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Organizational Behavior: Experimental Field Study Using Short Simulation Games And The Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire

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Organizational Behavior: Experimental Field Study Using Short Simulation Games And The Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire

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Content 70-25,053 NORTMAN, Richard Philip, 1927- ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR: EXPERIMENTAL FIELD STUDY USING SHORT SIMULATION GAMES AND THE ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE DESCRIPTION QUESTION NAIRE. University of Southern California, Ph.D., 1970 Education, administration University Microfilms, A X E R O X Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan C o p y rig h t by RICHARD PHILIP N ORTM AN 1970 THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR: EXPERIMENTAL FIELD STUDY USING SHORT SIMULATION GAM ES AND THE ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE DESCRIPTION QUESTIONNAIRE by R ic h a rd P h i l i p N ortm an A D i s s e r t a t i o n P r e s e n te d to th e FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t o f th e R e q u irem en ts f o r th e D egree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (E d u c a tio n ) Ju n e 1970 UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY PARK LOS A NGELES, CALIFORNIA B 0O 07 This dissertation, ’ written by R ic h a rd P h i l i p N ortm an under the direction of h%Jk... Dissertation Com mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by The Gradu ate School, in partial fulfillment of require ments of the degree of D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y £ f *7?7‘ Date ^ . e . 1 . 9 7 0 ........ :n O N COMMITTEE HISS' _ Chairman DEDICATION T h is d i s s e r t a t i o n and th e r e s e a r c h w h ich w ent i n t o i t a r e h e re b y d e d ic a te d to tny w i f e , C harm aine S t e l t z N ortm an; o u r t h r e e s o n s , P e t e r , M atthew , and J o e l ; and t o my m o th e r, K a th e rin e S h u tt N ortm an. I w ish t h e r e w ere some b r i g h t new w ords w h ich I c o u ld u s e to e x p r e s s my th a n k s and lo v e to yo u . A C K N O W LE D G M E N T S I t i s p o s s i b l e to name and th a n k o n ly a few o f th e | many p e o p le who d i r e c t l y and i n d i r e c t l y c o n t r ib u t e d to t h i s r e p o r t and th e r e s e a r c h t h a t w ent i n t o i t . I w ish to th a n k my t e a c h e r s , fo rm a l and in f o r m a l, and e s p e c i a l l y my d o c t o r a l c o m m itte e , D r. Dan Dawson, D r. S a ra n e B oocock, D r. M ilto n H olm en, and D r. B i l l M ic h a e l. S p e c ia l th a n k s to M ilt Holm en, who lu r e d and g u id e d me i n t o an e x p e r im e n ta l fram e o f mind and ta u g h t me a b o u t s im u la tio n g am es, and s p e c i a l th a n k s t o Dan Dawson, who ta u g h t me how i t i s w ith p e o p le . Thanks t o I r e n e F o s t e r , D r. W illia m K. H a l l , and D r. W illia m Shea f o r th e te n s o f h o u rs th e y s p e n t lo o k in g a t t e l e v i s i o n ta p e s and s c o r in g th e e x p e r im e n ta l g ro u p s . iThanks to L iz F in n ig a n , my t y p i s t , who w orked u n d e r d i f f i c u l t c ir c u m s ta n c e s and t i g h t d e a d lin e s to p ro d u ce ream s o f I d r a f t s and r e w r i t e s . And th a n k s t o th e h u n d re d s o f te a c h e r s and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s who gav e o f t h e i r tim e and e f f o r t to an sw er th e q u e s ti o n n a i r e and p la y th e g am es. F i n a l l y , a s p e c i a l w ord o f th a n k s t o my e d i t o r , i Mary H a r r is o n , w hose p a t i e n t te a c h in g and s k i l l c a n be s e e n i n w h a te v e r c l a r i t y and s t y l e th e d i s s e r t a t i o n may h a v e . ! To a l l o f them th e th a n k s , t o m y se lf th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r e r r o r s o f o m iss io n and co m m issio n . TABLE O F CONTENTS Page D E D IC A T IO N .................................................................................................. i i ACKNOWLEDGMENTS........................................................................................ i i i LIST OF T A B L E S ........................................................................................ v i LIST OF FIG U R E S..............................................................................................v i i i C h a p te r I . INTRODUCTION .............................................................................. 1 R a tio n a le f o r t h e S tu d y P u rp o se o f th e S tudy S ta te m e n t o f th e P ro b lem Q u e s tio n s and H y p o th e ses L im ita tio n s D e lim ita tio n s A ssu m p tio n s D e f i n i t i o n s o f Terms Summary O r g a n iz a tio n o f th e R em ainder o f th e D i s s e r t a t i o n I I . REVIEW OF LITERATURE........................................................... 16 L ew in ian F i e l d T h eo ry O r g a n iz a tio n a l C lim a te The O r g a n iz a tio n a l C lim a te D e s c r ip tio n Q u e s tio n n a ir e (OCDQ) S m all G roup R e se a rc h I n t e r a c t i o n P ro c e s s A n a ly s is S im u la tio n Games and I n t e r a c t i o n E x e r c is e s Summary I I I . RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS AND EXPERIMENTAL AN D FIELD PROCEDURES................................................................ 48 i v C h a p te r Page j O r g a n iz a tio n a l C lim a te D e s c r ip tio n Q u e s tio n n a ir e i S h o rt S im u la tio n Games | Summary IV . DATA PROCESSING AND HYPOTHESIS TESTING . . . . 74 S t a t i s t i c a l P ro c e d u re s T e s tin g th e H y p o th eses Summary V. FIN D IN G S....................................................................................... 87 R e l i a b i l i t y o f th e M ethod R e s u lts o f T e s tin g th e H y p o th e se s Summary V I. SUM M ARY, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND CONCLUSION . . . 125 Summary R e s u lts D is c u s s io n Recommendat io n s C o n c lu s io n BIBLIO G RA PH Y ............................................................................................. 141 A P P E N D IC E S .................................................................................................. 147 A. The O r g a n iz a tio n a l C lim a te D e s c r ip tio n Q u e s tio n n a ir e ......................................................................... 148 B. S cram b led S q u a r e s .................................................................... 150 C. T h re e -d im e n s io n a l P u z z le ................................................ 153 D. L e a d e r le s s G roup D is c u s s io n ............................................ 167 E. F orm ula and Example f o r S e le c tin g a P o o l o f P la y e r s fro m a S t r a t i f i e d L i s t o f P o s s ib le P l a y e r s ........................................................................................ 175 F . FORTRAN Com puter Program f o r C om puting S ta n d a rd S c o re s from OCDQ D a t a .............................. 178 LIST OF TABLES T a b le Page 1. P r o to ty p ic P r o f i l e s f o r S ix O r g a n iz a tio n a l C lim a te s Ranked i n R e sp e c t to O penness v s . C l o s e d n e s s .................................................................... 29 2 . B a le s ' C a te g o r ie s o f S m all G roup I n t e r a c t i o n . 34 3 . I n t e r r a t e r R e l i a b i l i t y — S cram bled S q u a re s . . . 90 4 . I n t e r r a t e r R e l i a b i l i t y - - T h r e e d im e n s io n a l P u z z l e ........................................................................................ 91 5 . I n t e r r a t e r R e l i a b i l i t y - - L e a d e r l e s s G roup D i s c u s s i o n .............................................................................. 92 6 . I n t e r r a t e r R e l i a b i l i t y - E f f e c t i v i t y , S cram bled S q u a r e s ........................................................................................ 94 7 . I n t e r r a t e r R e l i a b i l i t y - E f f e c t i v i t y , T h re e - d im e n s io n a l P u z z l e ........................................................... 95 8 . I n t e r r a t e r R e l i a b i l i t y - E f f e c t i v i t y , L e a d e rle s s G roup D i s c u s s i o n ................................................................ 96 9 . I n t e r r a t e r R e l i a b i l i t y - E f f i c i e n c y , S cram bled S q u a r e s ........................................................................................ 97 10. I n t e r r a t e r R e l i a b i l i t y - E f f i c i e n c y , T h re e - d im e n s io n a l P u z z l e ........................................................... 98 11. I n t e r r a t e r R e l i a b i l i t y - E f f i c i e n c y , L e a d e rle s s G roup D i s c u s s i o n ................................................................ 99 12. Rank on E s p r it Compared to Rank on C a te g o ry 4 (T h re e -d im e n s io n a l P u z z le ) 103 13. Rank on E s p r it Compared t o Rank on C a te g o ry 4 ( L e a d e r le s s G roup D is c u s s io n ) 104 14. Rank on E s p r it Compared t o Rank on P e rfo rm an ce Time (S cram b led S q u a re s) H 2 ^a ^ 106 v i T a b le 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 2 0 . 2 1 . 2 2 . 2 3 . 24 . Rank on E s p r i t Compared t o Rank on P erfo rm an ce Time (T h re e -d im e n s io n a l P u z z le ) . . . . Rank on E s p r i t Compared t o Rank on Number o f A cts p e r M in u te E m itte d D u rin g P la y o f S h o rt S im u la tio n Game (S cram b led S q u a re s) H ^ a ^ . . Rank on E s p r i t Compared t o Rank on Number o f A c ts p e r M in u te E m itte d D u rin g P la y o f S h o rt S im u la tio n Game (T h re e -d im e n s io n a l P u z z le ) H3 (b ) ............................................................................................. Rank on E s p r i t Compared to Rank on Number o f A cts p e r M in u te E m itte d D u rin g P la y o f S h o rt S im u la tio n Game ( L e a d e r le s s G roup D is c u s s io n ) " 3 ( 0 ............................................................................................. Rank on E s p r i t Compared t o Rank on E f f e c t i v i t y (S cram b led S q u a re s) ............................................ Rank on E s p r it Compared t o Rank on E f f e c t i v i t y (T h re e -d im e n s io n a l P u z z le ) ......................... Rank on E s p r it Compared t o Rank on E f f e c t i v i t y (L e a d e r le s s G roup D is c u s s io n ) H4 (c ) .................... Rank on E s p r i t Compared t o Rank on E f f ic ie n c y (S cram b led S q u a re s) H ^ a ^ ............................................ Rank on E s p r it Compared t o Rank on E f f ic ie n c y (T h re e -d im e n s io n a l P u z z le ).................... ......................... Rank on E s p r i t Compared t o Rank on E f f ic ie n c y ( L e a d e r le s s G roup D is c u s s io n ) .................... Page , 108 ! 110 112 113 115 117 118 121 122 123 v i i LIST OF FIGURES F ig u re 1. P arad ig m o f I n t e r a c t i o n P h ases i n P ro b lem - S o lv in g S m all G roups ....................................... 2 . P la y e r P o s i t i o n s f o r S cram bled S q u a re s and T h re e -d im e n s io n a l P u z z le .............................. 3. P arad ig m f o r F i e l d A d m in is tr a tio n o f S h o rt S im u la tio n Games f o r th e S tudy o f O r g a n iz a tio n a l B e h a v io r .................................. 4 . M o d ifie d IPA Form f o r R e c o rd in g B e h a v io ra l A c ts in S h o rt S im u la tio n Games . . . . 5 . Form Used f o r O b s e rv a tio n o f th e N o n v erb a l Game o f S cram b led S q u a re s .............................. v i i i Page i j ! 37 i 5J 65 I l I i 71 72 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION i The g e n e r a l p u rp o se o f t h i s s tu d y was t o ad v an ce i |th e th e o r y and m eth o d o lo g y o f s tu d y in g o r g a n iz a tio n s a s fo rm s o f s o c i a l s y s te m s . The s p e c i f i c s o c i a l sy stem s i n v e s t i g a t e d i n th e e x p e rim e n ts d e s c r ib e d h e r e w ere i n d i v i d u a l s c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n s . The s p e c i f i c g o a l o f th e | r e s e a r c h was to f u r t h e r d e v e lo p and v a l i d a t e th e c o n c e p t o f i u s in g s h o r t , g e n e r a l- p u r p o s e s im u la tio n games t o s tu d y s o c i a l sy stem s u n d e r f i e l d c o n d i t i o n s . R a tio n a le f o r th e S tudy M ethods o f s tu d y in g o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b e h a v io r h av e p r o g re s s e d from u s e o f A r i s t o t e l i a n sy ste m s o f i d i o s y n c r a t i c c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t o em p h asis on a m ore G a lile a n p o in t o f v iew w h ic h d e -e m p h a siz e s th e im m ed iate and o b v io u s d i f f e r e n c e s i [ jamong o r g a n iz a tio n s and c o n c e n tr a te s on th e s i t u a t i o n a l { i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s a s r e v e a le d i n th e p r o c e s s e s o f th e o r g a n i z a t i o n s . The l a t t e r a p p ro a c h h as b e e n in f lu e n c e d by b e h a v io r a l s c i e n t i s t s i n t e r e s t e d i n th e s tu d y o f th e o r g a n i z a t i o n . 1 2 B e h a v io ra l s c i e n t i s t s h av e h e r e t o f o r e c o n c e n tr a te d on e m p ir ic a l and n a t u r a l i s t i c o b s e r v a tio n s o f o r g a n iz a tio n s (fu n c tio n in g i n t h e i r n o rm al s e t t i n g s and a c c o m p lis h in g t h e i r [u su al t a s k s . E x p e rim e n ta l s tu d i e s i n w o rk p la c e i l l u m i n a t i o n , W orker f a t i g u e , and s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f w ork g ro u p s w ere I I {begun i n 1924 a t th e W estern E l e c t r i c H aw thorne P la n t { ( R o e th lis b e rg e r & D ic k so n , 1 9 3 9 ). T h a t s e r i e s o f s t u d i e s , i (among many o t h e r s , em p h asized th e human i n t e r a c t i o n p ro c - (e sses i n o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b e h a v io r , and le d t o th e c o n c e p t jth a t th e p r o c e s s e s p e c u l i a r t o an o r g a n i z a t i o n r e s u l t i n O r g a n iz a tio n a l s t y l e , w h ich i s a n a lo g o u s t o th e p e r s o n a l i t y o f th e i n d i v i d u a l . The o r g a n i z a t i o n a l " p e r s o n a l i t y " h a s b e e n c a l l e d " o r g a n iz a t io n a l c lim a te [ A r g y r is , 1958; H a lp in & C r o f t , 1 9 6 2 ]." O r g a n iz a tio n a l b e h a v io r h a s b ee n s tu d ie d p r im a r ily by m eans o f e i t h e r th e c a s e s tu d y m ethod o r th e s u rv e y and q u e s t i o n n a i r e . The c a s e s tu d y p ro v id e s i n - d e p th , l o n g i t u - | d i n a l e x a m in a tio n o f th e o r g a n iz a tio n u n d e r s tu d y . The ( q u e s tio n n a ir e i s c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l , a s a s l i c e - o f - t i m e . R e s e a rc h e rs who d e s ir e d more o b j e c t i v e q u a n t i f i c a t i o n o f th e human i n t e r a c t i o n p r o c e s s e s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b e h a v io r su p p le m e n ted and r e p la c e d n a t u r a l i s t i c c a s e s tu d y o b s e r v a t i o n s w ith p a p e r and p e n c il q u e s ti o n n a i r e s g iv e n t o th e t members o f t h e o r g a n iz a tio n u n d e r s tu d y . U sing d a ta o b ta in e d fro m c a s e s tu d i e s o r q u e s t i o n n a i r e - s u r v e y s , th e I 3 r e s e a r c h e r draw s in f e r e n c e s a b o u t th e o r g a n i z a t i o n u n d e r i s tu d y and a tte m p ts t o make g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s a b o u t many o t h e r o r g a n iz a tio n s o f a s i m i l a r ty p e . R e g a rd le s s o f th e m ethod u s e d , in f e r e n c e s draw n from s t u d i e s o f s p e c i f i c o r g a n i z a t i o n s r e t a i n t h e i r id io s y n c r a s y b e c a u s e e a c h o r g a n i z a t i o n a c c o m p lish e s i t s own s p e c i f i c i ta s k s and d e a ls w ith i t s own s p e c i f i c o r g a n i z a t i o n a l i |s i t u a t i o n s . I n o r d e r t o make g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s from i n f e r - i jen ces draw n from th e s tu d y o f o r g a n i z a t i o n s , i t i s n e c e s s a r y to p ro v id e common i n p u t - t a s k s t i m u l i and common o r g a n iz a - ! i t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n s . I f in p u t s t i m u l i c a n be c o n t r o l l e d , [ o r g a n iz a tio n a l o u t p u t , i n te rm s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b e h a v io r , [ w ill m ore l i k e l y r e f l e c t th e p r o c e s s e s t y p i c a l o f th e o r g a n i z a t i o n . W ith in p u ts h e ld c o n s t a n t , b e t t e r g e n e r a l ! - j z a t i o n s c a n be made a b o u t th e o r g a n i z a t i o n . At l e a s t p a r t i a l c o n t r o l o f in p u t ta s k s and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n s c an be ac c o m p lish e d th ro u g h th e u s e o f i s im u la tio n gam es. S im u la tio n p e rm its th e p e rs o n s tu d y in g o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b e h a v io r t o p ro v id e th e o r g a n iz a tio n s u n d e r s tu d y w ith a s e t o f common ta s k s and to m in im ize v a r i a t i o n s I i n e n v iro n m e n ta l and o t h e r f a c t o r s presum ed to b e o f [im p o rta n c e . D if f e r e n c e s i n o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b e h a v io r e x h ib - i |i t e d u n d e r c o n t r o l l e d c o n d itio n s c a n be i n f e r r e d to b e due j !to d i f f e r e n c e s i n th e i n t e r a c t i o n p r o c e s s e s and s t r u c t u r e o f th e i n d i v i d u a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s . 4 L a r g e - s c a le s im u la tio n o f e n t i r e o r g a n iz a tio n s i s p o s s i b l e , b u t tim e and e n e rg y r e q u ire m e n ts a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y |c o s t l y to d is c o u r a g e f r e q u e n t u se o f th e te c h n iq u e . A p o s s i b l e s o l u t i o n t o th e p ro b le m o f c o s t may l i e i n th e u s e o f s m a l l - s c a le and v e r y b r i e f s im u la tio n games w h ich po se o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p ro b lem s a n a lo g o u s t o th o s e e x i s t i n g in r e a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s . C a r e f u l o b s e r v a tio n and q u a n t i f i c a t i o n I o f th e dynam ic i n t e r a c t i o n p r o c e s s e s o c c u r r in g d u rin g th e s im u la tio n game c a n p ro v id e o b j e c t i v e d a ta fro m w hich i in f e r e n c e s may b e draw n r e g a r d in g p a t t e r n s o f o r g a n iz a tio n a l b e h a v io r . P u rp o se o f th e S tudy The g e n e r a l p u rp o se o f t h i s s tu d y was to ad v an ce th e th e o r y and m eth o d o lo g y o f s tu d y in g o r g a n i z a t i o n s . I t w as th e s p e c i f i c p u rp o se o f t h i s s tu d y to f u r t h e r d e v e lo p and v a l i d a t e th e c o n c e p t o f u s in g s im u la tio n games f o r th e s tu d y o f s o c i a l s y s te m s . The s p e c i f i c s o c i a l sy stem s i n v e s t i g a t e d i n th e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h w ere in d i v i d u a l s c h o o l i [ o r g a n iz a tio n s . The e x p e r im e n ta l m eth o d o lo g y in v o lv e d th e u s e o f s e v e r a l s h o r t , g e n e r a l- p u r p o s e s im u la tio n gam es. S ta te m e n t o f th e P ro b lem The c e n t r a l p ro b le m o f t h i s s tu d y was t o d e v e lo p and v a l i d a t e th e c o n c e p t o f u s in g s h o r t s im u la tio n games to 5 p r o v id e comnon t a s k s and a c o n t r o l l e d e n v iro n m e n ta l s i t u a t i o n f o r th e s tu d y o f human i n t e r a c t i o n p r o c e s s e s o f { o r g a n iz a tio n a l b e h a v io r . Q u e s tio n s and H y p o th eses [ ! Q u e s tio n 1 : What a r e some r e l a t i o n s h i p s b etw een o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c lim a te and m e a su re s o f human i n t e r a c t i o n p r o c e s s e s r e v e a le d d u r in g p la y o f th e s h o r t s im u la tio n gam es? I H y p o th e s is 1 : T h e re i s a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw een th e c lim a te o f o r g a n i z a t i o n s and th e human i n t e r a c t i o n p r o c e s s e s e x h i b i t e d by th e same o r g a n i z a t i o n s d u r in g p la y o f th e s h o r t s im u la tio n games i u se d i n th e p r e s e n t s tu d y . Q u e s tio n 2 : What a r e some r e l a t i o n s h i p s b etw een o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c lim a te and p e rfo rm a n c e i n s h o r t s im u la tio n gam es? i H y p o th e s is 2 : T h e re i s a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw een th e c lim a te o f o r g a n iz a tio n s and th e p e r fo rm an ce s c o r e s w h ic h th e same o r g a n i z a t i o n s a c h ie v e i n th e s h o r t s im u la tio n games u s e d i n th e p r e s e n t s tu d y . i H y p o th e s is 3 : T h e re i s a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw een th e c lim a te o f o r g a n i z a t i o n s and th e num ber o f human i n t e r a c t i o n a c t s p e r m in u te o f th e same 6 o r g a n iz a tio n s d u r in g p la y o f th e s h o r t s im u la tio n gam es u s e d i n th e p r e s e n t s tu d y . H y p o th e s is 4 : T h e re i s a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw een th e c lim a te o f o r g a n i z a t i o n s and o b s e r v e r 's ju d g m en ts a b o u t th e e f f e c t i v i t y o f th e same o r g a n i z a t i o n s d u rin g p la y o f t h e s h o r t s im u la tio n games u se d i n th e p r e s e n t s t u d y . H y p o th e s is 5 : T h e re i s a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw een th e c lim a te o f o r g a n i z a t i o n s and o b s e r v e r 's ju d g m en ts a b o u t th e e f f i c i e n c y o f th e same o r g a n i z a t i o n s d u rin g p la y o f th e s h o r t s im u la tio n games u se d i n th e p r e s e n t s tu d y . E x p lo r a tio n o f m a jo r e x p e r im e n ta l q u e s tio n s r e q u ir e d a d a p t a t i o n and d ev elo p m en t o f th e f o llo w in g m a t e r i a l s and t e c h n i q u e s : 1. S e v e ra l s im u la tio n games b a s e d on i n t e r a c t i o n sy ste m s w h ich d i f f e r from e a c h o t h e r s u f f i c i e n t l y to y i e l d d i f f e r e n t ty p e s o f b e h a v io r p a t t e r n s ; 2 . S im u la tio n games w h ich a r e b r i e f enough t h a t th e s e t o f s e v e r a l gam es can be p la y e d i n a n am ount o f tim e w h ich d o es n o t im pose to o g r e a t l y on th e e x p e r im e n ta l g ro u p s ; 3 . T e c h n iq u e s f o r f i e l d a p p l i c a t i o n s o f s h o r t s im u la tio n games f o r th e s tu d y o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l ___________ b e h a v io r ;______________________________________________ 7 4 . G roup p r o c e s s o b s e r v a tio n te c h n iq u e s w h ich a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y p o w e rfu l t o p e rm it in f e r e n c e s a b o u t o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b e h a v io r b u t s im p le enough to m in im ize o b s e r v e r t r a i n i n g ; and 5 . A n a ly s is and c o m p a riso n te c h n iq u e s w h ich p e rm it in f o r m a tio n o b ta in e d fro m s ta n d a r d iz e d , c o m p u te r-s c o re d q u e s ti o n n a i r e in s tr u m e n ts t o be com pared w ith in f o r m a tio n o b ta in e d from i n c r e m e n ta l o b s e r v a tio n o f s m a ll g ro u p s i n s h o r t s im u la tio n g am es. L im ita tio n s The fu n d a m e n ta l p r o p o s i t i o n s , m e th o d s, te c h n iq u e s , and r e s u l t s o f t h i s s tu d y a re s u b je c t t o th e fo llo w in g l i m i t a t i o n s : 1. S ch o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n s c o m p ris in g t h e s tu d y p o p u la tio n w ere v o lu n te e r s fro m among a l a r g e r g ro u p o f s c h o o ls o f th e same s c h o o l d i s t r i c t ; t h e r e f o r e , th e sam ple i s f o r t u i t o u s . 2 . T h e re w ere no known n o n p a r t ic ip a n ts i n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n s p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n th e s tu d y ; h o w e v e r, t h e r e i s no a s s u r a n c e t h a t p e rs o n s i n th e n o n p a r t i c i p a t i n g o r g a n iz a tio n s w ould h av e re s p o n d e d i n th e same way a s p e rs o n s i n th e 8 o r g a n i z a t i o n s w h ich d id p a r t i c i p a t e i n th e p r e s e n t s tu d y . The v o l u n t e e r o b s e r v e r s who a n a ly z e d and s c o re d t h e b e h a v io r o f th e o r g a n iz a tio n s d u r in g p la y o f th e s h o r t s im u la tio n games u s e d i n th e p r e s e n t s tu d y w ere p r o f e s s i o n a l e d u c a to r s who r e c e iv e d m in im a l t r a i n i n g in th e m eth o d s o f a n a l y s i s u se d i n th e p r e s e n t s tu d y . The la c k o f w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d v a l i d i t y and r e l i a b i l i t y o f th e OCDQ h a s in f lu e n c e d th e r e s u l t s o f th e p r e s e n t s tu d y . T h e re i s no a s s u r a n c e t h a t th e s im u la tio n games c h o se n f o r t h i s s tu d y a r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f th e t o t a l u n iv e r s e o f p o s s i b l e s im u la tio n gam es. The human i n t e r a c t i o n p r o c e s s e s q u a n t i f i e d f o r p u rp o s e s o f a n a l y s i s w ere p r im a r i l y v e r b a l b e h a v io r s ; th e p r o c e s s e s w ere s u b je c t t o th e l i m i t a t i o n s im posed by th e m o d ifie d i n t e r a c t i o n c l a s s i f i c a t i o n schem e. The e x p e r im e n ta l and q u e s ti o n n a i r e p o r ti o n s o f th e p r e s e n t s tu d y w ere done d u rin g May, 1969; th e r e s u l t s a r e a c c o r d in g ly a f f e c t e d . D e lim ita tio n s 9 I n o r d e r t o e s t a b l i s h an a r e n a f o r s tu d y , th e f o llo w in g d e l i m i t a t i o n s w ere im posed: 1. The s tu d y i s l i m ite d to e x a m in a tio n o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b e h a v io r s d is p la y e d i n s h o r t s im u la tio n gam es and o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c lim a te s d e s c r ib e d by m eans o f th e OCDQ. 2 . The s tu d y p o p u la tio n i s lim ite d to th o s e p e rs o n s who re sp o n d e d t o th e q u e s ti o n n a i r e s and t o th e sam ple o f s c h o o l s t a f f w h ich p a r t i c i p a t e d i n th e s im u la tio n gam es. A ssu m p tio n s To e s t a b l i s h a b a s i s f o r th e d e s ig n and c o n d u c t o f th e s tu d y , s e v e r a l c o n c e p tu a l and m e th o d o lo g ic a l a ssu m p tio n s w ere m ad e. C o n c e p tu a l 1 . The th e o r y and m odel o f s tu d y in g o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b e h a v io r by m eans o f s h o r t s im u la tio n gam es i s g e n e r a l i z a b l e t o o th e r o r g a n iz a tio n s o f a s i m i l a r n a t u r e . 2 . S h o rt s im u la tio n games p ro v id e s u f f i c i e n t l y p o w e rfu l and r e a l i s t i c s t i m u l i t o m em bers o f an o r g a n i z a t i o n t o e l i c i t b e h a v io r b o th 10 q u a n t i t a t i v e l y and q u a l i t a t i v e l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f th e t r u e b e h a v io r o f th e o r g a n i z a t i o n . M ethodolog i c a l 1. T hose p e rs o n s i n an o r g a n i z a t i o n who do n o t re sp o n d to a q u e s tio n n a ir e o r who do n o t p a r t i c i p a t e i n th e s im u la tio n gam es w ould re sp o n d i n th e same way a s th o s e p e rs o n s who do re s p o n d o r p a r t i c i p a t e . 2 . The d e s c r i p t i o n s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c lim a te d e r iv e d from th e OCDQ a r e d e s c r i p t i o n s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b e h a v io r w h ich c a n b e com pared t o o t h e r d e s c r i p t i o n s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b e h a v i o r . 3 . The b e h a v io r s o c c u r r in g i n s h o r t s im u la tio n games c a n b e q u a n t i f i e d u s in g a s im p l i f i e d v e r s i o n o f B a le s ' I n t e r a c t i o n P ro c e s s A n a ly s is . 4 . I t i s p o s s i b l e t o o b s e rv e th e b e h a v io r s o c c u r- i r in g i n s h o r t s im u la tio n gam es a t a tim e and l p la c e rem o te from th e a c t u a l p la y by means o f t e l e v i s i o n ta p e r e c o r d in g s . D e f i n i ti o n s o f Terms 11 C e r ta in te rm s a r e u se d i n t h i s r e p o r t w h ich may h av e m eanings s p e c i f i c t o t h i s s tu d y . S m all g r o u p . M ile s (1959) d e f in e s th e g ro u p as b e in g s e v e r a l p e rs o n s w o rk in g t o g e t h e r i n a f a c e - t o - f a c e s i t u a t i o n t o a c c o m p lis h a t a s k . M ost s m a ll g ro u p r e s e a r c h l i m i t s th e s iz e o f th e u n i t t o t e n o r fe w e r. C e n tr a l to th e c o n c e p t o f t h e s m a ll g ro u p i s th e i n t e r a c t i o n sy stem among th e m em bers. B a le s (1950) s a y s : A s m a ll g ro u p i s d e f in e d a s any num ber o f p e rs o n s en g ag ed i n i n t e r a c t i o n w ith e a c h o t h e r i n a s in g le f a c e - t o - f a c e m e e tin g o r s e r i e s o f m e e tin g s , i n w h ich e a c h member r e c e iv e s some im p re s s io n o r p e r c e p tio n o f e a c h o th e r member d i s t i n c t enough so t h a t h e c a n , e i t h e r a t th e tim e o r i n l a t e r q u e s t i o n i n g , g iv e some r e a c t i o n t o e a c h o f th e o th e r s a s an i n d i v i d u a l p e r s o n , e v en th o u g h i t b e o n ly to r e c a l l t h a t th e o t h e r p e rs o n w as p r e s e n t . (p . 33) Lew in (1 9 5 1 ), A tk in so n (1 9 6 4 ), Chapman, K ennedy, N e w e ll, and B ie l (1 9 5 9 , 1 9 6 2 ), and P o r t e r (1 9 6 4 ) s u g g e s te d t h a t a s m a ll g ro u p o r o r g a n iz a tio n c o u ld be t r e a t e d as a i s i n g l e o rg a n ism b o th f o r p u rp o se s o f s tu d y and f o r c o n c e p t [fo rm u la tio n and th e o r y b u ild in g . I n t h i s r e p o r t , th e te rm s " s m a ll g ro u p " o r "g ro u p " r e f e r t o t h e ta s k - c e n t e r e d g ro u p o f f i v e p e rs o n s who a r e a sam ple o f th e l a r g e r o r g a n iz a tio n u n d e r s tu d y . I n t e r a c t i o n P ro c e s s A n a ly s is (IP A ). A lth o u g h i t i s n o t th e o n ly s y ste m o f a n a ly s is o f th e i n t e r a c t i o n s i n s m a ll 12 g r o u p s , th e B a le s s y ste m o f i n t e r a c t i o n p r o c e s s a n a l y s is i s f r e q u e n t l y c i t e d i n r e s e a r c h r e p o r t s on s m a ll-g ro u p b e h a v io r . B a le s (1950) h a s d e f in e d th e I n t e r a c t i o n P ro c e s s A n a ly s is sy ste m a s " , . . a way o f c l a s s i f y i n g d i r e c t , f a c e - t o - f a c e i n t e r a c t i o n as i t ta k e s p l a c e , a c t by a c t , and a s e r i e s o f ways o f su m m arizin g and a n a ly z in g th e r e s u l t i n g d a t a so th e y y i e l d u s e f u l in fo r m a tio n [p p . 5 - 6 ] . " O r g a n iz a tio n a l b e h a v i o r . A p p le w h ite (1 9 6 5 ) and o th e r s s u g g e s t t h a t th e te rm r e f e r s t o b e h a v io r o f i n d i v i d u a ls and g ro u p s ; h o w ev er, in t h i s r e p o r t o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b e h a v io r r e f e r s t o th e b e h a v io r o f g ro u p s as s i n g l e o r g a n is m s . S p e c if ic c o n te x t w i l l d e te rm in e i f th e r e f e r e n c e i s to an e n t i r e o r g a n i z a t i o n a s a s in g l e u n i t o r to s m a ll su b g ro u p s (fo rm a l o r in f o r m a l) o f an o r g a n i z a t i o n . O r g a n iz a tio n a l c l i m a t e . The o r g a n i z a t i o n a l " p e r s o n a l i t y " o r c h a r a c t e r may b e r e f e r r e d to a s i t s o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c lim a te . C lim a te i s t o th e o r g a n i z a t i o n w hat p e r s o n a l i t y i s t o th e i n d i v i d u a l ( A r g y r is , 1 958; H a lp in & C r o f t, 1 9 6 2 ). I t i s g e n e r a l l y c o n s id e r e d t o b e a d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e sy ste m o f i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s e x i s t i n g i n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n . O r g a n iz a tio n a l C lim a te D e s c r ip tio n Q u e s tio n n a ir e j(OCDQ). The OCDQ, an in s tr u m e n t d e v e lo p e d by H a lp in and t C r o f t (1 9 6 2 ) f o r th e p u rp o se o f a s s e s s in g th e a f f e c t o f an le le m e n ta ry s c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n , y i e l d s " s c o r e s " d e s c r ib in g th e c lim a te o f th e o r g a n i z a t i o n .________________________________ _ 13 i Open b e h a v io r , c lo s e d b e h a v i o r . T h ese two te rm s ; a r e a p p lie d t o th e b e h a v io r o f o r g a n i z a t i o n s a s w e ll a s I | i n d i v i d u a l s i n th e way i n w h ich R okeach (1 9 6 1 ) u s e d th e j te r m s . An o r g a n i z a t i o n o r i n d i v i d u a l d is p la y in g open b e h a v io r i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by f u n c t i o n a l freed o m and p ro b le m s o lv in g f l e x i b i l i t y . An o r g a n i z a t i o n t y p i f i e d by c lo s e d b e h a v io r i s f u n c t i o n a l l y r i g i d and c o m p a rtm e n ta liz e d a s d e s c r ib e d by Lewin (1935b) and H a lp in and C r o f t (1962) . Open C lim a te . I n an Open C lim a te o r g a n i z a t i o n , th e members e n jo y v e r y h ig h g ro u p s p i r i t a b o u t th e w ork and w o rk p la c e . S in c e jo b s a t i s f a c t i o n i s h ig h , th e members o f th e o r g a n iz a tio n a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y m o tiv a te d to overcom e d i f f i c u l t i e s and f r u s t r a t i o n s and th e r e b y k e e p th e o r g a n iz a t i o n m oving to w a rd i t s p u r p o s e ( s ) (H a lp in & C r o f t, 1 9 6 2 ). I C lo se d C lim a te . A C lo sed C lim a te o r g a n i z a t i o n i s th e a n t i t h e s i s o f th e Open C lim a te o r g a n i z a t i o n . The m em bers a r e d is e n g a g e d from b o th th e t a s k p u rp o se s and th e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p u rp o s e s o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n . Members o f th e o r g a n i z a t i o n la c k s p i r i t and o b ta in l i t t l e s a t i s f a c t i o n fro m e i t h e r t a s k acco m p lish m en t o r s o c i a l c o n ta c ts i n th e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s e t t i n g . The f e e l i n g i s t h a t th e o r g a n iz a t i o n i s n o t a u t h e n t i c (H a lp in & C r o f t , 1 9 6 2 ). E f f e c t i v i t y and e f f i c i e n c y . I n th e p r e s e n t r e p o r t , th e te rm s " e f f e c t i v i t y " and " e f f i c i e n c y " a r e u se d as 14 d e s c r ib e d by B a rn a rd (1 9 3 8 ). E f f e c t i v i t y r e f e r s t o th e p ro m o tio n and s a t i s f a c t i o n o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l n e e d s f o r p r o d u c tio n and o u t p u t —w hat G race (1969) r e f e r s t o a s P u rp o s e . E f f ic ie n c y r e f e r s t o p ro m o tio n and s a t i s f a c t i o n o f human n e e d s f o r p s y c h o s o c ia l s a t i s f a c t i o n i n th e s e t t i n g i o f th e w ork g ro u p . 1 i B r ie f S im u la tio n Games. S im u la tio n gam es in v o lv e ■ l th e i n t e r a c t i o n s o f i n d i v i d u a l s o r g ro u p s i n a s i t u a t i o n j i w h ich i s an a b s t r a c t i o n o f r e a l i t y . T h is s tu d y i s c o n c e rn e d I o n ly w ith s im u la tio n gam es w hich in v o lv e s m a ll g ro u p s i n sim p le ta s k s r e q u i r i n g no co m p u tin g a i d s . The gam es u se d i n t h i s s tu d y a r e m in o r a d a p ta tio n s o f th e " i n t e r a c t i o n e x e r c i s e s " d e v e lo p e d by Holmen and h i s s t a f f a t th e M anage m ent L a b o ra to r y , G ra d u a te S ch o o l o f B u s in e s s A d m in is tr a tio n ,! U n iv e r s ity o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a (H olm en, 1 9 6 8 ). Summary j I T h is c h a p te r in c lu d e d a b r i e f re v ie w o f th e p ro b lem ; ! a r e a , a d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e p u rp o se o f th e s tu d y , and s t a t e - i i m ent o f th e p ro b le m . The r e s e a r c h q u e s tio n s and h y p o th e s e s j i w ere p r e s e n te d , fo llo w e d by d e f i n i t i o n s o f te r m s . [ 15 O r g a n iz a tio n o f th e R em ainder i o f th e D i s s e r t a t i o n C h a p te r I I re v ie w s r e l e v a n t l i t e r a t u r e b e a r in g on t h i s s tu d y . C h a p te r I I I d e s c r i b e s th e r e s e a r c h in s tr u m e n ts and f i e l d p ro c e d u re s u se d to c o l l e c t th e raw d a t a . A ccom panying e a c h d e s c r i p t i o n a r e d e t a i l s o f d e v e lo p m e n ts and a d a p ta tio n s dem anded by th e cirex am stan ces o f th e s tu d y . A lso in c lu d e d i s a d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e sy ste m s o f o b s e r v a tio n o f th e g ro u p p r o c e s s e s and th e m a t e r i a l s and t r a i n i n g p r o v id e d th e o b s e r v e r s . C h a p te r IV d e t a i l s th e r e s e a r c h d e s ig n , d a ta p r o c e s s in g , and t e s t s o f h y p o th e s e s . C h a p te r V r e p o r t s th e r e s u l t s o f th e s tu d y . C h a p te r VI sum m arizes th e s tu d y and r e c a p i t u l a t e s th e p ro c e s s and m e th o d o lo g y . D is c u s s io n o f th e r e s u l t s i s fo llo w e d by th e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f c o n c lu s io n s . Recommenda t i o n s a r e made f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h i n th e u s e o f s h o r t |s im u la tio n gam es f o r th e s tu d y o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b e h a v io r , and f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h i n th e n a tu r e o f th e p r o c e s s e s and outcom es o f th e OCDQ. CHAPTER I I REVIEW OF LITERATURE The c o n te x t o f t h i s s tu d y i s th e s o c i a l p sy c h o lo g y o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b e h a v io r , p a r t i c u l a r l y th e b e h a v io r o f s m a ll g r o u p s . The f o llo w in g a r e a s a r e r e v ie w e d : 1 . L ew in ian f i e l d th e o r y , 2 . O r g a n iz a tio n a l c lim a te and th e O r g a n iz a tio n a l C lim a te D e s c r ip tio n Q u e s tio n n a ir e (OCDQ), 3 . S m all g ro u p b e h a v io r and B a le s ' I n t e r a c t i o n P ro c e s s A n a ly s is , and 4 . S im u la tio n gam es and i n t e r a c t i o n e x e r c i s e s . L ew in ian F i e l d T h eo ry The b e h a v io r o f a l l k in d s o f s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s , fro m s m a ll g ro u p s to la r g e s o c i e t i e s , i s f r e q u e n tly c o n c e p t u a l i z e d and e l a b o r a te d i n te rm s u se d by K u rt Lewin t o I d e s c r ib e " f i e l d t h e o r y ." L ew in1s f i e l d th e o r y c o n c e p t o f j i n t e r a c t i n g and n e s ti n g sy stem s o f i n d i v i d u a l s and g ro u p s S jis p a r t i c u l a r l y p e r t i n e n t t o (a ) th e s tu d y o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l jb e h a v io r, (b ) th e c r e a t i o n o f s im u la tio n gam es, and (c ) th e I m anagem ent and a n a l y s is o f th e p la y o f s im u la tio n gam es. 16 17 A lth o u g h th e G e s t a l t s c h o o l o f p sy c h o lo g y in v e n te d and f i r s t u sed th e te rm " f i e l d th e o r y " t o d e s c r ib e th e "dynam ic in te rd e p e n d e n c e o f a l l p a r t s w ith in a w hole [ P r e s s e y , 1952, Volume 1 8 , p . 6 8 4 ] ," i t w as K u rt Lewin who b ro u g h t f i e l d th e o r y i n t o common u s a g e w ith f o r m u la tio n o f th e m ajo r c o n c e p tu a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f L ew in ian f i e l d th e o r y , " l i f e s p a c e ." L if e sp ac e d e s c r i b e s a p s y c h o lo g ic a l r e g io n and i t s e n v iro n m e n t f o r a s p e c i f i c o rg a n ism (L ew in, 1 9 3 5 a, 1936, 1 9 4 8 , 1 9 5 1 ). A f o r c e - f i e l d d ia g ram o f l i f e sp a c e i s a t o p o l o g i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f s p a c e s , f o r c e s , and i n t e r a c t i o n s . The l i f e - s p a c e d ia g ra m shows p s y c h o lo g ic a l c a u s e s and m o tiv a tio n s by m eans o f r e g i o n s , g o a l s , and f o r c e v e c t o r s . L ew in1s d e f i n i t i o n o f a p s y c h o lo g ic a l f i e l d c o n ta in s many m ore f a c t o r s th a n d o es th e G e s c a l t i s t c o n c e p t o f " f i e l d . " I n a d d i t i o n t o o b j e c t i v e e v e n t s , f a c t s , and a c t i v i t i e s w hich b e a r on th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l l i f e sp a c e o f an jo rg a n ism , t h e r e i s a b o u n d ary zone o f s u b je c ti v e e v e n ts and p r o c e s s e s w h ich a f f e c t th e l i f e sp a c e ( C a r tw r ig h t, 1951; L ew in, 1951; A tk in s o n , 1 9 6 4 ). T h u s, th e c o m b in a tio n o f p e rs o n and en v iro n m e n t c a l l e d l i f e s p a c e i s r e p r e s e n te d by th e fo rm u la B = f(P ,E ), w here B = b e h a v io r o f th e o rg a n ism , f » f u n c t io n , P = p e r s o n , and E = e n v iro n m e n t. T h e r e f o r e , b e h a v io r i s a f u n c t io n o f th e i n t e r a c t i o n o f th e p e rso n (o rg a n ism ) and th e e n v iro n m e n t (L ew in, 1 9 5 1 ). 18 The c r i t e r i o n f o r in c lu d in g so m eth in g i n a l i f e s p a c e i s t h a t th e ite m h a s " d e m o n s tra b le e f f e c t s [ C a r tw r ig h t, 1951, p . x i i ] . " I n a d d i t i o n t o th e o b v io u s a t t r i b u t e s o f th e r e a l and c o n s c io u s o rg a n ism and i t s e n v iro n m e n t, Lew in in c lu d e d u n c o n s c io u s s t a t e s o f th e o rg a n ism (L ew in, 1 9 5 1 ). B ecause o f e m p h asis on i n t e r r e la t e d n e s s o f th e em bedding e n v iro n m e n t o f th e o rg a n ism and r e a l and u n r e a l e v e n ts o f a l i f e s p a c e , th e c o n c e p t s u g g e s ts n e s ti n g sy ste m s. The re m a in in g e le m e n t o f l i f e sp a c e i s co n tem p o - r a n e i t y - - t h e tim e d im e n sio n . C a r tw r ig h t (1951) i n t e r p r e t s L ew in, s a y in g , " l i f e s p a c e e n d u re s th ro u g h tim e , i s m o d ifie d by e v e n t s , and i s a p ro d u c t o f h i s t o r y , b u t o n ly th e co n tem p o ra n e o u s sy stem c a n h av e e f f e c t s a t any tim e [p . x i i i ] . " C o n te m p o ra n e ity r e f e r s to th e e x is te n c e o f th e f i e l d d u r in g a tim e p e r i o d , in s ta n ta n e o u s o r p r o t r a c t e d . What i s co n tem p o ran eo u s "d e p en d s i n p sy c h o lo g y u p o n th e sco p e o f th e s i t u a t i o n [L ew in , 1951, p . 6 ; p . 4 8 ] ." A cc o rd in g to L e w in 's f i e l d th e o r y , b e h a v io r d ep en d s on n e i t h e r th e p a s t n o r t h e f u t u r e , e v e n th o u g h p r e s e n t b e h a v io r h a s tim e d e p th . When b e h a v io r o f an o rg a n ism i s b e in g s t u d i e d , th e l e n g th o f th e tim e p e r io d u n d e r c o n s id e r a t i o n i s d e p e n d e n t upon th e s iz e o f th e u n i t o f b e h a v io r and th e c o m p le x ity o f th e phenom ena. Lewin s a y s , " a n a d e q u a te p s y c h o lo g ic a l I ( d e s c r ip tio n o f th e c h a r a c t e r and th e d i r e c t i o n o f an o n g o in g p r o c e s s c a n and h a s t o be done on v a r io u s m ic ro s c o p ic and I 19 m a c ro sc o p ic l e v e l s . To e ach 's i z e o f a u n i t o f b e h a v io r ' a d i f f e r e n t 's i z e o f s i t u a t i o n ' c a n b e c o o r d in a te d [1 9 5 1 , p . 5 2 ] ." The p r i n c i p l e o f c o n te m p o ra n e ity i s im p o rta n t to th e s tu d y o f g ro u p s b e c a u s e i t im p lie s t h e n e c e s s i t y o f know ing a s much o f th e t o t a l s i t u a t i o n a s p o s s i b l e i n o r d e r t o s tr e n g th e n a n a l y s i s . E x te n s io n o f th e i m p l i c a t i o n a b o u t know ledge o f th e s i t u a t i o n i s a s tr o n g arg u m en t f o r a tte m p t in g to c o n t r o l th e e n v iro n m e n t and i n p u t - t a s k s t i m u l i o f an o r g a n i z a t i o n u n d e r s tu d y - - a n argum ent f o r th e u s e o f s im u la tio n . I n su m m atio n , L ew in ian f i e l d th e o r y p o s t u l a t e s a sy ste m o f t o p o l o g i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l l i f e s p a c e o f an o rg a n ism . I n c lu d e d i n th e l i f e sp a c e a r e b o th th e r e a l and u n r e a l a s p e c ts o f th e s i t u a t i o n a l c o n te x t i n te rm s o f a f o u r - d im e n s io n a l tim e -s p a c e c o n tin u u m . O r g a n iz a tio n a l C lim a te j The d e v e lo p e rs o f th e c o n c e p t o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c lim a te l i k e n c lim a te t o i n d i v i d u a l " p e r s o n a l i t y [ A r g y r is , 1958; M cG regor, 1960; H a lp in & C r o f t, 1 9 6 2 ]." D e ta ile d d is c u s s io n s o f th e b ack g ro u n d o f th e c o n c e p t o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c lim a te a r e fo u n d i n H a lp in and | p r o f t (1 9 6 2 ), A n d erso n (1 9 6 4 ), and Todd and P h i l l i p s (1 9 6 9 ). frhe d ev elo p m en t o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c lim a te c a n be tr a c e d fro m 20 B a r n a r d 's (1 9 3 8 ) c o n c e p ts o f " e f f i c i e n c y " and " e f f e c t i v i t y , " th ro u g h num erous s t u d i e s o f l e a d e r b e h a v io r and th e e f f e c t o f le a d e r b e h a v io r on th e o r g a n i z a t i o n , t o th e d ev elo p m en t and u s e o f th e OCDQ. P e rv a d in g th e l i t e r a t u r e on o r g a n iz a t i o n a l c lim a te a re r e f e r e n c e s t o th e " f e e l i n g " t h a t an o r g a n i z a t i o n g iv e s an o b s e r v e r , to th e s t y l e o f i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n th e o r g a n i z a t i o n , and t o th e a f f e c t i v e n a tu r e o f th e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c u l t u r e . A rg y ris (1 9 5 8 ), i n a s tu d y o f a b a n k o r g a n i z a t i o n , o b s e rv e d t h a t th e g ro u p " c lim a te " was m a in ta in e d by s e l e c t i o n o f p e r s o n n e l and d e l i b e r a t e e f f o r t s t o m a in ta in d e s ir e d Iw ork-group r e l a t i o n s h i p s . C o r n e ll (1 9 5 5 ) u s e d f i v e v a r i a b l e s i n a s tu d y o f t e a c h e r - a d m i n i s t r a t o r i n t e r a c t i o n s i n f o u r s c h o o l s y s te m s . The f i v e v a r i a b l e s w ere ( a ) te a c h e r m o ra le , (b ) te a c h e r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n d e c is io n - m a k in g , (c ) t e a c h e r - f e e l i n g s o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , (d ) t e a c h e r - f e e l i n g s o f im p o rta n c e i n m aking o f f i n a l d e c i s i o n s , and (e ) d i r e c t t e a c h e r - a d m i n i s t r a t o r I i n t e r a c t i o n i n th e d e c is io n -m a k in g p r o c e s s . C o r n e ll Iconcluded t h a t "No tw o s c h o o l sy ste m s a r e a l i k e i n t h e i r o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c lim a te [p . 2 2 1 ] ." I n o t h e r w o rd s, C o r n e l l 's i n v e s t i g a t o r s w ere a b le to d e t e c t d i f f e r e n c e s i n o r g a n iz a t i o n a l c l i m a t e . G e tz e ls and T h e le n (1960) d is c o v e re d t h a t members o f an o r g a n iz a tio n f i n d , w i t h i n th e c o n te x t o f th e o r g a n iz a t i o n , e m o tio n a l s u p p o rt f o r r i s k - t a k i n g . The i n d i v i d u a l i 21 s e c u r i t y r e s u l t i n g fro m g ro u p s u p p o rt e n c o u ra g e s m ore "o p en " t r a n s a c t i o n s b e tw e en r o l e and p e r s o n a l i t y . I n a d d i t i o n , I G e tz e ls and T h e le n i d e n t i f i e d th r e e l e a d e r s h ip s t y l e s : n o m o th e tic (e m p h asis on o r g a n i z a t i o n a l r e q u ir e m e n ts ) , j : i i d io g r a p h ic (e m p h a sis on n e e d s o f i n d i v i d u a l s ) , and t r a n s - i a c t i o n a l (o p tim a l b a la n c e o f th e o th e r two s t y l e s ) . I n d e f in in g o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e , P ig o rs and Myers (1965) s a y , "The m a n a g e ria l p h ilo s o p h ie s w h ich m an ag ers h o ld and com m unicate i n a c t i o n t h e r e f o r e becom e w e ll known to p e o p le i n th e o r g a n i z a t i o n . T h is i s one m eaning o f th e te rm 'o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e ' [p . 7 ] ." O r g a n iz a tio n a l c lim a te h a s b een r e c o g n iz e d by e d u c a t i o n a l r e s e a r c h e r s a s a v a r i a b l e o f m ajo r im p o rta n c e i n th e s tu d y o f s c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n s (Brown & H ouse, 1 9 6 7 ). i The O r g a n iz a tio n a l C lim a te D e s c r ip tio n Q u e s tio n n a ir e (OCDQ) The OCDQ, com posed o f 64 L i k e r t - ty p e ite m s , c a n be a d m in is te r e d t o th e te a c h in g s t a f f and p r i n c i p a l o f an e le m e n ta ry s c h o o l. The r e s u l t s o f th e q u e s ti o n n a i r e a r e u s u a ll y r e p o r t e d i n th e fo rm o f s ta n d a r d s c o r e s and p r o f i l e s on f o u r d im e n sio n s o f t e a c h e r b e h a v io r and f o u r d im e n sio n s o f p r i n c i p a l b e h a v io r . The e i g h t s u b te s t s c o r e s c a n b e \ com pared t o "norm s" w h ich th e d e v e lo p e rs o f t h e OCDQ h av e I e s t a b l i s h e d a s " p r o to ty p e " p r o f i l e s o f s i x o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c lim a te s (H a lp in & C r o f t , 1 9 6 2 ). ■ I n The O r g a n iz a tio n a l C lim a te o f S c h o o ls . H a lp in and jC ro ft (1962) d e s c r ib e i n th o ro u g h d e t a i l th e d ev elo p m en t o f t h e OCDQ. The t h r e e p h a s e s o f d ev elo p m en t re v ie w e d i n t h i s i r e p o r t a r e th e t h e o r e t i c a l b a c k g ro u n d , th e c o n s tr u c t i o n o f | (the in s tr u m e n t, and th e v a l i d a t i o n o f th e in s tr u m e n t. i A lth o u g h H a lp in and C r o f t do n o t p r e s e n t a s p e c i f i c t h e o r e t i c a l fram ew o rk , th e y im p ly an am alg am atio n o f th e o r y ifrom g ro u p dynam ics and l e a d e r s h i p b e h a v io r . F o r ex am p le, s p e c i f i c r e f e r e n c e i s made t o th e need f o r a g ro u p t o be b o th e f f e c t i v e and e f f i c i e n t (B a rn a rd , 1 9 3 8 ), and l e a d e r s h i p s t u d i e s su ch a s th o s e by H a lp in (1 9 5 5 ) and H em p h ill (1958) a r e f r e q u e n t l y m e n tio n e d i n th e r a t i o n a l e and b ack g ro u n d f o r th e d ev elo p m en t o f th e OCDQ. T h e r e f o r e , i t i s r e a s o n a b le t o i n f e r t h a t th e t h e o r e t i c a l m odel f o r th e OCDQ i s a g ro u p -d y n a m ic s o r i e n t e d " g r e a t man" th e o r y (H a lp in & C r o f t, 1 9 6 2 , p p . 9 - 1 2 ) . The m a jo r p o r ti o n o f The O r g a n iz a tio n a l C lim a te o f S c h o o ls (H a lp in & C r o f t , 1962) i s d e v o te d t o t h e c o n s tr u c t i o n and v a l i d a t i o n o f th e OCDQ. The s p e c i f i c q u e s ti o n n a i r e ite m s w ere d e r iv e d fro m in f o r m a tio n o b ta in e d fro m r e a l - l i f e s i t u a t i o n s , and w ere augm ented by ite m s d e v e lo p e d from l ( " t h e o r e t i c a l n o tio n s a b o u t w hat m ig h t be th e p ro b a b ly [ s i c ] (dim ensions o f th e O r g a n iz a tio n a l C lim a te [H a lp in & C r o f t, 1962, p . 2 5 ] ." A d d itio n a l s o u rc e s o f id e a s f o r ite m s in c lu d e d g r a d u a te s tu d e n ts i n e d u c a tio n , t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b e h a v io r , in s tr u m e n ts su ch a s th e L e a d e rs h ip IB ehavior D e s c r ip tio n Q u e s tio n n a ir e (H a lp in , 1959) and th e |Group D im ensions D e s c r ip tio n Q u e s tio n n a ir e (H e m p h ill, 1 9 5 6 ), and c r i t i c a l i n c i d e n t s o b ta in e d from d e p th in te r v ie w s o f j 't e a c h e r s . i A f te r th e q u e s ti o n n a i r e ite m s w ere d e v e lo p e d , th e OCDQ was p r e s e n te d t o 1 ,1 5 1 re s p o n d e n ts i n 71 s c h o o ls . The r e s u l t s w ere f a c t o r a n a ly z e d and t e s t e d f o r " f i t " i n th e s u b te s t c a te g o r y to w h ich th e ite m s had b e e n t e n t a t i v e l y a s s ig n e d . Form IV o f th e OCDQ i s th e f i n a l r e s u l t o f t h a t i a n a l y s i s . Form IV o f th e OCDQ c o n s i s t s o f e i g h t s u b t e s t s . F our o f th e s u b te s t s (D ise n g ag em e n t, H in d ra n c e , E s p r i t , and In tim a c y ) r e f e r t o t e a c h e r b e h a v io r , and f o u r o f th e su b t e s t s (A lo o fn e s s , P ro d u c tio n E m p h asis, T h r u s t, and C o n s id e r a t i o n ) r e f e r t o p r i n c i p a l b e h a v io r . P e rso n s c o m p le tin g th e q u e s tio n n a ir e a r e ask e d t o ch o o se one o f f o u r c o n d itio n s w hich th e re s p o n d e n t c o n s id e r s th e m ost a c c u r a te r e f l e c t i o n |of o p e r a tin g c o n d itio n s i n th e o r g a n i z a t i o n . The f o u r c h o ic e s a r e (a ) r a r e l y o c c u r s , (b ) som etim es o c c u r s , (c) o f te n o c c u r s , and (d ) v e r y f r e q u e n t l y o c c u r s . H a lp in and C r o f t (1962) d e s c r ib e th e e i g h t s u b te s t s a s f o llo w s : DISENGAGEMENT r e f e r s t o th e t e a c h e r s ' te n d e n c y t o be " n o t w ith i t . " T h is d im e n sio n d e s c r ib e s a g ro u p w h ich i s " g o in g th ro u g h th e m o tio n s ," a g ro u p t h a t i s " n o t i n g e a r " w ith r e s p e c t t o th e t a s k a t h a n d . I t c o rre s p o n d s t o t h e m ore g e n e r a l c o n c e p t o f anom ie a s f i r s t d e s c r ib e d by D urkheim . I n s h o r t , t h i s s u b t e s t f o c u s s e s upon th e t e a c h e r s ' b e h a v io r i n a t a s k - o r i e n t e d s i t u a t i o n . HINDRANCE r e f e r s t o th e t e a c h e r s ' f e e l i n g t h a t th e p r i n c i p a l b u rd e n s them w ith r o u t i n e d u t i e s , c o m m itte e dem ands, and o th e r re q u ire m e n ts w h ich th e te a c h e r s c o n s tr u e a s u n n e c e s s a ry b u sy -w o rk . The t e a c h e r s p e r c e iv e t h a t th e p r i n c i p a l i s h in d e r in g r a t h e r th a n f a c i l i t a t i n g t h e i r w o rk . ESPRIT r e f e r s t o " m o ra le ." The t e a c h e r s f e e l t h a t t h e i r s o c i a l n e e d s a r e b e in g s a t i s f i e d , and t h a t th e y a r e , a t th e same tim e , e n jo y in g a s e n s e o f ac co m p lish m en t i n t h e i r jo b . INTIMACY r e f e r s t o th e t e a c h e r s ' e n jo y m e n t o f f r i e n d l y s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s w ith e a c h o t h e r . T h is d im e n sio n d e s c r i b e s a s o c ia l- n e e d s s a t i s f a c t i o n w h ich i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a s s o c i a t e d w ith t a s k - a c c o m p lish m e n t. P r i n c i p a l 's B e h a v io r ALOOFNESS r e f e r s t o b e h a v io r by th e p r i n c i p a l w h ich i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s fo rm a l and im p e rs o n a l. He "g o e s b y th e b o ok" and p r e f e r s t o b e g u id e d by r u l e s and p o l i c i e s r a t h e r th a n to d e a l w ith th e t e a c h e r s i n an in f o r m a l, f a c e - t o - f a c e s i t u a t i o n . H is b e h a v i o r , i n b r i e f , i s u n i v e r s a l i s t i c r a t h e r th a n p a r t i c u l a r i s t i c ; n o m o th e tic r a t h e r th a n i d i o s y n c r a t i c . To m a in ta in t h i s s t y l e , h e k e e p s h i m s e l f - - a t l e a s t , " e m o tio n a lly " - - a t a d i s t a n c e fro m h i s s t a f f . PRODUCTION EMPHASIS r e f e r s t o b e h a v io r by th e p r i n c i p a l w h ich i s c h a r a c t e r iz e d by c lo s e s u p e r v i s io n o f th e s t a f f . He i s h ig h ly d i r e c t i v e , and p la y s t h e r o l e o f a " s tr a w b o s s ." H is c o m n u n ic a tio n E m ile D urkheim , Le S u ic id e ( P a r i s : L i b r a r i e F e l i x A lc a n , 1 9 3 0 ), p . 27 7 . Anomie d e s c r i b e s a p l a n l e s s n e s s i n l i v i n g , a m ethod o f l i v i n g w h ich d e f e a t s i t s e l f b e c a u s e ach iev em en t h a s no lo n g e r any c r i t e r i o n o f v a l u e ; h a p p in e s s a lw a y s l i e s beyond any p r e s e n t a c h ie v e m e n t. D e fe a t ta k e s th e fo rm o f u l t i m a t e d i s i l l u s i o n - - a d i s g u s t w ith th e f u t i l i t y o f e n d le s s p u r s u i t . te n d s t o go i n o n ly one d i r e c t i o n , and he i s n o t s e n s i t i v e t o fe e d b a c k fro m th e s t a f f . THRUST r e f e r s t o b e h a v io r by th e p r i n c i p a l w h ich i s ] c h a r a c t e r i z e d by h i s e v id e n t e f f o r t i n t r y i n g t o "move th e o r g a n i z a t i o n ." " T h r u s t" b e h a v io r i s m arked n o t by c lo s e s u p e r v is io n , b u t by th e p r i n c i p a l 's a tte m p t t o m o tiv a te th e te a c h e r s th ro u g h th e exam ple w h ich he p e r s o n a lly s e t s . A p p a r e n tly , b e c a u s e he i d o e s n o t a s k th e te a c h e r s to g iv e o f th e m s e lv e s any j m ore th a n he w i l l i n g l y g iv e s o f h i m s e l f , h i s b e h a v - | i o r , th o u g h s t a r k l y t a s k - o r i e n t e d , i s n o n e th e le s s | v iew ed f a v o r a b ly by th e t e a c h e r s . I ! CONSIDERATION r e f e r s t o b e h a v io r by t h e p r i n c i p a l w h ich i s c h a r a c t e r iz e d by an i n c l i n a t i o n t o t r e a t te a c h e r s " h u m a n ly ," t o t r y to do a l i t t l e so m eth in g e x t r a f o r them i n human te r m s . (H a lp in & C r o f t , 19 6 2 , p p . 4 0 -4 1 ) S ch o o l s c o r e s on th e e ig h t s u b t e s t s w ere u se d to c r e a t e s ta n d a r d - s c o r e p r o f i l e s , w hich i n t u r n y ie ld e d s i x p r o to ty p ic o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e s . The s i x c lim a te s can be o r d e re d from open to c l o s e d , to u s e th e te rm s o f Rokeach (1 9 6 1 ), o r from f u n c t i o n a l f l e x i b i l i t y t o f u n c t i o n a l r i g i d i t y , a s d e s c r ib e d by Lew in (1 9 3 5 b ). H a lp in and C r o f t (1 9 6 2 , p p . 8 0 -8 9 ) d e s c r ib e i n d e t a i l th e s i x o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e s . A b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n i o f e a c h o f th e s i x c lim a te s f o llo w s . Open C lim a te The members o f th e o r g a n i z a t i o n e n jo y e x tre m e ly h ig h e s p r i t and w ork to g e t h e r s m o o th ly , e f f i c i e n t l y , and e f f e c t i v e l y . S o c ia l n e e d s o f th e i n d i v i d u a l s a r e s a t i s f i e d by b o th t a s k acco m p lish m en t and fe llo w -w o rk e r c o n t a c t . The g ro u p k e e p s th e o r g a n iz a tio n m oving to w ard i t s p u rp o s e . 26 The b e h a v io r o f th e p r i n c i p a l i s b e s t c h a r a c t e r i z e d as " g e n u in e ,” h a r d w o rk in g , and e n c o u ra g in g e f f o r t and p r o f i - jc ie n c y ; y e t th e p r i n c i p a l i s c o n s id e r a te o f th e human n eed s o f th e i n d i v i d u a l s i n th e g ro u p . [Autonomous C lim a te The g ro u p i n t e r a c t i o n s a r e s i m i l a r t o i n t e r a c t i o n s i n th e Open C lim a te i n t h a t g ro u p members w ork w e ll t o g e th e r and f a c i l i t a t e a c h iev em en t o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l g o a l s . S o c ia l ! [need s a t i s f a c t i o n i s h ig h , b u t g e n e r a l m o ra le i s n o t as I (high a s i n th e Open C lim a te . The p r i n c i p a l i s a lo o f and im p e rs o n a l, a lth o u g h h a rd w o rk in g . L e a d e rs h ip i s p ro v id e d by m eans o f fo rm a l p ro c e d u re s and g u i d e l i n e s . The p r i n c i p a l , who r e l i e s on t h e t e a c h e r s to p e rfo rm a t t h e i r own sp e e d and l e v e l o f p r o f i c i e n c y , i s c o n s id e r a te and a tte m p ts to s a t i s f y s o c i a l n e e d s o f th e g ro u p . C o n tr o lle d C lim a te E veryone "w orks h a r d " ; t h e r e i s a p r e s s f o r a c h ie v e m e n t a t th e e x p e n se o f s o c i a l n e e d s s a t i s f a c t i o n . (Though m o ra le i s h ig h e r th a n a v e r a g e , jo b s a t i s f a c t i o n seem s t o come from t a s k acco m p lish m en t s in c e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l H in d ra n c e i s h ig h . The p r i n c i p a l , who i s a l o o f , l i k e s to have th in g s done h i s w ay. D o m in atin g and d i r e c t i v e , th e j p r i n c i p a l w orks h a rd and d e v e lo p s a " t i g h t s h i p , " w ith c o n s id e r a b le T h r u s t. 27 F a m ilia r C lim a te ! The te a c h e r s and p r i n c i p a l a r e c o n s p ic u o u s ly I f r i e n d l y . A lth o u g h s o c i a l n e e d s a r e s a t i s f i e d t o a v e r y la r g e e x t e n t , l i t t l e i s done t o d i r e c t th e o r g a n iz a tio n to w a rd i t s p u r p o s e s . D isen g ag em en t i s h ig h , b u t t h e r e i s i [ {low o r g a n i z a t i o n a l H in d ra n c e . T e a c h e rs d is p la y h ig h I n tim a c y . H ow ever, s in c e jo b s a t i s f a c t i o n i s n o t h ig h , h ig h E s p r i t s c o re s a r e p r im a r i l y a f u n c t io n o f f r i e n d l i n e s s , n o t o f jo b s a t i s f a c t i o n . The p r i n c i p a l 's p rim a ry m o tiv a tio n seem s t o be to c r e a t e and m a in ta in "o n e b ig happy fa m ily " j j(h ig h C o n s id e r a tio n , low A lo o f n e s s ) , r a t h e r th a n t o p r e s s jfo r o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p r o g r e s s . i P a te r n a l C lim a te The P a t e r n a l C lim a te i s s l i g h t l y c lo s e d . The te a c h e r s do n o t w ork w e ll to g e t h e r and te n d to s p l i t i n t o f a c t i o n s . G roup m a in te n a n c e h a s b ee n i n e f f e c t i v e b e c a u s e th e p r i n c i p a l c a n n o t c o n t r o l t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f th e te a c h e r s who d i s p l a y h ig h D ise n g a g e m e n t. T h e re i s low H in d ra n c e ( th e p r i n c i p a l d o es th e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e "b u sy w o rk " ), low I n tim a c y , and low E s p r i t . The p r i n c i p a l shows low A lo o f n e s s , h ig h P r o d u c tio n E m p h asis, h ig h C o n s id e r a tio n , and a v e ra g e T h r u s t. B ut v e r y l i t t l e g e t s d o n e , p r im a r ily b e c a u se t h e p r i n c i p a l d o es n o t m o tiv a te th e te a c h e r s by {showing an exam ple o f g e n u in e p u r p o s e - o f - t h e - o r g a n i z a t i o n b e h a v io r . 28 Clo s e d C lim a te The g ro u p members o b ta in v e r y l i t t l e s a t i s f a c t i o n |of e i t h e r t h e i r t a s k a c h ie v e m e n t o r t h e i r s o c i a l n e e d s . The | p r i n c i p a l c a n n o t d i r e c t th e a c t i v i t i e s o f th e t e a c h e r s and d o es n o t c o n s id e r th e t e a c h e r s ' p e r s o n a l w e l f a r e . The te a c h e r s a r e d is e n g a g e d ; g ro u p a c h ie v e m e n t i s m in im a l. The I p rim a ry s o u rc e s o f a c h ie v e m e n t a r e c o m p le tio n o f many r e p o r t s and e x e c u tio n o f " h o u se k e e p in g " d u t i e s (h ig h |H in d ra n c e ). E s p r it i s v e r y low , b u t th e te a c h e r s a re l i f r i e n d l y , show ing h ig h I n tim a c y . The p r i n c i p a l , a lo o f and i im p e rs o n a l, e x h o r ts th e o t h e r members o f th e o r g a n i z a t i o n t o w ork h a r d e r . B u t, b e c a u s e o f th e p r i n c i p a l 's a lo o f n e s s and low C o n s id e r a tio n , l i t t l e l e a d e r s h i p i s p e r c e iv e d by th e t e a c h e r s . The p r i n c i p a l 's b e h a v io r i s n o t p e r c e iv e d a s g e n u in e . T a b le 1 shows th e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f th e e ig h t s u b t e s t s i n te rm s o f s ta n d a r d s c o r e s o f th e v a r io u s c lim a te p r o f i l e s . The OCDQ, Form IV , h a s b e en u se d i n a la r g e number |of s t u d i e s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c lim a te o f s c h o o ls . I n a re v ie w o f s tu d i e s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e , Brown and H ouse (1967) say t h a t fro m 1964 t o 1 9 6 6 , 45 s t u d i e s w ere r e p o r te d i n th e l i t e r a t u r e ; th e r e s e a r c h e r s s p e c u la te t h a t t h e r e w ere many o t h e r s t u d i e s e i t h e r u n r e p o r te d o r i n p r o g r e s s , so t h a t s t u d i e s p ro b a b ly t o t a l e d o v e r 100 by O c to b e r 1967. TABLE 1 PROTOTYPIC PROFILES3 FOR SIX ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATES RANKED IN RESPECT TO OPENNESS VS. CLOSEDNESS T e a c h e r S u b t e s t s P r i n c i p a 1 S u b te st s C lim a te s D ise n g a g e m ent H in d ran ce E s p r it In tim a c y A lo o fn e ss P r o d u c tio n Em phasis T h ru s t C o n s id e r a t i o n Open 43b 43 63 50 42 43 61 55 Autonomous 40 41 55 62 61 39 53 50 1 II r H 1 C o n tr o lle d 38 57 54 40 55 63 51 45 F a m ilia r 60 42 50 58 44 37 52 59 P a te r n a l 65 46 45 46 38 55 51 55 C lo sed 62 53 38 54 55 54 41 44 N o te: R e p r in te d fro m H a lp in and C r o f t , The O r g a n iz a tio n a l C lim a te o f S c h o o ls . 1962, p . 79 ^ h e s e p r o f i l e s a r e b a se d s o le l y on th o s e s c h o o ls i n th e sam ple w hich s e c u re d a h ig h lo a d in g on o n ly one p r o f i l e - f a c t o r . bThe num bers r e p r e s e n t d o u b le - s ta n d a r d iz e d s c o re s (b o th n o rm a tiv e ly and i p s a t i v e l y ) , n> w ith a mean o f 50 and a s ta n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o f 10. vo] 30 Many s t u d i e s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c lim a te a tte m p t t o f in d c o r r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n some o t h e r m easure and t h e o v e r a l l c lim a te s c o r e . H ow ever, a s Brown and House (1 9 6 7 ) i n d i c a t e d , th e o v e r a l l c lim a te s c o re does n o t p r e d i c t a n y th in g b e t t e r th a n p r e d i c t i o n s b a s e d on in d i v i d u a l s u b t e s t s c o r e s . T h e r e f o r e , t h e tr e n d h a s b e e n to u s e a s u b t e s t s c o r e , commonly E s p r i t (w h ich h a s th e m ost d i r e c t l y l i n e a r open to c lo s e d p a t t e r n ) , a s a b a s i s o f c o r r e l a t i o n w ith some o th e r m e a su re . The com pared v a r i a b l e i s v e ry o f te n some m easu re o f p r i n c i p a l p e r s o n a l i t y (A n d erso n , 1964; Todd & P h i l l i p s , 1969; S h ea, 1 9 7 0 ). T h e re h a s b e e n no a tte m p t to r e l a t e OCDQ s c o re s o f a s p e c i f i c o r g a n i z a t i o n to in f o r m a tio n d e r iv e d from i n t e r a c t i o n - s y s t e m a n a l y s i s o f th e same o r g a n i z a t i o n . S m all Group R e se a rc h A n a ly s is o f b e h a v io r o f s m a ll g ro u p s i s b e lie v e d by many t o r e v e a l a g r e a t d e a l a b o u t b e h a v io r i n g e n e r a l and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b e h a v io r i n p a r t i c u l a r . H a re , B o r g a tta , and I B a le s (1955) s a y : " S m a ll g ro u p r e s e a r c h i s m ore th a n th e s tu d y o f one c o n c r e te 'c o m p a rtm e n t' o f s o c i a l phenom ena among many o t h e r s . I t i s th e s tu d y o f th e g e n e r ic s o c i a l p r o c e s s on t h e m ic ro s c o p ic l e v e l [p . v i ] . " The id e a s d e r iv e d from r e s e a r c h i n th e b e h a v io r o f s m a ll g ro u p s a r e o f v i t a l im p o rta n c e t o th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e o r i e s o f o r g a n iz a t i o n a l b e h a v io r (K ru p p , 1 9 6 1 ; H a re , 1 9 6 2 ). Homans (1 9 5 0 , 31 p . 3) s a y s t h a t by s tu d y in g s o c i a l phenom ena i n a s m a ll g ro u p , th e i n v e s t i g a t o r s ta n d s some c h a n c e t o " g e t a l l th e way a ro u n d " s y n t h e s i s o f a m icrocosm . Homans, i n The Human | G roup (1 9 5 0 ), p r e s e n te d a fram ew ork f o r s m a ll g ro u p [ i a n a l y s i s . H om an's t h e o r i e s , a s a re many o t h e r t h e o r i e s o f g ro u p b e h a v io r , a r e b a s e d on a c o n c e p t o f t h e c o o p e r a tiv e | I g ro u p (K ru p p , 1 9 6 1 ). j The m e th o d o lo g ic a l r a t i o n a l e f o r a n a l y s i s o f g ro u p | b e h a v io r i s u s u a l l y a t o m i s t i c . In o t h e r w o rd s , r e s e a r c h • i e f f o r t s commonly b r e a k down th e b e h a v io r o f t h e g ro u p j a c c o rd in g to th e a c t i v i t i e s o f i n d i v i d u a l a c t o r s , o f te n w ith t h e i n t e n t o f d e r i v in g p r i n c i p l e s o f i n d i v i d u a l b e h a v i o r . i An a l t e r n a t i v e l o g i c , w hich i s m ore s o c i o l o g i c a l , t r e a t s th e g ro u p a s a s in g l e u n i t , a s i n g l e o rg a n ism . I G roup b e h a v io r r e s e a r c h c a n be l o g i c a l l y r e l a t e d to L ew in1s f i e l d t h e o r y , w hich e m p h a siz e s b o u n d a r ie s , s p a c e s , r e l a t i o n s h ip s among g ro u p m em bers, and r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ith th e en v iro n m e n t (H a re , 1 962; H are e t a l . , 1955; K ru p p , 1961; McDavid & H a r a r i , 1 9 6 8 ). 32 I n t e r a c t i o n P ro c e s s A n a ly s is j In s m a ll g ro u p r e s e a r c h , i n t e r a c t i o n among members sis a com m only-used v a r i a b l e o f s tu d y . I n t e r a c t i o n p ro c e s s a n a l y s i s r e f e r s t o a m ethod o f r e s e a r c h on s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n ; t h e m ethod f o c u s s e s on i n t e r p e r s o n a l p r o c e s s e s i n I g ro u p dynam ics ( B a le s , 1 950; H a re , 1 9 6 2 ). " I n t e r a c t i o n " r e f e r s t o i n t e r p e r s o n a l c o n m u n ic a tiv e a c t s su ch a s w o rd s, sy m b o ls, and g e s tu r e s w h ich p e o p le u s e t o re sp o n d to e a c h o th e r (H a re , 1962, p . 6 3 ). The d im e n sio n s o f s i l e n t la n g u a g e and n o n v e rb a l la n g u a g e , a s d e s c r ib e d by H a ll (1 9 5 9 ), a r e d i f f i c u l t to i n t e r p r e t and q u a n t i f y . On th e o th e r h a n d , v e r b a l b e h a v io r s c a n b e m ore e a s i l y d is c e r n e d and c a n be r e a d i l y and in e x p e n s iv e ly r e c o rd e d i n t o t a l i t y f o r l a t e r a n a l y s i s . T h e r e f o r e , m ost sy ste m s o f i n t e r a c t i o n a n a l y s i s d e a l p r i n c i p a l l y w ith v e r b a l a c t s . E very b e h a v io r a l a c t c a r r i e s a t l e a s t two k in d s o f in f o r m a tio n . F i r s t , a c c o rd in g t o H are (1 9 6 2 , p . 6 3 ) , an a c t h a s im p lic a tio n s f o r t h e t a s k to b e a c c o m p lish e d by th e ] g ro u p o r i n d i v i d u a l , and s e c o n d , a c c o rd in g t o B a le s (1 9 5 0 ), a b e h a v io r a l a c t h a s im p l i c a t i o n s f o r th e s o c ia l- e m o tio n a l n eed s o f th e g ro u p and i n d i v i d u a l . Use o f th e in fo r m a tio n in c o r p o r a te d i n human i n t e r a c t i o n s r e q u i r e s t h a t co m m u n icativ e a c t s b e c a te g o r iz e d o r a n a ly z e d a c c o rd in g to t h e i r m e a n in g s . The num ber o f c a t e g o r i e s i n t o w h ich a c t s c a n be c l a s s i f i e d d ep en d s on th e 33 t h e o r e t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n o f th e r e s e a r c h e r and on th e r e q u ire m e n ts im posed by th e r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s . A commonly c i t e d m ethod o f s m a ll g ro u p i n t e r a c t i o n ja n a ly s is i s B a le s ' I n t e r a c t i o n P ro c e s s A n a ly s is (IPA ) ( B a le s , 1950; H are e t a l . , 1965; K rupp, 1961; H a re , 1962; i jM ille r , 1964; Amidon & H ough, 1967; McDavid & H a r a r i , 1 9 6 8 ). I The m ethod i s in te n d e d f o r u s e i n a n a l y s i s o f s m a ll g ro u p a c t i v i t i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y th e a c t i v i t i e s o f p ro b le m - s o lv in g g r o u p s . ! IPA i s b a se d on a th e o r y o f i n t e r a c t i o n w h ich {im plies t h a t a l l a c t i v i t i e s a p p e a rin g i n a g ro u p c a n be 11. . . r e l a t e d to an o v e r a rc h in g id e a o f a p ro b le m - s o lv in g Isequence [ B a le s , 19 5 0 , p . 1 3 ] ." The p ro b le m -s o lv in g p ro c e s s h a s t h r e e d im e n s io n s : c o g n i t i v e o r i e n t a t i o n , a f f e c t i v e o r i e n t a t i o n , and c o n a tiv e o r i e n t a t i o n ( B a le s , 1 9 5 0 ). The IPA th e o r y o f i n t e r a c t i o n r e s t s on th e a s su m p tio n t h a t a p ro b le m -s o lv in g s m a ll g ro u p i s s u b je c t t o th e in f lu e n c e s o f ian in h e r e n t c o n f l i c t i n th e dilem m a c a u s e d by th e s im u l- I I ta n e o u s d e s i r e s o f th e i n d i v i d u a l t o g e t w ork done and to jhave p le a s a n t s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s . C o n f l i c t r e s o l u t i o n i n th e c o n te x t o f c o n tin u e d g ro u p l i f e c a n o n ly be a c h ie v e d when members i n t e r a c t w ith one a n o th e r a lo n g th e two d im e n sio n s o f d e s i r e f o r acco m p lish m en t and d e s i r e f o r a f f e c t i o n . B a le s ' IPA u s e s tw e lv e c a t e g o r i e s f o r c l a s s i f y i n g a l l b e h a v io r s w h ich o c c u r i n a s m a ll g ro u p . The c a t e g o r i e s a r e shown in T a b le 2 . 34 TABLE 2 BALES' CATEGORIES OF SMALL GROUP INTERACTION G e n e ra l A reas C a te g o r ie s o f I n t e r a c t i o n S o c ia l-E m o tio n a l A r e a - - P o s itiv e T ask A r e a s - - N e u tr a l S o c ia l-E m o tio n a l A re a s --N e g a tiv e Shows s o l i d a r i t y , r a i s e s o t h e r s ' s t a t u s , g iv e s h e l p , re w a rd s o t h e r s . Shows t e n s i o n r e l e a s e , jo k e s , la u g h s , shows s a t i s f a c t i o n . A g re e s, shows p a s s iv e a c c e p ta n c e , u n d e r s ta n d s , c o n c u r s , c o m p lie s . G iv es s u g g e s tio n s , d i r e c t i o n , im p ly in g autonom y f o r o t h e r . G iv es o p in io n , e v a l u a t i o n , a n a l y s i s , e x p r e s s e s f e e l i n g , w is h . G iv es o r i e n t a t i o n , in f o r m a tio n , r e p e a t s , c l a r i f i e s , c o n firm s . Asks f o r o r i e n t a t i o n , in fo rm a t i o n , r e p e t i t i o n , c o n f ir m a tio n . Asks f o r o p in io n , e v a l u a t i o n , a n a l y s i s , e x p r e s s io n o f f e e l i n g . Asks f o r s u g g e s tio n , d i r e c t i o n , p o s s ib le w ays o f a c t i o n . D is a g r e e s , shows p a s s iv e r e j e c t i o n , f o r m a l i t y , w ith h o ld s h e l p . Shows t e n s i o n , a s k s f o r h e lp , w ith d ra w s fro m f i e l d . Shows a n ta g o n is m , d e f l a t e s o t h e r s ' s t a t u s , d e fe n d s o r a s s e r t s s e l f . N o te: A f te r B a le s , 1950. 35 B a le s ' tw e lv e c a t e g o r i e s may b e m ore sim p ly d iv id e d i n t o th e t h r e e a r e a s o f t a s k a c t s ( C a te g o r ie s 4 - 9 ) , p o s i t i v e s o c ia l- e m o tio n a l a c t s ( C a te g o r ie s 1 - 3 ) , and n e g a tiv e s o c i a l - e m o tio n a l a c t s ( C a te g o r ie s 1 0 -1 2 ) (s e e T a b le 2 ) . The t a s k a c t s a r e f u r t h e r d iv id e d i n t o t e l l i n g a c t s ( C a te g o r ie s 4 -6 ) and a s k in g a c t s ( C a te g o r ie s 7 -9 ) ( B a le s , 1 9 5 0 ). As w ith m ost schem es f o r c l a s s i f y i n g b e h a v io r , B a le s ' IPA c a t e g o r i e s a r e m u tu a lly e x c l u s iv e . H are (1 9 6 2 , p . 65) s a y s t h a t t h e ag reem en t and d is a g re e m e n t a c t s (C a te g o ry 3 and C a te g o ry 10) a p p e a r t o c a r r y m eanings o f b o th t a s k a c t s and s o c ia l- e m o tio n a l a c t s , and a c t s show ing t e n s i o n and t e n s i o n r e l e a s e a p p e a r t o b e r e l a t e d more to p e r s o n a l n e e d s th a n to i n t e r p e r s o n a l o r g ro u p n e e d s . B a le s ' th e o r y o f i n t e r a c t i o n p o s t u l a t e s an o r d e r o f e v e n ts i n th e l i f e o f a g ro u p ; B a le s f u r t h e r sa y s t h a t th e IPA s y ste m o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n fo llo w s t h a t o r d e r ( B a le s , 1 9 5 0 ). The c a t e g o r i e s a r e a rra n g e d so t h a t th e g ro u p l i f e p ro c e e d s fro m th e c e n t e r o u t: fro m a s k a c t s t o t e l l a c t s , jth en to n e g a tiv e s o c i a l a c t s , and f i n a l l y to p o s i t i v e s o c i a l a c t s . Members o f th e g ro u p i n i t i a t e g ro u p i n t e r a c t i o n s by a s k in g w hat th e p ro b le m i s and why th e g ro u p s h o u ld be c o n c e rn e d w ith i t . As th e i n t e r a c t i o n p r o g r e s s e s , th e g ro u p an sw ers some o f i t s q u e s tio n s and th e n b e g in s w h at B a le s c a l l s a r e p a i r c y c le o f n e g a tiv e s o c ia l- e m o tio n a l a c t s and p o s i t i v e s o c ia l- e m o tio n a l a c t s u n t i l g ro u p n e e d s f o r s o c i a l 36 r e a s s u r a n c e a r e s a t i s f i e d . When th e g ro u p h a s a lla y e d i t s s o c i a l n e e d s , i t p ro c e e d s a g a in t o t a s k c o n c e rn s ( B a le s , 1 9 5 0 ). The seq u en c e o f e v e n ts c a n b e l a i d o u t i n a g e n e r a l i z e d m odel o f g ro u p p ro b le m -s o lv in g b e h a v io r ( B a le s , 19 5 0 , p . 56) ( s e e F ig u re 1 ) . A c tu a l a n a l y s i s o f th e i n t e r a c t i o n s o f a g ro u p i s p erfo rm ed by c l a s s i f y i n g " u n i t s o f b e h a v io r " ( a c t s ) i n t o o n e o f th e tw e lv e i n t e r a c t i o n c a t e g o r i e s . A " u n i t o f b e h a v io r " i s d e f in e d as " a b i t o f b e h a v io r ( u s u a lly v e r b a l ) w h ic h c a n p ro v id e enough o f a s tim u lu s to e l i c i t a m e a n in g fu l r e s p o n s e fro m a n o th e r p e rs o n [H a re , 1962, p . 6 4 ] ." Compound a c t s a r e b ro k e n i n t o th e s m a lle s t u n i t s o f b e h a v io r w hich m eet th e c r i t e r i o n o f m e a n in g fu l s t i m u l i ( B a le s , 1 9 5 0 ). A cco rd in g t o B a le s (1 9 5 0 ), e a c h a c t h a s t h r e e co m p o n en ts: c a te g o r y , a c t o r and r e c e i v e r , and tim e o f a c t i o n . Each com ponent i s e n te r e d on th e s c o r in g fo rm . F o r ex am p le, a code f o r a c t o r and r e c e i v e r f o r ea c h a c t i s s c o re d i n th e a p p r o p r ia te c a te g o r y row and i n a tim e co lu m n . Time i s q u a n t i f i e d b y e n t r y o f a c t o r - r e c e i v e r code d a ta a t th e end o f p re d e te rm in e d tim e i n t e r v a l s . C a te g o r iz a tio n d e c i s io n s a re made o n th e b a s i s o f o b s e r v e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e m eaning o f a n a c t . The im p u ta tio n o f m eaning i s i n te rm s o f th e presum ed p o in t o f view o f th e p r o b a b le in te n d e d r e c e i v e r . T h e r e f o r e , th e o b s e rv e r m ust c o n s t a n t l y ch an g e h i s o b s e r v e r p o in t- o f - v ie w t o t h a t o f th e r e c e i v e r o f th e a c t . " A ll c a t e g o r i e s a r e 37 FIGURE 1 PARADIGM OF INTERACTION PHASES IN PROBLEM-SOLVING SMALL GROUPS M ed ial a c t s : B a le s ' c a t e g o r i e s I n i t i a l a c t s B a le s ' c a t e g o r i e s F in a l a c t s : B a le s ' c a t e g o r i e s G e n e ra l movement o f g ro u p to w ard t a s k acco m p lish m en t F u tu re 38 d e s c r ib e d i n te rm s w h ich assum e th e p o in t o f v ie w o f th e g ro u p member to w a rd whom th e a c t i o n i s d i r e c t e d [ B a le s , 19 5 0 , p . 3 9 ] ." I n c r i t i c i s m o f th e IPA m eth o d , M ille r (1 9 6 4 , p . 135) s a y s , "The c h i e f d is a d v a n ta g e i s t h a t t r a i n i n g o f o b s e r v e r s r e q u i r e s lo n g p r a c t i c e . F re q u e n t r e t r a i n i n g i s n e c e s s a r y ." B a le s s a y s t h a t th e u s e o f IPA " . . . r e q u i r e s lo n g p r a c t i c e and f r e q u e n t r e t r a i n i n g t o p e rfo rm c o n s i s t e n t l y [ B a le s , 1950, p . 8 5 ] ." S im u la tio n Games and I n t e r a c t i o n E x e rc is e s The l i t e r a t u r e on s im u la tio n games i s v a s t and co m p lex . B ib lio g r a p h ie s su ch a s t h a t p re p a re d b y W estern B e h a v io ra l S c ie n c e s I n s t i t u t e (W erner & W e rn er, 1968) and Holmen (1969) l i s t s e v e r a l th o u sa n d r e f e r e n c e s p e r t i n e n t t o s im u la tio n and gam ing. B ased on a re v ie w o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e , th e fo llo w in g p a ra g ra p h s p r e s e n t a b r i e f b u t g e n e r a l h i s t o r y lof s im u la tio n gam es le a d in g u p t o d ev elo p m en t o f th e i n t e r a c t i o n e x e r c i s e s w hich a r e i n t e g r a l to th e p r e s e n t s tu d y . The o r i g i n o f i n t e l l e c t u a l games o f s k i l l w ith m ore o r l e s s s im u la te d e n v iro n m e n ts i s o b s c u re . M odern s im u la t i o n gam es w h ich p i t p la y e r s a g a i n s t e a ch o th e r i n v a r io u s c o m b in a tio n s o f p o w er, c h a n c e , and in f lu e n c e p ro b a b ly a r e m ost c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o th e w ar gam es w h ich r o s e o u t o f games s u c h a s c h e s s . The h i s t o r y o f w ar games r u n s fro m 39 th e S e v e n te e n th C e n tu ry P r u s s ia n G e n e ra l S t a f f " k i n g 's game" o f " m i l i t a r y c h e s s " f o r t h e t r a i n i n g o f c a d e t s , t o m u l t i n a tio n t o t a l - d e s t r u c t i o n games s im u la te d e n t i r e l y w i t h i n a co m p u ter (C a r ls o n , 1969; Cohen & Rhenman, 1 9 6 1 ). The e a r l i e s t known w ar games r e q u ir e d a p la y in g b o a rd and p la y in g p ie c e s o f f ix e d v a lu e . As in m odern c h e s s , th e w ays i n w hich moves c o u ld be made w ere p r e s c r i b e d , and th e outcom e o f th e game was d e te rm in e d by " w in - r u le s " e s t a b l i s h e d i n a d v a n c e . By th e m id d le o f th e N in e te e n th C e n tu ry , w ar games h ad a c q u ir e d m ost o f th e i J c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f p r e s e n t- d a y w ar gam es. The games in v o lv e d s c a l e m odels o f men an d e q u ip m e n t, and p la y to o k p la c e on a r e a l i s t i c map. R e a lism w as f u r t h e r en h an ced by th e a d d i t i o n o f tim e f a c t o r s , s im u la tio n o f a c t i v i t i e s , and i n c l u s i o n o f e n v iro n m e n ta l i n f l u e n c e s . W inning and lo s in g w ere d e c id e d by ju d g e s and r e f e r e e s who made dynam ic d e c is io n s a b o u t c o n f l i c t s and w in n e rs (C a rls o n , 1 9 6 9 ). War games have s e rv e d two b a s ic f u n c t io n s : a n a l y s i s i jand t r a i n i n g . A g r e a t e r u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e le a r n in g p r o c e s s in v o lv e d i n p la y in g gam es f o r t r a i n i n g came a b o u t th ro u g h th e u s e o f s im u la tio n f o r a n a l y s is o f human i n t e r a c t i o n sy stem s in com plex o r g a n i z a t i o n s . Chapman, K ennedy, N e w e ll, and B ie l (1 9 5 9 , 1962) and P o r te r (1964) r e p o r t on s e v e r a l l a r g e - s c a l e la b o r a to r y s im u la tio n s o f a com plex m an-m achine s y ste m , an a i r - d e f e n s e r a d a r d i r e c t i o n c e n t e r . S tu d ie s o f su ch u s e o f s im u la tio n 40 w ere c o n d u c te d a t RAND C o r p o r a tio n i n th e m id 1 9 5 0 's . The p rim a ry r e s e a r c h g o a l w as to d is c o v e r how an o r g a n i z a t i o n a d a p ts (K ennedy e t a l . , 1 9 6 2 ). F u r th e r , th e r e s e a r c h e r s a tte m p te d to d is c o v e r i f i t w ere r e a s o n a b le t o s tu d y th e in f o r m a tio n p r o c e s s in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a la r g e o r g a n iz a t i o n as th o u g h th e o r g a n i z a t i o n w ere a s in g l e o rg a n ism ( P o r t e r , 1 9 6 4 ). The r e s e a r c h q u e s tio n s w ere an sw ered a f f i r m a t i v e l y . F u rth e rm o re , a s id e from th e v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t ad v an ces made i n th e a r t and s c ie n c e o f s im u la tio n o f la r g e m an-m achine s y s te m s , th e r e s e a r c h e r s d is c o v e re d th e o v e r w helm ing im p act on i n d i v i d u a l and g ro u p le a r n in g o f w hat W iener (1954) c a l l s " f e e d b a c k ." The c o n c e p t o f l e a r n i n g th ro u g h fe e d b a c k p e rv a d e s th e m eth o d o lo g y o f a l l l e a r n i n g games from th e le n g th y and v e ry com plex w o rld -w id e a i r - d e f e n s e sy stem s t r a i n i n g e x e r c i s e s c o n d u c te d by th e A ir D efen se Command, th ro u g h m anagem ent gam es, to th e v e r y s h o r t i n t e r a c t i o n e x e r c i s e s d e v e lo p e d and c o n d u c te d a t th e M anagement L a b o ra to r y , G rad u a te S chool o f B u s in e s s A d m in is tr a tio n , U n iv e r s ity o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a (H olm en, 1 9 6 8 ). I n a d d i t i o n to u s e o f games f o r a n a l y s i s , a seco n d m a jo r o u tg ro w th o f w ar gam es was th e em ergence o f m anagem ent and p o l i t i c a l s im u la tio n games f o r t r a i n i n g . A c c o rd in g to Cohen and Rhenman ( 1 9 6 1 ), th e A m erican M anagement A s s o c ia t i o n (AMA) d e v e lo p e d th e f i r s t w id e ly known m anagem ent game i n 1956. W ith in a few y e a r s , games s i m i l a r to th e A M A game becam e v e r y p o p u la r . Many o r g a n i z a t i o n s d e v e lo p e d games f o r t h e i r own p u rp o s e s and f o r th e p u rp o se s o f o t h e r s (Cohen & Rhenman, 1 9 6 1 ). S h o r tly a f t e r th e A M A game was d e v e lo p e d , G uetzkow (1959) r e p o r te d w ork on a p o l i t i c a l gam e. E xpan d in g th e c o n c e p t o f th e game beyond a t r a i n i n g e x e r c i s e , Guetzkow s t a t e d t h a t th e p o l i t i c a l game c o u ld be th o u g h t o f as a s te p i n th e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f s o c i a l s y s te m s . T h ese m anagem ent and p o l i t i c a l games had th e same c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s th e w ar gam es. Abt (1 9 6 4 ) d e f in e s a game as any c o n t e s t p la y e d a c c o rd in g to r u l e s and d e c id e d by s k i l l , s t r e n g t h , o r a p p a re n t lu c k . A bt a l s o d e s c r ib e s a s im u la tio n a s an o p e r a tin g i m i t a t i o n o f a r e a l p r o c e s s . G uetzkow (1959) r e f i n e s th e d e f i n i t i o n o f s im u la tio n by s a y in g t h a t a s im u la tio n i s an o p e r a tin g r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f th e c e n t r a l f e a t u r e s o f r e a l i t y . I n S im u la tio n Games i n L e a rn in g . Boocock and S c h ild (1 9 6 8 ) u s e th e te rm " s im u la tio n game" t o d e s c r ib e le a r n in g games w ith s im u la te d e n v iro n m e n ts . The a u th o r s em p h asiz e I t h a t th e d e s ig n o f th e games r e p o r te d s a t i s f i e s th e r e q u i r e m ent f o r r e p l i c a t i o n o f e s s e n t i a l e le m e n ts o f th e e n v ir o n m e n t, in c lu d in g th e o p e r a tin g i m i t a t i o n o f a r e a l p r o c e s s , and t h a t p la y o f t h e s im u la tio n games r e p o r te d s a t i s f i e s th e n o tio n o f a c o n t e s t . Colem an (1 9 6 8 ), u s in g th e te rm s im u la tio n game i n th e c o n te x t o f s o c i a l p r o c e s s , d e s c r ib e s a " s o c i a l s im u la t i o n g am e." He c la im s t h a t th e s t r u c t u r e and f u n c tio n in g 42 o f s o c i a l s im u la tio n games m ir r o r c e r t a i n s o c i a l p r o c e s s e s , and t h a t th e gam es, w hich a r e a b s t r a c t i o n s o f p r o c e s s e s , make e x p l i c i t many p r o c e s s e s w h ich a re i m p l i c i t i n d a y - to - day l i v i n g . A b s tr a c tio n and e x p l i c a t i o n o f s p e c i f i c p r o c e s s e s i s a m a jo r p a r t o f th e r a t i o n a l e u s e d i n d e v e lo p in g s h o r t s im u la tio n games c a l l e d " i n t e r a c t i o n e x e r c i s e s ." I n t e r a c t i o n e x e r c i s e s a r e d e s c r ib e d a s s im p le s m a ll g ro u p ta s k s u s e d t o prom ote u n d e r s ta n d in g o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p ro b lem s (H olm en, 1968; H olm en, N ortm an & S a n d e rs , 1969a; H olm en, S a n d e rs , N ortm an & F r a n k li n , 1 9 6 9 b ). The d e v e lo p e rs c la im t h a t m ost le a r n in g ta k e s p la c e i n t h r e e w a y s: a s a r e s u l t o f ( a ) fe e d b a c k t o th e p a r t i c i p a n t s d u rin g th e e x e r c i s e , (b ) fe e d b a c k on i n d i v i d u a l t a s k p e rfo rm a n c e and p ro c e s s a c t i v i t i e s a f t e r th e e x e r c i s e , and (c ) g u id e d d is c u s s io n o f g ro u p a c t i v i t i e s d u r in g th e t a s k and p o s t - e x e r c i s e d i s c u s s io n . The m a jo r g o a l o f i n t e r a c t i o n e x e r c i s e s i s to e l i c i t o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b e h a v io r ; t h e r e f o r e , a c r i t i c a l d e s ig n e le m e n t i s f a i t h f u l s im u la tio n o f th e b a s ic n a tu r e o f th e sy ste m o f co m m u n icatio n and i n t e r a c t i o n p e r t i n e n t to th e o r g a n i z a t i o n ( s ) u n d e r s tu d y . I n t e r a c t i o n e x e r c is e t a s k s a r e s im p le a b s t r a c t i o n s o f p ro b le m s common to o r g a n iz a tio n s w h ich depend h e a v i l y on i n t e r a c t i o n s o f p e o p le t o a c c o m p lish g ro u p g o a l s . The f u n c tio n o f th e ta s k i s " t o s ti m u l a t e i n d i v i d u a l and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b e h a v io rs I 4 3 I !fro m w h ich l e a r n i n g ta k e s p la c e [H olm en, 1 9 6 8 ]." The t a s k s a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y u n s tr u c t u r e d t o p e rm it f r e e b e h a v io r by i n d i v i d u a l s and g ro u p s b u t s t r u c t u r e d enough so b e h a v io r s e l i c i t e d a r e r e l e v a n t t o l e a r n in g s d e s i r e d . W hile sim p le enough to be r e a d i l y u n d e rs to o d and le a r n e d by a l l p a r t i c i p a n t s , th e ta s k s a r e , a t th e same tim e , d i f f e r e n t enough from th e u s u a l w o r k -ta s k s o f p a r t i c i p a n t s t h a t few p e rs o n s h av e a r e a l a d v a n ta g e i n c o m p le tin g th e t a s k . The p ro b le m i n h e r e n t i n th e t a s k o r e l i c i t e d by th e t a s k f o c u s e s on th e human and sy ste m i n t e r a c t i o n s b etw een and among i n d i v i d u a l s and g ro u p s w o rk in g to a c c o m p lish a t a s k . I n w o rk in g to c o m p le te th e t a s k , u s u a l l y e ac h p a r t i c i p a n t p la y s h im s e lf r a t h e r th a n an a s s ig n e d r o l e . The t a s k s a r e a l l s u f f i c i e n t l y s h o r t so t h a t an e n t i r e e x e r c i s e , in c lu d in g th e p o s t - e x e r c i s e d i s c u s s io n , c a n u s u a l l y be c o m p le te d i n l e s s th a n two h o u r s . D u rin g ;p o s t - e x e r c i s e d i s c u s s i o n , no e x t e r n a l s ta n d a r d s r e g a r d in g good o r bad p e rfo rm a n c e a r e a p p lie d t o th e p e rfo rm a n c e o f a s p e c i f i c g ro u p (e x c e p t a s p a r t o f th e s ti m u l u s ) ; e a c h g ro u p e v a lu a te s i t s own p e rfo rm a n c e . L e a rn in g i s i n h e r e n t i n th e t a s k p r o c e s s e s and i s p e r t i n e n t o n ly t o th e i n t e r a c t i o n s in v o lv e d i n t a s k c o m p le tio n , n o t t o t a s k s k i l l s . I n t e r a c t i o n e x e r c i s e s a r e i n many w ays e q u iv a le n t to s im u la tio n gam es. T h e r e f o r e , th e e x e r c i s e s c a n be a n a ly z e d u s in g m eth o d s f o r a n a l y s i s o f s im u la tio n gam es. j Colem an (1 9 6 8 ) s u g g e s ts c a t e g o r i e s o f r u l e s f o r a n a l y s is o f s im u la tio n gam es. The f i r s t c a te g o r y o f r u l e s , j ! e n v iro n m e n ta l r e s p o n s e r u l e s , c o n c e rn s th e way i n w h ich t h e j , e n v iro n m e n t w ould re s p o n d i f i t w ere p r e s e n t a s p a r t o f th e i gam e. E n v iro n m e n ta l re s p o n s e r u l e s m odel th e p ro b a b le re s p o n s e o f t h a t p a r t o f th e en v iro n m e n t n o t in c o r p o r a te d i i n th e a c tio n s o f t h e p l a y e r s . I n a s o c i a l s im u la tio n gam e, e n v iro n m e n ta l re s p o n s e r u l e s r e f e r t o p e r s o n s , g r o u p s , o r o t h e r o r g a n iz a tio n s e x t e r n a l t o th e game i t s e l f . B ecause i n t e r a c t i o n e x e r c i s e s a r e m odeled on g e n e r ic r a t h e r th a n s p e c i f i c o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p ro b le m s , th e m a jo r e n v iro n m e n ta l re s p o n s e r u l e s f o r i n t e r a c t i o n e x e r c i s e s r e f e r n o t to I r e p l i c a t i o n s o f r e a l o r g a n iz a tio n s b u t r a t h e r to r e p l i c a t i o n s and a b s t r a c t i o n s o f th e p r o c e s s e s o f co m m u n icatio n i i |a n d i n t e r a c t i o n among th e i n d i v i d u a l s and g ro u p s o f v a r io u s | ty p e s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n s . i A cco rd in g t o C olem an, b e h a v io r c o n s t r a i n t s r e f e r I t o th e r o l e o b l i g a t i o n s fo u n d i n r e a l l i f e and s p e c if y r e q u ir e d and p r o h ib i t e d p la y e r a c t i o n s . B e h a v io r c o n s t r a i n t s r e p r e s e n t th e r o l e s p e c i f i c a t i o n f o r e a c h ty p e o f p l a y e r . P a r t i c i p a n t s i n i n t e r a c t i o n e x e r c i s e s u s u a ll y a r e n o t a s s ig n e d r o l e s a s s u c h , and a re b e h a v i o r a l l y c o n s tr a in e d o n ly t o p r o t e c t and en h an ce l e a r n i n g . N o n eth e l e s s , p la y e r s th e m s e lv e s o f te n im pose v e r y e l a b o r a t e r o le d e f i n i t i o n s and c o n s t r a i n t s on th e e x e r c i s e s . 45 C o le m a n 's g o a l and g o a l a c h ie v e m e n t r u l e s s p e c if y th e g o a ls o f th e game and th e c r i t e r i a f o r ju d g in g when th e g o a ls a r e re a c h e d . I n a s o c i a l s im u la tio n gam e, th e g o a ls j l m ust c o rre s p o n d ro u g h ly t o r e a l - l i f e g o a l s . R u les and ! i i n s t r u c t i o n s f o r p la y f o r i n t e r a c t i o n e x e r c i s e s s t a t e a j g o a l, som etim es a s u b g o a l, and g e n e r a l l y c r i t e r i a o f c o m p le tio n o f th e t a s k . F r e q u e n tly , p e rfo rm a n c e i s e n c o u r aged b y t e l l i n g t h e p la y e r s t h a t th e p la y w i l l be tim e d . I t i s seld o m n e c e s s a r y t o in tr o d u c e o t h e r m o tiv a tio n s i n t o th e gam e, b e c a u s e p la y e r s g e n e r a l l y b r in g t o th e game p e r s o n a l m o tiv a tio n sy stem s p ro b a b ly d e r iv e d from a s o c i a l m ilie u w h ich em p h asiz es c o m p e titio n . F i n a l l y , C o le m a n 's p r o c e d u r a l, m e d ia tio n a l, and p o lic e r u l e s p ro v id e in f o r m a tio n ab o u t t h e way to p la y th e game, p o l i c i e s and p ro c e d u re s o f p la y , and in fo r m a tio n ab o u t th e c o n se q u e n c e s t o a p la y e r o f b r e a k in g one o f th e r u l e s o f th e gam e. R u le s o f p la y f o r i n t e r a c t i o n e x e r c i s e s a r e g e n e r a l l y r e s t r i c t e d to d e s c r i p t i o n o f w h at a c tio n i s to be ta k e n w hen. I n o t h e r w o rd s , i n t e r a c t i o n e x e r c is e s a r e w hat Cohen and Rhenman (1 9 6 1 ) and o t h e r s c a l l " f r e e " gam es, t h a t i s , gam es i n w hich p r e s c r i b e d r u l e s f o r r o l e s and i n t e r a c t i o n s a r e m in im al and many c o n f l i c t d e c is io n s a re ad hoc and p ro tern d e c is io n s made by human r e f e r e e s . A n o th er m ethod by w h ich s im u la tio n games and i n t e r a c tio n e x e r c i s e s c a n b e a n a ly z e d e n t a i l s e x a m in a tio n o f th e c o o p e r a tio n - c o m p e titio r i d im e n sio n s o f t h e game m odel. 46 I n t e r a c t i o n e x e r c i s e s a r e p r i m a r i l y " c o o p e r a tiv e " gam es. N ash (1 9 5 3 ) d e f in e s a c o o p e r a tiv e game a s one i n w hich th e |p l a y e r s c a n com m unicate; f u r t h e r , N ash s a y s t h a t c o o p e ra t i v e p la y h a s two s e p a r a te s t r a t e g i e s , a " t h r e a t game" and a "dem and g am e." Holmen e t a l . (1 9 6 9 b ) r e f e r t o th e d is s o n a n c e t h a t o f te n o c c u rs b e tw e e n th e c o o p e r a tio n m odel o f co m m u n icatio n on w hich t h e i n t e r a c t i o n e x e r c i s e i s d e s ig n e d and th e c o m p e titio n m odel o f co m m u n icatio n b e h a v i o r t h a t th e p la y e r s commonly b r in g to th e gam e. F i n a l l y , t h e s h o r t s im u la tio n games c a l l e d i n t e r a c t i o n e x e r c i s e s a r e w h at Auman (1964) c a l l s "gam es o f p e r f e c t in f o r m a tio n , w h ic h we c a n s o lv e by w o rk in g o u r way back w ard from th e f i n a l move [p . 2 4 ] ." Summary The l i t e r a t u r e r e l a t e d to t h i s s tu d y i s h e a v ily b a s e d on th e c o n c e p t o f f i e l d th e o r y d e v e lo p e d by K urt L ew in. O r g a n iz a tio n a l c lim a te h a s b ee n v iew ed as an a n a lo g o f i n d i v i d u a l p e r s o n a l i t y , and h a s b een s tu d ie d e x te n s iv e ly by m eans o f th e O r g a n iz a tio n a l C lim a te D e s c r ip tio n Q ues- t i o n n a i r e . R e se a rc h i n th e b e h a v io r a l p r o c e s s e s o f s m a ll g ro u p s h a s b ro u g h t a b o u t t h e d ev elo p m en t and re fin e m e n t o f m eth o d s o f i n t e r a c t i o n p ro c e s s a n a l y s i s . I n t e r a c t i o n p r o c e s s a n a l y s is may p e rm it i n s i g h t s i n t o th e o n g o in g o r 47 o r g a n i z a t i o n a l f u n c tio n in g w h ich c o u ld be c a u s a l l y r e l a t e d t o o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c lim a te . S im u la tio n games h av e b e e n u s e d o c c a s io n a lly to a n a ly z e th e o rg a n is m ic b e h a v io r o f g ro u p s o f p e o p le i n o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s e t t i n g s . T h e re i s c o n s id e r a b le e v id e n c e and o p in io n t h a t s im u la tio n games c a n e l i c i t o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b e h a v io r s w h ich a p p e a r to be s i m i l a r t o r e a l- w o r ld o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b e h a v io r s . C o n tin u in g w ork i n s im u la tio n game m eth o d o lo g y h a s r e s u l t e d i n th e d ev elo p m en t o f v e ry s h o r t S g e n e ra l p u rp o se i n t e r a c t i o n e x e r c i s e s b a s e d on c o o p e r a tiv e ex c h a n g e m odels o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b e h a v io r . The re v ie w o f th e l i t e r a t u r e a tte m p te d to e f f e c t a s y n e rg y o f th e a l l i e d c o n c e p ts o f f i e l d th e o r y , o r g a n iz a t i o n a l b e h a v io r and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e , u s e o f i n t e r a c t i o n p ro c e s s a n a l y s i s f o r s tu d y o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b e h a v io r , and s im u la tio n f o r c o n t r o l l e d e l i c i t a t i o n o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b e h a v io r . CHAPTER I I I RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS A N D EXPERIMENTAL AND FIELD PROCEDURES The q u e s tio n s and h y p o th e s e s o f th e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h s tu d y n e c e s s i t a t e d g a th e r in g d a t a by m eans o f two j ty p e s o f r e s e a r c h in s tr u m e n ts . In fo r m a tio n r e g a r d in g ! o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c lim a te o f th e s c h o o ls u s e d in th e p r e s e n t s tu d y was o b ta in e d by m eans o f th e O r g a n iz a tio n a l C lim a te D e s c r ip tio n Q u e s tio n n a ir e (OCDQ). In fo r m a tio n r e g a r d in g j human i n t e r a c t i o n p r o c e s s e s o f th e same o r g a n iz a tio n s was j o b ta in e d th ro u g h o b s e r v a tio n o f v id e o ta p e r e c o r d in g s o f b e h a v io r e x h i b i t e d by s m a ll g ro u p s en g ag ed i n p la y o f s e v e r a l s h o r t s im u la tio n gam es. j T h is c h a p te r d e s c r ib e s th e r e s e a r c h in s tr u m e n ts , th e sam ple s tu d i e d , th e r e s e a r c h d e s ig n , and p ro c e d u re s u s e d to a d m in is te r in s tr u m e n ts to th e p a r t i c i p a n t s and to g a th e r j I th e raw d a t a . I 48 49 1 O r g a n iz a tio n a l C lim a te D e s c r ip tio n Q u e s tio n n a ir e The In s tru m e n t The OCDQ h a s b e e n d e s c r ib e d i n some d e t a i l i n j C h a p te r I I o f th e p r e s e n t r e p o r t . R e l i a b i l i t y and V a l i d i t y o f th e OCDQ j The v a l i d i t y o f th e OCDQ i s p r im a r i l y c o n s tr u c t and j fa c e v a l i d i t y s in c e t h e r e a r e few e s t a b l i s h e d c o r r e l a t i o n s j w ith o t h e r e m p ir ic a l m easu re s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e . H a lp in and C r o f t (1 9 6 2 ) d e s c r ib e a f a c t o r a n a l y s i s and v a rim a x r o t a t i o n a l s o l u t i o n f o r th e 64 ite m s o f th e q u e s - ! t i o n n a i r e w h ich r e s u l t e d i n a ssig n m e n t o f ite m s t o e i g h t s p e c i f i c s u b t e s t s . The s u b te s t s a r e presum ed to f u r n i s h r e l a t i v e l y d i s t i n c t m e a su re s o f d i f f e r e n t ty p e s o f s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n . i The OCDQ i s " a t e n t a t i v e [H a lp in & C r o f t , 1962, jp. 1 4 ]" in s tr u m e n t; o r i g i n a l v a l i d a t i o n was done on a i l f o r t u i t o u s sa m p le . H ow ever, r e s e a r c h e r s u s in g th e i n s t r u m ent h av e te n d e d to a g re e t h a t th e d a t a o b ta in e d from u s e ; o f th e OCDQ a r e g e n e r a l l y r e l i a b l e and v a l i d (Todd & i P h i l l i p s , 1 9 6 9 ). Numerous s tu d i e s i n w h ich th e OCDQ i s u se d t o m easu re o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c lim a te show c o n s id e r a b le ag reem en t and c o n s is te n c y i n s e l e c t i n g s c h o o ls w h ich a r e ! "o p en " and " c l o s e d ." (The p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t o r p a r t i c i p a te d i n a c o n c u r r e n t s tu d y o f s c h o o ls o f a n o th e r d i s t r i c t i n w h ich th e OCDQ was u s e d . The r e s u l t s o f OCDQ m e a su re s o f th e c lim a te o f s e v e r a l s c h o o ls w hich o b s e r v e r s g e n e r a l l y a g re e d w ere c lo s e d showed t h a t th e s c h o o ls h a d c lo s e d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e s . ) A f te r due c o n s id e r a t i o n o f th e p o s s i b l e h a z a r d s i n u s in g th e OCDQ, a d e c i s io n was made t o u se t h e in s tr u m e n t, s in c e w hat was n eed ed i n th e p r e s e n t s tu d y w as an e s t a b l i s h e d , ev en i f p o s s ib ly f a u l t e d , m easu re o f d i f f e r e n c e s i n i o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e . , j The Sam ple f o r th e OCDQ i The sam ple f o r a d m in is tr a tio n o f t h e O CD Q in c lu d e d th e e n t i r e te a c h e r p o p u la tio n and th e p r i n c i p a l s o f th e e ig h t e le m e n ta ry and two in te r m e d ia te s c h o o ls p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n th e s tu d y . The p a r t i c i p a t i n g s c h o o ls v o lu n te e r e d from a ! h ig h so cio e co n o m ic s c h o o l d i s t r i c t o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , j i The t o t a l d i s t r i c t i s co m p rise d o f 13 e le m e n ta ry s c h o o ls (g ra d e s K in d e r g a r te n th ro u g h f i f t h ) , 4 i n t e r m e d i a t e s c h o o ls (g ra d e s s i x t h th ro u g h e i g h t h ) , and 3 h ig h s c h o o ls . To o b t a i n th e p a r t i c i p a t i n g s c h o o l s , th e i n v e s t i g a to r p r e s e n te d th e d e s ig n and p la n f o r th e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h s tu d y t o t h e p r i n c i p a l s o f t e n e le m e n ta ry and f o u r in te r m e d ia te s c h o o ls . The p r i n c i p a l s , who w ere i n a t t e n d ance a t a r e g u l a r w ee k ly d i s t r i c t - a d m i n i s t r a t o r s ' m e e tin g , d id n o t commit i n d i v i d u a l s c h o o l u n i t s d u r in g th e m e e tin g . H ow ever, two d a y s l a t e r th e A s s i s ta n t S u p e r in te n d e n t s e n t th e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t o r th e names o f e i g h t e le m e n ta ry and 51 tw o in te r m e d ia te s c h o o ls w h ich had v o lu n te e r e d to p a r t i c i p a te in th e p r e s e n t s tu d y . W ith in e a c h s c h o o l u n i t , a l l te a c h e r s w ere in v i t e d i t o p a r t i c i p a t e . I n d iv id u a l s c h o o l p r i n c i p a l s r e p o r t e d no r e f u s a l s to p a r t i c i p a t e , so th e sam ple was a t t e n u a t e d o n ly , by p o t e n t i a l r e s p o n d e n ts who w ere a b s e n t from s c h o o l th e j i d ay th e q u e s ti o n n a i r e was a d m in is te r e d . R e s e a rc h D e sig n f o r th e OCDQ I I The c o l l e c t i o n o f OCDQ d a ta i n th e p r e s e n t s tu d y m ost c l o s e l y f i t s th e m odel o f " p r e - e x p e r im e n ta l" r e s e a r c h d e s ig n c a l l e d th e " o n e - s h o t c a s e s tu d y [C am pbell & S ta n le y , 1963, p . 1 7 6 ] ." The m ethod c o n s i s t s o f s tu d y in g (a ) g r o u p ( s ) " o n ly o n c e , su b se q u e n t to some a g e n t o r tr e a tm e n t I presum ed to c a u s e ch an g e [C am pbell & S ta n le y , 1963, | p . 1 7 6 ] ." I n th e p r e s e n t s tu d y , th e n o n m a n ip u la te d , in d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e f o r th e OCDQ i s t h e t o t a l i t y o f c lim a te p r o c e s s e s w h ich e x i s t e d i n th e o r g a n iz a tio n b e f o re t h e OCDQ was a d m in is te r e d . I i I t i s s u g g e s te d t h a t b e c a u se t h e m ethod y i e l d s in f o r m a tio n w h ich la c k s a c o n t r o l o r r e f e r e n c e p o i n t , r e s u l t s o f s tu d i e s u s in g th e m ethod may p r e s e n t an i l l u s o r y t " a p p e a ra n c e o f a b s o lu te know ledge [C am pbell & S ta n le y , 19 6 3 , p . 1 7 6 ] ." I n th e p r e s e n t s tu d y , su ch r e i f i c a t i o n i s some w h at m itig a te d by th e c o m p a riso n o f o n e -s h o t q u e s ti o n n a i r e d a t a w ith d a t a from a n o th e r in s tr u m e n t, th e s im u la tio n j [games • _____ ________ ______________ 52 F ie ld P ro c e d u re s f o r th e OCDQ Anonymous r e s p o n s e s t o Form IV o f t h e OCDQ w ere c o l l e c t e d o n m a c h in e -s c o ra b le re s p o n s e s h e e ts by an in - p e r s o n i n v e s t i g a t o r - a d m i n i s t r a t o r . The q u e s tio n n a ir e w as a d m in is te r e d t o th e f a c u l t y and p r i n c i p a l o f e a c h s c h o o l u n i t in an a f t e r - s c h o o l j f a c u l t y m e e tin g . F o llo w in g a b r i e f v e r b a l e x p la n a tio n o f th e n a tu r e and d e s ig n o f th e e n t i r e s tu d y , th e i n v e s t i g a t o r | p r e s e n te d th e OCDQ a s a m im eographed q u e s ti o n n a i r e w ith I accom panying w r i t t e n i n s t r u c t i o n s f o r s e l f - a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , j (See A ppendix A f o r w r i t t e n i n s t r u c t i o n s w h ic h w ere p a r t o f th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e . ) The q u e s ti o n n a i r e ite m s w ere ta k e n v e r b a tim fro m H a lp in and C r o f t (1962, p . 166 f f . ) . The s p e c i f i c fo rm and s t y l e o f th e q u e s ti o n n a i r e was p r e t e s t e d in a n o th e r s c h o o l d i s t r i c t b e f o r e u se i n t h e p r e s e n t s tu d y and w as a l s o u se d c o n c u r r e n tly i n a t h i r d s c h o o l d i s t r i c t . A ll q u e s tio n n a ir e s co m p le ted a t th e tim e o f adm in i s t r a t i o n w ere c o l l e c t e d fro m t h e r e s p o n d e n ts ; th e i n v e s t i g a t o r rem oved th e q u e s ti o n n a i r e s and re s p o n s e s h e e ts from th e s c h o o l a t th e end o f th e m e e tin g . So t h a t th e few a b s e n te e s c o u ld be in c lu d e d i n th e s tu d y , t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r j l e f t a t th e s c h o o l c o p ie s o f t h e q u e s ti o n n a i r e and re s p o n s e s h e e t s , w ith e n v e lo p e s i n w h ich th e r e s p o n s e s h e e ts c o u ld be s e a le d and m a ile d to t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r . j R e sp o n d e n ts w ere v e r b a l l y r e a s s u r e d o f th e anonym ityj o f t h e i r a n sw ers and w ere e n c o u ra g e d to an sw er a l l th e 53 q u e s tio n s a s t r u t h f u l l y a s p o s s i b l e . I d e n t i t y o f th e i n d i v i d u a l s c h o o ls was r e t a i n e d b y c o d in g th e co m p le te d a n sw e r s h e e t s . S h o rt S im u la tio n Games The In s tr u m e n ts J Two i n t e r a c t i o n e x e r c i s e s , S cram bled S q u ares and j T h re e -d im e n s io n a l P u z z le , w ere u s e d in t h e p r e s e n t s tu d y . j The t h i r d a c t i v i t y , L ead er l e s s G roup D is c u s s io n (LGD), i s ! n o t s t r i c t l y a s im u la tio n gam e; h o w ev er, LGD i s c o n s id e re d j a s im u la tio n game f o r th e p r e s e n t s tu d y s in c e i t s e rv e d a p u rp o s e s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f th e i n t e r a c t i o n e x e r c i s e s . S cram bled S q u a re s . S cram b led S q u a re s i s a n o n - j v e r b a l f iv e - p e r s o n co m m u n icatio n gam e. F u r t h e r , th e e x e r c i s e i s a n o n -z e ro sum game o f c o o p e r a tiv e ex ch a n g e . P la y e r s a r e s e a te d a t one end o f a 3 to 4 f o o t w ide r e c t a n g u l a r t a b l e , two p la y e r s on each s id e o f th e t a b l e and one a t th e end (s e e F ig u re 2 ) . The f i v e p la y e r s a re p ro v id e d w ith 15 p ie c e s o f s h e e t alum inum w hich c a n b e p u t | t o g e t h e r i n t o f i v e 6 -in c h s q u a r e s ; each p la y e r r e c e iv e s 3 j p u z z le p ie c e s b e f o r e s t a r t o f p l a y . j The ta s k i s f o r e a c h p la y e r to b u i l d a t h i s p la y in g i p la c e a s q u a re made o f 3 p ie c e s fro m th e 15 on th e t a b l e . D i s t r i b u t i o n o f th e p u z z le p ie c e s i s p re d e te rm in e d so t h a t no p la y e r c a n b u i l d a s q u a re w ith th e p ie c e s he o r i g i n a l l y [ r e c e i v e s ^ _ A ll th e p a rt& n e c e s s a r y to b u i l d th e f i v e _________ I FIGURE 2 PLAYER POSITIONS FOR SCRAMBLED SQUARES A ND THREE-DIMENSIONAL PUZZLE CED ( A l te r n a t i v e P o s i t i o n f o r "Knower i n T h re e -d im e n s io n a l P u z z le ) s q u a re s a r e p r o v id e d . The p la y i s tim e d , and an in n in g o f p la y i s c o m p le te when and o n ly when e a c h o f th e f i v e ! ! p la y e r s h a s b u i l t a s q u a re . T h e r e f o r e , th e game r e q u i r e s c o o p e r a tiv e ex ch an g e o f p u z z le p i e c e s . The co m m u n icatio n p ro b le m s o f c o o p e r a tiv e ex ch an g e a r e d i f f i c u l t ev en u n d e r n o rm al c ir c u m s ta n c e s . I n S cram bled S q u a re s , th e co m m u n icatio n p ro b le m s a r e e x a g g e r a te d b e c a u s e v e r b a l exch an g e o f in f o r m a tio n i s p r o h i b i t e d , and ex ch an g e o f p u z z le p ie c e s i s r e s t r i c t e d t o e i t h e r a " g iv e - o n ly " o r a " ta k e - o n ly " c o n d itio n . I n th e g iv e - o n ly c o n d i t i o n , p la y e r s a r e e n jo in e d fro m ta k in g p u z z le p ie c e s from o th e r p la y e r s o r from r e q u e s tin g in any way a p u z z le p ie c e ; a l l ex ch an g e i s a c c o m p lish e d by ea c h p la y e r g iv in g away from h i s s to c k o f p u z z le p i e c e s . I n th e ta k e - o n ly c o n d i t i o n , p la y e r s a r e p e r m itte d o n ly t o ta k e p ie c e s fro m a n o th e r p l a y e r ; p la y e r s a r e p r o h ib i t e d fro m g iv in g away any p ie c e . F u rth e rm o re , d u r in g p la y a p la y e r m u st h av e i n h i s p o s s e s s io n a minimum o f two p u z z le p ie c e s o r a maximum o f f o u r p u z z le p i e c e s . (S ee A ppendix B f o r r u l e s o f p l a y .) The p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t o r h a s c o n d u c te d S cram bled S q u a re s e x e r c i s e s a t th e M anagement L a b o ra to r y , G ra d u a te S ch o o l o f B u s in e s s A d m in is tr a tio n ; a t th e D ep artm en t o f E d u c a tio n a l A d m in is tr a tio n , S ch o o l o f E d u c a tio n , U n iv e r s ity o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a ; and a t num erous s e m in a rs i n o r g a n i z a t i o n a l d ev elo p m en t f o r b o th ad hoc and e x i s t i n g w ork g ro u p s . Time f o r c o m p le tio n o f a g iv e - o n ly c o n d itio n 56 ra n g e s fro m a minimum o f 3 m in u te s t o a maximum o f 12 m in u te s , w ith a few r a r e e x c e p tio n s e x c e e d in g t h e u p p e r l i m i t . The ta k e - o n ly c o n d itio n ra n g e s fro m 1 .5 m in u te s t o ' in e x c e s s o f 20 m in u te s . ( I t h a s b een th e p r a c t i c e o f ! e x e r c is e c o n d u c to rs t r a i n e d a t th e M anagement L a b o ra to ry t o end th e game a r b i t r a r i l y a f t e r a p p ro x im a te ly 20 m in u te s . j T h is p r a c t i c e i s b a s e d on th e a ssu m p tio n t h a t e x tre m e , f r u s t r a t i o n o f th e g ro u p o r i n d i v i d u a l s may c a u s e r e t r o a c t i v e i n h i b i t i o n o f le a r n in g s d u r in g th e game and j p r o a c tiv e i n h i b i t i o n s o f le a r n in g s d u r in g th e p o s t - e x e r c i s e d i s c u s s i o n . ) Holmen e t a l . (1969b) r e p o r t th e u s e o f S cram bled S q u ares i n r e s e a r c h on th e e f f e c t o f a l e r t i n g w ork g ro u p members to th e im p o rta n c e o f a w a re n e ss o f i n d i v i d u a l and g ro u p n e e d s d u rin g c o o p e r a tiv e ex ch an g e o f m a t e r i a l s . B oth g iv e - o n ly and t a k e - o n ly games w ere p la y e d w ith e q u iv a le n t form s o f th e p u z z le . I n 24 g r o u p s , th o s e " g ro u p s w hich w ere i n s t r u c t e d to be aw are o f how e a c h m em b er's w ork a f f e c t e d th e p e rfo rm a n c e o f th e o th e r s co m p le te d t h e i r two s e t s o f p u z z le s i n an a v e ra g e o f 9 .1 8 m in u te s , w h ile th o s e ! who d id n o t h av e su ch i n s t r u c t i o n s r e q u i r e d 1 2 .3 8 m in u te s . T hese d i f f e r e n c e s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .1 l e v e l [p . 1 0 ] ." T h re e -d im e n s io n a l P u z z le . T h re e -d im e n s io n a l P u z z le was o r i g i n a l l y d e s ig n e d t o t e s t h y p o th e s e s a b o u t com m unica t i o n p a t t e r n s i n o r g a n iz a tio n s and m anagem ent o f c r i s e s 57 i in v o lv in g in f o r m a tio n and t a s k c o m p le x ity (N ortm an, 1968; j Holmen e t a l . , 1 9 69a, 1 9 6 9 b ). The i n t e r a c t i o n p ro v id e s f o r . v a r y in g t a s k in f o r m a tio n i n tw o w ay s. D u rin g p la y , th e | q u a n t i t y o f in f o r m a tio n i n th e g ro u p i s a p p ro x im a te ly ! i d o u b le d ; and th e q u a l i t y o f th e in f o r m a tio n ex ch an g e processj i s a f f e c t e d by th e num ber o f " k n o w e rs," th o s e who h av e j a c c e s s t o th e in f o r m a tio n . ! To p la y th e gam e, p la y e r s a t a 3 t o 4 f o o t w ide r e c t a n g u l a r t a b l e a re p ro v id e d w ith T in k e r to y p a r t s and a c o l o r p h o to g ra p h o f th e c o m p le te d p u z z le . (S ee F ig u re 2 f o r s e a t i n g . ) The t a s k i s f o r th e g ro u p to b u ild an e x a c t th r e e - d im e n s io n a l r e p l i c a o f th e f i g u r e i n th e p h o to g ra p h , u s in g th e p a r t s p r o v id e d to them . P la y i s tim e d ; an in n in g o f p l a y , one p u z z le , i s f i n i s h e d when th e th r e e - d im e n s io n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n i s an e x a c t r e p l i c a t i o n o f th e p h o to g ra p h . The t o t a l game in c lu d e s f o u r p u z z le s . The co m m u n icatio n p ro b le m s o f r e a l o r g a n iz a tio n s a r e m odeled i n th e game by p ro v id in g t h r e e c o n d itio n s o f know ledge o f th e s o l u t i o n and tr a n s m is s io n o f in f o r m a tio n . The t h r e e c o n d itio n s a r e known as " f iv e - k n o w e r s ," " o n e - k n o w e r," and " tw o -k n o w e rs." i I n th e fiv e -k n o w e rs m ode, th e p h o to g ra p h and p a r t s a r e g iv e n t o a l l ( u s u a lly f i v e ) p l a y e r s . A ll p la y e r s h av e t h e o r e t i c a l l y e q u a l a c c e s s t o th e p a r t s and s o l u t i o n in f o r m a tio n . 58 I n a o n e-k n o w er m ode, o n ly th e know er i s p ro v id e d w ith th e p h o to g ra p h . The know er i s p la c e d a t l e a s t 3 f e e t i m ore th a n one a rm 's le n g th away fro m w here th e c o n s tr u c t i o n w i l l ta k e p l a c e . I f th e game i s p la y e d a t a r e c t a n g u l a r ! t a b l e , th e know er may be p la c e d a t one en d o f th e t a b l e and j t h e " d o e r s " a t th e o t h e r en d . The know er may n o t to u c h th e j p u z z le p i e c e s , and th e d o e rs may n o t se e th e p h o to g ra p h . I The know er may t e l l th e o th e r p l a y e r s how to c o n s tr u c t th e j th r e e - d im e n s io n a l r e p l i c a t i o n o f t h e p h o to g ra p h by p r o v id - i in g th e p la y e r s o n ly f u g i t i v e in f o r m a tio n i n t h e form o f w ords and g e s t u r e s . B ecause th e know er i s p la c e d a t some d i s t a n c e from th e c o n s t r u c t i o n , h i s g e s tu r e s u s u a ll y a p p e a r somewhat am biguous t o th e d o e r s . A sid e from th e above r e s t r i c t i o n s on th e know ers and d o e r s , t h e r e i s t o t a l f r e e dom o f in f o r m a tio n e x c h a n g e . (S ee A ppendix C f o r d e t a i l e d r u l e s o f p l a y .) I n a tw o -k n o w ers m ode, one o f th e know ers i s r e s t r i c t e d a s i n th e one-know er m ode, b u t th e seco n d know er i s p e r m itte d t o t r a v e l b etw een th e p u z z l e - s o l u t i o n p h o to g ra p h and th e r e s t r i c t e d know er and th e c o n s tr u c t i o n end o f j th e t a b l e . (An a n a lo g i s th e r o l e o f t h e shop fo re m a n .) j The seco n d know er i s p e r m itte d to se e t h e p h o to g ra p h and w ork on th e c o n s tr u c t i o n and i s p e r m itte d th e same freed o m o f v e r b a l and g e s t u r a l e x p r e s s io n a s i s t h e r e s t r i c t e d k n o w er. In fo r m a tio n tr a n s m is s io n b etw een th e k n o w e r(s) and d o e rs i s c o m p lic a te d by th e f a c t t h a t t h e k n o w e r(s) m ust 59 t r a n s l a t e t h e tw o -d im e n s io n a l d a ta i n th e p h o to g ra p h in to th r e e - d im e n s io n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . T h ere a r e fo u r p u z z le s in a t o t a l gam e. E m p iric a l o b s e r v a tio n h as d e m o n stra te d t h a t th e seco n d p u z z le (38 p a r t s ) i s s l i g h t l y more com plex th a n th e f i r s t (28 p a r t s ) ; th e t h i r d p u z z le (59 p a r t s ) i s a b o u t tw ic e a s com plex as th e f i r s t tw o , and th e f o u r t h (64 p a r t s ) i s a p p ro x im a te ly a s com plex a s th e t h i r d p u z z le (Holmen e t a l . , 1 9 6 9 b ). The p u z z le p a r t s a p p e a r t o be s im p le s t i c k s and j o i n e r s ; h o w ev er, T in k e rto y j u n c t i o n - b l o c k s (h u b s) p ro v id e te n p o s s i b l e p o s it i o n s i n w h ich th e do w els may be i n s e r t e d . T h e re a r e s i x d i f f e r e n t le n g th s o f d o w e ls ; e a c h le n g th i s a s s o c i a t e d w ith a s p e c i f i c c o l o r . E m p ir ic a l e v id e n c e i n d i c a t e s t h a t c o m p le x ity a p p e a rs to be a n o n lin e a r f u n c tio n o f th e num ber o f p a r t s i n th e p u z z le and th e n a tu r e o f th e j u n c t i o n s . Holmen (1 9 6 9 a, 1 9 6 9 b ), i n fo rm a l r e p o r t s o f r e s e a r c h on th e e f f e c t s t h a t s t r u c t u r e h a s on o r g a n iz a t i o n a l re s p o n s e t o in c r e a s e s i n t a s k c o m p le x ity , s a y s t h a t s t a t i s t i c a l t e s t s o f th e d i f f e r e n c e s i n p e rfo rm a n c e b etw een g ro u p s o f d i f f e r e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e showed " th e p e rfo rm a n c e o f g ro u p s w ith d e c r e a s in g o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e w as b e t t e r th a n g ro u p s w ith c o n s ta n t o r in c r e a s in g s t r u c t u r e (p < .0 5 ) [p . 6 ] . " 60 i L e a d e r le s s G roup D is c u s s io n . L e a d e r le s s G roup D is c u s s io n (LGD) i s p e rh a p s th e m ost f r e q u e n t l y c i t e d i i n t e r a c t i o n a c t i v i t y u s e d i n s m a ll g ro u p r e s e a r c h . I t i s a | common te c h n iq u e f o r a s s e s s m e n t o f i n d i v i d u a l p e rfo rm a n c e i n g ro u p s i t u a t i o n s (OSS A ssessm en t S t a f f , 1948; C a r t e r , H a y th o rn , & H o w ell, 1950; H olm en, K a t t e r , J o n e s , & | R ic h a rd s o n , 1956; B a s s , 1954; H a l l , 1 9 6 9 ). LGD i s a ls o j I u s e d f o r a n a l y s is o f a s m a ll g ro u p a s a b e h a v io r a l u n i t j (L ew in , 19 4 8 , 1951; B a le s , 1 9 5 0 ). I G e n e r a lly , LGD p la c e s a g ro u p o f p e o p le i n a s i t u a t i o n w h ich r e q u i r e s th e g ro u p t o d is c u s s a to p ic f o r some p e r io d o f tim e ; th e d i s c u s s io n may c o n c e rn th e s o l u t i o n o f a p ro b le m . The e x e r c i s e c o n d u c to r may r e q u e s t th e g ro u p to p ro d u c e a w r i t t e n summary o f i t s s o l u t i o n . I In th e p r e s e n t s tu d y , th e l e a d e r l e s s g ro u p c o n s is te d o f f i v e p l a y e r s . The t a s k was t o d e c id e w hat t o do a b o u t a p ro b le m te a c h e r a t th e s c h o o l u n d e r s tu d y . The t e a c h e r , who had b e e n a b s e n t f o r two w e e k s, h ad a lo n g h i s t o r y o f a b s e n c e s w h ich s u g g e s te d a lc o h o lis m . (S ee A ppendix D f o r th e LGD e x e r c i s e u se d i n t h i s s tu d y .) The p la y e r s w ere g iv e n 15 m in u te s i n w h ich t o d is c u s s th e p ro b le m and p ro d u ce a o n e -p a g e w r i t t e n s o l u t i o n i n th e fo rm o f reco m m en d atio n s f o r a c t i o n . As s u g g e s te d by B a le s (1 9 5 5 a) i n a s tu d y o f e q u ilib r iu m i n g r o u p s , o n ly a s u b s e t o f c o m p le te in fo r m a tio n a b o u t th e p ro b le m was p ro v id e d t o e a c h p la y e r . T h ereb y th e p ro b le m o f in f o r m a tio n ex ch an g e was i n t e n s i f i e d . S in c e 61 I e a c h p la y e r had some Ig n o ra n c e o f th e t a s k f a c t s and some know ledge o f th e f a c t s , th e p la y e r s h ad t o i n t e r a c t i n o r d e r to g a th e r th e f a c t s and s o lv e th e p ro b le m . No r o l e s I | w ere a s s ig n e d t o members o f th e g ro u p ; t h e r e w ere no I r e s t r i c t i o n s on c o m n u n ic a tio n . R e se a rc h u s in g LGD w ith p ro b le m -s o lv in g g ro u p s h a s j fo c u s e d p r im a r i l y on i n d i v i d u a l p e r s o n a l i t y f a c t o r s j ( S t o g d i l l , 1 9 4 8 ), em ergence and m a in te n a n c e o f l e a d e r s h i p ( C a r te r e t a l . , 1 9 5 0 ), and e f f e c t s o f g ro u p s iz e on g ro u p a c t i v i t y and g e n e r a l p a t t e r n s o f i n t e r a c t i o n ( B a le s , 1950, 1 9 5 5 b ). R e l i a b i l i t y and V a l i d i t y o f th e S h o rt S im u la tio n Games At th e com nencem ent o f th e s tu d y , v a l i d i t y and r e l i a b i l i t y in f o r m a tio n on t h e s h o r t s im u la tio n games u se d i n th e p r e s e n t s tu d y w ere u n a v a i l a b l e . As d is c u s s e d i n C h a p te r I , one o f th e m a jo r p u rp o se s o f th e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h s tu d y i s t o p ro v id e p r e lim in a r y e v id e n c e o f th e v a l i d i t y o f th e games u s e d i n th e p r e s e n t s tu d y . j The Sample f o r th e S h o rt S im u la tio n Games The r e p r e s e n t a t i v e sam ple o f f i v e p la y e r s from e a c h s c h o o l f o r each s e t o f t h r e e gam es was o b ta in e d i n t h r e e s t e p s . A p o o l o f s i x p o t e n t i a l p la y e r s was e s t a b l i s h e d a t I e a c h s c h o o l so t h a t i t w ould no t b e n e c e s s a r y t o c a n c e l th e 62 gam es b e c a u s e o f a b se n c e o f a p l a y e r . To e n s u re th e l e a s t am ount o f sam ple b i a s , a r a n d o m - s t a r t , c o n s t a n t - i n t e r v a l te c h n iq u e was u se d to draw th e p o o l o f s i x p o t e n t i a l p la y e r from a s t r a t i f i e d l i s t o f th e t o t a l te a c h e r p o p u la tio n o f a s c h o o l u n i t (B o rg , 1963, p . 1 7 0 ). To o b ta in th e sam ple p o o l o f s i x p o t e n t i a l p l a y e r s , th e f a c u l t y was l i s t e d a l p h a b e t i c a l l y w ith in g ra d e l e v e l ( f o r th e two in te r m e d ia te s c h o o ls , th e l i s t i n g was by s u b je c t- m a t t e r a r e a i n s t e a d o f g ra d e l e v e l ) . The num ber o f nam es on th e s t r a t i f i e d l i s t was th e n d iv id e d by s i x ( th e num ber d e s ir e d f o r th e p o o l o f p o t e n t i a l p l a y e r s ) , and th e ev en q u o t i e n t ( o r n e x t l a r g e r w hole num ber i f th e d i v i s i o n r e s u l t e d i n a re m a in d e r) was u se d a s th e c o n s ta n t i n t e r v a l o f s e l e c t i o n . (See A ppendix E f o r fo rm u la and exam ple o f sam p lin g m e th o d o lo g y .) The s t a r t i n g p o s i t i o n f o r th e c o n s ta n t i n t e r v a l was d e te rm in e d by r e f e r e n c e to a random num ber t a b l e . F o r ex am p le, i f a f a c u l t y l i s t c o n ta in e d 17 nam es, th e c o n s ta n t i n t e r v a l w ould b e 3 . A random s t a r t a t th e s i x t h name w ould r e s u l t i n th e s e l e c t i o n o f th e n i n t h , t w e l f t h , f i f t e e n t h , f i r s t , f o u r t h , and s e v e n th nam es. (S ee A ppendix E .) On th e m orning o f th e day o f p l a y , th e s c h o o l was c o n ta c te d by te le p h o n e t o d e te rm in e i f any o f th e members o f th e p o o l w ere a b s e n t. I f none w e re , s i x s l i p s o f p a p e r 63 w ith n u m e ra ls one th ro u g h s i x w ere p la c e d i n a box and one ’ s l i p was draw n b l i n d l y . The name c o rre s p o n d in g to t h a t p o s i t i o n on th e l i s t w as rem oved from th e p o o l o f p l a y e r s , ' j le a v in g f i v e f o r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n th e gam es. (A lth o u g h t h e r e w ere s e v e r a l c a s e s o f a s in g l e a b se n c e among members i o f th e p o o l, t h e r e w ere no c a s e s o f m ore th a n one a b s e n c e , j I f m ore th a n one a b se n c e had o c c u r r e d , th e gam es w ould h a v e j b e e n r e s c h e d u le d .) j T h u s, a t e a c h s e s s i o n o f t h r e e gam es a t a s c h o o l, | t h e r e w ere f i v e p la y e r s ran d o m ly s e le c t e d from th e t o t a l t e a c h e r p o p u la tio n o f th e s c h o o l. I n a d d i t i o n , th e p r i n c i p a l o f th e s c h o o l p a r t i c i p a t e d i n one o f th e gam es, r e p l a c i n g a p la y e r who was " s e l e c t e d o u t" ran d o m ly . The r e p la c e d p la y e r was s e l e c t e d o u t by d raw in g from a box one o f f i v e l e t t e r e d s l i p s o f p a p e r w h ich r e p r e s e n te d th e f i v e p la y e r p o s it i o n s a t th e t a b l e . The p la y e r r e tu r n e d to p la y a f t e r th e p r i n c i p a l had p a r t i c i p a t e d i n one gam e. I n summ ary, th e sam p le f o r th e s im u la tio n games c o n s t i t u t e d a s t r a t i f i e d random sam ple draw n from th e t o t a l f a c u l t y p o p u la tio n o f e a c h o f t e n v o l u n t e e r s c h o o ls . R e s e a rc h D esig n The r e s e a r c h d e s ig n o f th e s im u la tio n gam es p o r ti o n o f th e s tu d y c l o s e l y re s e m b le s a p a r t i a l l y - c r o s s e d and p a r t i a l l y - n e s t e d f a c t o r i a l p o s t t e s t - o n l y e x p e r im e n ta l d e s ig n (C am pbell & S ta n le y , 1963; Van D a le n , 1 9 6 6 ). The c r o s s in g 64 and n e s tin g i s by ty p e o f gam e, p a r t i c i p a t i o n l e v e l o f th e p r i n c i p a l , and th e i n d i v i d u a l s c h o o l. A lth o u g h th e t h r e e | games w ere p la y e d i n th e same o r d e r i n a l l s c h o o ls , th e j i f i r s t game in th e s e r i e s v a r i e d fro m s c h o o l t o s c h o o l i n i th e f a s h io n o f a p u sh -u p l i s t (s e e F ig u re 3 ) . I n e a c h s c h o o l u n i t , th e p r i n c i p a l 's p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n th e games to o k p la c e a t t h r e e l e v e l s , one l e v e l f o r e a c h game. F o r one gam e, th e p r i n c i p a l was n o t p r e s e n t i n th e room . F o r a se co n d gam e, th e p r i n c i p a l was p r e s e n t b u t was o b s e rv in g th e p la y . I n a t h i r d gam e, th e p r i n c i p a l was a p l a y e r . F ig u re 3 sum m arizes th e m odel o u t l i n e d ab o v e. F ie ld P ro c e d u re s f o r th e S h o rt S im u la tio n Games The t h r e e s im u la tio n gam es, S cram bled S q u a re s , T h re e -d im e n s io n a l P u z z le , and L e a d e r le s s Group D is c u s s io n , w ere c o n d u c te d a f t e r s c h o o l h o u rs i n e i t h e r a c la s s ro o m o r f a c u l t y w orkroom . P la y to o k p la c e a t a t a b l e , w ith th e f i v e p la y e r s d is p o s e d a s shown in F ig u re 2 . (Though th e p la y e r s w ere s e a te d when p la y b e g a n , th e y w ere n o t r e q u ir e d to re m a in s e a te d d u rin g p l a y .) P la y in g I n s t r u c t i o n s I n s t r u c t i o n s f o r S cram bled S q u a re s and T h re e - d im e n s io n a l P u z z le w ere p r e s e n te d o r a l l y . I t h a s b een th e e x p e r ie n c e o f th e d e v e lo p e r s ( in c lu d in g t h e p r e s e n t 65 FIGURE 3 PARADIGM FOR FIELD ADMINISTRATION OF SHORT SIMULATION GAM ES FOR THE STUDY OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR S ch o o l A S chool B S ch o o l C L e a d e rle s s G roup D is c u s s io n S cram bled S q u ares T h re e - dim ens i o n a l P u z z le P r i n c i p a l n o t p r e s e n t P r i n c i p a l p la y s P r i n c i p a l o b s e rv e s S cram bled S q u a re s T h re e -d im e n s io n a l P u z z le L e a d e rle s s G roup D is c u s s io n P r i n c i p a l o b s e rv e s P r in c i p a l n o t p r e s e n t P r i n c i p a l p la y s T h re e -d im e n s io n a l P u z z le L e a d e rle s s Group D is c u s s io n S cram bled S q u a re s P r i n c i p a l p la y s P r in c i p a l o b s e rv e s P r i n c i p a l n o t p r e s e n t 66 e x p e r im e n te r) o f th e i n t e r a c t i o n e x e r c i s e s u s e d as s h o r t s im u la tio n gam es i n t h i s s tu d y , t h a t w r i t t e n i n s t r u c t i o n s t o p a r t i c i p a n t s i n S cram bled S q u a re s and T h re e -d im e n s io n a l P u z z le a r e n o t a s e f f e c t i v e a s v e r b a l i n s t r u c t i o n s . (See A p p en d ices B and C f o r r u l e s o f p la y f o r S cram bled S q u ares and T h re e -d im e n s io n a l P u z z le .) A f te r p r e s e n t a t i o n o f th e s ta n d a r d i n s t r u c t i o n s , t h e e x p e rim e n te r p e r m itte d th e p la y e r s t o a sk q u e s tio n s j a b o u t th e i n s t r u c t i o n s . Q u e s tio n s d e a lin g w ith r u l e s and ! g o a ls w ere c l a r i f i e d w ith o u t r e v e a l i n g p r i n c i p l e s o f i n t e r - i a c t i o n w h ich m ig h t ch an g e th e p e rfo rm a n c e o f th e g ro u p . Q u e s tio n s r e g a r d in g th e i n t e r a c t i o n s w ere p a r r i e d by r e p e a t i n g th e o r i g i n a l v e r b a l i n s t r u c t i o n s . I n s t r u c t i o n s f o r th e L e a d e r le s s Group D is c u s s io n e x e r c i s e w ere b a s e d on a d e s ig n u s e d by B a le s (1 9 5 5 a , 1 9 5 5 b ). Each o f th e f i v e p la y e r s r e c e iv e d th e same w r i t t e n d e f i n i t i o n o f th e t a s k . H ow ever, t o e n c o u ra g e p la y e r s to en g ag e i n v e r b a l ex ch an g e o f in f o r m a tio n , se v e n p a ra g ra p h s { o f in f o r m a tio n a b o u t th e s e t t i n g o f t h e s im u la te d p ro b le m -- t h e f a c t s o f th e c a s e f o r d is c u s s io n - - w e r e p r e s e n te d i n f iv e o v e r la p p in g i n d i v i d u a l s u b s e t s , one s u b s e t o f two p a r a g ra p h s f o r e a c h p l a y e r . The p a ra g ra p h s w ere d i s t r i b u t e d i n su c h a f a s h io n t h a t no two p la y e r s r e c e iv e d th e same b a s ic in f o r m a tio n . (See A ppendix D f o r LGD s c r i p t s . ) As t h e m a t e r i a l s f o r L e a d e r le s s G roup D is c u s s io n w ere d i s t r i b u t e d , p la y e r s w ere v e r b a l l y i n s t r u c t e d to re a d 67 them f o r a b o u t 5 m in u te s ; a f t e r 5 m in u te s , th e d is c u s s io n b e g a n . So t h a t d i s c u s s io n w ould n o t b e i n h i b i t e d , p la y e r s w ere t o l d t h a t when p la y b e g a n , th e y w ould n o t be p e r m itte d t o r e f e r a g a in to th e w r i t t e n m a t e r i a l s . The e x p e rim e n te r ! s u g g e s te d to th e p la y e r s t h a t n o te ta k in g w as p e r m itte d . j D a ta C o l l e c t i o n f o r th e ' S h o rt S im u la tio n Games B ecau se th e am ount o f tim e t o c o m p le te th e S cram bled S q u a re s p u z z le s and th e T h re e -d im e n s io n a l P u z z le was ta k e n a s a p e rfo rm a n c e c r i t e r i o n , p la y c o n tin u e d u n t i l th e p u z z le s o l u t i o n was re a c h e d . The s c h e d u le f o r th e L e a d e rle s s G roup D is c u s s io n a c t i v i t y r e q u ir e d t h a t th e g ro u p re a d f o r 5 m in u te s , d is c u s s f o r 15 m in u te s , and th e n w r i t e a s h o r t " p o s i t i o n s ta te m e n t" io f w hat s h o u ld be done a b o u t th e p ro b le m . The e x p e rim e n te r fo llo w e d th e s c h e d u le a s c l o s e l y a s p o s s i b l e by an n o u n cin g to t h e g ro u p t h a t th e n e x t p h a se o f a c t i v i t y s h o u ld b e g in , b u t th e e x p e rim e n te r t r i e d to a v o id i n t e r f e r i n g u n d u ly w ith th e n a t u r a l flo w o f g ro u p a c t i v i t y . The u s e o f l i v e o b s e r v e r s i n r e s e a r c h su ch a s th e p r e s e n t s tu d y i s p r o h i b i t i v e l y e x p e n s iv e o f tim e and e f f o r t . A g r e a t d e a l o f tim e i s l o s t t r a v e l l i n g to th e s i t e o f th e e x p e rim e n ts ; m ore tim e i s l o s t w a itin g f o r p la y to b e g in . I n a d d i t i o n , i t i s commonly b e lie v e d by r e s e a r c h e r s i n th e s o c i a l s c ie n c e s t h a t th e p re s e n c e o f o b s e r v e r s may be a c o n fo u n d in g v a r i a b l e . To re d u c e th e dem ands on th e 68 o b s e r v e r s , and to p r o v id e f o r p o s s i b l e r e a n a l y s i s o f th e human i n t e r a c t i o n s o c c u r r in g d u r in g th e gam es, a d e c i s io n was made to r e c o r d th e g ro u p s on v id e o ta p e . At th e tim e o f p l a y , th e e x p e rim e n te r re c o rd e d p e rfo rm a n c e tim e s and to o k m in o r n o te s on u n u s u a l a c t i v i t i e s o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . I t was f e l t t h a t e x te n s iv e n o t e - ta k in g w ould c o n t r i b u t e to p la y e r i n h i b i t i o n . B oth v e r b a l and n o n v e rb a l i n t e r a c t i o n s o f th e a c t u a l p la y w ere r e c o rd e d on j i 0 .5 in c h v id e o t a p e , u s in g a G e n e ra l E l e c t r i c cam era and r e c o r d e r f u r n is h e d th ro u g h th e c o u r te s y o f th e M anagement L a b o ra to r y , G ra d u a te S ch o o l o f B u s in e s s A d m in is tr a tio n , J U n iv e r s ity o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a . j In summary, th e s h o r t s im u la tio n games w ere p la y e d ! a t a t a b l e , and i n t e r a c t i o n s w ere re c o rd e d on v id e o ta p e . i P e rfo rm a n c e tim e s w ere ta k e n f o r th e m a n ip u la tio n gam es. ! i A lth o u g h a f ix e d am ount o f tim e to p la y was sc h e d u le d f o r L e a d e r le s s G roup D is c u s s io n , a c t u a l tim e to p la y was j r e c o r d e d . i i I M ethodology f o r O b s e rv a tio n o f j th e V ideo T apes o f th e S h o rt j S im u la tio n Games I I Each s c h o o l was v id e o ta p e d d u rin g th e p la y o f th e t h r e e s h o r t s im u la tio n gam es. At a l a t e r tim e , f o u r t r a i n e d o b s e r v e r s p la y e d th e ta p e s and c a te g o r iz e d p la y e r b e h a v io r u s in g a m o d if ic a tio n o f B a le s ' I n t e r a c t i o n P ro c e s s A n a ly s is (IPA ) sy stem ( B a le s , 1 9 5 0 ). 69 B a le s (1950) m e n tio n s th e p o s s i b l e u s e o f m o tio n p i c t u r e r e c o r d s o f g ro u p s e s s io n s f o r d e la y e d a n a l y s is o f th e i n t e r a c t i o n s . H ow ever, B a le s d o es n o t e x p la in th e i m e th o d o lo g y . In th e p r e s e n t s tu d y , th e i n v e s t i g a t o r e x p e ri-j i m ented w ith s e v e r a l p o s s ib le te c h n iq u e s f o r o b s e rv in g th e v id e o ta p e s b e f o r e d e c id in g on th e te c h n iq u e u s e d . I t w as j d is c o v e r e d , f o r e x am p le, t h a t when th e v id e o ta p e was j s to p p e d so t h a t some p a r t i c u l a r a c t i o n c o u ld be r e p la y e d , th e tim e ele m e n t and flo w o f a c t i o n w ere d i s t o r t e d . T h e re f o r e , th e o b s e r v e r s w ere i n s t r u c t e d to ru n th e ta p e th ro u g h w ith o u t s to p p in g . I n a d d i t i o n , i t becam e e v id e n t t h a t s im u lta n e o u s o b s e r v a tio n o f th e sw eep -seco n d hand o f a s to p -w a tc h and o f th e v id e o p i c t u r e le d to in a c c u r a te r e c o r d in g o f i n t e r a c t i o n s . T h e r e f o r e , an a u d io s i g n a l a t one m in u te i n t e r v a l s was u se d a s th e tim in g c u e . F i n a l l y , b e c a u s e o f th e la c k o f s a t i s f a c t o r y p i c t u r e r e s o l u t i o n on p la y b a c k o f th e v id e o t a p e s , o b s e rv e r s c o n c e n tr a te d p r im a r i l y on v e r b a l b e h a v io r and g r o s s body m ovem ents. The o b s e rv e r s w ere a l l p r o f e s s i o n a l e d u c a to r s : a I p r o f e s s o r o f m anagem ent, a p u b lic - s c h o o l a d m i n i s t r a t o r , and j two te a c h e r s ( in c lu d in g th e e x p e r im e n te r ) . The o b s e r v e r s w ere f u r n is h e d w ith m a t e r i a l s w h ich d e s c r ib e d B a le s ' sy ste m ; t r a i n i n g c o n s is t e d o f o b s e r v a tio n o f a ta p e and c o a c h in g by th e e x p e r im e n te r. 70 | O b s e rv e rs w ere f u r n is h e d w ith v ie w in g f a c i l i t i e s , a tim in g d e v ic e , and m o d ifie d IPA r e c o r d in g fo rm s . (S ee F ig u re 4 . ) The t a s k f o r th e o b s e r v e r s was t o o b s e rv e th e ta p e r e c o r d in g s o f th e g ro u p s i n a c t i o n and r e c o r d th e b e h a v io r a l a c t s i n th e p r o p e r c a t e g o r i e s . Each o b s e rv e r r e c o rd e d s e p a r a te s e t s o f fo rm s f o r e a c h o f th e th r e e s im u la tio n gam es. The r e c o r d in g m ethod u se d i n th e p r e s e n t s tu d y v a r i e s fro m th e B a le s IPA (1950) m ethod o f r e c o r d in g i n t h a t n e i t h e r th e a c t o r s n o r th e to - f r o m n a tu r e o f th e a c t s w ere i d e n t i f i e d on th e r e c o r d in g fo rm s. S in c e th e B a le s c a te g o r y sy ste m i s a lm o st e x c lu s i v e l y o r ie n te d to w a rd v e r b a l b e h a v io r , a new s e t o f c a t e g o r i e s was e s t a b l i s h e d f o r th e n o n v e rb a l S cram bled S q u a re s gam e. The new c a t e g o r i e s a r e ( a ) " g iv in g " a c t s , i j(b ) " ta k in g " a c t s , (c ) " p o o lin g " a c t s i n w hich p la y e r s to o k lo u t o r p u t in p ie c e s to a p o o l w h ich was s p o n ta n e o u s ly c r e a t e d i n th e c e n t e r o f th e p la y in g sp a c e on th e t a b l e , (d ) " h e lp in g " a c t s i n w h ich one p la y e r a s s i s t e d a n o th e r by r e a c h in g i n t o th e seco n d p l a y e r 's p la y in g sp a c e and m a n ip u la tin g th e p u z z le p i e c e s , and (e ) t a l k i n g a c t s . (S ee F ig u re 5 .) ( L ig h tin g c o n d itio n s i n some o f th e te a c h e r w o rk - room s w ere o f su ch low q u a l i t y - - g l a r e , c o n t r a s t , in a d e q u a te i l l u m i n a t i o n - - t h a t s e v e r a l o f th e v id e o ta p e r e c o r d in g s o f i |S cram b led S q u ares w ere m a r g in a lly a d e q u a te f o r o b s e r v a t i o n . ) 71 FIGURE 4 MODIFIED IPA FORM FOR RECORDING BEHAVIORAL ACTS IN SHORT SIMULATION GAM ES C a te g o r ie s Time-------------------- > Shows s o l i d a r i t y , r a i s e s o t h e r s ' s t a t u s , g iv e s h e l p , re w a rd Shows t e n s i o n r e l e a s e , j o k e s , la u g h s , shows s a t i s f a c t i o n A g re e s , shows p a s s iv e a c c e p ta n c e , u n d e r s ta n d s , c o n c u r s . c o m p lie s G iv es s u g g e s t i o n s , d i r e c t i o n , im p ly in g autonom y f o r t h e o th e r G ives o p in io n , e v a l u a t i o n , a n a l y s i s , e x p r e s s e s f e e l in g . w is h G iv es o r i e n t a t i o n , in f o r m a tio n , r e p e a t s , c l a r i f i e s , c o n firm s Asks f o r o r i e n t a t i o n , in f o r m a tio n , r e p e t i t i o n , c o n f ir m a tio n Asks f o r o p in io n , e v a l u a t i o n , a n a l y s i s , e x p r e s s io n o f f e e l i n g Asks f o r s u g g e s tio n , d i r e c t i o n , p o s s i b l e w avs o f a c t i o n D is a g r e e s , show s p a s s iv e r e j e c t i o n , f o r m a l i t y , w ith h o ld s h e lp Shows t e n s i o n , a s k s f o r h e l p , w ith d ra w s from f i e Id Shows a n ta g o n ism , d e f l a t e s o t h e r s ' s t a t u s , d e fe n d s o r a s s e r t s s e l f O b s e rv e r name_______________________O r g a n iz a tio n A c t i v i t y ____________________ D ate o f o b s e r v a tio n 72 FIGURE 5 FORM USED FOR OBSERVATION OF THE NONVERBAL GAM E OF SCRAMBLED SQUARES Scram bled Squares O b s e rv a tio n Form C a te g o rie s Time------------------ > G iv in g a c t s T aking a c t s P o o lin g a c t s H elp in g a c t s T a lk in g a c t s O b serv er name_______ D ate o f o b s e r v a tio n Group o b se rv ed 73 i J Judgm ents o f E f f e c t i v i t v and E f f ic ie n c y j Each s c h o o l o r g a n iz a tio n was r a te d on i t s o v e r a l l e f f e c t i v i t y and e f f i c i e n c y d u rin g p la y o f th e s h o rt s im u la tio n games. To p ro v id e th e r a t i n g s , t h r e e p r o f e s s i o n a l e d u c a to rs (two s c h o o l a d m i n i s t r a t o r s and th e p r e s e n t ] i n v e s t i g a t o r ) w ere asked t o o b se rv e th e v id e o ta p e s and ra n k o r d e r th e g roups on o v e r a l l e f f e c t i v i t y and o v e r a l l e f f i c i e n c y . The r e s u l t was two s e t s o f ra n k in g s from each o f t h r e e ju d g e s f o r each o f th e s c h o o ls . i Summary C h ap ter I I I has p r e s e n te d a b r i e f re v iew o f th e two r e s e a r c h in s tr u m e n ts . The sam ple, r e s e a r c h d e s ig n , and f i e l d p ro c e d u re s w ere e x p la in e d f o r b o th th e OCDQ and th e s h o r t s im u la tio n games. In a d d i t i o n , t h e r e was a d e t a i l e d re v ie w o f th e p ro c e s s o f a n a l y s is o f th e i n t e r a c t i o n s o c c u r rin g d u rin g th e p la y o f th e s h o rt s im u la tio n games. 1 CHAPTER IV DATA PROCESSING AND HYPOTHESIS TESTING The s t a t i s t i c a l p ro c e d u re s used in th e p r e s e n t stu d y a r e d e a l t w ith i n two s u b s e c tio n s . A s e c t io n on d a ta p ro c e s s in g d e s c r ib e s how O r g a n iz a tio n a l C lim ate D e s c r ip tio n Q u e s tio n n a ire (OCDQ) r e t u r n s w ere c o n v e rte d to ra n k s on th e E s p r it s u b te s t and how th e I n t e r a c t i o n P ro c e ss A n a ly s is (IPA) o b s e rv e r t a l l i e s w ere c o n v e rte d to ran k s on th e b a s is o f an open s t y l e o f i n t e r a c t i o n p r o c e s s . The second s e c t i o n d e s c r ib e s how th e h y p o th e se s w ere t e s t e d . Each r e s e a r c h h y p o th e s is i s r e s t a t e d , alo n g w ith th e a l t e r n a t i v e and n u l l form . An a p p r o p r ia te s t a t i s t i c a l t e s t i s g iv e n , land a s ta te m e n t o f th e lo g ic o f a c c e p ta n c e o r r e j e c t i o n o f I th e r e s e a r c h h y p o th e s is i s in c lu d e d . A ll h y p o th e se s a re i I t e s t e d a t (X = . 10. S t a t i s t i c a l P ro c e d u res P r e p a r a tio n and P ro c e ss in g o f OCDQ R etu rn s i The OCDQ was p r e s e n te d t o th e s e v e r a l f a c u l t y i sam ples as a s e lf - a d m i n is t e r e d q u e s ti o n n a i r e . R espondents r e p l i e d to th e q u e s ti o n n a i r e on m a c h in e -sc o ra b le form s s u p p lie d by th e i n v e s t i g a t o r . The re sp o n se s h e e ts o f a s in g l e sch o o l u n i t w ere coded w ith a s c h o o l number and w ere i n d i v i d u a l l y examined f o r i l l e g a l e n t r i e s (marks i n columns w hich w ere to be l e f t b la n k ) and s u p e rflu o u s marks w hich would cau se th e s c o rin g m achine to r e j e c t th e r e s p o n s e - s h e e t . S u p e rflu o u s marks w ere sim ply e r a s e d . Marks i n i n c o r r e c t columns w ere e ra s e d and moved to th e n e a r e s t p o s s i b l y - c o r r e c t column on th e a ssu m p tio n t h a t th e i n c o r r e c t mark was a m isp lacem en t due to re sp o n d e n t p a r a l l a x e r r o r . The emended r e s p o n s e - s h e e ts w ere sc o re d on an IBM Model 1230 O p tic a l S c o re r a t th e T e s tin g B ureau, U n iv e r s ity o f S o u th ern C a l i f o r n i a . The IBM 1230 a u to m a tic a lly c o n v e rte d th e r e s p o n s e - s h e e ts to punched c a rd s f o r com puter p r o c e s s in g . The punched c a r d s w ere a g a in exam ined f o r e r r o r s by s o r t i n g on each l e g a l colum n. C ards w ith e r r o r s w ere c o r r e c t e d , u s in g th e same a lg o rith m s as above. C o n v ersio n o f OCDQ Responses to S tan d ard S co res D ata p r o c e s s in g was perform ed on an IBM 360/65 com puter system o p e r a te d by Computer S c ie n c e s L a b o ra to ry , U n iv e r s ity o f S o u th ern C a l i f o r n i a . S u b te s t raw s c o re s w ere c o n v e rte d t o means and ;s ta n d a rd d e v ia tio n s w i t h i n an in d i v i d u a l re sp o n d e n t c a s e . I To compute th e s ta n d a rd s c o re s d e s c r ib in g OCDQ s u b te s t s and 76 ! ! o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c lim a te p r o f i l e s o f th e sc h o o ls u n d e r s tu d y , j i t was n e c e s s a ry to w r i t e a FORTRAN program . (See Appendix F f o r copy o f p ro g ra m .) The s ta n d a rd s c o re fo rm u la u sed was ( G u ilf o r d , 1965, fo rm u la 1 9 .2 , p. 517) The s ta n d a rd s c o re s f o r th e p r e s e n t stu d y w ere computed w ith a mean o f 50 and a s ta n d a rd d e v ia tio n o f 1 0 and were s ta n d a rd iz e d n o rm a tiv e ly and i p s a t i v e l y a s d e s c r ib e d by H a lp in and C ro ft (1962, p . 75, p . 177). Ranking Schools on OCDQ E s p r it Scores The d a ta p r o c e s s in g as d e s c rib e d above r e s u l t e d in s ta n d a rd s c o re s f o r each o f e ig h t s u b te s t s w i t h i n each s c h o o l . S u b te st 3 , E s p r i t , was ch o sen as th e most d i r e c t m easure o f open i n t e r a c t i o n . ESPRIT r e f e r s t o " m o ra le ." The te a c h e r s f e e l t h a t t h e i r s o c ia l n eed s a r e b e in g s a t i s f i e d , and t h a t th e y a r e , a t th e same tim e , e n jo y in g a sen se o f accom plishm ent i n t h e i r jo b . (H alp in & C r o f t, 1962, p . 40) In an e x p la n a tio n o f th e way i n w hich o r g a n iz a t i o n a l c lim a te was m easured i n r e a l o p e r a t i o n s , H a lp in and C ro ft (1962) sa y , "We, t h e r e f o r e , have chosen to re g a rd ' e s p r i t ' as th e 'k e y ' s u b te s t f o r d e s c r ib in g a s c h o o l's o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c lim a te [p . 7 8 ] ." The te n sc h o o ls s tu d ie d w ere ran k ed from 1 to 10 (h ig h to lo w ). The rank o f any sc h o o l i s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to th e OCDQ E s p r it s c o re o f t h a t s c h o o l, so t h a t th e sc h o o l w ith th e h i g h e s t E s p r it s c o re was aw arded ran k 1. P r e p a r a tio n and P ro c e ss in g o f IPA O b se rv a tio n s Each o b s e rv e r who sc o re d th e v id e o - ta p e d s h o rt s im u la tio n games produced s e p a r a te s e t s o f t a l l y s h e e ts f o r each game and s c h o o l. The t a l l i e s w ere summarized by c a t e g o r i e s f o r each o b s e rv e r f o r e ach s c h o o l and game; th e r e s u l t s w ere 136 c a te g o ry summaries f o r each o f te n s c h o o ls . The summary in fo rm a tio n was keypunched to com puter c a r d s , w ith each c a rd r e p r e s e n t i n g th e c a t e g o r i e s f o r a game f o r one r a t e r f o r one s c h o o l. R e l i a b i l i t y o f IPA O b s e rv a tio n s j The amount o f agreem ent among th e same fo u r o b s e rv e rs was computed by game and by s c h o o l, u s in g th e t a l l y d a t a from each o b s e rv e r . The s t a t i s t i c u sed was K e n d a ll's c o e f f i c i e n t o f con co rd an ce W, d e s c rib e d by S ie g e l (1956, p p . 2 2 9 -2 3 8 ). Ranking sc h o o ls on i n t e r a c t i o n p r o c e s s . To d e t e r mine ra n k s o f th e sc h o o ls on a d im en sio n o f i n t e r a c t i o n p r o c e s s , th e r a t i o t h a t th e t a l l i e s i n C ateg o ry 4 a re o f th e t a l l i e s o f a l l c a t e g o r i e s was com puted f o r T h ree- d im e n sio n a l P u zzle and L e a d e rle s s Group D is c u s s io n f o r each ; o f th e t e n s c h o o ls . The r e s u l t i n g r a t i o s were o rd e re d fro m ; s m a lle s t to l a r g e s t and th e s c h o o ls a ssig n e d ra n k s a c c o rd in g to p o s i t i o n in th e l i s t . The s m a lle s t r a t i o was a s s ig n e d th e ra n k o f 1 . i B ales (1950) sa y s t h a t C ateg o ry 4 means: G ives s u g g e s tio n , d i r e c t i o n , im p ly in g autonomy f o r o t h e r : a . The p ro c e s s o f c o o p e r a tiv e a c t i o n i t s e l f i n i t s c o n a tiv e - in s tr u m e n ta l a s p e c t : In c lu d e s a l l a c ts which su g g e st c o n c r e te ways o f a t t a i n i n g a d e s ir e d g o a l by a t t a c k i n g o r m o d ify in g th e o u te r s i t u a t i o n , o r by a d a p tin g a c t i v i t y to i t , p ro p o sin g a s o l u t i o n , in d ic a t i n g o r s u g g e s tin g where to s t a r t , what to d o , how t o cope w ith a problem in term s o f a c t i o n in th e n e a r f u tu r e tim e p e r s p e c tiv e . (p. 181) The sc h o o ls w ere ran k ed on B a le s ' C ategory 4 b ecau se i t was f e l t t h a t a s c h o o l i n w hich an open i n t e r a c t i o n p ro c e s s e x i s t e d a lso would b e more l i k e l y to have a h ig h l e v e l o f in s tr u m e n ta l- c o n a tiv e a c t s . H a lp in and C ro ft (1962) sa y t h a t sc h o o ls h ig h i n E s p r i t p e rm it f r e e i n t e r a c t i o n and exchange o f id e a s and s u g g e s tio n s . Because th e g ro u p atm osphere i s warm and f r i e n d l y , th e members o f th e o r g a n iz a tio n g a in h ig h s o c i a l s a t i s f a c t i o n i n th e c o n te x t I o f th e work g ro u p . The h ig h l e v e l o f s o c i a l s a t i s f a c t i o n ach iev ed may o f t e n enco u rag e in d iv id u a ls t o ta k e th e p o s s ib ly r is k y p o s i t i o n o f t e l l i n g someone e l s e w hat to do. In o th e r w o rd s, b ecau se th e g ro u p h e lp s to s a t i s f y to a h ig h e r l e v e l w hat Maslow (1962, 1965) c a l l s in d i v i d u a l p s y c h o lo g ic a l s a f e t y n e e d s, a c tio n s w hich seem t o d i r e c t th e a c t i v i t i e s 79 s : i i o f o t h e r p e rso n s a r e l e s s th r e a t e n i n g to th e r e c e i v e r s o f th e a c t i o n . Thus, th e e n t i r e group may p a r t i c i p a t e more i n th e c o n a tiv e -im p le m e n tin g a c ts o f C ateg o ry 4 . I Judgm ents o f E f f e c t i v i t y and E f f ic ie n c y Each o f t h r e e ju d g e s made in d e p e n d e n t r a t i n g s o f each e x p e rim e n ta l g r o u p 's e f f e c t i v i t y and e f f i c i e n c y d u rin g p la y o f th e s h o rt s im u la tio n games u se d i n th e p re s e n t s tu d y . K e n d a ll's c o e f f i c i e n t o f co n co rd an ce W was computed f o r t h e r a t i n g s o f th e t h r e e j u d g e s . To o b ta in ran k o r d e r f o r h y p o th e s is t e s t i n g , th e ra n k s o f th e th re e ju d g e s were combined and a new, s in g le ra n k in g was a s sig n e d to e a c h s c h o o l o r g a n iz a tio n on each o f th e two d im e n sio n s. T e s tin g th e H ypotheses The r e s e a r c h h y p o th e se s a re f i r s t s t a t e d i n n a r r a t i v e form , a s in C h ap ter I , and th e n r e s t a t e d i n a l t e r n a t i v e and n u l l fo rm s. I f a h y p o th e s is in c lu d e s su b h y p o th e se s, b e c a u se of t h e s e v e r a l gam es, each su b h y p o th e s is i s s t a t e d s e p a r a te ly i n th e a l t e r n a t i v e and n u l l fo rm s. R estatem en t o f e a ch h y p o th e s is i s fo llo w e d by e n u m e ra tio n o f th e s t a t i s t i c a l t e s t u sed to e s t a b l i s h t h e v a l i d i t y o f th e h y p o th e s is . 80 H y p o th esis 1 : T here i s a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e E s p r it s c o re s o f o r g a n iz a tio n s and th e human i n t e r a c t i o n p ro c e s s e s e x h ib ite d by th e same o r g a n iz a tio n s d u rin g p la y o f th e s h o r t s im u la tio n games u se d i n th e p r e s e n t s tu d y . (H y p o th esis 1 i s t e s t e d u s in g d a ta from th e two s h o rt s im u la tio n gam es, T h re e -d im e n sio n a l P u z z le and L e a d e rle s s Group D is c u s s io n , to w hich i n t e r a c t i o n p ro c e ss a n a ly s is was a p p l i e d .) Hl ( a ) : ra n k E s p r i t ” r a n ^C ateg o ry 4 (T h re e -d im e n sio n a l P u z z le) ® 0 ( a ) : r s(x y ) — 0 Hl ( b ) : ra n ^ E s p r it " r a n * cC ateg o ry 4 (L e a d e rle s s Group D is c u ss io n ) H0 ( b ) : r s(x y ) — 0 T e st s t a t i s t i c f o r H y p o th e sis 1 ; Spearman rank c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t ( r ) i s used to compare ra n k s o f s th e sc h o o ls on a m easure o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c lim a te ( E s p r it s c o re ) w ith ra n k s o f th e sc h o o ls on openness o f i n t e r a c t i o n p ro c e ss ( B a le s ' C ateg o ry 4 ) . Each s u b h y p o th e s is i s t e s t e d in d e p e n d e n tly ; Spearman r i s a p p lie d to ra n k s on T h ree- s d im e n sio n a l P u z z le and L e a d e rle s s Group D is c u s s io n s e p a r a t e l y . 81 A o n e - t a i l e d t e s t o f s ig n i f i c a n c e a t Ot = .10 w i l l p e rm it r e j e c t i o n o f th e n u l l h y p o th e se s a t a c r i t i c a l v a lu e o f r g = .440. H y p o th e sis 2 : T here i s a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e E s p r i t s c o re s o f o r g a n iz a tio n s and th e p erfo rm an ce s c o re s w hich th e same o r g a n iz a tio n s a c h ie v e i n th e s h o r t s im u la tio n games u sed i n th e p r e s e n t s tu d y . (H y p o th esis 2 i s t e s t e d on th e two s h o r t s im u la tio n gam es, Scram bled S quares and T h re e -d im e n sio n a l P u z z le , w hich y i e l d p erfo rm an ce s c o r e s .) ^ 2 ( a ) ' ra n ^ E s p r it ~ ra n ^p erfo rm an ce tim e (Scram bled S quares) H0 ( a ) * r s(x y ) — 0 **2(b)‘ ra n ^ E s p r it ra n ^ p erfo rm an ce tim e (T h ree- d im e n sio n a l P u z z le) H0 ( b ) : r s(x y ) 2 0 T e st s t a t i s t i c f o r H y p o th esis 2 ; Spearman ra n k c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t ( r ) i s used t o compare ra n k s o f s th e sc h o o ls on a m easure o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c lim a te ( E s p r it s c o re ) w ith ra n k s o f th e sc h o o ls on perfo rm an ce tim e , e . g . , tim e to co m p lete b u ild in g th e p u z z le . Each s u b h y p o th e s is was t e s t e d in d e p e n d e n tly ; th e t e s t s t a t i s t i c was a p p lie d to Scram bled S quares and T h re e -d im e n sio n a l P u z z le s e p a r a t e l y . 82 A o n e - t a i l e d t e s t o f s i g n i f i c a n c e a t C X * .10 w i l l p e rm it r e j e c t i o n o f th e n u l l h y p o th e se s a t a c r i t i c a l v a lu e o f r g ■ .440. H y p o th esis 3 : T here i s a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e E s p r it s c o re s o f o r g a n iz a tio n s and th e number o f human i n t e r a c t i o n a c t s p e r m in u te o f th e same o r g a n iz a tio n s d u rin g p la y o f th e s h o r t s im u la t i o n games u sed i n th e p r e s e n t s tu d y . (H y p o th esis 3 i s t e s t e d on a l l th r e e o f th e s h o r t s im u la tio n gam es, Scram bled S q u a re s, T h re e -d im e n sio n a l P u z z le , and L e a d e rle s s Group D is c u s s io n .) T e st s t a t i s t i c f o r H y p o th e sis 3 : Spearman ran k c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t ( r ) i s used t o compare ra n k s o f s th e sc h o o ls on a m easure o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c lim a te ( E s p r it H3 ( a ) : ra n k E s p r it _ ran k number o f a c t s p e r m inute (Scram bled S q u ares) H0 ( a ) : r s (x y ) ^ 0 H3 ( b ) : ra n k E s p rlc - rank, number o f a c t s p e r m inute (T h re e -d im e n sio n a l P u z z le ) H0 ( b ) : r s (x y ) ± 0 H3 ( c ) ' ra n k E s p r it " ra n k number o f a c t s p e r m inute (L e a d e rle s s Group D is c u s s io n ) 83 s c o re ) w ith th e ran k s o f th e s c h o o ls on th e number o f b e h a v io r a l a c t s p er m inute e x h ib ite d d u rin g p la y o f th e s h o r t s im u la tio n games u se d i n th e p r e s e n t s tu d y . Each su b h y p o th e s is i s t e s t e d in d e p e n d e n tly ; th e t e s t s t a t i s t i c i s a p p lie d to Scram bled S q u a re s, T h re e -d im e n sio n a l P u z z le , and L e a d e rle s s Group D is c u s s io n i n d i v i d u a l l y . A o n e - t a i l e d t e s t o f s ig n i f i c a n c e a t O t= .10 w i l l p e rm it r e j e c t i o n o f th e n u l l h y p o th e se s a t a c r i t i c a l v a lu e o f r g = .440. H y p o th esis 4 : T here i s a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e E s p r it s c o re s o f o r g a n iz a tio n s and o b s e r v e r s ' judgm ents ab o u t th e e f f e c t i v i t y o f th e same o r g a n iz a tio n s d u rin g p la y o f th e s h o rt s im u la tio n games used i n th e p r e s e n t s tu d y . (H y p o th esis 4 i s t e s t e d on a l l t h r e e s h o r t sim u l a t i o n games u sed i n th e p r e s e n t s tu d y , Scram bled S q u a re s, T h re e -d im e n sio n a l P u z z le , and L e a d e rle s s Group D is c u s s io n .) **4(a)' r a n ^ E s p r i t ~ r a n ^ e f f e c t i v i t y (S c ra m b le d S q u a r e s ) H0 ( a ) : r s(x y ) ± 0 H4 ( b ) : r a n ^ E s p r i t ” r a n ^ e f f e c t i v i t y ( T h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l P u z z l e ) H0 ( b ) ’ r s(x y ) - 0 84 **4(c): ran ^ E s p r it * ra n ^ e f f e c t i v i t y ( L e a d e rle s s Group D i s c u s s i o n ) H0 ( c ) : r S (xy) * 0 T e s t s t a t i s t i c f o r H y p o th esis 4 : Spearman rank c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t ( r ) i s used to compare ra n k s o f s th e s c h o o ls on a m easure o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c lim a te ( E s p r it s c o re ) w ith th e ra n k s o f th e sc h o o ls on o b s e r v e r s ' r a t i n g s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l e f f e c t i v i t y . Each s u b h y p o th e s is i s t e s t e d in d e p e n d e n tly ; th e t e s t s t a t i s t i c i s a p p lie d to Scram bled S q u a re s, T h re e -d im e n sio n a l P u z z le , and L e a d e rle s s Group D is c u s s io n i n d i v i d u a l l y . A o n e - t a i l e d t e s t o f s ig n i f i c a n c e a t a * .10 w i l l p e rm it r e j e c t i o n o f th e n u l l h y p o th ese s a t a c r i t i c a l v a lu e o f r g = .440. H y p o th e sis 5 : T here i s a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e E s p r it s c o re s o f o r g a n iz a tio n s and o b s e r v e r s ' judgm ents ab o u t th e e f f i c i e n c y o f th e same o r g a n iz a tio n s d u rin g p la y o f th e s h o r t s im u la tio n games u se d i n th e p r e s e n t s tu d y . (H y p o th esis 5 i s t e s t e d on a l l th r e e s h o r t s im u la tio n games u se d i n th e p re s e n t s tu d y , S c ra m b le d S q u a r e s , T h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l P u z z l e , an d L e a d e r l e s s G roup D i s c u s s i o n . ) 85 **5( a ) ’ ra n ^ E s p r it * r a n ^ e f f i c i e n c y (Scram bled S q u ares) H0 ( a ) * r s (x y ) * 0 **5(b)‘ ra n ^ E s p r it ~ r a n ^ e f f i c i e n c y (T h re e -d im e n sio n a l P u z zle ) H0 ( b ) : r s (x y ) - 0 * % (c): ran^ E s p r i t " ra n ^ e f f i c i e n c y ( L e a d e rle s s Group D is c u ss io n ) H0 ( c ) ‘ r s (x y ) ^ 0 T e st s t a t i s t i c f o r H y p o th esis 5 : Spearman ra n k c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t ( r ) i s u sed to compare ra n k s o f s th e sc h o o ls on a m easure o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c lim a te ( E s p r it s c o re ) w ith th e ran k s o f th e sc h o o ls on o b s e r v e r s 1 r a t i n g s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l e f f i c i e n c y . Each su b h y p o th e s is i s t e s t e d in d e p e n d e n tly ; th e t e s t s t a t i s t i c i s a p p lie d to Scram bled S q u a re s, T h re e -d im e n sio n a l P u z z le , and L e a d e rle s s Group D is c u s s io n i n d i v i d u a l l y . A o n e - t a i l e d t e s t o f s ig n i f i c a n c e a t < X = .10 w i l l p e rm it r e j e c t i o n o f th e n u l l h y p o th e se s a t a c r i t i c a l v a lu e o f r g - .440. 86 Summary The two m ajor r e s e a r c h q u e s tio n s and a s s o c ia te d h y p o th e se s n e c e s s i t a t e d th e c o m p u ta tio n o f ra n k o r d e r p o s it i o n s f o r th e sc h o o l u n i t s on s e v e r a l d im e n sio n s. OCDQ r e t u r n s f o r each o f th e sc h o o ls w ere c o n v e rte d to s ta n d a rd s c o r e s , and th e n th e t e n sc h o o ls w ere ranked from most to l e a s t open on th e b a s is o f th e E s p r it s c o r e . D ata on i n t e r a c t i o n p ro c e ss and g roup ta s k - p erfo rm an ce w ere a ls o c o n v e rte d to ra n k o r d e r in fo rm a tio n as r e q u ir e d to t e s t th e h y p o th e se s. Each r e s e a r c h h y p o th e s is was r e s t a t e d i n th e a l t e r n a t i v e and n u l l fo rm s . A b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e s t a t i s t i c a l t e s t s a p p lie d to each h y p o th e s is was p r e s e n te d , fo llo w e d by a s ta te m e n t o f l e v e l o f c o n fid e n c e and c r i t i c a l v a lu e o f th e s t a t i s t i c . CHAPTER V FINDINGS S The m ethods and in s tru m e n ts o f r e s e a r c h employed i n , th e p r e s e n t stu d y n e c e s s i t a t e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f two ty p e s o f j f i n d i n g s . The m ajor s e t o f f in d in g s s u p p o rtin g o r r e j e c t - I in g th e r e s e a r c h t h e s i s a r e p re c ed e d by f in d i n g s r e l a t e d to j i n t e r r a t e r r e l i a b i l i t y . j i The f in d in g s r e l a t e d to th e o r i g i n a l r e s e a r c h g o a ls a re p r e s e n te d in th e form o f r e s e a r c h q u e s tio n s accom panied by r e l a t e d h y p o th e s e s . Each h y p o th e s is i s s t a t e d in j i r e s e a r c h , a l t e r n a t i v e , and n u l l fo rm s. In c lu d e d in th e 1 s ta te m e n ts o f th e s t a t i s t i c a l t e s t s f o r th e h y p o th e se s a re j c o n fid e n c e l e v e l s and c r i t i c a l v a lu e s . R e l i a b i l i t y o f th e Method i I n t e r r a t e r a g re e m e n t. K e n d a ll's c o e f f i c i e n t o f j concordance W was computed to t e s t th e amount o f agreem ent I among th e o b s e rv e r s o f th e v id e o t a p e s . W i s " a m easure o f th e r e l a t i o n among s e v e r a l ra n k in g s o f o b j e c t s o r i n d i v i d u a ls [ S ie g e l, 1956, p . 2 2 9 ] ." 88 To compute W, i t i s n e c e s s a ry to f in d th e sums o f ra n k s i n each column o f a k by N t a b l e , w here k i s th e r a t e r s and N th e e n t i t i e s ra n k e d . The sum o f th e sq u a re s o f th e d e v i a t i o n s o f each column-sum from th e mean column- i I sum p ro d u ces an in te r m e d ia te s t a t i s t i c s , from w hich W i s c a l c u l a t e d . S t a t i s t i c s i s a ls o used to t e s t th e s i g n i f i - | can ce o f W f o r N £ 7. The fo rm u la f o r K e n d a ll's W i s j w = s_______ : 1/12K (N3 -N) ! ( S ie g e l, 1956, fo rm u la 9 .1 5 , p. 231) ! (See S ie g e l, 1956, pp. 229 -2 3 8 , f o r d e t a i l s o f th e m eth o d .) j K e n d a ll's W can o n ly ta k e p o s i t i v e v a lu e s from 0 to 1.000 i n c l u s i v e . S ie g e l (1956) s a y s , "The re a s o n t h a t W can n o t be n e g a tiv e i s t h a t when more th a n two s e t s o f ra n k s ; a re in v o lv e d , th e ra n k in g s can n o t d is a g r e e c o m p le te ly [p. 2 3 2 ] ." The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f W f o r N £ 7 i s d e te rm in e d by com paring th e com puted s w ith a t a b l e o f c r i t i c a l v a lu e s o f s ( S ie g e l, 1956, T ab le R, p. 2 8 6 ). For N > 7, S ie g e l 2 p r e s c r i b e s th e c a l c u l a t i o n o f x : a . ! X 1/12KN(N+1) ( S ie g e l, 1956, fo rm u la 9 .1 7 , p . 236) 2 E n te rin g a s ta n d a rd x t a b l e w ith d f * N -l g iv e s th e p r o b a b i l i t y o f "any v a lu e as l a r g e as an o b se rv e d W [ S ie g e l, 1956, p . 2 3 6 ] ." 89 In th e p r e s e n t s tu d y , W was computed f o r each s c h o o l f o r each game, and f o r th e t h r e e o b s e rv e r s who ra n k e d group p erfo rm an ce on e f f e c t i v i t y and e f f i c i e n c y . T a b le s 3 th ro u g h 11 p r e s e n t th e r e s u l t s o f t e s t i n g i n t e r - | r a t e r r e l i a b i l i t y . The r e l i a b i l i t y t a b l e s show th e number o f th e I s c h o o l; number o f c a t e g o r i e s , groups o f c a t e g o r i e s , o r 2 ! g ro u p s ra n k e d ; s t a t i s t i c s ; x f ° r N > 7; and W. j i T able 3 shows th e K e n d all c o e f f i c i e n t o f co n co rd - ! j ance o f agreem ent betw een o b s e rv e rs o f th e i n t e r a c t i o n j p ro c e s s o f th e t e n sc h o o ls o f th e p r e s e n t stu d y d u rin g p la y o f Scram bled S q u a re s. W ta k e s v a lu e s from .561 t o 1 .0 0 0 . W i s ju d g ed to be w i t h i n th e c r i t i c a l r e g io n (p < .05) i n j : i a l l in s ta n c e s b u t o n e , w hich i s p < . 1 0 . | T able 4 shows th e K en d all c o e f f i c i e n t o f c o n c o rd ance o f agreem ent betw een o b s e rv e rs o f th e i n t e r a c t i o n p ro c e s s o f th e t e n s c h o o ls o f th e p r e s e n t s tu d y d u rin g p la y o f T h re e -d im e n sio n a l P u z z le . W ta k e s v a lu e s from .766 to 1 . 0 0 0 . W i s ju d g ed to be w ith in th e c r i t i c a l r e g io n (P < . 0 1 ) in a l l i n s t a n c e s . T able 5 shows th e K e n d a ll c o e f f i c i e n t o f co n co rd - j ance o f agreem ent betw een o b s e rv e rs o f th e i n t e r a c t i o n p ro c e s s o f th e t e n sc h o o ls o f th e p r e s e n t s tu d y d u rin g p la y o f L e a d e rle s s Group D is c u s s io n . W ta k e s v a lu e s from .809 to 1 . 0 0 0 . W i s ju d g e d to be w ith in th e c r i t i c a l r e g io n (p < . 0 1 ) in a l l i n s t a n c e s . I 90 TABLE 3 INTERRATER RELIABILITY--SCRAMBLED SQUARES School Number Number o f C a te g o rie s sb X 2 (d f-9 ) W 1 1 0 2 9.20 .811**** 4 57 !823** 2 1 0 2 3.96 .665*** 4 5 7 .5 .719** 3 1 0 32.18 .894**** 4 6 8 !850** 4 1 0 27.87 . 7 7 4 *** 4 4 6 .5 !581* 5 1 0 32.24 .895**** 4 74 .925*** 6 1 0 27.49 . 763*** 4 6 6 .825*** 7 1 0 30.62 .850**** 4 6 6 .825*** 8 1 0 33.76 . 9 3 7 **** 4 70.5 ^869*** 9 1 0 2 0 . 2 0 .561** 4 73.5 ,919*** 1 0 1 0 32.28 .896**** 4 - 1 . 0 0 0 **** R e fe rs t o th e te n c a t e g o r i e s o f th e Scram bled Squares s c o rin g system o r to o n ly th e " g iv e " and " ta k e " a c t s on two in n in g s o f th e game (4 c a t e g o r i e s ) . b 2 F o r N > 7 x r e p la c e s s f o r t e s t i n g th e s ig n i f i c a n c e o f W; th e r e f o r e s i s t a b u l a t e d o n ly f o r few er th a n 7 c a t e g o r i e s . *p < . 1 0 **p < .05 ***p < . 0 1 * * * * p < .001 91 TABLE 4 INTERRATER RELIABILITY--THREE-DIMENSIONAL PUZZLE School Number Number o f C a te g o rie s sb X 2 ( d f = l l ) W 1 i 1 2 4 74 34.98 . 7 9 5 ** .925** 2 1 2 4 74 37.65 .856** .925** 3 1 2 4 80 3 6 .6 .832** 1 . 0 0 0 ** 4 1 2 4 74 33.96 .766** .925** 5 1 2 4 74 36.54 .830** .925** 6 1 2 4 6 6 35.77 .813** .825** 7 1 2 4 80 37.79 .859** 1 . 0 0 0 ** 8 1 2 4 72 35.33 .803** .900** 9 [ 1 2 4 74 35.95 .817** .925** 1 0 1 2 4 80 37.31 .848** 1 . 0 0 0 ** R e fe rs to th e o r i g i n a l B ales c a t e g o r i e s (12) C a te g o rie s 1 - 3 , 4 - 6 , 7 -9 , and 10-12 combined a s 4 new c a t e g o r i e s . o r to and t r e a t e d bF o r N > 7 t h e r e f o r e 2 X r e p l a c e s s f o r t e s t i n g th e s ig n i f i c a n c e o f W; s i s ta b u la te d o n ly f o r few er th a n 7 c a t e g o r i e s . **p < . 0 1 TABLE 5 INTERRATER RELIABILITY--LEADERLESS GROUP 92 DISCUSSION School Number Number o f C a te g o rie s s b X2 ( d f = l l ) W 1 1 2 35.61 .809** 4 80 1 . 0 0 0 ** 2 1 2 4 0 .8 1 .927** 4 80 1 . 0 0 0 ** 3 1 2 37.59 .854** 4 80 1 . 0 0 0 ** 4 1 2 39.81 .904** 4 80 1 . 0 0 0 ** 5 1 2 3 8 .8 .881** 4 76.5 .980** 6 1 2 40.22 .914** 4 72.5 .929** 7 1 2 42.12 .957** 4 72 .900** 8 1 2 39.11 . 8 8 8 ** 4 80 1 . 0 0 0 ** 9 1 2 40 .4 4 .919** 4 74 ^925** 1 0 1 2 39.66 .901** 4 80 1 . 0 0 0 ** fl R e fe rs to th e o r i g i n a l B ales c a t e g o r i e s (12) o r to C a te g o rie s 1 -3 , 4 - 6 , 7 -9 , and 10-12 combined and t r e a t e d as 4 new c a t e g o r i e s . b 2 F or N > 7 x r e p la c e s s f o r t e s t i n g th e s ig n i f i c a n c e o f W; t h e r e f o r e s i s t a b u l a t e d o n ly f o r few er th a n 7 c a t e g o r i e s . **p < .01 93 T a b le s 6 th ro u g h 11 show th e K en d all c o e f f i c i e n t o f 2 co n co rd an ce W, x > and th e s ta te m e n t o f p r o b a b i l i t y o f agreem ent on s u b je c tiv e ra n k in g s o f th e sc h o o ls on e f f e c - t i v i t y and e f f i c i e n c y . T ab le 6 shows th e i n t e r r a t e r agreem ent on ra n k in g s o f e f f e c t i v i t y o f th e te n s c h o o ls o f th e p re s e n t stu d y j d u rin g p la y o f Scram bled S q u a re s. W * .4 7 7 , w hich i s | ju d g ed to be w ith in th e c r i t i c a l r e g io n ; p < .05. | T able 7 shows th e i n t e r r a t e r agreem ent on ra n k in g s ! o f e f f e c t i v i t y o f th e te n sc h o o ls o f th e p re s e n t stu d y | d u rin g p la y o f T h re e -d im e n sio n a l P u z z le . W = .2 7 6 , w hich j i s judged to be o u ts id e th e c r i t i c a l r e g io n ; p < .50. T ab le 8 shows th e i n t e r r a t e r agreem ent on ra n k in g s o f e f f e c t i v i t y o f th e te n sc h o o ls o f th e p r e s e n t stu d y d u rin g p la y o f L e a d e rle s s Group D is c u s s io n . W = .474, w hich i s ju d g ed to be w ith in th e c r i t i c a l r e g io n ; p < .0 5 . T ab le 9 shows th e i n t e r r a t e r agreem ent on ra n k in g s o f e f f i c i e n c y o f th e te n sc h o o ls o f th e p r e s e n t stu d y d u rin g p la y o f Scram bled S q u a re s. W = .4 2 6 , w hich i s ju d g ed to be w i t h i n th e c r i t i c a l r e g io n ; p < . 1 0 . T ab le 10 shows th e i n t e r r a t e r agreem ent on ra n k in g s j o f e f f i c i e n c y o f th e te n sc h o o ls o f th e p r e s e n t stu d y jduring p la y o f T h re e -d im e n sio n a l P u z z le . W = .405, w hich i s ju d g ed to be w i t h i n th e c r i t i c a l r e g io n ; p < . 2 0 . T ab le 11 shows th e i n t e r r a t e r agreem ent on ra n k in g s ;of e f f i c i e n c y o f th e te n sc h o o ls o f th e p r e s e n t stu d y 94 TABLE 6 INTERRATER RELIABILITY-EFFECTIVITY SCRAMBLED SQUARES S c h o o 1 Nu m b e r a n d R a n k R a te r 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 4 8 3 2 9 10 7 6 5 1 2 3 7 4 2 8 9 6 10 5 1 3 3 6 7 1 8 1 0 9 4 5 2 W = .477 2 X = 17 .172 (d f = 9) p < .05 95 INTERRATER THREE- TABLE 7 RELIABILITY-EFFECTIVITY DIMENSIONAL PUZZLE R a te r S c h o o 1 N u m b e r a n d R a n k 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 5 10 4 3 7 9 2 6 8 1 2 6 5 1 0 4 1 7 2 9 8 3 3 9 7 4 3 2 8 1 0 6 5 1 W * . 2 7 6 X 2 = 9. 936 ( d f = 9) P < .50 I 96 TABLE 8 INTERRATER RELIABILITY-EFFECTIVITY LEADERLESS GROUP DISCUSSION S c h o o 1 N u m b e r a n d R a n k R a te r 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 4 7 1 0 2 9 8 5 6 3 1 2 4 7 9 3 6 1 0 2 8 5 1 3 2 8 9 4 5 7 6 1 0 3 1 W = .474 2 X = 17 .064 (d f = 9) P < .05 97 TABLE 9 INTERRATER RELIABILITY-EFFICIENCY SCRAMBLED SQUARES S c h o o l N u m b e r a n d R a n k R a te r 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8 10 4 10 7 10 2 8 W = .426 x 2 = 15.336 (d f = 9 ) p < .10 98 i TABLE 10 INTERRATER RELIABILITY-EFFICIENCY THREE-DIMENSIONAL PUZZLE S c h o o l N u m b e r a n d R a n k R a te r 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 5 10 4 3 7 9 2 6 8 1 2 6 9 10 5 2 8 3 7 4 1 3 2 8 10 4 3 9 6 7 5 1 W = .405 x 2 - 14.580 (d f = 9 ) p < .20 99 TABLE 11 INTERRATER RELIABILITY-EFFICIENCY LEADERLESS GROUP DISCUSSION R a n k R a te r S c h o o 1 N u m b e r a n d 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 6 2 1 0 3 4 9 7 8 5 1 2 4 6 9 3 8 1 0 2 5 7 1 3 2 5 1 0 4 6 8 3 9 7 1 W = .441 x2 = 15 .876 (d f = 9) P < . 1 0 100 d u rin g p la y o f L e a d e rle s s Group D is c u s s io n . W » .4 4 1 , w hich i s ju d g ed to be w it h i n th e c r i t i c a l r e g io n ; p < . 1 0 R e s u lts o f T e s tin g th e H ypotheses The Spearman ra n k c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t ( r ) was u sed to t e s t a l l th e h y p o th e se s o f th e p r e s e n t s tu d y . S ie g e l (1956) s a y s , "Of a l l th e s t a t i s t i c s b ased on r a n k s , th e Spearman ra n k c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t . . . i s p erh ap s th e b e s t known to d a y [p . 2 0 2 ] ." The t e c h n i q u e r e q u i r e s o r d i n a l d a t a s o t h a t e n t i t i e s may be ran k ed i n two o rd e re d s e r i e s . The method u s e s th e sum o f th e sq u a re s o f d i f f e r e n c e s betw een th e two s e t s o f ra n k s . The f o r m u l a f o r r i s s N 6 i - 1 r s " 1 -------3------- s IT - N ( S ie g e l, 1956, fo rm u la 9 .7 , p . 204) (See S ie g e l , 1956, pp. 202-213, f o r d e t a i l s o f m eth o d .) F or N > 9, th e s ig n if ic a n c e o f r can be t e s t e d by s i c o m p u ta tio n o f S tu d e n t s t and r e f e r e n c e to a t a b l e o f c r i t i c a l v a lu e s o f t . To compute t : ( S ie g e l, 1956, formula 9.8, p. 212) I H y p o th esis 1 : T here i s a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e E s p r it o f o r g a n iz a tio n s and th e human I i n t e r a c t i o n p ro c e s s e s e x h ib ite d by th e same o rg a n i z a t i o n s d u rin g p la y o f th e s h o rt s im u la tio n games u sed i n th e p r e s e n t s tu d y . The E s p r it ra n k in g s a re d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to th e s c o re s on th e E s p r i t s u b te s t o f th e OCDQ; ra n k 1 was a s sig n e d to th e sc h o o l w ith th e h ig h e s t s c o r e . Ranks on C ateg o ry 4 w ere a s s ig n e d by com puting th e number o f a c ts in C ateg o ry 4 as a r a t i o o f th e number o f a c t s i n a l l c a t e g o r i e s . The sc h o o l w ith th e s m a lle s t r a t i o was a s sig n e d ran k 1 . Each s u b h y p o th e s is was t e s t e d in d e p e n d e n tly . The s t a t i s t i c a l t e s t a p p lie d to th e d a ta was Spearman ra n k c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t . F or a o n e - t a i l e d t e s t o f s i g n i f i cance a t Ot ■ . 1 0 , th e c r i t i c a l v a lu e o f t i s 1 .3 7 2 . I i ^ l ( a ) ’ ra n ^ E s p r it - ra n ^ C ateg o ry 4 (T h re e -d im e n sio n a l P u z z le ) 102 T ab le 12 p r e s e n ts th e r a n k s , r g and t f o r T h ree- d i m e n s i o n a l P u z z l e . H ^ (a ) p o s t u l a t e s p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n betw een ran k p o s it i o n s on E s p r it s c o re s and r a t i o s o f C ateg o ry 4 a c t s d is p la y e d d u rin g p la y o f T h re e -d im e n sio n a l P u z z le . The computed c o r r e l a t i o n i s p o s i t i v e ( r ■ .0 5 4 ), s b u t i s o u t s i d e t h e c r i t i c a l r e g i o n ( t = .152) and m u st b e e v a l u a t e d a s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t . T he n u l l h y p o t h e s i s i s a c c e p t e d ; t h e r e i s no p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n E s p r i t i s c o r e s an d C a te g o r y 4 a c t s d i s p l a y e d d u r i n g p l a y o f T h r e e - I d i m e n s i o n a l P u z z l e . j j ^ l ( b ) * r a n ^ E s p r i t ™ r a n ^ C a te g o r y 4 ( L e a d e r l e s s G roup I D i s c u s s i o n ) j H0 ( b ) : r s ( x y ) — 0 | ' I T a b le 13 p r e s e n ts th e ra n k s r g and t f o r L e a d e rle s s Group D is c u s s io n , ^ i ( b ) P °s t u l a t e s p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n [between ran k p o s it i o n s i n E s p r it s c o re s and r a t i o s o f C ateg o ry 4 a c t s d is p la y e d d u rin g p la y o f L e a d e rle s s Group D is c u s s io n . The computed c o r r e l a t i o n i s p o s i t i v e j ( r g = .673) and ex ceed s th e c r i t i c a l v a lu e o f t ( t = 2 .5 7 0 ) .j I T he c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t i s w i t h i n t h e c r i t i c a l r e g i o n a n d c a n b e e v a l u a t e d a s b e i n g s i g n i f i c a n t . The n u l l [ h y p o t h e s i s i s r e j e c t e d . The r e s e a r c h h y p o t h e s i s t h a t t h e r e i s a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n E s p r i t s c o r e s an d i n t e r - j a c t i o n p r o c e s s i s s u p p o r t e d . ! 103 i ' TABLE 12 RANK ON ESPRIT COMPARED TO RANK ON CATEGORY (THREE-DIMENSIONAL PUZZLE) 4 « = = School Number E s p r it Score E s p r i t Rank R a tio o f C a te g o rie s 1 -1 2 /4 C ateg o ry 4 Rank 1 60.98 4 7 .4 1 9 2 60 .4 6 6 14.4 9 9 3 60.77 5 1 0 . 1 4 1 4 52.89 1 0 10.9 5 25 5 5 3 .6 6 9 15.5 1 0 1 6 61.52 2 1 2 . 1 7 25 7 5 8 .8 6 8 8 .9 2 36 8 6 0 .0 1 7 1 1 . 8 6 1 9 64.21 1 1 2 . 2 8 49 1 0 61.34 3 9 .3 054 t = 3 Ed. 2 .152 _ 0 =156 104 I I I TABLE 13 RANK ON ESPRIT COMPARED TO RANK ON CATEGORY 4 i (LEADERLESS GROUP DISCUSSION) H j ^ School Number E s p r it Score E s p r it Rank R a tio o f C a te g o r ie s 1 -1 2 /4 C ateg o ry 4 Rank < i 2 i 1 60.98 4 8 . 2 4 0 2 60.46 6 9 .3 7 1 3 60.77 5 1 4 .1 1 0 25 4 5 2 .8 9 1 0 1 0 .4 9 1 5 53 .6 6 9 8 .3 5 16 6 61.52 2 6 . 0 1 1 7 5 8 .8 6 8 9 .0 6 4 8 60 .0 1 7 10.3 8 1 9 64.21 1 6 .4 3 4 1 0 61.34 3 6 . 1 2 M i 2 _L = 54 r s .673 t - 2 .5 7 0 p < .025 105 H y p o th e sis 2 ; T here i s a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e E s p r it s c o re s o f o r g a n iz a tio n s and th e perform ance s c o re s w hich th e same o r g a n iz a tio n s I a c h ie v e in th e s h o r t s im u la tio n games u sed i n th e p r e s e n t s tu d y . (H y p o th esis 2 i s t e s t e d on th e two s h o rt s im u la tio n gam es, Scram bled Squares and T h re e -d im e n sio n a l P u z z le , w hich y i e l d perform ance s c o r e s .) i The E s p r it ra n k in g s a r e d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to th e s c o r e s on th e E s p r it s u b te s t o f th e OCDQ; ran k 1 was a s s ig n e d to th e sc h o o l w ith th e h ig h e s t s c o re . Ranks on j p erfo rm an ce tim e were a s s ig n e d from 1 to 1 0 , s h o r t e s t tim e i to lo n g e s t tim e . Each s u b h y p o th e s is was t e s t e d in d e p e n d e n tly . The s t a t i s t i c a l t e s t a p p lie d to th e d a ta was Spearman rank c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t . F or a o n e - t a i l e d t e s t o f s i g n i f i c a n c e , a t <X= .1 0 , th e c r i t i c a l v a lu e o f t i s 1 .3 7 2 . ^ 2 ( a ) ' ra n ^ E s p r it ra n ^p erfo rm an ce tim e (Scram bled j S q u a res) j H0 ( a ) * r s(x y ) - 0 T ab le 14 p r e s e n ts th e r a n k s , r , and t f o r Scrambled s S q u a re s. H2 (a ) Po s t u l a t e s a p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n betw een ra n k p o s i t i o n on E s p r i t s c o re s and perform ance tim e on Scram bled S q u a re s. The computed c o r r e l a t i o n i s p o s i t i v e j ( r s = .079) b u t i s o u ts id e th e c r i t i c a l r e g io n ( t ■ .229) 106 TABLE 14 RANK ON ESPRIT COMPARED TO RANK ON PERFORMANCE TIME (SCRAMBLED SQUARES) School Number E s p r it Score E s p r i t Rank P erform ance Time (Seconds) Perform ance Time Rank » i 2 1 60.98 4 390 4 0 2 60.46 6 775 1 0 16 3 60.77 5 410 5 0 4 52.89 1 0 280 1 81 5 53.66 9 450 7 4 6 61.52 2 693 9 49 7 58.86 8 591 8 0 8 60.01 7 446 6 1 9 64.21 1 288 2 1 1 0 61.34 3 337 3 ___0 r .079 s t - .229 Edt 2 = 152 107 ! I and m ust be e v a lu a te d as n o t s i g n i f i c a n t . The n u l l h y p o th - , t e s i s i s a c c e p te d ; th e r e i s no p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n betw een I E s p r it s c o re s and perform ance tim e s o f o r g a n iz a tio n s f o r ! p la y o f Scram bled S q u ares. j i ^2 (b )* ra n ^ E s p r i t - ra n ^ p erfo rm an ce tim e (T h re e - j d im e n sio n a l P u z z le ) j “ o ( b ) : r s (x y ) i 0 T ab le 15 p r e s e n ts th e ran k s and r g f o r T h re e - d im e n sio n a l P u z z le . ^2(b) P °s t u ^a t e s a p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n betw een ra n k p o s i t i o n on E s p r i t s c o re s and perform ance tim e on T h re e -d im e n sio n a l P u z z le . The computed c o r r e l a t i o n i s n e g a tiv e ( r = - .6 1 6 ) . T h e re f o re , th e n u l l h y p o th e s is i s a c c e p te d ; t h e r e i s no p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n betw een E s p r it s c o re s and p erfo rm an ce tim e s o f o r g a n iz a tio n s f o r p la y o f T h re e -d im e n sio n a l P u z z le . H y p o th esis 3 : There i s a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e E s p r it s c o re s o f o r g a n iz a tio n s and th e number o f human i n t e r a c t i o n a c ts p er m inute o f th e same o r g a n iz a tio n s d u rin g p la y o f th e s h o r t s im u la t i o n games u se d i n th e p r e s e n t s tu d y . (H y p o th esis 3 i s t e s t e d on a l l t h r e e o f th e s h o r t s im u la tio n gam es, Scram bled S q u ares, T h re e -d im e n sio n a l P u z z le , and L e a d e rle s s Group D is c u s s io n .) L 108 TABLE 15 RANK ON ESPRIT COMPARED TO RANK ON PERFORMANCE TIME (THREE-DIMENSIONAL PUZZLE) „ , „ __.. P erform ance P erfo n n an ce 9 School E sp rx t E s p r it T ine Time d 2 Number S core Rank (Seconds^ Rank_________ L_ 1 60.98 4 765 9 25 2 6 0 .4 6 6 860 10 16 3 60.77 5 580 4 1 4 5 2 .8 9 10 546 3 49 5 5 3 .6 6 9 417 1 64 6 61.52 2 757 8 36 7 5 8 .8 6 8 628 5 9 8 6 0 .0 1 7 424 2 25 9 64.21 1 732 7 36 10 6 1 .3 4 3 725 6 9 Zdi = 270 r = -.6 1 6 s The E s p r it ra n k in g s a r e d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to th e s c o re s on th e E s p r it s u b te s t o f th e OCDQ; ran k 1 was a s s ig n e d to th e s c h o o l w ith th e h ig h e s t s c o r e . Ranks on a c ts p e r m in u te were a s s ig n e d by o r d e rin g th e sc h o o ls a c c o rd in g to th e number o f b e h a v io r a l a c ts e x h ib ite d p e r m in u te . The sc h o o l w ith th e g r e a t e s t number o f a c t s p e r m inute was a s s ig n e d th e ran k o f 1. . Each s u b h y p o th e s is was t e s t e d in d e p e n d e n tly . The t s t a t i s t i c a l t e s t a p p lie d to th e d a ta was Spearman ra n k j i c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t , r . F o r a o n e - t a i l e d t e s t o f ! s s i g n i f i c a n c e , a t (X= .1 0 , th e c r i t i c a l v a lu e o f t i s 1 .3 7 2 . ^ 3 (a)* ra n ^ E s p r it ra n ^number o f a c ts p e r m in u te (Scram bled S q u ares) H0 ( a ) : r s (x y ) - 0 T ab le 16 p r e s e n ts th e ran k s and r g f o r Scram bled S q u a re s. ^ 3 (a ) Po s t u l a t e s a p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n betw een ran k p o s it i o n s on E s p r i t s c o re s and number o f b e h a v io r a l j a c t s p e r m in u te d is p la y e d d u rin g p la y o f Scram bled S q u a re s, j The computed c o r r e l a t i o n i s n e g a tiv e ( r = - .3 3 3 ) . T h e re - i S i f o r e , th e n u l l h y p o th e s is i s a c c e p te d ; th e r e i s no p o s i t i v e | I c o r r e l a t i o n betw een E s p r it s c o re s and th e number o f b e h a v io r a l a c t s p e r m inute d is p la y e d d u rin g p la y o f ■ 1 Scram bled S q u a re s. 110 TABLE 16 RANK ON ESPRIT COMPARED TO RANK ON NUMBER OF ACTS PER MINUTE EMITTED DURING PLAY OF SHORT SIMULATION GAM E (SCRAMBLED SQUARES) y ............ School Number E s p r it S core E s p r it Rank Number o f A cts p e r M inute (Give & Take) A cts p e r M inute Rank “i 2 1 60.98 4 2 7 .8 5 1 2 60.46 6 2 0 .4 9 9 3 60.77 5 2 7 .9 4 1 4 5 2 .8 9 10 4 1 .1 1 81 5 5 3.66 9 2 3 .3 8 1 6 61.52 2 2 4 .4 7 25 7 5 8 .8 6 8 2 6 .8 6 4 8 60.01 7 3 7 .8 3 16 9 64.21 1 1 9 .4 10 81 10 6 1.34 3 r s 4 0 .7 - -.3 3 3 2 Sdi2 = ___1 220 ; i l l H3 ( b ) : ra n k E s p r i t _ ra n k number o f a c t s p e r m inute (T h re e -d im e n sio n a l P u zzle) | i H0 ( b ) : r s(x y ) — 0 T ab le 17 p r e s e n ts th e ran k s and r f o r T h ree- I d im e n sio n a l P u z z le . H3 (b ) p o s tu l a t e s a p o s i t i v e c o r re la tio n ! b etw een ran k p o s it i o n s on E s p r it s c o re s and number o f j b e h a v io r a l a c t s p e r m inute d is p la y e d d u rin g p la y o f T h re e- | d im e n sio n a l P u z z le . The computed c o r r e l a t i o n i s n e g a tiv e j ( r = - .3 3 3 ) . T h e re f o re , th e n u l l h y p o th e s is i s a c c e p te d ; s t h e r e i s no p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n b etw een E s p r i t sc o re s and th e number o f b e h a v io r a l a c t s p er m inute d is p la y e d d u rin g p la y o f T h re e -d im e n sio n a l P u z z le . H3 ( c ) : ra n ^ E s p r it ~ ra n ^number o f a c t s p e r m inute ! (L e a d e rle s s Group D is c u ss io n ) H0 ( c ) : r s(x y ) ^ 0 T ab le 18 p r e s e n ts th e ra n k s and r g f o r L e a d e rle s s l Group D is c u s s io n . p o s t u l a t e s a p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n | betw een ran k p o s it i o n s on E s p r it s c o re s and number o f I b e h a v io r a l a c ts p e r m inute d is p la y e d d u rin g p la y o f L ead er- j l e s s Group D is c u s s io n . The computed c o r r e l a t i o n i s n e g a t i v e j ( r = - .5 3 9 ) . T h e re f o re , th e n u l l h y p o th e s is i s a c c e p te d ; s t h e r e i s no p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n betw een E s p r i t s c o re s and th e number o f b e h a v io r a l a c t s p e r m in u te d is p la y e d d u rin g p la y o f L e a d e rle s s Group D is c u s s io n . 112 TABLE 17 RANK ON ESPRIT COMPARED TO RANK ON NUMBER OF ACTS PER MINUTE EMITTED DURING PLAY OF SHORT SIMULATION GAM E (THREE-DIMENSIONAL PUZZLE) H - j ^ School E s p r it E s p r it dumber o f A cts p e r “ T TlTi ir.iU r-i-y> d n r i i j - AC t S p6 r Mlllllt 6 d • Number Score Rank M inute Rank 1 60.98 4 18.5 5 1 2 60.46 6 2 1 .4 1 25 3 60.77 5 17.8 7 4 4 52.89 1 0 1 8 .4 6 16 5 53.66 9 2 1 .3 2 49 6 61.52 2 17.3 8 36 7 58.86 8 1 8 .8 4 16 8 60.01 7 1 3 .6 1 0 9 9 64.21 1 16.3 9 64 1 0 61.34 3 1 8 .9 r g = -.3 3 3 3 M i 2 0 = 2 2 0 113 TABLE 18 1 RANK ON ESPRIT COMPARED TO RANK ON NUMBER OF ACTS PER MINUTE EMITTED DURING PLAY OF SHORT SIMULATION GAM E (LEADERLESS GROUP DISCUSSION) j School Number i E s p r i t S core E s p r it Rank Number o f A cts p e r M inute A cts p e r M inute Rank - i 2 1 60.98 4 8 . 8 7 9 2 6 0 .4 6 6 1 1 . 1 4 4 3 i 60.77 5 9 .9 6 1 4 5 2 .8 9 1 0 11.9 3 49 5 5 3 .6 6 9 12.9 2 49 6 61.52 2 5 .6 1 0 64 7 5 8 .8 6 8 1 1 . 0 5 9 8 6 0 .0 1 7 8 .3 8 1 9 64.21 1 8 . 2 9 64 1 0 6 1 .3 4 3 15.8 -.5 3 9 1 Ed. 2 = X 4 254 114 H y p o th esis 4 : T here i s a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e E s p r it s c o re s o f o r g a n iz a tio n s and o b s e r v e r s ' judgm ents ab o u t th e e f f e c t i v i t y o f th e same o r g a n iz a tio n s d u rin g p la y o f th e s h o rt I s im u la tio n games used in th e p r e s e n t s tu d y . (H y p o th esis 4 i s t e s t e d on a l l t h r e e s h o r t sim u- j l a t i o n games u sed in th e p r e s e n t s tu d y , Scram bled j ! S q u a re s, T h re e -d im e n sio n a l P u z z le , and L e a d e rle s s Group D is c u s s io n .) The E s p r it ra n k in g s a r e d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to th e sc o re s on th e E s p r it s u b te s t o f th e OCDQ; ran k 1 was a ssig n e d to t h e s c h o o l w ith th e h ig h e s t s c o re . Ranks on e f f e c t i v i t y w ere a s s ig n e d by ra n k in g th e sc h o o ls on th e I sum of ra n k s a s s ig n e d to each sch o o l by th e th r e e r a t e r s . ' Each s u b h y p o th e s is was t e s t e d in d e p e n d e n tly . The s t a t i s t i c a l t e s t a p p lie d to th e d a ta was Spearman ran k c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t . For a o n e - t a i l e d t e s t o f s i g n i f i c a n c e , a t CX= .1 0 , th e c r i t i c a l v a lu e o f t i s 1 .3 7 2 . j H 4 ( a ) : r a n k E s p r it = ra n k e f f e c t i v i t y (Scram bled S q u ares) j i H0 ( a ) : r s (x y ) - 0 T a b le 19 p r e s e n ts th e r a n k s , r , and t f o r Scram bled > 8 S q u ares. H4 ( a ) Po s t u l a t e s a p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n betw een | irank p o s i t i o n s on E s p r i t s c o re s and r a t i n g s o f e f f e c t i v i t y ! |d u rin g p la y o f Scram bled S q u ares. The computed c o r r e l a t i o n 115 TABLE 19 RANK ON ESPRIT COMPARED TO RANK ON EFFECTIVITY (SCRAMBLED SQUARES) School Number E s p r it Score E s p r it Rank E f f e c t i v i t y Rank * i 2 1 60.98 4 3 1 2 6 0.46 6 7 1 3 60.77 5 4 1 4 5 2 .8 9 1 0 2 64 5 5 3 .6 6 9 9 0 6 61.52 2 1 0 64 7 58 .8 6 8 8 0 8 60.01 7 6 1 9 64.21 1 5 16 1 0 61.34 3 1 M i 2 4 = 152 r = s .079 t = .229 i s p o s i t i v e ( r g ■ .0 7 9 ), b u t i s o u ts id e th e c r i t i c a l r e g io n ( t « .2 2 9 ). T h e re f o re , th e n u l l h y p o th e s is i s a c c e p te d ; i t h e r e i s no p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n betw een ra n k p o s it i o n s on ! i E s p r i t s c o re s and r a t i n g s o f e f f e c t i v i t y d u rin g p la y o f j Scram bled S q u a re s. J i H4 ( b ) : ra n k E s p r it ~ ra n k e f f e c t i v i t y (T h re e -d im e n sio n a l P u z z le ) H0 ( b ) : r s(xy) — 0 T able 20 p r e s e n ts th e ra n k s and r g f o r T h ree- d im e n sio n a l P u z z le . H 4 (b ) P o s tu la te s a p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n betw een ran k p o s i t i o n s on E s p r it s c o re s and r a t i n g s o f e f f e c t i v i t y d u rin g p la y o f T h re e -d im e n sio n a l P u z z le . The computed c o r r e l a t i o n i s n e g a tiv e ( r = - .4 1 8 ) . T h e re f o re , th e n u l l h y p o th e s is i s a c c e p te d ; t h e r e i s no p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n betw een ra n k p o s it i o n s on E s p r i t s c o re s and r a t i n g s o f e f f e c t i v i t y d u rin g p la y o f T h re e -d im e n sio n a l P u z z le . H4 ( c ) : ra n k E s p r it ~ ra n k e f f e c t i v i t y ( L e a d e rle s s Group D is c u s s io n ) H0 ( c ) ' r s(x y ) — 0 j T ab le 21 p r e s e n ts th e ra n k s and r g f o r L e a d e rle s s Group D is c u s s io n . p o s t u l a t e s a p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n betw een ran k p o s it i o n s on E s p r it s c o re s and r a t i n g s o f i e f f e c t i v i t y d u rin g p la y o f L e a d e rle s s Group D is c u s s io n . i jThe computed c o r r e l a t i o n i s n e g a tive ( r s = - .4 2 5 ).____________ 117 TABLE 2 0 RANK ON ESPRIT COMPARED TO RANK ON EFFECTIVITY (THREE-DIMENSIONAL PUZZLE) H4 (b ) School Number E s p r it Score E s p r it Rank E f f e c t i v i t y Rank “ i 2 1 60.98 4 6 4 2 6 0 .4 6 6 9 9 3 60.77 5 5 0 4 5 2 .8 9 1 0 2 64 5 5 3.66 9 3 36 6 61.52 2 1 0 64 7 5 8 .8 6 8 4 16 8 60.01 7 8 1 9 6 4 .2 1 1 7 36 1 0 61.34 3 1 M i 2 4 =234 r = .418 s 118 TABLE 21 RANK ON ESPRIT COMPARED TO RANK ON EFFECTIVITY (LEADERLESS GROUP DISCUSSION) School E s p r it E s p r it E f f e c t i v i t y , 2 Number Score Rank Rank i 1 60.98 4 3 1 2 60.46 6 7 1 3 60.77 5 10 25 4 5 2 .8 9 10 2 64 5 53.66 9 6 9 6 61.52 2 9 49 7 5 8 .8 6 8 5 9 8 60.01 7 8 1 9 6 4 .2 1 1 4 9 10 61.34 3 1 4 EcL2 - 172 r g = -.4 2 5 119 T h e re f o re , th e n u l l h y p o th e s is i s a c c e p te d ; th e r e i s no p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n b etw een rank p o s it i o n s on E s p r it j s c o re s and r a t i n g s o f e f f e c t i v i t y d u rin g p la y o f L e a d e rle s s ■ Group D is c u s s io n . J ; | H y p o th esis 5 : T here i s a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p j betw een th e E s p r i t s c o re s o f o r g a n iz a tio n s and o b s e r v e r s ' judgm ents a b o u t th e e f f i c i e n c y o f th e same o r g a n iz a tio n s d u rin g p la y o f th e s h o rt i l s im u la tio n games used i n th e p r e s e n t s tu d y . (H y p o th esis 5 i s t e s t e d on a l l t h r e e s h o rt s im u la tio n games used i n th e p r e s e n t s tu d y , Scram bled S q u a re s, T h re e -d im e n sio n a l P u z z le , and L e a d e rle s s Group D is c u s s io n .) The E s p r it ra n k in g s a re d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to th e s c o re s on th e E s p r it s u b te s t o f th e OCDQ; ran k 1 was a s s ig n e d to th e s c h o o l w ith th e h i g h e s t s c o re . Ranks on i e f f i c i e n c y w ere a s s ig n e d by ra n k in g th e sc h o o ls on th e sum j i o f ran k s a s sig n e d to each sc h o o l by th e t h r e e r a t e r s . | Each su b h y p o th e s is was t e s t e d in d e p e n d e n tly . The I i s t a t i s t i c a l t e s t a p p lie d t o th e d a t a was Spearman ra n k ! c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t . F o r a o n e - t a i l e d t e s t o f s i g n i f ic a n c e , a t 0 t= . 1 0 , th e c r i t i c a l v a lu e o f t i s 1 .3 7 2 . i i ^5 ( a ) ' ra n ^ E s p r i t ~ r a n ^ e £ f ic ie n c y (Scram bled S q u ares) H0 ( a ) * r s (x y ) — 0 T ab le 22 p r e s e n t s th e ra n k s , r g , and t f o r Sc ram bled j j S q u a re s. ^ 5 (a ) p o s t u l a t e s a p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n betw een j ran k p o s it i o n s on E s p r i t s c o re s and r a t i n g s o f e f f i c i e n c y i d u rin g p la y o f Scram bled S q u a re s . The computed c o r r e l a t i o n i s p o s i t i v e (r = .0 5 5 ) , b u t i s o u ts id e th e c r i t i c a l r e g io n ( t = .1 4 6 ). T h e re f o re , th e n u l l h y p o th e s is i s a c c e p te d ; t h e r e i s no p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n betw een ran k p o s i t i o n s on E s p r it and r a t i n g s o f e f f i c i e n c y d u rin g p la y o f Scram bled S q u a re s . H5 ( b ) ’ ra n ^ E s p r it ~ ra n ^ e f f i c i e n c y (T h re e -d im e n sio n a l P u z z le ) H0 ( b ) : r s(x y ) - 0 T a b le 23 p r e s e n t s th e ran k s and r g f o r T h re e - d im e n sio n a l P u z z le , ^ ( b ) p o s t u l a t e s a p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n betw een ran k p o s it i o n s on E s p r it s c o re s and r a t i n g s ;of e f f i c i e n c y d u rin g p la y o f T h re e -d im e n sio n a l P u z z le . The computed c o r r e l a t i o n i s n e g a tiv e ( r = - .0 7 7 ) . T h e re f o re , th e n u l l h y p o th e s is i s a c c e p te d ; th e r e i s no p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n betw een ra n k p o s it i o n s on E s p r it and r a t i n g s o f e f f i c i e n c y d u rin g p la y o f T h re e -d im e n sio n a l P u z z le . j | H5 ( c ) : ra n ^ E s p r it ~ ran ^ e f f i c i e n c y (L e a d e rle s s Group D is c u s s io n ) H0 ( c ) : r s(x y ) ^ 0 T a b le 24 p r e s e n t s th e ra n k s and r g f o r L e a d e rle s s j Group Di s c u s s i o n . H«s(c) p o s tu l a t e s a p o s it i v e c o r r e l a t i o n [ 121 TABLE 22 RANK ON ESPRIT COMPARED TO RANK ON EFFICIENCY (SCRAMBLED SQUARES) ^ ^ School Number E s p r it Score E s p r it Rank E f f ic ie n c y Rank 1 60.98 4 5 1 2 60.46 6 7 1 3 60.77 5 6 1 4 52.89 1 0 2 64 5 5 3 .6 6 9 9 0 6 61.52 2 1 0 64 7 5 8 .8 6 8 4 16 8 60.01 7 8 1 9 64.21 1 3 4 1 0 61.34 3 r = .055 s 1 Edt 2 4 = 156 122 TABLE 23 RANK ON ESPRIT COMPARED TO RANK ON EFFICIENCY (THREE-DIMENSIONAL PUZZLE) H 5 ^b ^ School Number E s p r it Score E s p r it Rank E f f ic ie n c y Rank di 2 1 60.98 4 5 1 2 60.46 6 1 0 16 3 60.77 5 8 9 4 5 2 .8 9 1 0 4 36 5 53.66 9 3 36 6 61.52 2 9 49 7 5 8 .8 6 8 2 36 8 60.01 7 7 0 9 64.21 1 6 25 1 0 61.34 3 r s * - - 0 7 7 1 M i 2 4 = 2 1 2 123 TABLE 24 RANK ON ESPRIT COMPARED TO RANK ON EFFICIENCY (LEADERLESS GROUP DISCUSSION) School E s p r it E s p r it E f f ic ie n c y , 2 Number Score Rank Rank i 1 60.98 4 3 1 2 60.46 6 5 1 3 60.77 5 1 0 25 4 5 2 .8 9 1 0 2 64 5 53.66 9 6 9 6 61.52 2 9 49 7 5 8 .8 6 8 4 16 8 60.01 7 8 1 9 64.21 1 7 36 1 0 6 1.34 3 r = -.2 4 8 s 1 4 Ld^ 2 = 206 i 124 i i ! b e t w e e n r a n k p o s i t i o n s o n E s p r i t s c o r e s a n d r a t i n g s o f j e f f i c i e n c y d u r i n g p l a y o f L e a d e r l e s s G ro u p D i s c u s s i o n . The computed c o r r e l a t i o n i s n e g a tiv e ( r * - .2 4 8 ) . T h e re f o re , t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s i s a c c e p t e d ; t h e r e i s no p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n r a n k p o s i t i o n s o n E s p r i t an d r a t i n g s o f j e f f i c i e n c y d u r i n g p l a y o f L e a d e r l e s s G roup D i s c u s s i o n . I Summary T he r e s e a r c h u n d e r t a k e n i n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y w as d e s i g n e d t o a n s w e r tw o m a jo r q u e s t i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e u s e o f i s h o r t s i m u l a t i o n gam es a s f i e l d - i n s t r u m e n t s f o r t h e s t u d y 'o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b e h a v i o r . The r e s u l t s o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s e a r c h p e r f o r m e d w as r e p o r t e d i n C h a p t e r V. T he r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s w e re r e p o r t e d i n t h e fo rm o f jh y p o th e s e s an d t e s t s o f t h e h y p o t h e s e s . I t w as p o s t u l a t e d t h a t t h e r e w o u ld b e p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n s b e tw e e n t h e r e s u l t s o f a n e s t a b l i s h e d m e a s u re o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e , t h e OCDQ, and t h e b e h a v i o r e x h i b i t e d by s m a l l g r o u p s fro m t h e same o r g a n i z a t i o n s d u r i n g p l a y o f s e v e r a l s h o r t s i m u l a t i o n g a m e s. A re v ie w o f th e f in d in g s r e v e a l s l i t t l e p o s i t i v e C o r r e l a t io n b etw een m easu res o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c lim a te and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p r o c e s s , p e rfo rm a n c e , and e f f e c t i v i t y and e f f i c i e n c y . CHAPTER VI SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND CONCLUSION C h a p t e r VI p r e s e n t s a r e v ie w o f t h e p r o b le m and a summary o f t h e m e th o d o lo g y , d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e f i n d i n g s , an d re c o m m e n d a tio n s f o r f u r t h e r s t u d y an d r e s e a r c h i n o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b e h a v i o r . Summary P ro b le m A m a jo r g o a l o f m uch r e s e a r c h o n o r g a n i z a t i o n s i s k n o w le d g e o f t h e b e h a v i o r p r o c e s s e s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n s . One o f t h e m a jo r p r o b le m s i n t h e s t u d y o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p r o c e s s h a s b e e n t h a t o u tc o m e s o f t h e s t u d y o f any s e t o f s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n a l e n t i t i e s h a v e b e e n s e r i o u s l y c o n fo u n d e d by a l a c k o f c o n t r o l o f t a s k i n p u t . I n o t h e r w o r d s , i f k n o w le d g e o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b e h a v i o r i s t o b e i n f e r r e d f r o m o r g a n i z a t i o n a l o u t p u t , t h e n i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o c o n t r o l o r g a n i z a t i o n a l i n p u t . The i n t e r n a l o p e r a t i o n s o f a n o r g a n is m c a n o n l y b e i n f e r r e d i f t h e 125 ! 126 i o u tp u t from and th e in p u t t o th e organism a r e known f a c t o r s . The p r e s e n t stu d y fo c u sse d on th e problem o f c o n t r o l l i n g in p u t t o o r g a n iz a tio n s so t h a t i n f e r e n c e s about th e i n t e r n a l b e h a v io r o f th e organism co u ld be s t r e n g t h ened. I t was p o s tu l a t e d t h a t an in c r e a s e i n c o n t r o l c o u ld b e ach iev ed by p ro v id in g th e s e v e r a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a l e n t i t i e s w ith a common s e t o f problem t a s k s . I t was f e l t t h a t th e p ro b le m -s o lv in g p ro c e s s e s c o u ld be r e l a t e d i n s e v e r a l ways t o an e s t a b l i s h e d in d ex o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b e h a v io r , o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c lim a te . The c e n t r a l problem o f t h i s stu d y was to d ev elo p and v a l i d a t e th e c o n c e p t o f u s in g s h o r t s im u la tio n games t o p ro v id e common t a s k s and a c o n t r o ll e d e n v iro n m e n ta l s i t u a t i o n f o r th e stu d y o f human i n t e r a c t i o n p ro c e s s e s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b e h a v io r. I Method The p r e s e n t stu d y used two sample p o p u la tio n s drawn from e ach o f e ig h t e le m e n ta ry and two in te r m e d ia te sc h o o ls w hich v o lu n te e r e d t o p a r t i c i p a t e in th e r e s e a r c h . The sample f o r th e O r g a n iz a tio n a l C lim ate D e s c r ip tio n Q u e s tio n n a i r e (OCDQ) c o n s is t e d o f th e e n t i r e f a c u l t y and th e p r i n c i p a l o f each o f th e t e n s c h o o ls . A second sm a ll group sample o f f i v e f a c u l t y members was drawn from each p a r t i c i p a tin g s c h o o l; a l l sm a ll groups p a r t i c i p a t e d i n th r e e s h o r t s im u la tio n gam es. At each s c h o o l, th e p r i n c i p a l r e p la c e d ! 127 | I :one o f th e f iv e f a c u l t y members f o r one o f th e t h r e e gam es, j ! Two o f t h e gam es, Scram bled S quares and T h re e - j i d im e n sio n a l P u z z le , w ere dev elo p ed as " i n t e r a c t i o n e x e r c i s e s " u n d e r th e d i r e c t i o n o f M. G. Holmen a t th e Management L a b o ra to ry , G rad u ate School o f B u sin ess A d m in is tr a tio n , U n iv e r s ity o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a . The t h i r d game was L e a d e rle s s Group D is c u s s io n , w hich i s q u i t e commonly u sed in th e s tu d y o f s m a ll group dynam ics. The a c t i v i t i e s o f th e s m a ll g roup w ere re c o rd e d on 0 .5 in c h t e l e v i s i o n ta p e . The ta p e s w ere a n a ly z e d a t a l a t e r tim e by f o u r o b s e rv e r s u s in g a s l i g h t m o d if ic a tio n o f B a le s ' I n t e r a c t i o n P ro c e ss A n a ly s is (IPA) sy stem . S ty le o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p ro c e s s e s w ere m easured by (a) th e amount o f tim e i t to o k f o r a g ro u p t o s o lv e th e m a n ip u la tio n t a s k s , (b) th e number o f b e h a v io r a l a c ts p e r m in u te , and (c) th e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f b e h a v io r a l a c t s as I c a te g o r iz e d by B a le s ' IPA. The g ro u p s a ls o w ere r a t e d on e f f e c t i v i t y and e f f i c i e n c y d u rin g p la y o f th e s h o rt s im u la tio n gam es. The m easures o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p ro c e ss w ere com p ared to m easu res o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c l im a te . S t a t i s t i c a l m ethodology f o r com paring th e two ty p e s o f m easures was ; n o n p a ra m e tric . 128 R e s u lts R e l i a b i l i t y I n t e r r a t e r agreem ent on B a le s ' IPA was t e s t e d by com puting th e K en d all c o e f f i c i e n t o f con co rd an ce W f o r th e s e v e r a l games f o r each s c h o o l. W was a ls o computed f o r th e r a t i n g s o f e f f e c t i v i t y and e f f i c i e n c y . T a b le s 3 th ro u g h 11 p r e s e n t th e r e s u l t s o f com puting W. I n t e r r a t e r agreem ent on B a le s ' IPA exceeded p < .05 w ith one e x c e p tio n , w hich was p < .1 0 . I n t e r r a t e r agreem ent on r a t i n g s o f e f f e c t i v i t y and e f f i c i e n c y exceeded p < . 1 0 w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f T h re e -d im e n sio n a l P u z z le , f o r w hich agreem ent was p < .50 f o r e f f e c t i v i t y and p < .20 f o r i e f f i c i e n c y . R e se a rc h Q u e stio n s l | The g e n e r a l t h e s i s o f th e p r e s e n t stu d y h o ld s t h a t j good o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c lim a te i s p o s i t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d w ith o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p erfo rm an ce. C o n se q u e n tly , a l l h y p o th e se s a r e d i r e c t i o n a l , p o s tu l a t i n g o n ly p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b etw een E s p r it s c o re s o f o r g a n iz a tio n s and m easures o f p erfo rm an ce i n s h o r t s im u la tio n games. U n id ir e c tio n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s a re h y p o th e s iz e d b ecau se o r g a n i z a t i o n a l E s p r it i s d e fin e d as a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c w hich sh o u ld be p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d to p erfo rm an ce. (See C h ap ter I I f o r d e f i n i t i o n o f E s p r i t .) 129 T h e re fo re , a lth o u g h some o f th e n e g a tiv e c o r r e l a t i o n s w hich were o b ta in e d would be s i g n i f i c a n t i f a two- t a i l e d t e s t were u s e d , o n ly p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n s can su p p o rt th e g e n e r a l t h e s i s o f th e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h s tu d y . Two e x p e rim e n ta l q u e s tio n s were a sk e d . The f i r s t q u e s tio n co n cern ed r e l a t i o n s h i p s betw een o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c lim a te and m easures o f human i n t e r a c t i o n p r o c e s s e s re v e a le d d u rin g p la y o f s h o rt s im u la tio n gam es. I H y p o th esis 1 p o s tu l a t e d a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p 1 betw een E s p r it s c o re s o f o r g a n iz a tio n s and th e i n t e r a c t i o n j p r o c e s s e s o f th e same o r g a n iz a tio n s d u rin g p la y o f th e i s h o r t s im u la tio n games. The h y p o th e s is was t e s t e d by j com paring ra n k s on E s p r it w ith ra n k s on C ategory 4 o f Bales'! I n t e r a c t i o n P ro c e ss A n a ly s is . T a b le s 12 and 13 show r e s u l t s o f th e c o m p ariso n s. C o r r e l a t io n o f E s p r it s c o re s and C ategory 4 on T h re e -d im e n sio n a l P u z z le was r g = .0 5 4 , w hichj i was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t . C o r r e l a t io n o f E s p r it s c o re s and I ! C ateg o ry 4 on L e a d e rle s s Group D is c u s s io n was r = .6 7 3 , j s w hich was s i g n i f i c a n t ; p < .025. R esearch H y p o th e sis 1 wasj ju d g ed to be p a r t i a l l y s u p p o rte d . ! The second r e s e a r c h q u e s tio n con cern ed r e l a t i o n - | j s h ip s betw een o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c lim a te and s e v e r a l m easu res j o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p erfo rm an ce. H y p o th esis 2 p o s tu l a t e d a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p i betw een E s p r it s c o re s o f o r g a n iz a tio n s and th e p erfo rm an ce j s c o re s th e same o r g a n iz a tio n s a c h ie v e d u rin g p la y o f th e ! 130 s h o r t s im u la tio n gam es. The h y p o th e s is was t e s t e d by com paring ra n k s on E s p r i t w ith ran k s on p erfo rm an ce. T a b le s 14 and 15 show th e r e s u l t s o f th e co m p ariso n s. j C o r r e l a t io n o f E s p r it s c o re s and perform ance on Scram bled i S quares i s r = .0 7 9 , w hich i s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t ; th e n u l l S ! h y p o th e s is was ju d g e d to be te n a b le . C o r r e la tio n o f E s p r it! I s c o re s and p erfo rm an ce on T h re e -d im e n sio n a l P u z z le i s ; r = - . 7 3 9 ; th e n u l l h y p o th e s is was ju d g ed to be t e n a b l e . j s The two t e s t s f a i l t o su p p o rt r e s e a r c h H y p o th esis 2 . ! I H y p o th e sis 3 p o s tu la te d a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e E s p r it s c o re s o f o r g a n iz a tio n s and th e number j o f b e h a v io r a l a c t s p e r m inute d is p la y e d by th e same o rg a n - I j i z a t i o n s d u rin g p la y o f th e s h o r t s im u la tio n games. The h y p o th e s is was t e s t e d by com paring ra n k s on E s p r it s c o re s w ith ra n k s on number o f a c t s . T a b le s 16 th ro u g h 18 show | i th e r e s u l t s o f th e c o m p a riso n s. C o r r e la tio n betw een E s p r it s c o re s and number o f a c t s on Scram bled S quares i s r g = j - .3 3 3 ; th e n u l l h y p o th e s is was ju d g ed to be t e n a b l e . j C o r r e la tio n betw een E s p r i t s c o re s and number o f a c t s on j T h re e -d im e n sio n a l P u z z le i s r g = - .3 3 3 ; th e n u l l h y p o th e s is j I was ju d g ed to be t e n a b l e . C o r r e l a t io n betw een E s p r it s c o re j and number o f a c t s on L e a d e rle s s Group D is c u s s io n i s r g = - .5 3 9 ; th e n u l l h y p o th e s is i s ju d g ed to be te n a b le . The th r e e t e s t s f a i l to su p p o rt r e s e a r c h H y p o th e sis 3. j i H y p o th esis 4 p o s tu l a t e d a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e E s p r it s c o re s o f o r g a n iz a tio n s and o b s e r v e r s ' 131 judgm ents ab o u t th e e f f e c t i v i t y o f th e same o r g a n iz a tio n s d u rin g p la y o f th e s h o r t s im u la tio n games. The h y p o th e s is was t e s t e d by com paring ra n k s on E s p r it s c o re s w ith ra n k s o f e f f e c t i v i t y . T a b le s 19 th ro u g h 21 show th e r e s u l t s o f th e c o m p a riso n s. C o r r e l a t io n betw een E s p r it s c o re s and e f f e c t i v i t y i n Scram bled S quares i s r * .0 7 9 , w hich i s n o t! s i g n i f i c a n t ; th e n u l l h y p o th e s is was ju d g ed t o be t e n a b l e . C o r r e l a t io n betw een E s p r it s c o re s and e f f e c t i v i t y i n T h ree- d im e n sio n a l P u z z le i s r = - .4 1 8 ; th e n u l l h y p o th e s is was s judged to be t e n a b l e . C o r r e l a t io n betw een E s p r it s c o re s and e f f e c t i v i t y in L e a d e rle s s Group D is c u s s io n i s r = s I - .4 2 5 ; th e n u l l h y p o th e s is was ju d g ed to be t e n a b le . The ! i th r e e t e s t s a l l f a i l to su p p o rt r e s e a r c h H y p o th esis 4 . I H y p o th esis 5 p o s tu l a t e d a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p i betw een th e E s p r it s c o re s o f o r g a n iz a tio n s and o b s e r v e r s ' j I judgm ents about th e e f f i c i e n c y o f th e same o r g a n iz a tio n s | d u rin g p la y o f th e s h o rt s im u la tio n games. The h y p o th e s is ! i was t e s t e d by com paring ra n k s on E s p r it s c o re s w ith ran k s o f e f f i c i e n c y . T a b le s 22 th ro u g h 24 show th e r e s u l t s o f | i such c o m p ariso n s. C o r r e l a t io n betw een E s p r i t s c o re s and j I e f f i c i e n c y in Scram bled S quares i s r = .0 5 5 , w hich i s n o t s 1 s i g n i f i c a n t ; th e n u l l h y p o th e s is was ju d g ed t o be t e n a b l e , j C o r r e la tio n betw een E s p r it s c o re s and e f f i c i e n c y in T h ree- j d im e n sio n a l P u zzle i s r = - .0 7 7 ; th e n u l l h y p o th e s is was s ju d g ed to be t e n a b l e . C o r r e la tio n betw een E s p r it s c o re s and e f f i c i e n c y in L e a d e rle s s Group D is c u s s io n i s r = - .4 1 2 ; s 132 th e n u l l h y p o th e s is was ju d g ed to be t e n a b l e . The t h r e e t e s t s f a i l to s u p p o rt r e s e a r c h H y p o th e sis 5. D is c u s s io n The s t a t i s t i c a l r e s u l t s o f th e p r e s e n t stu d y do not su p p o rt th e r e s e a r c h h y p o th e se s. Based on th e sample and j m ethodology o f t h i s s tu d y , and f o r o n ly th e o r g a n iz a tio n s s tu d ie d i n th e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n , i t a p p e a rs a s though i t h e r e i s l i t t l e o r no c o r r e l a t i o n betw een th e E s p r it sc o re o f th e OCDQ and v a r io u s k in d s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b e h a v io rs ' d is p la y e d d u rin g p la y o f s e v e r a l s h o rt s im u la tio n gam es. I t m ust be em phasized t h a t th e fo llo w in g d is c u s s io n j j i s n o t b a se d on th e e m p ir ic a l d a t a and s t a t i s t i c a l r e s u l t s o f th e p r e s e n t s tu d y , b u t i s d e riv e d from o b s e r v a tio n o f i th e t o t a l p ro c e ss o f p re p a rin g f o r and c o n d u c tin g th e stu d y . j The Sample An im p o rta n t f a c t o r in th e a p p a re n t la c k o f c o r r e - J l a t i o n i n th e p r e s e n t stu d y i s th e n a tu r e o f th e sam ple o f j s c h o o ls u s e d . As was m entioned p r e v io u s ly , th e sc h o o l j d i s t r i c t from which th e sample was drawn i s o f a h ig h I socioeconom ic l e v e l . R e a lto r s o f th e a r e a s e rv e d by th e | sch o o l d i s t r i c t p o in t w ith p r id e to th e f a c t t h a t t h e r e i s j alm o st no com m ercial a c t i v i t y e x c e p t r e t a i l s t o r e s , and th e m inor i n d u s t r i a l a c t i v i t y in v o lv e s no m a n u fa c tu rin g . In s h o r t , t h e d i s t r i c t i s r e s i d e n t i a l , n e a r ly a l l p r i v a t e , 133 s in g le - f a m ily d w e llin g s . The homes a re m o d e ra te ly e x p e n s iv e (about $45,000) to v e ry e x p e n siv e (upw ards o f $ 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 ). The sc h o o l d i s t r i c t in c lu d e s a p r i v a t e , fe n c e d r e s i d e n t i a l community w hich h a s 2 4 -h o u r g u ard s e r v ic e a t th e e n tr a n c e g a t e s . The wage e a r n e r s o f th e d i s t r i c t a re p r im a r i l y p r o f e s s i o n a l and b u s in e s s men. One r e s u l t o f th e h ig h socioeconom ic s c a le o f th e d i s t r i c t i s a s e t o f sc h o o ls o f a q u a l i t y w hich i s b o th h ig h and hom ogeneous. A freq u e n c y d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s c o re s j f o r th e sc h o o ls on m ost m easu res o f q u a l i t y would show a ; s tro n g n e g a tiv e skew. | i The hom ogeneity and skewness o f th e t o t a l d i s t r i c t j I ! may be f u r t h e r a c c e n tu a te d by th e v o lu n ta ry n a tu r e and th e s iz e o f th e sam ple u sed i n th e p r e s e n t s tu d y . I t i s i e n t i r e l y p o s s ib le t h a t from th e a lre a d y homogeneous d i s t r i c t j o f se v e n te e n e le m e n ta ry and in te rm e d ia te s c h o o ls , th e te n j i s e l f - s e l e c t e d s c h o o ls a re even more homogeneous. j Sample hom ogeneity has th e e f f e c t o f co m p ressin g th e j ran g e o f r e s p o n s e s . For exam ple, in th e p r e s e n t stu d y th e j ran g e o f E s p r it s c o re s i s from 5 2 .8 9 to 6 4 .2 1 . (See T ab le j 12 f f . ) Six o f th e te n s c o re s a r e bunched from 6 0 .0 1 to 6 1 .5 2 . I t may be t h a t a r a n k - o r d e r method o f t e s t i n g f o r j c o r r e l a t i o n i s a d v e r s e ly a f f e c t e d by a r e s t r i c t e d ra n g e o f ! i r e s p o n s e s . j The PCDO T hree problem s a r i s e when OCDQ E s p r it s c o re s used ! a s m easures o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b e h a v io r a r e compared w ith outcom es from s im u la tio n games. These problem s may b e asso-! c i a t e d w ith th e la c k o f su p p o rt by th e r e s e a r c h h y p o th e s e s . : F i r s t , th e OCDQ i s composed o f e ig h t s u b t e s t s , f o u r o f which! r e f e r to te a c h e r b e h a v io r . The E s p r it s u b te s t i s composed ■ I o f o n ly te n q u e s ti o n s . T hus, th e E s p r it sc o re i s a v e ry , s m a ll m easure o f th e c lim a te o f a sc h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n . ! i A nother problem l i e s i n th e n a tu r e o f th e m easu re m ent p ro c e s s o f th e OCDQ. Many p eo p le have le a r n e d t o be j q u i t e s o p h i s t i c a t e d re sp o n d e n ts to q u e s t i o n n a i r e s . Teachers! have le a rn e d by b i t t e r e x p e rie n c e t h a t th e r e s u l t s o f t h e i r re s p o n s e s a re sometimes i n t e r p r e t e d q u i t e a m o ra lly and o f te n c a l l o u s l y . An example o f th e e f f e c t o f such le a r n i n g was p ro v id e d to th e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h e r a s a r e s u l t o f th e OCDQ- fo rm at p i l o t ru n f o r th e p r e s e n t s tu d y . W hile g a th e r in g p a p e r s , r e s p o n s e - s h e e ts , and p e n c ils a f t e r a d m in is te r in g th e i q u e s t i o n n a i r e , th e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h e r was ap p roached by one j o f th e re sp o n d e n ts who s a id , " I hope y o u 'r e n o t p u t t i n g much f a i t h i n th e r e s u l t s o f t h i s s u rv e y ." The p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h e r r e p l i e d t h a t th e in s tru m e n t was w e ll e s ta b li s h e d and should produce an a c c u r a te r e f l e c t i o n o f th e o r g a n iz a t i o n a l c lim a te o f t h a t s c h o o l. The re sp o n d e n t th e n laughed and s a id , "Y es, I'm su re th e in s tru m e n t i s good, b u t I lie d on many o f my an sw ers, and I know o th e r s d id t o o . We a re 135 ; n o t g o in g to g iv e anyone a chance to g e t a t o u r p r i n c i p a l o r o u r s c h o o l, so we l i e d to make e v e ry th in g look o k a y .” I t i s p o s s ib le t h a t th e q u e s ti o n n a i r e r e t u r n s o f I th e p r e s e n t stu d y were s i m i l a r l y a f f e c t e d . I f th e q u e s tio n n a i r e r e t u r n s o f th e p r e s e n t stu d y w ere so a f f e c t e d , i t i s I n o t v e ry l i k e l y t h a t t r u e v a r ia n c e as a r e s u l t o f a n a ly s is J I o f s im u la tio n game b e h a v io r c o u ld c o r r e l a t e w ith f a l s e l y - j c r e a te d v a r ia n c e o f th e OCDQ. j i F i n a l l y , i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c lim a te j as m easured by th e OCDQ i s r e i f i e d by th e in stru m e n t i t s e l f . ! I t i s n o ta b le t h a t r e s e a r c h u s in g th e OCDQ h as assumed th e j in stru m e n t to be m easu rin g a " u s e f u l so m e th in g ." I t may be ! i t h a t th e r e a r e no r e l a t i o n s h i p s betw een c lim a te and j o r g a n i z a t i o n a l o u tp u t and t h a t r e s e a r c h e r s u s in g th e OCDQ j have been p u rsu in g a ch im era. j S im u la tio n Games Could th e problem o f " fa k in g th e d a ta " ap p ly to th e s h o rt s im u la tio n games as i t does to a q u e s tio n n a ir e ? I t i s p o s s i b l e , b u t n o t as l i k e l y . F i r s t , th e game s i t u a t i o n i s u n u s u a l; m ost p a r t i c i p a n t s i n th e p r e s e n t stu d y had no p r i o r e x p e rie n c e w ith s im u la tio n games. Second, i f a group a tte m p ts to p la y th e game in a way w hich i s u n n a tu r a l to th e group members, th e g r o u p 's b e h a v io r a p p e a rs in co n g ru o u s to an o b s e rv e r . T h ir d , and p e rh a p s m ost im p o rta n t, a tte m p ts to fa k e th e game soon r e s u l t in w ith d ra w a l b e h a v io r on th e p a r t o f th e p l a y e r s . In e f f e c t , th e o n ly s a fe way n o t to behave 136 in a norm al f a s h io n i n a s im u la tio n game i s n o t to behave a t a l l . I B e sid e s th e q u e s tio n o f a u t h e n t i c i t y o f b e h a v io r : I o c c u r rin g in a game, i t i s r e a s o n a b le to q u e s tio n th e ! a p p r o p r ia te n e s s o f th e p a r t i c u l a r games u se d i n th e p r e s e n t i s tu d y . O th er s h o rt s im u la tio n games may produce d i f f e r e n t J ty p e s o f group b e h a v io r o r d i f f e r e n t v a r ia n c e s betw een j g ro u p s. The games u sed i n th e p r e s e n t stu d y a r e games i n j I w hich any la c k o f c o o p e r a tio n can be o b serv ed and d e a l t with! by th e group im m e d iate ly . T h e re f o re , a s o c i a l o r n o n s o c ia l j o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b e h a v io r i s d isc o u ra g e d r e g a r d l e s s o f how f u n c t io n a l t h a t b e h a v io r m ight b e. (A p la y e r p o in te d o u t to th e p r e s e n t e x p e rim e n te r t h a t " n ic e guys d o n 't m isbehave j I w h ile s tr a n g e r s a re w a tc h in g ." In o th e r w o rd s, i t i s n o t p e r m is s ib le to wash o r g a n i z a t i o n a l lin e n in p u b l i c .) j T here i s a n o th e r ty p e o f game w hich r e q u i r e s s e v e r a l in d e p e n d e n t s e c tio n s o f an o r g a n iz a tio n t o work t o g e t h e r to so lv e a common p roblem ; s e p a r a te team s m ust s o lv e s u b p a rts o f th e p ro b le m s. A team game would r e q u i r e problem d e f i n i t i o n , p la n n in g , o r g a n i z a t i o n , and e x e c u tio n . T a s k - o rie n te d s k i l l s may be more im p o rta n t to th e f u n c tio n in g o f an o rg a n i z a t i o n th a n s k i l l s r e l a t e d to f r i e n d l i n e s s and c o o p e r a tio n among th e members. F u r th e r , team games may a llo w more i n t r a - o r g a n i z a t i o n a l f r i c t i o n to em erge. T here a r e team gam es, such as a re s u g g e ste d h e r e , w hich c o u ld be u se d to stu d y th e same b a s ic q u e s tio n s t h a t a r e posed in th e p r e s e n t 137 r e s e a r c h . I f f a c t o r s o f s u c c e s s f u l o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b e h a v io r c o u ld be i d e n t i f i e d and t h e i r p r o c e s s e s en u m erated , i t would be p o s s i b l e to b u ild a game o r s e r i e s o f games w hich would p ro v id e s i t u a t i o n a l t e s t s f o r o r g a n i z a t i o n s . C o r r e l a t io n ' i A p rim ary ca u se o f th e a p p a re n t la c k o f c o r r e l a t i o n b etw een m easures o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c lim a te and m easures o f p ro c e s s and perfo rm an ce may be a b a s ic d i s s i m i l a r i t y in th e j n a tu r e o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c lim a te and o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p r o c e s s e s and p erfo rm a n c e . An assu m p tio n b a s ic to c o r r e l a - ! i I t i o n betw een two m easu res i s t h a t th e m easures r e l a t e to a | common f a c t o r . I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t f a c t o r s w hich produce j o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c lim a te a re n o t an alo g o u s to f a c t o r s w hich p ro d u ce o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p r o c e s s . I t may be t h a t th e OCDQ m easu res o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a f f e c t and t h a t th e s h o rt sim u latio n ! games m easure o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p erfo rm an ce. I f th e f a c t o r - j s u r f a c e s a r e o r th o g o n a l, th e y c an c o r r e l a t e o n ly a t th e I p o i n t s o f i n t e r s e c t i o n . O b v io u sly , i f c lim a te and p ro c e ss ; i a re n o t m a n if e s ta tio n s o f th e same o r h i g h l y - r e l a t e d f a c t o r s , th e r e s u l t s o f th e p r e s e n t stu d y m ust be in c o n c lu - i | i s iv e . t i Rec ommend a t io n s 138 As a r e s u l t o f th e e n t i r e r e s e a r c h p r o c e s s , th e fo llo w in g s u g g e s tio n s f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h and stu d y a re o f f e r e d : 1. R esearch on th e OCDQ sh o u ld be c o n c e n tr a te d on f in d in g r e l a t i o n s h i p s betw een o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c lim a te and l o g i c a l and e m p ir ic a l outcom es o f c lim a te such a s t e a c h e r tu r n o v e r , p u p il p r o g r e s s , p u p il b e h a v io r , community re sp o n s e s to th e s c h o o ls , and th e l i k e . 2. D e te rm in a tio n sh o u ld be made as to th e e f f e c t o f a d m in is te r in g th e OCDQ a t d i f f e r e n t tim e s o f th e sc h o o l y e a r . 3. OCDQ r e t u r n s sh o u ld be a n a ly z e d to d is c o v e r how to d e te rm in e th e amount o f " fa k in g th e d a ta " in c lu d e d in re s p o n s e s . P erh ap s " l i e q u e s tio n s " c o u ld be in c o r p o ra te d in to th e OCDQ. 4 . An a tte m p t sh o u ld be made to f a c t o r o u t th e ! human i n t e r a c t i o n p ro c e s s e s w hich c o n t r i b u t e to j | d i f f e r e n t ty p e s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c lim a te . j I n t e r a c t i o n s o f f a c t o r s sh o u ld n o t be ig n o re d . 5 . The b a s ic d e s ig n o f th e p r e s e n t stu d y sh o u ld be r e p l i c a t e d w ith a ty p e o f s h o rt s im u la tio n game r e q u i r i n g c r i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s k i l l s o th e r th a n th o s e r e q u ir e d by th e s h o rt s im u la tio n games u sed in th e p r e s e n t s tu d y . 139 6 . The b a s ic d e s ig n o f th e p r e s e n t stu d y sh o u ld be r e p l i c a t e d u s in g m easures o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p r o c e s s o th e r th a n B a le s ' IPA. 7. The b a s ic d e s ig n o f th e p r e s e n t stu d y sh o u ld be r e p l i c a t e d w ith a m easure o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l outcom es o th e r th a n o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c lim a te . 8 . T here sh o u ld be f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h to d is c o v e r o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p ro c e s s e s w hich c o n t r ib u t e to d e s ir e d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l outcom es. 9. T here sh o u ld be f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h to d e te rm in e r e l a t i o n s h i p s betw een o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p ro c e s s e s and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l e f f e c t i v i t y and e f f i c i e n c y . C o n clu sio n A lthough th e s t a t i s t i c a l r e s u l t s d id n o t su p p o rt th e r e s e a r c h h y p o th e s e s , th e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h e r i s c o n f id e n t t h a t th e m ethodology d ev elo p ed in t h i s stu d y h as p o t e n t i a l f o r u s e f u l c o n t r i b u t i o n to th e stu d y o f s o c i a l sy stem s. S h o rt s im u la tio n games p e rm it th e o b s e r v a tio n and m e a su re ment o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p r o c e s s e s . The u s e o f s im u la tio n games p ro v id e s good c o n t r o l o f th e ta s k and e n v iro n m e n t. A d i f f e r e n t method o f m easu rin g p ro c e ss m ight enhance th e e f f e c t o f c o n t r o l p ro v id e d by th e u s e o f s h o rt s im u la tio n gam es. F i n a l l y , th e t o t a l e x p e rie n c e o f c o n d u c tin g th e stu d y r e p o r te d h e r e has i n d ic a te d t h a t th e u se o f s h o rt 140 s im u la tio n games f o r th e stu d y o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b e h a v io r i s f e a s i b l e . The fram ework o f a method f o r u s in g s h o rt s im u la tio n games f o r th e stu d y o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b e h a v io r h a s been d e v is e d in th e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h s tu d y . The p r e s e n t stu d y h a s p ro v id e d an i n i t i a l probe i n t o an u n c h a rte d a r e a o f th e stu d y o f s o c ia l sy stem s. BIBLIOGRAPHY A b t, C. C. War gaining. I n t e r n a t i o n a l S cience and T e ch n o lo g y . A u g u st, 1964. A nderson, D. P. 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N onparam etric s t a t i s t i c s f o r th e b e h a v io r a l s c i e n c e s . New York: M cG raw -H ill, 1956. S t o g d i l l , R. M. P e rs o n a l f a c t o r s a s s o c ia te d w ith l e a d e r s h ip : A su rv ey o f th e l i t e r a t u r e . J o u rn a l o f P sy c h o lo g y , 1948, Z5, 3 1 -7 5 . Todd, D. F . & P h i l l i p s , J . L. The r e l a t i o n s h i p o f th e p r i n c i p a l 's le a d e r s h ip t r a i n i n g and p e r s o n a l i t y to th e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c lim a te o f s c h o o ls . U npublished d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n iv e r s ity o f S o u th ern C a l i f o r n i a , 1969. iVan D ale n , D. B. U n d erstan d in g e d u c a tio n a l r e s e a r c h . ! New York: M cG raw -H ill, 1966. I j W erner, R. & W erner, J . T. B ib lio g ra p h y o f s i m u l a t i o n s : S o c ia l system s and ed u catio n "! La J o l l a , C a l i f . : W estern B e h a v io ra l S c ie n c e s I n s t i t u t e , 1969. W ie n e r, N. The human u se o f human b e in g s : C y b e rn e tic s and soc i e t y . B oston: H o u g h to n -M ifflin , 1954, i _ A P P E N D I C E S ! _ 147 APPENDIX A THE ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE DESCRIPTION QUESTIONNAIRE 148 APPENDIX A THE ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE DESCRIPTION QUESTIONNAIRE The ite m s i n t h i s q u e s tio n n a ir e d e s c r ib e t y p i c a l b e h a v io r o r c o n d itio n s t h a t o c c u r w i t h i n an e le m e n ta ry - s c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n . P le a s e i n d i c a t e to w hat e x te n t each o f th e s e d e s c r i p t i o n s c h a r a c t e r i z e s y o u r s c h o o l. P le a se do n o t e v a lu a te th e item s i n term s o t ngoo3T T — o r "bad" b e h a v io r , b u t re a d each ite m c a r e f u l l y and re sp o n d i n term s o f how w e ll th e s ta te m e n t d e s c r ib e s y o u r s c h o o l. The pu rp o se o f t h i s q u e s ti o n n a i r e i s to se c u re a d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e d i f f e r e n t ways i n w hich te a c h e r s i n t e r a c t and o f th e v a r io u s c o n d itio n s u n d e r w hich th e y w ork. When th e q u e s tio n n a ir e i s com pleted a p r o f i l e o f th e O r g a n iz a tio n a l C lim a te , d e s c r ib e d as t y p i c a l by th e m a jo r i t y o f t e a c h e r s i n t h i s s c h o o l, w i l l be c o n s tr u c te d . P le a s e mark e v e ry ite m on t h i s q u e s ti o n n a i r e . A s c a l e o f 3 t o 6 w i l l i n d i c a t e th e d eg re e to w hich th e b e h a v io r d e s c r ib e d by th e ite m d o e s , in d e e d , o c c u r i n your s c h o o l. 3. R a re ly 4 . Sometimes o c c u rs 5 . O fte n o c c u rs 6 . Very f r e q u e n t l y o c c u rs P le a s e n o te t h a t we a r e n o t u s in g answ er columns 0 , 1 , 2 , 7, 8 , and 9 on th e answer s h e e t . i I f th e r e a r e no q u e s ti o n s , p le a s e t u r n th e page and ; s t a r t m arking your re s p o n s e s a t answ er l i n e number 5 . 149 APPENDIX B SCRAMBLED SQUARES 150 APPENDIX B I SCRAMBLED SQUARES j I i Scram bled S quares i s a n o n - v e rb a l, f iv e - p e r s o n , non zero -su m c o o p e ra tiv e -e x c h a n g e com m unication game. The p la y e r s a re s e a te d a t one end o f a t a b l e , two p la y e r s on j e a c h s id e o f th e t a b l e and one a t th e end (s e e F ig u re 2 ) . i The f i v e p la y e r s a r e p ro v id e d w ith 15 p ie c e s o f s h e e t aluminum w hich can be p u t to g e th e r i n to f i v e 6 - in c h s q u a re s . B efo re p la y b e g in s , each p la y e r r e c e i v e s t h r e e p u z zle p i e c e s . The ta s k i s f o r each p la y e r t o b u i l d a t h i s p lay in g p la c e a sq u a re made o f t h r e e p ie c e s from th e 15 on th e t a b l e . D i s t r i b u t i o n o f th e p ie c e s i s p re d e te rm in e d so t h a t ! no p la y e r can b u i l d a sq u a re w ith th e p ie c e s he r e c e i v e s . A ll th e p a r t s n e c e s s a ry a re p ro v id e d . The p la y i s tim ed , and an in n in g o f p la y i s com plete when and o n ly when a l l f i v e p la y e r s have b u i l t a sq u a re . R ules o f P lay f o r Scram bled S q u a r e s . (The fo llo w in g r u l e s o f p la y a re m ost commonly spoken to th e p la y e r s in s t e a d o f re a d to th e m .) "As soon as you a r e c o m fo rta b ly s e a te d , I w i l l d i s t r i b u t e to you 15 p u z z le p i e c e s , th r e e to a p e rs o n . Your t a s k i n t h i s game i s to assem ble from th e 15 p ie c e s f i v e 6 - in c h s q u a r e s ." (The e x e r c i s e c o n d u c to r b e g in s to d i s t r i b u t e p ie c e s in a p re d e te rm in e d o r d e r , t a l k - i in g a s th e p a r t s a re d i s t r i b u t e d . ) "The sq u a re s a re s q u a re , a l l th e p ie c e s a re t h e r e - - t h e r e i s no t r i c k o r t r a p . i "Now, b e fo re you b e g in , l e t me e x p la in th e r u le s o f th e game. F i r s t , th e r e i s no t a l k i n g by o r among th e p l a y e r s - - y o u may n o t t a l k . Second, e ach p e rso n should [ b u i l d a s q u a re a t th e w orkplace i n f r o n t of h i m s e lf . T h ir d , you m ust have a t l e a s t two p u z z le p ie c e s a t your w o rk p la c e a t a l l tim e s , and you may n e v e r have more th an f o u r p i e c e s . And l a s t , you may o n ly ta k e (g iv e ) p ie c e s from (to ) a n o th e r p e rso n , you may n o t g iv e ( ta k e ) a n y th in g to (from ) anyone e l s e . When you ta k e ( g iv e ) , i t m ust be from (to ) a s p e c i f i c p e rso n --d o n o t ta k e (g iv e ) to th e n o n - s p e c if ic c e n t e r o f th e t a b l e . " (The game i s p lay ed w ith a t l e a s t two e q u iv a le n t s e t s o f Scram bled S q u ares; each g ro u p p la y s a t l e a s t one " g iv e " game and one " ta k e " g am e.) "Remember, you may n o t t a l k , you must have a t l e a s t two and no more th a n fo u r p i e c e s , and you may o n ly ta k e ( g iv e ) p ie c e s from ( to ) each o t h e r . " APPENDIX C THREE-DIMENSIONAL PUZZLE APPENDIX C THREE-DIMENSIONAL PUZZLE T h re e -d im e n s io n a l P u z z le i s a f o u r to s i x p e r s o n , non z e ro -su m c o o p e r a tiv e c o n m u n ic a tio n game p la y e d w ith m anipu- la n d a . The p la y e r s a r e p la c e d a t a t h r e e to f o u r - f o o t w ide r e c t a n g u l a r t a b l e i n s e v e r a l p o s s ib le c o n f i g u r a t i o n s , as shown i n F ig u re B and e x p la in e d below i n th e i n s t r u c t i o n s , j To p la y th e gam e, p la y e r s a r e p ro v id e d w ith T in k e r to y ( p a r ts and a c o l o r p h o to g ra p h show ing t h e c o m p leted p u z z le . The t a s k i s f o r th e g ro u p t o b u i l d an e x a c t t h r e e - d im e n s io n a l r e p l i c a o f th e f i g u r e in t h e p h o to g ra p h , u s in g th e p a r t s p ro v id e d t o them . P la y i s tim e d ; a n in n in g o f p la y , one p u z z le , i s f in i s h e d when th e th r e e - d im e n s io n a l c o n s tr u c t i o n i s an e x a c t r e p l i c a t i o n . A t o t a l game in c lu d e s f o u r p u z z l e s . The c o n m u n ic a tio n p ro b lem s o f r e a l o r g a n iz a tio n s a r e jm odeled i n th e game by p r o v id in g t h r e e c o n d itio n s o f know l edge o f th e s o l u t i o n and tr a n s m is s io n o f in f o r m a tio n . The th r e e c o n d itio n s a r e known a s " f iv e - k n o w e r s ," "o n e -k n o w e r," and " tw o -k n o w e rs ." I n th e fiv e -k n o w e rs m ode, th e p h o to g ra p h and p a r t s a r e g iv e n t o a l l ( f i v e ) p l a y e r s . A ll p la y e r s h a v e t h e o r e t i c a l l y e q u a l a c c e s s t o th e p a r t s and s o l u t i o n in f o r m a tio n . 154 155 In t h e one-know er m ode, t h e "k n o w er" s i t s a t th e end o f th e t a b l e and h o ld s t h e p h o to g ra p h . U sing w o rd s and g e s tu r e s o n ly , he t e l l s th e o t h e r p l a y e r s , th e " d o e r s ," how to c o n s t r u c t th e th r e e - d im e n s io n a l r e p l i c a t i o n o f th e p h o to g ra p h . The know er may n o t to u c h th e p u z z le p i e c e s , and th e d o e r s may n o t s e e th e p h o to g ra p h . A sid e from th e ab o v e r e s t r i c t i o n s on th e know ers and th e d o e r s , t h e r e i s fre e d o m o f in fo r m a tio n e x c h a n g e . In t h e tw o-know ers m ode, one o f th e know ers i s r e s t r i c t e d a s i n th e "o n e-k n o w er" m ode. A seco n d know er i s p e r m itte d to t r a v e l b etw een th e p u z z le s o l u t i o n p h o to g ra p h and th e r e s t r i c t e d know er and th e c o n s t r u c t i o n end o f th e t a b l e . T he seco n d know er i s p e r m itte d t o s e e th e p h o to g ra p h and w ork on th e c o n s t r u c t i o n and i s p e r m itte d th e same fre e d o m o f e x p r e s s io n a s th e r e s t r i c t e d k n o w er. The t r a v e l i n g know er i s r e f e r r e d t o a s a " k n o w e r-d o e r." T h e re a r e f o u r p u z z le s i n a t o t a l gam e. The seco n d p u z z le i s s l i g h t l y m ore com plex th a n t h e f i r s t (38 p a r t s com pared t o 28 p a r t s ) , t h e t h i r d p u z z le (59 p a r t s ) i s a b o u t tw ic e a s com plex a s th e f i r s t tw o , and th e f o u r t h (64 p a r t s ) i s o f a p p ro x im a te ly th e same c o m p le x ity a s th e t h i r d p u z z le . I n fo r m a tio n tr a n s m is s io n b e tw ee n th e k n o w e r(s ) and d o e r s i s c o m p lic a te d by th e f a c t t h a t t h e k n o w e r(s ) m ust t r a n s l a t e th e tw o -d im e n s io n a l d a t a on th e p h o to g ra p h . T h e re a r e th r e e s e t s o f i n s t r u c t i o n s , one f o r e a ch c o n d i t i o n o f num ber o f k n o w e rs. B ecau se o f r e s t r i c t i v e 156 m eth o d s o f r e p r o d u c tio n o f d i s s e r t a t i o n s , i t was n o t r e a s o n a b le t o in c lu d e c o p ie s o f th e c o l o r p h o to g ra p h s o f th e p u z z le s . I n t e r e s t e d p e rs o n s may c o n t a c t e i t h e r th e a u th o r o r th e M anagem ent L a b o ra to r y , USC. THREE-DIMENSIONAL PUZZLE I n s t r u c t i o n s f o r E x p e rim e n te r: O ne-know er T h e se i n s t r u c t i o n s c o n ta in two ty p e s o f in f o r m a tio n . In u p p e r and lo w er c a s e ty p e i s in f o r m a tio n m eant j u s t f o r y o u , th e e x p e r im e n te r . T h is s h o u ld be re a d s i l e n t l y , to y o u r s e l f . I n fo r m a tio n f o r th e p la y e r s i s i n a l l c a p i t a l s and i s to be r e a d a lo u d t o th e p la y e r s b y y o u , th e e x p e r i m e n te r. Read th e u p p e r and lo w er c a s e s e c t io n s to y o u r s e l f ; re a d th e c a p i t a l i z e d s e c t io n s to th e team m em bers. Y our m a t e r i a l s f o r c o n d u c tin g th e e x e r c i s e s c o n s i s t o f a t a b l e w ith a tw o - f e e t w id e n o - m a n 's -la n d i n th e m id d le , f o u r e n v e lo p e s m arked "A ", "B ", "C ", and "D ", some k in d o f a tim in g d e v ic e w ith a sw e ep -se co n d h a n d , and a d a ta c o l l e c t i o n fo rm . When you a r e re a d y t o b e g in r e a d in g to th e te a m , s a y : YOU WILL BE MOST COMFORTABLE DOING THIS EXERCISE IF THE TABLE IS CLEAR OF ALL YOUR BOOKS, PAPERS, AND SO ON. OTHER WISE, JUST RELAX WHILE I READ THE INSTRUCTIONS TO YOU. W ait f o r th e team t o c l e a r f o r a c t i o n . When th e y a p p e a r to b e r e a d y , r e a d : THIS IS AN EXERCISE IN PUTTING TOGETHER SOM E THREE DIMEN SIONAL PUZZLES. YOU WILL BE GIVEN A PHOTOGRAPH WHICH SH O W S THE FINISHED PUZZLE AND THE NECESSARY PARTS. EACH OF YOU WILL ALSO BE ASKED TO ASSUME A PARTICULAR ORGANIZATIONAL ROLE. THE POINT OF THE EXERCISE IS TO COMPLETE THE PUZZLE IN THE LEAST A M O U N T OF TIME. W H EN YOU ARE FINISHED WITH THE PUZZLE, IT MUST LOOK JUST LIKE THE PICTURE. IF THERE IS AN ERROR IN THE FINISHED PUZZLE, YOU WILL BE PENALIZED. TO REPEAT, THE TEAM TASK IS TO M AKE AN ACCURATE COPY OF THE PUZZLE IN THE LEAST A M O U N T OF TIME. O .K ., THEN Y O U BE PLAYER A, A N D Y O U BE B, A N D YOU BE PLAYER C, A ND YOU D, A ND Y OU E. ARE THERE A N Y QUESTIONS AT THIS POINT? I f someone a s k s a q u e s tio n w h ich h a s b e e n c o v e re d i n th e i n s t r u c t i o n s , r e a d a lo u d a g a in t h a t p ie c e o f th e i n s t r u c t i o n s . I f someone a s k s so m eth in g w h ich h a s n o t b e e n c o v e r e d , s a y : I THINK I 'L L COM E TO THAT IN A LITTLE WHILE, BUT IF I DON'T ANSW ER IT FOR YOU ASK M E AGAIN BEFORE W E START. ALSO, YOU WILL BE ABLE TO ASK QUESTIONS DURING THE EXERCISE. O .K .? 157 158 I TO PLAY THIS GAME, PLAYER A WILL STAND HERE AT THIS END OF , THE TABLE AND THE REST OF YO U WILL STAND AT THAT END OF THE ! TABLE. PLAYER A THEN WILL BE SEPARATED FROM THE REST OF ! THE TEAM BY THE SPACE M ARKED OFF IN THE CENTER OF THE | TABLE. THE CENTER SPACE IS A KIND OF NO-MAN'S-LAND, AND ' MUST NOT BE ENTERED OR CROSSED BY PLAYERS, PARTS, OR PICTURE. DURING PLAY, PLAYER A WILL LOOK AT THE PHOTOGRAPH AND TELL THE REST OF THE TEAM H O W TO BUILD THE PUZZLE. ONLY PLAYER A M A Y LOOK AT THE PHOTOGRAPH. THE REST OF THE TEAM WILL HANDLE THE PIECES AND BUILD THE STRUCTURE, THEY M A Y NOT LOOK AT THE PHOTO. TO REPEAT, ONLY PLAYER A M A Y SEE THE PHOTO, ONLY THE OTHER PLAYERS M A Y TOUCH THE PIECES. PLAYERS M A Y NOT LEAVE THEIR AREA OF THE TABLE. AT NO TIME DURING THE EXERCISE M A Y THE OTHER PLAYERS SEE THE PHOTO GRAPH. YOU ALL M A Y COMMUNICATE IN ANY OTHER WAY. ARE THERE ANY QUESTIONS? A g ain , t r y t o an sw er th e q u e s tio n s from th e a lr e a d y re a d i n s t r u c t i o n s . Someone w i l l p ro b a b ly a sk i f th e y may p o in t o r g e s t u r e . The o n ly r e s t r i c t i o n on co m m u n icatio n i s t h a t th e y may n o t show th e p i c t u r e o r f a c s i m i l e s o f i t , i n c lu d in g l i n e s k e tc h e s . Take o u t p i c t u r e b e f o r e h a n d in g o v e r th e e n v e lo p e . O .K ., IF THERE ARE N O M ORE QUESTIONS, LET'S GET STARTED. HERE IS THE ENVELOPE CONTAINING THE PARTS. PLEASE TAKE AN INVENTORY. W ait u n t i l th e p l a y e r s - - n o t A --h av e ta k e n an in v e n to r y , - th e n a s k : ARE THERE ANY PARTS MISSING? I f t h e r e a r e , ta k e them from a n o th e r e n v e lo p e and r e p la c e them l a t e r when th e p u z z le i s f i n i s h e d . O .K ., LET'S GO. ARE YOU READY? HERE'S THE PHOTO, YOU M A Y BEGIN. Be s u re t o s t a r t th e tim e r . As th e e x e r c i s e p r o c e e d s , you may answ er q u e s tio n s a b o u t th e r u l e s and a b o u t th e c o lo r s on th e p h o to . T ry t o an sw er th e q u e s tio n s fro m th e p r e v i o u s ly re a d in f o r m a tio n , i f you c a n . Do Not an sw er any q u e s tio n a b o u t r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f p a r t s T ^ 'I s t h i s s t i c k above o r below t h i s o n e ? " A ls o , be a l e r t t o p o s s i b l e i n f r a c t i o n s io f th e r u l e s . I f you se e someone m oving to w a rd an i n f r a c t i o n , j u s t rem in d them o f th e r u l e s . The p o in t i s t h a t o n ly P la y e r A c a n know th e s o l u t i o n to th e p u z z le , o n ly th e o th e r s ca n b u i l d . When i t a p p e a rs a s th o u g h th e team i s a b o u t f i n i s h e d w ith th e p u z z le , s a y : 159 W HEN YOU ARE FINISHED WITH THE PUZZLE, TELL M E SO I CAN STOP THE CLOCK. BE SURE TO TELL M E W H EN Y O U ARE FINISHED. IF THERE IS AN ERROR IN THE PUZZLE W HEN YOU ARE FINISHED, I WILL GIVE YOU A ONE MINUTE PENALTY. Do n o t add any tim e to th e a c t u a l p e rfo rm a n c e tim e . I f tK e re i s an e r r o r , r e c o r d th e a c t u a l tim e and make a n o te t h a t th e p u z z le was i n c o r r e c t when th e team d e c la r e d i t f i n i s h e d . The p e n a lty s ta te m e n t i s f o r m o tiv a tio n p u rp o se s o n l y . A f te r y o u r team h a s f in i s h e d p u z z le A, go on t o B, and so on th ro u g h D. When th e team h a s f i n i s h e d a p u z z le , s a y : O.K. HERE IS ANOTHER ONE SOMETHING LIKE THE ONE Y OU JUST FINISHED. (Take th e p h o to o u t o f th e e n v e lo p e and hand th e e n v e lo p e t o P la y e r s BCDE.) HERE'S ANOTHER ENVELOPE CON TAINING THE PARTS, PLEASE TAKE AN INVENTORY. W H EN YOU ARE READY TO BEGIN, LET M E K N O W AND I WILL START YOU. Do n o t g iv e o u t th e p h o to u n t i l b o th th e team and you a re re a d y to b e g in . Be s u re y o u r tim e r i s re a d y f o r a new r u n . READY? HERE IS THE PHOTO, YOU M A Y BEGIN. The p la y e r s may n o t t a l k a b o u t th e t a s k and o r g a n iz a tio n d u r in g th e i n t e r m i s s i o n b e tw een p u z z le s . I f y o u a r e re a d y w ith th e new one a s soon a s th e y a r e f i n i s h e d w ith o n e , you c a n p u l l th e f i n i s h e d one o f f and an n ounce and p r e s e n t th e new o n e . ! When th e l a s t p u z z le i s f i n i s h e d , t a l k i n g i s n o t o n ly p e r m i t t e d , i t i s e n c o u ra g e d . THREE-DIMENSIONAL PUZZLES E x p e rim e n te r i n s t r u c t i o n s : Two know ers T hese i n s t r u c t i o n s c o n s i s t o f two ty p e s o f in f o r m a tio n . I n ; u p p e r and lo w e r c a s e ty p e i s in f o r m a tio n m eant j u s t f o r y o u , t h e e x p e r im e n te r. T h is s h o u ld b e read s i l e n t l y to y o u r s e l f . I n fo r m a tio n f o r th e p la y e r s i s i n a l l c a p i t a l s . Read t h e u p p e r and low er c a s e ty p e to y o u r s e l f , and th e a l l c a p s t o th e team m em bers. Your m a t e r i a l s f o r c o n d u c tin g j th e e x e r c i s e s c o n s i s t o f a t a b l e w ith a tw o - f e e t w id e n o - m a n 's -la n d in t h e m id d le , f o u r e n v e lo p e s m arked "A ", "B ", "C ", "D ", some k in d o f tim in g d e v ic e w ith a sw eep- seco n d h a n d , and a d a ta c o l l e c t i o n fo rm . When you a r e re a d y t o b e g in , s a y : YOU WILL BE MOST COMFORTABLE DOING THIS EXERCISE IF THE TABLE IS CLEAR OF ALL YOUR BOOKS, PAPERS, AND SO ON. OTHERWISE, JUST RELAX WHILE I READ THE INSTRUCTIONS TO YOU. W ait f o r th e team t o c l e a r f o r a c t i o n . When th e y a p p e a r t o b e r e a d y , s a y : THIS IS A N EXERCISE IN PUTTING TOGETHER SO M E THREE- DIMENSIONAL PUZZLES. YOU WILL BE GIVEN A N ENVELOPE WHICH CONTAINS THE NECESSARY PARTS AND A PHOTOGRAPH WHICH SH O W S THE FINISHED PUZZLE. YOU ALSO WILL EACH BE ASKED TO ASSUME A PARTICULAR ORGANIZATIONAL ROLE. THE POINT OF THE EXER CISE IS TO COMPLETE THE PUZZLE IN THE LEAST A M O U N T OF TIME. W H EN YOU ARE FINISHED WITH THE PUZZLE, IT MUST LOOK JUST LIKE THE PICTURE. IF THERE IS AN ERROR IN THE FINISHED PUZZLE, Y O U WILL BE PENALIZED. TO REPEAT, THE TEAM TASK IS TO M AKE A N ACCURATE COPY OF THE PUZZLE IN THE LEAST A M O U N T OF TIME. NOW, BEFORE I ASSIGN ROLES TO YOU, I NEED TO K N O W IF THERE IS ANYONE HERE W H O IS COLOR-BLIND. I f someone s a y s t h a t he i s , he m ust n o t be g iv e n t h e r o le o f e i t h e r p la y e r A o r B. A ls o , a fe m a le s h o u ld n o t be s e l e c t e d f o r A o r B. D o n 't be o b v io u s ab o u t t h i s , j u s t d o n 't s e l e c t a c o l o r - b l i n d p e rs o n o r a fe m a le f o r A o r B when m aking a s s ig n m e n ts . O .K ., THEN YOU BE PLAYER A, A N D YO U BE PLAYER B, AND YO U C, A N D YOU D, AND YOU ARE E . ARE THERE ANY QUESTIONS TO THIS POINT? P o in t to someone when you d e s ig n a te a r o l e . I f someone a s k s a q u e s ti o n w h ich h a s b e e n c o v e re d i n th e i n s t r u c t i o n s , re a d t h a t s e c t i o n a lo u d a g a in . I f someone a sk s so m e th in g w h ich h a s n o t b e e n c o v e re d , s a y : I 160 161 I THINK I'L L COM E TO THAT IN A LITTLE WHILE, BUT IF I DON'T i ANSW ER IT FOR YOU, ASK M E AGAIN BEFORE W E START. ALSO, YOU | M A Y ASK QUESTIONS DURING THE PLAY. O .K .? TO PLAY THIS GAME, PLAYER A WILL STAND OVER HERE A T THIS END OF THE j TABLE. P o in t a p p r o p r i a t e l y and g e t A t o move i n t o p o s i t i o n .' ! THE OTHER PLAYERS WILL OPERATE AT THE OTHER END OF THE I TABLE, EXCEPT FOR PLAYER B, W H O WILL BE ABLE TO M OVE BACK ! AND FORTH BETWEEN PLAYER A A N D THE REST OF THE TEAM. j G et e v ery o n e i n t o p o s i t i o n b e f o r e p ro c e e d in g . J PLAYER A WILL THEN BE SEPARATED FROM C, D, A N D E BY THE SPACE M ARKED OFF IN THE CENTER OF THE TABLE. THE CENTER SPACE IS A KIND OF NO-MAN' S-LAND, A N D MUST NOT BE ENTERED OR CROSSED BY ANYONE EXCEPT PLAYER B, OR B Y PARTS, OR PICTURE. DURING PLAY, PLAYER A A ND PLAYER B WILL LOOK AT THE PICTURE AND THE REST OF THE PLAYERS MUST STAY AT THEIR END OF THE TABLE AND NOT LOOK AT THE PICTURE. PLAYER A WILL TELL C, D, AND E W H A T TO D O A N D H O W TO BUILD THE PUZZLE, PLAYERS C, D, A ND E WILL BUILD THE PUZZLE, AND PLAYER B M A Y BOTH LOOK AT THE PICTURE AND TELL THE OTHERS H O W TO BUILD AND ALSO M A Y ACTUALLY PUT TOGETHER THE PARTS A ND HELP TO BUILD THE PUZZLE. TO REPEAT, PLAYER A M A Y ONLY LOOK BUT M A Y NOT TOUCH THE PARTS, PLAYER B M A Y LOOK AND TOUCH THE PARTS, PLAYERS C, D, AND E M A Y ONLY TOUCH THE PARTS BUT M A Y NOT LOOK AT THE PICTURE. ALL PLAYERS ARE FREE TO COMMUNICATE IN A NY W A Y EXCEPT THROUGH THE PHOTOGRAPH OR A REPRESENTATION OF IT . ARE THERE A N Y QUESTIONS? A g ain , t r y t o an sw er th e q u e s tio n s from th e p r e v io u s ly r e a d m a t e r i a l . Someone may a sk i f th e y can p o in t o r g e s t u r e . The answ er i s y e s ; th e o n ly r e s t r i c t i o n o f co m m u n icatio n i s t h a t th e p la y e r s b u i l d i n g th e p u z z le m ust n o t u s e t h e p h o to o r f a c s i m i l e s o f i t t o know w hat th e p u z z le i s . O .K ., IF THERE ARE N O M ORE QUESTIONS, LET'S GET STARTED. HERE IS THE ENVELOPE CONTAINING THE PARTS. PLEASE TAKE AN INVENTORY. Take o u t th e p i c t u r e b e f o r e h an d in g th e e n v e lo p e t o p la y e r s C, D, and E. W ait u n t i l th e p l a y e r s , n o t A o r B, h a v e ta k e n an i n v e n t o r y , th e n a s k : ARE A N Y PARTS MISSING? I f th e r e a r e , ta k e them fro m a n o th e r e n v e lo p e and r e p l a c e them a f t e r th e f i r s t p u z z le i s f i n i s h e d . O .K ., LET'S GO. ARE YOU READY? HERE'S THE PHOTO, YOU M A Y BEGIN. ! I Be s u r e t o s t a r t t h e tim e r . As t h e e x e r c i s e p r o c e e d s , you ] may an sw er q u e s tio n s a b o u t th e r u l e s and a b o u t th e c o l o r s ] on th e p h o to . T h e re i s u s u a ll y some c o n f u s io n a b o u t w hat B i s p e r m itte d t o d o . B a s i c a l l y , he i s in te n d e d to r e p r e s e n t a l i a i s o n f u n c t i o n , and i s t h e r e f o r e p e r m itte d to b o th h av e u n p ro c e s s e d in f o r m a tio n and have a c c e s s t o th e m a t e r i a l s o f p u z z l e - s o l u t i o n . You w i l l h av e t o ju d g e how much to t e l l p la y e r B, b u t d o n 't v o l u n t e e r any i n s t r u c t i o n s o r p e r c e p t i o n s t o him a b o u t w h at he i s p e r m itte d t o d o . T ry t o an sw er q u e s tio n s from p r e v io u s ly re a d in f o r m a tio n . Do n o t an sw er any q u e s tio n s a b o u t th e r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f th e p a r t s , " I s t h i s s t i c k above o r b elow t h i s o n e ?" A ls o , be a l e r t t o any p o s s i b l e i n f r a c t i o n s o f th e r u l e s . I f y o u se e someone m oving to w a rd w hat may be an i n f r a c t i o n , rem in d th e e n t i r e g ro u p o f th e r u l e s o f p la y . I f so m eth in g d o es h ap p en w h ich may h a v e g iv e n away th e gam e, be s u re to n o te i t on th e d a ta c o l l e c t i o n fo rm . The p o in t i s t h a t o n ly p la y e r s A and B may know th e s o l u t i o n t o th e p u z z le , and o n ly p la y e r s B, C, D, and E may a c t u a l l y to u c h th e p ie c e s and b u i l d th e p u z z le . When i t a p p e a rs a s th o u g h th e team i s a b o u t f i n i s h e d w ith th e p u z z le , s a y : W H EN Y OU ARE FINISHED WITH THE PUZZLE, TELL M E SO I CAN STOP THE CLOCK. BE SURE TO TELL M E W H EN YOU HAVE FINISHED. IF THERE IS AN ERROR IN THE W A Y THE FINISHED PUZZLE IS PUT TOGETHER, I WILL PENALIZE YOU ONE MINUTE ON YOUR TIME. Do n o t add any tim e t o th e a c t u a l p e rfo rm a n c e tim e . I f tK e re i s an e r r o r , r e c o r d th e a c t u a l tim e and make a n o te t h a t th e p u z z le was i n c o r r e c t w hen th e team d e c la r e d i t f i n i s h e d . The p e n a lty s ta te m e n t i s f o r m o tiv a tio n p u rp o se s o n ly . A f te r y o u r team h a s f in i s h e d p u z z le A, go on t o p u z z le B , and so o n . A f te r th e team h a s f i n i s h e d a p u z z le sa y : O .K ., HERE'S ANOTHER ONE SOMETHING LIKE THE ONE YOU JUST FINISHED. Take th e p h o to o u t o f th e e n v e lo p e and h and th e e n v e lo p e t o p la y e r s C, D, and E. HERE'S THE ENVELOPE CONTAINING THE PARTS. PLEASE TAKE AN INVENTORY A N D TELL M E W H EN Y OU ARE READY TO BEGIN. YOU M A Y NOT TALK ABOUT THE TASK DURING THIS TIME BETWEEN PUZZLES. W HEN Y O U ARE READY, TELL ME AND I WILL START YOU. 163 Do n o t g iv e o u t th e p h o to t o A and B u n t i l b o th th e team and you a r e re a d y to s t a r t . Be s u re y o u r tim e r i s re a d y f o r a new r u n . READY? O .K ., HERE'S THE PHOTO, YOU M A Y BEGIN. The p la y e r s may n o t t a l k a b o u t th e ta s k and o r g a n i z a t i o n b etw een p u z z le s . I f th e y i n s i s t on d o in g s o , t e l l them t h a t you m ust tim e them f o r t h e i r t a l k and r e c o r d i t . A ls o , i f you h av e th e n e x t p u z z le re a d y to go when th e y f i n i s h o n e , t h e r e i s a lm o st no tim e f o r t a l k i n g . P u l l th e o ld one o f f th e t a b l e and announce and p r e s e n t th e new o n e . When th e l a s t p u z z le i s f i n i s h e d , t a l k i n g i s n o t o n ly p e r m itte d , i t i s e n c o u ra g e d . THREE-DIMENSIONAL PUZZLES E x p e rim e n te r i n s t r u c t i o n s : F iv e know ers T h ese i n s t r u c t i o n s c o n s i s t o f two ty p e s o f in f o r m a tio n . I n u p p e r and lo w er c a s e ty p e i s in f o r m a tio n j u s t f o r y o u - - , th e e x p e r im e n te r. T h is s h o u ld be re a d s i l e n t l y t o y o u r s e l f .j In fo r m a tio n f o r th e p la y e r s i s i n a l l c a p i t a l s , and i s to be re a d a lo u d t o th e p la y e r s by y o u , th e e x p e r im e n te r. Read th e u p p e r and lo w e r c a s e ty p e to y o u r s e l f ; re a d th e a l l c a p s t o th e p l a y e r s . ! Your m a t e r i a l s f o r c o n d u c tin g th e e x e r c i s e s c o n s i s t o f a t a b l e w ith a tw o - f e e t w id e n o -m a n 's la n d i n th e m id d le , f o u r e n v e lo p e s m arked "A ", "B ", " C ", "D ", some k in d o f tim in g d e v ic e w ith a sw eep -seco n d h a n d , and a d a t a c o l l e c t i o n fo rm . When you a r e re a d y t o b e g in , s a y : | YOU WILL BE MOST COMFORTABLE DOING THIS EXERCISE IF THE TABLE IS CLEAR OF ALL YOUR BOOKS, PAPERS, AND SO ON. ' OTHERWISE, JUST RELAX WHILE I READ THE INSTRUCTIONS TO YOU. W ait f o r th e team t o c l e a r f o r a c t i o n . When th e y a r e r e a d y , s a y : THIS IS AN EXERCISE IN PUTTING TOGETHER SOM E THREE- DIMENSIONAL PUZZLES. YOU WILL BE GIVEN AN ENVELOPE WHICH CONTAINS THE NECESSARY PARTS A N D A PHOTOGRAPH WHICH SH O W S THE FINISHED PUZZLE. THE POINT OF THE EXERCISE IS TO COMPLETE THE PUZZLE IN THE LEAST A M O U N T OF TIME. W HEN YOU ARE FINISHED WITH THE PUZZLE, IT MUST LOOK JUST LIKE THE PICTURE. IF THERE IS AN ERROR IN THE FINISHED PUZZLE, YO U WILL BE PENALIZED. TO REPEAT, THE TEAM TASK IS TO M AKE AN ACCURATE COPY OF THE PUZZLE IN THE LEAST A M O U N T OF TIME. ARE THERE A N Y QUESTIONS TO THIS POINT? I I f someone a s k s a q u e s ti o n w h ich h a s b e e n c o v e re d i n th e i n s t r u c t i o n s , re a d t h a t s e c t io n a lo u d a g a in . I f someone a s k s so m eth in g w h ich h a s n o t b e en c o v e re d , s a y : I THINK I WILL COM E TO THAT IN A LITTLE WHILE, BUT IF I DON'T ANSWER IT FOR YOU, ASK M E AGAIN BEFORE W E START. ALSO, YOU M A Y ASK QUESTIONS DURING THE PLAY. O .K .? TO PLAY THIS GAME, ALL PLAYERS ARE PERMITTED TO LOOK AT THE PICTURE, A ND ALL PLAYERS ARE PERMITTED TO BUILD ON THE PUZZLE. W H EN W E ARE READY TO START, I WILL HAND Y OU AN ENVELOPE. ON THE OUTSIDE OF THE ENVELOPE IS A LIST OF THE PARTS NECESSARY TO BUILD THE PUZZLE; PLEASE TAKE AN INVEN TORY OF THE ENVELOPE CONTENTS TO SEE IF ALL THE PARTS ARE 164 165 THERE. IF ANY ARE MISSING, TELL M E AND I WILL SUPPLY THEM, i AFTER YOU HAVE TAKEN THE INVENTORY A N D ARE READY TO BEGIN BUILDING, LET M E K N O W AND I WILL GIVE YOU THE PHOTO OF THE ! COMPLETED PUZZLE. I WILL START TO TIME YOUR PLAY W HEN THE j PHOTO IS GIVEN TO YOU. BE SURE TO TELL M E W HEN YOU ARE ' FINISHED SO I CAN STOP THE CLOCK. DURING THE GAME, ALL i PLAYERS ARE FREE TO COMMUNICATE IN ANY W A Y WITH ANY OF THE OTHER PLAYERS OF THE TEAM. YOU M A Y ASK M E QUESTIONS ABOUT j THE COLORS OF THE STICKS, RULES OF PLAY, A N D SO ON. I CAN'T ANSWER QUESTIONS ABOUT THE RELATIONSHIPS OF THE ! PARTS ON THE PHOTO. ARE THERE ANY QUESTIONS NOW ? j j A g ain , t r y t o an sw er th e q u e s tio n s fro m th e p r e v io u s ly r e a d m a t e r i a l . I O .K ., IF THERE ARE N O M ORE QUESTIONS, LET'S BEGIN. HERE IS I THE ENVELOPE CONTAINING THE PARTS. Be s u r e t o rem ove th e p i c t u r e b e f o r e h a n d in g o v e r th e e n v e lo p e . PLEASE TAKE A N j INVENTORY. W ait u n t i l th e p la y e r s h av e ta k e n an in v e n to r y , j ARE THERE ANY PARTS MISSING? I f t h e r e a r e , ta k e them from i a n o th e r e n v e lo p e and r e p l a c e them a f t e r th e f i r s t p u z z le h a s b e e n c o m p le te d . O .K ., ARE YOU READY? HERE'S THE PICTURE. YOU M A Y BEGIN. Be s u re to s t a r t th e t i m e r . As th e e x e r c i s e p r o c e e d s , you may an sw er q u e s tio n s a b o u t th e r u l e s and a b o u t th e c o lo r s o f th e p h o to . T ry t o answ er q u e s tio n s fro m p r e v io u s ly re a d in f o r m a tio n . Do n o t an sw er any q u e s tio n s a b o u t th e r e l a t i o n s h i p s oF th e p a r t s , " I s t h i s s t i c k above o r below t h i s o n e ? " A ls o , be a l e r t to any i n f r a c t i o n s o f th e r u l e s . I f you s e e someone m oving to w ard w hat may be an i n f r a c t i o n , rem in d th e e n t i r e g ro u p o f th e r u l e s o f p la y . I f som e th in g d o es h ap p en w h ich may h av e g iv e n away th e gam e, be s u re t o n o te i t on th e d a ta c o l l e c t i o n fo rm . When i t a p p e a rs a s th o u g h th e team i s a b o u t f i n i s h e d w ith th e p u z z le , s a y : W H EN YOU ARE FINISHED WITH THE PUZZLE, TELL M E SO I CAN STOP THE CLOCK. BE SURE TO TELL M E W HEN YOU HAVE FINISHED. IF THERE IS A N ERROR IN THE W A Y THE FINISHED PUZZLE IS PUT TOGETHER, I WILL PENALIZE YOU ONE MINUTE ON YOUR TIME. Do n o t add any tim e t o th e a c t u a l p e rfo rm a n c e tim e . I f tK e re i s an e r r o r , r e c o r d th e a c t u a l tim e and make a n o te t h a t th e p u z z le was i n c o r r e c t when th e team d e c la r e d i t f i n i s h e d . The p e n a lty s ta te m e n t i s f o r m o tiv a tio n p u rp o se s o n ly . When f i n i s h e d w ith p u z z le A, go on t o B, and on th ro u g h D. A f te r e a c h p u z z le , r e c o r d th e tim e , r e s e t th e t i m e r , and p r e s e n t th e new p u z z le by s a y in g so m e th in g l i k e : 166 READY? O .K ., HERE'S THE ENVELOPE. W HEN YOU'RE READY, I 'L L GIVE YOU THE PHOTO, AND YOU M A Y BEGIN. The p la y e r s may n o t t a l k a b o u t t h e t a s k and o r g a n i z a t i o n b etw een p u z z le s . I f th e y i n s i s t on d o in g s o , t e l l them t h a t you m ust tim e them f o r t h e i r t a l k and r e c o rd i t . A ls o , i f you h av e th e n e x t p u z z le re a d y to go when th e y f i n i s h o n e , t h e r e i s a lm o st no tim e f o r t a l k i n g . P u l l th e o ld one o f f th e t a b l e and announce and p r e s e n t th e new o n e . When th e l a s t p u z z le i s f i n i s h e d , t a l k i n g i s n o t o n ly p e r m itte d , i t i s e n c o u ra g e d . APPENDIX D LEADERLESS GROUP DISCUSSION APPENDIX D LEADERLESS GROUP DISCUSSION L e a d e r le s s G roup D is c u s s io n i s a f r e q u e n tly - u s e d (te c h n iq u e to s ti m u l a t e i n t e r a c t i o n s f o r th e s tu d y o f s m a ll j g r o u p s . | F o llo w in g i s a s e t o f th e in f o r m a tio n p r e s e n te d t o th e p l a y e r s . A ll p la y e r s r e c e iv e d th e s h e e t t i t l e d "T he D i s c i p l i n e P ro b le m ." The s p e c i f i c - i n f o r m a t i o n s h e e ts w ere d i s t r i b u t e d t o th e p la y e r s a c c o rd in g to th e A ,B ,C ,D ,E d e s i g n a t i o n s , aro u n d th e t a b l e , l e f t t o r i g h t . P la y e r s w ere a sk e d t o n o t r e f e r t o th e p r i n t e d m a t e r i a l s a f t e r th e d i s c u s s io n h ad b egun b u t w ere e n c o u ra g e d t o u s e t h e i r own h a n d w r itte n n o t e s . 168 THE DISCIPLINE PROBLEM M r. Amos h a s b e e n p u b l i c l y a c c u s e d o f c o n d u c t unbecom in g a t e a c h e r . M r. Amos i s a t e a c h e r a t y o u r s c h o o l. Your co m m itte e h a s b e e n a sk e d t o recommend a c o u r s e o f a c t i o n i n t h i s c a s e , and some o r a l l o f y o u r co m m ittee may b e a sk e d to im plem ent w h a te v e r a c t i o n you recom m end. The f o llo w in g in f o r m a tio n may o r may n o t be c o m p le te and a c c u r a t e , and i t may o r may n o t b e th e same in f o r m a tio n a s t h a t f u r n is h e d to o t h e r members o f th e c o m m itte e s. You may n o t show t h i s in f o r m a tio n to th e o t h e r s , o r re a d i t to th em , e t c . , b u t you may ta k e n o te s on th e b ac k o f t h i s s h e e t and u s e th e n o te s f o r r e f e r e n c e d u rin g th e d i s c u s s io n . P le a s e l i m i t y o u r d is c u s s io n t o 15 m in u te s . At th e end o f 15 m in u te s you a r e t o w r i t e down i n 100 w ords o r l e s s a j o i n t s ta te m e n t o f w hat you recommend and a c o u rs e o f a c t i o n . 169 THE CASE AGAINST MR. A M O S P la y e r A The S u p e r in te n d e n t h a s r e c e iv e d s e v e r a l te le p h o n e c a l l s and an anonym ous l e t t e r s t a t i n g t h a t Amos h a s b e e n s e e n d ru n k a t an in fa m o u s b a r a b o u t 2 0 m ile s o u t o f tow n on th e m ain h ig h w a y . The in fo rm a n ts a r e u s u a l l y vague a b o u t th e day and tim e o f th e i n c i d e n t ( s ) , b u t a r e a l l c e r t a i n t h a t th e p e rs o n in v o lv e d w as Mr. Amos. I n s p e c tio n o f M r. Amos' em ploym ent h i s t o r y r e v e a l s t h a t he h a s h e ld m ost o f h i s te a c h in g lo b s f o r l e s s th a n 3 y e a r s . The r e s i g n a t i o n r e a s o n s u s u a l l y p e r t a i n to " h e a l t h . " He h a s b e e n a t y o u r s c h o o l now f o r 3 1 /2 y e a r s . M r. Amos a p p e a rs to h av e p e r io d s o f o u ts ta n d in g t e a c h in g . D u rin g th o s e tim e s , h e i s b r i g h t , c h e e r f u l , g lo w in g w ith h e a l t h , and lo v e d by th e s t u d e n t s . T h e re a r e p e r io d s o f s e v e r a l w eeks a t a tim e , th o u g h , when Amos a p p e a rs d e p re s s e d and " n o t q u i t e w e l l . " He h a s made r e f e r e n c e once o r tw ic e t o h a v in g b ee n to a r e s t home i n A riz o n a f o r 3 m onths o r s o , some tim e i n th e p a s t —b e f o r e h e came t o y o u r s c h o o l. M r. Amos h a s b e e n a b s e n t on s ic k n e s s le a v e f o r 2 w eeks now. T h re e te a c h e r s r e p o r t h a v in g s e e n him d r iv i n g aro u n d th e tow n. One s a y s he lo o k ed p r e t t y b a d , n o t s h a v e d , d i r t y c l o t h e s , e t c . When one o f th e te a c h e r s w ent to c a l l on Amos, th e h o u se was lo c k e d and d a r k . The c a r was i n th e d r i v e , b u t no one an sw ered th e d o o r. Amos d o e s n 't h a v e a te l e p h o n e . THE CASE AGAINST M R. A M O S P la y e r B The S u p e r in te n d e n t h a s r e c e iv e d s e v e r a l te le p h o n e c a l l s and an anonym ous l e t t e r s t a t i n g t h a t Arnos h a s b e e n s e e n d ru n k a t an in fa m o u s b a r a b o u t 2 0 m ile s o u t o f tow n on th e • m ain h ig h w a y . The in fo r m a n ts a r e u s u a l l y v ag u e a b o u t th e ] day and tim e o f th e i n c i d e n t ( s ) , b u t a r e a l l c e r t a i n t h a t th e p e rs o n in v o lv e d w as M r. Amos. A bout a y e a r a g o , d u r in g Open H o u se, M r. Amos a p p e a re d j t o b e n o t h i s u s u a l calm b u t b r i g h t and q u ic k s e l f . S ev eralj p a r e n ts m e n tio n e d t o o t h e r t e a c h e r s t h a t M r. Amos "was w eav in g a l i t t l e , " " t a l k e d t h i c k , " "seem ed t o b e i l l , " e t c . When th e f a c u l t y c h a irm a n w en t aro u n d a b o u t 15 m in u te s b e f o r e c l o s i n g tim e , h e fo u n d t h a t Amos' room w as lo c k e d , and th e s e v e r a l p a r e n ts s ta n d in g t h e r e s a id h e had j u s t ann o u n ced t h a t he was g o in g hom e, lo c k e d th e d o o r and g o t i n h i s c a r and d ro v e aw ay. Mr. Amos a p p e a rs t o h av e p e r io d s o f o u ts ta n d in g t e a c h in g . D u rin g th o s e t im e s , h e i s b r i g h t , c h e e r f u l , g lo w in g w ith h e a l t h , and lo v e d by h i s s t u d e n t s . T h e re a r e p e r io d s o f s e v e r a l w eeks a t a tim e , th o u g h , when Amos a p p e a rs d e p r e s s e d and " n o t q u i t e w e l l . " He h a s made r e f e r e n c e o n ce o r tw ic e t o h a v in g b e e n t o a r e s t home i n A riz o n a f o r 3 m onths o r s o , some tim e i n th e p a s t - - b e f o r e he came t o y o u r s c h o o l. M r. Amos h a s b e en a b s e n t on s ic k n e s s le a v e f o r 2 w eeks now. T h ree te a c h e r s r e p o r t h a v in g s e e n him d r iv i n g a ro u n d t h e tow n. One s a y s h e lo o k e d p r e t t y b a d , n o t s h a v e d , d i r t y c l o t h e s , e t c . When one o f th e te a c h e r s w en t t o c a l l on Amos, th e h o u se was lo c k e d and d a r k . The c a r w as i n th e d r i v e , b u t no one an sw ered th e d o o r. Amos d o e s n 't h a v e a t e l e p h o n e . 171 THE CASE AGAINST M R. A M O S P la y e r C The S u p e r in te n d e n t h a s r e c e iv e d s e v e r a l te le p h o n e c a l l s and an anonymous l e t t e r s t a t i n g t h a t Amos h a s b ee n s e e n d ru n k a t an in fa m o u s b a r a b o u t 2 0 m ile s o u t o f tow n on th e m ain h ig h w ay . The in fo rm a n ts a r e u s u a l l y v ag u e a b o u t th e d ay and tim e o f th e i n c i d e n t ( s ) , b u t a r e a l l c e r t a i n t h a t th e p e rs o n in v o lv e d was M r. Amos. Mr. Amos i s n e a r l y alw ay s an e a s y g o in g and p le a s a n t enough p e r s o n , b u t o f t e n seem s w ith d ra w n . Amos i s f r e q u e n t l y a b s e n t f o r s ic k n e s s on M onday. One o f th e te a c h e r s h a s r e p o r t e d t h a t som etim es h i s h an d s sh ak e a l o t when h e f i r s t comes t o s c h o o l on T u esd ay m o rn in g , a f t e r b e in g a b s e n t on M onday. He k e e p s one o f h i s d e s k d ra w e rs lo c k e d a l l th e tim e , ev en th o u g h s c h o o l r u l e s r e q u i r e t h a t a l l r e c o r d s and v a lu a b le s b e k e p t i n th e v a u l t . I n s p e c tio n o f M r. Amos' em ploym ent h i s t o r y r e v e a l s t h a t h e h a s h e ld m ost o f h i s te a c h in g jo b s f o r l e s s th a n 3 y e a r s . The r e s i g n a t i o n r e a s o n s u s u a ll y p e r t a i n to " h e a l t h . ' He h a s b e e n a t y o u r s c h o o l now f o r 3 1 /2 y e a r s . Mr. Amos h a s b e e n a b s e n t on s ic k le a v e f o r two w eeks now. T h ree te a c h e r s r e p o r t h a v in g s e e n him d r iv i n g aro u n d th e tow n. One s a y s he lo o k ed p r e t t y b a d , n o t s h a v e d , d i r t y c l o t h e s , e t c . When one o f th e t e a c h e r s w en t t o c a l l on Amos, th e h o u se w as lo c k e d and d a r k . The c a r w as i n th e d r i v e , b u t no one an sw ered th e d o o r. Amos d o e s n 't h av e a te le p h o n e . 172 THE CASE AGAINST M R. A M O S Player D The S u p e r in te n d e n t h a s r e c e iv e d s e v e r a l te le p h o n e c a l l s and an anonym ous l e t t e r s t a t i n g t h a t Amos h a s b ee n ' s e e n d ru n k a t an in fam o u s b a r a b o u t 2 0 m ile s o u t o f tow n ! on th e m ain h ig h w a y . The in fo rm a n ts a r e u s u a l l y vag u e a b o u t th e day and tim e o f th e i n c i d e n t ( s ) , b u t a r e a l l c e r t a i n t h a t th e p e rs o n in v o lv e d was M r. Amos. j M r. Amos i s f r e q u e n t l y a b s e n t on M onday. One o f th e t e a c h e r s s a id sh e saw him on Monday a s sh e w as d r iv i n g to w o rk . At l e a s t sh e saw a man who lo o k e d l i k e M r. Amos " s le e p in g i n a b lu e c a r p a rk e d a t th e s id e o f th e r o a d ." He h a s a t e a l b lu e C h e v r o le t. A bout a y e a r a g o , d u r in g Open H o u se, M r. Amos a p p e a re d to n o t be h i s u s u a l calm b u t b r i g h t and q u ic k s e l f . S e v e r a l p a r e n ts m e n tio n e d to o t h e r t e a c h e r s t h a t Mr. Amos "w as w eav in g a l i t t l e , " " t a l k e d t h i c k , " "seem ed t o be i l l , " e t c . When th e f a c u l t y c h a irm a n w ent aro u n d a b o u t 15 m in u te s b e f o r e c l o s i n g tim e , he found t h a t Amos' room was lo c k e d , and t h e s e v e r a l p a r e n ts s ta n d in g t h e r e s a id h e had j u s t announced t h a t he w as g o in g hom e, lo c k e d th e d o o r and g o t i n h i s c a r and d ro v e away. Mr. Amos h a s b een a b s e n t o n s ic k le a v e f o r 2 w eeks now. T h re e te a c h e r s r e p o r t h a v in g s e e n him d r iv i n g aro u n d th e tow n. One s a y s he lo o k ed p r e t t y b a d , n o t s h a v e d , d i r t y c l o t h e s , e t c . When one o f th e te a c h e r s w ent t o c a l l on Amos, th e h o u se w as lo c k e d and d a rk . The c a r w as i n th e d r i v e , b u t no one an sw ered th e d o o r. Amos d o e s n 't h av e a te le p h o n e . 173 THE CASE AGAINST MR. A M O S Player E The S u p e r in te n d e n t h a s r e c e iv e d s e v e r a l te le p h o n e c a l l g and an anonymous l e t t e r s t a t i n g t h a t Amos h a s b e e n se e n j d ru n k a t an in fa m o u s b a r ab o u t 2 0 m ile s o u t o f tow n on t h e j m ain h ig h w ay . The in fo rm a n ts a r e u s u a l l y v a g u e a b o u t th e j day and tim e o f t h e i n c i d e n t ( s ) , b u t a re a l l c e r t a i n t h a t th e p e rs o n in v o lv e d was M r. A nos. Mr. Amos i s n e a r l y alw ays an e a s y g o in g and p l e a s a n t enough p e r s o n , b u t o f te n seems w ith d ra w n . Amos i s f r e q u e n t l y a b s e n t f o r s ic k n e s s on M onday. One o f th e te a c h e r s h a s r e p o r te d t h a t som etim es h i s h a n d s sh a k e a l o t when h e f i r s t com es to sc h o o l on T u esd ay m o rn in g , a f t e r b e in g a b s e n t on M onday. He k e e p s o n e o f h i s d e sk d ra w e rs lo c k e d a l l th e tim e , e v e n th ough s c h o o l r u l e s r e q u i r e t h a t a l l r e c o r d s and v a l u a b l e s be k e p t i n th e v a u l t . Mr. Amos i s f r e q u e n t l y a b s e n t o n M onday. One o f th e te a c h e r s s a i d she saw h im one Monday as sh e was d r iv i n g to w o rk . At l e a s t s h e saw a man who lo o k e d l i k e M r. Amos " s le e p in g i n a b lu e c a r p a rk e d a t t h e s id e o f th e r o a d ." Mr. Amos h a s a t e a l b lu e C h e v ro le t. Mr. Amos h a s b ee n a b s e n t on s ic k n e s s le a v e f o r 2 w eeks now. T h re e te a c h e r s r e p o r t h a v in g s e e n him d r iv i n g aro u n d th e tow n. One s a y s he lo o k ed p r e t t y b a d , n o t s h a v e d , d i r t y c l o t h e s , e t c . When one o f th e te a c h e r s w en t to c a l l on Arnos, th e h o u se w as lo c k e d and d a rk . The c a r w as i n th e d r i v e , b u t no one an sw ered th e d o o r. Amos d o e s n 't h av e a te l e p h o n e . APPENDIX E FORMULA AND EXAMPLE FOR SELECTING A POOL OF PLAYERS FROM A STRATIFIED LIST OF POSSIBLE PLAYERS APPENDIX E FORMULA AND EXAMPLE FOR SELECTING A POOL OF PLAYERS FROM A STRATIFIED LIST OF POSSIBLE PLAYERS I f th e r e s e a r c h d e s ig n n e c e s s i t a t e s a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e sam ple from a s t r a t i f i e d l i s t , th e f o llo w in g fo rm u la and exam ple d e m o n s tra te a m ethod o f s e l e c t i n g su ch a sam p le. F o rm u la f o r s e l e c t i n g a p o o l o f p la y e r s fro m a l i s t o f p o s s i b l e p l a y e r s : Ps - _ V (F . 1 ) I W here P i s th e l i s t o f p la y e r s s e l e c t e d f o r an a c t i v i t y , s Np i s th e l i s t o f p o s s i b l e p la y e r s ( i n th e p r e s e n t s tu d y , Np i s th e t o t a l f a c u l t y l i s t o f a p a r t i c u l a r s c h o o l ) , and I i s th e i n t e r v a l u s e d when s e l e c t i n g th e p la y e r s fro m N ( s e e F . 2 ) . r F o rm u la f o r f in d in g I i n F . 1: I = _ ^ p _ (F . 2) Pn Where I and Np a r e a s i n F . 1 , and Pn i s th e num ber o f p la y e r s n ee d e d f o r a p a r t i c u l a r a c t i v i t y . ( I m ust b e an i n t e g e r . I f th e d i v i s i o n r e s u l t s i n a r e m a in d e r, th e n e x t l a r g e r i n t e g e r i s i u s e d .) ! 176 EXAMPLE OF SELECTION OF FIVE PLAYERS FROM THE FACULTY OF A HYPOTHETICAL SCHOOL F a c u lty L i s t ! (N=17) i 1 K in d e rg a rte n 2 F i r s t G rade A I 3 F i r s t G rade B ' 4 Second G rade A j 5 Second G rade B | 6 Second G rade C | 7 T h ird G rade A ! 8 T h ird G rade B ; 9 T h ird G rade C 110 F o u rth G rade A 111 F o u rth G rade B ! 12 F o u rth G rade C 13 F i f t h G rade A 14 F i f t h G rade B 15 F i f t h G rade C 16 R ead in g R eso u rce 17 G if te d R eso u rce P o t e n t i a l - P la y e r P o o l (N=6 ) 9 T h ird G rade C 1 2 F o u rth G rade C 15 F i f t h G rade C 1 K in d e rg a rte n 4 Second G rade A 7 T h ird G rade A P la y e r s (N=5)* 1 K in d e rg a rte n 4 Second G rade A 9 T h ird G rade C 12 F o u rth G rade C 15 F i f t h G rade C N o n p lay er f o r One Game (N =l) 12 F o u rth G rade C I n t e r v a l = 3 S t a r t c o u n tin g a t name s i x . *One s e le c t e d o u t random ly a t tim e o f p la y t o p e rm it p r i n c i p a l to p la y one game. 177 APPENDIX F FORTRAN COMPUTER PROGRAM FOR COMPUTING STANDARD SCORES FROM OCDQ DATA 178 APPENDIX F The f o llo w in g i s a FORTRAN co m p u ter p ro g ram f o r co m p u tin g s ta n d a r d s c o r e s fro m OCDQ d a ta p r e v io u s ly s ta n d a r d iz e d on an i n d i v i d u a l by u s in g th e d i s t r i c t mean a s th e g ra n d m ean. The p ro g ram u s e s G u i l f o r d 's s ta n d a r d s c o re fo rm u la (1 9 6 5 , fo rm u la 1 9 .2 , p . 5 1 7 ). The co m p u ter program w as w r i t t e n by E a r l C ooper o f th e Com puter S c ie n c e s L a b o ra to r y , U n iv e r s ity o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r th e p r e s e n t s tu d y . 179 THIS PROGRAM CALCULATES STANDARD SCORES FROM NORMATIVELY STANDARDIZED OCDQ DATA. THE STANDARD SCORE DATA FOR EACH RESPONDENT IS ON ONE CARD A N D THE DATA FOR ONE SCHOOL IS SEPARATED FROM THAT OF ANOTHER BY ONE BLANK CARD. ONE SCHOOL IS PROCESSED AT A TIME. DIMENSION GMEAN(9), XBAR(9), SUMS(9), SS(9) PRINT 10 10 FORMAT ( '1 ') 98 CONTINUE KOUNT = 0 SUM10 = 0. 0 DO 1 I = 1 , 9 GMEAN(I) = 0 .0 S S (I) = 0 .0 XBAR(I) = 0 .0 1 SUMS(I) = 0 .0 READ DATA FOR ONE SCHOOL 4 READ(5,2,END=100) XBAR, SIGMAA, KARDN 2 FORMAT(T27, 9F 3 . 2 ,3 X ,F 3 . 2 ,T 8 0 ,1 1 ) SEARCH FOR A BLANK CARD IF(KARDN .EQ. 0) G O TO 99 COUNT THE SCHOOLS KOUNT = KOUNT + 1 SU M THE M EANS DO 3 I = 1 , 9 3 SUMS(I) = SUMS(I) + XBAR(I) SUM10 = SUM10 + SIGMAA G O TO 4 CALCULATE THE 8 GRAND MEANS OF THE 8 SETS OF MEANS A ND THE M EAN OF THE 8 GRA N D M EANS 99 DO 5 I = 1 , 9 5 GMEAN(I) = SUMS(I) / KOUNT c c SIGMA = SUM10 / KOUNT XB = (GMEAN(9) * 1 0 .0 ) / SIGMA D O 6 I = 1 , 8 XA = (GMEAN(I) * 1 0 .0 ) / SIGMA 6 S S (I) = XA - (XB - 50.0) CALCULATE THE M EA N SIGMA FOR THE DISTRICT CALCULATE THE 8 STANDARD SCORES C PRINT OUT THE RESULTS FOR ONE n CPU/VYT FIT C T P T P T PRINT &, K O U N T ,(SS(I),1 = 1 ,8 ) . GMEAN(9), SIGMA 7 FORMAT ( / / / ' THERE WERE ' I 3 , f CASES PROCESSED1/ / / / 1 ' THE EIGHT STANDARD SCORES WERE: ' / 30X8(F 8 . 5 ,3 X ) / / / 2 lOX'THE GRAND M EAN W AS 'F 6.3/10X 'T H E GRAND SIGMA W A S 'F6.3) PRINT 8 , (GMEAN(I),1 = 1 ,8 ) 8 FORMAT ( / / / ' THE EIGHT ORIGINAL MEANS WERE:' /3 0 X 8 (F 6 . 3 ,4 X )) GO TO 98 100 STOP END oo

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Creator Nortman, Richard Philip (author)

Core Title Organizational Behavior: Experimental Field Study Using Short Simulation Games And The Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, administration,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Dawson, Dan T. (committee chair), Boocock, Sarane S. (committee member), Holmen, Milton G. (committee member), Michael, William B. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-437603

Unique identifier UC11361042

Identifier 7025053.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-437603 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 7025053.pdf

Dmrecord 437603

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Nortman, Richard Philip

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA