University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

The Marriage Metaphor And The Romantic Prophecy: A Study Of The Uses Of The Epithalamium In The Poetry Of Blake, Wordsworth, And Coleridge

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The Marriage Metaphor And The Romantic Prophecy: A Study Of The Uses Of The Epithalamium In The Poetry Of Blake, Wordsworth, And Coleridge

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Content This dissertation has been
microfilmed exactly as received
69-609
DALY, Michael Joseph, 1941-
THE MARRIAGE METAPHOR AND THE ROMANTIC
PROPHECY: A STUDY OF THE USES OF THE
E PIT HAL AMIUM IN THE POETRY OF BLAKE,
WORDSWORTH, AND COLERIDGE.
University of Southern California, Ph.D„ 1968
Language and Literature, modem
University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan
© C o p y rig h t by
M ichael Jo se p h D aly
1969
THE MARRIAGE M ETAPHOR A N D THE ROMANTIC PROPHECY
A STUDY OP THE USES OP THE EPITHALAMIUM IN THE
POETRY OP BLAKE, W ORDSW ORTH, A N D COLERIDGE
by
M ichael Jo sep h Daly
A D is s e r t a t i o n P re se n te d t o the
FACULTY OP THE G RA DU A TE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OP SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In P a r t i a l F u lf illm e n t o f the
R equirem ents f o r th e D egree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(E n g lish )
June 1968
UNIVERSITY O F SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
THE GRADUATE SCHOO L
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES, CALIFO RNIA 9 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
under the direction of h.Xs... Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by the Graduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements
for the degree of
D O C T O R OF P H I L O S O P H Y
- "(/
D ate...........
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
Cli/frman
TABLE OP CONTENTS
C hapter Page
I . INTRODUCTION............................................................ 1
I I . THE GREAT DIVORCE A N D THE
FOURFOLD VISION ............................................... 10
I I I . EPIC MARRIAGE ....................................................... 82
IV . THE NIGHTMARE A N D THE D REA M .................... 161
V. CONCLUSION................................... 2lj.8
BIBLIOGRAPHY.............................................. 2£6
V
II
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Now on th e p r i n c i p l e t h a t th e goddess o f f e r t i l i t y
m ust h e r s e l f be f e r t i l e , I t behoved D iana to have a m ale ;
p a r t n e r . Her m ate, i f th e te stim o n y o f S e rv iu s may be
t r u s t e d , was t h a t V irb iu s who had h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , o r j
p e rh a p s r a t h e r h i s em bodim ent, in th e King o f th e Wood a t j
Nemi. The aim o f t h e i r u n io n would be to prom ote th e
f r u i t f u l n e s s o f th e e a r t h , o f a n im a ls, and o f m ankind; j
and i t m ight n a t u r a l l y be th o u g h t t h a t t h i s o b je c t would !
be more s u r e ly a t ta i n e d i f th e sa c re d n u p tia ls were c e l e - j
b r a te d e v e ry y e a r , th e p a r t s o f th e d iv in e b r id e and
b rid eg ro o m b e in g p la y e d e i t h e r by t h e i r im ages o r by j
l i v i n g p e r s o n s . 1
S in ce p r im itiv e tim e s , i f th e te s tim o n y o f F ra z e r may |
t
be t r u s t e d , th e f a c t and th e id e a o f m a rria g e have p la y e d j
^
upon “ m an 's im a g in a tio n l i k e th e b re e z e on th e w in d -h a rp ,
|
evoking s p e c u la tio n on th e n a tu re o f a l l l i f e , n a t u r a l and i
j
s u p e r n a tu r a l, and on th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een m ankind and j
h i s phenom enal and noum enal w o rld s. As F ra z e r im p lie s , j
|
b e l i e f In magic and p ra y e r q u ite n a t u r a l l y e n s u re d t h a t th e I
s a c re d n u p tia ls a t th e h e a r t o f th e g r e a t mybhs o f e re a tio n ,J
d e s tr u c tio n , and red em p tio n would become a s s o c ia te d w ith
a c tu a l m a rria g e s betw een human b e in g s , p a r t i c u l a r l y w eddings
S i r James George F ra z e r , The Golden Bough: A Study
in Magic and R e lig io n , A bridged E d itio n (London, 1923)»
pp . lij.l“li|2 .
1
betw een p e rso n s o f r o y a l b lo o d , upon whom th e w e lfa re o f j
i
O i
s o c ie ty depended. j
i
In th e s o p h is tic a te d l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n s o f a n c ie n t and;
modern E u ro p e, th e magic o f th e c u rse becomes th e power o f ;
r e f in e d and p o lis h e d s a t i r e , and th e p r o p i t i a t o r y r i t e s
c e le b r a tin g th e u n io n o f man and th e u n iv e rs e become th e j
fo rm al m a rria g e hymn o r ep ith alam lu m .3 T y p ic a lly , S p e n s e r1 sj
E p ith a la m io n and P ro th a la m lo n fo c u s i n i t i a l l y upon a p a r t i - j
c u la r iz e d m a rria g e , an in d iv id u a l s e t o f c irc u m s ta n c e s , j
t
)
w hich n e v e r th e le s s ex te n d outw ard in im p lic a tio n , so t h a t
th e p o e t ’s p r a y e r f o r th e su c c e s s and f r u i t f u l n e s s o f th e j
I
!
s p e c if ic m a rria g e r e la tio n s h i p becom es a ls o a p ra y e r f o r j
th e g e n e ra l f r u i t f u l n e s s and p r o s p e r ity o f th e e a r t h and j
i
human s o c ie ty . The c o n v e n tio n a l f e a tu r e s o f C la s s ic a l and !
Hebrew e p ith a la m ia were e a s i l y a s s im ila te d by th e E n g lis h
C h r is tia n p o e tic t r a d i t i o n , in w hich m a rria g e on e a r t h co u ld
be th o u g h t o f a s a m icrocosm ic c e le b r a tio n o f th e p r i n c i p l e 1
? i
V ir g in ia J . T u fte p o in ts o u t in The P o e try o f Mar
r ia g e ; A C r i t i c a l H is to ry o f th e Ep ith alam lu m (Los Angeles.!
196o ), p . If., t h a t th e form came to be e x p l i c i t l y u se d f o r
th e c e le b r a tio n o f r o y a l w eddings as e a r l y a t A. D. 300. j
o |
J M rs. T u fte d e a ls a t le n g th w ith th e cosm ic ira p lic a - j
tio n s o f th e e p ith a la m iu m 's c e le b r a tio n o f a s p e c if ic j
m a rriag e j th e com parison I make w ith th e t r a d i t i o n o f s a t i r e 1
seems a p t , s in c e b o th s a t i r e and th e ep lth alam iu m were s o - '
c i a l l y o r ie n te d g e n re s , s e rv in g as group e x p re s s io n s o f I
cen su re and o f hope r e s p e c tiv e ly . !
o f o rd e r and harmony I n th e d iv in e p la n . As V ir g in ia J .
T u fte h as shown, "th e n o tio n o f a human m a rria g e a lle g o r iz e d
as a s p i r i t u a l m a rria g e " c h a r a c te r iz e s C h r is tia n p o e try o f
th e M iddle Ages and draws su p p o rt from th e m ed iev al re a d in g ;
o f th e C a n tic le o f Solomon and th e f o r t y - f o u r t h Psalm a s i
d iv in e a l le g o r y .^ _
By th e s e v e n te e n th c e n tu r y , th e C a n tic le h ad become
th e p ro to ty p e o r m odel f o r c o u n tle s s p o e tic im ita tio n s o r
p a ra p h ra s e s in E n g lis h d e v o tio n a l p o e tr y , th u s r e a f f irm in g
i
th e I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e B i b lic a l poem- as an a lle g o r y d e s - ;
c r ib in g th e m y s tic a l o r sa c re d m a rria g e b etw een C h r is t and
th e C hurch, and i t s num erous e x te n s io n s .^ The f ig u r e o f ;
th e e n c lo s e d g ard en , to w hich th e b r id e in th e Song o f Songs|
i s com pared, e s p e c i a lly in flu e n c e d th e u se o f th e g a rd e n as j
t
a m etaphor f o r p e r f e c t harmony and com plete h a p p in e s s and I
th u s r e c u r s f r e q u e n tly i n E n g lis h p o e try b e fo re D ryden.^ j
Y et in th e l a t e r s e v e n te e n th and e ig h te e n th c e n t u r i e s , J
th e p o p u la r ity o f th e ep ith alam iu m d im in ish e d c o n s id e ra b ly , !
^•The P o e try o f M a rria g e , p . 99.
£ '
The m ost th o ro u g h g o in g ac c o u n t o f th e v a rio u s a l l e - j
g o r ic a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f th e Song o f Songs i s S ta n le y
S te w a r t1 s The E n clo sed G ard en : th e T r a d itio n and th e Image j
in S e v e n te e n th C entury P o e try (M adison, M ilw aukee, and j
London, 1 9 6 6 ).
i
^ S te w a rt, in The E n clo se d G arden, d e a ls s p e c i f i c a l l y j
w ith th e g ard en image in s e v e n te e n th -c e n tu ry E n g lis h p o e try
c u lm in a tin g in M a rv e ll’ s The C ard en : th e image would l a t e r
be u se d s i m i l a r l y by th e f i r s t R o m an tics, and p a r t i c u l a r l y
by C o le rid g e , as I s h a l l show. j
ju d g in g from th e c o m p a ra tiv e ly sm all number w r i t t e n . M rs.
T u fte p o in ts o u t t h a t th e vogue o f th e ep ith alam lu m d u rin g
th e s ix te e n th and e a r l y se v e n te e n th c e n tu r ie s d is s ip a te d by
th e l a t t e r p a r t o f th e s e v e n te e n th c e n tu r y , r e l a t i v e l y few
b e in g w r i tte n by th e p o e ts o f th e R e s to r a tio n and A ugustan
a g e .? i t was n o t u n t i l th e l a t t e r p a r t o f th e e ig h te e n th
c e n tu ry , f o r exam ple, t h a t a new en th u siasm f o r th e Song o f
Songs Is ev id en c e d in a p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f new t r a n s l a t i o n s
and commentary.® I n h i s stu d y o f th e im portance o f th e
Old T estam ent f o r th e S e n s i b i l i t y P o e ts , M urray R oston con
te n d s t h a t th e ’ ’p r o p h e tic q u a l i ty ” o f Rom antic p o e try r e
s u l t s l a r g e l y from th e R o m an tics’ re d is c o v e ry o f B i b lic a l
m o d els, in c lu d in g e s p e c i a l l y such a p p a re n tly ’’ pagan" l y r i c s
as th e Song o f Solom on.^ M oreover, as R oston p o in ts o u t,
such t r a n s l a t o r s as B ishop P ercy te n d e d to em phasize th e
sensuous d e lig h t and p a s t o r a l q u a l ity o f th e Song r a t h e r
th a n I t s a l l e g o r i c a l m e a n i n g s ; i t I s i n t e r e s t i n g to n o te
t h a t B la k e , th e f i r s t g r e a t E n g lis h R om antic, com bines th e
p r o p h e tic v o ic e w ith a d o c trin e of s e n s u a l i t y as d u a l means
to th e d isc o v e ry o f t r u t h . I t m ig h t, how ever, be more a p t
7
"H igh W edlock th e n be Honored— R h e to ric and th e E p i-
th a la m iu m ," P a c if ic C oast P h ilo lo g y , I (A p ril 1 9 6 6 ), 32-lj.l.
®Murray R o sto n , P ro p h et and P o et (E v an sto n , I l l i n o i s ,
1 9 6 5 ), P . f f . ----- ----------------------
^P ro p h et and P o e t, p . 1 3 .
• ^ P r o p h e t and P o e t, p . ij.9.
n o t to sa y t h a t th e Rom antics r e - d is c o v e re d th e B ib le b u t
t h a t th e y r e - i n t e r p r e t e d i t alo n g th e l i n e s o f o th e r p o e tic |
tr e n d s and t a s t e s w hich aro se a f t e r 1760, p a r t i c u l a r l y th e j
new m ed iev alism w hich m a n ife ste d i t s e l f in th e r e v i v a l o f !
j
th e b a lla d t r a d i t i o n . For th e R o m an tics, th e ep ith alam iu m !
w ould have seemed an e s p e c ia lly E liz a b e th a n l y r i c a l g e n re ,
and w ith th e r i s i n g i n t e r e s t in S p en se r one would e x p e c t as
w e ll a r i s i n g i n t e r e s t in th e p o e tic g e n re s S p en ser c u l t i
v a te d and e x c e lle d i n .
t
i
What I am s u g g e s tin g , th e n , i s t h a t th e ch an g in g p o - !
e t i c t a s t e from r a t i o n a l , c l e a r , s im p le , and w itty g e n re s !
I
su ch as s a t i r e to sublim e g en res su ch a s th e o d e, th e e p ic , j
i
and ( p o t e n ti a l l y ) th e ep ith alam iu m , n a t u r a l l y le d th e Roman-'
|
t i c s to e s ta b li s h e d e a r l i e r form s in th e E n g lish t r a d i t i o n , j
T h ere is a c l e a r r e a s o n f o r th e e s p e c i a l ap p eal o f th e '
I
m a rria g e hymn f o r th e R om antics— th e sen su o u s o r "pagan"
I
q u a l ity d e r iv in g from th e Song o f Songs and long a p a r t o f j
i
th e e p ith a la m ic t r a d i t i o n co u ld se rv e them in t h e i r e x p r e s - !
j
s io n o f r e v o l t a g a in s t th e o p p re s s io n o f th e o rth o d o x r e s - i
I
t r i c t i o n s w hich had c h a r a c te r iz e d th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y . j
|
Of t h i s I s h a l l have much more to say i n c o n n e c tio n w ith
B lake in C h ap ter I I , b u t i t m ight be s t a t e d a t th e o u ts e t j
t h a t each o f th e f i r s t th r e e g r e a t E n g lis h R om antics—B lake,I
W ordsw orth, and C o le rid g e —lo o k ed beyond th e e ig h te e n th j
i
c e n tu ry to th e e a r l i e r l i t e r a r y form s b y w hich th e y c o u ld
r e p ly to an u n s a tis f a c to r y e x p la n a tio n o f th e n a tu re o f !
.................. 6 j
t r u t h and man1 s r e la tio n s h i p to th e u n iv e rs e h e ld by th e
: _ i
A ugustan age b y r e a s s e r t in g and r e d e f in in g , a t l e a s t p o e t i - s
I
}
c a l l y , q u a l i t i e s w hich th e y f e l t to be m ed iev al and E liz a -
i
b e th a n . As I s h a l l p ro p o se in C h ap ter I I , th e e ig h te e n th 1
i
c e n tu ry , f o r a l l th r e e p o e ts , was th e age o f a g r e a t divorcej
in term s o f m a n ^ sen se o f h i s own i n t e g r i t y and p la c e in a
. i
!
harm onious u n iv e r s e , an age d u rin g w hich man somehow l o s t I
h is v is i o n o f an o r d e r ly w o rld . The new Rom antic philosophy:
t
and tr a n s c e n d e n ta l e p iste m o lo g y co u ld be g iv e n e x p re s s io n in|
i
!
v a rio u s p o e tic fo rm s, b u t p erh ap s none seemed as o b v io u s o r |
I
as a p p e a lin g a s th e ep ith alam iu m , w ith i t s t r a d i t i o n a l J
c e le b r a tio n o f th e m a rria g e u n io n as a m icrocosm ic e x p re s
s io n o f a v i s i o n o f th e whole w o rld as man w ould id e a li z e
i
i t , w ith a l l c r e a tu r e s bound to g e th e r in a c h a in o f lo v e !
I
b ased on u n iv e r s a l b e n e v o le n c e . Among th e second g en era tio n !
o f E n g lis h R om antics, S h e lle y m ost a p p a re n tly u t i l i z e d th e j
i
m a rria g e m etaphor as a means o f v is u a liz in g th e a p o c aly p se j
o f lo v e in Prom etheus Unbound. But i t i s in th e f i r s t th ree:
|
p o e ts o f th e age t h a t th e e p is te r a o lo g ic a l r e v o lu tio n i s a t
i
i t s h e ig h t and th e r e a c tio n a g a in s t th e r a t i o n a l t r a d i t i o n j
m ost e s s e n t i a l . j
B la k e , in o p posing a k in d o f paganism o r se n su a lism !
!
(w hich, as I s h a l l c l a r i f y , i s a h e a v ily q u a l i f i e d s e n s u a l- i
t
ism) to n a rro w ly '‘r e l i g i o u s ” and '‘ m o ral'' r e s t r i c t i o n s , j
arg u es f o r a freedom o r l i b e r a t i o n from th e e ig h te e n th - c e n - !
I
tu r y c o n c e p tio n o f l i f e r e g u la te d by th e re a s o n and l a r g e l y I
7
d eterm in ed by knowledge o f th e s e n s e s ; i t i s , p a r a d o x ic a lly ,
ithe h e ig h te n e d se n su a lism p o rtra y e d in th e m a rria g e hymn—
B la k e ’s improvem ent o f s e n s u a l enjoym ent, w hich le a d s to
freedom from th e bondage o f th e s e n s e s . Prom t h i s b a s ic j
id e a w ould develop B la k e 's co n c ep t o f B eu lah , b ased a ls o !
on i t s B i b lic a l c o u n te r p a r t in I s a i a h , and l a t e r in J e r u s a - j
lem B la k e 's v is io n o f m an 's a p o c a ly p tic r e t u r n to h i s whole j
o r u n f a lle n s t a t e as a g r e a t m a rria g e .
F or W ordsw orth, to o , th e s e n s a t i o n a l i s t d o c trin e t h a t
a l l knowledge d e riv e s from th e c o n c re te w o rld and im p resses
th e mind th ro u g h th e se n se s r e p r e s e n te d an a tte m p t by th e
i
I
e ig h te e n th - c e n tu r y p h ilo s o p h e rs to r e s t r i c t o r n arro w th e \
p o t e n t i a l f o r v is io n In h e re n t in e v e ry man. As th e p o e t o f j
an a u to b io g ra p h ic a l e p i c , th e n , W ordsw orth tu r n s to th e
c r i t i c a l is s u e o f th e n a tu re o f p e r c e p tio n and th e m y ste ry
o f th e v is io n a r y moment, o r sp o t o f tim e . In d e fin a b le as J
i
■ t
su c h moments a r e , W ordsw orth e x p re s s e s t h e i r e f f e c t p o e t i - j
I
c a l l y , l a r g e l y througjh m etaphors o f m u tu al in te rc h a n g e , o f j
i
consum ing, o f p o s s e s s in g , and, as I s h a l l s u g g e s t, en v isio n sj
m a n 's p e r f e c t i n t e g r a t i o n w ith in h i s n a t u r a l en vironm ent as j
a m a rria g e w hich i t i s th e p o e t 's f u n c tio n to c e le b r a te in j
a v a s t " sp o u sa l v e r s e ." In W ordsw orth we se e much o f th e j
i
m a g ica l a s s o c ia tio n s o f th e id e a o f m a rria g e o f th e s o r t j
1
t h a t F ra z e r d is c u s s e s in The G olden Bough b e n e a th th e s u r -
!
fa c e o f The P re lu d e . The e f f e c t o f , sa y , a poem li k e
\N u ttin g depends c o n s id e ra b ly upon o u r re sp o n se to p r im itiv e
'a s s o c ia tio n s c o n n e c te d w ith n a tu r e , su ch as th e g e n iu s l o c i |
i
c o n c e p t w hich G eo ffrey Hartm an c o n s id e rs i n h i s d is c u s s io n ;
: • I
o f W ordsw orth and w hich I s h a l l re g a rd as a m odern u se o f
a fu n d a m e n ta lly p r im itiv e id e a .
i
The t h i r d o f th e f i r s t th r e e Rom antic v i s i o n a r ie s i s
p e rh a p s th e one who p r o f i t e d m ost from th e t r a d i t i o n o f th e I
e p ith ala m iu m . F o r C o le rid g e , th e s p e c i f i c a l l y C h r is t ia n j
d o c trin e o f th e F a l l o f Man i s th e e v e n t w hich le d to th e j
n ig h tm a re o f e x is te n c e , o u t o f w hich th e o n ly p o s s ib le
!
red e m p tio n i s t h a t w hich would r e s t o r e th e d r e a r a - r e a lity o f j
C o le rid g e ’ s g a rd e n poem s, w hich draw h e a v ily f o r t h e i r
im agery and id e a s upon th e C a n tic le and th e ep ith alam iu m
g e n e r a lly , w ith a l l i t s C h r is tia n o v e r to n e s . C o le rid g e ’ s
p e r s i s t e n t hope in human l i f e and th o u g h t i s f o r a dynamic
j
o r d e r o r harm ony o f b a la n c e —p r e c i s e l y th e s t a t e o f e x i s - j
te n c e id e a liz e d in th e m a rria g e hymn. C o le rid g e e x p l i c i t l y !
I
r e g a rd s a c tu a l m a rria g e as m a g ic a lly sy m b o lic, c a p a b le o f
a f f o r d in g th e p a r t i c i p a n t s th e h ig h e s t p o s s ib le jo y on
e a r t h and o f th u s r e f l e c t i n g th e je y o f th e e n t i r e u n iv e rse .!
F o r him , as f o r Blake and W ordsw orth, th e id e a liz e d s t a t e j
i
i s th e same as t h a t I d e a liz e d i n th e e p ith ala m iu m . A ll !
i
i
th r e e p o e ts fa c e d th e same c r i s i s in e x p e rie n c e : th e f r a g - j
m e n ta tio n o f man’ s s t a t e in p e r c e p tu a l te rm s by th e t r a d i
t i o n o f Locke and e ig h te e n th - c e n tu r y p h ilo s o p h y . A ll th re e
so u g h t s i m i l a r means to e s t a b l i s h th e c o n t r a s t betw een an
id e a l s t a t e in manT s a p o c a ly p tic f u tu r e and h is p r e s e n t
'f a l l e n s t a t e and to argue f o r a new w o rld -v iew b a se d in
p a r t upon th e w o rld -v iew o f th e e p ith alam iu m .
CHAPTER I I
THE GREAT DIVORCE A N D THE FOURFOLD VISION
The d e c lin e o f th e ep ith alam iu m in E n g lis h p o e try
from th e second h a l f o f th e s e v e n te e n th c e n tu ry onward ;
may a t f i r s t seem to p a r a l l e l th e case o f E liz a b e th a n
tr a g e d y . W ith th e p o s s ib le u s e s o f s to c k c o n v e n tio n s v l r - j
|
t u a l l y d e p le te d , th e dram a f e l l in to a p e r io d o f decadence
from w hich o n ly a r a d i c a l d e p a rtu re from e a r l i e r p r a c t i c e s j
i
o r e x t i n c t i o n co u ld re s u lt.^ * The P u rita n s a s s u re d th e
I
l a t t e r c o u rs e , b u t th e c lo s in g o f th e t h e a t e r s o b v io u s ly
d id n o t a b r u p tly end a f l o u r i s h in g t r a d i t i o n . L ike th e
dram a, th e ep ith alam iu m fo llo w e d more o r l e s s r i g i d fo rm a l j
r e s t r i c t i o n s , so t h a t one m ight w e ll e x p e c t an e v e n tu a l i
i
e x h a u s tio n o f i t s c o n v e n tio n s and th e co n seq u en t abandon- j
raeht o f th e g e n re .
I
The com parison b re a k s down, how ever, when one co n sid ers!
f
th e scope o f th e m a rria g e hymn’ s t r a d i t i o n . E x ten d in g o v e r j
a number o f c u l t u r e s —p a r t i c u l a r l y th e G reek and Roman, j
M. C. B radbrook, i n Themes and C onventions o f E l i z a
b e th a n T rag ed y , tr a c e s th e s ta g e s in th e developm ent and
d e c lin e o f th e g e n re ; see e s p e c i a ll y h e r c h a p te r on "The
D ecadence," p p . 2l).0-267.
1 1
jJu d a ic , and C h r is tia n —th e ep ith alam iu m h as been ad a p ted
■ co n tin u ally to m eet d iv e rs e s p e c i f i c p u rp o s e s , fro m th e j
i
c e le b r a t io n o f an a c tu a l m a rria g e , as in S p en ser* s two
f
m a rria g e hymns, to th e im p assio n ed t r i b u t e s to th e V irg in i
i
and th e s a i n t s in Dante and o th e r C h r is tia n m e d iev al p o e ts .
!
I t s f o l k l o r i c o r ig in s , a s I have su g g e ste d in C h ap ter I ,
t e s t i f y to i t s im portance as more th a n sim p ly a fo rm a l j
l i t e r a r y g e n re . I t s v e r s a t i l i t y , l i k e t h a t o f th e s o n n e t,
i s e v id e n t in i t s s u c c e s s fu l in c o r p o r a tio n in to th e dram a,
n o ta b ly by S hakespeare i n Romeo and J u l i e t , As You L ike I t , j
i
and The T em pest, and i n to th e two g r e a t e s t E n g lis h e p ic j
2 '
poem s.^ j
I t i s s u r p r is in g t h a t a form o f such u n iv e r s a l ap p e al j
sh o u ld f a l l in to r e l a t i v e n e g le c t by th e p o e ts o f th e j
R e s to r a tio n and th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry , e s p e c i a lly in th e j
|
lig ih t o f t h e i r h ig h esteem f o r th e e s ta b lis h e d g e n re s and I
t h e i r co n co m itan t a c c e p tan c e o f m im etic th e o r ie s o f a r t . j
F u rth e r, th e alm o st o b s e s s iv e p re o c c u p a tio n w ith s o c i a l i
and u n iv e r s a l harmony t h a t ap p e ars in th e p o e try o f Dryden
I
and Pope would seem to f in d a m ost f i t t i n g o b je c tiv e !
j
c o r r e l a t i v e in th e v is i o n o f cosm ic o rd e r w hich c o n s t i t u t e s J
j
i
an e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f th e m a rriag e hymn. D ryden in p a r t i - i
i
^M rs. T u fte , in "H igh W edlock Then Be H o n o red --R h e to ric'
and th e E k ith a lam iu m ,'’ d is c u s s e s th e e p ith a la m iu m ’s v e r s a - I
t i l i t y and in c o rp o r a tio n in to l a r g e r l i t e r a r y fo rm s. |
12
c u la r r e a l i z e d th e p o t e n t i a l o f th e B ib le f o r contem porary
s a t i r e and p o l i t i c a l a lle g o r y , y e t rem ained a p p a re n tly
u n a f f e c te d b y th e Song o f Songs, th e model f o r so much
m ed iev al and R en aissan c e p o e tr y . At l e a s t , he saw in
th e C a n tic le n o th in g r e le v a n t to h i s own p o e tic p r a c
t i c e s .
The c o n c lu s io n s o f any a tte m p t to acco u n t f o r changes
in l i t e r a r y t a s t e and th e re su rg e n c e o f p a r t i c u l a r g e n re s
m ust be l a r g e ly t e n t a t i v e . My p u rp o se i s n o t so much to
o f f e r a s o lu tio n to th e q u e s tio n o f why th e ep ith alam iu m
d e c lin e d a t th e han d s o f Dryden and Pope to b e r e v i t a l i z e d
a t th e hands o f B lak e, W ordsw orth, and C o le rid g e , a s i t i s
tp o u tli n e th e g e n e ra l s i t u a t i o n i n E n g lish th o u g h t and
p o e try w hich seems to c o rre sp o n d to t h a t d e c lin e and r e
v i t a l i z a t i o n . U n d erly in g much o f th e p o e try o f th e age o f
D ryden and Pope a re c r i t i c a l d i c ta , and u n d e rly in g c r i t i c a l
d i c t a i s th e new p h ilo s o p h y t h a t tr a c e s i t s o r i g i n to
Bacon, I t i s to th e new e m p iric a l b a s is o f E n g lis h th o u g h t
in th e s e v e n te e n th c e n tu ry and to th e p ro fo u n d s h i f t in th e
E n g lis h c o n s c io u sn e ss w hich a tte n d e d i t th a t I now tu r n .
By th e b e g in n in g o f th e s e v e n te e n th c e n tu r y , a new
p ro s e s t y l e embodying th e v a lu e s o f c l a r i t y , s im p lic ity ,
and th e s tu d io u s av o id an ce o f n e e d le s s em b ellish m e n t,
p a r a l l e l e d th e r i s e o f th e new in d u c tiv e m ethod o f s c ie n c e ,
th e fo u n t o f th e t r a d i t i o n o f Bacon, Newton, and Locke
w hich B lake was to denounce w ith p r o p h e tic r a g e , C. S .
13
L e w is 's assessm e n t o f Bacon a t h is b e s t as p r im a r ily "an
3
e x p o se r o f f a lla c ie s '* r a t h e r th a n "a d is c o v e r e r o f tru th s" -^ |
p o in ts to th e w hole a n a l y t i c a l tr e n d o f B r i t i s h e m p iric ism j
w hich w ould c u lm in a te i n Hume's p h ilo s o p h y o f n e g a tio n .
Even b e fo re L ocke, th e s k e p tic a l t r a d i t i o n was f irm ly
e s ta b li s h e d in E n g lis h th o u g h t and was c e r t a i n l y n o t un
known in E n g lish p o e tr y . I n h i s " T r e a tis e " e n t i t l e d Of
Humane L e a rn in g , F ulke G r e v ille , a n t i c i p a t i n g D ryden and i
Pope b o th in m ethod and in id e a s , s c r u ti n iz e d m an's f a l l i b l e
power o f "Reason" and arg u ed f o r a r e l i g i o n b ased o n f a ith .^ j
Dryden em ployed s im ila r a rg u m e n ta tiv e t a c t i c s in h i s r e - j
f u t a t i o n o f th e D e is ts i n R e lig io L a i c i . In th e E n g lis h
p h ilo s o p h ic a l t r a d i t i o n i t s e l f , how ever, th e a n a ly ti c a l
ap p ro ach to th e human m ind and th e p ro c e s s whereby I t j
a c q u ir e s knowledge was n o t alw ays tem p ered by argum ents j
i
f o r C h r is tia n f a i t h . In d e e d , r e l i g i o n i s h a r d ly th e su b - j
j e c t u n d e r d is c u s s io n i n L o c k e 's E ssa y on th e Human U nder- J
I
s ta n d in g , in w hich B aco n 's in d u c tiv e m ethod g iv e s r i s e to !
a p sy ch o lo g y b a s e d on e m p iric is m , r e s t r i c t e d to th e b e l i e f j
i
i
t h a t p e r c e p tio n i s founded on s e n s a tio n a lo n e , and u t t e r l y j
d iv o rc e d from th e o lo g ic a l o r m e ta p h y s ic a l c o n c e rn s. W ith J
i
i
i
^E n g lish . L i t e r a t u r e in th e S ix te e n th C entury E x c lu d in g j
Drama (O xford, 1954-)» P» 357. ;
fy 'Poems and Dramas o f F ulke G r e v ille , F i r s t L ord B rooke,
e d . G eo ffrey B u llough (E d in b u rg h , 1 9 3 8 ), V ol. I , p p . 15^-191,,
L ocke*3 d o c trin e t h a t th e in d iv id u a l m ind b e g in s i t s e x i s
te n c e as a ta b u la r a s a and fo rm u la te s id e a s o n ly th ro u g h
memory, w hich owes i t s own e x is te n c e to s e n s a tio n , th e
p h ilo s o p h y o f m a te r ia lis m i s b o rn .
I n a tte m p tin g to r e f u te L o c k e 's m a t e r i a l i s t view by
d e m o n stra tin g t h a t th e mind h as no p e r c e p tio n o f m a tte r
b u t o n ly o f s e n s a tio n , Bishop B e rk e le y i r o n i c a l l y r e
in f o r c e s th e d o c trin e o f s e n s a tio n a lis m and u n w ittin g ly
e x a lts memory to an even h ig h e r p o s i t i o n . He a ls o p r e
p a re s th e way f o r th e n e x t l o g i c a l s te p in e m p iric a l
argum ent, Hume's d e n ia l o f th e e x is te n c e o f b o th m a tte r
and m ind. "Mind" f o r Hume i s m e re ly a n a b s tr a c t te rm f o r
th e b u n d le o f s e n s a tio n s w hich we p e r c e iv e . W e can have
no a s su ra n c e o f th e e x is te n c e o f e i t h e r m a te r ia l o r
s p i r i t u a l r e a l i t y , s in c e o n ly m a th e m a tic a l fo rm u lae a re
n e c e s s a r ily " t r u e ." By tu r n in g th e m ind i n upon i t s e l f ,
to u se a B lakean e x p r e s s io n , and by a b s tr a c ti n g "re a so n "
as a s e p a r a te f a c u l t y to be s c r u ti n i z e d and e v a lu a te d ,
Locke th u s s e t i n m o tio n a p ro c e s s w hich may be lik e n e d
to B la k e 's image o f th e s e rp e n t d ev o u rin g i t s e l f — th e
symbol o f th e z o d ia c a l sun o f th e n a t u r a l c y c le o f G enera
t i o n and o f th e chaos t h a t o pposes th e c r e a tiv e Im ag in a tio n ?
N o r th r o p F ry e , i n F e a r f u l Symmetry: a S tudy o f
W illiam Blake (P r in c e to n , 191(7), c o n s id e rs B la k e 's s e rp e n t
im agery a t some le n g th (pp. 136— 3 J4 .3 ) •
Along w ith th e chaos o f se n se e x p e rie n c e w hich L o c k e 's
c o n c e p tio n o f th e p a s s iv e o r r e c e p tiv e mind im p lie s comes
an even more d i r e c t c h a lle n g e to th e p o e t - - th e n o tio n o f
u t i l i t a r i a n i s m . I t i s e v id e n t i n Newton, who re g a rd e d
p o e t r y 'a s "a k in d o f in g e n io u s n o n s e n s e ." 6 I t re a c h e s a
c u lm in a tio n o f e x p re s s io n in Bentham, who would "refo rm "
th e E n g lis h lan g u ag e by re d u c in g i t , l i k e N ew ton's rain b o w ,
to i t s e le m e n ts o f o b je c tiv e t r u t h by ta k in g away i t s
" f i c t i t i o u s e n t i t i e s . T h e c o u p lin g o f " tr u th " o r know
le d g e w ith u s e f u ln e s s i s b a s e d , a t l e a s t in th e o ry , on th e
e m p iric a l t r a d i t i o n . C e r ta in ly Locke s e t th e exam ple in
h i s contem ptuous d is m is s a l o f th e p o e tic f u n c tio n and th e
Q
p o e tic m ind as u s e l e s s . 0
T hus, w h ile th e e ig h te e n th - c e n tu r y view o f a r t as
m im esis h ad ample p re c e d e n t in th e C la s s ic s and in th e
R en aissan ce h u m a n is ts , i t a ls o drew h e a v ily upon th e new
p h ilo s o p h y f o r i t s su p p o rt and a c c e p ta n c e . Hume o b je c te d
to th e u se o f th e s u p e r n a tu r a l in p o e tr y on th e b a s i s t h a t
i t v io l a t e s th e t r u t h o f o b s e rv a b le n a tu r e , and " th e mind
i s d is p le a s e d to f i n d a p i c t u r e , w hich b e a rs no resem blance
^Q uoted by M. II. Abrams i n The M irro r and th e Lamp;
Rom antic T heory and th e C r i t i c a l t r a d i t i o n (tfew Y ork, 1953)*
"^Quoted by Abrams, p . 300.
Q
Abrams, p . 268.
16
;to any o rig in a l." * ^ D r. Jo h n so n ’s n o to rio u s a tta c k a g a in s t
L y cid as i s s i m i l a r l y grounded in th e e m p i r i c i s t ’ s i n s i s
te n c e t h a t th e re e x i s t s a ta n g ib le , " r e a l 1 1 w o rld o f tr u e
em otion and an a r t i f i c i a l , f a n c ie d w o rld o f sham em otion
e x p re s se d in p o e tic " f i c t i o n . " ^ He d is m is s e s th e "lo n g
t r a i n o f m y th o lo g ic a l im agery" in M ilto n ’s poem as some
th in g "su ch as a C o lleg e e a s i l y s u p p l i e s , " ^ S in ce a l l
know ledge, a c c o rd in g to e ig h te e n th - c e n tu r y em p iricism ,
d e riv e s from th e f iv e se n se s and im p re sse s i t s e l f upon th e
re c e iv in g m ind, th e n knowledge o r t r u t h sh o u ld be fu n d a
m e n ta lly th e same f o r a l l p e rso n s in th e same e n v iro n m e n t.
Thus th e p o e t, in D r. J o h n s o n 's c o n c e p tio n o f him as a
r e p r e s e n ta tiv e man, m ust im ita te g e n e ra l n a tu re and " . . .
e x h i b it in h i s p o r t r a i t s o f n a tu re such p ro m in en t and
s t r i k i n g f e a t u r e s , as r e c a l [s ic ] th e o r i g i n a l to ev e ry
mind . . . , " 12
I t i s D r. Johnson a g a in who in 1769 (th e same y e a r
t h a t B lake began h i s P o e tic a l S k e tc h e s ) r e f l e c t e d in
R a s s e la s th e im pact o f D avid H a r tle y 's m e c h a n is tic f a c u l t y j
9
Quoted by Abrams in The M irro r and th e Lamp, p . 2 6 8 . !
10 i
Samuel Jo h n so n : R a s s e la s , Poems, and S e le c te d P ro s e ,;
• ^ S a m u e l Jo h n so n , p . l|.£l.
12Samuel Jo h n so n , p p . 527-£ 2 8 .
17
p sy ch o lo g y upon c r i t i c a l th e o ry . " ’To In d u lg e th e pow er
o f f i c t i o n , and send im a g in a tio n o u t upon th e w ing, 1 1 1 Im lac
e x p la in s , " ' i s o f te n th e s p o r t o f th o s e who d e lig h t to o
much in s i l e n t s p e c u la tio n . 1 ’ ’F a n c y ," " f i c t i o n , " "im a
g in a tio n ," and " lu s c io u s fa ls e h o o d " c o n s t i t u t e a d angerous
p re v a le n c e o f im a g in a tio n o r fa n c y --w h ie h i s th e w o rst o f
a l l p o s s ib le " d is o rd e r s o f i n t e l l e c t . " " V is io n a ry schem es,"
b ecau se th e y a re i m p l i c i t l y opposed to a common se n se em pi
r i c a l " r e a l i t y , " m ust n e c e s s a r i l y be c la s s e d as " f o l l y . "14
D r. Johnson draws th e b a t t l e l i n e s betw een th e " o rd e re d "
i n t e l l e c t and th e m ind p o s s e s s e d by i t s own d e lu d in g f a n
c i e s , j u s t as D ryden had e a r l i e r m a in ta in e d th e a u t h o r i t y
o f th e s t a t u s quo a g a in s t th e in h e r e n tly e v i l f o r c e s o f
d is s e n t in Absalom and A c h ito p h e l. The m ind i s d iv id e d
a g a in s t i t s e l f w ith th e r a t i o n a l f a c u l t y a c tin g as a k in d
o f m o n ito r f o r th e w hole m echanism .
In a l l f a i r n e s s , i t m ust be rem arked t h a t D r. Johnson
c r i t i c i z e d " th e d e s ir e in h e re n t in m a th e m a tic ia n s to red u ce
e v e ry th in g to m a th e m a tic a l im a g e s."•* ■ £ Soame J e n y n s 1 f a
c i l e r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f th e e x is te n c e o f e v i l in th e w orld
1-^ Sam uel Jo h n so n , p . 596.
•^•Samuel Jo h n so n , p . 597*
• ^ S am u e l Jo h n so n , p . 198. D r. J o h n s o n 's em phasis upon
common sen se as a g u id e to t r u t h o f co u rse opposes th e ex
trem e r a t i o c i n a t i o n w hich so o f te n c h a r a c te r iz e d e m p iric a l
a r gurae n t a t io n ,
18
o ffe n d e d a p r i n c i p l e w hich b o th D r, Johnson and th e e m p iri
c a l t r a d i t i o n in g e n e ra l ( a t l e a s t t h e o r e t i c a l l y ) h e ld ev en
more e s s e n t i a l in th e s e a rc h f o r t r u t h th a n th e power o f
reason--com m on s e n s e . As a k in d o f c a t a l y s t i t i s th e
p r in c ip l e w hich ru n s th ro u g h o u t th e h e r o ic c o u p le ts o f th e
E ssay on Man, r e c o n c ilin g , o r a t l e a s t b a la n c in g , th e oppo
s in g f a c u l t i e s o f th e m ind. Yet th e p r e c a rio u s b a la n c e o f
th e A ugustan id e a l o f harm ony is e v id e n t in th e ominous
ending o f The D uneiad, i n w hich th e w o rld s in k s b ac k in to
th e u n iv e r s a l d ark n ess o f chaos as th e l i g h t o f o rd e r and
re a so n f l i c k e r s o u t. I r o n i c a l l y , i t i s th e re a s o n i t s e l f ,
o r r a t h e r th e p e r v e r s io n o f re a s o n , t h a t p u ts o u t i t s own
l i g h t i n th e in v e r te d cosmos o f th e poem. The c o n s o la tio n
o f common se n se as a y a r d s ti c k of s a n i t y is s l i g h t in com
p a ris o n to th e g r e a t n e g a tio n r e s u l t i n g from m an 's h o p e le s s
a l i e n a t i o n from b o th h i s " p a s s io n s " and h i s " r e a s o n ."
The f r a c t u r i n g of man'-s I n t e g r i t y o f m ind i s p e rh a p s
even c l e a r e r in th e f o u r th book o f G u l l i v e r 's T r a v e ls ,
w here, a s K ath leen W illiam s p o in ts o u t, th e D eis t i c u to p ia
o f the Houyhnhnms i s in no way an a c c e p ta b le a l t e r n a t i v e to
th e d is g u s tin g s p e c ta c le o f i r r a t i o n a l Yahoo b e s t i a l i t y ,16
I n th e c o n te x t o f th e b o o k , th e two h a lv e s o f m an 's n a tu re
• ^ J o n a th a n S w ift and th e Age o f Compromise (Law rence,
K ansas, 1 9 5 8 ), e s p e c i a l l y p p . 187-193.
19
rem ain s e p a r a te d ; i t i s o n ly th ro u g h In fe re n c e (o r p e rh a p s
i n t e l l e c t u a l d e x te r ity ) t h a t one i s a b le to su p p ly a t h i r d
p h ilo s o p h ic a l a l t e r n a t i v e — as M iss W illiam s would have i t ,
re a s o n g u id ed by common sen se and a r e a l i z a t i o n o f m an 's
l i m i t a t i o n s . Y et a r t i s t i c a l l y , one may c o u n te r, G u lllv e r ' s
T r a v e ls , l i k e The Dune l a d , ends in a vacuum w hich no amount
o f c r i t i c a l and s c h o la r ly d ilig e n c e ca n f i l l . The two
w orks a re in d ic a tiv e o f th e c r i s i s in to w hich th e B r i t i s h
(n o t t o m en tio n C o n tin e n ta l) p h ilo s o p h ic a l t r a d i t i o n had
c a s t th e E n g lis h m ind.
But e m p iric ism was n o t th e o n ly fo rc e o f d i v i s i o n a t
w ork. By th e tim e D ryden w rote The H ind and th e P a n th e r
th e s e c t a r i a n c o n tr o v e r s ie s w hich had been ra g in g th ro u g h o u t
E ngland seemed t o have re a c h e d a new i n t e n s i t y o f d i v i s i v e
n e s s , w ith new s e c ts r a p id ly em erging to fra g m en t any u n ity
o f r e l i g i o u s f a i t h w hich y e t rem ain ed in E n g lan d . A ssa u lted
b y th e chaos o f r e l i g i o u s d if f e r e n c e s and d is p u te s , Dryden
u l t i m a t e l y assum ed th e p o s i t i o n o f th e s k e p tic and em braced
th e t r a d i t i o n a l s u r e ty o f Roman C a th o lic is m . S im ila r ly ,
and c o n s i s t e n t l y , D ry d e n 's ap o lo g y f o r ro y a lis m i n Absalom
and A c h ito p h e l n o t o n ly fo llo w e d a lo n g p e rio d o f p o l i t i c a l
i n s t a b i l i t y b u t was p u b lis h e d in p a r t to c o u n te r a c t th e
o u tb re a k o f new s o c i a l t u r m o i l . ^ The R e s to r a tio n and
•^ B e rn a rd N. S c h ill in g , i n Dryden and th e C o n se rv a tiv e
Myth: a R eading o f Absalom and Add i t oph e l (New Haven. 1.Q61)
c o n s id e rs t h i s s i t u a t i o n a t some le n g th (p p . 1 9 -9 5 ).
20
A ugustan t r i b u t e s to p eace and u n it y e x i s t n o t as r e f l e c
tio n s o f r e a l i t y b u t r a t h e r as h o p e fu l s ta te m e n ts f o r th e
r e - e s ta b lis h m e n t o f a w o rld a lre a d y s h a tte r e d , b u r s t , l i k e
th e b u b b le -w o rld o f The Rape o f th e Lock, by th e im pact o f
th e new p h ilo s o p h y and s c ie n c e , and by r e l i g i o u s and p o l i t i
c a l fra g m e n ta tio n .
The E n g lis h e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry may be s e e n , th e n , as
th e p e r io d o f a g r e a t d iv o rc e in many r e s p e c t s . Why th e
_ p o e ts d id n o t e x p lo it th e m etaphor o f a sym bolic m a rria g e
to a much g r e a t e r e x te n t in t h e i r e f f o r t s to e n v is io n a
u n iv e r s a l harm ony i s a d i f f i c u l t q u e s tio n to answ er. D ry
den re a d S p en se r, b u t seems to have ta k e n from him th e id e a
o f a m u l t i - le v e l l e d p o l i t i c a l and r e lig i o u s a lle g o r y , n o t
th e m y th o p o etic v i s i o n o f th e E p lth a la m io n and th e P ro th a -
lamion,^-® He c e r t a i n l y re a d th e Song o f Solomon, b u t he
r e s t r i c t s h i s comments on m a rrie d love i n Absalom and A chl-
to p h e l to a f l i p p a n t d is m is s a l o f D a v id /C h a rle s 1s n o to r io u s
p ro m is c u ity . The o p en in g l i n e s a re in d eed c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
o f th e R e s to r a tio n ’ s l i t e r a r y a t t i t u d e s tow ard m a rria g e :
I n p io u s tim e s , e re p r i e s t c r a f t d id b e g in ,
B efore polygam y was made a s in ;
- n — -
D ryden a llu d e s to S p e n s e r’ s M other H ubbard’ s T ale in
The H ind and th e P a n th e r , l . 1302. A ll c i t a t i o n s from th e
w orks o f Dryden in my t e x t a re to S e le c te d Works o f John
D ryden, e d . W illiam F ro s t (New Y ork, 1 9 5 3 ),
21
When man on many m u ltip lie d h is kind,
Ere one to one was cu rsed ly c o n fin 'd ;
When nature prom pted, and no law denied
Prom iscuous u se o f concubine and b rid e;
Then I s r a e l ' s monarch a f t e r H eaven's own h e a r t,
H is vigorou s warmth did v a r io u s ly impart
To w ives and s la v e s ; and, wide as h is command,
S c a tte r 'd h is Maker's image th ro ' th e la n d .
(Absalom and A ch ito p h el, 1 1 . 1-10)
Of co u rse, one must bear in mind th a t th e lea d in g
R esto ra tio n and Augustan p o ets were p r im a r ily s a t i r i s t s .
In the l i n e s quoted above, Dryden's flip p a n c y i s r h e to r ic a l;
he seek s to g lo s s over C h a r le s's outrageous p ro m iscu ity
through d e ft iro n y and th e humor o f the h e r o ic c o u p le t.
S ig n if ic a n t ly , however, i t remains tru e th a t th ere was no
th r iv in g t r a d itio n o f lo v e p o etry during the R esto ra tio n
and e ig h te e n th cen tu ry as th ere had been during the yea rs
between Wyatt and Donne'. And, although the epithalam ium
c e r t a in ly had not passed in to d is u s e , n e ith e r was i t a
w id ely c u lt iv a t e d g en re. The s t y l i s t i c in n o v a tio n s and
p r a c tic e s most t y p ic a l o f the p o etry o f Dryden and Pope
are perhaps th em selves u n su ita b le to lo v e p o e tr y . W. K.
Wimsatt has noted even o f P ope's experim ents in "the p a th e
t i c mode" th a t E lo is a to Abelard i s c h a r a c te r is tic o f i t s
a u th o r's s t y le in "the c a s u is t r ie s o f i t s r a tio n a le ," and
th a t, in th e E leg y to an U nfortunate Lady "the sharp fa c e o f
22
th e s a t i r i s t i s d i s t i n c t l y v i s i b l e . " ^
One m ig h t add t h a t th e h e r o ic c o u p le t a c ts a s a con
t r o l l i n g d e v ic e , c o n s ta n tly p re v e n tin g th e e x p re s s io n o f
p a s s io n from o v e rflo w in g th e bounds o f r a t i o n a l r e s t r a i n t .
But even i n D ry d e n 's b la n k v e r s e , th e n o tio n o f r a t i o n a l
c o n tr o l o v e r th e fa n c y , a lo n g w ith th e new p r o s a ic d i c t i o n
w hich p la c e d no v a lu e upon th e r i c h e v o c a tiv e im agery o f
th e Song o f S ongs, n e c e s s ita t e d a k in d o f t r a g i c drama v e ry
d i f f e r e n t from th e E liz a b e th a n . In D ry d e n 's A ll f o r L ove,
f o r exam ple, any g ra n d e u r t h a t Antony may be assum ed to
have once had i s u t t e r l y d is s ip a te d ; he i s n o th in g more th an
a f o o l who h a s abandoned h i s r a t i o n a l c o n s t r a i n t s , j u s t as
C le o p a tra is n o th in g more th a n a stru m p e t who d e c e iv e s and
e n c h a n ts no one b u t A ntony, who i s a-m an^w ithout judgm ent.
Where S h ak esp eare m a in ta in e d m a in ta in e d a n 'a m b iv a le n t t e n
s io n in b o th c h a r a c te r s , Dryden re d u c e s them to c l a r i t i e s .
M oreover, th e id e a o f m a rria g e in th e l a t e r p la y h as n o th in g
to do w ith th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f o rd e r o r p e a c e . In Antony
and C le o p a tra a m a rria g e in d e a th , a harmony in th e e t e r n a l
u n io n o f th e lo v e r s tr a n s c e n d in g e a r t h l y e x is te n c e , s e t s
th e to n e o f C le o p a tr a 's l a s t sc e n e :
■ ^ In tro d u c tio n to A lex an d er Pope: S e le c te d P o e try &
P ro s e , e d . W. K. WimsattT^j J r . (New Y ork, 195>1), p . xxxv.
23
Give me my ro b e, put on my crown, I have
Immortal lo n g in g s in me. Now no more
The ju ic e o f E gyp t's grape s h a ll m oist t h is l i p .
Y are, y a re, good Ir a s; q u ick : m ethinks I hear
Antony c a l l . I see him rouse h im se lf
To p ra ise my noble a c t . I hear him mock
The lu ck o f C aesar, which the gods g iv e men
To excuse t h e ir a f t e r w rath. Husband, I come:
Now to th a t name, my courage prove my t i t l e I
I am f i r e , and a ir ; my o th e r elem ents
I g iv e to b a ser l i f e . E l
Shakespeare, i t need h ard ly be added, did not concern him
s e l f over keeping th e "master passion " under r e s tr a in t in
h is p r e se n ta tio n o f C leop atra.
I f reason was regarded by the p o e ts o f th e E n lig h ten
ment as f a l l i b l e and im p erfect, i t was a t le a s t con sid ered
In h e re n tly more noble and tru stw orth y than th e p a s s io n s ,
w ith which i t remained h o p e le s s ly a t odds. The e m p ir ic is ts
in s is t e d upon the d iv is io n o f the human mind in to compart
ments and assumed th e m utual e x c lu s iv e n e s s o f the p er c eiv in g
(or ra th er r e a c tin g ) mind and the m a te ria l o b je c ts o f i t s
p e r c e p tio n . The tendency o f the e m p ir ic is ts to d ivorce God
from the world was supported by th e r is e o f E n g lish Deism,
w hich took i n f i n i t e l y more in te r e s t in the d iv in e c lo c k than
in the clockm aker. R e lig io u s and p o l i t i c a l tu rm o il fu r th e r
d iv id ed man from h im s e lf in e n d le ss q u ib b lin g , and the t r a
d itio n a l dualism s o f body and mind, so u l and body, m atter
20A ntony and C le o p a tra . V, i i , 279-288, in The Arden
S h ak esp eare (C am bridge, 19^Lj.).
and s p i r i t w hich seemed in h e re n t i n C h r i s t i a n i t y c o n tin u e d
to be assum ed. At th e same tim e , th e i n f e r n a l duo o f
re a s o n and common sen se ( a t odds w ith e a c h o th e r a t tim e s)
p osed a p a r t i c u l a r t h r e a t to th e p o e tic im a g in a tio n . By
th e tim e B lake co n c e iv e d o f w r itin g a "B ib le o f H e ll ," th e
g r e a t d iv o rc e o f h i s age m ust have seemed to him to have
a lre a d y ap p ro ach ed a c o n s o lid a tio n o f e r r o r , a g e n e ra l and
th o ro u g h g o in g c o lla p s e in w hich a l l p a r t i a l t r u t h s and
sp e c io u s argum ents r e v e a le d th e m se lv e s to be fa ls e h o o d s .
The tim e was r ig h t fo r another I s a ia h .
As e a r l y a s 1769, B lake began to make i t c l e a r th a t
he d id n o t re a d th e same B ib le t h a t I>ryden r e a d . M arg aret
R. Lowery h a s su g g e ste d t h a t B la k e 's "m ost i n t e r e s t i n g and
s u r e ly . . . m ost s i g n i f i c a n t re m in isc e n c e o f S p en se r" i s
found in th e poem To M orning in th e P o e tic a l S k e tc h e s , in
w hich th e young p o e t c o n f r o n ts m a rria g e a s "one o f th e
a g e -o ld problem s o f e x i s te n c e ." The im pact o f " th e j u b i l a n t
m u sic, th e jo y o u sn e ss o f s p i r i t , and th e ex u b eran ce o f
p e rs o n a l em otion" o f th e E p ith a la m io n and P ro th a la m io n on
h i s d e v e lo p in g c o n s c io u sn e ss a s a p o e t m ust have b een d e c i-
2T
s iv e . C e r ta in ly th e in flu e n c e o f S p en se r was s tr o n g a t
t h i s tim e ; th e S k e tc h es a s a whole have even b een c a lle d
^W indows o f the Morning: A C r it ic a l Study o f W illiam
B la k e's P o e tic a l S k etch es, 1783. T a le S tu d ie s in E n g lish
X C lil (New Haven. 19ll0). P . 9 8 .
25 |
'"so n g s In th e E liz a b e th a n m a n n e r . " ^ Y et th e re i s a common]
in flu e n c e on b o th S p en ser and B lak e— th e Song o f Solomon
i
and th e P salm s. H arold Bloom n o te s th e s i m i l a r i t y b etw een !
B la k e ’s image o f th e m orning sun "R ouz'd l i k e a huntsm an t o ;
th e chace [ s ic ] " in To M orning and th e d e s c r ip tio n o f th e
sun "as a b ridegroom coming o u t o f h i s chamber" who " r e -
i
jo ic e t h as a s tro n g man to ru n a ra c e " in th e n in e te e n th j
,P salm . ^ And in To S p rin g , Bloom rem ark s, " th e tone o f th e j
Song o f Songs i s h e a r d . T h e la n d in B la k e 's poem, lik e >
i
i
th e b r id e o f th e C a n tic le , is lo v e - s ic k and m ourns f o r “ ‘th e
I
r e t u r n o f h e r a b s e n t lo v e r . j
But th e poem i s no more ab o u t th e s u b je c t o f m a rriag e j
i
th a n i s th e song To M orning. B lake re a d th e B ib le a lle g o r i- j
c a l l y —more e x a c tly , a n a g o g ic a lly --a n d he m ust have been
aware o f th e t r a d i t i o n a l a l l e g o r i c a l re a d in g s o f th e Song
o f S ongs. In h is own m a rriag e im agery in th e two S k e tc h e s , i
t
he e x p l o its th e m e ta p h o ric a l m eaning o f m a rria g e . B ehind j
i
him and around him in th e c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n a re ev id e n c e s !
o f th e g r e a t d iv o r c e . L ike th e b r id e o f Solomon, E ngland
has been m ourning f o r h e r a b s e n t b rid eg ro o m , o r , in p o e tic I
i
te rm s , A lb io n , now f a l l e n , has b een s u f f e r in g from th e !
I
22 I
H aro ld Bloom, The V is io n a ry Company: A R eading o f
E n g lis h Rom antic P o e try (Garden C ity , New Y ork. 1 9 6 1 ). p . 1 3 I
^^Bloom, p . 1 2 . j
2^Bloom, p . 11. i
26
absence o f h i s s o u l. W ith th e P o e t i c a l S k e tc h e s , he b e g in s
to r i s e from th e m i l l o f o p p re s s io n b u i l t by B acon, Newton,
and Locke and fe d b y h i s own w i l f u l r e s t r a i n t o f e n e rg y .
The g r e a t e s t s in g le in flu e n c e on B la k e ’ s en g rav ed
canon i s u n q u e s tio n a b ly th e B ib le , w hich he re g a rd e d as
" th e G re at Code o f A r t ." 2^ But B la k e 's B ib le i s much l e s s
th e h i s t o r i c a l a c co u n t o f a ra c e th a n i t i s th e p r o p h e tic
v i s i o n o f th e im a g in a tiv e l i f e ; much l e s s th e h i s t o r y o f
th e s e c u la r Je ru sa le m th a n th e a p o c a ly p tic v i s i o n o f th e
26
new s p i r i t u a l J e ru s a le m , In th e Poe11c a l— S k e tc h es Blake
e s t a b l i s h e s h im s e lf as a v is io n a r y whose p o e tic o u tp u t
w ould b e , in B loom 's p h ra s e , "a com m entary upon S c r ip tu r e " 2^
H is a s s e r t i o n o f th e p rim ac y o f im a g in a tiv e v is i o n g a th e rs
much o f i t s f o rc e from h i s ren ew al o f th e n e g le c te d e p ith a -
lam ic t r a d i t i o n . C o n seq u e n tly , sym bolic m a rria g e came to
occupy a c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n in h i s p o e tr y , e s p e c i a l l y in r e l a
t i o n to h i s s o lu tio n to m an 's f a l l o r fra g m en te d c o n d itio n —
th e f o u r f o ld v is i o n o f com plete im a g in a tiv e u n i t y .
The u n ity o f B la k e 's canon a c c e p te d b y m ost B lakeans
i s much l i k e th e B i b l e 's u n i t y . The symbol o f th e New
• ^ Q u o te d b y N o rth ro p Frye in F e a r f u l Symmetry, p . lj.5.
"26
coFrye makes t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n b etw een th e h i s t o r i c a l
and_ im a g in a tiv e re a d in g s o f th e B ib le , F e a r f u l Svmmetrv.
p . 108 f f , *---------
2 ?The V isio n a ry Company, p , 12^.
27
J e ru sa le m , ad o p ted by B lak e, r e c u r s th ro u g h o u t th e Old and
New T e sta m e n ts, c u lm in a tin g i n th e c lim a c tic v i s i o n o f th e
C ity o f God in R e v e la tio n . I n th e Song o f S ongs, B la k e ’s
p ro b a b le s t a r t i n g p o in t in P o e t i c a l S k e tc h e s , Solom on’ s
b r id e i s lik e n e d in h e r b e a u ty to T irz a h and to J e ru sa le m ,
w ith th e “d a u g h te rs o f Je ru sa lem " m eanw hile fo rm in g a k in d
o f c h o rlc background to th e m u tu al p r o t e s t a t i o n s o f th e
l o v e r s . A ll th r e e f i g u r e s —T irz a h , Je ru sa le m , and th e
d a u g h te rs o f Je ru sa le m —become e s s e n t i a l f ig u r e s in B la k e ’ s
p ro p h e c ie s , re a c h in g a h ig h p o in t in J e ru s a le m , w hich I
s h a l l c o n s id e r in some d e t a i l l a t e r in t h i s c h a p te r .
D e sp ite h i s re a d in g o f th e B ib le " in i t s i n f e r n a l o r
d ia b o l i c a l s e n s e ," B lake o b v io u sly knew th e o rth o d o x a s s o
c i a t i o n s o f m a rria g e in th e Song o f S ongs. In th e song in
th e S k e tc h e s w hich opens "Love and harm ony co m b in e," he
expands th e com parison o f th e b r id e to a g a rd e n in th e Can
t i c l e to a r e p r e s e n ta ti o n o f th e lo v e r s as two t r e e s whose
b ra n c h e s in te rm in g le and whose " r o o ts to g e th e r j o i n . "28
The f ig u r e o f th e two t r e e s w ith In terw o v en b ra n c h e s i s
a common one in th e e p ith a la m iu m ’ s co n v e n tio n s th ro u g h th e
e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry , so th a t B la k e ’ s renew ed u se o f i t once
a g a in em phasizes h i s aw aren ess and u se o f th e p o e tic t r a d i*
28
The Com plete W ritin g s o f W illiam B lak e, ed . G e o ffre y
Keynes (London, 1 9 6 6 ), p . 7 . A ll c i t a t i o n s from B lake in
my t e x t a re to t h i s e d i ti o n and r e f e r to page num bers, s in c e
B la k e 's l i n e num bers a re n o t s ta n d a r d iz e d .
tio n s p re c e d in g him . The perfum ed a i r and th e d o v e 's m usic
once more echo th e i d e n t i c a l im ages o f renew ed l i f e and
b e a u ty in th e B i b lic a l so n g . In To Autumn and in th e Song,
"How sw eet I ro am 'd from f i e l d to f i e l d , " b o th o f w hich a re
immersed in th e s e n s u a l im agery o f t h e i r p r o to ty p e , th e
g ard en m o tif i t s e l f becomes an e s s e n t i a l f i g u r e . I t i s
p r im a r ily th e s e n s u a l in n o cen ce o f th e C a n tic le , r e in f o r c e d
by th e p i c t u r e s o f u n f a lle n Eden in G enesis and P a ra d is e
L o s t, w hich ■ underlies th e s t a t e o f b e in g t h a t B lake c a l l s
"B e u la h ," th e word f o r "m a rrie d " i n th e book o f I s a i a h .
B la k e 's p ro p o s a l t h a t th e s t a t e o f B eulah m akes p o s s ib le
th e f u r t h e r c le a n s in g o f th e doors o f p e r c e p tio n and shows
th e way to Eden th ro u g h "an im provem ent o f s e n s u a l e n jo y
m ent" c e r t a i n l y owes more to th e C a n ti c l e 's m a g n ific e n t
e le v a tio n o f s e n s u a li ty th a n to th e view o f in n o cen ce p r e
se n te d e i t h e r in G en esis o r in M ilto n .
The co n c ep t o f B eulah encom passes b o th th e f a c t o f
l i t e r a l m a rrie d lo v e —e s p e c i a l l y a s i t a id s th e p o e t o r
im a g in a tiv e man in h i s a tte m p t to r e a l i z e th e u ltim a te jo y
o f a r t i s t i c c r e a t i o n —and th e m etaphor o f th e th r e e f o ld
v i s i o n , th e s t a t e o f mind i n w hich, th ro u g h an im provem ent
o f s e n s u a l en jo y m en t, man r i s e s from th e ty ra n n y o f th e
s e n s e s . F or th e term "B eulah" a p p lie s p r o p e r ly o n ly to an
id e a liz e d m a rrie d lo v e r e l a t i o n s h i p by w hich th e mind o r
s o u l, th ro u g h th e c o n sc io u s and p e r c e p tu a l a c t o f lo v e , f r e e s
i t s e l f from th e e m p iric a l w o rld o f G e n e ra tio n o r n a t u r a l
29
c y c le and d e n ie s th e p a s s iv e r o le in c o g n itio n w hich th e
t r a d i t i o n o f Locke h ad a s s ig n e d i t . Bloom i s s u r e ly m is
ta k e n in re g a rd in g th e u p p e r l i m i t o f B eulah as e q u iv a n e n t
to S p en ser* s G arden o f A d o n is .^ The l a t t e r sym bolizes
c r e a tio n , b u t c r e a tio n in th e se n se o f O v id ian f e c u n d ity
r a t h e r th a n th e p ro d u c t o f th e s e n s u a l jo y o f th e Song o f
Songs w hich le a d s th e in d iv id u a l to in c re a s e d p e r c e p tu a l
a w a re n e ss. The r e p r o d u c tiv e c y c le o f G e n e ra tio n does n o t
c o n s t i t u t e m a rria g e . M oreover, th e en slav em en t to th e f i v e
se n se s to w hich th e se x u a l bond can le a d means th e f a l l
from G e n e ra tio n to U lro , w hich i s B la k e 's h e l l .
B lake d ra m a tiz e s t h i s d e s c e n t i n The C r y s ta l C a b in e t,
showing th e p e r v e r s io n o f th e s t a t e o f B eulah th ro u g h th e
s p e a k e r 's v ic tim i z a t io n b y a femme f a t a l e else w h e re i d e n t i
f i e d as T ir z a h . As H azard Adams p e r s u a s iv e ly a rg u e s , a l l o f
B la k e 's sp e a k e rs a re form s o f A lb io n h im s e lf , so t h a t th e
poem may be re a d as a v e r s io n o f h i s f a l l in m in ia tu r e .3°
The th r e e f o ld v is i o n o f B eulah i s e s s e n t i a l to th e man who
would r i s e to th e f u l l y human and C h r is t ia n v is i o n o f E den.
Adams assum es, how ever, t h a t th e poem i s s t r i c t l y about th e
s t a t e o f B eu lah , s p e c i f i c a l l y th e s e d u c tiv e d an g ers of
^ T h e V is io n a ry Company, p . 2 0 .
^^W illiam B la k e : a R eading o f th e S h o rte r Poems
( S e a t t l e , 1 9 6 3 ), p . 121.
30
th e m a rrie d s t a t e w hich le a d one to a b s t r a c t h i s th r e e f o ld
v is i o n from h im s e lf and to allo w h im s e lf to be encom passed
by th e fem ale w i l l r a t h e r th a n encom pass i t . Adams e x
p la in s th e poem 's p re d o m in a tin g n o te o f tr e a c h e r y by s e e in g
B eulah as p a r t o f th e f a l l e n w o r l d . Y e t th e problem may
a ls o be approached in t e r n s o f th e fo u r s t a t e s o f b e in g .
The d e s c r ip tio n o f B eulah in The Four Zoas assum es th e
c o n te x t o f a f a l l e n w o rld :
T here i s from G reat E t e r n i t y a m ild & p le a s a n t r e s t
Nam'd B eu lah , a s o f t Moony U n iv e rs e , fe m in in e , lo v e ly ,
P u re , m ild & G e n tle , g iv e n in Mercy to th o s e who s le e p ,
E te r n a l ly c r e a te d by th e Lamb o f God aro u n d ,
On a l l s id e s , w ith in & w ith o u t th e U n iv e rs a l Man.
(Z o as, p . 266)
In E t e r n i t y , m an 's u n f a l le n s t a t e , th e re i s sim p ly E den,
w hich encom passes and c o n ta in s th e o th e r th r e e s t a t e s , b e
cau se in E te r n i t y th e r e i s no d iv i s i o n . B eulah is g iv e n
" to th o se who s le e p 1 1 — t h a t i s , to f a l l e n man— i n an a c t o f
m ercy, j u s t as C h r i s t 's a s su ra n c e o f red em p tio n i s g iv e n to
Adam in P a ra d is e L o s t. The c h ie f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f B eulah
i s m ercy o r s e l f l e s s g iv in g , i t s m ain p u rp o se b e in g th e
in tim a tio n o f a p o c a ly p tic r e tu r n to e t e r n a l u n i t y o r r e
d em p tio n . I t i s , as R o b e rt P . G leck n er h a s p o in te d o u t,
"th e re a lm o f th e h ig h e s t u n io n on e a r t h , th e u n io n w hich
31
W illiam B lak e: a R eading o f th e S h o rte r Poems,
p . 1 2 3 . “
31
ap p ro ach es in a l l r e s p e c ts a f i n a l r e - i n t e g r a t i o n w ith
e t e r n i t y and th e human form d iv in e ." 3 2 B lake s u r e ly p la y s
upon th e d u a l sen se o f th e w ord " consum m ation,” im p ly in g
th e triu m p h o f th e a p o c a ly p tic f i r e s o f Eden w hich consume
th e v e g e ta tiv e and c o r p o r e a l e x is te n c e o f th e w o rld o f Gen
e r a t i o n . As he l a t e r r e v e a ls in J e ru s a le m , m a rria g e and
a p o c a ly p se a re o n e,
B e u lah , th e n , i s an a p p ro x im a tio n o f th e d iv in e v is i o n
o f Eden, s t i l l a p a r t o f th e f a l l e n w o rld , s in c e man in
Eden i s man r e s u r r e c te d , r e s to r e d to h i s u n f a lle n i n t e g r i t y .
Pounded upon lo v e and e x i s t in g f o r th e p u rp o se o f g iv in g
jo y , B eulah i s th e s t a t e d e s c rib e d by th e " l i t t l e _ C l o d o f
C lay" in The Clod & th e P e b b le ;
"Love s e e k e th n o t I t s e l f to p le a s e ,
"Nor f o r i t s e l f h a th any c a r e ,
"B ut f o r a n o th e r g iv e s i t s e a s e ,
"And b u ild s a Heaven i n H e l l 's d e s p a ir ."
(p . 2 1 1 )
The o p p o sin g view p r e s e n te d by th e P e b b le , th e n , i s e s s e n
t i a l l y th e p e r v e r s io n o f B eulah in th e w o rld o f e x p e rie n c e ,
o r th e d e s c e n t from i d e a l m a rrie d lo v e to th e bondage o f
G e n e ra tio n — th e f e a r f u l C irc le o f D e s tin y o u tlin e d in The
M ental T r a v e l l e r . The P ebble a rg u e s th a t
32The P ip e r and th e B ard: a S tu d y o f W illiam B lake
( D e tr o it, 1 9 5 9 ), p p . 5 0 -5 1 .
32
l,Love s e e k e th o n ly S e lf to p le a s e ,
"To b in d a n o th e r to I t s d e l i g h t ,
i’Joys in a n o t h e r 's lo s s o f e a s e ,
"And b u ild s a H e ll in H eav en 's d e s p ite ."
(p . 2 1 1)
I t i s th e same view o f lo v e debased w hich to rm e n ts th e
"D iv in e V oice" h e a rd i n th e Songs o f B eulah in M ilto n :
"When I f i r s t M arried you, I gave you
a l l my w hole S o u l.
