University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

'Beowulf' and 'the hobbit': elegy into fantasy in j. R. R. Tolkien's creative technique

(USC Thesis Other)

'Beowulf' and 'the hobbit': elegy into fantasy in j. R. R. Tolkien's creative technique

PDF

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content This dissertation has been
microfilmed exactly as received 70-5202
CHRISTENSEN, Bonniejean McGuire, 1931-
BEOWULF AND THE HOBBIT: ELEGY INTO
FANTASY IN J. R. R. TOLKIEN’S CREATIVE
TECHNIQUE.
University of Southern California, Ph.D., 1969
Language and Literature, general
University Microfilms, Inc.. Ann Arbor, Michigan
^ Copyright by
BONNIEJEAN MCGUIRE CHRISTENSEN
1970
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
BEOWULF AND THE HOBBIT; ELEGY INTO FANTASY
IN J. R. R. TOLKIEN'S CREATIVE TECHNIQUE
by
Bonniejean McGuire Christensen
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(English)
August; 1969
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
UNIVERSITY O F S O U T H E R N C A U FO R N IA
TH E GRADUATE SCHOOL.
UNIVERSITY PARK
LO S A N G ELES, C A LIFO R N IA 9 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, ’ written by
Boimiejean McGuire Christensen___
under the direction of h.§.T... Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by The Gradu
ate School, in partial fulfillment of require
ments for the degree of
D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y
Dean
Date-
SepAmgUst, 1969
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
' Jvi...
5 ^ __ Chairman
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
For Francis
"a piercing glimpse of joy, and heart’s desire"
11
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION
Chapter
I. INTRODUCTION ........
II. THE MONSTERS ........
III. THE DESCENDANT OF CAIN
IV. EPISODES AND DIGRESSIONS
V. THE DRAGON ..........
VI. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
APPENDIX: A TOLKIEN BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF WORKS CITED
Xll
Page
11
1
18
54
88
ll8
l6l
175
200
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Each writer creates a model of the universe and
each reader responds in a manner influenced by the degree
of correspondence between the writer's and the reader's
perception of reality. J. R. R. Tolkien creates a model |
in which the universe is in flux but governed by rational |
powers, where man must accept responsibility for his acts,|
where good and evil alternatives are always present, |
and where good results can ensue from evil designs
through the working of grace.
Such a model of the universe--traditional and
religious— is unfashionable now, with most authors avoid- !
ing it and most critics condemning it. When the con
demnation is of Tolkien, it is often based on what can
only be a misreading of Tolkien: the wide-spread notion
that he sees the spectrum of human personality, desire,
behavior, and choice condensed into the opposites of
black and white. This misreading can only be based on
the critic's unfamiliarity with the complexities of the
religious concepts and his unwillingness to attempt to
perceive Tolkien's model through Tolkien's eyes.
1
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
One purpose of this dissertation is to present
Tolkien’s model of the universe so that future critics
will be encouraged to engage in criticism of what
Tolkien has achieved within his model of the universe—
and to avoid pointless quarrels over frequently unacknow
ledged differences in perception of reality.
The main purpose--which is also the means to the
above purpose— is to demonstrate the interrelated nature
of his scholarly writing on Old and Middle English, his
literary aesthetic, and his creative work. No one has
made a serious attempt to relate these to one another.
Indeed, his creative work is frequently looked upon as
an aberration. When a relationship is noted, it is
always general and frequently wrong. At one end of the
spectrum are the critics who accept unthinkingly
Tolkien's comment that he created The Lord of the Rings^
2
only as a jphilological,'game, which is certainly a
^First published 195^-56 (London and Boston), The
Lord of the Rings consists of Part I The Fellowship of
the Ring, Part II The Two Towers, and Part III The Return
of the King. Ace Books brought out an unauthorized paper
back edition in 1965 (since then Ade has reached an agree
ment with Tolkien to pay him royalties and not to re- j
print when current stocks are exhausted) and Ballantine
countered the same year with a paperback edition revised j
by Tolkien. In I967 the revised hardcover edition j
appeared (London and Boston) and was designated the second |
edition. In I967 the British publishers came out with a i
one volume paperback edition omitting the index and the ;
appendices except for the Tale of Aragorn and Arwen. j
^Philip Norman in "The Prevalence of Hobbits," |
New York Times Magazine (Sunday, January 1$, I9 6 7),
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
pleasant fancy tut not one to be taken seriously. At the
, other end of the spectrum are responsible and respected
I scholars who dismiss The Hobbit^ as a slight work^ or who
j say that it has no particular source in medieval
; literature:
I
I Professor Tolkien has for many years been recognized
i as a leading scholar in the area of the pre-Renaissance
literature of northwestern Europe. Because of his
I extremely wide range of knowledge of epic and romance
says of Tolkien: "if it had been left to him, he would
have written all his books in Elvish. 'The invention of
language is the foundation,' he says. 'The stories were
made rather to provide a world for the language than the
reverse.'" Such remarks are usually taken to mean that
Tolkien creates his fantasies as merely linguistic exer
cises, but anyone familiar with his writings on language
realizes that "the invention of language" is a philosophic
concern as well as a linguistic one for Tolkien. See
especially his "English and Welsh" in Angles and Britons
(Cardiff, 1 9 6 3). ------------------
^The Hobbit; or. There and Back Again (London,
1937; Boston, 1 9 3tS) underwent revision in the nineteen-
fifties to make it conform to The Lord of the Rings.
The revision was reprinted in paperback in 19^5 by
Ballantine and was slightly revised the next year for the
second Ballantine edition and for the London hardback.
^Typical of the scholars holding this position is
Professor Clyde S. Kilby, a thoughtful and perceptive
man who has devoted much attention to The Lord of the
Rings and who has worked with Tolkien on assembling The
Silmarillion, the story of the First Age of Middle Earth.
At the Conference on Christianity and Literature held
October 26, 1 9 6 8, at the University of Southern California
he lumped The Hobbit with Smith of Wootton Major (London
and Boston, 19^7) and Farmer Giles of Ham (London, 19^9;
Boston, 1 9 5 0) as "not serious" and "not really part of
the Ring." His evaluation of The Hobbit is not idio
syncratic but the norm.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
literature, it would not be necessary for him to draw
upon any specific story for a convenient pattern.
Whether for this or other cause, a search for
Tolkien's specific source is a singularly unrewarding
task.5
Over three hundred articles on Tolkien and his
popular works have been published in easily available
periodicals. About a third of them, on The Lord of the
Rings, are intended for a scholarly audience.° None has
investigated the relationship between scholarly pursuits
and literary products, or indeed acknowledged the exis
tence of a relationship to be investigated. Most have
been concerned primarily with The Lord of the Rings, and
many have been marred by a careless reading of the text
or by unsupportable interpretations. This dissertation
can do nothing to prevent careless reading, but it can
suggest a basis from which to initiate interpretation:
an awareness of Tolkien's model of the universe and an
appreciation of his creative works as a portion of the
entire body of his writings, all reflecting the insights
of a complex, learned, and creative individual.
The Hobbit is the best of his works to show the
5Wed Samuel Hedges, "The Fable and the Fabulous:
The Use of Traditional Forms in Children's Literature,"
unpublished doctoral dissertation (University of Nebraska,
1 9 6 8), p. 1 8 9.
i ^See the appendix for a complete list of works by
j Tolkien and as complete a list as possible of works pub-
1 lished about him. I have divided works about him into
"Popular" and "Scholarly" on the basis of the audience for
whom they seemed intended.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
interrelatedness of scholarship, aesthetic, and creativity
because it draws heavily upon a few sources: the
Voluspa for the catalogue of dwarfs and, in a more general!
way, for the cosmology; Beownilf, as he interpreted it in
Y
his Sir Israel Gollancz Memorial Lecture of 193^ and in
O
his preface to the 19^0 Clark Hall translation, for
organization, plot, incident, and character; and his widely
acclaimed "On Fairy-Stories,the Andrew Lang lecture fori
1 9 3 9, for the theme and Christian perspective. |
The Hobbit is therefore the focus of this disser
tation. I will show the essential relationship between
Northern mythology and Tolkien's model of the universe--
a relationship sensed by many perceptive readers but not
adequately developed. I will demonstrate that The Hobbit
^"Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics," Pro
ceedings of the British Academy, XXII (I9 3 6), 245-295*
This essay is reprinted in An Anthology of Beomlf Criti
cism, ed. Lewis E. Nicholson (Notre Dame, 193^>), pp. 51-
1 0 3, and in The Beowulf Poet: A Collection of Critical
Essays, ed. Donald K. Fry (Englewood Cliffs, 196b), pp. 8-
5b. My page numbers are to Nicholson, the most readily
available volume.
8»Prefatory Remarks" to Beowulf and the Finnesburg
Fragment, A Translation into Modern English Prose, pp. ix-
xliii, by John R. Clark Hall (London, 1940).
9”On Fairy-Stories" first appeared in Essays Pre
sented to Charles Williams, pp. 3 8-8 9, ed. C. S. Lewis
(London, 1947; Grand. Rapids, Michigan, I9 6 6). It was re
vised and reprinted in Tree and Leaf (London, 1964; Boston,
1 9 6 5) and in The Tolkien Reader (New York, I9 6 6), from
which my quotations are taken.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
i 6
i
: is a rewriting of Beowulf, transforming elegy into fan
tasy— a feat unsuspected by anyone who has published
I criticism on Tolkien. And I will suggest that Tolkien's
I intention is to provide Christian teaching for an age un
able to receive it in a traditional form— a purpose over
1 which criticism is divided.
I
: Of these three, I shall devote most of the disser-
I tation to the second--an examination of the ways The
I Hobbit recreates Beowulf--and show in passing how the
recreation is the proof of the first and third.
An account of the inception and development of my
insight into the relationship between Beowulf and The
Hobbit will also serve as a description of my method in
the dissertation.
In my first reading of The Hobbit some years ago
I was impressed, as many have been, by the texture of the
I work— a texture suggesting the richness of the whole
Northern mythology. I was impressed also by the skillful
development of scenes reminiscent of incidents in
Beowulf— the thief's foray into the dragon's lair and
removal of a precious cup, for instance. But, if Tolkien
was borrowing from Beowulf, I was also impressed by the
changes he made in his source material. He seemed to have
patterned Smaug's ravages of the countryside on the
conduct of Beowulf's dragon, for example, but if so he
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
7
i
: patterned Smaug's death not on the death of Beowulf's
dragon but on that of Sigemund's dragon as reported in the
I lay preserved in the thirteenth fitt of Beowulf. I
I wondered at the time if there was an even closer relation-
I ship between the two works, but did not pursue it: no
I one else had commented on these similarities, and I had
I
I
; other tasks.
I Later I read Tolkien's essay "On Fairy-Stories"
while I was reading The Lord of the Rings, and the essay
I increased my appreciation of his literary achievement. I
1 saw in it confirmation of my interpretation of his fan
tasies as essentially Christian works. His literary
aesthetic, as developed in this essay, is in accord with
I the eighteenth century idea of creativity, which sees the
I creative act as a human attempt to produce an ideal world,
! placing the artist in the same relationship to his work
as God is to His creation. One of the highest acts, for
Tolkien, is the writing of fantasy, a form of sub-creation
which is an affirmation of life and hope culminating in
the happy ending. Such fantasy is justified by the great
est example of story— the Christian story ending in the
I
IResurrection. A literary aesthetic of this mystical cast,
embodied in literary works that are not specifically
Christian in their terminology, has made Tolkien suspect
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
8
10
; in some religious and literary quarters; but it is
, possible— even unavoidable, if one is familiar with all
j his works— to perceive the Christian attitude as the
I underlying metaphor in his literary works.
I His scholarly works were familiar to me, of course,
I and I found I appreciated them for the wit of his exposi
tory style as well as their insight: they were literary
creations as well as academic productions. But in the
spring of 1968 I was rereading his scholarly writings for
another purpose: survival. I was preparing for ray
doctoral comprehensives. "Beowulf : The Monsters and the
Critics” caused me to realize that Tolkien's criticism of
Beowulf might not be wholly valid for Beowulf, but it
certainly explained the basis upon which he had recreated
Beowulf in The Hobbit.
At the same time I was working on the medieval
The Roman Catholic attitude is instructive.
Even catalogs produced with the Roman Catholic in mind
have not been enthusiastic about Tolkien. The first
edition of Guide to Catholic Literature (Grosse Pointe,
Michigan, 1940) listed some of his early scholarly works
and The Hobbit (p. Il4l), but the subsequent eight
volumes, covering 1940 to the present, have not updated—
or even included— the brief entry. In fact, the first
edition of The Hobbit was not even reviewed in the United
States by an official publication of the church until
1 9 6 7, when this constituted the complete review: "A
iwonderful, magical tale of dwarves and elves, goblins and
trolls, dragons and treasures. Ages 8 and up"— Margie
'Eight in Catholic Library World, XXXVIII (March I9 6 7),
4?4. One can only assume that the church is uncomfortable
with a writer whose Christianity is not explicitly
manifest in his writings.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
; 9
i
epic and thinking of doing something with Beowulf as a
genre study, either as an example of a non-Classical epic
i or as an example of a non-epic. But I was even more
I engaged by The Hobbit, finding myself preoccupied with it
i as an example of the literary form one might choose in a
i non-heroic age to examine the fundamental questions that
i are raised in epic literature.
I Once the comprehensives were safely passed, I
I could turn to a study of the relationship between The
I Hobbit and Bee,.ulf. I first compared the plots, using
I Tolkien's essay on Beowulf to detect points of similarity.
i
It was evident that both were a series of adventures with
monsters, each one increasing in importance. The char
acteristics of the monsters in Beowulf were distributed
over several classes of monsters in The Hobbit— trolls,
goblins, and giants, for example, and the adventures in
both works paralleled each other in many details. It
became evident that the episodes and digressions in
Beowulf were incorporated into the fabric of The Hobbit—
the allusions to Hama were applied to Thorin Oakenshield,
as one instance. At this point it was possible to apply
Tolkien's evaluation of the Beowulf-poet to Tolkien
himself; here was an educated Englishman looking to the
distant past and recreating that time for his contempor
aries, omitting New Testament references because they
would be anachronistic in the pagan time portrayed and
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
10
I examining the problem of evil that man encounters within
. time.^1
A closer examination of passages followed to
determine the rhetorical devices Tolkien used to convert
Beowulf to The Hobbit. I compared the Old English
passages with their counterparts in The Hobbit, and saw
j that Tolkien's major devices are expansion, transposition,
and statement of the contrary, and his less frequent but
also important devices are omission, compression, duplica
tion, substitution, reorganization, and literal inter
pretation of Old English phrases.
Once all this 'had been done, I compared KLaeber's
12
introduction to Beowulf with Tolkien's essay and saw
that Tolkien had done more than just attack the general
I
l^In his essay on Beowulf, Tolkien's answer to the
debate on the Christian elements in Beowulf is to identify
the author as a Christian poet having "both new faith and
new learning . . . and also a body of native tradition"
fp. 71). The poet, wishing to write about old days, days
heathen, noble, and hopeless" (p. 71), suppresses the-
specifically Christian: he avoids obvious anachronisms and
all definitely Christian names and terms. The poet as com
mentator may have information denied his characters: he
can make the only definite Scriptural references, to Abel
(1. 108) and to Cain (11. 108, 1261), but "The theory of
Grendel's origin is not known to the actors" (p. 72, n.20).
The observations Tolkien makes of the Beowulf-poet can
equally well be applied to Tolkien.
^^Friedrich Klaeber, ed., Beowulf and The Fight at
Finnsburg, 2nd ed. (New York, I9287I My quotations are
from this edition, since it is the one Tolkien would have
used in the thirties. I also follow Klaeber in my cita
tions of Beowulf and the Finnsburg fragment, though my quo
tations of the latter are, for the sake of the improved
text, from the third edition.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
i I
jposition represented by scholars of Klaeber's persuasion: j
j he had systematically attacked Klaeber in his essay and |
had refuted him in his fantasy. Even all the episodes and ;
I digressions that Klaeber laments as scanted epic materials
are included in The Hobbit:--but as background or as addi
tions to the main plot, which remains the series of en
counters with monsters. This arrangement confirms Tolkien's
position in his essay, that the monsters are in the center
of the story where they belong and the historical material
is on the periphery where it belongs.
Once all this was done it was easy to determine |
the organization of the dissertation: the chronological !
narration of The Hobbit with appropriate quotations from
Beowulf, followed by explanatory material and identifica
tion of the rhetorical techniques. The body of the disser
tation falls naturally into four parts that mirror the |
I divisions of The Hobbit and, more generally, Beowulf:
the monsters, the descendant of Cain, episodes and di
gressions, and the dragon.
purpose in showing Tolkien's dependence upon
Beowulf in the creation of The Hobbit is not to diminish
his stature as a creative writer, for I think he is one of
our greatest. My purpose is rather to suggest that the
modern : preoccupation with originality may prevent many
people from appreciating works that are well worth atten
tion for other strengths : that works may draw upon_______
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
i 12
I
; traditional material for the category of invention and
, still he "original."
I I would also suggest that anyone wishing to |
I criticize Tolkien's literary works is obligated to be
• familiar with his literary aesthetic and his scholarship
■ if he is not to do a disservice to his own critical reputa-
:tion and to the interpretation of Tolkien. The insights
! Tolkien applies to his scholarship, and derives from it, ;
j I
I are the insights that give all his popular works their !
texture and detail and meaning. The attitudes, interests, :
I
and insights that make his own criticism exciting are also |
j
applied to his popular works. I
For instance, he has two articles on "Sigelwara"
in Medium Aevum in the early thirties, defining the uses,
!
derivations, cognates, glosses, and connotations of
Sigelwara and Sigelwaraland in Old English.In the j
fifties in The Lord of the Rings he applies this knowledge
in creating the servants of the dark lord Sauron— men of
the South, dark-skinned warriors accompanied by oliphaunts.
He is obviously creating a Middle Earth on the model
accepted by the early Northern Europeans. But critics,
not being familiar with the particulars of his scholarly
work, and not understanding his literary aesthetic, offer
^3"Sigelwara Land; Part I," Medium Aevum, I
(December 1932), 1 8 3-I9 6; "Sigelwara Land: Part II,"
Medium Aevum, III (June 1934), 95-111.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
! 13
i
; embarrassed excuses for what they assume are anti-Negro
tendencies in Tolkien. The misreadings are so numerous
I that one must accept misunderstanding as the norm in the
I criticism published on Tolkien.
I The interrelationship of scholarship, literary
I aesthetic, and literary creation shows quite clearly in
; The Hobbit, but it is present in all his works. In his
i
I preface to the Clark Hall Beovmlf he has an explanation of ;
I
I Old English prosody, using Modern English examples for the !
half-lines. His own poems— The Adventures of Tom Bombadil
and the many songs in The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings |
I
— are based on Old English forms. No treatment of these j
forms in his poetry has been published. In his remarks I
in various works he uses The Battle of Maidon and Sir |
Gawain and the Green Knight to illustrate the possible and '
the appropriate relationships between lord and vassal, the |
' different roles played in youth and age, and the concepts
of duty to the comitatus. Tolkien examines this matter
in detail in The Hobbit, Farmer Giles of Ham, and The
Lord of the Rings. But his critics remain unaware of his
scholarly concern and his developing of his interests in
his popular works. Indeed, once aware of the influence
of his interest in Beowulf on The Hobbit, we can see that
The Lord of the Rings is an expansion of The Hobbit,
having the same structure, a doubling of the characters,
and the same philosophic concerns.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
l4
It is my hope, then, that my work on Tolkien will
, encourage others to examine his writings as a totality,
I the expression of a creative talent that infuses the whole
I man.
I Acknowledgments are a pleasant task, hut task
I indeed because so many have been generous with me.
' Professor Clyde S. Kilby has furnished me with a number
' of papers not easily come by and has entertained my
I husband and me most kindly on our visit to Wheaton College.
Professor Ned Samuel Hedges allowed me to read his
excellent dissertation on children's literature before it
was available in the library at the University of
Nebraska. The Reverend R. N. Hamilton, S. U., University
Archivist at Marquette, provided me with facsimiles of the
first edition of "Riddles in the. Dark"— corrected proofs,
typescript, and holograph— which I cherish. Professor
Bruce A. Beatie of the University of Rochester responded
with copies of his papers on Tolkien. Richard C. West of
the University of Wisconsin and I shared a mutually pro
fitable exchange of bibliographic material. Professor
Robert C. Wright saw to it that I received a copy of the
Mankato State College The Tolkien Papers.
14
Professor
l4n
Ten papers prepared for the Tolkien festival
at Mankato State College, October 28-2$, I9 6 6, and
published in the Mankato State College Studies, II
(February 1 9 8 7).
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
r ~
15
Ed MeSkys sent copies of the Tolkien Journal and the
, Green Dragon.
The staffs of a number of libraries have been most
I helpful: Wheaton College, the University of Nebraska,
I the University of Southern California, and the University
I of California at Los Angeles, Berkeley, and Davis,
j I appreciate the unsuccessful attempt to locate a
I tape of the Carnival of Books program featuring Tolkien in
I 1957--an attempt having as participants Helen E. Carey of
j WMAQ-AM/FM, and Elizabeth E. Marshall and Dr. Miriam
Peterson of the Board of Education, City of Chicago. I
also appreciate the response of Marjorie L. Burns, editor
of Practical English, who was able to send me copies of
material on Tolkien.
My thanks to Charles and Elizabeth Wright Pomeroy
for the opportunity to read her Stanford Honors Essay on
17
Charles Williams.
Jan Howard Finder has my thanks for inviting me to
^5published irregularly by the Tolkien Society of
America, Belknap College, Center Harbor, N. 9., 03226.
Bilbo's Song" from The Lord of the Rings
appeared on p. 8 and "Desirers of Dragons" by Julia R.
Piggin, illus. by Tom Eaton, appeared on pp. 4-7 of
Practical English, XLII (March 17^ 1987).
^"^Elizabeth Wright, "Theology in the Novels of
Charles Williams," Stanford Honors Essays in Humanities,
1962.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
16
read a paper on "Riddles in the Dark" at the I969 |
Conference of the Tolkien Society of the University of |
18 !
Illinois. ° !
I am especially grateful to Professors Walter M.
Crittenden, Bruce R. McElderry, Jr., and Norma L.
Goodrich for letting me try out some of ray ideas about
Tolkien in their seminars.
Owen Barfield, a gentleman of great learning and !
i
charm, has my thanks for our pleasant talks about Lewis i
and Tolkien and other good subjects.
% dear friend Cecilia Steele Buckman has my •
thanks for introducing me to fantasy and science fiction i
many years ago; and Douglass Parker my thanks for courses |
in science fiction and humor in literature at the i
University of California at Riverside during those pleasant:
years. |
I am grateful to my committee for their many
kindnesses, their guidance and help, and their confidence
in me. My appreciation goes to my chairman. Professor
William H. Brown, Jr., to Professor Virginia Tufte, and
to Professor Norma L. Goodrich.
My family has my appreciation and thanks:
18"
Gollum's Character Transformation in The
Hobbit: A Comparison of the Versions of Chapter V,
'Riddles in the Dark'," presented at the Conference on
Middle Earth, April 25-26, I9 6 9.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
i 17
I
Francis for withstanding the temptation to tell me what
to do; our children for sacrificing me— sometimes
i willingly— to the typewriter.
I greatest indebtedness is to the Department of
i Health, Education, and Welfare for providing me under
! Title IV of the National Defense Education Act with a
!
I three-year graduate fellowship that has allowed me to
I complete my doctorate.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
CHAPTER II
THE MONSTERS
I In the Sir Israel Gollancz Memorial Lecture of
j 19365 J. R. R. Tolkien initiated a new period in Beowulf
studies with his insistence that Beowulfiana was rich in
everything but literary criticism. His lecture marks the
beginning of the criticism of Beowulf as a poem, for it
challenges the older assumption that Beowulf has little
organic unity, or structure, and that, in Friedrich
Klaeber's words, it "consists of two distinct parts
joined in a very loose manner and held together only by
the person of the hero" (p. lii). Tolkien maintains that
; Beowulf achieves unity through the monsters, which—
contrary to earlier opinion— are not blemishes in the
poem or unfortunate lapses in the artistic judgment of
the poet, but are representations of evil and chaos. As
such, they are the center of action— again contrary to
earlier opinion, which held the digressions to be the
important, if neglected, epic material. He finds a
symbolic unity in the poem, a rise and fall, "a balance,
an opposition of ends and beginnings" (p. 8 1), and "the
18
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
19
' moving contrast of youth and age" (p. 82). Through this
^ study he perceives the real subject of the poem to be the
I tragedy of the human condition, the evil which man must
j contend with in his transitory life.
I
I The following year Tolkien published The Hobbit,
j which was an immediate critical success in England, as it
’ j was to become in the United States in 1938. It was a
I favorite with reviewers, librarians, and historians of
j children’s literature as well as with a small but sensi
tive group of children. It was not a financial success,
however, and after the initial acclaim it was ignored
except by the British reviewer Marcus Crouch^ until the
nineteen-fifties, when The Lord of the Rings appeared.
Since that time The Hobbit has been treated as a prologue
for children to a work of literature for adults.
The primary reason for this assessment is the tone
of the work: it is precious, sometimes condescending--the
posture an adult adopts on occasion with children on the
assumption that children expect it and enjoy it. As
ÏThe publication of Farmer Giles of Ham (London,
19^9) occasioned Crouch’s comment in Junior Bookshelf,
XIV (January 1950), 14-15, that The Hobbit was the
superior work. He followed with an evaluation of The=
Hobbit, "Another Don in Wonderland," Junior Bookshelf,
XIV (March 1950), 50-53, in which he concluded of
Tolkien’s place in children’s literature, "On the
strength of one book, his position is secure."
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
I 20
' ?
i Tolkien has ruefully admitted, the tone was a mistake:
it has put off many readers and caused others to perceive
I hut little substance in the work. Because of the tone,
»
I readers have seen the fantasy as only a series of adven
tures dealing with trolls, goblins, elves, and a dragon.
Of course it is such a series— but a series of encounters
i
I with increasingly dangerous adversaries. It Is also the
! history of an unpromising hero who develops surprising
I and unexpected abilities, the tale of a thief acting from
honorable motives who betrays his leader but is still un
able to prevent bloodshed, and the report of a leader over
come by greed who through folly destroys himself and a
host of good folk. The Hobbit, then, is an examination
of evil on two basic levels: man's encounter with evil
imposed by external situations and man's confrontation
with evil nourished by internal circumstances.
Tolkien has been fortunate enough to reconstruct
Beowulf twice, in his criticism and in his fantasy.
Application of his criticism of Beoivulf to The Hobbit
illustrates what he finds significant in Beowulf and
Philip Norman quotes Tolkien:
"'The Hobbit' was written in what I should now regard
as bad style, as if one were talking to children.
There's nothing my children loathed more. They taught
me a lesson. Anything that in any way marked out 'The
Hobbit' as for children;instead of just for people they
disliked— instinctively. I did too, now that I think
about it." (p. 100)
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
2 1
demonstrates the theories upon which he created The
Hohhit.
Tolkien suggests that much criticism of Beowulf
misses the mark because of an all too common study
technique:
The habit, for instance, of pondering a summarized
plot of Beowulf, denuded of all that gives it a
particular force or individual life, had encouraged
the notion that its main story is wild, or trivial,
or typical, even after treatment. Yet all stories, ;
great and small, are one or more of these three j
things in such nakedness" (p. 62, Tolkien's emphasis). {
Whether one agrees with the adjectives applied to the main
story, or would substitute a more neutral one— "simple,"
for instance— he sees that the summarized plot does
reduce Beowulf to a series of encounters between man and
monsters, which is also, in summary, the plot of The
Hobbit. This is not to disparage these works, but to show
their relationship to the broad class of stories that C.
S. Lewis calls "myths," stories that "always have a very
simple narrative shape, like a good vase or a tulip.
Such a simple narrative shape allows Beowulf to
examine the problems of good and evil that man encounters
within Time by setting a human being against the repre
sentatives of evil and chaos, beginning with the lesser—
or more human— and progressing to the greater and more
abstract. Tolkien states:
p. 42
3An Experiment in Criticism (Cambridge, 1$65),
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
2 2
If the dragon is the right end for Beowulf . . . then
Grendel is an eminently suitable beginning. They are
creatures, feond mancynnes (enemies of mankind), of a
similar order and kindred significance. Triumph over
the lesser and more nearly human is cancelled by
defeat before the older and more elemental. And the
conquest of the ogres comes at the right moment: not
in earliest youth, though the nicors are referred to
in Beowulf’s geoge&feore (youth) as a presage of the
kind of hero we have to deal with; and not during the
later period of recognized ability and prowess, but
in that first moment, which often comes in great lives,
when menilook up in surprise and see that a hero has
unawares leaped forth. The placing of the dragon is
inevitable: a man can but die upon his death day.
(p. 86)
The Hobbit examines the problems of good and evil
through the same devices. There is a series of adventures
with creatures similar to Grendel and his mother, the
adventures neatly interwoven to conform to Tolkien’s per
ception of them as "the conquest of the ogres." The ogres
in The Hobbit are based on the catalog in Beowulf of the
descendants of Cain. The adventures concern these various
creatures— trolls, giants, and orcneas, primarily— but are
patterned on the various incidents told of Grendel and his
mother. For instance, the trolls function as the early
Grendel on a twelve-year foray, the goblins as the late
Grendel smitten in Heorot. There is a retelling of the
contest with the nicors, but here it is in mid-career and
comes at the right moment to presage the kind of hero in
our midst when Bilbo develops confidence in himself through
saving his companions from the giant spiders. And there
is the inevitable placing of the dragon at the end. That
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
23
the dragon does not triumph over all in The Hobbit is j
, because the story is modified by Tolkien’s theory of
I fairy stories and his Christian perspective. We have the
I consolation of the happy ending rather than, as Tolkien
; perceives of Beowulf, an elegy for a man who is brave and
j doomed.
The story of Beowulf is enhanced and made more
I
; significant by his having foes that are inhuman. ;
; !
I According to Tolkien, I
j It glimpses the cosmic and moves with the thought of
all men concerning the fate of human life and efforts; |
it stands amid but above the petty wars of princes, I
and surpasses the dates and limits of historical per- I
iods, however important, (p. 8 7) |
The historical material, therefore, is properly "on the '
outer edges of in the background" (p. 8 5), because
"Beowulf was not designed to tell the tale of Hygelac’s
fall, or for that matter to give the whole biography of
Beowulf, still less to write the history of the Geatish
kingdom and its downfall" (p. 8 5). Nor is The Hobbit
designed to tell of the eternal warfare between goblins
and dwarves, nor of the whole biography of any of its
important characters, nor of the history of the elves and
their passing kingdom, though these are on the periphery.
But The Hobbit employs this material in the way Tolkien |
says that Beowulf does: "It used knowledge of these things |
for its own purpose— to give that sense of perspective, of i
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
24
: antiquity with a greater and yet darker antiquity
, behind" (p. 8 5). Even reviewers who show no close
I familiarity with the Northern myths have commented on the
I sense of history and the fullness of creation in The
j Hobbit.'^
Î This brings us to Tolkien's use of the word
i "myth," which he does not attempt to disentangle from
I "folk-tale" on the reasonable basis that the latter de
rives from the former or in poetic hands is capable of
turning into the former (p. 6 3). He states:
The significance of a myth is not easily to be
pinned on paper by analytical reasoning. It is at
its best when it is presented by a poet who feels
rather than makes explicit what his theme portends;
who presents it incarnate in the world of history
and geography, as our poet has done. Its defender is
thus at a disadvantage: unless he is careful, and
speaks in parables, he will kill what he is studying
by vivisection, and he will be left with a formal or
mechanical allegory, and, what is more, probably with
one that will not work. For myth is alive at once
and in all its parts, and dies before it can be
dissected, (pp. 63-64)
In Beowulf the theme is presented incarnate, "a
man faced with a foe more evil than any human enemy" yet
"walking in heroic history and treading the named lands
“ ^The finest review was "A World for Children,"
Times Literary Supplement, October 2, 1937a p. 714, which
contained the prophetic statement: "Prediction is danger
ous: but 'The Hobbit' may well prove a classic." In the
United States two of the early and perceptive reviews were
written by Anne Carroll Moore and Anne Thaxter Eaton and
both appeared in the same issue of The Horn Book Magazine,
XIV (March 1938), 92 and 94.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
25
of the North" (p. 66). It is not necessary that the man
, he greater than life— that he is a man is tragedy enough
I (p. 68). But it is necessary that the final evil be
I represented by a dragon, which is "a personification of
1 malice, greed, destruction (the evil side of heroic life),
; and of the undiscriminating cruelty of fortune that dis-
: tinguishes not good or bad (the evil aspect of all life)"
j (p. 66).
Although the theme is the same, the resolution is
different. In both there is the "exaltation of undefeated
will" (p. 66), so that in Beowulf "we may see man at war
with the hostile world, and his inevitable overthrow in
Time" (p. 6 7). In The Hobbit, too, we see the individual
matched against the hostile world, but we see a different
conclusion: man under a new dispensation, redeemed man.
But this is the result of Tolkien's literary aesthetic
ias expressed in "On Pairy-Stories" and will be discussed
in its place.
One question must be raised: "Who in The Hobbit
is a representation of Beowulf, who is the epic hero?"
The answer is deceptively simple: the characteristics of
Beowulf are dispersed among several of the individuals in
the fantasy; there is, as such, no Beowulf, and certainly
no epic hero. This could be expected from Tolkien's com
mentary on the Old English poem:
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
26
Beowulf is not an 'epic', not even a magnified i
'lay'. No terms borrowed from Greek or other !
literatures exactly fit: there is no reason why
they should. Though if we must have a term, we
should choose rather 'elegy'. It is an heroic-
elegiac poem; and in a sense all its first 3 ,1 3 6
lines are the prelude to a dirge: him Ipa gegiredan
Geata leode ad ofer eor&an unwaclicne [then the
people of the Geats made ready for him a splendid
pyre on the eartl^r one of the most moving ever
written. But for the universal significance which
is given to the fortunes of its hero it is an
enhancement and not a detraction, in fact it is
necessary, that his final foe should be...a dragon.
(p. 85)
If Beowulf is not an epic, then its fantasy-double cer- |
tainly does not require an epic hero. The important con
cept seems to be "the universal significance which is |
given to the fortunes of its hero." Thus, the emphasis is |
on the events and their significance to all human beings. I
The characteristics associated with an epic hero--a figure i
i
bigger than life— can be parceled out among various indi
viduals, and the hero can be on a smaller scale— even a !
much smaller scale.
Further points of comparison between Tolkien's
criticism of Beowulf and his recreation of it in The
Hobbit will be discussed as they arise in the examination
of the narrative structure of The Hobbit, which is direct,
chronological, and unconfusing. The structure, of course,
is quite different from that of Beowulf, where there are
frequent digressions in time and space. As Tolkien
I reminds us, "Judgment of the theme goes astray through
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
! 27 '
! • i
considering it as the narrative handling of a plot: and it i
, seems to halt and stumble. Language and verse, of course, I
f i
i differ from stone or wood or paint, and can be only heard
; or read in a time-sequence; so that in any poem that deals
at all with characters and events some narrative element
I must be present. We have none the less in Beowulf a
! method and structure that within the limits of the verse-
! :
: kind approaches rather to sculpture or painting. It is a |
‘ j
composition not a tune" (p. 84). In The Hobbit Tolkien i
has simplified the chronology by integrating incidents and
allusions that in Beowulf fall out of the normal time-
sequence, being references either to past events or
future possibilities. He has made the events linear by
transposing material in Beowulf. i
I As these general remarks have suggested, Tolkien '
I I
' employs specific techniques for his recreation of Beowulf j
in The Hobbit. He has followed the general outline of
Beowulf by having the plot consist of a series of encount-
terswith non-human adversaries of increasing significance
and danger. He has included the peripheral historic
material. He has distributed the characteristics of
different individuals in Beowulf over various groups and
individuals in The Hobbit. He has expanded casual
references in the poem into important concepts in the
fantasy. He has made consistent use of the rhetorical
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
28
devices of expansion, transposition, variation, and nega
tion or statement of the contrary.
Chapter I ("An Unexpected Party") introduces "the |
company," outlines the past history of the dwarves,
defines the activities to be undertaken by the company,
and foreshadows some of the dangers to be met. It is
roughly equivalent to the materials in the introduction and
the first fitt of Beowulf. The tone of adult condescen
sion, especially in this first chapter, has unfortunately !
put off many readers who have not been able to get past itj
Bilbo Baggins, a conventional member of his so- |
ciety at the beginning of the tale, loves peace and quiet, |
food and drink, laughter and parties, and the giving and I
I
receiving of gifts. He looks with suspicion on strangers |
and wanderers and feels discomfort at the thought of his |
mother's side of the family— the Took side— because some
of its members had actually gone on adventures. That
Bilbo Baggins is a hobbit, smaller than a dwarf, inclined
toward rotundity and addicted to bright clothes, is a
circumstance easily accepted by the reader because of the
presentational realism, whether or not he is bothered by
the tone.
The unprepossessing appearance and attitude of the
hero is of course nothing unusual in the medieval conven
tions of picturing the hero's youth; indeed they are
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
29
almost compulsory attributes. Even Beowulf's unpromising
, youth is referred to once (11. 2 1 8 3-8 9) after his
I successful adventures with Grendel and his dam.
I Gandalfj a wandering wizard and Bilbo's first
I unexpected guest, informs him on a memorable spring morn-
I ing that he will be sent off adventuring. Bilbo recoils,
! horrified and incredulous, but is even more distressed the
I
I next day by the arrival of strangers— twelve dwarves
I followed by their chief, Thorin Oakenshield, son of Thrain
son or Thror, who was the last King under the Mountain
before the coming of the dragon.
Most of their names, as well as Gandalf's, come
from a catalog of dwarves interpolated into the Voluspa
(stanzas 11-15). It is interesting which names are
chosen. "Gandalf" means "magic elf" and is certainly
appropriate. He is mentioned in the same stanza (12) as
Thrain, Thorin, and Thror— names suitable for members of
1
the same Germanic family because they alliterate. There j
!
are two dwarves named Oakenshield. Bifur, Bofur, and ;
!
Bombur, introduced in that order in The Hobbit and in the |
I
Voluspa (stanza 11), are related to each other but are not j
I
kinsmen of Thorin. In the genealogy in The Lord of the j
Rings we learn that they "were descended from Dwarves |
5The Voluspa, and the other Icelandic works named
here are available in The Poetic Edda, tr. Henry Adams
Bellows (London, I9 2 3).
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
i 30
I
of Moria but were not of Durin's line" (III, 4-50). Nori,
, Orij and Dori are identified in the same genealogy as "of
i the House of Durin^ and more remote kinsmen of Thorin."
; Nori appears in the Voluspa (stanza 11) and Ori and Dori
; appear together there (stanza 15) and in the Svipdagsmol
i (stanza 5 0), where they are identified as makers of a great
' hall. Thorin’s other companions, closer kinsmen, are three
\ ■ ■
- sets of brothers: Gin and Gloin, Balin and Dwalin, and ,
; I
I Fili and Kili. Gin is identified in the Reginsmol
i (stanza 2) as the father of Andvari, dwarf-turned-fish, and
Gloin is just a name in the Voluspa catalog (stanza 15), I
though in The Lord of the Rings he will be named the father
of Gimli, one of the nine companions whose duty is to !
destroy the Ring of Power (.1, 315). Balin's name does not ;
I
occur in the eddas, but Dwalin’s does. In fact, Dwalin is
among the most important of the dwarves. In the Voluspa, ;
I
I Gloin, Dori, Ori, and Eikinskjaldi— Oakenshield— are j
identified as members of "The race of the dwarfs in
Dvalin’s throng" (stanza l4). In Hovamol Dvalin isi the
creator of runes for the dwarves (stanza l44). References
to Dvalin in Alvissmol (stanza 1 6) and Fafnismol (stanza
1 3) indicate he was one of the progenitors of the race.
Fili and Kili, linked in the Voluspa (stanza 13), are the
sons of Thorin’s sister, unnamed in The Hobbit, but
identified as "Dis" in the genealogy (III, 450), a word
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
! 31
!
. meaning simply "female" in Old Icelandic. The point of
J this is that Tolkien has been selective in his use of the
I catalog--choosing names that alliterate or have end
j rhyme to identify family membership and that indicate
I kinship through juxtaposition.
I The throngJ indifferent to Bilbo's shock and con-
i fusion, turn an afternoon tea into a evening party follow-
! ed by an overnight stay. In the course of the party,
I Bilbo finds that Gandalf has assured the dwarves that the
hobbit is a burglar--a foreshadowing of his role as thief
of the dragon's cup. And he is taunted into boasting of
his ancestory (on the Took side) and thereby commits him
self to accompanying the dwarves on the adventure to slay
the dragon guarding the dwarvish trove under the Mountain
and to reclaim the treasure. Gandalf provides a map and
a key taken long before from Thrain as he lay dying in the
mines of Moria, a prisoner of the goblins. The chapter
ends with a review of the dwarves' histroy; their kingdom
under the Mountain; their craftsmanship with metals and
jewels; the descent of the dragon Smaug, who destroyed
the dwarves and the men of Dale; and his continuing to
sleep on the hoard of gold and "to carry away people,
especially maidens, to eat" (p. 3 6).
But what of Bilbo, who keeps protesting that he
has never stolen anything in his life? Naturally the
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
3 2
dwarves prefer to believe Gandalf, once he has explained
why they cannot simply make a frontal attack on the
dragon:
’That would be no good,’ said the wizard, ’not
without a mighty Warrior, even a Hero. I tried
to find one; but warriors are busy fighting one
another in distant lands, and in this neighborhood
heroes are scarce, or simply not to be found.
Swords in these parts are mostly blunt, and axes
are used for trees, and shields as cradles or dish-
covers; and dragons are comfortably far-off (and
therefore legendary). That is why I settled on
burglary— especially when I remembered the existence
of a Side-door. And here is our little Bilbo
Baggins, the burglar, the chosen and selected
burglar, (pp. 33-34)
The dwarves need to believe Gandalf, if they are to re
trieve their treasure, regain their ancient kingdom, and
bring down vengeance on the dragon. But for Bilbo, "The
Tookishness was wearing off, and he was not now quite so
sure that he was going on any journey in the morning"
(p. 3 8). He fell asleep to have uncomfortable dreams
listening to Thorin humming to himself:
Far over the misty mountains cold
To dungeons deep and caverns old
We must away, ere break of day
To find our long-forgotten gold, (pp. 38-39)
Chapter I is strong on narrative, setting the
theme, introducing the main characters, and foreshadowing
the adventures that must follow. It is also roughly
equivalent to the opening of Beowulf. The history of the
dwarves closely parallels the introduction and first fitt,
which refer to the glory and prowess of the Danish chiefs
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
I 33 I
I I
in ancient tradition, and especially of Scyld, a helpless
j foundling who becomes a successful conqueror, receiving
I tribute even from those across the sea, and was renowned
i !
I ;
I among all people (11. 1-52); to the successful reigns that
followed (11. 5 3-63)5 to the increase in the number of
I young warriors serving Hrothgar because of his battle-
i glory and his graciousness (11. 64-73); to the building
I of the hall of Heorot and the distribution of rings and I
: i
j treasure (11. 74-81). Allowing for the differences in I
emphasis and circumstances between a martial Viking culture
and a mercantile dwarvish one, we can see the parallel
between the first 73 lines of Beowulf and this passage in i
The Hobbit, in which Thorin is speaking:
'Long ago in my grandfather Thror's time our family
was driven out of the far North, and came back with |
all their wealth and their tools to this Mountain on
the map. It had been discovered by my far ancestor, |
Thrain the Old, but now they mined and they
tunnelled and they made huger halls and greater work
shops— and in addition I believe they found a good
deal of gold and a great many jewels too. Anyway
they grew immensely rich and famous, and my grand
father was King under the Mountain again and treated
with great reverence by the mortal men, who lived
to the South, and were gradually spreading up the
Running River as far as the valley overshadowed by
the Mountain. They built the merry town of Dale
there in those days. Kings used to send for our
smiths, and reward even the least skillful most
richly. Fathers would beg us to take their sons as
apprentices, and pay us handsomely, especially in
food-supplies, which we never bothered to grow or
find for ourselves. Altogether those were good days
for us, and the poorest of us had money to spend and
to lend, and leisure to make beautiful things just
for the fun of it, not to speak of the most marvellous
and magical toys, the like of which is not to be found
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
34
in the world now-a-days,. So my grandfather's halls
became full of armor and jewels and carvings and
cups, and the toy-market of Dale was the wonder of
the North.' (pp. 34-35)
Even though the version quoted is from the revised
Ballantine edition, and represents Tolkien's latest
thoughts on the fortunes of the dwarves, the similarity
to the opening of Beowulf is evident. In the original
version the dwarves did not return to an older home, but
simply came to the Mountain, and simply made "huge halls"
and "great workshops"; they did not have earlier ones
to be enlarged.
As Grendel is maddened at the revelry in hall—
^) 6re waga hearpan sweg, swutol sang scopes [there was the
sound of the harp, the clear song of the minstrelQ
(11. 8 9-9 0)— so is Smaug enflamed by the dwarves' wealth,
though he can no more appreciate it than Grendel can
appreciate the sound of rejoicing at Heorot. As Thorin
explains :
'Dragons steal gold and jewels, you know, from men
and elves and dwarves, wherever they can find them;
and they guard their plunder as long as they live
(which is practically forever, unless they are
killed), and never enjoy a brass ring of it. Indeed
they hardly know a good bit of work from a bad, though
they usually have a good notion of the current market
value; and they can't make a thing for themselves, not
even mend a little loose scale of their armour.'
(p. 35)
The dwarves, having brooded long enough over their |
loss, are prepared to avenge themselves on Smaug, making
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
I 35
I
arrangements that include Gandalf and Bilbo. So it is
, that a band of fifteen assembles, echoing the situation
! in Fitt III:
Haafde se goda
cempan gecorone
findan mihte;
sundwudu sôhte.
Gêata lêoda
para Ve hê cénoste
fiftÿna sum
(11. 2 0 5-208a)
[The hero had chosen champions from the people of
the Geats, from the boldest he could find, one of
fifteen he went to the ship.]
j In Beowulf there follows a passage of undeniable
beauty describing the embarcation of the well-equipped
warriors, the crossing of the sea by these heroes on their
eagerly-sought adventure, and their coming to the steep
mountains at the end of their journey (11. 210-228).
Chapter II ("Roast Mutton") opens with a gentle parody.
Bilbo complains that he does not have any pocket-handker
chiefs with him and is uncomfortable at what his father
I would have thought of him, tricked out in "a dark-green
hood (a little weather-stained) and a dark-green cloak
borrowed from Dwalin" (p. 42). Tolkien describes the
journey of the company in a fine example of prose in
which the narration bears the description as modification.
The very minor revisions in the second Ballantine edition
are instructive of the means Tolkien uses to alter the
tone and change the direction of a passage. Light ele
ments are eliminated and dark ones stressed. Tinkers,
for instance, representing the ordinary affairs that
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without
permission.
3 6
consume much of everyday life, are omitted. So are elves,
who in The Lord of the Rings achieve a noble and unearthly
status; they are no longer common travelers seen ambling
along country roads. "Places" becomes "lands," which in
turn become the "Lone-lands." "Hills" become, through
addition, "dreary hills...dark with trees." Even the
weather, described originally as taking a "nasty turn," is
described more specifically as "cold and wet." There is a
heightening of effect in the increased specificity in the
descriptions of evil places and menacing weather. The
original passage is printed on the left and the revision
on the right:
Things went on like
this for quite a long
while. There was a good
deal of wide respectable
country to pass through,
inhabited by decent re
spectable folk, men or
hobbits or elves or what
not, with good roads, an
inn or two, and every now
and then a dwarf, or a
tinker, or a farmer ambl
ing by on business.
But after a time they
came to places where
people spoke strangely,
and sang songs Bilbo had
never heard before.
Inns were rare and not
good, the roads were
worse, and there were
hills in the distance
rising higher and higher.
At first they had :
passed through hobbit- !
lands, a wild respectable;
country inhabited by I
decent folk, with good
roads, an inn or two, andi
now and then a dwarf or a|
farmer ambling by on
business.
Then they came to lands
where people spoke
strangely, and sang songs
Bilbo had never heard
before.
Now they had gone on far
into the Lone-lands,
where there were no
people left, no inns, and
the roads grew steadily
worse. Not far ahead
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
37
There were castles on
some of the hills, and
many looked as if they
had not been built for
any good purpose.
Also the weather which
had often been as good
as May can be, even in
tales and legends, took
a nasty turn.
’To think it is
June the first tomorrow,'
grumbled Bilbo...
were dreary hills, |
rising higher and higher,i
dark with trees.
On some of them were old
castles with an evil
look, as if they had been
built by wicked people.
Everything seemed
gloomy, for the weather
that day had taken a
nasty turn. Mostly it
had been as good as May
can be, even in merry
tales, but now it was
cold and wet.
In the Lone-lands they
had to camp when they
could, but at least it
had been dry.
'To think it will
soon be June,'
grumbled Bilbo...
(pp. 42-43)
Tolkien's excellent sense of style and awareness
j
of tone are manifest even in these very slight revisions.
I His modifications throughout The Hobbit reflect his
I sensitivity.
In both versions, Tolkien concludes not with
glistening promontories but with "a light shining, a
reddish, comfortable-looking light, as it might be a fire
or torches twinkling" (p. 44). But they are in a strange
country, and justifiably fearful, since they are not
Geatish warriors. After all, as some of the company
observe, "'Travelers seldom come this way now. The old
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
! 38
!
'maps are no use; things have changed for the worse and
, the road is unguarded’" (p. 45).^
The company has had its first set-back, having
lost a pony that took fright and leaped into the river
with his pack and almost drowned Fili and Kili when they
I unsuccessfully attempt to rescue him. Gandalf has gone
; off on some private business and the rest are left to make
' • their own camp— the first time on the journey— and every
thing is so wet that even dwarves cannot start a fire.
When they see the light, they decide Bilbo should go and
find out, in Thorin’s words, "’if all is safe and canny’"
(p. 45).
Bilbo’s walk toward the fire takes him in the
direction of evil, his first encounter with monsters. It
I
j is his introduction to the evil creatures identified by
! the Beowulf-poet as the descendants of Gain;
I panon untydras ealle onwocon,
eotenas ond ylfe ond orcn^s,
swylch gigantas, pa wiŸ Gode wunnon
lange prâge. (11. 111-114)
[From thence sprang all bad breeds, trolls and elves
and monsters— likewise the giants who for a long time
strove against God .j
^The original reading, retained through the first
Ballantine edition, states that "Policemen never come so
far, and the map-makers have not reached this country yet."!
The statement is not in accord with The Lord of the Rings, |
which indicates the Rangers had long patrolled the land. !
The alteration illustrates Tolkien’s usual economy in |
revision. I
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
39
From this passage comes the organizing principle for the
, rest of this chapter and for the next two. The monsters
i increase in significance with each encounter. The
i eotenasJ here translated "trolls," though it also is used
i in the sense of "giants," confront the company first,
j Then the ylfe, though the elves are removed by Tolkien
: from the catalog of monsters— traditional of the Germanic
I attitude— and placed because of their increased signifi
cance and different function in the Celtic tradition of
the Good People. They are followed by the orcneas, which
Tolkien calls in his criticism "ogres" but in The Hobbit
"goblins." In The Lord of the Rings the "goblins" become
"ores," larger and fiercer creatures in the service of
the Dark Lord.
In the clearing where the fire burns. Bilbo
I encounters three trolls with the improbable- names of
Bert, Tom, and William, who are quite low in the hierarchy
of evil, but are evil nonetheless. They have been employe
over a considerable period of time in decimating the
villages and driving away the survivors, until there is
little left for them to eat except sheep, and "Never a
blinking bit of manflesh have we had for long enough"
(p. 46). Allowing for the difference in tone, which is
considerable, the content is very much the same as the
opening of Fitt II of Beowulf (11. II5-I6 9), in which the
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
40
!
past history of Grendel is siiimnarized : for twelve years
he descended upon Heorot at his pleasure at night,
I
I carrying off as many warriors as he could eat, until the
j hall stood deserted: pà wæs ëa&fynde Pê him elles hw%r
1 gerümlîcor r^ste [sôhte] (thereafter it was easy to find
i
I the man who sought rest for himself elsewhere, farther
: away] (1 1. 138-139).
I In the poem the twelve years of depredation are a
i preliminary to Grendel's eventual death at the hands of
Beowulf; in The Hobbit the forays against the countryside
end with the destruction of the trolls. The destruction
is an example of the lesser evil overcome before the
greater is encountered.
Bilbo is captured by the trolls when he attempts
to steal their magical purse, and the dwarves are cap
tured one by one and sacked when they come to his rescue.
; The grand adventure seems about to end, and indeed would
I have, if escape had depended upon Bilbo or the dwarves.
When Gandalf, suddenly returned, imitates first one and
then another, fhe trolls quarrel about the method of
cooking and become violent with each other. He so diverts
and divides them that they dispute until daylight, and of
course in the daylight the trolls turn to stone (pp. 51-
52).
The company, let out of the sacks in which they
have been trussed, find the trolls' littered cave, filled
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
41
with food and plunder. Gandalf and Thorin take magic
swords with runic inscriptions; BiTbo, because of his size,
takes a dagger that serves him as a sword. The dwarves
take from the hoard a quantity of ale and food, and, after '
all have feasted, they sleep (p. 53). This passage is
roughly parallel to the reception at Heorot after the
killing of Grendel, recorded in Fitt XV. The hall
shattered by the monster in his attempt to escape (11. j
997-1002) becomes the cave scattered with a jumble of
untidy things. The gold-embroidered tapestries hanging
on the walls (11. 994-996) become clothing, too small
for trolls, hanging on the walls. In both poem and story
there is the giving of gifts (11. 1012-34) and the
drinking and feasting (11. 1008-19). Tolkien has given
a light touch to a serious theme--the overcoming of evil.
The chapter concludes with the mention of
Elrond's people— the Elves— in a favorable context and
reinforces the comparison with Beowulf. Grendel's early
depredations are like the trolls', who "had come down
from the mountains and settled in the woods not far from
the road; they had frightened everyone away from the
district, and they waylaid strangers" (p. 54).
The company's passage is longer in the telling,
for the headlands that signal to Beowulf (11. 221-223)
the end of his journey mark for the company the beginning
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
42
of an arduous search for the hidden valley which shelters
the Last Homely House of Elrond, Chapter III ("A Short
Rest").
Beowulf's arrival at Heorot is given all the
trappings demanded in epic narration, with the confronta
tion of the coast guard (11. 229-257), Beowulf's response
(11. 2 5 8-2 8 5), the coast guards permitting the troop to
continue (11. 2 8 6-3OO), and their advance on Heorot
(11. 3 0 1-3 1 9)• The tone is much altered in The Hobbit,
where the coast guard is replaced by a company of elves:
Just then there came a burst of song like laughter
in the trees:
01 What are you doing.
And where are you going?
Your ponies need shoeing1
The river is flowing!
01 tra-la-la-lally
here down in the valleyI (pp. 5 7-5 8)
How different is this from the passage in Beowulf :
Gewat him pa to waro)e
pegn Hrôâgâres,
magenwudu mandum,
' Hwaat syndon gë
byrnum werede,
ofer lagustrâate
hider ofer holmas?
wicge ridan
Prymmum cwehte
mepelwordum fraegn:
s ear ohjebb endr a,
pe_pus brontne ceol
ladan cwômon,
(11. 234-240)
[Then he went to the shore, on his horse riding,
Hrothgar's thane, violently shook the mighty spear
in his hands, in formal words he questioned: 'What
are you, bearers of armor, dressed in coats of mail,
who have thus come leading a tall ship over the
waterways, hither over the se a s 7 'J
The rest of the passage in The Hobbit continues
in a light tone, with the elves, obviously aware of their
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
43
i
: mission, chafing the dwarves and finally leading them on
, foot across a narrow bridge iintil "at last they all came
i to the Last Homely House and found its doors flung wide"
; (p. 6 0).
! The praise given Hrothgar and Heorot in Fitt I and
I
: applied to the dwarves in Chapter I is echoed also in the
i remarks lauding Elrond and his house. Each passage be-
I gins with a brief family history. Hrothgar's ancestors
are named and his near relatives identified (1 1. 53-63).
i Elrond is placed in historical perspective:
The master of the house was an elf-friend--one of
those people whose fathers came into the strange
stories before the beginning of History, the wars
of the evil goblins and the elves and the first men
of the North, (p. 60)
I Hrothgar is pictured as a worthy successor--a man success-
I ful in battle, one whose retainers gladly obey him so
! that their company grows into a great band of warriors
(11. 64-67). Elrond is portrayed as one who also in
herited his kingdom:
In those days of our tale there were still some
people who had both elves and heroes of the North
for ancestors, and Elrond the master of the house
was their chief, (p. 6 0)
Elrond’s status depends, however, not upon success in
warfare alone:
He was a noble and as fair in face as an elf-lord,
as strong as a warrior, as wise as a wizard, as
venerable as a king of dwarves, and as kind as summer,
(p. 6o)
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
i 4 4
I Both kings have a dwelling, Hrothgar a mead-hall open to
I all his people for the distribution of gifts, the greatest
I of folk-houses renowned through middle earth ( 1 1. 67-8 1),
j and Elrond a peerless house for Tolkien's vision of
I Middle Earth:
I His house was perfect, whether you liked food, or
sleep, or work, or story-telling, or singing, or just
sitting and thinking best, or a pleasant mixture of
them all. Evil things did not come into that
valley, (p. 6 1)
In Chapter IV ("Over Hill and Under Hill"), on
leaving Elrond's house after rest and consultation, the
company approach the Misty Mountains, directed by Elrond's
advice and guided by Gandalf's knowledge and memory.
The giants, listed at the end of the catalog of
monsters in Beowulf (1. 113), are inserted here and are
mentioned again after the encounter with the goblins.
They are of the expected variety, big and dumb, the kind
used again by Tolkien in Farmer Giles of Ham and also by
7
C. S. Lewis in The Silver Chair. (This conception,
however, must have been unsatisfactory to Tolkien, for by
the time of The Lord of the Rings he had created a much
more complex creature— the ent, also an Old English word
meaning "giant"— who is a tree-ward and the oldest sen
tient being in middle earth.) In any case, the traditional
giant prevails in The Hobbit, "when storms come up from
^London and New York, 1953*
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
I ^ 5
: East and West and make war" (p. 6 5), and the company is
, forced to take shelter from the stone-giants, who "were
I hurling rocks at one another for a game, and catching
I them, and tossing them down into the darkness" (pp. 6 5-
i 66). The subsequent wind and rain and hail drive the
■ company to seek other shelter, and Fili and Kili locate
; a cave.
The cave is located in the Misty Mountains, a
I geographic feature Tolkien derived from the one mention
i of misthleopum in Beowulf : #a com of more under
misthleoAum Grendel gongan. Godes yrre bxr [Then came from
the moor under the misty hills Grendel walking, wearing
God’s anger] (11. 710-711). As Tolkien could construct
the mountains from a single reference, he could populate
I
I them with creatures almost as casually mentioned.
! The monsters, orcneas, are the other group
I included in the "evil breed" in Beowulf (11. 111-113).
They are developed into the goblins of The Hobbit and the
ores of The Lord of the Rings. In the later work they are
to be the soulless and vicious minions of the Dark Lord
Sauron, but in the earlier work they draw upon the tradi
tional connotations of the word "ore" or "ogre," which
have to do with the infernal region, specifically with the
Q
Latin "Orcus," the ruler of that region.
^Douglass Parker speculates on Tolkien’s naming of
names in "Hwaet We Holbytla," Hudson Review, IX (Winter,
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
46
It is instructive of Tolkien's method of creation
, to note how he has used the material in Fitts IX through
I XI1 of Beowulf, part of it here in Chapter IV and some
}later in Chapter Vll when he introduces Beorn. He has
magnified the single reference to "misty hills" (1 . 7 1 0)
to the "Misty Mountains," he has transported Heorot to a
I
I cavern in those mountains, and he has transformed Grendel
i
: into the goblins who carry off the company. In Beowulf
I there is hall-joy and boasting and discussion of what will
occur on the following day ( 1 1. 6 0 1-6 1 1); there is
Hrothgar, gamolfeax ond gû3rôf jgrey-haired and war-famed],
joyful in mood ( 1 1. 6 0 7-6 1 0); there is the cup (1 1. 61I-
6 2 8) and the promise of joyful deeds (1 1. 628-641); and
there is the preparation for the night (1 1. 642-661), a
night in which all expect that scaduhelma gesceapu
scrl3an cwoman wan under wolcnum [shadowy shapes of
I darkness should come gliding, black beneath the clouds]
( 1 1. 6 5 0-6 5 1).
The parallel passage in The Hobbit is developed by
contrast. The company explores the cave, which "seemed
1 9 5 6-7)5 598-6 0 9, and comments on both the Old English ore I
and the later occurrences of orco in Ariosto and Ore i
in Blake (p. 6 0 5, n. 4). My definitions of words are |
based on Klaeber, or on Joseph Bosworth's An Anglo-Saxon |
Dictionary, supplemented by T. Northcote Toller (Oxford, I
1 8 8 2), or on Richard Cleasby's An Icelandic-English i
Dictionary, ed. Gudbrand Vigfusson (Oxford, 1874). I
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
47
I quite a fair size, but not too large and mysterious. It
jhad a dry floor and some comfortable nooks" (p. 6 7).
I Their hall-joy consists of getting into dry clothes and
i
jmaking their blankets comfortable. Their venerable chief
I is grey-haired Gandalf amusing them with different colored
smoke rings. Their cheer they find in tobacco. "They
talked and talked, and forgot the storm, and discussed what
each would do with his share of the treasure . . . and so I
they dropped off to sleep one by one" (p. 6 7), not thinking!
of danger.
In Beowulf there is the formal entrusting of the ;
hall to the Geatish hero (11. 65I-66I), who has a special 1
mission--to keep watch for monsters (11. 662-668). He
strips himself of his armor and boasts he will meet
Grendel without sword (11. 6 6 9-6 8 7). There is none of
this in The Hobbit; or rather, there is the negation,
j There is a cursory examination of the cave at the beginning
with no thought of an attack. In one clause there is the
description of the company dropping off to sleep; in
Beowulf the description requires fifteen lines (11. 6 8 8-
7 0 2). In the retelling of the remainder of the attack,
the reduction from the heroic is extreme but the result
is not lacking in excitement.
In Beowulf, there is the description of the crea
ture of the shadows stalking in the night and being seen
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
I 48 !
i
: by only one— one awaiting in swelling rage (1 1. 7 0 2-70$);
, in The Hobbit is the contrario--the restless, dreaming
i Bilbo who sees a crack in the wall enlarging but is so
I
I afraid he cannot call out (pp. 6 7-6 8).
1 Certain statements in Beowulf (11. 710-724) are
^ relevant to The Hobbit: that this was not the first visit;
i
: that never before or since did Grendel discover, with
‘ worse luck, such hall-guards; that the door fell open to
his touch, the recedes müpan [mansion's mouth].
After the door falls open and Bilbo sees the
ponies's tails disappearing into a passage at the back of
the cave, he does give a yell and wake his companions,
but they are grabbed and carried off before they can even
I think of weapons (p. 6 8).
This is roughly parallel— if one substitutes
devoured ponies for one devoured sleeping Geat--to the
ipassage in which Grendel, at recedes mupan [mansion's
mouth], sees a troop of kinsmen sleeping all together and
snacks on one of them while Beowulf looks on (11. 724-745).
In the following passage Grendel and Beowulf come to hand
grips and the monster attempts to flee (11. 745-766). The |
parallel in The Hobbit has the goblins attacking Gandalf,
but when they "came to grab him, there was a terrific ..flash
like lightening in the cave, a smell like gunpowder, and !
!
several of them fell dead" (p. 6 8). The goblins flee with \
their prisoner, not waiting to discover what has happened I
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
i ' 49 i
i !
to Gandalf. ;
The inspiration for this is the description of j
j Grendel’s attempted escape: Hyge waes him hinfüs, wolde
j on heolster fleon, secan dëofla gedræg [His heart was
I eager to get away, he would flee to his cavern, seek his
I pack of devils] (11. 755-756).
In The Hobbit the goblins carry their prisoners
; into the crossed and tangled passages where "It was -deep, !
j deep, dark, such as only goblins that have taken to living I
!
j in the heart of the mountain can see throBèh" (p. 68).
The goblins "sing, or croak, keeping time with the flap of j
their flat feet on the stone .... It sounded truly
terrifying" (pp. 6 8-6 9). They push their prisoners into |
a big cavern "lit by a great red fire in the middle, and i
by torches along the walls, and it was full of goblins"
i
I (p. 6 9). The chief of these "wicked spoilers of men" is
idescribed (and in the hardback editions pictured):
!
There in the shadows on a large flat stone sat a
tremendous goblin with a huge head, and armed goblins
were standing round him carrying the axes and the
bent swords that they use. (p. 7 0)
Tolkien digresses to describe the clever objects
they make, "Hammers, axes, swords, daggers, pickaxes,
I
tongs, and also instruments of torture," and to suggest: I
^ I
It is not unlikely that they invented some of the |
machines that have since troubled the world, especially
the ingenious devices for killing large numbers of
people at once, for wheels and engines and explosions
always delighted them, and also not working with their
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
50
own hands more than they could help; but In those
days and those wild parts they had not advanced (as
it is called) so far. (p. 7 0)
This kind of telling rather than showing is more typical
of C. S. Lewis than of Tolkien, and something that Tolkien
dispenses with in The Lord of the Rings, where the de
structive results of Sauron's rule are pictured in an
industrial setting devoid of nature--a picturing much more
effective than is diatribe.
The special grudge the goblins have against
Thorin's people is alluded to (discussed under Chapter I),
and then there is the confrontation between the Great {
Goblin and Thorin, reminiscent of the Freawaru episode j
(11. 2024-2069) in Beowulf. In that, Beowulf digresses at I
the mention of Freawaru to speculate about the consequences!
of her bethrothal to IngeId, son of Froda, king of the
Heathobards, and concludes that the unfriendly feelings |
between the Heathobards and the Danish attendants will be
intensified by the presence of weapons carried by the
Danes but previously taken in battle from the Heathobards.
He speculates that the feud will be renewed when an old
warrior of the Heathobards draws Ingeld’s attention to a
sword that his father, Froda, had in his possession when
he was killed by the Danes.
The parallel passage in The Hobbit has the Great
Goblin interrogating Thorin, who is polite and evasive,
until one of the goblins who has driven the company into
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
51
j
! the cavern holds up "the sword which Thorin had worn, the
I sword which came from the Trolls’ lair" (p. 71). Recogni-
j tion of the sword--not a tribal relic here, but a well-
known enemy blade--brings an immediate reaction:
The Great Goblin gave a truly awful howl of rage
when he looked at it, and all his soldiers gnashed
their teeth, clashed their shields, and stamped.
They knew the sword at once. It had killed hundreds
of goblins in its time, when the fair elves of
Gondolin hunted them in the hills or did battle before
their walls. They had called it Orcrist, Goblin-
cleaver, but the goblins called it simply Biter.
They hated it and hated worse any one that carried
it. (pp. 7 1-7 2)
The goblins attack the company in consequence of this
recognition and the Great Goblin’s shouts of "murderers
and elf-friendsI" followed by his more specific directions
for their disposal.
The sequence of events moves from Fitts XXVIII
and XXIX— the Freawaru incident— back to Fitts XI and
! XII— the Grendel raid. The poet reminds his audience that
i
Heorot could withstand anything but the flame that would
destroy it: "nym^e llges faepm swulge on swa|?ule" (11.
7 8 1-7 8 2). In The Hobbit, when the Great Goblin rushes at
Thorin,
Just at that moment all the lights in the cavern
went out, and the great fire went off poof I into a
tower of blue glowing smoke, right up to the roof,
that scattered piercing white sparks all among the
goblins, (p. 7 2)
Tolkien draws upon the Beowulf-poet’s description of
Grendel's response:
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
niwe _geneahhe:
atelxc egesa,
ÿâra pe of wealle
gryreleôà" galan
sigeleasne sang,
helle hæfton.
Swêg up astag
Norï-Denum stÔd
ânra gehwylcum
w5p gehÿrdon.
Godes andsacan,
sâr wânigean
(1 1. 7 8 2-7 8 8)
52
[Noise rose up, strange and mighty. Upon the North-
Danes came horrible fear, upon every one who heard
the shrieking from the wall, heard God's adversary
sing his terrible song, song of defeat— the thrall of
hell bewailing his pain.J
Allowing for the difference in tone, which is understand
ably considerable, Tolkien repeats the description in The
Hobbit;
The yells and yammering, croaking, jibbering and
jabbering; howls, growls and curses; shrieking
and skriking, that followed were beyond descrip
tion. (p. 7 2)
Tolkien goes on to describe the chaos and then has
Gandalf materialize with the sword of Glamdring, the Foe-
hatnmer, which "the goblins just called Beater, and hated
worse than Biter if possible" (p. 73)- This is the ealde
lafe (1. 795)— the ancient relic--of Beowulf, but here it
is proof against the demon. And here Gandalf is no epic
hero who must prove himself in bare-handed combat:
Suddenly a sword flashed in its own light. Bilbo
saw it go right through the Great Goblin as he stood
dumbfounded in the middle of his rage. He fell dead,
and the goblin soldiers fled before the sword
shrieking into the darkness. (p. 72)
Within the context of the fantasy, this is a fair render
ing of the epic description of the mortal wounding of
Grendel fâg wiS God [at feud with God] (1. 8II):
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
_ _ 53
Licsar gebad
atol ^glSca; him on eaxle wear3
syndolh sweotol, seohowe onsprungon,
burston banlocan. ( 1 1. 8 1 5-8 1 8)
[The horrible monster endured body pain, in his
shoulder a deadly wound was exposed, his sinews
sprang apart, his Joints burst.]
Freed by Gandalf, the company flees through the
i
; passages toward an exit known to the wizard. The dwarves
take turns carrying the poor hobbit. At one point Gandalf
I and Thorin fall behind to stand off a hord of goblins
I (p. 74), but on the next attack the company is surprised
I and Bilbo is knocked unconscious and inadvertently left
behind in the dark.
In these first four chapter of The Hobbit Tolkien
has employed the rhetorical devices we can consider
typical: much interweaving of incident, transposition of
material, elaboration of references, and distribution of
personal characteristics over a number of individuals.
Tolkien has drawn on much of the material in the first
1134 lines of Beowulf for these chapters, and what mater
ial he has omitted thus far he develops primarily in
Chapters V through VII.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
CHAPTER III
THE DESCENDANT OF CAIN
i Chapter V(*'Riddles in the Dark") introduces of
i all Tolkien’s creations the most fascinating, Gollum.
; Through the revisions of The Hobbit his part has been |
1 enlarged and his character made more evil to conform to
the necessities of The Lord of the Rings. I will first
examine the general role Gollum has in all the versions, j
as a monster partaking of the nature of the ogres in |
Beowulf and of the nature of Unferth; and then I will com- |
pare the versions of this chapter of The Hobbit to illus- j
trate Tolkien’s rhetorical techniques in transforming
; Gollum’s character, enlarging his role, and changing the j
i
j nature of the ring.
1 When Bilbo recovers from the blow on the head he
received in the attack by the goblins, he finds he is alone
in the dark and completely lost. Crawling along in what
he hopes is the right direction, he feels "a tiny ring of
cold metal lying on the floor of the tunnel. It was a
turning point in his career, but he did not know it" (p.
8 0). He slips it into his pocket and forgets about it.
54
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
55
’ He has also forgotten about his dagger, but locates it in
, a pocket when he hunts for matches for his tobacco and
discovers from its pale and dim shining that it is an
! elvish blade and that goblins are around, but at a dis-
I tance.
I He winds downward, past side tunnels, until
:"Suddenly without any warning he trotted splash into
! water I UghI It was icy cold" (p. 82). Bilbo treads,
j but with what a different footstep, the path trodden by
Hrothgar and Beowulf to the mere:
steap stanhli&o,
enge anpatas,
neowle naessas.
stige nearwe,
uncu? gelâd,
nicorhusa fela. (1 1. 1409-
1412)
[steep rocky slopes, a narrow road, a strait lonely
path, an unknown trail, steep hills, many a lair of
water-monsters.]
He determines that "it is a pool or a lake, and not an
underground river" (p. 8 2), but does not dare to wade out
into the darkness for fear of "nasty slimy things, with
big bulging blind eyes, wriggling in the water" (p. 8 3).
Earlier in Beowulf (Pitt XIII), the dying Grendel
had retreated to this very lake--on nicera mere [to the
water-monsters’ mere] (1. 845). Later (Fitt XXI), when
Hrothgar accompanies the warriors who go to see Beowulf
kill Grendel's dam, the poet describes the inhabitants of
the mere:
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Gesàwon æfter w&tere
sellice sëdracan
swylce on nî&shleoîf-um
"Sâ on undernmsel
sorhfulne s%
wyrmas ond wildëor.
56
wyrmcynnes fela,
sund cunnian,
nieras licgean,
oft bewltiga^
on seglrâde,
(11. 1425-1430)
[Then they beheld on the water many of the reptile
race, wondrous sea-dragons exploring the deep, and
also on the slopes of the shore water-monsters lying,
like those who at morning-time often keep their
disaster-bringing course over the paths of the sea,
serpents and wild beastsJ
The parallel passage in The Hobbit has water-
monsters of more modest dimensions and less fearful
1 activities:
There are strange things living in the pools and
lakes in the hearts of mountains: . fish whose fathers
swam in, goodness only knows how many years ago, and
never swam out again, while their eyes grew bigger
and bigger and bigger from trying to see in the
blacknessj also there are other things more slimy
than fish. Even in the tunnels and caves the goblins
have made for themselves there are other things living
unbeknown to them that have sneaked in from outside
to lie up in the dark. Some of these caves, too, go
back in their beginnings to ages before the goblins,
who only widened them and joined them up with
passages, and the original owners are still there in
odd corners, slinking and nosing about, (p. 8 3)
The strangest inhabitant is Gollum, a fallen creature we
are to learn, who is even more depraved than the goblins:
He was looking out of his pale lamp-like eyes for
blind fish, which he grabbed with his long fingers
as quick as thinking. He liked meat too. Goblin
he thought good when he could get it: but he took
care they never found him out. He just throttled
them from behind, if they ever came down alone any
where near the edge of the water, while he was
prowling about. They very seldom did, for they had
a feeling that something unpleasant was lurking down
there, down at the very roots of the mountain. They
had come on the lake, when they were tunneling down
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
57
long ago, and they found they could go no further;
so there their road ended in that direction, and
, there was no reason to go that way— unless the
; Great Goblin sent them. Sometimes he took a fancy
I for fish from the lake, and sometimes neither
goblin nor fish came back. (pp. 83-84)
I In the course of the chapter we are to surmise that he
I had been a hobbit, one who played at riddles in his
! distant past, and that
I Asking them, and sometimes guessing them, had been
' the only game he had ever played with other funny
creatures sitting in their holes in the long, long
I ago, before the goblins came, and he was cut off
' from his friends far under the mountains, (p. 8 5)
i
We are to learn that any memories Gollum can bring up
are of that very distant past, "of ages and ages and ages
before, when he lived with his grandmother in a hole in
a bank by a river" (p. 8 6), of time spent "thieving from
nests long ago" (p. 8 7).
Gollum's situation reminds us of that feond on
; helle [fiend in hell] (1. 101) introduced in Fitt I;
wKs se grimma gSst ^Grendel haten,
mSre mearcstapa, se moras heold,
fen ond faesten; fxfelcynnes eard
wonsâêlT wer weardode hwile,
sip&an him Scyppend forscrifen haefde
in Caines cynne— pone cwealm gewrKc
ece Drihten, __ _ paes J^e he Abel slog;
ne gefeah he pSre fShSTe, ac hé hine feor forwratq
Me tod for Pÿ mâne mancynne fram.
(11. 102-110)
[That grim spirit was called Grendel, known as a
rover on the boarders, one who held the moors, the
fen and fastness; unhappy creature, he dwelt for a
while in the lair of the race of water-monsters,
after the Creator had condemned them as kin of
Cain. The eternal Lord avenged the murder in which
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
5 8
he slew Abel; he had no joy in that fend, but He
banished him far from mankind, the Ruler, for that
crime.]
I Here Gollum partakes of the nature of Grendel. He has
I also certain similarities to Unferth and to Grendel’s dam,
similarities that are inconspicuously drawn.
Unferth attempts to stir up strife with Beowulf
by challenging his past performance in a swimming match
; with Brecca (11. 499-528). Beowulf's response, which puts
I the incident in a far different perspective (1 1. 5 2 9-5 8 1),
i Tolkien reserves for a later chapter in The Hobbit, where
he transforms it into the fight with the giant spiders.
But Unferth's challenge and Beowulf's allusion to
Unferth's having killed his own brothers and his being a
coward (11. 5 8I-6 0 1) Tolkien develops in "Riddles in the
Dark."
In his introduction to the Clark Hall translation,
Tolkien discusses the problem in translating from Old
English verse the descriptive compounds, "which, if they
are seldom in fact 'unnatural,' are generally foreign to
our present literary and linguistic habits" (p. xi). One
of his examples is the key term in understanding
Unferth's conduct, and in relating Gollum's conduct to it;
More difficult are such cases as onband beadurune
in 5 0 2, used of the sinister counsellor, Unferth, and
rendered 'gave vent to secret thoughts of strife.'
Literally it means 'unbound a battle-rune (or battle-
runes).' What exactly is implied is not clear. The
expression has an antique air, as if it had descended
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
59
from an older time to our poet: a suggestion lingers
of the spells by which men of wizardry could stir up
storms in a clear sky. (xi)
I Me think too, of Grendel described as a hell-sorcerer
I after he has been identified as a predator upon the
i inhabitants of the hall:
(ac se)_3eglâéca
deorc dea^scua,
seomade ond syredej
mistige môras;
hwyder helrunan
êhtende wafe,
dugupe ond geogope,
sinnihte heold
men ne cunnon,
hwyrf turn scrip a S'.
(11. 159-163)
[For the monster, the dark death-shadow, was relent
less against young and old, lay in wait and ambushed
them. In endless night he held the misty moors: men
know not where hell-sorcerers at times wander.]
In the character of Gollum Tolkien combined the hell-
sorcerer and the quarrelsome counselor. Me see Grendel
as the night-stalker ambushing the unsuspecting warriors;
we hear him called one of the helrunan, one of the hell-
counselors. Me see Unferth as the fratricide who must
contend with more fortunate men; we observe him challeng
ing another to strife.
Gollum, then, "unbound a battle rune" in
suggesting a riddle contest. Beadurune can be glossed
"war-secret" or "quarrel" and rune means, among other
possibilities, a "whispered confidence," a "mystery,"
"magical writing," and of course a "riddle."
Bilbo finds himself in the dark exchanging
riddles with this creature— common, everyday riddles
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
60
dealing with ordinary and common events and objects, much ;
like the riddles recorded in the saga of King Hiedrek, j
2
which has been translated by Tolkien’s son Christopher. :
The stakes are Bilbo’s life against Gollum’s reward,
which is a ring in the first version of The Hobbit and
the way out in subsequent versions.
The riddle contest replaces the battle with
Grendel’s dam in the cavern, keeping the same divisions ;
in the action. Beowulf discovers that the sword has no !
power over the mere-wife (11. 1512-1528); Grendel's dam,
unable to penetrate Beowulf’s armor, throws herself upon
her "hall-visitor" (11. 1529-56); Beowulf finds a
"victory-blest weapon" with which he triumphs over his
adversary ( 1 1. 1 5 5 7-7 1); he acquires trophies (1 1. 1 6 0 5-
1 7); and he returns through purified waters (11. I6 1 8-
28).
In The Hobbit there are parallel divisions.
Tolkien’s familiar use of the contrary is here seen:
^Christopher Tqlkien states in the introduction to
The Saga of King Heidr^k the Wise (London, i9 6 0) that "It
has been pointed out that the contest in the saga shows
affinity to a motif well known in fairy-tale literature,
in which a prisoner gains his freedom by posing a problem
which is of its nature insoluble," adding that "it is
equally plain that it is inapposite as the last question
of a riddle-match, since it is not a riddle" ('p. xx). The ;
motif is evident in "Riddles in the Dark," as is the j
I inappositeness of the procedure: Bilbo has qualms about
’ deceiving Gollum, but of course the good sense not to tell |
him the truth.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
: 61
i
; Bilbo’s dagger effectively stops Gollum from considering
, an attack. The dagger, incidentally, will later be given
a name after it has proved its worth against the spiders:
"Sting," meaning also "stick," "stab," or "pierce," and
hence a synonym for Unferth’s sword Hrunting, perhaps
I related to hrindan, "thrust."
The combat is reduced to a riddle contest, but
the hero’s life is still the stake. When neither can
prevail over the other, they are reduced to squatting at
the lake’s edge in the dark in a scene comically remini
scent of the contest in the mere (11. 1537-56), with
Grendel’s mother sitting on Beowulf and pawing at him:
But Bilbo simply could not think of any question
with that nasty wet cold thing sitting next to him,
and pawing and poking him. (p. 8 5)
The desperate grasping for a riddle to hold off
Gollum replaces finding the giant-made sword of Beowulf.
Bilbo's "weapon" is the forgotten ring in his pocket.
'What have I got in my pocket?' he said aloud. He
was talking to himself, but Gollum thought it was
a riddle, and he was frightfully upset, (p. 8 5)
Gollum is unable to solve the riddle and is consequently
defeated. The motif is traditional: the contestant is de
feated because he cannot answer an insoluable riddle.
Christopher Tolkien records a similar incident in his trans
lation of King Heidrêk the Wise (London, I9 6 0). Bilbo does I
not mention the ring, which he retains, and Gollum shows 1
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
j ( 5 < )
i
him the way out, willingly in the original version,
unwittingly in the revision.
I Bilho does not have the peaceful ascent that
I Beowulf has, however, for at the very end of the passage-
i way goblins are stationed who attempt to stop him, molest-
; ing him as the water monsters did Beowulf upon his
; descent through the water (11. 1 5 0 6-I5 1 2). He does burst
! through at last, to find himself on the other side of the
1 Misty Mountains.
This, then, is roughly the plot of Chapter V in
both main versions of The Hobbit— a plot that illustrates
its indebtedness to Beowulf for both incident, setting,
and characterization. I would like to suggest that the
most important aspect is the characterization of Gollum,
and that its importance can be seen by comparing the
■ versions of "Riddles in the Dark." Gollum is subject to
character change, not character development, to make him
conform to the requirement of his role in The Lord of the
Rings. It is generally assumed that Tolkien’s growing
awareness of the dramatic possibilities of transforming
a run-of-the-forge magic ring into a sentient and malevo
lent power of evil caused him to revise the character and
role of Gollum in The Hobbit. I would like to suggest,
from the internal evidence, that the cart faces a different
direction— that it was the character of Gollum, partaking
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
: 63
I
of the nature of Grendel and his dam as well as Unferth,
; that led Tolkien to a further examination of the workings
i of evil.
1 For The Hobhit does examine the nature of evil
I and the limits of man's response to it, something often
I overlooked because the tone of The Hobbit identifies it as
: a fantasy belonging in the nursery. Indeed, Tolkien
has lamented this tone as a mistake and has taken care not
to fall into this tone in The Lord of the Rings, which
also examines the same problems, but with the points of
reference shifted. The Hobbit examines evil through a
series of encounters with monsters of increasing signifi-
cance--the very pattern that Tolkien discerned in Beowulf.
I The Lord of the Rings examines evil in metaphors that are
I both more pervasive--the eye of Sauron— and more abstract
I — the Ringwraiths. As a consequence, Gollum*s function
differs in the two works. In The Hobbit he is one of a
series of fallen creatures on a scale of rising terror.
In The Lord of the Rings he is an exemplum of the damned
individual who loses his own soul because of devotion to
evil (symbolized by the ring) but who, through grace,
saves others. Critics have ignored this matter of grace
and its operation through Gollum in their discussion of
The Lord of the Rings, but until it is examined, there
cannot be definitive statements about the nature of the
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
j - - - 6 4
!
i work and the intent of the author. As a beginning, I
propose to examine the transformation in Gollum's charac-
I :
I ter, the enlarging of his role, and the changed nature of
j the ring, as a means of emphasizing the importance Tolkien
; attaches to Gollum and of encouraging others to consider
; more seriously the role of Gollum in The Lord of the Rings.
; "Riddles in the Dark," the fifth chapter of The
i
! Hobbit, is the critical one. In the first edition, Gollum |
I is a lost soul who would kill but who would not violate i
his oath, one who freely offers a ring as a prize to
I
Bilbo in a riddle contest, and who, upon losing the con- |
I
test and being unable to produce the ring, courteously i
shows him the way out of the mountain. In the second ■
hardback edition, published in Britain before The Lord of
the Rings appeared, but in the United States afterwards,
Gollum is a withered and totally depraved creature dominât-:
ed by an evil ring, a creature capable of any crime. In
the Ballantine paperback edition of 19^5 there are no
further changes, but in the 1966 revision there are some
very minor changes to give emphasis to Gollum's depravity
I and to conceal the one seam that still showed where the
versions were stitched together.
To dispense first with the minor revisions in
the second Ballantine edition: the first revision is to
align the introductory description of Gollum with his
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
65
development in The Lord of the Rings; the second is to
I remove the only reference that had slipped through the
j hardback revision in the nineteen-fifties to a present—
j a gift.
I The first revision is accomplished by the
I addition of modifiers, which are indicated here by
italics :
Deep down here by the dark water lived old Gollum,
a small slimy creature. I don't know where he came
from, nor who or whathe was. He was Gollum— as
dark as darkness, except for two big round pale
eyes in his thin face. He had a little boat ...
(p. 79)
The second revision is done through alteration of
the only passage showing that the original wager had
involved a gift. "Bilbo was beginning to wonder what
Gollum's present would be like" was neatly altered to
"Bilbo was beginning to hope that wretch would not be able
to answer" (p. 8 2), necessitating only the resetting of
two lines of type.
These revisions are of course minor, but they do
indicate two of the rhetorical devices Tolkien is most
fond of: expansion and variation. The third is transposi
tion, usually in association with one or both of the
others. These devices indicate the meticulous craftsman
ship that is the hallmark of Tolkien's literary style.
The great difference in the first and second hard
back edition is in the second half of the chapter. The
1 .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
6 6
first half is unchanged; the second half is doubled in j
length. The complexity of revision is from lesser to |
: I
I greater, beginning with the substitution of one prize for I
i another in the riddle contest, going on to the change in
I Gollum's character and the transformation of the ring into
; a malevolent and sentient being, then developing the con-
I
; cept of Bilbo as thief, and concluding with the terrifying
! escape through the tunnels. Variation is typical of the
j less complicated revisions, expansion and transposition
of the more complicated.
Texts that have been revised are presented in
parallel columns, with the original version to the left
and the revised one to the right. The page numbers for
the left column refer to the Allen and Unwin edition of
1937 and the Houghton and Mifflin edition of 1938. The
two sets of page numbers for the right column refer to the
I hardback editions of 1954 and 1958 and to the Ballantine
editions of 1965 and I9 6 6.
The first change in Chapter V involves the prize--
the substitution of help in finding a way out of the
mountain for the original present of a ring. This change
is slight, involving just a few words, but it redirects
the whole chapter. Gollum suggests a riddle contest, with
Bilbo to become a meal if he cannot answer the riddles,
and with Gollum to provide a prize if he can;
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
; 67
i
'If It asks us, and we 'If it asks us, and we
doesn't answer, we gives doesn't answer, then we
it a present, gollumi' does what it wants, eh?
' (p. 8 5) We shows it the way out,
i yes’' ( p . 8 5 , p . 8 1)
I In this exchange Gollum refers to himself and
■to Bilbo as "precious." Tolkien's method of literary
i creation by reworking concepts is evident even in this
■brief passage, where the earlier edition is consistent in
; using "precious" and its hissed variants as Gollum's
I expression for himself or Bilbo. In the revised edition !
the word of endearment is extended to the ring, which in
I
The Lord of the Rings becomes for Gollum the Pearl of |
i
Great Price, well worth his soul. I
The reference that remained uncorrected unti 1966 !
has been mentioned above. The only other reference to ;
"present" is simply changed to "guess": ^
'Well,' said Bilbo, after 'Well,' said Bilbo, after!
giving him a long chance, giving him a long chance,'
'what about your present?' 'what about your guess?'
( p . 8 7 ) ( p . 8 7 , p . 8 3 )
The remainder of the riddle contest is unchanged, with
Bilbo feeling more uncomfortable as it progresses and with
the hungry Gollum appearing the likely winner. Then the
extensive revisions begin.
Musing aloud. Bilbo asks himself, "What have I got
in my pocket?" Gollum thinks this is a riddle and the
desperate Bilbo does not correct him, but allows him three
guesses. When Gollum is unable to answer the impossible
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
6 8
question— a common Northern motlf--Bilbo becomes fearful
of his safety and holds out his little sword. The re-
I vision of the passage changes the character of Gollum
I significantly:
But funnily enough he need
not have been alarmed.
For one thing Gollum had
learned long ago was never,
never to cheat at the
riddle-game, which is a
sacred one and of immense
antiquity.
Also there was the
sword. He simply sat
and whispered, (p. 9 1)
He knew, of course, that
the riddle-game was
sacred and of immense
antiquity, and even
wicked creatures were
afraid to cheat when they
played at it. But he |
felt he could not trust j
this slimy thing to keep I
any promise at a pinch. !
Any excuse would do for
him to slide out of it. |
And after all that last j
question had not been a i
genuine riddle according i
to the ancient laws. ;
But at any rate
Gollum did not at once
attack him. He could see
the sword in Bilbo's j
hand. He sat still, •
shivering and whispering.;
At last Bilbo could wait I
no longer, (p. 9 1^
p. 86)
The important change is in the character of Gollum. In
the original version he may be a benighted creature,
condemned to separation from his kind, but he is not
totally depraved. Of the two crimes most heinous to Old
Norse morality, and punished in a hall far from the sun
where venom drops and serpents wind (Voluspa 31> 38), be
may be guilty of murder but not of oath-breaking. In the
revised version Gollum is not to be trusted at all, and
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
"genuine"
69
much is made of the fact that the question was not a
riddle. The reference to the sword in the
earlier version is a characteristic Tolkienian use of
anticlimax; in the later version the sword is made into
a menacing weapon, one actually insuring that "Gollum
did not at once attack him." In light of his expanded
role in The Lord of the Rings, Gollum's transformation is
essential to an appreciation of that larger work, but not
of The Hobbit.
The following passage elaborates on Gollum's
depravity in the revision and prepares the way for his
treachery:
'What about the pre
sent?' asked Bilbo, not
that he cared very much,
still he felt that he had
won it, pretty fairly,
and in very difficult
circumstances too.
'Must we give it the
thing, preciousd? Yess,
we must! We must fetch
it, preciouss, and give
it the present we pro
mised . '
'Well?' he said. i
'What about your pro- ;
mise? I want to go. You!
must show çie the way. ' j
'Did we say so, pre
cious? Show the nasty
little Baggins the way
out, yes, yes. But what
has it got in its
pocketses, eh? Not
string, precious, but
not nothing. Oh no I
gollumi'
'Never you mind,'
said Bilbo. 'A promise
'sa promise.'
'Cross it is, im
patient, precious,'
hissed Gollum. 'But it
must wait, yes it must.
We can't go up the tun
nels so hasty. We must
go and get some things
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
So Gollum paddled back
to his boat, and Bilbo
thought he had heard
the last of him'. But
he had not.
70
first, yes, things to
help us.'
’Well, hurry up!
said Bilbo, relieved to |
think he was just making ■
an excuse and did not
mean to come back. What ■
was Gollum talking about?
What useful thing could
he keep out on the dark
lake? But he was wrong.
Gollum did mean to come
back. He was angry now
and hungry. And he was
a miserable wicked crea- ;
ture, and already he had ;
a plan. (pp. 91-92, !
(p. 91) p. 87)
In the original version, Gollum goes for the ring to give |
it to Bilbo. There is no indication of treachery. In the
revised edition, Gollum is an unpleasant antagonist who
calls names and is quite willing to cheat. The expanded
revision creates interest in Gollum's possession on the
island— the ring— by having Bilbo ask himself questions
about the "thing."
The following passage in the revision introduces
the ring, one that we learn in The Lord of the Rings
Gollum acquired on his birthday by strangling a companion
who had found it:
The hobbit was just think
ing of going back up the
passage— having had quite
enough of Gollum and the
dark water's edge— when he
heard him wailing and
squeaking away in the
gloom. He was on his is
land (of which, of course.
Bilbo knew nothing).
Not far away was his j
island, of which Bilbo j
knew nothing, and there |
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
scrabbling here and there,
searching and seeking in
vain, and turning out his
pockets.
'Where iss it? Where
iss it?' Bilbo heard his
sgueaking. 'Lost, lost,
my preciouss, lost,
lost I Bless us and
splash us I We haven't
the present we promised,
and we haven't even got
it for ourselveses.'
( p p . 9 1 - 9 2 )
71
in his hiding-place he
kept a few wretched
oddments, and one very
beautiful thing, very
beautiful, very wonder
ful. He had a ring, a
golden ring, a precious
ring.
'My birthday-pre
sent I' he whispered to
himself, as he had often
done in the endless dark
days. 'That's what we
wants now, yes; we wants
it' '
( p . 9 2 , p . 8 7 )
The revision describes it as a ring of power; the
original was only the regulation sort of magic ring.
The passage from the original is transposed in the revision
I
to indicate its properties to the reader before Bilbo is j
aware of them. The transposed passage is in italics: j
for if you slipped that
ring on your finger, you
were invisible; only in
the sunlight could you
be seen, and then only
by your shadow, and that
was a faint and shaky
sort of shadow.
He wanted it because i
it was a ring of power, !
and if you slipped that
ring on your finger, you
were invisible; only in
the full sunlight could
you be seen, and then
only by your shadow, and
that would be shaky and
faint, (p. 9 2, p. 8 7)
( p . 92 )
In the original version the ring as birthday pre
sent is introduced here, but without the sinister over
tones of the revision, which make the ring sentient and
evil. The revision also introduces the Master, the force
in opposition to good, known elsewhere as Sauron:
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
72
Bilbo turned round
and waited, wondering
what it could be that
the creature was making
such a fuss about. This
proved very fortunate
afterwards. For Go Hum
came back and made a tre
mendous spluttering and
whispering and croaking;
and in the end Bilbo
gathered that Gollum had
had a ring--a wonderful,
beautiful ring, a ring
that he had been given
for a birthday present,
ages and ages before in
old days when such rings
were less uncommon.
Sometimes he had it in
his pocket; usually he
kept it in a little hole
in the rock on his
island; sometimes he
wore it—
when he was very, very
hungry, and tired of
fish, and crept along
dark passages looking for
stray goblins. Then he
might venture even into
places where the torches
were lit and made his
eyes blink and smart; but
'My birthday-pres- j
enti It came to me on |
my birthday, my pre
cious 1 So he had always ;
said to himself. But
who knows how Gollum came
by that present, ages ago
in the old days when such
rings were still at ;
large in the world? Per
haps even the Master who ;
ruled them could not have
said. §ollum used to |
wear it at first, till
it tired him; and then
he kept it in a pouch ;
next to his skin, till
it galled him; and now
usually he hid it in a
hole in the rock on his
island, and was always
going back to look at it.
And still sometimes he
put it on, when he could
not bear to be parted
from it any longer, or
when he was very, very,
hungry, and tired of |
fish. Then he would I
creep along dark passages!
looking for stray gob- |
lins.. He might even
venture into places |
where the torches were |
lit and made his eyes |
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
73
he would be safe. 0
yes I very nearly safe;
for if you slipped that
ring on your finger —
(p. 92)
blink and smart; for he
would be safe. Oh yes,
quite safe. No one
would see him ...
(p. 9 2, p. 87-88)
^ The revision is expanded by a dozen lines dealing
j with Gollum’s most recent meal, "a small goblin-imp," and
I his meditation on returning, invisible, and consuming
I Bilbo. The expanded revision then returns to material in
i
the original and applies it, transposed in position and
altered in meaning and tone:
The hobbit was just think
ing of going back up the
passage— having had quite
enough of Gollum and the
dark water’s edge— when he
heard him wailing and
squeaking away in the
gloom. He was on his is
land (of which, of course.
Bilbo knew nothing),
scrabbling here and there,
searching and seeking in
vain, and turning out his
pockets.
’Where iss it? Where
iss it?' Bilbo heard him
squeaking. 'Lost, lost,
my preciouss, lost, lost I
Bless us and splash us I
We haven’t the present we
promised, and we haven’t
even got it for our-
selves.’
(pp. 91-92)
Bilbo thought he had
heard the last of him.
Still he waited a while;
for he had no idea how
to find his way out a-
lone.
Suddenly he heard a
screech. It sent a
shiver down his back.
Gollum was cursing and
wailing away in the
gloom, not very far off
by the sound of it. He
was on his island,
scrabbling here and
there, searching and
seeking in vain.
'Where is it?
Where iss it?’ Bilbo
heard him crying. ’Lost
it is, my precious, lost,
lost’ Curse us and
crush us, my precious is
lost!’ (p. 93, p. 88)
In the revision. Bilbo’s situation is seen as more
desperate, for he realizes he does not know how to get
out and he is menaced by a Gollum who screeches, curses,
and wails at the loss of the ring which would have
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
74
' enabled him to kill Bilbo, This a differ!;nt creature
entirely from the opponent who squeaks his oaths--which j
i consist of "Bless us and splash us 1"— and laments for a
} loss that prevents his paying a wager. The change in
j Gollum*s diction is symptomatic of the change in character
; that he has undergone in revision and it is indicative
1
i of the altered response he is to have to the loss of the
I ring in the later edition.
In the original version, Gollum is all apologies
j for being unable to keep his word. He is even willing to
substitute an alternate prize. Bilbo realizes that the
ring in his pocket must be Gollum*s but decides to keep
it, using an old saw as justification, and asks Gollum to
get him out of the mountain. In the revision, Gollum
does not disclose what he has lost and Bilbo has a rough
and unsympathetic attitude— understandably— toward a
character portrayed as sinister and threatening.
*What*s the matter?*
Bilbo called. 'What
Bàvèuyou lost?*
'It mustn't ask us,*
shrieked Gollum. 'Not
its business, no, gol
lum I It's losst, gol
lum, gollum, gollum*. *
I don't know how many
times Gollum begged Bilbo's
pardon. He kept on saying:
'We are ssorry; we didn't
mean to cheat, we meant to
give it our only present,
if it won the competition.'
He even offered to catch
Bilbo some nice juicy fish_____________________________
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
75
to eat as a consolation.
Bilbo shuddered at the
thought of it. 'No thank
youI * he said as politely
as he could.
He was thinking hard,
and the idea came to him
that Gollum must have
dropped that ring sometime
and that he must have found
itj and that he had that
very ring in his pocket.
But he had the wits not to
tell Gollum.
'Finding's keepingl'
he said to himself; and
being in a very tight
place, I daresay, he was
right. Anyway the ring
belonged to him now.
'Never mind'.' he said.
'The ring would have been
mine now, if you had found
it; so you would have lost
it anyway. And I will let
you off on one condition.'
'Yes, what iss it?
What does it wish us to do,
my precious?’
'Help me to get out of
these places,' said Bilbo.
(pp. 92-93)
'Well, so am I,' j
cried Bilbo, 'and I want i
to get unlost. And I i
won the game, and you '
promised. So come along l i
Come and let me out, and |
then go on with your
lookingI'
Utterly miserable as
Gollum sounded. Bilbo
could not find much pity
in his heart, and he had
a feeling that anything
Gollum wanted so much j
could hardly be something
good. 'Come alongI' he i
shouted. i
(p. 93, p. 88) I
There follows in the revision almost a page of
additional dialog between Bilbo and Gollum, in which Bilbo
1 attempts to discover what Gollum has lost while Gollum's
I suspicion grows of what Bilbo must have in his pocket.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
! 76
!
' Then both versions deal with Gollnm's decision on conduct
, toward Bilbo and then with Bilbo's exit from the mountain.
i I
I The parallel material iS; predictably, dissimilar. In the :
j original version Gollum is true to the Norse ideal of
I keeping an oath, albeit with some difficulty. In the re-
I vision he is so enslaved to the ring that nothing else
; matters and he attempts to attack Bilbo.
Now Gollum had to
agree to this, if he was
not to cheat. He still
very much wanted Just to
try what the stranger
tasted like, but now he
had to give up all idea
of it. Still there was
the little sword; and the
stranger was wide awake
and on the look out, not
unsuspecting as Gollum
liked to have the things
which he attacked. So
perhaps it was best
after all.
That is how Bilbo got
to know that the tunnel
ended at the water and
went no further on the
other side where the moun
tain wall was dark and
solid. He also learned
that he ought to have
turned down one of the
side passages to the
right before he came to
the bottom; but he could
not follow Gollum's di
rections for f ind ing it
again on the way up, and
he made the wretched
creature come and show
him the way. (p. 93)
But now the light in
Gollum's eyes had become
a green fire, and it was
coming swiftly nearer.
Gollum was in his boat
again, paddling wildly
back to the dark shore;
and such a rage of loss
and suspicion was in his
heart that no sword had
any more terror for him.
Bilbo could not guess;
what had maddened the
wretched creature, but
he saw that all was up,,
and that Gollum meant to
murder him at any rate.
Just in time he turned
and ran blindly up the
dark passage down which
he had come, keeping
close to the wall and
feeling it with his left
hand.
(p. 94, p. 89)
In the original version Bilbo, almost as a prank.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
; 77
i
: slips on the ring to determine if Golliim’s mumblings about
, it are accurate. In the revision the ring is the actor of |
I its own volition, and Bilbo is unaware of its magic
I properties,
As they went along
up the tunnel together,
Gollum flip-flapping at
his side. Bilbo going
very softly, he thought
he would try the ring.
He slipped it on his
finger.
'Where iss it? Where
iss it gone to?' said
Gollum at once, peering
about with his long eyes.
'Here I am, following
behind !' said Bilbo
slipping off the ring
again, and feeling very
pleased to have it and to
find that it really did
what Gollum said.
(p. 93)
'What has it got in
pocketses?' he heard the
hiss loud behind him,
and the splash as Gollum
leapt from his boat.
'What have I, I wonder?'
he said to himself, as
he panted and stumbled |
along. He put his left I
hand in his pocket. The
ring felt very cold as
it quietly slipped on to i
his groping forefinger, j
The hiss was close |
behind him. He turned j
now and saw Gollum's
eyes like small green
lamps coming up the
slope. Terrified he
tried to run faster, but i
suddenly he struck his
toes on a snag in the
floor, and fell flat ;
with his little sword i
under him.
(pp. 94-95, pp. 89-90)
In the revision there are two pages inserted
dealing with Gollum's reactions as he passes Bilbo by,
cursing and whispering about the ring. At the end. Bilbo
realizes the ring is a magic one: "He had heard of such
things, of course, in old old tales; but it was hard to
believe that he really had found one, by accident." By
the end of The Lord of the Rings we are aware that it is
not by accident, but at this point the remark appears an
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
78
innocent one. After the addition, the narration picks up
the original version again with a short transposition and
then deals with the action when Gollum and Bilho reach the
Î
I end of the tunnel.
As they went along up
the tunnel together,
Gollum flip-flapping at
his side ...
He also learned that he
ought to have turned down
one of the side passages
to the right before he came
to the bottom ...
Now on they went again,
while Gollum counted the
passages to left and right:
'One left, one right, two
right, three right, two
left,' and so on. He be
gan to get very shaky and
afraid as they left the
water further and further
behind;
but at last he stopped by
a low opening on their
legtt(going up)— 'six
right, four left.'
'Here'ss the passage,'
he whispered. 'It must
squeeze in and sneak down.
We dursn't go with it,
my preciouss, no we
dursn't, gollumÎ'
On they went, Gollum
flip-flapping ahead,
hissing and cursing;
Bilbo behind going as
softly as a hobbit can.
Soon they came to places
where, as Bilbo had no
ticed on the way down,
side-passages opened,
this way and that.
Gollum began at once to
count them.
'One left, yes. One
right, yes. Two right,
yes, yes. Two left, yes,
yes.' And so on and on.
As the count grew he
slowed down, and he be
gan to get shaky and
weepy; for he was leav
ing the water further
and further behind, and
he was getting afraid.
Goblins might be about,
and he had lost his ring.
At last he stopped by a
low opening, on their
left as they went up.
'Seven right, yes.
Six left, yes t' he
whispered. 'This is it.
This is the way to the
back-door, yes. Here's
the passage I'
He peered in, and
shrank back. 'But we
dursn't go in, precious,
no we dursn't. Gob-
linses down there. Lots
of goblinses. We smells
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
79
So Bilbo slipped under
the arch, and said good
bye to the nasty miserable
creature; and very glad he
was. He did not feel com
fortable until he felt
quite sure it was gone,
and he kept his head out
in the main tunnel listen
ing until the flip-flap of
Gollum going back to his
boat died away into the
darkness. Then he went
down the new passage.
(pp. 93-94)
them. Ssssl' i
'What shall we do? i
Curse them and crush |
them! We must wait here,|
precious, wait a bit and ■
see;'
So they came to a
dead stop. Gollum had
brought Bilbo to the way
out after all, but
Bilbo could not get ini
There was Gollum sitting
humped up right in the
opening, and his eyes
gleamed cold in his heady
as he swayed it from side
to side between his
knees.
(p. 97a pp. 9 1-9 2)
In the original version Bilbo proceeds down the
passage, but in the revision there intervenes almost a
page and a half of new material that has no prototype in
the original, material that increases the density of
texture. Because active evil has been introduced in the
form of the sentient ring, evil and its consequences can
be confronted directly here, in contrast to Tolkien's
usual elliptical treatment of it in The Hobbit. Bilbo is
briefly transformed from the grumbling but good-hearted
hobbit into a heroic and compassionate individual. Evil
has caused the downfall of Gollum, who is the subject of |
tragedy, of "endless unmarked days without light or hope," I
and Bilbo is the viewer of the drama, purged by pity and ■
horror; ;
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
80
Bilbo almost stopped breathing, and went still him
self. He was desperate. He must get away, out of
this horrible darkness, while he had any strength
left. He must fight. He must stab the foul thing,
put its eyes out, kill it. It meant to kill him.
No, not a fair fight. He was invisible now.
Gollum had no sword. Gollum had not actually threat
ened to kill him, or tried to yet. And he was miser
able, alone, lost. A sudden understanding, a pity
mixed with horror, welled up in Bilbo’s heart: a
glimpse of endless unmarked days without light or
hope of betterment, hard stone, cold fish, sneaking
and whispering. All these thoughts passed in a
flash of a second. He trembled. And then quite
suddenly in another flash, as if lifted by a new
strength and resolve, he leaped, {p. 9 8, pp. 9 2-9 3)
The terras associated with any discussion of Aristotelian
theory of tragedy are so obvious that one is tempted to
pass over them in a story suitable for children. Yet they
are there and in a context that makes them bear the full
weight of meaning given them in serious discussion.
In the succeeding paragraph of the revision, there ■
is terminology so explicitely Christian and so commonplace ;
in theological discussion that again one is tempted to
pass over it, preferring to assume that Tolkien has em
ployed common expressions without thought. Any study of
his use of common expressions, however, is proof that he
does not employ them without thought. He plays with them,
fondles them, and turns them to new uses. Having stayed
his hand. Bilbo has refrained from evil. But he has still
to save himself, to turn from the present evil and, in
the hope of salvation, to leap into the dark:
No great leap for a man, but a leap in the dark.
Straight over Gollum’s head he jumped, seven feet_____
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
81
forward and three in the air; indeed, had he known
it, he only Just missed cracking his skull on the
low arch of the passage, (p. 9o, p. 93) |
I Faith: the leap in the dark that a man takes. Bilho, a
■ hobbit, takes it. And then his accomplishment is diminish-
I ed from the heroic by Tolkien's characteristic use of
! anti-climax.
i
j In the revision comes an additional half-page,
I dealing with Bilbo's escape from Gollum, who followed him
I a way down the new passage, shrieking his despair and
ihatred. The passage is not necessary to The Hobbit, but
j it is to The Lord of the Rings. It supplies the motiva
tion for the later work: an evil creature with a mania
cal desire for the ring of power, a compassionate pro
tagonist who nonetheless comes by the ring through theft,
and the declaration of everlasting enmity.
After the heavy revision and expansion of the
middle part of the chapter, Tolkien turns to a more subtle
kind of revision for the remainder. It involves a slight
degree of expansion— a sentence or two at a time, rather
than paragraphs— and a few transpositions. It involves,
too, the restatement of material so that the contrary
is the meaning in the revised edition.
In the following passage. Bilbo is unaware in the
earlier version of the goblins' great speed and is con
sequently reckless. In the later one, he is still unaware
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
I 82
i
I of the goblins' physiological advantages, but, because of
jhis encounter with evil personified by Gollum, he is |
I exercising "all care"--an action calculated to heighten !
I the tension for the reader. Tolkien also uses the oppor
tunity for revision of this passage to introduce into the
text the word ores, which in the original edition occurred
I
I only in the name of the sword Orcrist. The mastery of
■ many narrative techniques that Tolkien shows in The Lord i
of the Rings is presaged in this revision, first in his '
method of reintroducing the physical setting— the passage—
after a lengthy digression, and second by using discourse
to carry meaning and emotional overtones, rather than ;
depending entirely on exposition. ;
It was a low narrow one The passage was low and !
roughly made. It was all roughly made. It was not
right for the hobbit, too difficult for the
except when he stubbed his hobbit, except when, in |
toes in the dark on nasty . spite of all care, he i
jags in the floor; but it stubbed his poor toes ;
must have been a bit low again, several times, on
for goblins. Perhaps it the floor. 'A bit low
was not knowing that gob- for goblins, at least
lins are used to this for the big ones,' t h o u
sort of thing, and go a- thought Bilbo, not know-
long quite fast stooping ing that even the big
low with their hands ones, the ores of the
almost on the floor, that mountains, go along at a
made Bilbo forget the great speed stooping low
danger of meeting them with their hands almost
and hurry forward reck- on the ground,
lessly. (p. 94) (p. 99, p. 93)
In the next section the minor changes are for the
purpose of sharpening the visual quality. The narrative
material is unchanged, but the description— contained in
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
83
’ the modification--is altered to heighten tension. The
physical surroundings are given more texture in the re-
I vision: the passage has heen sloping down before it
I begins to climb, and then climbs steeply; the passage
turns a corner, then another corner, and then the last
corner. The glimmer of light is intensified to a
I glimpse, connoting a brighter but briefer image, and
: providing motivation for Bilbo’s breaking into a run.
Bilbo is no longer described in tones appropriate to the
nursery: "scuttling along" on "little legs." The door,
originally "left a little open," is now "left standing
open.
Soon the passage began
to go up again, and after
a while it climbed steeply.
That slowed him down. But
at last after some time
the slope stopped, the pas
sage turned a corner and
dipped down again, and at
the bottom of a short in
cline he saw filtering
round another corner--a
glimmer of light. Not
red light as of fire or
lantern, but pale ordinary
out-of-doors sort of
light. Then he began to
run. Scuttling along as
fast as his little legs
would carry him he
turned the corner and
came suddenly right into
an open place where the
light, after all that
time in the dark, seemed
dazzingly bright. Really
it was only a leak of sun
shine in through a doorway.
Soon the passage
that had been sloping
down began to go up
again, and after a while i
it climbed steeply.
That slowed Bilbo down.
But at last the slope
stopped, the passage
turned a corner, and dip
ped down again, and there
at the bottom of a short
incline, he saw, filter
ing round another corner
— a glimpse of light.
Not red light;, as of fire
or lantern, but a pale
out-of-doors sort of
light. Then Bilbo began
to run.
Scuttling as fast as
his legs would carry him
he turned the last corner!
and came suddenly right I
into an open space, !
where the light, after |
all that time in the dark
seemed dazzingly bright, j
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
i ' " ' 8 4
where a great door, a Really it was only a
stone door, was left leak of sunshine in
a little open. (p. 94) through a doorway, where
' a great door, a stone
i door, was left standing
open. (p. 99, pp. 93-
I 94).
I The open door, signifying escape, is in intentional and
I
; effective contrast to the elements next introduced in the
: revision: the "aroused, alert" goblins and the conscious,
! malignant ring.
In the revision the condition of the goblins
emphasizes the active malevolence of the ring. In the
original version. Bilbo is walking through the passage
without thought of the ring, having been civilly directed
to the exit by Gollum, and upon encountering the goblin
guards slips the ring onto his finger— either by accident
or presence of mind, but probably by the former, according
to the narrator, who does not hesitate to express an
opinion and his reason for it. In the, revision. Bilbo,
wearing the ring, is invisible walking through the
passage, but suddenly on encountering the guards finds
himself visible and the ring not on his finger. The
narrator does not have a firm opinion: it may be accident
or it may be a "last trick of the ring" before its
acceptance of a new master. The ambiguity increases the
importance of the ring and stresses its evil nature— a
characteristic not necessary or even appropriate to its
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
85
original conception in The Hobbit, hut necessary to the
theme developed in The Lord of the Rings.
Bilbo blinked, and then
he suddenly saw the goblins;
goblins in full armour with
drawn swords sitting just
inside the door, and watching
it with wide eyes, and the
passage that led to it I
They saw him sooner than
he saw them, and with
yells of delight they
rushed upon him.
Whether it was acci
dent or presence of mind,
I don’t know. Accident,
I think, because the
hobbit was not used yet
to his new treasure.
Anyway he slipped the
ring on his left hand—
and the goblins stopped
short. They could not
see a sign of him. Then
they yelled twice as
loud as before, but not
to delightedly.
(pp. 94-95)
Bilbo blinked, and
then suddenly he saw the
goblins : goblins in
full armour with drawn
swords sitting just in
side the door, and
watching it with wide
eyes, and watching the
passage that led to it.
They were aroused, alert,
ready for anything.
They saw him sooner
than he saw them. Yes,
they saw him. Whether
it was an accident, or a
last trick of the ring
before it took a new
master, it was not on
his finger. With yells
of delight the goblins
rushed upon him.
A pang of fear and
loss, like an echo of
Gollum’s misery, smote
Bilbo, and forgetting
even to draw his sword
he stuck his hands into
his pockets. And there
was the ring still, in
his left pocket, and it
slipped on his finger. 1
The goblins stopped short!
They could not see a j
sign of him. He had
vanished. They yelled
twice as loud as before,
but not so delightedly,
(pp. 99-100, p. 94)
The remaining page and a half of the chapter is
the same in both texts: Bilbo manages to evade the
guards and to squeeze through the slight opening left when
the goblins push the door almost to.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
j " 86
To summarize then. Tolkien uses the rhetorical
, devices of expansion, transposition, and negation— or
I statement of the contrary— to develop the revised version
( of ’ ’Riddles in the Dark.” His chief accomplishments are
1 to alter the stakes in the riddle game, to introduce the
I ring as a Ring of Power— sentient, malevolent, addictive,
i and independent, to suggest that there are opposing forces
I at work in the universe, and to convert Gollum from a
I simply lost creature to a totally depraved one. ■ Any one
i of these changes could have been achieved in, at most, a
few sentences, but the transformation of Gollum occupies
most of the space devoted to revision and employs all
three rhetorical techniques.
Of the important transpositions, one concerns
the properties of the ring, one the distribution of side
I passages, and two concern Gollum; his search of the
I island and his flip-flapping along the tunnel.
The negations— primarily the development of
contrary actions--deal with Gollum. Compliance turns to
opposition in a number of instances. In the earlier ver
sion he is willing to fulfill his obligation by fetching
the present; he is eager to find a substitute gift; he
is agreeable to showing Bilbo the way out; he is honorable,!
if with difficulty, in keeping his word. In the revised
edition Gollum is none of these. Even his simple
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without
perm ission.
i 87
!
expletives--"Bless us and splash us"— are converted to
; curses. j
I Some of the additions picture Gollum's unpleasant
I physical attributes, his unreliability, and his devious-
I ness. The others emphasize his evil nature by example—
• the murder of the goblin-imp--and by exposition--the
; statement that "he was a miserable wretched creature."
i
! The variety of techniques and the amount of space 1
j I
I devoted to the transformation of character indicates that |
Tolkien attaches great importance to Gollum— more than is
necessary or even suitable for his function in The I
Hobbit. But it is appropriate to an expanded role in !
The Lord of the Rings.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
CHAPTER IV
EPISODES AND DIGRESSIONS
At the ‘ beginning of Chapter VI ("Out of the
Frying-Pan into the Fire") Bilho finds himself free of
the goblins, on the other side of the Misty Mountains.
He is out of danger but terribly alone. Hearing voices,
he creeps nearer, still wearing the ring, and overhears
the dwarves and Gandalf discussing his possible fate.
The situation is reminiscent of the passage in
Beowulf in which the Danes quit the mere, convinced
Beowulf will not come rejoicing in victory, and leave his
companions to mourn his loss (11. 1591-1605)* Bilbo dis
closes himself, slipping off his ring, and
Bless me, how they jumped I Then they shouted with
surprise and delight. Gandalf was as astonished as
any of them, but probably more pleased than all
the others, (p. 9 8)
This is the non-heroic equivalent of Beowulf's return with
his trophy:
Com yâ to lande
swî9môd swymman;
m*genbyrpenne
Êpdon him pa tôgêanes,
trÿÿlîc pegna heap,
paes pe hi hyne gesundne
lidmanna helm
sKlace gefeah,
para pe he him mid hsefde.
Gode pancodon,
peodnes gefegon,
geseon moston.
( 1 1. 1 6 2 3-1 6 2 8)
88
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
89
; [Came then to land the seafarers' protector, swimming
bold-hearted; he had joy of his lake-booty, the
mighty burden that he had with him. They went to
; meet him, thanked God, the stout band of thanes,
I rejoiced in their chief that they might see him
I again sound 0
I The company exchange stories of their adventures and
I Gandalf, concerned over the goblins' new entrance at the
I top of the pass, says "I must see if I can't find a more
I or less decent giant to block it up again" (pp. 99-101)•
: Then the company, foodless, begin the journey away from
I the Misty Mountains.
The remainder of the chapter expands upon the
references in Beowulf to the fight at Finnsburg, sung by
Hrothgar's minstrel (11. 1071-1159)a and upon the
Finnsburg Fragment, which provides some of the background
of the blood feud and eventual slaughter. Just as the lay
in Beowulf speaks darkly of the affairs between Frisians
and Scyldings, so does the early reference in The Hobbit,
in the first two chapters, speak allusively of the enmity
between goblins and dwarves. The roots of that enmity are
not developed in The Hobbit, but can be discerned in the
appendix of The Lord of the Rings, in the section entitled
"Durin's Folk." The flowering of that enmity has its
first season in this chapter of The Hobbit and its second
at the Battle of Five Armies in Chapters XVII and XVIII
and its final season in the conclusion of The Lord of the
Rings.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
i 90
I
The dwarves recall the enmity as the company
i struggle through rough country and slide down broken rock,
i at last reaching a glade that represents the enemy’s home,
I where goblins and fierce wolves— Wargs— are to meet to
j arrange for the slaughter of the families that have
I settled in the Wild. At the time the companions are un-
■ aware of the coming meeting, eager only to find a place to
j rest, but uncomfortable with the appearance of the glade;
1 After what seemed ages further they came suddenly to
I an opening where no trees grew. The moon was up and
was shining into the clearing. Somehow it struck all
of them as not at all a nice place, although there
was nothing wrong to see. (p. IO3)
The company climb into the trees when they hear
the wolves howling. That is, all do except, of course.
Bilbo, who cannot reach a limb. Dori, "a decent fellow
in spite of his grumbling" (p. 104), risks himself to get
Bilbo up into the tree one snap ahead of a Warg’s jaws.
Gandalf's flaming torches keep the wolves at a
distance after he sets several animals afire, but he cannot
free the company from the wolves that keep encircling
them, waiting for the goblins to arrive.
Others intervene also, introduced as abruptly
into the text as are the warriors in the fragment that
Klaeber calls The Fight at Finnsburg. In fact, their
introduction signals the incorporation of The Fight at
Finnsburg into The Hobbit. A passage that follows one of
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
I 9 1
; the few double spaces in the text of The Hobbit begins
I with a soliloquy:
i 'What's all this uproar in the forest tonight?' said
Î the Lord of the Eagles. He was sitting, black in
I the moonlight, on the top of a lonely pinnacle of
I rock at the eastern edge of the mountains. 'I hear
I wolves' voices I Are the goblins at mischief in the
I woods?'
I The lord of the eagles of the Misty Mountains had
j eyes that could look at the sun unblinking, and
j could see a rabbit moving on the ground a mile
; below even in the moonlight. So though he could
i not see the people in the trees, he could make
out the commotion among the wolves and see the
tiny flashes of fire, and hear the howling and
yelping come up from far beneath him. Also he
could see the glint of the moon on goblin spears
and helmets, as long lines of the wicked folk
crept down the hillsides from their gate and
wound into the wood. (pp. 1 0 7-1 0 8)
The Lord of the Eagles summons his warriors to him, and
they, slowly circling, come down to the meeting place of
wargs and goblins. This passage is a transformation of
the first twelve lines of the Finnsburg fragment, with its
soliloquy by the Danish chief, the birds of battle (here
ravens), the howling wolves, the moonlight, the weapons
glinting in the night, the presage of evil deeds, and
the call to battle; Klaeber's third edition has:
IHJnjef hleo^rode_&A
'WS Jis ne dagal5 êastan,
né hër îTsse healle
ac hêr forf bera&,
gylle^ grëghama,
scyld scefte oncwyâ.
waôol under wolcnum;
3è 9isne folces ni)
Ac onwacnigea) nû.
(hor)nas byrna).'
heapogeong cyning:
né hêr dracane fleoged,
hornas ne byrnaf;
fugelas singaô,
gûôwudu hylnneï,
Wû scÿne) pes môna
nû ârïsa) wëadâêda,
fremman_willaÿ.
wîgend mine.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
9 2
habba5 éowre linda, hicgeap on ellen,
winnaà" on orde, wesa) on model '
C*Gables are burningI* cried aloud then the king
young in battle. 'This is no dawning east, nor
flies a dragon here, nor of this hall here are the
gables burning; but here they bear forth weapons,
the birds sing, the grey-coated wolf howls, there
is a din of spear, shield answers shaft. Now
shines the moon fitful beneath clouds. Now arise
evil deeds that will further this hatred of the
people. But wake ye now, my warriors, hold fast
your shields, be mindful of valor, rush forward in
the van, be stout of heart I'3
The prophecy of further enmity is fulfilled in
The Hobbit at the battle of Five Armies. Even the refer
ence to gû)wudu hlynne^, scyld scefte oncwy) [a din of
spear, shield answers shaft] is incorporated when the
goblins arrive and learn that no battle with the woodmen
is in progress, that only a few dwarves are treed. Some
sat down laughing and "Others waved their spears and
clashed the shafts against their shields" (p. 109). The
use of the material is of course different: here they are
responding in wicked amusement; in the fragment-'., the ges
tures are made in battle-earnest. But the source of
inspiration is obvious.
In both works there follows the conflict between
besieged and besieger, the exchange of challenge and
response, the continuation of the battle with injury to
the besiegers, and the survival of the besieged. Were
the Old English fragment complete, there would undoubedtly
be a tally of defenders dead after the first five successful
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
i 93
j
! days of defense, but that material not relevant to
J Tolkien's creation.
I The battle breaks off as abruptly as the fragment
5 does. The eagles descend on the goblins, who have fired
j the trees in which the company is trapped, driving them
! off and rescuing the besieged— "So ended the adventures of
j the Misty Mountains" (p. 113).
The fortuitous appearance of the eagles, like
the property of the ring to make its wearer invisible, is
one of the few touches of magic in The Hobbit. This is in
conformity with Tolkien's literary aesthetic: "Of Fairy-
Stories" indicates that fantasy should have its feet in
the earth; that it should create an essentially real world ;
so that what little magic is used is effective. On first i
i
reading this passage many years ago, I found the use of
the eagles to be intrusive, though Justifiable as a fore- |
' I
' shadowing of their arrival at the battle of Five Armies.
Now that I understand Tolkien's theory of the use of
magic and have discovered the organizational basis of this
work, I am able to view the eagles as an organic part of
the narrative.
In Chapter VII ("Queer Lodgings") the eagles
deposit the company on a huge rock with steps cut into
its steep side, allowing Tolkien to introduce the
character Beorn and to present a sample of the problems
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
9 4
that a linguist faces in field work. Gandalf indicates
that "Somebody made the steps on the great rock--the
Carrock" (p. 117). Bilbo asks why it has that name and
Gandalf responds with a tautology:
'He called it the Carrock, because carrock is his
word for it. He calls things like that earrocks,
and this one is the Carrock because it is the only
one near his home and he knows it well.’
"Carrock" is the form in the North of England for the
cognate "cairn" in Scots, "earn" in Welsh, and "carr" in
Old English. It means, of course, "stone" or "rock" and
is used as a place name following the Germanic pattern
of identifying an area by a landmark.^
Beorn himself is a creature "under no enchantment
but his own," a skinchanger who is sometimes "a huge
black bear," sometimes "a great strong black-haired man
with huge arms and a great black beard" (p. Il8).
Tolkien's inspiration for this creature is made clear in
his discussion of the two meanings of "beorn" and its
cognates in Germanic prose and poetry. In his prefatory
remarks to the Clark Hall translation of Beowulf, he
^Henry Bradley in "English Place-Names," Essays
and Studies, I (1910), says of the Anglo-Saxon casualness
in naming places:
In absolute strictness, it is not correct to
speak of these names as having been "given". The
Anglo-Saxons deliberately gave names to their
children, their swords, their houses, and their
ships; but they do not seem to have been in the
habit of inventing or choosing names for places.
(p. 25)
R eproduced with perm ission of the oopyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
95
discusses the building of poetic diction from words and
forms which are archaic and dialectal or are used in
special senses. For his examples he uses "beorn" and
"freca":
Both meant 'warrior' or in heroic poetry 'man.' Or
rather both were used for 'warrior' by poets, while
beorn was still a form of the word 'bear,' and freca
a name of the wolf, and they were still used in
verse when the original senses were forgotten. To
use beorn and freca became a sign that your language
was 'poetical,' and these words survived, when much
else of the ancient diction has perished, as the
special property of the writers of alliterative
verse in the Middle Ages. As bern and freik they
survived indeed in Northern English (especially in
Scotland) down to modern times, and yet never in
their long history of use in this sense, over a
thousand years, were they ever part of the colloquial
speech, (pp. xv-xvi)
The justification for poetic diction is the production
"of a form of language familiar in meaning and yet freed
from trivial associations," one'filled with the memory of
good and evil" (xvi). Tolkien's sensitivity led:- him to
create Beorn, who embodies the two meanings of beorn—
"warrior" and "bear."
In The Saga of King Heidrek the Wise Christopher
Tolkien summarizes the information on a related word,
berserkr, which also contributes to the conception of
Beorn. A berserkr is
a man capable of fits of frenzied rage, or running
amok. Berserks were said to fight without corselets,
raging like wolves with the strength of bears, and
might be regarded almost as shape-changers, who
acquired the strength and ferocity of beasts. During
pagan times, berserks were highly prized as warriors,
but under Christian law those who 'went berserk' were
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
9 6
liable to heavy penalties. The word berserkr, *bear-
shlrted;' Implies perhaps that berserks sometimes
disguised themselves as bears. The berserk-fury Is
described In YnglIngas., ch. 6. (p. 9 3)
!
The Beorn episode neatly ties together the re-
;malnlng Incidents In the narrative structure of the first
\ part of Beowulf : the Initial meeting between Hrothgar and
I Beowulfj the tracking of Grendel to the mere, the taking
jof trophies— Grendel's arm and head— and the concluding
banquet and leave-taking.
Beorn and his hall are symbols of order and light
I
I In a world of chaos and darkness In much the same way that
Hrothgar and Heorot are upon Beowulf's arrival at court.
The tone In the two accounts Is widely different, but the
events parallel. In Beowulf there Is the encounter with
the coast guard and then the Interview by Wulfgar, who Is
much Impressed by the nobility of the company and quickly
;goes to Hrothgar to request an audience for them (11. 331-
3 7 0). Hrothgar, remembering Beowulf as a youth and re
calling his father before him, surmises that he has come
to offer help and receives him graciously.
In The Hobblt Tolkien treats this material humor
ously by negation, understatement, and antl-cllmax. Gan-
dalf and Bilbo, Instructing the dwarves to wait and listen
for a signal, push through a gate and walk down a wide
track. They are crossing Beorn's bee pastures. They are j
observed by "sleek and well groomed" horses with "Intelll- |
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
I 97 !
! I
, gent faces" (p. 120), which gallop off to inform Beorn :
I of the arrival of strangers. Beorn is not impressed:
I "*UghI here they are!' he said to the horses. 'They don’t ■
I look dangerous. You can be off I ' " (p. 120). He is gruff
in questioning them, growling that he has never heard of
! Gandalf but admitting knowledge of a relative that Gandalf
; desc . ’ibes as his "good cousin Radagast who lives near the
Southern borders of Mirkwood" (p. 121). Beorn concedes he :
!
is "not a bad fellow as wizards go," but continues to ques-‘
tion Gandalf suspiciously. In contrast to the heroic
stance of Beowulf, Gandalf can only say: |
’To tell you the truth, we have lost our luggage |
and nearly lost our way, and are rather in need
of help, or at least of advice. I may say we ■
have had rather a bad time with goblins in the
mountains.' (p. 1 2 1)
Beorn becomes interested at the mention of trouble with
the goblins, and invites them in to tell the tale "if it !
won’t take all day."
The suspicious solitary man is lulled into accept
ing them into his house and kept so interested in the
story that he accepts the dwarves as they descend on cue—
primarily by twos— in a scene reminiscent of their arrival
at Bilbo’s home in the Shire.
Where Beowulf, after indicating Hrothgar's
recognition of the company's good intentions, recounts
Grendel's havoc (11. 4-56-498), The Hobbit has Gandalf
reciting their encounter with the goblins in the face of
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
; 9 8 I
i i
: Beorn's lack of belief. In both there is a feast and i
j revelry at night with servants--human in Beowulfj animal |
I in The Hobbit— attending the company: DgSr waesi hæle&a drëam^
I [there was joy of warriors] ( 1 . 497).
I The sequence in Beowulf continues with the relation
I of the swimming match with Breca (11. 529-581). In The
j Hobbit the sequence is approximated by having Beorn
I remark on the dangers of Mirkwood. This foreshadowing |
I is of the battle with the giant spiders in Chapter VIII, j
which replaces the battle with the nicors in Beowulf.
The evening proceeds with tales and songs in both |
i
works op ÿe nipende niht ofer ealle [until darkening night |
was over all] (1. 649), or, as Tolkien puts it, until !
"The dark night came on outside" (p. 127). Hrothgar
I
retires, entrusting Heorot to the companions with advice
on fame and heroism, promising recompense to Beowulf,
* gif pu paet ellenweorc aldre gedigest [if thou that work of
valor escape from with thy life] (1. 66l). This scene
contrasts sharply with Beorn’s departure into the night
and his warning to the company not to venture outside
until the sun is up, on peril of their lives (pp. 1 2 8-1 2 9).
Bilbo hears bears in the courtyard in the night,
and the next day Gandalf goes exploring. He picks out
Beorn's tracks and follows them somewhat beyond the
Carrock, determining that Beorn is following the company's
tracks back toward the Misty Mountains. The next night
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
i 99
I
: Bilbo "dreamed a dream of hundred of black bears dancing
j slow heavy dances round and round in the moonlight in the
I courtyard" (p. 1 31)5 and the reader involuntarily thinks
j of the meeting places of the hundreds in wild and fore-
2
saken places in Anglo-Saxon England. Beorn returns to
I confirm that he had been following their traces and is now
• satisfied with their story. The Hobbit employs here the
! material in Fitt XIII, in which the narrative details the
tracking of the wounded Grendel to the mere. The only
omission is the episode of Sigemund, which is applied
later, in Chapter XIV, to Bard, the hero of the Lake-men
and the killer of Smaug. The trophies that adorn Heorot— j
Grendel's grasp (1. 8 3 6) and later Grendel's head (11.1590,1
1 6 2 9-5 0)— parallel the equally grisly tokens brought back i
by Beorn: "A goblin's head was stuck outside the gate I
and a warg-skin was nailed to a tree just beyond" (p. 132).
In the same article Bradley refers to the land
marks with names ending in head, including Eartshead,
Sheepshead, and even Manshead:
I suspect that these names point to a custom of
setting up the head of an animal, or a representa
tion of it, on a pole to mark the place for public
open-air meetings. Some of them are names of
hundreds. Now the hundreds into which our counties
are divided are often called, not like the counties
themselves, from their chief town, but after some
place that has always been quite unimportant. The
explanation of this curious fact is that it was cus
tomary to name a hundred from the spot, most likely
in the middle of an uninhabited moor, where the men
of the hundred assembled for deliberation, (p. 3 1)
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
1 0 0
As the retainers and Hrothgar praised Beowulf
(11. 8 5 3-863)5 so Beorn praises the company once he has
confirmed the truth of their report of their adventures :
'It was a good story, that of yours,' said Beorn,
'but I like it still better now I am sure it is
true. You must forgive my not taking your word.
If you lived near the edge of Mirkwood, you would
take the word of no one that you did not know as
well as your brother or better. As it is, I can
only say that I have hurried home as fast hs I
could to see that you were safe, and to offer you
any help that I can. I shall think more kindly
of dwarves after this. Killed the Great Goblin, j
I killed the Great GoblinI' he chuckled fiercely to |
himself, (p. 1 3 2)
Tolkien bypasses the intervening fitts, which he I
treats elsewhere, and handles Fitts XXIV through XXVI |
rather quickly. In Beowulf there is the recounting of the |
hero's adventures, Hrothgar's long didactic speech, and ■
his advice and promise of treasure on the morrow, followed |
by the Geatish assurance of substantial help if it is ever |
jneeded (11. I65I-I8 8 7). The only significant omissions
are the story of Heremod (11. 1709-57) and the allusion
to death (11. 1758-68), both of which Tolkien develops
later.
In The Hobbit the recounting of adventures re
duces to a single sentence; "Gandalf thought it wise to
tell him their whole story and the reason of their journey,
so that they could get the most help he could offer" (p.
1 3 3). This recounting of adventures in Beowulf Tolkien
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
i 101
i O
: considers a weakness,-^ and in The Hobbit he has avoided it.
,Beorn’s speech, reported as indirect discourse, promises
I food and the loan of ponies for the dwarves and Bilbo and
iof a horse for Gandalf. The reference to the animals
I recalls the passage in Beowulf in which Hrothgar has eight
■horses brought in, one his own war charger:
Heht eorla hleo eahta mearas
f*tedhleore on flet teon,
in under eoderas; para anum stod
sadol searwum fâh, since gewurpad;
pBRt waes hildesetl hêahcyninges,
Sonne sweorda gelac _ sunu Healfdenes
efnan wolde,— nz&fre on ore l&g
wldcûPes wig, ïonne walu feollon.
(11. 1035-42) I
j
[Then the people’s protector commanded eight horses ’
with gold bridles to be led into the court, within
the walls; on one of them stood a saddle cunningly
inlaid, adorned with jewels: that was the war-seat
of the high king, when the son of Healfdane would
join sword-play; never did courage in warfare fail
the far-famed one when men died in battle.]
Tolkien’s differences in conception are significant. Beorn
I treats his animals as friends, and, as Gandalf remarks at
the edge of Mirkwood when the company return the ponies
(though Gandalf risks Beorn’s wrathy by keeping the
horse), "he loves his animals as his children" (p. 1 3 6).
^In his essay on Beowulf, Tolkien says "the only
serious weakness, or apparent weakness, is the long recap
itulation: the report of Beowulf to Hygelac" (p. 8l). He
adds that the recapitulation is well done and he explains
it as the bridge between two older tales. He sees Beowulf
as the contrast between youth and age and feels that the
dramatic tension would be increased if the action took
place without the journey; he believes the defect of the
journey is rectified "by the bringing of the tale of
Grend el to Geatland" (p. 82).______________________________
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
1 0 2
I
and Beorn eschews all metals, precious and otherwise,
, that can possibly be replaced by other substances.
I Beorn's advice, rather than theological and moral,
i is practical and of immediate import. It concerns the
I dangerous way through Mirkwood: the company should avoid
: drinking or bathing at an enchanted stream, be wary of
; food found in the woods, and refrain from straying from
I the path. We are approaching the borders of Faerie, as
Tolkien observes in his essay "On Fairy-Stories," when we
recognize the necessity of observing prohibitions--pro
hibitions based on a moral element, "by which I mean their
inherent morality, not any allegorical significatio" (p.
16). I
As for a promise of substantial help, the dwarves i
I
had met Beorn with the customary protestation of being at
his service, only to be rebuffed. Preparing for departure,!
they repeat the formula, but realize how helpless they are
before the evil existing within Time:
They thanked him, of course, with many bows and
sweepings of their hoods and with many an 'at your
service, 0 master of the wide wooden halls I' But
their spirits sank at his grave words, and they all
felt that the adventure was far more dangerous than
they had thought, while all the time, even if they
passed all the perils of the road, the dragon was
waiting at the end. (p. 134)
I Beowulf leaves Hrothgar knowing the enmity between
jGeats and Danes is ended (11. l840-l865); the company
depart with Beorn more friendly toward dwarves. Beowulf
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
1 0 3
I
i takes costly gifts and with his men, all riding horses
,given by Hrothgar, treads the greensward to the water's
ledge (11. 1 8 6 6-1 8 8 7); the company leave with Beorn's gifts
I of food and weapons, riding borrowed animals, "galloping
I wherever the ground was grassy and smooth, with the
imountains dark on their left, and in the distance the line
; of the river with its trees drawing ever closer" (p. 1 3 5).
Their Journey corresponds to Fitt XXVII, the sea-
icrossing of the Seats (11. 1 8 8 8-I9 1 9), though they are not
immediately to find a stronghold with friendly allies.
Instead, they are to have the equivalent of another sea-
passage in their long and dangerous journey through
Mirkwood--an episode modeled on Beowulf's swimming match
with Breca (11. 529-581), though considerably expanded.
At the edge of Mirkwood the dwarves and Bilbo
relinquish their ponies, but Gandalf, who has already told
the company he will leave them, keeps Beorn's horse and
departs. The downhearted company beg him to stay or to
find an alternate route for them. He is adamant and
reminds them that the dragon is waiting and that they must
not leave the path:
Now began the most dangerous part of all the journey.
They each shouldered the heavy pack and the water
skin which was their share, and turned from the light
that lay on the lands outside and plunged into the
forest, (p. 1 3 9)
The figure of turning from the light and plunging into the
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
! ' ' 104
i
’ forest and ends the chapter with the implication of evil.
I Chapter VIII ("Flies and Spiders") describes their
I Journey on a clear path through a forest that is nasty and
I dark and hung with dense cobwebs. Prohibited from leaving
j the path and concerned oyer their dwindling food supply,
I they shoot at some squirrels in this forest that is
! "everlastingly still and dark and stuffy" (p. l4l). When
they finally "managed to bring one down on the path" they
discovered that, roasted, "it proved horrible to taste,
and they shot no more squirrels" (p. l42). One thinks of
the contrast in the description of Beowulf (11. l432-4l)
of the water monster killed by Beowulf's arrow and hauled
onto the cliff to be examined out of curiosity by the
company.
Other incidents from the same portion of
Beowulf— Fitt XXI— also come to mind, especially the pas
sage used previously in Chapter V of The Hobbit concerning
the water-monsters abounding in and around the mere ( 1 1.
1423-32). In this chapter the menace consists of eyes
showing in the dark night, shining and fading and appearing
somewhere else. The worst eyes for Bilbo are "'Insect
eyes,' he thought, 'not animal eyes, only they are much
too big'" (p. l4l).
Material from Fitt XX seems echoed here in The
Hobbit when a deer leaps across the enchanted stream as
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
1 0 5
; the company try to cross it. He knocks down several
I dwarves and tumbles Bombur into the water. Thorin looses
i
I an arrow and strikes him, but the dwarves are prevented
i
I from pursuing him because of the necessity of rescuing
!
I BomburJ who is fast asleep. They hear horns and dogs in
j the distance, outside the forest. They see a white hind
I
; and her fawns and use their last arrows without success:
I "None seemed to find their mark" (p. 145). There are
I multiple echoes of other works here, but especially of
i the deer who would rather face the hunters, according to
the Beowulf-poet, than go into the mere (11. 1368-72).
Carrying the sleeping Bombur, the company travel?
for days through the unwholesome woods. They hear fair
voices but can discover nothing fair in the forest. Even
Bilbo, sent to climb a tall tree, cannot see beyond the
ocean of trees that "seemed to swell up round like the
I edges of a great bowl" (p. l48). He and the dwarves be
come even more discouraged, carrying Bombur, the fattest
of the company, and eating their last scraps of food.
Bombur finally awakes, but with no memory of anything that
happened since leaving Bilbo’s house. He has dreamed of
a forest bathed in the light of torches and lamps and
bonfires, he has seen a great feast and a woodland king
crowned with leaves, and he has heard merry singing.
Almost immediately, the company espies the
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
106
twinkle of lights in the forest— torches and fires--and
finally, compelled by hunger, they leave the path. Each
time they approach the circle of lights, the elvish-
looking folk disappear, and, confused in the dark, the
company loses its way and finally one another.
There follows the adventure of Bilbo with the
great spiders— a retelling of Beowulf's contest with Breca
against the nicors (11. 529-581), told from Beowulf's
point of view rather than Unferth's. Beowulf summarizes
the battle's beginning;
Bâ wit setsomne
fif nihta fyrst,
wado weallende,
nipende niht,
hea&ogrim ondhwearf
Wxs merefixa
p%r me wit la&um
heard hondlocen
beadohraegl broden,
golde gegyrwed.
fâh fëondscata,
grim on grape;
fîftt ic agl&can
hildebllle;
mihtig meredeor
on sae waeron
o^ une flôd tôdrâf,
wedera cealdost,
ond norJ?anwind_
; hreo wXron yfa.
mod onhrered;
Ixcsyrce min
helpe gefremede,
on breostum l%g
Me to grunde têah
fafste haefde
hwXÿre mê gyfefe weart^,
or de gerâëhte,
heafjprafis fornam
ÿurh mine hand. ( 1 1. 544-558)
IThus we were together on the sea for the space of
five nights, until the flood drove us apart— the
swelling sea, coldest of weathers, darkening night,
and the north wind battle— grim against us— rough
were the waves. The anger of the sea-fishes was
aroused. Then my body-mail, hard and hand-linked,
gave me help against the foes; the woven shirt of
mail, adorned with gold, covered my breast. A
fierce cruel brute dragged me to the ground (bottom),
held me grim in his grasp, but it was granted me to
reach the monster with my sword-point, with my
battle-blade. The war-stroke destroyed the mighty
sea beast through my hand.]
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
I 107
î
We have seen the companions driven apart after
, their long march through the forest, and now we are to
i see the great spiders with their anger aroused. Bilbo
I regains consciousness to find a huge spider weaving a
"shirt of mail" around him. He has a desperate fight
! before freeing himself, beating off the spider with his
: hands while it attempts to poison him to quiet him down--
I
; "as small spiders do to flies" (p. 154). Finally he re-
I calls his dagger and, after much struggling, is able to
\
kill it. He falls senseless and wakes in the usual dim
grey light of the forest day. |
The next passage incorporates the naming of i
Unferth's sword Hrunting and satisfies the function that '
Tolkien sees in the conquest of the ogres--the announcement
i
of a hero's arrival. In Beowulf, of course, the swimming
match is a contest in early youth; Grendel and his dam !
I must prove the heroic qualities of their antagonist. In
The Hobbit the incident is not mentioned out of chrono
logical order. It is an extension of the conflict with
the ogres and is the particular signal of the arrival of
the hero. How Tolkien has interpreted Beowulf in writing
this part of The Hobbit one can see by examining a judg
ment in "Beowulf : The Monsters and the Critics":
And the conquest of the ogres comes at the right
moment; not in earliest youth, though the nicors
are referred to in Beowulf's geogo&feore [youth] as
a presage of the kind of hero we have to deal with;
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
108
and not during the later period of recognized
ability and prowess, but in that first moment,
which often comes in great lives, when men look
up in surprise and see that a hero has unawares !
leaped forth, (p. 8 6) '
The function attributed to Grendel and his dam in
Beowulf is delegated to the conquest of the giant spider
in The Hobbit;
The spider lay dead beside him, and his sword-blade
was stained black. Somehow the killing of the giant ,
spider, all alone by himself in the dark without the |
help of the wizard or the dwarves or of anyone else, j
made a great difference to Mr. Baggins. He felt a
different person, and much fiercer and bolder in
spite of an empty stomach, as he wiped his sword on
the grass and put it back into its sheath. I
’I will give you a name,' he said to it, 'and |
I shall call you Sting.' (p. 154) i
Bilbo's activities in freeing the dwarves corres
pond to Beowulf's description of the rest of his battle
with the nicors, albeit Bilbo has a magic ring instead of
inhuman strength. Bilbo searches for his companions and
finds them hanging from trees, tied fast by the spiders,
who were debating the best method of preparing them for a
meal. Bilbo saves Bombur, whose obesity has placed him
in imminent danger, and then draws the spider colony away
from the captives. After killing another spider, he
slips back and loosens Fili. By ^ e n it is daylight.
They free some more of the dwarves, but the spiders return,
and poor old Bombur is retied. Bilbo kills half a dozen
more spiders. By then all the dwarves are free to fight
the hundreds of angry spiders. Bilbo quickly explains to
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
1 0 9
the dwarves that he can disappear— and will do so in
order to draw the spiders away— and directs them to
return to the path. Balin leads the attack (since Thorin
is missing) and the dwarves break through the ring of
spiders. When Bilbo has led away most of the spiders, he
returns to the dwarves to protect them from further
attack. Once they are all safely back on the path, the
dwarves are aware that they have been saved by Bilbo and
they are curious about the ring. They look to him for
leadership. They see he has "some wits, as well as luck
and a magic ring" (p. I6 3). The action is an expansion
of a brief passage in Beowulf ;
Swa mec gelôme
prêatedon pearle.
dêoran sweorde,
W% 8 hie %*re fylle
manfordSdlan,
symbel ymbsaeton
ac on mergenne
lâVgetêonan
Ic him yênode
swâ hit gedêfe wKs.
gefêan haefdon,
pa^t_hie me j^egon,
S3€grunde hëah;
mêcum wunde
be ÿôlâfe uppe laegon,
sweo[r]dum aswefede, pact sydÿan na
ymb brontne ford brimli&ende
lade ne letton. (1 1. 559-569)
[Thus often loathsome foes pressed me hard. I
served them with my good sword as it was fitting.
They had no joy of that feast— the foul destroyers—
that they should eat me, sit around the banquet near
the sea-bottom. But in the morning they lay sword-
wounded on the shore, left behind by the waves, put
to sleep by the blade, so that henceforth they
would never hinder the passage of sea-farers over
the deep water.]
In the absence of Thorin, Bilbo becomes the
acknowledged leader of the dwarves, but his first period
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
I 110
i of leadership is quickly brought to an end by the same
people who had captured Thorin— the Wood-elves, who "if
they have one fault it is distrust of strangers. Though
I their magic was strong, even in those days they were wary,
j They differed from the High Elves of the West, and were
I more dangerous and less wise" (p. l64).
; In the second Ballantine edition Tolkien subtly
\ modified his description of the Wood-Blves to conform to
the position allotted elves in the cosmology of The Lord
of the Rings, where all elves love the light— an obvious
but effective symbol for the good, where they are a
people passing from this world, and where they once lived
in lands to the West that no longer exist. In a revision
requiring only the resetting of two lines, Tolkien re
moved the term "Gnomes," the only word implying a class
of elves devoted to the darkness. Speaking of the ancient
I tribes that went (as the Wood-ëlves did not) to Faerie in
the West, he says:
There the Light-elves There the Light-elves and
and the Deep-elves (or the Deep-elves and the
Gnomes) and the Sea- Sea-elves went and lived
elves lived for ages, for ages, and grew fairer
and grew fairer and and wiser and more
wiser and more learned ...
learned ...
(I Ballantine, p. l64) (II Ballantine, p. l64)
Speaking of the Wood-elves, he injects a wistful note in
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
I l l
their lingering in a world they are losing— a traditional
topos:
A
In the Wide World the
Wood-elves lingered in
the twilight before the
raising of the Sun and
Moon;
(I Ballantine, p. l64)
In the Wide World the
Wood-elves lingered in
the twilight of our Sun
and Moon, but loved best
the stars;
(II Ballantine, p. l64)
He revises the rest of the sentence to conform to the
geography of Middle Earth as he refined it in The Lord of
the Rings, where the Western Isles had long-since been
enveloped by the sea;
and afterwards they
wandered in the forests
that grew beneath the
sunrise.
(I Ballantine, p. l64)
and they wandered in the
great forests that grew
tall in lands that are
now lost.
(II Ballantine, p. l64)
His remaining revision, the last words on the page, seem
necessary only for the proper spacing of the type, since
the loss of the reference to the elves' love for their
natural surroundings serves no function and indeed weakens
the impact of the passage:
They loved best the
edges of the woods ...
They dwelt most often by
the edges of the woods
K. M. Briggs speaks of the "diminishment of the-
elves"in The Lord of the Rings in his work The Fairies in
English Tradition and Literature (Chicago, 1967), and adds:
In nearly all the fairy stories of this century that
note is struck, the fairies are everywhere fugitive
and in hiding. But this is not, as we have seen,
peculiar to this century. In the earliest mentions
of them in literature the fairies are already spoken
of aaxdeparted or departing. (p. 2 1 0)
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
i 112 i
I !
; He concludes the description of the elves in a manner that |
ijustifies their behavior to Thorin and the company; he j
! !
I simply asserts "Still elves they were and remain, and that |
1
I is Good People" (p. 1 6 5).
Thorin, separated from the others and captured by
the elves, confronts their king, a suspicious and proud
lord who has him cast into a dungeon for refusing to pro
vide satisfactory answers for his presence in the woods
and for what the Elvenking calls his "attacks" on the
elves. Thorin is no party to an old feud between these
elves and some dwarves, but he suffers from guilt by
association.
The Elvenking, so changed and gentled by the end
of the story, seems to be modeled on Modthryth, a queen
the Beowulf-poet mentions (11. 1931-62). Modthryth in her
youth was suspicious and proud and vengeful, but after
I her marriage to Offa in time uses her offices well. When
we first hear of her, Môdprÿ&b wæg, fremu folces cwen,
fireni ondrysne [violence of mood moved the folk’s bold
queen, crimes appalling] (11. 1931-32). Anyone who
aroused her displeasure could count on waelbende [deadly
bonds] ( 1 . 1 9 3 6) and eventual death because of her
ligetorne [fancied insult] (1. 19^3). This approximates
the situation between the Elvenking and Thorin.
Later the Beowulf-poet indicates that men at their
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
1 1 3
j ealodrlncende [ale-drinking] (1 . 1945) discuss the change
, in her behavior; Tolkien uses the drinking motif in
j Chapter IX, applying it to the steward and chief guard
whom Bilbo overhears discussing a banquet in progress and
the evening’s work of sending emply barrels down to
I Lake-town.
j The Beowulf-poet concludes with a description of
I her activity after her marriage, in which she is praised
for her goodness:
in gumstôle,
lifgesceafta
hiolde heahlufan
ealles moncynnes
| 3one selestan
eormencynnes.
hxo syà^an well
gode maere,
lifigende breac,
wiî h%lefa brego,
mine gefraege
bl sacm tweonum,
( 1 1. 1951-57)
[there afterwards on the throne she was famous for
generosity, while she was alive, held high love
toward the lord of heroes, who was of all mankind
the best, as I have heard, of the races of men
between the seas.]
Tolkien seems to have this passage in mind in describing
the change in the Elvenking in Chapter XV when he comes
to the aid of Bard and the men of Lake-town, in Chapter
XVI when he offers Bilbo sanctuary after Bilbo betrays
Thorin, and in Chapter XVIII when he names Bilbo "elf-
friend and blessed" (p. 277). The change in gender of
Modthryth and the change in relationship between
Modthryth and Offa— to that of friendship between the
Elvenking and Bilbo— follow Tolkien’s characteristic
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
114 I
rhetorical practice of stating the contrary and diverging
, from the text to suit his dramatic purposes. |
i :
i In Chapter IX ("Barrels Out of Bond") the elves
i capture the other dwarves and place them in cells at a
I distance from Thorin. Bilbo, using his ring, avoids cap-
I ture, discovers the location of all his companions, and
j eventually frees them. In the meantime he eats and drinks :
I j
; well of the Elvenking’s stores. The method of supplying |
I the elves with food and drink provides the method of !
escape. The men of Lake-town, which is known also as |
Esgaroth, bring loaded barrels upstream; the elves empty |
them and dump them through a hatch in the mountain strong- !
hold into an underground river that empties through a ■
portcullis and flows to the Long Lake where the town of i
Esgaroth is located. Men there, who have made rafts of
the empty barrels, prepare to send more goods to the
Elvenking. When Bilbo discovers this practice on his
invisible excursions through the mountain, he packs the
dwarves in barrels after releasing them from their cells
with stolen keys— which he returns to the wine-befuddled
chief guard. Since he cannot stow himself in a barrel^,
he must cling to it. He cannot even ride it because the
portcullis is so low he would be scraped off. The incident
reminds the reader of the encounter between Ulysses and
the Cyclops. Tolkien, of course, feels that any similarity
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
1 1 5
between the Aeneid and Beowulf is due "to certain qualities
, in the authors independent of the question whether the
i 5
' Anglo-Saxon had read Virgil or not." We may assume^ how-
I ever, that similarities between The Hobbit and either the
Aeneid or Beowulf depend on both the qualities in the
j authors and the fact that Tolkien is familiar with the
: works of both poets.
i Once out of the mountain, the company are again
I involved in a water-crossing. They are indeed concluding
the crossing begun when they left Beorn's hall--the cross
ing corresponding to Beowulf's voyage from Denmark back
to Sweden. The elves raft the barrels together and float
them down to the Long Lake and then pole them up to the
Lake-town Esgaroth. Men watching for the arrival of the
j barrels row out to them and quickly moor them. The
I description is similar to that of Beowulf's landing:
Hra^e waes get holme hy&weard gear a,
sS ye Xr lange tîd leofra manna
fus x.t faroS'e feor wlatode;
s%lde to sande sîdfæfme scip
oncerbendum faest, %?y l#s hym y^a %rym
wudu wynsuman forwrecan meahte. (11. 1914-19)
[Quickly at the water's edge was the haven-ward
ready, he who a long time before had looked eagerly
far over the sea for the dear men; he bound to the
sand the broad-bosomed ship with anchor-ropes fast,
lest the waves' force should drive the fair craft
away from them.]
In Beowulf the men carry the treasure up to the
^^Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics," p. 74.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
: 116
j
i stronghold when they go to feast ( 1 1. I$l4-19); here the
,barrels are presumably empty, but Bilbo secretly lets out
I their treasure— the dwarves; then the elves and boatmen
I go to feast in Lake-town. Beowulf and his companions walk
I on the beach in the morning light, and their coming is
•quickly announced in the stronghold (11. 1 9 6 3-7 6); Thorin
; and his nephews and Bilbo walk at night up from the shore,
I ■ -
! and their appearance at a guard hut causes great excite
ment: "Some of the more foolish ran out of the hut as if
j they expected the Mountain to go golden in the night"
(p. 1 8 8). In Beowulf there is no hesitation in welcoming
the heroes; in The Hobbit there is, since the Elvenking
is powerful and his raftsmen denounce the company. But
the populace remembers the old songs and the prophecies
of the return of the King under the Mountain and the,re
storation of his wealthy kingdom, so the Master can do
nothing but obey the general clamor. As Beowulf accepted
a seat of honor at the feast (1 1. 1 9 7 7-8 3), so do the
dwarves and Bilbo. In both narratives past adventures
are repeated, and in The Hobbit the Master adds stories
of the wealth Thorin will provide for Lake-town. Thorin
does not approve of such stories, but he "looked and
walked as if his kingdom was already regained and Smaug
chopped up in little pieces" (pp. 191-192). In Beowulf
the poet describes and praises the hero's character and
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
117
contrasts it with the low esteem in which he had been held
in his youth (11. 2177-89)— a conventional epic touch.
Tolkien describes the dwarves' change in attitude toward
the hobbit; "There were no more groans or grumbles.
They drank his health, and they patted him on the back,
I and they made a great fuss of him" (p. 1 9 2).
; Just as Hygelac gives great gifts to Beowulf
I
I(11. 2 1 9 0-99)5 so the Master provides for Thorin and his |
!
company, though he has mixed motives. He is not sure but
they are frauds, and they are expensive to maintain and
his people have treated their sojourn as a holiday and j
j
have not been productive, so he is glad to send them on |
their way. He sends ponies and horses ahead to meet the j
three large boats at an appointed landing-place near the
I
Mountain, and sends the company with provisions and rowers
in the boats. The conquest of the ogres is drawing to a |
close; ahead lies the dragon. Only Bilbo does not respond
to the heroic situation:
The Master and his councillors bade them farewell
from the great steps of the town-hall that went down
to the lake. People sang on the quays and out of
windows. The white oars dipped and splashed, and
off they went north up the lake on the last stage
of their long journey. The only person thoroughly
unhappy was Bilbo, (p. 193)
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
CHAPTER V
THE DRAGON
; Although the transition from Part I and the
: monsters to Part II and the dragon requires the spanning
i of fifty years in Beowulf^ it takes only two days of rowing;
I up the Long Lake and the River Running to see "the Lonely |
Mountain towering grim and tall before them" (p. ig4) in
Chapter XI ("On the Doorstep") of The Hobbit. After they
unload supplies, none of the men of Laketown will remain I
!
with the company for they are as aware of the danger as I
were the dwarves at the beginning of the adventure, when ;
Thorin proclaimed: "I remember the Mountain well enough
land the lands about it. And I know where Mirkwood is, |
land the Withered Heath where the great dragons bred"
(p. 32).
The company approaches the Mountain through bleak
and blackened land that once, according to Thorin, had been
green and fair:
There was little grass, and before long there was
neither bush nor tree, and only broken and blackened
stumps to speak of ones long vanished. They were
come to the Desolation of the Dragon, and they were
come at the waning of the year. (p. 1 9 5)
118
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
119
; They search for the hidden door from the Front Gate to
, Ravenhill; they observe all that remains of the town of
I Dale, "grey ruins of ancient houses, towers, and walls"
I (p. 1 9 5)î they hear no sound but the croak of black and
i ominous crows and see no movement but the water flowing
: from a cavern and the smoke and steam of the dragon
I
> issuing from the same source. "They were alone in the
I perilous waste without hope of further help" (p. 1 9 6), and
with no notion of where else to look for the secret door.
Their predicament grows out of the brief description of
the dragon’s lair in Beowulf:
o^ ^361 an ongan
deorcum nihtum draca rîcstüan,
së ie on hea(pm) h(atp)e _ hord beweotode,
stanbeorh stêapnej ' stig under ])eg
eldum uncu^. (11. 2210-2214)
[until in the dark nights a certain one began to
hold sway— a dragon, who on the upland heath kept
watch over a hoard, a steep stone-barrow; below
lay a path unknown to men.]
Even the "path unknown to men" is simply and appropriately
expanded in The Hobbit. Bilbo finds rough steps behind a
great stone, and he, Fili, and Kili follow the traces of
a narrow track that becomes a still narrower ledge until
they discover a little bay high up on the face of the
Mountain:
Its entrance which they had found could not be
seen from below because of the overhang of the
cliff, nor from further off because it was so
small that it looked like a dark crack and
no more. (p. 1 9 7)
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
1 2 0
i Nothing— not even "fragments of broken spells of opening"
,(p. 1 9 8)— will force the door; but on the proper evening,
iwhen the setting sun touches the wall in the correct place,
I a hole appears for Thorin's key. The doorway opened onto
I"deep darkness in which nothing could be seen ..., a
I yawning mouth leading in and down" (p. 202).
I The lines actually dealing with the thief, occurring
j two-thirds of the way through Beowulf, number less than
two dozen. In The Hobbit, those few lines are expanded to
a full chapter. By the beginning of Chapter XII ("Inside
Information"), over two-thirds of The Hobbit is complete; |
!
there is a unified plot and a motive for Bilbo’s theft. !
i
In a badly corrupted text, Beowulf states only !
that a slave, not of his own accord, fled- to the cave for !
I
shelter and saw the sleeping dragon and carried off a
precious cup (11. 2215-30). Bilbo carries out the part in |
The Hobbit, slipping on his magic ring and creeping down
into the dark:
He was trembling with fear, but his little face was
set and grim. Already he was a very different
hobbit from the one that had run out without a
pocket-handkerchief from Bag-End long ago. He had
not had a pocket-handkerchief for ages. He loosened
his dagger in its sheath, tightened his belt, and
went on. (pp. 204-205)
Bilbo feels the dragon’s heat filling the passage,
hears his snoring, and sees his red glow. "Going on from
there was the bravest thing he ever did" (p. 205). But on
he does go, until he can look down upon the great hall of
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
1 2 1
the ancient dwarves— a hall enveloped in the glow of
,Smaug.
i In his essay on Beowulf Tolkien laments the lack
I of real dragons in Northern stories, saying that "dragons,
I real dragons, essential both to the machinery and the
I ideas of a poem or tale, are actually rare" (p. 5 9)* He
! indicates that Beowulf’s dragon approaches "dragon-ness,"
I the personification of evil, rather than simply being
I"dragon";
Beowulf's dragon, if one wishes really to criticize,
is not to be blamed for being a dragon, but rather
for not being dragon enough, plain pure fairy-story
dragon. There are in the poem some vivid touches
of the right kind— as pa se wyrm onwoc, wroht wags
geniwad; stone after stane [when the dragon awoke
strife was renewed; he then moved quickly along by
the rock], 2 2 8 5— in which the dragon is a real worm,
with a bestial life and thought of his own, but the
conception, none the less, approaches draconitas
[dragon-ness] rather than draco [dragon]; a per-
sonification of malice, greed, destruction (the
evil side of heroic life), and the undiscriminating
cruelty of fortune that distinguishes not good or
bad (the evil aspect of all life). (pp. 6 5-6 6)
Tolkien redresses the balance in The Hobbit,
creating a "real" dragon unsurpassed in medieval or
modern literature:
There he lay, a vast red-golden dragon, fast
asleep; a thrumming came from his jaws and nostrils,
and wisps of smoke, but his fires were low in
slumber. Beneath him, under all his limbs and his
huge coiled tail, and about him on all sides
stretching away across the unseen floors, lay
countless piles of precious things, gold wrought
and unwrought, gems and jewels, and silver red-
stained in the ruddy light.
Smaug lay, with wings folded like an immeasurable
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
1 2 2
bat, turned partly on one side, so that the hobbit
could see his underparts and his long pale belly
crusted with gems and fragments of gold from his
long lying on his costly bed. Behind him where the
walls nearest could dimly be seen coats of mail,
h.elms and axes, swords and spears hanging; and
there in rows stood great Jars and vessels filled
with a wealth that could not be guessed. (p. 2 0 6)
The description makes the dragon an immediate reality; the
interweaving of the inventory of wealth gives that a
significance it might lack if presented as a separate
catalog. The presentation of the dragon and the wealth
together provides psychological motivation for Bilbo’s
removal of the cup from the hoard and makes real for the
reader the enchantment and the power of the "desire of
dwarves":
To say that Bilbo’s breath was taken away is no
description at all. There are no words left to
express his staggerment, since Men changed the
language that they learned of elves in the days
when all the world was wonderful. Bilbo had
heard tell and sing of dragon-hoards before,
but the splendour, the lust, the glory of such
treasure had never yet come home to him. His
heart was filled and pierced with enchantment
and the desire of dwarves; and he gazed motion
less, almost forgetting the frightful guardian,
at the gold beyond price and count, (p. 2 0 6)
Thus does an imaginative and creative mind elaborate upon
the brief suggestions in Fitt XXXII, where terror also
holds the thief when he sees the treasure. The text,
badly broken at this point, indicates that pa hyne se fier
begeat Cthen terror befell him] when he beheld sincfet
[the precious cup] (11. 2230-31). Multiple meanings are
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
1 2 3
possible for f g r and Tolkien has drawn upon them all in !
developing this scene. The word means "fear" and |
"terror," but it also means "disaster"--and Bilbo comes to ;
feel the consequences of his act to be a disaster for
which he is responsible.
We are to learn later in Beowulf that the dragon
upon waking finds the foot steps of the one who to for#
gestop dyrnan crxfte dracan hêafde nêah ^had walked for
ward and close to the head of the dragon by his stealthy
craft 3 (11- 2 2 8 9-9 0)* This retrospect of the intruder's
activity is treated in The Hobbit in chronological order.
His dyrnan cr%efte (,secret or hidden craft] becomes
invisibility as Bilbo reenacts the scene only suggested
in Beowulf ;
He gazed for what seemed an age, before drawn
almost against his will, he stole from the shadow
of the doorway, across the floor to the nearest
edge of the mounds of treasure. Above him the
sleeping dragon lay, a dire menace even in his
sleep. He grasped a great two-handled cup, as
heavy as he could carry, and cast one fearful
eye upwards. Smaug stirred a wing, opened a
claw, the rumble of his snoring changed its note.
(p. 2 0 6)
Beowulf in eleven compressed lines describes the
ransacking of the hoard, the giving of the cup for repara
tion, and the Lord's examination of the cup— of fira
fyrngeweorc [the ancient work of men] (1. 2286). The
Hobbit takes the better part of a page. Bilbo flees with
the cup, which is to make reparation for the low opinion
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
124
the dwarves still occasionally have of him:
His heart was beating and a more fevered shaking
was in his legs than when he was going down, but
still he clutched the cup, and his chief thought
was: ’ ’I've done it I This will show them. ’More
like a grocer than a burglar’ indeed! Well,
we’ll hear no more of that.” (p. 2 0 7)
On his return to the surface, the dwarves, praising him and
patting him and putting themselves and their families at
his service for generations to come, are still passing the
cup from hand to hand when a vast rumbling informs them
that Smaug is awake and aware of his loss.
A great deal of interweaving of material begins
at this point: incidents concerning Beowulf’s dragon,
the lay of Sigemund, recited in Part I, the various
references to Heremod, and the scattered details of
Hygelac’s death in battle. They will be treated in the
order Tolkien uses them.
The company cowers in fright, remembering that
Smaug is still to be reckoned with: "It does not do to
leave a live dragon out of your calculations, if you live
near him" (p. 207). Smaug is aware of his loss immediately
on waking after a dream "in which a warrior, altogether
insignificant in size but provided with a bitter sword and
great courage, figured most unpleasantly" (p. 207). The
dream foretells his encounters with Bilbo and his death
at the bow of Bard, but it also looks back to the lay of
Sigemund (11. 874-915), which commemorates the other
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
1 2 5
great dragon-slayer of Northern myth.
Smaug and Beowulf's dragon react in the same manner
to the discovery. Smaug sniffs the air and then becomes
enraged, so that
His fire belched forth, the hall smoked, he shook the
mountain-roots. He thrust his head in vain at the
little hole, and then coiling his length together,
roaring like thunder underground, he sped from his
deep lair through its great door, out into the huge
passage of the mountain-palace and up towards the
Front Gate. (p. 208)
This is an elaboration on the passage in Beowulf (11. 2287-
2 3 0 2) containing the lines Tolkien admires as a vivid
touch of the right kind.^
pâ se wyrm onwoc,_
stone »a after stane,
feondes fôtlâst.
wroht w%s geniwad;
stearcheort onfand
( 1 1. 2 2 8 7-8 9)
[when the dragon awoke, strife was renewed; then
he moved quickly over the stones, hard-hearted
beheld his enemy’s footprints.]
The passage concludes with a description on which Tolkien
also elaborates:
georne after grunde,
pone ve him on sweofote
hat ond hrêohmôd
ealne utanweardne;
on fêère wëstenne,--
bea(du)[we) weorces;
sincfKt sohte;
jAt herfde gumena sum
hêahgestrêona.
Hordweard sohte
wolde guman findan,
sare geteode;
hlâcw oft ymbehwearf
né S^r 0ënig mon
hwaeâFre wîges gefeh,
hwîlum on beorh æthwearf,
hë yæt sôna onfand,
goldes gefandod,
(11. 2293-2302)
[The hoard-guard sought eagerly over the ground,
would find the man who had done him injury while
^"Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics," p. 6 5.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
126
he slept: glowing and fierce-hearted, often he
moved all about the outside of the barrow; no
man at all was in that wasteland. Still he took
Joy in the thought of fighting, in the work of
battle; at times he turned back into the barrow,
sought his precious cup. Soon he discovered that
some mortal man had meddled with the gold, his
splendid treasure.]
I The elaboration takes pages. After searching the barrow,
ISmaug hunts the whole mountain in hope of catching the
I thief, and "up he soared blazing into the air and settled
on the mountain-top in a spout of green and scarlet flame"
(p. 2 0 8). Barely in time, the company hurries into the
tunnel as Smaug swoops down, his breath scorching the
grass and even the company hidden behind the door. The
i terrified ponies in the valley break their tethers and
jSmaug pursues them, catching some. All night the company
is aware of the flying dragon "as he hunted round and
round the mountain-sides" (p. 209). From the ponies and
the traces of the camps he finds, Smaug is convinced that
men have intruded, but he cannot find the little door. In
the dawn he determines to return to his golden couch to
sleep and to renew his strength in order to be revenged
in the evening, for "He would not forget or forgive the
theft, not if a thousand years turned him to smouldering
stone, but he could afford to wait" (p. 209). And he does
wait, until evening, when he destroys the town on the lake,
This material is inspired by the description of the dragon
waiting until night to take vengeance and then destroying
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
127
the countryside by fire:
earfo&lice,
wats gebolgen
wolde se ISàa
drincfst dÿre.
wyrme on willan;
bîdan wolde,
fÿre gefÿsed.
lêodum on lande,
on hyra sincgifan
Hordweard onbad
ffen cwôm;
beorges hyrde,
lîge forgyldan
pa waps daeg sceacen
no on wealle lae\njg
ac mid bàêle for,
Wxs se fruma egeslTc
swa hyt lungre wearer
sare geendod.
(1 1. 2 3 0 2-1 1)
[The hoard-ward waited impatiently until evening
came; then the mountain lord was enraged: the foe
would with fire dearly requite that precious drinking
cup. The day was gone, as the dragon wished; he
would not wait any longer in his mound, but went
forth with fire, hastening with flame. The begin
ning was dreadful to the people of the land, as
the ending was to be, soon and sorely, to their
giver of treasure.]
In Beowulf the order of events is somewhat diffuse
The narration deals with the dragon's destruction of the
countryside (11. 2312-35)j Beowulf’s preparation for his
own doom and his boldness before the enemy (1 1. 2333-54), !
the digression on Hygelac's death and its consequences
(11. 2 35 4-9 6), Beowulf's farewell speech (11. 2417-24),
the digression on Hrethel’s piteous history (11. 2425-79):
and the consequent warfare between Swedes and Geats
(11. 2 4 7 9-2 5 0 9), Beowulf’s boast that he will conquer or
die ( 1 1. 2 5 1 0-3 7), his advance into the cave (1 1. 253 8-6 2),
the initial contest (1 1. 25 6 2-8 0), and the scorching by
the dragon’s flame (11. 2 5 8O-26OI).
In the parallel passage in The Hobbit, the epic
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
128
: quality is somewhat reduced, but the narrative is fascin- |
,ating in the confrontation between Bilbo and Smaug. After |
I :
ISmaug's depredation on discovering the loss of the cup,
jthe dwarves’ attitude, here and later in the passage, is no
idifferent from that of Beowulf’s retainers:
Nealies him on hSape
aa^elinga beam
hildecystum,
ealdre burgan.
handgesteallan,
ymbe gestodon
ac hÿ on holt bugon,
(11. 2596-99)
[Nor did his comrades, sons of nobles, take up their
stand round him in a body, with the courage of |
fighting men, but they crept into the wood and
took care of their lives.] :
The dwarves debate on the course of action to I
I
dispose of Smaug, but can find no way of getting rid of i
him— "which had always been a weak point in their plans, ;
as Bilbo felt inclined to point out" (p. 210). Thoroughly i
i
perplexed, they grumble at the hobbit, ’blaming him for
what had at first so pleased them: for bringing away a |
I cup and stirring up Smaug’s wrath so soon" (p. 210).
Beowulf’s boast to conquer or die (11. 2510-37)
is in contrast to Bilbo’s protestations: "I was not
engaged to kill dragons, that is warrior’s work, but to
steal treasure" (p. 210), and "Getting rid of dragons is
not at all in my line" (p. 211). Nonetheless, Bilbo
offers to slip on his ring and descend through the tunnel
to the treasure room to determine if there is some way of
getting rid of Smaug. "’Every worm has his weak spot,’
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
1 2 9
as my father used to say, though I am sure It was not
from personal experience" (p. 2 1 1).
I The leader presaged in the fight with the giant
j spiders steps forth again, and the dwarves accept his
1 leadership, though if he had known more about dragons
I
i"he might have been more frightened and less hopeful of
! catching this one napping" (p. 2 1 1).
I Smaug, of course, is not napping, and he has a
I good sense of smell. He challenges Bilbo, who is polite,
calling him "0 Smaug the Chiefest and Greatest of Calami
ties" (p. 2 1 2), but too wary to come close to the dragon.
When asked about himself. Bilbo replies with riddles,
which is wise since "No dragon can resist the fascination
of riddling talk and of wasting time trying to understand
it" (p. 213). Smaug does not get the allusions to such
■items as "the clue-finder, the web-cutter, and the
stinging fly" (p. 213), but at mention of "Barrel-rider"
he is sure that Bilbo is part of "some nasty scheme of
those miserable tub-trading Lake-men" (p. 213).
Riddles, then, replace the initial physical
encounter between champion and dragon, as riddles replaced
hand-to-hand combat at an earlier time in the hero's
career.
To reinforce Bilbo's fear of betrayal later in
the narrative, Tolkien introduces the concept here.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
1 3 0
weaving a thicker texture. He has Smaug warn Bilbo that
he will have trouble with the dwarves: "You'll come to
a bad end, if you go with such friends. Thief Barrel-
rider" (p. 2l4). He drives home the point by implying that
the dwarves have already cheated him:
'I suppose you got a fair price for that cup last
night?’ he went on. 'Come now, did you? Nothing at
allI Well, that's just like them. And I suppose
they are skulking outside, and your job is to do
all the dangerous work and get what you can when
I'm not looking--for them? And you will get a
fair share? Don't you believe it I If you get off
alive, you will be lucky.' (p. 214)
After much more such questioning— "But what about delivery?
What about cartage? What about armed guards and tolls?"
(p. 2 1 5)— Bilbo begins to have doubts about his friends,
for "That is the effect that dragon-talk has on the inex
perienced" (p. 2 1 5).
In an effort to remain loyal to the dwarves,
Bilbo switches the conversation to revenge, which he says
is their primary purpose in coming to the mountain. Smaug
can only laugh at the absurdity. He recounts his exploits:
'RevengeI The King under the Mountain is dead and
where are his kin that dare seek revenge? Giron
Lord of Dale is dead, and I have eaten his people
like a wolf among sheep, and where are his sons'
sons that dare approach me?' (p. 2 1 5)
This draws upon the episodes in Beowulf concerning King
Hygelac and King Hrethel, dealing with warfare and revenge,
1 where few escape the hildfrecan jbattle-wolf] (1. 2 3 6 6),
I where a bereft father is left unavenged— nis peer hearpan
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
1 3 1
; swegj gomen In geardum, swylce iû wâ^on (.there is no
J sound of harp5 there is no mirth, as there was of old]
I (11. 2458-59).
I The turn of conversation allows Bilbo to enquire
about the traditionally vulnerable area and thus Smaug,
absurdly pleased by compliments, rolls over to display
his waistcoat of fine diamonds.
'Dazzlingly marvellous I Perfect I Flawless 1
StaggeringI' exclaimed Bilbo aloud, but what he
thought inside was: 'Old fool! Why there is
a large patch in the hollow of his left breast
as bare as a snail out of its shell!' (p. 2 1 6)
Bilbo's next venture is an attempt to escape,
which he prefaces with a taunt--unwise when the adversary
is a dragon. Smaug thrust his head against the tunnel
opening and "sent forth fire and vapor...and he was nearly
overcome, and stumbled blindly on in great pain and fear"
(p. 217). He at last reaches the door-step, and "The
dwarves revived him, and doctored his scorches as well as
they could" (p. 2 1 7), though the hair on the back of his
head and on the heels "had all been singed and frizzled
right down to the skin" (p. 2 1 7).
In the corresponding passage in Beowulf are the
archway, the fiery breath, and the scorching which the
hero could not endure. Beowulf saw
sto[n]dan stanbogan, stream ut ponan
brecan of beorge; wjcs paere burnan wselm
hea&ofyrum hat, _ ne meaht horde néah
unbyrnende senige hwlle
deop gedygan for dracan lege. ( 1 1. 2545-49)
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
1 3 2
[a stone arch standing, through it a stream bursting
out of the barrow; there was welling of a current
hot with intense fires, and he might not any while
endure unscorched the hollow near the hoard by
reason of the dragon's flame.]
Once Bilbo revives he tells the dwarves what he
must about his encounter with Smaug, though he now knows
he said some foolish things. He is distressed by an
I ancient thrush— the one that had been killing snails in
; the bay when Bilbo discovered the door— which he feels is
I listening. And the bird is. Thorin is more tolerant,
explaining that this bird may be the last of the ancient
breed that was tame to his ancestors' hands. "The Men of
Dale used to have the trick of understanding their lan
guage, and used them for messengers" (p. 2 1 8), he adds.
The Thrush, the last of his kind, and one referred to as
the survivor after Smaug's next attack, functions the
way Wiglaf, "war-survivor," does in Beowulf. He brings
help in the form of a raven to the dwarves, and stands
with Bard in the slaying of the dragon, giving him the
information about the unprotected area in Smaug's left
breast.
This chapter introduces as well the Arkenstone,
which provides motivation for Thorin's character change
and for Bilbo's betrayal of Thorin. In their leisure,
between Smaug's sorties, the dwarves catalog the great
treasures that were left by their ancestors in the hoard
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
I 133
!
: on the coming of the dragon:
I But fairest of all was the great white gem, which
I the dwarves had found beneath the roots of the
I mountain, the Heart of the Mountain, the Arkenstone
* of Thrain. (p. 220)
The passage is reminiscent of the catalog of gifts given
to Beowulf in Fitt XVIII, in which the eorclanstanas
I(1. 1208) are the'precious Jewels of Hama, later carried
1 in battle by Hygelac, who dies for his reckless daring in
; trouble brought on himself (11. 1192-1214). The Arkenstonei
presages the problems of greed and self-destruction that i
will affect Thorin and all the company:
'The Arkenstone! The Arkenstone!' murmured Thorin
in the dark, half dreaming with his chin upon his
knees. 'It was like a globe with a thousand facets;
it shone like silver in the firelight, like water
in the sun, like snow under the stars, like rain
upon the Moon!' (p. 220)
So goes the imaginative description of the enchanted
desire of dwarves. The Arkenstone is the Old English
1eorcnan-stan, variously rendered eorcan-stan, eorclan-stan.
and earcnan-stân, and glossed as "precious stone," "pearl,"
or "topaz.
As darkness falls. Bilbo fears the return of the
dragon, for ÿâ wgss hringbogan heorte gefÿsed seecce to
seceanne [then was the heart of the coiled thing aroused
to seek combat] (11. 2r?6l-62). When the dragon attacks
in Beowulf (11. 2562-2601), the hero's shield is shattered
p
Bosworth, p. 2 5 3.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
134
and he has to leave the surface of this earth while his
companions shrink back Into the wood for safety.
!
Although a shield Is not necessarily a bay on the mountain-!
side and although leaving the surface of the earth (In
Beowulf a metaphor for death) Is not necessarily descend-
I Ing a passageway toward a dragon's hoard, these are the
i meanings transferred to The Hobbit. Bilbo persuades the
' dwarves they should move Inside the door, and they have
I barely done so when Smaug, roaring and rumbling In his
fury, smashes the bay and closes permanently the side
door. The company runs further down the passage, glad
for their lives, but left with no way out except through
Smaug's bedroom. The dragon, seeking vengeance on the
lake-men, "rose In fire and went away south towards the
Running River" (p. 222).
In twenty lines the Beowulf-poet recounts the
descent of Beowulf and twelve companions, led by the
unwilling thief, to view the treasure ( 1 1. 2397-24l6).
In another seventeen he describes the treasure despoiled
by a band led by one carrying a flaming torch ( 1 1. 3 1 2 0-
3 6). These accounts are combined and expanded to the
first seven pages of Chapter XIII ("Not at Home"). Bilbo
I enters the hall first, and eventually the dwarves obey
his direction and enter also, but not until Bilbo, carry
ing a pine torch, makes an Investigation:
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
I 1 3 5
As Thorin carefully explained, Mr. Baggins was still
officially their expert burglar and investigator.
I If he liked to risk a light, that was his affair.
I They would wait in the tunnel for his report. So
I they sat near the door and watched. (p. 2 2 5)
I How like the warriors cowering in the woods. And how
j
I unlike the wretched captive is Bilbo, finding the courage
I and even the daring that Gandalf long before had pro-
phesied of him. His being alone in the immense treasure
; room permits Bilbo to find and secrete the Arkenstone.
I Indeed, it had summoned Bilbo to itself: "Ever as he
climbed, the same white gleam had shone before him and
drawn his feet towards it" (pp. 225-226). Bilbo is over
come by its enchantment and puts it in his pocket, thinking!
he will have to tell the dwarves sometime, calling himself !
a burglar indeed, and telling himself he has the right to i
I
choose his own fourteenth share.
Bilbo explores the great hall and then calls the |
idwarves in. They are inflamed by the glimpse of treasure,
and when "the heart of a dwarf, even the most respectable,"
is afire for treasure, "he grows suddenly bold, and he
may become fierce" (p. 227). This is the situation to
come.
They examine old treasures in the mounds and on
the walls, and Fill and Kill take down harps, though
"most of the dwarves were more practical," (p. 2 2 8) and
sifted the gems through their hands, stuffing as much as
possible into their pockets. Thorin, too, fills his_______
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
1 3 6
pocketsJ but keeps searching for what he cannot find—
I the Arkenstone. They arm themselves with weapons and
I mail from the hoard, with such treasures that Bilbo feels
I magnificent in them but knows he would look absurd back
I
jat his home on the Hill. Thus do they examine the hl&w
I under hrusan tvault under the earth] (1. 2411), a vault
I filled with wrtftta ond wira [gems and filigree work]
1(1. 2413). They reinforce the image of the dragon hoard
created by the poet;
Heard unhiore,
gearo gûÔfreca goldmâ&mas hëold
eald under eorôan; næs pgst ÿ5e cêap
to gegangenne gumena aenigum. ( 1 1. 2413-l6)
[The terrible guardian, a ready and bold warrior,
held the golden treasures, old under the earth;
that was no bargain for any man to obtain.]
The company explore the passages and come at last
under the Mountain to the source of the Running River;
beyond a wide-sweeping turn in the tunnel is daylight.
They see the charred remnants of the great hall, reminis
cent of two references to Heorot, the gables and the
shining threshold:
In front there rose a tall arch, still showing the
fragments of old carven work within, worn and
splintered and blackened though it was. A misty
sun sent its pale light between the arms of the
Mountain, and beams of gold fell on the pavement
at the threshold, (p. 2 3 0)
There is the image of Heorot's foreshadowed destruction
by fire: Sele hlifade hëah ond horngeap; hea&owylma bad.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without
perm ission.
1 3 7
:lâ&an liges The hall towered high, lofty, and wide-
gabled; it would wait the fierce flames of vengeful fire
I(11. 8 1-8 3). There is also the image of Heorot upon the
[approach of Grendel to the recedes mufan [_mansion's mouth]
I(1 . 724): he is at the fâgne flôr ( 1. 725)— a floor that
I is variegated, decorated, or shining. The images are
: minor and their application here is of slight importance,
I but they indicate Tolkien's penchant for transposing
material and increasing the texture by using the one-of-
a-kind images in Beowulf.
The remainder of Chapter XIII deals with the
company's departure through the Front Gate and their
establishing themselves on Ravenhill, an outpost on the
mountain. This part allows the stage to be set for the
later confrontation between the company and the men of
Lake-town at the Front Gate, and for the following Battle
- of Five Armies that develops from the episode of the
battle of Ravenswood and the death of Ongentheor (11.
2 9 2 2-9 8).
Chronology is broken in Chapter XIV ("Fire and
Water"), which looks back two days to when Smaug
smashed the side door and flew off to the Lake-town of
Esgaroth.
The men of Esgaroth, seeing the lights on the
mountain, delude themselves into assuming that Thorin is
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
1 3 8
indeed King under the Mountain and that he is perhaps
already forging more gold. Only grim-voiced Bard, de
scended from the kings of Dale, is sure the light emanates
from Smaug, and calls the town to arms. Smaug devastates
Esgaroth Just as the dragon in Beowulf destroys everything
before him, even Beowulf's stronghold:.
Da se gasst ongan gledum spiwan,
beorht hofu bsarnan,— brynelëoma stôd
eldum oh and an; no S ' a é r âht cwices
lad lyftfloga Izefan wolde.
Waes yaes wyrmes wig wide gesÿne,
nearofages nid nêan ond feorran. (11. 2312-17) !
. [Then the fiend began to vomit flames, to burn
noble dwellings; fire blazed forth to the horror |
of men; the hateful creature would leave there i
nothing alive. The dragon's warfare was wide- ' •
seen, the vengeance of the devastator near and I
far.] I
Phrase-by-phrase these details appear in the expanded ver- :
sion occurring in The Hobbit: "Fire leaped from the
dragon's mouth," "Fire leaped from thatched roofs and j
wooden beam-ends," "Flames unquenchable sprang high into
the night," "Soon all the town would be deserted and
burned down to the surface of the lake," "Soon he would
set all the shoreland woods ablaze and wither every
field and pasture" (p. 2 3 6).
Bard remains with a band after the Master of the
town has fled and others have sought refuge in boats on
the lake. He combines some of the features of both
famous dragon-slayers of the North: Beowulf and Sigemund.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
1 3 9
Bard shares with Beowulf certain features of the battle,
including the help of one faithful ally. He shares with
Sigemund (whose adventure is recorded in Part I of
j Beowulf, 11. 8 7 4-9 1 5) great prosperity after the death of
i a greedy and battle-prone ruler. He shares also royal
i
i descent, but this is recorded of Sigemund not in Beowulf
; but in the Voluspa.
! Bard finds himself bereft of companions and bereft
of arrows save one, a family heirloom. At that moment the
old thrush, unafraid, lights on his shoulder and tells
him of Smaug's vulnerable spot, advising him of the right
moment to shoot. The thrush's role is patterned on
!
Wiglaf’s, who also makes a supporting speech when he comes ;
i
to Beowulf's aid (11. 2661-68). Bard addresses his black |
arrow, recalling its history and descent through the
family, and giving it a charge. This speech is reminiscent;
I
I of the history surrounding Wiglaf's sword which the Beowulf-
poet reports before battle (11. 2 6 1 1-2 5).
On the dragon’s next swoop, Bard looses the arrow
with such accuracy and force that "In it smote and
vanished, barb, shaft and feather, so fierce was its
flight" (p. 237). As it was said of Sigemund's foe—
draca mor re swealt the dragon died violently (1. 8 9 2),
so it is said of Bard's opponent: "With a shriek that
deafened men, felled trees and split stone, Smaug shot
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
I l40
' spouting into the air, turned over and crashed down from
j on high in ruin" (p. 237). Sigemund>s foe is burned up
I in his own heat; wyrm hat gemealt (1. 8 9 7). Smaug
1
I suffers the same fate;
i
1 Full on the town he fell. His last throes splintered
i it to sparks and gledes. The lake roared in. A vast
’ steam leaped up, white in the sudden dark under the
j moon. There was a hiss, a gushing whirl, and then
! silence. And that was the end of Smaug and Esgaroth,
j but not of Bard. (p. 2 3 8)
Indeed it is not the end of Bard. When he rises
from the lake, the townspeople attempt to make him king,
yet the cowardly but cunning Master diverts them, causing
them to think of Thorin and his band and to direct their
energies toward blaming the company for the dragon’s
assault. Bard, assuming that the Mountain is unguarded
because of Smaug’s death, says he will serve the Master
still, though he may eventually refound Dale, and he goes
about preparations for protecting and housing the people,
for winter is drawing on. One is reminded of the
references to Beowulf as the avenger of Hygelac’s death:
upon his return by swimming he is offered the throne by
the widowed queen, but he rejects it— postponing his own
accession--in order to serve Heardred, the rightful heir
(11. 2 3 6 7-7 9).
The death of Smaug, as soon as it is known— and
the birds carry the news quickly— brings preparations for
battle among many peoples:
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
l 4 l
Above the borders of the Forest there was whistling,
crying and piping. ’Smaug is dead I' Leaves
rustled and startled ears were lifted. Even before
the Elvenking rode forth the news had passed west
right to the pinewoods of the Misty Mountains;
Beorn had heard it in his wooden house, and the
goblins were at council in their caves, (p. 24l)
This parallels the fear expressed by Wiglaf, that when the
death of Beowulf is widely known, it will bring trouble
with the tribes that have been unfriendly in the past
( 1 1. 2 9 1 0-2 1).
The Elvenking and his forces are the first to
approach and, being humane, render aid to the men of the
lake. The bargain is simple: those who are skilled in
building, men and elves, remain to construct shelters
and plan a new town; those who are battle-ready march
toward the Mountain.
The concluding remarks about Smaug bring together
two passages concerning Beowulf's dragon and the useless
ness of the treasure:
dracan ec scufun.
wyrm ofer weallclif^
flod fæîmian
leton wêg niman,
fraetwa hyrde. (1 1. 3 1 3 1-3 3)
lAlso they pushed the dragon, the worm, over the
cliff; let the waves take him, the flood enfold
the guardian of the treasure.J
forleton eorla gestreon _ eor&an healdan,
gold on greote, ) | »%r hit nu gên lifà?
eldum swa unnyt, swa hi(târo)r wæs.
(1 1. 3 1 6 6-6 8)
tTliey left the treasure of nobles to the earth
to hold, gold in the ground, where it now still
remains, as useless to men as it was before.]
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
142
These concepts are reflected in the final description of
, Smaug and his jeweled armor in the lake by the destroyed
i town:
I They removed northward higher up on the shore; for
i ever after they had a dread of the water where the
dragon lay. He would never again return to his
I golden bed, but was stretched cold as stone, twisted
j upon the floor of the shallows. There for ages his
1 huge bones could be seen in calm weather amid the
I ruined piles of the old town. But few dared to
I cross the cursed spot, and none dared to dive into
the shivering water or recover the precious stones
that fell from his rotting carcase, (p. 242)
The fear of gathering enemies is confirmed in
Chapter XV ("The Gathering of the Clouds") when the com
pany sees flights of birds gathering about the Mountain.
Thorin observes that "far off there are many carrion birds
as if a battle were afoot I" (p. 243). One of the nearby
birds is the thrush, representing Wiglaf, "war-survivor,"
about which Bilbo remarks that "He seems to have escaped,
when Smaug smashed the mountain-side" (p. 243).
Balin wishes the thrush were a raven— a very
different bird from a crow— for "There used to be great
friendship between them and the people of Thror; and they
often brought us secret news, and were rewarded with such
bright things as they coveted to hide in their dwellings"
(p. 244). He remembers by name old Care and his wife,
"a wise and famous pair," who "lived here above the guard-
chamber" (p. 244). One is reminded of the role played by
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
1 4 3
Odin’s pair of ravens: messengers and prophets.
The thrush flies off only to return shortly with
j"an aged raven of great size" (p. 244), Roâc son of Care,
!
I chief of the ravens of the Mountain. Roac, using ordinary
speech, greets the company and informs them the birds are
returning to the Mountain and to Dale because of the news
j of Smaug’s death. The dwarves shout in joy and announce
; that now the treasure is theirs.
I The rest of Roac's news is not pleasant: hosts
are on the way to share the spoil, now that Smaug is dead.
The passages in Beowulf concerning the movement of hostile
tribes on the death of Beowulf (11. 2910-21, 2999-3007)
are reflected in The Hobbit:
’But many are gathering here beside the birds. The
news of the death of the guardian has already gone
far and wide, and the legend of the wealth of Thror
has not lost in the telling during many years; many
are eager for a share of the spoil. Already a host
of the elves is on the way, and carrion birds are
with them hoping for battle and slaughter. By the
lake men murmur that their sorrows are due to the
dwarves; for they are homeless and many have died,
and Smaug destroyed their town. They too think to
find amends from your treasure, whether you are
alive or dead.’ (p. 245)
Roac counsels Thorin not to trust the Master of
the Lake-men, but rather Bard, "a grim man but true"
(p. 245), in order to have peace among dwarves and men
and elves after the desolation, even though such peace
might cost much in gold. Thorin, enraged, announces that
"none of our gold shall thieves take or the violent carry
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
I 1 #
I
■off while we are alive" (p. 245). Thorin first asks Roac
jto send messengers to the dwarves’ kin, especially Dain
I in the Iron Hills; then he directs the fortifying of the '
Mountain.
Thorin’s conduct from this point until he is
I struck down in battle is an elaboration on the two dark
references in Beowulf to Heremod, a king who began his rule
! well but, overwhelmed by greed, became a burden to his
I people and finally died at the hands of his enemies. The
first reference contrasts him to Sigemund, who achieved
prominence after Heremod’s warfare ceased:
Si wses wreccena
ofer werf»ëode,
ellendZdum
si33an Heremodes
eafoî ond ellen.
on feonda geweald
snûde forsended.
lemede to lange;
eallum #|>ellingum
swylce oft bemearn
swT&ferhpes si3
se )?e him bealwa to
p«t faet ïêodnes beam
faederatpelum onfon,
hord. ond hleoburh,
epel Scyldinga.
mSg Higelaces
freondum gefagra;
wide msîrost
wîgendra hlêo,
— hë paes âtr onS^ah— ,
hild swe«Frode,
Hë mid Êotenum weart,
for3 forlâcen,
Hine sorhwylmas
hê his lêodum wear^,
tô aldorceare;
âêrran mâ&um
snotor ceorl_monig,
bote gelÿfd
gefëon scolde,
folc gehealdan,
haleta rîce,
Hê Vatr eallum wear%
manna cynne,
hine fyren onwôd.
(11. 898-915)
[He was by far the greatest of heroes throughout the
human race, the warriors’ refuge by valiant deeds—
therefore at first he throve— after Heremod’s war-
making had come to an end, his strength and daring.
Among the Jutes Heremod was betrayed into the hands
of his enemies, quickly disposed of. Surgings of
sorrow too long had oppressed him; to his people,
to all his nobles, he became a heavy care; for many
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
1 4 5
wise man in former times bewailed the bold-hearted
one's expedition, many a one who trusted in him
for compensation for affliction--that the king's
son should prosper, succeed to his father's honors,
defend his people, treasure, and stronghold, the
kingdom of heroes, the home of the Scyldings. The
kinsman of Hygelac became dearer to his friends,
to all mankind; but crime took possession of Heremod. 1
The translation I propose is more literal than the
usual, but for a purpose: to illustrate one of Tolkien's
techniques for recreating traditional material. The
technique is quite simple; it consists of reading a state
ment literally. For instance, this translation can be
justified: "for many a wise man in former times bewailed
the bold-hearted one's expedition, many a one who trusted
in him for compensation for destruction" ( 1 1. 9 0 7-9)•
The significant words are slè*, bealwa, and bote.
which I translate as "expedition," can also mean "going,"
"journey," "voyage," "undertaking," and "venture."
Bealo, of which bealwa is the genitive plural, means
"evil," "misery," affliction," or "destruction." Bote
means "relief" or "remedy" but also "reparation" or
"compensation."
Translators tend to be abstract at this point—
which is sensible when they have no corroborative evidence
for a more specific rendering. Clark Hall has "Besides,
often in times gone by, many a wise man had bewailed the |
daring man's departure, many a one who hoped from him |
help out of misfortunes"; Donaldson has the less contorted
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
I 146
!"for many a wise man in former times had bewailed the
journey of the fierce-hearted one— people who had counted
!
on him as a relief from affliction."^ My reading, or
something close to it, seems to be Tolkien's also.
The second reference to Heremod occurs in Hroth-
gar's long didactic speech to Beowulf (11. 1700-84), where
;Heremod, the "war-minded," is an example of the cruel and
jmiserly king (11. 1709-1722). He geweox he him to willan, ;
j ac to waelfealle ond to dêa&cwalum Deniga leodum ^He grew |
great not for their joy, but for their slaughter, for the
destruction of Danish folk}(11. 1711-12). He turned from j
the joys of men and developed a savage spirit: I
nallas beagas geaf i
Denum after dôme; drêamlêas gebâd,
pKt hê ÿ$s gewinnes weorc prowade,
léohbealo longsum. (11. 1719-22) |
the gave no rings to the Danes according to desert;
joyless he lived so that he suffered the misery of
war, the long-lasting harm of the people.]
Thorin behaves similarly in his stronghold when Bard ap
proaches him and later when the armies gather for warfare.
He will listen to no talk of compensation or of the return
of the wealth taken by Smaug from Bard's ancestor, Giron of
Dale. He spends his time in the treasury, seeking of
course the Arkenstone, but also surrendering himself to the
lust of the treasure.
The heroic quality of a siege escapes Bilbo as he
3e . Talbot Donaldson, Beowulf: A New Prose Trans
lation (New York, 1966), p. 16.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
147
surveys the condition of the company in the Mountain.
When Thorin refuses to parley, Bard's messenger declares
the Mountain besieged, saying men and elves will not bear
weapons against the company, but will hold them captive
until Thorin accepts a truce and offers a fair settlement:
So grim had Thorin become, that even if they had
wished, the others would not have dared to find
fault with him; but indeed most of them seemed
to share his mind--except perhaps old fat Bombur
and Fili and Kili. Bilbo, of course, disapproved
of the whole turn of affairs. He had by now had
more than enough of the Mountain, and being
besieged inside it was not at all to his taste.
(p. 252)
Chapter XVI ("A Thief in the Wight") shows there |
I
is greatness in Bilbo, in spite of his fears. Thorin, |
maddened with desire, bids all hunt for the Arkenstone
and vows revenge if any should find it and withhold it |
from him. Bilbo is understandably in terror, since he has |
it hidden in the rags he uses for a pillow. Roac the
raven brings word that Dain and his troops are approaching,
but counsels Thorin to reconsider: "The treasure is
likely to be your death, though the dragon is no morel"
(p. 2 5 3). Thorin, blind to the realities of the siege,
turns'away all counsel, as did Hygelac; hyne wyrd fornam,
syt>^an hê for wlenco wean ahsode, f*h%e to Frysum [fate
took him off, after he for pride sought his own woe, a
war with the Frisians] (11. 1205-07).
The allusion to treachery at Heorot in the future |
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without
perm ission.
i 148
: is quickly passed over in Beowulf (11. 1018-19); an early
, reference to treachery In The Hobblt is passed over when
I Smaug challenges the honesty of the dwarves in Chapter
j XIII. Here, however, is the working out of the treachery,
I a working out that employs again the motif of a wretched
j man suing for peace with a precious object (Beowulf 2 2 7 8-
I 2 2 8 6). As the motif had been used of Bilbo’s taking the
cup to Thorin, it is now used of his taking the Arkenstone
to Bard.
Bilbo replaces Bombur on sentry duty and then
slips over the wall and heads down toward the camp of the
men and elves. He is miffed when he hears the elvish
pickets refer to him as a "servant" and outraged when
they address him as the "dwarves’ hobbit." With all the
I
I dignity he can command, having just come shivering and
I spluttering from the ford, he informs them that he is
"Mr. Bilbo Baggins,...companion of Thorin’" (p. 255) and
directs them to take him to their chiefs.
Bilbo eventually is seated before a fire with
Bard and the Elvenking. "A hobbit in elvish armour,
partly wrapped in an old blanket, was something new to
them" (p. 2 5 6). He offers Bard reparation from his own
fourteenth share and then gives him the Arkenstone with
which to bargain with Thorin, for it is "the Heart of the
Mountain; and it is also the "heart of Thorin" (p. 257).
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without
perm ission.
149
I Bilbo then says he will return to the dwarves— being an
,honest burglar and not wanting to desert his friends.
The Elvenking praises him as one "more worthy to wear the
armour of elf-princes than many that have looked more
comely in it" (p. 2 5 8).
Upon leaving the camp. Bilbo is greeted by an old
man in a dark cloak— Gandalf— who praises him: "There is
always more about you than anyone expects" (p. 2 5 8).
There is no time for conversation, but Gandalf adds a few j
dark words that puzzle as well as cheer the hobbit: i
things are drawing to an end and Bilbo may come through j
all right. |
!
i
Chapter XVII ("The Clouds Burst") is an expansion i
of the incidents in Fitts XL and XLI of Beowulf, of the |
battle of Ravenswood and the death of Ongentheow (11. 2922-;
\ I
: 3 0 3 0). The chapter opens with trumpets in the valley and i
the banners of Forest and Lake advancing toward the Gate
of Thorin's stronghold. Bard, the Elvenking, and
Gandalf try to reason with Thorin, finally showing him
the Arkenstone. Thorin is dumb with amazement and con
fusion. When Bilbo admits that he is responsible, Thorin
cries that he has been betrayed, curses the hobbit, and
sends him out. "More than one of the dwarves in their
hearts felt shame and pity at his going" (p. 2 6 2).
Bard gives Thorin an extension of time for setting
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
1 5 0
: out a portion of the treasure for compensation to men and
, elves, saying he will return the Arkenstone when the
i treasure is available. But Thorin sends ravens to Dain,
I hoping to circuvent Bard and avoid payment. The curse of
I the treasure is upon him.
; The next day when Dain and his dwarves arrive,
Bard will not let them pass. Attempts to reason with them
jare fruitless. The besiegers hesitate; the Elvenking does
not want war for the sake of gold. The dwarves, aware
that they possess the Arkenstone, spring silently to the
attack, and battle is about to be joined. At that moment
Gandalf appears between the armies, crying that the
goblins and wolves are upon them. He calls the chiefs,
including Dain, to council. "So began a battle that none
jhad expected; and it was called the Battle of Five Armies,
jand it was very terrible" (p. 2 6 6).
In both Beowulf and The Hobbit there is an old
feud and the motive of revenge: Ongentheow wants to
avenge his queen, the goblins want to avenge their Great
Goblin. In both there is the initial success of the
attackers— the Swedes and the goblins--and the withdrawal
of the defenders— the Geats to Ravenswood and the elves
I
to Ravenhill. The fight lasts until dawn. The defenders
are in despair until their chief arrives to rally the
forces. In Beowulf :
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
1 5 1
sârigiriôdum
sylàan hie Hygelaces
gealdor ongëaton,
leoda dugo'îTe
FrÔfor eft gelamp
somod a(rd&ge,
horn ond hÿman,
se goda cÔm
on last faran. (1 1. 29^1-45)
[Relief came afterwards with the dawn to the sad-
hearted ones when they heard Hygelac's horn and
trumpet sounding, when the herd came on their
track with a picked body of troops.]
In The Hobbit the same theme is dilated:
Suddenly there was a great shout, and from
the Gate came a trumpet call. They had forgotten
Thorin! Part of the wall, moved by levers, fell
outward with a crash into the pool. Out leapt
the King under the Mountain, and his companions
followed him. Hood and cloak were gone: They
were in shining armour, and red light leapt from
their eyes. In the gloom the great dwarf gleamed
like gold in a dying fire.
'To me! To me! Elves and Men! To me! 0
my kinsfolk!' he cried, and his voice shook like
a horn in the valley, (pp. 2 6 8-2 6 9)
The moving quality of this passage is immediately counter
balanced— as is Tolkien's way in The Hobbit— by Bilbo's
reflections on the transitory nature of life, the insuf
ficiency of treasures, the inadequacy of human plans, and
the delusion of martial glory:
'It will not be long now,' thought Bilbo, 'before
the goblins win the Gate, and we are ail slaughtered
or driven down and captured. Really it is enough
to make one weep, after all one has gone through.
I would rather old Smaug had been left with all the
wretched treasure, than that these vile creatures
should get it, and poor old Bombur, and Balin and
Fili and Kili and all the rest come to a bad end;
and Bard too, and the Lake-men and the merry elves.
Misery me! I have heard songs of many battles,
and I have always understood that defeat may be
glorious. It seems very uncomfortable, not to say
distressing. I wish I was well out of it.' (p. 270)
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
1 5 2
Bilbo, invisible but not invulnerable, is the
first again to see the eagles approaching, and sounds the
news Just before a rock stuns him.
When he comes to in Chapter XVIII ("The Return
Journey"), Bilbo is alone on the battlefield, still in
visible. He hails a man sent to look for him and is
carried down to the camp, where Thorin lies dying,
"wounded with many wounds, and his rent armour and notched
axe were cast upon the floor" (p. 2 7 2).
Beowulf can look on death knowing he has not bro
ken the two great pagan prohibitions— false swearing and
murder of kin— and that he has merited the lof— the praise
— of his peers. His farewell speech to Wiglaf is con
cerned with his own conduct and his leaving a treasure to
his people ( 1 1. 2724-51), with funeral preparations and
Wiglaf's role after him, and with thanksgiving for having
seen the treasure and having been the means of winning it
(11. 2792-2 8 2 0). Within the context of his pagan world
Tolkien sees him achieving all that can be expected of a
man who must lose in his battle within Time.^ Thorin does
The Anglo-Saxon’s doom Tolkien calls in his essay
on Beowulf "this paradox of defeat inevitable yet unac- j
knowledged," concluding that "It is in Beowulf that a poet i
has drawn the struggle in different proportions, so that wej
may see man at war with the hostile world, and his inevit- |
able overthrow in Time" (p. 6 7). Beowulf has the comfort
of knowing at his death that he has shown courage, "the
exaltation of undefeated will" (p. 6 6). He knows that his
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without
perm ission.
1 5 3
not have that comfort— the death of a good pagan— but
achieves something quite different and quite touching in
his dying speech. He achieves a reconcilliation of him
self to the world and to what lies beyond Time. He gives
I to the reader what Tolkien calls in his essay "On Fairy-
I Stories," "The consolation of fairy-stories, the joy of
I the happy ending...the sudden joyous turn" (p. 6 8). It is
; a sudden and miraculous grace that does not deny the ex-
Iistence of sorrow and failure, but does deny universal
final defeat. It gives a "fleeting glimpse of Joy, Joy
beyond the walls of the world, poignant as grief" (p. 6 8).
Thorin’s death in The Hobbit provides that glimpse;
’Farewell, good thief,' he said. ’I go now to
the halls of waiting to sit beside my fathers,
until the world is renewed. Since I leave now all
gold and silver, and go where it is of little worth,
I wish to part in friendship from you, and I
would take back my words and deeds at the Gate.’
Bilbo knelt on one knee filled with sorrow.
’Farewell, King under the MountainI’ he said.
’This is a bitter adventure, if it must end so;
and not a mountain of gold can amend it. Yet I
am glad that I have shared your perils— that has
been more than any Baggins deserves.’
’NoI’ said Thorin. ’There is more in you of
good than you know, child of the kindly West.
Some courage and some wisdom, blended in measure.
If more of us valued food and cheer and song above
hoarded gold, it would be a merrier world. But sad
or merry, I must leave it now. Farewelll’ (pp. 272-73)
foes are God’s also:
Man alien in a hostile world, engaged in a struggle
which he cannot win while the world lasts, is assured
that his foes are the foes also of Dryhten, that his
courage noble in itself is also the highest loyalty:
so said-thyle and clerk, (p. 7 8)
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
1 154
i
' In his essay "On Falry-Stories" Tolkien has
, written of the powerful and poignant effect, in a serious
I tale of Faerie, when the web of the story itself is rent
I to give us a glimpse of the reality beyond, of the
I Christian doctrine of joy and hope:
In such stories when the sudden 'turn' comes we
I get a piercing glimpse of joy, and heart's desire,
that for a moment passes outside the frame, rends
j indeed the very web of story, and lets a gleam
: come through, (pp. 6 9-7 0)
jIn The Hobbit we have that "piercing glimpse" of truth
that, in Tolkien's words, "is not only a 'consolation'
for the sorrows of this world, but a satisfaction" (p. 7 1)
That he and Thorin parted in kindness makes i
Bilbo thankful, but. he condemns himself for his ill success ;
in buying peace with the Arkenstone: i
j
'You are a fool. Bilbo Baggins, and you made a great
mess of that business with the stone; and there was j
a battle, in spite of all your efforts to buy peace I
and quiet, but I suppose you can hardly be blamed
for that.' (p. 2 7 3)
The contrast between this passage and the one
preceeding it--the conversation between Bilbo and the
dying Thorin— is instructive. The movement from the
elevated to the mundane shows the rhetorical device Tolkien
uses so often in The Hobbit, the anticlimax that cuts down
any scene aspiring to the heroic, a device he does not
depend on so heavily in his subsequent work. It seems a
technique a young and sensitive writer might adopt to
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
I 155
: disguise the personal voice and to conceal the intellectual
, content of his work and his emotional involvement with it.
I Bilbo and the reader become aware in retrospect
i
of what happened after Bilbo was knocked unconscious. The
eagles descended, driving the goblins from the mountain
slopes, but the forces were still too little to defeat the
goblins. Then Beorn arrived in the shape of a bear and
fell upon goblins and wolves. He carried Thorin, "who had ;
fallen, pierced with spears" (p. 274), out of the fray !
and then returned to lay waste the enemy. He crushed in
his arms Bolg son of Azog and the goblins fled. Beorn I
could recite with Beowulf : ne W9 2s ecg bona, ac him |
hildegrap heortan wylmas, bânhûs gebrgc [nor was my sword- :
edge his slayer, but my warlike grip broke open his heart- i
i
stream, his bone-house] (11. 2 5 0 6-O8). The defenders
pursued them and "Songs have said that three parts of the
goblin warriors of the North perished that day, and the
mountains had peace for many a year" (p. 274).
Thorin’s funeral like Beowulf’s in Fitt XLIII has
ancmmportant terminal position. Thorin is buried deep in
the Mountain with the Arkenstone upon his breast and with
Orcrist, returned by the Elvenking, upon his tomb, "where
it gleamed even in the dark if foes approached, and the
fortress of the dwarves could not be taken by surprise"
(p. 275)' Ten of his companions remain, but "Fili and
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
1 5 6
Kill had fallen defending him with shield and body, for
he was their mother's elder brother" (p. 2 7 5).
Dain became King under the Mountain and the ten
remain with him, "for Dain dealt his treasure well" (p.
2 7 5). We are reminded of Hrothgar’s sermon against pride
and covetousness and his example of the king whose desire
! increases as it is fed, until the "loaned body" is re-
i claimed and another rules in his place, one who wins
security by lavish gift-giving:
t^inceà^ him to lytel, j^aet hê lange hêold,
gÿtsaÿ gromhÿdig, nallas on gylp seleô
fütte bêagas, ond hê pà forîgesceaft
forgyteâr ond forgÿme^, pæs ye him %r God sealde,
wuldres Waldend, weorSmynda dâêl.
Hit on endestdsf eft gel imp et,
se lichoma làëne gedreoseo,
fè^e gefealle&; fehà" Ô^er tô,
sê fe unmurnlîce mâdmas dKlep,_
eorles ^rgestrêon, egesan ne gÿme). ( 1 1. 1748-57)
Iwhat he has long held seems to him too little,
angry-hearted he covets, gives not in honor circlets
overlaid with gold; and he forgets and neglects the
world to come, because of what God, Ruler of Glory,
has given him before, his share of honors. In the
end it happens in its turn that the loaned body
sinks and falls as foreordained; another succeeds
who gives treasure without reluctance, the prince's
ancient possessions, one not troubled with fear.]
The realities of the situation prevent a simple
division of the treasure by fourteen, since so many have
just claim; but Dain does give up to Bard a fourteenth
share, and Bard in turn rewards his followers and the
Master of Lake-town and the Elvenking. Bilbo in the end
will take only two small chests, one filled with the gold
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without
perm ission.
I 1 5 7
I
: and the other with silver. He and the dwarves part in
, mutual affection.
I Bilbo travels with Gandalf, Beorn (once more in
I man’s shape), and the elf-host to the borders of Mirkwood.
iAs the incident concerning one woman— Modthryth--was used
I earlier in developing the encounter with the Elvenking
i in his cavern, so incidents concerning women are used here
I After Beowulf kills Grendel, Wealtheow gives him a pre
cious circlet--Bruc hisses beages (1. 1216)— that he in
turn gives to ^gd: wraêtlicne wundurmâ?ÿum [a splendid *
wondrous treasure] (1. 2173). After the battle, Dain givesj
Bilbo a necklace of silver and pearls, which he in parting |
gives to the Elvinking, indicating he had partaken of the
Elvenking's unwitting hospitality when the dwarves were !
prisoners: "I mean even a burglar has his feelings. I :
have drunk much of your wine and eaten much of your bread"
i(p. 277).
The Elvenking accepts the gift and names Bilbo
"elf-friend and blessed" (p. 277). We are reminded of
the king in Widsith whose name can be translated as "Elf-
friend": Ælwine who had the readiest hand and the most
liberal heart in the distribution of rings and bright
collars, of hringa and beorhtra beaga.^
^Kemp Malone, ed., "Widsith," Anglistica, XIII
(1 9 6 2) has
Swylce ic waes on Eatule midÆlfwine:
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
i 158
i
By midwinter Gandalf and Bilbo have reached
,Beorn's house: "Yule-tide was warm and merry there; and
I men came from far and wide to feast at Beorn's bidding"
I(p. 2 7 8). Beorn and in their turn the men of his line
I become great chiefs. They drive the goblins from the
I Misty Mountains, and peace settles over the edge of the
■Wild.
! Eventually they journey on, and from the height of
the Misty Mountains they can see behind them Mirkwood and
"on the edge of eyesight" the Lonely Mountain, where "On
its highest peak snow yet unmelted was gleaming pale"
(p. 2 7 8). Bilbo observes: "So comes snow after fire, and
even dragons have their ending!" (p. 2 7 8). It is possible
to meet the dragon at the end and to pass through
unqonquêred.
In Chapter XIX ("The Last Stage") the circle of
the year and the circle of the journey are completed.
Gandalf and Bilbo come to Rivendell with the elves still
singing, they ford the swollen river marking the edge of
the Wild, they unearth the trolls' treasure which they had
se haefde moncynnes, mine gefragge,
leohteste hond lofes to wyrcenne,
heortan unhneaweste hringa gedaleg,
beorhtra beaga, beam Eadwines. (11. 70-74)
lAlso I was in Italy with Ilfwine: he had of all man
kind, as I have heard, the readiest hand to work praisq
the most liberal heart in the distribution on rings,
bright necklaces— the son of Eadwine.]
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
1 5 9
hidden, and at,last they come in sight of the Hill.
, Bilbo composes a song which concludes:
I Eyes that fire and sword have seen
; And horror in the halls of stone
I Look at last on meadows green
i And trees and hills they long have known, (p. 284)
I
I Gandalf comments truly that Bilbo is not the hobbit that
I he was : the circle of time and adventure has wrought
I changes in him.
The Sackville-Bagginses supply comic relief. They i
have taken over their cousin Bilbo's property on the
assumption that he is dead and are quite distressed by |
his appearance during the auction. They are unpleasant, I
but they are not menaces as the monsters were. In fact, !
!
they are humorously diminished in The Lord of the Rings
by the references to the "S.-B's". 1
Bilbo regains much of his goods (though never the |
i spoons that he suspects were taken by the Sackville-
Bagginses), but finds he has lost his reputation: "It
is true that for ever after he remained an elf-friend,
and had the honor of dwarves, wizards and all such folk
as ever passed that way; but he was no longer quite
respectable" (p. 2 8 5). Bilbo does not mind; he spends
his time eating well, buying presents for his nephews
and nieces (who are not encouraged in their friendship by
their elders), writing poetry, and visiting elves.
Some years later, Gandalf and Balin visit him.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
l6o
informing him of the changes in the lands of the Mountain.
I Bard has rebuilt the town of Dale. Lake-town has been |
I refounded and is more prosperous than before. There is i
j friendship among elves and dwarves and men. The old
I Master had fled into the wilderness with much of the gold
I
I Bard had sent him, and died there of starvation. The new
I Master rules well and receives credit for prosperity.
"They are making songs which say that in his day the rivers
run with gold" (p. 2 8 6).
Thus is Tolkien able to knit up the raveled ends
of the narrative, to make use of the reference in Beowulf
to the hero's being a stay to Hygelac's son Heardred
(11. 2 3 6 7-7 9), and to suggest for the only time in The
Hobbit that there is a governing power in the universe.
The conclusion negates the Northern view that the individ
ual must struggle alone and hopelessly against fate:
'Then the prophecies of the old songs have
turned out to be true, after a fashion!' said Bilbo.
'Of course!' said Gandalf. 'And why should not
they prove true? Surely you don't disbelieve the
prophecies, because you had a hand in bringing them
about yourself? You don't really suppose, do you,
that all your adventures and escapes were managed
by mere luck, just for your sole benefit? You are a
very fine person, Mr. Baggins, and I am very fond
of you: but you are only quite a little fellow in
a wide world after all!'
'Thank goodness!' said Bilbo laughing, and
handed him the tobacco-jar. (pp. 2 8 6-2 8 7)
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
CHAPTER VI
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The poetry of the North, according to Tolkien,
j in his essay on Beowulf, had "room for myth and heroic
I legend, and for blends of these" (p. 64). In this essay
ihe takes issue with KLaeber, who considers that the mythic
I material comprises a "story which in itself is of de-
jcidedly inferior weight" (p. Iv), that it subordinates
unfairly the historic and heroic material, which is "of
intensely absorbing interest" (p. Iv). In The Hobbit
Tolkien reverses Klaeber's emphasis : he uses the mythic
material for the basic plot and so integrates the historic
and heroic material that it blends into the plot. We can
see this by first reviewing the use he has made of the
main plot of Beowulf, which Klaeber characterized as
"three fabulous exploits redolent of folk-tale fancy (the
first two forming a closely connected series" (p. xii),
and then by reviewing the use Tolkien has made of the
digressions and episodes.
The main plot of Beowulf, as Tolkien perceives it,
forms the main plot of The Hobbit: the hero has a series
161
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
I 162
; of adventures with monsters, beginning with the lesser and
, continuing to the greater. The report of Grendel's
twelve years of ravaging the land around Heorot is trans
formed into the adventure with the trolls, who have laid
waste the countryside for a period of time. Beowulf's
I voyage with fourteen companions, his reception at Heorot,
j and his entertainment there are retold in the company's
journey to Elrond's dwelling, the Last Homely House. The
fights with Grendel and his dam are compressed into the
adventure with the goblins. The verbal battle between
Beowulf and Unferth becomes the riddle contest between
Bilbo and Gollum. The tracking of Grendel through the
wild is suggested in Beorn's following the company's traces
back toward the Misty Mountains. The gathering of trophies
is duplicated by Beorn's return with a goblin head and a
warg skin. The feasting and presentation of gifts at
Heorot is mirrored in the activities at Beorn's hall; both
episodes have the exchange of speeches at the banquet, the
needed rest, and the morning departure after farewell
speeches. In Beowulf there is the embarcation for Geat-
land and in The Hobbit the plunge into Mirkwood; in the
poem the sea-crossing and the lashing of the ship, in the
fantasy the river trip and the lashing of the barrels;
in both the walking on the sand and the quickly-spread
information of the arrival, followed by the feasting and
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
1 6 3
the exchanging of stories. Both works have a transition
from the first part concerning the lesser monsters to
the second part concerning the dragon: in Beowulf many
years pass but in The Hobbit only a few days until the
wrath of the dragon is aroused. There is a little-known
door in both works, a thief— or burglar, in Bilbo's case--
and a company of thirteen others who return to examine
the treasure. The various allusions to the dragon are
drawn together in The Hobbit, where Bilbo encounters him
three times. Both Beowulf and Bilbo are singed by the
dragon, who in both works has guarded his golden bed for
three hundred years. In both he destroys the surrounding
I
countryside. In both the company despoil the treasure, |
unmindful of lots. In both the dragon is killed, but with i
significant differences: in The Hobbit Bard of Lake-town
destroys Smaug in a fight that takes some of its details |
from the story of Sigemund. In both there is a funeral,
but again with significant differences. Beowulf is buried
with the praise of his followers for achieving all that
could be hoped for: valor in the face of certain defeat.
Thorin is buried with regret for the waste of his life
and of many lives for the sake of the dragon's wealth.
Beowulf, according to Tolkien, is an elegy ending as it
must in sadness. The Hobbit is a fantasy ending in joy.
Klaeber saw the digressions and episodes as
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
i ' 164
; scanted epic material that added fullness and variety
^ to the central plot and disclosed "a wealth of authentic
j heroic song and legend, a magnificent historic back-
I ground" (p. Iv). Tolkien uses these passages selectively,
I incorporating som e into the plot, using others as back-
i ground for old feuds merely alluded to, and finding in
; others the inspiration for developing a concept or situa-
I tion not found in Beowulf. The passages that Klaeber
identifies as digressions and episodes are listed here
in the order they are used in The Hobbit. I have retained
Klaeber’s titles and line designations (pp. liii-liv).
"The origin of the Scylding line and Scyld's
burial ( 1-5 2)" is used in developing the history of the
dwarves as Bilbo learns it from Thorin and Gandalf in
Chapter I.
"Settling of E&gpeow’s feud (459-472)" becomes
I the settling of the feuds engendered by Thorin and the
reparations made by his successor Dain in Chapter XVIII.
"The feud between Danes and Hea&o-Bards (2032-
2 0 6 6)” is employed in the fight between goblins and the
company in Chapter IV, where the recognition of a weapon
initiates renewal of the feud.
"Cain’s punishment, and his offspring (107^-114;
1261^-1 266^)" is developed primarily in Chapters II, IV,
and V, where it is applied to trolls, giants, goblins, and
Gollum, a fallen hobbit.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
i 165
I "The Unfer^ intermezzo [Breca episode] (499-589)"
,is divided, the conflict between Unferth and Beowulf being
I developed as the contest between Gollum and Bilbo in
I Chapter V, the battle against the sea-monsters as the
I battle against the giant spiders in Chapter VIII.
I "The Finnsburg Tale (1069-1159^)" has substituted
I for it in Chapter VI the Finnsburg fragment, which Klaeber
I calls The Fight at Finnsburg. In The Hobbit this appears
as the fight between the company and the goblins and wargs.
The material in "The Finnsburg Tale" concerning the
funeral of Hildeburh’s brother and son is echoed in
Chapter XVIII.
"The destruction of the gigantas (1689^-1 6 9 3)" is
an aside by Hrothgar on the runic inscription of a magic
sword describing the destruction of the giants; it is
reproduced in Chapter III in Elrond's reading of runic
inscriptions on the two swords famous for their destruc
tion of goblins.
"Story of pry^, the wife of Offa (1931^-1982),"
is applied to the Elvenking in Chapters VIII, XI, and
XVIII.
"Youthful adventures of Beowulf (4-19-424^)" is a
brief reference to the Breca episode when Beowulf is
greeting Hrothgar. It is incorporated in Chapter VIII,
the fight with the spiders.
"Beowulf's inglorious youth ( 2183^-2 1 8 9)" is echoed
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
I 166
I throughout The Hobbit, beginning in Chapter I, showing how
. unpromising Bilbo was for developing into a hero, but it
is specifically dealt with in Chapter X when the company
recognizes the change in Bilbo.
"Allusions to Eormenrxc and Hama (1197-1201)" seem
to indicate that the necklace worn by the goddess Freya
I had been stolen from the Gothic king Eormenric by Hama,
j Nothing more is known from other early stories of this
incident. In The Hobbit the theft of the stone is devel
oped in Chapter XIII, when Bilbo steals Thorin’s Arken
stone, and in Chapter XVI, when he gives it to Bard to
facilitate discussions of a treaty.
"The fall of Hygelac (1202-1214%)" contains the
reference to precious stones which is developed as the
Arkenstone in Chapter XIII. The reference to Hygelac’s
last expedition, unwise and fatal, is reflected in
Chapter XVIII in Thorin's last rash battle.
"Heremod's tragedy (1709^-1722^)" is developed
in Chapter XV, where Thorin’s greed turns him into a cruel
and niggardly tyrant.
"Elegy of the lone survivor of a noble race
(2 2 4 7-2 2 6 6)" is contained in Chapter XII as the descrip
tion of the hoard when Bilbo first sees it and falls under
the enchantment.
I "Geatish history: King HreJel, the end of
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
167
; Herebeald [the Lament of the Father, 2444-2462^1, the
j earlier war with the Swedes, Beowulf’s slaying of
j Daîghrefn In Friesland (2428-2508®')." This material
appears primarily In two chapters, XII and XVIII. The
history of King Hrethel and the end of Herebeald are
I suggested In Chapter XII In Smaug’s discourse on the
j futility of his victims’ attempting revenge on him. The
\ earlier war with the Swedes Is divided, the material on
I Hrethel’s death forming the background of the dwarves’
! history In Chapter I, and the material on Ravenswood--
the death of Ongentheow--being applied In Chapter XVIII
In the retrospect on the Battle of Five Armies. The slay
ing of Dirfghrefn Is also In Chapter XVIII, In the crushing
to death of Bolg by Beorn.
"The fate of Heorot (82^-8 5)" Is described In
Chapter XIII, the kingdom under the Mountain replacing
Hrothgar's hall. What Is prophecy In Beowulf has already
come to pass In The Hobbit; the gables have been burned
by the dragon and the treachery has been committed by
Bilbo, who has taken the Arkenstone.
"Geatish history: Hygelac’s fall; the battle at
Ravenswood In the earlier Swedish war (2910^-2998)" is
used for the Battle of Five Armies. The passage Klaeber
designates as "Hygelac’s fall" contains both the past
history of Hygelac, which is used In the dwarves’ history
R eproduced with perm ission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
j 168
I in Chapter I, and the lament of the messenger who fears
I that the knowledge of Beowulf's death will bring an
I attack. The fear is used in Chapters XIV and XV, applied
j to what will occur when Smaug's death is known. The
I material on Ravenswood occurs in Chapter XVII, applied to
: the Battle at Ravenhill.
j "¥êohstân's slaying of Sanmund in the later
Swedish-Geatish war (2611-2625^)" is also the history of
Wiglaf's sword, and Tolkien uses the passage, not for the
historical allusion, but for the suggestion that a man
in the midst of battle would recite the lineage of his
weapon— as Wiglaf does in Beowulf and Bard in The Hobbit
in Chapter XIV.
"Stories of Sigemund and Heremod (874^-915)" occur
in two chapters. Parts of the story of Sigemund are
incorporated in Chapter XIV in the slaying of the dragon
Smaug. The reference to Heremod is developed in Chapter
XV, Thorin being the ruler who is corrupted and war-bent.
"Sermon against pride and avarice (1724^-1757)"
is the history of Heremod, developed in Chapter XV as
the history of Thorin.
"Geatish history: Hygelac's death in Friesland,
Beowulf's return by swimming, and his guardianship of
Heardred; the second series of Swedish wars (2354^-2396)"
is a section applied primarily to Bard, who kills Smaug
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
i 6 g
and swims to safety in Chapter XIV, who becomes protector
of the Master of Lake-town in Chapters XIV and XIX, and
who becomes Lord of Dale in Chapter XIX.
"The song of Creation (90^-9 8)" is described by
Tolkien in his essay on Beowulf as "the song of the min
strel in the days of untroubled joy, before the assault
of Grendel, telling of the Almighty and His fair creation"
(p. 101). It occurs near the beginning of Beowulf, but it
is represented in The Hobbit by a speech of Gandalf's at
the end of the story. It is a speech that affirms divine
creation and preservation and is the only direct reference
in the story to an ordering force in the universe.
Selectivity is Tolkienfs hallmark in applying
traditional material to his own literary works. Besides
using both the plot and all the incidents from Beowulf,
he reworks smaller units of material. He distributes the
characteristics of the hero Beowulf over various individ
uals in The Hobbit, including on occasion Gandalf, Bilbo,
and Thorin. He draws upon his concept of Heorot as a
lighted place in the dark night of evil for the creation
of various places of refuge in The Hobbit— Elrond's house,
the cavern in the Misty Mountains, Beorn's hall, and the
dwarves' kingdom under the Mountain. He elaborates on
casual references to places and objects in Beowulf to
create important matter in The Hobbit; for example, the
one reference to misthleofum is the basis of the Misty
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
1 7 0
; Moimtains and the reference to eorclanstanas provides
j the Arkenstone. He borrows selectively and creatively
I from other sources— the Eddas, Widsith, and the Finnsburg
I fragment.
I
I This, now, is the whole. Tolkien converts what
I he calls in his criticism of Beowulf "an heroic-elegiac
; poem" (p. 8 5) into an affirmation of faith by transforming
I the theme. Beowulf he sees as an elegy on man's heroic
struggle against inevitable defeat in Time; The Hobbit,
his response to this concept, insists that man has the
possibility of resisting and overcoming evil within Time.
It illustrates a principle he puts forward in his essay
"On Fairy-Stories," the principle of the eucatastrophy,
the consolation of the happy ending (p. 68).
Tolkien's literary works derive their scope from
! his medieval studies and their form from his theory of
subcreation, the rearranging in the secondary world of
the artist the components perceived in the primary world.
He has rearranged material in Beowulf as he interprets it
from his own scholarly and Christian perspective to create
The Hobbit.
His specific applications of his general technique
have been illustrated above. His general techniques
include the rhetorical devices he uses most frequently:
expansion, transposition, and negation. His selectivity
is evident in the care with which he uses these techniques
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without
perm ission.
171 I
; as well as the minor ones of omission, compression, dupli- I
; cation, substitution, reorganization, and literal inter- |
I pretation of material. ;
{ ' ■
Î ;
i The material he omits seems to be that which does
I
I not suit his aesthetic or philosophic needs, such material,
for example, as the theological references in Beowulf
! attributed to Hrothgar or to the narrator.
I
I Compression is not frequent, but it occurs in |
I
material such as Beowulf's retelling of his adventures j
to Hygelac— material that Tolkien in his essay on Beowulf
j
considers redundant. He reduces recapitulation to a |
minimum in the parallel passage in The Hobbit, where !
Gandalf is simply reported to have told Beorn all their |
adventures. j
Duplication is of two sorts: duplication of :
materials found in Beowulf such as the ambushing technique
of Grendel applied in separate incidents to both goblins
and Gollum, and duplication of his own material, such as
the repetition of the dwarves' descent, first on Bilbo
and then on Beorn.
Substitutions may be of large blocks of material,
as in the replacing of the episode at Finnsburg with the
fragment that Klaeber calls The Fight at Finnsburg, or in
the replacing of the account of Beowulf's dragon-slaying
with the account of Sigemund's dragon-slaying. Substitu
tions occur also in relationships developed in Beowulf
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
I 172
!
: and transformed in The Hobbit. Modthryth, the wife of
, Offa, "becomes the inspiration for the Elvenking--an
1 inspiration involving a change in gender. Rearrangement
I of time occursJ too: the prediction of the future de
struction of Heorot in Beowulf "becomes in The Hobbit past
; event— the ruin of the dwarvish kingdom; or the dark
allusions to future treachery come to pass in Bilbo's
'betrayal of Thorin.
Reorganization involves the drawing together of
idisparate references in Beowulf and presenting them as
I
coherent events in The Hobbit. For instance, the various |
comments on the Swedish wars provide the background for |
I
a coordinated, understandable picture of the long-standing |
enmity between dwarves and goblins; and the interrupted j
j
series of references to Beowulf's encounter with the dragon
is revised to provide a comprehensible picture of Bilbo's |
I encounters with Smaug.
Tolkien occasionally provides a literal rendering
of an event or object. The thrush instrumental in slaying
the dragon in The Hobbit is designated a war survivor,
which is a literal translation of Wiglaf. The eorclan-
stanas, with the connotations of exotic beauty and
immeasurable wealth, become the Arkenstone, Thorin's
Pearl of Great Price.
If we make allowances for the tone of The Hobbit,
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without
perm ission.
1 7 3
we see that Tolkien through recreating Beowulf has pre
sented a model of the universe as he perceives it— a
model both traditional and Christian, one implying a moral
order with the existence of both good and evil. Although
not explicit, his theology provides the underlying meta
phor in his examination of evil as man confronts it in his
experience in the external world and in his examination of
self. His comment on the human condition is sharply
different from that made by the Beowulf-poet, who, accord
ing to Tolkien, holds that man's highest glory is naked
will and courage before his inevitable defeat in Time.
Tolkien's own view is an affirmation— that man may with
stand or overcome evil and may avert defeat in Time. He
holds that Beowulf has defeat for its theme; The Hobbit
has victory, a happy ending. In his essay "On Fairy-
Stories" he justifies the happy ending on the basis that
the greatest story of all— the Resurrection— has hallowed
such a conclusion. Through fantasy, he says that the
Christian may enrich creation:
The Christian has still to work, with mind as
well as body, to suffer, hope, and die; but he
may now perceive that all his bents and faculties
have a purpose, which can be redeemed. So great
is the bounty with which he has been treated that
he may now, perhaps, fairly guess that in Fantasy
he may actually assist in the effoliation and
multiple enrichment of creation. All tales may
come true; and yet, at the last, redeemed, they
may be as like and as unlike the forms that we
give them as Man, finally redeemed, will be like
and unlike the fallen that we know. (p. 73)
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
lt4
Tolkien's scholarship provides the matter for
his literary work, his aesthetic the form and theme,
and his religion the assertion that the Christian may
enrich creation through fantasy.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without
perm ission.
APPENDIX
A TOLKIEN BIBLIOGRAPHY
175
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
r”
176
APPENDIX
A TOLKIEN BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Tolkien's Scholarly Works
"Ancrene Wisse and Hali Meiihed," Essays and Studies of
the English Association, 0. S. XIV (19'29), 104-
Ancrene Wisse; The English Text of the Ancrene Riwle, ;
edited from MA Corpus Christi College, Cambridge {
402, with an introduction by N. R. Ker. London: !
Oxford University Press, I9 6 2. (Early English
Text Society, Original Series No. 249.)-
’ ’Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics," Proceedings of
the British Academy, XXll (1936), 245-295.
Reprinted in An Anthology of Beowulf Criticism,
ed. Lewis E. Nicholson, Notre Dame: University
of Notre Dame Press, 1 9 6^ and The Beowulf Poet:
A Collection of Critical Essays, ed. Donald K.
Fry, Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
1968.
"Chaucer as Philologist: The Reeve's Tale," Transactions
of the Philological Society, 1934, pp. 1-70.
; "The Devil’s Coach-Horses" (notes on Middle English
1 aeveres), Review of English Studies, 1 (July 1 9 2 5),
3 3 1-3 3 6.
"English and Welsh," introductory lecture of Angles and
Britons, pp. l-4l. The O’Donnell Lectures, Vol. 1.
Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1 9 6 3; Mystic,
Conn.: Verry, Lawrence, Inc., 1 9 6 3.
"For W. H. A." Shenandoah, XVlll (Winter 1 9 6 7), 96-97.
"Forward" to A New Glossary of the Dialect of the Hudders
field District by Walter E. Haigh. Oxford:
University Press, I9 2 8.
"Henry Bradley, 3 December, 1845-23 May, 1923a" Bulletin
of the Modern Humanities Research Association,
No. 20 (October I9 2 3), pp. 4-5.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
1 7 7
"The Homecoming of Beorhthoth Beorhthelm's Son," Essays
and Studies of the English Association, N.S.
VI (1953), 1-lb. Reprinted in The Tolkien Header.
"The Lay of Aotrou and Itroun," Welsh Review, IV (December !
1945) , 254- 266. ;
A Middle English Vocabulary. London; Milford, 1 9 2O;
Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1922; Oxford: Univer
sity Press, 1 9 5 6. Prepared for use with Fourteenth
Century Verse and Prose, ed. Kenneth Sisam
(Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1921) and included
in later editions as the Glossary.
"On Fairy-Stories," in Essays Presented to Charles
Williams, pp. 36-U9, ed. C. S. Lewis. London:
Oxford University Press, 1947; Grand Rapids,
Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.,
1 9 6 6. Revised for Tree and Leaf and reprinted
in The Tolkien Reader.
"Preface" to The Ancrene Riwle, translated into Modern
English by M. B. Salu, with an introduction by
Dorn Gerard Sitwell, 0. S. B. Notre Dame: Univer
sity of Notre Dame Press, 1956.
"Prefatory Remarks" to Beowulf and the Finnesburg Frag
ment, A Translation into Modern English Prose,
by John R. Clark Hall. London: G. Allen and
Unwin, 1940.
"Sigelwara Land: Part I," Medium Aevum, I (December 1932),
1 8 3-1 9 6.
"Sigelwara Land: Part II," Medium Aevum, III (June 1934),
95-111.
Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, ed. with E. V. Gordon.
Oxford: Clarendon Press, I9 2 5. 2nd ed. revised
by Norman Davis. London: Oxford University
Press, 1 9 6 7.
"Some Contributions to Middle-English Lexicography,"
Review of English Studies, I (April I9 2 5), 210-15.
Songs for the Philologists, by E. V. Gordon et al., pri
vately printed by the Department of English at
University College, London, 1 9 3 6.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
j 178
B. Tolkien's Popular Works
\ The Adventures of Tom Bombad11 and Other Verses from the
I Red Book, illus. by Pauline Baynes. London; G.
i Allen and Unwin, 1962; Toronto: Thomas Nelson
j and Sons, 1 9 6 2; Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1 9 6 3.
; Reprinted in The Tolkien Reader.
"Bilbo's Song," a poem from The Return of the King,
reprinted in Practical English, XLII (March 17,
1 9 6 7), 8.
Farmer Giles of Ham, illus. by Pauline Baynes. London:
G. Allen and Unwin, 19^9; Boston: Houghton
Mifflin, 1 9 5 0. Reprinted in The Tolkien Reader.
The Fellowship of the Ring; Being the First Part of The
Lord of the Rings. See The Lord of the Rings.
The Hobbit; or. There and Back Again, illus. by the author.
London: G. Allen and Unwin, 1937; 1951; Boston:
Houghton Mifflin, 1938, 1958; New York: Ballan-
tine Books, 1965, 1 9 6 6; London: Longmans, Green,
1 9 6 6.
"Leaf by Niggle," Dublin Review, CCXVI (January 1945),
2 6-6 1. Reprinted in Tree and Leaf and The Tolkien
Reader.
The Lord of the Rings. 3 vols. London: G. Allen and
Unwin, 1954-55; Toronto: Thomas Nelson and Sons,
1954-55; Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1954-56; New
York: Ace Books, I9 6 5. Ibid. Rev. ed. New York:
Ballantine Books, 1 9 6 5. Ibid. 2nd ed. London:
G. Allen and Unwin, 1 9 6 6; Boston: Houghton
Mifflin, 1 9 6 7. Ibid. I vol. paperback, omitting
the Appendices except for "Aragorn and Arwen."
London: G. Allen and Unwin, 1 9 6 8.
The Return of the King; Being the Third Part of The Lord
of the Rings. See The Lord of the Rings.
"Riddles in the Dark," Chapter V of the first edition
of The Hobbit, reprinted in Just for Fun: Humor
ous Stories and Poems, ed. Elva S. Smith and Alice
I. Hazeltin (New York: Lothrop, Lee and Shepard,
1 9 4 8), and Anthology of Children's Literature,
ed. Edna Johnson, Evelyn R. Sickels, and Frances
Clarke Sayer (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1959).
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
1 7 9
The Road Goes Ever On: A Song Cycle, with poems by
Boston: Tolkien and music by Donald Swann.
Houghton Mifflin, 19^7•
Smith of Wootton Major, illus. by Pauline Baynes. London:
G. Allen and Unwin, 19^7; Boston: Houghton
Mifflin, 1 9 6 7. Ibid., illus. by Milton Glaser,
Redbook, CXXX (December 1 9 6 7), 5 8-6 1, 101, 103-
1 0 7.
Smith of Wooton Major and Farmer Giles of Ham, illus.
by Pauline Baines. New York: Ballantine Books,
1 9 6 9.
The Tolkien Reader, with an introduction, "Tolkien's
Magic Ring," by Peter S. Beagle, and reprints of
"The Homecoming of Beorhtnoth Beorhthelm's Son,"
Farmer Giles of Ham, The Adventures of Tom Bomba-
dil, and Tree and Leaf. New York: Ballantine
Books, 1966 .
Tree and Leaf, containing "Leaf by Niggle" and a revised
"On Fairy-Stories." London: G. Allen and Unwin,
1964; Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1 9 6 9. Reprinted
in The Tolkien Reader.
The Two Towers : Being the Second Part of The Lord of the
Rings. See The Lord of the Rings.
C. Audio Materials
Poems and Songs of Middle Earth. Caedmon Records #TG1231*
Issued in conjunction with The Road Goes Ever On,
featuring Tolkien reading his own poetry and
William Elvin singing the poems set to Swann's
music.
Tolkien interviewed on The Hobbit, with Ruth Harshaw on
"Carnival of Books" tapefor broadcast of March
9, 1957.
D. Festschrift
Davis, Norman, and C. B. Wrenn, eds. English and Medieval
Studies, Presented to J. R. R. Tolkien on the
Occasion of his Seventieth Birthday. London: G.
Allen and Unwin, 1962; New York: Humanities
Press, 1 9 6 3.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
i8o
E. Reviews of Tolkien's Scholarly Works
Battaglia, F. J. "Notes on 'Maldon*: Toward a Definitive
Ofermod," English Language Notes, II (June I9 6 5),
2 4 7-2 4 9.
Brett, Cyril. Rev. of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight,
Modern Language Review, XXII (October 1927)a
4 5 1-4 5 8.
Britton, G. C. Letter on ofermod. Times Literary Supple
ment, February 2 73 1953-
Colledge, Edmund. Rev. of Acrene Wisse, Modern Language
Review, LX (January 1965), 9O-9 1.
D’Ardenne, S. R. T. 0. Rev. of Ancrene Wisse, Revue Beige
de Philologie et d'Histoire, XLIII (ISbb), 350-
3 5 2.
Daunt, Marjorie. Rev. of "Sigelwara Land: Part I,'" The
Year's Work in English Studies, XIII (1932), 6 9- !
7 0. I
Dorsch, T. S. Rev. of "The Homecoming of Beorhtnoth
Beorhthelm's Son^" The Year's Work in English
Studies, XXIV (1953), 22.
Everett, Dorothy. Rev. of "Ancrene Wisse and Hali Meid-
hed," The Year's Work in English Studies, X (1 9 2 9),
l40-i4l.
________. Rev. of "Chaucer as Philologist: The Reeve's
Tale," The Year's Work in English Studies, XV
TÏ934), 9 8-9 9.
________ . Rev. of "The Devil's Coach-Horses," The Year's
Work in English Studies, VI (I9 2 5), 104-105.
________ . Rev. of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, The
Year's Work in English Studies, VI (I9 2 5), 98-97.
_______ . Rev. of "Some Contributions to Middle-English
Lexicography," The Year's Work in English Studies,
VI (1 9 2 5), 104.
Hussey, S. S. Rev. of Ancrene Wisse, Notes and Queries,
August 1 9 6 3, p. 314.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
l 8l
Indestege, L. Letter on ofermod. Times Literary Supple
ment, March 27, 1953, 205.
Lee, Margaret L. Rev. of A Middle English Vocabulary, The
Year’s Work in English Studies, II (1920-21), 42-
w .
MacDonald, Angus, and Betty Hill. Rev. of English and
Medieval Studies, The Year’s Work in English
Studies, XLIII (1962), 6 5-6 7.
Norton, John. "Tolkien, Beowulf, and the Poet: A Problem
in Point of View," English Studies, XLVIII
(December 1 9 6 7), 527-31-
Serjeantson, Mary S. Rev. of "Sigelwara Land: Part II,"
The Year’s Work in English Studies, XV (1934), ol.
Wilson, R. M. Rev. of An Anthology of Beowulf Criticism,
The Year’s Work in English Studies, XLIV (1953),
_
________. Rev. of "English and Welsh," The Year’s Work
in English Studies, XLIV (1 9 6 3), bl.
________. Rev. of "The Homecoming of Beorhtnoth Beorht-
helm’s Son," The Year’s Work in English Studies,
XXXIV (1 9 5 3), 5 0.
Zettersten, Arne. Rev. of Ancrene Wisse, English Studies,
XLVII (1 9 6 6), 2 9 0-2 9 2.
F. Reviews of Tolkien’s Popular Works
The Hobbit (1937)
Becker, M. L. New York Herald Tribune Books, February
20, 1 9 3 8, p. 7- Reprinted May 1, 1938, without
final paragraph.
Binsse, H. L. Commonweal, XXIX (December 2, 1938), 155-
Booklist, XXXIV (April 15, 1938), 304.
Catholic World, CXLVII (July 1938), 507.
Crouch, Marcus S. "Another Don in Wonderland," Junior
Bookshelf, XIV (March 1950), 50-53-
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
182
Eaton, Anne Thaxter. Horn Book, XIV (March 1938), 9^.
New York Times Book Review, March 13, 1938, p.
12.
"'The Hobbit' and 'Iron Duke' Win Spring Festival Prizes," I
Publishers' Weekly, CXXXIII (April 30, 1938), '
1 7 5 3:
Hughes, Richard. "Books for Pre-àdults," New Stateman and '
Nation, XIV (December 4, 1937), 944-94$.
Kight, M. Catholic Library World, XXXVIII (March 1967),
4 7 4.
Lucas, Mary R. Library Journal, LXIII (May 1, 1938), 3 8 5.
Moore, Anne Carroll. Horn Book, XIV (March 1 9 3 8), 92.
________. Horn Book, XIV (May 1938), 174.
"A New Look at Old Books." Young Readers Review, I (1964),
12.
Owens, Olga. Boston Transcript, May 28, 1938, p. 2.
Saturday Review of Literature, XVII (April 2, 1938), 28.
Stocks, Mary. Manchester Guardian supp., December 3,
1 9 3 7, p. X.
Strong, L. A. G. Spectator, CLIX (December 3, 1937), 1023-
1024. i
"The Two Prize Winning Books, Spring 1938." New York
Herald Tribune Books, May 1, 1938, p. 7.
"A World for Children." Times Literary Supplement,
October 2, 1937, p. 714.
Farmer Giles of Ham (1949)
Adams, Clara. Library Journal, LXXV (December 1, 1950),
2084.
Bechtel, Louise S. New York Herald Tribune Book Review,
November 12, 1950, p. l4.
Crouch, Marcus S. Junior Bookshelf, XIV (January 1950),
14-15.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without
perm ission.
1 8 3
I Eaton, Anne Thaxter. Christian Science Monitor, LVIII
(November 13j 1950), 13-
! Etheldreda, M. Catholic Library World, XXXVII (February
j 1 9 6 6 ) , 3 B ^
I Freeman, Gwendolen. Spectator, CLXXXIII (November I8,
I 1 9 4 9), 7 1 8.
I Horn Book. XLII (February I9 6 6), 77.
! Jackson, J. H. San Francisco Chronicle, October 4, 1950,
1 p. 2 2.
i
! Jordan, Alice M. "Summer Booklist," Horn Book, XXVI
! ( J u l y 1 9 5 0), 2 8 7, 2 8 9.
K., M. B. "Before King Arthur," Chicago Sunday Tribune
Magazine of Books, November 12, 1950, p. 17.
Lask, T. New York Times Book Review (Fall Children's
Issue), LXX (November 7, 1965), 6 0.
Saturday Review of Literature, XXXIII (November 11, 1950)
Smith, Irene. "The People's Hero," New York Times Book
Review, LV (November 2 6, 1950), 50.
The Lord of the Rings (1954-55)
■ Bailey, Anthony. "Power in the Third Age of the Middle
Earth," Commonweal, LXIV (May 11, 1956), 154.
Beagle, Peter S. "Tolkien's Magic Ring," Holiday, XXXIX
(June 1 9 6 6), 1 2 8, 130,- 1 3 3-1 3 4. Reprinted in The
Tolkien Reader.
Books and Bookmen, XII (December 1 9 6 6), 72-73.
Choice, IV (July-August 1 9 6 7), 535.
Cox, C. B. "The World of the Hobbits," Spectator, CCXVII,
(December 30, 1966), 844.
Dolbier, M. "Sawed-Off Beowulfs," Book Week (Fall Child
ren's Issue), III (October 3 1, 195b), 7, 32.
Fifield, Merle. "Fantasy in and for the Sixties: The
Lord of the Rings," Englisn Journal, LV (October
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
1 8 4
1966) , 8 4 1 - 8 4 4 .
Frankel, Haskel. National Observer, IV (August 3O 5 196$%
1 9.
Fuller, Edmund, "Of Frodo and Fantasy," Wall Street
Journal, CLXVII (January 4, 1 9 6 6), 12.
Halle, Louis J. "History Through the Mind's Eye,"
Saturday Review, XXXIX (January 28, 1956), 11-12.
Hentoffj Nat. Commonweal, LXXXIII (December 3, 1965), 284.
Hodgart, Matthew. "Kicking the Hobbit," New York Review
of Books, VIII (May 4, 1 9 6 7), 10.
Hope, Francis. "Welcome to Middle Earth," New Statesman,
LXXII (November 11, I9 6 6), 701-702.
Jonas, Gerald. "Triumph of the Good," New York Times
Book Review, October 3 1, 1 9 6 5, pp. 78-79*
Kiely, R. Commentary, XLIII (February 1 9 6 7), 93-
Lobdell, Jared. "Words That Sound Like Castles" (rev.-
article). National Review, XIX (September 5, 1 9 6 7)
972, 9 7 4.
Lynn, M., and D. R. Castell. Letter on The Lord of the
Rings, Times Literary Supplement, December 2 3,
1 9 5 5, p. 7 7 7.
Malcolm, John. "Tolk Talk," Punch, CCLI (November I6,
1 9 6 6), 7 5 5.
Masson, David J. Letter on The Lord of the Rings, Times
Literary Supplement, December 9, 1955, p. 743.
Parker, Douglass. "Hwaet We Holbytla" (rev.-article),
Hudson Review, IX (Winter 1956-57), 5 9 8-6 0 9.
"The Saga of Middle Earth." Times Literary Supplement,
October 25, 1955, p. T547
Schroth, Raymond A. "Lord of the Rings," America; A
Catholic Review of the Week, CXVI (February I8,
1 9 6 7), 2 5 4.
Scudamore, W. K. Letter on The Lord of the Rings, Times
Literary Supplement, December 23, 1955, p. 777.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
185
Sklarj Robert. "Tolkien and Hesse; Top of the Pops,"
Nation, CCIV (May 8, 1967), 598.
Southwood, Martin, Letter on The Lord of the Rings, Times
Literary Supplement, December 9, 1955, p. 743.
Straight, Michael. "Fantastic World of Professor Tolkien,"
New Republic, CXXXIV (January l6, 1956), 24-26.
Tanburn, Gunner. Letter on The Lord of the Rings, Times
Literary Supplement, December 23, 1955, P. 777.
Torkelson, Lucile. "Return of the Hero," Milwaukee
Sentinel, November 8, 1967, Part 3, PP. 1, 4.
Walters, Raymond, Jr. "Say It With Paperbacks," New York
Times Book Review, LXXI (December 4, 1 9 6 6), 60. '
Weisbrod, J. Publishers’ Weekly, CXC (December 2 6, I9 6 6), !
9 5 . I
West, Paul. "Nondiwasty Snep-Vungthangil," Book Week,
IV (February 26, 1 9 6 7), 1-2.
Wilson, Edmund. "00, Those Awful Ores I" Nation, CLXXXII
(April 14, 1 9 5 6), 3 1 2-3 1 3. Reprinted, pp. 326-332,1
in his The Bit Between My Teeth: A Literary i
Chronicle of 1950-1955. New York; Farrar,Straus |
and Giroux, 1955.
!
The Fellowship of the Ring (1954)
Auden, W. H. "The Hero is a Hobbit," New York Times Book
Review, LIX (October 31, 1954), 37.
"A World, Imaginary, but Real," Encounter,
III (November 1954), 59-62.
Best Sellers, XXV (December 15, I9 6 5), 378.
Blair, H. A. "%"th or Legend," Church Quarterly Review,
CLVI (January-March 1955), 121-122.
Derrick, Christopher. "Talking of Dragons," Tablet, CCIV
(September 11, 1954), 2 5 0.
Fausset, H. I'A. Manchester Guardian, August 20, 1954,
p. 3.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
j 186
: Flood, R. Books on Trial, XIII (February 1955), 1 6 9.
Halle, Louis J. "Flourishing Ores," Saturday Review,
Î January 1 5, 1955, PP- 17-18.
i Hayes, E. Nelson. Madison Progressive, XIX (January 1955),
I 42-43-
I "Heroic Endeavour." Times Literary Supplement, August
I 2 7, 1 9 5 4, p. 34Ï:
j Hughes, Richard. "The Lord of the Rings," Spectator,
i October 1, 1954, pp. 4o8-409-
!
Kirkus, XXII (September 1, 1954), 59&.
Lewis, C. S. "The Gods Return to Earth," Time and Tide,
XXXV (August 14, 1954), 1 0 8 2-1 0 8 3.
McWilliams, Wilson G. Commonweal, LXXXIII (December 3,
1 9 6 5 ) , 2 8 7 .
Mitchison, Naomi. "One Ring to Bind Them," New Stateman
and Nation, XLVIII (September 1 8, 1954), 331.
Muir, Edwin. "Strange Epic," London Sunday Observer,
August 22, 1 9 5 4, p. 7 .
New Yorker, XXX (November I3, 1954), 202-203.
Wagenknecht, Edward. Chicago Sunday Tribune Magazine of
Books, December 26, 1954, p. 4.
i
"Weirdies" (reviewed with \:ue Visionary Novels of George
Macdonald), Time, LXIV (November 22, 1954), 10b,
10b, 110.
Wickenden, Dan. "Heroic Tale of Tiny Folk," New York
Herald Tribune Book Review, November 14, 1954,
Part I, p. 5 .
The Two Towers (1955)
Barr, Donald. "Shadowy World of Men and Hobbits." New
York Times Book Review, May 1, 1955, P- 4.
Booklist, LI (May 1, 1955), 368.
Cooperman, Stanley. Nation, CLXXXI (September 17, 1955),
2 5 1.
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
1 8 7
"The Epic of Westernesse." Times Literary Supplement,
December 17j 1954, p. 817.
Fausset, H. I'A. Manchester Guardiar^j- ■ November 26, 1954,
p. 9"
Grady, R. Best Sellers, XV (May 1, 1955), 25.
Lewis, C. S. "The Dethronement of Power," Time and Tide,
XXXVI (October 22, 1955), 1373-1374. Reprinted
in Isaacs and Zimbardo.
Muir, Edwin. "The Ring," London Sunday Observer, November
21, 1954, p. 9.
New Yorker, XXXI (May l4, 1955), 154, 157.
i
s Richardson, Maurice. "New Novels." New Stateman and Nation,
XLVIII (December l8, 1954), 035-036.
Wagenknecht, Edward. Chicago Sunday Tribune Magazine of
Books, April 24, 1955, P- 3-
!
Walbridge, Earle F. Library Journal, LXXX (May 15, 1955), !
1219. I
Wickenden, Dan. "Humor, Drama, Suspense in a Unique, |
Romantic Epic," New York Herald Tribune Book i
Review, May 8, 1955, p. 5. :
Wilson Library Bulletin, LI (May 1955), l8. |
The Return of the King (1955)
Auden, W. H. "At the End of the Quest, Victory," New
York Times Book Review, LXI (January 22, 1958), 5.
Best Sellers, XV (February 1, 1956), 327.
Booklist, LII (February 15, 1956), 252.
Fausset, H. I'A. Manchester Guardian, November 4, 1955,
p. 4.
Huxley, Francis. "The Endless Worm," New Stateman and
Nation, L (November 5, 1955), 587-588.
Muir, Edwin. "A Boy's World," London Sunday Observer,
November 27, 1955, p. H-
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
188
Pemberton, Elizabeth Leigh. Spectator, CXCV (November
25, 1955), 744.
Scriven, R. C. "Hobbit's Apotheosis: The World of
Professor Tolkien" (rev. covering the whole Ring
cycle). Tablet, CCVII (February 11, 195^),
pp. 129-1 3 0.
Traversi, Derek A. "The Realm of Gondor," Month, XT
(June 1 9 5 6), 370-3 7 1.
Wagenknecht, Edward. "Proving Imagination is Not Yet
Dead," Chicago Sunday Tribune Magazine of Books,
January 1 5, 195#, p. 4.
Wickenden, Dan. "Notable Allegorical Trilogy Comes to a
Triumphant End," New York Herald Tribune Book
Review, February 5, 195b, P- 3.
Wilson Library Bulletin, LII (January 1956), 35»
The Adventures of Tom Bombadil (1 9 6 2) |
Derrick, Christopher. Tablet, December 15, 1962, p. 1227. |
Kennedy, X. J. Poetry, CV (December 1964), 190-193. i
I
Tree and Leaf (1964)
Anthony, Mother Mary. Best Sellers, XXIV (March 15, I9 6 5),
488.
Barrett, William. Atlantic Monthly, CCXV (March I9 6 5),
1 9 4-1 9 5.
Booklist. LXI (March 1, I9 6 5), 643.
Choice. Ill (May 1 9 6 6), 204.
Christian Century. LXXXII (March 3, 1 9 6 5), 380.
Dalffliesh, Alic. Saturday Review, XLVIII (April 24, I9 6 5),
44.
Davenport, Guy. "The Persistence of Light" (rev.-art.)
National Review, XVII (April 20, I9 6 5), 332, 334.
Eiseley, Loren. "The Elvish Art of Enchantment," New
York Herald Tribune Book Week (Children's Spring
________ Book Festival), Mav Q. 1965. p. 3. Reprinted in
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
18g
Horn Book, XLI (August 1 9 6 5), 364-367.
Hamilton, R. Young Readers Review, II (June 1 9 6 5), 9.
Kirkus. XXXIII (January I, I9 6 5), 40.
Lawrence, Ralph. English (Magazine of the English
Association, London), Autumn 1964, p. 117-
Lentricchia, Frank, Jr. Poetry, CVIII (April 1 9 6 6), 6 5.
Lewis, Naomi. New Statesman, LXVII (May 15^ 1964), 778.
Pryce-Jones, A. New York Herald Tribune (daily), CXXIV
(March 4, 1955)/ 21.
Schmidt, S. Christian Science Monitor, LVI (April 15^
1 9 6 5), 7.
Walsh, Chad. New York Times Book Review, LXX (March l4,
1965) ,”4=5:
Willis, Katherine Tappert. Library Journal, XC (February
1, 1 9 6 5), 6 5 1. i
I
Yolton, John. "In The Soup," Kenyon Review, XXVII (Summer I
1 9 6 5), 5 6 5-5 6 7. I
I
The Tolkien Reader (I9 6 6) j
Bannon, B. A. Publishers' Weekly, CXC (August 8, I9 6 6),
6 1.
Peterson, C. Books Today, III (October 9j 1966), 1 5.
Smith of Wootton Major ( 1 9 6 7)
Best Sellers, XXVII (December 1, 1 9 6 7), 3 5 8.
Kirkus. XXXV (September I5, 1 9 6 7), Il64.
Lauritsen, F. M. Library Journal, XCII (November 15,
1 9 6 7), 4175.
Lobdell, Jared C. National Review, XX (May 7, I9 6 8), 46l.
Malcolm, Janet. New Yorker, XLIII (December 1 6, I9 6 7),
1 7 6.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without
permission.
190
I Phelps, Robert. New York Times Book Review, February 4,
1 9 6 8, p. 2 6.
I Publishers' Weekly, CXCII (September 1 8, 1 9 6 7 )5 62.
j
; Times Literary Supplement, November 3 0, 1 9 6 7, p. II5 3.
I Vigures, R. H. Horn Book, XLIV (February I9 6 8), 6 3.
i Wade, David. New Statesman, LXVII (December 29, 1 9 6 7),
j 9 0 8.
I The Road Goes Ever On (I9 6 7)
: Best Sellers, XXVII (December 1, 1 9 6 7), 358.-
! Booklist, LXIV (February 15, 1962), 6 7 2.
Choice, IV (February 1 9 6 8), 1390.
Heins, Ethel L. Horn B o o k , XLIV (April 1 9 6 8), 1 8 8-I8 9.
Morse, Elizabeth A. Library Journal, XCIII (January 15, !
1 9 6 8), 3 1 6. I
Nichols, Lewis. "Swann in Elvish" in "American Notebook," |
New York Times Book Review, LXXII (October 22, j
1 9 6 7), 5b.
Punch. CCLIV (March 13, 1968), 402. |
G. Popular Works on Tolkien's Fiction
Auden, W. H. "Making and Judging Poetry," Atlantic
Monthly, CXCIX (January 1957), 44-52.
Beatie, Bruce A. "The Tolkien Phenomenon," Niekas,
October 1 9 6 7, pp. 4-5, 8.
Carter, Lyn. J. R. R. Tolkien; A Look Behind "The Lord
of the Rings I '4 New Yorïcl Ballantine Books, 1969■
Colby, Vineta. "J. R. R. Tolkien" (biographical sketch),
Wilson Library Bulletin, XXXI (June 1957), 768.
Crist, Judith Klein. "Why 'Frodo Lives'," Ladies Home
Journal, LXXXIV (February I9 6 7), 58.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
191
Cullen, Tom A. "Live in ’Middle Earth': British Hobbits
Become Idols of American Youth," (Madison,
Wisconsin) Capital Times, Friday, April 2o, 1968,
Green Sheet, 1. i
i
!
Duff, Annis. Longer Flight; A Family Grows Up with BooksJ
New York: Viking Press, 1955-
Elliott, Charles. "Can America Kick the Hobbit?: The
Tolkien Caper," Life, LXII (February 24, I9 6 7),
10.
Ellman, Mary. "Growing Up Hobbitic," New American Review
No. 2 (New American Library, 19bb), PP• 217- 229 .
"The Elvish Mode." New Yorker, XLI (January 15, 1 9 6 6),
2 4-2 5.
Fuller, Muriel, ed. "J. R. R. Tolkien," More Junior Authorg
New York: Wilson, 1 9 6 3.
Griffin, Nancy. "The Fellowship of Hobbitomanes," San
Francisco Sunday Examiner and Chronicle, "This
World" section, pp. 44, 51j and cover.
Grigson, Geoffrey, ed. "J. R. R. Tolkien," The Concise
Encyclopaedia of Modern World Literature. New
York: Hawthorn Books, 1 9 6 3.
Haas, Joseph. "Exploring the Heart of Tolkien’s Allegory"
(rev. of The Tolkien Relation), Chicago Daily News,
May 4, 1 9 6b, p. 9 . '
Harshaw, Ruth. "When Carnival of Books Went to Europe,"
ALA Bulletin, LI (February 1957), 117-123.
Henniker-Heaton, Peter J. "Tolkien Disguised as Himself"
(rev. of The Tolkien Relation), Christian Science
Monitor, Thursday, May 2 3, 1 9 6 8, p. 7.
"The Hobbit Habit." Time, LXXXVIII (July 15, 1966), 48,
5 1.
Huber, Miriam Blanton. Story and Verse for Children. 3rd
ed. New York: Macmillan, 19àb.
Johnson, Edna, Evelyn R. Sickels, and Frances Clarke
Sayer, eds. "J. R. R. Tolkien," in Anthology of
Children’s Literature. 3rd ed. Boston: Houghton
Mifflin, 1 9 5 9.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
"J. R.
"J. R.
1 "(f-
R.
R.
i
j "J. R.
1 "John
p. 1 6 7.
R. Tolkie]
394-396.
192
Britannica Book of the Year, I9 6 7,
Contemporary Authors, XVII-XVIII,
( 1 9 5 7), 555-55^7
(1 9 6 7), 415-415:
"J. R. R. Tolkien." Who's Who, 1 9 2 5-6 9.
, Tunis and John R. R. Tolkien," New York Herald
Tribune Books, May 1, 1938, p. 8.
Lauritsen, Frederick Michael. Rev. of The Tolkien Rela
tion, Library Journal, XCIII (May, 1965), l8ü9.
"Marquette Library Has Papers of Tolkien, Hobbits'
Creator." The Marquette Tribune, LII (Friday,
December 15: 1967), 3.
Mathewson, Joseph. "The Hobbit Habit," illus. by David
Levine, Esquire, LXVI (September 1 9 6 6), 13O-1 3 1,
221-222.
Menen, Aubrey. "Learning to Love the Hobbits," Diplomat,
XVIII (October I9 6 6), 32-34, 37-38.
Mlllln, Leslie. "Who In the Name of Ores and Hobbits Is
Tolkien?" (Toronto) Globe Magazine, March 2, 1 9 6 8,
pp. 4-7.
Norman, Philip. "The Hobbitman," London Sunday Times
Magazine, January I5, 1 9 6 7, pp. 34-36. Reprinted
as "The Prevalence of Hobbits," New York Times
Magazine, Sunday, January 15, 19b7, PP. 30-31,
97, 100, 102.
Piggln, Julia R. "Deslrers of Dragons," Illus. by Tom
Eaton, Practical English, XLII (March 17, I9 6 7),
4-7.
Plotz, Richard Douglas. "Face to Face: With R. D. Plotz,
Founder of Tolkien Society of America," Seventeen,
XXV (April 1 9 6 6), 1 5 3.
"Professor Tolkien and the Hobbits." Diplomat, XVIII
(October 1 9 6 6), 31-43, 73-74.______________________
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
1 9 3
Ready, William. The Tolkien Relation. Chicago: Henry
Regnery, 19bb. Reissued as Understanding Tolkien
and The Lord of the Rings. New York: Paperback
Library, 19&9. !
Resnik, Henry. "The Hobbit-Forming World of J. R. R.
Tolkien," Saturday Evening Post, CCXXXIX (July 2,
1 9 6 6) , 9 0-9?:
Smith, Nancy. "The Pleasures of the Hobbit Table,"
Diplomat, XVIII (October 1 9 6 6), 42-43, 73-74.
Stein, Ruth M. "The Changing Styles in Dragons— From
Fafnir to Smaug," Elementary English, XLV (February
1 9 6 8 ) , 1 7 9 - 1 8 3 , 1 8 9 .
Stewart, Douglas J. "The Hobbit War," Nation, (October
9, 1967), 332-334.
Strothman, Janet. Rev. of The Tolkien Relation.
Library Journal, XCIII (July 19bO), 2743.
"Tolkien on Tolkien." Diplomat, XVII (October 1 9 6 6), 39»
"Tolkien’s Mythology Comes to Vietnam," Publisher’s
Weekly, CXCII (September 4, 1 9 6 7), 24.
"Wacky World of Tolkien Catching On With Youth." (Los
Angeles) Times, Wednesday, August 3 1, 1 9 6 6, Part
V, p. 4.
Wain, John. Sprightly Running. London: Macmillan, 1 9 6 3.
Wojcik, Jan. "Tolkien’s Lord-of-Rings Quest Likened to
Christmas Gospel," (Boston) Pilot, December 23,
1 9 6 6.
H. Scholarly Works on Tolkien’s Fiction
Auden, W. H. "Good and Evil in The Lord of the Rings,"
Tolkien Journal, III (Spring 19b7), 5-h.
________ . "The Quest Hero," Texas Quarterly, TV (Winter
1 9 6 1), 81-9 3. Reprinted in Isaacs and Zimbardo,
pp. 4o-6i.
Barber, Dorothy Elizabeth Klein. "The Meaning of The
Lord of the Rings," Mankato State College Studies,
II (February 1967), 30-50.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
194
Barber, Dorothy Elizabeth Klein. "The Structure of The
Lord of the Rings." Unpublished doctoral disser-
tation. University of Michigan, 1 9 6 6.
j Beatie, Bruce A. "Folk Tale, Fiction, and Saga in J. R.
R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings," Mankato
State College Studies, II (February 1967), 1-17.
________. "J. R. R. Tolkien's Lord of the Rings and the
Traditional Epic," a paper read at the Rocky
Mountain Modern Language Association at the
University of Utah, October 14-15, 1 9 6 6.
________. "The Lord of the Rings: Myth, Reality, and
Relevance," Western Review, IV (Winter 1967), 58-
5 9.
Bisenieks, Dainis. "Reading and Misreading Tolkien,"
Mankato State College Studies. II (February 1 9 6 7),
96-100.
Blackmun, Kathryn. "The Development of Runic and Feano-
rian Alphabets for the Transliteration of English"
Mankato State College Studies, II (February 1 9 6 7),
7 6-8 3.
________. "Translations from the Elvish" (â lexicon and
translation for "A Elbereth Gilthoniel"),
Mankato State College Studies, II (February 1 9 6 7),
9 5-9 7.
Blissett, William Frank. "Despots of the Rings," South
■ Atlantic Quarterly, LVIII (Summer 1959), 440-456.
Bradley, Marion Zimmer. "Men, Halflings, and Hero Wor
ship," Niekas #l6 (June 1 9 6 6), pp. 25-44.
Revised essay appears in Isaacs and Zimbardo,
1 0 9-1 2 7.
Briggs, K. M. The Fairies in English Tradition and
Literature. Chicago; University of Chicago
Press, 1 9 6 7.
Elegy Christensen, Bonniejean. "Beowulf and The Hobbit:
into Fantasy in J. R. R. Tolkien's Creative
Technique." Unpublished doctoral dissertation.
University of Southern California, 1 9 6 9.
"Gollum's Character Tzar.sformation in The
Hobbit: A Comparison of the Versions of Chapter
V, 'Riddles in the Dark'," a paper read at the
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
1 9 5
Conference on Middle Earth at the University of
Illinois3 April 25-26, 1 9 6 9.
Everett, Caroline Whitman. "The Imaginative Fiction of
J. R. R. Tolkien." Unpublished master's thesis.
Florida State University, 1957*
Fisher, Margery. Intent Upon Reading; A Critical
Appraisal of Modern Fiction for Children. Leices-
ter: Brockhampton, 19bl; New York: F. Watts,
1 9 6 2.
Fuller, Edmund. "The Lord of the Hobbits: J. R. R.
Tolkien," in his Books with Men Behind Them,
pp. 1 6 9-1 9 6. New York: Random House, 1959-
Slightly revised essay appears in Isaacs and
Zimbardo, pp. I7-3 9.
Casque, Thomas J. "Tolkien: The Monsters and the
Critters," pp. 1 5I-I63 in Isaacs and Zimbardo.
Green, Roger Lancelyn. "Reluctant Dragons" in his
Authors and Places: A Literary Pilgrimage. New
York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1 9 6 3.
________. Tellers of Tales: Children's Books and Their
Authors from 1600 to 1964. London: Edmund Ward,
1 9 5 5:
Hayes, Noreen, and Robert Renshaw. "Of Hobbits: The
Lord of the Rings," Critique: Studies in Modern
Fiction, IX (19o7), 5^-66'.
Hedges, Ned Samuel. "The Fable and the Fabulous: The
Use of Traditional Forms in Children's Literature."
Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of
Nebraska at Lincoln, 1 9 6 8.
Ir^in, William Robert. "There and Back Again: The
Romances of Williams, Lewis, and Tolkien,"
Sewanee Review, LXIX (Fall 1 9 6 1), 5 6 6-5 7 8.
Isaacs, Neil D. "On the Possibilities of Writing Tolkien
Criticism," pp. 1-11 in Isaacs and Zimbardo.
Isaacs, Neil D., and Rose A. Zimbardo, eds. Tolkien and
the Critics. Notre Dame^ Indiana: University of
Notre Dame Press, 1 9 6 8.
Johnston, George Burke. "The Poetry of J. R. R. Tolkien,"
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
196
Mankato State College Studies, II (February 1967)5
6 3-7 3.
Keenan, Hugh T. "The Appeal of The Lord of the Rings:
A Struggle for Life," pp. 62-30 in Isaacs and
Zimbardo.
Kelly, Mary Quella. "The Poetry of Fantasy: Verse in
The Lord of the Rings," pp. 170-200 in Isaacs
and Zimbardo.
Kilby, Clyde S. "Tolkien as Scholar and Artist,"
Tolkien Journal, III (Spring 1 9 6 7 )5 9-11.
Levitin, Alexis. "The Hero in J. R. R. Tolkien’s The
Lord of the Rings," Mankato State College Studies,
II (February 1967)5 25-37-
Lobdell, Jared C. "J. R, R. Tolkien: Words That Sound
Like Castles," (Milwaukee) Rally, I (August
1 9 6 6).
________. "From Middle-Earth to the Silent Planet,"
(Milwaukee) Rally, II (July-August I9 6 7), 36-37.
Lupoff, Richard A. Quotations from Tolkien’s letters,
pp. 246-247, in his Edgar Rice Burroughs: Master
of Adventure. New York: Canaveral Press, 19^5.
Miesel, Sandra L. "Some Motifs and Sources for Lord of
the Rings," Riverside Quarterly, III (March 1 9 6 8),
1 2 5-1 2 8.
Miller, David M. "The Moral Universe of J. R. R.
Tolkien," Mankato State College Studies, II
(February 1967), 51-b2.
Moorman, Charles. "The Shire, Mordor, and Minas Tirith:
J. R. R. Tolkien," pp. 86-100 in his The Precints
of Felicity: The Augustinian City of the Oxford
Christians. Gainesville: University of Florida
Press, 1 9 6 6. Reprinted in Isaacs and Zimbardo,
pp. 201-217.
Norwood, ¥. D. "Tolkien’s Intention in The Lord of the
Rings," Mankato State College Studies, II
(February 1967), 18-24.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
1 9 7
Ottevaere-van Praag, Ganna. "Retour à 1’epopee mytho
logique: Le Maître des Anneaux de J. R. R.
Tolkien," Revue des Langues Vivantes (Bruxelles),
XXXIII (19b7), 2 3 7-2 4 5.
Raffel, Burton. "The Lord of the Rings as Literature,"
pp. 2l8-24b in Isaacs and Zimbardo.
Rang, Jack C. "Two Servants," Mankato State College
Studies, II (February 1987)5 84-94.
Reilly, Robert J. "Romantic Religion in the Works of
Owen Barfield, C. S. Lewis, Charles Williams, and
J. R. R. Tolkien." Unpublished doctoral disserta
tion. Michigan State University, i9 6 0.
"Tolkien and the Fairy Story," Thought,
XXXVIII (Spring 1963)5 8 9-IO6. Reprinted in
Isaacs and Zimbardo, pp. I2 8-I5O.
Roberts, Mark. "Adventure in English" (on The Lord of
the Rings), Essays in Criticism, VI (October 1956)
450-459.
Russell, Mariann Barbara. "The Idea of the City of God."
Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Columbia
University, 1 9 6 5.
Ryan, J. S. "German Mythology Applied— The Extension of
the Literary Folk Memory," Folklore, LXXVII
(Spring 1 9 6 6), 4 5-5 9.
Sale, Roger. "England’s Parnassus: C. S. Lewis, Charles
Williams, and J. R. R. Tolkien," Hudson Review,
XVII (Summer 1964), 203-225.
________. "Tolkien and Frodo Baggins," pp. 247-288
in Isaacs and Zimbardo.
Scott, Nathan A., Jr. "Poetry and Prayer," Thought,
XLI (Spring I9 6 6), 6I-8O.
Spacks, Patricia Meyer. "Ethical Pattern in The Lord of
the Rings," Critique: Studies in Modern Fiction,
III (Spring-Fail 1939)> 30-42. Revised and re-
printed as "Power and Meaning in The Lord of the
Rings," Isaacs and Zimbardo, pp. 81-99.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
198
stein, Ruth M. Letter to the editor in reply to W. L.
Taylor, English Journal, LVII (February I9 6 8),
(September 1 9b?)J 8 18-8 2 1.
Taylor, William L. "Frodo Lives: J. R. R. Tolkien's
The Lord of the Rings," English Journal, LVI
(September 19bT), 818-621.
Thomson, George M. "The Lord of the Rings: The Novel
as Traditional Romance," Wisconsin Studies in
Contemporary Literature, VIII (Winter 19bT), 4-3-
5 9.
Tinkler, John. "Old English in Rohan," pp. l64-l69 in
Isaacs and Zimbardo.
The Tolkien Papers. (Ten papers prepared for the Tolkien
festival at Mankato State College, October 28-29,
1 9 6 6.) Mankato State College Studies, II
(February 19b7j.
Trowbridge, Clinton W. "The Twentieth Century British
Supernatural Novel." Unpublished doctoral disser
tation. Tallahasee, Florida: University of
Florida, 1958.
West, Richard C. "An Annotated Bibliography of Tolkien
Criticism," Orcrist #1 (a publication of the
University of Wisconsin J. R. R. Tolkien Society),
1 9 6 6-6 7.
________ . "An Annotated Bibliography of Tolkien
Criticism: Supplement One," Orcrist #2, 196 7-6 8.
"Tolkien in the Letters of C
"Orcrist #1, 1 9 6 6-6 7, pp. 2-l6.
S. Lewis,"
Wilson, Colin. "J. R. R. Tolkien," pp. 1 3O-I32 in the
chapter "The Power of Darkness" in The Strength
to Dream: Literature and the Imagination.
London: Cambridge Press, 1962.
Wojcik, Jan. "Tolkien and Coleridge: Remaking of the
'Green Earth'," Renascence, XX (Spring 1 9 6 8),
1 3 4-1 3 9, 146.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
1 9 9
Wright, Elizabeth. "Theology in the Novels of Charles
Williams," Stanford Honors Essays in Humanities,
1 9 6 2.
Wright, Marjorie Evelyn. "The Cosmic Kingdom of IVferth:
A Study in the Myth-Philosophy of Charles |
Williams, C. S. Lewis, and J. R. R. Tolkien."
Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University
of Illinois, i9 6 0.
Zimbardo, Rose A. "Moral Vision in The Lord of the Rings,"
pp. IOO-IO8 in Isaacs and Zimbardo.
I. Copyright Dispute
"Ace Books Reaches Agreement with Tolkien." Publishers'
Weekly, CLXXXIX (March l4, 1 9 6 6), 3 7 '^ W -
"Ballantine Books Has Paperback Rights to Tolkien."
Publishers' Weekly, CLXXXVIII (August 2, I9 6 5),
w:
"Don's Tales Start U. S. Campus Craze." (London) Times,
February 12, I9 6 6, p. 6.
Frankel, Haskel. "Two Publishers Vie for Gold from
Middle-Earth," National Observer, IV (August 3 0,
1965) , 19.
Unwin, Rayner. "Allen and Unwin Comments on Tolkien
Reprints" ("Ace Books..." Reply), Publishers'
Weekly, CLXXXIX (May 9 , I9 6 6), 3 1.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF WORKS CITED
200
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
201
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF WORKS CITED
Bellows5 Henry Adams, tr. The Poetic Edda. London:
Oxford University Press, 1923-
Bosworth, Joseph. An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, supplement
hy T. Northcote Toller. Oxford: Clarendon Press,
1 8 8 2-1 9 2 1.
Bradley, Henry. "English Place-Names," Essays and
Studies, I (1 9 1 0), 7-41.
Briggs, K. M. The Fairies in English Tradition and Litera-
ture. Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
1 9 5 7.
Christensen, Bonniejean. "Gollum’s Character Transforma
tion in The Hobbit: A Comparison of the Versions
of Chapter V, ’Riddles in the Dark'," presented
at the Conference on Middle Earth, April 25-26,
1 9 6 9, sponsored by the Tolkien Society of the
University of Illinois. To be published in the
proceedings of the conference.
Cleasby, Richard. An Icelandic-English Dictionary, ed.
Gudbrand Vigfusson. Oxford: Clarendon Press,
1 8 7 4.
Crouch, Marcus S. Rev. of Farmer Giles of Ham, Junior
Bookshelf, XIV (January 1950), 14-15.
________. "Another Don in Wonderland" (rev. of The
Hobbit), Junior Bookshelf, XIV (March 19501, 50-
5 3.
Donaldson, E. Talbot. Beowulf: A New Prose Translation.
New York: W. W. Norton, 19bb.
Eaton, Anne Thaxter. Rev. of The Hobbit, The Horn Book
Magazine, XIV (March 1938), 9^*
Guide to Catholic Literature, 1 8 8O-I9 4 0. Grosse Pointe,
Michigan: Walter Romig, 1940.
Hall, John R. Clark, ed. Beowulf and the Finnesburg Frag-
ment. London: G. Allen and Unwin, 1940.
!
Hedges, Ned Samuel. "The Fable and the Fabulous: The Use
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
202
of Traditional Forms in Children's Literature." |
Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University j
of Nebraska, 1 9 6 8. i
Kight, Margie. Rev. of The Hobbit, Catholic Library I
World, XXXVIII (March 1 9 6 7), 474. :
Klaeber, Friedrich, ed. Beovnilf and The Fight at Finns-
burg, 2nd ed. New York; D. C. Heath, 192b.
Lewis, C. S. An Experiment in Criticism. Cambridge:
University Press, 1905.
The Silver Chair. London: Geoffrey Bles, 1953
New York: Macmillan, 1953*
Malone, Kamp, ed. "Widsith," Anglistica, XIII (I9 6 2), 1-
2 3 1.
Moore, Anne Carroll. Rev. of The Hobbit, The Horn Book
Magazine, XIV (March I93W), 92.
Norman, Philip. "The Prevalence of Hobbits," New York
Times Magazine, January 15, 19&7, pp. 30-31, 97,
100, 102.
Parker, Douglass. "Hwaet We Holbytla" (review-article
on The Lord of the Rings), Hudson Review, IX
(Winter 195^-7), 59b-609.
Piggin, Julia R. "Desirers of Dragons," illus. by Tom
Eaton, Practical English, XLII (March 17, 1 9 6 7),
4-7.
Tolkien, Christopher, ed. The Saga of King Heidrek the
Wise. London: Thomas Nelson and Sons, 19bO.
Tolkien, J. R. R. "Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critic^"
Proceedings of the British Academy, XXII (1936),
2 4 5-2 9 5. Reprinted in An Anthology of Beowulf
Criticism, ed. Lewis E. Nicholson ]Notre Dame:
University of Notre Dame Press, 1 9 6 3), and The
Beowulf Poet: A Collection of Critical Essays,
ed. Donald K. Fry (Englewood Cliffs, N. J71
Prentice-Hall, i9 6 0).
! Tolkien, J. R. R. "Bilbo's Song," Practical English, XLII
I (March 1 7, 1 9 6 7), 8.
I _______ . Farmer Giles of Ham. London: G. Allen and
I Unwin, 1949; Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1950.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
2 0 3
Tolkien J J. R. R. The Hobbit; or, There a.nd Back Again.
London: G. Allen and Unwin, 1937j 1951 (rev. ed. ); |
Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1938, 1958, (rev. ed.); |
New York: Ballantine Books, 1 9 6 5, 1 9 6 6; London: |
Longmans, Green, 1 9 6 6. !
________. The Lord of the Rings, consisting of Part I The '
Fellowship of the Ring, Part II The Two Towers,
and Part III The Return of the King. London:
G. Allen and Unwin, 1954-55, 19b8 (one volume);
Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 195^-56; New York:
Ballantine Books, 1 9 6 9.
________. "On Fairy-Stories," in Essays Presented to
Charles Williams, ed. C. S. Lewis. London:
Oxford University Press, 1947; Grand Rapids,
Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.,
1 9 6 6. Revised and reprinted in Tree and Leaf
(London: G. Allen and Unwin, 1964; Boston:
Houghton Mifflin, 1 9 6 9) and in The Tolkien Reader
(New York: Ballantine Books, 1968)•
________. "Prefatory Remarks" to Beowulf and the Finnes
burg Fragment, ed. John R. Clark Hall. London:
G. Allen and Unwin, 1940.
"Sigelwara Land: Part I," Medium Aevum, I
(December 1932), I8 3-I9 6.
"Sigelwara Land: Part II," Medium Aevum, III
(June 1934), 94-111.
________. Smith of Wootton Major. London: G. Allen and
Unwin, 1967; Boston: Houghton Mifflin, I9 6 7.
The Tolkien Papers. Mankato State College Studies, II, 1
(FebruaryI9 6 7).
"A World for Children." Anon. rev. of The Hobbit, Times
Literary Supplement, October 2, 1937, p. 7l4.
Wright, Elizabeth. "Theology in the Novels of Charles
Williams," Stanford Honors Essays in Humanities,
1 9 6 2.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

"Beowulf" and "The Hobbit": Elegy into fantasy in J.R.R. Tolkien's creative technique.

PDF

A critical edition of the Escorial manuscript of 'historia de los indios de la neuva espana' of fray toribio de benavente (motolinia) (spanish text)

PDF

A necessary epigone: The fantastic and "dvoeverie" in the works of A. K. Tolstoi

PDF

Avant-garde criticism: The criticism of exhaustion

PDF

Antigone: A study in critical method

PDF

Between dream and reality: a study of Nathalie Sarraute and Fedor Dostoevsky

PDF

Arthur Machen’s treatment of the occult and a consideration of its reception in England and America

PDF

Beyond clowns and kings: Aesthetic and ideological subversion in baroque tragicomedy

PDF

Arthur Waley: Translator of Chinese poetry

PDF

City correspondence: Text and photograph in modern Paris and New York

PDF

"A broken bundle of mirrors": Identity in the work of John Barth

PDF

"Emilia Galotti" and its aesthetic response: A case study for the reader-response criticism

PDF

Causativity in Korean: Syntactic causative, control, and purpose

PDF

A scenario for a beginning screenwriting class utilizing an interdisciplinary approach to learning and creativity.

PDF

Andrej Belyj's "Petersburg" and James Joyce's "Ulysses": A comparative study

PDF

A case grammar of the parker manuscript of the "Anglo-Saxon chronicle" from 734 to 891

PDF

Communicative rights and responsibilities in an East Los Angeles barrio: An analysis of epistemic modal use

PDF

Charlotte Smith: Life of a novelist, novels of a life

PDF

Controversies over grammar: Contexts and purposes in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries

PDF

Correspondence and faithfulness constraints in optimality theory: A study of Korean consonantal phonology

Asset Metadata

Creator Christensen, Bonniejean Mcguire (author)

Core Title 'Beowulf' and 'the hobbit': elegy into fantasy in j. R. R. Tolkien's creative technique

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Language and Literature

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Literature, General,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor [illegible] (committee chair), [illegible] (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c17-193796

Unique identifier UC11349108

Identifier 7005202.pdf (filename),usctheses-c17-193796 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 7005202.pdf

Dmrecord 193796

Document Type Dissertation

Rights CHRISTENSEN, BONNIEJEAN MCGUIRE

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA