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The Effects Of Two Types Of Experimenter Intervention And Schedules Of Reinforcement On Verbal Operant Conditioning Of Affective Self-References

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The Effects Of Two Types Of Experimenter Intervention And Schedules Of Reinforcement On Verbal Operant Conditioning Of Affective Self-References

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Content This dissertation has been microfilmed exactly as received 69-618 HEKMAT, Hamid Moayed, 1940- THE EFFECTS OF TWO TYPES OF EXPERIMENTER INTERVENTION AND SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT ON VERBAL OPERANT CONDITIONING OF AFFECTIVE SELF-REFERENCES. U niversity of Southern California, Ph,D., 1968 Psychology, clinical University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan THE EFFECTS OF TWO TYPES OF EXPERIMENTER * INTERVENTION AND SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT ON VERBAL OPERANT CONDITIONING OF AFFECTIVE SELF REFERENCES by Hamid Moayed Hekmat A D issertation P resented to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In P a rtia l Fulfillm ent of the R equirem ents for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Educational Psychology) June, 1968 UNIVERSITY O F S O U T H E R N CALIFORNIA T H E GRADUATE SCH O O L UNIVERSITY PARK LOS A N G ELES, CA LIFO RN IA 9 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, written by .......................... under the direction of h%3.... Dissertation Com mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of D O C T O R OF P H IL O S O P H Y V Dean jyate................:J.u n e,. DISSERTATION COMMITTEE ~ 7 Zh U Ash* ACKNOWLEDGMENTS O u t o f th e m o s t p ro fo u n d r e s p e c t and a p p r e c i a t i o n , I s i n c e r e l y thank D r s . R o b e r t M c I n t y r e , L a u r e n c e J. P e t e r , and H e n r y S lucki for t h e i r i n s p i r a t i o n s , c o o p e r a t i o n and s c h o l a r l y i n s i g h t w hich h elp ed n r a k e th is d i s s e r t a t i o n a r e a l i t y . I am e s p e c i a l l y g r a t e f u l to Dr. L. D o u g la s DeNike who a s s i s t e d in the p r e p a r a t i o n of the. a w a r e n e s s i n t e r v i e w s , and Mr, B e h r o u z E t e m a - dian who c o n d u c te d the a w a r e n e s s i n t e r v i e w s . I am m o s t a p p r e c i a t i v e to Dr. S c h w a r t z and Mr. Hugh C h o a te of South Bay School D i s t r i c t , G u id a n c e D e p a r t m e n t , who a s s i s t e d in a r r a n g i n g the f a c i l i t i e s for the e x p e r i m e n t . I am e s p e c i a l l y in d e b te d to M is s M a u r e e n M a s u m o t o who s p e n t m any h o u r s typing the m a n u s c r i p t and a r r a n g i n g the b i b l i o g r a p h y . S i n c e r e a p p r e c i a t i o n goes to Mike H a l o o s s i m for p r e p a r i n g the f i g u r e s . I w ish a lso to thank D rs . Cliff Hunt and W i l l i a m Ofman of the C o u n s e l i n g D e p a r t m e n t for t h e i r c r i t i c a l c o m m e n t s and h e l p f u l s u g g e s t i o n s . L a s t l y , I r e s e r v e my d e e p e s t th a n k s and a p p r e c i a t i o n to my p a r e n t s for e n c o u r a g i n g me and s u p p o r t i n g me in this long j o u r n e y of h i g h e r l e a r n i n g . TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER Page I INTRODUCTION TO THE P R O B L E M .................. 1 H STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM AND HYPOTHESES ......................................................... 12 Some Definitions of T erm s - An O perational A cco u n t.............................................. 14 m M ETH OD ............................................................................ 19 S u b jects............................................................................. 19 S e ttin g ................................................................................. 20 The R esponse C l a s s ...................................................... 21 A p p aratu s........................................................................... 21 C h a ra cte ristic s of the E x p e rim e n te r...................... 22 E xperim ental D e s i g n .................................................... 22 P ro c e d u re s ........................................................................ 26 Instructions to the Subjects ............................... 26 The P re -T rain in g P e r i o d ........................................... 28 The Acquisition P e r io d ................................................. 29 The Extinction P h a s e .................................................... 31 IV R E SU L T S............................................................................ 33 R esults P ertaining to V erbal Operant Condi tioning ........................................................................ 33 Evaluation of the E xperim ental H ypotheses P ertaining to the A cquisition P eriod . . . . 49 R esults P ertaining to Extinction of Affective S elf-R eference R e s p o n s e s.................................. 50 Evaluation of E xperim ental H ypotheses P ertaining to E xtinction........................................ 64. R esults P ertaining to A w areness Interview s . . 65 V DISCUSSION ................................................................... 79 iii CHAPTER Page VI SUMMARY........................................................................ 95 APPENDIX A .................................................................................... 98 APPENDIX B ................................................................................... 100 APPENDIX C ....................................................... 103 APPENDIX D ........................................................ 10 9 APPENDIX E ................................................................................... 119 R E F E R E N C E S ................................................................................ 122 iv LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1 Sum m ary of 5x2 Mixed F a c to ria l Design One Between and One W ithin Subject V ariable As Applied to the Data M atrix of the Acqui sition of S elf-R eferred Affective Statem ents E m itted During the A cquisition P e r i o d ............... 23 2 Sum m ary of D esign of 5x2 F acto ria l A nalysis of V ariance with R epeated M easures as Applied to D ata M atrix of Affective Self- R eferences E m itted D uring the Extinction P h a s e ............................................................................... 24 3 Mean and Standard Deviation of S elf-R eference R esponses in P re -T ra in in g and A cquisition P e r i o d ............................................................................. 34 4 Sum m ary of 5x2 A nalysis of V ariance with Repeated M easures fo r V erbal O perant Conditioning of Affective S elf-R eferences Em itted During the A cquisition P e r io d ................ 35 5 Sum m ary of A nalysis of V ariance of Self- R eferences Em itted D uring Operant Level P erio d ............................................................-. 37 6 Sum m ary of A nalysis of V ariance of Mean Frequency of S elf-R eference R esponses During Block Four of A cquisition ...................... 41 7 Newman-Keul Method for C om parison of P o st Mean Frequency of Self-R eference R esponses Em itted During Block F our of A cq u isitio n .............................................................. 42 8 Sum m ary of Scheffe's T est for M ultiple C om parison of Mean Frequency of Self- R eference R esponses fo r Block F our of A cquisition P h a s e .................................................... 45 v Table Page 9 A nalysis of V ariance of T otal Frequency of Affective Self-R eference R esponses E m itted During the A cquisition P h a s e 46 10 Sum m ary of Newman-Keul Method for P o st C om parison Among Total Frequency of S elf-R eferences Em itted During the A cquisition P e r i o d ...................................................... 47 11 Sum m ary of Scheffe's T est for M ultiple Com parison Among Total Mean Frequency of S elf-R eferences Em itted D uring the A cquisition P erio d .................................. 48 12 T rend A nalysis of Mean Frequency of Self- R eference R esponses Em itted by the C ontrol Group During the A cquisition and Extinction P e r i o d .......................................... 51 13 Mean and Standard Deviation of Self- R eference R esponses in Extinction P erio d ..................................................................... 52 14 Sum m ary of 5x2 F acto ria l A nalysis of V ariance with Repeated M easures for V erbal Operant Conditioning of S elf-R eferences Em itted D uring the Extinction P e r io d ............................. 55 15 Sum m ary of A nalysis of V ariance of Frequency of S elf-R eferences Em itted During the L ast Block of E xtinction....................................... 56 16 A nalysis of V ariance of Combined Frequency of Affective Self-R eference R esponses - - Em itted During the Extinction P e r i o d 58 17 Sum m ary of A nalysis of V ariance Total Frequency of Self-R eferences Em itted by the E xperim ental Group during Blocks 5 and 6 during the Extinction P erio d .................................................................... 60 18 Sum m ary of Newman-Keul Method for P o st C om parison Among T otal Frequency of S elf-R eferences Em itted in the Blocks 5 and 6 of Extinction by the E xperim ental G r o u p s ....................................................................... 61 Table Page 19 Sum m ary of Scheffe's T est for M ultiple Com parison of Mean Frequency of Self- R eferences Em itted During the Blocks 4 and 5 of E x tin c tio n ................................... 63 20 Sum m ary of A w areness Interview s in the E xperim ental and Control G r o u p s 68 21 Mean and Standard Deviations of Self- R eferences Em itted by the Aware and Non-A ware Groups ............................. 74 22 Sum m ary of A nalysis of V ariance of Total Frequency of S elf-R eferences Em itted by the Aware and Non-Aware Groups . During the A cquisition P erio d ........... 75 23 • Sum m ary of A nalysis of V ariance of Total F requency of S elf-R eferences Em itted by the Aware and Non-Aware Groups in the Extinction P e r io d ............................. 77 24 Sum m ary of Chi-Square A nalysis of A w are n ess of R einforcem ent in the P r e - and P ost-E xtinction Interview s for the E xperim ental Groups .* ............................... 78 vii LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE P age 1 V erbal O perant Conditioning of Affective . Self-R eference R e s p o n s e s ........................ 39 2 Extinction of Affective S elf-R eferences . . . 54 3 Acquisition of Affective S elf-R eferences for the Aware and Non-Aware Groups . 71 ' 4 Extinction of Self-R eference R esponses for the Aware and Non-Aware Groups . 72 viii C H A P T E R I I INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM ! 1 Following S kinner 1 s o p e r a n t c o n d i tio n in g i p a r a d i g m and th r o u g h the im p e t u s of G r e e n - j s p o o n 's n o w - f a m o u s and c o n t r o v e r s i a l d o c t o r a l | d i s s e r t a t i o n (1951), a grow ing n u m b e r of v e r b a l c o n d itio n in g s t u d i e s have e m e r g e d in the l a s t d e c a d e . T h e s e e x p e r i m e n t s amply d e m o n s t r a t e d that a wide v a r i e t y of b e h a v i o r s can be m a n i pu la ted th ro u g h v e r b a l r e i n f o r c e m e n t . A n u m b e r of r e v i e w s c l e a r l y in d ic a t e that v e r b a l j 1 c o n d itio n in g has com e to occupy a s i g n i f i c a n t i t h e o r i t i c a l r o l e r e g a r d i n g the n a t u r e of human j l e a r n i n g and p s y c h o t h e r a p y (Adams, 1957; j i A z r in & Holtz, 1966; F o w l e r , 1964; G reenspoon, j 1962; K r a s n e r , 1955, 1958, 1962a, 1962b, 1963 j j a, 1963b, 1963c, 1965, 1966; S a l z i n g e r , ' l959; j S p i e l b e r g e r , 1962, 1966; and S ta a ts , 1964). j Within the o p e r a n t c o n d i tio n in g f r a m e w o r k , I i v a r i a b l e s i n f lu e n c in g c h a n g e s in t h e r a p e u t i c : c o u n s e l i n g s i t u a t i o n s can be c a r e f u l l y s e l e c t e d , | m a n i p u l a t e d and t h e i r e f f e c t s on so m e d e p e n d ent b e h a v i o r a l m e a s u r e a s s e s s e d . Experim ental a n a l y s i s of the q u a s i s t r u c t u r e d i n t e r v i e w s have been s tu d i e d by s e v e r a l i n v e s t i g a t o r s (Adams & F r y e , 1964; A dam s & H offm a n, 1960; M e r b a u m , 1963; M e r b a u m & Southwell, 1965; Moos, 1963; R o g e r s , 1960; S a l z i n g e r , 1960; Waskow, 1962). In t h e s e e x p e r i m e n t a l a r r a n g e m e n t s , the e x p e r i m e n t e r s e l e c t i v e l y r e i n f o r c e d a p r e s e l e c t e d c l a s s of v e r b a l b e h a v i o r while p r e s e r v i n g the s p o n t a n e o u s c h a r a c t e r of the i n t e r v i e w . The r e i n f o r c e m e n t s in m o s t of th e s e " p r o g r a m m e d i n t e r v e n t i o n s " have c o n s i s t e d of s i m p l e v e r b a l s t i m u l u s ^ such as " m m m - h m m " , " u h -h u h ", "I s e e " , "good" i . e . a c c o m p a n i e d with som e n o n - v e r b a l g e s t u r e s of a p p r o v a l ( A d a m s & Hoffman, 1960; Moos, 1963; R o g e r s , 1960; S a l z i n g e r , 1960). While the above e x p e r i m e n t s s u g g e s t that m i n im a l r e i n f o r c e m e n t is c a p a b le of m odifying the e m i s s i o n r a t e of a s e l e c t e d v a r i e t y of r e s p o n s e c l a s s e s , it is most u n lik e ly that t h e r a p e u t i c c o n v e r s a t i o n is c a r r i e d out under ^A sim ple verbal rein fo rcer re fe rs to a m inim al verbal stim ulus of sh o rt duration such as "m m m -hm m ", "good", "I see", employed typically in verbal operant conditioning lite ra tu re . 3 su c h m i n i m a l a u d i e n c e p a r t i c i p a t i o n . As S k in n e r (1957) h as a m p ly c o m m e n t e d , " V e r b a l b e h a v i o r would be p o i n t l e s s if the l i s t e n e r did n o th in g ' m o r e than r e i n f o r c e the s p e a k e r f o r e m i t t i n g j it. 1 1 (p. 151) | With few e x c e p t i o n s (Adam s et a l . , 1962a, ! 1962b, 1964; M e r b a u m , 1963; M e r b a u m & South- j | w ell, 1965) v e r b a l c o n d i t i o n i n g r e s e a r c h h as j not t h o r o u g h l y e x p l o r e d the e f f e c t s of m o r e c o m p l e x i n t e r v e n t i o n on the p a r t of the e x p e r i m e n t e r in m o d if y in g v e r b a l b e h a v i o r . Even , w ith in the c o n t e x t of s t u d i e s whicA did not l i m i t the r e i n f o r c e m e n t to a m i n i m a l s t i m u l u s (such j as m m m - h m m ) , c o n t r o v e r s y e x i s t s as to the j | e f f i c a c y of m o r e c o m p l e x r e i n f o r c e r s ^ in m o d i fying b e h a v i o r . .A dam s and F r y e (1964), for ! i e x a m p l e , a t t e m p t e d to m o d ify b e h a v i o r o p e r a n t - j ly th r o u g h t e c h n i q u e s c o m m o n l y u s e d in t h e r a p y j ! su c h as i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , m i n i m a l s o c i a l r e i n - j f o r c e m e n t s , h o s t i l e s t a t e m e n t s , and r e f l e c t i o n s ; in a s t r u c t u r e d i n t e r v i e w . U sing an o p e r a n t j I ............................. 1 ■ 1 ■ J ............................................... I A com plex verbal re in fo rc e r re fe rs to sentences o r j sentence fragm ents of longer duration em itted by the in te r- , view er in verbal operant conditioning. In the context of the p resen t study, com plex verbal re in fo rc e rs re fe r to in te r- ‘ p retativ e and reflective statem ents. -I 4 c o n d i t i o n i n g p a r a d i g m , they r e i n f o r c e d p e r s o n a l r e f e r e n c e s (I, m e, m in e , my) on a fixed r a t i o (5T 1). T h e i r r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e d tha t i n t e r p r e t a tive s t a t e m e n t s and m i n i m a l s o c i a l r e i n f o r c e m e n t i n c r e a s e d p e r s o n a l r e f e r e n c e s . I n t e r e s t ingly enough, . . r e f l e c t i o n s and h o s t i l e s t a t e m e n t s 1 i e m i t t e d by the e x p e r i m e n t e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y de- j c r e a s e d the p e r s o n a l r e f e r e n c e s of Ss. F u r t h e r - 1 i m o r e , the r e s p o n s e c l a s s c o n d i t i o n e d with ■ ; ’ i i n t e r p r e t a t i v e s t a t e m e n t s p r o d u c e d m o r e r e s i s - j I ta n c e to e x t i n c t i o n than that c o n d i t i o n e d with m i n i m a l r e i n f o r c e r s . A d a m s and F r y e ' s (1964) c o n c l u s i o n that r e f l e eft ions d e c r e a s e p e r s o n a l r e f e r e n c e s s e e m s to be at v a r i a n c e w ith the i f in d in g of M e r b a u m and S o u th w e ll (1965) who I c o n c lu d e d th a t p a r a p h r a s e s w e r e m o s t e f f e c t i v e j in i n f l u e n c i n g S 's v e r b a l b e h a v i o r . S u b j e c t s j in the p a r a p h r a s e group r e c e i v e d a p a r a p h r a s e ! of the a f f e c t i v e w ord c o n t a i n e d in t h e i r a f f e c - , tive s elf - r ef er en c e s i m m e d i a t e l y f o llo w in g its j e m i s s i o n . S u b j e c t s in the e c h o ic gro u p , on the ! o t h e r hand, w e r e given a r e p e t i t i o n of the i a f f e c t i v e word c o n t a i n e d in t h e i r a f f e c t i v e s e l f - ! r e f e r e n c e s t a t e m e n t s . In a c o n t r o l t r e a t m e n t j I E a r b i t r a r i l y ec h o ed or p a r a p h r a s e d a comparable! I I 5 n u m b e r of n o n - a f f e c t i v e c o m m e n t s . In d i s c u s s i n g t h e i r r e s u l t s M e r b a u m and S outhw ell (1 965, p. 185) c o m m e n t e d : _. This re su lt would seem com patible with R o g er's (1942) early observation that reflection of feel ing is considerably m ore affective than r e flection of content in bringing about personality changes within the psychotherapeutic interaction. In the p rese n t study reflection of feelings is com parable to p arap h rase treatm en t while reflection of content would be sim ila r to echoic treatm ent. The im plication is, th e re fore, that in R ogerian Therapy the reflection of feeling as therapeutic strateg y se ts the occasion for high ra te s of affective verbal responding, (p. 186) I t i s i m p o r t a n t to note that the i n c r e a s e d r e s p o n s e r a t e in the e c h o ic g ro u p was not s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . In c o n t r a s t to A d a m s and F r y e (1964), M e r b a u m and S outhw ell (1965) c o n c lu d e d th a t r e s p o n s e r a t e d u r i n g a c q u i s i t i o n had l i t t l e in f l u e n c e on r e s i s t a n c e to e x t i n c t i o n . The s h a r p d e c l i n e of both e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p s in a f f e c t i v e r e s p o n d i n g d u r i n g e x t i n c t i o n led M e r b a u m and S o u th w ell (1965) to the i n t e r p r e t a tion that "no new l e a r n i n g or even m o d e r a t e a l t e r a t i o n s in v e r b a l h a b it s t r u c t u r e o c c u r r e d . " (p. 186) M e r b a u m et a l . 's f in d in g c o n f i r m e d th a t t h e i r i n i t i a l a s s u m p t i o n s that the e x p e r i m e n t e r ' s i n t e r v e n t i o n s in v e r b a l c o n d i t i o n i n g e x p e r i m e n t s can be c o n c e i v e d of m a i n l y as d i s c r i m i n a t i v e s t i m u l i w hich set the o c c a s i o n for the e m i s s i o n of p r e v i o u s l y r e i n f o r c e d v e r b a l b e h a v i o r . M e r b a u m and S o u t h w e l l ' s (1965) e x p e r i - ! m e n t r a i s e s the p r o b l e m of w h e t h e r a f f e c t i v e ' s e l f - r e f e r e n c e r e s p o n s e s can be l e a r n e d in j | a q u a s i - s t r u c t u r e d i n t e r v i e w . M e r b a u m (1963), j i in an a r t i b l e b a s e d on his d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a - ; j tion, c o n c l u d e d that r e f l e c t i o n of f e e l i n g was ! I s i g n i f i c a n t l y m o r e e f f e c t i v e in c o n d i t i o n i n g j | both p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e s e l f - r e f e r e n c e s than I e i t h e r the " n o n - c o m m i t t a l e x p r e s s i o n " ( m m - h m m or uh-huh) and m ild p o s i t i v e t r e a t m e n t (in which the E r e s p o n d e d with "good", " y e s " , "I s e e " , "I u n d e r s t a n d " , "I'm s u r e " , " F i n e " ) . D e s p i t e j the fa c t tha t M e r b a u m n e i t h e r h y p o t h e s i z e d ! I about e x t i n c t i o n no r d i s c u s s e d it in his p a p e r , j ! his f i g u r e s c l e a r l y showed t h a t the r e f l e c t i o n ! gro u p was m o r e r e s i s t a n t to e x t i n c t i o n than j h is " n o n - c o m m i t t a l " and "m ild p o s i t i v e " g r o u p s . | In the lig h t of the above d i s c u s s i o n , it is j i i m p o r t a n t to note tha t M e r b a u m ' s (1963) f i n d i n g s in r e g a r d to r e f l e c t i v e s t a t e m e n t is j i e s s e n t i a l l y p a r a l l e l to what A d a m s , N oblin, I B u t l e r , and T i m m o n s (1962) found for the i n t e r p r e t a t i v e s t a t e m e n t . This l a t t e r study c o m p a r e d the e f fic a c y of two ty p e s of v e r b a l j i I r e i n f o r c e r s , m ild ly a f f i r m a t o r y w o rd s v e r s u s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , in a T a f f e l - p r o c e d u r e v e r b a l c o n d itio n in g p a r a d i g m w h e r e p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s w e r e r e i n f o r c e d by the e x p e r i m e n t e r . The m o s t s t r i k i n g finding was that the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n group showed s i g n i f i c a n t a c q u i s i t i o n and re.sis- j tance to e x t in c t io n as c o m p a r e d to the group j r e i n f o r c e d with m ild ly a f f i r m a t o r y w o rd s (good, j j i fine, e t c . ) and the c o n t r o l . j The e x p e r i m e n t a l ev id e n c e p r e s e n t e d above j ! i n d i c a t e that i n v e s t i g a t o r s in co m p le x human l e a r n i n g using o p e r a n t c o n d i tio n in g p a r a d i g m s ; (as well as t h e i r c o u n t e r p a r t " b r e t h r e n " the i R o g e r i a n s , ' the a n a l y t i c a l c o u n s e l o r s and p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t s ) a r e s t i l l "hazy" and have an u n c l e a r ; notion about the r o l e of r e f l e c t i o n and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n in b r i n g i n g about t h e r a p e u t i c change. ; When i n t e r v i e w s a r e conduc ted with t h e r a p e u t i c j intent, i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s have long been c o n s i - | d e r e d by p s y c h o a n a l y s t s as the m o s t c r u c i a l j i i n t e r v e n t i o n for s u c c e s s f u l outcom e (Kanfer ' j et a l . , 1960). R o g e r s (1942), on the o th e r I 8 hand, s t a t e s th a t i n s i g h t with c o n s e q u e n t b e h a v i o r a l ch a n g e is "often d e l a y e d and s o m e t i m e s m a d e i m p o s s i b l e by the e f f o r t s of the c o u n s e l o r to c r e a t e it or b r i n g it about. " (p. 195). W hile d i s c r e p a n c y s t i l l e x i s t s as to d i r e c t i o n or j d e s i r a b i l i t y of the e f f e c t of both i n t e r p r e t a t i v e ! and r e f l e c t i v e s t a t e m e n t s in v e r b a l c o n d i t i o n - j ing, c o u n s e l i n g and p s y c h o t h e r a p y , a m o r e v i g o r o u s l y c o n t r o l l e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n is n e e d e d to a s c e r t a i n the e f f i c a c y of t h e s e i n t e r v e n t i o n s in m o d if y in g b e h a v i o r . C o u n s e l o r s and t h e r a p i s t s , d e s p i t e t h e i r i o r i e n t a t i o n , a f f i l i a t i o n s or b e l i e f s , a g r e e that t h e r a p e u t i c c o u n s e l i n g i m p l i e s e f f o r t d i r e c t e d i t t o w a r d s p e c i f i c c h a n g e s . A lthough c h a n g e s ; have b e e n c l a i m e d in a v a r i e t y of c l a s s e s of b e h a v i o r , su c h as a n x i e ty , a g r e s s i o n , d e p e n d - I ency, the bulk of such c l a i m s have not b e e n j s u p p o r t e d by o b j e c t i v e da ta ( R o g e r s , 1960). A m o n g the m o r e s y s t e m a t i c s t u d i e s , R o g e r s ! i and Dymond (1954) have shown r e p e a t e d l y that j m o d i f i c a t i o n of c 1 ient ~s elf - c on c ep t is unique am ong i m p o r t a n t c h a n g e s in c o u n s e l i n g . Along t h e s e l i n e s , R a i m y (1949) d e m o n s t r a t e d tha t i n c r e a s e in p o s i t i v e s e If - r ef er enc e and d e c r e a s e in n e g a t i v e s e l f - r e f e r e n c e o c c u r r e d in s u c c e s s - ; 9 ful t h e r a p y . R e i n f o r c e m e n t theory, h o w e v e r , p r o v i d e s a m o r e t e n a b l e and a l t e r n a t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n , a s s e r t i n g th a t r e p o r t e d c h a n g e s in s e l f - r e f e r e n c e s a r e b r o u g h t about th r o u g h the u n i n t e n t i o n a l s e l e c t i v e r e i n f o r c e m e n t by R o g e r - ian t h e r a p i s t . It w as R o g e r s (1960) who f i r s t a s c e r t a i n e d that the i n t e r v i e w e r could p r o v i d e ch a n g e in_S's s e l f - r e f e r e n c e v e r b a l i z a t i o n o p e r a n t l y by c o n s i s t e n t l y r e i n f o r c i n g a c l a s s of such s t a t e m e n t s . R o g e r s did not, h o w e v e r , j e m p lo y v a r i o u s s c h e d u l e s of r e i n f o r c e m e n t nor j i did he m e a s u r e the e x t i n c t i o n of s elf - r ef e r enc e j | r e s p o n s e s of his s u b j e c t s . E x t e n s i v e w o rk j j on s c h e d u l e s of r e i n f o r c e m e n t has been done by j F e r s t e r and S k in n e r (1957) and h a s been s u m m a r i z e d and i n t e g r a t e d by M o r s e (1966). Al- | though t h e s e r e s e a r c h e r s deal m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y j with f r e e r e s p o n d i n g b e h a v i o r of p i g e o n s , Phelan,; i T ang and H e k m a t (1967) s u s p e c t e d that p a r a l l e l | r e s u l t s m ight be o b ta in e d f r o m a p p ly in g v a r i ous s c h e d u l e s of v e r b a l r e i n f o r c e m e n t on s e l f r e f e r e n c e r e s p o n s e s . U nder the d i s g u i s e tha t t h e i r s was a study i of e a r l y m e m o r y , t h e s e i n v e s t i g a t o r s r e i n f o r c e d , ; I with m i n i m a l c u e s , s e If - r ef er enc e r e s p o n s e s ! e m i t t e d by the Ss both with m i n i m a l cues on 10 i n t e r m i t t e n t and c o n t i n u o u s p o s i t i v e v e r b a l r e i n f o r c e m e n t to i n c r e a s e the f r e q u e n c y of s e l f - r e f e r e n c e r e s p o n s e s . The gro u p r e i n f o r c e d with c o n t i n u o u s r e i n f o r c e m e n t e m i t t e d a h i g h e r n u m b e r of s e l f - r e f e r e n c e r e s p o n s e s than did the g ro u p with the i n t e r m i t t e n t r e i n f o r c e m e n t s c h e d u l e . It w as noted that s e l f r e f e r e n c e r e s p o n s e s a c q u i r e d u n d e r i n t e r m i t t e n t r e i n f o r c e m e n t te n d e d to be m o r e d i f f i c u l t to e x t i n g u i s h than th o s e a c q u i r e d u n d e r c o n t in u o u s r e i n f o r c e m e n t . R e s u l t s by P h e l a n , Tang and H e k m a t (1967) s u p p o r t e d the p r o p o s i t i o n th a t v e r b a l r e i n f o r c e m e n t of s e If - r ef er e nc e r e s p o n s e s o p e r a t e in much the s a m e f a s h i o n as t h o s e p a r a m e t e r s of p r i m a r y r e i n f o r c e m e n t . T h is study h as i m p o r t a n t i m p l i c a t i o n s for a f f e c t i n g s e l f - r e f e r e n t i a l s t a t e m e n t s in c l i n i c a l and c o u n s e l i n g s i t u a t i o n s t h r o u g h i n t e r m i t t e n t r e i n f o r c e m e n t s . F u r t h e r e x t e n s i o n of the above w ork m ight a l s o be r e l e v a n t in v e r b a l c o n d i tio n in g of a f f e c t i v e s e l f - r e f e r e n c e s u sin g r e f l e c t i v e and i n t e r p r e t a t i v e s t a t e m e n t s as r e i n f o r c e r s . If a f f e c t i v e s e l f - r e f e r e n c e s a r e cond i t i o n a b l e with m o r e c o m p l e x i n t e r v e n t i o n s by the e x p e r i m e n t e r , it is e x p e c t e d that su c h c o m p l e x h u m a n l e a r n i n g o p e r a t e s u n d e r the laws of r e i n f o r c e m e n t r a t h e r than " d i s c r i m i n a tive c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of e x p e r i m e n t e r i n t e r v e n tion. " (M e r b a u m , 1965). F u r t h e r m o r e , a p p l y ing d i f f e r e n t s c h e d u le s of r e i n f o r c e m e n t should in f lu e n c e both the a c q u i s i t i o n and e x t i n c t i o n of s e l f - r e f e r r e d a f f e c t iv e r e s p o n s e s in the f a s h io n p r e d i c t e d by P h e l a n , Tang and H e k m a t (1967). CHAPTER H STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM AND HYPOTHESES The a im of the p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n is to s tu d y the e f f e c t of i n t e r m i t t e n t and c o n t i n u ous s c h e d u l e s of r e i n f o r c e m e n t (C R F) a d m i n i s t e r e d with a m o r e c o m p l e x c o n t e n t i n t e r v e n t i o n in the v e r b a l c o n d i t i o n i n g of a f f e c t i v e s e l f r e f e r e n c e r e s p o n s e s . M o r e s p e c i f i c a l l y s t a t e d the p u r p o s e s of the study a r e : 1. To determ ine the relativ e effectiveness of two c la sse s of com plex re in fo rc e rs on the acquisition and extinction of affective se lf-re fe re n c e resp o n ses during a quasi counseling stru ctu red interview . The two classes of re in fo rc e rs that shall be employed are: in terp retativ e statem ent and reflectiv e statem ent. 2. To determ ine the effect of continuous and in term itten t reinforcem ent (FR 2:1) on conditioning of affective se lf referen ce resp o n ses. 3. To determ ine w hether the effect of interm ittent re in forcem ent can be strengthened by combining verbal rein fo rcem en t with a p attern of rew ard. 4. To determ ine the relationship between conditioning ra te s and .S's degree of aw areness of resp o n se-rein fo rcem en t contingency. The m a j o r h y p o t h e s e s w e r e : H y p o t h e s i s I j i S u b j e c t ' s e m i s s i o n of s e l f - r e f e r e n t a f f e c t i v e | s t a t e m e n t s s h a l l be s i g n i f i c a n t l y a l t e r e d as a ■ I I ! c o n s e q u e n c e of v e r b a l c o n d i t i o n i n g . | t i H y p o t h e s i s II j G ro u p s s u b j e c t e d to v e r b a l c o n d i t i o n i n g w ill ; i e m it an i n c r e a s e d f r e q u e n c y of s elf - r efer r e d j i a f f e c t i v e s t a t e m e n t d u r i n g the a c q u i s i t i o n j i p h a s e of the e x p e r i m e n t . j H y p o t h e s i s III j G ro u p s r e i n f o r c e d i n t e r m i t t e n t l y (FR- 2:1) w ill | e m it a l o w e r f r e q u e n c y of a f f e c t i v e s e l f - j ! r e f e r e n c e r e s p o n s e s d u r i n g the a c q u i s i t i o n j i p h a s e of the e x p e r i m e n t . ; i H y p o t h e s i s IV | G ro u p s r e i n f o r c e d c o n t i n u o u s l y (CRF) s h a l l j I j be d i f f e r e n t f r o m e a c h o t h e r d u r i n g a c q u i s i t i o n , i H y p o t h e s i s V j G ro u p s r e i n f o r c e d u n d e r i n t e r m i t t e n t l y ( F R 2:1) ; s h a l l not be s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m e a ch j o t h e r d u r i n g the a c q u i s i t i o n p h a s e of the j e x p e r i m e n t . H y p o t h e s i s VI S u b j e c t ' s e m i s s i o n _oJ s e l f - r e f e r e n t a f f e c t i v e j r e s p o n s e s s h a ll be s i g n i f i c a n t l y d e c r e a s e d d uring e x t in c t io n . H y p o t h e s i s VII Groups s u b j e c t e d to e x p e r i m e n t a l e x t in c t io n s h a ll m a n i f e s t s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s fro m each o t h e r in the f r e q u e n c y of a f f e c tiv e s e l f r e f e r e n c e r e s p o n s e s e m i t t e d . H y p o t h e s i s VIII Groups r e i n f o r c e d i n t e r m i t t e n t l y (fixed r a t i o 2:1) w ill emit a h ig h e r f r e q u e n c y of a f f e c t iv e s e l f - r e f e r e n c e r e s p o n s e s d u rin g e x t in c t io n . H y p o t h e s i s IX Groups of s u b j e c t s c o n t in u o u s ly r e i n f o r c e d will not m a n i f e s t s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s f r o m each o t h e r in r e s i s t i n g e x tin ctio n . H y p o t h e s i s X G roups of s u b j e c t s c o n d itio n e d under a p a r t i a l s c h e d u l e of r e i n f o r c e m e n t (fixed r a t i o 2:1) shall not r e s p o n d s i g n i f i c a n t l y d u r in g the e x t i n c t i o n p h a s e of the e x p e r i m e n t . Some D e f i n i t i o n s of T e r m s An O p e r a t i o n a l Account B e fo r e a d e t a i l e d a c co u n t of the m e t h o d ology of the stu d y is p r e s e n t e d , the w r i t e r 15 f e e l s it n e c e s s a r y to p r o v i d e an o p e r a t i o n a l a c c o u n t of c e r t a i n i m p o r t a n t t e r m s th a t have a p p e a r e d in the c o n t e x t of t h is p r e s e n t a t i o n . V e r b a l o p e r a n t c o n d i t i o n i n g is defined as a c o n d i t i o n i n g p r o c e s s w h e r e the v e r b a l b e h a v i o r of one in d iv i d u a l is a l t e r e d th ro u g h the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of r e i n f o r c e m e n t by a n o t h e r p e r s o n . V e r b a l r e i n f o r c e m e n t is defined as a v e r b a l b e h a v i o r that, once c o n t in g e n t upon a r e s p o n s e , i n c r e a s e s the p r o b a b i l i t y of o c c u r r e n c e of that r e s p o n s e . In t h i s study, e x p e r i m e n t e r ' s c o m p l e x i n t e r v e n t i o n s , such as r e f l e c t i v e and i n t e r p r e t a t i v e s t a t e m e n t s , are c o n s i d e r e d as v e r b a l r e i n f o r c e r s . R e f l e c t i v e s t a t e m e n t s a r e defined as v e r b a l r e i n f o r - c e r s in v o lv in g a p a r a p h r a s e of s u b j e c t ' s v e r b a l b e h a v i o r . R e f l e c t i v e s t a t e m e n ts a r e m ade c o n t i n g e n t upon s u b j e c t ' s a f f e c t i v e s e l f - r e f e r e n c e s and s e r v e as t h e i r r e i n f o r c e r s . An e x a m p l e of r e f l e c t i v e s t a t e m e nt is p r o v i d e d in the follo w in g e x c h a n g e that took p la c e b e t w e e n the s u b j e c t and the e x p e r i m e n t e r . S - "I feel sad looking at the old man walking. " E - "Looking at tha t old m an m a k e s you feel sad. " I n t e r p r e t a t i v e s t a t e m e n t s a r e defined as a c l a s s of v e r b a l b e h a v i o r that is d e s ig n e d to p r o v id e c e r t a i n cues to the s u b j e c t s about t h e i r b e h a v i o r . In o th e r w o rd s , the i n t e r p r e t a tive s t a t e m e n t s a r e v e r b a l b e h a v i o r s e m i t t e d by the e x p e r i m e n t e r and s t a t e d as t e n t a t i v e h y p o t h e s e s about s u b j e c t ' s b e h a v i o r or p e r s o n a l i t y . U su ally , all i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a r e p r e ceded by "It s e e m s that. . . " or "It a p p e a r s that. . . " followed by a d e s c r i p t i v e r e s p o n s e . An e x a m p le of an i n t e r p r e t a t i v e s t a t e m e n t a p p e a r s in the follow ing e x c h a n g e be tw e e n the e x p e r i m e n t e r and the s u b j e c t . S - "I feel like s u r f i n g now. " E - "It s e e m s that you enjoy s u r f i n g b e c a u s e you a r e an e x t r o v e r t . " The i n t e r p r e t a t i v e s t a t e m e n t u se d in this study had two c o m p o n e n t s : a. They w e r e p r o c e e d e d by a s e n t e n c e f r a g m e n t such as "It s e e m s to m e . . . " b. This was followed by a second pie c e of i n f o r m a t i o n which gave s u b j e c t s fe e d b a c k about 17 t h e i r p e r s o n a l i t y or b e h a v i o r , i . e . " b e c a u s e you a r e an e x t r o v e r t . " A ff e c tiv e s e l f - r e f e r e n c e s a r e defined as s t a t e m e n t s e m i t t e d by the s u b j e c t s r e f e r r i n g to any a f f e c t they a r e e x p e r i e n c i n g . S e n t e n c e s s t a r t i n g with "I f e e l . . . " fo llo w e d by an e x p r e s sio n of a f f e c t "lonely, w o n d e r f u l , f r e e , etc. " a r e c o n s i d e r e d as a f f e c t i v e s e l f - r e f e r e n c e s . A f f e c t i v e s e l f - r e f e r e n c e s may be p o s i t i v e , n e g a t i v e , or n e u t r a l . Since the p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n s w e r e c o n c e r n e d with g e n e r a l i z e d a f f e c t i v e s e If - r ef e r enc e r e s p o n s e s , no a t t e m p t was m ade to c l a s s i f y s elf - r ef er enc es as p o s i tiv e and n e g a t i v e . F i x e d r a t i o 2:1 r e f e r s to an i n t e r m i t t e n t s c h e d u l e of r e i n f o r c e m e n t , w h e r e e v e r y s e c o n d a f f e c t i v e s e l f - r e f e r e n c e is r e i n f o r c e d . A c q u i s i t i o n of v e r b a l b e h a v i o r r e f e r s to c h a n g e s in v e r b a l b e h a v i o r of the s u b j e c t s that a r e a t t r i b u t e d s o l e l y to r e i n f o r c e m e n t c o n t i n g e n c i e s in the e x p e r i m e n t . E x t i n c t i o n of v e r b a l b e h a v i o r r e f e r s to r e d u c t i o n in the s t r e n g t h of v e r b a l o p e r a n t s due to w i t h h o l d i n g of r e i n f o r c e m e n t . _ " 18 “ A w ar en e s s is defined as d e s c r i p t i v e v e r b a l b e h a v i o r e m i t t e d by the s u b j e c t which d e f in e s the c o n t i n g e n c i e s in v o lv e d in the experim ent,. T h is v e r b a l s t a t e m e n t may be r e c o r d e d and r a t e d s u b s e q u e n t l y by an e x a m i n e r to a s s e s s its a c c u r a c y . In the s t r i c t e r s e n s e , ! the t e r m a w a r e n e s s i n c l u d e s only the v e r b a l i z a t i o n of r e s p o n s e - r e inf or c e m ent c o n t i n g e n c i e s . Also, the a w a r e n e s s of r e s p o n s e - r e i n f o r c e m e n t i c o n t i n g e n c i e s may involve the a w a r e n e s s of i i r e i n f o r c e m e n t , the a w a r e n e s s of r e s p o n s e c l a s s j and the p o s s i b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the r e s - j p o n s e c l a s s and the r e i n f o r c e m e n t (Locke, 1966).! H o w e v e r , for the p u r p o s e of this i n v e s t i g a t i o n , a s u b j e c t may be c l a s s i f i e d as a w a r e if he d e m o n s t r a t e s a c o r r e c t v e r b a l i z a t i o n of both ! j t h e r e i n f o r c e m e n t and the r e s p o n s e c l a s s . CHAPTER 3 METHOD Subjects i I F i f t y - n i n e s t u d e n t s s e l e c t e d r a n d o m l y | f r o m s u b u r b a n j u n io r and s e n i o r high s c h o o l c l a s s e s w e r e s c r e e n e d . Only s t u d e n t s who e m i t t e d not m o r e than five s e l f - r e f e r e n c e s d u r i n g the p r e - t r a i n i n g p e r i o d w e r e used as ! | s u b j e c t s s i n c e those with m o r e than five s e l f - i ! r e f e r e n c e s had a l r e a d y d e m o n s t r a t e d a p r i o r j i c o n d i t i o n i n g of a high r a t e , m a k in g the m un- ; i s u i t a b l e as c a n d i d a t e s for t h i s p r o j e c t . The j s u b j e c t s (S s ) f o r th is study c o n s i s t e d of 50 f s t u d e n t s — 27 m a l e s and 23 f e m a l e s — r a n g i n g j i in age f ro m 16 to 18 y e a r s . P r i o r to i n i t i a t i o n | of r e s e a r c h , F o r m A was s e n t to the p a r e n t s of j i f the s t u d e n t . T h is f o r m , w h ic h a p p e a r s in j i A ppendix A, w a s p r e p a r e d with the c o o p e r a t i o n j } of.the G u id a n c e D e p a r t m e n t of South Bay Union ! J High School D i s t r i c t , and was d i s t r i b u t e d to j i the s t u d e n t s in o r d e r to o b ta in p a r e n t a l a p p r o v a l j i for Ss 1 p a r t i c i p a t i o n in the e x p e r i m e n t . Once i i s c r e e n e d , e a c h s e l e c t e d S was r a n d o m l y a s s i g n e d ; to one of the five t r e a t m e n t s ; I 20 G roup I r e c e i v e d r e f l e c t i v e s t a t e m e n t s a d m i n i s t e r e d under a c o n tin u o u s r e i n f o r c e m e n t s c h e d u l e (CRF) . G roup II r e c e i v e d r e f l e c t i v e s t a t e m e n t s a d m i n i s t e r e d un d er a fixed r a t i o s c h e d u le (FR 2:1). Group III r e c e i v e d i n t e r p r e t a t i v e s t a t e m e n t s u n d e r a c o n tin u o u s r e i n f o r c e m e n t s c h e d u l e (CRF). Group IV r e c e i v e d i n t e r p r e t a t i v e s t a t e m e n t s u n d e r a fixed r a t i o s c h e d u l e (FR- 2:1). Group V, the c o n t r o l group, r e c e i v e d no r e i n f o r c e m e n t d u r in g the a c q u i s i t i o n p h a s e of the e x p e r i m e n t . j S e tting j The e x p e r i m e n t took pla ce at A viation High School and Redondo Beach Union High I School l o c a t e d in the s u b u r b of Los A n g e le s, I C a l i f o r n i a . Two office r o o m s a d j a c e n t to e a ch o th e r , s h a r i n g a com m on w a i t i n g r o o m , c o n s t i t u t e d the s e t t i n g at A viation High School. j i At Redondo Beach Union High School, h o w e v e r, a l a r g e r o o m was p r o v i d e d w h e r e two des k s w e r e set and a s c r e e n divided it into two s m a l l j o f fic e s . The s e t t i n g s w e r e quiet and d e ta c h e d j 21 from i n t e r f e r i n g s t i m u l i . j i The R e s p o n s e C l a s s J l The r e s p o n s e c l a s s s e l e c t e d for this p r e - [ sent i n v e s t i g a t i o n is d e s c r i b e d as a f f e c t iv e s e l f - r e f e r e n t r e s p o n s e s . A d e fin it io n of th is j r e s p o n s e c l a s s a p p e a r s in the c h a p t e r de a lin g with the s t a t e m e n t of the p r o b l e m and need I not be r e p e a t e d h e r e . A p p a r a t u s I j T h r e e s i l e n t p u s h - b u t t o n s w i t c h e s w e r e | w ir e d to an E s t e r l in e-A n g u s Event R e c o r d e r j \ which r e c o r d e d all of S ’s r e s p o n s e s (Switch A), ; i S's s e l f - r e f e r e n c e r e s p o n s e s (Switch B), and j j the o c c u r r e n c e of v e r b a l r e i n f o r c e m e n t (Switch ; ! G). The s w i t c h e s w e r e taped at the edge of the j u n d e r s i d e of the des k s and w e r e not v i s i b l e to the Ss. The event r e c o r d e r was p la c e d in the j a d j a c e n t ro o m and was not n o t i c e a b l e to Ss. j A s e t of 70 c o l o r e d p h o t o g r a p h s of people, o b je c ts and p l a c e s was l a m i n a t e d with t r a n s - j i p a r e n t p l a s t i c and set in a s t a n d a r d 8 inch x 11 inch album . Appendix E p r o v i d e s the s u m m a r y d e s c r i p t i o n of each p i c t u r e . The j i p i c t u r e s w e r e divided into b lo c k s of e x p e r i - ! m e n t a l t r i a l s , each block c o n t a in i n g 10 p i c t u r e s . ! 22 C h a ra teristics of the E xperim enter The e x p e r i m e n t was c a r r i e d out by the a u t h o r , a m a l e g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t with p r e v i o u s t r a i n i n g in i d e n t i f y i n g and r e i n f o r c i n g s e l f r e f e r e n t a f f e c t i v e s t a t e m e n t s . C o n s i d e r a b l e c a r e w as t a k e n in c o n s i s t e n t l y r e i n f o r c i n g the r e s p o n s e c l a s s i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r its e m i s s i o n and thus e l i m i n a t i n g the d elay f a c t o r which r e d u c e s the e f f e c t of the r e i n f o r c e r . The e x p e r i m e n t e r ' s a s s i s t a n t was an a d v a n c e d m a l e u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t . E x p e r i m e n t a l D e sig n F i f t y s u b j e c t s w e r e a s s i g n e d r a n d o m l y to five g r o u p s (four e x p e r i m e n t a l and one c o n t r o l ) with ten s u b j e c t s in e a ch . The i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s c o n s i s t e d of s c h e d u l e s and types of r e i n f o r c e m e n t . The d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e was a f f e c t i v e s elf - r ef e r en c e r e s p o n s e s . D ata m a t r i c e s for the m a in d e s i g n a r e p r o v i d e d in T a b le 1 and T a b le 2. The d e s i g n is l a b e l e d as p x q f a c t o r i a l a n a l y s i s of v a r i a n c e with r e p e a t e d m e a s u r e s in W i n e r (1962, p. 298). H o w e v e r , M e y e r s (1966, p. 175) r e f e r s to it as m ixe d d e s ig n , one b e t w e e n and one wi t hin - - s ub j e c t v a r i a b l e . 23. TABLE 1 SUMMARY OF 5X2 MIXED FACTORIAL DESIGN ONE BETWEEN AND ONE WITHIN SUBJECT VARIABLE AS APPLIED TO THE DATA MATRIX OF THE ACQUISITION OF SELF-REFERRED AFFECTIVE STATEMENTS EMITTED DURING THE ACQUISITION PERIOD Pre-... training Acquisition Trial Trial Groups Block 1 Block 4 Group 1 Sn 11 _ SX 41 reflection si 11 S0 41 continuous a • • schedule • • Sioll S1041 Group 2 Sx 12 Si 42 reflection S, 12 S2 42 fixed ratio • • m (FR 2:1) s1012 Siq42 Group 3 S1 13 Si 43 interpretation S~ 13 S2 43 continuous ^ • • schedule • * • S1013 Si043 Group 4 Si 14 Sl 44 interpretation S2 14 44 fixed ratio * * • • ** * • (FR 2:1) *1014 • o ■ — t C / 3 Group 5 S-, 15 S, 45 control S2.15 S2_45 • Siq15 • S1045 TABLE 2 SUMMARY OF DESIGN OF 5X2 FACTORIAL ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE WITH REPEATED MEASURES AS APPLIED TO DATA MATRIX OF AFFECTIVE SELF-REFERENCES EMITTED DURING THE EXTINCTION PHASE Trial Trial Groups Block 4 Block 7 Group 1 Si 41 Si 71 reflection S2 41 S2 71 continuous m • • schedule * • Si041 S1071 Group 2 SX 42 Si 72 reflection Sn 42 S2 72 fixed ratio • • • (FR 2:1) • • sio42 S1072 Group 3 Si 43 SX 73 interpretation S2 43 S2 73 continuous ■ • • • schedule * * Sio43 Sio73 Group 4 S 1 11 Si ™ interpretation s2 44 S2 74 fixed ratio • • • • (FR 2:1) • • Sio44 sio74 Group 5 S1 If Si 75 s2 45 • • s2.75 • S1045 S1075 25 Mixed d e s i g n s a r e f r e q u e n t l y used in p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h b e c a u s e they p e r m i t us to c o m p a r e group p e r f o r m a n c e s o v er tim e or t r i a l s . R e p e a t e d m e a s u r e s ' d e s i g n p r o v i d e s c o n s i d e r a b l e c o n t r o l o v er the e x p e r i m e n t a l u n its . The r e p e a t e d m e a s u r e s in th is e x p e r i m e nt c o n s i s t s of b lo c k s of t r i a l s (Bs), The fixed a f f e c t a r e p r o d u c e d by the g r o u p s r e p r e s e n t e d by As. As T ab le 1 i n d i c a t e s , a 5 x 2 f a c t o r i a l d e s ig n with r e p e a t e d m e a s u r e s was ad o p ted to a s s e s s c h a n g e s in p e r f o r m a n c e in b l o c k s of ten t r i a l s , c o m p a r i n g g r o u p s on t h e d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e . B l o c k s 1 and 4 w e r e used for t e s t i n g the a c q u i s i t i o n of s e l f - r e f e r e n c e r e s p o n s e s . T a b le 2 sh o w s the d a t a m a t r i x for 5 x 2 m ixe d a n a l y s i s of v a r i a n c e with r e p e a t e d m e a s u r e s adopted as the m a i n t e s t for a s s e s s m e nt of s u b j e c t s ' p e r f o r m a n c e d u r i n g the e x t i n c t i o n p e r i o d . In a d d i t i o n to the two m ix e d f a c t o r i a l d e s i g n s e m p l o y e d f o r t e s t i n g the m a in e f f e c t s in the a c q u i s i t i o n and e x t i n c tion p e r i o d s , s i m p l e a n a l y s e s of v a r i a n c e w e r e c o m p u te d for f u r t h e r e v a l u a t i o n of the da ta . The p o s t - c omp ar i s ons am o n g t r e a t m e n t s m e a n s w e r e c a r r i e d out by N e w m a n - K e u l 1 s (W iner, 196 2, p. 80), and S c h e f f e ' s m e t h o d s ( E d w a r d s , 1960), A t r e n d a n a l y s i s was a l s o p e r f o r m e d on the c o n t r o l g ro u p . The d e t a i l s of s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s of da ta s h a l l be p r e s e n t e d on the c h a p t e r d e a l i n g with r e s u l t s . P r o c e d u r e s S u b j e c t s w e r e s e e n i n d i v i d u a l l y by the e x p e r i m e n t e r . Upon e a c h S's a r r i v a l , the e x p e r i m e n t e r i n t r o d u c e d h i m s e l f and a s k e d S to s it a c r o s s f r o m the e x p e r i m e n t e r ' s desk . It was c o n f i r m e d that each .S had r e c e i v e d a s l i p l i s t i n g his a p p o i n t m e n t which was sig n e d by the e x p e r i m e n t e r . Once s e a t e d , the e x p e r i m e n t e r s t a t e d the i n s t r u c t i o n s to _ S _ . I n s t r u c t i o n s to the S u b j e c t s The i n s t r u c t i o n s to the s u b j e c t s w e r e p r e - w r i t t e n and m e m o r i z e d by the e x p e r i m e n t e r . All s u b j e c t s r e c e i v e d the s a m e i n s t r u c t i o n s r e g a r d l e s s of w h e t h e r they b e l o n g e d to the e x p e r i m e n t a l or the c o n t r o l gro u p . The fo llo w in g w e r e s t a t e d as the i n s t r u c t i o n s by the e x p e r i m e n t e r : "I am doing a s tu d y on r e c a l l of p e r s o n a l l y r e l e v a n t m e m o r i e s . I am going to show you a s e r i e s of p i c t u r e s . A ft e r e a c h p i c t u r e I want you to m ake one s t a t e m e n t in the f o r m of a s e n t e n c e that the p i c t u r e b r i n g s to y o u r m ind. P l e a s e do not m e r e l y d e s c r i b e the p i c t u r e s but r e a c t to th e m . I p r o b a b l y w ill not p a r t i c i p a t e too much in the c o n v e r s a tion s i n c e I am i n t e r e s t e d in l i s t e n i n g to you: But I m i g h t o c c a s i o n a l l y i n t e r r u p t to m a k e a r e m a r k . If you h a v e any q u e s t i o n s or if you d o n 't u n d e r s t a n d the ta s k , ask me now. " The i n s t r u c t i o n s w e r e r e p e a t e d and q u e s t i o n s w e r e a n s w e r e d upon S's r e q u e s t . D u r i n g the e x p e r i m e n t , h o w e v e r , the e x p e r i m e n t e r r e f u s e d a n s w e r i n g f u r t h e r q u e s t i o n s by sa y in g , "I c a n n o t give you i n f o r m a t i o n until the e x p e r i m e n t is o v e r . " A f t e r i n t r o d u c i n g h i m s e l f to the S, r e a d ing i n s t r u c t i o n s and a n s w e r i n g r e l e v a n t q u e s t i o n s , the e x p e r i m e n t e r p r e s e n t e d the p i c t u r e a l b u m . A t r i a l c o n s i s t e d of p r e s e n t a t i o n of a p h o t o g r a p h f o llo w e d by a b r i e f v e r b a l s t a t e m e n t by the S. W hile the s u b j e c t was r e s p o n d ing E d e c id e d w h e t h e r the s t a t e m e n t was an a f f e c t i v e s elf - ref e r enc e r e s p o n s e and r e i n f o r c e d i m m e d i a t e l y or not as p r e s c r i b e d by the e x p e r i m e n t a l d e s ig n . A lso, E r e c o r d e d the t r i a l by 28 p u s h i n g b u tto n A, a f f e c t i v e s elf - r ef e r enc e s by p u s h i n g b u tto n B, and r e i n f o r c e m e n t d e l i v e r y by p u s h i n g b u tto n C, thus c o m p i l i n g a c o m p l e t e r e c o r d of the da ta for each s u b j e c t . F i v e s e c o n d s a f t e r the c o m p l e t i o n of each s u b j e c t ' s r e a c t i o n to ea ch p i c t u r e , the e x p e r i m e n t e r t u r n e d the page p r e s e n t i n g the n e x t p h o t o g r a p h . The e x p e r i m e n t was divided into t h r e e p e r i o d s : the p r e - t r a i n i n g (block of t r i a l s 1, p i c t u r e s 1 - 1 0), a c q u i s i t i o n p e r i o d (block of t r i a l s 2, 3, and 4, p i c t u r e s 1 1 -4 0 ), and e x t i n c tion p e r i o d (block of t r i a l s 5, 6 , and 7, p i c t u r e s 4 1 -7 0 ). E ac h s u b j e c t w en t th r o u g h all the s t a g e s . The P r e - T r a i n i n g P e r i o d T h is p e r i o d , w hich is also l a b e l e d as o p e r a n t l e v e l in v e r b a l c o n d i t i o n i n g l i t e r a t u r e , r e f e r s to a p e r i o d d u r i n g which the e x p e r i m e n t e r does not i n t e r a c t with the S s . T h u s , Ss d u rin g the o p e r a n t l e v e l d e t e r m i n a t i o n s r e c e i v e d no r e i n f o r c e m e n t , but the b a s e t i m e r a t e of t h e i r p e r f o r m a n c e was r e c o r d e d . In the p r e t r a i n i n g p e r i o d , the e x p e r i m e n t e r p r e s e n t e d p i c t u r e s 1-10, r e c o r d e d S's r e s p o n s e , and av o id ed any b e h a v i o r tha t m ig h t be i n t e r p r e t e d 29 as r e i n f o r c e m e n t . T hus, he avoided eye con- j ta c t , s m i l e s or nodding of the head or o t h e r j ! m o v e m e n t s th a t m ig h t be c o n s i d e r e d r e i n f o r c i n g . ! i The A c q u i s i t i o n P e r i o d The a c q u i s i t i o n p e r i o d c o n s t i t u t e s block of t r i a l s 2, 3, and 4. D u ri n g the a c q u i s i t i o n ! i p e r i o d , the e x p e r i m e n t e r p r e s e n t e d p i c t u r e s j j 1 1 th r o u g h 4 0 , r e c o r d e d s u b j e c t ' s r e s p o n s e s j and s i m u l t a n e o u s l y r e i n f o r c e d s e If - r ef er r e d j a f f e c t i v e s t a t e m e n t s in the e x p e r i m e n t a l | g r o u p s only (the c o n t r o l g r o u p r e c e i v e d no j i r e i n f o r c e m e n t at all). The r e i n f o r c e m e n t con- ] t i n g e n c i e s w e r e v a r i e d for e a c h g ro u p in the j m a n n e r d e s c r i b e d e a r l i e r . I i The r e i n f o r c e m e n t for the r e f l e c t i o n I g r o u p s ( G ro u p s I and II) c o n s i s t e d of the ! e x p e r i m e n t e r ' s e m i t t a n c e of a p a r a p h r a s e of : a f f e c t i v e r e s p o n s e s c o n t a i n e d in the S 's s e l f - j r e f e r e n c e s t a t e m e n t s . R e i n f o r c e m e n t s w e r e ; d e l i v e r e d i m m e d i a t e l y and w e r e c o n t i n g e n t j upon the c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e c l a s s . In the r e - | f l e c t i v e g ro u p , as an e x a m p l e , if s u b j e c t had j r e m a r k e d , "I f eel a n g r y at the boy in the j p i c t u r e , " the e x p e r i m e n t e r would h av e s a id , | j "You f eel i r r i t a t e d at the boy in the p i c t u r e . 1 1 j 30 G ro u p s III and IV r e c e i v e d an i n t e r p r e t a t i v e s t a t e m e n t as a r e i n f o r c e r for t h e i r a f f e c t iv e s e l f - d i s c l o s u r e s . The n a t u r e of the i n t e r p r e t a t i v e s t a t e m e n t e m p l o y e d in the study was d e s c r i b e d e a r l i e r . In c o n t r a s t to _S _ s in G roups I and III, who r e c e i v e d r e i n f o r c e m e n t c o n t i n u ously (CRF),. _Ss in G roups II and IV w e r e r e i n f o r c e d i n t e r m i t t e n t l y (FR 2:1). In o th e r w o rd s , the e x p e r i m e n t e r r e i n f o r c e d e v e r y s e l f r e f e r e n c e r e s p o n s e in the g ro u p s I and III only, and e v e r y o th e r in G ro u p s II and IV. A fter the p r e s e n t a t i o n of the f o r t i e t h p i c t u r e , the l a s t p i c t u r e in block four (B^), the e x p e r i m e n t e r In fo rm e d the S that the f i r s t p o r t i o n of the e x p e r i m e n t is o v e r . He i n t r o duced each S to his a s s i s t a n t who was t r a i n e d to conduct the a w a r e n e s s i n t e r v i e w . The e x p e r i m e n t e r ' s a s s i s t a n t , who was an ad v a n c e d u n d e r g r a d u a t e stu d e n t, invited the s u b j e c t to the next r o o m and f u r n i s h e d them with the Q u e s t i o n n a i r e A. This q u e s t i o n n a i r e a p p e a r s in Appendix B. Upon the c o m p l e t i o n of the f o r m by S, the in terview er- r e - r e a d the i n f o r m a tio n f u r n i s h e d on the p o s t - c o n d i t i o n i n g i n t e r v i e w and added, on c e r t a i n o c c a s i o n s , a c l a r i f i c a t i o n for c e r t a i n q u e s t i o n s which w ere 31 m i s u n d e r s t o o d by S. He was i n s t r u c t e d not to ch a n g e any of the a n s w e r s f u r n i s h e d , but to add d e s c r i p t i v e a c c o u n t s b a s e d upon the S 's s t a t e m e n t th a t would c l a r i f y i n c o h e r e n t a n s w e r s . W hile the i n t e r v i e w e r was i n t e r v i e w i n g the p o s t c o n d i tio n e d Ss, the E a s k e d the next S to e n t e r into his r o o m , c l o s e d the do o r, and p r o c e e d e d with the i n i t i a t i o n of c o n d i t i o n i n g . By the tim e the c o n d i t i o n i n g of the n e x t S was f i n i s h e d , the f i r s t S was a s k e d to e n t e r into the E ' s office to c o n t in u e with the s e c o n d p o r t i o n of the e x p e r i m e n t . The E x t i n c t i o n P h a s e The f i r s t p o r t i o n of the e x p e r i m e n t w a s the p r e - t r a i n i n g and a c q u i s i t i o n p h a s e s t o g e t h e r with the po s t - c on d it ione d a w a r e n e s s i n t e r v i e w . The e x t i n c t i o n and the pos t - e x t i n c t i o n a w a r e n e s s i n t e r v i e w c o n s t i t u t e d the s e c o n d p o r t i o n of th is i n v e s t i g a t i o n . B e f o r e i n i t i a t i n g e x t i n c t i o n , the E i n s t r u c t e d each S tha t he w ill p r o c e e d as b e f o r e with p r e s e n t a t i o n of the p h o t o g r a p h s . D u r i n g e x t i n c t i o n , Ss c o n t in u e d to r e a c t to the p i c t u r e s as b e f o r e , but E r e f r a i n e d f r o m any b e h a v i o r that was r e i n f o r c i n g . All g r o u p s r e c e i v e d the s a m e t r e a t m e n t for e x t in c t io n , that is, r e i n f o r c e m e n t was w ith h e ld . Upon the c o m p l e t i o n of the e x t i n c t i o n p h a s e , E r e - i n t r o d u c e d the i n t e r v i e w e r who in v ite d S to his office as b e f o r e . The i n t e r v i e w e r r e q u e s te d that each S fill out the Q u e s t i o n n a i r e B. T his q u e s t i o n n a i r e , which a p p e a r s in Appendix B, was d es ig n e d to m e a s u r e S 's d e g r e e of a w a r e n e s s a f t e r the e x t i n c t i o n . Upon the c o m p l e t i o n of Q u e s t i o n n a i r e B by S, the i n t e r v i e w e r r e p e a t e d the q u e s t i o n s and e x a m in e d each S's r e a c t i o n . He, in so m e c a s e s , f u r n i s h ed a d d i tio n a l d e s c r i p t i v e a c c o u n t s of S 's r e a c t i o n s and c l a r i f i e d the m e a n in g of so m e i n c o h e r e n t s e n t e n c e s . Upon the c o m p l e t i o n of the p o s t - ext inc tion i n t e r v i e w , the i n t e r v i e w e r thanked _S for his p a r t i c i p a t i o n . Some Ss r e q u e s te d i n f o r m a t i o n about the p u r p o s e of the e x p e r i m e n t but the E did not r e v e a l the n a t u r e of the e x p e r i m e n t . He only f u r n i s h e d the s a m e i n f o r m a t i o n that was c o n t a in e d in the i n s t r u c tio n s . T hat is, he said that the e x p e r i m e n t was about m e m o r i e s and that the Ss' r e a c t i o n s and c o m m e n t s would help him u n d e r s t a n d l e a r n i n g p h e n o m e n a involved in a s s o c i a t i v e p r o c e s s e s . ................. 33 7 ' CHAPTER IV RESULTS In o r d e r to p ro v id e a m o re o r g a n i z e d and c o m p r e h e n s i v e p r e s e n t a t i o n of r e s u l t s , the f i n d i n g s of th is e x p e r i m e n t a r e o r g a n i z e d - and p r e s e n t e d in t h r e e a r e a s : 1. R esults pertaining to verbal conditioning 2. R esults-pertaining to extinction 3. R esults pertaining to aw areness interview s. R e s u l t s P e r t a i n i n g to V e r b a l O p e r a n t C o n d i t i o n i n g T a b le 3 p r o v i d e s m e a n s and s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s of a f f e c t i v e s e l f - r e f e r e n c e r e s p o n s e s i ] e m i t t e d by the e x p e r i m e n t a l and c o n t r o l g r o u p s ; d u r i n g the p r e - t r a i n i n g and the a c q u i s i t i o n j f p e r i o d s . T r i a l block 1 s u m m a r i z e s the m e a n j and s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n of ^ a f f e c t i v e s e l f r e f e r e n c e s of the groups d u r in g th e o p e r a n t | l e v e l (pre - a c q u i s i t i o n p e r i o d ) . T r i a l b l o c k s | t 2 , 3, and 4 (Bg, Bg, and B 4) p r o v i d e the j ! s u m m a r y of m e a n s and s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s of e x p e r i m e n t a l and c o n t r o l g r o u p s . T a b le 4 is the s u m m a r y of the main a n a l y s i s of v a r i a n c e of a f f e c t i v e s e l f - r e f e r e n c e TABLE 3 ' MEAN AND STANDARD DEVIATION OF SELF-REFERENCE RESPONSES IN PRE-TRAINING AND ACQUISITION PERIODS Pre training period Acquisition Period Trial Block 1 Trial Block 2 Trial Block 3 Trial Block 4 Groups Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Group 1 1.10 1.13 3.90 2.02 5.50 1.68 7.40 1.28 Group 2 1.80 .98 5.00 1.00 4.20 1.99 7.00 2.34 Group 3 1.70 1.10 3.10 .83 3.80 1.47 4.50 2.38 Group 4 1.40 .66 3.40 .92 4.90 1.37 4.70 1.10 Group 5 1.50 1.02 1.40 1.11 1.30 1.35 1.60 .92 35 TABLE 4 I SUMMARY OF 5X2 FACTORIAL ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE WITH REPEATED MEASURES FOR VERBAL OPERANT CONDITIONING OF AFFECTIVE SELF-REFERENCES EMITTED DURING THE ACQUISITION PERIOD sv df SS MS F Total 99 693.70 Between Subjects 49 215.31 A (Groups) 4 105.46 26.365 10.807** Subjects within 45 109.75 2.438 groups Within Subjects 50 478.49 B (Blocks) 1 313.29 313.29 277.24** AB (4) 114.06 28 .51 25.23** B X Subjects 45 51.14 1.13 within groups **p <.01 36 r e s p o n s e s d u rin g the a c q u i s i t i o n p e r i o d . The 5 x 2 f a c t o r i a l analysis of v a r i a n c e with r e p e a te d m e a s u r e s , of a c q u i s i t i o n p e r i o d s u m m a r i z e s t h r e e i m p o r t a n t r e s u l t s : a. The a n a l y s i s of b e t w e e n g r o u p s (main e ff e c t s ) i n d i c a t e s that a s i g n i f i c a n t difference e x i s t s b e t w e e n the e x p e r i m e n t a l and c o n t r o l g r o u p s . (p<T. 01) b. The a n a l y s i s of b lo c k s of t r i a l s (main e f f e c ts ) i n d i c a t e s a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e be tw e e n t r i a l b lo c k s in the a c q u i s i t i o n p e r i o d ( p < , 01). c. A s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n ( p c . 0 1 ) at B x A i n d i c a t e s that r e s p o n s e r a t e d u r i n g the f i r s t and the f o u r th b lo c k s of the a c q u i s i t i o n p e r i o d (blocks of t r i a l s 2 and 4) was a fu n ctio n of t r e a t m e n t v a r i a b l e s . To find out if s i g n i f i c a n t d if fe r e n c e s be tw e e n the g r o u p s . c a n be a t t r i b u t a b l e to i n i tial d i f f e r e n c e s in the r a t e of s e l f - r e f e r e n c e s d u r in g the p r e - t r a i n i n g p e r i o d , a s i m p l e a n a l y s i s of v a r i a n c e was p e r f o r m e d . T ab le 5 s u m m a r i z e s the r e s u l t s of this a n a l y s i s . T able 5 i n d i c a t e s no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e be tw e e n the e x p e r i m e n t a l and c o n t r o l g r o u p s at the pr e - ac qu i s it ion p e r i o d (F “ . 6 8 , df 4,45) Since the g r o u p s did not d if f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y at The o p e r a n t le v e l , s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s TABLE 5 SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF FREQUENCY OF SELF-REFERENCES EMITTED DURING OPERANT-LEVEL PERIOD Source df Sum of Squares Mean Squares F Between groups 4 3.0 .75 .68 Within groups 45 49.5 1.1 Total 49 52.5 38 o b t a i n e d in the 5 x 2 f a c t o r i a l a n a l y s i s a r e c o n f i r m e d to be due to t r e a t m e n t v a r i a b l e s . The n o n - s i g n i f i c a n t F at the p r e - t r a i n i n g le v el j u s t i f i e s the u se of a n a l y s i s of v a r i a n c e m ode l and i n d i c a t e s no nee d for a d j u s t m e n t of i n i t i a l group d i f f e r e n c e s th r o u g h a n a l y s i s of co- v a r i a n c e t e c h n i q u e s . F i g u r e 1 i l l u s t r a t e s g r a p h i c a l l y the v e r b a l o p e r a n t c o n d i t i o n i n g of s e l f - r ef e r e n c e s . As B lo c k four i n d i c a t e s , the h i g h e s t r a t e of c o n d i t i o n i n g was p r o d u c e d by Group I, in which s u b j e c t s w e r e r e i n f o r c e d on a c o n t in u o u s s c h e d u l e with r e f l e c t i o n 's as r e i n f o r c e m e n t . Group II, the gro u p c o n d i t i o n e d w ith r e f l e c t i v e s t a t e m e n t s d e l i v e r e d at a fixed r a t i o (FR 2:1), e x h i b i t e d the next h i g h e s t r a t e of c o n d i t i o n i n g . Group IV, in which s u b j e c t s w e r e c o n d i t i o n e d with i n t e r p r e t a t i v e s t a t e m e n t s u n d e r i n t e r m i t t e n t r e i n f o r c e m e n t , e m i t t e d h i g h e r s e l f r e f e r e n c e s than G ro u p III. In the l a t t e r gro u p , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s w e r e d e l i v e r e d on a c o n t in u o u s s c h e d u l e of r e i n f o r c e m e n t (CRF). The c o n t r o l group, Group V, did not show i n c r e a s e in s e l f r e f e r e n c e s in Block F o u r of a c q u i s i t i o n . To d e t e r m i n e if t h e r e w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t M EAN FREQUENCY O F AFFECTIVE SELF-REFERENCES 39 — 7 6 — 4 — 3 — re fle c t. 1:1 — re fle c t. 2:1 — in te rp . 2:1 — in terp . 1:1 -= ■ control " / I B l B 2 13 3- Blocks of T ria ls By Fig. 1. V erbal operant conditioning of affective se lf-re fe re n c e resp o n ses. 40 d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n g r o u p s at the l a s t block of a c q u i s i t i o n , an a n a l y s i s of v a r i a n c e was p e r f o r m e d on Block f o u r (B4 ). T a b le 6 p r o v id e s the s u m m a r y of this a n a l y s i s . The r e s u lt of a n a l y s i s of v a r i a n c e of s e l f - r e f e r e n c e s in Block four, c o n f i r m s the m ain f a c t o r i a l a n a l y s i s of v a r i a n c e r e s u l t s . An F value of 147. 14, with 4 and 45 d e g r e e s of f r e e d o m , i n d i c a t e s a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e be tw e e n the g r o u p s (p-<.01). In o r d e r to find w h e r e the s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e l i e s , N e w m a n - K e u l ' s m e thod (Winer, 1962) was ap p lie d to p o s t t r a i n i n g m e a n s of the l a s t block of a c q u i s i t i o n (B4). T ab le 7 s u m m a r i z e s the r e s u l t s of N e w m a n - K e u l 1 s m e thod. The a n a l y s i s of s t u - d e n t iz e d r a n g e Q s t a t i s t i c s i n d i c a t e d no s i g n i f ic a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n G ro u p s I and II. A s i m i l a r fin d in g was o b ta in ed for G ro u p s III and IV. H o w e v e r, all p o s s i b l e c o m b i n a t i o n s am ong o th e r g r o u p s d i f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y ( p c . 0 1 ) . The fin d in g s of N e w m a n - K e u l *s m e thod of a n a l y s i s is s u m m a r i z e d as fo llo w s: 1. All e x p e r i m e n t a l g ro u p s s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e d f r o m the c o n t r o l group. 2. G ro u p s r e i n f o r c e d by r e f l e c t i v e s t a t e m e n t s (Group I and Group II) s i g n i f i - 41 TABLE 6 SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF MEAN FREQUENCY OF SELF-REFERENCE RESPONSES EMITTED DURING THE BLOCK FOUR OF ACQUISITION Source df Sum of Squares Mean Square F Between groups 4 1453.4 363.35 147.1** Within groups 45 111.4 2.47 Total 49 1564.8 * *p < ^ .01 TABLE 7 i NEWMAN-KEUL'S METHOD FOR COMPARISON OF POST MEAN TREATMENT OF SELF-REFERENCE RESPONSES EMITTED DURING BLOCK FOUR OF ACQUISITION Truncated range r 2 3 4 5 (i) <5.99 (r,45) 3.82 4.37 4.70 4.93 <1.99 (r,45) Jn MS error 16.10 21.85 23.03 24.65 Groups Group Group Group Group Group 5 3 4 2 1 Group 5 — 29** 31** 54** 56** Group 3 — 2 25** 29** (ii) Group 4 — 23 27** Group 2 — 4 Group 1 — Groups9 Group Group Group Group Group (iii) 1 2 3 4 5 **P <.01 a Treatments underlined by a common line do not differ significantly from each other. c a n tly d i f f e r e d f r o m Group III in which Ss w e r e r e i n f o r c e d with i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s d e l i v e r e d on a c o n t i n u o u s s c h e d u l e (CRF). 3. G roups r e i n f o r c e d by r e f l e c t i o n s (Group I and II) e m i t t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y m o r e s e l f r e f e r e n c e r e s p o n s e s than Group IV in which Ss w e r e r e i n f o r c e d with i n t e r p r e t a tio n s e m i t t e d on (FR 2:1) schedule of r e inf or c e m e n t . A d d itio n a l s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s was p e r f o r m e d on the a c q u i s i t i o n of s e l f - r e f e r e n c e s in Block f o u r . T a b l e 8 p r o v i d e s a s u m m a r y of S c h e f f e ' s t e s t for m u l t i p l e c o m p a r i s o n of m e a n f r e q u e n c i e s of s e If - r e f e r enc e s e m i t t e d in the l a s t block of a c q u i s i t i o n ( B ^ ) . l S c h e f f e ' s • t e s t d e m o n s t r a t e s two m a in fin d in g s : 1. G ro u p s I and II s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e d from G ro u p s III and IV. 2. G roups I and III did not s i g n i f i c a n t l y d iffe r f r o m G r o u p s II and IV. S c h e f f e ' s t e s t c l e a r l y d e m o n s t r a t e s g r e a t e r e f f e c t i v e n e s s of g r o u p s r e i n f o r c e d with r e f l e c tio n s over t h o s e r e i n f o r c e d with i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s ( p c . 0 1 ) . F u r t h e r m o r e , S c h e f f e ' s a n a l y s i s i n d i c a t e s that g r o u p s r e i n f o r c e d with i n t e r m i t t e n t r e i n f o r c e m e n t (FR 2:1) did not d iffe r s i g n i f i c a n t l y ( p < . 0 1 ) f r o m g r o u p s r e i n f o r c e d c o n t i n u o u s ly (CRF). ^Sum m ary of Scheffe's method of sta tistic a l analysis is provided in se v eral so u rces (Edwards, 1961; W iner, 1962; M yers, 1966). 44 To d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r the s t a t i s t i c a l j f in d in g s in the l a s t b lo c k of a c q u i s i t i o n hold t r u e for the e n t i r e p e r i o d of l e a r n i n g , an a d d i tio n a l a n a l y s i s of v a r i a n c e was c a l c u l a t e d . i T a b le 9 p r o v i d e s the s u m m a r y of th is a n a l y s i s j t 1 of v a r i a n c e . As the t i t l e i n d i c a t e s , t o t a l | f r e q u e n c y of a f f e c t i v e s e l f - r e f e r e n c e s e m i t t e d ! i d u r in g the e n t i r e a c q u i s i t i o n p e r i o d was a n a - j lyzed s t a t i s t i c a l l y . A n a l y s i s of v a r i a n c e (Table 9) i n d i c a t e d s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s am ong g r o u p s d u r i n g the a c q u i s i t i o n p e r i o d (F= 2 2 .7 6 , df 4, 45, s i g n i f i c a n t at .01 le v e l) and a l lo w s f u r t h e r a n a l y s e s of the data by N e w m a n - K e u l and Scheffe m e th o d p r e s e n t e d in T a b le 10 and 1 1 . j The f i n d i n g s a r e s u m m a r i z e d as f o llo w s : | 1. N e w m a n - K e u l ' s m e th o d i n d i c a t e d that the j p e r f o r m a n c e of the e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p s | s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e d f r o m the c o n t r o l g ro u p d u r i n g the a c q u i s i t i o n p e r i o d . 2. D u r i n g the a c q u i s i t i o n p e r i o d , g r o u p s c o n - ; d i ti o n e d with r e f l e c t i o n s as r e i n f o r c e r s j (Group I and G roup XI) s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e d ; f r o m the g r o u p s r e i n f o r c e d with i n t e r p r e t a - ! tion in the to ta l f r e q u e n c y of s e l f - r ef e r ence s | they e m i t t e d . ! 3. S c h e f f e ' s m u l t i p l e c o m p a r i s o n c o n f i r m e d j that g r o u p s r e i n f o r c e d with r e f l e c t i o n s - i (G roups I and II) w e r e c o n s i s t e n t l y s u p e r i o r ! in the c o n d i t i o n i n g of a f f e c t i v e s e l f - ! r e f e r e n c e s than g r o u p s c o n d i t i o n e d with < i n t e r p r e t a t i v e s t a t e m e n t s as r e i n f o r c e r s . j 45 TABLE 8 SUMMARY OP SCHEFFE'S TEST FOR MULTIPLE COMPARISON OF MEAN FREQUENCY OF SELF-REFERENCE RESPONSES IN BLOCK FOUR OF THE ACQUISITION PHASE Comparison D2 Ai F p" Groups Groups 1 & 2 vs 3 & 4 Groups Groups 1 & 3 vs 2 & 4 2704 4 67.6 .1 27.3** .04 13.32 13.32 * * p < . 0 1 46 TABLE 9 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF TOTAL FREQUENCY OF AFFECTIVE SELF-REFERENT RESPONSES EMITTED DURING THE ACQUISITION PERIOD Source of Variation df Sum of Squares Mean Square F Between groups 4 1007.22 251.805 22.76** Within groups 45 498.00 11.06 Total 49 1505.22 **p < . 0 1 TABLE 10 SUMMARY OF NEWMAN-KEUL METHOD FOR POST COMPARISON AMONG TOTAL FREQUENCIES OF SELF REFERENCES EMITTED DURING THE ACQUISITION PERIOD Truncated range r 2 3 4 5 q . 95 (r,45) 2*85 3.43 3.78 4.03 q.95 (r,45) n MS error 16.10 21.85 23.00 24.65 Groups Group Group Group Group Group 5 3 4 2 1 Group 5 — 71* 87* 119* 125* Group 3 — 16 48* 54* Group 4 — 32 38 Group 2 — 6 Group 1 — Groups3 Group Group Group Group Group 5 3 4 2 1 * P <.05 a Treatments underlined by a common line do not differ significantly from each other. 48 TABLE 11 SUMMARY OF SCHEFFE'S TEST FOR MULTIPLE COMPARISONS AMONG MEAN TOTAL FREQUENCIES OF SELF-REFERENCES EMITTED DURING THE ACQUISITION PERIOD Comparison D2 F. f ' Groups Groups 1 & 2 vs 3 & 4 4 96 12.4* 10.32 Groups Groups 1 & 3 2 & 4 4 10 0.16 10.32 * P<.05 49 E v a l u a t i o n of the E x p e r i m e n t a l H y p o t h e s e s P e r t a i n i n g to the A c q u i s i t i o n P e r i o d 1. H y p o t h e s i s I . T h is h y p o t h e s i s was a c c e p t ed. The f in d in g i n d i c a t e d th a t j3s' e m i s sion of s e l f - r e f e r e n t a f f e c t i v e r e s p o n s e s was s i g n i f i c a n t l y a l t e r e d as a c o n s e q u e n c e of v e r b a l c o n d i t i o n i n g . i I 2. H y p o t h e s i s II is a lso s u p p o r t e d by the j d a ta . E x p e r i m e n t a l Ss e m i t t e d a s i g n i f i - i c a n tly h i g h e r f r e q u e n c y of s elf - r ef er r e d a f f e c t i v e s t a t e m e n t d u r i n g the a c q u i s i t i o n p e r i o d than did the c o n t r o l group. 3. H y p o t h e s i s III was not s u p p o r t e d by the d a t a . T h u s, Ss r e i n f o r c e d u n d e r i n t e r m i t t e n t r e i n f o r c e m e n t (FR 2:1) did not e m it a s i g n i f i c a n t l y l o w e r f r e q u e n c y of a f f e c t i v e s e l f - r ef er e n c e s than did the ; c o n t r o l group d u r in g the a c q u i s i t i o n p e r i o d . ; 4. H y p o t h e s i s IV p r e d i c t e d th a t Ss c o n d i t i o n e d j u n d e r c o n t i n u o u s s c h e d u l e of v e r b a l r e i n - : f o r c e m e n t would not d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y j f r o m each o t h e r r e g a r d l e s s of the type of | r e i n f o r c e m e n t d u r in g the a c q u i s i t i o n p e r i o d , j The d a t a did not s u p p o r t t h is e x p e r i m e n t a l ; h y p o t h e s i s . The r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e th a t ; g r o u p s (I and III) c o n d i t i o n e d u n d e r co n - ; tin u o u s s c h e d u l e of v e r b a l r e i n f o r c e m e n t | d i f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y f r o m each o t h e r d u r i n g the a c q u i s i t i o n p e r i o d . G roup I, j r e c e i v i n g r e f l e c t i o n s as r e i n f o r c e r , e m i t t e d ! s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r s elf - r ef er enc e s d u r i n g the a c q u i s i t i o n p e r i o d than G roup III which w as c o n d i t i o n e d with i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s as r einf or c er s . 5. H y p o t h e s i s V p r e d i c t e d no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n g r o u p s c o n d i tio n e d u n d e r an i n t e r m i t t e n t s c h e d u l e of r e i n f o r c e m e n t (FR- 2:1). The s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s c o n f i r m e d this h y p o t h e s i s . G r o u p s II and IV, c o n d i t i o n e d u n d e r a fixed r a t i o , did not d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y f r o m each o t h e r . ....................... . " 50 R e s u l t s P e rta in in g ' to E x tin c tio n of Affective S elf - Ref er enc e R e s p o n s e s T ab le 12 s u m m a r i z e s the t r e n d a n a l y s i s of the c o n t r o l group d u r in g the a c q u i s i t i o n and e x t i n c t i o n . An F of 0.35 (with 6 , 54, df) i n d i c a t e s no s i g n i f i c a n t gain in the p e r f o r m a n c e of the c o n t r o l group over the b lo c k s of tr ia l s . The r e s u l t of tr e n d a n a l y s i s c o n f i r m e d that the s e l f - r ef e r r ed a f f e c t iv e s t a t e m e n t s a c q u i r e d and e x t i n g u i s h e d in the e x p e r i m e n t a l g ro u p s w e r e not due to d i s c r i m i n a t i v e p r o p e r t i e s of p i c t o r i a l s t i m u l i as cues p r o v o k in g r e s p o n s e s . Thus, t r e n d a n a l y s i s j u s t i f i e s the use of p h o t o g r a p h s and i n d i c a t e s that p i c t u r e s used in this r e s e a r c h had no s i g n i f i c a n t effect on the a c q u i s i t i o n and e x t i n c t i o n of s e l f - r e f e r r e d a f fect s t a t e m e n t s . The m e a n and s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s of a f f e c t i v e s e l f - r e f e r e n c e s e m i t t e d d u r in g the e x t i n c t i o n p e r i o d is p r o v id e d in T able 13. The e x t i n c t i o n p e r i o d in v o lv e s block of t r i a l s 5, 6 , and 7. The g r a p h i c a l i l l u s t r a t i o n s of the f r e q u e n c i e s of a f f e c t i v e s elf - r ef e r e n c e s e m i t ted d u r in g the e x t in c t io n p e r i o d was p r e p a r e d as a f u n c tio n of t r i a l b lo c k s . As F i g u r e 2 i n d i c a t e s , the f r e q u e n c y of s e l f - r e f e r e n c e s 51 TABLE 12 TREND ANALYSIS OF MEAN FREQUENCY OF SELF-REFERENCE RESPONSES EMITTED BY THE CONTROL GROUP DURING THE ACQUISITION AND EXTINCTION PERIOD Source of Variation df Sum of Squares Mean Square F Blocks 6 0.75 .125 0.35 Subjects 9 61.15 6.79 S's x Blocks 54 19.25 Total 69 81.15 52 TABLE 13 MEAN AND STANDARD DEVIATION OF SELF- REFERENCE RESPONSES IN EXTINCTION PERIOD Extinction Period Trial Trial Trial Block 5 Block 6 Block 7 Groups Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Group 1 2.80 1.78 2.80 1.55 1.70 1.49 Group 2 3.90 1.22 3.50 1.36 2.10 1.37 Group 3 1.50 1.50 .90 .94 .70 .90 Group 4 2.60 1.62 2.20 1.40 1.10 1.14 Group 5 1.40 1.20 1.50 .67 1.30 1.10 53 d e c r e a s e d in e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p s o v e r b lo c k s of t r i a l s . The s u m m a r y of 5 x 2 f a c t o r i a l a n a l y s i s of v a r i a n c e w ith r e p e a t e d m e a s u r e s a p p e a r s in T a b le 14. The r e s u l t s of th is a n a l y s i s i n d i c a te d th a t s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t e d am ong * g r o u p s ' p e r f o r m a n c e s d u rin g the e x t i n c t i o n (F r^ 2 3 . 4 8 , d f 4 , 4 5 ) (o<=:. 01). The a n a l y s i s of m a in e f f e c t s for t r i a l b l o c k s of this m o d e l show ed a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e (F— 1 18.82, df 1, 45) b e t w e e n b l o c k s of t r i a l s d e s i g n e d for e x t i n c t i o n . S i g n i f i c a n t m a in e f f e c t s for g r o u p s ( p c . 0 1 ) c o n f i r m e d d i f f e r e n t i a l p e r f o r m a n c e s b e t w e e n g r o u p s d u r in g the e x t i n c t i o n . A s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n b l o c k s of t r i a l s and g r o u p s ( F —7 .5 8 , df 4,4 5 ) s u p p o r t e d the h y p o t h e s i s th a t e x t i n c t i o n of a f f e c t s e l f - r e f e r e n c e s at t r i a l b l o c k s {B4 , B 7) was the f u n c t i o n of the i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e . To check if the g r o u p s d i f f e r e d d u r in g the l a s t block of e x t i n c t i o n , a o n e - w a y a n a l y s i s of v a r i a n c e was p e r f o r m e d on the f r e q u e n c i e s of s e l f - r e f e r e n c e s e m i t t e d at the Block 7 of e x t i n c t i o n . A non - s ignifi cant F (df 4, 45) c o n f i r m e d th a t the e x p e r i m e n t a l M EAN FREQUENCY O F AFFECTIVE SELF-REFERENCES — 7 — 6 — 3 — 2 — 1 — reflec t. 1:1 — reflec t. 2:1 4— interp. 2:1 — interp. 1:1 =— control B4 B 5 B6 B7 Blocks of tria ls F ig. 2. Extinction of affective se lf- referen c e resp o n ses. 55 TABLE 14 SUMMARY OF 5X2 FACTORIAL ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE WITH REPEATED MEASURES FOR VERBAL OPERANT CONDITIONING OF AFFECTIVE—SELE^REFERENCES EMITTED DURING THE EXTINCTION PERIOD sv df SS MS F Total 99 747.59 Between Subjects 49 201.09 A (Groups) 4 143.14 35.785 28.34** Subjects within groups 45 57.95 1.287 Within Subjects 50 546.50 B (Blocks) 1 334.89 334.89 118.82** AB 4 85.06 21.265 7.56** B X Subjects within groups 45 126.55 2.81 **p <^.01 56 TABLE 15 SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF FREQUENCY OF SELF-REFERENCES EMITTED DURING THE LAST BLOCK OF EXTINCTION (B7) Source of Variance df Sum of Squares Mean Square F Between groups 4 11.68 2.92 1.76 Within groups 45 74.10 1.64 Total 49 85.78 757 g r o u p s did not d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y f r o m the c o n t r o l g r o u p . T h is a n a l y s i s i n c r e a s e d c o n f i d e n c e that e x t i n c t i o n took p la c e s u c c e s s fully as the r e s u l t of w it h h o l d i n g r e i n f o r c e m e nt. T a b le 16 s u m m a r i z e s an a n a l y s i s of v a r i a n c e on c o m b i n e d f r e q u e n c i e s of s e l f r e f e r e n c e s e m i t t e d d u r i n g the e x t i n c t i o n . A s i g n i f i c a n t F (df 4, 45;o<— .01) a f f i r m s that s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t e d b e t w e e n g r o u p s ' p e r f o r m a n c e s in the e x t i n c t i o n p e r i o d . H o w e v e r , s i n c e the d i f f e r e n c e s w e r e not due to g r o u p s ' p e r f o r m a n c e on Block 7 of e x t i n c t i o n , d i f f e r e n t i a l r a t e s of s e l f - r e f e r e n c e s d u r i n g the e x t i n c t i o n a p p e a r only in the B lo c k s 5 and 6 . T hus, d a t a in B l o c k s 5 and 6 of e x t i n c t i o n w e r e c o m b in e d in o r d e r to c o m p u t e a o n e - w a y a n a l y s i s of v a r i a n c e for a s s e s s i n g r e s i s t a n c e to extinc t i o n . A s u m m a r y of th is a n a l y s i s is r e p o r t e d in T a b le 17. A s i g n i f i c a n t F= 6 . 3 (df 3,3 9 ) i n d i c a t e d tha t a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e e x i s t e d am o n g the e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p s on the e m i s s i o n of affecvive s e l f - r e f e r e n c e s . It is i m p o r t a n t to note that the a n a l y s i s of v a r i a n c e r e p o r t e d in T a b le 17 c o m p a r e s only the e x p e r i m e n t a l 58 TABLE 16 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF COMBINED FREQUENCY OF AFFECTIVE SELF-REFERENT RESPONSES EMITTED DURING THE EXTINCTION PERIOD Source of Variation df Sum of Squares Mean Square F Between groups 4 258 64.5 5.7** Within groups 45 547 11.04 Total 1 — ................. ..... 1 49 805 * * p < \ 01 59 g r o u p s on t h e i r f r e q u e n c y of a f f e c t i v e s e l f r e f e r r e d s t a t e m e n t s . This c o m p a r i s o n s e e m e d j u s t i f i e d s in c e the e a r l i e r a n a l y s i s of the l a s t block of e x t i n c t i o n (Table 16) i n d ic a t e d s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n g r o u p s . H o w ev er, s i n c e the c o n t r o l group did not d e c r e a s e t h e i r r a t e of s e l f - r e f e r e n c e s s i g n i f i c a n t l y d u rin g the e x t i n c t i o n , any r e s i s t a n c e to e x tin c t io n m u s t be a t t r i b u t e d to our e x p e r i m e n t a l groups only. T ab le 17 c o n f i r m s that s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e e x i s t s am ong the e x p e r i m e n t a l gro u p s and j u s t i f i e s f u r t h e r a n a l y s e s of the data by m e a n s of N e w m a n - K e u l !s and S c h e f f e 's m e thod. T able 18 s u m m a r i z e s the r e s u l t s of New- m a n - K e u l ' s method for p o s t - c o m p a r is on among to ta l f r e q u e n c i e s of s e If - r e f er e nc e s e m i t t e d in B locks 5 and 6 of e x t in c t io n by the e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p s . The r e s u l t s of N e w m a n - K e u l 1 s a n a l y s i s i n d i c a t e s a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e be tw e e n Group III and Group I and Group II (p<=:.05). Group IV, h o w e v e r , did not d iffe r s i g n i f i c a n t l y fro m G ro u p s I and II. The r e s u l t s of N e w m a ii- K e u l's a n a l y s i s can be s u m m a r i z e d as fo llo w s:^ 1. The group r e i n f o r c e d with r e f l e c t i o n s 2The probability level set for the Newman-Keul analy sis was .05. 60 TABLE 17 SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF TOTAL FREQUENCIES OF SELF-REFERENCES EMITTED BY GROUPS DURING THE EXPERIMENTAL PHASE, BLOCKS FIVE AND SIX {B5, B6) OF THE EXTINCTION PERIOD Source of Variance df Sum of Squares Mean Square F Between groups 3 129.1 43.33 6.3** Within groups 36 246.8 6.8 Total 39 395.9 **p <.01 TABLE 18 I SUMMARY OF NEWMAN-KEUL METHOD FOR POST COMPARISON AMONG TOTAL FREQUENCIES OF SELF REFERENCES EMITTED DURING THE ACQUISITION PERIOD Truncated range r <3.95 (r,45) q.95 (r/45) n MS error 2 2.86 23.59 3 3.44 28.38 4 3.79 31.26 \ Groups Group Group Group Group 3 4 i 2 Group 3 — 24* 32* 50* Group 4 — 08 26 Group 1 — 18 Group 2 — Groupsa Group Group Group Group 3 4 1 2 *p <.05 a Groups underlined by a common line do not differ significantly from each other. 62 (Group 1 } on c o n t i n u o u s s c h e d u l e did not d if fe r s i g n i f i c a n t l y f r o m Group II r e i n f o r c e d with r e f l e c t i o n s i n t e r m i t t e n t l y on a fixed r a t i o (FR 2:1). 2. Group I r e i n f o r c e d with r e f l e c t i o n s on a c o n t i n u o u s s c h e d u l e did not d iffe r s i g n i f i c a n t l y f r o m G roup IV w h e r e _Ss r e c e i v e d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s on a fixed r a t i o (FR- 2:1). 3. G roup I r e i n f o r c e d with r e f l e c t i o n s on a c o n t i n u o u s s c h e d u l e e m i t t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y lo w e r s elf - r ef er enc e s d u r i n g the e x t i n c tion than G roup II w h e r e the s a m e r e i n f o r c e m e n t w as d e l i v e r e d i n t e r m i t t e n t l y on a fixed r a t i o (FR- 2 : 1). 4. Group II r e i n f o r c e d with r e f l e c t i o n s on an i n t e r m i t t e n t s c h e d u l e (FR 2 : 1) e m i t t e d a s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r s e l f - r e f e r e n c e s than Group III r e i n f o r c e d with i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s on a c o n t i n u o u s s c h e d u l e (CRF). 5. Group II r e i n f o r c e d with, r e f l e c t i o n s on an i n t e r m i t t e n t b a s i s (FR 2:1) did not d iffe r s i g n i f i c a n t l y f r o m Group IV w h e r e Ss r e c e iv e d in te rp h ? e ta tio n s on the s a m e s c h e d u l e (FR 2:1). 6 . Group III r e i n f o r c e d with i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s on a c o n t i n u o u s s c h e d u l e ( C R F ) e m i t t e d a s i g n i f i c a n t l y l o w e r f r e q u e n c y of a f f e c t i v e s elf - r ef er enc e s than G roup II w h e r e r e f l e c t i o n s d e l i v e r e d on a fixed r a t i o (FR 2:1) s e r v e d as a v e r b a l r e i n f o r c e r . T ab le 19 s u m m a r i z e s the r e s u l t s of S c h e f f e ' s t e s t f o r m u l t i p l e c o m p a r i s o n am ong m e a n s of s elf - r ef er en c e s e m i t t e d d u r in g the e x t i n c t i o n of B l o c k s 5 and 6 . Since S c h e f f e ' s t e s t is h ig h ly s t r i n g e n t , it is p e r m i s s i b l e to adopt a l s o the .1 l e v e l i n s t e a d of the c o n v e n tio n a l (p< . 0 5) r e g i o n s ( E d w a r d s , 1960). The c o n s e r v a t i s m of S ch effe r e q u i r e s a l a r g e r d i f f e r e n c e to i n d i c a t e s i g n i f i c a n c e . T h is , h o w e v e r , i n c r e a s e s the Type II e r r o r of TABLE 19 SUMMARY OF SCHEFFE'S TEST FOR MULTIPLE COMPARISON OF MEAN FREQUENCY OF SELF-REFERENCE RESPONSES EMITTED DURING THE BLOCKS FOUR AND FIVE OF EXTINCTION Comparison ^ • 2 £ai D2 Ai F f' Groups Groups 1 & 3 vs 2 & 4 4 176.4 44.35 6.68* 6.60 Groups Groups 1 & 2 vs 3 & 4 4 336.4 84.1 12.36** *P C i **p C 05 c x > w 64 m e a s u r e m e n t . T hus, in o r d e r to r e d u c e the Type II e r r o r , a p r o b a b i l i t y l e v e l .1 was a c c e p t e d for p o s t - c o m p a r i s o n am o n g G ro u p s I and III v e r s u s G r o u p s II and IV. S c h e f f e ' s r e s u l t i n d i c a t e s that d u r i n g the e x t i n c t i o n G r o u p s I and III, c o n d i t i o n e d on i n t e r m i t t e n t s c h e d u l e of r e i n f o r c e m e n t (FR 2 : 1), e m i t t e d a s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r r a t e of a f f e c t i v e s e l f r e f e r e n c e s than G ro u p s II and IV c o n d i t i o n e d on a c o n t in u o u s s c h e d u l e ( p < . 1). S c h e f f e ' s a n a l y s i s shows a lso that G r o u p s I and II c o n d i t i o n e d with r e f l e c t i o n s as a r e i n f o r c e r e m i t t e d a s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r f r e q u e n c y of s e l f - r e f e r e n c e r e s p o n s e s d u r i n g the e x t i n c tion. E v a l u a t i o n of E x p e r i m e n t a l H y p o t h e s e s P e r t a i n i n g to E x t i n c t i o n 1. H y p o t h e s i s VI was a c c e p t e d by the r e s u l t s . The m a in f a c t o r i a l a n a l y s i s c o n f i r m e d th a t S s ' e m i s s i o n of a f f e c t i v e s e l f - r e f e r e n c e w as s i g n i f i c a n t l y d e c r e a s e d as a c o n s e quence of e x t i n c t i o n . 2. H y p o t h e s i s VII was a l s o a c c e p t e d . The f a c t o r i a l a n a l y s i s and s u b s e q u e n t a n a l y s i s of v a r i a n c e for b l o c k s show ed that g r o u p s s u b j e c t e d to e x p e r i m e n t a l e x t i n c tion m a n i f e s t e d a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e in the f r e q u e n c y of a f f e c t i v e s e If - r ef e r enc e s they e m i t t e d . 3. H y p o t h e s i s V I I I was a c c e p t e d . R e s u l t s i n d i c a t e d th a t g r o u p s r e i n f o r c e d u n d e r 65 i n t e r m i t t e n t r e i n f o r c e m e n t s c h e d u l e (FR 2:1) e m i t t e d a h i g h e r f r e q u e n c y of a f f e c t i v e s e l f - r e f e r r e d r e s p o n s e s d u r i n g the e x t i n c tion. 4. H y p o t h e s i s IX p r e d i c t e d that g r o u p s of Ss r e i n f o r c e d u n d e r a c o n t i n u o u s s c h e d u l e of v e r b a l r e i n f o r c e m e n t would not m a n i f e s t s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s in r e s i s t a n c e to e x t i n c t i o n . The s t a t i s t i c a l r e s u l t s i n d i c a te d tha t G roup I, r e i n f o r c e d with r e f l e c t io n s (CRF), was s i g n i f i c a n t l y m o r e r e s i s ta n t to e x t i n c t i o n than G roup III w h e r e Ss w e r e c o n d i t i o n e d with i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s u n d e r the s a m e s c h e d u l e (CRF). 5. H y p o t h e s i s X p r e d i c t e d no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n the p e r f o r m a n c e of g r o u p s c o n d i t i o n e d with an i n t e r m i t t e n t r e i n f o r c e m e n t s c h e d u l e (FR 2:1). T h is h y p o t h e s i s w as c o n f i r m e d by the N e w m a n - K e u l m e th o d c o m p a r i n g G r o u p s II and IV. The s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s show s th a t g r o u p s r e c e i v i n g i n t e r m i t t e n t r e i n f o r c e m e n t d u r i n g c o n d i t i o n i n g did not d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y in t e r m s of r e s i s t a n c e to e x t i n c t i o n . R e s u l t s P e r t a i n i n g to A w a r e n e s s I n t e r v i e w s The a w a r e n e s s i n t e r v i e w s w e r e d e s i g n e d to i n v e s t i g a t e s o m e p a r a m e t e r s of S s ' a w a r e n e s s or r e l a t i v e a w a r e n e s s of the e x p e r i m e n t a l c o n t i n g e n c i e s . The i n t e r v i e w d a t a w e r e r a t e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y by two ju d g e s , who w e r e g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s in e d u c a t i o n a l p s y c h o l o g y . The two r a t e r s w e r e c o n s i d e r e d to be in a g r e e m e n t with r e s p e c t to a p a r t i c u l a r s u b j e c t if they both c l a s s i f i e d him as a w a r e or n o n - a w a r e on the f o llo w in g five c r i t e r i a : 1. A w a r e n e s s of the p u r p o s e of the e x p e r i m e n t . 2. A w a r e n e s s of the r e s p o n s e c l a s s c o n d i tio n e d . 3. A w a r e n e s s of e x i s t e n c e of r e i n f o r c e m e n t . 4. A w a r e n e s s of r e s p o n s e r e i n f o r c e m e n t c o n t i n g e n c y . 5. A w a r e n e s s of r e c a l l of c h a n g e s in b e h a v i o r . The p e r c e n t a g e of a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n r a t e r s w as 96% (48 out of 50_Ss). The q u e s t i o n n a i r e s of two _Ss fo r whom t h e r e was no c o n s e n s u s ( u n a n im i ty ) am o n g the r a t e r s w e r e s u b m i t t e d to a t h i r d r a t e r for e v a l u a t i o n . P r i o r to r a t i n g the i n t e r v i e w s , the judges w e r e t r a i n e d by the E to r a t e the i n t e r v i e w s . Each r a t e r p r a c t i c e d on s c o r i n g a w a r e n e s s q u e s t i o n s e m p l o y e d in the E ' s p r e v i o u s w o r k s on v e r b a l c o n d i t i o n i n g until a s a t i s f a c t o r y p r a c t i c e c r i t e r i o n w as e s t a b l i s h e d . E ac h judge had p r a c t i c e d s c o r i n g a m i n i m u m of ten v e r b a l c o n d i t i o n i n g i n t e r v i e w q u e s t i o n n a i r e s . A ppendix B p r o v i d e s a s a m p l e of Q u e s t i o n n a i r e A and Q u e s t i o n n a i r e B, Q u e s t i o n n a i r e A i n c l u d e d ten i t e m s and was d e s i g n e d to a s s e s s a w a r e n e s s fo llo w in g c o n d i t i o n i n g . T h is q u e s t i o n n a i r e was d e s i g n e d to m e a s u r e a w a r e n e s s a c c o r d i n g to the five c r i t e r i a m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r . Q u e s t i o n n a i r e B was a s h o r t e r v e r s i o n of Q u e s t i o n n a i r e A. It was 67 d e s i g n e d to m e a s u r e c h a n g e s in a w a r e n e s s fo llo w in g the e x t i n c t i o n . It in c lu d e d four q u e s t i o n s d e s i g n e d to m e a s u r e a w a r e n e s s of e x i s t e n c e of r e i n f o r c e m e n t and r e s p o n s e r e i n f o r c e m e n t c o n t i n g e n c i e s . T a b le 20 s u m m a r i z e s the r e s u l t s of both a w a r e n e s s i n t e r v i e w s for the e x p e r i m e n t a l and c o n t r o l g r o u p s . As T a b le 20 i n d i c a t e s , none of the Ss w e r e a w a r e of the p u r p o s e of the e x p e r i m e n t . To q u e s t i o n two which s t a t e d , "What did you think the p u r p o s e of the e x p e r i m e n t w a s ? " , none of the Ss a d v a n c e d an y t h in g which r e s e m b l e d the E ' s a c t u a l i n t e n t i o n s . S a m p l e s of t y p i c a l a n s w e r s of Ss to this q u e s t i o n w e r e : "I d o n 't know", "Could be to s e e the r e a c t i o n of d i f f e r e n t p e o p l e to s o m e p h o t o g r a p h s " , "To find out w hat th o u g h ts co m e to mind when you look at p i c t u r e s " , "To s e e how p e o p l e u n c o n s c i o u s l y a s s o c i a t e with c e r t a i n th in g s or p l a c e s or c o l o r s " , "To a s s o c i a t e p i c t u r e s with m e m o r i e s . " In r e g a r d to a w a r e n e s s of r e s p o n s e c l a s s m e a s u r e d by ite m four of p o s t - c o n d i t i o n i n g i n t e r v i e w , _Ss in the gro u p r e i n f o r c e d with r e f l e c t i o n s d e m o n s t r a t e d h i g h e r r a t e s of a w a r e n e s s . H o w e v e r, the m a j o r i t y of the Ss TABLE 20 SUMMARY OF AWARENESS INTERVIEWS IN THE EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS P re-E xtinction Aw areness Interview Post-Extinction Intermew Groups Awareness of the p u r pose of the experim ent Awareness of response class Aw areness of existence of rein fo rce m ent Awareness of response reinforcem ent contincrencv R ecall of behavior changed Awareness of existence of reinforce ment Awareness of response reinforcem ent contincrencv 1 0 4 8 0 2 2 0 2 0 2 7 1 3 2 0 3 0 3 6 0 4 0 0 4 0 1 7 0 3 3 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Total 0 10 28 1 12 7 0 0 1 CD j i i \ 69 w e r e u n a w a r e of the r e s p o n s e c l a s s . Out of the 40 .Ss in the e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p s only 10 Ss w e r e a w a r e of the r e s p o n s e c l a s s , w hile f o r the c o n t r o l g r o u p , Ss w e r e t o t a l l y u n a w a r e d u r in g both i n t e r v i e w s . As c o l u m n 3 of T a b le 20 i n d i c a t e s , the h i g h e s t r a t e of a w a r e n e s s was d e m o n s t r a t e d for the e x i s t e n c e of r e i n f o r c e m e n t . M ost of the Ss in the e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p s w e r e a w a r e of the e x p e r i m e n t e r ' s i n t e r v e n t i o n as r e v e a l e d on the p r e - e x t i n c t i o n i n t e r v i e w . F o r the e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p s the r a t i o of f r e q u e n c y of a w a r e to n o n - a w a r e was 2 8 -j-g-. It is i m p o r t a n t to n o t i c e that m o r e Ss w e r e a w a r e of e x i s t e n c e of r e i n f o r c e r s as m e a s u r e d on Q u e s t i o n n a i r e A ( i t e m s 5 and 6 ) than any o th e r a w a r e n e s s a s s e s s e d . Only one S d e m o n s t r a t e d a w a r e n e s s of r e s p o n s e - r e i n f o r c e m e n t c o n t i n g e n c y on the p r e - e x t i n c t i o n i n t e r v i e w (ite m 8 and 9, Q u e s t i o n n a i r e A). The m a j o r i t y of the _Ss, h o w e v e r , w e r e n o n - a w a r e of the r e s p o n s e - r e i n f o r c e m e n t c o n t i n g e n c y . R e s u l t s i n d i c a t e c l e a r l y th a t in v e r b a l c o n d i t i o n i n g of a f f e c t i v e s elf - r ef e r en c e s , when r e s p o n s e - r e i n f o r c e m e n t c o n t i n g e n c y is the c r i t e r i o n of a s s e s s i n g 70 a w a r e n e s s , Ss d e m o n s t r a t e a c o m p l e t e lack of a w a r e n e s s in the p o s t - c o n d i t i o n i n g i n t e r v ie w s . H o w e v e r , Ss m ig h t be c l a s s i f i e d as a w a r e if a l e s s s t r i n g e n t c r i t e r i o n of a w a r e n e s s w e r e adopted. In o r d e r to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r a r e l a t i o n ship e x i s t s b e t w e e n c o n d i tio n in g r a t e and S's d e g r e e of a w a r e n e s s , a l e s s s t r i n g e n t c r i t e r i o n was adopted. W ithin this f r a m e w o r k , a S was c o n s i d e r e d as a w a r e if he i d e n t i f i e d the r e s p o n s e c l a s s and the r e i n f o r c e m e n t w ithout s t a t i n g the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e s e two. Using the l a t t e r as the c r i t e r i o n only 10 Ss w e r e c l a s s i fied as a w a r e in the fo llo w in g f a s h io n : 4 f r o m Group I 2 f r o m G roup II 3 f r o m Group III 1 f r o m Group IV Since Ss in the e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p s d e m o n s t r a t e d d i f f e r e n t i a l r a t e s of c o n d i tio n in g in the a c q u i s i t i o n and e x t i n c t i o n p e r i o d s , ten n o n - a w a r e Ss w e r e c h o s e n r a n d o m l y f r o m the e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p s to m a tc h the a w a r e S s . T hus, 4 n o n - a w a r e Ss w e r e c h o s e n r a n d o m l y f r o m Group I, 2 f r o m Group II, 3 f r o m Group III, and 1 f r o m Group IV to r e p r e s e n t the non- a w a r e group. M EAN FREQUENCY O F AFFECTIVE SELF-REFERENCES 71 — 7 nonaware — 6 aw are - 5 - 4 - 3 B B B Blocks of T rials Fig. 3. Acquisition of affective self- referen ces for the aw are and non-aw are groups. M E A N FREQUENCY O F AFFECTIVE SELF-REFERENCES 72 ■non-aware -aw a re B B B, B Blocks of T ria ls Fig. 4. Extinction of se lf-re fe re n ce resp o n ses for the aw are and non-aw are groups. 73 T a b le 21 s u m m a r i z e s the m e a n and s t a n d a rd d e v i a t i o n s of the a w a r e and n o n - a w a r e g r o u p s for the p r e - t r a i n i n g , a c q u i s i t i o n , and i the e x t i n c t i o n p e r i o d s . F i g u r e s 3 and 4 p r o - | j v id e s g r a p h i c a l i l l u s t r a t i o n s of the p e r f o r m a n c e j i of a w a r e and n o n - a w a r e g r o u p s in the a c q u i s i - j tion and e x t i n c t i o n p e r i o d s , r e s p e c t i v e l y . S ince I no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e e x i s t e d b e t w e e n the a w a r e and n o n - a w a r e g r o u p s at the p r e - t r a i n i n g p e r i o d (F= 0 . 1 8 , df 1, 18), an a n a l y s i s of v a r i a n c e was p e r f o r m e d on the to t a l f r e q u e n c y j of s e l f - r e f e r e n c e s e m i t t e d by the two g r o u p s ! d u r i n g the a c q u i s i t i o n p e r i o d . T a b l e 22 p r o - j v id e s a s u m m a r y of th is a n a l y s i s . An i n s i g n i - | f ic a n t F (1, 18 df) i n d i c a t e s no r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n r a t e of c o n d i t i o n i n g and^S's a w a r e n e s s . i To d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r s i m i l a r fin d in g s hold f o r the e x t i n c t i o n of s elf - r ef e r enc e r e s - I j p o n s e s , an a d d i t i o n a l a n a l y s i s of v a r i a n c e was I I c o m p u t e d ( T a b le 23) c o m p a r i n g the a w a r e and | i n o n - a w a r e g r o u p s . The r e s u l t s of an F t e s t c o n f i r m e d th a t no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t e d in the e x t i n c t i o n r a t e s of a w a r e as c o n t r a s t e d i to the n o n - a w a r e group. F u r t h e r s p e c u l a t i o n • | led to a d d i t i o n a l s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s e s to c h e c k j w h e t h e r a w a r e n e s s le n t i t s e l f to c o n d i t i o n i n g . TABLE 21 MEAN AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF SELF REFERENCES EMITTED BY AWARE AND NON-AWARE GROUPS Pre training Acquisition Extinction Trial Block 1 Trial Block 2 Trial Block 3 Trial Block 4 Trial Block 5 Trial Block 6 Trial Block 7 Groups M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD Aware Group 1.8 .98 4.1 1.64 5.5 1.63 6.6 2.37 2.9 2.59 2.0 1.55 1.6 1.36 Non-aware Group 1.9 1.04 4.2 1.66 4.5 1.57 6.3 1.73 3.4 1.69 2.5 .97 1.3 1.00 "3 TABLE 22 ' SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF TOTAL FREQUENCY OF SELF-REFERENCES EMITTED BY THE AWARE AND NON-AWARE GROUPS DURING THE ACQUISITION PERIOD Source of variance df Sum of Squares Mean Squares F Between groups 1 7.2 7.2 0.56 Within groups 18 231.6 12.8 Total 19 238.8 76 If a w a r e n e s s , as an i m p l i c i t r e s p o n s e , is c o n d itio n e d o v er t r i a l s , it m u s t l o g i c a l l y be s u s c e p t i b l e to e x t i n c t i o n . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , s in c e the only S who was a w a r e of r e sp o n s e - r e inf or c e - m e n t c o n t i n g e n c y p r i o r to e x t i n c t i o n showed la c k of a w a r e n e s s d u r i n g e x t i n c t i o n , the data at hand w e r e not s u i t a b l e for a d e q u a t e s t a t i s t i c cal t r e a t m e n t . H o w e v e r , the r e s u l t s of a w a r e n e s s of r e i n f o r c e m e n t was a m e n a b l e to s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s . Of the 28 Ss who d e m o n s t r a t e d a w a r e n e s s of r e i n f o r c e m e n t in the e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p s , only 7 i n d i c a t e d th is a w a r e n e s s d u r in g the p o s t - e x t i n c t i o n i n t e r v i e w . To find out w h e t h e r the l a t t e r d i f f e r e n c e was s i g n i f i c a n t , a c h i - s q u a r e a n a l y s i s was p e r f o r m e d . T a b l e 24 s u m m a r i z e s the r e s u l t s of the c h i - s q u a r e a n a l y s i s of a w a r e n e s s of r e i n f o r c e m e n t in p r e - and p o s t - e x t i n c t i o n i n t e r v i e w s . The r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e that Ss in the p o s t - e x t i n c t i o n i n t e r v i e w w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y l e s s a w a r e of the r e i n f o r c e r than th o s e of the pr e - ex t inc t ion OC 12. 8, 1 df). T h is l a s t fin d in g gave s u p p o r t to the t h e o r i t i c a l p o s i t i o n tha t a w a r e n e s s can be s u b j e c t to e x t i n c t i o n . 77 TABLE 23 SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF TOTAL FREQUENCY OF SELF-REFERENCES EMITTED BY THE AWARE AND NON-AWARE GROUPS IN THE EXTINCTION PERIOD Source of variance df Sum of Squares Mean Squares F Between groups Within groups Total 1 18 19 3.15 292.35 295.5 3.15 16.24 0.19 78 TABLE 24 SUMMARY OF CHI SQUARE ANALYSIS OF AWARENESS OF REINFORCEMENT IN PRE- AND POST-EXTINCTION INTERVIEW FOR THE EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS Pre- extinc tion Post- extinc- tion fo fe fo f e Chi Square frequency of aware subjects 28 20 12 20 12.8** frequency of un aware subjects 12 20 28 20 **P<^.01 79 CHAPTER V DISCUSSION T h i s study has a t t e m p t e d to e v a l u a t e the e f f e c t s of E ' s c o m p l e x i n t e r v e n t i o n in c o n d i tio n in g of a f f e c t i v e s elf - r ef er enc e s . The r e s p o n s e c l a s s of s e If - r ef e r r e d a f f e c t i v e s t a t e m e n t s is a t h e r a p e u t i c a l l y r e l e v a n t v a r i a b l e . R o g e r s and Dymond (1954) r e p o r t e d v a r i o u s e x p e r i m e n t s in which they used a s e l f s o r t m e th o d . T h e s e i n v e s t i g a t o r s w e r e p r i m a rily . i n t e r e s t e d in the c h a n g e s of s e l f - c o n c e p t as a c o n s e q u e n c e of s u c c e s s f u l t h e r a p y . The g e n e r a l c o n c l u s i o n s of the R o g e r i a n s , h o w e v e r , was tha t s u c c e s s f u l t h e r a p y l e a d s to an i n c r e a s e d e m i t t a n c e of p o s i t i v e s e l f - r e f e r r e d ' s t a t e m e n t s . V e r b a l i z a t i o n of s e l f - r e f e r e n t n a t u r e a r e thought to m e d i a t e s e l f - c o n c e p t . The i m p o r t a n c e of s e l f - t h e o r y upon the p r o c e s s of p s y c h o t h e r a p y and c o u n s e l i n g has b e e n e l u c i d a t e d by n u m e r o u s p u b l i c a t i o n s in th is a r e a . The p r e v a l e n t a t t i t u d e s a m o n g many c o n v e n t i o n a l t h e r a p i s t s of R o g e r i a n f r a m e w o r k is tha t s e l f - c o n c e p t r e g u l a t e s b e h a v i o r and the 80 a w a r e n e s s of an a l t e r e d s e l f d u r i n g c o u n s e l i n g and t h e r a p y l e a d s to m o.dification of b e h a v i o r . If b e h a v i o r is m e d i a t e d by the s e l f - c o n c e p t , the r e v e r s e m ig h t a l s o be true. T h a t is, m o d i f i c a t i o n of b e h a v i o r may i n c r e a s e p o s i t i v e s e l f - c o n c e p t. When s e l f - c o n c e p t is t r a n s l a t e d into b e h a v i o r a l l a n g u a g e it b e c o m e s v e r b a l b e h a v i o r d e s c r i b i n g the a t t i t u d e of the i n d i v i d u a l . A p o s i t i v e s e l f - c o n c e p t is thus a s elf - r ef er r e d s t a t e m e n t in w hich the _S i n d i c a t e s a p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e or a t t r i b u t e s of p o s i t i v e q u a l i t i e s t o w a r d h i m s e l f . He may s t a t e , f o r e x a m p l e , "I u s u a l l y get along with p e o p le , " "I like my job, " "I enjoy w o r k i n g , " "I feel s a t i s f i e d b e i n g m e . " T h e s e s t a t e m e n t s a r e c l a s s i f i e d as p o s i t i v e s e l f - r ef e r e n c e s and c o n s t i t u t e s the v e r b a l b e h a v i o r of the c l i e n t . In r e i n f o r c e m e n t t h e o r y , h o w e v e r , v e r b a l b e h a v i o r is s u b j e c t to ch a n g e t h r o u g h s e l e c t i v e r e i n f o r c e m e n t a d m i n i s t e r e d by a n o t h e r p e r s o n . Both p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e s e l f - r e f e r e n c e s a r e c o n d i t i o n a b l e with v a r i e t y of v e r b a l r e i n f o r c e r s ( M e r b a u m , 196 3; Kahn, 1966; K r a s n e r , 1967; S a l z i n g e r , 1968). With few e x c e p t i o n s , r e s e a r c h in v e r b a l c o n d i t i o n i n g h a s n e g l e c t e d 81 the r o l e of c o m p le x r e i n f o r c e r s in the m o d i f i c a t i o n of s e l f - r e f e r e n c e r e s p o n s e s . S e l f r e f e r e n c e s t a t e m e n t s a r e s u b j e c t to m o d i f i c a tion th r o u g h s e l e c t i v e r e i n f o r c e m e n t by an E. One i m p l i c a t i o n or r e s u l t of the p r e s e n t study is tha t r e f l e c t i o n s , in o r d e r to be t h e r a p e u t i c a l l y a f f e c t i v e , m u s t be c o n t i n g e n t upon a d e s i g n a t e d r e s p o n s e c l a s s th a t is p r e - s e l e c t e d as a goal of c o u n s e l i n g . If c o u n s e l o r s and t h e r a p i s t s r e i n f o r c e n e g a t i v e s e l f - r e f e r e n c e s such as, " I ’ve t r i e d to do my h o m e w o r k but I c a n ' t " or "I ju s t c a n ' t get alo n g with p e o p l e " or "I am a f a i l u r e " the f r e q u e n c y of e m i s s i o n of t h e s e n e g a t i v e s t a t e m e n t s i n c r e a s e s . If the goal of c o u n s e l i n g is to i n c r e a s e p o s i t i v e s e l f - r e f e r e n c e s , r e f l e c t i o n s and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of the c o u n s e l o r m u s t be c o n t i n g e n t upon c l i e n t ' s e m i s s i o n of p o s i t i v e s e l f - r e f e r r e d s t a t e m e n t s . V e r b a l r e s p o n s e s such as, "I am a d e q u a t e , " "I am s a t i s f i e d with m y s e l f , " "I am o p t i m i s t i c , " "I u n d e r s t a n d m y s e l f , " "I am l i k e a b l e and s e l f - r e l i a n t " once r e i n f o r c e d lead to i n c r e a s e d f r e q u e n c y of p o s i t i v e s e l f - r e f e r e n c e s . C h a n g e s in p o s i t i v e s e l f - r e f e r e n c e s c o n d i t i o n e d by an 82 E have been d e m o n s t r a t e d to g e n e r a l i z e to s e l f - c o n c e p t as m e a s u r e d by Q - s o r t te ch n iq u e (Kahn, 1966). The r e s u l t s of the p r e s e n t stu d y s u p p o r t the f r u i t f u l n e s s of v e r b a l c o n d i t io n in g as a c o u n s e l i n g t e c h n i q u e and by t h e r a p e u t i c i n t e r v e n t i o n s as p o s i t i v e r e i n f o r c e m e n t . The r e s u l t s of th is e x p e r i m e n t a l s o j c l a r i f y c o n t r o v e r s i a l r e p o r t s of e a r l i e r w o rk s . ! As i n d i c a t e d e a r l i e r in the i n t r o d u c t i o n of this ! d i s s e r t a t i o n , A dam s and F r y e (1964) concluded that i n t e r p r e t a t i v e s t a t e m e n t s and m i n i m a l j j s o c i a l r e i n f o r c e m e n t i n c r e a s e d p e r s o n a l i r e f e r e n c e s . T h e i r r e s u l t s a lso showed that i i r e f l e c t i o n s and h o s t i l e s t a t e m e n t s a p p e a r e d j to d e c r e a s e s elf - r ef e r enc e s , T h is finding was j i u n s u p p o r t e d by the r e s u l t s of the p r e s e n t e x p e r i m e n t . The data s u p p o r t s the p o s i t i o n j | that r e f l e c t i o n s a r e p o w e r f u l r e i n f o r c e r s which j i not only i n c r e a s e the f r e q u e n c y of s e lf-r ef er en c e j r e s p o n s e s , but a l s o , when c o m p a r e d to i n t e r p r e - i i I t a t i o n s , w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y m o r e r e s i s t a n t to e x t i n c t i o n . The d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n the p r e s e n t j i stu d y and A dam s and F r y e ' s r e p o r t (1964) is j p r i m a r i l y due to the l e s s p r e c i s e m e th o d o lo g y ! j and e r r o n e o u s s t a t i s t i c a l t r e a t m e n t they em ployed. I .................".................... "......”.................... . 83 A d a m s and F r y e ' s a p p l i c a t i o n of L i n d q u i s t Type I a n a l y s i s of v a r i a n c e is an a p p r o p r i a t e d e s ig n for t h e i r data. H o w e v e r , by c o m b i n i n g t r i a l b lo c k s of c o n d i tio n in g and e x t i n c t i o n in d e s ig n , d i f f i c u l t y a r i s e s in i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e data. The a u t h o r s v i o l a t e d the a s s u m p t i o n of l i n e a r i t y of the F t e s t by c o m b i n i n g l e a r n i n g and e x t i n c t i o n data. S i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s in i the a c q u i s i t i o n t r i a l b lo c k s may c o n t r i b u t e to ! o v e r a l l F for t r i a l s w h e r e t h e r e is no d i f f e r - | ence in e x t i n c t i o n . The r e v e r s e is a l s o t r u e j in that s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s am ong the b l o c k s or g r o u p s d u r i n g e x t i n c t i o n m ig h t have c o n t r i b u te d to the o v e r a l l F e n c o m p a s s i n g both the j a c q u i s i t i o n and e x t i n c t i o n data. Since a c q u i - ; s i t i o n and e x t i n c t i o n a r e two i n d e p e n d e n t j p r o c e s s e s , the a u t h o r s w e r e not j u s t i f i e d to j c o m b in e b l o c k s . A p o in t of g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e I i j is that A dam s and F r y e r e p o r t as s i g n i f i c a n t j an F v a lu e of 2 .0 9 (df 3, 28). The F d i s t r i b ution t a b l e s r e p o r t e d in W i n e r (1962) i n d i c a t e s th a t in o r d e r for an F t e s t to be s i g n i f i c a n t at .05 le v e l, a v alue as l a r g e as 2.95 is r e q u i r e d (F, 3, 28 df at p < . 0 5 = 2. 95). Since A dam s and | F r y e ' s (1964) F v alue b ein g 2 .0 9 does not j 84 e x c e e d the d e s i g n a t e d F v a lu e r e q u i r e d for its s i g n i f i c a n c e , the r e s u l t s of t h e i r s t a t i s t i c a l w o rk is e r r o n e o u s . T hus, A dam s and F r y e ' s r e s u l t s s e e m to be w e a k e n e d t r e m e n d o u s l y by t h e i r i m p r o p e r d e s i g n and e r r o n e o u s s t a t i s t i cal t r e a t m e n t of the data. The f i n d i n g s of the p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h , h o w e v e r , s u p p o r t e d M e r b a u m ' s (1962, 19 65) c o n c l u s i o n th a t s i g n i f i c a n t v e r b a l c o n d i t i o n i n g can be a c h i e v e d with r e f l e c t i v e s t a t e m e n t s . The r e s u l t s , h o w e v e r , did not s u p p o r t the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n p r o p o s e d by M e r b a u m et al. (1965). A c c o r d i n g to th e m , the e x p e r i m e n t e r s e r v e s as a d i s c r i m i n a t i v e s t i m u l u s , s e t t i n g the o c c a s i o n j of e m i s s i o n for the p r e v i o u s l y r e i n f o r c e d v e r b a l b e h a v i o r . H o w e v e r , s i n c e g r o u p s r e i n - : f o r c e d i n t e r m i t t e n t l y (FR 2:1) w e r e m o r e r e s i s t a n t to e x t i n c t i o n , it is h ig h ly p r o b a b l e th a t j a f f e c t i v e s e l f - r e f e r e n c e s w e r e u n d e r the i n f l u - ; ence of e x p e r i m e n t e r ' s r e i n f o r c e m e n t r a t h e r j j than d i s c r i m i n a t i v e s t i m u l i of his r e i n f o r c e r s d u r i n g the c o n d i t i o n i n g p e r i o d . The r e s u l t s of this s tu d y c l e a r l y in d i- j | ca te th a t the type of r e i n f o r c e m e n t a d m i n i - s t e r e d d u r i n g c o n d i t i o n i n g s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n f l u - 85 e n c e s c o n d i t i o n i n g . R e f l e c t i v e s t a t e m e n t s a r e s u p e r i o r to i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s as r e i n f o r c e r s i n f l u e n c i n g the a c q u i s i t i o n and the e x t i n c t i o n of a f f e c t i v e self - r ef er en c e s . The w ork of F e s t e r and S k in n e r (1957) i n d i c a t e s that, u n d e r l a b o r a t o r y c o n d i t i o n s , c o n t i n u o u s r e i n f o r c e m e n t r e s u l t s in m o r e r a p i d a c q u i s i t i o n of r e s p o n s e , but once l e a r n e d , b e h a v i o r is m o r e s t a b l e and m o r e r e s i s t a n t to e x t i n c t i o n if it h a s b e e n a c q u i r e d on an i n t e r m i t t e n t s c h e d u l e . W a l t e r s and B ro w n (1963) found that a g ro u p of s e v e n - y e a r old boys r e i n f o r c e d for a g g r e s s i v e r e s p o n s e on a fixed r a t i o s c h e d u l e showed g r e a t e r p e r s i s t a n c e of the l e a r n e d r e s p o n s e s than the group r e i n f o r c e d on a c o n tin u o u s s c h e d u l e . C a d d ic k and S t e r n (1964), in the e x t i n c t i o n of _Ss c o n d i t i o n e d for the r e c a l l of e a r l y m e m o r i e s , found that th o s e r e i n f o r c e d on a fixed r a t i o s c h e d u l e e x p r e s s e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y m o r e m e m o r i e s than the c o n t i n u o u s ly r e i n f o r c e d g ro u p . The p r e s e n t fin d in g s c o n f i r m e d the e a r l i e r r e s e a r c h e s in r e g a r d to s c h e d u l e s of r e i n f o r c e m e n t . In g e n e r a l , a f f e c t i v e s e l f - r e f er e n c e s c o n d i t i o n e d with i n t e r m i t t e n t s c h e d u l e s w e r e m o r e r e s i s t a n t 86 to e x t i n c t i o n . H o w e v e r , when a m o r e c o m p le x i n t e r v e n t i o n is a p p l ie d as r e i n f o r c e m e n t of a f f e c t i v e s e l f - r e f e r e n c e , p e r f o r m a n c e s of g r o u p s c o n d i t i o n e d with i n t e r m i t t e n t s c h e d u l e s (FR 2:1) did not d if f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y f r o m g r o u p s c o n d i t i o n e d u n d e r c o n t i n u o u s s c h e d u l e s of r e i n f o r c e m e n t . The g e n e r a l i t y of th is f in d in g is l i m i t e d to the s c h e d u l e s and ty p e s of r e i n f o r c e m e n t ad o p ted and u s e d in th is stu d y . It is v e r y p o s s i b l e that, in v e r b a l o p e r a n t c o n d i tio n in g , a c q u i s i t i o n r a t e of the r e s p o n s e c l a s s d e p e n d s upon the type of s c h e d u l e s u s e d . F o r e x a m p l e , s c h e d u l e s su c h as F R 3:1, F R 4:1, m ay lead to d i f f e r e n t i a l r a t e of a c q u i s i t i o n than the FR 2:1 or the c o n t i n u o u s s c h e d u l e used in th is stu d y . Of c o u r s e , m o r e r e s e a r c h is n e e d e d in t h is a r e a to a s s e s s the r a t e of a c q u i s i t i o n u n d e r v a r i o u s i n t e r m i t t e n t r e i n f o r c e m e n t s o t h e r than F R 2:1. - • R e s i s t a n c e to e x t i n c t i o n of a f f e c t i v e s e l f - r e f e r e n c e s c o n d i t i o n e d i n t e r m i t t e n t l y is i n t e r p r e t e d in t e r m s of i n c e n t i v e v alu e of r e i n f o r c e m e n t . I n c e n t i v e s a r e f a c t o r s of g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e in d e t e r m i n i n g the p e r f o r m a n c e of an a c q u i r e d h a b i t (Hull, 1951; S pence, 87 1956). I n v e s t i g a t o r s s u c h as H ill, Cotton, & C lay to n (1962) and H ill & S p e a r (1962) have found th a t a l a r g e i n c e n t i v e p r o d u c e s f a s t e r h a b i t a c q u i s i t i o n and f a s t e r r e v e r s a l w hen the l a r g e i n c e n t i v e is a s s o c i a t e d with r e v e r s a l r a t h e r than o r i g i n a l h a b i t. M o r e o v e r , a l a r g e i n c e n t i v e is a l s o a s s o c i a t e d with the g r e a t e r r e s i s t a n c e to e x t i n c t i o n . T his is what h a p p e n s , when i n t e r m i t t e n t s c h e d u l e s of r e i n f o r c e m e n t (FR- 2:1) a r e used in r e w a r d i n g c l i e n t s ' s e l f r e f e r e n c e r e s p o n s e s . As c o m p a r e d to g r o u p s r e i n f o r c e d with c o n t i n u o u s s c h e d u l e s of r e i n f o r c e m e n t , Ss in g r o u p s c o n d i t i o n e d with F R 2:1 e m i t t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r s e l f r e f e r e n c e s d u r i n g the e x t i n c t i o n . This r e s i s ta n c e to e x t i n c t i o n is i n t e r p r e t e d in t e r m s of an i n c r e a s e in the s u b j e c t i v e v alu e of r e i n f o r c e m e n t when a d m i n i s t e r e d i n t e r m i t t e n t l y . Sub j e c t i v e ' s a t i a t i o n may r e d u c e the v alue and e f f e c t i v e n e s s of th a t i n c e n t i v e in in d u c in g c h a n g e . In this c o n n e c t i o n , C r e s p i (1942) r e p o r t e d that Ss ( r a t s ) who have been a c c u s to m e d to a l a r g e i n c e n t i v e and a r e s w i t c h e d to a s m a l l one, d r o p p e d t h e i r pe rf or m a n e e b el ow l e v e l th a t would have b e e n o b ta in e d had they 88 bee n r e c e i v i n g a s m a l l i n c e n t i v e all along. C r e s p i ' s f in d in g , plus o t h e r s i m i l a r r e s e a r c h in the s a m e line , point to the r e l a t i v i t y of m a g n i t u d e of r e w a r d in e f f e c t i n g p e r f o r m a n c e . The r e s u l t s of the p r e s e n t s tu d y s u p p o r t e d th is i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . Ss c o n d i tio n e d with r e f l e c t i v e s t a t e m e n t s which have high i n c e n t i v e v a lu e w e r e m o r e r e s i s t a n t to e x t i n c t i o n than th o s e c o n d i t i o n e d with i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . M o r e o v e r , Ss r e i n f o r c e d by r e f l e c t i o n s i n t e r m i t t e n t l y (FR 2:1) showed h i g h e s t r e s i s t a n c e to e x tin c t i o n . The a p p l i c a t i o n of the above r e s u l t s to c o u n s e l i n g and p s y c h o t h e r a p y s e e m s to s u g g e s t that it is b e s t th a t the t h e r a p i s t does not m e r e l y b e c o m e a r e f l e c t i n g m i r r o r of c l i e n t ' s a f f e c t i v e s e l f - r e f er e n c e s . C o n t in u o u s r e f l e c tive s t a t e m e n t s on the p a r t of t h e r a p i s t may le ad to the c l i e n t ' s e x p e c t a n c y of r e c e i v i n g u n c o n d i t i o n a l and c o n t i n u o u s r e w a r d . Once such r e i n f o r c e m e n t is t e r m i n a t e d , d e c r e m e n t s in s e l f - r e f e r e n c e a f f e c t i v e r e s p o n s e s o c c u r s r a p i d l y . S i m i l a r l y , G o l d s t e i n , H e l l e r and S e c h r e s t (1966) s u g g e s t e d that c l i e n t s be t r a i n e d to view the t h e r a p i s t "as a p o s i t i v e 89 but d i s c r i m i n a t i n g r e i n f o r c e r " a goal not s y n o n y m o u s with a t o t a l l y a c c e p t i n g a t t i t u d e . R e f l e c t i v e s t a t e m e n t s of t h e r a p i s t s on a c o n tin u o u s b a s i s i m p l i e s an u n c o n d i t i o n a l a c c e p ta n c e of the c l i e n t w hich is v i r t u a l l y i m p o s s i b l e as d e m o n s t r a t e d by T r u a x (196 5). Mild d i s a p p r o v a l , s i l e n c e , and n on - r e sp ons i ven e s s , on the o t h e r hand, when c o n c o m i t a n t with p o s i t i v e v e r b a l r e i n f o r c e m e n t , may e n h a n c e the t h e r a p e u t i c v a lu e of su c h r e i n f o r c e m e n t . F u t u r e r e s e a r c h e m p l o y i n g m ild d i s a p p r o v a l in c o m b i n a t i o n with r e f l e c t i o n s as r e i n f o r c e r s in v e r b a l c o n d i t i o n i n g and e x t i n c t i o n of s e l f r e f e r e n c e s a r e h ig h ly d e s i r a b l e . A n o th e r c o n c e i v a b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the r e s u l t s i n d i c a t i n g g r e a t e r e f f e c t i v e n e s s of r e f l e c t i o n s o v er i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is that the E 's r e f l e c t i o n s p r o v i d e d c u e s l e a d i n g to c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e c l a s s . W h e r e a s , Ss r e c e i v i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n fo c u s m o r e on the c o n t e n t of the E ' s r e s p o n s e s r a t h e r than t h e i r own a f f e c tive s e l f - d i s c l o s u r e s . If the above i n t e r p r e ta tio n is t r u e , it is expe_cted that Ss c o n d i tioned by r e f l e c t i v e s t a t e m e n t s will be m o r e a w a r e of r e s p o n s e c l a s s and Ss c o n d i tio n e d 90 with i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s m o r e a w a r e of the r e i n f o r c e m e n t . A c a r e f u l e x a m i n a t i o n of our a w a r e n e s s i n t e r v i e w (T a b le 20) i n d i c a t e s that 7 Ss c o n d i t i o n e d with r e f l e c t i o n in c o n t r a s t to 3 Ss c o n d i t i o n e d by i n t e r p r e t a t i o n d e m o n s t r a t e d a w a r e n e s s of r e s p o n s e c l a s s . H o w e v e r , the f r e q u e n c y of the Ss a w a r e of the p r e s e n c e of r e i n f o r c e m e n t w e r e eq u a l f o r both the r e f l e c t i o n and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n g r o u p . The e x a m i n a t i o n of the a w a r e n e s s i n t e r v i e w s u g g e s t e d tha t _Ss in g r o u p s r e i n f o r c e d with r e f l e c t i o n s r e v e a l e d a h i g h e r a w a r e n e s s of r e s p o n s e c l a s s as c o m p a r e d with the gro u p r e c e i v i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s as r e f l e c t i o n . Though th is d i f f e r e n c e ( c h i - s q u a r e df 1, 3 .2 , p < , 07) was s i g n i f i c a n t at 0 .7 le v e l, it is only e n d o r s e d as a t e n a t i v e h y p o t h e s i s tha t may have p o s s i b l e v a l u e in f u t u r e r e s e a r c h in v e r b a l c o n d i t i o n i n g d e a l i n g with the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the type of r e i n f o r c e m e n t and a w a r e n e s s . The c o n s t r u c t of a w a r e n e s s h a s been thought by s o m e i n v e s t i g a t o r s to be c r u c i a l to c o n d i t i o n i n g and m e d i a t e d c o g n i t i v e l y (Dunlay, 1961, 1962; Levin, 1961; M a t a r a z z o , S a s lo w & P a r e i s , 1960; S p i e l b e r g e r , 1962; S p i e l b e r g e r , L e v in & S h e p a r d , 1962; DeNike & S p i e l b e r g e r , 1963; S p i e l b e r g e r & DeNike, 1966). H o w e v e r , a s e c o n d g ro u p of r e s e a r c h e r s (Dixon & O akes, 1965; K a n f e r & M a r s t o n , 1961; K a n f e r & M c B r e a t h y , 1962; K r a s n e r , W e i s s & U llm a n , 1961; K r a s n e r & U llm a n , 1 963; E k m an , K r a s n e r & U llm a n , 1963; V e r p l a n c k , 1962) have r e p o r t e d th a t a w a r e n e s s as a d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e in the v e r b a l c o n d i t i o n i n g s i t u a t i o n could in i t s e l f be i n f l u e n c e d by r e i n f o r c e m e n t . The r e s u l t s of the p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n s u p p o r t the s e c o n d p o s i t i o n . Ss who w e r e a w a r e of r e i n f o r c e m e n t p r i o r to c o n d i t i o n i n g , r e v e a l e d a s i g n i f i c a n t la c k of a w a r e n e s s of e x i s t e n c e of r e i n f o r c e m e n t in p o s t - e x t i n c t i o n a w a r e n e s s i n t e r v i e w . The r e s u l t s s u p p o r t the p o s i t i o n th a t a w a r e n e s s is an " i m p l i c i t r e s p o n s e " th a t is s u b j e c t to both c o n d i t i o n i n g and e x t i n c t i o n . F u r t h e r m o r e , the r e s u l t s s u g g e s t no r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n a w a r e n e s s and the r a t e of v e r b a l c o n d i t i o n i n g both d u r i n g the a c q u i s i t i o n and e x t i n c t i o n . The r e s u l t s m ig h t have b e e n due to the s e t i n t r o d u c e d by the i n s t r u c t i o n s or the n a t u r e of the r e s p o n s e i t s e l f . As i n d i c a t e d e a r l i e r , the i n s t r u c t i o n s to the Ss 92 of th is study w e r e d e s i g n e d to be n e u t r a l and con v e y no i n f o r m a t i o n about the n a t u r e of r e s p o n s e c l a s s . The n e u t r a l i t y of i n s t r u c t i o n c o n d i tio n was violated by a g r e a t n u m b e r of r e s e a r c h e r s who, a c c o r d i n g to K r a s n e r (1967), s u g g e s t e d a w a r e n e s s by i n s t r u c t i o n s o f f e r e d to the Ss. It is l i k e l y , h o w e v e r , that by d i v e r t ing the p u r p o s e of the e x p e r i m e n t th r o u g h i n s t r u c t i o n we i n t r o d u c e d a s e t th a t i n f l u e n c e d r e s u l t s on the a w a r e n e s s of the p u r p o s e , s i n c e none of the _Ss w e r e a w a r e of the p u r p o s e of the stu d y . F u t u r e r e s e a r c h u s in g d i f f e r e n t i n s t r u c tio n s a r e to be h ig h ly e n c o u r a g e d in the a r e a of v e r b a l co n d itio n in g of s e l f - r e f e r e n c e s . T h e s e r e s e a r c h e s will c l a r i f y w h e t h e r n o n - a w a r e n e s s of our Ss as to the p u r p o s e of the e x p e r i m e n t was due to i n s t r u c t i o n s e t s or the r e s p o n s e c l a s s i t s e l f . CHAPTER- VI SUMMARY This stu d y i n v e s t i g a t e d the e f f e c t of i n t e r m i t t e n t and c o n t i n u o u s s c h e d u l e s of r e i n f o r c e m e n t a d m i n i s t e r e d with a m o r e c o m p l e x c o n t e n t i n t e r v e n t i o n in the v e r b a l c o n d i t i o n i n g of a f f e c t i v e s e l f - r e f e r e n c e s and t h e i r e x t i n c tion. M ore s p e c i f i c a l l y s t a t e d , the p u r p o s e s of the stu d y w e r e : 1. To d e t e r m i n e the r e l a t i v e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of two c l a s s e s of c o m p l e x r e i n f o r c e r s on a c q u i s i t i o n and e x t i n c t i o n of a f f e c t i v e s e l f - r e f e r e n c e r e s p o n s e s d u r i n g a q u a s i c o u n s e l i n g s t r u c t u r e d in te r v i e w . The two c l a s s e s of r e i n f o r c e r s tha t h av e bee n e m p l o y e d a r e : i n t e r p r e t a t i v e s t a t e m e n t s and r e f l e c t i v e s t a t e m e n t s . 2. To d e t e r m i n e the e f f e c t of c o n t i n u o u s (CRF) and i n t e r m i t t e n t (FR- 2:1) s c h e d u l e s of r e i n f o r c e m e n t on c o n d i t i o n i n g of a f f e c t i v e s e l f - r e f e r e n c e r e s p o n s e s . 3. To d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r the e f f e c t of i n t e r m i t t e n t r e i n f o r c e m e n t can be s t r e n g t h e n e d by c o m b i n i n g v e r b a l r e i n f o r c e m e n t with a p a t t e r n of r e w a r d . 4. To d e t e r m i n e the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n c o n d i t i o n i n g r a t e s and _Ss' d e g r e e of a w a r e - i n e s s of r e s p o n s e - r e i n f or c e m e n t c o n t i n g e n c y . Ss w e r e 50 s e n i o r s and j u n i o r s in high s c h o o l s e l e c t e d f r o m high s c h o o l s l o c a t e d in the s u b u r b of a l a r g e m e t r o p o l i t a n city . _Ss w e r e r a n d o m l y a s s i g n e d into five g r o u p s : 94 Group I r e c e i v e d r e f l e c t i v e s t a t e m e n t s as r e i n f o r c e r of a f f e c t iv e s e l f - r e f e r e n c e s un d e r a c o n tin u o u s s c h e d u le of r e i n f o r c e m e n t (CRF). Group II r e c e i v e d r e f l e c t i v e s t a t e m e n t s as r e i n f o r c e r of a f f e c t i v e s elf - r ef er en c es u n d e r a fixed r a t i o (FR 2:1). Group III r e c e i v e d i n t e r p r e t a t i v e s t a t e m e n ts as a r e i n f o r c e r of a f f e c t i v e s e l f r e f e r e n c e s u n d e r a co n tin u o u s s c h e d u l e of r e i n f o r c e m e n t (CRF). Group IV r e c e i v e d i n t e r p r e t a t i v e s t a t e m e n t s as r e i n f o r c e r of a f f e c t i v e s e l f r e f e r e n c e s u n d e r a fixed r a t i o (FR 2:1). Group V , the c o n t r o l group, r e c e i v e d no r e i n f o r c e m e n t for the c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e c l a s s . Ss w e r e i n t e r v i e w e d in d i v i d u a l l y by an E who p e r f o r m e d the c o n d i tio n in g and e x t in c tio n and his a s s i s t a n t who c o n d u c te d the a w a r e n e s s i n t e r v i e w s . S eventy p i c t u r e s w e r e p r e s e n t e d to each S and t h e i r v e r b a l r e a c t i o n s w e r e coded. The s elf - r ef er r e d a f f e c t iv e s t a t e m e n t s e m i t t e d by the e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p s w e r e r e i n f o r c e d v e r b a l l y in the m a n n e r p r e s c r i b e d . A w a r e n e s s i n t e r v i e w s w e r e given p r i o r to and s u b s e q u e n t to e x t i n c t i o n . F a c t o r i a l d es ig n of a n a l y s i s of v a r i a n c e was p e r f o r m e d on b lo c k s of l e a r n i n g t r i a l s and e x tin c tio n . P o s t - c o m p a r i s o n am ong t r e a t m e n t m e th o d s was done using N e w m a n - K e u l and S c h e f f e 's m e thod. The r e s u l t s of the o p e r a n t 95 c o n d i t i o n i n g of s elf - r ef er enc e s w e r e as f o llo w s : 1. G r o u p s r e i n f o r c e d with r e f l e c t i v e s t a t e m e n t s d e m o n s t r a t e d a s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r r a t e of c o n d i t i o n i n g than g r o u p s r e i n f o r c e d with i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s ( p < . 05). 2. S c h e d u l e s of r e i n f o r c e m e n t d e m o n s t r a t e d no s i g n i f i c a n t a f f e c t on the r a t e of a c q u i s i t i o n with the type of r e i n f o r c e m e n t a p p l i e d in t h is s tu d y ( p < . 05), 3. G ro u p s r e i n f o r c e d with r e f l e c t i v e s t a t e m e n t s d e m o n s t r a t e d a s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r r e s i s t a n c e to e x t i n c t i o n as c o m p a r e d with the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n g r o u p s ( p -c . 05). ■ 4. G ro u p s r e in f o r c e d i n t e r m i t t e n t l y u n d e r a fixed r a t i o of v e r b a l r e i n f o r c e m e n t (FR- 2:1) w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y m o r e r e s i s t a n t to e x t i n c tion than g r o u p s c o n d i t i o n e d with c o n t i n u o u s s c h e d u l e s (p<=c.05). 5. C o n d i t i o n i n g r a t e was i n d e p e n d e n t of d e g r e e of a w a r e n e s s (p -= ^ .0 5 ). The r e s u l t s of th is s tu d y w e r e d i s c u s s e d in t e r m s of i n c e n t i v e v a l u e of v e r b a l r e i n f o r c e r s , t h e o r i e s of a w a r e n e s s , and p o s s i b l e i m p l i c a t i o n f o r f u t u r e r e s e a r c h . T h e r e was so m e i n d i c a t i o n th a t a w a r e n e s s of r e i n f o r c e m e n t is s u b j e c t to e x p e r i m e n t a l e x t i n c t i o n . T h e r a p e u t i c t e c h n i q u e s such as i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s and r e f l e c t i o n s w e r e e v a l u a t e d in t e r m s of l e a r n i n g t h e o r y m o d e l. A p p l i c a t i o n of i n t e r m i t t e n t r e i n f o r c e m e n t s in c h a n g in g the co u n - s e l e e ' s a f f e c t i v e s e l f - r e f e r e n c e s was s u p p o r t e d . A PP E N D IG ES AP PENDIX F O R M A D ear P aren ts: The South Bay Union High School D istric t in coopera tion with M r. Hamid Hekm at, a doctoral student at the U niversity of Southern C alifornia, is doing a study on asso ciative p ro c esses and m em ory in the field of learning abili ties. has been selected by his counselor as a candidate to help us in this valuable pro ject. The study w ill involve about one hour of tim e during a reg u lar school day. We feel that this re s e a rc h study w ill contribute much toward the understanding of basic learning phenom ena and its relationship to m ore efficient counseling interview s. We w ill deeply appreciate your cooperation in con senting fo r to p articip ate in this pro ject. If you w ill give us your consent, please sign in the space provided b elow. Thank you v ery much for your consideration of this m atter. Y es, I give my p erm issio n f o r ____________________________ to p articip ate in this re s e a rc h study. Signature of parent o r guardian (P lease have your child re tu rn this form to his c o u n se lo r.) Filmed as received without page(s) 99 UNIVERSITY MICROFILMS. 100 1 . 2 . 3. 4. 5 . 6 . 7 . 8 . 9. 1 0 . QUESTIONNAIRE A Did you u s u a l l y give the f i r s t s e n t e n c e that c a m e to y o u r m i n d ? y e s no____ What did you think the p u r p o s e of the e x p e r i m e n t w a s ? ___________________________ Did you n o tic e any change in the kind of s e n t e n c e s you w e r e s a y i n g ? y e s no____ While going th r o u g h the p i c t u r e s did you think you w e r e s u p p o s e d to m ake your s e n t e n c e s in any p a r t i c u l a r w a y ? y e s ____ no If yes, in what w a y ? __________________ Did you no tic e a n y th in g about the e x p e r i m e n t e r while going th r o u g h the c a r d s ? y e s no____ Did a nything he said have a n y th in g to -do with what or how you r e s p o n d e d while you went th r o u g h the p i c t u r e s ? y e s ____ no If yes, w h a t ? __________________________ What did the e x p e r i m e n t e r ' s c o m m e n t s m e an to yo u ? ________________________________ Did you think that t h e r e was any s p e c i a l p u r p o s e in his c o m m e n t i n g to yo u r r e s p o n s e s ? y e s no____ If yes, when the ide a c a m e to you, w e r e you a w a r e of its i n f lu e n c e in y o u r r e a c t i o n s to l a t e r p i c t u r e s ? y e s no____ If yes, what in f lu e n c e or e f fect did it have ? Did you try in any way to m ake him give m o r e c o m m e n t s to y ou? y e s no____ How much did you want him to make c o m m e n t s to y o u ? _ _________ _____________ 101 QUESTIONNAIRE B 1. Did you n o t i c e any ch a n g e d u r i n g the s e c o n d p o r t i o n of the e x p e r i m e n t ? y e s n o ____ 2. If so, what did it m e a n to y o u ? _______ 3. W hat e f f e c t s in y o u r s e n t e n c e s , if any, did th is ch a n g e h a v e ? ___________________ 4. Did you at any t i m e in the e x p e r i m e n t get the id e a th a t the e x p e r i m e n t e r was c o m m e n t i n g for s e n t e n c e s tha t had to do with y o u r s e l f or y o u r p a s t life or p e r s o n a l i t y ? y e s n o ____ A PP E N D IX C SUMMARY OF DATA OF V E R B A L CONDITIONING AND EXTINCTION OF SUB JEC TS IN GROUPS I, II, I I I , IV , V SUMMARY OF DATA OF VERBAL CONDITIONING AND EXTINCTION OF SUBJECTS IN GROUP I REFLECTION 1 :1 Subjects Age Sex Block 1 Block 2 Block 3 Block 4 Block 5 Block 6 Block 7 1 16 M 0 3 4 8 3 2 1 2 17 M 0 2 2 6 0 2 0 3 17 F 0 6 6 6 5 1 2 4* 17 F 3 5 6 10 5 3 4 5* 16 M 0 6 7 8 4 V 5 4 6 17 M i 1 6 6 6 2 4 3 7* 17 M 1 1 8 9 1 4 0 8* 17 M 2 6 7 7 2 1 1 9 17 M 1 1 4 7 1 1 0 10 17 M 3 3 5 7 5 5 2 o * Aware SUMMARY OF DATA OF VERBAL CONDITIONING AND EXTINCTION OF SUBJECTS IN GROUP I I REFLECTION 2 : 1 Subjects Age Sex Blotk 1 Block 2 Block 3 Block 4 Block 5 Block 6 Block 7 1* 16 F 3 6 3 9 1 0 1 2 17 F 2 6 8 9 5 6 5 3 17 F 3 6 2 6 5 1 3 4 16 M 2 6 2 7 4 3 1 5 17 F 1 4 6 5 3 3 1 6 17 M 3 5 5 7 5 3 2 7 17 F 1 5 3 7 3 3 1 8 17 M 2 3 2 5 4 7 4 9 17 M 0 5 6 8 4 4 1 10* 17 M 1 4 5 7 5 5 2 * Kware 104 SUMMARY OF DATA OF VERBAL CONDITIONING AND EXTINCTION OF SUBJECTS IN GROUP I I I INTERPRETATION 1 :1 Subjects Age Sex Block 1 Block 2 Block 3 Block 4 Block 5 Block 6 Block 7 1* 16 F 2 2 4 5 0 1 2 2 17 F 2 2 2 2 0 0 0 3 16 M 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 4 16 F 3 3 4 10 3 1 0 5 17 M 2 4 3 6 0 0 0 6 16 F 3 4 4 5 4 3 2 7 16 M l 1 4 2 3 1 0 0 8* 17 F 3 4 6 5 3 1 1 9* 18 F 1 3 6 3 1 1 0 10 17 M 0 3 5 5 3 2 2 * Aware SUMMARY OF DATA OF VERBAL CONDITIONING AND EXTINCTION OF SUBJECTS IN GROUP IV INTERPRETATION 2 : 1 Subjects Age Sex Block 1 Block 2 Block 3 Block 4 Block 5 Block 6 Block 7 1 17 F 1 5 3 3 1 0 0 2 17 F 2 3 5 5 1 2 2 3 18 M 1 2 5 5 0 4 0 4 17 M 1 5 4 5 3 2 0 5 16 F 1 3 7 7 6 1 1 6 17 F 3 3 7 5 4 5 4 7* 16 M 2 4 3 3 2 3 1 8 17 M 1 3 4 4 3 2 1 9 16 F 1 - 3 5 5 3 2 1 10 17 M 1 3 6 5 3 1 1 * A w are SUMMARY OF DATA OF VERBAL CONDITIONING AND EXTINCTION OF SUBJECTS IN GROUP V , CONTROL Subjects Age Sex Block 1 Block 2 Block 3 Block 4 Block 5 Block 6 Block 7 1 17 F 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 2 1 8 F 1 1 2 1 1 2 0 3 17 F 2 1 0 1 0 1 1 4 17 M 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 5 17 : M 4 4 5 4 4 3 4 6 17 F 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 7 17 F 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 8 17 F 1 2 1 2 2 1 1 9 16 M 2 1 1 2 2 2 1 10 17 M 1 0 1 1 2 1 2 A PP E N D IX D F U R T H E R REVIEW OF VERBAL CONDITIONING STUDIES 109 FURTHER' REVIEW OF VERBAL CONDITIONING STUDIES T h r o u g h the i m p e t u s of G r e e n s p o o n ' s p i o n e e r i n g s tu d y of v e r b a l c o n d i tio n in g , r e s e a r c h e r s have a t t e m p t e d to i s o l a t e and study m any of its p a r a m e t e r s . As a r e s u l t , a wide v a r i e t y of v e r b a l b e h a v i o r h as bee n shown to be m o d if y a b l e by v e r b a l r e i n f o r c e m e n t . P l u r a l nouns ( G r e e n s p o o n , 1951; M a n d l e r , 1956), p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s (Adams et al. , 1962a, 1962b; Noblin, T i m m o n s and R e y n a r d , 1963; T i m m o n s and Hoffman, 1960; R o g e r s , 1960; Dinoff, 1960; ; M a rlo w e , 196 2; P h e l a n , H e k m a t and Tang, 1967), | gro u p r e f e r e n t r e s p o n s e s (Dinoff, 1960), hum a n j r e s p o n s e s ( M a t a r a z z o , S aslow and P a r e i s , 1 9 6 0 ),: i r e s p o n s e s to p e r s o n a l i t y i n v e n t o r i e s (Nuttm an, J I 1957), s t a t e m e n t s of a t t i t u d e and opinion j (Hildum a-nd Brown, 1956; K r a s n e r , U llm a n and | F i s h e r , 1966; V e r p l a n c k , 1955), co m m o n word a s s o c i a t i o n s ( S o m m e r , W itney and Osmond,-- - 1962; U llm a n, K r a s n e r , and E d i n g e r , 1964), I et a l . , 1964), s e l f - r e f e r r e d s t a t e m e n t s (Adams ! a m o u n t of s p e e c h (Kanfer, 1960; S a l z i n g e r et al.,j 110 1964), d e c i s i o n and d e l i b e r a t e r e s p o n s e s (Ryan and K r u m b o l t z , 1964), e a r l y m e m o r i e s ( C r a d - dick and Stern, 1964; Quay, 1959), e m o t i o n a l w o rd s ( K r a s n e r , et a l . , 1961), h o s t i l e v e r b s (B inde r, M c C onnell and Sjoholm , 1957; Buss and D u rk e e , 1958), p l e a s a n t w o rd s (Ullm an, K r a s n e r and S h e r m a n , 1963), s e l f - r e f e r r e d a f f e c t iv e s t a t e m e n t s ( M e r b a u m , 1963; M e r b a u m and Southwell, 1965; S a l z i n g e r and P i s o n i , 1958, 1960, 1961, 1964). S e v e r a l s u c c e s s f u l r e v i e w s of the above l i t e r a t u r e is p r o v i d e d e l s e w h e r e ( K r a s n e r , 1-958; K r a s n e r , 1967; F o w l e r , 1964; S a l z i n g e r , 1967; A z r in and Holtz, 1965) and s h a l l not be r e p e a t e d for this p u r p o s e . H o w e v e r, sin c e t h e r e v i e w of p e r t i n e n t s t u d i e s have a p p e a r e d in the i n t r o d u c t i o n c h a p t e r of this d i s s e r t a t i o n , the w r i t e r devoted this c h a p t e r to the r e v i e w of s e l e c t e d l i t e r a t u r e p e r t a i n i n g to the p r o b l e m s invoking the ta sk of this study, and the c o n cept of a w a r e n e s s as it r e l a t e s to v e r b a l o p e r ant c o n d itio n in g of s elf - r e f e r enc e r e s p o n s e s . A C ritical Review of L ite ratu re of V erbal Conditioning of Self-R eferences In this c h a p t e r , the a u t h o r w i s h e s to d i s - I l l c u s s so m e of the t e c h n i c a l p r o b l e m s involved in v e r b a l o p e r a n t c o n d itio n in g r e s e a r c h in o r d e r to c l a r i f y p o t e n t i a l i t i e s and l i m i t a t i o n s of the p r e s e n t study. P roblem Involved With The V erbal j Conditioning Task j The m a j o r d if f i c u lt y involved in v e r b a l j I c o n d i tio n in g is the s e l e c t i o n of a ta s k . I n v e s - j j t i g a t i o n s have u s u a lly u se d two d i f f e r e n t ta s k i j s i t u a t i o n s . T h e r e is f i r s t the l i m i t e d ch o ic e j I ta s k which l i m i t s the r e s p o n s e c h o i c e s of the | Ss (Taffel, 1955). A c c o r d i n g to K r a s n e r (1966)' j th is T a f f e l - t y p e ta s k h as b e c o m e the m o s t p o p u l a r v e r b a l o p e r a n t c o n d i tio n in g te c h n iq u e p r i m a r i l y b e c a u s e of its l i m i t e d n u m b e r of p o s s i b le ! r e s p o n s e s and c o n s e q u e n t e a s e of s c o r i n g . It sh o u ld be noted p a r t i c u l a r l y that m o s t p r e v i o u s I s t u d i e s of i n t e r p r e t a t i v e s t a t e m e n t s have used , s o m e v a r i a t i o n of T affe l t e c h n i q u e s in which _Ss a r e given a c a r d with six p r o n o u n s and the S is | a s k e d to s e l e c t a p ro n o u n and use it with a i s e n t e n c e f r a g m e n t . It is a p p a r e n t tha t this is an a r t i f i c i a l s i t u a t i o n , n e v e r t h e l e s s , it has b e e n used by A dam s, B u t l e r and Noblin (1962); A d am s , Noblin, B u t l e r , and T i m m o n s (1962); j i Noblin, T i m m o n s and R e y n a r d (1963); Noblin, ! 1 1 2.. Adam s and B u t le r (1 96 5). T h e s e s t u d i e s a r e c r i t i c i z e d by the a u t h o r f o r t h r e e r e a s o n s . F i r s t , the Taffel t a s k p r o c e d u r e i n t r o d u c e s an a r t i f i c i a l i t y into d e s ig n w h ich t r e m e n d o u s l y r e s t r i c t s the r e s p o n s e r e p e r t o i r e of J3s and i m p o s e s a l i m i t a t i o n in e x t r a p o l a t i n g , and i n t e r p r e t a t i n g the f i n d i n g s to a m o r e g e n e r a l i z e d b e h a v i o r a l s i t u a t i o n which one e n c o u n t e r s in c o u n s e l i n g and c l i n i c a l s e t t i n g . S econd, the ta sk does not r e a l l y c o n s t r u e a t r u e o p e r a n t c o n d i t i o n i n g s i t u a t i o n , s i n c e it is e s s e n t i a l l y a d i s c r i m i n a t i o n l e a r n i n g t a s k . T h i s c r i t i c i s m has also b e e n v o i c e d by o t h e r s o u r c e s ( G r e e n - spoon, 1962; K r a s n e r , 1966). T h i r d , r e c e n t r e s e a r c h h as show n that the n a t u r e of s e n t e n c e f r a g m e n t p r i n t e d on the c a r d s d e t e r m i n e s the use of p r o n o u n s . F o r e x a m p l e , C l a n c e and Dixon (1965) d e m o n s t r a t e d that good i m p r e s s i o n v e r b £ and bad i m p r e s s i o n v e r b s used in the s e n t e n c e s g e n e r a t e d by the Ss in v e r b a l c o n d i tioning h a v e a s y s t e m a t i c e f f e c t upon the f r e q u e n c y with w h i c h the p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s " I ” or "w e" as w e ll as the i m p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s "he" or " th e y " a r e used. The w r i t e r s u s p e c t s that guilt induc ing v e r b s s u c h as s t e a l , p u n is h , ........................................... " 1 1 3 .................. r a p e , e t c . , when p r i n t e d on the T a ffe l c a r d s , d e t e r m i n e s i g n i f i c a n t l y the S ’s usage of "he" or "they" i n s t e a d of "I" or "we". U n d e r such c i r c u m s t a n c e s , r e g a r d l e s s of how s t r o n g a | t v e r b a l r e i n f o r c e r the e x a m i n e r e m p l o y s , it j i would be e x p e c te d tha t he e n c o u n t e r s d if fic u lty j in c o n d itio n in g his Ss . I s The o t h e r m o st c o m m o n l y used ta s k t a k e s i i i the fo rm of an i n t e r v i e w or s t o r y - t e l l i n g s i t u a - ! tion (Adams & Hoffman, 1960; K r a s n e r , 1958; j M e r b a u m , 1 96 3; M e r b a u m & Southwell, 1965; j i R o g e r s , 1960; S a l z i n g e r & P i s o n i , 1958, 1960). j The ad v a n ta g e of the above t a s k s a r e that they j m o r e c l e a r l y a p p r o x i m a t e r e a l life s i t u a t i o n s i I and r e s e m b l e m o r e c l o s e l y the c o u n s e l i n g and j t h e r a p e u t i c i n t e r v i e w s . H o w e v e r, the length ! of the s e n t e n c e s used, as w ell as the e m o t i o n a l j j c o n te n t of c o n v e r s a t i o n , may i n t e r f e r e with the j e x p e r i m e n t e r ' s i n t e r v e n t i o n and thus delay the j | i m m e d i a c y of r e i n f o r c e m e n t . F u r t h e r m o r e , in j ! o r d e r to m o t i v a t e Ss to talk about t h e m s e l v e s , j the e x p e r i m e n t e r may induce s e t s th a t o r i e n t J the m to what may v e r y well be the e x p e c te d j I | o u tc o m e of the e x p e r i m e n t . T his l a s t point \ t is w e l l - r e f l e c t e d in v e r b a l c o n d i t i o n i n g l i t e r a - | 114 tu r e w h e r e s elf - r ef er ence r e s p o n s e s w e r e r e i n f o r c e d in s t r u c t u r e d or s e m i - s t r u c t u r e d i n t e r views (Adams & F r y e , 1964; M e r b a u m , 1963; M e r b a u m & S outhwell, 1965; R o g e r s , 1960). Two e x a m p l e s a r e p r e s e n t e d in this d i s s e r t a t i o n in o r d e r to i l l u s t r a t e the point. Mer baum (1 963) a d o p tin g R o g e r s (1960) i n s t r u c t i o n told the following to his s u b j e c t s : We are interested in people's ability to talk freely about them selves. I am su re that people have different attitudes about their c h a ra c te ristic s and tra its. I would like for you to tell me about yourself, describe the kind of person you are, what you like. .. p. 181 Adams & F rye (1964) using m o d i f i c a t i o n of K a n f e r (1959) type s t r u c t u r e d i n t e r v i e w s u g g e s t e d the follow ing to p ic s to t h e i r s u b j e c t s : You may tell me about yourself, the kinds of people you like and dislike, e tc ., getting along with your p arents, your dating experi ences, your hobbies and sports, your am bi tions in life. . .p. 164 In the light of the above i n s t r u c t i o n s , it is d if fi c u lt to d e t e r m i n e w h e th e r i n c r e a s e d s e l f r e f e r e n c e r e s p o n s e s a r e induced by the e x p e r i m e n t e r ' s " i n s t r u c t i o n s e t " or a r e a c q u i r e d th r o u g h the r e i n f o r c i n g p r o p e r t i e s of e x p e r i m e n t e r ' s i n t e r v e n t i o n ( i . e . his r e i n f o r c e m e n t c o n t i n g e n c i e s ) . Other d i f f i c u l t i e s involved a r e d e f in it io n of r e s p o n s e c l a s s , e s t a b l i s h m e n t ....................... ‘........... 1 1 5 “ of o p e r a n t le v e l, c o n t r o l o v e r the d u r a t i o n of e x p e r i m e n t a l s e s s i o n s , the a d e q u a c y of r e i n f o r c i n g s t i m u l u s , c o n s i s t e n c y of r e i n f o r c i n g s t i m u l u s , i m m e d i a c y of r e w a r d , the in f lu e n c e of e x p e r i m e n t e r ' s b ia s , and method of a s s e s s ing a w a r e n e s s . Since the d i s c u s s i o n of each of the above v a r i a b l e s s h a l l make the p r e s e n - , ta tio n of th is d i s s e r t a t i o n lengthy, the a u th o r s h a l l li m i t h i m s e l f h e r e to p r e s e n t a b r i e f s k e tc h of the p r o b l e m of a s s e s s i n g a w a r e n e s s in v e r b a l c o n d i tio n in g of s e If - r ef e r e n c e r e s p o n s e s . V erbal Conditioning of Affective Self- R eferences and A w areness L i t e r a t u r e on o p e r a n t c o n d i tio n in g of s e l f - r e f e r e n c e r e s p o n s e s is s u b j e c t to a m a j o r c r i t i c i s m in a s s e s s i n g a w a r e n e s s . This c o n cept has a l r e a d y given p s y c h o l o g i s t s many h e a d a c h e s . B eginning with T h o r n d i k e (1932), a s s e r t a t i o n that l e a r n i n g can o c c u r without a w a r e n e s s , and c o n tin u in g th ro u g h the c u r r e n t c o n t r o v e r s y over the r o l e of a w a r e n e s s in v e r b a l o p e r a n t c o n d i tio n in g ( S p i e l b e r g e r , 1962; S p i e l b e r g e r & DeNike, 1966), p s y c h o l o g i s t s have a r g u e d the i s s u e whether l e a r n i n g c u r v e s a r e i n t e r p r e t e d as m a n i f e s t i n g the a u t o m a t i c 116 e f f e c t s of r e i n f o r c e m e n t upon S-R c o n t i n g e n c i e s or w h e t h e r they a r e a c o n s e q u e n c e of a w a r e n e s s W hile r e c e n t r e s e a r c h e r s of c o g n i tiv e o r i e n t a tion have found v e r b a l c o n d itio n in g only in th o s e _Ss who w ere i n f e r r e d to be a w a r e of S-R c o n t i n g e n c i e s (Locke, 1966; S p i e l b e r g e r , 1965), this has not been t r u e in all c a s e s (Adams & F r y e , 1964; M e r b a u m , 1963; M e r b a u m & ■ South - w ell, 1 965; P h e la n , Tang & H e k m a t, 1967; K r a s n e r , 1958). None of the r e s e a r c h e s on v e r b a l c o n d itio n in g of s elf - r e f e r enc e s p r e s e n t e d in th is p a p e r have shown ev id e n c e of a w a r e n e s s . T h e se r e s e a r c h e s , h o w e v e r, can be c r i t i c i z e d f r o m s e v e r a l g r o u n d s . F i r s t , a s s e s s ing a w a r e n e s s was not the m a i n p u r p o s e of the e x p e r i m e n t and was i n f o r m a l l y done at the c o m p l e t i o n of the e x p e r i m e n t . T h is r a i s e s the q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r a w a r e n e s s l e a r n e d as i m p l i c i t m e d i a t i n g r e s p o n s e did lend i t s e l f to the e x t i n c t i o n p r o c e d u r e s . Second, the a s s e s s m e n t of a w a r e n e s s fr o m the p o s t - c o n d i t i o n i n g i n t e r view might have bee n in flu e n c e d by the s ty l e of q u e s t i o n i n g , the w o rd i n g of q u e s tio n in g , and the n u m b e r of the q u e s t i o n s as k ed . Since the m a j o r i t y of the s e l f - r e f e r e n c e s t u d i e s did not 1 1 7 s p e c i f y in d e t a i l t h e i r i n t e r v i e w i n g p r o c e d u r e s , it i s d i f fi c u lt , if not i m p o s s i b l e , to e n d o r s e t h e i r f i n d i n g s . T h i r d , while the ab o v e e x p e r i m e n t s have sought to a s s e s s the a w a r e n e s s of the p u r p o s e of the e x p e r i m e n t , (with the e x c e p tion of M e r b a u m & S o u th w e ll, 1 965) who a l s o a s s e s s e d a w a r e n e s s of r e s p o n s e - r e i n f or c e m e n t c o n t i n g e n c y and r e c a l l of b e h a v i o r a l c h a n g e s ) , they failed to take into c o n s i d e r a t i o n a w a r e n e s s of r e s p o n s e - r e i n f o r c e m e n t c o n t i n g e n c y , the d e s i r e and i n t e n t i o n of Ss to get the r e i n f o r c e m e n t , or e m i t r e s p o n s e s , and the r e c a l l of b e h a v i o r a l c h a n g e s t h a t took p l a c e d u r i n g the c o n d i t i o n i n g . It is e x p e c t e d that, with the d e v e l o p m e n t of a m o r e c o n t r o l l e d and s o p h i s t i c a t e d m e t h o d of m e a s u r i n g le v e l of a w a r e n e s s , the p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n would c l a r i f y w h e t h e r a w a r e n e s s o c c u r s in the v e r b a l o p e r a n t c o n d i t i o n i n g of s e l f - r ef e r enc e r e s p o n s e s as a c o n s e - q u e n c y of th e e x p e r i m e n t e r ' s i n t e r v e n t i o n . A P P E N D IX E DESCRIP TIO N OF TH PH O TO G RA P H S 119 DESCRIPTION OF PHOTOGRAPHS 1. A dam. 2. A m odern hotel at night. 3. A cat playing the piano. 4. F ru it and vegetables around a bowl of salad. 5. Two g la sses—one with a ch erry and one with ice. 6. B irds sitting on a branch of a tree. 7. A woman reading a book, drinking wine. 8. A fat man eating a lobster. 9. Full face of a man with a sm aller face of a woman. 10. A mound of money. 11. People on a cru ise watching the sun set. 12. A bull fight. 13. A sm all boy with a plate of food in front of him . 14. A plane taking off. 15. A kite flying over the beach. 16. Mule and c a rt outside a country sto re. 17. A group of men. 18. A clear p lastic telephone. 19. A baby sleeping with a woman looking at him. 20. A man having his h eart beat taken. 21. A boat in the sea. 22. A harbor with a village in the background. 23. A car going through a wheat field. 24. An a rtis t painting a picture of an attractiv e, nude woman. 25. Children dancing. 26. A w om an's mouth. 27. A child playing with the ta ssel of a curtain. 28. A bearded m an perspiring. 29. A woman lying down with a man sitting beside h er. 30. An a e ria l view of a city. 31. Children playing playing with them also is a woman - all in a swimm ing pool. 32. A sm all boy running toward the ocean. 33. A little baby sitting in a big chair. 34. A boy surfing. 35. A man and a woman kissing. 36. A boy daydream ing in class. 37. People on a beach. 38. An old man with a cane walking in the m ountains. 39. A sm all child bundled up for the snow. 40. A baby drinking milk from a bottle. 41. Egyptian statues. 42. An executive-type desk in the lib rary of a large house. 120 43. A sm all baby sleeping. 44. People on the beach, children swimming, boats out in the distance. 45. A child in a boat. 46. A m an talking on the telephone. 47. A m an in work clothes and a woman in a beautiful d ress, caressin g . 48. A w om an's eyes. 49. A ch ild 's doll. 50. A woman with a baby in h er lap and a dog trying to get h e r attention. 51. A fo re st setting. 52. An old plane flying at dusk. 53. A N egro man playing with his child. 54. A m an and a woman having a picnic in the fo rest. 55. An a b stra ct picture of curves. 56. An old house in the m iddle of nowhere. 57. Women from different countries looking through binoculars. 5 8. A m an talking to a line of women. 59. Two children playing with a tuba. 60. An old sailo r talking to a sm all boy. 61. A sm all child playing the piano. 62. A drive up a winding road. 63. A h o rse race. 64. A m an w earing sunglasses looking at the sun. 65. A woman thinking. 66. V arious statues. 67. A couple playing with th eir baby. 68. A woman praying. 69. A c a r going through the snow. 70. Diamond rings. \ R E F E R E N C E S 1 2 2 REFERENCES Adams, H.E., B u tler, J.R . & Noblin, C.D. Effects of psy- choanalytically-derived in terp retatio n s: a v erb al conditioning paradigm ? Psychological R eports, 1962, 10, 691-694. Adams, H.E., Noblin, C.D., B utler, J.R -., & Tim m ons, E. O. D ifferential effect of psychoanalytically- derived in terp retatio n s and verbal conditioning in schizophrenics. P sychological R e p o rts, 1962,11, 195-198. Adams, H.E. & F ry e , R. L. Psychotherapeutic techniques a s conditioned re in fo rc e rs in a stru ctu red interview. P sychological R eports, 1964, 14, 163-166. Adams, J.K . L aboratory-studies of behavior without aw are n e s s . 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New York: Holt, R inehart & W inston, 1965. K rasn er, L. V erbal operant conditioning and aw areness. In K. Salzinger & S. S alzin g er, R esearch in verbal behavior: som e neurological im plications. New York: A cadem ic P re s s , 1967. 1 Locke, E.B. Logical relationships of questions to issu es in v erb al conditioning studies. Psychological R eports, 1966, 19, 291-298. M arlowe, D. Need for social approval and the operant condi tioning of m eaningful v erb al behavior. Journal of consult, psychology, 1962, 26, 79-83. M atarazzo, J. D ., Saslow, G. & P a re is , E.N. V erbal condi tioning of two response c lasse s: som e m ethodological considerations. Journal of ab n o rm al and social psy chology, 1960, 61, 190-206. 126 M erbaum , M. The conditioning of affective self-re fe re n ce by three c la sse s of generalized re in fo rc e rs. Journal of P erso n ality , 1963, 31, 179-191. M erbaum , M. & Southwell, E. A. 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Journal of abnorm al and so cial psychology, 1960, 60, 247-252. Ryan, T.A. & K rum boltz, J. D. Effects of reinforcem ent counseling on client decision-m aking behavior. Journal of counseling psychology, 1964, 11, 315-323. Salzinger, K. E xperim ental m anipulation of verbal behavior: a review . Journal of general psychology, 1959, 61, 65-94. Salzinger, K. R einforcem ent of verbal effect resp o n ses of norm al subjects during the interview . Journal of abnorm al and social psychology, 1960, 60, 127-130. Salzinger, K. & Pisoni, S. R einforcem ent of affect responses of schizophrenics during the clinical interview . Journal of abnorm al and social psychology, 1958, 57, 84-90. Salzinger, K. & Salzinger, S. R esearch in verbal behavior and som e neurological im plications. New York: Academ ic P re s s , 1967. Skinner, B .F . V erbal b ehavior. New York: Appleton- C entury-C rofts, 1957. Spence, K.W. Behavior theory and conditioning. New Haven: Yale Univ. P re s s , 1956. 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Creator Hekmat, Hamid Moayed (author)

Core Title The Effects Of Two Types Of Experimenter Intervention And Schedules Of Reinforcement On Verbal Operant Conditioning Of Affective Self-References

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Educational Psychology

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Advisor McIntrye, Robert B. (committee chair), Peter, Laurence J. (committee member), Slucki, Henry (committee member)

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