it t e d . j A b i b l io g r a p h y o f th e books re v ie w e d i s p r o v id e d . A b ib lio g r a p h y o f s e le c t e d d i s s e r t a t i o n s i s a ls o g iv e n . j Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 7 D i s s e r t a t i o n s w ere re v ie w e d b e g in n in g w i t h 1962 when an a d e q u a te in d e x in g p ro c e s s was d e v e lo p e d f o r th e d i s s e r t a t i o n a b s t r a c t s . E n t r i e s w ere i n v e s t i g a t e d u n d e r th e h e ad in g s o f A e s t h e t ic s , A r t , E x p r e s s io n is m , H u m a n is tic Educa t i o n , L i t e r a t u r e , and M u s ic and a p p r o p r ia t e s u b -h e a d in g s . T hose d i s s e r t a t i o n s w h ic h seem p a r t i c u l a r l y r e l e v a n t to t h i s s tu d y a re a n n o ta te d . O th e rs a re s im p ly l i s t e d . Some a re s p e c i a l i z e d and, as s u c h , a re o n ly o f i n t e r e s t to th e h u m a n itie s te a c h e r d e s i r i n g s u p p le m e n ta l i n f o r m a t io n . A d e q u a te sum m aries o f th e l i s t e d d i s s e r t a t i o n s may be fo u n d i n D i s s e r t a t i o n A b s t r a c t s . A B ib lio g r a p h y o f th e Books R e v ie w e d 1 . C ro s s , N e a l M. and L in d o v , L e s l i e D a e . The S e a rc h f o r P e r s o n a l F re e d o m . V o l s . I , I I . D ubuque, Io w a: Wm. C . Brown Company P u b l is h e r s , 1 9 6 0 . 358 p p ., 3 22 p p . 2 . D eLong, P a t r i c k D . , E g n e r, R o b e r t E . , and Thomas, R o b e r t . A r t and M u s ic i n th e H u m a n it ie s . E n g le wood C l i f f s , New J e r s e y : P r e n t i c e H a l l , I n c . , 1 9 6 6 . 244 p p . 3 . D u d le y , L o u is e and F a r i c y , A u s t i n . The H u m a n it ie s . New Y o rk : M c G r a w -H ill Book C o ., I n c . , 1 9 6 7 , 436 p p . 4 . F le m in g , W i l l i a m . A r t s and Id e a .s. New Y o rk : H o l t , R in e h a r t and W in s to n , I n c . , ( n . d . . T h i r d E d i t i o n ) . 580 pp. 5 . G re e n e , T h e o d o re M. The A r t s and th e A r t o f C r i t i c i s m . P r in c e t o n , New J e r s e y : P r in c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 4 9 . 690 p p . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 0 . 38 J a n s o n , H .W . and Kerm an, J o s e p h . A H i s t o r y o f A r t and M u s ic . New Y o rk : H a r r y N . A bram s, I n c . , ( n . d . ) . 318 p p . L e i c h t e n t r i t t , H ugo. M u s ic , H i s t o r y and I d e a s . Cam b r i d g e , M a s s a c h u s e tts : H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 4 6 . 292 p p . M cG inn, D o n a ld J . and H o w e rto n , G e o rg e . L i t e r a t u r e as a F i n e A r t . New Y o rk : Row, P e te r s o n and Company, 1 9 5 9 . 413 p p . S a c h s , C u r t . The Commonwealth o f A r t . New Y o r k : W.W. N o r to n and Company, 1 9 4 6 . 404 p p . S t i t e s , Raymond S . The A r t s and M an . New Y o rk : M c G r a w - H ill Book Company, I n c . , 1 9 4 0 . 872 p p . 1 1 . Van de B o g a r t , D o r i s . I n t r o d u c t i o n to t h e H u m a n it ie s . New Y o r k : B a rn e s and N o b le , I n c . , 1 9 6 8 . 422 p p . 1 2 . W o ld , M i l o and C y k le r , Edmund. An I n t r o d u c t i o n to M u s ic and A r t i n th e W e s te rn W o r ld . D ubuque, Io w a: Wm. C . Brown Company P u b l is h e r s , 1 9 6 7 . 304 p p . An A n n o ta te d B ib lio g r a p h y o f D i s s e r t a t i o n s i n W h ic h H u m a n itie s P rogram s a r e S t u d ie d , th e A r t s a re C o r r e l a t e d , o r C o n c e p tu a l Fram ew orks a r e P r e s e n te d 1 . B e d fo r d , W a rre n B iu c e . "An A n a ly s is and D e s ig n o f I H u m a n itie s Program s i n S e c o n d a ry E d u c a t io n ." U n- ; p u b lis h e d E d .D . d i s s e r t a t i o n . U n i v e r s i t y o f N o rth C a r o l i n a a t C h a p e l H i l l , 1 9 6 7 . 218 p p . E i g h t y - f o u r h u m a n itie s p ro g ra m s w e re a n a ly z e d to d e te r m in e i f d i f f e r e n c e s i n p u rp o s e s and d e f i n i t i o n s o f th e " h u m a n itie s " e x i s t . I t was d is c o v e r e d t h a t h u m a n itie s c o u rs e s a re u s u a l l y a p p ro ac h e d by means o f c h r o n o lo g ic a l s u r v e y s , th e c u l t u r a l - e p o c h t h e o r y , th e G r e a t B o o ks. T h e c o n c e p tu a l o r th e m a t i c a p p ro ac h and th e i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y a p p ro ach a re r a r e . The a u th o r d e s ig n e d a h u m a n itie s c o u rs e de v e lo p e d aro u n d l i f e c o n c e p ts and id e a s w h ic h he s u b je c t e d t o e v a l u a t i o n . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 9 J o h n so n , G ordon A l l e n . "A C o r r e l a t e d M u s ic and V i s u a l A r t s C o u rs e o f S tu d y f o r th e S e n io r H ig h S c h o o l." U n p u b lis h e d P h .D . d i s s e r t a t i o n , M ic h ig a n S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 6 3 . 320 p p . I n th e p ro p o s e d c o u rs e o f s t u d y , m usic and a r t a r e t o be s t u d ie d t o g e t h e r w i t h i n th e c o n t e x t o f th e s o c i e t y p ro d u c in g them . O n ly th e B a ro q u e pe r i o d i s f u l l y d e v e lo p e d as a u n i t o f th e e n t i r e c o u rs e w h ich th e a u th o r i n d i c a t e s f o llo w s a ch ro n o l o g i c a l a p p ro a c h . P h i l i p s , S te p h e n P e t e r . "A C o u rs e D e s ig n f o r th e T e a c h in g o f C e r t a i n A r t C o n c e p ts i n an I n t e g r a t e d F in e A r t s C o u rs e f o r S e c o n d a ry S c h o o ls . A Form u- l a t i v e S tu d y ." U n p u b lis h e d E d .D . d i s s e r t a t i o n , R u tg e r s - th e S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 6 6 . 229 p p . The c o u rs e o f s tu d y p r e s e n te d i s in t e n d e d f o r g e n e r a l e d u c a tio n s tu d e n ts a t th e sophomore l e v e l o f h ig h s c h o o l. L im it e d to a s tu d y o f a r t and mu s i c , r e l a t i o n s h i p s a re shown t o e x i s t b etw ee n th e s e a r t s . The b a s ic c o n c e p ts in c lu d e s t r u c t u r a l con c e p ts and r e l a t i o n a l c o n c e p ts . The fo rm e r c o n c e rn e le m e n ts , d e s ig n , and fo rm . The l a t t e r c o n c e rn c r e a t i o n , p e r c e p t io n , and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . P r i c e , E d w in C h a p p e ll. "Human P u r s u i t s A p p ro ach to th e B a s ic H u m a n it ie s ." U n p u b lis h e d E d .D . d i s s e r t a - | t i o n , The U n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a , 1 9 6 2 . 209 p p . i The human p u r s u i t s a p p ro ac h to th e h u m a n itie s i s d e s c r ib e d and i l l u s t r a t e d . The human p u r s u i t s ! p r e s e n te d a re p erm an en ce, j u s t i c e , and p le a s u r e . Exam ples a r e drawn fro m a r t , l i t e r a t u r e , and m usic as i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f th e s e c o n c e p ts . S c h u y le r , W i l l i a m S ca m m e ll. "The C o n c e p ts o f Human ism and th e H u m a n itie s i n A m e ric a n H ig h e r E duca t i o n . " U n p u b lis h e d E d .D . d i s s e r t a t i o n , S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 6 6 . 244 p p . A s tu d y w h ic h a tte m p ts t o d is c o v e r th r e a d s o f m eanings f o r th e " h u m a n itie s " o r s i m i l a r w o rd s . T h is i s a c c o m p lis h e d fro m an h i s t o r i c a l and seman t i c p o i n t o f v ie w . The s tu d y has n o th in g t o do w i t h p r e s e n t in g p a r t i c u l a r c o n c e p ts w i t h i n th e f i n e a r t s o r o t h e r b ra n c h e s o f th e h u m a n it ie s . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 0 I 2 . 8 , A S e le c t e d B ib lio g r a p h y o f D i s s e r t a t i o n s D e a lin g w it h I n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s Among th e A r t s , i n P a r t i c u l a r P h as e s, and Those C o n c e rn in g German E x p re s s io n is m B a u la n d , P e t e r M ax. "German Dram a on th e A m e rica n S ta g e : 1 8 9 4 -1 9 6 1 ." U n p u b lis h e d P h .D . d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f P e n n s y lv a n ia , 1 9 6 4 . 444 p p . B e a rd , R ic h a r d E l l i o t t . "A s p e cts o f S t r u c t u r e in T w e n t ie t h - C e n t u r y P a i n t in g and th e N o v e l as Re l a t e d t o My A pproach to P a i n t i n g . " U n p u b lis h e d P h .D . d i s s e r t a t i o n . The O hio S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 6 3 . 82 p p . B e d w e ll, C a r o l E . "The P a r a l l e l i s m o f A r t i s t i c and L i t e r a r y T e n d e n c ie s i n Germany 1 8 8 0 - 1 9 1 0 ." Unpub l i s h e d P h .D . d i s s e r t a t i o n , In d i a n a U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 6 2 . 181 p p . B r e w s t e r , R o b e r t G ene. "The R e l a t io n s h i p B etw een P o e t r y and M u sic i n th e O r i g i n a l S o lo -V o c a l W orks o f B e n ja m in B r i t t e n Th ro u g h 1 9 6 5 ." U n p u b lis h e d P h .D . d i s s e r t a t i o n , W a s h in g to n U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 6 7 . 263 p p . B y rn e , R ic h a r d B . "German C in e m a tic E x p re s s io n is m 1 9 1 9 - 1 9 2 4 ." U n p u b lis h e d P h .D . d i s s e r t a t i o n . S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y o f Io w a , 1 9 6 2 . 560 p p . Camp, John B . " E p is t o m o lo g ic a l Change as a B a s is f o r I n t e r p r e t i n g C o n te m p o ra ry W e s te rn C u l t u r e , P a r t i c u l a r l y i n th e A r t s o f P a i n t in g and M u s ic ." Unpub l i s h e d P h .D . d i s s e r t a t i o n , F l o r i d a S t a t e U n iv e r s i t y , 1 9 6 4 . 134 p p . " E a r ly M a n i f e s t a t io n s o f G er- New Y o rk P r o d u c tio n o f A m e ri- E lw o o d , W i l l i a m R o b e r t, man E x p re s s io n is m i n can D ram a. " U n p u b lis h e d P h .D . d i s s e r t a t i o n . U n i v e r s i t y o f O reg o n , 1 9 6 5 . 350 p p . G a b le , B e rtra m D . "A S tu d y o f th e R e la t io n s h ip o f T e x t and M u sic i n a S e le c t e d Number o f B aroque E x a m p le s ." U n p u b lis h e d D .M .A . d i s s e r t a t i o n . U n i v e r s i t y o f M is s o u r i a t K ansas C i t y , 1 9 6 6 . 113 p p . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 1 9 . G re e n b e rg , A l l a n C a r l . " A r t i s t s and th e W eim ar Repub l i c : D ada and th e B auhaus, 1 9 1 7 - 1 9 2 5 ." Unpub l i s h e d P h .D . d i s s e r t a t i o n . U n i v e r s i t y o f I l l i n o i s , 1 9 6 7 . 468 p p . 1 0 . G r i f f i n , S i s t e r M ary J an e E l i z a b e t h . " V is u a l A r t s i n G ra d u a te M u s ic H i s t o r y C o u rs e s ." U n p u b lis h e d D .M .A . d i s s e r t a t i o n . U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , 1 9 6 2 . 215 p p . 1 1 . G r u b e r, H e lm u t. "The P o l i t i c s o f German L i t e r a t u r e 1914 to 193 3: A S tu d y o f E x p r e s s i o n i s t and O b- j e c t i v i s t M o vem en ts." U n p u b lis h e d P h .D . d i s s e r t a t i o n , C o lu m b ia U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 6 2 . 311 p p . 1 2 . Landow, G eo rg e P a u l. "The A e s t h e t i c T h e o r ie s i n John R u s k in 's M odern P a i n t e r s . " U n p u b lis h e d P h .D . d i s s e r t a t i o n , P r in c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 6 6 . 278 p p . 1 3 . M o s ta fa , Ram zi E l- S a y e d . " A b s t r a c t - E x p r e s s io n i s t S e t t in g s f o r T h re e M odern P l a y s ." U n p u b lis h e d P h .D . d i s s e r t a t i o n . U n i v e r s i t y o f D e n v e r, 1 9 6 1 . 235 p p . 1 4 . R o em e r, Hans E r w in . "The T r e a tm e n t o f M u s ic i n th e German P ic a r e s q u e B aro q u e N o v e l." U n p u b lis h e d P h .D . d i s s e r t a t i o n . Case W e s te rn R e s e rv e U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 6 8 . 175 p p . 1 5 . S c h e r, S te v e n P a u l. " V e r b a l M u s ic : D e v ic e s and T e c h n iq u e s . E v o c a tio n s o f M u s ic in M odern German L i t e r a t u r e . " U n p u b lis h e d P h .D . d i s s e r t a t i o n , Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 6 6 . 282 p p . 1 6 . S i e g e l , L in d a S . "The I n f l u e n c e o f R o m a n tic L i t e r a t u r e on R o m a n tic M u s ic i n Germany D u r in g th e F i r s t H a l f o f th e N in e t e e n t h C e n t u r y ." U n p u b lis h e d P h .D . d i s s e r t a t i o n , B o s to n U n i v e r s i t y G ra d u a te S c h o o l, 1 9 6 4 . 296 p p . 1 7 . T r e a v o r , P a u l A r t h u r , J r . " G o e th e 's M ignon Poems, T h e i r L i t e r a r y I n t e r p r e t a t i o n and th e M u s ic a l I l l u s t r a t i o n o f T h e i r P o e t i c D e v ic e s ." U n p u b lis h e d P h .D . d i s s e r t a t i o n , P r in c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 6 3 . I 224 p p . I 1 8 . V a lg e m a e , M a r d i. " E x p re s s io n is m i n A m e ric a n D ra m a ." ! U n p u b lis h e d P h .D . d i s s e r t a t i o n . U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , Los A n g e le s , 1 9 6 4 . 239 p p . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER I I I SELECTED CONCEPTS IN GERMAN EXPRESSIONIST ART, MUSIC, AND LITERATURE SURVEYED AND CORRELATED I n t r o d u c t i o n Sigm und F re u d i n 1900 p u b lis h e d h i s I n t e r p r e t a t i o n i o f D re am s . B e s id e s p r e s e n t in g a s c i e n t i f i c r e v ie w o f l i t e r a t u r e c o n c e rn e d w i t h th e p ro b le m o f d re am s , F re u d d i s cu sse d dream i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , th e dream as w is h f u l f i l l m e n t , I and d i s t o r t i o n i n d re am s . F re u d i n d i c a t e d t h a t dream s r e p la c e th o u g h ts w it h h a l l u c i n a t i o n s . He a ls o n o te d t h a t th e ; I I dream s t a t e d i f f e r s fro m th e w ak in g s t a t e b e c a u s e dream s : ! c o n s t r u c t a s i t u a t i o n o u t o f th e h a l l u c i n a t i o n s , so r e a l ! ; t h a t th e s e s i t u a t i o n s ap p ea r to be a c t u a l l y e x p e r ie n c e d | Î I j ( 1 8 : 5 0 ) . A c c o rd in g to F r e u d , d u r in g th e d ream , th e s u p e r- | ego can u n r e s e r v e d ly s u r r e n d e r i t s e l f to th e He u n - ! j lo c k e d a " P a n d o ra 's Box" f o r a r t i s t s . ' A lth o u g h t h e r e i s d o u b t as to w h e th e r o r n o t A u g u s t i iS t r in d b e r g (1 8 4 9 -1 9 1 2 ) was f a m i l i a r w i t h F r e u d 's c o n t r i b u t io n s c o n c e rn in g dream s t a t e s , h i s Dream P la y o f 1 902 r e v e a ls h is k n o w le d g e o f th e dream w o r ld . 42 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 3 . . . th e a u th o r has t r i e d t o i m i t a t e th e d is c o n n e c t e d b u t s e e m in g ly l o g i c a l fo rm o f th e d re a m . A n y th in g may happen; e v e r y t h in g i s p o s s ib le and p r o b a b le . Tim e and sp ace do n o t e x i s t . On an i n s i g n i f i c a n t b a c k g ro u n d o f r e a l i t y , im a g in a t io n d e s ig n s and e m b ro id e rs n o v e l p a t t e r n s : a m ed ley o f m e m o rie s , e x p e r ie n c e s , f r e e f a n c i e s , a b s u r d i t i e s and im p r o v i s a t i o n s . The c h a r a c t e r s s p l i t , d o u b le , m u l t i p l y , v an i s h , s o l i d i f y , b l u r , c l a r i f y . B u t one c o n s c io u s - ; n ess r e ig n s above a l l — t h a t o f t h e d re a m e r; and b e f o r e i t t h e r e a re no s e c r e t s , no i n c o n g r u i t i e s , ! no s c r u p le s , no la w s . ( 7 0 : 2 4 ) i S t r i n d b e r g , c o n s id e r e d t h e " f a t h e r o f t h e p s y c h o lo g ic a l I p i a y ," ( 50: 359 ) became an E x p r e s s i o n i s t w it h h i s Dream ;P1 a y . T h e E x p r e s s io n is t s who f o llo w e d h im a ls o p r e f e r r e d i ; th e l a w l e s s , a t tim e s a n x i e t y - r i d d e n w o r ld o f th e d re a m e r. ; D i s t o r t i o n s , u n le a s h e d r e p r e s s io n s , f a n t a s i e s o f th e u n c o n - , s c io u s became th e m a t e r i a l w i t h w h ic h t h e E x p r e s s io n is t s : w ere c o m f o r t a b le . T h is la w le s s n e s s o f t h e dream w o r ld was d i f f u s e d by th e E x p r e s s io n is t s i n t o a g e n e r a l i z e d v e n t in g o f in w a r d e m o tio n . O th e r F r e u d ia n c o n c e p ts such as th e s t r u g g l e b e tw een t h e sexe s and th e p e r e n n i a l O e d ip u s c o m p lex a ls o ap p e a r as E x p r e s s i o n i s t th e m e s. The m a le v e rs u s fe m a le b a t t l e f o r p o w e r, w h e th e r o f a p s y c h o lo g ic a l o r s e x u a l n a t u r e , ta k e s on th e n a t u r e o f a v i o l e n t d u e l . No le s s p o w e r fu l 1 I i s th e E x p r e s s i o n i s t em phasis upon th e f a t h e r - s o n c o n f l i c t j i n th e many fo rm s t h i s w a r can assum e. I n t h i s c h a p t e r , two F r e u d ia n themes fo u n d i n G e r man E x p r e s s io n is m a re s t u d ie d : (1 ) e x p r e s s io n o f in w a rd Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 4 f e e l i n g , and (2 ) s t r u g g le b e tw e e n th e s e x e s . B e s id e s th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l r e v o l u t i o n i n i t i a t e d by F r e u d , W o rld War I g e n e r a te d s e e th in g id e a s i n th e E x p re s s i o n i s t m in d . From 191 4 t o 1 92 4 i s u s u a l l y c o n s id e r e d th e E x p r e s s i o n i s t d e c a d e . S o k e l d is c u s s e d th e E x p r e s s i o n i s t f e e l i n g c o n c e rn in g th e w ar w h ic h ra g e d d u r in g t h a t t im e . The c lim a x o f th e E x p r e s s i o n i s t r e g e n e r a t io n th ro u g h r e v o l t i s th e r e v o l t a g a in s t w a r . The E x p r e s s i o n i s t v ie w s w a r as th e n a t u r a l c u lm in a t io n o f a s o c i e t y t h a t a llo w s some human b e in g s t o l i v e i n lu x u r y w h i le o th e r s com m it s u ic id e b e ca u s e o f w a n t. ( 6 9 : 1 7 1 ) i j i t was m a in ly b e cau s e o f t h e w ar t h a t th e German E x p r e s - j s i o n i s t s s o u g h t a r e g e n e r a t io n known as W a n d lu n g . Wand- ■ l u n g , o r t r a n s f o r m a t io n , was s o u g h t th ro u g h r e v o l t o f one jk in d o r o t h e r . M o s t o f t e n th e r e v o l t was o f a m o r a l- i p o l i t i c a l n a t u r e o r o f a v i s c e r a l - i r r a t i o n a l n a t u r e . I n ; th e m o r a l - p o l i t i c a l r e v o l u t i o n , th e E x p r e s s i o n i s t o f t e n e s poused a s p i r i t u a l o r m y s t ic a l a pproach to a v i o l e n t a t - I t a c k upon th e e x i s t i n g p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e . W here th e v i s c e r a l - i r r a t i o n a l r e v o l t was c o n c e rn e d , th e E x p r e s s i o n i s t I s o u g h t e m a n c ip a tio n fro m a s t i f l i n g e x i s t e n t i a l s i t u a t i o n . 'B o th ty p e s o f r e v o l t o f t e n ended i n d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t o r de s p a i r . I n t h i s c h a p t e r , th e E x p r e s s i o n i s t theme o f Wand lu n g i s s t u d ie d b o th fro m th e a s p e c ts o f (1 ) s e a rc h f o r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , and (2 ) d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 5 M ea n in g o f th e Term "E x p re s s io n is m " A c c o rd in g to S o k e l, th e w ord "E x p re s s io n is m " was f i r s t u sed i n 1901 i n F ra n c e " . . . t o d i s t i n g u i s h M a tis s e and o t h e r In d e p e n d e n ts fro m th e p r e c e d in g I m p r e s s io n is t p a i n t e r s . " ( 6 7 : 1 ) Umbro A p o llo n io i n th e E n c y c lo p e d ia o f iw o r ld A r t c la im s t h a t th e p a i n t e r J u l i e n H e rv e used i t to I d e s c r ib e h i s own w orks i n 1 9 0 1 . A ls o , S o k e l says t h a t th e I te rm " E x p r e s s io n is t " was f i r s t u sed i n Germany to d e s c r ib e I I th o s e p a i n t e r s o f " . . . D re s d e n , B e r l i n , and M unich who f o llo w e d and d e v e lo p e d th e s t y l e o f Van Gogh, G a u g in , and j I ! M u n c h ." ( 6 7 : 2 ) A p o llo n io f u r t h e r n o te s t h a t when a j u r i s t f o r an e x h i b i t i o n o f th e New S e c e s s io n movement i n B e r l i n i n 1910 asked a b o u t a P e c h s te in p a i n t i n g , " Is t h i s s t i l l ! Im p re s s io n is m ? " he r e c e iv e d th e r e p l y , "No, i t i s e x p re s s io n is m ." ( 8 8 :3 1 2 ) B e rn a rd S . M yers i n The German E x p r e s s io n is t s and E g b e r t K r is p y n i n S t y l e and S o c ie t y i n German L i t e r a r y Ex p r e s s io n is m b o th a g re e t h a t a r t h i s t o r i a n W ilh e lm W o r r in g e r i n 1911 was known t o h ave e x p l i c i t l y u s ed th e te rm "E x p re s s i o n i s t " i n w r i t i n g f o r th e A u g u st is s u e o f P e r S tu rm . ; |M yers c la im s t h a t W o r r in g e r d e s c r ib e d C e za n n e , Van Gogh, land M a tis s e as E x p r e s s io n is t s and f u r t h e r n o te s t h a t th e jte rm i s c o n s id e r e d i n a p p r o p r ia t e f o r th e s e a r t i s t s to d a y | 1 ( 4 9 : 4 0 ) . The te rm " P o s t - Im p r e s s io n is t " i s now commonly Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 6 u sed to d e s c r ib e C e za n n e , Van Gogh, and G a u g in , w h ile M a t is s e i s known as one o f th e F a u v e s . W hat i s e s s e n t i a l a b o u t W o r r i n g e r 's use o f th e te rm "E x p re s s io n is m " i s t h a t he a p p lie d to i t a m eaning w i t h i n I it h e c o n t e x t o f an a e s t h e t i c t h e o r y . I n t h i s t h e o r y , W o r- I Î r i n g e r p ro p o s e d t h a t th e a r t i s t ' s own w i l l and i n t e n t i o n ! I w ere o f th e u tm o s t, p r im a l im p o rta n c e i n d i r e c t o p p o s it io n jt o th e th e n w id e ly a c c e p te d " n a t u r a l i s t i c - m a t e r i a l i s t i c em phasis on t e c h n i c a l kn o w -h o w ." ( 4 0 : 1 ) E x a c t ly how, I w hen, and w h ere th e te rm " E x p re s s io n is m " came t o be a p p lie d ! to m usic and th e l i t e r a r y a r t s i s n o t d e f i n i t e l y e s t a b - i l i s h e d . One s im p ly f in d s th e te rm w id e ly used i n th e l i t t é r a t u r e c o n c e rn in g th e s e s u b je c ts as w e l l as th e v i s u a l ! a r t s . ! ' Herman B a h r, i n h is book E x p re s s io n is m p u b lis h e d i n i 1 9 2 5 , w en t to g r e a t le n g th s d is c u s s in g th e e s s e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e b etw een Im p re s s io n is m and E x p r e s s io n is m . B a h r em p h a s iz e d th e r e b e l l i o n a g a in s t Im p r e s s io n is m i n h e r e n t i n i 1 ^ E xp re s sio n is m , w h ic h was t r u e e s p e c i a l l y a t i t s i n c e p t io n : j as an a r t movement. The v a r io u s s a y in g s and p r o c la m a tio n s o f Ex p r e s s io n is m o n ly t e l l us t h a t w h a t th e E x p r e s s io n i s t i s lo o k in g f o r i s w it h o u t p a r a l l e l i n th e p a s t . A new fo rm o f A r t i s d a w n in g . And he who b e h o ld s an E x p r e s s io n is t p i c t u r e by M a t is s e o r P ic a s s o , by P e c h s te in o r K o k o s ch ka, by K a n d in s k y o r M a rc , o r by I t a l i a n o r Bohem ian F u t u r i s t s , a g re e s ; he f in d s them q u i t e u n p re c e d e n te d . The n e w e s t s c h o o l o f p a i n t i n g c o n s is t s o f s m a ll s e c ts and g ro u p s t h a t v i t u p e r a t e each o t h e r , y e t one t h in g th e y a l l h ave Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 7 i n common. They a g re e o n ly on t h i s p o i n t , t h a t th e y a l l t u r n away fro m Im p r e s s io n is m , t u r n even a g a in s t i t : h en ce I c la s s a l l o f them t o g e t h e r u n d e r th e name o f E x p r e s s io n is t s , a lth o u g h i t i s a name u s u a l l y assumed o n ly by one o f th e s e c t s , w h i le th e o t h e r s p r o t e s t a t b e in g c la s s e d i n th e same c a t e g o r y . W henever Im p re s s io n is m t r i e s to s im u la t e r e a l i t y , s t r i v i n g f o r i l l u s i o n , th e y a l l a g re e i n d e s p is in g t h i s p r o c e d u re . ( 2 : 3 5 - 3 5 ) L a t e r on i n th e same w o rk , B a h r t r e a t e d th e e s s e n t i a l m eaning o f E x p re s s io n is m when he d is c u s s e d th e new em p h a s is th e a r t i s t p la c e d upon th e o u tw a rd c o m m u n ic a tio n o f h is i n n e r s e l f . And now t h e s o u l demands h is r e t u r n . T h is i s th e v i t a l p o i n t . A l l t h a t we e x p e r ie n c e i s b u t th e s tre n u o u s b a t t l e b e tw ee n th e s o u l and th e m achine f o r th e p o s s e s s io n o f man. We no lo n g e r l i v e , we a r e l i v e d ; we h a v e no fre ed o m l e f t , we may n o t d e c id e f o r o u r s e lv e s , we a re f i n i s h e d , man i s u n - s o u le d , n a t u r e i s unm anned. A moment ago we b o a s te d o f b e in g h e r lo r d s and m a s te rs and now she has opened h e r w id e jaw s and s w a llo w e d us u p . U n le s s a m ir a c l e happens 1 T h a t i s th e v i t a l p o i n t — w h e th e r a m ir a c l e can s t i l l re s c u e t h i s s o u l le s s , s u n k e n , b u r ie d h u m a n ity . N e v e r y e t has any p e r io d been so shaken by h o r r o r , by such a f e a r o f d e a t h . N e v e r has th e w o r ld been so s i l e n t , s i l e n t as th e g r a v e . N e v e r h as man been m ore i n s i g n i f i c a n t . N e v e r has he f e l t so n e rv o u s . N e v e r was h a p p in e s s so u n a t t a i n a b l e and fre e d o m so d e a d . D i s t r e s s c r i e s a lo u d ; man c r i e s o u t f o r h i s i s o u l; t h i s w h o le p r e g n a n t tim e i s one g r e a t c r y o f a n g u is h . A r t to o j o i n s i n , i n t o th e g r e a t d a rk n e s s she to o c a l l s f o r h e l p , she c r i e s t o th e s p i r i t : ! t h i s i s E x p r e s s io n is m . ( 2 : 8 3 - 8 4 ) j I n an a p p r o p r ia t e a n a lo g y , B a h r l i k e n e d th e E x p re s s i o n i s t ' s t u r n i n g to in n e r v i s i o n to t h e m usic c o m p o s e r's I jw o r ld w h e re , i n th e c o u rs e o f c o m p o s itio n , h i s v e r y own s o u l i s w h a t sounds w i t h i n h im , a t h e o r y d e r iv e d fro m th e j G r e e k s . I t i s as th o u g h a g r e a t c i r c u l a r p ro c e s s w e re Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 8 in v o lv e d i n w h ic h th e s o u l o f th e com poser a t l a s t communes w it h th e s o u l o f th e l i s t e n e r . The com poser, as i t w e re , t r a n s l a t e s h i s i n n e r f e e l i n g i n t o some ty p e o f a u d ib le sound w h ic h he th e n s y m b o liz e s by means o f n o t a t i o n . T h e se I n o te s o r sym bols i n t u r n a re in s tr u m e n t e d i n t o m u s ic a l v i b r a t io n s w h ic h re a c h f i r s t th e e a r s , th e n th e s o u l o f th e l i s t e n e r . Thus th e c i r c l e fro m s o u l o f th e com poser t o s o u l o f th e l i s t e n e r i s c o m p le te d . The E x p r e s s i o n i s t p a i n t e r s eek s " . . . m usic f o r I th e e y e s ." i They do n o t i n t e n d t o i m i t a t e n a t u r e , and t h e r e f o r e one m is ju d g e s them i f one com pares t h e i r p i c t u r e s to n a t u r e . We may as l i t t l e ask them w h ere th e y h ave e v e r seen th e l i k e i n n a t u r e as we w o u ld ask th e com poser w h ere he had h e a rd h i s m o t iv e . He has : h e a r d i t w i t h i n h i m s e l f ; th e y h a ve seen i t w i t h i n th e m s e lv e s . F o r him th e s e c r e t pow er has tu r n e d i n t o sound, f o r them i n t o l i g h t ; b o th re m a in e q u a lly i n e x p l i c a b l e to o u r p o o r human i n t e l l i g e n c e s , and y e t th e one i s n o t more m y s te r io u s th a n th e o t h e r . I And i f a t tim e s we h a v e t o d o u b t w h e th e r th e l a t e s t p a i n t e r r e a l l y d id se e h i m s e l f t h a t w h ich h e p a i n t s , so i t i s n o t a lw a ys c e r t a i n t h a t th e m u s ic ia n has r e a l l y f i r s t p e r c e iv e d h i m s e l f w h a t he th e n l e t s us h e a r . A t tim e s we may happen upon s m a rt o r c l e v e r I d e c e iv e r s who o n ly p r e t e n d t o be E x p r e s s i o n i s t s , b u t th e y a r e soon fo u n d o u t . ( 2 : 7 9 - 8 0 ) I n th e E n c y c lo p e d ia o f W o rld A r t , two ty p e s o f E x p r e s s io n is m a r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d : " F i g u r a t i v e E x p re s s io n is m " and " A b s t r a c t E x p r e s s io n is m ." A lth o u g h th e te rm s " f i g u r a t i v e " and " a b s t r a c t " a r e s p e c i f i c a l l y a p p lie d t o th e v i s u a l a r t s o f German E x p r e s s io n is m , th e te rm s a re a ls o a p p l ic a b l e to m usic and l i t e r a t u r e o f th e m ovem ent. The f i g u r a t i v e Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 43 ty p e o f E x p re s s io n is m i s t h a t i n w h ich o b je c t s a re d i s t o r t e d , b u t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f form s i s n o t t o t a l l y r e j e c t e d . T h ro u g h o u t th e d is c u s s io n o f German F i g u r a t i v e Ex p r e s s io n is m i n th e e n c y c lo p e d ia c i t e d , one f in d s th e f o l lo w in g p h ra s e s u s e d l i k e a v a r i a t i o n on a c o n s t a n t them e: . . . d i r e c t , im m e d ia te c o m m u n icatio n o f th o u g h ts and f e e l i n g s . . . e m o tiv e fo r m u la t io n s i n p la c e o f v i s u a l d e s c r i p t i o n s . . . p a s s io n a te u s e o f th e power o f c o l o r . . . e m o tio n a l a g i t a t i o n r a n g in g fro m s o c i a l p r o t e s t t o e c s t a t i c s p i r i t u a l i t y . . . u r g e n t c o m m u n ica tio n o f f e e l i n g . . . im m e d ia te e m o tio n a l p re s s u re s . . . i n s t i n c t , e x p re s s in g u n i v e r s a l f e e l i n g s . . . . ( 8 8 : 3 1 1 - 3 1 8 ) S o c i a l p r o t e s t and e c s t a t i c s p i r i t u a l i t y as o u t l e t s f o r e m o tio n a re them es i n th e E x p r e s s io n is t m ovem ent. N e v e r t h e l e s s , th e u r g e n t c o m m u n ica tio n o f in w a rd f e e l i n g i n p a s s io n a t e and v i s c e r a l term s i s th e v e r y c o re o f E x p r e s s io n is m . C o n c e p ts o f German F i g u r a t i v e E x p re s s io n is m i n A r t , M u s ic , and L i t e r a t u r e D is c u s s e d and C o r r e l a t e d I The f o l l o w i n g a s p e c ts o f German F i g u r a t i v e E x p r è s - i s io n is m i n a r t , m u s ic , and l i t e r a t u r e a r e d is c u s s e d and I c o r r e l a t e d : (1 ) e x p r e s s io n o f in w a rd f e e l i n g , (2 ) s e a rc h j I f o r t r a n s f o r m a t io n , (3 ) d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t , and (4 ) s t r u g g le Îb etw ee n th e s e x e s . The d is c u s s io n s o f th e two F r e u d ia n I them es a re th u s s e p a r a te d by th e d is c u s s io n s o f th e two I IW andlung them es to p re s e rv e some c h r o n o lo g ic a l o rd e r in th e { p r e s e n ta tio n o f m u s ic a l c o m p o s itio n s . I n th e d is c u s s io n o f Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 5 0 s t r u g g le b etw een th e s e x e s , f o r e xa m p le , A lb a n B e r g 's o p e ra L u lu (1 9 3 7 ) i s t r e a t e d w it h r e f e r e n c e made to h i s e a r l i e r o p e ra W ozzeck ( 1 9 2 7 ) . I t , t h e r e f o r e , seemed a p p r o p r ia t e to d is c u s s th e c o n c e p t o f d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t d e m o n s tra te d by W ozzeck b e f o r e t r e a t i n g th e s t r u g g le b e tw een th e sexes c o n - j c e p t . I I l l u s t r a t i o n s o f th e c o r r e l a t i o n s d is c o v e r e d a re I p r e s e n te d a t th e end o f th e d is c u s s io n o f each c o n c e p t. I E x p re s s io n o f in w a rd f e e l i n g . Some a tte m p t has a l - I re a d y been made to p o i n t o u t th e im p o rta n c e o f th e c o n c e p t | I o f u r g e n t c o m m u n ica tio n o f in w a rd f e e l i n g i n E x p r e s s io n is m . | ! I I n German E x p r e s s io n is m , s u b t i t l e d "A G e n e r a tio n i n R e v o lt," ! iM yers p o in t e d o u t: E c s ta s y i s a c o n s t a n t com ponent o f E x p r e s s io n is m , ! i n b o th d is c u s s io n and p r a c t i c e . F i l l e d w i t h a I u n i v e r s a l i s t r a t h e r th a n a p a r t i c u l a r i s t p o i n t o f ! I v ie w th e E x p r e s s io n is t c o n s t a n t ly t r i e s to v o ic e | o r f o r m u la t e a cosm ic f e e l i n g . . . . I n th e speed I and e c s t a t i c f r e n z y o f h i s e x p r e s s io n , th e a r t i s t o f t e n s u b o r d in a te s c o n s id e r a t io n s o f s t r u c t u r e to th e f u r io u s n e c e s s i t i e s o f h is o u tp o u r in g s , h is g e b a l l t e r S c h r e i (c le n c h e d c r y ) . B u t t h i s a p p a r e n t awkwardness o f s t y l e and g e n e r a l fo rm le s s n e s s ! a re d e l i b e r a t e , c o n v e y in g th e id e a o f f e v e r i s h h a s t e to sq u eeze e v e ry l a s t d ro p o u t o f l i f e , i ( 4 9 : 4 0 - 4 1 ) j M yers i s r e f e r r i n g p a r t i c u l a r l y t o E x p r e s s i o n i s t ! v is u a l a r t and l i t e r a t u r e , b u t i t w i l l be n o te d t h a t c e r t a i n m u s ic a l c o m p o s itio n s b eca u s e o f s t r u c t u r e , s t y l e , and id e a a re a ls o p ro d u c ts o f th e " c le n c h e d c r y " o f Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 51 E x p r e s s io n is m . By means o f t h i s " c le n c h e d c r y " th e German E x p r e s s i o n i s t , as i t w e r e , t o r e open th e mouth o f h u m a n ity and d e c la r e d th e tim e o f s il e n c e and l i s t e n i n g o v e r ( 2 : 8 5 ) . I I n th e v i s u a l a r t s , th e w oodcut became th e fa v o r e d I medium f o r im m e d ia te c a t h a r s i s . V i o l e n t gouges d r iv e n i n t o I a r e s i s t i n g f o r c e such as wood w e re th e means o f f r e n z i e d I e m o tio n a l r e l e a s e . A ls o , p a i n t e r s scum bled t h e i r s u r f a c e s , I I m a tte d them , o r p a in t e d on b u r l a p . T h e re was no room f o r ; f i n e s s e . E x p r e s s i o n i s t te c h n iq u e s i n th e v i s u a l a r t s w e re I I d e l i b e r a t e l y ro u g h and a p p e a re d u n s k i l l e d b e cau se th e G e r - ' man E x p r e s s io n is t s w o u ld h a ve i t s o . C o n v u ls iv e e m o tio n s needed e x p r e s s io n and th e y chose a p p r o p r i a t e l y c o n v u ls iv e m eans. I n l i t e r a t u r e , th e German E x p r e s s i o n i s t , e s p e c i a l l y th e d r a m a t is t c o n c e n tr a te d a lm o s t e n t i r e l y upon means o f e x p r e s s in g th e i n n e r w o r ld and r e f u s e d to co n fo rm to e x - i t e r n a l r e a l i t y . F e e lin g s o f c h a r a c t e r s w ere im m e d ia te ly I e x t e r n a l i z e d i n t o a c t io n s . "They do n o t m e re ly b l u r t o u t I t h e i r in n e r m o s t th o u g h ts , th e y a c t them o u t a t o n c e ." : ( 6 7 : 3 9 ) Composers c a u g h t i n th e E x p r e s s i o n i s t t i d e , w ere in o t o n ly i n s p i r e d by th e c o n te n t o f th e v i s u a l a r t s and I th e l i t e r a t u r e , b u t d e v is e d means o f t h e i r own f o r g i v i n g I v e n t to th e u rg e n c y t o c o m m u n ic a te . T h is th e y a c c o m p lis h e d by l a v i s h u se o f vehem ent d is s o n a n c e and a l t o g e t h e r new Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 5 2 te c h n iq u e s such as a t o n a l i t y and th e d o d e c a p h o n ic s y s te m . One o f th e m ost im p o r t a n t h e r a ld s o f German E x p r e s s io n is m i n th e v i s u a l a r t s was a N o rw e g ia n by b i r t h , E d v a rd Munch ( 1 8 5 3 - 1 9 4 4 ) . I t was h i s w orks -which drew th e a t t e n t i o n o f German a r t i s t s away fro m F re n c h Im p r e s s io n is m t o - Iw ard th e t o r t u o u s p a s s io n m ore c o n s i s t e n t w it h th e p s y - jc h o lo g y o f th e n o r t h e r n E u ro p e a n . M u n ch 's i n f l u e n c e was f e l t fro m th e tim e o f h i s e x h i b i t i o n i n Germ any i n 1 8 9 2 , b u t he m ore d i r e c t l y in f l u e n c e d D ie B ru c k e p a i n t e r s e s p e - j c i a l l y d u r in g th e 1 9 0 5 -1 9 0 8 p e r i o d . I t h a s been n o te d t h a t " . . . h i s em phasis on e m o tio n a l e x p r e s s io n . . . s e t j : th e d i r e c t i o n f o r th e E x p r e s s i o n i s t m ovem ent." ( 4 9 : 3 3 ) C h a r le s L . Kuhn i n German E x p r e s s io n is m and Ab- ; S t r a c t A r t r e f e r s t o th e Munch s t y l e as "gloom y" and " i n t r o s p e c t iv e " and s u p p o rts th e f a c t t h a t M u n c h 's i n f l u e n c e jd o m in a te d some o f th e German a r t s c e n e e s p e c i a l l y a b o u t ;1907 ( 4 1 : 5 ) . H is e f f e c t on e a r l y German E x p r e s s i o n i s t p a i n t i n g i s o b v io u s b e ca u s e he " . . . used h is a r t to e x - ip re s s (a n d th u s i n p a r t su rm o u n t) h is p ro fo u n d p e r s o n a l ; d is t u r b a n c e s t h a t made h i s s t r e e t echo w i t h f e a r , f i l l e d j la n d s c a p e w it h d e a th and t u r n e d woman i n t o a v a m p ir e ." 1(46:65) I n t h i s s tu d y , th e w orks o f E d v a rd Munch a re u sed t o i l l u s t r a t e th e e x p r e s s io n o f in w a r d f e e l i n g . In d e e d , jOne o f h i s b e s t known w o rk s . The C ry ( 1 8 9 5 ) , e p it o m iz e d i n I th e t i t l e i t s e l f " . . . th e g e b a l l t e r S c h r e i , th e spasm odic Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 53 c le n c h e d c r y o f E x p r e s s io n is m ." ( 4 9 : 3 4 ) M u n c h 's s t y l e , w h ic h em b o d ies p s y c h ic e x p r e s s io n , h a s b e e n d e s c r ib e d b y K u h n . M any o f h is w o rk s h a v e th e s in u o u s l i n e a r c o n to u rs and th e f l a t d y n a m ic p a t t e r n s common t o A r t N oveau d e s ig n s . I n many o f h is p r i n t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y th e l i t h o g r a p h s , and i n h is p a i n t i n g s , l i n e a r fo rm and f l a t a r e a s sweep th ro u g h th e c o m p o s it io n s , f o r c in g la n d s c a p e s and human f ig u r e s to c o n fo rm t o t h e i r s e l f - w i l l e d m ovem ent, g iv in g t h e p s y c h ic c o n te n t o f th e p i c t u r e a h e ig h te n e d e m o tio n a l im p a c t on I th e b e h o ld e r . N a t u r a l fo rm s a r e c o m p re s s e d o r a t t e n u a t e d , d i s t o r t e d i n t o s w e e p in g rh y th m s i n th e i n t e r e s t o f e m o tio n a l e m p h a s is . N o n - n a t u r a l i s t i c c o l o r i s o f t e n e m p lo ye d f o r th e same p u r p o s e . B e f o r e th e t u r n o f th e c e n t u r y , h e b e g a n t o u s e p o w e r- ' f u l s h o r t g o u g in g s t r o k e s o f th e c h i s e l i n c u t t i n g th e b lo c k s f o r h i s w o o d c u ts . T h e a n g u la r p la y o f l i g h t s and d a r k s , and th e ro u g h s t r e n g t h t h a t r e s u l t e d fro m t h i s m ethod w e re to h a v e a g r e a t i n f l u e n c e i n th e g r a p h ic w o rk s o f t h e f i r s t g e n e r a t io n o f G erm an E x p r e s s i o n i s t s . ( 4 1 : 5 ) :As i n th e c a s e o f o t h e r Germ an E x p r e s s io n is t s who e m p lo ye d th e w o o d c u t m e d ia , t h e g o u g e , as a t o o l , p r o v id e d Munch |w it h a means o f o b t a in in g im m e d ia te e m o tio n a l r e le a s e . T h e I li t h o g r a p h w a s , f o r h im , a n o th e r f a v o r i t e m eans o f e x p r e s s in g in w a r d e m o tio n . I I n t h e l i t h o g r a p h A t t r a c t i o n ( 1 8 9 6 ) , Munch d e p ic t s a man and woman t u r n e d to w a rd each o t h e r a f f e c t i o n a t e l y and j i n t i m a t e l y . A lth o u g h th e y do n o t to u c h e a c h o t h e r , th e ■woman's h a i r e n v e lo p e s th e m an. T h e p e r c e p t iv e v ie w e r s e n s e s th e in w a r d e m o tio n Munch e x p r e s s e d . I n Two P e o p le I ( T h e L o n e ly O n e s ) , f i r s t e x e c u te d i n 1 8 9 9 , M unch s ta n d s th e c o u p le a p a r t . O n ly a v ie w o f t h e i r b a c k s i s s e e n . Y e t one Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 5 4 c a n f e e l th e c o u p le 's u n io n . I n 1 9 1 7 , Munch added h is fam ous m o o n lig h t sym b o l to t h i s c o lo r e d w o o d c u t. T h is sym b o l i c r e p r e s e n t a t io n o f th e moon p la c e d b e tw e e n th e man and woman h e ig h te n s t h e i r m y s t ic a l u n io n . " B u t b y f a r th e m ost l y r i c r e p r e s e n t a t io n o f man and woman i s th e t e n d e r moment o f T h e K i s s . " ( 4 4 : x i v ) T h e r e a re t h r e e d i f f e r e n t v e r s io n s ----------------- jo f T h e K i s s : a p a i n t i n g o f 1 8 9 2 , an e t c h in g o f 1 8 9 5 , and : a w o o d c u t p r i n t e d i n 1 9 0 2 . T h e w o o d c u t o f 1 9 0 2 i l l u s t r a t e s jM u n c h 's i n t e r e s t i n th e t e x t u r e o f h i s b lo c k , h is g o u g in g I t e c h n iq u e , and h is u s e o f c o l o r . T h e p a t t e r n e f f e c t i n th e I wood t e x t u r e was c a r e f u l l y s e le c t e d f o r T h e K i s s . T h e p r e o c c u p a tio n o f Munch w it h i n n e r e m o tio n s o f h is own and m a n 's p o w e rle s s n e s s b e f o r e th e im p a c t o f lo v e I i n th e t h r e e w o rk s d e s c r ib e d f i n d t h e i r p a r a l l e l i n T r a n s f i g u r e d N ig h t b y A r n o ld S c h o e n b e rg ( 1 8 7 4 - 1 9 5 1 ) . I P e t e r S . H an sen i n An I n t r o d u c t i o n to T w e n tie t h !C e n tu r y M u s ic t r e a t s S c h o e n b e rg 's p r e - W o r ld W ar I co m p o si t i o n s and s a y s t h a t th e s e a r e th e w o rk s o f " . . . th e e x p r e s s i o n i s t a r t i s t — th e d e e p ly , s o m etim e s e x c e s s iv e ly , emo t i o n a l c r e a t o r . " ( 3 3 : 5 8 ) In d e e d , S c h o e n b e rg h im s e lf i n I Ih is own w o rk S t y l e and Id e a w r i t t e n i n 1 9 5 0 s t a t e d : . . . a w o rk o f a r t can p ro d u c e no g r e a t e r e f f e c t th a n w hen i t t r a n s m it s th e e m o tio n s w h ic h ra g e d in th e c r e a t o r to t h e l i s t e n e r , i n su ch a way t h a t th e y a ls o r a g e and s to rm i n h im . ( 5 4 : 8 ) i I n t h i s p a s s a g e , S c h o e n b e rg s im p ly r e s t a t e d one p a r t o f th e Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 5 5 a e s t h e t ic t h e o r y o f E x p re s s io n is m i n m u s ic a lr e a d y d e s c r ib e d by B a h r i n 1 9 2 5 . V e r k l a e r t e N a c h t o r T r a n s f ig u r e d N i g h t , Op 4 , was o r i g i n a l l y com posed by S c h o e n b e rg i n 1 89 9 as a s t r i n g s e x t e t . I t was f i r s t a rra n g e d f o r s t r i n g o r c h e s t r a i n 1 9 1 7 . iL ik e M unch, who e x p re s s e d in w a rd e m o tio n i n h i s w o rk s , I jS c h o e n b e rg , i n V e r k l a e r t e N a c h t , r h a p s o d ic a lly co m m u n ica te d I h is own in w a r d e m o tio n a f t e r h a v in g b e e n m oved b y R ic h a r d iD e h m e l's poem o f th e same nam e. S c h o e n b e rg d e s c r ib e d h is I j e c s t a t i c e x p e r ie n c e s i n c o m p o s itio n . . . . i n s p ir e d b y th e sound o f th e f i r s t w o rd s o f th e t e x t , I h ad com posed many o f my songs s t r a i g h t th ro u g h to th e end w it h o u t t r o u b l i n g m y s e lf i n th e s l i g h t e s t a b o u t th e c o n t in u a t io n o f th e p o e t i c e v e n ts , w it h o u t even g r a s p in g them i n th e e c ta s y o f c o m p o s in g , and t h a t o n ly d a ys l a t e r I th o u g h t o f lo o k in g b a c k to see j u s t w h a t was th e r e a l p o e t i c c o n t e n t o f my so n g . I t th e n tu r n e d o u t , to my g r e a t a s to n is h m e n t, t h a t I h a d n e v e r d o n e g r e a t e r j u s t i c e to th e p o e t th a n w hen, g u id e d by my f i r s t d i r e c t c o n t a c t w it h th e sound o f th e b e - i g in n in g , I d iv in e d e v e r y t h in g t h a t o b v io u s ly h ad to f o l l o w t h i s f i r s t sound w it h i n e v i t a b i l i t y . ( 6 4 : 4 ) ! W h at moved S c h o e n b e rg i n D e h m e l's p o e t r y was th e I h i g h ly c h a rg e d e x p r e s s io n o f human e m o tio n s . T h e s e x t e t ! V e r k l a e r t e N a c h t c o n s is ts o f f i v e s e c t io n s , i n w h ic h th e f i r s t , t h i r d , a n d f i f t h p o r t r a y th e in t e n s e f e e l i n g s o f a man and woman w a lk in g t o g e t h e r i n th e m o o n lig h t, so w e l l p a r a l l e l e d b y M u n c h 's Two P e o p le ( T h e L o n e ly O n e s ) . T h e s ec o n d c o n ta in s th e w om an's p a s s io n a te c o n fe s s io n t h a t sh e i s b e a r in g w i t h i n h e r th e c h i l d o f h e r h u s b a n d whom she Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 5 6 do es n o t l o v e . T h e f o u r t h s e c t io n c o n ta in s th e m a n 's p r o fo u n d r e a s s u r a n c e o f h is lo v e f o r h e r and h e r u n b o rn c h i l d whom h e w i l l a c c e p t as h i s ow n. T r a n s f ig u r e d th ro u g h h i s u n d e r s t a n d in g , h e em b races t lie woman i n th e m o o n lig h t ( 4 7 : 3 5 3 ) . T h e e x p r e s s iv e c h a r a c t e r o f th e w o rk fro m a m u s ic a l I s t a n d p o in t i s u n m is t a k a b le . I T h e fo rm , c o r r e s p o n d in g to "New G erm an" e x a m p le s j . . . i s f r e e and i n one m ovem ent; th e num erous th em es a r e d e v e lo p e d a c c o r d in g to t h e p o e t i c ma t e r i a l , w it h o u t a c h ie v in g m ore d e f i n i t e sym p h o n ic fo rm s o r r e g u l a r d e v e lo p m e n t. A l l i s h e r e d i r e c t e d to w a rd s e x p r e s s io n , m e lo d ic , and p o ly p h o n ic f lo w and r o m a n tic e x c it e m e n t . The p a th o s o f e r o t i c e x p e r ie n c e s h a re d b y tw o p e o p le , s t r e n g th e n e d b y a h i g h l y s e n s i t i v e e x p l o r a t i o n o f new re a lm s o f s o u n d , h e r e a c q u ir e s a s u b je c t i v e fo rm th r o u g h o u t. ( 7 1 : 2 6 ) S c h o e n b e rg h im s e lf d e s c r ib e d some c o m p o s it io n a l te c h n iq u e s u s e d i n V e r k l a e r t e N a c h t i n an a r t i c l e w r i t t e n f o r a p e r i o d i c a l . I . . . i n V e r k l a r t e N a c h t th e th e m a t ic c o n s t r u c t io n I i s b a s e d on W a g n e ria n "m odel and s eq u e n c e " ab o ve a i r o v in g h arm o n y on th e one h a n d , and on B ra h m s 's I [ s i c ] te c h n iq u e o f d e v e lo p in g v a r i a t i o n — as I c a l l j i t — on t h e o t h e r . ( 8 3 : 5 1 8 ) i A c o m p le te m u s ic a l a n a ly s is o f V e r k l a e r t e N a c h t i s fo u n d i n A r n o ld S c h o n b e rg b y Egon W e lle s z . O n ly a p a r t i a l d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e f o u r t h and l a s t s e c t io n o f t h e s e x t e t i s g iv e n h e r e . I t b e g in s w it h h a rm o n ic s and m u ted p a s s a g e s f o r th e v i o l i n ; th e s ec o n d v i o l i n and th e f i r s t v i o l a c a r r y on an u n d u la t in g m ovem ent, a c c o m p a n ie d b y th e s e c o n d v i o l a ( p i z z i c a t o ) , w h ile th e seco n d Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 5 7 'c e l l o s g iv e t h e h arm ony i n lo n g - d r a w n - o u t p i z z i c a to c h o r d s . A bove a l l t h i s a p p e a rs a w o n d e r f u lly i n s p ir e d m e lo d y , i n n i g , s e h r z a r t u n d w e ic h ( w i t h d e ep f e e l i n g , t e n d e r ly and s o f t l y ) , f o r th e f i r s t v i o l i n . . . . T h e d ia lo g u e b e tw e e n v i o l i n and ' c e l l o , c o r r e s p o n d in g t o th e v o ic e s o f th e man and woman, r i s e s c o n t in u o u s ly . I t i s i n t e r r u p t e d b y a s u g g e s tio n o f t h e f i r s t t r a g i c th e m e , now f a i n t l y h e a r d , in th e h ig h e s t n o te s o f th e f i r s t v i o l i n , th e o t h e r in s tr u m e n t s p l a y i n g q u i t e s o f t l y a t th e f in g e r b o a r d . T h e d ia lo g u e b e g in s a g a in , accom pa n ie d b y a new them e i n th e f i r s t v i o l i n , w h ic h le a d s l a t e r to an e x p r e s s iv e m e lo d y . . . . A r e s t l e s s i n s is t e n c e on th e p a r t o f th e ' c e l l o i n t e r r u p t s t h i s d e v e lo p m e n t and in t r o d u c e s f r e s h p a s s io n a t e f e e l i n g , i n th e c o u rs e o f w h ic h th e v a r io u s m o tiv e s co m b in e w i t h one a n o t h e r . Among a l l th e s e p a r t s t h e r e h o v e rs d o m in a tin g th e w h o le , th e r e c i t a t i v e - l i k e m o tiv e o f th e m an. W ith th e t r a n q u i l g r a n d e u r o f t h i s m o tiv e a l l t h e r e s t l e s s n e ss d is a p p e a r s , and t h e r e b e g in s th e f i n a l s e c t io n o f th e w o rk . T h e d ia lo g u e b e tw e e n th e f i r s t v i o l i n and th e ' c e l l o a g a in s u g g e s ts th e a tm o s p h e re o f m o o n lig h t, w h ile t h e s e c o n d v i o l i n c a r r i e s on a s p a r k lin g a c c o m p a n im e n t. An i n f i n i t e l y d e l i c a t e p i c t u r e i s c o n ju r e d u p t h e r e b y , w h ic h , b e co m in g e n h a n c e d , le a d s on to t h e c o m b in a tio n o f th e tw o c h i e f th e m e s . Th en t h e r e f o l l o w s , a c c o m p a n ie d b y c h r o m a tic h a rm o n ie s , th e f i r s t t r a g i c m o t iv e , w h ic h , now r e l i e v e d o f i t s m e la n c h o ly , sounds as i f rem o ved fro m th e e a r t h l y p la n e . G r a d u a lly th e h e ig h t s becom e c l e a r and th e t h i c k e t s h in in g i n th e m o o n lig h t becom es v i s i b l e . Now N a t u r e i s s p e a k in g ; w it h th e p u r e s t , s u b t l e s t to u c h th e m u s ic now p a in t s th e p i c t u r e o f th e t h i c k e t s ta n d in g a lo n e i n th e c l e a r l i g h t . I n a s h im m e rin g m e lo d y th e h a p p in e s s t h a t t h e tw o p e o p le h a v e fo u n d i s r e f l e c t e d ; th e n i t d ie s aw ay, and i n th e h ig h e s t h a rm o n ic s t h i s t o n e - p i c t u r e comes t o an e n d . ( 7 9 : 6 9 - 7 2 ) 1 I n th e m u s ic a l p a s s a g e s d e s c r ib e d , S c h o e n b e rg o f t e n | i {u s e d th e w o rd s e h r ( v e r y ) i n h i s e x p r e s s iv e m a r k in g s . T h e I I i w o rd " v e x y " c o n v e y s th e id e a o f th e i n t e n s i t y o f th e f e e l in g s S c h o e n b e rg w is h e d t o e x p re s s and e v o k e . Among th e s e ! Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 5 8 e x p r e s s iv e m a rk in g s a r e s e h r b r e i t ( v e r y b r o a d ) , s e h r la n q s a m ( v e r y s lo w ) , s e h r z a r t und w e ic h ( v e r y te n d e r and s o f t ) , and s e h r i n n i g und warm ( v e r y d eep and w a rm ). A u s d r u c k s v o ll ( f u l l o f e x p r e s s io n ) i s a n o th e r m a rk in g fa v o r e d b y S c h o e n b e rg th r o u g h o u t th e s e x t e t . S in c e i t was R ic h a r d D e h m e l's poem D ie V e r k l a e r t e N a c h t (1 8 9 5 ) w h ic h h a d i n s p i r e d S c h o e n b e rg t o com pose h is V e r k l a e r t e N a c h t i n 1 8 9 9 , D e h m e l's r e a c t i o n to a p e r fo r m a n ce o f th e s e x t e t i n 1 9 1 2 i s n o te w o r th y . D e a r M r . S c h o n b e rg ] Y e s t e r d a y I h e a r d V e r k l a r t e N a c h t , and I s h o u ld c o n s id e r i t a s in o f o m is s io n i f I f a i l e d to s a y a w o rd o f th a n k s to you f o r y o u r w o n d e r f u l S e x t e t . I h a d in t e n d e d t o f o llo w th e m o tiv e s o f my t e x t i n y o u r c o m p o s itio n ; b u t I soon f o r g o t t o do s o , I was so e n t h r a l l e d by t h e m u s ic . B e s id e s , H a n d le r [ H a n d le r was th e f i r s t v i o l i n i s t o f th e H a n d le r Q u a r t e t ] p e r fo r m e d i t q u i t e p e r f e c t l y w it h h i s p a r t n e r s ; I t h i n k t h a t y o u , to o , w o u ld h a v e e n jo y e d i t t h o r o u g h ly , e v e n th o u g h t h i s w o rk i s now te n y e a r s b e h in d y o u . W ith c o r d i a l g r e e t in g s , y o u r D ehm el O g lo r io u s s o u n d ! my w o rd s n o w rin g i n to n e s t o God r e e c h o in g ; To yo u t h i s h ig h e s t jo y I owe; On e a r t h no h ig h e r may we know . D . (6 0 : 2 4 -2 5 ) One c a n n o t h e lp b u t n o te th e p a r a l l e l b e tw e e n D e h m e l's e c s t a t i c e x p e r ie n c e i n f o r g e t t i n g h i s own t e x t as h e y ie l d e d to t h e e n t h r a llm e n t o f S c h o e n b e r g 's m u s ic , and S c h o e n b e rg 's e c s t a t i c e x p e r ie n c e i n y i e l d i n g to h i s c r e a t i v e im p u ls e to j Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 59 com pose, f o r g e t t i n g th e t e x t o n ce h e h ad b e en i n s p i r e d . An e x c e r p t o f S c h o e n b e r g 's r e p l y to D eh m el r e a d s : B e r l i n - Z e h l e n d o r f , 13 D ecem b er 1 9 1 2 D e a r H e r r D e h m e l, I c a n n o t t e l l yo u how g la d I am to be d i r e c t l y i n to u c h w i t h y o u a t l a s t . F o r y o u r poems h a v e h a d a d e c i s i v e i n f l u e n c e on my d e v e lo p m e n t as a c o m p o s e r. T h e y w e re w h a t f i r s t made me t r y to f i n d a new to n e i n th e l y r i c a l m ood. O r r a t h e r , I fo u n d i t even w it h o u t lo o k in g , s im p ly b y r e f l e c t i n g i n m u s ic w h a t i y o u r poems s t i r r e d up i n m e. P -.o p le who know my m u s ic c a n b e a r w itn e s s t o th e f a c t t h a t my f i r s t a t te m p ts t o com pose s e t t i n g s f o r y o u r poems c o n t a in m ore o f w h a t h a s s u b s e q u e n tly d e v e lo p e d i n my w o rk j th a n t h e r e i s i n many a much l a t e r c o m p o s itio n . So ] y o u w i l l u n d e r s ta n d t h a t t h e r e g a r d i n w h ic h I h o ld j y o u i s t h e r e f o r e b o th c o r d i a l and— ab o ve a l l — g r a t e - j j f u l . ( 6 8 : 3 5 ) ! : R e f e r r e d t o b y some a u th o r s as a N a t u r a l i s t , Im p r e s s i o n i s t , o r S y m b o lis t , R ic h a r d D ehm el ( 1 8 6 3 -1 9 2 0 ) s h o u ld n o t n e c e s s a r i l y b e th u s c a t e g o r i z e d . T h e p o s i t i o n i s ta k e n : I h e r e t h a t , " H is w o rk f i t s i n b e tw e e n t h a t o f N ie t z s c h e on 't h e one h a n d , and o f th e m o st e c s t a t i c E x p r e s s io n is t s on 't h e o t h e r . " ( 7 : x ) T h e r e f o r e , h is poem D ie V e r k l a e r t e N a c h t (1 8 9 5 ) i s an a p t c o r o l l a r y f o r th e M unch and S ch o en b e r g w o rk s a lr e a d y d is c u s s e d . C h r o n o lo g ic a lly , D ehm el I l i v e d d u r in g a t r a n s i t i o n a l p e r io d , c a u g h t b e tw e e n t h e d e - 'n o u e m e n t o f R e a lis m and t h e o n s la u g h t o f E x p r e s s io n is m . T h is f a c t te n d s to le n d s u p p o r t to c o n s id e r in g D ehm el as one who w o u ld h a v e b e en t o t a l l y s w e p t i n t o t h e G erm an E x - j p r e s s i o n is t t i d e h a d h e l i v e d a b i t l a t e r . H is w o rk s s e e th w it h p o w e r fu l e m o tio n d em an d in g c o m m u n ic a tio n and as such Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 6 0 D e h m e l, l i k e M unch can b e c o n s id e r e d an im m e d ia te f o r e r u n n e r o f th e G erm an E x p r e s s io n is t s t y l e . D e h m e l's D i o n y s i a n - l i k e c e l e b r a t i o n o f th e s e n s u a l i t y o f lo v e and a l l i t s e m o tio n s i s h is m a jo r l y r i c them e. D ehm el a tte m p te d to s y n t h e s iz e th e p h y s ic a l and th e p h y c h i- I c a l e le m e n ts o f lo v e w it h r h a p s o d ic v e h e m e n c e . F o r h is ! I t im e , h is p o e t r y m ig h t be te rm e d p a s s io n a t e . D ehm el p u b l i s h e d s e v e r a l v o lu m e s o f p o e t r y i n th e n i n e t i e s and c o n t in u e d to p u b lis h and re m a in p o p u la r u n t i l a b o u t 1 9 1 4 . D ehm el d id n o t a tte m p t to r e v o l u t i o n i z e p o e t ic fo rm and s t y l e w h ic h many G erm an E x p r e s s io n is t p o e ts a c c o m p lis h e d a f t e r h im . He was a p r o p h e t f o r th e r e b e ls t o come i n a n - I o t h e r s e n s e : 1 To th e im m e d ia te ly f o l l o w i n g g e n e r a t io n s in d e e d ■ D e h m e l's p o e t r y h e ld s o m e th in g o f th e p ro m is e o f r e le a s e fro m and p r o t e s t a g a in s t th e t i g h t bonds j o f V i c t o r i a n c o n v e n tio n s y m b o lis e d i n m odern E n g - I la n d by th e names o f D .H . L a w re n c e (1 8 7 5 -1 9 3 0 ) i and James J o y c e ( 1 8 8 2 - 1 9 4 1 ) . ( 7 7 : 1 0 5 ) : An a t t e s t a t i o n to D e h m e l's t i e s w it h th e G erm an I E x p r e s s io n is t c o n c e p t o f c o m m u n ic a tio n o f in w a r d f e e l i n g I i s fo u n d i n J e t h r o B i t h e l l ' s M o d ern G erm an L i t e r a t u r e . j . . . h is b e s t l y r i c s - - a n d when tim e h a s done i t s j s i f t i n g one s u s p e c ts t h a t n o th in g w i l l re m a in o f : h im b u t a s le n d e r v o lu m e o f l y r i c s w h ic h w i l l be I re c k o n e d w it h th e v e r y b e s t i n th e G erm an la n g u a g e I — a re poems o f e x p e r ie n c e ( E r le b n i s g e d i c h t e ) , I whose rh y th m and im a g e ry a r e b o rn e a lo n g on w aves I o f in t e n s e e m o tio n . H is d e f i n i t i o n o f rh y th m ] . . . as an u n d u la t io n o f v i t a l e n e r g y , e v e r y j s t r e s s b e in g th e c r e s t o f a w ave o f e m o tio n and I th e rh y th m p u ls in g w it h th e t i d e o f i t , a d m ir a b ly ! f i t s h is own l y r i c p a s s io n ; on a n a ly s is i t w o u ld Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 6 1 be fo u n d t h a t th e ru s h o f f e e l i n g — p r a c t i c a l l y a l w ays s e x u a l e x c i t a t i o n — come f i r s t , and t h a t i n th e s h a p in g o f t h e f e e l i n g th e id e a i s c a l l e d i n . ( 4 : 1 1 0 ) T h u s , p a s s io n and in t e n s e e m o tio n w e re c o m m u n ic a te d i n m o st o f D e h m e l's p o e t r y . D ehm el b e lie v e d t h a t m a n 's suprem e n e e d i s f o r woman ( W e ib ) and t h a t b y h e r h e becom es s tr o n g f o r h is p la c e i n th e w o r ld ( W e l t ) . T h e p h ilo s o p h ic a l b a s is o f D e h m e l's id e a o f th e cosmos l a y i n h is th e n d a r in g p r o c la m a t io n o f th e su p rem acy o f s e x u a l i t y and a l l i t s f e e li n g s 1 ( 4 : 1 1 5 ) . I A c c o r d in g to J u l iu s B a b , D e h m e l's poem e n t i t l e d i ! D ie V e r k l a e r t e N a c h t was w r i t t e n p r i o r to D ecem b er 1 , 1 8 9 5 . T h is f a c t i s c o r r o b o r a t e d i n a l e t t e r w r i t t e n by D ehm el i n iw h ic h h e r e l a t e d d e t a i l s c o n c e r n in g th e c o m p o s itio n o f th e I poem ( 1 : 1 8 6 - 1 9 0 ) . T h e poem b e g in s w it h th e w o rd s Z w e i iM e n s c h e n , t r a n s l a t e d i n t o E n g lis h as "Two P e o p le ." I t a p - Ip e a r e d i n W e ib und W e l t , a book o f p o e t r y p u b lis h e d by D ehm el i n 1 8 9 6 and c a r r i e d th e t i t l e D ie V e r k l a e r t e N a c h t ( 1 : 1 9 7 ) . I n 1 9 0 3 , D ehm el d ro p p e d t h e t i t l e D ie V e r k l a e r t e i N a c h t and u s e d t h e poem to b e g in and s e t t h e them e f o r a jnew c o l l e c t i o n o f p o e t r y p u b lis h e d as Z w e i M e n s c h e n . T h e I poem D ie V e r k l a e r t e N a c h t , now known as Z w e i M e n s c h e n , no lo n g e r a p p e a re d i n s u b s e q u e n t e d i t i o n s o f W e ib und W e l t . T h e r e a r e d is c r e p a n c ie s i n v a r io u s r e f e r e n c e s a b o u t th e i n s p i r a t i o n f o r S c h o e n b e rg 's V e r k l a e r t e N a c h t . I t was n o t D e h m e l's Z w e i M enschen o f 1903 b e c a u s e Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 62 S c h o e n b e rg com posed h i s s e x t e t V e r k l a e r t e N a c h t i n 1 8 9 9 . T h e r e f o r e , h e was p r o b a b ly i n s p i r e d b y D e h m e l's poem D ie V e r k l a e r t e N a c h t e i t h e r as i t may h a v e a p p e a re d i n a p e r i o d ic a l o f 1 8 9 5 , o r i n th e e a r l i e s t e d i t i o n o f W e ib un d W e lt ( 1 8 9 6 ) . A t r a n s l a t i o n o f D e h m e l's poem i s p r e s e n te d i n th e f o l l o w i n g s e c t io n o f e x a m p le s . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 5 3 EXAMPLES ILLU S TR A TIN G PARALLELS IN THE CONCEPT " E x p r e s s io n o f In w a r d F e e lin g " Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 6 4 L it h o g r a p h and W o o d cu ts A t t r a c t i o n Two P e o p ]q , ( T h e L o n e ly O n e s ) T h e K is s E d v a rd Munch ( 1 8 6 3 -1 9 4 4 ) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 6 8 M u s ic E x c e r p ts fro m V e r k l a e r t e N a c h t ( T r a n s f ig u r e d N i g h t ) A r n o ld S c h o e n b e rg (1 8 7 4 - 1 9 5 1 ) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 6 9 VERKLAERTE NACHT (Transfigured N ig h t) A R N O L D SCTfOi:NBLRG, Op. 4 Sehr langsam (1874-1951) Violin I Violin II VioUn I Viola II PP Cello II xr PP intmcr itù e nmncr (cii tnimcr iniiiier leise 3 - ^ = : r . ^ r ,- z r r : iiiimrrifi'sc — ' tm tncr let se Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 70 NOTES ON VERKLAERTE NACHT BY ARNOLD SCHOENBERG A t the end of the 19th century, the foremost representatives of the “Zeitgeist” in poetry were Detlev von Liliencron, Hugo von Hofmannsthal and Richard Dehm el But in music, after Brahms’ death, many young com posers followed the model of Richard Strauss, by composing program music. This explains the origin of Verklaerte Nacht: it is program music, illustrating and expressing the poem of Richard Dehmel. M y composition was, perhaps, somewhat different from other illustra tive compositions, firstly, by not being for orchestra but for a chamber group and secondly, because it does not illustrate any action or drama, but was restricted to portray nature and to express human feelings. It seems that, due to this attitude, my composition has gained qualities which can also satisfy if one dues not know what it illustrates, or in other words, it offers the possibility to be appreciated as “pure” music. Thus it can per haps make you forget the poem which many a person today might call rather repulsive. Nevertheless, much of the poem deserves appreciation because of its highly poetic presentation of the emotions provoked by the beauty of nature, and for the distinguished moral attitude in dealing with a stagger ingly difficult problem. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 71 Promenading’ in a park, Ex. / SeA r ?angsam T in a clear, cold moonlight night, B x .S " IË I " L jtr# r '' E x.S the woman confesses a tragedy to the man in a dramatic outburst. Ex. i Eeuiegier ‘' f l y - She had married a man whom she did not love. She was unhappy and lonely in this marriage, Ex. 5 but forced herself to remain faithful. Ex. 6 i m and finally obeying the maternal instinct, she is now with child from a man she does not love. She had even considered herself praiseworthy for fulfilling her duty toward the demands of nature. Ex. 7 A climactic ascension, elaborating the motif, expresses her self-accusation of her great sin. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 7 2 Ex. H In desperation she now walks beside the man with whom she has fallen in love, fearing his verdict will destroy her. Ex. 9 But “the voice of a man speaks, a man whose generosity is as sublime as his love.” Ex. 10 ____ _________ ____ 1 W ) 1 FTcT f - f f —f The preceding first half of the composition ends in E-flat minor (a), of which, as a transition, only the B-flat (b) remains, in order to connect with the extreme contrast of D major {c ). Harmonics (a), adorned by muted runs (b), express the beauty of the moonlight Ex. 11 i ,1 (&) and, above a glittering accompaniment, Ex. 12 J 7 V t v f v r ? r ? J-ÏTyiÿ à-à J J gWjfj â * 7 y ^ y y j j 4 ' y pizz. . ------- a secondary theme is introduced, Ex. ÎS * Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 7 3 which soon changes into a duet between violin and cello. K w ./. r " ~ x X i _ Ce//ûZ~ W This section reflects the mood of a man whose love, in harmony with the splendor and radiance of nature, is capable of ignoring the tragic situation: “the child you bear must not be a burden to your soul.” Having reached a climax, this duet is connected by a transition with a new theme. Ex. 15 Y/o ? . I 7 r f V is ta I Its melody, expressing the “warmth that flows from one of us into the other,” the warmth of love, is followed by repetitions and elaborations of previous themes. It leads, finally, to another new theme, which corresponds to the man's dignified resolution: this warmth “will transfigure your child,” so as to become “my own.” i j z z i Ex. Î5 m An ascension leads to the climax, a repetition of the man’s theme (Ex. 10c) at the beginning of the second part. A long coda section concludes the work. Its material consists of themes of the preceding parts, all of them modified anew, so as to glorify the miracles of nature that have changed this night of tragedy into a trans figured night. It shall not be forgotten that this work, at its first performance in Vienna, was hissed and caused riots and fist fights. But very soon it became very successful. August 26,1950 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 7 4 P o e t r y D ie V e r k l a e r t e N a c h t R ic h a r d D ehm el ( 1 8 6 3 -1 9 2 0 ) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 7 5 VERKLAERTE NACHT Gedicht von Richard Dehmel (aus "W eib und W elt") Zwei Menschen gehn durch kahlen, kalten Hain; . der Mond lauft mit, sic schaun hinein. Der Mond lauft über hohe Eichen, kein Wôlkchen trübt das Himmeislicht, in das die schwarzen Zacken reichen. Die Stimme eines Weibes spricht: Ich trag ein Kind, und nit von Dir, ich geh in Sünde neben Dir. Ich hab mich schwer an mir vergangen. Ich glaubte nicht mehr an ein Gluck und hatte doch ein schwer Verlangcn nach Lebensinhalt, nach Mutterglück und Pflicht; da hab ich mich erfrecht, da liess ich schaudernd mein Geschlecht von einem fremden Mann umfangen, und hab mich noch dafür gesegnct. Nun hat das Leben sich gerâcht: nun bin ich Dir, o Dir begegnet. Sic geht mit ungelenkem Schritt. Sic schaut empor; der Mond lauft mit. Ihr dunkler Blick ertrinkt in Licht. Die Stimme eines Mannes spricht: Das Kind, das Du empfangen hast, sei Deiner Seele keine Last, o sieh, wie klar das W eltall schimmert! Es ist ein Glanz um Ailes her. D u treibst mit mir auf kaltem Meer, doch eine eigne W ârme flimmert von D ir in mich, von mir in Dich. Die wird das fremde Kind verklâren Du wirst es mir, von mir gebaren; Du hast den Glanz in mich gebracht. Du hast mich selbst zum Kind gemacht. Er fasst sie um die starken Hüften. Ihr Atem küsst sich in den Lüften. T R A N S F IG U R E D N IG H T Poem by Richard Dehmel Tw o people walk through the bare cold woods ; the moon runs along, they gaze at it. The moon runs over ta ll oaks, no cloudlet dulls the heavenly lig h t into which the black peaks reach. A woman’s voice speaks: I bear a child, and not from you, I walk in sin alongside you. I sinned against myself m ightily. I believed no longer in good fortune and s till had m ighty longing fo r a fu ll life , mother's joy and d u ty ; then I grew shameless, then horror-stricken, I let my sex be taken by a stranger and even blessed myself fo r it. N o w life has taken its revenge'. N o w I met you, you. She walks w ith clumsy gait. She gazes upw ard; the moon runs along. H e r somber glance drowns in the lig h t. A man's voice speaks: The child that you conceived be to your soul no burden, oh look, how clear the universe g litte rs! There is a glory around A ll, you d rift w ith me on a cold sea, but a peculiar warm th sparkles from you in me, from me in you. It w ill transfigure the strange child you w ill bear it me, from m e; you brought the glory into me, you made my self into a child. H e holds her around her strong hips, T heir breath kisses in the air. Zwci Menschen gehn durch hohe, helle Nacht. T w o people w alk through high, lig h t night. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 76 S e a rc h f o r T r a n s f o r m a t io n . A l l u s io n h a s a lr e a d y b e e n made to th e c o n c e p t o f W a n d lu n q , o r i n n e r r e g e n e r a t i o n . A t th e c lo s e o f W o rld W ar I , th e E x p r e s s io n is t by h is own c h o ic e l i v e d i n i s o l a t i o n and w ith d r a w a l fro m th e Iw o r ld . M o r e o v e r , h e was fa c e d w it h th e d ile m m a o f b e - i l i e v i n g t h a t a r t i s th e k i l l e r o f l i f e and t h e r e f o r e , m u st I i t s e l f b e k i l l e d o r , o f f i n d i n g a way o u t o f t h i s d ile m m a . ! T h e w ay o u t o f t h i s d ile m m a i s an in n e r r e g e n - ! e r a t i o n , a W a n d lu n g ( a f a v o r i t e te rm i n E x p r e s s io n is m ) . O n ly i f th e s e lf - a b s o r b e d , n a r c i s s i s t i c a r t i s t le a r n s co i d e n t i f y h im s e lf w it h o t h e r s , s h a r e t h e i r s u f f e r i n g s , s e r v e and lo v e th e m , c an he s a v e h i m s e l f , and becom e a t r u e p o e t , a s e e r , and a h e a l e r o f m a n k in d . T h e p a i n f u l f e e l i n g o f " u n r e la t e d n e s s ," th e s e n s e o f o n e 's own in h u m a n it y , was an im p o r t a n t re a s o n f o r th e d e i f i c a t i o n o f h u m a n ity , th e demand f o r e m b ra c in g a l l m a n k in d i n one g ra n d g e s t u r e , w h ic h th e E x p r e s s io n is t g e n e r a t io n p o s tu l a t e d . ( 6 7 : 1 3 7 ) Thus th e a r t i s t , s e e k in g t r a n s f o r m a t io n , h ad a new p e r s p e c t i v e . He saw th e w o r ld no lo n g e r as a p le b ia n e m p ire o f ig n o r a n t p e o p le w o r th y o n ly o f d is d a i n , b u t as a mass o f s u f f e r i n g h u m a n ity bound t o g e t h e r by one ty p e o f p a in o r o t h e r . A lw a y s e x c r u c i a t i n g l y aw a re o f h is own n e u r o t i c m i s - f i t n e s s , th e E x p r e s s io n is t fo u n d t h a t h e was n o t a lo n e i n h is g r i e f . M o r e o v e r , a s p i r i t u a l , m y s t ic a l q u a l i t y was p a r t o f I th e t o t a l p i c t u r e o f W a n d lu n g . S o k e l re m a rk s t h a t th e " . . . a t t i t u d e , w h ic h w o u ld d ra w a s h a rp d i v i d i n g l i n e b e - Î itw e e n r e l i g i o u s E x p r e s s io n is m and p o l i t i c a l a c t iv is m . . ." ( 6 7 : 1 4 6 ) o v e r lo o k s t h e f a c t t h a t e ac h i s c o n ta in e d i n th e Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 77 o t h e r . T h is p o i n t i s g r a p h i c a l l y c o r r o b o r a t e d i n E r n s t T o l l e r ' s f i r s t p la y D ie W a n d lu n g ( 1 9 1 8 ) . T o l l e r e r e c t s a s e r ie s o f t a b le a u x i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e m is e r ie s o f w a r on a s c a f f o ld i n g w h ic h r e p r e s e n t s th e S t a t i o n s o f th e C r o s s . T h e r e g e n e r a t e E x p r e s s i o n i s t , w h e th e r c o n v e r te d t o C h r i s t o r t o a c t iv is m , t r i e s to becom e " t r u l y common" ; i . e . , he t r i e s t o w ip e o u t i n h im s e lf w h a t- [ e v e r s e p a r a te s h im fro m h i s f e l l o w m en. He com - i p l e t e l y r e j e c t s t h e G o e th e a n -N ie tz s c h e a n c u l t o f j p e r s o n a l i t y and p r i d e o f i n d i v i d u a l i t y , w h ic h i n fo rm e d th e g r e a t e s t p a r t o f th e G erm an c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n i n th e n in e t e e n t h and e a r l y t w e n t ie t h c e n t u r ie s , and c u lm in a te d i n th e c u l t o f th e " g r e a t i man" o r s u p e rm a n . . . . T h e e x p r e s s io n is t co m b ats | j th e N ie tz s c h e a n a r i s t o c r a t i c N e o -R o m a n tic is m so i I f i e r c e l y b e c a u s e h e h i m s e l f , . . . g re w up i n i t i and s u f f e r e d u n d e r i t s im p a c t . ( 5 7 : 1 5 7 - 1 5 8 ) j ' I I n p a i n t i n g , W a n d lu n g , o r t r a n s f o r m a t io n , te n d e d t o , I be e m p h a s iz e d i n d e ep s p i r i t u a l i t y and i n th e s u b o r d in a t io n o f th e i n d i v i d u a l to awesome m y s t e r y . E m il N o ld e , i n much o f h is p a i n t i n g , i s one e x a m p la r o f t r a n s f o r m in g m y s t ic is m . j j E m il N o ld e (1 8 6 7 - 1 9 5 6 ) was b o rn E m il H an sen o f ; F r i s i a n p a r e n t s . I n 1 9 0 1 , h e a d o p te d th e su rn am e " N o ld e " ' a f t e r h is n a t i v e v i l l a g e , as th o u g h h e w is h e d t o i d e n t i f y : j I jh im s e lf w it h th e e a r t h o f th e p la c e w h e re h e was b o r n . iN o ld e s o u g h t W an d lu n g th r o u g h m y s t ic is m . I n N o ld e 's fa m ily , i f a i t h was b a s e d on th e B i b l e a lo n e w h ic h h e o f t e n r e a d . I n ; I : f a c t , th e t a l e s o f th e O ld and New T e s ta m e n ts f i r e d h is yo u n g im a g in a t io n to th e p o i n t o f e c s ta s y ( 2 8 : 1 3 ) . M o r e o v e r , l i k e many o t h e r G erm an E x p r e s s io n is t s , ! iN o ld e t r a v e l e d and came u n d e r th e in f l u e n c e o f th e p o e t r y Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 7 8 o f th e S y m b o lis t s , th e m u s ic o f W a g n e r, t h e p h ilo s o p h y o f N ie t z s c h e , t h e d ram as o f S t r i n d b e r g , and t h e " c le n c h e d c r y " v o ic e d by E d v a rd M u n ch . He b e g an t o i d e n t i f y w it h th e i s o l a t i o n and lo n e li n e s s o f th e E x p r e s s i o n i s t s . I n s p i r e d b y th e c o n te m p o ra ry i d e a l o f " th e d a n g e r ous l i f e , " h e becam e im b u e d w it h an u n s h a k a b le s en s e o f m is s io n . A t th e same tim e h e d e v e lo p e d a s p e c ia l v u l n e r a b i l i t y t o w h ic h h is b a c k g ro u n d h a d p r e d i s p o s ed h im , a f e e l i n g t h a t h e was a lo n e , m is u n d e r s to o d , and p e r s e c u te d — a p e c u l i a r l y d e f i a n t a t t i t u d e to w a rd " p e o p le ," w h ic h th r o u g h o u t h is l i f e c u t h im o f f fro m c o m ra d e s h ip . H e d is c o v e r e d N ie t z s c h e , and b e g an to m ake n o te o f h i s own r e f l e c t i o n s . . . . He le a r n e d a g r e a t d e a l fro m t h e t h e a t e r . I n t h i s e a r l y p e r io d h e was s t r o n g ly im p re s s e d by a p e r fo r m an ce o f I b s e n 's W ild D u c k : " t h e t r a g i c d e s e r t o f f a t e , " t h e b r e a t h o f w h ic h h e f e l t i n t h e t h e a t e r h a u n tin g h im f o r w eeks t h e r e a f t e r . T h e d e t a i l r e v e a ls how th e g u id in g sym b o ls o f t h e d e c a d e a f f e c t e d e v e n t h i s r a t h e r d o u r yo u n g a r t i s t . A new im a g e o f man w as b e g in n in g t o em erg e — c l a i r v o y a n t , p s y c h i c a l l y o p en to th e i n v i s i b l e p ro m p tin g s o f n a t u r e , a b le to s e e th r o u g h th e s u r f a c e o f t h in g s . . . . ( 2 8 : 1 5 ) A ls o , th e e le m e n t o f s e a rc h was e v id e n t i n N o ld e 's 'jo u r n e y to w a rd W a n d lu n g . T h e c o n c e p t o f s e a r c h was c lo s e l y c o n n e c te d to th e t r a n s f o r m a t io n c o n c e p t, f o r w it h o u t s e a rc h iW a n d lu n q c o u ld n o t b e a c h ie v e d . A f t e r 1 9 0 0 , " y e a r s o f t o r - i m e n tin g s e a r c h " f o llo w e d h i s tim e o f s tu d y and t r a v e l . He was le s s p r o d u c t iv e th a n b e f o r e ; h e p a in t e d • I s c a r c e ly a d o z e n c a n v a s e s a y e a r . B u t im p o r t a n t c h a n g e s to o k p la c e i n h i s in n e r l i f e . H is e x p e r i e n ce o f n a t u r e becam e e x a lt e d t o th e p o i n t o f i n t o x i c a t i o n ; as a r e s u l t , h is h a l l u c i n a t o r y c a p a c i t i e s g a in e d s t r e n g t h . " I h ad an i n f i n i t e num ber o f v is io n s a t t h i s t im e , f o r w h e re v e r I tu r n e d my e ye s n a t u r e , th e s k y , th e c lo u d s w e re a l i v e ; i n | each s to n e and i n th e b ra n c h e s o f e v e r y t r e e , | e v e r y w h e r e , my f i g u r e s s t i r r e d and l i v e d t h e i r | s t i l l o r w i l d l y a n im a te d l i f e , and th e y a ro u s e d Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 7 9 my e n th u s ia s m as w e l l as to r m e n te d me w it h t h e i r dem ands t h a t I p a i n t th e m ." ( 2 8 : 1 9 ) N o ld e 's s e a r c h in g a t t h a t tim e b r o u g h t h im f i r m l y i n t o co n t a c t w it h n a t u r e , so t h a t m ore th a n any o t h e r p a i n t e r i n th e G erm an E x p r e s s io n is t m o vem en t, " . . . h e c o n t r ib u t e d a m y s tiq u e o f th e s o i l . " ( 4 9 : 1 2 8 ) C o l o r i s t i c e c s ta s y i s a n o th e r a s p e c t o f N o ld e 's w o r k . I n 1 9 6 3 , W e rn e r H a ftm a n n p u b lis h e d a book e n t i t l e d E m il N o ld e w it h th e s u b t i t l e " U n p a in te d P i c t u r e s . " I n t h i s w o rk H a ftm a n n in c lu d e d a s e c t io n o f w h a t he c a l l s I" M a r g in a l N o t e s ," T h e s e a r e a c o l l e c t i o n o f a p h o ris m s N o ld e j o t t e d down w h ile p a i n t i n g , o r n o te s h e d is c o v e r e d w hen c o l l a t i n g h is m e m o irs . N o ld e n e v e r l e f t an o r g a n iz e d : m a n u s c r ip t o f th e s e n o t e s , a lth o u g h h e h a d p la c e d some i n o r d e r and h a d them c o p ie d ( 2 9 : 2 3 ) . A s e l e c t i o n o f N o ld e 's a p h o ris m s a b o u t c o l o r , some a p p r o p r i a t e l y i n c lu d in g a n a lo - Ig ie s w i t h m u s ic , a r e q u o te d h e r e : I C o lo u r s a r e my n o t e s , w h ic h I u s e t o fo rm h a r - I m o n is in g o r c o n t r a s t in g sounds and c h o r d s . W o u ld I a p o e t o r a m u s ic ia n a ls o s a y : S y l l a b l e s , o r ! n o t e s , a re t h e sounds I u s e t o w r i t e p o e t r y , o r I m u sic? T h e A r t s a r e th e T h r e e G ra c e s o f b e a u ty ; a n o th e r P a r is c o u ld n e v e r d e c id e b e tw e e n th em , b e - ' c a u s e a l l t h r e e a r e e q u a lly b e a u t i f u l . ( 3 0 . 5 . 4 3 ) I Y e llo w c a n e x p re s s h a p p in e s s , and th e n a g a in p a i n . T h e re i s fla m e r e d , b lo o d r e d , and ro s e I r e d . T h e re i s s i l v e r b lu e , s k y b lu e , and th u n d e r ! b lu e . E v e ry c o lo u r h a r b o u r s i t s own s o u l, d e - ! l i g h t i n g o r d is g u s t in g o r s t i m u l a t i n g m e. I ( 3 0 .1 2 . 4 2 ) i I a lw a y s l i k e d to w a tc h t h e s u n , as i t d i s t r i b u te s l i g h t and sh ad o w , o r s e t s t h e c lo u d s g lo w in g , [ and a ls o when i t p a i n t s a r a in b o w — n o t t h a t I Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 8 0 p a r t i c u l a r l y a d m ire th o s e t i d i l y a r r a n g e d c o lo u r s , b u t I do lo v e th e a rc i n t h e s k y . ( 2 9 : n . p . ) N o ld e h a d y ie l d e d to t h e w o r ld o f lu m in o u s and s y m b o lic c o l o r , p a i n t i n g w it h su ch v io le n c e and s p o n t a n e it y t h a t members o f D ie B ru c k e i n 1 9 0 5 i n v i t e d h im to j o i n them as . p a ym e n t f o r th e s e s to rm s o f c o l o r . " ( 3 1 : 3 4 ) To | D ie B ru c k e a r t i s t s h e becam e in d e b t e d f o r l e a r n i n g new I te c h n iq u e s i n w o o d c u t. T h e in f lu e n c e s o f E d v a rd Munch a re ! q u i t e e v id e n t h e r e . I t was h is lo v e o f n a t u r e and p u re c o lo r w h ic h c a u s e d h im to b r e a k w it h D ie B r u c k e , w hose m e m -: b e rs w e re m ore s o c i a l l y c o n s c io u s th a n N o ld e . N o ld e 's W a n d lu n q was a d e e p ly r e l i g i o u s and m y s t i c a l o n e . H is r e l i g i o u s p a in t in g s le d h im i n t u r n to th e a r t o f p r i m i t i v e p e o p le s . H e d e s c r ib e d h is own s t y l e b e tw e e n 1 9 1 3 and 1 9 1 4 as " . . . a b s o lu t e o r i g i n a l i t y , th e i n t e n s i v e , o f t e n g r o te s q u e e x p r e s s io n o f f o r c e and l i f e i n th e s im p le s t f o r m ." ( 3 1 : 3 4 ) N o ld e 's E x p r e s s io n is m was a l w ays c lo s e to f a n t a s y eind t h e m y th , w h ic h h e c o n ju r e d up fro m h i s m e m o rie s . "T h e c lo s e - u p v ie w o f t h in g s , th e s im p l e , a r c h a ic p o w e r o f th e c o m p o s it io n , th e b l a z in g a l l e g o r i c a l v a lu e o f c o l o r a re th e means e m p lo y e d . . . . " ( 3 1 : 3 4 ) T h e e x a m p le o f N o ld e s e le c t e d t o i l l u s t r a t e h is m y s t ic a l W a n d lu n q i s T h e L a s t S u p p e r (1 9 0 9 ) . M y e rs d e s c r ib e s th e w o r k . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 8 1 N o ld e 's L a s t S u p p e r and P e n t e c o s t , v e r y s i m i l a r i n c o m p o s itio n , d is p o s e o f u n e s s e n t ia ls i n t y p i c a l E x p r e s s io n is t f a s h io n and c o n c e n t r a t e t h e i r f u r y on I th e b e y o n d - e a r t h ly s ig n if ic a n c e o f t h e m om ent. I B r in g in g us v e r y c lo s e to h is s u b je c t s , w h ic h a re co m p res s ed i n t o a t i g h t s p a c e , N o ld e le a v e s no tim e f o r l e i s u r e l y c o n te m p la tio n o f i n d i v i d u a l e m o tio n a l I r e s p o n s e , b u t fo r c e s us to s u p p o r t th e e m o tio n s o f I th e C h r i s t , w e a v in g a s i n g l e , u n i f i e d , and o v e r w h e lm in g ly p a s s io n a t e e f f e c t . M any o f th e s e mask l i k e f i g u r e s fa c e f o r w a r d , some a r e i n p r o f i l e , b u t th e y a l l c o n v e y i n t h e i r d i s t o r t e d and f r i g h t e n i n g e x p r e s s io n s a p o w e r fu l g r o t e s q u e r i e , a g e n u in e ly p r i m i t i v e q u a l i t y . W ith e ye s s t a r i n g as th o u g h s e e in g n o th in g e x c e p t w h a t l i e s w i t h i n , f e a t u r e s e x a g g e r a te d and c o n to u r s b l u r r e d , th e y s p r in g fro m t h e i r g e n e r a liz e d b a c k g ro u n d w it h an u n c o n t r o lle d in n e r f o r c e . . . . I n th e L a s t S u p p e r . N o ld e e le c t e d to i l l u s t r a t e th e o f f e r i n g o f th e s y m b o lic c h a l i c e . "And h e to o k th e cu p and g a v e th a n k s and g a v e i t t o th e m , s a y in g . D r in k y e a l l o f i t ; F o r t h i s i s my b lo o d o f th e new T e s ta m e n t, w h ic h i s sh ed f o r many f o r th e r e m is s io n o f s i n s . " H e re i s th e them e o f s a c r i f i c e f o r human i t y . . . t h i s i s a s p i r i t u a l and in w a r d - t u r n in g m y s tic e x p e r ie n c e w h e re in each i n d i v i d u a l s u b o r d in a te s h im s e lf to th e awesome m y s te ry o f th e s y m b o lic o f f e r i n g . . . . ( 4 9 : 1 3 3 ) N o ld e h im s e lf i n J a h r e d e r K am pfe d e s c r ib e d h is s t a t e o f s o u l w h ile e x e c u tin g T h e L a s t S u p p e r . A t r a n s l a t i o n o f th e p a s s a g e i s fo u n d i n M y e rs : I y ie l d e d to an i r r e s i s t i b l e d e s i r e t o p o r t r a y a d e e p s p i r i t u a l i t y , r e l i g i o n and in w a r d n e s s , b u t w ith o u L any d e f i n i t e w i l l , k n o w le d g e o r p la n n in g . O n ly a fe w o f th e a p o s t le h ead s and th e h e a d o f C h r i s t w e re d raw n b e fo r e h a n d . A lm o s t f r ig h t e n e d I s to o d b e f o r e th e o u t l i n e d c a n v a s , n o t a s in g le m odel p r e s e n t , and I was now to p a i n t th e m o st m y s te r io u s and p r o fo u n d e v e n t i n th e C h r i s t i a n r e l i g i o n ! T h e C h r i s t w it h H is f a c e t r a n s f i g u r e d I by an in w a r d s e a r c h in g e x p r e s s io n w h ile a t e i t h e r s id e and ro u n d H im th e c i r c l e o f H is d i s c i p l e s . ( 4 9 : 1 3 3 ) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 82 J u s t as C h r i s t , i n N o ld e 's p a i n t i n g i s " t r a n s f i g u r e d b y an in w a r d s e a r c h in g e x p r e s s io n ," so a ls o i s th e h e r o in e o f S c h o e n b e rg 's m a s t e r f u l m onodram a, E r w a r tu n g tr a n s fo r m e d I .th ro u g h s e a r c h in g . A r n o ld S c h o e n b e rg (1 8 7 4 - 1 9 5 1 ) b e g an h is s e c o n d p e r i o d o f c o m p o s itio n i n 1 9 0 9 . J o s e p h M a c h lis c a l l s t h i s ! S c h o e n b e rg 's " a t o n a l - e x p r e s s i o n i s t " p e r io d . Though a to n - a l i t y has becom e a f r e q u e n t l y u s e d d e s c r i p t i v e te rm i n th e m u s ic w o r ld , S c h o e n b e rg , w it h p r e c is e l o g i c , i n t e n s e l y d i s l i k e d th e te rm a t o n a l i t y . T h is i s b e c a u s e th e w o rd a to n - a l i t y , i n i t s e t y m o lo g ic a l s e n s e , c o n n a te s a n e g a t io n o f a l l t o n a l i t y . L o g i c a l l y s p e a k in g , t h e r e c an b e no such t h in g as m u s ic w i t h no t o n a l i t y , f o r " . . . i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e to a v o id a l l t o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n w r i t i n g m u s ic . . ." a lth o u g h " . . . i t i s e n t i r e l y p o s s ib le to w r i t e m u s ic w it h a c o m p le te d is r e g a r d o f t o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . " ( 8 5 ; 6 0 ) H a r v a r d D i c t i o n a r y o f M u s ic c o n t a in s a d e q u a te d i s c u s s io n s o f th e te rm s " t o n a l i t y " and " a t o n a l i t y . " I t i s n o t th e p u rp o s e h e r e to b e la b o r th e s e p o i n t s . W h a t i s p e r t i n e n t i s t h a t w h i le m o st w r i t e r s r e f e r to th e m u s ic com p o s e d by S c h o e n b e rg b e tw e e n 1 9 0 8 and 1 9 1 5 as b e in g p r i m a r il y a t o n a l, S c h o e n b e rg h im s e lf p r e f e r r e d th e w o rd " p a n - t o n a l" to " a t o n a l . " By t h i s te rm p a n t o n a l i t y h e a p p a r e n t ly : w is h e d to im p ly . . . . t h a t h i s t o t a l l y c h r o m a tic m u s ic a l la n g u a g e I r e s u l t e d fro m th e m e rg in g o f a l l t h e k e y s o f th e Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 8 3 d i a t o n i c s y s te m . T h e p ro b le m o f f i n d i n g an a c c e p t a b le d e f i n i t i o n o f " a t o n a l i t y , " o r a m ore a p p r o p r i a t e te rm f o r th e m u s ic c o l l e c t i v e l y so d e s ig n a t e d , i s i n i t s e l f a r e f l e c t i o n o f th e n a t u r e o f t h i s mu s i c . Fro m th e v e r y b e g in n in g , a t o n a l c o m p o s itio n f o llo w e d tw o d i s t i n c t and c o n t r a d i c t o r y d i r e c t i o n s . I n one o f th e s e (O pus 1 1 , N o . 1 i s an e x a m p le ) h a r - 1 m o n ic and m e lo d ic c e l l s o f o v e r a l l s i g n i f i c a n c e i n I t h e g iv e n w o rk o r m ovem ent g e n e r a te and i n t e g r a t e th e m u s ic a l m a t e r i a l . I n th e o t h e r , te rm e d " a t h e - m a tic is m " o r " p e r p e t u a l v a r i a t i o n , " c o n t i n u i t y d e p en d s upon im m e d ia te a s s o c ia t io n s i n a k in d o f m u- ! s i c a l " s tre a m o f c o n s c io u s n e s s ." T h e m o s t fam ous e x a m p le i s t h e m onodram a E r w a r t u n g , com posed i n 1 9 0 9 . ( 9 9 : 3 ) S c h o e n b e rg c o m p le te d th e m u s ic f o r E r w a r tu n g i n tw o w e e k s , a p o i n t w h ic h h e h i m s e l f m akes i n h is own b o o k S t y l e and I d e a . I n g e n e r a l , h e com posed v e r y f a s t and a t t e s t s t h a t h e b e lo n g s t o t h a t g ro u p o f co m p o sers w hose m u s ic i s b o th c e r e b r a l and s p o n ta n e o u s , t h a t i s , b o th o f th e b r a in and o f th e h e a r t ( 5 4 : 1 5 5 ) . T h is i s o f i n t e r e s t b e c a u s e E m il N o ld e r e i t e r a t e s S c h o e n b e rg 's f e e li n g s a lm o s t w o rd f o r w o rd . N o ld e i s q u o te d b y H a ftm a n n as s a y in g : A r t t h a t i s p u r e ly e m o tio n a l seems f l a b b y . P u r e ly i n t e l l e c t u a l a r t seems f r i g i d . S e n s i b i l i t y and s e n s e i n e q u a l p a r t s c o m b in ed w it h h ig h a r t i s t i c a b i l i t y g iv e c o n s u m a te b e a u t y . ( 2 9 : 7 0 ) E r w a rtu n g i s a p o ig n a n t ly e m o tio n a l w o rk , b o th i n t e x t and m u s ic . T h e p o e t r y i s by M a r ie P a p p e n h e im , a woman l i t t l e 'm e n tio n e d i n l i t e r a r y w o rk s c o n c e r n in g Germ an E x p r e s s io n - |is m . T h e t e x t i s an i n t e r i o r m o n o lo g u e e x c e p t f o r one f e a r f u l o u tw a rd c r y t o God f o r h e l p . T h e w o rk a n te d a t e s j ; Jam es J o y c e 's U ly s s e s (1 9 2 2 ) by t h i r t e e n y e a r s , y e t t h e s t r e a m -o f -c o n s c io u s n e s s te c h n iq u e i s u s e d th r o u g h o u t Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 8 4 E r w a r t u n g . One i s p ro m p te d to w o n d e r why P ap p en h e im r e c e iv e s so l i t t l e c r e d i t i n th e l i t e r a t u r e on th e s u b je c t I o f t h i s E x p r e s s io n is t t e c h n iq u e . S tu c k e n s c h m id t a llu d e s to I i I h e r p o e t i c fo r m a t i n E r w a r tu n g as a u n iq u e f o r e t a s t e o f t h e j I E x p r e s s i o n i s t te c h n iq u e s t o becom e p r e v a l e n t l a t e r . He d e s c r ib e s b o th t e x t and m u s ic o f E r w a r tu n g as f o llo w s : T h e w o r k , w h ic h l a s t s f o r a b o u t h a l f an h o u r , i s w r i t t e n f o r fe m a le v o ic e and l a r g e o r c h e s t r a ( q uad r u p le t o q u in t u p le w o o d w in d , t r i p l e t o q u a d r u p le b r a s s , h a r p , c e l e s t a , a go o d d e a l o f p e r c u s s io n and s t r i n g s ) . T h e t e x t i s i n th e fo rm o f a m ono- i lo g u e ; i t d e s c r ib e s th e f e e li n g s o f a woman who s e e k s h e r l o v e r a t n i g h t i n t h e wood and f i n a l l y f in d s h im d e a d . T h ro u g h th e v is io n s o f h e r o v e r h e a t e d im a g in a t io n , w h ic h i s f u l l o f p r e s e n t im e n t s , i th e im p r e s s io n s o f n a t u r e a t n i g h t t im e , and th e c h a n g e s b e tw e e n f e a r , h o p e and c r u e l k n o w le d g e , th e f e e l i n g o f th e t e x t h as b e e n r a is e d t o a p la n e o f h e c t i c e x a g g e r a t io n , w hose la n g u a g e a n t i c i p a t e s fo rm s o f e x p r e s s i o n i s t i c p o e t r y w h ic h o n ly becam e common much l a t e r . I n b o th t e x t and m u s ic i t i s an a t t e m p t t o d e s c r ib e a m ic ro c o s m o f f e e l i n g and mood w h ic h h u n d re d s o f c h a n g in g moods o f p a s s io n ru s h th ro u g h a t g r e a t s p e e d — p e rh a p s s o m e th in g l i k e t h e c o n s c io u s n e s s o f a d y in g man who s e e s th e w h o le o f h i s l i f e r o l l i n g p a s t h im l i k e a f a s t - m o v in g f i l m . M u s i c a l l y t h i s h a p p e n s i n th e h a rm o n ic f i e l d , w h ic h shows a p e n c h a n t f o r t h e unknow n and t h e i n i ' c r e d i b l e , and c a r e f u l l y a v o id s any s u g g e s tio n o f n o rm a l a e s t h e t i c ' t o p l e a s e ' . T h e c h o rd s w h ic h ' o c c u r m o st f r e q u e n t l y a r e c lu s t e r s o f s e c o n d s , a l t e r e d f o u r t h - c h o r d s and c o m p le x e s o f s i x to e le v e n d i f f e r e n t n o t e s . T h e rh y th m h as a c h ie v e d a d e g re e o f f lo w in g fre e d o m w h ic h o v e r r id e s a l l l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e b a r - l i n e , and w h ic h c o n s t a n t ly c o m b in es t r i p l e t s and s e x t u p le t s w i t h num erous s u b d iv is io n s j and p u n c t u a t io n s . T h e m e lo d y i s p a ra m o u n t above a l l th e o t h e r e le m e n ts — i t i s a v o c a l m e lo d y o f a h i g h l y e x p r e s s iv e b u t q u i t e r e v o l u t i o n a r y k in d . I I t i s t o t a l l y in d e p e n d e n t o f th e h a rm o n y , f o l l o w - Î in g i t s own la w s and p o ly p h o n ic te n s io n s . . . . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 8 5 . . . i t b e lo n g s t o a ty p e o f a p h o r i s t i c , com p r e s s e d m u s ic d ra m a , im a g in a b le o n ly to an e x p e r t w it h k n o w le d g e o f t h e m o st u p - t o - d a t e m odern p s y c h o lo g ic a l a n a l y s is , o r a p io n e e r i n th e r e a lm o f dream s and t h e s u b c o n s c io u s . I n an e x tre m e com - ; p r e s s io n o f tim e a s p i r i t u a l r e a lis m o f th e m o st I f r i g h t e n i n g k in d i s e m p lo y e d h e r e , w h ic h p o in t s to I th e s u r r e a l i s t d ram a o f th e f u t u r e r a t h e r th a n to I th e m y s t ic a l m u s ic d ra m a o f th e p a s t . ( 7 1 : 5 3 , 5 4 , 5 5) S c h o e n b e rg 's k n o w le d g e o f th e im p a c t o f th e n i g h t m are i s f u r t h e r e x p re s s e d i n h is own w o rd s i n a l e t t e r t o j jE r n s t L e g a l, th e In t e n d a n t o f t h e K r o l l - O p e r i n B e r l i n , whoj was r e s p o n s ib le i n l a r g e m e a s u re f o r t h e p r o d u c t io n o f E r w a r t u n g . T h e m o st im p o r t a n t t h in g : I b e l i e v e t h a t you a re n o t one o f th o s e s ta g e d i r e c t o r s who lo o k a t a p ie c e o n ly f o r th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f m a k in g some t h in g q u i t e d i f f e r e n t o u t o f i t . T h is i s w ro n g , and n e v e r m ore w ro n g th a n when done to me, f o r I h a v e an u n u s u a lly p r e c is e p i c t u r e o f th e s t a g in g i n m in d w h ile c o m p o s in g . I n E r w a r t u n g , th e s e a r e th e g r e a t e s t p ro b le m s : i I . I t i s n e c e s s a r y a lw a y s t o s e e th e woman i n th e f o r e s t , i n o r d e r t o u n d e r s ta n d h e r f e a r o f i t ! f o r th e w h o le p ie c e c an be u n d e rs to o d as a n i g h t m a re . B u t, f o r t h a t v e r y r e a s o n , i t m u st b e a r e a l f o r e s t , and n o t j u s t an ' a b s t r a c t ' o n e ! T h a t k in d o f a b s t r a c t i o n i s g ru e s o m e , b u t n o t f r i g h t e n i n g . ( 6 0 : 3 5 ) : I t h as b e en c la im e d t h a t S c h o e n b e rg h a d no p e r s o n a l c o n t a c t w it h S igm und F r e u d , y e t th e y w e re c o n te m p o r a r ie s l i v i n g i n I V ie n n a , so t h a t i t i s p r o b a b le t h a t S c h o e n b e rg was n o t t o - ! t a l l y f r e e fro m th e im p a c t F r e u d 's I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f D ream s i 'h a d made i n 1 9 0 0 . Be t h a t as i t m ay, S c h o e n b e rg u n d e rs to o d th e im p o r ta n c e o f th e c o n c e p t o f th e f r i g h t e n i n g r e a l i t y ; [ in h e r e n t i n th e e x p e r ie n c in g o f a n ig h tm a r e and t r a n s l a t e d } Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 8 6 t h i s c o n c e p t i n t o h is p r o d u c tio n o f E r w a r tu n g . As f o r c o r r e l a t i o n w it h N o ld e 's L a s t S u p p e r , i t w i l l be r e c a l l e d t h a t th e C h r i s t N o ld e d e p ic t e d w as , as i t w e re , tr a n s fo r m e d b y "an in w a r d s e a r c h in g e x p r e s s io n ." I '( 4 9 : 1 3 3 ) I n E r w a r tu n g , t h e h e r o in e i s a ls o s e e k in g t r a n s f o r m a t io n , n o t i n th e m y s t ic a l s e n s e to b e s u r e , b u t i n th e arms o f h e r b e lo v e d . S h e s e e k s t h i s t r a n s f o r m a t io n w it h th e same im p a s s io n e d h e a t w h ic h f i r e d o t h e r G erm an E x p r e s s io n is t s who s o u g h t r e g e n e r a t io n i n th e v i s c e r a l - i r r a t i o n a l s e n s e . On th e o t h e r h a n d , some E x p r e s s io n is t s s o u g h t W an d lu n g th ro u g h m y s tic is m as i n N o ld e 's c a s e , o r th ro u g h p o l i t i c a l a c t iv is m as d id E r n s t T o l l e r . Th e s e a rc h f o r t r a n s f o r m a t io n by S c h o e n b e rg 's h e r o in e E rw a rtu n g i s d e s c r ib e d by W e lle s z : T h e s ce n e b e g in s on th e b o r d e r s o f a f o r e s t . Roads and h i l l s a re l i t b y th e moon; th e t r e e s o f th e f o r e s t s ta n d l o f t y and d a r k . A woman c la d i n w h it e comes i n s e a rc h o f s o m e th in g ; she i s anx io u s and h e s i t a t i n g . H i e r H in e in ? Man s i e h t den Weg n i c h t ( " I n h e re ? One c an s e e no way t h r o u g h " ) . ' W ith th e s o f t e s t to n e s th e m u s ic a tte m p ts t o p o r t r a y t h i s d e l i c a t e , tre m u lo u s m ood, w h ic h becom es m ore and m ore so m b re. A t l a s t sh e ta k e s c o u ra g e : and p ro c e e d s i n t o th e f o r e s t . ( 7 9 : 1 2 6 ) T h e s e a rc h f o r s o m e th in g o r som eone, th e f l e e t i n g d e s p a ir t h a t no way can be fo u n d to a t t a i n th e s o m e th in g o r som e- lo n e , th e c o u ra g e o u s a d va n c e fo r w a r d i n s p i t e o f t h i s d e s p a i r , w e re a l l p a r t o f th e G erm an E x p r e s s io n is t c o n c e p t I o f W a n d lu n g . In t e n s e s u f f e r i n g was a ls o a p a r t o f th e I I i d e a . T h e C h r i s t i n N o ld e 's L a s t S u p p e r s u f f e r s i n th e Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 8 7 k n o w le d g e t h a t h e w i l l d ie th e f o llo w in g d a y . In E r w a r tu n g : j T h e woman comes o u t o f th e f o r e s t on to th e j b ro a d r o a d on w h ic h moonbeams p l a y , and b e h in d w h ic h , i n th e b a c k g ro u n d , a h o u se i s t o b e s e e n . I She i s e x h a u s te d ; h e r c lo t h e s a r e t o r n , and h e r h a i r i s d i s h e v e l l e d . H e r fa c e and h an d s a re c u t I and b le e d in g . T h e u n d e fin e d f e a r w i t h i n h e r d e v e lo p s i n t o a n x ie t y f o r t h e l i f e o f h e r l o v e r . " I c a n go no f u r t h e r . . . no one w i l l a d m it i me . . . th e s tr a n g e woman d r iv e s me away 1 I f I h e s h o u ld be i l l ! A s e a t . . . I m u st r e s t . . . b u t I h a v e n o t s een h im f o r so lo n g ." T h en she s tu m b le s a g a in s t some o b je c t and r e c o g n is e s h e r lo v e d one d e a d a t h e r f e e t . T h e o r c h e s t r a has in c r e a s e d to i t s h ig h e s t p o w er and i s th e n s p e n t. ( 7 9 : 1 2 8 ) I n h e r w i l d s tr e a m -o f -c o n s c io u s n e s s m o n o lo g u e , th e woman e x p re s s e s h e r h o s t i l i t y and c u r i o s i t y r e g a r d in g th e o t h e r woman i n h e r now d ead l o v e r ' s l i f e . She f a n t a s iz e s th e a f f a i r h e may h a v e h a d and s u f f e r s b e c a u s e o f i t . H e r e th r o u g h o u t th e s o f t e s t and th e m ost d e l i c a t e t o n e - c o lo u r i s u s e d , th e s c e n e p r o c e e d in g b r o a d ly and w it h much d e p th o f f e e l i n g . A l i g h t l y w h is p e r e d p a r la n d o f o llo w s when s h e , w it h o u t a t r a c e o f h a t r e d , t h in k s o f th e o t h e r woman. H e r w h o le b e in g becom es t r a n s f i g u r e d when she c a l l s o u t: "My d e a r e s t , th e m o rn in g d ra w s n ig h . . . . W h a t can I do h e r e a lo n e ? . . . I n t h i s e n d le s s l i f e . . . . L i g h t w i l l come f o r a l l . . . b u t m u st I a lo n e re m a in i n th e d a rk n e s s o f n ig h t? " And now h e r th o u g h ts fa d e i n t o th e d is t a n c e . M o rn in g comes and re m in d s h e r o f th e many tim e s when th e y h ad s e p a r a te d and h a d b id d e n one an o t h e r f a r e w e l l . She t h in k s s h e s e e s h e r lo v e r co m in g to w a rd s h e r . T h is p a le v is i o n a r y mood i s p o r t r a y e d w it h u n c an n y p o w er i n th e m u s ic . T h en comes t h e c r y , O b i s t du d a — Ic h s u c h te ( "Oh: A r t th o u th e r e ? I was s e e k in g . . . " ) . And w it h a g h o s t ly c h r o m a tic c o n t r a r y m ovem ent i n th e w h o le o r c h e s t r a , w h ic h fa d e s away i n t o t h i n a i r , th e c u r t a i n f a l l s . ( 7 9 : 1 2 9 - 1 3 0 ) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 8 8 R o b e r t C r a f t n o te s t h a t t h e " I c h s u c h te . . ( I was s e e k in g ) i s m o st s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n t h e p a s t p r o g r e s s iv e fo r m , I W h ile , a c c o r d in g to G erm an g ra m m ar, " I c h s u c h te . . ." i s 1 t e c h n i c a l l y i n th e s im p le p a s t t e n s e , th e p h r a s e c an be I I t r a n s l a t e d i n t o E n g lis h i n t h e p a s t p r o g r e s s iv e fo r m . Thus t r a n s l a t e d , th e p h r a s e c o n n o te s t h a t th e w om an's s e a rc h d id n o t end i n f u l f i l l m e n t . T h e woman h a s b e e n tr a n s fo r m e d b u t th e t r a n s f o r m a t io n i s in c o m p le t e . T h is p o i n t i s w e l l p a r a l l e l e d i n th e m u s ic . H e r E w a rtu n q i s n o t o v e r and i t w i l l n e v e r b e . A l l o f t h i s i s made c l e a r , I t h i n k , o n ly i n th e m u s ic . T h e p h r a s e I c h s u c h te t r a i l s o f f u n r e s o lv e d , and so a f t e r w a r d s d o es t h e m u s ic , a b a r and a h a l f o f m u s ic a l g o o s e f le s h , an o r c h e s t r a l s h iv e r t h a t seems n o t to s to p b u t to v a n is h , th e l i s t e n e r knows n o t when o r how . I t i s t h e m o st e x t r a o r d i n a r y e n d in g I know o f a n d , to my m in d , i t g iv e s a new i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t o th e w o rk and s u c c e e d s i n l i f t i n g i t t o a h ig h e r p la n e . ( 9 9 : 6 ) G e o rg K a is e r ( 1 8 7 8 - 1 9 4 5 ) no le s s th a n E m il N o ld e i n h is L a s t S u p p e r , and A r n o ld S c h o e n b e rg i n E r w a r t u n g . e x p re s s e s i n Von M o rg en s b is M it t e r n a c h t s ( Fro m M o rn t o M id - in i g h t ) id e a s o f s e a r c h , s u f f e r i n g , m y s tic is m and f i n a l l y ' t r a n s f o r m a t io n . K a is e r was a n a t i v e o f M a g d e b u rg who made B e r l i n ; h is c h i e f c e n t e r o f a r t i s t i c p r o d u c t io n . C o n s id e re d by ; some to b e th e le a d in g G erm an p l a y w r ig h t b e tw e e n W o r ld W ar j I and W o rld W ar I I , K a i s e r 's d ram as w e re a lm o s t i n f i n i t e : i n v a r i e t y o f b o th s t y l e and c o n t e n t , y e t one s in g le them e ‘p e rm e a te s h is w o rk s . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 89 K a is e r h im s e l f c la im e d one s in g le i d e a o r " v is io n " to u n d e r ly a l l h i s w o rk s ; h e c a l l e d i t d ie E rn e u e ru n g d es M e n s ch e n ( t h e r e g e n e r a t io n o f m a n ). W ith t h i s d o m in a n t c r e a t i v e im p u ls e , h e p ro v e d h im s e lf a t r u e e x p o n e n t o f E x p r e s s io n is m . ( 1 9 : 1 4 8 ) T h u s , a lt h o u g h K a is e r e x p re s s e d i t som ew hat d i f f e r e n t l y , h e was o b s e s s e d by th e d e s i r e f o r t r a n s f o r m a t io n and p r o j e c t e d t h i s d e s i r e o n to th e c h a r a c t e r s o f h i s p la y s . F ro m M o rn t o M i d n i g h t , w r i t t e n i n 1 9 1 2 , b u t n o t | p u b lis h e d u n t i l 1 9 1 6 , i s c o n s id e r e d b y some t o b e K a i s e r 's | m o s t E x p r e s s io n is t w o rk , and m o st c e r t a i n l y c o n fo rm s to | h i s id e a s o f m a n 's r e g e n e r a t io n . S e v e r a l im p o r t a n t E x p re s s i o n i s t s t y l i s t i c te c h n iq u e s u s e d i n t h i s d ram a a r e p o in t e d o u t h e r e . K a i s e r 's d r a m a t is p e rs o n a e a r e t y p e s , n o t c a s t as i n d i v i d u a l s . S e v e r a l a r e m e n tio n e d h e r e i n t h e o r d e r o f t h e i r a p p e a ra n c e : C a s h ie r , S t o u t G e n tle m a n , C l e r k , M e s s e n -| ; g e r B o y , L a d y , B an k M a n a g e r, M u f f le d G e n tle m a n , S e r v in g M a id . T h u s , th e C a s h ie r i s n o t a p a r t i c u l a r o n e , b u t any C a s h ie r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e as i t w e re o f a s p e c ie s , o r e ve n a : g e n u s . T h is d e v ic e i s c a r r i e d t o i t s u l t i m a t e when K a is e r in c lu d e s su ch f i g u r e s as F i r s t , S e c o n d , T h i r d , F o u r t h , and I j F i f t h G e n tle m a n o r F i r s t , S e c o n d , T h i r d , and F o u r th M a s k . T h e y h a v e no s p e c i f i c i d e n t i t y , b u t a re la b e l e d o n ly by m eans o f t h e i r s o c i a l f u n c t i o n . " T h is a c c e p te d e x p r e s s io n i s t d e v ic e o f t y p i f i c a t i o n i s in t e n d e d t o s t r i p fro m th e i ; I d ra m a a l l t h a t i s m e r e ly c o n t in g e n t , and to a c h ie v e a m a x i-. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 9 0 mum c o n c e n t r a t io n o f s i g n i f i c a n c e . " ( 3 9 : 2 4 - 2 5 ) A n o th e r im p o r t a n t E x p r e s s io n is t d e v ic e was th e u s e o f th e S ta tio n s d r a m a fo r m . T h is te c h n iq u e was p o p u la r iz e d j b y A u g u s t S t r in d b e r g i n T h e R oad t o Dam ascus ( 1 8 9 8 ) . T h is I fo r m , w h ic h c o n s is t s o f l o o s e l y c o n n e c te d s c e n e s , o r s t a t i o n s , ta k e s i t s o r i g i n fro m th e m y s te ry and p a s s io n p la y s ; o f th e M id d le A g e s . I n th e s e p la y s , v a r io u s s c e n e s fro m th e l i f e o r s u f f e r i n g s o f C h r i s t w e re d e p ic t e d , o f t e n en d in g w it h th e t r a n s f o r m a t io n known as th e R e s u r r e c t io n . T h is i s th e fo rm o f From M o rn to M i d n i g h t , i n w h ic h th e p r o t a g o n i s t C a s h ie r r e p r e s e n t s s u f f e r i n g m odern m an. A l l i s a c h ie v e d w i t h i n th e s p an o f tw e lv e h o u rs in s e v e n s c e n e s . K e n tw o r th y p r o v id e s one o f th e b e s t su m m aries o f t h i s p la y c o n c e rn e d w it h s e a r c h , s u f f e r i n g , and t r a n s f o r m a - I ! t i o n . I K a is e r c h o o s e s a b a n k - c le r k as h is p r o t a g o n is t f o r a v e r y good re a s o n : h i s p u rp o s e , i n p a r t a t l e a s t , i s to d e m o n s tr a te th e s o c i a l e f f e c t o f money as an i r r i t a n t t o c u p i d i t y — and who c o u ld b e m ore a p p ro p r i a t e to t h i s p u rp o s e th a n one w hose l i v e l i h o o d d ep en d s upon t h e o r g a n iz a t io n o f t h e m odern f i n a n c i a l system ? A t th e b e g in n in g o f th e f i r s t p a r t o f th e p la y , th e c l e r k s ta n d s b e h in d h is b a n k - c o u n te r i n th e l i t t l e tow n o f W. , p a y in g , r e c e i v i n g , a d d in g m oney; f o r th e o p e n in g h a l f - h o u r h e p r e s e r v e s th e s ile n c e o f an a u to m a to n — a m e c h a n ic a l c a p i t a l i s t economy h a s re d u c e d t h e man t o an a d d in g -m a c h in e . F o llo w in g a num ber o f o t h e r c l i e n t s , a F l o r e n t i n e la d y a p p ro a c h e s h im , w is h in g to w ith d r a w a s u b s t a n t i a l ; sum fro m th e b a n k ; u n f o r t u n a t e l y , h e r own b a n k in I t a l y h as n o t y e t s e n t i t s l e t t e r a u t h o r iz in g th e Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 9 1 p a y m e n t, so t h a t i t i s r e fu s e d b y th e b a n k -m a n a g e r, a k n o w in g man o f th e w o r ld , who a p p r a is e s h e r as a d is r e p u t a b le a d v e n tu r e s s . B u t th e l a d y 's e x o t ic charm does n o t le a v e th e c l e r k unm oved: th e sudden im p a c t o f th e u n u s u a l b re a k s down th e b a r r i e r o f h a b i t , and c o n v e r ts th e m a ch in e i n t o a m an. T h e l a d y , w it h h e r s i l k s , h e r f u r s and h e r p e rfu m e , i n fla m e s h is s e n s e s ; a c c e p tin g th e m a n a g e r's e s t im a te o f h e r , h e e m b e z z le s s i x t y th o u s a n d m arks and f o l lo w s h e r t o th e h o t e l w h e re she i s s t a y in g . . . . She p ro v e s to be an e n t i r e l y r e s p e c t a b le la d y , t r a v e l l i n g w it h h e r s o n . Thus th e c l e r k i s d is a p p o in t e d i n h is f i r s t a tte m p t to e x p e r ie n c e a l i f e h e h ad n e v e r know n: t h a t o f th e s e n s e s . Y e t h e does n o t t u r n b a c k ; i t i s to o l a t e . . . . He s e ts o u t i n q u e s t o f a m u lt it u d e o f l o s t o p p o r t u n it ie s and o f th e s o u l t h a t h a d b een s tu n te d by a s o u lle s s s o c i e t y . ( 3 9 : 2 5 - 2 6 ) T h e c o n c e p t o f q u e s t , o r s e a rc h s h o u ld be n o te d a t t h i s p o i n t . T h e s e a rc h e x p re s s e d h e r e i s n o t th e same as th e s e a r c h in g e x p r e s s io n i n th e e ye s o f C h r i s t i n N o ld e 's L a s t S u p p e r r e p r e s e n t in g th e S a v i o r 's i n s a t i a b l e s e e k in g o f s o u ls . N o r i s th e s e a rc h now en g ag ed i n b y K a i s e r 's C a s h ie r q u i t e l i k e th e s e a rc h o f th e woman f o r h e r b e lo v e d i n S c h o e n b e rg 's E r w a r tu n g . O f th e v i s c e r a l - i r r a t i o n a l ty p e , i t i s a s e a rc h f o r s t o le n o r s q u a n d e re d o p p o r tu n i t i e s . T h e C a s h ie r s e e k s to make up f o r l o s t t im e . T h e f i r s t s ta g e o f h is h e c t i c jo u r n e y ta k e s h im a c ro s s a s n o w -c o v e re d f i e l d , w h e re , s i t t i n g i n th e l e a f l e s s b ra n c h e s o f a t r e e , h e d e l i v e r s a le n g th y s o l il o q u y , . . . . . . . h e dem ands r e s t i t u t i o n fro m th e co m m unity ( i h r ) , i n w hose s e r v ic e a l l h is tim e and e n e r g ie s h a v e b e e n a b s o rb e d , f o r h is s a c r i f i c e o f a f u l l and f r e e l i f e . I n o r d e r to a s s e r t t h i s c la im , h o w e v e r, h e m ust s e t h im s e lf o u t s id e th e co m m u n ity by b r e a k in g i t s la w s and b e co m in g a h u n te d t h i e f . As h e s i t s , th e w in d s n a tc h e s o f f h is h a t ; i t Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 9 2 c a tc h e s on a t w ig , w h ic h fo rm s th e h an d o f a s k e le t o n , o u t l i n e s i n th e b ra n c h e s w h e re th e w in d has b lo w n th e lo o s e snow aw ay. D e a th s i t s b e h in d h im , r e m in d in g h im s y m b o lic a lly t h a t h e h as n o t an i n f i n i t y o f tim e b e f o r e th e p o l i c e a r r e s t h im — and i n w h ic h to re d ee m h is u n liv e d l i f e . ( 3 9 : 2 5 ) i T h e C a s h ie r r e a l i z e s t h a t he h a s b u t l i t t l e tim e ! I f o r r e g e n e r a t io n , b u t h e w i l l h a v e i t a t a l l c o s t s . He i I p ro c e e d s i n th e a tte m p t to r e s c u e h is own s o u l, j u s t as t h e | i jwoman i n E r w a r tu n g f i n a l l y c o u r a g e o u s ly e n t e r s th e f o r e s t . ; On th e f i r s t s ta g e o f h is f l i g h t i n t o ' l i f e ' — and fro m h i s own humdrum e x is t e n c e — th e c l e r k r e t u r n s to h i s home; b u t now h e s ee s h is m o th e r, h is w i f e and h i s tw o d a u g h te rs th ro u g h new e y e s : h is s la v e r y to t h e 'F le is c h b a n k , ' as h e c a l l s i t , h ad b e en s la v e r y to th e m . He i s , he t e l l s them d ig g in g h is w ay o u t o f th e g r a v e , w h e re h e h a s b een b u r ie d b e n e a th an e v e r -g r o w in g w e ig h t o f h a b i t , c o n v e n tio n and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . . . . T h e c l e r k le a v e s home b e f o r e d in n e r — so m o n s tro u s a d i s r u p t i o n o f th e m e c h a n ic a l r o u t i n e o f th e fam i l y , t h a t i t c a u s e s th e d e a th o f h i s aged m o th e r I . , . A lr e a d y th e a c t io n h a s m oved q u ic k ly ; now i t r a c e s a lo n g w it h th e r e s t l e s s h a s t e o f a g r e a t c i t y . F i r s t , th e ru n a w a y c l e r k t r i e s to s a t i s f y v i c a r i o u s l y th e p a s s io n p e n t up i n h im by o f f e r i n g huge sums as s ta k e s i n t h e s ix - d a y b i c y c l e r a c e s ; by u r g in g on th e c o m p e t it o r s h e h o p es to la s h th e s p e c t a t o r s i n t o a f r e n z i e d e x c ite m e n t t h a t w i l l sweep away e v e r y rem n a n t o f s e l f - r e s t r a i n t . . . . T h e e x c ite m e n t b e comes so in t e n s e t h a t , th ro u g h th e p r e s s u r e o f th e p a c k e d , s e e t h in g c ro w d , a man i s th ro w n fro m th e g a l l e r y to h i s d e a th b e lo w . B u t a g a in th e c l e r k i s c h e a te d i n t h e f u l f i l l m e n t o f h is w is h ; b e f o r e th e f i n a l ab an d o n m en t o f cro w d e m o tio n i s r e a c h e d . H is H ig h n e s s a p p e a rs i n th e r o y a l b o x and b re a k s th e t e n s io n . ( 3 9 : 2 7 - 2 8 ) T h is i s p e rh a p s th e c lim a x o f th e p l a y . T h e C a s h ie r t h in k s th e e n jo y m e n t o f f r e n z y o f th e cro w d w i l l s e t f r e e a p a r t o f h is im p r is o n e d s o u l b u t h e i s d i s i l l u s i o n e d when h e p e r - ; j I c e iv e s th e same cro w d a l l a t o n ce awed by th e p re s e n c e o f I Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 9 3 r o y a l t y . T h e s c e n e a b r u p t ly c h a n g e s to a p r i v a t e room ad j a c e n t to a d a n c e - h a l l . H e r e h e i s e ve n m ore d i s i l l u s i o n e d a f t e r h e b u ys h i s f i l l o f s e n s u a l p le a s u r e . | F i n a l l y , th e tim e o f r e g e n e r a t io n a p p ro a c h e s when | th e C a s h ie r i s fo u n d i n t h e l a s t s c e n e o f h i s own p a s s io n I I i n a S a l v a t i o n Arm y h a l l . H e h as b een l e d t h e r e b y a g i r l j who h as made a p p e a ra n c e s i n t h e s ec o n d p a r t o f th e p l a y , j s e e m in g ly h a v in g n o th in g t o do w it h th e a c t io n g o in g on a t ! I t h a t t im e . I From th e a s s e m b le d men and women a num ber o f p e n i t e n t s come fo r w a r d t o c o n fe s s t h e i r s in s ; and e a c h s in fo rm s a p a r t o f t h e c l e r k ' s own g u i l t , w h ic h i s d i s t r i b u t e d among th em — a p r a c t i c e o f t e n u s e d b y E x p r e s s io n is t d r a m a t is t s t o g iv e c o n c r e te fo rm to th e c o m p le x in n e r l i f e o f t h e i r c h a r a c t e r s . . . . K a i s e r , th e n , u s es d r a m a t ic d i v i s i o n as a m eans o f s h o w in g th e c l e r k to h i m s e l f ; h i s own g u i l t i s b o rn e i n up o n h im ; a n d . c a u g h t up i n th e e m o tio n a l a p p e a l o f t h i s d i s p la y o f p u b l i c p e n it e n c e , h e a t l a s t f i n d s w h a t h e was s e e k in g : r e g e n e r a t io n th ro u g h B e k e n n tn ls u nd B usse [ c o n f e s s io n and r e p e n t a n c e ] . He c o n fe s s e s h is s in s , e ve n th o u g h h e knows t h a t a r e w a rd h as b een o f f e r e d f o r h i s c a p t u r e , and go es on t o v o ic e th e c o n v ic t io n w h ic h th e s t a t i o n s o f h is jo u r n e y h a d b r o u g h t h im . He h a s c o n q u e re d i n h im s e l f th e m a t e r ia lis m o f m oney, o f w h ic h h e h a d f i r s t b e en a s la v e and th e n a d u p e . S c a t t e r i n g th e r e m a in d e r o f th e s t o le n m oney i n th e h a l l , h e p r e p a r e s to d e l i v e r h im s e lf up to j u s t i c e and r e t r i b u t i o n . H is f e l l o w - p e n i t e n t s , h o w e v e r, a re u n r e g e n e r a te ; th e y s c ra m b le f o r th e m oney, w h ile th e g i r l who h ad c o n d u c te d h im h e r e b e t r a y s h im to th e p o l i c e , i n o r d e r t o e a r n th e r e w a r d . T h e i n d i v id u a l may b e r e g e n e r a t e d , b u t n o t t h e m ass. O v e r t h i s f i n a l d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t o f th e c l e r k , th e s k e le t o n th r o n e s a g a in , now fo rm e d i n th e t a n g le d w ir e s o f th e c h a n d e lie r ; th e mad c i r c l e i n w h ic h h e h as ru s h e d fro m m orn t i l l m id n ig h t c lo s e s . He s h o o ts ; h i m s e l f , s in k in g a g a in s t th e d r a p e r ie s o f th e h a l l . ( 3 9 : 2 8 - 2 9 ) I Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 9 4 T h e l a s t s ta g e d i r e c t i o n f o r th e C a s h ie r re m in d s one a g a in o f N o ld e 's C h r i s t i n th e L a s t S u p p e r b e n t on d e a th i n s e a rc h o f s o u ls . A s h le y D ukes t r a n s l a t e s th e d i r e c t i o n as ; f o llo w s : C a s h ie r [H as f a l l e n b a c k , w it h arms o u t s t r e t c h e d , tu m b lin g h e a d lo n g down th e s t e p s . H is h u s k y g a sp i s l i k e an " E c c e ," h i s h e a v y s ig h i s l i k e a "H om o." One s e c o n d l a t e r a l l th e lam p s e x p lo d e w it h a lo u d r e p o r t . ] ( 3 7 : 1 5 4 ) ;The C a s h ie r d ie s by h i s own h a n d i n s e a r c h o f h is own s o u l. O f t h i s s e a rc h t h e r e re m a in s a t th e end n o th in g b u t a sym b o l . L ik e th e woman i n E r w a r tu n g , th e C a s h ie r m ig h t a ls o h a v e e n d ed h i s f i n a l sp ee c h w it h t h e w o rd s , " Ic h s u c h te . . ." { I was s e e k in g ) . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 9 5 EXAMPLES ILLU STR A TIN G PARALLELS IN THE CONCEPT 'S e a rc h f o r T r a n s f o r m a t io n " Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 96 P a i n t in g T h e L a s t S u p p e r E m il N o ld e (1 8 6 7 -1 9 5 6 ) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 9 8 M u s ic E x c e r p ts fro m E r w a r tu n g ( E x p e c t a t io n ) A r n o ld S c h o e n b e rg ( 1 8 7 4 -1 9 5 1 ) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 99 ERWARTUNG (Monodram) maBlge J Us) Arnold Schoenberg, op. 17 l2 .rr.F l. e.8Klar.(A) tfA r IticAt 8.4.Hr.(P n llD 4 0 > p f a r k H " I I. S c O D Q An R a nd * *in«« W «td*i. M o n d hsU i Slrm B *aiad r * ld t n « " » r W « td borbaad dsnhtl. N ur d l« «rattaStiant # # d dtr Aofatf dta krailta W « f« a n a e k k«l!. C ln* fr»a ham m l, ftkl«ld*l| «sUlktlart* rata R a a a a an K tald. S < k m a < k . (léfam d ) , Fraa l.Oge. ■.D pr. , miiBIge J Hier blncin?.. M &aiithldiftW <f nlchk.. W laiU • btnidiaB U nm * I.SoloOilfa aUDanpftçfataiU II.S olo (jtif; m ltDam pfa^galailt I.S ola B ra ta c k a a .D p f.n 'W Mi dIal.BiirU it P im piar, (rataiit alt O iim p ra r, y ta iH Blit D a m p fa r, gatilU A iaB .ftairta ? (dlaC-Siitakal) « Veil a.Dpf. Ktrbis. n.Dpf. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 0 0 nnrn ™ll flleBend 2.8.K1m-.(A ) IH r.lF) la .T rp .m .D pf. 18.4.P0I. lr*rUêtl t« BaSf ê^hutai) U 'lc r 6«r>l«B... D i« Blm.mto für Ihnfind # 1 Tir*wtlkt.. oco fllcBcnd (cfairemirB... v i* filr*k io l-> . 2.Solo-Br. tlV iT c U . ,fT D p f. V LS «U V tll • * F P l.LI.S*UT(IL«.DBf. k l U Ktrbst a.Ibf. r ll raschcr J.7s l.2.0b. O 'K lv . I.Kltf.CB) t.l.9 .r tr 1.2.8. Fg U e iA A f l.a.3.Hr.(F) o.Dif. 2.3.4.Poi. .D pf. B ii.-T f ^ a rt'-X r (rtA ft i l t B u i* , Itkl n rick) [iat«k(ui C M w *]B ,W kiw nrm ) (iafiUtlhrliar AanO • > Ncchl l# k MVirni. . rascher aifiirachvtra Lsfl bcmuicUiici. Wi«alatminm,<crtickl..M klit fjiccatc m .cpf rll. . . IT a c k ic k lk f I.ScUBr.c.Dpr. PP 1.1*1* Br.*.Off. ta S U ç . . . 1.3. SolO'Br. » . D pf. l2 .S « UTtll Opr. ifHiruuip pij, IfufkcJtlrv MUtlrkft. ïlr b ii m .D yf. •ftaliiii C aaf 0*i*r IcarDitlmai* Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 0 1 I 2,S,|[r,FI, D KItr. I HMF) tT r p IB) m. Dpf. flrf. C«l. Fran ÏR I vIH laiiKsaiiK'riJrSO) '' _________ iiochlanp;snm <’ ,r(J:48) — : , u i f l r iq rY ù m .... i / r „ ,----- I . ( llf h t h i i i a r i f ) -----------------1 (|ia u*rl nladrr, Itu trh l, llt h t ta r iir h h in i ^ . j ' i l r n t h e l l . . d e r M ond » i r f r u l h c r bo h e ll.. O h n r c h noch lanRSnnicr r n a . . n « a i k t r f c l . r i . l . i . n i j . l . n J. molto r l t ............... ISolo-Qro. f i ^ r ruÂiff unJ tart m .r)p f,fjit» ilt I. R ijfl* trrre n .o g t 1.2. Solo Br. o .D p f l.SU aV.Il.n.C pI 1.2.Solo-VcU. Klrbss. I «jidm KlrbM . 2 Kl.rIA) Bsr-Klar.lD) l.2.3.Ff. KIr.Fp 2. Hr. IF) n .D p f. 3.4 P os. p K T : . . I - r ---------------------------. 7 % _ : - = - r % = - r — -, — -----------= i r _ i - : z z = r z : z = — ::=z:zu.- 1 . I y •■• - • - - p p ^ ^ '—■ ________ — ____________________________ J y p r s j' h i i . -------- .................................................... ■ ■ » - - ■ - ' / . 2.H r.'r»m .D pf. I'P ' -------- r.- I 3.4.P o».n.D cf. t ' f y ----------- Z C J P " " - ■ .......... ---------= : ■ : _ - . — ■:■; .V3 — •- --:-_:^zrz=-;— ^ i ( i î Jpg r t . n . I . _ 1 É IL. -_ _ I I . 1 _ _ l: . J .-V rr - — ^ .L ._ : . i . . ...n «... j ; . J . . l f « - À J . , im • tn e rd ta O r il * • I * ., m illh .r e n t L ie > • be# « lie d .. jiL rhen. t# i l l lo lu O l>ei d ir .. der M oad i i l in der N ir h l ip ro i.Solo-Gge rt#. Dpf,»b U ? n ,_f tT 'tfn a i r r s a r l .SoloVnl. J.SoloVell V e il.c il.e .l.C o le V sll.m .D p r. I II» rat.m .Dpf Veil. a Opf. Kubjs. n Dpf. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 0 2 /. ..101(0 rit. . . .schr rasch hcfdg (J.so) J ■ 6S wicdcr lanpsamcr Z3pr.Fl. .2.0b. 2.3.Klar.(A) BssrKlar(B)( 1.2.3. Fp. l.Hr.(F) l.Tr^p.(B) I «u ffahrfrd l F -'— ll«( in n n ld it lu • chen?.. So tilrb docabier. wicdcr lancrsamcr D«ro ftte ru n jr.. c i« t du.. QLOliJLrJi. • . . schr rasch heftig_____________ tiui.«.n.otiy t< i.u .rp f I.o.lLO II# Br.#. Dpf. * * tCl.SeioVdl.m.Dpr. Ir#ffi.#ra St«r iIlttn .D p f pp tr# m .» n S t« f . dl«t.H«iru a .D p f. ( (* k g =lè'- ftll# lu iim . n . D p r ^ A Ktrbss r it.....................................lanpsam 2.3.pr.Fl. D-Klar. Z.Klar. M •rl'tz Klr.-Fp. 3 . 4 .H r .( F ) l.Trp(B) Cel. Tamt. Frau I I.O g B . m ® D p r Vcll. m D p f. K l r b s a . m .npf. — r.r:— :z------ - ------------ . - ^ -------- ; y V — — n 1- ^ — ( • tn d r l »i<h |Tf(fn dtn "m id i I------T — 1 ,------ J — 1 (il# h t lit h #th»u um) r a '— t— I . , e d t o . b c n d d ic '^ lil'le lil. . d î r M o n d i s l v o ll E n l * i e l * i » n . . S ifh ld tr b in c in ? .. ___ = i= iz rv -^ F ; r i t . .................................. 1 a ngsam l r « r B . # n S t f f . . .................................. f»m « n S l r r • - v . ' t • l* • ' ■ * ’ H " — ------------------------------------------------------ u n S t» g • - ' " i 5T3"' Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 0 3 l.kI.Fl. Schr lanRsam J. .ae (Ji.tos) l.n lm re l 2 . k l I.KUr.(B) r ‘ 2.3.KI»r.(A) BM.-K]Ar(B 1.2.3. Kg. Ktr.-Fg. hi-yj w sm ojltch OktUff tiifa r) 3 ? \ 1 np • S t < lu n \« l ...d r ln K u O w if e in FI Schr lanK.sam . t'id iK H in m e in rr N sehl n. O e « . .y jc X ^ J .rx Schr hnsrsnm (i' m'âOlc) I.2.kl.FL I.Rr.Fl. 1.2.3. O b. 2.aKlsr.(A) m.DpT. n Sa- -------- (U------4 4---------- i/2 J:-Li S r^ w sjum t/h M ffL . £ I.Ogo. m .I^r. m e i-n e L ip .p r n h r r u n r n n n d in ic h . . I a n . . . d i r . . . . enl-g>- lr»m .»m 8t # f ....................................... . . . . . k I'n : t'» : .^mm^ .. k mi E iy I.Soh-Br. N f 16 g tic k ia fiA /'/'i f " . h . . ________ 3 Solo •Veil l'a i iagergU cktiiftB ' /'/'^li/ Klr^g, A ntnK rkun*: n u r d if I lo r n fr c rç îr a n d if r e n unrl.im l a tiir n A ugrnblick (ll.a n d Ik .A rh ld U a th die P a u ie «in w rnljc Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 0 4 1.2.grFl. 1 .2 O b. 3.4. D-KUr. j l.KUr.(Bj 2.3.KIrtr.(A^J M f » r L Bs5.-Klftr.(D)’ S S f Klr.-Fg. 425 ÉTr-i^: -1 r i * U « r t a n K i > a c m o m f # lîr.(F) 1.2.Trp.(D) Bss.-T? / S«hw *m m ichU r*i SehUrd ( Irgfmd ♦lw»»»tit(t»(frn) Mn EnltU tkrn ftu tirh rtim d l m Ktrbss Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 0 5 1.2 k l. r i . I2.gr n i 12.1 Ob. / 3 .* .{ D Klar. / I.KIir.lBlj 23.KI«r.(Aj Bs9/-KIar.l.B)\ 1 . 2 .3 / Ktr.-Fç. . ' ■ ' .k Y ——lY -— 1. 2. Hr.(F) , m.Opf. ) 3.4.( l.a.S.Trp.B) m .D pf 1. 2./ Poj. j 01. Dpf. \ 1 4 . Bs 9.T» 1 01 Dpf. Hrf. Cel. B c c k . I.Ogn. m Dpf. i ! ’ill'i? "^ _ .c ;./V .l. r r r ' -j 0 _____________________________ n.Pj/._,.}____ _ Vorhang -j/ !'-(• f ! i . '- r -r L f/r r..'/ H TT ' Il Orn - fBf K trbsa If ühne crc3c. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 0 6 D ram a E x c e r p ts fro m From M o rn to M id n ig h t G e o rg K a is e r (1 8 7 8 - 1 9 4 5 ) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 0 7 FROM MORN TO M IDNIG HT i A P la y i n S even S cen es G eo rg K a is e r (1 8 7 8 -1 9 4 5 ) S cen e V I I SCENE: [ S a lv a t i o n Army h a l l , seen i n d e p t h . T h e b a c k g ro u n d i s fo rm e d b y a b la c k c u r t a i n . I n f r o n t o f t h i s s ta n d s th e lo w p la t f o r m on w h ic h i s th e p e n i t e n t fo rm . I n th e body o f th e h a l l , th e b e n ch es a r e c ro w d e d . A g r e a t h a n g in g la m p , w it h a t a n g le o f w ir e s f o r e l e c t r i c l i g h t i n g , i s ab o ve th e a u d ie n c e . I n th e fo r e g r o u n d o f th e l e f t , i s th e e n t r a n c e . M u s ic : "J e s u s L o v e r o f my S o u l," p la y e d on an o r g a n , and sung by th e a u d ie n c e . From a c o r n e r , a p p la u s e and la u g h t e r c e n t e r in g i n one m a n .] SOLDIER: [SALVATIO N LASS g oes to t h i s c o r n e r and s i t s n e a r th e d i s t u r b e r . She ta k e s h is h a n d i n h e r s and w h is p e rs to h im .] VO IC E [F ro m th e o t h e r s id e ] : Move up c l o s e r . Be c a r e f u l . B i l l : H a , h a : Move t h e r e : SO LDIER: [SALVATIO N LASS, g oes to th e s p e a k e r , a young w o rkm an . ] WORKMAN: W h a t a r e yo u a f t e r ? Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 0 8 ÎSOLDIER [L o o k s a t h im , s h a k in g h e r h e a d g r a v e l y ] : M e r r i m e n t. O FFICER [Woman o f 3 0 , co m in g to th e f r o n t o f th e p l a t f o r m ] : I ' v e a q u e s t io n to ask y o u a l l . SOME [ C r y ] : H u s h l [O r w h i s t l e f o r s i l e n c e . ] OTHERS: S p e e c h = N o n e o f y o u r ja w ! . . . M u s ic 1 . . . V O IC E S : B e g in ! S to p ! O FFIC ER : T e l l me . . . why a r e yo u s i t t i n g c ro w d ed th e r e ? V O IC E : Why n o t? O FFIC ER : Y o u 'r e p a c k e d l i k e h e r r in g s i n a b a r r e l . Y o u 'r e f i g h t i n g f o r p la c e s . . . s h o v in g one a n o th e r o f f th e fo r m s . Y e t one b e n ch s ta n d s e m p ty . V O IC E : N o th in g d o in g ! O FFIC ER : Why do y o u s i t s q u e e z in g and c ro w d in g th e r e ? C a n 't y o u s e e i t ' s a n a s ty h a b it ? Who know s h is n e x t - d o o r n e ig h b o r? Y ou ru b s h o u ld e r s w it h h im , you p r e s s y o u r k n e e s a g a in s t h i s , and f o r a l l y o u know h e may be r o t t i n g . You lo o k i n t o h is f a c e — and p e rh a p s h is m in d i s f u l l o f m u rd e ro u s t h o u g h ts . I know t h e r e a re s ic k men and c r im i n a l s i n t h i s h a l l . So I g iv e yo u w a r n in g ! M in d y o u r n e x t - d o o r n e ig h b o r ! B e w are o f h im ! T h o s e Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 0 9 b e n ch es g ro a n u n d e r s ic k men and c r im i n a l s 1 WOMAN'S V O IC E : N e x t t o me? SECOND V O IC E : O r me? O FFICER: I g iv e yo u t h i s w o rd o f a d v ic e ; s t e e r c l e a r o f y o u r n e ig h b o r ; I n t h i s a s p h a lt c i t y , d is e a s e and c r im e a re e v e r y w h e r e . W h ic h o f y o u i s w it h o u t a scab? Y o u r s k in may b e sm ooth and w h i t e , b u t y o u r lo o k s g iv e yo u aw ay. You h a v e no e y e s to s e e , b u t y o u r e y e s a r e w id e open to b e t r a y y o u . Y ou h a v e n 't e s c a p e d th e g r e a t I p la g u e ; th e germ s a r e to o p o w e r f u l. Y o u 'v e b e en s i t t i n g ; to o lo n g n e a r b ad n e ig h b o r s . Come up h e r e , come away fro m th o s e b e n c h e s , i f y o u w o u ld n o t be as y o u r n e ig h b o rs a re i n t h i s c i t y o f a s p h a lt . T h is i s th e l a s t i I w a r n in g . R e p e n t. R e p e n t. Come up h e r e , come to th e Î p e n i t e n t fo r m . Come t o th e p e n i t e n t fo r m , come to th e p e n i t e n t fo r m . [M u s ic , " J e s u s L o v e r o f My S o u l ." ] SALVATION LASS: [L e a d s i n C A S H IE R .] I CASHIER: [ I n e v e n in g d r e s s , a ro u s e s some n o t i c e . ] I I !SALVATION LASS: [F in d s CASHIER a p la c e among th e c ro w d , I : s ta n d s n e x t to h im and e x p la in s th e p r o c e d u r e .] CASHIER: [L o o k s a ro u n d h im am used. M u s ic c e a s e s , i r o n i c a l a p p la u s e .] Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 1 0 O FFIC ER [C o m in g fo r w a r d a g a i n ] : One o f o u r co m rad es w i l l t e l l you how h e fo u n d h is w ay t o th e p e n i t e n t b e n c h . F IR S T SO LDIER : [Y o u n g man s te p s o n to th e p l a t f o r m . ] V O IC E : So t h a t ' s th e m ugl [Some l a u g h t e r . ] F IR S T SO LDIER : I w a n t t o t e l l y o u o f my s i n . I l e d a l i f e w it h o u t g i v in g a th o u g h t t o my s o u l. I c a r e d o n ly f o r my b o d y . I b u i l t up my b o d y l i k e a s tr o n g w a l l ; th e s o u l was q u i t e h id d e n b e h in d i t . I s o u g h t f o r g l o r y w it h my b o d y , and made b r o a d e r th e shadow i n w h ic h my s o u l w it h e r e d a w a y . My s in was s p o r t . I p r a c t is e d i t w it h o u t a m o m e n t's p a u s e ; v a in o f th e q u ic k n e s s o f my f e e t on th e p e d a ls ; and t h e r i n g o f th e a p p la u s e among t h e s p e c t a t o r s . I s e n t o u t many a c h a lle n g e ; I won many a p r i z e . My name was p r i n t e d on e v e r y b i l l b o a rd ; my p i c t u r e was i n a l l th e p a p e r s . I was i n th e r u n n in g f o r t h e w o r ld c h a m p io n s h ip . . . . A t l a s t my s o u l s p o k e t o m e. I t s p a t ie n c e was e n d e d . I m et w it h an a c c id e n t . T h e i n j u r y was n o t f a t a l . My s o u l w a n te d to le a v e me tim e f o r r e p e n t a n c e . My s o u l l e f t me s t r e n g t h enough to r i s e fro m th o s e b e n c h e s w h e re y o u s i t , and to c lim b up h e r e to th e p e n i t e n t fo r m . T h e r e my s o u l c o u ld s p e a k to me i n p e a c e . W h a t i t t o l d me I c a n ' t t e l l you now . I t ' s a l l to o w o n d e r f u l, and my w o rd s a r e to o w eak to d e s c r ib e i t . You m u s t come y o u r s e lv e s , and h e a r th e Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Ill v o ic e sp eak w i t h i n y o u l [He s te p s i n . ] A MAN: [Laughs o b s c e n e ly .] SEVERAL [ C r y ] : H u s h l SALVATION LASS [To CASHIER, i n a lo w v o i c e ] : Do you h e a r him? CASHIER: L e t me a lo n e . [M u s ic p la y s and c e a s e s .] OFFICER [Com ing f o r w a r d ] : Y o u 'v e h e a r d o u r c o m ra d e 's t e s t im o n y . Can you w in a n y th in g n o b le r th a n y o u r own? And i t ' s q u i t e e a s y , f o r th e s o u l i s t h e r e w i t h i n y o u . Y o u 'v e o n ly to g iv e i t p eace . . . o n c e , j u s t o n c e . The s o u l w an ts to s i t w i t h you f o r one q u i e t h o u r . I t s f a v o r i t e s e a t i s on t h i s b e n c h . T h e re m ust be one among you who s in n e d l i k e o u r com rade h e r e . O ur com rade w i l l h e lp h im . The way has been opened u p . So come. Come t o th e p e n i t e n t b e n c h . Come to th e p e n i t e n t b e n c h . Come to th e p e n i t e n t b e n c h . [ S i l e n c e . ] FIR S T PENITENT: [Y oung man o f p o w e r fu l b u i l d , w i t h one arm i n a s l i n g , r i s e s i n a c o r n e r o f th e h a l l and makes h i s way th ro u g h th e cro w d , s m ilin g n e r v o u s ly . He m ounts th e p l a t f o r m . ] MAN: [Laughs o b s c e n e ly .] Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. i 1 1 2 iANOTHER [ I n d i g n a n t l y ] : W here i s t h a t d i r t y l o u t ! MAN: [R is e s ab as h e d , and makes h is way to w a rd th e d o o r .] ; OTHERS: T h a t 's th e f e l l o w ! SOLDIER: [SALVATION LASS, h u r r i e s to h im and le a d s him b ack to th e p l a c e . ] VOICE [ F a c e t i o u s l y ] : Oh, l e t me go, A n g e lin a ! SEVERAL OTHERS: B ra v o ! FIR S T PENITENT [On th e p l a t f o r m ] : I n t h i s c i t y o f a s p h a lt t h e r e 's a h a l l . I n s i d e th e h a l l i s a c y c l e - t r a c k . T h is was my w in . I was a r i d e r t o o . I was a r i d e r i n th e r e l a y ra c e s t h i s w ee k . On th e second n i g h t I m et w it h a c o l l i s i o n . I was th ro w n ; my arm was b ro k e n . The ra c e s a re h u r r y in g on, b u t I am a t r e s t . A l l my l i f e I have been r i d i n g w i t h o u t a th o u g h t. Now! I w a n t t o t h i n k o f e v e r y t h in g . [ L o u d ly .] I w a n t to t h i n k o f my s in s a t th e p e n i t e n t b e n c h . [L e d by a SOLDIER, he s in k s on to th e bench; SOLDIER re m a in s a t h is s i d e . ] OFFICER: A s o u l has been won! [M u s ic p la y s and c e a s e s .] SALVATION LASS [To C A S H IE R ]: Do you see him? CASHIER: My a f f a i r . My a f f a i r . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 1 3 1 SALVATION LASS: W hat a re you m u tte r in g ? CASHIER: The r e l a y r a c e s . SALVATION LASS : A re you re ad y? CASHIER: H o ld y o u r to n g u e . OFFICER [S te p p in g f o r w a r d ] : A n o th e r com rade w i l l t e s t i f y . MAN: [ H i s s e s . ] OTHERS: Be q u i e t t h e r e I SECOND SOLDIER [ G i r l mounts th e p l a t f o r m ] : Whose s in i s my s in ? I ' l l t e l l you o f my s in w it h o u t shame. I had a w re tc h e d home, i f you c o u ld c a l l i t a home. The man, a d r u n k a r d , was n o t my f a t h e r . The woman— who was my m o th e r— w e n t w i t h s m a rt g e n tle m e n . She g a ve me a l l th e money I w an ted ; h e r b u l l y g a ve me a l l th e b lo w s — I d i d n ' t w a n t. [ L a u g h t e r .] No one th o u g h t o f me; l e a s t o f a l l d id I t h i n k o f m y s e lf . So I became a l o s t woman. I was b l i n d i n th o s e d a y s . I c o u l d n ' t see t h a t th e m is e r a b le l i f e a t home was o n ly m eant to make me t h i n k o f my s o u l and d e d ic a t e m y s e lf to i t s s a l v a t i o n . One n i g h t I le a r n e d th e t r u t h . I had a g e n tle m a n w it h me, and he asked me to d a rk e n th e room . I tu r n e d o u t th e g a s , th o u g h I w a s n 't used t o such w a y s . P r e s e n t ly I un d e r s to o d why he had asked m.e; f o r , I r e a l i z e d t h a t I had Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 1 4 w it h me o n ly th e tr u n k o f a man whose le g s had been c u t o f f . He d i d n ' t w a n t me to know t h a t he had wooden l e g s , and t h a t he h ad ta k e n them o f f i n th e d a r k . Then h o r r o r to o k h o ld o f me, and w o u ld n 't l e t me g o . I began to h a t e my body; i t was o n ly my s o u l t h a t I c o u ld l o v e . And now t h i s s o u l o f m ine i s my d e l i g h t . I t ' s so p e r - \ f e e t , so b e a u t i f u l ; i t ' s th e b o n n ie s t t h i n g I know. I ! know to o much o f i t to t e l l you h e r e . I f you ask y o u r s o u ls , t h e y ' l l t e l l you a l l — a l l 1 [S he s te p s down. S i le n c e . ] OFFICER [Com ing f o r w a r d ] : Y o u 'v e h e a rd o u r s i s t e r t e s t i f y . H e r s o u l o f f e r e d i t s e l f to h e r , and she d id n o t r e f u s e . Now she t e l l s you h e r s t o r y w it h j o y f u l l i p s . I s n ' t a s o u l o f f e r i n g i t s e l f now, a t t h i s moment, to one o f you? L e t i t come c l o s e r . L e t i t sp ea k ; h e r e on t h i s bench i t w i l l be u n d is t u r b e d . Come to th e p e n i t e n t b e n c h . Come to th e p e n i t e n t b e n ch . [M ovem ent i n t h e h a l l . Some t u r n r o u n d .] SECOND PENITENT [ E l d e r l y p r o s t i t u t e , b e g in s t o sp eak as she comes f o r w a r d ] : W hat do you t h i n k o f me, l a d i e s and g e n tle m e n ? I was j u s t t i r e d to d e a th o f s t r e e t w a lk in g , and d ro p p e d i n by chance f o r a r e s t . I ' m n o t shy— oh, d e a r n o l I d o n 't know t h i s h a l l ; i t ' s my f i r s t tim e h e r e . J u s t d ro p p e d i n by c h a n c e , as you m ig h t s a y . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ; 115 i [S p e a k in g fro m t h e p l a t f o r m . ] B u t you make a g r e a t m is - : t a k e , l a d i e s and g e n tle m e n , i f you t h i n k I s h o u ld w a i t to be asked a s ec o n d t im e l N o t t h i s c h i l d , th a n k y o u — oh , d e a r no 1 T a k e a good lo o k a t me, fro m t i p to to e ; i t ' s y o u r l a s t c h a n c e ; e n jo y th e t r e a t w h i l e you c a n l I t ' s q u i t e a l l r i g h t ; n e v e r m ind me; I ' m n o t a b i t shy; lo o k me up and dow n. T h an k y o u , my s o u l ' s n o t f o r d i s p o s a l . I ' v e n e v e r s o ld t h a t . You c o u ld o f f e r me as much as yo u p le a s e d , b u t my s o u l was a lw a y s my own. I 'm o b lig e d t o you f o r y o u r c o m p lim e n ts , l a d i e s and g e n t l e men. You w o n 't ru n up a g a in s t me i n t h e s t r e e t s a g a in . I ' v e g o t no tim e to s p a re f o r y o u . My s o u l le a v e s me no p e a c e . [A SOLDIER le a d s h e r to th e p e n i t e n t f o r m .] OFFICER: A s o u l h as b een won: [M u s ic . J u b i l a t i o n o f th e SOLDIERS. M u s ic c e a s e s .] SALVATION LASS: [T o C A S H IE R .] Do you h e a r a l l ? CASHIER: T h a t ' s my a f f a i r . My a f f a i r . SALVATION LASS: W h at a re you m u t t e r in g about? CASHIER: T h e wooden l e g . T h e wooden l e g . SALVATION LASS: A re you read y ? CASHIER: N o t y e t . N o t y e t . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 1 6 A MAN [ S ta n d in g u p r i g h t i n th e m id d le o f th e h a l l ] : T e l l me my s i n . I w a n t to h e a r my s i n l OFFICER [Com ing f o r w a r d ] : O ur com rade h e r e w i l l t e l l y o u . VOICES [ E x c i t e d l y ] : S i t down! Keep q u i e t ; g iv e h im a c h a n c e . THIRD SOLDIER [ E l d e r l y m a n ]: L e t me t e l l you my s t o r y . I t ' s an e v e ry d a y s t o r y . VOICE: Then why t e l l i t ? THIRD SOLDIER: T h a t 's how i t came t o be my s i n . I had a snug home, a c o n te n te d f a m i l y , a c o m fo r ta b le jo b . E v e r y t h in g was j u s t — e v e r y d a y . I n th e e v e n in g , when I s a t sm oking my p ip e a t th e t a b l e , u n d e r t h e la m p , w it h my w i f e and c h i l d r e n ro u n d a b o u t me, I f e l t s a t i s f i e d enough. I n e v e r f e l t th e n eed o f a c h an g e. Y e t th e change cam e, I f o r g e t w h a t s t a r t e d i t ; p e rh a p s I n e v e r knew . The s o u l kn o cks q u i e t l y a t y o u r d o o r . I t knows th e r i g h t h o u r and uses i t . SECOND PENITENT: H a l l e l u j a . THIRD SOLDIER: H ow ever t h a t m ig h t b e , I c o u l d n ' t pass th e w a rn in g b y . I s to o d o u t a t f i r s t i n a s lu g g is h s o r t o f w ay, b u t th e s o u l was s t r o n g e r . M ore and more I f e l t i t s p o w e r. A l l my b o rn days I ' d been s e t upon c o m fo r t I Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 1 7 I I now I knew t h a t n o th in g c o u ld s a t i s f y me f u l l y b u t th e s o u l. I I I SOLDIERS; H a l l e l u j a . j THIRD SOLDIER: I d o n ' t lo o k f o r c o m fo r t any lo n g e r a t th e t a b l e u n d e r th e la m p , w i t h a p ip e i n my m outh; I f i n d i t ! h e re a lo n e a t th e p e n i t e n t b en ch . T h a t 's my e v e ry d a y I s t o r y . [He s ta n d s b a c k .] [M u s ic p la y s and i s i n t e r r u p t e d by THIRD PENITENT. E lb o w in g h i s way u p ]: My s i n ! My s i n l [From th e p l a t f o r m .] I ' m th e f a t h e r o f a f a m i ly ! VOICE: C o n g r a t u la t io n s ! THIRD PENITENT: I h a v e two d a u g h te r s . I h a v e a w i f e . My m o th e r i s s t i l l w i t h u s . We l i v e i n f o u r room s. I t ' s q u i t e snug and c o zy i n o u r h o u s e . One o f my d a u g h te rs p la y s th e p ia n o , th e o t h e r does e m b r o id e r ie s . My w i f e c o o k s . My o ld m o th e r w a te r s th e g e ra n iu m s i n th e w in - d o w -b o x e s . I t ' s c o zy i n o u r h o u s e . C o z in e s s i t s e l f . I t ' s f i n e i n o u r h o u s e . I t ' s g ra n d . . . f i r s t - r a t e . . . I t ' s a m odel— a p a t t e r n o f a home. [W ith a change o f v o i c e . ] Our house i s lo a th s o m e . . . h o r r i b l e . . . h o r r i b l e . . . mean . . . p a l t r y th ro u g h and th ro u g h . I t s t in k s o f p a l t r i n e s s i n e v e ry room; w i t h th e p ia n o - p l a y i n g , th e c o o k in g , th e e m b ro id e ry , th e w a t e r in g p o t s . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 1 8 [B r e a k in g o u t . ] I h ave a s o u l I I h a v e a s o u l 1 I h ave I ' a s o u l I [He s tu m b le s to th e p e n i t e n t b e n c h .] SOLDIERS: H a l l e l u j a . OFFICER: A s o u l has been won I SALVATION LASS [To C A S H IE R ]: Do you see him? CASHIER: My d a u g h te r s . My w i f e . My m o th e r. SALVATION LASS: W hat do you k e e p mumbling? CASHIER: My a f f a i r . My a f f a i r . SALVATION LASS: A re you read y? CASHIER: N o t y e t . N o t y e t . [ J u b i l a n t m u s ic . Loud u p r o a r i n t h e h a l l . ] MAN [S ta n d in g u p r i g h t , and s t r e t c h i n g o u t h a n d s ]: W h a t's my s in ? W h a t's my s in ? I w a n t to know my s in ? T e l l me my s i n . OFFICER [Com ing f o r w a r d ] : O ur com rade w i l l t e l l y o u , [Deep s i l e n c e . ] FOURTH SOLDIER [ M id d le - a g e d , comes f o r w a r d ] : My s o u l h a d a h a rd s t r u g g le to w in th e v i c t o r y . I t had to ta k e me by th e t h r o a t and shake me l i k e a r a t . I t was ro u g h e r s t i l l w it h me. I t s e n t me t o j a i l . I ' d s t o l e n th e Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 1 9 t h a t was e n t r u s t e d to me; I ' d absconded w i t h a b ig sum. They c a u g h t me; I was t r i e d and s e n te n c e d . I n my p r is o n c e l l I fo u n d th e r e s t my s o u l had been lo o k in g f o r . A t th e l a s t i t c o u ld sp eak t o me i n p e a c e . A t l a s t I c o u ld h e a r i t s v o ic e . Those days i n th e l o n e l y c e l l became th e h a p p ie s t i n my l i f e . When my tim e was f i n i s h e d I c o u ld n o t p a r t fro m my s o u l. SOLDIERS: H a l l e l u j a . FOURTH SOLDIER: I lo o k e d f o r a q u i e t p la c e w h ere we two c o u ld m e e t. I fo u n d i t h e r e on th e p e n i t e n t fo rm ; I f i n d i t h e re s t i l l , each e v e n in g t h a t I f e e l th e n e ed o f a happy h o u r I [S ta n d in g a s i d e . ] OFFICER [Coming f o r w a r d ] : Our com rade has t o l d you o f h i s happy h o u rs a t t h e p e n i t e n t fo rm . Who i s t h e r e among you who w an ts t o escap e fro m t h i s s in ? H e re he w i l l f i n d p e a c e I Come t o th e p e n i t e n t bench 1 MAN [S ta n d in g u p , s h o u tin g and g e s t i c u l a t i n g ] : N o b o d y 's s in ! T h a t 's n o b o d y 's s in ! I w a n t to h e a r m in e ! My s in ! My s in ! [M any j o i n i n . ] My s i n ! My s in ! My s in ! CASHIER: My s i n ! SALVATION LASS [A b ove th e u p r o a r ] : W hat a r e you s h o u tin g ? Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 2 0 CASHIER: The b a n k . Th e m oney. SALVATION LASS [S h a k in g h im ]: A re you re ad y ? CASHIER: Y e s , now I ' m r e a d y ! SALVATION LASS [T a k in g h i s a rm ]: I ' l l le a d you up t h e r e . I ' l l s ta n d by you— alw a y s a t y o u r s id e . [ T u r n in g to th e cro w d , e c s t a t i c a l l y ] : A s o u l i s g o in g t o s p e a k . I lo o k e d f o r t h i s s o u l. I fo u n d t h i s s o u l! [T h e tu m u lt ebbs i n t o a q u i e t h u m .] CASHIER [On th e p l a t f o r m , SALVATION LASS by h i s s i d e ] : I ' v e been on th e ro a d s in c e t h i s m o rn in g . I was d r iv e n o u t on t h i s s e a r c h . T h e r e was no chance o f t u r n in g b a c k . The e a r t h g ave way b e h in d me, a l l b r id g e s w e re b r o k e n . I had to m arch fo r w a r d on a ro a d t h a t l e d me h e r e . I w o n 't w e a ry you w i t h th e h a l t i n g - p l a c e s t h a t w e a r ie d me. None o f them w ere w o r th my b r e a k w i t h th e o ld l i f e ; none o f them r e p a i d me. I m arched on w i t h a s e a r c h in g e y e , a s u re to u c h , a c l e a r h e a d . I p ass ed them a l l b y , s ta g e a f t e r s t a g e , th e y d w in d le d and v a n is h e d i n th e d i s t a n c e . I t w a s n 't t h i s , i t w a s n 't t h a t , o r th e n e x t — o r th e f o u r t h o r th e f i f t h ! W hat i s th e g o a l, w h a t i s th e p r i z e , t h a t ' s w o rth th e w h o le s ta k e ? T h is h a l l , humming w i t h crow d ed b e n c h e s , r i n g i n g w i t h m e lo d y! T h is h a l l ! H e r e , fro m bench to b e n c h , th e s p i r i t th u n d e rs f u l f i l - Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 2 1 m e n ti H e re g lo w th e tw in c r u c i b l e s ; c o n fe s s io n and r e p e n ta n c e 1 M o lte n and f r e e fro m d r o s s , t h e s o u l s ta n d s l i k e a g l i t t e r i n g to w e r , s tr o n g and b r i g h t . You c r y f u l f i l l m e n t f o r th e s e b e n c h e s . [P a u s e .] I ' l l t e l l you my s t o r y . SALVATION LASS: S p e a k , I ' m w it h y o u . I ' l l s ta n d by y o u . CASHIER: I ' v e b een a l l day on th e r o a d . I c o n fe s s ; I ' m a bank c a s h i e r . I e m b e zzle d th e money t h a t was e n t r u s t e d me. A good ro u n d sum; s i x t y th o u s a n d m arks I I f l e d w i t h i t i n t o y o u r c i t y o f a s p h a l t . By t h i s t im e , t h e y ' r e on my t r a c k ; p e rh a p s t h e y 'v e o f f e r e d a b ig r e w a rd . I ' m n o t h i d i n g any m o re. I c o n fe s s i You can buy n o th in g w o r th h a v in g , even w it h a l l th e money o f a l l th e banks i n th e w o r ld . You g e t le s s th a n you p a y , e v e ry tim e . The more you spend, th e le s s th e goods a re w o r th . The money c o r r u p t s them: th e money v e i l s th e t r u t h . M o n e y 's th e m e a n e s t o f th e p a l t r y s w in d le s i n t h i s w o r ld : [ P u l l i n g r o l l s o f b ank n o te s o u t o f h is b r e a s t p o c k e t . ] T h is h a l l i s a b u r n in g oven; i t g lo w s w i t h y o u r c o n te m p t f o r a l l mean t h i n g s . I th ro w th e money to you; i t s h a l l be t o r n and stam ped u n d er f o o t . So much le s s d e c e i t i n th e w o r ld ! So much t r a s h consumed. I ' l l go th ro u g h y o u r b ench es and g iv e m y s e lf up to th e f i r s t p o lic e m a n ; a f t e r c o n fe s s io n , comes a to n e m e n t. So th e Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 2 2 cup i s f i l l e d ! I I : [W ith g lo v e d hands he s c a t t e r s bank n o te s b r o a d c a s t i n t o ! th e h a l l . The money f l u t t e r s down; a l l hands a re ] s t r e t c h e d upw ard; a scrim m age e n su e s . The crowd i s t a n g le d i n t o a f i g h t i n g s k e in . The SOLDIERS le a p fro m th e p la t f o r m ; benches a re o v e r t u r n e d , blow s o f | f i s t i c u f f s re s o u n d above th e s h o u tin g . A t l a s t , th e cram ped mass r o l l s to th e d o o r and o u t i n t o th e s t r e e t . ] SALVATION LASS: [Who has ta k e n no p a r t i n th e s t r u g g l e , s ta n d s a lo n e on th e s t e p s . ] CASHIER [ S m ilin g a t h e r ] : You a re s ta n d in g by me. You a re w it h me s t i l l I [ P ic k in g up an abandoned drum and a s t i c k . ] On we g o . [ R o l l o f d ru m .] The crow d i s l e f t b e h in d . [ R o l l o f d ru m .] The y e lp in g p ack o u t r u n . V a s t e m p tin e s s . E lb o w room ! Room! Room! Room! [D ru m .] A m aid re m a in s . . . u p r i g h t , s t e a d f a s t ! M a id e n and man. The o ld g a rd e n i s re o p e n e d . The sky i s c l e a r . A v o ic e c r i e s from th e s i l e n t t r e e to p s . I t i s w e l l . [D ru m .] M a id e n and man . . . e t e r n a l c o n s ta n c y . M a id e n and man . . . f u ln e s s i n th e v o id . M a id en and man . . . th e be g in n in g and th e e n d . M a id en and man . . . th e seed and th e f l o w e r . M a id e n and man . . . sense and aim and g o a l! [R a p id d ru m ta p s , th e n a lo n g r o l l , ] Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 2 3 SALVATION LASS: [Draw s b ack to th e d o o r, and s l i p s o u t . ] CASHIER: [B e a ts a t a t t o o . ] SALVATION LASS [Throw s th e d o o r o p e n . To POLICEMAN]: T h e re he i s 1 I ' v e shown him to y o u : I ' v e e a rn e d th e re w a rd . CASHIER [ L e t t i n g f a l l th e d r u m s tic k i n th e m id d le o f a b e a t ] : H e re above y o u , I s t a n d . Two a r e to o many. Space h o ld s b u t o n e. Space i s l o n e l i n e s s . L o n e lin e s s i s s p a c e . C o ld n e s s i s s u n s h in e . S u n s h in e i s c o ld n e s s . F e v e r h e a t b u rn s y o u . F e v e r h e a t f r e e z e s y o u . F i e l d s a re d e s e r t e d . I c e o verg ro w s th em . Who can escape? W here i s th e door? POLICEMAN: I s t h i s th e o n ly e n tra n c e ? SALVATION LASS: [N o d s .] CASHIER: [ F e e ls i n h is p o c k e t .] POLICEMAN: H e 's g o t a hand i n h is p o c k e t . S w itc h o f f t h a t l i g h t . W e 'r e t a r g e t f o r h im : SALVATION LASS: [O b e ys . A l l th e l i g h t s o f th e h a n g in g lam p a re p u t o u t . L ig h t s fro m th e l e f t i l l u m i n a t e th e t a n g le o f w i r e s , fo rm in g a s k e le t o n i n o u t l i n e . ] CASHIER [ F e e li n g w it h h is l e f t hand i n h i s b r e a s t p o c k e t. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 2 4 g ra s p s w it h h i s r i g h t a tr u m p e t, and b lo w s a f a n f a r e | : to w a rd th e la m p ] : Ah ! — D is c o v e r e d . S c o rn e d i n th e i snow t h i s m o rn in g — welcom ed now i n th e t a n g le d w i r e s . ! I s a l u t e y o u . [T r u m p e t.] Th e ro a d i s b e h in d me. P a n t - | i n g , I c lim b th e s te e p c u rv e s t h a t le a d u p w a rd . My fo r c e s a re s p e n t . I ' v e s p a re d m y s e lf n o t h in g . I ' v e } made th e p a th h a r d , w here i t m ig h t h ave b een e a s y . T h is : m o rn in g i n th e snow when we m e t, you and I , you s h o u ld h a ve been more p r e s s in g i n y o u r i n v i t a t i o n . One s p a rk o f e n lig h te n m e n t w o u ld h ave h e lp e d me and s p a re d me a l l t r o u b l e . I t d o e s n 't ta k e much o f a b r a in to see t h a t — Why d id I h e s i t a t e ? Why t a k e th e road? W h it h e r am I bound? From f i r s t to l a s t you s i t t h e r e , n aked b o n e . From morn to m id n ig h t , I ra g e i n a c i r c l e . . . and now y o u r b e c k o n in g f i n g e r p o in t s th e way . . . w h ith e r ? [He s h o o ts th e answ er i n t o h i s b r e a s t . ] POLICEMAN: S w itc h on th e l i g h t . SALVATION LASS: [Does s o .] CASHIER: [Has f a l l e n b a c k , w i t h arms o u t s t r e t c h e d , tum b l i n g h e a d lo n g down th e s t e p s . H is h u sky gasp i s l i k e an " E c c e ," h i s h e a v y s ig h i s l i k e a "Homo." One second l a t e r a l l th e lam ps e x p lo d e w i t h a lo u d r e p o r t . ] POLICEMAN: T h e re m ust be a s h o r t c i r c u i t i n th e m a in . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 2 5 [D a r k n e s s . ] CURTAIN THE END Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 2 6 D i s i l l u s i o n m e n t . I t w i l l be r e c a l l e d t h a t W a n d lu n q , w h ic h encom passes id e a s o f s e a r c h , s u f f e r i n g , r e g e n e r a t io n , and m y s tic is m was p r i m a r i l y s o u g h t by th e i s o l a t e d E x p re s s i o n i s t . I t was th e l o n e l y a r t i s t , aw are o f s o c i a l i l l s jb r o u g h t a b o u t by W o rld W ar I , who f e l t h im s e lf one w it h s u f f e r i n g h u m a n ity i n th e n e ed o f W a n d lu n g . S c h i l l e r ' s y o u t h f u l dram as show t h a t a l a r g e l y n e g a t iv e a t t i t u d e to s o c i e t y le a d s away fro m r e a l i s t i c o b s e r v a t io n to e x a g g e r a t io n , d i s t o r t i o n , s h r i l l n e s s , and a b s t r a c t n e s s , q u a l i t i e s w h ic h r e ap p ea r i n E x p r e s s io n is m , i n many ways th e f i r s t h e i r o f S c h i l l e r ' s S to rm and S t r e s s . I . . . I n a c li m a t e h o s t i l e to p o l i t e s o c i e t y , comedy e i t h e r changes i n t o b i t i n g p a r o d y , o f w h ich German l i t e r a t u r e shows numerous e x c e l l e n t exam p le s fro m L e n z and B u c h n e r to B r e c h t , o r drowns i n p a th o s . B o th p o s s i b i l i t i e s a re a b u n d a n tly r e a l i z e d i n E x p r e s s io n is m . ( 6 7 : 1 7 ) The a r t i s t s e e k in g W andlung was h o s t i l e to s o c i e t y . How e v e r , a lth o u g h he i s o l a t e d h i m s e l f fro m i t , he was i n t e n t upon e x p o s in g i t s m is e r ie s and o f t e n h i s own w re tc h e d n e s s , t o o . I n th e p r o c e s s , he o f t e n m et w it h d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t . T h is was so b e ca u s e th e a r t i s t d id n o t c o n fo rm to th e en v ir o n m e n t. He r e j e c t e d s o c i e t y and was r e j e c t e d by i t . " V a r io u s s t y l i s t i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f E x p re s s io n is m can be t r a c e d p a r t i a l l y to t h i s te n s e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw ee n th e jp o e t and h is e n v ir o n m e n t." ( 6 7 : 5 7 ) i I t m ust be r e c a l l e d t h a t th e German E x p r e s s io n is t s ! w e re h i g h l y in f lu e n c e d by N ie t z s c h e and F r e u d . The E x p r e s s io n is t s l i v e d a f t e r N i e t z s c h e 's and ! F r e u d 's unm asking o f a r t i s t i c g e n iu s . N ie t z s c h e and F re u d saw i n th e a r t i s t a c o n g e n i t a l l y i n f e r i o r ty p e Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 2 7 whose g r e a t n e s s l i e s i n h is a b i l i t y to avenge h im s e l f f o r h i s s h o rtc o m in g s o r to s u b lim a te h i s un f u l f i l l e d n e e d s . S c h o p e n h a u e r's p h ilo s o p h y im p lie s t h i s d e n i g r a t i o n o f g e n iu s . F o r i f th e t r u t h o f th e w o r ld i s h o r r o r and m e a n in g le s s n e s s , th e n th e m u s ic ia n as w e l l as th e p h ilo s o p h e r , b o th o f whom r e v e a l th e b l i n d f u t i l i t y o f a l l e x is t e n c e , p e rfo rm a v e r y d u b io u s s e r v ic e to m a n k in d . I f th e t r u t h i s h o r r o r , w o u ld n o t i l l u s i o n and ig n o ra n c e make man h a p p ie r ? T h u s , n o t o n ly th e a r t i s t ' s m o tiv e s , b u t a ls o i n t e l l i g e n c e i t s e l f , become s u s p e c t. I The E x p r e s s io n is t s have l o s t th e su p erm a n 's "good c o n s c ie n c e ," w h ic h e a r l i e r R o m a n tic g e n e r a - I t io n s s t i l l p o s s e s s e d . T h e i r p r id e i s in s e c u r e , and t h e i r a rro g a n c e a p p ea rs to them as d is g u is e d ; s e l f - c o n t e m p t . They s u s p e c t t h a t th e b o u n d le s s s e lf - e s t e e m o f th e superm an may be th e co m p en s a tio n o f th e subman. ( 5 7 : 5 9 ) I I Som etim es W andlung was n o t a c h ie v e d , and p a r t i a l o r t o t a l ; d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t f o llo w e d . D i s il l u s i o n m e n t l e d to d e s p a ir , ’ and i n some c ase s t o d e a t h . S p u rn ed and m is u n d e rs to o d by f r i e n d s , f a m i l y , and e n v iro n m e n t th e German E x p r e s s io n is t o r h is c h a r a c t e r s som etim es ended t h e i r own l i v e s . I n one p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e n s e c a s e , t h a t o f German E x p r e s s io n is t I : w r i t e r E ls e L a s k e r - S c h u l e r , h e r fa n t a s y and r e a l w o r ld w ere I I so h o p e le s s ly t a n g le d t h a t she c o u ld n o t even com m it s u i c id e i n th e S o c r a t i c sense i n o r d e r t o end h e r d i s i l l u s i o n - ; m e n t. H e r f r i e n d s h a v e d e s e r te d h e r and she c o n te m p la te s s u i c i d e . She w o u ld t u r n on th e g a s , b u t th e gas b i l l has n o t been p a id and th e gas i s s h u t o f f . She w an ts t o drown h e r s e l f i n m i l k , b u t th e u n p a id m ilkm an has s to p p e d m aking h e r d e l i v e r i e s . H e r p o v e r t y makes s u ic id e im p o s s ib le . O r: " I r was n i g h t when y o u r l e t t e r cam e. I had j u s t hanged m y s e lf . N e x t m o rn in g I c o u l d n 't f i n d th e t r e e . " ( 5 7 : 7 1 ) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 2 8 O th e rs l i k e T r a k l and K a fk a a ls o become d i s i l l u s io n e d w it h th e n e c e s s it y o f e a r n in g a l i v e l i h o o d a t th e expense o f t h e i r c r e a t i v i t y . K a fk a w en t u n d e r th e y o k e and, a t d is a s t r o u s c o s t to h i s in n e r l i f e , t r i e d to keep up th e ap p e a ra n ce o f th e r e s p e c t a b le e x is t e n c e w h ich h i s p a r e n t s ex p e c te d o f him u n t i l t u b e r c u l o s i s , l i k e th e m etam or p h o s is o f h is h e ro Samsa, r e le a s e d h im fro m h is p r is o n a t th e c o s t o f h i s l i f e . T r a k l f l e d th e p r is o n o f h is home and o f b o u rg e o is s o c i e t y t o l i v e an e n t i r e l y e r r a t i c e x is t e n c e w h ic h , when he was I tw e n ty -s e v e n , he ended by s u i c i d e . T r a k l ' s and I K a f k a 's i s o l a t i o n fro m t h e i r e n v iro n m e n t, th e i n - ! a b i l i t y o f t h e i r f a m i l i e s to a c c e p t and u n d e rs ta n d 1 them , c o n t r ib u t e d to t h e i r a n g u is h o f s p i r i t , w h ic h : I e x p re s s e d i t s e l f i n th e s h i e l d i n g and p r o t e c t i n g ! m e ta p h o r. The w ork o f T r a k l and K a fk a s u c c e s s f u lly | v e i l s th e wound o f e x is t e n c e i n th e p ro c e s s o f d e - ! f i n i n g i t . (6 7 : 73) The c o n c e p t o f d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t can be c o r r e l a t e d i n ' : a p a i n t i n g by E r n s t Ludw ig K i r c h n e r , an o p e ra by A lb a n B e rg , and i n a p la y by E r n s t T o l l e r . E r n s t L u d w ig K ir c h n e r (1 8 8 0 -1 9 3 8 ) fo u n d ed D ie ; B ru c k e ( The B r id g e ) i n D re s d e n i n 1 9 0 5 . D ie B ru c k e p a i n t e rs f a l l i n t o th e c a t e g o r y o f German f i g u r a t i v e E x p r e s s io n i s t s . They c o n c e rn e d th e m s e lv e s e s p e c i a l l y w it h o b je c t io n s to s o c i a l i l l s i n an a r t fo rm t h a t b o re w itn e s s " to I f e e l i n g s o f c o n fu s io n and to rm e n t i n th e fa c e o f l i f e . " I (8 8 : 3 2 4 ) I n a d d i t i o n to K ir c h n e r , th e g ro u p in c lu d e d jE r ic h H e c k e l, K a r l S c h m i d t - R o t t l u f f , E m il N o ld e , Max P ech s t e i n , F r i t z B l e y l , F r a n z N o lk e n , Kees van Dongen, and O tto M u e l l e r . A l l th e s e a r t i s t s d id n o t re m a in banded t o - | g e t h e r fro m th e tim e o f th e fo u n d a tio n o f D ie B ru c k e i n Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 2 9 1905 t o i t s d i s s o l u t i o n i n 1 9 1 3 . A s h o r t m a n if e s to was s e t down i n w oodcut f o r th e a s s o c ia t io n i n 1906 by K ir c h n e r . I t i s t r a n s l a t e d by M yers as f o llo w s : . . . " w it h a p ro fo u n d b e l i e f i n g r o w th , a b e l i e f i n a new g e n e r a t io n o f c r e a t o r s and a p p r e c i a t o r s , I we summon th e e n t i r e y o u n g e r g e n e r a t io n — and as th e y o u th w h ic h c a r r i e s w i t h i n i t th e f u t u r e , we w is h to p r o v id e o u r s e lv e s w it h a s p h e re o f a c t i v - ! i t y opposed to th e e n tre n c h e d and e s t a b l i s h e d t e n - I d e n c ie s . E v e ry o n e b e lo n g s to us who p o r t r a y s h is I c r e a t i v e im p u ls e s h o n e s t ly and d i r e c t l y . " ( 4 9 : 8 5 ) : F le m in g n o te s t h a t D ie B ru c k e p a i n t e r s c a l l e d th em - i I js e lv e s "The B r id g e " " . . . b eca u s e th e y w is h e d to fo rm i I l i n k s w i t h a l l a r t i s t s o f th e e x p r e s s i o n i s t p e r s u a s io n , as | w e l l as a b r id g e to th e f u t u r e . " ( 1 7 : 5 1 1 ) L ik e m ost mod e rn m ovem ents, th e f i r s t e x h i b i t i o n s o f D ie B ru c k e e i t h e r w en t by a lm o s t u n n o t ic e d , as i n th e ca s e o f th e two i n 1 9 0 6 , o r th e show ings b ro u g h t c o n te m p t and s c o rn upon th e | heads o f th e e x h i b i t o r s , as i n th e case o f th e 1907 R i c h t e r | ! I I C a l l e r y s h o w in g . I n t e r e s t i n g l y enough, th e a r t i s t s o f th e I o ld e r s c h o o ls o f p a i n t i n g w ere n o t a lo n e i n t h e i r h e a p in g : o f i n s u l t s upon D ie B r u c k e . The B e r l i n S e c e s s io n a r t i s t s i h e ld t h e i r f i r s t e x h i b i t i o n i n 1 8 9 9 , and c o n s id e r e d them s e lv e s l i b e r a l s . N e v e r t h e le s s , th e y a ls o d e r id e d th e new [ p r o v o c a t iv e a r t o f D ie B ru c k e ( 4 9 : 8 6 ) . j I L o v is C o r i n t h , a le a d e r i n th e B e r l i n S e c e s s io n ! g ro u p , c o n s id e r e d D ie B ru c k e w orks to be so much game p l a y - i i in g . Max L ie b e rm a n n , fo u n d e r o f th e S e c e s s io n ,c o n s id e r e d 't h e w o rk o f D ie B ru c k e . and m ost modern F re n c h a r t as w e l l . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 3 0 to be " s i l l y " { 4 9 : 8 5 ) . I n th e w i n t e r o f 1 9 0 8 , th e B e r l i n S e c e s s io n d e ig n e d to in c lu d e a s m a ll show ing by D ie B ru c k e a r t i s t s i n i t s ex h i b i t i o n . C o r i n t h c la im e d t h a t r u i n a t i o n and d i s a s t e r b e - j f e l l th e S e c e s s io n movement fro m t h a t d a t e . So i t was t h a t D ie B ru c k e a r t , th e f i r s t t r u l y German E x p r e s s i o n i s t w o rk , iwas b o rn i n ig n o m in y , much l i k e F re n c h Im p re s s io n is m w h ic h p re c e d e d i t . U n d o u b te d ly th e s c o rn o f t h e i r c o n te m p o ra - j r i e s added t o th e d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t o f D ie B ru c k e a r t i s t s and ! K ir c h n e r i n p a r t i c u l a r . By 1910 th e B e r l i n S e c e s s io n e x c lu d e d many young German E x p r e s s io n is t s and so Max P e c h - i s t e i n and o t h e r members o f D ie B ru c k e fo u n d ed th e New Se c e s s io n . I n th e same y e a r D ie B ru c k e a r t i s t s w ith d r e w , de s i r i n g to p r e s e r v e t h e i r own i d e n t i t y as a g ro u p . The C o lo g n e S o n d erb u n d e x h i b i t i o n o f D ie B ru c k e w o rk i n 191 2 {b ro u g h t i t more f a v o r a b l e a c c e p ta n c e , b u t by 1 9 1 3 , th e igroup d is b a n d e d , each a r t i s t g o in g h i s s e p a r a t e w a y . The e a r l y s t y l e o f D ie B ru c k e a r t i s t s may be sum m arized as f o l lo w s : The B ru c k e r e j e c t e d : th e f i n i s h e d and c o r r e c t f o r m a lis m o f th e a ca d e m ie s ; th e f l a t , l i n e a r , and a b s t r a c t d e c o r a t io n o f J u g e n d s t i l , w h ich seemed l i k e m e a n in g le s s o rn a m e n t to them; and th e p le a s in g c o l o r s e n s a tio n s o f im p r e s s io n is m . T hey lo o k e d I a t n a t u r e i n an a tte m p t to f i x i t s m ost e s s e n t i a l ! c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n te rm s o f t h e i r own im m e d ia te r e a c t i o n s . They seemed to be s e a r c h in g f o r an i n - ! t u i t i v e e x p r e s s io n , w h ic h th e y f e l t l a y somewhere I b e tw ee n im a g in a t iv e and d e s c r i p t i v e a r t . The r e s u l t o f t h i s i n s t i n c t i v e a p p ro ach was an e m p h a tic Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 3 1 p a i n t i n g t h a t , a lth o u g h o f t e n e x a g g e r a t e d ly emo t i o n a l , r e s u l t e d i n some p i c t o r i a l s ta te m e n ts h a r d l y e q u a le d i n th e a n n a ls o f modern a r t . The men w o rke d i n many m ed ia and m a t e r i a l s : p a i n t i n g , d r a w in g , e t c h in g , l i t h o g r a p h y , wood c a r v i n g , and— p e rh a p s m ost im p o r t a n t — th e w o o d c u t. The e f f o r t s o f th e B ru c k e p a i n t e r s i n th e w oodcut medium n o t o n ly b e lo n g e d to t h e i r m ost im p o r t a n t ac c o m p lis h m e n ts , b u t w ere a ls o d e c i s i v e i n th e d e v e lo p m ent o f t h e i r s t y l e i n p a i n t i n g . ( 6 5 : 7 8 - 8 1 ) The d i f f e r e n c e b e tw ee n th e e a r l y D re s d e n B ru c k e s t y l e and th e l a t e r one d e v e lo p e d a t M o r it z b u r g b etw een 1908 and 1910 was m arked . Even more th a n i n th e s tu d io i n th e c i t y , a s t y l e e v o lv e d a t M o r it z b u r g — f r e q u e n t l y c a l l e d th e " f i r s t B ru c k e s t y l e " — c h a r a c t e r iz e d by s h o u tin g c o lo r s i n s t e a d o f s o f t h a rm o n ie s , by h a r d , p o in t e d , s p l i n t e r e d fo rm s , and by l a r g e , s h a r p ly c o n t r a s t in g p la n e s o f p u re c o l o r . The c o n to u r , w h ich im p re s s io n is m had a lm o s t e n t i r e l y r e j e c t e d , was r e i n t r o d u c ed , b u t more as th e b o r d e r o f th e c o lo r p la n e th a n as th e o u t l i n e o f th e o b j e c t . N a t u r e p r e s e n te d th e im m e d ia te s tim u lu s b u t v,as n e v e r i m i t a t e d . In s t e a d , th e e x p r e s s io n o f a con c e p t o f n a t u r e by means o f a b s o lu te c o l o r — i n c lu d in g p u re w h it e and p u re b la c k — and a s t r o n g ly em p h a s iz e d c o n to u r became i n c r e a s i n g l y im p o r t a n t . ( 6 5 : 9 9 ) The h i s t o r y o f D ie B ru c k e i s im p o r t a n t n o t o n ly as a fra m e o f r e f e r e n c e f o r f u r t h e r rem a rk s c o n c e rn in g K i r c h n e r , i t s f o u n d e r , b u t a ls o b ecau se no s tu d y c o n c e rn e d w it h German E x p r e s s io n is m can o m it r e f e r e n c e t o th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f D ie B ru c k e s t y l e i n th e v i s u a l a r t segm ent o f th e move m e n t. K ir c h n e r re m a in e d c o n s i s t e n t l y E x p r e s s i o n i s t ; th r o u g h o u t h i s l i f e , and h i s d e v e lo p m e n t d u r in g th e days ; Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 3 2 o f D ie B ru c k e t y p i f i e d t h a t o f m ost o f th e g ro u p . H is e a r l i e s t w orks i n any medium show w h a t seems to be an i n f l u en ce o f E d v a rd M unch. T h is i n f l u e n c e " . . . was more te c h n i c a l th a n s p i r i t u a l and c o n f in e d i t s e l f to h i s c u r s iv e l i n e a r sweep and f l a t c o lo r a r e a s ." ( 4 9 : 1 0 0 ) K ir c h n e r de n ie d h a v in g been c o n s c io u s ly i n f lu e n c e d by Munch. W i l l Grohmann t r i e d to s o lv e th e d ilem m a . B u t i t was Munch who im p re s s e d th e G erm ans. K i r c h - I n e r a lw a y s d e n ie d t h a t he knew h is w ork a t th e tim e o f th e f o r m a t io n o f th e "B ru cke" o r , in d e e d , had been i n f l u e n c e d by h im . As K ir c h n e r had no money f o r t r a v e l l i n g , i t i s c e r t a i n t h a t he d id n o t v i s i t th e l a r g e Munch e x h i b i t i o n i n 1902 in th e B e r l i n S e z e s s io n [ s i c ] , b u t he c o u ld h a v e seen w orks by h im , as w e l l as th o s e o f T o u lo u s e - L a u t r e c and V a l - l o t o n , i n " P a n " . A f t e r a l l . Munch was tw e n ty y e a r s o ld e r th a n h e , was fam ous, was o f t e n re p ro d u c e d , and a t t h i s tim e was w o rk in g i n th e n e a rb y c i t y o f C h e m n itz . I t w o u ld h a v e been q u i t e n a t u r a l f o r a p a i n t e r to s tu d y Munch, p a r t i c u l a r l y h i s g r a p h ic ' w orks w h ic h i n a l l p r o b a b i l i t y was a v a i l a b l e a t th e G a l e r i e A r n o ld . H o w e v e r, M u n ch 's a p p ro ac h was f u l l o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l and h a l l u c i n a t o r y i m p l i c a t i o n s , and th e s o c i a l c la s s t o w h ich h i s f i g u r e s and he h im s e lf b e lo n g e d was t o t a l l y d i f f e r e n t fro m K i r c h n e r ' s . K ir c h n e r was s e a r c h in g f o r th e n a t u r a l i n man and n a t u r e , n o t f o r th e m y s t e r io u s . F o r him th e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n man and woman had an a l m ost v e g e t a t i v e q u a l i t y . When Munch saw th e p r i n t s o f th e "B ru c k e" p a i n t e r s i n th e c o l l e c t i o n o f Gus t a v S c h i e f l e r he d id n o t f e e l a t a l l t h a t th e y w ere s i m i l a r t o h is own w o rk . "May God p r o t e c t u s , we a re a p p ro a c h in g d i f f i c u l t tim e s " , was h i s r e a c t i o n . H is i n t e r e s t , n e v e r t h e le s s , in c r e a s e d as he became f u r t h e r a c q u a in te d w i t h th e g r a p h ic w orks o f t h i s g ro u p , and o v e r th e y e a r s he a c q u ir e d a g r e a t num b e r o f them . We m ost l i k e l y m ust r e l e g a t e th e f r e q u e n t a s s e r t io n o f M u n c h 's i n f l u e n c e to th e r e a lm o f le g e n d , as we m ust assume t h a t th e N o rw e g ian w o u ld n o t h a ve s p e n t h i s money on th e w orks o f h is i m i t a t o r . ( 2 3 : 3 0 ) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 3 3 K ir c h n e r was a ls o i n f lu e n c e d by J u g e n d s t i l . By 1908 h is p r i n t s began to show h is own p s y c h o lo g ic a l s t r e n g t h and fo rm . H is B ru c k e lit h o g r a p h s b etw een 1909 and 1911 show h is Fauve i n s p i r a t i o n . D u r in g th e f o l l o w i n g y e a r s . K i r c h - I jn e r became more b o ld i n th e use o f d i s t o r t i o n and more d r a m a tic i n th e b a la n c e b e tw een vehem ent c o l o r and e s s e n t i a l I fo rm . ! ! K i r c h n e r 's w oodcut te c h n iq u e , l i k e M u n c h 's , was an im p o r ta n t medium f o r c o n v u ls iv e e x p r e s s io n . ! The d i r e c t , s la s h in g s tr o k e s and s h a rp edges i o f K i r c h n e r 's p a in t in g s d e r iv e as much fro m h is w oodcut te c h n iq u e s as fro m th e i n t e n s i t y o f h is I e m o tio n s . The s t r o n g e s t te n s io n s i n h i s a r t , how e v e r , a p p e a r m ost c l e a r l y i n b la c k and w h it e , ' . . . . The f l a t p a t t e r n s and th e a n g u la r v io le n c e o f h is d e s ig n s a re p e rh a p s m ost s u c c e s s fu l when he i t r a n s f i x e s p a s s in g moments o f e v e ry d a y r e a l i t y i n t o a r r e s t i n g s t y l i z a t i o n s o f m ovement. D u rin g th e 1920s th e f o r c e o f h i s p r i n t s as w e l l as h i s p a in t in g s s u r r e n d e r s to a s t y l e le s s h a rs h and more r e la x e d . The in c r e a s in g c u r v i l i n e a r { t r e a t m e n t o f fo rm r e c a l l s th e J u g e n d s t il o f h is y o u th as w e l l as c e r t a i n c o n te m p o ra ry w orks by P ic a s s o . They p e r i l o u s l y approach d e c o r a t iv e ab s t r a c t i o n . ( 3 1 : 1 9 5 - 1 9 7 ) I W hat i s most o b v io u s ly m is s in g fro m th e com pressed d e s c r ip t i o n o f K i r c h n e r 's s t y l i s t i c d e v e lo p m e n t s t a t e d abo ve, i s a s k e tc h o f h i s p e r io d o f p ro fo u n d d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t d u r in g i jt h e w ar y e a r s . The p s y c h ic tra u m a K ir c h n e r s u f f e r e d d u r in g t h a t tim e was v e r y r e a l and t e r r i b l e . A ls o m is s in g i s a d is c u s s io n o f th e " c o n v u ls iv e and unhappy q u a l i t y " o f s t y l e i n h is B e r l i n s t r e e t scenes and d e p ic t io n s o f s ic k p e o p le , ! w h ic h was a p a r t o f h is " s p i r i t u a l r e v o l t a g a in s t th e Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 3 4 t im e s . ( 4 9 : 1 0 4 - 1 0 5 ) A t th e o u tb r e a k o f W o rld War I , K ir c h n e r was i n d u c te d i n t o th e German army and v o lu n t e e r e d f o r s e r v i c e as an a r t i l l e r y d r i v e r . He e x p e r ie n c e d such s e v e re p h y s ic a l and m e n ta l d e b i l i t a t i o n s i n th e s e r v i c e , t h a t a n e rv o u s breakdow n f i n a l l y l e d t o h i s com m itm ent to a s a n a to r iu m . K i r c h n e r ' s p a i n t i n g s S o ld ie r s i n th e Shower Room land S e l f - P o r t r a i t as a S o l d i e r a re co m m en tarie s on th e d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t he e x p e r ie n c e d i n th e German arm y. S o l d ie r s i n th e Show er Room (1 9 1 5 ) . u a l e x p r e s s io n o f th e c o n s t r a i n t and f e l t i n th e army: a l a r g e number o f young men, p re s s e d i n t o a t i n y room. . . IS a v is - c o e r c io n he u n d re s s e d ta k e show ers u n d e r th e s u r v e i l l a n c e o f an o f f i c e r b a r k in g o r d e r s . The s o l d i e r s seem to need to assume t h e i r e lo n g a t e d fo rm s even t o f i t i n t o th e shower room . Much more f o r t h r i g h t i n i t s b i t t e r condemna t i o n o f th e m i l i t a r y i s th e S e l f - P o r t r a i t as S o l d i e r (1 9 1 5 ) . . . . K ir c h n e r p a in t e d h im s e lf i n a b lu e army u n ifo r m c o m p le te w it h c a p , v e r y c lo s e to th e f r o n t o f th e p i c t u r e p la n e and r a t h e r to th e l e f t . The m ost s t a r t l i n g t h in g a b o u t th e f i g u r e i s th e a m p u ta te d r e d stump o f h is r i g h t arm, w h ich he h o ld s up b e f o r e t h e v ie w e r . I n s t e a d th e e a g e r , in t e n s e lo o k o f th e p r e v io u s p o r t r a i t 1 9 1 3 -1 9 1 4 , K ir c h n e r now s t a r e s s i o n l e s s l y . The e y e s , l a c k in g p u p i l o r h o llo w l i k e th e eye s o c k e ts o f a s t a t u e o f w e a r in g s e l f - e x p r e s - i r i s , a re fro m w h ic h th e je w e ls h a v e been p lu n d e r e d . W ild h a i r , mus ta c h e , and g o a te e a re gone; th e h e ad b e n e a th th e cap lo o k s s h a v e d . T h e fa c e i s t h i n and d ra w n . A c i g a r e t t e hangs fro m th e l i p s . I n th e b a c k g ro u n d , j u s t r i g h t o f c e n t e r , i s th e f u l l f r o n t f i g u r e o f a nude woman, seen fro m th e th ig h s up— a g a in th e j u s t a p o s i t i o n o f s e l f to th e woman-model s y m b o l. I n th e a m p u ta te d w r i s t stum ps, K ir c h n e r d e c la r e s n o t o n ly th e d re a d e d p o s s i b i l i t y o f a c t u a l p h y s i c a l d e s t r u c t i o n o r im p a ir m e n t, b u t t h e r e a l "am p u t a t io n " o f h is t a l e n t s d u r in g th e p e r io d o f w a r . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 3 5 He c a n n o t p a i n t — he i s c o m p le te ly h a n d ic a p p e d i n h is l i f e as an a r t i s t . The p in k s p e c k le d swash i n th e l e f t b a c k g ro u n d m ig h t be a c a n v a s . The nude woman c o n t r a s t e d t o h is a m p u ta te d hands can s ta n d e i t h e r f o r th e o b v io u s sym bol o f s e x u a l im p o te n c e o r — more g e n e r a l l y — f o r th e f r u s t r a t i o n o f h i s e n t i r e c r e a t i v e l i f e . . . . he has d i s c a rd e d th e e a r l y , f l u i d , J u g e n d s t il c o n to u r s , and s u b s t i t u t e d ja g g e d edges and a b ro k e n , a n g u la r I l i n e o f h a tc h m a rk s . ( 6 5 : 2 9 9 - 3 0 0 ) The above d e s c r i p t i o n more th a n a d e q u a L e ly d e s c r ib e s th e I i d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t , now become a c u t e , w h ic h h a d been p a r t o f m ost o f K i r c h n e r ' s e x i s t e n c e . Some r e l i e f was fo u n d th ro u g h c lo s e n e s s w i t h n a t u r e i n S w it z e r l a n d a f t e r h is r e - jle a s e fro m th e s a n a to r iu m , and th e s e y e a r s a re c o n s id e r e d I h i s m ost p r o d u c t i v e . The N a z i a r t p u rg e o f 1 9 3 7 , d u r in g w h ich N o ld e 's w orks had been a t t a c k e d , was no le s s k in d t o K i r c h n e r . T w e n t y - f i v e p a i n t i n g s , a lo n g w it h o t h e r w o rk s , w e re ig n o - m in io u s ly e x h i b i t e d i n th e M u n ic h show ing o f " d e g e n e ra te a r t ." ( 4 9 : 111) K i r c h n e r ' s u n h ap p y , l o n e l y , d i s i l l u s i o n e d l i f e was I ended by h i s own hand i n 19 3 8 . A f i t t i n g c o r o l l a r y f o r K i r c h n e r ' s S e l f - P o r t r a i t as a S o l d i e r i s fo u n d i n th e o p e ra o f A lb a n B e rg , W o z z e c k . j I n s p i r e d by th e w ar i n 1 9 1 4 , th e l i b r e t t o was f i n i s h e d i n ! 11 9 1 7 . M o s t o f th e m usic was composed fro m 1918 to 1 9 2 0 . The o r c h e s t r a t i o n , h o w e v e r, was n o t c o m p le te d u n t i l 1 9 2 2 . I A lb a n B e rg ( 1 8 8 5 - 1 9 4 5 ) b ase d h i s o p e ra W ozzeck I lupon th e p l a y , o r more c o r r e c t l y , th e " d r a m a t ic fra g m e n ts " Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 3 6 e n t i t l e d W oyzeck by G eorg B uchner ( 1 8 1 3 - 1 8 3 7 ) . B e rg had a tte n d e d s e v e r a l p e rfo rm a n c e s i n May o f 1 9 1 4 . I n th e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e in f a n t r y m a n W oyzeck, B u c h n er . . . c r e a t e d an a rc h e ty p e o f " th e i n s u l t e d and i n i' ju r e d " o f th e e a r t h . Though i t is s u e d fro m th e I h e a r t o f th e r o m a n tic e r a , B ü c h n e r ' s s t a r k dram a ; i s s u r p r i s i n g l y c o n te m p o ra ry i n th o u g h t and f e e l i n g . Above a l l — as B erg w it h th e i n t u i t i o n o f g e n iu s r e c o g n iz e d — th e p la y was i d e a l l y s u i t e d to th e e m o tio n a l atm osphere o f th e e x p r e s s i o n i s t t h e a t e r and th e a t o n a l m usic o f th e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y . ( 4 7 : 3 7 1 ) I The p a r a l l e l i s m b etw een w h a t K ir c h n e r e n d u red i n i th e s e r v i c e w i t h w h a t B e rg a ls o f e l t i n th e army i s s t r i k i n g . T h e i r e x p e r ie n c e s i n th e German army c e r t a i n l y i n f lu e n c e d th e w o rk o f th e two a r t i s t s . W h ile B e r g 's l i f e was n o t so c o n s i s t e n t l y f r o u g h t w i t h d i s i l l u s i o n as was I K i r c h n e r ' s , t h e r e w e re p e r io d s o f deep s u f f e r i n g and de p r e s s io n . A V ie n n e s e n e w sp ap er. P e r W ie n e r T a g , p r i n t e d a d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t o f B e r g 's p a i n f u l e x p e r ie n c e s i n th e army j ! a y e a r and a day a f t e r h is d e a t h . S e r v ic e i n th e o f f i c e r ' s t r a i n i n g s c h o o l was a I g r e a t s t r a i n . The f i e l d e x e r c is e s w i t h f u l l m arch in g e q u ip m e n t, and th e f o r m a t io n o f b a t t l e l i n e s — th e s o l d i e r s c o n s t a n t ly th r o w in g th e m s e lv e s to th e g ro u n d and s p r in g in g up a g a in — th e s e e x e r c is e s i n p a r t i c u l a r f a r exc eed e d B e r g 's s t r e n g t h . Bad c a t a r r h , s h o r ta g e o f b r e a t h , h e a v y a t t a c k s o f asthm a i w e re t h e r e s u l t s o f h is e x e r t i o n s ; b u t i n s p i t e o f h is e x h a u s tio n he c o u ld h a r d ly s le e p . On one o c - j c a s io n , when h i s p u p i l G o t t f r i e d K a s s o w itz v i s i t e d him a t th e K a r a ly h id a b a r r a c k s , he spoke a b o u t h is s le e p le s s n ig h t s : 'Have you e v e r h e a r d a l o t o f p e o p le a l l s n o r in g a t th e same tim e ? The p o ly p h o n ic b r e a t h in g , g a s p in g and g r o a n in g makes th e s t r a n g e s t c h o ru s I h ave e v e r h e a r d . I t i s l i k e a m usic o f th e p r im e v a l sounds t h a t r i s e s fro m th e Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 3 7 abysses o f th e s e p e o p le 's s o u l s . ' R e a d in g t h i s , i t i s im p o s s ib le n o t t o t h i n k o f th e b a r r a c k s scene a t th e end o f th e second a c t o f W o z z e c k , w h e re — t h e c u r t a i n i s s t i l l c lo s e d — th e s n o r in g ch o ru s o f s le e p in g s o l d i e r s e n t e r s ' l i k e a sound o f n a t u r e ' . ( 5 7 : 4 3 ) One i s s t r u c k w it h t h e s i m i l a r i t y b etw een B e r g 's s u f f e r i n g ' i n th e b a r r a c k s and th e c o n s t r a i n t K ir c h n e r f e l t when p re s s e d i n t o a show er room w i t h d ozens o f o t h e r men. S i m i - j ! i l a r l y , B e r g 's m is e r a b le n i g h t s , r e n d e r e d s le e p le s s by th e is n o r in g o f huge numbers o f men i n th e b a r r a c k s , a re r e - ! f l e e t e d i n a scene o f h is o p e ra , W o z z e c k . L i k e K ir c h n e r , B e rg s u f f e r e d a c o m p le te b reakd o w n , b u t o f a p h y s ic a l n a t u r e , and " . . . s u f f e r e d t r e a t m e n t v e r y s i m i l a r to th e e x p e r ie n c e s o f th e to rm e n te d s o l d i e r W o z z e c k ." ( 5 7 : 4 3 ) B e rg d e s c r ib e d , i n a l e t t e r to a f r i e n d , h is t e r r i b l e i l l h e a l t h , and th e u n r e l e n t in g d e t e r - im in a t io n o f t h e German army t o k e e p him i n s e r v ic e seem i n g l y a t any c o s t . By May o f 1 9 1 6 , B erg was a t l a s t t r a n s f e r r e d to o f f i c e w ork w h ic h he s t i l l b i t t e r l y r e f e r r e d to as 'im p r is o n m e n t' o r ' s l a v e r y , ' b u t he was g r a n t e d le n g t h y le a v e s and d u r in g t h i s tim e w o rke d on W ozzeck ( 5 7 : 4 4 ) . S h o r t l y p r i o r to th e end o f th e w a r , he w r o te to A nton :W ebern: i ' I c a n n o t say w h e th e r o r n o t I am p le a s e d w it h w h a t I I h ave w r i t t e n , b u t I do f e e l w arm th i n w r i t i n g i t , and i t ru n s fro m my hand more e a s i l y th a n I w ould have th o u g h t a f t e r such a lo n g b r e a k . . . . W hat to u c h e d me so c lo s e l y i s n o t o n ly th e f a t e o f t h i s I p o o r man p e r s e c u te d and e x p l o i t e d by a l l th e w o r ld . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 3 8 b u t a ls o th e u n b e lie v a b ly c o n c e n tr a te d mood o f th e i n d i v i d u a l s c e n e s . . . ( 5 1 : 4 5 ) The u l t i m a t e f a t e o f p o o r W ozzeck i n B e r g 's o p e ra w o u ld be d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t and d e a t h . L ik e K ir c h n e r and N o ld e , S ch o en b erg and B erg had j I a ls o to b e a r th e p a in o f h a v in g t h e i r w orks c l a s s i f i e d as d e g e n e r a t e . I i The N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s t s (N a z is ) r e g a rd e d a l l th e m usic o f S c h o n b e rg 's s c h o o l as 'd e g e n e r a te a r t ' ; j W ozzeck c o u ld n o t be p e rfo rm e d any more i n G erm any. T h e a t e r s t h a t had a lr e a d y c o n t r a c t e d f o r th e w ork a n n u lle d t h e i r c o n t r a c t s , and even i n German c o n - ! c e r t s h is w orks c o u ld no lo n g e r be p e r fo r m e d . B e rg was v e r y e x a c t and f a r - s i g h t e d i n m a t e r i a l m a tte r s as i n a l l t h in g s , and t h i s d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f h is p o s i t i o n c o n fo u n d e d him c o m p le t e ly . ( 5 7 : 9 0 ) B e rg , n e v e r t h e le s s , c o n tin u e d w ork on a n o th e r o p e ra L u lu a t t h i s t im e , b u t . . . he w atch e d w it h d ism ay and sadness th e de v e lo p m e n ts i n Germ any, and th e f a c t t h a t th e Aus t r i a n a t t i t u d e to th e r a d i c a l new a r t h a r d l y d i f f e r e d fro m th e one c u r r e n t i n Germany f i l l e d him w it h i n t o l e r a b l e b i t t e r n e s s . On 3 rd Novem ber 1933 he w ro te to me [R e ic h ] o f th e e n t h u s i a s t i c r e c e p t i o n a c c o rd e d to S ch o n b erg on h i s a r r i v a l i n New Y o rk : 'T h e r e i s r e a l l y n o th in g f o r V ie n n a to be p ro u d o f i n th e f a c t t h a t S cho nberg was d r i v e n o u t o f B e r l i n . T h e re he i s o n ly one o f th e many v i c t im s . . . . B u t A u s t r i a , a t a tim e when th e W a l t e r s and H uberm anner a r e j u s t b e in g c e l e b r a t e d and made i n t o m a r t y r s , has t r e a t e d S ch o n b erg as d i r t i l y as e v e r . T h a t 's why we m ust ru b t h e i r noses i n i t and p o i n t t o th e way A m e ric a behaves to w a rd s S ch d n - b e r g . I t i s n o t enough t h a t one knows— fro m th e n e w s p a p e rs, e t c . — t h a t S cho nberg i s one o f th e h u n d re d J e w is h a r t i s t s who have f l e d to A m e ric a , one has to make p l a i n t h a t w h at has lo n g been due has no h a p p en ed , b ecau se S cho nberg i s f r e e . ( 5 7 : 9 1 ) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 3 9 U n d o u b te d ly , B e rg was d i s i l l u s i o n e d w it h th e a t t i t u d e in Germany and i n h i s own n a t i v e V ie n n a to w a rd th e new m u s ic a l {ideas o f S c h o e n b e rg 's s c h o o l. B erg and W ebern w ere i t s Imost b r i l l i a n t p u p i l s . Y e t , d e s p it e h is s a d n e s s , B e rg chose to re m a in i n E u ro p e . U n l i k e K ir c h n e r , B e rg d id n o t end h is p r o d u c t iv e l i f e i n s u i c i d e . I f he e v e r e x p e r ie n c e d {the d e a th w is h , he p e rh a p s a c te d i t o u t i n h is c h a r a c t e r W o zze c k . B e rg com pressed th e o r i g i n a l tw e n ty -s e v e n scenes o f W oyzeck ( 5 5 : 2 6 2 ) i n t o f i f t e e n s c e n e s , g ro u p e d i n t o t h r e e a c ts o f f i v e scenes e a c h . Composed b e tw ee n 1 91 4 and 1 9 2 2 , th e o p e ra W ozzeck was f i r s t p e rfo rm e d i n B e r l i n i n 19 2 5. |Berg h im s e lf s u g g e s te d a t a b l e show ing th e sequence o f th e m ost im p o r ta n t p o in t s i n th e d r a m a t ic and m u s ic a l s t r u c t u r e . B e r g 's t a b l e e d i t e d by W i l l i R e ic h i s p r e s e n te d h e r e . ( 8 2 : 7 ) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 140 SCHEME o f th e D r a m a t ic and M u s ic a l Forms i n W ozzeck DRAMATIC MUSICAL Ac t I E x p o s it io n F i v e C h a r a c t e r S k e tc h e s W ozzeck and h is r e l a t i o n to h i s e n v iro n m e n t Scene S cene 1 . S u i t e 1= The C a p t a in 2 . Rhapsody 2 . A n d re s 3 . M i l i t a r y M arch and 3 . M a r ie C r a d le Song 4 . The P h y s ic ia n 4 . P a s s a c a g lia 5 . The D ru m -M a jo r 5 . A n d a n te A f f e t t u o s o (q u a s i Rondo) A c t I I Denouem ent W ozzeck i s g r a d u a l l y con Symphony in f i v e v in c e d o f M a r i e ' s movements i n f i d e l i t y Scene Scene 1 . W o z z e c k 's f i r s t s u s p i 1 . S o n a ta Form c io n 2 . W ozzeck i s mocked 2 . F a n t a s i e and Fugue 3 . W ozzeck accuses M a r ie 3 . L a rg o 4 . M a r ie and D ru m -M a jo r 4 . S c h e rz o dance 5 . The D ru m -M a jo r tro u n c e s 5 . Rondo M a r t i a l e W ozzeck A c t I l l C a ta s t r o p h e W ozzeck m u rd e rs M a r ie and S i x In v e n t io n s a to n e s th ro u g h s u ic id e Scene S cene 1 . M a r i e ' s rem o rse 1 . I n v e n t io n on a Theme 2 . D e a th o f M a r ie 2 . In v e n t io n on a Tone 3 . W ozzeck t r i e s to f o r 3 . In v e n t io n on a Rhythm g e t 4 . W ozzeck drowns i n th e 4 . In v e n t io n on a S i x - t o n e pond C h o rd ( In s t r u m e n t a l i n t e r l u d e w i t h c lo s e d c u r t a in ) 5 . M a r i e ' s son p la y s un c o n c e rn e d I n v e n t i o n on a P e r s i s t e n t Rhythm (P e r - petuum M o M le ) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 4 1 O f p rim e im p o rta n c e i s th e f a c t t h a t W o zze ck, th e p r o t a g o n i s t , i s a t y p e - f i g u r e o f w h a t he h im s e lf c a l l s W ir arme L e u t ("We p o o r f o l k " ) , d i s i l l u s i o n e d i n l i f e , s u f f e r in g w i t h o u t kn o w in g why, d r i v e n by in w a rd fo r c e s he c a n n o t r e s i s t . W ozzeck f i n a l l y m u rd e rs h is m is t r e s s , M a r ie , and th e n drowns h i m s e l f . D i s i l l u s i o n i s p e rh a p s a t i t s c lim a x w hen, to rm e n te d by th e C a p t a in , who c o n s id e r s him s t u p i d , and by th e D o c t o r , who uses h im f o r h i s e x p e r im e n ts , Woz ze c k c r i e s o u t , H im m e lî Man k o n n te L u s t bekommen s ic h a u fz u h a n q e n I ("G od i n H eaven 1 A man m ig h t w a n t to hang h i m s e l f 1") A s h o r t a n a ly s is o f th e o t h e r two scenes o f p o ig n a n t d e s p a i r , th e two d e a th s c e n e s , has been done by M a c h l i s . The m u rd er s ce n e — th e I n v e n t io n on one n o te — abounds i n om inous s o n o r i t i e s , as a t M a r i e ' s w ords W ie d e r Mond r o t a u fg e h t ( "How r e d th e moon i s l " ) , w h e re th e s t r i n g s h o ld a B - n a t u r a l s p re a d o u t o v e r f i v e o c ta v e s a g a in s t m uted tro m bones and f l u t t e r t o n g u i n g on m uted tr u m p e ts . U n f o r g e t t a b l e i s th e r e p e a t e d s t r o k e on th e t im p a n i, g o in g fro m a w h is p e r t o a s p i n e - c h i l l i n g f o r t i s s i m o as W ozzeck c r i e s I c h nicht_,_ M a r ie I und k e in A n d re r auch n i c h t ! ( " I f n o t me, M a r ie , th e n no o t h e r ! " ) j u s t b e f o r e he k i l l s h e r . The drum s t r o k e r e t u r n s t o a p ia n is s im o . I n th e i n t e r l u d e t h a t f o l l o w s , th e n o te B i s s u s t a in e d by th e o r c h e s t r a f o r t h i r t e e n b a rs i n a d r a m a t ic c re s c e n d o , p u n c tu a te d by th e b r u t a l rh y th m w h ich s y m b o liz e s th e c a t a s t r o p h e . An o u t - o f - t u n e p a in o accom panies th e w i l d P o lk a w i t h w h ic h th e scene i n th e t a v e r n op en s. The h a u n te d a tm o sp h ere r e t u r n s as W ozzeck goes b a ck to th e p o n d . How p o ig n a n t i s h i s M a r ie ! Was h a s t du f u r e in e r o t e S ch n u r um den H a ls ? ( " M a r i e , w h a t i s t h a t r e d s t r i n g aro u n d y o u r Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 4 2 n e c k ? " ) H is l a s t w o rd s , I c h w asche m ich m i t B l u t . . . ( " I wash m y s e lf i n b lo o d . . . " ) u s h e r i n g h o s t ly c h r o m a tic s c a le s t h a t , s t a r t i n g i n th e s t r i n g s , p ass o v e r to t h e w oodwinds and b r a s s . ( 4 7 : 3 7 8 ) D i s i l l u s i o n m e n t , as e x p re s s e d i n W o z z e c k , i s a con- I c e p t encom passed h e r e w i t h i n th e l a r g e r fra m ew o rk o f t r u l y e x p r e s s i o n i s t te c h n iq u e s b o th i n t e x t and m u s ic . D o n a ld J . j ; G r o u t p o in t s t h i s o u t . W ozzeck i s a u n i v e r s a l f i g u r e , sym bol o f th e op p re s s e d and, i n a l a r g e r s e n s e , o f man i n h is n a k e d h e lp le s s n e s s b e f o r e b l i n d pow ers t h a t c a re n o th in g a b o u t h i s f a t e . S in c e th e e x p r e s s i o n i s t te c h n iq u e makes e v e r y e x t e r n a l o b j e c t a p r o j e c t i o n o f W o z z e c k 's own s o u l, th e s c e n e s , c h a r a c t e r s , and e v e n ts o f th e o p e ra h ave an u n e a r t h l y q u a l i t y , l i k e a n ig h t m a r is h p u p p e t show; and B e r g 's m usic b e lo n g s to t h i s n ig h tm a r e w o r ld as s u r e ly as D e b u s s y 's be lo n g s to th e dream w o r ld o f P e l l e a s e t M e lis a n d e . The h a rm o n ic s t y l e o f W ozzeck i s i n m ost p la c e s a t o n a l , f u l l o f s t r a n g e , w o n d e r fu l c o lo r e f f e c t s ( f o r e x a m p le , th e scene o f W o z z e c k 's s u ic id e ) and d i s t o r t e d re m in is c e n c e s o f th e n o rm a l "w aking" w o r ld . . . . The v o c a l l i n e s , m o s tly i n s h a r p ly p o in t e d d e c la m a t io n w it h a b r u p t w id e i n t e r v a l s , a l t e r n a t e b e tw ee n o r d in a r y s p e e c h , S p re c h s tim m e , and song. T h e re a re a few r e c u r r i n g m o t i f s , n o t a b ly W o z z e c k 's W ir arme L e u t . . . b u t th e c h i e f means o f u n i t y i s th e o r g a n i z a t io n o f each a c t and s cen e i n s e t m u s ic a l form s d e r iv e d from c l a s s i c a l p a t t e r n s . B u t th e s e p a t t e r n s r e v e a l ! th e m s e lv e s o n ly on a n a ly s is ; i t i s no p a r t o f th e c o m p o s e r's i n t e n t i o n t h a t th e a u d i t o r s h o u ld p e r c e iv e them , u n le s s s u b l i m i n a l l y . ( 2 7 : 5 7 2 - 5 7 3 ) R e ic h e x p re s s e d th e i n s i g h t w i t h w h ic h B e rg composed Woz ze c k i n y e t a n o th e r w ay. One f in d s i n th e f o ll o w i n g e x - i c e r p t a t t e s t a t i o n t o B e r g 's pow ers as a German E x p r e s s io n i s t , h i s p r e o c c u p a tio n w it h th e h o p e le s s n e s s and d i s i l l u - 1 ;s io n m e n t o f p o o r W o zze ck, and h i s p r e o c c u p a tio n w it h th e Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 4 3 in w a rd f e e l i n g s o f a l l h is c h a r a c t e r s . F o r i n th e o p e ra th e a c t io n ta k e s p la c e on two l e v e l s s im u lta n e o u s ly : i n th e fo r e g r o u n d th e r e a l i s t i c dram a o f p o o r p e o p le , w h ic h i s u n f a i l i n g l y e f f e c t i v e even i n th e s p e a k in g t h e a t r e when t a u t l y d i r e c t e d ; and i n th e b a c k g ro u n d th e a c t io n on m y th i c a l l e v e l s , w h ic h o n ly comes o u t i n th e m u s ic . The m usic f o llo w s th e man W ozzeck i n t o th e abyss w h ich he sees o p e n in g b e f o r e h im . The r e l a t i o n s h i p , o f te n em p h asized by B e rg h i m s e l f , w i t h p s y c h o a n a ly s is , th e f u n c t io n o f th e m usic as r e p r e s e n t a t i o n and i l lu m in a t io n o f th e u n c o n s c io u s i s n o t to be u n d e r s to o d as an a n a lo g ic a l t r a n s l a t i o n o f th e a n a l y t i c a l m ethod i n t o m u s ic a l te rm s . T h is f u n c t i o n o f th e mu s ic has i t s o r i g i n i n B e r g 's a t t i t u d e to fo rm , i n h is f i r m d e c is io n to f i n d o u t th e h id d e n d r iv e s t h a t l i e b e h in d th e d i r e c t l y v i s i b l e s c e n ic e v e n ts , and i n t e r p r e t them i n m u s ic a l s y m b o ls . The tr a g e d y o f th e p o o r s o l d i e r W ozzeck, p e r s e c u te d and m u t i l a t e d by th e s e n t im e n ta l s t u p i d i t y and s p u rio u s c l e v e r ness o f h is s u p e r io r s , b e t r a y e d by h i s l o v e r ; how he becomes a m u rd e re r, and avenges h im s e lf on th e r e s t and on h i m s e l f — t h i s i s n o t an o p e ra on th e a c t io n s o f s t a t e s , n o r y e t a s o c i a l o p e ra ; i t i s n aked in w a rd n e s s , made t r a n s p a r e n t by th e i n t e r p r e t a t i v e power o f th e m u s ic . ( 5 7 : 1 1 7 - 1 1 8 ) A f i t t i n g c lo s e to t h i s d is c u s s io n i s B e r g 's own i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f h is a c h ie v e m e n t i n W o z z e c k . W hat I do c o n s id e r my p a r t i c u l a r a c c o m p lis h m ent i s t h i s . No one i n th e a u d ie n c e , no m a t t e r how aw are he may be o f th e m u s ic a l form s con t a in e d i n th e fra m ew o rk o f th e o p e r a , o f th e p r e - ; c is i o n and l o g i c w it h w h ic h i t has b een w orked o u t, no one, from th e moment th e c u r t a i n p a r t s u n t i l i t c lo s e s f o r th e l a s t t im e , pays any a t t e n t i o n to th e v a r io u s fu g u e s , in v e n t io n s , s u i t e s , s o n a ta movements, v a r i a t i o n s , and p a s s a c a g lia s a b o u t w h ich so much has been w r i t t e n . No one ! g iv e s heed to a n y th in g b u t th e v a s t s o c i a l i m p l i - I c a t io n s o f th e w ork w h ic h by f a r tr a n s c e n d th e p e r s o n a l d e s t in y o f W o zze c k. T h i s , I b e l i e v e , i s my a c h ie v e m e n t. ( 8 2 : 2 2 ) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 4 4 E r n s t T o l l e r (1 8 9 3 -1 9 3 9 ) i n h is dram a M asse Mensch (1 9 2 0 ) p r o v id e s a f i t t i n g p a r a l l e l f o r K i r c h n e r ' s S e l f - P o r t r a i t as a S o l d i e r and B e r g 's W o zze c k. "Though b a s i - i c a l l y an o p t i m i s t w it h a b e l i e f i n th e goodness o f human { n a tu r e and th e power o f r e a s o n . . . (8 4 : 5 9 1 ) T o l l e r s u f f e r e d e x tre m e d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t a t many p o in t s i n h i s l i f e . { L ik e K ir c h n e r and B e rg , h i s e x p e r ie n c e i n th e army and, i n I ! T o l l e r ' s c a s e , i n p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i s t o r g a n i z a t io n s , b ro u g h t him to th e p o i n t o f d e s p a i r . Y e t he s t r a i n e d to b r in g IW andlung to m a n kin d . T o l l e r ' s l i f e was d e d ic a t e d to th e p u r s u i t o f i n t e g r i t y . He v o lu n t e e r e d f o r d u ty a t th e f r o n t i n 1 9 1 4 . ! The h o r r o r s o f th e w ar soon a l t e r e d h i s c o n c e p t o f l i f e . R e tu rn e d to c i v i l i a n l i f e i n v a l i d e d by th e arm y. T o l l e r espoused th e cau se s o f m i l i t a n t s o c ia lis m and p a c i f i c i s m . | He was soon condemned to p r is o n f o r h i s o u ts p o k e n b e h a v io r . A f t e r he was r e le a s e d , he became a s s o c ia te d w it h th e So v i e t " r e p u b lic " i n M u n ic h i n 1 9 1 9 . A lth o u g h he d id h is b e s t to r e s t r a i n i t fro m s h e d d in g b lo o d , th e members o f th e r e v o l u t i o n a r y r e p u b l ic d id become v i o l e n t . T o l l e r {s p e n t f i v e more y e a rs i n p r is o n b e cau se o f h is c o n n e c tio n I i w i t h th e S o v ie t s ( 3 4 : 7 5 - 7 7 ) . I j H is p la y s r e f l e c t h is s u c c e s s iv e d i s il l u s io n m e n t s : w it h G erm any, th e s o c i a l r e v o l u t i o n , and 't h e I m a s s e s ,' b u t he n e v e r became c y n i c a l ; even h is s a t i r i c No M ore P eace (1 9 3 7 ) i s more am using th a n Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 4 5 b i t t e r . He l e f t Germany i n 1932 [ s i c ] . L i k e many o t h e r v ic t i m s o f N a z is m , he p e r is h e d i n e x i l e ; he c o m m itte d s u i c i d e i n 1 9 3 9 . ( 3 4 : 7 6 - 7 7 ) L i k e A lb a n B e rg , T o l l e r ' s p h y s ic a l c o n d i t i o n in th e army was o n ly t o be a g g r a v a te d by th e h a r r o w in g e x p e r ie n c e i n th e tr e n c h e s a t th e f r o n t . T r e a t e d somewhat more m e r c i f u l l y th a n B e rg , h e was r e le a s e d fro m a c t i v e : : I s e r v ic e i n 1916 and s p e n t m ost o f h i s tim e h o s p i t a l i z e d o r I ! i n s a n a to riu m s u n t i l th e t e r m i n a t io n o f th e w a r ( 8 4 : 5 8 1 - i I ; 5 8 2 ) . I As n o te d . T o l l e r became one o f th e le a d e r s o f th e | U .S .P . (T h e In d e p e n d e n t S o c i a l i s t P a r t y ) i n Germany i n | 1 9 1 9 . W h ile i n p r is o n b e c a u s e o f th e s e a c t i v i t i e s , he f a m i l i a r i z e d h i m s e l f w i t h th e w orks o f M a rx and E n g e ls , e x p re s s e d c r i t i c i s m on o c c a s io n o f th e c a p i t a l i s t W e s t, and ad m ire d th e S o v i e t U n io n . Y e t , to l a b e l T o l l e r a Com m u n is t i s u n j u s t . S p a le k g iv e s th e re a s o n f o r t h i s . T o l l e r ' s s o c ia lis m was an e t h i c a l c r e e d . He e x p re s s e d i t th ro u g h h i s sym pathy f o r th e p o o r and th e o p p re s s e d by i d e n t i f y i n g h i m s e l f a c t i v e l y w i t h th e cau se o f th e w o r k in g c l a s s . H is c r i t i c is m o f th e c a p i t a l i s t i c s y s te m , q u i t e r a d i c a l d u r in g h i s e a r l y y e a r s , stemmed fro m th e same s o u rc e . L ik e o t h e r i n t e l l e c t u a l s o f h is tim e , he ad m ire d th e S o v i e t U n io n , th e c o u n tr y w h ic h a c h ie v e d a c o m p le te s o c i a l r e v o l u t i o n . T h is a t t i t u d e — thoug h by no means w i t h o u t c r i t i c i s m , as h is R u s s is c h e R e i s e b i l d e r i n d i c a t e — seems in c o n s i s t e n t w i t h h i s b a s ic c o n v i c t i o n s . I n h i s ad m i r a t io n f o r th e S o v i e t U n io n he does n o t r e f e r s p e c i f i c a l l y to th e one f a c t w h ich made him con demn th e Com m unist P a r t y d u r in g th e B a v a r ia n R evo l u t i o n — th e use o f v io le n c e and s h e d d in g b lo o d ! f o r an i d e a . ( 8 4 : 5 8 9 - 5 9 0 ) ! Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 4 6 T h is p o i n t i s im p o r t a n t to t h e d is c u s s io n o f d i s i l l u s i o n m ent i n T o l l e r ' s own l i f e and i n th e l i v e s o f c h a r a c t e r s i n h is p l a y s . Th e M a r x is t s c r i t i c i z e d T o l l e r s e v e r e ly f o r I h i s o p p o s it io n t o t h e i r cause and f o r h i s d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t once he d is c o v e r e d th e means t h a t w ere to be em plo yed to a c h ie v e C om m unist g o a ls , nam ely v io le n c e and b lo o d s h e d . I T o l l e r ' s s u b s e q u e n t p e s s i m i s t ic and d e f e a t i s t a t t i t u d e s : w h ic h fo u n d t h e i r way i n t o h i s p la y s o b ta in e d f o r h im M a rx i s t c o n te m p t. Th e M a r x is t s l a b e l e d h im , n o t as a Communist, b u t as a s c o rn e d " p e t i t - b o u r g e o i s i n t e l l e c t u a l . " ( 8 4 : 5 8 7 - I 588) B etw een 1910 and 1 9 2 0 , German E x p r e s s io n is t s l i k e ' T o l l e r v o ic e d t h e i r s o c i a l p r o t e s t s i n a h o s t o f d i f f e r e n t p e r i o d i c a l s l a t e r to be known as E x p r e s s i o n i s t m a g a z in e s . F o r t u n a t e l y t h i s p e r io d i s w e l l docum ented by t h e i r a u t o b io g r a p h ie s , and i n th e s e we can t r a c e th e i n t e l l e c t u a l d e v e lo p m e n t o f many m odern c r e a t i v e tem p e ra m e n ts — t h e i r f r u s t r a t e d an g er a t th e s t a r t , t h e i r sow ing o f i n t e l l e c t u a l w i l d o a ts i n th e decade b e tw een 1910 and 1 9 2 0 , t h e i r f l i r t a t i o n s w i t h p o l i t i c a l r a d i c a l i s m , and t h e i r s u b s e q u e n t s e t t l i n g down u n d e r th e s ig n o f o u r own p e r io d , d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t . ( 7 7 : 1 1 3 ) D i s i l l u s i o n m e n t does in d e e d p e rv a d e T o l l e r ' s w orks a f t e r h i s f i r s t im p o r t a n t dram a D ie W a n d lu n q , i n w h ic h th e ' p r o t a g o n i s t u n d e rg o e s a p ro fo u n d t r a n s f o r m a t io n i n t o th e I"new m an." I n h i s n e x t p l a y . Masse M e n s c h , p u b lis h e d i n ! ;1 9 2 0 , T o l l e r showed t h a t he had become p a i n f u l l y c o n s c io u s t h a t a t r u e W andlunq i s im p o s s ib le . K ir c h n e r waved th e I b lo o d y stump o f h i s own arm b e f o r e s o c i e t y i n h i s S e l f - Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 4 7 P o r t r a i t as a S o l d i e r . B e rg c o n f r o n t e d th e p u b l i c w i t h th e d e s p a ir in g e m o tio n s o f W ozzeck (o n e r e c a l l s th e p o ig n a n t W ir arme L e u t ) . So a ls o T o l l e r demanded t h a t s o c ie t y lo o k lo n g and h a r d a t th e m is e r a b le s t a t e o f th e m a t e r i a l i s t i c masses w h ic h f r u s t r a t e s th e i d e a l i s t i c and h u m a n is t ic g o a ls o f th e i n d i v i d u a l . An a n a ly s is o f Masse Mensch i s fo u n d i n H .F . G a r te n ' s M odern German D ra m a . I n M asse-M ensch (M asses and Man) , t h i s theme [ c o n f l i c t b e tw ee n th e i n d i v i d u a l and th e m asses] i s p r e s e n te d th ro u g h an a b s t r a c t p l o t e n a c te d by anony mous ty p e s , th e Woman, th e H usband, th e N am eless O ne. The d r a m a t ic p a t t e r n i s a lm o s t i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h a t o f D ie W a n d lu n g , c o n s i s t i n g o f a l t e r n a t i n g r e a l i s t i c and s y m b o lic s c e n e s . The c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r i s th e Woman who, th o u g h a member o f th e m id d le c la s s , has jo in e d th e r e v o l u t i o n a r y m ovem ent. H e r h u s b a n d , a s t e r n e x p o n e n t o f th e o ld o r d e r , t r i e s i n v a in t o w in h e r b ack to h e r fo rm e r way o f l i f e . I n th e f i r s t p a r t , th e w ar i s s t i l l r a g in g . The c lo s e c o n n e c tio n b etw een w a r and c a p i t a l i s m , as seen fro m th e M a r x i s t v ie w p o in t , f i n d s v i v i d e x p r e s s io n i n a d re a m -s c e n e w here s to c k b r o k e r s buy and s e l l w ar bonds and, when th e w ar i s l o s t , p e r fo r m a m acabre dance ro u n d th e exch an g e d e s k . The Woman c a l l s upon th e masses t o a b s t a in fro m w o rk i n o r d e r to s to p th e w a r, b u t i s opposed by th e N am eless One who i n c i t e s th e p e o p le t o a c t i v e r e v o l u t i o n . When she o b j e c t s , h e denounces h e r as a b o u r g e o is e : The i n d i v i d u a l , h is f e e l i n g and h is c o n s c ie n c e . W hat do th e y count? The masses c o u n t 1 The second p a r t d e a ls w i t h th e c i v i l w ar w h ic h f o l lo w s . V i o l e n t s t r e e t b a t t l e s ra g e b e tw ee n th e r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s and th e arm y. Once a g a in th e Woman and th e N am eless One s ta n d on o p p o s ite s id e s : th e l a t t e r , r e p r e s e n t in g th e m asses, c o ld - b lo o d e d ly o r d e r s t h e f i g h t to c o n t in u e , i r r e s p e c t i v e o f th e lo s s o f l i f e , w h i l e th e Woman i s t o r n by d o u b t: D id I n o t c r y t o h e a v e n a g a in s t w ar Y e s t e r d a y — and t o - d a y [ s i c ] Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 4 8 S u f f e r my b r o t h e r s to be done to d eath ? ( T r . V e r a M en d el) The r e v o l u t i o n f a i l s , and r e a c t i o n tr iu m p h s . The h e r o in e i s a r r e s t e d . I n th e l a s t s c e n e , h e r hus band comes to o f f e r h e r fre e d o m . She r e j e c t s h im , b u t she a ls o r e fu s e s to be l i b e r a t e d by th e Name le s s One a t th e p r i c e o f k i l l i n g a p r is o n g u a rd . I n t h i s l a s t d ia lo g u e , th e c o n t r a s t b etw een h e r id e a lis m and th e m a t e r ia lis m o f th e masses i s c l e a r l y d e f in e d . To th e r i g i d d ic tu m o f th e Name le s s One, 'O u r cause comes f i r s t i ' — The Woman i s le d away t o be e x e c u te d . { 1 9 ; 1 4 1 - 1 4 2 ) T h u s , i s o l a t i o n and l o n e li n e s s o f th e German E x p r e s s io n is t a g a in end i n d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t . T o l l e r ' s t r u s t i n th e good ness o f m ankind d id n o t m easure up to r e a l i t y ; t h e r e f o r e , th e s o l u t i o n had to be a t r a g i c o n e . The i d e a l i s t and h u - [m a n is t had t o d ie a t th e hands o f th e m asses. O f t e c h n ic a l i n t e r e s t i s th e f a c t t h a t T o l l e r uses ; th e E x p r e s s io n is t S p r e c h c h o r , o r s p e a k in g ch o ru s " . . . as w e l l as th e a s s is t a n c e o f m u s ic , dream p r o j e c t i o n s , and { p o e t ic speech t h a t som etim es becomes t e l e g r a p h i c i n s t y l e . " { ( 4 8 : 3 5 ) B e r g 's use o f S p re c h s tim m e , p r o j e c t i o n s o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l s t a t e s , and s tre a m o f c o n s c io u s n e s s te c h n iq u e s I { t r a n s la t e d fro m th e t e x t i n t o th e m usic i n W ozzeck p a r a l l e l T o l l e r ' s te c h n iq u e s d e s c r ib e d a b o ve . The u n f a i r s tig m a o f b e in g c a l l e d a C om m unist, a l - { {re a d y d is c u s s e d ,c a u s e d T o l l e r much d i f f i c u l t y and u n d o u b t- Ie d ly c o n t r ib u t e d to th e d e s p a ir t h a t ended h is l i f e . ! I n 1 9 2 4 , B a v a r ia n a u t h o r i t i e s r e le a s e d T o l l e r a 1 day e a r l y fro m p r is o n and t r a n s p o r t e d him o u t o f I B a v a r ia by a c i r c u i t o u s r o u t e to p r e v e n t h is r e c o g n it io n and p o s s ib le d e m o n s tra tio n s by workmen I Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 4 9 on h is b e h a l f . On s e v e r a l o c c a s io n s , T o l l e r was r e f u s e d p e r m is s io n to a d d re s s an a u d ie n c e . I n h i s f i r s t t r i p to S w it z e r l a n d i n 1 9 2 4 , he had to s ig n a p le d g e t h a t h e w o u ld n o t t r y to o v e rth ro w th e g o v e rn m e n t. The same t h in g h ap p en ed to h im i n ! 1 9 2 9 , when he came to th e U n it e d S t a t e s . He was I f i n a l l y p e r m it t e d to e n t e r a f t e r b e in g d e t a in e d j on E l l i s I s l a n d . T h e re w e re a ls o u n s u c c e s s fu l a t - I tem p ts t o s u p p re s s h i s w o rk s . (8 4 : 5 8 6 ) ^ N e v e rth e le s s , a f t e r h i s a r r i v a l i n th e U n it e d S t a t e s he ! I l e c t u r e d u n t i r i n g l y on th e d a n g e rs o f H i t l e r i s m , as w e l l i as on th e p la c e o f c o n te m p o ra ry dram a i n s o c i e t y . T o l l e r {was c o n s t a n t ly p re o c c u p ie d w i t h h u m a n it a r ia n u n d e r ta k in g s and became a t i r e l e s s a d v o c a te o f th e n e c e s s it y to d i s t i n g u i s h b e tw ee n th e German and th e N a z i . T o l l e r c o m m itte d i s u i c i d e i n 1 9 3 9 , j u s t one y e a r a f t e r K i r c h n e r ' s d e a th by h i s own h a n d . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 5 0 EXAMPLES ILLUSTRATING PARALLELS IN THE CONCEPT 'D is illu s io n m e n t " Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 5 1 P a i n t i n g S e l f - P o r t r a i t as a S o l d i e r E r n s t L u d w ig K ir c h n e r ( 1 8 8 0 -1 9 3 8 ) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 5 3 M u s ic E x c e r p ts fro m W ozzeck A lb a n B erg (1 8 8 5 -1 9 4 5 ) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 5 4 W o z z e c k I. A K T Alban Berg K l n v i u r a u s z u K v o n I ' V i t z H c i n r i c l i K l e i n Sehr maOige Viertel (w. eo) Vorhang a u f . Piano cüüas zbqcnid - K 'lg /’b n e c k Sir plzz) VI Temm il 1 . Szene Zimmer des Hauptmanns ( F r ü h m o r g c n s ) ^ ' . . . . . . ■ \ V b / / . e < * k r n s l c r l d e n l i a L n n K ^ ^ t i m j W o z z o c k , u p l m a n n ' i j t L , I n n j î - K u m ^ l E l n s n a c h d n m ImmornSolo- q . HoUMasor :! a fevipo d/'/n. - V c l , ,1 - A V - - -------f r o — Hplni E r m a c h l i n l r s c h w l n d U e h . . . A n - d c r n l P'Ck m .d .S rh /n y flÿ fs fk ln ÿ f Xyl dam scniprepp !? a Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 5 5 ■ Sehr breit W. 2«-.w ) Hplm Ik'iT llnuplmnnn. (m-M, fii-lfl! W i r n r - m o L o u t ! k l Trom % . El.was beweirter (J. .i2-4s) r h i s o t / . o l n m n l o l n o r S ( ? i n o s ; i ; l o i c l i o n n u f f l i i ‘ n ; o - r a - l U s c h c A r t I n i l l o W o l t ! f iilir e n d tir lil imt! P P sir s o l n F l c i s c h u n d H i n t ! M a n l u i t n u r l i Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. III. A K T a. Scene 1 5 6 - J . J (.eo) long Harlo WIc (1er Wb*i Nix_ _ D or Mond geht auf. S tr lang r/p l . P o N m D S tr y \ }). Po« m 0 (Tamtam) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 5 7 100 Mario gehti M o n d auf roi Wozz H c n l _______ r » i I 4 T r p ( F lU ) 3.Trp m j) (trcm ) P P i. in o lto cre sc. - M'aszlttcrst? zloht cin Messcr W ozz Ichnlchl,Marie! undkcln: (U fe) S ii\gs.tim m t! Itiin i< h t,M ;iric ! xindkcln fo rta e tz c n d . ^ ' M Dr col k g jioco a poco CTcic Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 5 8 Marie H U I ................................................................. packt sic an nod stoOt Ihr das Messer in den Hals ' f o l An-drer 4 Try u 4 Ob J i/ nadi nichti -ff M accel...........................................................wieder ritard . M a r i o slnkt nieder » fr iio h sempreff tinf i sir dim j j vrpV (se n za P ed) 105 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 5 9 - quasi Tempo I U.^n) beagt sich fiber M&rls E r rlchlet sldh schen mnf > > nod sturzt gerauscblos ________________________ (g. zw In E<nppen - Todt!_ TrpmD pp flüchtin 3 F a g m o tto 2 Fag Hfo '•diniin p p V o rh a n g z u nVerwandlung MaHige J ( ■ « so) Dor neue ganzo Takt - letztes J (also ca 40) rT T T T S X S X S X SX Solo O r Solo Dr ll r ^ (m D) K H - nacA um J maeh p p p * f . i M S l t t «iurf crrn e a f/c r m it AusiinArrte d r t S c h ta g u rtrk » . Tempo, aber etwas schwerer 4 & 115 G P f f f s e h r rh y th m is c h npPPP cre.sc. _ r L £ _ _ L _ » ; ____________ « • S i T T T T ..8.. D a m ganzo Orch m aral SchJagwcrk (ç u a s i g r. T ro m m e l) Z Z ra s c h a b - d â m p fe tt Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 6 0 4. Scene 280 W o n Ich wa-schemlchmit Blut_ Wehl h o c h V cl^ 3------- h o c h " K I (Fag Hfo) K B s , Tub K Bs, Fos (c rtrin k t . W ü.s-aScr Isl Biut.. B lu t... fJJ) iBeidt Urinde immer ehromatisch) Sir Es\>-9 2.K B s s e m p re P cd U olf u life (.str «Drfn *m S if f o D) 0 ^ " it'» ’ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 6 1 Dram a E x c e r p ts fro m M asse Mensch (Man and th e M asses) E r n s t T o l l e r (1 8 9 3 -1 9 3 9 ) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 6 2 MAN AND THE MASSES ( M asse M ensch) A P la y o f th e S o c ia l R e v o lu t io n i n Seven Scenes E r n s t T o l l e r ( 1 8 9 3 -1 9 3 9 ) S e v e n th P i c t u r e [A p r is o n c e l l . A s m a ll t a b l e , b e n c h , and i r o n bed f a s te n e d t o th e w a l l . A g r a t e d h o le o f l i g h t c lo u d e d by f r o s t e d g l a s s . The WOMAN s i t s a t th e t a b l e . ] THE WOMAN 0 p a th t h a t le a d s th ro u g h f i e l d s o f r i p e n i n g w h e a t I n A u g u s t days . . . W a n d e rin g on w i n t r y h i l l s b e f o r e th e dawn . . . O b e e t l e d r i n k in g i n th e b r e a t h o f noon . . . 0 w o r ld . . . [ S i l e n c e s p re a d s i t s e l f g e n t l y a b o u t th e WOMAN.] D id I lo n g f o r a c h ild ? [ S i l e n c e s o a r s .] How l i f e d i v id e s us a l l i n two I Bound to man and h i s d e s i r e s . To th o s e we lo v e . . . and h a t e Bound t o o u r enem ies? Bound t o o u rs e lv e s ? Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 5 3 I need him now . . . he m ust c o n fir m me. [T h e c e l l i s u n lo c k e d . The MAN e n t e r s . ] THE MAN W if e . . . I h a v e come, Come b ecau se you c a l l e d me. THE WOMAN Husband . . . I Man . . . THE MAN I b r in g good new s. The sew ers c a n n o t k e e p on p o u r in g T h e i r f i l t h upon y o u r name . . . my name, w h e n ever th e y l i k e . The i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f th e r e c e n t m urders Showed t h a t you w ere n o t g u i l t y o f th e o u tra g e o u s s h o o t in g s . C o u rag e I The s e n te n c e c o m m ittin g you to d e a th Has n o t y e t been c o n fir m e d . I n s p i t e o f tr e a s o n to th e S t a t e , The n o b i l i t y o f aim I s alw ays re s p e c te d By a l l r i g h t - t h i n k i n g p e o p le . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 6 4 THE WOMAN [crying softly] I am w it h o u t g u i l t . . . W it h o u t g u i l t . . . y e t I am g u i l t y . . . THE MAN You a re n o t g u i l t y . T h a t 's p o s i t i v e to e v e r y r i g h t - t h i n k i n g p e r s o n . THE WOMAN To e v e r y r i g h t - t h i n k i n g p e rs o n . . . I am so h u r t . . . And g la d , b ecau se y o u r name, f r e e o f d is g r a c e . THE MAN I knew you w ere n o t g u i l t y . THE WOMAN Yes . . . you knew i t . . . R e s p e c t f o r good i n t e n t i o n s . . . Y o u 'r e so r e s p e c t a b le I I see you now so c l e a r l y . . . And y e t i t ' s you who h a ve been g u i l t y — h u s b a n d . You . . . g u i l t y o f a l l th e s e d e a t h s . THE MAN W if e , I cam t o you . . . W ife . . . y o u r speech i s h a t e . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 6 5 THE WOMAN H a te ? N e v e r h a t e . I lo v e yo u — lo v e you w i t h a l l my b lo o d . THE MAN I w arn ed you a g a in s t th e m asses. R o o t up th e masses and you r o o t up h e l l . THE WOMAN H e l l? Who made t h a t h e l l ? Who b u i l t th e t o r t u r e o f y o u r g o ld e n m i l l s T h a t g r i n d and g r in d o u t p r o f i t day by day? Who p u t up p r is o n s . . . who c r i e d " h o ly w ar"? Who s a c r i f i c e d a m i l l i o n human l i v e s Upon th e a l t a r s o f some d e s p e r a te game? Who th re w th e masses i n t o f e s t e r i n g h o le s I n w h ic h , each d a y , i s p i l e d th e f i l t h o f y e s te r d a y Who ro b b e d th e s e b r o t h e r s o f t h e i r human f e a t u r e s . Who d ro v e them i n t o f a c t o r i e s . D ebased them i n t o p a r t s o f a m achine? The S t a t e ! . . . Y o u ! . . . THE MAN My l i f e i s d u t y . THE WOMAN Oh, yes . . . d u ty . . . d u ty to th e S t a t e . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 6 5 Y o u 'r e so r e s p e c t a b le . . . i D i d n ' t I say I saw you a l l to o c l e a r l y ? Y o u 'v e been so w e l l b r o u g h t u p . Y ou— t e l l a l l y o u r r i g h t - t h i n k i n g p e o p le They n e v e r h a v e been r i g h t . . . Th ey a r e th e g u i l t y ones . . . We a r e a l l g u i l t y . . . Y e s , I am g u i l t y . . . g u i l t y to m y s e lf , G u i l t y to a l l m a n k in d . THE MAN I came to y o u . I s t h i s a c o u r t o f j u s t i c e ? THE WOMAN H e re i s a c o u r t o f j u s t i c e ! I , t h e a c c u s ed , am a ls o ju d g e . I b r i n g th e a c c u s a t io n . . . and p a s s s e n te n c e ; P ro n o u n c e a c q u i t t a l And th e f i n a l b lam e . . . Can you s u rm is e . . . who b e a r s t h e f i n a l blame? Men m ust d e s i r e to w o rk , And w o rk grow s r e d w i t h th e d e a r b lo o d o f men. Men m ust d e s i r e t o l i v e . And th e y m ust swim th ro u g h s eas o f human b lo o d . Can you s u rm is e . . . who b e a rs t h e f i n a l blam e? . . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 6 7 Corne, g iv e me y o u r h an d , B e lo v e d o f my b lo o d . I h a ve c o n q u e re d m y s e lf . . . M y s e lf and y o u . [T h e MAN b re a k s i n t o t r e m b lin g . A th o u g h t, s u d d e n ly s p r in g in g u p . d i s t o r t s h i s f a c e . He s tu m b le s o u t . ] THE WOMAN G iv e me y o u r hand . . . B r o t h e r , g iv e me y o u r hand; You a ls o a r e my b r o t h e r . — You h a v e gone . . . you had to go . . . The l a s t ro a d ru n s a c ro s s a s n o w f ie ld . The l a s t ro a d n e v e r knows co m p an io n s . The l a s t ro a d w in d s w it h o u t a m o th e r. The l a s t ro a d we w a lk a lo n e . [T h e d o o r i s o pened. The NAMELESS ONE e n t e r s . ] THE NAMELESS ONE C u re d o f i l l u s i o n s ? F r e e o f d u s ty dreams? Has kn o w le d g e t h r u s t a d a g g e r th ro u g h y o u r h e a r t ? D id th e ju d g e say "human" and "you a re fo r g iv e n " ? I t was a wholesom e le s s o n . I c o n g r a t u l a t e you on y o u r c o n v e r s io n . Now you a re o u rs a g a in . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 6 8 THE WOMAN You I Who s e n t you? THE NAMELESS ONE The m asses. THE WOMAN T h e y 'v e n o t f o r g o t t e n me? The m essage . . . th e message . . . THE NAMELESS ONE My m is s io n h e re i s to s e t you f r e e . THE WOMAN F reedom ! L i f e ! We escape? I s e v e r y t h in g p re p a re d ? THE NAMELESS ONE Two k e e p e rs h a ve been b r ib e d . T h e r e 's one more a t th e g a t e . I ' l l s t r i k e him down. THE WOMAN Y o u 'd m u rd er h im . . . f o r me? THE NAMELESS ONE F o r th e c a u s e . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. j 1 5 9 THE WOMAN I h ave no r i g h t To w in l i f e th ro u g h a k e e p e r 's d e a t h . THE NAMELESS ONE The masses h ave a r i g h t to y o u . THE WOMAN And th e r i g h t s o f th e k e e p e r? K e e p e rs a re men. THE NAMELESS ONE We h a ve no "men" as y e t . On one s id e , th e g ro u p b e lo n g in g to th e mass. On th e o t h e r , th e c la s s b e lo n g in g to th e S t a t e . THE WOMAN Man i s n a k e d . THE NAMELESS ONE Mass i s g o d l i k e . THE WOMAN Mass i s n o t g o d l i k e . F o rc e made th e mass. E v i l s o f p r o p e r t y made th e m ass. Mass i s th e movement o f d i s t r e s s , I s meek d e v o tio n . . . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 7 0 I s t e r r i b l e v en g e a n c e . . . I s b lin d e d s la v e r y . . . I s h o ly p u rp o s e . . . Mass i s a f e r t i l e f i e l d t h a t has been tr a m p le d ; Mass i s th e c h o k e d -u p , i n a r t i c u l a t e p e o p le . THE NAMELESS ONE And a c tio n ? THE WOMAN A c t io n 1 And m ore th a n a c t io n : To f r e e man i n th e mass; To f r e e com m unity i n th e m ass. THE NAMELESS ONE The raw w in d b e f o r e th e g a te s W i l l h e a l y o u . H u r r y I We h ave o n ly a few m in u te s l e f t . THE WOMAN You a re n o t d e l iv e r a n c e . You a re n o t s a l v a t i o n . B u t I know who you a r e . " K i l l h im : " you c r i e d . A lw ays y o u r c r y i s " K i l l h im :' Y o u r f a t h e r ' s name i s W a r. You a re h i s b a s t a r d . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 7 1 You p o o r , new h e a d - o f - s t a f f o f e x e c u t io n e r s . Y o u r o n ly rem edy: " D e a th !" and "S h o o t them dow n!" Throw o f f th e m a n tle o f y o u r l o f t y p h ra s e s , T h e r e 's n o t h in g b u t a woven t i s s u e o f l i e s . THE NAMELESS ONE The m u r d e r - g e n e r a ls b a t t l e d f o r th e S t a t e ! THE WOMAN They m u rd e re d , b u t th e y d id n o t k i l l w it h j o y . L i k e y o u , th e y a l l b e l ie v e d i n t h e i r own m is s io n . THE NAMELESS ONE They b a t t l e d f o r th e c o ld , t y r a n n i c a l S t a t e ; We b a t t l e f o r h u m a n ity ! THE WOMAN You m u rd e r f o r h u m a n ity . As th o s e d e lu d e d ones m u rd e re d f o r th e S t a t e . And t h e r e w e re some who s u r e l y f e l t T h a t th ro u g h t h e i r S t a t e , t h e i r f a t h e r l a n d . The e a r t h w o u ld be re d ee m e d . I see no d i f f e r e n c e : T h ese m u rd e r f o r a s i n g l e c o u n t r y . The o t h e r s k i l l f o r e v e r y c o u n t r y . T h ese m u rd e r f o r a th o u s a n d p e o p le . The o t h e r s f o r a m i l l i o n . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 7 2 The one who m u rd ers f o r th e S t a t e , You c a l l an e x e c u t io n e r . B u t he who m u rd ers f o r m ankind I s c a l l e d a s a v io u r ; you crown him C o u ra g e o u s , n o b le , g r e a t . Y e s , you can speak o f good and h o ly v i o le n c e ! THE NAMELESS ONE R a i l a g a in s t o t h e r s , r a i l a g a in s t l i f e i t s e l f ! S h o u ld I l e t s t i l l more m i l l i o n s be e n s la v e d B ecause t h e i r e n s la v e r s c h a in them i n good f a i t h ? And a re you th e le s s g u i l t y I f you k eep s i l e n t ? THE WOMAN The to r c h o f gloom y v io le n c e c a n n o t show th e w ay. You le a d us t o a new and c u r io u s la n d . The la n d o f a n c ie n t human s la v e r y . I f f a t e has pushed you fo r w a r d a t t h i s tim e And g iv e n you a r e c k le s s power To b la n d is h and b e t r a y th e d e s p e r a te crowds Who lo o k to you as to a new M e s s ia h , I know t h i s — such a f a t e w i l l t u r n a g a in s t th e man. THE NAMELESS ONE Mass c o u n ts and n o t th e man. Y o u 'r e n o t o u r h e r o i n e , o u r o n e -tim e l e a d e r . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 7 3 Each p e rs o n b e a rs th e t a i n t o f t h e i r e x t r a c t i o n ; You h a v e th e b o u r g e o is symptoms; W eakness and s e l f - d e c e p t i o n . THE WOMAN You h a v e no lo v e f o r man. THE NAMELESS ONE The p r i n c i p l e above e v e r y t h in g ! I lo v e p o s t e r i t y ! THE WOMAN The i n d i v i d u a l above e v e r y t h in g ! You— you w o u ld s a c r i f i c e A l l l i v i n g men F o r a p r i n c i p l e . THE NAMELESS ONE The p r i n c i p l e demands th e s a c r i f i c e . B u t you b e t r a y th e m asses; you b e t r a y th e c a u s e . T h e se a re th e days when one m ust make d e c is io n s . Who h e s i t a t e s and la c k s d e t e r m in a t io n . S u p p o rts th e m a s te rs who b e a r down upon u s , S u p p o rts th e m a s te rs who h a ve l e t us h u n g e r, I s o u r f o e . THE WOMAN I w ould b e t r a y th e masses Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. : 174 I I f I demanded a s i n g l e human l i f e . i A le a d e r has no r i g h t t o s a c r i f i c e any one b u t h i m s e l f . L i s t e n : no man has th e r i g h t to k i l l a n o th e r To fo rw a rd any c a u s e , And any cause dem anding i t is damned! W hoever, i n i t s name, c a l l s f o r th e b lo o d o f man I s M o lo c h . God was M o lo c h . S t a t e was M o lo c h . Mass was M o lo c h . THE NAMELESS ONE And w h a t i s h o ly ? THE WOMAN Some day . . . B ro th e rh o o d . . . F r e e men bound o n ly by t h e i r common w o rk . . . W ork . . . P e o p le . THE NAMELESS ONE You l a c k th e pow er to fa c e th e u n y i e l d i n g f a c t . The n eed to a c t . F r e e men w i l l o n ly come T hrough h a rd f a c t s and th ro u g h h a r d e r d e ed s! A to n e by d y in g . P erh a p s y o u r d e a th w i l l be some use to u s . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 7 5 THE WOMAN I l i v e f o r e v e r . THE NAMELESS ONE You w e re b o rn to o s o o n . [T h e NAMELESS ONE le a v e s th e c e l l . ] THE WOMAN You l i v e d y e s t e r d a y . You l i v e t o - d a y . And you a re dead to -m o rro w . I l i v e f o r e v e r , From s p h e re t o s p h e re , From change to c h a n g e. T i l l some day I become C l e a n , G u i l t l e s s , M a n k in d . [A PRIEST e n t e r s . ] THE PRIEST I come to g iv e you f i n a l c o n s o la t io n ; The C hurch does n o t r e f u s e a s s is t a n c e even to th e c r im i n a l . THE WOMAN By whose o rd e rs ? Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 7 6 THE PRIEST j The S t a t e a u t h o r i t i e s d i r e c t e d me. THE WOMAN W here w e re you on t h e day o f th e t r i a l ? L e a v e me 1 THE PRIEST God f o r g i v e s y o u , t o o . I u n d e r s ta n d y o u . You th o u g h t m a n kin d was good— o r so you d re a m e d -- And you a llo w e d o u t r a g e and s a c r i l e g e A g a in s t th e h o ly S t a t e and s a c r e d o r d e r . Man i s a l l e v i l — bad fro m th e b e g in n in g . THE WOMAN Man lo n g s f o r g o o d n e s s . THE PRIEST The l i e o f th e s e d e g e n e r a te d a y s . B orn o f d e s p a ir , d e c a y , and e f f o r t t o e s c a p e . P r o t e c t e d by a b r i t t l e s h e l l O f p i t i f u l and em pty f a i t h . F o rc e d by a bad c o n s c ie n c e . B e l ie v e me, he n e v e r once d e s ir e s to be good. THE WOMAN He lo n g s f o r g o o d n e s s . Even when he does w ro n g . He does i t u n d e r t h e mask o f d o in g g o o d . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1771 THE PRIEST N a tio n s come, n a t io n s go; T h is e a r t h has n e v e r seen p a r a d is e . THE WOMAN I b e l i e v e . THE PRIEST Remember: L u s t f o r p ow er; l u s t f o r p le a s u r e l T h a t i s th e rh y th m o f th e w o r ld . THE WOMAN I b e l i e v e 1 THE PRIEST E a r t h l y l i f e i s a c o n s t a n t c h a n g in g o f fo rm s . M a n k in d s ta y s h e l p l e s s . S a l v a t i o n r e s t s i n God. THE WOMAN I b e l i e v e 111 I am c o ld . . . L e a v e mel L e a v e me 1 [T h e PRIEST le a v e s th e c e l l . An OFFICER e n t e r s . ] THE OFFICER H e r e 's th e s e n te n c e . M i t i g a t i n g c irc u m s ta n c e s c o n s id e r e d . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1781 I I N e v e r t h e le s s . C rim e s a g a in s t S t a t e m ust be p u n is h e d . THE WOMAN T h ey a re g o in g to s h o o t me? THE OFFICER O rd e rs a r e o r d e r s . O b e d ie n c e , o b e d ie n c e . S t a t e i n t e r e s t s ; q u i e t , d i s c i p l i n e . D u ty as o f f i c e r . THE WOMAN And man? THE OFFICER A l l c o n v e r s a t io n f o r b id d e n . O rd e rs a re o r d e r s . THE WOMAN I am r e a d y . [T h e OFFICER and th e WOMAN go o u t . The c e l l i s empty f o r a few s e c o n d s . Two WOMAN PRISONERS i n p r is o n smocks s l i p i n . T hey re m a in s ta n d in g a t th e d o o r .] F IR S T PRISONER D id you see th e o f f i c e r ? S ee h is l o v e l y g o ld u n ifo rm ? SECOND PRISONER I saw th e c o f f i n . I n th e l a u n d r y . Y e llo w wooden b o x . [T h e FIR S T PRISONER sees b re a d l y i n g on th e t a b l e and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 7 9 th ro w s h e r s e l f upon i t . ] F IR S T PRISONER T h e r e 's b r e a d 1 H u n g ry i H u n g ry i H u n g ry ! SECOND PRISONER G iv e mel Me b re a d ! Me b re a d ! FIR S T PRISONER H e r e 's a m i r r o r . My, how p r e t t y ! H id e i t . E v e n in g . C e l l . SECOND PRISONER H e r e 's a s i l k y c l o t h . N aked b r e a s t , s i l k y c l o t h . H id e i t . E v e n in g . C e l l . [From o u ts id e th e s h a rp c r a c k o f a v o l l e y r in g s th ro u g h th e c e l l . The PRISONERS th ro w up o u t s t r e t c h e d , f r i g h t e n e d h a n d s . The FIR S T PRISONER s e a rc h e s i n h e r s k i r t f o r th e m i r r o r she has h id d e n . L a ys i t h u r r i e d l y b ack on th e t a b l e and c r i e s , s in k in g upon h e r k n e e s .] F IR S T PRISONER S i s t e r , why d id we do th a t? [H e r arms to s s i n th e a i r w it h a g r e a t h e lp le s s n e s s . The SECOND PRISONER ta k e s th e s i l k e n c l o t h w h ic h she has h id d e n i n h e r s k i r t and la y s i t h u r r i e d l y on th e b e d .] Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 8 0 SECOND PRISONER S i s t e r , why d id we do t h a t? [T h e SECOND PRISONER b re a k s down. She b u r ie s h e r h ead i n h e r l a p . The c u r t a i n f a l l s . ] Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 8 1 S t r u g g l e B etw een th e S e x e s . The c o n t e s t f o r pow er b e tw e e n man and woman, a them e i n German E x p re s s io n is m , needs l e s s e x p la n a t io n th a n th e f o r e g o in g c o n c e p ts o f e x p r e s s io n o f in w a r d f e e l i n g , s e a rc h f o r t r a n s f o r m a t io n , and d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t . The s t r u g g l e b etw ee n t h e sexes i s a them e Iw h ic h can be fo u n d i n some l i t e r a t u r e o f a l l th e e r a s , js in c e th e fam ous p la y s o f a n c ie n t G re e k dram a: th e O r e s t e i a . a t r i l o g y o f p la y s by A e s c h y lu s . The s t r u g g le f o r pow er b e tw e e n th e s e x e s , w h e th e r p s y c h ic o r s e x u a l was e x p re s s e d m ost v i o l e n t l y by th e German E x p r e s s i o n i s t s . The German e x p r e s s i o n i s t p o e t o f t e n r e f l e c t e d i n i h i s w orks a g e n e r a l f e e l i n g o f i n f e r i o r i t y w i t h r e g a r d to h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h th e o p p o s ite s e x . H is r e l a t i o n t o th e o p p o s ite s ex r e f l e c t s h is ; g e n e r a l f e e l i n g o f i n f e r i o r i t y . I f h e i s n o t a l t o - g e t h e r u n a b le to g a in a wom an's l o v e , he i s in c a p a b le o f h o ld in g h e r a f f e c t i o n f o r any le n g t h o f t im e . C o n v in c e d o f h i s u g lin e s s ( f o r w o u ld he have to w r i t e p o e t r y i f he w ere handsome and l o v a b l e ? ) , he g a ze s w i s t f u l l y a t a s im p le g i r l and t h in k s t h a t i f she o n ly co n d e sce n d ed to lo v e him she c o u ld r e deem him fro m th e a r t i s t ' s c o n g e n it a l u g l i n e s s . . . . Women do n o t c a r e f o r th e t h in g s o f th e I m in d , and th e y deny t h e i r t a n t a l i z i n g b o d ie s to th o s e who a r e n o t s tr o n g and s im p le -m in d e d . L i t e r a t u r e and l i f e a r e d iv id e d by an u n b r id g e a b le g u l f f o r t h e E x p r e s s i o n i s t p o e t; i n h i s d e s p a ir he ! c u rs e s l i t e r a t u r e and o r a is e s l i f e . . . . He t u r n s i n h a t e p e c i a l l y a g a in s t th e gn ash es h i s t e e t h a t s ava g e f u r y . . . . th e e a r t h , w is h e s he t h r u s t a d a g g e r i n t o a g a in s t th e w o r ld , and e s - women who to r m e n t h im . He them and m a lig n s them w it h He c a l l s Woman th e e v i l o f c o u ld tr a m p le on h e r f a c e , h e r t h r o a t . ( 5 7 : 8 3 - 8 4 ) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 8 2 As p a r t o f th e man-woman s t r u g g l e i n German E x p re s s io n is m , th e c o n c e p ts o f a g g re s s iv e n e s s and d e s t r u c t io n w e re c o n n e c te d to s e x u a l l o v e . An o u t s t a n d in g exam ple o f I t h i s c o n c e p t o f th e e x p l o i t a t i o n o f woman th ro u g h m an's [s e x u a l pow ers was e x p re s s e d i n th e p e rs o n o f G e b h a rt i n I F r a n z W e r f e l ' s e x p r e s s i o n i s t n o v e l B a r b a r a . A p a c i f i s t r e v o l u t i o n a r y and p s y c h o a n a ly s t in th e n o v e l c i t e d , th e c h a r a c t e r G e b h a r t, . . . c la im s t h a t lo v e has been unknown i n o u r w o r ld becau se i t s p h y s ic a l e x p r e s s io n has been p e r v e r t e d i n t o a d e m o n s tr a tio n o f m a le p o w e r. I n th e s e x u a l a c t man g r a t i f i e s h i m s e l f and p ro v e s h is s t r e n g t h , n o t c a r in g w h a t h i s p a r t n e r f e e l s . S e x u a l lo v e s h o u ld be a m u tu a l a d m in is t r a t i o n o f j o y . B u t s in c e a l l o u r t h i n k i n g i s b a sed on pow er and p r e s t i g e , s e x u a l jo y i s h a rn e s s e d to t h e l u s t f o r p o w e r. The d e g r a d a t io n o f s e x u a l lo v e i s i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d i n m a r r ia g e and th e f a m i l y . S e x u a l e n e rg y o u ts id e m a r ria g e i s s u p p re s s e d o r b e s m irc h e d . Taboos s a f e g u a rd th e d i c t a t o r s h i p o f th e s tr o n g by d e n y in g e n - : jo y m e n t t o th e w eak. The ty r a n n y o f man o v e r woman ! le a d s to th e ty r a n n y o f th e f a t h e r o v e r th e son. j The s e r v i l i t y , a s c e t ic is m , e n v y , and s e lf - c o n t e m p t o f th e son and s la v e a re as e v i l as th e a rro g a n c e , b r u t a l i t y , and w i l l f u l n e s s o f th e f a t h e r and mas- I t e r . S in c e women s e l l t h e i r b i r t h r i g h t to lo v e i n exchange f o r b a u b le s and s e c u r i t y , th e y to o a re ac c o m p lic e s i n th e u n i v e r s a l ty r a n n y fro m w h ic h a l l I o th e r t y r a n n ie s f l o w . Once t h e r e was a g o ld e n age when women r u le d and s e x was th e c o re o f r e l i g i o n . B u t men had ap - : p e a re d who c o u ld n o t l o v e . To com pensate f o r t h e i r i d e f i c i e n c y , th e y b ra n d e d p h y s ic a l jo y as s in and i n v e n te d w a r . ( 6 7 : 1 8 5 - 1 8 6 ) 1 O s k a r K okoschka ( 1 8 8 6 - ) i n b o th h i s d ra w in g and p la y M o r d e r . H o ffn u n g d e r F ra u e n ( M u r d e r e r . Hope o f !Women) w r i t t e n i n 1 9 0 7 , e x p re s s e d s y m b o lic a lly " th e e t e r n a l I c o n f l i c t b e tw ee n Man and Women." M yers n o te s t h a t t h i s Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 8 3 c o n f l i c t was " . . . a f a v o r i t e E x p r e s s i o n i s t s u b je c t seen e a r l i e r i n th e w o rk s o f E d v a rd M unch." ( 4 9 : 5 2 ) I n t h i s c o n n e c tio n , th e f o l l o w i n g rem ark s w e re a p p lie d to M u n ch 's V a m p ire ( 1 9 0 2 ) . I n th e V a m p ir e , man f a l l s v i c t i m to th e conse quences o f h i s d e s i r e . He i s tr a p p e d and e n v e lo p e d by woman, th e w i t c h , who l i k e a m o th e r o r l i k e d e a th , s m o th e rs by h e r em b race . S t r in d b e r g w o u ld have r e c o g n iz e d t h i s h e r o in e as m an's n e c e s s a r y , dem oniac d e s t r o y e r . " I lo v e h e r , and she lo v e s me, and t o g e t h e r we h a t e e ach o t h e r w i t h a w i l d h a t r e d b o rn o f l o v e . " ( 4 4 : x i i i - x i v ) K o k o s ch k a , i n th e pen and b ru s h d ra w in g M u r d e r e r . Hope o f Women, f o l l o w s th e s t r u g g le b e tw ee n th e sexes theme a lo n g th e l i n e s d e s c r ib e d by W e r f e l 's c h a r a c t e r G e b h a r t. The f o r c e f u l and h o r r i f y i n g p o s t e r w h ic h K okoschka drew to ! a d v e r t i z e h i s p la y gave h im " . . . such a bad name t h a t h is f r i e n d s f e l t i t w o u ld be b e t t e r f o r him to le a v e th e c o u n - : t r y ." ( 4 9 : 5 2 ) The c o u n tr y o f w h ich K o k o s c h k a 's f r i e n d s spoke was V ie n n a , w h ere S c h o e n b e rg 's p a n t o n a l i t y r e v o l u t i o n i n m usic was a ls o o c c u r r in g . O f i n t e r e s t i s th e f a c t t h a t I S ch o en b e rg and K o ko sch k a knew each o t h e r q u i t e w e l l i n iV ie n n a . The l a t t e r p a in t e d a p o r t r a i t o f S ch o en b e rg no le s s p s y c h o lo g ic a l i n to n e th a n h i s o t h e r p o r t r a i t s . [Kokoschka r e v e a le d h i s in w a r d f e e l i n g i n h i s p o r t r a i t u r e . , I H is e a r l y p i c t u r e s , o f th e p e r io d 1 9 0 8 - 0 9 , a re I im m e d ia te ly r e c o g n iz a b le r e p r e s e n t a t io n s o f s t i l l I l i f e s and p o r t r a i t s . B u t th e v i s u a l r e a l i t y o f o b - ! j e c t s and fa c e s w i t h i n th e s e w orks r e a l l y r e p r e s e n ts [ I th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l s t a t e o f th e p a i n t e r , and t h i s i s | a c h ie v e d by a h a l l u c i n a t o r y m a n ip u la t io n o f th e [ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 8 4 p a i n t e r ' s o b j e c t s . H is p o r t r a i t s a r e s k e tc h e s o f human fa c e s made h a l f i n a t r a n c e , and th e y d i s c lo s e more a b o u t th e p a i n t e r and h i s h u m a n ity th a n th e y do a b o u t th e m o d e l. F o r t h i s re a s o n a l l th e m odels re s e m b le each o t h e r i n t h e i r s p i r i t u a l con d i t i o n . The eye o f th e p a i n t e r lo o k in g a t a man s u d d e n ly c o n c e iv e s s o m e th in g p h a n ta s m a l i n h im , a p la y o f g e s t u r e , some p ie c e o f m im ic ry c a u g h t on th e w in g , w h ic h ta k e s th e p la c e o f th e s u b je c t , and w h ic h th e a r t i s t r e l e n t l e s s l y i s o l a t e s and p e n e t r a t e s . T h is re s p o n s e o f th e p a i n t e r s ta n d s j i n d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p t o h im s e lf a lo n e . H is p a i n t in g i s , to be s u r e , a v i s u a l im p r e s s io n , b u t t h e r e i s b e h in d t h i s , subm erged, an e le m e n t o f s ec o n d - s i g h t , a n o th e r a s p e c t o f th e a r t i s t ' s r e a l i t y — i t i s a r e v e l a t i o n o f h i m s e l f . ( 3 1 : 7 8 - 7 9 ) I To sum m arize K o k o s c h k a 's s t y l e i s d i f f i c u l t , f o r l i k e any a r t i s t , he p ro g re s s e d th ro u g h v a r io u s s t a g e s . H is I e a r l y E x p r e s s io n is t d e v e lo p m e n t i s g e n e r a l l y c h a r a c t e r iz e d by " . . . f l a t a re a s o f c o l o r and s i m p l i f i e d d e s ig n ." ; (6 5 :1 6 4 ) The p o r t r a i t p e r io d f o llo w e d e n d in g a b o u t 1 9 1 1 . K okoschka re m a in e d p e r i p h e r a l to D ie B r ü c k e , n e v e r j o i n i n g th e g ro u p , b u t was h im s e lf an i n f l u e n c e upon them h a v in g s p e n t some tim e i n B e r l i n . A b o u t 1 9 1 1 , K okoschka a c h ie v e d I ! I a new i n t e r e s t i n f r e n z i e d c o l o r , somewhat l i k e t h a t fo u n d ! i n th e w orks o f N o ld e . Th e man-woman s t r u g g le fo u n d i t s ;way i n t o K o k o s c h k a 's l i f e once more i n a sto rm y lo v e a f f a i r w it h Alm a M a h le r , th e widow o f G u s ta v M a h le r , th e com- ! ! p o s e r . T h is p e r io d b etw een 1 9 1 2 -1 9 1 5 i s c o n s id e r e d h is ! jmost p r o d u c t iv e . M yers d is c u s s e s th e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h Alm a M a h le r: . . . t h i s m an-and-wom an s t r u g g l e was n o t u n l i k e i th e tu m u ltu o u s e m o t i o n a li t y o f h i s own p l a y s . D i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to t h a t e p ic a f f a i r o f th e h e a r t Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 8 5 a re th e a u t o b io g r a p h ic a l b la c k - a n d - w h ite s o f The P e t e r e d [ s i c ] Columbus and th e c e l e b r a t e d T e m p e s t, a ls o c a l l e d B r id e o f th e W inds . . . . A t e l l i n g change i n th e p a i n t e r ' s s t y l e may be seen i n th e p o r t r a i t s o f th e t im e , such as th e w e ll-k n o w n S e l f - P o r t r a i L o f 1913 . . . . I n s t e a d o f th e l i n e a r , u n h ap p y, i n v o l u t e d , and a lm o s t F r e u d ia n s t y l e o f th e e a r l i e r w o r k s , we now f i n d a much more con f i d e n t and e f f e c t i v e h a n d lin g o f p a i n t and more un u s u a l c o m p o s itio n a l e f f e c t s , e x e m p l i f i e d h e r e in th e way th e f i g u r e i s s e t i n t o th e p i c t u r e s p a c e . The m ost s i g n i f i c a n t p i c t u r e o f th e p e r io d is u n d o u b te d ly The T e m p e s t. 1914 . . . w h ic h s ta n d s as a h ig h - w a t e r m ark o f K o k o s c h k a 's s y m b o lic c r e a t i v e n e s s . T h is p a i n t i n g , a s e n s a tio n even i n th e 1947 Z u r ic h e x h i b i t i o n o f h i s w o rk , i s an a l l e g o r i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f h i s lo v e a f f a i r . The two lo v e r s l i e s id e by s id e i n a k in d o f c o c k l e s h e l l w h i r l i n g th ro u g h sp ace; th e r e s t l e s s and t o r t u r e d form s a re as B a ro q u e i n t h e i r i n t e n s i t y o f f e e l i n g as th e u n r e a l and s y m b o lic sp ace th ro u g h w h ic h th e y a re p r o p e l l e d . . . . The m in g lin g o f r e a l and u n r e a l , m a t e r i a l and u n e a r t h l y , i n t h i s p a i n t i n g i s e m p h asized by th e r e c o g n iz a b le p o r t r a y a l o f th e s le e p in g woman and w a k e fu l man— th e a r t i s t ' s own s a g a . H e re i s th e f u l l m eaning o f K o k o s c h k a 's E x p r e s s io n is m , h i s s t r i v i n g to w a rd a n o n - n a t u r a l i s t i c " e x p r e s s io n " o f i n n e r m eaning t h a t stem s from th e f a c t u a l c irc u m s ta n c e o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p i t s e l f . Throw n i n t o th e c a u ld r o n o f th e p a i n t e r ' s e m o tio n s , th e s e two a re e n v e lo p e d i n s y m b o lic c o lo r to sum up th e m a n -a n d - woman i d e a as w e l l as th e p a i n t e r ' s h e l p le s s l o v e . ( 4 9 : 5 3 - 5 4 ) Î The s y m b o lic Amazon woman i n K o k o s c h k a 's M u r d e r e r , Hope o f Women c ru s h e d u n d e r th e w e ig h t o f th e w a r r i o r ' s f o o t , and- th e woman o f K o k o s c h k a 's The T em p est a re b o th a t I th e m ercy o f man. I n a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t sense th e h e r o in e L u lu i n A lb a n B e r g 's o p e ra o f th e same name, f in d s h e r - ; I i s e l f h o p e le s s ly c a u g h t i n th e pow er s t r u g g l e b etw een h e r s e l f and h e r l o v e r s . i Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 8 6 A lb a n B e r g 's w o rk on h i s second o p e ra L u l u , began i n 1 9 2 8 . As e a r l y as 1 9 0 5 , B e rg was im p re s s e d by a p e r fo rm an ce o f F r a n k W e d e k in d 's P a n d o r a 's B o x . R e d lic h r e m arks: I n th e l i t e r a r y w o rk o f F r a n k W ed e kin d th e s t r u g g l e o f th e s e xes i s th e d o m in a tin g th em e , as i t i s i n th e w r i t i n g s o f A u g u s t S t r i n d b e r g , whose m ix t u r e o f e r o t i c s a ta n is m and p u n g e n t s o c i a l s a t i r e seems r e f l e c t e d i n th e l i f e s t o r y and c r e a t i v e ! b ia s o f h i s y o u n g e r German c o n te m p o ra ry . Wede k i n d 's f a v o u r i t e s u b j e c t , th e d e m o n ia c a l h u b r is o f th e fe m a le e le m e n t, i n s p i r i n g b u t a ls o d e s t r o y in g men, i s m ost c o n v in c in g ly p r e s e n te d i n two p la y s o f w h ic h L u lu i s th e c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r : E a r t h S p i r i t (1 8 9 3 ) and P a n d o r a 's Box ( 1 9 0 1 ) . ( 5 6 : 1 6 4 ) B e r g 's l i b r e t t o i s , w i t h some c u t s , a c o m b in a tio n o f th e two W ed ekin d p la y s c i t e d . K a r l K ra u s , p r o d u c e r o f W e d e k in d 's P a n d o r a 's B o x , had made a speech a t th e 1 9 0 5 p r e m ie r e o f th e w o rk , w h ic h d e e p ly i n s p i r e d B e rg . Segm ents o f t h a t s p eech h a v e been ! t r a n s l a t e d by W i l l i R e ic h . K ra u s spoke o f th e s t r u g g l e b e tw een th e sex e s i n t h e L u lu t r a g e d y . And th e n th e m ig h ty d o u b le t r a g e d y . th e t r a g e d y o f th e hounded g r a c e o f woman, e t e r n a l l y m is u n d e r s to o d . who i s p e r m it t e d m e re ly t o c lim b i n t o th e P r o c r u s te a n bed o f th e m o ra l c o n c e p ts o f a s t i n g y w o r ld . Woman i s made to run th e g a u n t l e t ; Woman who was n e v e r in t e d e d by h e r c r e a t o r to s e rv e th e egoism o f h e r p r o p r i e t o r s , and who can r i s e to h e r h ig h e r v a lu e s o n ly i n fre e d o m . One o f th e d r a m a t ic c o n f l i c t s b e tw een fe m a le n a t u r e and some m a le b lo c k h e a d p la c e d L u lu i n th e hands o f t e r r e s t r i a l j u s t i c e , and she w o u ld h a v e had n in e y e a r s i n p r is o n i n w h ic h to r e f l e c t t h a t b e a u ty i s a p u n is h m e n t fro m God, had n o t h e r d e v o te d s la v e s o f lo v e h a tc h e d a ro m a n tic p la n f o r Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 8 7 h e r l i b e r a t i o n , a p la n t h a t c o u ld n e v e r r ip e n i n th e r e a l w o r ld even i n th e m ost f a n a t i c a l b r a i n , and t h a t th e m ost f a n a t i c a l w i l l c o u ld n e v e r b r in g to f r u i t i o n . (5 7 : 1 5 7 ) A c r i t i c had th e f o l l o w i n g re m a rk s to make a f t e r a p e rfo rm a n c e o f B e r g 's L u lu Symphony i n 1 9 3 5 . B e rg h im s e lf u n d o u b te d ly s u p p lie d R e ic h w i t h a c l i p p i n g o f th e r e v ie w . f o r R e ic h s t a t e s t h a t "B erg a tt a u ihed g r e a t v a lu e to i t as b e in g a p a r t i c u l a r l y s u c c in c t f o r m u l a t i o n — c o n ju r in g up th e m y t h ic a l message o f L u l u - - o f h i s own p o i n t o f v ie w ." ( 5 7 : 1 5 9 ) An e x c e r p t o f t h i s r e v ie w i s g iv e n h e r e . 'L u lu i s a h e r o in e o f s u p e r - d im e n s io n a l pow er i n e x p e r ie n c in g and s u f f e r i n g ; d e s t r o y in g e v e r y t h in g a ro u n d h e r t h a t succumbs t o h e r charm s o r even ap p ro a c h e s h e r , she i s a p ie c e o f N a tu r e beyond good and e v i l , and t h e r e f o r e — as a c o m p le te , c lo s e d c o s mos on h e r own— o n ly to be u n r a v e l l e d by means o f m u s ic , i n a c o n t e x t rem oved fro m a l l c o n c e p tu a l t h o u g h t. The way t h i s g lo w in g f i r e b a l l — s in g e in g e v e r y t h in g t h a t comes i n c o n t a c t w i t h h e r — i s f i n a l l y h e r s e l f e x t in g u is h e d p r e s e n te d a c h a lle n g e to th e p s y c h o lo g is t i n th e m u s ic ia n , a c h a lle n g e to come to te rm s w i t h t h a t u n r e a l s p h e re w here dream im ages l i k e f i g u r e s f l i t p a s t i n t o d e a t h , j u s t b e cau se i n d y in g th e y a re s t r u c k once more by th e l a s t r a y s fro m some g r e a t in n o c e n t demon. . . . ' ( 5 7 : 1 5 9 ) An e x t e n s iv e a n a ly s is o f th e t e x t and m usic o f L u l u , K ra u s ' e n t i r e s p e e c h , and many m u s ic a l exam ples a re p r e s e n te d i n a le n g t h y c h a p t e r o f W i l l i R e ic h 's A lb a n B e r g . O n ly th e m u rd e r sce n e d u r in g A c t I I i s d e s c r ib e d h e r e . . . . th e Rondo, whose f i r s t p a r t d ie s s o f t l y away a t b a r 3 3 6 , has become t h e l y r i c a l m ain p ie c e o f th e w h o le w o rk , th e p r o c la m a t io n — i n th e c e n t r e o f th e o p e ra — o f B e r g 's s p e c i a l a f f e c t i o n f o r h i s l a s t o p e r a t ic f i g u r e , who was t o i l l u m i n a t e even th e Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 8 8 f e v e r e d f a n t a s i e s o f h is l a s t h o u r s . [B e rg d ie d h a l l u c i n a t i n g a b o u t L u l u . ] Th e f o l l o w i n g tu m u ltu o s o i s d o m in a te d by th e m o t i f o f S c h o n 's p e r s e c u t io n m a n ia . The Rondo theme and th e R o d rig o c h o rd s (b ro k e n up i n t o sem i q u a v e rs ) a re so u n d ed . S c h o n 's g r e a t o u t b u r s t i s d e s ig n e d as an A r i a w it h f i v e v e r s e s , i n t e r r u p t e d by L u l u 's b r i e f i n t e r j e c t i o n s accom panied by h e r th e m es. B e fo r e th e l a s t v e r s e B e rg has p la c e d L u l u 's fu n d a m e n ta l c o n fe s s io n o f f a i t h ; t h i s ' c o l a r a t u r a L ie d " ' i n th e tempo o f th e p u l s e - b e a t ' exposes h e r in n e rm o s t e s s e n c e , th e s p h e re o f m o r a li t y : c o m p le te ly l o s t to I f p e o p le h ave k i l l e d th e m s e lv e s f o r my s a k e , t h a t d o e s n 't d e t r a c t fro m my v a lu e . You knew why you w ere t a k in g me f o r a w i f e j u s t as w e l l as I knew why I was t a k in g you f o r a h u sb an d . You had b e t r a y e d y o u r b e s t f r i e n d s w it h me; ! you c o u l d n 't v e r y w e l l go on and b e t r a y y o u r s e l f : w i t h me t o o . I f you a r e b r i n g i n g me th e w h o le e v e n in g o f y o u r l i f e as a s a c r i f i c e , a t le a s e you h a v e had th e w h o le o f my y o u th i n ex ch a n g e. I n e v e r i n th e w o r ld w a n te d to seem a n y th in g o t h e r ; th a n w h a t p e o p le to o k me f o r . And n e v e r i n th e w o r ld h as anyone ta k e n me f o r a n y t h in g | o th e r th a n w h a t I am. ( 5 7 : 1 5 8 - 1 5 9 ) The w h o le i s s e t f o r th e f r e e s t ' v a c i l l a t i n g ' ty p e o f v o c a l d e l i v e r y ; th e o r c h e s t r a p e rfo rm s a p u r e ly accom panying f u n c t i o n , and o n ly ta k e s o v e r th e v o c a l l i n e i n th e p o s t lu d e . The m ain rh y th m . . . d ro n e s o u t a t th e m urder o f S ch o n , (5 7 :1 5 8 ) The r o l e s a r e r e v e r s e d h e r e , f o r u n l i k e th e woman i n K o k o s c h k a 's d ra w in g . L u lu assumes th e s ta n c e o f m u rd e r ess r a t h e r th a n th e m u rd e re d . The s t r u g g le f o r pow er o v e r h e r lo v e r s by L u lu i s e v i d e n t . The o p e ra L u lu was f i r s t p e rfo rm e d i n 1 9 3 7 . G r o u t sum m arizes i t . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 8 9 The c e n t r a l p e rs o n a g e , L u lu , i s c o n c e iv e d as th e i n c a r n a t i o n o f th e " p r im a l w o m a n - s p ir i t ," and th e dram a i s c o n c e rn e d w it h th e f a t a l e f f e c t s o f h e r a t t r a c t i o n f o r v a r io u s l o v e r s , f i n a l l y e n d in g w i t h h e r own doom. A lth o u g h e x t e r n a l l y o c c u p ie d w it h th e m ost r e a l i s t i c d e t a i l s , th e w o rk i s n o t e ss e n t i a l l y r e a l i s t i c b u t r a t h e r e x p r e s s i o n i s t i c , some tim e s g r o t e s q u e ly and e x t r a v a g a n t ly s o . As dram a, I th e s u b je c t i s to o s p e c i a l i z e d t o h ave th e same I e le m e n ta l human a p p e a l t h a t W ozzeck h a s; and i t i s ! p r o b a b ly t h i s d e f e c t , as much as th e n o to r io u s com- ! p l e x i t y o f th e m u s ic , t h a t has k e p t L u lu fro m b e - j coming as p o p u la r as B e r g 's e a r l i e r o p e r a . N o t - ! w it h s t a n d in g th e c o m p le x it y , h o w e v e r. L u lu i s m a r- I v e l l o u s l y e f f e c t i v e i n th e t h e a t r e . The c h a n g in g I flo w o f th e drama and th e i n t e n s i t y o f i t s emo t i o n a l e x p re s s io n a r e a lw ays c o n t r o l l e d by th e com- ; p o s e r 's i n t e l l e c t u a l power i n w i e l d i n g m u s ic a l I fo rm s . C e r t a i n m o t i f s , h a rm o n ie s , to n e s e r i e s , and c o m b in a tio n s a re a s s o c ia te d w i t h p a r t i c u l a r c h a r a c t e r s and s c e n e s . The o p e ra i s n o t , as has j o f t e n been s t a t e d , b ased th ro u g h o u t on a s in g le to n e row , b u t i t s f e l t m u s ic a l u n i t y i s th e r e s u l t ' o f in t e r c o n n e c t io n s among th e d i f f e r e n t fo r m a l e l e - I m en ts . ( 2 7 :5 7 4 ) I B e r g 's o p e ra L u lu i s a p a r a l l e l f o r K o k o s c h k a 's ; dram a M u r d e r e r , Hope o f Women. L ik e B e r g 's L u l u , Kokosch- jk a 's w ork : . . . p o r t r a y s i n s y m b o lic te rm s th e e x t e r n a l c o n - ! f l i c t b etw een Man and Women— a f a v o r i t e E x p r e s - I s i o n i s t s u b je c t seen e a r l i e r i n th e w ork o f E d v a rd J Munch. H e re th e d r a m a t is t i s n o t c o n c e rn e d w it h i p s y c h o lo g ic a l e x p la n a t io n s o f th e p ro b le m b u t w it h a s e r ie s o f n o n r a t i o n a l, even p r i m o r d i a l u rg e s and : e x p e rie n c e s i n w h ic h th e W a r r io r s l e d by th e Man I p r e p a r e to a t t a c k th e Amazon s y m b o liz in g th e Woman. ! The use o f g e n e r ic term s r a t h e r th a n s p e c i f i c i names— c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h i s k in d o f w r i t i n g . . . I — u n d e r lin e s t h i s e le m e n ta l c o n f l i c t . The Woman j f i g h t s b a ck a g a in s t t h i s " w ild a n im a l" u n t i l th e I s t r u g g le i s r e s o lv e d when she r e v e a ls h e r s e l f to I th e Man as h i s m a te . ( 4 9 : 5 2 ) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 9 0 W hat i s re m a r k a b le i s t h a t a lth o u g h K o ko sch ka w r o te t h i s p la y i n 1 9 0 7 , he a lr e a d y used th e E x p r e s s io n is t te c h n iq u e o f c a s t in g c h a r a c t e r s as ty p e s o r u n i v e r s a l f i g u r e s . Ex p l o s iv e d i c t i o n and s c e n ic id e a s w e re a ls o e x p e r im e n t a l and w o u ld n o t become common p r a c t i c e u n t i l th e days o f such : German E x p r e s s io n is t le a d e r s o f th e t h e a t e r as K a is e r , j T o l l e r , H a s e n c le v e r , and B r e c h t ( 6 : 1 5 ) . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 9 1 EXAMPLES ILLUSTRATING PARALLELS IN THE CONCEPT 'S t r u g g le B etw een th e S exes' Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 9 2 D ra w in g M u r d e r e r , Hope o f Women O s k a r K o ko sch ka (1 8 8 6 - Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 193 4 m m Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 9 4 M u sic E x c e r p ts fro m L u lu A lb a n B e rg (1 8 8 5 -1 9 4 5 ) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. L U L U 1 9 5 IL AKT 1. Szene Alban Berg filcb bcr fiutu r it Comodo* ^(leihnltcnd.lnentfichlcdrncm.BclbstbcunIlIcn Ton Rich dlo Men Rchcn urn inel not-vil-lcn M U Pcd ♦ T o m p o P ulH R chlinjow , a lp o J • ea BO ccliwt'bend so sol7,t das nioincn vvcrt iim-p,o-hrncht Im-bcn, nichlhor-nb. e s / ^ K h K In v Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 9 6 Ruhato. (poeo rit- Du hast s o gut ge - wuflt, Dumich zur wes-wo poco _ a tempo m wio ich £ T 0 - wuBt Frau nahmst. Rubato (poco rit poco accel) a tempo Mann nahm . ten Dich zum ves-wo Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 9 7 sfcn tcsl Dei iini stcn F r c i i n n c poco rit_ tro mil mlr S o lo v i e (a te m p o ) I r o dc mil mir. m r S lr ! _ S olo V ic Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 9 8 Dlch HCl _ a tempo Ossla D u konn - test nicht gut auch noch Dieh Trp flhKl poco r it _ trü mlr bor mit ficn. trü ber mit mir. gen., S o lo V I espr sir Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 9 9 _ _ a tempo Wenn Du mlr Dol- iicn Lo _______ poeo r it bens-a - bond zum Op - 1er brlngst, /, ---- 7f---------- r— i ----------------------------------- h = - _______ ... ^ a tempo f - ----------- -% --------- H r - f i p ____^ poco rit — e.---------- ------------ 1 so__ hast Du moi - no gan z o Ju - gcnd___ d a -fiir go - habt. Q r — a tempo in der W cl*v S o lo V I s r im tir k r ln j J--1----- n rr-— - J ! ” ‘® ‘ dolce - dolce marc marc m a rc H o lfb l ^ ^ N " " ? marc . . d o lc e . d o lc e . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 0 0 man mich j;c - M O lzb i P d o lc e - m arc _ - nrt d o lc e - m a rc _ 7///irc Zeit lassen a tempo nom - men , . nom - men hat und man hat mich Ü r - k r. l lo lz h l u K In v tiir ct-WQs an in der Welt m e n , Auflakt c rc s c & Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. !01 Etwas breiter L bin ich dim sempre T b a pocofespr Noch breiter y attacca U r. Schon n u ffa h ro n d und n u f L u lu clndrlnccnd 'i Tempo furioso, ma poco piu pesante (V. [Ut}te] Sttoj3!»«-(ier Ario des Dr Schon) D rSch Nic dor, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 202 DrSch In die Knio!___________ H r mil Gofnrn} . ¥ fiph jJ= i|j rinl. Mcir T r p ^ Lulu K in k t in dlo K nio d rn n fil sio h is v o r dio T ro p p c DrSch d ie H a n tl e r h c b c h d r und go nicht v ie -d e r w a T rp Den L n u f des in L ulu s Hnnd b efindliclicn Revolvers auf sic rlcldcn d DrSch zu - stchn! auf > mp Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 0 3 Der Gymnasiast M it GopoUer untor ilom Tlwch BufHprlngend, den Sessel drohonil Hlch rabch gegon den Dr Sch daB er Dir die Krafl. GoU, * 3 und Tumultuoso L u lu feuert fünf SchüJlo gogon Dr Schon belseitcschlchcndi Gjinnnslnstcn wcnticnd, Lulu (Icn Rückcn kchrond lo i Dr Sch hiirt nlchl nuf, den Revolver nbzudrückcn lënt D r Schon In den Sessel vornübcrstürzcnd.vom GymnaHlnstcn nufgcfnngen Dr Sch > R H . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 0 4 Drama M u r d e r e r , Hope o f Women O s k a r K okoschka (1 8 8 6 - Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 0 5 MURDERER THE WOMEN'S HOPE 1907 by O sk ar K okoschka : T r a n s l a t e d by M ic h a e l H am burger PERSONS I Man Woman C h o ru s : Men and Women [ N ig h t s k y . Tow er w i t h l a r g e r e d i r o n g r i l l e as d o o r; to r c h e s th e o n ly l i g h t ; b la c k g ro u n d , r i s i n g to th e to w e r i n such a way t h a t a l l th e f i g u r e s a p p e a r i n r e l i e f . ] THE MAN [ i n b lu e a rm o r, w h it e f a c e , k e r c h i e f c o v e r in g a wound, w it h a crow d o f men— savage i n a p p e a ra n c e , g r a y - a n d -re d k e r c h i e f s , w h it e - b la c k - a n d - b r o w n c lo t h e s , s ig n s on t h e i r c lo t h e s , b a r e le g s , lo n g -h a n d le d t o r c h e s , b e lle , d i n — c r e e p in g up w i t h h a n d le s o f to r c h e s e x te n d e d and l i g h t s ; w e a r i l y , r e l u c t a n t l y t r y to h o ld b a c k th e adven t u r e r , p u l l h is h o rs e to th e g ro u n d ; he w a lk s on, th e y open up th e c i r c l e around h im , c r y in g o u t i n a slo w c r e s c e n d o . ] MEN. We w ere th e f la m in g w h e el around h im . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 0 6 We w ere th e f la m in g w h e e l aro u n d yo u , a s s a i l a n t o f lo c k e d f o r t r e s s e s 1 [ H e s i t a n t l y f o l l o w h im a g a in i n c h a in f o r m a t io n ; h e , w i t h th e t o r c h b e a r e r i n f r o n t o f h im , heads th e p r o c e s s io n .] MEN. L e a d u s , p a l e one! [W h ile th e y a re a b o u t t o p u l l h i s h o rs e to th e g ro u n d , women w i t h t h e i r le a d e r ascend s te p s on th e l e f t . ] WOMAN, [ r e d c l o t h e s , lo o s e y e llo w h a i r , t a l l . ] WOMAN, [ l o u d . ] W it h my b r e a t h I fa n th e y e llo w d is c o f th e sun, my eye c o l l e c t s th e j u b i l a t i o n o f th e men, t h e i r sta m m e rin g l u s t p ro w ls aro u n d me l i k e a b e a s t . FEMALE ATTENDANTS [ s e p a r a t e th e m s e lv e s fro m h e r , o n ly now c a tc h s i g h t o f th e s t r a n g e r . ] FIR S T FEMALE ATTENDANT. H is b r e a t h a tta c h e s i t s e l f to th e v i r g i n ! F IR S T MAN [ t o th e o t h e r s . ] O ur m a s te r i s l i k e th e moon t h a t r i s e s i n th e E a s t . SECOND G IR L , [ q u i e t , h e r f a c e a v e r t e d . ] When w i l l she be e n fo ld e d j o y f u l l y ? [ L i s t e n i n g , a l e r t , th e CHORUS w a lk s a ro u n d th e w h o le s ta g e , d is p e r s e d i n g ro u p s ; THE MAN and th e WOMAN m eet i n f r o n t o f th e g a t e . ] (P a u s e .) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 0 7 WOMAN [o b s e rv e s h im s p e llb o u n d , th e n to h e r s e l f . ] Who i s ! th e s t r a n g e r t h a t has lo o k e d on me? GIRLS [p r e s s to th e f o r e . ] F IR S T G IRL [r e c o g n iz e s h im , c r i e s o u t . ] H is s i s t e r d ie d o f l o v e . SECOND G IR L . 0 th e s in g in g o f T im e , f lo w e r s n e v e r s e e n . THE MAN, [a s t o n is h e d ; h i s p r o c e s s io n h a l t s . ] Am I r e a l? W hat d i d th e shadows say? [ R a is in g h i s fa c e to h e r . ] D id you lo o k a t me, d id I lo o k a t you? WOMAN, [ f i l l e d w i t h f e a r and l o n g i n g . ] Who i s th e p a l l i d man? H o ld h im b a c k . FIR S T G IR L , [ w i t h a p i e r c i n g scre a m , ru n s b a c k .] Do you l e t h im in ? I t i s he who s t r a n g le s my l i t t l e s i s t e r p r a y in g i n th e te m p le . F IR S T MAN [ t o th e g i r l . ] We saw h im s t r i d e th ro u g h th e f i r e , h i s f e e t unharm ed. SECOND MAN. He t o r t u r e d a n im a ls t o d e a t h , k i l l e d n e ig h in g m ares by th e p r e s s u r e o f h i s t h i g h s . THIRD MAN. B ir d s t h a t ra n b e f o r e us he made b l i n d , s t i f l e d re d f i s h e s i n t h e s a n d . THE MAN [ a n g r y , h e a t e d . ] Who i s she t h a t l i k e an a n im a l p r o u d ly g ra z e s a m id s t h e r k in ? F IR S T MAN. She d i v in e s w h a t none has u n d e r s to o d . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 0 8 : SECOND MAN. She p e r c e iv e s w h a t none has seen o r h e a r d . : THIRD MAN. They say shy b ir d s app ro ach h e r and l e t them s e lv e s be s e iz e d . GIRLS [ i n tim e w it h th e m en .] FIR S T G IR L . L a d y , l e t us f l e e . E x t in g u is h th e f l a r e s o f th e l e a d e r . SECOND G IR L . M i s t r e s s , escap e ! THIRD G IR L . He s h a l l n o t be o u r g u e s t o r b r e a t h e o u r a i r . L e t him n o t lo d g e w i t h u s , he f r i g h t e n s me. MEN, [ h e s i t a n t , w a lk on , WOMEN crowd t o g e t h e r a n x io u s ly . The WOMAN goes up to THE MAN, p r o w lin g , c a u t io u s . ] FIR S T G IR L . He has no l u c k . FIR S T MAN. She has no shame. WOMAN. Why do you b in d me, man, w it h y o u r gaze? R a v e n in g l i g h t , you c o n fo u n d my fla m e : D e v o u rin g l i f e o v erp o w ers me. 0 ta k e away my t e r r i b l e hope— and may to rm e n t o v e r power y o u . THE MAN, [ e n r a g e d .] My men, now b ra n d h e r w it h my s ig n , h o t ir o n i n t o h e r r e d f l e s h . MEN [ c a r r y o u t h i s o r d e r . F i r s t th e CHORIS, w i t h t h e i r l i g h t s , s t r u g g le w it h h e r , th e n th e OLD MAN w it h th e ir o n ; he r i p s open h e r d re s s and b ra n d s h e r . ] WOMAN, [ c r y in g o u t i n t e r r i b l e p a i n . ] B e a t back th o s e men, th e d e v o u rin g c o rp s e s . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 0 9 [S he le a p s a t him w it h a k n i f e and s t r i k e s a wound i n h i s s id e . THE MAN f a l l s . ] MEN. F re e t h i s man p o s s e s s e d , s t r i k e down th e d e v i l . A la s f o r us in n o c e n t s , b u ry t h e c o n q u e ro r. We do n o t know h im . THE MAN, [ i n c o n v u ls io n s , s in g in g w i t h a b le e d in g , v i s i b l e w o u n d .] S e n s e le s s c r a v in g fro m h o r r o r to h o r r o r , unap p e a s a b le r o t a t i o n i n th e v o i d . B i r t h pangs w it h o u t b i r t h , h u r t l i n g down o f th e su n , q u a k in g o f s p a c e . The end o f th o s e who p r a is e d me. Oh, y o u r u n m e r c ifu l w o rd . MEN. We do n o t know him ; s p a re u s . Come, you s in g in g g i r l s , l e t us c e l e b r a t e o u r n u p t i a l s on h i s bed o f a f f l i c t i o n . G IR L S . He f r i g h t e n s us; you we lo v e d even b e f o r e you came. [T h re e masked men on th e w a l l lo w e r a c o f f i n on ro p e s ; th e wounded man, h a r d ly s t i r r i n g now, i s p la c e d in s id e th e to w e r . WOMEN r e t i r e w i t h th e MEN. The OLD MAN r i s e s and lo c k s th e d o o r, a l l i s d a r k , a t o r c h , q u i e t , b lu e l i g h t above i n th e c a g e .] WOMAN, [m oaning and r e v e n g e f u l .] He c a n n o t l i v e , n o r d ie ; how w h it e he i s : [S h e c re e p s ro u n d th e cag e l i k e a p a n t h e r . She c r a w ls up to th e cage i n q u i s i t i v e l y , g r ip s th e b a rs l a s c i v i o u s ly , i n s c r i b e s a l a r g e w h it e c ro s s on th e to w e r, c r i e s o u t . ] Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. : 210 Open th e g a t e ; I m ust be w i t h h im . [S h a kes th e b a rs i n d e s p a i r . ] MEN and WOMEN, [ e n jo y in g th e m s e lv e s i n th e shadow s, con f u s e d .] We h a ve l o s t th e k e y — we s h a l l f i n d i t — h a v e you g o t i t ? — h a v e n 't you seen i t ? — we a r e n o t g u i l t y o f y o u r p l i g h t , we do n o t know y o u — [T h e y go b a ck a g a in . A c o ck cro w s , a p a l e l i g h t r i s e s i n th e b a c k g ro u n d .] WOMAN [ s l i d e s h e r arm th ro u g h th e b a rs and p ro d s h i s wound, h i s s i n g m a l i c i o u s l y , l i k e an a d d e r .] P a le one, do you r e c o i l ? Do you know fe a r ? A re you o n ly a s le e p ? A re you awake? Can you h e a r me? THE MAN, [ i n s i d e , b r e a t h in g h e a v i l y , r a is e s h i s h ead w it h d i f f i c u l t y ; l a t e r , moves one hand; th e n s lo w ly r i s e s , s in g in g h ig h e r and h i g h e r , s o a r i n g . ] W ind t h a t w a n d e rs , tim e r e p e a t in g t im e , s o l i t u d e , re p o s e and h u n g e r c o n fu s e me. W o rld s t h a t c i r c l e p a s t , no a i r , i t grows lo n g as e v e n in g . WOMAN, [ i n c i p i e n t f e a r . ] So much l i g h t i s f lo w in g fro m th e g a p , so much s t r e n g t h fro m th e p a le as a c o rp s e h e 's tu r n e d . [O nce more c re e p s up th e s t e p s , h e r body t r e m b lin g , t r i um phant once more and c r y in g o u t w i t h a h ig h v o i c e . ] Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 1 1 1 THE MAN [h a s s lo w ly r i s e n , le a n s a g a in s t th e g r i l l e , i s lo w ly g r o w s .] WOMAN [w e a k e n in g , f u r i o u s . ] A w i l d b e a s t I tame i n t h i s cag e; i s i t w i t h h u n g e r y o u r song b a rk s ? THE MAN. Am I th e r e a l o n e , you t h e dead en sn ared ? Why a re you t u r n i n g p a le ? [C ro w in g o f c o c k s .] WOMAN [ t r e m b l i n g . ] Do you i n s u l t me, co rp se ? THE MAN, [ p o w e r f u l l y . ] S t a r s and moon! Woman! I n dream o r aw ake, I saw a s in g in g c r e a t u r e b r i g h t l y s h in e . B r e a t h in g , d a r k th in g s become c l e a r to me. Who n o u r is h e s me? WOMAN [c o v e r s h im e n t i r e l y w i t h h e r body; s e p a r a te d by th e g r i l l e , t o w h ic h she c l i n g s h ig h up i n th e a i r l i k e a m onkey.] THE MAN. Who s u c k le s me w i t h b lo o d ? I d e v o u r y o u r m e lt in g f l e s h . WOMAN. I w i l l n o t l e t you l i v e , you v a m p ir e , p ie c e m e a l you f e e d on me, w eaken me, woe t o y o u , I s h a l l k i l l y o u - - you f e t t e r me— you I c a u g h t and cag ed — and you a re h o ld in g me— l e t go o f me. Y o u r lo v e im p ris o n s me— g r i p s me as w i t h i r o n c h a in s — t h r o t t l e s me— l e t g o - - h e l p ! I l o s t th e k e y t h a t k e p t you p r i s o n e r . [ L e t s go th e g r i l l e , w r i t h e s on th e s te p s l i k e a d y in g a n im a l, h e r t h ig h s and m.uscles c o n v u ls e d .] Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 1 2 THE MAN [s ta n d s u p r i g h t now, p u l l s open th e g a t e , to u c h e s th e woman— who r e a r s up s t i f f l y , dead w h i t e — w i t h h is f i n g e r s . She f e e l s t h a t h e r end i s n e a r , h ig h e s t t e n s io n , r e le a s e d i n a s lo w ly d im in is h in g scream ; she c o lla p s e s and, as she f a l l s , t e a r s away th e t o r c h fro m th e hands o f th e r i s i n g l e a d e r . The to r c h goes o u t and c o v e rs e v e r y t h in g i n a show er o f s p a r k s . He s ta n d s on t h e h ig h e s t s te p ; men and women who a t te m p t to f l e e fro m h im ru n i n t o h is w ay, s c r e a m in g .] CHORUS. The d e v i l ! Tame h im , s ave y o u r s e lv e s , s av e y o u r s e lv e s i f you c an — a l l i s l o s t ! [He w a lk s s t r a i g h t to w a rd s th em . K i l l s them l i k e mos q u it o e s and le a v e s r e d b e h in d . From v e r y f a r away, c ro w in g o f c o c k s .] Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 1 3 Summary Sigmund F r e u d 's p u b l i c a t i o n o f I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Dreams i n 1900 was a r e v o l u t i o n i n p s y c h o lo g y w h ich u n - ! I lo c k e d a " P a n d o ra 's Box" f o r a r t i s t s . The dream s t a t e , I w it h a l l i t s d i s t o r t i o n s , u n le a s h e d r e p r e s s io n s , and w is h f u l f i l l m e n t s , became a s o u rc e o f s t y l e and c o n te n t i n G e r - ! ; man E x p re s s io n is m . The F r e u d ia n c o n c e p t o f c a t h a r s i s p r o y id e d German I E x p r e s s io n is t s w it h ample i n s p i r a t i o n f o r o b t a in in g im m edi a te e m o tio n a l r e le a s e i n t h e i r w o r k s . R e s e a rc h o f F re u d i i n t o th e p s y c h o -s e x u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e tw ee n man and woman, p a r e n t s and c h i l d r e n , w ere o t h e r s o u rc e s o f a r t i s t i c e x - ;p e r i m e n t a t i o n . ' Two F r e u d ia n themes fo u n d i n German E x p r e s s io n is t a r t , m u s ic , and l i t e r a t u r e w e re d is c u s s e d i n t h i s c h a p te r : ; ( 1 ) e x p re s s io n o f in w a rd f e e l i n g and ( 2 ) s t r u g g le b etw een i th e s e x e s . E c s ta s y and f r e n z i e d o u tp o u r in g s , w ere th e mode o f e x p r e s s io n when in w a rd f e e l i n g s re a c h e d a maximum l e v e l i n th e s o u l o f th e a r t i s t . E d v a rd Munch i n h is w oodcuts o b - ' t a in e d im m e d ia te c a t h a r s i s by means o f th e deep s la s h in g I s t r o k e s o f h i s g o u g e. The s u b je c t m a t t e r o f h i s w orks was I a lm o s t e n t i r e l y e m o tio n a l. H is l i t h o g r a p h A t t r a c t i o n , and ITwo P e o p le ( The L o n e ly O nes) , and The K i s s , b o th w o o d c u ts . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 1 4 d e m o n s tra te th e s e p o i n t s . R ic h a r d D e h m e l, i n h i s p o e t r y , c e le b r a t e d s e x u a l lo v e i n a m anner c o n s id e re d e x t r e m e ly p a s s io n a t e i n h i s d a y . I n h is poem D ie V e r k l a e r t e N a c h t , a man and a woman d e c la r e u n r e s e r v e d lo v e f o r one a n o th e r d e s p it e th e f a c t t h a t th e woman i s bound to th e c o n v e n t i o n a l i t i e s o f h e r m a r r ia g e . T h is poem i n s p i r e d A r n o ld S c h o e n b e rg , s t i l l i n h is p o s t-W a g n e ria n s t y l e , t o compose th e s t r i n g s e x t e t !V e r k l a e r t e N a c h t . P a s s io n i s com m unicated by th e m u s ic a l I themes o f t h i s w o rk . j I j I n M u r d e r e r , Hope o f Women, a s h o r t , te n s e dram a I I ' w r i t t e n i n 1 9 0 7 , b e f o r e th e h ig h t i d e o f German E x p r e s s i o n - ; I ism had r i s e n , O ska r K okoschka a lr e a d y em bodied th e t e c h - ' n iq u e s o f German E x p r e s s io n is t d ram a. The c h a r a c t e r s a re ty p e s , th e scenes a re d is c o n n e c te d and sp eeches a re s p a s - i i ' Im o d ic . K o ko sch ka , a p a i n t e r , as w e l l as a d r a m a t is t , drew ; I a s h o c k in g p o s t e r to announce M u r d e r e r . Hope o f Women to : j ! I w h ic h he g a ve th e same t i t l e . The A m a z o n -lik e woman was i I d e p ic t e d c ru s h e d b e n e a th th e h e a v y f o o t o f th e W a r r i o r , s y m b o lic o f th e b a t t l e u n to d e a th b e tw ee n th e s e x e s . The i ih e r o in e L u lu , i n A lb a n B e r g 's o p e ra o f th e same name, a ls o ! i ; engages w it h h e r lo v e r s i n p s y c h o -s e x u a l s t r u g g l e f o r p o w e r. I B e s id e s F r e u d ia n p s y c h o lo g y , id e a s o f W andlung i n - | s p ir e d German E x p r e s s i o n i s t s . E n g e n d ered by th e h o r r o r s o f| Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 1 5 W o rld War I , W a n d lu n q , o r r e g e n e r a t i o n , was a theme w h ich to o k s e v e r a l fo rm s . O f th e s e , th e m o r a l - p o l i t i c a l ty p e , and th e v i s c e r a l - i r r a t i o n a l ty p e w e re p r o m in e n t. I n b o th cases th e a r t i s t o r h is c h a r a c t e r s s o u g h t t r a n s f o r m a t io n . The m o r a l - p o l i t i c a l means o f a c h ie v in g W andlunq w ere em- I I p lo y e d when th e a r t i s t s o u g h t to change th e p o l i t i c a l s t r u c - I t u r e f o r th e good o f man. The v i s c e r a l - i r r a t i o n a l means o f I a t t a i n i n g W andlunq w ere u sed when th e a r t i s t was d i s s a t i s - I I ; f i e d w it h h i s e x i s t e n t i a l s i t u a t i o n and d e s ir e d change a t i ! jany c o s t . B ecause o f th e n a t u r e o f man and s o c i e t y , a r - i I I t i s t s w ere a t tim e s d i s i l l u s i o n e d when e f f o r t s to a c h ie v e i W andlung f a i l e d . Two c o n c e p ts i n h e r e n t i n W andlung o f German E x p r è s - ! ;s io n is m fo u n d i n a r t , m u s ic , and l i t e r a t u r e , w ere d i s - i cu ssed i n t h i s c h a p t e r ; (1 ) s e a rc h f o r t r a n s f o r m a t io n , andj I 1(2) d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t . i I S e a rc h f o r t r a n s f o r m a t io n som etim es was o f a m y s t i- | I c a l and r e l i g i o u s n a t u r e . T h is was e s p e c i a l l y t r u e i n th e c a s e o f th e German E x p r e s s io n is t p a i n t e r E m il N o ld e . H is L a s t S u p p er i s an e xa m p le , f o r N o ld e d e p ic t e d C h r i s t w i t h a; I ' is e a r c h in g e x p r e s s io n i n d i c a t i v e o f h i s lo n g in g to redeem I m a n kin d . C h r i s t h im s e lf w o u ld be s a v e d and tr a n s fo r m e d in jh is r o l e o f R edeem er. I A r n o ld S c h o en b e rg , i n h i s a t o n a l monodrama jE rw a rtu n g m u s ic a lly c h a r a c t e r iz e d th e h e r o in e i n s e a rc h o f Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 1 6 h e r l o s t b e lo v e d . S e e k in g t r a n s f o r m a t io n th ro u g h u n io n w i t h h im , she u l t i m a t e l y f in d s him d e a d . U n a b le to consum m ate a u n io n , h e r t r a n s f o r m a t io n re m a in e d in c o m p le t e . The monodrama ends w i t h a n o te o f i r r e s o l u t i o n i n b o th t e x t and m u s ic . S e a rc h f o r t r a n s f o r m a t io n i s a ls o fo u n d i n G eo rg j K a i s e r ' s From M orn t o M i d n i g h t . The v i s c e r a l - i r r a t i o n a l s o r t o f W andlung i s s o u g h t by th e h e r o who f r a n t i c a l l y t r i e s t o e s c a p e th e boredom o f h i s l i f e i n one w i ld e s c a pade a f t e r a n o t h e r . H is W andlung i s f i n a l l y a c h ie v e d , : h o w e v e r, th ro u g h r e l i g i o u s e x p e r ie n c e . A n o th e r W andlung a s p e c t d is c u s s e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r I was d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t . D ie B rü c k e a r t i s t s w e re n e a r ly a l l I im bued w i t h id e a s o f r e g e n e r a t io n w h ic h w e re m o ra l- ; p o l i t i c a l i n n a t u r e . E r n s t Lu d w ig K i r c h n e r , fo u n d e r o f D ie B rü c k e s u f f e r e d tre m e n d o u s ly d u r in g th e w a r . H is S e l f - P o r t r a i t as a S o l d i e r was a com m entary on th e w eary d i s i l lu s io n m e n t he m e n t a ll y e n d u re d . K i r c h n e r saw no hope f o r jh im s e lf o r m an kin d and f i n a l l y ended h i s own l i f e . L i k e K i r c h n e r , A lb a n B e rg , t h e com poser, a ls o s u f - I I f e r e d i n th e w a r . I n h is a to n a l o p e r a W o z z e c k , B erg mu- j s i c a l l y d e p ic t e d a s o l d i e r by t h a t name, t o r t u r e d w i t h j d i s i l l u s i o n and d e s p a i r . A t th e m ercy o f o t h e r s who m is - j t r e a t , b e l i t t l e , and i n s u l t h im , W o zzeck m u rd e rs h is m is t r e s s and k i l l s h i m s e l f . The o p e ra ends w i t h h is Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 1 7 i l l e g i t i m a t e son h o p p in g a b o u t on h i s hobby h o rs e as though h o p p in g i n t o th e c lu t c h e s o f a c r u e l w o r ld . B e rg c h a r a c t e r i z e d W o z z e c k ' s d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t w i t h m u s ic a l means such as h a rs h d is s o n a n c e s , S p re c h s tim m e , and u n u s u a l o r c h e s t r a t i o n . E r n s t T o l l e r , a m o r a l - p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i s t i n s e a rc h o f a W a n d lu n g , espoused th e causes o f m i l i t a n t s o c ia lis m and p a c i f i c i s m . I n h i s p l a y . Masse M e n s ch , a p o r t r a y a l o f I c o n f l i c t b e tw ee n th e i n d i v i d u a l and th e m asses. T o l l e r con f r o n t e d s o c ie t y w it h th e m is e r a b le m a t e r i a l i s m o f th e masses I j and th e c o n c o m ita n t f r u s t r a t i o n o f th e h u m a n is t ic i n d i v i d - j u a l . The h e r o in e o f th e p l a y f a i l s i n h e r a tte m p t t o c o n - ; .v in c e th e masses o f th e e v i l s o f w ar and i s l e d away to ! e x e c u t io n . D i s i l l u s i o n e d w i t h th e r e a l i t i e s o f l i f e , one | : m ig h t say t h a t T o l l e r , l i k e h i s h e r o in e , was k i l l e d by lo s s | o f f a i t h i n h u m a n ity . I n r e a l i t y , he c o m m itte d s u i c i d e . The F r e u d ia n c o n c e p ts o f (1 ) e x p r e s s io n o f in w a rd f e e l i n g , and (2 ) s t r u g g le b etw e e n th e s e x e s , as w e l l as th e ,W andlung c o n c e p ts o f (1 ) s e a rc h f o r t r a n s f o r m a t io n and (2 ) d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t w ere d is c u s s e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r as b e lo n g in g [to th e f i g u r a t i v e v a r i e t y o f German E x p r e s s io n is m . I n th e j ' ! exam p les c i t e d abo ve, o b je c t s i n a r t , m u s ic , and la n g u a g e I w ere d i s t o r t e d , b u t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f fo rm was n o t t o t a l l y ] . r e j e c t e d . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER IV SELECTED CONCEPTS OF THE ABSTRACT STYLE IN GERMAN EXPRESSIONIST ART, MUSIC, AND LITERATURE SURVEYED AND CORRELATED i j O r i g in o f th e Term " A b s t r a c t E x p re s s io n is m " i j I n c u r r e n t u s a g e , th e te rm " A b s t r a c t E x p re s s io n is m " ! has been a p p lie d to th e s t y l e o f s e v e r a l U n it e d S t a t e s a r t i s t s s in c e 1 9 4 5 , J a c k so n P o llo c k and W ille m de K o o n in g I among t h e s e . T h e i r w ork i s more s p e c i f i c a l l y d e s c r ib e d as I" A c t io n P a i n t i n g . " T h is l a t t e r te rm was used by th e A m e ri can c r i t i c H a r o ld R o sen b erg i n th e a tte m p t to c l a r i f y th e f a c t t h a t , u n l i k e o t h e r A b s t r a c t E x p r e s s io n is t s , P o llo c k and de K o o n in g em ploy p h y s ic a l in v o lv e m e n t i n th e e x e c u tio n ! o f t h e i r a r t ( 4 6 : 1 4 3 ) . A c c o rd in g t o P e t e r S e lz i n German E x p r e s s io n is t P a i n t i n g . th e te rm " A b s t r a c t E x p re s s io n is m " was f i r s t used I . . . i n W a ld e n 's D e r S tu rm i n 1919 i n an a r t i c l e by O sw ald H e rz o g — h im s e lf an a b s t r a c t p a i n t e r — en t i t l e d "D e r a b s t r a k t e E x p re s s io n is m u s " ( D e r S tu r m , X [1 9 1 9 ] , 29) . H e rzo g c o n s id e r s t h i s fo rm as " f u l - i f i l l e d e x p re s s io n is m " and e q u a te s i t w it h l i f e i t - i s e l f . He s t a t e s t h a t a b s t r a c t e x p r e s s io n is m , o f ■ w h ic h he c o n s id e r s h im s e lf an e x p o n e n t, c r e a t e s ob j e c t s w h ic h a re n o t ta k e n fro m n a t u r e , b u t a re r e - i l a t e d t o n a t u r e th ro u g h t h e i r rh y th m . (6 5 :3 4 2 ) j I S e lz f u r t h e r p o in t s o u t t h a t i n 1 9 2 0 , W a s s ily K a n d in s k y was I I f i r s t d e s c r ib e d as an A b s t r a c t E x p r e s s io n is t by P a u l F . I 218 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 1 9 S c h m id t i n h is p r e f a c e to Hugo Z e h d e r 's monograph W a s s ily K a n d in s k y . The te rm was n o t a g a in s p e c i f i c a l l y used u n t i l 1929 i n a l e c t u r e g iv e n by A l f r e d H . B a r r a t W e lle s le y C o l le g e e n t i t l e d "K a n d in s k y and A b s t r a c t E x p re s s io n is m i n G e r m any." B a r r c o n tin u e d to r e f e r to K a n d in s k y 's s t y l e as " A b s t r a c t E x p re s s io n is m " i n c a ta lo g u e s p u b lis h e d by th e Museum o f M odern A r t i n New Y o r k . S e lz c o n c lu d e s t h a t " . . . i t i s p r o b a b ly fro m t h i s s o u rc e t h a t th e te rm g a in e d i t s w id e c u r r e n c y ." ( 6 5 : 3 4 2 ) M e a n in g o f th e Term " A b s t r a c t E x p re s s io n is m " The a d j e c t i v e " f i g u r a t i v e ," when used to d e s c r ib e ! German E x p r e s s io n is m , s h o u ld be a p p lie d s p e c i f i c a l l y t o th e I : a r t i s t s o f D ie B rü c k e o r th o s e a r t i s t s e s p o u s in g s i m i l a r )t e c h n iq u e s . T h e se a r t i s t s d i d n o t t o t a l l y r e j e c t r e p r e s e n t a t io n o f fo rm , b u t r a t h e r e m p h asize d th e d i s t o r t i o n o f I o b j e c t s . Umbro A p o llo n io u n r e s e r v e d ly d e s c r ib e s D e r B la u e : jR e i t e r a r t i s t s as " A b s t r a c t E x p r e s s io n is t s " who " . . . to o k I th e s te p beyond r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , s t r i p p i n g t h e i r w o rk o f ! I r e f e r e n c e to o b j e c t i v e r e a l i t y . . . and fo c u s e d on a s e a rc h Î ! I f o r s p i r i t u a l m e a n in g ." ( 8 8 : 3 1 1 ) I j The te rm " A b s t r a c t E x p re s s io n is m " i s n o t fo u n d in ! m usic h i s t o r i e s . T h is p o i n t has no e x t e n u a t in g e f f e c t on ; i ! I th e m e r i t o f t h i s d is c u s s io n f o r th e i n t e n t h e r e i s to c o r - j r e l a t e w orks i n a r t , m u s ic , and l i t e r a t u r e w h ic h a re Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 2 0 s t y l i s t i c a l l y a b s t r a c t . F o r th e p u rp o s e s o f t h i s s tu d y , th e te rm " a t o n a l- e x p r e s s io n is m " as used by M a c h lis to d e s c r ib e S c h o e n b e rg 's second p e r io d o f c o m p o s itio n , o r th e te rm " d o d e c a p h o n ic ," w h ic h d e s c r ib e s S c h o e n b e rg 's t w e lv e - to n e m ethod, a re c o n s id e r e d m u s ic a l e x p re s s io n s w h ich p a r a l l e l th e te rm " A b s t r a c t E x p re s s io n is m " as used in a r t , ! I and l i t e r a t u r e . i On th e o t h e r h an d , th e te rm " A b s t r a c t i o n i s t E x - i :p re s s io n is m " i s e x p l i c i t l y used by W a lt e r S o k e l, l i t e r a r y h i s t o r i a n ( 5 7 : 2 4 5 ) . He e x p la in s th e m eaning as f o llo w s : i The E x p r e s s i o n i s t a t t i t u d e to w a rd th e i n t e l l e c t i s n o t e n t i r e l y n e g a t iv e ; i t i s am biguous. Though th e E x p r e s s i o n i s t h a te s and r e b e ls a g a in s t h is i n t e l l e c t . . . he a ls o c o n s id e r s th e i n t e l l e c t as h is s t r e n g t h , th e o n ly s o u rc e o f h is c r e a t i v e n e s s . T h o u g h t, thoug h an a ilm e n t , is a ls o a r e f uge f o r th e a i l i n g ; i t i s th e a c t i v i t y t h a t t r a n s mutes d e f i c i e n c y i n t o c r e a t i v e n e s s , w eakness i n t o s t r e n g t h . . . . B u t beyon d p la y in g an ambiguous r o l e i n th e p o e t 's p e r s o n a l l i f e , th e i n t e l l e c t has a ls o an ambiguous r o l e i n s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l te rm s . On th e one h a n d , i n t e l l e c t s h a t t e r s th e i l l u s i o n s o f th e a v e ra g e man and r e v e a ls a u n i v e r s e w it h o u t p u rp o s e and r u l e d by a b s u r d it y ; on th e o t h e r h a n d , m ind tra n s c e n d s th e n i h i l i s m im p l i e d i n i t s own d is c o v e r ie s and c o n s t r u c t s a new u n iv e r s e o f e t e r n a l id e a s , p u re fo rm s , a b s t r a c t and u n c h a n g in g b e a u t y . "The a r t i f i c e o f e t e r n i t y , " as W .B. Y e a ts c a l l e d t h i s " u n n a t u r a l" w o r ld t h a t th e human mind e r e c t s as a c o n s o lin g r e f u g e above th e q u ic k s a n d s o f n a t u r a l e x is t e n c e , beckons th e E x p r e s s io n is t as e n t i c i n g l y as does th e r e t r o g r e s s iv e i d e a l o f u n c o n s c io u s a n im a l o r v e g e t a t i v e v i t a l i t y . T h is " a b s t r a c t io n is m ," as we m ig h t c a l l t h i s w o rs h ip o f th e a b s t r a c t i n t e l l e c t , i s n o t un r e l a t e d to " v i t a l i s t " c o n te m p t o f th e m ind; b o th te n d e n c ie s e x i s t i n th e same a u th o rs and even a t th e same tim e . A b s t r a c t io n is m and v i t a l i s m fo rm two a s p e c ts o f th e h y p e r c e r e b r a l p e r s o n a l i t y . ( 6 7 : 1 0 3 - 1 0 4 ) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 2 1 S o k e l a ls o makes r e f e r e n c e t o th e u s e o f th e te rm " a b s t r a c tio n is m " i n P e r S tu r m , o n ly h e r e w i t h s p e c i f i c r e f e r e n c e to l i t e r a t u r e . As lo n g as E x p r e s s io n is m r u l e d as a fa s h io n , t h i s wave o f e t h i c a l and u t o p i a n - p o l i t i c a l s e n t i m ent p a r t l y c o n c e a le d th e a b s t r a c t i o n i s t i n g r e d i e n t o f th e m ovem ent. T h e s o c i a l and m o ra l c la im s o f m ind o v ers h a d o w ed th e much more fu n d a m e n ta l and p e rm a n e n t a e s t h e t i c a p p l i c a t i o n o f i n t e l l e c t to th e c r e a t i o n o f w o rks o f a r t . O n ly th e p e r i o d i c a l P e r S tu rm and th e c i r c l e a s s o c ia t e d w i t h i t s e d i t o r H e r w a r th W a ld en c o n s c io u s ly p ro m o te d a p u re a b s t r a c t io n is m , f r e e o f e t h i c a l and p o l i t i c a l o r r e l i g i o u s e le m e n ts . The fo r m a l e x p e rim e n ts o f th e S turm p o e ts t r a n s f e r r e d th e e x tre m e c o n c e n t r a t io n o f W e d e k in d 's , S t e r n h e im 's , and K a i s e r ' s d ia lo g u e s t y l e to p o e t r y and d e v e lo p e d th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f l i n g u i s t i c con d e n s a tio n and a b s t r a c t i o n to s t a r t l i n g — and a t tim e s h i g h l y e f f e c t i v e — e x tr e m e s . By s t r i p p i n g la n g u a g e o f i t s s y n t a c t i c a l s t r u c t u r e and r e d u c in g i t to i t s e s s e n t i a l e le m e n ts — v e r b and noun— th e S tu rm E x p r e s s io n is t s e x p re s s e d th e "e s s e n c e " o f t h e i r a g e . T h ey c r e a t e d a s p a r e , t e l l i n g , and b r e a t h le s s medium shed o f th e v a lu e s o f G em ut, w arm th , and a tm o s p h e re , l i b e r a t e d fro m a l l c irc u m l o c u t i o n , d e s c r i p t i o n , and d i f f u s e n e s s , and shorn o f any e le m e n t, such as c o n ju n c t io n s o r i n f l e c t e d w ord e n d in g s , t h a t f a i l s t o s e rv e d i r e c t l y th e p u rp o s e o f e x p r e s s io n . ( 5 7 : 1 1 1 ) H i s t o r y o f P e r B la u e R e i t e r W a s s ily K a n d in s k y ( 1 8 6 6 - 1 9 4 4 ) , c o n s id e r e d by many a u t h o r i t i e s t o be th e f i r s t t r u e A b s t r a c t E x p r e s s i o n i s t , I c o fo u n d e d w it h F r a n z M a rc th e g ro u p known as P e r B la u e I R e i t e r . S in c e P e r B la u e R e i t e r r e p r e s e n t s th e b e g in n in g s i o f th e a b s t r a c t s t y l e i n German E x p r e s s io n is m , some b a c k g ro u n d in f o r m a t io n i s i n o r d e r . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 222 A lth o u g h b o rn i n Moscow, K a n d in s k y s p e n t much o f h is a r t i s t i c l i f e i n G erm any. I n 1 9 0 0 , he began h is s tu d i e s a t th e M u n ich Academy u n d e r F r a n z S tu c k h a v in g r e c o g n iz e d h is need f o r h e lp fro m th e fam ed d ra u g h ts m a n . The f o l l o w i n g y e a r K a n d in s k y fo u n d ed an a r t i s t s c lu b i n M u n ic h ! c a l l e d P h a la n x . The aim o f P h a la n x v/as to a s s i s t young a r - : t i s t s who m et th e u s u a l o b s ta c le s i n g e t t i n g t h e i r w orks e x h i b i t e d . D u r in g t h i s p e r io d , K a n d in s k y s t i l l le a n e d h e a v i l y on J u q e n d s t i l , th e "Y o u th S t y l e " r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f I th e German a r t i s t i c tr e n d o f th e 1 8 9 0 's w h ich e x is t e d I a lo n g w it h N a t u r a lis m and Im p r e s s io n is m . I n p a i n t i n g , :J u g e n d s t il was e x p re s s e d by a c u r s i v e , o r g a n ic , l i n e a r ■ q u a lit y and made im p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s " . . . b o th as an a n t i n a t u r a l i s t i c f a c t o r and as a p o t e n t i a l i n f l u e n c e on th e e a r l y B r ü c k e . " ( 4 9 : 2 7 ) By 1 9 0 4 , P h a la n x had h e ld te n e x - I h i b i t i o n s . I t was d u r in g t h i s p e r io d t h a t K a n d in s k y 'p a in t e d P e r B la u e R e i t e r (1 9 0 3 ) w h ic h l a t e r s e rv e d him and h i s a s s o c ia t e , F r a n z M a rc , as an i n s p i r a t i o n f o r th e name ' o f t h e i r new g ro u p . A d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h i s p a i n t i n g i s o f i n t e r e s t . The p a l e t t e i s q u i t e i m p r e s s i o n is t , b u t th e c h o ic e o f c o l o r s — th e b lu e r i d e r on a w h it e s t a l l i o n ' a g a in s t a l a r g e g re e n exp a n s e— i s c e r t a i n l y sym b o l i s t , as i s th e s u b je c t m a t t e r i t s e l f . The s t y l i z a t i o n o f t r e e s and w h it e c lo u d s and th e c o n s c io u s r e p e t i t i o n o f shape— such as th e movement o f th e c lo u d , r e p e a t in g th e movement o f th e r i d e r - - s h o w th e im p a c t o f th e s y m b o lis t s . The b ru s h s t r o k e , [ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 223 h o w e v e r, i s n o t c a r e f u l l y c a l c u l a t e d ; on th e con t r a r y , i t i s e x c e e d in g ly f r e e and s p o n ta n e o u s . (5 5 :1 8 1 ) I n 1 9 0 5 , K a n d in s k y e x h i b i t e d a t th e S a lo n d ' Automne I and In d e p e n d a n ts a t P a r i s , w here he had c o n t a c t w it h th e F a u v e s . I n th e w i n t e r o f 1 9 0 5 - 0 7 , D ie B rü c k e a r t i s t s o f D re sd en i n v i t e d K a n d in s k y to p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e i r second e x h i b i t i o n . A f t e r s p e n d in g some tim e a t M urnau i n 1 9 0 8 , : K a n d in s k y 's w o rk began to show . . . a c l e a r , a lm o s t c o n s c io u s p r o g r e s s io n to w a rd a b s t r a c t i o n , w it h c o lo r a c t in g as th e e x p r e s s iv e I and e v o c a t iv e e le m e n t. He even began g i v in g h is p a i n t i n g s " a b s t r a c t " t i t l e s . . . . The f i r s t o f th e s e i n t e r e s t i n g l y enough b o rro w s fro m th e re a lm o f m usic: The W h ite Sound ( 1 9 0 8 ) . The r e l a t i o n s h ip o f v i s i o n and sound— c o lo r and m usic— was to ■ occupy him f o r th e r e s t o f h i s l i f e . (5 5 :1 8 3 ) I n 1 9 0 9 , K a n d in s k y , a lo n g w it h o th e r a r t i s t s d i s s a t i s f i e d w it h th e p o l i c i e s o f th e M unich S e c e s s io n , form ed th e New A r t i s t s ' A s s o c ia t io n o f M u n ic h . These a r t i s t s i n c lu d e d J a w le n s k y , K u b in , and M u n te r among o t h e r s . They I w e re denounced by M unich c r i t i c s as S la v s and L a t i n s ho s t i l e to German a r t . The abuse heaped on them was even I g r e a t e r when th e F re n c h F au ve s and C u b is ts w ere p e r m it t e d to e x h i b i t w it h them . From 1909 to 1 9 1 0 , K a n d in s k y p a in t e d s e v e r a l w orks ih a v in g as s u b je c t a man on h o rs e b a c k , each becom ing p r o - j g r e s s i v e l y more s u g g e s tiv e and a b s t r a c t . I C o m p o s itio n N o. 2 . . . was p a in t e d e a r l y in 1 9 1 0 . The horsem an r i d e s a g a in w i t h g r e a t speed th ro u g h th e la n d s c a p e , b u t t h e r e seems to be le s s Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 2 4 f e e l i n g o f t h r e a t and a n x ie t y th a n i n Im p r o v is a t io n _3 [1 9 0 8 ] . O b je c t iv e c o n t e n t i s f u r t h e r re d u c e d . The p a i n t i n g i s g a y , b e ca u s e o f a b r i l l i a n t a r r a y o f b r i g h t c o lo r s t h a t w h i r l t o g e t h e r i n a c h a o t ic rh y th m . The r i d e r h im s e lf has become le s s im p o r t a n t . The t o t a l rh y th m i s e s s e n t i a l ; t h i s i s c r e a te d by th e c o l o r s , by th e am biguous shapes t h a t a re s t i l l c o n n e c te d w i t h th e w o r ld o f a p p e a ra n c e s . T h e re a re h u m a n lik e fo rm s i n a l l s o r t s o f a t t i t u d e s — l y i n g down, s ta n d in g i n r a n k s , communing w i t h one an o t h e r , a p l a y i n g c h i l d — b u t e v e r y t h in g i s am biva l e n t , f u l l o f a v a r i e t y o f p o s s i b i l i t i e s . Shadows and s u b s ta n c e become i n t e r c h a n g e a b le . The r e l a t i o n s h ip o f c o lo r s and form s i s one o f enormous a c t i v i t y — t h e r e i s h a r d ly a p la c e w h e re th e eye can r e s t . I K a n d in s k y 's p a i n t i n g s , d is c a r d in g n a t u r a l ob- I j e c t s , w ere soon to c o n s is t o f v i o l e n t l y w h i r l i n g j \ c o lo r m ovem ents. He was to do w i t h o u t " n a t u r a l i fo r m s ," w h ic h "make b o u n d a rie s w h ic h o f t e n a re im p e d im e n ts to t h i s e x p r e s s io n ." B u t th e tim e f o r j I t h i s f i n a l s te p had n o t y e t a r r i v e d . ( 6 5 : 1 9 5 ) The second e x h i b i t i o n o f th e New A r t i s t s ' A s s o c ia i t ! on o f M u n ich h e ld d u r in g th e f a l l o f 1 9 1 0 , r e c e iv e d ex tr e m e ly d e r o g a t o r y r e v ie w s . A few s u p p o r te r s came to th e 1 d e fe n s e o f th e g ro u p , m ost n o t a b ly F r a n z M arc who w ould 1 I soon c o fo u n d P e r B la u e R e i t e r w i t h K a n d in s k y . The A s s o c i a - ' i I t i o n was a ls o f r a c t u r e d fro m w i t h i n . D is s e n t io n e x i s t e d ; b etw een th o s e who fa v o r e d more c o n s e r v a t iv e p o l i c i e s and : th o s e who, l i k e K a n d in s k y , b e l ie v e d i n t o t a l freed o m o f . I e x p r e s s io n . I D u r in g 1 9 1 1 , K a n d in s k y and M arc had a lr e a d y been j e d i t i n g an a lm a n a c w h ich w o u ld i l l u s t r a t e t h e i r com m itm ent ! to n o n -c o n v e n tio n a l a r t , w h e th e r o f th e p a s t o r th e p r e s e n t . When K a n d in s k y , M a rc , M u n te r , and K u b in l e f t th e New A r t i s t s ' A s s o c ia t io n i n Decem ber o f 1 9 1 1 , M arc w ro te : Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 2 5 The d ic e h a v e been c a s t . K a n d in s k y and I . . . h ave l e f t th e A s s o c ia t io n . . . . Now we h a ve to f i g h t f u r t h e r I The e d i t o r s h i p o f P e r B la u e R e i t e r w i l l now be th e s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r new e x h i b i t i o n s . I t h i n k i t i s w e l l t h i s w ay. We w i l l see k to be th e c e n t e r o f th e new m ovem ent. (5 5 : 1 9 8 ) F r a n z M arc was c h i e f l y r e s p o n s ib le f o r th e o p e n in g o f th e f i r s t e x h i b i t i o n o f P e r B la u e R e i t e r on Pecem ber 1 8 . I 11911 aL th e T h a n n h a u s e r G a l l e r y w h e re th e New A r t i s t s ' A s- i s o c i a t i o n was a ls o s h o w in g . I t was c a l l e d th e " F i r s t E x - i h i b i t i o n o f th e E d i t o r i a l B o a rd o f th e B lu e R i d e r . " Kan d in s k y 's p a i n t i n g s , P e r B la u e R e i t e r ( 1 9 0 3 ) , Im p r o v is a - j t i o n 3 ( 1 9 0 9 ) , C o m p o s itio n N o . 2 ( 1 9 1 0 ) , a l l h a v in g as s u b - i ; j e c t r i d e r s o f h o r s e s , some more and some le s s a b s t r a c t i n ■ tr e a tm e n t, became th e i n s p i r a t i o n f o r th e name o f th e new g ro u p . The name B lu e R id e r p re s u m a b ly d e r iv e d fro m th e t i t l e o f one o f K a n d in s k y 's p i c t u r e s . . . , th e j id e a o f an E d i t o r i a l B o a rd from th e y e a rb o o k on ‘ ■ w h ic h K a n d in s k y and M arc had been w o rk in g t h a t y e a r . I K la u s L a n k h e it , Z u r G e s c h ic h te des B la u e n R e i t e r s , ; 'C ic e r o n e ' 1 9 4 9 , H e f t 3, q u o te s K a n d in s k y i n a 1930 j s ta te m e n t: " . . . w e b o th lo v e d b lu e , M a rc — h o r s e s , — r i d e r s . Thus th e name a ro s e by i t - | I s e l f . . . ." ( 4 9 : 3 1 7 ) I The f i r s t e x h i b i t i o n o f P e r B la u e R e i t e r l a s t e d ' j i u n t i l J a n u a ry o f 1 9 1 2 . S t r i c t l y s p e a k in g . P e r B la u e R e i t e r : I was n e i t h e r a s ch o o l n o r a m ovem ent. U n l i k e P i e B rü c k e | p a i n t e r s who l i v e d t o g e t h e r , w o rked t o g e t h e r , and e x h i b i t e d 1 a s i m i l a r s t y l e , e s p e c i a l l y i n th e w oodcut m e d ia . P e r B l a u e i R e i t e r p a i n t e r s espoused v a r i e t y o f e x p r e s s io n . The t i t l e j page o f t h e i r f i r s t e x h i b i t i o n c a t a lo g u e c a r r i e d th e ■ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 226 f o l l o w i n g s ta te m e n t: We do n o t s e e k t o p r o p a g a n d iz e a s i n g l e p r e c i s e and s p e c i a l fo rm i n t h i s s m a ll e x h i b i t i o n , b u t we aim to show i n th e v a r i e t y o f r e p r e s e n t e d form s how th e a r t i s t ' s i n n e r d e s i r e r e s u l t s i n m a n if o ld fo r m s . ( 6 5 : 2 0 5 ) In c lu d e d i n t h i s f i r s t B la u e R e i t e r e x h i b i t i o n w ere t h r e e o f K a n d in s k y 's e a r l y n o n - o b j e c t i v e p a i n t i n g s , Com- I p o s i t i o n N o . 5 , I m p r o v is a t io n N o . 