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Some Behavioral Consequences Of Career Success: A Synthesis Of Reward Andbalance Approaches
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Some Behavioral Consequences Of Career Success: A Synthesis Of Reward Andbalance Approaches
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This dissertation has been 7fl sen microfilmed exactly as received " GRAHAM, Claire Lippincott, 1924- SOME BEHAVIORAL CONSEQUENCES OF CAREER SUCCESS; A SYNTHESIS OF REWARD AND BALANCE APPROACHES. University of Southern California, Ph.D., 1969 Sociology, general University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan ©Copyright by CLAIRE LIPPINCOTT GRAHAM 19701 SOME BEHAVIORAL CONSEQUENCES OP CAREER SUCCESS A SYNTHESIS OP REWARD AND BALANCE APPROACHES by Claire Lippincott Graham A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OP THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OP SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Sociology) June 1969 UNIVERSITY O F SO U TH ER N CALIFORNIA TH E GRADUATE SCHOOL. UNIVERSITY PARK LOS A N G ELES. CALIFO RNIA 9 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, written by G La ir e. . Li pp inc o t t. . Gr a ham........ under the direction of /i„er. Dissertation Com mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by The Gradu ate School, in partial fulfillment of require- ments of the degree of Dean DISSERTATION COMMITTEE ™ ............ To the men in my life: Douglass, Jeffrey, and Peter ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS It was my privilege to be associated with many outstanding educators during my graduate work. For their encouragement, assistance, and friendship I give sincere thanks. Dr. Herman Turk, chairman of my dissertation committee, earned my deep respect as a disciplined scholar and devoted researcher. It is my hope that this manuscript reflects a small measure of the abundant time he devoted in advising me at various stages of this study and of his rigorous standard of excellence. Among those who have also been important in influencing my sociological perspective are Drs. Vern L. Bengtson, Milton Bloombaum, Herbert Blumer, Theodore Hadwen, Calvin Goldscheider, William R. Larson, Thomas E. Lasswell, Herman Loether, Sally F. Moore, Clarence Schrag, and Maurice D. Van Arsdol, Jr. I am sincerely grateful for the traineeship grant from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development which afforded me the opportunity to be associated with the Gerontology Center while this research was completed. The stimulus offered by this inter- , disciplinary setting undoubtedly influenced the formulation iii of ideas contained in this paper and my development as a sociologist. Dr. James E. Birren deserves special mention for his guidance and genuine concern. The facilities of the Computer Sciences Laboratory at the University of Southern California were made available to me from the University's unfunded account. A special indebtedness is acknowledged to Aili E. Larson for so patiently teaching me the technical aspects of research. Able assistance on computer programming was given by Karen Hoffman, Robert Jiobu, Garst Reese, Ann Strong, and Neeling Wayman. My thanks and gratitude also go to the many persons who made the tedious aspects of research less so. A partial list includes Dr. Tema Shults Clare and Constance Q. Mills, who helped in the construction, mailing, and follow-up contacts on the questionnaires, Kathleen Good and Susan Mallory, coding and data card punching, Virginia Carlson and Elaine Corry, typing, Florence Habif and Linda Ross, technical assistance, and Bruce Lemon, who read various versions of my questionnaire and manuscripts, contributing helpful suggestions. Lastly, and most importantly, I wish to indicate my deep gratitude to Dr. Tema Shults Clare, past president and treasurer of the University of Southern California Chapter of Phi Kappa Phi. Her inspiration, encouragement, confidence, hard work, and friendship throughout the iv various phases of this project were vital to its completion. The many members of Phi Kappa Phi who laboriously and enthusiastically completed the confidential questionnaires so necessary for this study deserve special recognition. The Phi Kappa Phi motto "The love of learning rules the world" was reassuringly validated by their membership. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Page DEDICATION.......................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.................................... ill LIST OP TABLES ..................... viii Chapter I. INTRODUCTION.................................. 1 Statement of Purpose General Hypotheses Research Design Rationale II. THEORY AND BACKGROUND....................... 8 Reward Theories 1. Overview 2. Relation to behavior changes over time 3. Research evidence Balance Theories Risk Taking III. RESEARCH PROCEDURES......................... 26 Predictions Population to be Analyzed 1. Criteria for selection 2. Method for obtaining maximum number of cases Techniques of Analysis 1. Operational definitions 2. General strategy 3. Statistical procedures vi Chapter IV. RESEARCH RESULTS Page 41 Comments on Response and Selection of Cases Characteristics according to the Independent Variables 1. Businessmen 2. Academicians Personal Characteristics of Qualified Cases Analysis of the Dependent Variables 1. Steadiness in life goals 2. Variety of weekly sociable activities reported 3. Attitude towards future activity level 4. Hypothetical risk behavior 5. Discrimination in hypothetical risk behavior 6. Summary V. DISCUSSION Methodological Comments Theoretical Implications Pragmatic Implications APPENDIX 83 BIBLIOGRAPHY 109 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Distribution of Cases by Age Forty Income, Current Income, and Age (BUSINESSMEN) . . . 43, 2. Distribution of Cases by Age Forty Income, Current Income, and Age (ACADEMICIANS) . . . 44 3. Percentage Distribution of Personal Characteristics (BUSINESSMEN) ............. 45 4. Percentage Distribution of Personal Characteristics (ACADEMICIANS) ........ . . 46 5- Expansiveness in Terms of Steadiness in Life Goals by Success at Age Forty, Current Success, and Age (BUSINESSMEN) ............. 50 6. Variance Analysis of Table 5 ................. 51 7. Expansiveness in Terms of Steadiness In Life Goals by Success at Age Forty, Current Success, and Age (ACADEMICIANS) .......... 52 8. Variance Analysis of Table 7 ................. 52 9. Expansiveness In Terms of Variety of Weekly Sociable Activities Reported by Success at Age Forty, Current Success, and Age (BUSINESSMEN) .............................. 54 10. Variance Analysis of Table 9 ................. 54 11. Expansiveness in Terms of Variety of Weekly Sociable Activities Reported by Success at Age Forty, Current Success, and Age (ACADEMICIANS) .............................. 55 12. Variance Analysis of Table 1 1 ......... . . . 55 vili Table Page 13. Expansiveness In Terms of Attitude Towards Future Activity Level by Success at Age Forty., Current Success., and Age (BUSINESSMEN).............................. 58 14. Variance Analysis of Table 1 3 ............... 58 15. Expansiveness in Terms of Attitude Towards Future Activity Level by Success at Age Forty, Current Success, and Age (ACADEMICIANS).............................. 59 16. Variance Analysis of Table 1 5 ............... 59 17. Expansiveness in Terns of Hypothetical Risk Behavior by Success at Age Forty, Current Success, and Age (BUSINESSMEN)............. 63 18. Variance Analysis of Table 1 7 ............... 63 19. Expansiveness In Terms of Hypothetical Risk Behavior by Success at Age Forty, Current Success, and Age (ACADEMICIANS)........... 64 20. Variance Analysis of Table 1 9 ............... 64 21. Expansiveness in Terns of Discrimination in Hypothetical Risk Behavior by Success at Age Forty, Current Success, and Age (BUSINESSMEN).............................. 67 22. Variance Analysis of Table 2 1 ............ . 67 23. Expansiveness in Terms of Discrimination in Hypothetical Risk Behavior by Success at Age Forty, Current Success, and Age (ACADEMICIANS) .............................. 68 24. Variance Analysis of Table 2 3 ................ 68 ix 1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION A . Statement of Purpose This research investigated the proposition that a generalized confidence in successful outcomes is diminished or replenished by experience. Such confidence may be expressed by specific behaviors and attitudes which reflect venturesomeness coupled with steadiness in reward orientation., or what will be called expansiveness. For example* successful businessmen and successful academicians are expected to express greater expansiveness than their less successful peers in such activities as steadiness in the maintenance of life goals., reporting participation in numerous and diverse groups* and taking calculated risks. At the low end of the continuum of expansiveness lies lack of confidence in successful outcomes* expressed by specific behaviors and attitudes whicPTreflect cautiousness coupled with orientation towards cost* or what will be called contractiveness. B. General Hypotheses Hypothesis I: The more successful a person was at an earlier period of his life in an activity that is highly valued by his culture, the more expansive (less contractive) will his behavior be. Hypothesis II; The more successful a person Iej in an activity that is highly valued by his culture, the more expansive (less contractive) will his behavior be. Hypothesis III: The more continuously successful a person has been in an activity that is highly valued by his culture, the more expansive (less contractive) will his behavior be. Hypothesis IV: The greater the elapsed time, the closer will be the association between career success and a person's expansiveness of behavior. C. Research Design The occupational career was selected as the culturally valued activity which has been specified in the preceding hypotheses. A population of men aged 38-61 was • 1 The salience of career for males in contemporary American culture is frequently described in the sociologi cal literature. Several recent examples: "Men's careers occupy a dominant place In their lives today, and the occupational structure is the foundation of the stratifi cation system of contemporary industrial society"; see preface, p. vii (Peter M. Blau and Otis Dudley Duncan, The American Occupational Structure (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1967)). "American culture is marked by a cen tral stress upon personal achievement, especially secular occupational achievement"; see p. 390 (Robin M. Williams, Jr., American Society (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1951)T analyzed which was homogeneously high in level of education and achievement motivation at inception of career. Career success was defined as receiving more dollar occupational income than peers engaged in similar activities. Each peer set had sustained similar costs in the form of years of education, and had entered similar occupations. Expansiveness was scored in terras of the following behaviors: expression of steadiness in life goals, reported participation in weekly activities with diverse groups, anticipated future activity levels, willingness to take hypothetical calculated risks, and discrimination in perceived power over outcomes in hypothetical risk situations. Mean behavior scores were compared in the light of career success (past, present, and the combination of past and present) within age cohorts, so that the preceding hypotheses might be tested. D. Rationale Certain people appear to engage in numerous activities and to make venturesome decisions as if they were continuously quite certain of rewarding experience; others appear to enter into few activities and reveal conservatism in decision making as though they were protecting against costly consequences. Thibaut and Kelley viewed these differences in behavior as stemming from differences in the amount of 2 power over outcomes which people hold and perceive. A high power person would "appear confident and sure of him self and (would) experience a high subjective probability of attaining favorable outcomes . . . he may be expected to respond differently to the reward and the cost components of very superior outcomes."^ However,, Thibaut and Kelley noted that, since a person’s actual power and his perceived power were not necessarily the same, their theory of behavior should be applied in terms of perceived rather / i than actual power. Omitted from the conceptualization of high and low power persons in Thibaut and Kelley's work was an explanation of the processes which occur within individuals to produce perceptions of generalized control over the outcomes of activities (or the lack of such control). It is suggested here that a process of cognitive balancing occurs after each outcome experienced by a person in his daily social exchanges: rewards and costs are 2J. W. Thibaut and H. H. Kelley, The Social Psychology of Groups (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1959P. d9. 3Ibid. ^Ibid., p.-90. tallied and gauged against expected net profits, and the surplus or deficit noted; appropriate adjustments are then made in the perception of one's power over future similar situations. The balancing mechanism may be thought of as an internal computer which records and stores accumulated sets of probabilities of favorable outcomes in a variety of situations. An anticipated event carries less risk for the person who has previously been well rewarded in similar events; he is confident that his margin of reward will be high, his costs low. When a person faces a new situation he is confronted with choice dilemmas of action; while many circumstances are reminiscent of past ones, each new event presents the individual with novel features.Prior to decision on a course of action where the outcome is unknown, there is a period of tension during which many inconsistent elements must be dealt with by the individual and resolved. Various possibilities for action are tested for congruity, not only with accumulated probabilities of power over outcomes in similar situations, but also with broadly perceived power over situations in general. By borrowing concepts from balance and dissonance theories, the process of accumulating perceptions of control over outcomes can be conceptualized, linking belief systems ^in addition, the Internal stimuli system of the individual is in a constantly changing state. 6 with observable events. A high power person appears more venturesome and appears to take more risks because most activities are not perceived by him as unduly risky: he feels a generalized mastery over most outcomes. By the same logic, -cognitive dissonance may be considered less costly for high than for low power persons under certain circumstances, since accommodation to its stress is perceived as less uncomfort able. Thus, a synthesis of concepts from reward theories and those of cognitive balance would also shed light on the puzzling phenomenon described by Festinger as the "high dissonance" person. Festinger found that certain persons seemed to be able to tolerate ambiguity more than others. Just why this was so was not explicable within cognitive dissonance theory; Festinger dismissed the phenomenon as an unspecified personality variable. It was a premise of this research that high dissonance tolerance is a consequent of high power. Our research objective was to demonstrate association between objective success by individuals in one culturally valued activity and what appeared to be venture some, confident, and risky behavior in their other activities. Perceived power over outcomes may be inferred Leon Festinger, A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1957)# p. 266. from such association. Demonstration of an increase in such association over time, it is presumed, will permit inference of the processes involved with generalized perceptions of power over personal outcomes. . _ 8 CHAPTER II THEORY AND BACKGROUND A. Reward Theories 1. Overview In recent years there have been a number of reformulations of theories borrowed from behavioral psychology pertaining to rewards. These reformulations have leaned heavily on economic concepts, especially those dealing with exchange, and have focused on social behavior. One presentation was developed by Thibaut and Kelley and published in 1959.1 They examined social behavior in terms of physiological and psychological states which motivate goal directed behavior and the effects upon a person of attaining or not attaining relevent goals. Their "theory of interpersonal relations and group functioning" was based on four concepts: reward, cost, outcome, and comparison level. Rewards can be obtained in ^J. W. Thibaut and H. H. Kelley, The Social Psychology of Groups (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1959)• 2Ibid., p. 1. This theory Is known by several names. The" Thibaut and Kelley version Is generally referred to as exchange theory, while the Homans version Is generally referred to as reward theory, or reward-cost theory. 9 social activities and costs incurred. Outcome refers to rewards less costs. If the outcome is positive It yields a profit, if it is negative, a loss. Basic to the theory is the assumption that the individual always strives for his greatest net profit. A primary proposition is that social relationships are only viable when outcomes are mutually profitable.2 The comparison level is the standard against which a person evaluates the attractiveness of a relation ship in terms of what he feels he deserves.^ it is a product of previous outcomes and their salience. It is further assumed that persons vary in their power to control outcomes of events in their favor, that is, to their total net profit. Homans published Social Behavior, It's Elementary Forms in 1961 wherein he set forth a very similar set of general propositions which he felt accounted for p A similar idea has been presented in the language of role theory: "It is to the individuals interest in attempting to reduce his role strain to demand as much as he can and perform as little, but since this is also true for others, there are limits on how advantageous a role bargain he can make." William J. Goode, "A Theory of Role Strain," The Dynamics of Modern Society, ed. by William J. Goode (New liorlc: Atherton Press, 1966), p. 19. “There is an additional concept outlined in the Thibaut and Kelley theory, "comparison level for alterna tives." This is the standard a person uses in deciding whether to remain in or leave a social relationship. 4 10 4 elementary social behavior. He envisaged social behavior "As an exchange of activity,, tangible or intangible, and more or less rewarding or costly, between at least two persons.1 1 ^ His terminology differed from the earlier theoretical presentation in certain respects in order to describe emotional events such as frustration and satis faction the more clearly. "Relative deprivation" described the condition occurring when another, similar to person, gets a reward now and person does not. "Distributive justice" referred to justice in the distribution of rewards and costs between persons.^ Homans cited certain earlier experiments by Thibaut and Kelley in support of his data, but made only one reference to their theoretical formulations and that in a footnote,^ so that presumably the bulk of the two theoretical frameworks were formulated simultaneously and independently. ^George C. Homans, Social Behavior, Its Elementary Forms (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., I961J. See "also his earlier statement, "Human Behavior as Exchange„1 1 American Journal of Sociology, 63 (May, 1958), PP. 597-oOtn ^Homans, 19^1, op. cit., p. 13. ^Ibid., see p. 7k , for a good discussion of these two terms. 7Ibid., p. 266. Homans cited Thibaut and Kelley, The Social Psychology of Groups, pp. 21-23: "Their distinction between 'comparison level1 and ‘comparison level for alternatives’ is related to the distinction between satisfaction and profit." 11 A third statement of reward-cost theory came a few years later, 1964, with Blau's Exchange and Power in Social o Life. His more macroscopic view encompassed complex social structures, in sharp contrast to Thibaut and Kelley’s focus on the interaction between dyads, and Homans’ exclusive concern with elemental, non-institutional behavior. Blau conceived of social exchange as a process of central significance in social life and as possessing emergent qualities. He presented a typology of rewards which included a range between intrinsic and extrinsic, personal attraction and social approval, social acceptance and instrumental services, respect and prestige, compliance and power. Success in career would encompass many of the rewards suggested by Blau’s typology, 2. Relation to behavior changes over time Homans’ theoretical stance was addressed to the here and now and to the communalities of the behaviors of man as man, not man in a role of any kind. Eor him 11. . . profit is a matter of a single transaction. "9 However, most of his propositions contain references to either past occurrences or time spans such as "often," so o Peter M. Blau, Exchange and Power in Social Life (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1964). ^Homans, op. cit., p. 63. 12 that predicted behaviors were based on prior outcomes.*1 ^ He also stated that men learn to avoid activities that get them into unjust exchanges. Of particular interest is Homans' discussion of how the differences in status between members of a group stimulate further differences of behavior due to the strategy of the situation for "they create differences in the risks people take when they emit 11 new behavior." He goes on to predict that the man of high status will conform to the most valued norms of his group while paradoxically feeling more leeway in minor infractions and judgmental decisions. Blau discussed the generation and correcting mechanisms of expectations of social rewards over time. He described "general expectations" as covering all the broad aspects of life such as career, family, and status, and as governed by prevailing values and social standards. When general expectations are achieved by a person, according to Blau, his aspiration level rises, "initially, dissatis faction with achievements and rewards is likely to be a 10Ibid., p. 53. Here are several examples: "if In the past the occurrence of a particular stimulus-situation has been the occasion on which a man's activity has been rewarded, then the more similar the present stimulus • situation 3s.to the past one, the more likely he Is to emit the activity, or some similar activity, now." Also, on p. 54, "The more often within a given period of time a man's activity rewards the activity of another, the more often the other will emit the activity." •^Homans, op. cit., p. 338- 13 spur to greater effort, but continuing inability to attain important objectives tends to lead to resignation and 12 embitterment." He also described "particular expecta tions" of others and "comparative expectations" of profits an individual expects to make in social associations. Expectation level of power over outcomes is more fully discussed by Thibaut and Kelley. While assuming that each individual enters and remains in the best of the relationships available to him, they hypothesized that the most "salient outcomes are those perceived by the. individual as instances of variations in rewards and costs for which he himself is primarily responsible— variations over which he has some degree of control.Within the context of the dyad a person may hold two types of control1 over another: fate control where he can affect another's outcomes regardless of what the other person does, and behavior control where by varying his behavior he can make it desirable for the other person to alter his behavior, too. They tacitly assumed that individuals differ in their competence and confidence in control over outcomes, so that there can be conceptualized a continuum of subjectively felt power with high power persons at one extreme and low power persons at the other. For the former "will have •'•^Blau, op. cit., p. 146. ■^Thibaut and Kelley, op. cit., p. 85. learned that thinking about and anticipating better outcomes creates only temporary tension which, by virtue of the effectiveness of his ensuing instrumental activities, is usually followed by actually attaining them. The high power person will appear confident and sure of himself and it is helpful for him to emphasize positive aspects of new ventures and deemphasize negative ones. Since a high power person participates in more situations and with more groups than a low power person, it Is also more feasible, according to Thibaut and Kelley, for him to maintain consistent values and attitudes than for a low power person to maintain them. His comparison level Is apt to be high. The. low power person, on. the other hand, can dependably insure himself only of more modest outcomes; he will have learned to approach superior outcomes in terms of their cost components. His comparison level is apt to be low. How individuals come to possess high or low power perceptions was not clearly explicated by Thibaut and Kelley.., The inference was that they derived from past experiences with outcomes and that a kind of internally felt probability built up. Since a high power person was assumed by Thibaut and Kelley to assign much of the causality for his successes to his own range of control, all unattainable ■^Thibaut and Kelley, op. cit., p. 89. outcomes, either past memories or future superior out comes, would tend to be idealized, overemphasizing rewards, underemphasizing costs. The low power person was assumed to assign causality for his successes to such external agencies as fate or good luck, thus in the face of unattainable outcomes he would tend to debunk events of the past and express pessimism about future ones, over estimating costs and making little of rewards. 3. Research evidence The theoretical formulations set forth by reward theory are difficult to translate into meaningful operational terms. Reward and cost are broad terms which encompass any gratification of needs on the one hand and, on the other, any punishment, fatigue, anxiety, even value of rewards foregone by engaging in one activity rather than another. Thibaut and Kelley assumed that these phenomenon were measurable ", . . the reward values of different modalities of gratification are reducible to a *1 single psychological scale.' Research potential is hampered, however, by the subjectivity of these variables since the meaning of rewards and costs may vary greatly from person to person. There has been a paucity of empirical research reported which tests any of the propositions explicated by reward theory. Supporting data l6Ibld., p. 14. 16 leans heavily on research evidence already in existence prior to its conceptualization. Thibaut and Kelley cited many contemporary experiments to support' their various theoretical propositions.^ Homans did the same thing, although he tended to rely more on field studies of what he called "real-life small groups . . . studies made in more or less the same way as that in which an anthropologist maps out the organization of a primitive tribe. A provocative doctoral dissertation by MacGregor was addressed to a "rapprochement between reward theories arid balance theories of attraction (a) by showing that approval and similarity are equally satisfying responses in certain given situations and (b) by developing the out lines of a theoretical model of interpersonal attraction which is based upon ideas stemming from both reward and balance theories. He designed a laboratory experiment to evaluate personal attraction in an attempt to demonstrate "that balance theory and reward theory are in no way dealing with unique rewards, in that approval and ^ Ibid., pp. 292-30^. A review of their bibliography gives an excellent overview of the type of evidence used. - 1 O Homans, op. cit., p. 15. •^John MacGregor, "Motive Satisfaction and Inter personal Attraction: A Synthesis of Balance and Reward Approaches" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Cornell University, 1966), p. 1. 1 7 attitudinal similarity were for all practical purposes the same reward. . . . "^° His subjects viewed filmed "task" or "opinion" stimuli scenes followed by filmed responses of either approval, similarity, esteem, or identification. Unexpectedly MacGregor found that similarity turned out to be an unrewarding response.23- This led to a re-evaluation of the importance of the perceived instrumentality of another's behavior regarding person’s goals and to the following concluding summary: Reward theory— at least potentially— provides the analysis of motivation, and the classification of responses as instrumental or not instrumental in terms of motivation. Balance theory provides the model of cognitive consistency which explains the relationship between acts perceived as rewarding and attraction to the individual providing them.22 B, Balance Theories A second body of theory dealing with interpersonal relations, developed prior to reward theory, described the process of balancing in individual behavior. This process was hypothesized to bring about internal consistencies of some kind, or congruency with objects or events external 20MacGregor, op. clt., p. 75. 21This has been suggested by other studies. See Herman Turk's discussion concerning conditions under which peer ratings of task-proficiency and ratings of personal attractiveness are high or low, "instrumental and Expres sive Ratings Reconsidered," Sociometry, 24 (March, 1961), 76-81. 22MacGregor, op. cit., p. 152. 18 to the individual, and it occurs when an individual experiences inconsistency. Inconsistency, being psycholog ically uncomfortable, brings about stresses which the Individual strives to reduce, and he does so by changing one or more of the component parts in his perceptual, affective, cognitive, or activity systems to restore balance. Balance theories have thus served to build a conceptual bridge linking subjective systems with each other and with objective events. This is not intended to be an exhaustive review of the literature on balance theories. It is rather intended to be a summary review of the development and direction this theoretical approach has taken and how it can provide a theoretical explanation for the constructs of high and low power persons generated by reward theory. Heider was primarily concerned with the relation ship between a personrs positive or negative affect towards another person and towards an object.jje described a state of balance as existing when the three signs of the relation were all positive or when two were negative shown in his classic P-O-X (Person, Other, X- Object) schema In Figure 1. 23pritz Heider, The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1950). Figure 1. Heider1s P - 0 - X Schema In addition to attraction Newcomb included attitudes and intensities to his theory of symmetry in 2 U interpersonal communication. Osgood and Tannenbaum were concerned with cognitive elements as well as Intensities and dealt with actual attitude changes in their theory of congruity.^ Rosenberg has developed a model of cognitive affective consistency positing that attitudes and cognitions toward an attitude object were correlated, and that this association was based on a person's perceived instrumentality of that object for attaining his positive v a l u e s . He thus limited the relation of cognitive ^T. M. Newcomb, "An Approach to the Study of Communicative Acts," Psychological Review, 60 (1953). 2 5 c . E. Osgood and P. Tannenbaum, "The Principle of Congruity and the Prediction of Attitude Change," Psychological Review, 62 (1955). 2 & m. J. Rosenberg, "A Structural Theory of Attitude Dynamics,” Public Opinion Quarterly, 24 (i960). 20 consistency to instrumental relations among elements.^ The more salient a value for the person, the more his attitudes will he linked with it. He discussed the unstable state wherein affective and cognitive elements were mutually inconsistent and described how they would undergo spontaneous reorganizing activity providing the unstable state exceeded the individual's tolerance for such inconsistency. Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance linked a person's cognitions about an object or event to his p8 overt behavior. He noted that attitudes of an individual were normally consistent with each other, that behavior was normally in accordance with his attitudes, and that behaviors were normally consistent with each other. Dissonance represented an inconsistency between two or more cognitive elements and constituted a motivational state. His propositions stated how a person will go about reducing dissonance, and under what 2^See a discussion of this being a major step in the direction of synthesis and rapproachement with exchange theory as suggested by MacGregor, op. cit., p. 52. 28 Leon Festinger, A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1957)- 21 conditions.Festinger also observed that there was a variation among persons in the amount of logical dissonance tolerable. A reward approach could help explain such an apparent variation: the perceived cost of dissonance would be seen to vary from person to person depending on self perceptions of power over unknown outcomes. Brehm and Cohen produced evidence to support the theory of cognitive dissonance, but added certain modifying assumptions to it: commitment was a necessary condition for the arousal of dissonance, and magnitude of dissonance was a "direct function of the degree of volition involved in the occurrence of the dissonance relation ship."^ Since they regarded dissonance primarily as a post-decision state, the effect of commitment was to reverse the rational, judgmental process.A synthesis of reward and dissonance approaches would include perceived power over unknown outcomes as an additional modifying 29pissonance will motivate the person to try to reduce it,* in addition to trying to reduce it, the person will avoid situations and information which will increase it; as a promised reward or threatened punishment becomes smaller in importance, the dissonance resulting from compliance increases. 3^Jack W. Brehm and Arthur R. Cohen, Explorations in Cognitive Dissonance (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 19b2;, p. 217. Volition, for the authors, implied not only initiation and selection of behavior, but also responsibility for its consequences. 31Ibid., p. 197. element. High power persons, even though committed to a decision, it is assumed here, would perceive less dissonance in the presence of logical inconsistencies than would low power persons, even though they perceived greater volition and fewer elements of luck or fate. There has been one basic assumption made in all balance theories: consistency is a desirable internal state of affairsj individual internal systems are stressed by the psychological strain of inconsistency and thus activity to bring about resolution is set into motion either internally or via overt behavior changes. Our theoretical position suggests that the very desirability of consistency is itself a variable. C. Risk Taking The idea of risk taking or venturesome behavior can be viewed from the perspective of reward theory as inherently connected with the perceived power of the actor. Activity which might be considered by one man as risk, might be another man’s safe bet. Economists have long been concerned with risk taking behavior, but they have treated "risk" as an objective dependent variable. More recently psychologists have explored risk taking behavior, but they have dealt with it in terms of personality variables. The relationship of social experience to decisions 23 involving alternative choices between highly rewarding "risky" activities, and less rewarding "safer" activities has been little explored. Recently a series of experiments were performed by Nathan Kogan and Michael Wallach in which the influences of two psychological constructs, "test-anxiety" and "defensiveness," were measured as they affected behavior in a variety of chance and skill risk situations. J Our present concern is with their "Choice Dilemmas Procedure," a series of twelve hypothetical situations covering a wide range of subjects including marriage, financial matters, and situations involving life or death. Subjects were to study the situation, imagine they were proferring advice to persons in the particular circumstances, and indicate the degree of chance they would recommend the other person ^Neither the index for the American Sociological Review nor the American Journal of Sociology carries "risk" in its subject index, nor do most elementary social psychology texts. Even the recent compendium of Bernard Berelson and Gary A. Steiner, Human Behavior--An Inventory of Scientific Findings (New York: Harcourt, Brace-& World, Inc., 1954) carries no data directly relevent to risk- taking behavior. ■^Nathan Kogan and Michael A. Wallach, Risk Taking: A Study in Cognition and Personality (New York: Ho it, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., I964). They conceptualized "test-anxiety" based on John Atkinson's theoretical model of need for achievement and fear of failure, and "defensiveness" as an excessive concern with image maintenance. 24 ■R4 take in deciding a course of action. Individual Choice Dilemma index scores correlated significantly with risk scores on actual dice-chance experiments where there were money payoffs. Kogan and Wallach1s overall findings indicated that young men were significantly higher in confidence than old men,, and that a risk-eonservatism dimension generalized across conditions In which subjects did and did not have control over outcomes of decisions. They found certain significant differences between high and low "test-anxiety" and defensiveness" subjects^ which led them to suggest that decision making tapped two psychological sources: motivational and cognitive. The motivational source would account for consistencies of risk taking and conservatism across highly divergent areas, according to Kogan and Wallach, and they found consistencies to be highest with text anxious and defensive subjects^ the cognitive source would account for consistencies in situations which share structural properties, and here the subjects low in test anxiety and defensiveness were found to be more sensitive to the nature ■^They reported reliability between the 12 Choice Dilemma Scores for males as being r = .53 (n = 114). 35por example, highs on "test-anxiety" and "defensiveness" showed the greatest relationship between Choice Dilemma index scores and dice-risk scores. 25 of each task at hand. In the Kogan and Wallach research, as well as subsequent research based on their Choice Dilemmas 37 Procedure, the power of the subject to control the outcome was considered a constant. The position taken in this research was that perceived power over personal out comes, or lack of it, is associated with the amount of ’ ’ risk" a subject will or will not take In any given situation. 3^in addition the "lows" were also more conser vative in their final bet (Kogan and Wallach, op. cit., p. 192). 3?An interesting series of experiments were per formed by J. A. P. Stoner ("A Comparison of Individual and Group Decisions Including Risk1 ' (Unpublished Master's Thesis; School of Industrial Management, Massachusetts Institute of Technology: Boston, 1961)) and reported in Chapter 13, "Group Dynamics" (Roger Brown, Social Psychology (New York: The Free Press, A Division of the Macmill an Company, 1965)). He found that group decisions following discussion were consistently riskier than individual decisions in the same matters. Our theoretical position would view participation In a group as reinforcing feelings of power over outcomes. 26 CHAPTER III RESEARCH PROCEDURES " A. Predictions A person experiencing success in an activity highly valued hy his culture will exceed others in tending to develop self-perceptions of power over outcomes In a wide variety of activities. A career is very highly valued for men in conterapory America. Degree of power perceived will be reflected by the amount of expansive or contractive behavior evidenced towards a high proportion of objects and events. Hypothesis I predicted expansiveness of behavior in terms of early career success. Hypothesis II predicted expansiveness of behavior in terms of current career success. Hypothesis III predicted expansiveness of behavior In terms of continuity of career success. Hypothesis IV predicted that the' association •4>ata collected in this study confirms this. Fifty-two per cent (52$) of the men in the preliminary pilot postcard study (n = 688) stated "career" as the area of their greatest success. On the ensuing questionnaire 6l$ of the businessmen and 84$ of the educators stated that they were presently "successful" or "extremely successful" in their career. 27 between career success and expansiveness of behavior would vary positively with elapsed time. Modifying factors expected to affect the confirmation or development of subjective and generalised beliefs and feelings about power were the recency effect of particular events and a sequence effect of order of events. B. Population to be Analyzed 1. Criteria for selection Since the independent.variables in.this investiga tion were measures of degree of success in career, a sufficiently large population was required so that several diverse types of career could be included and variation in income level be obtained. In addition, it was necessary that age, sex, cultural background, academic ability, and amount of education be carefully controlled. One form of control rests upon homogeneity. The population selected for this study was male. University of Southern California graduates, presently aged 38 through 61, who were members of Phi Kappa Phi, a national academic honor society installed at the University of Southern California in 1924. This society elects its membership from approximately the top five per cent academically from every school in the University: Letters, Arts and Sciences, as well as Law, Business, Architecture, Medicine, Dentistry, Public Administration, Pine Arts, Music, 28 Industrial Design, and others. Further control over extraneous variables was to be achieved by limiting all cases to one or the other of two clear occupational types: (l) business,2 and (2) science, research, and education. Within these occupational types an additional criteria was to be met: all businessmen were to have no advanced degrees and have received less than thirty units formal credit for graduate work; all academicians were to have received at least a Ph.D. degree or the equivalent. 2. Method for obtaining maximum number of cases A postcard survey was initially made of the entire Phi Kappa Phi membership with known addresses, over 2500, during the winter of 1966-67. Response rate was 52$ when ^Occupational classifications which were placed in the business category included the following: accountant, advertising, aerospace, broker, building contractor, executive, finance, Insurance, personnel, production, proprietor, real estate, travel agents, sales and trans portation. ^Henceforth all men In this category will be referred to simply as "academicians.” They Include the occupational classifications as follows: bacteriologist, chemist, economist, geologist, psychologist, statistician, scientist, research, college: president— vice-president— dean— department head— professor— instructor, counsellor, junior college administrator, junior college professor, school supervisor, school superintendent, school principal or vice-principal, educational administrator or consultant, and librarian. 29 4 incorrect addresses and deceased were tallied. From data obtained on the postcards., — age., occupation, amount of graduate work completed, and advanced degrees received, 175 potentially eligible cases were located. It was felt that the non-responders to the short postcard questionnaire might vary systematically from responders, and that men low in success might very likely constitute these non-responders, thus defeating one of the main goals of the study, — obtaining a wide range of income levels. Therefore special efforts were made with the final, detailed questionnaire to obtain a response from every case which might potentially be an eligible one. The following strategy was used: (1) Every male member of Phi Kappa Phi who was a non-respondent to the postcard survey and had been elected to Phi Kappa Phi with either a B.S. in Commerce or Business between 1929 and 1950 or a Ph.D. In any subject between 1932 and 1958 was added to the mailing list. These potential cases numbered 131. (2) On May 16, 1968, a printed questionnaire entitled ! , A Survey of Occupations and Adult Life, " stamped return envelope, and personal letter was mailed to the 306 ^There were 1051 responses: 688 men, 352 women, 11 sex unknown. See Appendix A for postcard questionnaire. 30 potentially eligible cases.^ By June 11, 1968, there had been 160 responses out of a possible 290, or 55$ response. During the week of June 11th, 121 additional question naires, a second stamped return envelope, and a hand written personal note was mailed to non-responders. (3) During the last half of June, 1968, and the month of July, an effort was made to obtain a telephone number for every non-respondent and at least four attempts were made to contact him by telephone. Extra effort was made to reach non-responders to the postcard survey. A thank you letter and statistical summary was mailed to all the respondents. C. Techniques of Analysis 1. Operational definitions One problem inherent in empirically testing reward theory was that rewards and costs were conceptualized as subjectively felt. However, cultures do generate certain standards for activities which are adhered to normatively and are so universally and consistently valued that it is ^See Appendix B for "The Survey of Occupations and Adult Life" and accompanying letter. It should be noted that a pre-test was mailed to 29 non-eligible cases on April 22, 1968. Prom this pre-test there were 20 responders, one deceased, two returned "address unknown,"— resulting in a 77$ response. See Appendix C. 31 logical to assume rewards received and costs expended in pursuing such activities are felt and meaningfully interpreted in more or less similar ways by virtually all individuals in that culture system."^ Advantages in the use of career as the most important pivotal activity in this study are many. A career is generally of long duration, and the normative requirements as well as performance within it are generally highly visible to peers. Furthermore, many investigations have been reported in this field which indicate that persons with different kinds of personalities or values o select different kinds of careers. The unwanted effects of such differences were here removed to some extent by limiting all comparisons between histories of career success and expansive— contractive behaviors to within occupational categories rather than across them. Business men were compared with businessmen, and academicians with 7p0r an excellent discussion of this see pp. 19-27, Werner S, Landeoker, "Types of Integration and Their Measurement," in The Language of Social Research edited by Paul F. Lazarsfeld and Morris kosenberg (Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press, Inc., 1955). ^M. J. Rosenberg, Occupations and Values (Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press, Inc., 1957); John Scanzoni, "Socialization, n Achievement, and Achievement Values," American Sociological Review, 32 (June, 1967), pp. 449- 45b; and John F. Marsh, Jr., and Frank.P. Stafford, "The Effects of Values on Pecuniary Behavior: The Case of Academicians," American Sociological Review, 32 (October, 1967), pp. ibo-TW. 32 academicians. Lastly., and most importantly, while there are numerous rewards and costs attached to careers which are idiosyncratic, there is one objectively measurable, important reward attached to every career regardless of the type, — annual dollar income,9 and one objectively measurable, important cost, — preparation in terms of years of formal education. Early career success was measured in terms of a dichotomy based on standardized median income at age forty for businessmen, ten years after completion of final degree 10 for academicians. A separate median was computed for each of the two occupational types. Current career success was measured in terms of a ^Dollar income was significantly related to present felt career success for businessmen in our data but not for academicians: of the high income businessmen (n = 48), 16$ felt "extremely successful," 65$ felt "successful," 19$ felt "somewhat successful, and none felt "unsuccessful"; of the low income businessmen (n =" 43 )j none felt "extremely successful," 42$ felt "successful," 51$ felt "somewhat successful, and 7$ felt "somewhat unsuccessful." These differences in felt career success by income were significant at the .001 level ("t" test). Low income academicians (n = 20) tended to report success feelings similar to high income academicians and high income busi nessmen. There were no observable age differences in the relation between dollar income and career success feelings. l°Incomes at age forty were standardized by using 1968 as a base and calculating a multiple per cent of change based on the Consumer Price Index for Los Angeles— Long Beach: All Items 1914 Forward, 1947 Forward (1957- 1959 = 100)," United States Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Washington, D. C., Series A-03. 33 dichotomy based on current median income. A separate median was computed for each of the two occupational categories. Continuity of career success was assessed by means of the four possible combinations of current career success and early career success. Within each career type two age levels were identified and treated separately,, ages 38 through 49, and ages 50 throug?i 61. Elapsed career time was measured by comparing men with similar career histories in the younger age category with men in the older age category. Expansive behaviors were viewed as manifestations of generalized perceptions of mastery over favorable out comes and were operationalized by scoring the following indicators (the "higher" each score,, the higher the expansiveness): (l) Seeing life goals and important values as steady or growing, but not greatly changed in terms of negative response to the question, "Have your life goals changed significantly since you graduated from the University of Southern California?V A five point scale was used ranging from "changed completely" to "remain much the •^"High" is used in the sense of being the theoretically appropriate end of the scale for estimating an expansive behavior; "low" is used in the obverse sense. same." Perceptions of power over outcomes would encourage the organization of retrospective recall in a consistent and validating way. The high power person's past experiences would tend to be idealized. (2) Reporting active participation, weekly or more, in numerous activities and with diverse groups. Eight types of activities were listed: religious, professional, service, social, educational, family, active sports, and "other." Scoring was done by actual count. The high power person's perceptions of control over out comes tend to become generalized so that his associative behavior is diffuse; the low power person can avoid costs by dissociating himself from most events and seeking out activities and objects which are unambiguously rewarding.^ (3) Anticipating participation in future activities, when respondent will be aged 65-75* in terms of positive response to the question, "Do you anticipate that the above amount of activities you have cited will increase or diminish when you are 65-75 years of age?1 ’ A five point scale was used ranging from "increase considerably" to "decrease considerably." Perceptions of high power would 1 p A similar notion is expressed by William Caudill, in "Effects of Social and Cultural Systems," Dynamics of Modern Society, William J. Goode (ed.), (New York: Atherton Press, 1966), p. 165. "If an individual In our society cannot find satisfaction in its dominant patterns of life, he can turn to the’ variant patterns available in religious, artistic or intellectual pursuits. ..." 35 encourage the anticipation of high levels of activity after retirement. (4) Willingness to advise an "extremely competent" chess player to take a risky maneuver in a hypothetical chess tournament in order to attempt beating a top-favored player.^ A seven point scale was used ranging from "Mr. B should not attempt risky play no matter what the chances" to "chances are extremely slim" (but attempt it). In this situation personal power over outcome could be imagined by a successful man and, while risk was present, the social reward of being tournament champion was high, and the cost, in the form of game outcome, was relatively low. (5) Discriminating between a risk in which personal power over outcomes could be imagined and a risk in which the subject was powerless to affect outcome. The score for willingness to advise a "married man with two children" who made a steady $12,000 per year to risk his life savings of $10,000 with an advertising firm to promote a patented self-invented gadget1^ was subtracted from the 13>phls situation was derived from the Choice Dilemma Procedure (Nathan Kogan and Michael A. Wallach, Risk Taking: A Study in Cognition and Personality (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 19b4), No. 7, Appendix E). One change was made: the participant was described as being an "extremely competent" chess player so that a successful man might more readily identify with him and feel control over the outcome. i i t This situation, which can be found In Appendix B, item 40 D, was original to this study. score of willingness to risk in the chess game. To prevent negative scores, these differences were increased by "4,"so the scale ranged from 0-10. In the situation of advertis ing promotion personal power over outcome could not as readily be imagined by a successful man; the rewards in this situation might be high, but the cost in the event of failure was relatively much higher. The two risk situations did not share structural properties and would be expected to elicit responses based on cognitive judgments drawing from past experience. A person with high self perceived power over outcomes was considered to be less likely than others to risk in situations where this power could not be used. A person with low perceived power over outcomes was expected to be just as unlikely to risk in one situation as in the next, — feeling equally powerless in either situation, and because the reward appeared greater in the advertising scheme, he might even be tempted to take chances In the event of a possible unearned windfall. 