University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

The Differential Effects Of Viewing Selected Moving Visual Figure Patterns On The Performance Of A Dynamic Balance Task

(USC Thesis Other)

The Differential Effects Of Viewing Selected Moving Visual Figure Patterns On The Performance Of A Dynamic Balance Task

PDF

Download

Open document

Flip pages

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content 70-23,189 SUTTIE, Sandra Jean, 1938- THE DIFFERENTIAL EFFECTS OF VIEWING SELECTED MOVING VISUAL FIGURE PATTERNS ON THE PERFORMANCE OF A DYNAMIC BALANCE TASK. University of Southern California, Ph.D., 1970 Education, physical University Microfilms, A X E R O X Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan THE DIFFERENTIAL EFFECTS OF VIEWING SELECTED MOVING VISUAL FIGURE PATTERNS ON THE PERFORMANCE OF A DYNAMIC BALANCE TASK by Sandra Jean Suttie A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Physical Education) January 1970 UNIVERSITY O F SO U TH ER N CALIFORNIA THE GRADUATE SCHOO L UNIVERSITY PARK LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA S 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, written by under the direction of Dissertation Com mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by The Gradu ate School, in partial fulfillment of require ments for the degree of Sandra Jean Suttie D O C T O R O F P H IL O S O P H Y Dean Date. Ja.Q3 s !.ary...l£70. DISSERTATION COMMITTEE TABLE OP CONTENTS Page LIST OP TABLES....... iv LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS.............................. v Chapter I. INTRODUCTION .............................. 1 The Purpose Importance of the Study The Problem Hypotheses Assumptions Limitations Definitions of Terms Organization of the Remainder of the Study II. THE MECHANISMS OF BALANCE................. 9 Vestibular System Visual System Proprioceptors III. REVIEW OP LITERATURE..................... 17 Role of Sensory Cues in Body Orientation Role of Vision in Balance Balance Specificity and Factors of Balance Summary IV. PROCEDURES............................... 30 Balance Test Visual Task Experimental Procedures ii Chapter Pilot Study Subjects Time Schedule Test Facilities Height Measurements Visual Field Measurements Visual Task Training Order of the Visual Patterns Balance Practice • Practice of Balance Test While Performing Visual Task Testing Statistical Analyses V. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ............ Analysis of Results Discussion of Results VT. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS .......... Summary The Problem Hypotheses Procedures Results Conclusions Recommendations j BIBLIOGRAPHY............................... APPENDIX LIST OP TABLES Table Page 1. Body Height and Eye-Level Height of Subjects........................... . 4 3 2. Visual Field Measurements of Subjects . . . 46 3. Summary of Balance Performance: Data Prom Balance Scores While Performing Visual Tasks............................. 53 4. Final Analysis of Variance: Data Prom Balance Scores While Performing Visual Tasks............................. 54 5. Comparisons Between Visual Pattern Treatment Sums..................... 56 6. Significant Differences in Balance Scores While Viewing Visual Patterns . . 57 iv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ; Figure Page 1. Lynabalometer and Guardrail............... 31 2. Lynabalometer Performance ............... 33 3. Test Area Floor P l a n ..................... 42 4. Testing of Subject........................ 45 5. Mirrors of the Multiple Moving Picture Project............................... 88 v CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Movement is basic to the human organism. Man continually reacts to stimuli. He develops force and ex pends energy as he interacts with his environment. These interactions demand many forms of movement behavior, and one form is equilibrium or balance. The movement behaviors subsumed under the concept of balance are often divided into three types: static, rotational and dynamic. Static balance describes the ability to maintain a relatively fixed position. Rotational balance refers to the ability to recover equilibrium after being spun (187). Dynamic balance describes the act of establishing equilibrium during motion or maintaining or ; regaining bodily orientation in relation to gravity (166). It is a factor in all patterns of locomotion, e.g. running and jumping, where bodily orientation must be main- ;tained while moving. The mechanisms by which balance can be attained and , !maintained are in part reflexive in nature, but can be modified by purposeful volitional movement. Many sensory imodalities are involved in achieving balance and in making ; postural adjustments to the environment. These include vestibulation* vision* kinesthesis* audition* the skin senses and the visceral senses. Results of research suggest that visual stimulation may affect body balance. Investigators have demonstrated the effects of changes in the visual field and in figure- ground relationships on static balance* verticality and body orientation. In these studies it has been found that ; perception of body position depends not only upon excita tions arising throughout the body but also upon visually j perceived relationships between the body and the visual | figures. Studies in which the viewing effects of the visual field on dynamic balance* however* are few and have been limited in scope. ; j i The Purpose The purpose of this study was to gain greater iknowledge about the effects of visual tasks on the per formance of motor tasks when performed simultaneously. Importance of the Study Studies designed to seek further knowledge about the .effects of viewing various grounds and figures on I dynamic balance could fill some of the gaps in the spectrum; idealing with perceptual activity and bodily activity* object-body relationships and* more specifically* the area ' of visual stimulation and its effects on dynamic balance. | 3 ; The results of such studies could also have possible applied values. A need exists for the establish ment of a developmental sequence, based on research find ings, of the effects of viewing figure-ground patterns on dynamic balance. Part of this progression has already been developed by investigators (3 2, 1 1 2). Some parts of this order have to date, however, been arbitrarily established (6). One unconfirmed area in the sequence is that of the effects on dynamic balance of viewing figures moving in various directions. Programs of motor develop ment might be improved as a result of such knowledge. Present programs for mentally retarded and/or neurologic- ;ally impared individuals incorporate the existing knowledge ; of such developmental sequences. Further research is needed to test the validity of the progressions. In programs of visual training designed for :individuals who have difficulty with various visual abilities other 'than binocular vision, dynamic balance tasks, in conjunction with various visual figures and/or grounds, are utilized. The progression used in these programs is also based, in part, on speculation. Another area in which information is needed con- i i 1cerning the effects of viewing various visual figures on 'dynamic body orientation is in aerospace and human factors ;engineering. Although the aircraft has highly accurate instruments to inform the pilot of his, and his ship’s orientation in space, pilots do not always trust their instruments, although it is well known that the instrument is more likely to give an accurate determination of facts ! than can the human instrument that is the pilot. This human factor produces pilot disorientation (1:225* 81:2, 108:9, 130, 1 4 9: 432). Questions persist regarding the effects of viewing various external moving objects on the pilot1s orientation and the effect of viewing various internal moving objects, such as dial needles, on his orientation. Research could help determine the type of dial needle least likely to affect the orientation of the pilot. The Problem The specific problem of this study was to investi gate the differential effects of viewing four selected patterns of a moving visual figure on the performance of a ! specific balance task. Hypotheses The following hypothesis was tested in this study: ! i ;Balance performance will be differentially affected when j ! | !viewing four selected movement patterns of a visual figure < during performance. ' The specific sub-hypotheses tested were: 1 . A difference between balance performances will I result from viewing the horizontally moving visual figure and the vertically moving visual figure. 2. A difference between balance performances will result from viewing the horizontally moving visual figure and the circular-like, clockwise moving visual figure. 3. A difference between balance performances will result from viewing the horizontally moving visual figure and the circular-like, counterclockwise moving visual figure. 4. A difference between balance performances will result from viewing the vertically moving visual figure and the circular-like, clockwise moving visual figure. 5. A difference between balance performances will result from viewing the vertically moving visual figure and the circular-like, counterclockwise moving visual figure. 6. A difference between balance performances will result from viewing the circular-like clockwise moving visual figure and the circular-like, counterclockwise mov ing visual figure. Assumptions The study was based on the following assumptions: 1. the subjects would watch the moving spot during balance performance as directed, 2. the subjects would attempt to perform the balance task as directed. Limitations Although the visual field is important in the maintenance of dynamic balance, it was recognized that !visual conditions are not the only vital factors involved in balance performance. More importantly, there is a large : complex of other factors involved, including vestibular ; and kinesthetic types. The problems in attempting to iso- : late and then study the effects of stimulation of a single sensory modality on human performance are extremely diffi cult. Even if it were possible in the normal human subject to perform such specific studies, the validity of the result must be questioned since normal movement is the total result of the integration of many sensory processes, and ;the total of these integrations surpasses the summation of isolated sensory processes. For the purposes of the I present investigation, the effects of the stimulation occasioned by the visual figure were studied. It is quite ■likely that this stimulation could produce increased sensitivity of other sensory processes with resultant facilitation or inhibition of bodily movement, either in :whole or in part. This study, however, was limited to |varying the visual input<and measuring bodily activity in |terms of balance as the output. Other types of bodily i !activity elicited by visual stimulation were not included. It was expected that the effects of other individual : differences on balance performance would normally random- ize themselves in healthy subjects through the experimental design chosen and the number of subjects tested. Definitions of Terms Definitions of terms as they are employed in this study are described below: Motor performance.— "The goal-centered, purposeful, observable movement behavior of relatively short dura tion" (7:23). Visual-motor coordination.— "The ability to coordinate vision with movements of the body or with move ments of a part or parts of the body" (l8:l6). Dynamic balance.— The ability of the body to establish and maintain equilibrium or gain body orienta tion in relation to gravity (166:216). Visual field.— The "space in which objects are visible during fixation of the gaze in one direction" (5 6:5). This is approximately 180 degrees laterally and 150 degrees vertically (2 4: 2 7). Figure.— The focus of visual attention, bounded by a contour, perceived as a whole (7:94). Ground.— The surrounding visual context of infinite shape and outline (7:9^)* Organization of the Remainder of the Study The remaining chapters are organized as follows. A discussion of balance mechanisms in the body is presented ;in Chapter Two. Chapter Three contains a review of litera- ;ture related to balance and a discussion of inter-relation ships of balance, skill and vision. Chapter Four describes the procedures used in this study. The analysis and dis- :cussion of the data are presented in Chapter Five, while Chapter Six, the last chapter, includes a summary, the , conclusions drawn from the findings, and recommendations for further study. CHAPTER II THE MECHANISMS OP BALANCE Balance is attained and maintained through the central integration of sensory input and the resulting reflexes and voluntary movements which position the body. The three principal mechanisms which contribute sensory input in this case are the vestibular system, the visual system and the proprioceptors. Data from these sources are conducted centrally and must be integrated in order for the body to initiate action which controls body equilibrium. In this chapter a discussion is presented of the vestibular visual and proprioceptive systems. Vestibular System The vestibular system can be divided into two major portions: the peripheral and the central (168:603). The peripheral portion consists of the end organs, ganglion and vestibular nerve. The end organs consist of the semi circular canals, the utricle and the sacculus. The central portion consists of the vestibular nuclei, the secondary neurons and their connections (168:603). The semicircular canals are located in the inner ear in the petrous portion of the temporal bone (108:1). 10 Each canal has an enlarged end, the ampulla, and a smooth end. The two vertical canals fuse at the smooth end to form the crus commune, and the three ampullated endings all communicate with the utricle ( 1 9 :2 2 5, 2 6 :1143a 168:605). In the ampulla of each canal are small crests: the crista ampullaris. Hair tufts from hair cells project into a gelatinous mass covering the crista. This mass is known as the cupula (108:3). These hair cells serve as receptors for the sensory fibers of the vestibular nerve. Bending or tilting the cupula to one side or the other stimulates these receptors to initiate impulses over the ;vestibular nerve (1 9 :2 2 5, 3 1 : 6 7 6, 54:66, 8 2 :6 7 0, 1 0 8 : 3 ). The ducts of the canals are filled with endolymph. When the head suddenly begins to rotate in any direction, the endolymph, because of its inertia, tends to remain stationary while the semicircular canals themselves turn. This results in a flow of fluid in the canals in a direction opposite to rotation, and the flow displaces the cupula to stimulate the nerve endings (31:677a 108:11). This mechanical movement is transformed to excitation of the I sensorial cells of the crista through the inclination of |the hair tufts ( 8 2 : 6 7 0). Inclination In one direction 'causes a depolarization of the cellular membranes in the 'opposite direction, a hyperpolarization (13:133)- This excitation, arising from sensory input from the semi- circular canals, makes possible the detection of angular accelerations (82:670, 108:8) of short duration (31:678). When rotation is prolonged beyond a few seconds, the cupula is forced back by its own elasticity towards its zero position and neural excitation ceases even though rotation continues (19:227, 1 3 0: 463, 168:606). The utricle is a membranous sac in the vestibule. A specialized layer of epithelial supporting cells and hair tufts in the utricle is known as the macula. Hair tufts from these cells project upward into a gelatinous layer which contains small crystals of calcium carbonate: the otoliths. Sensory axons of the vestibular nerve entwine around these hair cells (22:195, 31:676). The density of the otoliths is almost three times that of the surrounding fluid (31:677). As a result, the gravitational pull on the otoliths causes them to exert a continuous pressure on the macular hair tufts, even in static conditions. This pressure causes the hair tufts to bend, stimulates the sensory receptors, and initiates impulses over the vestibular nerve. The macula are responsible for detecting the position of the head in respect to the direction of the gravitational pull (22:195, 3 1: 677). When the body is suddenly thrust forward, the otoliths, which have greater inertia than the surrounding fluid, tend to remain stationary. This results in a dis- |placement of the otoliths backwards on the hair tufts and a resulting stimulation of the nerve endings. Any linear acceleration as well as static positioning also acts as a stimulus to the macula (31:677, 82:670, 108:2). The saccula is another membranous sac in the vestibule. Its structure is similar to that of the utricle and it has a macular layer and otoliths (108:2,8)5 however, whether the end organ functions in equilibrium in man is questionable ( 1 9:230, 2 2: 195* 3 1:676, 8 7:5 0 1). Others feel it functions in man in a manner similar to the utricle (82:670, 108:3*8). The primary neurons of the vestibular nerve, part of Cranial Nerve VIII, go from the sensory receptors to one of the four vestibular nuclei located in the medulla oblongata or possibly directly to the cerebellum without synapslng in the vestibular nuclei (31:676, 53:66, 82:676). Prom these nuclei, central connections are made with secondary neurons which form tracts. The lateral vestibulospinal tract carries impulses which are responsible for the initiation of reflexes which ;facilitate and inhibit the extensor muscles to shift the I center of gravity (2 2:340, 31:676, 1 0 8:4). This shift is |in the plane of and in the direction opposite to the !rotation, i.e., in the direction of the endolymph flow, thus preventing falling by compensating for the rotation ! (168:607). 13 The vestibulo-ocular tract connects with the medial longitudinal fasciculus and controls movements of the eyeballs. The eyes move in the direction of endolymph flow, thus providing the stabilization of the outer images on the retina during rotation and preventing sensations of apparent movement of the outer panorama. This movement of the eyeballs is known as nystagmus (108:35, 168:607). Visual System Visual images help maintain equilibrium simply by visual detection of the upright position (3 1:680). Any deviations from it, such, as slight linear or angular move ments of the body, instantaneously shift the visual images on the retina (3 1:680). This information is relayed over the Optic Nerve, Cranial Nerve II, to the optic chiasma (5:83s 2 2:2 8). At the chiasma, the nasal half of each nerve crosses while the outer half remains uncrossed (5:83) The fibers then go via the lateral geniculate to the occipital cortex (2 2: 184, 3 1:725). Association and reflex fibers travel from the occipital cortex to other cortical centers and to the superior colliculi through tectobulbular and tectospinal tracts to (1) cranial and spinal nuclei for I voluntary movements and to (2) pontine nuclei for postural ;reflexes (5:83, 2 2: 236). The sensory input then predicts :that the person will fall off balance before this actually occurs, and the appropriate adjustments are immediately 14 made (31:680). Proprioceptors The proprioceptors in the head and neck transmit information about the orientation of the head with respect to the body and the orientation of the different parts of the body with respect to each other (3 1:679)* This infor mation is sent either directly into the reticular nuclei of the brain stem or to the cerebellum and thence to the reticular nuclei (31:679)* The most important proprioceptive information needed for the maintenance of equilibrium is derived from the neck receptors (86:1055, 8 7:501). These appraise the nervous system of the orientation of the head with respect to the body (3 1:6 7 9)* When the muscles of the neck are stretched, the resultant impulses trigger reflexes. The movements from these reflexes restore the body to its normal position. The extraocular muscles of the eyes are also a possible source of proprioceptive information (82:669a !65:93* 94, 86:1055, 87:500) although some investigators do not agree (88:8). Stretch sensitive receptors in these !muscles send impulses centrally over the Opthalmic Branch |of the Trigeminal Nerve (8 6: 1055). Several types of exteroceptive sensations are also |important. Pressure sensations arising in the Vater- ;Pacinian Corpusclesof the soles of the feet can tella 15 person whether his weight is distributed equally over his two feet and whether his weight is forward or backward (3 1: 679, 108:38). When a person is running very fast, the wind or air pressure against the front of his body signals that an opposing force is acting on the body in a direction different from that of gravity. As a result, the body is moved forward to oppose this force (31: 679). Impulses from these pressure receptors form reflex connections upon entering the spinal cord. In addition, ascending branches convey impulses up the ventral spinothalamic tract to the lateral thalamic nuclei and ultimately to the post-central gyrus of the parietal lobe of the cerebral cortex (82:669). Information is also transmitted to the spinal cord and cerebellum by two other types of receptors to cause reflexes associated with equilibrium and posture. These are the muscle spindle and the Golgi Tendon apparatus (3 1:6 7 2). !The muscle spindles , are responsible for sensations from the muscles: the degree of muscular contraction and the degree of stretch on the muscle (31:672, 108:3 9). The Golgi Tendon apparatus is responsive to tension on the tendon (3 1: 672, 1 0 8: 4 0). Nerve fibers from these pass to :Clarke’s cells in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord and I upward in secondary neurons through dorsal and ventral spinalcerebellar tracts to the anterior cerebellum (3 1:6 7 4).! ' j The vestibular apparatus acts to continually modify ; :the tone of the different anti-gravity muscles so that if j 16 a person begins to fall off balance, the extensor muscles on the falling side will be contracted while those on the opposing side will be relaxed (31:77^). The reticular activating system may be stimulated by the peripheral sense organs (3 1: 6 7 9). It may also be stimulated by corticofugal impulses such as those from the orbital, sensorimotor, and cortical eye fields. A cortical center for the conscious perception of the state of equilibrium lies in the upper portion of the temporal lobe in close association with the primary corti cal center for hearing (3 1: 6 8 0). The sensations from the vestibular apparatus, the neck proprioceptors, and from most of the other proprioceptors are first integrated in the equilibrium centers of the brain stem before being transmitted to the cerebral cortex (31:680). CHAPTER III REVIEW OF LITERATURE Role of Sensory Cues in Body Orientation Perception of the position of the body in space depends on two types of perceptual information: sensa tions arising from internal body structures and sensations from the external environment including the visual field. The extent of the dependence on one type of cue over another or the reliance on an inter-relationship among types of cues varies greatly among people and also with each individual. Asch and Witkin (7 3) designed studies to determine the extent to which individuals rely upon internal body sensations and upon external information from the visual field to perceive horizontal and vertical coordinates in space. Subjects were shown a luminous tilted rectangular framework in an otherwise darkened room and were asked to set a movable rod to what they perceived to be true vertical. In one part of the study the . i subjects performed the task while seated in a chair which tilted the body to the side. It was found that one group of subjects utilized bodily sensations in perceiving their positions 17 and made fairly accurate settings of the rod. A second group relied upon visual cues to set the rod vertically in the tilted frame. The third group experienced a conflict between the two sets of cues and had great difficulty in making any setting of the rod. The mode of perception of the first group, relying upon bodily sensations and dis regarding information from the visual field, has been called"field independence." The mode of the second group, depending upon visual information, has been called "field dependence." Witkin (173) investigated the factors involved in the perception of the body and of the field as a whole. A series of experiments were conducted, utilizing apparatus which consisted of a small room which could be tilted left and right and a chair which could also be tilted left and. right. Subjects were asked to bring the room, the chair, or both to the upright position. Striking individual differences were found among subjects in their perception of upright and vertical. Some subjects were able to establish the upright independently of the field, !apparently basing their judgments primarily from sensations from within the body. Others perceived the upright of the ;field as the true upright, apparently relying on visual impressions. Bodily sensations were either discounted by these subjects, obliterated entirely or simply retained in irreconciable conflict with the stronger visual impression. In a similar study, Witkin and Wapner (17^) studied the effects of displacing the body from the axes of the prevailing field. Subjects seated in a backward tilted room apprehended their bodies as being tilted forward. In a left-tilted room, they perceived themselves as being tilted to the right. When the visual field was moving, the subjects perceived themselves as rocking. The illusion was in a direction opposite of the field. Observations of aviators and exploration of the types of problems they encounter in flight have furthered knowledge about the:role of the vestibule and of vision in bodily orientation. Bonner defined spatial-disorientation as a state of confusion concerning the subject’s true position in space. Disorientation occurs when a conflict arises among or between various sensory sources of informa tion concerning the subject's position in space. In flight, fourteen different types of disorientation have been described (8l). The pilot who relies upon his tactile and proprioceptive senses for information about orientation can not always correctly interpret changes in position. Centrifugal force can modify the normal action of the pull of gravity. Bonner (8l) stated that aeriel orientation can be maintained only by means of vision: either in reference to instruments inside the aircraft or in relation to outside references. However, dependence entirely upon outside visual references in the environment can also lead 20 to spatial disorientation. An example is the pilot who, flying his aircraft in a tilted position parallel to the top of a bank of clouds, perceives that he is in a hori zontal position. Orientation in aircraft depends on the ability of the pilot to see, believe, interpret and process only the instrument information available to him. Observations of American and French aviators by Fridenburg (105) led him to comment on the role of vision in posture. He stated: The labyrinth does not teach the average subject when he is holding his head straight, that is, vertical, and the careful observer will note an inclination of from 2 to nearly 10 degrees in the normal person. The moment they are called on to adjust this error by visual impressions, the head assumes the correct vertical position. In other words, the body position is brought into correspondence with a visually sensed standard. ...In the absence of visual standards for correction, there is no doubt that pressure sensations, especially those in the cervical and lumbar vertebrae, and tonus or innervation stress in the muscles of the neck and back are constant if almost subconscious data of balance and position. (105:992) The number of pilots who have experienced spatial orientation in flight has been studied using the interview method. One team of investigators, the Air Service Research Group of the U.S.A.F. School of Aerospace medicine (8l), ifound all 685 pilots interviewed had experienced spatial ;disorientation at ieast once in flight. j In another study, Nuttall and Sanford (1^9) found 100 per cent of the air force pilots whom they interviewed . i had experienced disorientation, some as many as twenty | 21 times. The tendency to become confused as a result of con flicting sensory input can be reduced. An experimental program was set up by Voyachek (8l) of the Pavlov Institute .(Russia). This program was mandatory for all pilots including cosmonauts. It consisted of daily calisthenics, instrument flying with special disorientation-inducing maneuvers, and special physical training of active vesti bular gymnastics. Pilots participated in the program for 45 minutes, every other day, for three months. Of the 1609 aviation cadets who were susceptible to spatial dis orientation, 75.3 per cent of this number improved their ability to maintain spatial orientation. Armstrong (1) commented about this type of training for pilots. He stated: For special aviation situations, it appears that a pilot could be trained to surpress labyrinthine sensa tions and become immune to vertigo. In most situa tions though, the average pilot is unlikely to spend the time and effort to attain and maintain a state of vestibular supression. (1:236) Griffith (113) studied the organic effects of repeated bodily rotation. Daily practice on the rotary ■ chair reduced the duration of the after-nystagmus, the ;number, duration, and amplitude of the ocular movements, ;and past pointing. He concluded that these reactions may ;entirely disappear within a relatively short time when ;rotation is repeated daily. 22 Vestibular suppression has been studied by several other investigators. McCabe (137) observed a world champion figure skater in one study. The focal point of the eyes during rapid spins was observed. He found: After each spin, the subject was able to stop suddenly, holding a graceful pose for as long as required. Post-rotational nystagmus was absent. This applied whether the horizontal or vertical canals were stimulated. . . . The head turned with the body at all times and the eyes were half closed with the gaze slightly upward. No attempt to spot with the head or fractionally with the eyes was detectible. Visual fixations of any kind were absent; instead, mandering, autogenous eye movements were at times present. (137:267) While McCabe’s observations were limited to one subject and his method to visual observation, Collins (89) performed a similar study involving several subjects whom he studied under varying conditions. A group of profes sional skaters was studied in the laboratory setting (N varied from 6-8) and in ice skating situations (N = 4). Electronystagmography and motion pictures were used in the analyses of responses. The results from his studies led Collins to state: Figure skaters do not have completely supressed vestibular responses. In the absence of oppor tunities for visual fixation, moderate vestibular stimulation produces brisk nystagmus and sensations of motion. Following on-ice spins, the skaters ! demonstrated nystagmus, loss of equilibrium and dis orientation when they attempted to maneuver with eyes closed. The skaters thus have learned to exercise some visual control over their vestibular reactions. (89:578) McCabe and Gillingham (138), using animals, ; 23 investigated the neurological levels at which vestibular supression occurs. In a series of experiments* cats were put into supression by a high speed axial rotation device. The results led the investigators to believe that vestibu lar supression is a central mechanism* and is one of the brain's methods of cutting off or regulating repetitive or unwanted stimuli from the end organ. The efferent neuron* stimulated into a discharge pattern by this need for cutting down on the incoming information* could end either on the hair cell or the beginning of the afferent neuron and cause interference with electrical patterns at this level. The net result would be vestibular supression. These investigators state* though* that their results do not exclude the possibility of other mechanisms at different levels acting to produce vestibular suppression. These studies emphasize the complex problem of interpreting sensory input from various sources and selecting the information which contributes to orientation in space* or suppressing the information which leads to disorientation. Individual differences among some people !show that some persons apparently tend to rely on sensory information from one source consistently. Those who rely ion visual information for orientation may be called "field dependent*" and those who rely on information from bodily sensations may be called "field independent". Variations also occur within some subjects in reference to the field 24 from which they perceive the position of the body. One moment they might base their perception on field dependence, while in the next moment they could be utilizing field independent cues. Role of Vision in Balance The importance of field cues to the perception of body position and to positioning the body in space has been iexplored in the previous section. In addition, several investigations have been conducted to further determine the effects of the field on a specific activity of body posi tioning: body balance. In these studies, the fields were varied in structure and stability while the subject per formed a balance task. Reviews of these studies include the following. Witkin and Wapner (174) conducted a study to determine the effects of visual fields of varying structure and stability on the maintenance of upright posture. Their apparatus to measure body sway was an ataxiameter. The "visual field" consisted of a three foot square frame with jprojecting corners to give it the appearance of a cube. ! a fixation point was located in the center of the frame. The college-age men subjects were tested under the i jfollowing conditions: ! ! 1. Full visual field, lights on, frame stationary. j 2. Limited visual field, room darkened, frame and fixation point were luminescent. 3. No visual field: subjects were blindfolded. 4. Unstable visual field: frame rocked to and fro. Witkin and Wapner found that as the visual field was weakened, eliminated, and made unstable there occurred a progressive increase in body sway. The differences between every test condition were found to be significant. Wapner and Witkin (169) in a later study, investigated the effects of visual fields of varying struc ture and stability on the maintenance of balance. Their balancing instrument was a stabilometer which was supported so that movement was possible in both vertical planes. The "visual field" was the same as that used in their earlier experiment (174), as were the test conditions. They found that every test condition differed significantly from every other test condition except between the limited and unstable field. Performance decreased in the following order: full, limited, no and unstable visual fields. Travis (166) conducted a study to analyze various behavioral aspects of postural balance and body orientation. One of the problems he investigated was the relative impor tance of the visual field in postural balance. His balanc ing instrument was a stabilometer and his instrument to measure sway was the Miles ataxiameter. Subjects on the stabilometer performed alternate trials with visual cues present and blindfolded. Their performance was almost three times more effective when visual cues were present. During performance with the ataxiameter, subjects were to align a small white bead (18 inches in front of the eyes) on a target 8 feet away, using the dominant eye. On alternate trials, subjects performed with the eyes closed. The results showed that with the dominant eye open, the sway score was 47 per cent less than with the eyes closed. A previous study (166) indicated that the difference in sway score between eyes open and closed was only 14 per cent. Travis concluded that both static and dynamic equilibrium were aided greatly when visual cues are present the finer the visual points of reference, the better the performance. The results of studies analyzing the role of vision in balance demonstrate the importance of this sensory modality. When the visual field was weakened, deleted, or unstable, overall balance performance decreased. Vision appeared to facilitate balance performance by a more effective integration of the other sensory data, which was inot possible when visual cues were absent (166:220). Balance Specificity and Factors of Balance i Travis (166) in the study previously described, attempted to analyze dynamic and static balance. He described these two major components of equilibrium: 27 The dynamic component of equilibrium, characterized as an orientating perceptual-motor adjustment of the body while in motion in relation to gravity, is quite unrelated to the static component, characterized as a continuous tonic reaction in maintaining the fixed positions of the body in relation to gravity. (166:233) The correlation between the performances in these two tasks was found to be practically zero. Hempel and Fleishman (123) in 1955 conducted a factorial study of gross physical proficiency and fine manipulative performance. A battery of 46 tests was given to 400 basic airmen trainees. Among the fifteen factors identified were "equilibrium balance," or the ability to maintain balance in an abnormal position, and "dynamic balance," or the ability to maintain balance while in the process of some other performance, such as jumping. Bachman (75) investigated the specificity of motor performance between tasks. The two tasks involved balancing abilities: the stabilometer and the ladder climb. He found learning to be remarkably task-specific with little more than zero correlation between the performances of the two balancing tasks. Fisher, Birren and Legett (96) worked with the railwalking test and the ataxiograph. The correlation ;between performances on these two tasks was not greater Ithan zero. Penman (186) found low correlations between six tests of balance ability. Of these six, one dealt with 28 static balance, four with dynamic balance, and one with rotational balance. The results indicated that the ability to balance is highly specific. Bass (78) conducted a study on college women to analyze the factors involved in a number of tests of static, dynamic and rotational balance. The eight factors extracted were: (1) general eye-motor, (2) kinesthetic sensitivity factor, (3) general ampullar sensitivity, (4) function of the two vertical semicircular canals, (5) "tension giving reinforcement," (6) general, (7) specific task factor, and (8) specific task factor. Bass concluded that the general function of balance is composed of a number of different factors. At least one of these deals with the function of the eyes in balance. Other factors operate only when the eyes are closed. Fleishman (17) reviewed previous factor analytic studies of physical fitness. He found fourteen factors of physical proficiency, one of which was called "balance". ; Studies to further test and describe each factor were then developed by him. Analyses of these studies further ;divided many factors. The balance factor was found to -include gross body equilibrium and balance-visual cues. ’ The first of these was described as the ability of an ; i 'individual to maintain total body equilibrium, despite ' } forces pulling him off balance, when he has to depend mainly] j i Ion non-visual cues. Although this factor was best measured ! 29 by balance tests performed with the eyes closed, it was also general to balance tests in which the eyes were kept open. The factor of balance-visual cues was described as the ability to maintain balance when visual cues were present. Summary In factor analyses and studies involving tests of physical proficiency and perceptual motor tasks an attempt has been made to identify the components of the tasks. These analyses of tasks involving balance indicate that at least three types of balance exist: static, rotational and dynamic. Other types of balance also appear to exist, such as equilibrium balance and performance balance, but to describe'these is difficult. The studies also point out that balance is highly specific in nature, which adds to the difficulty of analyzing it. CHAPTER IV PROCEDURES Balance Test The dynamic balance instrument used in this study was the Bynabalometer, designed by Penman (151). It consists of a thirty-six inch circular platform centrally mounted on a trailer hitch attached to a base. See Figure 1. When the platform touches the base, an electri cal circuit is completed, activating a timing device. The timing device is designed so that the operator can read the time in balance directly from the clock. A trial consists of one sixty second performance on the Dynabalo- meter. The following Dynabalometer techniques were utilized: 1. The clock was set at sixty seconds. 2. The barefooted subject mounted the Dynabalo meter, using the guard rail for aid if he desired. 3. The subject assumed any comfortable foot position he desired, but was asked to use the same foot position throughout the testing. 4. The subject grasped the guard rail and 30 31 < --------------------------------------------- 48" ------------------------------------- >■ BASE GUARD RAIL 54’ PLATFORM 36 D . I ! i i i. Fig. 1 .— Dynabalom eter and Guardrail 1 32 balanced the platform on the signal, "Balance the plat form" . 5. On the signal, "Ready, Go," the subject re leased the guard rail and the tester started the clock and stopwatch. 6. The subject attempted to maneuver the board so that the edge did not touch the base. Each time it did, the subject tried to immediately rebalance the platform. It was emphasized that the guard rail was to be used for safety only. See Figure 2. 7. At the end of the trial, the signal, "Stop" was given, and the clock was turned off. The subject grasped the rail and allowed the platform to rest against the base. 8. The score was the total time out of sixty seconds that the subject was able to keep the edge of the platform from touching the base, as recorded by the clock. 9. The subject remained on the platform between trials, resting, grasped the guard rail, and allowed the edge of the platform to touch the base. 10. Four sixty second trials were given with a sixty second rest between each trial. To the original Dynabalometer, a guard rail was added for safety. This consisted of a thirty-one inch square frame of pipe supported at each corner by a thirty- seven inch section of pipe attached to a wooden base Fig. 2.— Dynabalometer Performance 34 secured under the original Dynabalometer base. Through previous studies by the present investi gator, proficiency in operating the Dynabalometer and knowledge of its construction was developed. The reliabil ity of the instrument from one of these studies was found to be .94, using a test-retest method (N = 32) (188). Throughout the current study,-materials and tools were kept available for any needed maintenance, and operational checks were made during each trial. The trailer hitch was lubricated at regular intervals to assure a constant degree of friction. Visual Task The Multiple Moving Picture Projector (MMPP), designed and built by Shearer, (see Appendix), was utilized to provide a figure moving in various patterns which the subject was instructed to watch while performing the balance task. In this study, the figure was a two inch spotrof light projected against a black ground. The four patterns were: 1. Horizontal: the spot moved left to right, back and forth. 2. Vertical: the spot moved up and down. 3* Clockwise: the spot moved in a circular-like, clockwise direction. 4. Counterclockwise: the spot moved in a 35 icircular-like counterclockwise direction. A description of the MMPP is included in the Appendix. The percentage of the visual field covered by the moving spot was kept as consistent as possible for the various patterns. A review of the literature dealing with the normal size of the visual field produced the following average ranges:, laterally, 18O-I880, and vertically, 150° (upward, 70° and downward, 80°) depending on eyebrow and skull shape (24, 69). The projected spot moved through approximately 20 per cent of these fields, or 10 per cent from the mid-point of the pattern. Specifically: 1. The horizontally moving spot moved a total of 37 inches or 34 degrees per pattern. 2. The vertically moving spot movea a total of 33 inches or 31 degrees per pattern. 3. The circular-like patterns had a horizontal diameter of 34 inches, or 32 degrees per pattern. The differing sizes reflected the differing lateral and vertical visual fields. The circular patterns were adapted to the smaller dimensions of the vertical visual field. Each pattern was projected so that its center coincided with the eye level convergence point of each subject. The design of the MMPP provided for similar velocities of spot movement during the various patterns. The average velocities were: , 1. Horizontal: 18.2" per second. 2. Vertical: 18.8" per second. 3* Circular: 18.3" per second. These velocities are within the range that Brown (62) described as "slow movement throughout the visual field" and similar to velocities used in other visual studies (62:216, 62:233, 62:270). The MMPP was located on a heavy duty Majestic tripod placed on a table behind the Dynabalometer. The tripod permitted adjustment of the height of the projector throughout the full range required for this group of subjects. The supporting platform of the tripod was tilted a constant 21°, which was measured periodically throughout the study by a Zimmer goniometer. This degree of tilt was needed to keep the center of each pattern at eye level, yet prevent the spot from projecting onto the head of the subject during the lower parts of the vertical and circular patterns. The figure of 21° was derived from a considera tion of the average distance between the top of the head and eye level of the subjects (5.02"), the distance above and below eye level in which projection would occur, and the horizontal distance between the center of the Dynabalo meter platform and the ground (5')* Preliminary testing !proved this degree of tilt to be practical. This tilt produced an ellipse during the circular patterns, with less than a two inch difference between its major and minor i axes. The Importance of this shape deviating from truly 37 circular was minimal. There appeared to be no reason for the purposes of this investigation to study a perfectly circular pattern. This pattern was perceived as circular by the subjects. According to the Law of Pragnanz* man has a natural tendency toward certain favored simple forms* and objects seen in perspective tend to appear as circles* etc. because these are the forms with which the human is most familiar (65:120). The ground consisted of a black drape which hung from the celling to the floor* five feet in front of the pivot point of the Dynabalometer platform. The drape covered the side walls as well. The viewing distance of five feet was similar to distances used in other studies (84* 62:236* 62:228). The physical setting of the experimental area lent itself to this distance* and the preliminary pilot study proved its feasibility. The MMPP was then designed to project through the desired portion of the visual field when the ground was viewed from five feet. Experimental Procedures Pilot Study A preliminary group of eight men from physical I education classes at the University of California* Los Angeles served as subjects for a pilot study. Each was measured for height* eye level height* and visual fields. 38 For each subject a viewing order of patterns was selected at random. The total order of four patterns with a one minute rest between each was projected to each subject. During and after this practice of visual tracking the subjects all reported that they could easily perform the task and that no after effects, such as dizziness, bothered them. Practice on the Dynabalometer followed consisting of four trials' with a rest period between each trial. The subjects used the guard rail to attain the starting posi tion and during the rest period; during the trials they were able to avoid grabbing it to re-balance themselves. On the following day, each subject was dark adapted, then given the task of viewing the patterns while performing the balance task. All subjects reported they could watch and follow the spot during the combined task. From the evaluations by the subjects, by this investigator, and by a Research Assistant who assisted in the study, it appeared that the subjects could perform under the proposed conditions without fear of the dim :illumination, without side effects from viewing a moving spot, or without other problems. The pilot study also indicated that one viewing of the visual order, one series I of four balance practices, and one combined visual-balance Iseries apparently was sufficient practice prior to testing to familiarize subjects with the instruments and the pro cedures. Since the purpose of the study involved observing 39 performance and not learning, it was not necessary to bring the subjects to a plateau. Subjects The subjects were forty-eight men who were enrolled in a Physical Education class at the University of California, Los Angeles during the summer session of 1967* The ages of these men ranged from 17 to 28 with the mean and median being 21. During the first week of summer session, the in vestigator solicited subjects. Had any student indicated that he had a visual problem not correctable by glasses he would have been eliminated as a subject but none fell into this category, and all students who volunteered as subjects were accepted. The total group consisted of forty-eight .men.. Time Schedule During the later half of the first week of summer session, appointment schedules were returned to subjects. Each subject's appointments were, spread out over three consecutive days, and the appointment was at the same time each day. Due to the number of subjects and the time i ;required per subject, the total testing required three weeks to complete. A summary of the tasks on each of the three days follows: 40 Day I: Measurement of the subject’s body height. Measurement of the subject’s eye-level height. Measurement of the subject’s visual field. Training of subject in visual task. Judgment of subject's ability to perform visual task. Training of subject in balance task. Day II: Practice on balance test while performing visual task. Day III: Test on balance test while performing visual task. Detailed descriptions of these tasks are included latter in this chapter. Test Facilities The Human Performance Laboratory at the University of California, Los Angeles was used for all testing. This area consisted of a large room and two adjoining smaller ;rooms. The large room was designated Station I. It was iused as the area in which height and visual field i :measurements were made. It also served as an ante-room to jthe other two rooms. It was illuminated by a red floodlight in an eight and one-half inch shield: General Electric 41 100 watts, par 38 floodlight. The light was placed on a jump standard, five and one-half feet from the ground, near the outer door and the measurement area. One of the two smaller rooms was designated and labeled Station II. It was used for dark adaptation of the subjects and contained benches for them to sit on. The illumination of this station was by a 25 watt General Electric red bulb, placed below an electric clock. The second room adjoining the outer area was Station III. It was used for practice on the tasks and testing. It contained the Dynabalometer and the MMPP, see Figure 3. The room was also illuminated by a General Electric 100 watt red floodlight. The placement of this light varied. On Day I it was placed on the floor, near the front .corner of the Dynabalometer, During Day II and Day III, it was placed in a wooden milk carton case on the table behind the Dynabalometer, facing the back wall while the subject performed the tasks. This provided illumina tion for the timing device, the Stop watch and the score sheets. As the subject entered and left the room, and mounted and dismounted the Dynabalometer, the case was ; partially turned to permit greater illumination of the area.! ! ! iThe entire laboratory area was kept under these lighting 1 ! jconditions throughout all practice and testing. The hallway: outside the laboratory was free of direct lighting so that i : 1 |a minimal contrast was present. J 42 ] BLACK DRAPE DYNABALOMETER 7 8 44 IO'5.5' Mi 2 8 PROJECTION DIRECTION MIRROR MMPP TIMING DEVICES 28 TABLE 48 Fig. 3 .— T est A rea F loor Plan _■_________ __ ; 43 In Station III the Dynabalometer was placed so that its pivot was five feet from the drape which served as the projection ground. The MMPP was located behind the Dynabalometer with its reflecting mirror seven feet eight inches from the drape. It was supported by the tripod placed on the table. The investigator assumed a position behind the Dynabalometer beside the table. Height Measurements On the first day of his appointmenta the subject's height was measured to the nearest tenth of an inch. His eye-level height was measured to the center of the pupil using a stadiometer. These were recorded for each subject. These measurements are shown in Table 1. TABLE 1 BODY HEIGHT AND EYE-LEVEL HEIGHT OF SUBJECTS Mean* Standard* Deviation Range* Body Height 70.21 2.85 64.3-75.3 Eye Level Height 65.20 2.69 60.4-69.2 Height: Eye-Level to i Top of Head 5.02 • 54 3.9-6.2 *Inches. The projection height was then calculated for each subject. To the subject’s height were added the constants of the Dynabaloraeter platform height (6.8") and the verti cal distance of the reflecting mirror above the subject's head (12.2"). This represented the total projection height. The tripod, in its lowest position, supported the projector so that the mirror was positioned 77.1" from the floor. For each subject the difference between this low projector height and the projection height needed was found, and this was the height the tripod was raised for the subject. See Figure 4. Visual Field Measurements Even though the visual task required visual atten tion in an area only 15-17° from the midpoint of the field, each subject was nevertheless given a test to measure his visual field. The subject stood twelve inches from a white wall. A black thumbtack was placed at his eye-level height The subject was instructed to fix his sight on the black thumbtack and to tell the tester when he could begin to see a white bulb enter his vision. The arms of a Zimmer number 137 goniometer were taped black. From one arm a white bulb one-half inch in diameter was fixed. To find the lateral ranges of the visual field, the goniometer axis was held above the head of the subject, as close above the midpoint between the two eyes as possible. The goniometer arm with attached bulb was moved from behind the head of DRAPE s u p p o r t f 9 V v _ BLACK DRAPE PLOOR 4.— Testing of Subject MMPP . i .11 2 8 * WALL ! / / r 4^ VJ1 > » ? » / / / / > / y » > ; / ? '> > ? 46 ;the subject forward until the subject responded. This was done on each side. The vertical visual field was measured in a similar manner with the goniometer held at the side of the head with the axis as near the eye socket as possible. ,This method is similar to techniques described by Rucker (56), Harrington (33)* and Pulton (19)* Immediately after testing the four areas: left, right, upper, and lower, the entire test was repeated to obtain a reliability measure. The results of this testing are shown in Table 2. TABLE 2 VISUAL FIELD MEASUREMENTS OF SUBJECTS Area Range* Mean* Standard* Deviation Coefficient of Reliability Left 73-108 86.31 6.92 .99 Right 69-95 83.96 6.83 • 97 Total Lateral 146-213 Upper 45-90 70.56 12.21 .99 ,Lower 65-95 79.39 8.39 • 99 ; Total-Vertical 110-190 *Degrees It was determined that all subjects had visual fields within the normal range and that all subjects had visual / fields that would allow them to easily perform a visual 47 task close to the mld-polnt of their visual field. Visual Task Training After each subject was measured, he was given practice in the visual task, and at the same time a judg ment was made regarding his ability to perform the visual task by this investigator and the Research Assistant. The two observers were positioned so that they could watch the eyes of the subject during the visual task. During this time, the platform of the dynabalometer was held in a stable position by blocks. The subject was instructed to watch the spot of light which would move. The lamp of the projector was then turned on and the MMPP started for the sixty second trial. Each of the four patterns was projected, with a sixty second rest between each. The order of pattern ■presentation to the subject is described in the following section. After each sixty second projection, each observer made a subjective judgment regarding whether the subject could perform the task. In addition, the subject was asked if he could watch the spot without difficulty. i The two observers agreed that each subject was able to 'perform the visual task, and each subject also gave an |affirmative reply. Order of the Visual Patterns During each day of the testing, each subject viewed I w all four patterns. The order in which he viewed them remained constant, but it differed among groups of subjects. With four patterns, there were twenty-four possible orders. The subjects were randomly assigned, using a table of random numbers, to one of the twenty-four groups. The treatments, or orders, were then randomly assigned to groups. Each group had two subjects in it. The inclusion of every possible viewing order produced a completely crossed effects fixed design. ;Balance Practice On Day I after the subject practiced his visual tasks from a firm base of support, he received four : practice trials on the Dynabalometer with no specific visual tasks. The subject was shown the Dynabalometer and observed how it worked. He was then instructed in its usage, as previously described, and was urged to use the guard rail as a safety measure only. A ten second practice ; period preceeded his four practice trials. The subject was not given the results of his practice scores. At the end of this practice, he was given verbal instructions for | Day II. ; I ;Practice of Balance Test While Performing ! ; Visual Task On Day II, instructions were posted outside the !Laboratory door. The subject read these before entering. He was instructed to proceed directly to Station II and to j 49 close all doors behind him. When he arrived at Station II, he was to be seated and read the directions posted there. At Station II, the subject was instructed to time himself for a seven minute period by the electrical clock, to remove his shoes and socks, and to remain quietly seated until called to Station III. The tester also timed this period on a stop watch. The purpose of the seven minute period was to provide for dark adaptation of the subject. For an increase in sensitivity and for cone adaptation to occur, seven minutes is recommended (19, 30* 67). Before the subject was called to Station III, the tester adjusted the tripod to the correct projection height as indicated on the score sheet for the subject. The MMPP turntable was placed in the correct position for the first pattern to be projected, and all equipment was j prepared for the testing situation. After the seven minutes of dark adaptation, the subject was called to Station III. The directions for Dynabalometer and guard rail usage were reviewed. In addition, the subject was told that the spot would be projected in the same manner as the previous day, and he I was to watch it during his balance trial. He was urged |to continue to watch it throughout the trial. The subject !was not informed of his scores, nor was he told that his ;performance was only for practice. During each rest t period, the timers were reset and the projection pattern 50 1 changed. Testing On the third day, the subject followed the same instructions and procedures that he had the previous day. The scores obtained were recorded as the test scores. After the last trial, the subject was thanked for his time and cooperation. Statistical Analyses Each subject in the study viewed all four patterns of spot movement, and every possible order of the twenty- four orders of viewing were presented to a group of two subjects. In order to analyze the scores from these per formances, a statistical hypothesis was made that there was no relation between the variables, that is, the means of the balance scores did not differ under the four different visual conditions. The data obtained from the scores were analyzed using a two-way analysis of variance, fixed effects model (14). The design of the study was a com pletely crossed effects design, which produced a 4x24 ifactorial analysis. The F ratio was computed, and the statistical or null hypothesis was tested at the .05 level of confidence. It was planned that if a significant F were i i i : Obtained, then statistical hypotheses would be made to test j i 'six multiple comparisons in order to determine where the j I t overall significance was specifically located. This in j 51 fact did happen. The null hypothesis was assumed, and the Scheffb Test for multiple comparisons was used (14). All possible single comparisons were made. CHAPTER V RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The specific problem of this study was to investi gate the differential effects of viewing four selected patterns of a moving visual figure on the performance of a specific balance task. The subjects performed on the Dynabalometer while viewing each of the following visual patterns: horizontal vertical, clockwise and counter clockwise. The presentational order of visual patterns to the subjects was randomized. The balance scores from each of the four trials per subject were analyzed, using a two way analysis of variance. Analysis of Results A summary of the data is shown in Table 3* The results of the analysis of variance are shown in Table 4. The F of 6.892 for the variance between the different 'visual tasks was significant at the .05 level of confi dence. The significant F at the .05 level of confidence indicated that a difference in balance performance of the magnitude found would occur fewer than five times in a hundred by chance. Since the balance scores did differ 52 53 significantly, the experimental hypothesis stating that they would be differentially affected when viewing four selected movement patterns of a visual figure was accepted. TABLE 3 SUMMARY OP BALANCE PERFORMANCE: DATA PROM BALANCE SCORES WHILE PERFORMING VISUAL TASKS Total Group Performance Horizontal Vertical Clockwise Counter clock wise : Total Score 519 621 558 478 Mean* 10.813 12.938 11.625 9.958 Seconds in balance. *Difference between means was significant at the .05 level of confidence. 54 TABLE 4 FINAL ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE: DATA FROM BALANCE SCORES WHILE PERFORMING VISUAL TASKS Source of Sum of Mean F Variance d.f. Squares Square Between tasks 3 257.271 85.757 6.892* Between orders 23 207.253 9.011 Interaction (AxB) 69 108.643 1.575 Sub-total 95 573.167 "Error" - within 96 1194.500 12.443 Total 191 1767.667 *Signifleant at the .05 level of confidence. Further examination of the results showed that the F ratio for the variance between balance performances due to viewing orders of tasks was not significant, thus indicating that performance was not significantly affected by the order of the patterns. The F ratio for the inter action between the pattern and the order was also not significant indicating that the combinations of pattern and j order together did not differ‘significantly. The results of the Scheffe Test for multiple com parisons are shown in Table 5. Two of the six comparisons j | were significant at the v05 level of confidence. This I 55 ;indicated that differences did exist between two sets of means, and the null hypothesis was rejected in these two comparisons. As a result, the experimental hypotheses concerning these comparisons were accepted as being tenable: 1. A difference between balance performances will exist from viewing the horizontally moving visual figure and the vertically moving visual figure - hypothesis tenable. 2. A difference between balance performances will exist from viewing the vertically moving visual figure and the circular-^like, counterclockwise moving visual figure - hypothesis tenable. In the four comparisons in which no differences between the means were found at the .05 level of confid ence, the null hypothesis was tenable, and hence the experimental hypotheses could not be accepted: 1. A difference between balance performances will result from viewing the horizontally moving visual figure and the circular-like, clockwise moving visual figure - hypothesis rejected. 2. A difference between balance performances will result from viewing the horizontally moving visual figure and the circular-like, counterclockwise moving visual figure - hypothesis rejected. 56 TABLE 5 COMPARISONS BETWEEN VISUAL PATTERN TREATMENT SUMS Comparison IX IX IX IX 1 2 3 4 519 621 558 478 £a*i2 D D2 A P 1 vs 2 1 -1 0 0 2 ^102 10404 108.375 8.710* 1 vs 3 1 0 -1 0 2 - 39 1521 15.844 1.273 1 vs 4 1 0 0 -1 2 4l 1681 17.510 1.407 2 vs 3 0 1 -1 0 2 63 3969 41.343 3.323 2 vs 4 0 1 0 -1 2 143 20449 213.010 17.199* 3 vs 4 0 0 1 -1 2 80 6400 66.667 5.358 *Signifleant at the .05 level of confidence. Xj = Horizontal pattern. X2 = Vertical pattern. X^ = Clockwise pattern. X4 = Counterclockwise pattern. 3. A difference between balance performances will result from viewing the vertically moving visual figure and the circular-like, clockwise moving visual figure - hypothesis rejected. 4. A difference between balance performances will result from viewing the circular-like clockwise moving visual figure and the circular-like, counterclockwise moving visual figure - hypothesis rejected. These findings are summarized in Table 6. TABLE 6 SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES IN BALANCE SCORES WHILE VIEWING VISUAL PATTERNS Horizontal Vertical Clockwise Counter- Clockwise Horizontal + - Vertical + + Clockwise - - - Counterclock wise - + - +Significant at the .05 level. -No significant difference. Under the test conditions, the scores indicate that balance was best while viewing the vertical pattern, followed by the clockwise pattern, next the horizontal 58 pattern, and poorest with the counterclockwise pattern. The only significant differences found in balance were between the vertical and horizontal and between the verti cal and counterclockwise patterns. According to the criteria used, the other differences in balance scores could have been due to chance. Discussion of Results The range of movement of the spot which produced the visual patterns was 15-17° from the mid-point of the visual field. If a normal subject focused on the mid point of the field, figures this far from it could be easily seen. Perception is actually sharper when the figures are not on the fovea, especially in very dim light; in this circumstance the fovea is literally blind since the cones in the fovea function only in high illumin ation and with color vision. The subjects were instructed to. "watch the spot". A variety of methods might have been employed to do this. The subject might have attempted to fixate his head and eyes and allow the image to move across the retina: the image/retina system (30). Or the ;subject might have tracked the spot with his eyes, rotating 'them in his head to follow the spot, called either the i |eye/head system (30) or pursuit movement (31)* A third ; method involves vestibular control of eye movements (31) in which case the eyes remain fixed on the object,, and the 59 head moves in a vertical, longitudinal, lateral or angular direction when the person is subjected to jerky movements or motions of his body or head. Combinations of these methods were also possible. No attempt was made in the present study to fixate the eyes or head or to eliminate motion in them. One reason for this centered around the problem of the study, which was to investigate the differential effects of view ing these patterns on dynamic balance. The pattern itself might not have directly produced differences in balance performance, but the perceptual and bodily activity elicited from viewing the patterns could have produced the differences observed. It is possible that the subjects might have begun watching the spot with different methods, but as soon as the vestibular apparatus was stimulated, vestibular control of eye movements probably became predominant. Loss of balance usually occurred very soon after the beginning of each trial. Stimulation of the labryinth also excites the equilibrium reflexes which evoke muscular responses which iaid in maintaining balance, either by redistributing body segments over the base of support or shifting the base of support. The labyrinthine reflexes act primarily on the lower legs or limbs (1 0 6). Various neck reflexes, including the tonic neck reflex, are activated when the head is ventroflexed, dorsiflexed, or rotated on the neck. The effect of these reflexes is primarily on the upper limbs and trunk, keeping the body in line with the head (1 0 6). In order to maintain dynamic balance, spindle and Golgl tendon organ reflexes are constantly involved in facilitating, reinforcing, or inhibiting muscular contrac tion. In addition to these, other proprioceptive and cutaneous receptors contribute to the sensory input. Balance scores differed significantly while sub jects viewed various patterns, assumedly because patterns produced perceptual and/or bodily activity which affected balance differently. How might the patterns have produced different amounts or types of perceptual activity, and/or body activity? The answer may lie in the differing sensitivity of reflexes which were involved, with the resultant facilita tion or inhibition of muscular activity in the different areas and levels of the body. Viewing the vertically moving spot might have caused repeated losses of balance, bodily activity, and/or muscular activity in one plane while the horizontally moving spot might have elicited similar results in another plane. To maintain balance in one plane may possibly require smaller muscular movements than in a different plane and hence result in better balance in that plane. Since in this study the direction or plane in which subjects most frequently lost equilibrium j 6 l Iwas unfortunately not recorded, the question of whether the vertically moving spot tended to cause anteroposterior movement, the horizontal pattern tended to cause movements iin the frontal plane, and the circular patterns'resulted in movements around the vertical axis can not be answered. Although Cantrell (84), in a study of balance activity and perception, found no correlation between the direction of !the subject’s movements on the platform and the direction depicted by stimulus drawings, he did observe that subjects consistently moved either in the same direction the stimulus was facing or in the opposite direction (84:436). His study was limited to lateral movements. Movements in different directions are seen with varying degrees of familiarity. Directions of visual move ment which are perceived as being familiar might elicit less perceptual and/or bodily activity than directions which are :less familiar to the person. Vernon (65:83) wrote that a person uses the gravitational vertical co-ordinate more for orientation to the perceptual field than the horizontal co-ordinate perpendicular to it. Vernon also stated that ithere are general tendencies to work and to see movement iin a vertical direction rather than a horizontal direction ; and in a clockwise rather than an anticlockwise direction. | |However the direction of movement was also governed by the i i : previous experience of the observer in seeing movement and jby some unexplained perceptual bias which differed in ! i 62 different individuals (65:177). In the present study the subjects were exposed to all visual tasks prior to testing, yet past experiences could have produced deep-seated patterns of familiarity which might have dominated over the visual training tasks in the study. Certainly in our society, movement in the clockwise direction is encountered more frequently than movement in the counterclockwise direction. One small area in which we do occasionally see counterclockwise directions includes running events on race tracks. We also see counterclockwise movements of circular dial needles when they return to a starting position. The problem of this study was to determine whether viewing a visual figure moving in various patterns would differentially affect body balance. The results showed a significant difference in balance performance between (1) viewing a vertically moving spot as compared to viewing a horizontally moving spot, and (2) viewing a vertically moving spot as compared to viewing a circular moving, counterclockwise spot. Balance was found to be best when viewing the vertical pattern, followed by the clockwise pattern, then the horizontal pattern and last, the counter clockwise pattern. The reasons for these differences are not known, but speculation might include such factors as neuromuscular, gravitational, perceptual, and societal. CHAPTER VI SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Summary The Problem Various perceptual theories have been developed concerning sensory processes and their effect on muscular activity and motor performance. Some effects of various types of visual stimulation on motor performance have been studied, but in few investigations have the differential effects of viewing visual patterns of movement on body equilibrium been studied. The specific problem of this study was to investi gate the differential effects of viewing a visual figure, moving in four selected patterns, on performance of a dynamic balance task. Hypotheses The following major hypothesis was tested: balance performance will be differentially affected when viewing |four selected patterns of a moving visual figure during Iperformance. : 63 The specific sub-hypotheses tested were: 1. A difference between balance performances will result from viewing the horizontally moving visual figure and the vertically moving visual figure. 2. A difference between balance performances will result from viewing the horizontally moving visual figure and the circular-like, clockwise moving visual figure. 3. A difference between balance performances will result from viewing the horizontally moving visual figure and the circular-like, counterclockwise moving visual figure. 4. A difference between balance performance will result from viewing the vertically moving visual figure and the circular-like, clockwise moving visual figure. 5. A difference between balance performance will result from viewing the vertically moving figure and the circular-like, counterclockwise moving visual figure. 6. A difference between balance performance will result from viewing the circular-like clockwise moving visual figure and the circular-like, counterclockwise moving visual figure. ;Procedures The subjects were forty-eight men at the University I iof California, Los Angeles, who were enrolled in a general elective lecture course in physical education. Each subject; I 65 jperformed four test trials on the Dynabalometer. During each test trial, he was instructed to perform a specific visual task. Test trials were preceeded by two days of training in the visual task, in the balance task, and in the combined tasks. Each subject was randomly assigned to a group and each group followed a specific order of visual tasks. Scores of balance performances while performing :the visual tasks were analyzed using a two way analysis of variance. The design of the study provided for completely crossed effects- of visual tasks and orders of presentation of visual tasks to groups. To test the statistics, the null hypothesis was applied. The critical value of F was compared to the obtained F from the variance among visual tasks, presentational orders, and the interaction between them. The .05 level of confidence was the criterion selected. The Scheffe Test was used to make multiple comparisons between the visual tasks. Results The statistical analyses in this study provided the following results: 1. While performing the visual tasks, there was a significant difference among balance scores. 2. The two multiple comparisons in which this difference was found were: 66 a. vertical versus horizontal b. vertical versus counter-clockwise 3. No significant differences were found among the effects of visual order or their interaction with the specific visual task. 4. Balance was best while watching the vertical pattern, followed by the clockwise and horizontal patterns, and poorest with the counterclockwise pattern. As a result of these significant differences, the statistical or null hypothesis of no differences between the means was rejected. The alternative hypotheses then chosen were the following experimental hypotheses: 1. Balance performance will be differentially affected when viewing four selected movement patterns of a visual figure during performance. 2. A difference between balance performances will 'result from viewing the horizontally moving visual figure and the vertically moving visual figure. 3. A difference between balance performances will result from viewing the vertically moving visual figure and the circular-like counterclockwise moving visual figure. Conclusions I Since the results of this study indicated that some of the patterns of visual movement watched while performing a dynamic balance task did differentially affect balance 67 performance, the major hypothesis of differential effects was accepted. Some types of visual stimulation do cause differences in motor performance. Recommendations In man, motor activity is modified in many ways. Many studies have been conducted in an attempt to regulate external modifiers of performance. However, in few studies have attempts been made to identify, measure and analyze internal processes of sensory input, central organization and integration, and the resultant motor output. The many motor learning studies of the past years have shown that performance can be affected (the effect has been investigated), but there are few studies on the internal states of the human body during perceptual activity (to determine the cause of the effect). Admittedly, this type of research is difficult but is badly needed. A lag also exists in theorizing about perceptual and psychomotor activity, and about the relationships between the two. In addition to current interest and investigation, further research and more theorizing are needed. BIBLIOGRAPHY 68 BIBLIOGRAPHY Books 1. Armstrong* H. G. Aerospace Medicine. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins Co.* 1961. 2. Beardslee* David and Michael Wertheimer (Editors). Readings in Perception. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand Co.* 195o. 3. Bunn* John W. Scientific Principles of Coaching. New York: Prentice-Hall* Inc.* 19$5. 4. Butter* Charles M. Neuropsychology: The Study of Brain and Behavior! Belmont* Calif.: Brooks/Cole Publishing Co. (A Division of Wadsworth Publishing Co.* Inc.)* i9 6 0. 5. Chusid* Joseph and Joseph McDonald. Correlative Neuroanatomy and Functional Neurology, llthed.* Los Altos* Calif.: Lange Medical Publishers* 1962. 6. Cratty* Bryant J. Development Sequences of Perceptual Motor Tasks. Freeport* Long Island: Educational Activities* Inc.* 1 9 6 7. 7. ________ . Movement Behavior and Motor Learning. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger* 1964. 8. Damon* Albert* Howard W. Stolidt* and Ross A. McFar land . The Human Body in Equipment Design. Cambridge! Harvard University Press* 1 9 6 6. 9. Decker* Ruby (Editor). Motor Integration. Spring field: Charles C. Thomas Co.* 1 9 6 2. 10. Delacato* Carl H. Neurological Organization and Reading. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas7 1966. 11. Dember* William N. The Psychology of Perception. New York: Holt* Rinehart* and Winston* 1950. 69 | 70 112. Dember, William. Visual Perception: The Nineteenth ! Century. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1964 13. Dittrich, F. L. Biophysics of the Ear. Springfield: Charles C. Thomas Co., 19&3. 14. Edwards, Allen L. Experimental Design in Psychologi cal Research. Revised Edition. New York: Rinehart and Co., Inc., i960. 15. Ferguson, George A. Statistical Analysis in Psycho logy and Education" New York: McGraw-Hill Book CoT, Inc., 1959• 16. Fitts, Paul M. and Michael I. Posmer. Human Perfor mance. Belmont, Calif.: Brooks/Cole Publishing Co. (A Division of Wadsworth Publishing Co. Inc.), 1968; 17. Fleishman, Edwin A. The Structure and Measurement of Physical Fitness. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1964. 18. Frostig, Marianne and David Horne. The Frostig Pro- 1 gram for the Development of Visual Perception. Chicago: Follett Publishing Co., 19b4. 19. Fulton, John. Textbook of Physiology. 2nd ed. Philadelphia": W. B. Saunders CoT, 1955. 20. Gagne, Robert M. and Edwin A. Fleishman. Psychology and Human Performance. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1959. 21. Galambos, Robert. Nerves and Muscles. Garden City, New York: Anchor Books, Doubleday and Co., Inc., 1962. 22. Gardner, Ernest. Fundamentals of Neurology3 4th ed., Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Co., 19^3* ;23. Garrett, Henry B. Statistics in Psychology and Edu cation. New York! David McKay Company, Inc., 1958 i 124. Gibson, James. The Perception of the Visual World. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1950. ;25. Glaser, Robert (Editor). Training Research and Edu- cation. Pittsburg: University of Pittsburg Press, I 1962. 71 26. Graham, Clarence H. (Editor). Vision and Visual Perception. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. 1955-^ 27. Granit, Ragnar. Receptors and Sensory Perception. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1955* 28. Gray, Henry. Anatomy of the Human Body. 27th ed. Philadelphia! Lea and Febiger, 1959* 29. Greene, David. Program for Educability. Colton, Calif.: Colton Joint School District, 1965. 30. Gregory, R. L. Eye and Brain. New York: McGraw- Hill Book Co., 196b. 31. Guyton, Arthur. Textbook of Medical Physiology. 2nd ed., Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Co., 1961. 32. Harmon, Darell Boyd. Notes on a Dynamic Theory of Vision. 3rd revision. Austin, Texas, 195b• 33. Harrington, David 0. The Visual Fields— A Textbook and Atlas of Clinical Perimetry, 2nd ed., St. Louis C. V. Mosby Co., 19^4. 34. Hebb, D. 0. Organization of Behavior. New York: Science Editions, Inc. (John Wiley and Sons, Inc.), 1949. 35. Herring, Ewald. Spatial Sense and Movements of the Eye. Baltimore: The American Academy of Optometry 1§42. 36. Hochberg, Julian. Perception. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 19b4. 37. Howard, I. P. and W. B. Templeton. Human Spatial Orientation. London: John Wiley and Sons, 1966. 38. Hurvich, Leo M. and Dorothea Jameson. The Perception of Brightness and Darkness. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., I S b b , 39» Ittelson, William H. Visual Space Perception. New York: Springer Publishing Co., Inc., 19&6. 40. Johansson, Gunnar. Configurations in Event Percep tion, 1950. 72 41. Kephart, Newell C. The Slow Learner in the Classroom. Columbus: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Co., I960. 42. Kerlinger, Fred N. Foundations of Behavioral Research New York; Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc., 19bb. 43. Knapp, B. Skill in Sport. London; Routledge and Kegan Paul, 19fc>3. 44. Koppitz, Elizabeth. The Bender Gestalt Test for Young Children. New York; Grune and Stratton, Inc., 19fc>4. 45. Langley, L. L. and E. Cheraskin. The Physiology of Man. New York; McGraw-Hill Book Co., 19547 46. Lawther, John D. The Learning of Physical Skills. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey; Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1958. 47. Leibowltz, Herschel. Visual Perception. Toronto; MacMillan Co., (Colller-MacMillan Canada Ltd.), 1965. 48. Levit, Pavel (Editor). Some Problems of Aviation and Space Medicine. Prague; Charles University Press, 1967. 49. Lowman, Charles L. Balance Skills in Physical Educa tion. Ann Arbor, Michigan; Edwards Brothers, Inc., 1935* 50. McCormicks Ernest. Human Engineering. New York; McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1957. 51. Mathews, Donald K. Measurement in Physical Education. Philadelphia; W. B. Saunders Co., 1958. 52. Morehouse, Laurence and Augustus Miller. Physiology of Exercise, 3rd ed., St. Louis; C. V. Mosby Co., 1959. 53* Morgan, Clifford' T. and Eliot Stellar. Physiological Psychology, 2nd ed., New York; McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1950* 54. Netter, Frank. Nervous System. CIBA, 1962. 55. Rasch, Philip and Roger Burke. Kinesiology and Applied Anatomy, 2nd ed., Philadelphia; Lea and Febiger, 19b3. 73 56. Rucker, C. Wilbur. The Interpretation of Visual Fields, 1st revision. American Academy of Opthalmology and Otolaryngology, Omaha, Nebraska: Douglas Printing Co., 1951. 57* Segal, Marshall, Donald T. Campbell, and Melville Herskovits. The Influence of Culture on Visual Perception. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrlll do.,Inc., 1966. 58. Sherrington, Sir Charles. The Integrative Action of the Nervous System. New Haven: Yale University Press, 190b. 59. Singer, Robert N. Motor Learning and Human Perfor mance. New York! The Macmillan Co., 19bti. 60. Smythies, J. R. Analysis of Perception. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 195b. 61. Stevens, S. S. (Editor). Handbook of Experimental Psychology. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 62. Vernon, tion M. D. (Editor). Experiments in Visual Percep- Baltimore: Penguin Books, Inc., 19bb. 63. ______ . A Further Study of Visual Perception. Cambridge! University Press, 1954. 64. ________ . The Psychology of Perception. Cambridge: Penguin Books, 1962. 65. . Visual Perception. Cambridge: The University Press, 1937. 66. Wapner, Seymour and Heinz Werner. Perceptual Develop- ment. Worcester, Mass.: Clark University Press, 1957. 67. Wenger, M. A., F. N. Jones, and M. H. Jones. Physiological Psychology. New York: Holt, Rinehg and Winston, 195°. 68. Winer, B. J. Statistical Principles in Experimental Design. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1952. 69. Woodson, Wesley and Donald Conover (Editors). Human Engineering Guide for Equipment Designs, 2nd ed., Berkeley: University of California Press, 1964. 74 70. Woodworth, R. L. and H. Schlosberg. Experimental p - . T 9 Psychology. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Periodicals and Printed Materials 71. A.A.H.P.E.R. Perceptual Motor Foundations: A Multidisciplinary Concern. Proceedings of the Perceptual-Motor Symposium. Washington, D. C., May, 1968. 72. Anapolle, Louis. "Visual Training and Reading Per formance," Journal of Reading, 10:372-383, March, 1967. 73. Asch, S. E. and H. A. Witkin. "Studies in Space Or-ientation: I Perception of the Upright with Displaced Visual Fields," Journal of Experimental Psychology, 38:325-337, June, 194a. 74. Ayres, A. Jean. "The Role of Gross Motor Activities in the Training of Children with Visual-Motor Retardation," Journal of the American Optometric Association, 33:121-125, September, 1981. 75. Bachman, John C. "Motor Learning and Performance as Related to Age and Sex in Two Measures of Balance Coordination," Research Quarterly, 32:123-137, May, 1961. T 76. ________ . "Specificity vs. Generality in Learning and Performing Two Large Muscle Motor Tasks," Research Quarterly, 32:3-11, March, 1961. 77. Bartz, Albert. "Eye and Head Movements in Peripheral Vision: Nature of Compensatory Eye Movements," Science, 152:1644-1645, June 17, 1966. 78. Bass, Ruth I. "An Analysis of the Components of Tests of Semi-Circular Canal Functions and of Static and Dynamic Balance," Research Quarterly, 10:35-52, May, 1939. 79- Bender, Lauretta. A Visual Motor Gestalt Test and Its Clinical Use. Research Monograph No. 3, New York: American Orthopsychiatric Association, 1938. 80. Birren, J. E. "Static Equilibrium and Vestibular Function," Journal of Experimental Psychology, 35:127-133, April, 1945. 75 81. Bonner, Robert H. "Spatial Disorientation— Current Concepts and Aeromedical Implications," Aeromedi- cal Reviews, August, 1963. 82. Botelho, Stella Y. "Proprioceptive, Vestibular, and Cerebellar Mechanisms in the Control of Movement," Journal of the American Physical Therapy Associa tion, 45:bb7-7b, July, 1985* . 83. Brodal, Alf. "Spacticity— Anatomical Aspects," ACTA Neurological Scandinavica, Supp. 3, 37:9-40, 1964. • 84. —Cantrell. Robert., "Body Balance Activity and Percep tion, Perceptual and Motor Skills, 17:431-437* 1963. 85. Carney, Sharon. "A Critical Evaluation of Delacato's Procedures," Montana Education, 43:30, April, 1967. 86. Cohen, Leonard. "Human Spatial Orientation and Its Critical Role in Space Travel," Aerospace Medicine, 35:1054-1057, November, 1964. 87. ________. "Mechanisms in Body Balance and Orientation' Connecticut Medicine, 24:500-503, August, 1950. 88. ________. Role of Eye and Neck Proprioceptive Mechanisms in Body Orientation and Motor Coordina tion," Journal of Neurophysiology, 24:1-11, 1961. 89. Collins, William E. "Problems in Spatial Orientation: Vestibular Studies of Figure Skaters," American Academy of Opthalmology and Otolaryngology Trans actions, 70:575-576, July-August, 19bb. 90. Cormack, Robert H. "Ocular Tracking as a Measure of Autokinetic Movement," Perceptual and Motor Skills, 17:223-226, August, I963I 91. Cratty, Bryant J. "Omnipotence or Respectability," Forty-fourth Annual Conference Report of the Western Society for Physical Education of College Women, pp. 23-30j October, l9bb. 92. Cumbee, Frances Z. "A Factorial Analysis of Motor Coordination," Research Quarterly, 25:412-428, December, 1954. 76 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100. 101. 102. 103. Day, R. H. and G. Singer. "Spatial Aftereffects Within and Between Kinesthesis," Journal of Experimental Psychology, 68:337-343, 1954. Espenschade, Anna, R. Dable, and Robert Schoendube. "Dynamic Balance in Adolescent Boys," Research Quarterly, 24:270-274, October, 1958. Fischer, Ernst. "Factors Affecting Motor Learning," American Journal of Physical Medicine, 46:511-519, i w r .--------------- Fisher, M. B., J. E. Birren, and A. L. Leggett. "Standardization of Two Tests of Equilibrium— The Railwalking Test and the Ataxiograph," Journal of Experimental Psychology, 35:321-329j 19"54^ Fleishman, Edwin A. "Abilities at Different Stages of Practice in Rotary Pursuit Performance," Journal of Experimental Psychology, 60:162-171, l$b0. • "Factor Analyses of Physical Fitness Tests," Educational and Psychological Measurement, 23:647-663, 1963. . "Factor Structure in Relation to Task Difficulty in Psychomotor Performance," Educational and. Psychological Measurement, 17:522-532, 1957. __________ and B. Fruchter. "Factor Structure and Predictability of Successive Stages of Learning Morse Code," Journal of Applied Psychology, 44:97- 101, i960. ________ , and W. E. Hempel. "Changes in Factor Structure of a Complex Psychomotor Test as a Function of Practice," Psychometrika, 19:239-252, 1954. , and ______. "Factorial Analysis of Com- plex Psychomotor Performance and Related Skills," Journal of Applied Psychology, 40:96-104, 1956. "The Relation Between Abilities and Improvement with Practice in a Visual Discrimina tion Reaction Task," Journal of Experimental Psychology, 49:301-310, 1955. 77 104. 105. 106. 107. 108. 109. 110. 111. 112. 113. 114. , and Simon Rich. "Role of Kinesthetic and Spatial-Visual Abilities in Perceptual-Motor Learning," Journal of Experimental Psychology, 66:6-11, 1963. Fridenberg, Percy. "Visual Factors in Equilibrium," Journal of the American Medical Association, 70: ---------------------------------- Gardner, Elizabert B. "Proprioceptive Reflexes and Their Participation in Motor Skills," Quest, Monograph XII, 1-26, 1969. Gibson, James J. "The Visual Perception of Objective Motion and Subjective Movement," Psychological Review, 61:304-314, 1954. Gillingham, Kent K. "A Primer of Vestibular Function, Spatial Disorientation, and Motion Sickness," Aeromedical Reviews, Brooks Air Force Base, Texas: USAF School of Aerospace Medicine, Report 4-66, June, 1966. _______ . "Training the Vestibule for Aerospace Operations," Aeromedical Reviews, Brooks Air Force Base, Texas, Report ti-b5, September, 1965• Gottsdanker, Robert, James W. Frick, and Robert Lockard. "identifying the Acceleration of Visual Targets," British Journal of Psychology, 52:31-42, 1961. Grattan, Paul E., and Milton B. Matin. "Neuro muscular Coordination Versus Reading Ability," American Journal of Optometry and Archives of American Academy of Optometry, 42:450-456, August, 19^5. Graybiel, Ashton, Earl Miller, John Billingham, Richard Waite, Charles Berry, and Lawrence Dietlein.; "Vestibular Experiments in Gemini Flights V and VII," Aerospace Medicine, 38:360-370a April, 1967. Griffith, C. R. "The Organic Effects of Repeated Bodily Rotation," Journal of Experimental Psycho logy, 3:15-46, February, 1920. Guedry, Fred E. Jr., Lt. Robert S. Kennedy, Lt. | Charles S. Harris, and Capt. Ashton Graybriel. j "Human Performance During Two Weeks in a Room , Rotating at 3 RPM," Aerospace Medicine, 35:1071- i 1082, November, 1964..... I 78 115. 116. 117. 118. 119. 120. 121. 122. 123. i.124. :125. ;i26. Guilford, J. P. and J. T. Lacey. Printed Classifica tion Tests, Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1947. , and Wayne S. Zimmerman. Guilford-Zimmerman Aptitude Survey, Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sheridan Supply Company, 1956. Hammerton, M. and A. H. Tickner. "Transfer of Training Between Space-oriented and Body-oriented Control Situations," British Journal of Psychology, 55:433-437, 1964. Haring, Norris and Jeanne Stables. "Visual Percep tion and Eye-hand Coordination," Physical Therapy, 46:129-135, February, 1966. Hellebrandt, F. A. "Living Anatomy," Quest, Mono graph I, pp. 43-57, December, 1963. Hellebrandt, F. A., Sara Jane Houtz, Mirian Partridge, and C. Etta Waters. "Tonic Neck Reflexes in Exercises of Stress in Man," American Journal of Physical Medicine, 35:144, 1956. , Maja Schade, and Marie Carns. "Methods of Evoking the Tonic Neck Reflex in Normal Human Subjects," American Journal of Physical Medicine, 41:139, 19627 ' , and Joan Waterland. "Expansion of Motor Patterning Under Exercise Stress," American Journal of Physical Medicine, 41:56-66, 1962T Hempel, Walter E. Jr., and Edwin A. Fleishman. "A Factor Analysis of Physical Proficiency and Manip ulative Skill," Journal of Applied Psychology, 39:12-16, 1955. Holt-Hansen, Kristian. "Kinds of Experiences in the Perception of a Circle," Perceptual Motor Skills, 24:3-32, February, 1967. Howe, Clifford. "A Comparison of Motor Skills of Mentally Retarded and Normal Children," Exceptional Children, 25:352-357, April, 1959- Huddleston, 0. Leonard. "Postural Reflexes," Archives of Physical Therapy, 21:282-289, 1940. 79 127. 128. 129. 130. 131. 132. 133. 134. 135. 136. 137. 138. Ikai, Mitro. "Tonic Neck Reflex in Normal Persons," Japanese Journal of Physiology, 1:118-124, 1950. Ismail, A. H. and C. C. Cowell. "Factor Analysis of Motor Aptitude of Pre-adolescent Boys," Research Quarterly, 32:507-513j December, 1961. Jansen, J. S. K. "Spasticity--Functional Aspects," ACTA Neurologica Scandinavica, Supp. 3, 38:41, 1962. Jones, H. Melvill. "Disturbance of Oculomotor Control in Flight," Aerospace Medicine, 36:461-465, May, 1965. Kappauf, William E. Final Report on Context Effects in_Psycho-physical Judgments, Urbana, Illinois: University of IllinoisJ March, 1963• Katz, Milton S., William Metlay, and Paul Cirincione. "Effects of Stimulus and Field Size on the Accuracy of Orientation in the Homogeneous Environment," Perceptual and Motor Skills, 167-172, 1965. Latimer, Ruth M. "Utilization of Tonic Neck Reflex and Labyrinthine Reflexes for the Facilitation of Work Output," Physical Therapy Review, 33:237-241. Leighton, Jack R. "Physical Fitness Activity Pre scription for the College Student," Journal of the Association of Physical and Mental Rehabilitation, 19:175-134, November-December, 1965. Luhan, Joseph. "Some Postural Reflexes in Man," Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry, 28:649-660, 1932. Lyons, C. V. and Emily Lyons. "The Power of Visual Training," Journal of the American Optometric Association, pp. 255-2b2, December, 1954. McCabe, Brian. "Vestibular Suppression in Skaters," Transactions American Academy of Opthalmology, 64:2b4-2b3, May, 1960. _____ , and Kent Gillingham. "The Mechanism of Vestibular Suppression," The Annals of Otology, Rhinology and Laryngology, 76:616-323, September, 1964." 80 139* McCouch, G. P., I. D. Deering, and T..H. Ling. "Location of Receptors of Tonic Neck Reflexes," Journal of Neuro-Physiology, 14:191-195, 1951* 140. McFarland, Joseph M. "Visual and Proprioceptive Changes During Visual Exposure to a Tilted Line," Perceptual and Motor Skills, 15:322, 1962. 141. McKee, Gordon W. "The Role of the Optometrist in the Development of Perceptual and Visuo-motor Skills in Children," American Journal of Optometry, 44:297-310, May, 1967. 142. McKitrick, Keith G. "Bodily Activity and Perceptual Activity," Perceptual and Motor Skills, 20:1109- 1112, 1965. 143. Magnus, Rudolph. "Some Results of Studies in the Physiology of Posture," Lancet, 2:531-536, 1926. 144. Marburg, Otto. "Modern Views Regarding the Anatomy and Physiology of the Vestibular Tracts," Laryngoscope, 49:631-652, 1939* 145. Michael, William B., J. P. Guilford, Benjamin Fruchter, and Wayne S. Zimmerman. "The Description of Spatial-Visualization Abilities," Educational and Psychological Measurement, 22:77-97., I$b2. 146. Mills, Lloyd. "The Effects of Faulty Cranio-spinal Form and Alignment Upon the Eyes," American Journal of Opthalmology, 493-499, 1919. 147. Morris, Floyd M. "Visual Aspects of Space Flight," American Journal of Optometry and Archives of American Academy of Optometry, 39:h43-fc>52, December, 1952. 148. Nicks, Delmer C. and Edwin A. Fleishman. "What do Physical Fitness Tests Measure?," Educational and Psychological Measurement, 22:77-97, 1952. 149. Nuttall, James B. "The Problem of Spatial Disorien tation, " Journal of the American Medical Associa tion, 166:431-430, February 1, 1958- 150. Orlansky, Jesse. "The Effect of Similarity and Difference in Form on Apparent Visual Movement," Archives of Psychology, 246:1-85, February, 1940. 151. 152. 153. 154. 155. 156. 157. 158. 159- 160. 161. 162. 81 Penman, Kenneth A. "A New Dynamic Balance Testing Device: the ’DynabalometerI ," Perceptual and Motor Skills j 23:232-34, August, 196b. Perkins, P. Theodore, Leon Oettinger, and William Hudspeth. "Delacato in Review," Claremont Reading Conference, 28th Yearbook, pp. 11$-131, 19b4. Perrin, F. A. C. "An Experimental Study of Motor Ability," Journal of Experimental Psychology, 4: 24-56, 1921. Project on Recreation and Fitness for the Mentally Retarded. Report of a national conference, 1966. Programing for the Mentally Retarded. Washington, d7 c., 1968. Rosen, Carl L. "An Experimental Study of Visual Perceptual Training and Reading Achievement in First Grade," Perceptual and Motor Skills, 22:979- 986, June, 1966. Rushworth, Geoffrey. "On Postural and Righting Reflexes," Cerebral Palsy Journal, 3:535-543, 1961. Ryan, E. Dean. "Prerest and Postrest Performance on the Stabilometer as a Function of Distribution of Practice," Research Quarterly, 36:197-204, May, 1965. Seward, John P. "The Effect of Practice on the Visual Perception of Form," Archives of Psychology, 130: 1-72, May, 1931. Sheldon, J. H. "The Effect of Age on the Control of Sway, Gerontologia Clinica, 5:129-138, 1963. Sherrington, S. C. "Postural Activity of Muscle and Nerve," Brain, 38:194-234, 1915- Slak, Stefan and Josef Brozek. "Effects of Inter mittent Illumination on Perceptual-Motor Perfor mance," Journal of Applied Psychology, 49:345-347* 1965. " i Steinhaus, Arthur. "Facts and Theories of Neuro muscular Relaxation," Quest, 3:3-15* December, 1964.1 82 163. 164. 165. 166. 167. 168. 169. 170. 171. 172. 173. 174. Sumi, Shigemasa. "Path of Seen Motion of Two Small Light Spots," Perceptual and Motor Skills, 19:226, 1964. Taylor, Maurice M. "Visual Discrimination and Orientation," Journal of the Optical Society of America, 53:763-65, June, 1963. 1 Tokizane, Tashihiko, Makoata Murao, Tamotsu Ogata, and Tatsuko Kondo. "Electromyographic Studies on Tonic Neck, Lumba,r and Labyrinthine Reflexes in Normal Subjects," Japanese Journal of Physiology, 2:130-146, 1951. -------------------------- Travis, Roland C. "An Experimental Analysis of Dynamic and Static Equilibrium," Journal of Experimental Psychology, 35:216-234, June,1945. ________ . "A New Stabilometer for Measuring Dynamic Equilibrium in the Standing Position," Journal of Experimental Psychology, 34:418-424, 1944. Tschiassny, Kurt. "Simplified Concepts of Labyrin thine Function and Examination," AMA Archives of Otolarynogology, 61:603-613, i960. Wapner, S. and H. A. Witkin. "The Role of Visual Factors in the Maintenance of Body Balance," American Journal of Psychology, 63:385-408, .1950. Werner, Heinz, and Seymour Wapner. "Experiments on Sensory-Tonic Field Theory of Perception: IV Effect of Initial Position of a Rod on Apparent Verticality," Journal of Experimental Psychology, 43:68-74, 1952. ____. "Sensory Tonic Field Theory of Perception," Journal of Personality, 18:88-107. _. "Toward a General Theory of Perception," Psychological Review, 59:324-338, 1952. Witkin, H. A. "Perception of Body Position and of the Position of the Visual Field," Psychological Mono- j graphs, Number 302, Volume 635 Number 7:1-46, 1949. | , and S. Wapner. "Visual Factors in the Maintenance of Body Balance," American Journal of Psychology, 63:31-50, 1950. 83 175. 176. 177. 178. 179. 180. 181. 182. 183. 184. 185. Zimmerman, Wayne S. "Hypotheses Concerning the Nature of the Spatial Factors," Educational and Psychological Measurement, 14:395-400, 1954. Unpublished Materials Culhane, Mary Jane. "The Effect of Leg Fatigue on Balance," Microcarded Master's Thesis, State University of Iowa, 1950. Cratty, Bryant J. "On the Threshold," Address Presented to the Texas Institute of Child Psychia try, Baylor University Medical Center, Houston, Texas, December, 1965. Drowatzky, John N. "A Modification of the Witkin Rod-and-Frame Test Equipment," A Paper Presented at the Laboratory Equipment Section Meeting of the AAHPER National Convention, Las Vegas, Nevada, March 10, 1967. Fleishman, Edwin A. Personal letter, Washington, D. C. March 18, 1965. Guilford, J. P. Personal letter, Los Angeles, California, May 17, 1965. Harrison, Virginia. "The Neuro-Muscular Basis for Motor Learning," A Paper Presented to the NAPECW Workshop, Interlocken, Michigan, i960. Hulin, Charles. Personal letter, Urbana, Illinois, July 28, 1965. Miller, Donna Mae. "The Relationship Between Some Visual-Perceptual Factors and the Degree of Success Realized by Sports Performers," Doctoral Dissertation, University of Southern California, I960. _______. "The Relationship Between the Ability to Visualize Spatial Relationships and Athletic Performance of University Women Students," Research Project, University of Southern California, 1959* Nathanson, Renee. "The Relationship Between Strength of the Extensor Muscles of the Lower Limbs and Dynamic Balance Ability," Master's Thesis, University of Southern California, 1963. 84 186. 187. 188. 189. 190. Penmanj Kenneth. "The Development of a Balance Complex," Research Project, University of Southern California, 1962. "Transfer and Retention of Selected Balance Skills," Doctoral Dissertation, University of Southern California, 1963. Suttie, Sandra J. "Role of Kinesthetic and Spatial- Visual Abilities in Dynamic Balance Learning," Research Project, University of Southern California, 1966. Whelan, Thomas. "A Factor Analysis of Tests of Balance and Semicircular Cahal Function," Doctoral Dissertation, State University of Iowa, 1955. Whitcomb, Milton A. (Editor). "Visual Problems of the Armed Forces," Papers presented before the Armed Forces NRC Committee on Vision, Washington, D. C., March, 1961. APPENDIX I 85 DESCRIPTION OF THE MULTIPLE MOVING PICTURE PROJECTOR The Multiple Moving Picture Projector (MMPP) was designed and built by Peter Shearer* 492 Foothill* Pomona* California. Its description follows. The MMPP consists of three parts: the projector* the motor and drive shaft* and the mirrors moving in their various directions. The light from the projector is reflected upward to one of four moving mirrors* which in turn reflects it onto the screen. Each of the four mirrors is moved in its prescribed pattern by a separate gear- driven linkage. Movements of the four mirrors provide for the following image motions: vertical oscillation at l8.l8 cycles/minute* horizontal oscillation at 14.85 cycles/minute* clockwise eliptical movement at 10.605 cycles/minute* and counterclockwise eliptical movement at 10.605 cycles/minute. The entire unit is housed in a wooden case* ■ 15vxl3i ; xl3" which is divided into three compartments. The bottom compartment contains the projector; the middle* the motor; and the top* the mirrors.. Each layer can be opened for access to other layers. 86 I 87 I i The projector is a View Master Junior Projector, illuminated by a Sylvania BVB 30 watt bulb. A metal shield around the sides and back of the bulb reflects its light through the standard slide in the View Master. In :this study the slide was covered with electrical tape :and a one-eighth inch hole punched through it to provide the spot of light. The light is reflected vertically upward by a mirror set at a 45° angle in front of the projector. An adjustable two and one-half inch lens, located in the middle layer just above the reflecting mirror, provides a method of focusing the projected image. The four moving mirrors which determine the path of the image are located in the upper compartment. See Figure 5. They are driven from a central shaft that is geared to the motor located in the middle compartment. Each mirror has a one and five eights inch diameter circular reflecting surface and is housed in a metal encasement which, in turn, is surrounded by a metal ring. Each ring is pivoted on a supporting bracket in such a way ;that its mirror can execute the prescribed motion. The Isupporting brackets are adjustable to provide for centering ! of the projected patterns. j The mirrors reflecting clockwise and counterclock wise moving beams are mounted in gimbals on their support- 1 . i ing brackets and are driven by adjustable radial arms which 88 F ig . 5 .— M ir r o r s of the M ultiple'M oving P ictu re P r o jecto r are coupled at their outer ends to the centers of their j respective mirrors and which rotate about axes at 45° to j |the vertical. These arms are driven from their final ! i I ! I ; drive gears by double universal joints which pass through J 1 i !stirrups attached to the supporting brackets. j i i ! The 36 tooth final drive gear for the counter clockwise moving mirror is driven directly from the 15 ; i ; tooth gear on the upper end of the central shaft while the ! : t : - 1 36 tooth drive gear for the clockwise moving mirror is | i 1 I driven from the final drive gear of the counterclockwise j i ; moving mirror. The speed reduction from the central shaft | ;to each of these gears is 2.4:1, giving a frequency of | j ; 10.605 cycles per minute to each of these two mirrors when 1 the central shaft is rotating at 25.45 rpm. The vertically and horizontally moving mirrors | are actuated by adjustable connecting rods connected to adjustable bell cranks which, in turn, are connected to their respective final drive gears. For the vertically j moving mirror, which is pivoted on a horizontal axis, the j connecting rod attaches to a strip of metal which projects j |down from the lower margin of the encircling ring. For j j 1 i jthe horizontally moving mirror, the connecting rod j attaches to a strip of metal projecting from the base of | the supporting bracket (which is pivoted about a vertical j ! axis). It thus moves both the mirror and the aupporting j bracket. A secondary connecting rod attached to a strip of metal projecting from the top of the ring and to the base on which the bracket is supported moves the mirror about the horizontal axis in such a way as to compensate j I ! |for curvature of the light pattern which would otherwise j ; appear. All three connecting rods in these two mechanisms Ihave springs in parallel with them to eliminate play in i I the couplings. i Both the vertically and horizontally moving imirrors are driven from the 15 tooth gear on the upper end i |of the central shaft through an 18 tooth idler. The 21 i Itooth final drive gear for the vertically moving mirror j iprovides for a speed reduction of 1.4:1 from the central i ;shaft giving a frequency of l8.l8 cycles/minute to the ' j ! vertical mirror when the central shaft is rotating at 25.45 ! ! j rpm. For the horizontally moving mirror a speed reduction iof 1.714:1 is obtained using a cluster consisting of an 18 tooth driven gear and a 21 tooth driving gear to transmit motion from the idler to the 30 tooth final drive gear. ! The resulting mirror frequency is 14.85 cycles/minute. The brackets supporting all four of the moving Imirrors are mounted on a turntable which may be rotated j jabout the central drive shaft to bring any desired mirror into its functional position. The turntable is power ; driven and may be activated from an external switch to ! bring successive mirrors into position. Turntable rota tion is produced by a constantly rotating friction wheel |which is brought into contact with the turntable periphery ! ! i i :by the action of a bell crank which is operated by a rod j connected to a solenoid plunger. The solenoid is energized jeither through the external switch or through a micro- !switch which is operated by a spring level which contacts i i |the turntable periphery. When rotation of the turntable i i is initiated by briefly energizing the solenoid through j |the external switch, it is sustained by a solenoid current | ' flowing through the microswitch circuit until the micro- |switch lever encounters one of four notches, corresponding I I |to the functional positions of the four mirrors, cut in ithe turntable periphery. At that time the microswitch |circuit is opened and the solenoid current is cut off j allowing the friction wheel to spring away from the j : turntable. j Power for the friction wheel is supplied from the central shaft by means of a ladder chain and a pair of sprockets. The chain is tensioned by a wooden idler wheel whose shaft is mounted on a spring-loaded lever. | The instrument is wired so that projection is on j I j ;one switch, the motor on a separate switch, and the ; solenoid coil on a separate switch. This permits changing :mirrors for different patterns without projection. I | The motor, located on the middle layer of the ! housing, is a constant speed, two pole A.C. induction imotor with a speed of 1680 rpm. To its shaft has been attached a three inch cooling fan. The motor shaft is 1 : geared to the central drive shaft of the instrument with |a speed reduction of 66:1, giving a shaft speed of 25.45 I rpm. This is accomplished by a single tooth worm driving ;a 33 tooth gear which is on a common shaft with the 18 ’ tooth gear which drives a 36 tooth gear connected to the i I central shaft. The lower end of this drive shaft has a iflex coupling spring for shaft misalignment. 93 STATISTICAL ANALYSES Analysis of Variance: Total sum of squares: V = ap.LSQl n V = Total sum of squares ZX2 = Sum of squares of scores zx = Sum of scores n = Total number of observations Between group sum of squares: » V ■ 1 5 / ♦ < & > * + ... , » X “a % (£X)2 n V - Sum of squares between groups or ment sum of squares treat- n X - Number of cases in group one Is = Number of treatments. Within group sum of squares: Ex 2 = Zxf2 - Zx^2 Ex 2 = Sum of squares within w groups or treatments. • Degrees of freedom./ sum of squares: d.f. = n - 1 Degrees of freedom, -within groups: d. f. = n - k Degrees of freedom, between groups: d.f. = k - 1 d.f. = degrees of freedom. F ratioj Mean square between groups Mean square within groups Critical Fr (.05 level) 5.96 d.f. = 2.70 25.96 d.f. = 2.00 69.96 d.f. = 1.70 Scheffe' Test D 2 A. 1 nEa.l2 n = Number of observations for each mean Za*i2 = Sum of squares of row comparisons D. = Comparisons of treatment sum by- row coefficient. Ai s2 s2 = Error mean square of the analysis of variance. F1 = (k ~ 1)F Critical F1: (.05 level) 3.96 d.f. = 8.10. 95 BALANCE SCOBES OP EACH SUBJECT ! | I | Subject Horizontal Vertical Clockwise Counter-! ^Number Pattern Pattern Pattern clockwisej I Pattern j j I 1-a 6 11 8 7 1-b 10 16 14 9 j 2-a 7 12 10 8 ! 2-b 10 14 13 7 3-a 9 13 10 9 3-b 8 11 8 5 4-a 9 9 9 9 4-b 9 , 13 8 11 5-a 8 11 11 10 5-b 10 13 14 13 6-a 9 12 12 10 6-b 12 12 10 10 7-a 10 8 10 10 7-b 11 12 7 10 8-a 8 11 9 7 8-b 9 16 15 10 9-a 12 16 12 11 9-b 9 12 10 6 10-a 17 18 19 19 10-b 6 8 9 8 11-a 7 9 8 7 11-b 12 14 14 13 12-a 11 16 14 7 12-b 11 12 11 7 13-a 13 16 14 13 13-b 12 11 12 10 14-a 9 10 9 10 l4-b 16 15 13 15 15-a 12 11 11 12 15-b - 14 15 13 14 16-a 12 16 14 9 l6-b 14 11 11 8 17-a 11 17 . 15 10 17-b 9 11 10 7 18-a 21 17 13 15 l8-b 9 10 10 8 19-a 9 11 10 8 19-b 14 15 15 12 20-a 11 14 15 12 20-b 10 9 8 6 jSub ject Number Horizontal Pattern Vertical Pattern Clockwise Pattern Counter clockwise Pattern 21-a 10 10 11 7 21-b 14 17 15 12 22-a 7 13 12 9 |22-b 10 15 13 9 23-a 16 14 12 12 ■ 23-b 11 13 13 15 ,24-a 10 14 9 9 24-b 15 17 15 13 | Total 519- 621 558 478 Seconds VIEWING ORDER OF PATTERNS BY GROUPS 1 ! Group First Pattern Second Pattern Third Pattern Fourth Pattern : 1 H V C CC : : 2 H V CC C ; 1 3 H C V CC : 4 H C CC V i 5 H CC V c ' 6 H CC c V 1 7 V ■ C CC H i 8 V C H CC ! i 9 V CC H c 10 V CC J c H i ill V H c CC i Il2 V H CC c Il3 C H V CC il4 C H CC v i ! 15 C V CC H ! 16 C V H CC 17 C CC H V ! 18 C CC V H 19 CC H V C 20 CC H C V 21 CC V H c 22 CC V C H 23 CC C H V i24 CC C V H H = Horizontal Pattern V = Vertical Pattern C = Clockwise Pattern CC = Counterclockwise Pattern

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

A Comparison Of The Ability To Control Single Motor Units In Selected Human Skeletal Muscles

PDF

The Retroactive Effect Of Strenuous And Exhaustive Exercise On Maze Task Learning

PDF

The Effect Of Varying Short Time Intervals Between Repetitions Upon Performance Of A Motor Skill

PDF

The Effect Of Body Position On The Development Of Isometric And Isotonic Strength

PDF

Visual Perception Of Static And Dynamic Two-Dimensional Objects: A Cross-Sectional Study

PDF

Differential Applications Of Resistance And Resulting Strength Measured At Varying Degrees Of Knee Extension

PDF

The Rate Of Learning Motor Tasks

PDF

Flexibility Changes As A Result Of Isometric And Isotonic Exercise Over Limited Ranges Of Motion

PDF

Heart Rate Response To Stress: A Mathematical Model

PDF

Concepts Derived From Observed Movement Patterns Represented By Visual Forms

PDF

A Comparison Of Interference And Decay During Short-Term Motor Memory

PDF

The Relationship Between Work Capacity And Motor Learning

PDF

Transfer And Retention Of Selected Balance Skills

PDF

The Effect Of Practice On Three Dynamic Components Of Kinesthetic Perception

PDF

The Effect Of Practice On Individual Differences In The Performance Of A Motor Task

PDF

The Effects Of General And Specific Warm-Up On Subsequent Motor Performance

PDF

Transfer Of A Learned Neuromuscular Performance To The Ipsilateral And Contralateral Limbs: Dynamic Steadiness And Speed

PDF

The Effect Of Three Different Pace Plans On The Cardiac Cost Of 1320-Yardruns

PDF

The Influence Of Artificial Atmospheric Ionization On Human Motor Performance

PDF

Economy Of Learning At Beginning Levels Of Gross Motor Performance

Asset Metadata

Creator Suttie, Sandra Jean (author)

Core Title The Differential Effects Of Viewing Selected Moving Visual Figure Patterns On The Performance Of A Dynamic Balance Task

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Physical Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Education, Physical,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Lockhart, Aileene (committee chair), Ellfeldt, Lois E. (committee member), Lersten, Kenneth C. (committee member), Morris, Royce (committee member), Rigney, Joseph W. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-427204

Unique identifier UC11361056

Identifier 7023189.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-427204 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 7023189.pdf

Dmrecord 427204

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Suttie, Sandra Jean

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA