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The act and the word: A study of abstraction versus the concrete in the work of Albert Camus

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The act and the word: A study of abstraction versus the concrete in the work of Albert Camus

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Content THE ACT ITSELF AND THE W CEDs A STUDY OF ABSTRACTION
VERSUS THE CONCRETE IN THE W O R K OF ALBERT CA M U S
by
Thomas Newman H ubble
A D is s e r t a t i o n P re s e n te d to th e
faculty of the graduate school
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
I n P a r t i a l F u lf i llm e n t o f th e
R eq u irem en ts f o r th e D egree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(C om parative L i t e r a t u r e )
Ju n e 1962
UMI Number: DP22518
All rights reserved
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T H C M A S N E W M A N H U BBLE
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U N IV E R SITY O F S O U T H E R N C A L IF O R N IA
GRADUATE SC H O O L
U N IV ER SITY PARK
LO S A N G ELE S 7, C A LIFO R N IA
This dissertation, written by
Thomas ...^ewma_n__Hubble............
under the direction of h.%3...Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by the Dean of
the Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of
requirements for the degree of
D O C T O R OF P H I L O S O P H Y
Dean
Date.
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
Chairman
TABLE OF CONTENTS
C h ap ter
Page
I . INTRODUCTION ...........................................
I I . LA PESTE ....................................................
I I I . CALIGULA ....................................................
IV. L'&ERANGER ................................................
v ;
■ * V
L»iTAT BE SIEGE ......................................
^ V I . LA CHUTE ....................................................
V II. SU M M A RY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . .
........................177
BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................................................190
i i
E le n n ’e s t donne aux h o m e s e t l e peu q u ’ i l s p eu v e n t c o n
q u e r ir se paye de m o rts i n j u s t e s . M ats l a g ra n d e u rA de
l 1 h o m e n ’e s t p as l a . E lle e s t dans sa d e c is io n d ’e t r e
p lu s f o r t que sa c o n d itio n . E t s i sa c o n d itio n e s t
i n j u s t e , i l n ’a q u ’une fa c o n de l a su rm o n ter q u i e s t
d ’e t r e j u s t e lui-m em e. ^
•^A lbert Camus, A e tu e lle s : C h ro n iau es 1944-1948
( P a r i s , 1 9 5 0 ), p . 24~ .
i i i
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
S ta te m e n t o f Sub.1 a c t o f th e
D is s e r t a t i o n
A f te r a c lo s e re a d in g o f th e w ork o f A lb e r t Camus,
c e r t a i n r e c u r r e n t m o tifs s tr u c k me a s b e in g p a r t i c u l a r l y
im p o rta n t. I t i s th ro u g h th e s e t h a t Camus, a r e c e n t N obel
P r iz e w in n e r, sp eak s f o r our g e n e r a tio n . I t i s b ecau se of
th e s e t h a t he i s w id e ly and s y m p a th e tic a lly re a d t o d a y ._
Dom inant among them i s Camus' d i s t r u s t o f r h e t o r i c and
a b s t r a c t i o n , h i s in s i s t e n c e on a c t i o n , n o t w o rd s, on th e
b r u t a l i t y o f th e r e a l e v e n t, r a t h e r th a n a r e li a n c e on
r h e t o r i c a l euphem ism . T hese c l o s e l y r e l a t e d id e a s a r e th e
b ase upon w hich t h i s s tu d y I s b u i l t . N a tu r a lly , i t
in v o lv e s o t h e r , r e l a t e d m o tifs and p ro b lem s. F o r Camus,
r h e t o r i c , to ta k e one ex am p le, I s a lm o s t in v a r ia b ly a
s u p p o rt of h a b i t ; r h e t o r i c c o n c e a ls t r u t h by p ig e o n h o lin g
u n u su a l e v e n ts , p u ttin g them i n t o a c u sto m ary (and t h e r e
f o r e l e s s d is t u r b in g ) r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith a more h a b i tu a l
view o f e x is te n c e . I a tte m p t to show how Camus c r e a te s
a n t i - h a b i t f i g u r e s , su ch a s T a rro u , R ie u x , and M e u rs a u lt,
whose f r e s h p o in ts o f view th ro w i n t o sh a rp o u tlin e th e
view o f h a b i t common t o th e " to w n s p e o p le ." T h is
1
2
h a b i t- m o tif I s c r u c i a l i n th e w ork of Camus, f o r d e p riv e d
o f th e c r u tc h o f h a b i t , man becomes g e n u in e ly aw are o f th e
human c o n d itio n , and w i l l a c t w ith common d ecen cy .
I have a l s o t r i e d t o d e m o n stra te how th e o p p o s itio n
betw een th e a b s t r a c t and th e c o n c re te i s a b a s is f o r
Camus’ a p p ro a c h , in h i s f i c t i o n and h i s dram a, t o c e n t r a l
problem s of man’ s e x is te n c e : t h a t of why a c t (w hat moves
man to d eed s o f h e ro is m , or r a t h e r t o a c t w ith ”h o n -
n e t e t £ , ” t o u se Camus' te rm ); and a p roblem r e l a t e d to
why a c t , t o in c e n t i v e , t h a t o f how t o a c t (w hat r u l e s of
co n d u c t i s man t o f o llo w ? ) ; and in s e p a r a b le from th e s e two
p ro b le m s, t h a t o f m o tiv e f o r ’’r i g h t " a c tio n s (why sh o u ld
man a c t in ac c o rd a n c e w ith th e r u l e s , once he d e c id e s w hat
th e y a r e ? ) and th e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d p roblem o f g u i l t . I n
o th e r w o rd s, man a c t s ( f i g h t s a g a in s t d e a th and s u f f e r i n g ) ,
when he h as " l a c o m p re h e n sio n ,” a n u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e
human c o n d i tio n , w hich i s s u f f e r i n g , i s o l a t i o n , and f i n a l l y
d e a th . One way o f e d u c a tin g man t o th e human c o n d itio n i s
to use p l a i n , c l e a r la n g u a g e , t o r e f r a i n from becom ing
in v o lv e d i n a b s t r a c t i o n and r h e t o r i c a l euphem ism . C a llin g
th in g s by t h e i r r i g h t names w i l l a l s o h e lp man t o a c t
c o r r e c t l y , f o r Camus view s man a s b ein g r a t h e r good th a n
e v i l . He c a n le a r n t h a t s u f f e r in g i s e v e ry b o d y 's b u s in e s s ,
and in s p i t e o f th e o p p o s itio n betw een th e demands of
h a p p in e s s and th o s e o f d u ty , he e a n a c t w ith common
3
d ecen cy . Thus i f man s e e s th e human c o n d itio n c l e a r l y ,
he w i l l f i g h t a g a in s t human s u f f e r in g and d e a th w ith th e
to o ls a t h an d . F or th e v i r i l i t y o f re a s o n i s to r e b e l
a g a in s t th e human c o n d itio n and to a c t . T h is i s a q u es
t i o n o f " h o n n e te te ” ; f o r Camus’ h e ro e s i t c o n s i s t s in
”A f a i r e mon m e t i e r . ”
A nother r e l a t e d m o tif i s t h a t o f lo v e . Camus shows
t h a t man becom es ’’p o s s e s s e d ” once he tu r n s h is back on
lo v e . And human lo v e i s th e one c o n c re te rew ard a v a ila b le
to man; f o r th o s e who lo o k beyond man th e r e i s no re s p o n s e .
Man i s a lo n e i n th e f a c e o f an em pty sk y .
F i n a l l y , w hat i s th e im p o rta n ce of th e s e m o tifs in
th e work o f A lb e r t Camus? I t i s t h a t when th in g s a r e n o t
c a lle d by t h e i r p ro p e r nam es, men commit m urder i n th e
name o f j u s t i c e . A ls o , i t i s th ro u g h ’’la p s e s i n a t t e n
t i o n ” t h a t man does harm t o h i s f e llo w man. And a la p s e
o f a t t e n t i o n i s cau sed by n o t s e e in g th e human c o n d itio n
a c c u r a te l y , w hich one who i s in v o lv e d in a ’’h a b i tu a l ” view
o f e x is te n c e c e r t a i n l y c a n n o t do.
M ethod: Que s a ls - .ie ?
I have a tte m p te d t o t r a c e th e s e c r u c i a l m o tifs i n
Camus' f i c t i o n and dram a by c i t i n g key p a s s a g e s f o r
a n a ly s is and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . And a lth o u g h th e s e a n a ly s e s
a r e g u id ed by a s p e c i f i c p u rp o s e , I have t r i e d to be
4
g u id ed o n ly by th e t e x t s th e m s e lv e s . T h e re fo re , I have
t r i e d to l e t th e t e x t sp e ak f o r i t s e l f a s much a s p o s s i b le .
I have t r i e d t o p r e s e n t th e s e c e n t r a l them es of Camus a s
th e y a p p e a r i n th e w ork of a r t , in c o n t e x t, w ith a s l i t t l e
d i s t o r t i o n a s p o s s i b le . T h is h as n e c e s s ita t e d p ic k in g up
th e th r e a d s o f th e m o tifs a s th e y ap p e ared in th e w ork,
g iv in g a b r i e f p r e s e n ta ti o n and a n a l y s i s , m aking o b se rv a
tio n s and b r i e f g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s , th e n moving o n , p ic k in g
up th e th r e a d s a g a in a s th e y a p p e a re d . Then I have t r i e d
t o s y n th e s iz e i n a c o n c lu s io n a t th e end o f ea c h c h a p te r ,
k eep in g i n mind t h a t th e s e g e n e r a liz a ti o n s would be
removed from th e c o n c r e te , from th e a p p e a ra n c e o f th e
m o tif i n th e w ork.
I have used Camus' c r e a t i v e w ork a s th e c e n t r a l
o b je c t o f my i n v e s t i g a t i o n , o n ly o c c a s io n a lly tu r n in g t o
h i s e s s a y s . T hus, I have a tte m p te d t o f in d th e m eaning o f
Camus w ith in th e c r e a t i v e w ork i t s e l f , a t th e d ra m a tic
l e v e l , i n th e r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t e x i s t among th e c h a ra c
t e r s and b etw een th e c h a r a c te r s and th e u n iv e rs e .
CHAPTER I I
LA PESTE1
I . HABIT VERSUS LA CCMPRfeBNSIOlT
A ^ w itn e ssi w J e n 'a d m e ts aue l e s
tem o lg n ag es s a n s r e s e r v e s . "
La P e s te I s a c h r o n ic le w r i t t e n i n th e t h i r d p e rs o n
w hich w itn e s s e s th e e f f e c t s o f a p la g u e on th e p e o p le o f
a m odern N o rth A fr ic a n c i t y , O ran. The r e a d e r does n o t
le a r n u n t i l th e end o f th e t a l e t h a t th e n a r r a t o r , an
o b se rv e r o f and p a r t i c i p a n t in th e a c t i o n , i s D octor R ieu x .
I t i s a s th e p e o p le a r e c e le b r a t in g th e end o f th e p la g u e
t h a t R ieu x d e c id e s t o w r i te t h i s c h r o n i c l e , so a s n o t to
be one o f th o s e who keep s i l e n t , b u t t o t e s t i f y in fa v o r
"de c e s p e s t i f ^ r e s , p our l a i s s e r du m oins un s o u v e n ir de
l 1i n j u s t i c e e t de l a v io le n c e q u i le u r a v a ie n t € te f a i t e s ,
e t pour d i r e sim plem ent ce q u 'o n ap p ren d au m ilie u d es
f le a u x , q u 'i l y a dan s l e s hommes p lu s de e h o se s & a d m ire r
que de c h o se s a m e p ris e r" (3 3 6 ). He i s o b lig e d t o w itn e s s
a s o r t o f c rim e , i n w hich he h as d e l i b e r a t e l y ta k e n th e
iv ie tim 's s id e .
•^A lbert Camus, La P e s te ( P a r i s , 1947)
5
6
A t th e end o f th e c h r o n ic le R ieu x e x p la in s h is
a t t i t u d e tow ard h is s u b j e c t , why he to o k th e p o s i t i o n of
an im p a r t i a l o b se rv e r in h is r e p o r t . In h i s p o s it io n a s
a p h y s ic ia n , e a rin g f o r th e s ic k and d y in g , he was a b le t o
o b se rv e much and t o h e a r v a r io u s o p in io n s . B ut he h as
t r i e d to r e p o r t o n ly w hat he h as s e e n , and n o t t o a t t r i
b u te t o p e o p le f e e l i n g s t h a t th e y do n o t h av e. He d i s
t r u s t s a b s t r a c t i o n s and r h e t o r i c . He b e lie v e s t h a t man
d e f in e s h im s e lf th ro u g h a c t i o n , n o t w ords.
A town o f h a b i t T w ith o u t s u s p ic io n s
As a p re lu d e t o th e tr a g e d y , th e n a r r a t o r d e s c r ib e s
th e c i t y - u g l y , w ith o u t t r e e s , w ith o u t g a rd e n s , w ith o u t a
s o u l ( ’ ’C e tte c i t e sa n s p i t t o r e s q u e , sa n s v e g e ta tio n e t sa n s
ame f i n i t p a r sem b ler re p o s a n te e t on s 'y e n d o rt e n f i n ”
£16] ) . E veryone i s b o red and a p p lie s h im s e lf t o a c q u ir in g
h a b i t s . The to w n sp eo p le w ork h a r d , b u t o n ly f o r th e p u r
p o se o f g e t t i n g r i c h . N a tu r a lly th e y lo v e th e sim p le
p le a s u r e s — th e y lo v e women, th e m o v ies, and th e b each —
b u t, v e ry re a s o n a b ly , th e y r e s e r v e th e s e p le a s u r e s f o r th e
w eekends, and d u rin g th e r e s t of th e week th e y t r y t o
make money, a s much a s p o s s i b le . The town i s , th u s ,
r e a l l y r a t h e r t y p i c a l . N othing i s more n a t u r a l th a n to
se e p e o p le w orking from m orning t i l l n ig h t and c h o o sin g t o
f r i t t e r away th e tim e t h a t rem a in s f o r l i v i n g , a t c a r d s ,
7
a t th e c a f e , or in g o s s ip . S t i l l , th e n a r r a t o r com m ents,
th e r e a r e o th e r c i t i e s and c o u n tr ie s w here p e o p le h a v e ,
from tim e t o tim e , a s u s p ic io n o f som ething e l s e . In
g e n e r a l, th e s u s p ic io n d o e s n ’ t change t h e i r l i v e s , y e t
th e y have had an i n ti m a t io n , and t h a t i s so m eth in g . B ut
Gran i s a p p a r e n tly a c i t y w ith o u t s u s p ic io n s . And in
Oran a s e ls e w h e re , f o r la c k o f tim e and r e f l e c t i o n ,
p e o p le lo v e each o th e r w ith o u t knowing much a b o u t i t .
They devour each o th e r r a p i d l y in w hat i s known a s ’’l ’a c te
d 'am o u r” ( 1 5 ) , or e l s e s e t t l e down i n t o a lo n g l i f e o f
c o n ju g a l h a b i t . B H ais on p a s s e s e s jo u rn e e s sa n s d i f -
f i e u l t e s a u s s i t o t q u 'o n a d es h a b itu d e s . Du moment que
n o tr e v i l l e fa v o r is e - ju s te m e n t l e s h a b itu d e s , on p e u t
d i r e que t o u t e s t pour le m ieux” (1 5 -1 6 ).
I n t h i s l i g h t l y i r o n i c a l d e s c r ip tio n o f th e town and
th e p e o p le on th e eve o f th e p la g u e , R ie u x s t r e s s e s a
q u a l i t y i n th e l i f e o f m odern c i v i l i z e d man, t h a t o f th e
a c q u i s i t i o n o f h a b i t , a m ajo r m o tif i n th e r e s t o f th e
c h r o n ic le . He d e s c r ib e s th e e x is te n c e o f b o red p e o p le ,
to o t y p i c a l , who c u l t i v a t e h a b i t s , who a r e c o n te n t to
e r e c t and t o s u p p o rt an a r b i t r a r y view o f th e w o rld , an
o r g a n iz a tio n o f h a b i t . T h is re a d y a c c e p ta n c e o f th e
o r d in a r y , b u t t o th e n a r r a t o r q u ite a r b i t r a r y , view o f
r e a l i t y i s a s c re e n a g a i n s t a more a c c u r a te v is i o n o f
e x is te n c e . What w i l l th e p la g u e do to th e s e p e o p le , th e
8
r e a d e r w onders a t th e o u t s e t o f th e c h r o n ic le ? How e f f e c
t i v e l y w i l l i t throw down th e s c re e n s of ’’r a tio n a lis m ” and
h a b i t w hich we in te r p o s e b etw een o u rs e lv e s and ’’r e a l i t y ”
(w h a tev er t h a t may b e , b u t a b o u t w hich a few p e o p le in
o th e r c i t i e s o c c a s io n a lly have an in tim a tio n ) ?
R h e to r ic c o n c e a ls r e a l i t y : ” i l f a u t
a p p e le r l e s c h o se s o ar le u r nom. ”
One of th e p rim a ry s u p p o rts o f h a b i t i s r h e t o r i c , a
p a l l i a t i v e f o r a h a r s h , t r u t h f u l view o f e x is te n c e .
T a rro u ’ s comments on th e serm on t h a t F a th e r P an elo u x
p re a c h e s a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e p la g u e , in w hich he t e l l s
th e members o f th e c o n g re g a tio n t h a t th e p la g u e comes from
God a s a p u n ish m en t f o r t h e i r s i n s , e x p re s s Camus' d i s t r u s t
o f r h e t o r i c and a b s t r a c t i o n , a n d , i n c i d e n t a l l y , a r e an
e a r l y i n d i c a t i o n o f T a r r o u 's f r e s h p o in t o f view .
Au commencement d es f l^ a u x e t l o r s q u 'i l s s o n t te rm in e s ,
on f a i t to u jo u r s un peu de r h e to r iq u e . Dans l e p re m ie r
c a s , l ’h a b itu d e n 'e s t p a s en c o re p erd u e e t , dan s l e
se c o n d , e l l e e s t d e jil re v e n u e . C 'e s t au moment du m al-
h e u r q u 'o n s 'h a b i t u e k l a v e r i t e , c 'e s t - i - d i r e au
s i l e n c e . A tte n d o n s (134-135)*
W ords, r h e t o r i c , a b s t r a c t te rm s , and fo rm u la s h e lp t o
p ig e o n h o le u n u s u a l e v e n ts , t o p u t them i n t o a c u sto m a ry ,
and th e r e f o r e l e s s d i s t u r b i n g , r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith a h a b i t
u a l view o f e x is te n c e . They a l s o h e lp t o c o n c e a l th e
t r u t h . F a th e r P a n e lo u x , in a s tr o n g , p a s s io n a te v o ic e ,
u sin g lo n g r h e t o r i c a l p h r a s e s , ex te n d ed m etap h o rs and
9
a n a lo g ie s o f th e s k i l l e d p r e a c h e r , h as to ld h is c o n g reg a
tio n :
Mes f r e r e s . vous e t e s dan s l e m a lh e u r, mes f r l r e s , vous
l ’av ez m e r ite . . . • La p re m ie re f o i s que ce f le a u
a p p a r a it dan s l ’h i s t o i r e , c ’e s t p o u r f r a p p e r l e s ennem is
de D ieu . . ^. . Les j u s t e s ne p eu v e n t c r a i n d r e c e l a ,
m ais l e s m echants o n t r a i s o n de tr e m b le r . Dans l ’ immens
g ran g e de l ’u n iv e r s , le f l e a u im p la c a b le b a t t r a l e b le
hum ain ju sq u 'A ce que l a p a i l l e s o i t s e p a r le du g r a in .
. . . V o y e z -le , c e t ange de l a p e s t e , beau comme
L u c if e r e t b r i l l a n t comme le m al lu i-m em e, d r e s s ^
a u -d e s s u s de vos t o i t s , ^ l a m ain d r o i t e p o r ta n t l ’e p ie u
ro u g e a h a u te u r de sa t e t e , l a m ain gauche d e s ig n a n t
l ’une de vos m aisons <111- 113)•
D o cto r R ie u x , on th e o th e r h an d , i n s i s t s t h a t " i l
f a u t a p p e le r l e s ch o ses p a r le u r nom*1 (54-). He m ust c a l l
th e p la g u e w hat i t i s i n r e a l i t y , M un s c a n d a le n (2 3 6 ), n o t
som ething a b s t r a c t , some w l e s s o n ," som ething " m e r ite d .”
He s e e s th e p la g u e i n th e c o n c r e te , a m o th er w eeping a s
she s e e s h e r c h i ld tw is tin g in p a in , h i s sto m ach , n e c k ,
and th ig h s co v e re d w ith th e p u s - f i l l e d p la g u e g a n g lia .
The r e a d e r ’ s f i r s t g lim p se o f w hat k in d o f man R ieu x
i s o cc u rs e a r l y i n th e c h r o n i c l e , when R am b ert, a P a r i s i a n
j o u r n a l i s t , comes se e k in g in fo rm a tio n from R ie u x a b o u t th e
l i v i n g c o n d itio n s o f th e A rab p o p u la tio n . R a th e r s u r p r i s
in g ly , R ie u x r e f u s e s to h e lp h im , g iv in g a s h is re a s o n
t h a t R am bert would n o t be allo w ed to p u b lis h th e w hole
t r u t h in h i s n ew sp ap er. "Je n 'a d m e ts que l e s tem o ig n ag es
sa n s r e s e r v e s ," R ieu x t e l l s him . . . . "C ’e t a i t ( l e la n g ag e
d 'u n homme la s s e du monde ou i l v i v a i t , a y a n t p o u r ta n t le
10
g o u t de s e s se m b la b le s e t d e c id e & r e f u s e r , pour sa p a r t ,
1*i n j u s t i c e e t le s c o n e e s s io n s ” ( 2 3 ) .
R ieu x i s a man o f a c t i o n . He does n o t w ant t o h id e
w hat he may le a r n o f th e t r u t h b eh in d a b s t r a c t i o n s , h a l f -
t r u t h s , and h a b i t . In th e e a r l y d a y s , b e fo re th e h o r r o r
i s g iv e n a nam e, he r e f u s e s e i t h e r t o p a n ic or t o h id e
b eh in d euphemism s f o r th e com ing b a t t l e w ith a p o s s ib le
p la g u e . I f th e symptoms do tu r n o u t t o be a p la g u e , ” on
s a u r a i t ce q u 'e l l e e t a i t e t s ' i l n 'y a v a i t pas moyen de
s 'e n a r r a n g e r d 'a b o rd p o u r l a v a in c r e e n s u i t e , ” he th in k s
to h im s e lf . . . • "La e t a i t l a c e r t i t u d e , dans l e t r a v a i l
de to u s le s jo u r s . Le r e s t e t e n a i t a d es f i l s e t a d es
mouvements i n s i g n i f i a n t s , on ne p o u v a it s 'y a r r e t e r .
L 'e s s e n t i e l e t a i t de b ie n f a i r e son m e tie r " (5 3 )•
On th e o th e r h an d , R ieu x * s c o lle a g u e s on th e h e a lth
co m m ittee, w hich m eets a t th e p r e f e c t ’ s o f f i c e to d e c id e
w hat m easu res t o ta k e a g a i n s t th e e p id e m ic , r e f u s e t o fa c e
f a c t s and g iv e th e d is e a s e i t s p ro p e r nam e, and ta k e th e
p r o p e r , b u t d r a s t i c , o f f i c i a l m easu res t o f i g h t a g a i n s t
i t . They a r e in v o lv e d w ith th e m agic o f w o rd s, of nam es;
th e y t r y t o h id e b eh in d c a te g o r ie s t o e scap e th e t r u t h .
F or i t i s o n ly by la b e lin g th e d is e a s e o f f i c i a l l y ” l a
p e s t e ” t h a t th e p r e f e c t can a p p ly law s t h a t w i l l a llo w
r ig o ro u s p r o p h y la c tic m easu res to be ta k e n to keep th e
d is e a s e from s p re a d in g . In e x a s p e r a tio n , R ie u x t e l l s th e
11
o th e r d o c to r s , M i l im p o rts peu que vous l 'a p p e l i e z p e s te
ou f i e v r e de c r o is s a n c e . I I im p o rts se u le m e n t que vous
l ’em pechiez de tu e r l a m o itie de l a v i l l e . . . . Ce n ’e s t
pas une q u e s tio n de v o e a b u la ir e , c fe s t une q u e s tio n de
tem ps" (6 2 , 6 3 ) . The r e s t o f th e c o m m itte e, n o t w il l i n g
t o a c t w ith o u t an o f f i c i a l fo rm u la , r e f r a i n s from c a l l i n g
th e ep id em ie th e p la g u e . The c h a irm a n , D o cto r R ic h a r d ,
f i n a l l y com prom ises w ith , ” i l f a u t done que nous p re n io n s
l a r e s p o n s a b i l i t ^ d 'a g i r comme s i la m a la d ie e t a i t une
p e s t e ” (63)* Asked i f he c o n c u rs w ith th e fo rm u la , R ie u x
c a n o n ly r e p l y , r e tu r n in g a g a in to th e c o n c re te e v e n t,
”l a fo rm u la m 'e s t i n d i f f e r e n t e . . . . D iso n s se u lem e n t que
nous ne devons pas a g i r comme s i l a m o itie de l a v i l l e ne
r i s q u a i t p as d 'e t r e t u e e , c a r a l o r s e l l e l e s e r a i t ” (6 4 ).
R h e to ric i s a c o n v e n ie n t fo rm u la by w hich to r e p o r t
a fo rm a liz e d view o f th in g s . T h u s, D o cto r R ic h a rd w an ts
t o draw up r e p o r t s and p u t th e problem o f th e ep id em ic
i n t o " o f f i c i a l c h a n n e ls ” (a c o n v e n ie n t m ethod o f n o t f a c in g
an is s u e i s , o f c o u r s e , t o form c o m m itte e s, make r e p o r t s ,
and p u t th e r e p o r t s i n t o th e b u r e a u c r a tic m a c h in e ). B ut
R ieu x w an ts a c t i o n , n o t w o rd s. ” 11 f a l l a i t d es m esures
c o m p le te s , non d es p h r a s e s ,” he t e l l s R ic h a rd (75)» Camus
c o n tin u a l ly condemns a s in a c c u r a te th e " o r d e r e d ” v iew o f
e x is te n c e t h a t th e to w n sp eo p le h a v e . He c u ts th ro u g h th e
r h e t o r i c a l euphemism and s o c i a l a p p e a ra n c e t o s u p p o rt an
12
i n d i v i d u a l , f r e s h view o f th in g s . Such a view i s e v id e n t
in th e j o u r n a l o f T a rro u , whom Camus u s e s a s a s o r t o f
“a n t i - h a b i t ” f i g u r e in th e c h r o n i c l e , someone to p r e s e n t
a view t h a t i s in d iv i d u a l and th u s th ro w in sh a rp o u tli n e
th e view o f h a b i t t h a t th e to w n sp eo p le e v id e n c e .
A f r e s h p o in t o f view
The r e a d e r view s some o f th e e v e n ts o f th e p la g u e
th ro u g h th e ey e s o f T a rro u , t o whose j o u r n a l R ieu x h as
a c c e s s . The n a r r a t o r f i r s t m eets T a rro u w h ile he i s
w atch in g th e d e a th th r o e s o f a r a t . W e a r e s tr u c k immedi
a t e l y by h i s f r e s h p o in t o f v ie w , a f a r c r y from th e
s te re o ty p e d v i s i o n o f th e to w n sp e o p le. F o r w h ile th e m ass
of r a t s d y in g in th e s t r e e t s seems odd t o R ie u x , T a rro u
re m a rk s , ”Dans un s e n s , d o c te u r , dans un se n s se u le m e n t.
Wous n 'a v o n s ja m a is r i e n vu de se m b la b le , v o i l l t o u t .
M ais je tro u v e c e la i n t e r e s s a n t , o u i, p o s itiv e m e n t i n t e r e s -
s a n t ” (2 4 ). As w ith th e w o rld o f th e K afka h e ro (a s i n th e
s h o r t s t o r y ”In d e r S t r a f k o l o n i e ," f o r e x a m p le ), a n y th in g
p a y e n te r e x is te n c e a t an y moment. Those who do n o t view
th e w orld a b s t r a c t l y , who do n o t t r y t o c l a s s i f y each
phenomenon i n t o e x i s t i n g , ta u g h t c a t e g o r i e s , a r e n o t
r e a l l y s u r p r is e d by a n y th in g . B ut th e e n t r i e s i n T a r ro u 1s
jo u r n a l s t r i k e us a s u n u s u a l a t f i r s t . T a rro u seems to
”c o n s id e r e r l e s c h o se s e t l e s e t r e s p a r l e g ro s b o u t de l a
13
l o r g n e t t e . Dans l e d e s a r r o i g e n e r a l, 11 s 'a p p l i q u a i t , en
somme, a se fa ir© l 'h i s t o r i e n d e .c e q u i n 'a p as d ’h i s t o i r e .
On p e u t d e p lo r e r sa n s d o u te ce p a r t i p r i s ©t y soup§onner
l a s ^ c h e re s s e du e o e u r" (35)* H e, l i k e M e u rs a u lt in
L fE tr a n e e r and K. in Das S c h lo s s . h as a f r e s h p o in t of
v ie w , o r a t l e a s t a view t h a t d i f f e r s from th e ta u g h t view
o f ” l e s a u t r e s . ” And s in c e i t d i f f e r s , i t i s s u s p e c t,
p erh a p s o f a " la c k o f p ro p e r f e e l i n g . ”
F or ex am p le, a t th e v e ry b e g in n in g o f h i s j o u r n a l ,
T a rro u e x p re s s e s a c u r io u s s a t i s f a c t i o n a t f in d in g h im s e lf
in a c i t y " a u s s i l a i d e p a r elle-m em e” <35)• He g iv e s
d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p ti o n s o f two b ro n ze lio n s t h a t ad o rn th e
c i t y h a l l , and r e f l e c t s b e n ig n ly on th e a b se n ce o f t r e e s ,
th e g r a c e le s s n e s s o f th e b u il d i n g s , and th e a b s u rd p la n o f
th e c i t y . T a rro u a l s o s p r in k le s h i s d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e
p la g u e w ith b i t s o f c o n v e r s a tio n , o v e rh e a rd on s t r e e t c a r s
and in th e s t r e e t s , w hich seem r a t h e r m e a n in g le s s . I n a
d ia lo g u e he o v e rh e a rs c o n c e rn in g a man, Camps, who had
d ie d from th e p la g u e , two s t r e e t c a r c o n d u c to rs t r y to
a c c o u n t f o r , r e a l l y to e x p la in aw ay, th e ”f e v e r . ” I t
m ust have been cau sed by a weak c h e s t and from p la y in g th e
c o r n e t i n th e town b an d , th e y s u rm is e : "T o u jo u rs s o u f f l e r
dans un p i s t o n , 9a u s e ” ( 3 6 ) . T h is , o f c o u r s e , i s an
exam ple o f th e a tte m p ts o f th e to w n sp eo p le t o p ig e o n h o le
e v e ry phenomenon i n t o an a r b i t r a r y , a r t i f i c i a l s t r u c t u r e
14
o f th e a c c e p te d v is i o n o f e x i s te n c e . T h u s, a p o lic e s u p e r
in te n d e n t c o n v e n ie n tly c a te g o r iz e s th e grow ing ep id em ic a s
h av in g t o do w ith th e w e a th e r. " C 'e s t l e tem p s, v o ilH
t o u t , c o n c lu t l e c o m m is s a ire ," in sp e a k in g t o R ie u x (4 6 ).
And th e n ew sp ap ers u se th e a f f a i r of th e g r e a t number o f
r a t s d y in g in th e s t r e e t s a s an o p p o rtu n ity to c a r r y on a
cam paign a g a i n s t th e c i t y a d m in is t r a tio n . L a te r , when
p eo p le b e g in d y in g r a t h e r th a n th e r a t s , th e y have n o th in g
to s a y . F o r, a s R ie u x com m ents, " C 'e s t que l e s r a t s
m eu ren t d an s l a ru e e t l e s hommes dans l e u r cham bre. E t
l e s jo u rn a u x ne s 1o cc u p en t que de l a ru e " (4 7 ). I t seems
Im p o ssib le f o r th e to w n sp eo p le t o se e th in g s from a f r e s h
p o in t o f view .
T a r r o u 's a n t i - h i s t o r i c a l p o in t o f view ( i . e . , " i l
s 'a p p l i q u a i t , en somme, a se f a i r e l 'h i s t o r i e n de c e q u i
n 'a p as d 'h i s t o i r e " [ 3 5 ] ) , seems t o a s k th e q u e s tio n , What
i s " im p o rta n t" human a c t i v i t y , w o rth y o f th e h i s t o r i a n s ?
F or ex am p le, T a rro u shows g r e a t i n t e r e s t , i n h is j o u r n a l ,
in th e a c t i v i t i e s o f an o ld man who, each day a f t e r lu n c h ,
le a n s o ver h i s b a lc o n y , c a l l s th e n eig h b o rh o o d c a t s ,
a t t r a c t s them w ith to r n p ie c e s o f p a p e r, and th e n s p i t s on
them w ith g r e a t s a t i s f a c t i o n . T h is h a b i t u a l , p e t t y a c t
seems m e a n in g le s s j b u t , one w o n d ers, i s i t more m e a n in g le ss
th a n th e u s u a l , " r a t i o n a l , " h a b i t u a l a c ts o f man, o f th e
to w n sp eo p le? When tow ard th e end o f th e p la g u e , T a rro u
15
lo o k s f o r b u t does n o t f in d th e o ld man, he c o n c lu d e s
t h a t , i f he i s d e a d , p e rh a p s h e , a lo n g w ith R ie u x ’s o ld
a s th m a tic p a t i e n t , had b ee n a s a i n t . ”P e u t - e t r e , ” he
o b se rv e s i n th e j o u r n a l , ”ne p e u t-o n a b o u t i r q u ’a d es
a p p ro x im a tio n s de s a i n t e t e . Dans ce c a s , i l f a u d r a i t se
c o n te n te r d 'u n sa ta n is m e m odeste e t c h a r i t a b l e ” <301) .
The f u l l , i r o n i c a l im p lic a tio n s o f t h i s odd o b se rv a
t i o n bee cane a p p a re n t o n ly tow ard th e end o f th e c h r o n ic l e ,
when we le a r n of T a r ro u 1s own d e s ir e to become a s a i n t
<”En somme, d i t T a rro u avec s i m p l i c i t e , ce q u i m 'i n t e r e s s e ,
c ’e s t de s a v o ir comment on d e v ie n t un s a i n t ” [2 7 9 3 ). For
th e o ld man who s p i t s on th e c a t s and th e o ld a s th m a tic
(who s i t s in bed a l l d a y , from c h o ic e , and t e l l s tim e by
p a s s in g d r ie d p eas from one p o t t o a n o th e r ) a r e p e rh a p s
s a i n t s o f a s o r t , from T a r ro u ’ s p o in t o f v ie w , b e c a u s e ,
s in c e a l l men have th e p la g u e , and s in c e we c a n n o t ta k e a
s te p in t h i s w o rld w ith o u t th e r i s k o f b r in g in g d e a th to
som eone, he who i s w ith d ra w n , a s th e s e men a r e , does th e
l e a s t harm . T h is i s , o f c o u r s e , i r o n i c a l , f o r th e ’’s a i n t s ”
would n o t be f i g h t i n g f o r th e good c a u s e , a s a r e th o s e men
l i k e R ie u x , C a s te l , and G rand, men who have ” l a com prehen
s i o n . ” T h at e x p l a in s , p e rh a p s , th e ” i l f a u d r a i t se con
t e n t e r d ’un sa ta n is m e m odeste e t c h a r i t a b l e ” ( 301) .
I n a n o th e r e n t r y , T a rro u a s k s h im s e lf : ’’Q u e stio n :
comment f a i r e pour ne p as p e rd re so n tem ps? R eponse:
16
l ’£ p ro u v er dans to u te sa lo n g u e u r. M oyens: p a s s e r d es
jo u rn e e s d an s I 'a n tic h a m b r e d ’un d e n t i s t e , s u r une c h a is e
i n c o n f o r t a b l e ; v iv r e a so n b a lc o n l e dim anche a p r e s -m id i;
4 co u te r d es c o n fe re n c e s dan s une la n g u e q u ’ on ne comprend
p a s , c h o i s i r l e s i t i n e r a i r e s de chem in de f e r l e s p lu s
lo n g s e t l e s m oins commodes e t v o y ag er d e b o u t n a t u r e l l e -
m ent; f a i r e l a queue au x g u ic h e ts d es s p e c ta c le s e t ne pas
p re n d re sa p la c e , e t c . , e tc .* 1 (3 7 -3 8 ). T hese m ethods o f
n o t w a s tin g o n e ’ s tim e seem a t f i r s t view t o be p a ra d o x i
c a l and m e a n in g le s s . B ut p e rh a p s , b e c au se one i s n o t
d i s t r a c t e d d u rin g su ch p e r io d s and i s more i n te n s e l y aw are
o f th e p a ssa g e of tim e , one i s aw are t h a t he i s a c t i v e l y
a l i v e . And t h i s e n tr y becomes more s i g n i f i c a n t l a t e r on,
when we re a d T a r r o u 's r a i s o n d ’e t r e tow ard th e end o f th e
c h r o n ic le . H ere he t e l l s E ie u x , ”nous ne p o u v io n s p as
f a i r e un g e s te en ce monde sa n s r is q u e r de f a i r e m o u rir”
< 276).
I I . LA CONDITION HDMAINE
E x i l e s ” s e u l en fa c e du c i e l ”
In th e e a r l y day s o f th e ’’f e v e r , ” b e fo re a name i s
g iv e n t o th e grow ing number o f d e a th s , th e to w n sp eo p le do
n o t know w hat t o th i n k , how t o a d j u s t t o som ething so o u t
o f th e o r d in a r y — f i r s t t o th e p i l e s o f b lo a te d r a t s i n th e
s t r e e t s , th e n to th e d e a th c o n v u ls io n s of f r i e n d s and
17
r e l a t i v e s . M I l s se tr o u v a ie n t en somme dan s l 'e r r e u r e t
le u r s id e a s e t a i e n t a r e v i s e r . S i t o u t s ' e t a i t a r r e t e l a ,
l e s h a b itu d e s san s d o u te l 'e u s s e n t em p o rte" (3 4 ). R ieu x
eomments t h a t when a w ar o r a p la g u e b re a k s o u t, p e o p le
s a y , "§a ne d u re ra p a s , c 'e s t tr o p b e te " ( 4 9 ). They f in d
i t u n r e a l , l i k e a bad dream t h a t w i l l go away. In t h i s
r e s p e c t th e y a r e l i k e ev ery b o d y e l s e , n o te s R ieu x j th e y
th in k o n ly o f th e m s e lv e s . O r, i n o th e r w o rd s, " i l s
e t a i e n t h u m a n is te s : i l s ne c r o y a ie n t p as au x f le a u x " (4 9 ).
B ut p e rh a p s man, d e e p ly i n h i s s u b c o n s c io u s , a w a its
th e s e tim e s , th e s e moments o f th e u n u s u a l, o f th e h o r r i b l e ,
and a c c e p ts them , w ith a lm o s t th e f a t a l i s m o f a K afka
h e ro . W itn e ss th e p u b lic r e a c t i o n to th e O rson W elles
"War o f th e W orlds" r a d i o p la y . P erh ap s th e "to w n sp e o p le "
everyw here have a n " in t im a t io n " j t h a t i s , th e y s e n se th e
human c o n d itio n w ith a n a c c u ra c y beyond th e v is i o n o f
h a b i t . They th ro w a s id e t h e i r h a b i ts f o r a tim e , o n ly
under th e c o n d itio n s o f a p la g u e or w ar. B ut soon th e y
s in k b ack i n t o th e " ta u g h t" v i s i o n , th e c o n v e n ie n t c a t e
g o r i e s , a r t i f i c i a l and in a c c u r a te .
When th e c i t y o f f i c i a l s w ere f i n a l l y s t i r r e d to
a c t i o n , when th e y re c o g n iz e d th e p la g u e f o r w hat i t was
and o rd e re d th e town g a te s t o be c lo s e d , m ost p e o p le
a c c e p te d th e c lo s in g o f th e town a t f i r s t , a s th e y would
have " a c c e p ts n 1im p o rts q u e l e n n u i te m p o ra ire q u i ne
18
d e r a n g e r a it que q u e lq u e s -u n e s de le u r s h a b itu d e s ’* (1 1 7 )•
B ut so o n , " l a p re m ie re ch o se que l a p e s te a p p o r ta a nos
c o n c ito y e n s f u t l 'e x i l " ( 8 5 ). T h is f e e l i n g o f e x i l e —w ith
th e accom panying se n se o f p u r p o s e le s s n e s s and i n a b i l i t y to
com m unicate— i s b ro u g h t a b o u t p a r t i a l l y b e c a u se th e c i t i
zen s have l o s t many o f th e c o m fo rts t h a t a h a b i t u a l view
of e x is te n c e g iv e s them . How th e town i s i s o l a t e d , and
many o f th e c i t i z e n s a r e s e p a r a te d from t h e i r lo v e d o n es—
a w if e , a l o v e r , a c h i l d — o u ts id e th e c i t y . Hot knowing
how long th e p la g u e may l a s t , th e y c a n n o t l i v e f o r a
f u t u r e , and a r e red u c e d to t h e i r p a s t , w ith a memory t h a t
s e rv e s no p u rp o se . " I m p a tie n ts de le u r p r e s e n t , ennem is
de le u r p a s s e e t p r iv e s d 'a v e n i r , nous re s s e m b lio n s b ie n
a i n s i k ce u x que l a j u s t i c e ou l a h a in e hum alnes f o n t
v iv r e d e r r i e r e d es b a rre a u x ” ( 8 8 ). Each man m ust b e a r h i s
s u f f e r in g and h i s s o l i tu d e a lo n e , th e n a r r a t o r t e l l s u s .
" A in s i, ch acu n d u t a c c e p te r de v iv r e au jo u r l e j o u r , e t
s e u l en fa c e du c i e l ” (9 0 ). The se n se o f e x i l e i s i n te n
s i f i e d by t h e i r i n a b i l i t y t o com m unicate w ith t h e i r f e llo w
p r is o n e r s . F or i t seemed im p o s s ib le to f in d th e r i g h t
w ords t o e x p re s s t o a n o th e r p e rs o n th e u n iq u e n e s s o f th e
d e p th s o f o n e 's s u f f e r i n g , R ie u x a s s e r t s . One had t o r e l y
on th e h ac k n e y e d , c o n v e n tio n a l p h ra s e s a lo n e . And i f
someone d id a tte m p t t o e x p re s s h i s r e a l f e e l i n g s , th e
answ er in v a r i a b l y wounded h im , and he le a r n e d t h a t he and
19
h i s l i s t e n e r w ere n o t sp e a k in g th e same la n g u a g e . F o r he
had b een tr y in g t o e x p re s s a n image o f an em o tio n t h a t was
th e r e s u l t o f lo n g days o f s i l e n t th in k in g and s u f f e r i n g ,
b u t h i s l i s t e n e r im agined a c o n v e n tio n a l e m o tio n , " l a
d o u le u r q u 'o n vend s u r l e s m a rc h e s, une m e la n e o lie de
s e r i e " (9 0 ). B ut f o r th o s e who found s i l e n c e u n b e a ra b le ,
r e p o r ts th e n a r r a t o r , " i l s se r e s i g n a i e n t a a d o p te r l a
lan g u e d es m arches e t a p a r l e r , eu x a u s s l , su r l e mode
c o n v e n tio n n e l, e e l u i de l a sim p le r e l a t i o n e t du f a i t -
d i v e r s , de l a c h ro n iq u e q u o tid ie n n e en q u elq u e s o r t e . L &
e n c o re , l e s d o u le u rs l e s p lu s v r a i e s p r i r e n t l '1 h a b itu d e de
se t r a d u i r e dans l e s fo rm u la s b a n a le s de l a c o n v e r s a tio n .
C 'e s t & ce p r i x se u le m e n t que l e s p r is o n n ie r s de l a p e s te
p o u v a ie n t o b te n ir l a co m p assio n de le u r c o n c ie rg e ou
l ' i n t l r e t de l e u r s a u d ite u r s " (9 1 ).
W ith t h e i r w o rld o f h a b i t su d d e n ly ta k e n aw ay, th e
to w n sp eo p le m ust f a c e th e r e a l i t y of t h e i r e x is te n c e
a lo n e , " s e u l en fa c e du c i e l " (9 0 ). I n r e s p e c t to t h i s
know ledge o f e x i l e , th e y have bee cane, r a t h e r i r o n i c a l l y ,
l i k e T a rro u , i s o l a t e d and in e x i l e a s he i s . B ut th e y a r e
w ith o u t h i s i n s i g h t (o r a s T a rro u e x p re s s e s i t , " l a com
p re h e n s io n [ l4 9 ] ) — th e e v e n t t h a t sen d s T arro u on a "m is
s io n " (a b o u t w hich we l e a r n tow ard th e end o f th e c h ro n
i c l e ) w ith th e f u l l know ledge t h a t he i s " p la g u e s t r i c k e n . "
H is e x i l e I s cau sed by h i s aw a re n e ss t h a t "nous ne p o u v io n s
20
pas f a l r e un g e s te en ee monde sa n s r i s q u e r de fa ir©
m o u rir" ( 276) . Thus he l i v e s , i n e x i l e , a l i f e o f c o n t r a
d i c t i o n s , w ith o u t i l l u s i o n s o f h i s in n o c e n c e . The tow ns
p e o p le , on th e o th e r h a n d , w i l l be a b le to f o r g e t t h e i r
e s s e n t i a l i s o l a t i o n w ith t h e i r r e t u r n to h a b i t a t th e end
o f th e p la g u e , and a l s o w ith th e r e t u r n o f " l a t e n d r e s s e ,"
w hich th e m onths o f p la g u e re d u c e t o a b s t r a c t i o n ( 32 1 ) .
B ut we w i l l r e t u r n t o t h i s them e l a t e r i n t h i s c h a p te r .
La co m p reh en sio n
A c e n t r a l p roblem i n m a n 's e x i s t e n c e , and one th e r e
f o r e r e f l e c t e d i n much o f th e w o r ld 's g r e a t l i t e r a t u r e , i s
t h a t of why a c t 2 ( i n th e c a s e o f Camus* h e r o e s , why f i g h t
a g a i n s t d e a th and human s u f f e r i n g ) ? Why, f o r ex am p le, do
A c h ille s and H ec to r o f th e I l i a d a c t} why do th e y fa c e
e e r t a i n d e a th i n th e f i g h t i n g b e fo re Troy? I s i t b e c a u se
o f a se n se o f d u ty to w ard s th e m s e lv e s , a d e s i r e to f u l f i l l
an im age o f e x c e lle n c e th e y presum e?3 And a p roblem
2By a c t i o n I m ean, o f c o u r s e , n o t ( t o u se J o s e O rtega
y G a s s e t's p h ra s e ) "a random f i s t i c u f f s w ith th e th in g s
aro u n d u s o r w ith our f e llo w men" (s u c h a s m ig h t d e s c r ib e
th e b e h a v io r o f th e to w n s p e o p le ); b u t , a s O rteg a d e s c r ib e s
i t , " A c tio n i s to a c t upon th e m a te r ia l en v iro n m e n t or
upon o th e r men i n a c c o rd a n c e w ith a p la n c o n c e iv e d i n a
p re v io u s p e rio d o f c o n te m p la tio n o r th o u g h t." "The S e l f
and th e O th e r," t r a n s . W illa rd R. T ra s k , P a r t i s a n R ev iew .
XIX (J u ly -A u g u s t 1 9 5 2 ), 403.
3 ln t h i s c o n n e c tio n , H. D. F . K i t t o , i n h i s a n a l y s i s
o f th e H om eric h e r o , s u g g e s ts t h a t w h at moves H e c to r " to
21
r e l a t e d to why a e t , t o i n c e n t i v e , i s how t o a c t . T h at i s ,
how does man know t h a t he i s on th e r i g h t p a th ; w hat “ law s"
or d i r e c t i o n s i s man t o fo llo w ? (Camus p o s i t s a s th e
p rim a ry r u l e o f c o n d u c t t h a t man m ust f i g h t a g a in s t d e a th
in a l l fo rm s— d e a th due t o " n a t u r a l ” c a u s e s su eh a s
d is e a s e , or man m ade, l e g i s l a t e d d e a th ) . I n s e p a ra b le from
th e s e two problem s i s t h a t o f m o tiv e f o r ‘’r i g h t 1 * a c t i o n s ,
once man h as d e c id e d w hat th e r u l e s a r e . Why sh o u ld man
a c t a c c o rd in g to th e r u l e s ? I s i t from f e a r o f th e power
f
o f th e g o d s; f e a r o f p u n ish m en t a f t e r d e a th ; o r f e a r o f
c e r t a i n p u n ish m en t t h a t comes from u p s e ttin g a b a la n c e and
p a t t e r n o f th e u n iv e rs e when one do es n o t a c t w ith m odera
t i o n (a s i n G reek tr a g e d y )? F o r ex a m p le , th e D o sto e v sk ia n
i n t e l l e c t u a l r e b e l s , su ch a s Iv a n K aram azov, co n ten d t h a t
man fo llo w s th e r u l e s o f C h r i s t i a n m o r a lity o n ly b ec au se
o f th e p ro m ise o f im m o rta lity and b ec a u se he f e a r s p u n is h
m ent.
One o f th e f i r s t i n d i c a t i o n s o f a n answ er to th e f i r s t
o f th e s e p ro b le m s, why man sh o u ld a e t , comes when T a rro u ,
v o lu n te e r in g f o r d an g ero u s w ork w ith th e s a n i t a r y sq u ad s
d eed s o f h e ro ism i s n o t a se n se o f d u ty a s we u n d e rs ta n d
i t — d u ty to w ard s o th e r s : i t i s r a t h e r d u ty to w ard s him
s e l f . He s t r i v e s a f t e r t h a t w hich we t r a n s l a t e ’v i r t u e , 1
b u t i s in G reek a r e t e , ’e x c e l l e n c e .* And w hat Agamemnon
and A c h ille s q u a r r e l a b o u t i s n o t sim p ly a g i r l : i t i s th e
‘p riz e * w h ich i s p u b lic r e c o g n i tio n o f h i s a r e t e . “ The
G reeks (L ondon, 1 9 5 1 ), p . 58.
22
d u rin g th e p la g u e , a s k s R ie u x why he h im s e lf i s so d e v o ted
to th e c a u s e . "C ro y ez-v o u s en D ieu , d o c te u r ? ” T a rro u a s k s
him (1 4 5 ). R ie u x an sw ers Ho, c e r t a i n l y n o t in an a l l
p o w e rfu l God; t h a t i f he d i d , ” i l c e s s e r a i t de g u £ r ir l e s
hommes, l u i l a i s s a n t a l o r s ce s o in ” (1 4 6 ); and t h a t he
would " s o i g n e r a i t l a m is e re a v a n t de v o u lo ir en d em o n tre r
1*e x c e lle n c e ” (1 4 5 ). (T h is i s a n a l l u s i o n to th e r a t i o n a l
i z a t i o n of s u f f e r i n g by th e p r i e s t , F a th e r P a n e lo u x ).
R ie u x b e lie v e s t h a t he i s on th e r i g h t p a th when he f i g h t s
’’c o n tr e l a c r e a t i o n t e l l e q u ’e l l e e t a i t , " and a g a i n s t
d e a th , t o w h ich he h as n e v e r become accustom ed (1 4 6 ). The
p la g u e i s , t h u s , a n e v e r en d in g d e f e a t f o r R ie u x . "P u isq u e
l 'o r d r e du monde e s t r e g i e p a r l a m o rt, p e u t - e t r e v a u t - i l
m ieux p o u r D ieu q u 'o n ne c r o i e p as en l u i e t q u 'o n l u t t e
de to u te s s e s f o r c e s c o n tr e l a m o rt, sa n s le v e r l e s yeux
v e r s ce c i e l oft i l se t a i t ” (1 4 7 ). When. T a rro u a s k s who
ta u g h t him a l l t h i s , R ie u x a n s w e rs , ”La m is e re ” (1 4 8 ).
T a rro u , i n h i s t u r n , an sw ers in re s p o n s e t o th e q u es
t i o n o f why he h as v o lu n te e re d f o r th e d an g e ro u s w ork:
" J e ne s a i s p a s . Ma m o rale p e u t - e t r e . ”
" E t l a q u e l le ? ”
"La c om p reh en sio n ” (1 4 9 ).
The an sw ers o f R ie u x and T a rro u seem to be an answ er
t o th e D o sto e v sk ia n p ro b lem posed by Iv a n K aram azov—What
d o es man do i n th e f a c e o f e v i l , s u f f e r i n g , and a s i l e n t
God? Man m ust c o n tin u e t o a c t , ev en i f he i s c o n t i n u a l l y
23
d e f e a te d . He m ust w ar a g a i n s t d e a th and human s u f f e r i n g ,
i n th e f a c e o f a s i l e n t God. And th e "co m p reh en sio n " in
th e re s p o n s e o f T a rro u seem s t o be a "co m p reh en sio n " o f
th e human c o n d itio n .
I n h i s a tte m p t ( i n a m anner s im ila r to t h a t o f E r n e s t
Hemingway) t o t e l l th e s t o r y o f th e p la g u e " t r u l y , " o b je c
t i v e l y , th e n a r r a t o r r e g r e t s t h a t i t i s n o t p o s s ib le to
r e l a t e som eth in g r e a l l y s p e c t a c u la r , some t r u l y h e r o ic
a c tio n s or i l l u s t r i o u s d e e d s , l i k e th o s e one re a d s a b o u t
i n o ld le g e n d s . " C 'e s t que r i e n n 'e s t m oins s p e e ta c u la ir e
q u 'u n f l e a u e t , p a r l e u r d u re e meme, l e s g ra n d s m a lh eu rs
s o n t m onotones" (2 0 0 ). T h u s, i n an e v a lu a tio n o f th e
"h ero ism " o f th e v o lu n te e r s a n i t a r y w o rk e rs , R ie u x r e f u s e s
t o a t t a c h more th a n a re a s o n a b le im p o rta n ce t o t h e i r good
w i l l and h e ro ism . He re a s o n s t h a t t o o v erem p h asize good
a c t i o n s , one may, by im p l ic a tio n , pay homage to th e bad
s id e o f human n a t u r e , and im p ly t h a t c a llo u s n e s s and a p a th y
a r e th e r u l e , and good a c tio n s th e e x c e p tio n . T h is c o n c lu
s io n le a d s R ie u x t o a s ta te m e n t of th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y
E n lig h te n m e n t p o in t o f v ie w , t h a t "Le m al q u i e s t dan s l e
monde v i e n t p re sq u e to u jo u r s de 1 ' ig n o r a n c e ," and t h a t
"Les homines s o n t p l u t o t bons que m au v ais" (1 5 0 ). V ic e ,
th e n , i s ig n o ra n c e , th e m ost d e s p e r a te v ic e b e in g " c e l u i
de 1 ' ig n o ra n c e q u i c r o i t t o u t s a v o ir e t q u i s 'a u t o r i s e
24
a l o r s a t u e r ” ( 150- 151) .
T his l a s t p o in t i s a e r u c i a l one. I t i s c e n t r a l i n
Camus* own argum ent a g a in s t th e d e a th p e n a lty ( i n L*Homme
R e v o lte . and e lse w h e re , in w hich he p o in ts out t h a t
p h ilo so p h y can be used f o r any p u rp o se , “meme a changer
l e s m e u r tr ie r s en ju g e s ” [ l 3j ) ; and i t a c c o u n ts f o r
T arrou*s e x p re s s io n of h is r a i s o n d ’e t r e , which a p p e ars
l a t e r in th e c h r o n ic le . E veryone, e v e ry " s i d e , ” can f in d
arg u m en ts, co n v in cin g o n es, t o j u s t i f y com m itting m urder.
Thus, m ost of our tr o u b le s stem from an involvem ent in
a b s t r a c t i o n and r h e t o r i c a l euphemism, from f a i l u r e t o use
p l a i n , c le a n - c u t lan g u ag e— from a f a i l u r e t o c a l l th e
d e a th p e n a lty or an e x e c u tio n “murder,** f o r exam ple.
The n a r r a t o r i n s i s t s , th e n , t h a t th e men who d id th e
dangerous work in th e s a n i t a r y squads do n o t d e se rv e
ex a g g erate d p r a i s e , “c a r i l s s a v a ie n t que c ’e t a i t l a s e u la
chose a f a i r e e t c * e s t de ne pas s ‘y d e c id e r q u i a l o r s e u t
e t e in c r o y a b le ” (1 5 1 ). They sim ply showed t h e i r f e llo w
c i t i z e n s th e o b v io u s, t h a t two tim es two i s f o u r , t h a t th e
plag u e was th e a f f a i r of everyone.
I t I s , h e n c e , n a t u r a l t h a t men who “u n d e r s ta n d ,” “q u i
o n t l a co m p reh en sio n ," should f i g h t and r i s k t h e i r l i v e s ;
t h a t D octor C a s te l should make serum , t h a t T arrou should
o rg an iz e th e s a n i t a r y sq u a d s, t h a t Grand should keep
re c o rd s of th e p ro g re s s of th e p la g u e .
25
But i f p eo p le s t i l l i n s i s t upon a " h e ro ” f o r th e
n a r r a t i v e , th e n R ieux recommends to h is r e a d e r s Jo sep h
G rand, 1 1 q u i n 'a v a i t pour l u i q u 'u n peu de b o n te au eoeur
e t un i d e a l apparemment r i d i c u l e . C ela donnera £ l a
v e r i t e ce q u i l u i r e v i e n t , & I 'a d d i t i o n de deux e t deux son
t o t a l de q u a t r e , e t k l'h ^ r o ls m e l a p la c e se e o n d a ire q u i
d o i t e t r e l a s ie n n e , j u s t e a p r e s , e t jam ais a v a n t,
1 ’ex ig en ce g en ereu se du bonheur" ( 156- 157)*
W e w i l l r e t u r n l a t e r t o th e f u l l s ig n i f ic a n c e of th e
l a t t e r p a r t of th e q u o ta tio n , t o th e demand of h a p p in e ss
and i t s r e l a t i o n to a c t i o n , to h e ro ism , and t o o th e r b a s ic
m o tifs i n th e c h r o n ic le . For i t i s th e demand of human
h a p p in e s s , f i n a l l y , t h a t i s th e b a s ic m o tiv a tin g fo rc e f o r
th e Camus h e ro , and i t i s th e rew ard of human lo v e t h a t
s u p p lie s th e o nly rew ard f o r th e b i t t e r n e s s of h is s tr u g g le
and c o n tin u a l d e f e a t. But f i r s t we s h a l l tu r n t o Grand.
He w i l l c o n tin u e th e d r a m a tiz a tio n of th e problem of w ords,
of com m unication, and t h a t of th e rew ard o f human lo v e ,
i l l u s t r a t i n g th e q u ie t h ero ism of men who have ” l a com
p r e h e n s io n .”
Le mot .ju ste : th e in s u l te d and
in ju r e d
I I e t a i t de ce s hommes, r a r e s dans n o tr e v i l l e comme
a i l l e u r s , q u i ont to u jo u r s l e courage de le u r s bons
se n tim e n ts <59).
Jo sep h Grand i s one of D o sto e v sk y 's or G ogol’ s
26
" in s u lte d and in ju r e d " governm ental c l e r k s . " E n fin , e t
s u r t o u t , Jo se p h Grand ne t r o u v a i t pas se s m ots" (5 8 ). H is
g r e a t e s t problem seems t o be t h a t of f in d in g th e r i g h t
words to e x p re s s h im s e lf . F or exam ple, "C ’e s t a i n s i que,
f a u te de tro u v e r l e mot j u s t e , n o tr e c o n c ito y e n e o n tin u a
d 'e x e r c e r se s o bscures f o n c tio n s ju s q u ’A un age a s s e z
avanee" (5 8 ). He ca n n o t f in d th e words t o a s k f o r th e
v ag u e ly prom ised advancem ent and a r a i s e 5 f o r th e words i n
th e fo rm u las c u s to m a rily used on such o c c a s io n s , " b ie n -
v e i l l a n c e , " " s o l l i c i t e r ," " g r a t i t u d e , " seem in c o m p a tib le
w ith h is p e r s o n a l d i g n i t y . (The m ayor, a sound b u s in e s s
man, can co v er up w ith r h e t o r i c th e u g ly f a c t of a man
u n j u s t l y l i v i n g i n p o v e r ty , and deny a r a i s e f o r m u n ic ip a l
em ployees, by a ffirm in g "avec f o rc e que fin a le m e n t ( e t 11
i n s i s t a i t s u r ce mot q u i p o r t a i t to u t l e p o id s du r a is o n n e -
m entj , fin a le m e n t done, on n 'a v a i t jam ais vu personne
m ourir de faim " f 5 8 j) . And when we f i r s t meet G rand, he
h as been stu d y in g L a tin in o rd e r t h a t he m ight le a r n t o
e x p re ss h im s e lf w ith more c l a r i t y . "O u i," he t e l l s H ieu x ,
"on mfa a s s u re que e ' e t a i t u t i l e pour m ieux c o n n a itr e le
sens des mots f r a n § a is " (4 4 ). And we l e a r n l a t e r on t h a t
he i s " w r itin g " ; t h a t he has been working f o r y e a rs on th e
opening se n te n c e of a n o v e l. But he c a n n o t g e t t h i s
se n te n c e p e r f e c t ; he ca n n o t f in d th e r i g h t w ords— choose
betw een " e t" and " a l o r s , " f o r exam ple.
27
G ra n d 's lo v e s to r y has fo llo w ed th e same p a t t e r n as
th e r e s t of h is l i f e . H is w ife l e f t him as a r e s u l t of
th e f a tig u e and p o v e rty of t h e i r l i f e to g e th e r — th e lo s s
of hope f o r a b e t t e r f u t u r e , th e s il e n c e of t h e i r ev en in g s
i n re n te d rooms— and because he could n o t f in d th e r i g h t
words t o keep h e r . "T ant que nous nous sommes aim e s, nous
nous sommes com pris sans p a r o le s . Mais on ne s'a im e pas
to u jo u r s ," he t e l l s R ieu x . " A un moment donne, J 'a u r a i s
du tro u v e r le s mots q u i l 'a u r a i e n t r e te n u e , m ais je n ' a i
pas pu" ( 98) .
Grand makes th e o n ly c o n t r ib u t io n he can t o th e
b a t t l e a g a in s t th e p la g u e . A lthough p h y s ic a ll y weak, and
d e s p ite th e d is p le a s u r e of h i s s u p e rio r s a t th e m u n ic ip a l
b u reau where he i s employed d u rin g th e d a y , he works a t
th e h o s p i t a l a t n ig h t keep in g re c o r d s .
On C hristm as E ve, when Grand comes down w ith th e
f e v e r of th e p la g u e , R ieu x f in d s him in a s t r e e t , lo o k in g
i n t o a shop-window f i l l e d w ith to y s , and w eeping— f o r
Je a n n e , th e w ife who l e f t him long ago. R ieu x u n d e rsta n d s
th e s e t e a r s : "que ce monde sans amour e t a i t comme un
monde m ort e t q u ' i l v i e n t to u jo u r s une h eu re oft on se
la s s e des p r i s o n s , du t r a v a i l e t du courage pour re c la m e r
le v is a g e d 'u n e t r e e t l e co eu r e m e rv e ille de l a te n d re s s e "
(2 8 6 ). R ieu x r e a l i z e s t h a t G ra n d 's a n g u ish i s h is own, and
t h a t "ce q u i l u i t o r d a i j l e coeur §. ee moment e t a i t
28
1 *immense c o l i r e q u i v i e n t I l'homme d e v a n t l a d o u le u r que
to u s l e s hommes p a r ta g e n t” <287) .
The c h r o n ic le w i l l end on t h i s m o tif of th e need f o r
human lo v e ; t h i s love w hich i s th e one th in g t h a t man can
p r o f i t a b l y y e a rn f o r and o c c a s io n a lly o b ta in . Any answ ers
a r e to be found only i n man, and i n h i s poor and t e r r i b l e
lo v e (3 2 8 ). In t h i s scene a t th e to y shop window, R ieu x
e x p re s s e s th e a n g e r, th e in d ig n a tio n , of a s e n s i t i v e man
when c o n fro n te d by th e human c o n d itio n .
M F a ir e mon m e t i e r . * '
B ien e n te n d u , un homme d o i t se b a t t r e pour l e s v ic tim e s .
Mais s ’ i l e e s s e de r i e n aim er p a r a i l l e u r s , a q u o i s e r t
q u * il se b a t t e ? ” (280)
For Camus* M th in k in g ” c h a r a c t e r s , th e r e i s a s tr o n g ,
d u a l tug betw een th e demands of h a p p in e ss (w hich R ieu x
r a t e s v e ry h ig h , h ig h e r th a n th o se of h ero ism ) and th o se
of d u ty . For exam ple, R am bert, th e P a r i s i a n j o u r n a l i s t ,
a tte m p ts t o escap e from th e c i t y d u rin g th e f i r s t months
of th e p la g u e . Even though he knows t h a t th e s a n i t a r y
squads a r e s h o r t of men, he f e e l s t h a t he i s a s tr a n g e r in
th e c i t y , t h a t i t i s n o t h is f i g h t . And, much more im por
t a n t , he d o e s n ’t b e lie v e i n heroism or i n dying f o r an
id e a ; he b e lie v e s i n l i v i n g and dying f o r what he lo v e s .
For h is e x p e rie n c e s in th e S p a n ish C i v i l War, in w hich he
fo u g h t on th e R e p u b lic an s i d e , have d i s i l l u s i o n e d him;
29
th e y have ta u g h t him t h a t men a r e c a p a b le of courage and
b old d e e d s , b u t t h a t th e y a r e n o t c a p a b le of g r e a t f e e l
in g . ,,J l en a i a s s e z des gens q u i m eurent pour une i d e e , ”
he t e l l s R ieu x and T a rro u . ”Je ne c r o i s pas a l'h e r o ls m e ,
j e s a i s que c ' e s t f a c i l e e t j ' a i a p p r is que e ’e t a i t m eur-
t r i e r . Ce q u i m’i n t e r e s s e , c ’e s t q u ’ on v iv e e t q u ’ on
meure de ce q u ’ on aim e” ( 183) . H eroism , th e n , i s
a b s t r a c t ; th e lo v e of a n o th e r human b ein g i s c o n c re te .
In an e a r l i e r e n c o u n te r w ith R ie u x , Ram bert had
accused him of l i v i n g in a w orld of a b s t r a c t i o n s . For
R ieu x had re fu s e d t o g iv e him a h e a lth c e r t i f i c a t e , a
c le a ra n c e t o h e lp him le a v e th e c lo se d c i t y , f e a r in g t h a t
he m ight c a r r y th e p lag u e w ith him t o th e o u ts id e w o rld .
R am bert, who was a n x io u s t o r e t u r n t o th e woman he loved
i n P a r i s , i n s i s t e d t h a t i n th in k in g only of th e p u b lic
w e lf a r e , R ieu x was f o r g e t t i n g t h a t ” le b ie n p u b lic e s t
f a i t du bonheur de ehacun” ( 103) ; and he p r o te s te d t h a t
"vous p a r le z l e lan g ag e de l a r a i s o n , vous e t e s dans
1 ’a b s t r a c t i o n ” (1 0 2 ). I n h i s d e fe n s e , how ever, R ieux
asked h im s e lf:
Le j o u r n a l i s t s a v a i t r a i s o n dans son im p a tie n ce de bon
h e u r. Mais a v a i t - i l r a i s o n auand i l l 'a c c u s a i t ? ”Vous
v iv e z dans 1 ' a b s t r a c t i o n . ” E t a i t - c e v ra im e n t l 'a b s t r a c -
t i o n que ees jo u rn e e s pas se e s dans son h o p i t a l oii l a
p e s te m e t t a i t le s bouchees d o u b le s, p o r ta n t a c in q c e n ts
l e nombre moyen des v ie tim e s p ar sem aine? Oui, i l y
a v a i t dans l e m alheur une p a r t d ’a b s t r a c t i o n e t d ’ i r -
r £ a l i t e . Mais quand l 'a b s t r a c t i o n se met & vous t u e r ,
30
i l f a u t b ie n s ’ oecuper de 1*a b s t r a c t i o n ( 103) .
R ieu x i s d e e p ly touched by R am bert’ s problem , and by
th e c o n f l i c t i n g demands o f p e r s o n a l h a p p in e ss and th o se of
a b s t r a c t d u ty . I n th e d ia lo g u e i n which Ram bert a s s e r t s
t h a t we a r e no lo n g e r c a p a b le of lo v e , o nly of h e r o ic s ,
R ieux a g re e s w ith him , t h a t man i s o nly an a b s t r a c t i o n ,
an id e a , once he tu rn s h is back on lo v e . But he adds
t h a t th e r e i s no q u e s tio n of heroism in f i g h t i n g th e
p la g u e . I t I s a m a tte r o f ’’h o n n e t e te ,” common decency.
” . . . La s e u le fag o n de l u t t e r c o n tre l a p e s t e , c ’e s t
l ’h o n n e te te ” (1 8 3 ). When Ram bert a sk s w hat i s ”hon-
n e t e t e , ” R ieu x answ ers t h a t he d o e s n ’ t know what i t means
f o r o th e r p e o p le , b u t f o r him , ” . . . j e s a i s q u 'e l l e con
s i s t s & f a i r e mon m e tie r ” (1 8 4 ).
Soon a f t e r t h i s in te r v ie w w ith R ie u x , Ram bert d e c id e s
n o t t o le a v e th e c i t y , f e e l i n g t h a t i t would be sham eful
t o be happy a lo n e , w h ile o th e rs a r e s u f f e r i n g ; ” . . . i l
p e u t y a v o ir de l a h o n te a e t r e h eu reu x t o u t s e u l ” ( 230) .
But T arrou a d v is e s him t h a t i f he w ishes t o sh a re o th e r
p e o p le ’s u n h a p p in e ss, he w i l l have no tim e f o r h a p p in e ss
h im s e lf. He m ust choose one or th e o th e r . To t h i s
Rambert a n sw e rs, ”Ce n ’e s t pas c e l a . . . . J ’a i to u jo u r s
p en s! que j ’^ t a i s s tr a n g e r a c e t t e v i l l e e t que je n 'a v a i s
r i e n a f a i r e avec vous. Mais m a in te n a n t que j ’a i vu ce
que j ’a i v u , je s a i s que je s u is d ' i c i , que je l e v e u i l l e
31
ou non. C e tte h i s t o i r e nous con cern e to n s ’* (2 3 0 ). He
le a r n s w hat Camus’ h e ro e s m ust f i n a l l y l e a r n , t h a t th e
p lag u e ( th e b a t t l e a g a i n s t d e a th and s u f f e r i n g ) i s e v e ry
b o d y 's b u s in e s s .
A f te r t h i s s ta te m e n t ( t h a t th e p lag u e i s ev ery b o d y ’s
b u s in e s s ) , Rambert a sk s R ieu x why he has made th e c h o ic e
and tu rn e d down h a p p in e ss in o rd e r to h e lp o th e rs f i g h t .
R ieux a n sw e rs, "P ardonnez-m oi, R am bert, . . . m ais j e ne l e
s a i s p a s . . . . R ien au monde ne v a u t q u 'o n se d e to u rn e de
ee q u ’ on aim e. E t p o u r ta n t je m’en d e to u rn e , mol a u s s i ,
sans que je p u is s e s a v o ir p o u rq u o i. . . . On ne p e u t pas en
meme temps g u e r i r e t s a v o ir . A lo rs g u e ris s o n s l e p lu s v i t e
p o s s i b le . C 'e s t l e p lu s presse** (230-231)*
R ie u x 's p o s i t i o n h e re has much i n common w ith t h a t
Candide ta k e s a t th e end of V o l t a i r e 's c o n te . Man c a n n o t
answer th e s e m e ta p h y s ic a l q u e s tio n s . But m an's re a s o n i s
h is g r e a t n e s s , and th e g r e a t e s t v i r t u e of re a s o n i s to
r e b e l a g a in s t th e human c o n d itio n and to a c t . Man must
w ork, a c t , f i g h t f o r th e good c a u se . Why? W e c a n n o t be
s u re . But i t i s a m a tte r of h o n n e te te : a q u e s tio n of
" f a i r e mon m e tie r,* ' a s R ieux d e s c r ib e s i t ; or " c u l t i v e r
n o tr e j a r d i n , " as Candide d e s c r ib e s i t . And T arro u w i l l
su g g e s t l a t e r i n th e c h r o n i c l e , j u s t a s V o lta ir e i n s i s t e d
i n Le Poeme su r l e D d sa s tre de L isbonne (1756) and i n
Candide (1759) (where he ju x ta p o se d th e b r u t a l i t y of th e
32
c o n c re te e v e n t— b u tc h e ry , t o r t u r e , d e a th —w ith th e m eta
p h y s ic a l s p e c u la tio n , th e a b s t r a c t i o n , of P a n g lo s s ), t h a t
i f a seem in g ly in c o h e re n t w orld o rd er e sc a p e s our i n t e l
lig e n c e , i f l i f e i s ab su rd in a w orld wbe r e e v i l trium phs
over good everyw here, th e l e a s t man can do i s n o t t o add
more e v i l t o i t by c a l l i n g w hat i s e v i l , good.
Les d is c o u r s de p r ix
P a r t I I I of th e c h r o n ic le d e a ls w ith th e h e ig h t of
th e p la g u e , d e s c r ib in g th e b u r i a l p r a c t i c e s , th e a tte m p ts
t o escap e from th e c i t y , th e l o o t i n g , and th e p e t t y
sq u a b b les (su c h as th e d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n of th e m i l i t a r y
when th e p r is o n gu ard s a r e awarded m i l i t a r y d e c o r a tio n s —
p ro b a b ly an a l l u s i o n t o a c t u a l e v e n ts i n th e R e s is ta n c e ) .
But a s th e p lag u e w ears on, i t i s , above a l l , m onotonous.
There i s n o th in g h e r o i c , n o th in g s e n s a t i o n a l . "Toute l a
v i l l e r e s s e m b la it a une s a l l e d * a tte n te -M (2 0 2 ). No one
i s any lo n g e r c a p a b le o f s tro n g e m o tio n s, o n ly of o rd in
a r y , monotonous f e e l i n g s . The tow nspeople lo s e t h e i r
sen se of i n d i v i d u a l i t y . They ta k e an i n t e r e s t i n o nly
w hat i n t e r e s t s everyone e l s e , and th e y have only g e n e r a l,
b a n a l id e a s ; " e t le u r amour meme a v a i t p r i s pour eux la
f ig u r e l a p lu s a b s t r a i t e " (2 0 4 ). They even lo s e a f e e l in g
of repugnance f o r ta lk in g a b o u t t h e i r a b s e n t loved ones,
w hich th e y had a t th e b e g in n in g ; th e y commence "a p re n d re
33
l e langage de to n s , & exam iner le u r s e p a r a tio n sous le
meme a n g le que le s s t a t i s t i q u e s de l'e p id e m ie " (2 0 3 ).
Even th e words of sympathy s e n t from th e o u ts id e
w orld by r a d i o t o th e plag u e r id d e n c i t y had " l e to n
d 'e p o p e e ou de d is c o u rs de p r i x , " which i r r i t a t e d R ieux.
The sym pathy could be e x p re sse d only "dans le langage
e o n v e n tio n n e l p ar le q u e l l e s harames e s s a i e n t d 'e x p rim e r
ce q u i le s l i e a l'h u m a n ite ," w hich had l i t t l e c o n n e c tio n
w ith th e r e a l i t y of th e p la g u e , or w ith th e d a i l y e f f o r t s
of G rand, f o r exam ple, and w hat he sto o d f o r (157)*
"L 1eloq u en ce m o n ta it e t a c c u s a i t mieux en c o re l a se p a ra
t i o n e s s e n t i e l l e q u i f a i s a i t deux e tr a n g e r s de Grand e t
de l 'o r a t e u r " (1 5 8 ).
Here we f in d a g a in a d i s t r u s t of th e a b s t r a c t , of
w ords; an o p p o s itio n betw een th e b r u t a l i t y of th e r e a l
e v e n t and mere r h e t o r i c . T h is i s a k in t o th e a t t i t u d e of
E rn e s t Hemingway, p a r t i c u l a r l y a s e x p re sse d by L ie u te n a n t
Henry in A F a re w e ll t o Arms:
I was alw ays em barrassed by th e words s a c r e d , g lo r io u s ,
and s a c r i f i c e and th e e x p re s s io n in v a in . . . . I had
seen n o th in g s a c r e d , and th e th in g s t h a t were g lo r io u s
had no g lo r y and th e s a c r i f i c e were l i k e th e sto c k y a rd s
a t C hicago i f n o th in g was done w ith th e m eat e x c e p t to
b u ry i t . . . . A b s tr a c t words such as g lo r y , h o n o r,
c o u ra g e , or hallow were obscene b e s id e th e c o n c re te
names of v i l l a g e s , th e numbers of r o a d s , th e names of
r i v e r s , th e numbers of re g im e n ts and th e d a t e s . 4
4E r n e s t Hemingway, A F a re w e ll to Arms (New Y ork,
1 9 2 9 ), p. 196.
34
Words s e p a ra te d from th e e v e n ts th e y d e s c r ib e mean
n o th in g ; or w o rse , th e y d is g u is e th e r e a l i t y of th e e v e n t.
Only p la c e s and numbers of re g im e n ts have any r e a l i t y .
Or, a s T a rro u d e s c r ib e s i t , " C 'e s t au moment du m alheur
q u 'o n s 'h a b i t u e h. l a v e r i t e , c 'e s t - a - d i r e au s ile n c e "
(1 3 5 ).
T his c o n c e p t i s a l s o e v id e n t in th e scene from th e
same n o v el d e s c r ib in g th e r e t r e a t from C a p o re tto , in w hich
b a t t l e p o lic e q u e s tio n a l i e u t e n a n t - e o l o n e l , j u s t b e fo re
th e y sh o o t him;
" I t i s you and such a s you t h a t have l e t th e b a r b a r
ia n s o n to th e sa c re d s o i l of th e f a t h e r l a n d ."
" I beg your p a rd o n ," s a id th e lie u t e n a n t - e o l o n e l .
" I t i s b ecause of tr e a c h e r y such as yours t h a t we
have l o s t th e f r u i t s o f v i c t o r y . "
"Have you e v e r been i n a r e t r e a t ? " th e l i e u t e n a n t -
e o lo n e l asked (2 3 9 ).
The b rav e r h e t o r i c ( " th e sa c re d s o i l of th e f a th e r la n d " )
of th e b a t t l e p o l i c e , whom Hemingway d e s c r ib e s a s having
" t h a t b e a u t i f u l detachm ent and d e v o tio n t o s t e r n j u s t i c e
of men d e a lin g in d e a th w ith o u t being i n any danger of
i t " (1 6 9 ), h as no r e l a t i o n t o th e r e a l i t y of th e r e t r e a t .
The lie u te n a n t- e o lo n e l* s sim ple q u e s tio n , on th e o th e r
hand, goes t o th e h e a r t of th e m a tte r , and p ie r c e s and
d e s tro y s t h e i r r h e t o r i c a l c o n s tr u c tio n . Hemingway p u ts
so much v a lu e on th e se n so ry p le a s u r e s of h i s c h a r a c te r s
( e a t i n g , d r in k in g , s k i i n g , and so f o r t h ) and on th e p u re ly
p h y s ic a l w orld (c o n c re te d e s c r ip tio n s of th e way th in g s
35
f e e l , s m e ll, and t a s t e ) b ecau se of t h i s d i s t r u s t of
a b s t r a c t i o n , of empty fo rm s, of second-hand knowledge and
e x p e rie n c e .
As f o r th e v o lu n te e r s a n i t a r y w o rk e rs , th o se men ”q u i
ont l a co m p re h en sio n ,” i n t h e i r c a se th e c o n c re te e v e n t
does n o t p e rm it th e lu x u ry of th e d is ta n c e of a b s t r a c t
s e n tim e n ts . For th e y m ust h o u rly w atch men d ie who were
meant t o l i v e . They become worn down by t h i s seem ingly
h o p e le s s b a t t l e a g a i n s t d e a th . G rand, who i s of d e l i c a t e
h e a l t h anyway, i s worn o u t; old D octor G a s te l ages t e r
r i b l y under th e s t r a i n ; and R ieux*s e x h a u s tio n ca u se s h i s
s e n s i b i l i t y t o g e t o u t of h an d , and he t r i e s to h ard en h is
h e a r t p r o t e c t i v e l y a g a i n s t th e o n sla u g h t of s u f f e r i n g .
And i t i s th e a c t of w atch in g th e d e a th agony of a c h i ld
t h a t b r in g s a clim a x t o t h e i r sen se of f r u s t r a t i o n b e fo re
d e a th and s u f f e r i n g , and w hich t r i g g e r s an e x p re s s io n of
r e b e l l i o n i n R ieux— somewhat a k in t o t h a t o f Iv an Karamazov
i n P a r t I I , Book V of D o sto ev sk y ’s n o v e l.
R e b e llio n
The c h i ld of M. O thon, th e m a g is tr a t e , g e ts th e
p la g u e . Because h is ca se seems h o p e le s s , R ieu x g iv e s him
a new serum developed by D octor G a s te l. The f i g h t e r s ,
R ie u x , G rand, T a rro u , C a s t e l , and P an elo u x , g a th e r around
th e torm ented body of th e young boy t o c a r r y on a v i g i l
36
t o observe th e e f f e c t s of th e new serum , seem ingly t h e i r
o n ly hope, th e l a s t weapon a g a in s t th e s te a d y power of
th e p lag u e i n th e dying c i t y . They h a d , of c o u r s e , seen
c h ild r e n d ie d u rin g th e p a s t long months i n th e c o u rse of
t h e i r d u t i e s , b u t th e y had n ev er b e fo re w atched a c h i l d 's
d e a th agony m inute by m in u te —h eard th e sc re am s, se en th e
tw is tin g of a f r a i l body co v ered w ith th e bubonic g a n g lia
f o r h o u rs on end. P re v io u s ly th e t o r t u r e i n f l i c t e d on
th e s e in n o c e n t v ic tim s had seemed m o n stro u s, b u t in a
somewhat a b s t r a c t way. "La d o u le u r i n f l i g e e a c e s in n o
c e n ts n * a v a it jam ais c e s s e de le u r p a r a l t r e ce q u 'e l l e
e t a i t en v e r i t e , e * e s t-c t-d ire un s c a n d a le . Mais ju sq u e
l a du m oins, i l s s e s c a n d a l i s a i e n t a b s t r a i t e m e n t , en
quelque s o r t e , p a rc e q u 'i l s n 'a v a i e n t ja m a is re g a rd e en
f a c e , s i longuem ent, l 'a g o n i e d 'u n in n o c e n t" ( 236) .
As R ieu x and F a th e r P aneloux le a v e th e h o s p i t a l
a f t e r th e l a s t c r i e s of th e c h i ld have c e a se d --m o u th open
b u t s i l e n t now, dead w ith th e t e a r s s t i l l on h i s f a c e —
R ieu x lo s e s c o n t r o l and v e n ts h is anger on th e p r i e s t ,
s h o u tin g , "Ah! e e l u i - l l i , au m oins, I t a i t in n o c e n t, vous
l e savez b ie n f " (2 3 9 ). He soon re c o v e rs h im s e lf , how ever,
ask in g P a n e lo u x 's pardon f o r h i s o u tb u r s t of a n g e r, blam
ing i t on f a t i g u e , and s a y in g , " I I y a des h e u re s dans
e e t t e v i l l e ou je ne sen s p lu s que ma r e v o l t e " (2 4 0 ).
When P an eloux su g g e s ts t h a t we r e v o l t a g a i n s t t h i s
37
s u f f e r i n g b ecause " e e la p a sse n o tr e m e su re ," and t h a t p e r
haps we should lo v e w hat we c a n n o t u n d e rs ta n d , R ieux
an sw ers: "Non, mon p e r e . . . • J e me f a i s une a u t r e id e e
de I . 1 amour. E t je r e f u s e r a i ju s q u 'li l a m ort d 'a im e r c e t t e
c r e a t i o n 06 des e n f a n ts s o n t t o r t u r e s ” (2 4 0 ).
m
R ieux*s answer echoes th e r e b e l l i o n of Iv a n Karamazov,
who t e l l s A ly o sh a, " I t ’ s n o t t h a t I d o n 't a c c e p t God,
. . . i t ' s th e w orld c r e a te d by Him I d o n 't and c a n n o t
a c c e p t " ; 5 and echoes I v a n 's in d ic tm e n t o f a God who p e r
m its th e s u f f e r i n g of c h i l d r e n , when he s a y s : . . I f
th e s u f f e r i n g s of c h i ld r e n go t o s w e ll th e sum of s u f f e r
in g s w hich was n e c e s s a ry t o pay f o r t r u t h , th e n I p r o t e s t
t h a t th e t r u t h i s n o t w o rth such a p r ic e " (2 5 4 ).
And when F a th e r P an eloux t r i e s t o r a t i o n a l i z e th e
s u f f e r i n g and d e a th of c h i l d r e n , he m u st, l i k e F a th e r
Zossim a (who ta u g h t t h a t m an's h ig h e s t a tta in m e n t was
com plete s e l f l e s s n e s s and s u rre n d e r o f th e w i l l , and t h a t
he m ust a c c e p t, even seek o u t, s u f f e r i n g ) , abandon re a s o n
f o r m y stic ism . He tu rn s to r h e t o r i c . For th e s u f f e r i n g
of c h i l d r e n , F a th e r P aneloux t e l l s h is c o n g r e g a tio n , i s
beyond our com prehension; i t i s , i n f a c t , " h u m ilia n te pour
1*e s p r i t e t l e co e u r" (2 4 8 ). But in o rd e r to av o id th e
^Fyodor D ostoevsky, The B ro th e rs K aram azov, t r a n s .
C onstance G a rn e tt (Hew Y ork, 1 9 2 9 ), p. 244.
38
h e re s y of r e b e l l i o n , man m ust w i l l th e t o r t u r e of c h i l
d re n , "p a re e que Dieu l a v o u l a i t " (2 4 8 ). Man m ust e i t h e r
a c c e p t th e a tr o c io u s and lo v e God, or r e j e c t i t and h a te
God. F or th e lo v e of God i s a h ard lo v e , w hich demands
t o t a l s e l f - s u r r e n d e r and r e j e c t i o n o f our human p e r s o n a l
i t y . We c a n n o t u n d e rsta n d th e w i l l of God; ,f. . . le
c h r e t i e n s a u r a i t s'a b a n d o n n e r a l a v o lo n te d iv in e , meme
in c o m p re h en sib le" (2 4 8 ).
But R ieu x s ta y s on th e l e v e l of th e c o n c re te e v e n t.
He m ust c a l l th e s u f f e r i n g of a c h i ld w hat i t i s : an
o u tra g e . He does n o t become in v o lv e d i n r h e t o r i c a l
euphemism, f o r w h atev er r e a s o n , and c a l l i t , w ith F a th e r
P an elo u x , " th e w i l l of God," s a n e th in g one m ust l e a r n to
lo v e , or c a l l i t , w ith P a n g lo s s , a " n e c e s s i t y ."
Each of us has th e plague
ll .t ^ ,h im
T a rro u , th e a n t i - h a b i t f ig u r e whose f r e s h p o in t of
view has a lr e a d y been d e s c r ib e d , d ra m a tiz e s th e problem s
t h a t Camus1 h e ro e s e n c o u n te r when th e y t r y t o t r a n s l a t e
t h e i r b e l i e f s i n t o a c t i o n ( i n T a r r o u 's c a s e , h i s d i s t a s t e
f o r th e d e a th p e n a l t y ) , and th e sen se o f g u i l t t h a t i s an
i r o n i c a l consequence of a c t i o n . T a r r o u 's dilemma i l l u s
t r a t e s a g a in Camus' i n s i s t e n c e on th e im p o rtan ce of
eschew ing r h e t o r i c and u sin g p l a i n language a s a way t o
av o id harm ing o n e 's f e llo w man.
T arro u i n many ways rem inds one of D o sto ev sk y ’ s
P rin c e Myshkin i n The I d i o t , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n h i s s a i n t - l i k e
q u a l i t i e s ( ”En somme, d i t T a rro u avec s i m p l i c i t y , ce q u i
m 'i n t e r e s s e , c ’e s t de s a v o ir comment on d e v ie n t un s a i n t ”
[ 2 7 9 ]). T arro u has a s a i n t l y d e s ir e f o r s e l f - s a c r i f i c e ,
a need t o be of s e r v ic e t o o th e r s . He i s h o n e s t and
d i r e c t , and he r e f u s e s t o p a ss judgm ent on h i s f e llo w man
( ”Je s a i s a u s s i que je ne p u is apparemment ju g e r ces
a u t r e s ” [ 278J ) . He e x h i b i t s a r a t h e r s tr a n g e , b u t f r e s h ,
p o in t o f view ( ”I1 y a une q u a l i t e q u i me manque pour
f a i r e un m e u r tr ie r r a is o n n a b le ” £278] ). Toward th e end of
th e c h r o n i c l e , b e fo re h i s ir o n ic d e a th j u s t a s th e plague
e n d s, he c o n f id e s to R ieu x th e re a s o n f o r h i s q u e s t, a
j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r h i s way of l i f e ( a k in t o S o c r a t e s ’
r e p o r t a t h is t r i a l of th e m o tiv a tio n f o r h i s ’’m is s io n ” ) .
T a r r o u 's m is s io n began when he was se v e n te e n , th e day
in c o u r t when he saw h i s f a t h e r demand th e d e a th of a man.
U n til t h i s d a y , he t e l l s R ie u x , . . je v iv a is avec
1*id e e de mon in n o c e n c e , c ' e s t - I i - d i r e avec pas d ’id e e du
t o u t ” (2 7 0 ). H is f a t h e r w ished h is son t o observe him in
a c t i o n , i n a l l h is b r i l l i a n c e as a p ro s e c u tin g a t t o r n e y ,
th in k in g t h a t t h i s would b rin g f a t h e r and son c l o s e r
to g e th e r . B ut T a rro u , who u n t i l t h i s e v e n t had had o nly
a r a t h e r a b s t r a c t id e a of th e t r i b u n a l , soon co u ld see
no one in th e courtroom b u t th e g u i l t y man. U n til th e n
40
he had th o u g h t o nly i n term s of th e c o n v e n ie n t c a te g o ry
" in c u lp e ," h u t h e re b e fo re him was a l i v i n g man, who
ap p eared t o be s i n c e r e l y f r ig h te n e d a t w hat he had done
and a t w hat was going to be done to himj a warm, v ib r a n t
human b ein g w ith h i s t i e askew , who looked r a t h e r l i k e an
owl s t a r t l e d by a b r i g h t l i g h t , and who b i t th e n a i l s of
h i s r i g h t hand. And h e re was h i s f a t h e r , tra n sfo rm e d by
h is re d ro b e i n t o some s o r t of a b s t r a c t in s tru m e n t,
dem anding, i n lo n g , r h e t o r i c a l p h r a s e s , t h a t th e y c u t t h i s
m an's head o f f i n th e name of s o c ie ty . A f te r th e t r i a l
was o v e r, T a rro u r e a l i z e d t h a t he had f o r th e man i n th e
dock a f e e l i n g of c lo s e n e s s much s tr o n g e r th a n he had ev er
f e l t f o r h i s f a t h e r .
Soon a f t e r t h i s T a rro u l e f t h i s f a t h e r 's h o u se , n o t
h a tin g him , f e e l i n g "se u lem en t un peu de t r i s t e s s e au
c o e u r," t o spend th e r e s t of h i s l i f e tr y in g t o do away
w ith th e d e a th p e n a lty . He b e lie v e d t h a t th e s o c ie ty in
w hich he liv e d was based on th e d e a th p e n a lty , and t h a t
i n f i g h t i n g t h i s s o c i a l o rd e r he would be f i g h t i n g a g a in s t
m urder. To ac co m p lish t h i s g o a l more e f f e c t i v e l y , he
jo in e d a p o l i t i c a l o r g a n iz a tio n and fo u g h t in s tr u g g le s
a l l over E urope. U nh ap p ily , he d isc o v e re d t h a t h is s i d e ,
to o , p assed se n te n c e s of d e a th , and f o r a tim e he t r i e d
t o b e lie v e t h e i r re a s o n in g t h a t a few d e a th s were n e c e s
s a r y in o rd e r t o c r e a t e a w orld i n w hich no man would have
41
t o k i l l a n o th e r . But th e r e a l i t y of a f i r i n g squad in
H ungary, th e b u l l e t h o le i n th e c h e s t th e s iz e of a f i s t ,
blew away th e myth of a b s t r a c t i o n , th e good re a s o n s t h a t
were g iv e n him , th e r h e t o r i c w hich h id e s th e t e r r i b l e
d e a th of a man. He co u ld no lo n g e r stom ach im p re ssiv e
e x p la n a tio n s . Thus he came t o u n d e rsta n d t h a t " j e n fa v a is
pas e e s s e d 'e t r e p e s t i f e r e p en d an t to u te s c e s longues
annees oh p o u r ta n t, de to u te mon ame, j e c r o y a is l u t t e r
ju ste m e n t c o n tre l a p e s te " (275)• B oth s id e s ( th e "red
ro b e s " — th e s id e of h is f a t h e r — and h i s own p o l i t i c a l
p a r ty ) had e x c e l l e n t argum ents to j u s t i f y m u rd er, b u t i t
seemed t o T arro u t h a t i f one gave i n once t o th e s e j u s t i
f i c a t i o n s , th e r e was n o th in g t o sto p one from c o n tin u in g
t o do so . And h i s t o r y seemed t o have proven h i s p o i n t ,
f o r " a u jo u r d 'h u i c ' e s t a q u i tu e r a l e p lu s . I l s s o n t to u s
dans l a f u r e u r du m e u rtre , e t i l s ne p eu v en t pas f a i r e
a u tre m e n t" ( 2 7 6) .
T arro u th u s r e b e l l e d a g a i n s t "good r e a s o n s ." He was
concerned n o t w ith r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n b u t w ith th e f r ig h te n e d
man i n th e d o ck , w ith th e f i r i n g squad and th e b u l l e t h o le
in th e c h e s t . He came t o r e a l i z e t h a t we a l l have th e
p la g u e , t h a t even th o se o f us w ith th e b e s t of i n te n tio n s
"ne pouvions pas f a i r e un g e s te en ce monde sans r is q u e r
de f a i r e m o u rir" ( 276) , and he l o s t h i s p ea ce . He began
h i s u n c e a sin g q u e s t f o r p e a c e , or a t l e a s t f o r a way of
42
l i f e w hich would " f a i r e l e moins de mal p o s s ib le e t meme
p a r f o i s un peu de b i e n . " He d ec id ed t h a t th e good man,
" c e l u i q u i n 'i n f e e t e p resq u e p e rso n n e , c ' e s t c e l u i q u i a
le moins de d i s t r a c t i o n s p o ssib le* ' (277)*
The p la g u e , th e n , was n o th in g new t o Tarrou? he had
a lr e a d y le a rn e d t h a t i n t h i s w orld th e r e a r e p la g u e s and
th e r e a r e v ic tim s , and he had re s o lv e d "de me m e ttre du
c o te des v ic tim e s , en to u te o c c a s io n , pour l i m i t e r l e s
d e g a ts " ( 278) .
I n T a r r o u 's c o n f e s s io n , a c o n c e p t of g u i l t i s drama
t i z e d w hich, f o r th e Camus h e r o , i s n o t caused by s i n
a g a i n s t a God or a g a i n s t a r b i t r a r y r u l e s , b u t by c o n c re te
a c t s a g a in s t h i s f e llo w man. "Each o f us c a r r i e s th e
p lag u e w ith in h im ," say s T arro u <277) . W e a r e a l l g u i l t y ;
th e good man i s he who h as th e fe w e st la p s e s o f a t t e n t i o n .
T a r r o u 's a t t i t u d e i l l u s t r a t e s a g a in Camus' I n s i s t e n c e on
th e c o n c re te e v e n t and h i s d i s t r u s t of a b s t r a c t i o n . T arrou
t e l l s R ieu x t h a t a way of com bating i n a t t e n t i o n , of com bat
ing th e p la g u e , i s t o view th in g s c o n c r e te ly . I n o rd e r t o
d is p e r s e th e r h e t o r i c w hich would p ersu ad e man t o commit
a c t s of v io le n c e a g a in s t h i s f e llo w man, he m ust use
p l a i n , c l e a r lan g u ag e. For T arro u had h eard " t a n t de
raiso n n e m en ts q u i ont f a i l l i me to u rn e r l a t e t e , e t q u i ont
tourne: su ffisam m en t d 'a u t r e s t e t e s pour le s f a i r e c o n s e n tir
& 1 'a s s a s s i n a t , que j ' a i com pris que to u t le m alheur des
43
hommes v e n a it de ce q u ’ i l s ne t e n a i e n t pas un langage
c l a i r . J ’a i p r i s l e p a r t i a l o r s de p a r l e r e t d 'a g i r
e la ir e m e n t, pour me m e ttre su r l e bon chem in” ( 278) .
Knowledge and memory: ”une c h a le u r
de v ie e t une Image de m o rt”
The p la g u e f i n a l l y comes t o an en d , b u t i t s p a ssin g
does n o t s i g n a l a v i c t o r y t o R ieu x . The c h r o n ic le could
only r e p o r t a p r o v is io n a l v i c t o r y , r e p o r t only w hat had
been done by th o se men ”q u i, ne pouvant e t r e des s a i n t s
e t r e f u s a n t d ’a d m e ttre l e s f l^ a u x , s ’e f f o r c e n t eep en d an t
d 'e t r e des m edeeins” (337)• I n a s e n s e , n o th in g had been
g a in e d . For th e p lag u e would alw ays be t h e r e , th e b a c i l l i
w a itin g p a t i e n t l y t o send d e a th i n t o a happy c i t y .
I r o n i c a l l y , on th e v e ry eve o f th e p la g u e , T arro u
comes down w ith th e d is e a s e . He f i g h t s i t s i l e n t l y , w ith
a l l h is s t r e n g t h , ’’combat ta n t seulem ent de to u te son
e p a is s e u r e t de t o u t son s i l e n c e ” (3 1 1 ). Even a t h is
d e a th , T arro u wanted t o know th e t r u t h ( ”Repondez-m oi
to u jo u rs ex a cte m en t” [ 313J )» w ith no euphemism or s u b te r
fuge a b o u t h i s c o n d itio n , so t h a t he m ight hold h im s e lf in
re a d in e s s and p u t up a good f i g h t . B ut R ieu x could o nly
w atch and weep w h ile h i s f r i e n d d ie d , w ith t e a r s o f f r u s
t r a t i o n and im p u issan c e. He f e l t a sen se of f i n a l d e f e a t ,
”c e l l e q u i te rm in e l e s g u e rr e s e t f a i t de l a p a lx elle-m em e
une s o u ffra n c e sans g u e r is o n ” (3 1 6 ). He f e l t t h a t , l i k e
44
T a rro u , th e r e could be no peace f o r him h e n c e fo rth .
A t h i s f r i e n d 's d e a th , R ieu x ask s h im s e lf w hat he had
"gained*’ from th e e x p e rie n c e o f th e p la g u e , i n th e sen se
t h a t T a rro u had "perd u l a p a r t i e , " a s T a rro u c a l l e d i t .
" I I a v a i t seu lem en t gagne d 'a v o i r connu l a p e s te e t de
s 'e n s o u v e n ir, d 'a v o i r connu l 'a m i t i e e t de s 'e n s o u v e n ir,
de c o n n a itr e l a te n d re s s e e t de d e v o ir un jo u r s 'e n
s o u v e n ir. T out ce que l'homme p o u v a it gagner au je u de l a
p e s te e t de l a v i e , c ' e t a i t la c o n n a issa n c e e t l a memoire.
P e u t - e t r e e t a i t - e e c e l a que T a rro u a p p e l a i t gagner l a
p a r t i e J " <317)
T his i s an e x p re s s io n of th e m eagerness of th e rew ard
f o r th e Camus h e ro e s in t h e i r b a t t l e betw een th e p la g u e and
l i f e , a rew ard of o n ly knowledge and memory, w ith o u t hope.
The " c o n n a iss a n c e " c o n s i s t s o n ly of "une c h a le u r de v ie e t
une image de m ort" (3 1 8 ). T here i s th e a d d i t i o n a l re w a rd ,
th e o n ly one t h a t man can a t t a i n o c c a s io n a lly , t h a t o f " l a
t e n d r e s s e ," human lo v e . But i r o n i c a l l y , Camus' h e r o e s ,
l i k e R ieu x and G rand, f in d i t im p o ssib le t o communicate
t h i s em otion. For R ieu x say s t h a t "un amour n ' e s t jam ais
a s s e z f o r t pour tro u v e r sa p ro p re e x p r e s s io n . A in s i, sa
mere e t l u i s 'a i m e r a i e n t to u jo u r s dans l e s il e n c e " (317)«
Son pauvre e t t e r r i b l e amour
The end o f th e p la g u e s ig n a ls an end t o th e tow ns
p e o p le 's knowledge of i s o l a t i o n and e x i l e . D uring th e
45
p lag u e th e y had d isc o v e re d w hat T arro u had long known,
t h a t th e y w ere a lo n e , ”en fa c e du c i e l . ” But T a rro u 1s
e x i l e had been caused by h is knowledge t h a t he was ”p lag u e
s t r i c k e n , ” t h a t ”nous ne pouvions pas f a i r e un g e s te en ce
monde sans r i s q u e r de f a i r e m o u rir” ( 276) , and th u s he had
liv e d a l i f e of c o n t r a d i c t i o n s , w ith o u t h o p e, and w ith o u t
i l l u s i o n — th e i l l u s i o n of in n o c en ce . The to w n sp eo p le, on
th e o th e r h an d , a r e a b le t o f o r g e t t h e i r e s s e n t i a l i s o l a
t i o n w ith th e r e t u r n t o h a b i t a t th e end of th e p la g u e ,
and a l s o th ro u g h lo v e , ”e e t amour ou c e t t e te n d re s s e que
l e s mois de p e s te a v a ie n t r e d u i t s a 1 ' a b s t r a c t i o n ” ( 321) .
R ieu x n o te s a s he c o n c lu d es h is re c o rd t h a t th e plague
had made th e p eo p le e x i l e s , s e p a r a tin g them from t h e i r
r e a l homeland w hich e x is te d o u ts id e th e w a lls of th e
c lo se d c i t y — i n th e c o n c r e te , p h y s ic a l t h i n g s , ”dans ces
b r o u s s a i l l e s o d o ra n te s su r l e s e o l l i n e s , dans l a m er”
(3 2 7 ); i t had d e b a rre d them ”de c e t t e c h a le u r humaine q u i
f a i t t o u t o u b l i e r ” ( 3 2 6) . As th e p la g u e ended, most
p eo p le yearn ed f o r ”un a b s e n t, la c h a le u r d 'u n c o r p s , la
te n d re s s e ou l ’h a b itu d e ” ( 3 2 6) . A few , p e rh a p s l i k e
T a rro u , wanted a re u n io n w ith som ething th e y co u ld n o t
d e f in e , w h ich , f o r la c k of a name, th e y c a l l e d ” l a p a ix ”
(3 2 6 ).
Thus th e end of th e p lag u e was a s i g n a l f o r c e le b r a
t i o n . For a few h o u rs , under th e in f lu e n c e of h a p p in e s s ,
46
th e r e were spontaneous m a n if e s ta tio n s of com radeship.
Crowds i n th e s t r e e t and in th e c a fe s rubbed s h o u ld e rs ,
danced, and suspended f o r a tim e th e s o c i a l n i c e t i e s . To
be s u r e , on th e fo llo w in g d a y , ’’r e a l lif e * 1 would b e g in f o r
them, **avee se s p r e c a u t i o n s .* * Y e t, ’’l ' e g a l i t e que l a p r e
sence de l a m ort n 'a v a i t pas r ^ a l i s e e en f a i t , l a j o i e de
l a d e liv r a n c e l ' e t a b l i s s a i t , au moins pour quelques
h e u re s " (3 2 4 ).
Of c o u r s e , th e y soon assume t h e i r old costum es and
t h e i r r o l e s of th e p re -p la g u e p e r io d , th e y resume th e
w orld of h a b i t as q u ic k ly a s p o s s i b le . They b e g in to
c a te g o r iz e th e e x p e rie n c e of th e p lag u e and r e t u r n to
r h e t o r i c . R ie u x 1s old a s th m a tic p a t i e n t re a d s in a jo u r n a l
t h a t th e town i s going to e r e c t a monument to commemorate
th e p la g u e d ead . They w i l l make speeches a t th e d e d ic a
t i o n , he o b s e rv e s , and th e n go s t u f f th em selv es w ith fo o d .
M Je le s e n te n d s d ' i c i : ‘Nos m orts . . . ' , e t i l s i r o n t
c a s s e r l a e r o u te ” (335)*
R ie u x 1 s a t t i t u d e tow ard h i s f e llo w c i t i z e n s i s n o t
s u p e r c i l i o u s . On th e c o n t r a r y , he has g r e a t com passion f o r
them. H is whole r e p o r t of th e plague h as been h i s a c t of
w itn e s s , a w itn e s s t o a c rim e , a w itn e s s t o th e human con
d i t i o n of s u f f e r i n g and e x i l e . "S elon l a l o i d 'u n co eu r
h o n n e te , i l a p r i s d e lib e re m e n t l e p a r t i de l a v ie tim e e t
a v o u lu r e j o i n d r e le s hommes, se s c o n c ito y e n s , dans l e s
47
s e u le s c e r t i t u d e s q u 'i l s a i e n t en eommun, e t q u i s o n t
1*am our, l a s o u ffra n e e e t l ' e x i l " (329-330)*
As t o w hat t h i s e x is te n c e m eans, " c e t e x i l e t ce
d e s i r de re u n io n " (327)> R ieu x could n o t e x p la in p r e c i s e l y .
But he th o u g h t t h a t " i l n ' e s t pas im p o rta n t que c e s ch o ses
a i e n t un sen s ou non, m ais q u ' i l f a u t v o ir seu lem en t ce
q u i e s t rApondu A l 'e s p o i r des hommes" (327)* And t h a t
w hich answ ered m an's hope he saw a l l around him i n th e
s t r e e t s of th e fau b o u rg s a s he walked on h i s way t o v i s i t
a p a t i e n t . He saw "ceux q u i, s 'e n te n a n t au peu q u 'i l s
e t a i e n t , a v a ie n t d e s i r e seu lem en t r e to u r n e r dans l a m aison
de le u r am our, e t a i e n t q u e lq u e fb is recom penses" (327)*
They had found th e one th in g " q u 'o n p u is s e d e s i r e r to u jo u rs
e t o b te n ir q u e lq u e f o is , e ' e s t l a te n d re s s e humaine" (3 2 8) .
For a l l th o s e , on th e o th e r hand, " q u i s 'e t a i e n t
a d re s s e s p a r- d e s s u s l'homme a quelque chose q u 'i l s
n 'im a g in a ie n t meme p a s , i l n 'y a v a i t pas eu de re p o n se "
(3 2 8 ). B ut i f th o se whom R ieu x saw on th e th r e s h o ld s of
t h e i r h o u s e s , "dans l a lu m ie re d e c l i n a n t e , e n la c e s de
t o u te s le u r s f o r c e s e t se r e g a r d a n t avec em portem ent,
a v a ie n t obtenu ce q u 'i l s v o u l a i e n t , e ' e s t q u 'i l s a v a ie n t
deraande l a s e u le chose q u i dA pendit d 'e u x " ( 328) .
Camus d ra m a tiz e s h e re a t th e end of th e c h r o n ic le a
c r u c i a l c o n c e p t t h a t a p p e a rs i n a l l of h is w ork, t h a t th e r e
seems t o be n o th in g , no a n s w e r, f o r th o se who se ek beyond
48
man, quelque chose q u 'i l s n 1im a g in a ie n t meme p a s ," i n
th e a b s t r a c t . The o nly answ ers a r e to be found w ith man,
in th e c o n c r e te , found i n an o c c a s io n a l rew ard in h i s
"pauvre e t t e r r i b l e am our.1 1
I I I ’ . SUM M ARY A3® CONCLUSIONS
Camus' men of good w i l l , R ie u x , T a rro u , G rand,
C a s te l, men who have " l a co m p reh en sio n ," fa c e d th e human
c o n d itio n d i r e c t l y , r e f u s in g t o h id e b ehind r h e t o r i c a l
euphemism or t o a c c e p t th e w orld of h a b i t o f t h e i r f e llo w
c i t i z e n s . T h e ir f r e s h p o in t of view th rew i n t o sh arp o u t
l i n e th e lim ite d view of th e to w n sp e o p le, men l i k e D octor
R ic h a rd , th e m ayor, th e s t r e e t c a r c o n d u c to rs , and F a th e r
P aneloux. These men, u n t i l th e e v e n t of th e p la g u e , were
a b le to co v er th e b r u t a l e v e n t w ith r h e t o r i c , and were
a b le t o f o r g e t t h e i r e s s e n t i a l i s o l a t i o n , th e human c o n d i
t i o n of e x i l e and s u f f e r i n g , when th e p la g u e ended. The
c h r o n ic le d ra m a tiz e d Camus' b e l i e f in th e need f o r speak
in g and a c tin g c l e a r l y , f o r c a l l i n g th in g s by t h e i r names
i n o rd er t o f i g h t th e r h e t o r i c w hich would p ersu a d e man t o
commit a c t s o f v io le n c e a g a i n s t h i s f e llo w man. La P e s te
em phasized, i n th e dilemma of Ram bert and T a rro u , th e
o p p o s itio n betw een th e demands of h a p p in e ss and th o se of
d u ty , and th e m eagerness of th e rew ard f o r th e Camus h e ro
i n h i s s u f f e r i n g , e x i l e , and g u i l t . But i t a l s o
49
d em o n strated t h a t s u f f e r i n g i s ev ery b o d y ’ s b u s in e s s , t h a t
we m ust a l l f i g h t th e p la g u e , t h a t a lth o u g h e x is te n c e may
be a b s u rd , man can surm ount th e i n j u s t i c e of h is p o s i t i o n
by r e b e l l i n g a g a in s t i t , f i g h t i n g d e a th and s u f f e r i n g w ith
th e t o o ls a t hand—a s a d o c t o r , a s a j o u r n a l i s t , a s a
c le rk *
CHAPTER I I I
CALIGULA1
I n tr o d u c tio n
C a l i g u l a . Camus* f i r s t p la y , was f i r s t co n ceiv ed i n
1938 on th e eve of th e w ar— a p e rio d of C a l i g u l a - l i k e
a b s o lu te d i c t a t o r s , a tim e of g r e a t s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l
u n r e s t and o f economic d e p r e s s io n (and o f mass s t a r v a t i o n
among th e Moslem p o p u la tio n i n Camus’ A lg e r ia , a b o u t w hich
he r e p o r te d a t th e tim e w ith g r e a t co m p assio n ^). The p la y
was rew orked d u rin g th e war and perform ed i n 194-5 in a
P a r is t h a t had ;Just undergone fo u r y e a rs of o c c u p a tio n ,
w ith a l l o f th e h u m il ia t io n , t e r r o r , and f r u s t r a t i o n con
n e c te d w ith d e f e a t . C a lig u la was re c e iv e d e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y
by th e F re n c h a u d ie n c e , and was p ro b a b ly th e m ost s u c c e s s
f u l of Camus' p la y s t h a t have been p ro d u c e d .3
The p la y has a w e ll c o n s tru c te d p l o t , i t accommodates
e la b o r a te s p e c t a c l e , i t s r o l e s a r e w e ll-d e f in e d and c h a l
le n g in g f o r th e a c t o r s , and i t i s concerned w ith im p o rta n t
1Le M alentendu s u i v i de C a lig u la ( P a r i s , 1958).
^See A c tu e lle s I I I , C hroniaues A lg e rie n n e s 1939-1958
( P a r i s , 1958).
^Germaine B re e , Camus (New B runsw ick, N. J . , 1 9 5 9 ),
P. 137.
50
51
id e a s .
The b a s ie problem t h i s p la y poses i s t h i s : What can
make men a c t w ith good w i l l ? I f th e r e i s no meaning to
l i f e , i t m ust be l o g i c a l t o ta k e w hat you w an t, w ith o u t
re g a rd f o r o th e r p e o p le . I f , a s C a lig u la se e k s t o prove
t o h i s s u b j e c t s , e x is te n c e has no m eaning, th e n one a c t i o n
(good or b ad , ju d g in g from our c o n v e n tio n a l c o n c e p ts of
m o r a lity ) i s e q u a l t o a n o th e r . What, th e n , can make men
a c t w ith h o n n e t e tl? Over t h i s problem , t h i s c o n f l i c t of
id e a s , C a lig u la and C h e re a, two opposing f o r c e s i n th e
p la y , b a t t l e .
In s e p a ra b le from t h i s m ain problem a r e o th e r im por
t a n t m o tifs and id e a s t h a t a r e re p e a te d i n th e t e x tu r e of
th e drama: th e problem of th e l i m i t s of human freedom and
th e l i m i t s of power; th e q u e s tio n of th e l i m i t s of man and
h is co n d u ct a f t e r he re c o g n iz e s th e a b s u r d it y of e x is te n c e ;
and th e r e f u s a l of a man t o a c c e p t th e human c o n d i tio n , t o
a c c e p t l i f e a s i t i s .
P l o t S ta te m e n t
The d e a th o f h is s i s t e r , D r u s i l l a , b r in g s t o young
C a lig u la , u n t i l t h i s in c id e n t a m ild , n o b le em peror, an
aw areness of th e a b s u r d i t y of e x is te n c e . He th e n d e v o te s
th e th r e e rem ain in g y e a rs of h i s l i f e t o im p re ssin g on
h is s u b je c ts h is new nt r u t h ” ( t h a t men a r e unhappy and
52
d ie ) i n a s e r i e s of b r u t a l , mad le s s o n s , u n t i l he i s
f i n a l l y k i l l e d by th e Roman p a t r i c i a n s , le d by C herea.
P l o t C o n s tru c tio n
T his i s a w e ll made p la y . Each of th e fo u r a c t s
b u ild s t o a c lim a x , th e c u r t a i n d escen d in g on a d ram a tic
a c t i o n t h a t i s i n a way sym bolic of th e th e m a tic p o in t
t h a t each a c t c o n t r ib u t e s t o th e t o t a l s t r u c t u r e and mean
ing of th e p la y . A ct I e n d s , a f t e r C a l i g u l a 's r e b e l l i o n ,
w ith C a lig u la c a l l i n g th e p a t r i c i a n s " th e g u i l t y v i c t i m s ,"
s t r i k i n g th e m ir r o r , and sh o u tin g t h a t th e r e i s n o th in g ,
o n ly " C a lig u la " — th e n th e c u r t a i n f a l l s . A ct I I c o n c lu d es
w ith C a l i g u l a 's answer t o S c i p i o n 's q u e s tio n of w hether
th e r e i s n o t some te n d e r q u a l i t y t o C a l i g u l a 's l i f e :
C a lig u la scream s one words " l e m e p ris " — c u r t a i n . A ct I I I
e n d s , a f t e r th e in te rc h a n g e betw een C a lig u la and C herea
w hich form s th e clim a x of th e dram a, w ith C a lig u la b u rn in g
th e in c rim in a tin g t a b l e t b e fo re th e eyes of th e stunned
C herea, g r a n tin g him an a r b i t r a r y in n o c en ce . The p la y
ends w ith C a l i g u l a 's l a s t l i n e of "Je s u is en co re v i v a n t i "
a s th e p a t r i c i a n s t h r u s t d ag g e rs i n t o h is body.
P l o t A n a ly s is
The p la y opens w ith th e c o n v e rs a tio n of a group of
p a t r i c i a n s who a r e n e rv o u s ly w a itin g f o r news of C a lig u la ,
who has been m issin g f o r th r e e days s in c e th e d e a th of h i s
53
s i s t e r , D r u s i l l a . Camus o f te n opens h is p la y s and n o v e ls
w ith a view o f th e " to w n sp e o p le 1 1 ( e . g . , La P a s t e . L 'E t a t
de S ie g e ) , i n o rd e r t o g iv e u s th e "n o rm al" i n t e l l e c t u a l
and m o ral back g ro u n d f o r h i s h e r o e s , who s e e e x i s t e n t i a l
pro b lem s from a f r e s h p o in t o f view . I n t h i s s c e n e , th e
d ia lo g u e o f th e p a t r i c i a n s r e f l e c t s t h e i r p r e d i l e c t i o n
f o r p l a t i t u d e s and c l i c h e s ( f o r ex am p le, S e n e c tu s , th e o ld
p a t r i c i a n , p a r r o t s : " C 'e s t j u s t e , i l ne f a u t p as la e h e r
l a p r o ie p o u r 1 ' om bre"; and "O u i, i l n 'y a p as de fum ee
sa n s fe u " [ i . l ] ) . 4 They n o t o n ly s p e a k , b u t th in k i n
c l i c h e s . They a r e i n t e r e s t e d p r im a r ily i n th e s u r f a c e ,
i n th e a p p e a ra n c e o f th in g s ( e . g . , t h e i r a t t i t u d e to w ard s
C a l i g u l a 's lo v e f o r h i s s i s t e r : " L 'i n c e s t e , s o i t , m ais
d i s e r e t " [ i . l ] ) . An e a r l y d r a m a tiz a tio n o f th e p a t r i c i a n s '
a t t i t u d e s i s im p o rta n t th e m a t i c a l l y , f o r C a lig u la i s r e b e l
l in g n o t o n ly a g a i n s t th e l i m i t a t i o n s o f e x i s t e n c e , b u t
a l s o a g a i n s t th e lim ite d v i s i o n o f th e p a t r i c i a n s .
When C a lig u la f i n a l l y a p p e a rs in th e t h i r d s c e n e ,
a f t e r th e m o ra l to n e o f th e p a t r i c i a n s h a s b een e s ta b
l is h e d and some su sp e n se h a s b een b u i l t u p , we l e a r n t h a t
th e d e a th o f D r u s i l l a h a s b een th e c a t a l y s t t h a t makes him
se e th e a b s u r d i t y o f th e human c o n d itio n . T h is i s
^ R e fe re n c e s w i l l be i n s e r t e d w ith in p a r e n th e s e s imme
d i a t e l y a f t e r q u o ta tio n s and w i l l in d ic a t e th e a c t and
s c e n e . T h u s: ( I I . 1 3 ).
$4
so m eth in g t h a t he had n o t r e a l i z e d b e f o r e , a s he t e l l s
h i s f a i t h f u l o f f l e e r , th e e x - s la v e H e lic o n . " M a in te n a n t,
j e s a i s . Ce m onde, t e l q u ’ i l e s t f a i t , n ’e s t p as su p
p o r t a b l e . J ’a i done b e s o in de l a lu n e , ou du b o n h ettr, ou
de l 'i m m o r t a l i t e . . . . " < 1 .4 ). B ut i t i s n o t D r u s i l l a 's
lo v e a lo n e , n o r h e r d e a th , t h a t makes him se e t h i s ♦ ’t r u t h . 1 1
“C e tte m o rt n ’ e s t r i e n , j e t e l e j u r e ; e l l e e s t se u le m e n t
l e s ig n e d ’une v e r i t e q u i me re n d l a lu n e n e c e s s a lr e .
C’e s t une v e r i t e to u te sim p le e t to u te c l a i r e , un peu
b e t e , m ais d i f f i c i l e a d e e o u v rir e t lo u rd e a p o r t e r . ” And
t h i s t r u t h i s t h a t ” l e s hommes m eu ren t e t i l s ne s o n t pas
h e u re u x ” ( 1 .4 ) .
B ut aro u n d him C a lig u la s e e s o n ly a l i e , he t e l l s
H e lic o n , and he w ish e s t o l i v e in t r u t h . He i s th e r e f o r e
g o in g t o become th e p r o f e s s o r t o te a c h th e Romans th e
know ledge t h a t th e y la c k . ”I l s s o n t p r iv € s de l a
e o n n a is s a n e e e t i l le u r manque un p r o f e s s e u r q u i sa eh e ce
d o n t i l p a r l e ” ( 1 .4 ) . Thus we have an e x p r e s s io n o f th e
in c id e n t t h a t s t a r t s him o u t on h is mad q u e s t. C a lig u la
w ish e s t o a c c o m p lish th e im p o s s ib le : t h a t men w i l l n o t
d ie and t h a t th e y w i l l l i v e h a p p ily , a s he t e l l s C a eso n ia
( I . 1 1 ).
The d ra m a tic in c id e n t t h a t s t a r t s C a l i g u l a ’ s pedagog
i c a l m ethod i s h i s e n c o u n te r w ith P a t r i c i u s , th e I n te n d a n t.
P a t r i c i u s , s u r p r is e d by th e su dden a p p e a ra n c e o f C a lig u l a ,
55
b l u r t s o u t, f o r w ant o f so m eth in g t o s a y , t h a t he had
b ee n lo o k in g f o r C a lig u la i n o rd e r t o a t t e n d t o some
q u e s tio n s c o n c e rn in g th e T re a s u ry . T h is s e t s C a lig u la
o f f ; f o r th e p ro b lem s o f S t a t e seem to p a le i n im p o rta n c e
b e s id e th e b r u t a l r e a l i t y t h a t man l i v e s an unhappy, p u r
p o s e le s s e x is te n c e t h a t m ust end i n m e a n in g le s s d e a th .
" S i l e T re s o r a de 1*im p o rta n c e , a l o r s l a v ie hum aine n 'e n
a p a s . C e la e s t c l a i r . Tous ce u x q u i p e n s e n t comme t o i
d o iv e n t a d m e ttre ce ra is o n n e m e n t e t com pter l e u r v ie p our
r i e n p u i s q u 'i l s tie n n e n t 1 'a r g e n t p our t o u t . Au d e m e u ra n t,
m o i, j ' a i d e c id e d 'e t r e lo g iq u e . . . . " ( 1 . 8 ) . C a l i g u l a 's
f i r s t e x e r c is e a s a te a c h e r i s t o o rd e r a l l o f th e
p a t r i c i a n s t o w i l l t h e i r money to th e S t a t e . To s o lv e
f u t u r e f i n a n c i a l p ro b le m s , he w i l l th e n k i l l men in th e
o rd e r o f a l i s t t h a t h a s b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d , o f c o u r s e ,
a r b i t r a r i l y . The l i s t may be r e v is e d from tim e t o tim e ,
b u t alw ay s c a p r i c i o u s l y , s in c e n i l s s o n t a u s s i e o u p a b le s
l e s uns que l e s a u t r e s " ( 1 . 8 ) . The le s s o n he w ish e s t o
te a c h h e re i s t h a t th e r e i s no o rd e r o r p a t t e r n t o th e
u n iv e r s e ; t h a t h o r r i b l e e v e n ts may e n t e r i n t o e x is te n c e
a t an y moment w ith o u t c a u s e ; and t h a t th e u s u a l c o n c e p tio n s
o f p u n ish m en t and g u i l t a r e m e a n in g le ss i n a n e x is te n c e
w ith o u t d e s ig n or d i r e c t i o n .
The re m a in d e r of A ct I f u r t h e r e s t a b l i s h e s , i n con
v e r s a tio n s w ith C a e s o n ia , S c ip io n , and C h e re a , C a l i g u l a 's
5 6
m o tiv e s f o r th e mad d eed s t h a t f o llo w i n th e p la y , and
e x p re s s e s h i s r e b e l l i o n a g a i n s t th e w o rld o r d e r , and h is
f r u s t r a t i o n a t n o t b e in g a b le t o change th e human c o n d i
t i o n . He e x p la in s t o C herea h i s need f o r a b s o lu te freed o m
(a n e x p r e s s io n o f h i s d e s p e r a te f e e l i n g o f r e s t r a i n t ) s
M Ce monde e s t s a n s im p o rta n c e e t q u i l e r e e o n n a it c o n q u ie r t
sa l i b e r t e ” ( 1 . 1 0 ). He t e l l s C a e so n ia w h at he in te n d s t o
do w ith a b s o lu te pow ers ”Ma v o lo n te e s t de l e c h a n g e r.
J e f e r a i a ce s i e e l e l e don de l ’e g a l i t e . E t lo r s q u e t o u t
s e r a a p l a n i , 1*im p o s s ib le e n f i n s u r t e r r e , l a lu n e d an s
mes m a in s, a l o r s , p e u t - e t r e , moi-meme j e s e r a i tra n s fo rm ^
e t l e monde av ec m o i, a l o r s e n f i n l e s homines ne m o u rro n t
p a s e t i l s s e r o n t h e u re u x ” ( I . 1 1 ).
A ct I I opens w ith th e p a t r i c i a n s c o m p la in in g o f t h e i r
m is tre a tm e n t d u rin g th e th r e e y e a rs t h a t have p a s se d s in c e
A ct I . C a lig u la h as in s u l t e d t h e i r d i g n i t y , s e t th e
p le b e a g a i n s t them , c o n f is c a te d t h e i r m oney, ta k e n w iv es
t o w ork i n th e p u b lic b r o t h e l , and k i l l e d f a t h e r s and
s o n s . They a r e r i p e f o r r e v o l t when C h erea e n t e r s and
p e rs u a d e s them to w a i t , t e l l i n g them t h a t th e y have n o t
re c o g n iz e d t h e i r r e a l enemy. F o r C herea u n d e rs ta n d s th e
r e a l d a n g e r o f C a lig u la . They have had em p ero rs b e fo re
who u sed u n lim ite d pow er, he t e l l s them , b u t C a lig u la u s e s
h i s power " ju s q u ’a n i e r l'hom m e e t l e monde*’ ( I I . 2 ) . He
i s d e s tr o y in g th e w hole m eaning o f l i f e , d e s tr o y in g t h e i r
57
re a s o n f o r l i v i n g — t h a t i s th e r e a l d a n g e r. T h is i s th e
i n t r o d u c t i o n o f th e o p p o sin g f o r c e in th e p la y , th e
i n t e l l e c t u a l c o n f l i c t b etw een C herea and C a lig u l a , t h a t
w i l l f i n a l l y b r in g a b o u t C a l i g u l a 's d o w n fa ll. C herea
makes i t c l e a r t h a t he i s n o t f i g h t i n g a g a i n s t th e immedi
a t e h u m i l i a t i o n s , b u t a g a i n s t "une g ra n d e id e e d o n t l a
v i c t o i r e s i g n i f i e r a i t l a f i n du monde. . . . I I tra n s fo rm e
sa p h ilo s o p h ie en c a d a v re s e t , p o u r n o tr e m a lh e u r, e ' e s t
une p h ilo s o p h ie sa n s o b je c ti o n s . I I f a u t b ie n f r a p p e r
quand on ne p e u t r l f u t e r " < 1 1 .2 ).
What fo llo w s i n th e re m a in in g sc e n e s o f th e dram a a r e
th e s e r i e s o f le s s o n s — some b r u t a l , some a lm o s t co m ic, or
p e rh a p s g r o te s q u e — w h ich C a lig u la im poses upon h i s su b
j e c t s . The w o rld t h a t C a lig u la c r e a t e s c a n p e rh a p s b e s t
be u n d e rs to o d by com paring i t to th e w o rld t h a t K afka
c r e a te d i n h i s t a l e s ; one in w hich th e i r r a t i o n a l and
h o r r i b l e may e n te r i n t o a "n o rm a l” e x i s t e n c e , g r a t u i t o u s l y ,
a t any moment. In th e b a n q u e t sc en e ( I I . 5 ) , f o r ex am p le,
th e p a t r i c i a n s l e a r n fro m th e p en d in g e x e c u tio n o f R u fiu s
t h a t i t i s n o t n e c e s s a r y t o have done so m eth in g in o rd e r
t o d i e — d e a th i s a b s o lu te b u t a r b i t r a r y . "Vous ne me
dem andez p as p o u rq u o i i l d o i t m o u rir? " he a s k s them .
" A llo n s , j e v o is que vous d ev en ez i n t e l l i g e n t s . ( I I
g r ig n o te une o l i v e ) Vous av e z f i n i p a r com prendre q u 'i l
n 'e s t p as n e c e s s a ir e d 'a v o i r f a i t q u elq u e ch o se pour
58
m o u rir" ( I I . 5 ) . And when L ep id u s i s fo rc e d t o la u g h a t
th e d e a th o f h i s so n , and when th e p a t r i c i a n s a r e o rd e re d
to la u g h and dance l i k e m a r io n e tte s a t C a l i g u l a ’ s command,
th e y l e a r n t h a t " t o u t d i s p a r a i t d e v a n t l a p e u r" ( I I . 5 ) —
th e y l e a r n how s h a llo w a r e th e r o o ts o f fa m ily t i e s , and
how t h i n i s th e fa § a d e o f s o c i a l custom s and m ores (w hich
h i t h e r t o th e y had a c c e p te d a s an u n ch an g in g r e a l i t y ) b e fo re
th e c o m p e llin g r e a l i t y o f f e a r .
H o n n e te te , r e s p e c t a b i l i t e , q u 'e n d i r a - t - o n , s a g e s s e d es
n a t i o n s , r i e n ne v e u t p lu s r i e n d i r e . T out d i s p a r a i t
d e v a n t l a p e u r. La p e u r , h e i n , C a e s o n ia , ce b eau s e n t i
m en t, sa n s a l l i a g e , p u r e t d e s i n t e r e s s e , un d es r a r e s
q u i t i r e s a n o b le s s e du v e n tr e ( I I . 5 ) .
"When C a lig u la ta k e s th e w ife o f M ucius i n t o an a d j o in
in g room t o make lo v e t o h e r w h ile M ucius w a its , in f r u s
t r a t e d h u m ilia tio n and a n g e r; and when he o rd e rs th e
p u b lic g r a n a r i e s c lo s e d to s t a r t a fa m in e , he te a c h e s them
th e a c c i d e n t a l q u a l i t y o f e v e n ts i n a w o rld w ith o u t
p a t t e r n . T hese a c t s a l s o te a c h them t h a t "on e s t to u jo u r s
l i b r e a u x d ep en s de q u e lq u 'u n " ( I I . 9 ) — t h a t one c a n n o t
ta k e a s te p i n t h i s w o rld w ith o u t th e d a n g e r o f harm ing
o n e 's f e llo w man. (Or a s T a rro u e x p re s s e d i t in La P e s t e .
’’nous ne p o u v io n s p as f a i r e un g e s te en ce monde san s
r i s q u e r de f a i r e m o u r ir” [276} ) . T h is l a s t e x p r e s s io n
seems to be th e b a s is f o r C a l i g u l a 's c o n c e p t o f g u i l t , and
a c c o u n ts f o r h i s c a l l i n g th e p a t r i c i a n s " g u i l t y v ic tim s "
a t th e end o f A ct I .
59
When th e p a t r i c i a n s a r e fo rc e d t o w o rsh ip C a lig u l a ,
who a p p e a rs i n a g ro te s q u e costum e o f V enus, i n th e o p en in g
sc e n e o f A c t I I I , th e y l e a r n how c r u e l th e gods a r e . They
a r e fo rc e d t o p r o s t r a t e th e m s e lv e s b e f o r e C a lig u la and
r e p e a t th e b i z a r r e l i t a n y , " I n s t r u i s - n o u s de l a v l r i t l de
c e monde q u i e s t de n 'e n p o in t a v o i r ” ( I I I . l ) . When
S c ip io n e x p r e s s e s h i s d i s g u s t a t th e s p e c t a c l e , C a lig u la
e x p la in s t h a t he w ish e s t o show th e p a t r i c i a n s t h a t th e
r i d i c u l o u s m e tie r o f th e gods c a n be im ita te d by mans he
ca n be a s c r u e l a s th e y ; and t h a t i f he e x e r c is e s h i s
power i n th e way he d o e s , i t i s a means o f co m p en sa tio n
f o r ” l a b e t i s e e t a l a h a in e d e s d ie u x ” ( I I I , 2 ) . F or
s in c e man c a n n o t u n d e rs ta n d d e s t i n y , C a lig u la w i l l e r e a t e
h i s own o r d e r . He h as assum ed th e " v is a g e b e te e t
in c o m p re h e n s ib le d es d ie u x ” ( 1 1 1 ,2 ) ,
The c lim a x o f th e p la y comes a t th e end o f A ct I I I
i n th e c o n f l i c t b etw een C h erea and C a lig u l a , when C herea
t e l l s C a lig u la t h a t he m ust d e s tr o y him b e c a u se man c a n n o t
l i v e i n a w o rld "oh l a p en see l a p lu s b i z a r r e p e u t e n une
seco n d e e n t r e r d an s l a r e a l i t £ ” ( 1 1 1 ,6 ) . He r e j e c t s
C a l i g u l a 's " l o g i c a l ” p o s i t i o n , c la im in g t h a t id e a s a r e
vague and u n im p o rta n t when com pared t o th e need o f man t o
l i v e and be h ap p y .
The e v e n ts o f A ct IV le a d C a lig u la s t e a d i l y tow ard
h i s d o w n fa ll. T h ere i s a n a p p a re n t h a l t t o th e r e v o l t o f
60
th e p a t r i c i a n s when th e y a r e c a l l e d t o th e p a la c e i n th e
m id d le o f th e n i g h t , o s t e n s i b l y t o be k i l l e d ; b u t th e y
a r e o n ly fo rc e d t o w itn e s s a g ro te s q u e d an ce by C a lig u la *
The p o e tr y f e s t i v a l , i n w h ich a group o f p o e ts a r e g iv e n
one m in u te e a c h t o com pose a poem on th e them e o f D e a th ,
i l l u s t r a t e s t h a t th e p o e t s , w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f S e ip io n ,
th in k o n ly i n te rm s o f th e s u r f a c e , c o n v e n tio n a l n o tio n s
o f d ea th * C a lig u la becom es l e s s and l e s s human a s he
t r i e s t o k i l l a l l t h a t i s human w ith in h im s e lf . He
s t r a n g l e s C a e s o n ia , th e l a s t te n d e r , human, e m o tio n a l l i n k
he h a s w ith l i f e . n . . . C e tte te n d r e s s e h o n te u s e e s t l e
s e u l s e n tim e n t p u r que ma v ie m 'a i t j u s q u 'i e i d o n n l," he
t e l l s h e r a s h i s g r i p t i g h t e n s aro u n d h e r n ec k ( I V .1 3 ).
When C a lig u la h e a rs th e murmurs o f h a te aro u n d h im , a s
th e p a t r i c i a n s g a th e r t o d e s tr o y him , he r e a l i z e s t h a t he
h a s fo u n d o n ly a s t e r i l e h a p p in e s s , a freed o m t h a t con
s i s t s o n ly o f a freed o m from " s o u v e n ir e t de 1 ’ i l l u s i o n "
( I V .1 3 ). He r e a l i z e s to o t h a t he h as n o t o n ly " l a b e t i s e
c o n tr e m o i, j ' a i a u s s i la 3 o y a u t£ e t l e c o u ra g e de ce u x
q u i v e u le n t e t r e h e u re u x " ( I V .1 3 ). He d i e s , aw are o f h i s
g u i l t , b u t d e f i a n t l y c la im in g , " q u i o s e r a i t me condam ner
d an s ce monde sa n s ju g e , oii p e rso n n e n 'e s t in n o c e n tJ "
( I V .1 4 ).
61
1 1 La r e v o l t e n a i t du. s p e c ta c le de l a
d S r a is o n . d e v a n t one c o n d itio n in .lu s te
e t In c o m p re h e n s ib le . " > >
C a l i g u l a 's tra g e d y i s h i s i n a b i l i t y t o a c c e p t th e
human c o n d i t i o n , t o a c c e p t l i f e a s i t i s , w ith th e few
hum ble re w a rd s a v a i l a b l e t o mans th e w arm th o f human
lo v e , and e x is te n c e a s r e p r e s e n te d i n th e v i b r a n t im ages
o f l i f e t h a t c o n t in u a l l y a p p e a r i n Camus' w ork— th e w arm th
o f th e s u n , " l a eo u rb e du g o l f e , l a mer e e l a t a n t e e t l e s
s o u r i r e s de l a t e r r e " (Le M vthe de S is v p h e . p . 1 6 4 ).
I n A c t I , we l e a r n from B c ip io n , i n a d ia lo g u e w ith
C a e s o n ia , t h a t b e fo re th e " i n c i d e n t " — th e d e a th o f h i s
s i s t e r — C a lig u la had b ee n a good man, who b e lie v e d t h a t
th e w o rs t human c rim e was t o make o th e r s s u f f e r , and who
t r i e d t o be a j u s t em p ero r. " I I me d i s a i t que l a v ie
n 'e s t p a s f a c i l e , m ais q u ' i l y a v a i t l a r e l i g i o n , l ' a r t ,
1 'amour q u 'o n nous p o r t e . I I r e p ^ t a i t s o u v e n t que f a i r e
s o u f f r i r e t a i t l a s e u le fa § o n de se tro m p e r. I I v o u l a i t
e t r e un homme j u s t e " ( 1 . 6 ) . I t I s n e c e s s a r y t o e s t a b l i s h
e a r l y i n th e p la y t h a t C a lig u la i s n o t e s s e n t i a l l y a mon
s t e r , t o em p h asize t h a t he com m its th e l a t e r a c t s o f
c r u e l t y th ro u g h i d e a s , n o t th ro u g h e s s e n t i a l v ic io u s n e s s .
T h is i s th e f i r s t a p p e a ra n c e , i n A ct I , o f th e m o tif o f
th e o p p o s itio n b etw een th e a b s t r a c t and th e c o n c r e te ,
^L'Homme R e v o lte , p . 2 1 .
62
b etw een id e a s and e o n e r e te a c t s . Camus, l i k e many o f h i s
g e n e r a tio n , d i s t r u s t e d p h ilo s o p h y and a b s t r a c t i o n . They
had s e e n th e c u lm in a tio n o f W este rn p h ilo s o p h y i n th e
N azi c o n c e n tr a t io n cam ps, and i n th e Com munist p u rg e s and
S i b e r i a n f o rc e d la b o r cam ps. We l i v e i n a tim e when
m u rd e re rs become J u d g e s , s a id Camus, when man i s a b le t o
fs
J u s t i f y w ith re a s o n and lo g ic th e m ost ab o m in ab le a c t s .
T h is m o tif a p p e a rs a g a in when C h erea t e l l s th e p a t r i c i a n s
t h a t C a lig u la " tra n s fo rm e s a p h ilo s o p h ie en e a d a v re s "
( I I . 2 ) , and i t i s e v id e n t i n th e answ er t h a t C h erea g iv e s
t o C a l i g u l a 's " l o g i c a l " v iew o f th e w o rld o rd e r a t th e
end o f A ct I I I .
I n t h i s s c e n e , th e c lim a x o f th e p la y , C h erea t e l l s
C a lig u la t h a t he f in d s him o d io u s b e c a u se C h e re a , l i k e
m o st m en, h a s need o f s e c u r i t y . Man c a n n o t l i v e "d a n s un
u n iv e r s oh l a p en s£ e l a p lu s b i z a r r e p e u t en une seco n d e
e n t r e r d an s l a r e a l i t l " ( I I I . 6 ) ; C a lig u la h a s c r e a te d
su c h a w o rld . C h erea a d m its t h a t p e rh a p s C a l i g u l a 's
p o s i t i o n i s l o g i c a l , b u t C h erea h a s "une a u t r e id e e de
mes d e v o ir s d'hom m e." The p rim a ry d u ty o f man i s t o l i v e
and t o be h ap p y , and he b e l ie v e s t h a t one c a n b e n e i t h e r
one n o r th e o th e r " e n p o u s s a n t l 'a b s u r d e d an s to u te s s e s
c o n s e q u e n c e s ." L ik e m o st p e o p le , a t tim e s he w ish e s th e
% e e th e I n t r o d u c tio n t o L*Homme R e v o lte .
63
d eath , o f th o s e he lo v e s i n o rd e r t o he f r e e ; and he c o v e ts
women whom th e law s o f f a m ily and f r i e n d s h i p f o r h id him .
To he l o g i c a l , " j e d e v r a is a l o r s tu e r on p o s s e d e r ."
L o g ic a lly , man sh o u ld a c t l i k e a h e a s t. B u t C h erea ju d g e s
t h a t th e s e a r e o n ly i d e a s , vague and u n im p o rta n t i n com
p a r is o n w ith human l i f e and h a p p in e s s . I f a l l men a c te d
i n t h i s w ay, th e y w ould he a b le n e i t h e r t o l i v e n o r t o he
h appy; and l i f e and h a p p in e s s a r e im p o r ta n t. To t h i s
C a lig u la re s p o n d s t h a t i f C h erea b e lie v e s t h i s , he m ust
th e n b e l ie v e i n " q u e lq u e id e e s u p e r i e u r e ." C h erea an sw ers
sim p ly , " j e c r o i s q u ' i l y a d e s a c tio n s q u i s o n t p lu s
b e l l e s que d 'a u t r e s . " S in c e C a lig u la b e l ie v e s t h a t a l l
a c t s a r e e q u a l, C h erea m ust d e s tr o y him .
H ere Camus a g a in i l l u s t r a t e s th e need t o exam ine th e
c o n c r e te , th e a c t i t s e l f , th e d an g e r o f becom ing in v o lv e d
i n a b s t r a c t i o n and i d e a s , and th e d an g er o f n o t a c c e p tin g
th e im p o rta n c e o f human l i f e and h a p p in e s s .
C a l i g u l a 's a c t i o n s i l l u s t r a t e th e c r u c i a l pro b lem
o f th e r e b e l , w h e th e r r e b e l l i o n w i l l le a d t o a d e s t r u c t i o n
o f th e r e b e l and th o s e aro u n d h im , o r c a n le a d to an
a c c e p ta n c e o f l i f e . T h is i s a c r u c i a l p ro b lem i n a l l o f
Camus' w ork. He e x p re s s e d th e p ro b lem th u s i n th e i n t r o
d u c tio n t o L*Homme R e v o lte :
L'homme e s t l a s e u le c r d a t u r e q u i r e f u s e d 'e t r e ce
q u 'e l l e e s t . La q u e s tio n e s t de s a v o ir s i ce r e f u s ne
64
p e u t l'a m e n e r q u 'a l a d e s t r u c t i o n d e s a u t r e s e t de l u i -
meme, s i to u te r ^ v o l t e d o i t s 'a c h e v e r e n j u s t i f i c a t i o n
du m e u rtre u n i v e r s a l , ou s i , a u c o n t r a i r e , s a n s p r e te n
t i o n a une im p o s s ib le in n o c e n c e , e l l e p e u t d ^ c o u v r ir l e
p r in c ip e d 'u n e c u l p a b i l i t y r a is o n n a b le (2 2 ).
I n t h i s s t a t e o f r e b e l l i o n and s e a r c h f o r fre e d o m , Camus
i l l u s t r a t e s ( i n a p o s i t i v e way w ith th e c h a r a c t e r s T a rro u ,
R ie u x , S is y p h u s , and i n a n e g a tiv e way w ith C a lig u l a ,
S ta v r o g in , and J e a n - B a p tis te C lam enee) t h a t th e r e b e l
m ust s e e k t o harm h i s f e llo w man a s l i t t l e a s p o s s i b l e .
P ro p e r r e b e l l i o n i s b ased on a m a n 's t r a g i c a w a re n e ss o f
h i s w re tc h e d c o n d i tio n , a "m € p ris d e s d ie u x , sa h a in e de
l a m o rt e t s a p a s s io n p o u r l a v ie " (a s Camus d e s c r ib e s
S is y p h u s . Le M vthe de S is v o h e . p . 1 6 4 ). B u t t r a g i c aw are
n e s s d o es n o t le a d th e Camus A bsurd h e ro (S is y p h u s , T a r ro u ,
R ie u x ) t o v iew th e u n iv e r s e a s b e in g s t e r i l e and l i f e a s
f u t i l e . Nor d o es he lo o k beyond man f o r m eaning t o l i f e ;
b u t by h i s p a s s io n f o r l i f e , " i l e s t s u p e r ie u r a son
d e s t i n " ( S ls y p h e . p . 165 )•
C a l i g u l a , l i k e S ta v r o g in i n L es P o sse d e s (Cam us'
s ta g e a d a p t a t io n o f D o s to e v s k y 's n o v e l) and J e a n - B a p tis te
Clam enee i n La C h u te , c a n n o t a c c e p t h im s e lf , w ith h i s
im p e r f e c tio n s , w ith h i s a w a re n e ss o f g u i l t , n o r a c c e p t
l i f e a s i t i s , w ith i t s few hum ble re w a rd s . C a l i g u l a 's
r e v o l t a g a i n s t th e human c o n d i tio n th u s becom es a mon
s tr o u s o n e , c a u s in g p a in and s u f f e r i n g t o ev e ry o n e aro u n d
him .
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l a th e m id s t o f th e wounded v a n i t i e s , th e s o r d id
m o tiv e s , and th e c o w a rd ly f e a r s o f th e p a t r i c i a n s , o n ly
C h erea and S c ip io n have m o tiv e s t h a t m ig h t be c o n s id e re d
p u re . B u t w h ile C h erea i s a b le t o a c t when i t i s n e c e s
s a r y (w hich means c o n t i n u a l l y c h o o sin g th e l e s s e r o f two
e v i l s , and a c c e p tin g h i s a c t i o n s 1 c o n s e q u e n c e s , in c lu d in g
g u i l t ) , S c ip io n h a s d i f f i c u l t y i n a c tin g a g a i n s t C a lig u la .
i
*'Je ne p u is p a s c h o i s i r p u is q u ’e n p lu s de ce que j e
s o u f f r e , j e s o u f f r e a u s s i d© ce q u f i l s o u f f r e . Mon m a l-
h e u r e s t de t o u t cam p ren d re" ( I V .1 ) . S c ip io n u n d e rs ta n d s
C a lig u l a , f o r he s u f f e r s from th e same p ro b lem : a re c o g
n i t i o n o f th e a b s u rd . U nable t o a c t , he b id s f a r e w e l l t o
C a lig u la i n S cene 13 o f th e l a s t a c t , t o go f a r fro m Borne
t o se e k M l e s r a is o n s de t o u t cela.** T h is i s p e rh a p s
sy m b o lic o f th e d i f f i c u l t y o f many i n t e l l e c t u a l s , who se e
th e c o m p le x ity o f a c t i o n and o f m o tiv a tio n , and w hose
d a m n atio n i s , a s S c ip io n t e l l s C h e re a , ”d e t o u t com prendre,"
and who become s o in v o lv e d i n a w e lt e r o f c o n f l i c t i n g
id e a s t h a t th e y a r e u n a b le t o a c t .
H e lic o n i s a som ewhat com plex c h a r a c t e r . I n A ct I
he a p p e a rs t o be a d ise n g a g e d c y n ic , an uncom m itted
b y s ta n d e r to th e b r u t a l i t y aro u n d him . When C a lig u la a s k s
him t o a id him w ith h i s mad p l a n s , he a g r e e s , s a y in g , M je
s a i s beaucoup de c h o s e s e t peu de c h o s e s m * in t J r e s s e n t”
( 1 . 4 ) . And he t e l l s C a e s o n la , tfj e ne s u is p as so n
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c o n f id e n t, Je s u is so n s p e e t a t e u r . C 'e s t p lu s s a g e ”
( I * 5)* Toward th e end o f th e p la y , we b e g in t o u n d e rs ta n d
h is m o tiv a tio n . When th e p a t r i c i a n s t a u n t him n o t o n ly
f o r h i s u n f la g g in g l o y a l t y t o C a lig u l a , b u t f o r h i s fo rm e r
s la v e s t a t u s , he re s p o n d s by a s k in g them w h at th e y a r e
s e r v in g — v i r t u e , p e rh a p s ? He was b o rn a s l a v e , and le a r n e d
a b o u t t h e i r " v i r t u e " and j u s t i c e u n d er th e w h ip . He con
demns th e p a t r i c i a n s a s b e in g men who h av e th e i n s i p i d
o dor "de ce u x q u i n * o n t ja m a is r i e n s o u f f e r t n i r is q u e "
( IV .6 ) . T hey t h in k o n ly o f s e c u r i t y , and w i l l d ie one d ay
in t e r r o r , " s a n s meme s a v o ir que vous a v e z m e n ti to u te
v o tr e v ie " ( I V .6 ) . They have n o r i g h t , sa y s H e lic o n , t o
ju d g e , from t h e i r lim ite d p o in t o f v ie w , th o s e who s u f f e r
d u rin g t h e i r e n t i r e e x i s te n c e . He w ould r a t h e r s e rv e and
lo v e a mad m a s te r , th a n be on t h e i r s id e w ith t h e i r " n o b le s
m e n so n g e s."
Thus H e lic o n , b e c a u se he i s co n tem p tu o u s o f th e
o f f i c i a l v i r t u e s o f h i s s o c i e t y — i n a w o rld c o n t r o l l e d by
th e p a t r i c i a n s — and c a n f in d n o th in g b e t t e r t o r e p la c e
them , f o llo w s h i s mad em peror i n h i s m o n stro u s schem es o f
e d u c a tio n , and re m a in s f a i t h f u l t o th e en d .
S p e c ta c le
The p la y le n d s i t s e l f , som ewhat d a n g e ro u s ly i n th e
wrong h a n d s , t o e l a b o r a te s p e c t a c l e — t o s p e c ta c u la r
s c e n e ry and c o s tu m e s , and t o i n t e r e s t i n g h a n d lin g o f th e
c h o r u s - lik e m ovements o f th e p a t r i c i a n s ( e . g . , when th e y
a r e fo rc e d t o la u g h and d an ce l i k e m a r io n e tte s i n A c t I I ) .
F o r ex a m p le , A ct I I I opens t o th e sounds o f cym bals and
d ru m s, w ith H e lic o n , w ith th e v o ie e o f a c i r c u s b a r k e r ,
c a l l i n g th e p a t r i c i a n s t o a p p ro a c h and w a tc h th e m ir a c le
o f a god d escen d t o e a r t h i n th e form o f V e n u s -C a lig u la .
A t a p e s t r y i s p u lle d a s i d e , and C a lig u la a p p e a rs s ta n d in g
on a p e d e s t a l i n a g ro te s q u e co stu m e o f V enus. The
p a t r i c i a n s a r e fo rc e d t o p r o s t r a t e th e m se lv e s and c h a n t a
r a t h e r b i z a r r e l i t a n y .
The t h i r d sc e n e o f A c t I I i s a s o r t o f dumb show ,
w hich e f f e c t i v e l y h e ig h te n s t e n s io n . F o r i n th e m id d le o f
th e p l o t t i n g p a t r i c i a n s , C a lig u la s u d d e n ly e n t e r s , f o l
low ed by s o l d i e r s ; n o t a w ord i s spoken w h ile he w alk s
among th e t e r r i f i e d c o n s p i r a t o r s , a r r a n g in g a lo c k o f h a i r
f o r o n e , s ta n d in g b ac k to c o n te m p la te a se c o n d , and th e n
su d d e n ly e x i t i n g — a l l w ith o u t a w ord. T h is s il e n c e c a n
p ro d u ce a t e r r i f y i n g e f f e c t on th e a u d ie n c e —much more
e f f e c t i v e th a n a scream .
The b a n q u e t sc en e i n A c t I I , i n w h ich C a lig u la
e x h i b i t s r a t h e r c o a rs e t a b l e m anners (th ro w in g o liv e p i t s
on h i s n e ig h b o r ’ s p l a t e ) , and i n w h ich th e p a t r i c i a n s a r e
f i r s t made t o s e t th e t a b l e ( l i k e s l a v e s ) , and th e n fo rc e d
t o la u g h and j i g l i k e p u p p e ts , i s a b i z a r r e d is p l a y . And
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i n A c t IV , th e p a t r i c i a n s , who have b ee n b ro u g h t t o th e
p a la c e i n th e m id d le o f th e n i g h t and th in k th e y a r e
a b o u t t o be e x e c u te d , w itn e s s in s t e a d a g ro te s q u e d an ce by
C a lig u l a , who pantom im es r i d i c u l o u s movem ents b e h in d a
g au ze c u r t a i n , accom panied by th e g r a ti n g sounds o f cym bals
and s is tr u m s . Hot a word i s sp o k en d u rin g th e s c e n e .
A ll o f t h i s i s good t h e a t r e , i f th e d i r e c t o r k ee p s
th e s p e c ta c le i n i t s p ro p e r p r o p o r tio n so t h a t i t i s an
o rg a n ic p a r t o f th e s t r u c t u r e o f th e p la y , and ad d s t o
th e th e m a tic p o in t o f th e s c e n e . U n f o r tu n a te ly , th e
Broadway p r o d u c tio n o f C a lig u la o v erem p h asized th e e x o tic
a s p e c ts o f th e a c t i o n and d i s t o r t e d th e s p e c t a c l e . T h is
d i s t o r t i o n was one o f th e r e a s o n s why so many A m erican
c r i t i c s seem ed t o have m is u n d e rs to o d th e p la y .
The r e a c t i o n o f dram a e r i t i c s i n th e A m erican "popu
l a r " p r e s s m ig h t be summed up i n th e a r t i c l e i n L if e
(c o m p le te w ith th r e e p ag e s o f p h o to g ra p h s ) e n t i t l e d
" C a l ig u l a . a Bad B r i l l i a n t P la y ” :
N ever h a s a Broadway p la y s t i r r e d up su ch a m u ltip le
c o n fu s io n o f p ro s and co n s a s C a l i g u l a . A lb e r t C am us's
p h ilo s o p h ie a b s t r a c t i o n o f th e in s a n e young em peror who
r u le d and t e r r o r i z e d a n e ie n t Rome. To one c r i t i c th e
p la y was b o th a f a i l u r e and f a s c i n a t i n g . To a n o th e r
i t had b u r s t s o f b r i l l i a n t t h e a t r i c a l i t y b u t no s u s
ta in e d dram a. A n o th er summed i t up a s " a g r e a t bad
p l a y ." A l l in a l l th e eo n s outw eighed th e p r o s . B ut
i f C a lig u la i s f a r from b e in g a p e r f e c t p la y i t i s a l s o
f a r from b e in g a d u l l one (M arch 7 , I9 6 0 , p . 8 5 ).
The dram a c r i t i c on Newsweek* s s t a f f was im p re sse d by
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W ill S te v e n A rm stro n g ’s g r e a t f l i g h t o f s t a i r s and th e
d e c o r o f th e I m p e r ia l P a la c e , and by S id n e y L um et’ s "b o ld
d i r e c t i o n , ” b u t he m issed th e p o in t o f th e p la y :
• • • C a lig u la i s l a r g e l y a b ra v u ra p i e c e , w ith a
S h a k e s p e a re a n sweep and sw ash b u ck le f o r h i s t o r y t h a t
n e v e r w a s, and f o r t h e a t r e a s I t u sed t o be (F e b ru a ry 2 9 ,
1 9 6 0 , p . 9 0 ).
L o u is K ro n e n b e rg e r, i n a n a r t i c l e i n T im e, se n sed
t h a t th e r e was to o much " t h e a t r i c a l i t y , ” b u t s in c e he had
n o t se e n th e p la y a s Camus c r e a te d i t , b u t o n ly th e d i s
t o r t e d A m erican p r o d u c tio n , he blam ed i t on Camus: "M ix-
in g t h e a t r i c a l i t y w ith i n t e l l e e t u a l i s m , C a lig u la i s a t
once to o much a m ere s ta g e p ie c e — and to o l i t t l e . ” What
K ro n e n b erg er u n d e rs to o d o f th e p la y , he d i d n 't seem to
l i k e :
As Gamus h im s e lf p h ra s e d i t : "one c a n n o t be f r e e a t th e
ex p en se o f o t h e r s . ” To e x t r a e t from su c h s i c k , v a s t -
s c a le d c r u e l t y and v io le n c e su e h m ere copybook wisdom
seem s a t th e same tim e e l a b o r a t e and i n s u f f i c i e n t
(F e b ru a ry 2 9 , I9 6 0 , p . 5 1 ).
K ro n e n b e rg er r e p r i n t e d t h i s a r t i c l e i n The B e s t P la y s o f
1959-1960 (New Y o rk , I 9 6 0 ) , w h ich he e d i t e d , a lo n g w ith a
summary o f C a lig u la t h a t re p ro d u c e d J u s t i n O 'B r ie n ’ s d i s
t o r t e d " a d a p t a t i o n ” and t r a n s l a t i o n o f th e p la y .
One f l a g r a n t i n c i d e n t m ig h t i l l u s t r a t e t h i s t e x t u a l
p e r v e r s io n . I n th e b a n q u e t sc en e i n A c t I I , Camus' d i r e c
t i o n s c a l l f o r C a lig u la t o n u z z le a b s e n tm in d e d ly th e l e f t
s h o u ld e r o f th e woman s i t t i n g n e x t to him ( " I I a d e ja l a
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femme pr& s de l u i e t le c h e d i s t r a i t e m e n t so n e p a u le
g a u c h e” [ i l . j j ) . The Broadw ay p r o d u c tio n " a d a p ts ” t h i s
d i r e c t i o n i n th e fo llo w in g m anner ( a s r e p o r te d by K ro n en -
b e rg e r i n B e s t P l a y s , p . 144) "... F o rc in g th e f r i g h t
ened woman t o h e r k n e e s i n f r o n t o f him , and a l l th e
w h ile lo o k in g a t th e p a t r i c i a n — he u n b u tto n s th e w om an's
d r e s s and w ith g r e a t d e l i b e r a t i o n t h r u s t s h i s hand i n . "
When C a lig u la r e t u r n s th e woman t o M u ciu s, h e r h u sb a n d ,
sh e s la p s h i s f a c e , p u t t i n g th e sc e n e on th e l e v e l o f a
bedroom f a r c e . A l l o f t h i s a c t i v i t y d i s t o r t s th e sc e n e
o u t o f p r o p o r ti o n , u n t i l i t seem s t o e x i s t f o r i t s e l f
a lo n e , w ith th e o b je c t o f t i t i l l a t i n g th e a u d ie n c e . The
sc en e lo s e s i t s p o in t i n th e s t r u c t u r e o f th e p la y . The
" le s s o n " t h a t C a lig u la i s d e m o n s tra tin g i n th e b a n q u e t
sc e n e i s t h a t " t o u t d i s p a r a i t d e v a n t l a p e u r" and t h a t "o n
e s t to u jo u r s l i b r e a u x d ^p en s de q u e l q u 'u n ." Camus, i n a
more c l a s s i c a l t r a d i t i o n , le a v e s th e a c t u a l p h y s ic a l
r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw een C a lig u la and th e w ife o f M ucius t o
th e im a g in a tio n o f th e a u d ie n c e , by h a v in g them go o f f
s ta g e . The a u d ie n c e 's a t t e n t i o n i s th e n fo c u se d on .M u c iu s
and h i s r e a c t i o n .
I n th e Broadway a d a p t a t i o n , C a lig u la " h a l f c ra w ls in "
a t th e f i r s t e n tr a n c e ; and th e r e i s a good d e a l o f c ra w lin g
th ro u g h o u t th e p la y t h a t i s n o t i n th e o r i g i n a l . C a lig u
l a ' s m adness i s o v e r-e m p h a siz e d by t h i s and o th e r a c t i o n s ,
71
w h ich o f c o u rs e d u l l s th e p o in t o f th e p la y . The d i r e c t o r ,
S id n e y Lumet (o r w hoever was r e s p o n s i b le ) a l s o h a s C a lig u la
e x p e rie n c e f e a r and e a w a rd ic e , w h ich Camus d o es n o t. And
i n L u m e t's a d a p ta t io n C a lig u la le a p s t o h i s d e a th from a
h ig h colum n o n to th e sw ords o f th e c o n s p i r a t o r s — p e rh a p s
a more " d ra m a tic " e n d in g , b u t n o t C am us'.
A ll o f t h i s i s a s o r r y comment on th e q u e s tio n a b le
p rem ise t h a t to o many A m erican p ro d u c e rs seem t o o p e ra te
on— t h a t s e r io u s dram a c a n o n ly be sw allow ed by th e A m eri
ca n p u b lic i f i t i s s u g a r- c o a te d by s e x ( f o r i t s own
s a k e ) , g r a t u i t o u s v io le n c e , and o v e r - e la b o r a te d e c o r. I t
a l s o i l l u s t r a t e s how th e p la y w r ig h t i s a t th e m ercy o f
th e p r o d u c e r , and how dram a c r i t i c s som etim es f a i l t o do
t h e i r Jo b .
The d u ty o f th e e r i t i e i s , f i r s t o f a l l , t o t r y t o
e n l ig h te n th e r e a d e r (and p e rh a p s p o t e n t i a l p la y g o e r) a s
t o w hat th e a u th o r i s tr y i n g t o do b e fo re he b e g in s t o
d e m o lish th e p la y . The c r i t i c m ust t r y t o u n d e r s ta n d , t o
th e b e s t o f h i s a b i l i t y , w hat th e p la y w r ig h t i s a tte m p t
in g , w h e th e r he f i n a l l y a c c e p ts th e w o rld o f th e a r t i s t
o r n o t. I n h i s a n a l y s i s , he m u st s t i c k t o th e p la y
i t s e l f , t o w h at he h a s se e n on s t a g e , and p e rh a p s re a d in
th e t e x t . He m ust se e th e p la y on th e d ra m a tic l e v e l , in
th e r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t e x i s t among th e c h a r a c t e r s , and
betw een th e c h a r a c te r s and th e u n iv e r s e . He m ust n o t
72
b r in g t o th e p la y a l l h is p r e ju d ic e s and p r e c o n c e p tio n s ,
h u t m ust do w hat e v e ry o n e sh o u ld do w ith an y w ork o f a r t ,
t r y to se e i t f r e s h l y , a s i f (a lth o u g h t h i s i d e a l i s
im p o s s ib le ) he w ere lo o k in g a t t h i s ty p e o f a r t i s t i c
e x p r e s s io n (b e i t a p a i n t i n g , a p ie c e o f s c u l p t u r e , or a
p la y ) f o r th e f i r s t tim e . H enry H ew es, i n an a r t i c l e i n
S a tu rd a y R ev iew , was one o f Camus’ c r i t i c s who a tte m p te d
t o f u l f i l l t h i s o b l i g a tio n .
Hewes (who had come p re p a re d f o r h i s jo b — he had re a d
th e o r i g i n a l v e r s io n ) q u ic k ly n o te d th e a tte m p t by th e
Broadway p ro d u c e rs t o ”make C a lig u la i n t o 'Quo V a d i s '” :
O b v io u sly C a lig u la i s m ost p r o v o c a tiv e when i t can be
r e l a t e d t o our own l i v e s , o u r own h y p o c r i s i e s , and our
own a t t i t u d e s . U n f o r tu n a te ly , th e c u r r e n t p r o d u c tio n
em p h asizes th e e x o tic a s p e c ts o f th e a c t i o n : th e
s p e c ta c le o f Roman b a r b a r is m , th e s e x o rg y , and th e
c o l o r f u l l y mad b e h a v io r o f C a lig u la ( ’’F re e D is s o c ia t io n
T e s t , ” S a tu rd a y R ev iew . M arch 5> I9 6 0 , p . 3 6 ).
B u t Hewes w en t on t o s t a t e t h a t ”. . . ev e n in i t s p r e s e n t
form one c a n s e n se th e mind and h e a r t o f a w r i t e r w ith a n
e x t r a o r d in a r y d e te r m in a tio n t o e x p lo re th e f a r t h e s t
r e a c h e s o f th e human c o n d i tio n ” (p . 3 6 ).
M ost o f th e A m erican c r i t i c s who saw th e p r o d u c tio n ,
th e n , w ere ta k e n by th e s p e c t a c l e , b u t th e y had n o t se e n
th e p la y a s Camus c r e a te d i t , and th e y d id n o t ta k e th e
tr o u b le t o f in d o u t w h at h i s v i s i o n w as.
O th e r, more e n lig h te n e d and p e r c e p tiv e c r i t i c s , su c h
a s G erm aine B ree i n h e r e x c e l l e n t s tu d y o f Camus, gave a
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f a i r and i n t e l l i g e n t a n a l y s i s o f th e p la y . B r£e co n c lu d e d
t h a t " t o d a te n o o th e r p la y o f Camus’ h a s c a p tu re d th e
same w arm th o f to n e , th e n o n c h a la n t and f i e r e e hum or, th e
o v e rto n e s o f p a th o s , and th e im a g in a tiv e in v e n tiv e n e s s o f
t h i s f i r s t dram a” (Camus [Hew B ru n sw ic k , M . J . , 1959] p .
1 4 9 ).
Summary and C o n c lu sio n s
The c h a r a c t e r C a lig u la i s a n e a r l y e x p r e s s io n by
Camus o f th e p ro b lem o f a d an g e ro u s k in d o f r e b e l , one who
i s aw are o f th e f u t i l i t y o f e x i s t e n c e , b u t who c a n n o t
a c c e p t h i s l i f e w ith i t s m eager re w a rd s . B ecause h e ca n
n o t f in d r u l e s o r m eaning beyond h im s e lf , he m ust v e n t
h i s f r u s t r a t i o n s i n v ic i o u s n e s s , and a tte m p t t o f in d f r e e
dom by a s s e r t i n g h i s u n lim ite d power a t th e ex p en se o f
o th e r s . T h is c o n d itio n was t o be d ra m a tiz e d l a t e r i n th e
f i g u r e s o f J e a n - B a p tis te C lam enee and S ta v r o g in .
Camus’ o n ly answ er t o t h i s r e b e l 's m is e r a b le c o n d i tio n
i s t o be fo u n d i n th e s im p le s ta te m e n ts o f C h e re a , who
m ust t u r n fro m a b s t r a c t i o n s and l o g i c , r e t u r n t o an exam in
a t i o n o f e a c h a c t i o n ( " i l y a d e s a c tio n s q u i s o n t p lu s
b e l l e s que d ’a u t r e s ” [ i l l . 6 ] ) , r e c o g n iz e th e s a c re d n e s s o f
human l i f e , and s e e k l i f e and h a p p in e s s . I n d o in g t h i s he
c a n , l i k e S is y p h u s , b e c a u se o f a p a s s io n f o r l i f e , become
s u p e r io r t o h i s f a t e . B u t C a lig u la c a n n o t a c c e p t h i s
74
im p e r f e c tio n s , human u g l i n e s s , and u n i v e r s a l g u i l t . He
c a n n o t a c c e p t h i s h u m a n ity , and l i k e T a r ro u , a c c e p t
“r e a s o n a b le ” c u l p a b i l i t y .
CHAPTER IV
L * ETRANGER
I n tr o d u c tio n
A f te r i t s p u b l i c a t io n i n 1942, L * S tra n g e r . Camus*
f i r s t n o v e l, was im m e d ia te ly p o p u la r w ith many young
F renchm en, who c o n s id e re d Camus t h e i r spokesm an. I n
M e u rs a u lt, Camus’ M l * e t r a n g e r , M th e y saw an em bodim ent o f
t h e i r own i s o l a t i o n and e s tra n g e m e n t fro m many o f th e o ld
v e r i t i e s — th e w orn p l a t i t u d e s o f f a m ily , r e l i g i o n , and
p a t r i o t i s m . T hese th e y had se e n a s f a l s e o r h o llo w u n d er
th e p r e s s u r e o f German o c c u p a tio n . C a m s* h e ro was a
young c l e r k , who c a l l e d th in g s by t h e i r r i g h t nam es,
r e f u s in g t o be ta k e n i n by th e euphem ism s s a n c t i f i e d by
cu sto m . H is n a iv e r e f u s a l t o p la y th e game s o c i e t y
demands le d him f i n a l l y t o th e d e a th c e l l .
I t i s n o t d i f f i c u l t t o se e why a la r g e number o f
young p e o p le a l l o v er th e w o rld now re a d L » S tra n g e r a s
t h e i r b o o k , a s a n o th e r g e n e r a tio n re a d The S orrow s o f
Young W e rth e r. L io n e l A bel shed some l i g h t on th e r e a s o n
f o r t h i s p o p u l a r i t y i n a re v ie w o f Yoram K aniuk*s n o v e l,
The A c ro p h ile (Hew Y o rk , 1 9 6 1 );
The w o rld h a s a new p ro b le m , one o f te n a llu d e d t o d e v i
o u s ly , seldom c o n fro n te d o r d e f in e d . The problem s
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o rd e r c a n n o t be m a in ta in e d anyw here u n le s s a g r e a t many :
th in g s un w o rth y o f r e s p e c t c o n tin u e t o be r e s p e c te d ,
and la r g e num bers o f p e o p le , young p e o p le f o r th e m ost
p a r t , h a v e , u n h a p p ily , fo u n d t h i s o u t. P e rh a p s th e
s e c r e t sh o u ld have b een b e t t e r k e p t. I n an y e a s e , th e
know ledge t h a t th in g s h i t h e r t o ta k e n a s s e r io u s a r e
r e a l l y q u i t e n o n s e n s ic a l h as sp re a d l i k e a e o n ta g io n .
What i s t o be done? ( S a tu rd a y R ev iew . M arch 1 1 , 1961,
p . 2 8 ) .
M e u rs a u lt seem s t o be a b le t o do l i t t l e w ith h i s >
" p ro b le m ,” t h a t o f s e e in g th in g s a s th e y a r e . He h a s ,
n o th in g t o j o i n , n o th in g t o do b u t t o l i v e on a v e ry *
p h y s i c a l , c o n c re te l e v e l . Young F renchm en, re a d in g
L ’S tr a n g e r f o r th e f i r s t tim e , m ust have s a i d , " b u t t h a t
i s th e way I f e e l . ” C e r t a i n l y t h i s a t t i t u d e grew a f t e r
th e F i r s t W orld W ar, w ith th e g ro w th o f F a s c is m , a d e p r e s
s i o n , a n o th e r w a r, o c c u p a tio n , th e b la c k m a rk e t, th e p o s t
w ar sc ra m b le f o r s u c c e s s and money, and w ar i n In d o -C h in a
and A lg e r ia . How c o u ld young p e o p le ta k e s e r i o u s l y th e
pompous s ta te m e n ts o f p o l i t i c i a n s and p a r e n ts (who p e rh a p s
p la y e d th e b la c k m a rk e t, who " a rr a n g e d ” and made c o n c e s
s i o n s ) ; how c o u ld one be " i n lo v e " and m a rry , when he had
o b se rv e d h i s p a r e n t s ’ u g ly m a rria g e s and l i v e s . A t l e a s t
young W e rth e r, th o u g h he f e l t a t odds w ith th e w o rld
o r d e r , c o u ld become engaged w h o le - h e a r te d ly i n th e ro m a n tic
m yth o f lo v e and in h i s e m o tio n a l l i f e . B ut M e u rs a u lt c a n
n e i t h e r become engaged i n th e p u r s u i t o f t h i s m y th , n o r
th o s e o f p o l i t i c a l , s o c i a l , o r econom ic s u c c e s s . M e u rs a u lt
i s a new k in d o f h e r o .
77
411 o f th e e v e n ts o f th e n o v e l a r e s e e n th ro u g h ,
M e u rs a u lt’ s e y e s , and ea ch e n c o u n te r , e a c h o b s e r v a tio n , ■ *
r e v e a ls m ore and more a b o u t h i s a t t i t u d e s to w ard s d e a th , 1
lo v e , m a r r ia g e , g u i l t , h a b i t , and a m b itio n ; i n s h o r t , "
th e y e x h i b i t th e q u a l i t y o f a r a t h e r n o rm a l, mundane l i f e * 1
The t i g h t l y k n i t p l o t o r g a n iz a tio n i s c e n te r e d aro u n d one
t e r r i b l e e v e n t i n h i s l i f e , h i s s h o o tin g a n Arab* Y et
ev en t h i s e v e n t h as th e same s h o c k in g ly g r a t u i t o u s ,
a c c i d e n t a l q u a li t y o f th e d a i l y a c t i v i t y t h a t makes up th e *
r e s t o f h i s l i f e . _
The n o v e l i s d iv id e d i n t o two p a r t s . P a r t I b e g in s r
w ith th e in te r m e n t o f M e u r s a u lt’ s m o th e r, and th e re m a in in g
f i v e c h a p te r s r e v e a l th e q u a l i t y o f h i s l i f e b e fo re he
g o es t o p r is o n . T hrough h i s e y e s we se e tw o w eeks i n h is
l i f e a s he e n c o u n te rs f r i e n d s and n e ig h b o r s , h as a lo v e
a f f a i r , g o e s t o w o rk , e a t s i n a r e s t a u r a n t — two w eeks in
a r a t h e r d ra b l i f e t h a t en d s w ith th e s e n s e le s s m urder and
h i s im p riso n m e n t. The seco n d s e c t i o n d e a ls w ith h i s
e le v e n m onths i n p r i s o n , w here he r e c o r d s h i s view o f
i n t e r r o g a t i o n s w ith th e ju d g e and h i s la w y e r, h i s th o u g h ts
a s a p r i s o n e r , h i s r e a c t i o n s t o th e t r i a l , and h i s f i n a l
r e v o l t when he i s a p p ro ac h ed i n h i s c e l l by th e p r is o n
c h a p la in a s he a w a its th e g u i l l o t i n e . J
t
’’On e s t to u .io u rs un pen f a u t i f . ” j
”A u jo u rd 1h u i , maman e s t m o rte . On p e u t - e t r e h i e r , j e |
78
n e s a l s pas'* ( 9 ) . Thus b e g in s th e n o v e l L S t r a n g e r . From
th e o p en in g l i n e s we f i n d a young man who a c c e p ts e x i s t
en ce d i r e c t l y , who v iew s th in g s f r e s h l y , w ith o u t d e c e i t t o
h im s e lf o r t o o th e r s . B u t ev en he f i n d s i t d i f f i c u l t t o
know how t o r e a c t " p r o p e r ly ” t o an e v e n t u n t i l i t h a s b een
c l a s s i f i e d , and o f c o u rs e th o s e aro u n d him c o n t in u a l l y
r e a c t i n a p a t t e r n o f h a b i t . I n th e second p a ra g ra p h o f
th e o p e n in g , when he r e p o r t s how he ask ed h i s b o s s f o r two
d ay s o f f t o go t o th e f u n e r a l , we se e h i s aw kw ardness
e v id e n c e d w hen, a f t e r h e s e e s t h a t h is b o ss a p p e a rs d i s
p le a s e d a t h i s r e q u e s t , he f e e l s i t n e c e s s a r y t o d efen d
h im s e lf , t o d e fe n d th e f a c t t h a t h i s m o th er h a s d ie d ,
w ith ”Ce n 'e s t p a s de ma f a u t e ” (9)« Then he ad d s t h a t
p e rh a p s h i s b o ss w i l l p r e s e n t h i s c o n d o le n c e s when he
s e e s him d r e s s e d i n m o u rn in g ; t h a t a f t e r th e f u n e r a l , i t
w i l l be a c l a s s i f i e d a f f a i r and have an o f f i c i a l a i r .
”P our l e mom ent, c ’e s t un peu comme s i maman n * 4 t a i t p as
m o rte . A p res 1 'e n te r r e m e n t, a u c o n t r a l r e , ce s e r a une
a f f a i r e c l a s s e s e t t o u t a u r a r e v e t u une a l l u r e p lu s
o f f i c i e l l e ” ( 9 - 1 0 ) .
From th e v e ry f i r s t l i n e s o f th e n o v e l, M e u rs a u lt
t e l l s h i s s t o r y i n a f l a t , m a t t e r - o f - f a c t s t y l e , r e p o r tin g
i n c i d e n t s w ith l i t t l e comment sav e f o r c e r t a i n n a iv e ,
som etim es s t r i k i n g , o b s e r v a tio n s . W e may g u e s s w hat he
th in k s ( t h a t i s , w h at m ost "n o rm a l” p e o p le w ould a b s t r a c t
79
from th e s i t u a t i o n ) p r i m a r i l y th ro u g h th e J u x t a p o s iti o n o f
p h ra s e s and in f o rm a tio n and th ro u g h h i s o b s e r v a tio n o f
some c o n c r e te e x a m p le s, r a t h e r th a n fro m a n a b s t r a c t s t a t e
m en t. F o r ex a m p le , when he s e e s h i s f r i e n d C e l e s te , th e
owner o f th e r e s t a u r a n t w here he ta k e s h i s m e a ls , f o r th e
f i r s t tim e a f t e r th e f u n e r a l , C e le s te a s k s him i f * T §a
a l l a i t quand meme.** M e u rs a u lt a n s w e rs , * * J e l u i a i d i t q u e f
o u i e t que J 'a v a l s fa im ” ( 3 8 ) . And r a t h e r th a n a n a ly z e
and d e s c r ib e a p e rs o n i n d e t a i l , r a t h e r th a n s a y , f o r
ex am p le, t h a t h i s f r i e n d Emmanuel i s s t u p i d , th u s p a s s in g
judgm ent and f o r c in g him i n t o a c a te g o r y , M e u rs a u lt* s
o n ly d e s c r i p t i o n o f h i s c o lle a g u e i s in tro d u c e d o b liq u e ly .
He o b se rv e s t h a t he w en t t o th e m ovies w ith Emmanuel, **qui
ne com prend p a s to u jo u r s ce q u i se p a s s e s u r l* 4 e ra n . I I
f a u t a l o r s l u i d o n n er d es e x p lic a tio n s* * ( 4 9 ) . The cam era
ey e q u a l i t y o f M e u rs a u lt* s s t y l e i s a g a in e v id e n t when
th e d i r e c t o r o f th e Home in fo rm s him t h a t he h as a rra n g e d
f o r a r e l i g i o u s b u r i a l , s in c e h i s m o th er had o f te n
e x p re s s e d a w is h f o r one. M e u rs a u lt s a y s s im p ly , w ith o u t
o th e r com m ent, **Mamam, s a n s e t r e a th £ e , n * a v a it ja m a is
p en s€ a l a r e l i g i o n de so n vivant** <13)« *
M e u rs a u lt* s s e n te n c e s te n d t o be s h o r t , and he u s e s
a minimum number and s m a ll v a r i e t y o f s y n t a c t i c a l co n n e c
t i v e s . F o r ex a m p le , th e p a ra g ra p h c o n ta in in g th e d e s c r ip
t i o n o f Emmanuel’ s r e a c t i o n to th e m o v ie, c i t e d a b o v e ,
i t
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w h ich opens C h a p te r IV , r e l a t e s one e v e n t a f t e r a n o th e r ,
w ith l i t t l e a p p a re n t l o g i c a l c o n n e c tio n , and o n ly a tim e
seq u en ce t o g iv e i t a n y u n i t y , g iv in g th e im p re s s io n o f a
c h i l d ’ s d i a r y .
J ’a i b ie n t r a v a i l l e t o u t e l a sem ain e. Raymond e s t venu
e t m’a ^ d i t q u ' i l a v a i t en v o y s l a l e t t r e . J e s u i s a l l e
au cinem a d eu x f o i s av ec Emmanuel q u i ne com prend p a s
to u jo u r s ce q u i se p a s s e s u r l ’e c ra n . I I f a u t a l o r s
l u i d o n n er d e s e x p l i c a t i o n s . H ie r c ' e t a i t sam edi e t
M arie e s t v e n u e , cornme no u s en a v io n s eo n v en u . J ' a i eu
t r e s e n v ie d ’e l l e p a re e q u ’e l l e a v a i t une b e l l e ro b e a
r a i e s ro u g e s e t b la n c h e s e t d es s a n d a le s de c u i r (4 9 ).
Y e t, Camus th e a r t i s t w eaves th e r a t h e r f l a t , f a c t u a l ,
choppy p ro s e o f M e u rs a u lt1s n a iv e o b s e rv a tio n s i n t o a
h ig h ly o r g a n iz e d , t i g h t c o m p o s itio n , ea c h c h a p te r b u ild in g
t o a c lim a x and e n d in g w ith a s t r i k i n g , d r a m a tic , o f te n
l y r i c a l , f i n a l sum m ation s e n te n c e . F o r ex am p le, C h a p te r
I I I en d s w ith M e u rs a u lt, en r o u te to h i s room a f t e r a d u l l
m eal w ith h i s new e o p a in , Raymond, s ta n d in g i n th e hum id,
d a rk h a l l o f h i s a p a rtm e n t h o u se and l i s t e n i n g :
Au c o e u r^ d e c e t t e m aiso n p l e i n e de som m eil, l a p l a i n t e
e s t m ontee le n te m e n t, comme une f l e u r nee du s i l e n c e
r e l a t e eyja.nts._seems s tr a n g e t o u s . W e e x p e c t lo n g exp]
ti o n s ( o f t e n made up o f a m ix tu re o f s o c i o l o g i c a l , p o li
e x p la in e v e n ts an d th u s make them m a n ag ea b le. H is cam era
eye d i s t u r b s u s , and we a r e tem p ted t o d is m is s h i s v iew a s
(4 8 ).
M e u r s a u lt1s p e c u l i a r i n a b i l i t y t o a b s t r a c t fvjm and 1
c a l , p s y c h o lo g ic a l, and m e d ic a l ja rg o n ) w h ich c l a s s i f y and ^
81
th e r e s u l t o f s t u p i d i t y , s in c e we u s u a l l y a s s o c i a t e th e
a b i l i t y t o a b s t r a c t and r e l a t e w ith i n t e l l i g e n c e . B u t one
im p o rta n t e f f e e t o f M e u r s a u lt1s view i s t o g iv e th e r e a d e r
a d is t a n c e fro m w h ich t o v iew th e a c t i o n s o f s o c i e t y , and
th u s t o p r e s e n t him w ith a f r e s h p o in t o f v iew ^ T h is d i s
ta n c e c a n be p ro d u ced i n l i t e r a t u r e i n many w ays. R abe
l a i s , f o r ex am p le, c a n f o r c e h i s r e a d e r t o se e h i s own
w o rld f r e s h l y by en g a g in g him i n a w o rld o f enorm ous dim en
s i o n s , p e o p le d w ith g i a n t s who have enorm ous a p p e t i t e s o f
e v e ry p o s s i b l e n a tu r e and who t r a v e l t o s t r a n g e , u n f a m ilia r
la n d s . And h i s m eth o d , w h ich in c o r p o r a te s a n abundance o f
w o rd s, a q u ic k tem po, and a m ix tu re o f s t y l e s , k ee p s th e
r e a d e r o f f b a la n c e and u n a b le t o assum e h i s u s u a l p o s i t i o n
o f o b s e r v a tio n and e v a l u a t i o n o f t h i n g s , and th u s f o r c e s
him t o make co m p ariso n s and t o c o n t r a s t R a b e la is * w o rld
w ith h is own and t o b ro a d e n h i s h o r i z o n s .1 The voyage t o
e x o tic la n d s and t o a l l m anner o f U to p ia s , a p o p u la r d e v ic e
s in c e th e R e n a is s a n c e , f o r c e s th e r e a d e r t o make o b v io u s
c o m p a riso n s; s tr a n g e p e o p le , s tr a n g e e v e n ts , make him se e
phenomena i n h i s c l o s e d , e v e ry d a y w o rld i n new r e l a t i o n
s h ip s . D o sto e v sk y c a n c r e a t e a n " i d i o t , M a P r ic e M yshkin,
who h as a n i n t e l l i g e n c e and p o in t o f v iew t h a t seem s tu p id
iF o r a n e x c e l l e n t a n a l y s i s o f R a b e l a i s ' s t y l e , se e
E r ic h A u erb ac h , M im e sis, t r . W illa rd T ra s k (G ard en C ity ,
1 9 5 7 ), PP. 2 2 9 -2 4 9 .
82
t o th e n o rm al p e o p le he e n c o u n te r s ; b u t when h i s v iew i s
ju x ta p o s e d t o t h a t o f th e "n o rm a l* 1 i n t e l l i g e n c e , h i s
a p p e a rs i n many ways t o be s u p e r i o r , and b r in g s i n t o q u e s
t i o n th e v e r y b a s is o f s o c i a l l y a c c e p ta b le p o in ts o f v iew
on lo v e , a m b itio n , h o n o r, and m an’ s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o man.
P r o u s t , th ro u g h a m in u te a n a l y s i s o f a s in g l e i n c i d e n t ,
c a n make u s se e beyond s u r f a e e a p p e a ra n c e and s h i f t and
r e c a s t o b je c ts and p e o p le i n o u r own w o rld , le a d in g u s t o
s e e th in g s i n f r e s h r e l a t i o n s h i p s . S i m i l a r l y , V o l t a i r e ,
th ro u g h C a n d id e 's n a iv e q u e s tio n in g and f r a n k , c h i l d - l i k e
o b s e r v a tio n s , b r in g s i n t o q u e s tio n th e v e r y b a s i s o f th e
m ost s a c re d o f a c c e p te d t h i n g s —m y th s, f e t i s h e s , c u s to m s,
and m o ra ls . I n th e same w ay, M e u rs a u lt’ s cam era eye
b r in g s e v e n t s , m a n n e rs, and m o ra ls i n t o a f r e s h fo e u s f o r
th e r e a d e r i n a w o rld grow n c o ld and a b s t r a c t from to o
c lo s e o b s e r v a tio n th ro u g h w orn e y e s o f h a b i t and c l i c h e .
He s t r i k e s home t o t r u t h w ith h i s f r a n k n e s s . H is n a i v e te
i s a n a r t i s t i c d e v ic e o f d is t a n c e e x p re s s e d th ro u g h Camus'
s t y l e .
IjQne k ey t o M e u r s a u lt's p e r s o n a l i t y i s h i s s ta te m e n t
t o h i s la w y e r t h a t " j 'a v a i s une n a tu r e t e l l e que mes
b e s o in s p h y s iq u e s d e r a n g e a ie n t s o u v e n t mes s e n tim e n ts ”
( 87- 8 8 ) . M e u rs a u lt i s v e ry s e n s i t i v e t o th e p h y s ic a l
w o rld ( h e a t , th e , g l a r e o f th e sun , c o o l !
h a i r on som eone’ s p a le s k in ) and t o h i s p h y s ic a l n e e d s .
83
He t e l l s h i s law y er t h a t on th e d ay h i s m o th er was b u r ie d ,
he was t i r e d and s le e p y , and d i d n 't rem em ber a l l t h a t hap
p en ed . On th e bus r i d e t o th e Home, i n th e o p en in g p ag e s
o f C h a p te r I , th e m o tio n o f th e b u s , th e s m e ll o f g a s o lin e
and t a r , and th e h e a t , com bine t o make him d ro w sy , and
fo re sh ad o w th e f e e l i n g o f d u l l o p p re s s iv e n e s s w h ich p r e
c e d e s h i s m urder o f th e A rab i n th e h o t su n on th e b ea ch
(when ask ed a t th e t r i a l why he s h o t th e A ra b , he an sw e rs
s im p ly , "que e ' e t a i t a c a u s e du s o l e i l " [ l 35] > w h ich i s
th e t r u t h , b u t ev e ry o n e f in d s h i s answ er r i d i c u l o u s , s in c e
i t do es n o t f i t i n t o a n e s t a b l i s h e d c a te g o r y o f m o tiv e s
f o r m u rd e r). When he i s ask ed t o g iv e a d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t
o f th e e v e n ts o f th e f u n e r a l , a l l he c a n a s s u r e h i s law y er
o f i s t h a t " j 'a u r a i s p r ^ f e r e que maman ne m o u ru t p a s " ; t o
w hich th e law y er r e s p o n d s , o f c o u r s e , " C e c i a ' e s t p as
a s s e z " ( 8 8 ) . T h a t i s , he h a s n o t , l i k e m ost o f u s , c r e a t e d
a " c o v e rin g s to r y " f o r im p o rta n t e v e n ts — c r e a te d a c o h e re n t,
l o g i c a l t a l e o u t o f w h at i s m ost u s u a l ly a s e r i e s o f.....
im p r e s s io n s , o f te n q u i t e r i d i c u l o u s ones i f th e y w ere
r e l a t e d f r a n k l y . He h a s n o t o rg a n iz e d and a rra n g e d a c t i o n
* " ‘ *"» ■ U w - ~ - !»>S
i n t o " t r u t h .J l )
M e u rs a u lt, much l i k e a K afka h e r o , f e e l s i l l a t e a s e
w ith p e o p le when he m ust become in v o lv e d w ith cu sto m s and
m an n ers. When he f i r s t re a c h e s th e Home, he e x p r e s s e s >
th e d e s i r e t o se e h i s m o th er a lo n e , r i g h t aw ay; b u t th e
84
c o n c ie rg e t e l l s him t h a t he sh o u ld w a it and m eet th e
d i r e c t o r f i r s t . The d i r e c t o r u s e s a l l th e c o n v e n tio n a l
fo rm s , th e a c c e p ta b le euphem ism s ("L a d is p a r u e " f o r h i s
dead m o th e r) , and M e u rs a u lt d o e s n ’ t know how t o w ith d raw
h i s hand when th e d i r e c t o r h o ld s i t to o lo n g i n sh a k in g
i t . He f i n d s i t s tr a n g e t h a t M e u rs a u lt d o e s n 't w an t t o
open th e c a s k e t t o lo o k a t h i s m o th e r 's body. And M eur
s a u l t , se e m in g ly in c a p a b le o f s u b te r f u g e , a n sw ers sim p ly
i n r e p l y t o why he d i d n 't w is h t o lo o k , " J e ne s a i s p a s "
( 1 1 ). Then when th e d i r e c t o r b e g in s t o c o n s u l t h is
m o th e r's d o s s i e r , r e a d i n g , "Mme M e u rs a u lt e s t e n t r e e i c i
i l y a t r o i s a n s . Vous d t i e z so n s e u l s o u tie n " ( 1 1 ) , he
th in k s t h a t th e d i r e c t o r i s r e p ro a c h in g h im , and he
b e g in s t o e x p l a in and t o ex c u se h im s e lf . T h is e x p r e s s io n
o f g u i l t i s v e ry much l i k e t h a t o f a K afk a h e r o . I t i s
th e g u i l t t h a t acco m p an ies a man who t r i e s t o f in d h i s
way in e x i s te n c e w ith o u t f ix e d means o f s u p p o r t— th e
f ix e d s u p p o r t o f o rg a n iz e d r e l i g i o n , p a t r i o t i s m , and an
a c c e p te d v iew o f th e w o rld , w h ich f u r n is h e s one w ith
p ro p e r a t t i t u d e s to w ard lo v e , f u n e r a l s , d e a th , and am bi
t i o n .
The re m a in d e r o f h i s r e p o r t on th e t r i p t o th e Home
t o b u ry h i s m o th er i s h e ld to g e th e r w ith th e o rg a n iz in g
f a c t o r o f tim e s e q u e n c e , b u t c o n s i s t s o f r a t h e r u n r e la te d
th in g s he n o t i c e s and f e e l s , and i s n o t th e c o h e re n t
85
n a r r a t i v e t h a t th e la w y e r and ju d g e l a t e r on e x p e c t from
him . He f i n d s , f o r ex am p le , th e f a c t u a l in f o rm a tio n a b o u t
th e b u r i a l ( th e need t o b u ry th e body im m e d ia te ly b e c a u se
o f th e i n te n s e h e a t , and s o f o r t h ) “ j u s t e e t i n t e r e s s a n t ”
( 15) , d e s p i t e th e p r o t e s t s o f th e c o n c ie r g e ’s w ife t h a t
“c e ne s o n t p a s d es c h o s e s a r a c o n t e r k M o n sieu r” (1 5 )•
The c o f f i n rem in d s him o f a p en b o x , and he s e e s th e g ro u p
o f o ld p e o p le w ith whom he k ee p s v i g i l o v er h i s m o th e r's
body a l l n ig h t "eomme j e n ’a i ja m a is vu p e rso n n e e t p as
un d e t a i l de le u r s v is a g e s ou de l e u r s h a b i t s ne m 'e -
e h a p p a it” ( 1 7 ) . n e v e r t h e l e s s , he h a s d i f f i c u l t y i n b e l i e v
in g i n t h e i r r e a l i t y : " P o u r ta n t j e ne l e s e n te n d a is p as
e t j " a v a l s p e in e a c r o i r e a l e u r r e a l i t e ” ( 1 7 ) . And he
h a s th e r i d i c u l o u s im p re s s io n t h a t th e y a r e th e r e t o ju d g e
h im , a n o b s e r v a tio n t h a t fo re sh ad o w s h i s r e a c t i o n t o th e
j u r y , who rem in d him o f p a s s e n g e rs on a s t r e e t c a r who s i z e
up a new com er. T h is im p re s s io n r e p e a ts th e m o tif o f g u i l t ,
begun on th e f i r s t page i n th e e n c o u n te r w ith h i s b o s s ,
and a l s o i l l u s t r a t e s h i s u n u s u a l r e a c t i o n t o p e o p le , whom
h e te n d s t o se e a s i n d i v i d u a l s , a s c r e a t u r e s o f f l e s h and
b lo o d , and n o t a s a b s t r a c t i o n s {He s e e s a m an, n o t a
J u d g e , and w is h e s t o sh ak e han d s w ith him d u rin g h i s
i n t e r r o g a t i o n a f t e r th e m u rd e r). E x te r n a l a c t i o n te n d s t o
be b l o t t e d o v er by h i s own p h y s ic a l s t a t e — th e warm c o f f e e i
and m ilk , and th e s m e ll o f f lo w e r s in th e n ig h t make him
86
s le e p y d u rin g th e v i g i l , and he f o r g e t s w here he i s ; th e
s m e ll o f t a r and th e h e a t o f th e su n on th e lo n g w alk t o
th e g ra v e y a rd a f f e c t h i s v i s i o n and h i s th in k i n g , ^me
t r o u h l a i t l e re g a r d e t l e s idees** (2 7 )• The b u r i a l i t s e l f ,
and th e r e t u r n t o A l g i e r s , he r e l a t e s i n a few v iv id
Im p re s s io n s i n one p a ra g ra p h a t th e end o f th e f i r s t ch ap
t e r .
When M e u rs a u lt a r r i v e s home on S a tu r d a y , he go es
swimming i n th e b a y , w here he m eets M arie C ard o n a. They
swim, go t o th e m o v ie s, and go t o b ed — a l l v e ry c o n c r e te .
E a th e r th a n a tte m p t t o c r e a t e some a b s t r a c t i o n t o e x p r e s s
h i s f e e l i n g o f a t t r a c t i o n t o h e r or t o q u a l i f y t h e i r
r e l a t i o n s h i p , he sa y s s im p ly , M E l l e a v a i t l e s ch ev eu x d an s
l e s yeux e t e ll© r i a i t * 1 ( 3 0 ) ; and th e n he d e s c r ib e s them
i n a c t i o n a t t h e i r f i r s t m e e tin g on th e b e a c h . When M arie
s e e s t h a t h e i s i n m o u rn in g , when th e y d r e s s a f t e r th e
swim, she a s k s when h i s m o th er d ie d . He m ust r e p l y ,
"D epuis h i e r , ” and b e g in t o ex c u se h im s e lf . ^ J ’a i eu
e n v ie de l u i d i r e que c e n ’e t a i t p as de ma f a u t e , m ais j e
me s u is a r r e t e p a rc e que j * a i p en se que j e l ’a v a is d e jit
d i t a mon p a tr o n . C e la n© s i g n i f i a i t r i e n . De to u te
fa g o n , on e s t to n jo u r s un peu f a u t i f " ( 3 1 ). T h is vague
f e e l i n g o f g u i l t t h a t ac co m p an ies many o f h i s a c t i ons
o c c u rs o f te n when he t r i e s t o com m unicate h i s r e a l f e e l
in g s , o f w h ich he i s n o t ash am ed , b u t r a t h e r r e t i c e n t t o
87
e x p o se . He i s aw are t h a t th e y may lo o k bad i n th e e y e s o f
o th e r s .
The n e x t m o rn in g , S u n d ay , a f t e r th e n ig h t w ith M a rie ,
he s ta y s i n h i s room s a l l d a y , sm oking c i g a r e t t e s and
r e a d in g m a g a z in e s , b e c a u se he d o e s n ’ t w ant t o go ou t t o
C e l e s t e ’ s r e s t a u r a n t w here he w i l l have t o f a c e p e o p le and
t r y to fo rm u la te th e p ro p e r re s p o n s e s t o t h e i r i n q u i r i e s
— -------------------------- .. ,___ ___________ £ L . ^
a b o u t h i s m o th e r 's d e a th . He s ta n d s on h i s b a lc o n y ,
w a tc h in g p e o p le go t o and fro m th e cin em as and f a m i l i e s
ta k in g t h e i r Sunday p ro m en ad es. Some o f th e boys r e t u r n i n g
from a f o o t b a l l game s h o u t up t o him , "On l e s a e u s" ( 3 4 ).
And a f t e r th e m ovie i s o u t he n o tic e s t h a t " l e s je u n e s
g en s a v a ie n t d e s g e s te s p lu s d £ e id £ s que d 'h a b it u d e e t
j ’a i p en se q u 'i l s a v a ie n t vu un f i l m d ’a v e n tu r e s " ( 3 5 )*
I n o rd e r t o g a in m ore i n s i g h t i n t o M e u r s a u lt's c h a r
a c t e r , and a l s o i n t o Camus' s t y l e , i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o
com pare M e u r s a u lt's o b s e r v a tio n s from h i s b a lc o n y t o m a te r
i a l on th e same to p ic i n Cam us' e s s a y s . F o r M e u r s a u lt's
o b s e r v a tio n s — g iv e n i n h i s f l a t , cam era ey e s t y l e — c o u ld
be th e raw m a t e r i a l from w h ich Camus a b s tr a c t e d h i s g e n e r
a l i z a t i o n s a b o u t Sunday i n A lg ie r s i n h i s e s s a y , " L ’e t e a
A lger*' (F o r ex am p le, "L es dim anehes d ’A lg e r s o n t p arm i
l e s p lu s s i n i s t r e s . . . . Ce p e u p le s a n s r e l i g i o n e t sa n s
^H oces ( P a r i s , 1 9 5 0 ), p p . 45-73*
88
id o l e s m e u rt s e u l a p r e s a v o i r v ecu en f o u l e " ) . 3 And M eur
s a u l t 's rem ark s a b o u t th e b e a rin g o f th e young men r e t u r n
in g from th e m ovies a r e s i m i l a r to Camus' d e s c r i p t i o n , i n
h i s e s s a y "Le M in o ta u re ," 4 o f th e " C la rq u e s " — th e young
men o f O ran who im ita te d A m erican m ovie s t a r s : " E lle
[ c e t t e je u n e s s e ] s 'a p p l i q u e en to u te s c h o s e s § , im ite r
l ' a l l u r e , l a ro n d e u r e t l a s u p e r i o r i t y de M. C la rk
G a b le .*'5 i t i s when we com pare th e two d e s c r i p t i o n s o f a
Sunday i n A lg ie r s t h a t we a r e s u r p r is e d t h a t M e u rs a u lt
d o es n o t a b s t r a c t . F o r w h e re , i n th e e s s a y s , Camus n a t u r
a l l y p r e s e n ts b o th th e d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e a c t i o n s and a
g e n e r a l i z a t i o n b ased on h i s o b s e r v a tio n s , Meu r s a u l t o n ly
o b s e rv e s . B ut s in c e M e u r s a u lt's o b s e r v a tio n s g iv e e v i
d en ce t h a t h e i s c a p a b le o f a c e r t a i n i n s i g h t , th e sh o c k
in g th in g t o th e r e a d e r i s t h a t he i s n o t more s u r p r i s e d
a t w h at he s e e s —- th a t he i s n o t r e b e l l i o u s o r e y n i c a l or
m e la n c h o ly a t th e s p e c ta c le o f f u t i l e a c t i v i t y ( i n th e
way t h a t F ra n z K a fk a , i n h i s s h o r t p ie c e "On th e T ram ,"
i s shocked a t th e g i r l on th e tra m , who s ta n d s " d re s s e d i n
b la c k , th e p l e a t s o f h e r s k i r t hang a lm o s t s t i l l " ; who
s ta n d s w ith o u t m oving, n o t i n th e l e a s t a r i d d l e t o
3ffToc9s. p . 6 1 .
^ L 'E te ( P a r i s , 1954-), p p . 9 -6 6 .
' B t e « p . 24.
89
h e r s e l f , c o n te n t i n h a v in g no c o n c e rn a t a l l w ith th e
q u e s tio n o f h e r e x i s t e n c e . A s to n is h e d , K afk a a s k s , "How
i s i t t h a t sh e i s n o t am azed a t h e r s e l f , t h a t she k eep s
h e r l i p s c lo s e d and m akes no su c h re m a rk ? " )^ B u t M eur
s a u l t ’ s o n ly comment is * " C 'e t a i t v ra im e n t dim anche" (3 4 ).
He seems t o a c e e p t e x is te n c e a s i t i s , w h ich seem s s u r
p r i s i n g s in c e he d o es have i n s i g h t . P e rh a p s one e x p la n a
t i o n f o r h i s calm a c c e p ta n c e o f l i f e , and one t h a t becom es
more a p p a r e n t i n th e l a s t few p ag e s o f th e n o v e l, i s to he
fou n d i n Camus' d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e l i f e o f w o rk e rs i n
A l g i e r s , w r i t t e n when he was tw e n ty -th r e e s
La v ie d 'u n homme s ’a c c o m p lit sa n s l e s e c o u rs de so n
e s p r i t , av ec s e s r e e u l s e t s e s a v a n c e s , a l a f o i s sa
s o l i t u d e e t s e s p r e s e n c e s . A v o ir e e s hommes de B e l-
e o u r t q u i t r a v a i l l e n t , d e fe n d a n t l e u r s femmes e t l e u r s
e n f a n t s , e t s o u v e n t sa n s un r e p r o c h e , j e c r o i s q u 'o n
p e u t s e n t i r une s e e r l t e h o n te . S ans d o u te , j e ne me
f a i s p a s d ’ i l l u s i o n s . I I n ’y p as h eau co u p d 'am o u r dan s
l e s v ie s d o n t j e p a r l e . J e d e v r a is d i r e q u ' i l n 'y en
a p lu s b ea u co u p . M ais du m o in s, e l l e s n 'o n t r i e n
e lu d e . I I y a d e s m ots que j e n ’a i Ja m a ls b ie n eom-
p r i s , comme c e l u i de p lc h e . J e c r o i s s a v o ir p o u r ta n t
que c e s hommes n 'o n t p as pdchd c e n tr e l a v i e . C ar s ' i l
y a un p ech e c o n tr e l a v i e , ce n 'e s t p e u t - e t r e p as t a n t
d 'e n d e s e s p e r e r que d 'e s p e r e r une a u t r e v i e , e t se
d d ro b e r a 1 ' im p la c a b le g ra n d e u r de c e l l e - c i . Ces hommes
n 'o n t p as t r i c h d . D leux de l ' e t d , i l s l e f u r e n t a v in g t
an s p a r l e u r a rd e u r & v iv r e e t l e s o n t e n c o re , p r iv e s de
t o u t e s p o ir ( " L 'd td a A lg e r ," N oces, p p . 6 8 -6 9 ).
A t th e end o f th e n o v e l, a f t e r h i s e n c o u n te r w ith th e
p r i e s t , when M e u rs a u lt no lo n g e r h as any hope ( t h e r e i s
^The P e n a l C o lo n y . S t o r i e s and S h o r t P i e c e s , t r .
W illa and Edwin M uir (New Y o rk , 1 9 4 8 ), p p .
90
no ch an ce t h a t th e g u i l l o t i n e w i l l b re a k down}^, M e u rsa u lt.
eomes t o te rm s w ith h i s own l i f e , a c c e p ts h i s c o n d itio n
w ith th e few r e a l th in g s h i s l i f e h a s o f f e r e d (M a rie , (
swimming, th e s u n ) . He r e a l i z e s th e n t h a t he h as lo v e d <
l i v i n g . F o r i t i s i n a c c e p tin g h i s l i f e a s i t i s , w ith o u t^
h o p e , t h a t l i k e S isy p h u s he r i s e s above th e a b s u r d it y o f
h i s e x i s t e n c e . The “g ra n d e u r1 1 o f M e u rs a u lt* s l i f e w i l l be
h i s p a s s io n a te lo v e o f t h i s o n e, w ith a l l i t s l i m i t a t i o n s ^
W ien M e u rs a u lt r e t u r n s to h i s o f f i c e on M onday, h is
em ployer i s f r i e n d l y , and a s k s th e u s u a l q u e s tio n s : A re
you t i r e d ? W hat was y o u r m o th e r’ s ag e? M e u rs a u lt
a n s w e rs : " 1 Une s o ix a n ta in e d 'a n n e e s , ' p o u r ne p as me
tro m p er e t j e ne s a i s p a s p o u rq u o i i l a eu l ' a i r d ’e t r e
s o u la g e e t de c o n s id e r e r que c ’e t a i t une a f f a i r e te r m i-
n e e ” (37)* H is n a tr o n h a s p ig e o n h o le d th e e v e n t i n t o a
c o n v e n ie n t p a t t e r n and ca n now d is m is s i t . F or co n v en -
i e n c e T s o c i e tvi-cr-ea-tes a---form ula; b u t w hat i s o n e 's r e a l
r e a c t i o n b e f o r e th e e v e n t o f d e a th ? M e u r s a u lt’ s own r e a c
t i o n i s , ” i l n ’y a v a i t r i e n de ch a n g e” ( 3 6 ) .
L a te r h i s em ployer a s k s M e u rs a u lt i f he w ould l i k e
t o open a b ra n e h o f f i c e i n P a r i s , w h ich w ould p e rm it him
n o t o n ly t o l i v e i n P a r i s , b u t t o t r a v e l d u rin g a p a r t o f
th e y e a r . M e u r s a u lt’ s answ er sh o ck s him : " J ' a i d i t que
o u i m ais que d an s l e fo n d c e l a m 'e t a i t e g a l ” ( 5 8 ). He i s
d is p le a s e d b e c a u se M e u rs a u lt d o e s n 't seem t o e v id e n c e more
9 i
a m b itio n , and b e c a u se he d o e s n 't seem t o an sw er q u e s tio n s
d i r e c t l y ("q u e j e r e p o n d a is to u jo u r s a c o te " [ 58] ) — t h a t
i s , t h a t he d o e s n 't g iv e th e u s u a l an sw ers o f a n a m b itio u s
young man. B ut M e u rs a u lt s e e s n o r e a s o n t o change h i s
l i f e ? i n r e f l e c t i n g , he d e c id e s t h a t " j e n 'e t a i s p as
m alh eu reu x " ( 5 9 ). When he was a s t u d e n t, he had had l o t s
o f a m b itio n , b u t when h e had t o g iv e up h i s s t u d i e s , he
q u ic k ly le a r n e d "que t o u t c e l a e t a i t s a n s im p o rta n c e
r d e l l e " ( 5 8 ) . When he t e l l s M arie a b o u t th e o f f e r o f th e
jo b in P a r i s , sh e n a t u r a l l y shows i n t e r e s t i n l i v i n g
t h e r e j and s in c e M e u rs a u lt had a lr e a d y li v e d th e r e a t one
tim e , sh e a s k s him w h at i t was l i k e . H is o n ly d e s c r i p t i o n
i s "C ’e s t s a l e . I I y a d es p ig e o n s e t d es c o u rs n o i r e s .
l e s g en s o n t l a p eau b la n c h e " ( 6 0 ). T h is i s a t y p i c a l
exam ple o f M e u rs a u lt* s r e f u s a l t o a b s t r a c t th i n g s ; i n a
few c o n c r e te te rm s , he com m unicates h i s f e e l i n g a b o u t th e
p la c e .
^ M e u r s a u lt's " lo v e " f o r M arie i s p a r t o f th e o v e r - a l l
p a t t e r n o f d i f f i c u l t y h e h a s i n th in k in g i n a b s t r a c t i o n s .
When she a s k s him i f he lo v e s h e r , a f t e r th e y have gone
swim m ing, blow n fo am , and s p e n t th e n ig h t t o g e t h e r , he
an sw ers "que c e l a ne v o u l a i t r i e n d i r e m ais q u ' i l me
s e m b la it que non" ( 5 1 ) . A few d ay s l a t e r , when she a s k s
him i f he w ould l i k e t o m a rry h e r , he r e s p o n d s , "que c e la
m * e ta it e g a l e t que no u s p o u r rio n s l e f a i r e s i e l l e l e
92
v o u l a i t ” ( 5 9 ) . She i s n a t u r a l l y r a t h e r d is t u r b e d by t h i s
a n s w e r, e s p e c i a l l y when he a d m its t h a t he w ould do th e
same w ith a n y woman i f he had th e same r e l a t i o n s h i p . H is
answ er i s o f c o u rs e " t r u e , ” b u t s o c i a l c o n v e n tio n and our
ta u g h t v i s i o n o f lo v e — a lo n g t r a d i t i o n fro m O vid,
P ro v en 9a l tr o u b a d o u r s , and The L a d ie s Home J o u r n a l— do n o t
a llo w us t o th in k o r sa y t h i s . When Camus w ish e s t o e s t a b
l i s h th e gro w in g d e p th o f t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p , r a t h e r th a n
have M e u rs a u lt s a y , ’’I grew t o lo v e h e r more e v e ry d a y ,"
he h as M e u rs a u lt d e s c r ib e them i n a c t i o n . F or ex am p le,
when th e y go swimming on th e d ay o f th e m u rd e r, he s a y s ,
’•L 'ea u e t a i t f r o i d e e t j ' e t a i s c o n te n t de n a g e r. Avec
M a rie , nous nous sommes e lo ig n e s e t nous nous s e n tio n s
d 'a c c o r d d an s nos g e s te s e t d an s n o tr e c o n te n te m e n t" ( 70-
7 1 ). And in s t e a d o f s a y in g , ”W e a r e i n l o v e , 1 1 a word t h a t
means l i t t l e t o M e u rs a u lt, he p r e s e n ts th e s i t u a t i o n
v i s u a l l y . M arie la u g h s , and he r e a l i z e s t h a t he w i l l
m arry h e r . " J u s te m e n t, sa femme r i a i t av e c M a rie . P our
l a p re m ie re f o i s p e u t - e t r e , J ' a i p en se v ra im e n t que
j ' a l l a i s me m a r ie r * 1 ( 70) .
•s^The c u r io u s r e c e s s i v e q u a l i t y o f m o st o f h i s r e l a
t i o n s h i p s , a seem ing la c k o f engagem ent i n a f f a i r s , w here
he c o n t i n u a l l y seem s t o r e a c t r a t h e r th a n a c t , s u r p r i s e s
u s , p a r t i c u l a r l y when we c o n tr a s t i t w it h h i s d i s p l a y o f
p a s s io n a t th e end o f th e n o v e l. T h is a p p a re n t a p a th y i s
93
e v id e n t i n h i s r e a c t i o n t o o ld S alam an o , h i s n e ig h b o r
whom he i n v i t e s i n t o h i s rooms o c c a s io n a lly and l i s t e n s t o
h i s b a n a l t a l e s a b o u t h i s mangy dog: ”11 m’e n n u y a it un
p e u , m ais j e n 'a v a i s r i e n a f a i r e e t j e n ’a v a is p as
som m eil" ( 6 3 ) . S alam ano l i v e s in an a d jo in in g room a lo n e
w ith h i s d o g , an u g ly , d is e a s e d , h a i r l e s s a n im a l c o v e re d
w ith s o r e s . The dog and m a s te r re se m b le e a c h o t h e r , h a te
e a c h o th e r . Salam ano c o u ld e a s i l y be one o f th e "to w n s
p e o p le ” from La P e s t e . who s e t t l e down t o l i v e s of co n
ju g a l h a b i t . The d o g , w h ich he m i s t r e a t s , had b een b o u g h t
a f t e r h i s w ife d ie d , he t e l l s M e u rs a u lt. ”11 n 1a v a i t p as
e t e h e u re u x av ec s a femme, m ais d an s 1 ' e n se m b le , i l s 'e -
t a i t b ie n h a b itu e a e l l e . Quand e l l e e t a i t m o rte , i l
s ' e t a i t s e n t i tr& s s e u l ” ( 6 3 ) . B ut M e u rs a u lt r e f u s e s to
make a jud g m en t a b o u t th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f man and d o g , or
o f man and w if e . " C e le s te d i t to u jo u r s que ’c ’e s t m a l-
h eu reu x ,’ m ais au f o n d , p e rso n n e ne p e u t s a v o i r , " i s h is
o n ly comment ( 4 0 ).
T h is c u r io u s a p a th y i s r e p e a te d in h i s f r i e n d s h i p
w ith Raymond S i n t l s , a n o th e r n e ig h b o r. He i s n o t w e ll
lik e d i n th e n e ig h b o rh o o d , and i t i s rum ored t h a t he i s a
pim p. B u t M e u rs a u lt l i s t e n s t o him when he t e l l s him a b o u t
h i s s o r d id a f f a i r s , w h ich c e n te r aro u n d h i s r e l a t i o n s w ith
h i s m i s t r e s s , who h a s w ronged him and whom he b e a t s . " J e
tro u v e que ce q u ’ i l d i t e s t i n t e r e s s a n t . D’a i l l e u r s , je
94
n ' a i aucune r a i s o n de ne p as l u i p a r l e r " ( 4 1 ). When
Raymond a s k s him i f he w ould l i k e t o be " s o n c o p a in ,n
M e u rs a u lt r e p l i e s , " J ' a i d i t que 9a m’ e t a i t e g a l: i l a
eu l ' a i r c o n t e n t” ( 4 3 ). A lth o u g h i t becom es a p p a re n t
th ro u g h M e u r s a u lt’ s o b s e r v a tio n s and h i s r e p o r t s o f
Raymond’ s c o n v e r s a tio n t h a t Raymond i s a b r a g g a r t who i s
p r im a r i l y c o n c e rn e d w ith m a in ta in in g a n im age o f h im s e lf
a s a to u g h g u y , one w onders how much o f t h i s M e u rs a u lt
r e a l i z e s . F o r he r e p o r t s R aym ond's w ords w ith o u t much
comment or e v a lu a tio n . I t i s n o t u n t i l th e l a s t p ag e s o f
th e n o v e l, when he i s i n th e d e a th c e l l , t h a t we l e a r n
t h a t he h as b e e n aw are o f w hat Raymond " i s ” ( i . e . , how
he a p p e a rs t o m ost p e o p l e ) , b u t t h a t , l i k e a m b itio n or
sa y in g th e w ord " l o v e , ” i t i s " s a n s im p o rta n c e r e e l l e . ”
"Q u’ im p o r ta it que Raymond f u t mon c o p a in a u t a n t que
C e le s te q u i v a l a i t m ieux que l u i ? " (1 5 8 ).
I t i s Raymond’s s o r d id a f f a i r s t h a t in v o lv e him in
th e m u rd er. The s h o o tin g o f th e A ra b , wh ic h en d s P a r t I ,
i s an a c c i d e n t a l r e a c t i o n , n o t a d e te rm in e d a c t . M eur-
................ . - jinn—nn— i-m rtrrirn n ^ ""'- r l '» ,-"‘nO T M w «i*-ni -riii— ' ~ * i - " > w r i i r . . w . . l. tll. ■ ' •
s a u l t g o es f o r a w alk on th e b e a c h a lo n e sim p ly b e c a u se
he .d o e s n 't w an t t o g o b ac k i n t o th e c o tta g e and fan e, th e
c ry in g women and make c o n v e r s a tio n . He h ea d s f o r th e
r o c k s , w here th e A rab a p p e a rs by c h a n c e , b e c a u se he remem
b e r s a s tre a m t h e r e , so m eth in g t h a t m ig h t r e l i e v e h i s
f e e l i n g o f o p p re s s io n c a u se d by th e h e a t and th e g l a r e o f
95
th e su n . He i s s t a r t l e d by th e A ra b , who i s s i t t i n g
b e s id e th e p o o l, b u t th e h e a t d r iv e s him t o ta k e a s te p
tow ard th e w a te r. When th e A rab p u l l s o u t h i s k n i f e ,
M e u rs a u lt, sw ea t b lin d in g h i s e y e s , f i r e s a s h o t. " J ' a i
co m p ris que j 'a v a l s d e t r u i t l 'e q u i l i b r e du j o u r , l e
s il e n c e e x c e p tio n n e l d 'u n e p la g e oft j 'a v a l s e t e h e u re u x "
(82).
" Les chem i^s f a m i l i e r s t r a c e s d an s le s
c i e l s d ’e t e p o u v a ie n t m ener a u s s i b le n
au x p r is o n s a u ’au x som m eils in n o c e n ts . ”
The p r e - t r i a l " i n s t r u c t i o n ” p e rio d l a s t s f o r e le v e n
m o n th s. D u rin g h i s f i r s t i n t e r r o g a t i o n , M e u rs a u lt d o es
n o t ta k e th in g s to o s e r i o u s l y . He t e l l s th e ju d g e t h a t
i t a l l seem s sim p le t o him . The .iuee d 1 i n s t r u c t i o n seem s
v e ry r e a s o n a b le , i n f a c t s y m p a th e tic , and i n le a v in g ,
M e u rs a u lt ev e n e x te n d s h i s h a n d , b e f o r e he rem em bers who
he i s . "M ais j e me s u is souvenu a tem ps que j 'a v a l s tu e
un homme” ( 8 6 ). M e u rs a u lt s e e s th e ex am in in g ju d g e a s a
man, n o t a s a n a b s t r a c t i o n , a s an o f f i c e .
_ I n t h e i r n e x t e n c o u n te r , h o w ev er, M e u rs a u lt e x p e r i -
en ee s d i f f i c u l t y i n f o llo w in g t he .1 u d g e »s reasLo n ln g . The
ju d g e ' s r h e t o r i c ( B id , y auULggg.„your m o t h e r l ^ J ^ j s m .
b e lie v e i n Go d?) c o n t r a s t s s h a r p ly w ith M e u r s a u lt' s s im p le ,
h o n e s t a n s w e rs . In re s p o n s e t o th e j u d g e 's s ta te m e n t t h a t
he h as a r e p u t a t i o n o f b e in g t a c i t u r n , M e u rs a u lt r e p l i e s ,
96
"C ’e s t que je n ’a i ja m a is g ra n d 'c h o s e a d i r e . A lo rs je
me t a i s " ( 8 9 ) . L ik e S o c r a te s a t h is t r i a l , M e u rs a u lt
r e f u s e s t o p la y th e game a t h i s i n t e r r o g a t i o n s ; he w i l l
n o t weep b e f o r e th e c r u c i f i x t h a t th e ju d g e t h r u s t s in
f r o n t o f h im , a s a l l th e o th e r c r im in a ls have done i n h i s
p la c e . He d o es n o t do t h i s fro m p la n , b u t b e c a u se i t i s
th e o n ly n a t u r a l th in g f o r him t o d o .
The l a t e r e x a m in a tio n s become more e o r d i a l , how ever.
I n f a c t , e v e ry th in g i s ru n so w e ll t h a t he b e g in s t o f e e l
p a r t o f th e f a m ily . "T o u t e t a i t s i n a t u r e l , s i b ie n
r e g i e e t s i so b rem en t jo u e que j 'a v a i s 1 ' im p re s s io n
r i d i e u l e de 'f a i r e p a r t i e de l a f a m i l l e '" ( 9 5 ) .
M e u r s a u lt's re s p o n s e t o q u e s tio n s a l s o sh o ek s th e
d e fe n s e la w y e r t h a t th e c o u r t h a s p ro v id e d . When th e
la w y e r a tte m p ts t o p ro b e h i s f e e l i n g s to w a rd s h i s m o th e r,
M e u rs a u lt a n s w e rs , "S ans d o u te , j 'a i m a i s b ie n maman, m ais
e e la ne v o u l a i t r i e n d i r e . Tons l e s e t r e s s a in s a v a ie n t
p lu s ou m oins s o u h a ite l a m o rt de ce u x q u 'i l s a im a ie n t"
( 8 7 ) . T h is answ er i s more e v id e n c e o f M e u r s a u lt's
i n s i g h t , b u t m o st " to w n s p e o p le " — th e la w y e r, th e ju d g e —
d o n 't a llo w th e m s e lv e s t o a d m it su ch t h i n g s , t h a t any san e
p e rs o n h as a t tim e s w ish ed th e d e a th o f someone he lo v e s .
By th e end o f th e in te r v i e w , when M e u rs a u lt i s aw are t h a t
he h as shocked and a n g e re d h i s la w y e r, he h as a d e s i r e t o
d e t a i n him i n o rd e r t h a t he may e x p la in t h a t he w an ts h i s
97
sym pathy and u n d e r s ta n d in g — n o t so t h a t he w i l l d efen d him
b e t t e r , b u t ”n a t u r e l l e m e n t .” He w ould lik e d t o have to ld
him nque j ’e t a i s comme t o u t l e m onde, ab so lu m en t comme
t o u t le monde. M ais t o u t c e l a , au f o n d , n ’a v a i t p as
g ran d e u t i l i t e e t j ' y a i re n o n c e p a r p a r e s s e ” ( 88- 8 9 ) .
fM e u rs a u lt e x p e rie n c e s t h i s same r e a c t i o n when he s e e s th e
f a c e s o f th e j u r y , who d r iv e him t o t e a r s a t th e t r i a l
when he s e e s how much th e y b ate him . He g ro p e s u n s u c c e s s
f u l l y f o r u n d e rs ta n d in g and c o m ra d e sh ip . He i s f a r from
th e u s u a l ty p e o f r e b e l , th e n ; he h as no d e s i r e to shock
or t o be d i f f e r e n t . On th e c o n t r a r y , he w ish e s t o be
1 1 comme t o u t l e m onde.”)
”On f i n i s s a i t p a r s fh a b i t u e r a t o u t . ”
A t th e b e g in n in g o f h i s d e t e n t i o n , th e h a r d e s t th in g
f o r M e u rs a u lt t o b e a r was t h a t he s t i l l had th e th o u g h ts
o f a f r e e man. He w ould be s e iz e d , f o r e x a m p le , by a n
overw helm ing d e s i r e t o go t o th e b e a c h ; he c o u ld i ma g in e
th e sound o f th e w av e s, and f e e l th e e n t r y o f h i s body
i n t o th e w a te r . He was a l s o t o r t u r e d by d e s i r e f o r a
woman. The g u ard in fo rm ed him t h a t t h i s was why he was
p u t i n t o p r i s o n : ”M ais o u i, l a l i b e r t e , c ' e s t qta. On
vous p r iv e de l a l i b e r t e ” (1 0 3 ). He a l s o m issed c i g a
r e t t e s .
B u t so o n he had o n ly th e th o u g h ts o f a p r i s o n e r . He
98
a w a ite d th e d a i l y w alk s i n th e c o u r ty a rd or th e s i g h t o f
th e c u r io u s t i e s o f h i s la w y e r a s he h a d , i n a n o th e r
w o rld , a w a ite d f o r S a tu r d a y t o em brace th e body o f M a rie .
" G 'e t a i t d 'a i l l e u r s une id e e de maman, e t e l l e l e r e p d t a i t
s o u v e n t, q u 'o n f i n i s s a i t p a r s 'h a b i t u e r & t o u t 1 1 ( 102) .
B u t a p a r t fro m th e s e a n n o y a n c e s, he w a s n 't to o
u n h ap p y , p a r t i c u l a r l y from th e moment when he le a r n e d t o
r e m in is c e . He e o u ld p a s s h o u r a f t e r h o u r i n rem em bering
th e d e t a i l s o f h is o ld room down t o th e l a s t p ie c e o f f u r
n i t u r e . And he came t o u n d e rs ta n d t h a t 1 1 un homme q u i
n 'a u r a i t v ec u q u 'u n s e u l jo u r p o u r r a i t s a n s p e in e v iv r e
c e n t a n s d a n s une p r is o n . I I a u r a i t a s s e z de s o u v e n irs
p o u r ne p a s s 'e n n u y e r " (1 0 5 ). B ike S is y p h u s r e t u r n i n g
tow ard h i s r o c k , M e u rs a u lt i n h i s e e l l "c o n tem p le e e t t e
s u i t e d 'a c t i o n s sa n s l i e n q u i d e v ie n t so n d e s t i n , c rd d p a r
l u i , u n i so u s l e re g a r d de s a mdm oire e t b i e n t o t s e e l l e
p a r sa m o rt" ( Le M vthe de S is y p h e . p . 1 6 8 ).
Q a a rie i s a llo w e d to v i s i t M e u rs a u lt i n p r is o n o n ly
o n ce. I n t h i s sc e n e i n th e v i s i t o r ' s h a l l , Camus d o es a
m a g n ific e n t jo b o f e x p r e s s in g t h e i r p h y s ic a l and e m o tio n a l
s e p a r a t i o n , r e i n f o r c i n g M e u rs a u lt* s c o n te n tio n t h a t once
you a r e s e p a r a te d fro m someone p h y s i c a l l y , you n o lo n g e r
e x i s t f o r them . The p r is o n e r s a r e lin e d up on one s id e o f
a g r i l l e , th e v i s i t o r s t h i r t y f e e t aw ay. They m ust s h o u t
t o be h e a rd . T hey a r e s e p a r a te d by th e p h y s ic a l d is t a n c e
99
o f th e f e n c e , by tim e , and by th e n o is e . The clam o r and
th e s h a r p , raw l i g h t i n th e h a l l c a u s e M e u rs a u lt, who i s
u se d t o th e q u i e t o f h i s d a rk c e l l , t o become d azed and
g id d y . M e u rs a u lt J u x ta p o s e s s n a tc h e s o f th e b r i e f c o n v e r
s a t i o n b etw een him and M a rie , who s m ile s c o n tin u o u s ly ,
w ith th e c o n v e r s a tio n o f th e p e o p le on e i t h e r s id e o f
them — a g r o s s w ife s h o u tin g mundane f a c t s t o h e r h u sb a n d 5
a young man and h i s o ld m o th er s t a r i n g a t e a c h o th e r ^
A f t e r th e t r i a l , when M arie h a s sto p p e d w r i tin g t o
h im , M e u rs a u lt r e f l e c t s t h a t p e rh a p s she i s t i r e d o f
b e in g th e m i s t r e s s o f a condemned man. He f in d s t h i s
n a t u r a l , s in c e " e n d e h o rs de nos d eu x c o rp s m a in te n a n t
s e p a r e s , r i e n ne nous l i a i t e t ne nous r a p p e l a i t l 'u n a
1 ’a u t r e " (1 5 0 )• He r e a l i z e s t h a t i f M arie w ere d e a d , she
w ould no lo n g e r i n t e r e s t h im , e i t h e r . He d o e s n 't ev en
f in d i t h a rd t o c o n te m p la te t h a t p e o p le w i l l f o r g e t him
a f t e r he d i e s . "Au f o n d , i l n 'y a p as d 'i d e e A l a q u e l l e
on ne f i n i s s e p a r s 'h a b i t u e r " (1 5 0 ). ^ M e u rsa u lt f i n d s i t
d i f f i c u l t t o become in v o lv e d w ith lo v e on a n a b s t r a c t
l e v e l . O nly p h y s ic a l p r o x im ity , th e c o n c r e t e , h o ld s
p e o p le t o g e t h e r , n o t a n a b s t r a c t s e n tim e n t or id e a o f
" l o v e . " ^
I n a d d i t i o n t o s le e p and r e m in is c e n c e , M e u rs a u lt had
a new spaper a r t i c l e t o re a d i n o rd e r t o p a s s th e tim e . He
found a p ie c e o f y ello w ed and to r n n ew spaper u n d er h i s
100
m a ttr e s s w h ich gave an a c c o u n t o f a m urder i n C z e c h o slo
v a k i a , a n a r r a t i v e i d e n t i c a l t o th e p l o t o f Camus' p la y ,
Le M a le n te n d u . M e u rs a u lt n a r r a t e s th e s t o r y , w h ich he
had re a d h u n d re d s o f tim e s , in a v e ry m a t t e r - o f - f a e t way.
A s o n , h a v in g made h is f o r t u n e , r e t u r n s t o h i s home town
a f t e r tw e n ty - f iv e y e a r s . C o n c e a lin g h i s i d e n t i t y , he
ta k e s a room i n h i s m o th e r 's h o t e l . H is m o th er and s i s t e r
m urder him f o r h i s money; when th e y l e a r n h i s t r u e id e n
t i t y , th e y k i l l th e m s e lv e s . M e u rs a u lt* s o n ly comment i s :
"D 'u n c o t e , e l l e e t a i t in v r a is e m b la b le . D 'u n a u t r e , e l l e
e t a i t n a t u r e l l e . De to u te fa § o n , je t r o u v a i s que l e
v o y ag eu r l ' a v a i t un peu m e r ite e t q u ' i l ne f a u t ja m a is
jo u e r " ( 106) .
M e u r s a u lt's r e a c t i o n to th e t a l e seem s r a t h e r am bigu
o u s , h u t h i s m eaning beeom es c l e a r when we com pare i t t o
Camus' own e x p la n a tio n o f th e m eaning o f th e p la y , Le
M a le n te n d u . w h ich he w ro te i n a p r e f a c e w r i t t e n s p e c i a l l y
f o r th e A m erican e d i t i o n in 1957s
A so n who e x p e c ts t o be re c o g n iz e d w ith o u t h a v in g t o
d e c la r e h i s name and who i s k i l l e d by h i s m o th er and
h i s s i s t e r a s th e r e s u l t o f th e m is u n d e rs ta n d in g — t h i s
i s th e s u b j e c t o f th e p la y . D o u b tle s s , i t i s a v e ry
d is m a l im age o f human f a t e . B ut i t c a n be r e c o n c ile d
w ith a r e l a t i v e o p tim ism a s to man. F o r , a f t e r a l l ,
i t am ounts t o s a y in g t h a t e v e ry th in g w ould have b een
d i f f e r e n t i f th e so n had s a i d : " I t i s I ; h e re i s my
nam e." I t am ounts t o s a y in g t h a t i n a n u n j u s t or
i n d i f f e r e n t w o rld man ca n sav e h im s e lf , and sav e o t h e r s ,
by p r a c t i s i n g th e m ost b a s ic s i n c e r i t y and p ro n o u n cin g
th e m ost a p p r o p r ia te word ( " A u th o r's P r e f a c e ," t r .
101
J u s t i n Q(B r ie n . C a lig u la and T h ree O th er F l a y s . t r .
S t u a r t G i l b e r t [New Y o rk , 1 9 6 0 J, p . v i i ) . ^
M e u rs a u lt h a s i n s i s t e d on " p r a c t i s i n g th e m ost b a s ic s i n
e e r i t y and p ro n o u n cin g th e m o st a p p r o p r ia te w ord" a l l o f
5 Uj
h is l i f e * He h as c o n t i n u a l l y c a l l e d th in g s by t h e i r r i g h t hj
nam es. I t i s i r o n i c a l t h a t he i s s e n t t o th e g u i l l o t i n e |
f o r d o in g t h i s ^ I
f
" J ^ v a i s l 1 im p re s s io n d ’e t r e de t r o p .
un peu comma tin i n t r u s .**
^ t th e t r i a l , M e u rs a u lt* s o b s e r v a tio n s and a n a lo g ie s
e s t a b l i s h c o n c r e t e l y , w ith o u t h i s h a v in g t o a b s t r a c t o r
to make a n e x p l i c i t s ta te m e n t, t h a t ' he i s an o u ts id e r ;]
and h i s rem a rk s a r e f u r t h e r i n d i c a t i o n s o f h i s f r e s h p o in t
o f v ie w . W hile he was w a itin g o u ts id e th e c o u rtro o m , th e
sound o f c h a i r s b e in g moved rem in d ed him " a c e s f e t e s de
q u a r t i e r o&, a p r e s l e c o n c e r t , on o rg a n is e l a s a l l e p o u r
p o u v o ir d a n s e r ” (1 1 0 ). When he found h im s e lf f a c e t o f a c e
w ith th e ju r o r s ., th e y rem inded him o f p a s s e n g e rs on a tra m ,
who exam ine a new a r r i v a l f o r so m eth in g r i d i c u l o u s : " J e
n ' a i eu q u 'u n e im p re s s io n : j ' ^ t a i s d e v a n t une b a n q u e tte
de tram w ay e t to u s e e s v o y a g e u rs anonym es ^ p i a i e n t l e
n o u v e l a r r i v a n t p o u r en a p e r c e v o ir l e s r i d i c u l e s . J e s a i s
b ie n que c * e t a i t une id e e n i a i s e p u is q u ’ i c i c e n ’e t a i t p as
l e r i d i c u l e q u ’ i l s e h e r e h a ie n t m ais l e c rim e . C e p e n d a n t,
l a d i f f e r e n c e n ’e s t p as g ra n d e e t c ’e s t en t o u t c a s l ’ id e e
102
q u i m 'e s t v e n u e” (1 1 0 -1 1 1 )- And i t seemed t o M e u rs a u lt
t h a t th e p e o p le i n th e c o u rtro o m ta lk e d and g r e e te d one
a n o th e r a s i f th e y w ere i n a c lu b w here one i s h appy t o
f in d h im s e lf among p e o p le o f th e same w o rld . He had th e
im p re s s io n "que j 'a v a i s d ’e t r e de t r o p , un peu comme un
i n t r u s ” ( 111- 112) .
(The j u r o r s and th e s p e c t a t o r s , p a r t o f th e p a c k ,
lo o k ed upon th e c r im i n a l a s an o u ts i d e r ( l 'e t r a n g e r ) ; he i s
c l a s s i f i e d . As lo n g a s one i s s a f e w ith in th e w o rld o f
h a b i t , a s th e y a r e , and f o llo w s th e r u l e s and custom s o f
s o c i e t y , h e d o es n o t have t o exam ine e a c h a c t f r e s h l y , t o
d e c id e who he i s a t e a c h s u c c e s s iv e m om ent, a s M e u rs a u lt
m u st. As th e t r i a l w ore o n , M e u rs a u lt f e l t t h a t "e n q u e l-
que s o r t e , on a v a i t l 1a i r de t r a i t e r c e t t e a f f a i r e en
d e h o rs de m oi" (1 2 9 ). They w ere n o t t r y i n g M e u rs a u lt, b u t
t h e i r id e a o f M e u rs a u lt, a n a b s t r a c t i o n , w h ich h a s l i t t l e
t o do w ith h i s r e a l e x i s t e n c e . T h is i s i l l u s t r a t e d in th e
sp e e c h e s o f th e p r o s e c u to r and h i s h o s t i l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
o f M e u r s a u lt's a c t i o n s , i n f a c t , o f h i s w hole b ein g ?
(The p r o s e c u to r a tta c k e d M e u rs a u lt* s c a llo u s n e s s a t
h i s m o th e r 's f u n e r a l (he d i d n 't w ish t o s e e th e b ody; he
d i d n 't w eep; h e d i d n 't know h i s m o th e r 's a g e ; and he l e f t
r i g h t a f t e r th e f u n e r a l ) ; h i s f r i e n d s h i p w ith Raymond, a
pim p; h i s a f f a i r w ith M a rie ; and th e f a c t t h a t he saw a
F e rn a n d e l m ovie th e d ay a f t e r h i s m o th e r 's f u n e r a l . He
103
c o n s id e re d M e u rs a u lt t o be a m o n s te r. ” 11 a d e c la r e que j e
n ’a v a is r i e n a f a i r e av ec une s o c i e t e d o n t j e m e e o n n a is s a is
l e s r e g i e s l e s p lu s e s s e n t i e l l e s e t que j e ne p o u v a is p as
en a p p e le r a ce c o e u r hum ain d o n t j 'i g n o r a i s l e s r e a c t i o n s
e le m e n ta ir e s " (1 3 4 ). The p r o s e c u to r i s m ore t r u t h f u l th a n
he r e a l i z e s . F o r i t i s p r e c i s e l y b ec au se M e u rs a u lt d o es
n o t f o llo w th e a r b i t r a r y r u l e s o f s o c i e t y and e x h i b i t
a c c e p ta b le ^ r e a c t i o n s ( t o w a r d s d e a t h , lo v e , and a m b itio n )
t h a t he i s condem ned, n o t b e c a u se he k i l l e d a mam
When th e ju d g e ask ed M e u rs a u lt t o sp e a k i n h i s own
d e fe n s e and e x p la in why he k i l l e d th e A ra b , M e u rs a u lt
spoke to o r a p i d l y and jum bled h i s w o rd s. H is e x p la n a tio n ,
” que c * e t a i t a c a u se du s o l e i l ” ( 135)» was r e c e iv e d w ith
la u g h te r b y th e s p e c t a t o r s , who c a n n o t a c c e p t a n e x p la n a -
tio n _ th a ± „ .jio e s--n o t-fi-'t* 'in tO “ t h e - u s u a l,.c a te g o r ie s o f
m o tiv e s f o r m urder.,.,., _
. i n r ”
The r h e t o r i c o f th e p r o s e c u to r , th e ju d g e , and th e
d e fe n s e la w y e r, a s th e y e v a lu a te d h i s s o u l and h i s
a t t i t u d e to w a rd s h i s m o th e r, c o n fu se d M e u rs a u lt and made
him s le e p y , u n t i l f i n a l l y he c o u ld f e e l l i t t l e b u t th e .
h o t , o p p r e s s iv e atm o sp h ere o f th e courtroom ,. ”M ais a
c a u se de t o u t e s c e s lo n g u e s p h r a s e s , de to u t e s c e s j o u r -
n e e s e t c e s h e u re s in te r m in a b le s p e n d a n t l e s q u e l l e s on
a v a i t p a r l e de i o n am e, j * a i eu l 'i m p r e s s i o n que t o u t
d e v e n a it comme une eau in c o lo r e ofi j e t r o u v a i s l e
104
v e r t i g e " (1 3 7 ). Of th e end o f th e t r i a l , he c o u ld r e c a l l
o n ly th e sound o f th e h o rn o f an ic e cream v en d o r i n th e
s t r e e t , w h ich seemed t o r o u s e w i th i n him a f lo o d o f mem
o r ie s " d ’une v ie q u i ne m’a p p a r t e n a i t p l u s , m ais oh j 'a v a i s
tro u v e l e s p lu s p a u v re s e t l e s p lu s te n a c e s de mes j o i e s :
d es o d eu rs d ’e t l , l e q u a r t i e r que j 'a i m a i s , un c e r t a i n
c i e l du s o i r , l e r i r e e t l e s ro b e s de M a rie ” (1 3 7 )• The
s im p le , c o n c r e te r e a l i t y o f h i s l i f e f i n a l l y b ro k e th ro u g h
th e muddy r h e t o r i e o f th e t r i a l .
1 1 J e m’ o u v r a is pour l a p re m ie re f o i s a l a
te n d re i n d i f f e r e n c e du monde. "
A f te r th e s e n te n c e was p a s se d ( ” l e p r e s id e n t m’a d i t
d an s une form e b i z a r r e que j ’a u r a i s l a t e t e tr a n c h e s s u r
une p la c e p u b liq u e au nom du p e u p le f r a n ^ a i s " jjL4C>J) , and
M e u rs a u lt was p la c e d i n th e d e a th c e l l , th e s o le th in g
t h a t i n t e r e s t e d him was t o e s c a p e "au m ecanism e im p la
c a b le " (1 4 1 ). W a itin g f o r d e a th w ould be b e a r a b l e , he
d e c id e d , i f o n ly one glim m er o f hope w ere g iv e n t o th e
condemned man— one ch an ce i n a th o u sa n d t o e s c a p e th e
i n f e r n a l m ach in e. B u t, he c o n c lu d e d , "m a lg re ma bonne
v o lo n te , j e ne p o u v a is p as a c c e p te r c e t t e c e r t i t u d e
i n s o l e n t e " (1 4 2 ). As i t w a s, th e condemned man m ust even
hope t h a t th e g u i l l o t i n e w ould f u n c tio n w e l l , b e c a u se ev en
i f by some ch an ce i t d i d n ’ t w ork th e f i r s t tim e , he knew
t h a t th e y w ould b e g in a g a in . "En sornme, l e eondamne e t a i t
105
o b lig e de e o l l a b o r e r m o rale m en t. C 'e t a i t so n i n t e r e t que
t o u t m a rc h a t s a n s a e e ro e " (1 4 5 ).
M e u rs a u lt, c o m p le te ly a lo n e , t r i e d t o " r e a s o n o u t"
h i s a p p ro a c h in g d e a th . He a tte m p te d t o r a t i o n a l i z e , f o r
ex am p le, t h a t " t o u t l e monde s a l t que l a v i e ne v a u t p as
l a p e in e d 'e t r e v ee u e" (1 4 8 ); t h a t you have t o d ie some
tim e , a t th e ag e o f t h i r t y o r tw e n ty y e a rs l a t e r , and so
f o r t h . B ut t h i s gave him no c o m fo rt. H is d e a th a b so rb e d
him c o m p le te ly , and he e x p e rie n c e d g r e a t d i f f i c u l t y in
s le e p in g a t n i g h t , knowing t h a t th e y alw ay s came a t dawn
t o p e rfo rm th e e x e c u tio n . I t was o n ly when he saw th e
sk y change c o lo r and a new d ay s l i d e i n t o h i s c e l l t h a t
he was h a p p y , know ing t h a t he had tw e n ty -fo u r more h o u rs
t o l i v e .
( I t i s when M e u rs a u lt comes t o f a c e d e a th d i r e c t l y , i n
th e d e a th c e l l , t h a t he g r a d u a l ly becom es aw are o f th e
a b s u rd , and a r t i c u l a t e s f o r th e f i r s t tim e h is a t t i t u d e s
to w ard s e x i s te n c e on a s l i g h t l y more a b s t r a c t l e v e l . He
d e c id e d ^ f o r ex am p le, t h a t " r i e n n ' e t a i t p lu s Im p o rta n t
q u 'u n e e x e c u tio n e a p i t a l e e t que dan s un s e n s , c fe t a i t
meme l a s e u le ch o se v ra im e n t in t& r e s s a n te p o u r un hommeJ”
(1 4 3 ).
(The e n c o u n te r w ith th e p r i e s t i n th e d e a th c e l l
f o r c e s M e u rs a u lt to o b j e c t i f y h i s a t t i t u d e to w ard e x i s t
e n c e , t o a r t i c u l a t e i t , t o p u t i t i n t o a b s t r a c t i o n s . He
106
h a s h e r e t o f o r e sim p ly liv e d i t . He h as l iv e d l i f e
d i r e c t l y , lo o k in g a t th in g s a s th e y a r e , th o u g h w ith o u t
"know ing’* i t — t h a t i s , w ith o u t a p p ly in g some fo rm u la t o
l i f e , w ith o u t r e f e r r i n g t o some book on how t o l i v e o r t o
some a b s t r a c t p h ilo s o p h y . N a t u r a l l y , he h a s alw ay s f e l t
a l i t t l e g u i l t y a b o u t some o f h i s a t t i t u d e s (to w a rd s
d e a th , lo v e , and a m b itio n ) , b u t he h as n o t had th e s u p p o rt
o f a t r a d i t i o n o f r e v o l t , o r th e s u p p o rt o f a n " i n t e l l e c
t u a l " d e f e n s e , a r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f h i s a b e r r a t i o n s (s u c h
a s A ndre G ide c o u ld p u t f o r t h , f o r e x a m p le ).^
The p r i e s t t r i e d t o i n t e r e s t M e u rs a u lt i n a m e ta p h y s i
c a l d is c u s s i o n a b o u t an a f t e r l i f e , God, s i n , f o r g iv e n e s s ;
b u t M e u rs a u lt was c o m p le te ly u n i n t e r e s t e d . The q u e s tio n
o f th e e x is te n c e o f God "me p a r a i s s a i t une q u e s tio n sa n s
im p o rta n c e " (151)* And a s t o th e q u e s tio n o f d iv in e
j u s t i c e , M e u rs a u lt an sw ered t h a t " j e ne s a v a is p as ce
q u * e t a i t un p e c h e . On m 'a v a i t settle m en t a p p r is que
j ' e t a i s un c o u p a b le " (1 5 3 )• F i n a l l y , when he was com
p l e t e l y b o red by th e d i s c u s s i o n and i r r i t a t e d by th e
p r i e s t 's a i r o f co m p lete c e r t a i n t y a b o u t th e s e a b s t r a c t
p ro b le m s , M e u rs a u lt b eg an t o p o u r o u t, i n a f i t o f a n g e r
and jo y , a l l th e th o u g h ts t h a t had b e e n sim m ering i n h i s
h e a r t . " J e d e v e r s a is s u r l u i t o u t le fo n d de mon c o e u r
av ec d e s b o n d iss e m e n ts m eles de j o i e e t de e o l e r e " ( 156) .
None o f th e p r i e s t 's c e r t i t u d e s w ere w o rth a s i n g l e h a i r
10?
fro m a w om an's h e a d , M e u rs a u lt t o ld him . And a lth o u g h he
m ig h t a p p e a r t o have em pty han d s now, " j ’e t a i s s u r de m o i,
s u r de t o u t , p lu s s u r que l u i , s u r de ma v i e e t de c e t t e
m o rt q u i a l l a i t v e n i r . O u i, j e n ’a v a is que c e l a . M ais
du m o in s, j e t e n a i s e e t t e v & rite a u t a n t q u ’ e l l e me t e n a i t ”
(1 5 6 ). T h a t he had liv e d a c e r t a i n way and n o t a n o th e r
was w ith o u t im p o rta n c e , s in c e "du fond de mon a v e n i r , pen
d a n t to u te c e t t e v ie a b s u rd e que j ’a v a is m enee, un s o u f f l e
o b sc u r r e m o n ta it v e r s m oi a t r a v e r s d e s a n n e e s q u i n ’e -
t a i e n t p a s e n c o re v en u es e t ce s o u f f l e ^ g a l i s a i t s u r son
p a s sa g e t o u t ce q u ’ on me p r o p o s a it a l o r s d an s l e s a n n e e s
p as p lu s r e e l l e s que j e v i v a i s " (15?)* The same f a t e ,
b lo w in g fro m th e f u t u r e , was bound t o ch o o se n o t o n ly
h im , b u t a l l th e m i l l io n s o f p r i v i l e g e d p e o p le who c a l l e d
th e m se lv e s "mes f r e r e s . " E v e ry man was p r i v i l e g e d : ” 11
n 'y a v a i t que d es p r i v i l e g e s . Les a u t r e s a u s s i on l e s
e o n d a ra n e ra it un jo u r " ( 157)•
( A f te r th e p r i e s t l e f t th e c e l l , th e e x h a u s te d M eur
s a u l t awoke from a deep s le e p w ith th e s t a r s s h in in g down
on h i s f a c e . The b u r s t o f a n g e r had c le a n s e d him ; and
f i n a l l y e m p tie d o f h o p e , he f e l t open f o r th e f i r s t tim e
t o th e te n d e r in d i f f e r e n c e o f th e u n iv e r s e . "Comme s i
c e t t e g ra n d e e o l e r e m1a v a i t p u rg e du m a l, v ld 4 d ’e s p o i r ,
d e v a n t e e t t e n u i t c h a rg e e de s ig n e s e t d ’^ t o i l e s , j e
m’ o u v ra is p o u r l a p re m ie re f o i s & l a te n d r e i n d i f f e r e n c e
/
108
d a monde” (1 5 9 ). He c o u ld u n d e rs ta n d now, b e in g s o c lo s e
t o d e a th h im s e lf , why h i s m o th er had ta k e n a “f i a n c e ” a t
th e Home, and had p la y e d a t m aking a f r e s h s t a r t i n l i f e *
No one had a r i g h t t o weep f o r h e r . F o r M e u rs a u lt to o
f e l t re a d y t o s t a r t l i f e a l l o v er a g a in /) “E t m oi a u s s i ,
j e me s u i s s e a t i p r e t a t o u t r e v i v r e ” ( 159) .
“Le M ythe de S is y p h e ” i s an im p o rta n t key t o a n
u n d e rs ta n d in g o f Camus* w o rk , p a r t i c u l a r l y L i g t r a n g e r .7
I n h i s r e - t e l l i n g o f th e m yth (Camus w is e ly s a id t h a t “ l e s
Q
m ythes s o n t f a i t s p o u r que 1 *im a g in a tio n l e s a n im e " )°
Camus d e s c r ib e d S isy p h u s a s th e a b s u rd h e r o , t r a g i c and
h e r o ic s
On a co m p ris d e ji. que S is y p h e e s t l e h e ro s a b s u rd e . I I
I ’e s t a u t a n t p a r s e s p a s s io n s que p a r so n to u rm e n t. Son
m6p r i s d e s d ie u x , s a h a in e de l a m o rt e t s a p a s s io n p o u r
l a ^ v i e , l u i o n t v a lu ce s u p p li e s i n d i e i b l e ou t o u t
l * e t r e s* e m p lo ie a ne r i e n a e h e v e r. C’ e s t l e p r i x
q u * il f a u t p a y e r p o u r l e s p a s s io n s de e e t t e t e r r a (Le
M ythe d e S is y p h e . p . 1 6 4 ).
I t i s a t th e moment o f a w a re n e ss ( " e e t t e h e u re . . • de l a
c o n s c ie n c e ” [ l6 fj) d u rin g th e p au se b e f o r e he d e s c e n d s t o
r o l l th e r o c k up th e h i l l once m o re, t h a t S isy p h u s i s
s u p e r io r t o h i s f a t e s “I I e s t p lu s f o r t que so n r o c h e r ”
( S is y p h e . p . 1 6 5 ). I f th e m yth i s t r a g i c , w ro te Camus, i t
i s b e e a u se " s o n h 6r o s e s t c o n s c ie n t ."
7 ln Le M ythe de S isy p h e ( P a r i s , 1 9 4 2 ), p p . 1 6 1 -1 6 8 .
^Le M ythe de S is y p h e . p . 165.
109
0& s e r a i t en e f f e t s a p e in e , s i a chaque p as l 'e s p o i r
de r e u s s i r l e s o u te n a it? L 'o u v r ie r d ' a u j o u r d 1h u i
t r a v a i l l e , to u s l e s jo u r s de s a v i e , au x memes ta c h e s
e t ce d e s t i n n 'e s t p a s m oins a b s u rd e . M ais i l n 'e s t
tr a g iq u e q u 'a u x r a r e s moments oh i l d e v ie n t c o n s c ie n t.
S is y p h e , p r o l ^ t a i r e d es d ie u x , im p u is s a n t e t r e v o l t e ,
c o n n a lt to u te l 'e t e n d u e de s a m is e r a b le c o n d itio n s
e ' e s t a e l l e q u ' i l p en se p e n d a n t sa d e s e e n te . La
c la ir v o y a n c e q u i d e v a i t f a i r e so n to u rm e n t consomme du
meme coup sa v i c t o i r e . I I n 'e s t p as de d e s t i n q u i ne
se su rm o n te p a r l e m e p ris (S is y p h e . pp. 1 6 5 -1 6 6 ).
( i t I s when M e u rs a u lt, l i k e S is y p h u s , no lo n g e r h as
an y hope ( " v id e d 'e s p o i r " ) t h a t he comes t o te rm s w ith h i s
own l i f e , a c c e p ts h i s c o n d i tio n w ith th e few m is e r a b le b u t
g lo r io u s c o n c re te th in g s i t o f f e r s ( th e l i f e he d e s c r ib e s
i n c o n c r e te te rm s a t th e end o f h i s t r i a l : "une v ie q u i
ne m 'a p p a r t e n a it p l u s , m ais o& j 'a v a i s tro u v e l e s p lu s
p a u v re s e t l e s p lu s te n a c e s de mes j o i e s : d es o d eu rs
d '£ t e , l e q u a r t i e r que j 'a i m a i s , un c e r t a i n c i e l du s o i r ,
l e r i r e e t l e s ro b e s de M a rie " [l3 7 ] )• I n d o in g t h i s ,
a c c e p tin g th e c o n d i t i o n , h i s l i f e a s i t i s , w ith o u t h o p e ,
he r i s e s above th e a b s u r d i t y o f e x i s te n c e — th e se e m in g ly
p a i n f u l , m e a n in g le s s l i f e t h a t en d s i n d e a th . F o r hope
le a d s man t o c h e a t , t o s i n a g a i n s t l i f e , w ro te Camus i n
" L 'e t e a A lg e r " : "C ar s ' i l y a un p ech e c o n tr e l a v i e ,
ce n 'e s t p e u t - e t r e p as t a n t d 'e n d e s e s p e r e r que d 'e s p e r e r
une a u t r e v i e , e t se d e ro b e r a 1 ’im p la c a b le g ra n d e u r de
c e l i e - e i " (JToces, p . 6 9 ) . Hope was th e m ost t e r r i b l e o f
th e e v i l s t o swarm from P a n d o r a 's Box, from Camus' p o in t
o f v ie w , f o r i t le a d s man t o r e s ig n a tio n ! )
1XG
De l a b o i t e de P an d o re o& g r o u i l l a i e n t l e s maux de l 'h u -
m a n ite , l e s G recs f i r e n t s o r t i r l ’e s p o ir a p r e s to u s l e s
a u t r e s , comme l e p lu s t e r r i b l e de to u s . J e n e e o rm a is
p as de sym bols p lu s em ouvant. C ar l 'e s p o i r . au c o n -
t r a i r e de c e q u 1on c r o i t , e q u iv a u t a l a r e s i g n a t i o n .
E t v i v r e , c ' e s t ne p a s s e r e s i g n e r (N o c e s. p p . 6 9 - 7 0 ).
( M e u r s a u lt, l i k e S is y p h u s , d o es n o t lo o k beyond man
f o r m eaning t o l i f e . I t i s i n th e h o u r o f aw a re n e ss
(" h e u re de l a c o n s c ie n c e ’ 1) when he i s i n h i s d e a th c e l l ,
t h a t he i s s u p e r io r t o h i s f a t e , t h a t he i s s tr o n g e r th a n
h i s ro c k . By h i s p a s s io n f o r l i f e , " i l e s t s u p e r ie u r k
so n d e s t i n " (S is y p h e . p . 1 6 5 )• And i t i s o n ly when he
re a c h e s a p o i n t o f t r a g i c a w a re n e ss t h a t he becom es a
t r a g i c f i g u r e . F o r m ost p e o p le ( c l e r k s l i k e M e u rs a u lt)
go th ro u g h th e s e r i e s o f m e a n in g le s s g e s tu r e s t h a t a r e
t h e i r l i v e s j b u t i t i s o n ly when th e y a r e d e v o id o f hope
and aw are o f th e a b s u rd and eo n q u er t h e i r f a t e th ro u g h
t h e i r p a s s io n f o r l i f e , t h a t th e y become a b s u rd h e ro e s ^
Thus M e u rs a u lt a t th e end o f h is r e c i t c a n sa y t h a t
he i s h ap p y , and open t o ” l a te n d re i n d i f f e r e n c e du m onde."
And when he d e c la r e s t h a t he ho p es th e crow d g a th e re d f o r
h i s e x e c u tio n w i l l g r e e t him w ith e r i e s o f h a t e , he demon
s t r a t e s t h a t " i l n ’e s t pas de d e s t i n q u i ne s e su rm o n te
p a r l e m e p ris " ( S is y p h e . p . 1 6 6 ).
Pour que t o u t s o i t consomme, p o u r que j e me s e n te m oins
s e u l , i l me r e s t a i t k s o u h a i t e r , q u ' i l y a i t beaucoup
de s p e c ta t e u r s le jo u r de mon e x e c u tio n e t q u ’i l s
m 'a c c u e i l l e n t av ee d e s c r i s de h a in e (1 5 9 ).
I l l
Summary and C o n c lu sio n s
I n c o n t r a s t t o C a l i g u l a , when M e u rsa u lt r e c o g n iz e s
th e ab su rd he does n o t view th e u n iv e rs e a s s t e r i l e nor
l i f e a s f u t i l e . On th e c o n t r a r y , he a c c e p ts th e " te n d re
in d if f e r e n c e du m onde," and a t h i s d e a th he i s re a d y "a
t o u t r e v i v r e . " W hile C a l i g u l a 's aw aren ess of th e ab su rd
le a d s him t o d e s tr o y b o th h im s e lf and th o s e around him ,
t o r e j e c t l i f e , M e u rsa u lt becomes s u p e r io r t o h is f a t e
th ro u g h h is p a s s io n a te engagem ent in l i f e .
But M e u rsa u lt does n o t come t o term s w ith th e problem s
of a c t i o n and h i s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y tow ard h is f e llo w man, a s
do T a rro u , R ie u x , and R am bert i n La P e s t e . . . S ' i l y
a e v o lu tio n de L 'S tr a n g e r a La P e s t e . ” w ro te Camus, " e l l e
s ' e s t f a i t e dans l e se n s de l a s o l i d a r i t y e t de l a p a r
t i c i p a t i o n " ( A c tu e lle s I I [ p a r i s , 1953} p. 9 4 ). W hile
T a rro u se ek s t o f in d a " r e a s o n a b le c u l p a b i l i t y , " and R ieu x
m ust commit h im s e lf t o s e rv in g h is f e llo w man d e s p ite th e
o p p o s itio n betw een th e demands of h a p p in e ss and th o s e of
d u ty , M e u rsa u lt rem ain s d ise n g a g e d fro m , or p erh ap s
unaware o f , th e s e p ro b lem s. One m ight th in k of him a s
b ein g i n th e p o s i t i o n of T a rro u a t th e f i r s t s ta g e o f h i s
m is s io n , when he re c o g n iz e d th e a b s u rd , b u t b e fo re he
chose t o j o i n th e v i c t i m 's s id e i n e a c h e n c o u n te r and
a c t i v e l y t o commit h im s e lf t o th e s e r v ic e of h i s f e llo w
men.
CHAPTER V
L'^TAT DE SIEGE1
I n tr o d u c tio n
A lth o u g h L 'l i t a t de S ie g e was n o t a c r i t i c a l su c c e ss
when i t f i r s t opened in P a r i s i n 1948, Camus c o n s id e re d
th e p la y , of a l l h i s w r i t i n g s , t o he " th e one t h a t m ost
re se m b le s m e .”2
T r u ly , few p la y s have e v e r en jo y ed su ch a unanimous
s la s h in g . T h is i s th e more d e p lo ra b le s in c e I have
n ev er g iv e n up th in k in g t h a t S t a t e of S i e g e , w ith a l l
i t s s h o rtc o m in g s, i s , of a l l my w r i t i n g s , th e one t h a t
m ost re se m b le s me. S t i l l , th e re a d e r i s q u ite f r e e t o
d e c id e t h a t , however f a i t h f u l i t may b e , he d o e s n 't
l i k e t h a t im a g e .3
In a p r e f a c e e s p e c i a l l y w r i t t e n f o r an American
e d i t i o n o f fo u r p la y s , Camus c h a lle n g e d s e v e r a l presump
t i o n s t h a t he f e l t sh o u ld be e le a r e d up so t h a t th e r e a d e r
m ight b e t t e r judge th e drama f o r w hat i t w as. W hile he
d i d n 't w ish t o in f lu e n c e th e r e a d e r i n t o se e in g e i t h e r
h id d e n or obvious meaning i n L 'E t a t de S i& ge. Camus
^ A lb e rt Camus, L '^ t a t de S ie g e ( P a r i s , 1948).
^ " A u th o r's P re fa c e " (December 1 9 5 7 ), t r . J u s t i n
O 'B rie n , i n C a lig u la and Three O ther F l a y s . t r . S t u a r t
G i l b e r t (New Y ork, 1 9 5 ° ), p . v i i i .
3 p r e f a c e , p. v i i i .
112
113
e x p la in e d t h a t th e p la y was n o t one of t r a d i t i o n a l s t r u c
t u r e , and t h a t t h e i r c r i t i c i s m was b e s id e th e p o in t.
I t m ig h t b e t t e r be compared w ith w hat w ere c a l l e d
^ m o r a lit^ s * 1 i n th e F re n c h M iddle Ages and in S p a in
H a u to s s a c r a m e n ta le s w — a s o r t of a l l e g o r i c a l drama w hich
sta g e d s u b je c ts known t o th e whole a u d ie n c e i n advance.
I fo c u se d my p la y on w hat seems t o me th e o n ly l i v i n g
r e l i g i o n i n th e c e n tu r y of t y r a n t s and s l a v e s — I mean
l i b e r t y . Hence i t i s u t t e r l y u s e le s s t o a c c u se my
c h a r a c te r s of b ein g s y m b o lic a l. I p le a d g u i l t y . My
avowed aim was t o d i v e s t th e s ta g e of p s y c h o lo g ic a l
s p e c u la tio n s i n m u ffled v o ic e s so t h a t i t m ight r in g
w ith th e loud s h o u ts t h a t to d a y e n s la v e or l i b e r a t e
m asses of m en.4
Camus t r i e d t o make u se of a l l th e form s of d ra m a tic
e x p r e s s io n a v a i l a b l e t o a modern d r a m a tis t who was w orking
w ith one o f th e m ost t a l e n t e d and v e r s a t i l e r e p e r t o r y
com panies of h is d a y , th e "Compagnie M adeleine Renaud—
Je a n -L o u is B a r r a u l t . 1 1 He combined l y r i c a l m onologue,
e h o r a l movements and l y r i c s , f a r c e , m u ltip le s ta g in g
( l i g h t s p a s s in g i n t u r n t o th r e e sc e n e s g o ing on a t th e
same tim e on t h e os t a g e ) , p la c in g a g r e a t em phasis on p a n to
mime and b o d ily movement. A ll of th e s e e le m e n ts w ere
merged i n an a r t form w hich p r e s e n te d im p o rta n t c o n c e p ts
a b o u t man and h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p to th e u n iv e rs e and t o h i s
f e llo w man. Camus f e l t t h a t t h i s was th e f u n c tio n of th e
t h e a t e r ; he was n o t a f r a i d o f b ein g in v o lv e d w ith im p o rta n t
id e a s and problem s:
^ P re f a c e , pp. v i i i - i x .
114
A f te r a r a t h e r long e x p e rie n c e a s a d i r e c t o r , a c t o r ,
and d r a m a t i s t , i t seems to me t h a t th e r e i s no tr u e
t h e a t e r w ith o u t lan g u ag e and s t y l e , n or any d ra m a tic
work w hich does n o t , l i k e our c l a s s i c a l drama and th e
Greek t r a g e d i a n s , in v o lv e human f a t e i n a l l i t s sim
p l i c i t y and g r a n d e u r .5
Camus worked c l o s e l y w ith Je a n -L o u is B a r r a u l t i n com
p o sin g th e p la y . I n 1941, B a r r a u l t co n c e iv e d th e id e a of
c r e a tin g a p la y a h o u t th e myth of th e p la g u e , and i n th e
fo llo w in g y e a r he o u tlin e d an a d a p ta tio n o f D a n ie l D e fo e 's
The J o u r n a l of th e P lag u e Y e a r. When he le a rn e d t h a t
Camus was w r i tin g a n o v e l on th e same them e, he asked him
t o compose th e d ia lo g u e f o r th e drama. Camus d e c id e d , how
e v e r , t h a t i t would he more a p p r o p r ia te t o r e t u r n t o
B a r r a u l t 's o r i g i n a l id e a and c r e a t e "un mythe q u i p u is s e
e t r e i n t e l l i g i b l e pour to u s l e s s p e c ta te u r s de 1948.
The c o l l a b o r a t i o n of B a r r a u l t , who produced and
d i r e c t e d th e p la y and a c te d th e le a d in g r o l e , D iego, i s
q u ite a p p a re n t i n th e p la y . B a r r a u l t alw ays s t r e s s e s th e
v i s u a l e le m e n ts i n h i s p r o d u c tio n s , and a s one of th e
m ost acco m p lish ed mimes i n th e t h e a t e r , he s t r e s s e s th e
im portance of b o d ily movement, d is p la c e m e n t, and g e s tu r e .
Thus g r e a t demands a r e p la c e d upon th e r e a d e r i n v i s u a l
iz in g t h i s p la y , f o r so much i s t o be communicated v i s u a l l y
by te n s io n and movement of th e a c t o r s i n pantomime and by
^ P re fa c e , p. x.
% v e r tis s e m e n t , L 'E t a t de S i e g e , p. 9.
115
c h o r a l movements and d is p la c e m e n ts .
W hile Camus a s s e r t e d t h a t L ’E t a t de Si&ge " n ’e s t a
aucun d e g re une a d a p ta t io n de mon r o m a n , t h e p la y d e a ls
w ith th e same problem s and m o tifs a s h is n o v e l La P e s t e .
w ith an a d d i t i o n a l s t r e s s p la c e d upon th e problem s of f r e e
dom and a b s o lu te power t h a t con cern ed him i n C a l i g u l a . As
i n La P e s t e . L ’SStat de S ie g e p r e s e n ts th e e f f e c t s of a
c a ta s tr o p h e on th e p eo p le of a town. B ut in s te a d o f f o l
low ing th e c o n v e n tio n s o f a r e a l i s t i c n o v e l and r e p r e s e n t
ing co n tem p o rary l i f e — d e s c r ib in g th e a c tio n s of r e c o g n iz
a b le p eo p le i n a background of a s p e c i f i c tim e and p la c e —
c h a r a c t e r s and m ilie u s have a more sym bolic q u a l i t y .
W hile th e p la g u e a t t a c k s a s p e c i f i c c i t y , C a d iz , th e
a c t i o n m ight ta k e p la c e i n any s m a ll, f o r t i f i e d c o a s t a l
town on th e M e d ite rra n e a n . W hile th e m u s ic a l o v e rtu re
t h a t opens th e P ro lo g u e i s b u i l t around a theme s i m i l a r t o
th e w a il of an a i r - r a i d s i r e n , w hich s u g g e s ts a s e t t i n g i n
m odern tim e s , th e a c t i o n i s n o t r o o te d i n any s p e c i f i c
e ra s i t co u ld have ta k e n p la c e any tim e w ith in th e p a s t
2 ,5 0 0 y e a rs . T his sym bolic s e t t i n g , d iv o rc e d from immedi
a t e a s s o c i a t i o n w ith a s p e c i f i c tim e and s p a c e , i s combined
w ith a c tin g te c h n iq u e s of a " p u r e ” t h e a t e r w hich p u ts th e
Z iv e r ti s s e m e n t, p . 10.
116
a c t o r on an u n r e a l i s t i c p la n e ; he u se s a v o c a b u la ry of
sym bolic movements and p h y s ic a l d is p la c e m e n t and b u ild s
up a rhythm t h a t , l e s s r o o te d i n im m ed ia te} p h o to g ra p h ic
r e a l i t y , i s more tim e le s s and u n iv e rs a l.®
The c h a r a c t e r s , a s Camus i n d i c a t e d , a r e n o t f ig u r e s
i n a p s y c h o lo g ic a l s tu d y , b u t a r e s y m b o lic a l. The c e n t r a l
m e ta p h o ric a l f i g u r e , The P la g u e , r e p r e s e n t s n o t o nly th e
n e g a tiv e , c y n i c a l , denying f o r c e t h a t M e p h isto p h o les
embodied i n F a u s t , b u t a l s o th e c ru s h in g power of an
a b s o lu te d i c t a t o r who m ust c o n t r o l e v e ry f a c e t of h is sub
j e c t s ' l i v e s , and who t r i e s t o stamp o u t th e human q u a l
i t i e s of com passion and te n d e rn e s s i n them. Hada em bodies
th e w eaknesses of th e i n t e l l e c t u a l whose aw aren ess of th e
a b su rd c o n d itio n of man c a u se s him to r e f u s e t o a c c e p t
h im s e lf and t o deny l i f e . He i s a c y n ic who becomes f i r s t
g u i l t y th ro u g h i n a c t i o n ; th e n he f i n a l l y becomes a c o l l a b
o r a to r and f u n c tio n a r y f o r The P la g u e . H is o n ly a c t of
r e b e l l i o n i s s u i c i d e . D iego i s a man of good w i l l who
m ust make a c h o ic e betw een p e r s o n a l h a p p in e s s — th e f u l
f i l l m e n t of h i s lo v e f o r V i c t o r i a — and h i s d u ty tow ards
h is f e llo w townsmen. When Diego d is c o v e r s th e s e c r e t by
®For a d is c u s s io n of B a r r a u l t 's c o n c e p ts of a c t i n g ,
see Je a n -L o u is B a r r a u l t , N o u v elles r e f l e x i o n s s u r l e
t h e a t r e ( P a r i s , 1959).
117
which, man ca n f i g h t The P la g u e — t h a t man can w in o nly i f
he lo s e s h i s f e a r of d e a th — he le a d s h is townsmen to a
p a r t i a l v i c t o r y , b u t m ust g iv e up h is own l i f e i n exchange
f o r th e h a p p in e s s of th e m a jo r ity .
The p la y i s d iv id e d i n t o th r e e p a r t s . The a p p e aran c e
of a comet i n th e P ro lo g u e throw s C adiz i n t o c o n fu s io n .
W e se e th e r e a c t i o n s o f th e to w n sp e o p le, th e r u l e r s , and
two of th e p r i n c i p a l s , Nada and D iego, t o th e ap p e aran c e
of som ething unknown and f r ig h te n in g * The Governor o rd e rs
th e p e o p le t o p re te n d t h a t th e com et d o e s n 't e x i s t . JLnd
w h ile Hada i s r a t h e r p le a s e d t h a t a d i s a s t e r w i l l co n firm
h i s b e l i e f i n a h o s t i l e , m e a n in g le ss u n iv e r s e , D iego
d o e s n 't b e lie v e i n a c a la m ity ; he b e lie v e s i n h i s h a p p i
n e s s . The jo y of l i f e , sym bolized by th e a c t i v i t y of th e
tow nspeople a t th e m ark et s q u a re , i s soon d e s tro y e d by
th e f i r s t d e a th from th e p la g u e . W e w itn e s s th e r e a c t i o n
o f th e r u l e r s , a p r i e s t , D iego, and th e ch o ru s t o t h i s
a w fu l e v e n t. The P lague a p p e a r s , c o n q u e rs , and form s a
c o l l a b o r a t o r governm ent. P a r t I ends w ith a long mono
logue i n w hich The P lag u e p r e s e n ts h is p la n t o o f f e r th e
town s i l e n c e , o r d e r , and d e a th .
I n P a r t I I we see th e m ethods t h a t The P lague u s e s t o
d e s tr o y th e w i l l t o r e b e l . He w ears down and h a r r a s s e s
th e tow nspeople by in v o lv in g them in a l l th e empty form s
of b u re a u c ra c y and by d e s tro y in g th e meaning of language
118
th ro u g h th e u se of b u r e a u c r a tic ja rg o n . I t i s e a s i e r t o
i n s t i l l a f e e l i n g of g u i l t and make them ac co m p lice s i n
t h e i r own d e a th s i f th e y a r e t i r e d . By s e p a r a tin g men and
women, he a tte m p ts t o d e s tr o y lo v e , te n d e r n e s s , and norm al
human e m o tio n s. But D iego, a t th e end of A ct I I , le a r n s
th e s e c r e t of th e way t o r e b e l ; once man lo s e s f e a r of
d e a th and r e v o l t s , th e m achine b e g in s t o g r in d .
I n P a r t I I I , th e wind from th e sea b e g in s t o blow baek
th e p la g u e , a s D iego o rg a n iz e s th e town f o r r e s i s t a n c e by
opening windows, te a r i n g o f f emblems o f g u i l t , and c a rin g
f o r th e s ic k . The s tr u g g le betw een Diego and The P lague
b e g in s . The P lague f a i l s i n h i s a tte m p t t o make th e v i c
tim s become h i s in s tru m e n ts o f m urder. A lthough Diego
d r iv e s o u t The P la g u e , he m ust f o r f e i t h i s l i f e and th e
prom ise of h a p p in e s s w ith V i c t o r i a . As th e old m a s te rs
r e t u r n , Nada jumps i n t o th e s e a ; and th e sp eech of The
F ish erm a n , who c la im s t h a t th e y , th e to w n sp e o p le, w i l l
n ev e r s u r r e n d e r , ends th e p la y .
H Le changem ent m ' i r r i t e . .I'aim e
mes h a b itu d e s '1
The P ro lo g u e opens w ith a view of th e r e a c t i o n of th e
tow nspeople and t h e i r r u l e r s — "ceux q u i e c r i v e n t l ' h i s -
t o i r e 1 1 (2 3 1 )— t o th e a p p e a ra n c e of a c o m e t.9 The members
^ H e r e a f te r , a l l r e f e r e n c e s t o Lf3§tat de S ie g e w i l l
f o llo w th e q u o ta tio n and i n d i c a t e page num ber, s in c e th e
p la y i s n o t d iv id e d i n t o a c t s and s e e n e s .
119
o f th e ch o ru s e x p re s s t h e i r c o n fu s io n a t b ein g c o n fro n te d
w ith som ething m y ste rio u s and unknown, an o b je c t t h a t
seems t o fo re b o d e e v i l — a s ig n of w ar, or p erh ap s th e end
o f th e w o rld . The r u l e r s , on th e o th e r h an d , r e a c t as d id
th e town le a d e r s i n La P e s t e : th e y deny th e e x is te n c e of
th e a c t u a l and r e f u s e t o c a l l th in g s by t h e i r r i g h t names.
The Governor t r i e s t o ig n o re th e e x is te n c e of th e comet by
o rd e rin g th e c i t i z e n s t o keep s i l e n t a b o u t i t and p re te n d
i t d o e s n 't e x i s t . He w ish e s t o c o n tin u e e x is te n c e i n h i s
w orld of h a b i t . "Le changem ent m ' i r r i t e , j'a i m e mes
h a b i tu d e s ," he t e l l s th e p e o p le <44). And h i s A lcades
a s s u re them , " S i l e c i e l a des h a b itu d e s , re m e re ie z -e n le
g o uverneur p u i s q u 'i l e s t r o i de I 'h a b i t u d e " (4 7 ). The
ch o ru s i s to o ab so rb ed w ith th e sim p le jo y s of l i v i n g and
w ith th e p o s s i b i l i t y of h a p p in e s s t o b e lie v e s tr o n g ly t h a t
a c a ta s tr o p h e w i l l su d d e n ly e n t e r t h e i r l i v e s . They
resp o n d t o th e p a c if y in g words of t h e i r r u l e r s w ith a song
of jo y a t th e coming o f summer w ith i t s shower of f r u i t s :
" I I ne se p a s s e r i e n , i l ne se p a s s e ra r i e n . A la f r a i c h e ,
a l a f r a ic h e J Ce n ' e s t p as une e a la m ite , c ' e s t l'a b o n d a n c e
de l'£ te .* " (3 0 ). When p eo p le do b e g in t o d ie in th e
s t r e e t s , th e F i r s t A lcade a d v is e s The G overnor t o l i e t o
h i s s u b je c ts : " I I f a u t d is s im u le r l a s i t u a t i o n e t ne d ir e
l a v & rite au p eu p le a aucun p r ix " ( 55)* A f te r The P lague
a p p e a rs and d e m o n s tra te s h is pow er, The Governor
120
r e l i n q u i s h e s th e governm ent t o him , making an agreem ent
t h a t he and h i s m in i s te r s w i l l he s a fe and allo w ed t o
e s c a p e . He c o v e rs th e u g lin e s s of h is co w ardice w ith
r h e t o r i c , t e l l i n g h i s s u b je c ts t h a t he i s le a v in g i n t h e i r
i n t e r e s t s t o form a governm ent i n e x i le s
Dans v o tr e i n t e r e t meme, i l c o n v ie n t p e u t - e t r e que j e
l a i s s e e e t t e v i l l e a l a p u is s a n c e n o u v e lle q u i v i e n t de
s fy m a n if e s te r . L*accord: que j e c o n c lu s avec e l l e
e v i t e r a sa n s d o u te l e p i r e e t vous a u re z a i n s i l a
c e r t i t u d e de c o n s e rv e r h o rs de vos murs un gouvernem ent
q u i p o u rra un jo u r vous e t r e u t i l e ? (7 5 -7 6 )
”Moins i l s c o m n re n d ro n t. m ieux
i l s m a re h e ro n t. ”
The P lag u e g a in s c o n t r o l over th e town e a s i l y ; h is
g r e a t e s t weapon i s f e a r . He need k i l l o n ly a few men i n
o rd e r t o g a in c o n t r o l over th e r e s t . "L 1i d e a l , c ’e s t
d ’ o b te n ir une m a jo r ite d 'e s c l a v e s a l ’a id e d ’une m in o r ite
de m orts b ie n e h o i s i s , ” he e x p la in s . . . Aucune b e a u te ,
aucune g ra n d e u r ne nous r e s i s t e r a . Nous trio m p h e ro n s de
t o u t ” (2 2 4 ). As C a lig u la d e m o n stra te d t o th e p a t r i c i a n s ,
”H o n n e te te , r e s p e c t a b i l i t e , q u 'e n d i r a - a ~ t o n , s a g e s s e des
n a t io n s . . . • T out d i s p a r a i t d e v a n t l a p e u r” (C a l i g u l a .
I I . 5 ) . The P lag u e form s a c o l l a b o r a t o r governm ent w hich
im poses r e g u l a t i o n s t y p i c a l of an o c c u p a tio n and d i c t a t o r
s h ip : a cu rfew and r a t i o n i n g a r e e n fo rc e d ; s p e c i a l
p r i v i l e g e s a r e g iv e n to th o se c i t i z e n s who d e m o n stra te
t h e i r ” l o y a l t y ” by denouncing t h e i r n e ig h b o rs or members
121
of t h e i r f a m ily ; c e n s o rs h ip i s i n i t i a t e d , i n th e form of
gags in th e mouths of th e c h o ru s; and re n d e r in g a id to th e
s i c k i s f o rb id d e n .
The P lague b r in g s th e town ” l e s i l e n c e , l ’ o rd re e t
l 'a b s o l u e j u s t i c e ” (95)» H is g o a l i s t o make them c i p h e r s ,
n o t men, by c ru s h in g a l l t h a t i s u n ique and p e c u l i a r l y
human i n t h e i r l i v e s — th e em otions of lo v e , p r i d e , and
s e l f - s a c r i f i c e . ”Le d e s t i n , d eso rm a is s ' e s t a s s a g i , i l a
p r i s s e s b u r e a u x ,” he t e l l s them. "Vous s e re z dans l a
s t a t i s t i q u e e t vous a l l e z e n f i n s e r v i r a quelque c h o se ”
(9 3 ). Thus he t r i e s t o remove h is s u b je c ts a s f a r a s
p o s s ib le from c o n c re te th in g s by in v o lv in g them i n a b s t r a c
t i o n and d e s tro y in g t h e i r com passion.
One of The P la g u e 's f i r s t moves i s t o e n ta n g le th e
c i t i z e n s i n m e a n in g le ss r h e t o r i c , t o h id e t r u t h behind
b u r e a u c r a tic gobbledegook. When th e A lcade who heads th e
c o l la b o r a to r governm ent a sk s The S e c r e t a r y , " Q u 'e s t ce
la n g a g e , je vous p r i e ? ” a f t e r she has re a d him a new
o rd in a n c e , she a n sw e rs, " C 'e s t pour l e s h a b i tu e r h . un peu
d 'o b s c u r i t e . Moins i l s co m p ren d ro n t, m ieux i l s m a rc h e ro n t”
{78- 79) . I n f a c t , th e i d e a l w i l l be re a c h e d when p eo p le
u n d e rsta n d n e i t h e r t h e i r r u l e r s n or each o th e r , b u t sim p ly
” s 1e x e c u t a n t .” Hada, who becomes a f u n c tio n a r y f o r th e
new o r d e r , e x p re s s e s t h i s s e n tim e n t t o one o f th e s u b je c ts
who has d i f f i c u l t y u n d e rs ta n d in g why she c a n n o t o b ta in a
122
s h e l t e r f o r h e r c h ild r e n s
Ce n ' e s t pas un h a s a r d , femme. I I s ' a g i t i c i de f a i r e
en s o r t e que perso n n e ne se com prenne, t o u t en p a r l a n t
l a meme la n g u e . E t j e p u is b ie n t e d i r e que nous
approehons de l 1I n s t a n t p a r f a i t oh t o u t l e monde p a r l e r a
san s ja m a is tr o u v e r d 'e e h o , e t oh l e s deux la n g a g e s q u i
s 'a f f r o n t e n t dans c e t t e v i l l e se d e t r u i r o n t l ’un 1 ’a u t r e
avec une t e l l e o b s t i n a t i o n q u ' i l fa u d r a b ie n que t o u t
s ’achem ine v e rs l'a c c o m p lis s e m e n t d e r n i e r q u i e s t l e
s i l e n c e e t l a m ort ( 128) .
Forms r e p la c e a c tio n ; words submerge human need. When th e
woman a s k s Nada f o r a p la c e f o r h e r hom eless c h i l d r e n t o
l i v e , he an sw e rs: ”0n ne t e d o n n era pas un logem ent p a rc e
que te s e n f a n ts s o n t dans l a r u e . On te donnera un lo g e
ment s i tu f o u r n is une a t t e s t a t i o n . Ce n ' e s t pas l a meme
c h o s e ” ( 127- 128) . Workmen who need more money t o fe e d
t h e i r f a m i l i e s a r e shown wage s c a le s and g ra p h s , n o t g iv e n
money. A w orker who a s k s Nada, ”Mais que v o u le z -v o u s
q u 'i l s f a s s e n t de ee barem e?” r e c e iv e s th e an sw er, ” Qu, i l s
le m a n g en ti” (1 2 3 ). And The Boatman comments t h a t ” l a
v i l l e e s t r a v i t a i l l e e en p r in c ip e p a r l 1a d m in is t r a tio n .
En t i c k e t s n a tu r e lle m e n t. M oi, j e r a v i t a i l l e en p a in e t en
l a i t ” (1 6 4 ).
The new regim e f o r c e s th e p e o p le t o become enmeshed
in th e empty form s and e n d le s s queues of b u re a u c ra c y , i n
u s e le s s a c t i v i t y t h a t has no r e a l p u rp o se , whose o nly
f u n c tio n i s t o wear them down. The P lag u e w ants no in a c
t i v i t y e x c e p t t h a t found i n p r is o n s and b read l i n e s : ”M oi,
j e ne eo n g o is l ’i n a c t i v i t e que dans l e s c a s e rn e s e t dans
123
l e s f i l e s d ’a t t e n t e . Ce l o i s i r - l a e s t bon, i l v id e le
co eu r e t l e s jam bes. C’e s t un l o i s i r q u i ne s e r t a r i e n ”
(100).
Thus th e c i t i z e n s a r e fo re e d to form queues t o o b ta in
’’c e r t i f i c a t s d 'e x i s t e n c e . ” I n o rd e r t o o b ta in t h i s
li c e n s e The F isherm an m u st, much t o h is dism ay and a n g e r,
f i l l o u t a form w hich a s k s q u e s tio n s a b o u t h is l i f e t h a t
he c o n s id e r s t o be e i t h e r nobody’s b u s in e s s or unansw er
a b l e : th e c irc u m s ta n c e s o f h i s c o n c e p tio n , h i s m o tiv es
f o r m a rria g e , and h i s re a s o n s f o r n o t re m a rry in g a f t e r h i s
w ife d ie d . I n answer t o h i s p r o t e s t s t h a t th e s e th in g s
a r e p r i v a t e , The S e c r e t a r y a n sw e rs, * ’Du p r iv e i Ces mots
n ’ o n t pas de sen s pour n o u s” (1 0 4 ). F or The P lag u e w ish e s
t o d e s tr o y a l l p riv a c y and a l l in d iv id u a lis m , and re d u c e
e v e ry th in g t o s t a t i s t i c s . " J ' a i h o r re u r de l a d if f e r e n c e
e t de l a d e r a i s o n , ” he sa y s (9 4 ). When asked t o d e s c r ib e
h is ’’s e n tim e n ts c i v i q u e s , ” The F ish erm a n , who u n d e rs ta n d s
c i v i c d u t i e s and p a t r i o t i s m a s th e y e x i s t on a c o n c re te
l e v e l , answ ers by d e s c r ib in g s p e c i f i c a c t s : ”J ' a i to u jo u r s
b ie n s e r v i mes c o n e ito y e n s . Je n ' a i ja m ais l a i s s e p a r t i r
un pauvre sa n s quelque bon p o is s o n " (1 0 7 ). But h i s i n t e r
r o g a t o r , The A le a d e , u n d e rs ta n d s c i v i c d u ty t o mean
r e s p e c tin g o rd e r f o r th e s o le re a s o n t h a t i t e x i s t s . He
r e p l i e s : ” 11 s ' a g i t de s a v o i r , mon b r a v e , s i vous e t e s de
ceu x q u i r e s p e c t e n t l 'o r d r e e x i s t a n t pour l a s e u le r a is o n
124
q u ' i l e x is t© ? ” (1 0 7 ). Sine© The F ish erm an c a n n o t j u s t i f y
h i s e x i s t e n c e , th e r u l e r s w i l l g iv e him a tem p o rary c e r t i f
i c a t e , h u t f i r s t he m ust g e t a h e a l t h c e r t i f i c a t e , w h ich ,
he d is c o v e r s , he c a n n o t o b ta in w ith o u t f i r s t s e c u rin g th e
c e r t i f i c a t e of e x is te n c e . The S e c r e t a r y f i n a l l y in fo rm s
him t h a t th e p u rp o se of t h i s b u r e a u c r a tic ru n -a ro u n d i s t o
e x h a u s t him so t h a t he w i l l be i n th e p ro p e r c o n d itio n t o
f e e l g u i l t y :
E ncore f a u t - i l que vous s e n t i e z vous-memes que vous
e t e s c o u p a b le s . E t vous ne vous tr o u v e r e z pas e o u p a b le s
t a n t que vous ne vous s e n t i r e z pas f a t i g u e s . On vous
f a t i g u e , v o i l l f t o u t . Quand vous s e r e z acheve de fa tig u e ,
l e r e s t e i r a t o u t s e u l (1 1 4 -1 1 5 ).
The o b je c t o f a l l of t h i s u s e le s s a c t i v i t y , th e n , i s
t o wear th e p eo p le down so t h a t th e y w i l l more e a s i l y
a c c e p t a se n se of g u i l t and be re a d y t o s e rv e a s accom
p l i c e s in t h e i r own d e s t r u c t i o n . For th e i d e a l of good
governm ent, The P lague e x p l a in s , i s t o make a man c o l l a b o r
a t e w ith h i s own e x e c u tio n :
L 1image de 1*e x e c u tio n d 'a b o r d , q u i e s t une image atten d -
r i s s a n t e ^ e t p u is l ' l d e e que l 1e x e c u te c o lla b o r e lui-m em e
a son e x e c u tio n , ce q u i e s t l e b u t e t l a c o n s o lid a tio n
de t o u t bon gouvernem enti (118)
The P lag u e t e l l s The S e c r e t a r y t h a t th e c i t i z e n s d o n 't need
t o u n d e rs ta n d , o n ly t o com ply, to su b m it: "L 1e s s e n t i a l
n ' e s t p as q u 'i l s com prennent, m ais q u 'i l s s 'e x e c u t a n t .
T ie n s i C’e s t une e x p r e s s io n q u i a du s e n s , ne tr o u v e z -
vous p as? . . . S 'e x e c u t e r . A llo n s , vous a u t r e s , e x e c u te z -
v o u s, e x e c u te z -v o u s i H einl Q u elle f o r m u le i” (117-118)
T h is c o n c e p t of s e l f - d e s t r u c t i o n seems t o be ro o te d i n th e
125
v e ry languages " I l s s 1e x e c u ta n t, i l s s 'o e c u p e n t, i l s se
c o n c e n tr e n t. La gram m aire e s t une bonne chose e t q u i p e u t
s e r v i r a t o u t i " (1 2 1 ).
" Ni p e u r. n i h a in e . c ' e s t l a
n o tr e v i c t o i r e i "
D iego r e p r e s e n ts th e c o u n te r - f o r c e t o th e s t e r i l e
a b s o lu te r u l e o f The P la g u e . He em bodies th e c h a r a c t e r i s
ti c s ! of men of good w i l l who overcome f e a r and j o i n t h e i r
f e llo w men i n r e b e l l i o n a g a i n s t d e a th , s u f f e r i n g , and
l o s s of freedom . When th e com et a p p e a r s , D iego d o e s n 't
b e lie v e i n th e c a la m ity t h a t Nada p r e d i c t s (and w hich Nada
seems t o d e s i r e , s in c e i t w i l l prove h is c o n te n tio n t h a t
th e w orld i s e v i l , t h a t "1'homme e s t du b o is d o n t on f a i t
l e s b u e h e rs" [22] ) . D iego i s i n lo v e , and i s con cern ed
o n ly w ith h a p p in e s s . "Je ne c r o i s pas a l a e a la m ite que
tu a n n o n c e s," he t e l l s Nada. "Je d o is m 'o ecu p er d 'e t r e
h e u re u x . G’e s t un long t r a v a i l , q u i demands l a p a ix des
v i l l e s e t des campagnes" (2 9 ). But Diego i s in c e n se d when
The G overnor o rd e rs th e c i t i z e n s t o p re te n d th e comet
d o e s n 't e x i s t ; l i k e R ieu x i n La P e s t e . he w ants to c a l l
th in g s by t h e i r r i g h t namess " C 'e s t une s o t t i s e i M e n tir
e s t to u jo u r s une s o t t i s e " (2 6 ). When th e p lag u e does
a p p e a r , and p eo p le d i e , he a c t s ; d e s p ite h i s f e e l i n g of
h o rro r and f e a r , he re sp o n d s t o d u ty and c a re s f o r th e
s ic k . But he f e e l s t e r r i f i e d and h e l p l e s s i n th e fa c e of
126
d e a th i n su ch an overwhelm ing and u g ly fo rm , and he b e g in s
to lo s e th e old s u s ta in in g f i b e r s o f p r id e and honor. He
t e l l s V i c t o r i a , when she f in d s him d re s s e d i n th e mask of
a p lag u e d o c t o r , "Je ne me re e o n n a is p lu s . Un homme ne
m 'a ja m ais f a i t p e u r, m ais c e c i me d e p a s s e , l ’horm eur ne
me s e r t de r i e n e t j e se n s que j e m 'abondonne" (6 2 ) .
Diego d is c o v e r s t h a t f i g h t i n g i n th e old manner w ith
sim ple co u rag e i n s in g l e combat i s n o t e f f e c t i v e a g a i n s t
t h i s new power. When he c h a lle n g e s The P lag u e t o s in g le
combat ( " H o r s , a p p ro e h e ," he sh o u ts t o The P la g u e . "Le
p lu s f o r t tu e r a 1 ‘a u t r e " (jL33j )» he i s f o rc e d t o f l e e in
f e a r a t th e a p p ro ac h of th e g u a rd s. A f te r a moment of
cow ardice when he a tte m p ts t o h id e i n th e house of The
Ju d g e , V ic t o r ia and D iego t r y t o escap e to g e th e r w ith th e
hope o f lo s in g th em selv es i n t h e i r lo v e . B ut The S e c re
t a r y s ta n d s betw een them a s th e y a r e a b o u t t o embrace and
b ran d s D iego w ith th e second mark of th e p la g u e ("Vous
e t i e z s u s p e c t. Vous v o i l a c o n ta m in e ," she t e l l s him
[l5 3 ])» A lth o u g h t o V i c t o r i a , lo v e i s th e o nly th in g t h a t
m a tte rs i n l i f e , th e o n ly th in g t h a t s u s t a i n s h e r , D iego
i s a f r a i d of i n f e c t i n g h e r , and so he r e f u s e s t o embrace
h e r a g a in a f t e r he i s m arked. He d e c id e s t o r e t u r n to
c a re f o r th e s i c k , even though th e y f i l l him w ith h o r r o r .
"Mais f in a le m e n t, je s u is dans l e meme m a lh e u r, i l s o n t
b e s o in de m o i," he t e l l s h e r (1!?7)•
127
V ic t o r ia u n d e rs ta n d s now t h a t " I l s a r r a n g e n t to u te s
ch o ses pour que 1'am our s o i t im p o s s ib le ” (157)» ^ne of
th e f i r s t a e t s of The P lague h as been t o s e p a r a te men from
women. He m ust do away w ith s e n tim e n t, h a p p in e s s , and
lo v e , w hich— w ith p r i d e —'a re th e s u s t a in in g f o r c e s t h a t
p e rm it man t o r e b e l . ” . . . L orsque j ' a r r i v e , l e p a th £ -
tiq u e s 'e n v a , ” he announces t o h i s s u b je c ts . ” 11 e s t
i n t e r d i t , l e p a t h e t i q u e , avec q u elq u es a u t r e s b a la n g o ir e s
comme l a r i d i c u l e a n g o is s e du b o n h eu r, l e v is a g e s tu p id e
des am oureux, l a c o n te m p la tio n e g o l s te d es pay sag es e t l a
co u p ab le i r o n i e . A l a p la c e de t o u t c e l a , j 'a p p o r t e
1 1 o r g a n is a tio n ” (9 2 ).
V i c t o r i a r e b e l s a g a i n s t D ie g o 's id e a t h a t he m ust
r e t u r n t o a id th e s i c k and d y in g , h i s o n ly way of f i g h t i n g
th e i n j u s t i c e t h a t i s done t o them ( " Q u 'a i - j e done a
v a in c re en ce monde, s in o n l 1i n j u s t i c e q u i nous e s t f a i t e , ”
he t e l l s h e r [ l5 9 j) » She d o e s n 't w ant t o assume r e s p o n s i
b i l i t y f o r th e w o r l d 's u n h ap p in ess $ to h e r t h i s i s a ta s k
o f men, v a in and s t e r i l e : " J ' a i tr o p a f a i r e pour p o r t e r
mon amour I J e ne v a ls pas en c o re me c h a rg e r de l a d o u le u r
du mondeJ C 'e s t une ta c h e d'homme, c e l a , une de c e s
ta c h e s , v a i n e s , s t e r i l e s , e n t e t e e s ” (1 5 9 ). T his sp e ech
foreshadow s th e a g o n iz in g c h o ic e t h a t Diego m ust make
betw een h a p p in e ss and d u ty i n th e f i n a l a c t of th e p la y , a
c h o ic e t h a t many of Camus' h e ro e s —R ie u x , R am bert, T a rro u —
128
m ust make.
When Diego a tte m p ts t o e scap e th e p la g u e - rid d e n town
by b o a t, The S e c r e ta r y s to p s him. T his i s h is moment of
r e v o l t . As she i s a b o u t t o g iv e him th e t h i r d mark of
th e p lag u e t h a t w i l l k i l l him , he overcomes h i s f e a r ,
g ra b s h e r by th e t h r o a t , and s h o u ts h i s words of r e b e l l i o n .
In t h i s sp e ech ,w h ic h c o n ta in s th e m ain theme of th e p la y ,
he t e l l s h e r t h a t a s in g l e man, who c r i e s h i s jo y or h i s
agony, i s much more d i f f i c u l t t o d e a l w ith th a n a b s t r a c t ,
mute s t a t i s t i c s and g ra p h s :
Vous ne te n e z eompte que des ensem bles.’ C ent m ille
hommes v o i l a q u i d e v ie n t i n t e r e s s a n t . C’e s t une
s t a t i s t i q u e e t l e s s t a t i s t i q u e s s o n t m u e tte s i On en
f a i t des co u rb es e t des g ra p h iq u e s , h e in i . . . E t l e
t r a v a i l p e u t se f a i r e dans l e s il e n c e e t dans l 'o d e u r
t r a n q u l l l e de l 'e n c r e . Mais j e vous en p r e v ie n s , un
homme s e u l , c ' e s t p lu s g e n a n t, 5a c r i e sa j o i e ou son
a g o n ie . E t moi v i v a n t , je c o n t i n u e r a i a d e ra n g e r v o tr e
b e l o rd re p a r l e h a s a rd des c r i s . Je vous r e f u s e , je
vous r e f u s e de t o u t mon e t r e J (174)
He t e l l s h e r t h a t a lth o u g h The P lague has b ro u g h t man
hunger and s e p a r a tio n t o d i s t r a c t him from r e v o l t , and has
caused ea ch of them t o be " s e u l a ca u se de l a la c h e te des
a u t r e s ” (1 7 5 ), he d e f ie s h e r . D iego, i n an g er and r e b e l
l i o n , t e l l s h e r t h a t she w i l l be b e a te n , f o r one c a n ’ t
p u t e v e ry th in g i n t o numbers and fo rm u la s; and t h a t th e r e i s
i n man "une f o rc e que vous ne r e d u ir e z p a s , une f o l i e
c l a i r e , m elee de p eu r e t de c o u ra g e , ig n o ra n te e t v i e t o r i -
euse A t o u t ja m a is . C 'e s t c e t t e f o r c e q u i va se le v e r e t
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vous s a u re z a l o r s que v o tr e g l o i r e e t a i t fum ee1 1 (1 7 6 ).
There a r e b a s ic c o n c re te th in g s t h a t c a n n o t be p u t i n t o
a b s t r a c t f o rm u la s , th in g s t h a t w i l l a id man i n h i s r e v o l t s
Mais dans v o tr e b e l l e n o m e n c la tu re , vous avez o u b lie l a
ro s e ^ s a u v a g e , l e s s ig n e s dans l e c i e l . l e s v is a g e s
d ^ e te , l a grande v o ix de l a m er, l e s i n s t a n t s du
d e c h ire m e n t e t l a c o le r e d es hommesJ <176)
Diego le a r n s t h a t he i s f r e e from th e p lag u e when he
lo s e s f e a r : he has b e a te n th e m achine. The S e c r e ta r y
t e l l s hims
Je v a is vous d i r e un p e t i t s e c r e t . Leur sy stlm e e s t
e x c e l l e n t , vous avez b ie n r a i s o n , m ais i l y a une m al-
fa§ o n dans le u r m achine. . . . I I a to u jo u r s s u f f i
q u 'u n homme surm onte sa peur e t se r e v o l t s pour que
l e u r m achine commence a g r i n c e r ” (1 7 8 ).
When man can overcome h is f e a r of d e a th , he ca n o v er
come th e th in g s t h a t keep him from b ein g a man a t h is b e s t
— c a rin g f o r o th e rs and u n i t i n g w ith h is fe llo w s t o f i g h t
s u f f e r i n g and u n h a p p in e ss. When Diego lo s e s f e a r , th e sky
b r ig h te n s , a b re e z e s p rin g s up a g a in from th e se a and
blows away th e p la g u e , and th e c i t i z e n s ta k e o f f t h e i r
g a g s. D iego b e g in s t o o rg a n iz e th e tow n, opening windows,
rem oving th e d e a th sym bols, and c a rin g f o r th e s ic k . He
s h o u ts , "V ive l a m o rt, e l l e ne nous f a i t pas p e u r” (1 9 1 ).
How t h a t Diego has co nvinced th e tow nspeople t o lo s e
f e a r and t o r e b e l , The P lague t r i e s new s t r a t e g y : he
w i l l t r i c k them i n t o ta k in g p a r t i n m u rd er, c o n tin u in g h is
p o lic y of making them c o l l a b o r a t e in t h e i r own e x e c u tio n .
130
"E t v o i l a , " he s h o u ts t o D iego, " I l s f o n t eux-memes l e
t r a v a i l ] " (199)* The S e c r e t a r y f i r s t t r i e s t o im p lic a te
th e c i t i z e n s by u rg in g them t o c o l l a b o r a t e by form ing a
com m ittee t o d e c id e who w i l l be th e v i c t i m s , a com m ittee
w hich w i l l a llo w them to ta k e revenge on t h e i r old o p p re s
s o r s . She t r i e s to co n v in ce them t h a t i t i s much w is e r t o
c o l la b o r a te w ith th e p r e s e n t o r d e r , however b a d , th a n t o
r e v o l t ; f o r r e v o lu tio n s alw ays c o s t l i v e s and u n h a p p in e ss:
"Une bonne c o n c i l i a t i o n v a u t p a r f o i s m ieux q u 'u n e v i e t o i r e
ru in e u s e " (1 9 6 ). Next she p e rm its them t o s t e a l h e r n o te
book w ith th e l i s t of names; th e y b e g in t o c r o s s o f f th e
names of t h e i r en em ies, k i l l i n g them. T hus, even v ic tim s
become m u rd e re rs. Nada view s t h i s a c t i v i t y w ith e x a l t a
t i o n : "En a v a n t, to u s u n is pour l a su p p re s s io n ] I I ne
s ’a g i t p lu s de s u p p rim e r, i l s ' a g i t de se su p p rim e ri Nous
v o i l a to u s en sem b le, opprim es e t o p p r e s s e u rs , l a main dans
l a m a in i" (198)•
B ut D iego manages t o p re v e n t t h i s m u rd er, s a y in g ,
"Ni p e u r, n i h a in e , c ’e s t l a n o tr e v i e t o i r e ] " (2 0 0 ). H ere
Camus r e t u r n s a g a in t o a r e c u r r in g theme i n h i s work:
t h a t a l l m u rd er, a l l d e a th , i s e v i l . Man m ust see th ro u g h
th e r h e t o r i c , th e good re a s o n s w hich would co n v in ce him t o
k i l l h is f e llo w man; he m ust view each a c t , each s i t u a t i o n
c o n c r e te l y , i n d i v i d u a l l y , and be w i l l i n g t o say "no" to
m urder.
131
The P lag u e seems t o be lo s in g th e b a t t l e , now t h a t
D iego has o rg a n iz e d th e r e v o l t and sto p p ed h i s f e llo w
c i t i z e n s from com m itting m urder; b u t he s t i l l h as one l a s t
c a rd t o p la y s ” 11 r e s t e l e s o t a g e s l ” <201). When V ic
t o r i a , D ieg o ’ s h o s ta g e t o The P la g u e , i s b ro u g h t in on a
s t r e t c h e r , th e ch o ru s o f women c u ts th ro u g h D ieg o ’s form er
b rav e r h e t o r i c , h i s g lo r io u s c r y of ”v iv e l a m o rt, e l l e ne
nous f a i t pas p e u r!" (1 9 1 ), by c o n t r a s tin g th e p a in rack e d
body of V i c t o r i a t o a b s t r a c t sp e e c h e s:
M a in te n a n t, nous sommes dans l a v e r i t e . J u s q u 'a p r e
s e n t ce n ' e t a i t pas s l r i e u x . Blais a c e t t e h eu re i l
s ’a g i t d ’un c o rp s q u i s o u f f r e e t se t o r d . T ant de
e r i s , l e p lu s beau des la n g a g e s , v iv e l a m ort e t p u is
l a m ort elle-m em e d e e h ir e l a gorge de e e l l e q u ’ on aime.’
A lo rs r e v i e n t l ’amour quand ju s te m e n t i l n ’e s t p lu s
temps (2 0 4 ).
When D iego demands t o d ie i n p la c e o f V i c t o r i a , The
P lag u e o f f e r s t o l e t them b o th escap e from th e tow n, know
in g t h a t w ith o u t D ie g o 's le a d e r s h ip th e r e s i s t a n c e w i l l
c o l l a p s e . D iego would th u s exchange th e freedom of th e
c i t y f o r h i s own h a p p in e s s . He m ust make th e d i f f i c u l t
c h o ic e betw een h a p p in e s s , th e m ain purpose of l i f e i f one
i s n o t t o ’’c h e a t” l i f e , and d u ty tow ards h is f e llo w man.
But D iego r e j e c t s t h i s te m p ta tio n from The P la g u e , s a y in g ,
"L'am our de c e t t e femme, c ' e s t mon royaume a m oi. Je p u is
en f a i r e ce que je veux. Mais l a l i b e r t e de c e s hommes
l e u r a p p a r t i e n t . Je ne p u is en d is p o s e r ” (2 1 1 ). To t h i s
The P lague a n sw e rs, ” 0n ne p e u t pas e t r e h e u reu x sans f a i r e
132
du mal au x a u t r e s . C 'e s t l a j u s t i c e de c e t t e t e r r e " (2 1 1 ),
in tro d u c in g th e dilemma t h a t to rm ented T arro u i n La P e s t e .
But Diego does n o t c o n s e n t t o su ch j u s t i c e s
Hon. Je c o n n a is l a r e c e t t e . I I f a u t t u e r pour s u p p r i-
mer le m e u r tr e , v i o l e n t e r pour g u e r i r 1*i n j u s t i c e . I I
y a des s i e e l e s que c e la dureJ I I y a des si& c le s que
l e s s e ig n e u r s de t a r a c e p o u r r i s s e n t l a p l a i e du monde
sous p r e t e x t e de l a g u e r i r , e t c o n tin u e n t c e p en d a n t de
v a n te r l e u r r e c e t t e , p u isq u e perso n n e ne le u r r i t au
nezJ (2 1 2 ).
The P lag u e n e x t t r i e s t o d i s h e a r te n D iego by co n v in cin g
him t h a t h i s f e llo w c i t i z e n s a r e n o t w o rth h is s a c r i f i c e .
Diego a g re e s t h a t th e y , l i k e h im s e lf , a r e a t tim es
cow ardly and w eak, and t h a t under a d i c t a t o r th e y can be
b r u t a l and c r u e l ; b u t t h i s o n ly p ro v es t h a t no man should
have a b s o lu te powers
I I e s t v r a i q u ' i l l e u r a r r i v e d 'e t r e la c h e s e t c r u e l s .
C 'e s t p o u rq u o i i l s n 'o n t pas p lu s que t o i l e d r o i t a; l a
p u is s a n c e . Aucun homme n 'a a s s e z de v e r t u pour q u 'o n
p u is s e l u i c o n s e n tir l e p o u v o ir a b s o lu . Mais c ' e s t
p o u rq u o i a u s s i c e s hommes o n t d r o i t a l a com passion q u i
te s e r a r e f u s e e (2 1 4 ).
In t h i s e n c o u n te r betw een The P lag u e and D iego, Camus
a g a in i l l u s t r a t e s t h a t man, th e v ic tim , d e s e rv e s compas
s i o n , n o t s c o rn ; and t h a t man m ust say "no" to th e good
re a s o n s w hich would co n v in ce him t o e x p l o i t o th e rs or t o
c u re i n j u s t i c e w ith v io le n c e and m urder; and t h a t h a p p in e ss
and freedom c a n n o t be had a t th e expense of o th e r s .
S in ce D iego w i l l n o t a c c e p t The P la g u e 's term s f o r
escap e t o l i f e and h a p p in e s s , he m ust d ie i n V i c t o r i a 's
133
p la c e . B ut f i r s t The P lag u e makes him s u f f e r by rem in d in g
him of a l l he i s lo s in g by d e s c r ib in g c o n c r e te ly th e
o b je c ts and s e n s a tio n s t h a t a r e h i s l i f e :
La p r e m ilre c i g a r e t t e , ce n ' e s t done r ie n ? L 'o d e u r de
p o u s s ie r e a m id i su r l e s r a m b la is , l e s p lu ie s du s o i r ,
l a femme en c o re in c o n n u e , l e deuxieme v e r r e de v i n , ce
n ' e s t done r ie n ? <208).
I n h i s l a s t moments, D iego t r i e s to e x p la in t o V ic
t o r i a th e r e a s o n f o r h i s s a c r i f i c e , why he i s tr a d in g h i s
l i f e f o r h e r s : M I1 a b e s o in de nos femmes pour a p p re n d re
a v iv r e . Hous, nous n 'a v o n s ja m ais 6t6 c a p a b le que de
m o u rir" (2 2 8 ). T hroughout th e p la y , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n th e
c h o r a l s e c t i o n s , Camus has s tr e s s e d th e im p o rtan ce of
lo v e and t h i s f u n c tio n of women a s te a c h e r s . F or exam ple,
th e male c h o r u s , a t th e moment of v i c t o r y over The P la g u e ,
c h a n ts :
I I a r r i v e done que l'homme triom pheJ E t l a v i e t o i r e
a l o r s a l e c o rp s de nos femmes sous l a p l u i e de 1*amour.
V o ie i l a c h a i r h e u re u s e , l u i s a n t e e t eh a u d e, grappe de
septem bre o& l e f r e l o n g r e s i l l e (2 0 2 ).
Women te a c h men th e g e n t le n a tu r e of l o v e , th e s im p le ,
c o n c r e te , p h y s ic a l th in g s w h ich , w ith c o u ra g e , p r i d e , and
ab sen ce of f e a r , a r e th e o n ly weapons a g a i n s t d e a th , and
a r e th e rew ard s man can c o u n t on, and can a t t a i n o c c a s io n
a l l y .
V ic t o r ia c o n tin u e s t o r e b e l a g a i n s t th e n e c e s s i t y of
D ie g o 's s a c r i f i c e , w hich seems to o a b s t r a c t t o h e r . When,
d y in g , he g a s p s , " J e t ' a i aim ee de to u te mon am e," she
1 3 4 -
r e p l i e s t h a t h i s s o u l i s n o t enough: " Q u 'a v a ls - je a f a i r e
de to n ame s e u le J " (2 2 8 ). And th e ch o ru s of women, g a th
e re d around V i c t o r i a and D iego, who i s u n d erg o in g th e
d e a th s tr u g g le i n pantom im e, echo V i c t o r i a 's s e n tim e n ts :
A lo r s , au l i e u de c e t t e m ort s o l i t a i r e , p eu p lee
d 'i d e e s , n o u r r ie de m o ts, vous c o n n a itr e z l a m ort
ensem ble, vous e t nous confondus dans l e t e r r i b l e
em brassem ent de 1 ' amourJ Mais l e s hommes p r e f i r e n t
1 1 id e e (2 2 9 ).
H ere and i n th e r e s t of t h e i r sp e e c h , th e ch o ru s o f women
e x p re s s th e problem of th e c o n f l i c t betw een " h e ro ic
a c tio n " of th e men " q u i o n t l a co m p re h en sio n ," and th e
demands of h a p p in e s s and lo v e . For i n o rd e r t o f i g h t
a g a i n s t d e a th and s u f f e r i n g , one m u st, i t seem s, become a
l i t t l e a b s t r a c t , a s R ie u x observed i n La P e s te ("Pour
l u t t e r c o n tr e 1 ' a b s t r a c t i o n , i l f a u t un peu l u i resse m -
b l e r " |~106j). D iego, whose only rew ard i s h e re on e a r t h ,
i n th e c o n c r e te , i n lo v e , has made a c h o ic e of bein g
h e r o ic and sa v in g th e town and i t s freedom . Why?
H is m o tiv a tio n f o r a c t i o n seems t o be h i s p r id e . The
S e c r e ta r y re c o g n iz e d t h i s f o r c e when she rem arked t o The
P lague t h a t "Nous trio m p h e ro n s de t o u t , s a u f de l a f i e r t e "
(2 2 4 ). And Diego has encouraged th e c i t i z e n s t o r e v o l t
w ith th e c r y , "N 'ay ez p lu s p e u r, c ' e s t l a c o n d itio n . . . .
R elevez l e f r o n t , v o i c i l 'h e u r e de l a f i e r t e " (1 8 4 ). I t
i s D ie g o 's p r id e t h a t makes him r e f u s e t o g iv e i n t o The
P la g u e ; n o t an overw eening p r id e and a r ro g a n c e , b u t a p r id e
135
i n 'being a man.
T h is p r id e i s m a n ife s te d by f i g h t i n g t o th e end
a g a i n s t d e a th and s u f f e r i n g , and by f u l f i l l i n g a l l th e
p o s s i b i l i t i e s of o n e 's f a t e , d e s p ite a r e c o g n i tio n of
human l i m i t a t i o n s . The p o s s i b i l i t i e s of human l i f e , a s
d em o n strate d by D iego, a r e in lo v e an d , when n e c e s s a r y , i n
s e r v ic e t o o n e ’s f e llo w men. D iego b e l ie v e s in a community
of man (When The P lague t r i e s t o co n v in ce him t h a t man i s
a lo n e , D iego a n sw e rs, " S i j ' e t a i s s e u l , t o u t s e r a i t f a c i l e .
Mais de g re ou de f o r c e , i l s s o n t avec mol" £213) ) ; and
he i s prom pted t o h e r o ic a c t i o n by com passion.
W ith th e f i g u r e s Nada and Judge C asado, Camus demon
s t r a t e d th e d a n g e r, t o th e m selv es and t o o t h e r s , of th o se
who w ith d raw from th e community of man, r e j e c t l i f e , and
r e f u s e t o g iv e th em selv es in lo v e . Nada r e f u s e s l i f e ,
and becomes an acco m p lice t o The P la g u e . The Ju d g e,
in c a p a b le of lo v e and w ith o u t com passion, fo llo w s an
a b s t r a c t law . When he i s a b o u t t o denounce Diego " a n nom
de l a l o i , " h i s w ife t e l l s him , "Tu n 'a s ja m ais ju g e que
s e lo n l a h a in e que tu d e e o r a is du nom de l o i . E t meme l e s
m e ille u r e s l o i s ont p r i s m auvais g o u t dans t a bouche,
c ' e t a i t l a bouche a i g r e de ceux q u i a 'o n t jam ais r i e n
aim e" (1 4 7 ).
In h i s l a s t sp eech b e fo re he k i l l s h im s e lf , Nada
t r i e s t o co n v in ce th e tow nspeople t h a t D ieg o ’s s a c r i f i c e
136
h as been i n v a i n , t h a t l i f e i s m e a n in g le s s , and t h a t th e
old i n j u s t i c e s w i l l b e g in a l l over a g a in . From h is p o s i
t i o n on th e b a ttle m e n t, he can see th e old m a ste rs (who
resem b le th e p a t r i c i a n s i n C a lig u l a ) r e t u r n i n g , and w ith
s a d i s t i c r e l i s h he announces t h e i r re -?en try :
Les v o i l a i Les a n c ie n s a r r i v e n t , ceux d 'a v a n t , ceux de
t o u j o u r s , l e s p l t r i f i e s , l e s r a s s u r a n t s j le s c o n fo r-
t a b l e s , l e s c u l s - d e - s a c s , l e s b ie n le c h e s , l a t r a d i t i o n
e n f i n , a s s i s e , p r o s p e r s , r a s e e de f r a i s . . . . A tte n
t i o n , ceux q u i e c r i v e n t l ' h i s t o i r e r e v ie n n e n t. On va
s ’ occuper d es h e ro s (2 3 0 -2 3 1 ).
The P lag u e has a l s o p r e d ic te d th e r e t u r n of th e old mas
t e r s — alw ays b lin d t o th e needs of o th e rs and s tu p id —who
a r e h i s g r e a t e s t a l l i e s . *'Honneur aux stupides,** he t e l l s
th e c i t i z e n s , ”p u i s q u 'i l s p r e p a r e n t mes v o i e s J rt (225)*
F or w h ile c r u e l t y su ch a s h i s may eause them t o r e v o l t ,
s t u p i d i t y o n ly d is h e a r te n s them. Thus one day th e y w i l l
g iv e up t h e i r r e v o l t , and The P lag u e w i l l w in.
The P lag u e* s p r e d ic tio n s seem t o be coming t r u e , f o r
w h ile Nada s p e a k s , th e A lead es i n th e background b e g in to
p erfo rm o f f i c i a l cerem onies i n pantom im e, aw arding each
o th e r m edals and making sp e e c h e s. Even w h ile th e blood of
th o se th e y c a l l j u s t i s s t i l l on th e w a l l s , Nada t e l l s th e
e i t l z e n s , t h e i r m a ste rs d e c o ra te eheh o th e r and make
sp e e c h e s: **ils se d d c o re n tl R e jo u ls s e z - v o u s , vous a l l e z
a v o ir vos d is c o u rs de p r i x ” (2 3 2 ). Nada p r e d i c t s t h a t
e v e ry th in g w i l l b e g in a g a in , j u s t a s i t was b e fo re th e
137
p la g u e . For th e old m a s te r s , r a t h e r th a n gag th e p e o p le
a s The P lague had d o n e, w i l l sim p ly c lo s e t h e i r e a r s t o
t h e i r c r i e s . B efore he jumps i n t o th e s e a , Nada c r i e s :
"Je s a l s tr o p de c h o s e s , meme le m epris a f a i t son tem ps.
A d ieu , b ra v e s g e n s , vous a p p re n d re z e e la un jo u r q u 'o n ne
p e u t pas b ie n v iv r e en s a c h a n t que I'homme n ’e s t r i e n e t
que l a fa c e de Dieu e s t a f f r e u s e " ( 2 3 3)*
But The F ish erm a n , whose in v o c a tio n t o th e Sea ends
th e p la y , r e j e c t s N ad a's pessim ism . He c a l l s Nada a l i a r ,
and invokes th e Sea t o avenge them and t o u n i t e a l l th e
o u tc a s ts and r e b e l s — th o se who would n ev er y ie ld t o th e
d e s p e r a te n i h i l i s m of Nada n o r t o th e s t e r i l i t y of The
P la g u e 's r u l e :
E l l e c r i e l e r a l l i e m e n t de to u s l e s hommes de l a m er, l a
re u n io n des s o l i t a i r e s . O v ag u e, o m er, p a t r i e des
in s u r g e s , v o i c i to n p eu p le q u i ne c e d e ra ja m a is . La
g rande lame de fo n d , n o u r r ie dans l'am ertu m e des ea u x ,
e m p o rtera vos c i t e s h o r r i b l e s (2 3 4 ).
Summary and C o n c lu sio n s
I n t h i s p la y , Camus a g a in i l l u s t r a t e s th e d a n g e rs of
m an 's r e f u s in g to u se a p p r o p r ia te language and o f becoming
a l i e n a t e d from c o n c re te n a tu r e and from o th e r human b e in g s .
As i n La P e s t e . th e r u l e r s of th e town i n L fl l t a t de Si&ge
were to o in v o lv e d i n t h e i r w orld of h a b i t t o view some
th in g u n u su a l t h a t e n te re d t h e i r l i v e s f o r w hat i t was
and c a l l i t by i t s name. They a tte m p te d to deny th e
138
e x is te n c e of th e r e a l by c o v e rin g i t w ith r h e t o r i c , and
w ere th u s u n a b le and u n w illin g t o o rg a n iz e r e s i s t a n c e t o
e v i l . The P la g u e , th e d i c t a t o r of th e new o r d e r,
a tte m p te d t o tu r n h is s u b je c ts i n t o s t a t i s t i c s and g rap h s
by d e s tro y in g a l l t h a t i s i n d iv i d u a l and human. He t r i e d
to keep them i n a s t a t e of e x h a u s tio n so t h a t th e y
w ouldn’ t r e v o l t by in v o lv in g them i n u s e l e s s a c t i v i t y .
And by d e s tro y in g com m unication betw een men and in v o lv in g
them i n m e a n in g le ss r h e t o r i c , he t r i e d t o a c c o m p lish h is
i d e a l of h aving th e c i t i z e n s c o n t r ib u t e to t h e i r own
e x e c u tio n .
In t h i s dram a, Camus a s s o c i a t e s th e r e s i s t a n c e t o
d e a th and s u f f e r i n g , w hich had co ncerned him in th e n o v e l
La P e s t e . w ith r e b e l l i o n a g a i n s t ty ra n n y . The same weap
ons were used a g a i n s t b o th : man m ust lo s e h is f e a r of
d e a th and u n i t e w ith h is f e llo w man t o r e s i s t b o th s u f f e r
ing and d e a th and r u t h l e s s d i c t a t o r s h i p s .
In th e f i g u r e of Nada, Camus i l l u s t r a t e s th e d an g ers
of n i h i l i s m and d isengagem ent from l i f e . The P lague
a tte m p te d to con v in ce D iego i n t o ta k in g N ada’s c y n ic a l
p o s i t i o n : t h a t man i s n o t w o rth s a c r i f i c e , t h a t one m ust
make h is own h a p p in e ss a t th e expense of o t h e r s , t h a t th e
u n iv e rs e i s m a le v o le n t, and t h a t s in c e t h e r e i s no meaning
to l i f e , i t should be sc o rn e d . Nada’ s a c tio n s i l l u s t r a t e
th e danger of a man who la c k s com passion and who i s
139
removed from l i f e on a v e ry c o n c re te l e v e l , who i s n o t
immersed i n th e sim ple jo y s o f e x i s t e n c e , c o n c re te n a t u r e ,
and lo v e s M l a ro s e sa u v a g e , l e s s ig n e s dans l e c i e l , le s
v is a g e s d ' e t e , l a g ran d e v o ix de l a m er, l e s i n s t a n t s du
d e e h ire m e n t” ( 176) . D iego showed t h a t man i s a v ic tim
d e s e rv in g eom p assio n , and th e f a c t t h a t he i s im p e rfe c t
o n ly p ro v es t h a t no one sh o u ld have a b s o lu te power. The
o n ly s c o rn w o rth y o f man i s s c o rn f o r M l e s b o u rreau x "
(2 1 5 ), n o t f o r l i f e n o r f o r h is com rades.
Camus p o s i t s t h a t r e b e l l i o n must be based on compas
s i o n , a r e s p e e t f o r human l i f e , and a lo v e of l i f e .
O therw ise man, h a tin g h im s e lf and u n ab le t o a c c e p t th e
human c o n d i tio n , w i l l , l i k e Nada, se ek to d e s tr o y h im s e lf
and c o l l a b o r a t e i n th e d e s t r u c t i o n of o th e r s . Camus
d e m o n stra te s t h a t when men la c k com passion and r e j e c t
lo v e , th e y , l i k e Judge Casado and The A lc a d e , fo llo w
a b s t r a c t law s b l i n d l y , and th e n even j u s t laws a r e i n t e r
p r e te d th ro u g h h a t e .
Man m ust th u s se e k h a p p in e s s , b u t n o t a t th e expense
of o th e r s . The o nly freedom w o rth y of man i s a freedom
of th e s p i r i t o b ta in e d th ro u g h a h ard and d e s p e r a te
s tr u g g le . T his freedom i s n o t t h a t w hich i s won th ro u g h
s u b ju g a tin g o th e r human b e in g s ; i t i s freedom from th e
f e a r o f d e a th . Man m ust le a r n t o say ‘'no" t o th e e x p l o i t a
t i o n o f o t h e r s , t o v io le n c e , and t o m u rd er, no m a tte r how
140
s tr o n g th e arg u m en ts.
In L * i t a t de S i e g e . Camus d em o n strate d t h a t th e
m otive f o r h e r o ic a c t i o n i n men of good w i l l may he p r i d e ,
p rid e i n b ein g a man. And he showed t h a t th e c r i e s of
one man who r e f u s e s t o s u rre n d e r a r e more p o w erfu l th a n
mute s t a t i s t i c s . When man overcomes a f e a r of d e a th and
se ek s l i f e , jo in in g h is f e llo w man in r e b e l l i o n a g a i n s t
d e a th ( th e o n ly p ro p e r r e b e l l i o n i s a g a i n s t d e a th and
s u f f e r i n g , combined w ith a jo y o u s a c c e p ta n c e of l i f e ) , he
"w ins th e gam e," t o u se T a r r o u ’ s e x p r e s s io n , and becomes
s u p e r io r t o h i s f a t e .
CHAPTER V I
LA CHUTE1
I n tr o d u c tio n
The h e ro of La Chute i s com plex; he d e f i e s im m ediate
p e r c e p tio n and im m ediate c a te g o r iz in g . I n th e c o n f e s s io n s
of J e a n - B a p tis te Clamence one h e a rs echoes of th e nephew
in D i d e r o t 's Le Neveu de Rameau, of D a n te 's f ig u r e s in
h e l l , of C o n ra d 's h e r o , Lord Jim , of E l i o t 's P ru fro c k , of
K a fk a 's Jo se p h K .; and above a l l , of D o sto e v sk y 's
c r e a t u r e s — th e Underground Man, Iv a n Karamazov and h is
Grand I n q u i s i t o r , S ta v r o g in , and A lexy V elch an in o v . The
pseudonym he h as c h o se n , John th e B a p t i s t , su g g e s ts a r o l e
of modern p r o p h e t, a r o l e w hich he d e s c r ib e s toward th e
end of h is c o n fe s s io n : ”. . . p ro p h e te v id e pour temps
m e d io c re s, E l i e san s m e s s ie , b o u rre de f i e v r e e t d 'a l c o o l ,
le dos c o l i e a c e t t e p o r te m o is ie , l e d o ig t le v e v e rs un
c i e l b a s , e o u v ra n t d 'im p r e c a tio n s d es hommes san s l o i q u i
ne p eu v en t s u p p o r te r aueun jugem ent" ( 135) ; an empty
p ro p h e t t o modern man, whose o n ly i n t e r e s t s , a c c o rd in g to
J e a n - B a p t is te , a r e f o r n i c a t i n g and re a d in g th e new spaper:
^ A lb e rt Camus, La Chute ( P a r i s , 1956)
141
142
**Une p h ra se le u r s u f f i r a pour l'homme m oderne: i l f o r n i -
q u a i t e t l i s a i t des jo u rn a u x . A pres e e t t e f o r t e d e f i n i
t i o n , l e s u j e t s e r a , s i j 'o s e d i r e , e p u is e " ( 11) .
I n J e a n - B a p tis te * s a c u t e , c y n ic a l a n a l y s i s of mores
and m anners, he perform s th e f u n c tio n of th e Nephew of
Rameau, whom D id e ro t d e s c r ib e d a s b ein g a c h a r a c te r who
’’tra n c h e avec c e l u i des a u t r e s , e t q u ’ i l s rom pent e e t t e
f a s t i d i e u s e u n ifo rm !te que n o tr e e d u c a tio n , nos c o n v e n ti
ons de s o c i e t e , nos b ie n s ^ a n c e s d ’usage o n t i n t r o d u i t e . 1,2
But w hat co n c ern s J e a n - B a p tis te p r im a r il y i n h is monologue
i s th e problem of g u i l t , and th o s e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d sub
j e c t s , c rim e , p u n ish m en t, in n o c e n c e , r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , and
freedom . These them es a lr e a d y e v id e n t i n La P e s t e .
C a l i g u l a . L ’lS tranger T and L ’E t a t de S ie g e , a r e a l s o c e n t r a l
t o La C h u te . J e a n - B a p t i s t e *s s t a t e of t o r t u r e (w hich he
d e s c r ib e s a s l i k e l i v i n g i n **le malconfort** t o r t u r e c e l l )
i s a consequence of h is f a i l u r e t o d is c o v e r ” l e p r in e ip e
d 'u n e c u l p a b i l i t e r a i s o n n a b l e . ”3
The r e e i t i s i n th e form of a ram b lin g c o n f e s s io n or
monologue i n th e t r a d i t i o n of D o sto e v sk y 's Notes from
U nderground. But t o whom i s J e a n - B a p tis te sp eak in g ? I s
h e , l i k e Iv a n Karamazov in h is c o n v e rs a tio n s w ith th e
2Le Neveu de Rameau (G eneve, 1 9 5 0 ), P* 13*
3 illb e r t Camus, L* Homme R e v o lte ( P a r i s , 1951) > P* 22.
143
D e v il, c o n v e rs in g w ith h im s e lf , or i s he c o n fe s s in g to
th e w o rld i n g e n e r a l, l i k e D o sto e v sk y 's U nderground Man?
At f i r s t he seems to be ta l k i n g w ith a f e llo w P a r i s i a n i n
a b ar i n Amsterdam, b u t h i s rem arks i n th e l a s t page of
th e J e c i t s u g g e s t t h a t he may be c a rr y in g on a c o n v e rs a
t i o n w ith a c h a r a c te r of h i s im a g in a tio n . A t any r a t e ,
th e o c c a sio n f o r h is c o n f e s s io n i s h is e n c o u n te r, r e a l or
im a g in a ry , w ith a c o m p a trio t i n a seedy b a r i n th e r e d -
l i g h t d i s t r i c t of Amsterdam, w hich he d e s c r ib e s a s lo c a te d
i n th e lo w e s t c i r c l e o f D a n te 's H e ll.
" Le s ty le ., eomme l a p o p e l in e . d is s im u le
tr o p so u v e n t de 1 ' eczem a. "
The j u x t a p o s i t i o n of th e s p e a k e r 's d i c t i o n , h i s sub
j e c t m a t t e r , and th e s e t t i n g of th e opening l i n e s p ro d u ces
a n e f f e c t of c o m ic -g ro te sq u e t h a t i s c a r r i e d th ro u g h o u t
th e r e c i t . J e a n - B a p tis te in tr o d u c e s h im s e lf i n th e fo llo w
ing l i n e s t h a t b e g in h is c o n f e s s io n :
P u i s - j e , M o n sieu r, vous p ro p o se r mes s e r v i c e s , san s
r i s q u e r d 'e t r e im portun? J e c r a i n s que vous ne s a c h ie z
vous f a i r e e n te n d re de l 'e s t i m a b l e g o r i l l e q u i p r e s id e
au x d e s tin e e s de e e t e ta b lis s e m e n t. I I ne p a r l e , en
e f f e t , que l e h o l l a n d a i s . A moins que vous ne m 'a u t o r i -
s i e z a p l a i d e r v o tr e c a u s e , i l ne d e v in e r a pas que vous
d e s i r e z du g e n ie v r e . V o ila , j ' ose e s p e r e r q u ' i l m 'a
co m p ris; ce hochem ent de t e t e d o i t s i g n i f i e r q u ' i l se
rend a mes argum ents ( 7 ) .
The sp e a k e r i s conform ing t o th e c o n v e n tio n s of b o u rg e o is
p o l i t e s s e i n h i s c h o ic e of euphemisms and c irc u m lo c u tio n ,
th e use of th e s u b ju n c tiv e , and h is g e n e r a l l y e x a g g e ra te d
144
good m aim ers. W ith supreme ir o n y , a l l of t h i s e x a g g e ra te d
p o l i t e n e s s i s coming from a man who i s su rro u n d ed by pimps
and p r o s t i t u t e s i n a low ta v e r n , and whose s u b je c t i s th e
problem of o rd e rin g a g la s s of g in from a " g o r i l l a 1 1 i n a
b a r c a l l e d M e x ie o -C itv .
I n th e p o l i t e c o n v e r s a tio n t h a t fo llo w s i n th e i n t r o
d u c to ry c h a p te r of t h i r t e e n p a g e s , in th e a p p a r e n tly
a im le s s r e f l e c t i o n s and o b s e rv a tio n s of two F re n ch g e n t l e
men, a l l of th e main them es and s u b je c ts o f th e whole
c o n f e s s io n a r e o b liq u e ly in tro d u c e d . T h e ir o b s e rv a tio n of
th e b a r t e n d e r - p r o p r i e t o r le a d s J e a n - B a p tis te t o g e n e r a liz e
on h i s a t t r a c t i o n t o th e Noble S avage, "Cro-Magnon" ty p e s
who have no a f t e r - t h o u g h t s . T his i s an e a r l y r e f e r e n c e t o
h i s own se n se of overwhelm ing g u i l t i "Quand on a beaucoup
m ed ite su r l'hom m e, p a r m e tie r ou p a r v o c a tio n , i l a r r i v e
q u 'o n eprouve de l a n o s t a l g i e pour l e s p r im a te s . I l s
n 'o n t p a s , eu x , d ‘a r r i e r e - p e n s e e s " ( 9 ) . When he p o in ts
o u t in p a s s in g t h a t th e empty space above th e b a r t e n d e r 's
head fo rm e rly c o n ta in e d a p a i n t i n g , he in tro d u c e s th e f i r s t
r e f e r e n c e t o th e s t o l e n Van Eyck p a i n t i n g , Les Ju e e s
i n t e g r e s . w h ich , we d is c o v e r a t th e end o f th e book, he
has i n h i s p o s s e s s io n . H is q u ic k a s s u ra n c e t h a t he does
n o t judge o th e r s , "N otez b ie n que je ne le ju g e p as" ( 9 ) ,
In tro d u c e s th e ju d g m e n t- g u ilt them e. When h is companion
f a l t e r s in u sin g th e im p e rf e c t s u b ju n c tiv e , J e a n - B a p tis te
145
c o n f e s s e s a w eakness f o r t h a t mood, and f o r " l e beau
la n g ag e" in g e n e ra l; and he rem arks t h a t "Le s t y l e , comme
la p o p e lin e , d is s im u le tr o p so u v e n t de 1 *eczema' ' 1 ( 10) ,
w hich s u g g e s ts t o th e r e a d e r t h a t p erh ap s J e a n - B a p t i s t e ’ s
e le g a n t m anners h id e some m o ral d is e a s e . He comments t h a t
th e pimps th e y see around them a r e more m o ral th a n th e
b o u rg e o is c i t i z e n s . T h is , combined w ith a m etaphor
in v o lv in g rav en o u s B r a z i l i a n f i s h w hich he a p p lie s t o
b o u rg e o is s o c i e t y and fa m ily l i f e , s u g g e s ts b o th h i s p r e
o c c u p a tio n w ith m oral is s u e s and a d is d a in f o r contem porary
moress ’"O n va vous n e t to y e r . V o ila un m e tie r , une
f a m i l l e , des l o i s i r s o r g a n i s e s .' S t l e s p e t i t e s d e n ts
s 'a t t a q u e n t a l a c h a i r , J u s q u 'a u x os'* ( 1 2) .
A r e f e r e n c e t o h i s r e s id e n c e i n th e Jew ish q u a r te r
le a d s him t o m ention such exam ples of m an's in h u m an ity t o
man i n our tim e a s th e mass m urder of Jew s; an d , more
p a r t i c u l a r l y , th e dilemma of th e F ren ch m other who was
fo rc e d by a German o f f i c e r t o choose w hich of h e r sons
would be s h o t. He th e n comments t h a t " to u t e s le s s u r p r i s e s
s o n t p o s s i b le s " (1 7 ). H is o b s e rv a tio n t h a t th e c o n c e n tr ic
c a n a ls of Amsterdam resem b le th e c i r c l e s of H e ll , i n t r o
duces th e D ante m o ti f , one t h a t he w i l l b rin g i n s e v e r a l
tim es i n th e r e c i t , and s u g g e s ts t h a t p erh ap s we a r e h e a r
ing a c o n f e s s io n by one of th e damned. And a s Jean-B ap
t i s t e and h is companion w alk alo n g th e q u a i s , h is
146
s u r p r i s in g rem ark t h a t he has made a vow n e v e r t o c ro s s
b rid g e s b ecau se someone m ight throw h im s e lf i n t o th e
w a te r , h i n t s a t th e g r e a t e v e n t t h a t changed h is l i f e , h is
a c t o f c o w a rd ic e. And f i n a l l y , th e f i r s t c h a p te r c lo s e s
w ith an a l l u s i o n t o c a r n a l p a s s io n a s b ein g a dream and
a form of escap es nCes dam es, d e r r i e r e c e s v i t r i n e s ? Le
r e v e , m o n sie u r, le re v e a peu de f r a i s , l e voyage aux
In d e s J " (2 1 )— a method of ev ad in g g u i l t i n w hich J e a n -
B a p tis te in d u lg e s . A l l of th e s e obscu re r e f e r e n c e s i n th e
opening pages h e lp t o c r e a t e s u sp e n se , i n t e r e s t , and a
se n se of m y stery . And th e y a l l , though seem in g ly random,
have a d i r e c t b e a rin g on J e a n - B a p t i s t e ’ s c e n t r a l problem .
A t a second m eeting a t th e M ex ico -C ity b a r , J e a n -
B a p tis te b e g in s t o d e s c r ib e h is form er l i f e t o h i s f e llo w
P a r i s i a n , f o r th e avowed pu rp o se o f e x p la in in g h is p r o f e s
s io n , t h a t of .lu g e - p e n ite n t. He c o n fid e s t h a t d e s c r ib in g
k i s m e tie r and r e c o u n tin g th e s to r y of h i s l i f e a r e a p a r t
o f h is f u n c tio n a s .iu g e - p l n i t e n t : b u t th e r e a l purpose of
t h i s e t a l a g e — to c o n fe s s i n o rd e r t o encourage o th e rs to
do th e same— i s n o t a p p a re n t u n t i l tow ard th e end of th e
r e c i t .
uLa fa c e de to u te s mes v e r tu s a v a i t
a i n s i un r e v e r s molns jm p o sa n t. ”
J e a n - B a p tis te d e s c r ib e s h i s l i f e b e fo re h i s " f a l l , "
from th e p o in t of view of h i s new i n s i g h t i n t o th e
147
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of e v e n ts and a c t i o n s . The re a d e r does n o t
know why he se e s h is l i f e from an e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t p o in t
of r e f e r e n c e u n t i l page e ig h ty -tw o , h a l f way th ro u g h th e
r e c i t , when he d e s c r ib e s i n d e t a i l h i s a c t of co w a rd ic e.
L ike Lord Jim , one a c t of co w ardice c o m p le te ly changes h i s
l i f e (Camus c a lle d th e h e ro of La Chute "a l e s s b r i l l i a n t
Lord Jim ” ) . ^ We know o n ly t h a t he i s a man of m iddle a g e ,
much l i k e th e h e ro o f D o sto e v sk y ’s n o v e l The E te r n a l
H usband. A lexy I v a n o v itc h V ele h an in o v , who a l s o , f o r
u n e x p la in e d r e a s o n s , w ithdraw s from h i s fo rm er l i f e . ^
D o sto e v sk y 's n o v e l opens w ith a s k e tc h of A lex y , a handsome
and c u ltu r e d man of th e w o rld , who, a t th e h e ig h t o f h i s
c a r e e r a t th e age of t h i r t y - n i n e , a b r u p tly b re a k s w ith
s o c ie ty and goes i n t o s e c lu s io n . A f te r y e a rs of p la y in g
th e p a r t of a n i n s e n s i t i v e ro u £ , he su d d e n ly b eg in s to
remember h i s p a s t a c tio n s and t o examine them from a new
p o in t of view . Deeds t h a t he had long f o r g o t t e n and t h a t
a t th e tim e he d id n o t c o n s id e r to be e v i l su d d en ly o v er
whelm him and f i l l him w ith rem o rse , and even cause him
t o be p h y s i c a l l y i l l . T his i s p r e c i s e l y th e same p a t t e r n
^"The h e ro of The F a l l , Camus s a id i n an in te r v ie w ,
i s 'a l e s s b r i l l i a n t Lord J i m . 1* ’ Leo H am alian and Edmond
L. V olpe, e d s . , Ten S h o rt N ovels (Hew Y ork, 1958), p . 642.
5»Tr. C onstance G a rn e tt (Hew Y ork, 1917)*
148
t h a t J e a n - B a p tis te f o llo w s .
A p o r t r a i t g r a d u a lly em erges from a p p a r e n tly random
o b s e rv a tio n s made by J e a n - B a p tis te as he and h is companion
s i t i n th e b a r , w alk th e s t r e e t s of Amsterdam, and v i s i t
th e is la n d of Marken; i t i s a p p a re n t t h a t h e re i s a man
of h is tim e . He has p a r t i c i p a t e d in th e d e f e a t of an
army and s u f f e r e d th e " ly ris m e c e l l u l a i r e " in a c o n c e n tra
t i o n camp. L ike Iv a n Karamazov i n h is c o n f e s s io n of f a i t h
t o A ly o sh a, he i s f u l l of exam ples of m an's in h u man i t y to
man: he makes c o n tin u a l r e f e r e n c e t o th e German occupa
t i o n , Buchenw ald, H azi t o r t u r e m ethods, and th e mass
m urder of Jew s. As he w alks and c o n v e rs e s , h is q u ic k mind
d a r t s from s u b je c t t o s u b je c ts s la v e r y , m a rria g e , f r i e n d
s h ip , c r i m i n a l s , w e a lth , s i n c e r i t y , s u i c i d e , judgm ent,
fa m ily l i f e , D an te, th e D utch tem peram ent, and c o n c e n tr a
t i o n camps. T his seem in g ly random o u tp o u rin g p r e s e n ts
f i n a l l y som ething w hich m ust be v e ry c lo s e t o a p o r t r a i t
of th e c o n sc ie n c e of th e European i n t e l l e c t u a l , h is se n se
of g u i l t and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r th e s e h o r r o r s . And a l l of
th e s u b je c ts a r e c l o s e l y co n n ected w ith J e a n - B a p t i s t e 's
own problem ; "AhJ Chere p la n e te .' Tout y e s t c l a i r
m a in te n a n t. Nous nous c o n n a is s o n s , nous savons ce d o n t
nous sommes e a p a b le sv "(5 5 )*
U n til th e " f a l l " ( h i s lo s s of inno cen ce and th e
a c q u ire d knowledge o f g u i l t ) , J e a n - B a p tis te t e l l s h i s
149
com panion t h a t he had liv e d i n a w orld of w ords, n o t
r e a l i t y s ’ ’J 'a v a n g a is a i n s i a l a s u r f a c e de l a v i e , dans
l e s mots en quelque s o r t e , ja m ais dans l a r e a l i t e ” ( 6 0 ) .
B ut he was e x tre m e ly s u c c e s s f u l a t ’’l i v i n g ” : ” N’e t a i t - c e
pas c e l a , en e f f e t , . l'E d e n , c h e r m o n sieu r: l a v ie en
p r i s e d i r e c t e ? Ce f u t l a m ienne. Je n ' a i jam ais eu h e s o in
d 'a p p re n d re & v i v r e ” (3 4 ). He had th e a d v a n ta g e s of good
fa m ily and a sound e d u c a tio n ; he was i n t e l l i g e n t , good
lo o k in g , a t h l e t i c , and had a l l th e s o c i a l g ra c e s . And he
was e x tre m e ly s u c c e s s f u l w ith women and i n h is p r o f e s s io n
o f law , h i s two p a s s io n s : ” . . . j ’a r r i v a l s k aim er en
meme tem ps, ce q u i n ' e s t g u ere f a c i l e , l e s femmes e t l a
j u s t i c e . . . ” ( 3 5 ) .
He was a famous P a r i s i a n law yer w ith one s p e c i a l t y :
” l e s n o b le s c a u s e s ” ( 2 3)» p r e f e r a b l y th e d e fe n s e of widows
and orphans, or a t l e a s t of ’’good” m u rd e re rs : ” . . . j e
p r e n a is le u r d e f e n s e , a l a s e u le c o n d itio n q u 'i l s f u s s e n t
de bons m e u r t r i e r s , eomme d 'a u t r e s s o n t de bons sa u v a g e s”
(2 6 ). T his r o l e p e rm itte d him th e s a t i s f a c t i o n of b ein g
on th e r i g h t s id e and of h av in g a c l e a r c o n s c ie n c e :
” . . . j ' ^ t a i s du bon c o t e , c e la s u f f i s a i t a l a p a ix de
ma c o n s c ie n c e . Le s e n tim e n t du d r o i t , l a s a t i s f a c t i o n
d ’a v o ir r a i s o n , l a j o i e de s ’e s tim e r soi-m em e, c h e r
m o n sieu r, s o n t des r e s s o r t s p u is s a n ts pour nous t e n i r
d eb o u t ou nous f a i r e a v a n c e r” ( 2 5) .
150
T his extrem e s a t i s f a c t i o n he found i n a id in g widows
and orphans ru le d h is whole l i f e , i n and out of th e c o u r t
room, For exam ple, he loved h e lp in g b lin d p eo p le t o c r o s s
s t r e e t s ; g iv in g d i r e c t i o n s t o s tr a n g e r s ; pushing b ro k en -
down a u to m o b ile s; g iv in g money t o b e g g a rs ; and s u r r e n d e r
in g h is s e a t i n th e subway. I n f a c t , he f e l t r a t h e r l i k e
a god who descen d s from th e f l i e s o c c a s io n a lly t o s e t
th in g s r i g h t f o r th e a c t o r s on th e s ta g e below : " Je v iv a is
impunement. Je n ’e t a i s co n eern e p a r aucun jug em en t, je ne
me tr o u v a is pas s u r l a scene du t r i b u n a l , m ais q uelque
p a r t , dans l e s c i n t r e s , eomme ces d ie u x q u e, de temps en
tem ps, on d e sc e n d , au moyen d 'u n e m achine, pour t r a n s f i -
g u re r 1 ‘a c t i o n e t l u i donner son se n s" (3 2 -3 3 )• H is
accused c l i e n t s w e re , in a s e n s e , ta k in g h i s p la c e , he
d is c o v e rs l a t e r , b u t a t th e tim e i t seemed "Les ju g e s
p u n i s s a i e n t , le s a c c u se s e x p i a ie n t e t m oi, l i b r e de t o u t
d e v o ir , s o u s t r a i t au jugem ent comme a l a s a n c tio n , je
r e g n a i s , lib r e m e n t, dans une lu m ie re ed e n iq u e" (3 4 ).
I n th e f r a n k and d e t a i l e d r e v e l a t i o n of h i s lo v e l i f e ,
i t i s a p p a re n t t h a t i t to o fo llo w ed th e p a t t e r n of h is
g e n e r a lly s u c c e s s f u l l i f e . J e a n - B a p tis te had alw ays had
an e a sy tim e a t t r a c t i n g and se d u cin g women. He was fond
of them , of c o u r s e , b u t he had n ev er r e a l l y loved anyone:
" Je le s a im a is , s e lo n l 'e x p r e s s i o n c o n s a e r e e , ce q u i
r e v i e n t a d i r e que je n 'e n a i jam ais aime aucune" ( 6 8 ) .
151
S e n s u a lity a lo n e governed h is em o tio n a l a c t i v i t y , and th e
o n ly g r e a t lo v e of h i s l i f e had b een h im s e lf : ”11 e s t
f a u x , a p re s t o u t , que j e n ’a i jam ais aim e. J ' a i co n tra ct©
dans ma v ie au moins un grand am our, d o n t j ’a i to u jo u r s
e t e l 1o h j e t ” < 68-69). Only h i s ego was in v o lv e d in th e s e
games of lo v e ; he had no a b i l i t y t o g iv e h im s e lf t o anyone
e n t i r e l y . He had a g r e a t need to be ’’l i k e d ” and ’’l o v e d ,”
b u t he d id j^ l) w ish t o d e v o te to o much tim e t o any one
p e rso n . B ut he d id w ant h i s com panions t o be alw ays a t
hands ”En somme, pour que j e v iv e h e u re u x , i l f a l l a i t que
l e s e t r e s que j ' e l i s a i s ne v e c u s s e n t p o i n t . I l s ne d e v a i-
e n t r e c e v o ir l e u r v i e , de l o i n en l o i n , que de mon bon
p l a i s i r ” ( 8 0) .
I t becomes e v id e n t l a t e r in th e c o n f e s s io n t h a t
because he i s u n a b le t o lo v e , he f in d s i t d i f f i c u l t to
f in d a meaning t o l i f e and im p o s sib le t o a c c e p t h im s e lf
a f t e r th e “f a l l . " He tu r n s f i r s t t o th o u g h ts of s u i c i d e ,
th e n t o d eb a u ch e ry , and f i n a l l y t o c o n f e s s io n and h is r o l e
of .lu g e -p e n ite n t a s a means of e sc a p e .
”Le se n tim e n t de l ’a b s u r d it e au d e to u r
de n ’ im p o rte q u e lle ru e p e u t f r a p p e r 1[
l a fa c e de n ’im p o rte q u e l homme. ”o
» J e a n - B a p tis te c o n tin u e d h i s e x tre m e ly s u c c e s s f u l ,
^Camus, Le Mythe de S isv p h e ( P a r i s , 1 9 4 2 ), pp. 24-25.
152
happy e x is te n c e u n t i l one f a t e f u l evening when he h eard
la u g h te r a t h i s b ack , coming from an unknown so u rc e —
la u g h te r t h a t was t o h a u n t him th e r e s t of h is l i f e . The
in c id e n t o cc u rred one b e a u t i f u l autumn evening a s he was
c ro s s in g th e p o n t des A rts a f t e r a p a r t i c u l a r l y s u c c e s s f u l
day:
J ’e t a i s c o n te n t. La jo u rn e e a v a i t e t e bonne: un
a v e u g le , l a r e d u c tio n de p e in e que j 'e s p e r a i s , la ehaude
p o ig n ee de m ain de mon e l i e n t , q u elq u es g e n e r o s ite s e t ,
dans l ’a p r e s - m id i, une b r i l l a n t e im p r o v is a tio n , d e v a n t
q u elq u es a m is, s u r l a d u r e te de coeur de n o tr e c l a s s e
d i r i g e a n t e e t l ’h y p o c r is ie de nos e l i t e s (4 6 ).
As he was l i g h t i n g a c i g a r e t t e , he heard l a u g h te r , q u ite
n a t u r a l , f r i e n d l y l a u g h te r , behind him. Vi/hen he tu rn e d t o
d is c o v e r i t s s o u rc e , he saw no one in s i g h t , n e i t h e r on
th e b rid g e n or in th e w a te r below . As he h u r r ie d home th e
la u g h te r grew w eak er, b u t h is h e a r t began t o b e a t w ild ly
and he f e l t r a t h e r i l l . A f te r he r e tu r n e d t o h is a p a r t
m ent, he h ea rd th e la u g h a g a in below h is window; and when
he w ent i n t o th e bathroom t o d r in k some w a te r , he saw in
h is m irro r t h a t h is sm ile was d o u b le : "Mon image s o u r i a i t
dans l a g la c e , m ais i l me sem bla que mon s o u r ir e e t a i t
d o u b le" (2 8 ). T his i s th e e v e n t t h a t b r in g s him t o b e g in
t o r e c l a s s i f y h is p a s t a c tio n s and h is m o tiv es from a new
p o in t of v iew , t o see t h a t "La fa c e de to u te s mes v e r tu s
a v a i t a i n s i un r e v e r s moins im posant" (1 0 0 ). He can no
lo n g e r ta k e h im s e lf s e r i o u s l y : " . . . ce r i r e p e r p e t u e l ,
153
e t l e s r i e u r s , m 'a p p r is s e n t a v o ir p lu s c l a i r en m oi, a
d le o u v r ir e n f in que j e n ’e t a i s pas simple*’ <99).
B ut a t f i r s t h i s l i f e was n o t changed r a d i c a l l y . In
f a c t , he f o r g o t th e la u g h te r a f t e r s e v e r a l d a y s , and
th o u g h t of o th e r th in g s — h u t he no lo n g e r w alked th e q u a is
of P a r i s . Even s o , th e la u g h p r e c i p i t a t e d a vague i l l n e s s ,
a d i f f i c u l t y i n b r e a th in g and so f o r t h , and h i s l i f e
seemed t o be l e s s e a s y f o r him th a n b e f o r e .
A t t h i s p o in t i n th e r e c i t , th e r e a d e r i s s t i l l n o t
aware of th e f u l l s ig n i f ic a n c e of th e la u g h te r on th e
b r id g e ; i t i s s t i l l shrouded i n m y stery . The a l l u s i o n s t o
i t come i n b i t s , in te r s p e r s e d w ith J e a n - B a p t i s t e 's a p p a r
e n t l y random o b s e rv a tio n s on dozens of to p ic s (b u t comments
t h a t f i n a l l y b e a r i n one way or a n o th e r on h i s b a s ic
problem of g u i l t ) . F o r exam ple, a s he and h i s companion
a r e o u t f o r a s t r o l l , th e s i g h t of an a n tiq u e s ig n w hich
d e p ic ts th e heads of two Negro s la v e s , s ta n d in g above a
shop t h a t once housed a s la v e m e rc h an t, i n c i t e s J e a n -
B a p tis te t o l e c t u r e on s l a v e r y , and t o compare i t t o
modern la b o r p r a c t i s e s (we would be ashamed t o condone
s la v e r y i n p u b lic to d a y ; b u t i n our homes and In f a c
t o r i e s , t h a t i s a n o th e r m a t t e r ) . T his le a d s him t o a
d is c u s s io n of h y p o c ris y and s e l f - d e c e p t i o n , our need to
f e e l in n o c e n t, and th e n t o th e s u b je c t of th e d e s i r e men
have t o dom inate o th e r s : ’’Chaque homme a b e s o in d 'e s c l a v e s
154
comme d ' a i r p u r. . . . L 'e s s e n t i e l , en s o m e , e s t de
p o u v o ir se f a e h e r sans que 1 'a u t r e a i t l e d r o i t de
re p o n d re " (5 4 ).
I n th e weeks t h a t fo llo w ed th e evening when he h eard
th e la u g h te r on th e b r id g e , he slo w ly began t o d is c o v e r th e
t r u t h a b o u t h im s e lf . "P ar d e g r e s , j ' a i vu p lu s c l a i r , j ' a i
a p p r is un peu de ce que je s a v a is , J u s q u e - l a , j 'a v a i s
to u jo u r s e t e a id e par un e to n n a n t p o u v o ir d 'o u b l i " ( 5 9) .
L ike D o sto e v sk y 's V elc h an in o v , h is memory g r a d u a lly r e t u r n s
to him , and he su d d en ly r e c a l l s long f o r g o t t e n , seem in g ly
i n s i g n i f i c a n t i n c i d e n t s . F o r exam ple, one day when he was
w a itin g f o r th e t r a f f i c l i g h t to change t o g re e n , th e
horns of th e im p a tie n t d r i v e r s behind him su d d en ly b ro u g h t
to mind an i n c id e n t t h a t had ta k e n p la c e under th e same
c irc u m s ta n c e s . S e v e r a l y e a rs b e f o r e , a m o to r c y c lis t who
had d a rte d i n f r o n t of h is c a r , s t a l l e d h is motor a t th e
sto p l i g h t . When he co u ld n o t s t a r t th e machine when th e
l i g h t c h a n g ed , J e a n - B a p tis te p o l i t e l y asked him t o move t o
one s id e so t h a t th e long l i n e of c a r s b ehind them co u ld
p a s s . When th e man i n s u l t e d and th r e a te n e d him r e p e a te d l y ,
J e a n - B a p tis te g o t out of h i s c a r t o answ er him. Someone
in th e crowd t h a t had g a th e re d s tr u c k him; th e m o to r c y c lis t
sped o f f . I n th e c o n fu s io n — to o tin g h o r n s , im p a tie n t
d r i v e r s , th e p r e s s in g crowd— J e a n - B a p tis te clim bed back
i n t o h i s c a r and drove o f f , w h ile th e man who had s tr u c k
155
him s a lu te d him w ith a p a r tin g i n s u l t .
A lthough i t had d is tu r b e d him f o r a few d a y s , of
c o u r s e , t o have been so th o ro u g h ly h u m ilia te d i n p u b l i c ,
th e i n c id e n t seemed t o be of m inor s i g n i f i c a n c e . He had
in v e n te d a number of f a n t a s i e s i n w hich he had avenged
h im s e lf : he had f l a t t e n e d th e man i n th e crowd w ith one
blow; and had chased th e m o t o r c y c l i s t , f o rc e d him t o th e
c u r b , and g iv e n him a sound b e a tin g . **Avec q u elq u es v a r i -
a n t e s , j e t o u r n a i c e n t f o i s ce p e t i t f ilm dans mon im agina
t i o n * 1 (6 4 ). But he soon f o r g o t th e a f f a i r . When he
remembered i t a g a in , a f t e r th e la u g h te r e p is o d e , he saw i t
from a new p o in t of view and r e a l i z e d i t s f u l l s i g n i f i
ca n c e : " J 'a v a i s r e v e , c e la e t a i t e l a i r m a in te n a n t, d 'e t r e
un hornme e o m p le t, q u i se s e r a i t f a i t r e s p e c t e r dans sa
perso n n e comme dans son metier** (65)• I f he had r e a l l y
been th e f r i e n d o f t r u t h and i n t e l l i g e n c e t h a t he p re te n d e d
t o b e , he would n o t have had th e f a n t a s i e s i n w hich he had
r e s o r te d t o v io le n c e . Thus he le a rn e d a t r u t h a b o u t him
s e l f , t h a t he d i d n 't r e a l l y w ant t o be th e m ost i n t e l l i g e n t
and gen ero u s c r e a tu r e on e a r t h , b u t o n ly t o be p h y s ic a ll y
p o w erfu l enough t o b e a t any one he w ish ed :
J e b r u l a i s de p re n d re ma re v a n c h e , de f r a p p e r e t de A
v a in e r e . Comme s i mon v e r i t a b l e d e s i r n ' e t a i t pas d 'e t r e
l a c r e a tu r e l a p lu s i n t e l l i g e n t ou l a p lu s g en e re u se de
l a ^ t e r r e , m ais seu lem en t de b a t t r e q u i je v o u d r a is ,
d 'e t r e l e p lu s f o r t e n f i n , e t de la fa q o n l a p lu s
e le m e n ta ir e . La v e r i t e e s t que t o u t homme i n t e l l i g e n t ,
1 5 6
vous l e sa v ez b ie n , re v e d 'e t r e un g a n g s te r e t de r e g n e r
s u r l a s o c i e t e p a r l a s e u le v io le n c e (§ 5- 6 6 ).
He d is c o v e re d w ith in h im s e lf , th ro u g h t h i s i n c i d e n t ,
"de doux re v e s d ’ o p p re s s io n ” ( 6 6 ) . And he le a rn e d t h a t
he was on th e s id e of h is g u i l t y or accu sed c l i e n t s only
t o th e e x t e n t t h a t th e y d i d n 't cau se him harm: ”Leur
c u l p a b i l i t y me r e n d a i t e lo q u e n t p a rc e que j e n ’en e t a i s
pas l a v ic tim e . Quand j * e t a i s m enace, j e ne d e v e n a is pas
seu lem en t un ju g e a mon t o u r , m ais p lu s e n c o re : un m a itre
ira s c ib le q u i v o u l a i t , h o rs de to u te l o i , assommer l e
d e lin q u e n t e t l e m e ttre a, genoux” ( 6 6 ) .
A f te r le a r n in g t h i s t r u t h a b o u t h im s e lf , i t was
im p o ssib le t o c o n tin u e t o b e lie v e s e r i o u s l y i n h i s voca
t i o n of j u s t i c e and h i s r o l e a s a d e fe n d e r o f th e in n o c e n t
widows and o rp h an s.
J e a n - B a p tis te g r a d u a lly d is c o v e re d o th e r r a t h e r b a s ic
t r u t h s a b o u t h im s e lf . When he viewed h i s p a s t a c t i o n and
m o tiv es from h i s new a t t i t u d e , he began t o r e a l i z e t h a t
h i s form er m odesty h elp ed him t o s h in e , h i s h u m ility t o
c o n q u e r, and h i s v i r t u e t o o p p re ss. Through su p p o se d ly
p e a c e fu l and d i s i n t e r e s t e d m ethods, he had been a b le to
g e t e v e ry th in g he w anted:
J ' a i com pris a l o r s , a f o r c e de f o u i l l e r dans ma m em oire,
que l a m o d e stie m 'a i d a i t a b r i l l e r , l 'h u m i l i t e a
v a in c re e t l a v e r tu a o p p rim er. Je f a i s a i s l a g u e rre
p a r des moyens p a c if iq u e s e t j 'o b t e n a i s e n f i n , p a r l e s
moyens du d e s in te r e s s e m e n t, to u t ee que j e c o n v o lta is
( 99) .
157
The q u e s tio n t h a t b e g in s t o ab so rb him a f t e r h i s
memory r e t u r n s i s how t o av o id judgm ent— n o t punish m en t,
f o r punishm ent w ith o u t judgm ent would be b e a r a b le :
Le c h a tim e n t sans jugem ent e s t s u p p o r ta b le . I I a un nom
d 'a i l l e u r s q u i g a r a n t i t n o tr e in n o c en ce : le m alh eu r.
Non, i l s ' a g i t au e o n t r a i r e de eouper au jug em en t,
d 'e v i t e r d ’e t r e to u jo u r s j u g l , sans que ja m a is l a
se n te n c e s o i t prononcee (9 0 ).
He q u ic k ly d is c o v e r s t h a t th e moment he su sp e c te d he
m ight n o t be as a d m ira b le a s he had p r e v io u s ly supp o sed ,
h i s f r i e n d s a r e q u ic k t o judge him: ’’Pour l e jug em en t,
a u jo u r d ’h u i , nous sommes to u jo u r s p r e t s , comme pour l a
f o r n i c a t i o n ” (9 0 -9 1 ). He f e l t t h a t o th e r p e o p le were
q u ic k t o judge him i n o rd e r t h a t th e y m ight n o t be judged
th em selv es and th u s be a b le t o r e t a i n an i l l u s i o n of
in n o c en ce : "Chacun e x ig e d 'e t r e in n o c e n t, a t o u t p r i x ,
meme s i , pour c e l a , i l f a u t a c c u s e r l e g en re humaln e t l e
c i e l ” (9 5 ).
At t h i s p o in t i n th e n a r r a t i v e , J e a n - B a p tis te i n t r o
duces th e theme of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , which he d ev e lo p s more
f u l l y l a t e r on in h is c o n f e s s io n , one t h a t i s s im ila r in
i t s developm ent t o th e c e n t r a l theme of Iv a n K aram azov's
t a l e of th e Grand I n q u i s i t o r . He i n s i s t s t h a t man w ants
g r a c e , t h a t i s t o s a y , a b s o lu tio n from r e s p o n s i b i l i t y .
He w ish es t o fo llo w a r b i t r a r y r u l e s and he se e k s a b s o lu
t i o n in o rd e r t o evade r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r h is a c t i o n s :
"Mais ees f r ip o n s v e u le n t l a g r a c e , e 'e s t - a - d i r e
158
1*i r r e s p o n s a b i l i t e . . . . L ’e s s e n t i e l e s t q u ’i l s s o ie n t
in n o c e n ts . . . . M (9 6 ). He com pares modern man t o th e
n e u t r a l a n g e ls t h a t Dante p la c e d in Limbo:
En somme, nous v o u d rio n s , en meme tem ps, ne p lu s e t r e
c o u p a b les e t ne pas f a i r e l 1e f f o r t de nous p u r i f i e r .
Pas a s s e z de eynism e e t pas a s s e z de v e r t u . Nous n 'a v o n s
n i l 'e n e r g i e du m al, n i c e l l e du b ie n . . . . Nous sommes
dans l e v e s t i b u l e , e h e r ami ( 98) .
A f te r h i s memory r e t u r n s , J e a n - B a p tis te can no lo n g e r
ta k e l i f e s e r i o u s l y : ”Je n ’a i Jam ais pu c r o i r e p ro fo n d £ -
ment que l e s a f f a i r e s huiaaines f u s s e n t eh o ses s e r i e u s e s ”
( 101) . I n f a c t , he r e a l i z e d t h a t he had been s in c e r e and
e n t h u s i a s t i c o n ly when he was p la y in g s p o r ts or when he
a c te d i n am ateu r p ro d u c tio n s when he was in th e army: ”Je
n ’a i v ra im e n t £ te s in c e r e e t e n th o u s ia s te q u ’au temps oia
Je f a i s a i s du s p o r t , e t , au re g im e n t, quand Je jo u a is dans
l e s p ie c e s . . . . ” ( 102).
Q u e stio n in g th e v e ry b a s is of h i s e x i s t e n c e , he ibegan
t o wonder i f i t w ere w o rth th e tr o u b le t o go on l i v i n g ,
and he commenced to be h au n ted by th o u g h ts of s u ic id e . He
was to rm e n te d , how ever, by th e id e a t h a t he had some unde
f in e d t a s k t o f u l f i l l b e fo re h i s d e a th : ’’J ' e t a i s to urm ente
p a r l 'i d e e que Je n ’a u r a i s pas l e temps d ’ac co m p lir ma
ta e h e . Q u e lle ta c h e ? Je n 'e n s a v a is r i e n . A fran ch em en t
p a r l e r , ce que Je f a i s a i s v a l a i t - i l l e p e in e d ’e t r e con
tin u e ? ” (1 0 4 ). But one r i d i c u l o u s f e a r seemed t o keep him i
from s u i c i d e , th e need t o c o n f e s s : “ on ne p o u v a it m o u rir
159
san s a v o ir avoue to u s s e s m ensonges" ( 105) .
Thus, when J e a n - B a p tis te r e c l a s s i f i e s h i s p a s t a c tio n s
and exam ines h is m o tiv es from a new p o in t o f view , he c a n
n o t a c c e p t th e a b s u r d it y of h is e x is te n c e . He c a n n o t
subm it t o th e harrow ing t r u t h t h a t h i s l i f e i s w ith o u t
m eaning; t h a t h is su p p o se d ly good a c tio n s had l e s s sa v o ry
m o tiv a tio n s th a n he had p r e v io u s ly supposed; and t h a t he
i s b a s i c a l l y c r u e l , v i o l e n t , and s e l f i s h . Like C a lig u l a ,
he c a n n o t a c c e p t th e human c o n d i tio n , n o r ca n he a c c e p t
h im s e lf; so he tu r n s t o v ic e . Knowing t h a t he c a n n o t be
a s a i n t , h e , l i k e S ta v r o g in of The P o s s e s s e d , becomes a
s a ta n . T arro u of La P e s te d e s c r ib e s J e a n - B a p t i s t e 1s
problem when he say s t h a t m an 's only c o n c re te problem i s
how to become a s a i n t w ith o u t God: " P e u t-o n e t r e un s a i n t
sans D ieu, e ' e s t le s e u l problem e c o n c r e t que je c o n n a is s e
a u j o u rd 1h u i" ( 27 9) .
t!P aree cue .le d ^ s i r a i s l a v ie e t e r n e l l e .
i e c o u c h a is done avec des p u t a i n s . "
The day came when J e a n - B a p tis te co u ld no lo n g e r sta n d
th e id e a t h a t a lth o u g h h is w hole l i f e had been a f r a u d , no
one knew th e t r u t h a b o u t him. H is f i r s t r e a c t i o n was
r a t h e r D o sto e v sk ian — s in c e he had been a l i a r and a f r a u d ,
he w ished t o d e m o n stra te t h i s f a c t t o a l l of h is f r i e n d s ,
and t o th e w orld in g e n e r a l, b e fo re th e y d is c o v e re d i t
th e m se lv e s: "P u isq u e j ' e t a i s m e n teu r, j ' a l l a i s le
160
m a n ife s te r e t j e t e r ma d u p l i c i t y a l a f i g u r e de to u s ces
im b e c ile s a v a n t meme q u 'i l s l a d e c o u v ris s e n t" (1 0 6 ). He
was tem pted t o t r i p b lin d p eo p le he met in th e s t r e e t s ,
to p u n c tu re th e t i r e s of th e c a r t s of th e c r i p p l e d , and
to sh o u t " s a l e p au v re" a t poor w orking men. He w anted t o
d e s tr o y th e good r e p u t a t i o n he had w ith p e o p le who began
a c o n v e r s a tio n w ith "un homme comme v o u s. . . . ” ( 109) ,
so he began w r i tin g a r t i c l e s l i k e "Ode a l a p o lic e " and
"A poth^ose du e o u p e re t" (1 0 8 ).
B ut he found i t d i f f i c u l t t o b re a k th ro u g h t o h is
c o lle a g u e s and f r i e n d s by th e s e a n t i c s and so d e m o n stra te
who he r e a l l y w as. C o n d itio n e d t o th in k i n c a te g o r ie s and
t o l i v e in a w orld of w o rd s, h i s f r i e n d s w ere more shocked
by th e c o a rs e language he o c c a s io n a lly used th a n by h is
a c t i o n s — h is n i g h t l y e scap a d es when he tu rn e d t o debauch
ery* " I I e s t i n t e r e s s a n t de n o te r p o u r ta n t q u ’ on me f i t
moins g r i e f de mes exces n o c tu rn e s que de mes p ro v o c a tio n s
de lan g ag e" (1 2 4 ).
D iscouraged by th e f u t i l i t y of h is a tte m p t t o d e s tr o y
h i s good im age, he tu rn e d to d eb au ch ery . He gave h im s e lf
c o m p le te ly to s e n s u a l p le a s u r e s in an a tte m p t t o escap e
h i s f e e l i n g of g u i l t by d eadening h is se n se s and d e s tr o y
ing hope:
A un c e r t a i n d eg re d 'i v r e s s e lu c i d e , co u eh e, ta r d dans
l a n u i t , e n t r e deux f i l l e s , e t v id e de t o u t d e s i r ,
161
l 'e s p o i r n ' e s t p lu s une t o r t u r e , v o y ez -v o u s, l ' e s p r i t
reg n e s u r to u s l e s tem ps, l a d o u le u r de v iv r e e s t a
jam ais r e v o lu e . Dans un s e n s , j 'a v a i s to u jo u r s veeu
dans l a deb au ch e, n ’a y a n t ja m ais c e s s e de v o u lo ir e t r e
im m ortel (1 1 8 -1 9 ).
D ebauchery a l s o f u n c tio n s a s a s u b s t i t u t e f o r im m o rta lity
f o r J e a n - B a p t is te : "P arce que je d e s i r a i s l a v ie e t e r -
n e l l e , je c o u c h a is done avec des p u ta in s . . . . ” (1 1 9 ).
He found r e l i e f from h i s to rm en t d u rin g t h i s p e rio d
of h is l i f e o n ly i n a lc o h o l and women. He found freedom
b ecau se t h i s l i f e posed no se n se of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y :
. . . ^La v r a ie debauche e s t l i b e r a t r i e e p a rc e q u 'e l l e
ne c re e aueune o b l ig a tio n . On n 'y p o ssed e que soi-m em e,
e l l e r e s t e done l 1o c c u p a tio n p r e f e r e e des g ran d s am our-
eux de l e u r p ro p re p e rso n n e . E lle e s t une ju n g le , sans
a v e n ir n i p a s s e , san s prom esse s u r t o u t , n i s a n c tio n
im m ediate. . . . On l a i s s e en y e n t r a n t l a c r a i n t e eomme
l 'e s p e r a n c e ( 120) .
V ice se rv e d t o d u l l h i s s e n s e s , th u s making l i f e l e s s
unhappy: “Chaque exces dim inue l a v i t a l i t e , done l a
s o u f fr a n c e ” (1 2 2 ). He reac h ed th e p o in t where he was so
d ra in e d and i n d i f f e r e n t , so d u l l e d , t h a t he co u ld no
lo n g e r h e a r th e la u g h te r : M Je v iv a is dans une s o r t s de
b r o u i l l a r d oh l e r i r e se f a i s a i t a s s o u r d i , au p o in t que je
f i n i s s a i s p ar ne p lu s l e p e r c e v o ir 1 1 ( 123) .
He grew f a t and p h le g m a tic , r e s ig n e d h im s e lf t o b o re
dom, and th o u g h t t h a t th e o n ly th in g he had t o w a it f o r
was old a g e . But one day a s he was g az in g out t o se a from
th e deck of a s h ip , d u rin g a voyage he had ta k e n t o c e l e
b r a te h is " c u r e ,” he saw i n th e d is ta n c e a f l o a t i n g o b je c t
162
t h a t b ro u g h t hack th e memory of th e drowned g i r l . He a t
l a s t r e a l i z e d t h a t he could n o t escap e h i s f e e l i n g of
g u i l t , t h a t he m ust in s te a d f in d a means of coming to
term s w ith i t :
. . . Je com pris d e f in itiv e m e n t que je n 1e t a i s pas
g u e r i , que j ' e t a i s to u jo u r s c o in c e , e t q u ' i l f a l l a i t
m 'en a r r a n g e r . . . . I I f a l l a i t se so u m e ttre e t re c o n -
n a i t r e sa c u l p a b i l i t e . I I f a l l a i t v iv r e dans l e m al-
c o n f o r t ( 126).
J e a n - B a p tis te com pares h is own f e e l i n g o f g u i l t t o
l i v i n g "dans l e m a lc o n f o rt," a c e l l found in m ed iev al
c a s t l e s , i n w hich th e p r is o n e r could n e i t h e r l i e n o r
s ta n d . L ike th e c o n v ic te d s o l d i e r i n K a fk a ’ s 1 1 In th e
P e n a l C olony , ” '7 J e a n - B a p t i s t e ' s p r is o n e r le a r n s h is g u i l t
on h i s body: "Tous l e s j o u r s , p ar I'im m u ab le c o n t r a i n t e
q u i a n k y l o s a it son c o r p s , l e condamne a p p r e n a it q u ' i l
€ t a i t co u p ab le e t que l 1innocence c o n s is te a s ' e t i r e r
jo y eu sem en t” (1 2 7 ). J e a n - B a p tis te seems t o s u g g e s t h ere
t h a t g u i l t i s th e v e ry c o n d itio n of p a in — a s o r t of ir o n i c
C a lv in ism , i n t h a t when we f e e l p a in , we know we a re
g u i l t y : "Quoi? On p o u v a it v iv r e dans c e s c e l l u l e s e t
e t r e in n o c e n t? Im p ro b a b le, hautem ent im probable."' (127)*
He i n s i s t s t h a t "nous ne pouvons a f f ir m e r 1 ' innocence de
p e rso n n e , ta n d is que nous pouvons a f f ir m e r a coup s u r l a
?The P e n a l C olony. S t o r i e s and S h o rt P i e c e s , t r .
W illa and Edwin Muir (New Y ork, 1946).
c u l p a b i l i t e de to n s ’’ ( 127)*
163
1 1 P lu s ,1e m’a c cu se e t p lu s .i!a i le
d r o i t de vous .iuger”
On th e l a s t evening of h i s f i v e day d is c o u r s e , J e a n -
B a p tis te d e s c r ib e s th e p u rp o se and f u n c tio n of a .luge-
p e n i te n t and e x p la in s th e p r i n c i p l e s b eh in d h is method of
o p e ra tio n . I t becomes e v id e n t i n t h i s monologue t h a t he
has much i n common w ith Iv a n K aram azov’s Grand I n q u i s i t o r
i n h i s i n s i s t e n c e t h a t man i s to o weak t o b e a r th e re s p o n
s i b i l i t y f o r h is a c tio n s and u n a b le t o choose betw een good
and e v i l , and t h a t he th u s needs a m a s te r , someone who
w i l l p r e s e n t him w ith a r b i t r a r y r u l e s t o fo llo w and
r e l i e v e him of h i s se n se of g u i l t .
The p u rp o se of h is c o n f e s s io n s , he e x p l a in s , i s t o
s il e n c e th e la u g h te r t h a t h a u n ts him; t h a t i s , t o escap e
s e l f - a c c u s a t i o n and g u i l t . And s in c e th e g r e a t e s t
o b s ta c le i n e lu d in g judgm ent I s s e lf- a c c u s a tio n , he m ust
ex ten d condem nation t o a s many p eo p le a s p o s s i b le :
M a in te n a n t mon d is c o u rs e s t o r i e n t e . I I e s t o r ie n te p a r
l 1id e e , evidem m ent, de f a i r e t a i r e l e s r i r e s , d 'e v i t e r
p e rso n n e lle m e n t l e ju g em en t, b ie n q u ’i l n ’y a i t ^ en
a p p a re n c e , aueune i s s u e . Le grand empechement a y
echapper n ’e s t - i l pas que nous sommes l e s p re m ie rs a
nous condamner? I I f a u t done commencer p a r e te n d re l a
condem nation a to u s , sa n s d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , a f i n de l a
d e la y e r d e ja (152K
L ike th e judge i n K a fk a ’s p e n a l c o lo n y , whose
164
g u id in g p r i n c i p l e i s " G u ilt i s n ev er to foe doubted,"®
J e a n - B a p t i s t e 1 s g u id in g p r i n c i p l e i n h is r o l e as .luge-
p e n i te n t i s s "Pas d ’e x e u s e s , ja m a is , pour p e rso n n e , v o i l a
mon p r i n e i p e , au d e p a r t" ( 152).
Je n ie l a bonne i n t e n t i o n , l 'e r r e u r e s tim a b le , l e fa u x
p a s , l a c ir c o n s ta n c e a t td n u a n t e . . . . En p h ilo s o p h ie
comme en p o l i t i q u e , je s u is done pour to u te th d o r ie q u i
r e f u s e I 1innocence a l ’homme e t pour to u te p r a tiq u e q u i
l e t r a i t e en c o u p a b le . Vous voyez en m oi, t r e s c h e r ,
un p a r t i s a n e e l a i r e de l a s e r v itu d e ( 152- 153) .
In h is a t t i t u d e tow ard freedom , J e a n - B a p tis te echoes
th e view s of th e Grand I n q u i s i t o r . B efo re " th e f a l l , "
J e a n - B a p tis te had s i n c e r e l y b e lie v e d i n freedom ; i n f a c t ,
he had used th e word c o n tin u o u s ly . But he d is c o v e re d t h a t
h is freedom was o n ly " a v o ir l a l i b e r t e a l a bouche":
A u t r e f o i s , j e n 'a v a i s que l a l i b e r t e a l a bouche. Je
l ’e te n d a is au p e t i t d e je u n e r su r mes t a r t i n e s , j e l a
m a s tiq u a ls to u te l a j o u rn e e , j e p o r t a i s dans l e monde
une h a le in e d e lic ie u s e m e n t r a f r a i c h i e a l a l i b e r t e
(1 5 3 ).
He le a rn e d t h a t freedom i s n o t a p r i z e , b u t a lo n e ly
th i n g , a f o rc e d la b o r to o d i f f i c u l t f o r man t o b e a r. For
freedom f o r c e s man t o make lo n e ly d e c is io n s and t o be
r e s p o n s ib le f o r h i s a c t i o n s : "Au b out de to u te l i b e r t e ,
i l y a une s e n te n c e " (1 5 4 ):
. . . La l i b e r t e n ' e s t pas une recom pense, n i une d e c o ra
t i o n q u 'o n f e t e dans l e champagne. . . . C 'e s t une
c o rv e e , au c o n t r a i r e , e t une co u rse de fo n d , b ie n s o l i
t a i r e , b ie n e x te n u a n te . . . . S e u l dans une s a l l e
®The P e n a l C olony, p. 198
165
m orose, s e u l dans l e box, d e v a n t l e s ju g e s , e t s e a l
pour d e c i d e r , d e v a n t soi-meme ou d e v a n t l e jugem ent
des a u t r e s . Au b o u t de to u te l i b e r t e , i l y a une sen
te n c e ; v o i l a p o u rq u o i l a l i b e r t e e s t tr o p lo u rd e a
p o r t e r , s u r t o u t lo rsq u * on s o u f f r e de f i e v r e , ou q u ’ on a
de l a p e in e , ou q u 'o n n 'a im e p ersonne (1 5 4 ).
S in c e man ca n n o t s ta n d freedom , J e a n - B a p t is te , l i k e
th e Grand I n q u i s i t o r , b e lie v e s t h a t man m ust choose a
m a s te r , someone who w i l l ex ten d him g ra c e and g iv e him
a r b i t r a r y r u l e s . J e a n - B a p tis te has n o t th e s t r e n g t h of
T arro u t o b e a r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r c a u sin g p a in t o o th e r s ,
f o r h is own ’’h u m a n ity ,” th e human c o n d itio n of b ein g imper
f e c t s "AhJ mon c h e r , pour q u i e s t s e u l , sans d ie u e t sa n s
m a itr e , le p o id s des jo u r s e s t t e r r i b l e . I I f a u t done se
c h o i s i r un m a itr e , D ieu n 'e t a n t p lu s a l a mode” (1 5 4 ).
The “m a s te r” can be a d i c t a t o r , a p h ilo s o p h ic a l or p o l i t i
c a l sy stem , or th e h a b i t of th e crowd.
L ike th e Grand I n q u i s i t o r , he c la im s t h a t p eo p le do
n o t w ant freedom s "On e s t l i b r e , a l o r s i l f a u t se
d e b r o u i l l e r e t comme i l s ne v e u le n t s u r t o u t pas de l a
l i b e r t e , n i de se s s e n te n c e s , i l s p r i e n t q u ’ on le u r donne
su r l e s d o l g t s , i l s in v e n te n t de t e r r i b l e s r e g i e s . . ."
(1 5 6 ). S in c e th e r e a r e no a b s o lu te r u l e s ( " i l n ’y a p lu s
de p e r e , p lu s de r e g i e ” [ l 56] ) , th e y in v e n t a r b i t r a r y
r u l e s . They w ant g r a c e , th e h a p p in e ss of b e in g : "La
g r a c e , v o i l a ce q u 'i l s v e u l e n t , l e o u i, 1 *abandon, l e
bonheur d 'e t r e . . . ” ( 156).
166
L * e s s e n tia l e s t que t o u t dev ien n e sim p le , comme pour
1 ' e n f a n t , que cfaaque a c te s o i t commande, que l e b ie n e t
l e mal s o ie n t d e s ig n e s de fa c o n a r b i t r a i r e , done e v i -
d e n te ( 157)•
J e a n - B a p tis te i s i n th e aw fu l p o s i t i o n of aw aren ess
of b o th th e p o s s i b i l i t y and th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of h is
freedom , a s w ere T arro u and R ie u x , b u t he does n o t have
t h e i r s t r e n g t h t o b e a r i t . Thus he i r o n i c a l l y ask s f o r
th e w orld o f th e to w n sp eo p le— an a r b i t r a r y w orld of h a b i t ,
where e v e ry th in g i s s im p le , where e v e ry a c t i s d i c t a t e d
by custom , where good and e v i l a r e a r b i t r a r i l y d e s ig n a te d ,
and where th e r e a r e no c o m p lic a tio n s of p e r s o n a l r e s p o n s i
b i l i t y . r,Mais s u r l e s p o n ts de P a r i s , j ’a i a p p r is moi
a u s s i que j ’a v a is p eur de l a l i b e r t e . Vive done l e
m a itr e . . . " (157)* He had su d d e n ly r e a l i z e d , w ith th e
c r y of th e drowning g i r l and th e la u g h te r t h a t fo llo w e d ,
t h a t h i s l i f e was to o c o m p lic a te d . When he saw a l l of h is
supposed good a c tio n s and m o tiv es i n a new l i g h t , l i f e
became to o com plex t o b e a r th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of freedom ,
u n le s s one co u ld sta n d t o l i v e w ith h is own g u i l t , l i k e
T a rro u , and could l i v e w ith o u t hope of e i t h e r innocence
or a f t e r l i f e , b u t fa c e s u f f e r i n g , r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , and
d e a th a lo n e .
J e a n - B a p tis te i s n o t an Absurd h e ro , a s Camus has
d e fin e d th e Absurd h e ro in a c t i o n i n h i s w ork, one who
a c c e p ts a l l th e im p lic a tio n s of l i v i n g , o f b ein g a man
16?
(ev en th e c l e r k M e u rsa u lt ean a c c e p t h is l i f e ) . He must
c r y o u t: " E n fin , vous v o y ez, 1 ' e s s e n t i a l e s t de n 'e t r e
p lu s l i t r e e t d 'o b e i r , dans l e r e p e n t i r , a p lu s co q u in que
s o i . Quand nous se ro n s to u s e o u p a b le s , ce s e ra la demo
c r a t ie « ( 157).
W hile a w a itin g th e a r r i v a l of "des m a itre s e t de
le u r s v e r g e s ," whose coming may ta k e some tim e , J e a n -
B a p tis te hangs o u t i n th e re d l i g h t d i s t r i c t a t th e
M ex ico -C ity t a r , "a p r a t i q u e r l a c o n f e s s io n p u h liq u e a u s s i
so u v e n t que p o s s i b l e '1 (1 6 1 ). He in d u c es o th e rs to adm it
t h e i r g u i l t by c o n fe s s in g h im s e lf . The purpose of t h i s
p u b lic c o n f e s s io n i s " d 'e t e n d r e le jugem ent a t o u t l e
monde pour l e re n d re p lu s l e g e r a mes p ro p re s e p a u le s "
(1 5 9 ). J e a n - B a p tis te chose t h i s method o f a c t i o n when he
d is c o v e re d t h a t " P u is q u 'o n ne p o u v a it eondamner le s a u t r e s
san s a u s s i t o t se ju g e r , i l f a l l a i t s 'a e c a b l e r soi-meme
pour a v o ir l e d r o i t de ju g e r l e s a u t r e s . Puisque to u t
ju g e f i n i t un jo u r en p e n i t e n t , i l f a l l a i t p re n d re l a
r o u te en sen s in v e rs e e t f a i r e m e tie r de p e n i te n t pour
p o u v o ir f i n i r en ju g e " (1 5 9 -1 6 0 ). And th e p o r t r a i t he
h o ld s out t o h i s c o n te m p o ra rie s i n h i s c o n f e s s io n s " d e v i-
e n t un m ir o ir " ( 162) .
T his mode of a c t i o n i s th e o n ly one J e a n - B a p tis te has
found t h a t p e rm its him to e x i s t s H J * a i a c e e p te l a d u p l i -
c i t e au l i e u de m 'en d e s o le r . Je m 'y s u i s i n s t a l l s , au
168
e o n t r a i r e , e t j ' y a l tro u v e l e e o n f o r t que j ' a i ch e rc h e
to u te ma v i e ” (1 6 3 ). T hus, J e a n - B a p tis te has found an
answer t o h i s c r u c i a l problem of le a r n in g t o l i v e w ith
h im s e lf . F or th e c r i t i c a l problem i s f o r him t o be a b le
t o a c c e p t h im s e lf; th e o nly o th e r c h o ic e i s th e s u ic id e
t h a t he has co n te m p la te d .
J ' a i eu t o r t , au fo n d , de vous d i r e que I 1e s s e n t i a l
e t a i t d 'e v i t e r l e jugem ent. L 'e s s e n t i e l e s t de p o u v o ir
t o u t se p e r m e ttr e . . . . Je me perm ets t o u t , a nouveau,
e t san s r i r e , c e t t e f o i s . J e n ' a i pas change de v i e , j e
c o n tin u e de m 'aim er e t de me s e r v i r d es a u t r e s . S e u le -
m ent, l a c o n fe s s io n de mes f a u t e s me perm et de recem -
mencer p lu s le g e re m e n t e t de j o u i r deux f o i s , de ma
n a tu re d 'a b o r d , e t e n s u ite d 'u n eharm ant r e p e n t i r ,
D epuis que j ' a i tro u v e ma s o l u t i o n , je m 'abandonne a
t o u t , aux femmes, a l 'o r g u e i l , a l 'e n n u i , au r e s s e n t i -
ment . . . (1 6 3 -1 6 4 ).
J e a n - B a p t i s t e 's r e a c t i o n h e re i s much l i k e t h a t of
S ta v r o g in , th e h e ro of D o sto e v sk y 's n o v e l, The P o sse s se d . 9
w hich Camus ad a p ted f o r th e s t a g e .-1 - 0 I t i s e a sy t o u n d er
sta n d Camus' c o n tin u e d i n t e r e s t in D o sto e v sk y 's n o v e ls .
F i r s t of a l l , Camus c o n s id e re d him t o be one of th e g r e a t
n o v e l i s t s : "Les g ran d s ro m a n c ie rs so n t des ro m an c iers
p h ilo s o p h e s , c 'e s t - a - d i r e l e e o n t r a i r e d 'e c r i v a i n s a
th e s e . A in s i B a lz a c , S ad e, M e lv ill e , S te n d h a l, D o s to i
ev sk y , P r o u s t , M alraux, K afka. . . . h- 1 --1 - D ostoevsky had
^Tr. C onstance G a r n e tt (Hew Y ork, 1936).
I °Les P o sse d e s: p ie c e en t r o i s p a r t i e s a d a p te e du
roman de D o s to le v s k i ( P a r i s , 19^9).
IJ-Le My th e de S is y p h e . p. 138.
169
th e a r t i s t i c a b i l i t y t o d ra m a tiz e im p o rta n t id e a s , an
im p o rta n t f u n c tio n of a r t s "L 1oeuvre d ' a r t n a i t du
renoncem ent de 1 ’ i n t e l l i g e n c e a r a is o n n e r l e c o n e r e t . " 1 2
Camus e x p lo re d D o sto e v sk y 's f a v o r i t e them es i n a number
of h i s e s s a y s ; f o r exam ple, i n th e e s s a y e n t i t l e d " K i r i
lo v ” (a c h a r a c te r i n The P o s s e s s e d ) i n Le Mvthe de S isv u h e
(pp. 1 4 2 -1 5 2 ), he examined D o sto e v sk y 's p re o c c u p a tio n w ith
s u ic id e . And D o sto e v sk y 's c h a r a c t e r s , d ra m a tic m a n ife s ta
tio n s of them es t h a t p re o c c u p ie d Camus, w ere i n t e n s e l y
r e a l t o hims "Tous l e s h e ro s de D o sto ie v sk y s ' i n t e r r o g e n t
s u r le se n s de l a v i e . C 'e s t en c e la q u ' i l s s o n t
m odernes: i l s ne c r a ig n e n t pas l e r i d i c u l e . "-*-3 For
exam ple, he used K ir ilo v a s a symbol of th e man who advo
c a te s l o g i c a l s u ic id e a s a r e b e l l i o n a g a i n s t ab su rd c r e a
t i o n and a method of a s s e r t i n g h i s freedom . In L'Homme
R e v o lte (pp. 7 6 -8 3 ), he d is c u s s e d Iv an Karamazov as th e
p ro to ty p e of th e i n t e l l e c t u a l r e b e ls a g a i n s t a God who
a llo w s e v i l and s e n s e le s s s u f f e r i n g t o e x i s t , and th e
Grand I n q u i s i t o r a s th e symbol of th e "C a e s a rs” who
r e l i e v e man of h is freedom and g iv e him u n i v e r s a l o rd er
and s e c r e t p o lic e .
Camus' a d a p ta tio n of The P o ssessed i s a f a i r l y l i t e r a l
12S is v p h e . p. 134.
13 s is y p h e « p. 142.
170
t r a n s p o s i t i o n of th e key d ra m a tic sc e n e s of D o sto e v sk y 's
n o v e l t o th e s ta g e . Many s tu d e n ts of D ostoevsky have
p o in te d o u t t h a t h is n a r r a t i v e method i s d r a m a tic 5
t h u s , r a t h e r p a r a d o x ic a lly , many of h is n o v e ls len d them
s e lv e s t o d ra m a tic p ro d u c tio n . For a lth o u g h he i s con
cern ed p r im a r il y w ith i d e a s , he r e v e a ls th e in n e r w orld
of h i s c r e a t u r e s in a c t i o n . A t y p i c a l p a t t e r n of com posi
t i o n i n h is n o v e ls i s f o r him to b u ild up t o a c r u c i a l
d ra m a tic s c e n e , w h erein th e re a d e r d is c o v e r s a group of
p eo p le i n th e m iddle of e x e i t l n g c o n v e rs a tio n t h a t i s
f i l l e d w ith th e te n s io n of a c t i o n ab o u t t o be u n le a sh e d .
Thus i n Camus' s k i l l f u l h a n d s, th e m ost im p o rta n t problem s
and th e b a s ic s p i r i t of th e long n o v e l (o v e r 700 p ag e s)
can be s u c c e s s f u l l y tr a n s p o r te d t o th e s ta g e .
Because S ta v ro g in c a n n o t a c c e p t h i s human im p e rf e c tio n
and can f in d no meaning t o l i f e n o r means of atonem ent f o r
h is c rim e , he tu r n s t o v ic e as a means of s e lf - p u n is h m e n t,
d e s tro y in g h im s e lf and e v e ry th in g he to u c h e s . S ta v r o g in ,
d iv o rc e d from c o n c re te n a t u r e ^ and in c a p a b le o f lo v e ,
^Among them , E r n e s t J . Simmons, D o sto e v sk i. The
Making of a N o v e lis t (New Y ork, 1940), p. ^6 ; and Vyache-
s la v Iv an o v , Freedom and th e T ra g ic L i f e . A s tu d y of
D o sto e v sk y , t r . Norman Cameron, ed . S. Konovalov (New
Y ork, I9 6 0 ) , p. 14.
•^As b o th F a th e r T ihon and S hatov p o in t o u t in The
P o s s e s s e d . pp. 722 and 686.
171
lo s e s a l l se n se of d i s t i n c t i o n betw een good and e v i l . I n
h is shocking c o n f e s s io n , he a d m its , " I have n e i t h e r th e
f e e l i n g nor th e knowledge of good and e v i l , and n o t only
have I l o s t th e sense of good and e v i l , b u t good and e v i l
r e a l l y do n o t e x i s t . . . and a r e b u t a p re ju d ic e * ' ( The
P o s s e s s e d , p. 712).
L ike J e a n - B a p t is te , S ta v ro g in i s o b sessed by g u i l t .
He seek s a way t o f o r g iv e h im s e lf f o r c a u sin g th e d e a th
of a c h i l d , whose d e s o la te f a c e h a u n ts him c o n s ta n tl y .
He c o n fe s s e s t o F a th e r Tihons " I w ant t o f o r g iv e m y se lf.
T h a t's my c h i e f o b j e c t , t h a t ' s my whole aim.1 . . . I know
t h a t o n ly th e n w i l l th e a p p a r i t i o n v a n is h . T hat i s why I
se ek m e a su re le ss s u f f e r i n g , I se e k I t m y s e lf. S o, do n o t
f r i g h t e n me, or I s h a l l p e r i s h i n my v ic io u s n e s s . . . . "
(The P o s s e s s e d , p. 727)*
Only i n h i s dream s i s S ta v r o g in a b le t o lo v e . He
t e l l s F a th e r Tihon t h a t once i n a dream when he liv e d in
an age of e a r t h l y p a r a d is e when mankind liv e d i n jo y f u l
harmony, he f e l t c a p a b le o f lo v es "Oh, how happy I was
t h a t my h e a r t was shaken and t h a t a t l a s t I lo v e d i" ( The
P o s s e s s e d . p. 715)* B ut when he awakens t o r e a l i t y , some
p h y s ic a l o b je c t (su ch a s a s p id e r on a l e a f ) alw ays b r in g s
back t o him th e memory of h is c rim e , and he can no lo n g e r
a c c e p t h im s e lf , and he i s in c a p a b le o f lo v e .
Camus d e m o n stra te s i n h i s n o v e ls and p la y s t h a t a
172
m eaning t o l i f e m ust be found on a v e ry c o n c re te l e v e l , in
a c t s .of g o o d w ill and s e r v ic e t o o n e’ s f e llo w man, i n a
c lo s e r e l a t i o n t o c o n c re te n a t u r e , and i n lo v e — in a Joy
ous a c c e p ta n c e and engagem ent i n l i f e . O th erw ise , i f we
b e lie v e in n o th in g , ’’t o u t e s t p e r m is ,” ’ ’t o u t e s t p o s s i b l e . ”
S i 1 ’ on ne c r o i t a r i e n , s i r i e n n 'a de sen s e t s i nous
ne pouvons a f f ir m e r aucune v a l e u r , t o u t e s t p o s s ib le e t
r i e n n 'a d ’ im p o rta n ce. P o in t de pour n i c o n t r e ,
l ’a s s a s s i n n ’a n i t o r t n i r a is o n . On p e u t tis o n n e r l e s
e rd m a to ire s ccmme on p e u t a u s s i se devouer a s o ig n e r
l e s le p re u x . M alice e t v e r tu s o n t h a s a rd ou c a p ric e
(L ’Homme R e v o l t s , p. 1 5 ).
And as D ostoevsky d ra m a tiz e d in The P o sse sse d and i n The
B ro th e rs Karam azov, men a c t as i f th e y a r e " p o s s e s s e d ”
when th e y a r e u n ab le t o g iv e th e m selv es i n lo v e . The f a c t
t h a t J e a n - B a p tis te and S ta v r o g in a re u n ab le t o lo v e , of
w hich th e y a r e q u ite aw are, c o n t r ib u t e s t o t h e i r i n a b i l i t y
t o a c c e p t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and t o f in d a meaning i n l i f e :
” . . . La l i b e r t e e s t tr o p lo u rd e a p o r t e r , s u r to u t
l o r s q u ’on s o u f f r e de f i l v r e , ou q u 'o n a de l a p e in e , ou
q u 'o n n 'a im e p e rso n n e ” (La C h u te . p. 1 5 4 ).
D osto ev sk y , of c o u r s e , th ro u g h c h a r a c te r s l i k e F a th e r
T ih o n , F a th e r Z ossim a, and S onia M armeladov, c o u n s e ls h is
r e b e l s (Iv a n Karamazov, R a sk o ln ik o v , S ta v r o g in ) to pay f o r
t h e i r crim es and f o r th e g u i l t of a l l men by c o n fe s s in g
t h e i r s in s in th e m iddle of busy s t r e e t s and o th e rw ise
se ek in g in te n s e s u f f e r i n g . But Camus shows th e danger of
w allow ing i n g u i l t . For when J e a n - B a p tis te o c c a s io n a lly
173
h e a rs th e f a r away l a u g h t e r , he i s a b le t o overwhelm
e v e r y th in g , c r e a tu r e s and c r e a t i o n , under th e w e ig h t of
h i s own w eak n ess, h is se n se of g u i l t :
P a r f o i s ? de l o i n en l o i n , quand l a n u i t e s t v ra im e n t
b e l l e , j 'e n t e n d s un r i r e l o i n t a i n , ;je d o u te a nouveau.
M ais, v i t e , j ’a c c a b le to u te s c h o s e s , c r e a t u r e s e t c r e
a t i o n , sous le p o id s de ma p ro p re i n f i r m i t e , e t me
v o i l a req u in q u e (1 6 4 ).
T his la u g h t e r , h i s c o n s c ie n c e i n a s e n s e , s e rv e s t o
rem ind J e a n - B a p tis te t h a t he i s n o t w hat he would l i k e t o
b e , and b r in g s f o r t h th e d e s i r e t o do som ething a b o u t i t .
Thus we r e t u r n a g a in i n t h i s s tu d y to th e problem of
p o s i t i v e a c t i o n . Camus d e m o n stra te s i n La Chute t h a t a
man who i s overwhelmed w ith g u i l t i s u n ab le t o a c t , and i s
i n c l i n e d , l i k e S ta v r o g in , t o tu r n t o v ie e a s an e scap e and
a means of s e l f - d e s t r u c t i o n . Man m ust f in d th e p r i n c i p l e
of H une c u l p a b i l i t y raisonnable** (L^omme R e v o lte , p. 2 2 ).
Summary and C o n clu sio n s
The s o p h i s t i c a t e d P a r i s i a n la w y e r, J e a n - B a p tis te
Clam ence, who had alw ays c o n s id e re d h im s e lf t o be a man of
good w i l l , f in d s i t d i f f i c u l t t o re c o g n iz e a meaning t o
l i f e and im p o s sib le t o a c c e p t h is human im p e rfe c tio n a f t e r
h is f a l l from in n o c en ce . The h a u n tin g memory of one a c t
of cow ardice d r iv e s him t o r e c l a s s i f y h is p a s t a c tio n s
and examine h i s m o tiv es from a new p o in t of view . He
d is c o v e r s t h a t he i s b a s i c a l l y c r u e l , v i o l e n t , and s e l f i s h .
174
The h a u n tin g la u g h te r t h a t rem inds him of h i s r e s p o n s i b i l
i t y f o r h i s a c tio n s d r iv e s him f i r s t t o th o u g h ts of s u i
c i d e , th e n t o d eb a u ch e ry , and f i n a l l y t o c o n f e s s io n i n th e
r o l e of J u g e - p e n ite n t a s a means of e s c a p e . By w allow ing
in g u i l t th ro u g h c o n f e s s io n , he i s a b le t o overcome th e
d r iv e s t o a c t i o n t h a t he i s to o weak t o ta k e .
In h i s p e n e tr a tin g and c y n ic a l a n a l y s i s of m anners
and m o ra ls , J e a n - B a p tis te comes t o th e c o n c lu s io n t h a t
man does n o t w ant freedom , a freedom w hich f o r c e s him t o
make lo n e ly d e c is io n s . He c o n c lu d es t h a t man i s u n ab le t o
choose betw een good and e v i l and i s to o weak t o b e a r th e
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r th e consequences o f h i s own d eed s.
J e a n - B a p tis te ask s f o r a m a s te r , someone who w i l l ex ten d
g ra c e t o man and su p p ly him w ith an a r b i t r a r y w orld of
h a b i t , w here e v e ry th in g i s sim p le , where e v e ry a c t i s
n e a t l y d e s ig n a te d , and where th e r e a r e no c o m p lic a tio n s of
p e rs o n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y .
J e a n - B a p tis te has re a e h e d th e p o in t of th e ab su rd s
th e r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t th e w orld la c k s m eaning, t h a t h i s
d a i l y l i f e — th e s e r i e s of g e s tu r e s c o n t r o ll e d by h a b i t t h a t
c o n s t i t u t e l i v i n g — i s r i d i c u l o u s . ^ A lth o u g h he has
^C am us d e s c r ib e s e x is te n c e th u s i n h i s d is c u s s io n of
s u ic id e in he Mvthe de S is v p h e . p. 18: ”V iv re , n a t u r e l l e -
m ent, n ' e s t jam ais f a c i l e . On c o n tin u e a f a i r e l e s g e s te s
que 1 *e x is te n c e commande, pour beaucoup de r a is o n s d o n t l a
p re m ie re e s t 1 *h a b itu d e . M ourir v o lo n ta ire m e n t suppose
175
r e a l i z e d th e r id i c u l o u s c h a r a c te r of such " a g i t a t i o n
q u o tid ie n n e ," he has n o t re a c h e d th e p o in t of th e r e a l
ab su rd h e r o , l i k e R ieu x . He, d e s p ite a c o n v ic tio n t h a t
th e w orld seems t o la c k p u rp o s e , ends by f in d in g some p u r
pose and d e p th i n i t th ro u g h a p o s i t i v e engagem ent i n l i f e
on a c o n c re te l e v e l , th ro u g h a c t i o n . To l i v e c o n c r e te ly —
t h a t i s , t o be aware o f th e a b s u rd , t o view each e v e n t
anew th ro u g h your own e y e s , t o make lo n e ly d e c is io n s and
a c c e p t th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r th e consequences of your
a c t i o n s , and n o t l i v e on th e s u rfa c e of l i f e , i n w o rd s,
b u t to be p a s s io n a t e ly engaged i n l i f e — i s more th a n
J e a n - B a p tis te can b e a r. Thus he w allow s i n s e l f - a c c u s a t i o n
and d eb au ch ery .
No answ er i s t o be found i n La Chute f o r d e te rm in in g
th e p r i n c i p l e of a " re a s o n a b le c u l p a b i l i t y " w hich J e a n -
B a p tis te se ek s so d e s p e r a te ly (o f c o u r s e , a s Camus p o in te d
o u t, a work of a r t need n o t answ er q u e s tio n s s "Une oeuvre
a b su rd e au c o n t r a i r e ne f o u r n i t pas de r e p o n s e " ) .1? But
J e a n - B a p tis te * s n e g a tiv e r e a c t i o n t o th e problem s posed by
freedom and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a f f ir m th e v a l i d i t y of th e
q u 'o n a re c o n n u , meme in s tin c tiv e m e n t, le c a r a c t e r e d e r i -
s o i r e de c e t t e h a b itu d e , 1 ' ab sen ce de to u te r a i s o n p ro -
fonde de v i v r e , l e c a r a c t e r e in s e n s e de c e t t e a g i t a t i o n
q u o tid ie n n e e t l ' i n u t i l i t e de l a s o u f f r a n c e ."
17Le Mvthe de S is v p h e . p. 151.
176
answ ers i m p l i c i t i n th e a c tio n s of T arro u and R ieu x i n
La P e s t e . C herea i n C a l i g u l a . M e u rsa u lt i n L * E tra n g e r.
and D iego i n L ^ t a t de Si&ge—men who se e k a re a s o n a b le
c u l p a b i l i t y by c a l l i n g th in g s by t h e i r nam es, by t r y in g
t o av o id in j u r i n g t h e i r f e llo w men a s much a s i s w ith in
t h e i r pow er, by a c c e p tin g th e consequences of t h e i r
a c t i o n s ; and above a l l , by a p a s s io n a te engagem ent i n l i f e
on a v e ry c o n c re te l e v e l — i n lo v e and i n a c lo s e c o n n e c tio n
to c o n c re te n a tu r e .
CHAPTER V II
SUM M ARY AID CONCLUSIONS
” . . . I n an u n ju s t or i n d i f f e r e n t w orld man ean save
h im s e lf , and save o th e r s , by p r a c t i c i n g th e m ost b a s ic
s i n c e r i t y and pronouncing th e m ost a p p r o p r ia te w o rd .” l
Camus d id n o t su p p ly e a s y answ ers to th e problem s
he posed i n h i s c r e a t i v e w ork. W e m ust se e k t o d is c o v e r
and a n a ly z e th e answ ers a s th e y a r e i m p l i c i t in th e
a c tio n s and words of th e men he c r e a te d . I n h is e s s a y
’’P h ilo s o p h ie e t Roman” (Le Mvthe de S is v p h e . pp. 1 2 9 -1 4 1 ),
Camus su g g e ste d t h a t a work of a r t may be a s v a l id a s ,
and p erh ap s M t r u e r ” th a n , a p h ilo s o p h ic a l system (He
quoted N ie tz sc h e a s s a y in g , ” . . . nous avons l ' a r t
pour ne p o in t m o u rir de l a v e r i t e " [ g is f f ih e , p. 13o] ) .
B ut Camus i n s i s t e d t h a t p h ilo s o p h y and f i c t i o n a r e n o t
opposed. B oth th e a r t i s t and th e p h ilo s o p h e r a r e c r e a
t o r s , each c r e a tin g a w orld by u sin g sym bols, c h a r a c t e r s ,
and denouem ents. B ut he con ten d ed t h a t th e job of th e
Absurd n o v e l i s t i s n o t t o e x p la in and t o s o lv e , rlm ais
■ ^A uthorfs P r e f a c e ,” C a lig u la and Three O ther P l a y s .
p . v i l .
177
178
d ’e p ro u v e r e t de d e e r i r e ” (S isy p h e T p . 1 3 1 ). For such
a work of a r t t o be e s s e n t i a l l y v a l i d , ” i l f a u t que l a
pensee sous sa forme l a p lu s lu e id e y s o i t m elee”
( S is y p h e . p. 134). But a work of a r t i s b o rn from th e
r e f u s a l o f th e i n t e l l i g e n c e t o r e a s o n th e c o n c re te
( ”L*oeuvre d V art n a i t du renoncem ent de l 1i n t e l l i g e n c e a
r a is o n n e r le c o n c r e t” j^S is v p h e . p. 134] ) . Thus i n t h i s
s tu d y an a tte m p t has b een made t o e x p lo re th e “m eaning”
of Camus a t th e c o n r e t e , d ra m a tic l e v e l , in th e r e l a t i o n
s h ip s t h a t e x i s t among th e c h a r a c te r s and betw een th e
c h a r a c te r s and th e u n iv e rs e .
Camus i n s i s t e d above a l l t h a t th e l i f e and h a p p in e ss
o f e v e ry human being a r e im p o rta n t. I t i s th e r e f o r e th e
d u ty of each man t o make e v e ry e f f o r t t o cau se h i s fe llo w
c r e a t u r e s a s l i t t l e s u f f e r i n g a s p o s s i b l e , and t o a id
them w henever he can. He su g g e ste d t h a t t h i s m ight be
done i f each of us viewed e v e ry e v e n t f r e s h l y , a c c e p te d
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r h i s a c t i o n s , and c a l l e d th in g s by
t h e i r r i g h t names. For m ost o f our tr o u b le s stem from an
in v o lv em en t w ith r h e t o r i c a l a b s t r a c t i o n and euphemism,
from a f a i l u r e t o use p l a i n , c l e a r lan g u ag e— from a
f a i l u r e t o c a l l th e d e a th p e n a lty or an e x e c u tio n , “mur
d e r ," f o r exam ple. F o r e v e ry “ s i d e ”— in a p e rio d of
h i s t o r y t h a t has se en s e v e n ty m i l l i o n p eo p le d is p la c e d ,
e n s la v e d , or k i l l e d — h as been a b le t o f in d co n v in cin g
179
argum ents f o r com m itting m urder ( f o r d ro p p in g atom ic bombs,
f o r gas c h a m b e rs).^
Camus’ men of g o o d w ill le a rn e d t o be wary of th e
l o g i c a l argum ents w hich j u s t i f i e d m urder. For exam ple, a
f i r i n g squad in H ungary, where T arrou (La P e s t e ) saw a man
w ith a b u l l e t h o le i n h i s c h e s t th e s iz e of a f i s t , ta u g h t
him t o examine th e a c t , and t o be on h is g uard a g a i n s t th e
im p re ssiv e e x p la n a tio n s , th e r h e t o r i c , t h a t would se e k t o
con v in ce him t o m urder a n o th e r human b e in g . And C herea
r e j e c t e d C a l i g u l a ’ s argum ents t h a t , s in c e th e r e i s no
meaning t o l i f e , i t i s l o g i c a l f o r man t o a c t l i k e a
b e a s t. C herea contended t h a t i f a l l men a c te d in t h i s
way, th e y would be a b le n e i t h e r t o l i v e n or t o be happy.
To C herea, C a l i g u l a ’ s argum ents were o n ly w o rd s, vague
and u n im p o rta n t i n com parison t o human l i f e and h a p p in e s s .
And m an's f i r s t d u ty i s t o l i v e and t o be happy. C herea
r e f u te d C a l i g u l a 's l o g i c a l argum ent w ith ” j e c r o i s q u ' l l
y a des a c tio n s q u i so n t p lu s b e l l e s que d 'a u t r e s ”
( I I I . 6 ) , em phasizing a g a in th e need t o examine th e a c t
i t s e l f , th e danger of becoming in v o lv e d i n a b s t r a c t i o n s ,
and th e g r e a t e r danger of n o t re c o g n iz in g th e im portance
2"0n e s tim e ra p e u t - e t r e q u 'u n e epoque q u i, en c i n -
q u an te a n s , d ^ r a c in e , a s s e r v i t ou tu e s o ix a n te - d ix m illio n s
d 'e t r e s humains d o i t se u le m e n t, e t d ’a b o rd , e t r e ju g e e"
(L ’Homme R e v o lte , p. 1 4 ).
180
of human l i f e . D iego (L !l£ tat de Si& ge) d id n o t c o n se n t t o
th e " l o g i c a l ” p o s i t i o n of The P lague and h is view of j u s
t i c e — t h a t ” on ne p e u t pas e t r e h eu reu x san s f a i r e du mal
aux a u t r e s . C’e s t l a j u s t i c e de c e t t e t e r r e ” (2 1 1 ).
D iego saw th ro u g h th e im p re s siv e argum ents t h a t have been
drummed i n t o man f o r c e n t u r i e s — t h a t ” i l f a u t tu e r pour
supprim er l e m e u rtre , v i o l e n t e r pour g u e r i r 1 ' i n j u s t i c e ”
(212).
T a r r o u 's e x p e rie n c e s —when he jo in e d a movement whose
members prom ised t o do away w ith m urder and i n j u s t i c e , b u t
who ended by com m itting m urder th e m se lv e s— convinced him
t h a t we a l l have th e p la g u e ; t h a t even th o se of us w ith
th e b e s t o f in te n t i o n s ”ne pouvions pas f a i r e un g e s te en
ce monde san s r i s q u e r de f a i r e m o u rir” (La P e s t e . p. 2 7 6) .
So T arro u began h is q u e s t f o r p eace; or i f peace were
im p o s sib le t o a t t a i n , a t l e a s t f o r a way o f l i f e w hich
would " f a i r e l e moins de m al p o s s ib le e t meme p a r f o is un
peu de b ie n " (277)* He b e lie v e d t h a t th e most p r e s s in g
problem f a c in g man i s "de s a v o ir comment on d e v ie n t un
s a i n t " (2 7 9 ). And i f i t i s im p o s sib le t o become a s a i n t ,
he d ecid ed t h a t a good man, " c e l u i q u i n 'i n f e c t e p resq u e
p e rso n n e , c ' e s t c e l u i q u i a l e moins de d i s t r a c t i o n s
p o s s i b l e ” (2 7 7 ). And th e b e s t way of co m b attin g la p s e s of
a t t e n t i o n , of co m b attin g th e p la g u e , i s t o view th in g s
c o n c r e te ly . I n o rd e r to d is p e r s e th e r h e t o r i c t h a t would
181
p ersu a d e man to commit a c t s of v io le n c e and m urder, he
m ust use p l a i n la n g u ag e. T arro u le a rn e d t h a t i n t h i s
w orld th e r e a r e p la g u e s and th e r e a r e v i c t i m s , and he
r e s o lv e d to alw ays choose th e cause of th e v ic tim s , i n
o rd er t o l i m i t th e s u f f e r i n g he m ight i n f l i c t .
Man m ust a c t . Not t o a c t amounts t o a c c e p tin g th e
m urder of o th e rs ("On d e e id e r a a l o r s de ne pas a g i r , ce
q u i r e v i e n t au moins a a c e e p te r le m e u rtre d ’a u t r u i ”
Homme R e v o lte , pp. 15-16) ) . But how and why? Camus
su g g e ste d s e v e r a l re a s o n s why man m ust a c t . ”La compre
h e n s io n ,” an aw areness of th e human c o n d i tio n , was a
m o tiv a tin g f o rc e f o r th e men o f g o o d w ill i n La P e s t e .
R ieu x b e lie v e d t h a t he was on th e r i g h t p a th when he
fo u g h t a g a i n s t ”l a c r e a t i o n t e l l e q u ’e l l e e t a i t , ” and
a g a i n s t d e a th . I n th e f a c e o f e v i l , s u f f e r i n g , and a
s i l e n t God, man m ust c o n t i n u a l l y f i g h t , even i f i t means
c o n t in u a l d e f e a t . The men on th e s a n i t a r y squads a c te d —
ca re d f o r th e s i c k and d y ing p lag u e v ic tim s a t th e r i s k o f
d e a th and s u f f e r i n g th e m s e lv e s — because th e y were aw are of
th e human c o n d itio n of s u f f e r i n g , l o n e l i n e s s , and d e a th ;
and b ecau se th e y , l i k e D iego ( L f^ t a t de Si& ee) b e lie v e d i n
a community of man. R ieu x b e lie v e d t h a t man i s more
in c lin e d t o v i r t u e th a n v i c e , and t h a t v ie e i s l a r g e l y a
r e s u l t of ig n o ra n c e — th e m ost d e s p e r a te v ic e bein g ”c e l u i
de l'i g n o r a n c e q u i c r o i t t o u t s a v o ir e t q u i s 'a u t o r i s e
182
a l o r s a tu e r " (1 5 0 -1 5 1 ). Thus ig n o ra n c e can he e n l i g h t
ened hy c u t t i n g th ro u g h th e w orld o f h a b i t , se e in g th in g s
d i r e c t l y , and c a l l i n g th in g s by t h e i r r i g h t names.
Diego embodied th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f men of g o o d w ill
who, when fa c e d w ith a p la g u e , overcome f e a r and j o i n t h e i r
fe llo w men i n r e b e l l i o n a g a i n s t d e a th , s u f f e r i n g , and l o s s
of freedom . When th e comet f i r s t a p p e a re d , he was con
ce rn e d o n ly w ith h is own h a p p in e s s ; b u t d e s p ite h i s f e e l i n g
of h o r ro r and f e a r , he a c te d . He resp o n d ed t o d u ty and
c a re d f o r th e s ic k . I n th e f i n a l a c t of th e p la y , D iego,
whose o nly rew ard was h e re on e a r t h , i n th e c o n c r e te , in
lo v e , chose t o be h e r o i c , s a c r i f i c i n g h i s l i f e and h is
h a p p in e ss i n exchange f o r th e freedom of h is f e llo w c i t i
z e n s. Why d id he do th i s ? The m o tiv a tio n f o r a c tio n
seemed t o be h i s p r i d e , h i s p rid e i n b ein g a man. T his
kind of p r id e i s m a n ife ste d by f i g h t i n g t o th e end a g a in s t
d e a th and s u f f e r i n g , and by f u l f i l l i n g a l l th e p o s s i b i l
i t i e s of o n e 's f a t e , d e s p ite a r e c o g n i tio n of human l i m i t a
t i o n s . The p o s s i b i l i t i e s of human l i f e , as d em o n strated
by D iego, a r e in lo v e , an d , when n e c e s s a r y , in s e r v ic e t o
o n e 's f e llo w men. For D iego b e lie v e d i n a community of
man and in th e sa c re d n e s s of human l i f e . He was prom pted
t o h e ro ic a c t i o n by com passion.
F or Gamus’ men of g o o d w ill, th e r e i s a c o n f l i c t
betw een th e demands of h a p p in e s s and th o s e of d u ty and
183
h ero ism . For h ero ism alw ays has second p la c e t o ” 1 ' e x i
gence g e n e re u se du bon h eu r” (La P e s t e . p. 157)* Ram bert
(La P a s t e ) b e lie v e d a t f i r s t t h a t a s an o u t s i d e r , th e
plag u e d id n o t co n cern him. He d i s t r u s t e d h ero ism and
d ying f o r an id e a ; he b e lie v e d i n l i v i n g and dying f o r
w hat he lo v e d . Ram bert had le a rn e d from h i s p a r t i c i p a t i o n
i n th e S p a n ish C i v i l War t h a t men a r e c a p a b le of co urage
and bold d e e d s , b u t t h a t th e y a r e n o t c a p a b le of g r e a t
f e e l i n g . ”J 'e n a i a s s e z des gens q u i m eurent pour une
i d e e , ” he to ld R ieu x and T a rro u . ”Je ne c r o i s pas a
l ’h e ro i’sme, j e s a i s que c ' e s t f a c i l e e t j ' a i a p p r is que
c ' e t a i t m e u r t r i e r ” ( 1 8 3) . B ut Ram bert was f i n a l l y con
v in c e d , by w itn e s s in g R ieux*s exam ple, t h a t f i g h t i n g th e
p la g u e i s a q u e s tio n of " h o n n e te te ,” of common d ecency.
When Ram bert asked R ieu x t o e x p la in w hat h o n n e te te m eant,
he answ ered t h a t he was n o t s u r e , b u t t h a t f o r him ,
*'. . • j e s a i s q u ’e l l e c o n s i s t e a f a i r e mon m e tie r ” (1 8 4 ).
Ram bert le a rn e d w hat Camus’ men of g o o d w ill m ust f i n a l l y
l e a r n , t h a t th e plag u e i s e v e ry b o d y ’ s b u s in e s s : ’’C e tte
h i s t o i r e nous con cern e t o u s ” (2 3 0 ).
The ch o ru s of women i n L ’^ t a t de S ie g e a l s o e x p re sse d
t h i s c o n f l i c t betw een th e h e r o ic a c t i o n o f men ”q u i ont
l a co m p re h en sio n ,” and th e demands of h a p p in e ss and lo v e ,
when th e y p o in te d t o V i c t o r i a 's body and c o n tr a s te d i t t o
D ie g o 's b rav e w ords, and when th e y c o n tr a s te d th e seeming
184
f u t i l i t y of h e ro ic a c t i o n to th e c o n c re te jo y s of lo v e
betw een a man and woman. Throughout L 'E t a t de S i e g e , p a r
t i c u l a r l y i n th e c h o r a l s e c t i o n s , Camus s t r e s s e d th e
im portance o f lo v e and th e 0 f u n c tio n of women as te a c h e r s
of how t o l i v e . Diego p a r t i a l l y e x p la in e d h i s s a c r i f i c e
( th e exchange o f h is l i f e f o r V i c t o r i a ’s ) when he s a i d ,
" i l a b e s o in de nos femmes pour a p p re n d re a v iv r e . Nous,
nous n 'a v o n s jam ais e t e c a p a b le s que de m o u rir" ( 228) .
In Camus’ w ork, women te a c h men th e g e n t le n a tu re of lo v e
— a l l th e s im p le , c o n c r e te , p h y s ic a l th in g s w h ich , w ith
c o u ra g e , p r i d e , and ab sen ce of f e a r , a re th e o n ly weapons
a g a in s t d e a th , and a r e th e rew ard s man can c o u n t on, and
can o c c a s io n a lly a t t a i n .
R ie u x , i n e v a lu a tin g h is e x p e rie n c e s d u rin g th e
p lag u e y e a r , a l s o s t r e s s e d th e im portance of lo v e . He
le a rn e d t h a t th e r e had been no v i c t o r y over th e p la g u e ,
f o r i t would alw ays be t h e r e , ly in g dorm ant. The o nly
th in g a man co u ld w in "au je u de l a p e s te e t de l a v i e ,
c ’e t a i t la c o n n a isa n c e e t l a memoirs" (La P e s t e . p. 317)*
R ieu x d is c o v e re d t h a t th e one th in g t h a t man could hope
f o r , " q u 'o n p u is s e d e s i r e r to u jo u r s e t o b te n ir q u e lq u e f o is ,
c ' e s t l a te n d re s s e hum aine” (3 2 8 ). The o n ly answ ers t o
th e q u e s tio n of th e meaning of l i f e w ere t o be found in
man, and in h i s "pauvre e t t e r r i b l e amour" ( 328).
L ike R ie u x , M e u rsa u lt ( th e young c l e r k who c a lle d
185
th in g s by t h e i r nam es, and who was b ro u g h t t o th e d e a th
c e l l f o r h is n a iv e r e f u s a l to d is p l a y th e outward form s
d i c t a t e d by custom and h a b i t t h a t s o c ie ty demands) d id n o t
lo o k beyond man f o r a meaning t o l i f e . The sim p le , con
c r e t e r e a l i t y of h i s l i f e f i n a l l y broke th ro u g h th e muddy
r h e t o r i c of ju d g e s , la w y e rs , and th e p r is o n c h a p la in . On
th e eve of h is d e a th , he f e l t open f o r th e f i r s t tim e in
h is l i f e t o th e ,fte n d e r i n d if f e r e n c e of th e u n i v e r s e .”
And he f e l t re a d y t o l i v e l i f e over a g a in . I t was when he
no lo n g e r had any hope t h a t he came t o term s w ith h i s l i f e ,
and a c c e p te d h i s c o n d itio n w ith th e few m is e r a b le , y e t
g lo r i o u s , c o n c re te th in g s i t had o f f e r e d — ” le s p lu s
p au v res e t le s p lu s te n a c e s de mes jo ie s s des odeurs
d ' e t e , le q u a r t i e r que j 'a i m a i s , un c e r t a i n e i e l du s o i r ,
le r i r e e t le s ro b es de M a rie1 1 (L S t r a n g e r . p. 137). I n
a c c e p tin g h i s c o n d itio n w ith o u t h o p e, he ro s e above th e
a b s u r d it y of h i s e x is te n c e . The g ran d eu r of h i s l i f e was
h is p a s s io n a te lo v e f o r t h i s one. He d id n o t c h e a t l i f e .
W ith c h a r a c te r s l i k e th o s e of Hada and Judge C asado,
Camus d em o n strate d th e d a n g e r, t o them and t o o th e r s , of
th o se who w ith d raw from th e community of man, r e j e c t
l i f e , and r e f u s e t o g iv e th em selv es i n lo v e . Nada’s
aw areness o f th e ab su rd c o n d itio n of man caused him t o
deny h im s e lf and l i f e . He c o lla b o r a te d w ith The P lague
i n th e en slav em en t o f o th e r s , and e v e n tu a lly d e s tro y e d
186
h im s e lf . Judge C asado, in c a p a b le of lo v e and w ith o u t com
p a s s io n , fo llo w e d a b s t r a c t laws b l i n d l y and i n t e r p r e t e d
them th ro u g h h a te .
Camus c o n t i n u a l l y d em o n strated i n h i s n o v e ls and
p la y s t h a t a meaning t o l i f e m ust be found on a v e ry con
c r e t e l e v e l , i n a c t s of g o o d w ill and s e r v ic e t o one*s
f e llo w man, in a c lo s e r e l a t i o n t o c o n c re te n a t u r e , and
i n lo v e — i n a joyous a c c e p ta n c e of and engagem ent i n l i f e .
O th erw ise, i f man does n o t become so engaged, and i f he
b e lie v e s i n n o th in g , he may " t o u t se p e r m e ttr e ." S ta v r o
g in (I.es P o s s e d e s ) , d iv o rc e d from c o n c re te n a tu r e and
in c a p a b le of lo v e , l o s t a l l sen se o f d i s t i n c t i o n betw een
good and e v i l , and tu rn e d t o v i c e , b o th a s a means of
s e lf-p u n is h m e n t and a s a means of escap e from boredom.
And because C a lig u la co u ld f in d no meaning t o l i f e and
would n o t a c c e p t th e human c o n d itio n ( f o r him , a m eaning
l e s s s u f f e r i n g t h a t ended in d e a t h ) , he c r e a te d a w orld
"oil l a pens^e l a p lu s b i z a r r e p e u t en une seconde e n t r e r
dans l a r e a l i t e " ( I I I . 6 ) . He com m itted h is a c t s of
c r u e l t y because of i d e a s , tra n sfo rm in g " s a p h ilo s o p h ie en
c a d a v re s" ( I I . 2 ) .
In a d d i t i o n t o t h i s t r a g i c i n a b i l i t y t o become p a s
s io n a te l y engaged in l i f e , and t o f in d meaning on a
c o n c re te l e v e l , Camus in d ic a te d a number o f o th e r o b s ta c le s
t h a t keep man from a c tin g w ith g o o d w ill. Camus
187
d em o n strate d i n La Chute t h a t a man who i s overwhelmed by
g u i l t i s u n ab le t o a c t , and i s i n c l i n e d , l i k e S ta v r o g in ,
to tu r n t o v ic e a s an escap e and a means of s e l f - d e s t r u c
t i o n . For when J e a n - B a p tis te h eard th e f a r away la u g h te r
(which se rv e d t o rem ind him t h a t he was n o t w hat he would
l i k e to b e , and b ro u g h t f o r t h a d e s ir e t o do som ething
a b o u t i t ) he was a b le t o overwhelm e v e r y th in g , c r e a tu r e s
and c r e a t i o n , under th e w eig h t of h is own w eakness, h i s
se n se of g u i l t . A f te r h is f a l l from in n o c e n c e , when
J e a n - B a p tis te saw a l l h is supposed good a c tio n s and
m o tiv es in a new l i g h t and d isc o v e re d t h a t he was b a s i
c a l l y c r u e l , v i o l e n t , and s e l f i s h , l i f e became to o com plex
f o r him t o b e a r th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of freedom . He le a rn e d
t h a t freedom i s n o t a p r i z e , b u t a lo n e ly th in g , w hich
fo rc e d man t o make lo n e ly d e c is io n s and t o be r e s p o n s ib le
f o r h i s a c t i o n s . U nable t o come t o term s w ith h i s sen se
of g u i l t (as T arro u was a b le t o d o ) , he asked f o r a w orld
o f h a b i t , i n w hich e v e ry th in g i s sim p le , e v e ry a c t i s
d i c t a t e d by custom , good and e v i l a re a r b i t r a r i l y d e s ig
n a te d , and th e r e a r e no c o m p lic a tio n s of p e r s o n a l r e s p o n s i
b i l i t y .
Camus s tr e s s e d th e d an g ers of euphemism and r h e t o r i c ;
f o r men m ust re c o g n iz e " p la g u e s ” f o r w hat th e y a r e in
o rd e r t o band to g e th e r t o f i g h t them. The G overnor of
C a d iz, " r o i de l 'h a b i t u d e ” ( L ^ t a t de S i e g e , p. 4 7 ),
188
o rd ered h i s s u b je c ts t o p re te n d th e comet d i d n 't e x i s t and
fo rb a d e them t o use th e word " p la g u e .” Dr. R ich ard (La
P e s t e ) , chairm an of th e h e a l t h com m ittee, i n s i s t e d on su b
s t i t u t i n g euphemisms f o r th e p ro p e r words and would n o t a c t
w ith o u t an o f f i c i a l fo rm u la ; he t r i e d t o escap e a c t i o n by
draw ing up r e p o r t s and p u tti n g th e "problem " i n t o o f f i c i a l
c h a n n e ls . And F a th e r P an elo u x , u sin g th e long r h e t o r i c a l
p h ra se s and extended m etaphors of a s k i l l e d p r e a c h e r , to ld
h is c o n g re g a tio n t h a t th e p lag u e came from God a s a p u n ish
ment f o r t h e i r s i n s . But R ieu x i n s i s t e d t h a t " i l f a u t
a p p e le r le s choses p a r le u r nom” (5 4 ). He could n o t see
th e plag u e a s some a b s t r a c t le s s o n or p u n ish m en t, b u t o n ly
a s i t m a n ife ste d i t s e l f i n th e w r i th in g , g a n g lia -c o v e re d
body o f a c h i l d . He was convinced t h a t he m ust c a l l th e
p la g u e by i t s name i n o rd e r to o rg a n iz e o p p o s itio n to
f i g h t a g a in s t i t . To R ie u x , and t o Camus' o th e r men of
g o o d w ill, words s e p a ra te d from th e e v e n ts th e y d e s c rib e d
m eant v e ry l i t t l e ; w o rse, th e y d is g u is e d th e r e a l i t y of
th e e v e n t. I t seemed t o R ieu x t h a t th e words used t o
d e s c r ib e th e plag u e had " l e to n d 'e p o p e e ou de d is c o u r s de
p r ix " ( l 5 7 ) j and had no r e a l r e l a t i o n t o th e d a i l y e f f o r t s
of th e men engaged in c a rin g f o r th e p lag u e v ic tim s , or
to th e pus covered body of a scream ing c h i l d .
F i n a l l y , Camus in d ic a te d t h a t i f m an's i n t e l l i g e n c e
i s u n ab le t o d is c o v e r a c o h e re n t w orld o r d e r , i f l i f e i s
189
ab su rd i n a w orld where e v i l triu m p h s over good e v e ry
w here, th e l e a s t man can do i s n o t t o add more e v i l t o i t
by c a l l i n g w hat i s e v i l , good. And a lth o u g h man c a n n o t
answer m e ta p h y s ic a l q u e s tio n s , he can work in th e s e r v ic e
of h is f e llo w c r e a t u r e s . Why should he? W e ca n n o t be
c e r t a i n . But m an's r e a s o n i s h is g r e a t n e s s , and re a s o n
should le a d him t o a c t — t o r e b e l a g a in s t i n j u s t i c e and
d e a th . I t i s a m a tte r of " h o n n e te te "5 a q u e s tio n of
" f a i r e son m e t i e r ."
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1 1 * C a l i g u l a , * a Bad B r i l l i a n t P la y ." Anon, r e v . , L i f e .
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P a r i s , 1953*
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-Ifaiversity-'Of-SouthGrn-California

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Creator Hubble, Thomas Newman (author)

Core Title The act and the word: A study of abstraction versus the concrete in the work of Albert Camus

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Comparative Literature

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Literature, African,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c17-58759

Unique identifier UC11348755

Identifier DP22518.pdf (filename),usctheses-c17-58759 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier DP22518.pdf

Dmrecord 58759

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Hubble, Thomas Newman

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

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