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An evaluation of the secondary biological science curriculum in Nigeria with reference to Imo State

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An evaluation of the secondary biological science curriculum in Nigeria with reference to Imo State

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AN EVALUATION OF THE SECONDARY BIOLOGICAL
SCIENCE CURRICULUM IN NIGERIA
WITH
REFERENCE TO IMO STATE
by
Anselm Amah Anukam
A Dissertation. Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School
University of Southern California
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(Education)
December, 1996
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University of Southern California
School of Education
TO THE FACULTY OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION:
We, the undersigned members of the Dissertation Committee for Anselm Amah Anukam
in candidacy for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
certify that the candidate has successfully defended the dissertation in an oral examination and is
hereby unanimously recommended for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
HatP
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DEDICATION
To my deceased parents, Pius and Lucy Anukam
and to my deceased sister, Catherine Onwuchuruba.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am greatly indebted to Dr. W.F. McComas, the chairperson of my
dissertation committee, who was readily available to offer me any help I
needed as I worked on this dissertation. Without his constant advice and
guidance, it would not have been possible for me to complete this work.
I am equally grateful to Dr. J. Lemlech and Dr. M. Michael Appleman
who, as members of my dissertation committee, offered me constructive
suggestions which were incorporated into this dissertation.
My gratitude also extends to Dr. Vernon Broussard and Dr. E.
Williams who were at one time or the other members of my doctoral
committee. Their wealth of experience and knowledge in the educational field
threw much light on some of the issues under investigation in this study.
I further thank in a special way Sr. Teresa C. Juarez who expended
effort, time, and energy to type the manuscript of this work. Her computer
skills were a big asset in the production of this work.
Similarly, I thank all the principals, biological science department
heads and biology teachers of Imo State who cooperatively participated in
this study. Their reports from the survey, interview questions and classroom
observations enabled me to get an insight into their experiences as biology
teachers in Imo State of Nigeria. Finally, I immensely thank my former
bishop, Mark O. Unegbu who, by sending me to the United States for further
studies, made this accomplishment possible.
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ABSTRACT
Concern regarding declining performance in secondary biological
science education prompted the need to re-examine the content of the biology
curriculum and determine how it is taught, using the American biology
curriculum as the standard for evaluation. A comparison of the two curricula
was used to determine the conditions and common practices that exist in
high schools in Imo State of Nigeria.
Using a research methodological triangulation strategy that included
a survey, classroom observations, interviews, and examination of the biology
syllabus, this research qualitatively and quantitatively characterized and
delineated the status of biology education in Imo State.
To ascertain the range of existing discrepancies, comparisons were
made at three categorical levels, namely, the stated elements of biological
literacy, instructional methodology, and instructional support.
The formal American biology curriculum was determined through the
use of guidelines established by the Biological Sciences Curriculum Study,
National Research Council and other biology educational research and
development organizations. The Nigerian secondary biology syllabus
constituted the formal curriculum of Nigeria. The questionnaire, administered
to 100 teachers in 46 schools along with personal interviews of 10 teachers,
6 classroom observations and examination of the secondary biology syllabus,
provided the data.
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Findings of discrepancies at the categorical levels of comparison
indicate that pedagogy is dominated heavily by teacher-centered instruction
with limited emphasis on the investigative process of scientific inquiry.
Laboratory work is infrequent and the stated elements of biological literacy
are not organized under unifying principles associated with major concepts.
Integration of appropriate technologies is not in evidence in the system.
Moreover, students’ assessment depends on the traditional evaluational
practices, namely, written examinations. Additionally, certain adverse
conditions impede implementation of good biology program such as
overcrowded classrooms, deficient funding for supplies, equipment or
facilities, inadequate instructional time and materials, and high rate of
teachers’ attrition induced by lack of incentives.
Recent reform efforts that challenge the traditional biological science
teaching call for change. This report discusses the implications of these
findings and proposes recommendations to improve and enhance high school
biology education.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
DEDICATION ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS iii
ABSTRACT iv
LIST OF TABLES viii
Chapter
1. IN TR O D U C TIO N ........................................................................................... 1
Overview of the Problem A re a ..........................................................................1
Purpose of the S t u d y .................................................................................. 6
Significance of the S tu d y .................................................................................. 7
Research Q u e stio n s...........................................................................................9
Overview of Research M e t h o d s ................................................................. 9
A s s u m p tio n s ..................................................................................................10
Delimitations and I .imita tio n s ........................................................................11
Definition of T e r m s ......................................................................................... 12
2. REVIEW OF RELEVANT L I T E R A T U R E ...............................................15
Curriculum Approaches in African S c h o o l s ...............................................15
“ The Africanization of the C urriculum "........................................................17
Experimentation with External Curriculum Models . . . . 22
A Discussion of the Failure of the Curriculum
Approaches Attempted in African S c h o o l s ...............................................24
Curriculum Reforms in Biology Education in
Nigerian Secondary S c h o o l s ........................................................................33
Colonial E r a ................................................................................................. 33
Nigerian Biology Education in the S i x t i e s .............................................. 36
Nigerian Biology Education in the S eventies.............................................. 39
Nigerian Biology Education in the E i g h tie s .............................................. 43
Biology Curriculum in the 6-3-3-4 Educational System . 4 4
3. RESEARCH M E T H O D S................................................................................ 47
S a m p l e ..........................................................................................................48
I n s t r u m e n t ................................................................................................. 49
Data Collection P r o c e d u r e s ........................................................................50
Validity and Reliability of the Research D e s i g n ...................................... 52
Elements of Biological L i t e r a c y ................................................................57
Instructional M e t h o d o l o g y ........................................................................58
Instructional S u p p o r t ................................................................................ 59
Formal Biology Curriculum and Operational Curriculum . 6 0
Data A n a ly s is ................................................................................................. 61
L i m i t a t i o n s ................................................................................................. 63
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LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table
4.1 The elements of biological literacy in the American curriculum . 79
4.2 The elements of biological literacy in the Nigerian curriculum 83
4.3 Form for evaluating biology p r o g r a m s .........................................................88
4.4 Leaminj/Teaching S tra te g ie s ..........................................................................91
4.5 Percentage of the extent of teachers’ report using specific
science process s k i l l s ................................................................................ 98
4.6 Teachers' report of the use of various instructional techniques 99
4.7 Percentages of the time per lesson allocated to the different
instructional te c h n iq u e s ...............................................................................103
4.8 A comparison of elements of biological literacy in the
two c u r r i c u l a ................................................................................................127
4.9 A comparison of the instructional methodology in the
two c u r r i c u l a ................................................................................................133
4.10 A comparison of the instructional support in the two curricula .136
4.11 A comparison of the formal and the operational biology curricula
in Imo S t a t e ................................................................................................140
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4. FINDINGS AND D IS C U S S IO N ................................................................ 65
Characteristics of the Formal Nigerian High School
Biology C urriculum .........................................................................................66
Elements of Biological L i t e r a c y ................................................................ 72
Levels of Biological L ite r a c y ........................................................................ 76
Instructional M e th o d o lo g y ........................................................................ 89
The Instructional Methodology in the Formal American
Biology C urriculum .........................................................................................90
The Instructional Methodology in Imo State High School
Biology f t o g r a m .........................................................................................97
Teachers' Survey R e p o r t................................................................................ 97
Classroom O b servation s...............................................................................102
Teachers' Interview s....................................................................................... 105
Instructional S u p p o r t ...............................................................................117
Instructional Support in Imo State Biology Program . . . . 120
Elements of Biological L i t e r a c y .............................................................. 127
Instructional M e t h o d o lo g y .......................................................................133
Instructional S u p p o r t ...............................................................................136
Formal Curriculum and Operational C u rricu lu m .....................................139
5. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS .143
Overview of the S t u d y ...............................................................................143
C o n c lu s io n s ............................................................................................... 146
I m p lic a t io n s ............................................................................................... 147
Suggestions for Future R e s e a r c h .............................................................. 152
A P P E N D I C E S ........................................................................................................154
A. Survey Q u e s t i o n s ........................................................................................155
B. Interview Q uestions........................................................................................163
C. Observation I n s tru m e n t............................................................................... 164
R E F E R E N C E S ........................................................................................................ 165
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
OVERVIEW OF THE PROBLEM AREA
The early 1960s and 1970s witnessed massive world-wide science
education reform activities aimed at a more utilitarian interpretation of
science education for pupils in both developed and developing countries. This
was because of the wide and persistent belief that science, more than any
other subject in the traditional school curriculum, is most closely associated
with economic and social development (Knamiller, 1984; Olorundare, 1988).
The predominant reform strategy focused attention on the nature of science
curriculum, and many science teaching projects were initiated with the aim
of. re-evaluating the contents of science programs and the way they were
taught. Such reforms occurred in developed countries such as Canada (Ste-
Marie, 1982), Germany (Millar, 1981), Holland (Hondebrink, 1981), and in
developing countries such as Thailand (Sapianchai & Chewprececha, 1984),
Malaysia (Lewin, 1981), Lebanon (Za'rour & Jirmanus, 1977), Malawi (Moss,
1974), and Australia (Lucas, 1972). A whole liturgy of terms mushroomed in
the 1970s around the concept of applied science -"science education for
progress" (King & Lancaster, 1979), "science education for persistent
problems" (Showalter, 1978), "science and technology education for
development" (United Nations, 1979) to mention a few.
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As the 1980s began, humans faced a different world, one dominated
by a multiplicity of science and technology-related societal issues. These
issues were not unknown in prior decades, of course, but their importance
then was of a different order of magnitude. The oceans, forests, croplands,
and grasslands were then of obvious critical importance to human existence
and the stresses upon them and the limitations of their productivity in terms
of human needs became severe.
The growth of scientific knowledge during the twentieth century,
however, has been without precedent in human history; modem industrial
civilization is undergoing considerable change. This new phase in human
history has been variously dubbed "Post Industrial," "Eco-technological," and
the "Information Society."
In several developed countries, educators have consistently argued that
more than a casual acquaintance with scientific forces or phenomena is
essential for any effective citizenry in this twentieth century. Therefore, one
should no longer regard science instruction as an intellectual luxury of a
select few (Kahl & Harms, 1981). These observations are also most relevant
for developing countries, particularly countries such as Nigeria that are
gradually emerging strong in international scene on economic, political, and
military fronts.
Given the interdependence of people in today’s world, one of the most
important issues facing Nigeria is how to become part of the post-industrial
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era which has swept the Western World in the past 25 years. While some
countries in the Third World have increasingly become participants in the
present technological revolution, Nigeria has been content to be "end-users"
of the technology and to become dependent on overseas products to a greater
and greater extent. The low level of economic development, the decline in the
value of the Nigerian currency, and the high unemployment rate Eire all
indicators of a deeper malaise -the failure of the Nigerian government to
understand the forces of technology that are at work in the world and how
to adapt educational and political thought to meet this challenge.
Strong and concerted efforts to revise these trends to secure a niche
for Nigerians in the technological world began with the Federal Republic of
Nigeria's (FRN) National Policy on Education (NPE). As a section on the
objectives of secondary education clearly stipulates, the purpose of secondary
education, among others, is to equip students to live effectively in the modem
age of science and technology (FRN, 1981).
In order to fit in with the new educational philosophy, a new biology
curriculum designed by the Comparative Education Study and Adaptation
Center (CESAC) and approved by the Federal Ministry of Education was
introduced into all Nigerian senior secondary schools in September of 1985.
Unfortunately the adoption of this new biological science curriculum does not
seem to be yielding the desired result, namely, the enhancement of biology
education in Nigerian public schools. In the past two decades, however,
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several reports and studies have documented the plight of Nigerian
education, with biology instruction receiving the majority of criticism. These
reports and studies attest to a steady progressive decline in the performance
of Nigerian high school students in standardized tests in biology (Asun, 1986,
Maduabum, 1993, 1994, 1995; Omocha & Okpala, 1986; Soyibo, 1991;
Uzuike, 1993). Every year, relatively few high school graduates opt for
biology and other science education in Nigeria's tertiary institutions (Akpan,
Asun, Omocha & Okpala, 1986; Okeke,1989). A corollary of this dismal
situation, of course, is the present chronic shortage of biology teachers and
a mediocre performance of students.
Soyibo (1991) reviewed fifty six empirical studies carried out by
researchers on Nigerian students' performance on biology from 1979-1988.
One conclusion from this review was that most Nigerian students perform
poorly on biology tests. In a comparative analysis of senior secondary school
certificate (diploma) results over a six-year period (1979-1985) in the basic
science subjects, biology was singled out as the hardest hit -a subject usually
considered the easiest to study by the students (Esezobor, 1986). In a recent
study, Jegede, Otuka and Eniayeju (1992) reported that while performance
levels over the years (1982-1991) show rising spurts, there is a clearly
discernible lower level of performance in biology than in other science
disciplines, technology, and mathematics.
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Greatly concerned about this precipitous decline, and beefed up in a
great practical effort to off-set the persistent shortfall, the NPE further
stipulated that student admissions to the universities should be in the ratio
of 60 percent science to 40 percent humanities. Furthermore, some
institutions of higher learning had been applying a lower cut-off point for the
purpose of admissions in the field of biology and other science disciplines, but
there is still difficulty in filling up the science vacancies (Asun, Omocha &
Okpara, 1986; Okeke, 1989). The gap between expectation and fact is indeed
enormous. This situation portends a dismal future for Nigeria's quest for
technological advancement.
Numerous other studies have cited such subset issues as lack of
adequately trained biology teachers, inappropriate texts, inadequate
instructional materials, some unfavorable classroom (learning) situations,
certain student characteristics, and poor funding as causal factors of our
educational woes in biological science achievement (Maduabum, 1995;
Omocha & Okpala, 1986). However, research that evaluatively examines the
content of the senior secondary biological science curriculum as a possible
contributive causal factor to the failure in biological science education
appears to be minimal or non-existent.
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PURPOSE OP THE STUDY
The purpose of this study is critically to evaluate the content of the
biology program in operation in all upper secondary schools in Imo State of
Nigeria by comparing it with the biology curriculum advocated by biology
experts in the United States. Such a comparison will, without any doubt,
help the Nigerian educational community to determine whether the biology
curriculum now in use in all Imo State public high schools is in agreement
with modem biological literacy programs advocated by biology and science
education experts in the United States.
The United States is typically the super power in the field of scientific
and technological research. The nation generates more Nobel laureates in
science than any other country in the world. Foreign nations send their best
and brightest students to the United States to be trained in scientific fields.
Every year witnesses, for example, a continuous influx of students from the
English-speaking West African countries -the Gambia, Ghana, Liberia,
Nigeria, and Sierra Leone- to colleges and universities in the United States.
A large group of these students enroll in various scientific fields of study at
a consortium of five universities in Washington D.C. -American, Catholic,
Georgetown, George Washington, and Howard (Onwere, 1980). In the recent
past, developers of science curriculum in Nigeria have made references to
science curriculum materials designed in the United States in the
presumption th at they are the "best" (Adamu, 1989; Jegede, 1990; Mkpa,
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1987). As a developing nation striving to be part of the post-industrial era,
Nigeria imperatively needs to evaluate its biology program against those of
the more scientifically and technologically advanced nations like the United
States.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
Specific findings in the study could prove useful in curriculum
planning and innovation at the Comparative Education Studies and
Adaptation Center (CESAC). Information gathered from this study could
prove useful in selecting instructional content and methods to enhance the
learning of important scientific concepts and generalizations.
The explosion of scientific knowledge in the twentieth century,
particularly in the field of biology, confronts us with the need to choose
carefully the material to be taught to students. One of the most serious flaws
in high school biology courses is the sheer amount of material that must be
covered in a limited amount of time. This is what educators define as the
"add-on phenomenon," the specific units targeted to address societal problems
(e.g. AIDS, drugs) or the latest scientific discoveries (e.g. genetic mapping,
subatomic structure) that all youngsters are expected to know. Biology
teachers have, thus, no shortage of lists and outlines of topics to be presented
in their courses. Those forms of guidelines, the researcher believes, are in
fact part of the problem. Putting down yet another bare-bones description of
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a course will send the wrong message, for it will invite teachers and
publishers alike to look for the topics that they "cover" and, on finding them,
to conclude that they must be doing the right thing. Furthermore, academics
will complain if their favorite comer of biology is not mentioned. According
to the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) (1989),
public schools in the United States are from ten to twenty years behind the
current scientific research; school programs do not keep up with recent
advancements in the field of science. An evaluation based on a content
analysis of biological science curriculum will enable Nigerian science
educators to determine what to drop and what to retain, given the sheer
amount of new science information generated each year and the limited
amount of time available for instruction.
This research project will provide valuable knowledge to Imo State’s
ministry of education. Specifically, the State's ministry of education will
receive information regarding course offerings and content, teaching
methodology, teaching materials and equipment, and teachers' complaints
that put limitations on biological science instruction. These school
environment factors, according to Psacharopolous and Woodhall (1985) have
greater impact on achievement in African schools than the factors associated
with the home of the student such as socioeconomic status of the parents,
level of education of the parents, or number of family members. Findings
obtained from this research project will therefore establish a baseline of what
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is happening in high school biology classrooms in Nigeria and enable the
government to formulate recommendations on the fundamental changes
needed in high school biological science education and determine future goals
and policies.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Within the context of the purpose set forth, the following research
questions were posed:
1. What are the characteristics of the formal high school biology
curriculum of Nigeria?
2. What is the formal American high school biology curriculum both in
terms of the stated elements of biological literacy, instructional
methodology, and instructional support?
3. What is the state of biology curriculum of Nigeria in terms of:
a) The stated elements of biological literacy required of students?
b) The instructional techniques used by biology teachers?
c) The instructional support given to biology teachers?
4. What discrepancies exist between the American and Imo State high
school biology curricula with respect to:
a) The elements of biological literacy?
b) Instructional methodology?
c) Instructional support needed by biology teachers?
5. W hat discrepancies exist between the formal and operational
curricula in Imo State high schools?
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OVERVIEW OF THE RESEARCH METHOD
The study characterizes and delineates the status of high school
biology curriculum in Imo State of Nigeria through the use of a combination
of quantitative and qualitative research methods. Information about the
Nigerian biology program was established through a content analysis of the
biology syllabus, questionnaire, observations and personal interviews with
biology teachers.
The American biology curriculum was determined through the use of
the guidelines established for American high schools by the Biological
Sciences Curriculum Study, the National Science Teachers Associations,
California Science Framework, National Research Council, and the
recommendations from the American Association for the Advancement of
Science. These documents have been recommended by experts and research
organizations in the field of biology for use in American high schools. A
content analysis was also undertaken of these recommended curricular
documents. The two curricula were then compared to evaluate the range of
consistencies and discrepancies that exist.
ASSUMPTIONS
Certain conceptual and methodological assumptions underlay the
conduct of the study. The conceptual assumptions were:
1. That the science curriculum advocated by the Biological Sciences
Curriculum Study, the National Teachers Association, California
Science Framework, the National Research Council, and the
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American Association for the Advancement of Science is the formal
curriculum for all students;
2. That the goals for science instruction in Western countries like the
United States are the same as those in an African country like
Nigeria;
3. That the teachers interviewed are forthcoming in their responses,
and typical of the population of biology teachers in Imo State of
Nigeria.
The methodological assumptions also basic to this project were:
1. The Nigerian biology syllabus provides a framework for all Imo
State teachers of biology;
2. That teachers who are experienced in teaching biology abide by
the syllabic guidelines when choosing instructional topics and
goals, irrespective of any perceived shortcomings;
3. That all science laboratory equipment and teaching materials in
evidence in Imo State classrooms are those prescribed for use
alongside with the syllabus; and
4. That there is high positive correlation between the objectives of the
biology curriculum and tests designed to measure the attainment
of the objectives.
DELIMITATIONS AND LIMITATION
The following delimitations were evident in the research project:
1. The study was delimited to the present biology curriculum of
Nigeria.
2. The study was delimited to secondary school biology teachers in
Imo State of Nigeria. Imo State, like any other state in Nigeria, has
more schools located in the rural than in urban or sub-urban areas.
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3. Some of these teachers have a bachelor's Degree in biology and
others hold science teacher diplomas -a National Certificate in
Education (NCE) from National Advanced Teacher Training
Colleges.
4. The student population in the study was not a statistical sample
of the student population in Imo State, but is typical.
A limitation of this research project is that, while it may be generalizable to
teachers of biological science in Imo State of Nigeria, it may not be
generalizable to all biology teachers in other states of the Nigerian
Federation.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Functional definitions that are related to this research project include
the following:
1. Science content; The definition of science content in this study
includes all that can be learned about or of science including its
products, processes, assumptions, values, and whatever else is
distinctive of science, including philosophical considerations. In
contrast, a more conservative view of science content would limit
science content to its concepts, laws, and theories, th at is, to the
products of science.
2. Scientific literacy; According to the National Research Council
(NRC) (1996) scientific literacy is the knowledge and understanding
of scientific concepts and processes required for personal decision
making, participation in civic and cultural affairs, and economic
productivity. It also includes specific types of abilities the
components of which include (1) ability to apply relevant science
knowledge in everyday life situations, (2) ability to utilize the
processes of scientific inquiry, (3) an understanding of general ideas
about the characteristics of science and about the important
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interactions of science, technology and science, and (4) possession
of an informed attitude and interests related to science.
3. The perceived state is the awareness, thoughts and beliefs of
biology teachers as to the conditions of the high school biological
science experience. This state was determined by data supplied
through the use of a questionnaire administered to teachers.
4. The practiced state is the actual conditions that exist in the high
school biological science department in Imo State of Nigeria. The
practiced state was ascertained mainly from classroom observations
and interviews with teachers.
5. The formal American, biology curriculum was determined
through the use of guidelines established in the United States by
the National Science Teachers Association, California Science
Framework, National Research Council, and recommendations from
the American Association for the Advancement of Science.
6. The formal Nigerian biology curriculum is the senior secondary
biology syllabus developed by the Comparative Education Study
and Adaptation Center and published by the Federal Ministry of
Education.
7. The West African Examinations Council (WAEC); An
international body th at conducts examinations for and awards
certificates (diplomas) to high school graduates in countries in West
Africa.
8. The West African School Certificate; diploma awarded to high
school graduates by WAEC at the end of high school education.
9. Imo State, Nigeria; Imo State and Nigeria are terms sometimes
used interchangeably in this study. This is because the formal
curriculum in-use in Imo State is the same one in-use in all the
states of the Federation, even though this study was conducted in
Imo State.
Scientific literacy is a national problem in many countries. The
declining number of high school graduates pursuing biological science
education in Nigeria's tertiary institutions signals a failure of the national
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and state education enterprise. Blame for this crisis is partly placed on the
public education system. This situation prompted the researcher to examine
the content of biological science curriculum of Nigeria's high schools to
determine its comparability with th at recommended by experts. The overall
technique is grounded in what Yager (1982) describes as the discrepancy
model. The American biological science curriculum is first determined
followed by a portrayal of the Nigerian biology curriculum. The two are then
compared to ascertain the range of discrepancies. If Nigeria is to survive and
progress in a world culture dominated by science, technology, and
achievements, then the nation should pursue a vigorous biological science
literacy program in every school, a science program th at has more than the
incidental treatment which is presently engineered in the general education
system.
Chapter two contains the review of relevant research literature. In
Chapter three, the methodology, the researcher discusses how the project was
designed and undertaken. Chapter four contains the fin d in gs and discussions.
Chapter five contains the summary of the study, conclusions, and
recommendations.
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CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE
This chapter contains the review of the literature centered around:
a) Curriculum approaches in West African schools;
b) Curriculum reforms in biology education in Nigerian secondary
schools from the colonial era to the present.
Due to the paucity of research literature from West African countries
except from Nigeria, references will often be drawn from non-West African
countries, as the researcher sees appropriate, in order to explain any
educational phenomenon that occurred in West African countries, especially
in Nigeria.
CURRICULUM APPROACHES IN AFRICAN SCHOOLS
Before the late 1950s and the early 1960s, science in most African
states was in the form of the syllabuses of the different subjects set up
primarily for examination purposes (Ogunniyi, 1986). The actual curriculum
was left to grow by itself -a process akin to the natural selection. It was
thought that, as needs arise, obsolete or irrelevant materials in the
curriculum would die a natural death while new ideas would gain
prominence. The end result of this false assumption was the cluttering of the
curriculum with materials presenting an inadequate view of science.
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A revolution in science teaching began in the Western countries such
as America and Britain when on October 4, 1957 the Soviets launched an
unm anned satellite, Sputnik I, circling the earth. The lack of a clear
philosophy of science teaching in terms of stated objectives and practices
after World War II began to take a new turn in the early 1950s. The factors
responsible for this shift of emphasis are well documented in the literature.
Even before the echoes of the revolution in science teaching reached the
shores of Africa, several African leaders were already searching for ways and
means by which science teaching could be made compatible with the
postulates of their newly won independence. The curriculum approaches
utilized in Africa then were mainly driven by concern for nation building
(Mkpa, 1987; Thompson, 1981). An attempt was made to use the curriculum
for political, cultural, and economic ends in pursuit of national development.
Curriculum has been used politically to increase national unity as well as
political participation among diverse sections of African Nations (Urch, 1992).
It has been used culturally to bring some of the cultures of the different
tribes in these nations into the classroom. It has been used economically to
train manpower with technical skills and scientific attitudes (Mkpa, 1987;
Ogunniyi, 1995). From independence until the present, the curriculum
approaches have been implemented in order to develop the nation and bring
it together. This means that a change was expected in the attitudes of the
students and then in the nation as a whole. This quest for change was aptly
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described by Nyerere when he said, "Africa needs change and change has to
start somewhere" (Thompson, p. 72). The "somewhere" where most African
countries have felt is the most practical place to initiate change has been in
the schools.
The curriculum approaches experienced by African countries including
Nigeria can be neatly divided into the following stages (Jansen, 1989):
1) The Africanization of the curriculum;
2) The experimentation with external curriculum models; and
3) The development of critical curriculum models.
"THE AFRICANIZATION OF THE CURRICULUM"
The science curriculum and methods of teaching which grew up in the
past arose out of the need to "Europeanize" the natives. It was an education
for colonials, and was well suited for the training of messengers, servants,
clerks, and minor echelon civil servants (Mkpa, 1987; Okeke, 1989). At its
best, this educational system was only able to train a few Africans to enter
into professional careers; at its worst, it stifled many. Trade and governance
were uppermost in the mind of the colonialists.
During the period 1842-1929, a period of intense missionary education
in Nigeria and other West African countries, the colonial government's
interest in education, for example, was peripheral and centered around
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supplementing the efforts of the Christian missions who founded schools. The
government demonstrated this lack of interest by its gradual assumption of
power to control and direct the work of the missions. It was not only slow in
taking part in founding schools, it was also tardy in drawing up educational
legislation until 1882 when the first Educational Ordinance was published
(Mkpa, 1987; Okeke, 1989). The 1882 Education Ordinance was meant to
cover four West African countries --the Gambia, Sierra Leone, Gold Coast
(Ghana), and the colony of Lagos (Nigeria)-- with a single Inspector of
Schools for these countries (Okeke, 1989).
From 1882 when the government stepped in boldly to participate in the
control of education in Nigeria, it observed that the discrepancies in the
scope of curriculum content of the various missions were likely to militate
against its realizing the goals expected of the schools in terms of the quality
of manpower needed for the running of the colonial administration. As a
result, the government, in some of its education codes, enunciated the
subjects that m ust be studied in three various school levels (Mkpa, 1987).
Secondary schools in colonial Africa, did not develop as early as
primary schools did. The Christian missionaries in Nigeria, for example,
generally did not support the development of secondary education. This was
because their main objective was not to cultivate Nigerians who were to
assume or occupy high administrative positions in the government where
secondary school knowledge would be an asset. The British Colonial
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government was equally uninterested in providing or supporting the provision
of the type of advanced education which they suspected would hasten any
colony's quest for political emancipation. Thus, secondary education was to
be introduced with caution. Lord Lugard, the first Governor of Nigeria was
quoted as advising his home government that "an African versed in science
and technology was a suspect" (Abdullahi, 1982). However, with the
increasing sophistication of the African society, and the awareness of the
Nigerians in particular, as well as the appreciation of the Christian
missionaries of the need for secondary education, the missionaries began to
establish secondary schools about two decades after the first primary schools
were built (Mkpa, 1987; Okeke, 1989).
The Phelps-Stokes fund mission between 1922 and 1923 was highly
critical of the colonial government's nonchalant and non-realistic attitude
toward African education. This report compelled the imperial government in
Africa to appoint an Advisory Committee on Native Education in British
Tropical Africa in 1923 (Okeke, 1989). In 1925 Phelps-Stokes Commission
came out with a memorandum on Educational Policy in British Tropical
Africa which emphasized suiting education to the mentality, aptitudes, needs,
and culture of the people (Okeke, 1983).
The Africanization of the curriculum in different African countries,
therefore, involved one or more of the following activities: taking stock of the
possible curriculum alternatives and deciding on priorities; planning for
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preservation of local culture through the school system; gearing the
curriculum toward national development; and Africanizing the curriculum
through the Africanization of the educational staff in schools. Urch (1967)
defined the Africanization of curriculum to mean "the idea th at education
should be first adapted to the African environment and then move people
toward economic and political ends determined by the government" (p. 243).
In the first years of independence, curriculum developers in Africa
wrote new programs of study and new textbooks. However, there was little
qualitative change from the content and concepts of the national curricula,
though the content was expanded using examples and imagery from the local
environment and culture. As an example of what was happen in g, in the first
seminar on basic science teaching organized for African universities in 1962
in Rabat, Morocco, the superimposition of local conditions on science curricula
was emphasized. The seminar recommended:
. . . this basic training should be inspired and guided by local conditions.
In writing textbooks, authors should take care and use a language that
w ill appeal to the students' imagination. In other words, scientific
concepts should be reformulated using analogies and images of local
nature and culture (UNESCO, 1964, p. 10).
However, Odhiambo (1972) argued against this kind of reformulation
of scientific concepts. He contended that it is not meaningful to execute an
"Africanization of science" that means Africanizing science concepts and the
science content. Odhiambo further contended that Africans should not try to
transplant to their schools science curricula developed for other societies. He
maintained th at Africans will fail in their pursuit of teaching meaningful
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science to African children if they implement an Africanization of science
curriculum which simply denotes the changing of names of people and places
to African names, or substituting African plants and animals for foreign
plants and animals. Odhiambo asserted:
The grave situation w ill certainly not be ameliorated by simply
Africanizing the science content of schools curricula. If by Africanization
we mean the substitution of African plants and animals for foreign plants
and animals, of historical figures, and so on, in teaching materials meant
for other lands and other cultures, then we most probably fail in our
attempt to teach meaningful science to African children. If, again, what
is meant is to Africanize the concepts on which science is based then thin
will, once more end in grief since science is a universal activity of the
mind, having no national or cultural bounds (p. 42).
The Africanization of science with which Odhiambo would agree involves
recognizing that "there are certain cultural ideas in the African situation
which may well impinge directly on the ease with which an African child
can appreciate science" (p. 42).
Ogunniyi (1988) suggests th at the African world-view and scientific
views are based on different conceptual models. He states, "Science is based
on a mechanistic explanatory model, while the traditional view is based on
an anthropomorphic explanatory model" (p. 6). Ogunniyi’s own research in
Nigeria indicates that the traditional beliefs may not be as strongly inhibitive
in the learning of science as previously believed and that the two systems are
not necessarily mutually exclusive nor always in conflict. What he suggests
is not a replacement of traditional views by a science program but an
enlargement of them to accommodate the scientific point of view (MacDonald
& Rogan, 1990).
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EXPERIMENTATION WITH EXTERNAL CURRICULUM MODELS
The external science curriculum models were the most innovative and
ambitious curricula attempted in African schools. An external science curri
culum model was defined as a comprehensive plan adapted from science
curricula developed in countries outside Africa in order to improve science
teaching practices, science content, or learning resources within African
nations (Fahia, 1992).
The external science curriculum models were separated into two types,
depending on the time periods during which they were introduced into
African schools, namely, colonial and post-independence. The colonial
curriculum model was composed of a method and a sequence for teaching
science in Africa. The preferred method of teaching science in the colonial era
was the lecture method, and the sequence for teaching science was prescribed
in a syllabus format according to which primary and secondary schools
taught complementary science topics (Ogunniyi, 1986). In primary schools,
the science taught consisted of nature study, hygiene, and agriculture, while
at the secondary school level, physics, chemistry, biology, general science,
agriculture, and health science were taught. The science syllabus in African
schools still follows this format.
On the other hand, the post-independence science curriculum models
were selected to update science content and to effect a methodological
transformation in science teaching (Ogunniyi, 1986; Prophet, 1990). The
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updating of the science content involved the incorporation of the more recent
theoretical developments into the science curriculum. The attempt at
methodological transformation, on the other hand, involved replacing the
preferred lecture method of the colonial schools with various discovery and
integration methods (Prophet, 1990).
However, many science educators and researches (Jansen, 1989;
Jegede, 1982; Ogunniyi, 1988; Prophet, 1990) conclude that the external
science curriculum models have largely failed. These educators and
researchers attribute failure equally to both the colonial and post
independence science curriculum models. Ogunniyi (1986) asserts that, during
the colonial period, science was taught in African schools like "dogma rather
than systematic inquiry." According to Jansen (1989), the post-independence
curriculum innovations, including the introduction of external science
curriculum models to African schools, have failed. After three decades of local
and international effort expended to change the science curriculum in African
schools, present science education in Africa is still textbook dependent, based
on memorization, and tends to induce passivity in students. In African
schools, textbooks, although not available to the majority of the students, are
available to most teachers.
However, there has been an element of success in the science
curriculum models introduced in Africa. These curriculum models were
successful in two ways. First, they were instrumental in institutionalizing the
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science curriculum process in African schools (Ogunniyi, 1986). Second, with
the introduction of external science curriculum models in African schools,
study of the disciplines of science became more popular (Jegede, 1982).
A DISCUSSION OF THE FAILURE OF THE CURRICULUM
APPROACHES ATTEMPTED IN AFRICAN SCHOOLS
The main indicator to illustrate the failure of curriculum approaches
attempted in African schools is the observed disparity between curriculum
intent and classroom practice (Ogunniyi, 1986; Prophet, 1990). Many of the
stated goals of these science curriculum models introduced into African
schools were not achieved in the classroom (Fahia, 1992). According to
Ogunniyi, these stated goals included:
a) The development of scientific thinking such as:
* The development of a spirit of inquiry;
* The understanding of valid views of the nature of science;
* The teaching of problem solving using scientific techniques;
* The impartation of scientific literacy; and
* The development of manipulative skills and scientific attitudes;
b) The production of individuals who are capable of participating in
socially useful and productive activities;
c) The production of citizens who are better consumers of scientific
products;
d) The acceleration of the development of scientific and technological
manpower;
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e) The understanding of the transformation of the environment; and
f) The understanding of the interaction between science and the
society.
In African countries where the external science curriculum models
were implemented, student achievement of foregoing science goals had been
the intention of the science curriculum developers. However, the science
teachers were not able to achieve those goals. Some causes have been put
forward by curriculum developers to explain the failure of the science
component of the three curriculum approaches attempted in African schools.
These causes according to Jansen (1989) revolve around the failure of
curriculum developers to appreciate the physical and cultural context of
science education in African schools. The causes included: (1) the poor
status of science instruction in schools and science teacher preparation
programs of Africa, (2) language problems, (3) misconception about science
concepts, (4) financial manpower and social problems, (5) certain cultural
elements, and (6) lack of systematic curricula development.
One factor that contributed to the failure of the curriculum approaches
attem pted in African schools was the poor status of science instruction in
schools and science teacher preparation programs of Africa (Jegede, 1982;
Ogunniyi, 1986). Prospective science teachers in Somalia, for example, lack
strong content background in science. A study of educational resources
conducted in Somalia in 1984 by the Government of the Somali Democratic
Republic (GSDR) and the United States Agency for International Aid
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(USAID), reported: "All three teacher tra in in g colleges deal with students
who do not have prerequisite skills . . . students also lack sufficient content
background" (GSDR & USAID, p. 9-3). The content background and the
prerequisite skills in science were the ones the students appeared to lack the
most. The College of Education, the Technical Teachers T ra in in g College and
the Primary Teacher Training Institute, were all hampered by the prospective
teachers' lack of proper prerequisite tr a in in g , large classes, and lack of
adequate resources (Fahia, 1992).
Similarly, in other countries of Africa, there were problems with the
training of teachers for curriculum projects. Jegede reported that in Nigeria,
for example, when an evaluation of the Nigerian Integrated Science Project
(NISP) was carried out, there were problems that were not anticipated
initially that contributed to the failure of the NISP. These problems were
related to the inadequacy of the training given to the teachers who were to
implement the program, the inadequacy of the textbooks developed for the
courses, and the insufficiency of laboratory facilities and materials.
The realities of the African classroom contributed to the poor status
of science instruction in African schools and science teacher education
programs. Some of these classroom realities that co-opted the intent of those
goals were the language of instruction problems (Cleghom, Merrit & Abaga,
1989; Okpala & Onocha, 1988; Prophet, 1990), the persistence of
misconceptions about scientific phenomena in the students' conceptual
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frameworks (Ivowi, 1984), and the financial, manpower, and social problems
of a given school (Fahia, 1992).
Certain linguistic problems that manifested themselves depend upon
whether the language of instruction is foreign or indigenous. When a foreign
language was used as the medium of science instruction, the students'
understanding of science concepts was sometimes hampered (Cleghom et al.,
1989; Okpala & Onocha, 1988). When science concepts lack equivalence in
the students' native language, the individual student is obliged to organ ize
a personal understanding that brings together his or her concrete cultural
world outside the science classroom and the abstract world being constructed
through the science lessons. The use of an indigenous language as a medium
of science instruction thus brought into the classroom problems th at were
associated with the students' culture. For example, if the students' language
has no concepts equivalent to certain color names, as it is the case in Somali
culture, then, students will have difficulty, at least initially, in n am in g and
analyzing some of the colors of the color spectrum.
Beside language problems, science teaching in African schools was
hampered by the persistence of misconceptions about science concepts.
Students interpret instructional activities in terms of what they already
know; then they actively seek to relate new concepts, attitudes, or skills to
their prior set of concepts, attitudes, or skills. These misconceptions persist
despite the science teaching that goes on in the classroom. In African schools,
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the persistence was best explained by the fact th at these misconceptions are
inherent in the cosmology, superstition and cultural beliefs to which the
students have been exposed from childhood (Jegede, 1991; Ivowi, 1984;
Ogunniyi, 1987), and are deeply ingrained in the intellect.
Ivowi investigated students' misconceptions about scientific frameworks.
Ogunniyi and Jegede in two similar studies investigated the way certain
elements in the African culture such as traditional cosmology, beliefs and
superstition impinge on the way the learner develops observational skills.
Jegede in his study found th at "students who exhibit a high level of belief
in African traditional cosmology made significantly fewer correct scientific
observations of biological structures and processes" (p. 37) when compared
with those with a lower level of belief in traditional African cosmology.
The failure of curriculum developers to appreciate the cultural contexts
involved in teaching and learning science was a factor that contributed to the
lack of success of the curriculum models introduced into African schools
(Ogunniyi, 1988; Prophet, 1990; Urevbu, 1987; Hewson & Hamlyn, 1985).
Urevbu asserts that "certain cultural elements in the African situation may
well impinge directly on the way with which an African child can appreciate
science" (p. 11).
The advantages and problems of using African languages as a medium
of science instruction have been investigated by researchers. Hewson and
Hamlyn investigated the implications of African cultural metaphors for
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science education in African schools. They found, for example, that the
cultural metaphor for h eat in Sotho language which is spoken in Southern
Africa is "agitated blood" (p. 42). They argue that "agitated blood" can be
used to introduce the kinetic theory of heat better than the caloric theory of
heat in African schools that always precedes the teaching of the Irinptip
theory of heat. They state:
Our research suggests that Sotho students do not have to learn and then
unlearn caloric theory of heat deeply rooted in Western thinking before
being able to acquire the kinetic view of heat. Rather, we suggest that for
these students, their everyday metaphor language, combined with their
N pre-kineticn notions of heat provides adequate ideas upon which to
construct the science conception (p. 42).
Odhiambo (1988) arguing for the use of African languages to enhance
science education recommends that science literacy in Africa can be achieved
outside the schools through non-formal means such as "oral and radio
instruction, a powerful strategy in the relatively com m unal cohesiveness of
African society; through play and games; through poetry and song; and
through written texts" (p. 30). Science teaching according to Fahia, can also
be rendered more effectively interesting by using proverbs, news-probing
sessions, riddles and other methods that Africans use to transmit "wisdom"
to their children.
Another cultural factor that negatively affected the teaching of science
in African schools was the unfavorable view of science by Africans. Students
and teachers in Africa have frequently been encouraged to perceive science
as an "imported" commodity, the white man's "juju" (superstition) (Baja,
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1985). Odhiambo (1988) and Fahia affirmed that African educators and
politicians have encouraged the perception that science is foreign. Science is
suspect in countries like Somalia and Nigeria, because the science curriculum
was first established by the colonial administration. According to Odhiambo
"a myth was spread that science is European and foreign -some educationists
and leaders even believed it" (p. 31). This perceived foreignness of science,
it has been charged, has hampered the development of an intense interest in
science on the part of the learner (Ogunniyi, 1988). Ogunniyi, accepting the
premise that science is foreign to non-Western cultures, argued that science
education in a non-Westem country would not be the same as science
education in a Western country. Ogawa (1986) concurred with this view.
They both maintain that while the assumptions, values and goals of science
taught in schools of both developed and underdeveloped countries would be
the same, what would be different would be the topics of emphasis and the
equipment used. Fahia believes th at it is just good pedagogy to emphasize
those science topics that are more relevant to the culture, and further, that
the basic equipment needed to teach whatever is going to be taught in
science is the same worldwide. Topics selected, financial resources available,
and the level of technology in the culture world, however, influence the
equipment needed and used.
The process of socialization in African traditional families is such a one
that does not positively reward the inquisitiveness and curiosity to know that
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are characteristics of children. Parents tend to require that their children
accept their interpretation of natural phenomena on faith. Asking questions
persistently is generally considered to be rude and a mark of disrespect by
a growing child towards an elderly person. Children from such family
backgrounds could learn early in life to be "obedient" and "trusting" to the
extent that is disadvantageous to the learning of science (Okeke, 1989). The
interaction of such cultural tradition and values and curriculum-as-technology
leads to a situation in which schools and home work at cross-purposes.
Teachers who would not be expected to associate on a near-equal footing with
pupils outside school might find it very hard to be anything but expositors
in their classroom.
Buseri (1987) conducted a study on questioning habits in Nigerian
secondary schools. He found that in 12 lessons, 490 questions were asked by
teachers and 44 by pupils. Of the latter 18 were asked in one classroom and
between 2 and 8 in another six; no questions were asked by pupils in the
other five classrooms. The low incidence of question-asking by students is
attributed at least in part to the "failure of the Nigerian culture in general
to encourage young pupils to ask questions freely and on their part express
their thoughts freely" (p. 580). Given the social and cultural structure of
African schools, it is quite understandable why expository style of teaching
has persisted for a very long time. Since direct teaching draws on both
rhetorical methodology and appeal to authority, any change in instruction
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away from this style could be construed as a change from a position of
strength to weakness.
The realization of the intentions of the curriculum approaches
attempted in African schools were also co-opted by the existence of financial,
manpower, and social problems in these schools (Fahia, 1992: Ogunniyi,
1995). These problems reinforced and exacerbated all the other problems
teachers faced in implementing the curriculum. African schools have
overcrowded classrooms, personnel problems, and lack the funds to purchase
needed equipment, adequate textbooks, and provide other needed resources.
When the inadequacies of qualified science teachers, laboratory equipment,
and textbooks were combined with the limited tradition of science teaching
in African schools, the lack of support for science in African communities,
and the large class size in many such schools, then the failure of the external
science curriculum models was understandable.
Another cause that was linked to the failure of science curriculum
innovations in Africa arose out of a lack of systematic curriculum
development and the resources for curriculum development in many African
countries. For example, in Somalia the expertise of the staff of the
Curriculum Development Center (CDC) is low (Forsberg, 1989). The
theoretical curriculum frameworks were in most cases prepared by
expatriates, even when the Somali staff of the CDC were themselves writing
the instructional material. When there were no expatriates present at the
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CDC, the staff would select the work of someone they considered to be an
authority in a subject field and then proceed with its development and
implementation. These local curriculum developers would not by themselves
attempt to determine independently what is to be taught in schools or even
what should be given priority.
CURRICULUM REFORMS IN BIOLOGY EDUCATION
IN NIGERIAN SECONDARY SCHOOLS
COLONIAL ERA
The history of science education in Nigeria is closely linked with its
colonial past. The colonial era education had a negative impact not only on
the content of biology education but also how the content was taught.
Under the British colonial rule, science was introduced as part of
general education mostly in Mission schools between 1859 and 1920 and
gained wide acceptance in government-controlled schools only after the report
of the African Education Commission sponsored by the Phelps-Stokes fund
of America (Jegede, 1988, 1990; Mkpa, 1987; Okeke, 1989). Naturally, the
Nigerian system of education came to be patterned after the British system.
The Nigerian grammar schools were thus replicas of the English public
schools both in administrative set-up, curriculum content, and instructional
methodology. The biology content of English secondary schools curriculum
was the same as those of colonial Nigerian secondary schools (Okeke, 1983).
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By introducing British system of secondary education into Nigeria, certain
assumptions had been made. One assumption was that the aims of education
in Britain and Nigeria were the same. Another assumption was th a t the
experiential background, interest, and needs of students from the two
countries were also the same.
The secondary school biology syllabus of the colonial era contained no
pupils' learning objectives, general or specific. It was an examination syllabus
meant to test lower cognitive levels of knowledge rather than a teaching one.
Student-centered activities were virtually absent. Teachers who taught
secondary school biology drew their course content and plan of instruction
from this syllabus. The syllabic content was predominantly morphology and
anatomy of living organisms. It contained mainly facts and principles and
had very little by way of applications. Biology was synonymous with Nature
Study, Physiology, Hygiene or Rural Science (Jegede, 1988, 1990; Okeke,
1983).
Experimental experience was not stressed and most of the topics
required no laboratory experiment. Biology was thus reduced to a descriptive
subject which was taught through the use of lecture method. There was no
emphasis on the acquisition of laboratory and scientific skills. The method
of student evaluation was based on paper-and-pencil examinations that
reflected those question items in what was popularly known as Cambridge
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examinations (Ogunniyi, 1986; Okeke, 1983). This is probably a mirror of the
trend in science teaching th at dominated the pre-1960 era.
The colonial biology curriculum contained facts and principles, most of
which were unfamiliar to Nigerian students with some topics appearing to
have no relevance. A typical example is in the section on flowering plants in
which characteristic features of trees in summer and winter were to be
studied using such examples as ash, beech, elm, willow, etc. Though the
Cambridge syllabus provided for modification for overseas centers, educators
were not prepared to do this for obvious reasons. One reason was that the
available textbooks did not treat trees found in Nigeria. Another was because
students and teachers thought that they might be risking obtaining the much
valued Cambridge certificate (diploma) if they made modifications as
permitted (Okeke, 1983). The pursuit for the Cambridge certificate was so
paramount that when the percentage of failure in the Cambridge
examinations was so high and the government proposed to organize local
school certificate examinations, there was a heavy protest from Nigerians
(Nduka, 1974).
In 1925, Phelps-Stokes Commission issued a memorandum on
Educational Policies in British Tropical Africa, calling on the British
government to establish an educational system that is culturally relevant to
the colonies. This memorandum, however, brought no significant change in
the curriculum content of Nigerian schools (Jegede, 1990; Okeke, 1983). Later
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the British government commissioned G.B. Jeffery to study the conditions in
West Africa with a view to setting up an examination board that would take
into account the Nigerian pupils' immediate environment. His report,
published in March 1950, recommended the establishment of a local
examination board with its headquarters in Accra, to serve Nigeria, Ghana,
Sierra Leone, and the Gambia. It was thus th at the West African
Examinations Council (WAEC) was bom in 1952 (Okeke, 1983).
The first WAEC examination was conducted in 1955 and the syllabuses
used to set this examination and subsequent ones were those of the
Cambridge Syndicate. Biology curriculum remained unchanged (Okeke, 1983).
Between 1955 and 1960, WAEC embarked on some curriculum revision
(Mathri, 1973).
NIGERIAN BIOLOGY EDUCATION IN THE SIXTIES
The contours of curriculum and educational practice at any given
time have always been shaped by such factors as ideological commitments of
educational theorists, the needs of students, teachers, employers, and changes
in societal values and aspirations (Eisner, 1985). Since Nigeria's
independence in 1960, biology education has undergone a series of curricular
transformations influenced by factors both within and without (Ohazurike,
1993).
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The School Certificate biology syllabus which poorly reflected the needs
of Nigeria in the area of biology education was introduced in 1964 by the
West African Examinations Council. This syllabus sought to replace British
flora and fauna with Nigerian ones. The changes in it were just a slight
deviation from a British-oriented biology curriculum. It did not satisfy the
needs and aspirations of the young independent Nigerian society (Okeke,
1983). Such biological themes and fundamental concepts with great socio
economic implications for the young independent Nigeria as agriculture,
public health, and ecology were conspicuously absent in the biology
examination syllabus and there were no clearly stated objectives. The
syllabus was dominated by discrete and distorted information meant to test
lower levels of cognition. Information such as this faded from the minds of
students as soon as the examination was over (Ohazurike, 1993).
Still after independence, Nigeria's educational system had not been
designed to satisfy the needs of a young developing nation. It was to prevent
a continuation of this undesirable trend that a report of a Comparative
Technical Seminar held in the United Kingdom in 1966 came up with the
idea of forming a body th at would be charged with the responsibility of
designing a curriculum th a t would be very relevant to the needs of Nigeria.
This led to the birth of the Comparative Education Studies and Adaptation
Center (CESAC) in 1968 (Ivowi, 1984; Mkpa, 1987; Ohazurike, 1993). Beside
CESAC, the creation of the Nigeria Educational Research and Development
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Council (NERDC) and the activities of Science Teachers Association of
Nigeria (STAN) sparked off series of events that led to the evolution of a
biological education program that is very related to the needs of the Nigerian
public in the Seventies. Under the auspices of NERDC, the Nigerian Federal
Government set up a National Curriculum Conference in September 1969
charged with the responsibility of framing guidelines for the development of
a suitable curriculum for Nigerian schools based on the ability to identify
w hat might be called a national philosophy of education (Jegede, 1990;
Ohazurike, 1993).
Following the meeting of a national group of dedicated scholars,
experts and teachers at the Conference Center of Comprehensive Secondary
School, Aiyetoro, in Ogun State in 1968 made possible by CESAC, there
emerged a new era in science education in general and biology education in
particular. CESAC by its philosophy of comparing and adapting foreign
curriculum, conceptualized and concertized the ideas inherent in the
American Biological Sciences Curriculum Study (BSCS) and the British
Nuffield Biology both of which were based on investigatory or activity-
centered approach to teaching and learning. This was exactly how external
factors influenced science education in Nigeria as was the case in other
countries. These two popular science curriculum projects came into existence
in a bid by America and Britain to rival the scientific and technological
advances of the USSR which successfully launched an unmanned satellite
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(Sputnik 1) circling the earth (Jegede, 1990; Ohazurike, 1993; Okeke, 1983).
The anxiety about Russia's technological progress and the linking of national
and international prestige with scientific achievement and technological
progress did much to exert pressure for change in school science (Adamu,
1989; Ohazurike, 1993).
NIGERIAN BIOLOGY EDUCATION IN THE SEVENTIES
Following the curriculum conference of 1969 and various curriculum
activities of STAN, the biology panel of STAN came out with a model that
was later published as STAN CURRICULUM NEWSLETTER No. 3, (1973).
This new syllabus included subject matter content that, to some extent, had
the potential to solve Nigeria's socio-economic problems and, in broad
perspective, might make the realization of the national aims of education
possible. Topics like ecology made its first conspicuous appearance as one of
the major headings in West African School Certificate (WASC) biology
syllabus. Agriculture and public health were included in the CESAC biology
syllabus which later became incorporated into international WASC syllabus
as Alternative Biology. Though subject matter content that closely related to
Nigeria's need was introduced into the international WASC syllabus this
time, however, there were no actual objectives in it to ensure the effective
realization of the national aims of science education. This lack of clearly
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stated objectives rendered the syllabus very susceptible to different
interpretations by the teachers who implemented the program (Ohazurike,
1993).
The major objective of STAN -th e improvement of the quality of
science instructions in the country-- became more vigorously pursued at the
early seventies. STAN, as part of its curriculum development program, has
published Curriculum Newsletter in Biology, Chemistry, Physics, and
Integrated Science. It has also provided students' texts and teachers' guides
for the first two years of an integrated science course for secondary schools
under its Nigerian Integrated Science Project (Mkpa, 1987; Ohazurike, 1993).
The major problem militating against the effective implementation of the
revised biology syllabus, according to Ohazurike (1993), was lack of adequate
resources such as current texts. Against this background, The Nigerian
Secondary School Science Project biology was published both as pupil's texts
and teachers' guides. In this project, emphasis shifted towards investigatory
instructional strategies and integration. The organization of the curriculum
shifted from types (e.g.,mammals, insects, etc.) to principles, functions and
applications. Unified themes and unifying concepts were emphasized.
Measurement of attitudes and interests began to be appreciated as a form of
evaluation and this was made possible through emphasis on science process
skills on which the activity-oriented approach of the curriculum centered
(Ivowi, 1984; Mkpa, 1987; Ohazurike, 1993).
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The federal government of Nigeria's publication of the New National
Policy in Education (NNPE) in 1977 was a motivating factor to the activities
of STAN and CESAC. The NNPE emphasizes, inter alia, the preparation of
the child for a useful living within the society, for a higher education and the
needed skills to function effectively in the modem age of science and
technology. This national polity affected the type of objectives formulated for
biological science education in Nigerian secondary schools; adjustments were
made in WASC syllabus and the nature of evaluation in biology education
(Ohazurike, 1993; Okeke, 1983).
The late seventies witnessed very clear and remarkable changes in
biology education in Nigerian secondary schools. It also saw the appearance
of a movement aimed at revitalizing the teaching of biology. Its chief aims
were changes both in curriculum content and methodology. In content, the
intended modification was the total replacement of the taxonomic and
descriptive biology with the more general topics like ecology, agriculture,
heredity, and variation (WAEC Syllabus, 1978-1981). Biological concepts like
habitat, community, population, adaptation, pollution, control of diseases as
well as sanitation and sewage disposal were introduced in the syllabus. The
reason for this shift of emphasis to the more general topics was a rationale
th at secondary school students should develop a global view of biological
principles common to all living organisms rather than be able to analyze the
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peculiarities of the detailed structures not particularly relevant to young
students (Ohazurike, 1993).
Another reason for the change from the particular to the more
general topics, according to Ohazurike, was to give students the opportunity
to participate in some of the steps of scientific research. The educators who
proposed the change in biology instruction felt it essential to give students
opportunities to interpret data, formulate hypotheses, plan and carry out
experiments. They aimed at achieving this by giving students problems to
investigate, either in the laboratory or in the field. These scientific
exploration classes would hopefully enable students to solve problems and
manipulate materials as they worked with living things. Above all, such
classes confront students with the problem of explaining unexpected results.
As a result of the socio-economic problems such as food shortage,
unemployment, pollution, and overpopulation affecting the Nigerian society,
there is a growing interest in the analysis of biological problems with social
implications. The growing importance of ecology probably reflects the interest
in environmental problems. Ecology has progressed over the years from a
purely descriptive discipline involving collection of species and mapping of
the distribution of species to being a subject in which analysis of factors
controlling members and distributions is important. Attempts are being made
at synthesis and development of theories and models to account for
phenomena and to predict changes, particularly those resulting from human
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activity. By the late seventies, CESAC biology syllabus had been accepted in
many schools in Nigeria, especially Federal Government Colleges, as
alternative Biology Syllabus (Ohazurike, 1993; Uma, 1988).
NIGERIAN BIOLOGY EDUCATION IN THE EIGHTIES
The 1980's saw the expansion of genetics to include areas th at are of
personal and social importance such as sex determination, sickle cell
anaemia, variation and blood groups (WAEC syllabus, 1982 ). There was total
integration of former separate animal plant studies such as flowering plants,
mammals (WAEC syllabus, 1974/75) into a larger heading of form function
(WAEC syllabuses, 1982-1986) as well as the introduction of the concept of
evolution. During this period the syllabus emphasized the interdependence
and unity of life. Agriculture ceased to be one of the major topics in the
syllabus, probably because of the assumption of agricultural sciences as a
full-fledged subject in various Nigerian secondary schools (WAEC Syllabuses,
1982-1986). However, agriculture still features prominently in the CESAC
BIOLOGY or Alternative biology syllabus (WAEC Syllabus, 1984).
According to Okeke (1983) and Ohazurike (1993), the CESAC biology
syllabus made teaching and learning of biology modem by its aim of
developing and meeting the needs of the independent Nigerian society
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through relevance in its content, method and processes. Unlike the
international WASC biology syllabus, the CESAC syllabus tries to solve the
problem of teacher quality by its subdivision into topics, content, suggested
practical work and notes for guidance of the teacher. This in actual sense
makes this syllabus rather a curriculum with attached instructional materials
(i.e. a teaching curriculum). This syllabus is actually a teaching scheme that
is divided into three years. Each year of this CESAC biology syllabus is thus
characterized by a particular objective it is intended to achieve. This objective
is linked with topics of the following year in one or more ways with the level
of knowledge testable becoming more sophisticated with the years. The
CESAC biology curriculum forms a formidable link between biological studies
at the higher or advanced level and ordinary level, unlike the old
international WASC syllabus characterized by biological topics that are
unrelated and disjointed. Worthy of mention is the fact th a t the small notes
attached to the international WASC biology syllabus are not directions for
teachers but merely depth of work to be covered (Ohazurike, 1993).
BIOLOGY CURRICULUM IN THE 6-3-3-4 EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM
The development of the curriculum for Nigerian secondary schools
reached its high-water mark with the publication of the National Policy on
Education (1981). This document which is the most authentic and about the
most influential in Nigerian educational history proposed a new system of
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education- the 6-3-3-4. Thus there would be six years of primary education,
and six of secondary education with the first three called the Junior
Secondary School and the next three the Senior Secondary. Finally, the
products of this senior secondary school should proceed to the university for
a standard four-year degree program.
The biology curriculum for senior secondary schools of the present
system is the brain child of CESAC based on the content and methodology
of CESAC's Nigerian Secondary School Science Project (NSSSP) biology.
Based on the experiences over the years since 1970 when the original
curriculum was produced and tested in Nigerian schools, a biology curriculum
was proposed for the new system of secondary education and presented to the
National Critique Workshop in December, 1984 at the University of Lagos
(Ohazurike, 1993).
The objectives of this syllabus have been derived from the National
policy on Education (Mkpa, 1987; Ohazurike, 1993; Okeke, 1989) and the
cardinal objectives of the syllabus are to prepare pupils to acquire:
1. Adequate laboratory and field skills in Biology;
2. Meaningful and relevant knowledge in Biology;
3. Ability to apply scientific knowledge to everyday matters of personal
and community health and agriculture;
4. Reasonable and functional scientific attitudes (Ohazurike, 1993).
Curriculum reform in Nigeria is now more fully recognized as a
continuing program involving selecting the content to be taught, preparation
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of instructional packages which reflect the new philosophy and training of
teachers to achieve the desired changes. The complexity and variability of the
processes of diffusion, adoption and implementation of a new curriculum has
been recognized (Uma, 1988) and the teacher in particular and his students
are the major factors in bringing about the realization of these processes.
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CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODS
The intent of this investigation in general is to provide an
understanding of the current status of high school biological science
curriculum in Imo State of Nigeria. This chapter includes a detailed account
of how this study was conducted. It describes the participants, the
instruments, the data collection procedures and treatments, as well as the
research design of the study. Pertinent information for this research was
established through the use of a questionnaire, review of related written
materials, observations and personal interviews with high school biology
teachers. The questionnaire documented the perceived state of biological
science education as determined by the biology teachers. Following this
survey, the researcher conducted on-site visits to selected high schools to
observe and interview biology teachers. These on-site visits confirmed the
findings and identified the practiced state. The formal biology curriculum of
Nigeria was determined through the use of a syllabic guideline developed by
the Comparative Education Studies and Adaptation Center (CESAC) and
published by the Federal Ministry of education. The formal American biology
curriculum, on the other hand, was determined through the use of guidelines
established or implied in the United States by the following biology
curriculum development and research organizations:
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1. Biological Sciences Curriculum. Study (BSCS). Dftveloning Biological
Literacy (1993);
2. National Research Council's (NRC) High School Biology Today and
Tomorrow (1989), Fulfilling the Promise: Biololgy Education in the
Nation's Schools (1990), and National Science Education Standards
(1996);
3. California Department of Education's Science Fram ework for
California Public Schools K-12 (1990);
4. American Association for the Advancement of Science's (AAAS)
Project 2061 Science for All Americans (1989, 1993); and
5. National Science Teachers Association's (NSTA) Criteria for Good
Science Teaching (1984) and Science Teachers Sneak Out: The
NSTA Lead Paper on Science and Technology Education for the
2 lst Century (1990) and other NSTA publications.
SAMPLE
This study did not attempt a statistical sampling of schools but the
schools and the biology teachers who took part in the study are considered
typical of those in the State. Imo State of Nigeria has a total of 296 high
schools, the typical site of biology instruction. Most of the schools are located
in the rural areas of the State. A total of 100 high school biology teachers in
46 secondary schools participated in this study. Thirty nine of the schools are
rural, 11 sub-urban, and 6 urban. All the teachers are certified and have
teaching experiences that range from 3 to 25 years.
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INSTRUMENT
A questionnaire for use in the study was designed to determine and
evaluate the perceived state of biological science education in Imo State of
Nigeria. To develop this survey instrument (see Appendix A) relevant
dissertations and other science assessments were examined, mainly, NSTA's
High School Science Programs: Guidelines for Self- Assessment (NSTA 1987).
From these sources, questions were selected, modified or developed as
necessary to answer the research questions. In addition, Cohen's (1989)
guidelines for writing questionnaires were incorporated to increase responses.
The classroom observations and interviews with biology teachers, on
the other hand, identified the practiced state of biological science education
in Imo State high schools. An observation instrument developed by Fischler
and Zimmer (1967/68) (see Appendix C) was used to capture the learning
and instructional behaviors that were of interest to the study. A prepared list
of questions constructed by the researcher and based on guidelines and
recommendations of experts in the field of biology constituted the interviews
guide (see Appendix B).
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DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURES
Prior to all class observations, interviews, and on-site administration
of the questionnaire to biology teachers, the researcher met with the teachers
and the principals or science department heads to discuss the research
project and request their cooperation. The purpose of the research, a
guarantee of confidentiality, and the importance and necessity of the
participants' input were reviewed with all participants during the meetings.
Establishing good rapport, building a personal relationship and a sense of
trust with these teachers and school science administrators was paramount.
Initial meeting began with a brief, friendly conversation which helped to
established a supportive atmosphere and foster a spirit of cooperation. This
mutual understanding alleviated fears and enabled the participants to share
their concerns and speak freely (Bogdan & Biklen, 1982).
The questionnaire was administered to biology teachers at the school
sites. A total of 100 teachers participated in the survey. Data from this
survey documented how biology teachers perceived the state of biological
science education in their schools.
All observations were video-taped, with participants' approval. In one
situation where the teacher somehow felt uncomfortable about his class
session being video-taped, no observation was carried out. Observations were
conducted for an entire class period.. The class sessions captured on a video
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tape provided a basic framework that highlighted the settings, behaviors and
activities of the biology program. A portrayal of the physical environment of
each classroom furnished information on available science resources and
facilities. A depiction of the program activities together with the social
environment provided a perspective on the characteristics of the biological
science instruction. The observation instrument guided the researcher and
enhanced consistency with each observation as recommended by Patton
(1990).
The interviews typically lasted for 15-30 minutes. Standardized open-
ended interviews focused on the biology teachers' perceptions of biology
instruction in their classrooms. Patton (1990) describes this approach as an
"interview (that) consists of a set of questions carefully worded, and arranged
with the intention of taking each respondent through the same sequence and
asking each respondent the same questions with essentially the same words"
(p. 280). This type of interview is used when it is desirable to obtain the
same information from each interviewee. This procedure is also used when
there are time limitations. With this method the researcher obtained from
each participant data that are systematic, detailed, and yet consistent within
the framework of questions. From these interviews, the researcher became
aware of the instructors' meanings, definitions, experiences and views of
biological science education.
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During each interview, if participants agreed, a tape recorder was used
to capture the ideas. This made it possible for the researcher to recall more
of the dialogue. However, since it was necessary to create an atmosphere in
which people felt free to talk and interact, any hesitancy on the part of the
participant was respected. Throughout the data collection procedure, and
immediately following the visitations, the researcher recorded observations,
impressions, hunches, reflections, interpretations and ideas.
The final approach to the data collection strategies was the use of
document analysis. Curriculum guides recommended for use in the United
States in the teaching of high school biology were examined along with the
Nigerian Senior Secondary School Biology Syllabus. These documents
provided a basic source of information about both the American biology
program as envisioned by experts in the United States and the intended
biology program of Nigeria. Data from these two curricula were analyzed,
categorized and compared.
VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF THE RESEARCH DESIGN
The research strategy employed in this study is methodological
triangulation, namely, the use of multiple methods to study the problem.
Metaphorically, the term triangulation in social science research "attempt(s)
to map out, or explain more fully, the richness and complexity of human
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behavior by studying it from more than one standpoint and, in so doing, by
making use of both quantitative and qualitative data” (Cohen, 1989 p. 269).
As Jick (1979) reports, in addition to strengthening validity and reliability,
triangulation also can depict a more holistic and contextual image of the
project. Methodological triangulation was selected as the research mode to
minimize intrinsic biases, augument the researcher's confidence in the
findings, and in turn, increase significance and credence in the project.
In this study the process of gathering data consisted of four phases:
1. A questionnaire administered to high school biology teachers in
Imo State of Nigeria;
2. Review of curriculum guides and textual materials;
3. Observations of biology classes in selected schools; and
4. Interviews with biology teachers.
This combination of document analysis, survey responses, observing and
interviewing strengthens the integrity and credibility of the research and its
evaluation.
The overall research technique is grounded in what Yager (1982)
describes as the discrepancy model. In this scheme, the American curriculum
is determined followed by a portrayal of the formal and operational
curriculum of Imo State. This allows the researcher to analyze discrepancies
among the data. With this study, once the American biology program was
characterized, the formal and the practiced states were specified. Recent NRC
publications and current science education works, in particular the Biological
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Sciences Curriculum Study (1995) provided extensive information on the
formal American high school biological science program. Information on the
formal biology program of Imo State was determined by examining the senior
secondary school biology syllabus published by the the Federal Ministry of
Education in Nigeria. The practiced state of biology curriculum was
established from observations and interviews. The perceived state was
determined by data supplied through the use of a questionnaire. Data from
the teacher interviews, from questionnaire, and classroom observations were
recorded, transcribed and coded into themes and categories. This method of
data collection from different sources is in conformity with that required by
Patton (1987) when using qualitative methods in evaluation study.
According to Patton, qualitative methods consist of three kinds of data
collections, namely, (1) in-depth, open-ended interviews, (2) direct observa
tions, and (3) written documents, including such sources as open-ended
written items on questionnaires, personal diaries, and programs records. The
data from open-ended interviews consist of direct quotations from people
about their experiences, opinions, feelings, and knowledge. The data from
observations consist of detailed descriptions of program activities,
participants’ behaviors, staff actions, and the full range of human
interactions that can be part of program experiences. Document analysis
yields excerpts, quotations, or entire passages from records, correspondence,
official reports, and open-ended surveys.
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Analyzing the data from the formal, perceived, and practiced states of
the biology curriculum is considered qualitative in that it comes from a
variety of sources and is descriptive in its nature. Certain components of
qualitative methodology need to be explained in order to understand the
framework on this research project. This study is concerned with the eight
characteristics of qualitative research as stated by Taylor and Borgan (1984).
According to Taylor and Borgan, qualitative research is inductive.
Researchers develop concepts, insights, and understanding from patterns in
the data, rather than collecting data to assess preconceived models,
hypotheses, or theories.
In qualitative methodology the researcher looks at settings and people
holistically; people, settings, or groups are not reduced to variables,but are
viewed as wholes.
Qualitative researchers are sensitive to their effects on the people they
study. Qualitative research has been described as naturalistic. That is,
researchers interact with informants in a natural and unobtrusive manner.
Although, qualitative researchers cannot eliminate their effects on the people
they study, they attempt to minimize or control those effects or at least
understand them when they interpret their data.
Qualitative researchers try to understand people from their own frame
of reference. Qualitative researchers emphasize and identify with the people
they study in order to understand how they see things.
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The qualitative researcher suspends, or sets aside, his or her own
beliefs, perspectives, and predisposition.
For the qualitative researcher, all perspectives are valuable. The
researcher seeks not "truth" or "morality1 but rather a detailed understan d in g
of other people's perspectives. Qualitative methods are humanistic. When we
study people qualitatively, we get to know them personally and experience
what they experience in their daily struggles in society.
Qualitative researchers emphasize validity in their research.
Qualitative methods allow us to stay close to the empirical world. They are
designed to ensure a close fit between the data and what people actually say
and do, by observing people in their everyday lives, listening to them talk
about what is on their minds, and looking at the documents they produce,
the qualitative researcher obtains first-hand knowledge of social life
unfiltered through concepts, operational definitions, and rating scales.
The mode of data collection for this research project was descriptive
and interpretative as well as quantitative. With this approach, experiences,
beliefs and ideas of the biology teachers were studied in depth and detail
rather than in limited, predetermined response categories. This
comprehensive design allowed the researcher to determine the general
practices and prevalent conditions in high school biological science program
in Imo State of Nigeria. Using this in-depth qualitative analysis with its
multi-faceted procedures, the researcher was able to pinpoint the range of
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discrepancies that exist between Imo State high school biology curriculum
and that of the United States.
ELEMENTS OF BIOLOGICAL LITERACY
BSCS (1993) guidelines indicate that a biologically literate individual
should understand the unifying principles and major concepts of biology, the
impact of humans on the biosphere, the processes of scientific inquiry, and
the historical development of biological concepts. In addition a biological
literate individual should develop appropriate personal values about scientific
investigations, biodiversity and cultural diversity, the impact of biology and
biotechnology on society, and the importance of biology to the individual.
Finally, a biologically literate individual should be able to think creatively
and formulate questions about nature, reason logically and critically and
evaluate information, use technologies appropriately, make personal and
ethical decisions related to biological issues, and apply knowledge to solve
real-world problems.
The implication from the list above is that if students are to develop
biological literacy, all programs should present the biological knowledge,
skills, and values necessary for them to become effective citizens in society.
The contemporary phrase “ science for all" implies that any new biology
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program should address the needs and concerns of all students, which by
definition includes those who traditionally have been underrepresented in the
sciences.
INSTRUCTIONAL METHODOLOGY
NRC (1996) guidelines indicate that students should be involved in a
variety of teaching-learning activities, including hands-on laboratory and field
experiences, producing written documents and student projects and
presentations. Instructional methodology should force students to be
purposefully and wholeheartedly engaged and responsible for their own
learning. Activities need to focus on improving communication skills, thinking
skills and problem solving ability. To this end, instruction should include
hypothesizing, designing experiments, reporting, data analysis and drawing
conclusions. The integration of appropriate technologies, such as, videodiscs,
videotapes, interactive computer programs, and cable televisions will help to
enhance the biology program. Assessment of the program should reflect the
agreed upon goals and objectives. Students’ evaluation procedures need to be
creative and to test diversified skills and knowledge. For many students this
program of studies will be their last formal experience in biological science.
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The program needs to provide students with the necessary knowledge, skills,
values, and insights necessary to be educated citizens and scientifically
literate.
INSTRUCTIONAL SUPPORT
Sufficient resources form the foundation of good high school biology
programs. Without adequate assets even the best of ideas and
recommendations cannot be implemented. Adequate funds for the purchase
of supplies, equipment, materials, personnel and textbooks need to be
available. NSTA (1994) suggests that science textbooks and other related
documents be no more than five years old. Although this standard seems a
bit unreasonable, given the impact of economics on school systems, it appears
th a t this is a criterion to strive for. Since science is a very dynamic, ever
changing field of study, printed materials become outdated rather quickly. It
is important for students to be exposed to up-to-date content with the latest
in theories, discoveries and findings. Furthermore, ample library resources
and audiovisual aids and equipment to supplement those available in the
classroom need to be provided.
It is especially important for students and teachers to have easy
accesibility to computers and other related technological equipment. For
students to participate on hands-on laboratory and field investigations,
sufficient supplies, materials, and equipment are essential, otherwise the
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undertaken is futile and fhistrating. Major equipment purchases should be
plan on a 3-5 years bases with teachers involved in a decision-making
process. Science laboratory facilities with adequate and fully operable gas,
water and electrical sources should be provided for all science programs.
Safety equipment, such as fire extinguishers, eye wash fountains, safety
goggles, fire blankets, need to be readily available within the laboratory
setting.
Class size needs to be limited to twenty four students to allow for full
student participation and assurance of safety and protection. Biological
science classrooms should be interesting, exciting, and inviting places to visit.
Visible expressions of symbols of science should decorate the room, such as,
plants, posters, student projects, animals, terraria, aquaria, bulletin boards,
and current science information. These classrooms should send the message,
"Science is done here and it is important!”
FORMAL BIOLOGY CURRICULUM AND
OPERATIONAL CURRICULUM
The use of formal curricula to regulate what and how schools teach in
their classrooms is not an uncommon feature in the educational practice of
many developing countries such as Nigeria. The practice can also be seen in
operation in some technologically developed countries -France, Japan, USSR,
and Israel. Research efforts to document the various stages involved in the
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implementation of centrally developed school curriculum, however, appear to
have hitherto relied on a basic (although improved) assumption of
“ compliance" th at whatever the central government recommends for schools
to implement is, in most cases, what becomes classroom pratice. (Goodlad
1983a; Mani 1986). Unfortunately, situations in classroom settings are not
always the same as official stipulations.
Recent investigations on what exactly teachers do with the official
prescribed science curriculum -its philosophy, contents, activities, e.t.c has
cast some doubts on the validity of this assumption “ of compliance.”
According to Boulianne and Weston 1987, Fayenni (1986), and Gallagher
(1993), it appears that what government educational officials recommend for
schools to implement in science may not be what teachers actually do in their
science classroom. In Nigeria, for example, results of surveys conducted by
Abdullahi (1982), Osiyale (1975), and Soyinbo (1983) have suggested that
primary schools may not be following official government prescriptions in the
implementation of the primary and secondary school curriculum.
DATA ANALYSIS
In qualitative methodology, data analysis is an ongoing process. During
the data collection procedure, tape recorded interviews and observations were
transcribed immediately following the interaction. Field notes, journal entries,
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information on reviewed documents, the transcriptions and tabulated results
of the surveys all became part of the raw data. This information was first
divided into three comprehensive groupings: formal, perceived, and practiced.
Within these groupings, further divisions were made by coding categories.
These categories included information on characteristics of formal biology
programs, biology teachers’ teaching styles, and biology resources and
facilities. However, throughout the data gathering phase additional ideas on
how to organize and report the information were generated as part of the
field notes. During observations, interviews, and document review process,
the researcher looked for emerging themes, topics, regularities, and patterns.
These formed additional coding categories for systematizing the data.
Once final coding categories were established, namely, characteristics
of formal biology program, instructional methodology, instructional support,
and formal and operational curriculum, the raw data were analyzed.
Following the advise of Bogdan and Bilken (1982), each coding category was
assigned a number. The researcher read through the raw data and
designated the appropriate coding category number. The coding information
was cut and put into separate manila folders according to the pertinent topic.
This elaborate coding system was necessary because of the large amount of
raw data that was generated.
Qualitative research by its very nature yields abundant descriptions.
These descriptions, in the form of quotations, and anecdotes were used to
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increase understanding and provide evidence to back up claims. A discussion
of the researcher’ s insights with some biology teachers and concluding inter
pretations, along with implications of such findings, provided valuable infor
mation on the status of biological science education in Imo State high
schools.
LIMITATIONS OF THE RESEARCH METHOD
Methodological triangulation, population of study, data sources, and the
researcher’ s assumptions and presuppositions may impose certain limitations
on the study. In the comparative analysis of the quantitative and qualitative
data, the findings may not link together mathematically to form an
integrated and cohesive whole. Since qualitative and quantitative methods
comprise distinct strengths and weaknesses, they can be used to compliment
each other. It is not expected that the results converge exactly. Observational
data, survey information, document review and interview findings may
produce varying results. This may indicate that different data sources have
detected different qualities and characteristics. Although a consistent picture
may not emerge, the purpose of the study is to understand the “ why”, “ what"
and “ when” of the differences.
While understanding the reasons for these differences, it is important
to simultaneously determine predominant patterns, general ideas and
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reoccumng themes from the different data sources. Consistency in patterns,
themes and ideas together with reasonable explanations contribute to the
validity of the research. However, as Yager (1982) points out, "by definition
the exceptional situation -the unique- the situation at the cutting edge, is lost
when the major objective is to report the current status -the situation in 90%
of the classrooms" (p. 342). In reporting predominant patterns, it will also be
important to examine anomalies. These departures from conformity may
provide some valuable data and determine new directions for biological
science education.
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CHAPTER 4
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Much concern has been expressed over the status of biology teaching
in Nigeria. This concern stems from the realization that many of the
problems facing countries throughout the world are essentially biological in
nature. Nutrition, health, agriculture, pollution, population growth and the
conservation of natural resources are all aspects of the life of the community
which require an understanding of biology if they are to be dealt with
realistically. While some scientific disciplines constitute esoteric abstractions
to the average citizen, biology has immediate practicality th at makes it
applicable in meeting daily needs. Although in the Nigerian circumstance,
biology is the most popularly studied science subject, however, paradoxically,
the performance of high school students in the subject in recent years has
been very poor. The purpose of this research project was to analyze the
content of the high school biology curriculum of Imo State, Nigeria, in order
to determine its comparability with the biological literacy program advocated
by biology educators for high school students in the United States.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FORMAL NIGERIAN
HIGH SCHOOL BIOLOGY CURRICULUM
What are the characteristics of the formal Imo State
high school biology curriculum?
The Science Teachers’ Association of Nigeria (STAN) which is the
largest and most national of all the teachers' association in Nigeria has had
a great impact on science teaching and science curriculum development in
Nigeria since its inception in 1957 with a handfull of science teachers
concerned about how science should be taught in, and written for, Nigerian
classrooms. This is in understanding that teachers of science should actively
participate in the planning and development of the school science program.
The most distinguishing feature of the formal Nigerian biology
curriculum which STAN helped to develop is that it is a syllabic guideline
th at departs from the normal procedure in science curriculum reforms; no
teacher or pupil materials were produced to accompany the new biological
science curriculum. The term "curriculum" is used in this project in the way
implied by the developers of the guideline.
The philosophy behind the written curriculum now in use in all
Nigerian high schools is the preparation of students for useful living in
society and higher education through training in the use of both the brain
and the hands. This has led to a desire to teach conceptual thinking coupled
with mainpulative skills so th at adequate foundation may be laid for the
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development of science and technology for the improvement of Nigeria. One
of the consequences of the conceptual approach is getting at the essential
structure of the subject m atter through the use of a central theme which
permeates the entire instructional material (Ivowi, 1984). In order to attain
this noble objective, care has been taken to avoid the packing together of
facts and detailed explanatory notes.
In planning this new biology curriculum for senior secondary school,
consideration was given to the one additional year of secondary education
in the new system. Thus the curriculum includes new content and has
increased the depth of the content hitherto treated superficially. For
example, some aspects in genetics are treated in detail so as to give greater
meaning to the subject matter (Okeke, 1983).
The spiral or concentric approach to sequencing a science course was
adopted in planning the biology course by arranging the concepts in such a
manner that they run throughout the three year course, the concept being
given deeper elaboration as the students mature.
The teaching syllabus is divided into five sections: topics, performance
objectives, content, activity, and notes, an arrangement which would provide
maximum guide and assistance to the teacher. The performance objectives
help the teacher to evaluate his teaching as well as the achievement of his
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students. In addition they help the teacher to select appropriate learning
outcomes and construct appropriate test items. As explained by its
developers:
One important reason for stating performance
objectives is that they will guide the teachers in
self-evaluation of their own teaching and the
achievement of their students. Teachers should
note that the performance objectives presented
in th is curriculum are not exhaustive; they
should add new ones as deemed necessary,
especially those performance objectives in the
higher cognitive level and psychomotor and
affective domains (NERC biology, ii).
In its present form, the syllabus provides opportunity for the
development of inquiry skills through the student activity-centered structure
of the instructional materials. It provides as many complementary activities
as possible, the intention being to emphasize and possibly make permanent
the related concepts being treated. It is not expected that each student will
actually perform all the experiments under the activities. One hopes that the
teacher can arrange for the class to be exposed to all the activities by a
strategic sharing of the activities among the students in the class. Through
organized discussions, students may share in the discoveries of their
classmates.
The introduction of any new curriculum usually calls for new teaching
methods and new evaluation techniques. Unlike the pre-independence
biology which required teachers to lecture their students on biological
principles (Okeke, 1983), this new post-independence curriculum makes
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many demands on teachers. A variety of teaching methods has to be used
to realize the stated objectives and make the learning of the subject matter
meaningful. There is great emphasis on the use of laboratory activities in
the development of scientific attitude and acquisition of scientific skills.
Since the contents and contexts of this syllabus place emphasis on
field studies, guided discoveiy, laboratory techniques and skills coupled with
conceptual thinking, rote learning is completely discouraged. In order to
achieve these objectives, the student is taken through a series of activities
to strengthen his experience; he is given just enough facts about the subject
matter; adequate but not elaborate explanations are provided him. He is
challenged by his experience and hopefully, will develop curiosity and
creativeness. This is more likely to be so if the teacher provides the proper
guide to the student.
The new syllabus recommends that teachers use biological principles
to correct misconceptions from cultural beliefs that students may have about
witchcraft, and abnormal births. The idea is that by seeking scientific
explanations to some of these phenomena, students will be encouraged to
develop scientific attitude and transfer same to other situations.
Some traditional topics were dropped entirely; some received only very
casual mention without the unnecessary but time consuming details required
in the traditional syllabus. This is because the developers envisioned an
activity-centered curriculum that draws content toward it as required, rather
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than a content-centered curriculum with activities traditionally hung on the
content framework. Emphasis hitherto given to agriculture and its practical
application has been reduced in this syllabus. This is because agricultural
science is now a new science discipline taught in many schools in the
nation. Again, no detailed treatment of each of the protozoa, for example,
is undertaken. Instead, a general treatm ent based on a u n ifyin g concept is
adopted. Depending on the information being presented, appropriate
references are made to the relevant protozoa, taking into consideration the
experimental approach underlying the project, In order to ensure adequate
work-load for the students, some new important topics were introduced
(NERC Biology, 1985).
This syllabus is intended to provide logical and psychological follow-up
for the junior secondary school core curriculum for the integrated science.
Thus the six themes of the junior secondary school integrated science
curriculum -You as Living Thing, You and Your Home, Living
Components of th e Environment, Saving your Energy, and Controlling
th e Environment- have reference to the themes th at recur in the new
biology syllabus for the senior secondary schools (NERC Biology, 1985).
These themes include: Concept of Living, Basic Ecological Concepts, Plant
and Animal Nutrition, Conservation of Matter/ Energy, Variation and
Variability, Evolution, and Genetics.
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Throughout this syllabus, the teacher is expected to provide the
required leadership for the students in the guided discovery approach to
learning. This calls for a thorough preparation of lesson on the part of the
teacher. Perhaps it is this demanding task bestowed on the teacher th at
accounts for some of the oppositions that this educational project initially
received (Ivowi, 1984). In an effort to guide the students in the discovery
approach, it is suggested that the teacher may attain the following:
* The teacher may become relaxed as opposed to being tense
since he would be well prepared before facing his class. In such
a situation of adequate preparation, he is likely to be more
disposed to leading and guiding the students in their study;
* The teacher may read around the subject in order to be able to
sustain the students' interest by being a useful resource person
to them;
* The teacher may become very resourceful and progressive as he
tries to meet the demands of the students and keep them
informed of relevant and current information. This is likely to
endear such a teacher to his students and, in an attempt to
meet the demands of the teacher, the students, may become
better academic achievers (Ivowi, 1984).
Therefore, the recommended approach to teaching may be seen as a
possible agent of improvement for both the teacher and the student. As
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Dearden (1967) has pointed out, it is not by chance that discoveries are
made; it is a result of the teacher's contrivance in structuring the
environment or practicing discovery method. What the students discover is
what the teacher wants them to discover.
ELEMENTS OP BIOLOGICAL LITERACY
What are the stated elements of biological literacy in the American
high school biology curriculum?
Educators, and biology curriculum development and research
organizations such as the National Science Teachers Association (NSTA)
(1987), the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)
(1989), the Biological Sciences Curriculum Study (BSCS) (1995), the
National Research Council (NRC) (1989, 1990, 1996), and Rutherford &
Ahlgren, (1990) use the term "scientific literacy" to express the major
objective of contemporary science education, an aim recognized for all
students. Current school science programs do not provide opportunities for
all students to continue learning either formally in colleges or universities,
or informally as adults. Scientific literacy or biological literacy implies a
general education orientation for high school, community college, and four-
year college non-majors biology programs.
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(AAAS, 1989) defined scientific literacy as experience with the natural
world; an awareness of the interdependence of science, mathematics and
technology; comprehension of important scientific principles and concepts;
the ability to think scientifically and use this knowledge for individual and
shared purposes; and the realization that science, math and technology are
hum an enterprises with strengths and weakness. Few biology educators
have addressed the general topic of biological literacy, which is a component
of scientific literacy, which in turn is an ingredient of cultural literacy.
Ewing, Campbell, and Brown (1987) report a study in which college
students read about bioethical issues from sources other than textbooks and
engaged in discussions that made connections between those readings and
citizenship. The research supported the investigators' hypotheses that such
activities would encourage scientific literacy among students. The
researchers recommended incorporating bioethical issues into the biology
curriculum, a recommendation that unites many of the studies cited below.
Jones (1989) used biological literacy -the public's lack of knowledge,
understanding, and perspectives about science- to argue for incorporating
nature study into contemporary biology curricula. Gibbs and Lawson (1992)
used the goal of scientific literacy as the basis for their study on the nature
of scientific thinking as reflected by the work of biologists and the writing
in high school and college biology textbooks. The authors concluded, not
surprisingly, that the majority of Americans are scientifically literate -if
*
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scientific literacy means an understanding of how scientists do science. Most
textbooks do not provide an accurate view of the process of science. Gibbs
and Lawson suggest that the reason for this portrayal is that textbook
authors are themselves not scientifically literate.
In another report on biological literacy, Demastes and Wandersee
(1992) suggested that the essence of biological literacy is understanding a
small number of pervasive biological principles and applying them in
appropriate ways to activities in personal and social spheres. The authors
recommended modification in college biology courses to make biology more
relevant to students.
Other authors have discussed various dimensions of reform in biology
education but have not directly addressed biological literacy as a goal.
Although biological literacy has not been thoroughly addressed by science
educators, those who have dealt with this issue have argued that the nature
of science and bioethical issues should be used in classes to promote
biological literacy for all students.
According to BSCS (1995), a major biology education research and
development organization, a biologically literate individual should
understand:
* Biological principles and major concepts of biology;
* The impact of humans on the biosphere;
* The process of scientific inquiry;
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* Historical development of biological concepts.
The student should develop appropriate personal values regarding:
* Scientific investigations;
* Biodiversity and cultural diversity;
* The impact of biology and biotechnology on society;
* The importance of biology to the individual.
Finally, the biologically literate individual should be able to:
* Think creatively and formulate questions about nature;
* Reason logically and critically and evaluate information;
* Use technology appropriately;
* Make personal and ethical decisions related to biological issues;
* Apply knowledge to solve real world problems.
The implication for these characteristics is that if students are to
develop biological literacy, all programs should present the biological
knowledge, skills, and values necessary for them to become effective citizens
in society. The contemporary phrase "science for all" implies that any biology
program should address the needs and concerns of all students, which by
definition, includes those who traditionally have been underrepresented in
the sciences.
BSCS asserts that the pursuit of biological literacy is a continual, life
long process. Most discussions of biological literacy use the term as a goal
th at one either achieves or does not, that is, a person either is biologically
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literate, or is not. Bach individual, however, occupies a position somewhere
along a continuum of biological literacy for different biological concepts.
Accordingly, the task for biology educators is to move students to a more
advanced a position along the continuum- a position that implies a richer
understanding of biology.
LEVELS OP BIOLOGICAL LITERACY
BSCS (1995) recognizes four distinct levels of biological literacy:
Nominal, Functional, Structural, and Multidimensional. Students who
function at the nominal level of literacy are literate "in name only." They
may recognize biological terms as being related to natural phenomena, but
they cannot provide scientifically valid explanations of the phenomena and
may express misconceptions.
At the functional level of literacy, students may memorize an
appropriate definition of the biological term or concept, which leads to
functional biological literacy. At this level, students are able to define
certain biological terms or concepts but have limited understanding of or
personal experience with them. Biology programs that emphasize vocabulary
and rote memorization lead to a functional level of biological literacy.
Unfortunately, this is often the emphasis of biology programs and the point
at which textbooks and instructors stop, leaving students with only one
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dimension of biological literacy. Students at this level have no
understanding of the discipline, no feeling for the excitement of scientific
investigations, and no interest in biology. Just as people described as
functionally literate can "get by" in life, students who have a functional
biological literacy may be able to get by on certain objective examinations.
Students are structurally literate if they have constructed appropriate
explanations based on their experiences within class and can discuss and
explain concepts in their terms. If students are to develop this higher level
of biological literacy, they must understand the major conceptual themes of
biology, those ideas that help organize all of biological thinking. The
unifying biological principles that provide a conceptual framework for
organizing biological content include:
* Evolution: Patterns and Products of Change;
* Interaction and Interdependence;
* Genetic Continuity and Reproduction;
* Growth, Development, and Differentiation;
* Energy, Matter, and Organization;
* Maintenance of a Dynamic Equilibrium.
The structural level of biological literacy is a foundation on which the
understanding of other, related biological concepts is based.
Multidimensional biological literacy represents a broad, detailed, and
interconnected understanding of a subject area of biology. Multidimensional
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literacy involves the ability to investigate a problem concerning a local issue
or a biological concept, to collect information related to the problem or to the
concept, and to apply this knowledge to the solution of die problem or to the
expansion of biological knowledge. At this level of biological literacy
therefore, students can apply the knowledge they have gained and the skills
they have developed to solve the real-world problems that may require the
integration of information from other disciplines such as sociology,
economics, and political science.
American biologists and biology educators use u n ify in g principles to
form the basic structure for the study, teaching, and lea rn in g of biology. An
examination of the formal American biology curriculum reveals this practice.
The National Research Council (NRC) (1990) uses five themes to organize
the biological literacy elements of high school courses. These themes include:
Development and Reproduction, Energy and Metabolism, Cell and Molecular
Biology, Evolution, and Ecology. The American Association for Advancement
of Science (AAAS) (1993) uses such similar themes as Diversity of Life,
Heredity, Cells, Interdependence of Life, Flow of Matter and Energy, and
Evolution of Life.
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Table 4.1
The elements of biological literacy in the American curriculum
la . EVOLUTION: PATTERNS OP CHANGE
(Living Systems Change Through. Time)
The Dynamic Earth
• Scales of Time
Forces of Evolutionary Change
• Genetic Variation
• Natural Selection
• Gene Flow/Genetic Drift
■ Nonrandom Mating
• Artificial Selection
• Domesticated plants, animals, & microbes
• Advances in biotechnology
Patterns of Evolution
• Historical Background
• Cultural vs. Biological evolution
• Microevolution
• Macroevolution
• Gradualism/punctuated equilibria
Extinction
Conservation Biology
• Renewable & Nonrenewable Resources
Population Genetics
• Gene POol/Gene Frequency
• Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
lb. EVOLUTION: PRODUCTS
OF CHANGE
(Evolution H as Produced a Diversity
of Living System s on Earth)
Origin of Life
• Characteristics of Living Systems
• Fossils
Specialization & Adaptation
Species & Spedation
• Isolating Mechanisms
• Adaptive Radiation
• Human Evolution
• Diversity of people & cultures
Phylogenetic Classification
• Homologous & Analogous Structures
Biodiversity
• Procaryotes
• Eucaryotes
• R u tists
• Fungi
• Plants
• Animals
Biogeography
2. INTERACTION AND INTERDE
PENDENCE
(Living Systems Interact w ith Their
Environment and Are Interdepen
dent w ith Other System s)
Environmental Factors
• Biotic & Abiotic Environmental
• Factors
• Adaptation
• Limiting Factors
Population Ecology
• Population Attributes
• Population Regulation Factors
• Carrying Capadty
• Plant & Animal Populations
Community Structure
• Spedes Richness & Species
Diversity
• Food Chains &Food Webs
• Producers, consumers, and
dicomposers
• Niche
• Interactions among Living
System s
• Predation/parasitism
• Mutualisiq/coevolution
• Competition
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TABLE 4.1 (Continued)
Ecosystems • Reproductive Systems
• Nutrient & Water Cycles • Morphological
• Energy Flow • Physiological
• Biomes • Human Reproduction
• Succesion • Reproductive Cycle
Biosphere • Contraception
• Human Influences on the Biosphere • Prenatal Development
• Human-designed ecosystems • Reproduction & Biotechnology
• Agriculture and food production Molecular Genetics
• Overpopulation Microbial/Viral
• Resource use & Productional Waste Eukaryotic
• Atmosphere & habitat Genetics & Biotechnology
• Genetic Engineering
3. GENETIC CONTINUITY AND • Human Genome Project
REPRODUCTION • Gene Resources & Gene Banks
(Living Systems are Related to Other
Generations by Genetic Material Passed on 4. GROWTH DEVELOPMENT,
Through Reproduction. AND DIFFERENTIATION
The Gene
(Living Systems Grow, Develop, and
• Historical Development of the Concept
Differentiate During Their Lifetimes)
• Molecular structure
Patterns of Growth
DNA (The Genetic Material)
• Growth Rates
• Replication
• Fluctuations in Growth Rates
Mutations & Mutagens
• Limits in Growth
Gene Action
Patterns of Development
Transcription
• Life Cycles
RNA • Stages of Development
Translation • Plants
Gene Regulation • Animals
Interaction of Genotype & Environment
Differentiation
Patterns of Inheritance
Genetic Basis of Development
• Mendelian Genetics Environmental Influences of Develop
• Dominance
ment
• Independent Assortmenl/Recombination Morphogenesis
• NonMendelian Genetics Fundamental Forms
• Human Genetics Tissues & Organs
• Reproduction
Form & Function
• Assexual Reproduction « Division of Labor
■ Mitosis
Morphological Adaptation
• Sexual Reproduction
• Meiosis/Fertilization
5. ENERGY MATTER AND ORGANI
ZATION
(Living Systems are Complex and
Highly Organized & They Require
Energy and atter to Maintain this
Organization)
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Table 4.1 (Continued)
Molecular Structure • Aerobic respiration
• The Chemical & Physical Basis of Biology • Anaerobic respiration
• Scales of size & proportion. 6. MAINTENANCE OF A DYNAMIC
• Oxidation-reduction reactions
EQUILIBRIUM
• Atomic Structure/Chemical Bonds (Living Systems Maintain a
Hyerarchy of Organization Relatively Stable Internal
• Emergent Properties within Hierarchy Environment)
• Carbon-based Macromolecules Detection of Environmental Stimuli
• Cell^/Cell Theory • Receptors
• Organelles Movement
Matter • Effectors/Muscular Systems
• Assimilation/IngestioiyOigestion • Skeletal/Support Systems
• Transport of Materials Homeostasis
• Diffusior/active transport • Feedback Mechanisms
• Membranes • Nervous Systems
• Digestive, Gas Exchange, & Circulatory • Brain
Systems • Endocrine Systems
• Blood • Hormones
• Nutrients • Temperature Regulation
Molecular Structure • Water Balanced/Excretory System
• The Chemical & Physical Basis of Biology
• Scales of size & proportion Health & Disease
• Oxidation-reduction reactions • Fitness
• Atomic Structure/Chemical Bonds • Human Nutrition & Problems
Hyerarchy of Organization • Immune System & Response
• Emergent Properties within Hierarchy • Pathogens & response
• Carbon-based Macromolecules • Human Diseases
• CelVCell Theory • Medical & public health, issues
• Organelles ■ Biochemical technology
Matter • Human Genetic Disorders
• Assimilation/IngestioiyDigestion Behavior
• Transport of Materials • Tropisms
• DiffusioiVactive transport • Communication
• Membranes • Animal Behavior
• Digestive, Gas Exchange, & Circulatory • Instinct
Systems • Learning
• Blood • Human Behavior
• Nutrients • Determinants
Energy & Metabolism • Drugs & their effects
• Enzymes
• ATP & Energy Transformation
■ Autotrophs
• Photosythesis
• Chemosynthesis
• Heterotrophs
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BSCS (1995) uses six unifying principles to organize the elements of
biological literacy as shown in Table 4.1. While the particular configuration
and number of themes is not crucial, the organization of biological elements
along thematic lines is (AAAS, 1993, 1989; BSCS, 1995; NRS, 1996, 1990:
NSTA, 1989; Science Framework, 1990).
What are the stated elements of biological literacy in Imo State high
school biology curriculum?
The objectives of biological education as stipulated in the syllabus are
the preparation of pupils to acquire:
* Adequate laboratory and field skills in biology;
* Meaningful and relevant knowledge in biology;
* The ability to apply scientific knowledge to everyday life in
matters of personal and community health and agriculture; and
* The development of reasonable and functional scientific
attitudes.
In accordance with the stated objectives, any biology curriculum
materials intended for the senior secondary school must place emphasis on
field studies, guided-discovery, laboratory techniques and skills coupled with
conceptual thinking (Federal Ministry of Education (FME), 1985).
This syllabus is intended to provide modem biology course as well as
meet the needs of the society through relevance and functionality in its
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content, method and processes and application. The curriculum is based on
a conceptual approach. The seven major concepts used in the syllabus as the
underlying themes include: Concept of Living, Basic Ecological Concepts,
Plant and Animal Nutrition, Conservation of Matter/Energy, Variation and
Variability, and Genetics (FME, 1995).
Table 4.2
The elements of biological literacy in the Nigerian curriculum.
1.BIOLOGY AND LIVING THINGS
• Biology as inquiry
• Living things and Non-living things
• Organization of Life
• Major sources and forms of energy
2. NUTRITION
Plant nutrition
• Photosynthesis
• Mineral requirement of plants
• The nitrogen cycle
• Animal nutrition
• Food substances-sources
• The concept of a balanced diet
• Food tests
• Digestive enzymes
• Modes of nutrition
3. RELEVANCE OF BIOLOGY TO
AGRICULTURE
• Classification of plants
• Effects of agricultural activities on
ecological systems.
• Pests and diseases of agricultural
importance
• Food production and shortage
• Population growth and food supply.
4. BASIC ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS
Ecosystems-components and sizes
• Local biotic communities or biomes
• Major biomes of the world
• Population studies by sampling method
• Ecological factor
• Relationship between soil-types and
water holding effect of soil on
vegetation
• Simple measurement of ecological
factors
5. FUNCTIONING ECOSYSTEM
• Autotrophs and heterotrophs
• Trophic levels
• Energy flow
• Energy transformation in nature
Energy loss in the ecosystem
• Laws of thermodynamics
Nutrient cycling in nature
• The carbon cycle
• The water cycle
• Decomposition in nature
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Table 4.2 (Continued)
6. ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT
Association
• Types of associations
• Features of biological importance
possessed by members of an
association
Tolerance
Adaptation
• Adaptation in form and function of
living organisms due to environ
mental conditions
• Effects of availability of water on
adaptive modifications
Pollution
• Pollution of the atmosphere
• Pollution of water
Conservation of natural resources
7.MICRO-ORGANISMS AROUND US
• Micro-organisms in air and water
• Identification of micro-organisms
• Micro-organisms in our bodies and food
• Carriers of micro-organisms
8. MICRO-ORGANISMS IN ACTION
Growth of micro-organisms
• Beneficial effects
• Harmful effects of some microbes
9. TOWARDS BETTER HEALTH
• Control of harmful micro-organisms
• Vectors
• Pupils health
10.THE CELL
• Cell as a living unit
• Forms in which living cells exist
• Cell as part of a living organism
• Cell structure
11. THE CELL AND ITS ENVIRON
MENT
• Diffusion
• Osmosis
12. SOME PROPERTIES AND
FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL
• Feeding definitions and types
• Cellular respiration
• Anabolisms-usefulness of food
• Autotrophs
• Heterotrophs
• Role of enzymes
• Excretion
• Growth
• Cell reactions to its environment
• Movement
13. TISSUES AND SUPPORTIVE
SYSTEMS
• Skeleton and supporting sytems in
animals
• Types of skeleton
• Bones of the vertebral column
• Different types of supporting tissues in
plants
• Mechanisms of support
• Uses of fibres for the plant
• Functions of skeleton in anim als
• Functions of supporting tissues in
plants
14.DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
• Alimentary tracts
• Feeding habits
• Feeding in protozoa, hydra mammals
15. TRANSPORT SYSTEM
• Need for transportation
• Transport system necessary in large
organisms
• Materials for transportation
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Table 4.2 (Continued)
• Structure of arteries, veins, capillaries. Arid lands
vascular bundles • Characteristics of arid lands
• Media of transportation • Types of arid lands
• Mechanism of transportation in • Distribution of organisms in the
organisms and plants habitat
• Some adaptations of organisms to arid
16. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM lands
• Types of respiratory systems Estuarine habitat
• Mechanisms of respiratory system in • Charateristics of estuarine habitat
animals and plants • Types of estuary
• Distribution of plants and animals in
17.EXCRETORY SYSTEM AND their habitat
MECHANISM • Adaptive features of plants and
• Excretory system animals in estuarine habitat
• Excretory mechanism Fresh-water Habitat
• Charateristics of fresh-water habitat
18. AQUATIC HABITAT • Types of fresh-water
Marine habitat • Adaptive features of fresh-water
• Characteristics of marine habitat organisms
• The major zones
• Distribution of the organisms in the 20. ECOLOGY OF POPULATIONS
habitat Ecological succession
• Primary succession
19. TERRESTRIAL HABITAT • Secondary succession
Marsh • Population and population density
• Characteristics of a marsh • Factors that may cause overcrowding
• Formation of marshes • Effects of overcrowding
• Types of marshes • Adaptations to avoid overcrowding
• Plants and animals that live in Food shortage
marshes • Causes of food shortage
• Adaptive features of these plants and • Effects of food shortage on the size of
animals a population
Forest Balance in nature
• Charateristics of a forest • Factors affecting a population
• Strata in the forest • Dynamic equilibrium or balance in
• Distribution of plants and animals that nature
inhabit a forest • Family planning
• Adaptive features of plants and
animals 21.REGULATION OF INTERNAL
Grassland ENVIRONMENT
• Charactristic8 of grassland • The kidney
• Types of grassland • The liver
• Distribution of plants and animals in a • Hormones
grassland • The skin
• Some adaptations of grasslands
communities
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Table 4.2 (Continued)
22. NERVOUS COORDINATION
• The central nervous system
• Peripheral nervous system
• Structure and function of a neurone
• Reflex and voluntary actions
• Conditioned reflex
28. VARIATIONS AND
POPULATIONS
• Morphological (variations in the
physical appearance) of individuals
• Physiological variations
• Applications of variations
23. SENSE ORGANS
• Sensation of the skin
• Organ of Smell
• Organ of taste
• Organ of sight
• Organ of hearing
24. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
• Reproductive system in fish, reptiles,
birds, and mammals
• Reproductive system in plants
29. ADAPTATION FOR SURVIVAL
• Competition
• Intra and inter species competition
• Relationship between competition and
succession
• Structural adaptation
• Adaptive coloration
• Behavioral adaptation
• Theories of evolution
• Modem evolutionary theories
25. REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIORS
• Courtship behavior in animals
• Pollination in plants
26. DEVELOPMENT OF NEW
ORGANISMS
• Stages in the development of a toad
• Metamorphosis in insects
• Progress of development of zygote
• Germination of seeds
• Essential factors which affect the
developing organism
• Adaptive features in a developing
animal
• Definition of oviparity and viviparity
27. FRUITS
• Structure of fruits
• Types of fruits
• Dispersal of seeds and fruits
30. BIOLOGY OF HEREDITY
(GENETICS)
• Transmission and expression of
characteristics in organisms
• Chromosomes the basis of heredity
• Probability in genetics
• Applications of the principles of
heredity
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The Nigerian biology syllabus is equally intended to provide more than
biology course as well as meet the needs of the society through relevance
and fuctionality in its content, method, processes and application. This
formal curriculum is based on a conceptual approach as well. However, the
substantial elements of biological literacy are outlined under 30 topics.
These substantial elements are shown in Table 4.2.
Developing biological literacy in students requires an analysis of current
program practices, long-term goals, and consideration of how one might
move toward these goals in the immediate and near future. Given the
existing discrepancy on elements of biological literacy between the two
curricula, completion of Table 4.3 as recommended by BSCS (1995) should
help Nigerian biology educators to evaluate their own biology program. To
be able to evaluate their biology program, Nigerian educators ought to
identify all the components of their programs, using the American biology
program as the standard, and evaluate the current use of each component.
Next, the Nigerian educators should determine what they would like their
students to know, value, and be able to do at the end of their program in
relation to their understanding of major biological concepts, unifying
principles of biology, processes of scientific investigation, and biological
literacy. Finally, they should determine how their students are going to
reach their goals, being realistic in the number of changes they are willing
to make immediately and in the near future.
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TABLE 4.3
Form for evaluating biology programs.
Program.
Component
Current Practices Long-term
changes and
practices
How Changes Will
Be Made-Short
and Long-term
Actions
Goals for students
and programs
Students master
content knowledge
presented to them
at 60% level.
Students become
structurally and
multidimensional
literate in biology.
Move away from
lecture and objec
tive examinations.
Unifying Principles Don’ t use. Organize biological
content around six
principles.
Rewrite introduc
tory activities to
introduce unifying
principles.
Biological
Knowledge
Determine horn
list of topics on
syllabus or
chapters assigned.
Focus on 20 major
biological concepts.
Eliminate topics
discussed in
lecture and replace
with activities that
introduce and rein
force major biologi
cal concepts.
Curriculum
Themes
Don’ t use one. Organize program
around science as
a process theme.
Add laboratory
component.
Instructional
strategies
Lecture Mostly lecture on
biological content.
Develop students’
ability to use
process of scientific
inquiry.
Reduce number of
lectures and repla
ce them with
discussion periods
and labs.
Laboratory None. Add investigative
experience.
Develop a list of
possible future
labs.
Educational
Technology.
None used. Incorporate
interactive
technologies.
Review copies of
videodiscs availa
ble that deal with
biology.
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Table 4.3 (Continued)
Assessment
Strategies
Multiple choice
exams used.
Provide varied
assessment that is
appropriate for my
goals.
Add written reports
and laboratory
investigations and
i n d e p e n d e n t
research project for
students this year.
Developing
biological literacy.
Students are at the
fuctional level.
Students have
opportunity to
practice personal
and social decision
making.
Search for local
issues that students
may study on long
term bases. Ask
s tu d e n ts to
evaluate articles
presenting scientific
information.
Personal Needs of
Students
Not addressed in
class.
Focus on critical
thinking and
problem solving
skills.
Read references on
critiral thinking
exercises and
incorporate a few
into class.
INSTRUCTIONAL METHODOLOGY
In this category the instructional methodolgy recommended for use in
American high school biology classrooms was determined by examining the
formal biology curriculum. The instructional methodolgy and techniques
used by Nigerian biology teachers were ascertained from the data obtained
through the survey responses, classroom observations, and interview with
teachers.
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THE INSTRUCTIONAL METHODOLOGY
IN THE FORMAL AMERICAN BIOLOGY CURRICULUM
What is the instructional methodology required in the formal
American high school biology curriculum?
The activities of a biology class make up the instructional
strategies. Biology experts in the United States have recommended in the
formal biology curriculum instructional strategies and techniques for
effective teaching of biology. The researcher examined the formal American
biology curriculum to determine the instructional strategies and techniques.
Building scientific understanding takes time on a daily basis and over
a long term. Schools must restructure schedules so that teachers can use
blocks of time, interdisciplinary strategies, and field experiences to give
students many opportunities to engage in serious scientific investigation as
an intergal part of their science learning. When considering how to structure
available time, skilled teachers realize that students need time to try out
ideas, to make mistakes, to ponder, and to discuss with one another.
Guidelines indicate that a science course should have at least 275 minutes
per week of science instruction in schools with block scheduling and 315
minutes per week of science instruction in schools with modular scheduling
(NRC, 1996; NSTA, 1984).
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The use of a variety of teaching strategies accommodates various
student learning styles and provides opportunities that will help different
students construct their understanding of biological concepts (BSCS, 1995).
BSCS lists in Table 4.4 a variety of strategies and suggests the degree to
which the strategies might be emphasized.
TABLE 4.4
Learning^Teaching Strategies
Student* Centered Activities
* Laboratories
* Field experiencies
* Inquiry Actvities
* Individual Research. Projects
* Issue-Centered Problems
Group Activities
* Discussion
* Debates
* Cooperative Teaming
Individual Activities
* Student Writing
* Student Reading
* Student Speaking
* Student Explanation Of Concepts
* Analysis of Data
Technology-related Activities
* Audiovisuals
* Computer Simulations
* Kits and Manipulatives
Teacher-centered Activities
* Lectures
* Demonstrations
H 'l = Essential H - Optional V = Non essential
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Degree of
Emphasis
//
Inquiry-oriented activities should be central to biology education,
developing in students greater independence as individual thinkers and
investigators (BSCS, 1995). The existing emphasis on learning facts derived
prim arily from reading is inadequate. It should be replaced by learner-
centered lessons that allow students to observe nature directly and practice
the skills of inquiry (AAAS, 1993; BSCS, 1995; NRC, 1990, 1989; NSTA
1989). Students should take responsibility for their own learn in g and not
remain passive participants in the learning process. They should find both
their minds and hands actively engaged in the process of learning and doing
science (BSCS, 1994; Science Framework, 1990; NSTA, 1989.) Whatever
instructional methodology one uses, teaching materials and curricular acti-
ivities should emphasize student understanding of both concepts and the
scientific processes of investigation. Instructional strategies should lead
naturally toward individual student research of biological questions (BSCS,
1995).
Biological concepts must be presented in such a manner that they are
related to the world that students understand and in a language that is
familiar (AAAS, 1993; NRC 1990). Instructors should consider students'
initial understanding of biological concepts and provide ample time for
students to think about, interpret, and incorporate new information and
ideas, or to revise their old views. That requires building slowly with ample
time for discussion with peers and with the teacher (BSCS, 1995; Science
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Framework, NRC, 1990).
Students should have opportunities to discuss and debate biologically
related issues th at are important to them and to work with and possibly
develop, models and simulations (BSCS, 1995; NRC, 1990).
Although learning and independent th in k in g are important student
attributes, working cooperatively also is important. Cooperatively lea rn in g
strategies should be incorporated into many of the activities as these
strategies encourage students to take responsibility for their own learning,
help them develop life-long social skills, and increase their retention of ideas
(BSCS, 1994; NRC; 1990). Group or individual research projects on a topic
of the students' own choice require a personal involvement th at a lecture
does not always elicit. Small group activities can provide a dynamic learning
experience not possible for individual students (BSCS, 1995). Laboratory
experiences are important educational experiences for all students.
Laboratory activities allow for exploration and discovery, essential parts of
learning for any student (BSCS, 1995; Novak, 1988; NRC, 1990). The
laboratory experience is also so integral to the nature of science th at it must
be included in every science program for every student (NSTA, 1991). The
prevalent form of laboratory activities, which merely illustrate what the text
has presented, do not produce the desired results. It should be replaced with
genuine investigations, designed and tested to enable students to achieve the
conceptual changes necessary for intellectual development and
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understanding (BSCS, 1995; Novak, 1988; NRC, 1990, 1989). The
laboratory experience should help students develop their investigative,
organizational, creative, and communication skills. NSTA notes the critical
importance of laboratory activities that enhance student performance in such
skills as data analysis, communication, and conceptualization of scientific
phenomena.
Organized field trips to museums of natural history, zoos, botanical
gardens, and aquariums make significant contributions to high school
education in biology. They stimulate students' interest in biological science
and permit a measure of on-the-scene study and participation in the
biological world (BSCS, 1995; NRC, 1990, 1989). Field experiences, like
laboratory experiences, are opportunities for students to discover major
concepts and to experience and use the process of science. These
experiences should allow students to make observations, develop hypotheses,
design and conduct experiments, collect and analyze data, and communicate
their proposed answers and explanations (BSCS, 1995). Students find their
visits to such exhibit programs an appealing and repeatedly attractive
learning experiences that will supplement and amplify their formal
classroom education in biology through their high school education and
beyond (NRC, 1989).
Lectures can be a dynamic and efficient way of presenting information
to students, but they should never be the only way students experience
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science. Instructors should move from a lecture-only format to the inquiry
approach (BSCS, 1995, 1994). The teacher is a facilitator of the lea rn in g
process, not a delivery system for all knowledge. His role therefore, is to
listen, encourage, ask questions, and lead, but not to act as a font of
knowledge, pouring information into empty vessels (BSCS, 1995, 1994; NRC,
1990).
In developing science concepts, a teacher should:
1. Pose questions to determine what ideas students hold about a topic
before beginning instruction;
2. Be sensitive to and capitalize on students' conception about science;
3. Employ a variety of instructional techniques to help students
achieve conceptual understanding; and
4. Include all students in discussions and cooperative learning
situations (BSCS, 1995; Sicence Framework, NRC, Rutherford,
1990).
The most appropriate use of a lecture might be to pique the curiosity
and wonder of students about biology, to provide alternative or expanded
explanations of complex phenomena presented in the textbook, laboratory or
via educational technology, and to clarify, summarize, and reinforce the
learning of concepts after students have discovered them through classroom
investigations (BSCS, 1995).
The integration of appropriate technology, such as, videodiscs,
videotapes, interactive computer programs, and cable television, help to
enhance the science program (NSTA, 1990). All biology programs should
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incorporate educational technology in ways that are appropriate to biological
inquiry, adequate to program requirements and th at accommodate diverse
learning styles (BSCS, 1995). Educational technology can help students
acquire information, use knowledge to make informed decisions, and access
the vast amount of scientific information available in primary and popular
literature (Linn, 1987; Papert, 1982; Pea, 1984). It is important for students
to learn how to access scientific information from books, periodicals, videos,
databases, electronic communications, and people wiht expert knowledge.
Teachers provide opportunities for students to use contemporary technology
as they develop their scientific understanding (NRC, 1996).
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THE INSTRUCTIONAL METHODOLOGY IN IMO STATE HIGH
SCHOOL BIOLOGY PR O G R A M
What is the instructional methodology as practiced in Imo State high
school biology classrooms?
The instructional techniques used by Nigerian biology teachers were
determined by the teachers' perceptions of their teaching practices and
actual classroom instructional activities observed. The perceived state was
ascertained by data supplied through the use of a questionnaire
administered to one hundred teachers. The practiced state, on the other
hand, was determined mainly from classroom observations and interview
with teachers.
TEACHERS' SURVEY REPORT
To determine biology teachers' perception of their teaching practices in
Imo State of Nigeria, a questionnaire was administered on site to 100
teachers in 46 schools. The questionnaire gathered data on the extent to
which science process skills were used in the classrooms. The responses
spanned the gamut of possible choices.
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TABLE 4.5
Percentage of the extent of teachers' report using
specific science process skills ( N = 100).
Not at all Occasionally Moderately Frequently
1. Observing 0 34.3 222 43.4
2. Measuring 6 45 31 18
3. Classifying 3 37.4 30.3 29.3
4. Exploring 18.4 44.9 22.4 14.3
5. Recording 3 232 37.4 36.4
6. Predicting/Inferring 16.2 44.4 242 152
7. Investigating 12.1 34.3 37.4 162
8. Reporting 3.1 19.4 46.9 30.6
9. Designing Experiments 15.2 40.4 242 20.2
10. Hypothesizing 34.3 34.3 242 7.1
11. Data Analysis 21.4 37.8 23.5 17.3
According to Table 4.5, 3 percent to about 35 percent of respondents
indicated that they did not used certain process skills. 19 percent to 45
percent reported that they occasionally used science process skills while the
percentage of those who indicated that they moderately and frequently used
the process skills ranged from 22 to about 49 and from 7 to about 44
respectively. According to Table 3, 75.8 % of the teachers reported that they
permitted students to conduct safe classroom demonstrations while 24.2
percent indicated that they did not.
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TABLE 4.6
Teachers’ report of the use of various instructional techniques.
Instructional Strategies
Apply
Frequently
Apply
Sometimes
Apply
Rarely
Don’ t
Apply
1. Integration of instruction into other
content areas.
14 62 22 2
2. Provision of learning experiences
from other science disciplines.
25.5 70.4 4.1 0
3. Applications of science concepts 41 59 0 0
4. Clarificationof details in discu
ssions of instructional content.
37 57 6 0
5. Relative laboratory activities to
class topics.
39.4 57.6 1 2
6. Individual students or small groups
laboratory work.
23.2 58.6 16.2 2
7. Students’ classroom demonstrations 16.2 59.6 24.2 0
8. Assignment of appropriate home
work exercises.
33 59 8 0
9. Relating tests, quizzes, and exami
nations to course objectives.
71 28 1 0
10. Use of resources besides textbook,
lectures and discussions.
28 49 22 1
11. Providing adequate wait time for
student responses
30.3 64.6 5.1 0
12. Laboratory work constitutes a per
centage of student grade.
36 55 8 1
13. Interpretation of written data
feature in tests and examinations.
21 49 24 6
14. Laboratory practicals as part of
evaluation.
36.4 51.5 11.1 1
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Table 4.6 (Continued)
Instructional Strategies
Applied
Frequently
Apply
Sometimes
Apply
Rarely
Don't
Apply
15. Essay questions are included in
tests and examinatinations.
76.8 23.2 0.00 0.00
16. Provide other ways to earn credit,
other than written tests.
20.4 53.1 23.5 3.1
17. Use variety of methods to check
understanding.
33 59 7 1
18. All students are made to partici
pate in discussions.
12.4 54.6 32 1
19. Students are guided in their
thinking in answer to questions.
43.4 55.6 1 0.00
20. Encouraging students to initiate
comments and questions.
47.5 51.5 1 0.00
21. Students are guided in their
thinking in answer to questions.
43.4 55.6 1 0.00
22. Employment of open-ended
thought-provoking questions.
25.3 55.6 15.1 4
23. Demonstrate required laboratory
techniques.
40.4 58.6 1 0.00
70 percent indicated that in tests and examinations, students were called to
interpret data presented in written or graphic form while 30 percent reported
th a t they did not involve their students in such teaching techniques. 73.5
percent reported that they provided ways for students to earn credit and
improve their grades other than paper-and-pencil tests, while 26.5 responded
that their students were not expected to improve their grades by such
instructional techniques.
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Regarding class discussions, 67 percent of the teachers reported th at
they made conscious effort to include all kinds of students in this learning
activity.
76 to 100 percent of respondents indicated that as part of their teaching
techniques:
1. Class instruction integrated biological science into other content
areas on a regular basis;
2. They provided learning experiences from many sources including
the physical, and social sciences, technology, etc.;
3. They stressed the application of science concepts rather than their
memorization;
4. They clarified details as necessary in discussions of the content of
instructional materials;
5. They scheduled laboratory activities so they related to classroom
consideration of the same topics;
6. Individual students or groups were asked to do laboratory work to
investigate problems or questions that arose from class discussions;
7. Students were allowed to conduct safe classroom demonstrations;
8. They selected appropriate homework exercises and assigned them
on a regular basis;
9. Tests, quizzes, and examinations related to the course objectives;
10. Students were required to use resources other than the textbook
and class lectures and discussions;
11. They provided adequate wait-time for students responses as part of
their questioning techniques;
12. They gave laboratory practicals as part of students evaluations, and
laboratory work made up a percentage of their grade;
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13. They used a variety of methods to check for understanding before
administering a formal evaluation;
14. They included essay questions on test examinations;
15. They guided students' thinking by such techniques as clarifying and
/or posing other related questions;
16. Students were encouraged to initiate comments and questions
during class discussions;
17. They demonstrated required laboratory techniques and gave explicit
directions, especially as related to safety;
18. They often employed open-ended, thought-provoking questions.
CLASSROOM OBSERVATIONS
Classroom interactions between teacher and students during six
different lessons were captured on a videotape. The interactions partly
provided the data on the instructional techniques used by biology teachers
in Imo state of Nigeria.
The analysis of instructional techniques was conducted, using an
observation instrument developed by Fischler and Zimmer (1967/1968). The
instrument categorized instructional techniques into different behaviors. The
behavior which occurred in each minute during the entire class period was
noted. The percentages of the time per lesson allocated to the different ins
tructional behavioral techniques were then calculated. Table 4 presents the
percentage of the time devoted to specific techniques during each lesson
period.
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TABLE 4.7
Percentages of the time per lesson allocated to the
different instructional techniques (N = 6 classes)
Technique
Class
No.1
Class
No.2
Class
No*
Class
No. 4
Class
NoJ
Class
No.B
1.Teacher talk • Giving Instructions S.9 6.1 3.7 3.6 0 6.1
• Lecturing 33.3 6.1 51.9 67.9 40.6 69.7
• Summing up 0 9.1 3.7 0 3.1 0
• Explaining and clarifying 7.8 9.1 0 0 0 0
2.Teacher and
students' talk • Teacher's initiated questions
• Students initiated questions
3.3
19.06
42.4
0
40.7
0
17.9
0
325
0
24.2
0
• Discussion 0 0 0 0 0 0
3. Teacher's other
activities
• Demonstrating, using
Audio-visuals.
0 18.2 0 10.7 18.6 0
• Helping students individually. 0 0 0 0 0 0
4. Students'activities
• Student demonstrates to class
(reads a report, solves poblem
on the board, etc.)
0 0 0 0 0 0
• Individual or small groups
work.
0 9.1 0 0 0 0
Total time allocated to all instruction 210 min.
Total time actually used for all instruction 204 min.
Total time unaccounted for 36 min.
In all the 6 classes, but one, the teachers stood at the front of the
room and talked while students listened and took notes. In addition to
lectures, the teachers occasionally made use of a lecturqfrecitation method in
their teaching. Teacher talk and teacher questions were the predominant
behavior throughout the entire period of each class. The teachers spent 33.3%
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to about 70% of the class period lecturing; only one teacher spent a lesser
amount of time (6.1%) in this instructional behavior. With the exception of
one teacher who never issued instructions at the beginning of the class, the
rest devoted 3.7% to 6.1% of the class time giving instructions. Three of the
teachers took 9.1%, 3.7% and 3.1% to sum up their lectures, the other three
never summarized their lesson topics. Two teachers utilized 7.8% and 9.1%
to explain or clarify terms or concepts students did not understand but no
such behavior occurred in the other four classes.
Both teacher and student talk consisted mainly in the teacher asking
questions to students or encouraging them to ask questions which the teacher
himself always answered. Most of these questions were knowledge or recall
questions such as supplying a term or word, naming an event, object or
e x p la in in g a process or phenomenon. The time devoted to teacher-initiated
questions ranged from about 18% to about 43%. In one class, students
initiated questions that occupied 20% of the class period; students in other
classes did not initiate questions.
There were no discussions, no teachers' helping of students
individually. Teacher demonstrations that occurred were in three classrooms,
and these occupied 18.2%, 10.7%, and 18.6% of the class period. Apart from
small groups work in one class that occupied 9.% of the time to identify the
bones of the vertebral column, there were no students' activity such as
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student demonstrations to class (e.g. reading a report, solving problems on
the board, e.t.c.).
As regards laboratory activities, none was in evidence. In one class, the
teacher told the students toward the end of her lecture on reproduction that
they were supposed to perform an experiment on budding, but the
experiment would not be performed due to time constraints. Instead, she
procedurally described how, with a pre-assembled set of apparatus and
baker's yeast on her desk, the students would go about conducting that
experiment and the type of results that would be expected. Apparently, even
though time was provided for laboratory experimentation, the period was not
utilized to the fullest.
TEACHER INTERVIEWS
Initially, the researcher intended to interview 20 biology teachers, but
after he repeatedly continued to get the same kind of report from successive
interviews, he decided to stop at the tenth interview.
The interviews were conducted, using a list of prepared questions
(See Appendix C) as guidelines. Findings from these interviews contributed
contributed, in a supplemental way, toward identifying the practiced state of
biological science education in Imo State public high schools. Substantial
amounts of testimony and evidence were gathered during these interviews to
grasp fully the impressions, convictions and opinions of these teachers.
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Pertinent data were gleaned from the information generated and relevant
findings have been presented in this document. To illustrate, affirm, and
substantiate assertions and judgments made, direct quotations and personal
antidotes from the biology teachers have been included. These provided
straight-forward evidence to support the findings. Some of the excerpts were
edited for gross grammatical errors, but otherwise none of them was
paraphrased or changed in any way.
Eight of the 10 teachers interviewed reported that the aspect of
biological science that they gave priority to in their teaching were the
processes, methods and skills of scientific inquiry. However, two of the
teachers said that teaching students scientific information such as concepts,
laws, theories, and definitions was the aspect of science that they emphasized
in their class work.
I emphasize the inquiry method. I try to help students to find
out or discover for themselves scientific facts about living
things. This process of inquiry is always included in their
scheme of work.
I emphasize the inquiry method, that is, the discovery method,
exciting the students to find out facts by themselves and more
so, by using local materials that interest them in biological
science.
I stress the discovery method whereby students do
observations, conduct experiments to find out facts for
themselves and draw conclusions.
I emphasize the experimental aspect because I want the
students to know how science works. The theoretical and the
philosophical aspects are given lesser emphasis.
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I emphasize the discovery method. We want students to be
able to conduct inquiries and find out scientific facts by
themselves.
I lay more emphasis on scientific information such as
definitions, concepts, laws and theories that govern science.
I emphasize mostly the theoretical aspect, though we have
time to do practicals a few times just before the students do
their final exams.
The lecture method, the "show-and-tell" method, the didactic method
whereby the teacher is the primary thinker, experimenter and main actor
telling the students what the problem and its solutions are, was strongly in
evidence. Seven of the teachers indicated that they used mainly a lecture
format, occasionally varying it by incorporating discussions, demonstrations,
and hands-on activities into the classroom activities. They stated that they
used questions to check students' understanding of the content of the lesson.
However, the other three teachers reported that they used a multi
approach in their teaching techniques because, according to them, lecture-
only method of teaching would not help their students to deeply understand
any lesson topic under study. One teacher with 15 years of teaching
experience had this to say:
It [my teaching style] consists mainly of the lecture method;
I give lectures while students listen and take notes. After
lectures, I ask questions. If it is a practical lesson, the
students are involved in doing more ofthe work that I am; I
merely supervise the students'work. If it is a lesson that
requires conceptual knowledge, I do most of the talking in
order to explain the concepts.
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Another teacher with 17 years of teaching experience reported:
Whenever I enter the classroom I first of all ask the students
questions on the previous lesson in order to arouse their
interest and get them ready for the lesson to be taught. Then
I introduce the lesson in all its aspects. . . I ask them
questions as the lesson proceeds and explain whatever they
say they have not understood. At the end of the class, I
summarize the lesson. W e do not have group discussions; it is
mostly lectures and questions. If the topic involves doing
laboratory work as well, I then guide the students to do the
practical work. Sometimes, I perform the experiment myself
while the students just watch. If it [ the laboratory
experiment ] is expected to be performed by the students
themselves, I let them do it and afterwards, give report of
that experiment.
One other teacher who has been teaching biology for seven years
indicated:
Besides lectures, I also involve the students in discussions so
that they may understand the topics better. From discussions
you are able to know whether or not they understand what
you are teaching. If they don't, you correct their
misunderstanding and, if need be, go back to explain what
they did not previously understand.
Another teacher with 7 years of teaching experience said:
Most of the time, I use the lecture method. During lectures
the students ask questions and I answer them. At the end of
the lectures, I normally give them assignments to do.
Three other teachers with 5, 8, and 11 years of experience in
the field had this to say respectively:
We rely much on the lecture method. After each lecture, you
ask questions to students to determine whether they
understood the topic that has just been covered.
. . . I try as much as possible to make my class lessons
practical. I do demonstrations and involve the students in
discussions. I try not to lecture all the time; that may not
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help the students much to understand the topics. I involve
them in the practicals as much as possible.
. . . I use an integral approach method in my teaching
strategy- demonstrations, discussions, lectures, and so on.
Most of the students nowadays do not have good textbooks,
and if I use the lecture method only, you will find out they
will not gain much from lecture-only method of teaching.
All the ten teachers interviewed believed that students' actual learning
experiences should occur in totally integrated contexts. They said that
integration of biology with other sciences would encourage connections
between biology and the other sciences and lead to less fragmentation of the
disciplines. According to their reports, they believed that reinforcing biology
concepts in alternate contexts would give them more meaning and coherently
strengthen students' understanding of those concepts.
. . . If 1 am teaching the students about blood circulation, for
example, we will discover that in the formation of blood, there
are certain components that are chemical. So, I have to let
them know about these chemical components; I may have to
put down the chemical equation of these components. . . I try
as much as possible, depending on the nature of the topic
being treated, to draw from other science disciplines so that
students may have a better grasp of the topic being studied.
Biology has much in common with other science disciplines;
many concepts in biology do appear in other science subjects.
In biology, we come across such concepts as the laws of
thermodynamics, a concept that is found in physics too. Also
some of the topics in biology have chemistry background, for
example, chemical elem ents in plants, osmosis, diffusion,
soil fertility, and so on All these are found in chemistry. So
we bring in chemistry as much as possible to help explain
biology and we strongly advise students to take chemistry
courses along with those of biology.
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. . . As the classroom activity progresses, I make frequent
references to other science disciplines when appropriate; I use
other sciences to give more illustrations. For example, when
I was teaching students photosynthesis, I had to write down
on the board the chemical equation and balance it, thereby,
connecting this topic to their knowledge of chemistry. The
nature of the topic determines when it is appropriate to make
connections to other science subjects.
By way of counseling, I tell the students to be very attentive
in their other science courses, for example, agricultural
science, chemistry, physics, and mathematics. I make reference
to physics and chemistry in our biology class. The
development of science of genetics started in agriculture. Some
of the concepts in agriculture, for example, planting, animal
breeding, plant grafting touch on genetics and these concepts
do feature in biology courses as well.
The sciences are not independent of each other. There are
some aspects of biology that touches on physics, for example.
And so, when we teach, biology, those topics that are akin to
physics are touched . . . We co-opt the two areas of physics
and biology, for example, motion; we have [the concept]
motion both in biology and physics.
It depends on the nature of the topic of the lesson that is
being presented in the classroom. If I am dealing with a topic
in biology that has some reference in agricultural science,
chemistry, or physics, I link up the ideas so that students can
understand how their knowledge in chemistry, for example,
does relate to and help their knowledge of biology. In other
words, I do not teach biology in exclusion of other subjects,
but in connection with them.
The teachers described how they used their biology classes to provide
educational opportunities for students to understand societal issues and
technological outcomes as they relate to everyday experiences and social
problems. All the teachers explained how they provided their students with
learning experiences that are culturally relevant by using local resources and
addressing relevant social problems such as population control, food
production, superstitious beliefs, chemical additives, and many more.
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Students are made to understand how biology has helped
society very much especially in the area of food production.
Fertilizers are applied to agricultural plants and crops to
increase their yield; insecticides are used these days to kill
pests that attack and destroy food crops. Students are
encouraged to use fertilizers and pesticides in their own farms
at home. We also come across such cultural and superstitious
beliefs as re-incarnation. Biology dispels such superstitious
beliefs through our study of genetics. We also address such
social issues as AIDS, sexually transmitted diseases, and
unwanted pregnancies. We discuss these issues in class so
that students may know how they come about and take
precautions to avoid them.
We let students bring in and observe those specimens we talk
about in biology. When we study ecology, we take the students
out into the field to observe the different organisms both
plants and animals inhabiting a particular area. By bringing
them closer to these familiar organisms and specimens, we
thus make biology more meaningful for them . . . Also, we
discuss race factor, such cultural beliefs surrounding pre
mature deaths due to sickle-cell anaemia, and re
incarnation. We use biology to give scientific explanation to
all these superstitious beliefs. Drugs are a social problem in
our country; we talk about them too.
. . . We discuss, for example, intimate relationships between
the opposite sex, how relationships that are sexual especially
among teenagers could be a problem - resulting in unwanted
pregnancies and contraction of venereal diseases. Their
knowledge of reproduction in humans could help them avoid
some of these problems.
We make use of local resources and that why our emphasis
these days is on making use of these resources, materials that
are within reach, we no longer use materials that are foreign.
By so doing, they are relating what they are learning to
immediate environment. And often times, we organize science
week thereby, bringing in people from other discipline areas
to learn about what we are doing in biology, we bring in
social aspects of biology into such exhibitions....We integrate
population studies into biology topics without any bias,
without evoking any religious bias.
. . . We use biology to address such social issues as Aids,
drugs, population growth problems, eta We did much of this
in the junior secondary school integrated science courses.
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. . . A part of our biology program emphasize agriculture. I
bring biology home to the students by letting them see how
biology has improved the old cultural method of agriculture.
In this way, they are able to compare the old method of
agriculture with the modem method as now practiced in
advanced countries. Also, when we are studying genetics, I
normally bring in such cultural beliefs as re -incarnation. I let
them understand there is nothing like reincarnation, that it
is a question of recessive genes coming back that makes
someone resemble the dead parents or grandparents or great
grandparents. Of course in our cultural and superstitious
beliefs such resemblances are ignorantly attributed to re
incarnation, So, I try to let them understand that there is no
such a thing as re-incarnation; it is just a natural re
occurrence in genetics.
Eight besides paper and pencil tests. They claimed that their evaluations
related to the course objectives and involved multi of the 10 teachers
interviewed said that they used a variety of methods and ways to asses their
students faceted tasks. One teacher indicated that he adopted an ongoing
assessment method that began by determining the information and skills
students brought to the class and continued with documentation of their
progress throughout the course. Another teacher reported that she used
mainly paper-and-pencil tests to evaluate her students.
We give tests, quizzes, and laboratory practicals. Students'
laboratory work akes up 70 percent of the grade points while
theory 30 percent; we follow the evaluation pattern
recommended by the West African Examinations Council
(WAEC) by placing more emphasis on practicals.
I adopt various ways. Students earn some points when they
collect materials or specimens we need in the classroom for
learning purposes. Class participation, group projects,
attendance itself, and provision of materials, all these earn
credits for students. Of course, the students do written exams
or tests.
I ask them questions in class, give them assignments to do.
Sometimes I give them individual or group science projects to
do at home. In that way they are able to find certain facts on
their own and then come back to the class and give a report
of their findings. In the laboratory, I sometimes make the
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equipment and apparatus available to them and then ask the
to set up experiments on their own. By so doing, I am able to
ascertain what they can do on their own.
I evaluate them in the course of my lectures by asking them
questions. I give them assignments to do at home and return
to me the next day or so. These assignments are then graded.
I also evaluate the students by giving them classwork to do
and submit for grading. I do sometimes give them science
projects to do at home. I ask them to record their observations
and come back prepared to report their findings to the class.
These projects are also graded.
I use different ways to evaluate the students.I give them
exams to do, class tests, written or oral, and laboratory work.
Sometimes I give students projects to do and they earn credits
according to their performance in all these tasks.
One teacher who was a graduate of an American
university and has been teaching biology for ten years had this
to say:
I give class tests and quizzes from time to time. It [our
evaluation procedure] is not like the American system of
evaluation where a teacher could come in any time and give
students 10 minutes of quiz. In our program here, we have 2
tests and then an exam in each term. Before these tests,
however, I always give these little quizzes in class. I like this
method and I have always applied it in all the schools I ever
taught. I copied this method from the American System; I
studied there. Other teachers just give those two tests and
one exam in each term. I also take into account their
participation in class and their class assignments. Laboratory
work also makes up a certain percentage of their grade. When
we start laboratory practicals we do not have students
do independent or group projects. What we do in place of this
is to put them in groups during practicals and give them
assignments. This does not, however, involve much of
research.
Another teacher who has been teaching for three years stated:
I use mainly written exams in my evaluation; I don't use
practicals or any other ways to evaluate them.
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All the teachers regrettably indicated th at laboratory activities would
not be able to occupy their appropriate place in the curriculum until time
was created to accommodate them. They said th a t the time required by the
administration to engage students in science laboratory activities was only
for a double period of 80 minutes in a week, for most schools. Sometimes lack
of laboratory equipment or access to the laboratory key, according to one
teacher, discourage is used of laboratory work with his students. One teacher
pointed out that, in their own school, all laboratory activities are conducted
at the last term of the school year.
[We do laboratory work] basically once a week for about two
hours. Sometimes, there is a little extra time for the students
to do some laboratory work on their own. We should have
three classes of laboratory work but this does not happen
because the [educational] system we are operating makes this
impossible. Biology is not being given many periods a week
because of so many other things going on in the system.
. . . Biology has four periods in a week; theory has two and
practicals a double period of eighty minutes. The problem we
have with regard to this is allocation of time. Within those 80
minutes you cannot do much.
Because of the nature of our system here, we are only able to
do lab work for a period of 60 minutes once a week.
We do a lab work for a double period of 80 minutes each
week.
Hie school time-table says we should do a laboratory work of
40 minutes three times a week. This does not always happen;
we do not always have access to the laboratory key which is
always kept in the principal's office. Sometimes the principal
does not come to school. . . So, our not being able sometimes
to have access to the laboratory key militates against our
plans to have laboratory experiments as often as we would
like to.
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We have practical biology during one term in the year.
During that term, we have practicals for a double period of 80
minutes once a week.
Every biology teacher believed that organized field trips to traditional
museums of natural history, zoos, botanical gardens, and aquariums make
significant contributions to high school education in biology. They all but one
teacher indicated that experiences in natural areas are also part and parcel
of the investigative experiences strongly recommended in the biology program
but woefully regretted that they hardly went on field trips. The main reason
cited by the teachers for not embarking on such educational trips was lack
of funds to finance them.
This activity should be very regular, but owing to the financial
situation in the country and in the schools that are starved of
funds, we limit this exercise. We have really exhausted
visiting all the areas of interest around us here. We need to
visit other places outside of this area. This will certainly
involve hiring of buses, but because of the fact that we do not
have funds, we cannot go on those trips. We need to go on
those trips, particularly when we are teaching ecology.
We go on field trips but only to places that are nearby and
will not involve any spending of money. When such trips will
entail our travelling out, we do not go because we cannot
afford to finance far away trips.
Rarely [we do go]: once in a term. We are very slow about
this. For the three terms, we do go thrice. When we consider
the bad economic situation, lack of funds for the
transportation, and parents' difficulty in being able to
financially sponsor such field trips, we do not go as often as
we would like to.
Not very often [ do we go on field trips ]. This requires time
and money. To go on such trips to a zoo, for example, will cost
us much. We do not often go; we are handicapped by lack of
funds.
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Since this year, we have not been able to go on any field trips
because we cannot afford to do so; we are financially
handicapped. Because the school or parents are unable to
sponsor such trips, we just don't go. Again, going on field trips
may take up the whole day or two and thus, interfere with
students' other classes. Other teachers may raise objections
because of such interference. We need to let non-science
teachers understand the importance of such trips. I believe
that the school authorities, in conjunction with science
teachers, should make non-science teachers understand the
value and importance of field trips to science students.
We don't normally go on field trips; it is only the agricultural
science teachers and their students that go.
We have never gone on a field trip. We don't talk about it
here. I think they should embark on such trips in higher
institutions and not in secondary schools.
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INSTRUCTIONAL SUPPORT
INSTRUCTIONAL SUPPORT IN THE FORMAL AMERICAN
BIOLOGY CURRICULUM
What is the nature of instructional support as portrayed in the formal
American biology curriculum?
According to NRC (1996), an effective science program requires an
adequate support system, including resources of people, time, materials and
finance, opportunities for staff development, and leadership that works
toward the goals of the program. The school system must support classroom
teachers in teaching science.
Students must have access to skilled biology teachers. Biology teachers
must be prepared to teach biology to students with diverse strengths, needs,
experiences, and approaches to learning. Teachers must know the content
they will teach, understand the nature of learning, and use the range of
teaching strategies for biology (NRC, 1996, 1990; Science Framework, 1990).
Biology and other sciences must be allocated sufficient time in the
school program every day, every week, and every year. The content standards
define scientific literacy; the amount of time require to achieve scientific
literacy for all students depends on the particular program. The time devoted
to science education must be allocated to meet the needs of an inquiry-based
science program. No matter what the scheduling model is a school schedule
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needs to provide sufficient and flexible use of time to accommodate the needs
of the students and what is being learned. In addition to time with students
and with collegues, teachers of science also spend considerable time preparing
materials, setting up activities, creating the lea rn in g environment, and
organizing students’ experiences. This time must be built into the daily
teaching schedule (NRC, 1996, 1990).
Conducting biological scientific inquiry requires th at students have
easy, equal, and frequent opportunities to use a wide range of equipment,
materials, supplies, and other resources for experimentation and direct
investigation of phenomena. (NRC, 1996, 1990; Science Framework, 1990).
All biology programs should incorporate educational technology in ways that
are appropriate to biological inquiry, adequate to program requirements, and
that accommodate diverse learn in g styles (BSCS, 1993; Science Framework,
1990). Educational technology helps students acquire information, use
knowledge to make informed decisions, and access the vast amount of
scientific information available in primary and popular literature (BSCS,
1993; NRC, 1996; Science Framework, 1990).
For inquiry-based teaching to become a reality, adequate laboratory
facilities accessible to both teacher and students are necessary (AAAS, 1989;
NERC, 1996; NSTA, 1991). In addition, school systems need to develop
mechanisms to identify exemplary instructional materials, store and maintain
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them, and make them accessible to teachers in a timely fashion (BSCS, 1993;
NRC, 1996, 1990; Science Framework, 1990).
Reading should be an integral part of any students’ education in the
life sciences. Textbooks are important vehicles for the presentation of
biological concepts to students and should be designed to help students
succeed in a biology program (BSCS, 1993).
All biology programs should use textbooks in ways that complement
the active involvement of students and that support the development of
structural and multidimensional levels of biological literacy. School systems
must provide textbooks to students (BSCS, 1993; NRC, 1990).
An effective infrastructure for material support should be part of any
science program. Optimal school facilities for biology will provide flexibility
to accommodate large-and small-group instruction, laboratory activities,
outdoor experiences, demonstrations, audiovisual presentations, activities
enhanced by educational technology, seminars, and individual or small-group
projects. All spaces where students do inquiry must meet appropriate safety
standards (NRC, 1996; Science Framework, 1990). In addition to what is
regularly maintained in the school and district, every teacher of biology and
other sciences needs an appropriate and accessible budget for materials and
equipment as well as for anticipated expenses that arise as students and
teachers pursue their work (NRC, 1996).
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Good biology programs require access to the world beyond the
classroom. District and school leaders must allocate finacial support to
provide opportunities for students to investigate the world outside the
classroom. This may mean budgeting for trips to nearby points of interest,
such as a river, archeological site, or nature preserve; it could include
contracting with local science centers, museums, zoos, and horticultural
centers for visits and programs. Relationships should be developed with local
businesses and industry to allow students and teachers access to people and
institutions. Students must be given access to scientists and other
professionals in higher education and the medical establishment to gain
access to their expertise and the laboratory settings in which they work
(NRC, 1996; Science Framework, 1990).
Teachers are expected to teach a full load, at least hundred students
and twenty-five class periods per week. Usually class size should be twenty-
five students. For every students over the guidelines, teachers should be
given a stipend (NRC, 1989).
INSTRUCTIONAL SUPPORT IN IM O STATE BIOLOGY PROGRAM
What is the nature of instructional support in Imo State
high school biology curriculum?
Schools are poorly equipped and there is an acute shortage of labora
tory facilities and interactive educational technologies in the program.
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The survey shows th at only 31 percent of the teachers reported that
teaching materials were available to help students to independently master
specific skills and content. In addition, only 23 percent indicated that
equipment and materials for laboratory experiments and individual student
projects were adequate and available when needed. Twenty nine percent
reported that the school or departmental library included an adequate
selection of books, periodicals, and pamphlets on biological science and its
relationship to technology and society. Thirty seven percent of the
respondents indicated that they were involved in selecting and purchasing
instructional equipment and materials for use in the biological science
department. The survey also revealed that 78.7 percent to 96 percent of the
teachers disagreed with the assumptions t h a t :
1. Up-to-date textbooks and laboratory manuals were provided for each
student;
2. Supplementary books, reference books and other printed materials
representing a considerable range of sophistication and diversity of
student interest were provided;
3. Students had classroom/laboratory access to a computer and
appropriate software to support program objectives;
4. Educational technologies such as filmloops, transparencies,
filmstrips, motion pictures, and their projectors were available an
attainable when needed;
5. Videocassettes, recorders, videodiscs, and monitors were available
in the biology areas when needed;
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6. Catalogues of science equipment and supplies were readily available
to biology teachers.
In the ten schools visited all teachers reported that they received little
or no instructional support from the government. They decried the serious
lack of school supplies, laboratory equipment and other teaching materials.
This deficiency in laboratory facilities, textbooks and educational technologies,
according the interviewees, has negatively affected their teaching
performance and intended learning outcomes.
We have some models, preserved specimens, charts and
drawings, projectors and filmstrips. At times we invite a film
industry in town to come in and show us some films of some
biological interest. We do not have motion pictures, computers,
videocassettes, and all other teaching equipment.
As a teacher, I am supposed to have a variety of teaching
materials, but I do not have enough. I use a few materials
such as textbooks, life-objects, pictures, and charts. The school
cannot afford to buy some of the materials needed.
With the exception of a couple of textbooks, I do not have
other needed teaching materials -computers, video-cassettes,
projectors, motion pictures, and the like.
We only have a few textbooks and microscopes and that is
practically all that we have. We don't have motion pictures,
videocassettes, projectors and computers. I do not think any
of the students has seen any computers in any secondary
school in the State.
[We have] just textbooks and charts to illustrate the lesson
topics that I am teaching. We don't have any projectors,
filmloops, videocassettes, motion pictures, transparencies, and
so forth.
During the interview teachers were asked to make some
recommendations to help improve the biological science program. In their
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responses, the teachers profusely expressed their frustration and
dissatisfaction with the educational system. They vented their anger against
the government for the woeful status of biology and other science programs
in the State. The cause of their dissatisfaction and desperation ranged from
lack of financial incentives to science teachers, manpower, laboratory
equipment, supplies, teaching materials, including interactive technologies
and science libraries to overcrowded classrooms, inadequate f unding and
incessant teacher strikes provoked by government's failure to live up to its
obligations to teachers.
. . . Biology exams are now very difficult to pass these days;
more students are failing biology courses than ever before.
The number of students in the school system is overwhel-
ming.In this school, for example, we have four classes: Senior
Secondary School A,B,C, and D. Each class is comprised of
more tan forty students. This number is too much. Each
classroom is meant for 25 to 30 students, or at most, just over
30. Students hang around the classroom during classes
because the whole classroom is filled up. Some stand outside
by the windows listening to lectures and taking notes. We
have a lot of breaks-strikes- in our school system. These
strikes leave us insufficient amount of time to cover the
materials to be learnt.
We do not have enough staff. Could you imagine only one
teacher handling all these four classes? This is too much work
load; we need more manpower because we are under-staffed.
The teaching equipments and materials we are now using are
obsolete. They are still the ones we had right from the start.
You know, science is a living discipline; there are new
discoveries and innovations in scientific fields. There hasn't
been any allocations of supplies, equipment, and instructional
materials for long.
Science teachers want incentives. Formerly, when I newly got
into the teaching career, the government used to give science
teachers some allowance. Now teachers are not receiving any
allowance. The government has asked us to bring the list of
science teachers and promised to be giving us an allowance of
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about $ 25.00. However, they have not yet started giving us
anything. Science teachers are not happy; they are not being
motivated to teach and that is why some are leaving the
profession; they have no more job satisfaction.
The government should provide us with instructional
materials. The textbooks we are using now are too old, written
many years ago. Science is dynamic; there are so many new
things that have come out and they are not presented in
those old textbooks. We need scientific pamphlets and
magazines, those that are very current so that we can teach
what is current in the field and not what happened many
years ago. We equally need filmloops, projectors, computers,
videocassettes and other interactive educational technologies.
There is a shortage of science teachers; we need more
manpower. In this school there are only two of us teaching
biology; we are overworked. There are no incentives being
given to science teachers, and consequently some of the few
science teachers we have are quitting the teaching profession.
That is why some schools have no science teachers; there is no
financial incentive to motivate science teachers to stay in the
profession. Only those of us who have not yet got other
alternatives are still in the teaching job.
Biology teachers and, in fact, all science teachers need to be
motivated to teach. Teaching science demands more time on
the part of the teachers. Science teachers need more time to
do some research, update their knowledge in their respective
fields because, as you know, science is dynamic. The
government is not encouraging them by way of giving them
some financial incentives. We need to be receiving science
teachers allowance; this allowance used to be given to us in
the past, but now the government has phased it out. Science
teachers are treated just like other teachers in the system;
they are not being motivated to remain in the system.
We do not have good textbooks. All you find these days are
pieces of clippings and these are not in any way helpful to the
students; the information they contain is shallow and brief;
some of the information are not very scientifically accurate.
They do not offer the basis for the students to appreciate the
science of biology.
The needed teaching materials are not being provided by the
government. There is a limit to which you can go with the use
of local resources; there are teaching materials that cannot be
provided locally. Government should do something to provide
these much-needed materials. There are no science libraries,
no journals and articles for teachers to enrich their knowledge.
For any teacher to enrich his scientific knowledge, he has to
look for science journals, magazines, and articles elsewhere.
The government should provide adequate science equipments;
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our laboratories are ill-equipped...The lack of teaching
materials and laboratory equipment is negatively telling on
the performance of the students. The teaching of science
subjects should be made fascinating and challenging enough
for those who have the flair to pursue science further in
higher institutions of learning.
The government should motivate science teachers by giving
them some financial incentives. This will encourage them to
do a better job at teaching science.
The government should provide good science library in the
schools so that students who cannot afford to buy textbooks
may use the library to do their reading.
The government should provide teaching equipment and
materials. This will help to make the teaching of science
easier for teachers and fascinating for the students.
We therefore need filmstrips, projectors, videocassettes,
filmloops, transparencies, etc.
The government should equip the science laboratories
adequately. It should come to the schools from time to time
to make a routine check of the laboratory equipment so as to
find out which ones are lacking.
We don't have enough manpower specialists in the field of
biology and other fields too. Often times, teachers in the other
fields are called in to help us out. The government should try
to recruit more science teachers. We do not have permanent
science teachers.
The government should provide enough biology teachers. If we
have enough teachers, I think the teaching of biology will be
much better. The few teachers we have are overworked. For
example, I teach SSS2 [Senior Secondary School, second year]
biology and JSS3 [Junior Secondary School, third year ]
integrated science. The work load is too much for me. There
should be at least one teacher for each class; this will make
the work easier.
The authorities should demand that the students buy their
own textbooks. If they are made to see the need, they will
have to buy them.
The government should give some allowance to science
teachers. This will motivate them to put more effort in their
teaching job.
We need more personnel in this field of study. In many
schools you may have only one biology specialist teaching
SSS1 to SSS3. One teacher cannot do much with the students,
given the so many classes he/she has to teach.
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Teaching materials are lacking. There are no textbooks even
for the children to use. The few that are out there in the
market are very costly. Hie government should supply enough
equipment and teaching materials -textbooks, charts,
videocassettes, magazines, projectors, recorders, slides,
microscopes, etc.
The laboratories are virtually empty; most often there are
really no laboratories. Sometimes we need to go out on
excursions or field trips to see things for ourselves. The money
to fund such outings is not there and we are not allowed to
levy the students to pay for such trips. Most often the
teachers are frustrated. There is lack of sufficient time to
cover the materials in the syllabus before exams. We always
find ourselves in a rush to complete the course work before
examination time.
Experts should come in from time to time to teach certain
topics such as genetics and ecology and there should be
organized seminars on certain science topics for science
teachers.
126
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ELEMENTS OF BIOLOGICAL LITERACY
What discrepancies exist between the elements of biological literacy in
the two curricula?
Table 4.8
A comparison of elements of biological literacy in the two curricula
THE AMERICAN BIOLOOT
CURRICULUM
THE NIGERIAN BIOLOGY
CURRICULUM
la EVOLUTION: PATTERNS OP CHANGE
(Living Systems Change Through Time)
The Dynamic Earth
• Scales of Time
Forces of Evolutionary Change
• Genetic Variation
• Natural Selection
■ Gene Flow/Genetic Drift
• Nonrandom Mating
• Artificial Selection
• Domesticated plants, animals, & microbes
• Advances in biotechnology
Patterns of Evolution
• Historical Background
• Cultural vs. Biological evolution
• Microevolution
• Macroevolution
• Gradualism/punctuated equilibria
Extinction
Conservation Biology
• Renewable & Nonrenewable Resources
Population Genetics
• Gene Pool/Gene Frequency
• Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
lb BIOLOGY AND LIVING THINGS
• Biology as inquiry
• Living things and Non-living things
• Organization of Life
• Major sources and forms of energy.
2. NUTRITION
Plant nutrition
• Photosynthesis
• Mineral requirement of plants
• The nitrogen cycle
Animal nutrition
• Food substances-sources
• The concept of a balance diet
• Food tests
• Digestive enzymes
• Modes of nutrition
3. RELEVANCE OF BIOLOGY TO
AGRICULTURE
• Classification of plants
• Effects of agricultural activities on
ecological systems.
• Pests and diseases of agricultural
importance.
• Food production and shortage
• Population growth and foo supply.
4. BASIC ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS
• Ecosystems-components and sizes
• Local biotic communities or biomes
• Major biomes of the world
• Population studies by sampling method
• Ecological factors
• Relationship between soil-types and
water holding effect of soil on vegetation
• Simple measurement of ecological factors
127
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Table 4.8 (Continued)
lb EVO LUTIO N: PRODUCTS OF CHANGE 6. FUNCTIONING ECOSYSTEM
(Evolution Has Produced a Diversity of living
Systems on Earth) • Autotrophs and heterotrophs
• Trophic levels Energy flow
Origin of Life • Energy transformation in nature
• Characteristics of Living Systems • Energy loss in the ecosystem
• Fossils • Laws of thermodynamics
• Nutrient cycling in nature
Specialization & Adaptation • The carbon cycle
Species & Spedation • The water cycle
• Isolating Mechanisms • Decomposition in nature
• Adaptive Radiation 6. ECO LOG ICAL M AN AG M ENT
• Human Evolution • Association
• Diversity of people & cultures • Typos of associations
• Features of biological importance
Phylogenetic Classification possessed by members of an association
• Homologous & Analogous Structures • Tolerance
• Adaptation
Biodiversity • Adaptation in form and function of living
• Procaryotes organisms due to environmental
• Eucaryotes conditions
• Protista • Effects of availability of water on
• Fungi adaptive modifications
• Plants • Pollution
• Animals • Pollution of the atmosphere
Biogeography • Pollution of water
• Conservation of natural resources
2. INTERACTION AND INTERDEPENDENCE 7 .M ICRO-ORGANI8M 8 AROUND US
(Living Syems Interact with Their Environment • Micro-organisms in air and water
and Are Interdependent with Other Systems) • Identification of micro-organisms
• Micro-organisms in our bodies and food
Environmental Factors • Carriers of micro-organisms
• Biotic & Abiotic Environmental Factors 8.M ICRO-ORGANISM 8 IN ACTION
• Adaptation • Growth of micro-organisms
• Limiting Factors • Beneficial effects
• Harmful effects of some microbes
Population Ecology 9.TO W A R D S BETTER HEALTH
• Population Attributes • Control of harmful micro-organisms
• Population Regulation Factors • Vectors
• Carrying Capacity • Pupils health
• Plant & Animal Populations 10.THE CELL
• Cell as a living unit
• Forms in which living cells exist
• Cell as part of a living organism
• Cell structure
128
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Table 4.8 (Continued)
Community Structure
11.THE CELL A N D ITS ENVIRONM ENT
• Diffusion
• Species Richness & Species Diversity • Osmosis
• Food Chains &Food Webs 12. SOME PROPERTIES AND FUNC
• Producers, consumers, and dicomposers
TIONS OF THE CELL
• Niche
Feeding definitions and types
• Interactions among Living Systems
• Cellular respiration
• PredatiorVparasitism
• Anabolisms-usefulness of food
• Mutualism/coe volution
• Autotrophs
• Competition • Heterotrophs
Ecosystems
• Role of enzymes
• Excretion
• Nutrient ft Water Cycles
• Growth
• Energy Flow
• Cell reactions to its environment
• Biomes • Movement
• Succesion 13.TISSUES AND SUPPORTIVE SYS
Biosphere
TEMS
3.GENETIC CONTINUITY AND
• Skeleton and supporting sytems in
animals
REPRODUCTION • Types of skeleton
(Living Systems are Related to Other Generations
• Bones of the vertebral column
by Genetic Material Passed on Through
• Different types of supporting tissues in
Reproduction. plants
The Gene
• Mechanisms of support
• Uses of fibres for the paint
• Historical Development of the Concept
• Functions of skeleton in animals
• Molecular Structure • Functions of supporting tissues in plants
DNA (The Genetic Material)
14.DIGESTTVE SYSTEM
Alimentary tracts
• Replication
• Feeding habits
• Mutations & Mutagens
• Feeding in protozoa,
Gene Action
• Hydra mammals
15.TRAN8PORT SYSTEM
Transcription
Need for transportation
RNA
• Transport system necessary in large
Translation
organisms
Gene Regulation
• Materials for transportation
Interaction of Genotype ft Environment
• Structure of arteries, veins, capilla- ties,
Patterns of Inheritance
vascular bundles
• Mendelian Genetics
• Media of transportation
• Dominance
• Mechanism of transportation in organisms
• Independent Assortment/Recombination
and plants
• NonMendelian Genetics
lejtESPERATORY SYSTEM
• Human Genetics
Typos of respiratory systems
Mechanism of respiratory system
17. EXCRETORY SYSTEM AND
MECHANISM
• Excretory system
• Excretory mechanism
129
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Table 4.8 (Continued)
• Reproduction 18. AQUATIC HABITAT
• Asexual Reproduction • Marine habitat
• Mitosis • Characteristics of marine habitat
• Sexual Reproduction • The major zones
• MeiosiVFertilization • Distribution of the organisms in the
• Reproductive Systems habitat
• Morphological • Estuarine habitat
• Physiological • Charateristies of estuarine habitat
• Human Reproduction • Types of estuary
• Reproductive cycle • Distribution of plants and animals in
• Contraception their habitat
• Prenatal development • Adaptive features of plants and animals
* Reproduction & biotechnology in estuarine habitat
• Freshwater Habitat
Molecular Genetica • Charateristics of freshwater habitat
Microbial/Viral • Types of freshwater
Eukaryotic • Adaptive features of freshwater
• Genetics & Biotechnology organisms
• Genetic Engineering 10. TERRESTRIAL HABITAT
• Human Genome Project • Marsh
• Gene Resources & Gene Banks • Charateristics of a marsh
* Formation of marshes
4. GROWTH DEVELOPMENT, AND • Types of marshes
DIFFERENTIATION • Plants and animals that live in marshes
(Living Systems Grow, Develop, and Differentiate • Adaptive features of these plants and
During Their Lifetimes.) animals
• Forest
Patterns of Growth • Charateristics of a forest
• Growth Rates • Strata in the forest
• Fluctuations in Growth Rates • Distribution of plants and animals that
• Limits in Growth inhabit a forest
• Adaptive features of plants and animals
Patterns of Development • Grassland
• Life Cycles • Charactristics of grassland
• Stages of Development • Types of grassland
• Plants • Distribution of plants and animals ina
> Animals grassland
• Some adaptations of grasslands comu-
nities
• Arid lands
• Characteristics of arid lands
• Types of arid lands
• Distribution of organisms in the habitat
• Some adaptations of organisms to arid
lands
130
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T able 4.8 (Continued)
Differentiation
20. ECOLOGY OF POPULATIONS
• Ecological succession
• Genetic Basis of Development • Primary succession
• Environmental Influences on Development • Secondary succession
• Morphogenesis • Population and population density
• Fundamental Forms • Factors tha may cause overcrowding
• Tissues & Organs • Effects of overcrowding
• Form & Function • Adaptations to avoid overcrowding
• Division of Labor • Food shortage
Morphological Adaptation • Causes of food shortage
6. ENERGY, MATTER AND ORGANIZATION
• Effects of food shortage on the size of a
population
(living Systems are Complex and Highly • Balance in nature
Organized & They Require Energy and Matter to • Factors affecting a population
Maintain this Organization) • Dynamic equilibrium or balance in
• Molecular Structure nature
• The Chemical & Physical Basis of Biology • Family planning
• Scales of size & proportion 21. REGULATION OF INTERNAL
• Oxidation-reduction reactions ENVIRONMENT
• Atomic Structure/Chemical Bonds • The kidney
• Hyerarchy of Organization • The liver
• Emergent Properties within Hierarchy • Hormones
• Carbon-based Macromolecules • The skin
• Cell^Cell Theory 22. NERVOUS COORDINATION
• Organelles • The central nervous system
Matter
• Peripheral nervous system
• Structure and function of a neurone
• Assimilation/Ingestion/Digestion • Reflex and voluntary actions
• Transport of Materials • Conditioned reflex
• Diffusioq/active transport 23. SENSE ORGANS
• Membranes • Sensation of the skin
• Digestive, Gas Exchange, & Circulatory Systems • Organ of smell
• Blood • Organ of taste
• Nutrients • Organ of sight
Energy & Metabolism • Organ of hearing
• Enzymes 24. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
• ATP & Energy Transformation • Reproductive system in fish, reptile,
• Autotrophs bird, and mammals
• Photosythesia • Reproductive system in plants
• Chemosynthesis 26. REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIORS
• Heterotrophs Courtship behavior in animals
• Aerobic respiration • Pollination in plants
• Anaerobic respiration
1 3 1
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Table 4.8 (Continued)
6. M AINTENANCE OF A DYNAM IC
EQUILIBRIUM
(Living Systems Maintain a Relatively Stable
Internal Environment)
• Detection of Environmental Stimuli
• Receptors
• Movement
• Effector^Muscular Systems
• Skeletal/Support Systems
• Homeostasis
• Feedback Mechanisms
• Nervous Systems
• Brain
• Endocrine Systems
• Hormones
• Temperature Regulation
• Water Balancee/Excretory System
Health & Disease
• Fitness
• Human Nutrition & Problems
• Immune System & Response
• Pathogens & response
• Human Diseases
• Medical & public health issues
• Biochemical technology
• Human Genetic Disorders
Behavior
• Tropisms
• Communication
• Animal Behavior
• Instinct
• Learning
• Human Behavior
• Determinants
• Drugs & their effects
26. DEVELOPM ENT OF NEW O R G A
NISM
• Stages in the development of a toad
• Metamorphosis in insects
• Progress of development of zygot
• Germination os seeds
• Essential factors which affect the
developing organism
• Adaptive features in a developing animal
• Definition of oviparity and viviparity
27. FRUITS
Structure of fruits
• Types of fruits
• Dispersal of seeds and fruits
28. VARIATIONS AND POPULATIONS
Morphological (variations in the physical
appearance) of individuals
• Physiological variations
• Applications of variations
29.BIOLOGY OF HEREDITY
(GENETICS)
• Transmission and expression of characters
in organisms
• Chromosomes the basis of heredity
Probability in genetics
• Applications of the principles of heredity
ADAPTATION FOR SURVIVAL
Competition
• Intra and inter species competition
• Relationship between competition and
succession
• Structural adaptation
• Adaptive colouration
• Behavioral adaptation
• Theories of evolution
• Modem evolutionary theories
30. BIOLOGY OF HEREDITY
(GENETICS)
• Transmission and expression of charac
ters in organisms
• Chromosomes the basis of heredity
• Probability in genetics
• Applications of the principles of heredity
132
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While the stated elements of biological literacy in the formal American
biology curriculum are organized under six unifying principles or themes,
those of Nigeria are organized under twenty topics. Topic is open- ended; It
allows a wide variety of content to be included under it. A long list of topics
m ight encourage retention of materials from the present overstuffed
curriculum. Themes, on the other hand, form the basic structure for the
study, teaching,and learning of the life sciences. They help to organize the
subject and point to patterns and processes of natural phenomena in the
living world, and they should play a central role in the design of any class,
text, or program of study. (BSCS, 1993; Science Framework, 1990).
INSTRUCTIONAL METHODOLOGY
What discrepancies exist between the instructional methodology in the
two curricula?
Table 4.9
A Comparison of the instructional methodology in the two curricula.
AMERICA IMO STATE
1. Instructors should move from a lecture only
format to a variety of learning and teaching
strategies.
2. Emphasis on thinking and problem-solving
skills including designing experiments, data
analysis, hypothesizing, and reporting.
3. There should be "hands-on* activities in
which students investigate a question in
biology using materials and equipment in a
laboratory or natural area._______________
Most biology teachers consistently used one
dominant teaching method, lecture,
(observation and interview).
Eigth of the ten biology teachers indicated
that they emphasized the process, methods
and skills of scientific inquiry in their
classrooms. (Interview). However, Only 7
percent to about 40 percent of the teachers
reported that they moderately or
frequently engaged students in these
processes, (survey)
Laboratory activities were not frequent
(interview) and there was none in any of
the classes, (observation)
133
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Table 4.9 (Continued)
4. Classroom instruction should emphasize real
life, personal career, and societal issues.
5. Students' experiences should be designed to
help them see the relationship between biology
and other sciences, mathematics, and
technology.
6. Instructor facilitates discussion of concepts
and ideas.
7. Cooperative learning strategies should be
incorporated into many of the activities.
8. Students should explain and relate concepts
to each other or the instructor; they should
include a variety of activities such as concept
mapping.
9. Field studies in managed ecosystems (such
as park) or natural habitat should involve the
students in authentic investigation of some
biological phenomena.
10. Integration of appropriate technologies,
such as videodiscs, computers or interfacing
laboratory computer equip-ment.
11. Assessment must be both relevant to the
instructional objectives and reflective of the
instructional process.
All biology teachers indicated that their
classroom activities addressed societal
issues and technological outcomes as they
related to everyday experience and social
problems, (interview and survey)
All the teachers reported that they
integrated biology with other sciences to
encourage connections among the sciences,
(interview) 96 percent of the teachers
indicated that they provided learning
experiences from many sources including
the physical, and social sciences, technology,
etc. (survey)
67 percent of the biology teachers reported
that they made a conscious effort to include
all kinds of students in class discussion,
(survey) However, there were no class
discussions in any of the classes,
(observation)
One class spent 9 percent of the class
period doing small groups work; there
were no such groups work in the other
classes, (observation)
A ll the biology teachers indicated that they
helped students to discover the deeper
meanings and applications of science
concepts rather than merely having
students memorize them, (survey)
A ll respondents reported that they hardly
went on Geld trips because of lack of funds
for buses, (interview)
96 percent of the teachers indicated that
their schools did not have interactive
technologies to help them enhance their
teaching practice, (survey) All teachers
reported that they do not have
educational technologies whatsoever,
(interview)
96 percent of respondents stated that tests
quizzes, and examinations in their classes
related to the course objectives, (survey)
Eight of the ten teachers indicated that
they employed a variety of assessment
methods; one teacher said that she used
only written examinations, (interview)
134
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Table 4.9 (Continued)
12. Biology courses have 275 minutes for
each week for block scheduling and 315
minutes per week for modular scheduling.
13. Class size limited to 24 students as the
ideal.
• Teachers all complained that they did not
have enough time to cover the course
content. Biology was allotted 160 minutes
per week, (interview)
• The researcher himself noted that all the
classes were overcrowded, (personal journal)
Some teachers complained that the work
load was too much for them to handle,
given the number of students to attend to.
All expressed the need for additional
manpower, (interview)
By and large, agreement existed between Imo State biology teachers’
perceptions of their teaching practices and reality. The pedagogical method
of scientific inquiry that includes observing, questioning, forming
hypotheses, predicting, experimenting, analyzing data, and relating ideas
and concepts to each other was not adequately employed by the teachers.
The survey results, findings from interviews and observations attest to this
fact.
The lecture method was the dominant teaching style of the biology
teachers. Classes were run like college lectures in which the teacher stood
in front of the class and talked while students listened and took notes.
Classroom activities were teacher-centered; student-centered activities such
as student demonstrations, group discussions, hands-on laboratory
experiments, and student presentations were not in evidence. Students
were equally not involved in field experiences or field trips.
135
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Integration of appropriate technologies such as videodiscs, computers
or interfacing laboratory equipment into the teaching strategy of biology
teachers was completely lacking; the needed technological equipment has
not been provided by the school system.
Instructional time proved to be a dilemma to most teachers. Lack of
sufficient time needed to cover the course content before the school year
ends is a major factor affecting biology instruction. The school administra
tion required that biology be allotted four class periods (160 minutes) per
week. Unfortunately, the instructional time is not fully utilized in most
instances.
INSTRUCTIONAL SUPPORT
What discrepancies exist between the instructional support in the
American curriculum and the instructional support in Imo State
biology program?
TABLE 4.10
A comparison of the instructional support in the two curricula.
AMERICAN CURRICULUM
1. There must be adequate and qualified
biology teachers to teach biology courses in the
program.
2. Sufficient amount of time must be allocated
to the teaching of biology to meet the needs of
such an inquiry-based science program.
IMO STATE CURRICULUM
1. There was a shortage of biology teachers.
This shortage, according to the teachers, has
been the main cause of failure in the biology
program, (interview)
2. All biology teachers reported that they had
never had enough time to cover the course
content before the school year was over.
Biology was alloted four periods a week (160
minutes), (interview)
136
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Table 4.10 (Continued)
3. Equipment, materials, supplies, and other
resources must be adequate and sufficient
enough for experimentation and direct
investigation of biological phenomena.
4. Educational technologies such as scientific
calculators, computers, videotapes, videodiscs,
transparencies should be available to teachers
and students to help enhance the teaching of
biology
6. All schools should have well equipped
laboratories and related facilities. Laboratories
should be accessible to both teachers and
students for inquiry-based learning activities.
6. Texbooks that are scientifically accurate,
current and helpful to students should be made
available to students. All biology programs
should use textbooks in ways that complement
the active involvement of students and that
support the development of structural and
multidimensional levels of biological literacy.
7. There should be an effective infra
structure for material support in any biology
program.
8. Sufficient fund should be allocated to help
provide opportunities for students to go on field
trips and to places of educational interest.
9. Biology teachers should be motivated and
encouraged in their teaching profession through
the offer of stipends when appropriate.
3. Twenty three percent of the teachers
reported that equipment, materials, and
supplies are inadequate, (survey)
All teachers decried the lack of supplies,
equipment, and materials needed for the
program, (interview)
4. Educational technologies such as filmloops,
transparencies, motion pictures, computers and
videodiscs were in acute shortage. All biology
teachers decried this deplorable situation,
(survey, interview, and personal journal)
5. Laboratories were poorly equipped (interview
and personal journal). Some teachers
complained that they and their students did
not have easy access to laboratories, (survey
and interview)
6. Some students had no texbooks. Some of the
textbooks that students were using were not
updated and could contain scientific errors.
And there were no science libraries(survey and
interview) .
7. Classrooms were overcrowded, (interview
and personal journal)
The laboratories have almost become bare
rooms and the infrastructure facilities have
deteriorated quite significantly, (personal
journal).
8. Biology teachers felt the educational
importance and need to go on field trips but
regretted that they hardly went because of lack
of funds for buses and related expenses,
(survey and interview)
9. Owing to lack of teaching personnel, the
student-teacher ratio was far much more than
that stipulated. Consequently, biology teachers
were overworked and unfortunately had not
been receiving any financial incentives for their
overwhelming work- load, (interview)
137
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Lack of instructional support in many areas contributed to the difficulty
in attaining the stated goals of biological science education in Imo State
public high schools. Deteriorating infrastructure in most schools.
Inadequate science facilities and lack of funds to purchase supplies, science
and technological equipment were major problems affecting biology
instruction. There were virtually no library resources and audio-visual
aids; up-to-date textbooks and laboratory equipment are inadequate.
Beside inadequate instructional materials, other unfavorable teaching
conditions were objects of complaint by the teachers. Classrooms, for
example, were overcrowded. Class size did not follow the established
guidelines for the ideal condition, that is, limiting the number of students
to about twenty five per class. Teachers indicated uneasiness and
consternation about the class size, given the shortage of teaching personnel.
Large classes, according to them, hinder the scope, number and types of
laboratory activities.
Lack of incentives to biology and other science teachers had resulted in
a high rate of attrition of science teachers in the school system.
138
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FORMAL CURRICULUM AND OPERATIONAL CURRICULUM
What discrepancies exist between the formal curriculum and the
operational curriculum in Imo State?
A comparison between the formal Nigerian high school biology
curriculum and the operational curriculum is outlined in Table 4.7. The
lesson topics of the six classes that were observed were: Vitamins, The
Vertebral Column, Germination of Seeds, Reproduction in Plants,
Reproduction, and Photosynthesis. The formal curriculum was compared in
terms of the specific teaching activities stipulated for implementation in the
syllabus.
139
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TABLE 4.11
A Comparison, of the formal and the operational
biology curricula of Imo State. ______
INTENDED
INSTRUCTIONAL
VITAMINS
VITAMINS
1. Described Activity: Implemented Activity:
•
Pupils compile a timetable of all the food
they eat in one week.
None
•
Pupils discuss balanced diet; None
•
Pupils cany out food tests. None
THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN
2. Described Activity: Implemented Activity:
•
Pupils examine specimens of intact • Smalls groups in one class worked for 9.1
m am m alian skeleton and individual bones percent of the class period examining and
of the vertebral column. identifying parts of the human skeleton.
•
Pupils identify and name the main parts
of the mammalian skeleton.
(Observation)
GERMINATION OF SEEDS GERMINATION OF SEEDS
(Mineral requirements of plants) (Mineral requirements of plants)
3. Described Activity: Implemented Activity:
•
Pupils carry out the experiment to
investigate the effects of mineral
deficiencies upon plants;
None
•
Pupils tabulate the results; None
•
Pupils draw generalizations. None
REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
4. Described Activity: Performed Activity:
•
Pupils make a temporary mount of yeast, • There was no student activity. The
identify and draw yeast cells that show teacher spent 10.7 percent of the class
constriction; time doing some demonstration.
•
Pupils examine mounted paramecium,
identify and draw conjugating parametia.
(observation)
140
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Table 4.11 (Continued)
REPRODUCTION
REPRODUCTION
5. Described Activity: Performed Activity:
•
Pupils make a temporary mount of yeast, • Students were not actively engaged. The
identity and draw yeast cells that show teacher spent 18.6 percent of the class
constriction: period demonstrating the procedures
•
Pupils examine mounted paramecium, needed to carry out an experiment on
identity and draw conjugating paramecia. budding and the results that would be
expected, (observation)
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis
6. (Mineral requirements of plants)
(Mineral requirements of plants)
None
•
Pupils investigate the role of light in
photosynthesis; None
•
Pupils investigate the absorption of carbon
dioxide in light; None
•
Pupils investigate the oxygen production in
light; None
•
Pupils investigate the role of chlorophyll.
There is a mismatch between the formal curriculum and the
transactional curriculum. During class instructions, none of the teachers
implemented specific teaching activities stipulated in the biology syllabus
to help students to better understand the lesson topics. These teaching
activities which are student-oriented were replaced rather by teacher-
centered activities such as lectures and teacher demonstrations. Another
difference between the formal and the operational curricula is that the
teachers did not engaged the students in laboratory work in those topics
that the formal curriculum recommended that experiments be carried out
by the students. This finding casts significant doubt on claims widely made
by education ministry officials and educators that in a centralized system
141
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such as Nigeria, what schools do in science is ussually a “carbon copy" of
the official syllabus. This finding therefore suggests that one cannot truly
determine the condition of biology education in Nigeria merely by
examining the formal curriculum.
In this chapter, the data collected through the examination of formal
curricula, the use of a questionnaire, classroom observations, and interviews
with biology teachers were reported and analyzed. With the data from these
sources of information, five categories were established, namely,
Characteristics of the Formal Nigerian Biology Curriculum, Elements of
Biological Literacy, Instructional Methodology, Instructional Support, and
Formal and Operational Curriculum. Three of these categories -Elements
of biological literacy, Instructional Methodology, Instructional Support- were
used for content analysis. Using these three categories, a comparison was
made between the American high school biology curriculum and that of Imo
State, Nigeria. This comparison helped to determine the range of disparities
and discrepancies that exists between the two curricula. Significant findings
about the conditions and the practiced state of Imo State biology program
ranged from the use of a long list of topics to organize the substantial
elements of biological literacy, lecture-dominated instructional methodology,
inadequate program resources and facilities, a mistmatch between the
formal and the operational curriculum, to lack of incentives to overworked
biology teachers.
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CHAPTER 5
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
The past two decades have witnessed several national reports and
studies that document the plight of the Nigerian science education in general,
and that of Imo State in particular, with biology instruction receiving the
majority of criticism. These reports and studies attest to a steady progressive
decline and the performance of Nigerian high school students in standardized
tests in biology (Asun, 1986; Maduabum, 1993, 1994; Omocha & Okpala,
1986; Soyibo, 1991; Uzuike, 1993). These alarming data from national studies
yield limited information on the appropriateness of the content of the biology
education program in operation in Imo State schools. This nagging
consternation over biological iliteracy among Nigerian students prompted the
researcher of this study to ask the following research questions:
1. What are the characteristics of the formal high school biology curriculum
of Imo State?
2. What is the formal American biology curriculum both in terms of the
stated elements of biological literacy and instructional methodology?
3. What is the state of biology curriculum of Imo State in terms of:
a) The stated elements of biological literacy required of students?
b) The instructional techniques used by biology teachers?
c) The instructional support given to biology teachers?
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4. What discrepancies exist between the American and Imo State biology
curricula with respect to:
a) The elements of biological literacy?
b) Instructional methodology?
c) Instructional support needed by biology teachers?
5. What discrepancies exist between the formal and operational curricula
of Imo State high schools?
Using a research methodological triangulation strategy that included a
survey, classroom observations, interviews with biology teachers, and
examination of the formal curriculum documents of Nigeria and the United
States, this research qualitatively and quantitatively characterized and
delineated the status of biology education in Imo State high schools. The
questionnaire, administered to hundred Imo State biology teachers
docummented the perceived state of biological science education. Interviews
with ten biology teachers and six classroom obesrvations determined the
practiced state. The high school biology syllabus published by the Federal
Ministry of Education constituted the formal curriculum of Imo State. The
guidelines established in the United States by such research and curriculum
development organizations as National Science Teachers Association, National
Research Council, California State Department of Education, American
Association for the Advancement of Science, and Biological Sciences
Curriculum Study constituted the formal biology curriculum for American
high schools.
Information obtained from these sources provided the data of analysis
for the study. Five categories were established with all the data generated.
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These categories include Characteristics of Imo State Formal Biology
Curriculum, The Stated Elements of Biological Literacy, Instructional
Methodology, Instructional Support, and Formal and Operational Curriculum.
Three categories -the stated elements of biological literacy, instructional
methodology, instructional support- were used in the content analysis. A
comparison of the Nigerian biology curriculum with the American biology
curriculum was undertaken at these three categorical levels.These
comparisons articulate the beliefs and perceptions, outline the general
practices and prevalent conditions, and highlight the disparities and
discrepancies that exist within the biological science department of Imo State
school system.
Significant findings about the conditions and the practiced state of the
biology program in Imo State high schools range from the use of a long list
of topics to organize the elements of biological literacy, traditional
pedagogical curriculum dominated by lectures, lack of resources, materials
and facilities, inadequate manpower, mismatch between the formal
curriculum and operational curriculum, insufficient instructional time, to lack
of incentives to overworked biology teachers th at has resulted in a high rate
of attrition among the teachers.
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CONCLUSIONS
The traditional pedagogical curriculum that stresses a rigid formal course
sequence with rigorous coverage of content through lecture cries out for
renewal. Current science educational literature and scientific organizations
have challenged this tradition and put their weight behind the call for
change. The existing emphasis on learning facts derived primarily from
reading is inadequate. It must be replaced by learner-centered lessons that
allow students to observe nature directly and practice the skills of scientific
inquiry. Consequently, the teacher should be a facilitator of the learning
process and not a delivery system for all knowledge. As we approach the
twenty first century, biology must be accepeted as a basic subject that must
be taught in an understandable fashion to all Nigerian students. Although
an ambitious task, Imo State high school teachers have an opportunity and
obligation to carry out this mission. What they need more than anything else
to bring about the required change is a system that supports and rewards
their efforts.
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IMPLICATIONS
The implications of this study delineate specific, pragmatic
recommendations to revamp and improve biological science education in Imo
State of Nigeria. As well, they depict future research possibilities related to
this project.
1. The syllabic guideline should incorporate major biological concepts
in the context of the associated unifying principles th at all
students at the high school and college levels should understand
at the end of their biology programs. While the biology curriculum
should be pared of everything that does not explicate and
eliminate the relatively few concepts, the organization of content
along thematic lines is crucial. A good theme should be able to
integrate facts and concepts into overarching constructs and align
biology curriculum with similar advances in other fields of
education. Organization of content under topics should be avoided.
Topic is open-ended; it may allow a wide variety of content to be
included under it.
2. Biology, like every science often is a collaborative endeavor: all
science depends on the ultimate sharing and debating of ideas.
Biology teachers should therefore move away from teacher-centered
to student-centered classroom activities that maximize interactions
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among the students. They should carefully guide their students to
ensure full participation in classroom activities. Interaction among
individuals and groups in the classroom is vital in deepening the
understanding of scientific concepts and the nature of scientific
endeavors. Teachers can maximize interaction through small group
collaboration, discussions, debates, and panel presentations.
3. Teachers should use more of the instructional time to engage
students in the investigative experience of scientific inquiry.
Biology courses should be taught in an adequate laboratory
environment. Ten minutes is near the upper limit of comfortable
attention students give to lecture material, while the attention
span in investigative laboratory is far longer. Also, because the
essence of science is process, method, and practice, students should
have ample opportunities to conduct scientific investigations.
4. Student assessment influences what is taught in the classroom.
Teachers emphasize the knowledge and skills necessary for
students to do well on tests. If biology education is to change, and
teachers stress making connections, problem-solving, seeing
relationships, thinking and communication skills, then assessment
needs modification. It is clear that paper-and-pencil test cannot do
an adequate job since they test primarily recall of concepts or very
specific problem solving. Students assessment must feature oral
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presentations, self-directed experimentations, written documen
tation and project based activities leading to evidence of progress
and performance based graduation requirements.
5. Improved conditions that foster good biology education need to be
instituted. There should be a well-equipped biology library on
each high school campus. Students need to be able to use the
library as a major source of biology information apart from
classroom instructions. Sufficient funding for supplies and
equipment and adequate facilities to enable teachers to implement
activity oriented biology program has become a necessity. Knowing
that activity based instruction improves biology education will not
affect the biology program unless there is a strong commitment
from state and local governments to provide the essential
resources. High school principals and science department chairs
need to be advocates for the biology program. They must ensure
that adequate time is allotted for biology instruction. Guidelines
indicate th at biology courses should have at least 276 to 315
minutes per week per course depending on the type of scheduling.
6. Official view of teachers as mere inplementers of “ policies” imposed
from above in the form of official syllabus or guidelines could be
far from the truth. Such a view is at best inaccurate and
misleading. Teachers’ role could be more of a “ policy broker" than
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being a mere implementer of an official program. It would,
therefore, not be an overstatement to say that if teachers perceive
curriculum developers as perpetuating goals that they find difficult
to reach or embrace, they may opt for compromise in such ways
that may result in a mismatch between curriculum and classroom
practice. Teachers should be made aware of the nature of what
they are supposed to implement. Regular supervision of biology
teachers’ teaching practices may help to ensure more compliance
with syllabic guidelines. Also, biology teachers should not be made
“strangers" to any formal curriculum they are supposed to
implement; they should be involved in developing it. Involvement
and sense of ownership enhance implementation. The top-down
practice of curriculum dissemination as now exists may need to be
de-emphasized since research findings show th at teachers
creatively interpret and implement the official syllabus.
7. Any attem pt to improve and enhance the teaching of biology
without adequate number of biology teachers would be an exercise
in futility. The government should seriously address the growing
disproportionality between the number of biology teachers and the
teaming biology student population in Imo State high schools.
Serious effort should focus on recruting more biology teachers and
providing all the teachers with greater profesionalism, good
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salaries, and better working conditions. All biology and other
science teachers should be given some science allowance to
compensate them for the extra time and effort the teaching of
science demands. Biology teachers who have more than 30
students in their classrooms should receive some extra allowance
for every additional student.
8. Biology teachers need appropriate and ample professional
development opportunities. This seems to be one of the best ways
of assisting current biology staffs to become more effective
teachers. The training should focus on enhancing and up-dating
biology teachers’ instructional skills to include the new pedagogical
techniques. As well, teachers need guidance and tutelage in how
to integrate the new technologies into their biology program.
Colleges and universities in Imo State could help to provide
assistance in this endeavor. In addition, zonal science centers and
professional study groups could be established by several commu
nities to aid in this effort.
9. Universities and colleges responsible for teacher training need to
be part of the conversation. Their programs should reflect
intellectual superiority, programs that challenge and motivate
prospective biology teachers, while giving those students the
necessary confidence and skills they need. If necessary, the state
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department of education, the certifying authority can mandate
programs that will enhance and upgrade the teacher preparation
programs.
SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
This research is not an end point for the biology educator. This study
focuses on the State of Imo; it may be that conclusions drawn here cannot
be generalized to nor be representative of the condition in the rest of the
country. Perhaps this study should be conducted in other states since every
State in Nigeria is using the same biology curriculum. Information from
national statistics prove useful and fruitful in attempting major reform
efforts. In addition, Imo State should determine the conditions that exist in
the elementary and junior secondary biology programs to have a
comprehensive understanding of its biological science education.
This research project determined predominant patterns, general ideas,
and recurring themes from different data sources. Consistency in patterns,
themes, and ideas together with reasonable explanations contributed to the
validity of the research. Since the major objective was to determine the
current status of the content of Imo State high school biology curriculum, the
exceptional situation was somewhat lost in the process. Further research
needs to be conducted to examine anomalies, those ideas on the cutting edge.
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These departures from conformity may provide some valuable data and
provide new directions for biological science education.
Finally, this study represents the initial ground work for future
research of this kind at the Comparative Education Study and Adaptation
Center and elsewhere. It must be followed further by research into
experiential curriculum, especially students’ conceptualizations in biological
science, given the modem conceptual approach to the teaching and learning
of science. Such findings as well, coupled with those of this study, should
be entrenched into the design and organization of the current formal biology
curriculum th at is due for revision.
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APPENDICES
Appendix A
Appendix B
Appendix C
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.Survey Questions
Interview Questions
Observation Instrument
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APPENDIX A
NIGERIAN BIOLOGY TEACHERS SURVEY
There are many aspects of science taught in schools and universities
such as:
I. The processes, methods and skills of science;
II. Scientific information such as concepts, laws, theories, and
definitions;
III. Philosophical aspects of science such as scientific values, what
science is, and how scientific knowledge is generated, and
IV. Other aspects of science you might think of. Please specify here other
aspects of science that are not specified above, but which are important
to science teaching in schools.
I.____________________________________
ii .___________________________________
iii .__________________________________
Please check (✓) the appropriate answer to the following question.
1. Which of the above aspects of biological science do you emphasize in
your classroom?
( ) a. The processes, methods and skills of science;
( b. Scientific information such as concepts, laws, theories and definitions;
( ) c. Philosophical aspects of science such as scientific values, what science
is, etc.;
( ) d. Other aspects of science you might think of.
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From, questions 2-12 indicate to what extent the following science process
skills are currently used in your school in grades 9-12. Circle the letter
that most closely corresponds to your assessment. Use the following
scale:
a. not at all b. ocassionally c. moderately d. frequently
2. observing a b c d
3. measuring a b c d
4. classifying a b c d
5. exploring a b c d
6. recording a b c d
7. predicting/inferring a b c d
8. investigating a b c d
9. reporting a b c d
10. designing experiments a b c d
11. hypothesizing a b c d
12. data analysis a b c d
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Beside each of the statements listed below, please indicate by circling
your rating whether you strongly agree (SA), agree (A), disagree (D), or
strongly disagree (SD).
13. Our biological science curriculum offers
specific courses that students are required to SA A D SD
take or may elect to take depending on the
student’ s interest and/or skill level.
14. Each biology course builds upon the
content, concepts, and processes of previous SA A D SD
biology courses the students have taken.
15. The biology courses offered in our school
require every student to spend at least 20 SA A D SD
percent of the class time in laboratory
investigations.
16. Our biology curriculum provides
opportunities for interested, qualified students SA A D SD
to do individual or specialized work in
biology.
17. Our biology curriculum extends biology
study beyond the school and into the SA A D SD
community.
18. Introductory biology classes are composed SA A D SD
of students who have a wide range of
academic abilities, interests, and skills.
19. In our biology curriculum there are course SA A D SD
offerings and study opportunities for students
of various skill levels.
20. The biology curriculum includes topics of SA A D SD
current events, future problems, and issues
and needs confronting society.
21. The biology courses tend to be applied or SA A D SD
practical rather than mostly abstract and
theoretical.
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22. Our biology curriculum. includes SA A D SD
instruction in lab and field safety.
23. Our biology curriculum is organized in SA A D SD
themes to identify ways of thinking that cut
across many fields of science, mathematics,
and technology.
Beside each of the statements listed below indicate by circling your
rating whether you apply frequently (AF), apply sometimes (AS), apply
rarely (AR), or don't know (DK).
24. Our class instruction integrates biolo- AF AS AR DK
gical science into other content areas on a
regular basis.
25. I provide learning experiences from AF AS AR DK
many sources including the physical and
social sciences, technology, mathematics,
etc.
26. I help students discover the deeper AF AS AR DK
meanings and applications of biological
concepts rather than merely having
students memorize them.
27. I involve students in higher science AF AS AR DK
processes associated with investigating (for
example, testing hypotheses, designing
experiments).
28. I clarify details as necessary in AF AS AR DK
discussions of the content of instructional
materials.
29. I schedule laboratory activities so that AF AS AR DK
they relate to classroom consideration of the
same topics.
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30. I allow individual students or small
groups to do laboratory work to investigate
problems or questions th at arise from class
discussion.
31. I permit students to conduct safe
classroom demonstrations.
32. I select appropriate homework exercises
and assign them on a regular basis.
33. Tests, quizes, and examinations in my
class relate to the course objectives.
33. My students are required to use
resources other than the textbook and class
lectures and discussions.
34. As part of my questioning techniques, I
provide adequate wait time (3-5 seconds) for
student responses.
35. Students' laboratory work make up a
percentage of their grade.
36. In tests and examinations, students are
called upon to interpret data presented in
written or graphic form (tables, charts,
diagrams).
37. I give laboratory practicals as part of
student evaluation.
38. I include essay questions on my tests
and examinations.
AF AS AR
AF AS AR
AF AS AR
AF AS AR
AF AS AR
AF AS AR
AF AS AR
AF AS AR
AF AS AR
AF AS AR
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39. I provide ways for students to earn AF AS AR DK
credit and improve their grades other than
paper-and-pencil tests.
40. I use a variety of methods to check for AF AS AR DK
understanding before administering a
formal evaluation.
41. I make a conscious effort to include all AF AS AR DK
kinds of people when discussing biological
science and technology contributions and
careers.
42. In responding to students’ questions, I AF AS AR DK
attempt to guide their thinking by such
techniques as clarifying anchor posing other
related questions.
43. During class discussions, students are AF AS AR DK
encouraged to initiate comments and
questions.
44. I often employ open-ended, thought- AF AS AR DK
provoking questions.
45. I demonstrate required laboratory AF AS AR DK
techniques and give explicit directions
especially as related to safety.
Beside each of the statements listed below, please indicate by
circling your rating whether your strongly agree (SA), agree (A), disagree
(D), or strongly disagree (SD).
46. Up-to-date textbooks and laboratory SA A D SD
manuals (or equivalent materials in courses
designed not to have textbooks or lab
manuals) are provided for each student.
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47. Supplementary books, reference books, SA A D
and other printed materials representing a
considerable range of sophistication and
diversity of students' interests are provided.
48. Materials are available to help students SA A D
to independently m aster specific skills and
content.
49. Students have classroorq/laboratory SA A D
access to a computer and appropriate
software to support program objectives.
50. The school or departmental library SA A D
includes an adequate selection of books,
periodicals, amd pamphlets on biology and
its relationship to technology and society.
51. Filmloops, transparencies, filmstrips, SA A D
and motion pictures are available and
attainable when students and teachers need
them.
52. Projectors for filmloops, film strips, SA A D
motion pictures, and transparencies are
available and attainable when needed.
53. Videocassettes, recorders, videodiscs and SA A D
monitors are available in the biological
science areas when needed.
54. Equipment and materials for laboratory SA A D
experiments and individual student projects
are adequate and available when needed.
55. The system for distributing laboratory SA A D
supplies and equipment is reasonably
simple and efficient.
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56. A special district (or m inistry of SA A D
education) budget provides for cyclic
maintenance, repair and replacement of
science equipment (for example, microscopes
and balances).
57. Provisons are made for prompt repair or SA A D
replacement of equipment th at wears out or
is lost or stolen or damaged beyond repair.
58. An effective, continuous inventory of SA A D
science equipment and supplies is
maintained.
59. The media center is supplied with up- SA A D
to-date materials adequate to support the
biological science program objectives.
60. Catalogues of science equipment and SA A D
supplies are readily available to biology
teachers.
61. Procedures for requesting and ordering SA A D
supplies and equipment are reasonable,
simple and efficient.
62. Biology teachers are involved in SA A D
selecting and purchasing instructional
equipment and materials for use in the
biology department.
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APPENDIX B
INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What aspects of science do you emphasize in your classroom?
2. Describe your typical teaching style.
3. In teaching biology to your students how do you help them see
connections between biology and other science disciplines?
4 How do you make biology culturally m eaningful for your students?
5. How do you evaluate your students?
6. How often do your students do laboratory work and for how long each
time?
7. How often do you go on field trips with your students?
8. What instructional materials do you use to support your biology
program?
9. What would you add by way of suggestion to improve the teaching of
biology in your school?
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APPENDIX C
OBSERVATION INSTRUMENT
TEACHING TECHNIQUE X %
1 . Teacher talk a. Giving Instructions
b. Lecturing
c. Summing up
d. Explaining
2. Teacher and Students’
talk
a. Teacher’ s initiated questions
b. Students’ initiated questions
c. Discussion
3. Teacher’ s activities a. Demonstrating using A-V
b. Helping students individua
lly or perform work for stu
dents.
c. Guiding a group of students
4. Students’ activities a. Preparation and arran-
gament.
b. Microscopic observations
c. Working with a microscope
d. Doing experiments
e. Recording and reporting
f. Independent investigation
Total Time
Time not allocated
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Asset Metadata

Creator Anukam, Anselm Amah (author)

Core Title An evaluation of the secondary biological science curriculum in Nigeria with reference to Imo State

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, curriculum and instruction,education, sciences,Education, Secondary,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor McComas, William F. (committee chair), Appleman, Michael M. (committee member), Lemlech, Johanna (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c17-537137

Unique identifier UC11349818

Identifier 9720177.pdf (filename),usctheses-c17-537137 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 9720177.pdf

Dmrecord 537137

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Anukam, Anselm Amah

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

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