" I th o u g h t t h a t you would lo v e my lo v e s
& jo y in my d e l i g h t s ,
"S eek in g f o r p le a s u r e s in my p le a s u r e s ,
0 D au g h ter o f B abylon.
"Then th o u w ast lo v e ly , m ild & g e n t le ; now
th o u a r t t e r r i b l e
" In je a lo u s y & u n lo v e ly in my s ig h t . . . ."
(M ilto n , I I , p . £22)
The "D aughter o f Babylon" I s th e s e p a r a te fem ale w i ll whom
Blake a d d re s s e s in th e song To T irz a h a s "M other o f my
M o rtal p a r t , " who
W ith c r u e l t y d id s t m ould my H e a rt,
And w ith f a l s e s e lf - d e c ie v in g s ic t e a r s
D id st b in d my N o s t r i l s , E y es, & E a rs :
D id s t c lo s e my Tongue In s e n s e le s s c la y ,
And me to M ortal L ife b e tr a y .
(p . 2 2 0 )
The same T irz a h i s th e b e a u t i f u l woman to whom th e b r id e o f
th e C a n tic le i s com pared, one o f th e f i v e " d a u g h te rs o f
Z elopehad" who se e k a s e p a r a te fem ale in h e r ita n c e else w h e re
in th e Old T estam e n t, and a ls o th e I s r a e l i t e c i t y w hich
sto o d in o p p o s itio n to Je ru sa le m . The f iv e d a u g h te rs w ith
T irz a h a t t h e i r h e a d , Frye p ro p o s e s , r e p r e s e n t f o r B lake
33
" th e T ive se n s e s and im ply th e p a s s iv e dependence on se n se
e x p e rie n c e w hich i s sym bolized in o u r b e in g b o rn from a
m o th e r,"33
The M aiden in The C r y s ta l C a b in e t, th e n , i s a d w e lle r
in G e n e ra tio n , a p a r t o f th e r a t i o n a l tw o fo ld v is i o n whose
h ig h p r i e s t s a re B acon, Newton, and Locke: th e r e i s c e r
t a i n l y an in te n d e d to u c h o f iro n y in th e t h i r d and f o u r th
l i n e s — 1 1 She p u t me in to h e r C a b in e t/ and L ock' d me up w ith
a g o ld e n K ey." The c a b in e t, bounded on a l l s id e s , i s th e
w o rld o f U r iz e n 's C o rp o re a l U n d e rsta n d in g , o f w hich Locke
w ith h is g o ld en key to know ledge i s one o f th e fo re m o st
e x p o n e n ts. G old, o f c o u rs e , i s th e c o lo r B lake a s s o c ia te s
w ith th e f a l l e n r a t i o n a l f a c u l t y , whose "key" can o n ly
c lo s e , n o t o pen, th e doors o f p e r c e p tio n . As T irz a h , th e
M alden a ls o s u g g e s ts th e even more s i n i s t e r o n e fo ld v is i o n
o f th e f i v e se n se s a lo n e , to w hich G e n e ra tio n e a s i l y s in k s .
Ju d g in g from th e v a rio u s c r i t i c a l a c c o u n ts w hich have
been g iv e n o f B eu lah , one m ust a g re e w ith Bloom t h a t i t
c o n s t i t u t e s B la k e 's m ost am biguous s t a t e . 34 Bloom h im s e lf
fo llo w s F rye in s t r e s s i n g th e p re c a rio u s n e s s o f B eu lah , i t s
n e a rn e s s to th e ig n o ra n c e and t e r r o r o f th e w o rld o f G enera
t i o n j u s t below i t . 35 Bloom r e g a rd s i t as I d e n t ic a l to
33p e a r f u l Symmetry, p . 127.
34The V is io n a ry Company, p . 1 6 .
35The V is io n a ry Company, p . 16•
3k
B la k e *3 s t a t e o f 1 1 In n o c e n c e ," so t h a t th e Songs o f In n o
cence , The C ry s ta l C a b in e t, The Book o f T h e l, V isio n s o f
th e D aughters o f A lb io n , and m ost o f M ilto n 'a r e a l l to be
re a d as "B eulah poem s,"36 G le c k n e r, on th e o th e r h and,
d is tin g u is h e s th e sim ple "in n o c en c e" o f th e c h i l d ’s p e rc e p -
~ t i o n (w hich may in d eed in c lu d e ig n o ra n c e ) from a h ig h e r o r
" o rg a n iz e d " innocence a t t a i n a b l e o n ly b y p a s s in g th ro u g h
th e s t a t e o f G e n e ra tio n o r e x p e rie n c e and th e re b y a c q u irin g
wisdom . The l a t t e r ty p e o f innocence i s B eulah, th e s t a t e
in w hich m ale and fem ale c o n t r a r i e s jo in to g e th e r in a
harm onious u n io n . The d i a l e c t i c a l p a t t e r n w hich G leck n er
s e e s in B la k e ’s e a r l i e r p o e try seems a t f i r s t to deny th e
re le v a n c e o f B la k e ’ s d o c trin e o f th e f o u r f o ld v is i o n and
c e r t a i n l y to r e f u te F ry e ’ s c o n te n tio n t h a t th e number th r e e
and i t s m u ltip le s u n e q u iv o c a lly s ta n d f o r e v i l o r e r r o r .
Even w ith th e f o u r f o ld v is i o n in m ind, n e v e r th e le s s ,
i t i s e n t i r e l y p o s s ib le to p r e s e n t a c o n v in c in g c a se f o r
th r e e e s s e n t i a l s t a t e s th ro u g h o u t B la k e ’ s p o e try , w ith TJlro
36The V isio n a ry Company, p , 1 6 ,
37(rhe P ip e r and th e B ard , p p . ^ - ^ 7 , F ry e, in s t r e s
s in g th e sym bolic v a lu e o f th e number th r e e and i t s m u lt i
p l e s in r e p r e s e n tin g p e rc e p tu a l e r r o r o r d e lu s io n , goes so
f a r as to su g g e st t h a t th e u n p u r if ie d " v ir g in " O lo lo n in
M ilto n i s an u n f i t b r id e f o r th e p o e t b e c au se h e r age i s
tw e lv e , a m u ltip le o f t h r e e . W e can o n ly wonder i f h e r age
i n s t a n t l y jumps from tw elv e to s ix te e n when she becomes
M ilto n 's tru e b r id e b u t, in B y ro n 's p h ra s e , one can n o t h e lp
b u t th in k th a t " p u b e rty a s s is te d " in h e r tr a n s f o r m a tio n .
a s th e vacuum c r e a te d by th e f a l l o f U riz e n , G e n e ra tio n as
th e p h y s ic a l w orld c r e a te d b y Los in o r d e r to s e t l i m i t s to
th e f a l l * and b o th B eulah and Eden as to g e th e r c o n s t i t u t i n g
p a r a d is e as i t e x i s t s p o t e n t i a l l y f o r th e f a l l e n and u n f a l
le n w orlds r e s p e c t i v e l y . Bloom’ s n o tio n o f B eulah as "th e
em an atio n o f Eden— t h a t i s , i t s o u te r and fe m in in e fo rm , 1 1
i s a k in to th e c o n c e p tio n o f B eulah as a low er form o r
e x te n s io n o f E den, g iv e n in m ercy to th o s e l o s t and a s le e p
i n U lro and G e n e ra tio n to e n a b le them to r i s e th ro u g h th e
se n se s (but n o t from them) to th e G ates o f P a r a d is e , w here
th e flo w e rs o f B eulah im p e rc e p tib ly become th e fla m e s o f
E d e n .3® The " c o n fu s io n ” o f B eu lah and Eden i s d e l i b e r a t e ,
f o r re a so n s w hich w i l l become c l e a r e r i n th e l a t e r p r o p h e tic
b o o k s, e s p e c i a lly J e ru s a le m , in w hich a g ran d ep ith a lam iu m
c e le b r a te s th e co ncord o f th e r e r in te g r a te d man w hich i s
E den. Of B la k e ’s g r a d u a lly expanding r e a l i z a t i o n o f th e
p o e tic p o s s i b i l i t i e s in h i s co n c ep t o f "em an atio n " and
" s p e c tr e " I s h a l l have more to sa y p r e s e n t ly . F o r th e mo
m ent, how ever, I sh o u ld l i k e to r e t u r n to th e le s s o n o f
The C ry s ta l C a b in e t.
The w o rld o r p e r c e p tu a l s t a t e em bodied in t h a t poem
i s c h a r a c te r iz e d above a l l by d e c e p tio n and b e t r a y a l .
S in ce f o r B lake a l l t r u t h i s th e in d iv id u a l t r u t h o f th e
3®Bloom d is c u s s e s t h i s flo w e r sym bolism on page 22 o f
The V is io n a ry Company, sum m arizing M. 0 . P e r c i v a l 's e x te n
s iv e tre a tm e n t o f th e s u b je c t in W illia m B la k e ’s C ir c le o f
D e s tin y (New Y ork, 1 9 3 8 ). “ “ “
36
p e r c e iv in g m ind, p o in t o f view i s c r u c i a l . The sp e a k e r in
t h i s c a se e x i s t s in and p e r c e iv e s G e n e ra tio n , alw ays a
d e c e iv in g s t a t e , and b e lie v e s he se e s B eulah— "a l i t t l e
lo v e ly Moony N ig h t 1 1 (p . 1|.29). But th e o v e r r id in g iro n y o f
th e poem is t h a t he f a i l s to re c o g n iz e th e s ig n if ic a n c e o f
h i s en tra p m en t by h i s own C o rp o rea l U n d e rsta n d in g , T ir z a h 1s
t r a p , and allo w s h im s e lf to be d e c e iv e d in to m is ta k in g mere
n a t u r a l c y c le and th e U riz e n ic u n d e rs ta n d in g f o r th e v is io n
o f a th r e e f o l d p a r a d is e . The C r y s ta l C a b in et i s n o t about
th e d an g ers o r p r e c a rio u s b a la n c e o f B eulah as an o b je c tiv e
s t a t e in B la k e ’ s cosm ology o r p sy c h o lo g y , f o r th e r e a re no
p u r e ly o b je c tiv e s t a t e s . I t i s r a t h e r ab o u t th e m in d 's own
s e lf - d e c e p ti o n in a c c e p tin g th e s la v e r y o f th e f i v e se n ses
and th e c o r p o r e a l w o rld as th e o n ly t r u t h . The s h a t t e r i n g
o f th e c a b in e t is i n e v i t a b l e , n o t b ecau se th e s p e a k e r seek s
an im p o s sib ly com plete v i s i o n in B eu lah in s te a d o f E den, b u t
b ecau se th e C o rp o re a l U n d ersta n d in g i s in c a p a b le o f v is io n ,
o n ly o f s e lf - d e c e p tio n .
L ike th e o th e r s t a t e s o f c o n s c io u s n e s s , B eulah h a s no
m eaning e x c e p t in s o f a r as i t a p p lie s to th e r e a l i t y o f th e
in d iv id u a l m ind. And i t i s to th e m ind whose p e r c e p tiv e
pow ers have b e e n d i s t o r t e d by th e u s u rp in g r a t i o n a l compo
n e n t t h a t r e a l i t y m ust a p p e a r d i s t o r t e d , G e n e ra tio n m is
ta k e n f o r B eulah, j u s t as H e ll i s m ista k e n f o r H eaven and
Heaven f o r H e ll by th e o rth o d o x a n g e ls o f The M arriage o f
Heaven and H e l l . The f a l l o f th e re a s o n , th e n , becomes
37
Blake f s fu n d am en tal c o n c e rn I n th e s o - c a lle d "m inor p ro
p h e c ie s ," a l l o f w hich d e a l in some way w ith th e p h ilo s o p h y
o f th e f iv e se n se s and th e c o rre sp o n d in g e p is te m o lo g ic a l
d iv o rc e w hich Blake re s o lv e d p o e t i c a l l y th ro u g h m etap h o rs
o f m a rria g e .
As a d e n ia l o f th e d u a lism s and n e g a tio n s o f o rth o d o x
C h r i s t i a n i t y w hich s p rin g u l ti m a t e l y from th e m a t e r i a l i s t
ty ra n n y o f U riz e n , The M arriag e o f Heaven and H e ll s e rv e s
a s a p re lu d iu m to th e drama o f th e f a l l o f re a s o n from
E t e r n i t y , I t s e f f e c t depends h e a v ily upon th e I r o n ie s o f
th e c o n t r a s tin g p a i r s o f id e a s w ith w hich i t d e a ls , and
p e rh a p s nowhere e ls e does B lak e show h im s e lf more a m a ste r
o f th e s a t i r i c mode. Be r e j e c t s , th ro u g h " th e v o ic e o f th e
D e v il," b o th th e m a t e r i a l i s t p r o p o s itio n t h a t a l l t r u t h i s
know ledge a c q u ire d th ro u g h th e se n ses and th e o rth o d o x
C h r is tia n d o c tr in e t h a t m an’ s c o n s t i t u t i o n i s d iv id e d b e
tw een th e body and th e s o u l. B oth view s a re U riz e n ic
d e lu s io n s fo rm u la te d by th e C o rp o real U n d e rsta n d in g and
p ro p a g a te d by th e m is re a d in g o f B ib le s and s a c re d c o d e s.
To th e v is io n a r y who re c o g n iz e s th e o n en ess o f a l l t r u t h
and th e s p i r i t u a l so u rce o f th e m a te r ia l w o rld , "Man h as no
Body d i s t i n c t from h i s S o u l; f o r t h a t c a l l 'd Body i s a
p o r tio n o f S oul d i s c e r n 'd by th e f i v e S e n se s, th e c h i e f
i n l e t s o f S oul in t h i s age" (M a rria g e , p . ll|.9K "E n e rg y ,"
B la k e 's D e v il c o n tin u e s , " i s th e o n ly l i f e , and i s from th e
Body; and R eason i s th e bound o r outw ard c irc u m fe re n c e o f
38
E nergy (p . U j.9). But th e en e rg y w hich i s " E te rn a l D e lig h t"
(p . i) |? ) i s c a lle d c o rp o re a l and e v i l by th e o rth o d o x ,
in c lu d in g Sw edenborg, who h a s become an " a n g e l," o r a p o lo
g i s t f o r h y p o c r i ti c a l s t a t e r e l ig i o n s in w hich " th e sn e a k
in g s e rp e n t w a lk s / In m ild h u m ility " (p . 1 4 9 ). For B lak e,
th e o rth o d o x d i s t i n c t i o n betw een Heaven and H e ll, v iv id l y
c o n tr a s te d i n P a ra d is e L o s t, i s d e lu s o ry , b ecau se th e im ag i
n a tio n knows t h a t "Heaven" i s r e a l l y U lro , th e s t a t e o f
a b s o lu te i n a c t i v i t y and n e g a tio n , l i k e th e bottom o f D ante’s
I n f e r n o , and t h a t "H e ll" i s r e a l l y E den, th e suprem e e le v a
t i o n o f c r e a tiv e en e rg y w hich i s m a n ife s te d a ls o in B eu lah .
In c a l l i n g S a ta n th e h e ro o f P a ra d is e L o s t, Blake m ust have
se en h i s f a l l from E t e r n i t y as an alo g o u s t o th e f a l l o f
A lb io n ; b u t he was to rem ain o rth o d o x enough to embody in
S a ta n th e f a l l e n S e lfh o o d o r S p e c tre o f " th e c a v e m ’d Man"
(E u ro p e, p . 237) t h a t c o n t in u a l ly opposes A lb io n ’s m a rria g e
In E t e r n i t y .
The M a rria g e , th e n , is im p o rta n t as a d e n ia l o f th e
n e c e s s ity o f m an 's f a l l e n o r frag m en ted c o n d itio n and as a
p o s i t iv e a s s e r t i o n o f th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f h i s r e - i n t e g r a t i o n
th ro u g h th e m a rria g e o r a c c e p ta n c e o f th e " C o n tra rie s " o f
" A ttr a c tio n and R e p u lsio n ,R e a so n and E n erg y , Love and H ate"
(M a rria g e , p . lif.9). As B lake makes c l e a r In th e p ro p h e c ie s
to fo llo w , U riz e n i s r e p r e h e n s ib le o n ly b ecau se he d iv o rc e s
h im s e lf from E t e r n i t y , n o t b ecau se h e r e p r e s e n ts th e re a s o n .
He becomes a t y r a n t o n ly when he f a l l s to th e p e r c e p tu a l
39
l e v e l o f G e n e ra tio n and m a n ife s ts h im s e lf in th e N a tu ra l
R e lig io n and M o ra lity p e r s o n if ie d by B lake as th e f a l s e
fe m a le , T irz a h , R ahab, o r V a la . The c o n n e c tio n b etw een th e
T Jrizenic ty ra n n y o f s e n s a tio n a lis m , th e fem ale w i l l , and
th e w o rsh ip o f a n a tu re -g o d d e s s ru n s th ro u g h o u t B lake*s
p o e tr y and i s o f te n c a lle d D ru id ism , s in c e th e w orship o f
th e g e n e ra tiv e w orld im p lie s th e l o s s o f Eden and hen ce th e
s a c r i f i c e o f im a g in a tiv e l i f e . The D e is ts , b e lie v in g th e
p h y s ic a l w o rld to be th e o n ly r e a l one t h a t man on e a r t h i s
c a p a b le o f know ing, were f o r Blake th e D ru id s o f th e e i g h t
e e n th c e n tu ry .3 9 By th e tim e he w ro te Je ru sa le m he was to
c h a r a c te r iz e th e n a tu re -g o d d e s s as a f a l s e b r id e , e v i l
b ecau se she r e p r e s e n ts a c o n s o lid a tio n o f e r r o r , c o n te n d in g
f o r A lb io n 's s o u l. Her c o n tr a r y , th e tr u e b r id e o f A lb io n ,
w ould be Je ru sa le m , who s ta n d s f o r C h r is t as V ala s ta n d s
f o r S a ta n /U riz e n .
Long b e fo re B la k e 's f u l l developm ent o f th e c h a r a c te r
o f Je ru sa le m , how ever, he p ic tu r e d an a l t e r n a t i v e to th e
fem ale w i l l w hich s e rv e s th e T Jrizenic ty ra n n y . O othoon,
th e h e ro in e o f V isio n s o f th e D au g h ters o f A lb io n , r e f u t e s
th e g o sp e l o f r e s t r i c t i o n made up o f R eason, S e lfh o o d , and
M o ra lity —w hat Blake d e r id e s a s " R e lig io n ." In th e v e ry
openness o f h e r lo v e f o r Theotorm on, she d e n ie s th e w o rld
3 ^ F e a rfu l Symmetry, p . jjfy..
o f G e n e ra tio n and a c c e p ts th e h ig h e r in n o cen ce o f B eu lah .
She p lu c k s th e flo w e r o f B eulah as an e x p e c ta n t b r id e , b u t
b e fo re th e consum m ation o f h e r m a rria g e w ith Theotorm on she
i s ra p e d and th e n c a l l e d h a r l o t b y U riz e n in th e p e rs o n o f
Brom ion (V is io n s , p . 1 9 0 ). I n h i s m o r a l i s t i c r e a c t i o n
a g a in s t h e r , T heotorm on r e v e a ls h im s e lf to be a s la v e o f
U riz e n , se n d in g h i s e a g le s t o re n d h e r f l e s h w h ile he
" s e v e r e ly sm ile s " on th e scen e and y e t weeps a t O othoon’ s
u n j u s t p u n ish m e n t. Theotorm on h a s b e e n v ic tim iz e d by th e
f a l s e m o ral law o f B rom ion1s cave an d , a s F rye p o in ts o u t,
th e cave h a s b ee n a symbol o f s e lfh o o d s in c e P la to .^ ® As
th e a c c u s e r, Bromion i s a ls o S a ta n (U riz e n * s i d e n t i t y
w ith in th e C h r i s t i a n c o n t e x t) , whose p u rp o se i t i s to keep
man in h i s f a l l e n s t a t e .
Theotorm on i s to rm e n te d b y God, b u t h i s God i s o f h i s
own m aking. E n s la v in g h im s e lf in G e n e ra tio n , he i s u n ab le
to r e a c h B e u la h , l i k e th e sp e a k e r in one o f B la k e ’ s n o te
book poems who co m p la in s:
My S p e c tre aro u n d me n ig h t & day
L ike a W ild b e a s t g u ard s my way.
My E m anation f a r w ith in
Weeps in c e s s a n tly f o r my S in .
( p . ii-15)
Theotorm on i s a v e r s io n o f A lb io n o r u n iv e r s a l h u m an ity ,
^ F e a r f u l Sym metry. p 0 2 ^ 1 .
Bromion a form o f S a ta n /U riz e n , th e t y r a n t God o f h i s own
p e r c e p tu a l c r e a tio n and th e s e lfh o o d t h a t B lake c a l l s
" S p e c tre ." O othoon, l i k e Je ru sa le m , i s th e B rid e o f C h r is t
in th e a n a g o g ic a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e Song o f S ongs, th e
"E m an atio n ," d iv o rc e d from man in G e n e ra tio n , o f th e C h ris t
w ith in him . She i s , to u se F r y e 's rem ark on B la k e 's emana
ti o n s g e n e r a lly , " th e a g g re g a te o f a l l t h a t a p o e t lo v e s
v is u a liz e d a s a b r id e , . , L ike th e tr u e C h r is t in
The M arriag e o f H eaven and H e l l , she a c ts "from im p u lse,
n o t from r u le s " (M a rria g e , p , 1£>8) . As h i s em an atio n , she
r e f l e c t s "'T h e image o f T heotorm on'" (V is io n s , p , 1 9 0 ), ,
t h a t i s , th e image o f th e Human Form D iv in e in Theotorm on
w hich h a s b ee n s t i f l e d b y th e p e r v e r s io n s o f m o ral law and
r e l i g i o u s h y p o c r is y . She la m en ts f o r h e r " a b s e n t" lo v e r
lik e th e b r id e o f th e Song o f Solomon, w h ile th e D au g h ters
o f A lb io n , l i k e th e d a u g h te rs o f Je ru sa le m i n th e B i b lic a l
song, form a ch o ru s to h e r la m e n t, B lake p a ro d ie s th e
g e n tle s le e p o f th e b rid eg ro o m in th e house o f th e b r i d e 's
m o th er, from w hich th e b r id e c a u tio n s th e d a u g h te rs o f
Je ru sa lem n o t to waken him " U n til he p le a s e " (c h . 8 :Ij.),
Theotorm on, i r o n i c a l l y , s le e p s n o t i n B eulah b u t in G enera
t i o n . I n m arked c o n t r a s t to th e b rid eg ro o m sun o f th e
n in e te e n th P salm , he i s lik e n e d to " 'T h e sun t h a t s le e p s
^ F e a r f u l Sym m etry, p . 3 ^2 .
k2
to o lo n g . . . ,M (V is io n s , p . 1 9 1 ). O othoon Is u n a b le to
waken him from N ew to n 's s le e p a s she c r i e s o u t:
" . . . A ris e , my T heotorm on, I am p u r e ,
"B ecause th e n ig h t i s gone t h a t c l o s 'd me i n
i t s d e a d ly b la c k .
"They t o ld me t h a t th e n ig h t & day w ere a l l
t h a t I c o u ld s e e ;
"They t o l d me t h a t I had f i v e s e n s e s to in c lo s e
me up . . .
(V is io n s , p . 191)
She re c o g n iz e s and a v o id s h i s e r r o r b u t, l i k e A lb io n in
Je ru s a le m , Theotorm on r e f u s e s to e n te r B eu lah th ro u g h a
■union w ith O othoon, h i s em an atio n , and th e co n seq u en t
d e n ia l o f U r iz e n 's m o ral law .
In e p ito m iz in g th e v a lu e s o f B eu lah — e s p e c i a l l y th o se
o f C h r is tia n f o rg iv e n e s s and u n iv e r s a l lo v e , Oothoon i s an
e a r l y v e r s io n o f J e ru s a le m , j u s t a s T hel i s a n e a r l y v e r
s io n o f V a la , th e m is tr e s s o f S a ta n . O othoon, c a l l e d
" h a r lo t " b y Brom ion, h a s th e v i r g i n a l p u r i t y o f a d w e lle r
i n th e h ig h e r in n o cen ce o f B eu lah ; T h e l, r e p e a te d ly c a l l e d
" v i r g i n ," i s c lo s e to B la k e 's n o tio n o f th e Whore o f Baby
lo n as th e r e s t r i c t i v e and D ru id ic a l fem ale w i l l . Bloom
s u g g e s ts t h a t The Book o f T h el b e g in s in a g ard en of B eulah,
w h ich he e q u a te s w ith th e s t a t e o f in n o cen ce in th e e a r l y
s e t o f s o n g s . ^-2 g u t B lake makes i t c l e a r t h a t th e poem i s ,
a s G leck n er a rg u e s , n e i t h e r a song o f in n o cen ce n o r a song
V is io n a ry Company, p . ijJ?.
43
o f B eu lah . I n G le c k n e r 1 s re a d in g o f B lak e’ s e a r l i e r p o e try
a s d i a l e c t i c a l , T h el i s g u i l t y o f tu r n in g h e r back upon
e x p e rie n c e and th u s lo s in g th e chance to p a s s th ro u g h i t
and on in to h ig h e r in n o c e n c e . I n s te a d , she rem ain s in th e
u n s a t i s f a c t o r y lim bo of c h i l d i s h in n o cen ce w hich she h as
o u tw o rn , a c c e p tin g " th e shadows o f e t e r n a l d e lig h t in a
mundane ’p a r a d i s e . ’
In term s o f th e f o u r f o ld v is i o n , how ever, B lake g iv e s
c l e a r in d ic a tio n s t h a t T h el in h a b its n e i th e r B eulah n o r
th e Innocence o f th e c h i l d ’s p e r c e p tio n . As K arl K i r a l i s
rem inds u s , one m ust c o n s id e r th e s t a t e in w hich a B lakean
f ig u r e e x i s t s a s th e c o n te x t In w hich to e v a lu a te h i s o r
h e r s t a t e m e n t s . ^ The w orld T h el in h a b its i s a " p a ra d is e "
o n ly fro m h e r lim ite d p o in t o f view , w hich Blake i s c a r e f u l
to d i s t in g u i s h from h is own v is i o n from th e a r t i s t ' s E den.
The " r i v e r o f Adona" (T h e l, p . 127) and th e im ages o f
n a t u r a l ren ew al and d is s i p a t i o n i d e n t i f y th e w orld T h el
v i s i t s a s Ge n e r a t io n - - S p e n s e r 's G arden o f A donis. I r o n i
c a l l y , T h el h e r s e l f , tho u g h she may n o t th in k o f h e r s e l f as
a c c e p tin g a t a l l , i s i t s prim e exem plar in t h e poem. Her
name in G reek means "w ish" o r " w i l l , " and h e r m otto p o in ts
^ The P ip e r and th e B ard, p . 163.
A Guide to th e I n t e l l e c t u a l Symbolism o f W illiam
B la k e ’s L a te r P ro p h e tic W r itin g s ," C r itic is m , I (Summer
1 9 5 9 ), 193. .
t o h e r s e rv ic e to th e T Jrizen ic w orld o f s e n s a tio n and
r a t i o n a l i s t i c ty ra n n y . The "g o ld e n bow l” s ta n d s f o r th e
fro z e n v i r g i n i t y t h a t Blake c a l l s " p a le r e li g i o u s l e t -
ch e ry " (A m erica, p . 1 9 9 ); th e " s i l v e r ro d " i s th e t r a d i
t i o n a l symbol o f e a r t h l y power and r u l e . ^ The q u e s tio n s
"Can Wisdom be p u t in a s i l v e r r o d ? / Or Love in a g o ld e n
bow l?" a re i r o n i c , s in c e T h e l1s a c tio n s a l l show h e r to be
bound to th e m in d -fo rg e d m o ia c le s o f th e r e s t r i c t i v e s e l f
hood w hich p r o h i b i t th e e n tr y in to B eu lah .
T h el*s f a ilu r e o f p e r c e p tio n r e s u lt s because she s e e s
w ith the e y e , not im a g in a tiv e ly through i t . Thus she f a i l s
to see through the opaque n a tu ra l w orld o f G eneration to
Beulah, th e world o f s e l f - s a c r i f i c i n g lo v e rep resen ted by
th e Cloud who d e sc r ib e s to h er th e passage from mutable
n atu re to Beulah in ap propriate m a rita l term s. When he
p a sse s out o f m a te r ia lity , he t e l l s h er, i t w i l l be
" . . . to te n fo ld l i f e , to lo v e , to peace
and rap tu res h o ly :
"Unseen d escen d in g, w eigh ray lig h t wings
upon balmy flo w e r s ,
"And cou rt th e fa ir -e y e d dew to take me
to h er sh in in g te n t:
"The weeping v ir g in , trem b lin g k n eels
b efo re th e r is e n sun,
Bloom i d e n t i f i e s th e g o ld e n bowl w ith v i r g i n i t y
(The V is io n a ry Company, p . k$); F rye c o n n e c ts i t w ith th e
fem ale w i l l (F e a r f u l Symmetry, p . 3 0 3 ). G leckner d is c u s s e s
th e t r a d i t i o n a l a s s o c ia tio n s o f th e s i l v e r ro d w ith e a r t h l y
pow er (The P ip e r and th e B ard, p p , 166-167) •
“T i l l we a r is e l i n k 'd in a g o ld e n band
and n e v e r p a r t ,
“But w alk u n ite d , b e a rin g fo o d to a l l
o u r te n d e r f lo w e r s ."
(T h e l. p . 128)
What T h el f a l l s to com prehend i s th e le s s o n o f th e Clod o f
C lay t h a t “we l i v e n o t f o r o u r s e lv e s ” (T h e l. p . 1 2 9 ), and
she th u s ca n n o t see th e d if f e r e n c e b etw een lo v e in G enera
t i o n and lo v e in B eulah w hich B lake draw s in a n o te -b o o k
poem c a l l e d S e v e ra l Q u estio n s A nsw ered:
He who b in d s to h im s e lf a jo y
D oth th e w inged l i f e d e s tro y ;
But he who k is s e s th e jo y a s i t f l i e s
L iv es in E t e r n i t y 's sun r i s e .
(p . l 8lj.)
The s e x u a l c y c le o f G e n e ra tio n i s th e e a r t h l y bondage o f
T irz a h o r V ala ; th e s e l f - e f f a c i n g and f r e e in g lo v e o f
B eu lah i s th e freedom o f Je ru sa le m , th e e n t r y in to E te r n it y .
T h e l's "w h ite v e i l ” (T h e l. p . 130) i s th e v e i l (o r "V ala")
o f s e lf-im p o s e d s e lfh o o d o r v i r g i n i t y and th u s o f th e
mundane s h e l l t h a t h id e s E t e r n i t y from h e r . As th e poem
e n d s , she f l e e s from th e th r e s h o ld o f p o s s ib le consummation,
p o t e n t i a l l y a b r id e to a l l a p p e a ra n c e s, b u t n e c e s s a r ily a
f a l s e b r id e , s in c e th e fem ale w ill ca n n e v e r e n te r B eu lah .
I n The Book o f U rizen B lake i s e x p l i c i t in lin k in g th e
c r e a t i o n o f th e fem ale w i l l (h e re c a lle d "E nltharm on") w ith
th e s e p a r a tio n o f th e r a t i o n a l f a c u l t y from E t e r n i t y and
th e co n seq u en t f a l l to c o r p o r e a l i t y . As " th e E te r n a l
1 * 6
P ro p h e t” (U riz e n , p . 2 3 0 ), Los r e p r e s e n ts A lb io n in E t e r
n i t y , b u t he i s c a lle d Los o n ly in th e f a l l e n w o rld o f
G e n e ra tio n , th e w o rld o f th e s e p a r a te s e x e s ; b e fo re th e
d iv is io n o f th e f a l l , he i s U rth o n a and d w ells in E den.
H is own "m a rria g e” to h i s " d iv id e d image" (U riz e n . p . 2 3 2 ),
th e n , c a n mean o n ly h i s bondage to th e C irc le o f D e stin y
and th e r e f o r e a p aro d y o f th e tr u e B eulah s t a t e w hich
r e f l e c t s E den. In B la k e 's more le n g th y p r e s e n ta ti o n o f
th e m a rriag e f e a s t o f Los and E nitharm on in th e F i r s t N ight
o f The Four Z o as, G e n e ra tio n i s c l e a r l y a p aro d y o f B eu lah .
The m a rria g e assem bly i s t r a d i t i o n a l i n th e c o n v e n tio n s o f
th e ep ith alam iu m :
The N u p tia l Song a ro s e from a l l th e
th o u san d th o u sa n d s p i r i t s
Over th e jo y f u l E a r th & Sea & ascen d ed
in to th e H eavens;
For E lem en ta l Gods t h e i r th u n d ero u s
Organs b lew , c r e a tin g
D e lic io u s V ia n d s. Demons o f Waves
t h e i r w a t 'r y E choes woke.
B rig h t S o u ls o f v e g e ta tiv e l i f e budd in g
and b lo sso m in g
S tr e tc h t h e i r im m ortal hands to sm ite
th e g o ld & s i l v e r W ires,
And w ith im m ortal V oice s o f t w a rb lin g ,
f i l l a l l E a rth & H eaven.
W ith d o u b lin g v o ic e s , & lo u d Horns
wound ro u n d , so u n d in g ,
Cavernous d w e lle rs f i l l ' d th e enormous
R e v e lry , R esponding,
And S p i r i t s o f F lam ing f i r e on h ig h
g o v e rn 'd th e m ig h ty Song.
(Z o as, p . 271;.)
The word 1 1 jo y " i s th e k ey n o te o f S p e n s e r 1 s "E p lth a la m io n , a
p o e tic v i s i o n o f B eu lah in w hich m a rria g e i s p r o p e r ly a s s o
c i a t e d w ith abundance and f r u i t f u l n e s s . The b rid eg ro o m
c a l l s f o r wine to be p o u red o u t “w ith o u t r e s t r a i n t o r s ta y j 1
" n o t by c u p s , b u t by th e b e l l y f u l l . " ^ The " D e lic io u s
V iands" o f L o s 's w edding a re i r o n i c , th e b r i d a l flo w e rs
c r u e l l y d e lu s iv e in th e w o rld o f " v e g e ta tiv e l i f e , " The
b r id e and b rid eg ro o m s i t n o t in r a p tu r o u s a n t i c i p a t i o n b u t
“ i n d is c o n te n t & sc o rn " ( Z oas, p . 27l|-). The m a rria g e hymn
i t s e l f i s a song o f U riz e n , c e le b r a t in g th e D ru id ic a l
" h a rv e s t" o f " th e b lo o d o f Men" (Z o as, p , 2 7 5 ); I t en
v is i o n s d e s o la tio n and s t e r i l i t y , a tim e when "Man s h a l l
be no m o rel" (Z oas, p . 275) r a t h e r th a n th e abundance and
h a r v e s t o f th e tr u e m a rria g e hymn.
The p a ro d ic m a rria g e in The F our Zoas r e s u l t s , o f
c o u rs e , b ec au se o f U r iz e n 's a tte m p ts to b u ild a new w orld
composed o f .- f i n i t e m a tte r . B la k e 's b a s ic p a ro d y o f th e
book o f G e n e sis in U riz e n i s r e in f o r c e d b y h i s p a ro d y o f
th e book o f I s a i a h , in w hich m a rria g e m etap h o rs f ig u r e
p ro m in e n tly and w hich, as a p r o p h e tic b o o k , was o f e s p e c ia l
i n t e r e s t to B la k e , The s e l f - d e s t r u c t i o n o f U r iz e n 's w o rld
^ E p ith a la m io n , 1 1 . 250-251. A ll c i t a t i o n s from
S p en se r in my t e x t a re to The Works o f Edmund S p e n se r, a
V ariorum E d itio n , e d , Edwin G reenlaw and o th e r s (B a ltim o re ,
1 9 3 ^ -1 9 5 7 ).
1 * 8
i s b i t t e r l y I ro n ic i n th e l i g h t o f G od's w ords i n I s a i a h
d e s c r ib in g th e New Je ru sa lem o f th e a p o c a ly p se :
F o r, b e h o ld , I c r e a te new heavens
And a new e a r t h :
And th e fo rm er s h a l l n o t be rem em bered,
Nor come in to m ind.
But be ye g la d and r e j o i c e f o r e v e r
In t h a t w hich I c r e a t e :
F o r, b e h o ld , I c r e a te Je ru sa le m a r e jo ic in g ,
And h e r p e o p le a jo y .
(65: 17-19)
T here i s no r e j o i c i n g o v er U r iz e n 's c r e a t io n , w hich is
n e g a tio n . I s a i a h 's m ention o f “an I n fa n t o f day s” (6 5 : 20)
r e c a l l s B la k e 's d e p ic tio n o f U riz e n as th e "A n cien t o f
D a y s.” And i t is I s a i a h 's c o n c e p tio n o f B eulah t h a t B lake
t r e a t s i r o n i c a l l y i n The Four Z o as. To a p o e t c o n s ta n tly
aware o f th e gap betw een f a l l e n and u n f a lle n man, G enera
t i o n and E t e r n i t y , th e p a ro d ic a r t i s a n e s s e n t i a l means
o f c o n t r a s t . U r iz e n 's p e r v e r s io n o f c r e a t i o n is r e p e a te d
in th e b i r t h o f Ore as a p aro d y o f th e b i r t h o f C h r is t:
A s h r ie k r a n t h r o ' E te r n it y ,
And a p a r a l y t i c s tr o k e ,
At the b ir th o f th e Human shadow.
(U riz e n . p . 232)
In The Book o f A hania B lake tu r n s from th e e f f e c t s o f
U r iz e n 's f a l l t o th e s u g g e s tio n o f h i s p o s s ib le re d e m p tio n ,
and he does so l a r g e l y th ro u g h a f u r t h e r developm ent o f th e
p a ro d ic a r t . F o r th e f i r s t tim e i n th e p ro p h e c ie s B lake
c o n s id e rs m a rria g e a s a sy m b o lic r e p r e s e n ta ti o n o f Eden
i t s e l f , th e s t a t e o f u ltim a te jo y . The c o n n e c tio n betw een
m a rria g e and Eden may w e ll have prom pted him to abandon th e
c o sm o lo g ic a l scheme o f th e P o u r Zoas when he tu rn e d to
M ilto n and J e ru s a le m , th e l a t t e r o f w hich r e c a p i t u l a t e s
m a te r ia l from The Book o f A h an ia.
H aving shown U riz e n d iv o rc e d from E t e r n i t y and E n i-
Jbharmon, th e a r c h e ty p a l woman, assum ing a s e p a r a te b e in g ,
B lake c o u ld now d ra m a tiz e U r iz e n 's i s o l a t i o n in human term s.
I n th e je a lo u s y o f h i s s e lfh o o d , U riz e n d iv o rc e s h im s e lf
from “h i s p a r te d s o u l“ (A hania, p . 2Lj.9), h i s em an atio n
A hania. He r e p e a ts T h eo to rm o n 's condem nation o f O othoon,
c a l l i n g A hania “S in ” and w eeping o v er h e r (A h an ia, p . 2$0),
S e p a ra te d from him , she s e e s him o n ly in h i s u n f a l l e n g lo r y
and la m en ts h i s r e j e c t i o n o f h e r . L ik e T heotorm on, he
s le e p s in G e n e ra tio n , h a v in g b ee n sav ed from U lro b y Los,
and A hania a tte m p ts in v a in
“To awake b r i g h t U riz e n , my k in g ,
“To a r i s e to th e m o u n tain s p o r t,
“To th e b l i s s o f e t e r n a l v a lle y s ;
"To awake my k in g in th e m om ,
“To em brace A h a n ia 1 s jo y . . . ."
(A h an ia, p . 2 ^ )
I n u n d e r lin in g th e c o n t r a s t b etw een B eu lah , th e tr u e
u n io n o f man w ith h i s em an atio n e x p re s s e d in th e Song o f
Songs, B lake ech o es th e B i b l i c a l song in A h a n ia 's la m en t,
i r o n i c a l l y a p o t e n t i a l lo v e so n g . The image o f th e g a rd e n
w hich in fo rm s th e Song a s i t s c o n t r o ll in g m etaphor i s a ls o
a v i t a l p a r t o f B la k e 's v i s u a l i z a t i o n o f B eu lah . I n com
p a r in g h e r s e l f to a g ard e n a t h a r v e s t, A hania fo llo w s th e
B i b l i c a l m e tap h o r. But h e r song i s _ i r o n i c b ecau se th e
U rlz e n ic m an/god o f je a lo u s y and s e lfh o o d i s a f a l s e h u s
b an d . Solomon c a l l s h i s b r id e "A g a rd e n in c lo s e d ," whose
" p la n ts a re an o rc h a rd o f p o m eg ran ates, w ith p le a s a n t
f r u i t s " (Ip 1 2- 1 3 ) ; th e l i n e s o f h i s song, s i g n i f i c a n t l y ,
a l t e r n a t e b etw een h im s e lf and h i s b r id e o r em an a tio n .
U riz e n , by c o n t r a s t , s le e p s w h ile A hania la m e n ts, s a d ly
r e f e r r i n g to an e a r l i e r e x is te n c e in E t e r n i t y when she was
t r u l y U r iz e n 's b r id e and th e r e f o r e h i s g ard en o f jo y .
T here was a tim e when she was U rizen * s b e lo v e d ,
"S w ell*d w ith r ip e n e s s & f a t w ith f a t n e s s ,
*?B ursting on w in d s, my o d o rs ,
"My r i p e f i g s and r i c h pom egranates
" In i n f a n t joy a t th y f e e t ,
"0 U riz e n , s p o rte d and s a n g ."
(A hania, p . 253)
U riz e n , a s le e p i n th e f o r e s t s o f G e n e ra tio n 's n ig h t, p r e
f ig u r e s A lb io n 's p e rv e rs e r e f u s a l in Je ru sa le m to r i s e from
th e bondage o f h i s f a l l e n c o n d itio n by re c o g n iz in g i t
th ro u g h a c le a n s in g o f th e d o o rs o f p e r c e p tio n . B la k e 's
u se o f m a rria g e sym bolism in th e e a r l i e r poem b r i l l i a n t l y
a v o id s th e n e c e s s it y e i t h e r o f h av in g U rizen lam ent (and
th e r e f o r e re c o g n iz e ) h is f a l l e n s t a t e , o r o f in tro d u c in g
L o s, who h a s a lre a d y done h i s work in f i x i n g th e l i m i t s o f
51
o p a c ity .
A hania’ s lament in v o lv e s m arriage in b oth th e f a l l e n
and th e u n fa lle n w o rld s, G eneration and B eulah/E den. In
Eden, o f co u rse, man and h is em anation are on e, Ju st as th e
body and th e so u l are one i f a c c u r a te ly p e r c e iv e d . Tech
n i c a l l y th ere can be no sep a ra te em anation in Eden, sin c e
em anation i s essen ce d iv o rced from i t s e l f in th e f a l l .
P o e t ic a lly , however, Ahania must use th e garden im agery o f
Beulah to ex p ress an E denic v is io n o f th e r e -in t e g r a tio n o f
U rizen in to E te r n ity . There i s no e s s e n t ia l c o n tr a d ic tio n
o r co n fu sio n o f the s t a t e s , s in c e b oth Beulah and Eden
demand a d is in te g r a t io n o f the se lfh o o d , and s in c e Beulah
i s i t s e l f th e em anation o f Eden in to th e f a l l e n world to
a id man in h is escape from G eneration. A hania’s d e sir e i s
to be reborn w ith in U rizen who, d ivorced from h is s o u l, i s .
m erely th e sp ec tr e o f h i s u n fa lle n s e l f ; she w ish es to
become h is b rid e again in Eden, even though m arriage means
th e l o s s o f the s e lfh o o d ’ s id e n t it y which T hel fe a r e d so
t e r r ib ly . In th e C h r istia n c o n te x t, Beulah thu s means th e
s a c r i f i c e o f the independent se lfh o o d w hich must p reced e
s a lv a tio n in Eden.
As K ir a lis p o in ts o u t, "death" fo r Blake o fte n means
n ot com plete e x t in c t io n o f th e in d iv id u a l but ra th e r "a
change from one s ta te to an oth er, as from Innocence to
ex p erien ce" ; "E ternal Death" means man’s tem porary separa
52
t i o n from E t e r n i t y .^ 7 I n The Book o f A hania Blake makes
c l e a r h i s e q u a tio n o f d e a th w ith b a n ish m e n t, an id e a w hich
t
he may w e ll have fo u n d i n S h a k e s p e a re ’s Romeo and J u l i e t .
The p la y , l i k e B la k e 's poem, r e l i e s f o r i t s e f f e c t upon th e
c o n tin u a l ju x ta p o s it io n o f th e o p p o sin g s t a t e s of B eulah
and G e n e ra tio n . The s t r i f e - r i d d e n w o rld o f th e C a p u lets
and th e M ontagues i s dom inated by U riz e n lc ty r a n ts who t u r n
m a rria g e hymns in to d ir g e s and w edding f e a s t s in to f u n e r a ls ,
a w o rld o f f ra g m e n ta tio n and c o n f l i c t i n g w i l l s , w ith n e ith e r
lo v e n o r jo y . I t i s e s s e n t i a l l y a w o rld o f d a y lig h t, how
e v e r p e r f i d i o u s , as opposed to th e m o o n lit n ig h ts o f B eulah
d u rin g w hich th e lo v e r s m ost o f te n m e e t.
- S h a k e s p e a re 's B eulah i s th e w o rld o f S olom on's g a rd e n ,
w here th e n ig h tin g a le s in g s n i g h tl y on th e pom egranate t r e e
b e n e a th J u l i e t 's window.^- ® I t s "exchange o f jo y " ( I I , v i ,
1 } .) i s echoed by A h a n ia 's 1 1 'I n In te rc h a n g e sw eet o f t h e i r
jo y s '.'" (A h an ia. p . 255)* and Romeo r e f e r s to J u l i e t as h i s
" s o u l" ( I I , i i , 161}.), s in c e , as h i s em an atio n , she i s n e c e s
s a r y t o h i s c o n tin u e d l i f e , j u s t a s A hania i s n e c e s s a ry to
U riz e n * s im a g in a tiv e l i f e . The fra g m e n te d s t a t e o f G en era
t i o n i s tr u e d e a th ; what G e n e ra tio n c a l l s d e a th i s , in
^ 7"A Guide to th e I n t e l l e c t u a l Sym bolism o f W illiam
B la k e 's L a te r P ro p h e tic W r itin g s ," 193.
^R om eo and J u l i e t , I I I , v , 2-1}.. A ll c i t a t i o n s from
Romeo and J u l i e t a re to th e Hew V ariorum E d itio n , e d . H orace
Howard F u rn e ss (New Y ork, 1 9 6 3 ).
S3
B eu lah , m a rria g e in E t e r n i t y . S h ak esp eare c a l l s G e n e ra tio n
" h e l l ” and B eu lah "heaven" in Rom eo's r e a c tio n t o th e v o id
o f banishm ent to w hich he h a s b een se n te n c e d a f t e r h i s
k i l l i n g o f T y b a lt:
T here i s no w o rld w ith o u t V erona w a lls ,
But p u r g a to r y , t o r t u r e , h e l l i t s e l f .
Hence b a n is h e d i s b a n is h 'd from th e w o rld ,
And w o r ld 's e x i le i s d e a th : th e n " b a n ish e d 1 1
I s d e a th m is -te rm 'd . . . .
( I l l , i l i , 17-21)
Rom eo's h eav en i s V erona m etam orphosed in to B eu lah , "Where
J u l i e t l i v e s " ( I I I , i i i , 3 0 ), and can be re a c h e d o n ly b y
d ying to th e w o rld o f G e n e ra tio n , by s a c r i f i c i n g th e i n d i
v id u a l w i l l o f th e s e lfh o o d w hich u n d e r lie s th e s o c i a l
tu r m o il o f V ero n a,
Romeo and J u l i e t , as Blake m ust have re a d i t , i s ab o u t
th e f r i c t i o n betw een G e n e ra tio n and B e u lah , w ith m a rria g e
i n th e lo w er s t a t e g rim ly p a ro d y in g tr u e m a rria g e in th e
u p p er w hich th e ty r a n n ic a l w o rld o f th e se n se s can u n d e r
s ta n d o n ly a s d e a th . But th e p o is o n Romeo ta k e s i s "q u ic k "
(V, i i i , 1 2 0 ), w ith th e pun on " lif e - e n h a n c in g " ; to J u l i e t
i t w ould be a " r e s t o r a t i v e " (V, i i i , 1 6 6 ), The in v e r s io n
o f v a lu e s i s a f a u l t o f th e lo w er w o rld , n o t th e u p p e r
w o rld o f th e l o v e r s ' p a r a d is e in to w hich Antony and C leo
p a t r a a ls o p a s s . The m a rria g e m etap h o r in S h a k e s p e a re 's
han d s th u s h a s a double edge as a comment upon b o th s t a t e s
o f b e in g , J u l i e t 's m a rria g e to Romeo i s l i b e r a t i n g and
5k
en n ob lin g; h er arranged m arriage to P a ris would b ind h er to
the w orld o f G eneration.
B lake e x p l o its t h i s l a t t e r u se o f th e m a rria g e m eta
p h o r as r e p r e s e n ta ti v e o f th e bondage o f man in th e n a t u r a l
s t a t e . M e rc u tlo 's "A p la g u e o ' b o th y o u r h o u se s 1" ( I I I , i ,
9 9 ) as th e suprem e condem nation o f th e g e n e ra tiv e w orld
u n d e r lie s th e c u lm in a tin g o u tc ry o f th e l y r i c e n t i t l e d
London, in w hich V ala ap p e a rs as th e h a r lo t- q u e e n o f h e r
w o rld "And b l i g h t s w ith p la g u e s th e M arriage h e a rs e " (p .
2 1 6 ). O re 's m a rria g e to a shadowy "n am eless fem a le" in th e
P relu d iu m to A m erica sy m b o lizes h i s s u b ju g a tio n to th e cycle
o f n a tu r e and Lockean p sy c h o lo g y . H is b r id e i s T irz a h , who
b in d s him to th e d ecay in g v e g e ta tiv e w o rld in The M ental
T r a v e ll e r and who, a f t e r th e consum m ation o f t h e i r m a rria g e
in A m erica, r i s e s b e fo re Ore as th e fem ale w i l l and c la im s
him : “ ' I know th e e , I have fo u n d th e e , & I w i l l n o t l e t
th e e g o , '" 1 1 'And th o u a r t f a l l ' n to g iv e me l i f e in re g io n s
o f d a rk d ea th * " (A m erica, p . 1 9 6 ). H er a rc h e ty p e i s E n i-
th arm o n , th e e t e r n a l fem ale and m o th er o f O re, who in th e
p ro p h ecy Europe su p p o rts U r iz e n 's f a l s e m o ral co d e , c a l l i n g
f o r a p ro p h e t who w i l l p e rsu a d e man " 't h a t Woman's lo v e i s
S i n , '" to " 'F o r b id a l l Jo y , & from h e r c h ild h o o d s h a l l th e
l i t t l e f e m a le / "S p read n e ts i n e v e ry s e c r e t p a t h '" (E u ro p e.
p . 2i}.0). The fem ale w i l l , g l u t t i n g i t s e l f on r e l i g i o n s o f
m y ste ry and s i n w hich demand D ru id lc a l s a c r i f i c e o f th e
im a g in a tiv e man, th u s a p p e a rs in th e c o u r tly lo v e c o d e.
As th e u ltim a te p e r v e r s io n o f woman's p ro p e r r e l a t i o n s h i p
to man, th e oode se ek s to keep f a l l e n man and h i s em an atio n
f o r e v e r d iv o rc e d , “ 'F o r s to l e n jo y s a re sw eet & b re a d e a te n
i n s e c r e t p l e a s a n t '" (E u ro p e , p . 237)» T hus, in E u ro p e ,
" th e n ig h t o f E n ith a rm o n 's jo y " w hich sh o u ld be th e p a s sa g e
in to B eulah o f h e r w edding n ig h t, i s I n s te a d a c e le b r a tio n
o f th e a p p a re n t triu m p h o f G e n e ra tio n and woman's dom inion
o v e r man (E u ro p e, p . 2l|.0). E n ith a rm o n 's son R ln tra h , a ls o
bound to th e C irc le o f D e s tin y , f u r t i v e l y h id e s h i s b r i d e ,
" th e lo v e ly je a lo u s O c a ly th ro n ," who weeps " in d e s a r t
sh a d es" a t th e c r u e l b u t s e l f - i n f l i c t e d d i s t o r t i o n s o f th e
s t a t e o f B eulah i n G e n e ra tio n , w hich ap p e a r i n human h ls to x y
a s c o u r tly lo v e (E u ro p e, p . 2i|.0). H is to r y — th e d e s c e n t o f
A lb io n o r e t e r n a l man in to c o r p o r e a l ity and th e d i v is io n
in to th e s e p a r a te s e x e s — i s th e r e f o r e E n ith a rm o n 's dream
and A lb io n 's n ig h tm a re .
I n th e e a r l y p ro p h e c ie s , th e n , B lake e x p lo re d th e
v a r io u s p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f th e id e a o f m a rria g e as a p o e tic
m etap h o r, draw ing f r e q u e n tly on th e t r a d i t i o n a l c h a r a c te r
i s t i c s o f th e ep lth a lam iu m , som etim es p a ro d y in g them and
alw ays u s in g th e m a rria g e m etaphor in c o n ju n c tio n w ith th e
f o u r f o ld v is i o n . I t i s n o t so much t h a t th e s t a t e o f B eulah
I s am biguous as t h a t woman h e r s e l f Is am biguous in h e r
r e l a t i o n s h i p to man, p o t e n t i a l l y l i f e - g i v i n g , l i k e A h an ia,
and p o t e n t i a l l y l i f e - d e s t r o y i n g , l i k e T irz a h . Both a s p e c ts
o f h e r n a tu re c o e x is t in E n ith arm o n , th e a rc h e ty p a l woman.
As th e d e s tr o y e r o f im a g in a tio n , she i s th e fem ale w i l l ;
a s th e i n s p i r a t i o n o f B eu lah , she i s m an 's s o u l o r em ana
t i o n . I n e i t h e r c a s e , she i s th e embodiment o f ea ch m an 's
p e r c e p tio n o f th e w o rld and th u s a symbol o f b o th th e f a l l e n
and u n f a lle n s t a t e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y o f G e n e ra tio n and o f Eden
w here i t m erges in to B eulah and th e noum enal and phenom enal
become one in a f l a s h o f i n s i g h t .
B la k e 's d e c is io n to r e p r e s e n t th e f r a c t u r i n g o f m an 's
b e in g i n term s o f d iv o rc e from h i s em an atio n in M ilto n and
Je ru sa le m in d ic a te s t h a t m a rria g e h ad become f o r him a
symbol f o r E den. As F rye p o in ts o u t, B lake in te n d s th e
a m b ig u ity e x p re s s e d by th e terra "consum m ation" as " th e two
c h ie f a s p e c ts o f th e L a st Judgm ent, th e b u rn in g w o rld and
th e s a c re d m a r r i a g e . " ^ In o th e r w ords, m a rria g e and
ap o c a ly p se a re i d e n t i c a l ; B eulah becomes Eden in B la k e 's
p e n u ltim a te v i s i o n . As I have p ro p o sed e a r l i e r , B la k e 's
I n c r e a s in g i n t e r e s t in sym bolic m a rria g e may have le d to
h i s abandoning o f th e cosm ology o f th e Zoas as a means o f
d ra m a tiz in g th e f a l l o f man. At th e same tim e , i t m ust be
rem em bered t h a t M ilto n and Je ru sa le m d e a l w ith m a n 's redem p
t i o n r a t h e r th a n h i s f a l l , th e re b y com p risin g . B la k e 's New
T estam en t In c o n t r a s t to th e Old T estam ent o f th e e a r l i e r
p r o p h e c ie s . Aware o f th e v is i o n o f jo y in h e r e n t i n th e
e p ith a la m ic t r a d i t i o n ev en a s he was w r itin g th e P o e tic a l
^ F e a r f u l Symmetry, p . 3 * > 1 ,
S k e tc h e s, B lake m ust have re c o g n iz e d i t s p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r
u se in an e p ic w hich was to c u lm in a te i n m an 's joyous r e
e n tr y in to E t e r n i t y , He m ust have b een aware at" th e same
tim e o f th e m a rria g e im agery o f th e books o f I s a ia h and
R e v e la tio n , th e l a t t e r o f w hich r i s e s to a v is io n o f th e
New Je ru sa le m e x p re s s e d in term s o f m a rria g e s
And I saw a new h eav en and a new e a r t h . . . . And I
John saw th e h o ly c i t y , new Je ru sa le m , coming down from
God o u t o f h eav en , p re p a re d as a b r id e adorned f o r h e r
h u sb an d . And I h e a rd a g r e a t v o ic e o u t o f h eav en sa y in g ,
B ehold, th e ta b e r n a c le o f God i s w ith men, and he w i l l
d w ell w ith them , and th e y s h a l l b e h i s p e o p le , and God
h im s e lf s h a l l be w ith them , and b e t h e i r God,
( 2 1 : 1- 3 )
W hether o r n o t B lake knew t h a t th e wedding song d ev elo p ed
h i s t o r i c a l l y in to l y r i c and " e p ic 1 1 ty p e s , h is own m ost
a m b itio u s and com prehensive poem would ta k e th e form o f a
v a s t ep ith alam iu m , c e le b r a t in g th e same a p o c a ly p tic m arriage
betw een A lb io n and Je ru sa le m p ro c la im e d in R e v e la tio n ,^ 0
In th e u n fin is h e d V ala and i t s r e v is e d v e r s io n , The
Four Z oas, Blake p r e s e n ts a more com plex v is i o n o f th e f a l l
th a n th a t encom passed in th e e a r l i e r p ro p h e c ie s , b u t one
w hich is s t i l l founded on th e p o e tic m yth o f th e "Four
M ighty Ones . . . in e v e ry Man" who i d e a l l y make up " th e
£°See th e e x t r a c t from Van W inkle i n th e V ariorum
S p en ser d e a lin g w ith th e h i s t o r i c a l developm ent o f th e
ep ith alam iu m (V ol. I I , p . 65>2),
U n iv e rs a l B ro th erh o o d o f Eden" (Z oas, p . 2 6 4 ). U n fa lle n
E t e r n i t y and th e s t a t e o f Eden a re i d e n t i c a l . The Zoas
e x i s t b o th in th e u n f a l i e n s t a t e o f B la k e 's G olden Age and
i n th e f a l l e n c o n d itio n o f man w hich p r e v a i l s as lo n g as he
r e f u s e s t o p e rc e iv e to h i s u tm o st c a p a c ity and th e re b y
e n t e r E den. Y et Eden, a s Adams h a s shown, a b so rb s r a t h e r
th a n p re c lu d e s th e o th e r s t a t e s , so t h a t th e f a l l e n t a i l s
a p e r v e r s io n n o t o n ly o f th e f u n c tio n o f U riz e n , b u t th o s e
o f th e o th e r E te r n a ls a s w e ll, and c o n s e q u e n tly o f th e
s t a t e s o f b e in g w hich th e y r e p r e s e n t . A ccording to A dam s's
arg u m en t, u n f a lle n A lb io n i s composed o f th e f o u r Zoas o r
l i v i n g c r e a tu r e s " in dynamic c o n t r a r i e t y ," and i s p ic tu r e d
r i g h t s id e u p . When A lb io n f e l l v ic tim to th e m a t e r i a l i s t
d e lu s io n w hich came to p red o m in a te in e ig h te e n th - c e n tu r y
B r i t i s h p h ilo so p h y * th e Zoas f e l l and r e v e r s e d t h e i r norm al
p o s i t i o n s . U riz e n th e n gave up h i s p rim e p o s i t i o n a t
A lb io n 's h ea d , c a u sin g Los to f i l l th e v o id by le a v in g th e
cav es o f im a g in a tio n ( u n f a lle n U lro ) a t A lb io n 's l e g s . ^
U r iz e n 's u s u r p a tio n o f U rth o n a /L o s 's re a lm th u s b r in g s
ab o u t th e l e t t e r ' s u s u r p a tio n o f U r iz e n 's re alm , a c c o rd in g
to Adam s's fram ew ork. I n The Four Z oas. th e n , th e f a l l e n
U rthona (now c a l l e d Los) i s n o t y e t th e s a v io r and red eem er
•^ W illiam B lak e: a R eading o f th e S h o rte r Poems,
p p . 3 8 -ij.l. In o th e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , how ev er, U rth o n a
o r i g i n a l l y o c c u p ie s th e h e a d , and i s d is p la c e d by U riz e n
i n th e l e t t e r ' s u s u r p a tio n o f th e suprem e pow er.
59
o f A lb io n w hich he becom es in Je ru sa le m . b u t I s a s c u lp a b le
a s U riz e n . Los (w ith th e p o s s ib le pun on " lo s s " ) I s a
p aro d y o r f a l l e n i m i ta t io n o f th e E te r n a l U rth o n a, a r e
v e n g e fu l demon who tu r n s U rthona*s hammer o f im a g in a tio n
I n to an in s tru m e n t o f p e r v e r s io n . As U rthona i s a f o r c e o f
l i b e r a t i o n , so Los becom es h i s o p p o s ite , a U riz e n ic t y r a n t
in V ala and The Four Z o as. A fte r th e m ock-eplthalam ium
c e le b r a tin g h i s m a rria g e to E nitharm on ( a c t u a l l y a cosm ic
d iv o r c e ) , he ta k e s s a d i s t i c d e lig h t i n b in d in g h e r . She
w a ils lo u d ly ,
. . . f o r as Los b e a t
The a n v ils o f U rth o n a, l in k by l i n k th e
c h a in s o f so rro w ,
W arping upon th e w inds & w h ir lin g round
in th e d a rk d eep ,
L a s h 'd on th e lim b s o f E n ith arm o n , & th e
s u lp h u r f i r e s ,
B e lc h 'd from th e f u r n a c e s , w r e a th 'd round
h e r , c h a in 'd in c e a s e le s s f i r e .
(V a la . p . 3 0 2)
S im ila r ly , Luvah f a l l s and becomes O re, h i s o p p o s ite .
He rem arks upon th e a l t e r a t i o n o f h is c o n d itio n and o f
U r iz e n 's in The Four Z oas:
I s u f f e r a f f l i c t i o n
"B ecause I lo v e , f o r I was lo v e , b u t
h a tr e d awakes in me,
"And U riz e n , who was F a ith & c e r t a i n t y ,
i s c h a n g 'd to Doubt . . . ."
(Z o as. p . 282)
60
Tharmas becom es th e S p e c tre o f Tharm as, th e C overing Cherub
who b lo c k s th e way to Eden in Je ru sa le m , in w hich th e f a l
le n U riz e n i s c a l l e d S a ta n , Each o f th e f a l l e n Zoas th u s
becomes a p aro d y o f h i s fo rm e r i d e n t i t y , a s p e c t r a l s e l f ,
and "'T h e S p e c tre i s in e v e ry man in sa n e & m o s t/ "D eform 'd
. . ( Z oas, p , 267)* The c r e a tio n o r em ergence o f th e
S p e c tre in th e c a se o f each o f th e Zoas in v o lv e s th e f a l l
in to th e m a t e r i a l i s t d e lu s io n and h en ce th e tw o fo ld v i s i o n
o f G e n e ra tio n . To l i n k th e f a l l ' t o c o r p o r e a l it y w ith th e
fem ale w i l l , B lake a g a in e x p l o its th e n o tio n o f th e emana
t i o n , on th e one hand m a n 's b e s t o r s p i r i t u a l s e l f , l i k e
A hania, on th e o th e r hand a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f m an 's f a l l e n
c o n d itio n b ec au se s e p a r a te and d i s t i n c t from man. I n V ala
and The Four Zoas B lake shows t h a t each o f m an 's f a c u l t i e s
is f a l l e n by show ing e a c h d iv o rc e d from i t s em an atio n —
U riz e n from A h an ia, Luvah from V ala , U rth o n a from E n ith a r
mon, and Tharmas from E n io n .
F rye u n d e re s tim a te s th e im p o rtan ce o f th e em an atio n s
when he s t a t e s t h a t th e y " a re n o t v e ry c l e a r l y d is tin g u is h e d
in The Four Z o as, b e in g shadowy c r e a tu r e s who do p r a c t i c a l l y
n o th in g b u t w a il, and seem to have c h i e f l y a sy m m etrical
f u n c t i o n . " ^ On th e c o n tr a r y , B la k e 's n o tio n o f A lb io n 's
f a l l as th e s e p a r a tio n o f th e E te r n a ls from E t e r n i t y i s
5 2F e a r f u l Symmetry, p . 277.
61
com plem ented and r e in f o r c e d by th e im agery o f d iv o rc e by
w hich ea ch f a c u l ty o r Zoa becom es o n ly a p o r tio n and a
p a ro d ic form o f i t s p re v io u s id e a l n a t u r e . A h an ia, in
The Four Z oas, c o n tin u e s h e r f u n c tio n o f u rg in g U riz e n to
abandon h i s code o f r e p r e s s io n and y i e l d to - t h e open c e l e
b r a t i o n o f lo v e , th e re b y e n te r in g B eu lah and ap p ro ac h in g
E den. E n ith arm o n , V a la , and E n io n , by c o n t r a s t , become
th e f a t a l i s t i c s i s t e r s who b in d t h e i r husb an d s t o th e loom
o f G e n e ra tio n and so en co u rag e t h e i r s p e c t r a l e x i s te n c e s .
The "G ardens o f V ala" in to w hich Luvah s in k s (Z o as, p . 272)
a re a t r a v e s t y o f th e G arden o f B eulah; to th e f a l l e n L os,
soon to b e E n ith arm o n ’ s b rid eg ro o m , Luvah*s f a l l (w hich i s
th e c o r r u p tio n o f s e x u a l lo v e and th u s a r e d u c tio n o f se n
s u a l enjoym ent) i s th e whole f a l l o f man. But T harm as, who
s ta n d s f o r th e h ig h e r m a rrie d lo v e o f B eu lah , h a s a lre a d y
f a l l e n a t th e b e g in n in g o f The F our Z oas, h i s S p e c tre having
b ee n draw n f o r t h by E n io n " i n h e r s h in in g loom / Of V eg eta
t i o n . . . " (Z oas, p . 2 6 7 ). The p a ro d ic m a rria g e o f Los
and E n ith arm o n h a s b een w e ll p re p a re d f o r . I n s o f a r as
E n ith arm o n i s L o s’ s e m an atio n , she sh o u ld be im a g in a tio n ’s
s o u l o r e s s e n c e . H er e x u l t a t i o n i n th e pow er o f th e fem ale
w il l th e r e f o r e m arks th e co m p leted c i r c l e o f th e f a l l , th e
low p o in t 5 >eing th e f a i l u r e o f th e im a g in a tiv e f a c u l t y
d iv o rc e d from re a s o n and f e e l i n g . A p p ro p ria te ly , each o f
th e Zoas f a l l s in to th e s t a t e o f G e n e ra tio n , s in c e V nl« and
The Four Zoas a re ab o u t A lb io n 's f a l l from f o u r f o ld v is i o n
62
to th e r a t i o n a l i s t ’ s tw o fo ld v i s i o n , o r "N ew ton's s l e e p . ”
Thus e a c h o f h i s f a c u l t i e s i s d iv o rc e d n o t o n ly from e a c h
o f th e o th e rs b u t from i t s own u n f a lle n c o n d itio n as w e ll.
F ry e , in commenting on The Four Z o as, s t a t e s t h a t th e
f a l l o f A lbion b e g in s in B eu lah and t h a t th e w o rld o f tim e
o r C irc le o f D e s tin y i s a d i r e c t r e s u l t o f T h arm as's f a l l ,
w hich e s t a b l i s h e s th e b a r r i e r b etw een " th e two g r e a t d i v i
s io n s o f human im a g in a tio n , a r t and l o v e , ” w hich w i l l keep
them s e p a r a te u n t i l th e a p o c a l y p s e .^ I n B la k e 's cosm ology,
how ever, o n ly Eden i s th e s t r i c t l y u n f a lle n s t a t e , and i t
i s th e r e f o r e o n ly in Eden o r " E te r n ity " t h a t th e f a l l can
b e g in . The f a l l from B eulah in to G e n e ra tio n o r from Gen
e r a t i o n in to TJlro can o n ly fo llo w th e p rim a l f a l l from
E den. F r y e 's s t r e s s upon th e d an g ers o f B eulah c e r t a i n l y
h as in flu e n c e d o th e r c r i t i c s , in c lu d in g Bloom and Adams,
th e r e s u l t b e in g , a s I have s u g g e s te d e a r l i e r , t h a t B eu lah
i s g e n e r a lly h e ld i n s u s p ic io n and o f te n co n fu sed w ith th e
low er s t a t e o f G e n e ra tio n , w hich i t rese m b le s j u s t a s i t
a ls o rese m b les E den.
Once m ore, th e p rim a ry c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f B eulah and
th e D au g h ters o f B eu lah i s p i t y . The re a s o n why th e Daugh
t e r s o f B eulah c r e a te th e C irc le o f D e s tin y (V ala, p . 267)
i s to p r o t e c t man ( a lr e a d y f a l l e n ) fro m h i s own S p e c tre ;
^ F e a r f u l Symmetry, p . 2 8 1 .
t h e i r c r e a tio n i s a r e p e t i t i o n o f L o s’s s e t t i n g o f th e
l i m i t s o f o p a c ity , an a c t o f m ercy in te n d e d to p re v e n t
A lb io n ’ s co m p lete d i s i n t e g r a t i o n . Eden, o f c o u rs e , alw ays
rem a in s an u n f a ll e n s t a t e ; B eu lah , a s th e em an atio n o f
E den, h as no e x is te n c e u n t i l th e f a l l h a s b egun. B lake
b e g in s h i s e p ic w ith th e f a l l o f Thamnas, b u t he does n o t
s u g g e s t t h a t th e f a l l o r ig in a t e d in B eu lah . H is p u rp o se in
V ala and The Four Zoas i s to re n d e r a v is io n o f A lb io n 's
f a l l in to G e n e ra tio n more com plex and th o ro u g h g o in g th a n
he had done in th e e a r l i e r p ro p h e c ie s , and one in w hich
ea ch o f th e f a c u l t i e s o r Zoas h a s become a s p e c tr e o f i t
s e l f . To do s o , he made more e x te n s iv e u se o f sym bolic
m a rria g e , in a s s ig n in g each o f th e Zoas an em an atio n , th a n
h e had e v e r done b e f o r e , expanding c o n s id e ra b ly th e p o e tic
d e v ic e w hich h ad b ee n so e f f e c t i v e in The Book o f A hania
But th e two v e r s io n s o f th e e p ic on th e Zoas p o in t
fo rw a rd as w e ll as backw ard, as B la k e ’ s im a g in a tio n tu r n s
g r a d u a lly from th e them e o f m an 's f a l l to t h a t o f h i s r e
d em p tio n . I n c r e a t i n g th e c h a r a c te r o f "Je ru sa le m th e holy"
(V a la . p . 3 ^ 6 ), a l e s s im p o rta n t em an atio n in th e Zoa scheme
who does n o t ev en a p p e a r u n t i l th e e ig h th n ig h t, he tu r n s
d i r e c t l y to th e Old T estam ent P ro p h e ts and to th e book o f
R e v e la tio n f o r th e image o f a new s p i r i t u a l c i t y in th e
p e rs o n o f a woman. The b r id e o f th e Song o f Songs h ad been
com pared in h e r b e a u ty to Je ru sa le m and to T ir z a h , two
f i g u r e s whom B lake would l a t e r i d e n t i f y w ith th e tr u e and
f a l s e b r id e s o f A lb io n . I s a i a h ’ s to n e i n d e s c r ib in g th e
w edding o f redeem ed m ankind and Je ru sa le m , who i s a ls o th e
b r id e o f C h r is t and hen ce o f th e C h r is t in e v e ry man f o r
B lak e, ap p ro x im ates th e to n e o f th e Song o f Songs:
" R e jo ic e ye w ith Je ru sa le m , and be g la d w ith h e r ,
A ll ye t h a t lo v e h e r :
R e jo ic e f o r jo y w ith h e r ,
A ll ye t h a t mourn f o r h e r . . . ."
(6 6 : 10- 1 2 )
B la k e f s to n e in M ilto n i s a ls o t h a t o f th e Song o f
Songs— Bloom goes so f a r a s to c a l l i t b a s i c a l l y one o f th e
"B eulah p o e m s . A s a p relu d iu m to J e ru s a le m , he c o n te n d s,
i t d e a ls w ith th e re c o v e ry o f in n o c en ce , w hich i s i d e n t i c a l
to th e s t a t e o f B eu lah , b u t n o t w ith th e u ltim a te red em p tio n
o f E den, w hich i s l e f t f o r B la k e 's f i n a l p r o p h e c y .^ Ad
m itte d ly , Blake s t i l l m a in ta in s h i s d i s t i n c t i o n betw een th e
" s e x u a l," w hich i s t h r e e f o ld and can a ls o be tw o fo ld , and
th e f u l l y human, o r p o e tic and im a g in a tiv e , w hich i s f o u r
f o l d (M ilto n , p . ij.83). What Bloom f a i l s to re c o g n iz e i s
t h a t B la k e 's id e a o f sym bolic m a rria g e c o n tin u e d to expand
and m ust have b ee n h e a v ily in flu e n c e d by I s a ia h , who drew
h e a v ily upon th e p o e t ic im agery o f th e Song o f S ongs. As
a p o e tic m e tap h o r, m a rria g e may have n o th in g vfaatever to do
^ T h e V is io n a ry Company, p . 16.
^ *Phe V is io n a ry Company, p . 101.
6S
w ith the f a c t o f m arriage in G eneration, th e ord in ary world
o f men, so th a t the eq u a tio n o f sym bolic m arriage w ith the
Beulah s ta te i s in v a lid .
M ilton in a sen se marks the t r a n s it io n from B la k e's
Old Testament to h is New Testam ent, w ith a new em phasis on
th e C h r istia n d o ctrin e o f i n f i n i t e fo r g iv e n e s s . B la k e, in
abandoning the cosm ology o f th e Zoas, seems to see man's
com plete redem ption alm ost e n t ir e ly as th e P rophets had,
in term s o f s p ir it u a l m arriage betw een God and man in the
New Jerusalem . A lle g o r ic a l in te r p r e ta tio n o f th e C a n ticle
had, o f co u rse, j u s t i f i e d th e Song as an analogue o f the
m arriage betw een C h rist and th e Church and betw een C h rist
and th e in d iv id u a l s o u l. The book o f R ev e la tio n confirm s
the id e n t it y o f m arriage and a p o ca ly p se, th e "Great Consum
mation" w hich Blake m entions in M ilton (p . 5>02) and la t e r
dram atizes in Jerusalem .
The su b je c t m atter o f M ilton i s r e a lly th a t o f V ala
and The Four Z oas. In th e second p la te o f th e f i r s t book,
Blake r e fe r s to A lb io n 's d escen t to G eneration and b r i e f l y
m entions "Jerusalem h is Emanation" (M ilto n , p . ij.8 l). The
poem th en expands in to an account o f A lb io n 's s a lv a tio n ,
p ortrayed as s p ir it u a l m arriage, under th e g u ise o f savin g
the h i s t o r i c a l John M ilton from h is own m isco n cep tio n o f
heaven and f a ilu r e to a p p recia te Beulah. S u rely Blake is
I r o n ic a l in r e - j u s t if y in g the ways o f God to men and in
p r e se n tin g the th ree-p erso n ed p o e t— the t r i n i t y o f L os-
M ilton -B lak e—who em erges to r e c r e a te U rizen/Jehovah in
human form by en ca sin g him in c la y , thus parodying th e
c r e a tio n o f Adam out o f red c la y in G e n e sis. The n o to r ie ty
o f the h i s t o r i c a l M ilto n 's a c tu a l r e la t io n s w ith h is s i x
f o ld em an ation --p art w ife and p a rt daughter--m akes him a
comic as w e ll as an id e a l su b je c t fo r an e p ic which works
toward r e s o lu tio n in s p ir it u a l m arriage and th e ep ith a la m ic
v is i o n , but B la k e's r e a l su b jec t i s , as alw ays, f a l l e n man.
In M ilto n , Blake d ir e c t ly i d e n t i f ie s the f a ll e n "Rea
son in g Power in Man" w ith the S p ectre o f se lfh o o d , or Satan
(M ilto n , p , 533) • O lolon , as M ilto n 's em anation, embodies
h is id e a l, f u l l y p e r c e p tiv e ch a ra cter as th e a rch ety p a l
p o e t. She opposes "R ational D em onstration," "the r o tte n
rags o f Memory," "Bacon, Locke & Newton," and th e s t a t e o f
G eneration (M ilton , p . 533)* w ith the o ffe r in g o f th e a l t e r
n a tiv e s o f "Faith in the S aviour," "Im agination," and "Re
gen eration" (M ilto n , p . 533 )• I t i s M ilton , or f a l l e n man,
who had cr e a te d h is em anation as th e fem ale w i l l , the Tirzah
who draws man in to G eneration as Eve in P arad ise L o st. The
M ilton who i s a l l im a g in a tio n , f r e e o f the s p e c tr a l reason
w hich he overcomes in h i s w r e stlin g match w ith U rizen /S a ta n ,
comes to reco g n ize h is em anation as h is tru e b r id e . He se e s
h er p u r ifie d o f h er "V irgin Babylon" (p* 523) or V ala aspect
a t th e end o f th e poem when her "Double S ix - f o ld Wonder"
(p« 534) or f a l s e " v ir g in ity " f l e e s from h e r , le a v in g her
f i t to beoome th e s p ir it u a l b rid e o f the p o e t, who has
f i n a l l y a t t a i n e d f u l l n e s s o f p e r c e p tio n . The m a rria g e
f e a s t o f M ilto n and O lolon w i l l n o t o c c u r, how ever, u n t i l
B la k e 's l a s t p ro p h ec y , in w h ich M ilto n becomes A lb io n and
O lo lo n becom es J e ru s a le m . The e a r l i e r poem en d s on th e
t r a d i t i o n a l a n t i c i p a t o r y n o te o f th e ep ith alam iu m , w ith an
assem bly o f B la k e 's t i t a n i c f i g u r e s view ing " th e Human H ar
v e s t b e n e a th " (p . 535) lo o k in g fo rw ard " to th e G reat
H a rv e st 8 c V in ta g e o f th e N a tio n s" y e t to come (p . 535).
Je ru sa le m i s B la k e 's g r e a t p o e tic h a r v e s t in s e v e r a l
s e n s e s . C h a ra o te rs and them es from th e p re c e d in g w orks
re a p p e a r and, d e s p ite th e new C h r is tia n em phasis i n B la k e 's
id e a o f s a l v a t i o n , he h a s by no means f in is h e d w ith o r r e
so lv e d th e c r i s i s o f th e g r e a t d iv o rc e in e ig h te e n th -c e n tu ry
B r i t i s h th o u g h t. H is i n t e r e s t h a s , how ever, tu r n e d ev en
more to w ard a p o e t ic r e s o l u t i o n o f c o n t r a r i e s in te rm s o f
sym bolic m a rria g e . "The e s s e n t i a l theme o f B la k e 's J e r u
sa le m ," w r ite s Jo se p h W ic k ste e d , " i s th e c o n t r a s t b etw een
th e f l e e t i n g and th e a b i d i n g . G e o ffre y Keynes i s more
s p e c if ic in c a l l i n g Je ru sa lem "an e f f o r t to r e c o n c ile th e
im p e rfe c tio n s o f th e v e g e ta tiv e m o rta l l i f e w ith th e e t e r n a l
t r u t h s o f th e s p i r i t u a l l i f e . . . The a tte m p t i s
c e r t a i n l y n o t new in B la k e 's p o e t r y , b u t n e i t h e r i s i t a
^ W illia m B la k e 's Jerusalem (London, 1 9 5 3 ), p . 1 .
5?The Complete W ritin g s, K eynes's n o te , p . 918.
68
d e p a rtu re from th e b a s ic co n c ern s o f o rth o d o x C h r i s t i a n i t y ,
Blake m e re ly ta k e s up once a g a in h is one p re d o m in a tin g
them e, y e t w ith a g r e a t e r r e c o g n itio n o f o r p e rh a p s g r e a t e r
i n t e r e s t in th e c o n g ru ity o f h i s id e a s w ith th o se o f th e
New T estam en t,
A gain, A lbion i s th e h e ro o f th e poem, b u t in s te a d o f
a p p e a rin g a s th e Pour Z oas, ea ch w ith an em an atio n , he a c ts
as a s in g le c h a r a c te r i n h is own r i g h t , s e p a ra te d from Los
and a ls o from h i s em an atio n , who i s b o th V ala and Jeru salem ,
V a la , th e "w ife" o f Luvah in The Four Z oas, becom es th e
d o m in atin g symbol f o r th e m a t e r i a l i s t d e lu s io n , much l i k e
S p e n s e r's F a ls e F lo r im e ll, and r e p e a te d ly c a l l s h e r s e l f
A lb io n 's b r i d e . But m an 's tr u e " b rid e " i s h i s im a g in a tiv e
s o u l, h i s f o u r f o ld h u m an ity w hich tra n s c e n d s U lro , G enera
t i o n , and even B eu lah , W illiam Gaunt se e s Je ru sa le m a s an
e x p re s s io n o f m an 's " s e a rc h f o r s p i r i t u a l co m p leten ess"
th ro u g h " s e l f - a n n i h i l a t i o n " o r th e i n f i n i t e f o rg iv e n e s s o f
C h r is tia n lo v e by w hich " th e human s o u l a t l a s t becomes
i d e n t i f i e d w ith God , , . B lake d e p ic ts A lb io n 's
s p i r i t u a l d iv o rc e a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e poem in one o f
h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p a ro d ie s o f th e s t a t e o f B eulah and o f
th e e p ith a la m ic ^ v is io n o f jo y and harm ony, as th e E te r n a l
Man in h i s je a lo u s y h id e s h i s em an atio n "Upon th e Thames and
^ A rro w s o f D e s ire : A S tu d y o f W illiam B lake and H is
Rom antic W orld (London, 19E>6). p . 131iT ~
69
Medway, r iv e r s o f Beulah, d isse m b lin g / H is je a lo u s y b efo re
r
*
th e th ro n e d iv in e , d a rk e n in g , c o ld i" ( J e ru s a le m , p . 6 2 2 ).
The clo u d ed banks o f th e Thames r e c a l l th e c o n t r a s tin g
scene o f calm ness and peace in S p e n s e r's P ro th a la m io n and
th e joyous m a rria g e o f th e Thames and Medway w a te rs in The
F a e rie Queene, Book I I I . A lb io n i s “d e a d ," as Los s a y s ,
as lo n g as h i s em an atio n rem ain s d iv id e d from him (p . 6 3 1 )»
as lo n g , t h a t i s , as he i n s i s t s t h a t th e r e i s no Je ru sa le m
by p e rc e iv in g o n ly V ala, who i s c o r p o r e a l i t y and th e fem ale
w i l l . J u s t as Je ru sa le m i s a fo rs a k e n b r id e th ro u g h o u t
m ost o f th e poem, so A lbion i s a b rid eg ro o m , b u t one who
would s le e p th ro u g h h is w edding n ig h t.
As A lb io n 's b r id e , Je ru sa le m i s a much r i c h e r c h a ra c
t e r th a n A hania had been as U r iz e n 's w if e . B oth p o r t r a i t s
a re b ased l a r g e l y on th e Song o f S ongs, b u t th e l a t e r one
i s founded more c lo s e ly on th e S o n g 's C h r is t ia n a l l e g o r i c a l
re a d in g . D e sp ite B la k e 's d i s l i k e f o r Solomon as a k in g in
G e n e ra tio n , he m ust have sh a re d th e t r a d i t i o n a l re a d in g o f
th e C a n tic le as a sym bolic w edding o f C h r is t and th e Church
and C h r is t and man. In th e New T esta m e n t, J e s u s h im s e lf
em ployed th e m etaphor w hich h ad b een u se d so e x t e n s iv e ly by
th e P ro p h e ts when he com pared th e s p i r i t u a l jo y o f h i s
fo llo w e rs t o th e jo y o f a wedding p a r t y (M atthew , 9 : 1 4 ) .
In m aking Je ru sa le m m an's d iv in e e sse n c e o r s o u l, Blake
e a s i l y i d e n t i f i e d h e r w ith J e s u s , who a ls o sy m b o lizes th e
Human Form D iv in e , th e u n io n o f God and man w hich i s B la k e 's
fo u r fo ld v is io n o f im agin ative u n ity . S in ce Jesu s d w e lls
in u n fa lie n man, Jerusalem i s a ls o the em anation or essen ce
o f God; hence B la k e’s freq u en t a llu s io n s to h er as the
B ride o f the Lamb. In h er lon g lam ent, she weeps fo r h er
s t a te o f se p a r a tio n from A lbion in w eeping fo r the death o f
J e su s, th e d iv in e Im agin ation in man. S im ila r ly , in lam ent
ing over the s c a tte r in g o f h er c h ild r e n , the N ation s ( lik e
th e B ib lic a l R ach el, w ith whom she i s a lso I d e n t if ie d ) , she
r e a ll y lam ents A lb io n 's fr a c tu r e d mind and h is d escen t to
c o r p o r e a lity . B ut, as th e em anation o f f a l l e n man, Jeru
salem i s V ala, th e co rp o rea l v e i l o f th e m a te r ia l world
w hich Jesus must rend a t the ap ocalyp se to p u r ify A lb io n 's
v is i o n and enable him to p e r c e iv e E te r n ity .
There can be no doubt th a t B lake, who p la ced such a
h ig h a e s th e t ic valu e on c l a r i t y and d is t in c t n e s s in p a in tin g ,
f u l l y intended th a t am biguity would be Jeru salem 's c h ie f
c h a r a c t e r is t ic . She i s b o th a c i t y and a woman, both man's
s a lv a tio n and h is d e s tr u c tio n , b oth s a c r if ic in g and devour
in g - -depending upon h er r e la tio n s h ip to A lb ion . As h is
em anation, she i s h is c r e a tio n . In h is p e r v e r s ity , f a l l e n
man c r e a te s her as V ala, the goddess o f e x te r n a l nature and
thus the symbol o f Druidism and n a tu r a l r e l i g i o n . Blake
shows c le a r ly th a t man ch ooses or c r e a te s h is r e lig io n ju s t
as he ch ooses ev ery th in g he p e r c e iv e s ; i t i s Los who id e n t i
f i e s A lb io n 's e r r o r :
71
"T here i s a Throne i n e v e ry Man, i t i s
th e Throne o f God;
" T h is, Woman h as c la im 'd as h e r own, &
Man i s no m orel
"A lb io n i s th e T a b e rn a c le o f V ala & h e r
Tem ple,
"And n o t th e T a b e rn a c le & Temple o f th e
Most H igh.
"0 A lb io n , why w il t th o u C rea te a Female
W ill? "
(Je ru sa le m , p . 661)
L ike T irz a h , V ala c la im s to have c r e a te d A lb io n , who m ust
c o n s e q u e n tly obey h e r . She i n s i s t s t h a t she i s A lb io n 's
b r id e , o r tr u e n a tu r e , and i r o n i c a l l y p la c e s h e r s e l f i n th e
p o s it io n o f th e b r id e o f th e Song o f Songs as w e ll as o f
th e s p i r i t u a l J e ru s a le m , as she em braces A lb io n 's g arm en t:
"I was a C ity & a Temple b u i l t by A lb io n 's
C h ild re n .
"I was a G arden p la n te d w ith b e a u ty . I
a l l u r e d on h i l l & v a l le y
"The R iv e r o f L ife to flo w a g a in s t my w a lls
& among my t r e e s .
"V ala was A lb io n 's B rid e & W ife in g r e a t
E t e r n i t y . . . .*
(J e ru s a le m , p p . 659-660)
V ala c a l l s h e r s e l f "Love" (p . 6 6 0 ), b u t h e r b in d in g w i l l
n e g a te s h e r c la im . She i s s in c e r e in h e r b i t t e r g r i e f a t
b e in g s e p a ra te d from A lb io n , y e t r e p r e h e n s ib le i n h e r j e a
lo u s c la im on h i s im a g in a tio n , h e r c h ie f enemy, sln o e f u l l
im a g in a tiv e p e r c e p tio n would th r e a te n to d e s tro y h e r . L ater
in th e poem B lake d i r e c t l y r e v e a ls h e r e r r o r when he a g a in
u se s th e im ages o f th e garm ent ( t h i s tim e a garm ent of
l i g h t ) and th e T a b e rn a c le in d e s c r ib in g th e t r u e Je ru sa le m
72
as th e l i b e r a t i n g em an atio n :
I n G re at E t e r n i t y e v e ry p a r t i c u l a r Form
g iv e s f o r t h o r E m anates
I t s own p e c u l i a r L ig h t, & th e Form i s
th e D iv in e V is io n
And th e L ig h t i s h i s G arm ent. T h is i s
Je ru sa lem in e v e ry Man,
A T en t & T a b e rn a c le o f M utual F o rg iv e n e s s ,
Male & Female C lo th in g s .
And Je ru sa le m i s c a l le d L ib e r ty among th e
C h ild re n o f A lb io n .
( J e ru s a le m , p . 681j.)
I t i s t h i s u n f a lle n Je ru sa le m who t e l l s A lb io n t h a t she
can n o t be h i s w ife ( J e ru s a le m , p . 6 5 7 ), s in c e he p e r s i s t s
in th e tw o fo ld v is i o n o f th e C o rp o re a l U n d e rsta n d in g .
T hroughout m ost o f th e poem, th e n , Blake p o r tr a y s A l
b io n as a b rid eg ro o m fa c e d w ith two c o n tr a r ie s - - J e r u s a le m
h i s tr u e em an atio n and V ala h i s f a l s e em an atio n — a s h i s
p o t e n t i a l b r i d e s . Y et V ala i s n o t, l i k e th e l a t e r S a ta n ,
a n e g a tio n ; she i s th e a p p a re n t o p p o s ite and "shadow" o f
Je ru sa le m , and i s th u s Je ru sa le m i n th e w o rld o f G e n e ra tio n .
I n The M arriag e o f Heaven and H e ll, B lake h ad d e c la re d t h a t
"W ithout C o n tra rie s i s no p r o g r e s s io n . A t t r a c t i o n and Re-
p u ls io n , R eason and E n erg y , Love and H a te , are n e c e s s a ry to
Human e x is te n c e " (p . lij.9 ), and t h a t "Man h a s no Body d i s t i n c t
from h i s S o u l; f o r t h a t c a l l ’d Body i s a p o r tio n o f S oul
d i s c e r n ’d b y th e f i v e S enses . . (p . llj.9 ). And, as
G leckner h a s shown, th e Songs o f Innocende and o f E x p erien ce
p r e s e n t th e s t a t e o f "E x p erien ce" o r G e n e ra tio n a s e s s e n t i a l
to th e a tta in m e n t o f h ig h e r in n o c e n c e . The s t a t e o f B eulah
73
was alw ays c h a r a c te r iz e d by am b ig u ity . S im ila r ly , G enera
t i o n i s am biguous In B la k e 's e a r l i e r p o e tr y . "N ew ton's
s le e p " i s to be condemned as a n i n f e r i o r s t a t e , y e t i t is
e s s e n t i a l as a s te p in th e p r o g re s s io n to E den. G en e ra tio n ,
l i k e B eu lah , was c r e a te d i n m ercy to save man from th e even
lo w er s t a t e o f U lro and com plete f ra g m e n ta tio n . U rlz e n
n e c e s s ita t e d th e c r e a t io n o f th e mundane s h e l l , b u t L os,
th e redeem ing im a g in a tio n , c a r r i e d o u t i t s c r e a ti o n .
W icksteed and Keynes a g ree t h a t Je ru sa le m i s B la k e 's
supreme a tte m p t to come to term s w ith th e ephem eral and
m u tab le w orld o f G e n e ra tio n . The c h ie f c o n tra ry o f th e
in c e s s a n t c r e a tiv e energy o f Eden i s th e c e n te r o f p a ra ly s is
w hich B lake c a l l s U lro , and i t i s to combat th e " p e rv e rte d
& s in g le v is io n " o f U lro ( Je ru sa le m , p . 681j.) t h a t Los must
b u ild G olgonooza, th e c i t y o f a r t , "b e n e a th B e u la h / In th e
m id s t o f th e ro c k s of th e A lta r s o f A lbion" ( Je ru sa le m .
p . 68I 4 .)— t h a t i s , in th e D ru id w o rld o f n a t u r a l c y c le .
A ccording to Bloom, G olgonooza i s i d e n t i c a l t o th e New
Je ru sa le m , th e c i t y o f Eden and th u s th e symbol o f m an 's
re d e m p tio n , l i k e S p e n s e r's C le o p o lls .^ 9 G olgonooza is
c e r t a i n l y b u i l t b y im a g in a tio n and rese m b les th e New J e r u
salem o f th e B i b l i c a l a p o c a ly p s e , b u t, a s W ick steed p o in ts
o u t, i t i s b u i l t o f D ruid D olm ens.^*0 B lake i s c a r e f u l to
^ T h e V is io n a ry Company, p . 107*
^QW illiam B la k e 's J e ru s a le m , p . 137.
7 1 * .
show t h a t th e v is io n o f Eden from G e n e ra tio n m ust p ro cee d
from G e n e ra tio n i t s e l f , t h a t th e b u ild in g b lo c k s o f th e
a p o c a ly p tic " S p i r i t u a l F o u rfo ld London" ( J e ru s a le m , p , 681].)
m ust be hewn from th e q u a rry o f th e tw o fo ld e a r t h l y c i t y
o v e r w hich V ala r e ig n s a s q u een .
In Je ru sa le m , w here even Baoon, Newton, and Locke a re
a d m itte d .to Eden in th e s p i r i t o f i n f i n i t e f o r g iv e n e s s , a l l
c o n t r a r i e s m ust be a c c e p te d r a t h e r th a n condemned. In th e
book o f R e v e la tio n , "The H arv est o f th e W orld" i s an ap o c a
l y p t i c v is io n In w hich " th e ta b e r n a c le o f God i s w ith men,
and he w i l l d w ell w ith them" (2 1 : 3) In th e new i d e n t i t y
o f God and man. A p rim a ry symbol o f th e coming o f th e New
Je ru sa le m I s th e b u rn in g o f th e f a l l e n c i t y o f Je ru sa le m ,
o r B abylon, in th e p e rs o n o f th e G reat Whore— B lake * s V ala .
F o r B lak e, how ever, th e f i r e s o f Eden b u rn n o t to d e s tro y
th e p h y s ic a l u n iv e rs e b u t to a s s im ila te i t , to draw i t in to
E t e r n i t y - - th u s th e d o u b le m eaning o f "co n sum m ation." In
th e p u r if y in g flam e s o f th e a p o c a ly p s e , th e d o o rs o f p e rc e p
t i o n a r e th o ro u g h ly c le a n s e d , n o t so t h a t th e y no lo n g e r
p e rc e iv e th e tem p o ral b u t so t h a t th e y se e beyond i t to th e
e t e r n a l . Swedenborg’ s e r r o r was th e s e p a r a tio n o f th e body
from th e s p i r i t ; f o r B lake th e Id ea o f a d isem b o d ied s o u l
i s as g h a s tly as t h a t o f a s p i r i t l e s s b o d y , s in c e th e body
i s th e f a l l e n p o r tio n o f th e s o u l and th e w orld i s th e
f a l l e n p o r tio n o f E t e r n i t y . The ap o c a ly p se i s n o t, t h e r e
f o r e , a d e s tr u c tio n b u t a h a r v e s t , as th e en d in g o f M ilto n
1$
p ro m ised i t w ould b e .
The m a rria g e m etap h o r comes to have s p e c ia l m eaning
f o r B lak e, th e n , a s a symbol f o r th e a p o c a ly p s e , and i s
e n t i r e l y c o n s is te n t w ith i t s t r a d i t i o n a l a s s o c ia tio n s w ith
cosm ic o r d e r and harm ony. But th e u ltim a te m a rria g e i s in
E den, n o t "on e a r t h ," i n s o f a r a s t h a t e x p re s s io n r e f e r s to
G e n e ra tio n . I n B la k e ’ s a p o c a ly p tic h a r v e s t th e r e i s no
d rag o n and no G re at Whore to be d e s tro y e d in fla m e s . The
C overing Cherub and th e f a l l e n s e rp e n t Ore a g a in become
Tharmas and Luvah in th e re d em p tio n o f G e n e ra tio n . The
r e s t r i c t i n g n a t u r a l c y c le o f f a l l e n G e n e ra tio n becom es,
l i k e S p e n s e r’s G arden o f A donis, a g ard en o f r e g e n e r a tio n .
The " R e lig io n o f G e n e ra tio n " w hich was in te n d e d " f o r th e
d e s t r u c t i o n / Of Je ru sa le m " (Je ru sa le m , p . 626) becom es,
th ro u g h p i t y , "h o ly G e n e ra tio n , Image o f r e g e n e r a tio n ! "
(p . 626) in th e p u r i f i e d v is i o n o f L o s.
The c o n t r a r i e s o f Je ru sa le m and V ala , th e n , a re r e
so lv e d in B la k e 's v is i o n o f th e w ould-be e a r t h goddess as
th e "shadow" o r s p e c t r a l f a l l e n s e l f o f m a n 's tr u e emana
t i o n . J e ru sa le m sp eak s o f "a tim e o f lo v e " (p . 6!|.3) when
she and V ala w ere u n ite d w ith A lb io n i n E den. I f , th e n ,
th e ap o c a ly p se i s A lb io n 's s p i r i t u a l c o m p le tio n th ro u g h
u n io n w ith Je ru sa le m , i t i s a ls o J e ru s a le m 's s p i r i t u a l com
p l e t i o n th ro u g h re c o v e ry o f h e r own l o s t s p e c tr e . T o g e th e r,
Je ru sa le m and V ala become A lb io n 's r e a l b r i d e , E n g lan d , who
76
em anates in to A lb io n 's bosom and becom es one w ith him
(J e ru sa le m . p . 7^1-3) • I n h e r th e c o n t r a r i e s o f Eden ( J e r u
salem ) and G e n e ra tio n (V ala) com bine— i n o th e r te rm s , th e
c o n t r a r ie s o f innocence and e x p e rie n c e o r , as W ick steed
p u ts i t , 1 1 th e b o d ily and th e s p i r i t u a l a s p e c ts o f m a rrie d
lo v e — so h o ly when r e c o n c ile d , so d is r u p tiv e when o p p o se d ,"
come t o g e t h e r . ^ The s t a t e in w hich th e g r e a t m a rria g e
o c c u rs i s n o t B eu lah , th e l o v e r s ' s le e p c r e a te d in m ercy
around E t e r n i t y , b u t Eden i t s e l f , where h o lin e s s and c r e a
t i v e d is r u p tio n a re one in th e fu rn a c e s o f im a g in a tiv e
e n e rg y . When A lb io n f i n a l l y awakens to become J e ru s a le m 's
tr u e b rid eg ro o m , he awakens to th e f o u r f o ld v is io n w hich i s
E t e r n i t y ( Je ru sa le m , p . 7lj4)* The r e v e r s a l b y w hich J e r u
salem becomes th e s le e p in g b r id e and A lb io n th e im p a tie n t
b rid eg ro o m a n t i c i p a t i n g h i s w edding r e c a l l s th e s i t u a t i o n
o f th e b r id e and groom i n S p e n s e r's E p lth a l ami o n ; B lake no
lo n g e r p a ro d ie s th e e p ith a la m ic v i s i o n b u t fo llo w s i t , in
o rd e r to e x p re s s A lb io n 's t r u e m a rria g e in t r a d i t i o n a l
te rm s .
A lb io n 's m a rria g e , o r re c o v e ry o f h i s im a g in a tiv e
e s s e n c e , b o th im m ed iately p re c e d e s and sy m b o lizes h i s p e r
c e p tio n o f J e s u s , and th u s o f d iv in e fo rg iv e n e s s in h im s e lf .
S ince im a g in a tio n makes p e r c e p tio n an a c t o f c r e a tio n , th e
^ •W illia m B la k e 's Je ru sa le m , p . 2 6 .
77
E ter n a l Man becomes what he p e r c e iv e s —not th e C h rist on
the Cross o f G eneration, but the r is e n C h rist o f reg en era
t io n , the A lbion o f th e “Glad Day" e tc h in g . In h i s s le e p
o f G eneration, A lb ion l o s t h is im agin ative h o ld o f r e a lit y ;
th e m arriage which i s a ls o h is apocalypse r e p r e se n ts h is
re g a in in g o f i t . J e s u s, in one s e n s e , i s A lbion as the
co m p letely im agin ative man, who i s a ls o God. In a c cep tin g
J e su s, A lbion r i s e s above the f a l l e n tw o fo ld p e r c e p tio n o f
h is rea so n in g S p e c tr e , S a ta n /U rlzen . As a sla v e o f U rizen ,
A lb ion had taken on h is id e n t it y . H is triumph in m arriage
i s to be c o n tra sted w ith U r iz e n 1s f a ilu r e to reco v er h is
em anation in The Book o f Ahanla. As G leckner has ob served ,
"an e f f o r t o f w i l l cannot u n ite U rizen again: w ith th e human
form d iv in e ; o n ly a d e n ia l o f s e l f and th e concom itant s e l f
l e s s , c r e a tiv e u nion w ith h is em anation can accom plish
t h i s . i n h is p e r c e p tio n o f C h r is t, th a t i s p r e c is e ly
what the A lbion o f Jerusalem a cco m p lish es.
For G leckner, who c o n sid e r s th e f a l l e n U rizen "Reason
in carnate" and B la k e 's em anations in g en era l " fe e lin g or
em otion," at odds w ith one another fo r the dom ination o f
man, th e reunion o f em anation and sp ec tr e "can o n ly be con
summated by an Im agin ative a c t , a c r e a tio n , which in v o lv e s
a t once the d e n ia l o f rea so n and em otion in d iv id u a lly and
^ T h e P ip e r and th e B ard , p . 3 7.
78
th e acceptance o f b o t h ." ^ The Book o f Ahanla c e r t a in ly
p o in ts to some such d ia le c t i c a l s o lu tio n . In Jerusalem ,
sp ectre and em anation are not so c le a r ly d efin ed and con
summation i s more than the r e -in te g r a tio n o f reason and
p a s s io n . N e v e r th e le ss , G leckner seems to su g g est one o f
th e predom inating p a tte r n s in B la k e's thought in co n sid erin g
the "contrary sta te s " as d i a l e c t i c a l . The u ltim a te v is io n
in B lake, t h e o r e t ic a lly fo u r fo ld , o fte n appears to be th ree
f o ld b ecau se i t i s exp ressed in terms o f m arriage. Blake
seems in c o n s is te n t in d en ig ra tin g "the th r e e fo ld sexual"
and e x t o llin g th e fo u r fo ld im a g in a tiv e . The r e s o lu tio n o f
the problem , however, i s not d i f f i c u l t i f one co n sid ers
the d is t in c t io n betw een m arriage in Beulah and m arriage in
Eden. At i t s low p o in t, th e form er s t a te verges on Genera
t io n , to which i t can e a s ily drop—th e tw ofold s e x u a l. At
i t s h ig h p o in t i t becomes in d is tin g u is h a b le from Eden, which
i s supreme im agin ative p e r c e p tio n through man's whole b eing.
Once sp e c tr e and em anation u n it e , th e se lfh o o d d is s o lv e s
and Beulah changes in to Eden.
Moreover, m arriage in Eden i s m etaph orical in th e same
way th a t m arriage in I s a ia h and R ev e la tio n i s m etaph orical
in sym bolizing th e a p o ca ly p se. Marriage in Beulah i s based
upon th e f a l l e n c o n d itio n o f G eneration, o ffe r in g an escape
^ T h e p ip e r and th e Bard, p . 3 8 .
from th e tyranny o f a b so lu te c o r p o r e a lity upheld by the
em p irica l p h ilo so p h e r s. Marriage in Eden i s m arriage in
sym bolic f i r e , and lo s e s i t s co rp o rea l a s s o c ia tio n s and
b a s is . I t i s not th e m arriage o f two in d iv id u a l s e lfh o o d s ,
but ra th er the s u c c e s s fu l reco v ery o f a s in g le s e lfh o o d ’ s
l o s t d iv in it y or u n fa lle n e s s e n c e . Jerusalem can thus be
b oth A lb io n 's b rid e and h is daughter as h is em anation; she
can appear as Vala or as th e New Jerusalem who i s th e Bride
o f C h r ist. She can be b oth th e s p ir it u a l m other o f th e
c h ild r e n o f A lb ion — the N a tio n s--a n d th e Bride o f N ation s
a t the r e s u r r e c tio n . The lite r a l-m in d e d d is t in c t io n s th a t
h o ld tru e in G eneration no lo n g er apply in B la k e 's v is i o n
o f m arriage as a p o ca ly p se.
In term s o f B la k e 's canon, th e m arriage in Jerusalem
marks a cu lm in a tio n in th e p o e t 's e f f o r t s to r e s o lv e th e
g reat em p ir ic a l d iv o r c e . The Marriage o f Heaven and H e ll
was B la k e's r e p ly to th e fo r c e s which worked to rend A l
b io n 's m ind, e it h e r by denying h is f le s h or by denying h is
s p i r i t — th e t r a d it io n o f orthodox C h r is tia n ity and th e
t r a d itio n o f B r it is h p h ilo so p h y . The minor p ro p h ecies a t
tr ib u te d A lb io n 's consequent f a l l or lo s s o f the in s ig h t o f
p e r c e p tio n to the u su rp a tio n o f U lro by U rizen; th e y p i c
tured A lb ion as U rizen , the unworthy bridegroom who ch o o ses
to rem ain d iv o rced from h is em anation by c lin g in g b lin d ly
to the C ir c le o f D e stin y . V ala and The Four Zoas showed him
deep in h is s le e p , or s p e c tr a l s e lfh o o d , w ith each o f h is
80
a sp e c ts or Zoas sep arated from i t s em anation or e s s e n t ia l
u n fa lie n c h a r a c t e r is t ic s .
M ilton and Jerusalem ep itom ize Blake*s tendency to
v is u a liz e A lbion*s u ltim a te re g en er a tio n as consummation,
the recovery o f h is u n fa lle n w holeness in m arriage. The
in tr o d u c tio n o f Jesus in to th e l a s t prophecy r e in fo r c e s
and dram atizes B la k e's e a r lie r d o ctrin e th a t r e a l lo v e is
a lib e r a tin g en er g y --th e le s s o n o f th e Clod o f C lay in
E xp erien ce. R e s t r ic t io n , th e g re a t a n ta g o n ist to im agina
t iv e en ergy, ta k es i t s p en u ltim ate and c o n so lid a te d form as
a c c u sa tio n in Jerusalem , and Satan th e r e fo r e becomes Blake's
supreme v i l l a i n . The Clod and the Pebble appear again as
J e su s, who embodies i n f i n i t e fo r g iv e n e s s , and S atan , who
embodies in f i n it e d e n ia l in th e cave o f th e s e lfh o o d . In
a d m ittin g Bacon, Locke, and Newton to Eden, though, Blake
h im s e lf e n te r s a new s p i r i t o f com plete fo r g iv e n e s s . He
a lso shows th a t he has come to term s w ith the co rp o rea l
w orld, which e a r lie r seemed to him fundam entally e v i l , in
s p it e o f i t s am biguity and th e su g g e stio n , as in The Book
o f T h el. th a t one must n e c e s s a r ily p a ss through i t in order
to a t t a in a h ig h e r in n ocen ce. In Jerusalem , the furnace
out o f which Los b u ild s Golgonooza, th e c i t y o f a rt r is in g
out o f G eneration, i s th e body or c o r p o r e a lity o f the f a l
le n A lbion h im s e lf. ,,England,, i s a ch a ra cter compounded o f
m atter and s p i r i t ; th e ea r th o f G eneration and th e heaven
o f Eden; V ala and Jerusalem . In h er m arriage to A lb ion ,
81
th e frag m en ts o f h u m an ity a re g a th e re d I n to th e “F u rn aces
o f a f f l i c t i o n " ( J e ru s a le m , p . 7i|4) In to w hich A lb io n c a s t s
h im s e lf to em erge i n E den. B la k e ’s g r e a t e s t p o e t i c a l h a r
v e s t i s an a c c e p ta n c e o f a l l th in g s in th e a r t i f i c e o f
e t e r n i t y .
C H A PTER I I I
EPIC MARRIAGE
In com paring th e p o e tr y o f B lake to t h a t o f W ordsw orth,
H aro ld Bloom c a l l s th e fo rm e r "a commentary upon S c rip tu re ,"
th e l a t t e r "a com m entary upon N a tu re , " 1 In h i s r e a c t i o n to
th e e p is te m o lo g ic a l d iv o rc e o f th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry ,
Blake n a t u r a l l y tu rn e d to th e e p ith a la m ic im a g in a tio n o f
th e B ib le w hich i d e n t i f i e d m a rria g e and a p o c a ly p s e , e n v i
s io n in g th e im a g in a tiv e u n ity o f th e New Je ru sa le m as a
n u p tia l consum m ation. At th e same tim e , th e B ib le p ro v id e d
B lake w ith a m odel a g a in s t w hich he c o u ld s a t i r i z e m an 's
f a l l in to G e n e ra tio n th ro u g h p a ro d ic e p ith a la m ia , such as
th e g ro te sq u e m a rria g e hymn o f Los and E nitharm on in The
F our Z oas— a c t u a l l y an ir o n ic c e le b r a tio n o f m an 's p e rv e rs e
w ish to p e r s i s t in h i s d iv o rc e from th e e t e r n i t y o f Eden.
For W ordsw orth, to o , man h a s f a l l e n from e t e r n i t y .
L ike B lak e, he c o n c e iv e s o f t h a t e t e r n i t y as th e f u l l e s t
p o s s ib le im a g in a tiv e a c t i v i t y . F or b o th p o e ts , th e f a l l i s
th u s e p is te m o lo g ic a l, r e s u l t i n g from th e e ig h te e n th - c e n tu r y
p h ilo s o p h e r s ' in a d e q u a te c o n c e p tio n o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f
th e p e r c e iv in g mind to th e u n iv e r s e . Redem ption f o r Blake
1The V is io n a ry Company, p . 12ij..
82
and Wordsworth con seq u en tly i s e p is te m o lo g ic a l as w e ll as
r e lig io u s and means a retu rn to f u l l p e r c e p tio n , in which
the mind does more than m erely r e a c t m ech a n ica lly to sen se
d a ta . The ta sk o f th e p oet i s d id a c tic in th e p rofoun dest
s e n se , which i s to say p ro p h etic: to show man the way back
to e te r n ity ; to show, in Robert Langbaum's p h rase, "the
s p ir it u a l s ig n ific a n c e o f t h i s world" w hich i s a lie n to the
co rp o rea l u n d erstan d in g.^ But whereas B la k e 's s o lu tio n to
th e g rea t divorce Is a r e lig io n o f im a g in a tiv e p erc ep tio n
based upon C h ristia n v is io n , W ordsworth's i s a r e lig io n o f
s p ir it u a l or im a g in a tiv e power based o n ly in p art upon th e
C h r istia n t r a d itio n .
For Blake the im a gin ation is th e a c tiv e mind o f f u l l y
r e a liz e d hum anity, which draws a l l th in g s in to i t s e l f and
o f which the co rp o rea l is an in c id e n ta l p a r t. Marriage i s
thus the r e -in te g r a tio n o f h um anity's f a l l e n a s p e c ts . For
Wordsworth, by c o n tr a s t, the im agin ation —which i s b oth the
source and the embodiment o f s p ir it u a l en ergy— is as much
o u tsid e the mind as w ith in i t . Wordsworth, in e v o lv in g h is
own r e lig io n , expands and transform s ra th er than r e j e c t s
th e t r a d itio n o f Locke. His most im portant m o d ific a tio n o f
th a t t r a d itio n i s the a s s e r tio n o f th e mind as an a c tiv e
p r in c ip le , th a t i s , as im a g in a tiv e . His u ltim a te v is io n i s ,
o
^"The E v o lu tio n o f Soul in W ordsworth's P o etry ," PM LA,
LXXXII (May 1 9 6 7 ), 265. -------
Q k
in a s e n se , th e converse o f B la k e’s , fo r th e p e r c e iv in g
mind in Wordsworth’ s p o etry becomes a p art o f th e "Nature”
w hich i t p e r c e iv e s , even though Wordsworth p a r a d o x ic a lly
d e sc r ib e s th e mind as consuming i t s environm ent o r p ercep -
q
t u a l im ages,-'
I t i s , th en , the u nion o f th e mind and what Wordsworth
c a l l s "Nature" th a t c o n s t it u t e s "Joy," th e word which above
a l l d e sc r ib e s the f e e l in g o f ep ith a la m ie p o etry and s e t s
th e keynote o f the Song o f S o n g s I t i s n ot su r p r is in g ,
th e r e fo r e , th a t Wordsworth, lik e B lake, should draw upon
th e lon g t r a d it io n o f th e epithalam ium fo r metaphors o f
v is io n a r y m arriage. In th e "Prospectus" to The R eclu se, h is
in ten d ed opus magnus, he announces th a t h is poem w i l l be
"the sp o u sa l verse" o f a " great consummation"— a m arriage
betw een th e in d iv id u a l mind and the c r e a tio n .^ I t i s ,
^Langbaum, in "The E v o lu tio n o f S o u l," 265, d is c u s s e s
th e im agery o f fe e d in g w hich ru n s th ro u g h o u t The P re lu d e ,
e s p e c i a l l y in c o n n e c tio n w ith th e c h i l d ’ s m e n tal k l consum ing"
o f h i s n a t u r a l w o rld and th u s m erging w ith i t .
^■Solomon’ s v is i o n o f ■union w ith b r id e in th e C a n tic le
i s one o f Joy in b e a u ty ; f o r th e C h r is tia n a l l e g o r i c a l t r a
d i t i o n , th e Joy r e s u l t s from th e u n io n o f man and God, who
a re p ic tu r e d in th e Song o f Songs as b r id e and b rid eg ro o m .
The word "Joy" e p ito m iz e s S p e n s e r 's ra p tu r o u s to n e in th e
E p ith a la m io n and P ro th a la m lo n , in b o th o f w hich I t r e c u r s
f r e q u e n tly .
5 " P ro s p e c tu s " to The R e c lu s e , 5 7 -5 8 . A ll l i n e c ita t io n s
from W ordsw orth in my t e x t a re to The P o e tic a l Works o f
W illiam W ordsw orth, e d . E . de S e lI n c o u r t and H. D a rb is h ire
(5 v o l s •, O xford, 19l|.0-19ij.9), and to The P re lu d e , e d . E .
de S e lin c o u r t, 2nd e d . r e v is e d by H, D a rb is h ire (O xford,
1 9 5 9 ). I r e f e r In a l l c a s e s to th e 1805 P r e lu d e .
m oreover, b road ly tru e th a t a l l the p o etry o f W ordsworth’ s
Great Decade i s , as Bloom argu es, e r o t ic ,
in a t r a d i t i o n g o in g b ac k to th e Song o f Solomon, w ith
W ordsw orth as th e B ridegroom , N atu re as th e B rid e , and
th e G reat M arriag e betw een th e two as som ething everm ore
a b o u t to b e , a p o s s ib le s u b lim ity n e v e r a lto g e th e r c o n
summated. 6
The t e r n " sp o u sa l v e rs e " com es, o f c o u rs e , from th e s u b t i t le
o f S p e n s e r’ s P ro th a la m io n , a poem whose s i g n i f i c a n t s t y
l i s t i c and im a g in a tiv e s i m i l a r i t i e s w ith W ordsw orth’ s
p o e tr y a re d is c u s s e d a t some le n g th b y G e o ffre y H artm an in
W ordsw orth’ s P o e try 1 7 8 7 -l8 lil*^ A lthough W ordsw orth does
n o t b ase h i s own p o e try so c lo s e ly on B ib lic a l m odels as
B lake d o e s, he is no l e s s in flu e n c e d by th e t r a d i t i o n o f
th e Song o f Songs.
A lthough th e re h a s been no e x te n s iv e ac co u n t o f W ords
w o r th 's s p e c i f i c u s e s o f th e m a rria g e m etap h o r, th e f a c t
t h a t he does u se i t h a s been n o te d b y more Than one c r i t i c .
M. H. Abrams, in h i s d is c u s s io n o f Rom antic an a lo g u es o f a r t
and th e mind in The M irro r and th e Lamp, c i t e s th e " c o n ju g a l
m e tap h o rs" in th e w ell-know n " P ro sp e c tu s" p a s s a g e :
^The V is io n a ry Company, p . l81j.. L ike o th e r c r i t i c s ,
Bloom s e e s th e m a rria g e m etaphor o f th e " P ro s p e c tu s " as
c e n t r a l to an u n d e rs ta n d in g o f W ord sw o rth 's p o e tr y , y e t
f a i l s to e x p la in W ord sw o rth 's a c tu a l u se s o f th e m etap h o r.
^(New Haven and London, 1961}.), e s p e c i a l l y th e s e c tio n
on S p e n s e r's "P ro th a la m ic Im a g in a tio n ," p . 267 f f .
86
P a ra d ise, and groves
E ly s ia n , Fortunate F ie ld s — lik e th ose o f o ld
Sought in th e A tla n tic Main—why should th ey be
A h is t o r y o n ly o f departed th in g s ,
Or a mere f i c t i o n o f what n ever was?
For the d isc e r n in g i n t e l l e c t o f Man,
When wedded to t h is good ly u n iv erse
In lo v e and h o ly p a s s io n , s h a ll fin d th e se
A sim ple produce o f th e common day.
— I , lon g b efo re the b l i s s f u l hour a r r iv e s ,
Would ch a n t, in lo n e ly p ea ce, the sp o u sa l v erse
Of t h is g r e a t consum m ation:— and, by words
Which speak o f n o th in g more than what we a re,
Would I arouse th e sen su a l from t h e ir sle e p
Of D eath, and win th e vacant and th e v a in
To noble ra p tu res; w h ile my v o ic e p roclaim s
How e x q u is it e ly th e in d iv id u a l Mind
(And the p r o g r e ssiv e powers perhaps no le s s
Of th e whole s p e c ie s ) to the e x te r n a l World
I s f i t t e d : — and how e x q u is it e ly , too —
Theme t h is but l i t t l e heard o f among men—
The e x te r n a l World i s f i t t e d to the Mind;
And th e c r e a tio n (by no low er name
Can i t be c a lle d ) which th ey w ith b len ded m ight
A ccom plish:— t h is i s our h ig h argument.
(" P r o s p e c tu s ," lj.7-71)
The c r e a tio n r e s u ltin g from th e consummation o f the marriage
betw een mind and n a tu re, says Abrams, i s "of a l i v i n g p er-
Q
c e p tu a l w orld." Abrams does n o t, how ever, ela b o r a te on
th e im portance or fu n c tio n o f th e metaphor in Wordsworth’ s
p o e tr y g e n e r a lly ; nor does G. W ilson K night, who tu rn s to
th e fragm ent as a s t a r t in g p o in t in h is approach to th e poet
b u t, a f t e r remarking th a t "marriage m etaphors are pow erful"
in th e l i n e s , does not pursue th e m atter fu r th e r .^
Q
The M irro r and th e Lamp: Rom antic T heory and th e C ri
t i c a l T r a d itio n (O xford, 1 9 5 3 ), p .
^The S t a r l i t Dome (London, 19ij.l), p . 1 .
G e o ffre y H artm an and H a ro ld Bloom b o th a p p ly th e
m etaphor o f th e " P ro sp e c tu s" to W ordsw orth's o v e r a ll p o e tic
ac h iev e m en t, how ever b r i e f l y . For H artm an, m a rria g e h as a
d u a l s ig n i f ic a n c e , i t s m eaning e x te n d in g b o th to a m a rria g e
o f im a g in a tio n and n a tu r e and a m a rria g e o f heaven and
e a r t h , tow ard w hich " th e p o e t p ro ce e d s d e s p ite a p o c a ly p s e ,"
h im s e lf " th e m atchm aker, h i s song th e sp o u sa l v e r s e .
What W ordsw orth c a l l s " Im a g in a tio n ," Hartman b e l ie v e s , i s
i n f a c t th e s e p a ra te c o n s c io u sn e ss o r s e lf-a w a re n e s s w hich
i s fu n d a m e n ta lly opposed to e x t e r n a l n a tu re as a r i v a l
f o r c e , and th u s b a s i c a l l y a p o c a ly p tic , even though th e p o e t
r e f u s e s to re c o g n iz e t h i s f a c t . A g ain st th e a p o c a ly p tic
im a g in a tio n , o r " d e s ir e to c a s t o u t n a tu re and to ach iev e
a n unm ediated c o n ta c t w ith th e p r in c ip l e o f th in g s ," Hartman
s e t s th e o p p o sin g n o tio n o f w hat he c a l l s akedah, " o r th e
m a rria g e o f im a g in a tio n w ith n a t u r e ." 1^ - A gain and a g a in ,
H artm an c o n te n d s, W ordsw orth c o n fro n ts and s h rin k s from "th e
t e r r o r o f d i s c o n t i n u i t y ," th e s e p a r a tio n o f man and n a tu r e ,
a s in th e f e a r f u l d ream -v is io n o f th e d elu g e and d e s tr u c tio n
o f n a tu re in th e f i f t h book o f The P re lu d e . A ccording to
th e W ordsw orthian d i a l e c t i c , th e s o u l may f in d p eace o n ly
"When wedded to t h i s g o o d ly u n iv e r s e / In lo v e and h o ly
p a s s io n . . ." ( " P r o s p e c tu s ," $3-$+ ). The c r i s i s u n d e rly in g
• W o r d s w o r th 's P o e try 1 7 8 7 -l8 llu p p . 7 5 , 69.
■^W ordsw orth' s P o e try 1787-1 8 1 k . p p . x , 22£.
88
W ordsw orth’ s g r e a t e s t p o e try th e n , arg u es H artm an, i s h i s
i n a b i l i t y to re c o g n iz e t h a t im a g in a tio n i s a f r e e pow er,
in d ep en d en t o f n a t u r e . I n r e f e r e n c e to th e d re a m -v is io n
o f th e f i f t h book, he p ro p o se s
t h a t th e dream i s s e n t by Im a g in a tio n t o le a d th e p o e t
to re c o g n iz e i t s pow er, and t h a t what th e dream er d e s ir e s
and f e a r s i s a d i r e c t e n c o u n te r w ith I m a g in a tio n .12
I f by 1 1 a p o c a ly p s e 1 1 H artm an means a s e p a r a tio n and g l o r i f i
c a tio n o f th e s e lfh o o d o r in d iv id u a l i d e n t i t y a p a r t from
n a tu re o r o u ts id e f o r c e s and phenom ena, th e n h i s argum ent
i s in d e ed c o n v in c in g . B u t, as I have arg u ed in C h ap ter I I ,
ap o caly p se need n o t im ply th e d e s tr u c tio n o f m a te r ia l n a
t u r e ; n o r does i t in B lak e, th e g r e a t spokesm an f o r a
u n iv e r s a l and in d iv id u a l a p o c a ly p s e , f o r whom th e c r e a t i o n
o f th e New Je ru sa le m in th e book o f R e v a la tio n r e p r e s e n ts a
m a rria g e o f heaven and e a r t h , a u n io n of th e c o r p o r e a l and
th e s p i r i t u a l . In t h i s s e n s e , th e term i s in com plete
harm ony w ith W ord sw o rth 's p r o p h e tic b e l i e f in th e one w o rld ,
o r w hat Newton P . S ta llk n e c h t c a l l s "W ordsw orth's aw areness
o f th e u n ity o f th e w o rld , and o f th e li v i n g f o r c e s w hich
c o n s ti t u t e th e w o rld . . . ."1 3 W ord sw o rth 's a p o c a ly p s e ,
l i k e B la k e 's , i s a consum m ation--w hat he f r e q u e n tly c a l l s a
12W ordsw orth's P o e try 1 7 8 7 -l8 llu p . 229.
^ s t r a n g e S eas o f T hought: S tu d ie s in W illiam Words-
w o rth 1. P h ilo so p h y o f Man and N a t u r e (Durham, N o rth C aro lin a,
191fS), p . 2 1 .
89
" b le n d in g " o f th e m in d 's pow er w ith th e pow er o f n a tu r e .
I t i s t h i s a p o c aly p se w hich W ordsw orth e n v is io n s th ro u g h
th e r e c u r r e n t m a rria g e m etaphors o f The P re lu d e , h i s c h ie f
work and th e to w e rin g p o e tic c a th e d r a l to w hich h is o th e r
poems a re "th e l i t t l e C e lls , O r a to r ie s , and s e p u lc h r a l
R e c e s s e s ." ^
Bloom, b a s in g h i s re a d in g o f W ordsw orth on th e a p p a re n t
assu m p tio n t h a t th e im a g in a tio n m ust be a p o c a ly p tic in th e
d is r u p tiv e s e n s e , i s in e s s e n t i a l agreem ent w ith H artm an.
P o e try i s th e c r e a ti o n o f th e human im a g in a tio n , and m ust
th e r e f o r e r i s e above e x t e r n a l n a tu re and d em o n strate i t s
freedom from i t . W ordsw orth’s v e ry in s is te n c e upon th e
e x q u is ite f i t t i n g o f in n e r and o u te r , upon th e r e c i p r o c a l
and e q u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een m a n 's mind and n a tu r e , n o t
o n ly k e p t him from a w holeness o f v is i o n , b u t p re v e n te d him
a ls o from becom ing a n a t io n a l e p ic p o e t o f M ilto n 's s t a
t u r e . ^ Bloom seems to d is p a ra g e th e f a c t t h a t W ordsw orth
made no a tte m p t to r e v e a l a n y th in g l i k e B la k e 's f o u r f o ld
v i s i o n o f s p i r i t u a l t r u t h , y e t o v e rlo o k s an im p o rta n t p o in t
^•W ordsw orth makes th e an a lo g y o f th e c a th e d r a l in h i s
P re fa c e to th e 18U|. e d i t i o n o f The E x c u rs io n ; I q u o te from
The P o e tic a l W orks. V o l. V, p . A ll q u o ta tio n s from th e
" P ro sp e c tu s" a re a ls o from t h i s P re fa c e , n o t from th e Recluse
frag m en t i t s e l f , w hich d i f f e r s in some d e t a i l s .
•^ ^The V is io n a ry Company, p . lif.1.
90
o f s i m i l a r i t y b etw een th e two p o e t s . J u s t a s th e f o u r f o ld
im a g in a tiv e v is i o n in Je ru sa le m depends upon th e s u c c e s s f u l
a s s im il a ti o n o f th e c o rp o re a l w o rld , so do W o rd sw o rth 's
moments o f v is io n a r y I n s ig h t depend upon th e fo u n d a tio n o f
th e p h y s ic a l, n a t u r a l w o rld . The d if f e r e n c e , o f c o u rs e , i s
one o f em p h asis. I t i s a to o heavy r e lia n c e o f th e mind
upon n a tu re t h a t l e d B lake to d i s t i n g u i s h two W ordsw orths—
th e n a t u r a l (and hence m isg u id ed ) man who gave h im s e lf o v e r
to th e '’H eathen M ythology” o f n a tu re w o rship o r D ru id ism ,
and th e im a g in a tiv e man who c o n t in u a lly sought to a s s e r t
h im s e lf w ith a p o c a ly p tic f o rc e as th e tr u e p o e t . ^ I t i s
th e " n a tu r a l" b a s is o f W o rd sw o rth 's p o e try to w hich b o th
B lake and B lak ean s o b je c t.
But a g a in , b o th Hartman and Bloom s t r e s s to o h e a v ily
th e d is r u p tiv e im p lic a tio n s o f a p o c a ly p s e , th e b e l i e f t h a t
p h y s ic a l n a tu re m ust be d e s tro y e d in o rd e r f o r a new h eav en
and e a r t h to ta k e shape, o r t h a t th e p o e t m ust u t t e r l y d i s
s o c ia te h im s e lf from th e phenom enal w o rld i f he i s to f u l l y
r e a l i z e h i s im a g in a tiv e p o w ers. Even f o r B lak e, n o t to
m en tio n R e v e la tio n , ap o c aly p se i s th e m a rria g e o f th e e x i s t
in g h eav en and e a r t h , o u t o f w hich th e new u n ite d c r e a tio n
i s m ade. N o th in g c o u ld be more t r a d i t i o n a l , o r more Blakean,
th a n W ordsw orth' s e q u a tio n o f ap o c a ly p se and m a rria g e . The
• ^ B la k e 's a n n o ta tio n s to W ordsw orth, in c lu d in g t h i s
d i s t i n c t i o n , may be found in th e Keynes e d i t i o n , p p . 7 8 2 -
7
91
p rim a ry d if f e r e n c e b etw een th e two p o e t s 1 u se o f th e m ar
r ia g e m etap h o r i s t h a t B lake saw th e New Je ru sa le m as th e
human mind wedded to i t s own tr u e e sse n c e o r em ah atio n ,
w h ile W ordsw orth saw i t a s a c o o p e ra tiv e u n io n o f s p i r i t u a l
pow ers w ith in and w ith o u t th e mind I t s e l f . F or b o th p o e ts ,
man i s d iv o rc e d from t h a t w hich w ould g iv e w holeness and
f u l f i l l m e n t to h i s l i f e and th e re b y redeem him from h i s
f a l l e n c o n d itio n . F or b o th p o e ts , th e m a rria g e m etaphor
d ra m a tiz e s t h a t f u l f i l l m e n t by r e l a t i n g new Rom antic v a lu e s
to th e t r a d i t i o n a l v i s i o n o f th e ep ith alam iu m and i t s B ib
l i c a l m odel, th e Song o f S o n g s.
Now th e e s tim a te t h a t W ordsw orth somehow f e l l s h o r t o f
th e ach iev em en t o f a tr u e e p ic p o e t i s sh a re d by a number
o f c r i t i c s , s ta u n c h W ordsw orthians among them . I t i s a
p a ra d o x o f W ordsw orth c r i t i c i s m t h a t th e p o e t who so f e r
v e n tly w ished to become th e M ilto n o f h is ag e, and th e r e f o r e
an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f th e sublim e t r a d i t i o n o f C la s s ic a l and
m odern p o e tr y , came to be lo o k ed upon p r im a r ily a s a g r e a t
in n o v a to r, b re a k in g from th e p o e tic c o n v e n tio n s w hich he
seemed to adopt f o r th e e p ic fram ew ork o f The P re lu d e . As
Bloom w ould have I t , W o rd sw o rth 's a u to b io g ra p h ic a l poem
s ta n d s "as an i n t e r n a l i z e d e p ic w r i t t e n in c r e a t i v e compe
t i t i o n to M ilto n . . . The R eclu se fra g m e n t, w ith i t s
• ^ The V is io n a ry Company, p . 120.
92
alm o st d is d a in f u l to n e tow ards th e h eav en o f P a ra d is e L ost
and i t s c o n c u rre n t e l e v a tio n o f th e em otions o f f e a r and
awe w hich " f a l l upon u s o f te n when we l o o k / I n to o u r M inds,
in to th e Mind o f Man" (" P r o s p e c tu s ," 3 9 -4 °)# c e r t a i n l y
s u p p o rts th e u s u a l c o n te n tio n t h a t W ordsw orth s t r e s s e d h is
fu n d am e n tal d e p a rtu re from th e a c c e p te d m a tte r o f th e e p ic
i n E n g lis h e s ta b li s h e d by S p en ser and M ilto n , I t w ould be
more a c c u r a te , how ever, to view th e p assag e a s a d e l ib e r a te
c o n t r a s t betw een two k in d s o f s u b lim ity . The M ilto n ic su b
lim e , w ith i t s r i c h im ages o f c o lo s s a l pow er— "Jeh o v ah —
w ith h i s th u n d e r, and th e c h o i r / Of s h o u tin g A ngels, and th e
em p y real th ro n e s " (" P ro s p e c tu s ," 33-3lj.)—had b ee n to o h ig h ly
p r a is e d (and o f te n im ita te d ) to need th e p o e t* s com m endation
o r a p p ro v a l. B ut th e W ordsw orthian su b lim e , d ependent upon
th e new Rom antic em phasis on th e in d iv id u a l m ind, demanded
j u s t i f i c a t i o n as e q u a lly e le v a te d and a p p r o p r ia te to th e
h ig h e s t form o f p o e tic e x p r e s s io n . In th u s a rg u in g f o r th e
d ig n ity o f h i s s u b je c t, W ordsw orth so u g h t to j o i n , n o t to
d isen g ag e h im s e lf from , th e v is io n a r y company o f th e g r e a t
C h r is tia n e p ic p o e ts . I t w as, a f t e r a l l , M ilto n who had
p r e v io u s ly spoken o f th e mind in s p a t i a l m etaphors.^® And
See, f o r exam ple, S atan * s "The mind I s i t s own p la c e ,
and in I t s e l f / Can make a heav»n o f h e l l , a h e l l o f h e a v 'n ,"
i n P a ra d is e L o s t, I , C i ta t io n s from M ilto n in my
t e x t a r e to The Com plete P o e tic a l Works o f John M ilto n , e d .
D ouglas Bush (B oston, 1 9 6 5 ).
93
a g a in , th e " P ro s p e c tu s ” l i n e " f i t au d ien ce l e t me f i n d
though fe w l" (23) ech o es M ilto n 's " f i t a u d ie n c e , th o u g h
few " in th e b a r d ic v o ic e o f P a ra d is e L o st (V II, 3 1 ).
To u n d e rs ta n d and a p p r e c ia te f u l l y th e ach iev em en t o f
The P re lu d e , one m ust c o n s id e r i t in th e l i g h t o f i t s t r a
d i t i o n , a t r a d i t i o n w hich th e p o e t i n v i t e s u s to keep in
mind as we re a d The P re lu d e , and in w hich th e id e a o f
m a rria g e o c c u p ied a p o s i t i o n o f suprem e im p o rtan ce b ec au se
o f i t s r e l i g i o u s , c o s m o lo g ic a l, and s o c i a l im p lic a tio n s .
I t s fo u n ta in h e a d i s th e Song o f S ongs, i t s l y r i c a l e x p re s
s io n th e C h r is tia n e p ith a la m iu m . But to see t h a t t r a d i t i o n
as s t r i c t l y e r o t i c , as Bloom d o e s, i s to m is re p re s e n t i t .
A lle g o r ic a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n in th e M iddle Ages and th e R enais
sance e le v a te d Solom on's Song and j u s t i f i e d i t s in c lu s io n
among th e S c r ip tu r e s by re g a rd in g i t as a sy m b o lic poem
r e p r e s e n tin g v a rio u s s p i r i t u a l m a rria g e s and th u s em blem atic
o f cosm ic harm ony. M edieval and E liz a b e th a n e p ith a la m ia
h ad o f c o u rse em phasized t h i s a s p e c t o f th e Song o f Songs;
so h ad th e s e v e n te e n th -c e n tu ry g en re o f E n g lis h m e d ita tiv e
p o e tr y . By S h a k e s p e a re 's tim e , th e a s s o c ia tio n o f m a rria g e
w ith s o c i a l harmony had become com m onplace, m aking p o s s ib le
th e t y p i c a l s tr u c t u r e o f th e E liz a b e th a n ro m a n tic comedy in
w hich m a rria g e ( o f te n m u ltip le ) sy m b o lizes th e r e s o l u t i o n
o f d ra m a tic te n s io n s and th e co n seq u en t r e s t o r a t i o n o f o rd e r.
The ep ith alam iu m , a s I m en tio n ed e a r l i e r in c o n n e c tio n
w ith B la k e , d ev elo p ed in to an e p ic a s w e ll as a l y r i c fo rm .
The fo rm e r i s n a r r a t i v e , w ith a m y th o lo g ic a l background o f
a p p r o p r ia te C la s s ic a l d e i t i e s . The C h r is tia n e p ic , w ith
i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s y n c re tis m o r f u s io n o f C l a s s i c a l and
C h r is t ia n m a te r i a l s , c e r t a i n l y owes much to th e form o f th e
e p ic e p ith ala m iu m . I t a ls o fo llo w s th e ep ith alam iu m in i t s
t y p i c a l u se o f m a rria g e as a v is io n a r y symbol o f th e m y s ti
c a l u n io n o f man and God, and as a d e v ice o f p o e tic u n ity
and c lim a c tic d ev elo p m en t. S t r u c t u r a l l y , th e D iv ln a Comme-
d la i s r e p r e s e n ta ti v e o f th e C h r is tia n e p ic , b u ild in g up
g r a d u a lly tow ard th e c lim a c tic B e a tif ic V is io n , c h a r a c te r
i s t i c a l l y e x p re s se d as a m a rria g e a t th e end o f th e P a ra d ls o .
D ante e n v is io n s th e p e r f e c t u n it y o f God and man in th e C ity
o f God in th e image o f th e w h ite ro s e o f th e m y s tic a l m ar
r ia g e :
I n form a dunque d i C andida r o s a
ml s i m o stra v a l a m i l l z l a s a n ta ,
che n e l suo sangue C r is to fe c e sp o sa . . . .
(P a r a d ls o , XXXI, 1 - 3 ) 19
I n th e same c a n to , th e id e a l peace w hich r e s u l t s from d iv in e
c o n te m p la tio n i s re v e a le d in th e f ig u r e o f S t . B e rn a rd ,
whose p ra y e r i s a t y p i c a l m ed iev al ep ith alam iu m , c e le b r a tin g
th e u n io n o f C h r is t and th e V ir g in .
■ ^ C ita tio n s from D ante i n my t e x t a re to La D iv ln a
Coramedia, e d . H. O e lsn e r (London and T o ro n to , 1 9 3 3 ),
The p e n u ltim a te B e a ti f i c V is io n i s one o f harm ony,
p e a c e , and u n i t y . The to n e o f jo y in th e Song o f Songs i s
r a i s e d to a h ig h p i t c h o f s p i r i t u a l r a p tu r e , i t s s e n s u a l
e c s ta c y tra n sfo rm e d by th e new c o n te x t f o r i t s e m o tio n .
Througih God’ s g ra c e , D a n te ’s n a r r a t o r s a y s , he was e n a b le d
to f i x h i s e y e s upon th e "lu c e s t e r n a ," o r e t e r n a l l i g h t o f
H eaven, w hich he d e s c r ib e s m e ta p h o r ic a lly a s a book " le g a to
con amore in un volum e, / c io che p e r 1 ’ u n iv e rs o s i sq u a -
d e m a " (P a r a d ls o , XXXIII, 86- 8 7 ) . The g a th e r in g o f th e
s c a t t e r e d fra g m e n ts o f th e w o rld in to a s in g le flam e o f
lo v e , "un sem p lice lu m e ," m ust have p a r t i c u l a r l y s tr u c k
B lake in h i s c o n c e p tio n o f th e u n if y in g flam e s o f ap o caly p se.
I n a l i t e r a l and m e ta p h o ric a l " f la s h " o f i n s i g h t — a word
t h a t W ordsw orth u s e s r e p e a te d ly in c o n ju n c tio n w ith th e
e x p e rie n c e o f th e u n io n o f m ind and n a tu re and w hich a ls o
c h a r a c te r i z e s th e m y s tic a l sen se t h a t h e was to d e s ig n a te
" s p o ts o f tim e " —D a n te ’ s t r a v e l l e r f in d s t h a t h i s d e s ir e
( " d i s i r o " ) and h i s w i l l ( " v e l l e " ) , l i k e th e s p h e re s them
s e lv e s , re v o lv e i n harm ony w ith one a n o th e r, " s i come r o t a
ch* egualm ente e m o ssa, / 1 ' amor che move i l s o le e 1* a l t r e
s t e l l e " (P a r a d ls o , XXXIII, II4 J4 .— ) • Here th e f ig u r e jo in s
th e p re v io u s one o f m a rria g e , and th e two com bined e x p re s s
th e p o e t’ s e c s t a t i c s t a t e o f mind i n w hich a l l t e n s i o n s , a l l
c o n f l i c t s o f d e s ir e and w i l l , o f m an’ s w i l l and God’ s w i l l ,
become r e s o lv e d . Prom th e f r a c t u r i n g and disharm ony o f th e
I n f e r n o , D ante h a s moved upw ard to a v is i o n o f s p i r i t u a l
96
u n io n as m a rria g e . He makes no l e s s s i g n i f i c a n t use o f th e
m etaphor in th e co u rse o f th e jo u rn e y i t s e l f .
In Canto XXVIII o f th e P u r g a to r io , D ante d i r e c t l y
echoes th e Song o f Songs in h i s p o r t r a y a l o f th e G arden o f
Eden, u s in g a co m b in atio n o f m etap h o rs w hich W ordsw orth was
l a t e r to em ploy i n a s i m i l a r f a s h io n f o r s im ila r p u rp o s e s .
W alking th ro u g h th e g a rd e n , D a n te ’s n a r r a t o r e n c o u n te rs
"una donna s o l e t t a , che s i g i a / can tan d o ed is c e g lle n d o
f lo r da f i o r e " (P u r g a to r lo , XXVIII, Z 4 .O-J4 . I ) . M a tild a , th e
embodiment o f innocence and g u a rd ia n o f th e E a r th ly P a ra
d is e , g a th e r s th e flo w e rs t h a t su rro u n d h e r f e e t l i k e th e
flo w e rs stre w n in th e b r i d e ’ s p a th in e p ith a la m ic convention,
f o r she to o i s a b rid e in D a n te ’ s d iv in e v i s i o n . M a tild a
e x p la in s t h a t th e g e n tle b re e z e blow ing in th e g ard en i s
cau sed by th e r e v o lu tio n s o f th e h e a v e n s, w hich make th e
b re e z e to o re v o lv e 1 1 in c i r c u i t o . . . con l a p rim a v o lta "
(P a r a d ls o , XXVIII, 103-lO lj.). In th e o pening book o f The
P re lu d e i t i s th e “Wisdom and S p i r i t o f th e u n iv e rs e " w hich
b r in g s c r e a tiv e en erg y to th e p o e t, r e v iv in g him from h i s
l u l l o f c r e a tiv e i n a c t i v i t y and p a s s i v i t y o f m ind. As in
D an te , th e r e l a t i o n s h i p i s one o f sy m p a th e tic r e s p o n s e - - i t
i s th ro u g h th e " c o rre sp o n d e n t b re e z e " (P re lu d e , I , 35) t h a t
th e p o e t i s a b le to re sp o n d to th e b re e z e th a t comes fro m
h e a v en . The u n io n o f th e b re e z e o r pow er w ith in th e mind
w ith th e b re e z e w ith o u t p ro d u ces th e m usic o f Im a g in a tio n ,
as th e image o f th e e o lia n h a rp l a t e r makes c l e a r . The
97
harmony w hich th e u n ite d b re e z e s c r e a te i s th e harm ony o f
th e m ind in communion w ith a n a t u r a l fo rc e o u ts id e i t s e l f *
The m usic image i s th u s v i t a l f o r b o th p o e ts . M a til
d a ’ s so n g , co u p led w ith th e h e a v e n ly m usic o f th e E a r th ly
P a r a d is e , becomes th e song o f th e S o l i t a r y R eaper f o r
W ordsw orth, who a ls o re c o g n iz e d t h a t "The mind o f man i s
fra m ’d ev en lik e th e b r e a t h / And harm ony o f m usic" (P re lu d e .
I , 3 5 1 -3 5 2 ), and t h a t
T here i s a d ark
I n v is ib le w orkm anship t h a t r e c o n c ile s
D isc o rd a n t e le m e n ts , and makes them move
I n one s o c ie ty . . . .
(P r e lu d e . I , 352-355)
The m usic in man’s Im a g in a tiv e so u l f o r W ordsw orth is a k in
to th e h e a v e n ly m usic o f th e b re e z e and M a tild a ’s so n g .
But W ordsw orth’s "N atu re " s h a r e s , w ith th e m ind o f man, an
a c tiv e p r i n c i p l e , in m arked c o n t r a s t to th e in a n im a te b a c k -
20
ground o f th e P u r g a to r lo . v F o r D an te, n a tu re in th e E a rth ly
P a ra d is e i s d iv in e ly o rd e re d and hence r e f l e c t s d i v i n i t y .
For W ordsw orth, th e n a t u r a l w o rld i t s e l f m a n ife s ts c r e a tiv e
pow er, th e p r e c is e so u rc e o f w hich rem a in s a p o e tic m y stery
w hich c a n n o t be s o lv e d by th e r a t i o c i n a t i v e m ind.
The s ig n if ic a n c e o f W o rd sw o rth 's N atu re i s s p i r i t u a l ,
^ The E x c u rsio n th e W anderer d e fin e s th e " a c tiv e
P r in c ip le " w hich 1 1 . . . s u b s i s t s / I n a l l th in g s , I n a l l
n a tu re s . . ." (IX , 3 - 5 ) .
i t s f u n c tio n t u t e l a r y , p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r th e d ev elo p in g
c o n s c io u sn e ss o f th e c h i l d . I t s c l o s e s t a p p ro x im a tio n in
D ante i s th e f ig u r e o f B e a tr ic e , who a p p e a rs alm ost as a
goddess in C anto X X X o f th e P u rg a to rio when she r e s o l u t e l y
demands D ante*s c o n t r i t i o n and p u r g a tio n , th e re b y p re p a rin g
him f o r s p i r i t u a l m a rria g e in p a r a d is e , o r th e know ledge o f
God. The d e l ib e r a te c o n fu s io n o f h e r d u a l r o le s o f m is tre s s
and g o d d e s s -- n ic e ly su g g e ste d b y th e I t a l i a n "donna"— i s an
im p o rta n t f e a t u r e in W o rd sw o rth 's p o e tic f i g u r e o f N a tu re ,
ad d in g a f u r t h e r d im en sio n to t r a d i t i o n a l view s o f m a rria g e .
I s h a l l r e t u r n to th e problem o f th e e x a c t m eaning o f Words
w o r th 's N atu re and th e g r e a t m a rria g e p ro c la im e d in th e
" P ro s p e c tu s " s h o r t l y . F o r th e moment, how ever, I w ish to
s t r e s s th e c o n t in u ity o f th e m a rria g e m etaphor in th e
t r a d i t i o n o f th e C h r is tia n e p ic , o f w hich W ordsw orth i s a
p a r t .
Of th e seco n d m ajo r p o e t in t h a t t r a d i t i o n , som ething
h a s a lre a d y b ee n s a id in e a r l i e r c h a p te r s . S p e n s e r's E p l-
th a la m io n and P ro th a la m io n rem ain th e m ost b r i l l i a n t exam ples
o f th e fo rm a l m a rria g e poem i n E n g lis h . But h is v i s i o n o f
harm ony and o r d e r —b o th in th e macrocosm o f th e c r e a tio n and
in th e m icrocosm o f th e in d iv id u a l man—f in d s i t s m ost
a m b itio u s v e h ic le in The F a e rie Q neene. The v is i o n o f
S p e n s e r's e p ic i s e s s e n t i a l l y th e v is i o n o f h i s m a rria g e
hym ns, th e v i s i o n o f S ir C a lid o re , th e K night o f C o u rte sy ,
when he e s p ie s th e C irc le o f th e G races in th e p a s t o r a l
99
w o rld o f th e s ix t h h o o k . As a symbol f o r m an’s a tta in m e n t
o f th e p e r f e c t i n te r n a l concord and g ra c e n e c e s s a ry to th e
id e a liz e d R en aissan ce g en tle m an , th e y sta n d f o r a s t a t e o f
m ind w hich S p en se r elsew h ere in th e poem o b j e c t i f i e s in
sym bolic m a rria g e s .
I n th e f i r s t book o f The F a e rie Q ueene, th e Red C ross
K n ig h t’s achievem ent o f th e p rim a ry v i r t u e o f h o lin e s s i s
im a g in a tiv e ly p re s e n te d a s h i s triu m p h a l wedding o f Una—
a l l e g o r i c a l l y , r e lig i o u s t r u t h — a f t e r h i s s u c c e s s fu l em er
gence from a s e r i e s of e p ic t r i a l s . I n k i l l i n g th e d ragon
(a t r a d i t i o n a l c u l t u r a l symbol f o r chaos and e r r o r ) , he
co n q u ers th e p r in c ip l e o f e r r o r in h im s e lf , and th e re b y
becom es w orthy o f th e sym bolic m a rria g e to s p i r i t u a l t r u t h .
H is m a rria g e , w hich p ro v id e s a ls o a c o n v e n tio n a l en d in g to
a t a l e o f rom ance, p r e f ig u r e s what was to be th e m ost im por
t a n t m a rria g e in th e poem— t h a t b etw een G lo ria n a h e r s e l f
( a l l e g o r i c a l l y , th e E n g lis h th ro n e ) and P rin c e A rth u r, th e
prim e exem plar o f m i l i t a n t P r o te s ta n tis m and r e p r e s e n ta ti v e
21
o f C h r is t on e a r t h . The d e s ig n o f th e whole work was to
p ro g re s s tow ard a f i n a l and com plete e p ith a la m ic v i s i o n o f
in d iv id u a l and s o c ia l p e r f e c t i o n . O th er m a rria g e s , b o th
p r o je c te d and consummated, abound in th e poem, m arking th e
21
•'•Spenser’ s i n t e n t i o n i s s t a t e d in th e L e t t e r to Ra
le g h , V ol. I o f th e W orks, p p . 167-170.
100
m o ral v i c t o r i e s and rew ard s o f in d iv id u a l k n ig h ts as w e ll
as p re p a rin g f o r th e m a rria g e t h a t was th e g u id in g p r in c ip le
u n d e rly in g th e e n t i r e F a e rie Q ueene.
The c o n te x t o f E liz a b e th a n l i t e r a t u r e , one m ust alw ays
rem em ber, was one o f v e ry r e a l p o l i t i c a l a n x ie ty o v er th e
im pending c r i s i s o f th e s u c c e s s io n . E x h o rta tio n s f o r th e
queen to m arry to o k th e form o f a lle g o r y , and th e l e v e l o f
p o l i t i c a l m eaning demands a t t e n t i o n even in th e g r e a t e s t
l i t e r a r y works o f th e a g e . L ike th e m y s tic a l m a rria g e in
th e D lv ln a Commedia, th e A iz a b e th a n c e le b r a t io n o f m a rria g e
had more th a n a e s t h e t i c s i g n i f ic a n c e . B oth D ante and Spen
s e r , v iew in g th e m se lv e s a s r e l i g i o u s , m o ra l, and p o l i t i c a l
spokesm en f o r t h e i r tim e s , c o n c e iv e d o f t h e i r h ig h e s t Id e a ls
f o r man in s o c ie ty and man i n th e d iv in e ly o rd e re d u n iv e rs e
l a r g e l y i n term s o f th e m a rria g e m e ta p h o r. The p o e t o f
The P re lu d e was to s h a re t h a t sen se o f m is s io n , as th e
p a t r i o t i c so n n e ts make a b u n d a n tly c l e a r .
W ordsw orth’s c l o s e s t a f f i n i t i e s , how ever, a re n o t so
much w ith D ante and S p en se r a s w ith th e t h i r d m ajo r p o e t o f
th e t r a d i t i o n - - t h e a u th o r o f P a ra d is e L o s t. M ilto n 's u se
o f th e m a rria g e m etaphor in c o n ju n c tio n w ith n a tu re and in
in tim a te a s s o c ia tio n w ith h i s p r e s e n ta tio n o f th e F a l l , i s
e a s i l y o f g r e a t e r im p o rtan ce f o r W ordsw orth th a n e i t h e r th e
M ilto n ic d i c t i o n o r th e M ilto n ic su b lim e, b o th o f w hich he
drew upon b u t a ls o d e p a rte d from in h i s own e p i c . R a th e r
p e r v e r s e ly , c r i t i c i s m h as te n d e d to deny W ordsw orth, as w ell
101
as o th e r R om antics, any in s ig h t in to th e C h r is tia n d o c trin e
o f th e P a l l o f Man. D ouglas B ush’s q u ip t h a t "A ro m a n tic
h a s been s u c c in c tly d e fin e d as a p e rso n who does n o t b eliev e
Qp
in th e f a l l o f man" t y p i f i e s th e u s u a l view o f W ordsworth.
Hoxie F a ir c h il d a s s e r t s t h a t , s in c e th e p o e t c o u ld n o t see
h im s e lf as a s in n e r a t a l l , he had no sen se o f th e need f o r
A tonem ent.2^ And H arold Bloom, as u s u a l c o n tr a s tin g W ords
w orth w ith B lak e, a rg u e s t h a t W ordsw orth e n t i r e l y r e j e c t e d
" th e m etaphor o f th e F a l l " 2^ w hich h ad b een so e s s e n t i a l to
th e e a r l i e r p o e t. N e v e rth e le s s , G e o ffre y H artm an can sa y
o f The P re lu d e t h a t "Books V II-IX , i n p a r t i c u l a r , mark a
p e r io d in W o rd sw o rth 's l i f e th a t p a r a l l e l s th e tim e betw een
th e P a ll and f i n a l lo s s o f P a r a d is e ." 2^ H artm an does n o t,
how ever, p ro cee d to show any p r e s e n ta ti o n o f th e P a l l i n
W o rd sw o rth 's p o e tr y . As I s h a l l a rg u e , th e s u b je c t o f The
P re lu d e i s in d e ed th e mind o f a p o e t; i t s them e, how ever,
i s th e f a l l and red em p tio n o f man.
^ S ly th o lo g y and th e Rom antic T r a d itio n in E n g lis h
P o e try (C am bridge, M ass., 193 7 ), p . 155.
23R e iig icm S T rends in E n g lis h P o e try , Volume I I I :
1780-1830» Rom antic F a ith (New York, 1 9 ^ 9 ), p . 21ij..
^ •The V is io n a ry Company, p . 123.
W o r d s w o r th 's P o e try 1787- l 8l k . p . 23£. H artm an u s e s
th e m etaphor o f th e C h r is tia n P a ll to d is c u s s W ordsw orth's
l i f e in a g e n e ra l m anner; he does n o t show th e s ig n if ic a n c e
o f th e d o c trin e f o r th e s tr u c t u r e o f m eaning o f The P re lu d e .
102
The double f a l l w hich M ilto n p o r tr a y s in P a ra d is e L o st
may be c o n tr a s te d p r o f i t a b l y to th e id e a l o f s p i r i t u a l
harm ony in h i s e a r l y o d e, On th e M orning o f C h r i s t a N a ti
vity. T h e p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n o f f a l l e n N ature in th e hymn,
th o u g h i t can be c a l l e d p o e tic h y p e rb o le , n e v e r th e le s s
p ro d u c es an e f f e c t s t r i k i n g l y l i k e t h a t o f th e a n im is tic
view t h a t W ordsw orth was to ta k e o f n a tu r e . M ilto n f u s e s
th e two im ages o f n a tu re as la n d sc a p e and n a tu re a s woman,
d e s c r ib in g h e r re s p o n s iv e hope a t th e p ro s p e c t o f th e im
p en d in g m a rria g e o f h eav en and e a r t h p re sa g e d by C h r i s t 's
b i r t h . "To w anton w ith th e su n , h e r l u s t y param our"
(C h r i s t 's N a t i v i t y , 36) would now be in a p p r o p r ia te , as she
woos th e g e n tle a i r
To h id e h e r g u i l t y f r o n t w ith in n o c e n t snow,
And on h e r naked shame,
P o llu te w ith s i n f u l blam e,
The s a i n t l y v e i l o f m aiden w h ite to th ro w ,
Confounded t h a t h e r M ak er's eyes
S hould lo o k so n e a r upon h e r f o u l d e f o r m itie s .
( C h r i s t 's N a ti v ity , 38— I 4 J4 .)
To q u ie t h e r f e a r s , God sends down th e dove o f P eace, who
w aves h e r m y rtle wand and " s t r i k e s a u n iv e r s a l peace th ro u g h
s e a and la n d " (5 2 ). As th e im plem ents o f war a re s e t a s id e
26
The id e a l i s , o f c o u rs e , t r a d i t i o n a l l y c o n c e iv e d and
t r a d i t i o n a l l y h a n d le d by M ilto n ; s t i l l , i t s e x p re s s io n by
M ilto n i s o f s p e c ia l im p o rtan ce f o r W ordsworth b ecau se M il
to n rem ain s th e p o e t who m ost in flu e n c e d him . I t m ig h t be
n o te d a ls o t h a t th e young M ilto n 's v is io n o f s p i r i t u a l o rd e r
in t h i s poem i s p a r a l l e l e d b y th e e p ith a la m iu m 's v i s i o n , as
in S t . B e rn a rd 's p r a y e r in C anto XXXI o f th e P u r g a to r lo .
103
and th e P rin c e o f L ig h t b e g in s h i s r e ig n on e a r t h , th e
sh ep h erd s h e a r a sound w hich en g ag es t h e i r s o u ls " i n b l i s s
f u l r a p tu r e ” ( 9 7 ) - - ”su ch m usic sw ee t” (93) as no man co u ld
p ro d u ce. The c o n tin u a tio n o f such harm ony o f th e " c r y s t a l
sp h e re s" "C ould h o ld a l l h e a v 'n and e a r t h in h a p p ie r union"
(1 0 8 ). J u s t as D ante h ad done, M ilto n f u s e s th e im ages o f
m usic and m a rria g e , to su g g e st th e r e s t o r a t i o n o f th e u n io n
o f heaven and e a r t h , th e v is i o n o f th e C h r is tia n m illen n iu m .
P e r f e c t b l i s s , th o u g h , i s n o t p o s s ib le u n t i l th e a p o c a ly p se ,
w hich w ill shake th e E a r th "from th e s u rfa c e to th e c e n te r"
(162) and d e s tr o y th e d is c o rd o f th e p r e s e n t w o rld e t e r
n a l l y . Of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t h e re i s th e n e c e s s a ry id e n tity
betw een ap o c aly p se and s p i r i t u a l m a rria g e , an i d e n t i t y which
W ordsworth a ls o p ro p o s e s .
In th e n in th book o f P a ra d is e L o s t. M ilto n lo o k s back
to a s im ila r p e rio d o f concord betw een God and man as he
announces th e im m inent d i v is io n o f h eav en and e a r t h :
No more t a l k where God o r a n g e l g u e s t
W ith man, as w ith h is f r i e n d , f a m i l i a r u sed
To s i t in d u lg e n t, and w ith him p a rta k e
R u ra l r e p a s t . . . .
(P a ra d is e L o s t, IX, 1-lj.)
M ilto n r e in f o r c e s th e id e a o f d i v i s i o n —what C. S . Lewis
h as c a lle d th e "G reat D iv o rc e "—w ith im ages o f p o l i t i c a l
fra g m e n ta tio n . Man*s new c o n d itio n o r f a l l e n s t a t e i s to
be c h a r a c te r iz e d by " fo u l d i s t r u s t , " " b r e a c h / D i s l o y a l , "
" r e v o l t ," " d is o b e d ie n c e ," " d is ta n c e " (IX , 6 - 9 ) . I n th e
f i r s t two books o f th e e p i c , M ilto n h ad c o n tr a s te d th e
d iv is io n o f w i l l and d is c o rd o f th e c o u n c il in H e ll w ith
th e p e r f e c t u n i t y and s in g le n e s s o f p u rp o se o f th e c o u n c il
in H eaven. Now, a s th e p o e t ’ s a t t e n t i o n tu r n s e n t i r e l y to
man, th e c o n tr a s t ta k e s on a new a s p e c t; th e d ra m a tic
ju x ta p o s it io n o f m an 's s t a t e b e fo re and a f t e r h i s f a l l .
I n h is d e s c r i p ti o n o f th e e n c lo s e d g a rd e n o f E den, M ilto n
a llu d e s d i r e c t l y to Solom on’ s g a rd e n , "w here th e s a p ie n t
k in g / H e l d d a llia n c e w ith h i s f a i r E g y p tia n sp o u se" (IX ,
ijif2-)|)|-3) - The t r a n q u i l i t y and e q u ilib r iu m o f th e scene
comes p a r t l y from i t s b e in g m o d elled on th e B i b l i c a l g a rd e n
o f Solomon, in t e r p r e t e d b y th e C h r is t ia n t r a d i t i o n as th e
B rid e o f C h r is t and th e r e f o r e sym bolic o f th e u n io n o f God
and man. The harm ony o f th e scene soon b e g in s to d is s o lv e
w ith th e ap p ro ach o f th e S e rp e n t, th e a r c h e ty p a l d rag o n o f
ch a o s, whose b u s in e s s i t i s to d iv o rc e man from d i v i n i t y .
In th e p a s sa g e d e s c r ib in g E v e’ s f a l l , N atu re I s a g a in
p e r s o n if ie d a s a p r e s id in g s p i r i t o r g o d d e ss: " E a rth f e l t
th e wound, and N atu re from h e r s e a t / S ig h in g th ro u g h a l l
h e r w orks gave s ig n s o f w o e ,/T h a t a l l was l o s t " (IX , 782-
7 % ) . The Image I s s tre n g th e n e d i n th e n a t u r a l r e a c t i o n to
Adam’s c o m p le tio n o f th e P a l l o f Man;
105
E a r th tre m b le d from h e r e n t r a i l s , a s a g a in
I n p a n g s, and N atu re gave a second g ro a n ;
Sky lo u re d and, m u tte rin g th u n d e r, some sa d d ro p s
Wept a t co m p letin g o f th e m o rta l s i n
O rig in a l . . . .
(IX, 1000-100ij.)
In v a rio u s ways th e f a l l is a d iv o r c e - - th e s e p a r a tio n o f
Eve from Adam, o f b o th o f them from God and P a r a d is e , and
o f E a rth from H eaven. By p e r s o n if y in g th e elem e n ts o f
n a t u r e , M ilto n h e ig h te n s th e e f f e c t o f p h y s ic a l v i o l a t i o n .
But th e a m b ig u ity o f th e l i n e s p a r a d o x ic a lly s u g g e s ts th e
p o s s i b i l i t y o f b i r t h as w e ll as o f ra p e . The im p lic a tio n
o f c r e a tio n o r b i r t h w hich accom panies th e f a l l r e in f o r c e s
th e C h r is tia n d o c trin e o f th e " f o r tu n a te f a l l " by b a la n c in g
th e o p p o s ite image o f d e s t r u c t i o n . I t I s th e same am biguity
em bodied in B la k e 's T y g er, a t whose t e r r i b l e b i r t h "The
s t a r s th rew down t h e i r s p e a rs / And w a te r 'd h eav en w ith t h e i r
t e a r s " (The T y g er. p , 2l!j.). I t i s a ls o th e am b ig u ity w hich
Is in h e re n t in W o rd sw o rth 's p a s s io n a te a tte m p ts to cope
w ith th e f a l l as he u n d e rs to o d i t .
F or W ordsw orth, as f o r M ilto n , th e f a l l i s a d iv o rc e .
But w hereas M ilto n h ad assum ed th e u n io n o f man and "Na
t u r e , " p o r tr a y in g them a s f a l l i n g to g e th e r , W ordsw orth could
n o t . As H artm an h a s s a id , th e c o n tin u ity b etw een human and
d iv in e f o r W ordsworth i s to o te n u o u s , too p r e c a r io u s , to be
sim p ly s t a t e d and a c c e p te d .^ ? Yet H artm a n 's b e l i e f t h a t
^ W o rd sw o rth 's P o e try 1787-l8li4., p . 1 9 0 .
th e a p o c a ly p tic im a g in a tio n i s fu n d a m e n ta lly opposed to th e
m a rria g e o f man and n a tu re m ust be b ased upon th e assum ption
t h a t n a tu re c o n s is ts o f l i t t l e more th an an a g g re g a te o f
p h y s ic a l o b je c ts o r form s to w hich th e im a g in a tio n im p a rts
a d ubious " l i f e . " In th e e a r l y books o f The P re lu d e ,
W ordsw orth, s t r e s s i n g th e t u t e l a r y f u n c tio n o f th e e x te r n a l
form s o f n a tu re on th e c h ild * s d e v elo p in g c o n s c io u s n e s s ,
seems to su p p o rt th e c o n te n tio n t h a t he i s a s e n s a t i o n i s t
in th e t r a d i t i o n o f L ocke. I t i s "th e v i s i b l e scen e" "W ith
a l l i t s solem n im agery" which im p resses th e m ind o f th e Boy
o f W inander (P re lu d e , V, lf.09-if.il) • Yet we m ust keep in
m ind th e c o n te x t o f th e e p is o d e : th e view o f n a tu r e as
m e re ly e x t e r n a l and c o n c re te i s i t s e l f th e c h i l d ’ s view , i f
th e c h i ld c o u ld a r t i c u l a t e h i s view in r a t i o n a l i s t i c te rm s .
The tr u e r e la t i o n s h i p betw een th e in d iv id u a l mind and n a tu re
ca n be re c o g n iz e d o n ly by th e a d u lt p o e tic m ind, w h atev er
i t s k in s h ip to th e mind o f th e c h i l d . The r e a l key to th e
m eaning o f W o rd sw o rth 's p o e tr y , th e n , l i e s in th e e x a c t
m eaning o f "N atu re" and c o n s e q u e n tly o f i t s m a rria g e to
man*s m ind.
I f N atu re is in d e e d th e com p o site o f th e phenom enal
w o rld , and n o th in g m ore, th e n one m ust ta k e s e r i o u s l y
B la k e 's ch arg e t h a t th e s p i r i t u a l man in W ordsw orth I s con
s t a n t l y opposed and th r e a te n e d by th e n a t u r a l man, "& th e n
he Is no p o e t b u t a h e a th e n p h ilo s o p h e r a t E nm ity a g s t . a l l
107
tru e p o etry or In sp iration ." ^ ® One may even have to admit
some tr u th to Bernard B la ck sto n e’ s judgment th a t
W ordsw orth’ s mind was from th e b e g in n in g th e b a ttle g ro u n d
o f two opposed f a c u l t i e s : th e power o f in te n s e v i s u a l i
s a tio n w ith th e b o d ily e y e , and th e g i f t o f m y s tic a l
v i s i o n . 29
And so W ordsw orth becom es, f o r th e B lak ean , a k in d o f c a r i
c a tu r e who " f ix e d h i s a f f e c t i o n s on ro c k s and s to n e s and
t r e e s and w anted man to become as l ik e them as p o s s ib le . .
. ."3 0 po r B la k e , o f c o u rs e , c o r p o r e a l ity had been th e
g r e a t enemy o f Im a g in a tio n , and i t was n o t u n t i l h i s l a s t
p ro p h ecy t h a t he f i n a l l y re s o lv e d th e an tag o n ism betw een
V ala and J e ru s a le m . The d e n u n c ia tio n o f p u re c o r p o r e a l ity ,
o r n a tu r e , i s e s s e n t i a l to th e B lak ean m yth o f th e f a l l ,
and so e q u a lly e s s e n t i a l to B la k e ’ s p o e tr y . Prom th e Blake
c r i t i c s who ap p ro ach W ordsw orth, how ever, one e x p e c ts a
g r e a t e r u n d e rs ta n d in g .
As Prye h as s a i d , " th e p e rc e iv e d form s o f th e e t e r n a l
w o rld ," f o r W ordsw orth, " a re th o s e w hich a re c o n s ta n tly
p e rc e iv e d in t h i s one . . . . B lake i s m e rely e x te n d in g
t h i s p r i n c i p l e . . . . ’ ’31 one need o n ly compare B la k e 's
2^The Com plete W ritin g s o f W illiam B lak e, p . 782.
2^E n g lls h B lake (C am bridge, 19lj-9), p . 183.
^ E n g l i s h B lak e, p . 183*
^ F e a r f u l Symmetry, p . i}.^.
symbol o f G olgonooza, th e fu rn a c e o f m a t e r i a l i t y th ro u g h
w hich one m ust p a ss i n o rd e r to r e a l i z e p e r c e p tio n o f th e
s p i r i t u a l , w ith W ordsw orth’s b e l i e f t h a t im a g in a tiv e v is i o n
i s grounded in th e s e n s u a l v is i o n o f th e c o r p o r e a l e y e .
M oreover, W ordsw orth’s f ig u r e o f N ature is more lik e B lak e’s
Je ru sa le m th a n V ala, th e b in d in g goddess o f G e n e ra tio n .
F o r W ordsw orth, i t i s th e m ature p o e t who f i n a l l y comes t o
re c o g n iz e a k in d o f d i v i n i t y in n a tu re w hich goes beyond
th e phenom enal w o rld . He se e s i t as th e o v e rflo w in g fo u n -
ta in h e a d o f s p i r i t u a l power w hich can be se n se d and known
o n ly by th e c o rre sp o n d e n t power o f th e human im a g in a tio n ,
o r a c tiv e m in d . To e x p re s s th e u n io n o f th e two p o e t ic a l l y ,
W ordsw orth ad o p ted th e m a rriag e m etap h o r. H is " sp o u s a l
v e rs e " c e le b r a te s a consum m ation n o t b etw een th e a b s t r a c t
m ind o f man and th e u n iv e rs e o f c o n c re te fo rm s, b u t r a t h e r
o f th e two sy m p a th e tic f o r c e s —w ith in and w ith o u t— in a
r e la t i o n s h i p o f m utual g iv in g and g r a t i t u d e . S e p a ra tio n
from th e s p i r i t u a l pow er o f n a tu r e —th e l o s s o f th e " v i
s io n a ry gleam " w ith o u t w hich th e mind becom es a vacuum --
means f o r W ordsworth th e d a i ly en actm en t o f th e F a ll o f Man.
F o r Locke, th e v e ry f a c t t h a t th e mind i s th e r e c i p i e n t o f
know ledge th ro u g h th e s e n s e s from th e n a t u r a l w orld m eant
t h a t th e mind m ust be p a s s iv e o r r e f l e c t i v e r a t h e r th a n
a c tiv e o r p r o j e c t i v e . The re a s o n why W ordsw orth c o u ld be a
s e n s a t i o n i s t and a tr a n s c e n d e n ta l1 s t a t th e same tim e i s n o t
109
o n ly t h a t he a t t r i b u t e d an a c tiv e p r i n c i p l e to th e m ind,
b u t t h a t h e a t t r i b u t e d a c o rre s p o n d in g p r i n c i p l e to • ’N ature"
as w e ll. P a r a d o x ic a lly , i t i s th e power o f N atu re w h ich ,
by s t i r r i n g th e m ind to a c t i v i t y , e n s u re s t h a t th e mind w ill
in d eed be a c tiv e i n p e r c e p tio n .
The w hole m eaning o f th e r e c u r r e n t word "pow er" w hich
W ordsw orth r e p e a ts so f r e q u e n tly in The P re lu d e and in th e
s h o r t e r poems l i e s in th e m e ta p h o ric a l m a rria g e o f th e a c
t i v e p r i n c i p l e s w hich e x i s t in s id e and o u ts id e th e mind
th ro u g h th e a c t o f im a g in a tiv e p e r c e p tio n . I n t h i s l i g h t ,
th e f ig u r e o f th e S o l it a r y R eaper (who re a p p e a rs u n d e r many
names in W ordsw orth’ s p o e try ) becom es c l e a r . J u s t a s
D a n te ’ s M a tild a s ta n d s f o r an in te rm e d ia te s ta g e betw een
h eav en and e a r t h , p re p a rin g th e p o e t f o r h i s v i s i o n o f
p a r a d i s e , th e S o l i t a r y R eaper I s an in te rm e d ia ry f i g u r e , a
p r i e s t e s s o f N atu re th ro u g h whom th e p o e t h a s g lim p se s o f
e t e r n i t y . M a tild a draw s h e r pow er from God, s tre n g th e n in g
th e p o e t f o r h i s m e etin g w ith B e a tric e w hich im m ed iately
f o llo w s . S im ila r ly , th e g i r l In W ordsw orth’ s poem draw s
upon some so u rce o f s p i r i t u a l pow er, t r a n s f e r r i n g I t to th e
p o e t ’ s m ind th ro u g h h e r s tra n g e so n g , th e w ords o f w hich,
l i k e th e w ords o f th e le e c h g a t h e r e r , a f f e c t th e l i s t e n e r
as b e in g u n e a r th ly o r s u p e r n a tu r a l. Her song, l i k e th e
v i b r a ti o n s o f th e a e o lia n l y r e , to u c h a re s p o n s iv e ch o rd
in th e p o e t 's mind and th e f u s io n o f pow ers i s com plete and
p e rm a n e n tly a s s u re d th ro u g h th e agency o f memory. She i s
110
th e embodiment o f th e phenom enal w o rld a t th e p o in t o r
v erg e o f s p i r i t u a l v i s i o n , th e in te rm e d ia ry who, l i k e th e
p ro p h e te s s o f a n t i q u i t y , adm its th e p o e t to a know ledge o f
th e in v i s i b l e w o rld . I t i s p r e c i s e l y b ecau se im a g in a tiv e
o r f u l l p e r c e p tio n means a p e n e tr a tio n beyond th e l i m i t s o f
s e n s a tio n a l know ledge t h a t W ordsw orth, l i k e B la k e, e a s i l y
i d e n t i f i e s wisdom (o r f u l l p e r c e p tu a l aw aren ess) w ith r e l i
g io u s t r u t h . The f a l l i s a f a l l i n g away o r n arro w in g o f
p e r c e p tio n f o r B lak e, a lo s s o f s p i r i t u a l power f o r Words
w o rth . F o r b o th p o e ts th e F a ll o f Man i s fu n d a m e n ta lly an
e p is te m o lo g ic a l o n e.
The Im m o rta lity Ode may be r e a d , in t h i s r e s p e c t , as
a d i a l e c t i c w hich t r a c e s th e developm ent o f th e W ordsw orth
ia n man th ro u g h th e s u c c e s s iv e s p i r i t u a l s ta g e s o f p rim a l
in n o c e n c e , f a l l , and red em p tio n th ro u g h th e a c q u is it io n o f
wisdom, w ith th e c o n c u rre n t a s s e r t i o n o f so m eth in g v e ry
l i k e th e C h r is tia n id e a o f th e f o r tu n a te f a l l . The c h ild
in th e Ode, l i k e th e Boy o f W inander and W ordsw orth h im s e lf
as th e c h i l d o f The P r e lu d e , i s a f u l l p a r t i c i p a n t in th e
pow er o f s p i r i t u a l u n i t y . To th e c h i l d ’ s m ind, h eav en and
e a r t h are~ o n e, so t h a t ’’e v e ry common s i g h t ” a p p e ars to him
"A p p a re lle d in c e l e s t i a l l i g h t ” (Im m o rta lity Ode, 2-ij.).
The l i g h t im agery, u se d in a s im ila r m anner by D ante and
M ilto n , p e rv a d e s th e poem, s u g g e s tin g th e c h i l d ’ s v is io n a r y
p o w e r--th a t i s , h is se n se o f th e a b s o lu te u n ity o f a l l
th in g s and h i s co n seq u en t la c k o f I n d iv id u a l c o n s c io u s n e s s
I l l
o r s e lfh o o d . The y o u th , s t i l l a tte n d e d by th e v is io n a r y
gleam , i s " N a tu re 's P r i e s t " (73)» a m etaphor w hich comes
to have expanded s ig n if ic a n c e f o r th e p o e t o f The P r e lu d e .
W ordsw orth c l e a r l y d is tin g u is h e s " E a rth " from " N a tu re " :
th e fo rm e r, w ith i t s t u t e l a r y c o n c re te form s and im ages, i s
m a n 's "hom ely N urse" (8 2 ), who o n ly in a d e q u a te ly ta k e s th e
p la c e o f th e m o th er who becom es more and more rem ote from
th e a d u lt man. I n sa y in g t h a t th e v is io n a r y gleam " is th e
g lo r y w hich th e c h i l d b r in g s to t h i s w o rld fro m a h ig h e r
realm " r a t h e r th a n "a p o s s e s s io n o f n a t u r e , F a i r c h i l d
seems to d is c o u n t th e d i s t i n c t i o n b etw een E a r th (w hich i s
s t r i c t l y phenom enal) and N a tu re ( p o t e n t i a l l y noum enal), and
to m inim ize W o rd sw o rth 's own in d ic a t io n t h a t th e c e n t r a l
m etap h o r o f a g r e a t m a rria g e was t o g iv e fo rm to h i s p o e tic
v i s i o n . The gleam i s to be fou n d n e i t h e r in n a tu re alo n e
n o r in th e mind a lo n e , w hat i t s s o u rc e , b u t r a t h e r in a
r e l a t i o n s h i p o f i n t e r a c t i o n and m u tu al r e s p o n s iv e n e s s .
I have su g g e ste d t h a t th e f i n a l s ta g e p o r tra y e d in th e
Ode r e p r e s e n ts W o rd sw o rth 's v e r s io n o f th e f o r tu n a te f a l l .
I t s to n e i s c o n c i l i a t o r y , th e p o e t h a v in g re a c h e d th e i n
s ig h t t h a t memory and th e pow er o f th e p o e tic im a g in a tio n
i n th e man can " b r e e d / P e r p e tu a l b e n e d ic tio n " (Im m o rta lity
Ode, 13lj.-13j?). He h as l o s t f o r e v e r th e s t a t e o f p rim a l
^ R e li g i o u s T ren d s in E n g lis h P o e try , V o l. I l l , p . 2 0 1 .
112
in n o cen ce o r "sym pathy" (a r e l a t i o n s h i p o f two p a r t n e r s ) ,
b u t th e "shadowy r e c o l le c tio n s " o f t h a t s t a t e "Are y e t th e
f o u n ta in l i g h t o f a l l o u r d ay , / Are y e t a m a s te r l i g h t o f
a l l o u r se e in g " (15>2-1£3). A W ordsw orthian v e r s io n o f th e
m usic o f th e s p h e re s —an a p o stro p h e to th e b ir d s to " sin g a
joyous song" (1 6 9 )—m arks th e change i n mood. Only i n th e
" y e a rs t h a t b r in g th e p h ilo s o p h ic m ind" (1 8 7 ) ca n th e sym
p a t h e t i c im a g in a tio n o r pow er to r e a l i z e jo y even in th e
c o n d itio n o f human s u f f e r in g m a n ife s t i t s e l f , co m p en satin g
f o r th e lo s s o f p rim a l innocence u n d e r n a t u r e 's "more h a b i
t u a l sway" (1 9 2 ), The to n e i s v e ry much l i k e t h a t o f th e
l a s t book o f P a ra d is e L o s t, when Adam, h av in g r e a l i z e d m an 's
f u l l p o t e n t i a l f o r a b je c tn e s s and d e s p a ir , r i s e s to a new
v is i o n o f jo y a t M ic h a e l's r e v e l a t i o n o f th e triu m p h a n t
f u tu r e o f m ankind. F or b o th p o e ts , human s u f f e r in g w hich
r e s u l t s from o r i g i n a l s i n i s i r o n i c a l l y th e w e lls p rin g o f
jo y , a k ey word in The P re lu d e .
I f , as Bloom s u g g e s ts , th e c h i l d o f th e Ode is th e
" N a tu ra l Man" and th e a d u lt p o e t, "whose eye a l t e r s n a t u r e ,"
i s th e " Im a g in a tiv e Man," th e n one may view th e f a l l as a
t r a n s i t i o n from th e one s t a t e o f c o n sc io u sn e ss (o r r a t h e r
u n c o n sc io u sn e ss in th e f i r s t c a se ) to th e o t h e r , ^ x t i s ,
i n any c a s e , th e b re a k in g o f a bond, l i k e Adam's b re a k in g
^ The V is io n a ry Company, p , 170,
113
o f th e co v en an t w ith God, th e O ld T estam ent d iv o rc e w hich
d is s o lv e s o n ly w ith th e hook o f R e v e la tio n 1s v i s i o n o f God
and man r e u n ite d i n s p i r i t u a l m a rria g e . W ordsw orth i s
nowhere more t r a d i t i o n a l as a C h r is tia n ep ic p o e t th a n in
p ro p o sin g v is io n a r y m arria g e a s a s o lu t io n to th e f a l l ,
s in c e th e l a t t e r h ad always b e e n re g a rd e d in te rm s o f m an 's
s e p a r a tio n o r d iv o rc e from God. In th e B i b l i c a l t r a d i t i o n ,
i t i s t h i s d iv o rc e w hich makes th e sym bolic m a rria g e o r
re u n io n o f man and God in th e Song o f Solomon so e c s t a t i c ,
th e joyous m eetin g o f th e b r id e and b rid eg ro o m i n t e n s i f i e d
by c o n t r a s t w ith th e b r i d e 's e a r l i e r t e a r s a t h e r f a i l u r e
to f i n d h e r a b s e n t h u sb an d .
F or d r a m a tiz a tio n o f th e f a l l , and o f th e c o n s c io u s
a c t o f o r i g i n a l s i n in W ordsw orth's p o e tr y , one m ust t u r n
from th e Ode to o th e r w orks, su ch a s H u ttin g , i n i t i a l l y
d e s ig n a te d f o r a p la c e i n The P re lu d e b u t in f a c t p u b lis h e d
s e p a r a t e l y .^ - As one o f "th e l i t t l e C e lls , O r a to r ie s , and
s e p u lc h r a l R ece sses" o f th e "m ain Work" w hich was to be
The R eclu se and w hich i s more p r o p e r ly The P re lu d e , th e poem
may h e lp to illu m in a te W ord sw o rth 's c e n tr a l c o n c e rn as an
e p ic p o e t.
3 k
•^"1 fo llo w th e g e n e r a lly r e l i a b l e d a tin g o f W ords
w o rth 's poems in F . W. B a te s o n 's W ordsw orth: a R e - I n te r p r e
t a t i o n (London, New Y ork, T o ro n to , 1951}.), A ppendix I I .
114
Opening w ith th e n a t u r a l i s t i c and commonplace d e t a i l s
o f a c h i l d ’ s e x p e d itio n in th e woods, th e u s u a l r u s t i c .
s e t t i n g f o r W ordsworth and th e w o rld o f G e n e ra tio n f o r
B la k e , th e poem g r a d u a lly p e n e tr a te s beyond th e d e s c r ip tiv e
l e v e l and th e i n t e r e s t in th e phenom enal w o rld , fu s in g
l i t e r a l d e s c r ip tio n w ith m y th ic r i t u a l . As W ordsw orth t e l l s
u s in The P re lu d e , "Our sim p le ch ild h o o d s i t s upon a th r o n e "
(V, 5 3 2 ); th e p o e t 's r e c o l l e c t i o n , th e n , i s o f "One o f
th o s e h e a v e n ly days t h a t can n o t d ie " (N u ttin g , 3 ) . The
c h i ld i s a t one w ith th e u n iv e rs e as he a p p ro ac h es th e
" v ir g i n scen e" o f th e h a z e l grove (2 1 ). Bloom h as rem arked
on th e u n d e rto n e o f ra v ish m e n t in th e lan g u ag e d e s c r ib in g
th e b o y 's b r e a t h le s s jo y a t h i s d is c o v e r y o f th e "b an q u et"
(2 5 ). The boy v i o l a t e s n a tu r e , Bloom s a y s , in h i s a tte m p t
to p o s s e s s i t r a t h e r th a n d e lig h t in i t " w ith w ise r e
s t r a i n t " ( 2 3 ) .3* H is m u tila tio n o f th e bow er i s a l l th e
more a b ru p t and d is q u i e ti n g , one may add, b e c a u se W ordsworth
p i c t u r e s th e s i n as a sudden and i r r a t i o n a l l y d e s tr u c tiv e
a c t w ith in th e o th e rw is e p e a c e fu l and E d en ic s e t t i n g :
Then up I r o s e ,
And d rag g ed to e a r t h b o th b ra n c h and bough, w ith c r a s h
And m e rc ile s s ra v a g e : and th e shady nook
Of h a z e ls , and th e g re e n and mossy bow er,
Deform ed and s u l l i e d , p a t i e n t l y gave up
T h e ir q u ie t b e in g . . . .
(N u ttin g . 4 3 -4 8 )
• ffirhe V is io n a ry Company, p . 125.
11$
The "se n se o f p a in " {$2) w hich he s u b s e q u e n tly f e e l s i s f o r
W ordsw orth th e p rim a ry c r i s i s in a l l human e x p e rie n c e : th e
moment o f d iv o rc e from th e s p i r i t u a l pow er o f n a tu re and a
c o rre sp o n d in g h e ig h te n in g o f th e c o n s c io u sn e ss o f s e l f .
The p assag e r e c a l l s th e b e t r a y a l o f E a r th and N atu re i n th e
double clim a x o f P a ra d is e L o s t, th e s im ila r c r i t i c a l moments
in th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een man and e t e r n i t y d u rin g w hich
a v io le n t d iv o rc e o c c u rs . B oth M ilto n and W ordsw orth id e n
t i f y s p i r i t u a l d iv o rc e and ra p e , and i n P a ra d is e L o st ra p e
i s a p aro d y o f th e te n d e r and jo y f u l 'u n io n o f th e b r id e and
b rid eg ro o m i n th e Song o f Solomon, even th o u g h M ilto n shows
i t to le a d to m an 's u ltim a te good. I n fo llo w in g M ilto n ,
W ordsw orth r e v e a ls t h a t he i s v e ry much aware t h a t he i s
a " s i n n e r ," c o n tr a r y to B ush’ s s u g g e s t i o n . ^
Much o f th e im pact o f th e b o y ’s b e t r a y a l o f n a tu re in
N u ttin g r e s u l t s from W ordsw orth’ s u se o f th e co n cep t o f
anim ism , a problem w hich a number o f c r i t i c s have d is c u s s e d
f o r i t s re le v a n c e to an u n d e rs ta n d in g o f h i s p o e try and
r e l i g i o n . Jo sep h W arren Beach t r a c e s th e id e a o f W e ltse ele .
o r " w o r ld - s o u l," o r " a c tiv e p r i n c i p l e , " as th e n o tio n o f a "
u n iv e r s a l s p i r i t o f n a tu re h a s v a r io u s ly b ee n c a lle d , to
i t s p h ilo s o p h ic a l s o u rc e s , s t r e s s i n g th e c o n n e c tio n b etw een
^ M ythology and th e Rom antic T r a d i t i o n , p . 1$$.
116
anim ism and p a n th e ism . The " s p i r i t o f th e woods" w hich th e
boy h a s v i o la te d may be sim p ly a f i c t i t i o u s " t u t e l a r y
d i v i n i t y such as p e o p le d th e w o rld o f G reek m y th o lo g y ,"
c o n ju re d up by W ordsw orth’ s " f a n c y . U l t i m a t e l y , Beach
c o n c lu d e s , i t i s im p o s sib le to t e l l w h eth e r th e p o e t r e a l l y
b e lie v e d in th e l i t e r a l e x is te n c e o f a n im a tin g s p i r i t s
w hich in h a b it th e c r e a tu r e s and o b je c ts o f th e n a t u r a l
w o rld .3® Raymond D ex te r Havens ta k e s a com parable view in
a s s e r t i n g t h a t W ordsw orth to o k o v e r th e id e a o f
th e anlm a m undi o f G reek p h ilo s o p h y . . . as a k in d o f
i n f e r i o r goddess who d id th e a c tu a l work o f e x e r tin g
f o rc e in e v e ry p a r t o f th e w o rld
u n d e r th e d i r e c t i o n o f th e D e it y .39 M oreover, Havens con
t i n u e s , W ordsw orth " f r e q u e n tly th o u g h t o f n a tu re as a S p ir i t
endowed w ith p e r s o n a l i ty . . . who an im a tes and g u id e s th e
e x t e r n a l w o rld .
Most b r i l l i a n t l y a rg u e d , p e rh a p s , i s H artm an 's d is c u s
s io n o f th e g e n iu s l o c l t o r " s p i r i t o f p la c e ," w hich was
37
' The Concept o f N atu re in N in e te e n th -C e n tu ry E n g lis h
P o e try (New Y ork, 1 9 3 6 ), p . 105.
3forhe Concept o f N a tu re , p . 106.
oq
The Mind o f a P o e t; a S tu d y o f W ordsw orth’ s Thought
w ith P a r t i c u l a r R eferen ce to The P re lu d e (B a ltim o re f
p . 191.
^ ° The Mind o f a P o e t, p . 192.
117
c o n s id e re d M a g u a rd ia n a s w e ll as in d w e llin g s p i r i t o f h is
ab o d e ," and was to b e e s s e n t i a l in W ordsw orth’s fo rm u la tio n
o f th e n o tio n o f s p o ts o f tlra e .^ 1 The g e n iu s l o c i , Hartman
e x p la in s , renew s th e p o e t th ro u g h th e fo rm s o f e x te r n a l
n a tu r e , e n a b lin g h im , a f t e r d e je c tio n , to c o n fro n t th e w orld
Ii2
anew "w ith a s e n s i t i v e , c r e a tiv e s o u l." F u rth e rm o re , one
o f th e t r a d i t i o n a l " tu te la r y " f u n c tio n s o f th e g e n iu s l o c i
was th e p re v e n tio n o r revenge o f th e " d e s e c ra tio n o f i t s
a b o d e ."^3
The g e n iu s l o c i b e lo n g s , o f c o u rs e , to th e s p i r i t
w o rld , n o t to th e phenom enal w o rld w hich i t i n h a b i t s . L ike
C o le rid g e ’ s a l b a t r o s s , i t s h a re s in m y ste rio u s s p i r i t u a l
pow er in w hich man may a ls o s h a r e . The d e s e c r a tio n o f th e
h a z e l g ro v e , th e n , i s a s i n a g a in s t a so u rce o r zone of
i n t e n s i f i e d s p i r i t u a l pow er, w ith th e co n seq u en t d im in is h in g
o f th a t pow er in th e boy. Y e t, a t th e moment o f c r i s i s , th e
sen se o f N a tu re ’s in d e p en d en t l i f e seems k e e n e s t. T here i s
s t i l l no a c tu a l s e p a r a tio n from n a tu r e , no r e a l i z a t i o n o f
th e f u l l am b iv alen t im pact o f th e f a l l , w hich o n ly th e ma
tu r e p o e t o f th e Im m o rta lity Ode o r T ln te rn Abbey i s capable
o f u n d e rs ta n d in g . F or th e man, h av in g l o s t th e "a ch in g jo y s"
^ •W ordsw orth’s P o e try 1 7 8 7 -l8 ll|., p . 212.
^•2Word3w o rth ’s P o e try 1787-l83l|.i p . 213.
^ W o rd sw o rth ’s P o e try 1 7 8 7 -l8 llu p . 213.
118
and " d iz z y r a p tu r e s " t h a t c h a r a c te r iz e th e c h i l d 's r e l a t i o n
sh ip w ith n a tu r e , h a s y e t re c e iv e d " o th e r g i f t s , " "A bundant
reco m p en se," h a v in g le a r n e d "To lo o k on n a tu r e , n o t as in
th e h o u r / Of th o u g h tle s s y o u th ; b u t h e a rin g o f t e n t i m e s /
The s t i l l , sa d m usic o f h u m anity" (T in te r n Abbey, 8 9 -9 1 ),
th e song o f th e S o l i t a r y R eaper in w hich man and N atu re a re
wedded i n harm ony. R e c o n c ilia tio n comes w ith a re a c h in g
outw ard o f th e sy m p a th e tic im a g in a tio n , by w hich th e mind
i s a b le to c o n tin u a l ly renew i t s k in s h ip w ith th e pow er th a t
th e c h i ld h ad alw ays known. The d if f e r e n c e i s t h a t th e
m a rrie d s t a t e can be e n v is io n e d o n ly in f l a s h e s , o r s p o ts
o f tim e ; i t ca n no lo n g e r be m a in ta in e d w ith o u t d i s r u p ti o n .
W ithout th e a c tiv e m ind o r im a g in a tio n , i t c o u ld n o t be
m a in ta in e d a t a l l .
I have d w elt a t some le n g th upon W o rd sw o rth 's ty p i c a l
p r e s e n ta ti o n o f n a tu r e in N u ttin g n o t sim p ly b ec au se th e
r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw een man and n a tu re so p re o c c u p ie d th e p o et,
b u t a ls o b ecau se i t i s c r u c i a l to an u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e
m y th ic q u a l i t y o f th e e p ic m a rria g e in The P re lu d e . A es
t h e t i c a l l y , i t seems u n im p o rta n t w h eth er o r n o t W ordsw orth
b e lie v e d in a l i t e r a l s p i r i t o f n a tu re in any t r a d i t i o n a l
s e n s e . What m a tte r s v e ry much i s th e Immense im p o rta n ce o f
th e "pow ers" o r " p re s e n c e s " o u ts id e h im s e lf w hich th e p o e t
l i t e r a l l y f e e l s , som etim es w ith e x tr a o r d in a r y v iv id n e s s , as
in th e e p iso d e o f th e s t o l e n b o a t in The P re lu d e w here th e
n a t u r a l w orld a p p e a rs to come to l i f e and b e a r down on th e
119
b o y :
. . . a huge C l i f f ,
As i f w ith v o lu n ta ry pow er i n s t i n c t ,
U proar*d i t s h e a d . I s tr u c k , and s tr u c k a g a in ,
And, grow ing s t i l l in s t a t u r e , th e huge C l i f f
Rose up betw een me and th e s t a r s , and s t i l l ,
W ith m easured m o tio n , l i k e a l i v i n g th in g ,
S tro d e a f t e r me.
(P re lu d e , I , 1 j.06-1j.12)
U n d e rly in g th e scene i s th e l a t e r e ig h te e n th - c e n tu r y con
c e p tio n o f n a tu re as th e an im atin g p r i n c i p l e o f th e u n iv e rs e
w hich h ad a p la c e in E n g lis h p o e try even as e a r l y a s th e
"G en e ral P ro lo g u e " to C h au ce r’s C a n terb u ry T a le s , w ith i t s
p i c tu r e o f n a tu re b e in g re b o rn and s t i r r i n g e v e ry c r e a tu r e
to l i f e . W ordsw orth s h a re s h is age*s b e l i e f in an a c tiv e
u n iv e rs e in w hich even th e m ost i n s i g n i f i c a n t c r e a tu r e s and
o b je c ts p a r t i c i p a t e in a v a s t p r in c ip l e o f c r e a tiv e e n e rg y .
And i t i s to th e a c tiv e u n iv e r s e , th e im a g in a tio n in n a tu re ,
so to sp e a k , t h a t th e a c tiv e pow er o f th e p o e tic m ind o r
human im a g in a tio n re sp o n d s. The b re e z e w hich tu n e s th e
p o e t ’s m ind in th e opening o f The P re lu d e i s f o r W ordsw orth
th e b r e a th o f God. W ithout i t , th e r e c o u ld be no p a r t n e r
s h ip , no c o a le s c e n c e o f pow ers w hich r e s u l t s in p o e tic
c r e a t i o n . I n th e new e p iste m o lo g y , th e mind h a l f c r e a te s
w hat i t p e r c e iv e s , a t th e same tim e t h a t i t becomes f i l l e d
w ith s p i r i t u a l pow er from what i t p e r c e iv e s . T h is i s what
makes W o rd sw o rth 's p sy ch o lo g y s im u lta n e o u s ly s e n s a tio n a l
and tr a n s c e n d e n ta l, p a r t o f th e Lockean t r a d i t i o n and a
120
tr a n s f o r m a tio n o f t h a t t r a d i t i o n as w e ll. I t I s th e v e ry
p e r c e p tio n o f th e in te rc h a n g e betw een man and n a t u r e , th e
c o n n e c tio n betw een th e two w hich, as Langbaum h a s rem ark ed ,
g iv e s th e f e e lin g o f .joy to th e p o e t in c o n t e m p l a tio n .^
I n a tte m p tin g to a c c o u n t f o r h is p h ilo s o p h ic a l and r e lig io u s
id e a s i n term s o f p r e c i s e i n t e l l e c t u a l system s and c a t e
g o r ie s o f b e l i e f , we o u r s e lv e s commit th e fu n d am e n tal
W ordsw orthian s in o f m u rd erin g to d is s e c t and s c r u t i n i z i n g
th e v is io n a r y gleam in th e l i g h t o f common d ay . F u r th e r ,
in c o n c lu d in g th a t h i s a n im is tic p o r t r a y a l o f n a tu re n e c e s
s a r i l y im p lie s a p a n th e ism w hich he was l a t e r to r e c a n t as
an A n g lic a n , we s e p a r a te th e "p o e t" from th e r e l i g i o u s s e e r
o r p ro p h e t and i n s i s t upon th e e f f ic a c y o f an e x a c t language
o f s c ie n c e where o n ly a lan g u ag e o f p o e tic e x p re s s iv e n e s s
w i l l d o . ^ W ordsw orthf s c o n c ep t and f ig u r e o f "N a tu re ” in
p a r t i c u l a r , I b e l ie v e , i s b e s t d is c u s s e d and ■understood in
th e lan g u ag e o f p o e tic m yth, n o t o f r a t i o n a l sy stem .
"The f u n c tio n o f p o e t r y ," a c c o rd in g to R obert G rav es,
" i s r e l i g i o u s in v o c a tio n o f th e Muse; i t s u se i s th e e x
p e rie n c e o f m ixed e x a l t a t i o n and h o r r o r t h a t h e r p re s e n c e
^ " T h e E v o lu tio n o f S oul in W ordsw orth’ s P o e tr y ," 266.
IlZ
^A m ong o th e r s , P h ilip W heelw right makes th e c o n t r a s t
b etw een th e p r e c is e lan g u ag e o f s c ie n c e and th e am biguous
" e x p re s s iv e " language o f p o e tic a r t ; s e e The B u rn ^ g Foun
t a i n (B loom ington, I n d . , 19 $l±),
121
ex cites."^-® The Muse, f o r G rav es, i s th e W hite G oddess;
f o r W ordsw orth she i s N a tu re , I n The P re lu d e h e in v o k es
n o t C a llio p e , th e u s u a l Muse o f th e e p ic p o e t, b u t U ra n ia ,
th e "h eav en ly " Muse o f P a ra d is e L o s t, th e Muse o f astronom y
who in th e R en aissan ce was e x p l i c i t l y a s s o c ia te d w ith r e l i
g io u s i n s p i r a t i o n .^-7 In th e " P ro sp e c tu s" l i n e s , n o t w h o lly
s a t i s f i e d w ith th e C la s s ic a l U rem ia, he even allo w s f o r th e
p o s s i b i l i t y o f "a g r e a t e r Muse" (26) who tra n s c e n d s any
c a te g o r ic a l f u n c tio n . Like M ilto n , W ordsw orth f e r v e n tly
p ra y s f o r th e Muse’ s i n s p i r a t i o n in i t s m ost l i t e r a l s e n s e .
V ario u s c r i t i c s h a v e , n e e d le s s to sa y , commented upon
th e b re e z e to w hich th e p o e t re sp o n d s a t th e o pening o f The
P r e lu d e . H e rb e rt L in d e n b e rg e r n o te s W ordsw orth's te n d e n c y
to c r e a te a " r h e t o r i c a l b rid g e from th e o b se rv a b le w o rld o f
th e re a d e r to th e new w orld to be u n co v ered " th ro u g h th e
u se o f p o e tic "im ages o f in te ra c tio n ." ^ ® The o u ts ta n d in g
^ The W hite G oddess: a H i s t o r i c a l Grammar o f P o e tic
Myth ( n .p . 19/j.fJ), F orew ord, p . x i i . I u n d e rsta n d G ra v e s' s
W hite Goddess to be a d e i ty o f th e p o e tic im a g in a tio n ra th e r
th a n a h i s t o r i c a l r i v a l to th e " p a tr i a r c h a l " Hebrew Jehovah
o r th e C h r is tia n God. As su c h , she p ro v id e s th e p o e t w ith
a k in d o f o b je c tiv e c o r r e l a t i v e tow ard w hich to d i r e c t h i s
e m o tio n .
^ D o u g la s B u sh 's n o te in h i s G lo ssa ry to The Com plete
P o e tic a l Works o f John M ilto n , p . £6 8 .
^•®0n W ord sw o rth 's P re lu d e (P rin c e to n , 1 9 6 3 ), p p . 58.
69.
122
f e a t u r e o f th e poem’ s im ages, arg u es L in d e n b e rg e r, i s t h e i r
s h i f t i n g f u n c tio n from l i t e r a l s e t t i n g to m e ta p h o ric a l sug
g e s tiv e n e s s . The b r e e z e , one o f th e "dom in atin g im ages" o f
The P re lu d e , i s c o n n e c te d b o th to " h ig h e r pow ers" and to
th e c r e a t iv e p r o c e s s . ^ L ike th e w a te r im age, th e b r e e z e ,
b ecau se o f i t s flo w in g , tra n s fo rm in g q u a l ity , i t s " a b i l i t y
to i n t e r a c t w ith o th e r n a t u r a l e le m e n ts ," a c ts as a k in d o f
in te rm e d ia ry betw een th e "two w o r l d s . " ^ T h is , a s I have
p ro p o sed e a r l i e r , i s p r e c i s e l y th e p o s i t io n o f th e S o l i t a r y
R eaper and o th e r h e rm it f ig u r e s in W ordsw orth, w ith whom
th e p o e t f r e q u e n tly a s s o c ia te s such " in t e r a c t io n " im ages as
b re e z e , w a te r, and m u sic.
John Jo n es c o n n e c ts " th e wind t h a t s e a rc h e s th e P re lu d e
la n d sc a p e " w ith th e c e n t r a l m etap h o r o f m a rriag e and th e
a e o lia n h a rp im age. The ebb and flo w o f th e b re e z e , he
m a in ta in s , " d e m o n stra te s th e f i t t i n g o f mind and e x t e r n a l
th in g s " in "a p a r tn e r s h ip o f h a r m o n y ." ^ P a ssin g c o n s ta n tly
betw een inw ard and o u tw ard , th e b re e z e " m a n ife s ts u n iv e r s a l
c o h e re n c e ," r e p r e s e n tin g "th e id e a o f a w orld bound to g e th e r
^ Qn W ordsw orth’ s P re lu d e , p . 7 0 .
^Qpn W ordsw orth’ s P re lu d e , p . 7 1 .
^ The E g o t i s t i c a l S ublim e: a H is to ry o f W ordsw orth’s
Im a g in a tio n (London. 1 9 ^ 1 ). p . 97.
123
in d is c o u rs e w ith i t s e l f . " - ^ And t r a d i t i o n a l l y , as Jo n es
rem inds u s , " b r e a th i s a ls o c lo s e ly a s s o c ia te d w ith u rg e n t
s p i r i t u a l p r e s e n c e , " ^ a p o in t w hich M. H. Abrams d is c u s s e s
a t some le n g th in h i s e s s a y on th e b re e z e m etaphor in Eng
l i s h Rom antic p o e t r y . ^ The p a r tn e r s h ip o r In te rc h a n g e ,
how ever, h a s to do w ith more th a n a u n io n o f m ind and "ex
t e r n a l t h i n g s ." I t depends c h i e f l y upon W ord sw o rth 's n o tio n
o f th e c o rre s p o n d e n t pow ers w hich make up a c tiv e o r im ag in a
t i v e p e r c e p tio n , and so i s b a s ic to th e in fo rm in g m yth o f
The P re lu d e w ith w hich th e e p ic b e g in s .
The b re e z e i s b o th m a te r ia l ( t h a t i s , f u n c tio n a l as a
ta n g ib le image and p a r t o f th e n a tu r a l w o rld ) and s p i r i t u a l
in t h a t i t i s an o b je c tiv e c o r r e l a t i v e f o r th e "pow er" o r
" p re se n c e " o r " s p i r i t " o f N atu re w hich W ordsw orth te n d s to
c a l l by su ch a b s t r a c t names when he a tte m p ts to i d e n t i f y i t .
As a p a r tn e r in th e m a rria g e o f p e r c e p tio n , th e b re e z e i s ,
in n a t u r a l i s t i c form , th e Muse who b r e a th e s l i f e — c r e a t i v i t y
o r im a g in a tio n — in to th e p o e t; th e goddess who " c r e a te s " him
by s t i r r i n g h i s im a g in a tiv e pow ers th ro u g h h e r c o rre sp o n d in g
pow er and who i s in tu r n se rv e d by him . I t I s th e Muse o f
^ The E g o t i s t i c a l S u b lim e, p p . 9 8 , 101.
^ The E g o t i s t i c a l S u b lim e, p . 99.
^•"T he C o rresp o n d en t B re e z e ," in E n g lis h Rom antic P o e ts ,
Modern E ssa y s in C r itic is m (New Y ork, I 9 6 0 ), p p . 3 7 -5 ^ .
124
th e a c tiv e u n iv e rs e to whom th e p o e t p ay s t r i b u t e a t th e
b e g in n in g o f th e poem:
. . . t h i s h o u r
H ath b ro u g h t a g i f t t h a t c o n s e c ra te s my jo y ;
F o r X, me th o u g h t, w h ile th e sw eet b r e a th o f Heaven
Was blow ing on my body, f e l t w ith in
A c o rre sp o n d in g m ild c r e a tiv e b re e z e ,
A v i t a l b re e z e w hich t r a v e l l 'd g e n tly on
O 'e r th in g s w hich i t had made, and i s become
A te m p e s t, a red u n d an t en erg y
V exing i t s own c r e a tio n .
~ • (P re lu d e , I , 39 -4 7 )
As Maud Bodkin say s o f M ilto n 's in v o c a tio n s in P a ra d is e L o s t .
i n s p i r a t i o n i s co n ceiv ed as th e pow er in fo rm in g th e p o e t 's
so n g . E v ery p o e t, she m a in ta in s , i s th e a r c h e ty p a l O rpheus
(w ith whom, one m ig h t add, W ordsw orth o v e r tly i d e n t i f i e s
h im s e lf on s e v e r a l o c c a s io n s ), h i s Muse b e in g h i s g o d d e ss-
m o th er who b r e a th e s th e m usic and l i f e o f e t e r n i t y th ro u g h
h i m . ^ I n s p i r a t i o n is an " a c c e ss o f pow er" w hich i s i n t i
m a te ly co n n e c te d to th e m y stery o f cosm ic c r e a t i o n , and in
w hich th e p o e t 's " th o u g h ts seem to move o f t h e i r own v o l i
t i o n . " I t i s t h i s c r e a tiv e e x p e rie n c e , sa y s M iss B odkin,
w hich "seem s to be th e c e n t r a l f a c t t h a t h a s ta k e n shape in
th e t r a d i t i o n o f th e p o e t 's com panionship w ith th e Muse and
^ A r c h e ty p a l P a tte r n s in P o e try : P s y c h o lo g ic a l S tu d ie s
o f Im a g in a tio n (London, New Y ork, T o ro n to , 1934)» e s p e c ia lly
PP. 153-162.
125
dependence upon h e r ." - ^
For W ordsw orth, to o , th e r o le o f th e p o e t, o r h i s
r e la t i o n s h i p to th e goddess-M use, i s one o f th e fu n d am en tal
them es as w e ll as th e b a s is f o r e p ic p o e tr y . I t becom es a
r e c u r r e n t theme in The P r e lu d e , from th e p o e t 's d e je c te d
f a i l u r e to se rv e th e Muse in th e o p en in g p a ssa g e to th e
s e r i e s o f v is io n s c u lm in a tin g in th e Mount Snowdon e x p e r i
e n c e . A c l o s e r e x a m in a tio n o f W ord sw o rth 's c o n c e p tio n o f
h im s e lf a s an e p ic p o e t i n th e t r a d i t i o n o f O rpheus, th e n ,
w i ll r e v e a l th e f u l l s ig n if ic a n c e o f s p i r i t u a l m a rria g e as
i t inform s th e p o e t 's v is io n a r y f u n c tio n .
The poem N u ttin g once a g a in o f f e r s a s t a r t i n g p o in t o r
e n tra n c e in to The P r e lu d e . D isc u ssin g th e g o ld en bough o f
The A eneid. M iss B odkin rem arks t h a t th e m a g ic a l b ra n c h
r e p r e s e n ts
. . . th e t r e e - s p i r i t , o r , more g e n e r a lly , th e pow er o f
ren ew al in v e g e ta tio n and in o th e r form s o f l i f e . The
s in g le b ra n c h ch o sen i n th e s p rin g f e s t i v a l to be s e t up
b e fo re o n e 's door b r in g s th e s p i r i t and pow er t h a t i s
s t i r r i n g in e v e ry b ra n c h w ith in th e woods, to b le s s and ^
s tr e n g th e n th e h o u s e h o ld e r s h u t away w ith in h i s d w e llin g s
F or W ordsw orth, who b e lie v e d in a l i v i n g u n iv e r s e , th e bough
m ust have p a r t i c u l a r l y sy m b o lized th e power w ith in N a tu re ;
^ A rc h e ty p a l P a tte r n s in P o e tr y , p p . l55> I5fy-.
^ A rc h e ty p a l P a tte r n s in P o e tr y , p . 130.
126
th e d e s e c r a tio n o f th e h a z e l bough i s a l l th e more a f f e c tin g
when seen a g a in s t th e t r a d i t i o n o f v e n e ra tio n w ith w hich i t
had been re g a rd e d .
In C e ltic m ythology th e n u t sy m bolized c o n c e n tra te d
wisdom . The h a z e l in p a r t i c u l a r was a s s o c ia te d w ith p o e tic
a r t , p ro d u cin g flo w e rs (b ea u ty ) and f r u i t (wisdom) a t th e
same tim e . F u rth e rm o re , as R o b ert G raves rem a rk s, " a l l th e
knowledge o f th e a r t s and s c ie n c e s was bound up w ith th e
e a tin g o f th e s e n u ts ." - ’® In K e a tin g ’ s H is to ry o f I r e la n d
th e god Mac C ool, whose name means "son o f th e H azel" c e l e
b r a te d w ith h is two b r o th e r s a m u ltip le m a rria g e to th e
T r ip le Goddess o f I r e la n d , whom th e y a ls o w o r s h i p p e d . - ^ In
W ordsw orth’ s poem, th e b o y 's s i n o r v i o l a t i o n c o n s is t s in
h is a tte m p tin g to t e a r away from N ature th e symbol o f h e r
"wisdom" o r s p i r i t u a l pow er, th u s a s s e r ti n g h i s own supposed
p re -e m in e n c e . L ike E ve, he is g u i l t y o f a s e l f i s h p r id e ,
r a s h ly b e lie v in g in h i s own d i v i n i t y , r a t h e r l i k e B la k e ’s
U riz e n , who w ould t e a r away th e power o f e t e r n i t y and con
f in e i t w ith in h i s own c o rp o re a l w o rld ; in b o th c a s e s th e
a tte m p t is to s e p a ra te o r d iv id e , to d iv o rc e th e power from
i t s source and th u s to f a l l from s p i r i t u a l w h o le n e ss. The
-* ® The W hite G oddess, p . l £ l .
^ C i t e d by G raves in The W hite G oddess, p . 151.
127
u ltim a te r e s u l t , f o r W ordsw orth, i s n o t jo y b u t r e c o g n itio n
o f a c r i s i s in m an 's e m o tio n a l l i f e " to o deep f o r t e a r s ”
w hich he would t r y to r e s o lv e in h i s a u to b io g ra p h ic a l e p ic ,
p o r tr a y in g h i s own mind a s r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f th e im ag in ativ e
mind i n g e n e r a l. His g r e a t p o e tic ta s k was a g a in to con
f r o n t th e m y ste ry o f N a tu r e 's pow er and i t s m eaning f o r th e
in d iv id u a l m ind w hich w ould wed i t " In lo v e and h o ly p a s
s io n ."
I n sp e ak in g o f The P re lu d e , H artm an comments t h a t
" p o e t, h e r o , and v is io n a r y are o b v io u s ly o f th e same company,
th r e e m a n if e s ta tio n s o f h e r o ic te m p e r," b u t t h a t th e r e is
n e v e r th e le s s no common m yth to g u id e e i t h e r p o e t o r reader.^®
C e r ta in ly H artm an i s r i g h t in a s s e r t i n g t h a t W ordsw orth
j u s t i f i e s h i s c a lli n g as s p rin g in g from n a tu r e ; b u t one must
n o t f o r g e t h i s c o n s ta n t echoes o f and them es in common w ith
th e lo n g t r a d i t i o n of C h r is tia n r e li g i o u s e p ic p o e try as
w e ll. F u rth e rm o re , th e p o e t f ir m ly a lig n s h im s e lf w ith a
t r a d i t i o n o ld e r and more p rim a ry s t i l l when he r e l a t e s him
s e l f to E n g la n d 's C e ltic p a s t . He i s to be th e D ruid o r
" o a k - s e e r ," th e tr u e p o e t whom th e a n c ie n t C e lts re g a rd e d
as s a n c ro s a n c t and d is tin g u is h e d from the m ere gleem an as
^ °W ordsw orth1s P o e try 1 7 8 7 - l8 lk , p p . 2 0 9 , 208. A gain,
th e b ia s o f m odem c r i t i c i s m i s t h a t W ordsw orth (as w e ll as
o th e r R om antics) d e p a rte d r a d i c a l l y from a l l t r a d i t i o n and
made l i t t l e e f f o r t to u se e a r l i e r p o e tic c o n v e n tio n s w ith
th e i n t e n t i o n o f becom ing p a r t o f th e l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n .
128
b e in g a p r i e s t and judge as we 1 1 . ^
W ordsw orth’ s c o n c e p tio n o f th e s a c re d o f f ic e o f th e
p o e t as D ru id , o r " N a tu re ’ s p r i e s t , " i s fu n d am en tal to The
P re lu d e . In Book I I he speaks o f "T hat s p i r i t o f r e l i g i o u s
lo v e in w h i c h / I w alked w ith N atu re" ( I I , 376-377)* w hich
le a d s him to a view o f u n ity in d i v e r s i t y : " . . . f o r in
a l l th in g s / 1 saw one l i f e , and f e l t t h a t i t was jo y " ( I I ,
1).294}.30), th e jo y , a g a in o f th e Song o f Songs and o f th e
ep ith alam iu m , th e v is i o n o f p e r f e c t u n io n and th e r e s t o r a
t i o n o f man’ s u n f a lle n s t a t e . In Book IV he d e s c rib e s h i s
d e d ic a tio n to p o e try and th e bond o f r e l i g i o u s lo v e w hich
m y s te rio u s ly c o n tr o ls him :
I made no vows, b u t vows
Were th e n made f o r me; bond unknown to me
Was g iv e n , t h a t I sh o u ld b e , e ls e s in n in g g r e a t l y ,
A d e d ic a te d S p i r i t . On I w a lk 'd
I n b le s s e d n e s s , w hich even y e t re m a in s .
(IV , 2 kl-% $ )
A fte r h i s hope In th e F ren ch R e v o lu tio n had b ee n b e
tr a y e d , fo llo w in g h i s lo n g d etain m en t by "M an's u n h a p p in ess
and g u i l t " (P re lu d e , X I, 1 ) , h i s s p i r i t ( t h a t I s , h is ca p a-
^ The W hite G oddess, p . 7 . G rav es, I t sh o u ld be n o te d ,
p e r v e r s e ly e x c lu d e s th e R om antics from th e c a te g o ry o f tr u e
p o e ts , c u r io u s ly n e g le c tin g W ordsw orth's form o f goddess
w o rs h ip .
129
c i t y f o r p a r t i c i p a t i o n in s p i r i t u a l power o r en erg y ) i s
r e s to r e d by N a tu r e 's sy m p a th e tic pow er as th e m a rria g e bond
i s r e - e s t a b l i s h e d . The l i n e s have a to n e o f te n d e r n e s s ,
id e a li z in g a harm ony o f b a la n c e w hich r e c a l l s once more th e
g a rd e n o f Solomon and th e co v en an t b etw een man and h eav en :
. . . i n N ature s t i l l
G lo ry in g , I found a c o u n te rp o is e i n h e r ,
W hich, when th e s p i r i t o f e v i l was a t h e ig h t
M a in ta in 'd f o r me a s e c r e t h a p p in e s s ;
Her I r e s o r te d t o , and l o v 'd so much . . . .
(XI, 31-35)
N atu re co m fo rts and s tr e n g th e n s th e so rro w in g p o e t, j u s t as
T h e tis , th e g o d d ess-m o th er o f A c h ille s , f i l l s h e r son w ith
a new su rg e o f en e rg y th ro u g h communion w ith him d u rin g h is
low p o in t o f sorrow and d e p re s s io n , m aking him overcom e h is
w ra th o f th e s e lfh o o d and th e re b y re s c u in g him from u t t e r
A?
d isco u rag em en t , oc-
The im agery o f th e p o e t as N a tu r e 's p r i e s t and s o n in
The P re lu d e c u lm in a te s in th e D ruid v is i o n on S a lis b u ry
P la in n e a r th e end o f th e poem. A f te r e x p re s s in g h i s r e a l i
z a tio n t h a t b o th p a s s io n a te em otion and calm ness " e q u a lly
a re n a t u r e 's g i f t " (X II, 1 - 3 ) , W ordsw orth goes on to e x p la in
^M aud B odkin, in A rc h e ty p a l P a tte r n s i n P o e try , d i s
c u s s e s th e p o e t 's p r o j e c t io n o f h im s e lf as w a r r i o r in h e r o ic
p o e tr y , as Homer does in The I l i a d : se e e s p e c i a l l y p . 160 f f .
where M iss B odkin c o n s id e rs th e im portance o f th e m o th e r-
goddess as a so u rc e o f pow er to th e h e r o , and th e c o rre s p o n
dence betw een t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p and t h a t o f th e p o e t and h is
Muse.
130
t h a t "N ature th ro u g h a l l c o n d itio n s h a th a p o w e r/T o c o n s e
c r a t e , i f we have eyes to see ( X ll, 2 8 2 -2 8 3 ). And in th e
v is i o n i t s e l f , he se e s h im s e lf as p a r t o f a sa cred t r a d i t i o n .
The l i g h t o f th e se n se s goes o u t; "A m id n ig h t d a rk n e ss
seem ’d to come and ta k e / A ll o b je c ts from my s ig h t" (X II,
3 2 8 -3 2 9 ). He " se e s" th e company o f p o e t / p r i e s t s w ith t h e i r
lo n g b e a rd s and w h ite wands (v e ry l i k e l y th e m agic h a z e l
wands o f power in C e ltic f o l k l o r e ) , " . . . w h ile b r e a t h / Of
m usic seem ’d to g u id e them" (X II, 35>l-352). W ordsw orth
a g a in f u s e s th e im ages o f N a tu re ’ s b r e a t h and th e h e a v e n ly
song w hich c o n n e c ts th e two w o rld s, th e pow ers o f N ature and
th e p o e t ’ s m ind. For W ordsw orth, as f o r Dante in th e E a r th
l y P a r a d is e , th e d u al im ages o f m usic and b re e z e (th e song
and b r e a th o f th e Muse, r e s p e c tiv e ly ) in d ic a te moments o f
h e ig h te n e d v is io n a r y po w ers—w hat G raves d e s ig n a te s as th e
p re se n c e o f th e Muse o r W hite G oddess. A p p ro p ria te ly , th e
d u a l im ages r e c u r o f te n in th e s p o ts o f tim e p a s s a g e s .
The im p o rtan ce o f th e v is io n in th e D ruid p a ssa g e i s
t h a t i t f u r t h e r c l a r i f i e s th e p o e t 's r e c o g n itio n o f h i s
p u rp o se in r e l a t i o n to o th e r men; he r e c a l l s , im m ed iately
a f t e r th e " s ig h t" o f th e D ru id s,
T h at in l i f e ' s e v e ry -d a y ap p e aran c es
I seem 'd ab o u t t h i s p e r io d to have s ig h t
Of a new w o rld , a w o rld , to o , t h a t was f i t
To b e tra n sm u te d and made v i s i b l e
To o th e r ey es . . . .
(X II, 369-373)
131
What th e p o e t p e rc e iv e s in th e o b j e c t s , th e fo rm s, th e
Images o f e x t e r n a l n a tu re on S a lis b u ry P la in i s th e s p i r i t
d is g u is e d in them b u t p a r a d o x ic a lly v i s i b l e o n ly th ro u g h
them . Stonehenge i s , l i k e th e h e rm it f i g u r e , an in te rm e d i
a ry th ro u g h w hich one m ust p a ss to r e a c h a v is i o n o f th e
i n v i s i b l e w o rld , and w hich m ust s e rv e th e a r t i s t as a means
by w hich to o b j e c t i f y h i s v is i o n in p o e tr y . B la k e 's G olgon-
o o za, th e c i t y o f a r t b u i l t o u t o f G e n e ra tio n , i s s im ila r in
f u n c tio n ; in i t s fu rn a c e a k in d o f alchem y b y w hich th e
phenom enal c o lla p s e s In to th e noum enal ta k e s p la c e . For
th e p o e t on S a lis b u r y P la in , th e so u rce o f s p i r i t u a l pow er
h a s b een "tra n sm u te d " so t h a t he can p e rc e iv e i t and as an
a r t i s t in t u r n tra n sm u te i t th ro u g h th e im a g in a tio n in
o rd e r to make i t p e r c e p tib le to o t h e r s . L ike B lak e, he
comes t o s t r e s s th e pow er o f th e tra n s fo rm in g m ind. He
f i n a l l y s e e s th e w edding o f mind and u n iv e rs e as
A b a la n c e , an e n n o b lin g in te rc h a n g e
Of a c tio n from w ith in and from w ith o u t,
The e x c e lle n c e , p u re s p i r i t , and b e s t power
B oth o f th e o b je c t se e n , and ey e t h a t s e e s .
(P re lu d e , X II, 376-379)
U n lik e B lak e , W ordsw orth se es the D ruids n o t as U riz e n ic
p r i e s t s who demand s a c r i f i c e s f o r th e n a t u r a l w o rld , b u t a s
th e prim e ex p o n en ts o f im a g in a tiv e pow er o r v is i o n . In
becom ing a D ru id , th e p o e t engages in a s p i r i t u a l s a c r i f i c e
o f s e l f w hereby he s u rre n d e rs to th e g r e a t e r power o f N a tu re
132
and I s s u b s e q u e n tly p e rm itte d to become h e r b rid eg ro o m .
The o n ly o b s ta c le to th e m a rria g e i s th e a s s e r t i v e s e lfh o o d
w hich, l i k e th e w ra th o f A c h ille s , re c o g n iz e s i t s own power
alo n e and i s hence in c a p a b le o f v is i o n in a m a rria g e o f
po w ers. I n t h a t s t a t e o f m ind, man i s a p lu n d e re r in th e
w o rld and a r a v is h e r o f N a tu re , l i k e th e boy in N u ttin g .
W ith t h i s s e lf - c o n c e p tio n o f th e p o e t a s th e p r i e s t
and b rid eg ro o m o f N ature in m ind, W o rd sw o rth 's p o s i t i o n in
th e t r a d i t i o n o f r e lig io u s /m y th ic (som etim es b u t n o t n e c e s
s a r i l y e p ic ) p o e tr y b e g in s to emerge more c l e a r l y . Hartm an
h as s a id t h a t no common m yth in fo rm s The P re lu d e . I p ro
p o s e , r a t h e r , t h a t th e m ost fu n d am en tal c u l t u r a l m yth—th e
"monom yth," as i t h a s b een c a l l e d —th e myth o f th e a rc h e ty p a l
ad v e n tu re o r e p ic jo u rn e y , i s b a s ic to th e poem. I n i t s
u s u a l form , th e m y th o lo g ic a l a d v e n tu re demands t h a t th e h e ro
p a s s th ro u g h th r e e p r i n c i p a l s ta g e s — s e p a r a tio n , i n i t i a t i o n ,
and r e t u r n — a c c o rd in g to Jo se p h Cam pbell in The Hero w ith a
Thousand F a c e s . ^3 Havens b e lie v e s t h a t "th e one i n t e r i o r
l i f e t h a t l i v e s in a l l th in g s and th e h id in g p la c e s o f power"
Z . o
(New Y ork. 19V ?), P . 3 0 . M y a p p l ic a tio n o f th e id e a
o f th e "monomyth" i s b ased upon C am p b ell's p r e s e n ta ti o n o f
m ythic p a t te r n s in p sy ch o lo g y and f o l k l o r e ; he does n o t su g
g e s t l i t e r a r y a d a p ta tio n s o f t h e e p ic jo u rn e y , how ever, as
Maud B odkin does in A rc h e ty p a l P a tte r n s in P o e tr y . Cam pbell
i s in fu n d am en tal agreem ent w ith Ju n g ia n s in h i s p r e s e n ta ti o n
o f m yths i f n o t in t h e i r m ean in g s.
133
com prise W o rd sw o rth 's m ost b a s ic p re o c c u p a tio n s as a p o e t.
F o r H avens, e x te r n a l n a tu re i s im p o rta n t to W ordsworth o n ly
by v ir tu e o f i t s "b e in g a c h ie f means o f e n te r in g in to com
m union w ith th e One and o f d is c o v e rin g and draw ing upon th e
so u rc e s o f pow er. T h at communion, l i k e th e a r c h e ty p a l
r e la tio n s h i p b etw een th e m ythic h e ro ,a n d h i s g o d d ess-m o th er,
i s s p i r i t u a l m a rria g e , p o s s i b le , how ever, o n ly u n d er c e r ta in
c o n d itio n s and th ro u g h c e r t a i n r i t u a l s .
As Campbell p o in ts o u t, th e t r a d i t i o n a l s e p a r a tio n o f
th e h e ro from th e o r d in a r y w o rld i s n e c e s s a ry to make p o s
s i b l e "a p e n e tr a tio n to some so u rc e o f pow er, and a l i f e -
en h an cin g r e t u r n . " ^ The t r a n s i t i o n i s alw ays "from th e
w o rld o f common day in to a re g io n o f s u p e rn a tu ra l w o n d er,"
and back a g a in to th e co m m o n p la ce.^ The v e ry re a s o n t h a t
W ordsw orth d w ells on th e commonplace e v e n ts o f h i s l i f e in
The P re lu d e i s to make more v iv id by c o n t r a s t th e moments
o f suprem e v is i o n w hich c o n tin u a lly b re a k th ro u g h th e s h e l l
o f th e mundane w orld as s p o ts o f tim e ; he e le v a te s " l i f e 's
e v e ry -d a y a p p e a ra n c es" b ecau se i t i s o n ly th ro u g h t h e i r
in te rm e d ia ry f u n c tio n t h a t he may e n t e r "a new w o rld ." The
p o e t 's s p i r i t u a l q u e s t, alw ays h a lf - h id d e n by th e p e rs is te n c e
6 1 +The Mind o f a P o e t, p . Jj.,
^3>The Hero w ith a Thousand F a c e s , p . 3$ .
^ The Hero w ith a Thousand F a ces, p . 30
13k
o f th e c o n c re te w o rld o f o b je c ts , ru n s th ro u g h o u t The P re
lu d e . But in th e c lim a c tic s p o ts o f tim e , W o rd sw o rth 's
v is io n s ta k e form w ith in and th ro u g h th o s e o b j e c ts , as th e
phenom enal and th e noum enal a re fu s e d by m etap h o r in o rd e r
to sym bolize th e f u s io n in th e p e r c e iv in g m ind. T hrough an
a b s tr a c tn e s s and a m b ig u ity o f p o e tic d i c t i o n , he d is s o lv e s
o u r sen se o f th e l i t e r a l as l i t e r a l and th u s m anages to
" tr a v e l" in th e re g io n o f th e m ind away from th e commonplace
w ith o u t e v e r abandoning th e c o n c re te la n d s c a p e .
The h e r o 's u s u a l s e p a r a tio n , th e n , as Cam pbell sk e tc h e s
i t , may be b ro k en down in to ( l ) th e c a l l to a d v e n tu re , (2 )
th e r e f u s a l o f th e c a l l , o r f a i l u r e to answ er i t , (3 ) su p e r
n a t u r a l a id , and (Ij.) th e c r o s s in g o f th e f i r s t th r e s h o ld
and e n tra n c e in to a "zone o f m a g n ifie d p o w e r,” beyond w hich
l i e unknown d a n g e rs .^7 At th e th r e s h o ld o f a d v e n tu re , th e
h e ro g e n e r a lly c o n fro n ts a g u a rd ia n w hich he m ust e i t h e r
c o n c i l i a t e o r d e fe a t in o rd e r to p ro c e e d , a l i v e , to th e
i n i t i a t i o n s ta g e ; i f he i s k i l l e d by th e g u a rd ia n , he i s
ta k e n dead beyond th e th r e s h o ld , from w hich he m ust u l t i -
A fl
m a te ly emerge in r e s u r r e c t i o n . 00 I n Ju n g ia n te rm s , th e h e ro
^ S u m m arized from The Hero w ith a Thousand F a c e s, p p .
^ 9 -7 7 . -----------------------------------------------------
6 QThe Hero w ith a Thousand F a c e s , p . 2if.5>.
135
b e g in s th e n ig h t se a jo u rn e y o r p a ssa g e from th e c o n sc io u s
to th e u n co n scio u s m ind. The g u a rd ia n a t th e th r e s h o ld o f
th e u n co n scio u s i s g e n e r a lly r e p r e s e n te d as a w h ale -d rag o n
m o n ster th a t devours th e h e ro and c a r r i e s him to th e E a s t,
w here he w i l l emerge w ith a new l i f e - r e s t o r i n g know ledge. ^
R e b irth r e q u ir e s a " d e a th 1 1 o f some s o r t ; th e s a c r i f i c e o f
e x is te n c e o r knowledge on one le v e l i s n e c e s s a ry f o r th e
b i r t h o f a new im proved co n scio u sn e ss.? ®
I n th e s p o ts o f tim e p a s s a g e s , th e p o e t ’ s v is i o n d e
pends upon th e i n i t i a l i s o l a t i n g in flu e n c e o f d a rk n ess and
p h y s ic a l s o l i t u d e , w hich makes p o s s ib le a h e ig h te n e d co n
s c io u s n e s s . The g u a rd ia n s w hich would p re v e n t h i s p assa g e
in to th e realm o f v is io n a r y p e r c e p tio n a r e , l i k e B la k e ’ s
C overing C herub, h is own r e s t r i c t i n g s e n s e s , whose l i g h t
m ust go o u t i n f la s h e s even a t th e moment " . . . t h a t th e y
have shewn to u s / T h e in v i s i b l e w orld" (P re lu d e , V I, 535-
£ 3 6 ). T hat w o rld , a s I s h a l l d em o n strate p r e s e n t ly , I s th e
a r c h e ty p a l u n d erw o rld o f th e u n co n scio u s m ind, in w hich th e
g r e a t m a rria g e o f pow ers ta k e s p la c e , and from w hich th e
p o e t em erges w ith new wisdom o f im a g in a tiv e p e rc e p t io n - - a
D ru id .
^ J o l a n d e J a c o b i, Complex / A rchetype / Symbol in th e
P sy ch o lo g y o f C. G -. Ju n g , t r a n s . R alph Manheim (New Y ork,
1959), p . 179 f f .
? °Com plex/ A rchetype / Sym bol, p . 176 ' f f .
S t r u c t u r a l l y , o f c o u rs e , The P re lu d e fo llo w s r a t h e r
c lo s e ly th e b io g r a p h ic a l p a t t e r n o f i t s a u t h o r 's l i f e ; s t i l l ,
th e r e a r e im p o rta n t f a c t u a l ch a n g e s, o m is s io n s , and dram atic
h e ig h te n in g s • W ith in such a fram ew ork, W ordsw orth w eaves
th e p a t t e r n o f th e e p ic h e r o 's q u e s t. A lthough th e v is i o n
on Mount Snowdon can be c o n s id e re d th e g r e a t c lim a x in th e
developm ent o f th e p o e tic m ind, e a c h o f th e s p o ts o f tim e
i s a m in o r c lim a x . F or W ordsw orth, as f o r Ju n g , th e m ind
p a s s e s c o n tin u o u s ly betw een th e p o le s o f in te n s e im a g in a tiv e
a c t i v i t y — J u n g 's " lib id o " o r p s y c h ic en erg y — and p a s s i v i t y
o r r e s t . The p o e t 's f a i l u r e to re sp o n d to th e c a l l to e p ic
a d v e n tu re , th e summons from th e Muse to p a r t i c i p a t e in th e
i n f i n i t u d e w hich i s "Our d e s tin y , o u r n a tu r e , and o u r home"
(P re lu d e . V I, 5 3 8 ), is no i n d i c a t i o n o f a b s o lu te f a i l u r e ,
b u t r a t h e r s u g g e s ts th e c o n tin u a l f l u x o f th e m e n ta l c y c le .
D uring h i s c h ild h o o d , W o rd sw o rth 's m y th ic a l g o ld e n age,
he had " . . . h e ld u n co n scio u s in te r c o u r s e / W ith th e e t e r n a l
B eau ty , d rin k in g i n / A pure o rg a n ic p le a s u re . . ." from
n a tu re ( P r e lu d e , I , 5 8 9 -5 9 1 ), and so in h is "dawn o f b e in g "
h a d known th e c o n tin u a l "bond o f u n io n b e tw ix t l i f e and
jo y " (P re lu d e , I , 585)* In a d u lth o o d , he f in d s a re s u rg e n c e
o f s p i r i t u a l en e rg y in the s p o ts o f tim e , in d u c ed b y memory,
w hich a r e s c a tte r e d th ro u g h o u t l i f e . W hereas D ante had
b u i l t h i s Commedia c o n tin u a lly upw ard, s p i r a l l i n g tow ard
u ltim a te and co m p lete v is io n in th e s a c re d m a rria g e betw een
man and God, W ordsw orth, b ecau se o f h i s view o f th e mind
137
and th e n a tu re o f p e r c e p tio n , m ust p o r tr a y th e q u e s t o f th e
e p ic h ero as th e r e p e a te d d e s c e n t and r e tu r n from th e u n d er
w o rld o f u n co n scio u s Im a g in a tiv e pow er. T here can be no
a b s o lu te 1 1 v ic to r y " f o r th e mind in th e sen se t h a t i t can
e n t e r a s t a t e o f im a g in a tiv e en e rg y i n w hich i t may d w ell
e t e r n a l l y ; th e en e rg y o f im a g in a tiv e a c t i v i t y b rin g s ab o u t
i t s n e c e s s a ry o p p o s ite — th e d e j e c t io n s t a t e o f im a g in a tiv e
i n a c t i v i t y . The mind i s W o rd sw o rth 's s u b je c t; th e q u e s t
p a t t e r n , w ith e s s e n t i a l a l t e r a t i o n s , i s th e v e h ic le by
w hich i t s c h a r a c te r i s e x p re s s e d . S p i r i t u a l m a rria g e is
th e p e r c e p tu a l renew ing o f th e bond w ith N atu re and i s an
ev ery d ay o c c u rre n c e .
The v a rio u s m etap h o rs o f m a rria g e w hich r e c u r o f te n in
The P re lu d e — "bond o f u n io n ," "com m union," "e n n o b lin g i n t e r
c h a n g e ," "u n c o n scio u s in t e r c o u r s e ," and so o n , a r e alm o st
commonplace in t h e i r fre q u e n c y , b u t W o rd sw o rth 's c h o ic e o f
d i c ti o n i s n o n e th e le s s s i g n i f i c a n t . Such term s c o n s t i t u t e
a t th e same tim e th e p o e t 's v i s i o n and h i s a r t i s t i c means
o f p r e s e n tin g t h a t v i s i o n . The s p i r i t u a l m a rria g e o f powers
becomes h i s symbol f o r th e one w o rld , th e s p i r i t u a l s t a t e of
id e a l p e r c e p tio n , in w hich th e p rim a l jo y o f u n i ty w hich th e
c h i ld o f th e Im m o rta lity Ode knows i s re c o v e re d i n a t r a n s
m uted fo rm . T h is i s th e r e s u r r e c t i o n o f th e mind to w hich
W ordsw orth r e f e r s in th e e le v e n th book o f The P re lu d e . F o l
low ing th e lo n g im a g in a tiv e drougjht o f th e p re v io u s b o o k s,
w ith th e b i t t e r d isa p p o in tm e n ts o f th e s o jo u rn i n F ra n c e ,
th e c o rre sp o n d e n t b re e z e r e tu r n s a g a in as "The b r e a t h o f
P a ra d is e " to th e " r e c e s s e s " o f th e p o e t 's s o u l (X I, 1 1 -1 2 ).
L ike B e a tric e w ith D an te, N atu re i s th e p o e t 's c o m fo rte r
a f t e r h i s lo n g absence from h e r i
I saw th e S p rin g r e t u r n , when I was dead
To d eep er h o p e , y e t had I jo y f o r h e r ,
And welcomed h e r b en e v o len ce . . . .
(X I, 2ij.-26)
S h o r tly t h e r e a f t e r comes one o f h i s m ost p a s s io n a te in v o
c a tio n s to th e " so u l o f N atu re" who h ad b ee n h i s b r id e and
r e jo ic e d w ith him b e fo re he b e tra y e d h e r f o r Cambridge and
London (X I, 138 f f . ) .
In th e a r c h e ty p a l m yth o f th e q u e s t o r e p ic jo u rn e y ,
as Cam pbell o u tlin e s i t , s p i r i t u a l m a rria g e i s c e n t r a l to
th e p e rio d o f i n i t i a t i o n . The h e ro , h a v in g c ro s s e d th e
th r e s h o ld , f in d s h im s e lf in "a dream la n d sc a p e o f c u r io u s ly
f l u i d , am biguous fo rm s, where he m ust s u rv iv e a s u c c e s s io n
71
o f t r i a l s . " I n th e f i r s t book o f The F a e r ie Q neene,
S p en se r a l le g o r iz e s as m y th ic a l g ia n ts and m o n ste rs th e
u n d e s ira b le m e n tal t r a i t s w hich th e h ero m ust overcom e. In
The P re lu d e , th e p o e t i s b e s e t by h is own d o u b ts in h i s
^The Hero with a Thousand Faces, p. 9 7 ,
139
s e a rc h f o r th e " h id in g p la c e s o f pow er." The London book,
in p a r t i c u l a r , i l l u s t r a t e s th e g r e a t o b s ta c le to communion
w ith th e i n f i n i t e . A lthough th e "m o tley im agery" (P re lu d e ,
V II, lf>0) o f th e c i t y i s p le a s u r a b le , th e fra g m e n ta ry m as
q u erad e composed o f " a l l specim ens o f man" (V II, 236) i s a
p le a s u r e w hich r e in f o r c e s th e ty ra n n y o f th e se n se s by i t s
c o n s ta n t s u r fa c e a p p e a l to them . The "R esid en ce i n London"
d e ta in s th e p o e t/h e r o from h i s q u e s t, j u s t as S p e n s e r's
P h a e d ria d e ta in s Guyon on th e I d le Lake in th e second book
o f The F a e r ie Q ueene. The w o rld i s in d e ed to o much w ith
th e p o e t in th e c i t y ; i t s t i f l e s th e e n e rg y o f c r e a t i v i t y
w h ich , in th e m yth, comes o n ly from "some s o r t o f d ying to
th e w o r l d , T h e m a g ic a l t r a n s f e r o f power o r wisdom from
th e om phalos— th e c e n te r o f th e e a r t h and so u rce o f a l l
s p i r i t u a l pow er— to th e h e ro , c a n ta k e p la c e o n ly d u rin g a
p h ase o f p e r s o n a l n o n - e n tit y , w hich W ordsw orth was to c a l l
a "w ise p a s s iv e n e s s " in th e p re s e n c e o f N a tu re .
I n t h i s s ta g e o f i n i t i a t i o n —f o r W ordsw orth th e wedding
o f th e m in d ’ s pow er and N a tu re ’ s in th e p e r c e p tiv e a c t o f
r e c o g n itio n —th e e p ic h e r o , sa y s C am pbell, " d is c o v e rs and
a s s im il a te s h i s o p p o s ite ( h is own u n s u s p e c te d s e l f ) e i t h e r
by sw allo w in g i t o r by b e in g sw allo w ed ," f in d in g a t l a s t
*^The Hero with a Thousand Paces, p. 3 J j > .
lij.0
t h a t "he and h i s o p p o s ite a re n o t o f d i f f e r i n g s p e c ie s , b u t
one f l e s h . " 73 i n The P re lu d e , th e two g r e a t a p p a re n t oppo
s i t e s a re th e m ind o f man ( s p e c i f i c a l l y th e p o e t ’ s m ind)
and th e phenom enal w orld o f e x te r n a l n a t u r e . At moments o f
h e ig h te n e d im a g in a tiv e p e r c e p tio n , th e p o e t se e s t h a t d iv in e
pow er r e s id e s in b o th and t h a t th e y are th u s in f a c t wedded
to e a c h o t h e r . The m ind, l i k e th e d e je c te d A c h ille s o r th e
n a r r a t o r o f th e Commedla, draw s i t s en erg y from th e g o d d ess-
m o th er w hich i s a ls o I t s in s p i r in g Muse. M a rria g e , th e n ,
i s p e r c e p tu a l b le n d in g and f u s io n w hich i s a consum m ation
and a ls o a consum ing. The c h ild o f The P re lu d e m e n ta lly
d ev o u rs h i s n a t u r a l en v iro n m en t, and even th e m ature w or
s h ip p e r and lo v e r o f N atu re in v o k es h e r th u s :
0 N atu re I Thou h a s t fe d
My l o f t y s p e c u la tio n s ; and in th e e ,
F o r t h i s u n easy h e a r t o f o u rs I f in d
A n e v e r - f a i l i n g p r i n c i p l e o f jo y ,
And p u r e s t p a s s io n . . . .
(P re lu d e , I I , lj.62-ij.66)
The a s s o c ia tio n betw een e a tin g im agery and p a s s io n a te lo v e
i s a commonplace o n e, h a v in g b een u se d by S h ak esp eare in
Antony and C le o p a tra and by F ie ld in g in Tom Jo n e s, among
th e o u ts ta n d in g ex am p les. To consume N a tu re , p a r a d o x ic a lly ,
7%he Hero with a Thousand Faces, p. 108.
i s to become a p a r t o f i t , to sh a re in i t s power and i t s
e s s e n c e . One i s rem inded a g a in o f th e C e ltic b e l i e f t h a t
pow er i s g a in e d by e a tin g h aizel n u t s .
T hroughout The P re lu d e , W ordsw orth w avers in h is a t
te m p ts to i d e n t i f y th e p rim ary so u rc e o f N a tu re ’s s p i r i t u a l
pow er; th e v e ry term " N a tu re ," w ith i t s s h i f t i n g m eanings
and g r e a t ran g e o f c o n n o ta tio n , r e f l e c t s h is in d e c is io n .
Y et th e m ind o f th e p o e t is in c o n tin u a l f l u x . The view o f
th e m atu re p o e t i s n o t th a t o f th e c h i ld ; n o r i s th e view
o f th e m ind in a c t i v i t y t h a t o f th e m ind i n - p a s s i v i t y o r
d e j e c t io n . In th e Sim plon P ass v i s i o n , th e human "Im ag in a
tio n " seems to r i s e in a s s e r t i o n o f i t s own autonomy (V I,
$2!?-£36), W o rd sw o rth 's a t t e n t i o n , a t l e a s t , seems to fo c u s
more upon th e mind th a n upon e x te r n a l n a t u r e . C e r ta in ly he
moves more and more tow ard th e K a n tia n a f f ir m a tio n o f th e
a c tiv e m ind and away from a c o m p le te ly a s s o c i a t i o n i s t view
w hich seem ed to e le v a te th e se n se s u n d u ly . But W ordsw orth
n e v e r was an u n q u a l if i e d a s s o c i a t i o n i s t , n o r d id he e v e r
abandon h i s b e l i e f t h a t N ature h a s h e r own power and ad o p t
th e B lakean view t h a t th e m ind c r e a te s i t s own " n a tu r e ."
The s p o ts o f tim e —W ordsw orth’ s plum m etings in to N a tu r e 's
u n d e rw o rld — a re n o t sim p ly c r e a tio n s o f th e human im ag in a
t i o n , d e l ib e r a t e tra n s m u ta tio n s o f th e n a t u r a l phenomena
w hich in s p ir e them , b u t I n s ta n c e s o f th e u n io n o f o p p o s ite s ,
th e w edding o f p o w ers. W ordsw orth a g a in a d o p ts th e e a tin g
llj.2
m etap h o r when, in th e e le v e n th hook, he a llu d e s to th e sp o ts
o f tim e as r e c o l le c tio n s by w hich " . . . o u r m in d s /A re
n o u ris h e d and i n v i s i b l y r e p a i r 'd " (XI, 26!|-26i?). The power
o f N a tu re , once a g a in , i s t h a t o f th e c o m fo rte r, th e p o e t 's
Muse o r g o d d ess-m o th er, communion w ith whom r e s u l t s in a
p ro fo u n d re s u rg e n c e of e n e rg y w ith in h im s e lf . W ordsw orth
i s unw avering in i n s i s t i n g th ro u g h o u t h i s p o e try on th e
bond w ith n a t u r e .
By th e l a s t th re e books o f th e poem, W ordsw orth seems
to have co n firm ed h is n o tio n t h a t power r e s id e s e q u a lly in
n a tu re and in th e m ind. The im p o rta n t s h i f t i n th e e le v e n th
book may be se e n a s the p o e t 's f u r t h e r a c c e p ta n c e o f K antian
p h ilo s o p h y and th e im portance o f th e a c tiv e m ind. He comes
to see th e l a t t e r much more as an a c tiv e p a r tn e r in th e
r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith N a tu re , n o t sim p ly th e r e c i p i e n t b u t th e
g iv e r a s w e ll:
Ohl m y ste ry of Man, from what a d ep th
P ro ceed th y h o n o u rs! I am l o s t , b u t see
In sim p le ch ild h o o d som ething o f th e b ase
On w hich th y g r e a tn e s s s ta n d s , b u t t h i s I f e e l ,
T hat from t h y s e l f i t i s th a t th o u m ust g iv e ,
E ls e n e v e r c a n s t r e c e iv e .
(P re lu d e , X I, 329-33*J.)
The power o f th e m ind, w h a te v e r i t s s o u rc e , W ordsw orth c a ll s
" Im a g in a tio n ,1 1 and the r e v e l a t i o n o f th e Sim plon P ass con
s i s t s p r im a r ily in h is re c o g n iz in g i t as su ch . The "d ep th "
from w hich m an 's power r i s e s rem ain s a m y ste ry . The m ature
343
p o e t does n o t d e p a rt so f a r from th e i n i t i a t i o n m yth, o r
from h i s f i d e l i t y to h i s Muse, t h a t he s l i g h t s N a tu re , whom
he h a s , as an a d u l t, come to see as e s s e n t i a l l y noum enal
r a t h e r th a n phenom enal. As he says to C o le rid g e in B ookX I,
"T h is H is to r y , my F rie n d , h a th c h i e f l y t o l d / Of I n t e l l e c t u a l
pow er . . ." (X I, N a tu re , 1 1 . . . e x c e ll e n t and
f a i r , / T h at d id s t r e j o i c e w ith me . . ." (X I, 1 3 8 -1 3 9 ),
c l e a r l y h as h e r own v i t a l i t y a p a r t from th e I n d iv id u a l m ind.
The jo y r e s u l t i n g from th e b le n d in g o f th e pow ers i s c a ll e d
"w isdom ," th e d ee p er know ledge w hich c o n t r a s ts t o th e Loc
k ean "know ledge" o f th e se n se s o n ly .
In th e Mount Snowdon s c e n e , N atu re em erges as th e
p o s i t i v e c e n te r o f pow er, from w hich th e m ind b r e a th e s i t s
i n s p i r a t i o n . P o e tic o r im a g in a tiv e m in d s, c o n tin u a lly
engaged in c r e a tio n , a r e a b le
To h o ld communion w ith th e i n v i s i b l e w o rld .
Such m inds a re t r u l y from th e D e ity ,
F o r th e y are P o w e rs;— and hence th e h ig h e s t b l i s s
T h at can be known i s t h e i r s . . . .
(P re lu d e , X I I I , 10£-108)
W ordsw orth u s e s th e te rm "communion" l a r g e l y in i t s C h r is tia n
s e n s e — th e m a rria g e o f God and man w hich i s a ls o bound up
w ith "consum ing" th e d e i t y and hence ta k in g on th e pow er o f
know ledge. The image h e re w orks to show th e i d e n t i t y o f
p o w ers. I n p o r tr a y in g N atu re a s an alo g o u s to m ind, W ords
w o rth se ek s to show th e m a rria g e w hereby th e in d iv id u a l
Dili
I I
i d e n t i t y o f each d i s s o l v e s . Once a g a in , N atu re in th e sense
o f th e phenom enal w o rld (th e m o u n tain sc e n e ) i s m ere ly th e
mask o f " th e i n v i s i b l e w o rld " o f s p i r i t u a l pow er. "The
D e ity " i s p e rh a p s b e s t i n te r p r e t e d a s th e power w hich N ature
em bodies, th e pow er o f th e i n v i s i b l e w o rld , b u t w hich can
n e v e r be p r e c i s e l y u n d e rs to o d . T hat pow er, in term s o f th e
monomyth, i s th e om phalos, o r c e n te r o f c r e a t i v e e n e rg y ; in
Ju n g ia n te rm s , i t i s th e l i b i d o w hich i s th e fo u n d a tio n o f
a l l p s y c h ic e x is te n c e .^ * F or W ordsw orth, as f o r Jung, th e
l i t e r a l " e x is te n c e " o f th e l i b i d o i s u n im p o rta n t; as a
m etap h o r f o r p s y c h ic p r o c e s s e s , i t i s c r u c i a l .
The Snowdon v i s i o n , th e n , i s e s s e n t i a l l y a r e c o g n itio n
o f i d e n t i t y . The fe e d in g m etap h o r re a c h e s i t s a g g re g a te
f o r c e in th e p o e t ’ s " p e r f e c t image o f a m ig h ty Mind" w hich
" fe e d s upon i n f i n i t y " (P re lu d e , X I I I , 6 8 -6 9 ), a s the mind
r e a l i z e s t h a t e x t e r n a l and i n t e r n a l a re one and th a t i t s
own power p a r t i c i p a t e s in th e pow er o f d i v i n i t y . T hus, th e
" w a te rs , t o r r e n t s , stre a m s" o f s u b lim ity r o a r "w ith one
v o ic e " in sym bolic p ro c la m a tio n o f t h i s v is i o n o f u n i t y
( X I I I, 5 8 -5 9 ). The f a l l e n man who had re a c h e d a s u c c e s s io n
o f low p o in ts in h i s d eep en in g d iv o rc e from th e s o u rc e s o f
pow er i n th e Cam bridge, London, and F ran ce b o o k s, has f in a lly
^ J o l a n d e J a c o b i, The P sy chology o f C. C. Jung: an
I n tr o d u c tio n w ith I l l u s t r a t i o n s , t r a n s . K. W. B ash (New
Haven, 1951) r e v . e d . , p . 77.
345
re c a p tu r e d th e c h i l d f s sense o f p rim a l u n i ty and, u n lik e
th e c h i l d , i s co n sc io u s o f t h a t u n i t y . M e ta p h o ric a lly , th e
a c tiv e mind I s a m o u n tain o f r i s i n g m is ts ; in d e je c tio n i t
becomes i t s o p p o s ite , th e p a s s iv e Lockean m ind, a b s o rb in g '
s u rfa c e s e n s a tio n s , and may be lik e n e d to a f l a t p l a i n .
”The u ltim a te a d v e n tu re ” of th e i n i t i a t i o n , as Campbell
e x p la in s , ” . . . i s commonly r e p r e s e n te d as a m y s tic a l m ar
r ia g e . . . o f th e triu m p h a n t h e r o - s o u l w ith th e Queen
Goddess o f th e W o r l d . T h e m arriag e ”. . . r e p r e s e n ts
th e h e r o 's t o t a l m a s te ry o f l i f e ; f o r th e woman is l i f e ,
th e h e ro i t s knower and m a s t e r . " ^ She i s , f o r G rav es, th e
W hite G oddess, th e f i g u r e o f B e a tric e who, as Miss B odkin
shows, a p p e a rs to h e r lo v e r in d iv in e form and tra n s fo rm s
him b y t r a n s f e r r i n g h e r power to him , s tre n g th e n in g him f o r
h i s s p i r i t u a l jo u rn e y and m aking him c a p a b le o f ju d g m e n t.77
For W ordsw orth, she i s th e ”n e v e r - f a i l i n g p r in c ip l e o f j o y , ”
th e b r id e and m o th er o f th e D ru id -p o e t. But a g a in , th e
r i t u a l o f i n i t i a t i o n in The P re lu d e is r e p e t i t i v e ; to be
f u n c tio n a l i t must be c o n s ta n tly renew ed, f o r th e f l u c t u a t i n g
psyche p e r s i s t s in f a l l i n g away from f u l l im a g in a tiv e en e rg y
Hero w ith a Thousand F a c e s, p . 109.
7&The Hero w ith a Thousand F a c e s , p . 120.
^ A r c h e ty p a l P a tte r n s in P o e tr y , p . 17J 4 . f f .
in communion with, i t s e s s e n c e . T hroughout th e poem, t h e r e
f o r e , th e r e a re th e c o n s ta n t m inor v i c t o r i e s - - t h e g lim p se s
o f u n ity in n a tu r e —w hich a ls o c h a r a c te r iz e th e q u e s t m yth.
I t i s e s s e n t i a l to th e W ordsw orthian a p o c a ly p s e , th e g r e a t
consum m ation w hich would in c lu d e a l l men, and o f w hich h i s
p o e try i s a s p o u s a l v e rs e o r h e r a l d , t h a t th e v is io n a r y
u n ity i s p e r p e tu a lly s h a tte r e d and r e s t o r e d . B oth th e a c
t i v e u n iv e rs e and th e a c tiv e m ind a re in e v e r l a s t i n g f l u x ,
so t h a t th e f i n a l v i c t o r y w hich would be a perm anent s t a t e
o f m a rria g e and a g u a ra n te e t h a t jo y w i l l n e v e r tu r n to
d e j e c t io n , m ust rem ain alw ays in th e f u t u r e .
At th e same tim e , th e c r e a tiv e m ind o f th e p o e t is
c o n tin u a lly d e v e lo p in g , s tr e n g th e n in g and becom ing r e v i t a l
iz e d th ro u g h i t s e v e r - in c r e a s in g aw areness o f and s h a rin g
in th e pow er o f th e u n iv e r s e . Each o f th e s p o ts o f tim e i s
such an i n i t i a t i o n r i t e ; th e p o e t ’ s memory is th e m ythic
h e l p e r , l i k e S p e n s e r’ s dw arf and p alm er in The F a e r ie Q ueene.
From ea ch such " d e s c e n t1 1 in to an im a g in a tiv e re g io n o f
pow er, th e p o e t r e tu r n s w ith new s tr e n g th w hich m a n ife s ts
i t s e l f in p o e tr y . W ordsw orth’ s p o e tic achievem ent f a l l s o f f
w ith h i s c o rre sp o n d in g f a i l u r e to p r o p i t i a t e th e g u a rd ia n o f
N a tu re ’ s u n d erw o rld and to re a c h th e im a g in a tiv e pow er o f
h i s own mind i n th e r e c o l l e c t i o n s o f th e s p o ts o f tim e ,
whose lo s s in The E x c u rsio n i s re p la c e d by o v e r t p h ilo s o p h i
c a l s ta te m e n t.
A r t i s t i c a l l y , th e c lim a c tic sp o t o f tim e in The P re
lu d e i s th e v is io n on Mount Snowdon, w hich d ra m a tiz e s th e
h ig h e s t p o in t w hich th e p o e t’ s p e r c e p tio n was a b le to
a t t a i n . S t i l l , W ordsw orth i s alw ays aware n o t o n ly t h a t
th e goddess i s c a p a b le o f b e tra y in g him , b u t t h a t b e t r a y a l
i s in d e e d e s s e n t i a l to h e r c h a r a c te r . The f a u l t , th o u g h ,
rem ain s w ith him , s in c e N ature n e v e r b e tra y s th e w is e —th e
man c a p a b le o f im a g in a tiv e p e r c e p tio n , b u t seems t o b e t r a y
th e man who p e r c e iv e s o n ly p a r t i a l l y . G raves s t r e s s e s th e
g o d d e s s ’s d u a l n a tu r e —h e r p r o p e n s itie s f o r b o th good and
e v i l , c r e a tio n and d e s tr u c tio n a t a whim. Much o f h e r
f e a r f u l a s p e c t seems to u n d e r th e P re lu d e c h i l d ’s e d u c a tio n
by N atu re th ro u g h th e " m in is try o f f e a r " w h ich , a s Havens
re m a rk s, is a k in " to awe and a sen se of th e su b lim e , a r r e s
ti n g , o f te n f r i g h t e n i n g , and y e t s tim u la tin g , as danger
commonly i s , and somehow e x a ltin g ." * ^ Not so e x a lti n g ,
how ever, is th e f e a r a tte n d in g th e w o rsh ip o f N a tu re , th e
need f o r re p e a te d v is io n a r y e x p e rie n c e w hich may d riv e th e
p o e t to despondency: N a tu re ’s b e t r a y a l o f man by a p p a re n tly
sp u m in g him — t h a t i s , by e n te r in g h i s p e r c e p tio n a s no
more th a n a l i f e l e s s a g g re g a te o f e x te r n a l o b j e c t s . T his
i s th e c r i s i s o f th e Im m o rta lity Ode and T in te rn Abbey, a t
i t s w o rs t, th e " c o rp o re a l" u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e p a ro d lc
7^ T he Mind of a Poet, p , 39
'’n a tu ra l'* man, P e te r B e ll:
048
A p rim ro se by a r iv e r * s brim
A y ello w p rim ro se was to him ,
And i t was n o th in g m ore.
(P e te r B e l l , 2ij.8-2£0)
W ith o u t th e v is io n a r y gleam , th e re i s no "N atu re" b u t
sim p ly th e w o rld o f o b je c ts , and th e gleam i s k in d le d o n ly
by th e m a rria g e o f th e mind to i t s c o rre s p o n d e n t pow er in
a c ts o f p e r c e p tio n . N atu re seems to b e tr a y man in k ee p in g
from him h e r h id in g p la c e s o f pow er, b u t i t i s w ith man
h im s e lf t h a t th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f th e b e t r a y a l r e s t s . I t
i s th e f a i l u r e o f th e human im a g in a tio n to co n n e ct i t s e l f
w ith th e im a g in a tio n in N atu re w hich i s , f o r W ordsw orth,
th e F a l l o f Man. N a tu r e 's c h ie f g i f t to man i s , a s Bloom
p u ts i t , a " re n o v a tin g v i r t u e " t o w hich he need o n ly r e t u r n
in a w ise p a s s iv e n e s s , a s u p p re s s io n o f eg o , o r a d y in g to
th e w o rld , w ith o u t w hich im a g in a tiv e a c t i v i t y i s a b o r tiv e .? 9
In f a c t , man b e tr a y s h im s e lf i n r e s t r i c t i n g h im s e lf to th e
knowledge o f th e s e n s e s , whose l i g h t m ust go o u t i f f u l l
im a g in a tiv e p e r c e p tio n i s to ta k e p la c e .
The p o e t 's g i f t to man— th e g i f t o f th e poem, w hich i s
th e in c a r n a tio n o f th e b le n d e d im a g in a tiv e pow ers— c o r r e s
ponds to th e f i n a l s ta g e o f th e monomyth, th e triu m p h a n t
?^The Visionary Company, p. 139.
149
r e t u r n o f th e h ero .® 0 Through h i s v is io n a r y p a r t i c i p a t i o n
in in f in it u d e a t moments o f h e ig h te n e d p e r c e p tiv e i n t e n s i t y ,
th e h e r o /p o e t o f The P re lu d e h a s b ee n f i l l e d w ith th e u n
u s u a l c r e a tiv e power o f th e a rc h e ty p a l u n d erw o rld , and h a s
e x p e rie n c e d th e r e b i r t h o f h i s c r e a tiv e mind o r s o u l. H is
power w i l l o v e rflo w in to th e poem i t s e l f , th e e l i x i r o r
boon w hich r e s t o r e s th e w o rld . I n th e s o n n e ts on E n g lan d ,
he i s p re -e m in e n tly c o n s c io u s o f h i s h e r o ic r o l e as b a rd o r
D ru id , c o n s ta n tly rem in d in g h i s countrym en o f t h e i r fo rm e r
g lo r y and in v o k in g th e t r a d i t i o n o f s p i r i t u a l s tr e n g th
w hich M ilto n 's name s u g g e s ts . P ar from " s h rin k in g from
v is io n a r y s u b je c ts ," as Hartman ch an g es, W o rd sw o rth 's v e ry
r o le as h e r o /p o e t depends upon h i s a c ce p tan c e o f th e g r e a t
t r a d i t i o n a l m yth o f th e e p ic jo u rn e y . " N a tu re ," in th e
l a r g e s t s e n s e , does n o t le a d man to tra n s c e n d i t , b ecau se
N atu re i t s e l f i s tr a n s c e n d e n ta l. There i s no u n re s o lv e d
o p p o s itio n betw een N atu re and Im a g in a tio n , b e c a u s e , as th e
Snowdon e p iso d e i l l u s t r a t e s , th e y a re "one v o ic e ," one
wedded pow er.
More th a n o th e r v is io n a r y p o e ts , W ordsw orth te n d s to
keep b o th w o rld s alw ays in view , u n t i l th e m is t o f im ag in a
t i o n b l u r s , t h e i r b o u n d a rie s and e r a d i c a t e s t h e i r s e p a r a te
n e s s . W hereas Dante and M ilto n h ad p lu n g ed d i r e c t l y in to a
Q a
The Hero with a Thousand Faces, p. 97.
l£ 0
v is io n a r y cosm os, r e p r e s e n tin g th e o r d in a r y w o rld o n ly a l l e
g o r i c a l l y o r th ro u g h a l l u s i o n , W ordsw orth n e v e r c o m p le te ly
lo s e s s ig h t o f one w orld a t th e moment o f h i s e n tra n c e in to
a n o th e r . P e rh a p s, as H artm an a rg u e s , he i s d e l i b e r a t e l y
V
a v o id in g ap o caly p se in th e sen se o f a v io le n t d is r u p tio n , a
b re a k in g o f th e bond betw een man and n a tu r e . W hatever th e
re a s o n , he m a in ta in s a v is i o n o f p a r a d is e o r h eav en as
u n ite d w ith e a r t h , and a c c e s s ib le o n ly th ro u g h th e i n t e r
m e d iary f u n c tio n o f th e phenom enal w o rld .
Y et th e w o rld o f n a t u r a l o b je c ts im p re sse s th e m ind o f
th e man much l e s s th a n i t does t h a t o f th e c h i l d , so t h a t
W ordsw orth o f te n h a s re c o u rs e to o th e r in te r m e d ia r ie s who
make th e p assag e e a s i e r . These a re th e s o l i t a r i e s , l i k e t h e
h ig h la n d re a p e r, who, a t th e b r in k o f th e two w o rld s , a re
N a tu r e 's p r i e s t s . In The Golden Bough, a s I have sum m arized
in C h ap ter I , F ra z e r d e s c r ib e s th e p rim e v a l c o n c e p tio n o f
c o n t in u ity and f r u i t f u l n e s s in th e n a t u r a l w o rld d ep en d en t
upon th e h o ly m a rria g e o f th e g oddess o f th e s a c re d grove
and th e k i n g / p r i e s t o f th e wood. H artm an re g a rd s th e
t y p i c a l h e rm it f ig u r e o f T In te rn Abbey as a p r o p h e t, "a n
image o f tra n s c e n d e n c e ," who is a lre a d y in p o s s e s s io n o f
th e v i s i o n o f w hich th e p o e t i s in s e a r c h . T h e r e a l
m eaning o f the n a t u r a l man f o r W ordsw orth, I s u g g e s t, h a s
^ T h e U nm ediated V is io n : an I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f W ords
w o rth . H opkins, R ilk e , and V a le ry (New Haven, 195fy)» P* 3k-»
151
to do w ith th e tr a n s f e r e n c e o f pow er, and th u s i s v e ry c lo s e
to th e m yth o f Nurmi w hich F ra z e r o u t l i n e s .
The W anderer o f The E x c u rs io n i s th e a rch e ty p e o f th e
f ig u r e in W ordsw orth*s p o e t r y - - " . . . o 'e rp o w e re d /B y
N atu re" ( I , 2 8 1 -2 8 2 ), " . . . by m y stery and h o p e, / And th e
f i r s t v i r g i n p a s s io n o f a s o u l / Communing w ith th e g lo r io u s
u n iv e rs e " ( I , 2824.-286) • W ordsw orth shows th e consum m ation
o f th e W anderer*s m a rria g e to h i s goddess N atu re in term s
r e m in is c e n t o f th e c h i l d 's e x p e rie n c e o f "p rim a l sym pathy."
He h a s an " a p p e tite " f o r n a t u r a l o b je c ts ; th e o cean and th e
e a r t h " . . . in g la d n e s s l a y / B e n e a t h him " ( I , 2 0 2 -2 0 3 );
. . . h i s s p i r i t drank
The s p e c ta c le : s e n s a tio n , s o u l, and form ,
A ll m e lte d in to him ; th e y sw allow ed up
H is anim al b e in g ; in them d id he l i v e ,
And by them d id he l i v e ; th e y were h is l i f e .
In such a c c e s s o f m ind, in such h ig h h o u r
Of v i s i t a t i o n from th e l i v i n g God.
(E x c u rs io n . I , 206-212)
Not o n ly does th e W anderer consume N a tu re , b u t N ature "sw al
low s" him as w e ll in a r e l a t i o n s h i p o f r e c i p r o c i t y . U n lik e
th e p o e t, he d w e lls e t e r n a l l y in th e l i f e - g i v i n g d e p th s o f
pow er and th e e t e r n a l p re s e n c e o f God.
The s p e a k e r o f th e f i r s t book o f The R e c lu se , th e work
w hich was to f u l l y e x p re s s W ord sw o rth 's e p ith a la m ic v is i o n ,
e n jo y s a s i m il a r r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith N a tu re , whom he a d d re s s e s
as D a n te 's n a r r a t o r a d d re s s e s th e s m ilin g and p r o t e c t i v e
B e a tr ic e , o r as Solomon a d d re s s e s h is b r id e in th e g a rd e n :
1*2
"Embrace me th e n , ye H i l l s , and c lo s e me in ,
Now i n th e c l e a r and open day I f e e l
Your g u a rd ia n s h ip ; I ta k e i t to my h e a r t ;
fT is l i k e th e solem n s h e l t e r o f th e n i g h t .
But I would c a l l th e e b e a u t i f u l , f o r m ild
And s o f t , and g ay , and b e a u t i f u l th o u a r t ,
Dear V a lle y , h av in g in th y fa c e a sm ile
Though p e a c e f u l, f u l l o f g la d n e s s ."
(R e c lu s e . P a r t F i r s t , I , 110-117)
Nowhere does W ordsw orth’s to n e more c lo s e ly ap p ro ach th a t
o f th e Song o f Songs; now here does he d e s c rib e th e in tim a te
r e l a t i o n s h i p w hich sh o u ld e x i s t b etw e en man and N atu re w ith
more te n d e rn e s s and lo v e . T h is i s th e jo y o f s p i r i t u a l
harmony and co m p leten ess e x p re s s e d in th e C a n tic le , th e
p r i c e l e s s p o s s e s s io n o f N a tu r e 's p r i e s t s f o r whom th e p o e t
s e e k s.
The man wedded to r u r a l n a tu re and in f u l l communion
w ith i t s pow er th ro u g h o u t h i s l i f e i s a f ig u r e who r e c u r s
f r e q u e n tly — M ich ael, th e Old Cum berland B eggar, th e o ld
le e c h - g a th e r e r , th e d is c h a rg e d s o ld i e r and th e sh ep h erd in
th e fo g in The P re lu d e a re a l l s o l i t a r y r e a p e rs o f N a tu r e 's
s p i r i t u a l h a r v e s t; a l l a re p ic tu r e d w ith an a u ra o f s u p e r
n a tu r a l pow er. T h e ir f u n c tio n f o r th e p o e t 's i n i t i a t i o n i s
e v id e n t in th e exam ple o f R e s o lu tio n and In d ep en d en ce, in
w hich th e o ld le e c h - g a th e r e r , th ro u g h h i s own r e t e n t i o n o f
s p i r i t u a l power in a d v e r s ity , unknow ingly ad m its th e p o e t
p a s t th e th r e s h o ld . The s u g g e s tio n o f s u p e r n a tu r a l power
w hich su rro u n d s th e o ld man i s , p a r a d o x ic a lly , n a t u r a l power
153
r a is e d to i t s h ig h e s t p i t c h . In th e W ordsw orthian v is i o n
o f th e one w o rld , th e phenom enal i s re v e a le d a s i d e n t i c a l
w ith th e noum enal a t th e p i t c h o f p e r c e p tio n . The le e c h -
g a th e r e r , li k e th e t r a d i t i o n a l h e lp e r o f th e e p ic jo u rn e y ,
le n d s a id to th e p o e t in s e a rc h o f th e e l i x i r ; and th e
e l i x i r , in th e poem and in th e m yth, i s an illu m in a tio n
w hich b r in g s freed o m , an ex p a n sio n and a d eep en in g o f
c o n s c io u sn e ss w hich i s f u l l p e r c e p tio n . The com plete i n t e
g r a t i o n o f th e le e c h - g a t h e r e r in to h i s su rro u n d in g s --w ith o u t
N atu re he would have no e x is te n c e — s y m b o lic a lly r e p r e s e n ts
an e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f th e p o e t ’ s v i s i o n o f u n ity ; i t i s
N atu re who te a c h e s him lo v e o f man, and th e p r i e s t o f N ature
who, by h i s v e ry p re se n c e and ex am p le, s tim u la te s th e sympa
t h e t i c im a g in a tio n . The sh e p h erd w ith h i s dog i n th e e ig h th
book o f The P re lu d e h a s p r e c i s e l y t h i s im p o rta n c e . The p o e t
r e c a l l s him in a v is io n a r y f l a s h , o r s p o t o f tim e , "A
s o l i t a r y o b je c t and su b lim e ” (V I I I, lj.07); h is p re s e n c e
seemed ” , . . a P o w e r/O r G en iu s, u n d e r N a tu re , u n d er G o d ,/
P re s id in g . . . ” ( V I I I , 393-395)* He i s p a r t l y to be fe a re d
b ec au se o f h is p o s s e s s io n o f m y ste rio u s pow er.
The tr a n s f e r e n c e o f t h a t pow er from th e p r i e s t s o f
N atu re to th e p o e t i s a r e c u r r e n t e v e n t in W o rd sw o rth 's
p o e tr y , n e c e s s i t a t i n g a p e r c e p tiv e a c t o f mind o r im ag in a
t i o n w hich, l i k e th e c h i l d ’ s e n g u lfin g o f h i s w o rld , i s a
s e iz u r e o f pow er. The p u rp o se o f memory i s to evoke th e
image o f a p a s t moment o f s p i r i t u a l i n t e n s i t y , w hich th e
im a g in a tio n consumes and tra n s fo rm s to make a p a r t o f i t
s e l f . The r e s u l t a n t harm ony i s g e n e r a lly a tte n d e d by m u sic ,
l i k e th e song o f th e h ig h la n d g i r l . I n R e s o lu tio n and
Independence th e s k y - l a r k 's w a rb lin g p o rte n d s th e ap p earan ce
o f th e o ld man whose v o ic e seems to come from a n o th e r w o rld .
S im ila r ly , th e S o l i t a r y R e ap e r’ s song I s l i k e t h a t o f an
A ra b ian N ig h tin g a le , m y ste rio u s and In co m p reh en sib le to th e
p o e t who, n e v e r t h e le s s , ta k e s on i t s pow er. L ike th e m y th ic
u s u rp e r who m ust k i l l th e r e ig n in g King o f th e Wood to ta k e
h i s p la c e a s th e b rid eg ro o m o f th e g o d d ess, th e p o e t m ust
u su rp th e p la c e o f th e p r i e s t o f N atu re when he e n c o u n te rs
h im , becom ing h im s e lf th e p o e t / p r i e s t / h e r o who becomes
s im u lta n e o u s ly N a tu r e 's c h i l d , w o rs h ip p e r, lo v e r , and h u s
b a n d . As N a tu r e 's o r a c l e , th e t r a d i t i o n a l O rpheus, he
te a c h e s m ankind t h a t h e r m y stery m ust rem ain in v io l a b le :
"Our m eddling i n t e l l e c t /M is -s h a p e s th e b e a u te o u s form s o f
th in g s " a s "W e m urder to d is s e c t " ("The T ab les T u rn e d ," 26-
27, 28).
P o e t i c a l l y , i f n o t r a t i o n a l l y , W o rd sw o rth 's r e l i g i o n
I s c o h e re n t and u lti m a t e ly t r a d i t i o n a l . To u n d e rs ta n d h i s
p o e tr y , one m ust u n d e rs ta n d t h a t he i s , a s Havens h a s o b
se rv e d , "fu n d a m e n ta lly r e lig io u s ." ® 2 But to c a l l him a
p a n t h e i s t , a b e l ie v e r in anim ism , o r a f o llo w e r o f any o th e r
®2The Mind of a Poet, p. 179.
155
s p e c i f i c d o c trin e does l i t t l e to a id o u r u n d e rs ta n d in g . As
a p o e t, h is c h ie f ta s k i s t h a t o f p ro p h e t o r te a c h e r : to
p r e s e n t an o b je c tiv e c o r r e l a t i v e f o r w hat he f e e l s to be a
pow er in th e im a g in a tiv e mind and in th e u n iv e r s e , th e
b le n d in g o r m a rria g e o f w hich p ro d u ces th e s e n s a tio n o f jo y
and th e e p ith a la m ic v is i o n o f f r u i t f u l n e s s . He does so ,
w ith b r i l l i a n t s u c c e s s , by p o e t i c a l l y d e ify in g and w o rsh ip
p in g th e W hite Goddess o r Muse whom he a d d re s s e s " N a tu re ."
H is p o e tic r e l i g i o n n e c e s s a r i l y im p lie s some d e n ia l o f
A n g lican dogma, a p ro b lem w hich seems to have d is tu r b e d him
in h i s l a t e r l i f e . S t i l l , as Mary E . B u rto n show s, W ords
w o rth b y no means underw ent a "c o n v e rsio n " from y o u th fu l
p a n t h e i s t i c b e l i e f s to an a rc h -c o n s e rv a tiv e c r e e d . L ike
th e M ilto n o f P a ra d is e L o s t, he c o u ld see t h a t " . . .p r i m a l
tr u th /G lim m e r s th ro u g h many a s u p e r s t i t i o u s form " (E c c le
s i a s t i c a l S o n n e ts, IV, 1 2 -1 3 ). M oreover, a more o rth o d o x
C h r is tia n n o tio n o f th e D e ity seems to u n d e r lie th e a lle g e d
n a tu re -w o rs h ip o f The P r e l u d e .- At one in s ta n c e th e p o e t
in v o k es th e
• . . G reat God I
Who s e n d ’ s t t h y s e l f in to t h i s b r e a th in g w o rld
Through N atu re and th ro u g h e v e ry k in d o f l i f e ,
And mak’s t Man w hat he i s , C re a tu re d iv in e .
(X, 386-393)
N atu re i s th e p a r t l y c o n c re te p a r t l y a b s t r a c t em bodiment o f
pow er; th e u ltim a te so u rce o f t h a t pow er i s th e m y ste ry
l £6
w hich W ordsw orth c a l l s "God."
Bloom a p t ly p o in ts o u t t h a t b o th Blake and W ordsw orth
a re p re o c c u p ie d w ith r e l i g i o u s t r u t h , b u t t h a t B la k e 's
p re o c c u p a tio n was w ith th e B ib le and W ordsw orth's w ith
N a tu re . The g r e a t d iv o rc e o f th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry w hich
b ro u g h t ab o u t a n arro w in g o f th e do o rs o f p e r c e p tio n m eant,
m oreover, t h a t b o th p o e ts would c o n s id e r r e l i g i o u s t r u t h as
p e r c e p tu a l t r u t h , an e p is te m o lo g lc a l m a rria g e w hich would
renew th e b ro k en co v en an t betw een man and God. The same
e m p iric a l t r a d i t i o n to w hich Blake r e a c te d so v i o l e n t l y
a ls o form s th e background to W o rd sw o rth 's a tte m p t to r e s t o r e
l i f e to a f a l s e l y c o n ceiv ed u n iv e rs e w hich, as a g ia n t
m achine, h ad n e i th e r " s p le n d o u r," " f u n c tio n ," n o r " g lo r y ."
In th e te n th book o f The P re lu d e he d e l ib e r a te ly opposes
an a n im is tic view o f th e s u n 's g lo r io u s b i r t h to th e D eists*
m e c h a n is tic in v e n tio n o f th e su n as "a gewgaw, a m ach in e,"
w hich " S e ts l i k e an o p e ra phantom " in a w orld no more r e a l
th a n a s ta g e s e t (X, 9 4 0 -9 ^ 1 ). J u s t as a D e is t l i k e Newton
c o u ld b e lie v e in th e C h r is tia n God w h ile e x t o l li n g th e
w orkings o f th e u n iv e rs e in te r n s o f m a th em atic a l la w s , so
c o u ld a R om antic li k e W ordsw orth assume th e r e l ig i o u s fo u n
d a tio n o f h i s A n g lican c h ild h o o d w h ile a tte m p tin g to r e v e a l
p o e t i c a l l y h is sen se o f th e m y ste rio u s l i f e o r power i n th e
u n iv e rs e b y means o f p o e tic m yth. The e ig h te e n th -c e n tu ry
p h ilo s o p h ic a l t r a d i t i o n , w ith i t s h ig h v a lu e s on s e n s e -
p e r c e p tio n and th e re a s o n in g m ind, b ro u g h t w ith i t a
l£7
d e ro g a tio n o f th e em otive lan g u ag e o f p o e tr y . W ordsw orth
u se d e v e ry means a t h i s d is p o s a l to r e s t o r e th e im a g in a tio n
and th e s p i r i t o f m yth-m aking to E n g lis h p o e tr y .
D e sp ite d if f e r e n c e s in r e l i g i o u s d o c tr in e s , th e n ,
W ord sw o rth 's i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e m y th ic jo u rn e y a s th e
s p i r i t u a l and p e r c e p tu a l e x p e rie n c e o f ea ch in d iv id u a l mind
e n t i t l e s him to a p o s i t i o n among th e g r e a t p o e ts o f th e
t r a d i t i o n o f th e C h r is tia n e p ic stemming from D an te. F or
th e I t a l i a n p o e t, th e p e r f e c t v i s i o n i s e p ito m iz e d in th e
m a rria g e o f C h r is t and th e Church (b o th as i n s t i t u t i o n and
as th e company o f f a i t h f u l h u m a n ity ), th e e p lth a la m ic v is io n
o f th e Song o f Solomon. F o r W ordsw orth, w ith h i s Rom antic
em phasis upon th e in d iv id u a l, th e p e r f e c t v i s i o n i s re v e a le d
th ro u g h th e m a rriag e o f G od's pow er (m a n ife s te d in N a tu re )
and th e pow er o f th e in d iv id u a l m ind, w ith an e q u a l p a r t i
c ip a ti o n on th e p a r t o f e a c h . The e p ic m yth o f s e p a r a tio n ,
i n i t i a t i o n , and r e tu r n encom passes th e whole t r a d i t i o n , and
i t s e l f c e n te r s on s p i r i t u a l m a rria g e as a m e ta p h o ric a l
e x p re s s io n o f triu m p h , rew ard , and m a ste ry o v e r l i f e , w hich
i s th e s to r y o f The P re lu d e . What d e te rm in e s th e s t r u c t u r e
- o f W ord sw o rth 's e p ic i s h i s c o n c e p tio n o f th e a c tiv e mind
and i t s r e la tio n s h i p w ith an a c t i v e , an im ated u n iv e r s e .
S ince th e mind i s in c o n tin u a l f l u x , moving c o n s ta n tly
tow ards and away from th e p o le s o f supreme im a g in a tiv e a c
t i v i t y and th e u t t e r d e je c tio n o f im a g in a tiv e i n e r t i a , th e
l£ 8
e p ic jo u rn e y m ust r e f l e c t t h a t movement. T here can be no
f i n a l v ic to r y , as th e r e i s in th e Commedia o r in th e f i r s t
book o f The F a e rie Q ueene; n e i th e r can th e r e be any f i n a l
d e j e c t io n . I n a d o p tin g th e t r a d i t i o n a l d e v ic e s and them es
o f th e e p i c , W ordsw orth a s s im ila te s them c o m p le te ly and
makes ea ch o f them f u n c tio n in h is r e p r e s e n ta ti o n o f th e
m ind’ s jo u rn e y th ro u g h l i f e .
I n th e fo re g o in g d is c u s s io n o f W ordsw orth a s an e p ic
p o e t, I have r e l i e d p a r t l y upon p o e try o u ts id e o f The P re
lu d e , s in c e th e p o e t h im s e lf ask s us to re g a rd h i s p o e tic
work as one v a s t G o th ic c h u rc h w ith v a r io u s e n tra n c e s and
s e c tio n s . F u rth e rm o re , a s C a rl W oodring o b s e rv e s , th e poem,
d e s p ite i t s o rg a n ic u n i ty , ”. . . i s a patch w o rk o f p ie c e s
O-n
o ld and new, v a r io u s ly in te n d e d a t t h e i r i n c e p t i o n .” ^
M a te ria l d e sig n e d f o r The P re lu d e was som etim es p u b lis h e d
s e p a r a te ly , th e n r e - in c o r p o r a te d in r e v is e d form in to th e
e p ic ; m a te r ia l f o r The R eclu se som etim es found i t s way in to
The P re lu d e . ^ James E . M i l l e r 's c o n te n tio n t h a t W hitm an's
Leaves o f G ra ss, d e s p ite i t s patchw ork q u a l i t y , h a s a j u s t
c la im to be re g a rd e d as th e New W orld e p ic , p ro v id e s a
u s e f u l c r i t e r i o n by w hich to c o n s id e r The P re lu d e :
Q3w ordsw orth In R iv e rs id e S tu d ie s in L i t e r a t u r e s e r
ie s (B o sto n , 1 9 6 ^ )$ p . 9 7 .
^•W ordsw orth, p . 9 7 .
159
F o r th e h e ro o f h i s e p ic , Whitman c r e a te d th e a rc h e
ty p a l p e r s o n a lity f o r th e New W orld . . . a man b o th
in d iv id u a l and o f th e m ass. T h is h e r o , u n lik e th e h e ro
o f p a s t e p i c s , d is c o v e rs h is h e r o ic q u a l i t i e s n o t in
superm an c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s b u t in th e s e lfh o o d common to
ev e ry man. E very man . . . i s p o t e n t i a l l y an e p ic h e ro ,
i f he i s s u f f i c i e n t l y aware o f th e p o t e n t i a l i t y o f h i s
s e lfh o o d , i f he c e le b r a te s h i s v i t a l p r o c r e a tiv e r o l e ,
and i f he i s c a p a b le o f d e p th o f f e e l i n g in s p i r i t u a l l y
com plex a tta c h m e n ts .° 5
W ordsw orth I s as much aware as Whitman o f h i s n a t io n a l
r o le a s p o e t. L ike th e New W orld e p ic h e r o , th e p o e t/h e r o
o f The P re lu d e s in g s th e song o f h im s e lf , f o r i t i s th e m ind
he s e ts about to e x p lo re and h i s own m ind t h a t he knows
b e s t . The ”1" o f The P re lu d e , l i k e th e **I” o f Leaves o f
G ra ss, r e f e r s , on th e one hand, to th e s p e c ia l s e n s i b i l i t y
o f th e p o e t, who h as a c c e ss to a s p i r i t u a l w orld undream t
o f by th e m ass o f men. Yet th e in d iv id u a l mind o f th e poem,
n o tw ith s ta n d in g i t s e x c e p tio n a l q u a l i t i e s , im p lie s a p o te n
t i a l i t y f o r man’ s mind u n i v e r s a l l y . I n s e p a r a tin g h im s e lf
from o th e r men, th e p o e t ta k e s on th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f th e
e p ic h e r o , whose ta s k i t i s to p e n e tr a te to th e so u rce o f
u ltim a te t r u t h and o f f e r h i s d is c o v e ry to th e w orld o f men
as a red em p tiv e b oon. I t i s a ls o th e p o e t ’ s ta s k as te a c h e r
to make i t p o s s ib le f o r a l l men to make a s im ila r jo u rn e y
to th e h id in g p la c e s o f pow er. And so W ordsw orth f o r e s e e s ,
C r i t i c a l Guide to Leaves o f G rass (C h icag o , 1957)*
p. 259.
h o p e f u lly , th e ap o c a ly p se in w hich a l l men w ill be en a b led
to s e e , w ith v is io n a r y pow er, beyond th e s u rfa c e s o f th in g s ,
and w il l p e rc e iv e th e in te r c o n n e c tio n o f a l l b e in g s : " — I
lo n g b e fo re th e b l i s s f u l h o u r a r r i v e s , / Would c h a n t, in
lo n e ly p e a c e , th e s p o u s a l v e r s e / O f t h i s g r e a t consumma
tio n " ( " P r o s p e c tu s ," £ 6 -5 8 ). As f o r B lak e, m a rria g e and
ap o caly p se are th e same in W ordsw orth’ s d iv in e comedy.
CHAPTER IV
THE NIGHTMARE A N D THE D R EA M
The a t t r a c t i o n w hich th e Song o f Solomon h e ld f o r
C o lerid g e i s w e ll- s n b s ta n ti a te d by a number o f n o teb o o k
e n t r i e s . W hile he a c c e p te d and expanded th e t r a d i t i o n a l
re a d in g o f th e Song as a lle g o r y , he a ls o sh a re d th e s t r e s s
upon th e s e n s u a l and l i t e r a l w hich th e e ig h te e n th - c e n tu r y
s e n s i b i l i t y p o e ts p la c e d on th e poem .1 H is own p o e tr y was
to r e f l e c t b o th a t t i t u d e s and in f a c t to r e c o n c ile them in
an e p ith a la m ic v is io n o f p a r a d is e . J . B. B eer se e s a d ire c t
co rresp o n d en ce betw een th e lan g u ag e in w hich th e brid eg ro o m
o f th e Song d e s c rib e s h i s b r id e and th e im agery o f K ubla
Khan. W hatever th e a c tu a l d eg ree o f In flu e n c e th e C a n tic le
h ad on C o le r id g e 's p o e tr y , th e r e i s a sen se in w hich C ole
r id g e , to a much g r e a t e r e x te n t th a n e i t h e r Blake o r Words
w o rth , is a d i r e c t h e i r to th e t r a d i t i o n o f th e ep ith alam iu m .
For B lak e , th e e p is te m o lo g ic a l c r i s i s o f th e e ig h te e n th
c e n tu ry co u ld be r e s o lv e d p o e t i c a l l y and p e r c e p tu a lly in
1J . B. B eer, C o le rid g e th e V is io n a ry (London, 1959)*
p . 269.
2C o lerid g e th e V is io n a ry , p . 270.
161
162
term s o f m a rria g e sym bolism . Thus he r e p e a te d ly c o n t r a s ts
tr u e p s y c h o lo g ic a l and s p i r i t u a l i n t e g r i t y and w h o len ess
w ith th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y 's f a l s e o r S a ta n ic r a tio c in a t iv e
" u n ity " by r e p r e s e n tin g th e two view s as c o n tr a s tin g m ar
r i a g e s —th e f i r s t as th e tr u e m a rria g e betw een man and h i s
em an atio n , th e second as p a ro d ic m a rria g e i r o n i c a l l y c e l e
b r a te d in ra o c k -e p lth a la m ia . B la k e 's theme i s p s y c h o lo g ic a l
and in d iv id u a l, y e t e x p re s s e d in c o sm o lo g ic a l sym bolism and
d is ta n c e d th ro u g h d r a m a tiz a tio n . W ordsw orth e s ta b li s h e d a
s im i l a r d is ta n c e i n s in g in g th e s p o u s a l v e rs e o f th e coming
a p o c a ly p tic m a rria g e of m a n 's mind and n a tu r e . But w hereas
B la k e 's d is ta n c in g r e s u l t s p r im a r ily from h i s p e rs o n a l
m y thology, W ordsw orth's i s n e c e s s i ta t e d by h i s view, o f
h im s e lf as a p a r t i c i p a n t in th e g r e a t t r a d i t i o n o f C h ris tia n
e p ic p o e tr y . The g r e a t m a rria g e h e ra ld e d in The R eclu se
fra g m en t i s c e r t a i n l y a m a tte r o f in d iv id u a l p e r c e p tio n ,
b u t i s n e v e r th e le s s d is tin g u is h e d as th e p e r c e p tio n o f th e
e p ic p o e t in h i s t r a d i t i o n a l l y p u b lic r o l e . And in h i s
tr u e e p ic , The P re lu d e , W ordsw orth d e l i b e r a t e l y c u l t i v a t e s
a s u b lim ity o f d ic tio n w hich a t tim e s ap p ro ach es th e l o f t y
rem o te n ess o f th e n a r r a t o r o f P a ra d is e L o s t. I n b o th B lake
and W ordsw orth th e sublim e te n o r o f th e Old T estam ent P ro
p h e ts c o n tr ib u te s much to th e e s s e n t i a l l y B i b l i c a l v is i o n
o f ap o c aly p se as m a rria g e . Y et in n e i t h e r p o e t i s th e r e
a n y th in g l i k e th e i n te n s e l y p e rs o n a l b u t a ls o f a m il i a r n o te
o f th e Song o f Solomon.
163
T here i s p e rh ap s no g r e a t e r c o n t r a s t o r complement to
th e o r a c u la r v o ice o f The P re lu d e th a n th e e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y
p r iv a te and in tim a te v o ic e o f C o le rid g e ’ s m ost c h a r a c te r
i s t i c p o etry * A lthough th e lo v e theme i s c e r t a i n l y v i t a l
in such B lake poems as "The G arden o f Love" and V isio n s o f
th e D aughters o f A lb io n , B la k e 's m ain co n c ern i s alw ays
w ith b ondage, p s y c h o lo g ic a l and p u b lic . A gain, W ordsworth
in The P re lu d e s tu d io u s ly a v o id s th e w hole s u b je c t o f rom an
t i c lo v e , w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f th e "V audracour and J u li a "
e p is o d e , w hich i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y f i c t i o n a l i z e d and s e t in a
s o c ia l and p o l i t i c a l c o n te x t, and w hich can h a r d ly be c a lle d
a c e n t r a l in c id e n t in th e developm ent o f th e p o e t 's m ind.
Of th e f i r s t th r e e g r e a t E n g lis h R om antics, i t i s C o le rid g e
alo n e who can be c a lle d a lo v e p o e t and C o le rid g e alo n e who
ap p ro x im ates th e p e r s o n a l and te n d e r ly im p assio n ed to n e o f
th e Song o f S ongs.
D esp ite th e s u s p ic io n w ith w hich m odern l i t e r a r y c r i
tic is m re g a rd s th e r e l a tio n s h i p betw een b io g rap h y and p o e try ,
i t seems alm o st Im p o ssib le to s e p a ra te C o le rid g e th e man
from C o lerid g e th e p o e t, e s p e c i a lly in th e c a se o f th e A sra
poems r e s u l t i n g from h i s d e s p e ra te and p ro lo n g e d lo v e f o r
S ara H u tch in so n . L ike D onne's lo v e p o e tr y , C o le r id g e 's le d
him to r e f l e c t i o n s on th e m ost fu n d am en tal problem s o f
e x is te n c e and p e r c e p tio n . The ep ith alaraiu m had t r a d i t i o n a l l y
p r o je c te d a v is io n o f cosm ic o r d e r and harm ony r e f l e c t e d i n
I6if
id e a liz e d m a rria g e , th e b r i d a l bow er th u s sy m b o lizin g much
more th a n sim p ly th e consum m ation o f a p a r t i c u l a r u n io n .
As George W halley s u g g e s ts , th e image o f th e bower becom es
p a r t i c u l a r l y f r e q u e n t and im p o rta n t in C o le rid g e ’ s p o e try
a f t e r h i s i n i t i a l m e etin g w ith S a ra H u tch in so n , ta k in g on
" . . . a n e s p e c ia l m a r it a l warmth u n t i l i t becom es h i s m ost
p e r s i s t e n t emblem o f th e e c s ta s y o f se c lu d e d p e a c e fu l love." 3
The v e ry f a c t o f C o le r id g e 's p a t h e t i c a l l y u n s u c c e s s fu l
m a rria g e w ith S ara F r ic k e r makes th e m a rriag e v is i o n o f h i s
lo v e poems a l l th e more co m p e llin g an a l t e r n a t i v e , even I f
o n ly a t t a i n a b le th ro u g h th e e x e r c is e o f th e se c o n d a ry im ag i
n a tio n i n th e w r itin g o f p o e tr y .
The e p ith a la m lc v is io n o f a p e r f e c t l y b l i s s f u l s t a t e of
e x is te n c e b ased on th e id e a l u n io n o f th e lo v e r and h i s
b e lo v ed r e p e a te d ly g iv e s C o le rid g e m etaphors f o r p o e tr y and
th e means th ro u g h w hich to c o n s tr u c t an o r d e r ly p sy c h ic
w orld in th e fa c e o f th e chaos o f th e phenom enal w orld t h a t
in c e s s a n tly o p p re s s e s him . T h at C o le rid g e saw th e s t a t e o f
m a rrie d lo v e as ch a rg e d w ith m e ta p h y s ic a l and e p is te m o lo g i-
c a l s ig n if ic a n c e a s w e ll as th e u s u a l s p i r i t u a l s ig n if ic a n c e
w hich a l l e g o r i c a l re a d in g s o f th e Song o f Songs had empha
s iz e d i s a b u n d a n tly I l l u s t r a t e d in th e n o te b o o k s. At th e
v ery o u ts e t o f Anima P o e ta e , he makes c l e a r h is p re o c c u p a tio n
3
^ C o le rid g e and S ara H u tch in so n and th e A sra Poems
(London, 1 9 # ) , P . 113•
165
w ith th e P lo tin i a n c o n c e p t o f th e id e a l lo v e w hich " tr a n s
form s th e s o u l in to a co n fo rm ity w ith th e o b je c t lo v e d ,"
and th e s u b je c t o f lo v e r e c u r s a g a in and a g a in in th e course
o f th e n o te b o o k .^ Two f u r t h e r p a ssa g e s from Anima P oetae
a re w orth q u o tin g a t le n g th f o r th e l i g h t w hich th e y c a s t
on th e s ig n if ic a n c e o f th e is s u e o f lo v e in C o le r id g e 's
th o u g h t. I n th e f i r s t , he c l e a r l y m erges e a r t h ly and s p i
r i t u a l l o v e :
The b e s t , th e t r u l y lo v e ly in each and a l l , i s God.
T h e re fo re th e t r u l y b elo v ed i s th e symbol o f God to whom
e v e r i t i s t r u l y b e lo v e d b y , b u t i t may become p e r f e c t
and m a in ta in e d lo v e by th e f u n c tio n o f th e tw o. The lo v e r
w o rsh ip s in H is b e lo v e d t h a t f i n a l consum m ation o f i t s e l f
w hich i s p ro d u ced i n h i s own s o u l by th e a c tio n o f th e
s o u l o f th e b elo v ed upon i t , and t h a t f i n a l p e r c e p tio n o f
th e s o u l o f th e b e lo v e d w hich i s in p a r t th e consequence
o f th e r e a c t i o n o f h i s . . . s o u l upon th e s o u l o f h is
b e lo v e d , t i l l each c o n te m p la te s th e s o u l o f th e o th e r as
in v o lv in g h i s own, b o th in i t s g iv in g s and i t s r e c e iv in g s ,
and th u s , s t i l l k eep in g a liv e i t s o u tn e s s , i t s s e l f -
o b liv io n u n ite d w ith se lf-w a rm th , s t i l l ap p ro x im ates to
GodT5-----
R em in iscen t o f D o n n e's lo v e p o e try , th e N e o -P la to n ic
im agery o f th e p assag e n e v e r th e le s s s t r e s s e s th e r e c ip r o c ity
o f th e lo v e r e l a t i o n s h i p in c o n t r a s t to D onne's u s u a l con
c e n t r a t i o n upon th e e m o tio n a l s t a t e o f th e lo v e r a lo n e ,
Anima P o etae (B oston and New York, 1895)» P# 2 .
^Anima P o e ta e . p p . 112 -1 1 3 .
166
how ever m u tu al th e lo v e . The s h i f t is an im p o rta n t one
b ecau se i t ex ten d s beyond th e lo v e p o e tr y to th e v e ry b a s is
o f C o le rid g e ’ s p h ilo s o p h y o f p e r c e p tio n . T h is m etap h o r o f
m utual jo y in m a rria g e i s , o f c o u rs e , C o le rid g e ’ s c h ie f
means o f d e s c rib in g the a c tio n s o f th e p e rc e iv in g mind in
two b r i l l i a n t p o e tic ac h iev e m en ts, T h is Lim e-Tree Bower my
P ris o n and th e D e je c t io n o d e. Of t h i s I s h a l l have much
more to s a y p r e s e n tly .
The second n o teb o o k p assag e w hich s e rv e s to c l a r i f y
C o le r id g e 's u n d e rs ta n d in g o f lo v e as a m utual g iv in g and
r e c e iv in g i s e q u a lly a p p lic a b le to h is p sy ch o lo g y o f p e r
c e p tio n a s i t a p p e a rs in th e c o n v e rs a tio n poems an d , c e r
t a i n l y n o t f o r t u i t o u s l y , is c a s t i n p a r t as a lo v e -d ia lo g u e
betw een lo v e r and b e lo v e d :
To f i n d o u r h a p p in e s s in co m p le te w ith o u t th e h a p p in e ss
o f some o th e r g iv e n p e rso n o r p e rso n s i s th e d e f i n i t i o n o f
a f f e c t i o n in g e n e r a l, and a p p lie s e q u a lly t o f r i e n d s h i p ,
to th e p a r e n ta l and to th e c o n ju g a l r e l a t i o n s . But what
i s lo v e ? — love as i t may s u b s is t betw een two p e rso n s o f
d i f f e r e n t se n se s? T h is— and what more th a n t h i s ? The
m u tu al dependence o f t h e i r h a p p in e s s , each on t h a t o f th e
o th e r , each b e in g a t once cau se and e f f e c t . You, t h e r e
fo re I — I , th e r e f o r e y o u . The se n se o f t h i s r e c i p r o c i t y
o f w e ll-b e in g i s t h a t w hich f i r s t stam ps and le g itim a te s
th e name o f h a p p in e ss i n a l l o th e r ad v a n ta g e s and fa v o ra b le
a c c id e n ts o f n a tu re o r fo rtu n e . . . .6
And a few l i n e s f u r t h e r in th e p a s s a g e , C o lerid g e f in d s
o c c a s io n f o r th e lo v e -d u e t in th e m anner o f th e b r id e and
^Anlma P o e ta e . p . 197.
167
b rid eg ro o m In te rc h a n g e o f th e Song o f Songs:
Suppose a wide and d e l i g h t f u l la n d s c a p e , and w hat th e
eye I s to th e l i g h t , and th e l i g h t to th e e y e , th a t
In te rc h a n g e a b ly i s th e lo v e r to th e b e lo v e d . "0 b e s t
b e lo v e d l who lo v e s t me th e b e s t ! " I n s t r i c t e s t p r o p r ie ty
o f a p p l ic a tio n m ight”Ee th u s a d d re s s h e r , i f o n ly she
w ith e q u a l t r u t h c o u ld echo th e same sen se in th e same
f e e l i n g . "L ig h t o f mine e y e ! by w hich alo n e I n o t o n ly
see a l l I s e e , b u t w hich makes up more th a n h a l f th e
l o v e lin e s s o f th e o b je c ts se e n , y e t , s t i l l , l i k e th e
r i s i n g sun in th e m orning, lik e th e moon a t n ig h t, rem ain-
e s t t h y s e l f and f o r t h y s e l f , th e d e a r e s t, f a i r e s t form o f
a l l th e th o u sa n d form s t h a t d e riv e from th e e a l l t h e i r
v i s i b i l i t y , and borrow from th y p re se n c e t h e i r c h i e f e s t
b e a u ty I " 7
Once a g a in C o le rid g e c o n c e iv e s o f m a rria g e in p e r c e p tu a l
term s as th e id e a l m u tu a l in te rc h a n g e o f v is io n o r u n d e r
s ta n d in g betw een th e lo v e r and h i s b e lo v e d . C o n v e rsely , in
th e poems d e a lin g w ith th e problem o f p e r c e p tio n C o lerid g e
r e p r e s e n ts th e a c tiv e and v i t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een outw ard
n a tu re and th e p e r c e iv in g mind th ro u g h th e m a rriag e m e ta
p h o r. I n h i s a n a ly s is o f D e je c tio n in The M irro r and th e
Lamp, M. H. Abrams m en tio n s th e " m a rita l" o r " c o n ju g a l"
m etaphor o f th e poem, b u t does n o t d i s t i n g u i s h i t among
o th e r Rom antic m etaphors f o r th e m ind in th e poem.® Y et th e
m a rria g e m etap h o r i s a c r u c i a l one f o r , as Abrams n o te s , the
f i f t h s ta n z a o f th e poem p ro p o ses jo y "as th e in d is p e n s a b le
^Anlma P o e ta e , p . 198.
® The M irro r and th e Lamp, p . 6 7 .
168
in n e r c o n d itio n " o f th e m i n d ; ^ and jo y , o f c o u rs e , is th e
keynote o f th e ep ith alam iu m and i t s p r o je c te d v is io n o f an
id e a liz e d w o rld w hich u n d e r lie s a l l o f C o le r id g e 's p o e tr y
and p r o s e .
C o lerid g e h im s e lf rem arks t h a t S t. P a u l chose m a rria g e
" , . . a s th e symbol o f th e u n io n o f th e c h u rc h w ith C h r is t:
th a t i s , o f th e s o u ls o f a l l good men w i t h - G o d , A n d in
th e p a s sa g e s q u o ted above from Anima P o e ta e , C o lerid g e goes
f u r t h e r in s u g g e s tin g t h a t th e m a rria g e v is io n o f th e g a rd e n
o f Solomon— q u ite t r a d i t i o n a l l y — e x te n d s a ls o to th e bond
o f s o c i a l f r ie n d s h ip w hich f o r P la to c o n s titu t e d th e b a s i s
o f th e id e a l commonwealth, to th e bond betw een th e p e r c e i
ving mind and th e w orld w hich i t h a l f - c r e a t e s , and u l t i
m a te ly to th e bond w hich u n it e s man and God in a p o c a ly p tic
p e r c e p tio n . Love, th e n , was an id e a w hich n e c e s s a r ily
inform ed a l l o f C o le r id g e 's th o u g h t as th e f o u n d a tio n o f
h is in te n s e ly p e rs o n a l p h ilo s o p h y o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l, s o c i a l ,
and m e ta p h y s ic a l o rd e r in th e u n iv e r s e . I n em ploying th e
m a rria g e m etaphor to e x p re s s h i s r e v e l a t i o n o f th e w o rkings
o f th e mind in an o rg a n ic w orld in w hich i t i s f u l l y i n t e
g r a te d , C o lerid g e i s draw ing on th e same B i b l ic a l t r a d i t i o n
^The M irro r and th e Lamp, p . 67.
• ^ N o tes, T h e o lo g ic a l, P o l i t i c a l , and M isc e lla n e o u s
(London, 1 8 5 3 ), p . 2 7 2 .
169
a s D ante h ad in p r e s e n tin g th e b e a t i f i c v i s i o n o f o n en ess
w ith e x u l ta n t e p ith a la m ia sung i n H eaven.
Even b e fo re he m et S a ra H u tch in so n in 1799-** in d e e d , i n
h is e a r l i e s t poems— C o le r id g e 's view o f m a rria g e as th e
means o f s o lv in g o r e s c a p in g a l l th e d i f f i c u l t i e s o f l i f e
f in d s e x p r e s s io n . I n th e e a r l y C h r i s t 's H o s p ita l poem
e n t i t l e d N il P e ju s e s t C aellb e V i t a , C o le rid g e p ro p o se s
m a rrie d lo v e as th e g r e a t e s t a t t a i n a b l e e a r t h l y good:
What p le a s u r e s s h a l l he e v e r f in d ?
What jo y s s h a l l e v e r g la d h i s h e a r t?
Or who s h a l l h e a l h is wounded m ind,
I f t o r t u r 'd by M is fo rtu n e ’ s sm art?
Who Hymeneal b l i s s w i l l n e v e r p ro v e ,
T h at more th a n f r i e n d s h i p , f r ie n d s h ip m ix 'd w ith lo v e .
(1-6 J11
The b a s is o f lo v e i s f r ie n d s h ip in th e P la to n ic se n se o f
th e u n io n o f two com plem entary s o u ls —th e m a rria g e u n io n
c e le b r a te d i n th e Song o f S ongs. To r e a l i z e th e enorm ous
im p lic a tio n s w hich C o le r id g e 's own im pending m a rria g e to
S a ra P r ic k e r h e ld f o r him , one need o n ly p e ru se th e l e t t e r s
o f S eptem ber and O c to b e r, 179l|.* w hich are f i l l e d w ith th e
e c s t a t i c e n th u sia sm f o r P a n tis o o ra c y , h i s own p r o je c te d
scheme f o r th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f an id e a l P la to n ic s o c ie ty
1 1
A ll l i n e c i t a t i o n s from C o le r id g e 's p o e tr y in my
t e x t a re to The Com plete P o e tic a l Works o f Samuel T a y lo r
C o le rid g e , e d . E rn e s t H a rtle y C o le rid g e (2 v o l s . , O xford,
1 9 1 2 ).
170
b ased upon lo v e . The o p en in g o f th e l e t t e r to Southey-
d a te d 18 S eptem ber, 1791]., i s r e p r e s e n ta ti v e in i t s unboun
ded optim ism f o r th e new schem e, o f w hich S a ra was an
e s s e n t i a l p a r ts
W ell, my d e a r S outheyI I am a t l a s t a r r iv e d a t . J e s u s . !
M y God I how tu m u ltu o u s a re th e movements o f my H e a rt— j
S in ce I q u i t t e d t h i s room what and how im p o rta n t E v en ts j
have b een ev o lv ed ! A m erica! S outhey! M iss P r ic k e r I— {
Yes—S o u th ey —you a re r i g h t —Even Love i s th e c r e a tu r e o f j
s tr o n g M otive— I c e r t a i n l y lo v e h e r . I th in k o f h e r in
c e s s a n tly & w ith u n sp e ak ab le te n d e r n e s s —w ith t h a t inw ard
m e ltin g away o f S oul t h a t sym ptom atizes i t . 12
I t w as, o f c o u rs e , h i s id e a li z e d S ara who would s h a re w ith j
him h is dream o f P a n tis o c ra c y whom C o le rid g e sp eak s o f h ere.j
And in th e p o e try o f th e e a r l y 1 7 9 0 's i t i s e s s e n t i a l l y j
t h i s v is i o n o f th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f e s ta b li s h in g a community
o f e n lig h te n e d s o u ls w hich c o n s t i t u t e s C o le r id g e 's e x u lta n t !
answ er to th e h a rs h r e a l i t i e s o f th e mundane w o rld , and |
1
w hich q u ite n a t u r a l l y f in d s i t s e x p re s s io n i n e p ith a la m ic j
i
im agery re m in is c e n t o f th e Song o f S ongs. T h e ir s u b je c t i s j
g e n e r a lly m a rrie d lo v e and h a p p in e ss w hich, b ased on th e j
id e a l u n io n o f th e lo v e r s , e x te n d s by im p lic a tio n to th e
j
s o c i a l community b ased upon th e f r ie n d s h ip t h a t a ls o in fo rm s j
j
m a rrie d lo v e .
12
C o lle c te d L e tte r s o f Samuel T a y lo r C o le r id g e , e d .
E a r l L e s lie G rig g s (ij. v o l s , , O xford, 1 9 5 6 -1 9 5 9 ), I , 5 9 .
171
In an ode d a te d 1792, C o le rid g e e s t a b l i s h e s th e l i n k
b etw een m a rria g e and harm ony, th e t r a d i t i o n a l a s s o c ia t i o n
in th e e p ith a la m iu m . The Rose in tro d u c e s th e g a rd e n as th e
s e t t i n g f o r th e lo v e so n g , and ends on th e s i g n i f i c a n t word
jo y . In An E ff u s io n a t E v e n in g , w r i t te n i n 1792 and r e c a s t
in 1793 as L in es on an Autumnal E v en in g , C o le rid g e echoes
th e B i b l i c a l song even more c l o s e ly . I n th e f i r s t v e r s io n ,
he p e r s o n i f i e s s p r in g a s a b r i d e , awakened by th e g e n tle
r a i n from h e r "p rim ro se Bower" (1 1 ). I n a p o e t 's r e v e r i e ,
C o le rid g e e n v is io n s h i s own lo v e a r i s i n g " w ith s o u l- e n t r a n
c in g Mien" (17)» f i l l i n g him w ith "The t h r i l l o f Joy e x ta ti c
s i c y e t s e re n e " (1 8 ), th e v e ry te n o r o f S p e n s e r's E p lth a -
la m io n . I n th e seco n d v e r s io n , he p e r s o n if ie s Love as
w earin g "a crown o f th o r n le s s R oses" ( 8 9 ) , th e r in g o f
flo w e rs sy m b o lizin g th e m a rria g e u n io n o f id e a liz e d p e r f e c
t i o n , and th e symbol o f co n co rd in M ilto n 's image o f th e
g a rla n d w hich Adam w eaves f o r Eve b e fo re he le a r n s o f h e r
t e m p t a t i o n . ^ T h at C o le rid g e b e lie v e d such a s t a t e o f b e in g
im m anently p o s s ib le In th e a c tu a l w o rld i s r e in f o r c e d by th e
1795? poem P an t iso c r a c y . I n th e m id s t o f h i s lo v e poem s,
C o le rid g e sp eak s o f th e f u tu r e jo y s w hich w i l l be th e h a b i
t a t o f h i s " v is io n a r y s o u l" ( 1 ), th e new w o rld w here "The
w iz a rd P a s s io n s weave an h o ly s p e l l " (8 ) and " th e e v i l
13P a ra d is e L o s t. IX , 838-81|,2.
172
d ay ” (3) c a n be Ig n o re d ,
To th e N ig h tin g a le , L in es In th e Manner o f S p e n se r.
The Hour When W e S h a ll M eet A gain, The E o lla n H arp, and
R e fle c tio n s on Having L e ft a P la c e o f R e tire m e n t a re a l l
e s s e n t i a l l y lo v e poems to S a ra P r ic k e r , y e t a l l d e a l In
some way w ith th e s o c i a l , p h llo s o p h ic a l* and m e ta p h y sic a l
e x te n s io n s o f lo v e . As George W atson p o in ts o u t, C o lerid g e
In 1795 was a t th e h e ig h t o f h i s i n t e r e s t In P a n tis o c ra c y j1^
i t was a ls o th e y e a r o f h i s m a rria g e , so t h a t one i s n o t
s u r p r is e d a t th e h ig h ly p e r s o n a l to n e o f th e ending to th e
lo v e poem To th e R ig h t I n g a le , a c tu a l ly a poem to S a ra , The
n i g h t i n g a l e ’s so n g , he a rg u e s , i s e a s i l y s u rp a s s e d by th e
harm onic n o te s "T hat v ib r a te from a w h ite -a rm ’d L ady’ s
h a rp " (2 0 ). S a ra ’ s v e ry v o ice in s p ir e s him l i k e th e v o ice
o f th e Muse, as th e p o e t ends th e hymn c e le b r a tin g h i s own
m a rriag e w ith p r a is e o f h i s b r id e :
M y S a r a - - b e s t b e lo v e d o f human k in d I
When b r e a th in g th e p u re so u l o f te n d e r n e s s ,
She t h r i l l s me w ith th e H usband’ s p ro m is ’ d name I
(2I 4 .-2 6 )
C o lerid g e em ploys s im ila r b r i d a l Im agery in h i s id e a liz e d
v i s i o n of S a ra in L in es in th e Manner o f S p e n s e r, and a g a in
th e im agined w orld is one o f p eace and harm ony. The c o n tr a s t
• ^ C o le r id g e th e P o e t (New Y ork, 1 9 6 6 ), p . 6 2 .
173
w ith th e a c tu a l w o rld i s i m p l ic i t in th e poem, as in th e
l i n e : "'M y sad h e a r t w ill expand, when I th e Maid s u rv e y 1”
(1 8 ) , b u t th e c o n t r a s t i t s e l f is s t i l l n o t a s t r u c t u r a l
p r i n c i p l e . The Hour When W e S h a ll Meet A g ain , e x p re s s in g
th e ra p tu ro u s jo y o f th e l o v e r s ' m e etin g in th e f u t u r e ,
lik e w is e depends f o r i t s e f f e c t upon th e i m p l ic i t d e je c t io n
o f th e p r e s e n t- - th e te m p o ra ry s e p a r a tio n o f th e lo v e r s o f
w hich th e b r id e com plains i n th e Song o f Solom on.
The B o lla n Harp and R e f le c tio n s b o th p r o j e c t a r u r a l —
b ro a d ly " p a s t o r a l ”—p a r a d i s e , w ith th e lo v e r s u n ite d i n th e
t r a n q u i l i t y o f a flo w e r-c o v e re d c o t ta g e . Max P . S ch u lz h a s
n o te d th e s t y l i s t i c s i m i l a r i t y betw een C o le r id g e 's p r e s e n ta
t i o n o f th e l o v e r s ' p a r a d is e and M ilto n 's p o r tr a y a l o f Adam
and Eve in Eden b e fo re th e f a l l . * ^ The E o lia n H arp , th o u g h ,
r e p r e s e n ts more th a n sim p ly th e c u lm in a tio n o f e p ith a la m ic
im agery from th e e a r l i e r lo v e poem s. I t i s th e f i r s t o f th e
c o n v e rs a tio n poem s, th e o n ly p o e tic g en re o f C o le r id g e 's own
in v e n tio n , and th e f i r s t poem in w hat S ch u lz h a s 0a i l e d
C o le r id g e 's most m atu re p o e tic v o ic e , g e n e r i c a l l y d e riv e d
from th e d e s c r ip tiv e - m e d ita tiv e poems o f th e l a t e r e ig h te e n th
c e n t u r y . ^ W atson h a s commented on th e " p a s s io n a te and
15
" C o le rid g e , M ilto n , and L o st P a r a d is e ," N otes and
Q u e rie s , CCIV (A p ril 195 9 ), llj.3 -li|4 .. . ----------------
e g o t i s t i c a l to n e " o f th e c o n v e rs a tio n poem s, i n w hich th e
p o e t a d d re s s e s h i s w if e , a lo v e d o n e, o r a f r i e n d " in a
s h i f t i n g b u t s h a p e ly p a t t e r n o f e x p o s tu la tio n and p r iv a te
r e f l e c t i o n . U l t i m a t e l y , W atson p ro p o s e s , th e p o e t ’ s
i n i t i a l e g o tism " is th e o u tg o in g , s o l i c i t o u s c o n c e rn o f th e
f r i e n d . I t i s a d e e p ly commonplace, ev ery d ay e x p e rie n c e "
w hich th e c o n v e rs a tio n poems a re d e sig n e d to co n v ey .
A gain, one sh o u ld h a r d ly be s u r p r is e d t h a t in 1795* th e
y e a r o f h is m a rria g e and o f h i s g r e a t e s t r a p tu r e in th e
th o u g h t o f P a n tis o c r a c y , C o le rid g e would c o n c e n tr a te upon
in te n s e ly p e rs o n a l them es a r i s i n g d i r e c t l y from w hat would
become th e two r e l a t e d c r i s e s o f h i s l i f e a t t h i s tim e . I n
h i s e a r l i e r lo v e poem s, C o le rid g e h ad e s ta b lis h e d h i s view
o f m a rria g e a s a s t a t e a k in to an e a r t h l y p a r a d is e ; h is
re a d in g o f th e Old T estam ent and th e E liz a b e th a n p o e ts c e r
t a i n l y r e in f o r c e d t h a t v iew . T hus, in The E o lla n Harp th e
e p ith a la m ic im agery o f th e e a r l i e r p o e try c u lm in a te s In a
new h ig h ly s u b je c tiv e i n t e n s i t y . The s e t t i n g i s th e t r a d i
t i o n a l g a rd e n , w ith i t s p ro fu s io n o f flo w e rs and r ic h n e s s o f
s c e n ts , and w ith I t s p e rv a s iv e m o tif o f c e l e s t i a l m u sic, b u t
th e s i t u a t i o n w hich makes th e i d y l l p o s s ib le i s th e l i t e r a l
• ^ C o le r id g e th e P o e t, p . 6 1 .
• ^ C o le r id g e th e P o e t, p . 61.
175
and p a r t i c u l a r m a rria g e o f C o lerid g e and S a ra , as th e r e
p e a te d a p o stro p h e s to th e b e lo v e d make c l e a r . As in th e
Song o f Songs and in th e e.pithalam ium g e n e r a lly , i t i s th e
p a r t i c u l a r m a rria g e c e le b r a te d i n th e poem w hich co m p rises
a m icrocosm r e f l e c t i n g a u n iv e r s a l p r i n c i p l e o f o r d e r , th e
p a r t i c u l a r m a rria g e le a d in g th e p o e t to an expanded v i s i o n
o f an o rg a n ic and harm onious u n iv e rs e i n th e c a se o f C o le
r id g e :
01 th e one L ife w ith in u s and a b ro a d ,
Which m eets a l l m o tio n and becomes i t s s o u l,
A l i g h t in so u n d , a s o u n d -lik e pow er in l i g h t ,
Rhythm in a l l th o u g h t, and joyance e v e ry w h e re --
M eth in k s, i t sh o u ld have b een Im p o ssib le
Not to lo v e a l l th in g s in a w o rld so f i l l ' d ;
Where th e b re e z e w a rb le s , and th e m ute s t i l l a i r
I s Music slu m b erin g on h e r in s tru m e n t.
(The E o lia n H arp , 2 6 - 3 3 ) ^
The g ard en o f The E o lia n Harp i s th e g a rd e n o f th e Song o f
Solom on, th e m icrocosm o f h eav en o r th e m odel o f th e o rg a n ic
u n iv e r s e . I t i s a P a n tis o c ra c y o f th e m ind in w hich th e
a r t i f i c i a l b a r r i e r s o f th e phenom enal w o rld d is s o lv e in to
s y n a e s th e tic u n io n . D rawing upon th e t r a d i t i o n a l id e a s and
im ages o f th e e p ith ala m lu m , th e poem becom es u l ti m a t e ly a
poem about th e a c t o f c o g n i t l o n - - s p e c i f i c a l l y , th e m in d 's
^ L i n e s 26-33 were n o t a p a r t o f th e o r i g i n a l v e r s io n
b u t added in 1828; t h e i r in c lu s io n n e v e r th e le s s t e s t i f i e s
to C o le r id g e 's b e l i e f t h a t th e p e r f e c t r e a l i z a t i o n o f id e a l
m a rria g e on e a r t h m ir r o r s th e d iv in e o r d e r and th e f u tu r e o f
a l l m ankind a s th e p o e t e n v is io n s i t .
176
p e r c e p tu a l r e a l i z a t i o n o f an id e a l r e a l i t y o f i t s own
c r e a tio n , beyond th e ap p e aran c e s o f th e ev ery d ay r e a l i t y
w hich, a c c o rd in g to W atson, i s th e u s u a l su b sta n c e o f th e
c o n v e rs a tio n poem s.
T h e m a tic a lly , th e n , The E o lia n Harp d e p a rts l i t t l e
from th e t r a d i t i o n a l m a rria g e hymn. S t r u c t u r a l l y , how ever,
i t -marks th e b e g in n in g o f a new p o e tic form i n w hich C o le
rid g e was to e x c e l. S ch u lz h as p o in te d o u t t h a t th e b a s ic
s t r u c t u r a l p a t t e r n o f th e c o n v e rs a tio n poem i s th e in n e r -
o u te r o r c e n t r i f u g a l - c e n t r i p e t a l movement o f th e m ind in
p e r c e p tio n . Theme and p o e tic form a re in s e p a r a b ly u n ite d
in th e g e n re , S ch u lz a rg u e s , f o r "At th e v e ry c o re o f th e
c o n v e rs a tio n poem i s th e b e l i e f t h a t one fo rc e b r e a th e s
th ro u g h a l l , an im ate and in a n im a te a l i k e " ; a lth o u g h man i s
d i s t i n c t from n a t u r e , said hence e g o - c e n tr ic , he n e v e rth e le s s
21
" c o - e x is ts w ith and i s a p a r t o f i t s t o t a l i t y . " T h is i s
th e outw ard movement o f th e m ind w hich W ordsw orth in The
P re lu d e f r e q u e n tly d e p ic ts as m e ta p h o r ic a lly d ev o u rin g th e
w o rld ;^2 ^ i s a ls o th e k in d o f c r e a tiv e mind w hich G eo ffrey
20
The P o e tic V oices o f C o le rid g e , p . 8!j..
^ T h e P o e tic V oices o f C o le rid g e , p . 86.
22
fcCS ee, f o r exam ple, th e W an d erer's d e s c r ip tio n o f h i s
c h ild h o o d e x p e rie n c e in w hich h i s s p i r i t consumed th e sen se
im p re s sio n s o f th e n a t u r a l w o rld (E x c u rs io n , I , 206-212) o r
th e b o y 's d ev o u rin g o f th e power w ith in n a tu r e , d is c u s s e d
a t le n g th in C h ap ter I I I .
177
H artm an i d e n t i f i e s in b o th S p en ser and W ordsw orth as th e
"P ro th ala m ic Im a g in a tio n . "2^ The m etap h o r i s e s p e c i a l ly
a p p r o p r ia te to C o le rid g e , who fo u n d th e p o e tic u s e f u ln e s s
o f th e m a rria g e image in th e l a t e r c o n v e rs a tio n poems and
in th e g r e a t D e je c tio n ode.
Even in term s o f s t r u c t u r e , how ever, C o le rid g e i s
p e rh a p s n o t so u t t e r l y o r i g i n a l as he may a t f i r s t seem to
be in th e c o n v e rs a tio n poems. As W atson h as rem ark ed , th e y
have no g e n e ric p re c e d e n ts in E n g lis h p o e t r y ; 2^- and as
S ch u lz h as shown, th e y r e p r e s e n t a tr a n s f o r m a tio n o f e a r l i e r
p o e tic f o r m s . ^ I w ould s u g g e s t, how ever, t h a t C o le rid g e
m ust have r e a l iz e d th e s i m i l a r i t i e s betw een th e new form he
was e v o lv in g and a v e ry im p o rta n t p o e tic m odel o u ts id e th e
E n g lis h t r a d i t i o n — th e Song o f Solom on, W atson h as am ply
d em o n strate d t h a t C o le rid g e , d e s p ite th e s t r i k i n g o r ig in a
l i t y o f such poems a s The Rime o f th e A n cien t M a rin e r,
C h r ls ta b e l. and K ubla Khan, worked l a r g e l y on th e b a s is o f
p o e tic im ita t io n , u s in g a g r e a t d i v e r s i t y o f s t y l i s t i c
m odels in much th e same way t h a t S h ak esp eare d i d .^6 J u s t
^ W o rd sw o rth s P o e try 1 7 Q 7 -l8 litt p . 267 £ £ ,
^ •C oleridge th e P o e t, p . 6 1 ,
2% he_ P o e tic V oices o f C o le rid g e , p , 73*
^ C o lerid g e th e P o e t, p . 17.
as he " im ita te d " th e t r a d i t i o n a l d e v ic e s o f th e f o l k - b a l l a d
in The A n cie n t M arin er and th e G othic fram ew ork in C h ris -
t a b e l , C o le rid g e c o u ld h a r d ly escap e n o tic in g th e p e rs o n a l
e x p re s s io n o f p a s s io n and jo y in th e Song o f Songs r e s u l t i n g
from i t s b e in g c a s t as a lo v e -d u e t o r d ia lo g u e —a c t u a l l y
more o f a m onologue, l i k e th e c o n v e rs a tio n poem s, in t h a t
each sp e a k e r a d d re s s e s th e o th e r in tu r n w ith o u t r e a l l y
re sp o n d in g to th e w ords o f th e o th e r in c o n v e rs a tio n a l
in te rc h a n g e . The Song o f Songs is r e a l l y a c o l l e c t i o n o f
e p ith a la m ia lin k e d th ro u g h th e g a rd e n im agery and th e f a c t
t h a t th e y a l l c e le b r a te th e same m a rria g e . T here i s no
n e c e s s ity f o r one s p e a k e r to answ er th e o th e r , o n ly f o r b o th
to e x p re s s th e jo y o f th e e p ith a la m ic v is i o n o f p a r a d is e .
M oreover, th e to n e o f th e Song o f Songs— jo y r e s u l t i n g
from th e a t t i t u d e o f a r a d i c a l l y d ev o ted te n d e rn e s s tow ard
th e b e lo v e d — is th e p r e c is e to n e o f th e c o n v e rs a tio n poem s,
b e g in n in g w ith The E o lia n H arp. I t I s a to n e , fu rth e rm o re ,
w hich can be p r e s e n te d b e s t In d ia lo g u e , th u s g iv in g th e
im p re s sio n o f a s p e c ia l and p r iv a te a u d ie n c e —b e lo v e d ,
f r i e n d , o r c h i l d — r a t h e r th a n th e p u b lic au d ien ce o f , sa y ,
th e A ugustan s a t i r i s t s . U nlike th e e p ic and hence p u b lic
n a r r a t i v e v o ic e o f The P re lu d e . C o le rid g e ^ s sp e a k e r i s th e
p r iv a te man, th e p o e t as f r i e n d , n o t as b a r d . In d e e d , a l l
th e c o n v e rs a tio n poem s, w ith t h e i r N e o -P Ia to n ic v i s i o n o f a
harm onious u n iv e r s e , have to do c h i e f l y w ith f r ie n d s h ip in
th e sense o f te n d e rn e s s and lo v e f o r a n o th e r human b e in g ;
179
th e a l l e g o r i c a l re a d in g s o f th e Song o f Solomon lik e w is e
depend on th e p o e t 's b e g in n in g w ith a p a r t i c u l a r and h ig h ly
p e rs o n a l lo v e r e l a t i o n s h i p . S chulz h as drawn a t t e n t i o n to
th e s p o n ta n e ity and n a tu r a ln e s s o f th e c o n v e rs a tio n poems
w hich stem u l t i m a t e l y from C o le r id g e 's own a b i l i t i e s as a
t a l k e r . ^ I n a v o id in g a c tu a l d ra m a tic in te rc h a n g e — and one
h as o n ly to th in k o f th e f a i l u r e o f C o le r id g e 's a tte m p ts a t
dram a--h e fo llo w e d th e m ost e f f e c t i v e p o s s ib le p o e tic s t r a
tegy* c o n c e n tr a tin g on h i s p rim a ry t a l e n t .
C o le rid g e d e f t l y a l t e r n a t e s b etw een r e f l e c t i v e o r
d e s c r ip tiv e p a s s a g e s and a c tu a l d ia lo g u e , as f o r exam ple in
th e q u ie t and te n d e r l i n e s , p r e c i s e l y s e t betw een n a r r a t iv e
s e c tio n s , in R e fle c tio n s on h av in g l e f t a P lace o f R e tir e -
m en t:
. . • O ft w ith p a t i e n t e a r
L o n g -lis te n in g to th e v ie w le s s s k y - l a r k 's n o te
(V iew less, o r h a p ly f o r a moment se en
Gleam ing on sunny w in g s) in w h is p e r'd to n e s
I 'v e s a id to my B elo v ed , "Such, sw eet G ir lI
The in o b tr u s lv e song o f H a p p in e ss,
U n e a rth ly m in s tr e ls y ! th e n o n ly h e a rd
When th e S oul seek s to h e a r ; when a l l i s h u s h 'd ,
And th e H e a rt l i s t e n s ! "
(18- 26)
The h a p p in e ss o r jo y i s , o f c o u rs e , m u tu a l, r e f l e c t i n g th e
m u tu al in te rc h a n g e betw een th e p o e t 's m ind and outw ard
^?The Poetic Voices of Coleridge, p. 71.
180
n a t u r e . The c o tta g e o f th e lo v e r s I s "a B le sse d P la c e "
(1 7 ) t and th e lo v e rs a re b le s s e d b ecau se t h e i r lo v e Is
em blem atic o f th e p r i n c i p l e o f lo v e o r f r ie n d s h ip on w hich
th e N e o -P la to n ic and R om antic u n iv e rs e i s b u i l t . I n th e
mood o f m u tu al lo v e , th e n , C o le rid g e r e l a t e s how he clim b ed
a h i l l from w hich he had a view o f th e su rro u n d in g c o u n try
s id e and th e C hannel and in a " B le s t h o u r" (42) e n v is io n e d
i t as a m odel f o r th e e n t i r e u n iv e r s e :
. . .G o d , me th o u g h t
Had b u i l t him th e r e a Tem ple: th e w hole W orld
Seem’d im ag’d in i t s v a s t c irc u m fe re n c e :
No w ish p r o f a n ’d my overw helm ed h e a r t .
B le s t h o u r I t was a lu x u ry , —to be 1
(3 8 -4 2 )
The dream atm osphere o f t h i s "V a lle y o f S e c lu s io n " (9) in
w hich th e lo v e r s a re u t t e r l y u n to u ch ed b y th e a c tu a l w o rld
around them a g a in s u g g e s ts th e s e c lu d e d and i s o l a t e d g a rd e n
o f Solomon, w hich a ls o i s n e v e r th e le s s a m odel f o r an id e a l
u n iv e r s e . I t comes c lo s e to B la k e ’ s s t a t e o f B e u lah , w hich
i s a ls o th e e x p e rie n c e o f m u tu al lo v e , b u t w ith th e im p lic a
t i o n o f la n g u o r o r th e abandoning o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y in th e
w o rld . N e ith e r i s C o le rid g e unaw are o f th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
o f man in th e w o rld , how ever, f o r R e f le c tio n s a ls o c a r r i e s
fo rw a rd th e theme o f s o c i a l p ro g re s s tow ard an id e a liz e d
s o c ie ty ; h av in g had a g lim p se o f p a r a d is e in p e rs o n a l te rm s ,
th e p o e t th e n h a s th e d u ty to jo i n i n m an’ s e f f o r t s tow ard
a c h ie v in g a u n iv e r s a l a p o c a ly p s e . To a g r e a t e r d eg ree th a n
l8 l
The E o lia n H arp, th e poem depends on th e c o n tr a s t betw een
an I d e a liz e d w orld and an a c tu a l mundane one w hich m ust be
r e b u i l t . I t e n d s , a p p r o p r ia te ly , n o t o n ly in a C o le rid g e a n
f u s io n o r r e c o n c i l i a t i o n o f o p p o s ite s , b u t in a B i b l i c a l
v i s i o n o f a p o c a ly p s e , in w hich th e whole w o rld becomes a
g ard en o f ja sm in e , r o s e s , and m y r tle s :
. . . And t h a t a l l had su ch I
I t m ight be so —b u t th e tim e i s n o t y e t .
Speed i t , 0 F a th e r! L e t th y Kingdom come!
(69-71)
I n more C o le rid g e a n te rm s, i t I s th e n a tu r a n a tu ra n s —
th e dynamic p r i n c ip l e w orking b o th in th e e x te r n a l w o rld
and in man’ s m ind—w hich i s re v e a le d to C o le rid g e th ro u g h
th e n a tu r a n a t u r a t a , o r phenom enal w orld o f th e c o u n try s id e
and C hannel. So f a r in C o le rid g e ’ s p o e tr y , how ever, th e
em phasis i s alm ost e n t i r e l y upon th e i d y l l I t s e l f , w ith
l i t t l e I n d ic a tio n t h a t th e a c tu a l s t a t e o f m a rrie d l i f e may
be c h a r a c te r iz e d by a s p e c io u s n e s s , a p r e c a r io u s n e s s , w hich
make i t q u ite d i f f e r e n t from th e p o e tic w orld o f Solom on’ s
g a rd e n .
In T h is Lim e-T ree Bower M y P ris o n , re g a rd e d by one
c r i t i c as th e f i r s t u n q u a lif ie d su c c e ss among th e c o n v e rs a -
28
t i o n poem s, a to n e w hich was to become much more t y p i c a l
2®Among o th e r c r i t i c s , W atson ta k e s t h i s view ; see
C o le rid g e th e P o e t, p . 67*
182
o f C o le rid g e th a n th e e a r l i e r e n th u sia sm becomes e v id e n t.
An iro n y u n d e r lie s th e whole poem b ecau se o f th e d i s c r e
pancy betw een s e t t i n g and them e. As in th e e a r l i e r lo v e
poem s, th e s e t t i n g i s a g a rd e n , and s p e c i f i c a l l y a bow er,
th e f o c a l p o in t o f th e m arria g e hymn. I n The E o lia n Harp
and R e f le c tio n s , how ever, C o le rid g e had assum ed an i n t e r
dependence b etw een th e jo y o f u n io n in m a rria g e , r e l i g i o u s
u n d e rs ta n d in g , and v is io n a r y p e r c e p tio n o f th e e x te r n a l
w o rld . Now i t i s t h i s f u l l n e s s o r w holeness o f p e r c e p tio n ,
r e p r e s e n te d in th e image o f th e p o e t 's f r ie n d s " In g la d n e s s
a l l " (2 7 ) i n communion w ith n a tu r e , w hich he can no lo n g e r
assume as th e n a t u r a l s t a t e o f a f f a i r s . For n a tu r e , i f
th e m ind f a i l s to resp o n d im a g in a tiv e ly to i t , i s e s s e n t i a l
l y f ix e d and dead; i t s l i f e depends upon i t s tr a n s f o r m a tio n
by th e e s e m p la s tic power w hich i s s e t in m o tio n by th e
human w i l l . I t i s th e seem ing p a s s i v i t y o f th e mind w hich
a c t u a l l y p ro v es th e a c tiv e r o le o f th e m ind in p e r c e p tio n ,
f o r i t u lti m a t e ly le a d s th e p o e t b ack in to th e m a rria g e
v is i o n and th e c o n sc io u s e x e rc is e o f th e im a g in a tio n m ani
f e s t e d in th e pow er o f em pathy (W ordsw orth's "sy m p ath e tic
im a g in a tio n " ), by w hich he r e j o i n s h is company o f f r i e n d s :
. . . A d e lig h t
Comes sudden on my h e a r t , and I am g la d
As I m y se lf were th e r e I Nor in t h i s bow er,
T h is l i t t l e lim e - tr e e bow er, have I n o t m a rk 'd
Much t h a t h as s o o th 'd me.
tlj.3-47)
The iro n y o f th e s e t t i n g th u s tu r n s upon i t s e l f a s th e
f r i e n d ’s jo y i n th e n a t u r a l w o rld becomes th e p o e t’ s and a
p e r c e p tu a l m a rria g e i s consummated and c e le b r a te d in th e
lim e - tr e e bow er. C o le rid g e d is c o v e rs t h a t N atu re i s th e
b r id e who " n e ’e r d e s e r ts th e w ise and p u re " (6 0 ) b u t awakens
th e r e c e p tiv e s o u l " to Love and B eauty" (6lj.). One i s a g a in
rem inded o f th e e p ith a la m ic d ev ice stemming from th e Song
o f Solomons th e e x h o r ta tio n f o r th e lo v e r to aw ake. F or
B lak e, A lb io n ’ s s le e p and r e f u s a l to awaken f o r h i s b r id e
Je ru sa le m sym bolized man’ s f a l l e n s t a t e . I n T h is Lim e-Tree
Bower th e re i s a h i n t , how ever s l i g h t , o f m an’s f a l l o r
f a i l u r e in p e r c e p tio n , h i s a b i l i t y to see th e n a tu r a n a tu -
r a t a b u t n o t th e e s s e n t i a l n a tu r a n a tu ra n s in e x is te n c e .
As y e t , how ever, th e theme o f th e f a l l w hich C o le rid g e , l i k e
B lake and W ordsw orth, was to co n c eiv e o f as an e p is te m o lo g i-
c a l f a i l u r e , h ad n o t e n te r e d h i s p o e tr y w ith th e u rg en cy
w hich i t would have in l a t e r poem s. YJhat C o le rid g e h a s
e s ta b li s h e d in th e f i r s t th r e e c o n v e rs a tio n poems is th e
p o e tic r e a l i z a t i o n o f h i s c r i t i c a l d o c trin e t h a t a l l know
le d g e c o n s is ts in th e c o a le s c e n c e o f s u b je c t and o b je c t in
a d i a l e c t i c a l u n io n . The bow er image in T h is Lim e-T ree
Bower i s a t r a d i t i o n a l d e v ic e by w hich C o le rid g e r e in f o r c e s
and p ro v id e s an o b je c tiv e c o r r e l a t i v e f o r th e id e a w hich
would become th e s t r u c t u r a l p r i n c i p l e o f th e D e je c tio n o d e.
I n th e c o n v e rs a tio n poems o f th e fo llo w in g y e a r — F r o s t
a t M id n ig h t, F e a rs in S o litu d e , and The N ig h tin g a le , he
l8ij.
e v o lv e s th e form f u r t h e r , b o th in theme and In s t y l e , y e t
r e t a i n s i t s fu n d am en tal c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . In F r o s t a t Mid
n ig h t . C o le rid g e a g a in assum es th e te n d e r a t t i t u d e o f th e
Song o f S ongs, b u t t h i s tim e he a d d re s s e s n o t h i s w ife b u t
h i s c h i ld . N e ith e r a re th e r e any e x p l i c i t m a rria g e m eta
p h o rs . Yet th e p o e t ’ s v i s i o n o f th e one w o rld u n ite d by
God’ s p re s e n c e , as w e ll a s h i s e m p a th e tic m erging w ith th e
p r o je c te d mind o f h i s in f a n t so n , depend l a r g e l y f o r t h e i r
e f f e c t upon o u r u n d e rs ta n d in g th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e
mind and th e e x t e r n a l u n iv e rs e as an e p is te m o lo g ic a l u n io n
o r m a rria g e , in w hich each p a r tn e r g iv e s and e a c h r e c e iv e s .
I n com paring T h is L im e-T ree Bower w ith F r o s t a t M id n ig h t,
S chulz co n c lu d e s t h a t th e l a t t e r poem
. . . m ost c o m p le te ly r e a l i z e s a f u s io n o f form and con
t e n t in a com plex, b u t c o n t r o ll e d , s ta te m e n t ab o u t th e
a c t o f c o g n itio n . I n th e c o u rse o f th e poem th e p r o j e c t
in g mind o f th e p o e t engages w ith o b je c ts e x te r n a l to i t ,
r e tu r n in g a f t e r each e x p a n sio n o f th o u g h t w ith more in te n s e
aw areness o f th e p ro c e s s e s o f l i f e and i t s r e la t i o n s h i p to
them th a n i t had when th e poem b e g a n .2 9
C o le rid g e ’ s d o c trin e o f th e ex panding m ind i s a k in to
B la k e ’ s te n e t t h a t th e d o o rs o f p e r c e p tio n m ust be c le a n s e d
—f o r B lak e, th ro u g h an in c re a s e o f s e n s u a l en jo y m en t; f o r
C o le rid g e , th ro u g h a m a rria g e o r r e c o g n itio n on th e p a r t o f
th e a c tiv e mind o f i t s i d e n t i t y w ith th e n a tu r a n a t u r e s o r
2^The Poetic Voices of Coleridge, p. 92.
185
a c tiv e u n iv e r s e . As S ch u lz p o in ts o u t, C o le r id g e ’ s th o u g h ts
change In th e co u rse o f th e poem; by th e c o n c lu s io n ,
. . . th e p o e t h a s p ro g re s s e d from an unhappy r e j e c t i o n
o f th e "deep calm " o f m id n ig h t, in w hich th e " g o in g s -o n
o f l i f e " rem ain as im p e rc e p tib le to him as th e slow a c c u
m u la tio n o f f r o s t , to an im a g in a tiv e communion w ith " th e
lo v e ly shapes and sounds i n t e l l i g i b l e " o f th e " e te r n a l
la n g u a g e" o f n a tu r e w ith w hich God sp e ak s to m an.30
The f i n a l image o f th e poem, th e n , i s e p ith a la m ic in im p li
c a tio n , d e s p ite th e absence o f th e a c tu a l lo v e d ia lo g u e and
m a rria g e im agery o f th e e a r l i e r poem s. The f i n a l l i n e s o f
F ro s t a t M id n ig h t, a s S ch u lz h as s a id , b e a u t i f u l l y evoke
th e f e e l i n g o f " th e e t e r n a l o n en ess o f b e in g and i n f i n i t e
v a r i e t y o f becom ing w hich co m p rise n a tu r e . . . . The
a b s o lu te c o n v ic tio n o f to n e w ith w hich th e poem ends n e a r ly
o b s c u re s th e f a c t t h a t i t s im agined w o rld i s th e id e a li z e d
r e a l i t y o f N e o -P la to n ic and Rom antic p h ilo s o p h y , n o t th e
phenom enal w o rld w hich was c o n s ta n tl y o p p re s s in g C o lerid g e
more and more from t h i s tim e onw ard.
I n F e a rs in S o l i t u d e , C o le rid g e ’ s a t t e n t i o n s h i f t s to
th e s t r i f e - r i d d e n w orld o f w hich he was v e ry much a p a r t ,
d e s p ite h i s a tte m p ts to tra n s fo rm i t th ro u g h tr a n s c e n d e n ta l
p h ilo s o p h y and th e e x e rc is e o f th e im a g in a tio n in p o e tr y .
3 °The P o e tic V oices o f C o le r id g e , p p . 93-9lj..
^ The P o e tic V oices o f C o le rid g e , p . 96.
186
Once m ore, he opens w ith th e p h y s ic a l d e s c r ip tio n o f a
n a t u r a l p a ra d is e --" A g re e n and s i l e n t s p o t, am id th e h i l l s "
( 1 ) , l i k e Solom on’ s g a rd e n . Amid th e n a t u r a l f u rz e g a rd e n
and th e song o f th e l a r k , man’s th o u g h ts n a t u r a l l y le a d him
to " a m e d ita tiv e joy" (23) in th e d is c o v e ry o f " R e lig io u s
m eanings i n th e form s o f N atu re" (21).). But th e man " . . .
who would f u l l f a i n p r e s e r v e / H i s s o u l in calm ness . . . "
(30- 3 1 ) can n o t escap e th e heavy and p e n siv e c o n s c io u s n e s s
o f man’ s s u f f e r in g i n th e w o rld . Prom t h i s p o in t on, th e
p o e t i s co n c ern ed c h i e f ly w ith h i s v is io n o f t h i s w orld as
a k in d o f n ig h tm are e x is te n c e , in w hich "The sw eet w ords /
Of C h r is t ia n p ro m ise" (63-61).) become m ere p la titu d i n o u s
m u tte rin g s to o b sc u re o r d i s t o r t m an 's d e s tr u c tiv e im p u lses
and a c tio n s in s o c ie ty . A gain, i t i s em pathy w hich le a d s
C o le rid g e to m e d ita te upon m an 's a c tu a l c o n d itio n in an
im p e rfe c t w o rld , b u t t h i s tim e h i s e m p a th e tic re sp o n se
th r e a te n s to s h a t t e r h is v is i o n o f th e id e a liz e d one w o rld .
S t i l l , h is hopes are f o r E n g la n d 's f u tu r e as h i s th o u g h ts
a t th e end o f th e poem tu r n once more to God and to lo v e f o r
h u m an ity . A lthough C o le rid g e was k e e n ly aware o f th e d i s
crep a n cy b etw een th e w o rld as i t i s and th e w o rld as he
would remake i t , he n e v e r th e le s s c o u ld s t i l l f i n d c o n s o la tio n
in h i s c o n v ic tio n in a C h r is tia n ap o caly p se in w hich th e
whole u n iv e rs e w i l l be remade in to a v a s t g a rd e n .
187
Much th e same to n e Inform s The N ig h tin g a le , founded on
C o le rid g e ! s f r ie n d s h ip f o r th e W ordsw orths b u t e x te n d in g a s
w e ll to th e q u e s tio n o f p e r c e p tu a l a w a re n ess, li k e th e e a r
l i e r poem s. B eg in n in g w ith th e t r a d i t i o n a l image o f th e
n ig h tin g a le as a m e lan c h o ly b i r d and hen ce th e v o ic e o f
s u f f e r in g h u m an ity , C o le rid g e th e n in v e r t s t h a t image to
e x p re s s h i s jo y in th e n a tu r a n a tu ra n s w hich h ere m a n ife s ts
i t s e l f as a grove o f n ig h ti n g a le s engaged in what alm o st
seems to be a p aro d y o f human c o n v e rs a tio n . C o le rid g e i s
a b le to m a in ta in h i s v is i o n o f th e e p is te m o lo g ic a l m a rria g e
in "th e one L ife w ith in us and ab ro ad " th ro u g h h is f a i t h in
th e m in is tr y o f n a t u r e . As M a rsh a ll S u th e r h a s a rg u e d ,
C o le rid g e , l i k e th e o th e r R om antics,
. . . re d is c o v e re d th e p o e tic e x p e rie n c e o f n a t u r e , o r a t
l e a s t th e y had a c h ie v e d a new aw aren ess o f i t . They b e
came c o n s c io u s o f t h a t e x p e rie n c e a s a th in g in i t s e l f ,
in d ep en d en t o f i t s su b se q u e n t e l a b o r a tio n in a work . .
......................th e y came to see t h i s e x p e rie n c e as a means o f
know ledge, im m ed iate, e x p e rie n c e d know ledge as opposed to
d is c u r s iv e , a b s t r a c t , s c i e n t i f i c know ledge. Such imme
d ia te know ledge by e x p e rie n c e o f th e th in g known . . . i s
v e ry c lo s e to th e m y s tic a l e x p e rie n c e , and e a s i l y confused
w ith i t , w ith a d i r e c t know ledge by e x p e rie n c e o f th e
A b s o lu te .32
W hatever m y s tic a l and a n a g o g ic a l im p lic a tio n s have
b ee n se en in th e Song o f Songs by i t s i n t e r p r e t e r s p a r a -
32The__Dark N ig h t o f Samuel T a y lo r C o le rid g e (New Y ork.
I 9 6 0 ) , p p . li}.l-ll|2 .
188
d o x ic a lly have t h e i r so u rce in two p rim a ry f a c t s : F i r s t ,
in c e le b r a tin g th e p h y s ic a l u n io n o f Solomon and h i s b r i d e ,
th e Song i s b a se d upon a p a r t i c u l a r h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t; and
se co n d , th e im agery o f th e Song i s v iv id l y s e n s u a l. As
S ta n le y S te w a rt h a s p o in te d o u t, t h i s seco n d f e a t u r e u n d e r
s ta n d a b ly p e rtu rb e d th e B i b l i c a l i n t e r p r e t e r s u n t i l , by
means o f th e f o u r f o ld m ethod, th e y c o u ld re a d th e Song
a l l e g o r i c a l l y . Y et th e a l l e g o r i c a l re a d in g c o u ld h a r d ly
escap e th e e l e v a t io n o f m a rria g e to a new d ig n it y and s i g
n if ic a n c e :
The c o n s e c ra te d lo v e o f m a rrie d c o u p le s c o u ld be se e n as
a h ie ro g ly p h ic shadow ing f o r t h th e Form o f i t s h e a v e n ly
c o u n te r p a r t. B ecause o f t h i s co m p ariso n , R o b ert C ro fte
co u ld arg u e t h a t any d e n ig r a tio n o f e a r t h l y lo v e , p e r s e ,
was tan tam o u n t to blasphem y. Love i s a c r e a t i o n o f God;
i t m ir r o rs h i s m a g n ific e n c e , h i s p ro d u c tiv e p o w ers. And
i f p r o p e r ly em ployed, ev en th e lo v e o f th e w o rld i s a
means o f s p i r i t u a l a s c e n t . . . .33
L ike W ordsw orth— and e s p e c i a lly d u rin g th e N eth er
Stowey p e r io d — C o lerid g e c o u ld e n v is io n a m a rria g e b etw een
m an 's mind and n a tu r e , and d e s c rib e n a tu re as a b r id e in
term s a t once s e n s u a l and s p i r i t u a l . A lthough th e m u ltip le
m eanings o f th e m a rria g e m etaphor a re n o t f u l l y r e a l i z e d
u n t i l th e D e.le ctio n o d e, C o le rid g e se e s n a tu re in much t h i s
way in The N ig h tin g a le . The grove o f b i r d s , p r i s t i n e in i t s
33?he Enclosed Garden, p. 23.
189
d e s e r te d lo c a ti o n , i s a n o th e r o f C o le r id g e 's n a t u r a l g a r
d e n s, whose harmony i s sy m b o lized by th e p e r p e tu a l c e l e s t i a l
m usic o f th e n ig h ti n g a le s , w ith i t s m a g ic a l pow er o v e r th e
p o e t 's m ind. The b ir d s c o n v e rse h arm o n io u sly :
I n wood and t h i c k e t , o v e r th e w ide g ro v e ,
They answ er and provoke each o t h e r ’ s song,
W ith s k irm is h and c a p r ic io u s p a s s a g in g s ,
And murmurs m u sic a l and s w if t Jug Jug,
And one low p ip in g sound more sw eet th a n a l l —
S t i r r i n g th e a i r w ith such a harm ony,
T hat sh o u ld you c lo s e y o u r e y e s, you m ight alm o st
F o rg e t i t was n o t day I
(S7-6lf)
The n ig h tin g a le s occupy a w orld o u ts id e and above th e
mundane o n e; " t h e i r ey es b o th b r ig h t and f u l l " (6 7 )* l i k e
th e . g l i t t e r i n g eyes o f th e A n cien t M a rin er and G e ra ld in e ,
su g g e st t h a t th e y b e lo n g to a p r e t e r n a t u r a l e x is te n c e w hich
i s s tr a n g e ly b u t n e c e s s a r i ly lin k e d to th e w o rld o f n a t u r e .
D e sp ite th e n a t u r a l s e t t i n g , th e g ard en o f th e n ig h tin g a le s
i s a dream -w orld in th e same way t h a t th e g a rd e n o f K ubla
Khan i s a dream -w orld. In b o th c a se s th e i n t e n s i t y o f se n
s u a l p e r c e p tio n le a d s th e p o e t to s u p e r- s e n s u a l p e r c e p tio n .
The a c tu a l s u b je c t o f th e poem, w hich does n o t become c l e a r
u n t i l th e l a s t s ta n z a , i s th e p o e t 's w ish o r p r a y e r t h a t
H a r tle y w i l l someday be a b le to dw ell i n su ch a company in
th e u n iv e r s a l g ard en o f a p e r c e p tu a l ap o caly p se founded on
m a n 's a c c e p ta n c e o f th e s p i r i t w orld in n a tu r e . L ike th o s e
o f th e b i r d s , th e l i t t l e b o y 's ey es " g l i t t e r in th e y e llo w
moon-beam" (10j?), Im plying th e c o n n e c tio n w hich th e p o e t
190
f o r e s e e s n o t o n ly f o r H a r tle y b u t f o r a l l men in th e v i
s io n a ry f u t u r e . He co n c lu d e s in th e c o n v e rs a tio n a l to n e :
I t i s a f a t h e r 's t a l e : But i f t h a t Heaven
S hould g iv e me l i f e , h i s c h ild h o o d s h a l l grow up
F a m ilia r w ith th e s e so n g s, t h a t w ith th e n ig h t
He may a s s o c ia te jo y .
(106-109)
W ith The N ig h tin g a le we come to th e end o f th e s e r i e s
o f c o n v e rs a tio n poems w r i t t e n b e fo re C o le rid g e met S a ra
H u tc h in so n and in d e e d to th e end o f th e p e r io d in th e p o e t's
l i f e c h a r a c te r iz e d b y h i s g r e a t e s t hopes f o r th e f u tu r e o f
m ankind and f o r h i s own s u c c e s s f u l i n t e g r a t i o n in to an i d e a l
f a m ily , s o c i a l , n a t u r a l , and m e ta p h y s ic a l m ilie u . C o le
r i d g e 's r e a l and supposed f a i l u r e as a husband and as a
f a t h e r , a s w e ll as S o u th e y 's seem in g ly a b je c t b e h a v io r in
r e j e c t i n g th e P a n tis o c r a c y schem e, w ere l a r g e l y com pensated
f o r by h i s c lo s e n e s s to th e W ordsw orths and h i s en th u sia sm
f o r th e j o i n t p r o j e c t w hich w ould c u lm in a te in th e L y r ic a l
B a lla d s . He h ad n o t y e t s u f f e r e d th e m ost se v e re e f f e c t s
o f h i s opium a d d ic tio n and he c o u ld s t i l l m a in ta in a v is io n
o f o rd e r b y w hich he c o u ld h o ld a t bay th e n ig h tm are w orld
w hich alw ays th r e a te n e d to in v ad e h i s c o n s c io u s n e s s . T h is
f e a r f u l v is i o n o f l i f e a s p o t e n t i a l n ig h tm a re , p a i n f u l l y
docum ented in h i s l e t t e r s , alw ays looms a t th e edge o f C o le
r i d g e 's v is io n a r y p a r a d i s e , l i k e S a ta n a t th e b r in k o f E den.
Edward E . B o s te tte r h a s arg u ed t h a t th e su b co n scio u s f e a r s
o f th e n ig h tm are a re th e r e a l b a s is o f th e g ro te sq u e w o rld
191
o f The A ncient M a rin e r. ^ I t i s te m p tin g , m oreover, to
th in k o f th e p o e tic dream -w orld w hich C o le rid g e c o n s tr u c ts
- - n o t o n ly in Kubla Khan, b u t i n th e e a r l y lo v e p o e tr y as
w e ll— as a p s y c h o lo g ic a lly n e c e s s a ry a l t e r n a t i v e to th e
ac c e p tan c e o f a p a s s iv e and s t u l t i f y i n g r e a l i t y w hich he
knew o n ly to o w e ll and w hich alw ays seemed to him to ap
p ro a c h th e verge o f an a c tu a l n ig h tm are e x is te n c e . As t h a t
c o n d itio n became more and more a p e rs o n a l r e a l i t y f o r him ,
one m ight w e ll e x p e c t C o le rid g e ’ s need f o r a v ia b le a l t e r
n a tiv e to become c o rre s p o n d in g ly more c o m p e llin g .
But in 1797> a t N e th e r Stow ey w ith th e W ordsw orths and
f u l l o f th e e x c ite m e n t o f th e L y r ic a l B a lla d s p ro p o s a l, th e
n ig h tm are w orld o f d isa p p o in tm e n t, i r r a t i o n a l i t y , s u f f e r i n g ,
and s p i r i t u a l doubt seemed rem ote in d e e d . In h i s th r e e
g r e a t p o e tic ex p e rim en ts o f th a t y e a r - -The A n cien t M a rin e r,
th e f i r s t p a r t o f C h r is ta b e l, and K ubla K h a n ^ — C o lerid g e
a t f i r s t seems to d iv e rg e f u r t h e s t from h is u s u a l p o e tic
s ta te m e n t, e s p e c i a lly from th e in te n s e l y p e rs o n a l and ego
c e n t r i c q u a lity o f h is e a r l i e r w ork, and even th e lo v e
r e l a t i o n s h i p , w ith a l l i t s N e o -P la to n ic o v e rto n e s , w hich had
^•"T he N ightm are W orld o f The A n cie n t M a rin e r," S tu d ie s
i n R om anticism . I (Summer 1 9 6 2 ), 2J 4 .I-252j.#
^ A lth o u g h th e r e s t i l l e x i s t s some doubt as to th e
e x a c t d a te o f Kubla Khan. I have t e n t a t i v e l y a c c e p te d th e
1797 d a tin g ; f o r th e p u rp o se s o f my arg u m en t, th e p r e c is e
d a te o f c o m p o sitio n makes l i t t l e d if f e r e n c e .
192
form ed th e c h ie f b a s is o f h i s p o e tr y . Upon c l o s e r in s p e c
t i o n , how ever, th e th r e e poems r e v e a l no e s s e n t i a l d e p a rtu re
from th e m ain co n c ern s o f C o le rid g e ’ s p o e try e i t h e r b e fo re
o r a f t e r 1797* Taken as a g ro u p , th e y may be u n d e rs to o d as
c o n s t i t u t i n g an a tte m p t b y C o le rid g e to r e c o n c ile th e two
p rim a ry o p p o s ite s in h i s own l i f e —th e view o f l i f e as
n ig h tm are w ith th e view o f l i f e as dream , th e l a t t e r in
term s w hich had alw ays b e e n i n t e g r a l to th e e p ith a la m ic
t r a d i t i o n .
I n h i s h ig h ly i n f l u e n t i a l e s s a y , R o b ert Penn W arren
h as p la c e d The A n cie n t M arin er in th e p h ilo s o p h ic a l and
e p is te m o lo g ic a l c o n te x t o f C o le rid g e ’ s p o e try by re a d in g th e
poem as an e x p re s s io n o f th e "One L ife " c e le b r a te d in The
E o lia n H a r p . 36 T hrough th e agony o f h i s e x p e rie n c e , th e
M arin er i s g ra n te d a " s a c ra m e n ta l v is io n " o f th e d iv in e
u n it y w hich b in d s to g e th e r a l l l i v i n g th in g s ; in f e e l i n g
"a gush o f lo v e " f o r th e s e a -s n a k e s , he
. . . i s a b le to p ra y ; i s r e tu r n e d m ira c u lo u s ly to h i s
home p o r t , where h e d is c o v e rs th e jo y o f human communion
in God, and u t t e r s th e m o ra l, "He p r a y e th b e s t who lo v e th
b e s t , e t c . "37
T h u s, f o r W arren, th e d ra m a tiz e d w o rld o f th e poem i s some-
3&The Rime o f th e A n cien t M a rin e r, w ith an E ssa y by
R o b e rt Penn W arren (New Y ork, 1 9ij-6) , p . 7 8 .
^ W a rre n , p . 7 8 .
193
how an alo g o u s to C o le rid g e ’ s m o ral, p h ilo s o p h ic a l, r e l i
g io u s , and m e ta p h y sic a l th o u g h t, w hich i s founded on th e
n e c e s s ity o f th e p r in c ip l e o f lo v e . Y e t, as B o s te tt e r h as
p o in te d o u t in h i s r e f u t a t i o n o f t h i s t r a d i t i o n a l p o s i t i o n ,
th e u n iv e rs e o f The A n cien t M arin er is one w hich c o u ld o n ly
be u t t e r l y rep u g n an t to th e mind o f i t s a u th o r, whose whole
i n t e l l e c t u a l e f f o r t was d ir e c te d to w ard s a c h ie v in g an id e a l
o f o rd e r in l i f e . B o s t e t t e r i n t e r p r e t s th e "m o ral1 1 as
b e in g ir o n ic in th e " l u r i d l i g h t " o f th e M a rin e r’s t a l e —
an exemplum o f u n w a rra n te d s u f f e r in g and m e rc ile s s c r u e lty
in a w o rld w ith o u t e i t h e r re a s o n o r em o tio n :
I n s te a d o f th e "One L ife " we a re c o n fro n te d a t th e end o f
th e poem by th e e t e r n a l l y a lie n a te d M arin er a l i e n a t i n g in
h i s tu r n th e W edding-G uest, f o r th e G uest i s rob b ed o f h is
h a p p in e s s and th e sp o n tan eo u s p a r t i c i p a t i o n in th e m ar
r ia g e f e a s t (which i s r e a l l y th e "one l i f e " ) and fo rc e d
to sh a re th e d i s i l l u s i o n e d wisdom and g u i l t o f th e M ari
n e r . 39
I t i s th e f e a r t h a t i r r a t i o n a l and v in d ic tiv e f o r c e s r e a l l y
dom inate th e a c tu a l w o rld , B o s te tte r a rg u e s , w hich
• . . The Rime r e f l e c t s and p la y s upon. I t p r e s e n ts i t
s e l f as th e p a ra b le o f th e man who r e f u s e s to b e lie v e in
th e t r a d i t i o n a l cosmos and e x p re s se s h i s contem pt and
d i s b e l i e f by an a c t t h a t p ro v o k es th e cosmos in to r e a f f irm
ing i t s e l f in i t s m ost o u tra g e o u s and a r b i t r a r y fo rra .4 °
38"The Nightmare World," p . 2f?l.
39"The Nightmare World," pp. 2i|.6-2if.7.
^•°"The Nightmare World," p . 2£3.
1 9 1 |.
S in ce " th e poem i s m olded and shaped by C o le rid g e ’ s f e a r s , "
i t need have n o th in g w h a te v e r to do w ith any o f h i s co n
s c io u s ly h e ld b e l i e f s o r a ttitu d e s .^ - - 1 - The u s u a l id e a s about
C h r is tia n f a i t h w hich b o th th e W edding-G uest and th e re a d e r
p resu m ab ly a c c e p t, a re th e v e ry id e a s w hich th e i r r a t i o n a l
n ig h tm are w orld c a l l s in to s u s p ic io n , so t h a t th e M a rin e r’s
t a l e g iv e s C o le rid g e th e o p p o r tu n ity to in d u lg e h i s own
s u p e r s t i t i o u s f e a r s to th e f u l l e s t . ^
W hatever im pulse le d to i t s c r e a t i o n , th e n ig h tm a re
w o rld o f th e A n cien t M arin er v i v i d l y d ra m a tiz e s th e fu n d a
m e n tal d u alism w ith w hich C o le rid g e resp o n d ed to e x p e rie n c e ,
e v e n d u rin g th e p e r io d o f h i s g r e a t e s t h a p p in e s s . I f , as
W halley s t a t e s , The N ig h tin g a le i s ab o u t th e triu m p h o f
P a n tis o c r a c y in lim i te d t e r m s , ^ th e n The A n cien t M arin er
i s about th e f a i l u r e o f th e r a t i o n a l mind to cope w ith i t s
u n iv e r s e . The w o rld o f th e M a rin e r is one w hich i s r a d i
c a l l y opposed to th e N e o -P la to n ic p r in c ip l e o f an a l l - i n f o r
m ing lo v e and a b e n e v o le n t God. F u rth e rm o re , i f one re a d s
th e poem in th e c o n te x t o f C o le r id g e ’s e a r l i e r and l a t e r
e p ith a la m ic p o e tr y , th e r o le o f th e W eddlng-G uest may be
s e e n to h o ld much g r e a t e r sym bolic im p lic a tio n s th a n th e
c r i t i c s have re c o g n iz e d .
^ " T h e N ightm are W o rld ," p . 2f>2.
^2"The N ightm are W orld," p . 2lj.9.
^ C o le rid g e and S a ra H u tc h in so n , p . lU j..
195
As B o s te tte r has remarked, i t i s th e v is io n o f the "One
L ife" which th e Mariner h im se lf th rea ten s to s h a tte r w ith in
s o c ie ty ; the keynote o f the W edding-G uest*s r e a c tio n to him
i s ep itom ized in th e word " fear." I t i s not sim ply the
w orld o f everyday commonplace r e a l i t y which th e Guest rep
r e s e n ts , however, but ra th er the dream-world w hich C oleridge
had in c e s s a n tly attem pted to co n stru ct out o f th e chaos o f
ex p e r ie n c e . Thus th e in te r m itte n t s h i f t s o f scen e from the
M ariner’ s t a le to the cu rren t s it u a tio n o f the wedding
ceremony, although th ey serve to make c r e d ib le th e grotesque
s to r y and act as a f o i l , fu n c tio n c h ie f ly to superim pose
th e dream upon the nightm are. A ll o f the r e fe r e n c e s to the
n u p tia l f e a s t draw d ir e c t ly upon th e tr a d itio n o f th e e p i-
thalamium; a l l su g g est the world o f id e a l order and harmony
w hich d is s o lv e s under th e sc r u tin y o f the M ariner’s g l i t
te r in g e y e . The iro n y , th en , is n ot o n ly in th e C h r istia n
moral which th e Mariner u tt e r s at th e end o f th e poem, but
a ls o in the ju x ta p o s itio n o f t r a d it io n a l ep ith a la m ic imagery
a g a in st the^chaos o f th e nightm are. The c o n tr a st i s e s ta b
lis h e d e a r ly in the poem, as "the loud bassoon" announces
th e entrance o f the b rid e in to the p r o c e ssio n :
The b rid e h ath paced in to the h a l l ,
Red as a ro se is she;
Nodding t h e ir heads b efo re h er goes
The merry m in s tr e ls y .
(33-36)
196
The d e s c r ip tio n is d e l i b e r a t e l y c o n v e n tio n a l—even to th e
s to c k com parison o f th e b r id e to a ro s e and th e f a c i l e
a l l i t e r a t i o n o f th e l a s t two w ords— "m erry m in s tr e ls y ."
Im m ed iately a f t e r t h i s p i c t u r e , C o le rid g e tu r n s to th e M ari
n e r ^ acco u n t o f " th e S to rm -b la s t" (tj.1) in th e la n d o f ic e
and snow. The c o n t r a s t is d i r e c t and i r o n i c a l , e s p e c i a l l y
i f one remembers t h a t f o r C o le rid g e a s f o r W ordsw orth th e
w ind image i s am biguous, s u g g e s tin g b o th c r e a t i o n and d e s
t r u c t i o n . The b a sso o n , l i k e th e w in d -h a rp , g iv e s f o r t h a
k in d o f c e l e s t i a l m usic in a s s e r t i n g th e u n iv e r s a l harm ony
imaged in th e m arjriage f e a s t . L a te r , C o le rid g e w ould use
th e image o f a "Wind, t h a t r a v 's t w ith o u t" and, l i k e th e
te m p est in King L e a r, mocks th e c e l e s t i a l m usic by r e
a s s e r t i n g th e f o r c e s o f chaos and d is s o lu tio n .^ J -
The W edding-G uest1s f e a r a t th e b e g in n in g o f P a r t IV
i s s p e c i f i c a l l y th e f e a r t h a t th e r e a l i t y o f th e M arin e r* s
t a l e w ill d e s tro y th e r e a l i t y o f th e o rd e re d u n iv e rs e w hich
i s im p l ic i t in th e w edding f e a s t . As th e M arin er t e l l s him ,
th e t a l e h a s p a r t i c u l a r re le v a n c e f o r him :
I p a s s , l i k e n ig h t, from la n d to la n d ;
I have s tra n g e pow er o f sp e ech ;
T h at moment t h a t h i s fa c e I s e e ,
I know th e man t h a t m ust h e a r me:
To him my t a l e I te a c h . (586-590)
^■The l i n e , o f c o u rs e , i s from D e .le c tio n , w hich I s h a l l
d is c u s s a t le n g th l a t e r in t h i s c h a p te r .
197
And a gain C oleridge ju x ta p o ses the M ariner's nightm are world
w ith th e W eddlng-G uest's dream -world, as the n ex t stan za
r i s e s to an ir o n ic p itc h o f in t e n s it y w ith th e image o f the
b rid e in the garden-bow er, th e t r a d itio n a l f o c a l p o in t o f
the m arriage hymn:
What loud uproar b u r sts from th a t door!
The w ed d in g-gu ests are th e re :
But in the garden-bower th e bride
And b rid e-m aid s sin g in g are:
And hark the l i t t l e v esp er b e l l ,
Which b id d eth me to p rayer!
(S91-S95)
I t i s th e M ariner's v is io n o f s p ir it u a l and s o c ia l is o la tio n
w hich so p rofoun dly undermines th e p a n tis o c r a tic v is io n o f
u n ity sym bolized by th e bower. When th e Weddlng-Guest
co n seq u en tly turns away from the bridegroom 's door "A sadder
and a w ise r man" (6 2 l|), he fin d s h im s e lf separated from
ev ery th in g o f va lu e in l i f e .
I t i s t h is se p a r a tio n o f the in d iv id u a l co n scio u sn ess
from any sen se o f community, in b oth s o c ia l and cosm ological
term s, w hich i s fo r C oleridge th e eq u iv a len t o f th e P a ll o f
Man. As J . B. Beer has shown, C olerid ge read th e N eo -P la to -
n ic w r itin g s o f Thomas T aylor w ith g r e a t a v id ity , e s p e c ia lly
T a y lo r 's tr a n s la tio n o f the myth o f Cupid and P sych e, which
was p u b lish ed in 179£ " . . . w ith a t r e a t is e in te r p r e tin g
198
i t as th e s e a rc h o f th e so u l f o r I t s l o s t l o v e r . C o l e
rid g e m ust have se en th e s i m i l a r i t y betw een T a y lo r ’ s a l l e
g o r ic a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e m yth and th e a l l e g o r i c a l o r
a n a g o g ic a l re a d in g o f th e Song o f Songs a c c o rd in g to w hich
th e b r id e i s th e s o u l o f man lo n g in g f o r d iv in e u n io n w ith
God, P erhaps even more im p o rta n t an in flu e n c e on th e p o e t's
th o u g h t a t t h i s tim e , th o u g h , was th e c a b b a l i s t i c d o c trin e
o f th e " S h e c h in a h ," r e f e r e n c e s to w hich a p p e a r s e v e r a l tim es
in h i s n o te b o o k s.^-6 As B eer sum m arizes i t , th e p rim a ry
d is tin g u is h in g f e a tu r e o f c a b b a l i s t i c b e l i e f o v er o th e r
d o c trin e s w ith w hich C o le rid g e was f a m il i a r
. . . i s i t s g r e a t e r em phasis on th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een
th e s e x u a l and th e d iv in e . In o th e r w o rd s, th e d iv in e
c r e a tiv e a c t i v i t y , l i k e t h a t o f human b e in g s in p r o c r e
a tio n , i s th o u g h t o f as a jo y f u l d i a l e c t i c b etw een male
and fem ale e le m e n ts . T h e ir com ing to g e th e r , known as th e
m a rriag e o f th e King and th e M atrona, i r r a d i a t e s a d iv in e
l i g h t , c a lle d th e " S h e c h in a h ." W herever th e d iv in e c r e
a tiv e f o r c e s a re a t w ork, th e r e a ls o is th e S h ech in ah .V7
In c a b b a l i s t i c te rm s , th e P a ll i s th e s e p a r a tio n o f th e m ale
and fem ale p r i n c i p l e s , th e d iv is io n from one body to tw o.
The l o s t S h ech in ah can be re g a in e d by man, b u t o n ly " . . .
a t r a r e moments o f e x a lta tio n - - o n e o f them b e in g when com-
^Coleridge the Visionary, p. 58.
^ Coleridge the Visionary, p. 59.
Coleridge the Visionary, p. 59.
199
p le t e lo v e and harmony e x i s t betw een a man and a woman.
The reco v ery o f th e S h ech in ah --th e renew al o f the magic
c i r c l e o f u n ity sym b olized , f o r exam ple, by Adam and Eve
again jo in in g hands a f t e r b ein g turned out o f Eden at the
end o f P arad ise L o st- - i s p r e c is e ly the even t which i s c e l e
b rated in the epithalam ium ; n o t a d en ia l o f th e P a ll, but a
c o n tin u a l r e a s s e r tio n o f man's a b i l i t y to r e g a in the s t a te
o f p a r a d ise . F u rth er, C olerid ge was w e ll aware o f th e
E gyp tian myth o f th e m y stic a l m arriage o f I s i s and O s ir is ,
y e t another example o f man's c o n v ic tio n in the p o s s i b i l i t y
o f h is redem ption from a f a l l e n w orld, and one ex p ressed as
a g re a t c u ltu r a l or e p ic epithalam ium . Like M ilto n , C ole
rid g e cou ld in te r p r e t th e E gyptian myth as a corrupt v er sio n
o f B ib lic a l tr u th —the c a b b a lis t ic ". . . id ea o f a S p ir i
tu a l Redeemer, and a m y stic r e c o n c ilia t io n and rem arriage
o f the rep u d ia ted Spouse to h er c e l e s t i a l L o v e r .
In h is in te r p r e ta tio n o f The A ncient M ariner, Beer
s t r e s s e s C o le r id g e 's " . . . in t e r e s t in th e ' l o s t Shechinah'
as a way o f ex p ressin g th e d iscrep an cy betw een the w orld o f
mankind and th e id e a l o r d e r . A c c o r d i n g to B eer, he does
^ Coleridge the Visionary, p. 59.
^Coleridge the Visionary, p. 60.
^ Coleridge the Visionary, p. l l i j . .
so b y a d a p tin g th e m yth o f I s i s , O s i r i s , and Typhon th e
d e s tr o y e r . A fte r Typhon h a s to r n th e body o f O s ir is asu n
d e r , " . . . I s i s i s c o n s ta n tly and p a t i e n t l y se e k in g to
f in d th e p ie c e s and r e s to r e h e r l o s t h u s b a n d ." ^ - In The
W anderings o f C ain , w hich e v id e n tly le d C o le rid g e d i r e c t l y
to th e c o m p o sitio n o f The A n cien t M a rin e r, C ain was to
r e p r e s e n t what B eer term s th e "T yphonian p r in c ip l e " o r
d e s tr o y e r , Enos th e com plem entary red em p tiv e p r i n c i p l e . ^
B oth A bel, th e "G od -lo v in g p r i n c i p l e ," and C ain, th e M 3e l f -
lo v in g p r i n c i p l e , " a re a s p e c ts o f th e in d iv id u a l s o u l in
th e m y s tic a l l i t e r a t u r e (in c lu d in g Boehme) w hich d e a lt w ith
th e s to r y o f C ain and Abel and w hich C o le rid g e r e a d . As
Beer im p lie s th ro u g h o u t h i s d is c u s s io n , C o le rid g e a c c e p te d
th e b a s ic c o n tr a s t b etw een m an 's u n f a lle n s t a t e sym bolized
by m a rria g e , w ith a l l i t s N e o -P la to n ic and m y s tic a l a s s o c i
a t io n s , and h i s f a l l e n s t a t e sy m bolized by th e lo s s o f th e
S h ech in ah o r g r e a t d iv o rc e o f th e s e lfh o o d from th e human
and s p i r i t u a l com m unity.
Now th e id e a o f the S h ech in ah in th e C abbala I s founded
upon th e harm onious and id e a li z e d u n iv e rs e b e fo re m an 's f a l l
and th e d is c o rd a n t, f r a c tu r e d u n iv e rs e a f t e r h is f a l l . I n
^ C o le r id g e th e V is io n a ry , p . l l £ .
£2C o le rid g e th e V is io n a ry , p . 123.
201
h is p r e s e n ta tio n o f Eden in P aradise L o st, M ilton makes a
s im ila r c o n tr a s t. To show Eden as p a ra d ise he n ot o n ly
fo llo w s th e t r a d it io n o f p ic tu r in g i t as a garden p la n ted
by God, but u n d e r lin e s th e id e a liz e d m arriage u n ion o f Adam
and Eve c o n fla tin g p rayer and epithalam ium : Adam’ s e x p e r i
ence o f joy in the c r e a tio n o f th e world i s ep itom ized in
th e jo y w hich ta k es in Eve; thus h is th a n k fu l p rayers to
God o fte n become s p e c if ic statem en ts o f h is rapture in Eve,
God’ s g r e a te s t g i f t to him and hence the supreme testam en t
to the sp len d or o f the c r e a tio n . I t i s , l o g i c a l l y , t h is
ep ith a la m ic imagery which inform s th e v is io n o f r e sto r ed
u n ity in the second g rea t sym bolic garden in the Old T e sta
ment— the garden o f Solomon w hich i s a ls o , m eta p h o ric a lly ,
h is b r id e .
Like B o s te tte r , Beer re c o g n iz e s th a t the world o f the
Mariner seems to be one o f e x c e s s iv e c r u e lty and e n d le ss
punishm ent, but Beer e x p la in s such a w orld by a ssig n in g i t
to th e M ariner’s v is io n , not to C o le r id g e 's . In a ra th er
Blakean manner, Beer su g g e sts th a t th ere are two suns in
th e poem --the sun w hich sym bolizes God as th e source o f a l l
lig h t and goodness in the u n iv erse (C o le r id g e 's C h r istia n
God), and th e sun w hich, through the M ariner's f a l l e n and
thus d is to r te d v is i o n , can o h ly appear as the "angry 'Ty
phonian' sun," th e Old Testament God o f vengeance whose
202
w o rsh ip can o n ly be a n t i t h e t i c a l to a l l o f C o le r id g e 's co n
s c io u s ly h e ld r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s . ^3 s in c e "we r e c e iv e b u t
w hat we g iv e ," each in d iv id u a l p e r c e p tu a lly c r e a te s h is own
"su n " o r c o n c e p tio n o f God; th e M a rin e r, h av in g b ro k en th e
c i r c l e o f harm ony by k i l l i n g th e a l b a t r o s s , b rin g s about
h i s own punishm ent in th e w o rld w hich he p e r c e iv e s . What
he does p e rc e iv e i s in d eed a n ig h tm are w o rld , and as such
i s a d i r e c t in v e r s io n o f th e dream -w orld o f th e e p i t h a l a
mium, th e realm o f th e W edding-G uest.
The d ream lik e q u a l i t y o f C o le r id g e 's e p ith a la m ic v is io n
i s p erh ap s m ost e v id e n t in th e poem w hich he c a lle d "a
v i s i o n i n a dream "— K ubla Khan. I n many ways th e o b v erse
s id e o f th e M a rin e r's p e r c e p tu a l w o rld , K ubla Khan m ight
ev e n be s a id to e x p re s s th e e p ith a la m ic v i s i o n o f th e Wed
d in g -G u e s t. The s u b je c t o f th e poem, l i k e th a t o f B la k e 's
The T y g er, i s c r e a tio n on d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s . K hbla Khan
d e c re e s th e b u ild in g o f a p leasu re-d o m e w ith in th e c o n fin e s
o f an e n c lo s e d g ard e n ; th e p o e t, u n d er c e r t a i n c o n d itio n s ,
im ag in es t h a t he c o u ld " b u ild t h a t dome i n a i r " (ij.6). The
s e c r e t o f th e c r e a tio n i t s e l f , B eer h a s a rg u e d , i s su g g ested
i n th e o c c u lt a s s o c ia tio n s o f "A lph, th e sa c re d r i v e r . " In
N e o -P la to n ic w r i t i n g s , th e r i v e r and th e c a v e rn sy m b o lized ,
r e s p e c t i v e l y , th e m ale and fem ale p r i n c i p l e s , th e u n io n o f
^ C o le r id g e th e V is io n a ry , p p . 1 6 1 -1 6 2 .
w hich d ra m a tiz e s th e p rim a l c r e a t i o n . M oreover, B eer a d d s,
C o le rid g e would have re g a rd e d th e symbol “Alph" in th e an
c i e n t E th io p ic lan g u ag e a s th e f i r s t l e t t e r o f th e a lp h a b e t
and hence th e b e g in n in g o f la n g u a g e . I n th e Z ohars th e
“b i r t h o f la n g u a g e ” i s d is c u s s e d in term s o f th e m ale and
fem a le p r i n c i p l e s , and ev en as r e s u l t i n g in th e c r e a t i o n o f
h eav en and e a r t h . ^ The d i f f i c u l t y w ith B e e r’ s i n t e r p r e
t a t i o n o f th e c a v e rn im age, how ever, i s t h a t he f a i l s to
c o n s id e r t h a t C o le rid g e seems to be d e p a r tin g from N eo -P la
to n ic t r a d i t i o n f o r th e p u rp o se s o f th e poem. The c a v e rn
i s f i l l e d w ith th e ic e and is th e scen e o f th e r i v e r ’ s
d em ise. C o le rid g e d o e s , n e v e r th e le s s , convey th e to n e o f
jo y in th e c r e a tio n , and th e jo y o f c r e a ti o n , once a g a in ,
i s th e u ltim a te s u b je c t o f th e Song o f Solomon and i t s
t r a d i t i o n in E uropean and E n g lis h p o e tr y . The M a rin e r, by
c o n t r a s t , em bodies a d e s tr u c t i v e p r i n c i p l e d i r e c t l y opposed
to su ch a v i s i o n o f o r d e r ; f o r th e v i s i o n o f c h a o s , th e
ep ith alam iu m can be o n ly i r o n i c a l o r p a r o d ic .
A g a in st th e n ig h tm a re -w o rld o f The A n cien t M a rin e r,
th e n , C o le rid g e s e t s th e dream -w orld o f K ubla Khan, b a la n
c in g h i s f e a r o f a u n iv e r s a l d e s tr u c tiv e p r i n c i p l e in th e
e a r l i e r poem w ith h i s f a i t h in th e u n iv e r s a l c r e a tiv e p r i n
c i p le m ost v iv id l y su g g e ste d to him b y th e C ab b ala. F or
^ •C o lerid g e th e V is io n a ry , p . 209.
B eer, K ubla Khan I s th e C o le rid g e a n "• . • man o f commanding
g e n iu s , th e f a l l e n b u t daem onic m an ,1 1 who " . . . s t r i v e s to
r e b u ild th e l o s t p a r a d is e in a w o rld w hich i s , l i k e h im s e lf,
f a l l e n . " ^ T r a d i t i o n a l l y , th e B i b lic a l p a r a d is e , as w e ll
as o th e r c o n c e p tio n s o f p a ra d is e in th e a n c ie n t w o rld , was
m a n ife s te d as a g a rd e n . As a C h r is tia n a l l e g o r i z e r , C ole
rid g e h a d , m o reo v er, drawn h e a v ily on th e v is io n and p o e tic
im agery o f th e Song o f Songs in h i s e a r l y lo v e p o e tr y . Now
in K ubla Khan th e g a rd e n im age, w ith i t s p o w e rfu l u n d e r
ly in g m etaphor o f a momentous w edding, ta k e s on a new se n se
o f u rg en cy as th e p o e t ’ s e a r l i e r c o n c e p tio n o f an id e a liz e d
l i f e h a s th r e a te n e d to d is s o lv e u n d e r th e a s s a u l t s o f a
h o s t i l e sind c h a o tic u n iv e r s e . B e e r’ s s u g g e s tio n t h a t " . . .
i t m ight be p o s s ib le to i n t e r p r e t K ubla Khan in term s o f th e
human body—p a r t i c u l a r l y in view o f a l a t e r a tte m p t by C o le
r id g e to e x p la in h i s dream -sym bol ism in t h i s way, w h ile
i t would be d i f f i c u l t to arg u e c o n c lu s iv e ly , a t l e a s t p o in ts
to th e s t r i k i n g p a r a l l e l s betw een th e im agery o f th e two
poem s. K u b la1s g a rd e n s were " . . . b r ig h t w ith sin u o u s
r i l l s , /W h ere blossom ed many an In c e n s e -b e a rin g tr e e " (8 -9 );
and th e f e r t i l e la n d i s p r o te c te d o n a l l s id e s by r i s i n g
" w a lls and to w ers" ( 7 ) — th e c e n t r a l image o f Solom on’ s
^ C o le r id g e th e V isio n a r y , p . 266.
^ C olerid ge the V isio n a r y , fo o tn o te 16£, p . 3lf.2.
20 5
g a rd e n . I f , a s B eer p e r s u a s iv e ly a rg u e s , th e r i v e r and th e
c a v e rn a re m ale and fem ale p r i n c i p l e s , l i k e O s ir is and I s i s ,
th e n th e g a rd e n i t s e l f may he ta k e n to f ig u r e b o th as th e
s e t t i n g and a s th e f r u i t o f th e c r e a tiv e a c t .
Of c o u rs e , K ubla Khan i s n o t e x p l i c i t l y a lo v e poem i n
th e sen se t h a t th e e a r l i e r poems to S ara P ric k e r o r th e
l a t e r ones to "A sra" a re lo v e poem s. C o lerid g e n e v e r o v e r t
l y i d e n t i f i e s th e g a rd e n w ith th e b e lo v e d as th e b rid eg ro o m
o f th e Song o f Songs d o e s. He d o e s , how ever, make i t c l e a r
t h a t th e g a rd e n h as to do w ith th e p a s s io n o f ro m an tic lo v e
in th e image o f th e "woman w a ilin g f o r h e r demon-1 o v er" (16),
F or B eer, K ubla Khan i s f a l l e n man a tte m p tin g to im pose th e
r a t i o n a l o r d e r of c i v i l i z a t i o n upon th e n a t u r a l w o rld , sym
b o liz e d by th e f o u n ta in o f unbounded e n e rg y , so t h a t c i v i l i
z a tio n i t s e l f i t s e l f I s a g r e a t a tte m p t to r e g a in th e l o s t
p a r a d is e o r S h e c h in a h . $7 The w a llin g woman, th e n , i s woman
a f t e r th e f a l l j h e r t e a r s a re th e t e a r s o f I s i s , s e a rc h in g
f o r h e r m is s in g lo v e r and th e l o s t S h e c h in a h .'’®
The second s ta n z a tu r n s a b r u p tly to th e "deep ro m a n tic
chasm ," th e "savage p la c e " from w hich th e f o u n ta in s p r in g s .
B eer h a s rem arked on th e am b ig u ity o f th e f o u n ta in im age,
w hich c a n r e p r e s e n t b o th u n iv e r s a l harm ony (a s in P l o t i n u s 's
^ C o le r id g e th e V is io n a ry , p . 209.
^ C o le r id g e th e V is io n a ry , p p . 23ij.-235.
206
f a v o r i t e m etaphor o f th e o v e rflo w in g f o u n ta in o f l i g h t ) and
’’th e s p i r i t o f r u i n . ” £9 i f one c o n s id e rs th e o v e r a l l to n e
o f th e s ta n z a , one can n o t h e lp b u t see th e chasm a s an i n
v e rs e o r p a ro d ic form o f th e g a rd e n in th e f i r s t s ta n z a .
The chasm i s dom inated by " tu m u lt1 1 and w ild d is o r d e r ; th e
" A n c e s tra l v o ic e s p ro p h e sy in g war" a re a g a in th e f o r c e s o f
chaos w hich th r e a te n to d e s tro y th e o rd e re d g ard e n o f
c i v i l i z e d l i f e . Even th e woman w a ilin g f o r h e r dem on-lover
m ust u l t i m a t e l y be se en as a p a ro d ic f i g u r e , s in c e she
d e s ir e s n o t th e harm onious m a rria g e u n io n o f th e e p i t h a l a
mium b u t m a rria g e to a demonic p r i n c i p l e in th e u n iv e r s e .
The woman's s e p a r a tio n from h e r dem on-lover th u s p a ro d ie s
th e b r i d e 's d is c o n s o la te s e a rc h f o r h e r a b s e n t husband in
th e Song o f S ongs. I f K ubla i s , a s B eer h o ld s , th e demon-
lo v e r h im s e lf , th e n he re s e m b le s , p a r o d ic a lly , th e groom o f
th e B i b lic a l song who h as a ls o gone to h i s g a rd e n and h a s
e l i c i t e d h i s b r i d e 's d i s t r e s s a t h i s d isa p p e a ra n c e ! th e
b r id e answ ers h e r " d a u g h te rs" o r f r ie n d s who o f f e r to h e lp
h e r f in d h e r h u sb an d :
My b e lo v e d is gone down in to h is g a rd e n , to th e b ed s
o f s p ic e s , to fe e d in th e g a rd e n s , and to g a th e r l i l i e s .
I am my b e lo v e d 's , & my b e lo v e d i s m ine: he f e e d e th
among th e l i l i e s .
( 6 :2 )
A ccording to B e er, C o le r id g e 's image o f th e " c e d a rn
59
C o lerid g e th e V is io n a ry , p p . 237-239.
207
co v er" in s ta n z a two s u g g e s ts m a n 's f a l l e n s t a t e by a llu d in g
to th e li n e s in P a ra d is e L o st d e s c r ib in g S a ta n 's s ta lk in g o f
E ve— "N eerer he drew , and many a w alk t r a v e r s 'd / O f s t a t e
l i e s t C o v e rt, C edar, P in e , o r P alm e"—and to th e m en tio n o f
th e c e d a rs as c o v e rin g in Adam's su b se q u en t la m e n t a f t e r
60
th e f a l l s
. . . Cover me, ye P in e s ,
Ye C e d ars, w ith innum erable b o u g h s,
Hide me, where I may n e v e r see them m o re2
(IX, 1088-1090)
Yet C o le rid g e was s u r e ly aware o f th e s ig n if ic a n c e o f th e
" c e d a rn co v er" in th e Song o f Songs as w e ll. E a r ly in th e
B i b l i c a l poem, th e b r id e d e s c r ib e s h e r s e l f as su n -b u rn e d :
" I am b la c k , b u t com ely, (0 ye d a u g h te rs o f Je ru sa le m ) as
th e t e n t s o f K edar, as th e c u r t a i n s o f Solomon" ( is 5 ) .
And l a t e r , p r a is in g h i s b e lo v e d , th e b rid eg ro o m to o u s e s
th e image o f th e c e d a rn c o v e r:
B ehold, th o u a r t f a i r , my lo v e : b e h o ld , th o u a r t
f a i r , th o u h a s t dove * s e y e s .
B ehold, th o u a r t f a i r , my b e lo v e d ; yea p le a s a n t: a ls o
o u r bed i s g re e n .
The beams o f o u r house a re C ed ar, and o u r r a f t e r s o f
f i r 0
(1: 15-17)
As S te w a rt h a s commented, t r a d i t i o n h as i n te r p r e t e d th e
b r i d e 's co m p lain t o f b la c k n e s s as an a lle g o r y o f "m an's
^°Coleridge the Visionary, p. 2 3 i | . .
, 208
61
d e s o la te s t a t e " fo llo w in g th e f a l l . The su n , o f c o u rs e ,
had lo n g b een c o n s id e re d a symbol f o r God; one i s rem inded
o f th e s c o rc h in g su n o f The A n cien t M a rin e r. B e e r’s t h e s i s
t h a t th e C o le rid g e a n f a l l e n man i s th e a r c h e ty p a l C ain -
f i g u r e , alw ays v a in ly a tte m p tin g to escap e from th e tr u e
v i s i o n o f th e sun w hich he can see o n ly as f i e r y and v en g e
f u l , seems a p p lic a b le to K ubla Khan. The c e d a rn c o v e r
d e n o te s a h id in g p la c e from God and th e d re a m -v ls io n o f
u n iv e r s a l o r d e r , an in d u lg e n c e o f th e c h a o tic and d e s tr u c
t i v e p r i n c i p l e in man. P a r a d o x ic a lly , how ever, i t i s th e
b rid eg ro o m in th e Song o f Songs ( a l l e g o r i c a l l y , God h im s e lf)
who p ro v id e s th e "house o f C edar" to p r o t e c t h is b r id e from
th e su n . I n C o le rid g e ’ s poem, th e image i s p a r t l y t r a d i
t i o n a l , s u g g e s tin g m an 's f a l l e n s t a t e in th e second s ta n z a ,
and p a r t l y p a r o d ic , a llu d in g i r o n i c a l l y to th e t r a n q u i l
atm o sp h ere o f th e l o v e r s ' g a rd e n .
The "m ig h ty f o u n ta in " I t s e l f , b u r s tin g v i o l e n t l y
th ro u g h th e e a r t h from th e chasm , s ig n a ls a d i r e c t a n t i t h e
s i s to th e p e a c e fu l g a rd e n o f o rd e r w hich K ubla would m ain
t a i n . The f ig u r e o f th e c o n ta in e d f o u n ta in in th e Song o f -
Songs i s th e b a s is o f th e im p l i c i t c o n t r a s t , as th e groom
i d e n t i f i e s h i s b r id e w ith th e g a rd e n : "A g a rd e n in c lo s e d
i s my s i s t e r , my sp o u se : a s p r in g s h u t u p , a f o u n ta in
s e a le d " (ij.:1 2 ) .
^The Enclosed Garden, p. 60.
209
The ra g in g f o u n ta in o f th e chasm , th e n , i s y e t a n o th e r
in v e r s io n o f th e e p ith a la m ic i d e a l . C o le r id g e 's s t r a t e g y
in th e f i r s t two s ta n z a s , th e r e f o r e , h a s b een to s e t up th e
id e a l o f th e o rd e re d w orld p ic tu r e d as a g ard en (as in th e
e a r l i e r R e fle c tio n s on h a v in g l e f t a P lace o f R e tire m e n t) ,
and th e n to underm ine i t th ro u g h p a ro d y . K ubla K han's
f a i l u r e i s th e f a i l u r e o f th e p u b lic man, th e man a c tiv e in
s o c ie ty , and in h i s th r e a te n e d d o w n fa ll C o le rid g e m ust have
f e l t a ls o th e f a i l u r e o f h i s own p la n s f o r P a n tis o c r a c y and
th e breakdow n o f h i s f a i t h in th e a c tu a l p o s s i b i l i t y o f
m a n k in d 's p e r f e c t i b i l i t y . The w a llin g o f th e woman in th e
second s ta n z a s u g g e s ts n o t th e r e t u r n o f th e S hechinah
th ro u g h th e m a rria g e v is i o n , b u t r a t h e r th e re in fo rc e m e n t
o f th e M a rin e r's n ig h tm are v is i o n o f chaos th ro u g h an iro n ic
in v e r s io n o f th e t r a d i t i o n a l v a lu e s o f th e e p ith a la m iu m .
As I have p ro p o sed e a r l i e r , how ever, K ubla Khan may be
re a d as th e o b v e rse sid e o f th e M a rin e r's d i s t o r t e d p e rc e p
t i o n o f th e u n iv e r s e , and th u s as th e u n c o rru p te d v is i o n o f
th e W edding-G uest b e fo re th e b e t r a y a l o f h i s dream by th e
M a rin e r. The w edding im p lie s th e u n f a lle n s t a t e and a
w holeness o f v is io n a r y pow er; th e G u est, r e p r e s e n tin g man
b e fo re h is f a l l , o r a t l e a s t f a l l e n man ab o u t to re c o v e r
som ething l i k e p rim o r d ia l In n o cen c e, s ta n d s betw een th e
n ig h tm are and th e dream . Yet th e f i r s t two s ta n z a s o f Kubla
Khan seem to deny any chance o f re g a in in g a l o s t p a r a d is e ,
210
j u s t a s th e M a rin e r1s t a l e d o e s . In th e l a s t s ta n z a , how
e v e r, C o le rid g e ’ s d i a l e c t i c f i n a l l y c o a le s c e s as he tu r n s
once a g a in on th e m a rria g e theme in tro d u c e d in th e f i r s t
s ta n z a and p a ro d ie d in th e seco n d . The c o n t r a s ts d ev elo p ed
b etw een th e second and t h i r d s ta n z a s a re s p e c i f i c , as th e
p o e t ’ s dream moves from K ubla Khan, th e p u b lic man o f pow er
in c i v i l i z e d l i f e and hence th e embodiment o f th e g o d lik e
r a t i o n a l f a c u l t y i n th e a c tu a l w o rld , to th e v is io n a r y p o e t
h im s e lf . Opposed to th e woman w a llin g f o r h e r dem on-lover
in s ta n z a two i s th e A b y sin n ian m aid , p la y in g h arm o n io u sly
on h e r d u lc im e r. I t Is t h i s m u sic, th e c e l e s t i a l m usic o f
th e ep ith alam iu m , w hich c o u ld s tim u la te th e p o e t ’ s seco n d ary
im a g in a tio n to th e p o e tic r e - c r e a t i o n o f th e g a r d e n - v is io n .
Now th e f u l l s ig n if ic a n c e o f th e p a r a d o x ic a l "sunny p le asu re-
dome w ith c a v e s o f ic e " (36) becomes more a p p a re n t. I n th e
v e ry f a m i l i a r p a ssa g e from B lo g ra p h ia L l t e r a r i a , C o le rid g e
o f f e r s to d e fin e th e p o e tic c r e a t i o n by d e f in in g th e id e a l
p o e tic g e n iu s :
The p o e t , d e s c rib e d in ld e a l p e r f e c t i o n , b rin g s th e
w hole s o u l o f man in to a c t i v i t y , w ith th e s u b o r d in a tio n
o f I t s f a c u l t i e s to ea c h o th e r , a c c o rd in g to t h e i r r e l a
t i v e w o rth and d ig n i t y . He d if f u s e s a to n e and s p i r i t o f
u n i t y , t h a t b le n d s , and (a s i t w ere) f u s e s , each in to
e a c h , by t h a t s y n th e tic and m a g ic a l pow er, to w hich we
have e x c lu s iv e ly a p p r o p r ia te d th e name o f im a g in a tio n .
T h is power . . . r e v e a ls I t s e l f in th e b a la n c e o r re c o n
c i l i a t i o n o f o p p o s ite s o r d is c o rd a n t q u a l i t i e s . . . .62
^ 2B io g ra p h ia L i t e r a r i a (O xford, 1907)> V o l. I I , p . 12.
211
The c r e a tio n o f p e r f e c t io n w hich th e id e a liz e d p o e t a t t a i n s
is a k in to th e b u ild in g o f a ta n g ib le p a ra d is e in th e p h e
nom enal w orld by th e p u b lic man; b u t th e p o e t ’ s c r e a tio n ,
e x i s ti n g in an id e a liz e d N e o -P la to n ic re a lm , e sc a p e s th e
t h r e a t o f d e s tr u c tio n w hich en d an g ers i t s c o u n te r p a r t and
knows o n ly th e harmony o f "m usic lo u d and lo n g " (4 f>) •
As C o le rid g e tu r n s , th e n , from th e iro n y o f K u b la 's
b u b b le -p a ra d is e in s ta n z a two to th e p o s itiv e a s s e r t i o n o f
th e p o e t* s a b i l i t y to a c t u a l ly r e a l i z e th e s t a t e o f p a r a
d is e ( i f o n ly m o m en tarily ) in s ta n z a th r e e , he r e tu r n s to
th e e p ith a la m ic im agery o f Solom on’ s g a rd e n , where th e
b rid eg ro o m h a s b ee n com paring h i s b r id e to th e in to x ic a tin g
s c e n ts o f th e flo w e rin g t r e e s and s h ru b s :
Thy l i p s , 0 my spouse I drop as th e honey comb: honey
and m ilk a re u n d e r th y to n g u e , and th e sm e ll o f th y g a r
m ents i s l i k e th e sm e ll o f Lebanon.
(4 : 1 1)
The p o e t in K ubla Khan, p o s s e s s e d o f th e "m agical pow er" o f
im a g in a tio n , i s f e a r e d b ecau se o f h i s m y ste rio u s pow ers of
c r e a t i o n , "F o r he on honey-dew h a th f e d , / And drunk th e m ilk
o f P a ra d is e " (£3-5>4)» As Bloom h as n o te d , A b y ssin ia had
lo n g b een re g a rd e d as th e p o s s ib le s e t t i n g o f th e e a r t h ly
p a r a d is e ;^ 3 M ilto n c o n s id e re d i t so in h i s d e s c r ip tio n o f
k^The Visionary Company, p . 214.
212
E den, th e p e r f e c t s t a t e o f b e in g , p ic tu r e d c h i e f l y a s a
p e r f e c t m a rria g e r e l a t i o n s h i p , in w hich p r a y e r and e p i t h a
lamium a re fu s e d in p r a i s e o f th e i n f i n i t e v a r i e t y o f th e
one w o r l d . T h e d ouble image o f honey-dew and m ilk id e n
t i f i e s C o le r id g e 's in s p i r e d p o e t as one who h a s e x p e rie n c e d
th e jo y o f th e e p ith a la m ic v i s i o n o f Eden o r S olom on's
g a rd e n ; even i f th a t a n t i c i p a t e d jo y in l i f e h as b een b e
tr a y e d by th e a c tu a l c irc u m s ta n c e s o f h i s u n s u c c e s s fu l
m a rria g e , he c a n s t i l l f in d a c c e s s to th e v is io n a r y rea lm
th ro u g h th e d u a l m agic o f th e dream and th e p o e tic im ag in a
t i o n .
The d iv in e ly - in s p ir e d and g o d lik e p o e t o f K ubla Khan
i s th e W edding-G uest f r e e d o f th e M a rin e r's s p e l l —th e
f ig u r e who a c h ie v e s C o le r id g e 's own l i f e l o n g dream . C o le
r id g e h im s e lf a t t h i s tim e , one r e c a l l s , h ad s h i f t e d h i s
a t t e n t i o n p a r t i a l l y fro m h i s o b s e s s iv e f e e l i n g s o f h a v in g
f a i l e d a s a husband an d f a t h e r and h i s c ru s h in g d is a p p o in t
m ent a t th e c o lla p s e o f P a n tls o c ra c y to a new i n t e n s i t y o f
en th u sia sm f o r th e c r e a tiv e a c t . As R ic h a rd H a rte r P ogle
h a s rem arked,
. . . C o le rid g e i m p l i c i t l y co n c e iv e s o f h im s e lf and W ords
w o rth to g e th e r as o p p o s ite s whose u n io n would form th e
^ S e e , f o r exam ple, th e opening p a ssa g e o f Book V, and
l i n e s 660-77f? o f Book IV, i n P a ra d is e L o s t.
213
i d e a l p o e t. He would be th e c r i t i c a l c o u n te r p a r t to
W ordsw orth*s c r e a t i v i t y , th e c o n sc io u s supplem ent o f h i s
u n c o n s c io u s , th e judgm ent to h i s g e n iu s . 63
F o g le ’ s u se o f th e m a rria g e m etaphor to d e s c r ib e th e r e l a
tio n s h ip i s m ost a p p r o p r ia te , f o r d u rin g h is s ta y a t N eth e r
Stowey C o le rid g e re g a in e d som ething c lo s e to th e e p i t h a l a
m ic v i s i o n o f co m p le ten ess w hich in fo rm s th e lo v e poems to
S ara F r ic k e r . Y et, l i k e th e W edding-G uest, C o le rid g e , in
th e b r i l l i a n t s t y l i s t i c d e p a rtu re s from h i s u s u a l p o e tic
m anner, h o v e rs alw ays b etw een th e M a rin e r’s n ig h tm a re -v is io n
o f chaos and K ubla Khan’ s d re a m -v is io n o f o r d e r . As th e
p o e t in s p ir e d by im a g in a tio n , n o t as th e man o f p r a c t i c a l
a f f a i r s , he seems to have fo u n d new hope in r e g a in in g a
p a r a d is e o f th e m ind, how ever in ta n g ib le and s u b je c ti v e .
I n G. W ilso n K n ig h t's fram ew ork, C h r is t a b e l, The An
c i e n t M a rin e r, and K ubla Khan ta k e n to g e th e r make up C o le
r i d g e 's "D ivine Comedy," e x p lo rin g in t u r n h e l l , p u r g a to r y ,
and h e a v e n . A c c o r d i n g to K n ig h t, C o le r id g e 's n ig h tm are
poem i s C h r is t a b e l. w hich la c k s u t t e r l y th e red em p tiv e theme
o f The A n cien t M a rin e r. ^ S ince th e poem rem ain s a fra g m e n t,
6% he_ Id e a o f C o le r id g e 's C r itic is m (B erk e ley and Los
A n g eles, 19& 2), p . 108.
66ih e S t a r l i t Dome, p . 8 3 .
^ ftrhe S t a r l i t Dome, p . 83 f f .
21k
I t would seem fa tu o u s to make c o n c lu s iv e pronouncem ents as
to i t s theme o r im p o rt, and any i n t e r p r e t a t i o n m ust be
t e n t a t i v e . P erh ap s th e b e s t s t a r t i n g p o in t i s A rth u r H.
N e th e rc o t» s p io n e e rin g stu d y o f th e w ork, in w hich he r e
m inds us o f th e l i f e l o n g f a s c i n a t i o n w hich C h r is ta b e l h e ld
f o r i t s a u th o r and o f th e m y stery w hich c o n s ta n tly s u rro u n
ded h i s supposed in te n tio n s o f f i n i s h i n g it.^ ® I n T ab le
T a lk . C o lerid g e w r ite s o f th o s e p la n s :
The re a s o n o f my n o t f i n i s h i n g C h r is ta b e l is n o t , t h a t I
d o n ’t know how to do i t — -fo r I h a v e , as I alw ays h a d , th e
whole p la n e n t i r e from b e g in n in g to end in my m ind; b u t I
f e a r I c o u ld n o t c a r r y on w ith e q u a l su c c e ss th e e x e c u tio n
o f th e id e a , an e x tre m e ly s u b tle and d i f f i c u l t o n e .69
The s i t u a t i o n i s f u r t h e r c o m p lic a te d , a s N e th e rc o t rem a rk s,
by th e f a c t t h a t v a r io u s o f C o le r id g e 's f r ie n d s c la im e d
knowledge o f th e p la n s . Such p ie c e s o f "e v id e n c e ” a re con
f l i c t i n g and even c o n t r a d ic to r y . P erh ap s th e m ost d e t a i l e d
and i n t e r e s t i n g p ro p o se d c o n c lu s io n to th e poem i s t h a t o f
D r. James G illm an , C o le r id g e 's f r ie n d , p h y s ic ia n , and b i o
g ra p h e r. G illm a n 's s y n o p s is , w hich h a s been a c c e p te d as
C o le r id g e 's p ro b a b le i n t e n t i o n by some r e c e n t c r i t i c s , i s
q u o ted as fo llo w s by N e th e rc o t:
^ The Road to T ryerm aine (C hicago, 1 9 3 9 ), pp* 3 , 19 f f .
^ Q u o te d by N e th e rc o t in The Road to T ry erm ain e. p . 2 6 .
2l5
Over th e m o u n ta in s,' th e B ard, as d ir e c te d by S i r L e o lin e ,
" h a s te s ” w ith h i s d i s c i p l e ; b u t in consequence o f one o f
th o s e in u n d a tio n s supposed to be common to t h i s c o u n try ,
th e s p o t o n ly w here th e c a s t l e once sto o d i s d is c o v e re d ,
- - t h e e d i f i c e i t s e l f b e in g washed away. He d e te rm in e s to
r e t u r n . G e ra ld in e b e in g a c q u a in te d w ith a l l t h a t i s
p a s s in g , l i k e th e W eird S i s t e r s in M acbeth, v a n is h e s .
R e -a p p e a rin g , how ever, she w a its th e r e t u r n o f th e B ard,
e x c iti n g in th e mean tim e , by h e r w ily a r t s , a l l th e anger
she c o u ld ro u se in th e B aro n ’ s b r e a s t , as w e ll as t h a t
je a lo u s y o f w hich he i s d e s c rib e d to have b ee n s u s c e p ti
b l e . The o ld B ard and th e y o u th a t le n g th a r r i v e , and
th e r e f o r e she can no lo n g e r p e rs o n a te th e c h a r a c te r o f
G e ra ld in e , th e d a u g h te r o f Lord R oland de Vaux, b u t ch an
g es h e r ap p earan ce to t h a t o f th e a c c e p te d th o u g h a b s e n t
lo v e r o f C h r is ta b e l . Next en su es a c o u r ts h ip m ost d i s
t r e s s i n g to C h r is ta b e l, who f e e l s — she knows n o t w hy--
g r e a t d is g u s t f o r h e r once fa v o u re d k n ig h t. T h is c o ld n e ss
i s v e ry p a i n f u l to th e B aron, who h as no more c o n c e p tio n
th a n h e r s e l f o f th e s u p e rn a tu ra l tr a n s f o r m a tio n . She a t
l a s t y ie ld s to h e r f a t h e r ’ s e n t r e a t i e s , and c o n s e n ts to
ap p ro ach th e a l t a r w ith t h i s h a te d s u i t o r . The r e a l lo v e r
r e t u r n i n g , e n te r s a t t h i s moment, and p ro d u ces th e r in g
w hich she had once g iv e n him in s ig n o f h e r b e tro th m e n t.
Thus d e f e a te d , th e s u p e r n a tu r a l b e in g G e ra ld in e d is a p
p e a r s . As p r e d ic te d , th e c a s t l e b e l l t o l l s , th e m o th e r’s
v o ic e i s h e a rd , and to th e ex c ee d in g jo y o f th e p a r t i e s ,
th e r i g h t f u l m a rria g e ta k e s p la c e , a f t e r w hich fo llo w s a
r e c o n c i l i a t i o n and e x p la n a tio n b etw een th e f a t h e r and
d a u g h te r .70
In view o f C o le r id g e ’ s e a r l i e r use o f th e m a rria g e
hymn, i t i s te m p tin g to a c c e p t G illm a n 's p ro p o s a l t h a t
C h r is ta b e l was to end on th e e x u l ta n t n o te o f th e e p i t h a l a
mium, s ig n a lli n g th e ex o rcism o f th e pow ers o f d a rk n e ss
w hich have p o s s e s s e d C h r is ta b e l and th e r e - e s ta b lis h m e n t o f
^ The Road to T ry e rm a in e. p . lj.3. See a ls o B. R. Mc-
E l d e r r y ," C o l e r i d g e ’ s P la n f o r C om pleting C h r is ta b e l,"
S tu d ie s in P h ilo lo g y . XXXIII ( J u ly 1 9 3 6 ), ij.374l.55, f o r a
m odern view w hich a f f ir m s G illm a n 's p r o p o s a l.
216
th e harm onious o r d e r , w hich would be d ra m a tiz e d in a s e r i e s
o f r e c o n c i l i a t i o n s and a r e s t o r a t i o n o f th e e s s e n t i a l bond
o f f r ie n d s h ip , f i l i a l and ro m an tic lo v e . U n d erly in g such a
v i s i o n o f com plete harm ony i s th e N e o -P la to n ic c o n c e p tio n
o f th e s o c ie ty b u i l t on th e p r in c ip l e o f u n iv e r s a l lo v e o r
f r ie n d s h ip — and one m ust remember t h a t L e o lin e 's crim e ,
l i k e th e M a r in e r 's , was th e b re a k in g o f such a bond. The
human f r a i l t y o f p r id e — B la k e 's S a ta n o r s e lf h o o d - - c o n ti-
n u a lly b e s e ts men in th e a c tu a l w o rld , alw ays th r e a te n in g
to e n g u lf h i s h ig h e s t id e a l s :
And th u s i t ch an ced , as I d iv in e ,
W ith Roland and S ir L e o lin e .
Bach spake words o f h ig h d is d a in
And i n s u l t to h i s h e a r t 's b e s t b r o th e r :
They p a r te d -- n e 'e r to m eet ag ain '.
But n e v e r e i t h e r fo u n d a n o th e r
To f r e e th e h o llo w h e a r t from p a in in g —
They sto o d a lo o f , th e s c a rs re m a in in g ,
L ike c l i f f s w hich had been r e n t a su n d e r;
A d re a ry se a now flo w s b e tw e e n ;—
B ut n e i t h e r h e a t, n o r f r o s t , n o r th u n d e r
S h a ll w h o lly do away, I ween,
The m arks o f t h a t w hich once h a th b e e n .
(C h r is ta b e l, P a r t I I , i4 .ll4 .-l4 .26> )
The m etaphor f o r th e b ro k en f r ie n d s h ip is a te a r in g a p a r t
o r a d iv o r c e , l i k e th e v io le n t r e a c tio n o f N ature to m an 's
f a l l in P a ra d is e L o s t. L e o lin e is o f c e n t r a l im portance
in s o f a r as he i r o n i c a l l y becom es th e u n co n sc io u s p e r p e tr a to r
o f a l l t h a t happens in th e fra g m e n t. G iven th e id e a l s t a t e
c e le b r a te d in th e e p ith a la m iu m --th e s o c ie ty founded upon
f r ie n d s h ip o r , to u se C o le r id g e 's w ord, P a n tis o c ra c y — th e re
217
c a n be no g r e a t e r crim e th a n b re a k in g th e m agic c i r c l e o f
su c h a dream -w o rld ; s i m i l a r l y , th e r e can be no more f i t t i n g
symbol f o r th e r e t u r n o f co n co rd and th e p a ssa g e from a
re a lm o f b e in g c r e a te d by h a tr e d and e v i l to one c r e a te d b y
lo v e and C h r is tia n v a lu e s th a n th e triu m p h a n t m a rria g e o f
C h r is ta b e l and h e r tr u e b e tr o th e d k n ig h t.
I f t h i s i s th e s u b sta n c e o f C o le r id g e 's p la n f o r th e
c o m p le tio n o f C h r is t a b e l, th o u g h , C o le r id g e 's rem ark t h a t
h i s id e a was "a n e x tre m e ly s u b tle and d i f f i c u l t one" rem ains
p u z z lin g . G illm an s t r e s s e s p l o t and c o n tin u e s th e o b v io u s
tr a p p in g s o f th e G othic romance in th e e x i s t i n g fra g m e n t.
Now th e b a s is o f th e poem may w e ll b e , as N e th e rc o t h a s
c a l l e d i t , "A 'Rom ance' o f th e ' P r e t e r n a t u r a l , '" 7 ^ b u t i t s
c h i e f i n t e r e s t , m ost c r i t i c s w i l l a g re e , l i e s elsew h ere
th a n in th e s u c c e s s f u l w orking o u t o f p lo t o r s to r y , a
m inim al c o n c e rn in C o le r id g e 's c r i t i c a l th e o ry and in h is
S h ak esp earean c r i t i c i s m . W hatever p l o t r e s o l u t i o n C o lerid g e
h ad in te n d e d , and th e p o in t i s n o t c r u c i a l h e r e , I s u g g e s t
t h a t th e t r a d i t i o n and d e m o n stra te d p o e tic u s e f u ln e s s o f th e
ep ith alam iu m was m ost v iv id in th e p o e t 's m ind in th e con
c e p tio n o f C h r is ta b e l and may, fu rth e rm o re , acco u n t i n p a r t
f o r th e s u b t l e t y and d i f f i c u l t y w hich he saw in h e re n t in
th e poem.
As an e n t h u s ia s t ic r e a d e r o f th e B ib le and N e o -P la to n ist
^The Road to Tryermaine, p. l8fi>.
218 -
C o le rid g e was n a t u r a l l y f a m i l i a r w ith th e f o u r f o ld m ethod
o f S c r i p t u r a l I n t e r p r e t a t i o n ; h i s n o teb o o k s t e s t i f y to h i s
a c c e p ta n c e o f th e a l l e g o r i c a l re a d in g s o f th e Song o f S ongs,
th e u ltim a te i n s p i r a t i o n o f so much o f h i s p o e tr y . Like
o th e r R om antics, C o le rid g e was a ls o an a v id ad m ire r o f th e
r i c h m u l t i - l e v e l l e d a lle g o r y o f The F a e rie Queene and c e r
t a i n l y m ust have re g a rd e d S p e n se r a s a w orthy p o e tic m odel.
In a tte m p tin g to t r a c e th e so u rce o f th e s u p e r n a tu r a l e l e
m ents in C h r is t a b e l, F ogle p o s i t s an i n t e r e s t i n g s e t o f
co rre sp o n d e n c e s betw een C o le r id g e ^ poem and Book I o f The
F a e r ie Queene , 72 B oth works d e a l w ith ”. . . th e d i s c r e
pancy betw een ap p earan ce and r e a l i t y ’ 1; b o th p ic tu r e e v i l as
r e s o r t i n g " . . . f o r i t s weapons to c o n fu s io n and d i s
g u is e . "73 C h r is ta b e l and G e ra ld in e c o rre s p o n d , r e s p e c tiv e ly ,
to Una ( C h r is tia n t r u t h ) and D uessa (d e c e p tiv e fa ls e h o o d
m asq u erad in g as t r u t h ) ; and b o th poems in v o lv e f a l s e dream s
and s p e lls w hich m ust be b r o k e n . C o l e r i d g e >s "poem o f
th e s u p e r n a tu r a l," F ogle c o n c lu d e s , i s d e sig n ed f o r
. . • th e u ltim a te p u rp o se o f e n liv e n in g o u r p e r c e p tio n s ,
aw akening o u r a f f e c t i o n s , and in c r e a s in g o u r a b i l i t y to
im agine r e a l i t y . I t m ust d e f e a t th e p r e ju d ic e s and p r e
p o s s e s s io n s o f th e u n d e rs ta n d in g , w hich i s bounded by th e
72The Id e a o f C o le r id g e ’ s C r iti c is m , p . 133 f f .
7^The Id e a o f C o le r id g e 's C r itic is m , p . 133.
7ih?he Id e a o f C o le rid g e ’ s C r itic is m , p . 135*
219
7f>
se n se s and th e a b s tr a c t lo g ic d e riv e d fro m them .
F o g le ’ s im p o rta n t p o in t i s t h a t th e s u p e r n a tu r a l f o r Cole
rid g e im p lie s n o t l i t e r a l b e l i e f b u t m etap h o r:
Id e a s . . . a re alw ays i n d e f i n i t e , and can be com prehended
o n ly when em bodied in sym bols . . . . A s u p e r n a tu r a l
c h a r a c te r su ch as G e ra ld in e i s a symbol o f s p i r i t u a l co n
f l i c t and e v i l , and in t h a t sen se she i s r e a l ; b u t we do
no' e a rn o f h e r r e a l fo rm , w hich rem a in s am biguous . .
What F ogle seems to u p h o ld , and q u ite r i g h t l y s o , i s an
a l l e g o r i c a l re a d in g o f th e poem . B e e r, to o , s t r e s s e s C ole
r i d g e 's te n d e n c y to re g a rd a c tu a l c h a r a c te r s as p r i n c i p l e s
o r id e a s a s w e ll. The name " C h r is t a b e l” i t s e l f s u g g e s ts an
a r c h e ty p a l f ig u r e h a v in g th e q u a l i t i e s o f C h r is t (a s s a v io r)
and o f A bel (a s v ic tim o f e v i l ) . As o p p o sin g p r i n c i p l e s ,
C h r is ta b e l and G e ra ld in e may, a s F ogle re m a rk s, r e p r e s e n t
d i f f e r e n t a s p e c ts o f th e same p e r s o n . * ^
As I have m en tio n ed above, B eer c o n te n d s t h a t R ubla
Khan may be re a d in term s o f th e human body; th e Song o f
Songs, re a d e i t h e r l i t e r a l l y o r a l l e g o r i c a l l y , c e r t a i n l y
p ro v id e d C o le rid g e w ith a m odel f o r su ch an I d e n t i f i c a t i o n
o f p la c e and p e r s o n . To r e in f o r c e i t , m o reo v er, was th e
ex ten d ed a lle g o r y o f th e body in th e se c o n d book o f The
^ The Id e a o f C o le r id g e 's C r iti c is m , p p . 1 3 6 -1 3 7 .
77
The Idea of Coleridge's Criticism, p. 131.
F a e rie Queene- - th e book o f tem perance o r, in C o le rid g e a n
te rm s , th e harm onious b a la n c e o r r e c o n c i l i a t i o n o f a l l
o p p o s ite s w ith in th e in d iv id u a l m ind. In th e n in th c a n to ,
S p en ser a l l e g o r i z e s th e body a s a house o r c a s t l e , p re s id e d
o v e r, i d e a l l y , by th e la d y Alma (manT s r a t i o n a l s o u l) , and
Tinder c o n s ta n t s ie g e by th e f o r c e s o r te m p ta tio n s t h a t
a s s a u l t th e s e n s e s . L a te r , a s Guyon s a i l s a c ro s s th e
p e r ilo u s s e a tow ard A c r a s ia ’s bow er, f iv e m erm aids who
r e p r e s e n t th e te m p ta tio n s o f th e f i v e se n se s a tte m p t to
lu r e him t o h i s d e s tr u c tio n .* ^ E v e ry th in g w hich o c c u rs in
th e book may, o f c o u rs e , be in te r p r e t e d a s an a l l e g o r i c a l
v i s u a l i z a t i o n o f th e m o ral c o n f l i c t s w ith in th e mind o f th e
p r o ta g o n is t— th e C h r is t ia n man in q u e s t o f th e v ir tu e o f
tem perance •
S im ila r ly , m ost o f th e a c tio n i n C h r is ta b e l h as to do
c h i e f ly w ith th e two g i r l s who are o p p o s ite s in e v e ry r e s
p e c t. Y et i t is L e o li n e 's c a s t l e and i t s e n v iro n s w hich is
th e scen e o f th e a c tio n and L e o lin e h im s e lf who h as a t t r a c
te d G e ra ld in e to th e c a s t l e . I n a d o p tin g th e m e d ie v a liz e d
G othic m a te r ia l o f th e poem, C o le rid g e may have adopted as
w e ll th e m ed iev al a t t i t u d e tow ard th e house o r c a s t l e as an
78
Canto IX, in n e a r l y i t s e n t i r e t y , d e a ls w ith t h i s
ex ten d ed a lle g o r y o f th e in d iv id u a l body.
7^See The F a e rie Q ueene. Canto X II, x x x - x x x ii.
221
a l l e g o r i c a l s e t t i n g , j u s t a s S p en ser had d o n e. The o p p o sin g
c r e a tiv e and d e s tr u c tiv e p r i n c i p l e s , shown in The A ncient
M arin er as th e m a rria g e dream v e rs u s th e t a l e o f chaos and
in K ubla Khan as th e g a rd e n o f harmony v e rs u s th e ra g in g
chasm, re a p p e a r a s C h r is ta b e l and G e ra ld in e , th e two con
f l i c t i n g a s p e c ts o f S i r L e o li n e 's m ind. As L e o lin e ’ s tr u e
d a u g h te r, C h r is ta b e l i s th e Alma o r r a t i o n a l s o u l o f h i s
c a s t l e . By c o n t r a s t , th e r e i s some in d ic a tio n t h a t G e ra l
d in e i s L e o lin e ’s "d a u g h te r" in a p a ro d ic s e n s e . As she
t e l l s C h r is ta b e l a t t h e i r m e e tin g : "My s i r e i s o f a n o b le
l i n e , /A n d my name i s G e ra ld in e " (P a rt I , 7 9 -8 0 ). C o lerid g e
may w e ll be fo llo w in g th e f a m i l i a r d ev ice o f th e ir o n ic pun
t y p i c a l o f th e b a l l a d t r a d i t i o n i n th u s h a v in g G e ra ld in e
su g g e st t h a t L e o lin e i s , in some se n se , h e r f a t h e r o r h e r
c r e a t o r , as th e "n o b le l in e " b rin g s to m ind "L e o lin e " th e
n o b le l i o n , whose name a ls o rhym es w ith " G e ra ld in e ." L ike
C h r is t and A bel, h e r nam esakes, C h r is ta b e l i s ca p ab le o f
redeem ing man th ro u g h p r a y e r and s u f f e r i n g . L ike C ain,
G e ra ld in e (whose name e ty m o lo g ic a lly means " th e s p e a r-
th ro w e r," s u g g e s tin g th e v io le n c e o f th e d e s tr u c tiv e p r i n
c ip le ) i s c a p a b le o f s h a t t e r i n g h i s dream o f a harm onious
u n iv e r s e . A lthough th e m o tif o f th e f i v e w a r r io r s who
su p p o se d ly have s e iz e d G e ra ld in e i s n e v e r f u l l y d ev elo p ed ,
C o le rid g e may have h ad in mind S p e n s e r’ s f i v e s ir e n s who
a tte m p t to d e s tro y Guyon; a s th e e v i l p r i n c i p l e , G e ra ld in e
222
would n a t u r a l l y e n l i s t t h e i r s e r v ic e and command them . Her
w ords to G h ris ta b e l a re p a t e n t l y i r o n i c a l in th e l i g h t o f
h e r r e a l c h a r a c te r s "F iv e w a r r io r s s e iz e d me y e s te rm o m , /
Me, even me, a m aid f o r lo r n " ( P a r t I , 8 1 -8 2 ).
T hroughout th e poem, th e r e a re s ig n s o f G e r a ld in e ’ s
power o v e r L e o lin e . As th e two g i r l s p a s s by th e h a l l o f
th e c a s t l e , G e r a ld in e ’s p re s e n c e makes th e a sh e s in th e
f i r e p l a c e f l i c k e r :
And C h r is ta b e l saw th e l a d y 's e y e ,
And n o th in g e l s e saw she th e re b y ,
Save th e b o ss o f th e s h ie ld o f S i r L e o lin e t a l l
W hich hung in a murky o ld n ic h e in th e w a ll.
( P a rt I , 160-163)
The c o n n e c tio n i s made h e re betw een th e k n ig h t and h i s f a l s e
d a u g h te r, w ith p e rh a p s a s i n i s t e r u n d e rto n e in th e word
" b o s s ." L a te r , G e r a ld in e 's s p e l l becomes th e " lo r d " o f
C h r i s t a b e l 's pow er o f sp e e c h , th u s a l l e g o r i c a l l y b in d in g
th e r a t i o n a l s o u l to th e pow ers o f d a rk n e s s . The iro n y o f
L e o li n e 's s e lf - d e c e p ti o n i n t e n s i f i e s a s th e fra g m e n t p r o
g r e s s e s u n t i l , b y th e end o f P a r t I I , he c a l l s G e ra ld in e
"L ord R o lan d ’s b e a u te o u s dove" (569) and p ro m ises to "c ru sh
th e snake" (571) o f e v i l w hich, he b e l ie v e s , h a s th r e a te n e d
h e r h o n o r. M om entarily, he s e e s h i s tr u e d a u g h te r as a
s e r p e n t:
223
. . . C h r is ta b e l in d iz z y tr a n c e
S tum bling on th e u n ste a d y ground
Shuddered a lo u d , w ith a h is s in g sound.
( P a rt I I , 589-591)
What h as o c c u rre d f i n a l l y i s a seem ing i d e n t i t y o r c o n fu s io n
betw een th e tr u e and f a l s e d a u g h te rs , w hereby ea c h a p p a r
e n t l y ta k e s on th e c h a r a c te r o f th e o th e r , a t th e same tim e
rem a in in g th e sam e.
In L e o lin e * s m ind, th e two p r i n c i p l e s have become
In te rm ix e d , and som ething l i k e a g ro te sq u e m a rria g e o f
op p osing f o r c e s h as ta k e n p la c e . Even in th e frag m en t as
i t s ta n d s , th e a l lu s io n s to m a rria g e have g r e a t e r s i g n i f i
cance th a n C o le rid g e Im m ediately makes c l e a r . F o r S p e n se r,
to o , th e ep ith alam iu m was a means o f c e le b r a tin g th e o rd e r
and harm ony o f th e p e r f e c t l y b a la n c e d m ind p ic tu r e d i n th e
House o f Alma. C h r is ta b e l, in m arked c o n t r a s t to th e woman
w a ilin g f o r h e r dem on-lover in K ubla Khan, h a s gone to th e
woods to p ra y f o r th e w e lfa re "Of h e r own b e tr o th e d k n ig h t"
( P a rt I , 2 8 ), o f whom she h as dream t th e n ig h t b e f o r e . The
r i t u a l i s t i c to n e , on th e one hand p a r t o f th e a p p r o p r ia te
lan g u ag e o f th e G o th ic rom ance, a ls o r e in f o r c e s o u r im p res
s io n o f th e s p i r i t u a l im p o rt o f h e r im pending m a rria g e .
What a c t u a l l y does ta k e p la c e i n th e fra g m e n t, th o u g h , i s a
c r u e l b e t r a y a l o f th e m a rria g e v is i o n . As C h r is ta b e l t e l l s
G e ra ld in e , th e c a s t l e - b e l l i s to s t r i k e tw e lv e on h e r
w edding-day ( P a rt I , 2 0 0 -2 0 1 ). I n t h i s c o n te x t, th e o p en in g
22k
l i n e o f th e poem i s c h a rg e d w ith ir o n y : " 'T i s th e m id d le
o f n ig h t by th e c a s t l e c lo c k ." And th e iro n y i s p ic k e d up
b y G e ra ld in e , as she t e l l s h e r s to r y o f th e f i v e w a r r i o r s :
" I th o u g h t I h e a rd , some m in u tes p a s t , /S o u n d s as o f a
c a s t l e b e l l " ( P a rt I , 1 0 0 -1 0 1 ). The chamber to w hich C h ris
t a b e l le a d s G e ra ld in e , b e a u t i f u l l y c a rv e d and o rn am en ted ,
i s in f a c t a p aro d y o f th e b r i d a l bow er. I t i s h e r e , ap p ro
p r i a t e l y , t h a t C h r is ta b e l t e l l s G e ra ld in e o f th e p ro p h ecy
c o n c e rn in g h e r w ed d in g -d ay . G e r a ld in e 's su b se q u e n t o u tc ry
a g a in s t th e s p i r i t o f C h r i s t a b e l 's m o th er—
"O ff, woman, o f f I t h i s h o u r i s mine —
Though th o u h e r g u a rd ia n s p i r i t b e ,
O ff, woman, o f f I ' t i s g iv e n to me"
(P a rt I , 211-213) —
i r o n i c a l l y r e c a l l s th e q u ie t to n e o f S p e n s e r's in v o c a tio n
to Phoebus in th e E p ith a la m lo n :
I f e v e r I d id h o n o u r th e e a r i g h t ,
Or s in g th e th in g t h a t m ig h t th y mind d e lig jh t,
Do n o t th y s e r v a n t 's sim p le boon r e f u s e ;
B ut l e t t h i s d ay , l e t t h i s one d ay , be m ine;
L et a l l th e r e s t be t h i n e .
(122- 1 2 6)
F o llo w in g th e c o n v e n tio n o f th e ep lth alam iu m , S p en ser
p ra y s t h a t th e m a rr ia g e -v is io n o f u n i t y w i l l be m a in ta in e d
a g a in s t o u ts id e f o r c e s w hich m ight th r e a te n I t , j u s t a s
te m p ta tio n s o f th e f i v e se n se s th r e a te n th e w e ll- r e g u la te d
House o f Alma, and t h a t th e n ig h t w i l l p r o te c t h is b r id e
22 £
and h im s e lf
Prom f e a r o f p e r i l and f o u l h o r r o r . . . .
L et no f a l s e tr e a s o n seek us to e n tra p ,
Nor any d re a d d is q u i e t once annoy
The s a f e ty o f o u r jo y
But l e t th e n ig h t be calm and q u ietso m e.
(322-326)
The p ra y e r f o r o r d e r soon becom es a r i t u a l o f ex o rcism :
Ne l e t house f i r e s , n o r l i g h t n i n g ’ s h e lp le s s h arm s,
Ne l e t th e Pouke, n o r o th e r e v i l s p r i t e s ,
Ne l e t m isch iev o u s w itc h e s w ith t h e i r charm s,
Ne l e t h o b g o b lin s , names whose sen se we see n o t,
P ra y u s w ith th in g s t h a t be n o t .
(31J.0-3W
I r o n i c a l l y , i t i s t h i s v e ry n ig h tm a re -w o rld o f s u p e r s t i t i o n
and su b co n scio u s f e a r w hich G e ra ld in e , as th e embodiment o f
e v i l , c a r r i e s w ith h e r in to L e o lin e ’s c a s t l e and C h r is ta
b e l ' s b ed -ch am b er. In h e r o u tc r ie s a g a in s t th e g u a rd ia n
s p i r i t , G e ra ld in e would seek to e x o rc is e n o t th e f o r c e s o f
e v i l b u t th e f o r c e s o f good in a r e v e r s a l o f th e e p ith a la m ic
p r a y e r . The p a ro d y is e x te n d e d f u r t h e r in th e C o n clu sio n
to P a r t I w ith G e r a ld in e 's m a g ic a l em brace o f C h r is ta b e l,
an a n t i- t y p e o f th e n u p tia l em brace o f th e b rid e and b r i d e
groom, n o t th e te n d e r em brace o f lo v e , b u t an e n c lo s in g
,lp r i s o n ,, (30lj.) o u t o f w hich i s b o rn th e knowledge o f e v i l .
A g ain st t h i s in v e rs io n o f th e sym bolism o f th e e p i th a -
lamium by w hich C o le rid g e p ic tu r e s th e f a l l e n human s t a t e
on b o th m icrocosm ic and m acrocosm ic l e v e l s , C h r is t a b e l’s
226
tr u e w edding p o s ite d in G illm a n 's c o n c lu s io n w ould in d eed
c o n s t i t u t e a f i t t i n g means o f d ra m a tiz in g th e r e s t o r a t i o n
o f th e u n f a ll e n s t a t e and th e r e a s s e r t i o n o f th e p r i n c i p l e
o f lo v e . S t i l l , th e m elo d ram atic s e r i e s o f e v e n ts in th e
p r o je c te d c o n c lu s io n would n o t o n ly ham per th e l o g i c a l
c o n tin u a tio n o f su c h an a lle g o r y o f th e mind as I have
p ro p o se d , fo c u s in g alm o st e n t i r e l y on C h r is ta b e l and G e ra l
d in e r a t h e r th a n L e o lin e , b u t w ould seem a ls o to be e n t ir e l y
in co n g ru o u s w ith C o le r id g e ’ s c r i t i c a l and p h ilo s o p h ic a l
b e l i e f s .
As F o g le , among many c r i t i c s , h a s a ffirm e d , C o le rid g e 's
l i f e l o n g s tr u g g le was " , . . t o s y n th e s iz e o p p o s itio n s in to
fln
o rg a n ic u n i t y . . . . n G e r a ld in e 's f i n a l v a n is h in g a t
th e r e t u r n o f th e tr u e lo v e r i s a l l e g o r i c a l l y u n s a tis f y in g
i f m e lo d ra m a tic a lly a p p e a lin g . B e e r 's c o n te n tio n t h a t
C h r i s t a b e l 's u ltim a te r o le m ust be to p r e v a i l o v e r th e e v i l
p r i n c i p l e in such a way as to ab so rb i t o r r e t u r n i t to i t s
p ro p e r p la c e in th e scheme o f b e in g , i s more s a t i s f a c t o r y
in term s o f th e b a la n c e and r e c o n c i l i a t i o n o f o p p o s ite s .
C o le r id g e 's system i s a l l - i n c l u s i v e . L ike B lak e, he so u g h t
n o t to deny th e r e a l i t y o f th e w o rld o f th e se n se s once he
had become a K a n tia n , b u t to in c o rp o r a te t h a t r e a l i t y in to
h is l a r g e r and a ll-e n c o m p a s s in g p e r c e p tio n o f th e noum enal
^ The Idea of Coleridge's Criticism, p. 131.
r e a l i t y . H is m o tiv e , as F a ir c h ild com ments, is alw ays
bound to th e r e l i g i o u s q u e s tio n o f how to a t t a i n s a l v a ti o n
through th e w orld o f se n se e x p e rie n c e and th e te m p ta tio n s
fll
o f th e s e n s e s . I t is v e ry l a r g e l y such a w orld o r view
o f th e w orld w hich G e ra ld in e r e p r e s e n ts , a s s o c ia te d as she
i s w ith th e a l l e g o r i c a l f iv e w a r r i o r s . Her te m p ta tio n o f
L e o lin e in P a r t I I i s acco m p lish ed th ro u g h th e s e n s e s — and
G e ra ld in e i s n e v e r w hat she a p p e a rs to be to th e s e n s e s .
I t i s n o t h e r e x o rcism , th e n , w hich C o le rid g e m ust accom
p l i s h , b u t h e r m a rria g e w ith C h r is ta b e l, th e p r i n c i p l e o f
lo v e and in n o c e n c e , and th u s h e r m erging w ith a g r e a te r
r e a l i t y o f w hich she m ust be a p a r t . C o n fro n ted by th e same
c r i s i s o f r e c o n c ilin g th e s e n s u a l w o rld w ith a r e a l i t y o f
th e s p i r i t , B lake had shown th e i d e n t i t y b etw een th e c o r
p o r e a l V ala and th e d iv in e Je ru sa le m , th e tr u e em an atio n o f
A lb io n who, l i k e L e o lin e , is f a l l e n man fa c e d w ith a ch o ice
b etw een h i s tr u e and f a l s e ”d a u g h te r s ."
As th e poem s ta n d s , th e o n ly m a rria g e w hich ta k e s p la c e
i s th e p e rv e rs e one in w hich e v i l a b so rb s good and makes i t
resem b le i t s e l f . W hatever C o le rid g e ’ s p la n s f o r th e re m a in
in g th r e e p a r t s , w h eth er o r n o t he in te n d e d to s h i f t h i s
a t t e n t i o n to L e o lin e and to show by some means th e r e c o n s t i
t u t i o n o f th e c h i v a l r i c w orld re v o lv in g on th e a x is o f
N e o -P la to n ic f r ie n d s h ip , i t seems c l e a r t h a t th e problem
R e lig io u s T re n d s. V ol. I l l , p . 309.
o f c o n tin u a tio n was in su rm o u n ta b le . G illm a n 's c o n c lu s io n
f u l f i l l s th e e x p e c ta tio n s o f a G o th ic rom ance, b u t n o t o f
a m o ra l, p h ilo s o p h ic a l, o r p s y c h o lo g ic a l a lle g o r y . P erhaps"
G e ra ld in e rem ain s so ambiguous a f ig u r e b ecau se o f C o le
r i d g e 's own i n a b i l i t y to e x p la in s a t i s f a c t o r i l y to h im s e lf
th e p la c e o f e v i l in th e w orld and to convince h im s e lf o f
th e n e c e s s a ry r e la tio n s h i p b etw een th e f a l l e n phenom enal
w orld and th e noum enal p e r f e c t io n . But n e i t h e r had any
C h r is tia n p o e t b e fo re C o lerid g e e x p re s s e d an e n t i r e l y s a t i s
f a c t o r y s o lu tio n to th e problem o f e v i l in p o e tic te rm s .
What we do have in th e C h r is ta b e l fra g m e n t, how ever, i s th e
image o f a tr o u b le d c o n s c io u sn e ss h o v e rin g betw een th e
v i s i o n o f chaos and th e v is io n o f o r d e r . The harm onious
w o rld -v iew o f th e ep ith alam iu m a g a in e s t a b l i s h e s th e b a s is
f o r th e id e a liz e d s t a t e , a g a in s t w hich th e f a l l e n s t a t e
a p p e a rs a l l th e more g ro te s q u e — e v i l as an in v e r s io n o f
good. As in The A n cien t M arin er and K ubla Khan, C o le rid g e
p a r o d ie s th e m a rria g e hymn and i t s i d e a l i z a t i o n o f r e a l i t y
in o rd e r to d ra m a tiz e and comment upon m an 's f a l l e n s t a t e ,
j u s t as M ilto n had p a ro d ie d h ea v e n in th e c o u n c il in h e l l
f o r s im ila r p u rp o se s in P a ra d is e L o s t.
I n a l l th r e e o f h is p o e tic e x p e rim e n ts , C o le rid g e r e
ta in e d th e e p ith a la m ic v is io n o f th e lo v e p o e t, how ever
su b lim a te d and o b j e c t i f i e d in e x o tic im ages and p o e tic fo rm s.
B u t, as S ch u lz h o ld s , C o le r id g e 's im a g in a tio n seems to have
229
f a i l e d him by th e second p a r t o f C h r is t a b e l. D e sp ite h is
q u a l i f i e d s u c c e s s e s in a d a p tin g th e b a l la d form , C o le rid g e
m ust have r e a l i z e d a f t e r 1797 t h a t " . . . h i s m ost s p o n ta
n e o u s, c h a r a c t e r i s t i c ty p e w ould be in th e n a tu r a ln e s s o f
h is own sp e a k in g v o i c e . A fte r K ubla Khan, C o le rid g e
tu rn e d c h i e f l y to lo v e poems (some o f them in th e c o n v e rs a
t i o n v o ic e ) re se m b lin g th o s e in h is e a r l i e r m anner and to
dream poem s; o f te n , o f c o u rs e , th e lo v e theme ta k e s th e
dream fo rm , as in K ubla Khan. Now C o le rid g e may w e ll have
r e a l i z e d t h a t h i s e s s e n t i a l g e n iu s had alw ays b ee n as a
lo v e p o e t u n t i l th e L y ric a l B a lla d s e x p e rim e n ts . At th e
same tim e , how ever, th e s h i f t from th e d ra m a tiz e d n a r r a t iv e
o f th e b a l la d b ack to th e in te n s e l y p e rs o n a l to n e o f th e
lo v e r in h i s l a t e r p o e tr y i s c e r t a i n l y due l a r g e ly to th e
p o e t* s m e etin g S a ra H u tch in so n in 1799.
Once a g a in , a t l e a s t f o r a s h o r t tim e , C o le rid g e , h a
v in g co n ceiv ed o f th e f a l l a s a b re a k in g o f th e m agic wed
d in g c i r c l e o r lo s s o f th e S h ech in ah in th e s e p a r a tio n o f
Adam and E ve, c o u ld im agine a ta n g ib le r e l a t io n s h i p o f
p e r f e c t lo v e as th e s o lu t io n to th e f a l l in h is own l i f e .
As he w ro te in 1803, by t h i s tim e in d e s p a ir a t th e f u t i l i t y
o f h i s lo v e f o r S a ra , "To be b e lo v ed i s a l l I n e e d , / And
whom I lo v e , I lo v e in d eed " (The P ain s o f S le e p , 5 1 -5 2 )•
As S chulz h as s t a t e d , C o le rid g e " . . . n e v e r l o s t f a i t h in
h i s c a p a c ity to daydream " o r " . . . i n th e c o n s ta n c y and
230
im m ediacy o f h ia r e v e r i e s . "®3 I r o n i c a l l y , th e c o u rse o f
h i s r e l a t io n s h i p w ith S a ra was to fo llo w th e a l l to o fa m i
l i a r p a t t e r n o f i n i t i a l en th u sia sm and e v e n tu a l d e je c tio n
o f h is e a r l i e r hopes f o r P a n tis o c ra c y , h i s f r i e n d s h ip s , and
h i s m a rria g e to S ara P r ic k e r . D esp ite th e a c tu a l m utual
lo v e betw een them , how ever, C o le rid g e m ust have r e a l iz e d
even a t th e o u ts e t o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a t i t c o u ld le a d
o n ly to h i s u ltim a te u n h a p p in e ss, s in c e he was i n e x tr i c a b l y
com m itted to fa m ily r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s in h i s u n fo rtu n a te
m a rria g e . T hus, ev en in th e e a r l y A sra poem c a l l e d "L ove,"
th e elem en t o f th e daydream is p r e v a le n t, as i t was n o t In
th e e a r l y poems to S a ra P r ic k e r , im plying th a t th e p o e t* s
e n v is io n e d l i f e w ith A sra c o u ld n e v e r be more th a n a momen
t a r y and p e rh ap s a f t e r a l l d e lu s o ry esc ap e from th e n i g h t
mare r e a l i t y w hich now, w ith th e w o rsen in g symptoms o f h is
opium a d d ic tio n , in c r e a s in g ly th r e a te n e d t o e n g u lf him .
N e v e rth e le s s , th e tr u e lo v e r e la tio n s h i p rem ain s s a c re d ,
and even more so f o r i t s c o n t r a s t w ith a h a rs h and im p e rfec t
r e a l i t y :
A ll th o u g h ts , a l l p a s s io n s , a l l d e l i g h ts ,
W hatever s t i r s t h i s m o rta l fram e,
_ _ A ll a re b u t m in is te r s o f Love,
And fe e d h i s s a c re d fla m e .
("L o v e," 1-1}.)
O q
- * The Poetic Voices of Coleridge, pp. 120, 121.
231
But now such an id e a liz e d m a rria g e o f tr u e m inds i s r e a l i
z a b le o n ly in th e p o e t 's "w aking dream s" (£) in w hich he
p i c tu r e s a te n d e r scene w ith h i s b elo v ed in th e ro m a n tic iz e d
s e t t i n g o f a m o o n lit n ig h t n e a r a ru in e d c a s t l e . The scen e,
w ith th e m elody o f th e p o e t ’ s h a rp and song, r e c a l l s th e
m agic grove o f The N ig h tin g a le . Through a t a l e o f lo v e and
com passion in th e c h i v a l r i c w o rld , C o lerid g e im agines t h a t
he w ins h i s own la d y , whom he c a l l s h i s " b r ig h t and b eau
te o u s B rid e " (9 6 ). S ara H u tch in so n (h ere d is g u is e d as
"G enevieve") i s th e I d e a liz e d woman c e le b r a te d in th e e p i-
thalam ium :
She wept w ith p i t y and d e l ig h t,
She b lu sh e d w ith lo v e , and v irg in -s h a m e ;
And l i k e th e murmur o f a dream ,
I h e a rd h e r b r e a th e my name.
(7 7 -8 0 )
I n A lcaeus to Sappho. To A s ra . and The Second B i r t h ,
a l l w r i t t e n b etw een 1800 and 1801, th e N e o -P la to n ic i d e a l i
z a tio n o f lo v e is e v id e n t, and w ith i t th e im p assio n ed n o te
o f th e Song o f Solomon. The f i r s t poem i s r e a l l y an e l a
b o r a te com plim ent to S a ra , draw ing upon t h e i r m u tu al p r o f e s -
s io n o f l o v e :
A ll Heaven i s in a m a id e n 's b lu s h ,
In w hich th e s o u l d o th sp e ak ,
T hat i t was you who s e n t th e f l u s h
In to th e m a id e n 's ch e ek .
(5-8)
232
I n To A sra, S a r a ’ s lo v e f o r th e p o e t makes h i s h e a r t th e
" li v in g fo u n t" o f h i s lo v e , w hich o v erflo w s and f i l l s him
w ith jo y , so t h a t he w ish es he c o u ld " . . . tran sm u te th e
whole to one r i c h D ow er/ Of Happy L ife . . ." (12-13) and
g iv e i t a l l to h i s b e lo v e d . The D o n n e-lik e im agery and
se n tim e n t o c c u r a g a in in The Second B i r t h :
There a re two b i r t h s , th e one when L ig h t
F i r s t s t r i k e s th e new -aw aken'd s e n s e - -
The o th e r when two s o u ls u n i t e ,
And we m ust co u n t o u r l i f e from th e n .
(1 - k )
The f i n a l c o u p le t e s p e c i a l ly rese m b les Donne’s p o e try in th e
c o l lo q u ia l o r c o n v e r s a tio n a l to n e and in th e rhythm : "When
you lo v ’ d me, and I lo v ’ d you, / Then b o th o f us were b o m
anew ."
I t i s t h i s to n e , w hich C o lerid g e h ad lo n g been p e r f e c
t i n g , t h a t in fo rm s th e g r e a t D e.lectio n ode w r i t te n in 1802.
As W halley n o te s , th e poem in i t s o r i g i n a l and more b io g r a
p h ic a l form was c a l l e d A L e t t e r to A sra . ^ Once m ore, as
in th e e a r l i e r c o n v e rs a tio n poems, C o le rid g e ’ s e p is te m o lo g i-
c a l and m e ta p h y s ic a l v i s i o n o f th e a c tiv e u n iv e r s e , th e
u n io n o f n a tu r a n a t u r a t a and n a tu r a n a tu r a n s , stem s from th e
p e rs o n a l em otion o f ro m an tic lo v e in some s p e c if ic in s ta n c e ,
su ch as th e b r id e and groom e x p re s s in th e Song o f Solom on.
^Coleridge and Sara Hutchinson, p. 101.
By t h i s tim e , C o le rid g e h ad come to th e b i t t e r r e c o g n itio n
t h a t even h i s lo v e f o r S a ra , w hich awakened in him an i n
te n s e lo n g in g to e n te r in f a c t th e k in d o f w o rld g l o r i f i e d
b y th e e p ith alam iu m , m ust be doomed to f a i l u r e in th e a c tu a l
w o rld . Yet t h a t f a i l u r e in no way le s s e n e d C o le rid g e * s
n eed f o r lo v e o r h is e x p e rie n c e o f lo v e f o r S a ra . The
n ig h tm are and th e dream th u s f i n a l l y came to c o e x is t in a
k in d o f e q u ilib r iu m in h i s own m ind. I t is t h i s a s p e c t o f
h i s p e rs o n a l l i f e w hich, com bined w ith h is b ro a d e r view o f
th e w orkings o f th e a c tiv e mind in r e l a t i o n to th e u n iv e rs e ,
g iv e s th e D e je c tio n ode i t s fo rm . C o le rid g e * s c o n c e p tio n
o f lo v e , l i k e S h e lle y ’ s , e n t a i l s a g o in g o u ts id e o f o n e ’ s
own n a tu re o r s e lfh o o d in an i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o r c o a le s c e n c e
w ith th e o b je c t o r p e rs o n b e lo v e d . As a co n seq u en ce, th e
m ind is a b le to a c h ie v e e s c a p e , how ever m om entary and te n u
o u s, from th e c o n s c io u s and su b c o n scio u s f e a r s o f th e i s o l a
t e d s e lfh o o d .
The sto rm im agery o f th e f i r s t s ta n z a e s t a b l i s h e s th e
p o e t ’s v is i o n o f chaos Im pending in th e n a t u r a l w o rld . The
m o o n lit n ig h t a t f i r s t s u g g e s ts th e c o n t r a s tin g t r a n q u i l i t y
and harmony o f th e g ard e n o f th e n ig h ti n g a le s . But t h i s
tim e th e wind w hich in The E o lia n Harp had sym bolized th e
l i v i n g s p i r i t o f th e u n iv e rs e draw ing c e l e s t i a l m usic from
th e w in d -h arp , th r e a te n s to become’ a w ild , ra g in g b l a s t , a
234
. . . d u ll so b b in g d r a f t , t h a t moans and ra k e s
Upon th e s t r in g s o f t h i s A E olian l u t e ,
Which b e t t e r f a r were m ute.
(6- 8 )
I r o n i c a l l y , how ever, th e g r e a t calm in n a tu re images th e
drugged s t a t e o f th e p o e t 's mind in p a s s i v i t y o r d e je c tio n ,
from w hich th e im a g in a tio n can , i t seem s, be ro u se d o n ly
th ro u g h a p o c a ly p tic tu m u lt. The c h a o tic fo rc e i t s e l f , th e n ,
m ic ro c o s m ic a lly th e unbounded and even p o t e n t i a l l y d e s tr u c
t i v e en e rg y o f th e im a g in a tio n , m ust somehow be h a rn e s s e d
and in c o rp o ra te d in to C o le r id g e 's v is i o n o f dynamic u n ity
where a l l o p p o s ite s c o e x is t, a s in B la k e 's E den, in harm o
n io u s b a la n c e .
A g a in st t h i s id e a l th e s t a t i c , n o n -p e rc e iv in g mind o f
th e f i r s t th r e e s ta n z a s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y o p p r e s s iv e . The
m ind tu rn e d in upon i t s e l f , th e n o n - c r e a tiv e " v o id 1 1 (D e je c
t i o n , 21) o f th e s e lfh o o d , is th e im a g in a tio n 's p r is o n ,
m aking I t seem in g ly im p o ssib le f o r th e e s e m p la s tic power to
draw th e m ind in to an a c tiv e p e r c e p tu a l (hence c r e a tiv e )
r e l a t i o n s h i p o f r e c i p r o c i t y w ith th e u n iv e r s e . And y e t i t
i s th e s t a t e o f d e je c tio n w hich b rin g s to th e mind th e r e
c o g n itio n o f i t s own power and th e knowledge th a t i t " . . .
may n o t hope from outw ard form s to win /T h e p a s s io n and th e
l i f e , whose f o u n ta in s a re w ith in " (4 5 -4 6 ). At t h i s p o in t,
how ever, th e poem h a s shown, to q u o te Abrams, " . . . n o t
m e re ly an a l i e n a t i o n b u t th e u t t e r lo s s o f th e r e c ip r o c a tin g
235
pow er o f th e m ind."® ^
The p s y c h o lo g ic a l c r i s i s f o r th e Rom antic c o n s c io u s
n e s s , f o r C o le rid g e as f o r Blake and W ordsw orth, l i e s in
th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e p e r c e iv in g m ind and i t s p e rc e p
t u a l u n iv e r s e . As Abrams rem inds u s , i t i s n o t th e id e a o f
th e W orld-S oul o r a c tiv e p r i n c i p l e in n a tu re w hich i s th e
d i s t i n c t i v e m ark o f th e p o e tr y o f W ordsw orth and C o le rid g e ,
b u t r a t h e r "• . . th e re p e a te d fo rm u la tio n o f t h i s o u te r
l i f e as a c o n t r ib u t io n o f , o r e l s e as in c o n s ta n t r e c i p r o
c a t i o n w ith , th e l i f e and so u l o f man th e o b s e r v e r ." 8^
C o le rid g e a d d re s s e s S ara H u tch in so n a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e
f o u r t h s ta n z a : "0 Lady! we re c e iv e b u t w hat we g iv e , / And
in o u r l i f e alo n e does N atu re l i v e . . . ” (i|.7-l{.8). F o r th e
mind in d e je c tio n , th e w o rld m ust be " in a n im a te ” and " c o ld "
(5 l)> f o r th e mind in t h a t s t a t e can n o t tra n s fo rm i t by
g iv in g i t l i f e . By th e m id d le o f th e f o u r th s ta n z a , C o le
r i d g e 's a s s e r ti o n o f h is f a i t h in th e power o f th e a c tiv e
mind in th e m utual r e l a t i o n s h i p o r in te rc h a n g e b etw een
i t s e l f and n a tu re b e g in s t o approach th e e c s t a t i c p i t c h o f
th e ep ith alam iu m :
Ah I from th e s o u l I t s e l f m ust is s u e f o r t h
A l i g h t , a g lo r y , a f a i r lum inous c lo u d
E n v elo p in g th e E a r th —
And from th e so u l i t s e l f m ust th e re be s e n t
A sw eet and p o te n t v o ic e , o f i t s own b i r t h ,
8^The M irro r and th e Lamp, p . 6 7 .
The M irro r and th e Lamp, p . 6i|..
236
Of a l l sw eet sounds th e l i f e and elem en t 1
(53- 58)
The v is io n a r y q u a l i t y i s m a in ta in e d and r e in f o r c e d in
th e n e x t s ta n z a , in w hich S a ra becomes an im p o rta n t p a r t
and th e m a rria g e dream w hich had alw ays c h a r a c te r iz e d h e r
r e la t i o n s h i p w ith C o le rid g e m erges w ith th e e p ith a la m ic
v is i o n o f th e m a rria g e betw een m ind and n a tu r e , noumenal
and phenom enal, n a tu r a n a tu ra n s and n a tu r a n a t u r a t a . The
s ta n z a w a rra n ts q u o ta tio n in i t s e n t i r e t y :
0 p ure o f h e a r t ! th o u n e e d 's t n o t a sk o f me
What t h i s s tro n g m usic in th e s o u l may b e !
W hat, and w h erein i t d o th e x i s t ,
T h is l i g h t , t h i s g lo r y , t h i s f a i r lum inous m is t,
T h is b e a u t i f u l and b eau ty -m ak in g pow er.
Jo y , v ir tu o u s Lady! Joy t h a t n e 'e r was g iv e n ,
Save to th e p u re , and in t h e i r p u r e s t h o u r,
L if e , and L i f e 's e f f lu e n c e , c lo u d a t once and show er,
Jo y , Lady! i s th e s p i r i t and th e pow er,
Which w edding N atu re to us g iv e s in dower
A new E a rth and new H eaven,
U ndream t o f by th e s e n s u a l and th e p ro u d —
Joy i s th e sw eet v o ic e , Joy th e lum inous c lo u d --
W e in o u rs e lv e s r e j o i c e !
And th e n c e flo w s a l l t h a t charm s o r e a r o r s ig h t ,
A ll m e lo d ie s th e echoes o f t h a t v o ic e ,
A ll c o lo u rs a s u f f u s io n from t h a t l i g h t .
(59-75)
The c lim a c tic l i n e — "We i n o u rs e lv e s r e j o i c e ! " may o f c o u rse
be ta k e n to mean t h a t m ankind in g e n e ra l r e j o i c e s a t th e
d is c o v e ry o f "th e s p i r i t and th e power" w ith in h im s e lf . But
th e o v e r a l l to n e o f th e s ta n z a im p lie s t h a t 'su ch a ra p tu ro u s
v is i o n i s p o s s ib le o n ly u n d e r v e ry s p e c ia l c irc u m sta n c e s and
237
th e n o n ly to th e "pure o f h e a r t . " The p ro n o u n we s p e c i f i
c a l l y draws to g e th e r th e p o e t and th e Lady, th e lo v e r and j
: i
h is b e lo v e d , s u g g e s tin g t h a t th e p u r i f i c a t i o n o f th e m ind
; i
by w hich one i s e n a b le d to p e rc e iv e " th e one L ife w ith in us j
i
and ab ro ad " i s a t t a i n a b l e o n ly th ro u g h th e m u tu al g iv in g
and r e c e iv in g o f th e i d e a l m a rria g e u n io n on b o th l i t e r a l j
and e p is te m o lo g ic a l l e v e l s . Here th e p o e t 's mind a c t u a l l y j
p a r t i c i p a t e s in what i t arg u es f o r : esca p e from th e p r is o n j
: |
o f th e i s o l a te d s e lfh o o d by a moving ou tw ard in th e r e a l i - ■
z a tio n o f lo v e f o r a n o th e r b e in g . C o le r id g e 's argum ent is
r e a l l y im p l ic i t in th e w hole id e a o f th e ep ith alam iu m , b u t
j
in th e s e l i n e s h e seems to go f u r t h e r in r e c o n c ilin g th e j
! j
P a r t i c u l a r jo y o f th e p e rs o n a l lo v e r e la tio n s h i p w ith th e
u n iv e r s a l jo y b o rn o f th e u n io n o f m ind and n a tu re by
c o n f la tin g s e v e r a l B i b l i c a l m a rria g e v i s i o n s . The c e n t r a l
image o f th e two lo v e rs who draw a l l th in g s to th e m selv es
d e r iv e s u lti m a t e ly from th e Song o f Songs; b u t th e v i s i o n '
o f ap o caly p se as a m a rria g e consum m ation r e c a l l s e s p e c i a l l y i
th e books o f I s a ia h and R e v e la tio n . J o h n 's w ords, w hich I !
have q u o ted e a r l i e r in c o n n e c tio n w ith B lak e, fu se m icrocosm
j
and macrocosm to su g g e st th e same o u te r - in n e r e q u iv a le n c e j
th a t C o le rid g e e x p re s s e s in D e je c tio n : I
And I saw a new heaven and a new e a r t h . . . . And I John;
saw th e h o ly c i t y , new Je ru sa le m , coming down from God out*
o f h ea v en , p re p a re d a s a b r id e ad o rn ed f o r h e r h u sb a n d . j
And I h e a rd a g r e a t v o ic e o u t o f h eav en s a y in g , B eh o ld , i
th e ta b e r n a c le o f God i s w ith men, and he w i l l d w e ll w ith
i
i
238
them , and th e y s h a l l be h i s p e o p le , and God h im s e lf s h a l l
be w ith them , and be t h e i r God.
( I s a ia h , 21s 1 -3 )
i
L ike B lake*s Los in Je ru sa le m and W ordsw orth*s im a g in a tio n i
i n The P re lu d e , th e " sh a p in g s p i r i t o f Im a g in a tio n " (8 6 ) in :
D e.lectio n i s a p o c a ly p tic in th e sen se t h a t i t s t r i v e s to
i
g a th e r a l l th in g s in to th e u n i t y o f "a new h eav en and a new j
j
e a r t h , " founded on th e p r i n c i p l e o f lo v e w hich i s , in i t s i
!
l a r g e s t im p lic a tio n s , P a n tis o c r a c y . ;
j
B eginning w ith th e n e x t s ta n z a , how ever, th e m ind tu r n s
|
in upon i t s e l f once a g a in . The " v ip e r th o u g h ts " (9^) o f j
th e s e lfh o o d a re " R e a l i t y 's d a rk d ream !"—th e n ig h tm are j
r e a l i t y o f th e i s o l a t e d eg o , th e chaos o f se n se e x p e rie n c e
o u t o f w hich, by way o f e s c a p e , th e p o e t 's fa n c y made him
"dream s o f h a p p in e s s " (7 9 ). I n s ta n z a sev en th e ra g in g
w ind, w hich may be ta k e n to sym bolize b o th th e "sh a p in g j
s p i r i t o f Im a g in a tio n " in th e p o e t 's own mind and th e l i v i n g
s p i r i t o f th e u n iv e r s e , b rin g s o n ly agony to th e u n re sp o n - j
i
s iv e m ind. The im agery o f s t e r i l i t y c u lm in a te s in an almost!
dem onic p aro d y o f th e e p ith a la m iu m 's v i s i o n o f abundance
i
and m utual jo y and o f th e f ig u r e o f th e e n c lo s e d g a rd e n in I
■ i
th e Song o f S ongs. The w ind, p ic tu r e d as a f r e n z ie d p o e t, |
i
I
i s th e
Mad L u ta n i s tl who in t h i s m onth o f sh o w ers,
Of dark -b ro w n g a rd e n s , and o f p e e p in g f lo w e r s ,
M a k 'st D e v ils ' y u le , w ith w orse th a n w in try
s o n g . . . • .
(10^-106)
239
;As S ch u lz h as shown, th e f a i l u r e o f im a g in a tio n f in d s i t s
o b je c tiv e c o r r e la ti v e in th e w ea th er im ag ery . The moon
s u g g e s ts a change o f w e a th e r, b u t in s te a d o f th e e a g e r ly
a n t ic i p a te d A p ril show er w hich would b r in g th e e a r t h to j
Qn
l i f e , o n ly th e w ild o n sla u g h t o f th e sto rm m a t e r i a l i z e s . 1
The A p ril wind f in d s n o t a h a r v e s t b u t a w a s te la n d .
And y e t i t i s in th e m usic o f th e wind t h a t C o lerid g e
e n v is io n s th e " . . . l i t t l e c h i ld / Upon a lonesom e w ild " <
i
(1 2 1 -1 2 2 ), as h i s th o u g h ts c o n s e q u e n tly tu r n to g e n tle n e s s j
and to p r a y e r f o r th e w e lfa re o f th e l i t t l e g i r l who, in
h e r i s o l a t i o n and d e je c tio n , s u g g e s ts th e w andering l o s t
s o u l o f th e p o e t, s im ila r ly d ise n g ag e d from i t s d iv in e j
m ilie u . The t r a n s i t i o n back to S a ra , th e n , i s an e a sy one
i
as she becomes th e s u b je c t o f h i s p r a y e r . The a c tu a l w ork
in g s o f th e p o e t ’s m ind a t th e end o f th e poem c o n tr a d ic t
to some e x te n t h i s in s is te n c e on th e f a i l u r e o f h i s own
im a g in a tio n , f o r i t i s th ro u g h th e e f f ic a c y o f w hat W ords-
I
i
w o rth c a l l s th e sy m p a th etic im a g in a tio n — th e pow er o f j
I
im a g in a tiv e em pathy—t h a t C o le rid g e i s a b le to p r o je c t him
s e l f once more in to th e jo y f u l s t a te o f th e m a rria g e v i s i o n j
I
in th e co n c lu d in g s ta n z a : j
|
j
Joy l i f t h e r s p i r i t , jo y a ttim e h e r v o ic e ; j
To h e r may a l l th in g s l i v e , from p o le to p o le ,
T h e ir l i f e th e eddying o f h e r l i v i n g s o u l I
I
O l 7
' The Poetic Voices of Coleridge, pp. 33-3lj..
0 sim p le s p i r i t , g u id e d from above,
Dear LadyI f r i e n d d e v o u te s t o f my c h o ic e ,
Thus m ayest th o u e v e r, everm ore r e j o i c e .
(134-139) i
Abrams h a s commented upon th e c l u s t e r o f " o p t i c a l ,
a c o u s tic a l, m e te o r o lo g ic a l, and m a r i t a l ” m etaphors w hich j
C o le rid g e em ploys to r e in f o r c e th e d o c trin e t h a t "we re c e iv e
! Q Q
b u t what we g iv e ." F o r Abrams, th e eddy o f th e l a s t s ta n
za is " th e crow ning m e ta p h o r," im plying J
!
i
. . . a c e a s e le s s and c i r c u l a r in te rc h a n g e o f l i f e betw een1
so u l and n a tu re i n w hich i t i s im p o ssib le to d i s t i n g u i s h j
what i s g iv e n from w hat r e c e iv e d . . . .8 9 j
I
I t i s th e m a rria g e m e tap h o r, som etim es o v e r t, o f te n su n k en , !
i
w hich r e a l l y d e te rm in e s th e p o em 's form and p ro v id e s i t s
v is io n a r y b a s is in th e e p ith alam iu m . M oreover, th e m etaphor
i
o f th e eddy i s I t s e l f " m a r ita l" in f ig u r i n g th e c o a le s c e n c e
o f s u b je c t and o b je c t w hich, a s C o le rid g e w r ite s in B io g ra -
p h la L i t e r a r i a . i s th e f o u n d a tio n o f a l l k n o w l e d g e . A s j
|
I. A. R ic h a rd s has e x p re s s e d i t , j
i
C o le r id g e 's S u b je c t i s th e S e lf o r th e I n t e l l i g e n c e , th e I
88 ' '
The M irro r and th e Lamp, p . 6 7 . )
^ T h e M irro r and th e Lamp, p . 6 8 . j
90 !
Of th e many p a s sa g e s e x p re s s in g t h i s id e a , C o le rid g e 's
rem arks b e g in n in g p . 174 o f Volume I a re t y p i c a l . j
I .............................. '......... 2 U 1
i
s e n t i e n t knowing Mind; h i s O b ject i s N a tu re , w hat i s known
b y th e mind i n th e a c t o f know ing.91 i
! ' j
P e rc e p tio n is a w ilf u l a c t o f c r e a tio n , n o t a r e a c tio n o r j
t
an a b s o rp tio n , and hence th e jo y w hich th e p e r c e iv in g mind I
ta k e s in i t s p e r c e p tu a l w orld i s a k in to th e jo y w hich God j
ta k e s in h is c r e a t io n . I t i s t h i s e p ls te m o lo g lc a l m arriag e,!
e x p re s se d in B i b l i c a l and e p ith a la m ic im ag ery , w hich th e
p o e t w ish es f o r S a ra . j
I
Throughout t h e i r te n - y e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p , as S u th e r
w r i te s , th e ’ ’im p o ssib le m y s tic a l a s p i r a t i o n , ” w hich C o le-
i
rid g e f e l t was so bound up i n h i s lo v e f o r S a ra , c la s h e d j
in c e s s a n tly w ith th e a c tu a l c irc u m s ta n c e s o f t h a t l o v e . ^ j
F o r t h i s re a s o n , p e rh a p s , th e dream o f p e r f e c t io n as i t j
c o n f l i c t s w ith a mundane r e a l i t y becomes a more p r e v a le n t j
: |
p a i r o f o p p o s ite s in h is p o e try a f t e r 1800. The " lo v e - lo r n j
man” o f The P i c t u r e , f o r exam ple, i s th e d i s i l l u s i o n e d j
i
N e o -P la to n is t who s t i l l "W orships th e s p i r i t o f u n c o n sc io u s j
i
l i f e / I n t r e e o r w ild -flo w e r . . . ” (2 0 -2 1 ), y e t i s u t t e r l y !
!
w eary o f th e e m o tio n a l tu rm o il o f th e a c tu a l s t a t e o f lo v e
1
on e a r t h . The p o e t» s v is io n o f th e id e a l woman in th e i
i
f o r e s t p o o l now becom es d e lu s o ry as i t e x i s t s in a "phantom-!
w orld" (8 £ ), th e fa n c ie d w o rld o f th e daydream , from w hich j
91
7J-C olerldge on Im a g in a tio n (B loom ington, In d ia n a , I960),1
p . $1.
9^The Dark N ight o f Samuel T aylor C o lerid g e, p . lj.8 .
2l±2
!aw akening i s in d e ed b i t t e r :
!
i |
. . . Then a l l th e charm j
Is b ro k e n —a l l th a t phantom w o rld so f a i r j
V a n ish e s, and a th o u san d c i r c l e t s s p re a d , |
And e a c h m is-sh a p e s th e o th e r .
(9 1 -9 4 )
In h i s "mad lo v e -y e a rn in g " (1 0 8 ), th e l o v e r ’ s se n se s a re j
b e tra y e d by th e s h a d o w -re a lity o f th e dream -w orld o f h i s |
t
own m aking, b i t t e r b e c au se im p o ssib le to s u s t a i n , u n lik e j
th e p a ra d is e o f a r t in Kubla Khan.
Y et, a s o th e r poems o f th e p e rio d show, C o le rid g e co u ld
s t i l l co n ceiv e o f th e id e a l harmony o f th e m ind and o f th e
u n iv e rs e as imaged in th e p e r f e c t m a rria g e u n io n . The lines*
■ ■ !
from To M a tild a Bet ham from a S tra n g e r a re t y p i c a l : j
The A lm ighty, h a v in g f i r s t composed a Man,
S e t him to m u sic, fra m in g Woman f o r him , i
And f i t t e d ea c h to e a c h , and made them one!
i
(18- 2 0 )
i
i
And in a frag m en t c a l l e d The Happy H usband, th e image o f the)
" . . . eddy in th e f low / Of sm o o th est song . . . " (2 0 -2 1 ) isj
i
i
a g a in s p e c i f i c a l l y m a r i t a l . I n th e e a r t h l y lo v e betw een man!
t
and w ife , C o le rid g e e n v is io n s "A p le d g e o f more th a n p a s s in g
l i f e , / Yea, in t h a t v e ry name o f Wife I" ( $ - 6 ) . The to n e o f
th e second s ta n z a r e c a l l s once more th e f e e l i n g o f th e o v er-l
flo w in g lo v e and g r a tit u d e in th e Song o f Solomon: i
21*3
i
A p u lse o f lo v e , th a t n e ’er can s le e p !
A f e e l i n g t h a t u p b ra id s th e h e a r t
! W ith h a p p in e ss beyond d e s e r t,
T hat g la d n e s s h a l f r e q u e s ts to weep! I
i
(The Happy Husband, 7 -1 0 ) 1
t
i
But th e m ost c h a r a c t e r i s t i c te n o r o f C o le rid g e ’ s l a t e r ■
I
p o e try i s th e d u a l p e r c e p tio n o f th e n ig h tm are and th e
i
dream ex p ressed in D e je c tio n . In A Day-Dream, another o f
the lo v e poems to A sra, the dream-world o f the epithalam ium
which m a te r ia liz e s in the p o e t ’ s r e v e r ie s i s q u a lifie d and j
i
g iv e n p a th o s by th e sen se o f p re c a rio u s n e s s and d e lu s io n
t h a t u n d e rc u ts i t . The f i r s t s ta n z a in tro d u c e s th e image j
o f th e bow er, b u t w ith th e sa d n e ss t h a t th e w illo w (6) su g - j
g e s t s , and th e image is expanded i n th e fo llo w in g s ta n z a s ;
by th e remem bered w ild - r o s e s , ru in e d shed, and balm y m oonlitj
summer n ig h t . S ara H u tch in so n , o f c o u rs e , i s th e c e n tr a l
i
f ig u r e o f th e daydream : |
0 e v e r —e v e r be th o u b l e s t ! i
F o r d e a r ly , A sra! lo v e I t h e e ’ .
T his b ro o d in g warmth a c ro s s my b r e a s t ,
T h is d e p th o f t r a n q u i l b l i s s — ah , me ! j
(1 9 -2 1 ) |
I
I n a s im ila r f a s h io n , th e f e e l i n g s o f te n d e rn e s s ,and se c u - i
r i t y in th e Song o f Songs r e s u l t s p a r t l y from th e c o n t r a s t j
i
o r o p p o s itio n o f th e id e a l w o rld o f th e lo v e rs and th e
b a rre n n e s s o f a w o rld in w hich th e y have no p a r t . The r e
u n io n o f th e b r id e and groom i n S olom on's g ard en i s a l l th e
; 21*
more a f f e c t i n g b ecau se o f t h e i r p re v io u s s e p a r a tio n , in
w hich th e b r id e wept a t h e r h u sb a n d ’s absence and f e l t
: j
;" s ic k o f l o v e .” I n b o th th e Song o f Songs and C o le rid g e ’s j
A Day-Dream, th e f u l l im pact o f th e e p ith a la m ic v is io n o f |
p e r f e c t m u tu al love th u s depends upon i t s c o n te x t in th e
i
h a rsh n e ss o f th e o u ts id e w o rld . The s te p from I d e a l i z a t i o n ;
ito dream i s , o f c o u rs e , an e a sy o n e, and one m ust remember
t h a t f o r C o lerid g e th e daydream m eant m ore th a n mere i l l u
s io n . As S chulz h a s rem arked, C o le rid g e " . . • saw in th e
dream a means o f tra n s c e n d in g th e l i m i t a t i o n s o f th e se n
s e s ”
i
l
j
I n th e dream poem, he som etim es t r i e s to see h i s p e r s o n a l !
e x p e rie n c e s as e x p re s s iv e o f u n iv e r s a l id e a ls . . . . At J
o th e r tim e s , he c o n t r a s t s th e em p tin e ss o r m ean in g lessn ess:
o f th e a c tu a l moment w ith th e id e a l w o rld o f Kubla and j
B o c ca ccio ’ s p a r a d is a l gardens.9ij. j
' ' i
I t I s th e p o e t 's e x h a u s tio n a t th e f r i g i d s t a t e o f
d e je c tio n , h i s f a i l u r e to see th e n a tu r a n a tu ra n 3 w ith in th e
n a tu r a n a t u r a t a , w hich p ro v id e s th e c o n te x t o f th e e p i th a - :
i
lam ic dream i n th e o p en in g l i n e s o f C o le r id g e 's l a s t dream - j
poem, The G arden o f B o c c a c c io ;
i
Of l a t e , in one o f th o s e m ost w eary h o u rs ,
When l i f e seems em p tie d o f a l l g e n ia l pow ers,
^ The P o e tic V oices o f C o le rid g e , p . 128.
9^The Poetic Voices of Coleridge, p. 128. j
2k5
A d re a ry mood, w hich he who n e 'e r h as known
May b le s s h i s happy l o t , I s a te a lo n e ;
And, from th e numbing s p e l l to w in r e l i e f ,
C a l l 'd on th e P a s t f o r th o u g h t o f g le e o r g r i e f ,
(1 - 6 )
Prom t h i s p a s s i v i t y o f th e s e lfh o o d , th e mind moves outw ard !
in c o n te m p la tio n o f " B o c c a c c io 's G arden and i t s f a e r y , /T h e !
lo v e , th e jo y a u n c e, and th e g a l l a n t r y ! " (15-16) w hich form s
a " p ic tu r e " to th e p o e t 's "inw ard s ig h t" (2lj.). He i s im a- j
g in a tiv e ly tr a n s p o r te d to "a new w orld" (29) o f re s p le n d e n t j
i
"wonder" (3 0 ), as he e n te r s in to th e dream -w orld e n v is io n e d -;
by th e p o e t o f K ubla Khan: I
I see no lo n g e r! I m y se lf am th e r e ,
S i t on th e g ro u n d -sw ard , and the b an q u et s h a re .
'T is X, t h a t sweep t h a t l u t e 's lo v e -e c h o in g s t r i n g s ,
And gaze upon th e m aid who g az in g s in g s :
Or p au se and l i s t e n to th e t i n k l i n g b e l l s
Prom th e h ig h to w e r, and th in k t h a t th e re she d w e lls .
W ith o ld B o c c a c c io 's so u l I s ta n d p o s s e s t,
And b re a th e an a i r l i k e l i f e , t h a t s w e lls my c h e s t.
The b r ig h tn e s s o f th e w o rld , 0 th o u once f r e e ,
And alw ays f a i r , r a r e la n d o f c o u rte s y !
(The G arden o f B o c ca c cio , 65-7lj.)
B o c c a c c io 's F lo re n c e becom es, in C o le r id g e 's m ind, a 1
com posite v is i o n o f th e b an q u et o f c o n v e rs a n ts in P a n tis o -
c ra c y , th e m a rria g e f e a s t o f th e W edding-G uest, th e u n f a lle n
i
c h i v a l r i c w orld u n d e rly in g C h r is ta b e l. and th e p a r a d i s a l i
g ard e n s o f K ubla Khan and th e Song o f Solom on. I t i s now j
C o le rid g e h im s e lf who f u l f i l l s h i s d e s ir e o f th e e a r l i e r !
|
poem, as he sweeps the lute to accompany the song of the !
2l (-6
i
|A b y ssin ia n m aid, whose lo v e -g a z e he r e t u r n s . T h e ir m ar-
ir ia g e , s y m b o lic a lly th e r e s t o r a t i o n o f th e l o s t S h ech in ah , j
i
;i s im p lie d in th e image o f m u tu al so n g . The a i r w hich th e j
dream er b r e a th e s i s th e u n ify in g a i r o f th e One L if e , th e j
i
c o a le s c e n c e o f a l l s u b je c ts and o b je c ts by th e e s e m p la s tlc |
pow er o f th e im a g in a tio n , in a p o e tic la n d o f N e o -P la to n ic j
f o u n ta in s o f harmony and E denic g a rd e n s , "where Love l i e s j
i
l i s t e n i n g " to th e w a t e r f a l l s (85) "And N ature makes h e r •
happy home w ith man . . . " (8 7 ). B occaccio*s w o rld o f a r t !
i s an e la b o r a te p o e tic C irc le o f th e G ra ce s, w ith " . . . !
th e em brace and in te r tw in e / O f a l l w ith a l l in gay and
tw in k lin g d a n c e !" (9i|.-95>)—th e m agic c i r c l e o f th e m a rria g e j
hymn. As in th e e a r l i e r c o n v e rs a tio n poem s, C o le rid g e j
i
p ro g re s s e s from th e s t a t e o f d e je c tio n to a s t a t e o f euphoric
e x u l ta t i o n , b u t now t h a t e x u l ta t i o n depends alm ost w h o lly
upon th e e f f i c a c y o f th e p o e tic dream -w o rld . The m aiden o f
i
The G arden o f B occaccio i s an id e a liz e d F lo r e n tin e la d y o f
j
th e I t a l i a n R e n a issa n c e , n o t S a ra H u tch in so n o r any o th e r j
r e a l woman. I t i s p e rh a p s p a ra d o x ic a l t h a t , th e more th e j
i
j
n ig h tm a r e - r e a lity seemed ab o u t to p r e v a i l o v e r him co m p lete-j
i
l y , and th e more s u b je c tiv e and e n t i r e l y in d iv id u a l h i s j
I
a tte m p ts to escap e from i t becam e, th e more d id C o le rid g e !
co n ceiv e o f th e m a rria g e -d rea m o f m u tu al lo v e as a p e r s o n a l I
a s s e r t i o n o f triu m p h , an in s is te n c e upon h i s f a i t h in "th e j
I
One L ife w ith in u s and abroad" in th e fa c e o f d is s o lu tio n
2 1 4 - 7
land th e b ro k en c i r c l e w hich th r e a te n e d a d iv o rc e o f a l l
i »
ith i n g s •
C H A PTER V
CONCLUSION
For each o f the f i r s t th ree major E n g lish Romantic
p o e ts , the eig h te e n th centu ry was, e p is te m o lo g ic a lly , the
era o f a g rea t d iv o rc e, in which th e v is io n o f man as an
in te g r a l p art o f an organ ic u n iv erse had become h o p e le s s ly
l o s t . The new Romantic view o f the mind as a c t iv e , dynamic,
or im a g in a tiv e, may be regarded as a r e lig io n o f p ercep tu a l
aw areness, as opposed to th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y 's r e lig io n
o f mechanism d erived from Lockean em p iricism . B la k e's r is e n
A lbion i s man redeemed by th e C h rist w ith in him, man r is in g
p e r c e p tu a lly from The Human A bstract (Lockean or tw o fo ld
v is io n ) to The D ivin e Image (th e fo u r fo ld v is io n o f complete
s p ir it u a l i n t e g r it y ) . W ordsworth's id e a liz e d c h ild o f The
Prelude and the recu rrin g herm it fig u r e s are peop le whose
awareness is h eigh ten ed to an ex tra o rd in a ry p itc h through
r e c o g n itio n o f the bond e x is t in g between man and some unseen
y e t p erceiv ed power w hich r e s id e s in n a tu re. Even in C ole
r id g e 's most t r a d itio n a l C h r istia n b e l i e f , th e F a ll o f M an
i s b a s ic a lly an e p iste m o lo g ic a l f a l l , a f a ilu r e o f th e mind
to respond a c t iv e ly to the a c t iv e , liv in g u n iv erse o f i t s
p e r c e p tio n —the d is to r te d and ch a o tic v is io n o f the A ncient
M ariner. P a n tiso c r a c y --th e a s s e r tio n o f the oneness o f a l l
2^8
2 1j.9
b ein g s on th e .s o c ia l p la n e - - is no le s s than a harmonious
community o f s p i r i t s which would tran scend th e f a l l e n world.
_ I t i s n a tu ra l th a t a l l th ree p o e ts , in attem p ting to
re p la ce th e e ig h te e n th -c e n tu r y view o f th e mind as mechanism
and th e u n iv erse as s t a t i c w ith a new dynamic view o f b oth
mind and u n iv erse as organ ic and in e x tr ic a b ly u n ite d , should
s tr ik e upon the m arriage metaphor as a p o e tic means o f
r e a liz in g th e t r a n s it io n . Thus fo r Blake th e F a ll o f Man
i s h is r e fu s a l to p er c eiv e h is own w holeness and d iv in it y
by th e e le v a tio n o f h is r a tio n a l f a c u lt y , or U rizen , beyond
i t s normal sp here— and h i s t o r i c a l l y , the erro rs o f mankind
may be tra ced to a d is t o r t io n o f the b alan ced fo u r fo ld
v is io n o f harmony by the f a ilu r e o f the corrupted reason to
see beyond and through the o p a c ity o f the corp oreal w orld.
In Jerusalem , A lbion chooses to p e r c e iv e V ala, the se x u a l
o r l u s t f u l a sp ect o f Jerusalem ’ s lo v e as sep arate from
Jerusalem because he se e s e m p ir ic a lly w ith th e lim ite d s ig h t
o f th e reason a lo n e. V ala, as th e n a tu re-g o d d ess, se rv es
U rizen; in A lb io n ’ s p e r c e p tio n , she i s the m ech a n istic and
in a c tiv e nature o f e ig h te e n th -c e n tu r y em p iricism . A lbion
r e fu se s to se e nature as h is own em anation, as p art o f him
s e l f , and so f a i l s to p erc eiv e th e tru e Jerusalem as h is
r e a l b rid e and h is d iv in it y . The p o e tic r e s o lu tio n o f Jeru
salem I s , o f co u rse, the a p o c a ly p tic m arriage betw een Albion
and Jerusalem which corresponds to the C h r istia n r e su r r e c
t io n and m arriage o f n a tio n s in th e c r e a tio n o f a new heaven
2£0
and e a r t h .
In The P re lu d e , once a g a in , th e c r i s i s in th e p assa g e
from c h ild h o o d to a d u lth o o d is th e lo s s o f a pow er, an
a c c e s s to a fo u n t o f s p i r i t u a l e n e rg y , th e so u rce o f w hich
W ordsw orth can n e v e r f u l l y e x p la in . What he does s u g g e s t,
h o w ev er--an d l a r g e l y th ro u g h m etaphors o f s ig h t o r v i s i o n —
i s t h a t th e v is io n a r y gleam w hich once u n ite d th e in f a n t
and p a r a d is e can be re g a in e d th ro u g h an ap o caly p se o f p e r
c e p tio n by w hich th e in d iv id u a l acknow ledges and f e e l s a
bond betw een h im s e lf and n a tu re w hich tra n s c e n d s th e pheno
m enal w o rld . In th e s p o ts o f tim e p a ssa g e s o f The P re lu d e ,
th e l i g h t o f th e se n se s m ust go o u t in o rd e r t h a t th e l i g h t
o f th e im a g in a tio n may illu m in a te th e e s s e n t i a l s p i r i t u a l
t r u t h to th e p e rc e iv in g m ind. Throughout th e poem th e
t r a d i t i o n a l n o tio n o f s p i r i t u a l m a rria g e and assu m p tio n o f
s u p e rn a tu ra l power u n d e r lie s W ordsw orth1s c o n c e p tio n o f
re d e m p tio n , th e s o lu tio n to th e f a l l . M e ta p h o ric a lly , th e
p o e t 's "N a tu re 1 ' i s th e q u een-goddess o f a m ag ical underw orld
to w hich o n ly th e p o e t o r v is io n a r y h a s a c c e s s . The e p ic
p o e t 's sublim e ta s k , th e n , is to r e v e a l th e know ledge o f
th e m a r r ia g e -v is io n to hum anity and th u s to r e a s s e r t h i s
c o n v ic tio n in th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f m an 's red em p tio n from a
w orld o f l i f e l e s s o b je c ts and th e Lockean view o f th e mind
as a r e f l e c t i n g m irro r w ith no pow er o f i t s own.
C o le rid g e , to o , tu rn e d in much o f h i s m ost c h a r a c te r
i s t i c p o e try to th e problem o f p e r c e p tio n as a r e l a t i o n s h i p
o f m u tu al in te rc h a n g e , a c o a le sc e n c e o r m arriag e o f s u b je c t
and o b je o t, a rg u in g f o r th e n e c e s s ity o f se e in g th e mind
n o t as a b la n k s l a t e o r m irro r b u t as an a c tiv e f o rc e w hich
resp o n d s to an a p p a re n tly s im ila r fo rc e in an o rg a n ic o r
l i v i n g u n iv e r s e . I t i s t h i s sym pathy o f s u b je c t and o b je c t
in e p is te m o lo g ic a l term s w hich i s th e fo u n d a tio n o f th e
in d i v i d u a l’ s r e c o g n itio n o f th e im a g in a tiv e bond w hich
u n ite s a l l b e in g s and l e v e ls o f b e in g in th e one w o rld o f
th e Rom antic p e r c e p tio n — a t l e a s t in th e p o e tic v i s i o n o f
th e id e a l w orld w hich C o lerid g e a tte m p te d to u p h o ld a g a in s t
th e t h r e a t o f chaos in p e rs o n a l d i s i n t e g r a t i o n . The f a l l ,
f o r C o le rid g e , i s th e lo s s o f a sense o f community o r
'’f r ie n d s h ip 1 1 in th e P la to n ic s e n s e , r e s u l t i n g n e c e s s a r ily
from th e m ind’ s r e t r e a t in to th e cave o f th e s e lfh o o d , i t s
a c ce p tan c e o f a p a s s iv e and i s o l a t e d r o le in th e e:xperlence
o f p e r c e p tio n . Redem ption i s th e r e f o r e a p e r c e p tu a l a c t o f
r e c o g n itio n and o f sym pathy, a re su rg e n c e o f im a g in a tiv e
en e rg y in th e m in d 's a s s e r t i o n o f i t s own i n t e g r i t y and
a c tiv e r o le in an o rg a n ic u n iv e r s e .
The R om antics d id n o t, o f c o u rs e , d is c o v e r th e u s e f u l
n e s s o f th e m a rria g e m etaphor to e x p re s s a v i s i o n o f o rd e r
and harmony as opposed to th e dom inant view o f th e u n iv e rs e
w hich seemed to them fra g m e n ta ry and m is ta k e n . Among th e
O ld T estam ent P ro p h e ts , I s a ia h m ost n o ta b ly sp eak s o f ap o ca
ly p s e — th e rem aking o f heaven and e a r t h in u n io n w ith one
a n o th e r— in term s o f m a rria g e , and th e r e c u r r e n t m etap h o r o f
2 5 ? 2
cosm ic m arriage cu lm in ates in S t. John*s e c s t a t ic v is io n in
the book o f R e v e la tio n . As Murray Roston has shown, the
Old Testament was, in a se n se , red isco v ered by the E n g lish
p o ets o f th e l a t t e r p art o f the e ig h te e n th centu ry and by
the Rom antics, who d e lib e r a te ly s e t about to w rite in the
p ro p h etic or v is io n a r y v o ic e and so n a tu r a lly turned to
t h e ir most sublim e p reced en ts in the B ib lic a l t r a d it io n .
For Blake e s p e c ia lly , whose p o etry d eriv e s so h e a v ily
from the S c r ip tu r e s, the p ro p h etic s tr a in s o f Is a ia h and
R ev ela tio n must have h eld p a r tic u la r power. S t i l l , the
in c r e d ib ly r ic h im p lic a tio n s o f th e m arriage metaphor fo r
th e Romantics may be accounted fo r a lso in term s o f an
im portant t r a d itio n in E n g lish p o e tr y --th a t o f th e form al
m arriage hymn or epithalam ium , which o r ig in a te s in the Song
o f Songs. The garden imagery and tone o f the Song i s r e f le c
te d in much E n g lish p o e tr y b efo re th e Rom antics, as S ta n ley
Stew art shows in The E nclosed Garden. Blake and C oleridge
sometimes drew d ir e c t ly upon the imagery o f the B ib lic a l
son g, som etim es on the e s ta b lis h e d con ven tion s o f th e e p i
thalamium in E n g lish , e s p e c ia lly as th ey appear in S p en ser.
The ex a ct source i s n ot im portant, but the meaning and
s ig n ific a n c e o f ep ith a la m ic imagery and con ven tion s i s o fte n
e s s e n t ia l to an understanding o f Romantic p o e tr y .
The Song o f Solomon i t s e l f must have had a s p e c ia l
appeal fo r the f i r s t R om antics, as i t did f o r Bishop Percy
and o th er l a t t e r e ig h te e n th -c e n tu r y tr a n s la to r s , fo r i t s
p a s to r a l s im p lic ity and sensuous b e a u ty , and p a r t i c u l a r l y
f o r i t s ra p tu ro u s to n e o f o v e rflo w in g jo y , beyond any
b o u n d a rie s o f r a t i o n a l r e s t r a i n t o r decorum . The la r g e
number o f t r a n s l a t i o n s o f th e Song a f t e r 1760 t e s t i f i e s to
i t s in c re a s in g p o p u la r it y . I n th e P o e tic a l S k etc h es th e
young B lake c r i e s o u t in J u b ila n t echoes o f th e Song o f
Solomon, e s ta b li s h in g h im s e lf a s th e p ro p h e t, th e new l i
b e r a t o r o f th e se n se s who w i l l , by te a c h in g "an im provem ent
o f s e n s u a l en jo y m en t," w i l l r e v e a l to f a l l e n man th e h id d e n
p assag e to E den. And in h is l a t e r p ro p h e c ie s B lake was to
draw a g a in on th e co n v e n tio n s o f th e fo rm al m a rria g e hymn,
t h i s tim e p a r o d ic a lly , to comment w ith b i t t e r iro n y upon
man’ s I n s is te n c e on m a in ta in in g h i s narrow ed p e r c e p tio n o r
f a l l e n s t a t e o f b e in g . B lake th e n p r e s e n ts th e triu m p h a n t
m a rria g e .f A lb io n and Je ru sa le m , o r man and h i s tr u e f o u r
f o ld n a tu r e , in th e t r a d i t i o n a l language o f th e epithalam ium ,
th e re b y in v o k in g a l l th e id e a s o f o rd e r and harm ony w hich
had alw ays b een a p a r t o f th e g e n re .
W ordsw orth’s p ro c la m a tio n o f h i s in t e n ti o n to w rite a
" sp o u s a l v e rs e " o f a g r e a t a p o c a ly p tic m a rria g e d i r e c t l y
echoes S p en se r, th e m ost acco m p lish ed R en aissan ce w r i t e r o f
e p ith a la m ia in E n g lis h . A lthough W ordsw orth, in e x p lo rin g
th e id e a o f e p ic m a rria g e b etw een h im s e lf as p o e t / p r i e s t
and th e goddess o f th e noum enal w o rld , does l i t t l e w ith th e
c o n v e n tio n a l lan g u ag e and im agery o f th e e p ith alam iu m , h i s
view o f t h a t sym bolic m a rria g e as r e p r e s e n tin g consummate
2 A
harmony in th e u n io n o f man and n a tu r e n e v e r th e le s s i s
founded s o l i d l y upon t r a d i t i o n a l id e a s in h e re n t in th e
m a rria g e hymn. The r e c u r r e n t and o f te n sunken m a rria g e
m etaphors o f The P re lu d e th u s s u g g e s t t h e i r ran g e o f co n
n o ta tio n th ro u g h im p lic a tio n , b re a k in g th e s u rfa c e o f th e
poem o n ly a t c r i t i c a l m oments, and th e n som etim es o n ly
p a r t i a l l y , such as in th e e a tin g m etap h o rs by w hich th e
c h ild o r p r i e s t o f n a tu re e n g u lfs o r i s e n g u lfe d by th e
power o f th e n a t u r a l w o rld , s u g g e s tin g a m erging o f p o w ers.
C o le rid g e , l i k e B lak e, e x p l i c i t l y a d a p ts th e im ages as
w e ll a s th e id e a s o f th e e p ith ala m iu m , and p a r t i c u l a r l y th e
c e n t r a l image o f th e e n c lo s e d g a rd e n from th e Song o f S ongs.
I have p ro p o se d , w ith o th e r c r i t i c s , t h a t i t is v i r t u a l l y
im p o ssib le to d is c u s s C o le r id g e 's p o e try w ith o u t re fe re n c e
to h i s l i f e , and th e m ost c u rs o ry g la n c e a t C o le r id g e 's
b io g ra p h y shows h i s c o n tin u a l e f f o r t s to c o n s tr u c t around
h im s e lf a p a r a d i s a l p le a s u r e dome b y r e a l i z i n g a p e r f e c t
m a rria g e r e l a t i o n s h i p , a p a n tis o c r a c y r e s t r i c t e d to two
p e o p le . The a c tu a l c irc u m sta n c e s o f l i f e , f o r C o le rid g e as
f o r B la k e, le d him to a p a in f u l aw areness o f th e iro n y o f
th e haim onious v is i o n o f th e m a rria g e hymn a p p lie d to h is
own l i f e . They a ls o le d him , in p o e tr y , to r e p r e s e n t m an 's
f a l l e n c o n d itio n and v a in a tte m p ts to b u ild a p a r a d is e
around h im s e lf th ro u g h th e t r a d i t i o n a l v a lu e s o f c i v i l i z e d
l i f e in term s w hich p aro d y th e ep ith alam iu m . C o le r id g e 's
e c s t a t i c i f m om entary v is i o n o f th e w hole w o rld as a g ard en
25S
o f harmonious d e lig h t depends fo r i t s impact on the t r a d i
t io n a l a s s o c ia tio n s o f th e garden in the Song o f Songs and
i t s p o e tic t r a d it io n —th e p e r fe c t image o f d iv in e order and
peace fo r which C olerid ge sought in c e s s a n tly in h is p erson al
l i f e and in t e lle c t u a l e f f o r t s .
The f i r s t Romantics m ight a l l be c a lle d v is io n a r ie s ,
p o e ts o f apocalypse lik e Isa ia h and S t, John, but th ey are
a s p e c ia l s o r t o f v is io n a r y in th a t each concerned h im s e lf
m ost im p ortan tly w ith the in d iv id u a l mind and i t s c a p a c itie s .
T heir p ro p h etic v o ic e s are addressed to the in d iv id u a l mind
and seek to r e v e a l to i t i t s tru e power by exh ortin g i t to
reco g n ize and g lo r y in i t s im agin ative en ergy. And the
v is io n i s s p e c i f i c a l l y a m a r r ia g e -v islb ii, as i t must b e,
fo r i t i s th e ep ith a la m ic jo y o f u nion—the r e -in te g r a tio n
o f th e f a c u l t i e s o f the mind fo r B lake, the m arriage o f
mind and n a tu re, in d iv id u a l and God, fo r Wordsworth and
C o lerid g e--w h ich i s c e le b r a te d in the g rea t sp ou sal v er se
o f th e Romantic v is io n a r ie s .
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Creator Daly, Michael Joseph (author)

Core Title The Marriage Metaphor And The Romantic Prophecy: A Study Of The Uses Of The Epithalamium In The Poetry Of Blake, Wordsworth, And Coleridge

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program English

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Literature, Modern,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Schulz, Max F. (committee chair), Mlikotin, Anthony M. (committee member), Tufte, Virginia James (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-633467

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