2 2 . and Im p r e s s io n : Mos- {cow, a l l 1 9 1 1 . F r a n z M arc c o n t r i b u t e d f o u r p a i n t i n g s i n - ; e lu d in g h i s fam ous Y e llo w Cow i n 1 9 1 1 . A r n o ld S ch o en b erg Î ja ls o showed t h r e e p a i n t i n g s , one S e l f - P o r t r a i t and two e n - | t i t l e d V i s i o n s , p a in t e d b e tw ee n 1907 and 1910 ( 4 2 : 5 0 ) . ! O th e r p a i n t e r s r e p r e s e n t e d w e re M acke, B lo c h , C ap - ;en d o n k, D e la u n a y , M u n t e r , H e n r i R o u s s e a u , th e two B u r l i n k s , : and N i e s t i e . i I W h ile t h e f i r s t e x h i b i t i o n moved fro m th e T h a n n - | {h a u s e r G a l l e r y t o B e r l i n , th e second B la u e R e i t e r e x h i b i - I t i o n opened a t th e Hans G o lt z G a l l e r y i n M u n ic h s t a r t i n g | F e b r u a r y 1 2 , 1 9 1 2 . K a n d in s k y , M a rc , M a c ke , and M u n te r ! p r o v id e d new w o r k s . I n a d d i t i o n , N o l d e , K le e , K ir c h n e r , P e c h s t e in w ere r e p r e s e n t e d . A ls o i n v i t e d to e x h i b i t w ere iC u b is ts o f F r a n c e , B ra q u e and P ic a s s o , and R a y o n is ts and jS u p r e m a tis ts o f R u s s ia , L a r i o n a f f and M a le v ic h . P e r I M oderne Bund o f S w it z e r l a n d a ls o show ed. I I I I ! The names o f th e s e v a r io u s a r t i s t s a r e o f I g r e a t s i g n i f i c a n c e to us to d a y , and in d e e d th e y j i w e re r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f th e m ost im p o r t a n t m ove- i I m ents o f th e p e r i o d . Th e v e r y f a c t t h a t th e y Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 227 b e lo n g e d t o such d iv e r s e m ovem ents, h o w e v e r, demon s t r a t e d a c e r t a i n e c l e c t i c i s m r a t h e r th a n any c o l l e c t i v e i n t e n t i o n . I t was n o t so much a q u e s t io n o f d e f i n i n g a p ro g ram as o f b r in g in g t o g e t h e r ex p e r im e n t a l w o rk o f a c e r t a i n q u a l i t y . The B la u e R e i t e r can i n no way be c o n s id e r e d as a movement; i t was r a t h e r a c li m a t e o f th o u g h t, a s e a rc h f o r a common s p i r i t u a l d e n o m in a to r. ( 4 2 : 5 1 ) The f i r s t two B la u e R e i t e r e x h i b i t i o n s and th e f o l - I lo w in g ones w e re w id e ly p u b l i c i z e d by th e a v a n t- g a r d e B e r - I l i n new sp ap er P e r S tu rm p u b lis h e d by H e rw o rth W a ld e n . I t s h o u ld be r e c a l l e d t h a t P e r S tu rm d id n o t c o in e i t h e r th e I I te rm " E x p r e s s io n is t " o r " E x p re s s io n is m ," b u t i t d id popu l a r i z e th e te r m s . I t was th ro u g h W a ld e n 's e f f o r t s , who d e - Ic id e d to a r ra n g e a P e r S tu rm e x h i b i t i o n i n M arch o f 1912 to c e l e b r a t e th e o n e -h u n d re d th is s u e o f h i s p a p e r , t h a t A b- : s t r a c t E x p re s s io n is m i n th e w orks o f P e r B la u e R e i t e r was j p r o m u lg a te d . T h is was b e ca u s e W alden in c lu d e d a l a r g e s e c -; t i o n o f th e f i r s t B la u e R e i t e r e x h i b i t i o n i n th e f i r s t P e r ! S tu rm show and w id e ly a d v e r t is e d i t ( 6 5 : 2 5 7 ) . P e r B la u e R e i t e r A lm anac I I K a n d in s k y and M arc had begun t o c o l l e c t and e d i t m a t e r i a l s f o r an alm anac d u r in g 1 9 1 1 . P e r t i n e n t to t h i s s tu d y i s th e f a c t t h a t K a n d in s k y had a f i r m b e l i e f i n th e " . . . s y n t h e t ic r e l a t i o n s h i p o f a r t . . . " and he w is h e d t o have m u s ic ia n s p a r t i c i p a t e as a u th o rs as w e l l as p a i n t e r s . M o re o v e r, he w a n ted to c lo s e th e a r t i f i c i a l gaps Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 228 b etw e e n a r t and e th n o lo g y ( 5 5 : 2 1 9 ) . R . P ip e r p u b lis h e d P e r B la u e R e i t e r Alm anac a t M unich i n M ay, 1 9 1 2 . I t c o n ta in e d a r t i c l e s n o t o n ly on c o n te m p o ra ry a r t and i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f th e same, b u t a ls o a r t i c l e s and exam ples o f c o n te m p o ra ry m u sic and dram a. P ro g ra m m a tic essays w ere in te r w o v e n w i t h th e i l l u s t r a t i o n s . I n th e t h r e e i n t r o d u c t o r y a r t i c l e s F r a n z M arc d is c u s s e d th e p ro b lem s and ta s k s fa c in g th e modern a r t i s t and spoke o f th e e s s e n t i a l q u a l i t i e s o f th e new a r t . The m ost s i g n i f i c a n t a r t i c l e i n th e book was an ess ay by K a n d in s k y on th e p ro b lem o f fo rm , " iib e r d i e F o r m fr a g e ." K a n d in s k y a ls o in c lu d e d h i s e ss a y on s ta g e com p o s i t i o n , "TJber B u h n e n k o m p o s itio n . " H e re he to o k is s u e w it h th e " e x t e r n a l e f f e c t s " o f th e t r a d i t i o n a l s ta g e i n d ram a, o p e ra , and b a l l e t , and p ro p o s e d a new s ta g e d i r e c t e d to w a rd th e e v o c a tio n o f m an's in n e rm o s t s o u l v i b r a t i o n s th ro u g h new c o m b in a tio n s o f m u s ic , d a n c e , and c o l o r . H is own c o m p o s itio n , " P e r G e lb e K la n g ," m aking u se o f s y n e t h e s ia and d i r e c t e d to w a rd th e " t o t a l s ta g e " o f th e f u t u r e , was a ls o in c lu d e d i n th e v o lu m e . . . . I n t e r s p e r s e d th ro u g h o u t th e volum e w ere fo u r a r t i c l e s on modern m u s ic . A r n o ld S c h b n b e rg , a ls o r e p r e s e n t e d by two d ra w in g s , c o n t r ib u t e d an a r t i c l e on th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f c o m p o s itio n and t e x t in m u s ic , "Pas V e r b a l t n i s zum T e x t , " i n w h ic h he s a id t h a t m usic was a b s t r a c t and m ust be e n t i r e l y f r e e o f t e x t u a l m a t t e r o r l i t e r a r y a l l u s i o n s . Thomas von H a rtm a n n made th e same c la im f o r m u sic t h a t K a n d in sky d i d f o r p a i n t i n g by s t a t i n g i n "U ber d i e A n a r c h ie i n d e r M u s ik " t h a t " a l l i s p e r m it t e d " and t h a t th e com poser m ust n o t be ham pered by q u e s tio n s o f fo rm . N . K u l b i n 's essay " P ie f r e i e M u s ik" to o k a s i m i l a r s t a n d . I n th e same fra m ew o rk S b a n je r a n a ly z e d S c r i a b i n ' s " P ro m e th e u s ." An a p p e n d ix con t a i n e d t h r e e l i e d e r by A r n o ld S c h b n b e rg , A lb a n B e rg , and A n to n von W ebern. ( 6 5 : 2 2 0 -2 2 1 ) K a n d in s k y 's P e r G e lb e K la n g i s u s ed i n t h i s s tu d y as th e l i t e r a r y exam ple o f s y m b o lic use o f c o l o r . Thomas von Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 229 H a rtm a n n , m e n tio n e d above composed th e m usic f o r D e r G e lb e K la n g . S c h o e n b e rg 's a r t i c l e "Das V e r h a l t n i s zum T e x t , " w h ich f i r s t a p p ea re d i n D e r B la u e R e i t e r Alm anac o f 1 9 1 2 , was l a t e r in c o r p o r a t e d by him as th e f i r s t essay i n h is book o f 1 9 5 0 , S t y l e and I d e a . The E n g lis h t r a n s l a t i o n i s ! S c h o e n b e rg 's own. I The Alm anac had im m e d ia te and f a r r e a c h in g i n f l u - i e n c e . The f i r s t e d i t i o n was soon d e p le t e d and P ip e r p u b - I I l i s h e d a second e d i t i o n i n 1 9 1 4 . T h u s, y o u t h f u l p a i n t e r s i and com posers w ere s u c c e s s fu l i n d is s e m in a t in g t h e i r E x - | j 1 i p r e s s i o n is t id e a s , w h e th e r f i g u r a t i v e o r , as i n m ost c a s e s , ; i ! a b s t r a c t , th ro u g h D e r B la u e R e i t e r A lm a n a c . C o n c e p ts o f German A b s t r a c t E x p re s s io n is m i n A r t , M u s ic , and L i t e r a t u r e D is c u s s e d and C o r r e l a t e d i The f o l l o w i n g c o n c e p ts o f German A b s t r a c t E x p re s s io n is m i n a r t , m u s ic , and l i t e r a t u r e a re d is c u s s e d and c o r r e l a t e d : (1 ) s y m b o lic use o f c o l o r , and (2 ) s u p r a - o b j e c t iv i s m . T h e se c o n c e p ts w e re d is c o v e r e d i n l i t e r a t u r e c o n c e rn in g th e a b s t r a c t s t y l e i n th e v i s u a l a r t s . E xam ples f o l l o w th e d is c u s s io n o f each c o n c e p t. : S y m b o lic use o f c o l o r . W a s s ily K a n d in s k y 's c o n n e c - it io n w it h A b s t r a c t E x p re s s io n is m has a lr e a d y been e s t a b - il is h e d . H is w orks e x h i b i t b o th th e c o n c e p ts o f n o n - jo b je c t iv is m and s y m b o lic u se o f c o l o r , p e rh a p s to a d e g re e Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 3 0 u n a t t a i n a b l e by any o t h e r a r t i s t o f h i s t im e . P r e f e r e n c e i s g iv e n h e re to th e d is c u s s io n o f s y m b o lic use o f c o l o r as a c o n c e p t fo u n d i n K a n d in s k y 's a e s t h e t ic s and w r i t i n g s , as w e l l as i n h is p a i n t i n g s . The p r o f u n d it y w i t h w h ic h he t r e a t e d t h i s s u b je c t i s u n e q u a lle d by any o t h e r p a i n t e r . K a n d in s k y 's m ost im p o r t a n t p ie c e o f e x p o s it o r y { w r it in g was C o n c e rn in g th e S p i r i t u a l i n A r t , w r i t t e n i n 1910 b u t n o t p u b lis h e d u n t i l 1 9 1 2 . I n t h i s t r e a t i s e , as w e l l as i n h i s A u to b io g ra p h y p u b lis h e d i n Moscow i n 1 9 1 8 , K a n d in s k y expounds h i s t h e o r i e s o f c o l o r . K a n d in s k y 's c h ild h o o d im p re s s io n s a b o u t c o l o r a re o f i n t e r e s t . The f i r s t c o lo r s w h ich e v e r im p re s s e d me w e r e - - a l i g h t j u i c y - g r e e n , w h i t e , b la c k , c a r m in e -r e d and y e llo w o c h r e . T h ese im p re s s io n s f i r s t began i n th e t h i r d y e a r o f my l i f e , and I w ould see them on many d i f f e r e n t o b je c t s t h a t s to o d o r p a ss e d b e f o r e my e y e s , b u t n e v e r w i t h th e v iv id n e s s o f th e c o lo r s th e m s e lv e s . Som etim es someone w o u ld c u t and s t r i p s le n d e r s p i r a l s o f b a r k o f f a t h i n b r a n c h — f i r s t th e o u te r l a y e r , th e n th e s eco n d , d e e p e r o n e . These s t r i p s w o u ld become t o me as l i t t l e h o rs e s o f t h r e e c o lo r s : a s t r i p o f brown (w h ic h I d i s l i k e d and w o u ld h ave g l a d l y exchanged f o r a n o th e r c o l o r ) , a s t r i p o f te n d e r g re e n — my f a v o u r i t e , and w h ic h , even fa d e d , ! r e t a i n e d much o f i t s e n c h a n tm e n t--a n d , f i n a l l y , a w h it e o n e , w h ic h was th e n a k e d , i v o r y - l i k e c o re o f th e tw ig i t s e l f . When f r e s h , t h i s l a s t was s t r o n g l y f r a g r a n t , so t h a t you w a n te d to l i c k i t , o n ly to ! f i n d i t v e r y , v e r y b i t t e r . (5 5 : 4 9 ) I t has b een n o te d t h a t one o f K a n d in s k y 's e a r l i e s t n o n - o b je c t iv e p a i n t i n g s was Im p re s s io n : Moscow ( 1 9 1 1 ) , ex h i b i t e d a t th e f i r s t B la u e R e i t e r s h o w in g . S y m b o lic use o f {c o lo r i n th e 1911 w ork was a lr e a d y u n d e rs to o d by K a n d in s k y Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. I 2 3 1 i n 1902 when he p a in t e d A n c ie n t Tow n. K a n d in s k y a ls o i n d i c a t e d p a r a l l e l s b e tw e e n m usic and c o l o r . W hat I was r e a l l y t r y i n g to s e i z e i n t h i s p i c t u r e was th e w e ll-re m e m b e re d h o u r t h a t i s , and a l ways w i l l b e , th e m ost s p le n d id and s u b lim e o f th e w h o le Moscow d a y . I t comes when th e sun i s a lr e a d y lo w and has r e a c h e d , th ro u g h th e s t r i v i n g and e x p e c ta n c y o f a w h o le d a y , th e apex o f i t s p o w e r. T h is moment i s b u t s h o r t - l i v e d — a few m in u te s l a t e r th e s u n s h in e becomes r e d d is h i n to n e , as i f f lu s h e d a f t e r so g r e a t an e x e r t i o n . R e d d e r and e v e r r e d d e r i t g ro w s , a t f i r s t w i t h a c o ld l u s t r e , th e n w a rm e r- to n e d and d a r k e n in g . I t fu s e s a l l Moscow i n t o one s o l i d p i e c e , re s o u n d in g to a s i n g l e m ig h ty n o te t h a t shakes y o u r v e r y s o u l w i t h i t s p o w e r. B u t th e b e a u ty o f t h a t h o u r l i e s n o t i n t h e a l l - e m b ra c in g b u r s t o f s c a r l e t a lo n e . T h is i s b u t th e f i n a l c h o rd o f a symphony w h ic h c a r r i e s to i t s u t m ost p i t c h t h e e s s e n c e o f each to n e and to w h ic h a l l Moscow re sp o n d s l i k e th e ' f o r t i s s i m o ' o f a g i g a n t i c o r c h e s t r a . H ouses— r o s e , l i l a c , w h i t e , a z u r e , b l u e , f l a m e - r e d , p is t a c h io - h u e d ; c h u rc h e s — each a l i v e l i k e a s e p a r a t e b r i g h t song; th e g re e n madness o f th e g r a s s , th e murmurous humming o f t r e e s ; and, i n w i n t e r , th e th o u s a n d -v o ic e d song o f th e snow; th e b r i s k a l l e g r e t t o o f b a r e b ra n c h e s ; th e h a r d - r e d , u n s h a k a b le and s i l e n t r i n g o f th e K r e m lin W a lls ; and o v e r a l l , s o a r in g l i k e a t r i um phant and u n e a r t h l y h a l l e l u j a h , th e s le n d e r - w h i t e , g r a c e f u l l y - d e v o u t and s e r io u s b e l l - t o w e r o f Iv a n t h e G r e a t . And c ro w n in g th e lo n g w h it e n e c k , s t r e t c h e d h e a v e n -w a rd s as i f i n e t e r n a l y e a r n in g , th e r e s p le n d e n t g o ld e n h ead — th e v e r y sun o f Mos cow— a m id s t th e c ro w d in g s t a r s , m u lt i- h u e d , g o ld and s i l v e r . To p a i n t t h i s s cen e a p p e a re d t o me i n my y o u th as th e h i g h e s t and m ost u n a c h ie v a b le h a p p in e s s f o r an a r t i s t . ( 5 5 : 5 1 ) T h u s , K a n d in s k y was a lr e a d y b e g in n in g to c h a r a c t e r i z e c o l o r s . A t t h i s p a r t i c u l a r p o i n t i n h i s d e v e lo p m e n t, t h i s c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n , o r s y m b o liz a t io n was i n m u s ic a l te r m s . F u r t h e r on i n t h e A u t o b io g r a p h y , K a n d in s k y a d m its t h a t he knew a g r e a t d e a l o f f r u s t r a t i o n d u r in g h i s s t u d e n t days Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 3 2 as he t r i e d to re p ro d u c e on canvas w h a t he c a l l e d th e " C h o ir o f C o lo r s " as he fo u n d i t i n n a t u r e . " I t r i e d d e s p e r a t e l y to c a p tu r e i t s i n n e r n o t e , th e v e r y essence o f i t — b u t a l l i n v a i n . " ( 5 5 : 5 2 ) I t was d u r in g a p e rfo rm a n c e o f R ic h a r d W a g n e r's L o h e n g rin d u r in g 18 9 5 t h a t K a n d in s k y f e l t th e deep p a r a l l e l i s m b etw een th e a r t i s t s ' p a l e t t e and th e m u s ic ia n s ' o r c h e s t r a m ost k e e n ly . ! I t was i n " L o h e n g rin " t h a t I f e l t th e supreme in c a r n a t i o n and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h i s v is i o n I th ro u g h m u s ic . The v i o l i n s , deep b a s s e s and, I m ost o f a l l , th e w in d in s t r u m e n t s , c r e a t e d f o r me th e f u l l im age and pow er o f th e e v e n in g h o u r . I I c o u ld see a l l my c o l o r s , as th e y came to l i f e b e f o r e my e y e s . M a d ly , i n r a g in g p r o f u s io n , th e y drew th e m s e lv e s i n my m in d . I d i d n o t d a re ; a d m it to m y s e lf t h a t W agner has m u s ic a lly drawn I "my h o u r ." B u t i t became t o t a l l y c l e a r to me I t h a t a r t i n g e n e r a l p o s s e s s e d a f a r g r e a t e r power th a n I e v e r had im a g in e d . I a ls o r e a l i z e d t h a t p a i n t i n g p o s se sse s th e same pow er i n m u s ic . (5 5 : 5 4 ) ' W h ile e x p r e s s in g h im s e lf c o n c e r n in g c o lo r s K an - jd in s k y a ls o u n fo ld e d h is g r a d u a l ap p ro ac h to non- ! o b j e c t i v i t y . I t was n o t u n t i l a b o u t 1 9 1 4 t h a t K a n d in s k y I f e l t h im s e lf t o t a l l y r e le a s e d fro m th e o b j e c t , a lth o u g h i h i s a tte m p ts a t n o n - o b j e c t i v i t y began i n 1 9 1 0 . K a n d in s k y does n o t p i n p o i n t th e d a te o f th e f o l l o w i n g r e v e l a t i o n : U s in g th e te n d e n c y o f a p a in t e d o b j e c t to lo s e much o f i t s fo rm and i d e n t i t y to th e g e n e r a l com p o s i t i o n o f a p i c t u r e , I g r a d u a l l y a c q u ir e d th e g i f t o f no lo n g e r n o t i c i n g th e g iv e n s u b j e c t , o r , a t l e a s t , o f o v e r lo o k in g i t . Much l a t e r , i n M u n ic h , I was once d e e p ly e n c h a n te d by an u n e x p e c te d Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 3 3 s ig h t t h a t m et my eye on r e t u r n i n g to th e s t u d i o . T w i l i g h t was d ra w in g i n . I was r e t u r n i n g , im m ersed i n th o u g h t, fro m my s k e t c h in g , when, on o p e n in g th e s tu d io d o o r , I was s u d d e n ly c o n fr o n te d by a p i c t u r e o f i n d e s c r i b a b l e and in c a n d e s c e n t l o v e l i n e s s . Be w i ld e r e d I s to p p e d ; s t a r i n g a t i t . The p a i n t i n g la c k e d a l l s u b je c t , d e p ic t e d no i d e n t i f i a b l e o b j e c t and was e n t i r e l y composed o f b r i g h t c o l o r - p a t c h e s . F i n a l l y , I a p p ro ac h ed c lo s e r and, o n ly th e n , re c o g n iz e d i t f o r w h a t i t r e a l l y was— my own p a i n t i n g , s ta n d in g on i t s s id e on th e e a s e l. I My a t te m p ts , th e n e x t d a y , to evoke th e same I e f f e c t s by d a y l i g h t , w e re n o t w h o lly s u c c e s s f u l. Even w i t h th e p a i n t i n g a g a in on i t s s id e , I c o u ld s t i l l , e a s i l y d is c e r n th e v a r io u s o b je c t s d e p ic t e d ! i n i t . The s t i l l , l a c k - l u s t r e g lo s s o f t w i l i g h t ; was a ls o m is s in g . B u t one t h in g became v e r y c l e a r I t o me— t h a t o b je c t iv e n e s s , th e d e p i c t io n o f o b - I j e c t s , need no p la c e i n my p a i n t i n g s , and was in d e e d h a r m fu l to them . The in t e n s e g r a v i t y and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f such ! a d e c is io n r a is e d many im p o r t a n t q u e s t io n s . M o s t im p o r t a n t o f a l l — i f a l l o b j e c t i v i t y be d is c a r d e d ' w h at was t o t a k e i t s p la c e ? . . . I Many a tim e s in c e th e n , I h ave t r i e d to c lo s e my eyes to th e s e a l l - i m p o r t a n t q u e s t io n s , f o r i t has seemed to me t h a t th e y w ere p u s h in g me a lo n g a d a n g ero u s p a t h . And i t has o n ly been a f t e r many i y e a rs o f in t e n s e w o rk , and th ro u g h an e v e r c l e a r e r j s u c c e s s io n o f new, o f t e n u n c o n s c io u s o r s e m i- I c o n s c io u s , b u t alw ays m ore r e a l i z e d e m o tio n s , t h a t ! I h ave f i n a l l y a r r i v e d , th ro u g h a h e ig h te n e d f a c u l t y f o r in n e r e x p r e s s io n , to th e p u re and non o b j e c t i v e a r t i s t i c form s t h a t now g o v e rn my w o rk , and to w h ich I hope to g iv e an e v e r more p e r f e c t | ; s h ap e . ( 5 5 : 6 0 - 5 1 ) i I t m ust be rem em bered t h a t th e A u to b io g ra p h y was p u b lis h e d ! i n 1 9 1 8 . A c t u a l l y K a n d in s k y w o u ld re a c h th e z e n i t h o f non o b j e c t i v i t y d u r in g h is s ta y a t th e Bauhaus fro m 19 22 to 1 9 3 3 . I t i s i n C o n c e rn in g th e S p i r i t u a l i n A r t (1 9 1 0 ) t h a t K a n d in s k y expounded h i s c o lo r th e o r y i n th e g r e a t e s t | d e t a i l . I n p a r t two o f t h i s t r e a t i s e , K a n d in s k y n o te d t h a t ' Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 3 4 c o lo r s a re p o w e rfu l t o o ls i n th e hands o f th e a r t i s t . C o lo r has b o th a p s y c h o lo g ic a l and p h y s ic a l e f f e c t on th e v ie w e r and "K an d in sky spoke o f i t as th e k e y to u c h e d by th e a r t i s t to o b ta in th e a p p r o p r ia t e v i b r a t i o n fro m th e I s o u l ." (4 2 : 5 4 ) K a n d in s k y was k e e n ly aware t h a t o n e 's in w a rd s e n s i- I t i v i t y i s d e p en d e n t upon th e m a g n itu d e o f o n e 's c i r c l e o f Î e x p e r ie n c e . M o re o v e r, q u a l i t y o f e x p e r ie n c e i s im p o r t a n t , I f o r o n ly when e x p e rie n c e s a r e h i g h l y d e v e lo p e d do th e y ac q u ir e in n e r m ean in g . I t i s th e same w it h c o l o r , w h ich makes a momen t a r y and s u p e r f i c i a l im p r e s s io n on a s o u l whose s e n s i b i l i t y i s s l i g h t l y d e v e lo p e d . B u t even t h i s s im p le s t e f f e c t v a r i e s i n q u a l i t y . The eye i s s t r o n g ly a t t r a c t e d by l i g h t , c l e a r c o lo r s , and s t i l l more s t r o n g ly by c o lo r s t h a t a re warm as w e l l as c le a r ; v e r m i l i o n s t im u la t e s l i k e fla m e , w h ich has alw ays f a s c in a t e d human b e in g s . Keen le m o n -y e llo w h u r ts th e eye as does a p ro lo n g e d and s h r i l l b u g le n o te th e e a r , and one tu r n s away f o r r e l i e f to b lu e o r g r e e n . B u t to a more s e n s i t i v e s o u l th e e f f e c t o f c o lo r s i s d e e p e r and i n t e n s e l y m o vin g . And so we come to th e second r e s u l t o f lo o k in g a t c o lo r s : t h e i r p s y c h o lo g ic a l e f f e c t . They p ro d u c e a c o r re s p o n d e n t s p i r i t u a l v i b r a t i o n , and i t i s o n ly as a s te p to w a rd s t h i s s p i r i t u a l v i b r a t i o n t h a t th e p h y s ic a l im p re s s io n i s o f im p o r ta n c e . . . . F o r ex a m p le, r e d may cause a s e n s a tio n a n alo g o u s to t h a t caused by fla m e , b e ca u s e re d i s th e c o lo r o f fla m e . A warm r e d w i l l p ro v e e x c i t in g , a n o th e r shade o f r e d w i l l cause p a in o r d i s g u s t th ro u g h a s s o c ia t io n w it h r u n n in g b lo o d . I n th e s e cases c o lo r awakens a c o rre s p o n d in g p h y s i c a l s e n s a tio n , w h ich u n d o u b te d ly w orks p o ig n a n t ly upon th e s o u l. . . . C o lo r i s th e k e y b o a rd , th e eyes a re th e hammers, th e s o u l i s th e p ia n o w i t h many s t r i n g s Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 3 5 The a r t i s t i s th e hand t h a t p la y s , to u c h in g one k e y o r a n o th e r p u r p o s i v e l y , to c a u s e v i b r a t i o n s i n th e s o u l . I t i s e v id e n t t h e r e f o r e t h a t c o l o r harm ony m ust r e s t u l t i m a t e l y on p u r p o s iv e p l a y i n g upon th e hu^^n s o u l: t h i s i s one o f th e g u id in g p r i n c i p l e s o f i n t e r n a l n e c e s s i t y . ( 3 8 : 4 4 - 4 5 ) T h u s, a c c o rd in g to K a n d in s k y , i t i s th ro u g h s y m b o lic u se o f c o lo r s , h a rm o n io u s ly c o m b in ed , t h a t th e a r t i s t a c h ie v e s p s y c h o lo g ic a l c o n t a c t w i t h th e v ie w e r . A f t e r an in v o lv e d I e x p o s it io n o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f c o lo r to fo rm i n C o n c e rn - I I in g th e S p i r i t u a l i n A r t , K a n d in s k y t r e a t e d s p e c i f i c c o lo r s | and t h e i r s y m b o lic e f f e c t on th e human p s y c h e . I I f s t e a d i l y g a ze d a t i n any g e o m e t r ic a l fo rm , | y e llo w has a d i s t u r b i n g i n f l u e n c e ; i t p r i c k s , up s e ts p e o p le , and r e v e a ls i t s t r u e c h a r a c t e r , w h ic h | i s b ra s h and im p o r t u n a t e . The i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f y e llo w in c r e a s e s th e p a i n f u l s h r i l l n e s s o f i t s n o te , l i k e t h a t o f a s h r i l l b u g le . Y e llo w i s th e t y p i c a l e a r t h l y c o l o r . I t n e v e r a c q u ir e s much d e p th . When c o o le d by b l u e , i t as sumes, as I h a ve s a id b e f o r e , a s i c k l y to n e . I f we w e re to com pare i t w it h human s t a t e s o f m in d , ' i t m ig h t be s a i d to r e p r e s e n t n o t t h e d e p r e s s iv e , b u t th e m anic a s p e c t o f m adness. The madman a t ta c k s p e o p le and d is p e r s e s h i s f o r c e i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s , a im le s s ly , u n t i l i t i s c o m p le te ly g o n e . To use a n o th e r m e ta p h o r, we a re re m in d e d o f th e l a s t p r o d i g a l e x p a n s io n o f summer i n th e g l a r i n g autumn f o l i a g e , whose c a lm in g b lu e com ponent r i s e s t o t h e s k y . B lu e i s th e t y p i c a l h e a v e n ly c o l o r ; th e u l t i m a t e f e e l i n g i t c r e a t e s i s one o f r e s t . When i t s in k s a lm o s t to b l a c k , i t echoes a g r i e f t h a t i s h a r d ly human. I t becomes an i n f i n i t e en g ro ss m e n t i n solem n moods. As i t grow s l i g h t e r i t becomes more i n d i f f e r e n t and a f f e c t s us i n a re m o te and n e u t r a l fa s h io n , l i k e a h ig h , c e r u le a n s k y . The l i g h t e r i t g ro w s , th e more i t lo s e s re s o n a n c e , u n t i l i t re a c h e s c o m p le te q u ie s c e n c e , i n o t h e r w o rd s , w h i t e . I n mu s ic a l i g h t b lu e i s l i k e a f l u t e , a d a r k e r b lu e a Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 236 ' c e l l o ; a s t i l l d a r k e r t h e m a rv e lo u s d o u b le b a s s ; and t h e d a r k e s t o f a l l — an o r g a n . Y e llo w e a s i l y becomes a c u te and i s in c a p a b le o f g r e a t d e p th . C o n v e r s e ly , b lu e r e s i s t s p o i n t i n g up and h e ig h t e n in g . A w e l l - b a l a n c e d m ix t u r e o f b lu e and y e llo w p ro d u c e s g re e n ; th e h o r i z o n t a l movements c a n c e l each o t h e r , and so do movements fro m and to w a rd s th e c e n t e r . C alm e n s u e s . T h is i s a f a c t r e c o g n iz e d n o t o n ly b y o c u l i s t s , b u t by th e w o r ld . A b s o lu te g re e n i s t h e most r e s t f u l ' c o l o r , l a c k i n g any u n d e r to n e o f jo y , g r i e f o r p a s s io n . . . . i Any p re p o n d e ra n c e i n th e a b s o lu te g re e n o r y e l - I lo w o r b lu e in t r o d u c e s a c o r r e s p o n d in g a c t i v i t y and changes th e in n e r a p p e a l. The g re e n k ee p s i t s I c h a r a c t e r i s t i c e q u a n im ity and r e s t f u l n e s s , t h e f o r mer in c r e a s in g w i t h th e i n c l i n a t i o n to d e p th . I n m u s ic , a b s o lu te g re e n i s r e p r e s e n te d by th e p l a c i d , m id d le n o te s o f a v i o l i n . . . . W h it e , a lth o u g h o f t e n c o n s id e re d as no c o l o r ( a t h e o r y due l a r g e l y to th e i m p r e s s i o n is t s , who saw no w h it e i n n a t u r e ) , i s a sym bol o f a w o r ld fro m w h ic h a l l c o lo r s as m a t e r i a l a t t r i b u t e s h a v e d is a p p e a r e d . T h is w o r ld i s to o f a r above us f o r i t s s t r u c t u r e t o to u c h o u r s o u ls . T h e r e comes a g r e a t , a b s o lu te s i l e n c e , l i k e th e p auses i n m usic t h a t t e m p o r a r il y b r e a k th e m e lo d y . I t i s n o t a dead s i l e n c e , b u t one p r e g n a n t w ith p o s s i b i l i t i e s . W h ite has th e a p p e a l o f th e n o th in g n e s s t h a t i s b e f o r e b i r t h , o f th e w o r ld i n th e i c e a g e. On th e o t h e r h a n d , th e g r o u n d -n o te o f b la c k i s a s il e n c e w it h no p o s s i b i l i t i e s . I n m usic i t i s r e p r e s e n t e d by one o f th o s e p ro fo u n d and f i n a l p a u s e s , a f t e r w h ic h any c o n t in u a t io n o f th e m elod y seems th e dawn o f a n o th e r w o r ld : th e c i r c l e i s i c lo s e d . B la c k i s s o m e th in g b u r n t o u t , l i k e th e ashes o f a f u n e r a l p y r e , s o m e th in g m o tio n le s s l i k e a c o r p s e . The s i l e n c e o f b la c k i s th e s il e n c e o f d e a t h . ( 3 8 : 5 8 - 6 0 ) I F u r t h e r i n s i g h t i n t o K a n d in s k y 's th e o r y a b o u t b la c k i s r e iv e a le d i n an a n e c d o te fro m h is A u to b io g r a p h y . I t seems ! I t h a t as a c h i l d , u n d e r th e g u id a n c e o f h i s a u n t, K a n d in s k y I iwas busy p a i n t i n g a h o r s e . E v e r y t h in g was c o m p le te e x c e p t Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 3 7 f o r th e c o l o r in g o f th e h o o fs when h i s a u n t was c a l l e d away. She a d v is e d th e boy t o w a i t u n t i l she r e t u r n e d b e f o r e c o m p le tin g th e p a i n t i n g . K a n d in s k y r e c a l l s : , , . O b e d ie n t ly a t f i r s t , I s to o d g a z in g a t my u n c o m p le te d h o rs e and t r y i n g to keep my hands away fro m th e p a i n t - b o x . And y e t i t seemed so e a s y . T e m p ta tio n grew and g rew . . . And won. S n a tc h in g up a b r u s h , I lo a d e d i t g e n e r o u s ly w it h b la c k p a i n t . The n e x t i n s t a n t , my h o r s e 's f e e t s p o r te d h o r r i b l e d a r k b lo b s t h a t f i l l e d me w it h l o a t h i n g . L a t e r , I came t o u n d e rs ta n d th e im p r e s s i o n is t s ' f e a r o f b l a c k , and, even i n much l a t e r y e a r s , I alw a ys had to s t r u g g l e w i t h m y s e lf b e fo r e I v e n t u r e d to use a p u re b la c k on c a n v a s . A l l my l i f e , p u re b la c k and w h it e p a i n t s h ave aro u se d i n me s tr o n g and t o - | t a l l y o p p o s it e e m o tio n s . ( 5 5 : 5 5 - 5 5 ) I j Some r e f e r e n c e has a lr e a d y been made to K a n d in s k y 's sym b o lism fo u n d i n r e d . I n th e le n g t h y , b u t im p o r t a n t q u o t a t io n g iv e n b e lo w , he speaks o f r e d i n i t s p u r i t y and i n i t s m ix t u r e s . A g a in K a n d in s k y saw p a r a l l e l s b e tw ee n th e ! p a i n t e r ' s c o lo r s and o r c h e s t r a l c o l o r s . The v a r i e d pow ers o f re d a re v e r y s t r k i n g . By j a s k i l l f u l u se o f i t i n i t s d i f f e r e n t s h a d e s , i t s fu n d a m e n ta l to n e may be made warm o r c o o l. I L i g h t warm r e d has a c e r t a i n s i m i l a r i t y to m ed i um y e l l o w , a l i k e i n t e x t u r e and a p p e a l, and g iv e s a f e e l i n g o f s t r e n g t h , v i g o r , d e t e r m in a t io n , tr iu m p h . I n m u s ic , i t i s a sound o f tr u m p e ts , s tr o n g , h a rs h and r i n g i n g . V e r m i l i o n i s a r e d w it h a f e e l i n g o f s h a rp n e s s , l i k e f lo w in g s t e e l w h ic h can be c o o le d by w a t e r . I V e r m i l i o n i s quenched by b lu e , f o r i t can b e a r no m ix t u r e w i t h a c o ld c o l o r . . . . I . . . The g lo w o f r e d i s w i t h i n i t s e l f . F o r I t h i s re a s o n i t i s a c o lo r more b e lo v e d th a n y e l l o w , j b e in g f r e q u e n t l y u s ed i n p r i m i t i v e and t r a d i t i o n a l d e c o r a t io n and a ls o i n p e a s a n t c o stu m es , b e ca u s e i n th e open a i r th e harm ony o f r e d and g re e n i s v e r y c h a rm in g . . . . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 238 T h e re re m a in s b ro w n , u n e m o tio n a l, d i s c l i n e d to m ovem ent. An i n t e r m i x t u r e o f r e d i s o u tw a r d ly b a r e l y a u d i b le , b u t t h e r e does r i n g o u t a p o w e r fu l in n e r h arm o n y. S k i l f u l b le n d in g can p ro d u c e an i n n e r a p p e a l o f e x t r a o r d i n a r y , i n d e s c r i b a b l e b e a u t y . The v e r m i l i o n now r in g s l i k e a g r e a t tr u m p e t o r th u n d e rs l i k e a drum . [ T h e r e ] l i e s th e g r e a t d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n a deepened r e d and a deepened b lu e , b e ca u s e i n r e d t h e r e i s a lw a y s a t r a c e o f th e m a t e r i a l . C o r r e s p o n d in g i n m u sic a re th e p a s s io n a t e , m id d le to n e s ; o f a ' c e l l o . A c o o l, l i g h t r e d c o n ta in s a v e r y d i s t i n c t b o d i l y o r m a t e r i a l e le m e n t, b u t i t i s j a lw ays p u r e , l i k e th e f r e s h b e a u ty o f a young g i r l ' s f a c e . The s in g in g n o te s o f a v i o l i n e x a c t l y e x - ; p re s s t h i s i n m usic (T h e p u r e , jo y o u s , c o n s e c u tiv e ' sounds o f s l e i g h - b e l l s a re c a l l e d i n R u s s ia n " r a s p - j b e r r y j i n g l i n g . " The c o l o r o f r a s p b e r r y j u i c e i s I c lo s e t o th e a b o v e -m e n tio n e d l i g h t , c o o l r e d . ) , i Warm r e d , i n t e n s i f i e d by a k in d r e d y e l l o w , i s I o r a n g e . T h is b le n d b r in g s re d a lm o s t t o th e p o i n t ; o f s p re a d in g o u t to w a rd s t h e s p e c t a t o r . B u t th e e le m e n t o f r e d i s a lw ay s s u f f i c i e n t l y s tr o n g to keep th e c o lo r fro m f l i p p a n c y . O range i s l i k e a man con v in c e d o f h is own p o w e rs . I t s n o te i s t h a t o f a c h u r c h - b e l l ( t h e A n g e lu s b e l l ) , a s tr o n g c o n t r a l t o v o ic e , o r th e 1 arg o o f an o ld v i o l i n . ; J u s t as o ra n g e i s r e d b ro u g h t n e a r e r to h u m a n ity by y e l l o w , so v i o l e t i s r e d w ith d ra w n fro m h u m a n ity I by b l u e . B u t th e re d i n v i o l e t m ust be c o o l, f o r s p i r i t u a l need does n o t a llo w o f a m ix t u r e o f warm : r e d w i t h c o ld b l u e . V i o l e t i s t h e r e f o r e b o th i n th e p h y s ic a l and I s p i r i t u a l sense a c o o le d r e d . I t has a m o rb id , ex t i n c t q u a l i t y , l i k e s la g . I t i s worn by o ld women, and i n C h in a i t i s th e g a rb o f m o u rn in g . I n m usic ! i t i s an E n g lis h h o r n , o r th e d eep n o te s o f wood w in d s ( e . g . , a b a s s o o n ). (Among a r t i s t s , th e q u e s t io n , "How do you do?" i s som etim es j o k i n g l y answ ered , ; "Deep v i o l e t , " m eaning " n o t v e r y w e l l . " ) ( 3 8 : 6 1 - 6 3 ) i jW h ile th e q u o t a t io n s g iv e n above seem lo n g , th e y a re s h o r t I when com pared w i t h K a n d in s k y 's e n t i r e s y n t h e t ic th e o r y o f c o lo r s ym b o lis m . K a n d in s k y h im s e lf i n no way c la im e d to I b ase h is f e e l i n g s a b o u t c o lo r upon e x a c t s c i e n t i f i c d a t a . He c o n c lu d e d h is d is c u s s io n o f th e s p e c i f i c c o lo r s and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 3 9 t h e i r s y m b o lic e f f e c t s upon th e human p s ych e by a d m it t in g t h a t a l l he had s a id i s " . . . v e r y p r o v i s i o n a l and gen e r a l . . . " l i k e th e v e r y f e e li n g s c o lo r s evoke ( 3 8 : 6 3 ) . I T h e re a re many exam ples o f n o n - o b je c t i v e w orks i n 'w h ic h K a n d in s k y used th e name o f a c o l o r i n th e t i t l e . I Among th e s e a r e W ith th e B la c k A rch ( 1 9 1 2 ) , B la c k S p o t I I ( 1 9 1 2 ) , B la c k L in e s ( 1 9 1 3 ) , th e famous Im p r o v is a t io n w it h G reen C e n te r ( 1 9 1 3 ) , P a i n t i n g w it h Red S p o t ( 1 9 1 4 ) , I n G rey ( 1 9 1 9 ) , W h ite L in e ( 1 9 2 0 ) , Red S p o t I I ( 1 9 2 1 ) , B lu e Segment ( 1 9 2 1 ) , B lu e C i r c l e ( 1 9 2 2 ) , I n th e B la c k S g u a re and I n th e B la c k C i r c l e (b o th 1 9 2 3 ) , D eep Brown ( 1 9 2 4 ) , I A c c e n t i n P in k ( 1 9 2 5 ) , P ronounced Rose ( 1 9 2 7 ) , and D e v e lo p m ent i n Brown ( 1 9 3 3 ) . The l a s t p a i n t i n g m e n tio n e d was th e l a s t p a in t e d i n G erm any. T h is was th e y e a r o f th e n o t o r i - !ous N a z i a r t p u rg e when so many w orks o f th e German E x - Ip r e s s io n is t s w ere la b e l e d " d e g e n e r a te ." One n o t ic e s a p r o g r e s s iv e d e g re e o f a b s t r a c t i o n in th e above m e n tio n e d w o rk s . As K a n d in s k y appro ach ed th e I { z e n it h o f n o n - o b j e c t i v i t y , h i s s y m b o lic u se o f c o l o r s , u n a t- I ta c h e d to any o b j e c t , became more a c u t e . ! Two exam ples o f K a n d in s k y 's u s e o f r e d a re p r e - is e n te d a t th e end o f t h i s d is c u s s io n : P a i n t in g w i t h Red I jS p o t (1 9 1 4 ) and Red S p o t I I ( 1 9 2 1 ) . The 191 4 w ork i s c e r t a i n l y n o n - o b je c t i v e , f o r as K a n d in s k y h im s e lf n o te d i n h is Auto b io g r a p h y r e g a r d in g one o f h is own w orks p la c e d on Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 4 0 i t s s id e on th e e a s e l, P a i n t in g w i t h Red S p o t a ls o la c k s a l l s u b je c t , has no i d e n t i f i a b l e o b j e c t and i s composed o f b r i g h t c o l o r p a tc h e s ( 5 5 : 6 0 ) . As f o r th e r e d s p o t, i t i s a l i g h t warm r e d and " . . . g iv e s a f e e l i n g o f s t r e n g t h , I v i g o r , d e t e r m in a t io n , tr iu m p h . I n m usic i t i s a sound o f I itr u m p e ts , s t r o n g , h a rs h and r i n g i n g . " ( 3 8 : 6 1 ) I n Red Is p o t I I ( 1 9 2 1 ) , s y m b o lic u s e o f r e d i s t h e same, b u t fo rm i i s f u r t h e r d is s o lv e d , and th e c o l o r le s s d e p e n d e n t on i t . ’The tru m p e t sound i n t h i s l i g h t warm r e d i s l i k e a c l a r i o n I c a l l . I A r n o ld S ch o en b erg ( 1 8 7 4 -1 9 5 1 ) has a lr e a d y been n o te d f o r h is p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n th e f i r s t e x h i b i t i o n o f D e r :B la u e R e i t e r i n 1 9 1 1 . He a ls o c o n t r i b u t e d an essay "The R e l a t io n s h i p to th e T e x t" and a song to D e r B la u e R e i t e r Alm anac o f 1 9 1 2 . S c h o e n b e rg 's S e l f - P o r t r a i t and two p a i n t - !in g s e n t i t l e d V i s i o n w ere e x h i b i t e d by D e r B la u e R e i t e r . !He had begun p a i n t i n g i n 1907 and h ad a c c o m p lis h e d so much by 1910 t h a t he h ad an e x h i b i t i o n o f h is own w o rk i n th e i ; G a le r ie Hugo H e l l e r i n V ie n n a i n t h e f a l l t h a t y e a r . Kan d in s k y p r o fe s s e d a d m ir a t io n f o r S c h o e n b e rg 's p i c t u r e s , so jmuch so t h a t he p u b lis h e d an a r t i c l e on them c a l l e d " D ie B i l d e r " f o r one o f th e f i r s t books on S ch o en b erg ( 6 5 : 2 0 9 ) . I I K a n d in s k y and S choenb erg d e v e lo p e d a t r u e and l a s t - iin g f r ie n d s h ip . E x c e rp ts fro m th e f o llo w in g l e t t e r s to Isch o e n b erg b e a r w itn e s s to t h is f a c t : Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. L e t t e r fro m W a s s i l i K a n d in s k y to S ch o e n b e rg , I 6 . I I . I 9 I I . D e a r M r. S ch o n b erg , Y o u r l e t t e r made me v e r y h a p p y . F in e — so many c o n c e r t s ! When w i l l th e one i n M u n ich be? I ' m lo o k in g fo r w a r d to i t tr e m e n d o u s ly . A w h o le e v e n in g i n P a r i s — q u i t e s p le n d id ! I c o u ld g e t some t h in g i n t o th e new spapers t h e r e th ro u g h L e F a n e s m il [ ? ] . W ould you l i k e th a t ? I ' m h a p p y , to o , t h a t you h ave such a p le a s a n t p la c e t o l i v e . P e rh a p s we s h a l l come to B e r l i n i n J a n u a r y . Now, 'D e r B la u e R e i t e r ' ! T h a t w o n 't a p p e a r t i l l th e m id d le o f J a n u a r y --p e r h a p s even a t th e end o f th e m o nth. And t h e r e f o r e you h a v e a good m onth to f i n i s h y o u r a r t i c l e . F i r s t number w it h o u t S c h o n b e rg ! w o n 't h a v e t h a t . No 2 4 1 I n y o u r p i c t u r e s (w h ic h I r e c e iv e d fro m th e s h ip p e r o n ly y e s t e r d a y ; we r e t u r n e d t o M u n ic h o n ly two days ago) I see a g r e a t d e a l . Two s o u rc e s : (1 ) 'M y' r e a l i s m , i . e . , how t h in g s a re a n d , a t th e same t im e , th e in n e r re s o n a n c e w h ic h th e y c r e a t e . T h is i s w h a t I f o r e t o l d i n my b o o ks , as 'f a n t a s y i n t h e h a r d e s t m a t e r i a l ' . T h is i s a n t i p o d a l to my a r t and . . . i n th e en d , grows fro m th e same r o o t . A c h a i r l i v e s , a l i n e l i v e s — i n th e lo n g r u n , i t a l l amounts to th e same t h i n g . I am v e r y fo n d o f t h i s s o r t o f ' f a n t a s y ' — e s p e c i a l l y a f t e r y o u r p i c t u r e s ! The ' S e l f - P o r t r a i t ' , th e 'G a r d e n ' ( n o t t h e one I w a n te d , b u t a ls o a v e r y good o n e ) . ( 2 ) The second s o u rc e — m a t e r i a l i z e d , rom an t i c , m y s t ic a l sound ( a l s o th e s o r t o f t h in g t h a t I do) I do n o t l i k e so w e l l when th e p r i n c i p l e i s ap p l i e d i n t h i s w ay . And y e t . . . th e s e t h in g s a re good, to o , and i n t e r e s t me v e r y much. K o k o s c h k a , t o o , saw t h i s second s o u rc e t h r e e y e a r s ago— h e had th e ' p l u s ' e le m e n t o f 's t r a n g e n e s s '. Thus I am ' i n t e r p r e t e d ' ; w h ile I l i k e to see i t , i t d o e s n 't e x c i t e me i n w a r d l y . T h is i s to o b in d in g and p r e c is e f o r me. I f s o m e th in g o f th e s o r t s t i r r e d in me, I s h o u ld s im p ly w r i t e ( n e v e r p a i n t ! ) : 'h e h ad a w h it e f a c e and b la c k l i p s . ' T h a t i s s u f f i c i e n t f o r me— i . e . , t h a t r e a l l y means more to me! I f e e l e v e r more s t r o n g l y t h a t t h e r e m ust be some empty sp ace i n e v e ry w o rk , so t h a t one i s n o t to o t i e d down! P e rh a p s t h i s i s no ' e t e r n a l ' la w , b u t o n ly a la w f o r 't o m o r r o w '. I am m odest and s h a l l c o n t e n t m y s e lf w i t h 't o m o r r o w '. Y o u r K a n d in s k v ( 6 0 : 1 8 5 ) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 242 I n J a n u a ry o f 1 9 1 2 , K a n d in s k y w r o te to S ch o en b erg a g a in a s k in g f o r an e a r l y r e p l y w it h some i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f S c h o e n b e rg 's two p a i n t i n g s e n t i t l e d V i s i o n . T h is e l u c i d a t io n K a n d in s k y w a n te d f o r an a r t i c l e f o r D e r B la u e R e i t e r A lm a n a c . I Long ago, I asked you a b o u t th e p r i c e s f o r i y o u r p i c t u r e s , and w h e th e r we m ig h t keep some o f them f o r o u r D .B .R . [ ' D e r B la u e R e i t e r ' ] e x h i b i t i o n . Long ago, to o , I s e n t e v e r y t h in g to B uda- ; p e s t ( a t th e w is h o f P a r i s v . G u t e r s lo h , who a r ra n g e d an e x h i b i t i o n t h e r e ) w it h th e f o llo w in g ex c e p t io n s : (1 ) We h a ve hung ' S e l b s t p o r t r a i t ' , | 'L a n d s c h a f t ' , and 2 'V i s i o n e n '; (2 ) You d id n o t I w a n t to h a v e th e p o r t r a i t 'Dame i n R o sa' s e n t t h e r e i ( i t i s s t i l l a t my h o u s e ). From g ro u p ( I ) , I r e moved th e 'L a n d s c h a f t ' , a t y o u r w is h ( i t i s a t ! T h a n n h a u s e r' s ) ; th e o t h e r t h r e e t r a v e l l e d w it h o u r e x h i b i t i o n t o C o lo g n e and a re q u i t e d e te rm in e d to v o yag e f u r t h e r , t o o . T h e se p i c t u r e s made q u i t e a good im p r e s s io n i n o u r show. And w h o e ver t o l d you t h a t I do n o t l i k e y o u r p ic t u r e s ? I t ' s o n ly t h a t th e o r i g i n o f th e 'V i s i o n s ' i s n o t c l e a r to ! me and I s h o u ld be happy to h e a r s o m e th in g a b o u t i t s o o n . I t i s v e r y im p o r t a n t f o r my a r t i c l e i n : I th e ' B . R . '!■ ( 6 0 : 1 8 6 ) i U n d o u b te d ly , K a n d in s k y and th e e x h i b i t i o n s o f D e r B la u e R e i t e r b ro u g h t much a t t e n t i o n t o th o s e p a r t i c u l a r p a i n t i n g s by S c h o e n b e rg . The l i t e r a t u r e c o n c e rn in g German E x p re s s io n s i s t p a i n t i n g a ls o fo c u s e s on t h e s e . S c h o e n b e rg 's o u tp u t i n a r t , h o w e v e r, was f a r more e x t e n s i v e . Joseph R u f e r , i n I c a t a lo g u in g S c h o e n b e rg 's o i l p a i n t i n g s , w a t e r - c o l o r s , and d r a w in g s , l i s t s s e v e n t y - s ix such w o rk s . Among th e w orks l i s t e d a re B lu e G a z e , Red G aze I I (1 9 1 0 ) , a n o th e r Red G aze (1 9 1 0 ) , B lu e S e l f - P o r t r a i t ( 1 9 1 0 ) , ; iG reen S e l f - P o r t r a i t (1 9 1 0 ) , and Y e llo w S e l f - P o r t r a i t . I t | Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 243 i s known t h a t S ch o en b e rg was d e e p ly i n f l u e n c e d by K a n d in s k y 's C o n c e rn in g th e S p i r i t u a l i n A r t w r i t t e n i n 1 9 1 0 . I t seems s a f e to assume t h a t some o f S c h o e n b e rg 's p re o c c u p a t i o n w i t h c o l o r came fro m K a n d in s k y 's t h e o r i e s on c o l o r . P e rh a p s S c h o en b e rg was a ls o i n f lu e n c e d by A le x a n d e r { S c r i a b i n 's t h e o r y o f r e l a t i o n o f p i t c h t o a c o l o r t h e o r y . S tu c k e n s c h m id t p r e f e r s to a c c e p t th e a s s u m p tio n t h a t th e S c r i a b i n and S ch o en b e rg e x p e rim e n ts w i t h c o l o r and to n e c o l o r w e re q u i t e in d e p e n d e n t o f any m u tu a l in f l u e n c e ( 7 2 : 1 7 ) . J u s t as K a n d in s k y was one o f t h e f i r s t German Ab s t r a c t E x p r e s s io n is t s t o d is c u s s c o lo r sym b o lism i n w r i t i n g , so a ls o S c h o en b e rg c o n s t r u c t e d a t h e o r y o f th e p r o p e r t i e s o f m u s ic a l sound i n h is K a r m o n ie le h r e o f 1 9 1 1 . He began by n o t in g t h a t m u s ic a l sound has t h r e e p r o p e r t i e s : p i t c h , c o l o r , and i n t e n s i t y . A c c o rd in g to S tu c k e n s c h m id t: He makes th e p o i n t t h a t u n t i l th e n o n ly p i t c h had been m e a s u re d , and t h a t l i t t l e a tte m p t had been made to m easure o r i n any way o r g a n is e c o lo u r o r i n t e n s i t y . . . . S ch o en b erg p u rs u e s th e t o p ic f u r t h e r and f i n a l l y d e f in e s p i t c h as one o f th e d im e n s io n s o f tim b r e ( ' t o n e - c o l o u r ' ) : ' P i t c h i s i n f a c t s im p ly t o n e - c o l o u r , m easured i n one d i r e c t i o n . ' . . . He p ro c e e d s to im a g in e a f u t u r e tim e when m usic w o u ld be c o n s t r u c t e d fro m ' t im b r e - m e lo d ie s ' ( K 1 a n g fa rb e n m e l o d i e n ) . Such m u s ic c o u ld g i v e e x p r e s s io n to o u r d ream s, he s a y s : i t w ould s p ea k to men o f f i n e s e n s i b i l i t i e s and d e v e lo p e d m inds who c o u ld ta k e p le a s u r e i n such s u b t l e t h i n g s . S ch o en b e rg g iv e s a rough o u t l i n e o f h is p la n i n t h i s f i n a l c h a p t e r o f th e H arm oni e l e h r e . He arg u e s t h a t s in c e m e lo d ic shapes can be c r e a t e d i fro m v a r y in g p i t c h e s , s u c c e s s io n s o f d i f f e r e n t j tim b r e s o u g h t a ls o to p ro d u c e a n alo g o u s shapes o f Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 4 4 t h e i r own. L i k e p i t c h - s t r u c t u r e s , t i m b r e - s t r u c t u r e s s h o u ld h ave an a n a ly s a b le i n t e r n a l o r g a n i s a t i o n . The r e l a t i o n s o f one tim b r e to a n o th e r s h o u ld be d i c t a t e d by a l o g i c c o m p ara b le to t h a t u n d e r ly in g changes i n p i t c h . I n f a c t , S cho enberg had a lr e a d y e x p e rim e n te d w it h tim b r e i n th e t h i r d o f th e F i v e P ie c e s f o r O r c h e s tr a O p .1 6 , w h ic h he c o m p le te d i n S t e in k ir c h e n on 1 J u ly 1 9 0 9 . A t th e r e q u e s t o f h i s p u b lis h e r S ch o en b erg g ave th e p ie c e a t i t l e : 'Summer morn in g by a l a k e ' , a d d in g th e w ord 'C o lo u r s ' i n b r a c k e t s . The s p e c ia l te c h n iq u e he uses h e r e con s i s t s o f p r e s e n t in g s u c c e s s io n s o f c h o rd s , each w it h v a r io u s c o m b in a tio n s o f t im b r e s . . . . S cho enberg o b s e rv e s i n a fo o t n o t e : 'The ch o rd s i m ust change so g e n t l y t h a t no em phasis can be p e r - | ’ c e iv e d a t th e in s t r u m e n t a l e n t r i e s , and so t h a t I I th e change i s made a p p a r e n t o n ly th ro u g h th e new I c o l o u r . ' ( 7 2 : 5 2 - 5 5 ) I I t was i n 1910 t h a t S cho enberg began w o rk on h is I second m u s ic a l dram a. D ie G lü c k lic h e H a n d . I t i s a f i t t i n g ; p a r a l l e l f o r K a n d in s k y 's c o lo r sym bolism fo u n d i n so many o f h is w o rk s . D ie G lü c k lic h e Hand has been t r a n s l a t e d iin v a r io u s ways: The L u c ky H a n d , The G o ld en T o u c h , The Hand o f F a t e . I U n l i k e E r w a r tu n g , w h ic h S ch o en b erg c o m p le te d i n ab o u t two w eeks. D ie G lü c k lic h e Hand was n o t c o m p le te d u n - I t i l Novem ber o f 1 9 1 3 , a lth o u g h begun i n 1 9 1 0 . The f i r s t p r o d u c tio n d id n o t ta k e p la c e u n t i l 1 92 4 in th e M u s ic a l and T h e a t r i c a l F e s t i v a l Room o f th e V o lk s o p e r i n V ie n n a . Egon |W e lle s z n o te d t h a t D ie G lü c k lic h e Hand and E rw a rtu n g a re iq u i t e d i f f e r e n t i n s t y l e , a lth o u g h o th e r a u th o rs s im p ly i c a l l them b o th a t o n a l o r p a n to n a l w o rk s . A c c o rd in g to IW e lle s z , th e s t y l e o f D ie G lü c k lic h e Hand i s Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 4 5 " . . . e s s e n t i a l l y s im p le and c l e a r l y fo rm e d ." (7 9 : 1 3 7 ) E rw a rtu n g (1 9 0 9 ) was w r i t t e n p a n t o n a l l y , j u s t as K a n d in s k y 's P a i n t in g w i t h Red S p o t (1 9 1 4 ) was n o n - o b j e c t i v e . B u t D ie G lü c k lic h e Hand ( 1 9 1 3 ) , a ls o p a n t o n a l, was more t i g h t l y c o n s t r u c t e d , j u s t as i n K a n d in s k y 's Red S p o t I I (1 9 2 1 ) , fo rm was f u r t h e r d io o o lv e d th a n i n h i s e a r l i e r p a i n t i n g I n o te d . ! i A d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e f i r s t p e rfo rm a n c e o f D ie IG lü c k lic h e Hand by W e lle s z a llu d e s t o S c h o e n b e rg 's s y m b o lic ;use o f c o l o r . i One c o u ld see t h a t th e e f f e c t o f t h i s d r a m a tic e x p e r im e n t— one c a n n o t c a l l i t o p e ra — was a s to u n d - i n g l y g r e a t . One c e r t a i n l y n o t ic e d th e d i f f e r ence b etw ee n th e s l i g h t s c e n ic id e a and th e mas- t e r c r a f t d is p la y e d i n th e m u s ic . I t showed, how- i e v e r , such g r e a t a r t t h a t a l l h e a r e r s w ere won to th e w o rk and S ch o n b erg r e c e iv e d r a p tu r o u s ova t i o n s . . . . The c h o ru s e s a t th e b e g in n in g and th e end fo rm a fra m e f o r th e r e a l w o rk , w h ic h can be c a l l e d an e s s e n t i a l l y " p s y c h o lo g ic a l p a n to - I m im e," s y m b o lic i n a im . Each scen e has i t s own c o lo u r and i t s own i n s t r u m e n t a t io n , and a lth o u g h th e w h o le w o rk o n ly ta k e s t w e n t y - t h r e e m in u te s , i t i s in d e e d a s t i r r i n g scene o f p l a s t i c e x p re s s io n . O f one t h in g one may be c e r t a i n fro m a g la n c e j a t th e s c o r e , v i z . t h a t th e G l ü c k l i c h e Hand r e p r e s e n ts an e n t i r e l y u n h e a r d - o f , d a r in g and n o v e l s o l u t i o n to th e p ro b le m o f s c e n e ry ; and t h a t in ; t h i s w o rk a m u s ic a l and d r a m a t ic s t y l e has been c r e a t e d w h ic h , i f w ere r i g h t l y u n d e rs to o d and c o r r e s p o n d in g ly c a r r i e d o u t , w o u ld h a v e as o v erw h e lm - I in g an e f f e c t as a dram a o f S t r i n d b e r g . (7 9 : 1 3 7 ) ! S ch o en b e rg g a v e g r e a t d e t a i l s as to how th e d r a m a t ic s t y l e jo f D ie G lü c k lic h e Hand s h o u ld be c a r r i e d o u t a t a l a t e r d a te i n 1950 f o r a p e rfo rm a n c e i n B e r l i n . He even p a in t e d Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 246 t h r e e p i c t u r e s and drew f i v e s k e tc h e s h i m s e l f f o r th e s e t t i n g o f s e v e r a l s c e n e s . S c h o e n b e rg 's own s ta g e d i r e c t i o n s f o r th e f o u r scen es a re r e p l e t e w it h a c c u r a te i n s t r u c t i o n s as to th e u s e o f c o lo r e d l i g h t i n g . SCENE I The s ta g e i s a lm o s t e n t i r e l y d a r k . I n f r o n t l i e s th e Man, fa c e down. On h is b ack c ro u c h e s a c a t - l i k e f a n t a s t i c a n im a l (h y 1 c\ b a t - l i k e w in g s ) t h a t seems to h ave sunk i t s t e e t h i n t o h is n e c k . The v i s i b l e p o r t i o n o f th e s ta g e i s v e r y s m a l l , somewhat ro u n d { a s h a llo w c u r v e ) . The r e a r s ta g e i s h id d e n by a d a r k - v i o l e t v e l v e t c u r t a i n . T h e re a re s l i g h t gaps i n t h i s c u r t a i n fro m w h ic h g r e e n - l i t fa c e s p e e r: s i x men, s i x women. The l i g h t v e r y w e a k . O n ly th e eyes a re c l e a r l y v i s i b l e . The r e s t i s sw a th e d i n s o f t r e d v e i l i n g , and t h i s to o r e f l e c t s t h e g r e e n is h l i g h t . SCENE I I The s ta g e grows b r i g h t e r , show ing a somewhat l a r g e r a r e a , d e e p e r and w id e r th a n th e f i r s t . I n th e b a c k g ro u n d a s o f t b lu e , s k y - l i k e b a c k d ro p . Be lo w , to th e l e f t , c lo s e to th e b r i g h t brow n e a r t h , a c i r c u l a r s p ac e f i v e f e e t i n d ia m e t e r h o v e rs above th e s ta g e l i k e g l a r i n g y e llo w s u n l i g h t . No o t h e r l i g h t i n g b u t t h i s , and i t m ust be v e r y i n te n s e . The s id e c u r t a in s a re o f p l e a t e d , h a n g in g m a t e r i a l , s o f t y e llo w - g r e e n i n c o l o r . SCENE I I I F o r a moment th e s ta g e d a rk e n s , th e n im m ed i a t e l y grows b r i g h t . Now i t s e n t i r e p r a c t i c a b l e d e p th and w id t h a re v i s i b l e : w i l d , ro c k y la n d scap e; b l a c k i s h - g r a y , o v erg ro w n c l i f f s w i t h a s c a t t e r i n g o f p in e t r e e s , t h e i r b ra n c h e s s i l v e r - g r a y . A t s ta g e c e n t e r , a s m a ll, ro c k y p l a t e a u , f la n k e d by h ig h , s h e e r ro c k s t h a t s t r e t c h r i g h t and l e f t as f a r as th e a p ro n o f th e s t a g e . The p la t e a u s lo p e s fo r w a r d s l i g h t l y . Somewhat to th e r i g h t o f s ta g e c e n t e r i t to w e rs up s te e p and s l a n t i n g . H e re a r a v i n e w in d s b e tw e e n two ro c k f o r m a t io n s , i t s b rim v i s i b l e . B e f o r e i t l i e s a lo w e r p l a t e a u , c o n n e c te d w i t h th e h ig h e r o n e . T o w e rin g above th e r a v i n e s ta n d s a s i n g l e . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 4 7 m a n -s iz e d fr a g m e n t o f r o c k . I n b a c k o f th e p la t e a u (a n d h ig h e r th a n i t ) a r e two g r o t t o s , h id d e n by d a r k - v i o l e t m a t e r i a l . The scene m ust be l i g h t e d fro m b e h in d and a b o ve , so t h a t th e ro c k s th ro w shadows o v e r th e o t h e r w is e r a t h e r b r i g h t s t a g e . The e n t i r e e f f e c t s h o u ld n o t c o u n t e r f e i t n a t u r e , b u t r a t h e r be a f r e e c o m b in a tio n o f c o lo r s and fo rm s . T h e re f a l l s a t f i r s t (u n s h a d e d , fro m b e h in d ) a g r e y - g r e e n l i g h t acro ss th e s c e n e . L a t e r , when th e g r o t t o s a re i l l u m i n a t e d , y e llo w - g r e e n l i g h t i s c a s t on th e ro c k s and d a r k b l u e - v i o l e t l i g h t on th e r a v i n e . As soon as th e scene grows b r i g h t , th e Man i s seen s ta n d in g w i t h i n th e r a v i n e . He s ta n d s w it h o u t d i f f i c u l t y , a lth o u g h i t i s p l a i n l y a tr e a c h e r o u s p la c e to g a in a f o o t h o l d . He i s d re s s e d as i n th e f i r s t scene save t h a t he has a ro p e bound around h i s w a i s t fro m w h ic h d a n g le two S a r a c e n 's h e a d s , and he h o ld s an em bossed, b lo o d y sword i n h is h a n d . S c a r c e ly b e f o r e th e Man has c o m p le te ly em erged fo rm [ s i c ] th e r a v i n e , one o f th e two g r o t t o s ( l e f t ) grow s b r i g h t , c h a n g in g r a t h e r q u i c k l y fro m d a r k - v i o l e t to b row n, r e d , b lu e and g r e e n , and th e n t o a b r i g h t , d e l i c a t e y e llo w ( c i t r u s - y e l l o w ) , (N o t to o b r i g h t ] ) I n th e g r o t t o , w h ich i s s o m eth in g b etw ee n a m ach in e shop and a g o ld s m it h 's w o rks h o p , s e v e r a l w o rk e rs a re seen a t w o rk i n r e a l i s t i c w o rk in g m e n 's d r e s s . One f i l e s , one s i t s a t a m a c h in e , one ham m e rs , e t c . The l i g h t i n th e g r o t t o now seems to come m a in ly fro m th e lam ps h a n g in g above th e w o rk e rs ( t w i l i g h t g lo w ) . I n th e m id d le s ta n d s an a n v i l , u n d e r i t a h e av y ir o n hammer. SCENE IV Scene c h a n g e . The s ta g e i s l i g h t e d a g a in q u i c k l y . The same as th e f i r s t scen e: th e s i x men and th e s i x women. T h e i r fa c e s a re now l i t by a g r a y - b lu e l i g h t , th e f a n t a s t i c a n im a l i s once a g a in g n aw in g th e n e ck o f th e Man, and he i s l y i n g on th e g ro u n d i n th e same s p o t w h ere th e s to n e had been c a s t down on to p o f him ( th e r e b y s t r e n g t h e n in g th e im p r e s s io n t h a t th e s to n e and th e f a n t a s t i c a n im a l a r e one and th e s a m e ). The g r a y - b lu e l i g h t t h a t f a l l s on t h e i r fa c e s i s somewhat t i n t e d w i t h r e d . The s ta g e grow s d a rk s lo w ly , and th e c u r t a i n f a l l s . ( 9 9 : 2 5 - 2 9 ) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 4 8 D a v id Johnson n o te s i n h is t r a n s l a t i o n o f th e t e x t o f D ie G lü c k lic h e Hand t h a t c o lo r i n d i c a t i o n s a re n o t con f i n e d to th e d i r e c t i o n s p r i o r to each s c e n e . R a t h e r , e v e ry d e t a i l o f th e a c t io n on th e s ta g e i s r e l a t e d t o th e m usic by means o f s ig n s and sym bols e l a b o r a t e l y s y s t e m a t iz e d . A lm o s t e v e ry m easure o f th e m usic accom panies a s p e c i f i c s ta g e a c t io n , " . . . w h e th e r i t be th e o u t s t r e t c h i n g o f an arm o r th e s h i f t o f l i g h t fro m one c o l o r o r i n t e n s i t y to ; a n o t h e r ." ( 9 9 : 2 5 ) The c h a r a c t e r s c o n s i s t o f th e Man, who | 1 ; a lo n e s in g s a s o lo p a r t , a Woman and a G e n tlem a n who a c t i n I I pantom im e o n ly , and a G r e e k - l i k e c h o ru s o f s i x women and I s i x men. Johnson decod es th e sym bolism o f th e p l o t as f o l lo w s: The Man i s g e n e r a l l y The A r t i s t and s p e c i f i c a l l y A r n o ld S c h o e n b e rg . We s ee him a t th e b e g in n in g l y i n g p r o n e , t h e m o n s te r o f d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n and b i t t e r n e s s gnaw in g a t h im w h ile a " g re e k " ch o ru s u p b r a id s h im f o r d e s i r i n g th e t h in g s o f t h i s w o r ld (n a m e ly , a c c la im and r e c o g n i t io n ) when he knows t h a t f u l f i l l m e n t f o r him can come o n ly th ro u g h th e b o d ile s s w o r ld o f th e i n t e l l e c t . D e s p it e t h e i r w a r n in g , d e s p i t e th e t e r r i b l e p u n is h m e n t i n f l i c t e d upon him by h i s wounded ego ( t h e m o n s t e r ) , he goes th ro u g h t h e same c y c le o f e c s ta s y and debasem ent t h a t he has gone th ro u g h b e f o r e and s h a l l a g a in . The b e a u t i f u l woman who p r o f f e r s h im th e cup o f b l i s s i s , i n W i l l i a m J a m e s 's p h r a s e , th e b i t c h goddess S u c c e s s . The d a n d y , who s t e a l s h e r fro m h im , i s th e s h a llo w and m e r e t r ic io u s a r t i s t , th e m aker o f V ie n n e s e b o n -b o n s — th o s e v a p id tu n e s p ic k e d o u t on th e p ia n o , w h ich S c h o e n b e rg , th e u n w i l l i n g R o b e r t R u s s e ll B e n n e tt o f h i s d a y , had to e a rn h i s l i v i n g by o r c h e s t r a t i n g . The scene i n th e g r o t t o o f th e workm en, w h ere th e Man shapes a diad em b e a u t i f u l and new w i t h one mag n i f i c e n t hammer b lo w ( a t th e same tim e d e s t r o y in g Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 249 th e a n v i l t h a t had s u p p o rte d th e raw m a t e r i a l ) needs no e x e g e s is f o r anyone who i s f a m i l i a r w i t h w h a t S ch o en b erg was d o in g to t h e a r t o f mu s ic i n 1 9 1 0 -1 9 1 3 . ( 9 9 : 2 4 ) M u s ic a lly and d r a m a t i c a l l y , th e m ost i n t e r e s t i n g scene i s th e g r o t t o scene and w h a t f o llo w s im m e d ia te ly a f t e r . Tone c o l o r and l i g h t i n g e f f e c t s p a r a l l e l one a n o th e r. The man em erges fro m th e r a v i n e w it h a b lo o d y sword i n h i s hand; an i n c i s i v e , r h y t h m ic a l m o tiv e on th e low n o te s o f th e w o o d -w in d , h a rp and s t r i n g s p o r t r a y s h i s a p p ro a c h . The g r o t t o s a re flo o d e d w it h l i g h t , and one p e r c e iv e s i n them workmen who a re la b o u r in g w it h f i l e s and hammers. The man ap p ro a c h e s , ta k e s a p ie c e o f g o ld and l e t s th e hammer f a l l h e a v i l y . The a n v i l b re a k s i n two b e n e a th th e w e ig h t o f th e b lo w , and fro m th e f i s s u r e t h a t i s made, th e man ta k e s a r i c h l y b e je w e lle d d iad em . The workmen t h r e a t e n to ru s h a t h im , whereupon he h u r ls th e p r e c io u s o b j e c t a t them w it h a la u g h . The g r o t t o becomes d a rk a g a in . Now b e g in s th e m ost e x t r a o r d i n a r y p a r t o f th e v io le n c e ; a t th e same tim e t h e r e i s a c res c e n d o i n th e l i g h t i n g e f f e c t . I t b e g in s w i t h a to u c h o f r e d l i g h t , p asses th ro u g h brown i n t o a m o tt le d g r e e n , and from th e n c e i n t o a d a rk b lu e - g r e y f o l lo w ed by an i n t e n s i v e d a rk r e d w h ic h becomes b r i g h t e r and more g l a r i n g . From t h i s i t p a s s e s , th ro u g h o ra n g e and b r i g h t y e llo w , to b l i n d i n g l i g h t . T h is c re s c e n d o i n l i g h t and w in d i s m eant to g iv e th e im p re s s io n t h a t i t comes fro m th e man. From l a s s i t u d e h i s c o n d it io n p a sse s g r a d u a lly i n t o one o f g ro w in g e x c ite m e n t , and when th e y e llo w l i g h t a p p ears i t w o u ld seem as th o u g h h is head w o u ld b u r s t . The m usic o f t h i s scene i s b a sed on a m o tiv e o f th r e e n o te s , w h ic h a p p e a r h a r m o n ic a lly i n two d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n s . . . . The volum e o f sound g r a d u a l l y in c r e a s e s u n t i l , a t th e c lim a x , i t i s p la y e d by th e tru m p e ts i n i m i t a t i o n a t t h e x r f u l l p o w e r. Then th e s to rm o f c o lo u r and to n e g r a d u a l l y s u b s id e s . The l i g h t changes to a m ild b lu e , w h ile d e l i c a t e sounds a re p la y e d on th e w oo d -w in d and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 5 0 c e l e s t a , and th e s o l o - v i o l i n p la y s a g r a c e f u l m elody i n t h r e e - e i g h t tim e . ( 7 9 : 1 3 4 - 1 3 5 ) I t s h o u ld be r e c a l l e d , t h a t K a n d in s k y d id n o t speak o f c o lo r sym bolism i n term s o f th e m eaning o f any p a r t i c u - I i l a r c o l o r , b u t r a t h e r i n te rm s o f th e e f f e c t o f c o l o r on I ' th e human p s y c h e . S ch o en b erg u n d e rs c o re d t h i s same f a c t when D ie G lü c k lic h e Hand was a t one tim e u n d e r c o n s id e r a - !t i o n f o r th e s c re e n . F ilm s w ere s t i l l s i l e n t ( 1 9 1 3 ) . Sym- Ib o ls , i n t e r p r e t e d as le n d in g m ean in g , h a v e no p la c e i n th e i dram a, s a id S c h o e n b e rg . i ; I My fo re m o s t w is h i s t h e r e f o r e f o r som ethin g th e o p p o s ite o f w h a t th e cin em a g e n e r a l l y a s p ir e s ! t o . I w a n t: The u tm o s t u n r e a l i t y ! The w h o le t h in g s h o u ld h ave th e e f f e c t ( n o t o f a dream ) b u t o f c h o rd s . O f m u s ic . I t m ust n e v e r s u g g e s t s ym b o ls, o r m ean in g , o r th o u g h ts , b u t s im p l y th e p l a y o f c o lo u r s and fo rm s . J u s t as m usic n e v e r d ra g s a m eaning around w it h i t , a t l e a s t n o t i n th e fo rm i n w h ich i t [m u s ic ] m a n if e s ts i t s e l f , even th o u g h m eaning i s i n h e r e n t in i t s n a t u r e , so to o t h i s s h o u ld s im p ly be l i k e sounds f o r th e e y e , and so f a r as I am c o n c e rn e d e v e ry o n e i s f r e e to t h in k o r f e e l s o m eth in g s i m i l a r to w h a t he t h in k s o r f e e l s w h ile h e a r in g m u s ic . ( 5 8 : 4 4 ) The sym bolism i n th e p l o t can be i n t e r p r e t e d , o f c o u r s e , as h a v in g m e a n in g . The c o lo r sym bolism i n D ie G lü c k lic h e Hand i s , h o w e v e r, l i k e K a n d in s k y 's c o lo r s ym b o lis m , f r e e . I t i s a b s t r a c t e d fro m any and a l l s p e c i f i c m ean in g . S c h o e n b e rg 's c o n c e rn f o r th e p e rfo rm a n c e o f D ie ! G lü c k lic h e Hand as a t o t a l a r t fo rm i n w h ich he was as c a r e f u l a b o u t c o l o r l i g h t i n g and d r a m a t ic a c t io n as he was w it h th e m usic i t s e l f i s shown i n h is l e t t e r to E r n s t L e g a l i n Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 5 1 1 9 3 0 . A p e rfo rm a n c e was t o be g iv e n a t th e B e r l i n K r o l l - O p e r . I n th e 'G l ü c k l i c h e H a n d ', th e f o l l o w i n g f a c t o r s a re e s p e c i a l l y im p o r ta n t: I . The p la y o f c o lo u r e d l i g h t . T h is c a l l s f o r v e r y s tr o n g l i g h t s and good c o lo u r s ; th e s t a g e - d e c o r a t io n m u st be so p a in t e d t h a t i t ta k e s th e c o lo u r s 1 I I . The c o n s t r u c t io n o f th e s t a g e , and th e s t a g e - p i c t u r e , m ust f o l l o w my d i r e c t i o n s e x a c t l y , f o r a th o u s a n d re a s o n s ; o t h e r w is e , n o th in g w i l l w o rk . O nce, I p r e p a r e d p i c t u r e s o f i t , b u t I w ould h ave t o h u n t them o u t , now. I n any c a s e , I o u g h t to r e c e i v e y o u r s k e tc h e s i n p l e n t y o f tim e t o lo o k them o v e r . I I I . I h a v e a ls o f i x e d th e e x a c t p o s i t i o n s o f th e a c t o r s and t h e p r e c is e p a th s w h ic h th e y s h o u ld f o l lo w on th e s t a g e . I am c o n v in c e d t h a t th e s e d i r e c t i o n s m ust be o b s e rv e d e x a c t l y , i f e v e r y t h in g i s to come o u t r i g h t . I V . I t i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o i l l u m i n a t e th e t w e lv e fa c e s i n th e f i r s t and f o u r t h s c e n e s , to have them d is a p p e a r and r e a p p e a r i n a f l a s h . T h is m ust be d is c u s s e d f u r t h e r . V . The m y t h ic a l a n im a l m ust be v e r y l a r g e . The e f f o r t s t o have i t r e p r e s e n te d by a p e r s o n , as V 7as done i n V ie n n a and B r e s la u , h a v e been c o m p le te ly u n s u c c e s s fu l up t i l l now. . . . V I . A t t h e end o f th e f i r s t s c e n e , th e c u r t a i n s h o u ld t e a r . T h is has n e v e r e v e r been i n d i c a t e d i n th e p r e v io u s p e r fo r m a n c e s . . . . A ls o a t th e end o f th e f i r s t s c e n e , 'b la c k d e sce n d upon th e man. T h is p ro b le m , to o , up t i l l now. th e any o f V I I . v e i l s ' was u n s o lv e d V I I I . The sun in second scene i s a ls o n o t easy t o r e p r e s e n t . I t m ust be v e r y lo w ! ( 5 0 : 3 5 ) T h u s , D ie G lü c k lic h e Hand i s a w o rk i n w h ic h p a i n t in g , m u s ic , and l i t e r a t u r e a re a lr e a d y c o r r e l a t e d by S ch o en b erg h i m s e l f . I n K a n d in s k y 's dram a P e r G e lb e K la n q (1 9 1 2 ) c o lo r sym bolism i s u sed f o r p s y c h ic e f f e c t . T h is a s s u m p tio n i s Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 252 s a f e when one r e c a l l s K a n d in s k y 's c o l o r t h e o r y . K a n d in s k y c a l l e d P e r G e lb e K la n q ( The Y e llo w S ound) a B ühnenkom posi- t i o n . a te rm d is c u s s e d i n g r e a t d e t a i l by R .C . W y a tt i n The S ym bolism o f C o lo r i n th e Dram a o f German E x p r e s s io n is m ( 1 0 3 : 1 3 5 - 1 4 7 ) . K a n d in s k y in c lu d e d an a r t i c l e c a l l e d "U b e r B ühnen ko m p o sit io n " i n P e r B la u e R e i t e r A lm anac o f 191 2 and ja ls o P e r G e lb e K la n g i t s e l f . I n t h e a r t i c l e h e p ro p o s e d a new ty p e o f dram a w h ic h w o u ld e vo k e f e e l i n g s i n m an 's j p s y c h e th ro u g h a s y n e s t h e s ia o f m u s ic , d a n c e , and c o l o r , : ( 6 5 : 2 2 1 ) . The d ia lo g u e f o r P e r G e lb e K la n g i s e s o t e r i c and ; I ! c o n s t r a in e d . A l l th e a c t io n i s acco m p an ied by c o l o r . T h e m u s ic was composed by Thomas von H a rtm a n n who has been a l re a d y n o te d as a c o n t r i b u t o r o f an ess a y i n P e r B la u e R e i t e r A lm a n a c . W y a t t has d e s c r ib e d th e s c e n e s and p o s i t s acad em ic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s f o r th e f u l l gam ut o f c o lo r s K a n d in s k y u s e d . Y e llo w p r e d o m in a te s . He q u e s t io n s , h o w e v e r, w h e th e r K a n d in s k y in te n d e d to u s e c o l o r s y m b o l i c a l l y i n P e r G e lb e K la n g ( 1 0 3 : 1 4 4 - 1 4 7 ) . I n th e sense i n w h ic h c o lo r sym b o lism c a r r i e s m e a n in g , th e answ er i s n e g a t i v e . I n P e r G e lb e K la n g , K a n d in s k y u sed c o l o r sym b o lism i n th e m ost a b - I I s t r a c t s e n s e , j u s t as S ch o en b e rg u s e d c o l o r a b s t r a c t l y i n jP ie G l ü c k l i c h e H an d , f o r p s y c h ic e f f e c t . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 5 3 L i k e D ie G lü c k lic h e H a n d , P e r G e lb e K la n g i s a w ork i n w h ic h th e v i s u a l by means o f c o l o r , th e a u r a l by means o f m u s ic , and th e spoken w ord accom panied by th e d a n c e , a re a l l i n t e r r e l a t e d . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 5 4 EXAMPLES ILLUSTRATING PARALLELS IN THE CONCEPT 'S y m b o lic Use o f C o lo r" Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 5 5 P a i n t in g P a i n t i n g w it h Red S p o t Red S p o t I I W a s s ily K a n d in s k y (1 8 5 6 -1 9 4 4 ) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 5 8 M u s ic E x c e r p ts fro m D ie G lü c k lic h e Hand (T h e G o ld e n Touch) A r n o ld S ch o en b erg (1 8 7 4 -1 9 5 1 ) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 5 9 DIE GLÜCKLICHE HAND I.Bild MiiUifi-c J, iibl'rKchr hcflls:, Dram a mil Muiik Bsa-Klar.lB) l.î.S .F f. Ktr.-Fg. Araald SehO nbirg o p . 1 8 J - <M S3 If-'K tN l langsanicr Mt!rden L m .tbf.ifiB f f I.Trp.(B) 14,m. Dor 2,9.4. F o b . q » 6FVauen ( 3 S o p r .,3 A ll) 6 Manner feïr.T ïT F H ^ ( 3 T B D o r ,3 B ts f l;[ ^ n ,* Huhn* I,I faat ymn: fin a tfr Vnrti Hr»;l d»r M in n , da» G o k h t am Bodtn. Auf la ln tm fUrk»n kilit »in lu tllD irtlK T S F .ib e ltie r (Hjari* mil fl 'J e r m a m a r lif r fi, ifr" 0 'n I litc»ln), d a i lich la if in»n N atken ra rb ia tfn lu hahrn a'ham t.D er tigh* n rn a m irh h lll l«l le h r kirin , *ln » e n lp rund (fin fla rh a r Bepam), D»r Hlnlerirrvmd » lrd durrh duiik»Mol»H»n Sam m l tb r » - arbln..«n. In dem lind kirlo* Lukeo, au» dcnan p-un k fla u 'h ta la Oaalchlar a'haoant sc c h s M anner, se c h s F ra u e n . DIa Brlaui b lu n f a»hr irh » « th . Von dan C a .irh lan i ai»hl m an fa ,I fiur dia A ufan daullirh. Alla» Übrijc* Ut m it ta r i rbtiiahan .•U hlrlrrn vrfhùM l.dla abrp *nn drm tfrunm L irht rb rn falli fin namiy a rh flll w frdin. MüDi*,^ J, aber.schrhcftijj [H n ktundM chtavom Z uadiaurr] Ru . . he-lo-Mrl iangsamcrwerdcn - Opf, l.Solo.Oge I : J bcia-Br.w.üpr, ...... 1.2.3. Solo-Br 2.3.So1o-VclI. m . D pf. Rnnch ctw^s lanp;s limer en fl8 -9 2 FJ’ f.fv fv u . l.2.3.gr.Fl. B a r. (E l) 1.2.Klar.{B) 3.Klar.(B) L2.3.Fff, lg«nUtW rt) So o fltc h o n l U nd du u g 'C t c j ju ) u n d tro trc irjn b itt d u blind? 6 Frauen di# U brtreo c ru 'ie d a d a m e r u ie • d r r d a t c ie l . du wuO . I f j l e t 11: 6 Manner « e iû t. e t it t tm m eranedcrdaaO Iel • c m . K a n n tt d u n K h le n d Iic h |jR u .i— . 4 ^ ■ d i t Q b rife n Snoch ehms langsamer e o i larwamsia,. ; ."i"» . - ' i » ° l Solo.dra.m .Ppf. tr , m . H : . # a g Ê g E E z c % ^ ~ X — — — ■ ’■ ................... ; ..........— •=•-". --------= r r t " - z . . v - . * - r r ‘ * - Y T â t - f ^ 7 r ^ E = r = U a £ t _ I. Sslo-V rli. 1.5010-Ogt. m. Dpf. 2.5010-Gçe.( L2.9.SoIo-Br. m. Dpf. L3.3 Solo.VcUj Solo-Klrbss. pZ.- D ie ie N oter» to ll m p n a o : u r a m p e fe b e n e » Z rlt « a p r o c h m u r d tn î m c e c u » (rth a lle n » T rd e n ,u d t dio V or*«+ri(l a n r e lf t. D itT o n h O h en , in tb e io n d e iu a b e r die V erbajlnltt* d e re ü ^ lR e n T b n * ho h » n XII e m a n d i'f .ttn d e nttpi-rrhend w ie d e n u |e b e n . N icbl d u re h S l iir r n M i F r»lh-ilU n n r r T o n h o b e) tonderr» s p re rh i n d . tn d rra d it a n |» g tb e n iT o n h o h t to f o r tv ie d e r a u f g e f t b tn v tx d . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 6 0 I . O b . H fin tf/c a to E.H. P P l.H r.(F) B . Dpf. Hrf. J a . d ir fU a b tl < 6 Fraoen 2.3. ( n f l t i ( i r t ) 4.5.6. (I.TVn) (U ajifToU tr n tfiU lU tl) tm arr»irdir|U ubrtdudrm T r»U B | eir«i«dfrbiA ptdud<iB *B *ha [ = = & # ) ■■■■incr: j W Ulit .da alchl tn d • ll( h ( U a • brn' I ( n iu n r r a ) ^dudiciilmmrr«iidirhia.«ia - (ttinfaT GUub d«r ^ , _____________ . ( f r .u Hyin) 6 Manner 2.3. louBirwla • d«r b la fit 4a 4.5.6. ili lr u a f C lw b d ir W irki(cbktit| B g: eel U fn « p « a :a { if» . eal I t f n a p t t k U p n 2.3J v tn S en . D w P k rtIca tln 4 daber U a ll* | e ln ia t n ift B . { ; I S olo-B r { t . r Solo-V cll* hdrjirn, fall* dl# Spialcr durth da# andturrnd* (rcmolo im Jdcn, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 5 1 t L 1 .0b. 2.3.' T f t a . ■ •Dpt r? Cel. Fke. (ht* lift file r ( tf l il »tir(} » fP (ht>nip<ll«r f1J<l«rO 6 Frauen 2.3. M n p l 4# 4« U *f8*h *. •f.fbQ . h* . r*i 4.6.6. h l* fU 4 * 4M . M 8*ha • n th l C* I • ■ f r « 1 * .4 * r % . hffkUir* (•alflf) 6 Manner Z 3. airr«i*^4*r i.hfr>l& A t dlrh (p n a t(fr l| t f n tfi) •nfL'a • fr.fttl.fc » 4.6.8. . <*r fc ln ffi e« 4il>a* Sfhatarfcl U a*tr.fU t|. b* - r*i a D pt Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 6 2 tempo 9 Z k l.R 1. g r .n . FT B .B . pyp 2.3.1 m.Dpf. 12.1 Hr.(F) ■.D pf. FP- m. Dpf. PP 8.4. Poi. n.Dpf. Cfll. Hrf. Fke. m it p M f ) ^ r.lU l< a d lrh 4 « iiL o rh « n g v n 4 flM rS iD - (|v * p m l) n ) m il KIm k ) d«nl«k< kun.f«B d tto ir 81a.b», (klam rwU r»«praeh«a) ^ - , ' _ /a j= r] I'kvnpn d *|.B *r fi(n.B«, (kU nfvoIl n tP ro e h tn ) ( X « n S r lt r t ( Io b U i) 6 Manner 2.3. (le n lc i) Ufll4B4i(li4ral.*<taiN r*a4«lnir8lD .B>. 41# 4m U k ll.a lt darrh . #tr#l . f«n, eoj U ç a e p ilH c k iD |R m .Ppf. * a S l« f 1 1 ^ .J , Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 263 Dram a P e r G e lb e K la n q , ( The Y e llo w S ound) W a s s ily K a n d in s k y ( 1 8 5 6 -1 9 4 4 ) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 264 THE YELLOW SOUND* A s ta g e c o m p o s itio n by W a s s ily K a n d in s k y (T h e m u s ic a l p a r t was u n d e r ta k e n by Thomas von H artm an n ) T r a n s l a t e d by R .C . W y a tt C h a r a c te r s 5 G ia n t s I n d i s t i n c t B e in g s T e n o r (b a c k s ta g e ) A C h i l d A Man P e o p le i n lo o s e g a rm en ts P e o p le i n t i g h t s C h o ru s (b a c k s ta g e ) * T h i s f i r s t a p p e a re d i n P e r B la u e R e i t e r p u b lis h e d by R . P i p e r and C o ., V e r l a g , M uenchen, 1 9 1 4 . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 6 5 I n t r o d u c t i o n I n th e o r c h e s t r a som e i n d i s t i n c t c h o rd s . C u r t a i n . On th e s ta g e d a r k b lu e t w i l i g h t , w h ich a t f i r s t i s w h i t i s h and l a t e r becomes i n t e n s e l y d a r k b lu e . A f t e r a tim e a s m a ll l i g h t becomes v i s i b l e , w h ic h w it h th e deepen in g o f c o lo r becomes b r i g h t e r . A f t e r a tim e o r c h e s t r a l m u s ic . P a u s e . B e h in d th e s ta g e a c h o ir becomes a u d ib le , w h ich m ust be so a rra n g e d t h a t th e s o u rc e o f th e s in g in g i s n o t d e t e r m in a b le . The bass v o ic e s a r e p r i n c i p a l l y a u d ib le . The s in g in g i s e v e n , w i t h o u t te m p e ra m e n t, w it h i n t e r r u p t io n s w h ich a re shown by p e r io d s . A t f i r s t deep v o ic e s : " S to n e -h a r d d r e a m s ...a n d s p e a k in g c l i f f s . . . C lo d s w it h enigm as o f f u l f i l l i n g q u e s t i o n s . . . O f th e h e a v e n 's m ovem ent. . . and d i s s o l v i n g . . . o f s t o n e s . . . U pw ard, s o a r in g , i n v i s i b l e . . .r a m p a r t . . . " H ig h v o ic e s : " T e a rs and l a u g h t e r . . . amid c u r s in g , p r a y e r s . . . O f th e u n io n jo y and b l a c k e s t b a t t l e s . " A l l : 'Gloomy l i g h t on t h e . . . s u n n i e s t . . . day ( q u i c k l y and s u d d e n ly c u t o f f ) B r i g h t l y g le a m in g shadows i n d a r k e s t n i g h t ! ! Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 6 6 The l i g h t d is a p p e a r s . I t becomes s u d d e n ly d a r k . L e n g th y p a u s e . Then i n t r o d u c t i o n i n th e o r c h e s t r a . Scene 1 ( R i g h t and l e f t fro m Lhe o b s e r v e r .) The s ta g e m ust be as deep as p o s s i b l e . Deep i n th e b a c k g ro u n d a w id e , g re e n h i l l . B e h in d th e h i l l a sm ooth, d u l l , b lu e , r a t h e r d e e p -to n e d c u r t a i n . Soon th e m u sic b e g in s , f i r s t i n h ig h r e g i s t e r s , th e n d i r e c t l y and q u i c k l y g o in g i n t o lo w e r o n e s . A t th e same tim e th e b a c k g ro u n d becomes d a r k b lu e ( c o n c u r r e n t ly w it h th e m u s ic ) and a c q u ir e s w id e b la c k fra m es (a s i n a p i c t u r e ) . B e h in d th e s ta g e a c h o ir w it h o u t w ords becomes a u d i b le , w h ic h sounds u n f e e l i n g , q u i t e wooden and m e ch a n i c a l . A f t e r th e f i n i s h o f th e c h o i r m usic g e n e r a l pau se: no m ovem ent, no to n e . Then d a r k n e s s . L a t e r th e same scene i s l i g h t e d . From r i g h t to l e f t f i v e h a rs h y e llo w g i a n t s ( l a r g e as p o s s ib le ) a re shoved o u t ( i t i s l i k e a f l i c k e r i n g d i r e c t l y o v e r th e f l o o r ) . They re m a in f a r i n th e r e a r s ta n d in g b e s id e each o t h e r — w it h s h o u ld e rs h e ld p a r t l y h ig h , p a r t l y lo w , w it h s tr a n g e y e llo w fa c e s w h ic h a re i n d i s t i n c t . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 6 7 j T h ey t u r n t h e i r heads v e r y s lo w ly to one a n o th e r and make s im p le movements w i t h th e arm s. | The m usic grow s more d i s t i n c t . Soon t h e r e a f t e r th e g i a n t s ' v e r y deep s in g in g w i t h o u t w ords becomes i n t e l l i g i b l e ( p e r p r o c u r a ) and th e g i a n t s ap p ro ach th e f o o t l i g h t s v e r y s lo w ly . R ed , i n d i s t i n c t b e in g s , w h ic h a re s l i g h t l y s u g g e s tiv e o f b i r d s and h a v e l a r g e heads w h ic h h ave a d i s t a n t s i m i l a r i t y w i t h human o n e s , f l y q u i c k l y fro m l e f t to r i g h t . T h is f l i g h t i s r e f l e c t e d i n th e m u s ic . The g i a n t s c o n t in u e to s in g , s o f t e r and s o f t e r . C o n c u r r e n t ly th e y become le s s and le s s d i s t i n c t . The h i l l b e h in d grow s s lo w ly and becomes l i g h t e r and l i g h t e r . I n th e en d , w h i t e . The sky grows c o m p le te ly b l a c k . B a c k s ta g e th e same wooden c h o ir becomes a u d i b le . One does n o t any lo n g e r h e a r th e g i a n t s . The f r o n t p a r t o f th e s ta g e becomes b lu e and more and more o paque. The o r c h e s t r a b a t t l e s w it h th e c h o i r and d e f e a t s i t . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 268 A t h i c k b lu e h a z e re n d e r s th e e n t i r e s ta g e i n v i s i b l e . Scene 2 The b lu e h a z e g r a d u a l l y g iv e s way to th e l i g h t , w h ic h i s t o t a l l y and d a z z l i n g l y w h i t e . A t th e r e a r o f th e s ta g e a l a r g e h i l l as v i o l e n t g re e n as p o s s ib le , q u i t e ro u n d . The b a c k g ro u n d i s v i o l e t , r a t h e r l i g h t . The m usic i s h a r s h , s to rm y , w it h an o f t - r e p e a t e d A and B - f l a t , B - f l a t and A - s h a r p . T h ese i n d i v i d u a l to n e s a r e f i n a l l y s w a llo w e d up by th e lo u d s to r m in e s s . S u d d e n ly c o m p le te q u i e t r e i g n s . P a u s e . A g a in w h im p e rin g c o m p la in t b u t d e f i n i t e and s h a rp A and B - f l a t . T h is l a s t s r a t h e r a lo n g t im e . Then a g a in p a u s e . A t t h i s moment t h e b a c k g ro u n d s u d d e n ly becomes d i r t y b ro w n . The h i l l t u r n s d i r t y g r e e n . And e x a c t l y i n th e c e n t e r o f th e h i l l an i n d i s t i n c t b la c k s p o t fo rm s w h ic h a p p e a rs now c l e a r , now b l u r r e d . W it h each change o f d i s t i n c t n e s s th e h a r s h w h it e l i g h t becomes s p a s m o d ic a lly g r a y e r . To th e l e f t on th e h i l l a huge y e llo w f lo w e r b e comes s u d d e n ly v i s i b l e . I t i s f a i n t l y s i m i l a r to a l a r g e , c ro o k e d cucum ber and becomes b r i g h t e r and b r i g h t e r . The Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 269 stem i s lo n g and t h i n . O n ly one th o r n y , n a rro w l e a f grows fro m th e m id d le o f th e stem and i s i n c l i n e d s id e w is e . Long p a u s e . L a t e r i n c o m p le te q u i e t th e f lo w e r sways v e r y s lo w ly fro m r i g h t t o l e f t . S t i l l l a t e r th e l e a f a ls o , b u t n o t t o g e t h e r . L a t e r s t i l l b o th sway i n u n even tem po. Then a g a in s e p a r a t e ly w h ile w i t h th e f l o w e r 's movement a v e r y t h i n B - f l a t sounds, w it h th e l e a f ' s movement — a v e r y deep A . Then a g a in b o th sway t o g e t h e r and b o th to n e s sound s im u lt a n e o u s ly . The f l o w e r tr e m b le s q u i t e v i o l e n t l y and re m a in s m o t io n le s s . I n t h e m u sic b o th to n e s c o n tin u e to so u n d . A t th e same tim e fro m th e l e f t come many p e o p le i n d a z z l i n g , lo n g , s h a p e le s s c l o t h i n g ( t h e one i s c o m p le te ly b l u e , th e second— r e d , th e t h i r d — g r e e n , e t c . , o n ly y e llo w i s l a c k i n g ) . The p e o p le h a v e i n t h e i r hands v e r y l a r g e w h it e f l o w e r s , w h ic h a re s i m i l a r t o th e f l o w e r on th e h i l l . The p e o p le re m a in as c lo s e as p o s s ib le to each o t h e r , pass c lo s e to th e h i l l and s to p on th e r i g h t s id e o f th e s ta g e p r e s s e d c lo s e to each o t h e r . T hey sp eak w i t h m ixed v o ic e s and r e c i t e : "The f lo w e r s c o v e r e v e r y t h in g , c o v e r e v e r y t h in g , c o v e r e v e r y t h i n g . C lo s e y o u r e y e s ! C lo s e y o u r eyes! We a re l o o k in g . We a r e lo o k in g . C o v e rin g c o n c e p tio n w it h in n o c e n c e . Open y o u r e y e s ! Open y o u r eye s! G one. G o n e ." Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 7 0 A t f i r s t th e y sp eak t h i s a l l t o g e t h e r as i n ec s ta s y ( v e r y c l e a r l y ) . Then th e y r e p e a t th e same s in g ly ; th e one to th e o t h e r and i n d i s t a n t v o ic e s , i n a l t o , i n b a s e , i n s o p ra n o . W ith "we a re lo o k in g , we a re lo o k in g " B - f l a t sounds, w it h "g o n e , gone" — A . H e re and t h e r e th e v o ic e becomes h o a r s e . H e re and t h e r e one scream s as i f p o s s e s s e d . H e re and t h e r e th e v o ic e grows n a s a l . Now s lo w , now f u r i o u s l y f a s t . I n th e f i r s t case th e e n t i r e s ta g e s u d d e n ly grows murky th ro u g h a d u l l , re d l i g h t . I n th e second c o m p le te d a rk n e s s a l t e r n a t e s w it h h a rs h b lu e l i g h t . I n th e t h i r d — e v e r y t h in g s u d d e n ly becomes p a le g r a y ( a l l c o lo r s d i s a p p e a r ! ) . O n ly th e y e llo w f lo w e r s h in e s even s tr o n g e r ! G r a d u a lly th e o r c h e s t r a b e g in s and s w a llo w s up th e v o ic e s . The m usic grows r e s t i v e , makes le a p s fro m f o r t i s simo to p ia n is s im o . The l i g h t becomes b r i g h t e r and one r e c o g n iz e s i n d i s t i n c t l y th e c o lo r s o f th e p e o p le . From r i g h t t o l e f t v e r y s m a ll f i g u r e s move v e r y s lo w ly o v e r th e h i l l , f i g u r e s w h ich a r e i n d i s t i n c t and o f g r a y - g r e e n c o lo r o f u n c e r t a in to n e s . They lo o k a h ea d . A t t h e moment when th e f i r s t f i g u r e becomes v i s i b l e , th e y e llo w f lo w e r sways as i f e m b a t tle d . L a t e r i t s u d d e n ly d is a p p e a r s . J u s t as s u d d e n ly a l l w h it e flo w e r s become y e llo w . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 7 1 ! The p e o p le w a lk s lo w ly , as i f i n a d ream , t o th e f o o t l i g h t s and g e t f a r t h e r away from each o t h e r . The m u sic s in k s and a g a in one h e a r s th e same r e c i t a t i v e . (A h a l f - s e n t e n c e spoken t o g e t h e r ; a t th e end o f th e s e n te n c e a v o i c e , v e r y i n d i s t i n c t . T h is o f t e n chang i n g . ) Soon th e p e o p le s to p as i f in a t r a n c e and t u r n a ro u n d . They s u d d e n ly n o t i c e th e s m a ll f i g u r e s w h ic h co n t in u e to move u n c e a s in g ly o v e r th e h i l l . The p e o p le t u r n away and ta k e s e v e r a l q u ic k s te p s to w a rd th e f o o t l i g h t s , s to p a g a in , t u r n aro u n d a g a in , and re m a in m o tio n le s s as i f b o und. (T h e s e movements m ust be c a r r i e d o u t as i f on com m and.) F i n a l l y th e y th ro w away th e f l o w e r s , s e e m in g ly f i l l e d w it h b lo o d , and f r e e i n g th e m s e lv e s w it h f o r c e fro m t h i s r i g i d i t y , r u n , c lo s e to each o t h e r , to th e f r o n t o f th e s t a g e . T h ey o f t e n lo o k a ro u n d . (T h e s e movements m ust n o t be made t o g e t h e r . ) I t s u d d e n ly grow s d a r k . Scene 3 R e a r o f s ta g e : two b ig re d -b ro w n c l i f f s , th e one p o in t e d , th e o t h e r ro u n d e d and b ig g e r th a n th e f i r s t . B ack g ro u n d : b l a c k . B etw een th e c l i f f s s ta n d th e g i a n t s ( o f Scene 1) and w h is p e r s o m e th in g to each o t h e r t o n e l e s s l y . F i r s t th e y w h is p e r i n p a i r s ; th e n a l l heads a p p ro a c h each Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 272 o t h e r . The body re m a in s m o t io n le s s . From a l l s id e s i n r a p id change f a l l h a r s h - c o lo r e d beams o f l i g h t ( b l u e , r e d , v i o l e t , g re e n change s e v e r a l t i m e s ) . Then a l l th e s e beams m eet i n th e c e n t e r w h ere th e y become m ix e d . E v e r y t h in g r e m ains m o t io n le s s . The g i a n t s a r e a lm o s t i n v i s i b l e . Sud d e n ly a l l c o lo r s d is a p p e a r . I t i s b la c k f o r a moment. Then o n to th e s ta g e flo w s a d u l l , y e llo w l i g h t w h ic h g r a d u a l l y grows more and more i n t e n s e u n t i l th e e n t i r e s ta g e becomes h a rs h lem on y e l l o w . W ith th e in c r e a s in g o f th e l i g h t th e m u sic goes i n t o th e d e p th s and becomes d a r k e r and d a r k e r ( t h e s e movements s u g g e s t th e r e t r e a t o f a s n a i l i n t o i t s s h e l l ) . A t th e tim e o f th e s e two movements n o th in g e x c e p t l i g h t i s to be seen on th e s ta g e : no o b j e c t s . The h a r s h e s t l i g h t i s a c h ie v e d , th e m usic c o m p le te ly l i q u i d . The g i a n t s become d i s t i n c t a g a in , a r e m o tio n le s s and s t a r e ahead o f them . The c l i f f s a r e no lo n g e r v i s i b l e . O n ly th e g ia n t s a r e on th e s ta g e : th e y now s ta n d f a r t h e r a p a r t and h ave grown l a r g e r . B ac kg ro u n d and f l o o r a r e b l a c k . Long p a u s e . S u d d e n ly one h e a r s b a c k s ta g e a s h r i l l t e n o r v o i c e , f i l l e d w i t h f e a r , w h ic h scream s c o m p le te ly u n i n t e l l i g i b l e w ords v e r y f a s t (o n e o f t e n h e a rs th e l e t t e r " a " : f o r i n s ta n c e — K a la s im u n a f a k o la l ) . P a u s e . I t grow s d a r k f o r an i n s t a n t . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 273 I Scene 4 i L e f t , on s t a g e , a s m a ll, s l a n t i n g b u i l d i n g ( s i m i l a r to a v e r y s im p le c h a p e l) w i t h o u t d o o r o r w in d o w . On t h e s id e o f th e b u i l d i n g ( e x t e n d in g fro m r o o f ) a s m a ll, n a rro w , s l a n t i n g to w e r w i t h a s m a ll c ra c k e d b e l l . From th e b e l l a r o p e . A s m a ll c h i l d , w h ic h has on a l i t t l e w h it e s h i r t and i s s i t t i n g on t h e g ro u n d ( f a c i n g th e a u d ie n c e ) , p u l l s s lo w ly and e v e n ly on th e lo w e r end o f th e r o p e . To t h e r i g h t on th e same l i n e i s s t a n d in g a v e r y f a t man c lo t h e d c o m p le te ly i n b l a c k . The f a c e t o t a l l y w h i t e , v e r y i n d i s t i n c t . The c h a p e l i s d i r t y r e d . The to w e r i s h a rs h b l u e . The b e l l o f i r o n , b a c k g ro u n d g r a y , e v e n , sm ooth. Th e b la c k g e n tle m a n s ta n d s w i t h le g s w id e s p re a d and s u p p o rts h i s hands on h i s h i p s . The man ( v e r y lo u d , commanding; b e a u t i f u l v o i c e ) : " S i l e n c e ! !" The c h i l d r e le a s e s th e r o p e . I t grows d a r k . S cene 5 The s ta g e g r a d u a l l y becomes b a th e d i n a c o ld r e d l i g h t , w h ic h s lo w ly grow s s t r o n g e r and j u s t as s lo w ly , y e l l o w . A t t h i s moment th e g i a n t s i n th e r e a r become v i s i b l e (a s i n Scene 3 ) . A ls o th e same c l i f f s a re t h e r e . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 7 4 I The g i a n t s w h is p e r a g a in (a s i n Scene 3 ) . A t th e I tim e when t h e i r heads a r e t o g e t h e r a g a in , one h e a rs b a c k - I i s ta g e th e same s cre a m , b u t v e r y q u ic k and s h o r t . I t grows d a rk f o r a moment: The same e v e n t r e p e a ts i t s e l f a g a in . (E ach tim e th e m usic m ust o f c o u rs e be r e p e a t e d . ) A f t e r i t grows l i g h t ( w h it e l i g h t , w i t h o u t s h a d o w s ), th e g i a n t s w h is p e r a g a in b u t make a t th e same tim e w%ak movements w i t h th e hands ( t h e s e movements m ust be d i f f e r e n t , b u t w e a k ). H e re and t h e r e one s t r e t c h e s h is arms o u t ( a l s o t h i s move m ent m ust be more a s u g g e s tio n o n ly ) and i n c l i n e d h i s h ead somewhat t o th e s i d e , lo o k in g a t th e a u d ie n c e . T w ic e a l l th e g ia n t s l e t t h e i r arms s u d d e n ly hang lo o s e , grow some w h a t l a r g e r and lo o k , w i t h o u t any m ovement, a t th e a u d ie n c e . Then a s o r t o f cram p p a ss e s th ro u g h t h e i r b o d ie s (a s w it h th e y e llo w f lo w e r ) and th e y w h is p e r a g a in , h e r e and t h e r e s t r e t c h i n g th e arms o u t as i f c o m p la in in g . The m u sic g r a d u a l l y grow s h a r s h e r . The g i a n t s re m a in m o t io n le s s . From th e l e f t a p p e a r many p e o p le d re s s e d in d i f f e r e n t c o lo r e d t i g h t s . T h e i r h a i r i s c o v e re d w i t h th e c o rre s p o n d in g c o l o r . A ls o th e f a c e s . (T h e p e o p le a re l i k e m a r io n e t t e s . ) F i r s t come g r a y , th e n — b la c k , w h it e and f i n a l l y c o lo r e d p e o p le . The movements a re d i f f e r e n t i n each g ro u p : th e one w a lk s q u i c k l y and s t r a i g h t a h ea d , th e n e x t - - s lo w ly , as i f w i t h d i f f i c u l t y , th e t h i r d now and th e n le a p s m e r r i l y , th e f o u r t h i s a lw a ys lo o k in g a ro u n d , th e f i f t h comes w i t h Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 7 5 solem n t h e a t r i c a l s te p s and has c ro s s e d arm s, th e s i x t h w a lk s on t i p t o e s w i t h a hand r a is e d f l a t , e t c . A l l a re s p re a d o u t i n v a r io u s ways on th e s ta g e : some s i t i n s m a ll c lo s e d g ro u p s , some s i n g l y . L ik e w is e , some s ta n d i n g ro u p s , o t h e r s a g a in a lo n e . The e n t i r e d i s p e r s a l s h o u ld be n e i t h e r " b e a u t i f u l " n o r v e r y d e f i n i t e . I t m ust n o t , h o w e v e r, fo rm a c o m p le te ju m b le . The p e o p le lo o k i n v a r io u s d i r e c t i o n s ; some h o ld heads l i f t e d h ig h , some slu m p ed , some d e e p ly s o . As i f o p p re s s e d by a l a s s i t u d e , th e y seldom change t h e i r p o s i t i o n s . The l i g h t re m a in s a l ways w h it e . The m usic changes o f t e n i n tempo; h e r e and t h e r e i t , to o , grows l i s t l e s s . E x a c t ly i n such a moment a w h it e p e rs o n to th e l e f t ( r a t h e r f a r b a ck ) makes u n c e r t a in b u t much q u ic k e r m ovem ents, now w it h th e arm s, now w it h th e l e g s . H e re and t h e r e he r e t a i n s one movement f o r a lo n g e r p e r io d and re m a in s i n th e c o rre s p o n d in g p o s i t i o n a few s e c o nds. I t i s l i k e a k in d o f d a n c e . O n ly th e tempo changes o f t e n and som etim es i s i n tim e w it h th e m u s ic , som etim es n o t . (T h is s im p le e v e n t m ust be e s p e c i a l l y c a r e f u l l y w o rke d o u t so t h a t th e f o l l o w i n g a p p e a rs e x p r e s s iv e and s u r p r i s i n g . ) The o t h e r p e o p le g r a d u a l l y b e g in t o lo o k a t th e w h it e o n e . Some c ra n e t h e i r n e c k s . F i n a l l y a l l a re lo o k in g a t h im . T h is d a n c e , h o w e v e r, ends q u i t e s u d d e n ly : th e w h it e one s i t s down, e x te n d s one arm as i f i n solem n p r e p a r a t io n and, t h i s arm s lo w ly b e n d in g a t th e e lb o w , i t a p - Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 7 6 I p ro a c h e s h i s h e a d . The g e n e r a l t e n s io n grow s e s p e c i a l l y ; e x p r e s s iv e . The w h it e o n e , h o w e v e r, s u p p o rts h i s elb o w on h i s k n ee and la y s h i s h e a d on h i s open h a n d . I t grows d a rk f o r a moment. Then one sees th e same g ro u p s and p o s i t i o n s . Some g ro u p s a re l i g h t e d fro m o v e rh e a d w i t h more o r le s s s t r o n g l y d i f f e r e n t c o lo r s : one l a r g e r , s i t t i n g g ro u p i s b r i g h t l y l i g h t e d w it h r e d , one l a r g e r , s ta n d in g g r o u p - - p a le b l u e , e t c . The s h a rp y e llo w l i g h t (b e s id e s th e g i a n t s , who a re now e s p e c i a l l y d i s t i n c t ) i s c o n c e n tr a te d o n ly on th e s i t t i n g w h it e o n e . S u d d e n ly a l l c o lo r s d is a p p e a r ( t h e g i a n t s re m a in y e l l o w ) , and a w h i t e , d u s k - l i k e l i g h t f i l l s th e s t a g e . I n th e o r c h e s t r a s e p a r a t e c o lo r s b e in g to s p e a k . The c o rre s p o n d in g s in g le f i g u r e s g e t up i n d i f f e r e n t p la c e s : q u i c k l y , p r e c i p i t a t e l y , s o le m n ly , s lo w ly , and lo o k u p w a rd s . Kany s t o p . Many s i t down a g a in . Then a l i s t l e s s n e s s overcom es them a l l a g a in and a l l re m a in mo t i o n l e s s . The g ia n t s w h is p e r . B u t even th e y now re m a in mo t i o n l e s s and e r e c t , s in c e b a c k s ta g e th e wooden c h o ir be comes a u d ib le b u t f o r o n ly a s h o r t t im e . Then one h e a rs a g a in i n th e o r c h e s t r a s e p a r a te c o l o r s . A r e d l i g h t b ru s h e s o v e r th e c l i f f s and th e y tre m b l e v i o l e n t l y . A l t e r n a t i n g w i t h t h i s l i g h t i n g th e g ia n t s tr e m b le v i o l e n t l y . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. I 2 7 7 ! A t d i f f e r e n t ends a movement becomes n o t i c e a b l e . I n th e o r c h e s t r a B - f l a t and A a r e r e p e a te d s e v e r a l tim e s : s i n g l y , t o g e t h e r , now v e r y s h a rp , now— h a r d l y a u d i b l e . V a r io u s p e o p le le a v e t h e i r p la c e s and go f i r s t ; s lo w ly , th e n q u i c k l y to o t h e r g ro u p s . The ones s ta n d in g s in g ly fo rm s m a lle r g ro u p s o f two and t h r e e p e o p le o r go to th e l a r g e r o n e s . L a r g e g ro u p s d is p e r s e . Some o f th e peo p le ru n h u r r i e d l y fro m th e s t a g e , lo o k in g a b o u t th e m s e lv e s . A t t h i s tim e a l l b l a c k , g r a y and w h it e p e o p le d is a p p e a r ; f i n a l l y o n ly th e c o lo r e d ones re m a in on s t a g e . G r a d u a lly e v e r y t h in g i s i n a r h y t h m ic a l m ovem ent. I n th e o r c h e s t r a — a ju m b le . The s h r i l l c r y o f S cene 3 becomes a u d ib le . The g i a n t s t r e m b le . V a r io u s l i g h t s sweep th e s ta g e and c ro s s each o t h e r . W hole g ro u p s ru n fro m th e s t a g e . T h e re b e g in s a g e n e r a l dance: i t b e g in s i n v a r io u s p la c e s and s p re a d s g r a d u a l l y , d ra g g in g a l l a lo n g . R u n n in g , l e a p i n g , r u n n in g to each o t h e r and away fro m each o t h e r , f a l l i n g . Some, s ta n d in g , move h a s t i l y o n ly th e arm s, o th e r s o n ly th e l e g s , o n ly th e h e a d , o n ly th e t r u n k . Some com bine a l l th e s e m ovem ents. Som etim es t h e r e a re g ro u p m ovem ents. W hole g ro u p s som etim es make e x a c t l y th e same m ovem ent. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 7 8 I A t th e moment w here th e g r e a t e s t ju m b le i n th e o r - ! c h e s t r a , i n movements and l i g h t i n g i s re a c h e d , i t s u d d e n ly ! grows d a r k and s t i l l . O n ly i n th e d e p th s o f th e s ta g e do ' th e y e llo w g i a n t s re m a in v i s i b l e , who o n ly s lo w ly a r e s w a l lo w ed by th e d a r k n e s s . I t a p p e a rs t h a t th e g i a n t s a r e s n u ffe d l i k e a la m p , t h a t i s , b e f o r e c o m p le te d a rk n e s s th e l i g h t q u iv e r s a few tim e s . Scene 5 ( T h is scene m ust come as q u i c k l y as p o s s i b l e .) B lu e , d u l l b a c k g ro u n d , as i n Scene 1 ( w i t h o u t b la c k f r a m e s ) . I n th e m id d le o f th e s ta g e a l i g h t y e llo w g i a n t w it h a w h i t e , i n d i s t i n c t f a c e w i t h g r e a t , ro u n d , b la c k e y e s . B a ckg ro u n d and f l o o r b l a c k . He s lo w ly r a i s e s b o th arms a lo n g s id e th e body ( t h e palm s downward) and grows a t th e same tim e i n t o th e h e ig h t s . A t th e moment i n w h ic h he has re a c h e d th e h e i g h t o f th e s ta g e and h i s f i g u r e re s e m b le s a c r o s s , i t s u d d e n ly grows d a r k . Th e m u sic i s e x p r e s s iv e , s i m i l a r to th e e v e n t on th e s t a g e . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 7 9 S u p r a - o b j e c t i v is m . R e fe r e n c e s h a v e a lr e a d y been made to n o n - o b je c t iv is m i n th e p r e c e d in g d is c u s s io n con c e r n in g s y m b o lic use o f c o l o r . N o n - o b je c t iv is m i s a syno nym f o r n o n - r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l , o r n o n - f i g u r a t i v e . The G e r man A b s t r a c t E x p r e s s i o n i s t s , P e r B la u e R e i t e r p a i n t e r s , d id n o t o n ly d i s t o r t o b je c t s as d id D ie B riic k e a r t i s t s , b u t ac t u a l l y fo r s o o k r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l fo rm i n th e c o u rs e o f t h e i r I 'd e v e lo p m e n t, some t o a g r e a t e r , and o t h e r s to a l e s s e r de g r e e . i Î T h is f o r s a k in g o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l fo rm , o r n o n - ; o b j e c t iv i s m , d i d n o t t r a n s p i r e a l l a t o n c e . T h is p o i n t i s o b v io u s as one t r a c e s th e s t y l i s t i c d e v e lo p m e n t o f e ac h a r t i s t o f P e r B la u e R e i t e r . T h e r e a d e r w i l l r e c a l l th e d i f fe r e n c e in d e g re e o f a b s t r a c t i o n b e tw e e n K a n d in s k y 's P a i n t - i in g w i t h Red S p o t '1 9 1 4 ) and Red S p o t I I ( 1 9 2 1 ) . One w i l l a ls o r e c a l l t h a t w h i le S c h o e n b e rg 's E rw a rtu n g and P i e G lu c k - l i c h e Hand a re b o th composed p a n t o n a l ly , th e l a t t e r i s more a b s t r a c t th a n th e fo r m e r . T h e r e f o r e , w i t h i n A b s t r a c t E x p r e s s io n is m , some w r i t e r s d i s t i n g u i s h e a r l y A b s t r a c t E x p r e s s io n is m , w h ic h began w i t h P e r B la u e R e i t e r , and l a t e r A b s t r a c t E x p r e s s io n is m , w h ic h began somewhere a b o u t m id i t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , and i s more p r o p e r l y known as n o n - i o b j e c t i v e a r t ( 8 8 : 3 1 2 ) . i P a u l K le e (1 8 7 9 -1 9 4 0 ) i s c o n s id e r e d i n m ost o f th e i i i l i t e r a t u r e as an A b s t r a c t E x p r e s s i o n i s t . W h ile he was n o t } Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 280 a F i g u r a t i v e E x p r e s s io n is t such as K ir c h n e r , N o ld e , o r K o k o s ch k a, n e i t h e r was he t o t a l l y n o n - o b je c t iv e as Kan d in s k y was i n many o f h is w o rk s , e s p e c i a l l y i n th o s e o f h is l l a t e r p e r io d . K l e e ' s A b s t r a c t E x p re s s io n is m i s w h a t he him-j i [ I s e l f r e f e r r e d to as c r y s t a l l i n e ( 2 4 : 1 9 2 ) . He d id n o t d i s - ! I I r e g a r d th e o b j e c t , o r r e a l i t y , b u t p e e re d th ro u g h i t and I above i t w it h an in n e rm o s t v i s i o n . H is w ork i s s u p r a - r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l , o r s u p r a - o b j e c t i v e ( 2 4 : 1 9 2 ) . ' P a u l K le e , b o rn i n S w it z e r l a n d , s p e n t m ost o f h is I a r t i s t i c c a r e e r i n G erm any. K le e em bodied i n h is s t y l e an a p p ro ach to a l l fo rm s o f l i f e : human, a n im a l, and p l a n t . He had a way o f p i e r c i n g th ro u g h th e e x t e r i o r o f h u m a n ity and a l l n a t u r e w it h an i n t u i t i o n t h a t amazed and d e l ig h t e d h is s tu d e n ts a t th e B au h au s. I t i s K l e e ' s W eim ar p e r io d a t th e B a u h a u s , w h ic h s e rv e s as th e fra m e o f r e f e r e n c e f o r t h i s d is c u s s io n . I n 1 9 2 0 , th e famous a r c h i t e c t W a l t e r G ro p iu s c a l l e d K le e t o th e n e w ly -fo rm e d B au h a u s . G ro p iu s had fo u n d e d i t i n 1919 a t a tim e when G erm a n y 's econom ic and s o c i a l p o s i t i o n i n th e w o r ld was p r e c a r io u s . H is c h i e f p u rp o s e was to syn t h e s iz e th e a r t s and c r a f t s and t h e r e was to be " . . . no a r r o g a n t b a r r i e r b etw een a r t i s t s and c r a f t s m e n ." ( 2 4 : 5 4 ) M a s te rs and s tu d e n ts w o rke d c lo s e l y t o g e t h e r w it h o n ly one aim : to a c h ie v e th e " a r t i s t i c s y n t h e s is ," th e b le n d in g o f c r a fts m a n s h ip w it h th e fo r m a l r e q u ire m e n ts o f a r t . The c u r r ic u lu m was d iv id e d i n t o Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 8 1 a c o u rs e o f i n s t r u c t i o n i n th e c r a f t s (w o r k in g i n a v a r i e t y o f d i f f e r e n t m a t e r i a l s ) and a c o u rs e o f i n s t r u c t i o n i n fo r m a l p ro b le m s o f o b s e r v a t io n , r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , and c o m p o s itio n . The Bauhaus s t u d e n t s t a r t e d w i t h a p r e l i m i n a r y c o u rs e i n w h ich he was in t r o d u c e d , by p r a c t i c a l e x p e r im e n t, to th e c r e a t i v e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f d i f f e r e n t m a t e r i a l s . Then he r e c e iv e d i n s t r u c t i o n i n a c r a f t d u r in g w h ich he was ta u g h t by two m a s te rs , a c r a fts m a n | and an a r t i s t , b o th w o rk in g i n c lo s e c o o p e r a t io n . ! T h is new, u n i f i e d c o n c e p tio n o f w ork c u lm in a te d i n ; b u i l d i n g , f o r a r c h i t e c t u r e i s an i n d i v i s i b l e u n io n i o f a l l th e c r e a t i v e , f o r m a t iv e p ro c e s s e s : th e i n - { d i v i d u a l becomes a p a r t o f a w h o le , y e t r e t a i n s th e j c o n s c io u s n e s s o f h i s s i g n i f i c a n c e as an i n d i v i d u a l ( " s o c i a l s y n t h e s i s " ) . ( 2 4 : 5 4 - 6 5 ) : G ro p iu s g a th e r e d t o g e t h e r th e m ost c r e a t i v e p e rs o n a l i t i e s he knew to h e lp i n t h i s p r o j e c t . He had s t a r t e d th e Bauhaus w it h th e p a i n t e r s F e i n in g e r , M o h o ly -N a g y , M uche, and I t t e n , th e s c u lp t o r M a rc k s , and th e a r c h i t e c t M e y e r. Som etim e l a t e r he i n v i t e d S chlem m er, K le e , and K a n d in s k y to j o i n th e f a c u l t y . As a p r o f e s s o r o f fo rm , K le e f i r s t had to te a c h a c o u rs e i n s t a in e d g la s s , and th e n a c la s s i n w e a v in g . O n ly l a t e r d id K le e , a lo n g w i t h K a n d in s k y and F e i n i n g e r , te a c h c la s s e s i n p a i n t i n g b e c a u s e th e s tu d e n ts demanded i t . K le e had a lr e a d y m et K a n d in s k y and had been g r e a t l y e n co u ra g e d by h im . K le e had made a s m a ll c o n t r i b u t i o n to th e second B la u e R e i t e r e x h i b i t i o n . I t was n o t u n t i l th e Bauhaus p e r io d , h o w e v e r, t h a t t h e i r f r i e n d s h i p blossom ed and b o th e v o lv e d t h e o r ie s o f a r t u n iq u e to e a c h . I n 1 9 1 8 , w h i le K le e was s t i l l i n th e arm y, he had w r i t t e n an e s s a y w h ic h he p u b lis h e d two y e a r s l a t e r u n d e r i Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 282 th e t i t l e C r e a t i v e C r e d o . G rohm ann' s q u o t a t io n s fro m i t and c o m m e n tarie s a re g iv e n h e r e . " A r t does n o t r e n d e r th e v i s i b l e , b u t makes v i s i b le " i n h is [ K l e e 's ] l a p i d a r y p h ra s e ; and on t h i s p re m is e he b u i l d s up to h is t h e o r y . "We used to r e p r e s e n t th in g s v i s i b l e on e a r t h w h ic h we e n jo y e d s e e in g o r w o u ld h ave l i k e d t o s e e . Now we r e v e a l th e r e a l i t y o f v i s i b l e t h in g s , and th e r e b y e x p re s s th e b e l i e f t h a t v i s i b l e r e a l i t y i s m e r e ly an i s o l a t e d phenomenon l a t e n t l y outn u m b ered by o t h e r r e a l i t i e s . T h in g s ta k e on a b r o a d e r and more v a r i e d m e an in g , o f t e n i n seem ing c o n t r a d i c t i o n t o th e r a t i o n a l e x p e r ie n c e o f y e s t e r d a y . T h e re i s a te n d e n c y to s t r e s s th e e s s e n t i a l i n th e ra n d o m ." . . . P i c t o r i a l a r t s p r in g s fro m m ovem ent, i s i t s e l f h a rd m ovement, and i s p e r c e iv e d th ro u g h m ovem ents. O ut o f a b s t r a c t e le m e n ts o f fo rm (m ovem ent, c o u n te r m ovement, c o n t r a s t s o f d iv id e d c o l o r ) , " th ro u g h t h e i r u n i f i c a t i o n i n c o n c r e te b e in g s o r a b s t r a c t th in g s l i k e numbers and l e t t e r s , w i l l f i n a l l y be c r e a t e d a fo r m a l cosmos w h ic h so c l o s e l y re s e m b le s th e C r e a t io n t h a t a m ere b r e a t h s u f f i c e s to b r in g to l i f e th e e x p r e s s io n o f r e l i g i o u s f e e l i n g s and r e l i g i o n i t s e l f . " (2 4 : 1 8 1 ) The n e c e s s it y f o r movement i n h is w o rk was e v e r p r e s e n t to K l e e 's m ind even i n h is m ost a b s t r a c t moments. ;M usic a ls o , h o w ever a b s t r a c t o r a b s o lu t e , alw ays has m ove- |m e n t. The com poser c o n tin u o u s ly le a d s th e l i s t e n e r from one n o te to a n o th e r , from one c h o rd to a n o th e r , fro m one m o t i f to a n o th e r , fro m one p h ra s e to a n o t h e r . I t i s th e q u a l i t y o f movement t h a t makes m usic th e m ost a b s t r a c t and j e l u s i v e o f a l l th e a r t s . I K le e , l i k e K a n d in s k y , was a m u s ic ia n , o n ly a f i n e r o n e . He was a s k i l l e d v i o l i n i s t and o c c a s io n a lly p la y e d v i o l a . H is w i f e , L i l y , t a u g h t p ia n o . As a y o u th , K le e had Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 8 3 p la y e d w i t h th e B e rn e o r c h e s t r a and o f t e n to o k p a r t i n cham ber g ro u p s , b o th a t home and p r o f e s s i o n a l l y . K l e e ' s s p e c i a l p a s s io n f o r th e m usic o f M o z a r t i s w e l l know n. I t was p a r a l l e l e d b y deep u n d e r s ta n d in g and k n o w le d g e . R o m a n tic m u s ic , a f t e r th e l a t e cham ber w orks o f B e e th o v e n , seemed to him un c o n t r o l l e d and w a s t e f u l . He a ls o h a d a g r e a t lo v e f o r B a ch , w h ic h a p p e a rs t o have d eep en e d d u r in g th e w ar y e a r s : 'N e v e r h a v e I e x p e r ie n c e d Bach w it h such i n t e n s i t y , n e v e r h a v e I f e l t m y s e lf so much a t one w it h h im . W hat c o n c e n t r a t io n , w h a t s o l i t a r y u l t i m a t e e n r ic h m e n t : ' . . . L y o n e l F e i n i n g e r , him s e l f a f i n e m u s ic ia n , r e c a l l s w i t h e s p e c ia l w arm th an e v e n in g on w h ich K le e p la y e d th e v i o l i n p a r t o f B a c h 's f o u r t h s u i t e : 'No one g ra s p e d and b ro u g h t ! o u t th e s p i r i t o f t h i s p ie c e as f i r m l y as h e , w i t h o u t th e s l i g h t e s t s t r e s s i n g o f th e e m o tio n a l; p u re m u s ic a l s t r u c t u r e . . . . K le e was a ls o i n t e r e s t e d i n th e w ork o f modern co m p o se rs. F e i n i n g e r sp ea ks o f p e rfo rm a n c e s o f mu s i c by C e s a r F r a n c k , R a v e l, D e b u s sy , S t r a v in s k y and H in d e m it h . M a h le r and B r u c k n e r , t h e g r e a t modern r o m a n tic s , d is p le a s e d K l e e , w h ile S ch o n b erg i n t e r e s t e d and e x c i t e d h im . L i k e o th e r s K le e c o n s id e r e d m u s ic i n some r e s p e c ts a n a lo g o u s to p a i n t i n g . ( 4 5 : 3 3 ) R e fe r e n c e was made to K l e e ' s a d m ir a t io n f o r Bach a b o v e . I t i s no w onder th e n , t h a t th e m u s ic a l fo rm o f th e fu g u e s h o u ld h a v e i n t r i g u e d h im . He p ro d u c e d a g ro u p o f ^ p ic tu r e s , th e s t r u c t u r e o f w h ic h i s b a s e d on f u g a l p r o c e d - I ! u r e s . I n th e fu g u e , th e th em e , known as th e s u b j e c t , i s c a r r i e d th ro u g h a l l th e v o ic e s s u c c e s s iv e ly . Th e s u b je c t can be v a r i e d and i n v e r t e d . Fugue i n Red (1 9 21) e x p re s s e s i n v i s u a l fo rm , t h i s f u g a l p ro c e d u re j u s t d e s c r ib e d i n m u s ic . Th e f o u r m ain fo rm s ( p o t , k id n e y , c i r c l e , and r e c t a n g le ) m ig h t be c o n s id e r e d as th e th em e, re s p o n s e , [ them e i n th e t h i r d v o i c e , and re s p o n s e i n th e Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 8 4 f o u r t h v o i c e . The c h a n g in g k e y w o u ld be th e chang in g c h a r a c t e r o f th e sh ap es; th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e theme w o u ld be th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e c o lo r ( y e l lo w is h p in k — p in k p u r p l e ) . An o r d e r l y g r a d a t io n o f th e c o lo r s i s r e f l e c t e d i n th e o r d e r l y i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p o f th e s h a p e s , and th e c o m p o s itio n m ust seem a l i v e b o th to a m u s ic ia n and t o a p a i n t e r , f o r b o th may sense i n i t s h a rm o n io u s a rra n g e m e n t th e echo o f a more u n i v e r s a l o r d e r . The same p ro c e d u re i s th e b a s is o f H an g in g F r u i t (1 9 2 1 ) and D y in g P la n t s ( 1 9 2 2 ) , G arden D ry and C o o l ( 1 9 2 1 ) , Dream C i t y ( 1 9 2 1 ) , and th e m y s t e r i ous C e r a m i c - E r o t i c - R e l ig i o u s ( 1 9 2 1 ) . Dream C i t y i s r a t h e r l i k e a d o u b le fu g u e ; fro m th e in t e r w e a v in g o f themes and keys K le e o b t a in s a s p a t i a l p i c t u r e w h ic h , l i k e th e a n a l y t i c a l p i c t u r e s o f th e C u b is t s , re s e m b le s a c ry p to g ra m . ( 2 4 : 2 2 1 - 2 2 2 ) I n w h a t W i l l Grohmann r e f e r s t o as th e " in n e rm o s t c i r c l e o f h i s a r t " d u r in g th e W eim ar p e r io d a re fo u n d th e m ost a b s t r a c t o f K l e e 's p a i n t i n g s . The te rm s u p r a - r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l i s p r e f e r r e d t o d e s c r ib e th e s e w o rk s . From W eim ar on, K l e e ' s w orks can be d iv id e d i n t o th o s e t h a t l i e i n th e in n e r m o s t c i r c l e o f h is a r t and th o s e t h a t a re s i t u a t e d n e a r th e p e r ip h e r y . I n th e c e n t e r a re th e p i c t u r e s i n w h ic h h is r e l a t i o n - : s h ip to th e u n iv e r s e i n m a n if e s te d s y m b o lic a lly ; i each one p r e s e n ts a phenomenon w h ic h i s i n e x p l i c a b le , o r can b e s t be e x p la in e d by c o m p a ris o n w i t h ' o th e r s o r by t r a c i n g b ack th e a r t i s t i c c r e a t i v e p ro c e s s to e a r l i e r s t a g e s . They a r e w orks i n w h ic h o b j e c t o r theme c a n n o t be s e p a r a te d fro m t h e i r p i c t o r i a l o r i g i n and g r o w th . M o s t o f them a re rem o te fro m n a t u r e , i f t h a t e x p r e s s io n s t i l l a p p lie s ; one can h a r d l y speak o f a b s t r a c t i n c o n n e c tio n w it h I K le e , f o r i n h is ca s e th e c o n f l i c t r e v o lv e s " le s s ! a b o u t th e q u e s t io n w h e th e r th e o b j e c t e x i s t s in r e a l i t y th a n ab o u t w h a t k in d o f o b j e c t i t i s . " ; These p i c t u r e s a re s u p r a - r e p r e s e n t a t io n a l r a t h e r i th a n n o n - r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l ; one m ig h t c a l l them I c r y s t a l l i n e , as K le e h i m s e l f d i d . ( 2 4 :1 9 2 ) I T h u s , K le e h im s e lf p r e f e r r e d t o r e f e r to h is w orks as " c r y s t a l l i n e , " o r , m u s ic ia n t h a t he w as, as " a b s o lu te " Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 8 5 r a t h e r th a n a b s t r a c t . He t o l d h is s tu d e n ts t h a t a b s t r a c t a r t c o u ld be v e r y c o n c r e te and u n s p i r i t u a l , b u t a b s o lu te p a i n t i n g , l i k e a b s o lu te m usic was s o m e th in g " i n i t s e l f , " and t h a t s o m e th in g a p p e a le d to th e human p sych e ( 2 4 : 2 0 5 ) . jF o r K le e , th e o b j e c t i s n e v e r t o t a l l y o u t o f i n t u i t i v e g r a s p . ! . . . h e seeks a "more rem o te s o u r c e - o f - c r e a t i o n I p o in t " w h e re he d iv in e s a s o r t o f fo r m u la " f o r a n im a ls , p l a n t s , man, f i r e , w a t e r , a i r , and a l l th e c i r c u l a t i n g fo r c e s as w e l l . . . I seek a I p la c e f o r m y s e lf o n ly w i t h God . . . I am a co s m ic p o i n t o f r e f e r e n c e , n o t s p e c ie s ." And he j c o n tin u e s : " I c a n n o t be u n d e rs to o d i n p u r e ly e a r t h l y te rm s . F o r I can l i v e as w e l l w it h th e dead as w i t h th e u n b o rn . Somewhat n e a r e r t o th e h e a r t o f a l l C r e a t io n th a n i s u s u a l. B u t s t i l l f a r fro m b e in g n e a r en o u g h ." T h is p r o f e s s io n o f f a i t h i s K l e e ' s e p it a p h ; no b e t t e r one c o u ld h ave been fo u n d th a n th e s e words w r i t t e n t w e n t y - f o u r y e a rs b e f o r e h i s d e a t h . (2 4 :1 8 2 ) ! K le e was in d e e d n e a r to th e h e a r t o f a l l c r e a t i o n , land so i n t e n s e was h is i n t u i t i v e g ra s p o f r e a l i t y i n mo t i o n , t h a t m ost o f h i s p a i n t i n g s , how ever a b s t r a c t , w ere g iv e n s u g g e s tiv e t i t l e s . These t i t l e s , K le e owned w ere Imany tim e s a f f i x e d lo n g a f t e r th e w o rk had come f o r t h fro m h i s in n e r v i s i o n o n to th e c a n v a s . O fte n th e w ork was com- .p le t e d b e f o r e K le e named i t . K l e e ' s m ost a b s t r a c t w o rk s , fo u n d i n " th e in n e rm o s t I c i r c l e o f t h e W eim ar p e r io d ," e x h i b i t h i s m u s ic a l i n f l u e n c e s . The t i t l e s , u n l i k e th o s e o f m ost o f K l e e ' s w o rk s , |a re a ls o a b s t r a c t . I n 1 9 2 2 , he p a in t e d D io m e t r ic G ra d a - j t i o n . I n 1 9 2 3 , K le e p ro d u c e d Harmony i n B lu e and G ra n g e ; Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 286 Harmony o f S q u a re s ; A r c h i t e c t u r e : Cubes G rad e d i n R e d . Y e llo w , and B l u e : A r c h i t e c t u r e ( Y e l l o w - V i o l e t S te p p e d C u b e s ); and I n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f C o lo r fro m th e S t a t i c to ; th e D y n a m ic . I n th e s e w orks o f 1923 one f in d s a c o r r e s p o n - | idence to S c h o e n b e rg 's d o d e c a p h o n ic s y s te m . T h is c o n n e c tio n I ; ! b etw een th e t w e lv e - t o n e s ys te m and K l e e ' s p a in t in g s i s | e lu c id a t e d i n th e f o l l o w i n g s t a te m e n ts . I n h is [ K l e e 's ] w ork one f i n d s l i n e a r c o n f ig u r a t io n s t h a t a re m e lo d ic — r h y th m ic a rp e g g io s and p o ly rh y th m s , t o n a l c o m p o s itio n s b a s e d on a k e y n o te and p o ly t o n a l c o m p o s itio n s w i t h s e v e r a l cen t e r s , c h r o m a tic c o lo r s c a le s i n m a jo r and m in o r k e y s . He used such te rm s h i m s e l f , f o r la c k o f a p r e c is e te r m in o lo g y o f v i s u a l e le m e n ts , and r e fu s e d to ackn o w led g e th e b a s ic d i s t i n c t i o n betw een p a i n t i n g as a s p a t i a l a r t and m u sic as an a r t in t i m e . Rhythm i s a r t i s t i c law s ; and h o ld s th e t e n s i f i c a t i o n a phenomenon g o v e rn e d by n a t u r a l and i t has a s p a t i a l and te m p o ra l v a lu e w o r ld t o g e t h e r . I n w o rks such as I n - o f C o lo r (1 9 2 3 ) i t comes r a t h e r c l e a r l y to th e f o r e , and h e lp s t o d e te r m in e b o th th e theme and th e fo rm . K le e o f t e n c o u n te d w h ile w o rk in g ; w i t h h im , i n t u i t i o n and a n a l y t i c th o u g h t d id n o t s ta n d i n each o t h e r ' s w ay. Once he even w ro te down th e r h y th m ic p a t t e r n o f one o f h is c h e s s b o a rd c o m p o s itio n s , w i t h c o r r e l a t e d , d is c o n t in u o u s , r e v e r s i b l e s e r ie s o f num bers, i n o r d e r t o c a l c u l a t e th e s t a t i c and dynam ic r e l a t i o n s . The h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l t o t a l s a re th e same, as i n a "m agic s q u a r e ." A r t i s t i c fre e d o m th u s f in d s i t s f u l f i l l m ent i n th e s t r i c t e s t d i s c i p l i n e , o n ly to be r e awakened to sp o n ta n e o u s l i f e . I n th e d ia lo g u e s i n Thomas M a n n 's D o c to r F a u s t u s , w h ic h a r e based on M a n n 's c o n v e r s a t io n s w i t h S c h o n b e rg , th e magic s q u a re , s u b d iv id e d i n t o s m a lle r s q u a re s and p r o v id e d w it h num bers, i s d is c u s s e d i n a way t h a t a ls o i l l u m i n a t e s th e r ig o r o u s p ro c e d u re o f th e s e com posi t io n s o f K i e s ' s . I t c o rre s p o n d s to th e c o m p le te i n t e g r a t i o n o f a l l d im e n s io n s i n A r n o ld S c h o n b e rg 's t w e lv e - t o n e s y s te m , w h ic h a p p e a re d i n 1923 s im u lt a n e o u s ly w it h K l e e ' s c o m p o s itio n s . I n b o th cases th e Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 8 7 w ork i s d e v e lo p e d fro m a b a s ic s c a le ; i t obeys la w s o f a s tro n o m ic r e g u l a r i t y and c o m p le x it y , b u t law s t h a t do n o t c o n t r o l e v e r y d e t a i l . ( 2 4 : 2 1 5 - 2 1 6 ) I n a somewhat d i f f e r e n t phase o f h i s w o rk a lo n g th e s e l i n e s i s th e d im e n s io n o f c h r o m a tic h arm o n y. " I t ' l i e s n o t o n ly b etw ee n th e m a jo r and m in o r k e y s b u t a ls o b e - I tw een th e i r r a t i o n a l i t y o f c o lo r as such and th e l o g i c o f jth e c o l o r i n t e r v a l s i n e v e r y r e s p e c t . " ( 2 4 : 2 1 6 ) K l e e ' s 'T a b le o f C o lo u r ( i n g r e y m a j o r ) , 1 9 3 0 , i s d e s c r ib e d h e r e . ! The m u s ic a l a n a lo g y i n a p t: K le e p la c e s c o lo u r - s q u a re s i n t o h i s p i c t u r e space l i k e so u n d s. L i k e ! th e n o te s o f W ebern, each has i t s own v a lu e and sounds c l e a r l y , a lth o u g h i t i s c o n d it io n e d by ad j a c e n t sounds o r c o lo u r s . One te n d s to t h i n k o f K l e e ' s c h e q u e rb o a rd p a t t e r n s as f o r m a l ly n e g a t i v e , as m e r e ly v e h ic le s f o r c o lo u r j u x t a p o s i t i o n , b u t o f c o u rs e th e v e r y t i d i n e s s o f th e o r g a n i z a t io n has i t s own e x p r e s s iv e pow er and, w h a t i s m ore, th e c o lo u r a re a s a re n o t a l l e q u a l i n s i z e . E ach s t o r y j i s a l i t t l e h ig h e r th a n th e p r e c e d in g o n e . The r e s u l t o f t h i s i s a l i g h t e n i n g and l i f t i n g o f th e w h o le c o n s t r u c t io n . The s p e c i f i c l o c a t i o n o f th e c o lo u r s w i t h i n th e p a t t e r n i s o f g r e a t im p o r ta n c e . A s u r p r i s i n g ra n g e o f d i f f e r e n t e f f e c t s r e s u l t s fro m s e e in g th e p i c t u r e tu r n e d u p s id e down o r s id e w a y s . ( 4 5 : 4 2 ) The above r e f e r e n c e to A n to n W ebern le a d s l o g i c a l l y to th e d is c u s s io n o f h i s Symphony f o r S m a ll O r c h e s t r a , Op. 21 ( 1 9 2 8 ) , a c o r r e l a t i o n f o r K l e e ' s T a b le o f C o lo u r s ( i n g re y m a jo r) , 1 9 3 0 ) . A n to n W ebern (1 8 8 3 -1 9 4 5 ) s t u d ie d w it h A r n o ld S c h o e n b e rg , and l i k e A lb a n B e rg , alw ays re m a in e d one o f h is m a s t e r 's m ost a r d e n t d e fe n d e r s . W ebern, V ie n n e s e by b i r t h , ^worked w i t h S ch o en b e rg fro m 19 0 4 to 1910 b u t composed Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 288 in d e p e n d e n t ly t h e r e a f t e r . M o s t a u t h o r i t i e s a g re e t h a t W ebern c u t h i m s e l f o f f I I fro m th e m u sic m e th o d o lo g y o f th e p a s t m ore so th a n e i t h e r jS ch o e n b erg o r B e r g . Y e t , w h a t S c h o e n b e rg , B e rg , and iW ebern a lw a y s s o u g h t i n t h e i r c o m p o s itio n s was u n i t y and c o m p r e h e n s i b il i t y . I n a s e r i e s o f l e c t u r e s , l a t e r e d it e d j by W i l l i R e ic h i n a b o o k l e t c a l l e d The P a th t o New M u s ic , iW ebern p a id homage t o th o s e com posers whom he c o n s id e r e d " g r e a t , " T h o s e w e re th e ones who s t r o v e " t o e x p re s s u n i t y as c l e a r l y as p o s s i b l e . " W ebern d is c u s s e d t h e means em p lo y e d f o r e x p r e s s in g t h i s u n i t y . One means o f d o in g i t was t o n a l i t y . A n o th e r was p r o v id e d by p o ly p h o n y . One o f th e e a r l i e s t s u r v i v i n g p o ly p h o n ic p ie c e s i s a c an o n — an E n g lis h summer canon fro m th e 1 3 t h c e n t u r y . W h at i s a canon? A p ie c e o f m u s ic i n w h ic h s e v e r a l v o ic e s s in g t h e same t h i n g , o n ly a t d i f f e r e n t tim e s ; o f te n w h a t i s sung o c c u rs i n a d i f f e r e n t o r d e r ( c r a b can o n , m i r r o r c a n o n ) . The c ro w n in g g l o r y o f p o l y p h o n ic m u sic was th e fu g u e , b a s e d on a fu g u e theme ! (a n s w e r , s t r e t t o , e t c . ) . Why does t h i s c ro p up a g a in ? In d e e d , y e t a g a in , i t was th e same t h in g b u t d i f f e r e n t ! T h e m a tic u n i t y came w i t h homo- p h o n ic m u s ic , b u t th e fu g u e , t o o , i s r e a l l y t h e m a t ic . Now s o m e th in g v e r y r e m a r k a b le em erged; soon t h e r e was an a tte m p t to c r e a t e some k in d o f u n i f y i n g t h e m a t ic c o n n e c tio n b e tw e e n th e p r i n c i p a l p a r t and t h e a cco m p an im en t. We s ee an abso l u t e p u l l fro m hom ophonie m u s ic b a c k t o p o ly p h o n y , an u r g e t o d e ep e n and c l a r i f y t h e u n i t y . ( 5 8 : 5 2 ) W e b e rn 's n e x t p o i n t was t o show how an u n u s u a l d e g re e o f ■ u n ity came a b o u t i n t w e lv e - t o n e c o m p o s it io n . i . . . an id e a s h o u ld be p r e s e n te d i n th e m ost m u l- I t i f a r i o u s way p o s s i b l e . I One such way i s b a ckw ard s m ovem ent— c a n c r iz a n ; ! a n o th e r i s m i r r o r i n g — i n v e r s i o n . The d e v e lo p m e n t Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 289 o f t o n a l i t y m eant t h a t th e s e o ld m ethods o r p r e s e n t a t i o n w e re pushed i n t o th e b a c k g ro u n d , b u t th e y s t i l l make th e m s e lv e s f e l t i n a w ay, even i n c l a s s i c a l t im e s , i n " t h e m a tic d e v e lo p m e n t." T h is p a th l e d to e v e r y - i n c r e a s i n g r e f in e m e n t o f th e t h e m a tic n e t w ork . ; How has such an u n u s u a l d e g re e o f u n i t y come i a b o u t i n t w e lv e - n o t e m usic? T h ro u g h th e f a c t t h a t I i n th e c o u rs e o f th e row on w h ich th e c o m p o s itio n i s b ase d no n o te may be r e p e a te d b e f o r e a l l h ave o c c u r r e d . T h is la w d e v e lo p e d g r a d u a l l y , on i t s own, b u t i t w o u ld h a v e been im p o s s ib le w i t h o u t u s in g b o th th e p a th s we h a v e d e s c r ib e d . And h e r e th e u rg e to w a rd maximum u n i t y fo u n d i t s f u l f i l l m e n t . F o r th e r e s t , one composes as b e f o r e , b u t on th e b a s is o f th e row ; on th e b a s is o f t h i s f i x e d s e r i e s one w i l l h ave t o i n v e n t . ( 5 8 : 5 3 ) J u s t as German f i g u r a t i v e E x p re s s io n is m p r o g r e s s e d fro m t h a t a r t t y p i f i e d i n D ie B rü c k e to e a r l y A b s t r a c t Ex p r e s s io n is m i n P e r B la u e R e i t e r to l a t e r A b s t r a c t E x p re s s io n a t th e B a u h a u s . so a ls o German E x p re s s io n is m i n m usic p ro g re s s e d fro m th e e a r l y p o s t-W a g n e r ia n w orks o f S choen b e rg to th e more a b s t r a c t s t y l e o f p a n t o n a l i t y , to th e s t i l l more a b s t r a c t s t y l e o f th e t w e lv e - t o n e m ethod o f com p o s i t i o n . H e n c e , a b r i e f e x p la n a t io n o f th e l a t t e r m ethod o f c o m p o s itio n i s p r e s e n te d . S c h o e n b e rg , i n h i s S t y l e and I d e a s t a t e d t h a t , l i k e any good m ethod o f c o m p o s itio n , th e aim o f c o m p o s itio n w it h tw e lv e to n e s i s c o m p r e h e n s i b il i t y . M o re o v e r, he s a id : t h a t t h i s m ethod grew o u t o f " n e c e s s it y ." A f t e r many u n s u c c e s s fu l a tte m p t d u r in g a p e r io d o f a p p r o x im a te ly tw e lv e y e a r s , I l a i d th e fo u n d a t io n s f o r a new p ro c e d u re i n m u s ic a l c o n s t r u c t io n ' w h ich seemed f i t t e d to r e p la c e th o s e s t r u c t u r a l : d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n s p r o v id e d f o r m e r ly by t o n a l harm on i e s . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. I c a l l e d t h i s p ro c e d u re M ethod o f Com posing w it h T w e lv e Tones W h ich a re R e la t e d O n ly w it h One A n o t h e r . T h is m ethod c o n s is t s p r i m a r i l y o f th e c o n s t a n t and e x c lu s iv e u se o f a s e t o f tw e lv e d i f f e r e n t to n e s . T h is m eans, o f c o u rs e , t h a t no to n e i s r e p e a te d w i t h i n th e s e r ie s and t h a t i t uses a l l tw e lv e to n e s o f j th e c h r o m a tic s c a l e , th o u g h i n a d i f f e r e n t o r d e r . I t i s i n no way i d e n t i c a l w it h th e c h r o m a tic s c a le , j . . . a b a s ic s e t (BS) c o n s is ts o f v a r io u s i n - I t e r v a l s . I t s h o u ld n e v e r be c a l l e d a s c a le , a l thoug h i t i s in v e n t e d to s u b s t i t u t e f o r some o f th e u n i f y i n g eind f o r m a t iv e a d v a n ta g e s o f s c a le and to n a l i t y . Th e s c a le i s th e s o u rc e o f many f i g u r a t i o n s , Î p a r t s o f m e lo d ie s and m e lo d ie s th e m s e lv e s , a sc e n d in g and d e s c e n d in g p a s s a g e s , and even b ro k e n c h o rd s . I n ; a p p r o x im a te ly th e same m anner th e to n e s o f th e b a s ic s e t p ro d u c e s i m i l a r e le m e n ts . . . . The b a s ic s e t f u n c t io n s i n th e m anner o f a m o t iv e . T h is e x p la in s why such a b a s ic s e t has to be in v e n t e d anew f o r i e v e ry p i e c e . I t has t o be th e f i r s t c r e a t i v e t h o u g h t. I t does n o t make much d i f f e r e n c e w h e th e r o r n o t th e s e t a p p e a rs i n th e c o m p o s itio n a t once l i k e a theme o r a m e lo d y , w h e th e r o r n o t i t i s c h a r a c t e r iz e d as such by f e a t u r e s o f rh y th m , p h ra s in g , c o n s t r u c t io n , c h a r a c t e r , e t c . From th e b a s ic s e t , t h r e e a d d i t i o n a l s e ts a re a u t o m a t i c a l l y d e r iv e d : 1) th e in v e r s io n ; 2) th e r e t r o g r a d e ; and 3) th e r e t r o g r a d e i n v e r s i o n . The em ploym ent o f th e s e m i r r o r form s c o rre s p o n d s to th e p r i n c i p l e o f th e a b s o lu te and u n i t a r y p e r c e p t io n o f m u s ic a l s p a c e . ( 6 4 : 1 0 7 - 1 1 6 ) S ch o en b erg began com posing w it h th e t w e lv e - t o n e m ethod in 1 9 2 3 , th e v e r y y e a r i n w h ich P a u l K le e , who acknow ledged h im s e lf an a d m ire r o f S c h o e n b e rg , u n d e rto o k h is m a th e m a ti c a l l y p r e c i s e c o m p o s itio n s i n p a i n t i n g . I t was A n to n W ebern who s i m p l i f i e d th e means [Schoen berg p r o v id e d i n th e d o d e c a p h o n ic s y s te m . I n t h i s s e n s e , W ebern i s a m u s ic a l f i g u r e c o r r e l a t i v e to K le e i n I h i s s u p r a - o b j e c t i v e p a i n t i n g s a t th e B a u h a u s . L ik e th e ’ " c r y s t a l l i n e , " s u p r a - o b j e c t i v e p a in t in g s o f K le e , th e m usic Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 9 1 o f Webern i s . . . i n i t s m a tu re u t t e r a n c e a w onder o f s u b t l e t y and s e v e re fo r m a l f a n t a s y , n o t i n t o x i c a t e d by any daemonism o r e u p h o r ia c o n ta in e d i n i t b u t summoning up fo rm as a r e g u la t e d phenomenon o u t o f th e i n a u d ib le w o r ld o f s t r u c t u r a l q u a n t i t y - r e l a t i o n s . H e re p r e c i s e l y i s th e p o i n t w here new c la im s and demands a re r a i s e d , w h ic h among th e y o u n g e r g e n e ra t i o n , th e 'W e b e r n it e s ' , a re lo n g s in c e o v e r th e d a n g e r o f r e g r e s s in g to th e s ta g e o f u s e le s s c r e a t i v e d o u b ts and d i a l e c t i c a l s c r u p le s . T h is r e t u r n t o th e s p h e re o f m a t e r i a l o b je c t i v i t y i s n o t i n th e l e a s t in c o m p a t ib le w i t h th e f a c t t h a t W e b e rn 's w ork i s r o o te d ' i n an a lm o s t e x c l u s iv e ly l y r i c a l n a t u r e ' , as th e com poser h im s e l f w r o te i n a l e t t e r . I t i s t h a t s c a n ty , un d e c o r a te d , u n r h e t o r i c a l l y r i c i s m w h ich i n p o e t r y , p a i n t i n g and even a r c h i t e c t u r e r e p r e s e n ts th e b e s t and t r u e s t a c h ie v e m e n t o f o u r tim e , a new l y r i c a l in v o lv e m e n t t h a t re m a in s 'o u t s i d e ' i n o r d e r to em b ra c e th e t o t a l i t y o f e x is t e n c e , and no lo n g e r th ra s h e s a b o u t ' w i t h i n ' i n s t e r i l e e x c ite m e n t am id t h a t d i a l e c t i c a l ju n g le o f e x p e r ie n c e l y i n g be tw een s e n tim e n t and n e rv o u s r e f l e x . ( 8 1 : 3 1 - 3 2 ) W ebern and K le e b o th p o ss e s se d th e happy f a c i l i t y o f b e in g a b le to j o i n i n t h e i r w orks th e q u a l i t i e s o f f a n t a s y and s t r u c t u r a l s ys te m . ; The s u p r a - o b j e c t i v i t y o f W e b e rn 's m usic i s e l u c i d a te d f u r t h e r , when one r e a l i z e s t h a t W ebern " d e - j m a t e r i a l iz e d " th e t w e lv e - t o n e m ethod as i t w e re . He i s th e o n ly one who i n n is m usic o r g a n is e d more th a n th e s tr a tu m o f p i t c h - l e v e l s ; th e o n ly one who was c o n s c io u s o f th e s t r u c t u r e d , s p a t i a l d im e n s io n ’ w here th e a n t i t h e s i s o f v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l no lo n g e r e x i s t s . H is fu n d a m e n ta l s t r u c t u r a l e le m e n t j i s n o t th e n o te b u t th e i n t e r v a l — th e i n t e r v a l b e tw een two n o te s , c o n c e iv e d m e lo d ic a ll y , as a u n i t o f m easure; th u s th e tw o - o r t h r e e - n o t e m o tiv e p r e s e n ts i t s e l f as th e t r u e o b j e c t i v e i n th e d e v e lo p m ent o f h is w o r k i n g - m a t e r i a l. ( 8 1 : 3 2 ) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 292 S ch o en b e rg was th e f i r s t t o p o i n t o u t th e u n i t y o f m u s ic a l space i n w h ic h v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l f o r c e s w e re to be i d e n t i f i e d as o n e . I n e f f e c t , h o w e v e r, S ch o en b erg r e a l i z e d i i t h i s space tim e b y l i n k i n g h i s s e r ie s o f tw e lv e n o te s w i t h I a them e, b eca u s e th e h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l a re i n t e r p e n e t r a t e d i n p e rfo rm a n c e and th u s t h i s means o f a c h ie v in g u n i t y i s l o s t . W ebern h a n d le s th e p ro b le m o f u n i t y d i f - i I f e r e n t l y . ' . . . S ch o n b erg th e m a tis e s h i s s e r i e s , W ebern d e - th e m a tis e s i t ; S ch o n b erg uses i t f o r t h a t 'c o m p o s i- t i o n ' fro m w h ic h W ebern f r e e s i t ( t h e r e b y e s t a b - I l i s h i n g f o r th e f i r s t tim e a l i n k b etw een i n t e r v a l - f u n c t io n and th e o v e r a l l s t r u c t u r e ) . S cho nberg b u ild s h i s s e r i e s o u t o f th e i n t e r v a l s fro m fu n d a m e n ta l to t r i t o n e and t h e i r i n v e r s i o n s , w it h th e e x c e p tio n o f th e f o u r t h , w h ic h w i t h h im n e v e r ap p e a rs as a f i f t h . Sch'ônberg la y s o u t h is s e r i a l c o n s t r u c t io n w i t h th e l o r d l i n e s s o f one who c o u ld do so as i f t h e r e w e re no such t h in g as c o n s t r u c t i o n ; i n W eb ern , even th e d e n s e s t and m ost com plex s o u n d - s t r u c t u r e i s n e v e r c o n s t r u c t io n b u t o n ly p r o j e c t i o n i n t o space and t im e . ( 8 1 : 3 3 ) So a ls o i n th e w o rks o f P a u l K le e even th e m ost com plex s i g h t - s t r u c t u r e i s n e v e r c o n s t r u c t io n b u t r a t h e r p r o j e c t i o n ' i n t o space and t im e . I t i s s u p r a - o b j e c t i v i t y . P i e r r e B o u le z , who h im s e lf was i n f l u e n c e d by W eb ern , makes s ta te m e n ts r e g a r d in g W e b e rn 's new s e n s i b i l i t y i n m u s ic , a k in t o K l e e ' s c r y s t a l l i n e ap p ro ach to p a i n t i n g . iB o u le z d is c u s s e d W e b e rn 's c o n t r a p u n t a l u s e o f sound and s i l e n c e . He s a id : . . . t h a t W ebern was obsessed w it h fo rm a l p u r i t y i to th e p o i n t o f s i l e n c e , i t was an o b s e s s io n t h a t ' he c a r r i e d to a d e g re e o f te n s io n h i t h e r t o unknown Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. . . . l e t us add t h a t t h i s f e a t u r e i s one o f th e m ost i r r i t a n t and p r o v o c a t iv e i n h i s w o rk . One o f th e t r u t h s h a r d e s t t o d e m o n s tra te i s t h a t m usic i s n o t j u s t 't h e a r t o f s o u n d '— t h a t i t must be de f i n e d r a t h e r as a c o u n t e r p o in t o f sound and s i - Î l e n c e . W e b e rn 's o n e, u n iq u e , r h y th m ic in n o v a t io n I i s t h i s c o n c e p tio n w h e re b y sound and s il e n c e a re ! l i n k e d i n a p r e c i s e o r g a n i s a t i o n d i r e c t e d to w a rd th e e x h a u s t iv e e x p l o i t a t i o n o f o u r powers o f h e a r i n g . ( 8 1 : 4 0 ) ! As W ebern t a n t a l i z e s th e pow er o f th e e a r , K le e ; 1 t i t i l l a t e s th e pow ers o f s i g h t . F u r th e r m o r e , j u s t as K le e was i n t r i g u e d by th e fo rm j o f th e fu g u e , so a ls o W ebern was a v i r t u o s o a t c a n o n ic i w r i t i n g . T h is te c h n iq u e i s w e l l d is p la y e d in h is Symphony f o r S m a ll O r c h e s t r a , O p .21 (1 9 28) i n w h ic h th e f i r s t move m ent i s a d o u b le c a n o n . S c o re d f o r c l a r i n e t , bass c l a r i - , n e t , two F re n c h h o r n s , two h a r p s , v i o l i n s , v i o l a s , and c e l l o s , i t ta k e s j u s t u n d e r te n m in u te s to p e r fo r m . The ro w , o r s e r i e s o f tw e lv e n o t e s , i s c o n s t r u c t e d ■ s y m m e tr ic a lly , so t h a t th e l a s t s i x n o te s o f th e ro w , when re a d i n r e t r o g r a d e , a re i n th e same o r d e r i n t e r v a l i c a l l y as th e f i r s t s i x n o te s r e a d f o r w a r d . "By u s in g a row t h a t tu r n s i n upon i t s e l f , as i t w e re , W ebern a c h ie v e s t h a t sense o f i m m o b i l i t y , o f movement beyon d tim e , w h ic h was one |o f h i s p r e o c c u p a t io n s ." ( 4 7 : 3 9 2 ) I t has been n o te d t h a t I K le e to o , was p r e o c c u p ie d w i t h m ovem ent. I I B ec au s e W ebern u s es a row i n w h ic h i t and i t s Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 9 4 r e t r o g r a d e a r e i d e n t i c a l , i n th e w o r k in g o u t o f th e Sym phony . W ebern l i m i t s h i m s e l f to u s in g th e row o n ly i n i t s I j o r i g i n a l and i t s i n v e r s i o n . The row i s n o t used t h e m a t i- j c a l l y . The in s t r u m e n t a t io n o f W ebern i s t y p i c a l , and can jbe t r a c e d b a c k to th e i n f l u e n c e o f S c h o e n b e rg 's c o n c e p t o f K 1 a n g fa rb e n m e lo d ie o r " t o n e - c o l o r m e lo d y ." T h a t i s , when th e in s tr u m e n t s p la y no more th a n a few n o te s s u c c e s s iv e ly , th e c o n s t a n t change i n tim b r e makes tim b r e i t s e l f as im p o r t a n t as p i t c h . The e n t i r e f i r s t movement o f th e Symphony i s i l l u s t r a t e d a t th e c lo s e o f t h i s d is c u s s io n . The o r i g i n a l row has been l a b e l e d . The f i r s t canon b e g in s i n th e second h o rn and i s i m i t a t e d by th e second h o rn i n c o n t r a r y m o tio n . The lo w e r canon b e g in s i n th e h a rp p a r t on F , p r e s e n t in g an i n v e r s i o n o f th e ro w , w h ile th e a n s w e rin g v o ic e p r e s e n ts th e row i t s e l f b e g in n in g on C s h a rp a ls o i n th e h a rp i n c o n t r a r y m o tio n . W e b e rn 's Symphony may be c o n s id e r e d a m u s ic a l ; p a r a l l e l f o r T a b le o f C o lo r ( i n g re y m a j o r ) , 1930 by P a u l K l e e . L ik e th e n o te s o f th e row e x p re s s e d i n th e f i r s t I I movement o f W e b e rn 's Sym phony, each c o lo r s q u a re o f K l e e ' s ip a in t in g has i t s own v a lu e . L i k e th e use o f r e t r o g r a d e o r ii n v e r s io n te c h n iq u e s , v ie w in g th e p a i n t i n g sid ew a ys o r u p - js id e down v a r ie s th e e f f e c t . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 9 5 As f o r l i t e r a t u r e , none i n th e c o n v e n tio n a l sense o f th e te rm is s u e d fro m th e B a u h a u s . I n th e Bauhaus t h e - ! a t e r , h o w e v e r, sound, w o rd , and la n g u a g e w ere t r e a t e d e x - i p e r i m e n t a l l y . I t w i l l be r e c a l l e d t h a t i t was th e aim o f I th e Bauhaus to u n i f y th e a r t s and c r a f t s i n t o a s y n t h e t ic w h o le . T h u s , t h i s g o a l was a ls o s o u g h t i n th e t h e a t e r . { L ik e K l e e ' s s u p r a - o b j e c t i v e p a i n t i n g s and W e b e rn 's m u s ic , ; th e Bauhaus dram a s e rv e d " . . . th e m e ta p h y s ic a l needs o f man by c o n s t r u c t in g a w o r ld o f i l l u s i o n and by c r e a t i n g th e t r a n s c e n d e n t a l on th e b a s is o f th e r a t i o n a l . " ( 2 5 : 8 1 ) L o t h a r S c h r e y e r , an E x p r e s s i o n i s t d r a m a t is t o f th e a b s t r a c t s t y l e , p la n n e d t o fo rm a Bauhaus t h e a t e r i n 1 9 2 2 . T h is p la n f a i l e d , h o w e v e r, b e c a u s e no s ta g e was a v a i l a b l e . M o re o v e r, a b o u t t h i s t im e , German l i t e r a r y E x p re s s io n is m was on th e w ane. T h e re was a g r e a t d e a l o f s k e p tic is m ; a b o u t th e t h e a t e r . S a t i r e became p o p u la r . The D a d a is ts w ere h a p p ie s t when " . . . m ocking th e a n t iq u a t e d form s o f th e c o n te m p o ra ry t h e a t e r . " ( 2 6 : 8 2 ) H o w eve r, S c h r e y e r 's t h e o r i e s w o u ld be e x p e rim e n te d by O s k a r S chlem m er. As n o te d , t h e r e was no s ta g e f o r e x p e r im e n t a t io n Iw it h dram a d u r in g th e W eim ar p e r io d o f th e Bauhaus b u t when I th e Bauhaus moved to D essau i n D ecem ber, 19 26, a "h o u s e - I s ta g e " was a v a i l a b l e . O sk a r Schlem m er ( 1 8 8 8 - 1 9 4 3 ) , among ! o th e r s i n t e r e s t e d i n th e t h e a t e r , l i k e M o lh o ly -N a g y , was ic o n c e rn e d w it h u n c o v e r in g th e t r u e m eaning o f s t a g e . He Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 296 was i n s p ir e d by P h i l i p p O tto Runge ( 1 7 7 7 - 1 8 1 0 ) , who f e l t t h a t th e s t r i c t e s t p r e c i s i o n i s n e c e s s a ry i n th o s e a r t w o rks w h ic h m ost s in c e r e l y a r i s e fro m t h e im a g in a t iv e and Im y s tic a l s o u l. Schlem m er w an ted a s u p r a - o b j e c t i v e t h e a t e r , j . . . unham pered by e x t e r n a l s . " ( 2 6 : 8 5 ) The e le m e n ts o f th e t h e a t e r o f th e Bauhaus w h ic h ! Schlem m er f e l t t o be th e m ost im p o r t a n t w ere I . . . SPACE as a p a r t o f th e l a r g e r t o t a l co m p lex , b u i l d i n g ( B au) . . . COLOR and L IG H T , to w h ic h we ; a t t a c h a new im p o r ta n c e . We a re p r i m a r i l y v is u - i a l l y o r i e n t e d b e in g s and can t h e r e f o r e t a k e p le a s u r e i n th e p u r e ly o p t i c a l , we can m a n ip u la te form s and i d is c o v e r m y s te rio u s and s u r p r is i n g e f f e c t s i n me- : c h a n ic a l m o tio n fro m c o n c e a le d s o u rc e s ; we can con v e r t and t r a n s f i g u r e space th ro u g h fo rm , c o l o r , and l i g h t . ( 2 6 : 8 8 ) .T h is c o n c e p t o f c o lo r i s more a b s t r a c t th a n t h a t e x p re s s e d : by K a n d in s k y i n C o n c e rn in g th e S p i r i t u a l in A r t (1 9 1 2 ) . l i t i s more a b s t r a c t th a n th e m anner i n w h ic h S cho enberg u s ed c o lo r i n D ie G lu c k lic h e Hand (1 9 1 3 ) o r K a n d in s k y i n P e r G e lb e K la n g ( 1 9 1 2 ) . Schlem m er r e f e r s above to a p u r e l y o p t i c a l e x p e r ie n c e , i n f e r r i n g t h a t a p s y c h ic a l e x p e r ie n c e need n o t be c o n c o m ita n t w i t h i t . Schlem m er n o te d i n a l e c t u r e g iv e n a t th e B a u h a u s , M arch 1 6 , 1 9 2 7 , t h a t th e m e c h a n ic a l s ta g e had n o t y e t been p e r f e c t e d . A c c o rd in g to h im , " . . . man re m a in s p e r f o r c e o u r e s s e n t i a l e le m e n t . . . he w i l l re m a in so as lo n g as th e s ta g e e x i s t s . " ( 2 6 : 9 1 ) B e s id e s s p a c e , c o l o r , and l i g h t , Schlem m er c o n s id e r e d s t r u c t u r e , sound, w o rd , and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 9 7 la n g u a g e to be im p o r t a n t e le m e n ts o f th e t h e a t e r . The e le m e n t o f la n g u a g e can o n ly be c r e a t e d by man. Aw are o f i t s p r im a l im p o r ta n c e , he s t a t e d : We c o n fe s s t h a t up to now we h ave c a u t io u s l y a v o id e d e x p e r im e n t in g w it h t h i s e le m e n t o f l a n g u ag e, n o t i n o r d e r to d e -e m p h a s iz e i t b u t , con s c io u s o f i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e , to m a s te r i t s lo w ly . F o r th e tim e b e in g we m ust be c o n t e n t w i t h th e s i l e n t p l a y o f g e s t u r e and m o tio n — t h a t i s , w it h pantom im e— f i r m l y b e l i e v i n g t h a t one day th e w ord w i l l d e v e lo p a u t o m a t i c a l l y fro m i t . O ur d e c is io n to ap p ro ach th e human w ord " u n l i t e r a r i l y ," i n i t s p r im a r y s t a t e , as a h a p p e n in g , as i f i t w e re be in g h e a rd f o r th e f i r s t t im e , makes t h i s p a r t i c u l a r f i e l d a p ro b le m and a c h a lle n g e . ( 2 6 : 9 1 ) He c o n c lu d e d h i s re m a rk s a b o u t sound, w o rd , and la n g u a g e by c i t i n g an e x p e r im e n t c a l l e d "House P i . " I n t h i s approach to w ord d e v e lo p m e n t, a s ta g e i s p r e p a r e d w i t h s p a t i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s and e x p e r im e n t a l l i g h t i n g i s u s e d . The p la y e r s : w e re to " e x t r a c t " some a c t io n by means o f c h a n c e , i n s p i r a t i o n , and e x t e m p o r iz in g ( 2 6 : 9 1 ) . The l a s t e le m e n ts o f th e s ta g e d is c u s s e d i n th e l e c t u r e w ere sound and harm ony, c o n s id e r e d d u a l l y . S chlem mer f e l t t h a t th e gong and ty m p an i p r o v id e d s t i m u l a t i o n o f ia u r a l e x p r e s s io n s u f f i c i e n t l y e x p e r im e n t a l a t th e t im e . T h u s , f o r sound, w o rd , and la n g u a g e , c o n s id e r e d as ;a t r i p a r t a t e e n t i t y , and f o r sound and h arm o n y, c o n s id e r e d las a d u a l e n t i t y , Schlem m er s a id th e f o l l o w i n g a re p o s s i b i l i t i e s : "m urm uring and h i s s i n g n o is e s ; d o u b l e - t a l k and ; ja b b e r in g ; an o c c a s io n a l b i t o f pandemonium , p e rh a p s a ls o Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 9 8 a p h o n o g ra p h , p ia n o , and tr u m p e t. . . ." ( 2 6 : n . p . ) T h u s , t h e r e w e re no p l o t s t o th e dram as o f th e Bauhaus t h e a t e r . R a t h e r , th e Bauhaus s ta g e d i r e c t o r s and ip la y e r s c o n f in e d th e m s e lv e s to e x p e rim e n ts w i t h p an to m im e. Pantom im e i s as n o n - o b je c t i v e o r s u p r a - o b j e c t i v e as l a n guage can becom e. An i l l u s t r a t i o n o f S c h le m m e r's pantom im e T re p p e n - w i t z (1 9 2 5 ) i s p r e s e n t e d among th e exa m p les f o l l o w i n g t h i s d is c u s s io n . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 299 EXAMPLES ILLUSTRATING PARALLELS IN THE CONCEPT ’’S u p r a - O b je c t iv is m ' Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 0 0 p a i n t i n g T a b le o f C o lo u r ( i n g r e y m a jo r) P a u l K le e (1 9 7 9 -1 9 4 0 ) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 0 2 M u s ic E x c e r p ts fro m Symphony f o r S m a ll O r c h e s t r a , Op. 21 A n to n W ebern (1 8 8 3 -1 9 4 5 ) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 0 3 M K I N E R T O C H T E R C H R I S T I N E A N T O N W EBERN, OP. 21 R i i h i V s d i i c i t . e n d ( J = c i i S O ) .IvT fâS: 52 p iir., •lyf/iwf// T/'r> r t o tie r f PP Ih -n . H ii: n PP 2 .0 , V I r . / i . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 0 4 calando tempo calando tem p^g B W H iii rrttn . m din. I.Gg. PP ■tempo rit. B K l D n m p frr o tt f PP B in Hrf. Solo, ^ S ï f ^ riin r L; a r c» __________ AUe B r Tic. d im . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 0 5 ■ tempo (HT PP B k l PP H m . PP Hrf. PP PP m .D PP PP I f l g A l l e Solo PP PP Me. d im . PP Bkl Him, 'VP' Hm. PP Hrf. W » PPP t a g . P P Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 0 6 / ' / ’ P P BUI. P P Hrn PP Hrf. P P 1.0, PP PP 2.0/ PP PP S o lo Vic. P P B kl. m . Bpf. PP H r n . Hrf. Solo D nm pftr nb P P PP Solo V P P P P Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 0 7 tnnpn Bkl. Hrn Hrf Allr Vic Bkl Hrn Hrf. Alls l.Og, Solo All» Solo T k >1c. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 0 8 (IS O K I Hrn. Hrf Tic. r it . Bkl T O . Dpf. P P Hm Hrf. Solo Dâmpftr o u / A ltc ùâmpfer auf D à m p ftr a u f Vic Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 0 9 Hrf. ^ lit. _ _____ __ _ _ tempo rit. _ _ _ tempo rit. _ ft «2 «3 0 .'( ÏT' ______ _______ ___ ______% *' r ---------------- , - - ■ — v = - . ___ ' ____ — fp — PP— = V j r Solo -- — ----------- L ------—Jr— Br Me. tmpo VP Brn Brf. kifltiLii’p : / ’/> PP vie. PP Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 1 0 P antom im e T r e p p e n w itz O ska r Schlem m er (1 8 8 8 -1 9 4 3 ) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. i Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 1 2 Summary The a b s t r a c t s t y l e i n German E x p re s s io n is m was non- [ o b je c t iv e o r n o n - r e p r e s e n t a t io n a l i n fo rm as com pared w it h I I th e f i g u r a t i v e ty p e o f German E x p re s s io n is m d is c u s s e d i n C h a p te r I I I . The German A b s t r a c t E x p r e s s io n is t s g r a d u a l l y s t r i p p e d t h e i r w ork o f o b j e c t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , and in s t e a d s e a rc h e d f o r th e s p i r i t u a l m eaning i n o b j e c t s . Two c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f German A b s t r a c t E x p r e s s io n - |ism w ere fo u n d i n a r t , m u s ic , and l i t e r a t u r e : (1 ) s y m b o lic I ! I u s e o f c o l o r , and (2 ) s u p r a - o b j e c t i v is m . C o n s id e re d by many t o be th e f i r s t t r u e A b s t r a c t E x p r e s s i o n i s t , W a s s ily K a n d in s k y , i n 1 9 1 1 , c o fo u n d e d w it h F r a n z M arc a g ro u p w h ich th e y c a l l e d P e r B la u e R e i t e r . The w orks e x h i b i t e d by t h i s g ro u p became more and more ab s t r a c t i n n a t u r e . P e r B la u e R e i t e r A lm anac was a c o l l e c t i o n o f w o rks o f a r t i s t s , m u s ic ia n s , and e s s a y is t s i n w h ic h a s y n t h e t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p among th e a r t s was a d v o c a te d , i I t was i n C o n c e rn in g th e S p i r i t u a l i n A r t , pub l i s h e d i n 1 9 1 2 , t h a t K a n d in s k y t r e a t e d h i s th e o r y o f c o lo r sym b o lism a t g r e a t le n g t h . A c c o rd in g t o h im , c o lo r s p r o duce p s y c h ic e f f e c t s i n th e b e h o ld e r . M o re o v e r, K a n d in s k y r e l a t e d c o l o r t o m usic i n a n alo g o u s te rm s . I Many o f K a n d in s k y 's w orks i n c lu d e th e names o f {c o lo rs i n th e t i t l e . P a i n t i n g w i t h Red S p o t (1 9 1 4 ) and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 1 3 Red S p o t I I (1 9 2 1 ) w e re th e exam ples d is c u s s e d , th e l a t t e r I b e in g th e m ore a b s t r a c t o f th e tw o . I n th e fo rm e r p a i n t in g , th e r e d s p o t was a l i g h t warm r e d g i v i n g " . . . a f e e l i n g o f s t r e n g t h , v i g o r , d e t e r m in a t io n , tr iu m p h . I n m usic i t i s as th e sound o f tr u m p e ts , s t r o n g , h a r s h , and 1 ; r i n g i n g . " ( 3 8 : 6 1 ) I n Red S p o t I I . th e r e d c o l o r i s th e same l i g h t warm r e d , b u t s in c e K a n d in s k y had f u r t h e r d i s - ! js o lv e d fo rm , th e tru m p e t sound o f t h i s r e d was more l i k e a c l a r i o n c a l l . A r n o ld S ch o en b e rg was p r o fo u n d ly i n f l u e n c e d by Kan d in s k y 's C o n c e rn in g th e S p i r i t u a l i n A r t . S c h o e n b e rg 's a t o n a l o p e ra D ie G lu c k lic h e Hand (1 9 1 3 ) c o n ta in s n o t o n ly th e c o m p o s e r's m u s ic a l s c o r e , b u t a ls o h is own l i b r e t t o and s ta g e d i r e c t i o n s . I n t h i s w ork S ch o en b e rg b o th f o l lo w ed K a n d in s k y 's t h e o r y o f B u hnenkom .position ( t o t a l t h e a t e r ) and h i s c o lo r t h e o r y as w e l l . S y m b o lic i n a im , t h i s p s y c h o lo g ic a l p an to m im e, i n w h ich o n ly one c h a r a c t e r s in g s , i s accom panied by o r c h e s t r a t i o n and c o lo r e d l i g h t i n g w h ic h I p a r a l l e l one a n o th e r e x a c t l y . As i n K a n d in s k y 's p a i n t i n g s , I th e c o lo r e d e f f e c t s used by S ch o en b erg i n D ie G l u c k l i c h e Hand w e re n o t m eant to c a r r y l o g i c a l m e a n in g , b u t w e re r a t h e r m eant to h ave an e f f e c t on t h e human p s y c h e . K a n - id in s k y , i n h i s p la y D e r G e lb e K la n g (1 9 1 2 ) a ls o em plo yed c o lo r s i n a p u r e ly a b s t r a c t s e n s e . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 314 As f o r t h e c o r " e p t o f s u p r a - o b j e c t i v is m i n German A b s t r a c t E x p r e s s io n is m , P a u l K le e i s cn e x e m p la r . He d id n o t d is s o lv e th e o b j e c t i n h i s p a i n t i n g s , b u t r a t h e r p e e re d 1 th ro u g h and above th e o b j e c t . He l i k e d to r e f e r t o h i s own w orks as h a v in g a " c r y s t a l l i n e " c h a r a c t e r . M o s t o f h i s w orks a r e s u p r a - o b j e c t i v e . K l e e ' s T a b le o f C o lo r ( i n g re y m a jo r) o f 1930 was d is c u s s e d as an a p p r o p r ia t e c o r r e l a t i o n f o r A n to n W e b e rn 's m u s ic . K le e u sed c o l o r s q u a re s i n t h i s p a i n t i n g so t h a t } : each had i t s own v a lu e a lt h o u g h c o n d it io n e d by o t h e r c o lo r s . W e b e rn 's n o te s a ls o a r e t r e a t e d q u i t e in d e p e n d e n t ly a l th o u g h a f f e c t e d by a d ja c e n t sounds. A s tu d e n t o f S c h o e n b e rg who c a r r i e d th e d o d ec a p h o n ic sys tem t o i t s l i m i t s , A n to n W ebern was as c r y s t a l l i n e i n h i s Symphony f o r S m a ll O r c h e s t r a , Op. 21 as P a u l K le e i n h is w o rk s . W e b e rn 's s t y l e was " s c a n ty , u n d e c o r a te d , u n r h e t o r i c a l l y r i c i s m . . . a w onder o f s u b t l e t y and s e v e re fo r m a l f a n t a s y . " ( 8 1 : 3 1 - 3 2 ) I n t h i s Sym phony, in s tr u m e n t s p l a y no m ore th a n a few n o te c s u c c e s s iv e ly , so t h a t th e c o n s t a n t change i n to n e c o lo r makes to n e c o l o r i t s e l f as im p o r t a n t as t h e p i t c h . S u p r a - o b j e c t i v i t y i n German A b s t r a c t E x p r e s s i o n i s t ! " l i t e r a t u r e " can be fo u n d i n th e t h e a t r i c a l e x p e r im e n ts o f iL o th a r S c h r e y e r a t th e B a u h a u s . He p la n n e d t o fo rm an e x p e r im e n t a l t h e a t e r a t th e Bauhaus a t W eim ar i n 1922 b u t Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 1 5 th e p la n f a i l e d b e c a u s e no s ta g e was a v a i l a b l e . When th e Bauhaus moved t o D essau i n 19 2 5 , h o w e v e r, a s ta g e was o b - j t a i n e d . O ska r Schlem m er u n d e rto o k e x p e r im e n t a t io n w i t h IS c h r e y e r 's t h e o r i e s . H e , l i k e S c h r e y e r , s o u g h t s u p r a - o b j e c t i v i t y i n a t h e a t e r unham pered by e x t e r n a l s . S p a c e , c o l o r , and l i g h t w ere e s s e n t i a l as p u r e l y o p t i c a l e x p e r i - ie n c e s . As f o r sound, w o rd , and la n g u a g e , p la y e r s w e re to a c t by c h a n c e , i n s p i r a t i o n , and e x t e m p o r iz in g . T h e re w ere no p l o t s to th e dram as o f th e Bauhaus t h e a t e r . Schlem m er c o n c lu d e d t h a t pantom im e was th e b e s t te m p o ra ry s o l u t i o n to e x p e r im e n tin g w i t h la n g u a g e . The pantom im e T r e p p e n w itz o f 1926 was an e x a m p le . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. I CHAPTER V ! I SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS ; FOR FURTHER STUDY Summary I A lth o u g h t h e r e has been c o n s is t e n t g ro w th o f hu m a n it ie s p rogram s i n e d u c a tio n to d a y , t h e r e has n o t been a c o n c o m ita n t a v a i l a b i l i t y o f good s o u rc e m a t e r i a l f o r tlie : te a c h in g o f th e s e p ro g ra m s . T y p i c a l l y , a h u m a n itie s c o u rs e in c lu d e s th e s tu d y o f h i s t o r y , p h ilo s o p h y , and s e v e r a l a r t s . I n m a t e r i a l f o r such c o u r s e s , i t w o u ld seem a p p ro p r i a t e t h a t some a tte m p t be made to p r e s e n t a s y n t h e s iz e d v ie w . Some books f o r h u m a n itie s c o u rs e s do i n c lu d e r e f e r ence to i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w h ich e x i s t among th e a r t s o f th e e a r l y e r a s . H o w eve r, l i t t l e r e s e a r c h has been done to d is c o v e r i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s among t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y a r t s . : I t was t h e r e f o r e th e p u rp o s e o f t h i s s tu d y (1 ) to ad e- Iq u a t e ly s tu d y and d is c o v e r p a r a l l e l s among a r t , m u s ic , and ; l i t e r a t u r e i n t h a t t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y movement known as G e r - iman E x p re s s io n is m , (2 ) to p la c e th e d is c o v e r e d p a r a l l e l s w i t h i n c o n c e p tu a l fra m e w o rk s , and (3 ) to p r o v id e 315 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 1 7 r e p r e s e n t a t i v e exam ples o f th e p a r a l l e l s d is c o v e r e d i n a r t , m u s ic , and l i t e r a t u r e . I t was a rg u e d t h a t n o te d a u t h o r i t i e s o f th e N a t i o n a l C o u n c il o f T e a c h e rs o f E n g lis h , th e M u s ic E d u c a to rs N a t io n a l C o n fe r e n c e , and th e N a t i o n a l A r t A s s o c ia t io n h ave e x p re s s e d th e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f u s in g c o r r e l a t i o n as a mode : o f te a c h in g f i n e a r t s c o u r s e s . j I t was f u r t h e r n o te d t h a t th e f a c t u a l ap p ro ach to : i le a r n i n g i s o n ly a b e g in n in g i n th e e d u c a t io n a l e x p e r i e n c e . ' T h e re i s a need n o t o n ly f o r more a n a ly s is i n th e t e a c h in g - l e a r n i n g s i t u a t i o n , b u t f o r s y n t h e s is as w e l l . ; S e le c t e d l i t e r a t u r e f o r h u m a n itie s c o u rs e s was r e v ie w e d i n o r d e r to a s c e r t a in p r i n c i p a l l y (1 ) how much em p h a s is had been g iv e n to th e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y as a p e r io d , (2 ) w h e th e r an a tte m p t had been made t o c o r r e l a t e th e a r t s , ; (3 ) w h e th e r f a c t s h ad been t i e d t o g e t h e r w i t h i n c o n c e p tu a l fra m e w o rk s , and (4 ) how much em phasis had been p la c e d on m usic i n g e n e r a l and i n th e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y i n p a r t i c u l a r . The r e v ie w o f th e l i t e r a t u r e was s e l e c t i v e r a t h e r th a n e x h a u s t iv e . I t was fo u n d , h o w e v e r, t h a t i n books i s e e m in g ly a p p r o p r ia t e f o r h u m a n itie s c o u rs e s an em phasis i s : p la c e d upon th e v i s u a l a r t s . M o st em phasis i s g iv e n to ie ra s p r i o r t o th e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y . A tte m p ts to c o r r e - | l a t e th e a r t s o r to p o i n t o u t i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s a re | Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 1 8 s p o r a d ic . F o r th e m ost p a r t , b u t w i t h some e x c e p t io n , au- I th o r s p r e s e n t m a t e r i a l f a c t u a l l y and c h r o n o l o g i c a l ly w it h no f i r m a n a l y t i c a l app ro ach w i t h i n c o n c e p tu a l fra m e w o rk s . M u s ic c o n s i s t e n t l y r e c e iv e s th e l e a s t em phasis as an a r t j fo rm even i n books i n w h ich th e a u th o rs t r e a t o n ly th e v i s - 1 u a l a r t s and m u s ic . M o re o v e r, m u sic o f th e t w e n t i e t h c e n - I t u r y i s a l l o t t e d r e l a t i v e l y le s s d is c u s s io n th a n th e e a r - I l i e r p e r io d s . German E x p re s s io n is m i s som etim es o n ly men- | t io n e d as a t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y a r t m ovem ent. D i s s e r t a t i o n s c o n c e rn e d w it h German E x p re s s io n is m t y p i c a l l y em p h asize th e j 1 dram a o r th e v i s u a l a r t s . None w e re fo u n d to in c lu d e a d is c u s s io n o f m usic i n German E x p r e s s io n e i t h e r w it h r e g a r d to m usic o n ly o r as r e l a t e d to th e o t h e r a r t s . I n t h i s s tu d y , th e m eaning o f th e te rm E x p r e s s io n ism was e x p la in e d , b o th as to s p e c i f i c o r i g i n and fro m th e b ro a d p o i n t o f v ie w . Two ty p e s o f E x p re s s io n is m w ere d i s t in g u is h e d : th e f i g u r a t i v e and th e a b s t r a c t . The f i g u r a t i v e v a r i e t y o f German E x p re s s io n is m was d is c u s s e d as found I i n f o u r c o n c e p ts d e r iv e d fro m l i t e r a r y and a r t h i s t o r y : (1 ) e x p r e s s io n o f in w a rd f e e l i n g , (2 ) s e a rc h f o r t r a n s f o r - |m a tio n , (3 ) d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t , and ( 4 ) s t r u g g l e b etw een th e s e x e s . I n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ere p o in t e d o u t as d is c o v e r e d ! i n th e w orks o f r e p r e s e n t a t i v e e x e m p la rs o f German F i g u r a t i v e E x p re s s io n is m u n d e r each o f th e s e c o n c e p ts i n a r t , im u sic , and l i t e r a t u r e . I l l u s t r a t i o n s o f th e c o r r e l a t i o n s Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 1 9 d is c o v e r e d w e re p r e s e n te d a t th e c lo s e o f th e d is c u s s io n o f each c o n c e p t. I E d v a rd M u n c h 's Two P e o p le ( The L o n e ly O nes) , A t - t r a c t i o n , The K is s i n a r t , A r n o ld S c h o e n b e rg 's V e r k l a e r t e ! ■ ' N a c h t i n m u s ic , and R ic h a r d D e h m e l's D ie V e r k l a e r t e N a c h t i n l i t e r a t u r e w e re p a r a l l e l e d u n d e r th e c o n c e p t o f e x p r e s - [S io n o f in w a r d f e e l i n g . The p a i n t i n g by E m il N o ld e , The L a s t S u p p e r . A r n o ld ; S c h o e n b e rg 's m u s ic a l monodrama E r w a r t u n g , and G eorg ■ K a is e r 's dram a From M orn to M id n ig h t w e re c o r r e l a t e d t o i l l u s t r a t e th e c o n c e p t o f s e a rc h f o r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . The c o n c e p t o f d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t was e x e m p lif ie d by th e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s p o in t e d o u t i n E r n s t L u d w ig K i r c h - n e r 's p a i n t i n g , S e l f - P o r t r a i t as a S o l d i e r . A lb a n B e r g 's o p e ra W o z z e c k , and E r n s t T o l l e r ' s dram a M asse M e n sch . O s k a r K o k o s c h k a 's d ra w in g and p la y M u r d e r e r . Hope o f Women w e re c o r r e l a t e d w i t h A lb a n B e r g 's o p e ra L u lu t o i l l u s t r a t e th e c o n c e p t o f s t r u g g l e b e tw ee n th e s e x e s . The o r i g i n and m eaning o f th e te rm A b s t r a c t E x p re s s io n is m and i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p to D e r B la u e R e i t e r w ere g iv e n s i g n i f i c a n t a t t e n t i o n fro m a h i s t o r i c a l p o i n t o f v ie w . D e r B la u e R e i t e r A lm anac was l i k e w i s e t r e a t e d u n d e r a s e p a r a te s u b -h e a d in g b e c a u s e o f th e f a c t t h a t i t s a u t h o r s ' s t a t e d p u rp o s e was t o s y n t h e s iz e th e a r t s . Two c o n c e p ts o f German A b s t r a c t E x p re s s io n is m w e re d is c u s s e d : (1 ) s y m b o lic u s e o f Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 2 0 c o l o r , and (2 ) s u p r s - o b j e c t i v is m . P a i n t i n g , m u s ic , and l i t e r a t u r e w e re s t u d ie d and p a r a l l e l s d is c u s s e d as fo u n d i n th e w orks o f r e p r e s e n t a t i v e a r t i s t s i n German A b s t r a c t Ex p r e s s io n is m u n d e r each c o n c e p t n o te d a b o v e . I l l u s t r a t i o n s io f th e p a r a l l e l s i n p a i n t i n g , m u s ic , and l i t e r a t u r e w ere p r e s e n te d a t th e end o f th e comments c o n c e rn in g each con c e p t . W a s s ily K a n d in s k y 's P a i n t in g w i t h Red S p o t and Red S p o t I I . A r n o ld S c h o e n b e rg 's o p e ra D ie G l u c k l i c h e H a n d , and I K a n d in s k y 's p l a y P e r G e lb e K la n g w ere c o r r e l a t e d u n d e r th e c o n c e p t o f s y m b o lic use o f c o l o r . The c o n c e p t o f s u p r a - o b je c t iv is m was i l l u s t r a t e d by th e p a r a l l e l i s m fo u n d i n P a u l K l e e ' s p a i n t i n g T a b le o f C o lo u r ( i n g r e y m a j o r ) , A n to n W e b e rn 's c o m p o s itio n Symphony f o r S m a ll O r c h e s t r a , Op. 2 1 , and th e e x p e r im e n t a l pantom im e d i r e c t e d by O s k a r Schlem m er i n th e Bauhaus t h e a t e r . C o n c lu s io n s B ased upon th e r e v ie w o f th e l i t e r a t u r e , i t i s con c lu d e d t h a t i f th e needs o f s tu d e n ts a r e t o be m et i n hu m a n it ie s c o u rs e s , m a t e r i a l s a re r e q u i r e d w h ic h b o th a n a ly z e ; and s y n t h e s iz e th e a r t s w i t h i n c o n c e p tu a l fra m e w o rk s . I t I lis n o t s u f f i c i e n t i n th e t e a c h i n g - l e a r n i n g p ro c e s s to p r e - is e n t f a c t s i n c h r o n o lo g ic a l o r d e r . M o re o v e r, th e em phasis i Ip la c e d upon th e t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y a r t s s h o u ld be e q u iv a le n t Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 2 1 to t h a t p la c e d on th e e a r l i e r p e r io d s o f h i s t o r y . The l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n g iv e n to m u s ic , r e l a t i v e t o t h a t g iv e n th e o t h e r a r t s , i n books s e e m in g ly a p p r o p r ia t e f o r h u m a n itie s c o u rs e s , i s a c r u c i a l is s u e . I I t i s f u r t h e r c o n c lu d e d fro m th e r e s e a r c h , t h a t | ' i th e r e a re c o n c e p ts common to a r t , m u s ic , and l i t e r a t u r e i n | I ! German E x p re s s io n is m o f b o th th e f i g u r a t i v e and a b s t r a c t i I v a r i e t y . M o re o v e r, p a r a l l e l i s m s e x i s t among s p e c i f i c e x - ; I I amples o f th e a r t s i n German E x p re s s io n is m . T h ese w ere r e l a t e d u n d e r c o n c e p ts and i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h i s s tu d y . I t seems l o g i c a l , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t th e same d is c o v e r ie s can be made w it h r e g a r d t o o t h e r movements i n th e t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y a r t s . Recom m endations f o r F u r t h e r S tu d y The p ro b le m o f i n t e r e s t i n g m usic e d u c a to rs i n th e i d e v e lo p m e n t o f m a t e r i a l s f o r h u m a n itie s c o u rse s s h o u ld be s t u d ie d . B e t t e r i n s t r u c t i o n a l a id s a re needed i n such co u rs e s e s p e c i a l l y w here m usic i s th e c o r e . H o w e ver, th e a r t o f m usic s h o u ld a t l e a s t r e c e i v e an a p p r o p r ia t e s h a re : o f em phasis i n any r e l a t e d a r t s c o u rs e . W i t h i n th e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y t h e r e a re a r t i s t i c movements o t h e r th a n German E x p re s s io n is m w h ich s h o u ld be I i n v e s t i g a t e d . F re n c h F a u vis m and C ubism , I t a l i a n F u tu r is m , R u s s ia n R ayonism and S u p rem atism s h o u ld be s t u d ie d f o r Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 322 c o n c e p ts i n h e r e n t i n th e s e movements and f o r p o s s ib le c o r r e l a t i v e c o n t e n t among th e v a r io u s a r t s . A c tio n p a i n t i n g o f A m e rica n s such as Jac k so n P o llo c k and W ille m de K o o n in g , ; B r i t i s h C o n s t r u c t iv is m es e x e m p l i f i e d by th e w ork o f V i c t o r I jP asm ore, Op A r t and Pop A r t s h o u ld a ls o be i n v e s t i g a t e d fro m th e c o n c e p tu a l s t a n d p o in t and p a r a l l e l s d is c o v e r e d , i f { p o s s ib le , i n m usic and l i t e r a t u r e . M o re o v e r, s t u d ie s c o u ld be made to d is c o v e r th e d iv e r s i n f l u e n c e s a r t i s t s h a v e e x e r t e d upon one a n o th e r ; a c ro s s p e r io d s . Some w ork has a lr e a d y been done, b u t l i t t l e w h ic h ap p ro a c h e s a s y n t h e t ic v ie w o f th e s e c ro s s c u r r e n t s w i t h i n one segm ent o f h i s t o r y . F o r e x a m p le , i t w o u ld be o f i n t e r e s t to know a l l th e e a r l i e r a r t form s o r l i t e r a r y exam ples w h ic h h ave i n s p i r e d c o n te m p o ra ry com posers, o r w h ic h m u s ic a l c o m p o s itio n s o f th e p a s t h ave i n s p ir e d con te m p o ra ry a r t i s t s such as p a i n t e r s and p o e t s . F i n a l l y , i t i s recommended t h a t a l l v is u a l a r t s be s t u d ie d f o r t h e i r i n t e r r e l a t e d n e s s w i t h m usic and l i t e r a t u r e i n th e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y . A r c h i t e c t u r e , s c u lp t u r e , p h o to g ra p h y , as w e l l as t h e a t e r and t h e d ance i n a l l fo rm s , a re p o s s ib le r i c h s o u rc e s f o r d is c o v e r in g c o r r e l a t i o n s . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 2 3 BIBLIOGRAPHY Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Books 1 . B ab, J u l i u s . R ic h a r d D e h m e l. L e i p z i g , Germany: H . H a e s s e l, 1 9 2 6 . 432 p p . 2 . B a h r, H erm ann . E x p r e s s io n is m . T r a n s l a t e d fro m th e German by R .T . G r i b b l e . London: F ra n k H e n d e rs o n , 1 9 2 5 . 116 p p . 3 . B a r r , J r . , A l f r e d H . ( I n t r o d u c t i o n and N o t e s ) . M odern German P a i n t i n g and S c u l p t u r e . New Y o rk : Museum o f M odern A r t , W.W. N o rto n and C o ., I n c . , 1 9 3 1 . 43 p p . 4 . B i t h e l l , J e t h r o . M odern German L i t e r a t u r e 1 8 8 0 - 1 9 5 0 . London: M ecneun and C o . , L t d . , 1 9 5 9 . 584 PP- 5 . B loom , B e n ja m in S . ( e d . ) . Taxonomy o f E d u c a tio n a l O b je c t iv e s (Handbook I : C o g n it iv e D o m a in ). New Y o rk : D a v id McKay Company, I n c . , 1 9 5 6 . 207 p p . 6 . Bosman, A n th o n y . O s k a r K o k o s c h k a . New Y o rk : B arn es ; and N o b le , I n c . , 1 9 6 4 . 90 p p . 7 . B r id g w a t e r , P a t r i c k ( e d . ) . T w e n t ie t h - C e n t u r y German V e r s e . B a l t i m o r e , M a r y la n d : P e n g u in B ooks, 1 9 6 3 . 335 p p . 8 . C ro s s , N e a l M. and L in d o v , L e s l i e D a e . The S e a rc h f o r P e rs o n a l F re e d o m . V o l . I . Dubuque, Io w a : Wm. C . Brown Company P u b lis h e r s , 1 9 6 0 , 358 p p . 9 . ___________ . The S e a rc h f o r P e r s o n a l F re e d o m . V o l . I I . ' D ubuque, Io w a ; Wm. C . Brown Company Pub l i s h e r s , 1 9 6 0 . 322 p p . 1 0 . D e h m e l, R ic h a r d . W e ib und W e l t . B e r l i n : S . F i s c h e r , 1 9 0 9 . 165 p p . 1 1 . ___________ . Z w e i M e n s c h e n . B e r l i n : S . F i s c h e r , 1 9 1 5 . 181 p p . 324 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 2 5 1 2 . D eLong, P a t r i c k D . , E g n e r, R o b e r t E . and Thomas, R o b e r t . A r t and M u s ic i n th e H u m a n it ie s . Englew ood C l i f f s , New J e r s e y : P r e n t ic e H a l l , I n c . , 1 9 5 5 . 244 p p . 1 3 . D i San L a z z a r o , G u a l t i e r i . K l e e . T r a n s la t e d from th e I t a l i a n by S t u a r t H ood. New Y o rk : F r e d e r i c k A . P r a e g e r , I n c . , 1 9 5 4 . 304 p p . 1 4 . D o e lm an , C o r n e liu s . W a s s ily K a n d in s k y . New Y o rk : B arn es and N o b le , I n c . , 1 9 5 4 . 90 p p . 1 5 . D o r r a , H e n r i . Y e a rs o f F e r m e n t. Los A n g e le s , C a l i f o r n i a : The U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a a t Los A n g e le s A r t C o u n c il, 1 9 5 5 . 91 p p . 1 5 . D u d le y , L o u is e and F a r i c y , A u s t i n . The H u m a n it ie s . New Y o rk : M c G r a w -H ill Book C o . , 1 9 5 7 . 435 p p . 1 7 . F le m in g , W i l l i a m . A r t s and I d e a s . New Y o rk : H o l t , R in e h a r t and W in s to n , I n c . , ( n . d . . T h i r d E d i t i o n ) . 580 p p . 1 8 . F r e u d , Sigm und. The I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f D re am s. T r a n s la t e d fro m th e German by James S t r a c h e y . New Y o rk : B a s ic B o o ks, I n c . , P u b lis h e r s , 1 9 5 8 . 592 p p . 1 9 . G a r t e n , Hugh F . M odern German D ra m a . F a i r Law n, New J e r s e y : E s s e n t i a l B o o ks, 1 9 5 9 . 272 p p . 2 0 . G o rdon, D o n a ld E . E r n s t L u d w ig K ir c h n e r - A R e t r o s p e c t iv e E x h i b i t i o n . B o s to n , M a s s a c h u s e tts : Museum o f F in e A r t s , 1 9 5 8 . 1 74 p p . 2 1 . G o u ld , G le n n . A r n o ld S ch o en b e rg - A P e r s p e c t iv e . C i n c i n n a t i , O h io : U n i v e r s i t y o f C i n c i n n a t i , 1 9 5 4 . 20 p p . 2 2 . G re e n e , T h e o d o re M. The A r t s and t h e A r t o f C r i t i c is m . P r in c e t o n , New J e r s e y : P r in c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 4 9 . 590 p p . 2 3 . Grohm ann, W i l l . E .L . K i r c h n e r . New Y o rk : A r t s , I n c . , 1 9 5 1 . 163 p p . 2 4 . . P a u l K le e . New Y o rk : H a r r y N . Abram s, I n c . , 1 9 5 4 . 448 p p . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 2 6 2 5 . . W a s s ily K a n d in s k y . New Y o rk : H a r r y N . A bram s, I n c . , 1 9 5 8 . 428 p p . 2 6 . G r o p iu s , W a lt e r ( e d . ) . The T h e a t e r o f th e B a u h a u s . T r a n s l a t e d fro m th e German by A r t h u r S . W e n s in g e r. M id d le to w n , C o n n e c tic u t: Wes le y a n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 6 1 . 106 p p . 2 7 . G r o u t, D o n a ld J a y . A S h o r t H i s t o r y o f O p e ra . New Y o rk : C o lu m b ia U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 6 5 . 85 2 p p . 2 8 . H a ftm a n n , W e rn e r. E m il N o ld e . T r a n s l a t e d fro m th e German by N o r b e r t G u te rm an . New Y o rk : H a r r y N . Abram s, I n c . , 1 9 5 9 . 44 p p . 2 9 . . E m il N o ld e - U n p a in te d P i c t u r e s . T r a n s l a t e d fro m th e German by In g e G oodw in. New Y o rk : F r e d e r i c k A . P r a e g e r , I n c . , 1 9 6 5 . 40 p p . 3 0 . 3 1 . 3 2 . _. The M in d and W ork o f P a u l K l e e . New Y o rk : F r e d e r i c k A . P r a e g e r , I n c . , 1 9 5 4 . 213 p p . | _, H e n tz e n , A l f r e d , and L ie b e rm a n , W i l l i a m S . German A r t o f th e T w e n tie t h C e n t u r y . E d it e d by Andrew C a r n d u f f R i t c h i e . New Y o rk : Museum o f M odern A r t , 195 7 . 239 p p . H a m b u rg e r, M ic h a e l, and M id d le to w n , C h r is t o p h e r ( e d s .) M odern German P o e t r y 1 9 1 0 - 1 9 6 0 . New Y o rk : G ro ve P r e s s , I n c . , 1 9 6 2 . 418 p p . 3 3 . H an sen , P e t e r S . An I n t r o d u c t i o n to T w e n tie t h Cen t u r y M u s ic . B o s to n , M a s s a c h u s e tts : A l l y n and B acon, I n c . , 1 9 6 1 . 376 p p . 3 4 . 3 5. 3 6 . 3 7 . H a t f i e l d , H e n ry C a ra w a y . M odern German L i t e r a t u r e . New Y o r k : S t . M a r t i n ' s P r e s s , 1 9 6 7 . 167 p p . H o d in , J . P . The D ilem m a o f B e in g M o d e rn . London: R o u tle d g e and Kegan P a u l L t d . , 1 9 5 6 . 271 p p . J a n s o n , H.W . and K erm an, J o s e p h . A H i s t o r y o f A r t and M u s ic . New Y o rk : H a r r y N . Abram s, I n c . , ( n . d . ) . 318 p p . K a i s e r , G e o rg . From Morn to M i d n i g h t . T r a n s la t e d fro m th e German by A s h le y D u k e s . New Y o rk : B r e n t a n o 's P u b lis h e r s , 19 2 2 . 1 54 p p . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 2 7 3 8 . K a n d in s k y , W a s s ily . C o n c e rn in g th e S p i r i t u a l i n A r t . T r a n s la t e d fro m th e German by R a lp h M anheim . New Y o rk : G eorge W it t e n b o r n , I n c . , 1 9 4 7 . 91 p p . 3 9 . K e n tw o r th y , C .J . G eorg K a i s e r . O x fo r d , E n g la n d : B a s il B la c k w e ll and M û t t , L t d . , 1 9 5 7 . 217 pp. 4 0 . K r is p y n , E g b e r t , S t y l e and S o c ie t y i n German L i t e r a ry E x p r e s s io n is m . U n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a M onog raphs, H u m a n itie s , N o . 1 5 , W in t e r 1 9 6 4 . 60 p p . 4 1 . Kuhn, C h a r le s L . German E x p re s s io n is m and A b s t r a c t A r t . C a m b rid g e , M a s s a c h u s e tts : H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 5 7 . 151 p p . 4 2 . L a s s a ig n e , J a c q u e s . K a n d in s k y . G en ev a , S w i t z e r la n d : E d i t i o n s d ' A r t A l b e r t S k i r a , 1 9 6 4 . 131 p p . 4 3 . L e i c h t e n t r i t t , H ugo. M u s ic , H i s t o r y and I d e a s . C a m b rid g e , M a s s a c h u s e tts : H a r y a r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 4 6 . 292 p p . 4 4 . L ie b e rm a n , W i l l i a m S . ( I n t r o d u c t i o n ) . E d v a rd M unch. Los A n g e le s , C a l i f o r n i a : Los A n g e le s C o u n ty Museum o f A r t , 1 9 6 9 . 118 p p . 4 5 . L y n to n , N o r b e r t . K l e e . London: S p r in g B ooks, 1 9 6 4 . 43 p p . 4 5 . . The M odern W o r ld . New Y o rk : M c G r a w -H ill Book Company, 1 9 6 5 . 17 5 p p . 4 7 . M a c h lis , J o s e p h . I n t r o d u c t i o n t o C o n te m p o ra ry M u s ic . New Y o rk ; W.W. N o r to n and Company, I n c . , 1 9 6 1 . 914 p p . 4 8 . M o o re , H a r r y T . T w e n t ie t h - C e n t u r y German L i t e r a t u r e . New Y o rk : B a s ic Books, I n c . , 1 9 5 7 . 224 p p . 4 9 . M y e rs , B e rn a rd S . The German E x p r e s s i o n i s t s . New Y o rk : M c G r a w -H ill Book Company, I n c . , 1 9 5 7 . 348 p p . 5 0 . M cG inn, D o n a ld J . and H o w e rto n , G e o rg e . L i t e r a t u r e as a F in e A r t . New Y o rk : Row, P e te r s o n and Company, 1 9 5 9 . 413 p p . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 5 1 . N a y lo r , G i l l i a n . The B a u h a u s . London: S tu d io V i s t a L t d . , 1 9 5 8 . 159 p p . 5 2 . N ie t z s c h e , F r i e d r i c h . The W i l l t o P o w e r. V o l . XV, Books I I I and I V . E d it e d by O s c a r L e v y and t r a n s l a t e d fro m th e German by A n th o n y M. L u d o v i c i . New Y o rk : R u s s e ll ana R u s s e l l , I n c . , 1 9 6 4 . 432 p p . 53 Thus Spoke Z a r a t h u s t r a . V o l . X I E d it e d 54. 5 5 . 56, 57, 58, by O s c a r L e v y and t r a n s l a t e d fro m th e German by Thomas Common. New Y o rk : R u s s e ll and R u s s e l l , I n c . , 1 9 6 4 . 458 p p . R a d e r, M e l v i n . A M odern Book o f E s t h e t i c s . New Y o rk : H o l t , R i n e h a r t and W in s to n , 1 9 6 4 . 540 p p . R eb ay, H i l l a ( e d . ) . I n Memory o f W a s s ily K a n d in s k y . New Y o rk : The Solomon R . G uggenheim Founda t i o n , 1 9 4 5 . 117 p p . R e d lic h , Hans F e r d in a n d . A lb a n B e r g . New Y o rk : A b e la rd -S c h u m a n L t d . , 1 9 5 7 . 316 p p . R e ic h , W i l l i . A lb a n B e r g . T r a n s l a t e d fro m th e G e r man by C o r n e liu s C o rd e w . New Y o rk : H a r - c o u r t . B ra c e and W o r ld , I n c . , 1 9 6 5 . 239 p p . ___________ ( e d . ) . A n to n W e b e rn . T r a n s l a t e d fro m th e German by L eo B la c k . B ry n M aw r, P e n n s y l v a n ia : T h e o d o re P r e s s e r Company, 1 9 6 3 . 6 7 p p . 5 9 . R o e t h e l, Hans K o n ra d . M odern German P a i n t i n g . T r a n s la t e d fro m th e German by Desmond and L o u is e C la y t o n . New Y o rk : R e y n a l and Com pany, 1 9 5 7 . 103 p p . 6 0 . R u f e r , J o s e f . The W orks o f A r n o ld S c h o e n b e rg . T r a n s la t e d fro m th e German by D ik a N e w lin . London: F a b e r and F a b e r L t d . , 1 9 6 2 . 214 pp, 6 1 . R unes, D a g o b e rt D . P i c t o r i a l H i s t o r y o f P h ilo s o p h y . New Y o rk : B ra m h a ll H o u s e , 1 9 5 9 . 406 p p . 6 2 . S a c h s , C u r t . The Commonwealth o f A r t . New Y o rk : W.W. N o r to n and Company, 1 9 4 6 . 404 p p . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 2 9 6 3 . S a lz m a n , E r i c . T w e n t ie t h - C e n t u r y M u s ic : An I n t r o d u c t io n . New J e r s e y : P r e n t i c e - H a l l , I n c . , 1 9 6 7 . 196 p p . 6 4 . S c h o e n b e rg , A r n o ld . S t y l e and I d e a . New Y o rk : | P h i lo s o p h i c a l L i b r a r y , I n c . , 1 9 5 0 . 224 p p . I i 6 5 . S e l z , P e t e r . German E x p r e s s i o n i s t P a i n t i n g . B e rk e l e y : U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , 1 9 5 7 . i 379 p p . I 6 6 . S o k e l, W a l t e r H . An A n th o lo g y o f German E x p r e s s io n - | i s t D ra m a . G ard e n C i t y , New Y o rk : D o u b le d ay and Company, I n c . , 1 9 6 3 . 365 p p . ! 6 7 . . The W r i t e r i n E x t r e m i s . S t a n f o r d , C a l i - | f o r n i a : S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 5 9 . 251 p p . 6 8 . S t e i n , E r w in ( e d . ) . A r n o ld S c h o e n b e rg L e t t e r s . T r a n s l a t e d fro m th e German by E it h n e W i l k i n s and E r n s t K a i s e r . New Y o r k : S t . M a r t i n ' s P r e s s , 1 9 6 5 . 309 p p . 6 9 . S t i t e s , Raymond S . The A r t s and M an . New Y o rk : M c G r a w - H ill Book Company, I n c . , 1 9 4 0 . 872 p p . 7 0 . S t r i n d b e r g , A u g u s t. P l a y s . T r a n s l a t e d w it h an i n t r o ^ d u c t io n by E dw in B jo rk m a n . New Y o rk : C h a r le s S c r i b n e r 's S o n s, 1 9 2 8 . 268 p p . 7 1 . S ta c k e n s c h m id t, H .H . A r n o ld S c h o e n b e rg . T r a n s la t e d fro m t h e German by E d i t h Tem p le R o b e rts and Hum phrey S e a r l e . London: John C a ld e r L t d . , 1 9 5 9 . 168 p p . 7 2 . . T w e n t ie t h C e n tu r y M u s i^ . T r a n s l a t e d fro m t h e German by R ic h a r d D e v e s o n . New Y o r k : M c G r a w - H ill Book Company, 1 9 6 9 . 249 p p . 7 3 . T o l l e r , E r n s t . Man and th e M a s s e s . T r a n s l a t e d fro m th e German by L o u is U n t e r m e y e r . New Y o rk : D o u b le d a y , P age and Company, 19 2 4 . 109 p p . 7 4 . T u c k e r , S . M a r io n ( e d . ) . T w e n t y - F iv e M odern P l a y s . ; New Y o r k : H a r p e r and B r o t h e r s P u b lis h e r s , 1 9 5 3 . 1008 p p . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 3 0 7 5 . U la n o v , B a r r y . M ak ers o f th e M odern T h e a t e r . New Y o rk : M c G r a w -H ill Book C o ., I n c . , 1 9 6 1 . 743 p p . 7 6 . U l r i c h , Hom er. A D e s ig n f o r L i s t e n i n g . New Y o rk : H a rc o u r 50 2 p p . H a r c o u r t . B ra c e and W o r ld , I n c . , 1 9 6 2 . I f 7 7 . Van A bbe, D e re k M a u r ic e . Im ag e o f a P e o p le . New Y o rk : B a rn es and N o b le , I n c . , 1 9 6 4 . 246 p p . i 7 8 . Van de B o g a r t, D o r i s . I n t r o d u c t i o n to th e Hum ani- : t i e s . New Y o rk : B a rn e s and N o b le , I n c . , 1 9 6 8 . 422 p p . j 7 9 . W e lle s z , E gon. A r n o ld S c h o n b e rg . E d it e d by A . E a - g l e f i e l d - H u l l . London: J . J . D e n t and S ons, | L t d . , 1 9 2 5 . 159 p p . | 8 0 . W o ld , M i l o and C y k le r , Edmund. An I n t r o d u c t i o n to M u s ic and A r t i n th e W e s te rn W o r ld . D u b u q u e ,; Io w a : Wm. C . Brown Company P u b lis h e r s , 1 9 6 7 . 304 p p . P e r i o d i c a l s 8 1 . E im e r t , H e r b e r t , and S to c k h a u s e n , K a r l h e i n z ( e d s . ) . "A nton W e b e rn ," D ie R e i h e , 2 ( 1 9 5 9 ) , i - 1 0 0 . 8 2 . R e ic h , W i l l i . "A lb a n B e r g 's W o z z e c k ," M odern M u s ic . ( 1 9 5 2 ) , 1 - 2 2 . 8 3 . S c h o e n b e rg , A r n o ld . "My E v o l u t i o n , " M u s ic a l Q u a r t e r l y , 38, (O c to b e r , 1 9 5 2 ) , 5 1 7 -5 2 7 . 8 4 . S p a le k , John M. " E r n s t T o l l e r : th e Need f o r a New E s t im a t e ," T h e German Q u a r t e r l y , 3 9 , N o . 4 (N o vem ber, 1 9 6 6 ) , 5 8 1 - 5 9 8 . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 3 1 D i c t i o n a r i e s and E n c y c lo p e d i as 8 5 . A p e l , W i l l i . H a r v a r d D i c t i o n a r y o f M u s ic . Cam b r id g e , M a s s a c h u s e tts : H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 5 4 . 833 p p . | 8 6 . H a g g a r, R e g in a ld G .. A D i c t i o n a r y o f A r t T e rm s . [ London: O ldbou^ne P r e s s , 1 9 6 2 . 416 p p . j I 8 7 . R unes, D a g o b e rt D . and S c h r i c k e l , H a r r y G . E n c y c lo - j p e d ia o f th e A r t s . New Y o rk : P h ilo s o p h ic a l L i b r a r y , 1 9 4 6 . 1064 p p . j 8 8 . E n c y c lo p e d ia o f W o rld A r t : V o l . V . London: M cG raw -j H i l l P u b lis h in g Company L t d . , 1 9 6 1 . 774 p p . P u b l ic a t i o n s o f L e a rn e d S o c i e t i e s 8 9 . A C o r r e l a t e d C u r r ic u lu m . (A R e p o r t o f th e C o m m itte e on C o r r e l a t i o n o f th e N a t i o n a l C o u n c il o f T e a c h e rs o f E n g lis h , C h a irm a n e d by R u th M ary W e e k s .) New Y o rk : D . A p p le to n -C e n t u r y Com p a n y , I n c . , 1 9 3 6 . 326 p p . 9 0 . Berm an, L o u is e M. ( e d . ) . The H u m a n itie s and th e C u r r ic u lu m . (P a p e rs fro m a C o n fe re n c e S p o n so red by th e A s s o c ia t io n f o r S u p e r v is io n and C u r r ic u lu m D e v e lo p m e n t, N a t i o n a l E duca t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n . ) W a s h in g to n , D .C .: 1 9 6 5 . 85 p p . 9 1 . H a r t s h o r n , W i l l i a m ( e d . ) . M u s ic f o r th e A cadem i c a l l y T a le n t e d S tu d e n t, N a t i o n a l E d u c a tio n A s s o c ia t io n and th e M u s ic E d u c a to rs N a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e . W a s h in g to n , D .C .: 1 9 6 0 . 127 p p . 9 2 . Z i e g f r i e d , Edw in ( e d . ) . " A r t f o r th e A c a d e m ic a lly T a le n t e d S t u d e n t ," N a t i o n a l E d u c a tio n Asso c i a t i o n and th e N a t i o n a l A r t E d u c a tio n As s o c i a t i o n . W a s h in g to n , D .C .: 1 9 6 1 . 112 pp. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 3 2 98, S c o re s I 9 3 . I i I 9 4 . 9 5 , ... B e rg , A lb a n . L u l u . W ien : U n i v e r s a l E d i t i o n , 1 9 3 5 . 317 p p . W o zzeck. W ien : U n i v e r s a l E d i t i o n . 1 9 3 1 . 231 p p . S c h o e n b e rg , A r n o ld . E r w a r tu n g . A u s t r i a : U n iv e r s a l E d i t i o n , 19 2 3 . 6 2 p p . ___________. D ie G l u c k l i c h e H a n d . A u s t r i a : U n iv e r s a l E d i t i o n , 1 9 1 7 . 61 p p . ___________. V e r k l a e r t e N a c h t ( T r a n s f ig u r e d N i g h t ) , Op. 4 . New Y o rk : I n t e r n a t i o n a l M u s ic Com p a n y , 1 9 5 6 . 51 p p . W eb ern , A n to n . S ym p h o n ie, Op. 2 1 . A u s t r ia : U n i v e r s a l E d i t i o n , 1 9 2 9 . 16 p p . R e c o rd N o te s 9 9 . The M u s ic o f A r n o ld S c h o e n b e rg . V o l . I , C o lo m b ia R e c o rd s . N o te s and E n g lis h T r a n s l a t i o n s o f German T e x t s , 1962. 32 p p . 1 0 0 . The M u s ic o f A r n o ld S c h o e n b e rg . V o l . I I . C o lo m b ia R e c o rd s . N o te s and M u s ic a l E xa m p le s , [ n . d . ] . 36 p p . U n p u b lis h e d M a t e r i a l s 1 0 1 . K in g , E l l e n F r a n c e s . "A S tu d y o f A r t , M u s ic , and L i t e r a t u r e fro m th e R e n a is s a n c e Thro u g h th e R o m a n tic P e r io d f o r a C o r r e l a t e d C o u rs e i n th e S e n io r H ig h S c h o o l." U n p u b lis h e d M .M . t h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , i 1 9 6 6 . P a r t s I , I I . 415 p p . i 102. S u d e rb u rg , R o b e r t C h a r le s . " T o n a l C o h e s io n i n S choen b e rg ' s T w e lv e -T o n e M u s ic ." U n p u b lis h e d P h .D . d i s s e r t a t i o n . U n i v e r s i t y o f P e n n s y lv a n ia , 1 9 6 6 o 268 p p . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 3 3 103. W y a tt, R.C. "The Sym bolism o f C o lo r i n th e Dram a o f German E x p r e s s io n is m ." U n p u b lis h e d P h .D . d i s s e r t a t i o n , S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y o f Io w a , 1956. 189 pp. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

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Asset Metadata

Creator King, Ellen Frances (author)

Core Title A correlation of concepts found in German expressionist art, music, and literature

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education, Curriculum Development

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Art History,education, curriculum and instruction,Literature, Germanic,Music,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor [illegible] (committee chair), [illegible] (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c17-198393

Unique identifier UC11351025

Identifier 7016872.pdf (filename),usctheses-c17-198393 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 7016872.pdf

Dmrecord 198393

Document Type Dissertation

Rights KING, ELLEN FRANCES

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA