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Conceptions Of Physical Education In Twentieth Century America : Rosalindcassidy

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Conceptions Of Physical Education In Twentieth Century America : Rosalindcassidy

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Content This di— rtition has bean iBlcroffimed exactly u n n iv w l 66-8778 CALDWELL, Stratton Franklin, 1926- CONCEPTIONS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN TWENTIETH CENTURY AMERICA: ROSALIND CASSIDY* University of Southern California, Ph.D„ 1966 Education, physical University Microfilms, Inc.. Ann Arbor. Michigan CONCEPTIONS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN TWENTIETH CENTURY AMERICA: ROSALIND CASSIDY by S t r a tt o n F ra n k lin C ald w ell A D is s e r ta tio n P re s e n te d to th e / FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In P a r t i a l F u lf illm e n t o f th e R equirem ents f o r th e D egree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n ) June 1966 UNIVERSITY O F SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA THK ORADUATt •CHCXH. UNIVKMITV PARR LOR ANOUXa, CALIFORNIA * 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, written by ...............5JtcaJttjoa.JExAnisllJDi.Caldw.cU................ under the direction of hi*.. Dissertation Com mittee, and approved by ail its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of D O C TO R OF P H IL O SO P H Y Date t.J. 9.6 6 DISSERTATION COMMITTEE / / E x is te n tia l h is to r y commands th e h i s t o r i a n , s e t s lim its to h is fre e ranging im ag in atio n . . . by rem inding him th a t th e c la s s ic ev en ts o f h is to r y have an independent l i f e o f t h e i r own; i t d e a ls w ith man in th e c o n c re te f u lln e s s o f h is e x i s t e n t i a l s i t u a t i o n , in a c tio n , a t th e h e ig h t of h is pow ers, and i t imposes on th e h is to r ia n the o b lig a tio n to be f a it h f u l to th e a u th e n tic e v e n ts . —Page Smith and d e sig n " TABLE O F CONTENTS C h ap ter Page PART I . INTRODUCTION I . INTRODUCTION......................................................................... 2 I n tr o d u c tio n to th e S t u d y ......................................... 2 The P u r p o s e ......................................................................... 4 The P roblem ........................................................... 4 The H ypotheses • • . • . i • • • 5 A ssum ptions U nderlying th e S t u d y ....................... . 5 S o u rces o f D a t a ................................................................ 6 P r o c e d u r e ............................................................................. 8 L im ita tio n s of th e Study ......................................12 D e f in itio n s of Terms • 14 R e la te d L i t e r a t u r e .................................................................16 O rg a n iz a tio n o f th e S t u d y .............................................. 22 PART I I . BIOGRAPHY I I . ROSALIND CASSIDY: LIFE A N D T IM E S .............................25 The F o rm ativ e Y ears ( 1 8 9 5 - 1 9 1 8 ) .................................25 D evelopm ents in p h y s ic a l tra in in g * h e a lth * and r e c r e a t i o n ...............................................25 R o s a lin d C assid y : Childhood* youth* a n d e d u c a tio n • • • • • . • • • • • • • • 28 i v C hapter Page H ill* C o lla g e: P h y sic a l E d u ca tio n ( 1 9 1 8 - 1 9 3 9 ) ........................... 30 Developments in p h y s ic a l, h e a l t h , and r e c r e a tio n e d u c a t i o n ............................................30 P ro fe s s io n a l le a d e rs h ip : M ills C o lleg e . 34 P ro fe s s io n a l developm ent • • « . • • • • • 35 C a m p in g ....................................................................... 37 M ajor p u b l i c a t i o n s ................................................ 39 P ro fe s s io n a l s e r v ic e • • .................................. 41 M ills C o lle g e : E ducation (1939-1947) . . . . 41 Development in p h y s ic a l, h e a l t h , and re c re a tio n e d u c a tio n 41 E d u c a tio n a l le a d e rs h ip : M ills C ollege • • 42 M ajor p u b l i c a t i o n s ................................................ 43 P ro fe s s io n a l s e r v ic e ........................ • . . • . 46 U n iv e rsity o f C a lif o r n ia , Los A ngeles ( 1 9 4 7 - 1 9 6 2 ) ..................................................................... 46 Developments in p h y s ic a l, h e a l t h , and r e c r e a tio n e d u c a t i o n ............................................46 P ro fe s s io n a l le a d e rs h ip : U n iv e rsity of C a lif o r n ia , Los A n g e l e s .............................. 48 M ajor p u b l i c a t i o n s .................................................49 P ro fe s s io n a l s e r v ic e .............................................. 51 R etirem en t Y ears (1962- ) ..................................... 52 Developments in p h y s ic a l, h e a lt h , and re c re a tio n e d u c a tio n .............................52 P ro fe s s io n a l a c t i v i t y .......................................... 53 M ajor p u b l i c a t i o n s ................................................ 54 v C h ap ter Page P ro fe s s io n a l s e rv ic e . . . . . . . . . . . 55 S u m m a ry .......................................................................................55 PART I I I . FOUNDATIONS I I I . THE INDIVIDUAL A N D THE ENVIRONMENT.............................. 58 The Y ears 1920-1929 58 The Y ears 1930-1939 60 The Y ears 1 9 4 0 - 1 9 4 9 ........................................................... 62 The Y ears 1950-1959 65 The Y ears 1960-1965 66 S u m m a ry .......................... 68 IV. C H A N G E IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY ENVIRONM ENT . 71 The Y ears 1920-1929 71 The Y ears 1930-1939 72 The Y ears 1 9 4 0 - 1 9 4 9 ........................................................... 73 The Y ears 1950-1959 74 The Y ears 1960-1965 75 Summary ............................................. . . . . . . . . 76 V. A PHILOSOPHY OF DEMOCRACY................................................78 The Y ears 1920-1929 78 The Y ears 1930-1939 79 The Y ears 1 9 4 0 - 1 9 4 9 ...........................................................79 The Y ears 1950-1959 • • • • • ................................ 80 The Y ears 1960-1965 81 S u m m a ry ....................................................................................... 82 vi C hapter Page VI. THE FEM ALE IN THE CULTURAL SETTING............................. 8H The Y ears 1920-1929 8U The Y ears 1930-1939 85 The Y ears 1 9 * tO -1 9 H 9 ..............................................................87 The Y ears 1950-1959 89 The Y ears 1960-1965 90 S u m m a ry ................................................................ 91 V II. EDUCATION....................................................................................9H The Y ears 1920-1929 9 t The Y ears 1930-1939 97 The Y ears 19> fO -19U 9............................................................101 The Y ears 1950-1959 105 The Y ears 1960-1965 110 S u m m a ry ..................................................................................112 PART IV . PHYSICAL EDUCATION V III. PHYSICAL EDUCATION: PERSPECTIVE A N D M EANING . 117 The Y ears 1920-1929 117 The Y ears 1930-19 39 • • • •• •. . • • •. • 120 The Y ears 19*»0-19*»9............................................................123 The Y ears 1950-1959 126 The Y ears 1960-1965 130 Summary • « . • • ............................ . . . . . . . 132 IX. PHYSICAL EDUCATION: PR O G R A M PERSPECTIVE A N D MEANING............................................................................ 135 The Y ears 1920-1929 135 v i i C hapter X. XI. X II. Page The Year* 1930-1939 137 The Yeare 1 9 4 0 - 1 9 4 9 ...........................................................1H0 The Y ears 1950-1959 142 The Y ears 1960-1965 144 S u m m a ry ....................................................................................145 PHYSICAL EDUCATION: PR O G R A M EXPERIENCES . . . 148 The Y ears 1920-1929 148 The Y ears 1930-1939 149 The Y ears 1940-1949 151 The Y ears 1950-1959 154 The Y ears 1960-1965 156 Summary . . . . ......................................... . . . . . 157 PHYSICAL EDUCATION: CURRICULUM DEVELOPM ENT . 160 The Y ears 1920-1929 160 The Y ears 1930-1939 161 The Y ears 1940-1949 163 The Yeare 1950-1959 164 The Y ears 1960-1965 166 S u m m a ry ....................................................................................168 PHYSICAL EDUCATION: THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS . . 171 The Y ears 1920-1929 171 The Y ears 1930-1939 173 The Y ears 1940-1949 175 The Y ears 1950-1959 • • • • • • • 178 The Y ears 1960-1965 181 v i i i C h a p te r Page X I I I . PHYSICAL EDUCATION: THE TEACHER................ 185 The Y ears 1920-1929 185 The Y ears 1930-1939 186 The Y ears 1 9 H 0 - 1 9 1 9 ..............................................................187 The Y ears 1950-1959 189 The Y ears 1960-1965 191 S u n s a r y ....................................................................................192 XIV. PHYSICAL EDUCATION: TEACHER PREPARATION . . . 195 The Y ears 1920-1929 195 The Y ears 1930-1939 197 The Y ears 1 9 U 0 - 1 9 ^ 9 ..............................................................198 The Y ears 1950-1959 199 The Y ears 1960-1965 202 S u m a a r y .................................................................................203 XV. PHYSICAL EDUCATION: ATHLETIC COMPETITION . . 206 The Y ears 1920-1929 206 The Y ears 19 30-1939 207 The Y ears 19U0-1 9 4 9 .......................................................... 20 8 The Y ears 1950-1959 209 The Y ears 1960-1965 211 S u a u a a r y .............................................. .....................................212 PART V. RELATED AREAS XVI. RECREATION EDUCATION: PERSPECTIVE A N D M EANING....................................................................... 215 The Y ears 1920-1929 216 Chapter Page The Yeare 1930-1939 ...................................................... 218 The Yeare 1 9 4 0 - 1 9 4 9 ............................................................220 The Yeare 1950-1959 • ••.••. ••. •. . 222 The Yeare 1960-1965 . . . * ...................................... 225 S u m m a ry ............................................................................. 226 XVII. HEALTH EDUCATION: PERSPECTIVE A N D M EANING . . 229 The Yeare 1920-1929........................................................ 229 The Yeare 1930-1939............................................... 231 The Yeare 1 9 4 0 - 1 9 4 9 ............................................................233 The Yeare 1950-1959........................................................235 The Yeare 1960-1965........................................................ 238 S u m m a ry ............................................................................. 239 PART V I. FINDINGS XVIII. FINDINGS...............................................................................242 R osalind C assid y : B io g ra p h ic a l D ata .............. 243 R osalind C assid y : P ro fe s s io n a l Id e as . . . . 245 The Y ears 1920-1929 245 The Y ears 1930-1939 250 The Y ears 1940-1949 255 The Y ears 1950-1959 . . . . . . ................... 261 The Y ears 1960-1965 267 PART V II. SU M M A RY , CONCLUSIONS, A N D RECO M M END A TIO NS XIX. SU M M A R Y , CONCLUSIONS, A N D RECO M M EN DA TIO NS . . 273 C hapter Page The Problem ..............................................................273 The H ypotheses • • • • • • • • .................................. 27U A ssum ptions U nderlying th e S t u d y ................................. 27*f P rocedure . . . . . ........................................................ 275 L im ita tio n s o f th e S t u d y .................................................277 Summary o f th e F indings ...............................279 S y n th e sis o f th e F indings . ..................................... 28*» C o n c l u s i o n s .......................................................................285 Recommendations f o r F u rth e r S t u d y .......................... 286 BIBLIOGRAPHY • . . ...........................................................................287 APPENDIX...................................................................................................... 315 x i PART I INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The v alu e o f h i s t o r y * th e n , is t h a t i t te a c h e s us what man has done and th u s w hat man i s . —R. G. C ollingw ood In tro d u c tio n to th e Study Nan th ro u g h o u t th e ages has a tte m p te d t o c h ro n ic le and p o rtra y in w r itte n re c o rd s phenomena, i n s t i t u t i o n s , and in d iv id u a ls a l t e r i n g , m oving, and sh ap in g th e co u rse o f human e x p e rie n c e . The in t e r p r e ta tio n s made and m eanings d e riv e d th e re fro m have v a rie d in ac co rd w ith what th e n a r r a t o r p e rc e iv e d and tra n s c rib e d f o r p o s t e r i t y . The re c o rd in g o f p a s t and p re se n t o c c u rre n c e s , th e p r e d ic tio n o f what may be ahead based upon u n d e rsta n d in g o f th e p a s t , and th e se a rc h f o r know ledge, m eaning, and u n d e rsta n d in g a re woven i n t o th e f a b r ic o f th a t which has been i d e n t i f i e d as h i s t o r y . As th e h i s t o r i a n in v e s tig a te s and a n a ly z e s p a s t and p re s e n t in o rd e r to id e n tif y th re a d s t h a t may p ro v id e i n s ig h t in to th e f u tu r e , he seeks t o d is c o v e r m eaning and u n d e rsta n d in g , and a tte m p ts to re v e a l th e t r u t h . An 2 3 ex a m in atio n o f th e many dim ensions o f man w ith in th e s t r u c tu r e o f s o c ie ty m ust be p a r t i c u l a r l y s e n s i t i v e t o th e a s c e rta in m e n t o f t r u t h . The im p o rtan ce o f exam ining contem porary in d iv id u a l a c tio n in th e se a rc h f o r t r u t h was em phasized by Page Sm ith in h is t r e a t i s e , The H is to ria n and H is to r y ; I n d iv id u a ls in h is to r y a c h ie v e a u th e n tic ity through t h e i r a c ti o n s , and h i s t o r i a n s can n o t a r b i t r a r i l y de p riv e th e s e liv e s o f t h e i r m eanings by judgem ents im posed lo n g a f t e r th e e v e n t. T hat we sh o u ld e v e r have a c c e p te d any c o n v e n tio n w hich h e ld th e c o n tra ry i s m o n stro u s• W e may exam ine, c r i t i c i z e , a n a ly z e , and pass judgem ent upon th e a c to r s in th e s e e v e n ts . W e may s c r u ti n i z e t h e i r m otives and s p e c u la te upon th e s i n c e r i t y o f t h e i r a im s, b u t we must a c c e p t th e " c o n c e p tu a l framework" w h ic h , i n t h e i r view , gave m eaning to t h e i r a c tio n s . (*♦3:2061--------------------- A lim ite d amount o f re s e a rc h in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n h as been fo c u se d upon th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and ex am in atio n o f th e id e a s and a c tio n s o f th o s e in d iv id u a ls who, assum edly, have in flu e n c e d th e c o u rse o f tw e n tie th c e n tu ry p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n . Don A. V e lle r , in a stu d y o f notew orthy people i n h e a l t h , p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n , and r e c r e a ti o n , p o in te d o u t t h a t " i t i s r a t h e r s a f e t o assume t h a t most o f th e em phasis upon th e stu d y o f p eo p le in th e f i e l d , . • • has been upon th e n o n -c o n te m p o ra rie s" (3 0 6 :1 ). He in d ic a te d t h a t " to o l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n h as been given to • • • co n tem p o ra ries" ( 3 0 6 :1 ) , and deduced t h a t "one o f th e b a s ic re a so n s f o r th e la c k o f em phasis upon the co n tem p o raries o f note , i s th a t to o l i t t l e c o n c re te ev id en ce i s a v a ila b le f o r id e n tif y in g th e se people" (3 0 6 :1 ). In an a r t i c l e w r itte n i n 1959, e n t i t l e d "Rescue Our R ecords," Deobold Van Dalen s a id t h a t " r e g r e tta b ly , some p io n eers in our p ro fe ssio n have a lre a d y s lip p e d s i l e n t l y from th e scene w ith o u t anyone k eep in g a re c o rd o f t h e i r work" (1 8 5 :3 9 ). An in v ita tio n t o conduct re se a rc h o f t h i s n a tu re in p h y sic a l ed u c atio n was te n d e re d by th e h i s t o r i a n , Thomas Woody, in 1947. He in d ic a te d t h a t " i n s t i t u t i o n s , move m ents, men and women a s s o c ia te d w ith th e developm ent o f play and p h y sic a l e d u c a tio n , a re w a itin g f o r an h i s t o r i c in te rv ie w " (1 9 0 :1 8 ). The Purpose The purpose o f t h i s stu d y was to b rin g to g e th e r and c la r if y f o r re a d e rs th e m ajor id e a s o f a contem porary phys i c a l ed u catio n le a d e r in tw e n tie th ce n tu ry Am erica. The Problem The problem was t o i d e n t i f y , c l a r i f y , and c o lla te th e m ajor p ro fe s s io n a l id e a s o f R osalind C assid y . E ssen t i a l to an u n d ersta n d in g o f th e s e id e a s was th e developm ent o f th e fo llo w in g m a te r ia ls : 1. A b io g ra p h ic a l exam ination s e t w ith in th e framework o f h i s t o r i c change and developm ent in h e a lt h , p h y s ic a l, and r e c r e a tio n e d u c a tio n from th e tim e o f R o salin d C a ssid y 's b i r t h in 189S u n t i l th e te rm in a l d a te o f th e s tu d y , 1965. 2. An i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f co n cep ts com prising th e fo u n d atio n from which R o salin d C a s s id y 's co n cep tio n s o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n were d e riv e d and d eveloped. 3. A p re s e n ta tio n and exam ination o f id e a s o f t h i s le a d e r which r e l a t e to p h y s ic a l, r e c r e a tio n , and h e a lth e d u c a tio n . The H ypotheses The stu d y was founded on th e framework o f th e f o l low ing h y p o th eses which were d e riv e d from a p re lim in a ry in v e s t ig a t io n o f R o salin d C a ssid y 's docum ents: 1. A c o n s is te n t p a tte r n o f id e a s perm eated the w ritin g s o f R o salin d C assidy th ro u g h o u t h e r p ro fe s s io n a l l i f e , 1920-1965. 2. These id e a s have been c o n tin u o u sly c l a r i f i e d and expanded in h e r w ritin g s in p h y s ic a l, r e c r e a tio n , and h e a lth e d u c a tio n . A ssum ptions U nderlyintt th e Study B asic to th e stu d y were th e fo llo w in g assu m p tio n s: 1. Id e as i d e n t i f i e d f o r purposes o f ex am in atio n c o n s titu te th e c e n tr a l p a tte r n s o f p r o f e s s io n a l b e l i e f o f R osalind C assid y . 2 . R o sa lin d C assid y i s a re c o g n iz e d le a d e r in th e f i e l d o f tw e n tie th c e n tu ry p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n . 3 . A u th o rsh ip o f a re c o rd e d document* w hether s in g ly o r in c o lla b o r a tio n w ith o th e rs* i s r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f th e th in k in g o f th e in d iv id u a l in v o lv e d . **. I t i s p o s s ib le * i f th e r e i s a s u f f i c i e n t volume o f w ritin g * t o i s o l a t e th e id e a s o f one a u th o r when w r itin g in c o lla b o r a tio n w ith o th e r s . 5. The r e s e a rc h m ethodology and p ro ced u res u t i l iz e d in t h i s stu d y w ere a p p r o p ria te and v a l i d . 6 . A r e p r e s e n ta tio n o f i d e a ti o n a l c o n siste n c y w ith in th e w orks o f R o salin d C assidy may be i d e n t i f i e d in th e fo llo w in g tim e p e rio d s : 1920-1929; 1930-1939; 19U0-1949; 1950-1959; 1960-1965. S o u rces o f D ata The p rim ary s o u rc e s o f d a ta w ere w r itte n and o r a l docum ents c o n ta in in g th e id e a s o f R o salin d C assidy o r p ro v id in g in fo rm a tio n ab o u t R o salin d C assidy* th e p erso n . These docum ents in c lu d e d books * book review s * handbooks * pam phlets* b ro c h u res* d ir e c to r ie s * d ig e s ts * guides* ab s t r a c t s * p e r io d ic a ls * p e r io d ic a l a r t i c l e s , b io g ra p h ie s* d i s s e r t a t i o n s * th e s e s * p ro je c ts * m onographs, m anuals* s y l l a b i * a d d re s s e s * c o rre sp o n d e n c e , in te rv ie w s * yearbooks * 7 n ew sp a p ers, i n d i c e s , m ic ro c a rd s , m ic ro film s , te le g r a m s , p i c t u r e s , c a ta lo g u e s , te rm p a p e r s , r e p o r t s , p ro c e e d in g s , c la s s m a t e r i a l s , b u l l e t i n s , m a n u s c r ip ts , and m is c e lla n e o u s u n p u b lish e d p e rs o n a l m a te r ia l o f R o sa lin d C a ssid y . An o u tl in e o f p e r s o n a l and p r o f e s s io n a l b io g ra p h i c a l d a ta d ev elo p ed by R o sa lin d C assid y o v e r th e y e a rs was a c e n tr a l re fe re n c e so u rc e i n t h i s s tu d y . T h is document c o n ta in e d in fo rm a tio n a b o u t th e e d u c a tio n a l b ac k g ro u n d , p u b lic a tio n s , p r o f e s s io n a l e x p e r ie n c e , p r o f e s s io n a l a c t i v i t i e s , p r o f e s s io n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , p r o f e s s io n a l a f f i l i a tio n s , te a c h in g c r e d e n t i a l s , d e g r e e s , h o n o rs , and r e c o g n itio n s acco rd ed R o s a lin d C a ss id y . Open a c c e ss t o a l l o f R o sa lin d C a s s id y 's p e rs o n a l m a te r ia ls a t th e U n iv e r s ity o f C a li f o r n i a a t Los A n g e le s, and numerous ta p e re c o rd e d in te r v ie w s w ith R o sa lin d C assidy and h e r p r o f e s s io n a l c o lle a g u e s , b o th a t th e U n iv e r s ity o f C a lif o r n ia a t Los A ngeles and M ills C o lle g e , w ere e s s e n t i a l t o th e developm ent o f th e s tu d y . Edward H a l l e t t C a rr, E n g lish h i s t o r i a n , in d ic a te d th e im p o rtan ce o f i n t e r a c t i o n betw een th e h i s t o r i a n and h i s s u b je c t by p o in tin g o u t t h a t " h is to r y can n o t be w r it te n u n le s s th e h i s t o r i a n can a c h ie v e some k in d o f c o n ta c t w ith th e minds o f th o s e a b o u t whom he i s w r itin g " ( 7 :2 7 ) . Such c o n ta c t was made p o s s ib le t o th e i n v e s t i g a t o r . G en eral and s p e c i f i c d a ta w ere s e c u re d from th e U n d erg rad u ate L ib r a r y , G rad u ate R esearch L ib r a r y , E d u c a tio n 8 L ib ra ry , and P h y sic a l E ducation L ib rary a t th e U n iv e rsity o f C a lifo rn ia a t Los A ngeles. An e x te n siv e amount of m a te ria l was d isco v ered in th e lib r a r y a t M ills C o lle g e , O akland, C a lif o r n ia , and some a d d itio n a l in fo rm atio n was o b tain ed from th e lib r a r y o f th e U n iv e rsity of Southern C a lif o r n ia , lo c a te d in Los A ngeles, C a lifo rn ia . The p e rso n a l documents o f R osalind C assid y , lo c a te d in h e r o f f ic e a t th e U n iv e rsity o f C a lifo rn ia a t Los Angeles and h e r home in West Los A ngeles, were made a v a ila b le f o r re se a rc h purposes to th e in v e s tig a to r fo r t h i s stu d y . P a r tic u la r ly h e lp fu l re fe re n c e s which were u t i l i z e d in c o n s tru c tin g and d esig n in g th is study were found in th e works o f Sherman (30*0 and F elsh in (288) in p h y sic a l edu c a tio n , M artin (37) and Hagenhoff (25) in p h ilo so p h y , and F la v e ll (22) in psychology. Procedure Data c o lle c tio n , exam ination, and a n a ly s is began w ith a p re lim in a ry in v e s tig a tio n , th e purpose o f which was to id e n tif y R osalind C a ssid y 's m ajor id e a s and to seek in fo rm atio n about h e r p ro fe s s io n a l l i f e . At th is tim e a l l a v a ila b le w ritte n reso u rce m a te ria l was in v e s tig a te d and e x te n siv e ta p e recorded in te rv ie w s w ith R osalind C assidy were conducted. A fte r t h i s prim ary endeavor was com pleted, th e o v e r a ll desig n o f th e study was developed. 9 Follow ing th e i n i t i a l in v e s tig a tio n , an in te n s iv e se a rc h f o r d a ta was u n d erta k en . A p o rta b le dry photo copying machine made p o s s ib le th e c o lle c tio n o f p erso n a l w orking co p ies o f w r itte n docum entary so u rc e s. In fo rm atio n th a t co u ld n o t be reproduced was tra n s c rib e d upon f iv e - by e ig h t-in c h n o te -ta k in g forms designed fo r th is stu d y . Com p le te b ib lio g r a p h ic a l in fo rm a tio n was recorded on f iv e - by e ig h t-in c h forms f o r each document u t i l i z e d . R e su lts o f a q u e st f o r b io g ra p h ic a l in form ation about R o salin d C assidy in d ic a te d th a t th e re were fiv e m ajor p e rio d s o f p e rso n a l and p ro fe s s io n a l developm ent which should be c o n sid e re d . The y ears o f ch ild h o o d , ad o lesc en ce, and e a r ly p ro fe s s io n a l m a tu rity (1895-1918) s ig n if ie d th e "fo rm ativ e y e a r s ." The tim e sp e n t a t M ills C o lle g e, Oak la n d , C a lif o r n ia , in th e departm ent o f p h y sic a l ed u catio n (1918-1939), c o n s titu te d th e second m ajor p e rio d . The t h i r d o c c u rre d from 1939 u n t i l 19U7 when R osalind Cassidy was Convenor o f th e School o f E ducation a t M ills C o lle g e, and i d e n t i f i e d w ith th e g e n e ra l f i e l d of ed u c a tio n . A re tu r n to th e f i e l d o f p h y s ic a l ed u c atio n occu rred in th e fo u rth p e rio d (19U7-1962) when R osalind C assidy l e f t M ills C ollege to a c c e p t new r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s in the departm ent o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n a t th e U n iv e rsity o f C a lifo rn ia a t Los A ngeles. The f i f t h p e rio d was i d e n ti f ie d as th e e ra o f " re tire m e n t ," and follow ed th e c a re e r o f R osalind C assidy 10 a f t e r re tire m e n t from th e U n iv e rsity o f C a lifo rn ia a t Los Angeles in 1962 u n t i l th e te rm in a l y e a r o f th e stu d y , 1965. In co n ju n ctio n w ith th e fiv e tim e p e rio d s , an h i s t o r i c a l overview o f m ajor changes and developm ents in th e f ie ld s o f p h y s ic a l, h e a lth , and re c re a tio n ed u catio n was made in o rd e r t o p lace th e l i f e o f R osalind C assidy more c le a r ly in r e la tio n s h ip to th e changing tim e s. ' During th e process o f id e n tif ic a tio n and examina tio n o f R osalind C a ssid y 's m ajor id eas in p h y sic a l edu c a tio n and th e r e la te d a r e a s , i t was n ecessary to id e n tif y , develop, c l a r i f y , and v e r if y th e co n cep tu al g e s t a l t from which th e se id e a s were drawn, developed, and extended. This m a te ria l i s p re se n te d in fiv e o f th e e ig h teen ch a p te rs of th e stu d y : (1) th e in d iv id u a l and th e environm ent, (2) change in th e tw e n tie th cen tu ry environm ent, (3) a philosophy o f dem ocracy, (*t) th e fem ale in th e c u ltu r a l s e t t i n g , and (5) ed u c atio n . Follow ing th e b io g ra p h ic a l in v e s tig a tio n and th e d eterm in atio n o f th e fo u n d a tio n a l g e s t a lt o f th e p re se n t stu d y , a f u r th e r in v e s tig a tio n o f th e d a ta re v e a le d th a t the m ajor id eas o f R osalind C assidy could be id e n tif ie d in ten broad a re a s : (1) p h y sic a l e d u c a tio n : p e rsp e c tiv e and m eaning, (2) p h y sic a l e d u c a tio n : program p e rsp e c tiv e and m eaning, (3) p h y sic a l e d u c a tio n : program e x p e rie n c e s, (**) p h y sic a l ed u c atio n : cu rricu lu m developm ent, (5) phys i c a l ed u c a tio n : th e e d u c a tiv e p ro c e s s , (6) p h y sic a l 11 e d u c a tio n : th e te a c h e r , (7) p h y sic a l e d u c a tio n : te a c h e r p re p a r a tio n , (8) p h y sic a l e d u c a tio n : a t h l e t i c c o m p e titio n , (9) re c r e a tio n e d u c a tio n : p e rsp e c tiv e and m eaning, and (10) h e a lth e d u c a tio n : p e rsp e c tiv e and m eaning. A f u r th e r exam ination o f th e concepts o f R osalind C assidy in d ic a te d th a t co n siste n c y o f m ajor id e a s could be most m eaningfully i d e n ti f i e d and examined w ith in th e fram e work o f fiv e tim e p e rio d s . The p e rio d s w ere s ig n i f i e d in th e fo llo w in g fa sh io n : 1920-1929; 1930-1939; 19U0-19U9; 1950-1959; 1960-1965. Each o f th e above tim e p e rio d s was re p re s e n te d by a t l e a s t one m ajor w ritte n c o n trib u tio n in book form , and o fte n more. The decade o f th e tw e n tie s cu lm in ated w ith th e p u b lic a tio n o f The New P h y sic a l E ducation in 1927, th e f i r s t m ajor w ritin g e f f o r t o f R osalind C assid y , which was a c o o p e ra tiv e v en tu re w ith Thomas D. Wood, The 1930's were d is tin g u is h e d by th e s u c c e s s fu l com pletion o f R osalind C a s s id y 's d o c to ra l p ro je c t a t Columbia U n iv e rsity in 1937; t h i s became th e b a s is f o r h e r second m ajor p u b lic a tio n in 1938, Hew D ire c tio n s in P h y sic a l E ducation f o r th e A doles ce n t G irl in High School and C o lle g e. In th e 19M)'s R o salin d C assidy was th e a u th o r o f books in th e group work f i e l d , e d u c a tio n , and p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n . The m ajor phys i c a l e d u c a tio n c o n trib u tio n s o f t h i s decade were P h y sic a l E ducation in th e Secondary School (19U 0), P h y sic a l F itn e ss f o r G irls (19*»3), and Methods in P h y sic a l E d u ca tio n . 12 p u b lish e d in 1917. At m id -c e n tu ry , R osalind C a ssid y 's w ritin g was r e s t r i c t e d t o th e f i e l d o f p h y sic a l ed u c atio n p r im a r ily , and she w rote o r c o n trib u te d to seven books d u rin g t h i s te n - y e a r tim e sp an . During th e 1 9 6 0 's, R o salin d C assidy was a c o n trib u tin g a u th o r to th e 1962 yearbook o f th e American A sso c ia tio n f o r H e a lth , P h y sic a l E d u c a tio n , and R e c re a tio n , and th e c o -a u th o r o f th e volum e, Theory in P h y sic a l E d u catio n : Guide to Program Change, p u b lish e d in 1963. The p ro cess o f d e lim ita tio n , re fin e m e n t, and a n a ly s is o f th e d a ta cu lm in ated in an i d e n ti f ic a t io n and in c lu s io n o f concep ts which were used t o t e s t th e v a lid ity o f th e s ta te d hypotheses in th e p re s e n t stu d y . The id e a s o f R o salin d C assidy were su b seq u en tly p re se n te d in th e form o f c a r e f u lly s e le c te d q u o ta tio n s which were d eriv e d from h e r documents and deemed most a p p ro p ria te to th e problem o f th e s tu d y . L im ita tio n s o f th e Study The stu d y was lim ite d in th e fo llo w in g w ays: 1. There was no in te n t w ith in th e stu d y to r e la te R osalind C a s sid y 's co n cep tio n s o f p h y s ic a l edu c a tio n d i r e c tl y t o a c tu a l contem porary p r a c tic e . The stu d y d e a lt s o le ly w ith th e id e a s and a c tio n s o f one in d iv id u a l; th e se were c a te g o riz e d and examined w ith in an h i s t o r i c fram e o f r e f e r e n c e . T his stu d y sh o u ld be in te r p r e te d p rim a rily as "a c o n tr ib u tio n to th e h is to r y o f id e a s r a t h e r th a n a d e s c r ip tio n o f th e e v e n ts o f h is to r y " (3 0 4 :3 ), o r as a biography o f id e a s . R e la te d id e a s o f R o salin d C assidy in o th e r d is c ip lin e s have been o m itte d . The stu d y was lim ite d t o co n c ep ts r e l a t i n g s p e c if ic a lly to p h y s ic a l, h e a l t h , and r e c r e a tio n e d u c a tio n . A lim ite d amount o f re so u rc e m a te ria l was n o t a v a ila b le f o r th e purposes o f t h i s stu d y . A lthough t h i s stu d y was focused upon an exam in a tio n o f th e p r o f e s s io n a l id e a s o f R osalind C a ssid y , th e im pact o f id e a s upon a f i e l d i s seldom im m ediate. I t i s co n se q u en tly e n t ir e l y p o s s ib le t h a t th e u ltim a te im portance o f c e r ta in id e a s was n o t re co g n ized by th e i n v e s t i g a t o r . S ince R o salin d C assidy i s s t i l l p ro fe s s io n a lly a c tiv e and th e in v e s t ig a t o r in t h i s stu d y was a p r o f e s s io n a l c o lle a g u e , th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f b ia s in th e s e le c ti o n and ex am in atio n o f th e d a ta was p o s s ib le . Every e f f o r t was made, how ever, to m a in ta in o b j e c t i v i t y . 1M- D e fin itio n s o f Terms A lim ite d number o f term s a r e i d e n t i f i e d h e re f o r purposes o f c l a r i f i c a t i o n . I t was n o t in te n d e d , how ever, t h a t th e fo llo w in g s e c tio n be c o n s tru e d as an a tte m p t to d e s c rib e o r convey, in e i t h e r g e n e ra l o r c o n c ise te rm s , s p e c if ic meanings given to th e s e words o r id e a s as th ey have been developed by R o salin d C assid y . Document.—The term "document** means a so u rc e o f in fo rm a tio n re p re se n te d in th e form o f o r a l , p i c t o r i a l , o r w r itte n te stim o n y . E d u c a tio n a l L e a d e rsh ip . —The term " e d u c a tio n a l le a d e rs h ip " i s used in a broad s e n se t o d e s c rib e in d iv id u a ls fu n c tio n in g as te a c h e r s , g u id e s , a d v is o r s , c o u n s e lo rs , and le a d e rs in th e e d u c a tio n a l p ro c e s s . O rganism ic. —T his term r e f e r s to a c o n c ep tio n o f th e t o t a l , u n if ie d , fu n c tio n a l human organism and i t s en vironm ent as a p u rp o siv e , in t e g r a t e d , i n t e r a c t i v e , i n t e r r e la te d u n i t , d e riv e d from f i e l d psychology and developed in p r o te s t t o a m e c h a n is tic , a to m is tic c o n c e p tio n o f m an's e x p e rie n c e . T his view point p ro v id e s a p h ilo s o p h ic r a ti o n a le e x p la in in g m an's grow th, d ev elo p m en t, le a r n in g , and b e h a v io r in th e p ro cess o f l i v in g . P e rs p e c tiv e . —In t h i s stu d y th e term " p e rs p e c tiv e " 15 means " th e r e la tio n s h ip o f th e p a r ts o f a w h o le, re g a rd e d from a p a r t i c u l a r sta n d p o in t o r p o in t in tim e" (2U :555). Program E x p e rie n c e s.— A broad te rm , "program ex p e r ie n c e s ," i s used in th e fo llo w in g pages to in d ic a te a l l th e m a n ife s ta tio n s o f program c o n te n t i d e n t i f i e d by R o salin d C assidy in t h i s stu d y . S e lf .— "The ’s e lf* i s th e i n t e r n a l a s p e c t o f th e d ev e lo p in g p e rso n ; p e r s o n a lity i s i t s e x te r n a l a s p e c t, th e p erso n a s o th e rs se e him" (3 0 :3 ^ ). The E d u cativ e P ro c e ss.— "The e d u c a tiv e p ro c e ss" i s a term u t i l i z e d in t h i s stu d y to d e s c rib e m eth o d o lo g ic al co n cep ts a s s o c ia te d w ith th e te a c h in g - le a r n in g p ro c e s s . The N a tu ra l Movement.— In t h i s stu d y th e term " th e n a tu r a l movement" in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n i s used t o denote a movement in tw e n tie th ce n tu ry American p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n t h a t developed as a r e v o lt a g a in s t fo rm a liz e d , gym nastic system s o f th e n in e te e n th and tw e n tie th c e n tu r ie s , and was "fo rm u la te d as a d ir e c t resp o n se t o th e r e a l iz a t i o n t h a t o u r o ld e r id e a s and p r a c tic e s in t h i s f i e l d w ere e n t i r e l y in c o n s is te n t w ith th e b e lie f s o f a modern p h ilo so p h y o f l i f e and e d u c a tio n " (5 2 :2 8 -2 9 ). This movement su p p o rte d a " f u n c tio n a l, n a tu r a l ty p e o f a c t i v i t y which b elo n g s to th e n a t u r a l , fundam ental movements o f l i f e " (52:9). 16 R e la te d L ite r a tu r e A s e a rc h f o r r e l a t e d l i t e r a t u r e re v e a le d no o th e r s tu d ie s s i m i l a r in p urpose t o t h i s stu d y o f th e p r o f e s s i o n a l id e a s o f R o salin d C assid y . O th er k in d s o f r e la te d v e n tu r e s , how ever, a r e review ed in t h i s c h a p te r. L i t e r a t u r e t h a t ap p eared t o be im p o rta n t to a b e t t e r u n d e rsta n d in g o f th e id e a s and a c tio n s o f R o salin d C assidy in th e f i e l d o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n was i d e n t i f i e d in th e fo llo w in g fo u r c a te g o r ie s : (1) b io g ra p h ic a l m ate r i a l , (2 ) h i s t o r i c a l l i t e r a t u r e , (3 ) id e a ti o n a l c o n tr i b u tio n s , and (*0 s e l e c t i v e p u b lic a tio n s . B io g ra p h ic a l M a te ria l In fo rm a tio n ab o u t R o salin d C assidy has been i n clu d ed in num erous Who*8 Who p u b lic a tio n s o v er a p e rio d in e x c e ss o f t h i r t y y e a r s . B io g ra p h ic a l in fo rm a tio n i s c o n ta in e d in Who*8 Who Among N orth Am erican A uthors (35), A m erican Women: The O f f i c i a l Who*s Who Among th e Women o f th e N atio n (26), Who*s Who in C a lif o r n ia (23), Who*s Who in A m erica (*»7), Who*s Who on th e P a c if ic C oast (50), Who*8 Who in th e West (**8), L eaders in E d u catio n (17), and Who*s Who o f A m erican Women <»*9). In 1951 M a tild a H eidhorn com pleted a b io g ra p h ic a l stu d y o f te n o u ts ta n d in g women le a d e rs in th e f i e l d o f tw e n tie th c e n tu ry p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n . A b r i e f summary o f 17 R o sa lin d C a s s id y 's p r o f e s s io n a l b e l i e f s , c o n t r i b u t i o n s , and in flu e n c e was p r e s e n te d in t h i s B la s te r's t h e s i s (2 9 2 :1 - 1 5 0 ). R o sa lin d C a ssid y was b io g r a p h ic a lly r e p re s e n te d in "W ho's Who in th e P ro fe s s io n " (1 8 7 :3 2 ) o f p h y s ic a l edu c a ti o n , and B io g ra p h ie s o f F e llo w s : A m erican Academy o f P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n (2 8 5 ). In 1956 W ilto n M. W ilto n exam ined th e w r itin g s o f se v e n te e n le a d e r s i n A m erican p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n betw een 1900 and 1955 in o r d e r t o a s c e r t a i n th e r o l e o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n in th e developm ent o f e t h i c a l c h a r a c te r i n Amer ic a n p u b lic e d u c a tio n . R o sa lin d C assid y was one o f th e s e l e a d e r s , and W ilto n in c lu d e d in h is d i s s e r t a t i o n a b r i e f b io g r a p h ic a l s k e tc h o f a l l o f th e s e p e rso n s (3 1 0 :3 1 1 -3 1 2 ). An a r t i c l e a p p e a re d i n th e f a l l o f 1963 e n t i t l e d "Age I s J u s t a S ta te o f Mind" in th e S e a t t l e T im es. W ithin t h i s a r t i c l e , w r i t t e n by D orothy B ra n t B r a z ie r , a r a t h e r e x te n s iv e b io g r a p h ic a l d e s c r ip ti o n o f th e h ig h lig h ts o f R o sa lin d C a s s id y 's p r o f e s s io n a l l i f e and a c t i v i t y was p re s e n te d (2 0 3 ). H i s t o r i c a l L i t e r a t u r e In 1958 J a n e t F e ls h in com p leted an h i s t o r i c a l a n a ly s is o f ch a n g in g c o n c e p tio n s o f p u rp o se in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n in th e U n ite d S ta te s from 1880 t o 1930. W ithin t h i s d o c to r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , F e ls h in tr a c e d and a n a ly z e d th e 18 development o f changing co nceptions o f p h y sic a l ed u catio n over a p erio d o f f i f t y years* The im portance o f th e p u b li c a tio n , The New P h y sic al E d u ca tio n , was in d ic a te d by F elsh in to re sid e in th e b ro a d , com prehensive s o c i e t a l , p h ilo s o p h ic a l, s c i e n t i f i c , and e m p iric a l base which Wood and Cassidy e s ta b lis h e d in o rd e r to su p p o rt the th eo ry o f a new p h y sic a l ed u catio n (288:166). The emergence of th e new p h y sic a l ed u catio n in th e e a rly decades o f th e tw e n tie th cen tu ry was p o in te d out by Burke in a 1961 p u b lic a tio n , The P h ilo so p h ic P rocess in P h y sical E ducation. He id e n tif ie d th e in n o v a to rs o f th e new p h y sic a l ed u catio n in th e fo llo w in g sta te m e n t: The f i r s t e x p re ssio n o f th e se new id e a s to be found in p r in t were co n tain ed in'W ood's o r ig in a l s ta te m e n t, in C lark H e th e rin g to n 's School Program in P h y sic al E d u catio n , and in The New Physica!! E ducation . by Thomas D. Wood and R osalind C assidy. 11(4:76) In 196** J a n e t E rvin com pleted an h i s t o r i c a l d is s e r ta t io n e n ti t le d "E ducation o f th e P h y sic a l v ersu s E ducation Through th e P h y s ic a l." The purpose o f th e study was to document h i s t o r i c a l l y and examine th e co n tro v e rsy in th e f i e l d o f p h y sic a l ed u catio n between an "ed u catio n of" versus an "education through" th e p h y s ic a l. In s p ite of h i s t o r i c a l in a c c u ra c ie s about the w ritte n p u b lic a tio n s o f R osalind C assid y , E rvin d e sc rib e d th e r o le o f R osalind C assidy in contem porary p h y sic a l ed u catio n in th e fo llo w in g fa sh io n : R osalind C assidy . . . has c o n trib u te d , perhaps more 19 th a n any o th e r woman o f th i s c e n tu ry , to th e f u r th e r in g o f an ed u c atio n through th e p h y e ic a l. She has a p p lie d th e concepts o f th e new p h y sic a l e d u c a tio n t o c u r r ic u lum b u ild in g , program s, problem s o f o rg a n iz a tio n and te a c h in g m ethods. <287:308-309) Randolph W ebster, in a book e n t i t l e d P hilosophy o f P h y sic a l E d u catio n , p o in ted out in 1965 th e r o le o f R o salin d ' C assidy in th e emergence o f th e new p h y s ic a l edu c a tio n o f th e 1920's . He in d ic a te d t h a t th e new p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n was "p io n eered by Thomas Wood, R o salin d C assid y , and C lark H e th e rin g to n ,” and "was l a t e r stre n g th e n e d and e n la rg e d by Je s s e F. W illiam s and Jay B. Nash" (4 5 :5 9 ). In 1965 N icolas M o o le n ijiz e r examined th e concept o f " n a tu r a l p h y s ic a l ed u catio n " and r e la te d th e developm ent o f th e " n a tu r a l program" in th e U nited S ta te s to m anifes t a t io n s o f th is concept in o th e r c u l t u r e s : The concept o f " n a tu ra l" p h y sic a l e d u c a tio n has been developed in th re e forms by th re e s e ts o f th in k e rs in th r e e d if f e r e n t c o u n trie s . In th e U nited S t a t e s , th e " n a tu ra l" program was in tro d u c e d in 1927 by Thomas D ennison Wood and R osalind C assidy in The New P h y sic a l E d u catio n . (299:1) Id e a tio n a l C o n trib u tio n s In an a r t i c l e e n t i t le d " C u ltu ra l Im pact on P h y sic a l E d u c a tio n ,” D. B. Van D alen, in 1961, in d ic a te d t h a t a group o f tw e n tie th cen tu ry le a d e rs in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n re co g n ized th e im p o rtan t r e la tio n s h ip between c u l t u r e , th e in d iv id u a l, and th e f i e l d o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n : p r i o r to World War I , th e newer s o c io lo g ic a l concepts seep ed in to our l i t e r a t u r e and in th e 1930 •» they g ain ed c o n sid e ra b le cu rren cy . P ro fe s s io n a l le a d e r s . 20 such as Thomas D. Wood, C lark W . H e th e rin g to n , L u th e r H. G u lic k , J e s s e F. W illia m s, Jay B. N ash, and R o sa lin d C a ssid y , caught g lim pses o f th e im p act o f c u ltu r e on th e in d iv id u a l. (1 8 4 :1 5 ) A b r i e f summary o f th e id e a s o f R o salin d C assidy in th e f i e l d o f e d u c a tio n and p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n was p re s e n te d in an a r t i c l e in th e M ills Q u a rte rly in 1962 e n t i t l e d " Re tir e m e n t in a F lu r r y ." The co n c ep ts developed by R o salin d C assid y in 1938 in th e p u b lic a tio n New D ire c tio n s in Phys i c a l E d u catio n f o r th e A d o lescen t G ir l i n High S chool and C o lle g e were i n t e r p r e te d by th e a u th o r o f t h i s a r t i c l e as th e " id e a s w hich she h as h e ld c o n s is te n tly f o r many y e a r s , a d v o c a te d , d e v e lo p e d , and m o d ified in l i g h t o f new knowledge a ffo rd e d by th e many s c i e n t i f i c f i e l d s " (1 7 4 :4 5 ). An i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of R o sa lin d C assidy and o th e r p io n e e r a d v o c a te s o f th e new p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n w ith t e n e ts o f a p ra g m a tic p h ilo so p h y of p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n was made by Burke in P h ilo s o p h ie s F ashion P h y s ic a l E d u ca tio n in 196 3 (19 :4 4 ) , and W ebster in P hilosophy o f P h y s ic a l E d u ca tio n in 1965 (4 5 :7 4 ). S e le c tiv e P u b lic a tio n s Jacob M irv is s , in th e J a n u a ry , 1963, is s u e o f th e J o u r n a l o f H e a lth . P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n , and R e c re a tio n , p re s e n te d a b a s ic b o o k lis t in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n f o r l i b r a r i e s in i n s t i t u t i o n s o f h ig h e r le a r n in g . The stu d y was co n cern ed w ith u n d e rg ra d u a te -le v e l books i d e n t i f i e d in 21 e le v e n a r e a s o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n . From an o r i g i n a l l i s t o f o v e r 400 t i t l e s , 171 books deemed " e s s e n t i a l" and "d e s i r a b l e " w ere in c lu d e d on th e l i s t . The fo llo w in g e ig h t c o n tr ib u tio n s o f R o salin d C assid y w ere in c lu d e d on th e l i s t : (1 ) The New P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n (1 9 2 7 ), (2 ) New D ire c tio n s in P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n f o r th e A d o le sc e n t G ir l in High S chool and C o lle g e (1 9 3 8 ), (3 ) P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n i n th e Secondary S chool (1 9 4 0 ), (4 ) D ev elo p in g D em o cratic Human R e la tio n s Through H e a lth E d u c a tio n . P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n , and R e c re a tio n (1 9 5 1 ), (5 ) Group P ro c e ss in P h y s ic a l E d u ca tio n (1 9 5 1 ), (6 ) C u rric ulum D evelopm ent i n P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n (1 9 5 4 ), (7 ) M ethods in P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n (1 9 5 8 ), and (8 ) C o u n selin g in th e P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n Program (1959) (1 6 5 :3 1 -3 5 ). In t h e same y e a r C ald w ell com piled a l i s t o f th e most s i g n i f i c a n t w r i t t e n c o n tr ib u tio n s in contem porary p h y s ic a l, h e a l t h , and r e c r e a t i o n a l e d u c a tio n as i d e n t i f i e d by d i s tin g u i s h e d le a d e r s in p h y s ic a l, h e a l t h , and r e c r e a ti o n e d u c a tio n . W ith in a lim ite d l i s t o f tw e n ty -s ix p u b lic a tio n s i n p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n , t h r e e o f R o salin d C a s s id y 's books w ere in c lu d e d . T hese volum es w ere: The New P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n , p u b lis h e d in 192 7 , New D ire c tio n s in P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n f o r th e A d o lesc en t G ir l in High S chool and C o lle g e , p u b lis h e d in 1938, and Methods i n Phys i c a l E d u c a tio n , p u b lis h e d in th r e e e d itio n s in 1947, 1952, and 1958 (2 4 0 :1 -1 7 4 ). O rg a n izatio n o f th e Study The p lan o f t h i s stu d y was c e n te re d around a c h ro n o lo g ic a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and p re s e n ta tio n o f th e id e a s and a c tio n s o f R o salin d C assid y , re p re s e n te d in to p ic a l form . C hapters a re d iv id e d i n to th e tim e p erio d s which were deemed most s u ita b le f o r purposes o f exam ination in t h i s stu d y . C hapter I I p re s e n ts a b io g ra p h ic a l stu d y o f R osalind C a ssid y 's fo rm a tiv e y e a r s , a s s o c ia tio n w ith M ills C o lle g e , i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith th e U n iv e rsity o f C a lifo rn ia a t Los A ngeles, and re tire m e n t y e a rs . C hapters I I I , IV , V, V I, and VII develop th e foun d a tio n a l a re a s upon which R o salin d C a ssid y 's co n cep tio n s o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n r e s t . C h ap ter I I I i s concerned w ith th e i n t e r r e la tio n s h ip o f th e in d iv id u a l and th e environm ent. C hapter IV d e a ls w ith change in th e tw e n tie th cen tu ry e n v i ronm ent. C h ap ter V e x p re sse s a p h ilosophy o f democracy. C hapter VI d e sc rib e s th e r o le o f th e fem ale in th e c u l tu r a l s e t t i n g , and C hapter VII re v e a ls R osalind C a ssid y 's id e a s about e d u c a tio n . The fo llo w in g e ig h t c h a p te r s , C hapters V III through XV, e x p lic a te th o se id e a s i d e n t i f i e d as c e n tr a l in th e p ro fe s s io n a l l i f e o f R o salin d C assidy in th e f i e l d o f tw e n ti e th cen tu ry p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n . C hapter V III develops a p e rsp e c tiv e to w ard , and th e meaning o f p h y sic a l e d u c a tio n ov er th e y e a rs . C hapter IX re v e a ls program d ir e c tio n and m eaning in tw e n tie th c e n tu ry p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n . C hapter X acco u n ts f o r p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n program e x p e rie n c e s . Chap t e r XI exam ines co n cep ts o f c u rric u lu m developm ent in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n . C h ap ter XII re v e a ls m eth o d o lo g ical co n cep ts a s s o c ia te d w ith th e te a c h in g - le a r n in g p ro c ess in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n . C h ap ter X III exam ines th e ro le o f th e te a c h e r in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n . C hapter XIV d e a ls w ith th e concept o f te a c h e r p re p a ra tio n in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n , and C hapter X V d e s c rib e s R o salin d C a s s id y 's co n cep ts about a t h l e t i c c o m p e titio n . C hapters XVI and XVII re v e a l R o salin d C a ss id y 's id e a s about th e a re a s o f r e c r e a tio n e d u c a tio n and h e a lth e d u c a tio n , and t h e i r r e la ti o n s h i p to th e f i e l d o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n . In th e l a s t two c h a p te r s , C hapters XVIII and XIX, th e p r in c ip a l fin d in g s o f th e stu d y a re i d e n t i f i e d , a summary o f th e fin d in g s i s p re s e n te d , and th e co n c lu sio n s d e riv e d from th e d a ta a r e r e l a te d t o th e h y p o th eses e s ta b lis h e d in t h i s s tu d y . PART I I BIOGRAPHY 24 CHAPTER I I ROSALIND CASSIDY: LIFE A N D TIMES For we l i v e in a tim e o f such ra p id change and grow th in knowledge t h a t o n ly he who i s in a fundam ental se n se a s c h o la r — t h a t i s , a p e rso n who c o n tin u e s t o le a r n and in q u ir e — can hope t o keep p a c e , l e t a lo n e p lay th e r o le o f g u id e . — N athan Pusey The Form ative Y ears (1895-1918) Developm ents in P h y s ic a l T ra in in g , H e a lth , and R e c re a tio n The l a s t decade o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry has been i d e n t i f i e d as a " p e rio d o f c o n tro v e rsy " (1 1 :2 7 2 ), a segm ent o f th e "B loom er G ir l E ra" (2 0 :2 6 ), and "A Time o f Gymnas t i c s and M easurem ent" (159 :2 6 ) w ith em phasis on an "edu c a tio n o f th e p h y s ic a l" (2 8 7 :3 1 2 ). T h is was a decade c h a ra c te r iz e d by th e " B a ttle o f th e S ystem s" (1 5 9 :2 8 ) and id e o lo g ic a l c o n f l i c t betw een a d v o c a te s o f d i f f e r e n t gym nastic system s (3 0 2 :3 2 ). Ex p a n sio n and e x te n s io n o f p o ly g lo t p h y s ic a l t r a i n i n g p ro grams i n t o th e sc h o o ls o c c u rre d (161:351) as d r i l l , e x e r c i s e , m arc h in g , and c a lis th e n ic s in a form al program 25 26 s e t t i n g w ere dom inant (1 7 5 :US). D ualism , b io lo g ic a l and p h y s io lo g ic a l outcom es , a n th ro p o a w tric m easurem ents, and s tr e n g th t e s t s w ere r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f p r e v a ilin g b e l i e f s and p r a c tic e s o f th e tim e (30U :1 7 7 -1 7 9 ), and i n s t i t u t i o n s o f f e r in g p r o f e s s io n a l t r a i n i n g program s in p h y s ic a l edu c a tio n d e v e lo p e d and expanded r a p id ly (311:15U ). S i g n if ic a n t a ls o d u rin g th e 1 8 9 0 's was th e b eg in n in g o f o rg a n iz e d r e c r e a tio n in th e U n ited S ta te s (3 6 :2 2 5 ), th e developm ent and ex p a n sio n o f th e o rg a n iz e d camp move ment ( 3 8 :5 6 ) , th e grow th o f sc h o o l a t h l e t i c s (U l:2 7 2 ), and th e i n i t i a t i o n o f th e sc h o o l h e a lth movement (296:2U U ). T hroughout th e l a s t decade o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry th e most th o ro u g h ly d is c u s s e d them es o f th e day were " a n th ro pom etry, g y m n astic s y ste m s, h y g ie n e , a t h l e t i c s , and m ili ta r y d r i l l , in th e o rd e r l i s t e d " (1 5 9 :3 0 ). The f i r s t decades o f th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry have been h i s t o r i c a l l y i d e n t i f i e d as th e "age o f m u ltip le o b je c tiv e s " (29U:UUU), a p e rio d o f " P h y s ic a l E d u catio n in T ra n s itio n " (U 6:U 8), and "A Time o f A th le tic s and Dancing" (1 5 9 :3 8 ). T h is was an e r a when fo rm al gym nastics w ere in c o n f li c t w ith th e p h ilo so p h y and p r a c tic e s o f a tre n d in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n i d e n t i f i e d as " th e n a tu r a l movement" (U l:2 7 2 ), o r " th e new p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n " (2 9 0 :1 0 ). Ath l e t i c s , s p o r t s , gam es, p la y , and r e c r e a tio n f o r a l l d eveloped r a p id ly and s p re a d w id ely a t t h i s tim e (17S :U 2). 27 B io lo g ic a l and p h y s io lo g ic a l outcomes o f p h y s ic a l ed u catio n were superceded by purposes broadened t o in c lu d e m en tal, s o c i a l , and em otional developm ent o f th e in d iv id u a l (296: 2^6-2^7). P h y sic a l ed u c atio n was in t r a n s i t i o n from an ed u catio n o f th e p h y s ic a l to an ed u catio n th ro u g h th e p h y sic a l (2 9 6 :2*»6-2**7). P h y sic al e d u c a tio n was re p la c in g p h y sic a l c u ltu r e , p h y sic a l t r a in i n g , and gym nastics as a p p ro p ria te tw e n tie th cen tu ry term inology (>*6:53), and th e fo u n d atio n s o f th e fo lk and n a tu r a l dance movements were e s ta b lis h e d (1 6 0 :8 5 ), L e g is la tio n re q u irin g compulsory p h y sic a l ed u catio n in th e p u b lic sch o o ls was p assed (311: 40 0 ), and i n t e r e s t in women's a t h l e t i c s was w idespread (20: 2 7 ). P ro fe ss io n a l p re p a ra tio n f o r secondary sc h o o l phys i c a l ed u cato rs was stre n g th e n e d and moved tow ard a fo u r- y e a r cu rricu lu m (183:H ), as p re p a ra tio n f o r u n iv e r s ity - le v e l te a c h in g was changing from m edical t r a in in g to p re p a ra tio n f o r th e Ed.D, and Ph.D. degrees (**6:5*0. This was a tim e o f em phasis upon re c re a tio n and play a c t i v i t i e s f o r a l l w ith th e advent o f th e playground movement (296: 245). The organized camping movement expanded (3 8 :5 6 ), and th e group youth work movement (Boy S c o u ts, Cam pfire G ir ls , G irl S couts) began a t t h i s tim e (5 :2 9 ). The sch o o l h e a lth movement a ls o e s ta b lis h e d b ro a d er fo u n d atio n s and moved to ward in c re a se d p ro fe s s io n a l m a tu rity d u rin g t h i s decade (**6:56-57). When th e U nited S ta te s became in v o lv ed in th e F ir s t 28 World War, p h y sic a l f i t n e s s , h e a lth , and o rg a n ic v ig o r became dominant program o b je c tiv e s (2 9 6 :2 4 6 ). There was a narrow ing o f e d u c a tio n a l purposes a t t h i s tim e (2 9 5 :1 9 0 ), b u t an expansion o f a t h l e t i c s , s p o r ts , and s k i l l s f o r in d iv id u a ls w ith in th e m ilita x y s e t t i n g o ccu rred (4 2 :1 5 6 ). R osalind C assidy: C hildhood, Y outh, and E ducation R osalind C assidy was bom on Ju ly 17, 1895, in Q uincy, I l l i n o i s , th e second d au g h ter o f John Warren C assidy and M argaret (Ashbrook) C assidy. D uring h e r fo rm ativ e y ears R osalind tra v e le d w idely th ro u g h o u t th e U nited S ta te s and Europe because o f a h e a lth c o n d itio n and h e r m o th er's s o c ia l and c u ltu r a l i n t e r e s t s (2 3 4 ). The e x te n siv e movements of th e C assidy fam ily r e s u lte d in exposure to a number o f d if f e r e n t e d u c a tio n a l environm ents t h a t l e f t R osalind w ith gaps in h e r m astery o f b a s ic sch o o l s u b je c t-m a tte r. When she e n te re d th e Horton School in 1910, a p riv a te secondary sch o o l in O akland, C a lif o r n ia , she was a t a c r i t i c a l developm ental p o in t (2 3 5 ). Miss Sarah H orton, th e founder o f t h i s s c h o o l, reco g n ized R o sa lin d 's e d u c a tio n a l d e f ic ie n c ie s and worked assid u o u sly to develop h e r und erstan d in g o f b a s ic proc e s s e s . Over a p e rio d of two y e a rs R osalind C assidy gained confidence in h e r a b i l i t y to le a rn and th in k , a p o in t in h e r l i f e she l a t e r id e n tif ie d as c r u c ia l (2 3 5 ). In 1912 R osalind C assidy e n te re d th e e le v e n th grade 29 o f Stadium High School in Tacoma, W ashington. A s tro n g academ ic re co rd and e x te n siv e p a r tic ip a tio n in s o c ia l and a t h l e t i c a f f a i r s c h a ra c te riz e d h e r ju n io r and s e n io r y e a rs (2 2 5 ). R osalind C assidy e n tered th e U n iv e rsity o f Washing to n in 191H w ith i n t e r e s t in home econom ics. D is s a tis fa c tio n w ith t h i s f i e l d and th e p erso n a l in flu e n c e o f a p h y s ic a l ed u catio n te a c h e r a t th e u n iv e rs ity le d t o a growing i n t e r e s t in th e re c re a tio n f i e l d and th e playground movement. A p lan to t r a n s f e r to W ellesley C ollege in 1916 was c a n c e lle d because o f a p o lio m y e litis epidem ic which q u a ra n tin e d t h a t i n s t i t u t i o n . A fte r e x te n s iv e q u e r ie s , R osalind C assidy d isco v ered th a t M ills C ollege in O akland, C a lif o r n ia , had re c e n tly acq u ired Miss E liz a b e th S to n e r, a new s t a f f member from P itts b u rg h , P en n sy lv an ia, a c e n te r o f th e growing playground movement. She v is ite d Miss S to n e r and decided to e n te r M ills C ollege (2 3 6 ). E a r lie r p lan s to e n te r th e re c re a tio n f i e l d changed soon a f t e r work in a playground s e t t i n g , and in 1916 R osalind and H ilda (C lu te ) Kozman were th e two p h y sic a l ed u c atio n m ajors in th e ju n io r c la s s a t M ills C ollege (2 3 5 ). D uring h e r ju n io r and s e n io r y e a rs , R osalind C assidy com pleted courses in G ym nastics, Games and D ancing, C o rre c tiv e Gymnastic C lin ic , E urythm ics, K in esio lo g y , C o rre c tiv e Gymnastics and Massage, A nthropom etry, Theory o f 30 E x e rc is e and A rt o f T ea ch in g , D ancing, A th l e ti c s , G ym nastic P r a c ti c e , H is to ry o f P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n , Theory and P ra c t i c e o f Games and Folk D ancing, Symptomology, and P r a c tic e T each in g (3 0 0 ). In May o f 1918 R o salin d C assidy g ra d u ated from M ills C o lleg e w ith a B ach elo r o f S cien ce degree and a S ta te T e a c h e r's C e r t i f i c a t e in P h y sic a l E ducation (3 0 0 ). M ills C o lle g e : P h y s ic a l E ducation ( 1918-13397 Developm ents in P h y s ic a l, H e a lth , . and R e c re a tio n E d u catio n The tim e betw een World War I and World War I I has been d e s c rib e d by a u th o rs in th e f i e l d o f p h y s ic a l edu c a tio n as " th e p e rio d o f u n if ic a tio n and p r o f e s s io n a l i z a tio n (2 8 6 :5 7 2 ), a tim e o f "S haping a P ro fe s s io n " (*16:68), "A Time o f T ea ch er T ra in in g and T e s tin g ” (1 5 9 :5 2 ), and ”A Time o f A f f i l i a t i o n and R esearch” (1 5 9 :6 2 ). The " r o a r in g tw e n tie s ” were y e a rs o f g re a t s i g n i f ic a n c e in th e developm ent o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n . S tro n g c o n f l i c t betw een th e f o r m a lis ts and proponents o f th e n a t u r a l movement c u lm in ated in e v e n tu a l a c cep tan ce and w id e sp re a d d is s e m in a tio n o f th e in fo rm a l program (2 3 8 :1 2 0 ). P h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n was id e n tif y in g i t s e l f as p a r t o f a g e n e ra l e d u c a tio n w ith purp o ses r e f l e c t i n g an in c re a s e d aw areness o f a s o c ia l- e d u c a tio n a l em phasis o f th e tim e s ( 303:9<O. P h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n became e d u c a tio n th ro u g h th e p h y s ic a l (30**: 1 7 7 ), and m atured from p h y s ic a l t r a i n i n g to p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n (2 1 :1 9 ) . Program s expanded in b re a d th o f a c t i v i t i e s o f f e r e d (2 9 0 :1 1 7 ), and s p o r t s , gam es, and dances w ere c e n t r a l t o th e c u rric u lu m (**2:172). The im p o rtan ce o f p la y in l i f e and th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f th e r e c r e a tiv e v a lu e s (e d u c a tio n f o r l e i s u r e ) o f n a t u r a l a c t i v i t i e s was a c c e p te d (30**: 1 7 8 ), and th e fo u n d a tio n o f th e modem dance movement was e s t a b l i s h e d (****:**57). T his was a tim e o f re s e a rc h em phasis i n p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n (30**:179), and s c i e n t i f i c developm ent o f th e t e s t s and m easurem ent f i e l d (**2:208). The re m e d ia l and c o r r e c ti v e f i e l d o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n expanded more th a n a t any o th e r p re v io u s tim e (**1:270), and a movement t o m inim ize and e lim in a te in te n s iv e sc h o o l a th l e t i c c o m p e titio n f o r g i r l s and women was firm ly e s t a b lis h e d (30 8 :9 6 -9 7 ). The number o f s t a t e s l e g i s l a t i n g com pulsory s c h o o l p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n grew e x te n s iv e ly (289: 5 8 ), and a trem endous p r o l i f e r a t i o n in th e number o f i n s t i t u t i o n s o f f e r i n g p r o f e s s io n a l p r e p a r a tio n was accom p an ied by a d e c lin e in p r e p a r a tio n s ta n d a rd s (2 9 0 :1 1 8 ). The change from m e d ic a l t r a i n i n g t o an e d u c a tio n a l c u r r ic u la f o r p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n p e rs o n n e l was made a t t h i s tim e (2 9 0 :5 2 -5 3 ). F o llo w in g th e F i r s t W orld War th e sc h o o l h e a lth movement made trem endous g a in s and moved l a t e r t o a po s i t i o n o f n a t io n a l prom inence (**2:202). D epartm ents o f h e a lth and p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n w ere e s ta b l is h e d (18**: **6), 32 and a t t e n t i o n c a n ta r a d upon th a h a a lth s e r v i c e , h e a lth s u p e rv is io n * and h a a lth i n s t r u c t i o n a s p e c ts o f sc h o o l h a a lth e d u c a tio n (30>*:178). D uring t h i s p e rio d * th a r e c r e a ti o n movement g a in e d p r e s tig e * s t a tu r e * and m a tu rity i n A m erican s o c ie ty (3 8 : 5 9 ), Expanded r e c r e a ti o n f a c i l i t i e s and bro ad en ed program s w ere s i g n i f i c a n t ach iev em en ts ( 3 8 :5 9 ) . In th e camping f i e l d th e developm ent o f th e day camp movement (■*6:91)* c l o s e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith th e f i e l d o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n (2 0 2 :3 7 )* b ro ad en ed e d u c a tio n a l p u rp o se s* and e s ta b lis h m e n t o f p r o f e s s io n a l c u r r i c u l a f o r c o u n s e lo r t r a i n i n g w ere m a n ife s t (2 0 9 ). P h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n in 1931 was d e s c rib e d by W illiam La P o rte a s b e in g i n i t s " a d o le s c e n t p e rio d " (1 5 7 :2 ). The y e a rs t h a t fo llo w e d w ere th e sce n e o f i n t e r m i t t e n t s k i r m ishes betw een th o s e who c e n te re d b e l i e f s in th e c h ild and th o s e who fo c u se d upon th e a c t i v i t i e s o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n (10**, 167, 173* 1 8 0 ), Em phasis upon th e s o c i a l outcom es o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n in c r e a s e d in th e t h i r t i e s (3 0 7 :2 1 8 ), and p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n i d e n t i f i e d i t s e l f more c lo s e ly w ith th e d e m o c ra tic em phasis (2 6 5 :3 ) in g e n e ra l e d u c a tio n (2 9 3 :3 3 5 ) a s p r e p a r a tio n f o r th e u se o f l e i s u r e became a c e n t r a l fo c u s and co n cern o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n (****:*4**7) • A grow ing u n i f i c a t i o n o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n * a t h l e t i c s * and in tr a m u r a ls o c c u rre d (1**7:172), and s tr o n g e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s betw een program s o f p h y s ic a l* h e a lth * and r e c r e a tio n ed u c a tio n w ere e s ta b lis h e d (3 3 :1 3 5 ). S p o rts assumed g r e a te r em phasis in th e program (2 0 :3 7 ), and modem dance developed and expanded th ro u g h o u t th e co u n try (152: 8 8 ). The American P h y sic a l E d u catio n A sso c ia tio n developed in com plexity and d i v e r s i t y , and e s ta b lis h e d a perm anent r e la tio n s h ip w ith th e f i e l d o f ed u c a tio n in 1937 (159:62- 7 0 ). P ro fe s s io n a l l i t e r a t u r e in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n e x h ib ite d in c re a s in g m a tu rity and d ig n ity (*»H:15), w hile i n s t i t u t i o n s o f h ig h e r le a r n in g , p re p a rin g te a c h e rs o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n , co n tin u ed to in c re a s e n u m e ric a lly (311: 3 9 9 ), and programs le a d in g t o advanced d eg rees were more firm ly e s ta b lis h e d (1 6 1 :1 9 ). The r e c r e a tio n movement expanded as n e v e r b efo re d u rin g th e d ep re ssio n d ecad e, and p u b lic r e c r e a tio n le a d e r s h ip , f a c i l i t i e s , and program s, su p p o rted by f e d e r a l fu n d s, extended th e o p p o rtu n ity o f c o n s tru c tiv e r e c r e a tio n to a l l (*12:203-205). The camping movement co n tin u ed to id e n tif y more c lo s e ly w ith purposes and p r a c tic e s o f ed u catio n (•»<t:U99). The m ature sc h o o l h e a lth movement was moving d u rin g t h i s p e rio d tow ard a g r e a te r i n t e r n a l u n if ic a tio n in th e sch o o l h e a lth program and in te g r a tio n w ith in th e t o t a l sch o o l program . I n te r n a l in te g r a tio n s h if te d from m u ltip le program d iv is io n s tow ard th re e emphases in h e a lth in s tr u c t i o n , h e a lth s e r v ic e s , and h e a lth f u l liv in g (3 :2 8 ). 34 P ro fe s s io n a l L ea d ersh ip : M ills C o lleg e A fte r g ra d u a tio n from M ills C ollege in 1918, R o salin d C assidy was in v ite d t o become a s t a f f member in th e p h y s ic a l ed u c a tio n departm ent o f t h a t i n s t i t u t i o n (2 3 3 ). She ta u g h t th e re u n t i l 1922, an d , in 1923, ac cep ted an in v i ta ti o n to serv e as a s s i s t a n t t o th e p r e s id e n t of M ills C o lleg e f o r th e 1923-1924 sc h o o l y e a r (2 3 3 ), In 1924 R osalind C assidy a c c e p te d th e chairm anship o f th e departm ent o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n as th e form er chairm an. Miss E liz a b e th S to n e r, r e t i r e d (2 3 3 ), a n d , o v er th e y e a r s , th e departm ent p ro sp e re d and h e ld " a prom inent p la c e in th e c u rricu lu m o f M ills C o lleg e" (2 0 7 :1 ). In th e summer o f 1938, th e f i r s t P ro g re s s iv e Edu c a tio n A ss o c ia tio n Workshop in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n was h e ld a t M ills C o lleg e under th e le a d e rs h ip o f R o sa lin d C a ssid y , L a u re n tin e B. C o llin s , and C h arles C. C ow ell ( 1 8 :5 ) . T his workshop group re c e iv e d an award from th e Am erican Academy o f P h y sic a l E d ucation in 19 39 f o r "an o u ts ta n d in g example o f th e group p ro c ess in s o lv in g a problem " (1 6 6 :9 ). The summer o f 19 39 was im p o rta n t in th e developm ent o f th e modem dance movement on th e w est c o a s t. R osalind C assidy arra n g e d f o r th e famous B ennington S chool o f th e Dance t o come w est fo r th e f i r s t tim e . The e x p e r tis e o f M artha Graham, Hanya Holm, D oris Humphrey, Mary Jo sep h in e S h e lle y , M artha H i l l , C harles Weidman, Louis H o rs t, Jo se Limon, and o th e r s , was p re se n te d t o a s tu d e n t group o f 170 35 in d iv id u a ls (130:2U 8). A p ro je c te d lo n g -term p lan t o e s ta b l i s h M ills C ollege as an e d u c a tio n a l, p erfo rm an ce, and com position c e n te r f o r th e modem dance was e n v isio n e d by R osalind C assidy a t t h i s tim e (137:2U ). P ro fe s s io n a l Development R o salin d C assidy a tten d ed T eachers C o lle g e , Colum b ia U n iv e rs ity , d e sc rib e d by Burgess as "a r e s e r v o ir o f p ro g re s s iv e , r a ti o n a l philosophy o f . . . p h y s ic a l edu c a tio n " (2 3 9 :2 3 1 ), d u rin g th e 1922-1923 sc h o o l y e a r and was awarded th e M aster o f A rts degree and T eachers C o lleg e diplom a "S u p e rv iso r o f Hygiene and P h y sic a l E d u catio n ” on June 6 , 192 3 (3 0 1 ). Miss C assidy took courses from G ertrude Colby and H elen F ro st in d an ce, from Thomas D. Wood and J e s s e F e irin g W illiam s in h e a lth and p h y sic a l e d u c a tio n , and from W illiam H eard K ilp a tr ic k in e d u c a tio n a l philosophy (3 0 1 ). She developed a c lo s e and l a s t in g frie n d s h ip w ith Thomas D. Wood, whom she loved and adm ired and who encouraged h e r developm ent in independent th in k in g (2 1 2 ). R osalind C assidy re tu rn e d to T eachers C o lle g e , Co lum bia U n iv e rs ity , in 1935, to study f o r a d o c to r 's degree in th e Advanced School o f E ducation. Over a tw o -y ear p e rio d she was exposed to th e th in k in g o f W illiam H. K ilp a tr ic k , H arold Rugg, and L. Thomas Hopkins in educa t i o n a l fo u n d a tio n s , Ruth S tran g in th e guidance a r e a , Isa a c 36 K andel in in t e r n a t i o n a l e d u c a tio n , and G ardner Murphy in th e f i e l d o f p e r s o n a lity psychology (3 0 1 ). In 1936 R o salin d C assidy s p e n t fo u r months o f t r a v e li n g and stu d y in g in England and Europe u nder th e a u sp ic e s o f th e I n te r n a tio n a l I n s t i t u t e o f T eachers Col le g e , Columbia U n iv e rs ity . A f i e l d stu d y o f youth program s in E ngland, S c a n d in a v ia , F in la n d , R u ssia , and Germany was com pleted (2 5 2 :3 ). In th e summer o f 1937 R osalind C assidy com pleted a p r o je c t in p a r t i a l f u lf i l lm e n t f o r th e d o c to ra l d e g re e . The re a so n f o r t h i s p r o je c t was i d e n t i f i e d by R osalind C a ssid y : D is s a tis f a c tio n w ith th e p re s e n t p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n program a t M ills C o lleg e s e n t me f o r th on a tw o -y ear stu d y o f a d o le s c e n t needs and th e means a t th e command o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n te a c h e rs t o h e lp meet th e s e n e e d s. (2 >*2:39) A ten-m onth fe llo w s h ip g ra n t from th e G eneral E d ucation Board o f th e R o c k e fe lle r F oundation en ab led Miss C assidy t o become in v o lv e d w ith a com m ittee o f in d iv id u a ls stu d y in g a d o le s c e n ts u n d er th e a u sp ic e s o f th e "T hayer Commission on th e Secondary School C urriculum o f th e P ro g re ssiv e Edu c a tio n A s s o c ia tio n " (2 H 2 :6 ). D ire c tio n was given to t h i s stu d y by Lawrence K. F ran k , C arolyn Z ach ary , R obert J . H a v ig h u rst, and V. T. T hayer ( 1 3 : i x ) . I n te r a c tio n w ith t h i s group o f people and a c c e ss t o th e case stu d y m a te ria ls g a th e re d by th e com m ittee was c e n tr a l in th e developm ent o f 37 R o salin d C a s s id y 's d o c to ra l p r o js c t (2 U 2 :6 ), and th s book New D ire c tio n s in P h y sic a l E d u catio n ( 1 3 : ix ) . In August o f 1937 R o salin d C assidy com pleted a l l re q u ire m e n ts in th s d o c to ra l program and was aw arded an Ed.D. d eg ree (3 0 1 ). Camping R o salin d C a s s id y 's i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith o rg a n iz e d camping and th e camping movement began when she was in v ite d e a r ly in h e r te a c h in g c a r e e r t o p re s e n t a co u rse in camp c o u n se lin g a t M ills C o lleg e (2 3 7 ). In th e e a rly summer o f 192 3 she a tte n d e d Camp Saneo* an e x te n s io n o f th e T eachers C o lleg e p h y s ic a l edu c a tio n m ajor program in to th e o u td o o r s e t t i n g . M isses H azel C ubberly and H elen F ro s t p re s e n te d a program e s s e n t i a l l y o f f i e l d s p o r ts and a q u a tic a c t i v i t i e s (2 3 7 ). L a te r in th e same summer R o salin d C assidy was i n v ite d by Mrs. L u th e r G ulick to become a c o u n se lo r a t Camp W ohelo, Maine (2 3 7 ). She e s ta b lis h e d a c lo s e f r ie n d s h ip w ith M rs. G ulick and was in flu e n c e d by th e em phasis on n a tu re in th e camp program and th e e x te n s iv e use o f group work (2 3 7 ). A f te r a tte n d in g a N a tio n a l Camping A sso c ia tio n m eetin g in th e E ast* R o salin d C assidy re tu rn e d to M ills C o lleg e b e lie v in g an o rg a n iz ed a s s o c ia tio n was n e c e ssa ry in o rd e r to e s t a b l i s h th e movement on a s o l id b a s is in th e West (2 3 7 ). She o rg a n ise d a m eeting which was a tte n d e d by 38 Ja y B. N ash , Homer B sm iss, Louis B lu m an th al, B art Swanson, and o t h a r s , in 1921 (2 3 7 ), and th a P a c if ic Camping A sso ci a tio n was b o m (2 0 9 ). Homar B am iss, fo rm er p r e s id e n t o f th a a s s o c i a t i o n , in d ic a te d t h a t : from t h i s m eetin g th e r e ev o lv e d a p la n to b rin g to g e th e r th e r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s o f groups i n t e r e s t e d in p r i v a t e , m u n ic ip a l and o rg a n iz e d y o u th camps. T his was th e f i r s t tim e t h a t an o rg a n iz a tio n o f cam pers moved o u ts id e th e p r iv a te camp f i e l d . (209) In 1926 a f i e l d hockey and s p o r ts camp, th e f i r s t camp o f t h i s ty p e i n th e W est, was developed by R o salin d C assid y a t M ills C o lle g e (1 0 1 :1 ). The c u rric u lu m in c lu d e d advanced m e th o d o lo g ic a l m a te r ia l in in d iv id u a l and team 8 p o r t s , and c o u rse s in camp le a d e rs h ip (1 0 5 :9 4 ). The f i e l d hockey and s p o r ts camp c o n tin u e d f o r e ig h t se a so n s u n t i l i t was re p la c e d by work in modem dance and s p o r ts in th e summer o f 1934 (1 8 1 :1 6 3 ). A summer d e m o n stra tio n camp, Camp Gold H ollow , was e s t a b lis h e d a t M ills C o lle g e in th e l a t e tw e n tie s by R o sa lin d C assid y and o th e rs t o s e rv e as a model f o r d e s ir a b le camp p r a c t ic e s and a la b o ra to r y f o r developm ent o f camp le a d e r s h ip te c h n iq u e s (1 0 7 :1 6 4 ). Through th e y e a rs R o salin d C assidy was d eep ly in v o lv e d in th e cam ping movement. Homer B em iss, c o - e d ito r w ith R o sa lin d C assid y o f a Handbook f o r Camp C ounselors in 1935 ( 1 4 ) , i d e n t i f i e d h e r m ajor r o l e : . . . D r. C assid y was v i t a l l y i n t e r e s t e d in a l l phases o f cam ping, b u t h e r m ajo r i n t e r e s t was in th e f i e l d o f C o u n selo r T r a in in g . She was in s tru m e n ta l in s e t t i n g up 39 a C o u n selo r T ra in in g program , and a P lacem ent Bureau a t H i ll s C ollege* Dr* C assid y p la y e d a v ery s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e i n th e u p -g ra d in g o f th e camp d i r e c t o r s ' o rg a n i z a tio n * . • • (209) The c o n ta c t w ith in d iv id u a ls r e p r e s e n tin g d i f f e r e n t group work a g e n c ie s a t th e camping a s s o c ia tio n m eetin g s o v e r th e y e a rs e v e n tu a lly b ro u g h t ab o u t a new i n t e r e s t in t h i s area* R o salin d C assidy th e n became i d e n t i f i e d le s s w ith o rg a n iz e d camping and more w ith th e s o c i a l group work movement i n th e 1 9 3 0 's (2 3 5 ). M ajor P u b lic a tio n s In 192 7 The New P h y s ic a l E d u catio n (52) was pub lish e d * T his book was " a re sp o n se t o th e c o n tin u a l demand made • • • f o r a p r in te d t e x t on th e n a t u r a l program in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n . . . " ( 5 2 : v i i ) . T his book was w r itte n i n o rd e r t o c le a r ly id e n tif y th e o r i g i n a l , fo u n ta in h e a d th in k in g o f Thomas D * Wood in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n and d i s t in g u is h i t from t h a t o f o th e rs p ro m u lg atin g th e same id e a s (2 3 3 ). The book was w r itte n la r g e ly by R o sa lin d C a ssid y , b u t was e v a lu a te d and c o r re c te d by Thomas D. Wood (2 3 5 ). A f te r th e m an u scrip t was com pleted i t was s e n t t o John Dewey f o r s c r u tin y and re tu r n e d w ith h is a p p ro v a l and s u p p o rt (2 3 3 ). T h is book was d e s c rib e d by E rv in as "one o f th e m ost • • • com prehensive . . • s ta te m e n ts o f th e .n e w phys i c a l e d u c a tio n " (2 8 7 :1 6 3 ), and D orothy A insw orth i d e n t i f i e d th e book a s " r e a l l y th a b re ak th ro u g h o f l a s s fo rm al work in o u r f i a l d " (2 0 8 ). T h is volume ra c a iv a d an aw ard in 1928 (1 7 7 :9 8 ). I n 1935 th a sacond m ajor p u b lic a tio n o f R o salin d C a ssid y , Handbook f o r Camp C o u n salo rs (1 * 0 , was p u b lish e d . Tha bode was w r i t t e n by e a r ly le a d e rs in th e camping f i a l d and e d ite d by Bem iss and C assidy ( 1 4 :1 ) . Mason, i n a review o f t h e handbook in 1935, s t a t e d t h a t : The book r e p r e s e n ts th e com posite e x p e rie n c e and b e s t group t h in k in g o f t h a t group o f d i r e c to r s who, d u rin g th e p a s t te n y e a r s , have been r e s p o n s ib le f o r th e f row th o f th e cam ping movement a lo n g th e P a c if ic C oast. 78:168) New D ir e c tio n s in P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n f o r th e Ado le s c e n t G i r l in High S chool and C o lleg e was p u b lish e d in 1938 (1 3 ). T h is book was " a stu d y i n th e b a se s and m ethods o f r e - p la n n in g th e sc h o o l c u rric u lu m in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n f o r g i r l s o f seco n d ary and c o lle g e age" ( 1 3 :iv ) . The book r e f l e c t s th e in flu e n c e o f H aro ld R ugg's s t y l e o f w r itin g (2 3 5 ). The p u b lic a tio n o f t h i s book e l i c i t e d c o n s id e ra b ly d i f f e r e n t r e a c t i o n s from d i f f e r e n t re v ie w e rs (5 8 , 59, 76, 87, 8 8 ), an d th e volume re c e iv e d s p e c ia l r e c o g n itio n (1 7 8 , 186, 1 88). As a r e s u l t o f t h i s p u b lic a tio n R o salin d C assid y was e le c te d t o h o n o rary m em bership in th e Eugene F ie ld S o c ie ty o f th e N a tio n a l A s s o c ia tio n o f A uthors and J o u r n a l i s t s in 1938 (1 0 0 :1 2 3 ). P r o f e s s io n a l S e rv ic e D uring t h i s p e rio d o f tw e n ty -tw o y e a r s * R o sa lin d C assid y assum ed p o s itio n s o f a u th o r ity in o r g a n iz a tio n s a t th e l o c a l * s t a t e 9 d i s t r i c t * and n a t io n a l l e v e l i n many p ro f e s s i o n a l a r e a s . In 1937 sh e re c e iv e d th e F e llo w sh ip Award o f th e A m erican P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n A s s o c ia tio n (1 5 ^ :1 6 3 ), and was e le c te d t o m em bership in th e A m erican Academy o f P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n in A p ril o f 1938 < 2 5 2 :3 ). M ills C o lle g e : E d u c a tio n (1939-19H 7) D evelopm ents i n P h y sic a l* H ealth * and R e c re a tio n E d u ca tio n The 1 9 4 0 's w ere y e a rs in w hich p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n e s t a b li s h e d i t s e l f p erm an en tly as a p a r t o f g e n e ra l edu c a tio n (4 4 :5 1 4 )* b u t narrow ed i t s s o c i a l and e d u c a tio n a l p u rp o se s p re d o m in a n tly t o h e a lth and p h y s ic a l o b je c tiv e s d u rin g W orld War I I . The em phasis on " p h y s ic a l f i t n e s s " was m od ified * however* and ex te n d e d i n t o th e te rm " t o t a l f i t n e s s " (2 8 7 :2 0 6 ). S o c ia l* e d u c a tio n a l dom inance in p u rp o se was fo re m o st in th e l a t t e r y e a rs o f th e decade w ith grow ing co n cern ab o u t d e m o c ra tic human r e l a t i o n s and i n t e r n a t io n a l u n d e rsta n d in g s and r e la ti o n s h i p s (2 9 3 :3 5 5 ). Con f l i c t ab o u t p u rp o se and d ir e c tio n o f th e p r o f e s s io n in c r e a s e d in tem po d u rin g t h i s decade (1 6 9 :3 1 0 -3 1 1 ) as program s in th e w ar y e a rs r e f l e c t e d th e em phasis on 42 m i li t a r y t r a i n i n g ( 1 4 6 ) , b u t b ro a d en ed i n l a t e r y e a rs w ith a renew ed em phasis on s p o r t s , a t h l e t i c s , and r e c r e a ti o n a l a c t i v i t i e s (3 3 :1 3 5 ). T e s t s , m easu rem en ts, and r e s e a rc h g ain ed in c r e a s in g a t t e n t i o n and im p o rta n c e (1 4 6 :3 9 3 ) as a movement t o e s t a b l i s h s ta n d a r d s in te a c h e r e d u c a tio n in h e a lt h , p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n , and r e c r e a ti o n d ev elo p ed (4 6 : 9 6 ), and a tr e n d to w ard i n t e r n a l r e f in e m e n t, i n t e g r a t i o n , and c o o r d in a tio n betw een th e a r e a s was e v id e n t (2 1 :5 1 2 ). The dance movement expanded u n t i l th e w ar y e a r s , and d ev elo p ed w ith renew ed v ig o r i n a r e a s o f p r o f e s s io n a l p r e p a r a tio n , p e rfo rm a n c e , and ch o reo g rap h y i n th e l a t e 1 9 4 0 's (1 5 2 :8 9 ). The r e c r e a ti o n movement expanded w id e ly d u rin g th e Second W orld War w ith a trem endous in c r e a s e in p ro g ram s, f a c i l i t i e s , p e r s o n n e l, and equipm ent f o r th e m ili t a r y e s ta b lis h m e n ts ( 4 6 :9 0 ) . Community r e c r e a ti o n f lo u r is h e d a f t e r W orld War I I as n e v e r b e f o re (4 4 :4 9 7 ). D uring t h i s d ecade program s i n th e s c h o o l h e a lth e d u c a tio n movement w ere s tr o n g in th r e e a r e a s o f e m p h a sis: h e a lth i n s t r u c t i o n , h e a lth e n v iro n m e n t, and h e a lth s e r v ic e s (4 6 :9 4 ). The sc h o o l h e a lt h e d u c a tio n movement c o n tin u e d t o im prove i n q u a l i t y and i n th e co m p reh en siv en ess o f s e r v ic e s o ffe re d d u rin g t h i s t e n - y e a r p e r io d (1 0 3 :5 8 8 ). E d u c a tio n a l L e a d e rs h ip : M ills C o lle g e R o sa lin d C a ssid y r e tu r n e d t o M ills C o lle g e from 43 Columbia U n iv e rsity in 1938 and assumed r e s p o n s i b i l i ti e s in 1939 as Convenor o f th e School o f E d u catio n , l a t e r expanded t o th e School o f E ducation and Community S e rv ic e s (2 3 3 ). She co n tin u ed t o se rv e in t h i s c a p a c ity u n t i l h e r d e p a rtu re f o r th e U n iv e rsity o f C a lifo rn ia a t Los Angeles in th e f a l l o f 1947. The School o f E ducation and Community S e rv ic e s c o n s is te d o f fo u r d ep artm en ts: E d u catio n ; C h ild D evelop m ent; H e a lth , P h y sic a l E d u ca tio n , and R e c re a tio n ; Home Econom ics, and th e two c u r r ic u la of O ccu p atio n al Therapy and S o c ia l Work (2 0 4 :6 ). Over th e y e a rs R osalind C assidy i d e n t i f i e d h e r s e lf s tro n g ly w ith v a rio u s community groups and yo u th work a g e n c ie s . Roy C. Votaw, A s s is ta n t D ire c to r o f th e C a li f o r n ia Youth A u th o rity , id e n ti f i e d R osalind C a s s id y 's r o le in youth work:* At M ills she h elp ed make a v a ila b le th e re so u rc e s o f a c o lle g e and i t s com petent fa c u lty as a r e a l p a rty in th e w id er com m unity's concern fo r i t s c h ild re n and y o u th . (232) M ajor P u b lic a tio n s P h y sic a l E ducation in th e Secondary S c h o o l* a 1940 p u b lic a tio n , was based on a s e r ie s of p h y s ic a l ed u c atio n workshops h e ld in 1938 and 1939 under th e au sp ic e s o f th e P ro g re ssiv e E ducation A sso c ia tio n (1 8 :4 -5 ). The purpose o f th e book was t o develop a contem porary p o in t o f view o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n in harmony w ith th e b e s t th in k in g o f th e 44 day and from t h i s d e riv e im p lic a tio n s f o r th e r e d ir e c tio n o f American p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n (1 8 :4 -5 ). J a n e t E rv in , in 1964, p lace d th is book in h i s t o r i c a l p e rsp e c tiv e by s t a t i n g t h a t : "A lthough b r i e f t h i s pam p h le t proved to be one o f th e most c o n c ise and y e t compre hen siv e s ta te m e n ts o f th e new p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n " (287: 206). T h is book was e x te n s iv e ly review ed (6 0 , 63, 71, 77, 83, 8 9 ), and p ra is e d by th e P ro g re ssiv e E ducation A ssoci a tio n in 1940 (1 8 6 :2 8 3 ). P h y sic a l F itn e s s f o r G i r l s , w ritte n by R osalind C assidy and H ild a Kozman, appeared in 1943. The volume was designed t o se rv e as a te x tb o o k f o r te a c h e r ed u catio n and a guide t o in d iv id u a ls in c u rricu lu m r e v is io n (1 6 :x iv ). A workbook, F itn e s s F i r s t : A P h y sic a l F itn e s s Workbook fo r High School G i r l s , d esig n ed to accompany P h y sic a l F itn e ss f o r G i r l s , was a ls o p u b lish e d in 1943 (2 9 ). Reviews o f th e two volumes were numerous (5 3 , 68, 82, 85, 9 5 ), and P h y sic a l F itn e s s f o r G irls was inclu d ed among s ix ty books t h a t re c e iv e d s p e c ia l re c o g n itio n in th e f i e l d o f e d u c a tio n in th e y e a r , 1943 (150:12*0. A t h i r d book, c o -au th o red by R osalind C assidy and e n t i t l e d Group E x p erie n ce: The D em ocratic Way, a ls o ap peared in 1943. T his volume was produced in c o lla b o ra tio n w ith B ernice B a x te r, and th e two a u th o rs p ro je c te d th e p o in t o f view t h a t : 45 The book i s w ritte n p rim a rily f o r young men and women who a r e in th e p ro c ess o f p re p a rin g t o guide youth to ward re s p o n s ib le c itiz e n s h ip in a dem ocracy, w hether t h a t p re p a ra tio n i s b ein g made in th e e d u c a tio n a l f i e l d o r in o th e r a re a s o f s o c ia l work. ( 4 : XI) Group E x p erien ce: The D em ocratic W ay was e x te n s iv e ly review ed (6 5 , 6 9 , 70, 74, 8 6 ), and th e volume was a ls o in c lu d e d among th e s ix ty e d u c a tio n a l books s in g le d o u t fo r re c o g n itio n in 1943 (1 5 0 :1 2 4 ). In 1947 R o salind C assidy and H ild a C lu te Kozman co au th o re d a t h ir d book e n t i t l e d C ounseling G irls in a Changing S o c ie ty . The forew ard was w r itte n by th e n o ted c u l t u r a l a n th r o p o lo g is t, M argaret Mead. The a u th o rs d esig n ed th e book " f o r a l l th o se who a re re s p o n s ib le f o r th e c o u n se lin g and guidance o f g i r l s '1 ( 1 5 : v i i ) . The rev iew s o f C ounseling G irls in a Changing S o c ie ty were many in number (5 6 , 61, 6 2 , 64, 79, 8 0 ), as was th e c a se w ith p re v io u s C assidy p u b lic a tio n s , and th e book was c i t e d as a s i g n i f i c a n t p u b lic a tio n in e d u c a tio n (194:484) in 1949. The f i r s t o f th re e e d itio n s o f Methods in P h y s ic a l E d u catio n appeared in 1947 (3 0 ). The second e d itio n appeared i n 1952 (3 1 ), and th e t h i r d in 195 8 ( 3 2 ) . A fo u rth e d it io n i s forthcom ing in e a r ly 1966. T his book was w r it te n by R o salin d C assid y , H ild a C lu te Kozman, and C h e ste r 0. Jack so n in o rd e r to "p ro v id e a book on te a c h in g m ethods in th e f i e l d o f p h y s ic a l ed u c atio n which would be a lig n e d w ith th e b e s t g e n e ra l methods in secondary e d u c a tio n " ( 3 0 :v ) . Reviews o f Methods in P h y sic a l E d u catio n in d ic a te d *46 t h i s book was o f s p e c ia l i n t e r e s t because o f th e contempo ra ry n a tu re o f th e m a te ria l in c lu d e d and th e p r a c t ic a l u t i l i t y o f th e volume (7 2 , 75, 8 1 ). T his work was accorded s p e c ia l r e c o g n itio n in th e f i e l d o f e d u c a tio n (1 7 0 , 189)• P ro fe s s io n a l S e rv ic e D uring h e r l a s t n in e y e a rs a t M ills C o lle g e , 1939 t o 19*47, R o salin d C assidy was a c tiv e in a le a d e rs h ip capac i t y a t th e l o c a l , d i s t r i c t , s t a t e , and n a tio n a l le v e ls . She was a c tiv e in th e sp h e re o f youth w ork, s o c ia l w e lf a r e , group w ork, women's c lu b s , cam ping, e d u c a tio n , dan ce, and p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n . U n iv e rs ity o f C a lif o r n ia , Los A n g ele s (1^*47-1962) Developm ents in P h y s ic a l, H e a lth , and R e c re a tio n E ducation The 1950'8 have been i d e n t i f i e d in th e h is to r y o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n a s "A Time o f C onferences and F itn e s s " (1 5 9 :7 6 ). The b ro ad e d u c a tio n a l em phasis upon p e r s o n a lity developm ent, d em o cratic human r e la tio n s h ip s , and s o c ia l v a lu e s (201:3*4) s h i f t e d t o a new em phasis on p h y s ic a l and h e a lth o b je c tiv e s in a tim e o f m o b iliz a tio n and involvem ent in th e Korean c o n f li c t (2 9 3 :3 3 7 -3 3 8 ). Emphasis upon an e d u c a tio n " o f" v e rsu s an e d u c a tio n "th ro u g h ” th e p h y s ic a l v a s c il l a te d th ro u g h o u t t h i s decade (287:312) w ith i n c re a s in g n a tio n a l a tt e n ti o n fo cu sed on " t o t a l f i tn e s s " (1 5 9 :8 2 ). Debate about purpose and d ir e c tio n o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n g ain ed in in te n s i ty (1U 9), and th e g u lf between p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n th e o ry and p r a c tic e c o n tin u e d t o rem ain u n ab rid g ed (2 0 0 :2 ). I n t e r e s t and involvem ent i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e la tio n s h ip s co n tin u ed to expand r a p id ly (>t0:202), and tw e n ty -fiv e co n feren ces -in th e a re a s o f h e a lt h , phys i c a l e d u c a tio n , and r e c r e a tio n were h e ld from 1951 th ro u g h 1959 (1 5 9 :7 8 ). The concept o f "movement" ap p eared w ith in c re a s in g frequency in th e p ro fe s s io n a l l i t e r a t u r e (151, 162, 291, 3 0 9 ), and th e endeavor t o upgrade and a c c r e d it u n d erg rad u ate and g ra d u ate te a c h e r e d u c a tio n program s in h e a l t h , p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n , and r e c r e a tio n came to f u l f illm e n t (1 5 9 :8 5 ). Programs were r e d ir e c te d to in c re a s e d use o f t e s t s , m easurem ents, and " p h y s ic a l f i t n e s s " a c t i v i t i e s d u rin g t h i s p e rio d (1 5 3 ). Dance was c h a ra c te r iz e d by th e developm ent o f a new, t h i r d g e n e ra tio n o f p ro fe s s io n a l p erfo rm ers and c h o re o g ra p h e rs, and a q u e s t f o r improvement in q u a lity o f te a c h e r e d u c a tio n program s a t t h i s tim e (1 5 2 :8 9 -9 1 ). In r e c r e a ti o n , in c re a s e d q a tio n a l a t te n ti o n fo cu sed upon e d u c a tio n f o r l e i s u r e , u n d erg rad u ate and g ra d u a te p r o f e s s io n a l p r e p a r a tio n , r e c r e a tio n f o r th e m e n ta lly d i s tu r b e d , and sc h o o l re c r e a tio n (1 5 9 :7 8 ). T his was a p e rio d o f in c re a s e d grow th, e x p a n sio n , s o l i d i f i c a t i o n , and o rg a n iz a tio n o f th e sc h o o l h e a lth edu c a tio n movement (2 9 7 :7 0 3 ). N a tio n a l concern was c e n te re d 48 upon im provem ent o f th e q u a l i t y o f u n d e rg ra d u a te and g rad u a te p ro fe a a io n a l e d u c a tio n program s (1 5 9 :7 8 ), ex p a n sio n o f r e s e a r c h t u p g ra d in g sc h o o l h e a lth e d u c a tio n c u r r i c u l a , and im proved i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ith a l l i e d a re a s (1 5 6 :8 8 ). P r o f e s s io n a l L e a d e rsh ip : U n iv e rs ity o f C a l i f o r n i a , Los A ngeles R o sa lin d C assid y a c c e p te d an i n v i t a t i o n in 1947 to become a member o f th e s t a f f in th e d ep artm en t o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n a t th e U n iv e r s ity o f C a lif o r n ia a t Los A n g eles. Her prim ary r e s p o n s i b i l i t y was t o d ev elo p th e g ra d u a te program o f s tu d ie s in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n and e s t a b l i s h th e departm ent a s a n a t i o n a l c e n te r o f p r o f e s s io n a l p re p a ra tio n (2 3 7 ). In a l e t t e r t o John B ovard, chairm an o f th e d ep artm en t o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n , R o sa lin d C assid y d e c la r e d : I f in d mysftlf, in c r e a s in g ly co n v in ce d t h a t su ch a c e n te r sh o u ld be d ev elo p ed a s q u ic k ly a s p o s s ib le and t h a t th e p a r t i c u l a r c irc u m sta n c e s a t U .C .L.A . a p p e a r t o be u n u s u a lly fa v o ra b le f o r a contem porary program w hich would a s p ro fo u n d ly in flu e n c e th e d i r e c ti o n o f p ro fe s s io n a l p r e p a r a tio n i n t h i s f i e l d to d a y , as d id th e program a t T e a c h e rs ' C o lle g e in th e 1 9 3 0 's . (214) D uring a p e rio d o f s ix te e n y e a rs i n t h i s d ep a rtm e n t o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n , R o sa lin d C assid y assum ed many re s p o n s i b i l i t i e s and fo c u se d h e r en erg y in s e v e r a l d i r e c t i o n s . She worked t o d ev elo p b o th th e g ra d u a te and u n d e rg ra d u a te p ro grams i n p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n (2 4 6 ), t o u n ify d e p a rtm e n ta l ph ilo so p h y and p r a c tic e s (2 4 7 ), and t o i d e n t i f y th e body o f knowledge form ing th e d i s c i p l i n e o f human movement (2 4 8 ). H 9 Upon h e r re tire m e n t from th e u n iv e r s ity in th e s p rin g o f 1962, Ben W . H i l l e r , chairm an o f th e d ep artm en t o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n , in a l e t t e r t o R o salin d C a ss id y , s a id t h a t : The Departm ent had i t s e r a o f g r e a t e s t developm ent d u rin g y o u r p e rio d o f s e r v ic e . You c o n trib u te d s i g n i f ic a n tly a s th e D epartm ent grew t o a n a tio n a lly re c o g n iz e d c e n te r o f le a r n in g and re s e a rc h i n th e p ro fe s s io n . (226) M ajor P u b lic a tio n s In 1951 R o salin d C assidy was a c o n tr ib u tin g a u th o r t o th e volume D eveloping D em ocratic Human R e la tio n s Through H ea lth E d u catio n , P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n , and R e c re a tio n , th e f i r s t yearbook o f th e American A s s o c ia tio n f o r H e a lth , P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n , and R e c re a tio n ( l : v i i i - i x ) . In th e same y e a r , 1951, Group P ro ce ss in P h y s ic a l E d u catio n (28) was p u b lis h e d . A lthough th e book was e d ite d by H ild a C lu te Kozman and a u th o re d by th e p h y s ic a l edu c a tio n s t a f f o f th e U n iv e rsity o f C a lif o r n ia a t Los A n g e lss, e ig h t o f th e tw elv e c h a p te rs were w r itte n by R o salin d C assidy (2 1 5 ). The a u th o rs in d ic a te d th e re a so n f o r p u b lic a tio n o f t h i s volume i n a s ta te m e n t in th e in tro d u c tio n to th e book: T h is book i s w r itte n t o d e s c r ib e , a n a ly z e , and i l l u s t r a t e group p ro c ess in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n as a method f o r d ev elo p in g d em o cratic r e la tio n s h ip s i n and th ro u g h group a c tio n . ( 2 8 :x i) . Reviews o f Group P ro cess in P h y s ic a l E d u catio n 50 i n d i c a t e d t h a t a w o rth w h ile a d d itio n had been made t o th e p r o f e s s io n a l l i t e r a t u r e (5 1 , 7 3 , 9 1 , 9 2 , 9 8 ), and th e volum e was i d e n t i f i e d a s a s i g n i f i c a n t e d u c a tio n a l book o f 1951 (1 7 1 :1 0 7 ). C u rricu lu m D evelopm ent i n P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n made i t s a p p e a ra n c e in 1954. T his book was based upon c o n c e p ts o f ‘c u rric u lu m r e v is io n f i r s t i d e n t i f i e d in New D ir e c tio n s i n P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n i n 1938 and e x ten d e d t o i d e n t i f y i n d e p th and b re a d th contem porary c u rric u lu m p ro c e ss in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n < 9 :x i ) . The re v ie w s o f t h i s book w ere num erous (5 5 , 5 7 , 9 0 , 96) and in g e n e ra l agreem ent re g a rd in g i t s " p r o g re s s iv e v ie w p o in t" ( 5 5 :1 2 1 ), and tim e ly ap p earan ce (9 6 :1 1 7 ) in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n . In 1956 S u p e rv is io n in P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n , w r itte n by K im ball W ile s , C am ille Brown, and R o sa lin d C a ss id y , was p u b lis h e d (5 1 ). B ecause o f i l l n e s s , R o salin d C a s s id y 's c o n t r ib u t i o n t o t h i s volume was lim ite d and C am ille Brown and K im b all W iles assum ed th e m ajor w r itin g r o le s (2 1 5 ). The l a s t m ajo r book o f R o sa lin d C a s s id y 's w hich was p u b lis h e d i n th e 1 9 5 0 's was a p ap erb ack e d it io n o f Coun s e l i n g i n th e P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n Program ( 8 ) , w hich a p p e a re d in 1959. T h is s m a ll volume was w r itte n t o p ro v id e g u id e lin e s f o r le a d e r s i n h e a lt h ; p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n , and r e c r e a t i o n e d u c a tio n w orking w ith young men and women (8 : v ) . 51 In 1962, as in 1951, R o salin d C assidy was ag ain a c o n tr ib u to r to a n o th e r yearbook o f th e American A sso c ia tio n o f H e a lth , P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n , and R e c re a tio n ; t h i s one was e n t i t l e d The Growing Y ears; A dolescence ( 2 ) . P ro fe s s io n a l S e rv ic e D uring s ix te e n y e a rs as a p ro fe s s o r o f p h y sic a l e d u c a tio n a t th e U n iv e rsity o f C a lif o r n ia , Los A ngeles, R osalind C assidy p ro v id ed co n tin u o u s le a d e rs h ip a t th e s t a t e , d i s t r i c t , and n a tio n a l le v e ls in th e f i e l d o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n . In 1948 she was one o f th e e ig h te e n p a r tic ip a n ts in th e N a tio n a l C onference on U ndergraduate P ro fe s s io n a l P re p a ra tio n in H ea lth Education*, P h y sic a l E d u catio n , and R ecreatio n (1 9 9 ). In 1950 she se rv e d as vice-chairm an o f th e N a tio n a l C onference on G raduate Study in H ealth Edu c a tio n , P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n , and R e c re a tio n (1 9 8 ). In 1951 R o salind C assidy was e le c te d p re s id e n t o f th e American Academy o f P h y sic a l E d ucation (2 5 2 :3 ), and fiv e y e a rs l a t e r was th e r e c ip ie n t o f th e G ulick award, h ig h e s t honor awarded to any member o f th e p ro fe ssio n of p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n (1 8 2 :2 2 ). R o salin d C assidy re c e iv e d an honor award from th e S outhw estern D i s t r i c t o f th e American A sso c ia tio n fo r 52 H e a lth * P h y sic a l E ducation and R e c re a tio n (2 3 0 ), and an honorary l i f e membership in th e N a tio n a l A sso c ia tio n f o r P h y sic a l E ducation o f C ollege Women in 195 8 (2 1 7 ). In 1960 R osalind C assidy was th e r e c ip ie n t o f a s e rv ic e award given by th e C a lifo rn ia A s s o c ia tio n f o r H ealth* P h y sic a l Education* and R e c reatio n a t th e s t a t e co n feren ce in B a k e rsfie ld * C a lifo rn ia (1 5 5 :8 ). R etirem ent Years (1962 - ) Developments in P h y sical* H e a lth , and R ecreatio n E ducation The y e a rs between 1960 and 1970 have been i d e n t i f ie d by Jay B. Nash as a p erio d th a t w i l l be known as na peace tim e p h y s ic a l f itn e s s era" (3 9 :1 1 ). The c o n tin u in g attem p t t o e s ta b lis h and id e n tif y a prim ary purpose o r aim o f p h y s ic a l'e d u c a tio n rem ained u n reso lv ed in 1965 (1 9 7 :3 9 ). G re a te r em phasis upon th e id e n ti f ic a t io n and meaning o f human movement was e v id e n t in th e p ro fe s s io n a l l i t e r a t u r e ( 6 , lt8 * 163* 172, 179). In c rease d i n t e r e s t * involvem ent* and su p p o rt by th e fe d e ra l government in th e f i t n e s s a re a became m an ifest (**6:102-10U ). A c o n tin u a l expansion o f th e r o le o f th e American A sso c ia tio n f o r H e a lth , P h y sic a l Edu c a tio n , and R ecreatio n in in te r n a tio n a l h e a lth * p h y sic a l* and r e c re a tio n ed u c atio n a f f a i r s o ccu rred (1 7 6 ). P h y sic a l ed u c a tio n programs r e f le c te d an in c re a s e d em phasis upon p h y s ic a l f itn e s s a c t i v i t i e s and f i tn e s s t e s t i n g program s 53 (m < t:5 S ). E d u catio n f o r use o f le is u r e tim e , as r e f l e c t e d in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n program a c t i v i t i e s , co n tin u ed t o in c r e a s e in im po rtan ce in th e s i x t i e s (2 9 8 :1 ). R e c re a tio n c o n tin u e d to p lay an in c re a s in g ly im p o rta n t r o le in Am erican s o c ie ty in th e 1 9 6 0 's becau se o f th e g r e a te r amounts o f tim e a v a ila b le fo r le is u r e use by in d iv id u a ls (1 6 8 :2 8 ). A se a rc h f o r m eaningful d ir e c tio n f o r th e r e c r e a tio n p r o f e s s io n , in c re a s in g em phasis upon th e developm ent o f q u a lity in r e c r e a tio n a l le a d e rs h ip , in c r e m ents in r e c r e a ti o n a l r e s e a r c h , and in n o v a tio n in te a c h e r e d u c a tio n program s s ig n a lle d grow th and new dim ensions o f p ro g re s s f o r r e c r e a tio n in th e 1 9 6 0 's (1 5 8 ). In h e a lth e d u c a tio n a h e ig h ten ed i n t e r e s t in th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f th e unique c o n te n t and em phasis o f t h i s f i e l d o c c u rre d d u rin g th e 1 9 6 0 's (9 9 :2 6 -2 7 ). An in c re a s in g number o f n a tio n a l re s e a rc h s tu d ie s a tta c k in g p re s s in g problem s in h e a lth e d u c a tio n , and a movement tow ard u n i f i c a tio n o f th e a re a s o f sc ie n c e and h e a lth e d u c a tio n , a ls o ap p eared in th e f i r s t f iv e y e a rs o f th e 1 9 6 0 's (19 7:«f0-44). P ro fe s s io n a l A c tiv ity A fte r re tire m e n t from th e departm ent o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n a t th e U n iv e rsity o f C a lif o r n ia a t Los A ngeles in th e s p rin g o f 1962, R o salin d C assidy co n tin u ed t o rem ain a c tiv e in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n . From A p ril to June o f 1963 sh e v i s i t e d I s r a e l in o rd e r t o stu d y th e f i t n e s s program s 54 i n s t i t u t e d th e r e f o r th e young p eo p le d u rin g th e f i f t e e n y e a rs o f t h a t c o u n tr y 's e x is te n c e (1 1 4 :1 0 ). D uring th e autumn q u a r te r o f th e 1963 s c h o o l y e a r , R o salin d C assidy was a p p o in te d as a Walker-Ames P ro fe s s o r in th e d epartm ent o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n a t th e U n iv e rs ity o f W ashington (2 2 4 ). In th e s p r in g se m e s te r o f th e same sch o o l y e a r she a c c e p te d an ap p o in tm en t a t Adams S ta te C ollege in C olorado t o d e v e lo p th e g ra d u a te program in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n (2 3 7 ). In th e summer s e s s io n s o f th e 1964 and 1965 sch o o l y e a r s , R osalind C assid y ta u g h t g ra d u a te c o u rse s in th e d epartm ent o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n a t th e U n iv e r s ity o f C a lif o r n ia a t Los A n g eles. M ajor P u b lic a tio n s In 1963 th e seco n d m ajo r c o lla b o r a tio n o f R o salin d C assidy and C am ille Brown, Theory in P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n , made i t s ap p earan ce ( 6 ) . The a u th o rs i d e n t i f i e d th e purpose o f t h i s volume by s t a t i n g t h a t : The m a te r ia ls o f t h i s book have been d ev elo p ed as a b rid g e betw een th e o ld e r e s ta b lis h e d te rm in o lo g y and th e c o n c e p ts o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n and th e more accu r a te term in o lo g y and c o n c e p ts o f human movement. (6 :7 ) Reviews o f t h i s book w ere a s d i v e r s i f i e d and p e n e tr a tin g as th o se o f p re v io u s C assid y p u b lic a tio n s . The c r it i q u e s o f W a llis (97) and F a rq u e r ( 6 6 ) , f o r ex am p le, were q u e s tio n in g in n a tu r e , w h ile rev iew s by N o lte (8 * 0 , F is h e r ( 6 7 ) , and o th e rs (9 3 , 94) a c c e p te d and su p p o rte d th e volum e. P ro fe s s io n a l S e rv ic e In 1962 R o salin d C assidy was awarded an h o n o rary l i f e membership both in th e W estern S o c ie ty o f P h y s ic a l E d u catio n f o r C ollege Women ( 2 t9 ) , and a ls o in th e C a li f o r n ia A sso c ia tio n f o r H e a lth , P h y sic a l E d u c a tio n , and R e c re a tio n (2 2 7 ). Summary Over a span o f fiv e decades o f p r o f e s s io n a l a c t i v i t y and s e r v ic e , R osalind C assidy c o n tin u o u sly i d e n t i f i e d w ith and was a c tiv e ly in v o lv e d in th e developm ent o f numerous e d u c a tio n a l e n te r p r is e s . The f u r th e r in g of th e contem porary dance movement and th e o rg a n iz ed camping movement on th e w est c o a s t o f th e U n ited S ta te s was r e la te d d i r e c tly t o h e r i n t e r e s t and e f f o r t s . I d e n ti f i c a tio n w ith th e f i e l d s o f e d u c a tio n and s o c i a l group work was m a n ife st in numerous p u b lic a tio n s , p o s itio n s o f le a d e r s h ip , and s e rv ic e c o n trib u tio n s to th e c h ild re n and youth o f C a lifo rn ia and th e n a tio n . The r o le s o f R osalind C assidy in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n w ere d if f u s e and v a r ie d , and new r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s were assumed in le a d e rs h ip p o s itio n s a t M ills C ollege and a t th e U n iv e rs ity o f C a lif o r n ia , Los A ngeles. P u b lic a tio n s in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n were numerous and r e f le c te d a co n tin u o u s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith th e concepts o f c u rric u lu m developm ent, 56 program in n o v a tio n , r e v is i o n , and r e d ir e c t io n , te a c h e r p r e p a r a tio n , s u p e r v is io n , t h e o r e t i c a l fo u n d a tio n s , method o lo g ic a l a p p l ic a ti o n , and c o u n se lin g and guidance in th e movement a r e a s . W ithin f iv e decades o f ch an g e, developm ent, and m a tu ra tio n i n th e f i e l d s o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n , h e a lth edu c a tio n , and r e c r e a tio n e d u c a tio n , docum ents, p o s itio n s o f le a d e r s h ip , honors and re c o g n itio n s acco rd ed R osalind C assidy in d ic a te that* she c o n tin u o u sly sought to b ro ad en , d eep en , c l a r i f y , and ex ten d c o n c e p tio n s o f p u rp o se, p ro gram , and p r a c tic e in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n w ith in th e ch an g in g , d e m o c ra tic , e d u c a tio n a l c o n te x t o f th e tim e. PART I I I FOUNDATIONS 57 CHAPTER I I I THE INDIVIDUAL A N D THE ENVIRONMENT The r e l a t i o n o f man t o h ie en v iro n m en t i s th e r e l a t i o n o f th e h i s t o r i a n t o h is them e. — Edward H a lle t C a rr A c a r e f u l e x a m in a tio n o f R o sa lin d C a s s id y 's w r itte n m a te r ia ls i n d i c a t e s t h a t s e v e r a l them es w ere s t a t e d e a r ly and r e i t e r a t e d and expanded o v e r th e y e a r s . One o f th e s e b a s ic c o n c e p ts in v o lv e d an u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e n a tu r e o f th e human o rg an ism and th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e i n d i v id u a l and th e e n v iro n m e n t. In t h i s C h a p te r» sam ple e x c e r p ts a r e p r e s e n te d w hich d e p ic t h e r c o n tin u o u s co n cern w ith t h i s them e. The Y ears 1920-1929 In R o sa lin d C a s s id y 's f i r s t m ajor p u b lic a tio n * co a u th o re d w ith Thomas D. Wood* The New P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n : A Program o f N a tu r a lis e d A c t i v i t i e s f o r E d u ca tio n Toward C i t i s e n s h i p . th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l fo u n d a tio n s o f " th e n a t u r a l movement" i n p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n w ere i d e n t i f i e d : I t i s fu n d a m e n ta lly b ase d on th e p r o p o s itio n o f a know ledge o f t h e n a tu r e and needs o f th e in d iv id u a l. I t makes a p p l i c a t io n o f su ch know ledge and aims t o d i r e c t and m odify th e o r i g i n a l te n d e n c ie s and im p u lses S8 59 so th a t th e in d iv id u a l may become a more u s e fu l s o c ia l b ein g and th u s b e t t e r f i t t e d , f o r th e c o n d itio n s o f modern l i f e . (S2tH0 [1 9 2 7 ])! A p o in t o f view re g a rd in g th e m eaning o f in d iv id u a l i t y was p re se n te d : The id e a o f th e w orth o f th e in d iv id u a l allo w s f o r no accep tan ce o f d u alism , th e s e p a ra te e x is te n c e o f mind and body. On th e c o n tr a r y , th e m ind, body, and s p i r i t a re one; th e whole in d iv id u a l— p h y s ic a l and s o c i a l , i n t e l l e c t u a l and m oral—has i n f i n i t e w o rth . (52:29 [1927]) W ithin th e en v iro n m en tal s e t t i n g , th e a c tiv e e x p e r ie n tia l r e la tio n s h ip betw een th e in d iv id u a l and th e environm ent was d e sc rib e d in th e fo llo w in g m anner: E xperience becomes a m a tte r p rim a rily o f doing: th e organism a c ts in accordance w ith i t s own s t r u c t u r e , and as a consequence th e change produced in th e environm ent r e a c ts on th e organism and i t s a c t i v i t i e s . The organ ism s u f f e r s th e consequence o f i t s own b e h a v io r. (52:37 [1927]) W ithin th e s o c i e t a l c o n te x t C assidy and Wood in d ic a te d th e im portance o f th e s o c i a l m ilie u to in d iv id u a l developm ent: . • • a l l human b ein g s a re in te rd e p e n d e n t; th e in d iv id u a l can e x i s t and develop only th ro u g h th e group. (52:29 [1927]) A concept o f e x p e rie n c e and human b e h a v io r which was p re se n te d r e f le c te d th e v iew p o in t o f two le a d in g edu c a tio n a l fig u re s o f th e tim e , John Dewey and Edward L. T horndike:. ^-Publication d a te s o f C assidy m a te ria ls c i t e d a re in clu d e d in th e te rm in a l re fe re n c e in o rd e r t o id e n tif y sta te m e n ts in h i s t o r i c a l c o n te x t. 60 E x p erien ce i s p rim a rily d o in g ; th e r e s u l t s o f th e doing o f th in g s modify th e c h i l d 's b e h a v io r by means o f th e S-R bonds so form ed. The term S-R bond i s used c o n tin u a lly th ro u g h th e t e x t in th e se n se given i t by T horndike and D esey. (52:11 [1927]) T his co n cep t o f e x p e rie n c e , developed i n l i g h t o f Thorn d ik e 's p o in t o f view , d e fin e d le a rn in g a t t h a t tim e , as f o llo w s : The resp o n d in g t o s i tu a tio n s and th e consequent f o r m ation o f n e u ra l re sp o n se bonds a re c a lle d e x p e rie n c e . The r u le s by which ex p e rien ce becomes le a r n in g a re th e law s o f R ead in ess, E x e rc is e , and E f f e c t. (52:12 [1 9 2 7 ]) P ro je c tin g t h i s id e a f u r t h e r in lig h t o f i t s e d u c a tio n a l im p lic a tio n s re g a rd in g th e c h ild , i t was s t a te d t h a t : Modern e d u c a tio n a l a u th o r itie s a s s u re us t h a t we must encourage th e c h ild t o le a rn by d o in g , by e x p e rie n c in g , by a c tu a lly liv in g am idst problem s i t u a t i o n s . Such s i t u a t i o n s a re o c c a s io n a lly c a lle d " p r o je c t s ." (131:5 3 [192 9 ]) An i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f in d iv id u a l needs in The New P h y s ic a l E ducation was made in ta b u la r l i s t i n g s o f p h y si c a l , m e n ta l, and s o c i a l c h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f in d iv id u a ls a t v a ry in g c h ro n o lo g ic a l ages and sch o o l g rade l e v e l s . The use o f t h i s approach was based upon th e s ta te m e n t: T here a r e • . • c e r t a i n laws and p r in c ip le s o f c h ild developm ent which in d ic a te in g e n e ra l th e n a tu re and c a p a c itie s of c h ild re n o f d i f f e r e n t ages and ty p e s . (52:232 [1927]) The Y ears 1930-1939 In New D ire c tio n s in P h y sic a l E d u catio n f o r th e I 61 A dolescent G irl i n High School and C o lle g e . th e concept o f i n s t i n c t s as im p o rta n t in u n d e rsta n d in g human b e h a v io r was r e je c te d : The new er co n cep t o f th e human organism as a s e l f - p e rp e tu a tin g p a t t e r n , a system o f energy in an u n s ta b le e q u ilib riu m , p e rm its us to d is c a r d th e lo n g l i s t s o f in b o rn i n s t i n c t s . (13:42 [1 9 38]) C assidy i d e n t i f i e d th e d ir e c tio n o f h e r own th in k in g about th e in d iv id u a l and i t s environm ent in a r a th e r e x te n siv e summary o f h e r id e a s in Hew D ire c tio n s in P hysi c a l E d u c a tio n : Every human in d iv id u a l d i f f e r s from ev ery o th e r human in d iv id u a l. The human o rgan ism and i t s environm ent a re a u n it which may o nly be u n d e rsto o d and s tu d ie d in t h i s u n ifie d r e la ti o n s h i p . The in d iv id u a l i s born in to an e s ta b lis h e d p a tte r n o f s o c ie ty . T h at s o c ie ty p a tte r n s th e S e lf . The human o rganism i s a system o f en erg y in u n sta b le e q u ilib riu m . The te n s io n s s e t up t o re g a in e q u ilib riu m a re by t h a t v ery f a c t p u rp o s e fu l. Movement t o re g a in e q u ilib riu m i s b e h a v io r. Human b e h a v io r i s p u rp o siv e and g o al s e e k in g . Purpose i n t e g r a t e s . I t i s th e g re a t dynamic o f liv in g and th e r e f o r e o f le a r n in g . Organism and environm ent as a u n it a r e in v o lv e d in each le a r n in g e x p e rie n c e . L earning ta k e s p la c e as th e in d iv id u a l and h i s environm ent i n t e r a c t . I t i s a p ro c ess t h a t ta k e s p la c e in and b ecau se o f th e s i t u a tio n and i s unique to each p e rs o n , e v e r changing and m odifying b o th in d iv id u a l and h is own unique e n v iro n m ent. S te p s in le a r n in g a r e : p u rp o s in g , p la n n in g , e x e c u tin g , e v a lu a tin g . (13 :9 8 [1 9 3 8 ]) 62 An i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f le a r n in g as "problem s o lv in g " was made by C assidy when sh e in d ic a te d t h a t : L earn in g i s a r e s u l t o f " a c tio n on th in k in g ." T hinking i s t h i s p ro c ess o f o rg a n iz in g and r e - o r g a n iz - in g p a s t m eanings in t o new p a tte r n s t o m eet p re s e n t problem s. (13:48 [1938]) A p o in t was made re g a rd in g th e developm ent o f p e r s o n a lity in th e fo llo w in g m anner: P e rs o n a lity i s th e r e s u l t o f th e many b e h a v io rs t h a t a r i s e as a resp o n se t o th e te n s io n s found in th e f i e l d o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l en erg y . B ehavior i s n o t in th e in d iv id u a l b u t in th e f i e l d , in th e i n t e r a c t i o n betw een in d iv id u a l and environm ent as he m eets th e b a r r i e r s in t h a t f i e l d . (13:42 [1 9 38]) C assidy i d e n t i f i e d th e needs o f in d iv id u a ls , p a r ti c u l a r ly th o se o f th e a d o le s c e n t g i r l , a s th e " p e r s i s t e n t problem s o f li v in g :" These p e r s i s t e n t problem s a r e : Problem s o f I n d i v id u a l H ea lth and Development— (How t o keep w e ll; How t o be a t t r a c t i v e ; How t o be " n o rm a l." ); Problem s o f S o c ia l L iving— (How t o make f r ie n d s ; How t o g ain independence from fa m ily ; How t o d ev elo p a p h ilo so p h y o f l i f e , a p p r e c ia tio n and v a lu e s ) ; Problem s o f C iv ic L iv in g — (How to p a r t i c i p a t e e f f e c t i v e l y i n s o c i e t y ) ; Problem s o f V o ca tio n a l C hoice, P re p a ra tio n and S uccess — (How t o e a rn a l i v i n g ) . (13:99 [1 9 3 8 ]) The Y ears 1940-1949 In an a r t i c l e t h a t was e s s e n t i a l l y a re s ta te m e n t o f id e a s i n i t i a l l y c o n ta in e d in New D ire c tio n s in P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n . C assidy d e sig n a te d th e r e la ti o n s h i p betw een th e in d iv id u a l and environm ent in th e fo llo w in g s ta te m e n t: th e in d iv id u a l and h is environm ent a r e a u n i t , . . • th e human b ein g becomes human th ro u g h i t s a s s o c ia tio n w ith human bein g s* namely t h a t th e I n d iv id u a l i s made in to a human b e in g by in te r a c tio n w ith h i s en v iro n m en t. c u ltu r e , s o c ie ty , fe llo w s—'W hatever way you w ish to say i t . S e lf and s o c ie ty a re a u n it and th e in d iv id u a l person i s p a tte rn e d by th e c u ltu re in to which he i s b o m . His in te r a c tio n w ith i t changes b o th . (140:5 [1940]) The d eep er meaning o f th e word "environm ent" was p a rtic u la r iz e d t o mean t h a t : By environm ent i s meant a l l th e fa c to rs p a st and p re se n t t h a t a re p a r t o f th e in d iv id u a l's e x p e rie n c e s; a l l th e p e rso n s, h ap p en in g s, em otional re a c tio n s , p h y s io lo g ic a l s t a t e s . (4 :X II [1943]) C assidy p o in ted out th e im portance o f s a tis f a c to r y human r e la tio n s h ip s to p e rs o n a lity development and s o c ia l b eh a v io r by developing th e th e s is th a t : One o f th e prim ary changes in e d u c a tio n a l th in k in g i s based on th e b e l i e f th a t human r e la tio n s a re b a sic to th e developm ent o f the p e r s o n a lity , t h a t u n s a tis fa c to ry human re la tio n s h ip s tu rn th e developing in d iv id u a l in to com pensatory ways o f behaving and th a t such in d iv id u a ls ta k e revenge on t h e i r fe llo w s. Thus s o c ie ty pays th e p e n a lty . (117:24 [1940]) The r e la tio n s h ip between human b eh av io r and need was ex p ressed in one o f th e m ajor prem ises th a t C assidy and B ernice B ax ter developed as a fo u n d atio n statem en t f o r th e book, Group E x p erien ce: The D em ocratic Way: The in d iv id u a l's b eh a v io r i s e x p re ssiv e o f need o r is p u rp o siv e. His b e h a v io r, th e n , is sym ptom atic o f h is need a t any given tim e and hence th e im p o rtan t focus f o r o b se rv a tio n and stu d y . (4:X II [1943]) The needs o f th e a d o le sc e n t g i r l in a p e rio d of w ar-peace liv in g were i d e n t if ie d as. problem a reas c e n te red in "p e rso n a l s e c u r ity , v o c a tio n a l p re p a ra tio n , and employ m ent, and m e n tal, s p i r i t u a l , p h y s ic a l, s o c ia l h e a lth and adjustm ent" (16:1 [1 9 4 3 ]). 61 The concept o f in d iv id u a l needs was e x p la in e d to eean t h a t : Each in d iv id u a l develops needs unique to him . The form o f e x p re ssio n needs ta k e , th e i n t e n s i t y w ith which d i f f e r e n t ones a re f e l t , vary i n each in d iv id u a l w ith d iffe re n c e s in en v iro n m en t, h e r e d ity and e x p e rie n c e . (30:35 C19H7]) In d iv id u a l needs m ight be c l a s s i f i e d " in t e r a s o f th e d e v e lo p M n ta l ta s k in becoming a d u lt p erso n s" (3 0 :U S (19U73), ac co rd in g to R o salin d C a ssid y , H ild a C. Kozman, and C. 0. Jac k so n , o r problem s o f a d o le s c e n ts " r e l a t in g to t h e i r h e a lth , t h e i r w ork, t h e i r p la y and t h e i r r e l a t i o n sh ip s w ith o th e rs " (30:U6 [1 9 4 7 ]). The " p e r ils o f ad o lesc en ce" were e x p la in e d to mean: I f th e g i r l does n o t su cceed d u rin g ad o lesc en ce in making th e t r a n s i t i o n from ch ild h o o d t o a d u lth o o d , she may n e v e r achieve f u l l humanness o r f u l l fe m a le n ess, and t r a g i c lo s s r e s u l t s t o th e in d iv id u a l . • • and to s o c ie ty . (15:208 [19473) In o rd e r f o r th e a d o le sc e n t t o becosie a s e l f - d i r e c t i n g a d u lt, C assidy and Kozman in d ic a te d t h a t a s a l e a r n e r , th e in d iv id u a l must: tak e th e consequences o f h is own a c ts a f t e r d e c is io n s a re made. T his i s le a r n in g on th e human le v e l—i t i s s e l f i n i t i a t e d ; i t can be g u id e d , b u t i t cannot be d ic ta te d ; i t cannot be a u t h o r i t a t i v e l y im posed. (15: 103 [19473) In a s e r ie s o f broad sta te m e n ts o f b e l i e f about th e in d iv id u a l in th e en v iro n m en tal s e t t i n g , C a ssid y , in 1949, f u r th e r extended and r e f in e d id e a s developed in 1938 in New D ire c tio n s in P h y sic a l E d u c a tio n . She a s s e r te d t h a t : The in d iv id u a l is a psychosom atic u n ity — th e re i s no 65 s e p a r a tio n . Mind and body a r e a n o r g a n ie m i c t o t a l — He i s an a c tin g . f e e l i n g . th in k in g o rg an ism . This psychosom atic organism i s a u n it w ith i t s e n v iro n - i i n t « in d iv id u a ls and i h s l r t o t a l sn v iro iu —n t a l s o c ie ty i n i n t e r a c ti n g u n i t i e s a n a must be u n d ersto o d as su c n . The s e l f i s wads by th s c u ltu r e . " P e r s o n a lity aay be tn o u g n t o r as tn e flow ing continuum of org an ism - environm ent e v e n ts ." ifhs body i s a sy iib o l o f t h i s p e r s o n a lity o r S e lf ; th e body in s tru m e n t i s c s n t r a l t o l i v i n g . Ths S o c ia l S e lf i s made th ro u g h e x p e rie n c in g s a t i s f y i n g , s o c ia l ly a c c e p ta b le human r e l a t i o n s n ip s 7 A democratic society in a world setting dem ands a S e lf responsible ror D oth selr-direction ana concern for others. The le a r n e r i s c e n t r a l , le a r n in g comes th ro u g h e x p e ri- en ce—t n i s e x p e rie n c in g i s th ro u g h th e body. (287:111949])--------- ^ L The Years 1950-1959 In th e p ro c e ss o f more c lo s e ly i d e n t if y i n g th e h o l i s t i c | i n t e r a c t i v e n a tu re o f th e in d iv id u a l- e n v ir o n m ental r e l a t i o n s h i p , C assidy d e c la re d t h a t : Growth i s a b io s o c ia l p ro c e s s ; th e r e i s no s e p a r a tio n o f b io lo g ic a l and s o c ia l developm ent p o s s ib le because th e liv in g organism i s a u n ify in g whole and a u n ity w ith i t s environm ent. (28:491 [1951]) The needs o f th e in d iv id u a l i n i n t e r a c ti o n w ith th e environm ent were i d e n t i f i e d w ith in th e e d u c a tio n a l m ilie u by C assidy w ith th e concept o f "dev elo p m en tal t a s k s ." She e s ta b lis h e d t h i s p o in t o f view when sh e s a i d : E d u c a tio n a l BW t Ilf* as t h e i r p o in t o f r e f e r - ce th e ln a e d s o f th e — in d iv id u a l- ln te r a c tln g - w lth - s-e n v iro n m e n t. These mav be th o u g h t o f as th e "D evelopm ental T asks" rsQuirsd o f boys and g i r l s in t’ K a U SV Tn TSTT.----------------------- 1 - - “---------- "M eeds" w ay be thought of as arising from: ths structure or ths organism Processes or socisty nature of tne individual* 8 e x p e rie n c e s Ths D evelopm ental Tasks re q u ir e d o f a d o lsa c sn c s in o u r s o c i s t y way be th o u g h t o f a s : Accepting seir ana adjusting to a changing body Establishing satisfying relations with otners • Achieving independence from family Preparation for a vocation Defining a value system and easing one's place in TFl (2 e 8 :l L1951J) In an a tte m p t t o a v o id d ich o to m izin g term in o lo g y when v e r b a liz in g th e r e la tio n s h ip o f th e in d iv id u a l w ith in th e s o c i e t a l s e ttin g * C assidy proposed an expansion o f th e word "p sy ch o so m atic" t o in c lu d e th e fo llo w in g : To d e s c rib e th e r e la te d n e s s and i n t e r a c ti v e n a tu re o f man and h is en v iro n m en tal f a c to r s th e term "so c io p sy - choso m atic" i s needed. (8:«*1 £1959]) The Y ears 1960-1965 In a forew ard t o th e book The E v a lu a tio n P rocess in H ealth E d u c a tio n . P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n , and R e c re a tio n (1 1 ), w r itte n by M a rjo rie Latchaw and C am ille Brown, C assidy d en oted th e im portance o f an i n d i v id u a l's p e rc e p tio n o f e x p e rie n c e t o th e le a r n in g p ro c e s s . She in tro d u c e d th i s co n cep t i n th e fo llo w in g m anner: W ith an in c r e a s in g u n d e rsta n d in g among e d u c a to rs o f in d iv id u a l d if f e r e n c e s and o f th e s ig n if ic a n c e in th e le a r n in g p ro c e ss o f a p a r t i c u l a r i n d iv id u a l's p ercep t i o n o f h is e x p e rie n c e , th e n e c e s s ity to u n d e rsta n d th e i n d i v i d u a l 's s t a t u s in r e l a t i o n to h is g o als and p u rp o ses h as become a c e n tr a l co n cern . (11:V £1962]) 67 In a le n g th y s e r i e s o f s ta te m e n ts o f b e l i e f about th e n a tu re o f th e I n d iv id u a l w ith in th e e n v iro n m e n ta l s e t t i n g , R o salin d C a s sid y , in 1965, made a v a ila b le h e r m ost re c e n t c o n c e p tio n s i n th e fo llo w in g way: Each in d iv id u a l d i f f e r s from e v e ry o th e r in d iv id u a l* Nan id* a p u rp o siv e organism — he le a r n s from e x p e rie n c in g . The in d iv id u a l i s a so c io -p sy c h o m a tic u n ity . The in d iv id u a l and th e enviro n m en t a re i n t e r a c t i v e . The in d iv id u a l moves tow ard n eed f u l f i l l m e n t ; t h i s i s b e h a v io r and changes b o th th e in d iv id u a l and en v iro n m en t• A ll b e h a v io r i s a p ro d u c t o f th e p e r c e p tu a l f i e l d o f th e b e h a v io r a t th e moment o f a c tio n . L earn in g i s a m a tte r n o t o f f a c t s , b u t o f th e meaning o f f a c t s . The in d iv id u a l p e rc e iv e s w ith in a f i e l d o f fo rc e s t h a t w hich he s e l e c t s o u t as h a v in g m eaning t o him and re le v a n c e t o h is n e e d . S uccess and f e e lin g s o f w o rth r e le a s e power and e x te n d a c tio n and w id e r p e r c e p tio n s . I n t e r a c t io n w ith in d iv id u a ls — t h e i r v a lu in g o f him— i s c e n tr a l in le a r n in g . T ension (n o t f e a r ) m o tiv a tio n i s a d r iv in g fo rc e f o r a c tio n . L earn in g i s th e e x p lo rin g and d is c o v e ry o f p e rs o n a l m eaning. L iv in g i s a p ro c e ss o f e x p e rie n c in g w ith p e o p le and th in g s th ro u g h th e i n t e r a c t i v e p ro c e s s . Novemsnt i s c e n t r a l i n l i v i n g and le a r n in g and r e l a t in g ; in e s ta b l i s h i n g s e l f v a lu e s ; in s e l f a c tu a l i z a t i o n ; in becom ing. <266:1 C l965j) 68 Summary W ith th e p u b lic a tio n o f The New P h y s ic a l E d u ca tio n i n 1927, R o sa lin d C a ssid y , in c o n ju n c tio n w ith Thomas D. Wood, i n i t i a l l y i d e n t i f i e d h e r b e l i e f in th e p h ilo s o p h ic c o n c e p t o f human i n d i v i s i b i l i t y . The a c t i v e , e x p e r i e n t i a l i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e human organism and i t s en vironm ent was e s ta b lis h e d w ith in a s o c i e t a l c o n te x t, and human developm ent was re c o g n iz e d as b e in g d ep en d en t upon th e s o c i a l in te rd e p e n d e n c y o f human b e in g s . An i d e n t i f i c a tio n w ith th e c o n c e p ts o f th e p h ilo s o p h e r, John Dewey, and th e p s y c h o lo g is t, Edward L. T h o rn d ik e, was a p p a re n t as in d ic a te d in th e u se o f such term s as " a c t iv e ," " d o in g ," "problem s o lv in g ," "S-R b o n d s," and "bond fo rm a tio n ." D uring th e fo llo w in g decade an e x te n s iv e p r o je c tio n o f b e l i e f a b o u t th e n a tu re o f man in th e c u l t u r a l s e t t i n g o c c u rre d . W ithin th e c o n te x t o f f i e l d th e o ry o r o rg a n ism ic p sy c h o lo g y , and s c i e n t i f i c ev id en c e g a th e re d from a n th ro p o lo g y , s o c io lo g y , b io lo g y , and m e d ic in e , C assid y c o n tin u e d t o em phasize in d iv id u a l i n d i v i s i b i l i t y and u n iq u e n e s s , th e i n t e g r a t e d , t o t a l , p u rp o siv e i n t e r a c t i o n o f man and h is e n v iro n m e n t, and th e c u l t u r a l d e te rm in a tio n o f human d e v e l opm ent. Human b e h a v io r and le a r n in g as m a n ife s t in human p e r s o n a lity w ere e x p la in e d i n term s o f f i e l d p sy ch o lo g y . An in d iv id u a l was se e n as e x p e rie n c in g te n s io n in a f i e l d o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l fo rc e o r e n e rg y , im p e lle d fo rw ard by g o a ls o r p u rp o ses and c o n tin u o u s ly s t r i v i n g t o re g a in 69 p s y c h o lo g ic a l e q u ilib r iu m a s b a r r i e r s o r o b s ta c le s t o p u rp o se f u l f i l l m e n t w ere overcom e and te n s io n was re s o lv e d an d re d u c e d . C o n tin u o u s e x p a n sio n and c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f th e same id e a s d e v e lo p e d in e a r l i e r decades was m a n ife s t i n th e 19H 0's a s R o sa lin d C assid y d e s c rib e d th e human o rg an ism as a p sy ch o so m a tic u n i t y , an o rg a n ism ic t o t a l i t y c h a r a c te r iz e d by p u rp o siv e b e h a v io r e x p re s s iv e o f , o r sym ptom atic o f human n e e d . C o n tin u a l s t r e s s on th e u n ity and t o t a l i t y o f man and e n v iro n m e n t, and th e c u l t u r a l d e te rm in a tio n o f s o c i a l man was u n d e rsc o re d a s C assid y p o in te d o u t t h a t s o c i a l man i s d e v e lo p e d th ro u g h e x te n s iv e , s a t i s f y i n g , p e r s o n a l i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ith o th e r human b e in g s , and a d e m o c ra tic s o c i e ty i s d ependent upon th e s o c i a l m a tu rity o f i t s c o n s titu e n c y . A t m id -c e n tu ry , o rg a n ism ic u n ity and m an -en v iro n m ent t o t a l i t y w ere i d e n t i f i e d in l i g h t o f b io p s y c h o lo g ic a l and s o c io - a n th r o p o lo g ic a l fo u n d a tio n s . The g e s t a l t o f b i o l o g i c a l and s o c i a l developm ent was e x p re s s e d as a " b io - s o c i a l " p r o c e s s , and m an -en v iro n m en tal i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ere d e s c r ib e d by th e te rm " so c io p sy c h o so m a tic ." I n th e s i x t i e s , R o salin d C assid y r e i t e r a t e d h e r b e l i e f s a b o u t man as a u n iq u e , e x p e rie n c in g , p u rp o s iv e , so c io p sy c h o so m a tic u n ity i n c o n s ta n t i n t e r a c t i o n w ith th e e n v iro n m e n t. An e x i s t e n t i a l em phasis upon man a s em srg- i n g , becom ing, a c t u a l i z i n g , was a p p a re n t in C a s s id y 's w r itin g a s sh e i d e n t i f i e d human m otion o r movement as c e n t r a l t o e x p e rie n c in g * l i f e * e s ta b lis h m e n t o f s e l f v a lu e s* a c t u a l i z a t i o n o f th e s e l f * becom ing. Through f i v e d ecad es o f w r i ti n g t h e them e o f th e in d iv id u a l and h i s en v iro n m en t was c o n s i s t e n t l y developed by C a ssid y . E x am in atio n o f h e r w r itin g s i n d ic a te s t h a t t h i s them e gave c e n t r a l d i r e c t i o n t o R o sa lin d C assid y and h e r c o n tr ib u tio n s t o th e p r o f e s s io n o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n . CHAPTER IV C H A N G E IN THE TWENTIETH CEN TU RY ENVIRONM ENT Mankind is* l e t h a r g i c , e a s ily pledged to r o u tin e , tim id , su sp ic io u s o f in n o v a tio n . That i s h is n a tu r e . He i s only a r t i f i c i a l l y , p a r t i a l l y , and very r e c e n tly p ro g re s s iv e . —James Harvey Robinson R osalind C assid y , as p o rtra y e d in h e r w r itte n w orks, responded t o changes which o cc u rred d u rin g th e twen t i e t h c e n tu ry , and c o n trib u te d to changes in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n . Awareness o f th e contem porary s c e n e , and th e fo rc e s which brought about th e s e ch an g es, c o n s titu te d a n o th e r fo u n d atio n from which h e r w ritin g s sp ru n g . The Years 1920-1929 In 1927 R osalind C assidy, w ith Thomas D. Wood, i d e n t i f i e d elem ents o f contem porary b e l i e f o r th o u g h t in The New P h y sic a l E d u catio n . She s ta te d t h a t : The p e c u lia r c h a r a c t e r is t i c o f modern th o u g h t i s th e way i t bases i t s e l f upon th e in d iv id u a l man. I t h o ld s t h a t p ro g re ss o r improvement o f l i f e i s th e r rim ary aim and th a t th is can ta k e p la c e only through n d iv id u a l e f f o r t and i n i t i a t i v e . I t q u e stio n s a l l e s ta b lis h e d id e a s , a u th o r ity , and fix e d i n s t i t u t i o n s , and f o s te r s a growing b e l i e f in th e power o f in d iv id u a l 71 72 K in d s* guided by methods o f o b se rv a tio n * experim ent * and r e f l e c t i o n * t o a t t a i n th s t r u t h s n asd sd f o r th e d ir e c tio n s o f l i f e . (5 2 :2 6 -2 7 [1927]) In a s ta te m e n t t h a t f u r t h e r ex ten d ed and d e lin e a te d th e s e elem en ts o f contem porazy th o u g h t i t was concluded in t h i s book: A ll knowledge i s t e s t e d by u s e . There i s a t r a n s f e r o f i n t e r e s t from th e e t e r n a l to th e s p e c if i c and c o n c re te * from th e m e ta p h y sic a l t o th e s c i e n t i f i c . (5 2 :2 7 [1 9 2 7 ]) The fo rc e s o p e ra tiv e in th e contem porary s o c i a l s e t t i n g in flu e n c in g th e e d u c a tio n o f a d em o cratic c i ti z e n r y in 1927 w ere re c o g n iz e d a s : (1 ) th e ra p id grow th o f d em o cratic id e a ls and i n s t i t u t i o n s ; (2) th e new i n d u s t r i a l l i f e ; and (3 ) th e developm ent o f e x p e rim e n ta l s c ie n c e w ith i t s b a s ic id e a o f e v o lu tio n . (5 2 :2 7 [1 9 2 7 ]) The Y ears 1930-1939 In New D ire c tio n s in P h y s ic a l E ducation f o r th e A d o lescen t G ir l in High S chool and C o lle g e , th e t h e s is th a t v a lu e system s a re underm ined by change was developed: S cien ce has n o t only b ro u g h t ab o u t g re a t changes in in d u s try * tr a n s p o r ta tio n * com m unication* and th e lik e * b u t h as ta k e n away th e fo u n d a tio n s o f a u n iv e rse w ith s e t and c h a n g eless v a lu e s and t r u t h s . The accep tan ce o f r a p id change and r e l a t i v i t y as a law o f th e u n iv e rs e h as c a ll e d f o r a r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f s p i r i t u a l and r e lig io u s c o n c e p ts. . • • (13:12 [1 9 3 8 j) The q u e s t f o r a d i f f e r e n t avenue o f s p i r i t u a l e x p re s s io n was n o ted by C assid y : T here seems t o be a tu r n in g re c e n tly in American tow ard a new r e li g io n w hich would have th e r e a l v a lu e s o f democraoy as i t s fo u n d a tio n ; w itn e ss Democracy as a Way o f L if e , by Boyd Bode. (13:13 [1938JJ 73 The Y ears 19H 0-1949 The ad v en t o f W orld War IX b ro u g h t a b o u t d r a s t i c change in th e modern w o rld and C assid y b r i e f l y d e s c rib e d th e w o rld in t i n s o f w ar: T h is woi^ld h as in i t new and d i f f e r e n t i n s e c u r i t i e s ) s h i f t i n g econom ic c o n d itio n s * a ch an g in g r o l e f o r th e g i r l as th e r o le o f women changes in t h i s coun try * t h r e a t s t o p e rs p e c tiv e * b elo n g in g n ess* e s ta b lis h e d v a lu e system s* la c k o f re s o u rc e s f o r h e a lth * la c k o f s o c i a l re s o u rc e s and te c h n ic s . (1 6 :1 3 [19*t3]) A cceptance o f " in te rd e p e n d e n c e " d u rin g tim e o f w ar was re c o g n iz e d by C assidy in th e s e w ords: F o rtu n a te ly * th e w ar h a s b ro u g h t home th e le s s o n o f in te rd e p e n d e n c e o f p eo p le o f a l l ages and o f i n s t i t u t io n upon i n s t i t u t i o n . (102:67 C19^23) An em phasis was p la c e d upon th e co n cep t o f co o p e r a tiv e b e h a v io r i n th e contem porary s o c i a l s e t t i n g by C assid y (w ith B ern ice B a x te r) i n a fo u n d a tio n s ta te m e n t o f a m ajo r presd.se in Group E x p e rie n c e : The D em ocratic Wav: The p re se n t-d a y n a ti o n a l and w o rld p a tte r n r e q u ir e s th e knowledge o f te c h n iq u e s o f c o -o p e ra tiv e b e h a v io r as n e v e r b e fo re i f i n d iv id u a ls and groups a re t o l iv e in a hum anized way and t o a v o id p e rs o n a l in s e c u r ity and o rg a n ic i l l n e s s . (> t:x ii C 19*433) A fte r World War I I C assidy (w ith H ild a C. Kozman) i d e n t i / i e d th e em erging m eanings o f th e tis ie i n th e co n cep t o f "one w o rld :" The c e n tr a l f a c t o f o u r tim e i s t h a t we l i v e i n an in te rd e p e n d e n t w o rld . W e do n o t y e t f u l l y s e e th e im p lic a tio n s in t h i s f a c t . W e can* however* c le a r ly s e e t h a t one w o rld demands* in even more u rg e n t term s th a n t h a t o f d e m o c ra tic c itiz e n s h ip * th e b e l i e f in and th e s k i l l s o f c o o p e ra tiv e b e h a v io r. W e m ust move t o ward w o rld c i t i z e n s h i p . (15:205 (19H73) 7 * » The Years 1950-1959 At m id-century a concep tio n o f th e modern w orld was p re se n te d w ith in th e c o n te x t o f fo u r sp h ere s o f im p o rtan ce. The fo u r a re a s w ere: I t i s an atom ic w o rld . This has caused a re v o lu tio n in numan r e la tio n s h ip s and in m an's work and ends f o r liv in g . I t i s a te c h n o lo g ic a l w o rld . A ir and ra d io communi c a tio n , alo n g w ith o th e r f a c to r s , b in d in g people to g e th e r t adding speed and s t r e s s . I t i s one w orld y e t d iv id ed in to an armed t r u c e , u n ite d s t a t e s v s. (Js s k . I t i s a w orld o f r e l a t i v i t y , o f ex p erim en talism and o f change. nan and s o c ie ty as u n i t s , e v e r changing re la tio n s h ip s w ith in a f i e l d o f i n t e r - a c t i o n . (275:1 [1950]) The concept o f change and i t s r e la tio n s h ip to p h ilo so p h ic b e l i e f was c l a r i f i e d by C assidy in a sta te m e n t on changing p e rsp e c tiv e s o f th e tim es in 1952. She reco g n iz e d change as "a law o f th e u n iv e rse w ith th e d ir e c tio n o f change from concepts o f s e p a ra te n e ss t o e v e r la r g e r c i r c le s o f in te r r e la te d n e s s " (281:1 [1 9 5 2 ]), and: a b so lu te and e te r n a l t r u th a tta in e d by r e v e la tio n to t r u t h as r e l a t i v e , ch anging, depending on m an's l i m i t a tio n s and d isc o v e re d th ru s c i e n t i f i c methods o f in q u iry . (281:1 [1952]) In a broad sta te m e n t o f b e l i e f re g a rd in g changes w ith in th e en vironm ental s e t t i n g , C assid y , in th e e a r ly f i f t i e s , a s s e r te d th a t "o ld e x p la n a tio n s and o ld p o s tu la te s no lo n g e r h o ld n o r p rovide adequate s o lu tio n s when l i f e c o n d itio n s change" (281:1 [1 9 5 2 ]). 75 L ooking ah ead t o th e fu tu re * R o salin d C assidy* in 1958* e s ta b li s h e d w hat sh e b e lie v e d to be th e f a c t s o f th e day i n se v e n b ro a d c a te g o r ie s in o rd e r t o id e n t i f y im p li c a tio n s f o r f u tu r e p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n programs* The sev e n c a te g o r ie s w ere:* 1* The t i d a l wave o f people* 2* T echnology and a u to m a tio n . 3* A tom ic pow er and s u p e r sp eed in com m unication* **. Economic* p o l i t i c a l * and s c i e n t i f i c co m p etitio n * 5* S c i e n t i f i c v a l i d a t i o n o f th e s o c io -p s y c h o -s o m a tic u n ity o f th e human organism * 6* Space t r a v e l . 7 . I d e o lo g ic a l c o n f l i c t s — th e s tr u g g le f o r m en's m inds. (2 8 3 :1 [1 9 5 8 ]) The Y ears 1960-1965 In a 1965 s ta te m e n t o f s a l i e n t f a c t s o f th e day t h a t i d e n t i f i e d s o c i a l fo u n d a tio n s o f Am erican s o c ie ty * R o sa lin d C a ssid y a s s e r t e d t h a t we e x i s t w ith in : 1* A d e m o c ra tic s o c ie ty * The f r e e c i t i z e n i s re sp o n s i b l e f o r a c tio n making f o r th e good o f s e l f and o t h e r s . 2* A r a p id ly d e v e lo p in g te c h n o lo g ic a l* com puter s o c i e t y w ith ch a n g in g v a lu e s o f work and l e i s u r e and t h r e a t s t o s e l f - v a l u e . 3* An a f f l u e n t s o c ie ty w ith p o ck e ts o f a b je c t p o v erty * U* A p e r io d o f ch a n g in g se x ro le s * s o c ia l mores and p a t t e r n s o f fa m ily l i f e . 5 • A p e r io d o f r a p id change and s u p e r speed in communi c a tio n • 76 6. A p e rio d o f power f o r th e maos m edia. 7. A p e rio d o f ex p lo d in g new knowledge. 8. A p e rio d o f use o f atom ic power f o r m an's b e n e f it o r a n n ih ila tio n . 9. A p e rio d o f w o rld wide p o p u la tio n e x p lo sio n and s o c ia l u n r e s t. 10. A p e rio d o f space e x p lo ra tio n . 11. A p e rio d o f econom ic, p o l i t i c a l and s c i e n t i f i c .com petition and c o n f li c t on a w orld wide b a s is . 12. A c o n tin u in g C iv il R ig h ts R ev o lu tio n b oth a t home and abroad. (2 7 7 :1 [1965]) Summary In th e 1920's R o salin d C a ss id y 's co n cep tio n o f th e contem porary w orld r e je c te d th e id e a o f a u n iv e rse ch arac te r iz e d by th e m e ta p h y sic a l, s u p e r n a tu r a l, e t e r n a l , and ab s o lu te . The human c o n d itio n was e x p la in e d in term s o f m an's o b se rv a b le , in d iv id u a l e f f o r t and i n i t i a t i v e m an ifest in a methodology o f v e r i f i a b l e , s c i e n t i f i c , e x p e rim e n ta l- ism . The fo rc e s p ro v id in g im petus f o r t h i s p h ilo so p h ic t h r u s t were i d e n t i f i e d as i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n , dem o cratic concepts and e s ta b lis h m e n ts , and e x p e rim e n ta l s c ie n c e . The id e a o f change, r e l a t i v i t y , and sc ie n c e as m a n ife s ta tio n s o f v alu e and t r u t h in th e contem porary w orld was s tr e s s e d by R osalind C assidy in th e t h i r t i e s . She in d ic a te d th e n e c e s s ity f o r a s p i r i t u a l and r e lig io u s view 77 o f democracy in l i g h t o f th e r e je c tio n o f any c o n c ep tio n o f a u n iv e rse dependent upon f ix e d , a b s o lu te , unchanging v a lu e and t r u t h . W ithin th e c o n te x t o f changing tim e s , a t te n t io n t o th e n e c e s s ity f o r an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f human a c tio n as r e s p o n s ib le , c o o p e ra tiv e b e h a v io r i n m e , in te rd e p e n d e n t w orld was u n d ersco red by R o salin d C assidy d u rin g th e decade o f th e Second World War. In th e 1950's th e u n c e r ta in tie s o f th e tim e s were d e s c rib e d in term s o f a w orld o f r e l a t i v i t y , ch an g e, and ex p erim en tali8 m r e f l e c t e d in m assiv e, s c i e n t i f i c , econom ic, s o c i a l , and p o l i t i c a l change and developm ent. A changing American s o c ie ty in 1965 was p o rtra y e d by R o salin d C assidy w ith in th e s tr u c t u r e o f a p e rio d c h a ra c te r iz e d by ex p lo d in g know ledge, atom ic pow er, sp ace e x p lo r a tio n , com m unication te c h n o lo g y , p o p u la tio n e x p a n sio n , a f flu e n c e and p o v e rty , and e x te n s iv e and c o n tin u in g p o l i t i c a l , s o c i a l , economic and s c i e n t i f i c u n r e s t, dev elopm ent, and c o m p etitio n Through t h i s stu d y i t was d isc o v e re d t h a t R o salin d C assidy was alw ays a c u te ly aware o f th e changing tw e n tie th c e n tu ry environm ent. From t h i s ev o lv ed h e r s e n s itiv e n e s s t o th e im p lic a tio n o f th e s e e v e n ts on th e e d u c a tio n a l s c e n e . CHAPTER V A PHILOSOPHY OF D E M O C R A C Y A democracy i s more th a n a form o f governm ents i t i s p rim a rily a mode o f a s s o c ia te d l i v i n g , o f c o n jo in t comm unicated e x p e rie n c e . —John Dewey No p o in t i s more s tr o n g ly developed in R osalind C a s s id y 's w ritin g s th a n i s th e p h ilo so p h y o f dem ocracy. In t h i s c h a p te r e x c e rp ts from h e r pen a re p re se n te d in chrono lo g ic a l o rd e r t o show h e r involvem ent w ith t h i s them e. The Y ears 1920-1929 An i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f p e rs o n a l b e l i e f about th e concept o f democracy was made by R o salin d C assidy in The New P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n , h e r f i r s t m ajor p u b lic a tio n which was produced in c o lla b o r a tio n w ith Thomas D. Wood (52 [1 9 2 7 ]). The r o le o f th e in d iv id u a l w ith in th e p o l i t i c a l framework o f th e Am erican way o f l i f e was i d e n t i f i e d : Our d em o cratic form o f governm ent c a ll s f o r c i t i zens who have s e l f - c o n t r o l , powers o f s e l f - d i r e c t i o n and i n i t i a t i v e , n o t th o s e who depend on c o n tr o l and d ir e c tio n from a s u p e r io r governm ental power. Our w e lf a r e , a s a n a tio n , depends on th e e x te n t t o which o u r c i t i z e n s can i n t e l l i g e n t l y h an d le t h e i r own a f f a i r s . (52:23 [1 9 2 7 ]) 78 79 The r o l e o f th e in d iv id u a l w ith in th e s o c i a l s e t t i n g was f u r t h e r d e fin e d in th e fo llo w in g way: For c it i z e n s h ip in a dem ocracy, in d iv id u a l i n i t i a t i v e alo n e w i l l n o t s u f f i c e . What i s n eeded i s th e e x p re s s io n o f th e s e l f in r e l a t i o n t o o t h e r s — t o th e g ro u p . • • • Democracy im p lie s a group o r groups o f p eo p le s h a rin g i n t e r e s t s o f w ide and v a r ie d sco p e w hich c o n s ta n tly le a d on t o f u r t h e r a c t i v i t y . (5 2 :2 9 [19273) The Y ears 1930-1939 * A q u e s t f o r th e m eaning o f dem ocracy le d R o salin d C assidy t o w rite in 1938 t h a t : R ece n tly th e r e h as been a c o n s id e ra b le e x p re s s io n o f th e o p in io n t h a t A m erica i s on th e eve o f a new a f firm a tio n o f a r e l i g i o u s f a i t h e x p r e s s in g th e b a s ic s o c i a l p h ilo so p h y o f dem ocracy as a way o f l i f e . T his w ould mean much more th a n th e p o l i t i c a l co n cep t o f th e r u l e o f th e m a jo rity o r o f groups b an d in g to g e th e r f o r m utual b e n e f it and p r o t e c ti o n . • • . I m p lic it i n a d em o cratic way o f l i f e i s th e n e c e s s ity f o r each member t o p a r t i c i p a t e , t o move th ro u g h group th in k in g and p o o lin g o f id e a s i n i n t e r e s t s tow ard new er and b e t t e r ways o f g a in in g th e b e s t i n t e r e s t s f o r a l l . (1 3 :5 0 [19383) The r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t "dem ocracy i s a group p r o c e s s ; i t i s t o be le a rn e d by p r a c t ic in g i t " (1 3 :5 9 [1 9 3 8 ]) , was s t r e s s e d by C assid y . She a ls o p o in te d out t h a t "an o rg an ism ic p h ilo so p h y , a c c e p tin g th e t o t a l u n it o f o rg a n ism --an d en v iro n m en t, im p lie s a s h a re d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r a l l a c ts o f th e in d iv id u a l” (13 :5 0 C19383). The Y ears 19*»0-19«»9 In an e f f o r t t o d e s c rib e th e i d e a l d e m o c ra tic s o c i e t y , C assid y (w ith o th e r s ) s t i p u l a t e d t h a t : The d em o cratic i d e a l e n v is io n s a s o c i e t y w hich b a se s 80 i t s p ro c sd u rss on f a i t h in th e d ig n ity and w orth o f aatih o f i t s m em bers, a s o c is ty which p la n s f o r th s f u l f i l l a s n t o f t h s n ssd s o f e a c h , f o e ts r in g th s grow th and d s v s lo p a s n t o f th s in c r s a s in g ly in t e g r a t e d in d iv id u a l a b ls t o re c o g n iz e , t o u n d srsta n d and t o b s t o l e r a n t o f t h s u n iq u en ess o f o th e r in d iv id u a ls . (1 8 :2 0 C19H0 3) Ths r e la ti o n s h i p o f t h s in d iv id u a l to th s group w ith in a dem ocracy was e x p la in e d f u l l y by C assidy (and B a x te r) in Group E x p e rie n c e : Ths D e a o c ra tio Way. T h e ir p o in t o f view was p re s e n te d in th e fo llo w in g fa s h io n : In a dem ocracy each in d iv id u a l i s of w orth and i s t o be t r e a t e d s o t h a t he w i l l d ev elo p to h i s f u l l e s t p o t e n t i a l b o th f o r th e v a lu e o f h is own l i f e and f o r t h a t s e r v ic e w hich he may re n d e r to s o c i e ty . In a dem ocracy th e in d iv id u a l i s n o t lo s t i n th e group n o r i s he s a c r i f i c e d t o th e group. The in d iv id u a lit y o f each i s enhanced by c o - o p e ra tiv e a c tio n . ( t:X I I [1 9 * 3 ]) A c o n tr a s t betw een th e demands o f t o t a l i t a r i a n and d e m o c ra tic s o c i e t i e s upon i t s c it i z e n r y was made in t h i s way: F ascism demands r e s p o n s ib le , c o o p e ra tiv e , d is c ip lin e d c i t i z e n s , b u t d em o cratic b e h a v io r re q u ir e s s e l f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ; i t r e q u ir e s v o lu n ta ry c o o p e ra tio n , w ith m utual s h a r in g i n p la n n in g , e x e c u tin g , and in r e s u l t s a t t a i n e d ; and i t re q u ir e s th e s e l f - d i s c i p l i n e o f th e f r e e i n d i v i d u a l , o u t o f whose s e l f - r e s p e c t s p rin g s r e s p e c t f o r o th e r s . The s o c i a l goal o f democracy i s th e f u l l e s t developm ent and th e most s a t i s f y i n g li v in g o f each in d i v id u a l, a c h ie v e d th ro u g h th e f r e e p a r t i c i p a tio n o f a l l in c r e a tin g th e c o n d itio n s f o r maximum in d iv id u a l f u n c tio n in g , p e r s o n a lly , s o c i a l l y , p o l i t i c a l l y , e c o n o m ic a lly . (1 5 :8 C19H7]) The Y ears 1950-1959 In a p e r io d ic a l a r t i c l e fo cu sed upon th e c o n tr ib u tio n s o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n t o d em o cratic c i t i z e n s h i p , 81 C assidy d e s c rib e d th e i n g r e d i e n ts o f th e A m erican demo c r a t i c way in th e fo llo w in g m anner: They r e s t on a deep c o n v ic tio n o f th e u n iq u e n e ss * d ig n ity * and w o rth o f th e in d iv id u a l p e rs o n ; re sp o n s i b i l i t y f o r o n e 's own a c tio n s * co n c ern f o r th e w e lfa re o f o th e r s ; b e l i e f i n c o o p e ra tiv e a c ti o n ; th e b e l i e f t h a t governm ent i s c o n tr o l l e d by th e c i t i z e n s f o r th e good o f a l l and i s n o t a v a lu e o r end i n i t s e l f . (115: 219 [1 9 5 0 ]) The re a s o n f o r c o n tin u a lly r e d e f in in g and d e lin e a t i n g th e m eaning o f dem ocracy was g iv en by C assid y (and o t h e r s ) a s f o llo w s : T h is i s b ec au se dem ocracy i s n o t so m eth in g s t a t i c and f in is h e d o n c e - f o r - a l l ; i t i s a dynamic* d e v e lo p in g concept* a b s o rb in g and u t i l i z i n g new know ledge i n i t s m eanings* in c o r p o r a tin g f r e s h i n s i g h t and new id e a s ab o u t s o c i a l l i f e . (2 8 :2 0 [1 9 5 1 ]) The r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e in d iv id u a l and s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s in a d e m o c ra tic s o c ie ty * d ev e lo p e d i n th e f i r s t e d i t i o n o f M ethods in P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n in 19*»7, a book w r i tt e n by Kozman* C a ssid y * and Jack so n * was a g a in r e em phasized in th e t h i r d e d i t i o n o f t h i s book in 1958: I f th e in d iv id u a l i s h e ld t o be p rim ary* th e n a l l s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e in s tru m e n ts f o r f u r t h e r i n g h is f u l l e s t developm ent i n s a t i s f y i n g l i v i n g . I n s t i t u t i o n s have no o th e r ends o u ts id e o f th e ends o f th e in d iv id u a l s com posing them . (3 2 :2 9 [1 9 5 8 ]) The Y ears 1960-1965 In 1960 R o sa lin d C assid y c o n tin u e d t o r e i t e r a t e th e b e l i e f s a b o u t dem ocracy w hich sh e h ad s t a t e d in th e 1950's : Our s o c ie ty i s b a se d upon d e m o c ra tic p r i n c i p l e s , th e o p e r a tio n o f w hich depends upon r e s p e c t f o r in d iv id u a ls and groups* th e developm ent o f b e l i e f in th e a o q u i- 82 s i t i o n o f th e s k i l l s and te c h n iq u e s o f dem ocratic human r e la tio n s h ip s . (260:1 [I9 6 0 ]) In 1965 i t was a ls o p o in te d out by C assidy th a t "o u r n a tio n a l 'c lim a te ' commits us t o a dem ocratic philosophy" (255:1 [1965])* and "th e f re e c i ti z e n i s re sp o n s ib le fo r a c tio n making f o r th e good o f s e l f and o th e rs " (277:1 [1 9 6 5 ]). Summary The need fo r re sp o n sib le * dem o cratic b e h a v io r in contem porary American s o c ie ty was s tr e s s e d by R osalind C assidy f i r s t in 1927 in The New P h y sic a l E d u catio n . Here i t was p o in ted o u t th a t a m ature* d em o cratic c itiz e n r y i s c h a ra c te riz e d by in d iv id u a l i n i t i a t i v e * s e lf - d ir e c tio n * and in te llig e n c e w ith in a group s e t t i n g . G reat emphasis upon democracy as a group process was made in th e t h i r t i e s and th e r e s p o n s ib ility o f th e group f o r in d iv id u a l s e lf - a c tu a l i z a t io n was s tr e s s e d by R osalind C assidy in th e f o r t i e s . D uring t h i s tim e o f id e o lo g ic a l c o n f lic t between th e b e lie f s o f a dem ocratic s o c ie ty and to ta lita ria n is m * C assidy in th e 1940's s tr e s s e d th e n e c e s s ity fo r s e lf - d is c ip lin e * r e s p e c t f o r s e l f and o th ers* co o p e ra tiv e a c tio n in o rd e r t o in s u re th e s o c ia l g o al o f democracy* and th e maximal developm ent o f in d iv id u a l p o te n tia l w ith in th e U nited S ta te s o f Am erica. At m id -cen tu ry , R osalind C assidy co n tin u ed to p o in t out t h a t a dynamic* developm ental concept o f democracy was dependent upon in d iv id u a l uniqueness and w o rth * concern and re s p e c t f o r th e r ig h ts o f o th e r s , co o p e rativ e b e h a v io r, and a re c o g n itio n t h a t s o c ia l i n s t i t u t i o n s e x is t f o r th e devel opment and a c tu a liz a tio n o f a dem ocratic c itiz e n ry * In th e 1960*s R osalind Cassidy r e it e r a t e d th e p o in t t h a t d em ocratic p rin c ip le s are dependent upon re sp e c t fo r s e l f and o th e rs as m an ifested in an u n d erstan d in g and a p p lic a tio n o f d em ocratic human r e la tio n s h ip s . From h e r e a r l i e s t w ritin g s in th e 1920's to h e r l a t e s t p u b lic a tio n s in th e 1960's R osalind C assid y 's b e lie f in th e dem ocratic way was m an ifest in a l l o f h e r documents and was c e n tr a l in h e r philosophy* CHAPTER VI THE FEM A LE IN THE CULTURAL SETTING Now as each c u ltu r e c r e a te s d i s t in c ti v e l y th e s o c i a l ' f a b r ic in which th e human s p i r i t can wrap i t s e l f s a fe ly and i n t e l l e g i b l y , s o r t i n g , r e - w eaving, and d is c a rd in g th re a d s in th e h i s t o r i c a l t r a d i t i o n th a t i t sh a re s w ith many n e ig h b o rin g p e o p le s, i t may bend ev ery in d iv id u a l bora w ith in i t to one ty p e o f be h a v io r, re c o g n iz in g n e ith e r a g e , s e x , n o r s p e c ia l d isp o s i t i o n as p o in ts f o r s p e c ia l e la b o r a tio n . --M a rg are t Mead The q u e st f o r optimum developm ent o f in d iv id u a ls was co n tin u o u sly i n ev id en ce th ro u g h o u t R osalind C a ssid y 's w r itin g s . She r e i t e r a t e d b e l i e f in in d iv id u a l w o rth , d ig n ity , and v a lu e , re g a rd le s s o f s e x , and c a lle d f o r developm ent o f in d iv id u a l p o t e n t i a l i t y and e q u a lity f o r fem ales in a ch an g in g , d em o cratic s o c ie ty . The Y ears 1920-1929 E arly in h e r p ro fe s s io n a l c a r e e r , R o salin d C assidy m an ifested concern ab o u t th e ro le o f th e fem ale in American s o c ie ty w ith a c e n tr a l focus in th e sp h ere o f e d u c a tio n . 85 A f te r a v i s i t t o s s v s r a l women's c o lle g e s in t h s e a s te r n p a r t o f th e U n ited S ta te s i n June o f 1923* she w ro te in th e H ills Q u a rte rly i n th e f a l l o f th e sane y e a r t h a t : I am g r a t i f i e d to fin d t h a t knowing th e s e c o lle g e s has s tre n g th e n e d my lo y a lty and a d m ira tio n f o r M ills . . . • f o r i t s sp le n d id and f a r v is io n e d , u n t i r i n g P re s id e n t* • • • and f o r i t s unique o p p o rtu n ity i n t h i s g lo rio u s C a lif o r n ia t o make f o r th e w idening o p p o rtu n ity f o r Am erican womanhood. (106:105 [1923]) In a mood of r e f le c tio n * C assidy s p e c u la te d about h e r own r o l e r e l a ti v e t o th e ed u c atio n o f women in th e fo llo w in g s ta te m e n t: As an alumna o f such a co lle g e * I am w ondering i f m y e f f o r t s in i t s b e h a lf a r e w orthy o f i t s g i f t to me* n o t only i n u n d erg rad u ate days* b u t now* and a l l th ro u g h my l i f e a s i t h e lp s me to be i n t e l l i g e n t ab o u t th e edu c a tio n o f women and g iv es ms a d e f i n i t e means o f f u r th e r in g such a c a u se . (106:105-106 [1 9 2 3 ]) The Y ears 1930-1939 The meaning o f ad o lescen ce and fe m in in ity to a g i r l i n th e 1 9 3 0 's w ere g ra p h ic a lly d e sc rib e d by C assid y i n h e r d o c to ra l p r o je c t when she d e c la re d : T o d ay 's a d o le sc e n t g i r l belongs t o "The L ost G en eratio n " o f th e d e p re ssio n y e a rs . She c o v e rs up h e r i n s e c u r i t i e s and a n x ie tie s w ith l i p s ti c k * carm ine n a i l S o lis h * and an extrem e em phasis on s t y l e . She soon e a rn s t h a t sh e must e i t h e r compete w ith men as a man o r u se a l l h e r fem inine w iles t o se c u re a m ale b re a d w in n er to c a rry on th e co m p etitio n f o r h e r . ( 2 t2 :t8 $ 1 9 3 7 ]) The m ajo r concern s o f th e a d o le sc e n t g i r l were a ls o c l e a r l y i d e n t i f i e d : The g r e a te s t problem s o f a d o le s c e n t g i r l s a re th o se o f h e a lth and norm al grow th, th e making o f f r ie n d s o f b o th sexes* th e achievem ent o f freedom from fa m ily 86 c o n t r o l , and f i n a l l y s a l f s u p p o rt; ac c e p ta n c e o f th e fe m in in e r o l e and th e making o f s a t i s f a c t o r y h e te r o s e x u a l a d ju s tm e n ts , th e a c h ie v in g o f a p h ilo so p h y o f l i f e whiieh g iv e s pu rp o se and v a lu e to t h e i r own l i v e s . (1 3 :9 9 [1 9 3 8 ]) The problem s o f th e fem ale re g a rd in g h e r se x r o le in A m erican s o c ie ty w ere f o r c e f u l ly developed in th e fo llo w in g s ta te m e n t: G ir ls and women te n d t o f e e l i n f e r i o r to boys and men; to w ish th e y w ere boys and r e j e c t th e fem inine r o l e ; to r e a s s u r e th em selv es o f t h e i r own v alu e by com peting w ith boys and men. (1 3 :9 9 C1938]) An a tte m p t t o d e fin e th e r o le o f women in contem po r a r y A m erica o f 1938 was made as fo llo w s : I t i s to be t h a t o f th e a r t i s t in human r e l a t i o n s h i p s . She i s a human in d iv id u a l f r e e t o d ev elo p h e r own g r e a t e s t c a p a c i t i e s . She must r e a l iz e t h a t s o c ie ty , u rg e n tly needs h e r unique c o n tr ib u tio n in v a lu in g , c o n s e rv in g , and d e v e lo p in g human l i f e . (13:37 [1 9 3 8 ]) The s t a t u s o f women th ro u g h o u t th e w orld in th e l a t e " t h i r t i e s " was in d ic a te d in th e fo llo w in g way: T here i s e v id e n c e to show t h a t th e p a tte r n f o r v a lu e c o n c e p ts in th e l i v e s o f women a l l o v er th e w orld i s in g r e a t f l u x . E n g lis h women who fo u g h t so v io l e n t l y f o r e q u a l r i g h t s a re u t t e r l y d is i ll u s i o n e d a t p re s e n t-d a y d is c r im in a tio n a g a in s t them in b u s in e s s and p o l i t i c s . They lo o k w ith b i t t e r n e s s a t th e p l i g h t o f German women and Am erican women who l o s t t h e i r jo b s d u rin g th e d e p re s s io n n o t b ecau se o f in e f f ic ie n c y b u t b ecau se o f b e in g women in a s o c ie ty where th e m ale i s more h ig h ly p r iz e d . (139:1*51 [19 3 9 ] In an en d eav o r t o p in p o in t th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f e d u c a tio n t o th e fem ale i n American s o c i e ty , C assid y s t i p u l a t e d in h e r d o c to r a l p r o je c t a t Colum bia U n iv e rs ity t h a t : E d u c a tio n 's ta s k i s t o a id i n d e f in in g a m ean in g fu l r o le f o r p re se n t-d a y A m erican women and r e - d i r e c t i n g c u r r ic u la t o t h a t end. (2 4 2 :4 8 [1 9 37]) She f u r t h e r d e fin e d th e o b lig a tio n o f th e sc h o o l to a g i r l ’ s e d u c a tio n w ith in th e fo llo w in g c o n te x t: School e d u c a tio n has th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f g iv in g t o th e g i r l a c o n c e p tu a l view o f women's l i f e w ith i t s d ee p er m eanings and v a lu e s . I t sh o u ld a id h e r in a c c e p tin g h e r body as an in s tru m e n t o f e x p re s s io n and en jo y m en t, t o be c u lt i v a t e d and g iv en i n t e l l i g e n t c a re a s th e s o le means o f e x p e rie n c e in l i v i n g . (1 3 :1 9 [1 9 3 8 ]) The Y ears 1940-1949 D uring a tim e o f armed c o n f l i c t betw een d e m o c ra tic and t o t a l i t a r i a n s o c i e t i e s , C assid y d e s c rib e d th e fu n c tio n o f g i r l s and women in th e U n ited S t a te s . She a s s e r te d t h a t : Women a r e th e re s e r v e s in t h i s b a t t l e f o r m an's f r e e dom. I t i s th e y who m ust be p re p a re d to s te p in to th e p la c e s from w hich men a r e ta k e n . They m ust be g iv en th e am m unition— th e power th ro u g h e d u c a tio n — to c a r r y on in law , m e d ic in e , e n g in e e r in g , b u s in e s s , in d u s tr y , p o l i t i c s and human r e l a t i o n s . (123:408 [1 9 4 3 ]) An a p p r a is a l o f th e needs o f fem ales in a p o st-w a r American s o c ie ty was advanced d u rin g th e y e a rs o f th e Second World War by R o sa lin d C assid y in th e fo llo w in g manner: I t i s c l e a r , th e n , t h a t g i r l s and women in t h i s co u n try must be p re p a re d n o t o n ly t o s te p i n t o th e s e r v ic e s t a t i o n o r p a rk in g l o t jo b b u t a ls o th e more a b le g i r l s must be found in th e sec o n d ary sc h o o ls and g iv sn i n t e l l i g e n t and s u s ta in in g g u id a n c e , d i r e c ti n g them t o p re p a ra tio n f o r th e v a rie d ta s k s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s in n a tio n a l and w o rld r e c o n s tr u c tio n w a itin g upon th e d e c la r a tio n o f p e a c e . (123:408 [1 9 4 3 ]) 88 The r e c o g n itio n t h a t th e w ar y e a rs had g iv en women in c r e a s e d o p p o rtu n ity t o assume g r e a te r r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s in A m erica was u sed f^ y C assid y in an en d eav o r t o g ain g r e a te r e q u a lity f o r women* She d e c la re d : S in ce more women th a n e v e r b e fo re have sh a re d i n th e work e x p e rie n c e s o f men, t h i s may be th e c r u c ia l and s t r a t e g i c moment f o r an e s ta b lis h m e n t o f comrade s h ip and a r e c o g n itio n o f th e woman as an e q u a l human b e in g w ith th e r i g h t t o work o u t th e b e s t c o n trib u tio n sh e can make t o o u r s o c ie ty in th e way u n iq u e ly h e r s . (113:i*91 [1944] In th e p o s t-w a r w orld a p le a f o r a n o n c o m p e titiv e , c o o p e ra tiv e em phasis in th e e d u c a tio n o f boys and g i r l s was e x p la in e d by C assid y (and Kozman) i n t h i s fa s h io n : th e e d u c a tio n o f y o u th in th e U nited S ta te s sh o u ld be d ir e c te d tow ard d e f in in g n o n co m p etitiv e and com ple m entary r o le s f o r men and women* (15 :5 7 [1 9 4 7 ]) In an a tte m p t to id e n t if y th e c u l t u r a l r e l a t i v i t y o f su ch words a s "m ascu lin e" and "fe m in in e ” w ith in a s o c ie t a l fram ew ork, i t was s t i p u l a t e d t h a t : S t y l i z a t i o n o r p a tte r n in g o f woman*s r o le d i f f e r s s o m arkedly in d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e s , w hat women do and do n o t do i s alw ays so r e l a t i v e to what men do and do n o t d o , t h a t i t i s e v id e n t t h a t s o c i a l r a t h e r th a n b io lo g i c a l f a c to r s d eterm in e th e r o le s o f b o th men and women. (1 5 :2 1 [1 9 4 7 ]) They f u r t h e r expanded th e co n cep t o f c u l t u r a l d e te rm in a tio n o f s e x r o le s by p o in tin g o u t th e fo llo w in g : W e know to d ay t h a t women ta k e t h e i r m orals and b e h a v io r p a tte r n s from th e c u ltu r e as do men, from s o c ia l v a lu e s , m o res, and custom s* We know t h a t women d i f f e r from each o th e r as w e ll a s from men, t h a t each one i s an i n d i v id u a l, j u s t as each man i s an in d iv id u a l* Each h as h e r own unique c o n f ig u r a tio n o f m e n ta l, em o tio n al and p h y s ic a l a t t r i b u t e s . W e know t h a t th e r e a re se x d if f e r e n c e s in i n t e l li g e n c e and e m o tio n a l e x p r e s s io n , 89 b u t s c i e n t i s t s have y e t to la b e l th e s e d i f f e r e n t t r a i t s s u p e r io r o r i n f e r i o r . To a g r e a t e x te n t many p a s t a t t i t u d e s to w ard women have now been la b e le d f a l s e by b o th men and women, y e t o ld in b re d folkw ays p e r s i s t . (1 5 :7 0 -7 1 [1 9 1 7 ]) In 1919 an i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s women s h o u ld s t r i v e t o a t t a i n a s b u ild e r s o f a f r e e , p eace f u l w o rld w ere c i t e d in th e form o f s i x p r o p o s a ls . These were* 1 . Be more s e c u r e p e rs o n s . 2 . A ccept more f u l l y a co m p lim e n tary , c o o p e ra tiv e , n o n -c o m p e titiv e p a r tn e r s h ip w ith men and be w il l in g t o work a lo n g w ith men t o make t h i s p o s s ib le in o u r s o c i e ty . 3. Be more a b le ^to s ta n d t h e s t r a i n o f a n x ie ty , un c e r t a i n t y and c o n fu sio n t o m a in ta in h e a lth and i n t e g r a t i o n o f th e p e r s o n a l it y ; d ev elo p a s tr o n g , e x p r e s s iv e in s tru m e n t f o r l i v i n g , be h e a l t h i e r . 1 . Have a c l e a r e r c o n c e p t o f d e m o c ra tic p r o c e s s , and e m o tio n a liz e d b e l i e f i n th e v a lu e o f d e m o c ra tic b e h a v io r and s k i l l s in e x p r e s s in g th e s e co n cep ts and b e l i e f s in human r e l a t i o n s h i p s . 5 . D evelop t h e t r a i n e d pow er o f s t r a i g h t th in k in g — s e e k in g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f ends and m eans. 6. Have a s e n s e o f v a lu e s and ends f o r l i v i n g . (112: 38 [1 9 1 9 ]) The Y ears 19S0-19S9 At m id -c e n tu ry an o p t i m i s t i c a p p r a i s a l o f th e s tr u g g l e o f women f o r e m a n c ip a tio n i n term s o f e d u c a tio n and em ploym ent was p r e s e n te d in an a r t i c l e w r itte n f o r th e J o u rn a l o f th e A m erican A s s o c ia tio n o f U n iv e r s ity Women in 1955. W hile e x p la in in g th e d is a p p e a ra n c e o f " th e bloom er g i r l , " C assid y p o in te d o u t t h a t : 90 Today th e r e s u l t s o f t h i s hundred y e a rs o f women's s tru g g le f o r th e r ig h ts o f e d u c a tio n and employment a re shown in th e most re c e n t U nited S ta te s census r e p o r tin g t h a t women n o t o n ly have been a b le t o e n t e r b u t have succeeded in every o ccu p atio n in which men a re engaged. <129:208 [1955]) A re c o g n itio n o f th e p o s itiv e change t h a t had tr a n s p ir e d in th e em ancipation o f th e fem ale in American s o c ie ty was e x p l i c i t in th e fo llo w in g s ta te m e n t made in 1958: Today g i r l s and women ta k e an a c tiv e p a r t i n th e many phases o f community l i f e . G irls go t o sc h o o l w ith boys and jo in in community a c t i v i t i e s w ith them ; ed u c atio n i s d ir e c te d tow ard making them re sp o n s ib le dem ocratic c i t i z e n s . <2»fl:l [1958]) The in c re a s e d o p p o rtu n ity f o r women t o move i n t o th e f i e l d o f h ig h e r e d u c a tio n was in d ic a te d in an a r t i c l e in th e Jo u rn a l o f th e American A sso c ia tio n o f U n iv e rsity Women: T his i s a tim e when more a b le women sh o u ld look tow ard q u a lify in g f o r u n iv e rs ity te a c h in g and re s e a rc h . They a re no lo n g e r com peting w ith an oversupply o f men f o r placem ent and prom otion. They are u rg e n tly needed. (120:215 [1959]) The Years 1960-1965 In h e r continuous endeavor to id e n tif y more co m p letely th e ro le o f women in a space age s o c i e t y , C assidy in q u ire d about th e ro le o f women in th e space program . In a l e t t e r t o th e U.S. Naval School o f A v iatio n M edicine she asked: I am anxious to know i f th e re i s s c i e n t i f i c d a ta a v a ila b le co n cern in g women in th e space program . Are 91 th e r e f a c to r s w hich u k « th e * more o r le s s a b le t o p a r t i c i p a t e a s a s tro n a u ts ? Are th e r e any women now s e r v in g as j e t t e s t p i lo ts ? (222:1 [1962]) A ch anging c o n c ep tio n o f th e r o le o f women in a tw e n tie th c e n tu ry sp ace age American s o c ie ty w a s'b o th re c o g n iz e d and d e fin e d by C assidy in 1965 as she developed th e fo llo w in g t h e s i s : we i n th e U n ited S ta te s a re in a h ig h ly c o m p e titiv e , trig g e r- d a n g e ro u s w orld and . . . no v i t a l re so u rc e can be b y p assed . So f o r b o th th e in d iv id u a l woman*s own se n se o f w orth and f o r th e n a t i o n 's n ee d , a new view o f wosuin's r o le i s b e in g d e fin e d , p la c in g an o b lig a tio n on a l l i n s t i t u t i o n s in o u r s o c ie ty t o b rin g each p e rso n , boy o r g i r l t o h is f u l l e s t p o t e n t i a l , s e e in g men and women a s p a r tn e r s , n o t c o m p e tito rs and n e ith e r su b s e r v i e n t to th e o th e r . (2 S t:2 [1965]) Summary In th e e a r ly y e a rs o f h e r p ro fe s s io n a l c a r e e r R o salin d C assid y i d e n t i f i e d h e r s e l f w ith th e cause o f f u r th e r in g th e e d u c a tio n o f women in a dem o cratic s o c ie ty . D uring th e 1 9 3 0 's she d e sc rib e d th e c o n f l i c t s , a n x i e t i e s , p ro b le m s, and i n s e c u r i t i e s c o n fro n tin g a d o le sc e n t g i r l s and fe m a le s , in g e n e ra l, in contem porary A m erica. A claim f o r econom ic, c u l t u r a l , and e d u c a tio n a l e q u a lity was v o iced d u rin g th e decade and R o salin d C assidy d e lin e a te d th e r o le o f th e fem ale in American s o c ie ty t o be t h a t o f th e a r t i s t i n human r e la t i o n s h i p s , c h e ris h in g , tr a n s m it t i n g , and im proving th e human c o n d itio n . The ad v en t o f th e Second World War en ab led women in * th e U n ited S ta te s t o a c c e p t new kinds o f economic r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , and R o sa lin d C assid y u t i l i z e d t h i s s i t u a tio n in an en d eav o r t o c a l l f o r g r e a t e r c u l t u r a l e q u a lity f o r women in A m erica. She em phasized th e co n c ep t o f c u l t u r a l r e l a t i v i t y re g a rd in g se x r o l e i n th e contem porary w o rld , and c a lle d f o r an e d u c a tio n o f y o u th t h a t w ould em p h a siz e th e d e m o c ra tic , c o o p e r a tiv e , n o n c o m p e titiv e r o le s * o f American men and women. D uring th e decade i d e n t i f i e d w ith th e a d v e n t o f sp ac e age e x p lo r a tio n , R o sa lin d C assid y in d ic a te d optim ism o v e r women's s tr u g g le f o r c u l t u r a l e q u a lity in A m erica, and u rg ed women t o look t o h ig h e r e d u c a tio n f o r new avenues o f c h a lle n g e . In th e I9 6 0 '8 R o sa lin d C assid y c o n tin u e d t o s e a rc h f o r a more com plete i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f th e r o le o f th e fem ale in a space age s o c ie ty . She p o in te d o u t t h a t in a dangerous age o f w o rld c o n f l i c t , th e o b lig a tio n o f Am erican s o c ie ty i s th e maximum developm ent o f in d iv id u a l p o t e n t i a l i t y , re g a rd le s s o f s e x . Over th e y e a rs R o sa lin d C assid y i d e n t i f i e d h e r s e l f th ro u g h h e r docum ents w ith a co ncern f o r econom ic, educa t i o n a l , and c u l t u r a l e q u a lity f o r fem ales i n Am erican s o c ie ty . T his co n cern was e s p e c ia lly fo c u se d upon th e Am erican a d o le s c e n t g i r l and m a n ife s t in th e p u b lic a tio n o f such volumes as Hew D ire c tio n s i n P h y s ic a l E d u ca tio n f o r th e A d o lesc en t G ir l in High S chool and C o lla g e . P h y s ic a l F itn e s s f o r G i r l s , and C o u n selin g G irls in a C hanging S o c ie ty . CHAPTER VII EDUCATION E d u c a tio n o nly d ig s th e chan n e l , so t o s p e a k , a lo n g which th e r i v e r o f l i f e may flow . Too o fte n i t shoves and pushes a r e l u c t a n t p u p il o n , in s te a d o f s e t t i n g b e fo re him a goal s o a t t r a c t i v e and co m pelling t h a t he moves fo rw ard tow ard i t by h is own e f f o r t . — Edmund S in o tt W ith in h e r w r i t t e n docum ents, R o sa lin d C assid y . c l a r i f i e d , e x te n d e d , and gave d ir e c ti o n t o t h e m eaning o f m an-environm ent i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s , change i n th e tw e n tie th c e n tu r y , a p h ilo so p h y o f dem ocracyt and th e w orth,, d i g n ity , an d e q u a lit y o f a l l in d iv id u a ls in h e r d e m o c ra tic p h ilo s o phy o f e d u c a tio n . T h is c h a p te r c o n ta in s p a ssa g e s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f R o sa lin d C a s s id y 's c o n tin u o u s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith t h i s them e o v e r a p e rio d o f f iv e d ec ad es. The Y ears 1920-1929 * P e r s p e c tiv e and M eaning A d e f i n i t i o n o f e d u c a tio n fo c u se d upon th e develop m ent o f th e in d iv id u a l was made by C assid y i n c o n ju n c tio n w ith Thomas D. Wood in The New P h y s ic a l E d u ca tio n i n 1927. \ 95 I t was s ta te d t h a t : E ducation i s th e p ro c e ss o f liv in g in which th e c h ild e x p e rie n c e s th e f u l l e s t and most s a t i s f y in g l i f e each day, p ro v id in g th e b e s t p re p a ra tio n f o r l i f e l a t e r . E ducation i s th e d isco v ery and developm ent of p e rs o n a lity f o r th e h ig h e s t s e r v ic e and s a t i s f a c t i o n . (52:86 [1927]) The r e la tio n s h ip o f th e in d iv id u a l to s o c ie ty was id e n tif ie d w ith in th e framework o f th e th in k in g o f John Dewey, one o f th e le a d in g p h ilo so p h e rs o f th e tim e . This p o in t o f view was p ro je c te d in th e fo llo w in g manner: John Dewey i s th e le a d in g p h ilo so p h e r and te a c h e r o f th e modem p e r io d . The aim o f e d u c a tio n i s h eld to be n o t m erely th e developm ent o f th e in d iv id u a l, but th e developm ent o f t h i s in d iv id u a l in r e la ti o n to s o c ie ty . (5 2 :5 7 [1 9 2 7 ]) The r e s p o n s ib i li ty o f e d u c a tio n in c itiz e n s h ip developm ent was in d ic a te d as fo llo w s: The ta s k o f a l l b ran ch es o f e d u c a tio n . . . i s to develop th e q u a l i t i e s w hich make f o r more broad-m inded u n d e rsta n d in g , and f o r e f f e c t i v e n a tio n a l and w orld c itiz e n s h ip . (5 2 :2 4 [1927]) A need f o r co n tin u o u s re c o n s tru c tio n o f an edu c a tio n a l philosophy was i d e n t i f i e d and developed in th e fo llo w in g f a s h io n : a u s e fu l e d u c a tio n a l p h ilo so p h y , as modem e d u c a tio n a l philosophy i s d o in g , must change and re c o n s tru c t i t s e l f as ra p id ly a s s o c i a l c o n d itio n s change, i f i t would t r u ly i n t e r p r e t th e s p i r i t and aims o f th e tim e. (52:27 [1927]) The School An em phasis w ith in th e sc h o o l upon th e u t i l i t y and w orth o f knowledge t o th e in d iv id u a l was p o in te d o u t as 96 fo llo w s : th e sch o o ls must te a c h p rim a rily method o f g e ttin g and u sin g know ledge, in s te a d o f w a s tin g th e y e a rs o f youth in g iv in g fa c t knowledge w hich th e c h ild does n o t use because he does not know how, and b ecause i t does n o t to u ch h is i n t e r e s t s . (52:211 [1 9 2 7 ]) The C urriculum The need f o r a ch i Id -c e n te re d c u rric u lu m was e x p la in e d in th e se w ords: Modern ed u cato rs a re w orking from th e c h i l d 's a c tu a l needs and i n t e r e s t s in each s ta g e o f h is grow th, and su b o rd in a tin g s u b je c t m a tte r t o th e s e n eed s. In g e n e ra l, m a te ria l i s given a t th e tim e when i t i s o f f r e a t e s t i n t e r e s t to th e c h ild and o f m ost u se t o him n s o lv in g h is problem s. (52:118 [1 9 2 7 ]) A c a l l fo r a changing c o n c e p tio n o f s u b je c t m a tte r was v o iced in th e fo llo w in g manner: S u b je c t m a tte r must g ive o v e r i t s o ld e r c h a r a c te r of r i g i d i t y , f i x i t y , and u n ifo rm ity f o r grow th, m o b ility , and a d a p ta b ility . (52:18 [1927j) The E ducative P rocess In a passage em phasizing th e n e c e s s ity f o r a meth odology o f stu d y and thought i n contem porary l i f e o f 1927, i t was s t a te d th a t: i t i s im p erativ e th a t methods o f stu d y and s c i e n t i f i c th in k in g be ta u g h t in every f i e l d a s a means tow ard f i t t i n g th e in d iv id u a l b e t t e r to s o lv e p re se n t-d a y l i f e problem s. (52:216 [1927]) A concep tio n o f how th e in d iv id u a l b e s t le a r n s was p re se n te d in th e fo llo w in g fa s h io n : The g en e ral f i e l d o f e d u c a tio n has been sa y in g f o r th e l a s t tw enty y ea rs th ro u g h i t s g r e a t e s t p h ilo s o p h e r, John Dewey, and h is fo llo w e rs , t h a t i n t e r e s t i s b a s ic 97 f o r o f f o r t and t h a t th a in d iv id u a l le a rn s by e x p e ri ence* by doing* r a t h e r th a n by s i t t i n g p a s s iv e and b e in g t o l d w hat t o do. (2*fH:2 [1928]) A d e s c r ip tio n o f modern e d u c a tio n a l p ro ced u re was d ev elo p ed w ith in th e c o n te x t o f fo u r s te p s o f problem s o lv in g : 1 . The c h ild i s p u t in a s i t u a t i o n w hich i s an a p p r o p ria te one t o s a t i s f y h is n a tu r a l and d e s ir a b le te n d e n c ie s and i n s t i n c t s . 2 . Problem s a r i s e becau se o f some la c k o f s k i l l * knowledge* o r h a b it . 3. The c h ild g a th e rs d a ta t o so lv e th e s e problem s* p u ttin g i n i t i a t i v e * s e le c tio n * o rg a n iz a tio n * a d a p ta tio n * and judgem ent i n t o h is stu d y o f th e s e o b s ta c le s t o h is p ro g re s s . New knowledge* s k i l l * h a b its r e s u l t in th e f i n a l s o l u tio n . (52:296-297 [1927]) E d u c a tio n a l L ea d ersh ip The r o l e o f th e te a c h e r in contem porary e d u c a tio n was s t i p u l a t e d as fo llo w s : The modern te a c h e r i s te a c h in g th e c h ild * n o t a s e t sy ste m . She i s o ccu p ied w ith th e fo rm atio n o f th e d e s ir a b le re sp o n se -b o n d s. (52:296 [1927]) The Y ears 1930-1939 P e rs p e c tiv e and Meaning The i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p o f c u ltu r e and e d u c a tio n was n o te d by C assidy as she p o in te d out t h a t "no e d u c a tio n a l sy stem can be u n d e rsto o d a p a r t from th e c u ltu r e in w hich i t d ev e lo p s" (2 7 6 :1 [1 9 3 6 ]). S o c ia l* economic* and e d u c a tio n a l changes in 98 A m erica w are i d e n t i f i e d as f a c to r s r e s p o n s ib le f o r a g u id ance em phasis i n modern e d u c a tio n o f 1936. T his movement was d e s c rib e d a s : an em phasis in A m erican e d u c a tio n w hich h as been given th e name o f g u id a n c e . I t s f i r s t em phasis was on v o c a tio n a l g u id a n c e , b u t r a p id ly moved t o e d u c a tio n a l g u id a n c e . . • . (2 4 5 :2 7 [1 9 3 7 ]) A c o n c e p tio n o f e d u c a tio n was d ev elo p ed by C assidy and p re s e n te d i n New D ire c tio n s in P h y s ic a l E d u catio n f o r th e A d o le sc e n t G ir l in High S chool and C o lle g e . She s a i d : H erein i s s k e tc h e d a b r i e f d e sig n f o r an o rg an ism ic p h ilo so p h y o f e d u c a tio n , w hich view s th e t o t a l u n i t o f o rg a n ism -a n d -en v iro n m en t as th e p u rp o s iv e , b e h a v in g , d e v e lo p in g p e r s o n a l it y . T h is o rg a n ism ic p h ilo so p h y o f e d u c a tio n ta k e s th e p r i n c i p le s o f dem ocracy as th e c o n cep t upon w hich l i f e and e d u c a tio n f o r liv in g in A m erica sh o u ld be b a s e d . (1 3 :3 8 [1 9 3 8 ]) The aim o f e d u c a tio n was e s ta b lis h e d t o be t h a t o f: th e c o n tin u o u s o r i e n ti n g o f th e in d iv id u a l in th e p e r s i s t e n t problem s o f l i v i n g by means o f s e le c te d and g u id ed e x p e rie n c e s in th e a c tu a l problem s o f l i v i n g , so t h a t f u l l e s t grow th o f th e in d iv id u a l and th e s o c ie ty o f w hich he i s a p a r t may r e s u l t . (1 3 :5 2 [1 9 3 8 ]) The S chool A ch an g in g co n c ep t o f th e sc h o o l in A m erica was i d e n t i f i e d and e n la rg e d upon in th e fo llo w in g fa s h io n : i t i s n o t u n t i l th e re b e n t p e r io d w ith th e p h ilo so p h y o f John Dewey t h a t A m erica has e x p re s s e d t h i s t r a d i t i o n o f in d iv id u a lis m in i t s own e d u c a tio n a l p h ilo so p h y . The e f f e c t upon th e s c h o o l in th e U n ited S ta te s has b een f a r re a c h in g . W e a r e p u ttin g s tr o n g em phasis in t h e developm ent o f th e in d iv id u a l and i n d i v i d u a l i t y , y e t a re c h a lle n g e d c o n tin u o u s ly w ith th e need f o r o u r sc h o o ls t o e d u c a te young p eo p le t o m eet th e demands o f a ch anging econom ic l i f e . T h is new econoedc l i f e r e q u ir e s s o c i a l c o o p e ra tio n , group p la n n in g , s e r v ic e o f th e in d iv id u a l t o th e g ro u p . (2 7 6 :2 1 [1 9 3 6 ]) 99 I t was p o in ts d o u t t h a t " th e sc h o o l must b u ild a s o c ia l co n scio u sn ess" (13:53 [1 9 3 8 ]) , and "must ex ten d • • • la b o ra to ry methods in c i ti z e n s h i p e d u c a tio n • • • which w ill b rin g d eep er and w id e r u n d e rsta n d in g s of o n e 's s e l f in r e la tio n to o th e rs . • •" (1U3:H5 [1 9 3 8 ]). The C urriculum A tre n d in American c o lle g e s and u n i v e r s itie s away from a t r a d i t i o n a l cu rricu lu m was re c o g n iz e d by C assidy who i d e n ti f i e d t h i s change a s : an e f f o r t to more c lo s e ly r e l a t e th e s tu d e n t 's e x p e ri ences in c o lle g e w ith the s o c i a l m ilie u in which he l i v e s , a re c o g n itio n o f th e f a c t th a t th e s tu d e n t should un d ertak e h i s own e d u c a tio n as a lif e lo n g a c t i v i t y , an accep tan ce o f th e need f o r te a c h e rs t o know more about s tu d e n ts i n o rd e r to g iv e th e guidance t h a t i s e s s e n ti a l in s e l f e d u c a tio n . • * • (276:11 [1936]) The meaning o f in te g r a tio n r e l a t i v e to th e cu rricu lu m and in d iv id u a l p e r s o n a lity was d is c lo s e d in th e * fo llo w in g fa sh io n : The in te g r a tin g o f th e in d iv id u a l p e r s o n a lity sh o u ld be aid ed by in te g r a tin g in th e cu rricu lu m tow ard g o als which a re m eaningful to him . These g o als a r e th e p e r s i s t e n t problem s o f l i v i n g , n o t u n re la te d s u b je c t a re a s o r a c o lle c tio n o f s u b je c ts to be le a rn e d . (13:100 [1938]) The E ducative P rocess In New D ire c tio n s in P h y s ic a l E ducation f o r th e A dolescent G irl in High School and C o lle g e » C assidy e x p la in e d t h a t : th e e d u c a tio n a l p ro c ess i s c o n tin u o u s. An in d iv id u a l 100 I s n e v e r o r ie n te d , but i s always o rie n tin g h im s e lf to e v e r-c h a n g in g problem s o r a sp e c ts o f th e same problem . (13:52 [1938J) An em phasis upon guidance o f th e in d iv id u a l w ith in th e f i e l d o f e d u c a tio n was ex p ressed in th e fo llo w in g q u o ta tio n : In o u r e f f o r t to p ro p e rly r e d ir e c t e d u c a tio n t o th e developm ent o f th e in d iv id u a l, ed u c ato rs a r e c h a lle n g e d w ith th e need f o r b e t t e r to o ls w ith which to m easure in d iv id u a l d iffe re n c e s and c a p a c itie s . • • • Develop ment o f p erso n n e l and guidance tech n iq u es and p roced u re s • • • re p re s e n ts a marked advance in e d u c a tio n a l m ethod. (276:21 [1936]) The need f o r self-m anagem ent and group e x p e rie n c e in b e s t le a rn in g were d e lin e a te d by C assidy as she s t i p u la te d th a t in th e sch o o ls "th e method would be as much as p o s s ib le t h a t o f s e l f - d ir e c te d e x p lo ra tio n w ith many e n te r p r is e s in which groups would work to g e th e r ” (13:55 [1 9 3 8 ]). E d u c a tio n a l L ead ersh ip With a focus on th e in d iv id u a l, r a th e r th a n on s u b je c t m a tte r , C assidy developed h e r p o in t o f view re g a rd in g th e r o le o f every te a c h e r by em phasizing t h a t : p h y s ic a l ed u c a tio n te a c h e rs s e e t h e i r ta s k th e same as any o th e r te a c h e r in th e sc h o o l—t h a t o f i n te g r a tin g th e c h i l d , n o t p rim a rily th a t o f te a c h in g s k i l l s . (126:42 [1938]) A nother f a c e t o f th e te a c h e r 's r e s p o n s ib ility t o th e le a r n e r was e x p la in e d in t h i s manner: i t i s th e te a c h e r 's ta s k to allo w f o r a wide v a r ie ty o f e x p e rie n c e and g iv e such guidance t h a t th e c h ild w i ll grow in h is power t o a c t on th in k in g . (13:49 [1938]) 101 The Years 1910-1919 P e r s p e c tiv e and M eaning T u rm o il and c o n f l i c t in d e f in in g th e g o als and d i r e c t i o n o f e d u c a tio n in 1910 was re c o g n iz e d by C assidy a s sh e w rote t h a t : I t i s a c o n te s t o f words and id e a s betw een The T r a d i t i o n a l i s t s v s. P r o g re s s iv e s . The new Humanism vs • E x p e rim e n ta l N a tu ra lism . H u tch in s v s . Dewey. S t. Jo h n s v s . S arah Law rence. E d u c a tio n th ro u g h th e h u n d red b e s t books o r e x p e rie n c e and i n t e g r a t i o n o f th e in d iv id u a l. (117:25 [1910]) A contem porary em phasis upon th e r o le o f guidance in th e f i e l d o f e d u c a tio n was d e s c rib e d in th e fo llo w in g w ay: th e g u id a n c e program s i n o u r seco n d ary sc h o o ls a re co n v e rg in g t o fo cu s upon g iv in g s p e c ia l in d iv id u a l h e lp t o boys and g i r l s i n s e l e c t i n g ways o f li v in g which w i l l s a t i s f y t h e i r needs as d e v e lo p in g p erso n s in a d e m o c ra tic s o c i e t y . (1 8 :7 7 [1 9 1 0 ]) A d e s c r ip tio n o f th e d ir e c tio n in w hich th e f i e l d o f e d u c a tio n moved d u rin g th e y e a rs o f World War I I was p re s e n te d by R o sa lin d C assid y (w ith o th e r s ) in 1917. She s a i d : W ith th e b e g in n in g o f W orld War I I in 1939 and th e p ea cetim e m o b iliz a tio n o f th e U n ited S ta te s 9 th e n w ith o u r a c t u a l d e c la r a tio n o f w ar a f t e r December 7 , 1911, e d u c a to rs sh a rp e n e d t h e i r o b je c tiv e s t o w ar-p eace e n d s , k e e p in g in view th e a re a s o f y o u th needs but c e n te rin g on g o a ls r e l a t e d t o p re p a rin g boys and g i r l s f o r w ar s e r v ic e s th e y w ould re n d e r a f t e r le a v in g school*; T here was a reem p h asis on p h y s ic a l f i t n e s s t on s e r v ic e s to th e com m unity, on d e m o c ra tic p r in c ip le s and u n d er s ta n d in g s . (3 0 :9 9 [1 9 1 7 ]) A p le a f o r an e d u c a tio n v a lu in g human p e r s o n a lity 102 was mads by C assidy (w ith H ild a C. Kozman) as th s y a s s e r te d t h a t : T here must be an e d u c a tio n in th e new Humanism t r u l y v a lu in g p e r s o n a l i t y , a l l p e r s o n a l i t y , on edu c a tio n t h a t i s a lig n e d w ith th e f a c t s o f b io lo g y , th e te n e ts o f C h r i s t i a n i t y , and th e p r a c tic e s o f dem ocracy. <15:V [1 9 4 7 ]) The i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f e d u c a tio n f o r c i t i z e n s h ip in a dem ocracy was s p e lle d o u t c l e a r l y in th e fo llo w in g s ta te m e n t: E d u ca to rs s e e t h a t o u r tim e i s one in w hich th e v a lu e s o f r e s p o n s ib le , c o o p e ra tiv e b e h a v io r m ust be a c c e p te d and p r a c tic e d by e v e ry c h i l d , y o u th and a d u lt b o th a s a p o s itiv e v a li d a t i o n o f o u r b e l i e f in Democ racy and as o u r o nly way o f m a in ta in in g a w o rld a t p e a c e . They s e e as a v ery la r g e p a r t o f th e jo b t o be done i n o u r own Dem ocracy, t h a t o f e d u c a tin g f o r th e r e a l i z a t i o n o f f i r s t c la s s c i t i z e n s h i p f o r a l l and e d u c a tin g f o r th e b e l i e f in and p r a c t ic e s o f Democracy — th e r e l a t i o n o f each c i t i z e n t o h is governm ent. (141:29 [1 9 4 8 ]) The S chool D uring th e y e a rs o f th e Second W orld War and th e p o s t-w a r e r a , th e s c h o o l was re g a rd e d a s a c e n te r o f community l i f e . In Group E x p e rie n c e : The D em ocratic Way. C assidy and B ern ice B a x te r p o in te d o u t t h a t : S chools a r e becoming la b o r a to r ie s f o r e x p e rie n c in g th e d e m o c ra tic s o c i a l l i f e and a s su c h a r e in c lu d in g th e community a s a w hole as t h e i r f i e l d o f s tu d y . (4 :1 0 7 [1 9 4 3 ]) The C u rricu lu m The r e la tio n s h ip o f th e in d iv id u a l t o e d u c a tio n a l program s was e x p la in e d in t h i s m anner: 103 E d u c a tio n a l program s m ust u ss a s t h e i r , p o i n t o f r e f e r en ce th e n eed s o f t h e - i n d i v i d u a l - i n t e r a c t i n g - w it h - h ia e n v iro n m e n t. (2 6 2 :2 [1 9 * 1 ]) In 19** 7 i t was s t i p u l a t e d by H ild a C. Kozman, R o sa lin d C a s s id y , and C. 0 . Ja c k so n t h a t " th e problem s o f a d o le s c e n ts . . . have became th e b a se s f o r p la n n in g edu c a t i o n a l program s" (3 0 :1 0 1 [19** 7 ]) , a n d , c o n s e q u e n tly : The p r e s e n t day tr e n d i s tow ard c u r r i c u l a o rg a n iz e d aro u n d th e n ee d s o f boys and g i r l s in th e a r e a s o f h e a l t h , work and s e r v i c e , r e c r e a ti o n and r e l a ti o n s h i p s w ith o t h e r s . (3 0 :1 0 0 [19**7]) The E d u c a tiv e P ro c e ss The u n a c c e p ta b ility o f a u t o c r a t i c m ethodology in a dem ocracy was e x p la in e d by C assidy (an d B a x te r) i n t h i s m anner: A u to c r a tic m ethods have no p la c e i n a d e m o c ra tic e n v ir onm ent. By v i r t u e o f g r e a t e r e x p e rie n c e a le a d e r s h o u ld hav e t h e r e s p e c t o f c h ild r e n w ith o u t dem anding i t . H is g u id a n c e s h o u ld be i n d i r e c t b u t p o s i t i v e . (1 0 2 :6 8 [191*2]) The g o a l o f te a c h in g and c o u n s e lin g in e d u c a tio n was p re s e n te d in th e fo llo w in g fa s h io n : When e d u c a tio n i s c o n s id e re d as g u id a n c e , th e aim in te a c h in g and c o u n s e lin g becomes t o h e lp e a c h g i r l t o u n d e rsta n d h e r n e e d s , s e t g o a ls t o m eet th em , p la n w hat t o do t o re a c h th e g o a ls , c a rry o u t p l a n s , and e s tim a te r e s u l t s . (1 5 :2 2 9 [19«*7]) The r o le o f e d u c a tio n a l le a d e r s h ip i n h e lp in g th e s tu d e n t t o m a tu re , b e s t le a r n in g in a d e m o c ra tic s e t t i n g was e x p la in e d by C assid y (and Kozman) in t h i s s ta te m e n t: I f th e p ro c e s s o f b e s t le a r n in g i s t h a t o f problem s o lv i n g , th e n te a c h in g , c o u n s e lin g , and a d v is in g m ust be d i r e c t e d to w ard h e lp in g th e in d iv id u a l le a r n t o fa c e 10* h i s own d i f f i c u l t i e s , to p la n , and t o a c t t o overcome them* The in d iv id u a l i s stre n g th e n e d by t h i s le a rn in g , n o t by having h is problems so lv e d f o r him . (15:212 [19*7]) Emphasis upon dem ocratic group a c tio n as c e n tr a l to th e e d u c a tiv e p ro cess was d e lin e a te d in th e fo llo w in g q u o ta tio n : When ed u c a tio n i s co n sid ered as g u id an ce, th e meth od o f work i s co o p e ra tiv e p lan n in g and a c tio n o f coun s e l o r s , s tu d e n ts , te a c h e r s , and a d m in is tra to rs as a t o t a l group and as many sm all groups w ith s p e c ia l purposes and fu n c tio n s . The s p e c ia l procedures o f a d u lts i n sch o o l who co u n sel s tu d e n ts a re in d iv id u a l g u id a n c e , guidance o f a number o f in d iv id u a ls a t th e same tim e , and guidance o f a group. (15:232 [19*7]) E d u catio n al L eadersh ip A s u b s ti tu t i o n o f th e word c o u n se lo r, f o r te a c h e r , in th e e d u c a tio n a l f i e l d was advocated by C assidy as n eces sary because th e Word te a c h e r "has a l l th e a s s o c ia tio n of a u to c r a tic d ir e c tio n o f c h ild a c tiv ity " (1*0:5 [1 9 * 0 ]). She p o in te d o u t th a t : The name is th a t o f co u n se lo r—a te a c h e r, y e s—but one who c o u n s e ls , h e lp s th e in d iv id u a l see a l l a sp e c ts and s id e s o f a q u e s tio n , even ad v ises b u t n ev er d i r e c t s , commands o r demands. (1*0:5 [19*0]) The n e c e s s ity fo r e d u c a tio n a l le a d e rs to fu lly understand and be com petent to guide th e developm ent o f th e in d iv id u a l was in d ic a te d in th e fo llo w in g q u o ta tio n : Those who would guide th e development o f " s o c ia l man" m ust them selves be tr u l y " s o c ia l" in b e l ie f and a c tio n . They must c le a r ly u n d erstan d th e p ro cess through which th e in d iv id u a l s te p by s te p becomes more re sp o n sib le f o r h is own b e h a v io r in r e la tio n t o o th e rs . They must 105 u n d erstan d t h i s p ro c ess and b e lie v e i n i t enough to r r a c tic e i t in every a s p e c t o f t h e i r f e e lin g and doing n th e guidance o f o th e r s . (4 :1 5 3 [1943]) The in te r r e la tio n s h i p o f te a c h in g and s o c i a l work was c l a r i f i e d in a sta te m e n t in Group E x p e rie n c e ; The D em ocratic Way: The b a s ic c o n trib u tio n o f th e te a c h e r and s o c ia l s e rv ic e w orker a re becoming more and more r e la te d as tim e goee on. Both a re in v o lv e d in h e lp in g youth a c q u ire th e s o c ia l s k i l l s and th e knowledge and p erso n a l b eh a v io r which a re e s s e n t i a l t o s a t is f y i n g co -o p era t iv e community liv in g . (4:139 [1943]) A concept o f th e te a c h e r as a group le a d e r was developed in th e fo llo w in g fa s h io n : th e te a c h e r as guide i s seen as a le a d e r o f a group who e x e rc is e s h e r le a d e rs h ip t o f u r t h e r th e maximum growth and developm ent o f each p erso n in th e group. (16:76 [1943]) The ro le o f th e te a c h e r in s o c ie ty was changing b ec au se: ed u c atio n ta k e s on new r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s as th e s o c ie ty which i t se rv e s changes and makes new demands and as new knowledge about human b ein g s a f f e c ts e d u c a tio n a l o b je c tiv e s and p ro c e d u re s. (30:5 [1947]) The Y ears 1950-1959 P e rsp e c tiv e and Meaning An em phasis upon d em o cratic e d u c a tio n a t m id-cen tu ry was e v id e n t in an a r t i c l e w r itte n by C assidy in 1950. She d e c la re d : The nationw ide c e le b r a tio n o f John Dewey's 90th b irth d a y rem inds us o f t h i s in c re a s in g concern in t h i s f a t e f u l tw e n tie th c e n tu ry f o r a d em o cratic e d u c a tio n a l 106 p h ilo so p h y and o u r se a rc h f o r p r a c tic e s c o n s is te n t w ith I t as e s s e n t ia l t o th e p re p a ra tio n o f Am erican c i t i z e n s . (115:218 [1950]) The m ajor g o al o f e d u c a tio n in 1951, a c c o rd in g t o C a ssid y t was made c le a r in t h i s s ta te m e n t: I t becomes in c re a s in g ly c le a r th a t e d u c a tio n * s prim ary t a s k now i s t o te a c h human bein g s how to g e t a lo n g w ith one a n o th e r. (10:103 [1951]) The r e s p o n s ib ility o f ed ucation t o s o c ie ty was i d e n t i f i e d in Group P rocess in P h y sical E d u c a tio n : E d u catio n emerges e v e r mom c le a r ly as a b a s ic s o c i a l agency w ith th e o b lig a tio n o f p re p a rin g su c ce e d in g g e n e ra tio n s to l iv e in and t o manage a dynam ic, em erg en t, changing s o c ia l o rd e r. (2 8:87 [1 9 5 1 ]) F u rth e r e la b o r a tio n upon th e concept o f e d u c a tio n f o r change was made in th e fo llo w in g m a te ria l: W e must ed u cate f o r accep tan ce of change. P ro v id e to o ls f o r change and show how t o f in d s e c u r ity in change. E d ucation f o r sp o n tan eo u s, f l e x i b l e , a d j u s t a b le , c r e a tiv e a c tio n r a t h e r th an s e t p a t t e r n s , le a rn e d fo rm u la s , r i g i d r e p e t i t i o n o r p a st a n sw e rs, f i n a l an sw e rs. (281:1 [1952]) The aim o f e d u c a tio n in 195U was seen by C assid y to be t h a t o f: th e co n tin u o u s o r ie n tin g o f th e in d iv id u a l i n th e p e r s i s t e n t problem s o r th e developm ental ta s k s o f l i v in g re q u ir e d by h is c u l t u r e , by means o f s e le c te d and gu ided e x p e rie n c e s in th e a c tu a l problem s o f l i v i n g , so t h a t f u l l e s t growth o f th e in d iv id u a l and th e s o c ie ty o f w hich he i s a p a r t may r e s u l t . (9 :1 0 5 [195U ]) A need f o r e d u c a tio n a l emphasis i n the s p a c e age was p o in te d o u t by C assidy as she in d ic a te d t h a t s t r e s s must b s p la c e d : On b a s ic g u id in g p r in c ip le s ; On overview and f i e l d r e l a t i o n s ; On f a c t fin d in g ; On c r e a tin g a p p r o p r ia te 107 a c tio n f o r a g iv e n s i t u a t i o n — on problem s o lv in g ; On r s s o u r c s s o f th e human s p i r i t , v a lu e sy ste m , in n e r s e c u r i t y , a c c e p ta n c e o f s e l f and o t h e r s , d em o cratic human r e l a t i o n s , im proved s k i l l s o f com m unication, and m utual u n d e rs ta n d in g ; On p e rs o n a l and group i d e n t i t y ; On th e h e a lth y , in te g r a te d p e r s o n a lity . (272:2 [1 9 5 8 ]) The S chool In an a tta c k upon e d u c a tio n a l c o n se rv a tism in 1951, R o sa lin d C assid y m a in ta in e d t h a t : t r a d i t i o n a l p r a c tic e s w i l l have t o go. The a u th o r i t a r i a n and c o e rc iv e sc h o o l must g iv e way to a demo c r a t i c i n s t i t u t i o n t h a t a c h ie v e s i t s ends th ro u g h c o o p e r a tiv e , p a r t i c i p a t o r y , d em o cratic group p ro c e s s e s . (2 8 :9 3 [1 9 5 1 ]) Added em phasis upon th e e d u c a tio n a l commitment o f th e sc h o o l t o a d e m o c ra tic s o c ie ty was p ro p o sed in a s ta te m e n t in C u rricu lu m Development in P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n . C assid y s a i d : o u r se c o n d a ry s c h o o ls m ust s e rv e young p eo p le who a re c i t i z e n s o f th e U n ited S ta te s and th e r e f o r e m ust be h e lp e d t o u n d e rsta n d i t s c u ltu r e and i t s commitment t o d e m o c ra tic p r i n c i p l e s . Am erican boys and g i r l s must grow i n th e a b i l i t y t o u se th e d e m o c ra tic p ro c e s s . (9 :1 0 5 [1 9 5 4 ]) A t h e s i s r e l a t i v e t o th e fu n c tio n o f th e sc h o o l in any s o c ie ty was d ev elo p ed i n th e fo llo w in g s ta te m e n t: The ta s k o f th e sc h o o l in any s o c ie ty and a t any p e rio d o f tim e i s t o p re p a re th e c h ild r e n and youth o f t h a t s o c ie ty f o r s u c c e s s f u l l i v i n g . (9 :3 [1 9 5 4 ]) The C u rricu lu m The need t o c e n te r a l l c u r r i c u l a r e x p e rie n c e s upon th e in d iv id u a l i n th e s o c i e t a l s e t t i n g was em phasized by C assid y a s sh e e t a t e d : 108 E d u c a tio n a l p ro g ra m m ust u sa a s t h s i r p o in t o f r s f a r a n e s t h s n s s d s o f t h s i n d i v i d u a l - i n t e r a c t i n g - w i t h - h is •e n v iro n m e n t. T hese may be th o u g h t o f as th e "D evelopm ental T ask s" r e q u ir e d o f boys and g i r l s in th e USA. . . . <28*:1 [195**]) A d e f i n i t i o n o f th e s c h o o l c u rric u lu m was d ev elo p ed i n th e fo llo w in g f a s h io n : The c u rric u lu m i s n o t w hat i s s e t down on p a p e r b u t i s th e r e s u l t o f th e i n t e r a c t i o n o f t h e b e l i e f s , commit m ents and o o m p eten cies o f a l l o f th e p e rso n s co n cern ed w ith th e s t r u c t u r e o f s c h o o l, com m unity, and l a r g e r community o f n a tio n and w o rld . (9 :1 9 [195*0) "A c u rric u lu m o f h ig h e d u c a tiv e q u a l i t y " (5 1 :1 5 7 [1 9 5 6 ]) was d e s c rib e d as t h a t c u rric u lu m w hich w i l l : p ro v id e e x p e rie n c e s f o r boys and g i r l s w hich w i l l con t r i b u t e t o s u c c e s s i n m eetin g th e b i o l o g i c a l and s o c i a l ta s k s r e q u ir e d a t ea ch grow th p e r io d . T h is means t h a t any p a r t i c u l a r s u b j e c t m a tte r s h o u ld make i t s c o n t r i b u tio n t o th e d e v e lo p m e n ta l ta s k s f o r w hich a l l a re a s o f e d u c a tio n a r e r e s p o n s ib le . (5 1 :1 5 7 [1 9 5 6 ]) D e te rm in a tio n o f th e s c h o o l c u rric u lu m was c o n s id e re d t o be dep endent upon an u n d e rs ta n d in g t h a t : The c u rric u lu m m ust be b a se d upon th e n e e d s , p ro b l e m and i n t e r e s t s o f boys and g i r l s i n t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r s o c i e t y . P ro b le m and i n t e r e s t s a r e a r e f l e c t i o n o f th e i n d i v i d u a l 's needs in h i s c u l t u r e . (51:156 [1 9 5 6 ]) The E d u c a tiv e P ro c e ss In 1951 C a s s id y , and o t h e r s , d e f in e d th e g u id an ce p ro c e ss a s "a problem s o lv in g p ro c e s s ” (2 8 :2 1 6 [1 9 5 1 ]). She e x p la in e d t h a t : I t m a n s c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f th e p ro b le m , i n v e s t i g a t in g i t in o r d e r t o s e t g o a ls f o r s o l u t i o n , p la n n in g and ex e c u tin g th e p l a n , s to c k ta k in g t o f i n d o u t th e r e s u l t s . (28:216 [1 9 5 1 ]) 109 E xten sio n o f th e guidance concept th ro u g h o u t th e sc h o o l was c a lle d f o r in th e fo llo w in g way: In o u r s o c ie ty th e e d u c a tio n a l p ro c ess must c o n s is t o f guidance o f th e le a r n e r tow ard g o als o f re s p o n s ib le s e lf - d ir e c tio n * In American e d u c a tio n , we a re com m itted to an o v e r - a ll sc h o o l guidance program d ir e c te d tow ard t h i s end. (8:5 £1959 3) E d u ca tio n al L eadership "The r o le o f th e te a c h e r in th e guidance p ro c ess" was e x p la in e d to be " th a t o f a 'change a g e n t (28:216 C19S1]). The purpose o f th e change ag e n t was d e sc rib e d in th e fo llo w in g way: The te a c h e r 's a c ti v i t y as change a g e n t may ta k e many forms , y e t th e purpose i s alw ays to r e le a s e in h is s tu d e n ts th e power to th in k and a c t f o r th em selv es in resp o n ses throug h which th ey move tow ard m a tu rity as f re e in d iv id u a ls liv in g c o o p e ra tiv e ly and p ro d u c tiv e ly w ith f e e lin g s o f adequacy and s e c u r i ty . (28:216 £19513) C assidy a ls o id e n ti f ie d th e r o le o f th e te a c h e r in a n o th e r fa sh io n as she proclaim ed th a t "u sin g d em o cratic m ethods, th e te a c h e r i s n o t a ' t e l l e r , ' n o t a d i c t a t o r , not a d i r e c to r , b u t a guide" (28:216 £19513). An assessm ent o f th e com petencies needed by a te a c h e r t o u t i l i z e e f f e c tiv e ly th e c o u n se lin g p ro c e ss were s tip u la te d to be a knowledge o f: 1. What b e h a v io r means t o th e human organism — th e b io - p sy c h o lo g ic a l b ase . 2. How b e h a v io r i s m odified p r changed—th e biop sy ch o - lo g ic a l and th e s o c io -a n th ro p o lo g ic a l b a se . 3• Symptomatic b e h a v io r. 110 4 . How i s th e dem ocratic p e rs o n a lity developed in th e contem porary U nited S ta te s ? 5 . A dolescence—th e b io p sy c h o lo g ic a l and th e s o c io - a n th ro p o lo g ic a l ta s k s . 6 . C ounseling s i t u a t io n s . 7. C ounseling t o o ls — d iag n o sin g and a d ju s tin g . 8. P rin c ip le s o f guidance. (268:1 [1951]) The r e la tio n s h ip o f th e te a c h e r to th e community and s o c ie ty was d e sc rib e d to be th e fo llo w in g : i f th e te a c h e r i s re sp o n s ib le f o r th e optimum in th e developm ent o f in d iv id u a ls , i t i s obv io u sly h is re sp o n s i b i l i t y t o work as a te a c h e r and as a c i t i z e n f o r b e t t e r sc h o o ls and neighborhood and community c o n d itio n s f o r y o u th . E ducation and e d u c a to r a re no lo n g e r s e t a p a rt from s o c ie ty , b u t a re u n if ie d w ith i t , s h a rin g in th e e n te r p r is e o f a b e t t e r l i f e f o r a l l . (9:323 [1954]) The Years 1960-1965 P e rs p e c tiv e and Meaning E d u c a tio n a l tra n sm iss io n o f s o c i e t a l b e l i e f s re g a rd in g th e r o le th e in d iv id u a l should f u l f i l l w ith in a s o c ie ty were e x p la in e d by C assidy (and Brown) in Theory in P h y s ic a l E d u catio n : A Guide t o Program Change. I t was proposed t h a t : I f th e s o c ie ty w ants i t s c itiz e n s t o th in k o f them s e lv e s as happy, c r e a tiv e , ex p erim en tal in d iv id u a ls who f in d deep s a t i s f a c ti o n s in s e l f r e a l iz a t i o n , s o c ie ty o rg a n iz e s i t s e d u c a tio n to tra n s m it such id e a s i n t o m an's s e l f system . (6:94 [1963]) The need t o p ro v id e co n tin u o u sly f o r u n d e rsta n d in g o f and a d a p ta b ility t o change in th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry was p re se n te d p la in ly in th e fo llo w in g sta te m e n t: W e must e d u c a te f o r accep tan ce o f change as a r e a l i t y o f o u r tim e o f l i v in g . W e must p rovide ex p erien ces w hich w i l l h e lp th e in d iv id u a l fa c e ra p id change w ith o u t b ein g th re a te n e d o r. d iso rg a n iz e d . ( 2 6 [ 1 9 6 5 ] ) The S chool The fu n c tio n o f th e sc h o o l was d e lin e a te d by C assidy ( and Brown) as th e y argued t h a t "sc h o o ls a re n o t o rg a n iz e d to p e r p e tu a te th e s ta t u s quo. They a re o rg an ized t o im prove s o c ie ty in a planned o rg a n iz a tio n f o r change" (6:94 [1 9 6 3 ]). The r e la ti o n s h i p o f sch o o l ex p e rien ces to th e developm ent o f a d em o cratic c itiz e n r y was ex p lain ed as R o salin d C assid y a s s e r te d t h a t " a l l sch o o l ex p e rien ces should h e lp t h e c h ild become th e kind o f person who can fu n c tio n s u c c e s s f u lly as a h e a lth y , f re e c itiz e n in a d em o cratic s o c ie ty " (2 6 0 :1 [ I9 6 0 ] ). The C urriculum A sse ssin g th e causes of program change le d C assidy to s t a t e th a t "program s change when b e lie f s change," and "th e only way t o c o n s tru c tiv e ly change th e cu rricu lu m i s to change th e p e o p le in v o lv ed in th e programs concerned" <26U:2 [1 9 6 5 ]). The E d u cativ e P ro cess How in d iv id u a ls can change and move tow ard s e l f - r e a l i z a t i o n was p o in te d out by C assidy when she s a id t h a t 112 le a rn in g e x p a rla n c e s : Must p ro v id e f o r in d iv id u a l d if f e r e n c e s and r e a d in e s s . Must be c e n te re d in problem s u n d e rsto o d and a c c e p te d by th e l e a r n e r * and be r e la te d t o h is f e l t n e e d s. Must p ro v id e f o r in d iv id u a liz e d e x p e rie n c e s e v a lu a te d in r e l a t i o n t o t h e i r m eanings to th e l e a r n e r . Must p ro v id e a c lim a te f o r le a r n in g t h a t i s a c c e p tin g * su p p o rtin g * and c h a lle n g in g * and p ro v id e s f o r su c c e ss and a p p ro v a l in a d em o cratic s o c ie t y . Must be d ir e c te d tow ard th e le a r n e r* s s e l f value* s e l f accep tan ce and re s p o n s ib le in d ep en d e n ce. (2 6 6 :1 [1965]) E d u c a tio n a l L ea d ersh ip The need f o r in d iv id u a ls i n p o s itio n s o f educa t i o n a l le a d e rs h ip t o u n d e rsta n d and ap p ly sound p ro fe s s io n a l p r in c ip le s was u n d ersc o red by C assidy as she a s s e r te d t h a t : P ro fe s s io n a l p r in c ip le s a r e b a s ic commitments ac c e p te d by th e te a c h e r o r le a d e r as g u id e lin e s f o r a c tio n . These sh o u ld have been exam ined a g a in s t th e " b e s t” a v a ila b le fo u n d a tio n f a c ts c o n c e rn in g th e in d iv id u a l in th e b io p s y c h o lo g ic a l and th e s o c io -a n th r o p o lo g ic a l a r e a s . T h is ex a m in atio n o f f a c t as r e l a t e d t o o n e 's p rin c ip le s f o r a c tio n m ust be a co n tin u o u s p ro c ess because o f new in s ig h ts and re s e a rc h f in d in g s . (260:1 [I9 6 0 ]) Summary In th e volume The M ew P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n . R o salin d C assidy (w ith T. D. Wood) i d e n t i f i e d th e p urpose o f Ameri can ed u c atio n i n th e l a t e tw e n tie s as th e developm ent o f p e r s o n a lity and c itiz e n s h ip in s o c i a l man. I t was p o in te d o u t t h a t w ith in th e framework o f an e d u c a tio n a l p h ilo so p h y 113 w hich m ust change c o n tin u o u s ly t o m eet th e s o c i a l con d i t i o n s o f th e tim e , s u b je c t m a tte r m ust b e f l e x i b l e and a d a p ta b le t o in d iv id u a l needs and i n t e r e s t s i n o r d e r t o s o lv e l i f e ' s d a ily p ro b lem s. To h e lp c h ild r e n s o lv e th e problem s o f d a ily l i v i n g , th e te a c h e r was i n s t r u c t e d t o g u id e in d iv id u a ls i n th e a c t i v e , e x p e r i e n t i a l s c i e n t i f i c p ro c e s s o f s tu d y and th in k in g . T hese them es c o n tin u e d t o p erv ad e R o sa lin d C a s s id y 's w r itin g th ro u g h o u t s u b se q u e n t y e a r s . D u rin g th e 1 9 3 0 's R o sa lin d C assid y em phasized a c u l t u r a l , d e m o c ra tic , o rg a n ism ic c o n c e p tio n o f e d u c a tio n . T h is v ie w p o in t re q u ir e d th e n eed f o r m u tu al d ev elo p m en t o f man and s o c i e t y th ro u g h p e rs o n a l e x p e rie n c e in o r d e r t o s o lv e th e p e r s i s t e n t problem s o f l i v i n g . An i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f e d u c a tio n f o r c i t i z e n s h i p and s o c i a l c o n s c io u s n e s s n e c e s s i ta t e d an e d u c a tio n a l em phasis upon p u p il s e l f - d i r e c t i o n and m anagem ent, and s o c i a l c o o p e ra tio n in group e n t e r p r i s e . The te a c h e r was c h a lle n g e d t o u t i l i z e th e te c h n iq u e s o f g u id an ce i n o r d e r t o b r in g a b o u t t h e f u l l e s t developm ent o f th e p u p il. T hroughout th e 1 9 4 0 's th e fo cu s o f e d u c a tio n was o r ie n te d c o n tin u o u s ly i n th e d i r e c t i o n o f g u id a n c e , d e v e l opm ent o f human p e r s o n a l it y , and p r e p a r a tio n f o r re sp o n s i b l e c i t i z e n s h i p in a d e m o c ra tic s o c i e t y . In t h i s e r a th e s c h o o l was d e s c rib e d as an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f th e com m unity, c u r r i c u l a c o n tin u e d t o fo c u s on i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and 11* s a t i s f a c t i o n o f human n e e d s, and te a c h e rs fu n c tio n e d as c o u n se lo rs and g u id e s , u t i l i z i n g in d iv id u a l and group e x p e rie n c e s t o b rin g t o f r u i t i o n th e p ro b lem -so lv in g e f f o r t s o f t h e i r s tu d e n ts . At m id -c e n tu ry » R osalind C assidy co ntinued t o s t r e s s th e developm ent o f dem o cratic human r e l a t i o n s , and she in d ic a te d th e r o le o f e d u c a tio n to be t h a t o f a s o c ia l agency p re p a rin g i t s c itiz e n r y f o r continuous change in a dynamic w o rld . T r a d itio n a l sc h o o l p ra c tic e s were a tta c k e d and d e m o c ra tic , group p ro c ess was advocated as a p p ro p ria te m ethodology f o r d e m o c ra tic , s o c ia l i n s t i t u t i o n s . C u rric u la fo cu sed on th e i n t e r e s t s , n e e d s, and problem s o f th e s tu d e n ts , and th e te a c h e r was i d e n t i f i e d as a change a g e n t, '■ 'i who guides and a d v ise s th e s tu d e n ts th ro u g h o u t th e problem s o lv in g p ro c e ss o f e d u c a tio n . The id e a o f change and th e need fo r change were r e i t e r a t e d by R o salin d C assidy in th e 1 9 6 0 's. Needed, a c c o rd in g t o t h i s le a d e r , was e d u c a tio n which r e s u lte d in th e accep tan ce o f change w ith p e rso n a l s e c u r ity , reco g n i tio n o f th e sc h o o l as a change in n o v a to r, and u n d erstan d in g t h a t th e sc h o o l c u rricu lu m changes only when b e lie f s o f in d iv id u a ls in v o lv e d in c u rricu lu m r e d ir e c tio n are a l t e r e d . P ro v isio n f o r s e l f - r e a l i z a t i o n in a democracy demanded t h a t in c re a s e d a t t e n t i o n sh o u ld be accorded t o more in d iv id u a l- iz e d , m eaning o r ie n te d , p ro b lem -cen tered ex p e rie n c e s le a d in g t o re s p o n s ib le , in d e p e n d e n t, dem o cratic a c tio n . 115 From h e r e a r l i e s t w ritin g s R o salin d C assidy made known c o n tin u a lly h e r b e l i e f in a c u l t u r a l l y co n c e iv e d , d e m o c ra tic a lly o r i e n t e d , in d iv id u a l* in - s o c ie ty fo cu sed co n cep tio n o f e d u c atio n * i d e n tif y in g in d iv id u a l needs as th e b a s is o f e d u c a tio n a l e x p e rie n c e , te a c h in g as g u id an ce , le a rn in g as problem s o lv in g , and th e sc h o o l as a s o c ia l i n s t i t u t i o n . E d u c a tio n a l e x p e rie n c e s w ere view ed as a means o f d ev e lo p in g human p o t e n t i a l i t i e s and p re p a rin g s o c ia l man f o r f u l l p a r ti c i p a t i o n i n d em o cratic liv in g . PART IV PHYSICAL EDUCATION 116 CHAPTER V III PHYSICAL EDUCATION: PERSPECTIVE A N D M EANING P h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n must have an aim as broad as e d u c a tio n i t s e l f , and as n o b le and in s p i r i n g as human lif e * — Thomas D. Wood W ith th e co n c ep ts i d e n t i f i e d in th e fo u n d a tio n c h a p te rs s e r v in g as th e b a s is o f R o salin d C a s s id y 's p h ilo so p h y o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n , P a rt Four o f t h i s stu d y i s o rg a n iz e d around th e p r e s e n ta tio n and developm ent o f h e r m ajor id e a s in e ig h t b ro ad a re a s o f em phasis. In t h i s C h a p te r, R o sa lin d C assid y d e lin e a te s h e r b e l i e f s about p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n th ro u g h h e r w r itte n documents and in d ic a te s h e r co n tin u o u s s e a rc h f o r th e m eaning and r e la tio n s h ip o f movement e x p e rie n c e s t o human development* The Y ears 1920-1929 In 192$ R o sa lin d C assid y i d e n t i f i e d th e c h a lle n g e to th e p r o f e s s io n o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n in th e fo llo w in g s ta te m e n t: The c h a lle n g e t o P h y s ic a l E d u ca to rs to d ay i s ind eed a s e r io u s one* T h is i s an age when ev ery id e a and p r a c tic e in e d u c a tio n i s b e in g s e v e re ly t e s t e d in th e 117 118 l i g h t o f now s c i o n t i f i c knowledge in th o f i e l d s o f p sy ch o lo g y , p h y sio lo g y , c h e m is try , n u t r i t i o n , s o c i o l ogy , e t c . M y p le a t o w orkers in t h i s f i e l d i s f o r b ro a d e r fo u n d a tio n s , f o r open minds and th e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e tow ard your w ork, e v e r t e s t i n g and im proving i t as g e n e ra l e d u c a tio n p r a c tic e im p ro v es. (192 [1 9 2 5 ]) A r a th e r e x te n s iv e expansion o f t h i s theme was p re s e n te d in 1927 in th e book, The Hew P h y s ic a l E d u ca tio n ! A Program o f n a tu r a lis e d A c ti v i t ie s f o r E d u ca tio n Toward C itiz e n s h ip » au th o red by Wood and C a ssid y . In t h i s volume " th e h i s t o r y , s c i e n t i f i c b a s is , aim s, c o n te n t, and m ethod" ( 5 2 : v i i i [1927]) o f th e " n a tu r a l m ovem ent,” " n a tu r a l p ro g ram ,” and " n a tu r a liz e d p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n ," term s used in te rc h a n g e a b le t o d e s c rib e th e new p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n were develo p ed a t le n g th . I t was e x p la in e d t h a t th e new p h y s i c a l e d u c a tio n developed as a p r o t e s t a g a in s t th e o ld , fo rm a l, a u to c r a tic gym nastic system s o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry (5 2 :2 9 , 59 [1927]) th a t w ere l i m it in g : I t grew up a s a p r o te s t a g a in s t o ld , u n s c i e n t i f i c , and i r r a t i o n a l forms t h a t were n o t based on c h ild n a tu re and developm ent, and a s an e f f o r t t o fo rm u la te a program c o n s is te n t w ith modern e d u c a tio n a l id e a s and i d e a l s . I t i s dynam ic, not s t a t i c ; i t i s fu n c tio n a l r a t h e r th an s t r u c t u r a l ; i t i s s u b le c t t o c o n s ta n t grow th and change. (52:59 [1 9 2 7 ]) O ld er th e o r ie s and p r a c tic e s o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n have lim ite d t h e i r aims t o th e re m e d ia l and p ro p h y la c tic a s p e c ts o f p h y s ic a l a c t i v i t y and to th e a c q u is itio n o f m otor s k i l l . (52:8 [1927]) W e do n o t w ant p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n t h a t aim s only a t p h y s io lo g ic a l v alu es in a f i e l d where th e p o s s i b i l i t y 119 f o r th e developm ent o f s o c i a l , m o ral, s p i r i t u a l , and i n t e l l e c t u a l v alu es i s u n lim ite d and in d is p e n s a b le . (52:29 [1927]) The fo u n d a tio n s upon which th e new p h y s ic a l edu c a tio n r e s te d were p a r tic u la r iz e d as " th e elem ents o f modem e d u c a tio n a l th o u g h t, . . . th e new s c ie n c e s , psy ch o lo g y , p h ilo so p h y , and so c io lo g y " (52:60 [1 9 2 7 ]). Fur t h e r exam ination o f th e fo u n d atio n a re a s in d ic a te d : I t i s fundam entally based on th e p ro p o s itio n o f a knowledge o f th e n a tu re and needs o f th e in d iv id u a l. I t makes a p p lic a tio n o f such know ledge, and aims to d i r e c t and modify th e o r ig in a l te n d e n c ie s and im pulses so t h a t th e in d iv id u a l may become a more u s e fu l s o c ia l b e in g and th u s b e t t e r f i t t e d f o r th e c o n d itio n s o f modem l i f e . (52:39 [1927]) The p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n in any given country s h a l l be a p p ro p ria te t o th e n a tu re o f th e people and p lan n ed ' t o meet t h e i r r a c i a l , n a t io n a l , community, and in d iv id u a l n ee d s. (52:62 [192 7 ]) (1 ) • • • th e in d iv id u a l must be co n sid ered and u nder sto o d as a p sy c h o -p h y sic a l o rganism , as a u n ifie d w hole. There i s no d iv is io n between th e body, m ind, and s p i r i t . • • • ( 2 ) . « . th e in d iv id u a l c a n , w ith in l i m i t s , c o n tro l h is own f a te and • • • h is e x p re ssio n o f s e l f must be t h a t which w i l l b rin g th e b e st good f o r th e group. (3) • • • p ro g re ss must come through group c o o p e ra tio n and by th e s c i e n t i f i c method o f approach to p ro b le m . (52:357 [1927]) The meaning and purpose o f th e new p h y s ic a l edu c a tio n was e x p la in e d in th e fo llo w in g fa sh io n : i t c o n sid e rs th e c o n d itio n s o f modem l i f e and formu l a t e s i t s b e l i e f s on th e needs o f such l i f e ; i t reco g n is e s t h a t t r a i n i n g th e in d iv id u a l f o r c itiz e n s h ip i s th e need in a democracy and t h a t t h i s must be done by le a d in g th e in d iv id u a l t o s e lf - e x p r e s s io n in r e la ti o n t o th e group. (52:32 [1927]) 120 The aim o f th e new p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n was d e sc rib e d as "com plete c o n trib u tio n to th e e d u c a tio n o f th e c h ild f o r f u l l p a r tic ip a tio n in w orthy c itiz e n s h ip in a democracy" (52:63 [1927]) through "fundam ental psycho-m otor a c t i v i t i e s (th e b ig b ra in -m u sd e m ovem ents)" (52:86 [1 9 2 7 ]). The main aim s o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n and g en eral e d u c a tio n , th e n , a re th e same: t o g iv e th e c h ild f u l l , com plete l i f e each day . The aim o f h e a lth , by p h y sio lo g ic a l resp o n se t o m u scu lar e x e r c is e , i s n o t enough f o r p h y sic a l e d u c a tio n . (52:60 [1927]) The Y ears 1930-1939 The reaso n s f o r a change from p h y s ic a l c u ltu re and p h y sic a l tr a in in g t o a new p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n were ex p lain ed by C assidy in 1930: T his new concept o f th e f i e l d o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n , t h i s removing i t from th e p h y s ic a l c u ltu r e o f Dels a r te and th e a u to c r a tic p h y s ic a l tr a in in g given us by f o r eig n governm ents t h a t w ere tr y in g t o e d u c a te a people who would obey w ith o u t q u e s tio n t h e i r m onarch, th i s growth from a u to c r a tic t r a i n i n g t o e d u c a tio n in i n i t i a t i v e , s e l f - c o n t r o l , and sp o rtsm an sh ip needed in a democracy p re s e n ts a w id e r and more i n t e r e s t i n g f i e l d o f e x p re ssio n . (11 1 :7 [1930]) C assidy p e r s is te d i n c a llin g a tte n tio n t o th e n ec es s i t y f o r change. In 1935, f o r exam ple, she d e c la re d th a t "we a re in need o f new er ways f o r newer tim e s" (138:16 [1 9 3 5 ]), One y e a r l a t e r th e theme was posed in q u e stio n form , "must we fo rm u late a new p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n ? " (276: 66 [1 9 3 6 ]). With th e co m p letio n o f h e r d o c to ra l d is s e r ta ti o n in 121 1937* an id e n tif ic a tio n o f th e meaning and fu n c tio n o f p h y s ic a l ed u catio n was made by C assidy a s she d e sc rib e d t h i s p a r t o f ed u c atio n in th e fo llo w in g manner: I t se e s responding* moving* behaving* f e e lin g as ex p ressed in o v e rt p h y s ic a l form , e x p re s s io n o f th e S elf* a l l a s term s meaning th e same th in g . They s i g n if y th e dynamics o f liv in g . Movement* then* i s th e s t u f f w ith which p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n i s co n cern ed . P h y sic al ed u catio n i s concerned w ith th e use o f th e S e lf . I t s aims are th o se o f a l l e d u c a tio n - - it aims to o r ie n t th e in d iv id u a l in th e b a s ic r e la tio n s h ip s o f liv in g . (2i»2:130 [1937]) C assidy a ls o d e sig n a te d p h y sic a l e d u c a tio n as "a s o c ia l p ro cess . . . concerned w ith p ro g re s s iv e changes in behav io r " (19**:13 [1 9 3 8 ]), and d e fin e d i t as t h a t f i e l d which "d e a ls w ith t h a t a re a o f ex p erien ce in which th e medium i s th e human body in dynamic a c tio n " (19>*:13 [1 9 3 8 ]). I t was a ls o d e fin e d as "th e sum ojf changes in th e in d iv id u a l caused by ex p erien ces in m otor a c t i v i t y ” (13:100 [1938])* and d is tin g u is h e d from sch o o l p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n which was d e fin e d as " th e p ro cess o f o r ie n tin g th e in d iv id u a l i n th e p e r s is te n t problem s o f liv in g through guided ex p e rien ces c e n te rin g in m otor a c tiv ity " (13:100 [1 9 3 8 ]). The im portance o f p h y s ic a l ed u c a tio n t o in d iv id u a l developm ent was d e sc rib e d by C assidy in th e fo llo w in g s ta te m e n ts : The c o n trib u tio n o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n in th e o r ie n ta tio n p ro cess i s p rim a rily made by prom oting th e u n d ersta n d in g and a p p re c ia tio n and u se o f th e body as a symbol o r th e S e l f : P h y s i c a l e d u c a t i o n develo p s th e S e lf by em phasizing th e a c q u irin g o f la rg e r e la te d u n d erstan d in g s which fu n c tio n in d ir e c tin g b eh a v io r r e la te d t o h e a lth and body care* p lay and c r e a tiv e 122 a c t i v i t i e s , t h s making o f f r i e n d s , and ta k in g o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y in community work and r e la tio n s h ip s , i t d e v e lo p th e S e lf by b u ild in g o rg a n ic pow er, i t d e v e l ops th e S e l f by b u ild in g n eu ro -m u scu lar s k i l l s . (194: 13 [1 9 3 8 ]) I f th e body i s th e s o le means o f e x p e rie n c e and e x p e r i ence i s th e s o le means o f le a r n in g , th e n t h i s a re a d e a lin g w ith body e d u c a tio n must be th o u g h t o f as edu c a tio n o f th e t o t a l o rganism , o f th e whole p e r s o n a lity , o f th e S e l f . The ta s k o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n i s to make th e in d iv id u a l in c r e a s in g ly aware and a b le to use th e body as an in stru m e n t f o r th e f u l l e s t e x p re ssio n o f th e t o t a l p e r s o n a lity . (194:13 [193 8 ]) The i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p o f th e a r t s and s c ie n c e s w ith p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n was d is c lo s e d in th e fo llo w in g q u o ta tio n : P h y s ic a l E d u ca tio n i s a c c e p te d as a p a r t o f edu c a tio n b ased in th e s c ie n c e s , b u t so c lo s e ly r e la te d to th e a r t s t h a t m ethods, m a te r ia l and te c h n iq u e s o f th e a r t s seem to be in d ic a te d in f u r t h e r developm ent. (13: 58 [1 9 3 8 ]) A movement i n th e d ir e c tio n o f new term inology was obvious in 1938. At t h a t tim e C assidy su g g e ste d t h a t phys i c a l e d u c a tio n "sh o u ld b e t t e r be c a ll e d , w ith th e a c c e p t ance o f a new psychology and p h ilosophy o f e d u c a tio n , th e Movement A rts " (194:13 [1 9 3 8 ]). "We a re e d u c a tin g a t o t a l i t y , a human p e r s o n a lity ; l e t us choose te rm s , new ones i f n e c e s s a ry , to a id us in em phasizing t h i s fa c t" (13: 72 [1 9 3 8 ]). The term "body e d u c a tio n ," d e riv e d from th e w ritin g s o f H arold Rugg, o f Columbia U n iv e rsity (261:1 [1 9 4 2 ]), was a ls o u t i l i z e d a t t h i s tim e : Body e d u c a tio n means e d u c a tio n o f th e t o t a l re sp o n se s o f th e in d iv id u a l as evidenced in b e h a v io r— in w hat t h s body d o es. The term Body E ducation i s p ro b a b ly a b e t t e r term th a n p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n and y e t , u n le s s i n t e r p r e t e d , i t comes back t o th e o ld id e a o f d u a lism . . • • N e ith e r p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n n o r body 123 e d u c a tio n i s m erely t r a i n i n g o f th e m u sc le s. E d u ca tio n o f th e mind and e d u c a tio n o f th e body have so lo n g been th o u g h t o f a s q u ite s e p a r a te p ro c e s s e s t h a t th e con fu s io n s t i l l p e r s i s t s . The o rg a n ism ic p o in t o f view demands a new o u tlo o k . I t r e p r e s e n ts a "New D e a l." (1 3 :6 1 -6 2 [1 9 3 8 ]) The f a i l u r e o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a to rs to u n d e rsta n d th e h o l i s t i c , i n t e g r a t i v e , i n t e r r e l a t e d n a tu re o f an e d u c a tio n o f th e t o t a l u n it o f organism and e n v iro n m e n t, an o rg anism - i c c o n c e p tio n o f e d u c a tio n , was p o in te d o u t as fo llo w s : The dance o f l i f e i s e x p re s s iv e movement. Our con fu s io n in s e e in g t h i s co n c e p t as fu n d am en tal f o r th e a re a c a lle d H e a lth and P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n is* a r e s u l t o f o u r co n fu sio n a b o u t th e f u l l m eaning o f th e o rg an ism ic p o in t o f view . How can we a c c e p t t h a t view and y e t t a l k o f p h y s ic a l h e a lth and m en tal h e a lt h , how can we t a l k o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n and m e n tal e d u c a tio n , and th e n t a l k ab o u t d e v e lo p in g th e p e r s o n a lity as though t h a t ta s k w ere some s o r t o f s e p a r a te e m o tio n a l edu c a tio n . (13:71 [19383) The Y ears 19H0-19U9 W ith th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f Am erican in v o lv em en t i n th e Second W orld War becom ing more im m inent, C a s s id y , in 19*»0, r e a c te d to what sh e p e rc e iv e d as a tr e n d back tow ard phys i c a l t r a i n i n g in th e U n ited S ta te s in t h i s fa s h io n : W ithin th e f i e l d s o f e d u c a tio n and o f p h y s ic a l edu c a tio n th em selv es h e re i n th e U n ited S ta te s th e r e a r e c e r t a in r e a c tio n a r ie s who a r e c a l l i n g us back i n edu c a tio n to th e hundred b e s t b o o k s, in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n to th e "m uscle c u l t . " They c a l l f o r i n t e l l e c t u a l developm ent and w arn a g a in s t to o much t a l k o f p e rs o n a l developm ent. They would have us tu r n back a g a in to p h y s ic a l t r a i n i n g . (121:U09 [19103) What we a re v ery l i k e l y t o lo s e i s th e l a r g e r con c e p t o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n a s an a r e a o f e d u c a tio n devoted ro th e developm ent o f a more e x p r e s s iv e 12** in s tru m e n t f o r th e t o t a l p e r s o n a lity and end up w ith a much more c u r ta il e d co n cep t o f e d u c a tio n in t h a t o f p h y s ic a l t r a i n i n g . (1 2 4 :9 [1 9 4 0 ]) The c e n tr a l ta s k o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n in 1940, a lle g e d C a s s ity , was " to c l a r i f y o u r own id e a s ab o u t th e c o n tr ib u tio n o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n i n a dem ocracy" (12 4 :9 [1940 3)» a s " p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n h as ta k e n on th e same o b je c tiv e a s e d u c a tio n , t h a t o f th e f u l l e s t developm ent o f th e in d iv id u a l f o r f u l l e s t grow th o f s e l f and th e s o c ie ty in w hich he li v e s " (121:409 [1 9 4 0 ]). I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n w ith th e co n cep t o f p h y s ic a l f i t n e s s was made by C assid y (and Kozman) in th e volume P h y s ic a l F itn e s s f o r G i r l s , in 1943. The a u th o rs e x p la in e d t h a t p h y s ic a l f i t n e s s , " th e body i s an e f f i c i e n t in s tru m e n t o f th e s e l f f o r m eetin g l i f e s i t u a t i o n s " (16:29 [1 9 4 3 ]), was an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f e v e ry i n d i v i d u a l 's t o t a l f i t n e s s f o r l i f e in a d e m o c ra tic s o c ie ty : The r e la ti o n s h i p o f p h y s ic a l f i t n e s s t o t o t a l f i t n e s s i s e x p la in e d a s a p a rt-w h o le one in w hich p h y s ic a l f i t n e s s i s th o u g h t o f as th e e s s e n t i a l c o re o f f i t n e s s . T h e re fo re , th e c o n tr ib u tio n s o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n a r e see n a s in d is p e n s a b le t o a f i t n e s s program . (16:29 [1 9 4 3 ]) Four y e a rs l a t e r a s ta te m e n t o f th e p eacetim e aim o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n was made in Methods i n P h y s ic a l Edu c a tio n . in 1947, as R o sa lin d C assidy (and o th e r s ) w ro te : P h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n , as one p a r t o f e d u c a tio n , aim s t o a id th e in d iv id u a l t o a t t a i n h i s f u l l e s t developm ent i n m eetin g th e demands o f l i v in g i n a dem ocracy and in an in te rd e p e n d e n t w o rld . I t a c h ie v e s t h i s th ro u g h th e 125 s e l e c t i o n and g u id an ce o f e x p e rie n c e s a p p r o p ria te t o th e f i e l d d ir e c te d to w ard th e t o t a l f i t n e s s o f th e i n d i v i d u a l. (3 0 :1 2 0 [19H 7]) Drawn from t h i s s ta te m e n t o f th e aim o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n w as an i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f th e o b je c tiv e s o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n : To h e lp each boy and g i r l : In th e a r e a o f body e d u c a tio n To u n d e rsta n d and r e s p e c t th e body as an in s tru m e n t f o r th e e x p re s s io n o f th e s e l f . To grow i n u n d e rs ta n d in g s and s k i l l s in m a in ta in in g f i t n e s s f o r l i v i n g . In th e a r e a o f s o c i a l e d u c a tio n To d e v e lo p s o c i a l l y a c c e p ta b le a n d p e r s o n a lly re w a rd in g b e h a v io rs in and th ro u g h r e la ti o n s h ip s w ith o th e rs i n p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n a c t i v i t i e s . To a c q u ir e e n th u s ia s m s , s k i l l s and r i c h re s o u rc e s f o r l e i s u r e tim e a c t i v i t i e s . (30:120 [19*17]) In 1949 C assid y r e i t e r a t e d h e r b e l i e f in a c u l t u r a l d e f i n i t i o n o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n w ith th e s ta te m e n t, "p h y s i c a l e d u c a tio n a t any g iv en p e rio d i s c u l t u r a l l y d eterm in ed by w hat man th in k s o f h i s body and how i t sh o u ld be edu c a te d " (2 8 2 :1 [1 9 4 9 ]). She a ls o re -em p h asized th e m eaning o f movement t o p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n by p o in tin g o u t t h a t " p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n i s n o t t r a c k , b a s k e tb a ll , t e n n i s , f o o t b a l l , dance— i t i s th e e d u c a tio n o f in d iv id u a ls th ro u g h e x p r e s s iv e m ovem ent, u s in g su ch e x p e rie n c e s as e d u c a tiv e t o o l s " (2 8 2 :1 [1 9 * 9 ]). At t h i s tim e th e c o n tin u in g s e a rc h f o r a c c u ra te te ra d n o lo g y t o d e s c r ib e an o rg a n ism ic c o n c e p tio n o f man- e n v iro n m en t i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s le d C assid y t o a g a in s t a t e : Our a c c e p ta n c e in th e o r y , i f n o t in p r a c t i c e , o f th e c o o p e r a tiv e , i n t e r a c t i v e n a tu r e o f organism and 126 en v iro n m en t w ith no " p h y s ic a l" f a c t n o r "m an tal" f a c t a r e a l i t y , me ana a s e a rc h f o r a new name f o r o u r edu c a tio n p ro g ram . W e a r e c a u g h t in a web o f se m a n tic c o n tr a d ic tio n when we sp e a k o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n o r m en tal h y g ie n e . (2 8 2 :1 [19>»9]) The Y ears 1950-1959 A pronouncem ent o f t h r e e p r i o r i t i e s f o r p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n was made i n 1950: D em ocratic human r e l a t i o n s h i p s . L ea rn in g th e ways o f dem ocracy th ro u g h p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n e x p e rie n c e s . H e a lth and I n t e g r a t i o n o f th e p e r s o n a l it y . A ch iev in g p sy ch o so m atic u n ity th ro u g h p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n e x p e rie n c e s . V alues f o r l i v i n g . G ain in g p e r s p e c tiv e f o r g o a ls t o make l i f e w o rth w h ile th ro u g h e x p e rie n c e in t h i s a r e a o f e d u c a tio n . (2 7 5 :1 [1 9 5 0 ]) A s ta te m e n t o f th e o b je c tiv e s o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n i n 1951 in d ic a te d t h a t : J o i n t l y w ith o th e r s we a re c o n c ern ed w ith e d u c a tio n f o r l e i s u r e , f o r h e a l t h , and f o r d e m o c ra tic c i t i z e n s h i p . Our u n iq u e c o n tr ib u tio n l i e s in th e a re a o f e d u c a tin g f o r th e u n d e rs ta n d in g and u se o f th e body as th e in s tru m e n t f o r d a ily l i v i n g , f o r e x p re s s in g o u r s e lv e s , f o r com m unicating w ith o t h e r s . (2 8 :1 1 [1 9 5 1 ]) The g r e a t e s t problem c o n f r o n tin g th e f i e l d o f p hys i c a l e d u c a tio n was p o in te d o u t by C assid y in 1952 t o be i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e d e e p e r m eanings o f movement e x p e r i e n c e s , a s e a rc h f o r : a d e e p e r d e f i n i t i o n o f th e e d u c a tio n a l d i s c i p l i n e w hich we c a l l P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n . T h is has become in c r e a s in g ly c r u c i a l a s th e p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f H e a lth E d u ca tio n and P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n o b j e c t i v e s , c o n te n t and method h as p ro c e e d e d i n th e l a s t few y e a r s . (220:1952) o u r jo b i s t o work i n t e n s i v e l y t o dev elo p i n t o a s y s te m a tic c o re o f f in d in g s , th e m eanings and 127 M a n ife sta tio n s o f movement as b a s ic to th s liv in g organism . That means a l l th s a s p e c ts , s o c ia l and psy c h o lo g ic a l. I f we w ould d ev elo p o u r p ro fe s s io n a l people w ith a s tro n g d i s c i p lin e in th e u n d ersta n d in g s of movement, th e n th e M a n ife s ta tio n s in th e a c t i v i t y p a tte rn s o f th e f i e l d as in games, dance and th e l i k e , would be seen in t h e i r d e e p e r and more com plete mean in g s and th e a llia n c e w ith th e o th e r movement a r t s would be more c le a r - c u t th a n in a p s y c h o -b io lo g ic a l and s o c ia l se n s e . (220 [1 9 5 2 ]) In c re a s in g em phasis upon an i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f p h y s ic a l ed u catio n w ith th e d i s c ip lin e o f human movement was ap p aren t in th e w ritin g s o f R o salin d C assidy in th e 1950 *s: Movement i s th e b a s ic s t u f f o f liv in g and movement i s th e base o f our d i s c i p l in e . W e have been te a c h in g a c t i v i t i e s , o m ittin g th e l a r g e r , o v e r a ll c o g n itiv e a sp e c ts o f ed u c a tin g f o r th e m eanings o f movement. . . . W e have a very la r g e ta s k t o develop th e s u b je c t m a tte r o f movement f o r a v a lid e d u c a tio n a l ex p e rien ce a t th e secondary and c o lle g e l e v e ls . (9:36 C19S1]) W ith g r e a te r in s ig h t in to w hat movement means to th e human o rgan ism , we have come t o th in k o f th e de s c r ip tio n o f P h y sic a l E ducation n o t as te n n i s , g o lf , swimming, which a re movement p a t t e r n s , b u t as th e a r t and s c ie n c e o f movement i t s e l f . W e have n o t communi c a te d t h i s very c le a r ly to o th e r s , and w ith in th e r ro fe s s io n th e re a re th o s e who d is a g r e e , how ever, th e re a an in c re a s in g number in th e p ro fe s s io n who se e th e d is c ip lin e o f P h y sic a l E d u catio n as made up o f a l l th e f a c t s , u n d ersta n d in g s and s k i l l s o f human movement r e la te d t o th e f u l l e s t developm ent o f th e in d iv id u a l in h is s o c ie ty . (278:1 [1958]) P h y sic a l e d u c a tio n i s concerned w ith human move m ent. I t i s th e f a c t s , u n d e rsta n d in g s and s k i l l s in human movement fundam ental t o th e e f f e c tiv e fu n c tio n in g o f th e in d iv id u a l in h is c u l t u r a l s e t t i n g . (263:3 [1958]) The fo u n d atio n s o f th e d is c ip lin e o f human movement, th e body o f know ledge, and th e s e q u e n tia l arrangem ent o f th e body o f knowledge c o n s titu tin g th e 128 d is c ip lin e o f movement were i d e n t if ie d in 1958: F oundations o f th e D is c ip lin e 1* F acts and u n d ersta n d in g s r e la te d t o th e b io lo g ic a l , p h y s io lo g ic a l, p s y c h o lo g ic a l, s o c io lo g ic a l and e s t h e t i c developm ent o f th e human organism . 2 . F acts and u n d erstan d in g s o f ways in which th e in d iv id u a l m ain tain s in te g r a tio n and e q u ilib riu m and re le a s e s power f o r ta s k s t o be perform ed. 3. F acts and u n d ersta n d in g s o f sch o o l and community s tr u c tu r e and fu n c tio n and i n t e r r e l a ti o n s h i p s . Body o f knowledge 1. H isto ry and philosophy o f m an's e x p re ssio n th ro u g h movement• 2. U nderstanding p rin c ip le s o f human movement. 3. The ro le o f movement in th e developm ent o f th e in d iv id u a l. * » . S k ills in r e c r e a tiv e movement p a tte r n s a c cep ted in th e s o c ie ty . 5. C re a tiv e a sp e c ts o f movement. 6 . R e-ed u cativ e and r e h a b i li t a t i v e movement. 7. U nderstandings and s k i l l s in th e a re a s o f p la n n in g , developm ent, a d m in is tr a tio n , and le a d e rs h ip o f movement program s. S e q u e n tia l Arrangement o f th e Body o f Knowledge—th e D is c ip lin e . 1 . Fundam entals o f Human Movement. 2 . U nderstandings and S k ill in Movement E x p erien ce. 3. Role o f Movement in th e Development o f th e In d iv id u a l. 4. P rin c ip le s o f Human Movement. 5. A n aly sis o f Human Movement. 6 . In d iv id u a l V a ria tio n in Human Movement. 7. R e c re a tiv e , R e-ed u cativ e and C re a tiv e A spects o f Human Movement. 8. Role o f Movement in th e L earning P ro c e ss. 9. H isto ry and P hilosophy o f Man's E x p ressio n through Movement• 10. S o c ie ta l M a n ife sta tio n s o f Movement V alues. (263: 3 [1958]) Toward th e end o f t h i s d ecad e, in a r a th e r e x te n siv e d e c la ra tio n of p r i o r i t i e s f o r th e f i e l d s o f phys i c a l , h e a lth , and r e c r e a tiv e ed u c atio n in th e sp ace a g e , R osalind C assidy s t a t e d : 129 W e m ust: R s o ru lt and d ev elo p le a d e rs h ip . B ring m a rrie d women who no lo n g e r have young c h ild re n back i n t o le a d e rs h ip . Be more s k i l l f u l in u sin g s tu d e n t le a d e r s . Study and d e v ise new and b e t t e r ways o f h a n d lin g num bers. D evise b e t t e r ways t o re s p e c t and p ro v id e f o r in d iv id u a l d if f e r e n c e s in a tim e o f popu l a t i o n boom, sch o o l crow ding, and le a d e rs h ip s h o r ta g e . E xplore th e new m edia f o r com m unication and be more c r e a tiv e i n o u r te a c h in g m ethods; we must as te a c h e rs grow in s e lf - u n d e r s ta n d in g s ; know o u r s tr e n g th s and o u r w eak n esses; a c c e p t o u r own sex r o l e ; be s e n s itiv e t o a s p e c ts o f c le a n lin e s s , groom ing, sp e e c h , c o u rte sy and th e l i k e . . • • W e m ust: Re-exam ine o u r program s t o se e i f we can h e lp each in d iv id u a l t o ac h ie v e an a c c e p ta b le s e lf-im a g e a s s u rin g a sen se o f se lf-a d e q u a c y and in n e r s e c u r i t y ; accep tan ce o f o u r se x r o l e ; a p p r e c ia tio n o f c l e a n lin e s s , e f f e c tiv e movement and groom ing. Put v alu e on in d e p e n d e n t, r e s p o n s ib le , m ature a c ti o n - - i d e n ti fy in g i t and re c o g n iz in g i t so t h a t , on th e b a s is o f s e l f - v a l u e , one can v a lu e -o th e r s . W e m ust: Work w ith more in fo rm a tio n and z e a l f o r th e t o t a l f i t n e s s o f each in d iv id u a l, b u t we must be s u re n o t t o use R u s s ia 's m ethods. Help each t o self-k n o w led g e by h e lp in g him t o u n d e rsta n d h is own s tr e n g th s and w eakness, and b e s t ways to use and conserve e n e rg y , meet f a ti g u e , r e la x , r e s t ; to u n d e rsta n d h is n u t r i t i o n a l n e e d s ; t o u n d ersta n d th e p re ss u re o f w a rs; m edia in r e la ti o n t o quacks in d i e t , e x e r c is e , m ed icatio n and th e l i k e . Help each t o f e e l c o m fo rta b le w ith a changing body. H elp each t o know b e t t e r how t o ach iev e and m a in ta in in te g r a tio n (h e a lth ) w ith in an uneasy w o rld . W e m ust: P ro v id e each in d iv id u a l w ith a hunger f o r , and s k i l l s in c r e a tiv e and r e c r e a tiv e le i s u r e a c t i v i t i e s ; w ith knowledge about r e c r e a tio n re so u rc e s in th e community. W e m ust: Teach so t h a t th e s tu d e n t grows in h is a b i l i t y t o id e n t i f y p ro b lem s, s e a rc h f o r and 130 examine th e f a c t s , and le a r n s t o ta k e a c tio n based upon f a c t , not on propaganda o r h a l f t r u t h s • W e must: Put v alu e on knowing and v a lu in g o th e rs . Educate f o r r e s p o n s ib le , m ature a c tio n in r e la tio n t o o th e r s . B uild s e l f - o t h e r v a lu e s ; s o c ia l v a lu e s ; g ir l- b o y r e la ti o n s . F ig h t e x p lo ita tio n , ch e a p n e ss, d is h o n e s ty , and th e use o f o th e rs f o r o n e 's own ends. See t o t a l i t y o f th e i n d iv id u a l's l i f e goals and keep any s u b je c t a re a s claim s on tim e and energy w ith in t h a t fram ework. W e must: Help each in d iv id u a l i n m a in ta in in g p ersp e c t i v e , in u n d e rs ta n d in g , in a c c e p tin g and in d e d a r in g - a n d - liv in g d e m o c ra tic , m oral and s p i r i t u a l v a lu e s . (2 7 2 :2 -3 C1958 3) The Y ears 1960-1965 In th e e a rly 1 9 6 0 's R o salin d C assidy id e n ti f i e d th a t which she b e lie v e d t o be th e most im p o rta n t concerns o f p h y sic a l e d u c a tio n : i t seems t o me th e most c r i t i c a l is s u e i s to get a p ro p e r name f o r o u r d is c i p l in e and a d e s c rip tio n o f th e movement a re a t h a t we can communicate to o th e r p e o p le , s o th a t we would s to p u s in g t h i s r id ic u lo u s ly outmoded term p h y s ic a l-e d u c a tio n . W e do not speak o f H is to ry - E ducation o r E n g lish -E d u c a tio n , and we can no lo n g e r be v a lid in u sin g th e te rm p h y s ic a l as a s e p a ra te a sp e c t o f [th e ] psychosom atic organism . (216 [I9 6 0 ]) The g re a te s t c h a lle n g e to p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n today i s t o d e s c rib e , a c c e p t, develop in depth and in c o rp o ra te i n cu rricu lu m p a tte r n s o u r Body of Knowledge, u sin g term inology based on s c i e n t i f i c f a c t , n o t upon 19th c e n tu ry concepts o f a s e p a ra te Blind, a s e p a ra te body w ith both o f th e se s e p a r a te from s o c i e t a l in flu e n c e s . (193:12 C19623) The in c re a s in g im portance o f axwement to th e d e v e l- oping human being was auide m an ifest in th e sta te m e n t t h a t "movement i s indeed c e n tr a l in r e l a t i n g , in le a r n in g , in 131 • • I f • a c c e p ta n c e , In e e ta b lis h in g s e l f - v a l u e , In becoming" (193:12-13 [1 9 6 2 ]). T h is co n cep t was f u r t h e r c l a r i f i e d , expanded, and extended th ro u g h o u t t h i s p e rio d : Movement i s c e n tr a l t o le a r n in g , t o e x p e rie n c in g and e x p re s s in g , t o th e v ery achievem ent o f s e l f - i d e n t i t y and s e l f - s e c u r i t y . T here i s a c e n tr a l d riv e i n th e liv in g organism t o move. Moving i s s tim u la tin g w h ile r e s t r i c t i o n o f movement b rin g s f r u s t r a t i o n and p a in . W e sh o u ld be p ro v id in g from in fa n c y o n , a wide ran g e o f s u c c e s s fu l movement e x p e rie n c e s , a id in g th e le a r n e r t o u n d ersta n d b e t t e r h is body p o t e n t i a l s , h is s e l f - p o t e n t i a l . (2 80:5 [1 9 62]) o u r d i s c ip lin e i s t h a t o f human movement and when we a c c e p t t h i s and u n d e rsta n d what moving means i n th e grow th and th e developm ent o f th e in d iv id u a l i n o u r s o c ie ty th en i t seems t o me we w i l l move th e p ro fe s s io n a lo n g and a ls o make very much c l e a r e r w hat o u r c o n t r i b u tio n i s t o th e e d u c a tio n o f c h ild r e n , youth and a d u lts in our d em o cratic s o c ie ty . (2 1 3 :1 [1 9 6 3 ]) The new fin d in g s in s c ie n c e s t r e s s th e c e n tr a l r o le o f e f f e c ti v e movement e x p e rie n c e s in a c h ie v in g s e l f - i d e n t i t y , s e lf - v a l u e , s e lf - e s te e m , s e l f - r e l i a n c e , s e l f - a c tu a liz a tio n in th e f u l l e s t developm ent o f th e resp o n s i b l e , e o c ia lly aw are, c r e a tiv e p e rso n a b le t o fu n c tio n e f f e c t i v e l y in a f a s t changing and com plex u n iv e rs e . The new p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n i s concerned w ith th e m eanings and u n d e rsta n d in g s o f o n e 's s e l f as a moving organism in th e p ro c e ss o f s e l f - a c t u a l i z a t i o n . (25>t:3 [1 9 6 5 ]) In 1965 th e concept o f a c u l t u r a l d e te rm in a tio n o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n was ag a in em phasized in an a r t i c l e e n t i t l e d "The C u ltu ra l D e f in itio n o f P h y s ic a l E d u catio n " (131 [1 9 6 5 ]): I have long h e ld t h a t in any g iv en p e r io d , P h y s ic a l E d u catio n i s c u l tu r a l ly d eterm in ed by w hat man th in k s o f h i s body, how he th in k s o f h im s e lf in r e l a t i o n to h is body, and how he th in k s h is body sh o u ld be t r a i n e d , e x e r c is e d , d is c ip lin e d , d e v e lo p e d , e d u c a te d ; i n e f f e c t how h e , h im s e lf, sh o u ld be t r a i n e d , e x e r c is e d , d i s c i p lin e d , develo p ed , e d u c a te d . T his i s tr u e w h eth er in a s o c ie ty where th e s e l f and th e body a re b e lie v e d t o be 132 s e p a ra te d o r in one where th e r e ie an accep tan ce o f th e s c i e n t i f i c re s e a rc h w hich shows man as a m oving, th in k in g , f e e l in g , e x p re s s in g , u n ifie d organism . (134:11 L196S]) Summary The developm ent o f a contem porary co n cep tio n o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n as e d u c a tio n f o r c itiz e n s h ip in a democ racy ap p eared in 1927 w ith th e p u b lic a tio n o f The New Phys i c a l E d u c a tio n . T his new p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n em phasized th e s o c i a l , m o ra l, s p i r i t u a l , and i n t e l l e c t u a l developm ent o f th e w hole i n d iv id u a l, and d e riv e d i t s co n c e p tu a l base from th e f i e l d s o f b io lo g y , p h y sio lo g y , psychology, p h ilo so p h y , s o c io lo g y , and e d u c a tio n . The new p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n was in harmony w ith contem porary e d u c a tio n a l aim s, s e n s itiv e t o th e n e c e s s ity f o r d e v e lo p in g s o c ia l man, c u l tu r a l ly o r i e n te d , and in a c c o rd w ith th e concept o f e v o lu tio n o r ch a n g e• P h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n as an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f th e f i e l d o f e d u c a tio n was viewed by C assidy in th e 1 9 3 0 's as a s o c i a l p ro c e ss w ith e d u c a tio n o f th e t o t a l o rganism , th e S e l f , th e t o t a l human p e r s o n a lity , c e n te re d in body e x p e ri ence o r movement. A cceptance of an org an ism ic view point le d C assid y t o v ig o ro u s ly r e j e c t any d u a l i s t i c co n cep tio n o f man m a n ife ste d in contem porary term in o lo g y . A se a rc h f o r new m eanings in th e f i e l d was e v id e n t as C assidy c lo s e ly i d e n t i f i e d p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n w ith th e a r t s . D uring th e 1 9 4 0 's R o salin d C assidy i d e n t i f i e d 133 p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n in te r n s o f i t s c o n tr ib u tio n th ro u g h e x p re s s iv e movement t o t o t a l f i t n e s s o r th e f u l l e s t d e v e l opment o f th e in d iv id u a l and s o c ie ty in a dem ocracy and an in te rd e p e n d e n t w o rld . She r e i t e r a t e d h e r b e l i e f in a c u l t u r a l c o n c e p tio n o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n and c a lle d f o r an o r g a n is a ic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e f i e l d as m a n ife s t in a c c u ra te * a p p r o p r ia te 9 d e s c r ip tiv e te rm in o lo g y . In th e f i f t i e s a s e a rc h f o r d e e p e r m eaning in th e f i e l d le d t o a c o n c e p tio n o f th e e d u c a tio n a l d i s c ip lin e o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n as th e a r t and s c ie n c e o f human move m ent. D uring t h i s decade C assid y i d e n t i f i e d and system a ti z e d th e s u b je c t m a tte r o f human movement w ith in th e c o n c e p tu a l fram ework o f a d i s c i p l in e com prised o f th e f a c t 8 t u n d e rsta n d in g s* And s k i l l s o f human movement r e la te d t o in d iv id u a l fu n c tio n in th e c u l t u r a l s e t t i n g . The c h a lle n g e o f th e 1960's was th e developm ent, d e s c rip tio n * ac cep tan ce* and use in th e e d u c a tio n a l B e ttin g o f th e s u b je c t m a tte r o f human movement. She c a lle d f o r a tw e n tie th cen tu x y d e s c r ip tio n o f th e a re a e rro n e o u s ly named p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n * c i t e d th e im p o rtan ce o f movement t o se lf-d e v e lo p m e n t and r e a l iz a t io n * and re -em p h asized h e r b e l i e f in a c u l t u r a l d e te rm in a tio n o f th e m eanings acco rd ed p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n . From a b ro a d c o n c e p tio n o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n a s e d u c a tio n f o r Am erican c it i z e n s h i p i n th e 1 9 2 0 's t o a q u e s t f o r s t i l l deeper* b ro a d e r m eanings o f th e a r t and s c ie n c e 134 o f human movamant in th a 1 9 6 0 's, R osalind C assidy co n tin u a l l y concaivad o f p h y sic a l ed u c atio n as a to o l o r i n s t r u ment fo r human development in a dem ocratic s o c ie ty . She d e c rie d th e use o f d iv is iv e , d u a l i s t i c term inology to d e sc rib e th e f i e l d , and c a lle d f o r a c c u ra te , h o l i s t i c term inology d e s c rip tiv e o f th e t o t a l , in te g r a te d , i n t e r a c tiv e n a tu re o f m an-environm ental i n te r r e la tio n s h i p s . > C H A PT E R IX PHYSICAL EDUCATION: PR O G R A M PERSPECTIVE A N D M EA N IN G The w orst o f th e system s o f p h y s ic a l c u ltu r e i s t h a t th ey a re a p t to become c h ro n ic and th e re fo re u s e le s s and morbid lik e a s c e tic s e l f c h a s tis e ment. — R ichard C. Cabot Of th e e ig h t m ajor id e a s o f R osalind C assidy d ev e l oped in S e c tio n f o u r , none m e rits g r e a te r a tte n tio n th a n h e r c o n c ep tio n s o f p h y s ic a l ed u c atio n program s. W ithin th e program c o n te x t she developed and p re se n te d a model f o r a c tu a liz a tio n o f r e s p o n s ib le , d em o cratic , b eh av io r o f in d iv id u a l s tu d e n ts in American s o c ie ty . The id eas o f R o salin d C assidy c e n te re d upon t h i s theme a re i d e n t i f ie d in t h i s c h a p te r. The Years 1920-1929 In th e volum e, The New P h y sic a l E d u catio n : A Pro gram o f N a tu ra liz e d A c tiv itie s f o r E ducation Toward C i t i z e n sh ip . R o salin d C assidy and Thomas D. Wood in d ic a te d th a t th e n a tu r a l program of p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n in American developed in p r o te s t "as a response to th e fe e lin g o f 135 136 d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith o ld fo rsta l program s" (52:354 [1927]) o f g y m n astics. "Ths n a tu r a l program has* in f a c t , grown up as a r e v o lt a g a in s t th s form al sy ste m ," and " th s n a tu r a l program and th s fo rm al sy stem a re b ased on q u its o p p o site fo u n d a tio n s" (52:399 [1 9 2 7 ]). The need f o r an in d ig en o u s co n c ep tio n o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n program and p r a c tic e d esig n ed f o r in d iv id u a ls in a d em o cratic s o c ie ty was e n u n c ia te d in The New P h y sic a l E d u catio n : The need now, and in th e f u t u r e , i s a program and p r a c tic e ad a p te d t o American c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and community l i f e . The o ld m i l i t a r y , s e t ty p e o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n g e ts d i s c i p lin e o f a c e r ta in k in d — t h a t we cannot deny— b u t i t g e ts th e b l in d , u n th in k in g ty p e , th e obedience to command t h a t i s ad m irab ly s u ite d t o an a u to c ra c y (52:23 [1 9 2 7 ]) In p la c e o f a sy stem i s p re s e n te d a program o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n a c t i v i t i e s w hich i s o rg a n iz e d w ith f u l l re s p e c t f o r human n a tu re and i t s d e s ir a b le o r i g i n a l , in h e r i t e d im p u ls e s; and f u r t h e r one w hich i s e f f e c tiv e ly ad ap ted to th e needs o f each in d iv id u a l and each group o f in d iv id u a ls in a com munity, a s t a t e , a n a tio n . (5 2 :V III [1 9 2 7 ]) An i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f th e p h ilo so p h y o f th e n a tu r a l program was made in th e fo llo w in g s ta te m e n t: th e n a tu r a l program i s th e a p p lic a tio n in th e f i e l d o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n o f th e new and a c c e p te d knowledge and method in th e f i e l d s o f psychology and g e n e ra l edu c a tio n . I t i s a program w hich c o n sid e rs th e c h ild a s a com plete u n it o f m ind, body, and s p i r i t , and th u s re c o g n iz e s th e in te rd e p e n d e n c e o f th e p h y s ic a l, i n t e l l e c t u a l , and m o ral. I t i s a program o f a c t i v i t y which does n o t f a i l to s e c u re th e n e c e ssa ry h e a lth values f o r th e c h ild b u t w hich se c u re s such v a lu e s as b y -p ro d u c ts, w h ile g u id in g th e c h ild in th e acquirem ent o f m e n ta l, m o ra l, and s o c i a l b e n e f i ts . I t i s a program which proves i t s e l f c o n s is te n t w ith modem e d u c a tio n a l th eo ry by p re s e n tin g a c t i v i t y o f a n a tu r a l ty p e , w hich has 137 d e f i n i t e i n t e r e s t and m eaning f o r th e c h ild who has an aim . o b j e c t iv e , o r g o a l in th e d o in g o f t h i s a c t i v i t y . I t i s a program in w hich le a r n in g ta k e s p la c e . (5 2 :8 8 (192 7 ]) The n a tu re o f a contem porary p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n program u t i l i z i n g th e p h ilo so p h y and m ethodology o f th e new p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n in th e sc h o o l s e t t i n g was p a r t i c u l a r i z e d as fo llo w s : I t i s n o t p o s s ib le t o p re p a re a s ta n d a r d iz e d co u rse o f s tu d y , c o n s is te n t w ith th e n a t u r a l m ethod in phys i c a l e d u c a tio n and p ro v id in g a d e f i n i t e program o f a c t i v i t i e s f o r each grade i n th e s c h o o l. I t w ould be u t t e r l y i l l o g i c a l t o a rra n g e in advance a d e f i n i t e co u rse o f stu d y o r a c t i v i t i e s f o r any p a r t i c u l a r s c h o o l, and f a r more i l l o g i c a l and a b su rd t o a tte m p t to p r e s c r ib e a s ta n d a rd o r uniform c u rric u lu m o f a c t i v i t i e s f o r a l l th e sc h o o ls o f a to w n , a c o u n ty , a c i t y , o r a s t a t e . T here a r e , how ever, c e r t a i n laws and p r in c ip le s o f c h ild developm ent w hich i n d ic a te in g e n e ra l th e n a tu re and c a p a c itie s o f c h ild r e n o f d i f f e r e n t ages and ty p e s $ and s o th e r e a re c e r t a i n k in d s o f i n t e r e s t s and a c t i v i t i e s w hich may c o n s is te n t ly be in c lu d e d w ith in th e range o r b o u n d a rie s o f a n a t u r a l iz e d program o r c u rric u lu m . (5 2 :2 3 2 (1 9 2 7 ]) The Y ears 1930-1939 A n eed f o r new th in k in g about th e p h y s ic a l edu c a tio n program was c ite d by R o salin d C assid y in a p e r io d i c a l a r t i c l e in 1935 as sh e s t a t e d t h a t "we a r e h av in g t o s t r e t c h our minds t o th in k in new ways ab o u t th e p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n program i n th e s c h o o l” (138:16 [1 9 3 5 ]). A new co n cep t o f a p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n program ap p e a re d th r e e y e a rs l a t e r in Hew D ire c tio n s i n P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n f o r th e A d o lescen t G ir l in H igh S ch o o l and C o lle g e as a program o f g u id e d , in d iv id u a liz e d e d u c a tio n 138 f o r a l l was in tro d u c e d and e x p la in e d by R o salin d C assid y : T h is approach i s in d ic a te d i f we a r e t o a c c e p t f u l l y th e p re m ise : t h a t each in d iv id u a l d i f f e r s from e v e ry o th e r in d iv id u a l and t h a t b e s t grow th f o r t h a t in d iv id u a l m ust be d ir e c te d tow ard h is own unique n e e d s , n o t to w ard b r in g in g him up t o a norm and f i t t i n g him i n t o a s e t fram ework a r r iv e d a t by com puting th e av erag e s c o re o f th o u san d s o f in d iv id u a ls a l l u n lik e t h i s a v e ra g e . (13:10H [1 9 3 8 ]) The in d iv id u a l must u n d e rta k e h e r own program , u n d e rsta n d h e r n e e d s , and d i r e c t h e r e n e rg ie s to m eetin g th e s e n e e d s. C onscious s e l f - d i r e c t i o n i s th e o nly way an i n d i v id u a l can re a c h h e r g o a ls . The in d iv id u a l must use e x p e rts f o r guidance in s e lf-d e v e lo p m e n t. Each in d iv id u a l i s unique and must have an u n d er s ta n d in g o f h e r own s tr e n g th s and w eaknesses as a b a s is f o r s e lf-d e v e lo p m e n t. The in d iv id u a l must ta k e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r s e l f - e v a lu a tio n and s e t t i n g new g o a ls i f sh e i s t o grow. (13:132 [1 9 3 8 ]) th e g i r l 's e n t i r e program in h ig h sc h o o l and c o lle g e i s o r ie n t a t i o n and r e o r i e n t a t i o n . T h is guidance p la n o f s e l f su rv e y and s e l f - d i r e c t i o n as a p a tte r n f o r each y e a r i s in i t s e l f c o n tin u a l a d ju stm e n t o f th e s i t u - a t i o n - u n i t s o t h a t b e s t grow th f o r each in d iv id u a l may p ro ceed unham pered. (13:139 [1 9 3 8 ]) W ithin th e g u id e d , in d iv id u a liz e d program f o r each s t u d e n t , a d e s c r ip tio n o f program sequence was p a r t i c u l a r i z e d : P e rio d o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n and g e ttin g a c q u a in te d . O r ie n ta tio n - s u r v e y • E xam ination and t e s t i n g . D iag n o sis and s e lf - s u r v e y . L ong.term p la n f o r o n e 's own needs i n : body developm ent re -e d u c a tio n in body c o n d itio n and in a t t i t u d e s u n d e rsta n d in g s and a b i l i t i e s o f d a ily l i f e u n d e rsta n d in g s and a b i l i t i e s in p la y : s p o r t s , d a n c e , p a g e n a tx y , cam ping, e t c . u n d e rsta n d in g s and a b i l i t i e s w ith th e l a r g e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f r e l a t e d f a c tu a l know ledge. 139 The s tu d e n t w ould: see h e r own problem s e t up h e r own purp o ses and g o a ls a sk s a p la n t o a t t a i n h e r g o a ls and t o e v a lu a te p ro g re ss c o n fe r a t given i n t e r v a l s t o e v a lu a te and s e t new g o als proceed on h e r own i n i t i a t i v e w ith guidance to a t t a i n th e s e g o a ls . (13:103 [1 9 3 8 ]) E v a lu a tio n o f th e su c c e ss o f an in d iv id u a liz e d program was p o in te d o u t to be a m easure o f w h eth e r each s tu d e n t "has ach iev ed o r grown in th e fo llo w in g a b i l i t i e s which we b e lie v e are' sound o b je c tiv e s " (13:132 [19 3 8 ]). C assidy d e fin e d t h i s a s an a b i l i t y t o : P a r tic ip a te in and u n d e rsta n d a p h y s ic a l and m edical e x a m in a tio n . Survey an a re a and se e i t s r e l a t i o n to o n e 's own needs a t th e tim e and in th e f u tu r e . Avoid "quack" t h e o r i e s ; see k o u t v a lid a te d f a c t s • Survey o n e 's own needs and u n d e rta k e a p la n o f a c tio n . S e t up c le a r ly d e fin e d g o als b ased on h e r own unique n e e d s. Be s e l f d ir e c tin g . Develop th e body tow ard b e s t fu n c tio n in g . E v a lu a te o n e 's own p ro g re s s . (13:132 [1 9 3 8 ]) A c h a lle n g e t o te a c h e rs u t i l i z i n g t h i s new concept o f program was is s u e d when i t was pronounced t h a t th ey m u st: S et up a program which p e rm its each in d iv id u a l a program p lan b ased on h e r unique n e e d s. T his p la n must be one t h a t i s u n d ersto o d and i t s g o a ls d e s ir e d by th e in d iv id u a l. I t m ust be made by te a c h e r and p u p il work in g to g e th e r t o s e e problem s and ways o f m eeting th e s e n eed s. P erm it th e in d iv id u a l t o d o t n o t be done t o . T h is method i s s e l f - d i r e c t i o n . (1TT102 [1938j) P rovide s k i l l e d g u id an ce. The method may be c a lle d " S e lf S u rv ey ." By t h i s method th e s tu d e n t makes o u t a p la n b ased on h e r needs and i n t e r e s t s » s e t s g o a ls and a sc h e d u le f o r a c h ie v in g them . She s t a t e s ways sh e m o p ro p o ses t o s v a lu s ts outcom es, and p ro ceed s tow ard th e s e g o a ls . She i s u s in g a method she w i l l use a l l h e r l i f e in p la n n in g f o r h e r own needs and th o s e o f o th e r s in H e a lth and P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n . She i s le a r n in g t o " a c t on th in k in g ." She i s p u rp o s in g , p la n n in g , e x e c u tin g , e v a lu a tin g . She i s ta k in g con s c io u s c o n tr o l o f h e r own l if e * She i s becom ing in c r e a e in g ly more a b le in s e l f - d i r e c t i o n . (13 :102 [19383) The Y ears 1940-1949 Alarm o v e r an a r t i c l e in L ife m agazine d e p ic tin g p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n in tim e o f peace a s r e l a t i v e l y unim p o r ta n t and in tim e o f w ar as most im p o rta n t le d C assid y to d i f f e r e n t i a t e betw een t o t a l i t a r i a n program s o f p h y s ic a l t r a i n i n g and d e m o c ra tic program s o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n : I have re ad w ith dism ay th e a r t i c l e on p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n w hich you p r in te d in th e Ju ly 8 th is s u e o f L if e . I have p r e d ic te d , e v e r s in c e m y r e tu r n in 1936 from a stu d y o f th e German y o u th program , t h a t as soon a s th e t h r e a t o f w ar came n e a r th e U n ited S t a t e s , we w ould s a c r i f i c e th e b ro ad e d u c a tio n a l o b je c tiv e s o f th e new p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n program t o th e o ld id e a s o f fSRysical t r a i n i n g . (219 [1 9 4 0 ]) The t o t a l i t a r i a n powers have sp o n so red a p h y s ic a l t r a i n i n g program t o p re p a re t h e i r young p e o p le f o r h a te and d e a th . In t h e U n ited S ta te s we have grown i n t o a w id e , f r e e program o f c h ild developm ent th ro u g h p la y e x p e rie n c e s d ir e c te d tow ard s e l f - c o n t r o l , r a t h e r th a n superim poeed c o n tr o l and b lin d o b edience t o command. To re p re e e n t A m erica's p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n program i n such a way b e tra y s th e v alu ee o f e d u c a tio n d ir e c te d tow ard m aking an in e tru m e n t f o r th e f u l l e s t e x p re s s io n o f th e t o t a l p e r s o n a lity . (1 2 4 :6 [1940]) A co n tem p o rary , d em o cratic p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n program was d e s c rib e d and e x p la in e d i n th e fo llo w in g p a s s a g e s : When p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n i s i n th e g u id an ce program th e p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n program i t s e l f w i l l be fo c u se d 141 on th e in d iv id u a l n o t p rim a rily on s k i l l s . T his doss not mean t h a t s k i l l s w i ll n o t be w a ll ta u g h t b u t th a t th a y w i l l n a v a r ba a prim ary and. There w i ll ba a more f l a x i b l s co n cep t o f th e re q u ire m e n t; th e re w ill ba s m a lle r c la s s e s and more tim e allow ed f o r th e te a c h e r in w hich t o c a rry on in a s k i l l e d fa sh io n th e in d iv id u a l work w ith c h ild re n . There w ill be more s o c ia liz e d o ffe rin g s in th e program . (121:444 [1940] He [th e s tu d e n t] w i l l b rin g w ith him a c e r ta in back ground and c e r ta in re c o rd s o f form er ex p e rien ces a l l o f which sh o u ld s e rv e t o h e lp th e te a c h e r who i s gu iding him in h is i n i t i a l s e le c tio n o f a c t i v i t y . Then, as a p a r t i c i p a t o r in th e program , h is n e e d s, d e s ire s and i n t e r e s t s w i l l be c o n sid e re d in th e p lan n in g f o r h is « f u tu r e p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n a l e x p e rie n c e s. G uidance, fb rm u la tin g o b je c tiv e s , s e t t i n g g o a ls , o rg a n iz in g s te p s fo r a c h ie v in g g o a ls , do n o t ta k e p la c e durin g th e f i r s t week o f th e sc h o o l term only b u t, lik e e v a lu a tio n , a re on-going and co n tin u o u s p ro c e s s e s . A ll o f th e se pro cedures a r e ways o f lo o k in g a t th e program and a re p a r t of th e program as a p ro cess a t a l l tim e s. O b jectiv es a re b ein g remade c o n s ta n tly , new g o als are always being s e t up by som eone, guidance i s going on and e v a lu a tio n of p ro g re s s i s b ein g made c o n tin u o u sly . (18:45 [1940]) D uring World War I I a p ro p o sa l f o r program em phasis upon th e elem ents o f p h y s ic a l f i t n e s s was made. There was th e s t i p u l a t i o n , how ever, t h a t : I t i s im p o rta n t to make c l e a r t h a t th e peacetim e program o f s p o r t s , d an ce, and c o r re c tiv e e x e rc is e s i s not hereby d isc a rd e d and a gym nastic program s u b s ti tu te d . T his i s c e r ta in ly n o t th e c a s e . . . . I f Ameri can sc h o o l program s in p h y s ic a l ed u c atio n re tu r n to gym nastic re g im e n ta tio n s under th e excuse o f war n ee d s, e d u c a tio n f o r c i t i z e n s in democracy w ill have made a very w a ste fu l and s tu p id s te p backw ard. (16:39-40 [1943]) In th e p o st-w a r e r a , s tu d e n ts and te a c h e rs were asked in th e volume Methods in P h y sic a l E ducation to recog n is e and u n d e rsta n d th e n a tu re o f th e modern p h y sic a l ed u c a tio n program : As e d u c a tio n has become g u id an ce , p h y sic a l 1*42 •d u c a tio n as mass p ro d u c tio n has be«n su p e rse d e d by guidance o f th e in d iv id u a l p u p il i n a program a d a p te d t o h is n e e d s. These in d iv id u a l program s range a l l th e way from com plete r e s t t o p a r t i c i p a t i o n in th e f u l l program o f p h y s ic a l a c t i v i t i e s . As e d u c a tio n h as be come g u id a n c e , th e p u p il h as sh a re d in p la n n in g h is own program and a d em o cratic le a r n in g c lim a te i s c r e a te d . (30:116 C19*»7]> Do you see t h a t a program r e q u ir in g O r ie n ta tio n , P a r tic ip a tio n and E v a lu a tio n i s n o t c e n te re d in s u b je c t m a tte r b u t i n th e needs o f s tu d e n ts as th e s e a re s tu d ie d in th e program i t s e l f ? (30:196 C19U73) The most c r i t i c a l problem c o n fro n tin g p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n program s in 19*t8, e d u c a tio n f o r d em o cratic l i v i n g , was d e sc rib e d in th e a r t i c l e , "A New Look f o r 1918," a s : d e f in in g c le a r ly th e m eanings and demands o f liv in g in a dem ocracy, and o f exam ining ev ery a s p e c t o f o u r program to se e how we can p ro v id e e d u c a tio n a l e x p e ri en ces f o r Am erican boys and g i r l s w hich w i l l c l a r i f y th e s e meanings and p re p a re them f o r m eeting th e s e demands. (108:91 [1948]) The Y ears 1950-1959 In th e e a r ly 1 9 5 0 's R o salin d C assid y c o n tin u e d t o em phasize th e c o n tr ib u tio n o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n program s t o d em o cratic c itiz e n s h ip in h e r w r itin g : W e have many ta s k s t o c a rry th ro u g h in m eeting th e t o t a l o b je c tiv e s o f th e contem porary p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n program , b u t s u re ly in 1950 a t t e n t i o n t o d em o cratic p r in c ip le s . . . i s a to p p r i o r i t y . (115:266 [1 9 5 0 ]) In 195*1 d i f f e r e n t ty p e s o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n p ro grams were i d e n t i f i e d and s e p a ra te d i n t o fo u r c a te g o r ie s : (1 ) ta k e i t and lik e i t , (2 ) ta k e a n y th in g you l i k e , 1*3 (3) th e core program , and (*♦) th e p ro b lem -cen tered program (9 :1 7 [195**]). R e la tiv e to th e fo u r program s: some s o r t o f co re o r p ro b lem -cen tered program p a tte r n i s e s s e n t i a l i f s tu d e n ts ' needs a re to be met in any way commensurate w ith th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s w ith in th e p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n a r e a s . P ro v isio n must be made f o r in s tr u c tio n and stu d y in th e o v e r a ll u n d e rsta n d in g o f movement and what i t means t o th e in d iv id u a l in th e p ro c e ss o f le a rn in g . Pro v is io n m ust be made f o r fin d in g n ee d s, f o r under sta n d in g how th e p h y s ic a l ed u c atio n program can and sh o u ld h e lp th e in d iv id u a l meet th e s e need s—where he i s and where he w ants to and should go. P ro v isio n must be made f o r o v e r a ll stu d y and p lan n in g e x p e rie n c e s. T hus, w hether th e program i s a core p a tte r n o r a p ro b lem -cen tered p a tt e r n , i t would prob ab ly f a l l in to a s tr u c tu r e p ro v id in g f o r e x p lo r a tio n , p a r tic i p a ti o n , e v a lu a tio n . (9:258 [195**]) The core program was d e fin e d as fo llo w s: In a co re p a tte r n th e em phasis is c e n te re d on th e r e quirem ent o f a c e r ta in sequence o f a c t i v i t i e s w ith le v e ls o f achievem ent in d ic a te d . A fte r t h i s b a s ic vocab u lary o f p h y s ic a l ed u c atio n i s ac h ie v ed , th e n fre e e le c tio n i s p o s s ib le w ith in th e range o f what th e departm ent s t a f f i s a b le t o o f f e r . (9:258 [195**]) The p ro b lem -c en tered program was id e n tif ie d as a program in which " stu d e n t needs a re c e n tr a l and become th e core f o r p lan n in g program s" (9:258 [195**]), and would in c lu d e th e fo llo w in g : An o r ie n ta tio n and e x p lo ra tio n p e rio d r e s u ltin g in a s e n - s u r v e y and o v e r a ll p lan fo r a sequence o f p h y s ic a l ed u c atio n e x p e rie n c e s. A broad o f f e r in g of- a c t i v i t i e s a t graded le v e ls from which each s tu o e n t could s e l e c t as he moves o u t to a c t upon h is program p la n . E v alu atio n and re p la n n in g p e rio d s a t th e end o f each ex p e rie n c e u n i t . A f i n a l e n d -o f-y e a r s to c k ta k in g and re p la n n in g . T his s tu d e n t-te a c h e r e x p e rien ce c o n trib u te s both to th e s tu d e n t's g rasp o f g e n e ra liz a tio n s in r e la tio n t o th e 14U le a rn in g e x p e rie n c e and t o th e s ta f f * a view o f ways in which th e m a ste r p lan must be r e v is e d . (9:258-259 [195*0) Zn th e l a t t e r y e a rs o f th e decade R o salin d Cm sid y s tr e s s e d in d e p e n d e n t, d em o cratic human developm ent in "a space age" and c a lle d f o r p h y s ic a l e d u c a to rs to : Re-examine • . . program s t o se e i f we can h e lp each in d iv id u a l to a c h ie v e an a c c e p ta b le s e l f - p i c t u r e a s s u rin g a sen se o f s e lf-a d e q u a c y and in n e r s e c u r ity . Put v alu e on in d e p e n d e n t, r e s p o n s ib le , m ature a c t i o n - id e n tif y in g i t and re c o g n iz in g i t so t h a t , on th e b a s is o f s e lf - v a l u e , one can v alu e o th e r s . (2*tl:3 [1 9 58]) A ll program a s p e c ts . . . sh o u ld be s e a rc h e d , alo n g w ith th e h e a r ts and minds o f th e te a c h e rs to se e how to h e lp American boys and g i r l s u se f a c t and i n i t i a t i v e f o r growth and le a r n in g and c iv ic good. (8 :2 1 [1959]) The Y ears 1960-1965 In th e 1 9 6 0 's R o salin d C assidy r e i t e r a t e d h e r b e l i e f in th e im portance o f p ro g ra m d esig n ed to develop r e s p o n s ib le , in d e p e n d e n t, d em o cratic a c tio n among s tu d e n ts : W e m ust sh arp en th e d e f i n i t i o n o f o u r p a r t i c u l a r edu c a tio n a l to o ls and r e d i r e c t o u r program s to a s s u r e , a t l e a s t , th e e s s e n t i a l c o n tr ib u tio n s t o be made by phys i c a l e d u c a tio n t o th e developm ent o f each in d iv id u a l. (12:310 [1962]) Movement program s must s t r e s s d em o cratic v a lu e s , r e l a tio n s h ip s and b e h a v io rs b o th in th e o ry and in a c tio n . As we develop program s t h a t enhance th e s e l f - v a l u e , we s e t th e base f o r th e s t u d e n t 's v a lu in g o th e r s . (280:7 [1 9 62]) The c o n te n t and method sh o u ld be d ir e c te d tow ard s e lf - a s s e s s m e n t, s e lf - a c c e p ta n c e , s e lf - a s s u r a n c e , s e l f s t r i v i n g f o r a more e f f e c t i v e in s tru m e n t. A movement v o cab u lary and movement l i t e r a c y sh o u ld be a s s u re d in elem en tary and j u n i o r h ig h s c h o o l. In th e s e n io r h ig h sch o o l and c o lle g e , o p p o rtu n ity sh o u ld be g iv en f o r a d eep er s e lf-a w a re n e s s th ro u g h movement e x p e rie n c e s , f o r « 115 th e c o n tin u in g developm ent o f s a t i s f y i n g s k i l l s f o r l e i s u r e and f o r th e harm onious fu n c tio n in g o f th e t o t a l organism w hich we c a l l f i t n e s s . I t i s e s s e n t i a l t h a t a t each age l e v e l * th e i n d i v id u a l sh o u ld be h e lp e d 9 th ro u g h th e p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n program* t o be aware o f h is own in d iv id u a l need and c a p a c ity f o r work* f o r re la x a tio n * f o r s l e e p , and f o r fo o d . He sh o u ld know how to co n serv e and how t o spend energy* how t o g e t re le a s e from s t r a i n and te n s io n a c c o rd in g t o h is own p a r t i c u l a r tempo and b io ch em ical make-up* how to ach iev e and m a in ta in f i t n e s s f o r th e demands o f h i s d a ily l i f e . (2 7 1 :6 -7 [1 9 6 2 ]) In an h i s t o r i c a l overview o f change in th e p ro fe s sio n * R o salin d C assidy d e p ic te d m ajor program s h i f t s o c c u rrin g in th e l a t t e r p a r t o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry and th e tw e n tie th ce n tu ry in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n : In o u r f i e l d we have seen changing p e r s p e c tiv e s from P h y sic a l C u ltu re , D e lsa rte * P h y s ic a l T ra in in g * Gym n a s t i c s on t o a p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n program o f s p o r ts and dance w ith in c re a s in g re c o g n itio n o f v a lu e s in e x c e lle n c e * in co m p etitio n * in o p p o r tu n itie s f o r th e h ig h ly s k i l l e d a s w ell as th e l e s s s k i l l e d and m ediocre perform er* t o to d a y 's r e je c tio n o f in a c c u ra te te rm in o lo g y . . . . (25<t:2 [1965]) Summary An in d ig en o u s American program o f p h y s ic a l edu c a tio n made i t s w r itte n appearance in 192 7 w ith th e p u b lic a tio n o f The New P h y sic a l E d u c a tio n . The program was d eveloped in p r o te s t a g a in s t th e m i l i t a r i s t i c * a u t o c r a t i c , form al* gym nastic system s o f th e l a t e n in e te e n th and e a rly tw e n tie th c e n tu r ie s . R osalind C assidy re v e a le d t h a t i t was a program r e je c tin g th e concept o f dualism * ad a p te d to in d iv id u a l and group needs in th e c u l t u r a l s e ttin g * a c c e p t in g o f h e a lth v alu es only as b y -p ro d u c ts in th e p ro c e ss o f 1>*6 t o t a l e d u c a tio n o f th e in d iv id u a l, com patible w ith contem p o ra ry e d u c a tio n a l program th e o z y , and fo rm u lated from p r i n c i p l e s o f c h ild growth and developm ent. With th e p u b lic a tio n o f New D ire c tio n s i n P h y s ic a l . E d u c a tio n f o r th e A d o le sc e n t G ir l in High School and C o lle g e in 1938, t h e co n cep t o f an in d iv id u a liz e d , o r i e n t a t i o n program o f p h y s ic a l ed u c a tio n f o r a l l s tu d e n ts w as h ig h ly d e v e lo p e d . The program c a lle d f o r s tu d e n t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f p e r s o n a l problem s and n e e d s, s e lf - e s ta b lis h m e n t o f g o a ls , p la n s f o r g o a l a tta in m e n t, in te r a c tio n w ith te a c h e r s f o r g u id an ce in se lf-d e v e lo p m e n t, s e l f - d i r e c t i o n a s th e m ethodology o f g o a l f u l f i l l m e n t , and c o n s ta n t e v a lu a tio n o f p ro g re ss tow ard s e lf-c o n c e iv e d o b je c tiv e s . D uring th e decade o f World War I I , R o salin d C assid y c o n tin u e d to em phasize th e concept of an in d iv id u a liz e d program o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n . She v ig o ro u sly r e je c te d any c o n c e p tio n o f program a s p h y s ic a l t r a i n i n g o r gym nastic r e g im e n ta tio n , and c a lle d f o r g u id e d , in d iv id u a liz e d p r o grams em p h asizin g th e m eanings and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s of l i v i n g i n a d e m o c ra tic s o c ie ty . An e x a m in a tio n o f program p a tte r n s e x p la in in g a n d d e v e lo p in g th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f in d iv id u a l need f u l f i l l m e n t th ro u g h a c o re o f re q u ir e d program e x p e rie n c e s o r a p ro b le m -c e n te re d ap p roach was made by R o salin d C assidy i n th e f i f t i e s . She em phasized th e r e s p o n s ib ility o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n program s t o dev elo p in t h e i r s tu d e n ts g r e a te r 117 s e lf-a d e q u a c y an d s e l f - s e c u r i t y * r e s p o n s ib le , n a tu re behav i o r , and r e s p e c t f o r s e l f and o th e r s i n a d e m o c ra tic s o c ie t y . In th e 1 9 6 0 's R o sa lin d C assid y c a lle d f o r more c o n c e n tra te d em p h asis i n movement program s upon developm ent o f in d iv id u a l s e lf - a c c e p ta n c e an d s e l f - v a l u e in o r d e r t o b e t t e r u n d e r s ta n d , a c c e p t, b e h a v e , and r e l a t e to o th e r s i n a d e m o c ra tic f a s h io n . T hroughout h e r w r i t i n g s , R o sa lin d C assid y p e rc e iv e d th e p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n program t o be a g u id e d , dem ocra t i z e d , i n d iv id u a li z e d program d e s ig n e d t o m eet v a ry in g s tu d e n t needs i n o r d e r to cope s u c c e s s f u lly w ith th e problem s o r t a s k s o f l i v i n g in a d e m o c ra tic s o c ie ty . C H A PT E R X PHYSICAL EDUCATION: PR O G R A M EXPERIENCES W e become what we do. —W ill D urant Conspicuous in R o salin d C a ssid y 's w r itte n works i s evidence o f a co n c ep tio n o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n program ex p e rie n c e s d esig n ed t o expand and ex ten d th e p o te n tia l f o r t o t a l growth and developm ent o f youth in a dem o cratic s o c ie ty . E xcerp ts from h e r w ritin g s a re p re se n te d in t h i s c h a p te r which in d ic a te h e r co n tin u o u s b e l i e f in t h i s them e. The Y ears 1920-1929 In th e volume The New P h y sic a l E d u c a tio n , w ritte n by C assidy and Wood, th e a u th o rs r e je c te d gym nastic forms a s s o c ia te d w ith gym nastic system s as a c c e p ta b le program c o n te n t w ith in th e new p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n : In th e n a tu r a l program a l l fo rm a l, m ech an ical, m i l i t a r i s t i c , and superim posed gym nastics a re d isc a rd e d a lo n g w ith th e e d u c a tio n a l th e o ry o f form al d is c ip lin e . (52:29 [1927]) Program c o n te n t, "fundam ental psycho-m otor a c t i v i t i e s (th e b ig b ra in -m u sc le movements)" (52:86 [1 9 2 7 ]), in c lu d e d a wide v a r ie ty o f a c t i v i t i e s and was o rg a n iz ed in to e ig h t u n its in th e n a tu r a l program : 1S8 1*»9 Th« n a tu r a l program th an must n e c e s s a r ily In c lu d e n o t form al m a te r ia l, b u t games, s p o r ts , a t h l e t i c s , d a n c in g - - in d u s tr ia l, econom ic, and s o c ia l l y u s e fu l foxms In w hich th e whole person fin d s e x p re s s io n ; forms w hich can be t e s t e d in aim , c o n te n t, and fu n c tio n by modern s c i e n t i f i c methods and by th e c r i t e r i a o f g e n e r a l e d u c a tio n . (52:29 [1927]) 1. N a tu ra l a c t i v i t i e s o f d a ily l i f e . 2. F ree p la y , and games. 3. A th le tic s and s p o rts (c lu b a c t i v i t i e s and e x c u rs io n s ). *i. D ram atic e x p re ssio n (d a n c in g , f e s t i v a l s , p a g e a n ts ). 5. S o c ia l s e rv ic e and p re v o c a tlo n a l a c t i v i t i e s . 6 . S e l f - t e s t i n g a c t i v i t i e s . 7. In d iv id u a l c o r r e c tiv e e x e rc is e s . 8. R e c re a tio n a l a c t i v i t i e s ( f o r a d u lt s ) . (52:89 [1927]) The Y ears 1930-1939 In 1935 a c h a lle n g e was is s u e d by R o salin d C assidy in an a r t i c l e in th e Jo u rn a l of H ealth and P h y s ic a l E d u catio n as she c ite d th e need f o r new er, b ro a d e r con c e p tio n s o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n program e x p e rie n c e s: a c t i v i t i e s t h a t giv e th e in d iv id u a l a c r e a tiv e e x p e ri e n c e , a c t i v i t i e s w ith mixed groups th a t have g r e a te r s o c ia l v a lu e ; a c t i v i t i e s th a t a re ad ap ted t o In d iv id u a l needs and c a p a c itie s ; a c t i v i t i e s th a t give many re so u rc e s f o r th e p r o f ita b le use o f l e i s u r e tim e now and l a t e r — a l l a re c h a lle n g e s o f to d ay . (138:16 [1935]) A few y e a rs l a t e r she c a lle d f o r b re a d th o f i n t e r p r e ta tio n o f program ex p e rien ces in p h y sic a l e d u c a tio n as she e x p la in e d t h a t " la r g e r u n its o f ex p erien ce must be conceived as th e p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n to o l" (13:60 [1 9 3 8 ]), and: may we n o t th in k o f a l l te a c h e rs as u sin g w hatever to o l w ith which th ey have s k i l l , such as c h e m is try , ISO E n g lis h , o r games and d an ce, tow ard t h i s prim ary p u rp o se , o r i e n t a t io n o f th e in d iv id u a l w ith in h is l i f e p ro b le m ? <242:134 [1937]) The t o o l s , o r program e x p e rie n c e s u t i l i z e d in th e o r ie n ta tio n p r o c e s s , w ere i d e n t i f i e d as " p a tte r n s which p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n te a c h e rs a c tu a lly use in th e o r ie n tin g o f th e in d iv id u a l tow ard h i s l i f e needs" (242:134 [1 9 3 7 ]). These p a tte r n s were developed w ith in s ix t o p ic a l h ead in g s and l a t e r sum m arized in a s e r i e s o f sta te m e n ts d e s c rib in g th e to o ls u sed by th e p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n te a c h e r in th e o r ie n ta tio n p r o c e s s : Play N a tu ra l a c t i v i t i e s o f d a ily l i f e . Free p la y and games. A th le t ic s — in tra m u ra l • Camping o u t. C lub a c t i v i t i e s and e x c u rs io n s , s o c i a l , p a r t i e s . Rhythmic a c t i v i t i e s in dance and d ram atic a c t i v i t i e s , f e s t i v a l , p ag e a n ts. S e l f t e s t i n g . V a lid a tio n o r e v a lu a tio n H e a lth e x a m in a tio n , d ia g n o s tic t e s t s . R ecords. I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o r i e n t a t i o n c o u rs e s , le c tu r e c o u rse s , s e l f s u rv e y . R e -e d u c a tiv e p a tte r n s I n d iv id u a l c o r r e c t i v e , r e la x a tio n and r e s t . E nvironm ental p a tte r n s E x p erie n ces r e la te d t o th e gymnasium b u ild in g , w hich in c lu d e : a i r , h e a t, c o lo r , s m e lls , c l e a n li n e s s , ro u tin e s and r e g u la tio n s , o f f ic e p riv a c y f o r c o n fe re n c e s. E x p erie n ces r e la te d to th e f i e l d s , which in c lu d e : d is ta n c e , s u r f a c e , su rro u n d in g s. E x p erie n ces r e la te d t o th e s t a f f , j a n i t o r s , m a tro n s, w hich in c lu d e : a t t r a c t i v e n e s s , s k i l l , tim s f o r c o n fe re n c e s. E x p erie n ces r e la te d t o th e s c h e d u le , which in c lu d e : re q u ire m e n ts , g ra d e s , p e n a lt ie s , t e s t s , r e l a tio n s h ip t o in d iv id u a l i n t e r e s t s and n e e d s, i m p a r t i a l i t y . E x p erie n ces r e la te d to com panions, which in c lu d e : 151 h o s t i l i t y o r f r i s n d l i n e s s * "we group1 * o r o u t s id e r* good o r n e g a tiv s in flu e n c e s i n s ta n d a rd s o f c o n d u c t. P lan n in g f o r p la y P lace and t i m e * c o e t* costum e* eq u ip m en t. P h y sic a l c o n d itio n * i n t e r e s t . L eadership* o f f i c i a l s . L earning how. Companions. Outcomes. < 2»*2:159-160 [1 9 3 7 ]) H er [th e t e a c h e r 's ] own s k i l l e d and a f f e c t i o n s ! r e l a tio n t o each c h ild . The h e a lth ex am in atio n * d ia g n o s tic te s t in g * and g uidance. Wide play and d an ce e x p e rie n c e s b ased on needs and d e s ir e s . A tte n tio n t o re m e d ia b le t o t a l h e a lth d e f e c ts th ro u g h w hatev er s c h o o l a g e n c ie s r e q u ir e d . Wide e x p e rie n c e s i n s h a r in g in group e n t e r p r i s e s . Wide e x p e rie n c e s i n e n jo y in g bocfy e x p re s s io n alo n e and w ith o th e r s . Wide e x p e rie n c e s w ith v a l i d in fo rm a tio n ab o u t U se -o f- th e -S e lf* r e l a t e d t o v a lu e s in a t o t a l l i f e s e t t i n g . (1 3 :7 6 [1 9 3 8 ]) The n eed t o alw ays i d e n t i f y program e x p e rie n c e s in r e l a t i o n to in d iv id u a l needs was u n d e rsc o re d in a s ta te m e n t made in Hew D ire c tio n s i n P h y s ic a l E d u ca tio n f o r th e Ado le s c e n t G irl in High S chool an d C o lleg e i n 1938: Hake th e need s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l - i n - t h e - s o c i a l - group th e c r i t e r i a f o r s e l e c t i n g e x p e rie n c e s . These e x p e rie n c e s become th e p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n program . (13:102 [1938]) The Y ears 19»0-19»9 In 19S0, C assid y and o th e rs * in th e volume P h y s ic a l E d u catio n in th e Secondary S c h o o l, em phasized th e p o in t t h a t w id e r and r i c h e r program e x p e rie n c e s w ere needed t o meet v a ry in g s t u d e n t s ' needs i n an in d iv id u a liz e d * guided p h y s ic a l ed u c a tio n program : 152 A program p ro v id in g f o r th e grow th and developm ent o f each in d iv id u a l a c c o rd in g t o h ia own u n iq u e p a tt e r n m ust o f n e c e s s ity be q u ite d i f f e r e n t from a program f o r a su pposedly homogeneous group d esig n ed t o make i t s members more and more a lik e * The program w hich a tte m p ts t o meet a wide ran g e o f in d iv id u a l needs m u st, f i r s t o f a l l , p ro v id e many d i f f e r e n t a c t i v i t i e s from w hich boys and g i r l s may be guided t o choose a c c o rd in g t o t h e i r i n t e r e s t s , a b i l i t i e s and p re v io u s e x p e rie n c e . F u rth e r th a n t h i s , o p p o rtu n itie s must be g iv en t o w iden and deepen i n t e r e s t s , t o im prove and in c r e a s e a b i l i t i e s . T his im p lie s a wide and r i c h v a r ie ty o f e x p e ri ences p re se n te d in many d i f f e r e n t s i t u a t i o n s . (1 8 :4 6 - 47 [194 0 ]) A b ro ad en in g in scope o f program e x p e rie n c e s a v a ila b le to p h y s ic a l e d u c a to rs in o rd e r to m eet s tu d e n t needs was p a r tic u l a r iz e d as fo llo w s: The to o ls o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n by means o f which • • • changes ta k e p la c e a re b ro ad en in g in range and becom ing more in c lu s iv e , adding a c t i v i t i e s t h a t we have n o t in th e p a s t a c cep ted as p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n a c t i v i t i e s . In th e main th ey may be d e s c rib e d as th o s e e x p e rie n c e s a r is i n g in la r g e m otor p a t t e r n s ; n a tu r a l a c t i v i t i e s o f d a ily l i f e as w a lk in g , f r e e p la y , d ra m a tic p la y , gam es, d an ce, a t h l e t i c s , s t u n t s , tu m b lin g , a p p a ra tu s , s e l f - t e s t i n g , re m e d ia l and ad a p te d a c t i v i t i e s , c o -e d u c a tio n a l and c o - r e c r e a tio n a l t r i p s , cam ping, h ik in g , p a r ti e s . (121:409 [1 9 40]) F a c to rs in flu e n c in g th e s e le c tio n and in c lu s io n o f a c t i v i t i e s w ith in th e p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n program w ere d e sig n a te d t o b e: The s e le c tio n o f a c t i v i t i e s in any s in g le secondaxy sc h o o l w i l l vary a c co rd in g t o th e i n t e r e s t s and needs o f boys and g i r l s , a d m in is tra tiv e p o l i c i e s , th e number o f te a c h e r s , s iz e o f c l a s s e s , a v a ila b le f a c i l i t i e s and eq u ip m sn t, re so u rc e s o f th e n a tu r a l environm ent and w ith th e way th e community f e e ls ab o u t p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n . (18 :48 [1940]) D uring th e Second World War th e n e c e s s ity f o r a more c o n c e n tra te d focus upon p h y s ic a l f i t n e s s e x p e rie n c e s 153 was s x p la ln e d in t a r n s o f program em phasis upon f i t n e s s e le a s n ts i n a d d itio n t o a b ro ad program o f p e r s o n a l, s o c i a l , r e c r e a ti v e e x p e rie n c e s : I t i s v ery d e f i n i t e l y made c l e a r t h a t th e p ro p o sed program does n o t mean d is c a r d in g th e p re s e n t day p ro -"" gram , r i c h in r e c r e a t i o n a l , p e r s o n a l- s o c ia l v alu es* I t does n o t mean s u b s t i t u t i n g a program o f g y m n astic reg T ^ B5ns a x o n s* i t l a su g g e ste d t h a t a program d ir e c te d to w ard s wax*-peace o b je c tiv e s be v ig o ro u s ly u n d e rta k e n . These o b je c tiv e s a r e d e s c rib e d a s e n d u ra n c e , s t r e n g t h , body c o n t r o l , r e l a x a t io n , and m orale t o be p re s e n te d th ro u g h an o r i e n t a t i o n c o u rse c lo s e ly c o o rd in a te d w ith th e e s t a b l is h e d program o f a c t i v i t i e s in s p o r t s , d a n c e , and c o r r e c tiv e e x e r c is e s . (1 6 :3 8 [19H3]) A f te r th e Second W orld War, in th e volume Methods i n P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n , a b ro ad co n c e p tio n o f program c o n te n t d ev elo p ed a decade e a r l i e r was r e i t e r a t e d i n a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t m anner: any elem en t i n th e le a r n in g s i t u a t i o n i s program c o n te n t; th e s m e ll o f th e show er room , y o u r ap p earan ce and a t t i t u d e , a r e p a r ts o f th e le a r n in g s i t u a t i o n j u s t a s much a s th e m easurem ent o f h e i g h t, o r a fo o t e x e r c i s e ; th e c h a r ts you p r e s e n t, th e number and q u a l i t y o f th e b a l l s you u s e , y o u r c la s s d is c u s s io n s , y o u r c o n v e r s a tio n s w ith i n d i v i d u a l s , a l l y o u r methods and p ro c e d u r e s , a r e program c o n te n t. (30:13H [1 9 4 7 ]) At t h i s tim e , change in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n program s was em phasized by C assid y t o r e s id e in an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f program c o n te n t a s b ro ad a r e a s o f in d iv id u a liz e d e x p e rie n c e r a t h e r th a n d e lim ite d , s p e c i f i c p h y s ic a l a c t i v i t y : P h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n program s have been re o rg a n iz e d on th e b a s is o f d e te rm in in g co re e x p e rie n c e s a l l s tu d e n ts sh o u ld hav e i n th e f i e l d . These e x p e rie n c e s have been s t a t e d as r e q u ir e d c o u rse s w ith in program s c o n ta in in g a r i c h v a r ie ty o f e l e c t i v e s . (30:116 [19>»7]) I t i s p o s s ib le t o th in k o f O r ie n ta tio n , P a r t i c i p a t i o n , 15* and E v a lu a tio n aa th e r e q u ir e d e o ra o f th e p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n p ro g ra n . I t i a an e x p e rie n c e c o rs* n o t a a u b je c t n a t t e r c o r e . (3 0 :1 9 7 [1 9 * 7 ]) The Y eara 1950-1959 The r e a p o n a i b i l i t i e a o f p h y a ic a l e d u c a to ra t o p ro v id e f o r d ep th and b re a d th o f program e x p e rie n c e a was e n p h a a iz e d by R o a a lin d C aa8idy i n th e e a r l y f i f t i e a : we have r e a p o n a i b i l i t i e a f o r a r i c h and f u l l e x p re a a iv e program t h a t ra n g ea th ro u g h dance and a p o r t t o th e c o g n itiv e a a p e c ta o f why t h i s i s an im p o rta n t e x p e r i en ce f o r th e i n d i v id u a l . (2 8 :9 [1 9 5 1 ]) A re -e m p h a sis and c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f th e m eaning o f b re a d th and d ep th o f program e x p e rie n c e s was a g a in made in t h i a d e c a d e : th e te rm "program e x p e rie n c e " i s u sed t o mean more th a n a d e lim ite d s p o r t o r dance a c t i v i t y . I t in c lu d e s th e a c t i v i t y in a l a r g e r o r s m a lle r fram e o f r e l a t e d a c t i v i t i e s * a s t e n n i s i s e x te n d e d from an a c t i v i t y i n t o an e x p e rie n c e i n a t e n n i s c lu b o r to u rn a m e n t. In i n c lu d e s e n v iro n m e n ta l f a c to r s * f a c i l i t i e s * e m o tio n a l c lim a te * s k i l l and p e r s o n a l it y and b re a d th o f ed u ca t i o n a l p r e p a r a tio n o f te a c h e rs * m ethod o f te a c h in g * s t r u c t u r e o f r e la ti o n s h i p s * tim e s c h e d u le , r i g i d i t y o f re q u ire m e n ts* and th e l i k e . (9 :2 * 7 [1 9 5 * ]) To many* p h y a ic a l e d u c a tio n i a th o u g h t o f a s te n n is * f o o tb a ll* b a s k e tb a ll* t r a c k and th e l i k e . T hese a r e a c t i v i t y p a t t e r n s u sed a s t o o ls o f t h e l a r g e r d i s c i p l i n e o f movem ent. (5 1 :1 5 8 [1 9 5 6 ]) The t o o ls o r " e d u c a tiv e e x p e rie n c e s a v a il a b le t o th e p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n t e a c h e r who i s co n cern ed w ith th e t o t a l o rg a n is m -in -h is s o c ie ty " (9 :1 3 2 [1 9 5 * ]) w ere a g a in p re s e n te d in suam ary and p a t t e r n form w ith em phasis upon th e c o n c e p t o f movement: H is [ th e t e a c h e r ’s ] own s k i l l e d and a f f a c t i o n a l 1S5 r e la tio n to each c h ild and youth The " c lim a te ” in which p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n e x p e rie n c e s ta k e p lace H ealth a p p r a is a l, d ia g n o s tic t e s t i n g , and guidance ex p e rien ces Wide p lay and dance e x p e rien ces based on needs and d e s ire s A tte n tio n t o rem ediable t o t a l h e a lth d e f e c ts th ro u g h w h etsv er sch o o l ag en cies re q u ire d Wide ex p e rien ces in s h a rin g in s o c ia ll y s tr u c tu r e d d em ocratic group e n te r p r is e s Wide ex p e rien ce in en jo y in g body e x p re s s io n through movement Wide ex p e rie n c e s w ith th e f a c tu a l c o n te n t o f th e p rin c ip le s o f movement and th e o th e r a s p e c ts o f body ed u c atio n r e la te d to v alu es in a t o t a l l i f e s e t t i n g . T his l i s t i n g o f th e s u b je c t m a tte r o f p h y s ic a l edu c a tio n i s p u rposely made in broad g e n e ra l term s r a th e r th a n th e norm al l i s t i n g s th a t b eg in w ith a rc h e ry and go on th ro u g h th e a lp h a b e tic a l l i s t o f b a s e b a ll, b a s k e t b a l l , d an ce, f o o tb a l l, swimming, t e n n is . The l i s t p re se n te d i s n o t an a c ti v i t y l i s t . I t i s an a r e a s - o f - ex p e rie n c e s l i s t and th u s d e fin e s in d e se rv e d ly broad term s th e amazing scope and th e e d u c a tio n a l power o f a b ro ad ly conceived and in te r p r e te d p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n program . <9:132 [1954]) PATTERNS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION M O V E M E N T PATTERNS Movement fundam entals N a tu ra l a c t i v i t i e s o f d a ily l i f e Free p lay and games In d iv id u a l and group s p o rts In tra m u ra l and in te rs c h o o l a t h l e t i c s A quatics Camping Club a c t i v i t i e s and e x c u rs io n s , s o c i a l s , p a r tie s Dance and d ram atic a c t i v i t i e s , f e s t i v a l s , pagean ts EVALUATION O R VALIDATION H ealth exam ination and a p p r a is a l, d ia g n o s tic t e s t s , re c o rd s , in te rv ie w s , co n feren ces INTERPRETATION O rie n ta tio n c o u rse s, le c tu r e c o u rs e s , s e lf - s u r v e y , re ad in g s and stu d y u n its o f i n s t r u c ti o n on movement and o th e r s u b je c t m a tte rs REEDUCATIVE A N D REHABILITATION PATTERNS In d iv id u a l c o rre c tio n — re la x a tio n and r e s t ENVIRONM ENTAL PATTERNS—r e la te d to : 156 The gymnasium b u ild in g : a i r , h a a t, c o lo r , s m a ll, c l e a n lin e s s , ro u tin e s and r e g u la tio n s , o f f ic e p riv a c y f o r co n feren ces The f i e l d s : d is ta n c e , s u r f a c e , su rro u n d in g s m e s c h e d u le : r i g i d i t y , ric h n e s s o f o f f e r in g , tim e o f d a y , c o n f l i c t s The program : re q u ire m e n ts, g ra d e s , p e n a ltie s . T e s ts , r e la tio n s h ip t o in d iv id u a l i n t e r e s t s and n e e d s , im p a r tia lity Companions: h o s t i l e o r f r ie n d ly , "we group" o r o u ts i d e r , good o r n e g a tiv e in flu e n c e s in s ta n d a rd s o f conduct A ttitu d e s i n th e c u l t u r e : accep tan ce o r d isap p ro v - a l o f p la y , a d v e r tis in g , propaganda, fa s h io n , le g a l su p p re ssio n o f f a c t s , re lig io u s tab o o s. <9:136-137 C1954]) The Y ears 1960-1965 A p o in t o f view re g a rd in g d e s ira b le movement e x p e rie n c e s f o r th e in d iv id u a l from th e elem entary sch o o l th ro u g h th e c o lle g e program was p ro je c te d in th e e a rly s i x t i e s : I d e a l l y , movement l i t e r a c y sh o u ld be a ssu re d in th e e le m e n ta ry and h igh sc h o o ls t o p ro v id e g r e a te r s e l f - know ledge and s e lf-a w a re n e s s and c e r ta in hungers f o r p a r t i c u l a r ty p e s o f a c t i v i t y . T his would make i t p o s s ib le a t th e c o lle g e le v e l t o f re e th e in d iv id u a l to p u rsu e th e s e movement hungers and t o develop s a tis f y in g s k i l l s a t a h ig h le v e l and t o e x p lo re a re a s o f c r e a tiv e e x p e rie n c e . (193:16 [1962]) At th e u p p er sc h o o l l e v e l s , in s tr u c tio n in in d iv id u a l s p o r ts such as te n n is and g o lf sh o u ld be a v a ila b le and g iv en a la r g e r p ro p o rtio n o f tim e in th e s tu d e n t's s c h e d u le th an th a t g iv en to team s p o r ts . Swimming sh o u ld be a v a ila b le a t a l l age le v e ls . S o c ia l dancing and f o lk dancing a re e s s e n t i a l s . I n s tr u c tio n in cam ping, h ik in g , f is h in g , b o a tin g , s u r f in g , and s k iin g s k i l l s must be in c lu d e d in th e sc h o o l program . (12:310 C19623) At th e c o lle g e le v e l as i t now i s , I fin d m yself f e e lin g th a t we sh o u ld be a ssu re d one se m e ste r o r one y e a r o f re q u ire d p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n so t h a t th e newer view o f our d i s c ip lin e could become p a rt o f th e 157 s t u d e n t 's •d u c a tio n . I n t h i s re q u ir e d p e r io d , th e re sh o u ld b e in te n s iv e s e lf - a s s e s s m e n t, d ia g n o s is , and p r e s c r ip tio n in r e l a t i o n t o o n e 's own p a r t i c u l a r movs- ■ ant powers and p o t e n t i a l i t i e s . (193:16 [1 9 62]) Program e x p e rie n c e s t h a t sh o u ld be o ff e r e d th e in d iv id u a l c o lle g e s tu d e n t above and beyond th e d ia g n o s tic assessm ent p ro v is io n s were i d e n t i f i e d as fo llo w s : th e r e sh o u ld be a w ide ran g e o f e x p e rie n c e a v a ila b le from t r a i n i n g , c o n d itio n in g , w eig h t c o n tr o ls w eig h t im provem ent, r e la x a tio n s sp e n d in g and c o n se rv in g e n e rg y « t o a w ide range o f s p o r ts s d an c e, cam ping, o u tin g a c t i v i t i e s , s p e c ia l program ming f o r such groups as p re g n a n t women and f o r p re -n u rs in g s tu d e n ts . The c e n tr a l purpose i n th e s e w ould be t o s e e t h a t th e s tu d e n t i s d ir e c te d by p u rp o se , i s s u c c e s s f u l and t h a t sh e u n d ersta n d s h e r movement s t a t u s and h e r movement p o t e n t i a l . (1 9 3 :1 7 [1 9 6 2 ]) In 1927 R o salin d C assid y c le a r ly r e je c te d any d is c i p li n a r y , m i l i t a r i s t i c , f o r m a li s t ic c o n c e p tio n o f gymnas t i c s a s a c c e p ta b le program c o n te n t. She i d e n t i f i e d th e c o n te n t o f a n a tu r a l program as psycho-m otor a c t i v i t i e s , in c lu d in g a t h l e t i c s , s p o r t s , r e c r e a tio n a l a c t i v i t i e s , s e l f t e s t i n g a c t i v i t i e s , p la y , gam es, d ra m a tic e x p re s s io n , n a tu r a l a c t i v i t i e s , s o c i a l s e r v ic e and p re v o c a tio n a l a c ti v i t i e s , and in d iv id u a l c o r r e c tiv e e x e r c is e s . D uring th e 1 9 3 0 's R o sa lin d C assidy re-em p h asized b re a d th o f program c o n te n t and d e s c rib e d program e x p e rie n c e s in term s o f to o ls and p a tte r n s t o be u t i l i z e d in th e p ro cess o f o r ie n tin g in d iv id u a ls in th e p e r s i s t e n t problem s o f l i f e . She i d e n t i f i e d th e needs o f th e in d iv id u a l in th e IS 8 group as c a n tr a l to program ax p arien ca s e l e c ti o n , and de s c rib e d p a tte r n s o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n in term s o f p la y , e v a lu a tio n , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , re -e d u c a tiv e p a t t e r n s , e n v iro n m ental p a t t e r n s , and p lan n in g f o r p la y . Throughout th e decade id e n t i f i e d w ith th e Second World War, co n tin u ed s t r e s s was placed on b re a d th and ric h n e s s o f program e x p e rien ces n e c e ssa ry to m eet th e needs o f a l l in an in d iv id u a liz e d program o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n . Program c o n te n t was i d e n ti f i e d as any f a c t o r in a le a rn in g s i t u a t i o n , and was d e sc rib e d as being c e n te re d in e x p e rie n c e , n o t s u b je c t m a tte r. R osalind C assidy r e s ta te d h e r co n cep tio n o f s u b je c t m a tte r o r program c o n te n t in p h y sic a l e d u c a tio n in th e f i f t i e s to be n o t d e lim ite d p h y s ic a l a c t i v i t y , b u t broad and e x te n s iv e a re a s o f e d u c a tio n a l program e x p e rie n c e . T ools and p a tte r n s o r ig in a lly id e n t i f i e d and used in New D ire c tio n s in P h y sic a l E ducation were a g a in u t i l i z e d by R o salin d C assidy t o d e sc rib e th e s u b je c t m a tte r o f th e f i e l d , b u t in a framework o f human movement. In th e 196 0 's R osalind C assidy co n tin u ed t o p o in t o u t th e n e c e s s ity f o r v a r ie ty and b re ad th o f human movement e x p e rie n c e s in in d iv id u a l developm ent. Throughout h e r p ro fe s s io n a l c a re e r R o salin d C assidy em phasized, c l a r i f i e d , and expanded h e r id e a s ab o u t a contem porary, in d iv id u a l-c e n te re d p h y sic a l e d u c a tio n program . T his program was c h a ra c te riz e d by b re a d th and 159 depth o f in d iv id u a liz e d , g ro u p , c r e a t i v e , r e c r e a ti v e , s o c ia li z i n g e x p e rie n c e s u t i l i z e d as a m edia f o r m eeting in d iv id u a l needs and o r ie n ta tio n f o r s u c c e s s f u l s o lu tio n o f l i f e ' s problem s. i C H A PT E R XI PHYSICAL EDUCATION: CURRICULUM DEVELOPM ENT No c o u rse o f stu d y e v e r w il l be one w h it b e t t e r th a n th e in d iv id u a ls who teaC h i t o r th e d i s c i p lin e s which make i t up. — Thomas M endenhall One o f R osalind C a s s id y 's c o n tin u o u s p r o f e s s io n a l c o n c e rn s, as ev idenced in h e r w r itin g s th ro u g h o u t th e y e a r s , re s id e d w ith in th e a re a o f c u rric u lu m . Her i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f th e c u rricu lu m as dynam ic, .changing as people ch an g e, n e e d -c e n te re d , and d e m o c ra tic a lly co nceived i s p o rtra y e d in t h i s c h a p te r th ro u g h p assag e s s e le c te d .from h e r w r itte n works* The Y ears 1920-1929 In th e p u b lic a tio n , The New P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n , th e co n cep t o f c u rric u lu m c o n s tru c tio n b ased upon i d e n t i f i - d a tio n and u t i l i z a t i o n o f te n u o u sly i d e n t i f i e d i n s t i n c t s was r e je c te d by R osalind C assidy and Thomas D. Wood as th ey i d e n t i f i e d th e c u rricu lu m as dynamic and in d iv id u a l c e n te re d : One method o f c u rricu lu m m aking, th e soundness o f w hich i s q u e s tio n e d , i s t h a t o f s e t t i n g down th e d e f in it e i n s t i n c t s and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e c h ild a t 160 161 each age and th a n su p p ly in g th a a c t i v i t i a s w h ich , a f t e r e x a m in a tio n o f a d u lt l i f e , seam th a h a s t means o f d e v e lo p in g t h e s e . Mora modern s tu d ie s o f c h ild l i f e make us u n c e r ta in o f th e s e n ic e ly ta b u la te d i n s t i n c t s , • • • and f u r t h e r d o u b tfu l a s th e ages a t w hich we may depend upon t h e i r ap p earan ces in c h ild l i f e . (52:118 [1 9 2 7 ]) Modem e d u c a to rs a r e w orking from th e c h i l d 's a c t u a l needs and i n t e r e s t s in each s ta g e o f h is g ro w th , and s u b o rd in a tin g s u b je c t m a tte r t o th e s e n e e d s. In g e n e r a l, m a te r ia l i s g iv en a t th e tim e when i t i s o f g r e a t e s t i n t e r e s t t o th e c h ild and o f most u se t o him in s o lv in g h is pro b lem s. (52:119 [1 9 2 7 ]) A djustm ent and re a d ju stm e n t a re th e k ey n o tes o f a n a t u r a liz e d c u rric u lu m . C e rta in g e n e ra l needs may be d e te rm in e d in a c t i v i t y u n its b u t th e a c tu a l d a y -to -d a y c u rric u lu m grows up in th e gymnasium o r p lay f i e l d , as th e c h ild r e n and te a c h e rs m eet t h e i r problem s. (52:122 [1 9 2 7 ]) The developm ent o f a c h ild - c e n te r e d c u rric u lu m w ith in th e c o n te x t o f a n a t u r a l program o f p h y s ic a l edu c a tio n was e x p la in e d t o mean: 1. The c u rric u lu m grows o u t o f th e c h i l d 's n e e d s. 2 . Aims and id e a ls a r e d eterm in ed and th en t r a n s l a t e d i n t o a c t i v i t i e s by w hich th e y can be made i n t o conduct in th e in d iv id u a l. 3. From a l l th e s e a c t i v i t i e s , which re p re s e n t a im s, a r e s e l e c t e d by v a rio u s c r i t e r i a th e a c t i v i t i e s w hich w i l l b e s t f i t th e c h ild f o r h is l i f e n e e d s. 4 . The t e a c h e r s e t s up th e item s w hich h e r c u rric u lu m stu d y t e l l s h e r th e c h i l d sh o u ld have and th e n pro v id e s s i t u a t i o n s o r p r o je c ts in w hich th e s e w i l l become p a r ts o f th e c h i l d 's e x p e rie n c e . (5 2 :1 2 6 - 127 [1 9 2 7 ]) The Y ears 1930-1939 In h e r d o c to r a l stu d y in 1937, C assidy in d ic a te d th e need f o r fo cu s on in d iv id u a l needs in any c u rric u lu m r e o r g a n iz a tio n : th e o n ly sound b a s is f o r c u rric u lu m o r c o u rs e -o f-s tu d y 162 re o r g a n iz a tio n i a th a neede o f th a in d iv id u a ls f o r who th a program i s b a in g p la n n e d . (2*2:6 [1 9 3 7 ]) A p h ilo so p h y and m ethodology o f c o o p e ra tiv e c u r r i c ulum r e d i r e c t i o n d e sig n e d t o d is c o v e r and m eet a d o le s c e n t n e e d s , was i d e n t i f i e d in th e f o u r th c h a p te r o f New D ire c tio n s in P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n f o r th e A d o lescen t G ir l i n High S chool and C o lle g e i n 1938, and an a r t i c l e e n t i t l e d "P la n n in g a P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n Program f o r th e A d o lescen t" in 1939: T h is m ethod r e q u ir e s group th in k in g , s tu d y , and p la n n in g b a s ic t o any s u c c e s s f u l r e -p la n n in g in e d u c a tio n a l p ro g ram s• T h is group p ro c e ss o f s i t u a t i o n a l th in k in g sh o u ld r e s u l t in an o v e r p a tte m t o s e rv e as a g u id e f o r th e te a c h e r who i s aim in g tow ard in d iv id u a liz e d i n s t r u c t i o n . (1 3 :7 8 C1938]) The f i r s t s t e p i s ta k e n when th e members o f th e p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n s t a f f e x p re s s in a c tio n and as a group a d e s ir e t o in c r e a s e t h e i r e d u c a tio n a l s e r v ic e f o r young p e o p le . The a c tio n w hich fo llo w s a s in c e r e d e s ir e o f t h i s n a tu r e i s group o r g a n iz a tio n f o r s tu d y . The f i r s t p e r io d o f stu d y sh o u ld c l a r i f y th e te a c h e r 's own th in k in g ab o u t th e n eed s o f th e a d o le s c e n t in p re s e n t-d a y s o c i e t y , th e n a tu r e o f th e u n iv e r s e , th e n a tu re o f th e i n d i v i d u a l , how he l e a r n s , how p e rs o n a l i t y d e v e lo p s , t h e fu n c tio n o f e d u c a tio n a t th e v a rio u s sc h o o l le v e ls b u t e s p e c i a l ly a t h ig h sc h o o l and c o l le g e , th e f u n c tio n o f h e a lth e d u c a tio n , p h y s ic a l edu c a tio n and r e c r e a ti o n in th e grow th p a tte r n o f th e i n d i v id u a l, and th e new er ways o f c u rric u lu m r e v is io n and c o u rse o f stu d y c o n s tr u c tio n . (1 26:313 [1 9 3 9 ]) The sc h o o l p r i n c i p a l , o r c o lle g e p r e s id e n t and d ean , r e p r e s e n ta tiv e p a r e n t s , and alu m n ae, an a d v iso ry com m itte e o f s t u d e n t s , th e s c h o o l c o m p tr o lle r , and d e p a rt ment r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s s h o u ld m eet w ith t h i s group to d is c u s s t h e i r fo rm u la tio n s and r e p o r t s . (125:313 [1 9 3 9 ]) The n e x t s t e p i s t o r e l a t e t h i s g e n e ra l fo rm u la tio n o f e d u c a tio n a l p h ilo so p h y t o th e s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o n f o r w hich th e th in k in g i s b e in g done. Q u estio n s f o r stu d y 163 a r e : What a r a th a naeds o f th a g i r l s and boys i n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r sch o o l* i n i t s s p a c i a l community* and re g io n o f th a U n ite d S ta te s ? (1 2 5 :3 1 4 [1 9 3 9 ]) A f te r a s t a f f group h a s re v ie w e d th e g e n e ra l and s p e c i f i c needs o f t h e i r own group and a r r i v e d a t some fo rm u la tio n o f r e s u l t s » th e n th e s tu d y o f th e program now b e in g o f f e r e d i n th e s c h o o l s h o u ld be u n d e rta k e n . I f I t h as been im p o s s ib le t o g e t g e n e ra l f a c u lty coop e r a tio n b e f o r e t i t may new be p o s s ib le t o b r in g them i n t o th e s tu d y t and th u s d i r e c t t h e i r th in k in g t o a view o f ways i n w hich t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r a r e a s o f te a c h in g c o n tr ib u te t o s tu d e n t h e a lth and r e c r e a tio n * b o th in s c h o o l and out* ( 1 2 5 :3 m [1 9 3 9 ]) Such a s tu d y s h o u ld le a v e th e group w ith a b e t t e r id e a o f a d o le s c e n t needs* i n t e r e s t s * and d e s i r e s . Upon t h e s e t t h e n 9 may be c o n s tr u c te d w hat i s c a l l e d a la r g e o v e r - p a tte r n t o s e rv e as a g u id e i n th e c o u n s e lin g and a d v is in g o f s t u d e n t s . . . . T h is o v e r p a tte rn * i f i t i s t o be h e lp fu l* m ust be w orked o u t by th e group i n t o some s o r t o f d e s ig n t o show th e dependence o f o b je c t i v e s and e x p e rie n c e s s e l e c te d t o a c h ie v e th e s e o b je c tiv e s on o u r a l l - i m p o r t a n t p o in t o f r e f e r e n c e — th e a d o le s c e n t- in - h is - e n v ir o n m e n t. (125:315 [1 9 3 9 ]) The Y ears 1940-1949 The n eed f o r in d iv id u a l and group developm ent in c u rric u lu m r e v is io n was c i t e d by R o sa lin d C assid y in 1940: Each te a c h e r and each £roup o f te a c h e r s m ust grow t o g e th e r i n th e b a s ic th in k in g n e c e s s a ry t o s t a r t i n t e l l i g e n t l y on a r e - d i r e c t i o n o f t h e i r own program . (117:31 [1 9 4 0 ]) The n e c e s s a ry m ethodology f o r d e m o c ra tic c u rric u lu m developm ent was p o in te d o u t t o mean t h a t : The d e m o c ra tic p ro c e s s i s th e o n ly v a lid m ethod f o r c u rric u lu m b u ild in g and c u rric u lu m r e v i s i o n . T ea ch ers m ust work to g e th e r t o c l a r i f y t h e i r own p h ilo so p h y o f e d u c a tio n . The le a d e r s h ip i n d e m o c ra tic c u rric u lu m b u ild in g m ust be r e s p o n s ib le f o r m aking each in d iv id u a l in v o lv e d f e e l th e s i g n if ic a n c e o f h i s p a r t in th e p ro c ess* b o th i n h is own grow th and i n h is c o n tr ib u t i o n s t o th e j o i n t e n t e r p r i s e . (1 8 :4 2 [1 9 4 0 ]) 1 6 > * A p ro g ram , a c o u rse o f s tu d y , a c u rric u lu m i s e f f e c t i v e when a l l te a c h e r s who d e a l w ith boys and g i r l s e v e ry day have a m ajo r p a r t in b u ild in g i t . The group th in k in g and c o o p e ra tio n o f t e a c h e r s , p a r e n t s , a d m in is t r a t o r s , c o u n s e lo r s , p h y s ic ia n s and o th e r s who have know ledge a b o u t and in flu e n c e upon th e boy o r g i r l i s v i t a l t o th e b u ild in g o f th e program . Boys and g i r l s th e m se lv e s have a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t t o p la y i n t h i s . (18:H2 C19H0]) The Y ears 19S0-19S9 A p o in t o f view re g a rd in g th e c u rric u lu m and c u r ric u lu m developm ent was e x p re s s e d in 1951 i n th e volume Group P ro c e ss i n P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n i n th e fo llo w in g f a s h io n : When we sp ea k o f c u rric u lu m . . . we mean a l l o f th e s e l e c t e d and g u id ed e x p e rie n c e s p ro v id e d by th e phys i c a l e d u c a tio n d e p a rtm e n t. The c u rric u lu m ta k e s in th e gamut o f e x p e rie n c e s p o s s ib le in th e f i e l d . The f a b r i c o f th e c u rric u lu m i s woven d ay -b y -d ay o u t o f th e th re a d s o f in fo rm a tio n and a t t i t u d e s g le a n e d from th e f i e l d o f h e a lth e d u c a tio n , w hich a id s i n th e prom otion o f th e g e n e ra l w e lf a r e ; o u t o f th e a p p lic a tio n s from p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n w hich have l a s t i n g v a lu e f o r l i f e ' s e n ric h m e n t; o u t o f th e accu m u lated g i f t s from r e c r e a t io n w hich f o s t e r th e p u r s u it o f in d iv id u a l c o n te n t m ent; o u t o f a m u ltitu d e o f s p e c ia liz e d a r e a s su ch as p h y s io th e ra p y , c o r r e c t iv e and r e h a b i l i t a t i v e p ro g ram s, s a f e ty e d u c a tio n , cam ping. In b u ild in g c u r r i c u l a t o m eet th e n e e d s o f boys and g i r l s to d a y , o u r h o riz o n s m ust be w ide enough t o e n v is io n more th a n th e e x p e rie n c e s p o s s ib le in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n a lo n e . As a p a r t o f e d u c a tio n , p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n m ust be a l l i e d w ith th e p a r e n t f i e l d . (2 8 : 270 [1 9 5 1 ]) C u rricu lu m developm ent i s in i t s e l f an "o n -g o in g " p ro c e s s in v o lv in g p la n n in g , e v a lu a tio n , and r e p la n n in g . I t i s n e v e r co m p leted . Time o u t may be ta k e n t o c o n s o lid a te g a in s , b u t t h i s i s re c o g n iz e d as su ch and n o t as a s t a t i c h o ld in g t o h a b i t u a l and f a m i l i a r p a t t e r n s . T h e rs i s alw ays th e s e a rc h f o r b e t t e r ways o f te a c h in g ; t h e r e i s th e c o n tin u o u s s tu d y o f s t u d e n t s ' n e e d s , th e re e x a m in a tio n o f o b j e c t i v e s , th e a p p r a i s a l 16S o f th e o p e r a tin g c u rric u lu m , th a 8e le c tin g and de s ig n in g o f e x p e rie n c e s anew, th e e v a lu a tio n o f w hat has been d o n e, th e s t a r t i n g o f th e p ro c e ss o v e r a g a in . (2 8 :2 8 1 [19513 The r o l e o f te a c h e r s in c u rric u lu m r e d ir e c tio n was e x p la in e d by C assid y t o mean t h a t " i f program s a r e to change th e n th e p e o p le concerned . • . must change" (9 :3 3 5 [195>*3). She a ls o p o in te d o u t t h a t "c u rric u lu m r e d ir e c t i o n i s a s t a t e o f mind" (9 :3 3 5 [195H]) and " th a t i n th e p ro c e s s o f c u rric u lu m stu d y we s t a r t where we a r e , and • . • we s t a r t w ith th e boys and g i r l s in t h e i r t o t a l le a r n in g s i t u a t i o n " (9 :3 3 5 [195<»3) The m ethodology ad v o cated f o r u se in th e p ro c e ss o f c u rric u lu m developm ent was i d e n t i f i e d by C assidy as group p r o c e s s : T h ere i s o n ly one method o f work t h a t m eets a l l th e re q u ire m e n ts to d a y . C urriculum b u ild in g th ro u g h group p ro c e s s c a l l s f o r th e p a r t i c i p a t i o n and c o n tr ib u tio n o f th e t o t a l s c h o o l group— a d m in is tr a to r s , te a c h e r s , s t u d e n t s , la y le a d e r s . (28:171 [1 9 5 1 ]) A s ta te m e n t o f p r in c ip le s c e n t r a l to th e p ro c e ss o f c o o p e ra tiv e program developm ent was p re se n te d i n th e form o f te n g u id e lin e s ta te m e n ts in C urriculum Development in P h y s ic a l E d u ca tio n in 195>t. The p ro c e ss in v o lv e d : 1 . The commitment o f a group o f in d iv id u a ls t o th e im p o rtan ce o f th e ta s k and o rg a n iz a tio n o f th e group t o work c o o p e ra tiv e ly in th e stu d y and f o r m u la tio n o f program e x p e rie n c e s which in c lu d e b o th m ethods and m a te r ia ls . 2 . F o rm u latio n o f a p h ilo so p h y o f e d u c a tio n and o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n o r a s e t o f g u id in g p r in c ip le s o r b a s ic b e l i e f s w hich w i l l s e rv e to g iv e d i r e c ti o n i n program making and in e v a lu a tio n . 3. Zn o r d e r t o com p lete S te p 2 , th e group m ust s tu d y 16 6 fo u n d a tio n f a c t a co n c ern in g th a naada o f y o u t h - th in in c lu d e s th a demands o f th a c u ltu r e and th a d evelopm ental ta s k s re q u ire d o f youth by th a t c u ltu re * 4. C l a r if i c a ti o n o f th e o b je c tiv e s o f e d u c a tio n and o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n . 5. Study o f o n e 's own s tu d e n ts * th e sch o o l and com m unity f a c i l i t i e s in th e l i g h t o f s ta te d p r i n o i p l ts • 6 . S tatem en t o f o b je c tiv e s b ased on s tu d e n t needs* c o n s is te n t w ith th e b a s ic p o in t o f view o f th e group and th e s i t u a t i o n in w hich th e program must o p e ra te . 7. S e le c tio n o f u n its o f a c t i v i t y o r ex p e rie n c e s t o accom plish th e s e o b je c tiv e s . 8. Development o f th e m a te ria ls o f i n s tr u c tio n — th e re so u rc e and th e te a c h in g u n i t s . 9. Development o f to o ls f o r e v a lu a tin g th e p ro g re ss tow ard th e s t a t e d o b je c tiv e s . 10. P ro v is io n f o r ongoing m achinery to a s s u re th e co n tin u an ce o f such s tu d y . (9 :1 3 -1 4 [1954]) The Y ears 1960-1965 In 1963 C assidy (w ith Brown) i d e n t i f i e d th e v a ry in g r o le s o f in d iv id u a ls in v o lv e d in th e p ro c ess o f c u rric u lu m developm ent: Those who a re to im plem ent th e program sh o u ld p a r t i c i p ate in th e developsm nt o f th e program ; . . . th o se who a re t o im plem ent change sh o u ld p a r ti c ip a te in th e d ecisio n -m ak in g t h a t th e change sh o u ld be made. T h is p r in c ip le does n o t mean t h a t every s te p o f th e c u rric u lu m developm ent p ro c e ss m ust in c lu d e a l l o f th e same p e o p le . A c tu a lly c u rric u lu m w orkers use th e r e s u l t s o f v a rio u s groups who a re b e s t equipped to c o n s id e r a p a r t i c u l a r is s u e . (6:226 [1963]) The p ro c e ss u t i l i z e d in w orking c o o p e ra tiv e ly in c u rric u lu m was d e s c rib e d as fo llo w s: The p ro c e ss o f w orking to g e th e r i s made up o f th e problem s o lv in g p ro c e ss and group dynam ics, each b ein g guided by d e m o cratic v a lu e s . These a re s c i e n t i f i c a l l y and p h ilo s o p h ic a lly based and a re seen as one p ro c e ss . Group dynam ics i s th e term g iv en t o th e in te r a c tio n o f 167 group members• Group dynam ics, guided by d em o cratic v a lu e s , i n id e n tif y in g , p la n n in g and s o lv in g a problem , may be c a lle d th e d em o cratic group process* (6:229 £1963]) U nderstanding o f d em o cratic group p ro c e s s , o r demo c r a t i c p lan n in g p ro c e ss in th e f i e l d o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n , was e x p la in e d by C assidy and Brown in Theory in P h y s ic a l E d u catio n : A Guide t o Program Change t o mean: The d em o cratic p la n n in g p ro c e ss w ith in th e f i e l d o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n i s b e s t done by people who know th e f i e l d o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n . To u n d ersta n d "p ro c e ss" alo n e i s n o t enough. To u n d e rsta n d " p h y s ic a l educa tio n " alo n e is . n o t enough. Both p ro c e ss and c o n te n t must be so r e la te d t h a t p la n n in g can be done i n t e l l i g e n t l y . (6:229 [1 9 6 3 ]) In 1965 R o salin d C assidy in d ic a te d th a t "program s change when b e l i e f s change" (26<t:2 [196 5 ]) and " th e only way t o c o n s tru c tiv e ly change th e c u rric u lu m i s t o change th e people in v o lv e d w ith th e program s concerned" (26*t:2 [1 9 6 5 ]). The re a so n s f o r changes in b e l i e f s w ere c ite d a s : Happenings in th e l o c a l e , s t a t e , n a tio n , w orld— as in tim e o f war o r when r e a c tio n a r y l e g i s l a t io n i s su c c e s s f u lly i n i t i a t e d . The d isc o v e ry o f new f a c t s - - a s in th e f i t n e s s program f o r th e space men. New i n s ig h ts — a s in th e developm ent o f th e new p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n program a t UCLA. (26U:2 [1 9 65]) E ig h t s te p s in th e c o o p e ra tiv e p ro c ess o f c u r r ic u lum change were th e n i d e n t i f i e d as fo llo w s: 1. Commitment and agreem ent on a way o f w orking. 2 . C o lle c tio n o f f a c ts in th e s i t u a t i o n . 3. F orm ulation o f d i r e c ti o n a l p r in c ip le s o r g o als from th e s e f a c t s . 1. S e le c tin g e x p e rie n c e s . 5. D eveloping them in to a program d e sig n . 6. D eveloping th e re so u rc e and te a c h in g u n i t s . 168 7. D eveloping to o ls f o r e v a lu a tin g th e p ro c e s s tow ard s t a t e d o b je c tiv e s . 8 . P ro v id in g a p la n f o r o n -g o in g s tu d y and re e v a lu a t i o n . <26>t:2 [1 9 6 5 ]) Summary C u rricu lu m c o n s tru c tio n based upon in d iv id u a l needs and i n t e r e s t s , i d e n t i f i e d in term s o f program o b je c tiv e s and aim s* and t r a n s l a t e d i n t o p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n a c t i v i t i e s o r e x p e rie n c e s , was a d v o c ated by R o salin d C assid y and Thomas D. Wood in 1927 in th e book. The New P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n . The co n c ep t o f i n s t i n c t s was r e je c t e d as c e n t r a l to c u rric u lu m developm ent, and th e im p o rtan ce o f i n t e r e s t and need s a t i s f a c t i o n as c e n tr a l t o in d iv id u a l problem s o lv in g was u n d e rsc o re d . In th e 1 9 3 0 's R o salin d C assidy e x p la in e d th e p ro c e ss o f c u rric u lu m developm ent as a c o o p e r a tiv e , i n t e r a c t i v e , group en d eav o r d esig n ed to i d e n ti f y a d o le s c e n t needs and i n t e r e s t s in term s o f program o b j e c t i v e s , t r a n s l a t e d i n t o e x p e rie n c e s p ro v id in g f o r need f u l f i l l m e n t in th e p e r s i s t e n t problem s o f l i v in g . The u t i l i z a t i o n o f a l l in d iv id u a ls in th e d em ocrat i c , group p ro c e ss o f c u rric u lu m developm ent and r e v is io n was re -e m p h a siz e d by R o salin d C assidy in th e f o r t i e s . She a g a in s t r e s s e d th e im po rtan ce o f p e rs o n a l in v o lv em en t in d em o cratic c u rric u lu m b u ild in g as th e key t o s u c c e s s f u l 1*9 c u rric u lu m developm ent end Im p lem en tatio n o f an in d iv id u a l iz e d program o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n d e sig n e d t o m eet s t u d e n t s ' n e e d s• W ith th e p u b lic a tio n o f Group P ro cess in P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n i n 1951, and C u rricu lu m Development in P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n in 1 9 5 the co n c ep t o f d e m o c ra tic , group p ro c e ss o f c u rric u lu m developm ent as a d e v e lo p m e n ta l, c o n tin u o u s p ro c e ss o f change was s t r e s s e d . Change was i d e n t i f i e d w ith th e b e l i e f s and a t t i t u d e s o f p eo p le a s s o c ia te d w ith c u r r i c ulum developm ent and im p le m e n ta tio n , and a b ro ad c o n c e p tio n o f th e p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n c u rric u lu m a s an i n t e g r a l component o f e d u c a tio n was ad v o c ated . P r in c ip le s c e n tr a l t o th e p ro c e ss o f c o o p e ra tiv e c u rric u lu m developm ent w ere advanced and th e needs o f in d iv id u a ls co n tin u e d t o be th e fo cu s o f a l l c u rric u lu m d is c u s s io n . In th e 1 9 6 0 's a r e c o g n itio n o f in d iv id u a l r o le s o f com petence i n th e d e m o c ra tic , group p ro c e ss o f c u rric u lu m developm ent was e x p la in e d by C assid y . She r e i t e r a t e d h e r b e l i e f ab o u t c u rric u lu m change o c c u rrin g when in d iv id u a l b e l i e f s ch an g ed , c i t e d re a so n s f o r changes in p e rs o n a l b e l i e f , and c l a r i f i e d th e p ro c e ss o f c o o p e ra tiv e c u rric u lu m change. The co n c ep t o f c u rric u lu m developm ent, r e d i r e c t i o n , and r e v is io n was d e s c rib e d f i r s t by R o salin d C assid y i n th e 1 9 2 0 's a s a p ro c e ss o f te a c h e r - s tu d e n t a p p r a is a l and 170 im p le m e n ta tio n o f s t u d e n t s ' n eed s In program e x p e rie n c e s . T h is was l a t e r e n la r g e d t o mean a c o o p e ra tiv e * d e m o c ra tic , group v e n tu re d e sig n e d t o i d e n t i f y and f u l f i l l s tu d e n t needs th ro u g h program e x p e r ie n c e s . CHAPTER XII PHYSICAL EDUCATION: THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS M ethodology alw ays s u f f e r s from a c u l t u r a l la g . Our problem i s to open o u r v is io n to more o f human e x p e r ie n c e * to d ev elo p and f r e e o u r m eth ods so t h a t th e y w i l l as f a r as p o s s ib le do j u s t i c e t o th e ric h n e s s and b re a d th o f m an's e x p e rie n c e . — R o llo May No id e a i s more c o n s is te n tly em phasized in th e w r itin g s o f R o salin d C assidy th a n h e r c o n c e p tio n o f a demo c r a t i c a l l y o rie n te d * p ro b le m -c e n te re d te a c h in g - le a r n in g m ethodology. From th e 1 9 2 0 's th ro u g h th e 1960' s , id e a s d eveloped by R o salin d C assidy around t h i s t o p i c a r e p re s e n te d in c h ro n o lo g ic a l seq u en ce in t h i s c h a p te r . The Y ears 1920-1929 The im portance o f m ethodology i n a n a t u r a li z e d p ro gram o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n was em phasized i n The New P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n ? A n a tu r a liz e d program* a f t e r i t s t h e o r e t i c a l b a s is and c o n te n t have been made c o n s is te n t w ith and v a l i d a te d by modem e d u c a tio n a l p r in c ip le s * i s co n cern ed w ith method even more th a n w ith s u b je c t m a tte r* b ecau se 171 172 in th e method o f p la n n in g , a d a p tin g , and p re se n tin g th e co n ten t o f t h i s program l i e s i t s g re a te s t s ig n if ic a n c e . (52:208 [1927]) A p p ro p riate methodology to be u t i li z e d by th e te a c h e r in th e n a tu r a l program was ex p lain ed w ith in th e c o n te x t o f guidance and problem s o lv in g : The tr a i n i n g in method of le a d e rsh ip in a n a tu r a l program in v o lv e s te a c h in g th e p r o je c t o r problem ap proach t o a c ti v i t y m a te ria l. The te a c h e r has t o le a rn not to dom inate th e c h ild , but to guide him through h is i n t e r e s t s , to approach h is problems in th i s f i e l d w ith a p ro b lem -so lv in g a t t i t u d e . The day o f democracy in ed u catio n has come, th e te a c h e r must r e a liz e t h a t she cannot t r u l y te a c h th e c h ild by superim posing h e r id e a s upon him. She i s doing r e a l te a c h in g only when she b rin g s out and develops th e c h il d 's power to d isc o v e r and ex p ress r e a l id e a s . (52:298-299 [1927]) The method which a te a c h e r o f t h i s program must le a rn and use i s th a t o f a c tiv ity growing from a f e l t problem o r s i t u a t io n in which she guides th e c h ild to a s a t i s fa c to ry s o lu tio n by l e t t i n g him fin d new f a c ts and m a te r ia ls , o rg an ize them , weigh t h e i r r e la tiv e v a lu e s , and t r y o u t th e f i n a l s o lu tio n s . This c h ild th u s goes t o a h ig h e r plane as a s e lf - d ir e c tin g in d iv id u a l. (52: 299 [1927]) In d iv id u a l achievem ent as a m a n ife sta tio n o f th e e d u c a tiv e p ro cess used in th e n a tu ra liz e d program , was p e rc e iv e d a t t h i s tim e t o mean: I t i s re a so n a b le to expect th a t th e normal c h ild , who has had and is having an adequate and sound edu c a tio n in p h y s ic a l a c t i v i t y , should be in p o sse ssio n o f c e r ta in d e f in ite h a b i ts , a t t i t u d e s , s k i l l s , and knowl edge a t any given p e rio d . (52:153-15H [1927]) th e same g e n e ra l and q u ite d e f in ite s c a le s and t e s t s o f achievem ent and p ro g ress w ith re fe re n c e to reco g n ized s k i l l s , a t t i t u d e s , and id e a s , may and should be a p p lie d from grade to g ra d e , as c h ild re n o f normal developm ent and p ro g re ss sh o u ld be expected t o p re se n t evidence o f sta n d a rd o r s im ila r accom plishm ents, p h y s ic a l, m en tal, 178 s o c i a l , and m o ra l, in s p it e o f v a r ia tio n s in th e sp e c i f i c a c t i v i t i e s w hich th e y have perform ed. (52:233 C1927J) The Y ears 1930-1939 In New D ire c tio n s in P h y s ic a l E d u catio n f o r th e A dolescent G irl i n High School and C o lle g e . R o salin d C assidy in d ic a te d m e th o d o lo g ic al b e l i e f in th e concept o f g u id an ce: The im p lic a tio n s from my own p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n p h ilo s ophy o b v io u sly in d ic a te a method o f guidance in th e p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n program which i s h e re c a lle d S e lf - Survey and S e lf - D ir e c tio n and i s s e t f o r th as an example in m ethod. ( 1 3 : v i i i [19383) I t su g g e sts u nder th e name o f "S e lf-S u rv e y and S e lf-D ir e c tio n " a method whereby s tu d e n ts may be guided t o see t h e i r own n e e d s , s e t g o a ls , make a p la n o f a c tio n , pro ceed tow ard th e s e g o a ls , e v a lu a te p ro g re s s , and p la n f o r f u r t h e r p ro g re s s in th e a re a o f H ealth and P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n . (13:96 [19383) New d ir e c tio n s in guidance te c h n iq u e s m ust be seen and a p p lie d a s p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n te a c h e rs in th e ta s k o f s itu a tio n - d e f in in g a c q u ire s k i l l w ith th e to o ls o f f u id an ce . In c a se work and e d u c a tio n a l guidance th e r e s now new em phasis on s e e in g a s a u n it th e t o t a l p a t te r n o f organism and en v iro n m en t. The em phasis i s away from c h ild o r in d iv id u a l- c e n te r e d u n its tow ard s o c ia l group o r " s o c ie ty - c e n te r e d u n i t s . " (13:119 [19383) At t h i s tim e C assid y u t i l i z e d th e id e a s o f Ruth S tra n g o f Columbia U n iv e rs ity t o i d e n tif y th e two f a c e ts o f g u id an ce , "D iag n o sis o r A p p ra is a l, and A djustm ent" (13:120 [1 9 3 8 3 ), and in d ic a te d t h a t : P h y sic a l e d u c a tio n te a c h e rs m ust use more s k i l l f u l l y th e t o o ls now a v a ila b le f o r in d iv id u a l d ia g n o sis and a d ju stm e n t, and m ust d evelop more adeq u ate o n es. (126: 41 [19383) 17* Ruth S tr a n g 's co n cep t o f g u id an ce was p re s e n te d in th e Volume, New D ire c tio n s in P h y s ic a l E d u catio n f o r th e A d o lesc en t G ir l in High S chool and C o lle g e , in th e form o f a diagram * D iag n o sis was e x p la in e d t o in c lu d e th e u se o f t e s t s , d ia ry r e c o r d s , in te r v ie w s , o b s e r v a tio n , r a t i n g s c a l e s , a u to b io g ra p h y , group d is c u s s io n , and p s y c h ia tr ic c a se s tu d y . A djustm ent was d e p ic te d as changes in th e en vironm ent th ro u g h th e c u rric u lu m and e x tr a c la s s a c t i v i t i e s , a s w e ll a s changes in th e in d iv id u a l th ro u g h in te r v ie w s , l e c t u r e s , and group d is c u s s io n (13:120 [1 9 3 8 ]). R o salin d C assidy in d ic a te d h e r co n cern w ith th e d ia g n o s tic a s p e c t o f guidance by s t i p u l a t i n g t h a t : I t i s a co n tin u o u s p ro c e ss g o in g on th ro u g h te a c h e r and s tu d e n t in s ig h t i n t o n e e d s. I t i s a p ro c e s s w hich in c r e a s in g ly f r e e s th e s tu d e n t f o r s e lf - d ia g n o s is by g iv in g h e r a method o f p ro c ed u re and by d e f in in g s ta n d a rd s f o r th e so u rc e s t o w hich she goes t o se e k e x p e rt and e t h i c a l a id . (1 3 :3 1 [1 9 3 8 ]) Our p h ilo so p h y o f e d u c a tio n and o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n d ete rm in e s how and what we t e s t . I f m aking b ig m uscles i s th e aim o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n , th e n m easurem ent o f t h a t o b je c tiv e i s c o m p a ra tiv e ly s im p le , b u t i f th e h y p o th e s is h e re d ev elo p ed i s c o r r e c t in show ing a c c e p t a b le aims o f e d u c a tio n , we have no t e s t s t h a t m easure th e o r c h e s tr a te d u n ity o f th e i n te g r a t e d fu n c tio n in g S e l f . The tre n d h e re as in a l l e d u c a tio n w i l l be tow ard u sin g many d ia g n o s tic t e s t s r a t h e r th an r e ly in g on any one o r a few as a b a s is f o r in d iv id u a l g u id a n c e . (13:127 [1 9 3 8 ]) The to o l s o f d ia g n o s is and e v a lu a tio n a v a ila b le t o p h y s ic a l e d u c a to rs f o r guidance p u rp o ses w ere i d e n t i f i e d as fo llo w s : The fin d in g s o f th e m ed ical and p h y s ic a l e x a m in atio n s P ic tu re s 175 S k i l l and c a p a c ity t a s t a P a p e r and p e n c il in fo rm a tio n and a t t i t u d e t e s t s The g i r l ' s own w r i t t e n s ta te m e n t o f g o a ls and means o f e v a lu a tin g Tha t e a c h e r 's a n e c d o ta l re c o rd and a p p r a is a l D iary a n a ly s is O b se rv a tio n o f b e h a v io r i n a l l s c h o o l s i t u a t i o n s and r e la t i o n s h i p s (1 3 :1 3 5 [1 9 3 8 ]) The k in d o f c o o p e ra tiv e th in k in g , p la n n in g , and p a r t i c i p a t i o n u t i l i z e d by s t a f f p e rs o n n e l in c u rric u lu m developm ent was re c o g n iz e d by C assid y a s d e s ir a b le m ethod olo g y f o r s tu d e n ts and s t a f f in th e a d ju stm e n t a s p e c t o f th e g u id an ce p ro c e s s : A m ethod n e c e s s a ry f o r th e a d v is e r t o use when sh e co o p e r a te s w ith d e a n , d o c to r , and n u rse in th in k in g and p la n n in g f o r th e i n t e n s i v e o r ie n ta tio n - s u r v e y w ith h e r group o f a d v ise e s* The same m ethod sh o u ld be u sed d u rin g in d iv id u a l c o n fe re n c e s w ith s tu d e n ts * T o g e th e r s tu d e n t and a d v is e r d ev elo p t h e i r p la n s th ro u g h m u tu al p a r tic ip a t io n * The a d v i s e r m ust s e e t h a t a l l r e le v a n t d a ta a r e b ro u g h t i n t o t h i s s itu a tio n - v ie w and m ust h e lp t h e s tu d e n t se e o b je c tiv e ly h e r r e la ti o n s h i p s t o t h i s c l u s t e r o f f a c t o r s . (13:119 [1 9 3 8 ]) The id e a o f e n v iro n m e n ta l e f f e c t as s i g n i f i c a n t in a d ju s tm e n t was a ls o em phasized by C assid y as sh e s t a t e d t h a t " i t may be w ise t o reem p h asize th e im p o rtan ce o f a t t e n t i o n t o a l l e le m e n ts i n th e environm ent o v e r w hich p hys i c a l e d u c a tio n te a c h e r s have c o n tr o l" (13:139 [1 9 3 8 ]) The Y ears 19»*0-19**9 In t h e 19**0'8 an em phasis upon d e m o c ra tic v a lu e s i n m ethodology was c a ll e d f o r and f u r t h e r c l a r i f i c a t i o n and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e m eaning o f g u id an ce was made: W e s h o u ld • • • g a in a new em phasis on d e m o c ra tic p ro c ed u res* T e a c h e rs o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n may w e ll 176 s c r u tin iz e t h s i r methods o f in s tr u c tio n . . . t o see i f th s v alu es o f democracy a re e f f e c tiv e ly dem onstrated in t h e i r own p ro c e d u re s. (124:9 [1940]) W e w i l l n o t have a program in p h y sic a l ed u c atio n based on d em o cratic b e l ie f s u n t i l th e needs o f th e in d iv id u a ls concerned become th e base o f program p la n n in g and th e i n i t i a l o r i e n t a t i o n ( continuous co u n selin g and planning* e v a lu a tio n * and re p la n n in g become th e method o f w orking w ith boys and g i r l s . (122:647 [1948]) When p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n i s in th e guidance program th e method w i l l be th a t o f guidance n o t dom ination. I t w i l l be d ir e c te d tow ard h e lp in g th e c h ild u nderstand h is own needs* h e lp in g th e c h ild to make w ise c h o ic e s. • • • T here w i l l have to be very much more tim e allow ed and s k i l l e d le a d e rs h ip given in th e whole co u n selin g f o r t h i s program . (121:445 [1940]) Guidance i s th o u g h t o f as th a t p ro cess which provides f o r in d iv id u a l needs* develops and deepens i n t e r e s t s , h e lp s form and d ir e c t p u rp o se. I t can no more be d is pensed w ith th a n e d u c a tio n i t s e l f . I t does n o t always ta k e p la c e o v er a desk* through p e n c il and paper re co rd s and t e s t s , th ro u g h in te rv ie w ; i t o p e ra te s in d ir e c tly * in many in s ta n c e s , by example and in fe r e n c e . (18:46 [1940]) I t c o n s is ts o f th e sta te m e n t o f a problem* th e exami n a tio n o f i t t o s e t g o als f o r i t s s o lu tio n , p lanning and th e e x e c u tio n o f th e plan* s to c k -ta k in g to see what th e su c c e ss has been. (30:277 [1947]) The im portance and r e la tio n s h ip o f group work meth odology to p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n was p o in te d out by Cassidy in an a r t i c l e e n t i t l e d "Group Work in P h y sic a l E d u ca tio n ." P h y sic a l e d u c a tio n as a p a r t o f e d u c a tio n today in t h i s co u n try has come t o ac c e p t th e p rin c ip le s and methods o f group work as th e only a c c e p ta b le and e f f e c tiv e way to ed u cate c itiz e n s f o r a dem ocracy. T his accep tan ce has coma from a b e l i e f th a t ed u catio n in and through th e group p ro c e ss i s th e way in d iv id u a ls b e s t become re s p o n s ib le and a b le to u n d ertak e th e management o f t h e i r own p erso n al* s o c ia l and c iv ic a f f a i r s . (119: 26 [1942]) An i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and e x p la n a tio n o f th re e p a tte rn s 177 o f guidance used by te a c h e r s , In d iv id u a l g u id an ce , group g u id an ce, and guidance o f g ro u p , was made in th e volum e, P h v eical F itn e s s f o r G i r l s : The word p a tte r n i s used f o r th e la c k o f a b e t t e r one to in d ic a te th e ways in w hich th e te a c h e r f u l f i l l s h e r fu n c tio n as g u id e. They a r e n o t d i f f e r e n t ty p e s o f guidance f o r th e sane q u a l i t i e s o f inform ed sy m p ath etic d ir e c tio n a re common to them a l l . The th re e prim ary p a tte rn s a re : (1) in d iv id u a l g u id a n c e , (2) group g u id an ce, and (3) guidance o f a group. I t rem ains to be seen th a t th e l a s t two a r e n o t, by any m eans, th e same th in g . (16:79 [19*3]) D if f e r e n tia tio n betw een group guidance and guidance o f a group re v e a le d t h a t "group guidance i s th e e x te n sio n o f in d iv id u a l c o u n se lin g methods to a group o f in d iv id u a ls a t one tim e" (16:79 [1 9 * 3 ]), w h ile guidance o f a group o r "group p ro c ess" m eant: The group p ro c e ss in v o lv e s th e growth and develop ment o f persons n o t s o much in w orking w ith as in w orking to g e th e r w ith o th e r s . I t i s a p ro cess o f r e la tio n s h ip s and i t i s dependent upon th e q u a lity o f th o se r e la tio n s h ip s . The p ro c e ss in v o lv es p e rv a s iv e dynamic fa c to r s in p e rso n a l developm entt i t in v o lv e s persons develo p in g a b i l i t i e s t o l i v e in a d em o cratic s o c ie ty . (16:80 [19*3]) T ools and tec h n iq u e s o f d ia g n o s is and e v a lu a tio n u t i l i z e d f o r guidance o f in d iv id u a ls and groups were i d e n ti f i e d in 19*3 in th e book, P h y sic a l F itn e s s f o r G i r l s . as m edical e x a m in atio n s, p h y s ic a l e x a m in a tio n s, h e ig h t- w eight re c o rd s , p o stu re e x a m in a tio n s, fo o t e x a m in a tio n s, t e s t s f o r p h y s ic a l f i t n e s s , o b s e rv a tio n , cum ulative re c o rd s , t e s t s o f know ledge, u n d e rs ta n d in g s , i n t e r e s t s , and 178 a t t i t u d e , c o n fe re n c e s , s e l f - a p p r a i s a l , and t e s t s o f n o to r a b i l i t y and p h y s ic a l s k i l l s (1 6 :x -x i [1 9 4 3 ]). The im p o rtan ce o f e v a lu a tio n and i t s i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h ip w ith a m sthodology o f guidance was p o in te d o u t in th e volum es P h y s ic a l F itn e s s f o r G irls and Methods in P h y sic a l E d u c a tio n : E v a lu a tio n w hich b eg in s w ith th e d e te rm in in g o f p h y s i c a l s t a t u s and n e v e r ends i s , a lo n g w ith g u id a n c e , a b a s ic te c h n ic o f th e p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n te a c h e r . In f a c t e v a lu a tio n s ta n d s b e fo re guidance d ir e c tin g i t s fu n c tio n in g . <16:45 [1943]) Guidance im p lie s t h i s msthod o f te a c h in g boys and g i r l s whereby th e te a c h e r c o n sid e rs th e le a r n in g p ro c e ss as c e n te re d in th e p u rp o se fu l u n d e rta k in g o f th e boy o r g i r l . E v a lu a tio n may be th o u g h t o f as th e b e g in n in g and en d in g s te p in th e guidance o f p u p ils . F i r s t o f a l l , e v a lu a tio n i s s to c k - ta k in g , e s s e n t i a l b e fo re p la n n in g ta k e s p la c e ; f i n a l l y , i t i s e s tim a tin g p ro g re s s , a f t e r p la n s have been u n d e rta k e n . (30:138 [1 9 4 7 ]) The Y ears 19S0-19S9 D uring th e 1 9 5 0 's R o salin d C assidy i d e n t i f i e d a p p r o p ria te m ethodology in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n w ith a demo c r a t i c em phasis and as a p ro b lem -c en tered p ro c e s s : I t sh o u ld be c l e a r t h a t guidance does n o t c o n s is t o f t e l l i n g in d iv id u a ls and groups w hat t o d o , b u t in h e lp in g them t o d ec id e f o r th em selv es what th e y need t o do. I t i s a problem s o lv in g p ro c ess in which in d iv id u a ls and groups a re encouraged and a id e d t o see k and f in d s o lu tio n s t o t h e i r own problem s. The d ir e c tio n p o in te d o u t by th e te a c h e r as guide le a d s alw ays tow ard g r e a te r r e s p o n s i b i l i ty f o r s e l f and f o r o th e r s . (3 1 : 220 [19S 2]) The te a c h in g - le a r n in g o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n • • • must a s s u re boys and g i r l s th e o p p o rtu n ity t o grow in th e s k i l l s o f d em o cratic a c tio n . T eachers and s tu d e n ts m ust have th e o p p o rtu n ity t o i d e n tif y and fin d n e e d s, p ro b lem s, i n t e r e s t s o f in d iv id u a ls ; th e y must be 1?9 p ro v id e d ways and meane w ith in th e p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n program f o r n e s tin g th e s e n ee d s and f o r s o lv in g ? e r s o n a l and c o a n u n ity p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n p r o b l e n . 51:163 [1 9 5 6 ]) we n u s t in a l l s c h o o l e x p e rie n c e s u se a te a c h in g - le a r n in g m ethod w hich h e lp s in d iv id u a ls le a r n t o make d e c is io n s b a se d on v a lu e s and a p p ly d e m o c ra tic v a lu e s in human r e l a t i o n s h i p s . Boys and g i r l s m ust have e x p e rie n c e s w hich h e lp them t o d ev elo p d em o cratic v a lu e s . They m ust le a r n t o work w ith o th e rs in problem s o lv in g s i t u a t i o n s g u id ed by th e s e v a lu e s , and th u s F row i n th e s k i l l s o f d e m o c ra tic a c tio n . (51:162 19563) When i n s t r u c t i o n . . . i s c e n te re d in g o a ls and prob lems u n d e rsto o d and a c c e p te d by th e p u p ils as t h e i r own g o als and p ro b le m s, th e n b e h a v io r w i l l change and e f f e c t i v e le a r n in g w i l l ta k e p la c e . (8 :2 6 [1 9 5 9 ]) An avenue f o r a tta in m e n t o f c o o p e ra tiv e , r e s p o n s i b le in d iv id u a l a c tio n in a d e m o c ra tic s o c ie ty was in d ic a te d in th e e a r ly f i f t i e s t o r e s id e in th e u se o f group p ro c e s s : To e d u c a te f o r d e m o c ra tic l i v i n g , o u r m ethod o f work must be c o n s is te n t w ith o u r b e l i e f s . The method o f work a d v o c a te d i n t h i s book i s group p ro c e s s . Group p ro c e ss may be d e fin e d as th e way in w hich in d iv id u a ls fu n c tio n i n r e l a t i o n t o one a n o th e r i n wowclng tow arcTa common g o a l, in d e m o c ra tic group p ro c e ss th e r e l a t i o n s h ip s a r e c o o p e ra tiv e and each member i s re s p o n s ib le f o r h im s e lf and o th e rs in a c h ie v in g th e group g o a l. (28 :9 9 [1 9 5 1 ]) T h is M an s t h a t b o th te a c h e r and s tu d e n ts must fu n c tio n to g e th e r in an e x p lo r in g , p la n n in g , w orking g ro u p , le a r n in g th e ways o f d e m o c ra tic human r e la tio n s h ip s as th e y d is c o v e r , a s s i m i l a t e , and u se th e s u b je c t m a tte r m a t e r ia ls . (28:310 [1 9 5 1 J) G uidance t o o ls a v a ila b le t o p h y s ic a l e d u c a to rs f o r u se in th e e d u c a tiv e p ro c e se w ere sum m arized by C assid y in h e r 195*f volum e. C u rricu lu m Development in P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n : T each ers now have a v a ila b le t o them a number o f 160 h e lp f u l end r e a d ily u sa b le to o ls f o r s tu d y in g t h e i r s tu d e n ts both a s in d iv id u a ls and in group r e la tio n s h ip s in o rd e r t o im prove th e q u a lity o f t h e i r e d u c a tio n a l ex p erien ce* Examples o f such t o o l s a r e cu m u lativ e re c o rd s* p r o f i l e and sum m arization o f fin d in g s * h e a lth a p p r a is a ls * h e ig h t-w e ig h t-g ro w th re c o rd s* m otor s k i l l s t e s ts * o b s e rv a tio n o f b eh av io r* in te rv ie w s * form al and in fo rm a l co n feren ces* th e au to b io g rap h y * tim e sch ed u le s* s e lf - s u r v e y and s e l f - a p p r a i s a l s » marks and ra tin g s * t e s t s , q u e s tio n n a ire s * s tu d e n t i n t e r e s t t e s t s * s tu d e n t e x p re ssio n o f needs* s tu d e n t e v a lu a tio n s o f program* c h a rtin g group r e l a t i o n s h i p s , ca se c o n feren c es and th e a id o f e x p e rts * c a se d e s c r ip tio n o r c a se stu d y * a n e c d o ta l re c o rd s* th e fin d in g s from re se a rc h * The t a b le on page 2 62 p ro v id es a more com plete in v e n to ry o f th e s e to o ls u nder th e h ead in g s O rganic Growth and Development* A ttitu d e s and U nderstan d in g s* S k i ll s and A b i l i t i e s . (9:185-186 Cl95«0) Zn m a te ria l p rep ared f o r a c la s s in c o u n se lin g in th e p h y s ic a l ed u c atio n program* R o salin d C a ssid y , in 1950, p re se n te d a l i s t o f te n " p o in ts made in c la s s which m ight c o n s t i t u te an 'o p e r a tin g code' f o r guidance in th e P h y sic a l E d u catio n program " (270 :1 -2 [1 9 5 0 ]): 1* S in ce in d iv id u a ls d i f f e r and s in c e each s i t u a t i o n a l c o n fig u ra tio n i s d i f f e r e n t and i s changing f o r th e in d iv id u a l* th e r e f o r e , th e r e i s no s e t answ er f o r a l l s i t u a t i o n s . T here i s a method o f a tta c k in f a c t- f in d in g * d ia g n o sin g and a d ju s tin g . 2. The s t u d e n t - i n - h i s - s i t u a t i o n i s th e focus o f a t t e n t i o n . Changes e i t h e r in th e in d iv id u a l o r in h is f i e l d o f in te r a c ti o n may be th e d ir e c tio n f o r gu id an ce. 3. The r o le o f th e te a c h e r i s t o h e lp th e s tu d e n t " s e e " , g e t f a c t s , make d e c is io n s * ta k e o v e r h is own s e l f - d i r e c t i o n — (moving tow ard s e l f - r e s p o n s i b i l i t y * s e lf - d ir e c t i o n * c o o p e ra tiv e b e h a v io r, m a tu r ity ) • H. The te a c h e r needs e v e r in c r e a s in g in fo rm a tio n ab o u t th e t o t a l s i t u a t i o n and i t s m eaning t o th e in d iv id u a l in o rd e r t o a c t w ith wisdom—y e t a t any g iv en tis ie he must a c t on b e s t e v id e n c e . The d ir e c tio n b ein g tow ard h e lp in g th e s tu d e n t do r a t h e r th a n doing som ething t o o r f o r him . 5. The s tr u c tu r in g o f e x p e rie n c e s in p h y s ic a l edu c a tio n w i l l be c o n sid e re d v ery im p o rta n t as 181 f a c to r s in le a r n in g and in m en tal h e a l t h . " C li m ate" , v e r b a l and n o n -v e rb a l e x p re s s io n o f te a c h e r a t t i t u d e , re q u ire m e n ts, p a tte r n s o f c o m p e titio n , g ra d in g , e t c . 6 . S e ttin g f l e x i b l e s tr u c tu r e s to m eet s tu d e n t needs and p u rp o s e s , t e s t i n g method and c o n te n t a g a in s t t h e i r c o n tr ib u tio n to th e p erso n s w e ll b e in g , ob s e rv in g p a tte r n s o f b e h a v io r as a means o f d is c o v e r in g needs w i l l be c o n sid e re d im p o rta n t. 7. G iving a t t e n t i o n to a l l e v i a t i n g a n x ie ty and s t r a i n , g iv in g group s i t u a t io n s f o r r e c o g n itio n , p r a i s e , re a ssu ra n c e in f o r t h r i g h t , h o n e s t, o b je c tiv e te a c h e r - s tu d e n t r e la tio n s h i p s i s a means o f g u id a n c e . 8. G uidance s h o u ld perm eate th e whole s c h o o l as a m ethod o f e d u c a tio n —n e v e r as an i s o l a t e d fu n c tio n and h as t o do w ith developm ent o f th e p e rso n and m eetin g h is t o t a l needs—n o t j u s t v o c a tio n a l i n fo rm a tio n o r t e s t i n g o r course p la n n in g . I t i s th e jo b o f ev e ry te a c h e r . C o o rd in a tin g , c o l l e c t in g In fo rm a tio n and in - s e r v ic e t r a i n i n g o f a l l te a c h e r s i s th e jo b o f th e guid an ce s p e c i a l i s t . 9 . A c o o p e ra tiv e group approach t o lo c a ti n g and m eetin g needs i s th e most e f f e c t i v e way t o h e lp s tu d e n ts . The case co n feren ce t o s h a re f in d in g s and make a p la n o f a c tio n i s m ost d e s i r a b le . 10. The p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n a r e a i s a p a r t i c u l a r l y s t r a t e g i c one f o r o b serv in g e x p re s s iv e b e h a v io r and f o r th e d isc o v e ry o f n ee d s. I t h a s w ith in i t p a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l s i t u a t io n s f o r p e rs o n a l and s o c i a l a d ju s tm e n t. The P h y sic a l E d u ca tio n S t a f f sh o u ld be c lo s e ly r e la te d to th e t o t a l g u id an ce program o f th e sch o o l and h e ld r e s p o n s ib le f o r r e p o r tin g t o th e a p p ro p ria te s p e c i a l i s t b e h a v io r show ing s tu d e n t need. (270:1-2 £1950]) The Years 1960-196 5 W ritin g i n th e forew ard o f th e book The E v a lu a tio n P ro c e ss in H e a lth E d u c a tio n . P h y sic a l E d u catio n and R e c r e a tio n , a u th o re d by M arjo rie Latchaw and C a m ille Brown in 1962, R o sa lin d C assidy commented t h a t " t h i s book makes c l e a r t h e n eed f o r a c r e a t i v e , in d iv id u a liz e d te a c h in g - le a r n in g p ro c e s s " (11:V [1962]) In a s i m il a r v e in , C assidy p o in te d out in h e r 183 r e tir e m e n t ip M e h o f 1962 a t th e U n iv e r s ity o f C a lif o r n ia a t Los A n g e le s: W e m ust u s e a more i n d iv id u a li z e d method o f te a c h in g . W e m ust f r e e t h e s tu d e n t i n th e u se o f h i s own d i s c i p l i n e d in s tru m e n t f o r e x p e rie n c in g and e x p r e s s in g , f o r c r e a t i v i t y and f o r i n d i v i d u a l i t y . (2 8 0 :7 [1 9 62]) The n e e d f o r r e s p o n s i b l e , m atu re a c tio n o f le a r n e r s based upon e x a m in a tio n o f f a c t was a l s o s t r e s s e d by Rosa lin d C a s s id y i n 1962: The s t u d e n t s h o u ld be f r e e d f o r r e s p o n s ib le a c tio n a n d s e l f - d i r e c t i o n . In an age o f propaganda and mass p e r s u a s io n * p a r t i c u l a r l y i n th e a r e a s o f h e a lth * b e a u ty , an d re d u c in g a i d s , d i e t s and th e l i k e , we s h o u ld te a c h s tu d e n ts t o s o lv e problem s th ro u g h f a c t f in d i n g a n d t o a c t upon f a c t r a t h e r th a n upon a d v e r t i s i n g c la im s and h a l f - f a c t . (2 8 0 :7 [1 9 6 2 J) The im p o rta n c e o f g u id e d , d e m o c ra tic , problem s o lv in g m ethodology i n th e n a t u r a l program was s t r e s s e d by R o s a lin d C a ssid y and Thomas D. Wood i n th e b o o k , The New P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n , as t h i s c o n c e p tio n o f m ethodology was em p h asized a s e s s e n t i a l t o in d iv id u a l developm ent and s e l f - d i r e c t i o n . R e a liz a tio n o f in d iv id u a l d ev elo p m en t, how ever, was p e r c e iv e d w ith in th e fram ew ork o f n o rm a tiv e p ro g re s s and a c c o m p lish m e n t. I n t h e 1 9 3 0 's , R o sa lin d C assid y d e s c rib e d th e t e a c h in g - le a r n in g p ro c e s s i n term s o f te a c h e r guidance f o r s tu d e n t s e l f - r e a l i z a t i o n and s e l f - d i r e c t i o n in o rd e r t o cope w it h and s o lv e l i f e ' s p ro b le m s. Through c o o p e r a tiv e , t e a c h e r - s t u d e n t i n t e r a c t i o n , group and in d iv id u a liz e d 189 d ia g n o s is , p la n n in g , e v a lu a tio n , a d ju stm e n t, and re p la n n in g o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n program s, a dem o cratic co n cep tio n o f m ethodology was in evidence*. The co n cep tio n o f m ethodology as dem o cratic guid ance in th e p ro b lem -so lv in g p ro c ess was f u r th e r developed by R o salin d C assidy in th e f o r tie s * She s tr e s s e d th e id e a o f in d iv id u a l e d u c a tio n th ro u g h group p ro c ess and in d ic a te d t h a t guidance could be i d e n t i f i e d as in d iv id u a liz e d guid a n c e , group g u id an ce, and guidance o f a group o r "group p ro c e s s ." R o salin d C assidy in te g r a te d th e id e a o f e v a lu a tio n w ith in th e guidance concept and f u r th e r de s c rib e d to o ls and te c h n iq u e s u t i l i z e d in th e guidance o f in d iv id u a ls and groups in th e p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n s e t t i n g . At m id -cen tu ry R o salin d C assidy p o in te d out th e v alu e o f group p ro cess in th e a tta in m e n t o f r e s p o n s ib le , c o o p e ra tiv e , in d iv id u a l b e h a v io r in a d em o cratic s o c ie ty . In t h i s p e rio d an " o p e ra tin g code" f o r guidance in p h y sic a l e d u c a tio n was fo rm u la te d , and C assidy s tr e s s e d th e coopera t i v e , i n t e r a c tiv e n a tu re o f th e te a c h in g - le a rn in g p rocess as d em o cratic problem s o lv in g e s s e n t ia l to th e p re p a ra tio n of in d iv id u a ls s k i l l e d in u n d e rsta n d in g and ap p ly in g demo c r a t i c p r in c ip le s in human r e la tio n s h ip s . In th e 1960's R o salin d C assidy c a lle d out f o r more c r e a tiv e , in d iv id u a liz e d te a c h in g - le a r n in g m ethodology th ro u g h p ro b lem -so lv in g in o rd e r to f r e e in d iv id u a ls f o r 18* re s p o n s ib le , inform ed, m ature, s e l f - d i r e c t i n g a c tio n in an age o f a n x ie ty and in d o c trin a tio n . From th e i n i t i a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f dem ocratic methodology in th e volume, The New P h y sic a l E d u ca tio n . R osalind C assidy continued to p e rc e iv e th e te a c h in g -le a rn in g phenomenon as a c o o p e ra tiv e , in te r a c tiv e u n d erta k in g o f dem ocratic guidance in th e p ro b lem -so lv in g p ro cess between te a c h e rs and p u p ils . CHAPTER X III PHYSICAL EDUCATION: THE TEACHER I am not a te a c h e r , but an awakener. •-R o b e rt F ro st W ithin a p h ilo so p h y o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n t h a t focused upon in d iv id u a l developm ent in a ch an g in g , demo c r a t i c s o c i e t y , th e id e a o f th e te a c h e r as a d em o cratic guide in th e p ro b lem -so lv in g p ro cess was r e f le c te d th ro u g h out th e w ritin g s o f R osalind C assidy. T his theme i s developed w ith in t h i s c h a p te r. The Y ears 1920-1929 In 1927 R osalind C assidy and Thomas D. Wood c a lle d f o r a new k ind o f te a c h e r in p h y sic a l ed u c a tio n in t h e i r volum e. The New P h y sic a l E d u catio n : The fu tu re must provide a new ty p e o f te a c h e r in th e f i e l d o f p h y s ic a l ed u c a tio n . She must be n o t m erely m otor minded b u t i n t e l le c t u a l l y e q u a l to te a c h e rs in o th e r s u b je c ts . She must have more edu c a tio n a l background and be a th in k in g in d iv id u a l, one who can an aly ze s itu a tio n s and see s o lu tio n s and means o f a d a p ta tio n . (52:22 [1927]) The person who te a c h e s th e n a tu r a l program o f phys i c a l e d u c a tio n s u c c e s s fu lly must h av e , in g e n e ra l, th e same p e rso n a l q u a l i t i e s th a t make an e x c e lle n t te a c h e r in any f i e l d ; th e s p e c ia l demand o f t h i s program i s f o r 185 186 t r a i n i n g and a b i l i t y to apply sound e d u c a tio n a l p rin c ip le s i n ta n a s o f p h y s ic a l ed u catio n te a c h in g proced u re . (52:278 [1927]) The im portance o f th e t e a c h e r 's ro le as a guide in th e e d u c a tiv e p ro cess was s tr e s s e d a t th is tim e: The f i n e s t te a c h e r o f p h y s ic a l ed u c atio n o r any o th e r s u b je c t i s th e one who g u id es and in s p ir e s stu d e n ts y th ro u g h th e d isc o v e ry and developm ent o f t h e i r b e st p e r s o n a l i t i e s , tow ard th e h ig h e s t s e rv ic e and accom panying s a t i s f a c t i o n . (52:365 C192 7]) The guidance r o le o f th e p h y sic a l ed u catio n te a c h e r was c l a r i f i e d t o mean t h a t "she [th e te a c h e r] w i l l have to guide th e c h i l d 's i n t e r e s t i n th e s e le c tio n o f problems and s itu a tio n s " (52:280 [1 9 2 7 ]), as w e ll as "h elp th e c h ild so lv e h is problem s" (52:280 [1 9 2 7 ]). The s p e c ia l r o le o f th e p h y s ic a l ed u catio n te a c h e r in th e n a tu r a liz e d program was d e s c rib e d to be: The s p e c ia l fu n c tio n o f th e p h y s ic a l ed u catio n te a c h e r i s to h e lp p u p ils le a r n d e s ir a b le responses which are i n v a ry in g degrees m e n ta l, s o c i a l , m o ral, and p h y s ic a l, th ro u g h b ig b ra in -m u sc le a c t i v i t i e s . I f th i s te a c h e r i s p re s e n tin g a n a tu r a liz e d program , she te a c h e s b ig b ra in -m u sc le a c t i v i t i e s w ith c e r ta in g en e ral aims and s p e c if i c o b je c tiv e s alw ays in view . She i s ed u catin g f o r w orthy c itiz e n s h ip . (52:289 [1927]) The Y ears 1930-1939 R e je c tio n o f th e id e a o f te a c h e rs o f s u b je c t m a tte r was made by R o salin d C assidy in th e volum e. Hew D ire c tio n s in P h y sic a l E ducation f o r A d o lescen t G irls in High School and C o lle g e : th e r e a r e no p h y s ic a l e d u c a to rs , o r sc ie n c e te a c h e rs , o r any o th e r s u b je c t te a c h e rs . A ll te a c h e rs a re 18? e d u c a to rs o f c h i l d r e n * u s in g th e p a t t e r n s i n w hich th ey have s k i l l s * as to o ls t o a id i n o r ie n tin g th e c h ild in h is problem s o f l i v in g . (1 3 :1 4 5 [1 9 3 8 ]) A d e s c r ip tio n o f t h e te a c h e r m oving to w ard new d ir e c tio n s in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n in d ic a te d t h a t : The te a c h e r u s in g p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n e x p e rie n c e s as h is means o f e d u c a tio n i s an a r t i s t and a s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t . T h erefo re * th e fo cu s o f h i s a t t e n t i o n i s th e in d iv id u a l w ith in h is group and s o c i a l s e t t i n g r a t h e r th a n th e F e r f e c ti n g o f h ig h ly com plex m otor s k i l l s . (194:13 1938]) I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e q u a l i t i e s * e x p e rie n c e s* and com petencies needed by new te a c h e r s in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n was p o in te d o u t by C assidy t o mean t h a t t h i s s h o u ld be an i n d i v id u a l: who has h e r s e l f a c c e p te d h e r fe m in in e r o l e , who has been guided m h e r p r o f e s s io n a l e d u c a tio n a c c o rd in g t o h e r u n iq u e n e e d s, who has had wide and deep e d u c a tio n a l o p p o r tu n itie s • who s e e s c h ild developm ent as an a r e a f o r c o n tin u a l s tu d y . who g a in s i n s i g h t i n t o h e r g u id an ce o f g i r l s by becoming more s k i l l f u l In o b s e rv in g and i n t e r p r e t in g sym ptom atic b e h a v io r, who se e s h e r a r e a o f e d u c a tio n as th e a r t o f b u ild in g fu n c tio n in g human b e in g s* t r u e t o t h e i r own r o le in th e s o c ie ty in w hich th e y l i v e , who se e s h e r s e l f as th e a r c h i t e c t w orking c r e a ti v e ly w ith a more tr u e and b e a u t i f u l d e s ig n f o r l i v in g . (13:144 [1 9 3 8 ]) The Y ears 1940-1949 A broad* d e m o c ra tic c o n c e p tio n o f th e te a c h e r and h is r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n was p re s e n te d in th e book Methods i n P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n . I t was s t a t e d t h a t "we have s tr e s s e d th e co n c e p t o f th e t e a c h e r as a community member and s o c ia l w orker" ( 3 0 :v i [1 9 4 7 ] ) , and " th e te a c h e r 189 f u n c tio n s n o t o n ly t o h e lp e a c h p u p il t o know w here he i s and w here he i s going in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n , b u t a l s o t o make o f h i s jo u rn e y an e x p e rie n c e in d e m o c ra tic l i v in g " (3 0 :2 7 8 [19*17])• The p o in t was a l s o made t h a t : The g u id a n c e , c h a r a c te r b u ild in g and s o c i a l i z i n g r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f th e p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n te a c h e r a re and m ust be c a r r i e d o u t i n th e p ro c e s s o f i n s t r u c t i n g boys and g i r l s in b ig -m u sc le a c t i v i t i e s . (3 0 :1 5 0 [19*17]) I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f th e fu n c tio n o f th e te a c h e r in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n as a g u id e in th e te a c h in g - le a r n in g p ro c e s s was em phasized by R o sa lin d C a ssid y (an d o th e r s ) in t h e book P h y s ic a l E d u ca tio n in th e S eco n d ary S c h o o l, and by C a ssid y and H ild a C. Kozman in t h e i r volum e, P h y s ic a l F itn e s s f o r G i r l s : I f e v e ry in d iv id u a l d i f f e r s from e v e ry o t h e r i n d iv id u a l and i f th e p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n program i s p la n n e d t o m eet in d iv id u a l d i f f e r e n c e s , th e t e a c h e r m ust make use o f th e b e s t g u id an ce te c h n iq u e s in h e lp in g th e c h il d to s e l e c t e x p e rie n c e s th ro u g h w hich he may a c h ie v e h is p u rp o s e s . The te a c h e r m ust f u n c tio n i n r e l a t i o n t o and in c o o p e ra tio n w ith th e g u id an ce program o f th e w hole s c h o o l. (1 8 :5 9 [19U 0]) I f th e te a c h e r i s a g u id e i n th e e d u c a tio n a l p ro c e s s , and a ls o a p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n t e a c h e r , sh e must p la n s p o r ts and dance a c t i v i t i e s ; c lu b an d r e c r e a t i o n a l e v e n ts ; m o d ifie d , o r i e n t a t i o n ; r e s t and h e a l t h p ro g ram s, a p p ly in g th e p r i n c i p le s and te c h n ic s o f g u id a n c e . (16:76 [19U 3]) R e fle c tin g back upon id e a s o r i g i n a l l y d e v e lo p e d i n th e volume New D ire c tio n s i n P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n f o r th e A d o le sc e n t G ir l in High S chool and C o lle g e . C a s s id y , i n th e l a t e 19*»0's, p o in te d o u t th e s i n g u l a r t a s k o f th e t e a c h e r o f contem porary A m erican p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n : 189 Zt h as long seemed to th a w r ite r th a t th a p rim ary jo b o f th a p h y s ic a l ad u c atio n te a c h e r as d i f f e r e n t i a t e d from o th e r te a c h e rs in th a sch o o l i s t o ed u cate f o r an u n d e rsta n d in g and accep tan ce o f th e body as a sym bol o f th e s e lf * f o r an u n d e rsta n d in g o f th e laws o f i t s ex p re s s io n and u s e , and f o r th e v alu e o f a re s p o n s iv e , w e ll d i r e c te d , m a tu re , re s p o n s ib le in stru m e n t f o r liv in g b o th w ith o n e s e lf and w ith o th e r s . (122:695 [19*t8 J) The Years 1950-1959 The need f o r dem o cratic le a d e rs h ip in th e f i e l d o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n was s tr e s s e d by R osalind C assidy in th e f i r s t yearbook o f th e American A sso c ia tio n f o r H e a lth , P h y sic a l E d u c a tio n , and R e c reatio n in 1951. In C h ap ter fo u r o f D eveloping D em ocratic Human R e la tio n s Through H e a lth . P h y sic a l E d u c a tio n , and R ecreatio n she s ta t e d : I t i s now c l e a r , as we review o u r fo u n d atio n sta te m e n ts co n cern in g f a c ts about people in o u r p re s e n t day U nited S ta te s o f America w ith in i t s c lo s e and th re a te n in g w orld r e la tio n s h ip s , t h a t le a d e rs must be w e ll- a d ju s t e d , se c u re p e r s o n a litie s w ith a p o sse ssiv e b e l i e f in d em o cratic p r in c ip le s evidenced in b eh av io r w ith o th e r p e o p le . The le a d e r m ust be a person who see s h im s e lf a s a d v is o r and guide in a p ro cess o f group a c tio n d ir e c te d tow ard b e s t developm ent o f th e in d iv id u a ls concern ed . The d ir e c tio n i s tow ard re sp o n s ib le s e l f - ~ d ir e c tio n o f th e le a r n e r w hether i t i s in a h e a lth edu c a tio n c l a s s , on th e te n n is c o u rt o r around th e ca m p fire. (10:106 [1951]) A fo rm u la tio n o f seven b a s ic p rin c ip le s o f demo c r a t i c group le a d e r s h ip , extended in to sta te m e n ts o f a c tio n f o r " le a d e rs and te a c h e rs in th e a re a s o f h e a lth e d u c a tio n , p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n and r e c re a tio n " (10:112 [1 9 5 1 ]), was made in D eveloping D em ocratic Human R e la tio n s Through H e a lth E d u c a tio n » P h y sic a l E d u catio n , and R e c re a tio n . 190 These pronouncem ents in c lu d e d th e p r in c ip le o f p e rs o n a l in v o lv em en t, th e p r in c ip le o f in d iv id u a l w o rth , th e p r i n c i p le o f f i e l d r e l a t i o n s o f " c lim a te ," th e p r in c ip le o f guided group i n t e r a c t i o n , th e p r in c ip le o f g o a l-c e n te re d a c t i v i t y , th e p r in c ip le o f sh a re d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , and th e p r in c ip le o f co n tin u o u s e v a lu a tio n (10:112-113 [1 9 5 1 ]). The im p o rta n t r e la tio n s h ip o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n te a c h e rs t o th e p e rs o n a l developm ent o f boys and g i r l s was p o in te d o u t in th e volum es, Methods i n P h y sic a l E d u c a tio n , and C o u n selin g in P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n : p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n t e a c h e r s , more th a n any o th e r te a c h e r s , a re re s p o n s ib le f o r a id in g boys and g i r l s to ac h ie v e s e lf - h o o d by a c c e p tin g and s k i l l f u l l y u sin g t h e i r b o d ie s a s th e symbol o f th e s e l f . (32:221 [1958]) The v a lu e s t h a t te a c h e rs and le a d e rs h old co n c ern in g a p p r o p ria te se x r o l e , u n d e rsta n d in g s about body d e v e l opment and d if f e r e n c e s in p h y siq u e , tem po, m otor s k i l l s , rhythm and th e lik e a re im p o rta n t a s p e c ts e s s e n t i a l t o th e i n t e r p r e t a ti o n and guidance given c h ild re n and y o u th th ro u g h movement e x p e rie n c e s . (8:19 [1959]) W ithin th e seco n d ary sc h o o l s e t t i n g , th e guidance r o le o f th e p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n te a c h e r in th e o v e r a ll sc h o o l c o u n se lin g program was i d e n t i f i e d and d e ta ile d in t o p i c a l form as C assidy in d ic a te d th e te a c h e r co u ld : 1 . S e t " c lim a te " 2. L ocate n ee d s— a p p r a is a l (p h y s ic a l and h e a lth exam i n a t io n s ) — re c o rd s — o b s e rv a tio n —stu d y o f r e l a ti o n s h ip s — s tu d e n t o f s t u d e n t 's i n t e r e s t s 3. P ro v id e g o a l-c e n te re d i n s tr u c t io n O r ie n ta tio n c o u rse s S e lf-s u rv e y and Ooal s e t t i n g — s e a rc h t o i d e n tif y and s t a t e problem c e n te r s f o r s e l f and f o r group 191 Problem so lv in g E v a lu a tin g >t. Change th e a t i u a t i o n [ s i c ]--(c h a n g e r e la tio n s h ip s ) G iv e s ta tu s and r e c o g n itio n A dvise w ith s tu d e n ts t o h e lp them c l a r i f y problem s and paths t o s o lu tio n s Give su p p o rt and encouragem ent C onfer w ith and a d v is e p a r e n ts Give r e s p o n s ib ility and th e t r u s t o f an a d u lt Give them frie n d s h ip and u n d e rsta n d in g a f f e c t io n Be longingnes s - - f rie n d s 5, Make r e f e r r a l t o o th e r s c h o o l p e rs o n n e l-- f o r e x p e rt c o u n se lin g and a id when o b s e rv a tio n and co n feren ce show such need 6. Keep re c o rd s— t o im prove o n e 's own in s ig h t con c e rn in g s tu d e n t's needs t o sh are w ith o th e r s t a f f t o sh a re w ith s tu d e n ts in e v a lu a tio n and p lan n in g (26 9 :1 [1954]) The r e a l s o lu tio n to p h y s ic a l ed u catio n program improvement in th e sp ace age was r e l a t e d by R osalind C assidy t o self-im p ro v em en t by p h y s ic a l e d u c a to rs . She s ta te d t h a t i t i s n e c e ssa ry " t o a id th e in d iv id u a ls resp o n s ib l e f o r th e program t o im prove th em selv es by g a in in g more i n s i g h t, d eep er know ledge, and aw aren ess" (8 :8 [ 1 9 5 9 ] ) , and h e lp each te a c h e r to : l i f t h is s i g h t s , sh arp en h i s u n d e rs ta n d in g s , r e a ffirm h is b e l i e f in th e v a lu e s o f h is program , r e d e d ic a te h im se lf w ith more c o u ra g e , com posure, and t h e power to th e ta s k o f p ro v id in g sound e d u c a tio n a l e x p e rie n c e s f o r our c h ild re n and y o u th . (8 :8 [1 9 5 9 ]) The Y ears 1960-1965 P ro je c tin g h e r th in k in g ahead to th e f i e l d o f p h y sic a l ed u c a tio n in 1975, R o sa lin d C a ssid y , in th e 1962 Yearbook o f th e American A s s o c ia tio n f o r H e a lth , P h y sic a l E d u c a tio n , and R e c re a tio n , s t a t e d t h a t "youth sh o u ld be fre e d f o r re sp o n s ib le a c tio n an d s e l f - d i r e c t i o n " (12:313 192 ,[1 9 6 2 ]) . In o rd e r t o move in t h i s d ir e c tio n s h e a s s e r te d t h a t "we as te a c h e rs must se a rc h f o r a deep er p e r s p e c tiv e and new u n d ersta n d in g s o f th e m eaning o f movement t o th e in d iv id u a l" (12:313 [1962]>. Summary In 1927 R o salin d C assidy c a lle d f o r i n t e l l i g e n c e , e x te n s iv e e d u c a tio n a l p r e p a r a tio n , and e x c e lle n c e in te a c h e r s o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n . She d e p ic te d th e te a c h e r o f th e new p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n as a g u id e in th e p ro c e ss o f problem s o lv in g , d ev elo p in g in d iv id u a l p e r s o n a lity th ro u g h m otor a c t i v i t i e s f o r c itiz e n s h ip e d u c a tio n . An i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f te a c h e rs as e d u c a to rs o f c h ild r e n , g u id e s , a r t i s t s in human r e la t i o n s h i p s , and s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s , was made in th e t h i r t i e s as C assidy r e je c te d th e concept o f s u b je c t- m a tte r te a c h e rs and c a lle d f o r te a c h e rs o f in d iv id u a ls w ith in th e group in th e s o c i a l s e t t i n g . In th e 19*»0's R o salin d C assidy ag ain p o in te d o u t th e r o le o f th e p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n te a c h e r to b e a g u id e in th e e d u c a tio n a l p ro c e s s , fu n c tio n in g in harmony w ith , and a s an i n t e g r a l p a rt o f , th e t o t a l sc h o o l guidance program . She f u r t h e r i d e n t i f i e d th e te a c h e r 's fu n c tio n t o be g u id e on th e jo u rn ey o f d em o cratic l i v i n g , a member o f th e coaununity, and a s o c i a l w orker. The unique ta s k o f th e p h y s ic a l e d u c a to r was i d e n t i f i e d t o be e d u c a tio n a l 190 r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r an u n d e rsta n d in g and accep tan ce o f th e meaning* valu e* and use o f th e body in stru m e n t as an o u t w ard m a n ife s ta tio n o r sym bol o f th e t o t a l p e rso n a lity * o r s e l f . D uring th e 1950's* th e im portance o f a dem ocratic* sec u re* m ature* a d ju s te d te a c h in g p e r s o n a lity , a b le t o e f f e c t i v e l y fu n c tio n as a co u n selo r* guide* o r a d v is o r in th e e d u c a tio n a l q u e s t f o r in d iv id u a l developm ent* was s t r e s s e d . A tte n tio n t o d em o cratic group le a d e rsh ip * th e r o le o f th e p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n te a c h e r in th e t o t a l sch o o l c o u n s e lin g program* th e v a lu e s h e ld by te a c h e rs and t h e i r r e la ti o n s h i p t o le a rn in g * and th e r e s p o n s ib ility to p h y si c a l e d u c a to rs f o r se lf-im p ro v e m e n t were em phasized. R o salin d C assid y re c o g n iz e d th e r e s p o n s ib ility o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n te a c h e rs to in d iv id u a l developm ent in th e s i x t i e s a s she p o in te d o u t t h a t p h y s ic a l ed u c ato rs sh o u ld i n t e n s i v e l y exam ine th e d ee p er meanings o f human movement in o rd e r t o f a c i l i t a t e s tu d e n t growth in s e l f - d i r e c ti o n and s e l f - a c t u a l i z a t i o n . U ndem ocratic a u th o r ita r ia n is m was r e je c te d in th e volume* The New P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n . At t h i s tim e R o salin d C assidy and Thomas D. Wood c a lle d f o r te a c h e rs a b le to a id in th e developm ent o f human p o t e n t i a l i t i e s in a dem ocratic s o c ie t y . The co n cep t o f th e te a c h e r as a dem ocratic guide* u s in g th s p ro b le m -so lv in g p ro c e ss t o f a c i l i t a t e human developm ent in th e c u l t u r a l s e t t i n g t to o k on b ro a d e r and d e e p e r m eaning o v e r th e y e a r s . CHAPTER XIV PHYSICAL EDUCATION: TEACHER PREPARATION A sound program o f ta a c h e r e d u c a tio n must p re p a ra te a c h e rs f o r th e sch o o ls o f th e probable fu tu re r a th e r th an th o se o f th e c e r ta in p a s t. — P aul Woodring Throughout h e r p ro fe s s io n a l w ritin g s * R osalind C assidy was concerned about th e k in d o f in d iv id u a l who e n te re d th e p h y sic a l ed u catio n p ro fe s s io n and th e ty p e of p re p a ra tio n which was n ec essary to eq u ip in d iv id u a ls fo r p o s itio n s o f e d u c a tio n a l r e s p o n s ib ility and le a d e rs h ip in a dem ocratic s o c ie ty . The id e a s o f R osalind C assidy c e n tr a l t o th e theme of te a c h e r p re p a ra tio n a re p re se n te d in th i s C hapter. The Years 1920-1929 In 1927 R osalind C assidy (w ith Thomas D. Wood) # in d ic a te d th e n e c e s s ity fo r e d u c a tio n a l p re p a ra tio n o f a p ro fe s s io n a l and academic n a tu re f o r te a c h e rs o f p h y sic a l ed u c atio n in th e volume. The New P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n : I t i s e s s e n tia l not only th a t th e te a c h e r in p h y si c a l ed u catio n be as w e ll tr a in e d a s p o ssib le in th e 195 196 th e o ry and s k i l l s o f h s r own a p o d a l f i e l d b u t t h a t she have a b ro ad academ ic and c u ltu r a l background as w e ll. (52:282 [1927]) The d e s i r a b il i t y of p ro c u rin g an academ ic degree p r io r t o p ro fe s s io n a l t r a i n i n g , and an advanced degree l a t e r , was recommended a t t h i s tim e: I d e a l ly , the te a d h e r sh o u ld , b e fo re s p e c ia liz in g in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n , ta k e a b a c h e lo r's d eg ree in a c o l le g e o r u n iv e rs ity where o n e's view p o in t may be broadened in a l l f i e l d s o f le a rn in g , w here c o n ta c ts w ith p e rso n s o f th e same age may give v a lu a b le s o c i a l e x p e rie n c e , and where c o n ta c t w ith th e f a c u lty and c o l le g e community may e n ric h m ental i n t e r e s t s . (52:282 [1 9 2 7 ]) Many c i t y sch o o l system s w ill n o t ap p o in t te a c h e rs who have n o t re c e iv e d a t l e a s t the f i r s t c o lle g e d e g re e ; in c r e a s in g ly a m a s te r's degree i s b ein g re c o g n iz e d as d e s ir a b le o r n ecessary f o r th e b e s t p o s itio n s in a l l s u b je c ts o f in s tr u c tio n in high s c h o o ls , c o lle g e s , and te a c h e r^ -tra in in g i n s t i t u t i o n s . (52:282-283 [1 9 2 7 ]) P ro fe s s io n a l com petence re q u ire d o f a te a c h e r o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n in a n a tu ra liz e d program was c l a r i f i e d t o mean: A fte r h e r fo u r-y e a r c o lle g e c o u rse , th e te a c h e r is ready t o b eg in h er in te n s iv e p r o f e s s io n a l t r a i n i n g , w hich i s of a s p e c ia liz e d n a tu re . The te a c h e r o f a n a tu r a liz e d program in p h y sic a l e d u c a tio n sh o u ld be th o ro u g h ly inform ed re g ard in g th e aims and o b je c tiv e s in h e r own f i e l d ; sh e should know th e c o n te n t o f th e program which she i s about to te a c h ; and she sh o u ld w ith o u t f a i l have m astered the broad and s u b tle te c h n iq u e o f th e n a tu r a l program. (S2:28U [1 9 2 7 ]) Changes i n te a c h e r tr a in in g in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n betw een 19IS and 1928 w ere p a r tic u la r iz e d by R o salin d C assidy in a speech d e liv e re d a t M ills C o lleg e i n February o f 1928: The w ould-be te a c h e r o f f i f t e e n y ears ago in p h y s ic a l 197 e d u c a tio n had t r a i n i n g in th e s c ie n c e s , anatom y, p h y si o lo g y , th e r a p e u tic e x e r c is e s , and Swedish g y m n astics. Now sh e has a b ro ad b a s is o f th e s c ie n c e s , she m ust be s k i l l e d in making in d iv id u a l program s f o r th e c o r r e c tio n o f rem ed iab le p h y s ic a l d e f e c ts o f p o s tu re and f e e t , b u t f u r t h e r she must have s k i l l in and be a b le t o te a c h swimming, h o ck ey , s o c c e r, b a s k e tb a ll , b a s e b a ll, t e n n i s , games o f th e elem en tary s c h o o l, f o lk d a n c in g , n a tu r a l d a n c in g , pag ean t m aking, m u sic, a r t , n u t r i t i o n , h y g ie n e , camp c r a f t , clu b o r g a n iz a tio n , and she must have a g e n e ra l c u l t u r a l background in th e academ ic sub j e c t s a s w e ll. P h y sic a l e d u c a tio n i s no lo n g e r a f i e l d f o r heavy m uscled, d u ll minded p e rso n s. (211:5 [1 9 2 8 ]) The Y ears 1930-1939 In th e 1 9 3 0 's R o salin d C assidy s t a t e d th a t " th e w hole p ro c e ss o f te a c h e r e d u c a tio n sh o u ld be t h a t o f c o n tin u a l guidance . . . (13:118 [1 9 3 8 ]). She in d ic a te d t h a t te a c h e rs "m ust be given a much more m eaningful m ajor c o u rse • • • , must know more about c h ild re n " (126:12 [1 9 3 8 ]), and "b ro a d e r p re p a ra tio n o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n te a c h e rs i s e s s e n t i a l . . . " (126:92 [1 9 3 8 ]). She c a lle d f o r th e developm ent o f th e a r t i s t - t e a c h e r and c l a r i f i e d th e m eaning o f b re a d th o f p r o f e s s io n a l e x p e rie n c e s in New D ire c tio n s in P h y s ic a l E d u catio n fo r th e A d o lescen t G ir l in High S chool and C o lle g e : Study sh o u ld be made o f th e c u l t u r a l , e d u c a tio n a l, s o c i a l , and economic tre n d s in America t o fin d o u t how we may im prove th e s o c i a l t r a in in g o f te a c h e rs o f phys i c a l e d u c a tio n . W e sh o u ld be ready t o develop th e a r t i s t - t e a c h e r . (191:21-25 [1931]) Teachers m ust themselves have skill in orienting themselves in the persistent problems of living. T hey must have greater opportunities during the period of their education to observe and live with boys and girls. T hey m ust have opportunities for relations with the parents of children; for relations with 198 neig h b o rh o o d and o th e r community g ro u p s; f o r work e x p e rie n c e s in f a c to r y and farm ; f o r stu d y and tr a v e l in o th e r c o u n tr ie s ; f o r d e e p e r and w id e r e d u c a tio n in t h e i r own f i e l d s o f s p e c ia liz a tio n * (13:1H9 [1938]) T hroughout t h i s decade C assidy c ite d th e need fo r more c a r e f u l s e l e c t i o n and guidance o f s tu d e n ts in th e f i e l d o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n : W e who a r e w orking in t h i s f i e l d , e s p e c ia lly th o se who fa c e th e problem s o f te a c h e r t r a i n i n g , c o n tin u a lly s e e th e n eed t o a d v ise th e b e s t ty p e o f perso n in to p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n and th e p o o rly q u a lif ie d person out o f i t , b o th f o r t h e i r own s a t i s f a c t i o n in t h e i r work and f o r t h e good o f th e p ro fe s s io n in general* W e need an in c r e a s in g number o f w e ll q u a l i f i e d p erso n s e n te r in g th e f i e l d o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n in o rd e r t o low er the p re s e n t p r o f e s s io n a l m o r ta lity r a t e w ith i t s a tte n d a n t problem s o f p e rso n a l i l l a d ju stm e n t and economic w aste. (128:86 [1 9 3 0 ]) There i s * * . ev id en ce t o show wholesome fa c to rs have n o t o p e ra te d e x c lu s iv e ly in th e le a d e rs h ip s e l e c tio n and conduct o f th e p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n pro gram* I t i s e v id e n t t h a t g i r l s and women who have th em selv es r e je c t e d th e fem in in e r o le and whose body s t r u c t u r e and a t t i t u d e s te n d more tow ard a male than fem ale p a t t e r n , have been v o c a tio n a lly a t t r a c t e d to p h y s ic a l ed u catio n * (13:65 [1 9 38]) The Y ears 19H0-19H9 In th e book. P h y s ic a l E d u catio n in th e Secondary S ch o o l, p u b lis h e d in 19*10, te a c h e r e d u c a tio n was id e n t if i e d a s a c o n tin u a l d ev elo p m en tal p ro c e ss (18:82 [19H 0]), and th e p o in t was made th a t " th e te a c h e r e d u c a tio n i n s t i t u t i o n must r e v o lu tio n iz e i t s t r a d i t i o n a l methods and m a te ria ls " (18:82 [1 9 U 0 ]). To b rin g about d r a s t i c change in te a c h e r e d u c a tio n , i t was s t a t e d t h a t : th e te a c h e r e d u c a tio n i n s t i t u t i o n must be a model prac t i c e la b o ra to r y where th e s tu d e n t w i l l e x p e rie n c e and I t * le a r n in a p a tte r n s im ila r t o t h a t w hich he w i l l be ex p e c te d t o use in h is own te a c h in g . He w i l l le a r n n o t o nly th e p r in c ip le s o f guidance and have some la b o ra t o r y e x p e rie n c e w ith c h ild re n * b u t w i l l e x p e rie n c e in h i s own e d u c a tio n t h a t i n t e l l i g e n t and sy m p a th e tic guidance w hich w i l l become a v i t a l i z e d te c h n iq u e f o r h i s own u s e . (18:83-8H [19H0]) The em phasis o f te a c h e r e d u c a tio n in g e n e ra l and in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n in p a r t i c u l a r m ust be upon h e lp in g th e young man o r woman to d ev elo p i n t o a s e n s i t i v e and n a tu re perso n and n o t m erely i n t o a h ig h ly s k i l l e d te c h n ic ia n . (18:85 C19H0]) D uring t h i s decade R o salin d C assid y c o n tin u e d to em phasize th e im p o rtan ce o f b re a d th o f te a c h e r e d u c a tio n e x p e rie n c e s as w e ll as s p e c ia l com petencies n e c e s sa ry in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n : Much em phasis i s b ein g p la c e d upon b e t t e r s e le c te d and more b ro a d ly ed u cated te a c h e r s o f p h y s ic a l edu c a tio n ! one who can ta k e h is p la c e in th e sc h o o ls a s a w e ll e d u c a te d p erso n who knows in c r e a s in g ly more about c h ild re n * p a re n ts and l i f e in th e home and community* a s w e ll as in th e s c h o o l. (2S6:U C19U0]) The c la im t h a t p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n i s a medium f o r e d u c a tin g boys and g i r l s has m eaning only as p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n te a c h e rs a r e s e le c te d and p re p a re d t o become " e d u c a to r s " » a lo n g w ith te a c h e rs in a l l o th e r f i e l d s . In a d d itio n * th e r e a re s p e c ia l re q u ire m e n ts t o be met by th o se who would te a c h p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n * j u s t as th e r e a re s p e c ia l demands on th o se who w ould te a c h a r t * m usic o r s c ie n c e . Each f i e l d c a l l s f o r s p e c ia l a b i l i t i e s . (3 0 :8 [19U7]) The Y ears 1950-19S9 In a speech given a t th e n a tio n a l c o n v e n tio n o f th e Am erican A sso c ia tio n f o r H ealth* P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n , and R e c re a tio n in 1950* R o salin d C assidy i d e n t i f i e d th e k in d s o f q u a li f ic a t io n s w anted and u rg e n tly needed in p ro s p e c tiv e te a c h e rs in th e f i e l d s o f h e a lth and p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n : 200 Must b« * h e a lth y , a d ju s te d parso n w ith b a l i a f in s e l f and o t h e r s , a b le t o make f r ie n d s and w ith a v a lu e s y s te m , a p h ilo so p h y o r r e lig io n t h a t i s p o s itiv e and h a s a f a r s e e in g p e r s p e c tiv e . Must b e lie v e in and p r a c tic e d e m o c ra tic p r i n c i p l e s . Must have s k i l l s i n human r e l a ti o n s h i p s , must c a re ab o u t p eo p le and be a b le t o work w ith them in term s o f t h e i r b e s t developm ent. Must have had e x p e rie n c e w ith , and know ledge o f , c h ild r e n and y o u th . Must have an a p p r e c ia tio n o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f sc h o o l and community. Must have ade quacy w ith in o n e 's own f i e l d , and s e e i t as a medium f o r th e g e n e ra l developm ent o f boys and g i r l s . Must have a g e n e ra l c u l t u r a l back g ro u n d , must have b ro a d s o u rc e s f o r o n e 's own r e c r e a tio n and a p o s i tiv e u se o f l e i s u r e tim e . (275:2 C1950]) The need f o r more c a r e f u l s e le c tio n o f p o t e n t i a l te a c h e r s i n p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n was em phasized in th e volum e. C u rricu lu m Development in P h y sic a l E d u c a tio n , p u b lis h e d in 195 *t: G ra n tin g t h a t c h ild r e n le a r n from a l l elem en ts i n th e s i t u a t i o n s w ith w hich th e y i n t e r a c t , th e p le a m ust be made f o r a more d is c r im in a tin g s e le c tio n o f p ro s p e c tiv e t e a c h e r s , u s in g as s ta n d a rd s th e needs o f c h ild r e n and young p eo p le as we now know them and as we a re in c r e a s in g ly b e t t e r a b le t o know them . (9 :3 2 3 C195H]) C e r ta in ly in th e s e le c ti o n o f te a c h e rs o f p h y s ic a l edu c a tio n n e i t h e r men n o r women who have f a i l e d t o a c h ie v e th e d ev elo p m en tal ta s k o f s e lf - a c c e p ta n c e , f o r w hich th e y w i l l have such a c e n tr a l r e s p o n s i b i l i ty in t h e i r te a c h in g in th e p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n program , sh o u ld be c o n s id e re d . (9 :3 2 * [195**]) In h e r 1950 a d d re s s a t th e n a tio n a l co n v e n tio n o f th e A m erican A s s o c ia tio n f o r H e a lth , P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n , and R e c r e a tio n , R o sa lin d C assidy fo c u se d on w hat sh e p e r c e iv e d t o be th e -broad b a s ic re q u ire m e n ts o f te a c h e r edu c a ti o n . Seven a r e a s o f " e x p e rie n c in g " were re c o g n iz e d as c e n t r a l t o te a c h e r e d u c a tio n . The a re a s w ere: 201 (1) u n d e rs ta n d in g o n e s e lf , (2 ) le a r n in g t o p a r t i c i p a t e in g ro u p s, (3) u n d e rs ta n d in g human b e in g s a t th e v a rio u s age le v e ls and t h e d ev e lo p m en tal ta s k s re q u ir e d in th e growth p ro c e s s , CO u n d e rs ta n d in g s o c i a l f o r c e s , (5 ) u n d e rsta n d in g th e community s o c i a l l y and i n s t i t u t i o n a l l y , (6 ) u nder s ta n d in g th e m eaning and u se o f o n e 's own m ajor f i e l d as to o ls f o r y o u th e d u c a tio n , and (7 ) th e s c h o o l, i t s o rg a n i z a tio n , c u rric u lu m and method (2 7 5 :2 -3 C19503). W ith t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f th e body o f knowledge o f th e d i s c i p l i n e o f human movement w e ll com pleted l a t e in th e 1 9 5 0 's , R o sa lin d C assid y in d ic a te d in c r e a s in g concern ab o u t depth o f te a c h e r p r e p a r a tio n and th e d is c i p l in e o f human movement* She s t a t e d t h a t " te a c h e r p r e p a r a tio n w i l l r e l a t e t o th e body o f know ledge o f movement a r t s and s c ie n c e s " (145:16 [1 9 5 8 3 ), and w i l l be " le a d in g tow ard h ig h compe te n c e in th e tr a n s m is s io n o f th e d is c i p l in e " (2 5 8 :1 C19S83). The i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p o f p r o f e s s io n a l le a d e rs h ip developm ent an d g ra d u a te s tu d y in th e d ep artm en t o f p h y si c a l e d u c a tio n a t th e U n iv e rs ity o f C a lif o r n ia a t Los A ngeles was s p e l l e d o u t by C assid y in a d i r e c t i o n a l s ta te m e n t in t h e w in te r o f 1958: G rad u ate s tu d y in t h i s D epartm ent sh o u ld be d e d i c a te d to th e stu d y o f th e b o d ie s o f knowledge and th e advancem ent o f s u c h knowledge i n th e a re a s o f human movement, l e i s u r e , h e a lt h f u l l i v i n g and t o advanced p r e p a r a tio n o f p r o f e s s io n a l p e rso n n e l in H e a lth Edu c a ti o n , P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n , R e c re a tio n and Dance. The e f f o r t s o f th e D epartm ent a r e d ir e c te d tow ard 202 d e p th in th e b o d ie s o f know ledge, r e s e a r c h and c r e a t i v e s tu d y in th e s e s e v e r a l d i s c i p l i n e s a n d , as a r e s u l t o f t h i s program , a b le s tu d e n ts a r e a t t r a c t e d t o , and p u r s u e , s tu d ie s w ith th e f a c u lty to w a rd th e s e e n d s . I t i s , as a r e s u l t o f th s s e e f f o r t s , t h a t s c h o la r s a r e produced an d p r o f e s s io n a l le a d e r s h ip i s p re p a re d . The im provem ent o f le a d e r s h ip i n s c h o o l, c o l l e g e , u n i v e r s i t y and community program s c o n c e rn e d w ith s c h o o l h e a lth e d u c a tio n , p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n , dance and r e c r e a tio n and th e p r e p a r a tio n o f r e s e a r c h s p e c i a l i s t s in th e s e co n cen t r a ti o n s i s an o u tg ro w th and outcom e o f th e program o f g ra d u a te s tu d y i n t h i s d e p a rtm e n t. (2 5 8 :1 The Y ears 1960-19SS As a member o f a com m ittee in v o lv e d i n fo rm u la tin g a new p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n m a jo r c u rric u lu m a t th e U n iv e r s ity o f C a lif o r n ia a t Los A n g e le s, R o sa lin d C assid y p ro d u ced a summary s ta te m e n t o f p h ilo s o p h ic a l commitment e a r l y in 1960: W e a r e co n cern ed w ith d e v e lo p in g h ig h e s t l e v e l b ro a d ly e d u c a te d te a c h e r s who can move th e p r o f e s s io n a l f i e l d i n t o w id e r and d e e p e r c o n c e p ts i n t h e Movement A rts and S c ie n c e s . (2 7 9 :1 L1960]) At t h i s tim e R o sa lin d C assid y a l s o i n d ic a te d th e im p o rta n c e o f th e d i s c i p l i n e o f movement t o te a c h e r p re p a r a t i o n by em p h asizin g t h a t "we a g re e t h a t th e d i s c i p l i n e o f P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n i s c e n t r a l t o d ep th p r e p a r a tio n o f te a c h e r s in t h i s f i e l d " (2 7 9 :1 [ I 9 6 0 ] ) . Two y e a rs l a t e r t h e s u b je c t o f a p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n m a jo r c u rric u lu m and th e d i s c i p l i n e o f human movement was e x p lo re d by C assid y in t h e fo llo w in g f a s h io n : The e f f e c t o f a d i s c i p l i n a r y a p p ro ach on th e m ajo r r rogram would be p ro fo u n d . B a sic c o u rs e s w ould e x p lo re n d ep th th e m eanings and m a n if e s ta tio n s o f human 201 movement. The "How To" c o u r s e s , w hich now make up t h e g r e a t e r p a r t o f th e m ajo r, would be b u i l t upon th e Body o f Knowledge c o u rse s and re q u ir e d only f o r th o s e who a r e p r e p a r in g t o te a c h • T h is i s th e p a tte r n in o th e r d i s c i p l i n e s . (1 9 3 :1 7 [1 9 6 2 ]) Summary In th e p u b l i c a t i o n , The New P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n , th e need f o r b ro ad p r o f e s s io n a l, acad em ic, and c u l t u r a l t r a i n in g o f te a c h e r s o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n was ad v o cated by R o salin d C a ssid y . She c a lle d f o r fo u r y e a rs o f u n d erg rad u a te e d u c a tio n p r i o r t o a f i f t h y e a r o f in te n s iv e p r o f e s s i o n a l t r a i n i n g f o r te a c h e r s o f th e n a tu r a l program . T hroughout th e decade o f th e 1 9 3 0 's , R o salin d C assid y in d ic a te d co n c e rn ov er te a c h e r s e le c tio n s ta n d a r d s and b re a d th o f p r o f e s s io n a l p re p a ra tio n f o r p h y s ic a l edu c a tio n te a c h e r s . She c a lle d f o r im provem ent in th e s o c i a l t r a i n i n g o f th e a r t i s t - t e a c h e r , view ed th e te a c h e r p re p a r a t i o n p ro c e s s a s a m a n ife s ta tio n o f th e guidance p r o c e s s , and r e a c te d w ith u n e a s in e s s to th e id e a o f women r e j e c t i n g th e fem in in e r o l e a s s o c ia te d w ith th e f i e l d o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n . R o sa lin d C assid y c o n tin u e d to p re ss f o r more c a r e f u l te a c h e r s e l e c ti o n and b re a d th o f p r o f e s s io n a l edu c a tio n f o r p h y s ic a l e d u c a to rs i n th e 19 M>*s. Advocacy o f g u id an ce a s a m ethodology u n d e r-g ird in g te a c h e r e d u c a tio n was p ro p o se d , and C assid y c a lle d f o r th e developm ent o f 20ft p h y s ic a l e d u c a to rs as e d u c a tio n a l g e n e r a l i s t s , as w e ll as s p e c i a l i s t s w ith in t h e i r own f i e l d . In th e e a r ly 1 9 5 0 's R o sa lin d C assid y i d e n t i f i e d th e c e n t r a l concern s o f te a c h e r p r e p a r a tio n i n p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n t o be in c r e a s e d u n d e rsta n d in g and p r a c tic e o f d e m o c ra tic p r i n c i p l e s , s e lf - u n d e r s ta n d in g , s k i l l s o f s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n , com petency w ith in o n e 's f i e l d , c u l t u r a l and academ ic b r e a d th , i n t e r a c t i o n w ith and u n d e rsta n d in g o f c h ild r e n , and a knowledge and u n d e rsta n d in g o f th e s c h o o l, com m unity, and s o c i e t a l f o r c e s . In th e l a t e r f i f t i e s C assidy s tr e s s e d th e r e la ti o n s h i p o f te a c h e r p re p a ra tio n t o th e d ep th s tu d y , u n d e ra te n d in g , and u t i l i t y o f th e body o f knowledge o f human movement. D uring th e s i x t i e s R o sa lin d C assidy c o n tin u e d t o em phasize th e im p o rtan ce o f b re a d th and d ep th o f p ro fe s s io n a l p r e p a ra tio n f o r p h y s ic a l e d u c a to rs in term s o f th e b ro a d e r and d e e p e r m eanings o f th e a r t and s c ie n c e o f human movement• From an i n i t i a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n in th e 1920's o f te a c h e r p re p a ra tio n in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n as b e in g p ro f e s s i o n a l , acad em ic, and c u l t u r a l in n a tu r e , R o salin d C a s sid y , o v e r th e y e a r s , r e i t e r a t e d h e r b e l i e f in a broad e d u c a tio n a l c o n c e p tio n o f te a c h e r p r e p a r a tio n . The need f o r b re a d th and p a r t i c u l a r l y d ep th o f p r e p a r a tio n in r e l a t i o n t o th e body o f know ledge o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n re c e iv e d g re a t em phasis in C a s s id y 's l a t e r w ritin g s * CHAPTER X V PHYSICAL EDUCATIONS ATHLETIC COMPETITION I t i s only th ro u g h r i s k ta k in g and v a r ia tio n t h a t grow th can o c c u r. — Gordon A llp o r t One m a n ife s ta tio n o f R o salin d C a s s id y 's co n c ern f o r th e optimum developm ent o f youth in a democracy was a q u e s t f o r th e m eaning and v a lu e o f a t h l e t i c e x p e rie n c e s f o r boys and g i r l s in d em o cratic s o c ie ty . Id e a s about t h i s theme were g lean e d from R o salin d C a s s id y 's w r itin g s and a re c h ro n o lo g ic a lly i d e n t i f i e d in t h i s c h a p te r. The Y ears 1920-1929 In th e 1 9 2 0 's R o salin d C assidy in d ic a te d a b e l i e f in th e v a lu e o f w id esp read p a r ti c i p a t i o n in a t h l e t i c s f o r a l l , r a t h e r th a n a p r iv ile g e d few . She s t a t e d t h a t " th e p la y a t M ills i s n o t f o r th e few h ig h ly s k i l l e d in d iv id u a l s , b u t i t i s f o r a l l s tu d e n ts " (206:2 [1 9 2 9 ]), and: The m ista k e s o f th e p a s t a re b e in g fa ced more s q u a r e ly ; th e p ro fe s s io n a lis m and s p e c ia li z a t io n t h a t have b e come e v i l s in m en's a t h l e t i c s a re b ein g av o id ed to a c o n s id e ra b le e x t e n t , a t l e a s t , in th e developm ent o f th e f i e l d f o r women and g i r l s , and d e f i n i t e e f f o r t s a re b e in g made to remedy th e m en's c o lle g e and i n t e r c o l l e - ? i a t e a t h l e t i c s i t u a t i o n . By f u l l e r in d iv id u a l p a r t i c - p a tio n in s p o r ts f o r boys and g i r l s in th e s c h o o ls , i t i s b e lie v e d t h a t a t t i t u d e s and "h o b b ies" w i l l be 206 207 d ev elo p ed w hich w i l l c a rry o v e r in t o a d u lt l i f e and th e r e w i l l be m illio n s who ta k e p a r t in s p o r t in s te a d o f a few p a r tic i p a n te and m illio n s o f s p e c ta to r s a s a t p r e s e n t. (52*22 [1 9 2 7 ]) S u b s titu tio n o f a c o lle g e p la y day f o r h ig h ly c o m p e titiv e a t h l e t i c s f o r g i r l s was su p p o rte d by C assidy in an a r t i c l e p u b lis h e d i n 1928. She w rote about a t r i a n g u l a r S p o rts Day h e ld by fem ale s tu d e n ts from M ills C o lle g e * S ta n fo rd * and th e U n iv e rs ity o f C a lif o r n ia a t B erk e le y : The i n t e r c l a s s and i n t e r c o l l e g i a t e p la n o f compe t i t i o n betw een th e s e th r e e i n s t i t u t i o n s was given up s e v e r a l y e a rs ago when th e A th le tic C onference o f A m erican C o lle g e Women* o f w hich a l l th r e e a re members* v o ted a g a in s t i n t e r c o l l e g i a t e c o m p e titio n . I t was d ecid ed * however* by t h e . a t h l e t i c a s s o c ia tio n s o f th e th r e e c o lle g e s t h a t th e v alu e s o f knowing th e women o f th e o th e r i n s t i t u t i o n s who had lik e i n t e r e s t s , and th e fu n o f p la y in g to g e th e r sh o u ld n o t be given up. Out o f t h i s d e te rm in a tio n h as grown T ria n g u la r S p o rts Day— a day on w hich a l l th r e e groups meet and p lay a g a in s t each o th e r on s e p a r a te team s. (109:12*1 [1928J) I t [T r ia n g u la r S p o rts Day] p o in ts a s t e p tow ard th e s o l u t io n o f th e d i f f i c u l t problem s in a t h l e t i c a c t i v i t i e s f o r women and g i r l s . I t shows t h a t a h ig h deg ree o f r e a l enjoym ent and f in e s p i r i t comes from such play* w hich i s u s u a lly im p o ssib le in v a r s ity a t h l e t i c s . I t shows t h a t th e f i n e r s ta n d a rd o f a l l g i r l p a r t i c i p a to rs * r a t h e r th a n a few p a r ti c i p a t o r s and th e l a r g e r num ber o f s p e c ta to r s * may be a c h ie v e d . (109:125 C1928]) The is s u e a t la rg e was sum m arized by C assidy as sh e s t a t e d " th e k in d o f p la y i s th e th in g t h a t e d u c a to rs a r e lo o k in g a t as th e most im p o rta n t means o f developm ent and grow th o f th e in d iv id u a l" (206:2 [1 9 2 9 ]). The Y ears 1930-1939 In 1935 th e p o s itio n o f C a lifo rn ia * r e l a t i v e t o 208 c o m p e titiv e a t h l e t i c s f o r boys and g i r l s * was i d e n t i f i e d in an a r t i c l e a p p e a rin g in The J o u r n a l o f H e a lth and P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n ? The p h ilo so p h y in o u r s t a t e in r e l a t i o n t o c o m p e titio n f o r h ig h sc h o o l c h ild r e n i s a v ery s u p e r io r one * th e r e h av in g been f o r a lo n g tim e a d e f i n i t e s ta n d a g a in s t any c o m p e titio n f o r h ig h s c h o o l g i r l s and a c o n tin u a lly m o d ified and guarded program f o r boys* (138:16 [1 9 3 5 ]) L a te r in th e decade C assid y p o in te d o u t t h a t " p a tte r n s o f c o o p e ra tio n a r e more needed in o u r c u ltu r e th an th o se o f c o m p e titio n " (126:>*2 [1 9 3 8 ])* asked p h y s ic a l e d u c a to rs t o "m inim ize c o m p e titio n " (13:102 [1 9 3 8 ])* sup* p o rte d th e e f f o r t s o f women in th e f i e l d r e s i s t i n g a t h l e t i c e x p lo ita tio n o f g i r l s * and sum m arized th e needs o f th e tim e : I t m ust be s a i d in f a ir n e s s and a ls o a s a d e se rv e d t r i b u t e t h a t th e r e p r e s e n t a t iv e women i n p h y s ic a l edu c a tio n have made a v a l i a n t e f f o r t t o s a fe g u a rd th e h e a lth and i n t e r e s t s o f g i r l s from e x p lo ita tio n and com m ercial p re s s u re w hich p u t more v a lu e s on th e w in n in g o f games th a n on th e h e a lth * s a n ity * and s a f e ty o f th e in d iv id u a l* They have s to o d firm in t h e i r p r o t e s t a g a in s t h ig h ly c o m p e titiv e a t h l e t i c c o n te s ts f o r h ig h sc h o o l and c o lle g e g i r l s * even a t th e c o s t o f b ein g m isu n d ersto o d and c r i t i c i z e d . (1 3 :6 3 [1 9 3 8 ]) g r e a te r em phasis must be made on l a r g e r p a tte r n s o f p la y e x p e rie n c e s > many ways tow ard c o o p e ra tio n in groups* s a t i s f a c t i o n s i n group e n te r p r is e s in play* as a g a in s t h ig h ly c o m p e titiv e p a t t e r n s ; • • • le a d e rs must be m ature p e rso n s w ith a f f e c t io n f o r young p eo p le and u n d e rsta n d in g o f t h e i r n eed s w hich may be se rv e d n o t e x p lo ite d * th ro u g h a t h l e t i c s ; • • • grow th comas th ro u g h d i r e c t and m ean in g fu l e x p e rie n c e * n o t th ro u g h v ic a r io u s p a r t i c i p a t i o n . (139:H52 [1 9 3 9 j) The Y ears 19U0-19H9 In th e l a t e 1 9 t0 's R o sa lin d C assid y was asked t o 209 s t a t e h e r v iew p o in t re g a rd in g th a v a lu e o f n a tio n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l a t h l e t i c c o m p e titio n f o r women. She s a id : I f in d th e whole id e a q u ite u n te n a b le from any number o f p o in ts o f view . I am p a r t i c u l a r l y r e in f o r c e d in t h i s c o n v ic tio n from th e r e c e n t s tu d i e s I have made in th e f i e l d o f S o cio lo g y and A n th ro p o lo g y . I f you go a lo n g w ith M argaret Mead you come t o a grow ing con v ic tio n t h a t women's b a s ic s a t i s f a c t i o n s a re n o t in c o m p e titio n . I th in k th e women le a d e r s in th e c o u n try would be making a v ery g r e a t m ista k e t o en co u rag e th e c o m p e titiv e p a tte r n s a t t h i s tim e w ith o u t h a v in g ac h ie v e d some b a s ic s ta n d a rd s and a good p a r t i c i p a t i o n program . (221 :1 [1 9 4 7 ]) One y e a r l a t e r , th e e v i l s o f in d iv id u a l e x p lo i t a t i o n in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n p r a c tic e s were in d ic a te d i n an a r t i c l e in th e J o u rn a l o f H e a lth and P h y s ic a l E d u ca tio n e n t i t l e d "New D ire c tio n s in P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n :" W e have a s ic k n e s s , to o , in o u r e x p l o it a ti o n o f in d iv id u a ls . T his m ust be s e a rc h in g ly exam ined in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n i f o u r new d i r e c tio n s a r e t o le a d to more d e m o c ra tic p r a c t ic e s . T here a re many a s p e c ts o f c o m p e titiv e a t h l e t i c s , dance r e c i t a l s , g i r l s ' d r i l l te a m s, and C h ristm as p a g e a n ts , f o r exam ple, t h a t com p l e t e l y a b ro g a te th e b a s ic co n cern f o r th e i n t e g r i t y , w o rth , and d ig n ity o f in d iv id u a ls and t e l l y o u th so much more lo u d ly th a n any spoken words c o u ld a c h ie v e . (122:647 [19483) The Y ears 1950-1959 The p rim ary w r itin g fo cu s o f R o sa lin d C assid y in th e f i r s t yearbook o f th e Am erican A s s o c ia tio n f o r H e a lth , P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n , and R e c re a tio n , p u b lis h e d i n 1951, was c e n ts re d upon th e concept o f d e m o c ra tic le a d e r s h ip . I t was p o in te d o u t t h a t th e f i e l d s o f h e a l t h , p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n , and r e c r e a tio n m ust be e v e r a l e r t to u n d em o cratic b e l i e f s and p r a c tic e s : 210 These f i e l d s have g r e a t p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r d e m o c ra tic , c o o p e ra tiv e a c t i o n , w h ile a t th e same t i n s th e y a re c o n s ta n tly th r e a te n e d by th e a u t h o r i t a r i a n p a tte r n s o f response-to-com m and sy stem s o f an e a r l i e r d ay , th e a l l p o w erfu l "coach" p a tte r n s o f h ig h ly c o m p e titiv e a th l e t i c s , th e v ery p a t te r n w ith in th e game s t r u c t u r e i t s e l f w here th e o f f i c i a l must blow th e w h is tle and g iv e th e p e n a lty . I f e f f e c t i v e e d u c a tio n f o r Am erican c i t i z e n s h i p i s t o be a c h ie v e d , a l l o f th e s e a s p e c ts m ust be se e n r e a l i s t i c a l l y in r e la ti o n t o p re s e n t-d a y e d u c a tio n a l demands and a lig n e d w ith d e m o c ra tic p r i n c i p l e s . (10:105 [19513) In F eb ru ary o f 1955 R o salin d C assidy q u e stio n e d w hat b e s t le a r n in g s in c o o p e ra tio n and c o m p e titio n w ere in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n by a sk in g w h eth e r "we e x p lo it f o r s c h o o l o r te a c h e r g lo ry o r r e l a t e t o s o c ia l n eed s?" (2 5 1 :1 [1 9 5 5 ]). A p o lic y s ta te m e n t on c o m p e titiv e s p o r ts f o r women a t th e U n iv e rs ity o f C a lif o r n ia a t Los A ngeles was pub li s h e d in A p ril o f 1956. As a member o f th e f a c u lty - a d v i so ry com m ittee on c o m p e titio n f o r women t h a t fo rm u la te d t h i s s ta te m e n t, C assid y p r o je c te d a v iew p o in t ab o u t women and v a r s i ty c o m p e titio n i n th e fo llo w in g m anner: I n v i t a t i o n s t o p a r ti c i p a t e in c o lle g e o r u n iv e r s ity sp o n so red c o m p e titiv e s p o r ts sh o u ld be x ssu ed and a c c e p te d when th e d e p a rtm e n ta l c r i t e r i a a r e m et. (The o r g a n iz a tio n o f and p a r t i c i p a t i o n on " v a r s ity " team s becomes u n a c c e p ta b le in th e l i g h t o f th e s e c r i t e r i a . ) (3 0 5 :2 [1 9 5 6 ]) In 1958 a b e l i e f ab o u t a l l sc h o o l e x p e rie n c e s was e x p re s s e d in th e form o f a p r in c ip le o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n d e c la r in g t h a t " a l l s c h o o l e x p e rie n c e s sh o u ld h e lp th e 211 c h ild become th e k in d o f p e rso n who can fu n c tio n s u c c e s s f u l l y as a h e a lth y , f r e e c i t i z e n i n a d e m o c ra tic s o c ie ty " (25 9 :1 [1 9 5 8 ]). The Y ears 1960-1965 In a p e r io d ic a l a r t i c l e e n t i t l e d " C r i t i c a l Is s u e s in P h y s ic a l E d u catio n and A t h l e t i c s ," R o salin d C a ssid y , in 1961, i d e n t i f i e d th r e e m ajo r problem s o f th e day r e l a t i n g t o c o m p e titiv e a t h l e t i c s : T here a r e c o n f l i c t s in b e l i e f in o u r d em o cratic s o c ie ty r e l a t i n g t o b o th men and women as human b ein g s w ith p o t e n t i a l i t i e s t o be dev elo p ed a c c o rd in g to t h e i r c a p a c i t ie s . The b e l i e f t h a t g i r l s and women, no m a tte r how h ig h ly s k i l l e d , sh o u ld be s h ie ld e d from th e s t r e s s e s and e v i l s o f c o m p e titiv e s p o r t s , has d e p riv e d th e g if te d g i r l n o t o n ly o f th e e v i l s b u t o f a l l th e v a lu e s o f a c h ie v in g h e r h ig h e s t p o t e n t i a l i n s p o r t . (116:17 [1 9 6 4 ]) C o n f lic tin g b e l i e f s in human v a lu e s , d em o cratic p r i n c i p l e s , and s o c i e t a l p re s s u r e s te n d t o move a th l e t i c c o m p e titio n o u t o f th e v a lu e fram ework o f edu c a tio n a l s ta n d a rd s and v a lu e s c e n te re d in w hat i s of m ost im p o rtan ce t o th e in d iv id u a l i n t o econom ic and p o l i t i c a l rew ards and p r iz e s so u g h t by i n t e r e s t s e x tra n e o u s t o th e i n d iv id u a l. A c r u c i a l problem th e r e f o r e r e l a t e s t o j u r i s d i c t i o n in s e t t i n g s ta n d a rd s and c o n tr o l a t th e l o c a l , n a t i o n a l , and i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e v e l s . (116:17 [1 9 6 4 ]) A r e la t e d problem l i e s in th e r e la tio n s h ip o f a th l e t i c program s to e d u c a tio n a l p u rp o s e s , s ta n d a r d s , d i r e c t i o n , and c o n tr o l in sc h o o l and c o lle g e p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n p rogram s. I s i t p o s s ib le t o fo cu s am ateur a t h l e t i c s on th e v a lu e s f o r th e in d iv id u a l p a r ti c i p a n t q u ite s e p a r a te from th e p u rp o ses and v a lu e s o f p ro fe s s io n a l a t h l e t i c s ? These problem s d e fin e th e re s p o n s i b i l i t y o f o u r p ro f e s s io n in co n v ey in g t o th e p u b lic th e v a lu e s in a t h l e t i c s f o r th e in d iv id u a l. P r in c ip le s must h o ld a g a in s t e x p e d ie n c y . (116:17 [1 9 6 4 ]) 212 Summary D uring th a 1 9 2 0 's R o salin d C assid y o b js c ts d t o th e id e a o f a t h l e t i c c o m p e titio n f o r a h ig h ly s k i l l e d m in o rity o f in d iv id u a ls in women's i n t e r c l a s s and i n t e r c o l l e g i a t e a t h l e ti c s * An i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith th e p h ilo s o p h y » program , and p r a c tic e o f p la y f o r th e b e s t grow th and developm ent o f a l l p erso n s was e v id e n t in th e id e a o f th e c o lle g e p la y day • In th e t h i r t i e s a p r o te s t a g a in s t th e e x p l o i t a t i v e and com m ercial n a tu re o f in te n s e a t h l e t i c c o m p e titio n was r e g is t e r e d by C assidy as she c a ll e d f o r te a c h e rs and le a d e rs t o m eet th e needs o f a l l s tu d e n ts th ro u g h p a tte r n s o f c o o p e ra tio n r a t h e r them c o m p e titio n . R o salin d C assidy c o n tin u e d t o p o in t o u t th e dan g ers o f u n d em o cratic e x p lo ita tio n o f s tu d e n ts th ro u g h p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n e x p e rie n c e s in th e 1 9 4 0 's and r e je c te d th e c o n cep t o f n a tio n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l a t h l e t i c c o m p e titio n f o r women a t t h i s tim e as u n te n a b le . D uring th e 1 9 5 0 's th e s o c i a l v a lu e s o f d e m o c ra tic , c o o p e ra tiv e e x p e rie n c e s in th e f i e l d o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n w ere s t r e s s e d , and th e a u t h o r i t a r i a n , u n d em o cratic p ra c t i c e s o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a to rs who used c o m p e titiv e p a tte r n s f o r p e rs o n a l g ain o r e x p lo ita tio n w ere denounced. In th e s i x t i e s R o salin d C assid y c a ll e d f o r th e d e f i n i t i o n and d e m o n stratio n o f a c c e p ta b le p u rp o ses and p r i n c i p l e s r e l a t i v e to a t h l e t i c c o m p e titio n in th e sc h o o l s e t t i n g . A lthough in agreem ent w ith th a co n cep t o f d e v e l- o p M n t o f human p o t e n t i a l i t y th ro u g h c o m p e titiv e a t h l e t i c e x p e rie n c e s f o r th e e x c e p tio n a l in d i v id u a l , sh e ask ed f o r a c l e a r d e f i n i t i o n and d e lin e a tio n o f p u rp o ses and v a lu e s betw een am ateu r and p r o f e s s io n a l a t h l e t i c s . In h e r w r itin g s o v e r th e y e a rs , R o sa lin d C assid y d e c r ie d th e u n d e m o c ra tic , e x p l o i t a t i v e p r a c tic e s u t i l i z e d by a d u lts w ith y o u th in c o m p e titiv e e x p e r ie n c e s , and empha s i z e d th e v a lu e o f d e m o c ra tic , c o o p e ra tiv e e x p e rie n c e s f o r a l l boys and g i r l s . In th e 1 9 6 0 's , th e id e a o f a t h l e t i c c o m p e titio n s e r v in g as a means o f d e v e lo p in g th e g i f t e d i n d i v i d u a l '8 p o t e n t i a l i t i e s was s u p p o rte d by C a ss id y , b u t i t was p o in te d o u t t h a t a t h l e t i c s sh o u ld be fo c u se d on in d iv id u a l developm ent and e d u c a tio n a l v a lu e s , n o t on p r o f e s s io n a lis m , co m m ercialism , o r in d iv id u a l e x p l o i t a t i o n . PART V RELATED AREAS 2 I t CHAPTER XVI RECREATION EDUCATION: PERSPECTIVE A N D M EANING In a s o c ie ty t h a t i s in c r e a s in g ly in flu e n c e d by s c ie n c e and te c h n o lo g y , and in a w orld t h a t h a s become so sm a ll th a t e v e n ts in th e most rem ote p a r ts o f i t a f f e c t us a l l , i t i s becoming more and more d i f f i c u l t f o r th e in d iv id u a l t o fin d h is n ic h e , t o c r e a te w ith h is own hands and m ind, t o be a p erso n in h is own r i g h t . —Leonard W. Mayo The id e a s i d e n t i f i e d in th e f iv e fo u n d a tio n chap t e r s a re in d ic a tiv e o f an e d u c a tio n a l p h ilo so p h y d e d ic a te d t o th e developm ent and improvement o f th e d em o cratic i n d i v id u a l in a changing tw e n tie th c e n tu ry en v iro n m en t. P a r t f iv e i s o rg a n iz ed t o show th e r e la tio n s h ip o f two a r e a s , r e c r e a tio n e d u c a tio n and h e a lth e d u c a tio n , t o in d iv id u a l developm ent and th e f i e l d o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n . In t h i s c h a p te r , id e a s o f R o salin d C assidy c e n t r a l to th e theme o f r e c r e a tio n e d u c a tio n a re d e lin e a te d o v e r a p e rio d o f more th an f o r ty y e a rs . 215 216 The Y ears 19 2 0 -1 9 2 9 In 1923 R o sa lin d C assidy p o in te d o u t t h a t " th e pub l i c needs in fo rm a tio n c o n c ern in g th e a im s, id e a ls and a c t i v i t i e s o f th e cam ping movement” (118:104 [1 9 2 3 ]). She w ent on t o in d ic a te t h a t : W e f in d t h a t camps a s a whole a r e n e i th e r a summer c ir c u s n o r a s a n ita r iu m , b u t t h a t th e y a re p r im a r ily e d u c a tio n a l a g e n ts , f o r th ro u g h l i v i n g and w orking in an en v iro n m en t w hich i s p r im itiv e and a t th e same tim e h e a lt h f u l and f u l l o f n a tu r a l i n t e r e s t s and i n c e n t i v e s , • • • c h ild re n a re b e in g t r u l y e d u c a te d and much more e f f e c t i v e l y th a n i s p o s s ib le in th e w in te r s c h o o ls i n t o w hich th e y a r e a r t i f i c i a l l y p la c e d by th e c o n d itio n s o f modern c i v i l i z e d l i f e . (118:103 [1 9 2 3 ]) L a te r in th e same a r t i c l e , i t was e x p la in e d t h a t ”th e p u rp o se o f a camp, t o be t r u l y e d u c a tio n a l, m ust in c lu d e th e w hole developm ent o f th e c h ild " (118:108 [1 9 2 3 ]). A nother s ta te m e n t o f purpose ab o u t th e summer camp was made in 1925 when C assid y in d ic a te d t h a t "M ills C o lle g e b e lie v e s t h a t th e summer camp i s n o t a lu x u ry , b u t a la b o r a to r y in w hich th e boy o r g i r l may g a in a maximum o f edu c a ti o n a l e x p e rie n c e s ” (2 5 0 :1 [1 9 2 5 ]). The im p o rtan ce o f th e camping movement t o th e n a t u r a l movement in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n was c l a r i f i e d in 1927 in th e volum e, The New P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n : T h is movement, l i k e t h a t tow ard more ample p ro v is io n in c i t i e s and tow ns f o r th e p la y o f boys and g i r l s , has a id e d th e n a t u r a l movement inasm uch as i t has empha s iz e d th e v a lu e s o f n a tu r a l a c t i v i t y in a n a t u r a l environm ent a s th e most e f f e c t i v e means o f c h ild e d u c a tio n — p h y s ic a l, m e n ta l, s o c i a l , and m o ra l. (5 2 : 348 [1 9 27]) In The New P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n . C assid y (and Wood) 217 a ls o s x p lo r s d th e s ig n if i c a n c e o f th s p lay g ro u n d movement* th e p r e c u r s o r o f o rg a n iz e d r e c r e a tio n i n A m erica, t o th e n a t u r a l movement in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n : The p lay g ro u n d movement has fu rn is h e d e x c e lle n t im p e tu s and a i d t o th e n a t u r a l movement in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n , s in c e in th e c o u rse o f i t s developm ent i t h a s g iv e n p u b l i c i t y t o , and e d u c a te d th e g e n e ra l p u b lic i n t o , an u n d e rs ta n d in g o f p la y as a n e c e ss a ry f a c t o r i n th e developm ent o f th e c h i l d . (52:3<t6 [1 9 27]) W ith in th e same volum e, th e r o l e o f r e c r e a ti o n a l a c t i v i t i e s a s an i n t e g r a l u n i t o f program c o n te n t i n a n a tu r a liz e d program o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n was e x p la in e d i n th e fo llo w in g m anner: U n it e i g h t , r e c r e a t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s , can o b v io u sly a p p ly o n ly t o a d u lt a c t i v i t y , f o r c h ild r e n need n o r e c r e a t i o n , in th e s e n s e t h a t a d u lts need a c o n t r a s t in g * r e c u p e r a tiv e Change from v o c a tio n a l w ork. R ecre a t i o n o f a n a t u r a li z e d ty p e o f f e r s a d u lts th e a c t i v i t i e s w hich n a t u r a l l y grow from and fo llo w th e u n i t s o f c o n te n t . . . en u m erated a s th e means f o r com plete p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n d u rin g c h ild h o o d . (52:103 [1 9 2 7 ]) T hose r e c r e a t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s f a l l i n g w ith in th e fram ew ork o f th e n a tu r a li z e d program w ere enum erated by C a ssid y t o b e : A n a t u r a l i z e d program w ould in c lu d e w a lk in g , h ik in g , cam p in g , f i s h i n g , h u n tin g , e x p lo r in g , a u to m o b ilin g , sw im m ing, b o a tin g , s a i l i n g , s k a t in g , t e n n i s , b a s e b a ll, q u o i t s , v o lle y b a l l , h a n d b a ll, g o l f , ic e ho ck ey , s k i i n g . o t h e r w in te r s p o r t s , r i d i n g , b o w lin g , b o x in g , com m u n ity s i n g s , p a g e a n ts , d ra m a tic s , d a n c in g , c o n s tru c t i v e a c t i v i t i e s , g a rd e n in g , e t c . (5 2 :1 0 3 11927]) In 1929 th e problem o f l e i s u r e in American s o c ie ty and p r e p a r a tio n f o r i t s use was re c o g n iz e d by R o salin d C a ssid y : A iM ricans p ro b a b ly hav e more l e i s u r e tim e th a n p e o p le 218 o f any o th e r n a t i o n , and w ith th a o rg a n iz a tio n o f n o d am in d u s tr y wa w i l l hava an e v e r in e r a a s in g am ount. T h is l a i s u r s h as coma upon us w ith no c o rra s p o n d in g t r a i n i n g in how t o u sa i t w ith th a r a s u l t t h a t th a co m m erc ia liz ed r e c r a a ti o n groups p r a s a n t ty p e s o f amusement t h a t a r e n o t wholesom e o r r e c r e a ti n g i n any s a n s a . ( 2 ^ : 3 [1 9 2 9 ]) Tha Y ears 1930-1939 Tha c h a lla n g a o f l a i s u r a tim a u sa was d is c u s s e d by R o sa lin d C assid y in an a r t i c l e e n t i t l e d "T rends in P h y s ic a l E d u ca tio n Today" i n 1935: N ever in th a h i s t o r y o f th a w o rld have wa liv e d in a p e rio d whan m ost o f m an's e n e rg y was n o t needed f o r w ork. B ecause o f t h i s n e e d , t h e r e h a s grown up th e id e a t h a t i t was more n o b le t o w ork th a n t o p la y , t h a t anyone who p la y e d was f o o lin g away tim e t h a t c o u ld be more nobly u sed f o r s o c i a l work a c t i v i t y . The P u r ita n i c a l p h ilo so p h y s t i l l g r ip s A m erican l i f e v ery d e f i n i t e l y . Yet wa a r e in a p e r io d when we know d e f in i t e l y t h a t v ery soon e v e ry o n e i s g o in g t o have n in e o r more h o u rs a day t h a t w i l l n o t be needed f o r w ork. W e a r e in a p e rio d when we m ust no lo n g e r d isa p p ro v e o f l e i s u r e tim e b u t m ust h ig h ly ap p ro v e i t . re c o g n iz e i t and th e r e f o r e e d u c a te f o r i t . (138:l> t 11935]) A y e a r l a t e r th e n e c e s s i ty f o r w is e r and more s a t i s f y i n g use o f l e i s u r e tim e was p o in te d o u t in an a r t i c l e w r i tt e n f o r The Camping M agazine: C h ild re n m ust have much more em phasis in t h e i r ed u c a tio n on th a d evelopm ent o f a t t i t u d e s tow ard r e c r e a t i o n a l , la i s u r a - ti m e a c t i v i t i e s and th e y must be g iv en a w ide v a r i e t y o f s k i l l s t h a t th e y can usa w ith su c c e s s in th e s e a c t i v i t i e s , w h e th e r i t ia in p la y in g in an o r c h e s t r a , d e s ig n in g and d y e in g m a t e r i a l s , wood c a rv i n g , sa w in g , o u td o o r c o o k in g , o r w r itin g and a c ti n g a p la y . (110:10 [1 9 3 6 ]) In th a same p e r io d i c a l a r t i c l e C assid y em phasized th a v a lu e o f cam ping i n l e i s u r e e d u c a tio n , "camp s u r e ly i s one o f th e p e r f e c t s i t u a t i o n s i n w hich t o b u ild p o s i t i v e 219 l e i s u r e - ti m e a t t i t u d e s and s k i l l s ” (1 1 0 :3 0 [1 9 3 6 ])* and in a n o th e r p e r io d ic a l re v e a le d th e im p o rtan ce o f an o rg a n iz e d summer camp program t o l e i s u r e e d u c a tio n : I b e lie v e t h a t th e m any-sided program o f th e summer camp g iv e s us th e Gypsy B read t h a t we have s o lo n g o m itte d from o u r program in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n * I f t h i s in fo rm a lly p lan n ed program o f a c t i v i t i e s can be com bined w ith th e b e s t t h a t th e s c h o o l program o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n o f f e r s * th e n we w i l l be a b le t o b u ild more s u r e ly f o r a f u l l e r p e r io d o f l i v i n g f o r each c h ild in h is p r e s e n t l i f e as w e ll as i n h is a d u lt l i f e * I f we can b u ild h o b b ies* a r e a l " t a s t e ” f o r th e o u t-o f- d o o rs i n c h ild h o o d , many s k i l l s th ro u g h w hich he can more f u l l y e n jo y l i f e in th e open* th e n th ro u g h o u t h i s l i f e he w i l l r e tu r n t o th o s e s k i l l s as a s o u rc e o f re fre s h m e n t. (136:469 [19 3 6 ]) The c h a lle n g e o f l e i s u r e e d u c a tio n to p h y s ic a l e d u c a to rs was re c o g n iz e d by R o sa lin d C a ssid y a s sh e s a i d ”we m ust e d u c a te f o r l e i s u r e ” (136:469 [19 3 6 ] ) . She i n d i c a te d t h a t "we a re g o in g t o have to s e e o u r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o th e f i e l d o f r e c r e a tio n r a t h e r th a n th in k in g o f o u r work a s s e p a r a te d from t h i s program ” (138:16 [1 9 3 5 ])* and p ro v id e " a c t i v i t i e s t h a t g iv e many re s o u rc e s f o r th e p r o f i t a b l e u se o f l e i s u r e tim e now and l a t e r ” (1 3 8 :1 6 [1 9 3 5 ]) . The p o in t was a l s o made t h a t "we do n o t have a d e q u a te r e c r e a t i o n a l r e s o u r c e s e i t h e r f o r y o u th o u t o f s c h o o l o r f o r young m a rrie d c o u p le s ” (142:22 [1 9 3 7 ])* and ”o u r p h y s ic a l edu c a tio n program s have o v erlo o k e d th e l a r g e r im p lic a tio n s and o p p o r tu n itie s in th e o u tin g f i e l d ” (1 4 2 :1 8 [1 9 3 7 ])* In Mew D ire c tio n s i n P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n f o r th e A d o le sc e n t G ir l in H igh S chool and C o lle g e , th e n e g a tiv e e f f e c t o f t r a d i t i o n a l p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n p r a c t i c e s upon th e 220 developm ent o f r e c r e a tio n a l program ex p erien ces was p a r ti c u la r iz e d : Our mass methods o f ed u c atio n have tended to d e fe a t th e c o n trib u tio n th a t th e p h y sic a l ed u catio n program could make in weaving la r g e r p a tte rn s o f p lay a b i l i t i e s and i n t e r e s t s in to th e liv e s o f boys and g i r l s —more h ik in g and cam ping, swimming and te n n is , s o c ia l dancing and re c r e a tio n p a r tie s —in s te a d o f fo rc in g a whole y e a r o f th e c h i l d 's l i f e in t o c o n c e n tra tio n on a s in g le h ig h ly co m p etitiv e team s p o rt such as f o o tb a ll o r b a s k e tb a ll. (13:21 [1938]) The Y ears 19«»0-19»»9 In 1910 a vigorous r e je c tio n o f a tre n d in p h y sic a l ed u c atio n id e n tif ie d as a re tu rn to "p h y sic a l tr a in in g " o r th e "m uscle c u l t ," was p u b lish ed in a p e rio d ic a l a r t i c l e e n t i t l e d "New D ire c tio n s in P h y sic a l E d u c a tio n ." In t h i s a r t i c l e th e r e c r e a tiv e a sp e c ts o f e d u c a tio n were re co g n ized : W e have j u s t come in to a p e rio d when th e r e i s a reco g n itio n on th e p a r t o f e d u c a to rs o f th e v alu es o f th e c r e a tiv e p a tte rn s o f p lay in g games, o f p lay in g in an o r c h e s tr a , in p a in tin g m urals on th e s c h o o l's w a lls , o f going on tr a v e l jo u rn e y s , o f a l l s o r ts o f r e - c r e a tiv e p a tte rn s which a re more f le x ib le u n its o f ex p erien ces th an have h ith e r to been reco g n ized in ed u c atio n . (121: i» i»5 [1910]) At t h i s tim e i t was em phasized by R osalind C assidy th a t i f p h y s ic a l ed u c atio n and re c re a tio n were n o t p er v e rte d t o war u s e , "new f r o n tie r s w ill . . . emphasize la r g e r and more v a rie d p a tte rn s o f play th a t reach out in to o u tin g s k i l l s , jo u rn e y in g , camping . . . " (121:*m5 [19H 0]). In th e book. P h y sic a l E ducation in th e Secondary 221 S ch o o l» C assidy (and o th e rs ) p ro je c te d t h e i r view point re g a rd in g th e e d u c a tio n a l p o te n tia l o f r e c r e a tio n in a dem ocratic s o c ie ty : N e ith e r among th e c itiz e n r y o f o u r co u n try n o r among th o se who s p e c ia liz e in e d u c a tin g th e young i s th e re a t p re se n t any f u l l r e a liz a t io n o f th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f r e c r e a tio n as th e la b o ra to ry p re p a ra tio n and in - s e r v ic e ed u c atio n f o r dem ocracy. (18:71 [1940]) Developments t o be a n tic ip a te d in re c re a tio n pro grams in t h i s decade were d isc u sse d by R osalind C assid y , H ilda C. Kozman, and C. 0 . Jackson in th e fo llo w in g fa sh io n in 19H7: W e can look forw ard t o a g re a t e x te n sio n o f camping and a l l i e d a c t i v i t i e s , youth h o s te lin g , o v e r-n ig h t ex c u r s io n s , planned e d u c a tio n a l jo u m e y in g s by bus and r a ilr o a d and a i r tr a n s p o r t. The b eginnings have been made in th e use o f such e x p e rien ces f o r e n ric h in g th e liv e s o f boys and g i r l s . In modern r e c r e a tio n a l pro grams th e r e i s em phasis on d ev elo p in g a p p re c ia tio n s o f q u a lity in th in g s and p e o p le , a tte n tio n t o th e p u rs u it o f h obbies f o r in d iv id u a l e x p re s sio n and g re a t concern f o r r e c r e a tio n a l a c t i v i t i e s as forms o f s o c ia l e x p re ss io n . (30:103 C1947]) The r e la tio n s h ip o f r e c r e a tio n t o th e o v e ra ll s e c ondary sch o o l c u rric u lu m was d e fin e d in th e book, P h y sical E ducation in th e Secondary S ch o o l, where i t was s ta te d t h a t " r e c re a tio n . . . sh o u ld n o t be thought o f as se p a ra te i n s t i t u t i o n o r program but as an in te g r a te d dynamic p a rt of th e t o t a l sc h o o l cu rricu lu m " (18:71 [1 9 4 0 ]). The im portance of th e a re a o f p h y s ic a l ed u catio n in h e lp in g t o meet th e r e c r e a tio n a l needs o f boys and g i r l s o f secondary sc h o o l age was s p e lle d out by C assidy (and 222 o th e rs ) in th e book, P h y sic a l E d u ca tio n in th e Secondary S c h o o li Thors i s much ovidsnco to show t h a t th e c h a r a c te r i s t i c p lay a c t i v i t i e s o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n s a t i s f y sons o f th e re c r e a tiv e n e e d s o f th e m a jo rity o f boys and g i r l s d u rin g th e seco n d decade o f l i f e and r e t a in t h i s v alu e f o r many a d u l t s . H e re , a s in th e h e a lth program , te a c h e rs o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n can make a very s i g n if ic a n t c o n trib u tio n w ith o u t c o n s id e rin g r e c r e a tio n a s e x c lu s iv e ly t h e i r f i e l d . I t i s t h e i r r e s p o n s ib i li ty t o h e lp y o u n g sters e x p e rie n c e t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n s o f p a r tic ip a tio n in a v a r ie ty o f in d iv id u a l and group games, dance a c t i v i t i e s , cam ping, o u tin g s and p a r t i e s , some o f which a re p a r ti c u l a r ly a p p r o p ria te f o r t h i s p e rio d o f developm ent and some o f w hich a re e q u a lly s u ita b le f o r use during a d u lt y e a r s . (18:71 L19**0J) In th e l a t e 19U0's t h e r e la tio n s h ip o f p h y s ic a l ed u c atio n t o r e c r e a tio n was e x p la in e d in term s o f two o v e r la p p in g c i r c le s which c o n ta in e d an a re a o f com m onality, p h y s ic a l a c t i v i t y : The f ie l d s o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n and r e c r e a tio n a re lik e two c i r c l e s which o v e rla p w ith an a re a common to b o th . In a d d itio n , each f i e l d c o n ta in s a c t i v i t i e s which a re r e la te d t o th o s e in th e o th e r f i e l d by v ir tu e o f th e in te r r e la te d n e s s o f a l l human fu n c tio n in g . For exam ple, in th e a re a h e ld in common w ith r e c r e a tio n , p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n can c o n tr ib u te th ro u g h h e lp in g boys and g i r l s in c re a s e t h e i r know ledge o f p h y s ic a l a c t i v i t i e s and t h e i r s k i l l in p e rfo rm in g them . (30:118 [191*7]) The Years 1950-1959 W ritin g in th e book, D eveloping D em ocratic Human R e la tio n s Through H ealth E d u c a tio n . P h y s ic a l E d u catio n and R e c re a tio n , C assid y , in 1951, s c r u ti n i z e d th e a re a s o f h e a lth , p h y s ic a l, and r e c r e a tio n e d u c a tio n in l i g h t o f e d u c a tio n in a d em o cratic s o c ie ty . She in d ic a te d t h a t "we 223 must examine • • • r e c r e a tio n p ro g ra m t o s e e w hat h azard s and w hat o p p o rtu n itie s -are p r e s e n t in th e p re p a ra tio n o f boys and g i r l s f o r d em o cratic c itiz e n s h ip • . , ” (10:105 C 1951]). L a te r she p o in te d o u t th e r e s p o n s i b il ity o f th e f i e l d o f r e c r e a tio n t o youth in a democracy by s t a t i n g t h a t "u n le s s o u r youth ach iev e a deep s e l f u n d e rsta n d in g and a re equipped w ith re so u rc e s f o r wholesome and t r u l y r e - c r e a tiv e e x p e rie n c e s t we w i l l n o t have done th e p ro p e r e d u c a tio n a l jo b f o r them " (1 9 6 :2 -3 [1 9 5 2 ]). The im portance o f r e c r e a tio n e d u c a tio n and r e c r e a t i o n a l e x p e rie n c e s to youth liv in g in an age o f a n x ie ty was re v e a le d in two documents w r itte n in th e 1 9 5 0 's: In a p e rio d when m achines w i l l r e le a s e man f o r s h o r t e r w orking hours and lo n g e r p e rio d s o f l e i s u r e , R e c re a tio n E d u catio n ta k e s on a c e n tr a l r o l e , i f man i s t o a c h ie v e and m ain tain f i t n e s s . (8 :4 3 [195 9 ]) Our tim e demands t h a t we liv e w ith f e a r , rum or, r e a c tio n , i n a c ti o n , pessim ism , a g r e s s io n , u n c e r ta in ty , and we must see t h a t in th e d ev elo p m en tal sequence o f ch ild h o o d and youth in n e r s e c u r ity may be a tta in e d i n a p a r ti c u l a r l y e f f e c tiv e way th ro u g h th e q u a lity o f e x p e rie n c e s w ith in th e group work and r e c r e a tio n f i e l d . (196:2 C1952]) In th e l a t e 1950's R o salin d C assidy i d e n t i f i e d in depth th e m eaning o f r e c r e a ti o n , th e purpose o f th e p ro fe s s io n o f r e c r e a tio n e d u c a tio n , and th e d i s c i p lin e o f r e c r e a tio n e d u c a tio n . The d i s c ip l in e was d e s c rib e d in t e r m o f i t s fo u n d a tio n s , body o f know ledge, and s e q u e n tia l arrangem ent o f th e body o f know ledge: R e c re a tio n i s th e c r e a tiv e use o f l e i s u r e th ro u g h in d iv id u a l o r group e x p e rie n c e m o tiv a te d p rim a rily by 22*f th « s a t i s f a c t i o n t o be g a in e d . I t i s one o f n a n 's p r in o ip la o p p o r tu n itie s f o r th e en ric h m e n t o f l i v i n g . The p r o fe s s io n o f r e c r e a tio n i s d e d ic a te d t o th e b e l i e f t h a t l e i s u r e i s a c o n d itio n e r o f c u l t u r e and th e r e f o r e w hat nan does d u rin g h is l e i s u r e t i n e i s o f i n f i n i t e consequence t o s o c ie ty . The p r o f e s s io n i s e s t a b li s h e d t o p ro v id e th e le a d e r s h ip n ec e ssa x y to a s s i s t w ith and t o p ro v id e o p p o r tu n itie s f o r nan t o be c r e a tiv e and t o use h is l e i s u r e c o n s t r u c ti v e ly . R ecre a t i o n no lo n g e r can be view ed as j u s t p la y g ro u n d s , g an ss and s p o r ts t o r as a program o n ly f o r c h ild r e n . I t m ust be c o n sid e re d in th e l i g h t o f th e p r e s e n t and f u tu r e needs o f man f o r c r e a tiv e o u t l e t s w hich much o f work d e n ie s him and l e i s u r e a f f o r d s him . (2 6 3 :3 [1 9 5 8 ]) F o u n d atio n s o f th e D is c ip lin e 1 . F a c ts and u n d e rsta n d in g s th ro u g h b io lo g y , p sy c h o l og y , a n th ro p o lo g y , p h ilo s o p h y , and s o c io lo g y , r e l a t e d t o th e developm ent o f man. 2 . F a c ts and u n d e rsta n d in g s about m an's p h y s ic a l enviro n m en t (p h y s ic a l and b io l o g ic a l s c ie n c e s ) as r e l a t e d t o r e c r e a tio n and l e i s u r e . 3 . F a c ts and u n d e rsta n d in g s o f th e m edia and ways ( th e a r t s ) th ro u g h w hich th e in d iv id u a l r e le a s e s c r e a t i v i t y . *». F a c ts and u n d e rsta n d in g s o f community s t r u c t u r e , fu n c tio n and r e la tio n s h ip s . Body o f Knowledge 1 . H is to ry and p h ilo so p h y o f l e i s u r e and r e c r e a ti o n . 2. U n d ersta n d in g th e r o le o f l e i s u r e and r e c r e a ti o n in th e developm ent o f th e in d iv id u a l. 3. The s o c i a l s ig n if ic a n c e o f l e i s u r e and r e c r e a ti o n a s a c o n d itio n e r o f c u l t u r e . 1 . R e c r e a tio n a l and l e i s u r e p a tte r n s o f p e o p le . 5. U n d ersta n d in g s and s k i l l s i n th e a re a s o f p la n n in g , d ev elo p m en t, a d m in is tr a tio n and le a d e r s h ip r e l a t e d t o program s o f r e c r e a tio n . S e q u e n tia l A rrangem ent o f th e Body o f Knowledge—th e D is c ip lin e 1 . H is to ry and P h ilosophy o f L e is u re and R e c re a tio n 2 . S o c ia l F o rces A ffe c tin g L e isu re P a tte r n s 3 . T h e o rie s o f L e isu re and R e c re a tio n In d iv id u a l and Group E x p re ssio n s o f R e c re a tio n 5. Role o f L e isu re and R e c re a tio n i n th e D evelopm ent o f th e In d iv id u a l 6 . I n s t i t u t i o n a l and Community O rg a n is a tio n o f R e c re a tio n 7. P r in c ip le s o f R e c re a tio n L ea d ersh ip 8. A d m in is tr a tio n , S u p e rv isio n and Management o f Pro grams o f R e c re a tio n (2 6 3 :3 [1 9 5 5 ]) 225 The s p e c i a l c o n tr ib u tio n o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n t o th e r e c r e a tio n f i e l d was in d ic a te d by C assidy to be move ment e x p e rie n c e s a v a ila b le t o in d i v id u a ls , and th e c lo s e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f th e two a re a s was p o in te d o u t t o r e s id e n o t in t h e i r unique and r e la t e d s u b je c t m a tte r , b u t in t h e i r fo cu s upon th e in d iv id u a l: W e have come t o s e e r e c r e a tio n in b ro ad term s as in c lu d in g m a te r ia ls from many e d u c a tio n a l f i e l d s , th e f in e and u s e f u l a r t s , th e s c ie n c e s and o th e r d i s c i - E l i n e s . W e have come t o s e e o u r a c t i v i t i e s , p a r t i c u - a r ly s p o r ts and d a n c e , as p a r t o f t h i s f i e l d . (2 8 :1 3 C19S13) W ith grow ing knowledge and in s i g h ts i n t o m an's n e e d s , th e d i s c i p l i n e s r e l a te d t o movement, and th o u g h t o f as p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n , f i t n e s s , and r e - c r e a t i v e use o f l e i s u r e , have worked t o d e fin e b o th t h e i r u n iq u en ess and t h e i r r e la te d n e s s . In th e p r o f e s s io n a l f x e ld , in s c h o o l and com m unity, th e y a re c lo s e ly r e l a t e d and i n t e r a c t i v e , a s th e focus i s upon th e m oving, f e e l i n g , e x p e rie n c in g in d iv id u a l r a t h e r th a n upon a body o f know ledge. (8:U 4 [195 9 ]) The Y ears 1960-1965 In 1965 th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n in th e sp a c e age was p in p o in te d w ith th e e x p la n a tio n t h a t " e d u c a tio n f o r e f f e c t i v e movement i s a c r u c i a l p a r t o f th e g e n e ra l e d u c a tio n o f ev e ry boy and g i r l and must be se e n c lo s e ly i n t e r r e l a t e d w ith a l l e d u c a tiv e e x p e rie n c e s " (2 7 3 :3 [1 9 6 5 ]). C assidy i d e n t i f i e d sev en p r i o r i t i e s o f re s p o n s i b i l i t y in e d u c a tio n f o r e f f e c t i v e movement, and re c o g n iz e d r e c r e a tiv e commitments as one o f th e m ajor c o n c e rn s: W e m u st: P ro v id e each in d iv id u a l w ith a h u n g er f o r , and s k i l l s in c r e a tiv e and r e c r e a tiv e le i s u r e 226 a c t i v i t i e s ! w ith know ledge a b o u t r e c r e a ti o n a l re s o u rc e s in th e com m unity. (2 7 3 :3 [1 9 6 5 ]) Summary D uring th e 1920*s R o sa lin d C assid y re c o g n iz e d th e e d u c a tio n a l v a lu e s o f cam ping* in d ic a te d t h a t th e p la y ground movement i n th e U n ite d S ta te s had g iv en s u p p o rt t o th e n a t u r a l movement i n p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n th ro u g h em phasis on th e n a t u r a l a c t i v i t i e s o f p lay * and i d e n t i f i e d one u n it o f program c o n te n t i n th e n a t u r a l program as a c t i v i t i e s o f a r e c r e a t i o n a l n a tu re * At t h i s tim e a r e c o g n itio n o f t h e * i n c r e a s in g amount o f l e i s u r e tim e a v a ila b le t o A m ericans was made* and C assid y d e c rie d th e la c k o f t r a i n i n g a v a ila b le f o r th e u t i l i z a t i o n o f l e i s u r e . In th e t h i r t i e s th e p u r i t a n i c a l c o n c e p tio n o f l e i s u r e a s m isu se o f tim e was r e j e c t e d by C assidy as sh e a d v o c a te d in c r e a s e d em phasis on e d u c a tio n f o r l e i s u r e . The e d u c a tio n a l o p p o r tu n itie s w ith in th e f i e l d o f p h y s ic a l edu c a tio n f o r b ro a d e x p e rie n c e s o f a r e c r e a ti v e n a tu re w ere p o in te d o u t a t t h i s tim e * and th e r e c r e a t i o n a l v a lu e s o f cam ping and e d u c a tio n i n th e o u td o o rs were s t r e s s e d as avenues f o r e n r ic h in g th e l i v e s o f in d iv id u a ls in a d e m o c ra tic s o c i e t y . T hroughout th e 19*»0*s th e v a lu e s o f r e c r e a tiv e e x p e rie n c e s t o in d iv id u a l s e lf - e x p r e s s io n * s o c i a l edu c a tio n * and e d u c a tio n f o r d e m o c ra tic l i v i n g w ere empha siz e d * The f i e l d o f r e c r e a ti o n was i d e n t i f i e d as an 227 i n t e g r a l com ponent o f th e o v e r a l l s c h o o l c u rric u lu m , and c lo s e ly r e l a t e d t o th e f i e l d o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n th ro u g h com m onality o f c o n c e rn w ith p h y s ic a l a c ti v i ty * P h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n a c t i v i t i e s w ere view ed in l i g h t o f t h e i r c o n t r i b u tio n to t h e i n d i v i d u a l ’ s r e c r e a ti v e n eed s a t i s f a c t i o n a t t h i s time* In t h e d ecad e o f th e f i f t i e s , th e f i e l d o f r e c r e a tio n was e x t e n s i v e ly exam ined by R o sa lin d C assidy and i d e n t i f i e d w ith p r e p a r a tio n f o r d e m o c ra tic c i t i z e n s h i p , p e r s o n a lity a c t u a l i z a t i o n , s e l f - s e c u r i t y , and c o n s tr u c tiv e use o f l e i s u r e f o r l i f e e n ric h m e n t. P h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n e x p e rie n c e s w ere view ed a s an im p o rta n t p a r t o f th e r e c r e a tio n f i e l d , and t h e c lo s e r e l a t i o n s h i p and i n t e r a c t i o n o f th e a r e a s w as em phasized* The d i s c i p l i n e o f r e c r e a tio n was i d e n t i f i e d an d d e s c r ib e d , and i t s u n iq u e n e ss and r e l a t i o n s h ip t o p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n and h e a lt h e d u c a tio n i d e n t i f i e d in term s o f i t s c o n t r ib u t io n t o in d iv id u a l d ev elo p m en t, r a t h e r th a n t h e m a ste ry and tra n s m is s io n o f th e s u b je c t m a tte r c o n te n t o f t h e f i e l d . The im p o rta n c e o f r e c r e a t i v e e x p e rie n c e in th e p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n f i e l d was s p e ll e d o u t by R o sa lin d C assid y in t h e 1960 vs when sh e i d e n t i f i e d r e c r e a tiv e com m itm ents as one o f se v e n p r i o r i t i e s o f r e s p o n s i b i l i ty in e d u c a tio n f o r e f f e c t i v e movement. A b e l i e f i n th e v a lu e s o f r e c r e a t i v e , l e i s u r e tim e e x p e rie n c e s f o r e n ric h m e n t o f human l i f e , and th e im p o rta n t c o n trib u tio n p h y sic a l e d u c a tio n a c t i v i t i e s can make t o r e c r e a tiv e need s a t i s f a c t i o n o v er th e y e a r s , were empha s iz e d throu g h o u t f iv e decades o f R o salin d C a ssid y 's w r itin g . CHAPTER XVII HEALTH EDUCATION: PERSPECTIVE A N D M EANING E d u ca tio n f o r f i t n e s s from e a r l i e s t ch ild h o o d i s a v i t a l s te p i n p re v e n tiv e m ed icin e. ..J o s e p h B. W olffe A deep concern ab o u t human w e ll-b e in g and t o t a l fu n c tio n was e v id e n t in R o sa lin d C a s s id y 's w ritin g s o v er th e d ecad es. The m eanings and im p o rtan ce o f h e a lth and h e a lth e d u c a tio n to in d iv id u a l developm ent, and th e r e l a tio n s h ip betw een p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n and t h i s theme a re ex p lo re d in t h i s c h a p te r. The Y ears 1920-1929 In th e book, The New P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n , R o salin d C assidy and Thomas D. Wood i d e n t i f i e d th e m eaning o f h e a lth e d u c a tio n as " th e sum o f e x p e rie n c e s in sc h o o l and e l s e w h ere, which fa v o ra b ly in flu e n c e h a b i t s , a t t i t u d e s , and knowledge r e l a ti n g t o in d iv id u a l, com m unity, and r a c i a l h e a lth " (52:86 C 1927]), and h e a lth as "abundance, sound n e s s , and w o rth in e ss o f l i f e , in c lu d in g p h y s ic a l, m e n ta l, s o c i a l , m o ra l, and s p i r i t u a l a s p e c ts o f liv in g " (52:86 229 230 [1 9 2 7 ]) . The m eaning o f a h e a lth e d u c a tio n program i n th e e le m e n ta ry and aecondaxy sc h o o l was p re s e n te d in th e fo llo w in g fa s h io n : The h e a lth e d u c a tio n program co m p rises a g r e a t ran g e and v a r ie ty o f m a te r ia ls . I t u t i l i z e s s p e c i a l m a te r ia ls o f i n s t r u c t i o n in th e e le m e n ta ry s c h o o l and r e q u ir e s p r a c t i c a l c o r r e la tio n s th ro u g h o u t th e sc h o o l d a y , w h erev er o p p o rtu n ity o c c u rs . In th e h ig h s c h o o l, h e a lth e d u c a tio n sh o u ld be c o n s id e re d an i n t e r d e p a r t m en tal and i n t e r s u b j e c t program and must depend f o r s u c c e s s upon th e m a te r ia ls in any and a l l s u b je c ts w hich may re a so n a b ly and e f f e c t i v e l y be a p p lie d to h e a lt h . (52:3HS [1 9 2 7 ]) In th e same volum e, th e co n c ep t o f a f i e l d o f phys i c a l e d u c a tio n t r a d i t i o n a l l y d eveloped a b o u t a h e a lth aim was r e j e c t e d , and th e r e la tio n s h ip o f h e a lth e d u c a tio n t o p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n was e x p la in e d : The aim o f h e a l t h , by p h y s io lo g ic a l re sp o n se t o muscu l a r e x e r c is e , i s n o t enough f o r p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n . H e a lth w i l l come as a b y -p ro d u c t, i f th e c h i ld i s fu rn is h e d s i t u a t i o n s in w hich t o form a c c e p ta b le m e n ta l, m o ra l, and s o c i a l re sp o n se s u n d er c o n d itio n s and in ways w hich a re wholesome and h y g ie n ic . (5 2 :6 0 [1 9 2 7 ]) H e a lth e d u c a tio n and p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n a r e , o r sh o u ld b e , c o n sid e re d as s e p a ra te though c lo s e ly r e l a t e d f i e l d s o f i n s t r u c t i o n . H e a lth e d u c a tio n o f th e p ro g re s s iv e ty p e i s concerned w ith th e in c u lc a tio n o f d e s ir a b le h a b its o f in d iv id u a l and community h e a l t h , m o tiv a te d by fa v o ra b le and c o m p e llin g a t t i t u d e s and r a t i o n a l i z e d by a p p r o p ria te know ledge. The n a tu r a liz e d program o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n , w ith d i f f e r e n t o b je c t i v e s b u t em ploying s i m i l a r e d u c a tio n a l m ethods, fu r n is h e s v i t a l o p p o r tu n itie s f o r i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ith h e a lth e d u c a tio n . (52:3>*5 [1 9 2 7 ]) In an a r t i c l e e n t i t l e d " R e la tin g H ygiene and P h y si c a l E d u c a tio n t o th e L ife o f th e S tu d e n t," C a s s id y , in 1927, p o in te d o u t th e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f fo c u s in g a t t e n t i o n 231 upon th e c h ild r a t h e r th a n th e s u b je c t m a tte r o f h e a l t h e d u c a tio n o r p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n : The e f f o r t , in th e f i e l d o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n t o c o o r d in a te a l l e le m e n ts o f te a c h in g tow ard e f f i c i e n t l i v i n g on th e p a r t o f th e i n d i v id u a l . r a t h e r th a n t o t a l k a b o u t h e a lth e d u c a tio n and p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n and h y g ie n e and s p o r t s and g y m n astics e t c . a l l as s e p a r a te u n c o o rd in a te d f i e l d s and s u b j e c t s , i s a modern and so u n d te n d e n c y . W e sh o u ld c e n te r a l l e f f o r t s to w a rd te a c h in g th e c h i l d t o l i v e w e ll r a th e r th a n te a c h in g o u r s p e c i a l s u b j e c t s t o th e c h i ld . (127:357 [1 9 2 7 ]) The Y ears 1930-1939 W ith th e p u b lic a tio n o f New D ire c tio n s i n P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n f o r th e A d o le sc e n t G ir l i n High S chool and C o l le g e in 1938, R o s a lin d C assid y d e fin e d h e a lth a s " th e i n t e g r a ti o n o f th e o rg a n is m -in -its -e n v iro n m e n t in term s o f fu n c tio n " (1 3 :1 0 0 [ 1 9 3 8 ]) , h e a lth e d u c a tio n as " th e sum o f th e changes in th e in d iv id u a l cau sed by e x p e rie n c e s c e n te r in g in to ta l- b o d y fu n c tio n in g " (13:100 [ 1 9 3 8 ]) , and s c h o o l h e a lt h e d u c a tio n as " th e p ro c e ss o f o r i e n t i n g th e i n d i v id u a l in th e p e r s i s t e n t problem s o f l i v in g th ro u g h g u id e d e x p e rie n c e s c e n te r in g i n to ta l-b o d y f u n c tio n in g " (1 3 :1 0 0 [1 9 3 8 ]). The need f o r a h o l i s t i c c o n c ep tio n o f h e a lth ed u c a ti o n was em phasized in New D ire c tio n s in P h y s ic a l Edu c a tio n f o r th e A d o le sc e n t G ir l in High S chool and C o lle g e when th e id e a o f " t o t a l i t y " was s t r e s s e d : The p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n te a c h e r must be e x tre m e ly c a u tio u s i n s p e a k in g o f p h y s ic a l f i t n e s s , p h y s ic a l h e a l t h , p h y s ic a l r e c r e a tio n as s in g le o b j e c t i v e s , s i n c e i n t r u t h th e y do n o t e x i s t s e p a r a te ly . The need t o 232 em phasize th a word t o t a l in sp aa k in g o f t o t a l - h a a l t h , to ta l-b o d y e d u c a tio n , to ta l-o rg a n is m and anviron m ant, sa a a s r a g r a t t a b l a b u t a l l te& chers may fin d v alu a in doing s o u n t i l such tim s as a tte n tio n i s focused on th a t o t a l u n i t . (1 3 :7 1 [1938]) Tha r o le o f th a p h y s ic a l a d u c a tio n te a c h e r in th e h e a lth program in th a seco n d ary sch o o l was ex p lain ed by R osalind C assidy in th e R eport o f th e C a lifo rn ia C onference on Problem s o f P ro fe s s io n a l E ducation in H e a lth . P h y sic a l E d u ca tio n , and R e c re a tio n . C itin g th e lo g ic and d e f i n itio n s o f C lark H e th e rin g to n r e la ti v e to th e e d u c a tiv e and p r o te c tiv e fu n c tio n s o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n , C assidy s a id th a t "th e p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n i n s t r u c t o r in th e secondary sch o o l sh o u ld be h e ld re s p o n s ib le f o r th e program in h e a lth ed u c atio n " (1 9 5 :7 [1 9 3 5 ]). She d e fin e d t h i s r e s p o n s ib ility in term s o f h e a lth c o o rd in a tio n in th e sc h o o l: I f th e p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n te a c h e r i s th e h e a lth c o o rd i n a to r , h e sh o u ld have a com m ittee w ith in th e sch o o l o f a l l o th e r groups t h a t would d e a l w ith in s tr u c tio n in t h i s program , and th u s have a b ro a d e r program planned in th e sc h o o l in w hich each te a c h e r i s re sp o n sib le f o r th e h e a lth program . (1 9 5 :7 -8 [1935]) In a n o th e r p u b lic a tio n th e v alue o f a h e a lth coor d in a to r was em phasized in r e la ti o n t o a c h ild -c e n te re d r a th e r th a n a s u b je c t- c e n te r e d program in th e secondary s c h o o l: T his id e a o f th e h e a lth c o o rd in a to r in th e sch o o l has been w e ll developed and i s t r u l y th e new est tr e n d . In my m ind, i t i s th e most v a lu a b le way o f approaching th e h e a lth problem . The em phasis i s l a id on te a c h in g th e c h ild r a t h e r th a n th e s u b je c t, o f ap p ly in g th e te a c h in g t o in d iv id u a l n e e d s, o f t e s t i n g th e r e s u lt s in term s o f th e c h ild and n o t o f th e a d m in is tra tio n o f th e p r o je c t. (138:15 [1 9 3 5 ]) 233 Tha Y ta rt 1 9 HQ-19H9 In an a r t i c l e w r itte n i n December o f 19H O e n t i t l e d " P h y s ic a l E d u ca tio n and M o b iliz a tio n ," R o salin d C assidy w arned a g a in s t a ten d en cy t o d e fin e h e a lth in a narrow se n se d u rin g tim e o f w ar o r c o n f l i c t : The ta s k o f e d u c a tin g f o r h e a lth and v ig o r has alw ays been one o f ,t h e many im p o rta n t o b je c tiv e s o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n , y e t in tim e s o f w ar h y s t e r i a we te n d to throw o v e r a l l th e o th e r v a lu e s o f th e p h y s ic a l edu c a tio n program and s t a r t to t r a i n f o r h e a lth as th e o nly good. In t h i s tu r n o v e r we u n fo rtu n a te ly te n d to d e fin e " h e a lth " in a narrow w ay, c la im in g t h a t i t may be a tta in e d by e x e r c is e program s a lo n e . (12H:6 [1 9 H O 3) In c o n tr a s t t o a narrow c o n c ep tio n o f h e a lth edu c a tio n , i t was p o in te d out t h a t " h e a lth i s th e in te g r a tio n o f th e t o t a l organism f o r b e s t fu n c tio n in g " (18:66 [19H 03), " h e a lth e d u c a tio n i s th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f a l l ag e n cies in sc h o o l" (18:66 (19H 03), and th e id e a o f a h o l i s t i c , o rg an - ism ic co n c e p tio n o f h e a lth was developed and s tr e s s e d th ro u g h o u t th e d ecad e: Under an outw orn e d u c a tio n a l p h ilo so p h y which em p h a siz e d th e s e p a ra te n e s s o f mind and body, h e a lth was r e la te d p rim a rily t o p h y s ic a l m a lfu n c tio n in g . The o rg a n ism ic co n c ep t n e c e s s a r ily e n la rg e s th e meaning o f h e a lth t o in c lu d e e v e ry m a n ife s ta tio n o f th e p erso n in a c tio n . T his in e v ita b ly le a d s t o th e c o n c lu sio n t h a t e v e ry te a c h e r who g u id es young p eo p le in liv in g a t sc h o o l s h a re s in th e r e s p o n s i b i l i ty f o r making t h a t liv in g h e a l t h f u l . (18:6H [1 9 HO3) The sc h o o l i s r e s p o n s ib le f o r th e t o t a l h e a lth o r in t e g r a ti o n o f th e in d iv id u a l. S chools w hich u n d ertak e such r e s p o n s i b i l i t y m ust p ro v id e f o r th e whole in d iv id u a l. The word h e a lth in c lu d e s in i t s m eaning th e con tin u o u s in t e g r a t i n g o f th e p ro c e s s e s we c a l l p h y s ic a l, i n t e l l e c t u a l , e m o tio n a l, s o c i a l , and m o ral. (133:307 C19H13) 23 * + R e-d efin e and R e-a ffirm H e a lth as " p o s itiv e * dynam ic; i t is th e happy and e f f i c i e n t fu n c tio n in g o f th e whole p e rso n a lity * as c lo s e ly co ncerned w ith m ental a c tiv ity * em o tio n al li f e * s o c ia l r e la tio n * work and re c re a tio n * a s w ith p h y s ic a l c o n d itio n s " ; and H ealth E d u catio n may be d e fin e d as t h a t a re a u n iq u e ly a b le to h e lp in d iv id u a l s to th e f u l l e s t use o f th e body as a symbol o f th e S e lf . "The c o n trib u tio n o f H ea lth E ducation in th e t o t a l e d u c a tio n a l e x p e rie n c e i s p rim a rily made by prom oting th e u n d ersta n d in g and a p p re c ia tio n * develop ment and use o f th e body as a sym bol o f th e S e l f ." "The ta s k o f H ealth e d u c a tio n i s t o make in d iv id u a ls in c re a s in g ly aware o f and a b le t o use th e body as an in stru m e n t f o r th e f u l l e s t e x p re s s io n o f th e t o t a l p e r s o n a lity ." (269:3 [1912]) The h e a lth y p erso n i s th e i n t e g r a t i n g p e r s o n a lity whose s p ir itu a l- p h y s ic a l- e m o tio n a l- s o c ia l- m e n ta l needs are b ein g harm onized and s a t i s f i e d in ways t h a t show th e in d iv id u a l i s a tt a in i n g in c r e a s in g f i t n e s s f o r liv in g a r ic h and f u l l l i f e . The psychosom atic u n ity o f th e organism makes i t m andatory f o r e d u c a to rs to th in k o f th e h e a lth o f boys and g i r l s in t h i s in c lu s iv e way even though h e a lth problem s may be o r seem t o be c e n te re d in one a sp e c t o f t h e i r fu n c tio n in g . (30:47 [1947]) In t h i s e ra C assidy em phasized th e involvem ent o f th e e n t i r e sc h o o l in th e h e a lth e d u c a tio n o f c h ild re n * p o in tin g o u t t h a t "no lo n g e r a r e p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n te a c h e rs s o le ly o r p rim a rily re s p o n s ib le f o r th e e n t i r e program " (16:64 [1940])* s in c e : The h e a lth o f boys and g i r l s i s today a d m itte d ly th e concern o f a l l e d u c a to rs . Programs a re b ein g desig n ed t o c o o rd in a te th e e f f o r t s o f a l l a d u lts in th e sch o o l and community f o r g u id in g boys and g i r l s in t h i s im p o rtan t a re a o f liv in g . I t i s b e in g r e a liz e d and a c te d upon t h a t th e re a re no a s p e c ts o f sc h o o l l i f e w ith o u t p o s itiv e o r n e g a tiv e r e la tio n s h ip s t o h e a lth o f s tu d e n ts . There a re no a s p e c ts o f community l i f e th a t a re n o t a f f e c tiv e fa c to rs * ad d in g t o o r d e tr a c tin g from h e a lth y liv in g . There a re no a s p e c ts o f home and fam ily l i f e t h a t do n o t e n t e r i n t o th e em o tio n al and p h y s ic a l environm ent, in flu e n c in g th e h e a lth o f boys and g i r l s . (30:100 l!9 4 7 ]) 23S The Years 1950-19S9 In th e 195 0'e R o salin d C assidy c o n tin u e d t o r e i t e r a te h e r b e l i e f in h e a lth as " th e t o t a l i t y o f th e in d iv id u a l ' s fu n c tio n in g " (28:14 [1 9 5 1 ]), and a s s o c ia te d h e a lth w ith th e id e a o f " th e whole p erso n " and " f i t n e s s : " S ince y e s te r d a y , we have had t o change our u n d er s ta n d in g o f th e h e a lth y o r "w hole" p e rso n . The W orld H e a lth O rg a n iz a tio n has b ro u g h t us to a new p o s itiv e d e f in i ti o n o f th e h e a lth y p e rso n : w ith th e knowledge we now have o f so c io -p e y c h o -so m a tic i n t e r - r e l a t i o n s h i p s we can no lo n g e r speak o f h e a lth as an ab sen ce o f d is e a s e o r i n f i r m i ty , b u t m ust view i t as a " s t a t e o f com plete p h y s ic a l, m en tal and s o c i a l w e ll b e in g ." Today, we cannot look a t p h y s ic a l, m e n ta l, and s o c i a l a s p e c ts o f human fu n c tio n in g as s e p a r a t e ; we must be concerned w ith th e co n cep t o f u n ity and w ith th e e d u c a tio n o f th e whole p e rs o n , th e h e a lth y p e rso n . (129:208 [1 9 58]) L earn in g to m a in ta in h e a lth o r f i t n e s s i s an o v e r - a l l co n cep t o f th e fu n c tio n in g p e rso n . The o ld id e a o f a s e p a r a te p h y s ic a l, m e n ta l, s o c ia l h e a lth i s no lo n g e r v a li d . (8 :1 9 [1959]) The r e s p o n s i b i li ty o f a l l te a c h e rs f o r s tu d e n t h e a lth e d u c a tio n was in d ic a te d in th e s ta te m e n t t h a t " a l l te a c h e r s , as w e ll as th e s p e c ia liz e d h e a lth p e rs o n n e l, have c o n tr ib u tio n s t o make to th e h e a lth e d u c a tio n program " (2 8 : 14 [1 9 5 1 ]), and th e c e n tr a l focus and ta s k o f h e a lth edu c a tio n w ere i d e n t i f i e d in t h i s m anner: H e a lth e d u c a tio n draws from th e same b a s ic foun d a tio n s as p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n and i s co n cern ed w ith a l l a s p e c ts o f th e i n d i v id u a l's achievem ent o f h e a lt h f u l li v in g . The program s a r e o rg a n iz e d i n t o d iv is io n s o f h e a lth i n s t r u c t i o n , h e a lth s e r v i c e s , and th e p ro v is io n s f o r h e a lth f u l en v iro n m en ts. The uniq u e ta s k o f S chool H e a lth E d u catio n i s t h a t o f changing b e h a v io r th ro u g h th e know ledge, u n d e rsta n d in g s , and s k i l l s r e la t e d to th e i n d i v id u a l's a t t a i n i n g and m a in ta in in g f i t n e s s . (8 :4 3 [1959]) 236 D uring t h i s d sc sd s R o salin d C assidy s t a t s d t h a t " to d a y , h s a l t h a d u c a tio n i s a f i s l d i n i t s own r i g h t , an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f th a t o t a l e d u c a tio n a l p ro cess" (2 8:1H ( 1 9 5 1 ] ) . in 19S8 sh e fo rm u la te d a s e r i e s o f s ta te m e n ts i d e n t i f y i n g th e d i s c i p l i n e o f h e a lth e d u c a tio n , a s sh e had done w ith th e d i s c i p l i n e o f movement and r e c r e a ti o n edu c a ti o n . These s ta te m e n ts i d e n t i f i e d th e n a tu re o f th e d i s c i p l i n e , th e fo u n d a tio n s o f th e d i s c i p l i n e , th e body o f kn o w led g e, and th e s e q u e n tia l arrangem ent o f th e body o f know ledges H e a lth e d u c a tio n i s concerned w ith h e a lth b e h a v io r o f th e in d iv id u a l i n t e r a c t i n g w ith h is environm ent* The d i s c i p l i n e i s th e s c i e n t i f i c h e a lth f a c ts from th e h e a lth and b e h a v io r a l s c ie n c e s i d e n t i f i e d and o rg a n iz e d a s a s e q u e n tia l body o f knowledge* H e a lth e d u c a tio n a s a d i s c i p l in e and as a p ro c e s s c o n s t i t u t e s s c h o o l, c o lle g e , and community h e a lt h edu c a tio n program s* S chool h e a lth e d u c a tio n i s t h a t p a r t o f h e a lth e d u c a t io n co m p risin g th e sch o o l and c o lle g e h e a lth e d u o a tio n p ro g ram s, and t h e i r i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ith community h e a lth re s o u rc e s . (26 3 :1 (19583) F o u n d atio n s o f th e D is c ip lin e 1* F a c ts and u n d e rsta n d in g s r e l a t e d to th e b i o l o g i c a l , p h y s io lo g ic a l, p s y c h o lo g ic a l, and s o c io lo g ic a l developm ent o f th e human organism* 2* F a c ts and u n d e rsta n d in g s o f means o f a s s i s t i n g th e in d iv id u a l t o become an in te g r a te d p e rs o n , and ways i n w hich m o d ific a tio n o f h is b e h a v io r ta k e s p la c e * 3* F a c ts and u n d e rsta n d in g s o f sc h o o l and community s t r u c t u r e and fu n c tio n and r e la tio n s h i p s . Body o f Knowledge The body o f know ledge c o n s t it u tin g th e d i s c i p l i n e i s oom prised o f s c i e n t i f i c f a c ts i d e n t i f i e d fro m th e h e a lth and b e h a v io r a l s c ie n c e s and u t i l i z e d f o r h e a l t h f u l liv in g * Such knowledge i s o rg a n iz e d i n t o h e a lt h e d u c a tio n a r e a s w hich r e l a t e to th e in d iv id u a l, th e fa m ily , and th e community. These a re a s in c lu d e nu t r i t i o n , e x e r c i s e , r e s t , s l e e p , r e la x a t io n , m e n ta l h e a l t h , fa m ily h e a l t h , d e n ta l h e a l t h , p re v e n tio n and 237 c o n t r o l o f d i i « U M t c o n s u la r h e a lt h , s a f e ty e d u c a tio n , s tim u la n ts an d d e p r e s s a n ts , and c o a n u n ity h e a l t h . The body o f know ledge a l s o in c lu d e s th o s e f a c t s r e l a t i n g t o w ays i n w hich b e h a v io r o f C h ild re n , y o u th and a d u lt s i s c h a n g e d . T hese f a c t s a r e u t i l i s e d in th e o r g a n is a tio n o f t h e s c h o o l and c o lle g e h e a lth p ro g re s s w hioh c o n s i s t o f h e a lt h i n s t r u c t i o n , h e a lth s e r v i c e s , and p r o v is io n s f o r a h e a l t h f u l en v iro n m en t. S e q u e n tia l A rrangem ent o f th e Body o f Knowledge— th e D is c ip lin e 1 . P r i n c i p l e s o f H e a lth f u l L iv in g 2 . S o o ia l A sp e c ts o f H e a lth 3. P e rs o n a l and S o c ia l A djustm ent * ♦ . E n v iro n m e n ta l S a n ita tio n 5 . F am ily R e la tio n s (F a e d ly H e a lth ) 6 . P r i n c i p l e s o f N u tr itio n 7. Community C o n tro l o f Communicable D ise a se 8 . F o u n d a tio n s o f S a fe L iv in g 9 . S ch o o l H e a lth E d u c a tio n 10. Community H e a lth E d u c a tio n 11. H is to r y and P r i n c ip l e s in H e a lth E d u catio n 1 2 . C u rre n t P roblem s i n H e a lth E d u catio n (2 6 3 :2 [1 9 5 8 ]) I n h e r w r i t i n g s C assid y i n d ic a t e d th e im p o rta n t r e l a t i o n s h i p o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n and h e a lth e d u c a tio n i n th e s ta te m e n t t h a t " s c h o o l p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n h a s • • . h e a lth c o n te n t" and " i t p ro v id e s an i d e a l la b o r a to r y s i t u a t i o n i n w hich t o m o tiv a te , a p p ly , and t e s t o u t h e a lth te a c h in g " (9 :1 3 6 [1 9 5 1 ] ) . She a l s o em phasized th e c o n t r i b u tio n o f t h i s a r e a t o th e developm ent o f in d iv id u a l w e ll b e in g : The c o n tr ib u t io n s o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n te a c h e r s a r e v i t a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . In no o t h e r phase o f th e s c h o o l c u rric u lu m i s t h e r e g r e a t e r o p p o rtu n ity f o r d e v e lo p in g p h y s ie a l- n e n ta l- e m o tio n a l- s o c ia l w e ll-b e in g th a n th ro u g h p u r p o s e f u l p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n a c t i v i t i e s u n d e r s k i l l f u l , dynam ic le a d e r s h ip . (2 8 :1 * [1 9 5 1 ]) The r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n , r e c r e a t io n e d u c a tio n , and h e a lth e d u c a tio n was e x p la in e d i n th e 238 b o o k , C o u n selin g i n P h v iic a l E d u c a tio n . I t was p o in ts d o u t t h a t t i lt a r a a s " a r t c lo o s ly r s l a t s d and i n t e r a c t i v e , a s th s fo c u s i s upon t h s M oving, f o o l i n g , o x p o rie n c in g in d iv id u a l r a t h e r th a n upon a body o f know ledge" (8:**** [ 1 9 5 9 ] ) , and " a re b a s ic t o u n d e rs ta n d in g s e l f an d t o th e d e v e lo p n e n t o f an e f f e c t i v e in s tru m e n t f o r l i v i n g an e f f e c t i v e and w orthy l i f e in A m erican s o c i e t y " (8:*»S [ 1 9 5 9 ] ) . The Y ears 1960-1965 In 1962 R o s a lin d C a ssid y em phasized th e im p o rtan ce o f sc h o o l p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n t o " f i t n e s s " by e x p la in in g t h a t " i t i s e s s e n t i a l t h a t th e in d iv id u a l a t each age l e v e l sh o u ld b e h e lp e d th ro u g h th e p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n program t o • • • a c h ie v e and m a in ta in f i t n e s s f o r th e demands o f h is d a ily l i f e " (2 8 0 :1 6 [ 1 9 6 2 ] ) . An i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f sp a c e age p r i o r i t i e s f o r edu c a tio n to w a rd e f f e c t i v e movement was made by R o sa lin d C assidy i n a p a p e r e n t i t l e d "P rogram P la n n in g f o r Tomorrow, A S am pling t o G uide i n R e la tin g E v e n ts , Problem s and A c tio n ." T h is m a t e r i a l was d i s t r i b u t e d t o members o f a 1965 summer s e s s io n c l a s s a t th e U n iv e r s ity o f C a lif o r n ia a t Los A ngeles and c o n ta in e d th e fo llo w in g in fo rm a tio n ab o u t th e " f i t n e s s ” o r h e a l t h p r i o r i t y i n th e sp a c e ag e: W e m u st: Work w ith s o r e in fo rm a tio n and s e a l f o r th e t o t a l f i t n e s s o f e a c h i n d i v i d u a l . H elp e a c h t o s e l f - know ledge by h e lp in g him t o u n d e rs ta n d h i s own s tr s n g t h s and w e a k n e s s e s , and b e s t ways t o u s e and c o n se rv e e n e rg y , m eet f a t i g u e , r e l a x , r e s t ; t o u n d e r s ta n d th e p r e s s u r e o f mass m edia i n r e l a t i o n t o quacks 239 i n d i e t , e x e r c i s e , m e d ic a tio n and t h a l i k e . H alp e a c h t o f a a l c o m fo rta b le w ith a c h a n g in g body, H alp aaoh t o know b a t t a r how t o a c h ie v e and m a in ta in i n t a g r a t i o n ( h a a lth ) w ith in an unaaay w o rld . (2 7 3 :5 [1 9 6 5 ]) Summary In th a volum e, Tha Naw P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n . R o sa lin d C a ssid y and Thonas D. Wood, in th a 1 9 2 0 's , r a j a c t a d th a c o n c a p t o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n e s s e n t i a l l y i d a n t i f i a d w ith a h a a lth aim and p o in te d o u t th e s e p a r a ta i d e n t i t y o f h a a lth e d u c a tio n , th a c lo s e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een p h y s ic a l ed u ca t i o n and h a a lt h e d u c a tio n , and t h a d e s i r a b i l i t y o f v iew in g se c o n d a ry s c h o o l h e a lth e d u c a tio n as an in te r d e p a r tm e n ta l and i n t e r s u b j e c t program . D uring t h i s d e c a d e , sh e a l s o em phasized a c o n c e p tio n o f h e a lth e d u c a tio n in r e l a t i o n s h i p t o th a i n d i v i d u a l , r a t h e r th a n th e s u b j e c t m a tte r o f th e f i e l d . D uring th a 1 9 3 0 's th a co n c a p t o f h a a lt h was d e v e l oped i n an o rg a n ism !c c o n te x t o f o rg a n ism -e n v iro n m e n t i n t a g r a t i o n , and h a a lth e d u c a tio n was d e f in e d i n ta n a s o f w hole o r to ta l- b o d y f u n c tio n . R e s p o n s ib ility f o r th a s c h o o l h a a lt h program was a s s ig n e d t o a h a a lt h c o o r d in a to r , th a p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n te a c h e r , and i n s t r u c t i o n a l em phasis was fo c u se d upon th e c h i l d , r a t h e r th a n th a s u b j e c t o f h e a l t h . T hroughout th a f o r t i e s R o s a lin d C a ssid y c o n tin u e d t o r e i t e r a t e and expand h e r o r g a n is a ic c o n c e p tio n o f t o t a l h e a lth t o mean th e e f f i c i e n t , i n t e g r a t e d f u n c tio n in g o f th e 2 H O whole p e r s o n a lity • H ealth ed u catio n was viewed as th e use o f th e body (a symbol o f th e s e l f ) as an in stru m e n t f o r com plete e x p re ssio n o f th e whole p e r s o n a lity , and h e a lth ed u c a tio n was c i te d as th e r e s p o n s ib ility o f a l l e d u c a to rs in th e sch o o l s e t t i n g . In th e 195 0 's R osalind Cassidy s tr e s s e d th e em er gence o f h e a lth ed u catio n as an independent a re a w ith in th e sch o o l c u rric u lu m , th e r e s p o n s ib ility o f a l l e d u c a to rs to th e sch o o l h e a lth program , and th e n e c e s s ity f o r p e rc e p tio n o f th e "h e a lth y " person as th e "whole" p e rso n , th e " f i t " p e rso n , th e " u n ifie d " (socio p sy ch o so m atic) p e rso n . D uring t h i s e ra th e d is c ip lin e o f h e a lth ed u c atio n was i d e n t i f i e d , d e s c rib e d , and r e la te d to th e d is c ip lin e s o f p h y s ic a l ed u c a tio n and re c re a tio n in term s o f focus on in d iv id u a ls r a th e r th a n th e bodies o f knowledge making up th e d i s c i p l in e s . In th e s i x t i e s R osalind C assidy co n tin u ed to empha s i s e th e im portance o f sch o o l p h y s ic a l ed u catio n t o th e h e a lth o r t o t a l " f itn e s s " o f in d iv id u a ls in th e sp ace age. The w ritin g s o f R osalind C assidy re v e a l a r e je c tio n o f id e a s id e n tif y in g in d iv id u a l h e a lth w ith d u a l i s t i c term in o lo g y and d iv is iv e n e s s o f human fu n c tio n . A b e l i e f in h e a lth and h e a lth ed u catio n c e n te re d in th e w hole perso n and t o t a l , in te g r a te d , i n te r a c tiv e human fu n c tio n is p ro je c te d th ro u g h o u t a l l h e r docum ents. PART VI FINDINGS 241 I CHAPTER XVIII FINDINGS Language can do more th a n say what men mean. . • • I t i s a re c o rd o f re a s o n , b u t i t a ls o e x h ib its th e p erso n b ehind th e re a s o n . —Hark Van Doren The m ajor fin d in g s o f th e stu d y a re i d e n t i f i e d in t h i s c h a p te r in two s e c tio n s .: (1 ) R o salin d C assid y : b io g r a p h ic a l d a ta , and (2) R o sa lin d C assid y : p ro fe s s io n a l id e a s . The fin d in g s a b o u t R o sa lin d C a ssid y , th e p e rso n , a re p re se n te d in a c h ro n o lo g ic a l n a r r a t i v e , and th o se id e n tif y in g h e r m ajor p r o f e s s io n a l id e a s a r e p re se n te d in th e f iv e tim e p e rio d s p re v io u s ly i d e n t i f i e d and used th ro u g h o u t th e s tu d y . T h is was done in o rd e r to in d ic a te th e most im p o rta n t s ta te m e n ts o f R o salin d C assid y upon which h e r w r itin g s d u rin g a g iv en tim e p e rio d were based and th e r e la tio n s h ip o f th e fo u n d a tio n them es and p h y s ic a l, h e a lth , and r e c r e a tio n e d u c a tio n d u rin g th e d ecad es. In th e f i n a l c h a p te r , C h ap ter XIX, th e m ajor p ro fe s s io n a l id e a s o f R o salin d C assidy a r e f u r t h e r sum m arized t o p i c a l l y , as th ey w ere in th e s tu d y c h a p te r s , and p re s e n te d as s ta te m e n ts d esig n ed t o s u c c in c tly convey th e o v e r a ll mean in g and em phasis o f th e id e a s th ro u g h o u t th e y e a rs . 2H2 243 R o sa lin d C a ssid y : B io g ra p h ic a l D ata R o sa lin d C assid y g ra d u a te d from H i l l s C o lle g e w ith a B ach elo r o f S cien ce d e g re e an d a C a li f o r n ia S ta te T e a c h e r's C e r t i f i c a t e i n P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n in 1918. From t h a t tim e u n t i l 1939 she ta u g h t i n th e d e p a rtm e n t o f p h y s i c a l e d u c a tio n a t H ills C o lle g e . She a tte n d e d T e a c h e rs C o lle g e , Colum bia U n iv e r s ity , i n 1922-1923 and s e c u re d th e H a s te r o f A rts d eg ree and T e a c h e rs C o lle g e d ip lo m a , "S u p er v i s o r o f H ygiene and P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n ," in 192 3. R o sa lin d C assid y r e tu r n e d t o T e a c h e rs C o lle g e , C olum bia U n iv e r s ity , in 1935 and was aw arded th e Ed.D . d e g re e from t h a t i n s t i t u t i o n in 19 37. W ithin th e tw en ty -o n e y e a r p e r io d o f s e r v ic e t o th e d ep a rtm e n t o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n a t H i ll s C o lle g e , R o sa lin d C assid y was in s tru m e n ta l i n th e developm ent o f dance and cam ping on th e w est c o a s t o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . D uring t h i s p e rio d sh e was th e a u th o r o r c o - a u th o r o f The New P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n : A Program o f N a tu r a liz e d A c t i v i t i e s f o r E d u catio n Toward C itiz e n s h ip < 1927), Handbook f o r Camp C o u n se lo rs: A C o n trib u tio n t o Camping Made by th e P a c i f ic Camp D ire c to rs A s s o c ia tio n (1 9 3 5 ), an d New D ir e c tio n s in P h y s ic a l E d u catio n f o r t h e A d o le sc e n t G ir l in H igh S chool and C o lle g e : A Guide f o r T e a c h e rs i n C a l i f o r n i a C u rricu lu m R e v isio n (1 9 3 8 ). From 1939 u n t i l 1947 R o s a lin d C assid y s e rv e d a s th e d i r e c t o r o r convenor o f th e S c h o o l o f E d u c a tio n and 244 Community S e rv ic e s a t M ills C o lle g e . D uring t h i s p e rio d sh e was a c ti v e i n th e sp h e re o f y o u th work* s o c i a l w e lf a r e , g ro u p w ork, w o M n 's c lu b s , cam ping, e d u c a tio n , d a n c e , and p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n . H er m ajo r p u b lic a tio n s d u rin g t h i s e r a in c lu d e d P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n in th e S econdary S chool (1 9 1 0 ), P h y s ic a l F itn e s s f o r G ir ls and F itn e s s F i r s t : A P h y s ic a l F itn e s s Workbook f o r High S chool G irls (1 9 4 3 ), Group E x p e ri e n c e : The- D em ocratic Way (1 9 4 3 ), C o u n selin g G ir ls in a C hanging S o c ie ty (1 9 4 7 ), and th e f i r s t e d i t i o n o f Methods in P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n (1 9 4 7 ). D uring th e e n su in g s ix te e n y e a r s , R o sa lin d C a s s id y , as a p r o f e s s o r in th e d ep a rtm e n t o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n a t th e U n iv e rs ity o f C a l i f o r n i a , Los A n g ele s, was i n f l u e n t i a l in d e v e lo p in g t h a t d e p a rtm e n t's g ra d u a te and u n d e rg ra d u a te program s in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n , u n ify in g i t s p h ilo so p h y and p r a c t i c e s , and i d e n t i f y in g th e body o f know ledge w hich form s t h e d i s c i p l i n e o f human movement. From 1947 u n t i l h e r re tire m e n t i n 1962 R o sa lin d C a ssid y c o n tr ib u te d in v a ry in g m easure t o th e volum es De v e lo p in g D em ocratic Human R e la tio n s Through H e a lth Edu c a tio n . P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n » and R e c re a tio n (1 9 5 1 ), Group P ro c e ss in P h y s ic a l E d u catio n (1 9 5 1 ), Methods in P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n , second e d i t i o n (1 9 5 2 ), C u rricu lu m Developm ent in P h y e ic a l E d u ca tio n (1 9 5 4 ), S u p e rv isio n i n P h y s ic a l Edu» c a tio n (1 9 5 6 ), Methods in P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n , t h i r d e d it io n 2*5 (1 9 5 8 ), C ounseling in th e P h y s ic a l E ducation Program (1 9 5 9 ), and Tha Growing Y ears: A dolescence (1962). D uring t h i s a r a R o salin d C assidy was a le c ta d to th a p rs s id s n c y o f th a Amarican Academy o f P h y sic a l E d u ca tio n , and was th e r e c ip ie n t o f th e L u th er G ulick award. A f te r re tire m e n t from th e departm ent o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n a t th e U n iv e rsity o f C a lif o r n ia a t Los Angeles in 1962, R o salin d C assidy conducted a stu d y o f youth f i t n e s s program s in I s r a e l in 1963, and se rv e d as a v i s i ti n g p ro f e s s o r a t th e U n iv e rsity o f W ashington (1 9 6 3 ), Adams S ta te C o lle g e , A lam osa, C olorado (196*0, and th e U n iv e rsity o f C a lif o r n ia a t Los A ngeles (196*t, 1965). In 1962 R o salin d C assidy re c e iv e d honorary awards from two p r o f e s s io n a l p h y s ic a l ed u c a tio n g ro u p s, and in 1963 th e volume Theory i n P h y sic a l E d u catio n ; A Guide to Program Change, was p u b lis h e d . R o salin d C assid y ; P ro fe s s io n a l Ideas The Y ears 1920-1929 F oundations The in d iv id u a l and th e enviro n m en t. - - ( l ) The i n d i v id u a l i s u n if i e d , i n d i v i s i b l e , and develops only th ro u g h s o c ia l i n t e r a c ti o n . (2 ) E xperien ce i s an a c tiv e p ro c ess o f in t e r a c ti o n betw een th e organism and i t s environm ent, and 2H6 le a rn in g (e x p e rie n c in g ) i s th e re sp o n se to p ro b lem -so lv in g s itu a tio n s th ro u g h n e u r a l bond fo rm a tio n . (3 ) In d iv id u a l needa a re i d e n t i f i e d th ro u g h " c e r ta in laws and p r in c ip le s o f o h ild developm ent which in d ic a te in g e n e ra l th e n a tu re and c a p a c itie s o f c h ild re n o f d i f f e r e n t ages and ty p e s . . . " (5 2 :232 [1 9 2 7 ]). Change in th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry environm ent .--T h e contem porary w orld i s c h a r a c te r iz e d by a r e je c tio n o f th e m etaphysical* s u p e rn a tu ra l* e te r n a l* and ab so lu te* as m an's p ro g re ss occu rs th ro u g h o b serv a b le* in d iv id u a l e f f o r t and i n i ti a t i v e * m a n ife st in a m ethodology o f v e r if ia b le * s c i e n t i f i c e x p e rim e n ta lism . A p h ilosophy o f dem ocracy. —A m ature dem ocratic c itiz e n r y is c h a ra c te r iz e d by in d iv id u a l i n i t i a t i v e , s e l f - d ire c tio n * and i n t e l li g e n c e w ith in a group s e t t i n g . The fem ale in th e c u l t u r a l s e t t i n g . — F u rth e rin g women's ed u c atio n depends upon d e d ic a te d * i n t e l l i g e n t a c tio n . E d u catio n . — (1 ) The goal o f ed u c a tio n i s th e d e v e l opment o f p e r s o n a lity and c itiz e n s h ip i n s o c ia l man. (2) W ithin an e d u c a tio n a l p h ilo so p h y t h a t must c o n tin u o u sly change t o meet th e s o c i a l c o n d itio n s o f th e tim e* s u b je c t m a tte r must be f le x i b le and a d a p ta b le t o in d iv id u a l needs and i n t e r e s t s in o rd e r to so lv e l i f e ' s problem s. (3 ) To 2H7 h e lp c h ild re n s o lv e l i f e ' s p ro b lem s, th e te a c h e r g u id es in d iv id u a ls in th e a c t i v e , e x p e r i e n t i a l , s c i e n t i f i c p ro c e ss o f stu d y and th in k in g . P h y sic a l E ducation P e rs p e c tiv e and m eaning. - - >(1) The new p h y s ic a l edu c a tio n developed as a p r o te s t a g a in s t th e fo rm a l, a u to c r a t i c gym nastic system s o f th e l a t e n in e te e n th and e a r ly tw e n tie th c e n tu ry , and i s dynam ic, f u n c ti o n a l , ch a n g in g , and em phasizes th e s o c i a l , m o ra l, s p i r i t u a l , and i n t e l l e c t u a l developm ent o f th e w hole in d iv id u a l. (2 ) I t d e riv e s i t s co n c e p tu a l base from th e f i e l d s o f b io lo g y , p h y sio lo g y , p sy ch o lo g y , p h ilo s o p h y , s o c io lo g y , and edu c a tio n , and i s d e sig n e d to m eet in d iv id u a l needs and i n t e r e s t s , p re p are in d iv id u a ls f o r c it iz e n s h i p in a demo c r a c y , i s in harmony w ith contem porary e d u c a tio n a l aim s, i s s e n s it iv e to th e n e c e s s ity f o r d e v e lo p in g s o c ia l man, i s c u l t u r a l l y o r ie n te d , and i s i n a c c o rd w ith th e co n cep t o f e v o lu tio n o r change. Program p e rs p e c tiv e and m eaning. —The program o f th e new p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n r e j e c t s th e co n cep t o f d u a lism , i s ad a p te d to in d iv id u a l and group needs in th e c u l t u r a l s e t t i n g , i s a c c e p tin g o f h e a lth v a lu e s only as b y -p ro d u c ts in th e p ro cess o f t o t a l e d u c a tio n o f th e i n d iv id u a l, i s 2*»8 com patible w ith contem porary e d u c a tio n a l program th e o r y , and i s fo rm u lated from p rin c ip le s o f growth and developm ent. Program e x p e rie n c e s . — (1) Program c o n te n t w ith in th e new p h y s ic a l ed u catio n r e je c ts any d i s c i p l i n a r y , m ili t a r i s t i c f o r m a lis tic conceptions o f gym nastics a s a c c e p ta b le , e d u c a tio n a l e x p e rie n c e s. (2) The psycho-m otor c o n te n t o f th e program c o n s is ts o f a t h l e t i c s , s p o r t s , r e c r e a tio n a l a c t i v i t i e s , s e l f - t e s t i n g a c t i v i t i e s , p la y , gam es, d ra m a tic e x p re s s io n , n a tu r a l a c t i v i t i e s , s o c i a l s e rv ic e and p re v o c a tio n a l a c t i v i t i e s , and in d iv id u a l c o r r e c tiv e e x e r c is e s . C urriculum developm ent. —C urriculum c o n s tr u c tio n in th e new p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n r e je c ts th e concept o f i n s t i n c t s as c e n tr a l to c u rricu lu m developm ent, and i s b ase d upon ad ju stm en t to in d iv id u a l needs and i n t e r e s t s i d e n t i f i e d in term s o f program o b je c tiv e s and aims tr a n s la te d i n t o phys i c a l e d u c a tio n a c t i v i t i e s o r e x p e rie n c e s. The e d u c a tiv e p ro c e s s . —The methodology u t i l i z e d by thfc te a c h e r c o n s is ts o f dem ocratic guidance th ro u g h problem s o lv in g in o rd e r to f a c i l i t a t e s e l f - d ir e c t io n in in d iv id u a ls • The te a c h e r . —The te a c h e r o f th e new p h y s ic a l edu c a tio n i s a guide in th e p ro cess o f problem s o lv in g who i s 2U9 d ev e lo p in g i n d i v i d u a l's p s r s o n a l i t i a s th ro u g h m otor a c t i v i t i e s (b ig b ra in -m u sc le a c t i v i t i e s ) f o r c itiz e n s h ip in a dem ocracy. T each er p r e p a r a tio n .--T h e f i e l d o f p h y s ic a l edu c a tio n needs e x c e l l e n t , i n t e l l i g e n t te a c h e rs w ith broad academ ic, c u l t u r a l , and p r o f e s s io n a l t r a i n i n g . A th le tic c o m p e titio n . —A th le tic co m p etitio n in th e form o f p la y f o r a l l , r a t h e r th a n in te n s iv e c o m p etitio n f o r th e lim ite d few , i s im p o rta n t to in d iv id u a l growth and developm ent• R e la te d A reas R e c re a tio n e d u c a tio n .- - ( l ) R ecreatio n a c t i v i t i e s com prise an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f program c o n te n t in th e new p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n , and in c re a s in g amounts o f le is u r e tim e in d ic a te a need f o r i n t e l l i g e n t tr a in i n g re g a rd in g i t s p ro d u c tiv e u t i l i z a t i o n . (2) Camping i s an e d u c a tio n a l e x p e ri ence u t i l i z i n g n a t u r a l a c t i v i t i e s in an o u td o o r environm ent to c o n tr ib u te t o th e t o t a l developm ent o f th e in d iv id u a l. H e a lth e d u c a tio n .- - ( 1 ) H ealth e d u c a tio n i s an i n te rd e p a rtm e n ta l and i n t e r s u b j e c t program in th e s c h o o l, s e p a ra te though c lo s e ly a l l i e d to p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n , and fo cu sed on developm ent o f in d iv id u a l w e ll-b e in g r a th e r th a n th e m astery o f th e s u b je c t m a tte r o f h e a lth . 250 (2) "H e a lth E ducation I s th e su n o f e x p e rie n c e s i n sc h o o l and e ls e w h e re , w hich fa v o ra b ly in flu e n c e h a b i t s , a t t i t u d e s and knowledge r e l a t i n g t o i n d iv id u a l, com m unity, and r a c i a l j h e a lth " (52:86 [1 9 2 7 ]). The Y ears 1930-1939 F oundations The in d iv id u a l and th e en v iro n m en t. - - ( 1 ) The human organism i s a p u rp o s iv e , u n iq u e , i n d i v i s i b l e whole in co n tin u o u s i n t e r a c ti o n w ith i t s en v iro n m en t. The in d iv id u a l and th e environm ent form a t o t a l u n it and a re t o be u n d ersto o d as su ch . (2) The human organism e x p e rie n c e s te n s io n in a f i e l d o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l fo rc e o r energy and i s im p e lle d forw ard by g o a ls o r p u rp o s e s , c o n tin u a lly s t r i v i n g t o re g a in p s y c h o lo g ic a l e q u ilib riu m os b a r r i e r s o r o b sta c le s t o purpose f u l f il lm e n t a r e overcome and te n s io n i s re so lv e d o r red u ced . (3) Human b e h a v io r d ev elo p s in r e sponse t o th e in t e r a c tio n o f th e in d iv id u a l and th e e n v ir onment (te n s io n r e d u c tio n ) , and p e r s o n a lity i s th e compos i t e o f b e h a v io rs g ain ed from e x p e rie n c e . P e rs o n a lity i s shaped and p a tte rn e d by th e c u ltu r e in w hich an in d iv id u a l d e v e lo p s. (H) L earn in g i s e x p e rie n c in g th ro u g h problem s o lv in g as th e organism and i t s environm ent i n t e r a c t . (5 ) In d iv id u a l needs a re t o be c o n stru e d as th e " p e r s i s te n t problem o f liv in g " c o n fro n tin g th e young fem ale. These 2S1 p ro b le m In c lu d e th e p ro b le m o f I n d iv id u a l h e a lth and d ev elo p m en t» s o c i a l l i v i n g , c iv i c l i v i n g , and v o c a tio n a l c h o ic e , p r e p a r a tio n , and s u c c e s s . Change i n th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry e n v iro n m e n t. — The c o n e e p ts o f ch an g e, r e l a t i v i t y , and s c ie n c e a re m a n ife s t a t i o n s o f v a lu e and t r u t h in a contem porary w o rld w hich c h a lle n g e s th e v a l i d i t y o f an id e a o f a u n iv e rs e dependent upon f i x e d , a b s o lu te , unchanging v a lu e and t r u t h . A p h ilo so p h y o f democracy . — A m erica has m a n ife s te d i n t e r e s t in th e co n cep t o f democracy as a s o c i a l p h ilo s o p h y , a c o n c e p tio n o f r e lig io u s f a i t h , a m anner o f l i f e . "Democracy i s a group p ro c e ss " (15:30 [1 9 3 8 ]). The fem ale i n th e c u l t u r a l s e t t i n g . — (1 ) th e Ameri can fem ale i s i d e n t i f i e d by a n x ie ty , i n s e c u r i t y , c o n f l i c t , and p ro b le m a s she a tte m p ts to com pete w ith men f o r e q u a lity and s t a t u s . (2 ) The r o le o f th e fem ale in Ameri can s o c ie ty i s t o be t h a t o f th e a r t i s t in human r e l a t i o n s h i p s , c h e r is h in g , r e p le n is h in g , and im proving th e human c o n d itio n • E d u c a tio n . — (1 ) E du catio n i s c u l t u r a l l y d e te rm in e d and re c o g n is e s th e need f o r m utual developm ent o f man and h is s o c ie ty th ro u g h p e rs o n a l e x p e rie n c e s o lv in g th e p e r s i s t e n t p ro b le m o f l i v i n g . (2 ) E d u catio n f o r c i t i s e n s h i p and s o c i a l c o n sc io u sn e ss n e c e s s ita te s e d u c a tio n a l em phasis 252 upon p u p il s e l f - d i r e c t i o n , management, and s o c ia l cooper a tio n in group e n t e r p r i s e s . (3 ) Tha te a c h e r i s c h a lle n g e d t o u t i l i z e g u id an ce te c h n iq u e s in o rd e r t o b rin g ab out th e f u l l e s t developm ent o f th e in d iv id u a l. P h y s ic a l E d u catio n P e rs p e c tiv e and m eaning. — (1) P h y sic a l e d u c a tio n , a s an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f th e f i e l d o f e d u c a tio n , i s a s o c ia l p ro c e s s d esig n ed t o o r ie n t th e in d iv id u a l t o l i f e ' s c o n tin uous problem s w ith " e d u c a tio n o f th e t o t a l organism , o f th e whole p e r s o n a l it y , o f th e S e lf" (194:13 [1 9 3 8 ]), c e n te re d in dynamic m o tio n , body e x p e rie n c e , o r movement. (2) The body i s an outw ard m a n ife s ta tio n o r symbol o f th e t o t a l p e r s o n a lity o r s e l f , and as a v e h ic le f o r e x p re ssio n o f th e t o t a l p e r s o n a l ity , i s c lo s e ly i d e n t i f i e d w ith th e f i e l d o f e x p re s s iv e a r t s . (3 ) A cceptance o f an organism ic con c e p tio n o f in d iv id u a l-e n v iro n m e n ta l t o t a l i t y and u n ity demands th e r e je c t io n o f any d u a l i s t i c co n cep tio n o f man m a n ife ste d i n contem porary term in o lo g y . Program p e r s p e c tiv e and m eaning. —The p h y s ic a l edu c a tio n program i s an in d iv id u a liz e d , o r ie n ta tio n program f o r a l l s tu d e n ts . The program c a ll s f o r s tu d e n t i d e n t i f i c a tio n o f p e rs o n a l problem s and n eed s, s e lf- e s ta b lis h m e n t o f g o a ls , p la n s f o r g o al a tta in s ie n t, in te r a c tio n w ith te a c h e r s f o r guidanoe in s e l f - f u l f i l l m s n t , s e l f - d i r e c t i o n 253 t i th e methodology o f g o a l f u l f i l l m e n t , and c o n s ta n t e v a lu a tio n o f p ro g re ss tow ard s e l f - d e f i n e d o b je c tiv e s . Program e x p e rie n c e s . — (1 ) Broad p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n program ex p e rien ces o f a c r e a t i v e , s o c i a l , in d iv id u a liz e d , and r e c r e a tiv e n a tu re a r e n e c e s s a ry in o rd e r t o meet a wide range o f in d iv id u a l and group i n t e r e s t s and n ee d s. (2 ) Program e x p e rie n c e s i n th e in d iv id u a liz e d p h y s ic a l edu c a tio n program are t o be u n d e rsto o d as to o ls t o be used by th e te a c h e r i n the p ro c e ss o f o r ie n tin g th e in d iv id u a l in th e s o lu tio n o f l i f e ' s p ro b lem s. (3 ) The needs o f th e in d iv id u a l w ith in th e group a re c e n tr a l t o program e x p e r i ence s e l e c ti o n , and p a t t e r n s o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n e x p e ri ence u t i l i z e d in th e o r i e n t a t i o n p ro c e ss in c lu d e p la y , e v a lu a tio n , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , re - e d u c a tiv e p a t t e r n s , e n v iro n m ental p a t te r n s , and p la y p la n n in g . C urriculum d ev elo p m en t. — The p ro c e ss o f c u rric u lu m developm ent i s a c o o p e r a tiv e , i n t e r a c t i v e , group en d eav o r d esig n ed to i d e n t if y a d o le s c e n t needs and i n t e r e s t s in term s o f program o b je c tiv e s (u n d e rs ta n d in g s and a b i l i t i e s ) t r a n s la te d i n t o e x p e rie n c e s p ro v id ed f o r need f u lf illm e n t i n th e p e r s i s t e n t problem s o f l i v i n g . The e d u c a tiv e p r o c e s s . - - ( 1 ) T eaching m ethodology in th e p h y sic a l e d u c a tio n program n e c e s s i ta te s te a c h e r guid ance f o r s tu d e n t s e l f - r e a l i z a t i o n and s e l f - d i r e c t i o n in 2S*» o rd e r to cope w ith end s o lv e l i f e ' s p ro b lem s. (2 ) D em ocrat i c te e c h in g m ethodology in v o lv e s th e g u id sn ce p ro c e s s o f c o o p e ra tiv e , i n t e r a c t i v e te a c h e r - s tu d e n t ( in d iv id u a l and group) need d ia g n o s is , p la n n in g , e v a lu a tio n , a d ju stm e n t and re p la n n in g o f th e p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n program . (3 ) G uidance t o o l s and te c h n iq u e s u t i l i z e d in th e p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n program t o m eet s tu d e n t needs and b r in g ab o u t changes in th e in d iv id u a l and th e environm ent a re known as to o ls o f d ia g n o s is o r a p p r a i s a l , and a d ju s tm e n t. The t e a c h e r . — T each ers a r e e d u c a to rs o f c h ild r e n , g u id e s , a r t i s t s i n human r e l a t i o n s h i p s , and s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s whose co n cern i s th e in d iv id u a l w ith in th e group in th e s o c i a l s e t t i n g , n o t s u b je c t m a tte r i n s t r u c t i o n . T ea ch er p r e p a r a tio n . — (1 ) T ea ch er p r e p a r a tio n i s a m a n ife s ta tio n o f th e guidance c o n c e p t, and sh o u ld im prove th e s o c i a l t r a i n i n g o f th e a r t i s t - t e a c h e r . (2 ) T each er s e l e c ti o n s ta n d a rd s encourage s c r u tin y when in d iv id u a ls r e j e c t i n g o f th e fem in in e r o le i n A m erican s o c ie ty a r e a s s o c ia te d w ith th e f i e l d o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n . A th le tic c o m p e titio n . — T each ers and le a d e rs o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n can b e t t e r m eet th e needs o f a l l s t u d e n ts th ro u g h p a tte r n s o f c o o p e ra tiv e e x p e rie n c e r a t h e r th a n e x p l o i t a t i v e , co m m ercialized p a tte r n s o f in te n s e a t h l e t i c c o m p e titio n . 255 I t o l i t t d Aw m R > c r tttio n e d u c a tio n . — (1 ) A contem porary con c e p tio n o f th e v a lu e e o f l e i s u r e r e j e c t s th e p u r i t a n i c a l c o n c e p tio n o f p la y a s ab u se o f tim e . (2 ) The e d u c a tio n a l o p p o r tu n itie s w ith in th e f i e l d o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n , cam ping, and e d u c a tio n i n th e o u td o o rs f o r b ro a d e x p e r i e n c e s o f a r e c r e a t i v e n a tu r e i n d i c a t e t h i s i s an im p o rta n t avenue f o r th e e n ric h m e n t o f in d iv id u a l l i v e s i n a d e m o c ra tic s o c i e t y . H e a lth e d u c a tio n . — (1 ) H e a lth i s co n cern ed w ith f u n c tio n a l o rg a n ism -e n v iro n m e n t i n t e g r a t i o n , and h e a lth e d u c a tio n w ith t o t a l body f u n c tio n . (2 ) R e s p o n s ib ility f o r th e s c h o o l h e a lt h program r e s id e s w ith in th e h e a lth c o o r d i n a t o r , th e p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n t e a c h e r , and i n s t r u c t i o n a l em phasis i s upon o r i e n t a t i o n o f th e in d iv id u a l th ro u g h e x p e rie n c e s in t o t a l body f u n c tio n , n o t s u b je c t m a tte r . The Y ears 19H0-1949 F o u n d atio n s The i n d iv id u a l and th e e n v iro n m e n t. — (1 ) The u n iq u e human o rg an ism i s a p sy ch o so m atic u n ity and o rg a n ism ic t o t a l i t y c h a r a c te r is e d by p u rp o siv e b e h a v io r e x p r e s s iv e o f , o r sym p to m atic o f , human n e e d . (2 ) The human o rg an ism and th e e n v iro n m e n ta l s o c i e t y a r e an i n t e r a c t i n g t o t a l i t y . The 256 developm ent o f human p e r s o n a lity ( e e l f ) ie dependent upon human i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p e and th e c u l t u r a l m ilie u . (3 ) The body i e a m a n ife s ta tio n o f p e r s o n a lity * th e in s tru m e n t th ro u g h w hich a l l e x p e rie n c in g ( le a r n in g ) ta k e s p la c e . (H) S o c ia l man i s d ev elo p ed th ro u g h e x te n s iv e , s a t i s f y i n g , p e rso n a l i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ith o th e r human b e in g s , and a d e m o c ra tic s o c ie ty i s d ependent upon th e s o c i a l m a tu rity o f i t s c o n s titu e n c y . (5 ) I n d iv id u a l needs may be i d e n t i f i e d in term s o f ta s k s (d e v e lo p m e n ta l ta s k s ) c o n fro n tin g th e m a tu rin g in d iv id u a l in s o c i e t y , o r problem s o f l i v in g a s s o c i a t e d w ith s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , h e a l t h , w ork, and l e i s u r e . Change i n th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry en v iro n m en t. — In a w o rld o f a n x ie ty , i n s e c u r i t y , and ch a n g e, r e s p o n s ib le , d e m o c ra tic , c o o p e ra tiv e b e h a v io r i s n e c e s s a ry f o r c i t i z e n s h ip in o n e , in te rd e p e n d e n t w o rld . A p h ilo so p h y o f dem ocracy. — (1 ) In a tim e o f id e o lo g i c a l c o n f l i c t betw een th e b e l i e f s o f a d e m o cratic s o c ie ty and t o t a l i t a r i a n i s m , s e l f - d i s c i p l i n e , r e s p e c t f o r s e l f and o t h e r s , and c o o p e ra tiv e a c tio n a r e n e c e s s a ry in o rd e r t o in s u r e th e s o c i a l g o a l o f dem ocracy, th e maximal developm ent o f in d iv id u a l p o t e n t i a l w ith in Am erican s o c ie ty . (2 ) I n d i v i d u a li ty i n a dem ocracy i s enhanced and encouraged in c o o p e r a tiv e , group i n t e r a c t i o n . 257 The fem ale in th e c u l t u r a l s e t t i n g . — (1) Sex ro le s e re c u ltu r a lly determ ined end dependent upon a s o c ia l in te r p r e ta tio n o f fe m in in ity o r m a s c u lin ity . (2 ) The edu c a tio n a l ta s k o f a dem ocratic s o c ie ty i s to more c le a r ly d e fin e th e dem o cratic, c o o p e ra tiv e , n o n co m p etitiv e ro le s o f msn and women. E ducation. — (1) E ducation as guidance commands a tte n tio n to th e f u l l developm ent o f human p e r s o n a lity and p re p a ra tio n f o r re sp o n sib le c itiz e n s h ip in a democracy through c o o p e ra tiv e , re s p o n s ib le , in te r a c tiv e human b e h a v io r. (2) The school i s an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f th e com m unity, and sch o o l c u r r ic u la are e s ta b lis h e d to meet " th e needs o f th e -in d iv id u a l-in te ra c tin g -w ith -h is -e n v iro n m e n t” (30:100 Cl9<t7]). (3) T eachers a re co u n se lo rs and g u id e s, u t i l i z i n g in d iv id u a l and group e x p e rie n c e s t o develop s e l f r e s p o n s ib ility in r e la tio n s h ip t o o th e r s , and b rin g t o f r u i t i o n th e problem -solving e f f o r t s o f t h e i r s tu d e n ts . P h y sic a l Education P ersp ec tiv e and m eaning. - - ( 1 ) P h y sic a l e d u c a tio n , as does e d u c a tio n , c o n trib u te s th ro u g h e x p re ssiv e movement to t o t a l f itn e s s o r th e f u l l e s t developm ent o f th e in d iv id u a l and s o c ie ty in a democracy and an in te rd e p e n d e n t w orld. (2) P h y sic al education i s c u ltu r a lly determ ined and r e je c ts 258 th e accep tan ce o f d iv is iv e » d u a lis tic term inology u t i liz e d in c o n tra d ic tio n t o knowledge o f m an-environm ental in te r a c tio n a s an organiem ic t o t a l i t y . Program p e rsp e c tiv e and meaning. — (1) P h y sic a l edu c a tio n programs a re not to be confused w ith program s o f p h y s ic a l tr a in in g o r gym nastic reg im en tatio n in a dem ocrat i c s o c ie ty , as th ey a re guided, in d iv id u a liz e d program s c e n te re d in a d a p ta tio n to in d iv id u a l needs and em phasizing th e meanings and r e s p o n s ib ilitie s o f liv in g in a dem ocratic s o c ie ty . (2) An in d iv id u a liz e d p h y sic a l e d u c a tio n program i s c h a ra c te riz e d by a ric h n e ss and b re a d th o f program ex p e rien ces designed t o f o s te r in d iv id u a l developm ent and meet th e v ary in g needs o f a l l s tu d e n ts . Program e x p e rie n c e s. — (1) P h y sic al e d u c a tio n pro gram c o n te n t in tim e of war extends th e " p re s e n t day pro gram r ic h in r e c r e a tio n a l- p e r s o n a l- s o c ia l v alu es" (16:38 [19H3]) to em phasis upon o b je c tiv e s o f r e la x a tio n , s tr e n g th , m o rale, endurance, and body c o n tro l in am o rie n t a ti o n program . (2) Program co n ten t i s any f a c t o r in a le a rn in g s i t u a t i o n , and co n ten t c e n te rs in th e s tu d e n t ex p erien ce core o f o r ie n ta tio n , p a r tic ip a tio n , and e v a lu a tio n , r a th e r th a n s u b je c t m a tte r. C urriculum developm ent. —C urriculum developm ent is an i n t e r a c t i v e , d em o cratic, group p ro c e ss. P erso n al 259 involvem ent o f any in d iv id u a l concam ad w ith b o y s' and g i r l s ' naad i d a n t i f i c a t i o n and f u lf illm e n t i s im p o rta n t to s u c c a s s fu l c u rric u lu m davalopm ant and im plem entation o f an in d iv id u a liz e d program o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n designed t o meet d i v e r s i f i e d s tu d e n t n ee d s. The e d u c a tiv e p ro c e s s . — <1> D em ocratic m ethodology in th e p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n program i s te a c h e r e v a lu a tio n and guidance in th e p ro b lem -so lv in g p ro c e s s , u t i l i z i n g in d iv id u a liz e d g u id a n c e , group g u id an ce, and guidance o f a gro u p , o r "group p ro c e s s ." (2) Group p ro cess i s a p ro cess o f c o n s tr u c tiv e , i n t e r a c t i v e , r e la tio n s h ip s w ith o th e rs and i s a most e f f e c t i v e , a c c e p ta b le , and dem o cratic means o f edu c a tio n f o r l i f e in a dem o cratic s o c ie ty . The te a c h e r . — (1 ) The p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n te a c h e r i s a guide on th e jo u rn e y o f d em o cratic l i v in g , a community member, a s o c i a l w o rk er, and guide in th e e d u c a tio n a l p ro c ess fu n c tio n in g in harmony w ith , and as an in te g r a l p a r t o f th e t o t a l sc h o o l guidance program . (2) The unique ro le o f th e p h y s ic a l e d u c a to r i s th e e d u c a tio n a l r e s p o n s ib ility f o r u n d e rsta n d in g and accep tan ce o f th e m eaning, v a lu e , and use o f th e body in stru m e n t as an outw ard m a n ife s ta tio n o r symbol o f th e t o t a l p e r s o n a lity o r s e l f . T eacher p r e p a r a tio n . — T eacher ed u c atio n sh o u ld u t i l i z e a c o n tin u o u s m ethodology o f guidance in p re p a ra tio n 260 o f b ro a d ly a d u c a ta d ta a c h a rs who w i l l fu n c tio n as educa t i o n a l g a n e r a lis ta as w a ll as s p e c i a l i s t s w ith in t h e i r own fie ld * A th le tic c o m p e titio n . — (1 ) B efore in te n s iv e a th l e t i c c o m p e titio n f o r women i s f u r t h e r e x te n d e d 9 program e x p e rie n c e s f o r th e m a jo rity sh o u ld be p ro v id e d and s ta n d a rd s r e g u la tin g a t h l e t i c c o m p e titio n e s ta b lis h e d . (2) Un d em o cratic e x p lo it a t io n o f in d iv id u a ls th ro u g h p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n e x p e rie n c e s p e r s i s t s . R e la te d A reas R e c re a tio n e d u c a tio n . — (1 ) R e c re a tiv e e x p e rie n c e s a re im p o rta n t t o in d iv id u a l s e lf - e x p r e s s io n , s o c i a l edu c a tio n , and e d u c a tio n f o r d e m o c ra tic l i v in g . (2) The f i e l d o f r e c r e a tio n i s an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f th e o v e r a ll sc h o o l c u rric u lu m , and c lo s e ly r e la te d t o th e f i e l d o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n th ro u g h com m onality o f co n cern w ith p h y s ic a l a c t i v i t y . (3 ) P h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n e x p e rie n c e s can c o n tr ib u te to th e i n d i v i d u a l's r e c r e a tiv e need s a t i s f a c t i o n s . H ea lth e d u c a tio n . — (1 ) H e a lth i s th e e f f i c i e n t , in te g r a te d fu n c tio n in g o f th e whole p e r s o n a lity , and h e a lth e d u c a tio n i s th e use o f th e body (a m a n ife s ta tio n o f th e s e l f ) as an in s tru m e n t f o r com plete e x p re s s io n o f th e whole p e r s o n a lity . (2 ) H e a lth e d u c a tio n i s th e r e s p o n s ib i li ty o f a l l e d u c a to rs in th e sc h o o l s e t t i n g . 261 The Years 1950-1959 F oundations The in d iv id u a l and th e e n v iro n m en t. - - ( 1 ) Hunan growth i s a b io s o c ia l p r o c e s s , a m a n ife s ta tio n o f th e u n ity o f b io lo g ic a l and s o c ia l developm ent in an i n d i v i s i b l e o rg a n is a i n t e r a c ti n g w ith i t s c u l t u r a l environm ent as a t o t a l u n it* (2 ) The i n t e r a c t i v e , i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p o f man w ith en v iro n m en tal c o n d itio n s , and th e i n d i v i s i b i l i t y o f th e human organism a re most c l e a r l y d e s c rib e d by th e word "so c io p sy c h o eo m atic." (3 ) The needs o f y o u th may be c o n stru e d as l i f e t a s k s , p ro b lem s, o r "d ev elo p m en tal ta s k s " c o n fro n tin g th e in d iv id u a l a t d i f f e r e n t le v e ls o f d ev elo p m ent. Needs o r "d ev elo p m en tal ta s k s " a r i s e from organism dem ands, in d iv id u a l e x p e rie n c e , and th e s o c i a l m ilie u . The d evelopm ental ta s k s o f a d o le sc e n c e a r e : a c c e p tin g s e l f and a d ju s tin g t o a changing body, e s ta b l is h in g s a t i s f y i n g r e l a t i o n s w ith o t h e r s , a c h ie v in g independence from fa m ily , p re p a rin g f o r a v o c a tio n , and d e f in in g a v alu e sy stem and s e e in g o n e 's p la c e in i t . (26 8 :1 [1 9 5 1 ]) Change in th e tw e n tie th c e n tu r y . —The w orld i s an ato m ic w o rld , a te c h n o lo g ic a l w o rld , a w o rld o f id e o lo g ic a l c o n f l i c t c h a ra c te r iz e d by ch an g e, r e l a t i v i t y , and e x p e ri- n e n ta lis m m a n ife ste d in m assive s c i e n t i f i c , econom ic, s o c i a l , and p o l i t i c a l change and developm ent. A p h ilo so p h y o f dem ocracy. —A dynam ic, d ev e lo p - 262 m e n ta l c o n c a p t o f dam ocracy i s d ep e n d an t upon a c o n c e p tio n o f in d i v id u a l u n iq u en ess and w orth* c o n c e rn and r e s p e c t f o r th e r i g h t s o f o t h e r s * c o o p e ra tiv e b e h a v io r among t h e c i t i ze n ry * and a r e c o g n itio n t h a t s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s e x i s t f o r th e developm ent and a c t u a li z a t i o n o f a d e m o c ra tic c i t i z e n r y . The fem ale in th e c u l t u r a l s e t t i n g . — The fem ale in A m erican s o c ie ty h as in d ic a te d econom ic r e s p o n s i b i l i t y * s t a b i l i t y * and com petence* and " e d u c a tio n i s d i r e c te d to w ard m aking them r e s p o n s ib le d e m o c ra tic c i t i z e n s " (2*»1:1 [1 9 5 8 ]) E d u c a tio n . — (1) The r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f e d u c a tio n i n a w o rld o f dynam ic change a r e f o r u n d e r s ta n d in g and a c c e p ta n c e o f change* th e f u l l e s t developm ent o f th e in d iv id u a l an d s o c ie ty * d e m o c ra tic human r e l a t i o n s * p e r s o n a lity in t e g r a ti o n * problem so lv in g * and s e lf - a c c e p ta n c e and a c c e p ta n c e o f o th e r s . (2 ) C u r r ic u la a r e fo c u se d on th e n eeds* i n t e r e s t s * problem s* and ta s k s (d e v e lo p m e n ta l ta s k s ) o f s tu d e n ts in th e c u l t u r e . (3 ) D em ocratic group p ro c e ss i s th e m ethodology o f d e m o c ra tic s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s . (4 ) The te a c h e r i s a "change a g e n t" who a d v is e s and g u id es s tu d e n ts th ro u g h o u t th e p ro b le m -so lv in g p ro c e s s o f e d u c a tio n . 263 P h y sic a l E ducation P e rsp e c tiv e and — an in g . — <1) The f i e l d o f p h y a ie a l e d u c a tio n i s conoerned w ith th e t o t a l development o f th e in d iv id u a l in th e c u l tu r a l m ilieu and reco g n izes th e need f o r developm ent o f dem ocratic human r e la tio n s h ip s and t o t a l f i t n e s s o f in d iv id u a ls , v a lu in g o f s e l f and o th e rs t i n t e l l ig e n t , f a c t u a l , problem s o lu tio n , in te g r a tio n o f th e p e r s o n a lity , r e c r e a tiv e e x p e rie n c e s, and s o c ia l valu es in a sp ac e age s o c ie ty . (2) The e d u c a tio n a l d is c ip lin e o f phys i c a l ed u c atio n i s concerned w ith th e meanings and under s ta n d in g s o f human movement as they r e la te t o th e t o t a l developm ent o f th e in d iv id u a l in th e s o c ie ta l s e t t i n g . W ith g r e a te r in s ig h t in to what movement means t o th e human organism , we have come to th in k o f th e de s c r ip tio n o f P h y sic a l E ducation n o t as te n n i s , g o lf , swimming, which a re movement p a tte r n s , b u t as th e a r t and s c ie n c e o f movement i t s e l f . (278:1 [1958]) (3 ) The d is c ip lin e o f p h y sic a l e d u c a tio n , th e a r t and s c i ence o f human movement, i s com prised o f th e f a c t s , under s ta n d in g s , and s k i l l s o f human movement r e la te d to in d iv id u a l developm ent and fu n c tio n in th e c u ltu r a l s e t t i n g . Program p e rsp e c tiv e and m eaning. — (1) S tu d en t need f u lf illm e n t in th e p h y s ic a l ed u c atio n program i s achieved th ro u g h a core o f program ex p erien ces o r a problem -cen tered approach em phasising ex p erien ces of o rie n ta tio n -e x p lo r - a t i o n , p a r ti c i p a t i o n , and e v a lu a tio n . (2) Movement 26<t program s sh o u ld d sv slo p in t h s i r s tu d s n ts g r e a te r s o If- a d e quacy and s e l f - s e c u r i t y , r e s p o n s ib le , m ature b e h a v io r, and re s p e c t f o r s e l f and o th e rs in a d em o cratic s o c ie ty . Program e x p e rie n c e s . — (1 ) Program c o n te n t in phys i c a l e d u c a tio n i s n o t d e lim ite d p h y s ic a l a c t i v i t y , but b ro a d , e x p r e s s iv e , m e a n in g fu l, e d u c a tiv e movement e x p e ri ences d ssig n ed t o a id s tu d e n ts in o r ie n ta tio n to l i f e 's ta s k s . (2 ) Program e x p e rie n c e s a re to o ls u t i l i z e d by th e p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n te a c h e r in th e form o f p a tte r n s designed t o a id th e in d iv id u a l in o r ie n ta tio n to l i f e ' s problem s o r ta s k s . The p a tte r n s in c lu d e movement p a t te r n s , e v a lu a tio n o r v a lid a tio n , en v iro n m en tal p a t t e r n s , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , and re -e d u c a tiv e and r e h a b i l i t a t i o n p a tte r n s . C urriculum developm ent. —A d e m o c ra tic , group pro c ess o f c u rric u lu m developm ent t o meet youth needs i s a d ev elo p m en tal, co n tin u o u s p ro c e ss o f change encom passing a l l in d iv id u a ls in v o lv e d in th e e d u c a tio n o f youth in th e sc h o o l s e t t i n g . The e d u c a tiv e p ro c e s s .--T h e te a c h in g - le a rn in g proc e ss i s a g u id e d , c o o p e ra tiv e , i n t e r a c t i v e , dem o cratic prob le m -so lv in g p ro c e ss e s s e n t i a l t o th e p re p a ra tio n o f in d iv id u a ls s k i l l e d in u n d e rsta n d in g and ap p ly in g dem ocrat i c p r in c ip le s in human r e la tio n s h ip s . The te a c h e r . — (1 ) The p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n te a c h e r , 265 a b le t o fu n c tio n e f f e c t i v e l y as a c o u n s e lo r, g u id e , o r a d v is o r in th e e d u c a tio n a l q u e s t f o r in d iv id u a l developm ent sh o u ld be a s e c u r e , d e m o c ra tic , m a tu re , a d ju s te d in d iv id u a l . (2 ) W ithin th e o v e r a ll s c h o o l c o u n se lin g program th e p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n te a c h e r can e s t a b l i s h le a r n in g c lim a te , a p p ra is e and diag n o se in d iv id u a l n e e d s , p ro v id e p u rp o se- c e n te re d i n s t r u c t i o n , b rin g ab o u t change in in d iv id u a ls and th e en v iro n m en t, r e f e r s tu d e n ts t o o th e r sc h o o l p e rso n n e l f o r h e lp , and m ain tain re c o rd s o f in d iv id u a l s tu d e n ts . T each er p r e p a r a tio n . — E s s e n tia l t o te a c h e r p re p a r a tio n in th e f i e l d o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n i s in c re a s e d u n d e rsta n d in g and p r a c tic e o f d e m o c ra tic p r i n c i p l e s , s e l f - u n d e rs ta n d in g , s k i l l s o f s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n , competency w ith in o n e 's f i e l d , c u l t u r a l and academ ic b r e a d th , i n t e r a c tio n w ith and u n d e rsta n d in g o f c h il d r e n , a knowledge and u n d e rsta n d in g o f th e s c h o o l, com m unity, and s o c i e t a l f o r c e s , and u n d e rsta n d in g and u t i l i t y o f th e body o f knowl edge o f th e a r t and s c ie n c e o f human movement. A th le tic c o m p e titio n . — I n d iv id u a l developm ent in a d em o cratic s o c ie ty i s encouraged by em phasis upon th e s o c i a l v a lu e s o f d e m o c ra tic , c o o p e ra tiv e e x p e rie n c e s and n e g a te d by a u t h o r i t a r i a n , u n d em o cratic p r a c tic e s o f phys i c a l e d u c a to rs who u se c o m p e titiv e p a tte r n s f o r p e rso n a l g a in o r e x p lo ita tio n . 266 R e la te d A reas R e c re a tio n e d u c a tio n . — (1 ) The f i e l d o f r e c r e a tio n p ro v id e e f o r p re p a ra tio n f o r d em o cratic c i t i z e n s h i p , p e r s o n a l s e c u r i t y , and c o n s tru c tiv e and c r e a tiv e use o f l e i s u re f o r l i f e en ric h m e n t. (2) The f i e l d o f p h y s ic a l edu c a tio n i s an im p o rta n t c o n tr ib u to r t o th e r e c r e a tio n f i e l d , c lo s e ly r e la te d t o , and i n t e r a c t i v e w ith , t h i s a r e a . (3 ) The f i e l d o f r e c r e a tio n has a d is c i p lin e com prised o f th e f a c t s , s k i l l s , and u n d e rsta n d in g s o f l e i s u r e and r e c r e a ti o n . I t s u n iq u en ess and r e la tio n s h ip t o p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n and h e a lth e d u c a tio n a re i d e n t i f i e d in term s o f i t s em phasis upon in d iv id u a l growth and d ev elo p m en t, n o t th e body o f knowledge co m p risin g th e d i s c i p l i n e . H e a lth e d u c a tio n . - - ( 1 ) The sc h o o l h e a lth program i s th e r e s p o n s i b i l i ty o f a l l te a c h e rs in th e s c h o o l. (2) The " h e a lth y " p erso n i s a "w hole" p e rso n , a " f i t " p e rs o n , a u n if ie d (so cio p sy c h o so m a tic) p e rso n . (3) H e a lth e d u c a tio n h as em erged as an in d ep en d en t a re a in th e sc h o o l c u rric u lu m w ith a d is c ip l in e com prised o f f a c ts and u n d e rsta n d in g s from th e h e a lth s c ie n c e s and b e h a v io ra l s c ie n c e s . I t s u n iq u en ess and r e la tio n s h ip to p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n and r e c r e a tio n e d u c a tio n a re i d e n t i f i e d in term s o f i t s empha s i s upon in d iv id u a l grow th and developm ent, n o t th e body o f knowledge co m p risin g th e d i s c i p l in e . 267 The Y ears 1960-1965 F o u n d atio n s The I n d iv id u a l and th e anvlronm ent. —The u n iq u e, p u rp o e iv e organism i s a so cio p ay ch o ao m atic u n ity , an i n t e r - a c tin g t o t a l i t y w ith th e en v iro n m en t. (2 ) B ehavior i s movement to w ard need f u l f i ll m e n t in th e p e rc e p tu a l f i e l d , ch anging th e in d iv id u a l and th e environm ent. (3 ) L iving and le a r n in g a r e p e rs o n a l e x p e rie n c in g , and in d iv id u a ls p e rc e iv e t h a t w hich i s p e rs o n a lly m eaningful i n th e f i e l d . (■O S u c c e s s fu l p e rso n a l e x p e rie n c in g extends in d iv id u a l p e r c e p tio n . S o c ia l i n t e r a c t i o n i s fo c a l t o e x p e rie n c in g , le a r n in g . (5 ) Human movement i s c e n tr a l t o e x p e rie n c in g , le a r n in g , l i f e , e s ta b lis h m e n t o f s e l f - v a l u e s , a c tu a liz a tio n o f th e s e l f , becom ing. Change in th e tw e n tie th ce n tu ry environm ent. —Amer ic a n s o c ie ty i n 1965 i s c h a r a c te r iz e d by e x is te n c e in a p e rio d o f e x p lo d in g know ledge, atom ic pow er, space ex p lo r-. a t io n , com m unication te c h n o lo g y , p o p u la tio n e x p lo s io n , a f flu e n c e and p o v e rty , and e x te n s iv e and c o n tin u in g p o l i t i c a l , s o c i a l , econoad.c, and s c i e n t i f i c u n r e s t, developm ent, and c o m p e titio n . A p h ilo so p h y o f dem ocracy. —W ithin a dem ocracy, d e m o c ra tic p r in c ip le s a re dependent upon r e s p e c t f o r s e l f 268 and o th e rs a s m a n ife s te d in an u n d e rs ta n d in g and an a p p li c a tio n o f d e m o c ra tic human r e l a t i o n s h i p s . The fem ale in th e c u l t u r a l s e t t i n g . - - I n a dangerous age o f w o rld c o n f l i c t , th e o b lig a tio n o f Am erican s o c ie ty i s th e maximum developm ent o f in d iv id u a l p o t e n t i a l i t y , re g a r d le s s o f se x . E d u c a tio n . — (1 ) E d u catio n in a tim e o f change must i p ro v id e f o r change a c c e p ta n c e w ith p e rs o n a l s e c u r i ty . (2 ) The sc h o o l i s a change in n o v a to r and r e f l e c t s c u r r ic u lum change only when b e l i e f s o f in d iv id u a ls in v o lv e d in c u rric u lu m r e d ir e c t i o n a r e a l t e r e d . (3) E d u c a tio n a l p ro v is io n f o r s e l f - r e a l i z a t i o n in a d e m o c ra tic s o c ie ty r e q u ir e s in d i v id u a li z e d , m e a n in g -o rie n te d , p ro b le m -c e n te re d e x p e rie n c e s le a d in g t o r e s p o n s i b l e , in d e p e n d e n t, d em o cratic a c tio n . P h y s ic a l E d u catio n P e rs p e c tiv e and m eaning. - - (1 ) The developm ent, a c c u ra te d e s c r ip tio n , a c c e p ta n c e , and use in th e ed u ca t i o n a l s e t t i n g o f th e s u b je c t m a tte r o f human movement f o r in d iv id u a l developm ent i s th e m ajo r problem c o n fro n tin g th e f i e l d . (2 ) A tw e n tie th c e n tu ry d e s c r ip tio n o f th e a r e a e rro n e o u s ly named p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n i s n e c e ssa ry to e s ta b l i s h v a lid a tio n o f b e l i e f in th e so c io p sy c h o m a tic c o n c ep tio n o f m an-environm ental i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s . (3 ) The meaning 269 accorded p h y s ic a l ed u catio n i s r e l a t i v e to th e c u ltu r a l m ilie u and m an ifest in m an's b e l i e f s ex p ressed in th o u g h t and a c tio n about th e v a lu e , w o rth , and s ig n ific a n c e o f h is body* The new fin d in g s in sc ie n c e s t r e s s th e c e n tr a l ro le o f e f f e c tiv e movement e x p e rien ces in a c h ie v in g s e l f - i d e n tity , s e lf - v a lu e , s e lf- e s te e m , s e l f - r e l i a n c e , s e l f - a c tu a lis a tio n in th e f u l l e s t developm ent o f th e respon s i b l e , s o c ia lly aw are, c r e a tiv e person a b le to fu n c tio n e f f e c tiv e ly in a f a s t changing and complex u n iv e rs e . (25H:3 [1965]) Program p e rsp e c tiv e and m eaning. —A more concen t r a t e d emphasis in movement program s upon developm ent o f in d iv id u a l s e l f - a p p r a i s a l , s e lf- a c c e p ta n c e , s e lf - v a l u e , and s e lf - r e s p o n s i b i lit y is n ec essary in o rd e r to b e t t e r under s ta n d , a c c e p t, behave, and r e l a t e to o th e rs in a dem ocratic fa sh io n . Program e x p e rie n c e s. — (1) Movement ex p e rien ces o f g re a t b re ad th and v a rie ty are p ro v id ed in programs designed t o s a t i s f y and meet wide v a ria n c e in s tu d e n t need s. In d i v id u a lis e d movement programs a re e s ta b lis h e d a f t e r e x te n s iv e e v a lu a tio n and d iag n o sis o f movement s tre n g th s and lim ita tio n s . (2) In th e secondary sch o o ls in s tr u c ti o n a l em phasis i s focused upon ex p erien ces o f a r e c r e a tiv e , s o c i a l , and in d iv id u a liz e d n a tu re r a th e r th an team a c t i v i t i e s • C urriculum developm ent. — (1 ) C urriculum developm ent 270 i s s d e m o c ra tic , c o o p e ra tiv e group p lan n in g p ro c e ss and in v o lv e s d i f f e r e n t in d iv id u a ls a t d i f f e r e n t tim e s fu n c tio n in g in th e t o t a l p ro c e s s , depending upon in d iv id u a l com p eten cies. (2 ) C urriculum Change occurs when b e l i e f s o f in d iv id u a ls in v o lv ed in movement program s change. The e d u c a tiv e p ro c e s s . —A more c r e a t i v e , in d iv id u a l i z e d , p ro b lem -c en tered te a c h in g m ethodology i s n e c e ssa ry in o rd e r t o f r e e in d iv id u a ls f o r c r e a t i v e , re s p o n s ib le , in fo rm ed , m atu re, s e l f - d ir e c t i n g a c tio n in an age o f a n x ie ty and in d o c tr in a tio n . The te a c h e r . — P h y sic a l ed u c a tio n te a c h e rs sh o u ld in te n s iv e ly examine th e d eep er meanings o f human movement in o rd e r t o f a c i l i t a t e s tu d e n ts in s e l f - d i r e c t i o n and s e l f - a c tu a li z a t io n . T eacher p re p a ra tio n . —T eacher p re p a ra tio n em phasis sh o u ld be upon a d ep th stu d y o f th e movement d i s c i p l i n e . A th le tic c o m p e titio n . —A th le tic co m p e titio n f o r th e e x c e p tio n a l s tu d e n t o f f e r s an o p p o rtu n ity f o r th e develop ment o f human p o t e n t i a l i t y . A d e f in itio n and d e lin e a tio n o f p u rp o se s, v a lu e s , and sta n d a rd s o f a t h l e t i c c o m p etitio n i s needed t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e between b e n e f ic ia l e d u c a tio n a l v a lu e s and economic e x p lo ita tio n o f in d iv id u a ls . 271 R i l i t t d A rtw R e c re a tio n e d u c a tio n . — One o f th e im p o rta n t re sp o n s i b i l i t i e s o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n in ed u c atio n f o r e f f e c t i v e in d iv id u a l movement i s to develop r e c r e a tio n a l com petencies and a d e s ir e f o r co n tin u o u s p a r ti c ip a t io n in r e c r e a tiv e l e i s u r e a c t i v i t i e s * H e a lth e d u c a tio n . — P h y sic a l ed u c atio n can h e lp in d iv id u a ls t o b e t t e r u n d e rsta n d , e f f e c t , and s u s ta in f i t n e s s in a w orld o f a n x ie ty and u n c e rta in ty . PA R T VII SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, A N D RECOM M ENDATIONS 2 72 C H A PT E R XIX SU M M A R Y , CONCLUSIONS, A N D R EC O M M EN D A TIO N S I t ta k e s two to speak th e tr u th — one to speak and anoth e r to h e a r. —Henry David Thoreau The purpose o f t h i s study was to b rin g to g e th e r and c la r if y f o r re a d e rs th e m ajor id e a s of a contem porary p h y sic a l ed u c atio n le a d e r in tw e n tie th century America. The Problem The problem was t o id e n t if y , c l a r i f y , and c o lla te the m ajor p ro fe s s io n a l id e a s of R osalind C assidy. E s s e n tia l to an u n d ersta n d in g o f th e se id e a s was the development o f th e fo llo w in g m a te ria ls : 1. A b io g ra p h ic a l exam ination s e t w ith in the framework o f h i s t o r i c change and development in h e a lth , p h y s ic a l, and re c re a tio n education from th e tim e o f R o salin d C assidy*s b ir th in 189S u n t i l the te rm in a l d ate o f th e stu d y , 1965. 2. An i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f concepts 273 27«f c o m p risin g t h s fo u n d a tio n s from w hich R o sa lin d C a s s id y 's c o n c e p tio n s o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n w ere d e r iv e d and d e v e lo p e d , 3. A p r e s e n ta t io n and e x a m in a tio n o f id e a s o f t h i s le a d e r w hich r e l a t e t o p h y s ic a l* re c r e a tio n * and h e a lth e d u c a tio n . The H ypotheses The stu d y was fou n d ed on th e fram ew ork o f th e fo lo w in g h y p o th e se s w hich w ere d e riv e d from a p re lim in a ry i n v e s t i g a t io n o f R o sa lin d C a s s id y 's docum ents: 1. A c o n s i s t e n t p a t t e r n o f id e a s p erm eated th e w r itin g s o f R o sa lin d C a ssid y th ro u g h o u t h e r p r o f e s s io n a l l i f e * 1920-1965. 2 . T hese id e a s w ere c o n tin u o u s ly c l a r i f i e d and expanded i n h e r w r i ti n g s i n p h y s ic a l * r e c r e a tio n * and h e a l t h e d u c a tio n . A ssum ptions U n d e rly in g th e S tudy B asic to th e s tu d y w ere th e fo llo w in g a ssu m p tio n s: 1 . Id e a s i d e n t i f i e d f o r p u rp o ses o f ex a m in a tio n c o n s t i t u t e th e c e n t r a l p a t t e r n s o f p r o f e s s io n a l b e l i e f o f R o s a lin d C a ssid y . 2 . R o sa lin d C a ssid y i s a re c o g n iz e d le a d e r in tw e n tie th c e n tu r y p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n . 3. A u th o rsh ip o f a re c o rd e d document* w h e th e r 275 s in g ly o r in c o lla b o r a tio n w ith o th e r s , i s re p r e s e n ta tiv e o f th e th in k in g o f th e in d iv id u a l in v o lv e d . 4 . I t i s p o s s ib le , w here th e r e i s a s u f f i c i e n t volume o f w r itin g , t o i s o l a t e th e id e a s o f one a u th o r when w r itin g in c o lla b o ra tio n w ith o th e r s • 5. The re se a rc h m ethodology and p ro ced u res u t i liz e d in t h i s stu d y were a p p ro p ria te and v a lid . 6. A re p re s e n ta tio n o f id e a tio n a l c o n s is te n c y w ith th e works o f R o salin d C assidy may be id e n ti f ie d in th e fo llo w in g f iv e tim e p e rio d s : 1920-1929; 1930-1939; 1940-19U9; 1950-1959; 1960-1965. P rocedure D ata c o lle c tio n , ex a m in a tio n , and a n a ly s is began w ith a p re lim in a ry in v e s tig a tio n , th e purpose o f w hich was to id e n tif y R osalind C a ss id y 's m ajor id e a s and t o seek in fo rm a tio n about h e r p ro fe s s io n a l l i f e . From t h i s prim ary endeavor th e o v e r a ll d e sig n o f th e stu d y was developed. Follow ing th e i n i t i a l in v e s ti g a t io n , an in te n s iv e se a rc h f o r d a ta was u n d erta k en . The prim ary so u rce s were w r itte n and o r a l documents c o n ta in in g th e id e a s o f R osalind C assidy o r in fo rm a tio n about R o salin d C assidy th e p e rso n . R e su lts o f a q u e s t f o r b io g ra p h ic a l in fo rm a tio n about R osalind C assidy in d ic a te d t h a t th e r e w ere f iv e f 276 p e rio d s o f p e rso n a l and p r o f e s s io n a l developm ent w hich sh o u ld be c o n s id e re d . These w ere i d e n t i f i e d a s : (1 ) th e fo rm a tiv e y e a rs (1 8 9 5 -1 9 1 8 ), (2 ) H ills C o lle g e : p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n (1 9 1 8 -1 9 3 9 ), (3 ) H il ls C o lle g e : e d u c a tio n (1939- 1 9 1 7 ), (1) U n iv e rsity o f C a li f o r n i a , Los A ngeles: p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n (1 9 1 7 -1 9 6 2 ), and (S) re tire m e n t y e a rs (1965- )• In c o n ju n c tio n w ith th e f iv e tim e p e r io d s , a b r i e f h i s t o r i c a l overview o f m ajor changes and developm ents in p h y s ic a l, h e a lth , and r e c r e a tio n e d u c a tio n was developed in o rd e r t o p la c e th e l i f e o f R o salin d C assidy i n r e la tio n s h ip t o th e changing tim e s . D uring th e p ro c e ss o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and exam ination o f R o salin d C a s s id y 's m ajo r i d e a s , i t was n e c e ssa ry to i d e n t i f y , d e v e lo p , c l a r i f y , and v e r if y th e c o n c e p tu a l g e s t a l t from which th e s e id e a s w ere draw n, d ev e lo p e d , and e x te n d e d . T his m a te r ia l was p re s e n te d in f iv e o f th e n in e te e n c h a p te rs o f th e s tu d y : (1 ) th e in d iv id u a l and th e e n v iro n m en t, (2) change in th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry e n v iro n m ent, (3 ) a p h ilo so p h y o f dem ocracy, (1 ) th e fem ale in th e c u l t u r a l s e t t i n g , and (5 ) e d u c a tio n . Follow ing th e b io g ra p h ic a l in v e s t ig a t io n o f R o salin d C assidy and th e d e te rm in a tio n o f th e fo u n d a tio n a l g e s t a l t o f th e s tu d y , f u r t h e r in v e s tig a tio n o f th e d a ta re v e a le d t h a t th e m ajor id e a s co u ld be i d e n t i f i e d i n te n b ro ad a r e a s : (1 ) p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n : p e r s p e c tiv e and m eaning, (2) p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n : program p e rs p e c tiv e and 277 M « n in g , (3 ) p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n ; program e x p e rie n c e s , (1) p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n : c u rric u lu m developm ent, (5 ) p h y si c a l e d u c a tio n : th e e d u c a tiv e p r o c e s s , (6 ) p h y s ic a l edu c a tio n : th e te a c h e r , (7 ) p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n : te a c h e r p r e p a r a tio n , (8) p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n : a t h l e t i c c o m p e titio n , (9 ) r e c r e a tio n e d u c a tio n : p e r s p e c tiv e and m eaning, and (10) h e a lth e d u c a tio n : p e r s p e c tiv e and m eaning. F u rth e r exam ination in d ic a te d t h a t c o n s is te n c y and em phasis o f id e a s could be most m ean in g fu lly i d e n t i f i e d and examined w ith in th e framework o f f iv e tim e p e r io d s : 1920- 1929; 1930-1939; 19»»0-19*»9; 1950-1959; 1960-196S. The p ro cess o f d e li m ita ti o n , re fin e m e n t, and a n a ly s is o f th e d a ta cu lm in ated in an i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f co n cep ts which w ere used t o t e s t th e v a l i d i t y o f th e s ta t e d h y p o th eses in th e p re s e n t s tu d y . The id e a s o f R o salin d C assidy w ere su b se q u e n tly p re s e n te d in th e form o f c a re f u l l y s e le c te d q u o ta tio n s which w ere d e riv e d from h e r d o c tm sn ts, and deemed m ost a p p r o p ria te t o th e problem o f th e s tu d y . L im ita tio n s o f th e Study T h is stu d y was lim ite d i n th e fo llo w in g ways: 1. There was no i n t e n t t o r e l a t e R o salin d C a ssid y 's co n c e p tio n s o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n d ir e c tly t o a c tu a l contem porary p r a c tic e . The stu d y d e a lt s o le ly w ith th e id e a s and a c tio n s o f one i n d i v id u a l; th a a a v a ra c a ta g o r iz a d and exam ined w ith in an h i s t o r i c fram a o f r e f e r e n c e . T his stu d y sh o u ld b a i n t a r p r a t e d p r im a r ily as "a c o n tr ib u tio n t o th a h is t o r y o f id a a s r a t h a r th a n a d e s c r ip tio n o f th a a v e n ts o f h is to r y " (30*»:3)t o r as a b io g ra p h y o f id e a s . R e la te d id a a s o f R o s a lin d C assid y i n o th e r d is c ip lin e s w are o m itte d . Tha s tu d y was lim ite d t o co n c ep ts r e l a t i n g s p e c i f i c a l l y t o p h y s ic a l, h e a lt h , and r e c r e a tio n e d u c a tio n . A lim ite d amount o f re s o u rc e m a te r ia l was n o t a v a ila b le f o r th e p u rp o se s o f t h i s s tu d y . A lthough t h i s s tu d y was fo c u se d upon an exam i n a tio n o f th a p r o f e s s io n a l id e a s o f R o sa lin d C assid y , th e im pact o f id a a s upon a f i e l d i s seldom im m ediate. I t i s c o n se q u e n tly e n t i r e l y p o s s ib le t h a t th e u ltim a te im p o rtan ce o f c e r ta in id e a s was n o t re c o g n iz e d by th a i n v e s t ig a t o r . S ince R o sa lin d C assid y i s s t i l l p r o f e s s io n a lly a c tiv e and th e i n v e s t i g a t o r i n t h i s s tu d y was a p r o f e s s io n a l c o lle a g u e , th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f b ia s in th e s e le c ti o n and e x a m in a tio n o f th e d a ta was p o s s ib le . E very e f f o r t was m ade, how ever, t o m a in ta in o b j e c t i v i t y . Summary o f th e F in d in g s The m ajor id e a s o f R o salin d C assid y i d e n t i f i e d in t h i s stu d y a r e t o p ic a ll y summ arized in t h i s s e c tio n . F oundations The I n d iv id u a l and tn e E nviron— n t An ex am in atio n o f th e fin d in g s co m p risin g th e con c e p tu a l g e s t a l t o f t h i s stu d y in d ic a te s R o sa lin d C a s s id y 's c o n tin u o u s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f and em phasis upon e x p e rie n c in g , p u rp o s iv e , i n d i v i s i b l e man in i n t e r a c ti o n and u n ity w ith h is environm ent was th e fo u n ta in h e a d o f an e d u c a tio n a l p h ilo so p h y d e d ic a te d t o th e co n cep tio n o f e d u c a tio n as a m a n ife s ta tio n o f democracy in a d em o cratic s o c ie ty . The developm ent o f i n d i v i d u a li t y , o r human p e r s o n a lity , was dependent upon a c u l t u r a l c o n c ep tio n o f man r e l a t i v e t o tim e , p la c e , and s o c ie ty . R o salin d C a s s id y 's id e a s i n i t i a l l y w ere i d e n t i f i e d w ith th e o r ie s w hich a tte m p te d t o e x p la in m an's e x p e rie n c in g and le a r n in g in a m e c h a n istic m anner. In l a t e r decades sh e i d e n t i f i e d more and more c lo s e ly w ith th e em erging h o l i s t i c c o n c e p tio n s o f m an-environm ental i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s . Change in the Twentieth Century Environment The w orld was viewed by R oealind C a ssid y , o v e r th e y e a r s , a s a p la c e o f ch an g e, r e l a t i v i t y , and e x p e rim e n ta l- 280 is m , m a n ife ste d in c o n tin u o u s s c i e n t i f i c , eco n o m ic, s o c i a l , and p o l i t i c a l change and developm ent. P re p a ra tio n f o r , and a c c e p ta n c e o f change was a c o n tin u a l g o a l o f e d u c a tio n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s p re p a rin g th e c i t iz e n r y f o r f u l l p a r tn e r s h ip in th e d e m o c ra tic e n t e r p r i s e . A P h ilo so p h y o f Democracy From h e r e a r ly w r itin g s in th e 1 9 2 0 's t o h e r l a t e s t p u b lic a tio n s in th e 1 9 6 0 's , R o salin d C a s s id y 's b e l i e f in th e d e m o c ra tic way was e v id e n t in a l l o f h e r docum ents and i d e n t i f i e d w ith in th e c o n te x t o f s o c i a l m eaning and edu c a ti o n a l im p le m e n ta tio n . Democracy m a n ife s t in Am erican s o c ie ty was a s s o c ia te d w ith in d iv id u a l i n i t i a t i v e , s e l f - d i s c i p l i n e , s e l f - d i r e c t i o n , in d iv id u a l u n iq u en ess and w o rth , r e s p e c t f o r s e l f and o th e r s , and c o o p e ra tiv e b e h a v i o r among th e c i t i z e n r y . The Female in th e C u ltu r a l s e t t i n g " * R o salin d C assid y in d ic a te d c o n tin u o u s b e l i e f in r e s p e c t f o r in d iv id u a l w o rth , d ig n ity , and v a lu e , and c a lle d f o r th e developm ent o f in d iv id u a l p o t e n t i a l i t y and econom ic, e d u c a tio n a l, and c u l t u r a l e q u a lit y f o r a l l , r e g a r d le s s o f s e x . E d u ca tio n From h e r e a r l i e s t w r i ti n g s , R o sa lin d C assidy made known c o n tin u a lly h e r b e l i e f in a c u l t u r a l l y c o n c eiv ed 281 d e m o c ra tic a lly o rie n te d ) in d iv id u a l- in - s o c ie ty focused con c e p tio n o f e d u c a tio n . In d iv id u a l needs were i d e n t if ie d as th e b a s is o f e d u c a tio n a l e x p e rien ce) te a c h in g as guidance, le a rn in g as problem s o lv in g , and th e school as a s o c ia l i n s t i t u t i o n . The purpose o f a l l e d u c a tio n a l ex p erien ces was t o develop human p o t e n t i a l i t i e s and p rep are s o c ia l man f o r f u l l p a r tic ip a tio n in dem ocratic liv in g . P h y sic a l E ducation P e rsp e c tiv e and Meaning Throughout th e y e a rs R osalind C assidy contin u o u sly i d e n t i f i e d p h y sic a l ed u c atio n as an in stru m en t fo r human developm ent in a dem ocratic s o c ie ty . She d e c rie d th e use o f d iv i s iv e , d u a l i s t i c term inology t o d esc rib e the f i e l d , and c a lle d f o r a c c u ra te , h o l i s t i c term inology d e s c rip tiv e o f th e t o t a l , in te g r a te d , in te r a c tiv e n a tu re o f man- en v iro n m en tal i n te r r e la tio n s h ip s . Program P e rsp e c tiv e and Meaning Throughout h e r w r itin g s , R osalind C assidy p erceiv ed th e p h y s ic a l ed u c atio n program to be a guided, dem ocratized in d iv id u a liz e d program desig n ed to meet v ary in g stu d e n t needs in o rd e r t o cope s u c c e s s fu lly w ith th e problems o r ta s k s o f liv in g in a dem ocratic s o c ie ty . Program E xperiences D uring h e r p ro fe s s io n a l c a r e e r , R osalind C assidy 282 focused h e r id e a s upon th e m eaning o f a contem porary, in d iv id u a l- c e n te r e d p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n program . T his p ro gram was c h a r a c te r iz e d by b re a d th and d ep th o f in d iv id u a l iz e d , g ro u p , c r e a t i v e , r e c r e a t i v e , s o c i a l i z i n g e x p e rie n c e s u t i l i z e d as a m edia f o r m eetin g in d iv id u a l needs and o r ie n ta tio n f o r s u c c e s s f u l s o lu tio n t o l i f e * s problem s. C urriculum Development The co n cep t o f c u rric u lu m developm ent, r e d ir e c ti o n , and re v is io n was d e s c rib e d f i r s t by R o salin d C assidy a s a p ro cess o f te a c h e r - s tu d e n t a p p r a is a l and im p lem en tatio n o f stu d e n t n e e d s. T h is was l a t e r e n la rg e d t o mean a coopera t i v e , d em o cratic group v e n tu re d esig n ed to id e n tif y and f u l f i l l s tu d e n t needs th ro u g h program e x p e rie n c e s . The E duoative P ro cess From th e i n i t i a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f dem ocratic methodology i n th e volum e. The New P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n , pub lis h e d in 1927, R o sa lin d C assidy c o n tin u e d to p e rc e iv e th e te a c h in g - le a r n in g phenomenon as a c o o p e ra tiv e , i n t e r a c t i v e , u n d e rta k in g o f d e m o c ra tic guidance in th e p ro b lem -so lv in g p ro cess betw een te a c h e r and p u p ils . . The T eacher U ndem ocratic a u th o r ita r ia n is m was r e je c te d in th e p u b lic a tio n . The Hew P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n . A t t h i s tim e R o salind C assidy c a lle d f o r te a c h e rs a b le t o a id in th e 2 83 developm ent o f human p o t e n t i a l i t i e s in a d em o cratic s o c i e ty . The concept o f th e te a c h e r as a d e m o cratic g u id e , u sin g th e p ro b lem -so lv in g p ro c e s s t o f a c i l i t a t e human developm ent in th e c u l t u r a l s e t t i n g , to o k on b ro a d e r and d eep er meaning o v e r th e y e a r s . T eacher P re p a ra tio n From an i n i t i a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n in th e 1 9 2 0 's o f te a c h e r p re p a ra tio n in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n as b e in g p ro fe s s i o n a l , academ ic, and c u l t u r a l i n n a tu r e , R o salin d C a ssid y , o v er th e y e a r s , r e i t e r a t e d h e r b e l i e f in a bro ad e d u c a tio n a l co n cep tio n o f te a c h e r p r e p a r a tio n . The need f o r b re a d th , and p a r tic u l a r ly d ep th o f p re p a ra tio n in r e la ti o n t o th e body o f knowledge o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n , re c e iv e d g re a t em phasis in C a s s id y 's l a t e r w r itin g s . A th le tic C om petition In h e r w ritin g s o v e r th e y e a r s , R o salin d C assidy d e c rie d th e u n d em o cratic, e x p l o i t a t i v e p r a c tic e s u t i l i z e d by a d u lts w ith youth in c o m p e titiv e e x p e rie n c e s , and empha s iz e d th e v alu e o f d e m o c ra tic , c o o p e ra tiv e e x p e rie n c e s f o r a l l boys and g i r l s . In th e 1 9 6 0 's th e id e a o f a t h l e t i c co m p e titio n s e rv in g as a means o f d ev e lo p in g th e g i f t e d in d iv id u a l's p o t e n t i a l i t i e s was s u p p o rte d , b u t i t was p o in te d o u t th a t a t h l e t i c s sh o u ld be fo c u se d on in d iv id u a l developm ent and e d u c a tio n a l v a lu e s , n o t p ro fe s s io n a lis m , com m ercialism , o r in d iv id u a l e x p lo ita tio n * R e c reatio n E ducation A b e l i e f in th e v alu es o f r e c r e a tiv e , le is u r e - tim e e x p e rie n c e s f o r enrichm ent o f human l i f e , and th e im p o rta n t c o n tr ib u tio n p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n a c t i v i t i e s can make to r e c r e a tiv e need s a t i s f a c t i o n , were em phasized th ro u g h o u t f iv e decades o f R o salin d C a ssid y 's w ritin g s . H e a lth E ducation The w ritin g s o f R osalind C assidy re v e a le d a r e je c tio n o f id e a s id e n tif y in g in d iv id u a l h e a lth w ith d u a l i s t i c term in o lo g y and d iv is iv e n e s s of human fu n c tio n . A b e l i e f in h e a lth and h e a lth ed u c atio n c e n te re d in th e whole perso n and t o t a l , in te g r a te d , in te r a c tiv e human fu n c tio n , i s p ro je c te d throu g h o u t a l l h e r docum ents. S y n th esis o f th e fin d in g s From th e documents produced by R osalind C assidy o v er a p e rio d o f f iv e decades in th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry , two g e n e ra liz e d id e a tio n a l p a t te r n s , em bracing th e m ajor them es developed in t h i s s tu d y , were e v id e n t. The f i r s t p a tte r n in d ic a te d a c o n s is te n t b e l i e f in th e value o f a dem o cratic form o f s o c ie ty in a dynam ic, a n x io u s , changing w orld su p p o rted by a c itiz e n r y ed u c ated t o value human d ig n ity and w orth. E d u ca tio n al i n s t i t u t i o n s , th e s o c ia l in stru m e n ts f o r c u ltu r a l re g e n e r a tio n , w ere p e rc e iv e d in l i g h t o f a l l o f t h e i r m a n ife s ta tio n s as 285 t o o ls t o b« u t l l l z s d in th s developm ent o f in d iv id u a l p e r s o n a lity , u n iq u e n e s s , p o t e n t i a l i t y t and concern and r e s p e c t f o r o th e r human beings* The second p a tte r n in d ic a te d c o n siste n c y o f b e l i e f in th e p o t e n t i a l i t y and u t i l i t y o f body movement e x p e ri en ces as m edia f o r developm ent and a c tu a liz a tio n o f human p o t e n t i a l i t y in a d e m o c ra tic s o c ie ty . E d u c a tio n a l e x p e ri en ces d e sig n e d to enhance th e developm ent o f human p e r s o n a lity t d ev elo p s e l f - i n i t i a t i v e , s e l f - d i r e c t i o n , and s e l f - r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , in c u lc a te r e s p e c t and c o n s id e ra tio n f o r th e r i g h t s o f o th e r s , p ro v id e f o r c o o p e ra tiv e , s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n , and f o s t e r i n t e l l i g e n t self-m anagem ent w ere seen a s m a n ife s ta tio n s o f democracy e v id e n t in th e perform ance o f th e human in s tru m e n t, th e u ltim a te t e s t o f e d u c a tio n a l e f f e c tiv e n e s s in a d em o cratic s o c ie ty . C onclusions T h is stu d y was d e sig n e d t o i d e n t i f y , c l a r i f y , and c o l l a t e th e m ajor p r o f e s s io n a l id e a s o f R o salin d C assidy in th e f i e l d o f tw e n tie th c e n tu ry p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n , w ith in th e fram ework o f two h y p o th e se s. S in ce th e fin d in g s confirm ed th e h y p o th e s e s , i t was concluded t h a t : 1 . Over a sp an o f f iv e d e c a d e s, 1920-1965, th e docum ents o f R o salin d C assidy show a c o n s is te n t p a t t e r n o f id e a s in d ic a tin g th a t e d u c a tio n o f a d e m o c ra tic c i ti z e n r y in American s o c ie ty 286 depends upon t h e u n d e rs ta n d in g t h a t human b e in g s a r e u n iq u e , p u rp o s iv e , u n i f i e d , i n t e r d e p e n d e n t o rg an ism s i n c o n s ta n t i n t e r a c t i o n w ith a c h a n g in g e n v iro n m e n ta l s o c ie ty and p a tte r n e d by i t s m a n if e s ta tio n s . 2 . T hese i d e a s , fo c u se d upon human developm ent i n a c h a n g in g , d e m o c ra tic s o c i e t y , w ere c o n tin u o u s ly c l a r i f i e d and expanded i n h e r w r itin g s in p h y s i c a l , r e c r e a t i o n , an d h e a lth e d u c a tio n . R ecom m endations f o r F u r th e r Study S tu d ie s s i m i l a r t o th e p r e s e n t o n e , "C onceptions o f P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n in T w e n tie th C en tu ry A m erica: R o sa lin d C a s s id y ," o f o t h e r co n tem p o rary p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n le a d e rs in tw e n tie th c e n tu ry A m erica, slig h t p r o f i t a b l y be co n d u cted . P BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Books 1. American A sso c ia tio n f o r H e a lth , P h y sic a l E ducation* and R e c re a tio n . D eveloping D em ocratic Human R ela tio n s Through H ealth E d u c a tio n . P h y sic a l E d u c a tio n , and R e c re a tio n * W ashington. D .C .: American Asso c ia tio n f o r H e a lth , P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n , and R e c re a tio n , 1951* 2. * The Growing Y ears: A dolescence* W ashing- to n , D.C71 American A s s o c ia tio n f o r H e a lth , Phys i c a l E d u catio n , and R e c re a tio n , 1962. 3* A nderson, C. L. School H e a lth P r a c tic e . S t. L ouis: The C. V. Mosby Company, 1956. if. B ax ter, B ern ice, and R o sa lin d C assid y . Group E x p e ri- ence: The D em ocratic Way. New York: H arper an3T Bro th e rsT T gg?.---------------- 5. Bowen, W ilbur P ., and Elmer D. M itc h e ll. The Theory o f O rganized P la y . New York: A. S . Barnes and Company, 1^28. 6. Brown, C am ille, and R o salin d C assid y . Theory in Phys i c a l E du catio n : A Guide t o Program CKange. P h ila d e lp h ia : Lea and F e b ig e r, 1^637 7. C a rr, Edward H a ll e t t. What I s H isto ry ? New York: A lfre d A * Knopf, 1963. 8. C assid y , R o salin d . C o u n selin g in th e P h y sic a l Edu c a tio n Program. New VorJc: Apple to n - C r o f ts , i n c . , lSbSI. 9 • . C urriculum Development i n P h y sic a l Edu- c a tio n . New York: H arper and B ro th e rs , P u b lis h e r s , 195**. 288 289 10* C a ssid y , R o salin d . "D em ocratic L e a d e rsh ip ." In De- v e lo p iM D em ocratic Human R e la tio n s Through H ealth E d u catio n . P h y sic al E d u ca tio n , and R e c re a tio n ; F i r s t Y e a rb o o lc o fth e American A s s o c ia tio n f o r H e a lth , P h y sic a l E d u catio n , and R e c re a tio n . Wash in g to n , D .C .: American A sso c ia tio n f o r H e a lth , P h y sic a l E d u catio n , and R e c re a tio n , 1951. Pp. 101- 115. 11. "Forew ord." In The Evaluation Process in H ealth ■Education. P h y sic a l E d u c a tio n , and R ecre- 8 t i o n . b y M arjo rie Latchaw and C am ille Brown, nglewood C l i f f s , N .J .: P r e n tic e - H a ll, I n c ., 1962. p. v . 12. . "Minimum E s s e n tia ls f o r P h y s ic a l E ducation in 1975." In The Growing Y ears; A d o lescen ce. 1962 Yearbook, American A sso c ia tio n f o r H e a lth , P h y sic a l E d u catio n , and R e c re a tio n . 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"Youth Hostels: England and German," The W ations S c h o o ls . 1 9 :1 8 - 2 2 , May, 1937. • "Y outh Jo u m e v s and th e S o c ia l S c ie n c e s ." R e c r e a tio n . 3 2 : 3 - 5 , 4 4 - 4 5 , A p r i l , 1938. . and C am ille Brown. "Changes S in ce S p u tn ik in Program s o f P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n ," J o u rn a l o f H e a lth .J P h ^ s ic a l E d u c a tio n , and R e c r e a tio n . 3 4 :5 5 , . and C am ille Brown. "Space Age C o n fe re n c e ," J o u rn a l o f H e a lth . P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n , and R ecre a t i o n . Z8 816. S eptem b er, x s s s . 116. 147 • 148. 149. 150. 151. 152. 153. 154. 155. 156. 157. 158. 300 C assid y , R o sa lin d , and H ild a C lu ts Kozman. "Trends in S ta ts Wartime P h y sic a l F itn e ss Program s," The J o u rn a l o f H ealth and P h y sic a l E d u catio n . 14:337- 393, 1------------------------- D a lis , P e te r T ., and S tr a tto n F. C aldw ell. 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"The Concept o f N a tu ra l in P h y sic a l E ducation: Johann Guts Muths—M argarets S tr e iC h e r .” A p a p e r p re se n te d a t th e n a tio n a l conv en tio n o f th e American A s s o c ia tio n f o r H ealth* P h y sic a l E ducation* and R e c re a tio n (m im eographed), D allas* Texas* M&rch, 1965. 20 pp. " O f f ic ia l T ra n s c rip t o f Record [R o sa lin d C a ssid y ], 1916-1918." M ills C o lleg e. 1 p. " O f f ic ia l T ra n s c rip t o f Record [R o sa lin d C a ssid y ], 1919-1937." T eachers C ollege* Columbia U niver s i t y . 2 pp. P ic k e tt* Dot Pum mill. "P h y sic a l E d u catio n in th e Changing C urriculum o f Secondary S c h o o ls," Unpub lis h e d r e p o rt o f a ty p e C p ro je c t* T eachers Col lege* Columbia U n iv e rs ity , 1955. 122 pp. P rice* H artle y D'O. "The E sta b lish m e n t o f th e P rin c ip le s Which Are E s s e n tia l f o r th e R e a liz a tio n o f th e O b jectiv es o f P h y sic a l E d u c a tio n ." Unpub lis h e d D o cto ral d is s e r ta tio n * New York U n iv e rsity * 1946. 731 pp. Sherman. A tare Polonsky. " T h e o re tic a l F oundations o f P h y sic a l E ducation in th e U n ited S t a t e s ." Unpub lis h e d D o cto ral d is s e r ta tio n * U n iv e rsity o f South e rn C a lifo rn ia * June* 1965. 179 pp. S tu d e n t-F a c u lty A dvisory Committee on C om petition f o r Women. "P o licy S tatem ent on C om p etitiv e S p o rts f o r Women a t U .C .L .A ." U n iv e rs ity o f C a lif o r n ia , Los A ngsles (m im eographed). May* 1966. 2 pp. V eller* Don A. "N otew orthy People* and T h e ir F ie ld s and V ocations* as Evidenced by Frequency o f Men tio n s in th e J o u rn a l o f H ealth and P h y s ic a l Edu c a tio n ." U npublished D o cto ral d is s e r ta tio n * In d ia n a U n iv e rs ity , June* 19S0. 362 pp. 307* 308. 309. 310. 311. 31* W ashke, P aul R. "The Development o f th e American A e e o c ia tio n f o r H e a lth , P h y sic a l E d u ca tio n , and R e c re a tio n and I t s R e la tio n sh ip to P h y sic a l Edu c a tio n in th e U nited S ta te s ." U npublished D octor a l d i s s e r t a t i o n . New York U n iv e rsity , 1943. 375 pp. W a tts, D oris P a ig e . "Changing C onceptions o f Com p e t i t i v e S p o rts f o r G irls and Women in th e U n ited S ta te s from 1880 t o I9 6 0 ." U npublished D o cto ral d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n iv e rsity o f C a lif o r n ia , Los A n g eles, J u ly , I960. 163 pp. W eber, Mary E lle n . "Development o f a C onceptual Model o f Human Movement from Endocrine and P ercep t u a l Theory w ith A nalysis o f th e E ffe c ts o f A b e rra tio n s on Movement." U npublished D o cto ral d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n iv e rsity o f C a lif o r n ia , Los A n g eles, May, I960. 312 pp. W ilto n , W ilton M . "A Com parative A nalysis o f Theo r i e s R e la te d to Moral and S p ir i tu a l Values in P h y sic a l E d u c a tio n ," U npublished D octo ral d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n iv e rsity o f C a lif o r n ia , Los A n g eles, December, 1956. 332 pp. Z e ig le r , E a rle F re d e ric k . "A H isto ry o f P ro fe s s io n a l P re p a ra tio n f o r P h y sic a l E ducation in th e U nited S ta te s (1 8 6 1 -1 9 4 8 )." U npublished D o cto ral d is s e r t a t i o n , Yale U n iv e rs ity , 1950. 506 pp. APPENDIX I SELECTED PUBLICATIONS OF ROSALIND CASSIDY 31S SELECTED PUBLICATIONS OF ROSALIND CASSIDY Books S in g ls A uthorship New D irs c tio n s in P h y sic a l E d u catio n f o r th e A d o lescen t <>iri i n Hi an sc n o o i and E o iie g e : a iauice r o r T each ers in C o o p era tiv e c u rric u lu m k e v is io n . wew xoric: A. 5 ,' Barnes ana Company, in c o rp o ra te d , 19 38. "D em ocratic L e a d e rsh ip ." C h ap ter * » i n D eveloping Dem ocrat i c Human R e la tio n s th ro u g h H e a lth E d u c a tio n . P h y s ic a l Edu c a t i o n . and R e c re a tio n . W ashington, b . c . : American A sso- e l a t i o n r o r H e a lth , P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n , and R e c re a tio n , 1 9 5 1 . C urriculum Development in P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n . New Y ork: H arp er and B ro th e rs , P u b lis h e r s , iSlbW. C ounseling i n th e P h y s ic a l E d u catio n Program . New York: A p p le to n -C e n tu ry -c ro rts , i n c . , 1959. "Minimum E s s e n tia ls f o r P h y s ic a l E d u ca tio n in 1 9 7 5 ." A C o n trib u tio n t o C h ap ter 1 9 . "F u tu re P ro g ram s." i n The Grow- in g Y ears: A dolescence* W ashington, D .C .: Am erican Asso c ia t io n r o r H e a lth , P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n , and R e c re a tio n , 1 9 6 2 . M u ltip le A u th o rsh ip Wood, Thomas D enison, and R o salin d F rances C a ssid y . The New P h y s ic a l E d u catio n : A Program o f N a tu ra liz e d ActlTTT- t i e s r o r E d u catio n Toward c i t i z e n s h i p . New yomc: The M acM illan Company, 1927. C a ssid y . R o sa lin d , and Homer Bemiss < e d .). Handbook f o r Camp C o u n selo rs: A C o n trib u tio n t o Camping Raae py th e p a c i f i c camp D ire c to rs A s s o c ia tio n , O akland. C a i i r . : Homer B em iss, I*, b . Box 796, 1935. 316 C o l l i n s . L a u re n tin e B . , C a s s id y , R o s a lin d , w ith t h s C o lla b o r a t i o n o f C o w all. C h a rls s C ., K ozaan, H ild a C ., S t o lz , H e rb e rt R. . and P a r t i c i p a n t s i n Summer W orkshops o f th e P r o g r e s s iv e E d u c a tio n A s s o c ia tio n . P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n in th e S eco n d ary S c h o o l. New Y ork: Com m ittee on WoncsnopsT P r o g r e s s iv e E d u c a tio n A s s o c ia tio n . 19HO. C a s s id y . R o s a lin d , and H ild a C lu te K ozaan. P h y s ic a l F i t - n s s s f o r G i r l s : A T extbook f o r T e a c h e r E d u catio n and a g u id e t o i e a c n e r s i n c u rric u lu m R e v isio n "" "Hew Y ork: X. S . B arnes and co ep an y . in c o r p o r a te d . 1943. K o saan . H ild a C lu te . and R o sa lin d C a s sid y . F itn e s s F i r s t : A P h y s ic a l F itn e s s Workbook f o r H igh S chool g i r l s . New x o rx : a . s . Barnes a n a com pany, in c o r p o r a te d . 19H3. B a x te r . B e r n ic e , and R o sa lin d C a ssid y . Group E x p e rie n c e : The D em o cratic Way. New Y ork: H a rp e r and B ro th e rs . 19^3. C a s s id y . R o s a lin d , and H ild a C lu te Kozman. C o u n selin g G ir ls in a C hanging S o c ie ty : A Guide f o r C o u n selo rs and T sa o n e rs i n man s c n o o i and C o lle g e . Hew~York:" Tfc'Braw- n i l l Book Company. i n c . . 1 9 h /. K ozaan. H ild a C lu te . C a s s id y . R o s a lin d , and C h e s te r 0 . J a c k s o n . M ethods in P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n : An I l l u s t r a t e d T extbook r o r s tu q e n ts p re p a rin g t o T sacn Bovs and f l l r l s i n tn e s e c o n c a ry s c n o o is . 1 s t e d ? ; t m i a c e i p n i a : .... sa u n d e rs Company. i»H 7. K ozaan. H ild a C lu te . C a s s id y . R o s a lin d , and C h e s te r 0 . J a c k s o n . M dtodos an E d u cacio n F f s i c a . T ra n s la te d by Gdmez. C a lix to S u a re z , and A lfre d o LOpez S u d rez . H abana. C uba. 1950. K ozaan. H ild a C lu te < ed .> . By th e S t a f f o f th e P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n D e p a rtm e n t, U n iv e r s ity o f C a l i f o r n i a , Los A n g e le s . Group P ro c e ss in P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n . New York: H a rp e r and b r o t h e r s , P u b lis h e r s , 1951. Kozman, H ild a C lu te , C a s s id y , R o s a lin d , and C h e ste r 0. J a c k s o n . M ethods i n P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n : An I l l u s t r a t e d T extbook r o r S tu c e n ts p re p a rin g t o Yeacn bovs and G ir ls in g ec o n aary S c h o o ls" 2nd e d . * P h ila d e lp h ia : W. B?~5aundere com pany, j J s i . W ile s , K i a b a ll , Brown, C a m ille , and R o sa lin d C a ssid y . S u p e rv is io n i n P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n : A G uide t o P r in c ip le s and P r a c t i c e s , kngiew ood c u r i a . w. j . t T r e n t I c e - H a ll . 318 Koxman, H ild a C lu te , C a s s id y , R o s a lin d , and C h e s te r 0 . Ja c k so n . M ethods in P h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n : An I l l u s t r a t e d T extbook r o r s tu d e n ts n e p a r i n s t o T eacn s o y s “arid 'G ir ls i n sec o n d ary s c h o o ls ! 3 r a e a . : P h ila d e lp h ia : W ! B. S aunders com pany, 1958. Brown, C a m ille , and R o s a lin d C a s s id y . Theory i n P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n : A Guide t o Program C hange. P h ila d e lp h ia : Lea ana r e b ig e r , iy t> i. Book Reviews S in g le A u th o rsh ip F o s te r , R o b ert 6 . , and P a u lin e P ark W ilso n . "Women A f te r C o lle g e ." P r o f e s s io n a l E d u c a tio n . 2 0 :9 2 -9 1 . F e b ru a rv . 1913. 1 ----- B ro w n ell, C l i f f o r d L ee. " H e a lth E d u c a tio n A p p lie d ;" O ber- t e u f f e r , D e lb e r t. "S ch o o l H e a lth E d u c a tio n ." C a lif o r n ia J o u r n a l o f S econdary E d u c a tio n . 2 1 :1 1 3 -1 1 1 , November, 1919. T e ic h e r , Jo se p h D. "Y our C h ild an d -H is P ro b le m s." Camping M agasine. 2 5 :1 3 1 -1 3 2 , N ovem ber, 1953. W olf, C a th e rin e M. "The C o n tr o v e r s ia l Problem o f D is c i p l i n e ." Camping M ag asin e. 2 6 :1 7 , F e b ru a ry , 1951. P e r io d ic a ls S in g le A u th o rsh ip " E v a lu a tin g Summer Camps by Means o f T h e ir B o o k le ts ." Camps and Cam ping, pp. 1 0 3 -1 1 3 , 1923. "A Commencement Tims J o u rn e y ." M ills Q u a r te r ly . 6 :1 0 1 -1 0 6 , O c to b e r, 1923. "Minimum R equirem ents f o r M ills A lum nae." M ills Q u a r te r ly . 7 :1 6 -1 7 , A p r i l , 1921. ---------- "What I s H appening in th e W e st." Camps and Camping, pp. 1 1 9 -1 2 1 , 1926. — "A D em o n stratio n i n Camp E d u c a tio n ." M ills Q u a r te r ly . 8: 161-1 6 7 , J a n u a ry , 1926. ----------- 319 "A Camp Su h h p School Housed In C om fortable R esidence H e lls ." School L if e . 12:94-96, Ja n u a ry , 1927. "The M ills C ollege Camp in Nevada C ounty." M ills Q u a rte r l y , 9 :166-167, Jan u a ry , 1927.----------------------------------- " R e la tin g Hygiene and P h y sical E ducation t o th e L ife o f th e S tu d e n t." American P h y sic al Education Review, 32:357-358, May, 1927.-------------------------------------------------------- "How C ollege G irls Make a M ay P ag ean t." American P h y sic a l E ducation Review, 32:746-755, December, 192'/. "A S u c c e ssfu l C ollege Play Day." American P h y sic a l Edu c a tio n Review. 33:124-125, F ebruary, i9 z « . "P ageants in th e M aking." M ills Q u a rte rly . 1 1 :2 4 -2 6 . A p ril, 1928. * * "Some Q uestions on Camp Programming." Camps and Camping, pp. 53-55, 1929. "A D em onstration in Camp E ducation." M ills Q u a r te rly . 11: 164-167, Ja n u a ry , 1929. ---------- ------------- "The F i f t i e t h B irth d a y ." M ills Q u a rte rly . 11:159-160, Ja n u a ry , 1929. " C u rric u la o f a Course f o r the T ra in in g o f Camp C ounsel o r s ." Camping. A p ril, 1929. [Incom plete b ib lio g r a p h ic a l d a t a . 3 "An A c tiv ity Program f o r C ollege Women in 1930 a s O rganized a t M ills C o lle g e, C a lifo rn ia ." The Sportswoman. 6 :5 -8 . 26- 27, May, 1930. --------------- " S e le c tio n and Guidance o f S tudents Who Wish to U ndertake P ro fe s s io n a l T ra in in g in th e F ie ld of P h y sic a l E d u c a tio n ." The R esearch Q u a rte rly . 1 :8 6 -8 9 , May, 1930. " P a c if ic S ectio n Post-C onference R e fle c tio n s ." Camps and Camping. pp. 43-46, 1931. "A Minimum S tandard fo r th e High School Program ." The Jo u rn a l o f H ealth and P h y sical E d u catio n . 2 :2 3 . December. 1931. "Modem Trends in th e F ie ld of O rganized Camping." The Camping M agazine. Ja n u a ry , 1932. [Incom plete b ib lio g ra p h - l o a l a a t a . j 320 "S tan d ard o f Minimum E s s e n tia ls f o r a Course in G eneral Camp L e a d e rsh ip ." The Camping M agazine. Ja n u a ry , 1932. [Incom plete b ib lio g r a p h ic a l d a t a ." "The W estern S o c ie ty o f D epartm ents o f P h y sic a l E ducation f o r C o lleg e Women." The J o u rn a l o f H ealth and P h y sic a l E d u c a tio n , 3 :7 -8 , S l- b z , LMay, l s ^ z j "Trends in P h y sic a l E du catio n Today." The J o u rn a l o f H ealth and P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n . 6 :1 4 -1 6 , re o ru a ry , 1935. "Are W e Changing Our T eaching T echniques?" C a lifo rn ia P h y sic a l E d u c a tio n . H e a lth , and R e c re a tio n J o u r n a l. 4 :5 , d u n e, 193b. "A V acation in Camp." The Camping M agazine, 8 :1 0 , 30, JftziUAvy | 19 36 # "The Raw M a te ria l f o r Making a Gypsy." The C le a rin g H ouse. 1 0 :467-470, A p r il, 1936. “---------- "Youth H o s te ls : England and G e r m a n y T h e N ations S ch o o ls. 1 9 :1 8 -2 2 , May, 1937. — "T rav el f o r S tu d e n ts •" S ie r r a E d u c a tio n a l News. 3 3 :6 . O cto b er, 1937. "The New E d ucation R ecognizes P h /s ic a l E d u c a tio n ." The J o u rn a l o f H ealth and P h y sic a l E d u c a tio n . 9:2 1 9 , A p r T T 7 "Youth Journeys and th e S o c ia l S c ie n c e s: The L aboratory Method A pplied t o E ducation f o r C itiz e n s h ip ." R e c re a tio n . 3 2 :3 -5 , 4 4 -4 5 , A p r il, 1938. ----------------- "R ecent S tu d ie s o f American A d o lescen ts as Guides f o r th e R eo rg a n iz atio n o f th e Secondary School P h y sic al E d u catio n Program ." The R esearch Q u a rte rly . 9 :3 8 -4 2 , December, 1938. "New F ro n tie rs in P h y sic a l E d u c a tio n ." The Conference B u lle tin . 2 2 :1 5 , A u g u st, 1939. — — — — "So B ennington Went W est?" The Dance O b serv er. 6 :2 4 8 . 256. A u g u st-S ep ten b e r, 1939. 1 1 ' 1 "P lan n in g a P h y sic a l E du catio n Program f o r th e A d o le sc e n t." C urriculum J o u r n a l. 10:313-316, November, 1939. "Trends in Women's A th le tic s ." The Womens P re s s . 3:451- 452, November, 1939. — —— — — — 321 "The 19H O H ills C p llsg e Summer S e s s io n ." The Dsnce O bserv e r , 7:2H , F eb ru ary , 19HO. "The T eaching P ro fe ss io n : M ills C o lleg e M odel.” M ills Q u a rte rly . 22:160-161, F eb ru ary , 19HO. "Tomorrow's T e a c h e rs." C a lif o r n ia J o u rn a l o f E lem entary E d u c a tio n . 8:229-233, May, 19HO.------------ ------------------------- "New D ire c tio n s in P h y sic a l E d u c a tio n ." The J o u rn a l o f H ealth and P h y sic a l E d u ca tio n . 11:H08-H09, Septem b e r , la n d . " " " "Why Have a Camp C ounselor?" The CampinR M agazine. 1 2 :5 -6 . 23, November, 19HO. -------- "E d u catio n al Change and th e P h y s ic a l E d ucation Program ." The F o i l , pp. 2H-31, December, 19H0. " P h y sic a l E ducation and M o b iliz a tio n ." p ie P ro a re s s iv e P h y sic a l E d u c a to r. 1 3 :5 -9 , December, 19HIT "The Concept o f I n te g r a tio n as I t F u n ctio n s in H ealth Edu c a tio n ." The J o u rn a l o f H ealth and P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n . 12: 306-308, 3 ^ — 3 H 3 , May, i s 4 i . "Women's E ducation in a World a t War; Ends and M eans." P ro e re s siv e E d u c a tio n . 18:3H 9-358, November, 19H1. "Group Work in P h y sic a l E d u c a tio n ." C urriculum J o u r n a l. 1 3 :2 6 -2 9 , J a n u a ry , 19H2. "H ealth E d u catio n : V ita liz in g H ealth E d u catio n Through Co o p e ra tiv e C urriculum B u ild in g .” The S chool E x e c u tiv e . 61: 2 3 , M arch, 19H2. "Pass th e Ammunition to th e G ir ls ." School and S o c ie ty . 57:H08-H09, A p ril 10, 19H3. " "E d u catio n -T rain ed Women C o n trib u te to S o c ia l P ro g ress in th e Home." P i Lambda T heta J o u r n a l. 1 2 :5 0 -5 5 . December. 19H3. "C areers f o r Women." The J o u rn a l o f E d u c a tio n a l S o c io lo a v . 17:H79-H91, A p r il, 19Hin------------------------------------------------------ "Community S tu ty f o r S tu d en t T e a c h e rs." E d u c a tio n a l Lead e r s h ip . 3:286, March, 19H6. "The T h ird Year o f th e Atomic Age." The J o u rn a l o f H ealth and P h y sic a l E d u o atio n . 1 8 :7 0 -7 1 , F e b ru a ry , 19H7. 322 "A New Look f o r 1 9 * 8 ." The J o u rn a l o f H e a lth and P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n . 1 9 :9 1 , 142, F e b ru a ry , 1^48. "How D ire c tio n s in P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n ." Tha J o u rn a l o f H e a lth and P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n . 1 9 :646-647, 694-695, DscemDer, l i w " "Youth and E d u c a tio n ." Tha P ro g re s s iv a P h y sic a l E d u c a to r. 3 1 :2 8 -3 2 , Decem ber, 1948. "A n tid o te f o r A n x ie ty ." Tha J o u rn a l o f H ealth and P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n . 2 0 :8 6 , F e b ru a ry , 1 9 4 9 . "Women in 1 9 4 9 ." Tha Women's P r e s s . 4 3 :2 2 -2 3 , A p r il, 1949. "Taka V A New Look' a t Camping." C a lif o r n ia Youth A u th o rity Q u a r te r ly . 2 :1 1 -1 2 , S p rin g , 1949. "And What You R e p re s e n t." M ills Q u a r te r ly . 3 2 :3 5 -3 9 , November, 1949. " C o n trib u tio n s o f P h y s ic a l E d u catio n to D em ocratic C itiz e n s h i p ." J o u rn a l o f H e a lth . P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n , and Recre a tio n . 2 l : z l f i - 2 l 9 , 21*4 - 2 6 0 , A p r il, 1950. " C o n trib u tio n s o f P h y s ic a l E du catio n to D em ocratic C itiz e n s h i p ." (Ja p a n e se t r a n s l a t i o n . ) New P h y sic a l E d u catio n . 2 0 :6 -1 1 , A ugust 2 8 , 1950. "AAHPER N a tio n a l M ee tin g ." CAHPER News. 1 4 :4 , May, 1951. " E f f e c tiv e A ctio n —The Ends f o r Which W e S t r i v e ." C a li f o r n ia J o u rn a l o f Secondary E d u c a tio n . 2 7 :191-192, A p r il, 195Z • "S in ce Y e s te rd a y ." J o u rn a l o f th e American A sso c ia tio n o f U n iv e rs ity Women. 4 8 : zub- z io , May, 1955. "How C o lle g e s Can Meet th e C r is is o f In c re a s e d E n ro llm en t." J o u rn a l o f H e a lth . P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n , and R ecreatio n * 28: 7317 8 , OctoB l r , 1957/ -------------- 1 ------------- " I s th e E a rth R e a lly P ear-Shaped?" J o u rn a l o f th e Am erican A s s o c ia tio n o f U n iv e rs ity Women. 5 2 :2 i4 - 2 i^ , May, 1959. " P ro f e s s io n a l E th ic s as They R e la te t o th e H onoring o f C o n tr a c ts ." J o u rn a l o f H e a lth . P h y sic a l E d u c a tio n , and R e c re a tio n . 3 l : i z , M ay-June, 1 9 6 b. 323 "Changes S in ce S p u tn ik in Program s o f P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n ." J o u rn a l o f H e a lth , P h y sic a l E d u c a tio n . and R ecreat i o n . 3 t: s& -5e, A p r il, 1 6 6 3 . "C h ild ren o f I s r a e l . " M ills Q u a r te r ly . 35:16*17. Ju n e . 1 9 6 t. ---------- ------------- " C r i t i c a l Is s u e s in P h y s ic a l E d u ca tio n and A t h l e t i c s ." J o u rn a l o f H e a lth . P h y sic a l E d u c a tio n , and R e c re a tio n . 35: 16— 17. Ju n e , 196H. "The C u ltu r a l D e f in itio n of P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n ." Q u e st. t : 11-15, S p rin g I s s u e , 1965. 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Handbooks S in g le A u th o rsh ip "What A gencies i n th e Community Have O rganized Program s f o r C h ild W e lfa re , R e c re a tio n , o r C h a ra c te r Development?" The E lem entary S chool Program in C a lif o r n ia : Handbook f o r fKe o r i e n t a ti o n o r te a c n e rs E n te rin g p ro fe s s io n a l s e rv ic e in th e E lem entary s c h o o l. S acram ento. C a lif ." C a lif o r n ia s t a t e D epartm ent o r E d u c a tio n , J u ly , 19H5. Pp. 31-33. M u ltip le A u th o rsh ip Handbook on P h y s ic a l F itn e s s f o r S tu d e n ts in C o lleg es and u n i v e r s i t i e s . W ashington. D .c .: r e a e r a i s e c u r ity A gency, u n ite a s t a t e s O ffic e o f E d u c a tio n , 19H3. 1H0 pp. B u lle tin s S in g le A u th o rsh ip "M essage from th e P re s id e n t o f th e PEM C lub." 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State of California Department of Education Bulletin H um ber lit Report or California conference on problems or profes sional 'Education in neaitn. Pnvsicai Education. ana Recre ation . June 1, 1935. Pp. 7-8, R e p o rts . Records S in g le A u th o rsh ip "M ills C o lle g e ." R eport o f th e C o n feren ce. W estern S o c ie ty o f D ep a rtm e n ts o f P h y s ic a l E d u ca tio n r o r c o lle g e women. B erkeley* t a l i f . : U n iv e rs ity o f C a i ir o m ia , l 9 3 t . P. M -3 * "A Message from th e N a tio n a l A s s o c ia tio n w ith a View o f th e N a tio n a l Program f o r th e Coming Two Y e a rs." R eport o f th e C o n feren ce. W estern S o c ie ty o f D epartm ents o f P h y s ic a l Edu ca tio n 'f o r c o lle g e women* B e rk e le y , c a i i r . : u n iv e r s ity o f c a i i r o r n i a * i b 2I^. Pp. 2 3 -2 6 . "R eport o f th e F ilm C om m ittee." R ecord o f th e 1939 C onfer ence o f th e N a tio n a l A s s o c ia tio n o F T n re c x o rs o r p h y s ic a l E d u catio n f o r C o lleg e Women M eeting w ith tn e w e ste rn s o c i e ty o fD e p a rtm e n ts o f P K y sicai E au c atio n f o r c o lle g e Women. P alo A lto* C a lT f.: b e la n d s ta n r o r o u u n io r u n iv e rs ity * Ju ly * 1939. Pp. 37— 38. "The Am erican Academy: I t s Role i n th e P r o f e s s io n ." P ro f e s s io n a l C o n trib u tio n s No. 2: P apers and R eports P re s e n te d a t Annual n e s tin g . Los A n g eles. c a iiro m ia . A p ril »* 81 9 . 1952. Washington* BTC.: American Academy o f P hysi c a l Education* 1952. Pp. 77-78. "The S earch f o r E m otional S t a b i l i t y Through R e c re a tio n S e rv ie e s •" R eport o f th e W elfare C ouncil o f M e tro p o lita n Los A n g ele s. F ir th c o n rsrsn o a on c h iio n o o o -en d T o u tn . 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Creator Caldwell, Stratton Franklin (author)

Core Title Conceptions Of Physical Education In Twentieth Century America : Rosalindcassidy

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Physical Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Education, Physical,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Advisor Lockhart, Aileene (committee chair), Metheny, Eleanor (committee member), Pullias, Earl Vivon (committee member), Smith, Lenore C. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-202519

Unique identifier UC11360685

Identifier 6608778.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-202519 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 6608778.pdf

Dmrecord 202519

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Caldwell, Stratton Franklin

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA