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The nutritional value of hydrogenated fats in diets as influenced by suboptimal levels of protein or vitamin B complex

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The nutritional value of hydrogenated fats in diets as influenced by suboptimal levels of protein or vitamin B complex

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Content THE NUTRITIONAL VALUE OP HYDROGENATED FATS IN DIETS AS INFLUENCED BY SUBOPTIMAL LEVELS OF PROTEIN OR VITAMIN B COMPLEX A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of the Department of Biochemistry and Nutrition University of Southern California In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Science Norman Irving Krinsky Solomon Notrica February 1950 UMI Number: EP41306 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Publishing UMI EP41306 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 4 8 1 0 6 -1 3 4 6 This thesis, written by Solomon Notriea and Norman Irving Krinsky under the guidance ofthsX,X L . Faculty Committee, and approved by a ll its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Council on Graduate Study and Research in partial fu lfill ment of the requirements fo r the degree of Master of Science Date..., Faculty Committee man TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE INTRODUCTION ...................................... 1 REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ............................ 2 Nutritive Value of Fats ................ 2 Growth-Promoting Ability ................... 5 Pregnancy and Lactation ...................... 4 Digestibility ............. 4 Absorption ......... 6 Effects of Hydrogenation ......................... 7 Indian Situation ....................... 7 EXPERIMENTAL ............................ 12 MATERIALS AND METHODS ............. 12 Animals ..... '............................ 12 Diets ......................... 12 Experimental Conditions ....... *............... 15 Initial Experiment ............. 18 Growth-Promoting Ability Experiment ......... 18 Reproduction and Lactation .............. 18 Digestibility .................. 19 RESULTS ........... 20 Initial Experiment .................... 20 Growth-Promoting Ability Experiment ............ 23 Reproduction and Lactation ....... 23 iii PAGE Multi-generation Experiment ................. 30 Digestibility ................... 30 DISCUSSION ........... 38 SUMMARY ............. 46 BIBLIOGRAPHY . ................. 48 LIST OF TABLES PAGE I. Constituents of Initial Diets ....... 13 II. Constituents of Experimental Diets ........ 14 III. Caloric, Protein, and Vitamin Content of Experimental Diets .............. 16 IV. Peanut Oil Analysis ......... 17 V. Analysis of Weight Gain on Growth-Promoting Ability Experiment ................ 26 VI. Summary Table of Reproduction and Lactation of Growth-Promoting Ability Experiment .... 29 VII. Analysis of Weight Gain on Multi-Generation Experiment ................... 33 VIII. Summary Table of Reproduction and Lactation of Multi-Generation Experiment ........... 35 IX. Coefficient of Digestibility ........... 37 LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE PAGE 1. Growth rate of male rats on initial diets ..... 21 2. Growth rate of female rats on intial diets .... 22 3. Growth rate of male rats on growth-promoting ability experiment ..... 24 4. Growth rate of female rats on growth-promoting ability experiment ........................ 25 5. Growth rate of male rats on low B complex diets 28 6 . Growth rate of male rats on multi-generation experiment .......... 31 7. Growth rate of female rats on multi-generation experiment ...... 32 The experimental work involving the vitamin deficiency was con ducted by Mr* Notrica and that of the protein deficiency by Mr. Krinsky. The authors wish to acknowledge the Lever Brothers Company, under whose grant this research was carried out. INTRODUCTION The consumption of hydrogenated oils has shown a marked Increase within the past quarter century, until today, It serves as one of the principal sources of dietary fat* Outstanding authorities in this country and abroad have proven conclusively that the hydrogenated product is nutritionally equivalent to the natural oils* This nutritional equality was proven experimentally on diets adequate in all respects* However, these optimum conditions do not prevail throughout the world and this is particularly true in India* Here, a large majority of the people receive a diet which is deficient in minerals, pro teins, and vitamins. Under these conditions the nutritional value of various foodstuffs may be different than that found during optimal experimental conditions, and previous data con cerning the nutritional value of hydrogenated oils may not be applicable to this specific case. Consequently, a series of experiments were undertaken to evaluate the nutritive quali ties of hydrogenated oil under conditions wherein the diets were suboptimum with respect to proteins or vitamin B com plex. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Fat, as a dietary component, is characterized by several -unique properties* It is the nutrient of maximum energy value; it has been shown to be essential for growth (7) due to the presence of the unsaturated fatty acids, lin- oleate, linolenate (8), and arachidonate (46); it serves an important purpose by improving the absorption of vitamins A, D and E; it insulates the body, cushions and supports vital organs, and contributes to the composition of body lipids; it results in better growth, reproduction, and lactation than from the administration of the essential fatty acids alone (15); it decreases weight loss and mortality during malnutri tion (41, 43) and increases the physical capacity of animals (42)* Recently, it has been demonstrated that fat also serves to increase the metabolic efficiency of food utilization, especially in regard to its protein sparing action (19, 20), a property which may be of greater importance than the preced ing characteristics* Nutritive Value of Fats* The earliest comparisons of hydrogenated and natural fats were carried out by Thoms and Muller in 1915 (45), and Pekelharing and Shut (37) in the following year, in which the general physical condition of dogs was observed following 3 feeding of various hydrogenated oils. Both groups concluded that the hydrogenated fats were as beneficial in normal diets as natural fats and oils. Since then, more extensive criteria have been estab lished for comparing the nutritive value of hydrogenated and natural fats. These include growth-promoting ability, main tenance of normal pregnancy and lactation, digestibility, absorption, vitamin content, and essential fatty acid content. In evaluating the data obtained using these criteria, one must bear in mind that no single test has been devised to determine the nutritional value of fats and oils, and only a correlation of results from experiments involving several tests of nutri tive value can be considered conclusive. Growth-Promoting Ability. For many years there were conflicting reports in the literature as to whether various vegetable fats and their hydrogenated products had the same growth-promoting ability as animal fats, such as butter. In 1940, Schantz, Elvehjem, and Hart (40) published the first of a series of papers in which they obtained superior growth on a butter diet than one which contained corn oil. This was attributed to a specific stimulatory factor, which the vegetable oil did not possess. However, Deuel, Movitt, Hallman, and Mattson (16), in 1944, could not duplicate their results, and found equal growth over a six week period for butter, com oil, cotton seed oil, margarine, and peanut oil* They not only compared gain in weight, but also used the tibia length and efficiency of conversion of food to body tissues as indices of the equal ity of growth-promoting ability of the various fats used* Pregnancy and Lactation* The ability to promote pregnancy and maintain normal lactation is also an important index of the nutritive value of fats and oils. Deuel _et al. (13) have demonstrated that over a period of ten generations, margarine has been able to replace butterfat as the dietary source of fat in maintaining normal reproduction and lactation. More recently, this same group has presented data extending over twenty-five genera tions (1 0) and the same results have been obtained* Digestibility. The digestibility of food has long been used in compar ing the nutritive value of natural fats and their hydrogenated products. Early work of Langworthy (28), who conducted a series of experiments on the digestibility of natural and hydrogenated fat, demonstrated that the majority of the fats tested had a coefficient of digestibility between 92 and 98$, with the exception of those fats having high melting points and those containing irritants. The critical melting point 5 of the fat for optimum digestibility appeared to be around 50° C., as shown by Holmes and Deuel (23) with hydrogenated fats, and Deuel and Holmes (14) with blended hydrogenated fats which had melting points above 50° C. These authors suggested that an inverse relationship existed between the melting point of the fat and its coefficient of digestibility. More recently, Mattil and Higgins (31) proposed that the coefficient of digestibility of a fat is related to the selec tive utilization of specific fatty acids; Mattil (30) further states that the limiting factor in digestibility is not the melting point, but the content of saturated fatty acids con taining 18 or more carbon atoms. These two variables, i.e., melting point and saturated fatty acid content, are, however, closely related, as those fats with high melting points usually contain a higher content of saturated long chain fatty acids. With human subjects Deuel (9) has shown that margarine and butter are digested to the same extent, about 97$, and from the standpoint of digestibility, the natural fat, butter, and hydrogenated fat, margarine, are equally nutritious. iH. v^tro test of fat digestibility has been developed in which the fat is incubated with various enzyme systems, and the fatty acids liberated through enzymatic hydrolysis are determined. Contradictory reports as to the digestibility of natural and hydrogenated peanut oil as compared to cottonseed 6 oil by pancreatic lipase have been described by Hartwell (22) and Ahmad and Bahl (1). More recently, Liebenthal and Adolph (29) obtained equal digestibilities for these oils; there fore, this method does not yet appear to be reliable. Absorption. Another factor influencing the nutritional value of fat is its rate of absorption from the gastro-intestinal tract. Steenbock and others (43) found a significant diff erence between the absorption rate of butterfat mid coconut oil. On the other hand, Deuel and coworkers (12) could find no consistent differences. Units for expressing rates of absorption were different and when comparison of absorp tion rate was made on the basis of body surface area, uni form results were obtained. Irwin et al. (24) have shown that the rate of absorp tion of fat decreases as the melting point increases above body temperature, as those melting below body temperature were equally well absorbed. They also demonstrated that the rate of absorption of a hydrogenated fat varied inversely with the degree of oxidation, which is why rancid or oxidiz ed fats are so poorly utilized. The rate of absorption is also important, in that one oil, although being absorbed slower than another, may still have the same total absorption. Peanut oil has been found 7 to have a slower rate of absorption than cottonseed oil (4, 34), although they have the same total absorption (3). This difference in rates of absorption may lead to erroneous con clusions as to the nutritive value unless total absorption is also considered. Effects of Hydrogenation, Hydrogenation causes a decrease in the unsaturated fatty acids with a corresponding increase in the saturated fatty acid fraction. Simultaneously, isomers of unsaturated fatty acids, particularly those of oleic acids are produced. Boer, Jansen, and Kentie (5) presented data that summer butter contained a growth promoting factor other than vita min A, which is not found in winter butter or vegetable oils. This growth promoting factor was believed to be an iso-oleic acid, vaccenic acid. Deuel and eoworkers (11), Euler, Euler, and Linderman (17), and Nath et al. (33) could find no in creased growth on addition of a highly purified vaccenic acid supplement to the diet, and Boer and his coworkers (6 ) have now retracted their earlier statement. It may be con cluded that vaccenic acid has no specific role in relation to growth of the rat. Indian Situation. Within the last few years, a product has appeared on the Indian market similar to margarine. It is essentially peanut, or groundnut oil, hydrogenated to melt between 37° o . and 41 C. As sold in that country, it contains 5% sesame oil and is known as vanaspati. Despite the fact that it is refined, deodorized, and hygienically packed, the question still arose as to its nutritive value as compared to ghee, a cow or buffalo butter fat. The mass of previous experi mental data collected, however, could not be applied to the situation in India, for the average diet in India is subop timum in its protein, vitamin, and mineral content (27), whereas all the experimental data up to that time were ob tained from animals and humans who received optimum diets (38). Kehar (25) found that with the rats on inadequate diets supplemented with various fats, the vanaspati group not only showed a slower growth rate but exhibited all the symptoms of a multiple vitamin deficiency and particularly vitamin A deficiency. Animals on the ghee group were all normal and alive at the end of six months, while those re ceiving vanaspati as their source of dietary fat began to die at this time. It would seem evident that the vanas pati used was deficient in vitamins. Further work on reproduction was done independently by Patwardhan (36) and Kehar (25), using various natural hydrogenated oils as the sole source of fat in the diet. On inadequate diets, Kehar found that rats mated at four months did not give birth to litters. This effect was com mon to both the vanaspati and ghee groups. Rats on adequate diets supplemented with vanaspati or ghee and then at adult hood placed on inadequate diets were found to reproduce normally. Patwardhan, on the other hand, showed that repro duction was poorer in the vanaspati and oil groups as com pared to the ghee group with rats on adequate diets. Repro duction between the oil and vanaspati groups was not signi ficantly different. With regard to these studies, the provision of ade quate or inadequate diets along with the fat appears to make a difference. The deleterious effects attributed to vanas pati on inadequate diets are more likely due to the deficiency of vitamin A, than to any inherent property of vanaspati it self. Consequently, studies were undertaken to compare the fats when the deficient material of the diet could be contr olled, The use of diets deficient in one dietary component to compare the nutritive value of another component is valid in the case of fat, as shown by the work of Porbe3 et al. (18). These authors used iso-caloric diets containing 10, 15, 20, and 25 percent protein, and calculated not only the growth and efficiency of conversion of food to body tissue as a function of protein level, but also gain in fat per gram of body nitrogen stored. This increase in fat deposits 10 was inversely proportional to the protein content of the diet. Rats receiving the low-protein diet, 10$, obtained 60$ of their energy from the fat, while those receiving the higher protein diets obtained only 48$ of their energy from this foodstuff. This indicated that suboptimum protein diets utilize fat to a greater extent as energy sources than do adequate diets. McCoy (32) has also shown, using paired feeding and ad libitum feeding experiments, that rats lay down a higher percentage of fat on low protein than on higher protein diets. Therefore, any diet which is suboptimal with respect to protein content would more readily distinguish be tween the nutritive value of fats, for their requirement is increased on such diets. This situation is paralleled in diets deficient in vitamins of the B complex. Here again, there is an increas ed requirement for fat and this would exaggerate any nutri tional difference between the fats used. These conditions are similar to the situation in India Yfoere hydrogenated peanut oil or vanaspati is one of the most important sources of dietary fat. The diets des cribed in the experimental section differ from the Indian diet, for they are deficient in either protein or vitamin B complex, but contain sufficient amounts of minerals and other materials, whereas the Indian diet is deficient in proteins, vitamins, and minerals. In this way, the nutritive 11 value of the fats could he compared as a function of the pro tein or vitamin concentration alone. EXPERIMENTAL MATERIALS AND METHODS Animals The animals used in these experiments were all of the University of Southern California strain. They were placed • on the experiment at the completion of weaning - either the 21st or 28th day following birth. The groups used for ex perimentation contained from 10 to 20 animals per group, and consisted of approximately equal numbers of each sex. Diets An initial experiment was undertaken to determine what levels of protein and B complex vitamins would be necessary to approximate the deficiency found in the Indian diets. The diets used in this experiment are presented in Table I, and from the results of this experiment five diets were assem bled which were used in the remainder of the experiments. They were designed to be deficient at two levels - moderate and severe - in either protein or B complex vitamins. Con- * - stituents of the diets are listed in Table II. It will be noted that .two diets are listed under medium protein. Diet A .was used for the first nine weeks of the experiment at which point the protein content was lowered, and diet B v/as substituted for the remainder of the experiment. 13 TABLE I CONSTITUENTS OF INITIAL DIETS Constituent Control Protein Moderate Deficient Severe B complex Deficient Moderate Severe % % % % % Rice1 61.7 75.0 45.0 61.7 30.0 Casein, commercial 13.3 13.3 15.7 Salt 2 mixture 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 Starch, corn -— - .... 35.0 3.9 33.0 Yeast^ 4.0 4.0 4.0 0.1 mm « mm mm Cottonseed oil4 18.0 18.0 18.0 18.0 18.0 1. Head rice, ground very fine in coffee grinder. 2. Osborne and Mendel mixture (35). 3. Anheuser Busch Brewer’s Yeast, Strain G. 4. Wesson oil, containing the following fat-soluble vitamins: Units/gram feed Beta-carotene 4.6 U.S.P. Vitamin A 7.7 U.S.P. Mixed tocopherols 41.5 U.S.P. Vitamin J>2 0.06 V TABLE II 14 CONSTITUENTS OF EXPERIMENTAL DIETS Consti tuent Control Medium Protein A B Low Protein Medium B complex Low B complex % f> % % % % Rice 61.0 72.5 74.5 45.0 63.2 63.38 Casein, commer cial 14.0 2.5 0.5 15.5 15.5 Salt 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 Yeast 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 0.3 0.12 Starch, corn .... .... 30.0 ■ .... .... Fat1 18.0 18.0 18.0 18.0 18.0 18.0 1* Supplemented with fat-soluble vitamins (See Table I)* 15 In Table III, the protein content of the various diets is listed, as determined by the Kjehdahl method. The thiamine content is also listed, as an 'index of the total B complex present. The diets were as nearly Iso-caloric as their protein and B complex vitamin content, .would allow them to be, and their caloric values are listed in Table III. The fats*- used were similar to those used in Indian diets. They were crude peanut oil, a refined, deodorized product of the first oil, and two hydrogenated samples of the refined oil. Their physical properties are described in Table IV. The last two samples; solid at room tempera ture, were warmed until liquid, and then mixed in with the other dietary constituents. The diets and fats were kept refrigerated at all times. Expe r imenta1 Conditions All the animals, with the exception of the control groups, were housed in individual cages in which the floor was raised from two to three inches above the waste pan to prevent the rats from eating their feces. This is especia lly important in animals on a suboptimal B complex diet as they are very prone to coprophagy if given the opportunity (39). * The fats were supplied by the Lever Brothers Company, Cambridge, Mass. TABLE III 16 CALORIC, PROTEIN, AND VITAMIN CONTENT OF EXPERIMENTAL DIETS Diet Caloric Value Protein Thiamin Calories/gram % iygram Control 4.36 18.8 6.24 Medium Protein A 4.39 10.6 6.29 B 4.39 9.1 6.30 Low Protein 4.54 6.1 6.18 Medium B complex 4.35 18.3 0.70 Low B complex 4.35 18.2 0.43 17 TABLE IV PEANUT OIL ANALYSIS Oil Melting Point Iodine Value Saponifi cation Number 1. Crude peanut oil. mm mm mm mm 91.5 193.0 2 . Refined, bleached, and deo dorized peanut oil plus 5% sesame oil. 94.0 193.4 3. Deodorized blend consisting ' of: a. 65 parts peanut oil hyd rogenated to 55.6 Iodine No., 39.8° C., M.P. 39.3° C 66.1 193.2 b. 30 parts peanut oil hyd rogenated to 82.1 Iodine No., 22.8° C#, M. P. c. 5 parts sesame oil. 4. Blend of: a. 95 parts of peanut oil hydrogenated to 59.6 Iodine No., 37.80 c## M.P# 3 9.4° c 6 2 .0 192.6 b. 5 parts sesame oil. 18 The control animals were housed in large cages, hold ing between three and four rats per cage, and containing wood shavings as bedding. All animals were weighed weekly, and during the first ten weeks of the multi-generation experiment, food consumption was recorded. Initial Experiment Five male and five female rats of the stock colony were placed on each of the diets listed in Table I. These animals were kept in individual cages during the experiment al period of twelve weeks, and all were given cottonseed oil as their dietary source of fat. Growth-Promoting Ability Experiment In this experiment, ten male and ten female rats were used for each fat to be tested at the different pro tein and vitamin B complex levels. The control group had eight males and eight females. All animals were kept on their respective diets for a period of 30 weeks, and during the first ten weeks their food consumption was recorded weekly, as was their weights. Reproduction and Lactation After the animals had been on their respective diets for ten weeks, they were mated. Each male was selected, as 19 determined from the growth curve, to breed with two females, and the groups of three animals were placed in large cages until pregnancy was observed. The pregnant females were then removed and each one placed in large cages until the young were 21 days old. In the cases where the females failed to become pregnant, they were rebred with proven males before being classified as sterile. Normal births were recorded only for those litters which survived at least three days. Breeding animals on the B complex diets were housed in large cages containing a wire mesh screen to pre vent eoprophagy. Upon observation of pregnancy the wire screen was removed and the female placed in a cage with wood shavings during the gestation and lactation periods. Three days after birth all litters were culled to seven young with an approximate equal distribution of the sexes. Normal lactation was measured by the ability of the rats to maintain their litters during the weaning period. Following weaning animals were used for subsequent experi ments. Digestibility Five male rats on each moderately deficient diet were used in determining the digestibility of the fats. They were placed in individual cages, raised from the ground to prevent eating of their feces,.and the food consumption was 20 recorded for a two week period, starting with the 27th week and extending to the 29th week on their diets. The feces were collected, dried, and analyzed for neutral fat and ’ - soap3 according to the method of Augur et al. (2). RESULTS Initial Experiment The results of the initial experiment are graphically illustrated in Figure 1 for the males and Figure 2 for the females. It was apparent quite early in this experiment that both the protein and vitamin B complex levels were too low to maintain even slightly suboptimal growth. In the protein deficient diets, one half of the animals survived the mild deficiency, and only one survived the severe def iciency over the 12 week experimental period. These results were paralleled for those animals receiving diets deficient in the B complex, for only 70% of the animals survived the mild deficiency and none of the animals survived the severe deficiency.' . Subsequently, the protein content of both of the pro tein deficient diets were increased to obtain a greater per centage of survival. The moderately deficient vitamin diet was used as the severely deficient diet, and a new diet con taining approximately twice as much yeast was used as the 21 3*0 *80 *N0 to §200 o 5 1*0 l- *120 80 H O A- -O- C0NTR0L PROTEIN DEFICIENT MODERATE SEVERE V IT A M IN DEFICIENT MODERATE SEVERE X X M i WEEKS X ON b DIET 10 I* Figure 1. Growth rate of male rats on intial diets. All animals on the severely deficient diet had died by the eighth week. 22 200 \ S > 5 140 o£ CD - 120 »- X 3 6 0 uJ > HO CONTROL PROTEIN DEFICIENT MODERATE SEVERE V IT A M IN DEFICIENT MODERATE S E V E R E ©— - — ©— * _ L X W EEK S 4 a ON DIET 10 12 Figure 2. Growth rate of female rats on initial diets. All animals on the severely deficient diets did not survive the experiment* 23 diet moderately deficient in the B complex, in the experi ment with peanut oil, Grov/th-Promoting Ability Experiment This study was conducted over a period of thirty weeks, and the weight of the animals recorded weekly. The results of the growth of the male rats are given for the full thirty week period in Figure 3, while those for the female rats are given for ten weeks in Figure 4, at which time they were mated, and their actual weight was no longer a function of the diet consumed. The differences observed between the diets containing the various oils are analyzed in Table V. At approximately the fourteenth week and continuing ■until the twenty-fifth week of the experiment, the rats which were on the low vitamin B complex diet exhibited a sudden stimulation of growth. The growth rates of these male rats are presented in Figure 5, from the sixth week when their growth had apparently ceased, until the termina tion of the experiment at the thirtieth week. Reproduction and Lactation V/hen the animals had reached the tenth week on their respective diets, they were mated, one male for every two females. The results of this breeding are given in Table Vi along with the results of lactation. The animals on the low 24 HOOr- 123W n i 234 123 H L23H =200 123H CONTROL MEDIUM LOW MEDIUM LOW B- PROTE1N PROTEIN B - C O M P L E X COMPLEX Figure 3. Growth rate of male rats on growth-promoting ability experiment. Dark areas indicate average initial weights striped area growth to 10 weeks, stipled area growth to weeks, and clear area growth to 30 weeks. 25 20Q- 180- 140 IHOh L, 1 / 7 Suo ?100 h -C dJ Ui y 1 2 34 40 40 20 o 1 234 1 134 1 2 34 12 34 CONTROL MEDIUM LOW MEDIUM LOW^' PROTEIN PROTEIN BCOMPLEX COMPLEX Figures 4. Growth rate of female rats on growth pro moting ability experiment. Darfc areas indicate average ini- tial weights, striped area growth to & weeks, and cle growth, to TO weeks* ;o TABLE V ANALYSIS OF ./LIGHT GAIN ON GROWTH PRONOTING ABIT.ITY LXPLRIilENT Oil Number Average Weight Statistical Analysis Used of Weeks on Diet Oils M.D./ Rats Start 10 20 30 Compared S.E.M.D.* gms . jgms. gms. gms. MALES Controls 1 8 43.0 234.2 300.1 340.0 1 - 2 1.62 1 - 3 0.90 2 8 44.6 257.0 330.4 374.6 2 - 3 2.26 2 - 4 1.29 3 4 46.0 231.0 272.8 316.5 3 - 4 1.55 4 8 43.6 246.1 313.9 352.1 4 - 1 0.68 Medium Protein 1 10 43.8 188.7 242.0 293.1 1 - 2 0.98 1 - 3 0.20 2 9 44.0 189.7 235.9 266.3 2 - 3 1.11 2 - 4 0.35 3 10 42.9 190.8 249.9 287.7 3 - 4 0.82 4 9 43.8 188.4 242.3 272.8 4 - 1 0.76 Medium B complex 1 10 43.8 165.0 214.0 229.0 1 - 2 0.15 1 - 3 0.39 2 10 43.7 147.9 212.7 224.7 2 - 3 0.55 2 - 4 0.004 3 10 44.0 161.8 203.4 239.8 3 - 4 0.60 4 10 43.5 154.1 217.8 224.6 4 - 1 0.15 Low Protein 1 7 44.1 85.1 98.0 125.7 1 - 2 0.13 1 - 3 Q.43 2 8 45.5 87.5 94.1 123.1 2 - 3 0.25 2 - 4 0.06 3 6 44.0 96.0 106.8 119.3 3 - 4 0.20 4 8 43.6 89.2 103.6 122.0 4 - 1 0.19 Low B complex 0.36 1.98 2 6 44.3 126.5 145.8 182.7 2 - 3 1.30 0.15 3 6 44.5 118.8 154.5 146.5 3 - 4 1.16 4 5 42.8 104.0 149.8 177.6 4 - 1 0.17 7 44.0 132.7 223.4 173.3 1 - 2 1 - 3 6 44.3 126.5 145.8 182.7 2 - 3 2 - 4 6 44.5 118.8 154.5 146.5 3 - 4 5 42.8 104.0 149.8 177.6 4 - 1 27 Oil Number Average Weight Statistical Analysis Used of Weeks on Diet Oils m .D./ Rats Start 10 Compared S.E.M.D.* gms gms FEMALES Controls 1 8 43.8 178.0 1 - 2 1.25 1 - 3 1.23 2 7 42.9 185.6 2 - 3 2.86 2 - 4 2.22 3 8 43.6 170.4 3 - 4 0.15 4 8 43.5 170.5 4 - 1 1.00 Medium Protein 1 7 43.1 174.7 1 - 2 0.93 1 - 3 1.73 2 7 43.0 163.0 2 - 3 0.90 2 - 4 1.73 3 5 43.8 154.2 3 - 4 0.82 4 7 43.7 148.1 4 - 1 2.44 Medium B complex 1 9 43.7 147.0 1 - 2 1.46 1 - 3 0.54 2 10 42.9 131.2 2 - 3 1.13 2 - 4 0.55 3 10 43.4 142.4 3 - 4 1.69 4 10 43.1 124.2- 4 - 1 1.94 Low Protein 1 7 43.4 84.6 1 - 2 1.89 1 - 3 1.14 2 5 41.8 69.4 2 - 3 1.25 2 - 4 1.36 3 7 44.1 78.7 3 - 4 0.40 4 9 43.8 81.1 4 - 1 0.51 Low B complex 1 10 44.2 95.2 1 - 2 0.24 1 - 3 1.14 2 7 41.0 99.4 2 - 3 1.15 2 - 4 0.38 3 9 42.8 80.0 3 - 4 0.88 4 10 42.9 92.5 4 - 1 0.18 * Me'an' Difference": Standard Error of Mean Difference. Mien this value exceeds 3, the results are considered signifi cant. SWVH3NI J.H913M 28 OIL 22C - CRUDE ~0-REFINED -El-BLENDED ZOO- STRAIGHT 140- 1*0- 1C0- 18 W WEEKS ON DIET E’ Igure 5. Growth rate of male rats on low B com plex diets. TABLE VI SUMMARY TABLE OR REPRODUCTION AND LACTATION OF GROWTH PROMOTING ABILITY EXPERIMENT Oil Body Number Used Weight of at Females Mating Average Success- Period ful Freg- after nancies Mating ■* Unsuccess ful Preg nancies or Stillbirths Sterile i Normal Repro duction Rats at 21 days No. Wts. Surviving Lactation days G f ' A 1 " '" d f A gms. ° k Medium Protein 1 166,9 10 28.5 2 8 00.0 20.0 4.5 18.0 81.8 2 168.1 9 28.6 1 7 11.1 11.1 6.0 16.7 85.7 3 150.3 7 29.7 3 4 00.0 42.9 5.5 13.8 68.7 4 149.9 8 31.8 1 4 37.5 12.5 ------- ---------- 00.0 Low Protein - : No signs of pregnancy observed; all animaIs assumed to be sterile. Medium B complex 1 150.5 10 29.0 1 4 50.0 10.0 2 133.1 10 33.8 3 3 40.0 30.0 — — ---------- 3 142.4 10 37.2 6 3 10.0 60.0 — - ---------- 4 156.4 10 36.2 2 3 50.0 20.0 ---------- Low B complex 1 95.2 10 ---- 0 0 100.0 00.0 ------- ---------- ---------- 2 97.9 8 CO. 2 1 1 75.0 12.5 - - - ---------- ---------- 3 73.0 10 ---------- 0 0 100.0 00.0 ---------- 4 101.1 10 26.0 0 1 90.0 00.0 «■ mm m * — •* •* * A successful pregnancy is recorded if the young are alive at the third day. w to 50 protein diet were -unable to reproduce, while those on the medium protein diet could not maintain normal lactation. This was also noted in the low and medium B complex diets, where the former could not reproduce, and the latter, while reproducing, could not support normal lactation. Multi-generation Experiment The progeny of the control animals of the 1st genera tion were then maintained on their respective diets for a period of fifteen weeks. The growth rate of this Ilnd gen eration was observed under the same conditions as the 1st generation. Ten animals of each sex were used for these growth experiments, and the results are depicted in Figure 6 for the males and Figure 7 for the females. Their growth is analyzed in Table VII. The Ilnd generation was bred after ten weeks on their diet; data on reproduction and lactation are given In Table VIII. When the young were twenty-one days old, ten males and ten females, comprising the Illrd generation, were used for each oil tested and their growth recorded for fifteen weeks* These results are also shown in Figure 6 and 7. Digestibility The coefficient of digestibility of the four oils used were determined using male rats on the medium protein 31 210r 190- 170- 150- « / ) % £ 13 L3 2 0- £ n < C£ UJ 5 L0- <*0 70- 50- 30h IZZH ■ 1 13 M I I GENERATION 1 IE Figure 6. Growth chart of male rats on multi-genera tion experiment. hark area indicates average starting weights, striped area indicates growth to 5 weeks, stipled area indica tes growth to 10 weeks, clear area Indicates growth to 15 weeks. Cross hatched area in 1st generation indicates growth to 30 wedss. 32 HOOr 340- 320- 280- 07 Z 2H0h < CL a 2 200f- 5 glMh 120- 80- HO- 0L 1234 12 3 4 | i n GENERATION li„3H \ llll TTT Figure 7. Growth chart of female rata on multi-genera tion experiment. Dark area indicates average starting weights, striped area indicates growth to 5 weeks, clear area indicates growth to 10 vjeeks. 33 TABLE VII ANALYSIS OF WEIGHT GAIN ON MULTI-GENERATION EXPERIMENT Oil Number Average Weight Statistical Analysis Used of Number of Weeks Oils M.D,/ S.E.M.D.-& ' ______Rats____Start 15 30 Compared 15th Wk. 50thWk. gms. gms. gms. MALES 1st Generation 1 8 43.0 274.5 340.0 1 2 2.43 1.62 1 - 3 1.13 0.90 2 8 44.6 312.0 374.6 2 - 3 3.72 2.26 2 4 2.12 1.29 3 4 46.0 254.8 316.5 3 — 4 2.26 1.55 4 8 43.6 287.0 352.1 4 - 1 0.87 0.68 2nd Generation 1 9 36.6 342.7 1 2 1.01 1 - 3 1.89 2 10 36.2 325.5 2 - 3 0.92 2 - 4 2.96 3 9 36.7 310.3 3 - 4 1.78 4 10 34.0 287.1 4 - 1 4.02 3rd Generation 1 10 39.5 316.8 1 2 3.71 1 — 3 0.12 2 9 38.2 368.2 2 - 3 4.48 2 - 4 2.95 3 8 38.9 318.6 3 - 4 0.17 4 10 38.7 321.4 4 - 1 0.24 34: Oil Number Used of Rats Average Weight Number of Weeks Start lOtbWeek Statistical Analysis Oils M.D./S.isJ.M.D* Compared 10th Week FEMALES 1st Generation 1 8 43.8 178.0 1 — 2 1.25 1 - 3 1.23 2 7 42.9 185.6 2 - 3 2.86 2 mm 4 2.22 3 8 43.6 170.4 3 - 4 0.15 4 8 43.5 170.5 4 - 1 1.00 2nd Generation 1 10 36.8 174.8 1 - 2 0.54 1 mm 3 1.43 2 10 33.5 178.3 2 - 3 1.88 2 - 4 0.64 3 10 33.5 165.5 3 - 4 1.22 4 10 32.9 173.9 4 - 1 1.34 3rd Generation 1 10 39.8 187.3 1 - 2 0.47 1 - 3 0.72 2 10 39.8 190.4 2 — 3 1.21 2 - 4 0.25 3 8 40.1 182.2 3 - 4 1.57 4 10 39.5 182.9 4 1 0.75 Mean Difference: Standard Error of Mean Difference. When this value exceeds 3, the results are considered signifi cant. TABLE VIII SUMMARY TABLE OF REPRODUCTION AND LACTATION OF MULTI-GENERATION EXPERIMENT Oil Used Body Weight at Mating Number Average of Period Females after Mating Success ful Preg nancies * Urisuccess- Sterile ful Preg nancies or Stillbirths Normal Rats at'• Repro- 21 days duction No. Wt. Surviving" Lactation days % £ gms. X - - - - 1st Generation " - 1 178.0 8 27.6 7 1 00.0 87.5 6.6 38.2 93.9 2 185.6 7 26.1 6 1 00.0 85.7 6.3 34.1 90.4 3 170.4 8 25.8 5 3 00.0 62.5 6.8 33.1 96.4 4 170.5 8 30.2 7 1 00.0 87.5 6.1 31.2 84.0 Ilnd Generation 1 182.6 10 28.0 7 3 00.0 70.0 6.7 42.7 100.0 2 186.4 10 29.0 5 5 00.0 50.0 7.0 38.3 100.0 3 174.5 10 26.2 9 0 10.0 90.0 6.5 36.0 98.4 4 177.0 10 28.5 9 1 00.0 90.0 6.3 34.4 98.4 * A successful pregnancy is recorded if the young are alive at the third day. 36 and medium B complex diets* These diets were used in pre ference to the control diets, as digestibility studies had not been previously determined on definite diets in the introduction* The results are tabulated in Table IX. TABLE IX 3V COEFFICIENT OF DIGESTIBILITY Diet Oil Coefficient of Dige stihility Fat excreted as: Neutral Fat Soap % % Medium Protein Crude 96.9 52.6 47.4 Refined 96.1 60.0 40.0 Blended 94.0 36.6 63.4 Straight 93.2 39.4 60.6 Medium B complex Crude 96.7 52.0 48.0 Refined 97.0 63.6 36.4 Blended 90.5 44.4 55.6 Straight 87.7 37.6 62.4 DISCUSSION In evaluating the data obtained from the animals main tained on the protein deficient diets, it is obvious that the diet containing the lowest amount of protein 6.1$, was just sufficient to maintain the animals, and no more. Their rates of growth and development were arrested, as they were unable to reproduce after ten weeks on their respective diets, at which time normal animals are capable of almost 100$ repro duction. Approximately 71$ of the animals survived the thirty week growth period, with an equal distribution of sur vivors between the sexes. The straight hydrogenated oil supported the best survival, 85$, while the other three oils averaged 67$. Those animals receiving the diet containing 9.1$ pro tein appeared quite normal, as concerns their development. Of the 80$ of both sexes surviving the experimental period, the males were quite normal, but showed a definite decreased growth rate as compared to the normal controls. The survival of the males was excellent, 95$, and as shown in Table V, there was no statistical difference between the four oils used in the diets. This is quite important, as discussed in the review of the literature, for these diets, being defic ient in protein and yet giving rise to almost normal growth, would tend to exert a greater demand on the dietary source 39 of fat. As no difference in growth was observed, it can be concluded that there is no difference in the quality of the fats used with respect to these experimental diets. The growth rate of the females on the medium protein diets, in which 65$ survived the thirty week growth period, also showed no significant difference. In regard to the data on reproduction and lactation, it appears that the blended sample supports reproduction the best, while the crude and refined samples are best for lactation. The straight hydrogenated sample caused the highest percentage sterility, with no surviving young over the twenty-one day weaning period. This would indicate a somewhat decreased efficiency in regard to reproduction and lactation for this oil, although It serves as well as the other oils for growth. The digestibility of the various oils using the medium protein diets was found to lie in the range of optimum diges tibility, from 93$ to 97$. This indicates that there is no difference in the nutritive value of the fats as far as diges- 'tibility is concerned. It was also noted that there was a greater excretion of soaps from the hydrogenated samples than from the crude or refined oil. Although no. significant difference was observed bet ween the males of the 1st generation on the control diets, the blended sample appeared to give rise to a decreased growth rate. This can be partially explained by the death 40 of 50$ of the animals in this group from pneumonia during the nineteenth week of the experiment. The average weight at the fifteenth week of all eight animals was 281 'grams, while the average weight of the four surviving animals at the fifteenth week was only 255 granis. This decrease in-the average weight of 26 grams would explain the significant difference found between the refined and the blended oils at the fifteenth week, as seen in Table VII, and would increase the average weight of the blended oil group at the thirtieth week to a point between the crude and the straight hydrogena ted sample. The females of the 1st generation shov/ed normal growth during the ten week growth period, and no significant diff erence was found between the various oils used. The females on the Ilnd generation of animals on the multi-generation experiment showed very little difference in their average weights during the recorded growth period, and had 100$ survival. The males’ of this generation had 95$ over all survival, but a significant difference was found between the crude oil and the straight hydrogenated sample. The only explanation for this difference is based on the some what poorer lactative ability of the 1st generation females maintained on the diet containing the straight hydrogenated samples. Their young would therefore be slightly below nor mal, and this was probably reflected in the males, whose 41 growth rate was below normal. The females, growing at a slower rate, were able to keep pace with the females on the other diets, and would not appear significantly different. Prom the analysis of the growth data of the males of the Illrd generation, it is evident that an .actual statisti cal difference exists between the animals on the diets con taining the refined oil and those animals whose diets con tained either the crude of the blended samples. This ap parent superiority of the refined oil over the other sam ples is difficult to reconcile with the data on reproduction of the Ilnd generation females. Here, the refined oil gave rise to the poorest reproduction, for there were only 50$ successful pregnancies. This lower percentage of success ful pregnancies and increased growth rate of young may be related, in that through natural selection, only the heal thier litters survived the gestation period, while the others were stillborn or destroyed by their mothers prior to the third day following birth. The female rats of the Illrd generation showed very little difference in growth for the four oils, as only eigjtit grams separated the lightest and heaviest groups. The data on reproduction and lactation of the multi- generation experiment do not permit the choosing of one or two superior oils from the four tested. There are cases where one oil appears better for one particular phase of 42 the reproduction or lactation, but in another generation, the other oils will appear superior in this respect. The results of reproduction show that the blended sample in the 1st generation, and the refined sample in the Ilnd genera tion were the poorest for normal reproduction# Sterility was negligible, as only one female was sterile from the more than seventy animals bred. The straight hydrogenated sample maintained the poorest lactation during the 1st gen eration, while all the oils supported optimal lactation dur ing the Ilnd generation. With both generations, however, the crude oil gave rise to the best growth during the three week weaning period, and this may be due to some growth pro moting factor which may be found in the crude oil. From these results of growth, reproduction, and lacta tion over three generations, with no individual oil showing a consistent supremacy, it must be concluded that all the samples are equally beneficial for maintaining normal growth, reproduction, and lactation on optimum diets. The results obtained from the animals on the medium B complex diets are analyzed in Table V, and very little difference was observed between the four groups of male rats on these diets. These animals showed none of the usual symp toms of a B complex deficiency and appeared normal in all res pects except for a lower growth rate. The females also showed a lower growth rate without an apparent difference between the 43 oils tested. The reproduction on this diet was very poor, with only 30$ of females giving rise to normal reproduction. The blended oil supported reproduction the best,.60$, and caused the lowest sterility, 10$, but since none of the females in any of the four diets were able to support lacta tion, no oil can be accredited superior to any of the others. The animals on the low B complex diets showed all the symptoms of a multiple vitamin B deficiency. They exhibited alopecia, convulsions, tendency to walk on toes, roundness of lumbosacral region of spine, and porphyrin-stained fur and whiskers. The thirty-eight females on these diets gave rise to only one successful pregnancy, and 92$ of them proved to be sterile. All of the deficiency symptoms continued to manifest themselves until approximately the fourteenth week, when the animals on the crude peanut oil diet suddenly and inexplic ably began to show definite weight gains and then disappear ance of deficiency symptoms. Within a week the animals re ceiving the other oils on the low B complex diets also began to gain weight and otherwise appear normal. This situation persisted for seven *to ten weeks after the onset of the rapid weight gain, and after reaching a maximum the animals lost weight very rapidly. These animals, after their weight gain, demonstrated very severe vitamin deficiency symptoms, even to a greater degree than before their unexplained growth period. To explain this phenomenon, there are several fac tors which may have caused the stimulation of growth, ^he possibility of ‘ an error in the preparation of the diet was suspected, but -at the diets were made up individually, and growth stimulation was noted in all four diets, this was eliminated. No new dietary component was introduced at this time, so it seems improbable that the growth stimulating factor was from an exogenous source. If this is the case, then the stimulus must have been of an endogenous nature, and could be explained on the basis of a temporary refec tion. Fridericia <et al. (2 1) first showed that rats main tained on a vitamin B complex free diet containing a large percentage of rice starch were able to grow normally, ^he presence of the starch in the diet enhances the synthesis of vitamins by various microorganisms in the intestine, particularly~in the cecum. Refection was shown to occur spontaneously, but was greatly augmented when the rats were placed in common cages, and not isolated." This bears out the present experimental results, for refection did not occur until after they had been mated and then placed in common cages. Once refection has begun, it has been shown to be very readily transmitted (26) to rats in neighboring cages. However, by the use of sulfa drugs bacterial syn thesis of the B complex vitamin can be eliminated, and the 45 growth-promoting quality of the fats can be determined with out this added factor to be taken into consideration. Even with this temporary refection, there was no significant dif ference between the oils used. The digestibility of the four oils was determined on the male animals of the medium B complex diets. The digest ibilities of the two hydrogenated samples appeared slightly below that found in the literature, but soaps were also de termined in these samples, and previous experiments based digestibility on the.neutral fat excretion alone. It,was interesting to note, that with a mildly deficient B complex diet as well as the moderately deficient protein diet, a greater percentage of fat is excreted as soaps from the hyd rogenated samples than from the crude or refined oils. Fur ther studies are being planned to investigate these phenomena. SUMMARY Over a period of three generations no consistent diff erences have been found in growth and reproduction using optimum diets with either a crude peanut oil, refined peanut oil, blended hydrogenated peanut oil, or a straight hydrogenated peanut oil, as the sole source of dietary fat. Growth rate of animals on a moderate deficiency of pro teins showed no marked differences for the above men tioned oils over the thirty week period. A severe protein deficiency gave rise to only limited but equal growth for the oils tested, and was at too low a level to support reproduction. A mildly deficient B complex diet showed no difference in the nutritive value of the four oils tested, as deter mined by growth rates. Reproduction was supported poorly by all the oils, although the blended sample most closely approached normal. Animals receiving a diet severely deficient in the B complex exhibited a very large growth stimulation at approximately the fifteenth week on the experimental diet, which is believed due to a temporary refection. Digestibilities of the fats have been determined on the two moderately deficient diets, and were found to lie in the optimum range (93-97$) for the protein deficient diet, 47 and slightly below optimum (88-97$) for the vitamin defic ient diet* BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Ahmad, B. and A. N. Bahl, J. ^cl. and Ind. Res., 5B:1, 1946 2. Augur, V., Rollman, H» S., and Deuel, J., Jr., J. Nut rition, 35s177, 1947 3. Basu, P. and Nath, H. P., Indian J« Med. Res., 34:19, - 1945 4. Bhak Rao, V. R., Venkatappish, D. and Anantakrishmen, G. P., Indian J. Vet. Scl., 17:221, 1947 5. Boer, J., Jansen, B. C. p. and Kentie, A., J. Nutrition, 33:339, 1947 6. Boer, J., Groot, E. H. and Jansen, B, C. P., Voeding, 9:60, 3.948; Chem. Abst. 42:7847d, 1948 7. Burr, G. 0. and Burr, M. M., J. Biol. Chem., 82:345, 1929 8. Burr, G. 0., Burr, M. M and Miller, E. s., J. Biol. Chem., 97:1, 1932 9. Deuel, H, j., Jr., J. Nutrition, 32:69, 1946 10. Deuel, H. J., Jr., J. Nutrition, (In press) 1950 11. Deuel, H. J., Jr., Greenberg, S. M., Straub, E. E., Jue, D., Gooding, C. M. and Brown, C. F*, J. Nutri tion, 35:301, 1948 12. Deuel, H. J., Jr., Hallman, L. F. and Leonard, A., J. Nu trition, 20:215, 1940 13. Deuel, H. J., Jr., Hallman, L. F, and Movitt, E., J. Nut rition, 29:309, 1945 49 14. Deuel, H. J., Jr. and Holmes, A. D.# U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull., 1033, 1922 15. Deuel, H. J., Jr., Meserve, E. R., Straub, E. E., Hen drick, C. and Scheer, B. T., J. Hutrition, 33:569, 1947 16. Deuel, H. J., Jr., Movitt, E., Hallman, B. F. and Matt son, F., J. Hutrition. 27:107, 1944 17. Euler, B. v., Euler, H. V. and Linderman, A., Arkiv Eemi. Mineral. Geol., 26: No. 3, 1948 H CD • Forbes, E. B ., Swift, R. W., Black, A. and Kahlenberg, 0 . J. , J. Nutrition, 10:461, 1935 19. Forbes, E. B., Swift, £. W., Elliott, R. F. and James, W. H. , J. Nutrition, 31:203, 1946 2 0. Forbes, E. B., Swift, R. W., Elliott, R. F. and James, w. H. , J. Nutrition, 31:213, 1946 21. Fridericia, L. S., Freudenthal, P., Gudjonnsson, S., Johansen, G. and Schoubye, H., J. Hyg., 27:70, 1928 22. Hartwell, G. A., Biochem. J., 32:462, 1938 23. Holmes, A. d. and Deuel, H. j., J r . , Am. J. Physiol., 54:479, 1921 24. Irwin, M. H., Weber, J., Steenbock, H. and Godfrey, T. M., Am. J. Physiol., 124:800, 1938 25. Kehar, N. D., Summary of Extension Scheme Submitted to Animal Nutrition Committee of I.C.A.R., 1946-1947 26. 27. 28. 29. 50. 31. 52. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 50 Kon, P. M., Kon, S. K. and Mattick, A. T. r ., J. Hyg. 38:1, 1938 Krishna Murti, C. R. and Subrahmanyan, V., Indian J. Med. Res., 37:33,' 1949 Langworthy, G. P., Ind. Eng. Chem., 15:276, 1923 Liebenthal,-F. and Adolph,. W. H., J. Chinese Chem. Soc., 15:161, 1948; Chem. Abst., 73931, 1948 Mattil, K. S., Oil and Soap, 23:544, 1946 Mattil, K. S. and Higgins, J. W., J. Nutrition, 29:255, , 1945 McCoy, R. H., J. Biol. Chem., 133:lxiv, 1940 Nath, H,, Barki, V. H., Elvehjem, C. A. and Hart, E. B., J. Nutrition, 36:761, 1948 Nhavi, N. G. and Patwardhan, V. N., Indian J. Med. Res., 34:49, 1946 Osborne, T. B. and Mendel, L. B., J. Biol. Chem. 37:557, 1919 Patwardhan, V. N., J. Sei. Ind. Res., 7:253, 1948 Pekelharing, C. H. and Schut, -W., Pharm. Weekblad, 53:769, 1916; Chem. Abst., 2758, 1916 Hay, S. u. and Pal, J. K., Science and Culture, 12:494, 1947 Roscoe, M. H., Biochem. J., 25:2056, 1931 Schantz, E. J., Elvehjem, C. A. and Hart, E. B., J. Dairy Sci., 23:181, 1940 51 41. Scheer, B. T., Codie, J. F. and Deuel, H. j., Jr., J. Nut rition. 33:641, 1947 42. Scheer, B. T., Dorst, S., Codie, J. F. and Soule, D. p., Am. J. Phy3iol., 149:194, 1947 43. Scheer, B. T., Straub, S. E., Fields, M., Meserve, E. R., Hendrick, C. and Deuel, H. J., Jr., J. Nutrition, 34:581, 1947 44. Steenbock, H., Irwin, M. H. and Weber, J., J. 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Creator Krinsky, Norman Irving (author)

Core Title The nutritional value of hydrogenated fats in diets as influenced by suboptimal levels of protein or vitamin B complex

Degree Master of Science

Degree Program Biochemistry and Nutrition

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Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c17-777247

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