2. General strategy In order to make any inferences with respect to generalized perceptions of power, it was first necessary to demonstrate that differences in behavior were associated with (l) degree of early career success, (2) degree of current career success, and (3) degree of continuity of career success. Furthermore, It was necessary to assess 37 how much any such association varied with elapsed time. The various scores for expansive-contractive behaviors were first examined by factor analysis to ascertain whether or not common factors would emerge which might suggest a hypothetical construct of "expansiveness" or "contractiveness1 1 and permit an efficient technique for a summary scoring of this "quality." However, after several tests for orthogonal factors, insufficient evidence for the assumption of underlying factors was found. Except for the hypothetical risk situations, there were very low correlations between dependent variables. Included in the final analysis were all the dependent variables which had elicited good distribution of 1 fT scores from respondents. ° By measuring success in career at a prior time, in addition to present time, the influence of early as well as current rewards was assessed in terms of present correlated .29 when scores from academicians and businessmen were both included. ^For a potential dependent variable to be included in the analysis it was necessary that scoring on it be distributed so that 75$ or more responses did not fall within two adjacent values. behaviors.Early success in career was treated as an independent variable so that its effects could be explored singly and jointly with present success in career and with advancing age. For this study to have validity the assumption had to be made that expansive and contractive behaviors were randomly distributed between present day successful and unsuccessful persons when they began their careers. This assumption was based on the homogeneity of the population selected for analysis: each man had received top academic rewards at the point of launching his career. This provided each one a successful experience as a student and attests to the likelihood that "felt probability of winning" began at homogeneously high levels for this entire population.-*-® Thus the general strategy for inferring ^Businessmen’s early incomes were measured as of age forty; academicians’s incomes were measured throughout this study as of ten years after completion of their advanced degree, since age forty was found in the pre-test to not be feasible for accurately gauging early career success on the part of academicians. -*-®In spite of retrospective bias this is reflected in our data: 92$ of our respondents (n = 135) recall their expected success in career at graduation as "extremely" or "very" successful, 6$ recall "somewhat1 1 successful, and 2$ did not respond to this question. It is interesting to note that recollection of success experienced at age forty was only 65$ for "extremely” and "very" categories, lB$”For "somewhat," 10$ for "unsuccessful," with 7$ not responding. 39 accumulations of perceived power over unknown outcomes was based on the association between present venturesome or reward-oriented behavior and histories of career success reaching back in time. 3. Statistical procedures Effects of four independent variables needed to be assessed in relation to five dependent variables. Three way analysis of variance was selected as being an efficient method of testing the effects of each independent variable on the dependent variable scores, while simultaneously controlling effects produced by the remaining independent variables. Statistical interaction could be ascertained in order to test the third and fourth hypotheses. Since the research objective aimed more at rigorous control of extraneous variables than at avoidance of a statistical Type II error, the level of significance for the tests of significance was set at .10.-*-9 Replication of all findings by career type would serve guard against deducing false differences. Limitations placed on the selection of the population for analysis tended to accentuate the homogeneity of career experiences resulting 3-9Labovitzrs comments on the criteria which should be used In selecting a level of significance are pertinent. He suggested that in the exploration stage of developing new hypotheses "perhaps the .10 or .20 level would be sufficient." Sanford Labovitz, The American Sociologist, 3 (August: 1968), p. 221. 40 in conservative bias with regard to behavioral differences; another conservative bias was added by cutting all incomes at the median rather than by including only extremely high on and low income persons in the analysis. v The statistical procedure used in the three way analysis of variance tables allowed for unequal numbers of 21 cases to be placed in each cell of the design. This meant that cells containing small numbers of cases were weighted and harmonic means employed in the analysis. ^°0ut of 233 responses, only 135 could be included in the final analysis: 78 were eliminated because respondents did not qualify on age, education, or career type requirements; 7 academicians were eliminated because respondents majored in religion for their Ph.D.; 13 cases were eliminated because no data on early income could be obtained, 5 of which were academicians who had only recently received their advanced degree. p*l See the discussion of analysis of variance with unequal sub-set frequencies and unweighted means in B. J. Winer, Statistical Principles in Experimental Design (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1962), p. 222; and in Donald J. Veldman, Fortran Programming for the Behavioral Sciences (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1967), pp. 257-261. Error terms were corrected according to the method described by Helen M. Walker and Joseph Lev, Statistical Inference (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1953)* p. 371. 41 CHAPTER IV RESEARCH RESULTS A. Comments on Response and Selection of Cases There were 233 responders to the survey out of a possible 286, or an overall response rate of 81$.1 Of the men who had returned the earlier pilot postcard, 86$ also returned the longer questionnaire. Of the men who had not returned the earlier' pilot postcard but who 'were included in this second mailing, 74$ did return this one. All cases were Included In the analysis of data which qualified on the following criteria: (l) age— 38 through 6l, (2) occupation--business or science, research, or education, (3) amount of education— B.A. degree for businessmen, Ph.D. degree or the equivalent for academicians, and (4) complete Information obtained on current and age forty income. One further modification had to be made after a preliminary review of personal characteristics revealed that low income academicians 1Of the original 306 questionnaires mailed, 7 were returned "address unknown," 5 were deceased, 7 were con tacted but ineligible because of current occupation. Nine men did not return questionnaires for whom no telephone listing could be found. Omitting these 9 men from the "possible" category would result in an overall response rate of 84$. There were 12 clear refusals. 42 numbered far more religious men than high income academicians. This population was re-defined to exclude all men who had majored in "religion" for their Ph.D. in order to remove the potentially biasing effect religious orientation might have on the dependent variables. Of the qualified remaining cases, 57 businessmen and 34 academicians had been responders to the postcard survey, while 34 businessmen and 10 academicians had not responded to the postcard survey. Questionnaires were completely answered by almost p all the qualified men. A personal letter or telephone call generally elicited information which had been omitted. B. Characteristics according to the Independent Variables 1. Businessmen (n » 91) There were 60 men aged 38 through 49 years, and 31 men aged 50 through 6l years. Current annual income ranged from $10,000 per year, one case, to $90,000 per year, two cases. The median current income for all ages was found to be $25,000. Thirty-six per cent of the men had incomes within $5,000 of the median. The annual standardized median income at age forty was found to be $17,000. p High income businessmen completed their question naires more adequately than any other category, followed by low income businessmen, low income educators, and lastly by high income educators. 43 Table 1. Distribution of Cases by Age Forty Income, Current Income, and Age (BUSINESSMEN) Age Forty Income High Low High Current Low Current High Current Low Current Age Income Income Income Income 38-49 28 0 r - ( 18 50-61 6 3 10 12 2. Academicians (n = 44) The academicians constituted a somewhat older population than the businessmen with 20 men aged 38 through 49 years, and 24 men aged 50 through 6l years. Current annual income ranged from $13,000 per year, three cases,, to $63,000 per year, one case. The median current income for all ages was found to be $20,000.3 Sixty-six per cent of the men had incomes within $5,000 of the median. The annual standardized median income at ten years after receiving advanced degree was found to be $16,000. ^This is higher than the national average incomes of scientists reported in "Summary of American Science Man power, 1964," N.S.F. 66-11, March, 1966, Washington, D. C. Median annual salary was $11,000, median age was 38* Salaries rose with age to $13,000 by ages 55-59. The average Ph.D. salary was $12,000 at age 38. 44 Table 2. Distribution of Cases by Age Forty Income3-, Current Income, and Age (ACADEMICIANS) Age Forty Income High ‘ Low High Current; Low Current High Current Low Current Age Income Income Income Income r 38-49 8 2 5 5 50-61 7 .3 4 1 0 a0n this and all subsequent tables for academicians, age forty income refers to a time ten years after completion of an advanced degree. C. Personal Characteristics- of Qualified Cases An examination of the family backgrounds of the populations under investigation in Tables 3 and 4 did not reveal any pronounced discrepancies between high and low income cases. If anything, current low income men— and especially low income academicians, came more frequently from "high" socio-economic status level parents than did current high income men. .-High income businessmen tended to be employed by large firms more often than their low income peers. High income academicians were employed less frequently by educa tional institutions than were low income academicians. 45 Table 3- Percentage Distribution of Personal Characteristics (BUSINESSMEN) Item High Current Income (*) (n) Low Current Income (*) (n) Socioeconomic Status: Low Middle High Type of Employer: Self ^ Small Private Business, Large Private Business Educational Other Present Marital Status: Married Divorced or Separated Widowed Never Married Reported Marital Happiness Happier than Average "Just about average" "Not too happy" No Response Health, self-rated: Excellent Good or Fairly Good Fairly to Very Poor Religious Preference: Protestant Catholic Jewish None, or Agnostic 17 8 19 73 35 65 10 ( 5) 16 loo loo 25 (12) 30 10 5) 12 65 (31) 53 _ 5 100 loO 96 (46) 88 4 ( 2) 5 - 2 - - 5 100 100 88 8 2 2 100 54 44 2 100 63 19 12 6 TOO [42' 4 1 l' .30, 9, 6 3! 77 7 7 9 100 33 65 2 100 6l 9 16 14 TUU ( 2) .38, 2 1 2 .33, 3, 3, 4 ' 26' 4 I ^Socioeconomic status for the family of origin was con- sidered low if neither parent finished high school AND father's occupation was level four or below on Holling- shead's Occupational and Educational Scales (January, 1958) OR father was dead or retired when respondent was age 18; socioeconomic status wa3 considered high if one parent had some college AND father1s occupation was level one or two 46 Table 4. Percentage Distribution of Personal Characteristics (ACADEMICIANS) High Current Low Current Income Income Item (*) (n) ( % ) (n) Socioeconomic Status:a Low 38 ( 9} 30 ( 6! Middle 54 13 45 9 High 8 ( 2) 25 ( 5) loo loo Type of Employer: 'SelT ' ' - - 10 ( 2) Small Private Business - — — Large Private Business1 3 17 — - Educational 71 (17) 85 (17) Other, including Government 12 ( 3) 5 ( 1) 100 loo Present Marital Status: Married 92 (22) 95 (19) Divorced or Separated - - Widowed 4 — - Never Married 4 { 1) 5 ( 1) 100 100 Reported Marital Happiness: Happier than Average 88 (23.) 90 (18) "Just about average" 4 ( 1) 5 ( 1) "Not too happy" - - No Response 8 ( 2) 5 ("l) loo loo Health, self-rated: Excellent 48 (3.1) 47 ( 9) Good or Fairly Good 52 (12) 53 (10) Fairly to Very Poor - - - — 100 loo Religious Preference: Protestant 46 (11) 75 (15) Catholic 8 ( 2) - Jewish 13 ( 3 10 ( 2) None, or Agnostic 33 ( 8 15 ( 3) Tol) im OR if no occupation was given for father, both parents had some college. .^A small private business was one with less than 50 employees. A large private business was one with 50 or more employees. 47 Very few of the men reported poor health, although it can be seen from Table 3 that high income businessmen reported excellent health more frequently than low income businessmen. An examination of religious membership indicated discrepancies between successfuls and nonsuccessfuls which varied by career type, with more high income businessmen and low income academicians belonging to organized religious groups. Also note, in Tables 3 and 4, that while religious preferences were fairly evenly distributed between high and low income businessmen, they were not so distributed for academicians. Fewer successful academicians were Protestants, while more were Catholic, Jewish, or agnostic. JD. .Analysis of the Dependent Variables 1. Steadiness in life goals One of the consequences of career success predicted was a negative response to the question: "Have your life goals changed significantly since you graduated from the University of Southern California'?V This variable was designed to operationalize and measure the attribute of emphasizing one’s own continuity of goals as opposed to self expression in terms of discontinuity. Table for businessmen, and Table J , for ;academicians, present mean scores on steadiness in life 48 goals arranged by combinations of* high and low incomes, past and present; Tables 6 and 8 provide the variance analysis for assessing statistical significance for past and present success, age levels, and the several 4 statistical interactions among the three. Hypothesis I, predicting expansiveness of behavior in terms of early career success, was not supported. How ever, mean scores indicated that the older the man was the more his success at age forty was associated with his retrospective organization of life goals in an expansive way. This interaction was significant at the .05 probability level for businessmen. Hypothesis II, predicting expansiveness of behavior in terms of current career success tended to be supported by the data. Current success was significantly associated with high scores on steadiness in life goals for each age level businessman. The interaction between current success and advancing age was significantly associated with expansive behavior for academicians at the .05 level.^ ^The differences and standard deviations upon which these calculations, and all subsequent variance analysis calculations, are based appear in Appendix D, so that the reader can satisfy himself as to the meaningfulness of these results. ^Young high income academicians, and more especial ly young consistently high income academicians, evidenced significant change in life goals, while their peers evidenced retrospective attachment to original recalled goals. This finding was unexpected, and was dissimilar to Hypothesis III., predicting expansiveness of behavior in terms of continuity in career success was not supported. While the highest order interactions were not significant several lower order interactions, cited above, did indicate an increased association between success in career and expansiveness of behavior by elapsed time. Furthermore, when elapsed time was measured for categories of men consistently high or consistently low, the predicted increase or decrease in scores was evident in each career type: men consistently high in success scored higher at the older age level, men consistently low scored 6 lower. Hypothesis IV was partially supported by both career types. These findings provide substantial evidence that success In career combined with elapsed time influence how a man recalls his earlier life goals. High success was the pattern of young businessmen. This suggests a requisite of discontinuity of goal maintenance In order for Ph.D.'s to achieve high Incomes at a young age. In addi tion, scores obtained from older businessmen and academi cians were significantly different from each other, P<.025 ("t" test), validating the suspicion that the two occupa tional types view continuity of life goals from somewhat different perspectives. ^Elapsed time was associated with no consistent pattern for scores of men with discontinuity in career success, the mixed types of low to high success and high to low. 50 Table 5. Expansiveness in Terms of Steadiness in Life Goals by Success at Age Forty, Current Success, and Age (BUSINESSMEN) Total Ages Income at Current Ages 38-49 Ages 50-61 38-61 Age Forty Income <X)a (n) (X) (n) (X) High High 3.32 (28) 3*67 f 6) 3.50 Low High 4.25 4) 3.0 (10) 3.63 High Low 2.70 10 3.33 3 3.02 Low Low 3.33 (18) 2.92 (12) 3.13 High High + Low 3.01 n.a.1 3 3.50 n.a. 3.26 Low High + Low 3-79 n.a. 2.96 n.a. 3.38 High + Low High 3.79 n.a. 3-34 n.a. 3.57 High + Low Low 3.01 n.a. 3.13 n.a. 3.07 Grand Total, All Incomes 3.40 n.a. 3.23 n.a. 3.32 aThe larger the mean, the greater the expansiveness. ^On this and all subsequent tables, "n.a." stands for not applicable. 51 Table 6. Variance Analysis of Table 5*a Sum Degrees Estimates of of of F Source of Variation Squares Freedom Variance Ratio Age Forty Income .204 1 .204 Current Income 3.398 1 3.3398 2.39°' Age .421 1 .421 .21 Age Forty Income by Age 6.222 1 6.222 4.38° Current Income by Age 1.118 1 1.118 • 79 Age Forty Income by Current Income .002 1 .002 .00 Age Forty Income by .264 .264 Current Income by Age 1 .19 Within Subsets 117.860 83 1.420 n.a. Total 129.510 90 1.439 n.a. a*For the method employed in this and subsequent variance analysis tables, see the discussion of analysis of variance with unequal sub-set frequences and unweighted means in B. J. Winer, Statistical Principles in Experimental Design (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1"Sk>2), p. 222, and in Donald J. Veldman, Fortran Programming for the Behavioral Sciences (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1967)^ pp. 257-261. Error terms were corrected according to the method described by Helen M. Walker and Joseph Lev, Statistical Inference (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1953) , p. 371. b P < .10 (On this ana other tables, computed probabilities were halved). c P < .05 52 Table 7. Expansiveness in Terms of Steadiness in Life Goals by Success at Age Forty, Current Success, and Age (ACADEMICIANS) r , ■ ^ Total Ages Income at Current Ages 38-49 Ages 50-61 38-61 Age Forty Income (X)a (n) (X) (n) (X) High High 2.25 ( 8) 3,57 ( 7) 2.91 Low High 3.60 { 5) 4.0 ( 4) 3.80 High Low 4.0 ( 2) 3.33 { 3) 3.67 Low Low 4.80 ( 5) 3.80 (lo) 4.30 High High + Low 3.13 n.a. 3.45 n.a. 3-29 Low High + Low 4.20 n.a. 3.90 n.a. 4.05 High + Low High 2.93 n.a. 3*79 n.a. 3.38 High + Low Low 4.40 n.a. 3-57 n.a. 3.99 Grand Total, All Incomes 3-56 n.a. 3*88 n.a. 3*67 aThe larger the mean, the greater the expansiveness. Table 8. Variance Analysis of Table 7 Sum Degrees Estimates of of of F Source of Variation Squares Freedom Variance Ratio Age Forty Income 5.009 1 5.009 3.97^ Current Income 3.408 1 3.408 2.44b Age .002 1 .002 .00 Age Forty Income by Age .850 1 .850 , *67* Current Income by Age 6.201 1 6.201 4.91a Age Forty Income by .142 .142 Current Income 1 .11 Age Forty Income by .187 .187 Current Income by Age 1 .15 Within Subsets 45.468 36 1.293 n.a. Total 61.275 43 1.425 n.a. a P: < .05 b R. < . 10 53 associated with felt continuity of goal maintenance, low success with a felt discontinuity, and most especially when time allowed recollections to mellow. 2. Variety of Weekly Sociable Activities Reported A second predicted consequence of success was that frequent participation in numerous and diverse groups would be reported. This was operationalized by counting the number of activities respondents cited as engaging in "weekly or more" from a list of eight types, — religious, professional, service, social, educational, family, active sports, and "other." Tables 9-12 present data and variance analysis for mean scores on variety of weekly sociable activities reported. Hypothesis I, predicting expansive behavior in terms of early career success, tended to be supported but not significantly. Businessmen at each age level who reported high income at age forty also reported more current weekly activity. Older academicians who reported high income at age forty also reported more current weekly activities, although the reverse was reported for younger academicians. The latter interaction was significant at the .05 level. Hypothesis II, predicting expansive behavior in terms of current career success, was supported by both age categories in each professional category, although the size 54 Table 9. Expansiveness in Terms of Variety of Weekly Sociable Activities Reported by Success at Age Fortyj Current Success, and Age (BUSINESSMEN) Income at Age Forty Current Income Ages (x)a 38-49 (n) Ages (x) l 50-61 (n) Total Ages 38-61 (X) High High l.6i (28) 1.83 ( 6) 1.72 Low High 1.50 ( 4) 1.30 10 1.40 High Low 1.50 10 1.67 ( 3 1.59 Low Low 1.50 (l8) 1.08 (12) 1.29 High High + Low 1.56 n.a. 1.75 n.a. 1.66 Low High + Low 1.50 n.a. 1.19 n.a. 1.35 High + Low High 1.56 n.a. 1.57 n.a. 1.57 High + Low Low 1.50 n.a. 1.38 n.a. 1.44 Grand Total, All Incomes 1.53 n.a. 1.47 n.a. I.50 ^The larger the mean, the greater the expansiveness. Table 10. Variance Analysis of Table 9 Sum Degrees Estimates Source of Variation of Squares of Freedom of Variance F Ratio Age Forty Income 1.332 1 1.332 .93 Current Income .214 1 .214 .15 Age .045 1 .045 .03 Age Forty Income by Age .906 1 .906 .63 Current Income by Age .068 1 .068 .05 Age Forty Income by Current Income .003 1 .003 .00 Age Forty Income by Current Income by Age .022 1 .022 .02 Within Subsets 119.188 83 1.436 n.a. Total 121.770 90 1.353 n.a. 55 Table 11. Expansiveness in Terms of Variety of Weekly Sociable Activities Reported by Success at Age Forty, Current Success, and Age (ACADEMICIANS) Income at Age Forty Current Income Ages m a 38-49 (n) Ages 00 1 50-61 (n) Total Ages 38-61 m High High 1.63 ( 8) 3.29 i 7) 2.46 Low High 2.0 ( 5 1.50 { 4 1.75 High Low .00 ( 2) 2.0 ( 3 1.0 Low Low 3.0 ( 5) 1.90 (10) 2.45 High High + Low .81 n.a. 2.65 n.a. 1.73 Low High + Low 2.50 n.a. 1.70 n.a. 2.10 High 1 - Low High 1.81 n.a. 2.40 n.a. 2.11 High + Low Low 1.50 n.a. 1.95 n.a. 1.73 Grand Total, All Incomes 1.66 n.a. 2.17 n.a. 1.92 ^The larger the mean, the greater the expansiveness. Table 12. Variance Analysis of Table 11 Sum Degrees Estimates of of of F Source of Variation Squares Freedom Variance Ratio Age Forty Income 1.198 1 1.198 .36 Current Income 1.233 1 1.233 .38 Age 2.294 1 2.294 .68 Age Forty Income by Age 14.950 1 14.950 4.93a Current Income by Age .037 1 .037 .01 Age Forty Income by 10.038 Current Income 1 10.038 3*31a Age Forty Income by .477 Current Income by Age 1 .477 .16 Within Subsets 109.188 36 3.033 n.a. Total 139.449 43 3.243 n.a. a P < .05 of the individual mean differences did not generate statistical significanceNevertheless, the chance probability of four categories of populations scoring in the predicted direction is less than .07. Hypothesis III, predicting expansive behavior in terms of continuity of career success, tended to be supported. Each consistently high income age category of businessmen scored higher than each consistently low income category, with scores of mixed types falling in between. The interaction between early income and current Income was significant at the .05 level for academicians, indicating that continuity of career success, or lack of success, was associated with high levels of weekly sociable activities. Hypothesis IV, predicting an association between career success and expansiveness of behavior varying positively with elapsed time, was supported by data from each career category. With advancing age a consistently high success history was increasingly associated with expansiveness of behavior, while a consistently low history was decreasingly associated with it. The highest order interactions were not significant, although interaction between age and early Income was significant for academicians. ^Academicians reported more weekly activities than did businessmen regardless of age or income or income history category. 57 Differences in mean scores of reported variety of weekly sociable activities were, with the exception of young academicians, consistently in the direction predicted by all four hypotheses, lending support to the theoretical position that a history of success influences the amount and diversity of a person's associative activities. This variable emerged as a heuristic yardstick for testing the implications of reward theory further. 3. Attitude Towards Future Activity Level Another predicted consequence of success was that frequent participation in numerous and diverse groups would be projected by subjects into the future. This was operationalized as a positive response to the question: Q ”Do you anticipate that the above amount of activities you have cited will increase or diminish when you are 65 to 75 years of age?? Tables 13 to 16 contain data and variance analysis for mean scores on this variable. Hypothesis I, predicting expansiveness of behavior in terms of early career success, was not supported. Specifically the older men who had reported early high income from career were more conservative in their attitude towards future activity level than peers who had reported ^Refers to same list of eight activities enumerated in Variable: variety of weekly sociable activities. 58 Table 13. Expansiveness in Terms of Attitude Towards Future Activity Level by Success at Age Forty, Current Success, and Age (BUSINESSMEN) Income at Age Forty Current Income Ages pf)a Total Ages 38-49 Ages 50-61 38-61 (n) (X) (n) (X) High High 3.04 Low High 3.50 High Low 3•00 Low Low 3-72 High High + Low 3-02 Low High + Low 3.61 High + Low High 3.27 High + Low Low 3-36 Grand Total, All Incomes 3.32 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 3.15 3.20 3.0 3.40 3.06 3.30 3.16 3.20 3.18 &The smaller the mean, the greater the expansiveness Table 14. Variance Analysis of Table 13- Sum Degrees Estimates of of of F Source of Variation Squares Freedom Variance Ratio Age Forty Income .895 1 .895 .97 Current Income • 037 1 .037 .04 Age 1.092 1 1.092 1.18 Age Forty Income by Age I.669 1 I.669 1.82a Current Income by Age .026 1 .026 .03 Age Forty Income by .36 Current Income .329 1 .329 Age Forty Income by .008 .008 Current Income by Age 1 .01 Within Subsets 76.194 83 .918 n.a. Total 80.280 90 .892 n.a. a P . <7To 59 Table 15. Expansiveness in Terms of Attitude Towards Future Activity Level by Success at Age Forty., Current Success, and Age (ACADEMICIANS) Total Ages Income at Current Ages 38-49 Ages 50-61 38-61 Age Forty Income (x)a (n) (x) (n) (X) High High 2.88 ( 8) 3.57 { 7 } 3.23 Low High 3.60 { 5) 3.25 ( 4 3.45 High Low 2.50 ( 2) 4.33 ( 3) 3.42 Low Low 3.0 C 5) 3.30 (10) 3.15 High High + Low 2.69 n.a. 3.95 n.a. 3.32 Low High + Low 3.30 n.a. 3.28 n.a. 3.29 High + Low High 3.24 n.a. 3.41 n.a. 3-33 High r Low Low 2.75 n.a. 3.81 n.a. 3.28 Grand Total, All Incomes 3.0 n.a. 3.61 n.a. 3.31 &The smaller the meani , the greater the 1 expansiveness. Table 16. Variance Analysis of Table 15- Sum Degrees Estimates of of of F Source of Variation Squares Freedom 1 Variance Ratio Age Forty Income .009 1 .009 .01 Current Income .014 1 .014 .01 Age 3.322 1 3.322 2.89a Age Forty Income by Age 3.595 1 3.595 3-25a Current Income by Age 1.725 1 1.725 1.56b Age Forty Income by Current Income .474 1 .474 .43 Age Forty Income by Current Income by Age*^--"7l28~ 1 .128 .12 Within Subsets..... 39.816 36 _ 1.106 n.a. Total 49.063 43 '1.141 n.a. a P • • < .05 b P ■ < .11 early low Incomes. This interaction between age level and early career success was significant at the .10 probability level for businessman, and at the .05 probability level for academicians. At first glance it would appear that the influence of success over elapsed time decreased projected activity levels or expansive behavior. However, it must be pointed out that this measure of future activity level was made in relation to present activity levels reported, and data showed present activity levels to be higher for older age category men with early success histories. Thus, when questioned on future activity level, a response of "remain about the same" (scored as a "3") would have a different meaning for men who- had already increased their activity level than for men who had started to decrease theirs. Mean scores by current career success lent insufficient evidence to render support for Hypothesis II.9 The biasing effect of current activities in relation to future projections again appeared to influence this data. Hypothesis III, predicting expansive behavior in terms of continuous career success, was not supported. In fact, the older the consistently successful businessmen and ^While academicians generally scored more con tract! vely by advancing age level (P<.05), academicians who acquired success later in life scored less contractive- ly than peers. Current income by age Interaction for academicians was significant at the .11 level. 61 academicians were, the more they tended to assess future activities in terms of slowing down a bit, whereas the consistently low income men were not quite as conservative. Hypothesis XV was clearly refuted. Interactions between age and early income, significant for both career types., and interaction between age and current income, approaching significance for academicians, indicated the association between career success and expansiveness of behavior was less for those who had followed a career for a relatively long period than for those closer to Its inception. Mean differences in anticipations of future activity levels relative to present amount of activity did not support any of the hypotheses. However, in the opinion of the writer, this lack of support was more an Indictment of the measure used than a refutation of theoretical position. Modifications should be made in the measurement of future activity level, in order to make it Independent of any other measure. Hypothetical Risk Behavior Another correlate of career success was predicted to be an Inclination on the part of persons who had experienced success to make decisions for action which appeared "risky" in order to achieve favorable outcomes. This Inclination was operationalized by a "high" risk score 62 on advice respondent would give to an "extremely competent" player in a national chess tournament In a hypothetical situation involving a risky maneuver to achieve prominence and quite possibly the championship. Tables 17 to 20 depict the mean scores and the variance analyses for this variable. Data from neither career type lent support to Hypothesis I. On the contrary, income at age forty was inversely associated with risk taking at the .10 level of significance for all businessmen, and was also Inversely associated for young academicians. Hypothesis II, predicting expansiveness of behavior in terms of current career success, , was given support by data from academicians (P < .10),10 but not supported by businessmen. There was no significant association between continuity of career success and expansiveness In risk taking behavior, nor between elapsed time, career success, and expansiveness in risk taking behavior. Hypotheses III and IV were not supported. 10Younger academicians scored significantly higher on this ri3k taking measure than did the younger business men (P <.10). In the older age category this pattern was reversed, but not sufficiently to be significant. 63 Table 17. Expansiveness in Terms of Hypothetical Risk Behavior by Success at Age FortyCurrent Success, and Age (BUSINESSMEN) Income at Age Forty Current Income Ages O T a 38-49 (n) Total Ages Ages 50-61 38-61 (X) (n) (X) High High 3.64 (28) 2.50 ( 6) 3.07 Low High 4.25 ( V 3.80 f 10} 4.03 High Low 4.20 (10) 2.33 ! 3) 3.27 Low Low 4.11 (18) 3.08 (12) 3.60 High High + Low 3.92 n.a. 2.42 n.a. 3.17 Low High + Low 4.18 n .a. 3.44 n.a. 3.81 High + Low High 3..95 n.a. 3.15 n. a. 3-55 High + Low Low 4.16 n.a. 2.71 n.a. 3.44 Grand Total, All Incomes 4.05 n.a. 2.93 n.a. 3.49 aThe larger the mean, the greater the expansiveness. Table 18. Variance Analysis of Table 17. Sum Degrees Estimates of of of F Source of Variation Squares Freedom Variance Ratio Age Forty Income 5.865 1 5.865 2.02a Current Income .192 1 .192 Age 17.905 1 17.905 6.l6b Age Forty Income by Age 2.086 1 2.086 .72 Current Income by Age 1.506 1 1.506 .52 Age Forty Income by 1.381 .48 Current Income 1.381 1 Age Forty Income by Current Income by Age .019 1 .019 .01 Within Subsets 241.281 83 2.907 n.a. Total 270.180 90 3.002 n.a. a P .< .10 bp < .01 64 Table 19. Expansiveness in Terms of Hypothetical Risk Behavior by Success at Age Forty,, Current Success* and Age (ACADEMICIANS) Income at Age Forty Current Income Ages m a 38-49 (n) Total Ages Ages 50-61 38-61 00 (n) (X) High High 4.25 ( 8) 3.71 ( 7) 3.98 Low High 4.80 ( 5 3.25 ( 4) 4.03 High Low 4.0 f 2) 2.0 3 3.0 Low Low 4.60 ( 5) 2.30 (10) 3.45 High High + Low 4.13 n.a. 2.86 n. a. 3.36 Low High + Low 4.70 n.a. 2.78 n.a. 3.99 High + Low High 4.53 n.a. 3.48 n.a. 4.01 High + Low Low 4.30 n.a. 2.15 n.a. 3.23 Grand Total* All Incomes - 4.41 n.a. 2.85 n.a. 3.63 ^The larger the mean* the greater the expansiveness. Table 20. Variance Analysis of Table 19 Sum Degrees Estimates of of of F Source of Variation Squares Freedom Variance Ratio Age Forty Income .525 1 .525 .21 Current Income 5.239 1 5.239 2.10* Age 22.028 1 22.028 8.83 Age Forty Income by Age .933 1 .933 .37 Current Income by Age 2.649 1 2.649 1.06 Age Forty Income by .358 .14 Current Income .358 1 Age Forty Income by .276 .276 Current Income by Age 1 .11 Within Subsets 89.784 36 2.494 n.a. Total 121.776 43 2.832 n.a. f P ; <..10 b P .01 The relation of age to scores on this risk measure was significant at the .01 level, both career types, which indicated a positive association between age and contrac tiveness of risk behavior. This finding supports data reported by Kogan and Wallach.11 Certain categories of men at the older age level, however, were considerably more inclined to. behave expansively than their peers: 1 P businessmen with histories of from low to high income, and academicians with consistently high or with histories of from low to high income. 5. Discrimination in Hypothetical Risk Behavior The last predicted correlate of success was the extent to which the subject's power over outcomes would be taken into consideration in making decisions for action. Discrimination in decision making between situations where personal power over outcomes could be and could not be exercised was operationalised by scoring the difference between willingness to risk in offering advice to an ^Nathan Kogan and Michael Wallach, Risk Taking: A Study in Cognition and Personality (New York! Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1964). 12 Perhaps the Horatio Alger myth corresponds with realities of the business world. In responding to the question concerning "your first, steady, full time, civilian Job after completion of your final degree from a University" numerous businessmen responded with their pre college manual labor Job, — as if to affirm a rags to riches conceptualization of self. 66 "extremely competent" player (the preceding game situation) and willingness to risk a low income person's total life savings with an advertising firm. Hypothesis I, predicting expansive behavior in terms of early career success, was not supported by data from either career type. Income at age forty, as in the preceding risk measure, was inversely associated with risk discrimination, especially for businessmen (P .11). Current career success, on the other hand, tended to be positively associated with risk discrimination, so that Hypothesis II was supported, especially by data from academicians (P .11). Once more, a career history of low to high success was more positively associated with risk discrimination for businessmen than any other kind of career history. Continuity in career success was not significantly associated with expansiveness of behavior, nor was elapsed time in career significantly associated with any differences in expansiveness of behavior. The relation of age to scores on this variable was significant at the .01 level for academicians and at the .05 level for businessmen, indicating that older men discriminated less than younger men In making risk decisions between situations where personal power over 67 Table 21. Expansiveness in Terms of Discrimination in Hypothetical Risk Behavior by Success at Age Forty, Current Success, and Age (BUSINESSMEN) ' ■ Total Ages Income at Current Ages 38-49 Ages 50-61 38-61 Age Forty Income (X)a (n) no (n) (X) High High 4.89 (28) 4.17 ( 6) 4.53 Low High 5.75 ( 4 5.30 (1°) 5.53 High Low 5.40 (10) 4.0 ( 3 4.70 Low Low 5.61 (18) 4.33 (12) 4.97 High High + Low 5.15 n.a. 4.09 n.a. 4.62 Low High + Low 5.68 n.a. 4.82 n.a. 5.25 High + Low High 5.32 n.a. 4.74 n.a. 5.03 High + Low Low 5.51 n.a. 4.17 n. a. 4.84 Grand Total, All Incomes 5.41 n.a. 4.45 n.a. 4.93 aThe larger the mean, the greater the expansiveness. Table 22. Variance Analysis of Table 21. Sum Degrees Estimates of of of F Source of Variation Squares Freedom Variance Ratio Age Forty Income 5.714 1 5.714 1.56a Current Income .520 1 .520 .14 Age 13.207 1 13.207 3.6lb Age Forty Income by Age .141 1 .141 .04 Current Income by Age 2.005 1 2.005 .55 Age Forty Income by 1.859 Current Income 1 I.859 .51 Age Forty Income by Current Income by Age .021 1 .021 .01 Within Subsets 303.697 83 3.659 n.a. Total 327.150 90 3.635 n.a. a P < .11 b P <•. .05 68 Table 23. Expansiveness in Terms of Discrimination in Hypothetical Risk Behavior by Success at Age Forty, Current Success, and Age (ACADEMICIANS) Income at Age Forty Current Income Ages 00 a 38-49 (n) Ages 00 1 50-61 (n) Total Ages 38-61 (X) High High 6.0 ( 8} 4.57 ( 7) 5.29 Low High 6.0 ( 5 3.75 ( 4 4.88 High Low 4.50 ( 2) 3.33 ( 3 3-92 Low Low 5.40 ( 5) 4.10 (10) 4.75 High High + Low 5.25 n.a. 3.95 n.a. 4.60 Low High + Low 5.70 n.a. 3.93 n.a. 4.82 High + Low High 6.00 n.a. 4.16 n.a. 5.08 High + Low Low 4.95 n.a. 3.72 n.a. 4.34 Grand Total, All Incomes 5.48 n.a. 3.94 n.a. 4.71 hThe larger the mean, the greater the expansiveness. Table 24. Variance Analysis of Table 23 Sum Degrees Estimates of of of F Source of Variation Squares Freedom Variance Ratio Age Forty Income .386 1 .386 .13 Current Income 4.823 1 4.823 !.67a Age 20.400 1 20.400 7.08b Age Forty Income by Age .492 1 .492 .17 Current Income by Age .793 1 .793 .28 Age Forty Income by 3 • 344 3.344 1.16 Current Income 1 Age Forty Income by .256 .256 Current Income by Age 1 .09 Within Subsets 103.716 36 2.881 n.a. Total 134.246 43 3.122 n.a. < < .11 .01 outcomes was a factor and where it was not.1^ Certain categories of men at the older age level, however, main tained higher levels of risk discrimination than their peers: businessmen with low to high success histories, and academicians with consistently high success histories. 6. Summary Early career success by itself was not signifi cantly associated with expansiveness of behavior on any of the dependent variables as predicted; there was a signifi cant inverse association, however, on risk behavior and risk discrimination for businessmen. Current career success was significantly associated with expansiveness of behavior on steadiness in life goals (businessmen), risk behavior (academicians), and approached significance on risk discrimination (academicians). In addition to these predicted associations, a noteworthy pattern of positive association can be seen in every single one of the scores of older age category men by current success. In each career type and for each of the five variables, current high success was more positively associated with expansiveness of behavior than for current low success peers. l^The average older businessman scored .51 higher on risk discrimination than the average older academician. 70 The association between current career success and expansiveness of behavior varied positively and signifi cantly by age on steadiness in life goals (academicians), and positively, but only approaching significance, in the case of future activity level (academicians, P <.ll), and risk behavior (academicians, P <.l6). Continuity in career success was only significantly associated with expansiveness of behavior on reported amount of weekly activities (academicians). Consistently successful men tended to report more weekly sociable activities than men with other types of career histories. In addition, at the older age level, consistently success ful businessmen and academicians reported more activity than any category of younger men. Thus, activity habits appeared to be the product of long standing accumulations l4 of success. The association between early career success and expansiveness of behavior varied positively and signifi cantly with elapsed time for steadiness in life goals (businessmen), reported amount of weekly activities (academicians), but negatively and significantly for both career types on future activity level. However, another pattern emerged which tended to ■^Noteworthy on Tables 9 an3 11 is the finding* that older age category low to high success men were lowest in weekly activity reported. 71 support Hypothesis IV: with but one exception., ^ for both career types and on each of the five variables, the relationship between consistently low career success and expansiveness of behavior decreased with elapsed time; for both career types and on each of the dependent variables except risk behavior and risk discrimination, the relation ship between consistently high career success and expansiveness of behavior increased with elapsed time. Deviation from the pattern on the risk variables can be accounted for by the overall diminished risk scores in the older age category; when this was taken into account, a positive relation between consistently high career success and expansiveness of behavior by elapsed time tended to emerge. x Attitude towards future activity level, as this was measured In the present study, was found to be a poor yard stick of anticipated behaviors; it varied inversely with current reported activity level. ■^The exception was businessmen on future activity level. T f i It has previously been pointed out that, con trolling for the effect of age, for businessmen there was a greater increase in expansiveness of risk taking by elapsed time for men who had experienced low to high success histories. 72 CHAPTER V DISCUSSION A. Methodological Comments The purpose of this investigation was to obtain data which could demonstrate positive association between success in a culturally valued activity and venturesome, reward oriented behavior in a variety of other activities. Furthermore, the research strategy employed aimed at demonstrating that the degree of relationship between success and expansiveness of behavior varied with elapsed time. Prom such demonstration the inference could be drawn that perceptions of power over personal outcomes undergo a process of balancing: external to internal,, specific to generalised. The logic of the research design demanded that great care be taken in controlling potentially extraneous sources of variation which might account for current behavior characteristics; considerable further loss of cases resulted and reduced the chances for compelling results. Control was exercised with respect to sex, age, current occupation, educational level, and educational motivation. Furthermore, the personal characteristics of subjects were examined for such potentially biasing effects as heterogeneity with respect to socioeconomic status of parents, race, health, type of employer, and religion. Unique personal characteristics appeared to be evenly dis tributed between high and low income men of each career type with the following minor exceptions for academicians: a few high income academicians were employed by large private businesses, while no low income academicians were so employed; high income academicians tended to be Jewish, Catholic, or agnostic more frequently than did low income academicians. The academicians were therefore somewhat less homogeneous than the businessmen. This fact might account for the greater association between success and behavioral expansiveness observed among academicians. The influence of "personality" was minimized by replicating the analysis of businessmen with a separate . analysis of academicians. Recent studies, previously cited, reported that different personality types were 1 attracted to these two widely differing career lines. The analysis of variance design required complete information about income at age forty as well as current " | Our own data confirm the notion that early in the career cycle men in business and men in academia reacl; differently to current career success, for there are oppo site behavior tendencies by career type. At age category 50-61 predictions by career success are in exactly the same direction for the two career types, even though overall mean scores BETWEEN career types were significantly differ ent on two variables, steadiness in life goals, and amount of weekly activity reported. 74- income. This resulted in loss of cases, especially from p the' current low income categories. Homogeneity among the subjects also limited variability with respect to income. - The educational accomplishments of the study population meant that the subjects were also homogeneously high in overall career success.3 Furthermore, all cases were retained, including those at or near the median income within each occupation. Only through limiting the study to extremely high and low incomes could one expect extreme differences in behavior^ this option would have meant using a much larger and less homogeneous population, thereby sacrificing control for dramatic results. By controlling for potentially extraneous sources of variation in behavior among the subjects and thereby limiting the analysis to such a homogeneous population, relatively modest mean differences were expected on the dependent variables. In evaluating support for the four hypotheses specified in this paper, patterns of predicted differences 20f the seven business cases lost, five were in the older age category, six had current incomes $5*000 or more below the median income,* of the six academia cases lost, one was in the older age category, and four had incomes below the median. ^The lowest career income in this study was $10,000 per year, a figure well above the national average. The Consumer Price Index, A Short Description, 1967, U. S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, cites the average family income In 1960-61 to be $6,250 after taxes. 75 were considered as well as statistical significance of specific items. Patterns examined were direction of mean differences between current high and current low success within the separate age categories, and between age levels of consistently high and consistently low success. Another factor which had to be considered as a possible intervening influence upon the relationship of success in career and expansiveness of behavior was the generation effect. Each age "cohort” in this study had experienced unique historical events during their.formative college years and early in their career cycle. Men currently aged 50-61 were born between 1906 and 1919} had experienced some or all of their college years during the depression, and had their early careers interrupted by World War II; men presently aged 38-^9 were born between 1918 and 1931j most likely had their college years interrupted by World War II, --returning on the G-. I. Bill, and began their careers In the post war boom period. The most noteworthy age-related differences in this study were found while analysing the risk data. The influence and the saliency of the depression years upon the men aged 50-61 might account for some of the risk conservatism evidenced by that age category in this study. However, while differences by age levels were duly noted in our analyses, no comparisons by success in career were made directly across age levels. Elapsed time was strictly 76 a measure of length of career experience with a particular career history. This helped remove the unwanted effects of generational phenomena. It was suspected that non-responders to queries on career and career income would tend to have lower incomes than responders, causing a further reduction in the variability of the independent variables and biasing our results in the conservative direction of minimizing differ ences in expansive behavior. The initial pilot postcard response was therefore used as a check on income-related bias. All qualified cases which had been non-responders i to the postcard questionnaire were tallied by their current income. The same proportion of high and low income businessmen were non-responders to the postcard, whereas a somewhat greater proportion of low income than high income academicians were non-responders to the postcard. Non responders to the final detailed questionnaire, 53 cases out of 286, were therefore considered as producing only a ^Thirty-three per cent (n = 48) of currently high income businessmen and 33$ (n s = 4-3) of currently low Income businessmen had not been postcard responders; 13$ (n = 3) of currently high Income academicians were non-responders, and 35$ (n = 7) of currently low income academicians were non-responders. 77 5 minor biasing effect. Meticulous attention was paid to all coding, punching, and verification, so the mechanical error rate was minimal. Responses on the questionnaire were precoded for the greater part, so that little classification error or subjective bias could enter this phase of the research. Objective rules were provided for the few items requiring a coder. All coding was double checked. Hollerith cards were punched, verified, and subjected to a series of double checks for logical errors using card sorts. B. Theoretical Implications The inference drawn from the tests of Hypothesis XV which predicted the association between success and expansiveness of behavior in terms of elapsed time, is that repeated social exchanges generate generalized perceptions of mastery or non-mastery over various personal outcomes on the part of the individual. This does not minimize the 5of the 12 outright refusals, 10 mentioned time pressures, while only two men objected to the questionnaire itself with: "I never answer any questionnaires," and "Too personal." Lack of correct current address probably accounted for a certain amount of non-response since tele phone listings could not be obtained for so many of the non-responders. Outright hostility, with the effect of non-response, was encountered only twice, both times aimed at U.S.C. generally. Personal problems were probably responsible for a number of non-responses: six wives reported husbands away on extended business trips, several reported hospitalized husbands. 78 importance of recent experiences,, but adds another dimension. Explanation of the process by which perceptions of power become generalized--these were provided by balance theory, coupled with the data reported in this research — have lent support to Thibaut and Kelley's conceptualiza tion of high and low power persons. They might also suggest refinements for some of Homans' propositions concerning elementary social exchanges. The latter were based upon reinforcement and operant conditioning propositions formulated by the experimental psychologist, B. P. Skinner, in his work with pigeons. In this investigation, man's behavior was assumed to be based upon more than the sum of specific categories of reinforcements. A favorable outcome, or reinforcement, in one activity, it has been shown, is associated with venturesomeness in other types of activities. Thus a generalized confidence in mastery over unknown outcomes, or its lack, can itself be seen to serve as a stimulus in decision making to emphasize either the reward or cost elements of situations. Subjective perceptions of personal power can be operationalized by histories of objectively measured success or failure in important activities. Subjects in this study were queried as to the degree of career success they felt they had currently achieved. While businessmen's 79 responses on felt success were significantly correlated with income,^* those of academician's were not. Low income academicians reported their career as successful as did high income academicians. On the other hand, it is striking to note that the behaviors of academicians supported the hypotheses specified in this paper more con sistently than did those of businessmen.? C. Pragmatic Implications By conceptualising generalized,, confident., venture some behavior as a product of cumulative rewarding experiences in culturally important activities, one may view each individual's behavior tendencies to be uniquely historical and influenced by the availability of culturally valued rewards. Data from this and other studies have suggested increasing caution with advancing age. Such caution, or contractive behavior, was shown in this study to be inversely associated with career success, especially over 6P < .01 ?This was contrary to expectation. It was antici pated at the outset that data from businessmen would tend to support our hypotheses more clearly than data from academicians. This was because success in career had to be operationalized as a high dollar income and we expected dollar income to have greater meaning for success in career to businessmen. At the expressed level, it did; at the more indirect behavioral level, it did not. 80 elapsed time. Disengagement theory assumed that aging was an inevitable mutual withdrawal of the individual and the social system.® Our data lends support to the position taken by those critics of disengagement theory who have felt that the reason older persons leave social organiza tions is a "reaction of alienation," — they were actually * Q forced out. Older men experiencing the social rewards and status approval of career success tended to report more activity in social affairs than either their less rewarded peers or younger men. Since self-perception of power over personal out comes leads to increased social participation as the data in this research have suggested, then educators as well as social policy makers might be well advised to approach some of their problems from a new perspective. Priority might be given to the structuring of increased opportunities for successful experience to each participant in any program. For if certain members of society do not have access to 8 Elaine Cummings and William E. Henry, Growing Old --The Process of Disengagement (New York: Basic Books, Inc".', 1961J. ^Aaron Lipman and Richard S. Sterne, "Aging in the United States: Ascription of a Terminal Sick Role,” Sociology and Social Research, 53 (January, 1969)^.199. See another discussion of this in Arnold M, Rose, "A Current Theoretical Issue in Social Gerontology," Chapter 22 of Arnold M. Rose and Warren A. Peterson (eds.). Older People and Their Social World, (Philadelphia: F. A. Davis Company, 1985). 81 rewards In culturally important activities whether for reasons of race, religion., sex, age, or other characteristics or combinations of characteristics, then certain behavioral consequences can be anticipated. Individuals deprived of profitable experiences can be expected to complain about and debunk the social groups in which favorable exchanges cannot be obtained, and to limit their social interactions to smaller and fewer sub-groups, but ones providing presumably more rewards at lower costs. By definition there are winners and losers in every system, but when entire sub-groups of society are systematically cut out of an acceptable share of rewards, then problems between groups are apt to multiply. Rewards saught by these sub-groups are necessarily different than the culturally valued ones. Furthermore, groups comprised of "failures" in culturally valued activities would be Internally subjected to a membership behaving in contractive ways. This double set of stresses would combine to create tensions which would threaten the internal functioning of the group as well as its relationship with other sub-groups and the total social system.■L0 10The concept of "powerlessness” (low expectancy of control over events) was recently used by H. Edward Ransford, ("Isolation, Powerlessness, and Violence: A 82 Study of Attitudes and Participation in the Watts Riot,1 1 73 (March, 1968), pp. 58I-591) as an independent variable. He found 4l$ of men high in feelings of powerlessness willing to use violence, while 16$ of men low in feelings of powerlessness were willing to use violence. appendix a POSTCARD QUESTIONNAIRE 84 We would appreciate your help In a CONFIDENTIAL Follow-Up Study of USC members of Phi Kappa Phi. PLEASE CIRCLE erFropriate CLASSIFICATIONS. Age: Under 30i 30-40;40-50; 50-60;60+ Present status:never married; widowed;divorced;separated; 1st 2nd 3rd 4+ marriage. Number of children: ______ 1st occupation after USC: Education since US: Present occupation: Title: __________ Family Income: Under $7500; $7500-$15j000;$15,000 up Would you presently like to change Jobs? YES NO Major in same field If you had a 2nd chance? YES NO In which area do you have the most problems: CAREER VOLUNTEER WORK MARRIAGE FAMILY PHYSICAL(body)OTHER Underline area above where you feel you have achieved greatest success. How Important has religion been in your life? VERY MODERATELY NOT AT ALL Have your life goals changed significantly since USC? YES NO Do you feel you have achieved your present goals? YES NO CONFIDENT WILL IN FUTURE What was lacking In your USC education? ________________ Honors & achievements: APPENDIX B A SURVEY OF OCCUPATIONS AND Telephone: 7*+6-6060 (C. L. Graham) ADULT LIFE This questionnaire takes about 30 minutes to fill out. Please answer the questions as frankly and accurately as possible. We are interested in YOUR answers, so please do not discuss the questions with anyone until you have completed the questionnaire. Your answers will be absolutely confidential, and no person’s answers will be revealed in the reports, which will be based on statistical summaries. The anonymity of each individual is thus assured. This questionnaire will be destroyed by us just as soon as the information has been coded and punched onto Hollerith data processing cards. There is a code number at the top of each sheet in order for us to be able to keep track of persons who have not responded and send followup reminders to them. At no time will your name be placed on the questionnaire or in any other way associated with it. Almost all of the questions can be answered by drawing a circle around one number on the right hand side of the page. For example: Which statement best describes where you live now? I live in Los Angeles 1 I live in San Francisco 2 I live in California 3 I live outside California U - Instructions will be given with all questions. Please follow instructions closely as they are very important for data processing. Some questions require filling in a date or a specific answer. Please try to do this as completely as possible. If certain dates are hazy in your memory, estimate them the best as you can, since we wish to establish the points in your life at which important events occurred. Please do not write in the space to the right of the black line. The numbers there are for office use only. 1. How old were you on your last birthday? _______ 2. What was your undergraduate major field? _____________________ 3. How old were you when you completed your undergraduate college work? h. Have you pursued any formal graduate work beyond your B. A. or B. S. degree? (Circle one number) HO (Skip to Question 7) - 1 YES. Although no degree(s), I've received credit for ___ units - 2 YES, and it led to the following degree(s): (Please specify) Y(l)(2) X Y(3) Y00(5) Y(6) (1) What did you study in your graduate work? _________________ How old were you when you completed your final graduate degree? j *(7) Y(8)(9) Did you have scholarship or fellowship assistance for your undergraduate studies? (Circle cne number) YES - 1 NO - 2 Did your parents or other relatives contribute more than 50$ of your undergraduate expenses? (Circle one number) YES - 1 NO - 2 What was the highest amount of formal education attained by your father? (Circle one number) No formal education - 1 Some schooling, but less than 8th grade - 2 Completed 8th grade, but no High School - 3 Some High School, but did not graduate - I ; High School graduate, but no College - 5 Some College, but did not graduate - 6 College graduate, but no postgraduate work - 7 Some postgraduate work, but no advanced degree - 8 Advanced degree(s) received (specify): - 9 A. What was your father1s occupation when you were age eighteen (l8)? B. What was the formal title of his position? C. What kind of work did he do in this position? What was the highest amount of formal education attained by your mother? (Circle one number) No formal education - 1 Some schooling, but less than 8th grade - 2 Completed 8th grade, but no High School - 3 Some High School, but did not graduate - 4 High School graduate, but no college - 5 Some college, but did not graduate - 6 College graduate, but no postgraduate work - 7 Some postgraduate work, but no advanced degree - 8 Advanced degree(s) received (specify): - 9 Y(10) S(3) X *(11) Y(12) *(13) (HO *(15) Y(l6) (2) 12. 13. In general, how valuable was your University of Southern California education for your life? (Circle one number) Extremely valuable -1 (U) X Valuable - £ Somewhat valuable - 3 Somewhat valueless - I t - Valueless - 5 Extremely valueless - 6 We are interested in learning as much as possible about your present job and occupation. A. Please describe your present occupation as accurately as possible: B. What is the formal title of your position? C. What hind of work do you do in this position? Please indicate the major duties or tasks involved. (5) X Y(l7)(l8) *(19) D. E0 What is your present annual income from this job including all fees, commissions, royalties, as well as salary? F. Which of the following best describes your major employer? (Circle one number) Self - employed - 1 Private business: under 50 employees - 2 Private business: 50 or more employees - 3 Educational: public or private - 4 Health and Charitable Organizations - 5 Government: non - military - 6 Government: military - 7 Religious - 8 Other (specify): - 9 How many years have you worked for this employer? (Circle one number) Less than one - 1 1 to 3 years - 2 ^ to 6 years - 3 7 to 9 years ^ 10 to 12 years - 5 13 to 15 years - 6 16 to 18 years - 7 19 to 21 years - 8 Over 21 years - 9 (6X7) X (8) X Y(20) (3) 13. 6. How satisfied are you with your present income level? (Circle one number) Extremely satisfied - 1 | y(21) Satisfied - 2 Somewhat satisfied - 3 Somewhat dissatisfied - U Dissatisfied - 5 Extremely dissatisfied - 6 H. How satisfied are you with the kind of work you do? (Circle one number) Extremely satisfied - 1 Y(22) Satisfied - 2 Somewhat satisfied - 3 Somewhat dissatisfied - ^ Dissatisfied - 5 Extremely dissatisfied - 6 I. Your present job accounts for approximately which percentage of your family’s average annual income? (Circle one number) 100$ - 1 Y(23) 90% - 2 80% - 3 70% - 4 60% - 5 50% - 6 b0% - 7 30% - 8 Less than 20% - 9 J. K. Which other activities do you have such as part-time teaching, writing, or consultation work, from which you derive an income, and what is the approximate annual income from these activities? Activities (specify): ________________________________ Annual income from other activities (specify) Is your wife currently employed? (Circle one number) Employed full-time - 1 Employed part-time - 2 Not employed - 3 Unmarried - h Y(2k) (9) Y(25) 14. Have your life goals changed significantly since you graduated from the University of Southern California? (Circle one number) Changed completely - 1 Undergone major changes - 2 Modified somewhat - 3 Few changes - U Remain much the same - 5 (10) 15. Listed, below are some major "roles" that men assume in their lifetimes. Compare yourself to other men of similar age and occupation. On the left please circle the number that best describes how IMPORTANT each of these "roles" is to you personally, that is, A) how highly you value it at the resent time, and B) how highly you think you will value this "role^” five 5) years from now. On the right please circle the number that best describes A) how SUCCESSFUL you feel you have been to date in each "role", and B) how SUCCESSFUL you feel you will be five (5) years from now in each "role." (Be certain that each item on Sections A and B has received two measurements by you: one circled to left and one to right). PRESENT IMPORTANCE ■H -P •H -P 'ROLES PRESENT TIME m to HUSBAND FATHER CAREER OTHER:_______ B) 5 YEARS HENCE ANTICIPATED IMPORTANCE PRESENT FELT SUCCESS t w C Q Q J o o 3 i n < l ) S a > u t < 3 W t o Q J O C J P CQ 1 t n W 0 ) 0 u p i a 8 f 0 > 1 CQ 3 3 1 / 3 U i Q J U * 8 i s o m i —i 2 w ca < u o V v s 1 0 c = 5 5 5 5 C J p £ 6 6 a H O h m . c ! ■P r a a j H H * r l < h u Q J > 0 ) ft 9 9 ANTICIPATED FELT SUCCESS 1 2 3 I t 5 6 9 HUSBAND 1 2 3 I t 5 6 9 Y(28)(29) 1 2 3 I t 5 6 9 FATHER 1 2 3 k 5 6 9 Y(3?)(3l) 1 2 3 I t 5 6 9 CAREER 1 2 3 I t 5 6 9 (I7)(l8) X 1 2 3 I t 5 6 9 OTHER: 1 2 3 I t 5 6 9 S(19)(20) X 16. How would you describe your general health at the present (Circle one number) time? Excellent - 1 Good - 2 Fairly good - 3 Fairly poor - b Poor - 5 Very poor - 6 (ll)(12) X Y(26)(27) (13)(lU) X S(l5)(l6) X (21) (5) 17. Do you ever get depressed? (Circle one number) Often - 1 Sometimes -.2 Seldom - 3 Never - h 18. How satisfied are you with your way of life? (Circle one number) Extremely satisfied - 1 Satisfied - 2 Somewhat satisfied - 3 Somewhat dissatisfied - k Dissatisfied - 5 Extremely dissatisfied - 6 19. Who has been the most influential person in your life in terms of their relationship to you? (Circle one number) Mother - 1 father - 2 Other relative - 3 Child - k Wife - 5 Friend - 6 Teacher - 7 Boss - 8 Other - 9 20. What was this person*s most outstanding characteristic? 21. What is your religious preference? (Circle one number) Protestant - 1 Catholic - 2 Jewish - 3 Other; - i f None - 5 22. Are you currently a member of an organized religious group or church? (Circle one number) YES - 1 ; NO - 2 23. How religious would you say you are? (Circle one number) Very religious - 1 Somewhat religious - 2 Not very religious - 3 Not at all religious - t Religious: but only in an unorthodox sense - 5 2k. Which statement best describes your racial background? (Circle one number) Oriental - 1 Negro - 2 White Caucasian - 3 American Indian - U (6) Y(32) Y(33) Y(3»0 Y(35) (22) X (23) X i (2k) X (25) x I . Extremely important 25. Listed below are a variety of activities in which people participate together. Some things people do because they "have to," other activities are enjoyable in themselves and contribute to a person’s life satisfaction. Please circle an appropriate number to the left of each activity indicating how valuable or important this activity is to you personally, and circle an appropriate number to the right of each activity indicating how frequently you currently engage in that activity^ (Be certain that each item has received two measurements by you: one circled to left and one to right). IMPORTANCE PARTICIPATION 1 1 1 1 ■p o 2 2 2 2 26. -p J h o - p d & § ca 3 3 3 3 • P c t ) x; S o CQ k k - P +3 f n O a * ■rt B + 3 u f—I a ) £ 6 6 6 6 (Type of Activity) RELIGIOUS: services/organized church activities PROFES SIONAL: meetings/informal business-related activities SERVICE: civic/volunteer/political SOCIAL: clubs/informal get-togethers with friends EDUCATIONAL: , formal classes/training sessions/discussion groups FAMILY: get-togethers/outings/trips/ active recreation together ACTIVE SPORTS: golf/tennis/sailing/ hiking/etc. OTHER GROUPS: h O < 1 ) < D X! + 3 d £ -p & < U Do you anticipate that the above amount of activities you have cited will increase or diminish when you are 65 to 75 years of age? (Circle one number) Increase considerably - 1 Increase somewhat - 2 Remain about the same - 3 Decrease somewhat - U Decrease considerably - 5 i - H c d - P cd ■p o ss b (26) X Y(36) b Y(37)(38) b Y(3§)(*0) k Y(ifl)(fe) b Y(^3)(Mt) b Y(U5)(U6) 1 4 Y(lf7)(l»8) b S(27)(28)x S(29)(30)X (31) X (7) 27. Are you currently married, single, widowed, divorced, or separated? (Circle one number) Married for 1st time - 1 Married for 2nd time - 2 Married for 3rd time - 3 Married for 4th time - 4 Married 5 or more times - 5 Never married - 6 Widowed ‘ - 7 Divorced - 8 Separated - 9 28□ IF you are currently married: A. How many years have you been married to your present wife? (Circle one number) Less than one - 1 I to 5 years - 2 6 to 10 years - 3 II to 15 years4 16 to 20 years - 5 21 to 25 years - 6 26 to 30 years - 7 31 to 35 years - 8 Over 35 years - 9 B. Taking all things together, how would you describe your present marriage? (Circle one number) Very happy - 1 A little happier than average - 2 Just about average - 3 Not too happy - 4 29. How many times have you divorced? (Circle one number) Once - 1 Twice - 2 Three times - 3 Four times or more - 4 Never - 9 30. How old were you at the time of your first marriage? ____________ 31. How many children have you had, including all adopted or acquired by marriage ? 32. How old were you upon the arrival of your first child? 33 o How old were you upon the arrival of your last child? 34. How happy a person do you consider yourself to be? (Circle one number) An unusually happy person - 1 A very happy person - 2 A somewhat happy person - 3 A somewhat unhappy person - 4 A very unhappy person - 5 An extremely unhappy person - 6 (8) (32) X *(49) Y(50) (33) X l *T(51) i *(52)(53) Y(54) Y(55)(56) *(57)(58) *(59) We are interested in knowing something about your first, steady, full time, civilian job after completion of your final degree from a University listed by you in Question A. Please describe your first occupation as accurately- as possible; B. What was the formal title of your position? C. What kind of work did you do in this position? Please indicate the major duties or tasks involved,, D. What was your ANNUAL starting salary, including fees, commissions, and royalties? E. How old were you when you started working at this job? Po Which type of employer did you work for? (Circle one number) Self - employed - 1 Private business; under 50 employees - 2 Private business; 50 or more employees - 3 Educational; public or private - b Health and Charitable Organizations - 5 Government; non - military ~ 6 Governments military ' - 7 Religious - 8 Other (specify); - 9 Go How many years did you continue working for this employer? ___ H0 In general do you feel that your first job helped you prepare for or aided in leading to your present job? (Circle one number) YES - 1 UNDECIDED - 2 WO - 3 If you answered "no" please specify reasons_________________ I. Counting that first job and your present (last) job, how many different employers have you had? (Circle one number) None, have same employer - 1 Only one change to present employer - 2 3 Employers - 3 A Employers - k 5 Employers - 5 6 Employers _ 6 7 Employers - 7 8 Employers - 8 9 or more Employers - 9 I | y(6o)(6i) I (3*0 X i |y(62) i / t j l I j i (35)(36) X (37)C 38) X (39) x 1 J ;Y(63) (40) X Y(64) (9) 36. Upon graduation from college we all set goals for ourselves; some are realistic, some impossibly high, others in retrospect stem fool ish. Try to recall, if you can, which career goals you had upon receiving your final degree from college. A. Which occupation did you want to make your lifetime career? B. How high a status did you feel you could achieve? (Circle one number) Top status - 1 Very high- status • ' - 2 High status - 3 Somewhat high status - U Medium status - 5 Law status * > 6 C. IF you hold no degree beyond a B. A. or a B. S., which annual salary, in dollars at graduation (be literal, ignore inflation: do not convert into present purchasing power), did you hope to achieve by age forty (^0)? D. IF you hold an advanced degree (cited in Question U), which annual salary, in terms of dollars at graduation (be literal, ignore inflation: do not convert into present purchasing power), did you hope to achieve ten (10) years after receiving that degree? 37-- Can you recall how you felt about important "roles" when graduated from college with your final degree ? Compare yourself to other men of similar age and occupation. On the left please circle the number that best describes how you VALUED each of these "roles." On the right please circle the number that best describes how SUCCESSFUL you expected to be in each one day. (Be certain that each item has received two measurements by you: one circled to left and one to right RECALLED IMPORTANCE EXPECTED SUCCESS f--- Extremely important | Important - p § - p * H I d X ! 1 0 t a Somewhat unimportant Unimportant J Extremely unimportant "ROLES" Extremely successful Successful I Somewhat successful | Somewhat unsuccessful - -- , Unsuccessful Extremely unsuccessful 1 2 3 k 5 6 HUSBAND 1 2 3 h 5 6 1 2 3 k 5 6 FATHER 1 2 3 5 6 1 2 3 1 + 5 6 CAREER 1 2 3 k 5 6 (10) (^1) X Y(65)(66) (h2) X (1+5)(U6)X 1(67)(68) (U7)(WJ)X S(li9)(50)X 38. IF you hold a B. A. or a B. S. degree and no advanced degrees are cited in Question I f , we are interested in knowing something about your career when you were age forty (*f0). (Omit this question if you have not yet reached age Ho) 7 IF you hold an advanced graduate degree, we are interested in knowing something about your career ten (lO) years after you had completed your final degree. (Omit this question if ten years has not yet elapsed). A. Please describe your occupation at age forty (^fO), OR ten (10) years after you completed an advanced degree, as accurately as possible: B. What was the formal title of your position at that time? C. What kind of work did you do in this position? Please indicate the major duties or tasks involved. D. What was your annual income from the job you had when you were forty (iiO), OR ten (lO) years after you completed an advanced degree, including all fees, commissions, royalties, as well as salary? 39* When you were age forty (IfO) how do you recall feeling about import ant "roles" cited previously? (For men holding more advanced degrees, please use ten (lO) years after completion of final degree as age for which feelings are to be recollected). Compare yourself to other men of similar age and occupation. On the left please circle the number that best describes how IMPORTANT you remember each of these "roles" was to you then. On the right please circle how SUCCESSFUL you felt you actually were in each "role" at that time. (Be certain that each item has received two measurements by you: one to right). one circled to left and RECALLED IMPORTANCE RECALLED FELT SUCCESS 43 § J h g* 3? a > •P § 43 f t O £ 1 1 2 2 § -p f t o i * •H 4 3 n J Is B o CQ + 3 f - t O 43 c 3 I E o t/3 I f I f I f +3 f t O +3 f t O £ QJ f t 43 K W 6 6 73 < V i —I rH •H 04 43 O c 73 3 "ROLES" HUSBAND FATHER CAREER (11) rH <2 01 VI a > 0 f > 3 w 'i l—i a > w E w QJ 0 ) f t 0 E 0 3 w CQ 1 1 2 2 w 01 a > o 0 3 01 4 3 S o CO 3 3 £ u l 01 a ) a o w 4 3 a j X e o CO I f I f [ —t 3 O H 0 1 01 < u C J O 3 3 5 5 t w w a ) v cj 3 m r4 < U e < U u 43 & 6 6 Q J O f t - t3 Q J 04 43 o 3 9 9 9 (51) x Y(69)(70) Y(7l) (52)(53)X (5*f)(55)X Y(72)(73) (56)<57)X S(58)(59)X 1+0. The final thing -we would like to have you do is read over the following hypothetical situations which could occur in one's lifetime and ind icate how you would probably act if this event occurred to you. A. A brilliant friend of yours, Mr. A, a married 30 year old research physicist, has been given a five-year appointment by a major univ ersity laboratory. As he contemplates the next five years, he realises that he might work on a difficult, long-term problem which, if a solution could be found, would resolve basic scientific issues in the field and bring high scientific honors. If no solution were found, however, Mr. A would have little to show for his five years in the laboratory, and this would make it hard for him to get a good job afterwards. On the other hand he could, as most of his professional associates are doing, work on a series of short term problems where solutions would be easier to find, but where the problems are of lesser scientific importance. Imagine that Mr. A has asked your advice. Listed below are the chances that a solution would be found to the difficult, long-term problem that Mr. A has in mind. Circle one number indicating the RISKIEST circumstances under which you would advise Mr. A to attempt to solve the long-term problem. Chances for solution are excellent - 1 Chances for solution are vary good - 2 Chances for solution are moderately good - 3 Chances for solution are fair - t Chances for solution are somewhat slim - 5 Chances for solution are extremely slim - 6 Mr. A should not attempt problem at all - 9 B. Mr. B, an extremely competent chess player, icipating in a national chess tournament. In an early match he draws the top- favored player in the tournament as his opponent. Mr. B has been given a relatively low ranking in view of his performance in pre vious tournaments. During the course of the play with the top- favored man, Mr. B notes the possibility of a deceptive though risky maneuver which might bring him a quick victory. At the same time, if the attempted maneuver should fail, Mr. B would be left in an exposed position and defeat would almost certainly follow. Imagine that you are advising Mr. B. Listed below are the chances that a deceptive play would succeed. Circle one number indicating the RISKIEST circumstances under which you would advise Mr. B to attempt the deceptive play. Chances for success are excellent - 1 Chances for success are vary good - 2 Chances for success are moderately good - 3 Chances for success are fair - k Chances for success are somewhat slim - 5 Chances for success are extremely slim - 6 Mr. B should not attempt risky play no matter what the chances - 9 (12) to. C. Mr. C, a year old accountant, has recently been informed by his physician that he has developed a severe heart ailment. The dis ease would be sufficiently serious to force Mr. C to change many of his strongest life habits - - reducing his work load, drastically changing his diet, giving up his favorite leisure-tirae pursuits. The physician suggests that a delicate medical operation could be attempted which, if successful, would completely relieve the heart condition. But its success could not be assured, and in fact, the operation might prove fatal. Imagine that you are advising Mr. C. Listed below are the chances that the operation will be a success. Circle one number indicating the RISKIEST circumstances under which you would advise Mr. C to undergo the operation. Chances for success are excellent - 1 Chances for success are very good - 2 Chances for success are moderately good - 3 Chances for success are fair - 4 Chances for success are somewhat slim - 5 Chances for success are extremely slim - 6 Mr. C should not have the operation no matter what the chances - 9 D. Mr. D, a married man with two children, has a steady job that pays him about $12,000 per year. He can easily afford the necessities of life, but few of the luxuries. In his spare time Mr. D has invented and patented a gadget which he believes would be highly marketable (and profitable) if he invested his life savings of $10,000 into its promotion by an advertising firm. Imagine that you are advising Mr. D. Listed below are the chances that Mr. D's gadget would be a sales success. Circle one number indicating the RISKIEST circumstances under which you would advise Mr. D to invest his life savings into promotion for his invention. Chances for success are excellent - 1 Chances for success are very good - 2 Chances for success are moderately good - 3 Chances for success are fair - ^ Chances for success are somewhat slim - 5 Chances for success are extremely slim - 6 Mr. D should not invest his savings in the gadget no matter what the chances - 9 ■ ( 62) (63) X Thank you very much for your cooperation. If you wish a copy of the preliminary report of this study, check the space in the lower right corner of this sheet. Please write any comments that you feel might be of help to us on the reverse side of this sheet. Please return questionnaire in envelope provided to: C- L. Graham, Rossmoor-Cortese Institute _ UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA University Park Los Angeles, California 90007 (13) 99 UNIVERSITY OP SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA University Park Los Angeles* California 90007 May 14-, 1968 Dear Mr. Trojan: The University of Southern California is conducting a survey of adult life based on responses to the enclosed questionnaire. You are one of several hundred men selected from graduates of the University of Southern California to participate in this study. Perhaps you have already helped us by responding to an earlier pilot postcard survey made possible by the University of Southern California chapter of Phi Kappa Phi* national honor society* in which case* several of the questions on this survey will seem repetitious. The research will provide important information on the problems which men face in their careers and in their everyday lives. As a fellow member of Phi Kappa Phi* I thank you very much for your cooperation. Your prompt response will be greatly appreciated. Sincerely* C. L. Graham* Project Director SURVEY OP OCCUPATIONS and ADULT LIFE ec If you wish to have a statistical summary of this research sent to you* so indicate on the last page of questionnaire. APPENDIX C UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA Dear Sir; Your cooperation in completing and returning the Survey of Occupations and Adult Life mailed to you in Hay is greatly appreciated. Enclosed is the statistical summary of this research which you requested* The researchers at the Gerontology Center of the University of Southern California, formerly known as the Rossmoor-Cortese Institute, wish to thank you very much for providing important in formation on adult lives- G e r o n t o l o g y C e n t e r UNIVERSITY PARK LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA 90007 (213) 746-6060 September, 1968 Sincerely C. L. Graham, Project Director SURVEY OF OCCUPATIONS and ADULT LIFE Enclosure 10- 24-68 STATISTICAL SUMMARY: A Survey of Occupations and Adult Life POPULATION: All male graduates of the University of Southern California elected to Phi Kappa Phi national honor society (high academic achievement) who had either: (1) indicated on a postcard survey that they were presently engaged in either BUSINESS or in SCIENCE, RESEARCH, or EDUCATION, or (2) graduated with a major in BUSINESS or COMMERCE or received a Ph. D. degree (or the equivalent) in any subject, and (3) met certain requirements regarding age (38 through 61) and amount of formal academic work completed (less than 30 units of graduate work for businessmen; at least a Ph. D. . for scientists, researchers, and educators). RESPONSE: Out of 329 questionnaires mailed there have been 255 completed and returned, 7 returned by the post office marked "address unknown," 5 were reported "deceased," and 12 were definite "refusals." Every effort was made to obtain a maximum return rate including a second mailing and personal telephone calls where necessary, which re sulted in the 80% response rate as of this date. Useable cases meeting the above requirements now stand at: BUSINESSMEN - 98 SCIENTISTS, RESEARCHERS, EDUCATORS - 57 There were sufficient numbers of other professions in the returns to warrant a separate analysis for them at a later date. SELECTED PRELIMINARY FINDINGS: (all in percentages) Businessmen Educators Age at final degree: Under 30 years 78% (B. A. ) 25% 30 - 39 years 17% 56% 40 years and older 5% 19% Parents (or other relatives) contributed more than 50% of college undergraduate expenses: yes 21% 37% no 79% 63% Father's education: did not graduate from high school 48% 56% high school graduate 29% 11% some college 23% 33% Satisfaction with present income level: satisfied or extremely satisfied 55% 72% somewhat satisfied 30% 14% somewhat to extremely dissatisfied 15% 14% Satisfaction with kind of work done: satisfied or extremely satisfied 71% 88% somewhat satisfied 16% 6% somewhat to extremely dissatisfied 13% * 6% Person cited as being the most influential in respondent's life: father 11% 12% mother 15% 12% wife 55% 51% other 17% * 25% * (There were some non-responders in this category). APPENDIX D 104 Table 1. Mean Score Differences on Steadiness in Life Goals by Career History Present; Income Classification of Subjects by High Low Differ ence Occupation, Age, and Income (n) (X2) (Xj- in Past (*!)* (S.D.) Ts .d . 7 (n) X2) Businessmen: Ages 38-49 High Low Difference 3.32 4.25 -.93 1.25 1.50 n.a. 28 4 n.a. 2.70 3.33 -.63 .95 1.03 n.a. 10 .62 18 .92 n.a. Ages 50-61 High Low Difference 3.67 3.0 .67 1.03 1.25 n.a. 6 10 n.a. 3.33 2.92 .41 1.16 1.38 n.a. 3 .34 12 .08 n.a. Academicians: Ages 38-49 tfigh Low Difference- 2.25 3.60 -1.35 .89 1.67 n.a. 8 5 n.a. 4.0 4.80 -.80 1.41 .45 n.a. 2-1.75 5 -1.20 n.a. Ages 50-61 High Low Difference 3.57 4.0 -.43 .98 1.41 n.a. 7 4 n.a. 3-33 3.80 -.47 1.53 1.03 n.a. 3 .24 10 .20 n.a. ^he larger the mean, the greater the expansiveness. 105 Table 2. Mean Score Differences on Variety of Weekly Sociable Activities Reported by Career History Present; Income Classification of Subjects by High Low Differ ence Occupation, Age, and Income (n) (x2) (*1- in Past (Xi)a (S.D.) (S.D, ) (nJ X2l Businessmen: Ages 38-49 High Low Difference 1.61 1.50 .11 1.17 .58 n.a. 28 4 n.a. 1.50 1.50 .00 1.35 1.25 n.a. 10 .11 18 .00 n.a. Ages 50-61 High Low Difference 1.83 1.30 .53 1.72 .68 n.a. 6 10 n.a. 1.67 1.08 .59 2.08 1.0 n.a. 3 -.25 12 .22 n.a. Academicians: Ages 38-49 High Low Difference 1.63 2.0 -.37 1.60 1.73 n.a. 8 5 n.a. n.a. 3.0 n.a. n.a. 2.92 n.a. 2 n.a. 5 -1.0 n.a. Ages 50-61 High Low Difference 3.29 1.50 1.79 1.98 1.29' n.a. 7 4 n.a. 2.0 1.90 .10 2.0 .99 n.a. 3 1.29 10 -.40 n.a. aThe larger the mean, the greater the expansiveness. 106 Table 3* Mean Score Differences on Attitude Towards Future Activity Level by Career History Present; Income Classification of Subjects by High Low Differ ence Occupation, Age, and Income (n) (x2) (Xl- In Past (S.D.) {S.D. 7 (n) X2) Businessmen: Ages 38-4-9 High Low Difference 3.04 3.50 -.4-6 • 92 .58 n.a. 28 4 n.a. 3.00 3.72 -.72 1.05 .90 n.a. 10 .04 18 -.22 n.a. Ages 50-61 High Low Difference 3.17 2.90 .27 .98 .99 n.a.i 6 10 n.a. 3.0 3.08 -.08 1.0 1.08 n.a. 3 .17 12 -.18 n.a. Academicians: Ages 38-4-9 High Low Difference 2.88 3.60 -.72 ' 1.13 1.14 n.a. 8 5 n.a. 2.50 3.0 -.50 .71 1.41 n.a. 2 .33 5 .60 n.a. . Ages.50-61 ' High' Low Difference 3.57 3.25 .32 .79 ■ 96 n.a. 7 4 n.a. 4.33 3.30 1.03 .58 1.06 n.a. 3 -.76 10 -.05 n.a. aThe smaller the mean, the greater the expansiveness. 107 Table 4. Mean Scores Differences on Hypothetical Risk Behavior by Career History Present; Income Classification High Low Differ ence of Subjects by Occupation* Age* and Income (n) (x2) (Xi- in Past (XiT (S.D. ) {S.D. 7 (n) X2) Businessmen: Ages 38-4-9 High Low Difference 3.64 4.25 -.61 1.66 2.06 n.a. 28 4 n.a. 4.20 4.11 .09 1.93 1.57 n.a. 10 -.56 18 .14 n.a. Ages 50-61 High Low Difference- 2.50 3.80 ■1.30 1.64 1.93 n.a. 6 10 n.a. 2.33 3.08 -.75 2.08 1.44 n.a. 3 .17 12 .72 n.a. Academic! ans : Ages 38-49 High Low Difference 4.25 4.80 -.55 1.67 .84 n.a. 8 5 n.a. 4.0 4.6o -.60 .00 1.14 n.a. 2 .25 5 .20 n.a. Ages 50-61 High Low Difference 3.71 3.25 .46 1.25 2.22 n.a. 7 4 n.a. 2.0 2.30 -.30 2.65 1.64 n.a. 3 1.71 10 .95 n.a. aThe larger the mean, the greater the expansiveness. 108 Table 5. Mean Score Differences on Discrimination in Hypothetical Risk Behavior by Career History Present; Income Classification High Low Differ ence of Subjects by Occupation, Age, and Income (n) ( S2 . ) . (Xi- in Past XS.D.) Ts .d . T (n)T2) Businessmen: Ages 38-49 High Low Difference 4.93 5.75 -.82 1.59 2.22 n.a. 27 4 n.a. 5.40 5.61 -.21 2.01 2.30 n.a. 10 -.47 18 .14 n.a. Ages 50-61 High Low Difference- 4.17 5.30 ■1.13 2.40 2.31 n.a. 6 10 n.a. 4.0 4.33 -.33 1.0 1.23 3 .17 12 .97 Academicians: Ages 38-49 High Low Difference 6.0 6.00 .00 2.14 I.23 n.a. 8 5 n.a. 4.50 5.40 -.90 .71 1.82 n.a. 2 1.50 5 .60 n.a. Ages 50-61 High Low Difference 4.57 3.75 .82 1.40 2.06 n.a. 7 4 n.a. 3.33 4.10 -.77 3.06 .99 n.a. 3 1.24 10 -.35 n.a. aThe larger the mean, the greater the expansiveness. BIBLIOGRAPHY 110 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY Atkinson, John W. and Litwin, George W. "Achievement Motive and Test Anxiety as Motives to Approach Success and Avoid Failure,, " Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, LX (January, i960}, 52-63, Blau, Peter M. Exchange and Power in Social Life. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1964. Blau, Peter M. and Duncan, Otis Dudley. The American Occupational Structure. New York! John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1907. Brehm, Jack W. and Cohen, Arthur R. Explorations in Cognitive Dissonance. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1962. Caudill, William. "Effects of Social- and Cultural Systems," Dynamics of Modern Society. Edited by William J. Goode. Hew York: Atherton Press, 1966. Cummings, Elaine and Henry, William E. Growing Old— The Process of Disengagement. New York: Basic Books, Inc., 19b!. ~ Davis, James A, "The Campus as a Frog Pond: An Appli cation of the Theory of Relative Deprivation to Career Decisions of College Men, " American Sociological Review, LXXII (July, 19bb), 17-31. Festinger, Leon. A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1957 • Goode, William J. (ed.). "A Theory of Role Strain," The Dynamics of Modern Society (1966), Heider, Fritz. The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations. New York! John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1956. Hodges, Daniel L. "The Self and Cognitive Balance: Improvements in Balance Theory's Predictive Power," Pacific Sociological Review, IX (Spring, 1966), 21 Z = W . Ill Homansj George C. Social Behavior, Its Elementary Forms. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., 19bl. ________ . "Human Behavior as Exchange," American Journal of Sociologyj LXIII (May, 1958), 597-bOb. Kogan, Nathan and Wallach, Michael. Risk Taking: A Study in Cognition and Personality. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1964. Landecker, Werner S. "Types of Integration and Their Measurement," in The Language of Social Research (eds.) Paul P. Lazarsfeld and Morris Rosenberg. Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press, Inc., 1 9 5 5 ) 19-27. Lipman, Aaron and Sterne, Richard S. "Aging in the United States: Ascription of a Terminal Sick Role," Sociology and Social Research, LIII (January, 1989), 199. ----------------------- MacGregor, John. "Motive Satisfaction and Interpersonal Attraction: A Synthesis of Balance and Reward Approaches." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Cornell University, 1966. Marsh, John P., Jr. and Stafford, Prank P. "The Effects of Values on Pecuniary Behavior: The Case of Academicians," American Sociological Review, XXXII (October, 1967), 7^0-75^. National Science Foundation. "Summary of American Science Manpower 1964." Washington, D. C., March, 1966. Newcomb, T. M. "An Approach to the Study of Communicative Acts," Psychological Review, LX (1953), 393-4o4. Nichols, Robert C. and Davis, James A. "Characteristics of Students of High Academic Aptitude," Personnel and Guidance Journal (April, 1964), 794-800. Osgood, C. E. and Tannenbaum, P. "The Principle of Congruity and the Prediction of Attitude Change," Psychological Review, LXII (1955), 42-55. Ransford, H. Edward. "Isolation, Powerlessness, and Violence: A Study of Attitudes and Participation In the Watts Riot," LXXIII (March, 1968), 581-591. 112 Rose, Arnold M. "A Current Theoretical Issue in Social Gerontology," In Older People and Their Social World (eds.) Arnold M. Rose and Warren A. Peterson. Philadelphia: P. A. Davis Company, 1965* chap. 22. Rosenberg, M. J. et al. (eds.). Attitude Organization and Change. Mew Haven, Connecticut! YaleHlni ver sity Press, i960. Rosenberg, M. J. "A Structural Theory of Attitude Dynamics,1 ' Public Opinion Quarterly, XXIV (i960), 319-340. ~ ________ . Occupations and Values. Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press, Inc., 1957. Scanzoni, John. "Socialization, n Achievement, and Achievement Values," American Sociological Review, XXXII (June, 1967), 4^9-456. Stoner, J. A. P. "A Comparison of Individual and Group Decisions Including Risk." Unpublished Master's Thesis, School of Industrial Management, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, 1961, in Brown, Roger. Social Psychology (New York: The Free Press, A Division of the Macmillan Company, 1965), chap. 13. Thibaut, J. W. and Kelley, H. H. The Social Psychology of Groups. New York: John WiLley & Sons, Xric' 1959. Turk, Herman. "Instrumental and Expressive Ratings Reconsidered,1 1 Sociometry, XXIV (March, 1961), 76-81. United States Department of Labor. "Consumer Price Index for Los Angeles— Long Beach: all items 1914 forward, 1947 forward (1957-1959 = 100)," Series A-103. Washington, D.C., Bureau of Labor Statistics. Williams, Robin M,, Jr. American Society. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1^51.
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Graham, Claire Lippincott
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Some Behavioral Consequences Of Career Success: A Synthesis Of Reward Andbalance Approaches
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Sociology
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