University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

The Concept Of The Ideal Prince In The Literature Of The French Enlightment (1700-1780)

(USC Thesis Other)

The Concept Of The Ideal Prince In The Literature Of The French Enlightment (1700-1780)

PDF

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content This dissertation has been
microfilmed exactly as received
69- 16,548
FALK, Joyce Duncan, 1938-
THE CONCEPT OF THE IDEAL PRINCE IN THE
LITERATURE OF THE FRENCH ENLIGHTMENT
(1700-1780).
University of Southern California, Ph.D., 1969
History, modern
University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan
® COPYRIGHT
JOYCE DUNCAN FALK
1969
THE C O N C EPT OF THE IDEA L PR IN C E IN THE
L IT E R A T U R E OF THE FR E N C H EN LIG H TEN M EN T (1700-1780)
h y
Joyce D uncan F a lk
A D is s e r ta tio n P r e s e n t e d to the
F A C U L T Y OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SO UTHERN CALIFO RNIA
In P a r tia l F u lfillm e n t of the
R e q u ir e m e n ts for the D e g re e
DOCTOR O F PHILOSOPHY
(H istory)
June 1969
UNIVERSITY O F S O U T H E R N CA LIFO RN IA
TH E GRADUATE SCHOOL.
U N IV ER SITY PARK
LOS A N G ELES, CA LIFO RN IA 9 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
.......................Joyc.e_Djuncan.Falk............................
under the direction of h.§J.... Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by The Gradu
ate School, in partial fulfillment of require
ments for the degree of
D O C T O R O F P H IL O S O P H Y
o-jri
Dean
D a te. June, 1969
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
TA BLE OF CONTENTS
PA R T I. INTRODUCTION: THE TRADITIONS
OF THE CO NCEPT OF THE IDEAL PRINCE
C hapter P age
I. IN T R O D U C T IO N .................................................................................... 2
II. FRO M MIRRORS OF PRINCES TO SE V E N T E E N T H -
CENTURY FRENCH L IT E R A T U R E ......................................... 16
III. FE N E L O N AND T E L E M A Q U E .................................................. 36
P A R T II. THE IDEAL PRINCE OF THE
PHILOSOPHES AND THE PHYSIOCRATS
IV. MONTESQUIEU . . ..................................................................... 68
V . V O L T A IR E ......................................................................................................... 100
VI. PH YSIO CRATS.................................................................................................. 131
VII. R O U S S E A U .........................................................................................................140
P A R T III. THE IDEAL PRINCE IN
E IG H TEEN TH -C EN TU R Y FRENCH PROSE FICTION
VIII. IMITATORS OF T E L E M A Q U E ......................................................... 161
IX. THE IDEAL PRINCE IN SE L E C T E D FICTION . . . 203
X . THE IDEAL PRINCE AS HE A PPE A R S
INCIDENTALLY IN F IC T IO N ..............................................................239
IX. C O N C L U S IO N .................................... ' ......................................................282
BIBLIOGRAPHY
298
P A R T I. INTRODUCTION: THE TRADITIONS
OF THE C O N C EPT OF THE ID E A L PR IN C E
C H A PTER X
INTRODUCTION
|
; B e fo r e the F r e n c h R ev o lu tio n few p e r s o n s in F r a n c e j
i thought of su b stitu tin g any other fo r m of g o v e rn m e n t for the |
! i
! |
I m o n a rc h y . The m a jo r ity of the p h ilo so p h e s who c r itic iz e d the j
; cru m b lin g e d ific e sou gh t to rep a ir it, not to r a z e it. Other m o n a rc h s ]
i I
j i
! in E u rop e w e re turning to g r e a t advantage the ex a m p le of L ou is X IV1 s |
| a b s o lu tism en h an ced by the e n c o u r a g em en t and en lig h ten m en t of the j
1 F r e n c h p h ilo s o p h e s . Indeed, the la tte r p art of the eigh teen th cen tu ry !
! in E u rop e is c h a r a c te r iz e d by what s c h o la r ly tra d itio n s t ill c a lls
[
j " en ligh tened d e sp o tism " d esp ite the in a p p r o p r ia te n e ss of both
"enlightened" and " despotic" w hen ap p lied to the a ctu a l g o v ern m en ts
of F r e d e r ic k of P r u s s ia , C ath erin e of R u s s ia , J o sep h of A u stria and
j v a r io u s l e s s fam ou s r u le r s and m in is t e r s .
! Puttin g a sid e the q u estio n of w heth er the id eas of the
j p h ilo so p h e s w e r e m e r e jeu x d ^ s p r it tagged onto the g o v ern m en t of
r a tio n a liz in g , c e n tr a liz in g , sta te -b u ild in g m o n a r c h s, ^ th is study
w ill ex a m in e the com p on en ts of en ligh ten ed d e sp o tism as a th eo ry
and the d iffu sion of the com p on en t id e a s in lite r a te F r e n c h s o c ie ty .
In that age of id e a s par e x c e lle n c e , n o v e ls and s to r ie s a re an ind ex to
j
the s e r io u s opinions of lite r a te and a r tic u la te F r e n c h m e n . The
c r it ic i s m of L ou is XIV to g eth er w ith the su b seq u en t w ritin g of the
|p h ilo so p h es and P h y s io c r a ts en g en d ered m u ch c o m m e n t and m u ch
w ritin g by l e s s e r ta le n ts. V o lta ir e w rote s a tir ic a l c r it ic i s m of the
r e g im e ; M on tesq u ieu ex a m in ed the b a s e s of v a r io u s typ es of
!
|govern m en t; M e r c ie r de la R iv ie r e defin ed the le g a l or en ligh ten ed j
j d esp o t in a tr e a tis e on the n atu ral ord er of p o litic a l s o c ie t ie s - - a n d |
j T h e m is se u l de S a in t-H y a cin th e, and hundreds lik e h im , w rote a
h is to r y of a good p r in c e .
i |
| S in ce the m a jo r ity of p e r so n s sought the so lu tio n of
I F r a n c e 's p r o b le m s w ith in the fr a m e w o rk of the e sta b lish e d m o n a rch y ,!
j I
| the c e n tr a l q u estio n i s , w hat did th ey e x p e ct of the m o n a rch ? What j
I
; did au thors of the m o r e co m m o n lit e r a t u r e - - n o t the f ir s t - r a t e m in d s ■
; i
| of the p h ilo so p h es and not the p o litic a l t h e o r is t s - - e x p e c t of the id e a l ;
i
! m o n a rch ? Did th ey e x p e c t h im to be a s e c u la r , r a tio n a l, and
I !
v ig o r o u s en ligh ten ed d esp o t, or did th ey y e a rn for the retu rn to so m e j
!
feu d a l, C h r istia n p rin ce of the p a st?
The study of the id eas and a c tiv itie s of the p h ilo s o p h e s , i
i j
e n c y c lo p e d is te s , and ju r ists d oes not p rovid e a c o m p le te j
i
u nderstanding of the p o litic a l thought of the E n lig h ten m en t in F r a n c e . !
j !
IR ecen t stu d ies that have co n cen tra ted on the outstanding fig u r e s and J
; t
on that v e r y sig n ifica n t s e g m e n t of the in te lle c tu a l e lit e , the j
e n c y c lo p e d is t e s , have m a d e valu ab le con trib u tion s tow ard a r e v is e d |
and m o r e v alid in ter p r e ta tio n of the E n ligh ten m en t, but have not j
a c h iev ed a total view of e v en lite r a te s o c ie ty . C o n tem p o ra ry
sc h o la r sh ip a im s at a m o r e thorough understanding of the popular
2
m ilie u and sc h o la r sh ip on the E n ligh ten m en t in p a rticu la r s e e k s a
c o m p r e h e n siv e in terp reta tio n of the p erio d b a sed on d eta iled stu d ies
4
3
of in d iv id u a ls, g ro u p s, and id e a s . It m a y not be p o ssib le to know
j
c o m p le te ly what co n stitu tes popular opinion but the study of the a rra y
of m in or lite r a r y fig u r e s and o c c a sio n a l authors is m o re rev ea lin g in
i
| th is r e s p e c t than the stu d ies of the p h ilosop h es and en cy clo p ed istes
I I
b e c a u se th ey are one step n e a r e r the popular cu ltu re. {T here is , of ;
c o u r s e , so m e overlapping of the m en of le t t e r s , e n c y c lo p e d is te s , and
j u r is t s .) P r e v io u s stu d ies that have su rv ey ed the m in or w r ite r s have |
' 4 i
j treated the p o litic a l thought in an e s s e n tia lly n egative fa sh io n or j
' 5 I
ihave con cen trated on other to p ic s. i
The p r e se n t study is an attem p t to extend the in tellectu a l !
(h isto ry of eig h teen th -cen tu ry F ra n ce to its fu ller m eanin g to include i
I
."the c r e a tiv e lite r a r y m en , . . . the p o p u la r iz e r s , " and th ose j
j £ j
! c lo s e s t to the g e n e ra l reading pu blic. C entering on the con cep t of |
; [
! the r u le r , the co re of p o litic a l thought at that tim e , this study w ill j
i i
j j
J help co m p lete the h is to r y of the in tellectu a l c la s s and th erefo re j
I 1
! i
I contribute to the d is c o v e r y of the c lim a te of opinion of the |
| E n ligh ten m en t in F r a n c e . In doing s o , it m a y a ls o se r v e as a sm a ll
[part of the bridge b etw een in tellec tu a l h isto r y of the h ig h est le v e l and j
Ithe h is to r y of popular cu ltu re.
j The con cep t of the id eal p rin ce as e x p r e s s e d in |
I eig h teen th -cen tu ry F r e n c h p r o se fictio n w ill be exam in ed in the
| context of two b od ies of thought: the trad ition of id eal p r in c e s
through the sev en teen th cen tu ry , as ex em p lified p a rticu la rly in
F e n e lo n ’s Te le m a q u e ; and the id ea l p rin ce of the p h ilosop h es and
P h y sio c r a ts in the eigh teen th cen tu ry. The fictio n used in this study
b elon gs to three g e n e r a l c a te g o r ie s: (1) im itation s of T elem aq ue and
j r e la te d fic tio n a l w ork s; (2 ) n o v e ls and s to r ie s w r itte n d e lib e r a te ly as
l
j
c r it ic i s m and propaganda or w h ich giv e the rule of the p rin ce m a jo r
| c o n sid era tio n ; and (3) n o v e ls and s to r ie s w hich only in cid en ta lly refer
| to the p r in c e . A lthough th ere w ill be o c c a sio n a l r e f e r e n c e to g e n r e s
I
f
S su ch as the fa ir y ta le , the im a g in a r y v o y a g e , and the m o r a l n o v e l,
I
! i
I the use of the th re e b road and fle x ib le c a te g o r ie s a v o id s c o m p lica te d j
; 7 !
; q u estio n s of g e n r e s w h ich a re not r e le v a n t to this stu d y . |
i
The w ork s u sed , as lis te d in the b ib lio g ra p h y , a re a j
1 8 i
sa m p le of the m a jo rity of the popular authors and the little-k n o w n
j i
I w r ite r s of e ig h te e n th -c en tu r y F r a n c e . Not all au th ors are lis t e d and j
not a ll th o se lis te d a re e v en ly r e p r e s e n te d , b e c a u se in the c o u r se of
rea d in g one q u ick ly c o m e s to the point of d im in ish in g retu rn s w ith
! !
i c e r ta in au th ors and w ith c e r ta in typ es of fiction; fo r e x a m p le , a few j
| |
| n o v e ls of m a n n ers and so m e m o r a l and sen tim en ta l n o v e ls a r e j
< in clu d ed a s a s a m p le , but b e c a u s e of the paucity of c o m m en t on the |
! I
p r in c e , th ey a re by no m e a n s p ro p o r tio n a lly r e p r e s e n te d . S im ila r ly , j
so m e of the b a n terin g , s u p e r fic ia l authors are r e p r e s e n te d , but not
i
! a ll of th em . In a few in sta n c e s the u n availability of a p a rticu la r j
w o rk h as accou n ted for its o m is s io n (_e.j£. , M ouhyJs P a r i s , ou le |
I m en to r a la m o d e ); h o w e v e r , in g e n e r a l only the nu m b er of v o lu m e s , j
i |
I and not the kind, h as b e e n lim ite d b y the a c c e s s ib ilit y of w o r k s, and j
i i
I ■ f
! thus the sa m p le has not b e e n sig n ific a n tly a ffected b y that fa c to r . j
I !
I The c h r o n o lo g ic a l lim its for the s e le c tio n of e x a m p le s of fic tio n are
|
d e te r m in e d p r im a r ily by the a v a ila b ility of su ffic ie n tly co m p lete and
r e lia b le b ib lio g r a p h ies for the p er io d to 1780. In addition, b y the
17 7 0 !s the ch an ges in p o litic a l thought in g e n e ra l a r e c o n sid e ra b ly
6
m o r e im p ortant than ch anges lim ite d to the concep t of the id ea l r u le r.
F u r th e r m o r e , as lite r a r y ta ste sh ifted to m a n n e rs, m o r a ls , and
10
sen tim en t in n o v e ls and s to r ie s after 1760, the p rin c e lo s t m u ch of
the p o sitio n he had held in h e r o ic n o v e ls , fa ir y t a le s , and orien ta l
!
'ta le s . T his lo s s w as only p a r tia lly b alan ced by h is app earance in !
i |
i im a g in a ry v o y a g es and p h ilo s o p h ic -s a tir ic ta le s . The te r m in a l date |
for the inquiry is 1780, although the m a jo rity of the in v estig a tio n j
r e la te s to the p erio d b efo re 1770. j
| T h ere are c e r ta in p r o b le m s in h eren t in studying
Apolitical thought through fic tio n a l lite r a tu r e , even that of the j
;
|E n ligh ten m en t. C la rity and p r e c is io n cannot be ex p ected , fo r both I
| the sto r y and the c en so r m ake dem ands upon the author. W hile one !
I author c o n s c io u sly w r ite s propaganda or c r it ic is m , another m e r e ly j
|
| r e f le c ts the a ccep ted view of p o litic s; n eith er is lik e ly to be j
c o n siste n t in putting h is p o litic a l p h ilosop h y into fictio n . If
j
M ontesquieu has b een c o n sid e re d a fa ilu re as a n o v e lis t and j
! V oltaire has b een a c c u se d of being a sh allow and a b str a c t th in k er, ^ !
'then so m e ind ulgence is req u ired for authors of l e s s e r talent.
| |
S in ce th is is a study of the p ictu re of the p e r fe c t p rin ce j
' t
| d e scr ib e d by a num ber of w r it e r s , it is not p o s s ib le to p r e se n t each
lo n e ’s en tire p o litic a l p h ilosop h y or give a fa ir evalu ation of h is
I I
| lite r a r y c a r e e r . Q u estion s of the r ela tio n sh ip b etw een an au th or’s
j |
j j
individual life and h is id e a s m u st be le ft to sep a ra te stud ies;
h o w e v e r, availab le in form ation has b een taken into co n sid era tio n in
in terp retin g ea ch author’s rem a rk s w hen it w as p ertin en t. S im ila r ly ,
it is not the pop ularity of a w ork that is of in te r e st h e r e so m u ch as it
7
is the w o r k a s an ex a m p le of the thought of th ose w ho, for one r e a s o n
or a n o th er, w e r e m e n of le t t e r s .
The id ea l p r in c e as he ap p ears in th e se p a g es is not
a lw a y s e x p lic itly d e s c r ib e d as an id e a l p rin ce in the p a r tic u la r w o rk
c ite d , but is often an a b str a c tio n w hich I h a v e d is tille d fr o m it. T his
im ay d is to r t any one in d ivid u al’s p o litic a l p h ilo so p h y , or la ck of it,
but it n e v e r t h e le s s a c h ie v e s the o b jectiv e of show ing w hat co n cep t of
|the id e a l p rin ce is p r o je c ted to the r e a d e r .
It is n atu ral to e x p e c t that the m u ltitu de of n o v e ls and
I s to r ie s about id e a l r u le r s r e f le c t the new id ea s of g o v ern m en t
(e x p r e ss e d by the p h ilo s o p h e s . T h is, h o w e v e r , is too s im p lis tic an
!
ap p roach to the su b jec t of th is stu d y. L itera tu re about the id e a l
I ' !
jp rin ce o b v io u sly r e f le c ts the sa m e su b ject m a t t e r - - r u l e r s , e c o n o m ic j
i
[p o lic ie s , w a r s - - b u t d o es it r e f le c t the sa m e in ter p r e ta tio n s? D o es
the co n cep t of en ligh ten ed d e s p o tis m appear in the popular fic tio n a l j
I
j
lit e r a tu r e , or a re the w r ite r s m e r e ly taking advantage of a popular
I 1
top ic and exh ib itin g th eir tra d itio n a l attitu d es tow ard it? T h ere is ,
jthe fu rth er question : if th ey a re r a d ic a l, do th ey r e a liz e it? Do th ey
know w hat th ey a r e sa y in g , or a r e they n a iv e ly adopting cu r re n t
id e a s ? ^ !
i ;
i i
; j
It m u st f i r s t of a ll be r e m e m b e r e d that " d e sp o tism ” is i
i
c le a r ly a m is n o m e r and w as r e c o g n iz e d a s inadequate by its j
|
o r ig in a to r s . M e r c ie r de la R iv ie r e , one of the F r e n c h p o litic a l and
e c o n o m ic th in k ers known as P h y s io c r a t s , d istin g u ish ed b e tw een le g a l
13
d e s p o tis m and a r b itr a r y d e s p o tis m . The obvious hin d ran ce of such
i
a w ord to the d is s e m in a tio n of the P h y s io c r a t s1 r e fo r m p r o g r a m w as
8
14
p oin ted out to th em by T u rgot. T hey did not m e a n d e s p o tis m , but
ra th er a b so lu tism ; and in th is r e s p e c t th eir co n cep t of the en ligh ten ed
m o n a rc h did not op p ose the tra d itio n a l m o n a rch of F r e n c h a b s o lu tism .
Y et th er e w as a d iffe r e n c e . The co n cep t of en ligh ten ed a b so lu tism
I that w a s fo rm u la ted after 1750 in F r a n c e w as s e c u la r and ra tio n a l.
I I
The tra d itio n of the F r e n c h m o n a rch y v iew ed hum an nature I
I ;
p e s s im is t ic a l ly and th e r e fo r e sou gh t to c o n tro l and reg u la te the ]
a c tiv itie s of m e n . The v ie w of th o se who m a y be c a lle d a d v o ca tes of
j j
en ligh ten ed d e sp o tism w a s c o n sid e r a b ly m o r e con fid en t. T hey
I b e lie v e d , in v a r io u s w a y s , in n a tu ra l h a rm o n y and in the ab ility of
m an to use h is p o w e r s of r e a s o n fo r h is own and the g e n e r a l good.
In ord er to c o m p a re the co n cep t of the id e a l r u le r in !
i popular fic tio n a l lite r a tu r e w ith that of en ligh ten ed d e s p o tis m , certain]
i i
s I
i b a s ic q u estio n s w ill be a sk e d . F i r s t of a ll, to what exten t is the j
i i
i . . . !
j C h r istia n th em e r ep la ce d by a s e c u la r , u tilita ria n th em e? F o r
i ■
| e x a m p le , the ju stific a tio n of the r u le r Js a u th ority m a y be divine j
| 1
I rig h t or it m a y be sim p ly a m a tte r of p r a c tic a l n e c e s s it y or ra tio n a l
;
! p r in c ip le s . The b e lie f in in h erita n ce of the k in gsh ip through the
i i
' r o y a l fa m ily , b a s ic to the th eo ry of divine righ t, d o es not n e c e s s a r ily ]
j j
! p r e clu d e a r a tio n a l or s e c u la r ju stific a tio n . In h erita n ce, it can be
i !
] a r g u e d , is the b e s t p r a c tic a l so lu tio n to the p r o b le m of se le c tin g a
! |
j r u le r . It w ill be a bold w r ite r w ho d is p e n s e s e n tir e ly w ith the
r o y a lly in h erited th ron e.
j A seco n d ex a m p le of the r e p la c e m e n t of the C h ristia n by
[
a s e c u la r th eo r y is the q u estion of who ju d ges the r u le r . The
^ C h ristia n r u le r , though ex h orted to c a re for M s su b jec ts and be
9
loved by th em , is u ltim a tely judged by God a lo n e, w h e r ea s the
en ligh tened d esp o t m u st an sw er to co n tem p orary hum an judgm ent
jbased on im m e d ia te , m a te r ia l fa c to r s . A nother w ay of con sid erin g
I the judgm ent p a s s e d on the ru ler is to d eterm in e w hether h is action s
! a r e judged accord in g to a m o r a l code or accord in g to th eir p r a c tic a l
i ' I
'c o n se q u e n c e s, and then to what extent the m o r a l code is C h ristia n
and to what extent it is a s e c u la r , or ev en u tilitarian , cod e.
i
S ince the r efo r m m o v em en t that culm inated in the th eory |
I of enligh tened d e sp o tism grew out of the opp osition to the p o lic ie s of j
i 15 I
the F r e n c h m o n a rch y , w hich w e re id en tified w ith M a ch ia v elli, it !
; is h ard ly to be ex p ected that the c r itic s and w ould -be r e fo r m e r s ;
i i
| advocate p r in c ip les of p o litic a l n e c e s s ity . T here i s , m o r e o v e r , a j
j b a s ic d iv erg en ce b etw een the p e s s im is t ic m a c h ia v e llia n con cep t of
i
|
i hum an nature and the m o re confident one of the eig h teen th -cen tu ry !
|
'c r it ic s . N e v e r th e le s s , the q u estion of how w r ite r s com e to te r m s j
! w ith p o litic a l n e c e s s ity should not be n e g le cted . It is p o ssib le that !
I !
the ph ilosophy of the E n ligh tenm ent produced its own hum anized
! , « . , 16
; r e a so n of sta te .
The in terp reta tio n of hum an nature is another of the b a sic |
i
: I
i q u estion s to be ex p lo red . The view of hum an nature that had j
! b e c o m e trad ition al in sev en teen th -cen tu ry F r e n c h p o litic a l thought,
j r eflec tin g the im p a ct of both M a ch ia v elli and P r o te sta n tism , w as
i
p e s s im is t ic and high ly sk ep tica l regard in g m a n 's p ow ers of r e a so n .
Man and h is v a rio u s a c tiv itie s needed to be con tro lled , r e p r e s s e d if
n e c e s s a r y . The r e fo r m e r s on the other hand w e re m o re o p tim istic
about the nature of m an: he c er ta in ly w as not w h olly d ep raved , and
10
e v en the orthodox C h ristia n v iew of h is fa ll fr o m g r a c e w a s
m in im iz e d ; he w a s capable of m a k in g good u se of h is r ea so n in g
faculty; he w as p la c e d in a u n iv e r se in w hich n atu ral la w s w e re
| o p era tiv e and in w h ich he could liv e hap pily if h e u n d erstood th o se
I
! n atu ral la w s.
The q u estio n of h u m an nature le a d s d ir e c tly to the
c o n sid e r a tio n of the function of g o v e rn m e n t. If the v ie w of hum an
nature is p e s s i m i s t i c , it fo llo w s that the fu nction of g o v e rn m e n t is
j
| p r im a r ily n e g a tiv e , e sta b lish in g o r d e r and m ain tain in g co n tro l.
I G iven a m o r e o p tim istic in terp reta tio n of h u m an n a tu re, the 1
p r in c ip le s of g o v e rn m e n t are p o sitiv e : it is the function of the
j g o v ern m en t to h elp m e n a ch iev e a good life on th is ea rth . The r u le r |
| in p a r tic u la r is e x p e cted to d ir e c t the c r e a tio n of b e tter conditions
j ;
| under w h ich h is su b jec ts live and w o rk . T h e re fo r e a s u r v e y of the !
| |
! r e s p o n s ib ilitie s and d u ties of the fic titio u s p r in c e s w ill giv e a good
! !
| in d ica tio n of a p a r tic u la r w riterTs attitude tow ard the b a s ic function
| j
; of g o v e rn m e n t. j
! I
Of p a r tic u la r im p o rta n ce w ith r eg a r d to the d u ties of the
i r u le r is h is c o n cep t of law and h is rule as la w g iv e r . H is authority
I . . !
! m a y be m o r e or l e s s lim ited b y the n e c e s s it y of con su ltin g c u s to m s , j
i ;
i tr a d itio n s, and c l a s s e s or other grou p s of s u b je c ts . The la w s w ill j
v a r y depending on the o v e ra ll p h ilo so p h y of the author of the sto r y .
i
j Do the law s r e p r e s e n t the E n lig h ten m en t co n cep ts of n atu ral ord er
and harm ony; a r e the law s m ad e w ith the o b ject of p rovid in g
p r o te c tio n and fr e e d o m for the individual; do the law s a im at
a b o lish in g p r iv ile g e s and settin g up a "natural, " s y s te m a tic
11
g overn m en t? T his point is c r u c ia l in esta b lish in g the lim its of the
idea of en ligh ten ed d esp o tism in F ra n ce sin c e nu m erou s r e fo r m e r s
'
(F en elo n and M ontesquieu a re perhaps the m o s t notable) are
j g e n e ra lly in terp reted as holding an idea of a r isto c r a tic a b so lu tism and.
j
| th e r e fo r e , the reten tion of the trad ition al e lite and its p r iv ile g e s .
i !
I |
A su r v e y of the p r e sc r ib e d d u ties of the r u le r s w ill a lso
; j
I ind icate the sp e c ific r efo rm s c a lle d for by the v a rio u s authors and
the m ea n s they su g g e st for attaining th ese r e f o r m s . This
i in form ation on r e fo r m s and m eth od s m a y then be com p ared to that
[found in the w ritin g s of p h ilo so p h es and P h y s io c r a ts , e s p e c ia lly on i
: the to p ics of w ar and p e a c e , s o c ia l c l a s s e s , and lu xu ry. It should be [
| noted, to o , w hether the s to r y te lle r s are r e sp o n siv e to con tem p o ra ry
n eed s and e v en ts. T his is one a sp e c t of the q u estion of m otivation
I for r efo rm and one p o ssib le m e a su r e m e n t of how p r a c tic a l or
[id e a listic the attitude toward r efo rm is . A nother w ay of e x p r e s s in g [
! !
| !
I the q u estion of m otivation is to a sk w h eth er it co m es fr o m the head j
j |
; or fr o m the h ea rt. Is the p rin ce h im s e lf c a s t in the r o le of a j
[ i
[p hilosoph er or of a p r a c tic a l m an of a ffa ir s? A lthough again one
[would not ex p ect argu m en ts of p o litic a l n e c e s s it y , th ere should be j
i
! so m e evid en ce of a ration al approach to q u estio n s of r e fo r m .
i I
| F u r th e r m o r e , although the id ea l p rin ce d e sc r ib e d in
I
j s to r ie s and n ovels w ill o b viou sly be p e r fe c tly virtu ou s and
k n ow led geab le, the em p h a sis on sp e c ific p e r so n a l q u alification s w ill
i
v a r y or exhibit nu ances that ind icate what the con cern s of the |
I
govern m en t should b e. Is the p rin ce a p h ilo so p h er, sta te sm a n ,
so ld ie r , or sim p ly father? How w as he ed u cated , and to what exten t
12
d o es ed u cation r e p la c e r o y a l b lood as a d eterm in in g fa cto r in h is
p e r fe ctio n ?
T h e se q u estio n s can be p u rsu ed and the c o m p a r iso n of
popular fic tio n a l liter a tu r e -w ith the ad van ced p o litic a l id e a s of the
!
[E n ligh ten m en t can be m a d e only after the tra d itio n a l, and p a r tic u la r ly
I the s e v e n te e n th -c e n tu r y , w ritin g s have b e e n e x a m in ed . F o r th is
; - i
i stu d y, the m o s t im p o rta n t s tr e a m of w ritin g is that of the m ir r o r s of J
p r in c e s (sp e cu la princip um ) w h ich fr o m c la s s ic a l tim e s to the j
: sev e n tee n th cen tu ry co d ified the r e q u ir e m e n ts fo r good g o v ern m en t. !
i !
: l
B oth E r a s m u s and M a ch ia v elli w ro te in the tra d itio n of m ir r o r s of j
p r in c e s . D uring the sev e n tee n th cen tu ry w h en that tra d itio n w as |
1 1 7
I d e c lin in g , the p r in c ip le s of th e se tw o R e n a is sa n c e w r ite r s w e re
v a r io u s ly adopted and tr a n sfo r m e d , s o m e tim e s opp osed to each
j
o th er, s o m e tim e s str a n g e ly co m b in ed , so that the d ev elo p m en t of the
i e ig h te e n th -c e n tu r y m o d e l p r in c e cannot be tr a c e d s im p ly fr o m eith e r
j i
| the C h ristia n or the m a c h ia v e llia n p r in c e .
NOTES
G eo rg es L e fe b v r e , "Le D e sp o tism e e c la i r e ," A nnales
h isto r iq u es de la rev o lu tio n f r a n g a is e , XXI (1949), 97-115; and
C h arles M o ra ze, "F inance et d e s p o tis m e ," A nn ales; e c o n o m ie s,
js o c ie t e s , c iv ilis a t io n s , III (1948), 2 7 9 -2 9 6 . See the extended
| d is c u s s io n of en ligh ten ed d e sp o tism in the a r tic le s of the B u lletin
of the Internation al C om m ittee of H is to r ic a l S c ie n c e s , V o ls. II
! (1 9 2 9 -3 0 ), V (1933), IX (1937).
2
N orm an F . Cantor and M ich a el S. W erthm an , e d s . ,
I The H isto r y of P op u lar C ulture (New Y ork, 1968) is only the m o st
j obvious in d ication of this tren d . A d ifferen t a sp e c t is the w ork of
i G eorge R ude, R ich ard Cobb, and A lb ert Souboul on crow ds and
| c o lle c tiv e m e n ta litie s in h isto r y .
I
: 3
! See rev iew a r tic le s by L e s te r G. C r o ck er , "R ecent
j In terp retation s of the F r e n c h E n ligh ten m en t, " Journal of W orld
i H is to r y , VIII (1964), 42 6 -5 6 ; F r a n c o is F u re t et a l . , J'R enouveau de
! l'etude d es L u m ie r e s , 11 A nn ales; e c o n o m ie s, s o c ie t e s ,
1 c iv ilis a t io n s , XIX (S e p t.-O c t. 1964); and R ob ert N ik la u s, "The Age
of the E n lig h ten m en t, " in The A ge of the E nlightenm ent; Studies
p r e se n ted to T heodore B e s te r m a n , ed. by W. H. B a rb er et a l .
(Edinburgh, 1967), pp. 3 9 5 -4 1 2 .
4
D an iel M ornet, L es O rig in es in te lle c tu e lle s de la
R evolu tion fr a n g a is e , 1715-1787 (3rd e d . ; P a r is , 1938).
! 5
j L e s te r G. C ro ck er, An A ge of C r isis: Man and W orld in
| E ig h teen th -C en tu ry F ren ch Thought (1959) and N ature and Culture:
i E th ic a l Thought in the F r e n c h E n ligh ten m en t (1963 ); and R obert
| M auzi, L 'ld ee du bonheur au XVIIIe s ie c le (I960), use seco n d a ry
| authors but are p r im a r ily co n cern ed w ith id ea s of m o r a lity . P au l
j H azard 's c la s s ic stu d ies La C r ise de la. c o n scie n c e .e:uropeenne (1935)
! and La P e n s e e eu ro p een n e au XVIIIe s ie c le (1946) a re b rillia n t but
; often only c u r so r y .
i ^
F ra n k lin L . B auraer, " Intellectual H isto r y and its
P r o b l e m s, 11 The Journal of M odern H is to r y , XXI (1949), 192. This
a r tic le and Chapter I of H. Stuart H u gh es1 C o n sc io u sn e ss and
S o c ie ty (New Y ork, 1958) are s t ill two of the b e s t explanations of
in tellec tu a l h is to r y in p rin t. Roland N. S trom b erg rep ea ts C r o c e 's
w ell-k n o w n co m m en t that "the sp ir it of an age is s o m e tim e s b etter
found in the se c o n d -r a te th in k ers" (An In tellectu a l H isto r y of
M odern E urope [N e w Y ork, 1966]), p. 4.
___________________ __ ___ ... _________ 13.... ............................. .........................................
14
7 ^
D a n ie l M orn et, ed. , La N o a v elle H e lo ise ( P a r is , 1925),
I, 3 3 6 -3 8 5 , u se s so m e tw e n ty -fiv e d ifferen t c a te g o r ie s in h is
b ib lio g ra p h y of n o v e ls and s to r ie s of 1 7 4 0 -1 7 8 0 . F u r th e r m o r e th ere
is a la c k of a g r e e m e n t on w hat is fic tio n . S ila s P . J o n e s, A L is t of
F r e n c h P r o s e F ic tio n fr o m 1700 to 1750 (New Y ork, 1939) > d oes not
l i s t A r g e n s1 L e ttr e s ju iv e s and L e ttr e s c h in o ise s as fic tio n but d o es
l is t L a B e a u m e lle , L ^ s ia t iq u e to le r a n t, w h ich after a b r ie f
j a lle g o r ic a l in trod u ction is a t r e a s t is e on to le r a tio n . 1 co n sid er
j A r g e n s1 w ork s d e fin ite ly fic tio n and h ave inclu ded L a B e a u m e lle :s in
[ the b ib lio g ra p h y , although only a p o rtio n of it can be c o n sid e re d
i fic tio n .
I s i
! B a se d on ev a lu a tio n s by D a n iel M orn et, " L es |
1 E n s e ig n e m e n ts d es b ib lioth eq u es p r iv e e s (1 7 5 0 -1 7 8 0 ), 11 R evue
| d 'h is to ir e lit te r a ir e de la F r a n c e , XVII (1910), 4 4 9 -4 9 6 ; A lb ert j
| C h e r e l, F e n e lo n au XVIIIe s ie c le en F r a n c e (1 715-1820); son j
j p r e s t i g e - - s o n in flu en ce ( P a r is , 1917); and A ndre L eB r eto n , Le
i R om an au d ix -h u itie m e s ie c le ( P a r is , 1898).
i ----------------------------------------------------------^ --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
9 +
B a s ic b ib lio g r a p h ies a re M orn et, La N o u v elle H e lo is e , I,
I 3 3 6 -3 8 5 and J o n e s, A L is t of F r e n c h P r o s e F ic t io n . A ngus M artin
| has b egu n su ch a b ib lio g ra p h y for the p erio d a fter 1780 in "Tow ard
■ a C h e c k lis t of F r e n c h P r o s e F ic tio n 1751- 1788, " A u stra lia n Journal
I of F r e n c h S t u d ie s , III (1966), 34 5 -6 9 ; and "A F i r s t L istin g of New
! F r e n c h P r o s e F ic tio n 1 7 8 4 -1 7 8 8 , 11 ibid. , IV (1967), 1 0 9 -3 1 .
' 1 0 f
| M orn et, La N o u v elle H e lo is e , I. Jacques B a rc h ilo n ,
|"Uses of the F a ir y T ale in the E igh teen th C en tu ry, ” S tu d ies on
V o lta ir e and the E ig h teen th C en tu ry , XXIV (G eneva, 1963), 129.
D oroth y M. M cG h ee, The Cult of the "Conte M o ra l11 (M en ash a, W i s . ,
I9 6 0 ), pp. 2 8 -3 5 . S e r v a is E tie n n e , Le G enre ro m a n esq u e en
F r a n c e depuis P a p p a ritio n de la "N ouvelle H e lo ise" ju s q ^ a u x ;
a p p ro ch es de la R ev o lu tio n (P a r is , 1922), p . 127. H en ri B erth au t,
De C andide a A ta la , V o l. VII of H is to ir e de la litter a tu re f r a n g a is e , :
! ed. J . C alvet ( P a r is , 1958), pp. 3 5 1 -6 0 . j
I i i !
! F r e d e r ic k C. G r ee n , "M ontesquieu the N o v e lis t and j
S o m e Im ita tio n s of the L e ttr e s p e r s a n e s , " M odern L anguage R e v ie w , !
| XX (1925), 3 2 -4 2 . It is ra th er unfair to judge M on tesq u ieu in th is j
| w ay sin c e he did not p reten d to be a n o v e lis t. P e te r G ay r e v ie w s j
| V o lta ir e1 s rep u tation in V o lta ir e T s P o litic s ; The P o e t as R e a lis t i
j (P r in c e to n , 1959)* pp. 3 -3 2 . Y von B e la v a F s ju stific a tio n of the j
I p h ilo so p h ic a l ta le is an ex a m p le of the m o r e r e c e n t a p p recia tio n of
the lite r a tu r e of the E n lig h ten m en t ("Le Conte p h ilosop h iq u e, 11 The
A ge of the E n lig h te n m e n t, pp. 3 0 8 -3 1 7 ).
12
L io n e l R othk ru g, O pposition to L ou is XIV (P rin ce to n ,
1965), pp. 4 5 2 - 6 , c ite s an ex a m p le of the w ay in w hich p h ilo so p h ic a l
c o n sid e r a tio n s w e r e n a iv e ly adopted by w r ite r s ea g er fo r s o c ia l
a d v a n cem en t.
15
13 ^ ^
L 1O rdre n a tu rel et e s s e n t ie l des s o c ie te s politiqu.es
(London, P a r is , 1767), e x c e r p ts t r a n s . by H erb ert H. R ow en in h is
F r o m A b so lu tism to R evolu tion 1648-1848 (New Y ork, 1963),
pp. 159-162.
14 ■ * < ■
E ly C a r c a sso n n e , M ontesquieu, et le p ro b lem e de la
con stitu tion fr a n p a ise au XVIIIe s ie c le (P a r is , 1927), p. 385, fro m
! L etter to D u P o n t, 7 May 1771, O eu vres de T urgot ( P a r is , 1 914-24),
j III, 4 86. Du P o n t h im se lf r e c o g n iz e d the disadvan tage of the te r m ,
i See G. W e u le r s s e , Le M ouvem ent p h y sio cra tiq u e (P a r is , 1910), II,
; 661. j
j
15 1
F r ie d r ic h M ein eck e, M a ch ia v ellism : The D octrin e of ;
i R a iso n d'Etat and Its P la c e in M odern H is to r y , tr a n s. D ouglas Scott
; (New H aven, 1957; fir s t pub. 1924), pp. 146-204; and A lb ert
I C h e r e l, La P e n s e e de M ach iavel en F r a n c e ( P a r is , 1935). -
16 !
j See Jane J. A n d erso n , " P o litic a l N e c e s s ity in the j
I L itera tu re of the F r e n c h E n ligh tenm ent: D id ero t and the j
I E n c y c lo p e d ie , " unpublished d is s e r ta tio n , B row n U n iv e r sity , 1962. |
17
"With this [M a c h ia v e lli] the tradition of the m ir r o r s of !
: p r in c e s is brought to an end. . . . M ir r o r s of p r in c e s continue, of
c o u r s e , to be w r itte n after the six teen th century; but they bring
! nothing strik in g ly new , m e r e ly com bin ing in d ifferen t w ays the
j e le m e n ts w hich h ave h ere b een su m m a r ily d e sc r ib e d . " P ie r r e
| W atter, "Jean L o u is Guez de B a lz a c ^ L e P r in c e : A R evalu ation , "
I Journal of the W arburg and Courtauld In s titu te s , XX (1957), 227.
J A forth com in g d is s e r ta tio n b y H. R and all D o sh e r , "The C oncept of
i the Ideal P r in ce in F r e n c h P o litic a l Thought, 800-1750" (U n iv ersity
j of N orth C arolin a, Chapel H ill), w as not y et av a ila b le for m y u se in
| com p arin g fic tio n and p o litic a l th eo ry or in v e rify in g the trad ition s I
of the concept of the id eal p rin ce in F r e n c h p o litic a l thought. I
CHAPTER II
FR O M MIRRORS OF PRINCES
TO SE V E N T E E N T H -C E N T U R Y FRENCH LITERATURE
The concep t of the id e a l p rin ce is d eriv ed b a s ic a lly fro m
| the trad ition s of the m ir r o r s of p r in c e s w hich rea ch ed th eir c lim a x
! in the w ork of the g r e a t R e n a issa n c e fig u r e s , E r a sm u s and
|
M a ch ia v elli. T h e re a fter , in sev e n tee n th -c en tu r y F r a n c e , the
| v ic is s it u d e s of the con cep t a re not confined to any one gen re but are
| b e s t tra ced in e x a m p le s of m ir r o r s of p r in c e s , n o v e ls , and c la s s ic a l i
j F r e n c h tra g ed y . |
| The p e r fe c t p rin ce had b ee n the su b ject for a w hole genre
I
I
! of w ritin g , m ir r o r s of p r in c e s , fr o m c la s s ic a l tim e s through the
I i
| six teen th cen tu ry. T h e se m ir r o r s , a d d r e sse d to k in g s , p r in c e s , or
I
oth er r u le r s , w ere often in fa ct e u lo g ie s , but they a ls o had another
i p u rp ose w h ich w as to s e t forth in a th eo r e tic a l fa sh io n the p r in c ip les
i
j of good g o v ern m en t. T h ese p r in c ip le s , e x p r e s s e d in te r m s of the
i duties and r e s p o n sib ilitie s of the ru ler and of h is p e o p le , em p h a size
i two e s s e n tia l p r e m is e s : the pow er of the p rin ce is ju stified only by
i
I being e x e r c is e d to the advantage of s o c ie ty , and the p rop er e x e r c is e
i 2
] of pow er is a r e su lt of virtu ou s b eh a v io r. That the pu rp ose of the
ru ler is to go v ern in the in te r e s ts of the govern ed r em a in s a b a sic
te n e t of w r it e r s , w ith the ex cep tio n of M a ch ia v elli. T his is e x p lic itly
17
r e ite r a te d by e a cb one until the d e sc r ip tio n s of a d e s ir a b le p rin ce
ru lin g "for the h a p p in ess of h is p eop le" b e c o m e s a p erfu n cto ry
co m m o n p la ce of e ig h te e n th -c e n tu r y F r e n c h lite r a tu r e .
B e c a u s e th e se t r e a t is e s w e re w r itte n in c ir c u m s ta n c e s in
| w h ich the p r in c e s w e r e ir r e s p o n s ib le (not a n sw er a b le to th o se over
w h o m th ey r u le d ), th ey tend n e c e s s a r ily to e m p h a siz e v irtu o u s
! 3
[b eh a v io r. The p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r is tic s of the r u le r , above a ll, h is ;
j v ir tu r e s , a r e , th e r e fo r e , a sta p le in g r e d ie n t of the m ir r o r s . The
! i
; e m p h a sis on p e r so n a l m o r a l v ir tu e s is ty p ica l of c la s s ic a l, a s w e ll t
[a s m e d ie v a l and la te r w r itin g s , and it w a s a cco m p a n ied b y a tw ofold j
| I
b e lie f in the e ffic a c y of exam p le: on the one hand, sin c e the j
; |
j t r e a t is e s w e re intended fo r the e d ifica tio n of p r in c e s , th ey p r e se n te d j
I e x a m p le s for em u lation ; on the oth er hand, the ru le r w as urged to
I
| condu ct h im s e lf v ir tu o u sly a s an ex a m p le to be fo llo w ed b y h is j
4 I
p e o p le . The la tte r is c le a r ly en u n ciated b y C ic e r o and w a s j
in ten sifie d during the m e d ie v a l p e r io d by the addition of p a r tic u la r ly !
|
C h ristia n id e a s . The m e d ie v a l tr e a t is e s r e f le c t a m o r e p e r so n a l [
I
j attitude than do the c la s s ic a l o n es tow ard r u le r sh ip and r u le r s , !
| co n seq u en tly the p e r so n a l m o r a l v ir tu e s of the p rin c e r e c e iv e m o r e
i j
| s t r e s s , the r u le r is m o r e d ir e c tly r e s p o n sib le fo r the good or e v il j
[ |
j w h ich b e fa lls h is land, and C h r istia n g o o d n ess b e c o m e s the one g r e a t j
5
[ r e m e d y for w o e s . We can d e s c r ib e the m e d ie v a l p rin c e as
w is e , s e lf - r e s t r a in e d , just; devoted to the w e lfa r e of h is
p eop le; a p a ttern in v ir tu e s for h is su b jec ts; im m u n e
fr o m fla ttery ; in te r e ste d in e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n ts, an
ed u ca tio n a l p r o g r a m , and the true r e lig io n of God;
surrou n d ed by e ffic ie n t m in is t e r s and able a d v is e r s ;
op p osed to a g g r e s s iv e w a rfa re; and, in the r e a liz a tio n
that e v en he is su b jec t to law and that the n eed of the
18
p rin ce and h is su b jects is m utual, zea lo u s for the
attain m en t of p ea ce and unity. 6
The m e d ie v a l m ir r o r s of p r in c e s w ere sy ste m a tic
t r e a t is e s b a se d on the u n iv er sa l order d e v ised by A ugustine and
j
] r e fle c te d the m e d ie v a l c o n cern w ith the r e a l in te r m s of the id e a l as
i co m p a red to the c la s s ic a l m ir r o r s w hich w ere s e c u la r in outlook and
7 *
i r e fle c te d the e x p e rie n c e of p o litic a l life . The con cep t of the
| |
| p e r fe c t p rin ce in the m e d ie v a ljm ir r o r s is above a ll an id eal one.
i j
; F r o m the p r in c e ’s own p e r so n a l virtu ou s b eh avior c o m e s the p rop er j
i !
! e x e r c is e of p o w er, w hich is ju s tic e . In both the c la s s ic a l and j
t i
i i
] m e d ie v a l tr e a tis e s the outstanding c h a r a c te r istic of the virtu ou s
I i
I
! . ;
; p r in ce and the f ir s t r eq u ir em en t of good g o v ern m en t is ju stic e . j
The R e n a issa n c e m ir r o r s do not sh are the constant j
c o s m ic view so typ ical of the m e d ie v a l ones; thus the p o rtra y a l of
g
the p r in c e , w h ile s till a C h ristia n one, is m o re h u m a n istic. That
is to sa y that during the R e n a issa n c e the C h ristian id ea ls w e re
I
continued but w e re p la ced m o re in the context of r e a lity .
One of the m o s t im portant R e n a issa n ce tr e a tis e s on the I
th em e of the id eal p rin ce is E r a s m u s1 E ducation of a C h ristian
P r in c e (Institutio P r in c ip is C h ristia n i, 1516), not b eca u se of the !
i
o rig in a lity of the content but b e c a u se of the stature of the author. It j
I
w as f ir s t d ed icated to C h a r le s, the future C h arles V , in 1516. The j
follow in g y e a r a copy w as sen t to H enry VIII, and in 1518 E r a sm u s |
9 I
rew o rk ed it fo r F erd in an d , the future A rchduke and E m p e r o r. j
i
In this tr e a tis e by the c eleb ra ted C h ristia n h u m an ist
p a rticu la r e m p h a sis is p la ced on the education of the p rin ce for
19
s e r v ic e to the s ta te . The la te m e d ie v a l t r e a t is e s had b eg a n to
m en tio n ed u cation , but fo r E r a s m u s it is the k ey to good r u le . The
ru le of a sta te , he points out, b elo n g s to h im -who is m o s t sk illfu l in
i
ru lin g , that i s , who e x c e ls in " w isd om , ju s t ic e , m o d er a tio n ,
j fo r e sig h t, and z e a l for the public w e lfa r e . To h ave b een b orn to
j j
r u le is not su ffic ie n t to p rod u ce th ese tr a it s , and s in c e th ere is no
i
p o s s ib ilit y of ch o ic e in the c a s e of h e r e d ita r y s u c c e s s io n of r u le r s ,
i i
: I
: the ch ief hope fo r a good p r in c e is fr o m h is d e lib er a te tra in in g . The j
i ob ject of th is ed u cation is above a ll to te a c h h im how to r u le , how to j
I
c a r e for h is p e o p le . He m u st le a r n to im ita te God in h is m a n n e rs |
! !
i and q u a litie s , to avoid f la t t e r e r s , and to build h is rep u tation on h is j
I
c h a r a cter and d eed s rath er than on pom pous d isp la y and w a ste fu l
ex tr a v a g a n c e. The p r in c e !s guiding p rin cip le is su b ord in ation of h is
i
own in t e r e s t s to th ose of the sta te and the peop le a s a w h o le. "The
good p r in c e ought to have the sa m e attitude tow ard h is su b jects a s a
| good p ater fa m ilia s tow ard h is h o u se h o ld --fo r what e ls e is a kin gdom j
but a g r e a t fa m ily ? What is the king if not the fath er to a g r e a t
: j
! m u ltitu d e? He is s u p e r io r , but y et of the sa m e s t o c k - - a m a n ruling {
j !
| m an , a fr e e m a n o v er fr e e m e n . . . . " ^ The e ffic a c y of ex a m p le is |
! I
! a lw a y s s t r e s s e d : . "No c o m e t, no d readfu l p ow er a ffe c ts the p r o g r e s s
of hum an a ffa ir s a s the life of the p rin ce g r ip s and tr a n s fo r m s the
12
m o r a ls and c h a r a c te r of h is s u b je c ts ." E r a s m u s g o e s on to
d is c u s s p e a c e , ta x e s , m a g is t r a t e s , and app ointm en ts of c o u n s e lo r s ,
touching o c c a s io n a lly on b its of p r a c tic a l r e a lis m su ch as the d an gers
of a p ro lo n g ed v i s i t by the p rin ce to d ista n t c o u n trie s or the n e c e s s it y
to be p a tien t and to use su b terfu ge to w in over the p eo p le w hen they
20
a r e stubborn and r e b e l a g a in st w hat is good fo r th em .
E r a s m u s , w h ile p r im a r ily continuing the m e d ie v a l
tra d itio n of the p rin ce as s u b m iss iv e to and im itatin g God, as the
i
j
I so u r c e of ju s tic e , and a s ded icated to the g e n e r a l w e lfa r e of h is
j
i
p e o p le , does in co rp o ra te the m o r e r e a lis tic attitude of the
;
R e n a is sa n c e . |
A lm o st con tem p oran eou s w ith E r a s m u s1 w ork and sh arin g
; !
w ith it m any co m m o n c la s s ic a l so u r c e s and m e d ie v a l tr a d itio n s, w as j
I another w ork on the rule of p r in c e s w hich s e t forth a new con cep t of
| the p rin ce d estin ed to b eco m e the arch r iv a l of the " C hristian |
j j
: p r in c e . " T his w ork , The P r i n c e , w as w r itte n by N ic co lo |
| M a ch ia v elli s p e c ific a lly for the Italian s c e n e . j
! And ju st a s for two hundred y e a rs of h er h isto r y Italy |
had b e e n dom inated by the fig u res of the g rea t S e ig n e u r s,
j who w e re u n su stained by the pow er of tradition or of
j any m yth , so in the tr e a tis e the thing that s e r v e s to
! illu m in a te the g e n e r a l background of e v e n ts, ev en if the
: la tter a re not d eterm in ed s o le ly by an ind ividu al, is the
| ch a ra cter of the P r in c e , . . . the new P r in c e , su stain ed
| not by the m e m o r y of h is a n c e s to r s , not by the r e
c o lle c tio n of long y e a r s of su fferin g sh a red w ith his
p eo p le, but s o le ly by h is own w it and stren gth of w ill, |
h is w a rlik e p r o w e ss and dip lom atic w isd o m . |
! j
M a ch ia v elli d ep arts fro m the m eth od of both the c la s s ic a l j
i i
I !
I and C h ristia n w r it e r s , that of p resen tin g a m o r a lly p e r fe c t p r in c e , j
j
! by com p osin g a p r a c tic a l guide for the conduct of a ffa irs in the r e a l
i
i w o rld of p ow er p o litic s . In so doing he se p a r a te s p o litic s fr o m
e th ic s . He f ir s t of a ll r e je c ts the whole p r e m is e that the prin ce
should s e r v e as a m o r a l exam p le for h is p eo p le. He a g r e e s w ith
14
tra d itio n in approving the li s t of laudable q u a lities and ad h eren ce to
15
a path of m o r a lity w hen it is p o s s ib le , but he does not ex p ect the
21
ru ler to be p e r fe c tly virtu ou s or ev en an outstanding m o r a l ex a m p le,
sin ce w hat m a tte r s is only that w hich c le a r ly a ffects h is s u c c e s s fu l
m ain ten an ce of the state (Chapter 15).
| The r e je c tio n of the p e r fe c tly virtu ou s p rin ce r e s u lts in
|
the elim in a tio n of ju stic e a s the f ir s t req u irem en t of good
I govern m en t; thus M a ch ia v elli r e v e r s e s the trad ition al ord er in w hich
; ju stic e had alw ays taken p r e ce d e n c e over prud en ce (r e a listic
i !
! m e a s u r e s ) in p o litic s . ]
! j
j The m o m en t p ow er p o litic s is se e n for what it is ,
j p rud en ce and its rela ted " v ir tu e s " --s e iz in g the
p sy c h o lo g ic a l m o m en t, s e c r e c y , d ilig e n c e , p atien ce
| (w aiting upon the m a tu rity of c ir c u m sta n c e s ), p e r - ,
s e r v e r a n c e , f e a r le s s n e s s , and so fo r th ~ -c o m e into ;
! th eir own as the d e c isiv e m a rk of g r e a tn e ss . To be j
■ s u r e , the m e d ie v a l and r e n a iss a n c e m ir r o r s do not j
n e g le c t th ese q u a litie s, but lim it the sco p e of th eir j
j op eration s to w hat, w ithin the e th ic o -r e lig io u s j
j fr a m e w o rk , is th eir p rop er sp h ere: that is , w ar. “ i
[
| The im p a ct of th is sh ift to a m o r a l and r e a lis tic p o litic a l p rin cip les
i ■ |
| on the con cep t of the p rin ce is s e e n at th ree sig n ifica n t points; the j
1 i
; i
J p r a c tic a l lim ita tio n on the w ill of the p r in c e , the m otivation for h is j
| d isp en sa tio n of rew a rd s and g e n e r o s ity , and the p a rticu la r talents
[ req u ired of the s u c c e s s fu l r u le r.
| M a ch ia v elli, w h ose w orld is not fash ion ed by in tellig ib le
I
j d e c r e e s of a b en ev o len t p r o v id e n c e , r e c o g n iz e s and d is c u s s e s the |
i |
| d e e p e r , p r a c tic a l r e s tr ic tio n s on s o v e r e ig n pow er due to the
u n certain ty of hum an a ffa ir s , the ro le of fortu n e, and the tendency
tow ard e v il in the nature of m an . T his is in co n tra st to the p reviou s
trad ition and to p r a c tic a lly a ll other w r ite r s w ho, failin g to reco g n ize
that e v il and fa ilu re are p o s s ib le r e s u lts of ev en the b e s t in ten tion s,
22
p ictu re a p rin ce quite able to do as he p le a s e s and able to be a good
p rin ce if he w ill. M a ch ia v elli s e e s the w ill r e s t r ic t e d - - b y the actu al
m eth od s needed to gain good w ill, by the n e c e s s it y for support (e.j£. ,
I of the n o b les), by d epend en cy on m in is t e r s , and by the p r in c e 's own
j
iv e r y hum an, v e r y r e a l, and v e r y lim ite d a b ility , p a r tic u la rly the
17
i la ck of fo r e sig h t.
A s p e c ific ex a m p le of the p r a c tic a l rath er than m o r a l
j m o tiv a tio n of p o lic y is the q u estion of the p r in c e 's g e n e r o s ity . It is
j
j not the C h ristia n virtu e of lib e r a lity but the p o litic a lly s e r v ic e a b le
] Jg
"virtue" that M a ch ia v elli d is c u s s e s (C hapters 7, 21). E r a sm u s
i condem n s extravagan t exp en d itu res and ad vocates a c a re fu l ch eck on
I m
’ e x p e n s e s . The p r in c e 's g e n e r o s ity , w hich is by no m e a n s to be
|
j p r o m isc u o u s, is c o n sid e re d as only one of s e v e r a l w a y s in w h ich a
good p rin ce can confer h is b e n e fic e n c e , adjusting the rew a rd to both
the m e r it and n eed s of the r e c ip ie n t. A s a C h ristia n p r in c e , he is to
20
| reg a rd no one a s an ou tsid er to h is k in d n ess. E r a sm u s w eak en s
| the u su al exh ortation to lib e r a lity , but M a ch ia v elli, c o n siste n t w ith
| h is p o litic a l p h ilosop h y of m ain ten an ce of the ru ler and the sta te ,
I
g iv e s it a d ifferen t b a se: p o litic a l utility. L ib era lity is a m ea n s of
j
| esta b lish in g a rep u tation , although M a ch ia v elli would p r e fe r r e s p e c t
gained by ste r n e r q u a lities to love gained by g e n e r o s ity . Hum an
lo v e , gratitu d e, and cou rage are h a rd ly dependable for the p rin ce in
a d v e r sity (Chapter 17). The w ise p rin ce depends only on h is own
c a p a c itie s and r e s o u r c e s , that is , only on w hat is in h is p o w er.
The m o s t strik in g change in the con cep t of the p rin ce
w hich r e su lts fr o m M a ch ia v elli1 s r e a lis m is the c en tr a l p lace of
23
m ilita r y p r o w e ss am ong the p r in c e 's ta le n ts. A ll of the m o r e
p r a c tic a l w r ite r s of ad vice to r u le r s had included a d is c u s s io n of
21
w a rfa re b orrow ed c h ie fly fr o m the c l a s s i c s , but M a ch ia v elli
j
j in s is te d on the b a s ic n e c e s s it y of a m ilita r ily s u c c e s s fu l ru ler
|
| (C hapters 12, 14). T his em ph atic dem and for m ilita r y com p eten ce j
I w a s, of c o u r se , the r e su lt of h is ob servation of the Italian scen e; ■
but it w as a ls o a rebuke to th o se who advocated oth er p r o fe s sio n s for i
{
| the king, m o s t notably that of p h ilo so p h er. This point is fu rth er j
i supported by the d is c u s sio n of m e r c e n a r ie s and the d em o n stra tio n of !
a d ir e c t r ela tio n sh ip of good la w s and lo y a l, cou rageou s p eop le to I
i
e x c e lle n c e in a rm s (C hapters 7, 12). ]
I ;
The M a ch ia v ellia n p r in c e , as opposed to the C h ristia n |
i j
I
id eal p r in c e , w as fr e e d fro m any m o r a l code but w a s bound b y the j
! n e c e s s it ie s of p r a c tic a l p o litic s . He a im ed at p o litic a l s u c c e s s
| I
| rath er than id ea l ju s tic e . He a ch iev ed that s u c c e s s through h is own
1 r e s o u r c e s , e s p e c ia lly h is m ilita r y p r o w e s s , not by virtuou s conduct.
j
The C h ristian trad ition of an a ll-ta le n te d ru ler fu lfillin g im p o ssib le i
! ■ i
: i
| p e r so n a l req u ir em en ts w as n ot, h o w ev er, d estro y ed by I
|
M a ch ia v elli's r e a lis tic so ld ie r -k in g . !
j i
| M a ch ia v elli's bold handbook w as not g e n e r a lly adopted a s j
a text b y p o litic a l th e o r ists and c o m m e n ta to rs, nor o v ertly by
j r u le r s . H is p r in c ip le s w e re opposed in F ra n ce in the six teen th
j cen tu ry b eca u se th ey w e re Italian , b e c a u se they w e r e in im ic a l to
piou s Huguenot m o r a ls , and b e c a u se the calcu lated r e a so n of state
22
of the p rin ce w as a th rea t to the in te r e sts of the a r is to c r a c y .
i
j Once R ic h e lie u had fir m ly co n so lid a ted r o y a l p o w er, and a b so lu tism
24
w a s e sta b lis h e d in F r a n c e , h o w e v e r , m a c h ia v e llis m w a s not only-
p r a c tic e d , but a ls o found a p la c e in both p o litic a l t r e a t is e s and
lit e r a tu r e . It w as r e p r e s e n te d in tr a c ts by the p o litic a l a c tiv is t and
d ip lo m a t Due de R ohan, by the sch o la r G a b riel N aud e, and by L ouis
23
M achon under the p e r so n a l d ir e ctio n of R ic h e lie u . In fa c t, the
I
a b so lu te m o n a rch y ca m e to be id en tified w ith m a c h ia v e llis m . It did
i not e s c a p e the atten tion of c r it ic s that L ou is X IV ’s m e n to r ,
; M a za rin , w as a fello w cou n trym an of M a c h ia v e lli.
j
! Of th o se w r ite r s who a c c e p te d the a b so lu tism of the
j
j F r e n c h m o n a rch y and who had so m eth in g to sa y about the p e r fe c t
! p r in c e , tw o l e s s e r ones a r e the m o s t sig n ifica n t in tra cin g the
|
| d ev elo p m en t of e ig h te e n th -c e n tu r y id e a s about k in g sh ip . The f ir s t ,
B a lz a c , contin ues the tra d itio n of m ir r o r s of p r in c e s and, w h ile
in trod u cin g m a c h ia v e llia n e le m e n ts , r em a in s w ith in the C h ristia n
ca m p . The se c o n d , C o u rtilz de S a n d r a s, p r o v id e s an opportunity of
| s e e in g how a m a c h ia v e llia n p r e se n ts h is p o litic s in fic tio n . In
| c o n tr a st to both th e se in d iv id u a ls, the outstanding lit e r a r y g en r e of
i se v e n te e n th -c e n tu r y F r a n c e , c l a s s i c a l tr a g e d y , r e s i s t s the trend
j
I tow ard m a c h ia v e llis m but p r e se n ts the p r o b le m in its own
j d istin ctiv e w ay.
! Jean L ou is G uez de B a lz a c rs P r in c e is a tr a n sitio n a l
i
w o rk in co rp o ra tin g both the p o litic a l r e a lity of M a c h ia v e lli and the
C h ristia n notion of the king as the r e p r e s e n ta tiv e of God. In its tim e
the tr e a tis e p o p u la rized the idea of d iv in e -r ig h t a b so lu tism through
24
a p ro p a g a n d istic p ictu re of L ouis XIII, and w a s of c o n sid e ra b le
im p o rta n ce in c rea tin g a c lim a te of opin ion in w h ich a b so lu tism
25
w ould b e c o m e a ccep ta b le as the le g itim a te fo rm of F ren ch
g o v ern m en t. B a lza c applauded the new ro y a l p ow er and unity that
ca m e to F r a n c e a fter the fa ll of the H uguenot stronghold of La
i
j R o c h e lle . "A m o r a l revolu tion has taken p la c e , a change of sp ir it, a
■ 25 i
| p le a sa n t and gratifyin g tr a n sitio n fr o m e v il to good;" "the state w ill j
! be no h ard er to run than a w e ll-o r d e r e d h o u se , " h e w ro te, b e c a u se j
I the so v er e ig n ty of a sin g le king w ill r ep la ce the m ultitude who ;
26 ^
: fo r m e r ly sh a red F r a n c e and divided so v er e ig n ty .
i
In co n tra st to the R e n a issa n c e m ir r o r s , w hich show g rea t
j !
r u le r s of antiquity as m o d e ls for co n tem p o ra ry r u le r s , B a lz a c
! r e je c ts su ch p r a ise of the dead and s e a r c h for the id ea l in the p a st. j
i i
I i
; It is no lon ger n e c e s s a r y to look for the Ideal P r in c e in I
| the C yrop aed ia, nor run to R om e to ad m ire statu es of
j C on su ls and E m p e r o r s , nor p r a is e the dead to the
d etrim en t of the liv in g . T here is not one an cien t in a ll
th is peop le of stone and bron ze who is the equal of our
| H e ro . We p o s s e s s w hat our fo r e fa th e r s longed for; nor i
could w e b ring to m ind anything to equal w hat w e se e
! b e fo r e our e y e s .
"
\ T his co n tem p o ra ry p r in c e , fu r th e r m o r e , has som eth in g of the divine i
i 1
, e s s e n c e , for h is a ctio n s a re stren gth en ed and p er fe cte d by a ray of
i~.. . ... 28
Divinity.
It ap p ears that the p r in ce does not s e e things in the sa m e
m an n er that w e do. He is guided by a p u rer light than j
that of ord in ary r e a so n . The m a jo rity of the d e c isio n s
| he h a s m ad e have b ee n sen t fro m h eaven . The m a jo rity
j of h is c o u n se ls co m e fr o m a su p erio r p rud en ce and a re
I in sp ira tio n s d ir e c tly fr o m God rath er than p rop osition s
i of m e n . ^
B ec a u se of this co m m u n ica tio n with God it is p r a c tic a lly im p o ssib le
30
for the king to be d iv erted fr o m in teg rity . F r o m this high station
31
the king m u st at tim e s d escen d in ord er to com m u n icate w ith m en ,
26
32
and he m u st use h is sa n c tifie d p ow er for the good of the w o rld .
T his con cep tion of a ctiv e p ie ty is illu stra ted by a graphic
d e sc r ip tio n of L ouis XIII c a rry in g out h is good w o r k s. C on tem p orary
! h is to r y thus m a k es up the content of B a lz a c ’s P r in c e and
I 33
I d istin g u ish e s it fr o m m e d ie v a l and R e n a issa n c e w o r k s.
j
B a lz a c , Tike M a ch ia v elli, e m p h a siz e s the p r e se n t
h is t o r ic a l e x p e r ie n c e and s e ts prud en ce (the " virtu es" of pow er
i p o litic s) above ju s tic e , ex ce p t w ith reg a rd to in tern ation al a ffa ir s ,
34
j w h ere he fa lls back into the trad ition al p attern of the ju st p r in c e .
| The ap o lo g etic nature of the w ork o b litera tes the c la sh of in te r e sts
; and d ep icts the s u c c e s s of the king in breaking the op p osition as the
i
: in ev ita b le co n seq u en ce of h is m o r a l p o w er. N e v e r t h e le s s , B a lz a c ’s
I i
i I
| d e ifica tio n of the king, h is reco g n itio n of the lim it le s s n e s s of
; ir r e s p o n s ib le p o w er, and h is in s is te n c e on the rela tio n of h is
i 35
| tr e a tis e to p o litic a l r e a lity a r e con trary to p rev io u s tra d itio n s.
| H is id ea s are a com b in ation of m a c h ia v e llis m and C h ristian r elig io n
! w h ich finds its la s t sig n ifica n t r e p r e se n ta tiv e in B os su et.
The a ccep ta n ce of the absolu te p rin ce and h is
! m a c h ia v e llia n p r in c ip le s of g o v ern m en t is b e s t r e p r e se n te d by one
! G atien de C ourtilz de S a n d ra s. A so ld ie r and a captain during the
i
i r e ig n of L ou is XIV, he w as a p o litic a l and lite r a r y adven tu rer not
j
j at a ll co n cern ed w ith d isc o v e r in g the truth, but quite adept at
p le a sin g h is co n te m p o ra r ie s w ith a n ecd otes of the sca n d a ls at
3 6
co u rt. H is s k ill in debating is s u e s led h im to w rite a tr e a tis e
c r itic iz in g F r e n c h p o lic y , and then im m ed ia te ly c o m p o se an
e n e r g e tic refu tation of h is own w ork. S im ila r ly he w rote fictitio u s
27
37
m e m o ir s of m e n w h o se v ie w s opposed e a ch oth er. This
v e r s a tility w as p rom p ted in p a rt by the n eed to com bat h is b esettin g
p o v erty and by the e ffo rt to sta y out of the B a s tille , an effo rt w hich
w as not a lw ays s u c c e s s fu l, as he spent about fifteen y e a r s th ere
j I
| b etw een 1693 and 1711. I
j '
J j
j C o u rtilz, w h o se m ajor w ork im itated that of the Duke de |
i i
3 8
i R ohan, had few com pu nctions about p r e se r v in g the C h ristia n
! i
| c h a r a c te r is tic s of k in gsh ip . He does m en tion C h ristia n lim ita tio n s
i to p ow er p o litic s , but p o litic a l r e la tiv is m p red o m in a tes in h is w ork.
| j
| "T here d oes not e x is t a sin gle m a x im that m ay not have to be !
| r e v e r s e d in a cco rd a n ce with the c ir c u m sta n c e s . E veryth in g m u st !
i 3 9
I y ie ld to in te r e st of S ta te. " He even a rg u es for r elig io u s
to le r a tio n on the b a sis of the p o lic y of state in te r e st. In explaining
| h is d isd ain for the in toleran t p o lic y of the C atholic E m p e r o r , he |
i
poin ts out that it is m u ch m o r e e ffectiv e fo r the ru le r to s e c u r e the j
p ro te c tio n and w ell b eing of h is nation than to a ffect z e a l. H ere we
f
have not only r e a so n of sta te, but a ls o the reco g n itio n of the
p r im a c y of m a te r ia l in te r e sts and the n e c e s s it y of m aking a su b ject j
i
J
peop le content, both of w hich w ill b eco m e e lem en ts of eigh teen th - j
cen tu ry thought. ^ j
I :
I |
A striking exam p le of the use of r e a so n of state is
C o u r tilz1 attitude tow ard w ar. He d iffers fr o m C h ristian trad ition ,
a s w e ll as m o s t eig h teen th -cen tu ry thought, in h is a s s e r tio n that w ar
is n e c e s s a r y to take up the e n e r g ie s of the su b jec ts, to purge the
nation of its su perfluou s e le m e n ts , and to s e r v e as a sa fe ty valve to
41
in su re in tern a l p e a c e . T his unusual attitude tow ard w ar is
28
e v id e n c e of h is c o n c er n w ith the r e a l and the p r a c tic a l a s a b a s is
fo r p o lic y .
!
j T h is m a c h ia v e llia n h e r ita g e of in t e r e s t of sta te ,
j
J a d m ira tio n fo r the p o w erfu l p r in c e , and co n cen tra tio n on
j c o n te m p o ra r y p o litic s is r e fle c te d in C ourtilz* n o v e ls . H is h e r o e s
I
: c h a r a c t e r is t ic a lly favor the th eo ry of subordin atin g a ll to the in t e r e s t
! of the sta te or the king. He a d m ir e s - - a lb e it not c o n s is t e n tly -- th e j
! |
j ru le r (L ou is XIY) who e n la r g e s h is kingdom and in c r e a s e s h is |
; 42 '
j p o w e r . H is c o n cern w ith the day to day e v en ts of r e a l life in a j
! w o rk lik e the M e m o ir e s de M. Le C om te de R o ch efo rt (1687) r e s u lts
| i
in the kind of p o litic a l sa tir e p e r fe c te d in the eig h teen th cen tu ry by j
j \
j L e S age in n u m erou s ad v en tu res and h is t o r ie s of w h ich G il B ia s is i
|
only the m o s t fa m o u s.
N eith er the im m e d ia c y of p o litic a l s a tir e nor the p ictu re
of an id ea l king a r e c h a r a c t e r is tic of the g r e a t e s t sev e n tee n th -
cen tu ry F r e n c h lit e r a t u r e . On the co n tr a r y , F r e n c h tr a g e d y ,
|
p r e o cc u p ied a s it w as w ith im ita tin g c la s s ic a l m o d e ls , w as ra th er
a lo o f fr o m p o litic s and w a s not g r e a tly a ffec te d ev en b y the sp e c ta c le j
! 43
! of L o u is XIV; fu r th e r m o r e , b e c a u s e of the s e v e r e r e s tr ic tio n s on j
I I
j d r a m a tists under R ic h e lie u , no c le a r c r it ic is m of the c o n tem p o ra ry
| p o litic a l p r a c tic e and no p r e se n ta tio n of a r u le r that d eviated
I
| g r e a tly fr o m the cu r re n t p o lic y w as p o s s ib le . The d r a m a tists
o v e r tly a c ce p ted the m a c h ia v e llia n ru ler a s fa c t and p r e se n te d
n u m ero u s in sta n c e s of p o litic a l n e c e s s it y , but they could not give up
the v a lu e s of the p a st and a c ce p t su ch p r a c tic e as rightful; th e r e fo r e ,
th ey su g g e ste d an a lte r n a tiv e h e r o and in d ir e c tly a c h ie v ed a
29
n egative p ictu re of the king.
In F r e n c h tra g ed y , a s in its c la s s ic a l m o d e ls , the focus
is on the king a s a p e r so n ra th er than on the in stitu tion of kin gsh ip.
j
| R ather than p ictu rin g the m o r a lly p e r fe c t p rin ce and deducing the
I
j g o v ern m en t fr o m h is b eh a v io r, the d ram a r e c o g n iz e s that the a rt of
i
; ruling is m a c h ia v e llia n and a sk s how that burden of e v il a ffe c ts the
! m a n . Then it show s how the p r in c ip les of p o litic a l pow er subjugate
44
the honorable m an to the n e c e s s it ie s of kingship:
j
h ow ever g r ea t is a r u le r ,
He is not h is own, he b elo n g s to h is State.
J u stice is not a v irtu e of State . . .
T im id equity d e str o y s the a r t of r u l i n g .^
N u m erou s ex a m p les illu str a te the p red om in an ce of
1
p o lic y and opp ortunism over ju stic e and in teg rity . One of the m o st
u sefu l p rin cip les of r e a so n of sta te , the right of the prin ce to
v io la te law in the in te r e s ts of public good, o c cu rs in M on tch retien 's
R ein e d 'E s c o s s e (1604) w hen Q ueen E liza b eth is ask ed to d isreg a rd
the law of nations and law of n atu re, and in the in te r e st of the
46
sta te 's w e lfa r e , d e str o y Q ueen M ary. On the p ro b lem of w hether
j a king is bound to k eep h is w o rd , one of the sto c k q u estion s in
| d is c u s s io n s of the id e a l p r in c e , traged y p r e se n ts both s id e s
]
| w ithout any e x p lic it c o n tr o v e r sy or r eso lu tio n , or any c le a r
p r e fe r e n c e , until C o rn eille o ffers a w ay out. "The w ord of k in g s,"
he w r o te , "is alw ays s a c r e d and alw ays d e s ir a b le , but they are
n ev er s la v e s to th eir w o r d s. . . . To w ithdraw h is w ord at the ju st
47
en trea ty [ o f other k in gs] is to honor h is own ch a ra cter in th em . "
A fter that, p led g es are not s e r io u s - - " o n e who knows the a rt of ruling
30
48
can e a s il y b rea k h is w ord and find a hundred r e a s o n s of s ta te . "
P a r tic u la r ly w hen th ere is a p o ssib le r iv a l, su ch a s a retu rn ed
i
| e x -k in g , the d ic ta tes of p o litic a l n e c e s s it y a re c le a r : it is no
j c r im e to e lim in a te a th rea t to the th ro n e. L ik e w is e , p o licy
|
| n e c e s s it a t e s the r e m o v a l of anyone to w hom the r u le r ow es too
! g r e a t a debt, su ch a s , fo r e x a m p le , the w a r r io r who sa v e s the
49
! th ron e.
| A lthough tra g ed y p r o f e s s e s its r e s p e c t for le g itim a te ,
50
| h e r e d ita r y p o w e r , its r e a l h e r o is the co n q u ero r. In the
}
| e a r ly p a rt of the cen tu ry the con q u eror is a u su r p e r , a rath er
j
I m a c h ia v e llia n c h a r a cter who a c h ie v e s a sem b la n c e of le g it im a c y - -
until C o rn eille in te r je c ts the v o ic e of c o n sc ie n c e that d e str o y s
51
the u s u r p e r ’s p o sitio n . In the sec o n d h alf of the cen tu ry the
| con q u eror ap p ears as a d is in te r e s t e d , lo y a l and devoted cham p ion
i
I
| of the k in g. He s e r v e s , fu r th e r m o r e , as a fo il to point out the
j
im p e r fe c tio n s of the k in gs he su p p orts and to in s p ir e th em by
52
h is e x a m p le . The r e s u lt is that the d ram a a s s o c ia t e s the
I
I
j rightful ru le r w ith the m a c h ia v e llia n a r t of rulin g and then
i
!
d e s c r ib e s that r u le r as w ea k , v a c illa tin g , and in co m p eten t. !
P o lit ic a l n e c e s s it y by w h ich he r u le s is s e e n to m a s k h is m is d e e d s ,
!
or as C o rn eille s a y s , the good of the sta te "is often only a pure I
5 3 !
fa n ta sy in the a ir m ad e to a ct and sp ea k fr o m s e c r e t m o t iv e s . . . . j
The d ram a then u se s the p e r so n of the p o w erfu l, g e n e r o u s, and
id e a lis tic con q u eror to introd uce the e le m e n t of p e r so n a l d istin ctio n
54
a s e s s e n t ia l to the k in g 's au th ority. Thus by im p lic a tio n the
d ra m a r e je c ts the m a c h ia v e llia n p rin ce of the h e r e d ita r y m o n a rch y
31
and finds its ideal in the conqueror who co m b in es v irtu ou s p e r so n a l
b eh avior w ith courage and valor on the b a ttlefield .
NOTES
See L e s t e r K. B o rn , "Introduction, " in D e sid e r iu s
E r a s m u s , The E d u cation of a C h ristia n P r in c e (New Y ork , 1936),
^pp. 4 4 -9 3 , for a s u r v e y of a n cien t c o m m e n ts on the p e r fe c t p r in c e .
2 W atter, p . 2 2 1 .
^ 3 Ibid.
^B orn, " In trod u ction ," in E r a s m u s , E d u cation , p. 6 6 .
5
L e s te r K. B o rn , "The P e r f e c t P r in c e : A Study in
T h irteen th - and F o u r te e n th -c e n tu r y I d e a ls, " S p ec u lu m , 111 (1928),
| 5 0 4 . The in ten sifie d e m p h a sis on p e r so n a l q u a lities of r u le r s w as
not s o le ly a r e s u lt of C h ristia n d o c tr in e . The p e r so n a l q u a litie s of
j m e d ie v a l and r e n a is s a n c e s o v e r e ig n s could v e r y d e fin ite ly in flu en ce
the w e ll-b e in g of th eir s u b je c ts . The s o v e r e ig n had v a r io u s d e g r e e s
| of p o w er, p erh ap s c o n tro llin g in flu e n c e , o v er w ar and p e a c e ,
| r e lig io u s p e r se c u tio n , m a n a g em en t of fu n d s, and e n c o u r a g em en t or
| h o s tility to c o m m e r c e (A llan H. G ilb er t, M a c h ia v e lli1 s P r in c e and
| Its F o r e r u n n e r s: The P r in c e a s a T y p ica l B ook de R e g im in e
I P r in c ip u m LDurham , N . C. , 1 9 3 8 ], p. 3).
I 6
I B orn , "In trod u ction ," in E r a s m u s , E d u c a tio n , p. 127.
^W atter, pp. 2 2 1 -3 ; B orn , S p e c u lu m , III, 4 7 0 . K arl F .
! M o rr iso n d e s c r ib e s the m ir r o r s of the eigh th and ninth c e n tu r ie s as
| avoiding the p rin cip a l is s u e s of p o litic a l th eo r y and u se s in ste a d the
j le tte r s and o ffic ia l a c ts of r u le r s and the v a r io u s w ritin g s of
| ch u rch m en fo r h is stu d y of ch u rch and sta te in C aro lin g ia n p o litic a l
thought (The Two K in gd om s [ P r in c e t o n U n iv. P r e s s , 1964] ,
p. 10 n. 14).
| ^W atter, pp. 2 2 3 -6 .
■ 9
B orn , "In trod u ction ," in E r a s m u s , E d u cation , p. 4.
I
^ E r a s m u s , p. 140.
1 1 I b id ., p. 170.
1 2 Ibid. , p. 157.
32
33
13
F e d e r ic o Chabod, M a c h ia v e lli and the R e n a is s a n c e ,
tr a n s. D avid M oore (London, 1958), p. 63.
14 • .
I N ic c o lo M a c h ia v e lli, The P r i n c e , tr a n s. L u igi R ic c i,
r e v is e d by E . R . P . V in cen t (New Y ork , 1952), C hapter 15.
15
| M a c h ia v e lli, C hapter 18. S ee on this poin t G ilb ert,
|pp. 7 7 - 9 , and the c la s s ic w ork on the su b jec t, M ein ec k e , p. 4 0 .
j 1 L j
W atter, p . 237. !
^ G ilb e r t , p. 116. |
i 18 * * '
On the p r o b le m of the m ean in g of v ir tu s e e M ein ec k e , |
pp. 3 1 -4 4 , and J. H. H e x te r , "The L oom of L anguage and the F a b r ic |
! of Im p e r a tiv e s: The C a se of II P r in c ip e and U top ia, " The A m e r ic a n
H is to r ic a l R e v ie w , LXIX (July 1964), 9 5 4 -8 .
19
| E r a s m u s , pp. 2 1 6 -7 . |
20 '
Ibid. , pp. 2 1 9 -2 0 .
! 21
G ilb e r t, p . 70.
! 22
i M ein ec k e , pp. 5 1 -6 .
j 2 3
Due H en r i de R ohan, De l'in t e r e s t des p r in c e s e t e sta ts
de C h r e s tie n te , 1638 (M e in e ck e, pp. 1 6 2 -9 5 ). G a b riel N a u d e,
C o n sid era tio n s p o litiq u e s , su r le s coups d’e t a t , 1639, "the m o s t
fam ou s m an u al of sta te c r a ft w h ich w a s r e p r e s e n ta tiv e of the
M a ch ia v ellia n type" (M ein eck e, p . 197). L o u is M achon, "A pologie
pour M a c h ia v e lle , " B . N . , MS (K. T. B u tle r , "L ouis M ach on’s j
’A p ologie pour M a c h ia v e lle 1- - 1643- 1688, " Jou rn al of the W arburg and
j C ourtauld I n s titu te s , 1 1 1 ^ 1 9 3 9 -4 0 3 , 2 0 8 -2 2 7 ).
i ? 4
| W atter, p . 246.
25
L e P r in c e , in O eu v res de J . - L . de G uez S ieu r de B alzac
| (P a r is , 1854), V ol. I, p. 81. j '
I ^ B a l z a c , p . 2 1 . j
i P V ‘
j B a lz a c , p . 187; quoted in W a tter, p . 228. !
^ W a t t e r , p. 230.
^ B a l z a c , p . 132.
30
Ibid. , p . 57.
3 1 Ibid. , p. 4 0 .
34
3 2 Ibid. , C hapter X .
3 3 W a tter, p. 232.
3 4 Ibid. , p. 237.
| 3 5 Ibid. , p. 247.
3 6
■ B en ja m in M . W ood b rid ge, G atien de C o u r tilz , S ieu r dn
I V e r g e r : etude su r un p r e c u r s e u r du ro m a n r e a lis te en F r a n c e
j(B a ltim o r e , 1925), pp. 1 -1 5 .
3 ^Ibid. , pp. 2 0 -2 1 . M e in e c k e , p . 245. !
: I
3 R 1
W ood b rid ge, p. 28. S e e a b o v e, note 23. ;
39 '
J M ein ec k e , p . 2 47, fr o m C o u rtilz de S a n d r a s , N ouveaux j
in te r e ts d es p r in c e s de l'E u r o p e , ou l ron tra ite des m a x im e s quHls
I d oiven t o b s e r v e r pour se m a in te n ir dans le u r s e ta ts, et pour
e m p e c h e r quJil ne s e fo r m e une m o n a rc h ic u n iv e r se lle (C ologn e, |
P i e r r e M arteau , 1685; L e,. , the H ague). j
40 i
M e in e c k e , p. 248.
| 4 1 Ibid. , p. 249. I
42
W ood b rid ge, pp. 3 0 -3 4 .
! 4 3
| M a u rice Baudin, The P r o f e s s io n of King in
| S e v e n te e n th -c e n tu r y F r e n c h D r a m a , (The Johns Hopkins S tudies in !
R o m a n ce L ite r a tu r e and L a n g u a g e s, V o l. XXXVIII; B a ltim o r e , |
j 1941), pp. 1 1 -1 2 , 25. j
44 !
j I b i d ., p . 14.
I I
[ 4 5 , ^ |
Le C le r c , Iph igen ie (1675), I, 2; C o r n e ille , P o m p e e j
(1643), I, 2; cited b y B audin, p . 16. j
j 4 ^Baudin, p. 19.
4 ^Oedipe (1659), I, 2 , c ite d b y Baudin, p. 21.
! 4 ® P ulcherie (1673), HI, 4 , c ite d by Baudin, p . 21.
49
B audin, pp. 2 4 - 5 . E x a m p le s fr o m C o r n e ille ,
P e r th a r ite (1651) and S u rena (1675).
50
B audin, pp. 33, 5 0.
51
A u gu stu s in Cinna (1641); B audin, pp. 4 3 - 4 .
^ B a u d in , pp. 4 5 - 8 .
^3 P u lc h e r ie , IV, 3, cited b y B audin,
54
B audin, pp. 4 9 , 104.
CHAPTER III
| F E N E L O N AND TELEM AQUE
|
| Of a ll the d e scr ip tio n s of the id eal ru ler and of a ll the
i c r it ic is m of L ouis XIV, by far the m o s t popular in the eighteenth I
I " '
| cen tu ry w as the A ven tu res de T elem aq u e w ritten by the A rch bishop
I of C am b rai as a m ean s of m aking in stru ctio n in geograp hy, h isto r y , i
j !
| a n cien t lite r a tu r e , p o litic s , and m o r a ls p lea sa n t for h is a d o le sce n t
p u pil, the Duke of Burgundy and son of the Dauphin. The con cep t of
the id ea l p rin ce s e t b e fo r e the p re su m e d h e ir to the throne of F ra n ce
w as la r g e ly a r e s ta te m e n t of the C h ristian p rin ce of E r a sm u s with I
e m p h a sis on platonic e le m e n ts , resu ltin g in a kind of C h ristia n
p h ilo so p h er-k in g who liv ed in the age of a b so lu tism .
| F en elo n had found in P la to 1 s R epublic and L aw s an id eal
j j
! w orld that he g r ea tly a d m ired . He agreed w ith P la to 1 s con cep t of a j
j
ju st so c ie ty as a h arm on iou s h ie r a r c h y and of p o litic s as the
in stru m en t of m o r a lity . The p latonic idea that virtu e is know ledge ;
|
| and that the m an of know ledge should rule led to em p h a sis on the j
j j
| p rin ce as a p h ilo so p h er. Just a s P la to wanted Dion to be converted
to p h ilosop h y, F en elo n urged L ouis XIV to b e c o m e a true C h ristian ,
b e c a u se in ord er to g o v ern ju stly , a prin ce m u st know what is ju st.
1!P la to b e lie v e d that a m a n , if he w e r e a p h ilo so p h er, could
r e g e n e r a te the world; F e n e lo n exp ected e x a ctly that fr o m a C h ristian
___________________________________ 36______________ __________________
37
2
p r in c e . " The im p o rta n ce of the ed u cation of the p r in c e then
b e c a m e o b v io u s, a s both E r a s m u s and F e n e lo n a p p re c ia te d . F e n e lo n
r e f le c t s h is read in g of P la to in both fu n d am en tal id ea s and in
b o rro w in g im a g e s and im a g in a ry s c e n e s fo r T e le m a q u e , but he is
j above a ll a C h ristia n and a F r e n c h m a n of the tim e of L ou is XIY.
I "It is in the ligh t of h is tim e s that h is p o litic a l thought bu rn s w ith its
tru e lig h t. |
J
N e v e r t h e le s s , F e n e lo n w as adopted by the p h ilo s o p h e s , j
|
| and e s p e c ia lly by la te r w r it e r s , a s one of the fa th e rs of the \
j I
p h ilo so p h e m o v e m e n t. T his p iou s and m y s tic C h r istia n , b e c a u s e he
j c r it ic iz e d L ou is XIY and did not app rove of using fo r c e to c o n v e rt j
| H u g u en o ts, w as id en tified w ith the s e c u la r e ig h te e n th -c e n tu r y
I co n cep ts of h u m a n ita ria n ism , u n iv e r sa l b roth erh ood , o p tim is m , j
| p r o g r e s s , and to le r a n c e . If in r e c e n t y e a r s F e n e lo n 1 s p la ce in the I
| I
! h is to r y of C h ristia n ity h as b e e n m o r e fu lly a p p recia ted , h is |
| in flu en ce on the E n lig h ten m en t is in no s e n se d im in ish ed . S
D uring the f ir s t h a lf of the eigh teen th cen tu ry T elem a q u e
I - i
: i
I r e s to r e d the a n ti-m a c h ia v e llia n tra d itio n and reju ven ated op p osition |
I I
| to the P r in c e , as can be s e e n in the hu n d red s of " in sip id n o v e ls of !
i p o litic a l p ed agogy, t i r e l e s s l y im ita ted or p la g a r iz e d fr o m T elem aq u e
j
| b y untalented w r it e r s , " a ll of w h ich r ec o m m e n d g o o d n e s s , ju stic e
i
J and love as the p r in c ip le s of good k in g sh ip . F u r th e r m o r e , it is
ev id en t that M a ssillo n , the outstanding p r e a c h e r of the R e g en cy ,
rep ea ted fen elo n ia n m a x im s to L ouis X V , who in tu rn rep ea ted
4
s im ila r notions to h is son , the dauphin. F r e d e r ic k of P r u s s ia in
h is e a r ly fo r a y into the fie ld of the p h ilos ophe s , the Anti" M a ch ia v el,
38
co m p a r e d the fen elo n ia n to the m a c h ia v e llia n p r in c e , o b v io u sly
* r 5
p r e fe r in g the " g o o d n ess, eq u ity, and v ir tu e s" of T elem a q u e.
I n te r e stin g ly , F r e d e r ic k 's ch o ic e is not only a c o n seq u e n c e of
i
id e a lis m but has a p r a c tic a l e le m e n t a s w e ll. N ot only d o es he
| d e s ir e to defend h u m an ity a g a in st a m o n str o u s r u le r , but he a ls o
I w ants to defend k in gs a g a in st the c h a r g e s that th ey are d is c ip le s of
! M a c h ia v e lli.^ A s la te as 1771, L ou is S e b a stie n M e r c ie r rep ea ted
!
! h is a d m ira tio n of T elem a q u e by p la cin g it in the lib r a r y of the king in
l 1 An 2 4 4 0 . A m ong the p h ilo so p h e s th ere w as w id e sp r ea d sym path y
i
j for F e n e lo n , e v en w hen, lik e V o lta ir e , they did not ap p rove of h is
| a r is t o c r a tic p o lit ic s . D ’A le m b e r t w ro te in 1774 that it w a s
i
I
j fortu nate that h is e r a , m o r e en ligh ten ed than the R e g e n c y , hon ored
| T elem a q u e .
If th e r e is no lo n g er any con fu sion as to F e n e lo n 1 s
fu n d am en tal C h ristia n ity d e sp ite h is e ig h te e n th -c en tu r y p op u larity
and in flu en ce on the p h ilo s o p h e s , th ere is s t ill the q u estio n of h is
i p o litic a l thought. The late eig h teen th cen tu ry , in the b lin d n ess of
J
its own p a s s io n s , in ter p r e te d the fen elo n ia n p r in c e 's s u b m iss io n to
I
I law as an ea rth ly lim ita tio n on h is p ow er and con fu sed "law s" w ith a
8
i co n stitu tio n . A c co r d in g to m o s t s c h o la r s the lim ita tio n of the
p r in c e 's au th ority is the c en tr a l point of F e n e lo n 's p o lit ic s . A ll
j
a g r ee th at F e n e lo n w as attack ing not a b so lu te m o n a rch y but the a b u se
9 *
of it b y L ouis X IV . In th is opinion they a re follow in g F e n e lo n and a ll
d efen d ers of a b so lu tism in d istin g u ish in g b e tw een a b solu te and
a r b itr a r y au th ority, but th ey do not in te r p r e t the d e g r ee of lim ita tio n
on the a b so lu te m o n a rc h c o n s iste n tly .
39
H en ri S e e , c le a r ly avoiding the e r r o r of the late
eig h teen th cen tu ry , e m p h a s iz e s that the lim ita tio n s a r e im p o se d , not
b y c o n tra ct, but by a h ig h er o r d e r , by the m o r a l duty of the king to
e x e r c is e h is a u th ority only in the public in t e r e s t . ^ T his vague
ex p la n a tio n d o es not take into account the u se to w h ich the |
I ju stific a tio n of "public in te r e st" or "public w elfa re" can be put. I
i W hile in s is tin g , and rig h tly s o , that F e n e lo n n ev er elev a ted the j
1 * J
r ig h ts of the nation a g a in st th o se of the p r in c e , E ly C a r ca sso n n e s e e s
| I
!
j F e n e lo n ’s so lu tio n of the p ro b lem of the n e c e s s it y of regu latin g the j
j
| e x e r c is e of m o n a r c h ic a l p o w er to be the r e s to r a tio n of the a n cien t
11 I
i F r e n c h c o n stitu tio n . R oland M o u sn ier, after s o m e study of
^ I
12 i
| F r e n c h a b s o lu tism , d e c la r e s that the fen elo n ia n m o n a rch is indeed }
I . |
lim ited : in T elem a q u e the authority of the p rin ce is lim ite d by God,
by c o n s c ie n c e , by C hurch, and by the n ation through its p ow er to
a g r e e to or r e fu s e the c o s ts of g o v ern m en t, w hich is c o n siste n t w ith j
F e n e lo n ’s T a b les de C h a u ln es, w h erein the pow er of the king is
|
lim ite d by the E s t a t e s - G e n e r a l and the C ou n cil of S ta te, the n o b les j
13 i
and the upper b o u r g e o is ie . -M ousnier’s view is sh a rp ly ch a llen g ed j
by M m e. G a llo u e d e c -G e n u y s , who con ten d s that the p o w er— o r at i
I le a s t the a u th o r ity --o f the king is in no s e n s e lim ite d by th e se i
14 . '
b o d ie s . M o st w r it e r s , h o w e v e r , a c c e p t them as lim ita tio n s, j
i
p a r tic u la r ly the in str u m en ts as se t forth in the T a b les de C h a u ln e s,
and th ey freq u en tly co m p a r e F en elo n w ith M on tesq u ieu ,
c h a r a c te r iz in g F e n e lo n as a rea ctio n a ry who d e s ir e d the retu rn to the
15
old co n stitu tio n .
F u rth e r e v id e n c e for the v ie w that F e n e lo n intended to
40
r e s to r e the p r e -a b s o lu t is t con stitu tion of F ra n ce is often drawn from
the c o n tra st b etw een h im and h is co n tem p o ra ry and a d v e r sa r y ,
B ish op B o ssu e t, who r e p r e s e n ts the ep itom e of support fo r the
I a b so lu tism of L ou is XIV. F e n e lo n 1 s c r it ic is m ap p ears to put h im in
!
i co m p lete opp osition to B o s s u e t. The two c le r ic s differ f ir s t of a ll
| in th eir con cep t of the nature of m a n . B o s s u e tJs m a n , being a I
I d ep raved c r e a tu r e , n eed s a stron g go v ern m en t to in su r e ord er and |
I I
I i
| p ro tectio n . F e n e lo n 1 s m a n is rath er m o re so c ia b le , m o r e ca p a b le, j
I 1 6
; and m o r e lik ely to exhibit g o o d n e ss. A fu rth er d ifferen ce is !
j B o s s u e ^ s d evotion to g a llic a n is m and the m o n a rch y as opp osed to j
j
I F e n e lo n T s orthodox b e lie f in the ab solu te sep a ra tio n of tem p o ra l from j
I 17
| sp iritu a l p o w e r s. T his v e r y r e a l d ifferen ce should not be u sed , i
j
j h o w e v e r, to lim it F en elo n to the r o le of a r ea c tio n a ry d e sirin g the
j
: r e sto r a tio n of the feud al, a r is to c r a tic r e g im e or to o b scu re the fact
I
of h is support of a b so lu tism . Ju st as B o ssu e t, ev en if he se e m e d to
in corp orate m a c h ia v e llia n e le m e n t s , w as s t ill C h ristia n , F en e lo n , j
I
if he opposed the a b so lu tist r e g im e identified w ith m a c h ia v e llis m and
I
| ab u sed by L ou is XIV, w as s t ill an a b so lu tist.
i
j Two r e c e n t stu d ies offer m o re p e r ce p tiv e v ie w s of
i
i F e n e lo n ^ p o litic s . L io n el Rothkrug su g g e sts that F e n e lo n w as not
content with " gen eral w elfa re" as a lim it to s o v e r e ig n ty but sought
18 *
j m o re p r e c is e p r in c ip le s . F r a n f o is e G a llo u ed ec -G e n u y s, in
i
| con sid erin g the rights of the p rin ce over h is su b je c ts, c a r r ie s the
19 +
d is c u s s io n of th is point fu rth er. Rothkrug show s F e n e lo n in the
b ro a d er p e r sp e c tiv e of the group of c r itic s of w hich he w as a leading
m e m b e r . The p o sitiv e con cep t of go v ern m en t h eld by th is group m ay
41
be co n tra sted to the sev e n tee n th -c en tu r y trad ition , identified w ith
M a ch ia v elli and m e r c a n tilis m , w hich w as co n cern ed w ith esta b lish in g
20 /
ord er and prom otin g the pow er of the sta te . G a llo u ed ec -G e n u y s,
in c o n tr a st to R othkrug, show s e x a ctly what F e n e lo n h im s e lf thought,
i
a s d istin ct fr o m the group of r e fo r m e r s a s so c ia te d with h im , about
the p ow er of the state as an in stru m en t for m o r a l p e rfectio n . T h ese
| q u estion s of the lim ita tio n s on the p r in c e , the m ean in g of " general
; w e lfa r e , " and the p o sitiv e con cep t of go v ern m en t are p ro b lem s b a sic
to the con cep t of the id ea l p r in c e .
| That con cep t, p ortrayed in m y th o lo g ica l d r e s s by the
A rch b ish o p of C am b rai, b e a r s a strik in g r e se m b la n c e to the
t
C h ristia n p rin ce of E r a s m u s . F o r both ch u rch m en the r u le r 's
authority is d eriv ed fro m God. T his grant co n fers upon h is role
and h is p o lic ie s a q u a s i-s a c r e d c h a r a c te r , though the p e r so n of the
21
p rin ce r em a in s quite hum an. C ontrary to the th eory of divine
righ t a s p r e se n ted by B o s s u e t, F e n e lo n rem a in ed w ithin the
trad ition al d octrin e of the church, w hich had n ev er adm itted to the
d ir e c t tr a n s m is s io n of p ow er to the r o y a l p erson ; but the im p lica tio n s j
i
I
of th is trad ition al C h ristia n con cep t of the s a c r e d n e s s of the tem p o ra l j
! ' '
o ffice w ere not the sa m e for F e n e lo n as for E r a s m u s . The fo r m e r ,
being m o r e co n cern ed than E r a sm u s with the stren gth of the r u le r ,
e m p h a siz e s that b e c a u se the r u le r 's authority is d eriv ed from God,
22 +
o b ed ien ce to the ru ler is obedience to God. F e n e lo n r e c a lls the
popular o rig in of te m p o ra l p o w er, but he ig n o res the revolu tion ary
im p lica tio n s and in ter p r e ts the popular ro le a s one that w as played
23
o r ig in a lly , once and for a ll tim e . C on seq u en tly, the righ t of
42
24
rev o lu tio n d oes not e x is t , and the p r in ce is a b so lu te. E r a s m u s on
the other hand, although he d o e s not s u g g e s t rev o lu tio n , n e v e r th e le s s
e m p h a siz e s the v o lu n ta ry nature of the body p o litic and the m utual
25
a g r e e m e n t b etw een p rin c e and p e o p le . A b so lu te m o n a rch y he
I c o n s id e r s v e r y im p ro b a b le, p r e fe r r in g in ste a d a lim ite d m o n a rch y
j
ch eck ed by a r is t o c r a c y or d e m o c r a c y .
The n ex t q u estio n is F e n e lo n 1 s co n cep t of s o v e r e ig n t y - -
| or ju st how lim ite d is the a b so lu te a u th ority of the p r in c e ? It is ,
! in h is op in ion , n eith er a r b itr a r y , nor sh a r e d , nor lim ite d .
|
I A r b itr a r y p ow er is doing w hat one d e s i r e s , w ithout any r e a s o n beyond
| s e lf is h w ill. A b so lu te p o w er is the p ow er of having the fin a l
' 2 7
| d e c is io n . "You a r e the only true ju dge, " he w ro te of L ou is XIY.
j "Your m in is t e r s of sta te a re only s im p le con su ltan ts; it is you alone
i
2 8
w ho d ecid e fin a lly . "
The unity of a b so lu te p ow er g u a r a n tee s p e a c e and o rd er
to the k in gd om . The n o b les w e r e v e r y d ear to the A rch b ish o p , as
show n by the n u m ero u s r e f e r e n c e s to th eir v a lu e and hon or in
i ^
T e le m a q u e , but he did not give th em a sh a re in the s o v e r e ig n
I p o litic a l au th ority. L ik e w is e , the p r o v in c ia l e s t a t e s , E s t a t e s - i
| G e n e r a l, s ix m in is t r i e s , and C ou n cil of State su g g e ste d by h im do
not sh a re s o v e r e ig n au th ority. The d e c is io n s of the e s t a te s a re not
binding on the king; the c o u n c ils , th eir m e m b e r s appointed by the
i
29
k in g, cannot g o v ern w ithout h im . T h is d o es n ot im p ly that the
king d o es ev ery th in g h im s e lf . A b solu te p o w e r , by d efin itio n , has no
h u m an and le g itim a te lim ita tio n , but th o se who h elp a d m in iste r the
kin gdom h ave au th ority d e le g a te d to th em b y the k in g, a r e su b ject to
43
the la w s and to the k in g, and do not sh a re in so v e r e ig n ty it s e lf . The
p r in c e 's r e c o u r s e to c o u n se l is another e s s e n t ia l con d ition of the
good e x e r c is e of a b so lu te p o w e r , but not an in g red ien t in so v e r e ig n ty
it s e lf . The E s t a t e s - G e n e r a l and c o u n c ils w h ich F e n e lo n w ish e d to
| in stitu te , ev en th o se m e e tin g on th e ir own au th ority and not e x p r e s s ly
i c a lle d b y the k in g, w e r e to be fo r c o u n se l and w ould have had no
30
p o w ers of d e c isio n . To m o s t p e r s o n s , h o w e v e r , the v e r y p r e s e n c e !
of an E s t a t e s - G e n e r a l w ould have in d icated lim ita tio n . N eith er
| B o s s u e t nor L ou is XIV w ould have c o n sid e r e d a m o n a rch y ab solu te if
j it ev en p e r m itte d su ch an a s s e m b ly . W hatever F e n e lo ^ s in s is te n c e
i I
i on the u n lim ited nature of so v e r e ig n ty , p r a c tic a lly sp ea k in g , h is !
j L
I p rin c e a p p eared to be lim ite d . j
i f |
I N e v e r t h e le s s , F e n e lo n d e s c r ib e s u n lim ited , a b so lu te i
! !
I I
s o v e r e ig n au th ority as c h a r a c te r iz e d by the p o w ers of le g is la tin g , |
m aking w ar and p e a c e , and le v y in g ta x e s . W ell w ith in the
se v e n te e n th -c e n tu r y th eo ry of divine right a b s o lu tism , the
| fen elo n ia n p rin ce in the e x e r c is e of the le g is la tiv e p ow er sh ed s h is
i
j
|h u m an qu ality and a c ts only a s a r e p r e s e n ta tiv e of God. B y the
I le g is la t iv e p ow er F e n e lo n m e a n s not only m ak in g la w s but a ls o
p u nishin g v io la tio n s , or in other t e r m s , ren d erin g ju s tic e . "The j
iking is the f ir s t judge of h is State; it is he who m a k es the la w s and j
i
in te r p r e ts th em . . . . In sh o r t, h is function is to b e at the h ead of
31
a ll ju s tic e during tim e s of p e a c e . . . . " The content of
le g is la tiv e p ow er is thus v e r y la r g e , but its a im is lim ite d to
32
m a in ta in in g the d o m e s tic p e a c e and rem ed y in g d isru p tio n s of it.
S o m ew h a t le s s im p o rta n t, but s t ill a d istin ctiv e m a r k of r o y a l
44
s o v e r e ig n ty , is the p ow er to m ake w ar and p e a c e . W ar is so m e tim e s
n e c e s s a r y or ev en in e v ita b le , so it cannot be ig n o red , but it is an
a b n o rm a l situation w h ich the ru ler is ob liged to c o r r e c t as soon as
p o s s ib le . U tterly in d isp en sa b le to the le g is la tiv e p ow er and the
p ow er of m aking w ar and p ea ce is the p ow er to le v y ta x e s . Such
ta x es m u st be n e c e s s a r y for the s t a t e - - e v e n porp ortion ate to its
I |
in e e d s - - a n d are to be ex a cted only after the ru ler h as exh au sted h is j
i 33 ^
| own funds and the volu n tary aid of h is su b je c ts. j
The e x e r c is e of the th ree s o v e r e ig n p r e r o g a tiv e s r e s u lts |
! in c e r ta in rights w h ich the p rin ce has o v er h is su b je c ts, a ll of w hich I
; ■ |
a r e te s te d a g a in st the ’’public w e lfa r e . " T his p h r a se , or at le a s t i
\ the notion of s e lf le s s n e s s com b in ed w ith devotion to the p eo p le, is a
■
co m m o n p la ce of E r a s m u s 1 E ducation of a C h ristian P r in c e , but in the >
j
sev en teen th century it had c o m e to have m a c h ia v e llia n con n otation s.
F e n e lo n u ses the te r m freq u en tly but is o b v io u sly aw are of the
i
i
d a n g ers of its being u sed a s a ju stifica tio n of m is d e e d s . He attem p ts j
to m ak e "general w elfa re" m o r e p r e c is e and l e s s lia b le to abu se by
having the prin ce le a r n m o r a l la w s. T h ese law s a r e d eriv ed fr o m
i
! the a ssu m p tio n s that the "unique and e s s e n t ia l end [ o f govern in g m en ]
34
is n e v e r to d e s ir e au th ority and g lo ry fo r o n e se lf. "
The m o s t e x te n siv e right of the prin ce is that over
s u b j e c ts 1 p rop erty. P r o p e r ty is a c iv il righ t w hich ow es its
e x is te n c e to the p r in c e , who m a y c o n fisca te it to a ch iev e v ic to r y or
35
red istrib u te it fo r the good of s o c ie ty . The p rin ce a ls o has righ ts
o v er the p erso n s of h is su b je c ts, even to the exten t of the taking of
life in ord er to p r e s e r v e the s o c ia l ord er and p rev en t the v io la tio n of
45
la w s . The " lib erty of the subject" r e q u ir e s that he be con vin ced that
he h as v io la ted the law , w h ich m ay o c c a s io n so m e d ela y on the part
of the p rin ce but would not u ltim a tely lim it the p r in c e ’s righ t over
i 3 6
| the liv e s of h is su b jec ts. The p r in c e ’s righ ts do not extend to the
m in d of a su b ject (God's own dom ain), but only to e x te rn a l
37
(m a n ifesta tio n s that are c o n tra ry to the public good. T hus,
although the u n lim ited e x te n sio n of s p e c ific righ ts of the p rin ce is j
i i
| ju stified by the public good , the argu m en t of "public w elfa re" cannot j
i be u sed to c r e a te new r ig h ts.
Through the co n cep t of " lib erty of su b jects" F e n e lo n tr ie s
| |
! to introduce so m e r e s p e c t fo r the individual m an , h is w e ll-b e in g , i
! h is lib e r ty , and h is thought, in ord er to p rev en t ab solu te p ow er fr o m
i
| b ein g a r b itr a r y , but he cannot s a c r ific e the p ow er of the p rin ce and
| 2 8
| lim it h is ab ility to m ain tain p ea ce and o rd er. The " lib erty of the
I |
| subject" is not an in alien ab le right; it is founded on the duty of the
| p rin ce to su b m it to God. S u ch a p rin ce cannot con fu se h is own good
!
| p le a s u r e w ith the public w e lfa r e , w hich m u st be in terp reted
! i
3 9 i
I accord in g to the C h ristian id e a l. B eyond that the p rin ce has a w ide I
latitude for in terven tion , and g o v ern m en t b e c o m e s a p o sitiv e fo r c e
j
■ for bringing about the good lif e .
j i
! The r e s p o n s ib ilitie s and duties of the p rin ce depend upon
| th is p o sitiv e con cep t of g o v ern m en t. It is not enough for the king to
i
avoid evil; "he m u st do a ll the good a cts p o s s ib le w h ich the State
40
n e e d s. " The good life to be p u rsu ed by the go v ern m en t inclu des
41
m a te r ia l w e ll being -- e n jo y in g the fru its of the land, fa m ily life ,
p e a c e , fr e ed o m fro m c iv il w ar and fa c tio n s--b o th good fortune and
46
that h a p p in ess w h ich is a r e s u lt of v ir tu e . F e n e lo n la y s down
g o v ern m en ta l p o lic ie s for the im p ro v em en t of the e co n o m y , w h erea s
ev en E r a sm u s d oes not go beyond the v e r y g e n e r a l adm onition to
42
im p ro v e the p r o sp e r ity of the state and a few e x a m p le s of public
! 4 3 ,
j w ork s (draining sw a m p s, im p roving r iv e r s ) . F o r F e n e lo n the
p ow er of the state (the p rince) as an in stru m en t for m o r a l p e r fectio n
44 i
| is m o s t im p ortant. The p r in c e , by m e a n s of rew a rd s and
; I
45 l
; p u n ish m en ts, is to lea d a ll m ankind to v ir tu e . B oth a sp e c ts of j
i
this p o sitiv e con cep t of g o v ern m en t, defin ite p o lic ie s fo r m a te r ia l j
i im p ro v em en t and the r e g e n e r a tio n of s o c ie ty , m a rk F e n e lo n T s j
: m o d ern ity as com p ared to the m e d ie v a l trad ition .
!
; , i
The r o le of the p rin ce in the g o v ern m en t m a y be divided |
i
into roughly two c a te g o r ie s: d irectin g the g o v ern m en t and b ringing |
about ju s tic e . In h is r o le as ex ecu tiv e the p rin ce fo r m u la te s p o licy ,
g o v ern s and co o rd in a tes the effo rts of h is g o v ern m en t staff, ch o o ses
i m in is t e r s and o ffic ia ls , and keep s h im s e lf in form ed . M entor
j
; su m m a r iz e d the occu pation of a king for T elem aq u e as "thinking, i
i
! form in g g r e a t p r o je c ts and ch oosin g the righ t m en to execu te th em
I 46
j under h is d ir e ctio n . " The true occu pation of r u le r s is not s e r v ile
! w ork and d e ta il, w hich dulls the im agin ation and should be r e s e r v e d j
! j
: for m en of com m on su b a ltern m in d s, but thinking: co n sid erin g the j
47 !
| p a st and p en etratin g the fu tu re. The king should co n ceiv e w hat is
to be don e, should appoint oth ers to do it, and should su p e r v ise the
p r o c e e d in g s. "The su p rem e and p e r fe c t go v ern m en t is to g o v ern
th ose who g o v ern . T hey m u st be w atch ed , te ste d , r e str a in e d ,
c o r r e c te d , en co u ra g ed , lifted up and p u lled down, th eir p la c e s
47
48
changed and a lw a y s they m u st be held in hand. "
The r e sp o n sib ility m o s t e m p h a sized by F e n e lo n is that
of ch oosin g capable and tru stw orth y m in is t e r s . When King S e s o s t r is
j
d is c o v e r s that he has b een d e ceiv ed by one of h is high -ran k in g
| o ffic ia ls , he e x c la im s ,
i
j Oh, how unhappy he who is ex a lted above the r e s t of
| m ankind! Often he cannot s e e the truth w ith h is own
: e y e s; he is surrounded by m en who p rev en t its
| reach in g the one who is in com m an d. T hey are
in te r e ste d in d eceiv in g him and hide th eir am b itions
under a p p ea ra n ces of z e a l. They p reten d to love the j
king but love only the r ic h e s that he b e s to w s. T hey j
lo v e h im so little that in ord er to obtain h is fa v o r s ,
they fla tter and b etra y h im .^ ^
i
B e s id e s the trad ition al adm onition to s e e k truth and b ew a re of
fla tte r y , F e n e lo n in s is t s on two points: the p rin ce m u st le a r n how to
I
j judge c h a r a cter by w id e sp r ea d and constant ex p e rie n c e am ong m en;
i
and he m u st ch o o se o fficia ls a ccord in g to th eir a b ilitie s. T ow ard
the end of h is jou rn ey w ith M en tor, T elem aq u e con clu d es that "the
e s s e n tia l point of g o v ern m en t is to d istin g u ish ca refu lly the d ifferen t
! c h a r a c te r s of m en in ord er to s e le c t them and give them em p lo y m en t
50 I
ap p rop riate to th eir ta le n ts. "
In ord er to form u late p o lic y , ch o o se am ong the p o ssib le j
so lu tio n s of a p ro b lem , and im p o se h is d e c isio n s on an a d m in istra tio n
head ed by c a re fu lly se le c te d m in is t e r s , the king m u st be in form ed .
Ju st as B e a u v illie r c a r r ie d out a su r v e y of population and r e s o u r c e s
in F r a n c e , M entor a d v ise s King Idom enee to undertake a cen su s and
51
in v en to ry of the r e s o u r c e s of h is country. The p rin ce h as to know
not only the r e a l c ir c u m sta n c e s of h is country, but a lso its h isto r y
52
and its in stitu tio n s. The v a rio u s in stitu tion s d esig n ed by F en elo n ,
48
the e sta te s and c o u n c ils, a re m ean t to be so u r ce s of in form ation and
a d v ice for the king.
The seco n d a sp e c t of the p r in c e ’s ro le in the g o v ern m en t
I
is bringing about ju stic e , w hich is the app lication of the so v e r e ig n
53
p r e ro g a tiv e of le g isla tio n . F ollow in g the p attern of the in form ed
i r u le r , the p rin ce f ir s t of a ll has to know ju stic e , w h ich is , in j
| ;
| F e n e lo n 1 s c a s e , the p r in c ip les of C h ristia n m o r a lity . Since God has i
: I
| fash ion ed p r in c e s to m ak e m en happy, the prin ce "should s e r v e m en j
j i
| le s s for th eir own sa k es than fo r the lo v e of the gods who com m an d |
| it. Of th ose kings whom T elem aq u e s e e s in T a rta ru s in the j
i I
! i
| underw orld, the ones m o s t s e v e r e ly punished are the ones who w e re
ungrateful to the g o d s. One king, who had b een the v e r y id ea l of j
!
ju s tic e , m u n ific e n c e, and c o m p a ssio n on earth , is torm en ted w ith J
!
j se lf-h a tr e d b e c a u s e , as r u le r , he had ignored the g o d s, who a r e the
55
r e a l so u r ce of v irtu e.
| The p rin ce a p p lies h is know ledge of ju stic e in two
g e n e ra l w ays: p ra cticin g ju stice in the everyd ay a c tiv itie s of the
govern m en t and p rom oting the ultim ate reig n of ju stic e and
I
reg e n e r a tio n of s o c ie ty . In the f ir s t c a s e , the p rin c e p r a c tic e s
i ju stice in the s e le c tio n of m in is t e r s and o ffic ia ls, in m aking and
! in terp retin g law , in m ain taining h is own ex em p la r y c h a r a cter , and
in see in g that h is su bordin ates are h o n est and upright. S im ila r ly in
fo r e ig n r ela tio n s he m u st be just: no w a rs of con q u est or m e r e
glory; w a r s once engaged in have to be c a rr ie d out in o b serv a n ce of
g e n e ra l p r in c ip les of w a r. W ar, d esp ite a ll its e v i l s , is s o m e tim e s
n e c e s s a r y - - f o r d efen se and to p rev en t an unjust, rap aciou s en em y
49
fr o m b eco m in g too pow erful; h o w e v e r, m o s t w a rs can be p reven ted
by w isd o m , or what F e n e lo n c a lls ju s tic e . M When a king is ju st,
s in c e r e , unfailin gly faithful to h is a llie s , and p ow erful in h is
I
| cou n try through w ise g o v ern m en t, he h as a lrea d y r e p r e s s e d the
| unjust and anxious n eig h b o rs who want to attack h im . He h as the
! lo v e of h is peop le and the con fid en ce of h is neigh b ors; e v ery o n e is
; 56
j in te r e ste d in su stain in g h im . " T his is e x a ctly w hat M entor te lls
| King Id o m en ee, who has gotten h im s e lf in volved in a fo o lish w a r,
! but F en elo n th ere supp orts the g e n e r a l p rin cip le w ith p r a c tic a l
j 5 7
! su g g e stio n s of ju stice w hich w ould p rev en t w ar.
| The secon d g e n e r a l ap p lication of ju stice is u se of the
sta te as a m o r a l agent to bring about the r eg e n e r a tio n of s o c ie ty ,
j a poin t on w h ich F en elo n is a h arb in ger of e ig h te e n th -c en tu r y v ie w s.
I The p r in c e , as the r e p r e se n ta tiv e of God, should lea d "all m ankind
5 8
to v ir tu e ," for fr o m v irtu e c o m e s true h a p p in ess. A s M entor
! caution s T elem a q u e, r ic h e s , p le a s u r e s , abundance alone only
j
j co rru p t m en; in stead the p rin ce m u st apply h im s e lf "to c o rr e ctin g
; th eir m a n n e r s, in sp irin g ju s tic e , s in c e r ity , fea r of the g o d s,
|
! hum anity . . . : w h ile m aking th em good [h e ] w ill p rev en t th eir
| b ein g in g ra tes; [h e ] w ill give th em true w ea lth , w hich is
| 5 9 ✓
v ir tu e . . . " T elem aq u e had, e a r ly in h is a d v en tu res,
ex p e rim en te d in doing ju st that w h ile e x ile d in a d e s e r t w ith cru d e,
f ie r c e sh ep h erd s. T here a v en era b le old m an had told h im to
cu ltivate the d e se r t and m ak e it flo u r ish , then teach the r u s tic s the
ch a rm s of m u s ic , so ften th eir obdurate h e a r ts , and show them the
s w e e t joys of v ir tu e , ^ w hich T elem aq u e did. The p rin ce tea ch es
50
m en v irtu e and lea d s th em to h ap p in ess not only by h is own ju st
a d m in istra tio n of the g o v ern m en t, but a ls o by h is p e r so n a l exam p le
of C h ristia n conduct. F o r the p rin ce as fo r the su b je c ts, h ap p in ess
is a r e s u lt of v ir tu e . The kings in the E ly sia n fie ld s enjoy g r e a te r
rew ard than ord in ary virtu ou s m e n b e c a u se of th eir g r ea ter
i
I
| r e sp o n sib ility and "it is c er ta in that th ose who have reig n ed
| i
| v ir tu o u sly p o s s e s s th ereb y a ll that the gods can give th em for
I co m p lete f e lic it y ." What is new in F e n e lo n ’s virtu ou s p rin ce is
I h is r e sp o n sib ility for the m o r a l p e r fe ctio n of h is people and h is
I
I ab ility , as an absolu te r u le r , to u se the state to that end. H is
j I
j le a d e r sh ip is not m e r e ly to help th em p rep a re for sa lv a tio n but to
a ctu a lly p rom ote the im p ro v em en t of th eir lo t, m o r a lly and
| |
m a te r ia lly .
In the ex a m in a tio n of the con cep t of the id e a l king, one
t
of the im portant q u estion s is the r u le r ’s con cep t of law and h is ro le
as la w g iv e r . F e n e lo n in s is ts on rule by law d esp ite h is em p h a sis on
the r u le r ’s au thority. It is la w --th e law of God and the law of
i
r e a s o n - -F e n e lo n a r g u e s, that the p rin ce g o v ern not for h im s e lf but I
!
i for the g e n e r a l in te r e st. The p rin ce r e s p e c ts law in ord er to fu lfill
: - j
h is function and r e s i s t the en erv a tio n of p o w e r . Law s a re n e c e s s a r y j
g u id elin es that enable the p rin ce and people to know what is ju st,
62
rea so n a b le and v ir tu o u s. In h is su rv ey of the bad kings in the
underw orld T elem aq u e notes that kings are punished for a ll the
c r im e s co m m itted by th eir su b jects b e c a u se the law s are not
en fo r c ed , for kings "reign only in ord er that la w s m a y reig n
63
through th em . " M entor a s k s , "Is it not su fficien t g lo ry to se c u r e
51
the law s fro m v io la tio n ? To put o n e se lf above the la w s is fa ls e
64
g lo ry w hich m e r its only h o rro r and con tem p t. 11 The nature and
i o rig in of la w s , h o w e v e r, are le ft vague and im p r e c is e by F en elo n .
S o m e tim e s he s e e m s to m e a n hum an law and other tim e s n atu ral or
j
[divine law , s o m e tim e s le g is la tiv e p r in c ip les and other tim es
| statute la w s, but he does not m ak e the d istin ctio n s.
D esp ite this am b igu ity it is c le a r that F e n e lo n is g rea tly [
! i
co n cern ed about la w --th e sp ir it of the law rather than d efin ition s j
j j
i and th e o r ie s of law . So long a s the law of God is the foundation of a ll j
i |
that the p rin ce d o e s, w h atever the la w s, th ey w ill be G o d -g iv en . As j
i |
| for the law s w hich the p rin ce h im s e lf m a k es for s o c ie ty , it w ould be
a con trad iction to say that he is bound by th em , but sin ce the p rin ce |
i
co n stan tly o b s e r v e s the h igh er law of God and r e a so n , h is la w s are J
6 5 i
| rea so n a b le and n e c e s s a r y ; th e r e fo r e , he o b se r v e s th em . The
p r in c e 's o b serv a n ce of the la w s is not only lo g ic a l but fu nctional.
A fter a ll, the p r in c e , ev en though God’s r e p r e se n ta tiv e , is s till
v e r y hum an. Law s e r v e s a s a ch eck on p recip ito u s action by the
p rin ce and p r o te c ts him and his own hum an nature. He is not
i
! u ltim a tely bound by the law s he m a k e s - - h e can b rea k th em in the
| in te r e s t of the public w e lfa r e --b u t he ap p ears to be bound by th em to
s e t an exam p le fo r h is p eo p le.
It is through law s that the p rin ce w ork s for the
im p ro v em en t of s o c ie ty . Although F e n e lo n id en tifies the law of God
!
w ith r e a so n and b e lie v e s in a natural, h arm on iou s o r d e r, he does
not, as do the fig u re s of the E n ligh ten m en t, aim at providing freed o m
and p ro tectio n fo r the individual or at ab olish in g p r iv ile g e s of
52
a r is t o c r a c y . The r e fo r m s he does a im at are m o r a l r e fo r m s and
the a m e lio r a tio n of so c ie ty , not ch an ges in s o c ia l and p o litic a l
in stitu tio n s.
The outstanding ex a m p le of F enelon*s attitude toward
j
r e fo r m is h is w ell-k n o w n op p osition to w a r, e s p e c ia lly to the w ars
of L ouis XXV. E v en s u c c e s s fu l w a rs he reg a rd s as fatal fo r the
| m is e r y and d evastation th ey c a u se. It is a poor understanding of
I g lo ry to think it is acq u ired by ra v ish in g the ea rth and sp illin g
' 66
| hum an blood. The g r ea t w ise king of Egypt, though he is am ong
i
I
| the few good kings in p a r a d ise , b e a r s the b le m is h of having b een
! 6 7
sed u ced b y the v a in g lo ry of a con q u eror. A ju st king sim p ly does
! , i 68
j not m ak e w a r .
j
| A nother exam p le of Fenelon*s view of r efo r m is h is
| d e s ir e that the p rin ce regu late the eco n o m y in the in te r e s ts of
m o r a lity . The regu lation is b a sed on the quite trad ition al view of
! lu xu ry as superfluou s le is u r e and w ea lth w hich contribute to
la z in e s s , co m p la cen cy , s e lf is h am b ition , fa lse v alu es and other
corru p tion s of m a n n e rs. F en elo n is no p r im itiv is t and d o es not
oppose the fine a r ts of true talent. He has T elem aq u e bring r elig io n ,
j
j m u s ic , and c iv iliz a tio n to the b arb arou s sh ep h erd s of the d e s e r t.
j He does not opp ose c o m m e r c e and c itie s as su ch , but o b jects to
j what he thinks is an o v e r -c o n c e n tr a tio n on c it ie s , c o m m e r c e , and
m an ufacturin g to the d etrim en t of the e s s e n tia l produ ctive a ctiv ity ,
a g r icu ltu re . He n ever s e e m s to tir e of the m a x im that it is the
num ber of people and the abundance of foods that d eterm in e the r e a l
69
stren gth and true w ealth of a kin gdom . The v e r y king, a '’good ”
53
one, who introduced s ilv e r coin to fa c ilita te c o m m e r c e soon saw the
p ern icio u s im p lica tio n s of h is a ct and urged h is people to accu m u late
70
n atural r ic h e s such a s co rn , w in e, o il, fru it, m ilk , and w o o l.
W hen T elem aq u e e x p r e s s e s s u r p r ise at the refo rm e d S a len te,
j M entor c o m p a res the fo r m e r S a len te, a nation of n e g le cted , b a rren
| ' i
i fie ld s and one m a g n ificen t c ity , to a m o n ste r w ith a s m a ll, w ith ered
i
! 71 '
i body and an en orm ou s head. On the other hand he cites as part of
j
| favorab le p ic tu re s of E gypt and the co a stlin e n ear T y re , the
n u m erou s tow ns and v illa g e s . H is reco m m en d a tio n s for the |
regu lation of c o m m e r c e b egin w ith the in s is te n c e on fr e e tra d e,
5 i
m eanin g fr e ed o m of exch ange b etw een m erch a n ts of a ll c o u n trie s. !
i
A country to be p ro sp e ro u s in c o m m e r c e m u st w e lc o m e fo r e ig n e r s , j
! i
| s e t up p erm an en t ru les of c o m m e r c e , and en force la w s and provide j
i . 72 T
| p ro tectio n in an exactin g m a n n er. In spite of h is s in c e r e in te r e st
in prom oting a stab le and abundant eco n o m y , F en elo n r e a lly does not
!
I
understand or have m u ch sym pathy for b u s in e s s . He f ir s t c r it ic iz e s
the n u m ero u s, co m p lica ted , and i l l — a d m in iste re d ta x es and
1 73
reg u la tio n s of T y re , then se ts up regu lation s for Salente w hich, j
h ow ever w ell-in ten tio n ed , im p ed e c o m m e r c ia l and in d u stria l
| i
a ctiv ity . He d e c la r e s trade to be e n tir e ly open and f r e e , w ith
| rew a rd s being granted to the fo r e ig n m erch a n t who b rin gs trade to j
i
I
j Salente rath er than ta x es ch arged . The s e v e r e p u nishm ent for
b an kruptcies is , no doubt, a resp o n se to the v e r y poor b u sin e ss
p r a c tic e s of the tim es; but the r e s tr ic tio n s on in v e stm e n ts and the
s ta te 's su r v eilla n c e of m e r ch a n ts' accou nts are h ard ly conducive to
e n te r p r ise . M o reo v er, co n tra ry to the p rin cip le of fr e e tra d e,
54
a n ti-lu x u r y la w s a r e to in su r e that ev ery th in g brought into the cou n try
74
is u sefu l.
And how are the e v ils of lu xu ry to be r e m e d ie d and the
p ro p er atten tion p aid to a g r ic u ltu r e ? B y la w s and p e r so n a l ex a m p le
I
I w h ich w ill rev o lu tio n ize the ta s te s and h ab its of a w hole nation!
j
j "Who can do th is e x ce p t he w ho is a p h ilo so p h er k in g, " by h is own
| 7 5 I
\ e x a m p le of d e c e n c y and m o d er a tio n ? The king of S a le n te, to j
j in stitu te h is new id e a l r e g im e , m u st s e t the ex a m p le fo r h is p eo p le
I by h is own m o d er a tio n in d r e s s , in ea tin g h a b its, in m u s ic , and in
| a r c h ite c tu r e . ^ j
F r o m the two e x a m p le s of the o b jects of F e n e lo n ’ s reform ,,
j w a r and lu xu ry, ca n be s e e n h is c h a r a c te r is tic attitude tow ard the
p rin c e and r e fo r m . He c e r ta in ly d o es resp on d to the c o n tem p o ra ry
n eed s of F r a n c e under L ou ix XIV, and he d oes s u g g e s t so m e
I r e a l i s t i c , p r a c tic a l m e a s u r e s to m a in ta in p ea ce and to k eep the
J p r in c e in fo rm ed about h is cou n try, but h is b a sic a ssu m p tio n s, as
w e ll a s m an y of h is s p e c ific s u g g e stio n s , a re id e a lis t ic . F e n e lo n is [
not ab le to fr e e h im s e lf fr o m m an y tra d itio n a l m e d ie v a l c o n cep ts of |
m o r a l b e h a v io r , notably the antipathy to lu xu ry, but he d oes p r e se n t j
an exten d ed in ter p r e ta tio n of the p r in c e Js r e s p o n sib ility to b rin g j
about m a t e r ia l and m o r a l im p r o v e m e n t.
The fin a l point fo r c o n sid e ra tio n is the p r in c e ’s p e r so n a l
c h a r a c t e r is t ic s . The p r in ce is a com b in ation of an id e a lis tic
v is io n a r y and a p r a c tic a l m a n of a ff a ir s . He m u s t know the w o rld of
m e n but h is f i r s t ob ligation is to h on or God. K ings who w e r e not
g r a te fu l to the gods are the ones m o s t s e v e r e ly p u nished in H a d es.
55
T h e ir ju s t ic e , m u n ific e n c e , and c o m p a s sio n on ea rth a r e w o r th le s s ,
e v e n c o n tem p tib le, w h en th ey a re not a cco m p a n ied by honor paid to
the g o d s. The true king s e e k s not the p r a is e of m e n but the rew ard
77
of God.
F r o m th is p r im a r y ob ligation are drawn a ll the oth er
c h a r a c t e r is t ic s of the good k in g, fo r God com m an d s that the king
| ru le fo r the good of the p e o p le , w h ich is p o s s ib le only if the king is
I i
| u tte r ly u n se lfish . He b e a r s a love and sym p ath y for m ankind w h ich
| is p a ter n a l a ffectio n , th e r e fo r e he is ju st, h u m an e, and
j i
78 I
c o m p a s sio n a te . H is o p p o site, the m o n str o u s King B o c c h o r is , is
[d estitu te of h u m anity and look s down on m ankind a s c r e a tu r e s of an
79
j in fe r io r s p e c ie s that e x is t only to g ra tify h is p le a s u r e s . The good
| king sh ow s in itia tiv e in seek in g m e a n s of p rom oting the good of h is
| p eop le; he show s fortitu d e and ju stic e in en fo rcin g the la w s , for law s
I
[a r e the m e a n s of a ch iev in g the m o r a l s o c ie ty as w e ll a s p rep a rin g for
j
the a fte r life .
The a d m ira b le r u le r u s e s r e a s o n to co n tro l h is own j
i
p a s s io n s and to stifle s e lf is h a m b itio n s of fa m e and co n q u est. R e a so n
I !
J
le a d s to w is d o m , w h ich i s , a fter honor to God and lab or on b eh a lf of
m an kind , the p r in c e l s m o s t im p ortan t tr a it. F e n e lo n s e v e r a l tim e s
I e x p lic itly su b o rd in a tes stren g th and co u ra g e to w isd o m . B o c c h o r is is
I a king of g r e a t in te llig e n c e and c o u r a g e, but he has no w isd o m
b e c a u s e he is deaf to r e a s o n and to m e m o r y . A m ong the good kings
of E ly s iu m , the h e r o e s of cou rage and p r o w e ss a r e s e e n in the
d ista n ce to in d icate th eir in fe r io r ity to th o se who e x c e lle d in w isd o m ,
80 * +
in te g r ity , and b e n e v o le n c e . In h is d e s e r t e x p e r im e n t, T elem a q u e
56
f ir s t in tro d u c es r e lig io n and c iv iliz a tio n , but p r o v e s he a ls o has
cou rage and stren g th b y subduing a f ie r c e , hungry lio n .
That e x p e r im e n t in the d e s e r t illu s t r a t e s the n e c e s s it y of
e x p e r ie n c e , w h ich is a co n sta n t th em e of T elem a q u e and F e n e lo n ’s
co n cep t of ed u cation . O b v io u sly , F e n e lo n p la ced g r e a t w e ig h t on a
p r in c e ’s ed u cation . It is the ed u ca tio n of B o c c h o r is that m a k e s h im
j
I into a s e lf is h , lu stfu l, b ru ta l, and haughty m o n ste r d esp ite h is
n atu ral en d ow m en t of m e n ta l and p h y sic a l p r o w e s s . He had n ev er
I b e e n in str u c te d by the h a r sh e x p e r ie n c e of a d v e r s ity as T elem a q u e
had b een in the d e s e r t . T h e r e , to p rep a re h im fo r h is ta sk , a v o ic e
I had said to h im , " P r in c e s who have a lw a y s b een fortu nate a r e
j
unw orthy of b eing so; la z in e s s co rru p ts th em and p rid e e n e r v a te s
j
| t h e m . 11 A d v e r sity on the oth er hand m a k e s the p rin c e r e a liz e what it
81
m e a n s to p eo p le to be w ea k , d e stitu te , and m is e r a b le .
A lthough the id ea l p rin c e is no p h ilo so p h er and the c o re
i
of h is ed u ca tio n is m o r a l law and p r a c tic a l e x p e r ie n c e , the
c u ltiv a tio n of the m in d is im p o rta n t. The n e c e s s it y of m e n ta l
i , j.
j e x e r c is e is e x p r e s s e d by T elem a q u e in the d e s e r t w hen he h a s no
[b ooks to r e a d . S e s o s t r i s , the w is e r u le r of E gypt, lis te n s to
\
d is c u s s io n s of s c ie n c e , c o n v e r s e s w ith m e n of c a p a c ity , and s e e k s
u sefu l k n ow led ge fr o m f o r e ig n e r s about th eir c o u n tr ie s, w h e r e a s the
82
e v il B o c c h o r is h as no c u r io s ity for k n ow led ge.
In s u m m a r y , the fe n e lo n ia n p rin c e is in str u c te d in the
la w s of G od, in fo rm ed about h is cou n try and its n e e d s , e x p e r ie n c e d
in the w a y s of the w o r ld , and h a s a k een im a g in a tiv e in te llig e n c e a s
w e ll a s co u ra g e and m ilita r y str en g th . H e i s , th e r e fo r e , p e r so n a lly
57
pious and ju st, hum ane and c o m p a ssio n a te , patient and rea so n a b le.
H e holds h is authority fr o m God alone and is judged by God accordin g
to m o r a l law , not by m an . T his m ea n s that for the p r in c e , h is
rew ard c o m e s in h eaven , and fo r the peop le th ere is no right of
rev o lu tio n . The authority of the p rin ce is a b so lu te. It is not shared
| and it is not lim ited ; it is not a rb itra ry but r e sp o n sib le . A bsolute
j
j so v e r e ig n ty is e x e r c is e d in le g isla tin g (m aking la w s and
| a d m in iste rin g ju stic e ), in m aking w ar and p e a c e , and in levying
I
!
! ta x e s. The e x e r c is e of th e se p o w ers g iv es the p rin ce unlim ited
rights ov er the p ro p erty and p e r so n s of h is su b jec ts, p rovided he
is ruling le g itim a te ly in the g e n e r a l in te r e st. The only safeguard
a g a in st " gen eral in terest" b eco m in g the a r b itr a r y , m a ch ia v ellia n
r e a s o n of state is the p r in c e ’s r e sp o n sib ility to God.
The p rin ce has v a r io u s r e s p o n sib ilitie s for d irectin g the
g o v ern m en t ju stly , but it is h is ultim ate task to r eg e n e r a te so cie ty
and b ring about the h ap p in ess of m en by im p osin g the law of God.
The p rin ce is the so u r ce of the la w s of the s o c ie ty , but sin c e he
m a k es them in a cco rd a n ce w ith the law of God, id en tified with
r e a so n , no d istin ctio n is m ad e b etw een the hum an and d ivin e. In
a c co r d w ith h is u ltim ate ta sk , the r e fo r m s for w h ich the fen elon ian
p rin ce w ork s are fo r the m o s t p art m o r a l r e fo r m s , not r efo rm of
the s o c ia l or p o litic a l str u ctu re.
W ith T elem aq u e the concep t of the id e a l prin ce r e v e r ts to
that of the C h ristia n p rin ce and p r a c tic a lly sm o th e r s its
m a c h ia v e llia n r iv a l. The fen elo n ia n p r in c e , like h is m e d ie v a l
C h ristia n p aren t, p la y s a v e r y im p ortant role in serv in g a s an
58
e x a m p le to h is p e o p le . He is once again the fath er of h is fa m ily ,
the sh ep h erd of h is flo c k . S im ila r ly he s h a r e s the b a s ic p r e m is e
that h is p ow er e x is t s only for the advantage of s o c ie ty . The p rin c e
i
Jhas to su bordin ate h is ow n in t e r e s t s to th o se of the p e o p le . B e c a u s e
|
Ithe " g en era l in te r e st" had b e c o m e a m a c h ia v e llia n d e v ic e to m a s k
! * !
| m is d e e d s , F e n e lo n tr ie d to in su r e th is p ow er of the p rin c e a g a in st !
a b u se by the p r in c e ‘s r e s p o n s ib ility to God. The p rin c e th e r e fo r e
s h a r e s the sec o n d b a s ic p r e m is e of the m e d ie v a l m ir r o r s , that the
i
| p ro p er e x e r c is e of h is p o w er is a r e s u lt of v irtu o u s b e h a v io r . A gain
i
i
j r e v e r tin g to the m e d ie v a l p a ttern , the fe n e lo n ia n p r in c e can be a \
i !
j good ru le r if only he w i l l , co n tra ry to the r e a lis t ic a p p r a isa l m a d e by j
M a c h ia v e lli.
I
The outstanding c h a r a c te r is tic of good g o v e rn m e n t is once
a gain ju s tic e . The king is the h ig h e s t judge of h is land; he is the
j
so u r c e of la w , and it is the fu nction of h is g o v e rn m e n t to m ak e
ju s tic e r e ig n . O b viou sly he p la c e s ju stic e above the p ru d en ce of
p o litic a l n e c e s s ity ; but, although the sp ir itu a l life s t ill tak es [
p r e c e d e n c e o v e r the m a t e r ia l, he show s r e a l c o n cern for the
m a t e r ia l w e ll-b e in g of h is su b jec ts in m o r e than a v a g u e , g e n e r a l
w ay.
| The p rin ce h im s e lf is s u r e ly not the m a c h ia v e llia n
i
i
| s o ld ie r -k in g , but n e ith er is he c o m p le te ly the tra d itio n a l a ll-
ta len ted r u le r . He is in tellig en t; he a p p r e c ia te s both the a rts and
sc h o la r ly p u rsu its; but he is e x p ected to e x c e l in govern in g the
s ta te . To that end he h a s to g a in e x p e r ie n c e am ong m e n in the
e v er y d a y w o r ld , and he h a s to be v ir tu o u s. A s a h u m an , h o w e v e r ,
59
he cannot be p e r fe c t. T his co n cep t of the p r in c e is not id e a l in the
p la to n ic or m e d ie v a l s e n s e .
F e n e lo n 1 s C h ristia n p r in c e , fo r a ll h is a g r e e m e n t w ith
P la t o 1 s b a s ic o b je c tiv e s , fa lls b e tw een the id e a l, unattainable
p h ilo so p h e r -k in g in the R ep u b lic and the ru ler in the L aw s w ho, lik e
83
| h is p e o p le , is su b jec t to the la w s . The fen elo n ia n p r in c e w ill be a
! p h ilo so p h e r -k in g if he can , and he w ill use the la w s to h elp h im in
I
| h is ta sk .
I F e n e lo n 1 s con cep t of the p rin ce d iffe rs fr o m both the
m e d ie v a l and e r a s m ia n p r in c e s in two im p ortan t r e s p e c ts : the
i a u th ority of the p rin c e is a b so lu te, and se c o n d ly , he w o rk s
d ilig e n tly and co n sta n tly for the m a t e r ia l and sp ir itu a l im p ro v e m e n t
of s o c ie ty rath er than m e r e ly settin g an ex a m p le fo r h is p eo p le.
W h atever e ls e is n e c e s s a r y to the id e a l p r in c e , in a p r a c tic a l
j
j situ a tio n F e n e lo n put the p r in c e ^ a b ility to m a in ta in p e a c e and ord er
! fir s t; and b e c a u se the p r in c e ^ au th ority is a b so lu te, he can go
I
i
J beyond the m e r e ly n egative to a p o sitiv e co n cep t of g o v e rn m e n t.
|
The tra d itio n of the id e a l C h ristia n p rin ce and its m o s t
I sig n ifica n t r e p r e s e n ta tiv e b efo re F e n e lo n , E r a s m u s , w e r e ch a llen g ed
j
j b y the p u re ly p o litic a l p rin ce of M a ch ia v elli w h o se a im s w e r e not
i
ju stic e and m o r a l e x c e lle n c e but p o litic a l s u c c e s s , w h ich he a c h iev ed
th rou gh h is own r e s o u r c e s , not by v irtu o u s conduct. D uring the
sev e n tee n th cen tu ry the two tr a d itio n s, C h ristia n and M a ch ia v ellia n ,
w e r e com b in ed b y B a lza c; and, w h ile C ou rtilz gave e v id e n c e of the
grow in g a p p re c ia tio n of M a ch ia v elli, the d ra m a in d ir e c tly con d em n ed
the m a c h ia v e llia n a r t of rulin g acco rd in g to r e a s o n of sta te . The
60
C h ristia n p r in c e , up-dated to d iv in e -r ig h t a b so lu tism and deck ed out
in ch arm in g ad ven tu res by F e n e lo n , r e a s s e r te d h is hold on the
p o litic a l id ea ls of m e n . It w as le ft to the eigh teen th cen tu ry to
j s e c u la r iz e that id e a l and r a ise again the q u estion of the p h ilo so p h er-
j
king.
NOTES
F ra n p o is de S align ac de la M o th e-F en elo n , L es
A v en tu res de T e le m a q u e , ed . A lb ert Gahen (P a r is , 1921), 2 v o ls .
A ll r e fe r e n c e s w ill be to th is ed ition , ab b reviated as T e l . It w as
w r itte n b etw een la te 1694 and late 1696 (Cahen in T el. , I, xliv);
f ir s t pub. as Suite du q u atriem e liv r e de P O d y see d’H om ere ou les
a v a n tu res de T elem a q u e, f ils drU ly s se (P a r is , 1699); f ir s t co m p le te ,
; authentic ed ition under the d ir e ctio n of the author’s gran d -n ep h ew ,
M arquis G a b r ie l-J a c q u es de F e n e lo n , w as published two y ea rs
after F e n e lo n ’s death as L e s A van tu res de T elem a q u e, fils d’U ly s se
( P a r is , 1717), 2 v o ls . (ib id . , pp. li i i , c iii-c x v i).
z ^
F r a n p o ise G a llo u ed ec -G e n u y s, Le P r in ce selo n
F e n e lo n (P a r is , 1963), p . 8 ; h e r e a fte r ab b reviated as G all. On
P la to s e e G eorge H . S ab in e, A H isto r y of P o litic a l T h e o r y , 2nd ed.
(New Y ork , 1950), pp. 4 1 -5 5 .
3
G a ll. , p. 9. "In sp ite of so m an y in flu en ces he
r e m a in s a s o lita r y figu re and c o m p r o m ise s w ith no o n e ," con clu d es
J e a n n e-L y d ie G ore after a len gth y study of h is so u r c e s in
L ’ltin e r a ir e de F en elon ; h u m a n ism et sp iritu a lite (P a r is , 1957),
p. 135, as cited in G all. , p. 9. S ee a ls o M a r c e l P r e lo t , " P r e fa c e ,"
in G a ll. , p. x , w ho s t r e s s e s the F r e n c h tra d itio n s. On P la to ’s
p r in c e , in addition to S ab in e, see B orn , "Introduction," in E r a s m u s ,
E d u ca tio n , pp. 5 3 -7 ; and on P la to as the ch ief sin gle so u r ce of
E r a s m u s , s e e ib id . , pp. 9 7 -8 .
4 * *
A lb e r t C h erel, La P e n s e e de M ach iavel en F ran ce
(P a r is , 1935), pp. 2 0 1 -2 . The evaluation of the n ovels and the
ex ten t of F e n e lo n 1 s influence is b a sed on the sa m e a u t h o r s
e x te n siv e study, F en elo n au XVIIIe s ie c le en F ra n ce (1 715-1820):
son p r e s t i g e - - s o n influence (P a r is , 1917). B etw een 1699 and 1760,
T elem aq u e w as the m o st freq u en tly printed book in F r a n c e ,
a cco rd in g to C h e r el, De T elem aq u e a Candide (P a r is , 1958), p. 7.
On M a ss illo n and L ouis X V , s e e C h erel, F e n e lo n , pp. 3 0 1 -3 , 384,
and C h e r e l, De T elem aq u e a C an d id e, pp. 1 4 8 -5 0 .
5
L 1 A nti - Ma c h ia v e l, ed. C h a rles F le is c h a u e r , V ol. V
of S tu d ies on V o lta ir e and the E igh teen th C entury (G eneva, 1958),
p. 208.
^ C h erel, M a ch ia v el, p. 209.
61
62
^ C h erel, F e n e lo n , pp. 3 2 3 -3 3 , 4 5 7 -8 . F o r a d is c u s sio n
of the evid en t sym path y b etw een F en elo n and the eigh teen th cen tu ry
s e e C h erel, De T elem aq u e a C and ide, pp. 8 -1 0 .
^Gall. , p. 3.
Q / /
F o r e x a m p le , H en ri S e e , " L es Idees p olitiq u es de
F e n e lo n , 11 R evue d ’h isto ir e m o d ern e et c o n te m p o ra in e , 1 (1899-1900),
548; R . A . J o n e s, " F en elo n ," in The S o c ia l and P o litic a l Ideas of
S om e G reat F r e n c h T hin kers of the A ge of R e a so n , ed. F . J. C.
| H earn sh aw (London, 1930); and M a rcel P r e lo t, " P r e fa c e , " in G all. ,
j p. x ii.
| x
\ *^See, pp. 5 4 8 -5 5 3 .
i
| * ^M ontesquieu et le p rob lem e de la con stitu tion
fr a n g a ise au XYIHe s ie c le ( P a r is , 1927), p. 9-
12 A
"Q uelques p r o b le m e s concernan t la m on arch ic a b so lu e, " j
| R e la zio n i d el X C o n g r e sso In tern azion ale di S c ie n z e S to r ic h e ,
V ol. IV: S to ria M oderna (F ir e n z e , 1955), pp. 1 -5 5 . A b so lu tism w as
lim ite d by the fundam ental la w s of the nation, by r e s p e c t for the j
natural righ ts of the F r e n c h p e o p le , and by r e s p e c t for God’s
com m a n d m en ts, g o o d n e ss, and ju s tic e . It w as a b solu te b e c a u se the
State w as incarnate in the K ing, so v er e ig n ty w as not sh ared w ith
n o b ility , to w n s, guilds or other groups; and a b so lu tism w as the
negation of fe u d a lism . M ou sn ier m ain tain s that th ere is v e r y little
d ifferen ce in the idea of absolute m o n a rch y from F r a n c is I to
L ouis XV.
^ " L e s Id ees p olitiq u es de F e n e lo n ," XVHe s i e c l e , No.
1 2 -1 4 (1 9 5 1 -5 2 ), pp. 1 9 3 -9 .
! 1 4 G all. , pp. 7 7 -1 1 3 .
15 *
S e e , p. 556; C a r c a sso n n e , p. 9; J o n e s , p. 98.
^ R o th k ru g , p. 296; S e e , p. 552.
17
G all. , pp. 7, 50. The point is sim p ly and d ir e c tly m ade
n ear the end of T elem aq u e w hen King Idom enee attem p ts to reta in
M entor by seek in g h is h elp in d eterm in in g a dispute b etw een two
p r ie s t s . "’And w hy, 1 resp on d ed M en tor, ’should you c o n cern y o u r
s e lf about sa c r e d th in g s? L eave the d e c isio n of su ch m a tter s to the
E tr u r ien s who have p r e s e r v e d the trad ition of the m o s t a n cien t
o r a c le s and who are the in sp ired in ter p r e te rs of the g o d s. . . .
R em em b er that a king should be su b m iss iv e to r e lig io n and that he
should n ev e r attem p t to rule it. R e lig io n co m es fr o m the g o d s, it is
above k in g s. If kings m ed d le in r elig io n in stead of p rotectin g it,
th ey red u ce it to b a se se r v itu d e ’" (T e l. , liv . 17, H , 4 8 8 -8 9 ). This
is p o s s ib ly a r e fe r e n c e to C h a rles I and Ja m es II of E ngland, but
63
m o r e o b v io u sly to the in terven tion of L ouis XIY in the q u arrel
b etw een F e n e lo n and B o ss u e t. " E tr u r ia n s1 ' is an a llu sio n to the
th eologian s of the papal court (ib id . , n o tes).
^ R o th k r u g , p. 296.
19G all. , pp. 9 9 -1 1 3 .
70
R othkrug, pp. 1 7 5 -3 7 1 , 4 5 8 -6 9 . Both the m e r c a n tilis t
and the "C h ristian agrarian " con cep ts of g o v ern m en t (to use
R othkrug!s te r m s ) , h o w e v e r , include e x te n siv e in terven tion on the
p art of the g o v ern m en t.
| ^ E r a s m u s , pp. 158-9; T e l . , liv . 14, II, 3 5 8 -9 .
j 22G all. , p. 23.
I 23Ib id . , pp. 5 1 -2 .
74.
Ib id ., p. 27; T el. , liv . 3, I, 1 0 4 -5 . He adm itted that
a v io le n t r e v o lt w as p o s s ib le and u n d erstan d ab le, but not ju stified
| (G a ll., p. 31; T el. , liv . 17, II, 4 6 4 -5 ).
I 25
| E r a s m u s , pp. 1 7 9 -8 0 .
1 7 f\
I I b id ., p . 173.
* 27
! G a ll., pp. 7 8 -9 . Though he s e e m s to m e r g e absolute
| and a r b itr a r y pow er in a p a ssa g e in T elem aq u e (" R em em b er that
j the co u n tries w h ere the s o v e r e ig n s a re m o st ab solu te are the ones
! w h ere the so v e r e ig n s are le a s t p o w erfu l. T hey take a ll and ruin
everyth ing" liv . 10, II, 127), in g e n e r a l h is d istin ctio n is the sa m e
a s m o s t d efen d ers of ab solu te m o n a rch y .
28
Quoted by G all. , p. 81 note 4, |r o m E x a m en de
c o n s c ie n c e , C h arles U rbain, ed . , F e n e lo n , E c r its et le ttr e s
p olitiq u es (1920), p. 34.
I 2 9
! G all. , pp. 80-81; T a b les de C haulnes and E xam en de
| c o n s c ie n c e , U rbain, E c r its e t le ttr e s p o litiq u e s , pp. 122, 67.
3°G a ll. , pp. 8 3 -4 .
31
Quoted by G all. , p . 94 note 5, fr o m E x a m en de
c o n s c ie n c e , U rbain, E c r its et le ttr e s p o litiq u e s , p. 33.
32G all. , p. 95.
33Ib id . , pp. 9 5 -9 .
Tel., liv. 18, II, 521-2; Gall., p. 161.
64
3 5 T e l. , liv . 10, II, 1 1 6 -2 7 .
3 6 G all. , pp. 1 0 9 -1 1 1 .
3 7 lb id . , pp. 1 0 4 -7 .
3 8 Ibid. , pp. 1 0 9 -1 1 0 .
3 0 / ^
E ly C a r c a sso n n e , F en elon : l !h o m m e e t P o eu v re
{ P a r is , 1946), p. 85.
40
T e l. , liv . 14, II, 355. T his is^ pjart of the sp e ec h of
the r e p r e se n ta tiv e good king in E ly siu m to T elem a q u e.
41
The cou n try of E gypt under the w is e King S e s o s t r is
flo u rish e d w ith c a n a ls , m e a d o w s, flo c k s , and golden h a r v e s t s .
M entor le c t u r e s , "thus, oh T elem a q u e, should you rule to se c u r e the
joy of your p eo p le. . . . T each th em to a s s o c ia te p ea ce and joy
w ith th eir king and to r e m e m b e r that it is a good king who has g iv en
th em th ose r ic h gifts" ( T e l. , liv . 2, I, 5 2 -5 3 ). The good kings
w hom T elem aq u e m e e ts in the E ly sia n fie ld s have bu ilt new c it ie s ,
fa c ilita ted the grow th of c o m m e r c e by introducing s ilv e r c o in s,
introd uced the a r t of cu ltivatin g the ea rth , and le ft th eir peop le
affluent ( T e l. , liv . 14, II, 3 6 5 -3 7 7 ).
42
E r a s m u s , p. 212.
43
E r a s m u s , p. 247. T his is the only p la ce w h ere
E r a s m u s d oes not drop the is s u e a fter a vague sta tem en t su ch as:
"The p rin ce . . . w ill c o n sid er nothing d ea rer (or ra th er, nothing
dear at all) than the p r o s p e r ity of h is p eo p le, w hom he ought to
love and c a re fo r as king and m e m b e r of one body" (ib id . , p . 244).
He su g g e sts im p rovin g unsafe p la c e s , building b r id g e s , ch u r c h e s,
and aqueducts (ib id . , p. 246). H is fu rth e st step is to su g g e st that
the p rin ce m ig h t forb id v in ey a rd s w h ere the wine d oes not w arran t
th em but w h ere grain could be grow n. The m e a n s of ach ievin g this
e co n o m ic d ev elo p m en t a re le ft vague: ex a m p le , w isd o m , in teg rity ,
h o lin e s s , la w s, and good hab its (ib id . , pp. 2 4 7 -2 4 8 ).
44 ^
G a ll., p. 163; C a r c a sso n n e , F e n e lo n , p. 85.
4 5 T e l. , liv . 18, II, 534.
4 6 T e l. , liv . 17, II, 477.
4 7 T e l. , liv . 17, H, 473.
48- ..
Ib id .
49T el., liv. 2, I, 83-84.
65
5 0 T el. , liv . 18, H, 518.
5 1 T e l. , liv . 10, II, 8 4 -8 6 .
5 2 G all. , p. 151.
53
See ab ove, p. 43.
54
| T el. , liv . 18, H, 5 3 5 -6 .
I 55
| T el. , liv . 14, II, 3 3 1 -5 .
I 56
i , Quoted by G all. , p. 176 fr o m E xam en de c o n s c ie n c e ,
| U rbain, E c r its et le ttr e s p o litiq u e s , p. 33.
5 7 T el. , liv . 14, II, 1 4 -1 7 .
5 8 T e l. , liv . 18, II, 534.
j 5 9 T el. , liv . 18, II, 536.
| 6 ° T e l. , liv . 2, I, 79.
| 6 l T el. , liv . 14, II, 356.
A7
T el. , liv . 18, II, 5 2 1 -2 .
6 3 T el. , liv . 14, II, 342.
64
T el. , liv . 18, II, 534.
I
' 65
G all. , pp. 1 5 9 -1 6 1 .
6 6 T el. , liv . 17, H , 470.
I 6 7 T el, , liv . 14, II, 372.
! ^8S ee ab ove, p. 48.
!
! 6 9 T el. , liv . 17, H, 463.
70
T el. , liv . 14, II, 367.
? 1 T e l. , liv . 17, II, 4 62.
7 2 T el. , liv . 3, I, 117-121.
7 3 Ibid. , pp. 1 2 2 -4 .
74Tel. , liv. 10, II, 87-90.
66
7 5 T e l. , liv . 17, H, 4 69.
7 8 T e l . , liv . 10, II, 9 1 -2 , 9 9 -1 0 0 . F e n e lo n tr e a ts the
duty of the king to s e r v e a s an ex a m p le to h is su b jec ts in l'E x a m e n de
c o n s c ie n c e : "The only w ay to stop luxu ry s im p ly is to take the
ex a m p le of St. L o u is 1 g r e a t s im p lic ity . . . . E x a m p le alone can
r e fo r m the c u sto m s of the w h ole nation. . . . Once m o r e , su ch is
the ex a m p le of the p rin c e that he alone can le a d h is own p eop le and
the neigh b orin g on es to good se n se through h is own m o d er a tio n .
S in ce he can , undoubtedly h e m u st do it. H ave you? " (quoted in
T e l . , II, 9 1 -2 , note 2).
7 7 T e l. , liv . 17, II, 460.
j
7 8 T e l. , liv . 14, II, 3 6 5 -3 7 7 .
7 9 T el. , liv . 2 , I, 8 6 -9 0 . !
on i
T e l. , liv . 14, II, 359.
81
T e l . , liv . 2 , I, 6 9 -7 0 . P e r h a p s by n u m ero u s
rep etitio n s of the m a x im that p r in c e s m u st e x p e r ie n c e m isfo r tu n e in
ord er to le a r n to be good r u le r s , F e n e lo n hoped that h is pu pil, who
could h a r d ly have that e x p e r ie n c e , w ould le a r n it v ic a r io u s ly .
82
How su ch a w is e r u le r as S e s o s t r is could h ave su ch an
e v il son as B o c c h o r is is ra th er con trad ictory; the w is e r u le r , it
would s e e m , is not blind to the im p ortan ce of the ed u cation of h is
s u c c e s s o r . P e r h a p s F e n e lo n w as thinking of a r e v e r s e analogy:
L ouis XIV could have an h on orab le and w is e s u c c e s s o r in the Duke
of Burgundy.
8 8 S ab in e, pp. 6 8 -7 0 .
PA R T II.
THE IDEAL PR IN C E OF THE PH ILO SQ PH ES
AND THE PHYSIOCRATS
CHAPTER IV
MONTESQUIEU
The E n lig h ten m en t's concept of the id eal p rin ce is b e st
I s e e n in th ree of its m o st illu str io u s y et p o litic a lly quite d ifferent
i , j
j m e m b e r s and in that group of eco n o m ic th e o r ists who b ea r a c lo se
; r ela tio n sh ip to "enlightened d e s p o tis m ," the P h y s io c r a ts . j
i i
| M ontesquieu, V o lta ir e , and R o u sse a u not only r e p r e se n t so m e of the j
t '
: fin e s t m in ds of the cen tury, but a ls o d istin ctly d iv e r se p o litica l
! ! J
i view p oin ts and m eth od ology. If R o u ssea u offered the m o s t orig in a l j
thought on govern m en t and p o lit ic s , M ontesquieu w as a p ion eer in j
j
p o litic a l so cio lo g y and V o lta ire w as the sk ep tica l p ra g m a tist. A ll
th ree of th ese p h ilo so p h es, in addition to th eo r e tic a l and c r itic a l j
1
w ork s w hich e x p r e s s their r e a so n e d view of the ru le r, w rote
enduring fictio n . An ex a m in a tio n of these m e n 's concepts of the
ru ler should r e v e a l not only the m ajor str e a m s of E nlightened
| thought but a lso the d eg ree to w h ich fiction r e p r e se n ts the attitudes
|
w h ich are e x p r e s s e d in s e r io u s tr e a tis e s .
j
C h arles de S eco n d a t, B aron de M ontesquieu, trained as a |
ju r is t, and p r e sid e n t a m o r tie r in the P a r le m e n t of B ord eau x, was
the m o s t co n ser v a tiv e of the th r e e . H e, lik e the great m a jo rity of
F r e n c h m e n , a ccep ted m o n a rch y a s the proper fo rm of govern m en t
and w en t on to in s is t upon in ter m e d ia r y b od ies and upon sp e c ia l
68
69
p r iv ile g e s fo r n o b les, c le r g y , p a r le m e n ts, and p r o v in c e s, a stand
that gave in sp ira tio n and p r e stig io u s th e o r e tic a l support to the
p a r le m e n ta ir e s in th eir stru g g le a g a in st the absolu te m o n a rch y .
M on tesq u ieu 's th ese n o b ilia ire r e c a lle d elem en ts of F r e n c h trad ition
'
w hich had b e e n abandoned by the th e o r ists of d iv in e -r ig h t a b so lu tism , j
[
but M ontesquieu cannot be co n sid e re d a rea c tio n a ry or ev en m e r e ly a j
: . |
c o n se r v a tiv e . H is to le r a n c e , s k e p tic ism , sen se of r e sp o n sib ility , j
i
and genuine d efen se of lib er ty , as w e ll as h is con cep t of n atu ral law
2
j and th eory of d iv isio n of p o w ers s e t him apart fr o m the ju r is ts and
m a rk him both as a m an of the E n ligh ten m en t and a s a co n stru ctiv e i
c r itic .
! It is c lea r that M ontesquieu's id eal p rin ce w ill appear
w ithin the context of the a r isto c r a tic in terp retation of the F r e n c h
C onstitu tion , but the rela tio n sh ip of M ontesquieu to the two trad ition s
of the id ea l p rin ce is not as c le a r . B e c a u se h e , lik e M a ch ia v elli,
j
treated p o litic s as an autonom ous d isc ip lin e , b e c a u se h e , to o , w rote
of p o litic a l v ir tu e , and b e c a u se he adopted m uch of M a ch ia v elli's i
I
j attitude tow ard r elig io n in the sta te , it m igh t be ex p ected that j
j
M on tesq u ieu 's view of the ru ler would lik e w ise r e s e m b le the j
Italian's p r in c e . On the other hand, the m a jo rity of eigh teen th -
cen tury w r ite r s w ith whom M ontesquieu sh a r es the in tellec tu a l
I
| m ilie u , w e r e d efin itely h o stile to M a ch ia v elli and m u ch m o r e
* 3
influenced by F e n e lo n 's T e le m a q u e . F u r th e r m o r e , M ontesquieu's
p a ssio n for law s and ju stic e , w hich is constant throughout a ll his
4
w o r k s, w ould s e e m to p reclu d e any a g r ee m e n t w ith M a ch ia v elli on
r e a so n of state and the id eal r u le r .
70
The f ir s t point to be c o n sid e re d in draw ing M on tesq u ieu ’s
id eal p rin ce is the nature of h is au th ority. It is f ir s t of all
c o m p le te ly s e c u la r , a s is M on tesq u ieu 's w hole trea tm en t of
p o litic s , so th ere is no q u estion of its o r ig in in, or ju stifica tio n by,
! God. The r u le r is judged a ccord in g to p r in c ip les of ju stic e and
I
e ffic ie n c y . S econ d ly, h is authority is lim ite d . It is lim ite d by the
; stru ctu re of the m o n a rch y , h is to r ic a lly founded on G erm anic !
i j
! (F rankish) trib a l cu sto m s; lim ite d by p r a c tic a l c ir c u m sta n c e s and
s e lf -in t e r e s t; and lim ited by law . M ontesquieu u se s both h isto r y and
| j
I logic to exp lain the n e c e s s it y for in stitu tion al lim its on the r u le r . j
I i
The authority of the ru ler is d erived fr o m the definition j
I \
of m o n a rch y a s a g overn m en t in w hich one p e r so n ru les accord in g to j
5
fundam ental la w s. M onarchy is thus d istin g u ish ed fro m d e sp o tism
|
j by its fo r m . D e sp o tism is rule w ithout law , and is not d eterm in ed
i
|
i by the g o o d n ess or e v il of the ru ler; it is not defined in te r m s of the
| ^
m is u s e of p o w er, but the exten t of p o w er. M ontesquieu's h atred [
| t
| for L ouis XIII and R ic h e lie u is not b eca u se of th eir la z in e s s and j
p e r so n a l im m o r a lity , but b e c a u se of th eir p o w er, ju st as h is hatred
I for L ouis XIV is not b e c a u se of that k in g's extravagan ce and vanity,
but b e c a u se of h is p o w er. M on tesq u ieu 's ad vice to p r in c e s, if they
want to be good and ju st, is not to d e s ir e unlim ited authority.
\
i " B eca u se, " he w ould say to th em , "if you are a good p r in c e , you
love your country; if you love it, you should be afraid for it. But
w hat su b ject do you have to fea r e x ce p t a ll your s u c c e s s o r s who
m igh t not be as ju st as you? If you love your own s u c c e s s o r , you
w ill not labor to lea v e h im an u n lim ited authority, ju st as a father
71
w ho lo v e s h is son d o es not tr y to r e m o v e h im fr o m the r e str a in in g
g
p r e s e n c e of a w is e m a n who a d v is e s h im . 11
F u n d am en tal la w s n e c e s s a r ily r eq u ir e ch an n els through
|
w h ich to o p e r a te , "for if th ere be only the m o m e n ta r y and c a p r ic io u s
w ill of a s in g le p e r so n to g o v e rn the s ta te , nothing can be fix e d , and, j
|
of c o u r s e , th ere is no fu n d am en tal la w . . . . A b o lish the p r iv ile g e s j
I of the lo r d s , the c le r g y and c itie s in a m o n a rc h y , and you w ill so o n
j Q
| h a v e a popular sta te , or e ls e a d e sp o tic g o v e r n m e n t." The h is to r y
| of the e sta b lis h m e n t of the F r e n c h m o n a rch y b o re out th e se v ie w s: j
| th e r e had b e e n lim its on the r u le r sin c e the founding of the
! 10
m o n a rc h y . T h ese c u sto m a r y lim ita tio n s , a s w e ll as r e lig io n and
the s e lf - in t e r e s t of the r u le r , a re m en tio n ed in both The P e r s ia n
L e tte r s (1721) and The S p irit of L aw s (1748). The P e r s ia n , U sb ek ,
w r itin g fr o m P a r is to h is frien d Ibben, ex p la in s that the p ow er of
E u ro p ea n k in gs is g r e a t but not c a p r ic io u s " b ecause th ey do not
c h o o se to u p set the c u sto m s and r e lig io n of the p eop le; se c o n d ly ,
b e c a u se it is not to th eir in t e r e s t to c a r r y it so fa r .
In M o n te s q u ie u s fic tio n a l w o r k s, The P e r s ia n L e tte r s
| I
| and A r s a c e and I s m e n ie , the p r in c e 's au th ority is s o m e tim e s j
i
' I
[
| d ir e c tly lim ite d by the p e o p le . U sb ek e v e n s u g g e sts that in a
i
m o n a rch y p ow er is eq u a lly divided b e tw e en the p rin ce and h is
su b je c ts . In the s to r y of the T ro g lo d y te s the p eop le c h o o se th eir
king and at h is death e le c t the w i s e s t and m o s t ju st of h is fa m ily ,
12
although none of the m e m b e r s had sou gh t the crow n . The ap p roval
of the p eo p le is r eq u e sted by Q ueen Ism e n ie b e fo r e the h e r o , A r s a c e ,
m a y b e c o m e king: " L o rd s, p eop le and c it iz e n s , do you b e lie v e that
72
he who r eig n s over m e is w orth y to reig n o v e r you? Do you approve
13
m y c h o ic e? W ill you c h o o se A r s a c e ? " Both of th ese situations
are im a g in a ry and r e p r e s e n t a stage of the F r e n c h m o n a rch y m o re
p r im itiv e than the co n tem p o ra ry , h en ce they a re not intended as
i
!
I m o d els for eig h teen th -cen tu ry F r a n c e . A ctu a lly , the w ay in w h ich a
!
j so v e r e ig n acced ed to the throne is of little im p ortan ce to j
i ;
I ‘
j M ontesquieu. He r ep ro a c h e s A r isto tle for d istin gu ish in g m o n a rc h ie s
14
1 by su ch e x tr in sic things as usurpation and s u c c e s s io n . The
|
! ex a m p les of the T roglod ytes and of Ism en ie do illu stra te the j
| o rig in a l role a ssig n e d to the people and the lim ita tio n s on the j
; j
! m o n a rch . E ven b e fo r e he tr a v e led to E ngland, M ontesquieu noted j
I
I the lim its im p o sed on the r u le r of that country: if he tr ie s to
o p p ress h is su b jec ts, "the p rin cip le of obed ien ce c e a s e s to operate;
nothing binds th em , nothing attach es them to h im , and they retu rn to
15
th eir natural fr e e d o m . " He chides the E n g lish for th eir p r o p e n sity
5 for rev o lu tio n , but is not su r p r ise d that peop le rev o lt a g a in st an
I o p p r e ssiv e p r in c e . ^ In fa c t, the accep tan ce of d iso b ed ien ce to the
| j
! king a s a su p rem e r e c o u r s e in m aintaining the law is p erh ap s a j
! j
vague e v a sio n of e x p r e s s ly lim itin g the le g is la tiv e righ t of the j
! 1 7 |
i so v e r e ig n . A t any r a te , the prop er m ea n s of safeguarding a g a in st j
I _ i
; the a r b itr a r y authority of the p rin ce in M on tesq u ieu ’s F r a n c e is the |
i
i
p r e se n c e of the le g itim a te c o u r se s of d e fe n s e , the in term ed ia te
b o d ies, p a rticu la rly the ch ann els through w h ich the la w s o p era te,
the p a r le m e n ts .
The king is , above a ll, lim ited by law . The v e r y
d efin ition of m o n a rch y in clu d es its lim ita tio n by law . The con cep tion
73
of fundam ental law s lim iting the power of the m on arch w a s, of
c o u r se , trad ition al in F r a n c e , adm itted even by d iv in e -r ig h t
a b so lu tism . M ontesquieu sh a red with the fo rm u la to rs of the
r e m o n str a n c e s of the P a r le m e n t of P a r is the notion of the king as
j
so le le g is la to r but rig o ro u sly bound by law s as old a s the m on arch y
' 18
i its e lf. He fa iled to en u m erate the fundam ental la w s in d eta il, but
! I
! 19
! they would s e e m to be the ord er of s u c c e s s io n to the crow n , the
20
fir m authority of a ll the law s in the sta te , and the e x iste n c e of
- 21
in ter m e d ia r y p o w ers within the m o n a rch y . H ow ever fundam ental,
i i
I I
j th ese a r e s t ill m a n -m a d e, a rb itra ry la w s , m uch l e s s im p ortant in I
| i
j any study of the eighteenth cen tu ry than the concep t of n atu ral law . j
I |
j M ontesquieu stated the traditional view of natural law a s im m utable
p r in c ip les of ju stice an terior to human s o c ie ty , G o d -g iv en and
| ra tio n a lly d isc e r n a b le , but he m oved on to a m e c h a n istic con cep t of
law of nature quite different fr o m the natural law con cep ts of ju r is ts .
H is " n e c e s s a r y relation sh ip s that d erive fro m the nature of things"
are not n orm ative and p r e sc r ip tiv e but d escrip tiv e: m an se e k s
22
p e a c e , feed s h im s e lf, is sex u a lly a ttra cted , and b e lie v e s in God.
T h ese law s a re certain ly c lo s e r to D e s c a r te s and N ew ton than to
j G rotiu s, P u fen d orf, and D om at. "What M ontesquieu attem p ts to
i
I
! do . . . by m ea n s of his d e scrip tiv e la w s of nature, is s y ste m a tic a lly
I
to c h a r a c te r iz e the a ctiv ities of m an in relation to n atu re, to reduce
them to c er ta in sim p le p r in c ip le s. H aving done th is , he p ro ceed s in
!
the r e s t of h is book [ The S p irit of L aw s] to take th ese d escrip tiv e
p rin cip les and tr e a t them as norm ative p r in c ip le s , in s is tin g , alb eit
often ta c itly , that they should constitute the b a sis of s o c ia l a ctiv ity
74
23
and of p o sitiv e la w s . " P o s itiv e law s are the only guarantee of
lib e r ty . F o r th em to be ju st they m u st con form to the nature of
th in gs. The p ro b lem for the ru le r is to s e e that they a re ju st and a re
applied w e ll.
| M o n t e s q u i e u s b e lie f in the su p rem e im p ortan ce of law i s
j p r e se n t in the L e tte r s and in the ch arm in g little tale of A r sa c e and I
! !
j I s m e n ie . The h e r o -k in g A r s a c e ’’d e s ir e d so stro n g ly to p r e s e r v e the j
; |
la w s and an cien t c u sto m s of the B a ctria n s that he alw ays shuddered
at the thought of the refo rm a tio n of a b u ses b e c a u se he had often
i
noticed that ea ch p e r so n c a lls that w hich con form s to h is v ie w s la w s,
| and c a lls that w hich is co n tra ry to h is in te r e sts a b u se. . . . He w as
p ersu a d ed that the good of the state should flow through the ca n a ls of
i
the law; that the w a y to m ak e a good thing p erm a n en t w as to follow
the law in doing it; and that the w ay to m ake an e v il p erm an en t w as to
24
con traven e the law in settin g up a good thing. " A sim ila r
r e tic e n c e is d isp layed by the T roglodyte king who p r e fe r s the
fundam ental law s of v irtu e and the trad ition al c u sto m s of the people
25 f
to any p o sitiv e law d esig n ed by h im s e lf. In the P e n s e e s
I M ontesquieu exp lain s that the b en efits w hich r e s u lt fr o m r esp e c tin g
the law s a re often not as obvious as the ones that s o m e tim e s r e s u lt
from b reak in g the la w s , but the la tter a re only tem p o ra ry e ffe c ts.
"In sh o rt, the good b a sed on the r e v e r s a l of the law s of the state
2 6
cannot be com p ared to the e v il w hich fo llo w s that v e r y r e v e r s a l. "
In fo r e ig n a ffa ir s , the d e terio ra tio n of p r in c ip les of in tern ation al
law into m a c h ia v e llia n n e c e s s it ie s of state is d ep lored by Usbek:
75
T his la w , as it e x is t s tod ay, is a s c ie n c e that te a c h e s
p r in c e s ju st how far th ey can v io la te ju stic e w ithout
jeo p a rd izin g th eir own in t e r e s t s . What an a im , R h ed i,
to w ant to e r e c t in ju stic e into a s y s te m , to give the
r u le s of the s y s t e m , fo r m its p r in c ip le s , and
a c c o r d in g ly draw fo rth c o n s e q u e n c e s --a n d a ll that in
ord er to h ard en th eir c o n s c i e n c e s ! ^ 7
F o r M on tesq u ieu law s m u st follow fu ndam en tal p r in c ip le s of ju s tic e ,
! and ju stic e c le a r ly and un q u estion ab ly tak es p r e c e d e n c e o v er p o litic a l
! n e c e s s it y .
! J u s tic e , w h ich is one of M o n tesq u ieu 's d e e p e st c o n c e r n s ,
I
| he b e lie v e s to e x is t o b je c tiv e ly a s an e te rn a l and im m u tab le co n cep t.
I A lthough he w ould lik e to think ju stice is a hum an con ven tion , he |
j . . . 28 !
I d o es not tr u st m an enough to giv e up the a b so lu te idea of j u s tic e . j
The s e n s e of ju stic e in e v e r y m an is h is only p ro tectio n a g a in st the
i
str o n g e r m a n , but that innate s e n s e is often o v e r -p o w e r e d by m a n 's
29
own s e lf - in t e r e s t . The s to r y of the T ro g lo d y tes b eg in s w ith the
d e sc r ip tio n of an u tterly s e lf - s e e k in g group of s a v a g e s . That
s o c ie ty , in w h ich "all the in d ivid u als a g r ee d that they w ould no lo n g er
obey anyone and that e a ch w ould lo o k out s tr ic tly for h is own in te r e s ts j
30 . I
w ithout r e g a r d to the in t e r e s t s of o t h e r s ," c o m e s to ru in . In the
la te r v irtu o u s T roglod yte s o c ie t y , w h ere the w e lfa r e of the individual
is found only in the co m m o n good, the m a r k of r o y a l authority is
31
ju s tic e . J u stic e is then a c o n sid e r a tio n of other hum an
p e r s o n a litie s as opp osed to s e lf - in t e r e s t w h ich m ig h t endan ger or
in frin ge upon o th e r s.
P r in c e s often m isu n d e rsta n d ju s tic e . W hen a p rin ce
p ardon s one of h is su b jects he thinks he is p erfo rm in g an a c t of
c le m e n c y , w h e r e a s it is often an a ct of ju s tic e . W hen he p u n ish es he
b e lie v e s he is b eing ju st, but often he is b ein g ty r a n n ica l.
76
32
L o u is XIII w a s c a lle d the J u st b e c a u s e he c o ld -b lo o d e d ly c a r r ie d out
33
the v e n g e a n c e of R ich elieu ; "he w a s s e v e r e , not ju s t."
The T roglod yte king is the w is e s t and m o s t ju st of a ll
m en ; but ju stic e is an a ttrib u te, a d e s c r ip tio n of h is b e h a v io r , and
not a fu nction of the r u le r . The poin t is m ad e r ep ea ted ly throughout
the L aw s that the king is not a ju d ge. "The la w s a re the eye of the
p rin ce; by th em he s e e s w hat w ould o th e r w ise e sc a p e h is o b se rv a tio n .
Should he a ttem p t the fu n ction of a ju d g e, h e w ould not then lab or fo r
34
h im s e lf , but fo r im p o s t o r s , w h o se a im is to d e c e iv e h im ." T h is
: notion of the sep a ra tio n of p o w e r s and in s is te n c e on p a r le m e n ts is
i
I c le a r ly s e t forth in the w e ll-k n o w n B ook II fo llo w in g the d efin ition of
i
|
| m on arch y: "It is not enough to have in ter m e d ia te p o w e r s in a
m on arch y; th ere m u s t be a ls o a d e p o sita r y of the la w s . This
d e p o sita r y can only be the ju d ges of the su p rem e co u rts of ju s tic e ,
35
who p ro m u lg a te the new la w s , and r e v iv e the o b s o le te ." The
illo g ic a lit y of the king b ein g b o th p r o s e c u to r and judge is ex p la in ed in
B ook VI, and the fu rth er point m ad e that he w ould th er e b y be
d ep riv in g h im s e lf of "the m o s t g lo r io u s attrib ute of so v e r e ig n ty ,
n a m e ly , that of gran tin g pard on , for it w ould be quite rid icu lo u s of
3 6
h im to m ak e and unm ake h is d e c is io n s . " The p rin ce h a s the p ow er
to p ardon but le a v e s co n d em n ation to oth ers; "the p rin c e ought only to
37
e n c o u r a g e , and le t the la w s m e n a c e ," o r , as U sb ek ex p la in s to
Ibben, the F r e n c h king cannot d e p r iv e a su b ject of h is lif e , but h e
3 8
a lw a y s c a r r ie s a m n e sty for c r im in a ls . U sb ek e v e n m a k es fun of
the tra d itio n a l p ictu re of St. L o u is sittin g under a tr e e d isp en sin g
77
39
ju stice to h is su b jec ts.
The k in g’s authority is lim ite d by the interdepend en t
40
fo r c e s of cu sto m , law , and ju s tic e , w hich a re a ll bound to the
d octrine of the sep a ra tio n of p o w e r s. That sep a ra tio n w hich
(M ontesquieu thought he saw in England w as a ls o p a r tia lly app licable
41
j to F r a n c e with its independent ju d icia ry . Though he continued to
!
m ain tain the su p rem a cy of the m o n a rch and the subordinate nature of
i
the in term ed iate b o d ie s, h is k een a p p reciation of E n g lish lib erty
I
i
after h is v is it th ere su g g ested further lim ita tio n s on the so v e r e ig n . j
I
l
We have a p ictu re of a king w h o se exam ple of su p rem e v irtu e and
ju stice s e r v e s a s a standard for h is people and h is o ffic ia ls , but who
does not p articip ate in the a d m in istra tio n of ju stice its e lf.
The exam in ation of M ontesquieu’s view of the authority of
the p rin ce m ak es s e v e r a l points c le a r . F i r s t , the elev a tio n of
ju stic e over p o litic a l n e c e s s it y m a rk s M on tesq u ieu ’s p rin ce as being
outside the trad ition of the m a c h ia v e llia n p r in c e . Although
M ontesquieu sh a r e s w ith M a ch ia v elli a w h olly se c u la r con cep t of the
i
p r in c e ’s authority, that authority is subordinate to the id ea l of law j
and ju stic e , not of m a ch ia v ellia n r ea so n of sta te.
S econ d ly, M on tesq u ieu ’s p rin ce d iffers fr o m the j
traditional C h ristian p rin ce b eca u se h is authority is not d ivin ely |
sanctioned and the lim ita tio n s on the m o n a rch , the con cep ts of law
and ju s tic e , are not part of any r elig io u s c r e e d . A lthough both are
virtu ou s ex a m p les for th eir su b jects, F e n e lo n ’s is a r e v e r e n t
C h ristia n and M on tesq u ieu ’s is not bound by any r elig io n , nor does
42
r e lig io n have an im portant p la ce in h is lif e . We h a v e , th e r e fo r e ,
78
beginning to e m e r g e , a n ew , eig h teen th -cen tu ry v e r s io n of the
p rin ce: the trad ition al p rin ce who ow es a sm a ll debt to M a ch ia v elli.
The em p h a sis on law and ju stice as lim itin g the m o n a rch is
trad ition al, but the se c u la r concept of law of nature and the sec u la r
b a s is of the p r in c e T s authority is new .
|
The seco n d m a jo r point to be exam in ed in ord er to
d eterm in e M o n te sq u ie u s con cep t of the id ea l p rin ce is the ro le of
| the prin ce in the go v ern m en t of the s ta te . B a s ic to e v er y th eo ry of
, go v ern m en t is an in terp reta tio n of hum an n ature. Once that is
I
J e sta b lish e d , the o v e ra ll attitude tow ard g o v ern m en t, the duties and
i r e sp o n sib ilitie s of the p r in c e , and the p a rticu la r r e fo r m s he would
| sp o n so r m ay be p r e se n ted .
t
i
N ow here are the com m on p lace g e n e ra liza tio n s about the
E n ligh ten m en t m o r e inadequate than on the q u estion of the
in terp retation of hum an n a tu re. M ontesquieu cer ta in ly d oes not fit
into the in accu rate stereo ty p e of the p h ilosophe who is b lith ely
| o p tim istic about the in h eren t good n ess of hum an b ein gs; in fact, h is
i . . . 43
g e n e r a l attitude tow ard life w as sk e p tic a l and ev en p e s s im is t ic .
T his p e s s im is m extends e s p e c ia lly to p r in c e s w h ose e v ils are
m agn ified by th eir p o sitio n s of p ow er. "All m en are b e a sts; p r in ces
44
are b e a sts who a re not r e s tr a in e d ." They tr y to d istin g u ish
th e m se lv e s by w ar or intrigue and d e c e it b eca u se few m e n have the
45
good se n se to tr y to e x c e l in v ir tu e , h o n esty , and co u ra g e.
N e v e r th e le ss M ontesquieu im putes good intentions to p r in c e s . H is
con cep t of hum an nature is twofold: b a s ic u n iform ity and individual
d iv e r sity . He b e lie v e s in a c h a n g e le ss hum an nature, peop le being
79
b a s ic a lly alik e in th eir p a ssio n s; but h is attention c en te rs on the
4 6
d e ta ils of individual rea ctio n s and changing, h is to r ic a l m an . He
does h ave a fundam ental faith in hum an nature w hich, a ccord in g to
A lfred Cobban, "is w hat m a k es a se c u la r th eo ry of p o litic s
47
p o s s ib le ." This con fid en ce, a s we have a lrea d y s e e n , is
r e p r e se n te d by h is b e lie f in ju stic e . He is quick to point out the
lim ita tio n s to m an ’s s e n se of ju stice that a r is e fro m h is ab ility to
i apply r e a so n to the p u rsu it of e g o tis tic a l d e s ir e s . "Men are capable
j
] of doing in ju stice b e c a u se it is to th eir own in te r e st to do so .
i
I . . . No m an is e v il g ra tu ito u sly . T here m u st be so m e d eterm in an t
! 48
■ rea so n ; that r ea so n is alw ays a s e lf is h o n e ." The sto r y of the
I T ro g lo d y tes d oes not show m en to be n atu rally good, but to be
(
capable of learn in g to be good (co o p era tiv e, u n se lfish , hum ane).
S o c ie ty is not n e c e s s a r ily d eterm in ed by the in h eren t q u a lities of
m ankind and, con tra ry to the v ie w s of H ob b es, M a n d e v ille , and ev en
the P h y s io c r a ts , a s o c ie ty b a sed on coop eration m a y be ju st as
p o s s ib le and m o re n e c e s s a r y than one b a sed on s e lf-s e e k in g
4 9
com p etitio n . M ontesquieu is then, for lack of a b etter te r m , a
I r e a lis t con sta n tly aw a re of the stru g g le b etw een s e lf - in t e r e s t and
j
| m o r a l im p u ls e s .
j T here a re two sig n ifica n t co n seq u en ces of th is r e a lis tic
| view of m an for M o n tesq u ieu ^ p o litic a l thought. H is view of m an
and so c ie ty is not sta tic and ab solu te but rather h is to r ic a l and,
th e r e fo r e , changing. A s s o c ie ty d e v e lo p s , rela tio n sh ip s change; the
. 50
n e c e s s it y fo r v irtu e b e c o m e s g r e a te r , as do the ch a llen g es to it.
B e c a u se of this changing com bin ation of good and e v il and b eca u se
80
m e n a r e c h a n g ea b le, th ere m u st be d ifferen t m o r a l p r in c ip le s .
M o n a rch y , depending on honor (d e s ir e fo r d istin ctio n ), u tiliz e s
s e lf - lo v e fo r the b e tte r m e n t of s o c ie ty , and co n seq u en tly is the m o s t
i 51
| p r a c tic a l fo r m of g o v ern m en t. The seco n d im p lic a tio n w orth
|
| noting is M o n te s q u ie u s la c k of con fid en ce in m a n , eith e r in the m a s s
| . I
I or in the sin g le p e r s o n , to e ffe c t a new so cie ty ; th e r e fo r e he cannot i
52 i
| a c ce p t any r a d ic a l so lu tio n or any p a n a cea . He "hates and fe a r s
|
I a ll d e s p o ts , ev en the m o s t r a tio n a l and en lig h ten ed , for he d is tr u s ts j
j |
j a ll c e n tr a l au th ority, a ll the g r e a t m a n a g e r s of s o c ie ty , a ll those
i 5 3
who con fid en tly and tid ily a rra n g e the d e stin ie s of o th e r s . " j
| j
| M on tesq u ieu ’s g e n e r a l attitude tow ard the fu n ction s of j
! the g o v ern m en t, th e r e fo r e , is m u ch l e s s p o sitiv e than that attitude
i
w h ich b eg a n to app ear in F e n e lo n and w h ich w ill be one of the
h a llm a r k s of en ligh ten ed d e sp o tism ; but he is e v e n fu rth er fro m the
n eg a tiv e or r e p r e s s iv e attitude tow ard g o v ern m en t a s s o c ia te d w ith
M a c h ia v e lli and the se v e n te e n th -c e n tu r y F r e n c h m o n a rc h y . H is
attitude is d e fin ite ly of the eig h teen th cen tu ry , ra tio n a l and s e c u la r .
U sb ek w r ite s that he h a s "often sought to find out w hich s y s te m of
I |
< ;
g o v e rn m e n t w as m o s t in co n fo r m ity w ith hum an r e a s o n , 11 and it j
s e e m s to h im that "the m o s t p e r fe c t is that g o v e rn m e n t w h ich g e ts
things done w ith the le a s t e x p e n s e , and that th e r e fo r e the g o v ern m en t
that le a d s m e n in the m an n er m o s t a p p rop riate to th eir lea n in g s and
54
in clin a tio n s is the m o s t p e r fe c t. " The c o n s e r v a tis m of
M o n tesq u ieu is ev id en t throughout a ll of h is w r itin g s in h is in s is te n c e
on p r e s e r v in g the fo r m of the g o v ern m en t and its la w s. A r sa c e
c o n s id e r s the p r e s e r v a tio n of e x istin g w ays im p ortan t b e c a u se th ey
81
p rev en t failu re and abuse on the p art of the p rin ce and his m in is te r s
and p rev en t the su b jects fro m being o p p re sse d by r u le r s and by ea ch
oth er. In co n sid erin g r eq u e sts m ade to h im , A r sa c e com b in es the
ra tio n a l and the trad ition al. He f ir s t d e te r m in e s if the req u e st is
reason ab le; if it is not u n rea so n a b le, he then seek s ex a m p les of
! s im ila r actions; if no p reced en ts e x is t , the req u e st is not granted.
| He r ed u c es the duties of the ru ler to two: "to defend the law s of the
|
I state fro m individual in te r e sts and to defend them a g a in st h is own
i 5 5
I in t e r e s t s . "
|
| In ord er for a p rin ce to fu nction, even w ith in such lim it s ,
h is good intentions have to be supported w ith d etailed know ledge of
| how to im p le m en t th em . It is not n e c e s s a r y that he be a genius but
that he s e e k en lig h ten m en t, p r a c tic a l know ledge rath er than
a b str a c t. The p rin ce does not c a r r y out the d etails h im se lf. He
thinks and plan s and m a k es things happen--thou gh not v e r y
v ig o r o u sly , sin ce he is con stan tly urged not to act too quickly and not
56
| to fo r c e things to be don e. He should p ra c tic e d iscern in g the
i
| c h a ra cter of m en rath er than tryin g to m o ld them . A r s a c e , a good,
I m ild , affable and hum ane king, notes that "if along w ith th ese good
q u a litie s, the broad p rin cip les of g overn m en t w ere not engraved on
j
his m in d , the sa d d est thing in the w orld m igh t have happened: h is
su b jects would have had a good king but th ey would have enjoyed little
b en efit fro m that fortune; and th is beautiful gift of p ro v id en ce would
57
have b een ra th er u s e le s s to th em . "
M on tesq u ieu o c ca sio n a lly r e f e r s to the prince*s
re sp o n sib ility to m ake h is peop le happy, m eanin g fortunate and
82
content. A r sa c e r e a liz e s that the d e s ir e to m ake m e n happy is a so r t
of natural in stin ct in p r in c e s and that r u le rsh ip w as in stitu ted for the
58
hap pin ess of the p eo p le. The T roglodyte king im p lie s that the
59
h ap p in ess of h is su b jects is the so le object of a ru ler , and in
E ngland, U sb ek n o tices that "if a p r in c e , rath er than seek in g to have
his su b jects liv e happily, tr ie s to o p p ress and d e str o y th em , the
Iprinciple of obedience c e a s e s to op erate. T his p erfu n ctory
! rep etitio n of the trad ition al p h r a se , "happiness of the p e o p le ," does
|
not occu r freq u en tly , is not a th em e in any of the w orks co n sid ered
h e r e , and n ev er tak es on p o sitiv e su b sta n ce. Of the few r e fe r e n c e s
to the ob ligations of the state to the su b jec ts, the m o st e x p lic it is in
the Law s w h ere M ontesquieu w r ite s about the n e c e s s it y for law s to
rem ed y the depopulation of E u rop e, a condition he had a lrea d y
m entioned in the L e tte r s 112 and 113. S in ce the c le r g y , the p r in c e ,
the c it ie s , and the g r e a t m en own the uncultivated land, m e a s u r e s
m u st be taken to d istrib u te it to a ll the fa m ilie s who a r e im p o v erish ed
61 I
[and to provide them w ith m a te r ia ls for c lea r in g and cultivating it.
| He then contin ues to exp lain that "in trading cou n tries . . . the state
is freq u en tly obliged to supply the n e c e s s it ie s of the aged , sic k , and
j
the orphaned. . . . The a lm s g iven to a naked m an in the s tr e e t do
not fu lfill the ob ligations of the sta te , w h ich ow es to e v e r y c itiz e n a
certa in s u b s is te n c e , a proper n o u rish m en t, convenient [ suitab le]
62
clothing, and a kind of life not incom p atible w ith health . " T h ese
ob lig a tio n s, h o w e v e r, are of a tem p o ra ry nature b eca u se the e v ils
th e m se lv e s a r e only m om en tary; "it is n e c e s s a r y , th e r e fo r e , that
the su c co r should be of the sa m e nature, and that it be applied to
83
p a r tic u la r a c c id e n ts ." The su b ject of h o m e s fo r the in d igen t, or
h o s p ita ls , a s that ch ap ter in L aw s is e n titled , w a s one to w h ich
M o n tesq u ieu w a r m ed . One of h is P e r s ia n t r a v e le r s , R ic a , w r ite s
a fter a v is it to the In v a lid e s, "If I w e r e a p r in c e , I should lik e to have
b u ilt that e sta b lis h m e n t e v e r y b it a s m u ch as to have w on th ree
b a ttle s. E v er y w h e r e in that building the hand of a g r e a t m o n a rc h is
to be s e e n .
The hand of the p rin c e is s e e n , of c o u r s e , in the
| e c o n o m ic a c tiv ity and r eg u la tio n s of the sta te . H ere M on tesq u ieu
i
j con tin u es the se p a r a tio n of the id ea l fr o m the p r a c tic a l and m a in ta in s
a cautiou s r e a lis m . In the id e a l s o c ie ty c h a r a c te r iz e d by h u m an ity,
th ere w ould be co m m u n ity of g o o d s, no m o n ey , no r ic h e s , and no
64
lu xu ry. T his s o c ie t y w ould be p o s s ib le only in a s m a ll sta te ,
p r e fe r a b ly a rep u b lic w ith a s im p le , a g r ic u ltu r a l lif e . C o m m e r c e is
both b e n e fic ia l and e v il. It is b e n e fic ia l to s o c ie ty in that it d e s tr o y s
p r e ju d ic e s , c iv iliz e s m a n n e r s , and p r o m o te s p e a c e , but it co rru p ts
the in d ivid u al by p ro m o tin g a rule of p riv a te in t e r e s t w h ich is
65
co n tra ry to r e a l j u s tic e . F o r th is r e a s o n in the id e a l s o c ie ty
c o m m e r c e is condu cted by the co m m u n ity or the sta te , not by
I
c it iz e n s . M oney, to o , is n e c e s s a r y fo r trading and fo r a la rg e
66
i state; but w ith m o n e y co m e m o r e d a n g ers of in ju stic e .
! L uxury, w h a tev er is above the n e c e s s it ie s of lif e , is
r e c o g n iz e d as a dan ger in the T ro g lo d y te kingdom and is p roh ib ited
in r ep u b lics and in the id e a l, hum ane s o c ie ty , but is c o n sid e r e d
p ro p er and n e c e s s a r y in a m o n a rc h y . B y the v e r y co n stitu tio n of
m o n a rc h y , w ea lth is d ivided u n even ly and c o m m e r c e in a m o n a rch y
84
6 7
is founded on lu xu ry. C on seq u en tly su m p tu ary la w s a re only
r a r e ly r e c o m m e n d e d to m o d er a te the grow th of lu x u ry . T hey m ay
be n e c e s s a r y w h en the c o s t of im p o rted lu x u ry good s w ould d rain the
cou n try of g o ld , ^ for c o m m e r c e i s , a fter a ll, s t ill conducted for
69
the advantage of the s ta te . The o b ject and ex ten t of e co n o m ic
reg u la tio n is m u ch g r e a te r in the T ro g lo d y te kingdom ; it is a c itiz e n ,
h o w e v e r , and not the king h im s e lf , who d e c la r e s that th ey have two
th in g s to do: "to d eflate and bring to naught a v a r ic e , and eq u a lly ,
p r o d ig a lity . E v e r y m a n m u s t be accou n tab le to the state fo r the
a d m in istr a tio n of h is p o s s e s s i o n s . And m a y the cow ard who w ill
lo w e r h im s e lf to the point of robbing h im s e lf of an h o n est s u b s is te n c e
be p u n ish ed no l e s s s e v e r e ly than the m an who runs through the
70
p a trim o n y of h is c h ild re n . 11 E co n o m ic reg u la tio n in a m o n a rch y
in clu d es ch argin g c u s to m s d u tie s, settin g m o n eta ry v a lu e s , and
71
proh ib itin g the p r in c e and n ob ility fr o m trad in g. M on tesq u ieu
fa v o r s fr e e d o m of c o m m e r c e , by w h ich he m e a n s the fr e e d o m of a ll
72
n ation s to trade w ith one a n o th er, not fr e e d o m fr o m reg u la tio n .
The p r in c e 's r o le in a ll of th is is slig h t.
The s a m e s o r t of p a s s iv ity on the p a rt of the p rin c e is
r e fle c te d in M o n tesq u ieu 's p r e se n ta tio n of h is id e a s on r e f o r m s ,
inclu ding the e lim in a tio n of w a r . The good p rin ce r e fr a in s fr o m
w a r s of g lo r y or co n q u est, r e lig io u s p e r se c u tio n , and unduly c r u e l
p u n ish m e n ts, but he is not of c e n tr a l im p o rta n ce in b ringing about
r e f o r m s . W ith r e g a r d to w a r , M on tesq u ieu c o n s id e r s a d e fe n siv e
w ar ju stifia b le . In the L e tte r s he d efin es a ju st w ar as one w aged to
r e p e l an a tta ck or to a s s i s t an attack ed a lly , and he con d em n s
85
73
con q u est of d ista n t lands as both, fo o lish and unjust. In the Law s
he further sta te s the n e c e s s it y of w ar of d efen se w h ich m ay c a rr y
74
s o m e tim e s the n e c e s s it y of attacking f ir s t . He p ick s out the
p rin ce for p a rticu la r s tr ic tu r e . The p r in c e Is p e r so n a l q u a rrels or
75
an affront to h is honor do not ju stify w ar , and the m in is t e r s who
; d ir e c t the p o lic ie s of the p rin ce dare unot p lead su ch an idle p r e te x t
i
I a s the g lo r y of the p rin ce: h is g lo r y is nothing but pride; it is a
I 76
| p a s s io n , not a le g itim a te righ t. ,f M ontesquieu r e c o g n iz e s that
s e lf-d e fe n s e m a y lead to co n q u est, but con q u est d oes not give the
conqu eror any right to d e str o y or en sla v e p eo p le, only the rights
! of p ea ce and r ep a ra tio n s. C onquest w hich tr ie s to m ake su b jects of
a llie s or n eigh b ors only m a k es e n e m ie s of th em . The g lo r y of a
king lie s not in con q u est its e lf but in his trea tm en t of the conquered
land. The p a r le m e n ta ir e fro m B ord eau x is v e r y ca re fu l to in s is t
that w hen a m o n a rch con q u ers neighboring p r o v in c e s, the c o u r ts,
77
la w s , c u sto m s, and p r iv ile g e s m u st be le ft intact.
M o n tesq u ieu 's support of r e lig io u s to lera tio n is w id ely
evid en t, and he im p u tes it to g r e a t r u le r s , such as the Shah Abbas
who would n ev e r have sign ed an ord er su ch as the R ev o ca tio n of the j
I
78 !
E d ict of N a n tes. F a n a tic is m is p a r tic u la rly dangerous in a r u le r, i
R u le r s think they are devout sim p ly b e c a u se they en ter a church
w ith g ra v ity and d e c en cy , then u se th eir p iety as an e x cu se for
p o licy and p o licy as a ju stific a tio n for a ll the v ic e s : a v a r ic e , p rid e,
79
en vy, am b ition and v en g e a n c e. The p rin ce should avoid putting
any of h is a ffa irs into the hands of h is r e lig io u s d ir e cto r "because
th o se who have the s p ir it of the w orld are e n tir e ly incapable of
86
g o v ern in g h is c o n s c ie n c e and th o se who do not have that sp ir it a re
80
in cap ab le of g o v ern in g the sta te . " He m u s t a ls o avoid fa vorin g
any p a r tic u la r r e lig io u s o r d e r - - h is in t e r e s t s should be m o r e g e n e r a l
and above p a r ty --a n d he cannot afford to have r e lig io u s d isp u tes
| w h ich take h is atten tion aw ay fr o m m o r e im p o rta n t m a t te r s . 8 1 S in ce
M o n tesq u ieu is co n c er n e d only w ith the r o le of r e lig io n in c iv il
|
| s o c ie ty , he p oin ts out its u tility as a r e s tr a in t on both su b jects and
| r u le r . He s u g g e s ts that C ath olic C h r istia n ity is m o s t su ita b le to
I m o n a r c h ie s and C a lv in ism to r e p u b lic s, but e v en a fa ls e r e lig io n , if
it p r o m o te s h u m an ity and ju stic e and h a p p in ess in th is lif e , is
82
w orth y of stud y. W here it is g o v ern m en t p o lic y to allow the
e x e r c is e of s e v e r a l r e lig io n s , it is th en the r e s p o n s ib ility of the
83
p rin ce (" leg isla to r" ) to e n fo r c e to le r a tio n am on g th ose r e lig io n s .
Once again th ere is the ad m on ition not to change e x istin g c u s to m s ,
for the p rin c e who a ttem p ts to d e s tr o y or change an e sta b lish e d
84
r e lig io n w ill on ly a ch iev e c iv il d is o r d e r .
The r e fo r m w ith w h ich M o n te sq u ie u ^ n am e is m o s t
fr e q u e n tly a s s o c ia t e d is that of: c r im in a l law and p u n ish m en ts. The
su b ject of r e a so n a b le p u n ish m en ts o c c u r s in the L e tte r s w hen U sb ek
d e s c r ib e s the d iffe re n c e b etw een the in d isc r im in a te use of the death
p en a lty in P e r s i a and the graduated p u n ish m en ts of E u rop ean
85
m o n a r c h ie s . The s a m e point is m ad e in the L aw s w h ere
M o n tesq u ieu a ls o n otes that m o d er a te g o v ern m en ts do not have to use
a s s e v e r e p u n ish m en ts a s d e s p o tis m s . In fa c t, the good le g is la to r
86
is m o r e c o n c e r n e d w ith p rev en tin g than w ith p u nishin g c r im e s .
P r e v e n tio n c o n s is t s of both m ak ing w is e and r e a so n a b le law s that
87
con form to the g iven situ ation and to the fundam ental law of ju s tic e ,
and, to a l e s s e r d e g r e e , of in sp irin g good m o r a ls . A s le g is la to r the
p rin ce has perhaps m o re room for in itiative and p o sitiv e a ctio n in
d evelop in g a ration al and hum ane penal code than in any other a rea
of h is a c tiv ity .
The rem a in d er of the c h a r a c te r is tic s of M o n te sq u ie u s
i
j
p rin ce m a y be b r ie fly su r v ey e d . We have a lrea d y s e e n the I
J k
I im p ortan ce of law s and the duty of the p rin ce to p r e s e r v e and ex ecu te
| th em . S in ce the p rin ce is a hum an being w ith p a s s io n s , h is
■ 87 *
| ad h eren ce to law s h elp s p rev en t r a sh and s e lf is h a cts by h im s e lf. i
| A p rin ce who does not have s e lf-c o n tr o l and the r e a l in te r e sts of h is j
'
cou n try in m in d , is su sce p tib le to m anipulation by c o u r tie r s and j
m in is t e r s who cater to h is p a s s io n s . T h ese c o u r tie r s in no w ay
88
d e s e r v e the lib e r a lity poured forth on th em by so m e p r in c e s . The
p rin ce m u st be saved fr o m h is own e g o tis tic a l nature and fro m
! fla tte r e r s and s e lf - s e e k e r s b y tr u th --in the fo rm of the p a r le m e n ts .
| I
j The p rin ce ought to a c ce p t truth fro m th ose who bring it to h im out j
89
j of r e s p e c t and lo v e , and he in turn should p r a c tic e candor and
■ 90
| fra n k n ess w ith h is su b je c ts. He should c o n v e r se w ith m en at
! court in ord er to reta in a s e n se of r ea lity and know ledge of m en .
| !
"The f ir s t talent of a g r e a t p rin ce is to know how to ch o o se m en"
91
fo r p o sts as m in is te r s and o ffic ia ls . He should allow the la w s to
92
th rea ten and punish w h ile he in h is p e r so n sp eak s en co u ra g in g ly to
h is su b jects to b o lste r th eir m o r a le and d isp la y s c le m e n c y , w hich
93
is one of the m o n a rch 's m o s t advantageous c h a r a c t e r is tic s .
O c c a sio n a lly th ere is need fo r a h ero who is m o d e st but n ob le,
88
94
c o u ra g eo u s but s e n s ib le / a defender of virtu e but not rev en g efu l,
A h e r o w ho would attem pt distan t con q u est at the p r ic e paid b y the
Spanish and P o r tu g u e se , or by C h arles XII of S w eden, is d is m is s e d
I
95
a s u n re a listic and doom ed to d estru ctio n .
j M ontesquieu is v e r y sk ep tica l of p r in c e s . F ew of them
I
; a re w ithout good in ten tion s, but they la c k in te llig e n c e , education , or
j |
| aptitude for w ork . Their m in d s are bound by the p reju d ices of th eir
country, th eir cen tu ry, and th eir p o sitio n . M ost a re not born w ith
96
the gen iu s to g ra sp the con stitu tion of the sta te . P r in c e s a re
n e c e s s a r y , h o w e v e r, b eca u se often the e v il they c o m m it can be
97
p reven ted only by a s till g r e a te r e v il. " P r in c e s, being e sta b lish e d
to g o v ern u s, we su ffer the e v il that they so m e tim e s do in retu rn for
98
the good that they alw ays do. " M ontesquieu ev id en tly planned to
99
w rite a tr e a tis e on the p r in c e , w hich he c a lls by v a rio u s t it le s ,
but m o s t of the id e a s are in co rp o ra ted in A r s a c e , L a w s , or
C on sid eration s su r la grandeur et la d ecad en ce des R em a in s (1734).
A lthough he ad m its that a fo r c e fu l p rin ce is s o m e tim e s n e c e s s a r y to
r e - e s t a b lis h the law s or d ea l w ith a r e v o lt, h is P e n s e e s fo r the
m o s t p art a re about odious p r in c e s who lo v e w ar and p ra c tic e a j
I
p o lic y of " fin esse" and d e c e it.
I
M ontesquieu’s c r itic a l and unfavorable attitude tow ard
the ru ler is in sp ired to a g r e a t extent b y the exam p le of L ouis XIV,
whom U sb ek and R ica sh arp ly c r itic iz e for h is f is c a l m ism a n a g em en t,
102
h is r e lig io u s p o lic y , and h is in c o n siste n c y . L ouis w ould n ever
fit the d e scr ip tio n of the good prin ce in the L a w s , a p rin ce who ru les
a ccord in g to honor and v ir tu e and who is a popular r u le r s e n sitiv e to
89
M s p e o p le d a ffectio n s and to th eir n e e d s. That d e scr ip tio n begin s
■with the co m m en t that "the m a n n ers of a p rin ce contribute as m u ch
103
as the la w s th e m se lv e s to lib e r ty , " but th is s e e m s to be true only
in a n egative s e n s e . E x cep t for a few r e fe r e n c e s to the im p ortan ce of
| the virtuou s ex a m p le p rovided by the p r in c e , th ere is little in
i
j M on tesq u ieu ’s w ritin g s to support the view of the prin ce as a p o sitiv e
j fa cto r in the g o v ern m en t. On the co n tra ry , the p rin ce is often the
| object of c r it ic is m , ad m on ition s, and p rohib ition s w hile co n stru ctiv e
| and b e n e fic ia l p o lic ie s a re p r esen ted as the r e s u lt of the fo r m of
j g o v ern m en t, the la w s , the n ob ility, e s p e c ia lly the p a r le m e n ta ir e s , or
| ev en the clim a te ! It is the p rin ce who corru p ts the m o n a rch y by
I
depriving groups of th eir p r iv ile g e s , by changing th in gs, and by
104
cen tra lizin g the go v ern m en t in his p e r so n . The p rin ce has a
|
g rea t d eal of pow er to do e v il but s e e m s to have v e r y little
p o s s ib ility of doing good.
The m o s t p o sitiv e view of the p rin ce is in A r s a c e , w h ere
the king is the cen tra l ch a r a cter . T here h is r e sp o n sib ility to be
m o re than m e r e ly a good p e r so n is m ade c le a r . He s e e k s out h is
!
p e o p le ’s n eed s by d ir e c t contact w ith them in th eir huts and
w o rk sh o p s. A r sa c e exp lain s that it is th ere that the p rin ce lea rn s
how to ru le , th ere that he finds h is r e a l c o u n s e llo r s. "It is in the
thatched c o tta g e s," he s a y s , "that I s e e the sad sigh ts w h ich alw ays
fo r m the d eligh ts of th ose who can change th em , and w h ich show m e
105
how I can b eco m e a g r e a te r p rin ce than I a m . " That, h o w e v e r, is
as far as he g o es in explaining what he w ill do. A ll in a ll, A r sa c e is
a quite o ld -fa sh io n ed p r in c e --h a r d ly a d e sp o t--w h o is c h a r a c te r iz e d
90
by d au n tless courage and m ilita r y p r o w e ss b alan ced by c le m e n c y ,
g e n e r o s ity , and the d e s ir e for p e a c e . He figh ts w a rs but trea ts
conquered p eo p le s w ith sp e c ia l con sid eration ; he g iv e s the gods their
due, looks a fter h is p eo p le, s e e k s truth and d e s p is e s fla tte ry .
Although th ere is no m en tion of an independent ju d icia ry , the law s are
o m n ip r ese n t, and the n o b les a r e con su lted .
j The p rin ce as he ap p ears in the le a s t r e a lis tic and m o st
!
| friv o lo u s of M on tesq u ieu ’s fic tio n , A r s a c e , is rather m ore
| im p ortan t, and his r o le m o re p o s itiv e , than the p rin ce of the S p irit of
I L a w s ; o th erw ise the p o litic a l and so c ia l id ea s in A r sa c e a re
|
: g e n e r a lly c o n siste n t w ith the n o n -fictio n a l w orks and The P e r s ia n
L e t t e r s . The L e t t e r s , w hich a r e d elib era te p o litic a l and s o c ia l
s a tir e , contain the g e r m of p r a c tic a lly a ll of M on tesq u ieu ’s la ter
w ork . It is c lea r that M ontesquieu w as quite s e r io u s about the
p o litic a l id ea s in h is fictio n and that it d oes r e p r e s e n t the sa m e
g e n e r a l thought w hich he e x p r e s s e d in h is m a jo r tr e a tis e .
!
The rath er in sig n ifica n t p rin ce of M on tesq u ieu ’s |
i
w ritin g s is in d ir e ct co n tra st to the m a c h ia v e llia n p rin ce. R ather j
]
j
than an a ll-p o w e r fu l r u le r , M ontesquieu sought a ju st p rin ce placed
j
under the r e str a in ts of a ren ew ed a r is to c r a c y w hich would safeguard
individual lib er ty and ju stic e . Although M ontesquieu sh ared with
i
M a ch ia v elli an e m p ir ic a l, s e c u la r approach to the study of p o litics
and s o c ie ty , reco g n izin g the fo r c e of ch a n ce, c ir c u m s t a n c e s , and
s e lf - in t e r e s t , and although he m ad e use of M a ch ia v elli’s w ork s in
107
i h is study of r elig io n and r e p u b lic s, he sh ared the con tem p orary
h o stility to the n otoriou s Italian and h is idea of r e a so n of sta te . In
91
A r s a c e the p r im e m in is t e r show s a c le a r g r a sp of r e a s o n s of state
bat i s , ab ove a ll, a ja s t ru ler; and the h e r o -k in g h im s e lf tak es c a r e
of s o m e p o litic a l n e c e s s i t i e s , but not, of c o u r s e , at the ex p en se of
108
ju s tic e . D e sp ite the in flu en ce of M a ch ia v elli on M ontesquieu*s
m o r e r e a lis t ic v iew of p o lit ic s , the ju st and lim ite d p rin ce is the
' p h ilo s o p h e r id e a l. j
i M on tesq u ieu w a s n e a r e r to h is c o n te m p o r a r ie s who w e r e j
|
I fo llo w e r s of F e n e lo n than he w a s to the Italian , but he did not sim p ly
j
take up the fen elo n ia n id e a s . L ike F e n e lo n ’s tra d itio n a l
i
C h r istia n p r in c e , M o n te s q u ie u s p rin ce is lim ite d by fundam ental
|
| p r in c ip le s of ju stic e or m o r a lity and by tra d itio n a l law s of the
nation; but he d iffe rs fr o m the C h ristia n p rin ce in that he is not
n e c e s s a r ily C h r istia n , and the fundam en tal p r in c ip le s of ju stice and
m o r a lity by w h ich he is bound have no r e lig io u s b a s is . Instead of
r e s p o n s ib ility to God b ein g the only r e a l sa feg u a rd a g a in st abuse of
p o w er, a s it is fo r the fen elo n ia n p r in c e , M on tesq u ieu p r e se n ts in
i
addition to la w s , the p r a c tic a l sa feg u a rd of in ter m e d ia te b od ies and
d iv isio n of p o w e r s . T his r e f le c ts a d iffe re n c e b etw een F e n e lo n and
| M o n tesq u ieu that is not a lw ays r e a d ily a p p reciated : both th ese
ch a m p io n s of the n o b ility r o s e above that group in t e r e s t to higher
o b je c tiv e s , but on the q u estio n of the authority of the r u le r as
o p p osed to e ith e r ind ividu al lib e r ty or p r iv ile g e s of the n ob ility,
F e n e lo n w ould have opted fo r the r u le r , w h e r e a s M on tesq u ieu w as
u ltim a te ly c o m m itted to ind ividu al lib e r ty .
F o r M o n tesq u ieu the p r in c e T s r o le is so lim ite d and the
c o m m e n ts on h is a c tiv itie s in b eh a lf of the h a p p in ess of h is people
92
so r e s tr ic te d b eca u se he is not in te r e ste d in the p rin ce but in la w s .
The p rin ce is not absolute; the m o n a rch y is co m p o sed of in term ed ia te
and subordinate p ow ers who o b sc u r e , if the do not sh a r e , the
authority of the p r in c e , ev en though he is s t ill the " sou rce of a ll
p o w er. The p rin ce is e sta b lish e d for the ex ecu tio n of the la w s,
and he r u le s by law , s o the im portant fa cto r for M ontesquieu
r e m a in s law . Although h is con cep t of n atu ral law a s law of nature
! c le a r ly d istin g u ish es h im fr o m the e a r lie r trad ition , and although <
! !
; i
! h is b e lie f that it is the p r in c e ’s function to use h is r e a s o n and
know ledge to bring about the a cco rd of natural and hum an law m a r k s
I
h im as an eig h teen th -cen tu ry p h ilo so p h e , h is view of the p rin ce is j
v e r y c o n se r v a tiv e . At tim e s it s e e m s as if the le g is la to r , who in a j
m o n a rch y is the p r in c e , has a g r e a t d eal of r e sp o n sib ility for
shaping s o c ie ty . B ut M ontesquieu n ev er tr u sts the le g is la to r ,
n ev e r r e a lly b e lie v e s in c en tr a lize d authority or s o c ia l planning.
T h erefo re the p r in c e ’s ro le is u su a lly p a s s iv e or n eg a tiv e.
M on tesq u ieu ’s p rin ce r e p r e s e n ts a r ejec tio n of the
i
p ow erfu l and m o r a lly fr e e m a c h ia v e llia n p rin ce and a d iv erg en ce
!
I
fr o m the p ow erfu l and ju st fen elo n ia n one; he is a ju st p rin ce p la c e d
| under defin ite and p r a c tic a l r e s tr a in ts . The r e s tr a in ts , w orking
i
| through the m e c h a n ism of the d iv isio n of p o w e r s, are s e c u la r . It is
the se c u la r concep t of law of nature and the se c u la r b a s is of the
p r in c e ’s authority that m ak e the trad ition al p rin ce into the p rin ce of
the E n ligh tenm ent.
NOTES
D id ero t, the m o s t v e r s a tile g en iu s of the E n lig h ten m en t,
cannot be c a te g o r iz e d , but n eith er d oes he r e p r e s e n t a sep a ra te
j s tr e a m of p o litic a l thought. H is d ilem m a w as not unlike that of the
| oth er p h ilo so p h es who str u g g le b etw een the id e a l and the p o s s ib le .
: Jacq u es P r o u s t (D id e r o t e t l ’E n cy clo p e d ie [ P a r i s , 1 9 6 2 ], pp. 4 3 3 -8 ),
| d raw s the s im ila r ity b e tw e en the p o litic a l thought of D id e r o t and the
| P h y s io c r a t s . H is study is l e s s than c o n c lu siv e b e c a u se D id e r o t's
| p o litic a l id ea s m a tu red after the co m p letio n of the E n cy clo p e d ie and
i a r e e x p r e s s e d in h is c la n d e stin e w r itin g s . A n d erso n (" P o litic a l
N e c e s s it y in the L ite ra tu r e of the F r e n c h E n lig h te n m e n t," pp. 165-
! 207) tr a c e s D id e r o t’s grow in g b itte r n e s s tow ard m o n a rch y in the
| m a n u sc r ip ts of the F o n d s V and eu l and h is p rin ted w o r k s, fr o m the
j tim e of h is supp ort of P a r le m e n t a g a in st M aupeou’s r e fo r m s in 1771
I through h is w ritin g s fo r C a th e r in e , h is r e a c tio n to F r e d e r ic k II,
| and fin a lly the refu tation of H e lv e tiu s 1 De l ’h o m m e . M r s, A n d er so n ■
j join s m o s t other s c h o la r s in concluding that in the end D id ero t
p r e fe r r e d so m e fo r m of g o v e rn m e n t b a se d on popular co n sen t (se e j
K in g sle y M artin , F r e n c h L ib e r a l Thought in the E ig h teen th C entury
[N e w Y o rk , 1963; o r ig in a lly , London, 1929] , p. 139; W alter L.
D orn , C om p etition for E m p ir e 1740-1763 [N e w Y ork, 1 9 4 0 ], p. 223;
A lfred Cobban, In S e a r c h of H um anity [ New Y ork , I 9 6 0 ] , pp. 165,
171). D id e r o t’s fla tte r y of C ath erin e the G rea t is of little
sig n ific a n c e in h is p o litic a l thought (P e te r G ay, The P a r ty of
H um anity; E s s a y s in the F r e n c h E n lig h ten m en t [N e w Y ork , 1 9 6 4 ],
pp. 2 7 4 -5 ; N ik la u s , p. 410).
2 '
M on tesq u ieu as a lib e r a l is cham p ion ed b y E ly
C a r c a sso n n e , M o n tesq u ieu e t le p ro b le m e de la co n stitu tio n fra n p a ise
I au XVIUe s ie c le ( P a r is , [ 1 9 2 7 ] ) . W illia m F . C hurch, "The D e clin e
! of the F r e n c h J u r is ts as P o lit ic a l T h e o r is ts , 1 6 6 0 -1 7 8 9 ," F r e n c h
| H is to r ic a l S tu d ie s , V (Spring 1967), 33, d is a g r e e s w ith C a r ca sso n n e
on c e r ta in points of a co n stitu tio n a l nature; and F r a n z N eum ann in
h is k een "Introduction" to The S p irit of the L aw s (New Y ork , H a fn er, j
1949), p .x x v iii, only g o e s so fa r as to sa y he w a s not a r e a c tio n a r y .
A ll th ree opp ose A lb e r t M a th ie z ’s p o sitio n that M on tesq u ieu w a s a
r e a c tio n a r y . S ee F ra n k lin L . F o r d , Robe and Sw ord; The
R egrou p in g of the F r e n c h A r is t o c r a c y after L o u is XIV (New Y ork ,
1965; f ir s t p u b lish ed 1953), pp. 2 3 8 -2 4 5 . On n atu ral law s e e R o b ert
S h ack leton , M ontesquieu: A C r itic a l B iograp h y (O xford, 1961),
pp. 2 4 5 -2 5 2 and C hu rch, p. 32. On the q u estio n of M o n tesq u ieu ’s
con trib u tion to co n stitu tio n a l thought, C hurch s e e s the d iv isio n of
p o w ers a s d e fin ite ly sep a ra tin g M on tesq u ieu fr o m the j u r is t s , but
93
F o r d m a in ta in s that "the w hole s e t of s t r ic t u r e s on the sep a ra tio n of
p o w e r s r e s t e d on a ssu m p tio n s w h ich had long b e e n u rged in
p u b lish ed r e m o n s tr a n c e s su ch a s th o se of the P a r le m e n t in 1732"
(P- 239).
3
R o b ert S h a ck leto n , " M ontesquieu and M a ch ia v elli: A
R e a p p r a is a l," C o m p arative L ite r a tu r e S t u d ie s , 1 (1964), 5.
4
E tto r e L e v i-M a lv a n o , M on tesq u ieu e M a ch ia v elli
( P a r is , 1912), pp. 1 0 6 -1 0 8 .
i 5
j M o n tesq u ieu , The S p irit of the L a w s , tr a n s . T h om as
N ugent (New Y ork, 1949), B ook II, chapter 4. A ll r e f e r e n c e s to the
L aw s a re to th is ed itio n , B ook nu m ber fo llo w e d by ch ap ter n u m b er.
| ^ L a w s, II, 1.
I
7
F r a n g o ise W e il, " M on tesq u ieu e t le d e s p o tis m e , " A c te s
du C o n g res M on tesq u ieu (B o rd ea u x , 1956), 1 9 1 -1 9 6 . W eil a n sw e r s
so m e of the c r it ic s of M o n tesq u ieu rs id e a s of d e s p o tis m by poin tin g
out that it is d e sp o tism in g e n e r a l that he is attack ing and fo r that
p u rp o se he d raw s type stu d ies (pp. 1 9 2 -2 0 0 ). T h ere is s t ill a
d is c r e p a n c y , h o w ev er b e tw een M o n te s q u ie u s p o r tr a it of a d e sp o t,
la z y , deb au ch ed , and ig n o ra n t, and h is d efin itio n of d e s p o tis m in the
L aw s (p. 203).
Q ^
P e n s e e 1991, O eu v res c o m p le te s de M o n tesq u ieu ,
p u b lish ed under the d ir e c tio n of A nd re M a sso n (P a r is 1 9 50-1955) 3
vols. The P e n s e e s are in V olu m e II and w ill be c ite d h e r e s im p ly by
n u m b er. A ll other r e f e r e n c e s to the O eu v res c o m p le te s w ill be
cited a s 0 . c . , v o lu m e n u m ber and page n u m b er.
9
L a w s , II, 4 .
! I0----------
| F o r d , pp. 2 3 8 -2 4 5 . L a w s , B ook s X X X , XXXI.
i
1 1
The P e r s ia n L e t t e r s , tr a n s. and ed . J . R . L oy (New
Y ork , 1961), L etter 102. A ll r e f e r e n c e s to the L e tte r s are to th is
ed itio n , c ite d as P . L . fo llo w ed by the nu m b er of the le tte r . The
n u m b ers of the le tte r s a re the sa m e fo r the 1758 e d itio n , p u b lish ed
a fter the la s t editing by M o n tesq u ieu . The 1758 ed itio n of h is w o rk s
is p h o to g ra p h ica lly rep ro d u ced in V olu m e I of O e u v r es c o m p le t e s .
12
P . L . , addition to 14, "Appendix II: F r a g m e n ts of
p r im itiv e m a t e r ia ls fo r The P e r s ia n L e t t e r s ," p. 284; P e n s e e 1616,
13
A r s a c e et I s m e n i e , O. c . , III, 507. A r s a c e , an
o r ien ta l ta le in w h ich the p r im a r y th em e is con ju gal lo v e , w as
fin ish ed in 1754 but a c co r d in g to the e d ito r , X . V e d e re (ib id . , pp.
4 7 9 -4 8 0 ), th ere a re in d ica tio n s that it w a s begun a s e a r ly as 1742.
The v e r s io n f i r s t p u b lish ed in 1783 is l e s s c o m p le te than that in
95
0 . c . , III. The s e r io u s n e s s of this little ta le is a tte ste d to by the
n otation that M o n tesq u ieu m a d e in h is P e n s e e s : " R eflex io n s sur le
P r in c e , qui n’ont pu en tr e r dans m e s ’R o m a in s , 1 m e s 'L o ix 1 et
1 A r s a c e , tn 0. c. , II, 607.
1 4 W e il, p. 195. L a w s , X I, 9.
| 1 5 P . L . , 104.
j 2 A
! P . L . , "Appendix III: F r a g m e n ts fr o m the A r c h iv e s at
I L a B r e d e , " p. 293; P e n s e e 1898.
17
C a r c a s so n n e , M o n tesq u ieu , pp. 8 1 -8 2 .
18
| S h a ck leto n , M o n te sq u ie u , p. 278.
| 1 9 Ibid. L a w s , X X X I, 33.
| ^ C a r c a s s o n n e , M o n tesq u ieu , p. 76. L a w s , VI, 1.
2 1
S h a ck leto n , M o n te sq u ie u , p. 2 7 9 . C a r c a sso n n e ,
M o n te sq u ie u , p. 76. L aw s , II, 4.
22 t , 9
L a w s , I, 2.
23
S h a ck leto n , M o n te sq u ie u , p. 252.
2 4 0. c . , HI, 5 1 3 -5 1 4 .
25
P . L . , 14.
? A
P e n s e e 1998.
27
fP . L . , 94.
28
P . L . , 83. S e e a ls o the " E ss a i touchant le s lo ix
n a tu r e lle s e t la d istin c tio n du ju ste e t de F in ju s te , " 0. c . , HI, 175-
; 199.
! 2 9 P . L . , 83.
I 30
! P . L . , 11.
3 ^P . L . , 12. P . L . , add ition to 14, "Appendix H, "
p . 285; P e n s e e 1616.
32P e n s e e 162, r ep ea ted in 1692 and 1986.
^ P e n s e e , 538.
34L a w s, VI, 5.
96
35
L a w s , II, 4 . O th erw ise M ontesquieu is rather vague
about F r e n c h in stitu tio n s. He in s is ts a n ob ility is the n e c e s s a r y
cou n terw eigh t to the king, but he d oes not d e sc r ib e th eir r o le . He
does not m en tio n the E sta te s G en era l and m a k es only p a ssin g
r e fe r e n c e to the pays d1 E ta t (G ab riel L o ir ette, "M ontesquieu et le
p r o b le m e , en F r a n c e , du bon g o u v ern em en t, 11 A c te s du C ongres
M ontesquieu [B o r d e a u x , 1 9 5 6 ], pp. 2 3 2 -2 3 3 ).
^ L a w s , VI, 5-.
3 7 L a w s , XII, 25.
3 8 P . L . , 102.
3 9 P . L. , 44.
40 f
T his in terd ep en d en ce is co n firm ed by a note in P e n s e e
542 that the m a x im s of g o v ern m en t, p articu lar la w s , r elig io n ,
c u sto m s and m a n n ers are a ll in m u tual rapport w ith one an oth er. If
one is changed, the o th ers m u st follow but slo w ly .
4 1 L a w s, XI, 6 .
42
U sb ek w r ite s in h is le tte r on ju stic e that "free though
we m ig h t be fr o m the yoke of r e lig io n , we ought n e v e r to be fr e e
fro m that of eq u ity, " P . L . , 83. The gods r e c e iv e m o r e attention
in A r s a c e but a re not p ro m in en t.
43
N eum ann, "Introduction, " L a w s , p. x v iii.
44 /
P e n s e e 4 54.
45
P e n s e e 8 8 6 .
46
L oy, "Introduction, " P . L. , p. 18n, p . 19. L e s te r G.
C r o ck er , An A ge of C r is is (B a ltim o re , 1959), p. 189.
47In S ea rch of H um anity (New Y ork, I9 6 0 ), p. 101.
4 8 P . L. , 83.
49
C ro ck er, p. 354. Shack leton, M o n tesq u ieu , p. 38.
5 0_. . ,
Ibid.
3 ^C rocker, pp. 355, 302.
52
N eum ann, "Introduction," Laws/, p . x ix .
97
53
Isa ia h B e r lin , M o n te sq u ie u , P r o c e e d in g s of B r itis h
A c a d e m y , V o l. L X I(1 9 5 5 ), 2 8 5 , quoted in L oy, "In trod u ction ,"
P . L . , p. 18n.
54
P . L . , 80.
5 5 A r s a c e , 0. c . , III, 514.
^ P e n s e e s 953, 965.
57
A r s a c e , 0. c. , III, 515.
5 8 Ibid. , pp. 513, 515.
8 ^P . L . , addition to 14, "Appendix II," p. 284; P e n s e e
6°]
L a w s, XXHI, 2 6 , 28.
161 6 .
P . L . , 104.
61
p . 284; P e n s e e 1616.
65
L a w s , X X n i, 29.
6 3 P . L . , 84.
64
L a w s , IV, 6 , 7. P . L . , addition to 14, "A ppendix II,
1616 .
L a w s , X X , 1, 2.
6 6 L a w s , XVIII, 15-17; XXII, 1; IV, 7.
6 7 L a w s , VII, 2 , 4; X X , 4.
^ L a w s , VII, 5.
69
L a w s , XX, 13.
7 ^P . L . , addition to 14, "Appendix II," p. 285; P e n s e e
71
i
L a w s, XX, 9 , 12.
L a w s , X X , 13, 19, 21; XXII, 10.
72,
7 3 P . L . , 95; 121.
7 ^ L a w s , X , 2.
75
P . L. , 95.
98
L a w s ,- X , 2.
^ P . L . , 95. L a w s, X , 3, 9- A r s a c e , 0. c. , III, 517.
78
P . L . , 85. H ere U sb ek con clu d es that he is "not su re
that it w ouldn't be a good thing fo r a state to have s e v e r a l r e lig io n s , "
but in the L a w s , XXV, 10, M ontesquieu sta te s that "when the state is
i s a tis fie d w ith the e sta b lish e d r elig io n , " another should not be
allow ed; "when the state is at lib er ty to r e c e iv e or to r e je c t a new
r e lig io n it ought to be r e j e c t e d . . . . "
7 9 ,
P e n s e e 445 and rep ea ted in 1995.
80 /
P e n s e e 1993, a p art of w hich ap p ears in 540.
j
^ P e n s e e s 1994 and 543.
L a w s , XXIV.
8 3 L a w s , X XV, 9.
8 4 L a w s , X X V , 11.
8 5 P . L . , 102.
86t
L a w s , VI.
^ A r s a c e , 0. c. , III, 514.
8 8 P . L . , 127; 124.
8 9 P . L . , 140. A r s a c e , 0. c . , HI, 516. P e n s e e 1995.
90
L a w s , XH, 23.
^ P e n s e e s 2003 and 1994.
9 2 L a w s , XH, 25.
9 3 L a w s , VI, 21. A r s a c e , 0. c . , HI, 509.
9 4 A r s a c e , 0. c. , IH, 4 81, 4 9 2 , 503, 504, 509.
05
P . L . , 121. L a w s , X , 13. In addition to P . L . , L a w s ,
A r s a c e , and the P e n s e e s , th ere a re so m e co m m en ts about r u le r s in
" R eflexion s sur le c a r a c te r e de quelque p r in c e s e t sur quelques
e v en em en ts de leu r v ie" (0. c. , III, 537-551) and to a l e s s e r extent
in "De la politique" (0. c. , HI, 165-174); " L ettres de X en ocrate a
P h e r e s" (0. c. , HI, 1 2 9 -1 3 5 ), a p o rtra it of the R egen t, due
d 'O rlea n s, and co m m en ts on the future of L ou is XV; and " H istoire
v erita b le" (0. c. , IH, 2 9 5 -3 5 6 ), an o r ien ta l t a l e .
99
^ P e n s e e 944.
^ P e n s e e 883.
^ P e n s e e 1995.
99 *
"B ibliotheque e sp a g n o le , 11 P e n s e e s 524-526; "Journaux
de liv r e s peu co n n u s," P e n s e e 1692; "Le P r in c e , " P e n s e e s 1565 and
1 9 8 3 -2 0 0 3 .
^ ^ P e n s e e s 1 6 9 2 and 1 9 8 6 .
^ ^ P e n s e e s 1981 and 1565.
102
P . L . , 24, 37. T h ere a re fu rth er co m m en ts about
L ou is XIV in P e n s e e s 1122, 1145, 1183 and m any o th e r s.
103
L a w s , XII, 27.
1 0 4 L a w s , VIII, 6 .
1 0 5 0. c . , III, 516.
'*'^When A r s a c e w as f ir s t p u blished (O eu vres p o sth u m es de
M . de M o n tesq u ieu , London, P a r is , 1783) it c a r r ie d a note by h is
son su g g estin g that although M on tesq u ieu w as c a refu l to draw the
b ou n d aries b etw een d e sp o tism and the tem p er ed m o n a rch y that he j
p r e fe r r e d for F r a n c e , he drew th is p ictu re of a d esp ot who could be
u sefu l and m ak e h is p eo p le happy. H o w ev er n eith er A r s a c e nor h is
g o v ern m en t fit M on tesq u ieu ’s co n cep t of d e s p o tis m . See ab ove,
note 13.
107
S h ack leton , C om p arative L itera tu re S tu d ie s , I, 5 -1 1 .
1 0 8 0. c . , III, 4 80, 505, 508, 5 2 6 -5 2 7 .
109
He w as d ir e c tly ex p o sed to th em in the sa lo n of M adam e
de L a m b ert. S h ack leton , C om p arative L itera tu re S tu d ie s , I, 5.
1 1 0 _ T T „
L a w s , II, 4.
^ ^Robert A n ch or, The E n lig h ten m en t T rad ition (New
Y ork, 1967), p. 48.
CHAPTER V
VOLTAIRE
A s w ith M ontesquieu, the b a sic and con trollin g ideas in j
V o lta ir e l s p o litic a l thought a re ju stice and the rule of law , but in
c o n tra st to the p o litic a l s c ie n tis t who sought the sp ir it of the law s and
d e sc r ib e d the nature of g o v e rn m e n ts, V o lta ire w as an a c tiv is t ea g er
i
to g et on w ith the p r a c tic a l w ork of r efo rm and im p atien t, ev en j
i
an gry, w ith th e o r e tic a l a r g u m en ts. On the is s u e s of con tem p orary j
i
F ren ch p o litic s the two p h ilo s o p h e s , though united by the d e sir e for j
r efo rm and by a se c u la r and hu m an itarian attitude, took opp osite j
s id e s . V o lta ire w as a d eterm in ed r o y a lis t, a v ig o ro u s advocate of
I
the th e se r o y a le , but n ever an in d iscrim in a te and d o ctrin a ire one.
W hile he supp orted a b so lu tism in F ra n ce and enligh tened d esp o tism
in R u s s ia , he supported lib e r a l rep u b lica n ism in G eneva, without,
h o w e v e r , b ecom in g a convinced d e m o cra t. ^ H is '’shifting support of
m o n a rc h ie s and r e p u b lic s, a b so lu tism and co n stitu tio n a lism
r e fle c ts . . . h is h is to r ic a l understanding of the v a r ie ty of p o litica l j
2
tr a d itio n s. 11 The con cep t of the ab solu te m on arch is not a panacea j
or an id e a l in it s e lf , but it is w ithin the fra m ew o rk of V o lta ir e ’s j
w ritin g s in support of a b so lu tism that the c h a r a c te r is tic s of an ideal
p rin ce a re found.^
V o lta ire is g e n e ra lly cited as an exponent of "enlightened
101
d e s p o tis m , " an a b stra ctio n co m p o sed by h isto r ia n s to r e fe r to v a r io u s
p o litic a l id ea s and p r a c tic e s cen tered on an om nipotent ru ler who
g o v ern s a cco rd in g to r e a s o n and the law s of nature. V o ltaire is thus
a s s o c ia te d w ith en ligh ten ed d e sp o tism b e c a u se of h is strong support
j of the F r e n c h m o n a rch y and h is ro le as a p h ilo s o p h e r -a d v is e r , frien d ,
|
and a d m ire r of F r e d e r ic k of P r u s s ia and C atherine of R u s sia . In one
I of h is e a r ly p o litic a l p a m p h lets, La v o ix du sa g e et du peupje (1750), j
I
supporting the F ren ch king in h is effo rts to tax the c le r g y , is found !
j the argu m en t for an a b so lu te, enligh tened m onarch: only a sin gle
1 |
j p ow er can produce good govern m ent; the king m u st a ct a ccord in g to
rea so n ; and the nation its e lf m u st b eco m e r ea so n a b le. "The m o st
fortunate thing that can happen to m an is for the p rin ce to be a
p h ilo so p h er. The p h ilo so p h e r -p r in c e knows that the m o re p r o g r e s s
r e a s o n m a k es in h is sta te , the le s s e v il w ill be done by d isp u tes,
th eo lo g ica l q u a r r e ls, e n th u sia sm , su p erstition ; h en ce he w ill
4
en cou rage the p r o g r e s s of r e a so n . " The id en tifica tio n of the king
w ith the p ro g ra m of the p h ilosop h es w as a lifelo n g co n v ictio n ,
su c cin ctly stated in a le tte r to d’A lem b ert: "The ca u se of the king is
5 i
the ca u se of the philo s o p h e s ;" and evid en t in h is a d m iration of j
| M arcu s A u r e liu s. ^
Under the c ir c u m s ta n c e s , enligh tened d e sp o tism w as
r e a lis tic and ev en a ttr a c tiv e , e v en if it w e re not the id eal fo r m of
g o v ern m en t. V o ltaire ad m ired what a cco rd ed w ith h is p ro g ra m of
ju s tic e , to le r a n c e , fr e ed o m of thought, but c r itic iz e d the v io la tio n of
the ru le of law . "It is not true to sa y that V o lta ire accep ted
en ligh ten ed d e s p o tis m , a s y ste m of g o v ern m en t that undertook reform s
102
at the e x p en se of fr e e d o m . What is tru e is that he n e v e r thought
7
enough about it to r e je c t it c a te g o r ic a lly . . . . " V o lta ir e f e ll b a ck
on the tra d itio n a l co n stitu tio n a l a b s o lu tism of the F r e n c h m o n a rc h y ,
the d istin ctio n b e tw een a b so lu te and a r b itr a r y p o w e r , and the r u le of
law .
!
I The V o lta iria n p r in c e , w h eth er a b solu te m o n a rch in
! i
i F r a n c e or en ligh ten ed d esp o t in R u s s ia , d o es have c e r ta in c o n siste n t,
j
id en tifia b le c h a r a c t e r is t ic s . To b e g in w ith , the au th ority of the
p r in c e , in good E n lig h ten m en t fa sh io n , is a se c u la r au th ority, not
h eld by divine rig h t. A s V o lta ir e ex p la in s in h is c h a r a c te r is tic
s t y le , "everyth in g is by divine rig h t, b e c a u se God c r e a te d m e n , and
i nothing happens w ithout h is divine w ill" and the w ork in g of h is la w s ,
g
" etern a lly c a r r ie d out. " The d e is t r e f u s e s to ad m it any divine
i
in terv en tio n or su p ern a tu ra l au th ority into th is v e r y h u m an w o r ld .
D epending on the tim e and p la c e , the nature of the
p r in c e ’s au th ority v a r ie s fr o m a b so lu te to sh a red . T h is r e a lis t ic
attitude is e x p lic it in V o lta ir e ’s w r itin g s of the late 1760‘s , a tim e
during w h ich the stru g g le b etw een king and p a r le m e n ts w as
in te n sifie d and w h en V o lta ire w as w ritin g one of h is m o s t im p ortan t
p o litic a l p a m p h lets, L ’A , B , C , and h is ju d ic io u s, c r it ic a l H is to ir e
du P a r le m e n t de P a r i s . D esp ite h is so lid support of the F r e n c h
m o n a rc h and of the not a lto g eth er tr u ste d C h an cellor M aupeou, he
could s t ill a r g u e , in L ’A , B , C , that th ere is no id e a l fo r m of
g overn m en t; and, in La F r in c e s s e de B abylon e (1768), he could
p r a is e g o v e rn m e n ts in w h ich the p r in c e ’ s authority is sh a red w ith
the lo r d s and the p e a s a n ts , a s in S w ed en , and w h ere a prince
103
p o s s e s s e s h is s o v e r e ig n authority through a co n tra ct w ith h is
9
p e o p le , as in D en m ark . Turning to h is fa v o rite sta te , E ngland,
w h e r e the lo rd s and the r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s of the to w n sm en sh are the
le g is la tiv e pow er w ith the m o n a rch , he id en tifies good go v ern m en t
w ith lim ite d authority.
We have s e e n , by a sin gu lar fa ta lity , d is o r d e r , c iv il
j w a r s, an arch y and p o v erty d e so la te the country w hen
! kings a s su m e a r b itr a r y p ow er. T ran q u ility, w ealth ,
! g e n e ra l h a p p in e s s , have reign ed am ong us only w hen
kings have r e c o g n iz e d that th ey a re not a b so lu te.
| F o r c la r ity , two poin ts should be noted: f ir s t , V o lta ire is p r im a r ily
| co n cern ed that the authority is lim ite d and only in cid en ta lly that it is
|
| shared ; seco n d , by "not absolute" in the la st sen ten ce quoted above
t ,,
| he m ea n s sim p ly not a r b itr a r y . Like F en e lo n , and oth ers as w e ll,
V o lta ire s o m e tim e s u se s the w ord "absolute" to m ea n a r b itr a r y ,
although he g e n e r a lly d istin g u ish es b etw een a r b itr a r y and absolute
authority.
The p r in ce who r u le s th is g o v ern m en t that is probably
the b e s t in the w o rld so fa r , is " a ll-p o w erfu l to do good, p o w e r le s s
11 ^
to do e v il," w h e r ein V o lta ire e ch o es F en e lo n . V o lta ire had
a lrea d y applied that d e sc r ip tio n to the E n g lish nation, w hich is "the
only land w hich h a s su c ce e d e d in regu latin g the pow er of kings by
i r e s is tin g th em , and w h o se s e r ie s of effo rts h as fin a lly e sta b lish e d
that w ise g o v ern m en t w h ere the p r in c e , a ll-p o w er fu l to do good, has
12
h is hands tied to p r e v en t h im fro m com m ittin g e v il. " The tie s
that lim it h is p ow er a re la w s.
The rule of law is an id e a l that o c c u r s con stan tly
13 . .
throughout V o lta ir e rs w r itin g s. "This then is the foundation of
104
V o ltia r e ’s p o litic a l id ea s: law , born of ju stice and r e a so n , is the
14
b a s is of c iv ilis e d s o c ie ty ." Law s e r v e s as a guid e, a standard,
15
and as p ro tectio n of the individual fro m the c a p r ice of m en . Law
j
is w hat k eep s ab solu te pow er fr o m being a r b itr a r y . In a note to one
of h is la te tr a g e d ie s V o lta ire e x p lic itly exp lain s that by a b so lu tism
I (" su p rem e power") he m ea n s " reason ab le authority, founded on the
I
1 6
law s t h e m s e lv e s , and tem p ered by th em . " It is in th is p lay that he
; p r e s e n ts the co n flict b etw een pow er and law , b etw een the n e c e s s it y
| for a stron g ru ler and the n e c e s s it y for the r u le r ’s su b m issio n to
j la w s. Out of th is situ ation co m e in sig h ts about the nature of law s
and about the p r in c e ’s role as la w g iv er.
V o lta ire is devoted to the id ea l of the rule of law; but, as
i
in the c a se of h is d ed ication to a b so lu tism , this is not a sla v ish
d evotion w hen it c o m e s to the p r a c tic a l ap p lication . L aw , m eaning
a ll m a n -m a d e law , cu stom as w e ll as statu te, is n eith er static nor
s a c r e d . It m u st be m e a su r e d with com m on s e n s e a ccord in g to the
c ir c u m sta n c e s and accord in g to the h igh er standard of ju stic e . The
law of M inos req u irin g hum an s a c r ific e is unjust and m u st be
17
ab olish ed ; law s req u irin g com p lete h o n esty m a y w o rk to the
advantage of rob b ers; and p r im o g e n itu r e, w hich le a v e s the younger
18
son p e n n ile s s , is r id ic u lo u s. A s for the s o -c a lle d fundam ental
law s of F r a n c e , th ey have a ll b een v io la ted . "The law s ca lled
fu ndam ental are only convention al law s lik e a ll the o th e r s, an cien t
19
p r a c t ic e s , a n cien t p r e ju d ic e s, w hich change w ith the tim e s . " In
h is fic tio n , h o w e v e r, V o lta ire often fo llo w s the convention s of
fundam ental law s su ch as the law s of ro y a l in h erita n ce, as in La
105
P r in c e s s e de Babylone w h ere a co u sin a rg u es that the throne b elon gs
to h er fo r sh e is the eld e r but dep osed branch of the fa m ily . In the
end, h er h e r o ic eld er b roth er is found, m a r r ie s h is s i s t e r T s riv a l
! 20
land b e c o m e s k in g, so le g itim a c y w in s out. M ore sig n ifica n t is the
I
I
c lea r notion that law s are m ade accord in g to the tim e and the p la c e - -
21
they b eco m e rid icu lo u s w hen they are no lon ger ap p rop riate.
T h ere is , of c o u r se , another kind of law , natural law ,
that w h ich is not changing, not m a n -m a d e . Y o lta ir e Is e m p ir ic is m
is not so com p lete that he is able to give up the notion of natural
m o r a l la w s. The n a tu ra l-la w d octrin e w as too u sefu l in the stru ggle
for reco g n itio n of the natural righ ts of m an for the p h ilosop h es to be
c o m p le te ly c o n siste n t. And y et, for all h is r e fe r e n c e s to natural
law and even a poem on it, V o lta ire never exp lain s it, and h is lis t s
22
of the natural la w s va ry fro m p la ce to p la c e . F o r V o lta ir e , the
a ctiv e r e fo r m e r , natural law s e r v e s as a p e r su a siv e argu m en t for
h is p o litic a l and so c ia l r efo rm p ro g ra m , an app eal m o r e r h e to r ica l
23
than p h ilo so p h ica l. The one thing that can be sa id about the natural
law s is that th ey r e fle c t ju s tic e , ju st as con ven tion al law s m u st
j a c co r d with that higher standard. To the q u estio n , "Are th ere any
J fundam ental la w s ? " c o m e s the a n sw er , " Y es, th e r e 1s the law
I 24
com m anding us to be ju st. "
The v en era tio n of la w s and th eir subordination to ju stic e
is im p lied w hen V oltaire w r ite s that "nature has g iv en m o s t m en
enough com m on se n se to m ake la w s , but h as not g iv en everyon e
25
enough ju stic e to m ake good la w s. " Indeed, the a im of L es lo is de
2 6
M inos "is to p rove that a law m u st be a b o lish ed w hen it is unjust. "
106
P a r a d o x ic a lly , the good ru le r m u s t follow n atu ral and m a n -m a d e
la w s , but he m u s t a ls o take the r e s p o n sib ility of b reaking m a n -m a d e
o n e s . The p r ie s t a r g u e s that the law it s e lf is su fficie n t and the king
27
m u s t be its g r e a t e s t r e p r e s e n ta tiv e and its f ir s t su b ject. The
A r ch o n a r g u e s that the k in g ’s p o w er has its lim its ; it is subordin ate
2 8
| to the e sta b lish e d la w s of the s ta te . To th e se a rg u m en ts King
j T e u c e r has only a sim p le a n sw er: "When the law is too b a r b a r o u s,
it m u s t be a b o lish ed . . . . We m u st lo v e ju stic e m o r e [th a n the law s
29
of M in os] . 11 In fa c t, T eu cer u s e s m ilita r y fo r c e to o v e r c o m e the
la w , and he reta in s a b so lu te p o w e r , w h ich s till m e a n s , h o w e v e r ,
r e s p e c t for the la w s, fo r the liv e s of c itiz e n s , and above a ll for
j u s t ic e , "w hich m a k es the kingdom a g r e a t fa m ily g o v ern ed by a
30
fa th e r. " A gain , w e have only a r h e to r ic a l so lu tio n and a v e r y
tra d itio n a l tag lin e , but it does show that V o lta ire w as v e r y m u ch
a w a re of the co n flict b etw een the n eed fo r e ffe c tiv e pow er and the
n e e d fo r p r o te c tiv e la w . F u r th e r m o r e , the p rin ce is show n to be
|
I r e s p o n sib le fo r in terp retin g and evalu atin g the law .
| B u t what is th is ju stic e w hich is the m e a s u r e of the
la w s ? V o lta ire d oes not bother to ex p lo re that question ; in d eed , h is
| a s s o c ia tio n of ju stice w ith pu blic opinion (in L ’A , B , C ) co n tra d icts
3 1
h is own e m p ir ic a l p h ilo so p h y and id eas of e th ic a l r e la tiv ity . He
a p p ea ls to a se n se of ju s tic e , m ea n in g a s e n s e of righ t and w ron g,
32
bound to s e lf - in t e r e s t , that g ro w s w ith e x p e r ie n c e . " Justice"
s e r v e s as an id ea l and a ju stific a tio n fo r the use of ab solu te au th ority.
In su m m a r y , the au th ority of the p r in c e , m e r e ly s e c u la r ,
and varyin g fr o m a b so lu te to sh a r e d , is e x e r c is e d through law and is
107
lim ite d by both natural and human la w , ex cep t in th ose c ir c u m sta n c e s
in w hich a w ritten law or cu stom is con tra ry to the m o s t fundam ental
law of a ll, ju stic e . Then the prin ce m u st e sta b lis h new and ju st law s
that provid e ju stice and the s e c u r ity of a ra tio n a l guide fo r m en .
| The seco n d m ajor co n sid era tio n in tracin g the p attern of
i
|the id ea l prince is V o lta ir e Js o v e r a ll attitude tow ard go v ern m en t, of
i
!w hich one of the m o s t sign ifican t p o in ts, the co n flict b etw een the
need fo r pow er and the need for law , h as b een m en tion ed above.
P e te r Gay exp lain s this co n flict as ten sio n b etw een the lib e r a l and
the d em o cra t in V o lta ir e . The lib e r a l is co n cern ed with con trol over
p o litic a l p ow er, p a rticu la rly by the su b stitu tion of the ru le of law ,
w hile the d em o cra t has a p o sitiv e attitude tow ard p o litica l p ow er, a
w illin g n e ss to m ak e use of it to a ch iev e his d e s ir e d en d s. "In
V o lta ir e ^ p o litic a l thought both e le m e n ts , the con trol of pow er and
the ration al u se s of p o w er, are con stan tly at play; th ere is a
continual ten sio n b etw een the need fo r effectiv e action and the
3 3
d e sir a b ility of fr e e d o m . " He w anted to use r o y a l p ow er to a ch iev e
r e fo r m in F ra n ce but he a ls o w anted a ration al and p red ictab le rule
of law and he w anted to guide and tem p er r o y a l power by educated
public opinion. V o lta ire "envisaged a ration al a d m in istra tio n ,
govern ing through fixed ru les and coop eratin g w ith a fr e e and
34
in form ed pu blic.
C ertain ly no se r io u s w r ite r today w ould a c c u se V o lta ire
of being an o p tim ist about human n a tu re, but m an cannot be e n tir e ly
e v il nor the m a s s e s a ll bad if one b e lie v e s in education and public
influence on govern m en t as V o ltaire did. H is concept of the nature of
108
m a n w a s ca u tio u s, taking into a cco u n t m a n 's o b v io u sly e v il a ctio n s
but a ls o M s ca p a c ity fo r ra tio n a l in sig h t and a p p lica tio n w h ich w ould
lea d h im to a m o r e h u m ane b e h a v io r . A c h a r a c te r in L ’A , B , C
thinks that "the nature of m an is not e n tir e ly d ia b o lic a l, " so w hy is
! .
m a n a lw a y s thought to b e in clin ed tow ard e v il? The E n g lish m a n
r e p lie s :
He is led tow ard h is w e ll-b e in g , w h ich is an e v il only
| w hen he o p p r e s s e s h is b r o th e r s . God gave h im s e lf -
| lo v e , w h ich is u s e fu l to h im ; b e n e v o le n c e , w h ich is
u sefu l to h is n eighb or; a n g er w hich is d an gerou s;
! c o m p a s sio n , w h ich d is a r m s him ; sym p ath y w ith so m e
and antipathy to o th ers am on g h is co m p a n io n s. M any
n eed s and m u ch in d u stry , in stin c t, r e a s o n , and
p a ss io n s - - t h a t is m a n . "35
That is a fa ir s u m m a r y of V o lta ir e ’s co n cep t of hum an n atu re, at
le a s t on the ind ividu al le v e l. A s fo r the m a s s e s , he a lw ays
d istr u ste d th em , but w ith age he ca m e to have m o r e in te r e s t in them
and e v e n r e s p e c t fo r th e m . In a dialogu e fr o m h is E n g lish p erio d
(1 7 2 6 -1 7 2 8 ), a " M o ses" ju stifie s the a b su r d itie s of h is r e lig io u s
tea ch in g s by cla im in g th ey w e r e n e c e s s a r y in o rd er to lea d an
ign oran t and su p e r stitio u s p eo p le to a b e tter lif e . A "M r. Loke
[ i . e . , L ock e] , " on the co n tra ry , a r g u e s that if m e n w e re told the
truth they m ig h t b e lie v e it; if th ey w e r e n ev e r o ffered w isd o m and
v ir tu e , how could w e be su re th ey w ould not take it? V o lta ire ca m e
c lo s e r and c lo s e r to M r. L o k e’s p o sitio n . " V oltaire con ced ed that
the ’unthinking m a s s e s ’ m ig h t be in cap ab le of d istin g u ish in g true
fr o m fa ls e r e lig io n , but he in s is te d at the sa m e tim e that it w as
3 6
sound p o lic y to tr y to en ligh ten e v e r y o n e . . . . " That this
attitude ap p lied to p o litic a l a c tiv ity a s w e ll a s to r e lig io u s b e lie fs is
109
evid en t in V o lta ir e ’s in v o lv em en t w ith the N a tiv es of G eneva and his
d e m o c r a tic sy m p a th ies e x p r e s s e d in L ’A , B , C and the D iction n aire
37
P h ilo so p h iq u e .
The dialogue b etw een M o ses and M r. Loke a lso b rin gs
up the q u estion of p o litic a l ex p ed ien cy and h e n c e , V o lta ir e ’s
r ela tio n sh ip to M a ch ia v elli. V o lta ir e ’s freq u en t d is c u s sio n of the
j
j is s u e in d ica tes that he had no pat solution . He has M o se s exp lain ,
I
"By such co n triv a n ces I w as able to attain m y Ends and to e sta b lish
the W elfare of m y C ountrym en. Do you b lam e m e ? It is not the
i
b u sin e s s of a R u ler to be truthful, but to be politick; he m u st fly
ev en fr o m V irtue h e r s e lf , if she sit in a d ifferen t Q uarter fr o m
E x p ed ien cy . " M r. L oke, on the otxier hand is allow ed to sa y "Let
R u lers be bold and h o n e s t, and it is p o ssib le that the F o lly of th eir
3 8
P e o p le s w ill d isa p p ea r ." In the dialogue M r. Loke a ctu ally lo s e s
the argu m en t, for the third c h a r a cter , D io g e n e s, a g r e e s w ith M o ses
and m ain tain s the n e c e s s it y of k n avery, in ju stic e , and im p o stu re in
ruling a nation. The q u estion o ccu rs again in L ’A , B , C w hen C a sk s
if it is not p erm itted to be a r a s c a l for the good of the sta te . The
E n g lish m a n a g r e e s that if the r a s c a l is ad roit and s u c c e s s fu l he w ill
be c o n sid ered a true sta te sm a n . N e v e r th e le s s , V o ltaire r e c o g n iz e s
the danger of allow in g the "public w elfa re" or m e r e ultim ate s u c c e s s
to b eco m e a blanket ju stific a tio n . What if the bad sta te sm a n is not
39
found out until after he is so p ow erful that no one can oppose h im ?
Although V olta ire often m a k es c y n ica l w ittic is m s about p o litic a l
b eh a v io r, a ph ilosophy that exem p ted p o litic s fro m c r it ic is m and
condoned b ru tality and im m o ra lity on the p art of the ru ler is u tterly
110
unthinkable. H e, of c o u r s e , sh a red w ith M a c h ia v e lli a s e c u la r v iew
of p o lit ic s , an a p p recia tio n of p o litic a l p ow er actin g fr o m its own
im p e r a tiv e s . He had no illu sio n s about p ow er p o lit ic s , and although
he ob jected to w a r , he did not d is s e n t fr o m h is E n g lish m a n who
e x p la in s that
|
a ll k in g s, a ll m in is t e r s think a s I do. . . .
■ L et a p rin c e disban d h is tr o o p s , le t h im allow
h is fo r tific a tio n s to fa ll in r u in s, and le t him
j spend h is tim e read in g G r o tiu s, and yo u ’ll s e e
, if he h a s n ’t lo s t h is kin gdom in a y e a r or tw o.
i
B ut w h ile the pow er of the sta te w as M a c h ia v e lli’s u ltim a te c o n c e r n ,
V o lta ir e ’s w a s the con d ition of hum an s o c ie ty . T hey had in co m m o n
the b e lie f that the r u le r w a s the m o s t sig n ifica n t agent in the
p o litic a l s c e n e , but th ey m ad e th eir p r in c e s s e r v e d ifferen t en d s.
The g e n e r a l im p o rta n ce of the ru le r can be s e e n in
V o lta ir e ’s tr e a tm e n t of L ou is XIV. H is a d m ira tio n for the king
ste m m e d fr o m the la t t e r ’s r o le in supplying the o v e r a ll plan for h is
p o litic a l r e g im e and in p rovid in g the in itia tiv e fo r p o s itiv e a ction .
Of one thing one can be certa in : the m a g is tr a te s
w ould not have r e fo r m e d the law s; o rd er w ould not
have b e e n r e s to r e d in fin a n c es; d isc ip lin e w ould not
have b e e n in trod u ced into the a r m ie s and into the g e n e r a l
p o licin g of the kingdom ; th ere w ould have b een no fle e ts ;
i the a r ts w ould not have b e e n en co u ra g ed . . . if th ere
had not b een a t the head of a ffa irs a m a s te r who c o n c eiv e d
in g e n e r a l te r m s a ll th e se g r e a t a im s , and had the w ill
p ow er to a c c o m p lis h th em . 41
B y o v e r a ll p lan one m u s t not understan d any kind of d o g m a tic s y s te m .
In L ’H om m e aux quarante e c u s (1768), V o lta ir e 's w e ll-k n o w n
antipathy to m e ta p h y sic a l s y s t e m s is exten d ed to th o se of e c o n o m is ts
42
and to the au gu st d e sig n s of g r e a t p r in c e s .
The p r in c e r e m a in s im p ortan t th roughout V o lta ir e ’s
I l l
w r itin g s . In the late tr a g e d y L e s L o is de M in o s , a stron g p rin ce
w ith ab solu te p ow er is s t ill n e c e s s a r y . T h ere is no q u estio n of the
r e la tiv e p o sitio n s of king and n o b le. The noble who a c c u s e s the king
of ab u sin g h is pow er and b reak in g the la w s is g iv e n no p la ce w h atever
in the face of the king, who s im p ly r e p lie s , "the w h ole state is in
43
m e . " T his is the s a m e attitude that V o lta ir e had tow ard L ou is XIV,
a p r e fe r e n c e for him o v e r his opponents d esp ite the q u estio n of the
j
| le g a lity of the k in g's a c tio n s .
i
| V o lta ir e 's p ictu re of L ouis XIV, a m ix tu r e of p r a is e and
j
c r it ic i s m , h e lp s to d elin ea te h is idea of the d u ties of the id e a l
p r in c e . He sh o w s how the k in g's p ow er w a s w is e ly u sed in the
p ro m o tio n of public w o r k s and s e r v ic e s w h ich p ro v id ed e m p lo y m en t
and im p ro v ed the c it ie s . He c ite s h o sp ita ls; h igh w ays; ligh tin g,
p o lic e p r o te c tio n , and sa n ita tio n in P a r is ; a r c h ite c tu r e , g a r d e n s,
and scu lp tu re; the o b s e r v a to r y and the A ca d em y of S c ie n c e s , as
p r a ise w o r th y a c c o m p lish m e n ts of the king. The king p ro m o ted
c o m m e r c e and in d u stry by v a r io u s kinds of rew a rd s for la r g e
f a m ilie s and p r iz e s to e n te r p r isin g m a n u fa c tu r e r s, and e s p e c ia lly
by C o lb ert's m a n a g em en t of the m a r itim e tra d e. "But h is m o s t
g lo r io u s m on u m en t, b y its u s e fu ln e ss and its g r e a tn e ss as m u ch as
by the d iffic u lties of its co n str u c tio n , w as the can al w h ich join s the
44
tw o s e a s . . . . " The k in g's d u ties c le a r ly inclu de putting h is
p o w er to w o rk for the m a te r ia l im p ro v e m e n t of h is p e o p le .
A nother ex a m p le of the w ise and ad m ira b le u se of r o y a l
p o w er is the p ro m o tio n of a rts and le t t e r s . L ou is w anted to
45
e m b e llis h h is cou rt and p e r fe c t the a r t s , and in so doing he not
112
only em p lo y e d m an y m e n but a llo w ed F r a n c e to r e a c h a p in n acle of
46
g lo r y of w h ich p r e v io u s c e n tu r ie s had no id ea .
L o u is a ls o r e c e iv e d V o lta ir e ’s p r a is e fo r attending to h is
a d m in istr a tiv e d u ties. A cco rd in g to the p h ilo s o p h e , L o u is - - h e n c e
any good r u le r - -w o r k s r e g u la r ly w ith h is m in is t e r s and is a c c e s s ib le
47
to the au th ors of s e r io u s r e q u e sts and p r o je c ts .
In c r it ic is m of L o u is, V o lta ire p oin ts out that it is the
k in g ’s duty to do a ll that he can do fo r the good of h is p e o p le . That,
!
i L ou is did not do, for during w a rs a kingdom is not e m b e llis h e d and
is not p r o p e r ly a d m in is te r e d . V o lta ir e w r ite s d re a m in g ly of L ouis
during a p e a c e fu l in terv a l: it w as s e e n that an a b solu te king who
48
w ants to do good can e a s i l y do s o . M ore to the p oin t is h is la te r
c o m m e n t that ’’L ouis XIV did m o r e for h is p eo p le than tw enty of h is
p r e d e c e s s o r s put togeth er; and e v e n then he did not do ev ery th in g he
m ig h t h ave d on e. The w ar w h ich ended w ith the P e a c e of R ijsw ijk
[ 1697] b egan the ruin of the flo u rish in g c o m m e r c e e sta b lis h e d by
h is m in is t e r C o lb ert, and the W ar of Sp an ish S u c c e s s io n co m p leted
it. ” 4 9
T h e se d u tie s, p rom otin g the m a t e r ia l w e ll being of
su b jec ts through s p e c ific planning and p o s itiv e a ctio n , and the
p r e s e r v a tio n of p ea ce s o that th ey m a y be p u rsu e d , a re a ls o th o se of
the a m a zin g e m p r e s s of R u s sia . W hen the p r in c e s s of B abylon v is it s
R u s s ia , the e m p r e s s (C a th erin e, ob viou sly) is not in M oscow but is
jou rn eyin g through h er lan d s in o r d e r to s e e fo r h e r s e lf the con d ition s
50
so th at she can p rovid e the p rop er r e m e d ie s fo r th em .
V o lta ire d o e s not, lik e a p o litic a l th e o r is t, l i s t and
113
d e s c r ib e a ll the p rop er duties of a r u le r . He a s s u m e s m o s t of the
trad ition al duties su ch as keeping in tern al o rd er, levyin g ta x e s , and
m aking w ar and p e a c e . He b r ie fly m en tio n s the k in g ’s duty of
p articip atin g in the ju d icial p r o c e s s by h earin g c a s e s . He is m o re
co n cern ed about the k in g’s duty to a d m in ister h is kingdom c a re fu lly ,
| to p rom ote arts and le t t e r s , to bring about m a te r ia l im p ro v e m e n ts,
i
j and to s e r v e as le g is la to r to gu arantee m en a rule of law .
i
The r u le r ’s su p r e m e duty, h is v e r y r e a so n for b ein g, is
!
| to in stitu te r e f o r m s , e s p e c ia lly in the a r ea s of h is cou rt, r elig io n ,
i
I law , taxation, and w a r --a n d th ere is w h ere V o lta ir e ’s in te r e s t and
j i
! effo r ts la y , not in the fo rm of go v ern m en t or the nature of the
i
s o v e r e ig n ’s authority, but rath er in h is use of that authority to oppose
sp e c ia l in te r e sts (c le r g y and p a r le m e n ts), to p rom ote c iv iliz a tio n ,
and to a ch iev e a ru le of law .
One of the a r ea s m o s t in need of r e fo r m or of c a refu l
scru tin y , sin ce it w as so lia b le to a b u se, w as the p ow er of that group
of p e r so n s c lo s e s t to the k in g, be they m in is t e r s , p r ie s t s , fa v o r ite s ,
or w iv e s , who d e c e iv e d the king and im p o sed th eir own s e lf - in t e r e s t
on state p o lic y and go v ern m en ta l a d m in istra tio n . The w ays of the
court a re the object of so m e of V o lta ir e ’s sh a r p e st s a tir e . A
ca p ricio u s queen illu str a te s both the tyranny of a w om an over the
! king and the w o r st a sp e c ts of the s e le c tio n of m in is te r s ; she m ak es
the gouty old m a g i dance for h e r and dem ands that the m a s te r of the
51
h o r se m ake a jam tart. In the sa m e sto r y a c le v e r p rim e
m in iste r fin a lly sa v e s the king fro m the d ecep tion and rob b ery
52
p r a c tic ed by tax c o lle c to r s . V oltaire often attack s th is p ro b lem of
114
fin a n c e s, not only ta x - c o lle c tin g , but a ls o the tax stru ctu re and the
cu stom of p en sio n s and gifts to c o u r tie r s , w hich w as a m o s t s e r io u s
p ro b lem fo r the go v ern m en t and d e sp e r a te ly in need of r e fo r m .
A nother p ro b lem ca u sed by the king’s c o u r tie r s and their h a n g e r s -o n I
w a s that of obtaining ju s tic e . When a o n e -e y e d m an w ent to the king
i
I
j w ith a p etition for ju stic e a g a in st a bankrupt, an o ffic e -h o ld e r drew
I i
j t
| h im a sid e and said h au ghtily, w ith a b itter s n e e r , "I s e e you are a
o n e -e y e d jok er to a d d re ss y o u r s e lf to the king rath er than to m e ,
and ev en m o re of a jok er to a s k for a judgm ent a g a in st an h o n est
bankrupt w hom I p r o te c t and who is the nephew of a ch am b erm aid of
m y m i s t r e s s . G ive up th is b u s in e s s , m y frien d , if you w ant to keep
53
the ey e you h ave. ” Both Zadig and M em non d ir e c tly r e f le c t
V o lta ir e 's own sta y at cou rt, but the th em e of poor a d v is e r s and
|
th eir duping the king o ccu rs again and again. A t the end of Le
tau reau blanc (1774) a cu stom is begun of cryin g out to the so v e r e ig n
who has o v erco m e the d ecep tion of h is m a g ic ia n s, t r e a s u r e r s ,
54
o ffic ia ls , or w iv e s , "Bong liv e our king who is no lon ger an o x ! ”
L ouis X I V s r ev o ca tio n of the E d ict of N a n tes, V o ltaire w r ite s , w a s
a r e s u lt of his being duped into b eliev in g that a ll he had to do w as
55
sa y the w ord and m e n would think lik e h im .
A s m u ch a s he d ep lored and c r itic iz e d the cou rt,
V o ltaire regard ed the r efo rm of r e lig io u s a b u s e s --s u p e r s t itio n ,
fa n a tic ism , p e r se c u tio n , o b s tr u c tio n is m --a s the m o s t urgent duty
of the p r in c e . He s a tir iz e d the a b su rd ities of the C h ristia n r e lig io n
in h is p h ilosop h ic t a le s , argu ed its ten ets in h is notes and
c o m m e n ta r ie s, r ec o r d e d its sord id e p iso d e s in h is h is t o r ie s , and in
115
r e a l life fought the pow er of the c le r g y o n b eh alf of both the king of
F ra n ce and m e r e p rivate in d ivid u als. Y et V o lta ire w as no a th eist.
He thought a rea so n a b le b e lie f in God w as u sefu l fo r both p r in c e s and
the m a s s e s . Taking is s u e w ith B a y le , he p r o c la im s that he "should
want no d ealin gs w ith an a th eist p r in c e , 11 for he w ould lack m o r a l
r e s tr a in t. "H ence it is a b so lu tely n e c e s s a r y for p r in c e s and people
to have profoundly en graved on th eir m in d s the idea of a su p rem e
56
| B ein g , c r e a to r , g o v e rn o r, r e w a r d e r , and a v en g er. " B ec a u se of
| th eir p o sitio n s of pow er and in flu en ce, " ath eism is a m o s t m o n stro u s
! 57
I e v il in th ose who govern" and in th eir c o u n c illo r s. In the
! p o litic a l p am p h let d ir e cted a g a in st the c le r g y , La vo ix du sa g e et du
■ |
peuple (1750), he w r ite s that the p h ilo so p h e r -p r in c e would en courage
r e lig io n , w h ich te a c h e s a pure and u sefu l m o r a lity to m en , but
w ould p rev en t any r e lig io u s q u a r r e ls . R elig io n , th e r e fo r e , m u st be
a sim p le b e lie f in a God who is not rid icu lo u s. It m u st have no
s u p e r stitio n s , no m ir a c le s , and above a ll, no authority to fo r c e
■ 4. 58
it s e lf on anyone.
W ith such a s im p le , h a r m le s s r e lig io n th ere w ould be no
co n flict b etw een C hurch and State or b etw een r elig io n and the good of
s o c ie ty , but in e ig h teen th -cen tu ry F ra n ce th ere w as s till the
C atholic c le r g y , so V o lta ire a rg u es for the ab solu te pow er of the
r u le r . He should en cou rage r e lig io n but
r ea so n te a c h e s us that the p rin ce should be absolute
m a s te r of a ll e c c le s ia s t ic a l a d m in istra tio n without
ex ce p tio n , sin ce e c c le s ia s t ic a l.o r d e r is a p art of
the govern m ent; and ju st as the fath er of the fa m ily
p r e s c r ib e s to h is c h ild re n ’s p r e c e p te r the kinds of
stu d ies and h ou rs of w ork , so the p rin ce can p r e sc r ib e
to all ch u rch m en w ithout ex cep tio n w h atever has the
116
le a s t co n n ectio n with, p u b lic o r d e r . ^9
V o lta ir e s u g g e s ts a w ay of d ealin g w ith the c le r g y w ho, w hen the king
a sk ed for r e v e n u e s , only r a is e d th eir hands to h e a v e n and "chanted
I
I
j b ea u tifu l p r a y e r s to m u s ic . " Zadig a d v is e s King N a b u ssa n to "leave
the lands abandoned w h ere th eir c a s t le s a r e , and defend only your
| ow n. " W hen the b o n z e s im p lo r e the king*s a id , he a n sw e r s th em
f
| w ith b eau tifu l m u s ic . It is not long b e fo r e the b o n zes contribute
| m o n e y to the king. ^
It is p a r tic u la r ly w ith r e g a r d to r e lig io u s m a tte r s that
|
! the king m u s t e x e r c is e the fu ll fo r c e of h is a b solu te p o w e r , w h eth er j
] |
| it be to fo r c e the c le r g y to con trib u te a fa ir sh a r e to the g o v ern m en t
I or to o v e r r u le unjust e c c le s ia s t ic a l or " sa cred " la w s a s in L es lo is
| i
de M inos (ab ove, p. 105). A s fa r as V o lta ire w as c o n cern ed , the
g r e a t e s t n eed for r e fo r m w a s in the m a tter of r e lig io n , both its
in stitu tio n s and its te a c h in g s. The king m ig h t use p ow er a g a in st the
c le r g y , but a g a in st fa n a tic is m and su p e r stitio n he had to em p lo y the
p h ilo so p h es to en lig h ten the p eo p le.
A noth er a r e a on w hich V o lta ire sp en t h is e ffo r ts is that
of le g a l r e fo r m , both la w s and the a d m in istr a tio n of ju s tic e . He
E
p r a is e s L o u is XIV fo r h is know led ge of la w s , h is d e s ir e to r e fo r m
th em , and h is in t e r e s t in h is s u b je c ts 1 c a s e s , ^ and h is m o s t
e c s ta tic d e sc r ip tio n of C atherine of R u s sia is that of "a w om an who
is a g r e a te r le g is la to r than I s is of the E gyp tian s and C e r e s of the
6 Z
G r e e k s ." V o lt a ir e ^ s e c u la r attitude exten d s to h is v ie w s on
ju r is p r u d e n c e . We have a lr e a d y s e e n that s e c u la r p o litic a l
au th o rity g iv e s no q u arter to e c c le s ia s t ic a l law in V o lt a ir e ^ v ie w .
117
S in ce it w as the r e lig io u s fea tu res of the co n tem p o ra ry law code that
w e re m o st o ffen siv e to the ration al and h u m anitarian V o lta ir e , h e ,
along with the other eig h teen th -cen tu ry r e f o r m e r s , M on tesq u ieu ,
B e c c a r ia , and B en tham , sought a ju risp ru d en ce b a se d only on
j £ 3
| p o litic a l p r in c ip le s , not m o r a l or r elig io u s o n e s. And ju st as
to lera tio n is a card in al point in r e lig io u s r e fo r m , freed o m of
thought m u st be guaran teed by the la w s. A secon d point w orth noting
is h is con cep t of p u nishm ent as a d e te r re n t ra th er than as
64
v en g e a n c e, and he d rea m ed of a China w h ere the la w s w e re not
j . 6 5
! lim ite d to punishing fo r c r im e s , but granted p r iz e s for v irtu e.
j
The refo rm of law s during the r eig n of L ouis XIV
V o lta ire c o n sid e r s a g r e a t a ch iev em en t, but th ere w as s till n eed for
un iform ity of law s throughout the kingdom and for the e lim in a tio n of
le g a l c h ic a n e r y ^ su ch a s that p ra c tic ed on Zadig:
The king ord ered that the fine of four hundred ou n ces of
gold, to w hich he had b een condem n ed , be returned to
h im . The c le r k , the u s h e r s , the attorn eys cam e to h im
in grand ap p arel to bring h is four hundred ou n ces back
to him ; they retain ed only th ree hundred and n in ety-
eight fo r the c o s t s of ju s tic e , and th eir v a le ts asked
for g r a tu it ie s . ^7
F r e d e r ic k the G reat w a s ach ievin g ju st su ch r e fo r m s in P r u s s ia . It
w a s F r e d e r i c k s s u c c e s s as a r e fo r m e r , h is r a tio n a lism , h is
r e lig io u s p o lic ie s , h is effectiv e b u re a u c r a cy , and h is hum ane
d o m e stic legislation^® that ea rn ed the F r e n c h p h ilo s o p h e r
ad m ira tio n d esp ite h is antipathy to the a r isto c r a tic b a se of the
P r u s s ia n g o v ern m en t and to F r e d e r ic k ’s w a r s .
V o lta ire v o ic e s h is opp osition to w ar m o s t sh a rp ly in
s a tir e such a s Candide and in d ia trib es such a s "G uerre" in the
118
D ic tio n n a ir e p h ilo so p h iq u e . W ar is the flaw of the r e ig n of the Sun
K ing. W ar d ep leted the tr e a su r e and sp o ile d the g r e a t w o rk of
C olbert; "war is an a b y ss w h ich sw a llo w s up a ll the s tr e a m s of
I 6 9
abundance;" w ar kep t L ou is fr o m doing ev ery th in g in h is p o w er for
h is p eop le; and w ar is notably a b sen t fr o m the r e ig n of the good
70
! e m p r e s s of R u s sia in L a P r in c e s s e de B a b y lo n e . A lthough he
!
! found a ll w a r s h ein ou s and thought the p h ra se "just w ar" m e a n in g le s s ,
V o lta ir e did not e x p e c t w a rs to d isa p p ea r through "reading
G r o tiu s. " O nly w hen m e n r e a liz e th eir own in t e r e s t s a re at stake
i 71
j or have s o m e n eed to be s e r v e d w ill w a r s sto p .
i
|
| The r e fo r m of a ll th e se a b u se s is the duty of the p r in c e .
j
G oing beyond the u su al su b ject of the r e fo r m of the king*s co u n c ils
and c o u r t, V o lta ire e x p e cted the ru le r to r e fo r m r elig io n : b r e a k
the p o w er of the c le r g y , e lim in a te p e r se c u tio n , and e s t a b lis h
j
to le r a tio n . That could be a c h ie v ed , of c o u r s e , only through
ed u ca tio n and fr e e d o m of thought. In terco n n ected w ith both the
w o rk in g s of the court and the p ow er of the C hurch w as the law code
and the a d m in istr a tio n of ju s tic e , the r e fo r m of w h ich w as n e c e s s a r y
to a ra tio n a l g o v ern m en t. W ar, to o , w a s c o m p le te ly c o n tra ry to
the p r in c ip le s of ju stic e and h u m an ity, as w e ll as to the m a te r ia l
w e ll-b e in g of the state; and, although the so lu tio n w a s not s im p le ,
the m o n a r c h w as r e s p o n sib le fo r the p r e v en tio n of w a r s .
A b r ie f s u r v e y of the c h a r a c t e r is tic s of id ea l m o n a rc h s
and h is t o r ic a l fig u r e s w ill co m p le te the p ictu re of the V oltairian
p e r fe c t p r in c e . V o lta ir e 1s f ir s t le tte r to F r e d e r ic k , then crow n
p rin c e of P r u s s i a , is p rob ab ly a s m u ch of an id e a liz a tio n of the
119
p rin ce as a re h is fic tio n a l p r in c e s . T h ere he e x c la im s , " B eliev e
m e , the only tru ly good kings have b een th ose who b egan , lik e you,
by educating t h e m s e lv e s , by knowing m an k in g, by loving truth, by
I 72
! d e te stin g p e r se c u tio n and su p erstitio n . " The sa m e tr a its a lso
|
| c h a r a c te r iz e Z adig, who fin a lly b e c o m e s king a fter nu m erou s j
| unpleasant en co u n ters with truth a s w e ll as w ith su p e r stitio n . He has j
i lea rn ed about m ankind, as h is rew ard s to w a r r io r s and p rev io u s !
i I
w iv e s and h is appointm ents of capable and w orthy p e r so n s to [
j
j ap p rop riate p o sts sh ow . He is , like F r e d e r ic k , w e ll educated and
! 7 3
I "as w is e as a m an can b e. " Z adig1 s nature to b egin w ith w as ev en
i
: m o r e adm irab le: m o d er a te , r e a so n a b le , r e sp e c tfu l of hum an
j
j fr a ilty , u n se lfish , g e n e r o u s, and k in d ~ -a m an of a s in c e r e and
74
noble h ea rt. In C andide, the king of E ldorado is the m o s t g ra cio u s
I 7 5
and p olite king im a g in a b le, and he is e v en w itty. A good king
m ig h t ev en be a p o et, for one of the k in gs in Zadig "loved p o etry ,
T
and p r in c e s who love v e r s e s a r e alw ays r e so u r c e fu l. . . . "
D e sp ite a ll the ch a rg es that can be m ade again st h im , V oltaire
j
m ain tain s that L ouis XIV m u st be r e sp e c te d for being a good fa th er,
j d ecen tly behaved in p u b lic, hardw orking and p r e c is e in h is b u s in e s s ,
! ' 7 7
I thinking ju stly , speaking w e ll and w ith dignity. In tellig en ce and
| the inten tion to do good, to g eth er w ith e x p e rie n c e with m e n , are the
j p rim e r e q u is ite s of a good r u le r .
The co n cern for the w elfa re of h is peop le i s , ju st as
w ith F en elo n , a n e c e s s a r y c h a r a c te r is tic of the good r u le r . V oltaire
attrib u tes that c h a r a c te r istic to h is id ea l r u le rs and to h is
d e sc r ip tio n s of h is to r ic a l fig u r e s . H is r e a l h ero is H enry IV, w hom
120
he p r e s e n t s a s the ch am p ion of o r d e r , sta b ility , and th e w e lfa r e of
78
the p e o p le . It w a s c u sto m a r y to use the a n a lo g ies of the sh ep h erd
and h is flo c k or the fa th er and h is fa m ily in exp lain in g the k in g's
I
r e la tio n sh ip to h is p e o p le . V o lta ir e has a n o th e r --th e c o c k and h is
h e n s . The c o ck stru ts about p rou d ly, d efen d s h is h e n s h im s e lf , and
79
j u n se lfis h ly s h a r e s h is w o rm or g r a in of w h ea t with h is su b je c ts.
|
j The n e c e s s it y for b r a v e r y and m ilita r y p r o w e s s is
j
| ob viou s in the ch ick en y a rd . It is a ls o app arent if a h ig h -m in d e d
r u le r e x p e c ts to s u c c e e d a g a in st the fo r c e s of o p p r e ssio n . T eu ce r
i
| ta k es up a r m s a g a in st th e law s of M in o s, p r ie s t s , and nobles:
{
: M y e ffo r ts have b e e n v a in and m y good w ill fr iv o lo u s .
L e t's retu rn to battle; it is m y f ir s t duty;
T h ere is m y gra n d eu r, th er e is m y pow er:
M y w eak au th o rity is h e r e d isa rm ed :
I have a v o ic e in the S en a te, but I ru le with the arm y.^O
In h is d is c u s s io n s of w a r , V o lta ir e d oes n ot deny the
n e c e s s it y fo r s e lf - d e f e n s e or e v e n of using w ar as an in str u m en t of
p o lic y . He o p p o ses w a r but he a d m ir e s the ind ividual m ilita r y h e r o .
In L a P r i n c e s s e de B abylon e he ju x ta p o ses prudence and g lo r y . Two
k in gs d ecid e not to r is k the r id ic u lo u sly d an gerous f e a t s req u ired of
s u ito r s to the p r in c e s s 1 h a n d --w h y w a ste the e x te n s iv e ed u cation
| la v is h e d upon th em ? A third king is co u ra g eo u s en ou gh to a ttem p t
the fe a ts and lu ck y to be saved b y an unknown youth w ho ev en tu a lly
b e c o m e s the p e r fe c t p r in c e . The sa m e is true of the young king in
Le T a u rea u b lan c who is "the m o s t v a lia n t of m en , v ic to r io u s
w h e r e v e r he c a r r ie d h is a r m s . . . . the con q u eror and idol of the
81
n a tio n s ," who e v en dethroned the father of h is b e lo v e d . In fic tio n
the id e a l r u le r w as m o s t lik e ly to be a d a zzlin g h e r o , a w a r r io r , a
121
con q u eror, but s t ill g en ero u s and intent upon c iv iliz in g h is k in gd om s.
In r e a l life , or in h is to r y , V o ltaire fa c e s the q u estion of
■whether the good ru ler is a h ero a little d ifferen tly . He w r ite s about
i
the h e r o ic C h arles XH but a d m ire s the m o r e m undane w ork of P e te r
j of R u s sia . P e o p le read the h is to r y of C h arles XH rath er than P e te r
j the G reat, V olta ire s a y s , b eca u se C h arles XH is m o r e excitin g; he
is a Don Q uixote w h ose extravagan t h e r o is m is m o r e in terestin g than
the law s of P e t e r , the Solon of the N orth. (V oltaire h e r e ig n o res
i P e t e r 's m ilita r y e x p lo its .) "The d eta ils of the foiinding of a town a re
l e s s p lea sin g to r e a d e r s than the b o ld n ess of a m an who b r a v e s ten j
| I
| thousand T urks w ith only h is se r v a n ts. And b e s id e s , the m a jo rity
! g 2
| of r e a d e r s p r e fe r a m u se m e n t to in stru ctio n . "
N o r e a l ru ler is p e r fe c t, so V o lta ire m u st ch oose am ong
the q u alities of the h is to r ic a l fig u re s of L ouis XIV, F r e d e r ic k the
i
G rea t, P e te r and C atherine of R u s sia , and he p r a is e s th em w h ere he
can. F or a ll h is a d m iration of L ouis XIVT s patronage of the a r ts and
i
| le t t e r s , h is talen t for ru lin g, and h is p o sitiv e a c ts for the public j
i
! w e lfa r e , V o lta ire p r e se n ts a v e r y d ifferen t kind of a good king in the
j p e r so n of W illia m HI, who n eg lected the a rts and the refin em en ts of
j
j life and who had n eith er the love of h is people nor the reputation of
a h e r o (although he w as a capable g e n e ra l). W illia m defended h is
country, ru led E ngland p e a c efu lly b e c a u se he did not tr y to m ake
h im s e lf a b so lu te, govern ed H olland w ithout subjugating it, d e sp ised
83
su p e r stitio n , and n ev er had anyone p e r se c u te d for h is relig io n .
B eyond the n e c e s s it y of being ra tio n a l and hum ane, the
p e r so n a l c h a r a c te r is tic s are not r e a lly v e r y im p ortan t in V o lta ir e 's
122
concep t of the id e a l r u le r . The m o s t im portant m a n ifesta tio n of the
ruler*s ratio n a lity and hum anity is that he d e te s ts p e r se c u tio n and
su p e r stitio n . H is u n se lfish , g e n e r o u s, and kind nature lead h im to an
active p r o g r a m of prom otin g the w e lfa r e of h is p eo p le. Other tra its
such as p e r so n a l b r a v e r y , dignity, g r a c io u s n e s s , w it, and a r tis tic
; a p p recia tio n are d e sir a b le but of seco n d a ry im p o rta n ce,
j V o lta ir e , if not tru ly an exponent of enligh tened
d e s p o tis m , does r e p r e s e n t the s e c u la r and ra tio n a l con cep t of
g o v ern m en t on w hich enligh tened d e sp o tism r e s t s . The o rig in and
| ju stific a tio n of the r u le r Is authority is w holly s e c u la r . H is action s
| a re judged accord in g to th eir co n seq u en ces fo r hum an so c ie ty . ;
(
W hether h is authority is ab solu te or sh ared is not the q u estion w ith
V o lta ir e . The poin t is that the ru le r m u st have the authority
i
co m m en su ra te w ith h is d u tie s. M o st of the c ir c u m sta n c e s V o ltaire |
saw dem anded a stron g m o n a rch su c h as a b en ev o len t a u tocrat in
R u s sia , an ab solu te king of F r a n c e , or a p lain , stern King W illiam
who sh a red his authority. The p rin ce is bound to a ru le of law , but j
j
there a r e no p r a c tic a l sa fe g u a r d s, su ch as M on tesq u ieu c o n ceiv ed , j
I
.
! a g a in st the p r in c e T s b eco m in g a r b itr a r y , nor are th ere the r elig io u s
r
i
sa n ctio n s that op erate on the fen elo n ia n p r in c e . T here is only the
p r in c e 's own r e a so n and good w ill.
The con fid en ce that m an as a ra tio n a l b ein g can im p rove
his condition m ea n s that the attitude tow ard g o v ern m en t is a p o sitiv e
one. R oyal authority aided by an in c r e a s in g ly in form ed public
opinion w ill w ork in the in te r e s t of public w e lfa r e . A ls o , the
p o sitiv e concept of g o vern m en tal functions is a natural r e su lt of the
123
changed n eed s of the s o c ia l and p o litic a l ord er of the eigh teen th
cen tu ry . V o lta ire p r a is e s H enry IV for e sta b lish in g sta b ility and
o r d e r , but th ere is m u ch le s s em p h a sis on that function of
g o v ern m en t in V o lta ir e 's w ork s than on using r o y a l pow er for g r ea ter
i m a te r ia l b en efits for the p eo p le. The d u ties of the ru ler m o s t often
i
1
! m en tion ed by V o lta ire a re th ose of p rom otin g the public w elfa re
j |
! through public w ork s and s e r v ic e s , en cou ragin g c o m m e r c e and
in d u stry, supporting a r ts and le t t e r s , and providing an effic ie n t
a d m in istra tio n . The p r in c e 's duty to c a re fo r h is p eop le is
c o m p le te ly s e c u la r iz e d ; it is no lo n g er a m a tter of the p r in c e 's duty
i
to God, but sim p ly of the right and s e n sib le thing to do.
| The p rin ce is m o s t im p ortant as the le g is la to r . He m u st
o v e rc o m e c u s to m s , tr a d itio n s, and law s if that is n e c e s s a r y to bring
about a m o r e rea so n a b le and ju st r e g im e . The law s he in stitu tes
r e p r e s e n t the E n ligh ten m en t id ea s of n atural ord er and h arm on y.
T hey a im at providing fr e ed o m for the individual and p ro tectio n fro m
the ca p r ice of m e n . T hey a im at ab olish in g p r iv ile g e s and
ir r e g u la r itie s w hich ca u se h ard sh ip for other p e r s o n s . In co n tr a st j
J
to the p rin ce of F e n e lo n and M on tesq u ieu , V o lta ir e ’s has no p la ce
fo r a p r iv ile g e d s o c ia l e lite in h is g o v ern m en t.
I
The r e fo r m s in stitu ted by V o lta ir e 's p rin ce are ones we
have co m e to a s s o c ia te w ith the eig h teen th century: to lera tio n ,
freed o m of thought, the r efo rm of law and its a d m in istra tio n . This
r e fo r m p ro g ra m w a s d ir e c tly r e sp o n siv e to con tem p o ra ry n eed s and
e v e n ts. V o lta ire w a s above a ll p r a c tic a l. The r efo rm s are not
r e fo r m s of m o ra lity ; th ey a re s o c ia l, p o litic a l, and m a te r ia l r efo rm s,
124
T hey depend, not on a change of h e a r t on the p a rt of the ru ler or h is
p e o p le , but on th eir use of r e a so n . It is only after th ese r efo rm s
that m o r a l im p ro v em en t can com e about, and e v e n then it •will be
s tr ic t ly hum an, independent of trad ition al r e lig io u s c r e e d s ,
i The p rin ce h im s e lf m u st be rea so n a b le and hum ane.
F r o m th e se two q u a lities c o m e s a ll e l s e . He is not an id e a lis tic
v is io n a r y , but he m u st have the im agin ation , a s w e ll a s the sp e c ific
j
in fo rm a tio n , n eed ed to plan r e f o r m s . A p h ilo so p h er-k in g would be
id e a l, but to e x p e c t that is too u n r e a listic . The m o s t p ro m isin g
can d id ate, F r e d e r ic k of P r u s s ia , a p oet and a m u sic ia n , s till
! 84
I s e r v e d pow er and w ar b efo re p h ilosop h y. V o lta ire had to go as
! far b ack as M arcu s A u reliu s to find a r e a lly id e a l r u le r. The
p e r fe c t p rin ce is not a h e r o , e x ce p t w hen a h e r o m a k es the sto r y
m o r e in te r e stin g . He is n eith er a p h ilosop h er nor a s o ld ie r -k in g ,
but rath er an able a d m in istr a to r .
V o lta ir e 's con cep t of the ideal p rin ce is se c u la r but not
m a c h ia v e llia n . F o r M a ch ia v elli, hum an nature is su ch that the
function of g o v ern m en t is co n tro l and r e p r e s s io n . F or V oltaire
hum an nature is p o ten tia lly u sefu l in govern ing and in im p roving
i
i
j s o c ie ty . The V oltairian p rin ce is a lw a y s su b ject to fundam ental
p r in c ip le s of ju stic e w hich are part of an o r d e r ly u n iv e r se . V o ltaire
is too m u ch a h u m an itarian and m o r a lis t to a c ce p t the co n seq u en ces
of M a c h ia v e lli’s p h ilosop h y.
On the other hand, V o lta ire is not n a iv ely id e a lis tic . He
d oes not try to red u ce p o litic s to e th ic s. H is p rin ce is not a
C h ristia n p r in c e , although he sh a r e s m any of the tr a its of the
125
C h r istia n fe n e lo n ia n p r in c e . It is so m e w h a t s u r p r isin g , in view of
V o lta ire* s c o m p le te ly s e c u la r v ie w s , to find h im using the
tra d itio n a l p h r a s e s su c h as "father of h is p eop le" so freq u en tly .
i
: T h e re is at le a s t a s lig h t d iffe re n c e : the fen elo n ia n p r in c e e x is ts
only to s e r v e h is p eop le; V o lta ire d o es not quite say th at. He s e e m s
| to a c c e p t the e x is t e n c e of the p r in c e a s a p o litic a l fa c t, then ap p eals
; i
i to the r u le r l s good s e n s e to s e r v e h is p e o p le . The v o lta ir ia n p r in c e i
| is not com m an d ed by G od, and th er e is m u ch l e s s talk of a m o r a l
im p e r a tiv e than of a r a tio n a l on e. The injunction to be ju st is
S
e n fo r c ed by no su p ern a tu ra l sa n c tio n s . Two m o r e p o in ts of
i
| d iv e r g e n c e fr o m the m e d ie v a l p r in c e m a y be noted. The em p h a sis
I
on the ru ler ser v in g a s an ex a m p le to h is p eo p le is drop p ed by
V o lta ir e , and the p ro p er e x e r c is e of p ow er is no lo n g er s e e n as a
t
r e s u lt of v irtu o u s b e h a v io r , but ra th er as a r e s u lt of th e use of
r e a s o n . V ir tu o u s, d e c o r o u s , e v e n d ign ified b eh avior is ex p ected of
i
the p r in c e , but h is p e r so n a l b e h a v io r is not the c en tr a l is s u e .
V o lta ire a p p ea rs not on ly to h ave s e c u la r iz e d the
C h r istia n p r in c e , but a ls o to h a v e a ccep ted p o litic a l n e c e s s it y a s a
fa c t of lif e , w h ile co n sta n tly se e k in g to h u m an ize this "fact of lif e . "
i
I
F a c e d w ith the c o n flict b etw een the rule of law and p o s itiv e
p o litic a l p o w e r , he a c ce p ted the n e c e s s it y of a ruler cap ab le of
w ield in g that p o w e r , a ssu m in g th at such a r u le r w ould a ls o r e s p e c t
the law s .
NOTES
j ^Gay, V o lta ir e 's P o l i t i c s , pp. 218, 237.
2
Ib id . , p. 102. T heodore B e s te r m a n , who p r e fe r s to
e m p h a siz e the contin uity of love of ju stice and b e lie f in r e a so n in
V o lta ir e ’s thought, d isto r ts G ay’s th e s is by ca rry in g it to a
! rid icu lo u s ex tr em e : "He [G ay] r eg a rd s V o lta ire as a r e a lis tic
j r e la t iv is t . . .; but in p lain E n g lish th is m ea n s one who adapts h is
j v ie w s to the c ir c u m sta n c e s of the m o m en t, or in s till p la in er
la n g u a g e, one who is a tim e s e r v e r . . . " (" V o lta ire, A b solu te
M on arch y, and the E nligh tened M onarch, " in S tu d ies on V o ltaire and
the E igh teen th C en tu ry , V ol. XXXII [G e n e v a , 1 9 6 5 ], p. 2 0 n .). To
sa y that V o ltaire w as a r e a lis t ic r e la t iv is t who had a k een sen se of
h is t o r ic a l trad ition and had enough p r a c tic a l e x p e rie n c e in p o litic s
to e sc h e w d ogm a, is not to sa y he w as a "tim e se r v e r " who had no
p r in c ip le s and no id e a ls . F u r th e r m o r e , B e s te r m a n ig n o r e s G ay’ s
sp e c ific sta te m e n t to the contrary: " V o lta ire’s r e la t iv is m on fo r m s
of g o v ern m en t m u st not be u n d erstood , h o w e v e r, as com p lete
in d iffe r en ce . O ther p h ilo so p h e s, lik e H olbach, d ’A le m b e r t, and
H e lv e tiu s , s o m e tim e s talk a s though they f e e l ’w h at’er is b e s t
a d m in iste re d is b e s t , ’ but a s I sh a ll show in the seq u e l, V o lta ire had
d istin ct p r e fe r e n c e s " (V o lta ir e ’s P o l i t i c s , p. 3 2 n .). Indeed,
B e s te r m a n a g r e e s w ith G ay, at le a s t as far as F r a n c e w as
co n c er n e d , that V o ltaire supported con stitu tion al a b so lu tism , the
m o n a rc h ruling b y law; th ey both a g r e e on the im p o rta n ce of law in
V o lta ir e ’ s thought (Gay, V o lta ir e ’s P o l i t i c s , p . 15; B e ste r m a n ,
p. 14); and B e s te r m a n h im s e lf e m p h a siz e s V o lta ir e ’s p r a g m a tism !
P e r h a p s the b a s ic a n tagon ism b etw een the two sc h o la r s is b e st
r e v e a le d in B e s te r m a n ’s co m m en t that G ay’s w o rk is "the m o st
in te r e stin g of the w ork s devoted to V o lta ir e ’s p o litic a l id ea s but it
is in fa c t a s e le c tiv e b iograph y of V o lta ir e , not a s y ste m a tic and
te c h n ic a l a n a ly s is . . ." (p. 8 ).
3
A lthough for m y own p u rp o ses 1 m u st a b str a c t V o lta ir e ’s
id e a s , I am in no se n se ignorin g or denying G ay’s in s is te n c e that
V o lta ire w as a p r a c tic a l and r e a lis tic p o litic a l r e la t iv is t who cannot
be un d erstood in te r m s of d o c tr in e s , th e o r ie s , and la b e ls . In fa c t,
G ay’s thorough and ju d iciou s study of V o lta ir e ’s p o litic a l thought in
its h is t o r ic a l con text m a k es a d eta iled p resen ta tio n of it, and of the
c o n tr o v e r s ie s con cern in g it, su p erflu ou s h e r e .
4
O eu vres c o m p le te s de V o lta ir e , ed . L ou is M oland
(P a r is , 1 8 7 7 -8 5 ), XXIH, 4 70. A ll r e fe r e n c e s to the o r ig in a l F r e n c h
126
127
a re to th is ed itio n , cited as 0 . c. , v o l. n u m b er, page num ber.
B e s te r m a n (p. 20 ), as do m an y o th e r s , c ite s this p a ssa g e as
ev id en ce of V o lta ir e ’s p r e fe r e n c e fo r en ligh tened a b so lu tism . Gay
r eg a rd s it as c h a r a c te r is tic of V o lta ir e ’s r o y a lis m , but as ta c tic a l,
e s p e c ia lly in v iew of the p o s s ib ility of L ouis XV being a p h ilo so p h er-
king (V o lta ir e ’s P o l i t i c s , pp. 1 3 5 -7 ).
5
16 O ct. 1765, quoted by G ay, V o lta ir e ’s P o l i t i c s ,
p. 89n. , fro m 0. c . , X L IV , 8 8 .
/
G ay, V o lta ir e ’s P o l i t i c s , pp. 3 0 -3 1 .
^Ibid. , p . 170.
Q
L ‘A , B , C (1768), in P h ilo so p h ic a l D ic tio n a r y , tra n s.
P e te r Gay (New Y ork, 1962), p. 519; 0. c. , XXVII, 331.
V c. , XXI, 4 05.
1 0 Ibid. , p. 411.
U Ibid.
12
L e ttr e s p h ilosop h iq u es (1734), le tte r v iii, quoted by
B e s te r m a n , p. 19.
■^Gay, V o lta ir e ’s P o l i t i c s , p. 329.
14
B e ste r m a n , p. 14.
1 5 L 'A , B , C , P h il. D ie t. , p. 582; 0. c . , XXVII, 382.
16,
232n.
L e s L ois de M inos (1773), A c t V, s c . 4; 0. c . , VII,
*^Act I, s c . 2 and 3; 0. c. , VII, 1 8 0 -8 8 .
1 Q
"D es loix" ( F ir s t S e c tio n ), P h il. D ie t. , p. 359.
1 9 L ’A , B , C , P h il. D ie t. , p. 580; 0. c . , XXVH, 380.
20
0. c. , XXI, 381.
^ " D e s loix" (Second S ectio n ), P h il. D ie t . , pp. 3 6 4 -5 .
22
G ay, V o lta ir e ’s P o l i t i c s , p. 345n.
2 3 Ibid. , pp. 31, 32n. , 346.
128
24
L 'A , B , C , P h il. D iet. , p . 579; 0. c. , XXVII, 379. A
s im ila r e x p r e s s io n o c c u r s in " C ath ech ism e c h in o is, 11 P h il. D ie t. ,
p. 130.
^ " D e s lo ix ” (F ir s t S e c tio n ), P h il. D ie t. , p. 362.
9 A
A ct I, s c . 2 ; 0 . c . , VII, 180n.
2 ^Ibid. , pp. 1 8 4 -5 .
2 ^Ibid. , s c . 3; p. 188.
2 9 Ibid.
3 ° A c t V , s c . 4; 0. c. , VII, 232, 232n.
p. 1 2 n.
3 1
G ay, V o lta ir e 's P o l i t i c s , pp. 3 4 5 n .-3 4 6 . B e ste r m a n ,
3 2 "Du ju ste et de l'in ju ste , " P h il. D ie t . , p. 346.
L 'A , B , C, P h il. D iet. , pp. 514, 518; 0. c . , XXVII, 327, 330.
33
G ay, V o lta ir e 's P o l i t i c s , p. 15. He draw s this in sig h t
fr o m F ra n z N eum ann, The D e m o cr a tic and the A u th oritarian State
(G len co e, 111., 1957), pp. 6 -7 .
34
G ay, V o lta ir e 's P o l i t i c s , p. 330.
3 5 P h il. D ie t. , p . 528; 0. c . , XXVII, 338.
3 ^Gay, V o lta ir e 's P o l i t i c s , p. 263. The "Dialogue
b etw een M o s e s , D io g e n e s, and M r. L o k e ," w as printed by Lytton
S tra c h e y , B ooks and C h a ra cters (1922), pp. 133-5 (ib id . , pp. 261-2).
3 ^Ibid. , pp. 226, 237.
3 ^Quoted ib id . , p. 262.
3 9 P h il. D ie t . , p. 577; 0. c . , XXVII, 3 7 7 -8 .
40
L 'A , B , C , P h il. D ie t. , p. 567; 0. c. , XXVII, 370.
41
The A ge of L ouis XIV and Other S e le c te d W r itin g s,
t r a n s . J. H. B ru m fitt (New Y ork, 1963), p . 142; 0. c. > XIV, 512.
42
Ch_c_. , XXI.
43
A ct V , s c . 1; 0. c. , VH, 2 2 5 -6 .
4 4A ge of L ou is X IV , pp. 129-36; 0. c . , XIV, 4 9 8 -5 0 6 .
129
4 5 S ie c le de L ouis X IV , 0. c . , XIV, 4 97.
4 6 Ibid. , p. 243.
4 7 Ibid. , p. 497.
48
I b id ., p. 243.
49A ge of L ou is X IY , p. 144; 0. c. , XIV, 5 1 3 -1 4 .
50
La F r in c e s s e de B a b y lo n e , 0. c . , XXI, 4 0 3 -4 .
5 1 Zadig (1747), 0. c . , XXI, 79.
5 2 Ibid. , p. 67.
53M em non (1749), 0. c . , XXI, 98.
5 4 0. c. , XXI, 511.
5 5 L tIngenu (1767), 0. c . , XXI, 268.
C L '
"A thee, a th eism e " (F ir s t S e c tio n ), P h il. D ie t . , p.
5 7 I b id ., p. 104.
e q
G ay, V o lt a ir e ^ P o l i t i c s , p. 267.
5 9
La v o ix du sa g e e t du p e u p le , 0. c . , XXIII, 4 6 8 .
6 ° Z a d ig , 0. c . , X X I, 71.
^^Age of L ouis X IV , pp. 136-7; 0. c. , XIV, 5 0 6 -7 .
6 2
La P r in c e s s e de B a b y lo n e , 0. c. , XXI, 4 03.
G ay, V o lt a ir e ^ P o l i t i c s , pp. 2 8 6 -7 .
64
I b id ., p. 294.
65
La P r in c e s s e de B a b y lo n e , 0, c . , XXI, 399-
6 6Age of L ouis X IV , p. 144; 0. c . , XIV, 514.
6 7 Z a d ig , 0. c. , X X I, 39.
6 ft
G ay, V o lta ir e T s P o l i t i c s , p. 170.
69S ie c le de L ou is X IV , 0. c . , XIV, 526.
7Q0. c. , XXI, 404.
i
i
103.
130
7 1 L ’A , B , C , P h il. D ie t . , p. 569; 0. c. , XXVII, 372.
72
C a . 1 Sept. 1736. Q uoted by G ay, V oltaire*s P o l i t i c s ,
p. 159 fro m V o lta ir e rs C o rresp o n d en ce (ed. T heodore B e ste r m a n ),
V , 231.
7 3 Z a d ig , 0. c . , XXI, 33.
7 4 Ibid.
7 5 C andide, 0. c . , XXI, 177-8.
7 6 0. c. , XXI, 43.
7 7S ie c le de L ou is X IV , 0. c. , XIV, 483.
78
G ay, V o lta ir e ^ P o l i t i c s , pp. 9 9 -1 0 0 . S ee the epic
p oem La H enriade (1723).
7^"Des loix" (Second S ection ), P h il. D ie t. , p. 363.
O A
L es L ois de M in o s, A ct III, s c . 5; 0. c. , VII, 212.
8 1 0. c. , XXI, 4 9 3 -5 .
82 *
L ^ o m m e aux quarante ecus (1768), 0. c. , XXI, 367.
83S ie c le de L ou is X IV , 0. c. , XIV, 3 4 2 -3 .
84
M ore p e r so n a l co n sid era tio n s during V o lta ir e ^ v is it to
the P r u s s ia n cou rt a lso contributed to h is d isillu sio n m e n t with
F r e d e r ic k as a p h ilo so p h er-k in g .
CHAPTER VI
THE PHYSIOCRATS
The se c u la r iz a tio n of the con cep t of the id eal ru ler w h ich
| is noted in the thought of M ontesquieu and V o lta ire is a ls o a b a sic
1
featu re of that of the e c o n o m is t e s , a group of b u s in e s s m e n , eco n o m ic i
1 " I
th e o r is ts , and g o v ern m en t a d m in istr a to r s com m on ly d e scr ib e d as !
P h y s io c r a ts . They a r e u su a lly co n sid e re d the fo r e m o s t
r e p r e se n ta tiv e s of the doctrine of enligh tened d e sp o tism . The
id en tifica tio n of the P h y sio c r a ts w ith en ligh tened d e sp o tism , *
h o w e v e r , r eq u ir es so m e qu alification .
The P h y sio c r a ts w e re f ir s t of all co n cern ed w ith econ om ic
r e fo r m , and th eir p o litic a l id eas w e r e a n c illa r y to that ob jective.
T hey w anted the eco n o m y pu rged of a r tific ia l r e s tr ic tio n s , not a
change of p o litic a l life . At fir s t they w e re rath er ind ifferen t tow ard
ev en the fo rm of govern m ent; th ey m e r e ly d e sir e d a govern m en t
that would follow the la is s e z - f a ir e p r in c ip les of a natural eco n o m ic
2
and s o c ia l o rd er. N e v e r th e le s s , they cam e to support absolute
3 4
m o n a rch y , and they c le a r ly r ejec te d popular so v e r e ig n ty . In a
j
s o c ie ty w h ere l a is s e z - f a ir e w as b lock ed by p rivate p r iv ile g e s , the
absolute m o n a rch b eca m e the only v e h ic le through w hich th eir
p ro g ra m of eco n o m ic refo rm could be a c c o m p lish e d . T heir
ju stific a tio n of r e fo r m fr o m above w as tw ofold. P u b lic authority
131
132
had to be un ited, not fra g m en ted ; m o n a rch y alon e could p rovid e that
unity. S eco n d ly , the c ro w n ’s c la im to c o -o w n e r s h ip of s u b je c ts ’
p r o p e r ty m ad e r o y a l c o n c e r n fo r e c o n o m ic m a tte r s a lo g ic a l and
5
n atu ral a c tiv ity .
A s e c o n o m is ts in te r e s te d in a "natural" e co n o m ic o r d e r ,
!
i the P h y s io c r a ts took as the b a s is of th eir p h ilo so p h y the
i
i E n lig h ten m en t id ea s of n atu ral o r d e r , n atu ral h a r m o n y , and n atu ral
! j
j la w s . T his e m p h a sis on the n atu ral o rd er and on p h y sic a l n e c e s s it y \
I . |
i c le a r ly m a r k s th eir notions of the au th ority of the r u le r a s p u re ly j
| s e c u la r . The id ea l p r in c e , the s o - c a lle d d esp o t, had no su p ern a tu ra l
b a s is for h is a u th ority, nor ind eed m u ch m o r a l b a s is . T heir
I d o ctrin e b eg a n w ith in terp retin g p h y sic a l n e c e s s it y in te r m s of m a n ’s
e c o n o m ic n e e d s , the m o s t b a s ic of w h ich is p r o p e r ty . The r u le r is
judged by h is c o n te m p o r a r ie s on the b a s is of im m ed ia te and
i
m a t e r ia l f a c to r s , e s p e c ia lly the p r o te c tio n of p r o p e r ty , not on the
b a s is of any m o r a l c o d e, C h ristia n or o th e r w ise . In fa c t, the
u ltim ate r e a s o n for e c o n o m ic r e fo r m (the g e n e r a l w e lfa r e) ca m e to
be o b scu red or ev en ign ored by the P h y s io c r a t s ’ infatuation w ith
th eir s y s t e m . The r u le r , then, is to be judged on the b a s is of h is
p r a c tic a l r e s u lt s in se c u r in g p ro p erty and the attendant lib e r t ie s , or
in applying the la w s of the n atu ral o r d e r . ^
The authority of the p r in c e , in addition to b ein g s e c u la r ,
is a ls o r e s t r ic t e d . A lthough the P h y s io c r a ts w anted an "absolute"
m o n a r c h stron g enough to p r o c la im and en fo rce the n atu ral la w s and
th ereb y e ffe c t an e c o n o m ic r e fo r m p r o g r a m , th ey reg a r d e d
a b s o lu tism only as a m e a n s to that end. T hey n ev er c o n c eiv e d of the
133
authority of the p rin ce in s o le ly p o litic a l t e r m s . E inaudi c o r r e c tly
s t r e s s e s "the con stan t fea r w hich is p r e se n t in a ll p h y sio c r a tic
w ritin g s l e s t the d esp ot should go beyond the lim its a ssig n e d to him
and, by v iolatin g the r u le s of the natural o r d e r , should s e t up an
7
a b so lu te , c en tr a lize d p o w er. . . . " M o reo v er the P h y sio c r a ts
a lw a y s a ccom p an ied th eir d is c u s s io n s of the desp ot w ith gu a ra n tees
a g a in st a rb itra ry p o w er.
To bind the p rin ce to h is function of follow in g natural
law , the P h y sio c r a ts c a lled upon h is b e n e v o le n c e, en ligh ten m en t, and
s e lf - in t e r e s t . T his v e r y trad ition al guarantee is w orked out in som e
d eta il by v a rio u s P h y s io c r a ts . T hey s t r e s s e d the p ow er of r e a so n
g
as the driving fo r c e of the r u le r . E v en m o re im p ortant w ere
educated public opinion and freed o m of e x p r e s s io n , w h ich would
9
s e r v e a s a guarantee a g a in st a rb itra ry a b so lu tism . In fa c t, w e w ill
s e e that it is the duty of the so v e r e ig n to d issem in a te know ledge of
the la w s and prom ote the education of h is p eop le so that c itiz e n s can
ch eck any v io la tio n on h is p art.
A third g u aran tee, the independent ju d icia ry , p ro v id es
an ev en g r ea ter lim ita tio n on the r u le r . Although e a r lie r sc h o la r s
c o n sid e re d ju d icia l con trol in com p atib le w ith d e sp o tism , Einaudi
m a in ta in s that it w a s the " logical co n clu sio n of a d o ctrin e, not
attem pting to s e t up an absolute g o v ern m en t, but bent upon
introd ucing ra d ica l changes in the eco n o m ic s y s te m and upon m aking
the judges u ltim a tely r esp o n sib le for the s u c c e s s of the e n te r p r ise ." *
That e n te r p r ise w as the p r e se r v a tio n of c iv iliz a tio n , w h ich depended
upon the a ccep ta n ce of the p r in c ip les of the P h y s io c r a tic o rd er.
134
"The p h y sio c r a tic id ea l li e s in a c o n fo r m ity b e tw een the p o s itiv e law s
is s u e d by the p r in c e and that ’o r d e r 1 w hich th ey h ave d is c o v e r e d as
12
o p tim u m b o n u m . " M o st of the P h y s io c r a ts e n v isio n e d a su p r e m e
m a g is tr a c y au th o rized to d e c la r e void a ll the le g is la tio n w h ich w a s
c o n tr a r y to the p r in c ip le s of the n atu ral o r d e r . P a u l V au ch er in h is
!
le c t u r e s on E n ligh ten ed D e s p o tis m a g r e e s that by le g a l d e s p o tis m the j
j
P h y s io c r a ts m e a n t that the ind ep en dence of the m a g is tr a te s had to be
r e s p e c te d b e c a u se the ju d ic ia r y had the r e s p o n s ib ility of gu a ra n teein g
13
the p r in c e ’s co m p lia n ce w ith the la w s . B oth the p r in ce and the
ju d ges are e x p e cted to h ave a thorough know led ge of the p r in c ip le s
| of the natural ord er and to be guided by the o b je c tiv e s of defending
14
p r o p e r ty and lib e r ty .
It w ould s e e m that a ru le r w h o se a c ts a r e co n sta n tly
ch eck ed by the ju d icia ry and by pu b lic opinion can h a rd ly q u alify as
m a c h ia v e llia n . S in ce the P h y s io c r a ts su b ord in ated both p o litic s and
m o r a ls to th eir e c o n o m ic t h e o r ie s , they did not c o n sid e r the
e x ig e n c ie s of p o litic a l n e c e s s ity : they s im p ly did not c o n c e iv e of any
p o litic a l p r o b le m taking p r e c e d e n c e over th eir g r e a t ta sk , or of any
o c c a s io n in w h ich the p rin c e m ig h t have to a c t c o n tr a r y to the la w s.
T h eir a ssu m p tio n of n atural ord er and h a rm o n y and of the r o le of
the r u le r p reclu d ed any su c h aw kw ard e v e n t, but it did not sa v e th em
fr o m d isr eg a r d in g both p r a c tic a l and m o r a l c o n c er n s in th eir p u rsu it
of the natural o r d e r . T h eir in terp reta tio n of public u tility and
g e n e r a l w e lfa r e ca m e to be b a se d on rigid e c o n o m ic la w s r e g a r d le s s
of the actu a l hum an n e e d s . The r u le r , th en , w as not fr e e to follow
r e a s o n s of sta te but in h is c a p a city of b rin gin g about co n fo r m ity of
135
s o c ie t y w ith the n atu ral ord er he p u rsu ed the law s of e c o n o m ic
n e c e s s it y fr e e of the u su a l im m e d ia te , hum an and m o r a l
r e s t r ic t io n s .
N or w as the le g a l d esp o t of the P h y s io c r a ts syn on ym ou s
w ith the " en ligh ten ed despot" w ho en h a n ces the p o w e r s of the state
at the e x p e n se of oth er grou p s or in stitu tio n s. ^ W e u le r s s e sh a rp ly
d istin g u ish e s b e tw e en the two: "the p a trim o n ia l m o n a rc h y of the
P h y s io c r a t s is not at a ll the ’p a te r n a l1 g o v ern m en t of the
17
en lig h ten ed d e s p o ts ." The P h y s io c r a t s ’ p rin ce e x is t e d to in te r p r e t
the n atu ral la w s and apply th e m , a m o d e s t fu nction. T his is
illu str a te d b y the su p p o sed en cou n ter b e tw e en the Dauphin and D r.
Q u esn a y , a founder of the P h y s io c r a tic sc h o o l, in w h ich the Dauphin
su g g e ste d that the o ffice of king w as a v e r y d ifficu lt job. Q u esn ay
r e p lie d that he did not think s o . "So! w h at would you do if you w e re
k in g? " a sk e d the D auphin. " S ir, I w ould do nothing. " "And who
18
w ould g o v e r n ? " "The la w s ." In p r a c t ic e , the r o le of the p rin ce
w as p r im a r ily to m a in ta in p r iv a te p r o p e r ty and e c o n o m ic lib e r ty .
R e s p o n sib ility for n ation al d e fe n s e , d o m e s tic s e c u r ity , and the
ex ec u tio n of the la w s w as b e sto w ed on h im , but th e s e w e re m e a n s to
th o se e n d s .
A s opponents of m e r c a n t ilis m the P h y s io c r a ts ob jected
to the h ea v y -h a n d ed e c o n o m ic p a te r n a lis m of the a b so lu te m o n a rch y ,
but th ey could e a s ily approve of m o d e s t sta te a ctio n to im p ro v e
c o m m u n ic a tio n s. Two ad d ition al fu n ctio n s of the p h y sio c r a tic r u le r
s e e m to be at v a r ia n c e w ith th is l a i s s e z - f a i r e r o le but a re a ctu a lly
lo g ic a l e x te n sio n s of P h y s io c r a c y . The f ir s t w as p u b lic w o r k s.
136
P h y s io c r a ts c r it ic iz e d c o s tly w o r k s undertaken b y the g o v ern m en t
that cou ld h ave b e e n done b etter by e n te r p r isin g in d iv id u a ls, but at
the s a m e tim e urged r u le r s to bu ild r o a d s, c a n a ls , p o r t s - - w h a t they
19
c a lle d the a v a n c e s f o n c ie r e s of the sta te . A fter n ation al d e fe n s e ,
j
d o m e s tic s e c u r ity , and the e x ec u tio n of the la w s, the r u le r l s
r e s p o n s ib ility ex ten d s to the a d m in istr a tio n of a ll th o se w o rk s that
| p ro m o te the p r o s p e r ity of the co u n try . The state should not it s e lf
u ndertake the p r o je c ts and e n t e r p r is e s , w hich a r e s t ill in the hands
of w e a lth y and in te r e ste d in d iv id u a ls, but plan, s e a r c h out in te r e ste d
p e r s o n s , and s u p e r v is e the p r o je c ts . ^
P u b lic in str u c tio n w a s a ls o c o n siste n t w ith P h y s io c r a tic
a im s . The M arquis de M ira b ea u , one of the fou n d ers of the sc h o o l,
said that "m an n eed ed to be g o v ern ed only b e c a u se he needed to be
in s tr u c te d . The righ t and the duty of govern ing e n ta ils the r ig h t and
2 1
the duty to in str u c t. " A fr e e and en ligh ten ed p u b lic opinion not
only h e lp s gu aran tee the in te g r ity of the le g a l d e sp o t, but a ls o is
r e a lly the k ey to the s u c c e s s of the r e fo r m of s o c ie ty . The id e a l
r u le r r e p r e s e n ts the fo r c e of r ea so n ; h is s u c c e s s in tr a n sfo r m in g the
s o c ia l o rd er to co n fo rm to the n atu ral one depends upon the sp rea d
of r e a s o n am ong h is p e o p le . T h ey , a s w e ll as h e , m u s t u se r e a s o n
to un d erstan d the n atu ral o rd er and to a c ce p t r e f o r m s con form in g to
it. The P h y s io c r a ts b e lie v e d that the p h y sio c r a tic o rd er w a s
in e v ita b le , but w ith the ex p a n sio n of the know ledge of the la w s of the
o r d e r , s u c c e s s could co m e s o o n e r . Once m en knew how to handle
th eir a ff a ir s , once th ey w e re both en ligh ten ed and f r e e , th ey w ould
have no n eed to be g o v e r n e d . The s u c c e s s f u l le g a l d esp ot w ould w ork
137
h im s e lf out of a job.
Two m a in p oin ts e m e r g e fro m th is exam in ation of the
P h y sio c r a ts* p r in c e . In the f ir s t p la c e , he is not the a w e so m e d esp ot
that he a p p ea rs at f ir s t g la n c e . This b u ild er of the new s o c ie ty is a
m o d e st fig u r e . T here is m u ch m o r e e m p h a sis on the s im p lic ity and I
lim ite d nature of h is fu n ction s and on the lib er ty of ind ividu als than
on the p o s s ib le aren a s fo r h is ta le n ts. A s su ch , he is in con form ity
[ w ith the p rin ce d epicted by M ontesquieu and V o lta ir e . H e, lik e their
j id ea l r u le r s , is p la ced under law , not above it.
S eco n d ly , the p h y sio c r a tic p rin ce is , if anything, even
m o r e se c u la r than the p h ilo s o p h e s * p r in c e . Not only are h is conduct
and p o lic ie s not govern ed by a r e lig io u s m o r a l co d e, but he ev en
[ lo s e s sig h t of the se c u la r m o r a l code of the eigh teen th cen tu ry. Like
the p rin ce of M ontesquieu and the one of V o lta ir e , the le g a l d esp ot
d e s ir e s a rule of law , but the r e a l m otivation of the law is not ju stice
but the eco n o m ic ord er.
NOTES
L eo G e rsh o y , F r o m D e sp o tism to R evolu tion , 1763-
1789 (New Y ork, 1963; f ir s t pub. 1944), pp. 6 5 -7 2 . "When Q uesnay
a d v ised the future king to do nothing and le t the law rule . . . he w as
th erefo re advocating e x a ctly the sa m e kind of en ligh ten ed d e sp o tism
| that underlay V o lta ir e ’s th ese r o y a le . What is ’le g a l d e s p o tis m ’
I but 'en ligh ten ed d e s p o tis m ’ ? ” (B e ste r m a n , p. 20). Cobban, p. 167.
2
G eo rg es W e u le r s s e , L es P h y sio c r a te s ( P a r is , 1931),
p. 188. G eo rg es W e u le r s s e , La P h y sio c r a tie sous le s m in is t e r e s
de T urgot e t de N eck er (1 7 7 4 -1 7 8 1 ) ( P a r is , 1950), p. 109.
3
A m b ro se S a r ic k s , P ie r r e S a m u el D uPont de N em ou rs
(L a w ren ce, K a n sa s, 1965) p. 122. M ario E inaudi, The P h y sio c r a tic
D octrine of J u d icial C ontrol (C am b rid ge, M a s s ., 1938), p. 44. \
G ay, V o lta ir e ’s P o l i t i c s , p. 168. i
4 !
E inau di, p. 27. P a u lV a u c h e r , "L egal D e sp o tism , " j
C r itic a l I s s u e s in H isto r y 4: The E a rly M odern E ra (B oston , 1967),
p. 470. G e o rg e s W e u le r s s e , La P h y sio c r a tie a la fin du regn e de
L ouis XV (1770-1774) (P a r is , 1959), pp. 9 1 -9 2 .
W e u le r s s e , L es P h y s io c r a t e s , p. 191. W e u le r s s e ,
La P h y s io c r a tie 1 7 7 0 -1 7 7 4 , p . 90. W e u le r s s e , La P h y sio c r a tie
1 7 7 4 -1 7 8 1 , pp. I l l , 310. A t the sa m e tim e , the P h y sio c r a ts
favored p e r so n s who opposed the ro y a l g o v ern m en t su ch as La
C halotais and the R en n es P a r le m e n t (S a ric k s, p. 368), and
en co u ra g ed so m e feu d al r ea c tio n am ong the n ob ility (V aucher,
p. 470).
^The P h y s io c r a t s ’ o b s e ss io n w ith natural o r d e r,
g e o m e tr ic a l rea so n in g , and the d ictates of p h y sic a l n e c e s s it y led
them to an ex a g g era ted b e lie f in the va lid ity of the a b so lu te,
"natural" la w s they had d isc o v e r e d . F a c e d w ith sp e c ific in cid en ts
they b e c a m e in flex ib ly lo g ic a l, ignoring the im m ed iate
c ir c u m sta n c e s and blindly adh ering to th eir h ig h er p r in c ip les of
natural eco n o m ic law (A nd erson, p. 71).
7
E inau di, p. 28. Cobban’s u su a lly astute co m m en ts are
at v a r ia n c e w ith E in au d i’s m o re e x ten siv e study w hen he w r ite s that
the seco n d g en era tio n of P h y sio c r a ts abandoned the idea of
en ligh ten ed d e sp o tism w hen th ey r e a liz e d the n o n sen se of com bining
total e c o n o m ic lib e r ty for the individual w ith total p o litic a l pow er
fo r the r u le r (Cobban, p. 167). E inaudi c la im s that even Q uesnay
___________________________ 138 ______ ______ ______ ___
139
and D uP ont de N e m o u r s in ter p r e te d the d e sp o t or "public authority"
as r e s t r ic t e d by v a r io u s g u a ra n tees (pp. 44 and 4 4 n .) .
^ V au ch er, p. 470.
Q
W e u le r s s e , L es P h y s io c r a t e s , pp. 1 9 6 -1 9 7 . V a u ch er,
p. 4 7 0 .
10
| E in au d i, p . 28.
i ^ j
Ib id . , p. 10. E in au d i has r e v ie w e d the v a r io u s
in ter p r e ta tio n s of the p h y s io c r a tic d o c tr in e s up to 1938 (p. 4 and
p a s s im ) . W e u le r s s e , the fo r e m o s t sc h o la r of P h y s io c r a c y s e e m s to
be a m b iv a len t. In h is e a r ly w o r k he c a lls ju d ic ia l c o n tro l an a b su rd
p r e te n s e (Le M ou vem en t p h y sjo cra tiq u e en F r a n c e , 1756-1770
[ P a r i s , 1 9 1 0 ], II, 733, quoted by E in au d i, p . 7), but m en tio n s it as
a g u aran tee in L e s P h y s i o c r a t e s , p. 195. _Cf. , " M ercier de la
R iv ie r e ," E n c y clo p e d ia of the S o c ia l S c i e n c e s , X , 3 53, and
" E co n o m ics: P h y s io c r a c y , 11 ib id . , Y , 3 4 8 -3 5 1 .
^ E in a u d i, p . 22.
■^V aucher, p. 470.
14
E in au d i, p . 41.
15
A n d erso n w r ite s that " in ad verten tly, the P h y s io c r a ts
fa sh io n ed th eir own r a is o n d1e ta t, b a se d on the la w s of e co n o m ic
r a th e r than p o litic a l n e c e s s it y . . . . The g r e a t e s t e r r o r of the
P h y s io c r a ts w a s th eir in d ifferen ce to the m o r a l im p e r a tiv e of hum an
n e c e s s it y , b e c a u se of th eir d ev o tio n to the n e c e s s it y of N a tu reJs
P r in c ip le s " (p. 72).
^ V a u c h e r , pp. 4 7 0 , 4 73.
■ ^ W eu ler sse , La P h y s io c r a t ie , 1 7 7 4 -1 7 8 1 , p. 311.
18
| W e u le r s s e , L es P h y s io c r a te s , p. 187 (no so u r ce of
quotation g iv e n ).
^ W e u l e r s s e , La P h y s io c r a tie 1 7 7 0 -1 7 7 4 , p . 87; cap ital
a d v a n ces fu rn ish ed b y the p r o p r ie to r at the begin n in g of the
e n te r p r ise (o r ig in a lly an a g r ic u ltu r a l e n te r p r is e ).
20
W e u le r s s e , La P h y s io c r a tie 1 7 7 0 -1 7 7 4 , pp. 8 7 -8 8 .
W e u le r s s e , L a P h y s io c r a tie 1 7 7 4 -1 7 8 1 , p. 312.
^ W e u l e r s s e , La P h y s io c r a tie 1 7 7 4 -1 7 8 1 , p. 113, quoted
fr o m M irab eau , S u p p lem en t a la th eo rie de l ’im p ot (1776), p. 54.
CHAPTER VII
ROUSSEAU
| The ap p earance of R o u ssea u in a study of id ea l p r in c e s
| m ay at fir s t s e e m co n tra d icto ry , sin c e he r e p r e s e n ts a m o re n ovel
i
! str e a m of p o litic a l thought. B ec a u se h is id ea l is not m on arch y but a
j
j d e m o c r a tic fo r m of g o v ern m en t, he only relu cta n tly d e s c r ib e s an
! ideal p r in c e . In fa ct, he is e x p lic it in h is c r it ic is m of th ose w r ite r s
i
| w hose support of the m o n a rc h ic a l fo r m of go v ern m en t is b a sed on an
id eal and p e r fe c t p r in ce. * N e v e r th e le s s , h is notion of the le g isla to r
f
in the S o cia l C ontract and h is d e scrip tio n of the m o n a rch w hen a king
is in d isp en sib le are p ertin en t contributions to the con cep t of the id ea l
prin ce of the E n ligh ten m en t.
The figu re of the le g is la to r w as a fa m ilia r one am ong
j eig h teen th -cen tu ry w r ite r s and fo r m s an im portant p a rt of th eir
con cep ts of the id ea l r u le r . M ontesquieu s e e s the function of the
le g is la to r as the m o s t im p ortant a sp e c t of the role of the ruler;
V o lta ire in d icates that the m o r e p rim itiv e the country, the m o re
2
sig n ifica n t the ro le of the le g isla to r ; and an a r tic le in the
E n cy clo p ed ie c o n sid e r s the le g is la to r as the one who m a k es and
i
ab rogates la w s , defends the sta te , and p u rsu es the w e lfa r e of the
3
c itiz e n s . Only R o u sse a u c le a r ly d istin g u ish es b etw een the
le g is la to r and the r u le r. H is concep t of the le g is la to r is , th e r e fo r e ,
140
141
a p a rticu la r kind of p erfect p rin ce and a unique e le m e n t in the
co m p lex of id ea s of the p h ilo so p h es to w h ich the p r in c e s of the le s s e r
fictio n a l w r ite r s w ill be co m p a red .
j
R o u s se a u ’s ideal p rin ce as le g is la to r is "the en g in eer
who invents the m a c h in e," w h e r ea s the ru ler "is only the w orkm an
4
who builds it and m a k es it run. " He is the fou n d er, the a r ch ite ct,
i
! and h as no p art in the state once its b a s ic fr a m e w o rk is e sta b lish e d .
He d oes not p a rticip ate in govern in g and thus is not an ex ecu tiv e or
| r u le r . He d oes not le g isla te ord in ary la w s --th a t is to be le ft to the
i
5
g e n e r a l w ill once the body p o litic is in stitu ted - - h e n c e he is not a
la w m a k er w ithin the e sta b lish e d s y s te m .
T his le g is la to r is a ls o a su p er-h u m a n , a lm o s t a m y th ica l
p e r so n , not a hum an p r in ce. He m u st have su p erio r in tellig en ce and
be above a ll the p a ssio n s of ord in ary m e n . He is a m an w ith talents
and pow er so excep tion al that he b e lie v e s he is capable of changing
hum an n atu re, for that is w hat he has to do when he in stitu tes the
body p o litic , w hich changes n atu ral, p h y sic a l m an into s o c ia l, m o ra l
m an .
The le g is la to r is p u rely s e c u la r . He d oes not owe h is
| authority to God, nor is he p e r so n a lly co m m itted to any p a rticu la r
! r e lig io n , but he w ill use r e lig io n if it s e r v e s the p u rp o se s of the
sta te . F o r e x a m p le , the le g is la to r cannot be u n derstood by
ord in ary m e n , th erefo re he cannot n e c e s s a r ily convince th em to
a c ce p t h is plan through the u se of ra tio n a l argu m en t and the appeal
to p r in c ip les th ey do not y et hold; but h e can and d o es turn to
r e lig io n for "divine" explanations that the people f e e l bound to
142
a c c e p t.^ The le g is la to r th ereb y d e m o n str a te s not only a g r a sp of
p o litic a l r e a lis m but a ls o a cer ta in kin sh ip w ith M a c h ia v e lli’s notion
7
of the p rin ce as the founder of a nation.
i
R o u sse a u , in an attem p t to m ak e th is id ea l and a b stra ct
le g is la to r m o r e c o n c r e te , expands the idea of the u tility of r elig io n
| in the foundation of a sta te by d e scr ib in g the w ork of the le g is la to r s
M o s e s , L y cu rg u s, and N um a. M o se s , he e x p la in s, crea ted a body
! p o litic and a fr e e p eop le out of a w andering horde and gave them
| in stitu tio n s, including r e lig io u s r ite s and c e r e m o n ie s , that enabled
th em to reta in th eir n ational identity d esp ite p e r se c u tio n and the
g
I la ck of a n ation al sta te . L ycu rgu s uplifted the v ic e -r id d e n
Spartans through p reoccu p ation w ith the fath erlan d . Numa
I
| tr a n sfo r m e d a band of brigand s into c itiz e n s of a sin g le body,
attach ed to e a ch other and to th eir s o il through friv o lo u s and
su p e r stitio u s r it e s . "The sa m e s p ir it guided a ll the ancient
le g is la to r s in th eir c r e a tio n s. T hey a ll sought bonds w hich would
attach c itiz e n s to the fath erlan d and to ea ch other; and they found
th em in p a rticu la r c u s to m s , in r e lig io u s c e r e m o n ie s w hich by th eir
g
nature w e re alw ays e x c lu siv e and n ation al. . . . 11
On the other hand, the eig h teen th -cen tu ry antipathy to
M a ch ia v elli is strong in R o u s se a u ’s stip u lation that the le g is la to r
cannot use fo r c e; to do s o would be tyranny. In fa c t, it is m an datory
that the le g is la to r do h is w ork at a tim e of p eace and p r o sp e r ity .
W ar, fa m in e, sed itio n or s im ila r p erio d s of s t r e s s and disruption
a re v e r y dan gerous for the new g o v ern m en t and for the state its e lf,
sin c e such tim e s a re often u sed by u su rp ers to take co n tro l. "The
143
ch o ice of the m o m en t for founding is one of the s u r e s t sign s by w hich
the w ork of the le g is la to r is d istin g u ish ed fro m that of the tyrant."*^
The le g is la to r is not a d esp o t or a dictator; n eith er is he a
c h a r ism a tic le a d e r who in terp rets and im p o se s the " gen eral w ill" on
the p eo p le, but he d oes e sta b lish the conditions under w hich the
g e n e r a l w ill can b eco m e o p era tiv e. * ^
W hen R o u sse a u sh ifts h is attention fro m le g is la to r to
r u le r , h is o rig in a lity is le s s profound. He n ever ad vocates absolute
I 1 2
! state au thority, eith er in the fo r m of the absolute m o n a rch y he
co n stan tly and b itte rly c r it ic i z e s , or in th eo ries of enligh tened
j
d e sp o tism and id eal p r in c e s . In g e n e ra l he r e je c ts m o n a rch y , in
w hich the w ill of a sin g le m an is dom inant, a s an tith etical to the
13
in te r e sts of public w e lfa r e . He reg a rd s m o s t m o n a rch s as u tterly
incapable of g o v ern in g , sin ce th ey are u su ally petty m is c h ie f-m a k e r s ,
r a s c a ls , and in trig u e rs w h ose talen ts are far too s m a ll for th eir
t a s k - - o r in ra re in s ta n c e s , too g r e a t for the s iz e of the sta te .
F u r th e r m o r e , the m o s t com m on m eth od of s u c c e s s io n , h e r ed ita r y
k in gsh ip , en ta ils a high r isk of having ch ild ren , m o n s te r s , or
14
im b e c ile s for r u le r s .
M ore s p e c ific a lly , R o u sse a u condem ns d e sp o tism on
i
grounds of both p rin cip le and exp ed ien cy; it is ille g itim a te b e c a u se
; j
it a llo w s a p e r so n to be above the law; it is im p r a c tic a l b e c a u se it
15
is u n stab le, in e fficien t, and corru p t. He n ever a ccep ted the
notion of a b en evolen t d e sp o tism and stoutly opposed the le g a l
d e sp o tism of the P h y sio c r a ts for its u n re a listic a s s e s s m e n t of human
ra tio n a lity and its lo g ic a l con trad iction . In r e sp o n se to Le M e r c ie r ’s
144
N a tu ra l O rder R o u s se a u a r g u e s that e v en if the p eop le could
u n derstan d the th eo ry of n atu ral law and could s e e a ll the n e c e s s a r y
r e la tio n s h ip s, th ey s t ill w ould a ct a c co r d in g to th eir em o tio n s rather
16
than th eir r e a s o n . The r u le r , to o , is guided b y p a s s io n , for only
the sa g e is ab le to p u rsu e h is in te r e s ts r a tio n a lly . " G en tlem en , 11 he
ca u tio n s the P h y s io c r a t s , " p erm it m e to t e ll you: you give too m u ch
fo r c e to your c a lcu la tio n s and not enough to the sw a y of the hum an
h e a r t and the p lay of the e m o tio n s. Y our s y s te m is good fo r the m e n j
S 17
j of Utopia; it is w o r th le s s fo r the c h ild re n of A d a m ." W ithout
j ex a m in in g the P h y s io c r a t s 1 id e a s v e r y th o ro u g h ly , and taking the
w o rd s "legal" and " d esp o tism " quite lit e r a lly , R o u sse a u r e j e c ts the
notion as connoting an in d efen sib le state of c o n flict b e tw een m en and
la w s , a contin ual w a r , the w o r st of a ll p o litic a l s ta te s . "Do not
sp ea k to m e of your le g a l d e s p o t is m . I do not know how to a p p recia te
it, n or ev en understan d it; and I s e e in it only tw o co n tra d icto ry j
18
w o r d s w hich join ed to g eth er m e a n nothing to m e . "
R o u sse a u w a s so opp osed to the ru le of a sin g le m an that
he could not d is c u s s a b s o lu tism , m u ch l e s s d e s p o tis m , as a p o s s ib le j
fo r m of g o v ern m en t. W hen he d oes sp ea k of a d ic ta to rsh ip as a !
1 |
u se fu l fo r m of g o v e rn m e n t, he m e a n s a co n stitu tio n a l d icta to rsh ip
in stitu ted only in an e m e r g e n c y w h en the state is th rea ten ed w ith
d e str u c tio n . In addition, d icta to rsh ip is only te m p o r a r y b e c a u se
"in the c r i s e s w h ich req u ire its e sta b lis h m e n t, the state is soon
lo s t or sa v e d . " L a stly , the d ictator only te m p o r a r ily su sp en d s the
19
la w s; he d o es not a b o lish them or m a k e th em .
R o u s se a u not on ly con d em n s d e s p o tis m a s su c h , but
145
r e c o g n iz e s the h o llo w n e ss of fen elo n ia n fo r m u la s fo r the id ea l
b e n e v o le n t p r in c e . He s e e s the lim ita tio n s of a sin g le r u le r as
a lm o s t in su rm o u n ta b le. What can the m o s t ju st p rin ce w ith the b e s t
of in ten tion s do, R o u sse a u a s k s , w h en he is fa c e d w ith ta sk s beyond
I h is r e s o u r c e s ? It is not v e r y u sefu l to d is c u s s w hat a w ise king
j
i w ould do, b e c a u se that h as v e r y little r e la tio n to w hat the p rin ce
20
j w ould do. The en tir e occu p ation of a king h as two o b je c ts, m ak ing
| h is d om in ation m o r e e x te n siv e e x te r n a lly and m o r e ab solu te
in ter n a lly . The "public w e lf a r e ," "the h a p p in ess of h is s u b j e c ts ,"
the " glory of h is nation, " a re a ll p r e te x ts so fla g r a n tly u sed th at
the p eop le groan in advan ce w hen a king sp ea k s of th em and of h is
21
p a ren ta l c a r e s . The sa m e se n tim e n ts app ear in the S o c ia l
C o n tr a c t, w h ere R o u s se a u is v e r y im p a tien t w ith th o se who co m p a re
the p rin ce w ith the fath er of the fa m ily and a s s u m e he w ill a lw a y s
j
b e what he ought to b e . A lthough the love of h is p eo p le w ould be to
h is in t e r e s t in the long run, the p rin c e d o es not o p era te on that
I
I p r in c ip le . "A p o litic a l p r e a c h e r w ill w a ste h is b r e a th tellin g
[ p r in c e s ] th at, the str en g th of the p eop le b ein g th eir own, th eir
I g r e a t e s t in t e r e s t is that th eir p eo p le should be flo u rish in g , n u m e ro u s,
and fo r m id a b le . T hey know v e r y w e ll it is not tr u e . T heir p e r so n a l
in t e r e s t is f ir s t of a ll that the p eop le should be w ea k , m is e r a b le , and
22
n ev e r cap ab le of r e s is t in g th e m . "
W here R o u s se a u w a s fo r c e d to take into accou n t actu a l
r u le r s , a s in e ig h te e n th -c en tu r y P o la n d , he sooth ed h is c o n sc ie n c e
23
by c o m p r o m isin g b etw een the id e a l and the r e a l. He b a la n ce s
au th ority w ith so m e intriguing lim ita tio n s that a r e c le a r ly draw n
146
fr o m the tra d itio n s of the cou n try c o n c e r n e d , h is own id e a ls , and
co n te m p o ra r y thought.
The k in g's a u th ority is defin ed b y the co n stitu tio n ,
w h ich r e c o g n iz e s no su p ern a tu ra l or e x tr a o rd in a r y au th ority on the
p a rt of the m a n s e le c te d to be the r u le r . He is s e le c te d not a cco rd in g
j to the p rin cip le of le g itim a c y -- in h e r ita n c e of the cro w n b ein g one of
R o u s s e a u ’s m a jo r o b jectio n s to m o n a r c h y --b u t by an e le c tio n
r e s t r ic t e d by e lig ib ility r e q u ir e m e n ts fo r both can d id ates and for
th o se who m a y p a r tic ip a te in the e le c tio n of the k in g. The e le c tio n
p ro ced u re is d e sig n e d to in su re s e le c t io n of the king on the b a s is of
m e r it and thus s e r v e the lib er ty of the p eop le and the p r o s p e r ity of
the sta te .
I b e lie v e that the a s su r a n c e of lib e r ty w ill not be the only
advantage w hich w ill r e s u lt fr o m this e x c lu sio n [ o f k in g s1
son s fr o m the th ron e] . It w ill give r is e to another m o r e
c o n sid e r a b le advantage: by d ep rivin g kin gs of a ll hope
of usurpin g and tra n sm ittin g to th eir ch ild re n a r b itr a r y
p o w er, it w ill d ir e c t a ll th eir a c tiv ity tow ard the g lo r y
and p r o s p e r ity of the sta te , the only w ay le ft open for
th eir a m b itio n s. Thus the r u le r of the nation, no lon ger
its h e r e d ita r y e n e m y , w ill b e c o m e its f ir s t citizen ;
thus he w ill s e r io u s ly undertake to m a k e h is r e ig n
illu str io u s w ith u se fu l w ork s w hich w ill m ake h im dear
| to h is p e o p le and r e s p e c te d b y h is n e ig h b o r s, and w ill
m ake h is m e m o r y b le s s e d a fte r h im . . . . 24
j The ru ler w ho is f ir s t of all s e le c te d for h is o ffice by h is
p eo p le is a ls o su b ject to th eir ju d gm en t. It is not h is so u l that m u st
m e e t ju dgm ent in the a ft e r life , but h is fa m e that m u st stand
ju d gm en t by m e n in th is w o rld . R o u s se a u r e c o m m e n d s the
in stitu tio n a liz a tio n of su c h ju d gm en t w h ere it w ill h ave m o r a l
f o r c e - - n o t in the sk e p tic a l and so p h istic a te d F r a n c e of the
p h ilo s o p h e s , but in P o la n d w h e r e , at a c e r e m o n y im m e d ia te ly
147
fo llo w in g the d eath o f the k in g , h is su b je c ts d e c id e if he h a s b e e n a
good and ju st p r in c e . If th e d e c is io n is fa v o r a b le , he w ill r e c e iv e a
m a g n ific e n t fu n e r a l, h is n a m e w ill be h o n o red w ith the title "of
25
g lo r io u s m e m o r y , " and h is fa m ily w ill be r ew a rd ed w ith h o n o r s.
In ad d itio n to h is a u th o rity b ein g d e r iv e d fr o m h is
s u b je c ts , it is b oth lim ite d and s h a r e d . P r in c e ly a u th o rity is
d efin ed b y the c o n stitu tio n , and th er e is no q u e stio n but th at the
r u le r is bound by th e la w s o f the n a tio n . T hus he c o n fo r m s to
R o u s s e a u 's b a s ic and w h o le -h e a r te d b e lie f in g o v e rn m e n t a c co r d in g
I to la w . L aw s a r e the e x p r e s s io n of th e g e n e r a l w ill, h e n c e e n tir e ly
|
| o f h u m an o r ig in . S u r e ly ju s tic e c o m e s fr o m God and u n iv e r s a l
i
r e a s o n , and s u r e ly th er e a r e n a tu ra l la w s , but th ey a re of no
r e le v a n c e , m u ch l e s s b e n e fit, to m a n u n le s s th ey a r e em b o d ied in
2 6
s ta tu t e s . It is n o t the r e s p o n s ib ility of the r u le r to m a k e the la w s ,
o n ly to g o v e r n a c c o r d in g to th e m . The r u le r , w ho is not a
la w m a k er a t a ll, e v e n s h a r e s h is e x e c u tiv e p o w e r s w ith h is s u b j e c ts ,
p a r tic u la r ly w ith th e r e p r e s e n ta tiv e in s titu tio n s . H e is r e a lly only
a s u p e r v is o r w ith v e r y lit t le pow er fo r im m e d ia te and d ir e c t a c tio n
on h is ow n.
i
| The s u p e r v is o r -k in g is a llo w e d to c o n fe r h o n o r ific t it le s
j
j th at "honor m e r it and fla tte r v a n ity " , but he can n ot co n fe r p o w e r .
I
] He is e n title d to a sp len d id a p p e a r a n c e , but he d o es not h an d le the
e x p e n d itu r es of the r o y a l o ff ic e . A ll of h is o ffic ia ls a r e to be
e m p lo y e d by the s t a t e , n o t b y h im p e r s o n a lly , and it is a c r im in a l
o ffe n se fo r h im to e n tr u st an y of h is a d m in is tr a tiv e a u th o rity to
p e r s o n a l fa v o r ite s ra th er th an to the p r o p e r o f f ic ia ls . H is m o s t
148
p o s itiv e fu n c tio n s s e e m to c o n s is t of m ak in g m e n in o ffic e do th e ir
d u ties; g u a r a n tee in g the ju s tic e and in te g r ity of the la w co u rts;
in a u g u ra tin g u se fu l p u b lic w o rk s; and m a in ta in in g s e c u r it y th rou gh
27
d o m e s tic tr a n q u illity and com m an d o f the a r m e d f o r c e s .
A lth ou gh the king d o es not h ave fu ll p o w er in the
a p p o in tm en t o f m in is t e r s , c u r io u s ly he d o es ap p oin t th e grand
j c h a n c e llo r . R o u sse a u is a t odds w ith M o n tesq u ieu and the
P h y s io c r a t s , a t le a s t in th is p a r tic u la r in s ta n c e , w hen he p r e fe r s
the m o r e tr a d itio n a l c o n c ep t of the king a s the su p r e m e judge of th e
la n d .
! K in gs a r e the b o rn ju d g es of th e ir p e o p le s; it is fo r th at
| p u r p o se , alth ou gh th ey h ave a ll abandoned it , th a t th ey
w e r e e s ta b lis h e d . It cannot be d en ied th e m , an d , if
th e y do n o t w ant to f u lf ill the o ffic e t h e m s e lv e s , the
n o m in a tio n of th e ir su b s titu te s is th e ir r ig h t. . . . If
th e king judged in p e r s o n , I th in k th at he w ould h a v e
the r ig h t o f s o le ju d g e.
S in ce the a u th o r ity and the p ow er of the kin g a r e so
lim ite d , h is e ffe c t iv e n e s s in the p r e s c r ib e d c a p a c itie s s e e m s to
d ep end upon the good w ill, in te g r ity , and p o w er of the m a jo r ity o f
o ffic e h o ld e r s and m e m b e r s of the r e p r e s e n ta tiv e in s titu tio n s . H is
I
! d eath p r o v e s the r e la tiv e in s ig n ific a n c e o f th e m o n a rc h in a w e ll-
!
d e s ig n e d g o v ern m en t: "At the k in g Js death e v e r y th in g should p r o c e e d
a s if he w e r e s t i l l liv in g ; one sh o u ld h a rd ly be ab le to p e r c e iv e th at
a p ie c e of the m a ch in e is m is s in g , th at p ie c e b ein g s o lit tle
e s s e n t ia l to its o p e r a tio n .
D e sp ite the s c o r n that R o u sse a u h a s fo r the c o n s id e r a tio n
o f the p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f r u le r s , w e can d is c e r n a few
g e n e r a l tr a its d e e m e d u se fu l and p o s s ib le . One of the few fa v o r a b le
149
c o m m e n ts on a king a p p ea r s in r e g a r d to H en ry IV , w hom R o u sse a u
c a lls a g r e a t m a n , w is e and g o o d . H e n r y , in s h o r t, w a s a m a n of
v is io n and id e a ls b u t a ls o one w ho took th e tro u b le to p lan c a r e fu lly
and w ho knew how to a p p ea l to the s e lf is h in t e r e s t of p a r tic u la r m e n ,
e s p e c ia lly o th er r u le r s . He w a s id e a lis t ic but v e r y p r a c tic a l and
30
p o litic a lly a s tu te .
S in ce e v en the m o s t ju s t p r in c e is s t i l l a m an and not a
g o d , a s h is d u ties w ou ld r e q u ir e , the f i r s t step to w a rd w isd o m is to
r e a liz e h is lim ita tio n s . "The w is e m a n , if th e r e ca n be one on the
th r o n e , r en o u n c e s the e m p ir e or s h a r e s it. He m e a s u r e s h is
r e s o u r c e s and w e ig h s a g a in s t th em the ta sk s th at he w ants to
31
f u lf ill. . . . " O nce the w e a k n e s s e s and lim ita tio n s o f o n e -m a n
r u le a r e r e c o g n iz e d , it is n e c e s s a r y to e s t a b lis h a fo r m o f
g o v e r n m e n t in w h ich th e king m a k e s e ffe c tiv e u se of oth er m e n , and
b y im p lic a tio n , the b e tte r h e is a t p e r so n n e l m a n a g e m e n t, the
b e tte r a king h e w ill b e . B oth the g e n e r a l attitu d e and the te c h n iq u e s
a r e a c q u ir e d , not b y stu d yin g the a r t of r u lin g , but b y e x p e r ie n c e in
32
o b e y in g .
In a m u ch l e s s s e r io u s v e in , b e fo r e h e had w r itte n the
in d ic tm e n t of m o n a rc h y in the S o c ia l C o n tra ct and Long b e fo r e he
d e v is e d a c o n stitu tio n fo r P o la n d in w h ich he d e s c r ib e d the
s u p e r v is o r -k in g , R o u s se a u h ad dabbled in the p h ilo so p h ic fa ir y ta le
and had a c tu a lly a llo w e d h im s e lf to sp e a k of an id e a l p r in c e . La
R e in e fa n ta sq u e , w r itte n abou t 175 6 , is an im p e r fe c t co m b in a tio n of
s e v e r a l in g r e d ie n ts: s e r io u s p o litic a l c r it ic is m ; s a tir e on h u sb an d -
w ife r e la tio n s and p a r tic u la r ly on p aren th ood ; p a ro d y of the
150
th o u s a n d -a n d -o n e -n ig h ts th em e of the stu p id s u lta n and h is w ife w ho
a lw a y s in te r r u p t the sto r y ; and s a t ir e on th e u se of f a ir y t a le s fo r
33
p o lit ic a l p ro p a g a n d a .
T he s to r y b e g in s w ith an id e a l kin g fa c in g the m o r e
r e a li s t i c c o u r t s c e n e .
j
T h e r e w a s in fo r m e r t im e s a k in g w ho lo v e d h is
p e o p le . . . . and w h o , c o n s e q u e n tly w a s a d o red
b y th e m . . . . In to x ic a te d w ith th e b iz a r r e
| p r o je c t o f m a k in g h is s u b je c ts h ap p y, h e a c te d
a c c o r d in g ly - - a co n d u ct s o sin g u la r th a t am on g
th e n o b le s h e a p p ea r e d r id ic u lo u s . T he p e o p le
b le s s e d h im but the c o u r t c o n s id e r e d h im a fo o l. ^4
The d o m e s tic p r o b le m s o f K ing P h o e n ix and h is w h im s ic a l q u een
r e a c h a c lim a x in th e d e c is io n c o n c e r n in g the e d u c a tio n of th e ir
tw o c h ild r e n , one o f w h o m , C a p r ic e , is to be a s fo o lis h a s the
q u e e n , and the o th e r , know n a s R e a s o n , is to be a s r e a s o n a b le a s
the k in g , p o s s e s s in g a ll th e v ir tu e s o f an h o n e s t m a n and the
q u a litie s o f a good k in g . T he n a iv e te o f th is v e r y s im p le s to r y is
s u p e r fic ia l: th e kin g c o n s o le s h im s e lf w ith a th ou gh t he o ften h a s ,
th a t n a tu r a l g o o d n e s s and a s e n s it iv e h e a r t a r e s u ffic ie n t to m a k e up
fo r e v e r y th in g , but it is o b v io u s th a t th at is tr u e on ly in f a ir y s t o r ie s
! w h e r e m a g ic is a v a ila b le fo r u se in o v e r c o m in g o b s ta c le s of h u m an
b e h a v io r . F u r t h e r m o r e , a s th e d ru id c o m m e n ts in h is in te r r u p tio n
i
of th e s to r y , P r in c e C a p r ic e is n o t a bad s o r t a t a ll, bu t s t i l l v e r y
d a n g e r o u s. "A lth ou gh b a s ic a lly h e is g o o d , g e n e r o u s , and s e n s it iv e ,
h is v e r y v ir t u e s w ill tu rn h im to p r e ju d ic e , and h is f o o lis h n e s s
u n ited w ith a ll h is p o w er w ill m a k e h im m o r e h a ted th an a r e a s o n a b le
35
w ic k e d n e s s w ou ld h a v e ." In a d d itio n to g o o d n e s s and s e n s it iv it y a
s u c c e s s f u l r u le r m u s t h a v e the p ru d en ce and r e a s o n w h ic h le a d to
151
■wisdom.
S u c c e s s io n to the th r o n e , a fa v o r ite o b ject of R o u s s e a u ’s
c r it ic i s m , b e c o m e s a s e r io u s q u e stio n w ith an h e ir su ch a s C a p rice
and a sec o n d c h ild su ch a s R e a so n . The d ru id know s w h at w ill
j h ap p en w hen it is a q u e stio n of in ter v e n in g in the o r d e r of s u c c e s s io n
! to th e th ro n e.
|
; The d o c to r s w ill expound e m p h a tic a lly th e c o n se q u e n c e s
| of su c h an e x a m p le and w ill p r o v e that it is b e tte r fo r
th e p e o p le to o b ey b lin d ly th e m a d m en th at ch a n ce g iv e s
! th em fo r m a s t e r s , than to c h o o se fo r th e m s e lv e s
I r e a so n a b le le a d e r s , . . . th a t the m o s t in sa n e m a n is
I s t ill p r e fe r a b le to th e w is e s t w o m a n , and th at it is
p o litic a lly n e c e s s a r y that a h e r o in e or an a n g e l b o rn
a fter th e m a le or the f ir s t b o r n ob ey h is w ill- - b e he
m o n k ey or ra b b it. ^ 6
In ad d itio n to the r e je c tio n of n a iv e id e a lis m about the
q u a litie s of r u le r s and the dem an d fo r a m o r e r e a so n a b le m eth o d o f
s e le c tin g th e r u le r , a th ird a s p e c t of R o u s s e a u ’s c o n c ep t of the
r u le r a p p ea rs c le a r ly in the f a i r y t a l e , th a t o f h is u n o b tru siv e n e s s .
C a p r ic e w ould h ave tu rn ed the k in gd om u p sid e dow n w ith r e f o r m s ,
h is good in ten tio n s a lw a y s a g g r a v a tin g th e e v ils of h is im p r u d e n c e ,
but R e a so n d o e s a g r e a t d e a l of good and m a k e s v e r y lit tle n o is e . He
!
s e e k s to fu lf ill h is d u tie s , not to m a k e a n a m e fo r h im s e lf . H e \
j
c a r r ie s out the p r o je c ts p lan n ed un der the p r e v io u s r e ig n so th at ju s t j
as the death o f a king in P o la n d sh o u ld not d isr u p t th at g o v e r n m e n t,
th e su b je c ts of K ing P h o e n ix a r e fo rtu n a te to f e e l v e r y lit tle ch ange
37
w ith the s u c c e s s io n of P r in c e R e a so n . T h is co n c ep tio n of the
q u ie tly w o r k in g , su p er v is o r -k in g is r e p e a te d in the S o c ia l C o n tr a c t.
A r c h im e d e s , s e a te d q u ietly on the bank and e f f o r t le s s ly
d raw in g a huge sh ip alon g th e w a te r , r e p r e s e n ts to m e an
152
a b le m o n a r c h , g o v e rn in g h is v a s t e s t a t e s fr o m h is
c a b in e t and c a u sin g e v er y th in g to m o v e w h ile a p p ea rin g
m o t io n le s s . 38
T h is p a s s a g e is th e c l o s e s t th ing w e h a v e to a d e fin itio n
o f the id e a l p r in c e in R o u s se a u , an e x e c u tiv e but not a s o v e r e ig n ; a
I
m a n a g e r w ho s e e s th at a ll p e r s o n s fu lf ill th e ir r e s p o n s ib ilit ie s and
e a ch in stitu tio n p e r fo r m s it s t a s k s . R o u s se a u , e v e n m o r e than
t
| M o n te sq u ie u , is r e lu c ta n t to tr u s t m u ch to the in d iv id u a l r u le r ,
e x c e p t in th o se e x tr a o r d in a r y situ a tio n s a t the b eg in n in g of p o litic a l
s o c ie t ie s w h en a v e r y u n u su al and g ifte d m an m a y be in str u m e n ta l
in se ttin g up a w o rk a b le g o v e r n m e n t. O nce in s titu te d , h o w e v e r , the
p eo p le a r e the a c tiv e and s o v e r e ig n p a r t of the g o v e r n m e n t, the
le g is la t o r d o es n ot r u le , and the ru lin g p r in c e is in r e a lity on ly a
s k illfu l o v e r s e e r .
In a w a y , th is s u p e r v is o r -k in g is s im ila r to th e le g a l
d e sp o t R o u sse a u s o b r u sq u e ly d i s m i s s e s . B oth a r e fir m ly bound b y
la w s , and both h a v e not on ly lim ite d a u th o r ity , b u t a ls o a v e r y
lim ite d r o le to p la y in the g o v e r n m e n t. T h ere a r e in the c o n c e p ts of
both R o u s se a u and th e P h y s io c r a ts tw o p h a se s of a c tiv ity of id e a l
p r in c e s . In h is m o s t a c tiv e p h a se the p h y s io c r a tic p r in c e in te r p r e ts
n a tu r a l law and tr a n s fo r m s s o c ie ty by puttin g it in a c c o r d w ith the
| n a tu ra l o r d e r . He d o es n ot m ak e the fu n d a m en ta l la w s , b u t he d o es
tr a n s la te th em in to p o s itiv e la w s . T he m agn itu d e o f h is ta s k is
c o m p a r a b le to th a t of R o u s s e a u ’s le g is la t o r w ho d is c o v e r s th e b a s ic
la w s and g e n e r a l c o n stitu tio n that a r e m o s t su ita b le fo r a p a r tic u la r
p e o p le . In se ttin g up th e n a tio n in itia lly the le g is la t o r is h elp in g
tr a n sfo r m m an in to a c iv il and s o c ia l m a n . O nce th e in itia l w o rk is
153
o v e r , b oth the p h y s io c r a tic p r in c e and R o u s s e a u ’s p r in c e b e c o m e
p a s s iv e a d m in is tr a to r s . The p h y s io c r a tic p r in c e h a s n oth in g to do if
th e la w s a r e g o v e rn in g and the p eo p le a r e en lig h te n e d ; R o u s s e a u ’s
p r in c e h a s v e r y lit tle to do if the g o v e r n m e n t is d e sig n e d to b e s t
im p le m e n t the g e n e r a l w ill. In both c a s e s the id e a l p r in c e is the
r e p r e s e n ta tiv e of r e a s o n , and alth ou gh R o u s se a u c h a s t iz e s the
P h y s io c r a ts fo r p la c in g too m u ch c o n fid en ce in the fo r c e o f r e a s o n in
J
b o th p e o p le and r u le r s , h is ow n id e a l p r in c e is r e a s o n p e r s o n ifie d .
j The s im ila r it ie s do n o t, of c o u r s e , o b sc u r e so m e v e r y
r e a l d iffe r e n c e s b e tw e e n the tw o p r in c e s . The m o tiv a tio n of the
i
j p h y s io c r a tic p r in c e c o m e s fr o m the n a tu r a l o r d e r . The n a tu ra l
o r d e r is im p le m e n te d in the in t e r e s t s o f the w e lfa r e of m a n k in d , but
it is th e n a tu ra l o r d e r i t s e lf th at is r e a lly u p p e rm o st in h is m in d .
T he p h y s io c r a tic r u le r ’s d e s tin y and th a t o f h is p e o p le b e lo n g s to the
n a tu r a l o r d e r . R o u s s e a u ’s p r in c e , w h ile c e r ta in ly b e lie v in g in
n a tu r a l law and u n iv e r s a l j u s t ic e , is m o s t c o n c e r n e d w ith the h u m an
a s p e c t: that i s , j u s tic e a s it is em b o d ied in la w s am on g m e n and in
fo r m s of g o v e r n m e n t th at w ill b e s t b rin g about th e d e v e lo p m e n t of
m a n a s a m o r a l and s o c ia l b e in g . The p r in c e d e liv e r s the d e stin y of
h is p e o p le in to th e ir own h a n d s .
The in s ig n ific a n c e o f R o u s s e a u ’ s p r in c e , on ce the
le g is la t o r is d is p e n s e d w ith , o b v io u sly r e s u lt s fr o m h is p r e fe r e n c e
fo r p op u lar s o v e r e ig n ty . N e v e r t h e le s s , it is r e la te d to s e v e r a l
th e m e s o f the o th er e ig h te e n th -c e n tu r y id e a l p r in c e s . L ik e
M o n tesq u ieu , V o lta ir e , and the P h y s io c r a t s , R o u s se a u w a n ts a
g o v e r n m e n t o f la w s , not g o v e rn m e n t by the a r b itr a r y w ill o f a sin g le
154
r u le r ; b u t R o u s s e a u c a r r ie s the c o n c e r n fo r th e fr e e d o m and
p r o te c tio n of the in d iv id u a l m u ch fu r th e r . H is g r e a te r c o n fid e n c e in
the p o te n tia lity of h u m a n n a tu re le a d s h im to s u b je c t th e r u le r to h is
p e o p le to a m u ch g r e a t e r e x te n t th an M o n te sq u ie u e v e r d r e a m e d of
d o in g . R o u s s e a u lik e w is e lo o k s to j u s tic e a s the u ltim a te v a lu e and
i b e lie v e s in th e n a tu r a l o r d e r , bu t c o n c e r n s h im s e lf w ith ju s tic e as
I
j it e x is t s in th e la w s s e t dow n b y th e s o v e r e ig n p e o p le . The
I
le g is la t o r is n o t a s e r m o n iz e r , n or is h is p e r s o n a l m o r a l c o n v e r s io n
a s ig n ific a n t fa c to r in h is r u le ; in s te a d , h e in s tit u te s th e m e a n s
j
j th ro u g h w h ic h m a n can b e c o m e m o r a l. The p r iv a te v ir tu e of an
1
J
! in d iv id u a l le g is la t o r or r u le r is l e s s im p o r ta n t than h is a b ility to
i
I u se h is h e a d .
i
T he id ea th a t m o r a l im p r o v e m e n t fo llo w s o r a c c o m p a n ie s
th e in s titu tio n of p o lit ic a l and s o c ia l r e f o r m s is p e r fe c te d by
R o u s s e a u . H e e m p h a s iz e s P la t o ’s p h ilo so p h y of the co m m u n ity a s
39
the m o r a liz in g a g e n c y o f m a n . H is le g is la t o r r e s e m b le s P la t o ’s
p h ilo s o p h e r -k in g in th a t th e y a r e b o th m e n o f s u p e r io r in t e lle c t w ho
im p le m e n t th e fo r m a tio n of the s t a t e . D e s p ite a g r e e m e n t on the
n a tu re and o b je c tiv e of th e s t a t e , h o w e v e r , R o u s se a u d e p a r ts fr o m
the p la to n ic v ie w of th e r u le r in h is r e q u ir e m e n t th at th e w o r k o f th e
| le g is la t o r be a p p ro v ed b y th e co m m u n ity ; in h is c o n c e r n fo r ad ap tin g
I
the id e a l to th e s p e c if ic h is t o r ic a l c ir c u m s t a n c e s ; and in h is
q u a lific a tio n o f th e c o n c e p t o f th e a b so lu te a u th o r ity o f the sta te by
40
in s is t e n c e on in d iv id u a l lib e r t y . T h e r e fo r e , n e ith e r R o u s s e a u 's
le g is la t o r n o r h is ru lin g p r in c e q u a lify a s p la to n ic p h ilo s o p h e r - k in g s .
T he s u p e r v is o r - k in g , d e sig n e d b y a m a n w h o s e r e a l
155
in t e r e s t is in p e r fe c tin g m a n , and not in en h an cin g the p ow er o f the
s t a t e , is a fa r c r y fr o m th e p r in c e of M a c h ia v e lli. R o u s se a u a g r e e s
w ith M a c h ia v e lli1 s d e s c r ip tio n o f the p r in c e , but w h e r e a s M a c h ia v e lli
s e e s th at p r in c e a s p ro m o tin g the good of the s ta te , R o u s se a u d o es
n o t. He ta k e s th is a s r e a s o n to co n clu d e th at an id e a l p r in c e is
im p o s s ib le and th at the p r in c e sh ou ld be e lim in a te d w h e r e v e r
j p o s s ib le . M a c h ia v e lli h a s a v e r y p e s s im is t ic v ie w of hu m an n atu re
in g e n e r a l, but s e e s hope in the o c c a s io n a l ta le n ted p r in c e . R o u ssea u .
!
I on the c o n tr a r y , h a s fa ith in h u m an n a tu re in g e n e r a l b u t p r a c tic a lly
! none in the in d iv id u a l p r in c e . R o u sse a u a ls o o p p o se s the u se of the
i
I c lic h e s abou t g e n e r a l w e lfa r e , both b e c a u s e th ey a r e u n r e a lis tic
s u p e r f ic ia lit ie s and b e c a u s e th ey s e r v e a s ju s tific a tio n s fo r
a r b itr a r y , u n ju st a c ts b y the r u le r . "T he c o m m o n good is n oth ing if
41
a ll th e in d iv id u a ls a r e not g u a ra n teed it , " he o n ce c o m m e n te d .
It is a c o n tr a d ic tio n , a s R o u s se a u s e e s it , fo r an y r u le r to be g iv e n |
fr e e d o m fr o m the la w s , fr e e d o m fr o m m o r a l p r in c ip le s , or fr e e d o m
to su b o rd in a te ju s tic e to s o m e s o - c a lle d good o f th e s ta te .
j
B e a r in g in m in d th e s e fu n d a m en ta l d iffe r e n c e s b e tw e en j
the tw o p r in c e s , it sh ou ld be n oted th at R o u s s e a u 's p r in c e , a s e ith e r
le g is la t o r or ru ler., h a s to h a v e the p o litic a l r e a lis m o f the I ta lia n 's
p r in c e in o r d e r to d e a l w ith h is own p e o p le , a s w e ll a s w ith o th er
r u le r s , and to d e te r m in e w h a t is p o s s ib le fo r h im in h is p a r tic u la r
s t a t e . In a d d itio n , R o u sse a u a p p r e c ia te d c e r ta in o th er th e m e s of
M a c h ia v e lli su ch a s the id e a of c iv ic v ir tu e , the u tility o f c iv ic
r e lig io n , the c r e a tio n of n a tio n a l c h a r a c te r , and the le g is la t o r as
fo u n d er of a s ta te . H is le g is la t o r , h o w e v e r , is c o n s id e r a b ly m o r e
156
a b s tr a c t and id e a l th an the one d e p ic te d in T he P r i n c e .
R o u s se a u s h a r e s the b a s ic a ssu m p tio n s o f the oth er
p h ilo so p h e s about j u s t ic e , r e a s o n , and h u m an ity; h e a ls o s h a r e s
M o n te sq u ie u ^ th e o r e tic a l and V o lta ir e 1s p r a c tic a l s e n s e o f
|h is t o r ic a l r e la tiv ity ; but he g o e s fa r b eyon d th em in lim itin g the
a u th o r ity and fu n ctio n s o f the p r in c e and in e m p h a siz in g the s ta te a s
th e in str u m e n t of m o r a lit y - - a m o r a lity draw n fr o m h u m an n a tu r e.
The id e a l p r in c e is fin a lly r e p la c e d e n tir e ly by a g r e a te r id e a l, th at
j of p op u lar s o v e r e ig n ty .
NOTES
Du C o n tra t s o c i a l , L iv r e III, c h a p itre 6 , in The
P o lit ic a l W ritin g s o f J ea n J a c q u e s R o u s s e a u , ed . C . E . V aughan
(N ew Y o rk , 1 9 6 2 ), V o l. II. A ll r e f e r e n c e s to th e S o c ia l C o n tra ct
w ill be c ite d C . s . , fo llo w e d b y b ook n u m b er and ch a p ter n u m b er.
A ll o th er r e f e r e n c e s to V au gh an ’s e d itio n o f R o u ssea u * s w o r k s w ill
i be c ite d s im p ly a s V au gh an , v o lu m e and p a g e n u m b er. |
| ^G ay, V o lta ir e ’s P o l i t i c s , pp. 1 8 0 -8 3 .
3
" L e g is la to r , " T he E n c y clo p e d ia : S e le c t io n s , e d . and
tr a n s . b y S tep h en J . G e n d z ie r (N ew Y o rk , 1 9 6 7 ), pp. 1 5 9 -6 4 .
4 C . s . , II, 7.
j 5 l
C . J . F r ie d r ic h , "Law and D ic ta to r sh ip in the C o n trat j
j S o c ia l, " R o u s se a u e t la p h ilo so p h ie p o litiq u e ( P a r is , 1 9 6 5 ), p . 8 7 .
6 C . s . , II, 7.
j ^ F r ie d r ic h , p . 8 4 . J
8 *
" C o n sid e r a tio n s su r le g o u v e r n e m e n t de P o lo g n e , e t su r
sa r e fo r m a tio n p r o je te e (1 7 7 2 ), V augh an, II, 4 2 8 .
| ^Ibid. , p . 4 2 9 .
‘ 10
j C . s . , II, 10.
^ J o h n W . C hap m an, R o u sse a u --T o .,g ,U ta r ia n or L ib e r a l?
(N ew Y o rk , 1 9 5 6 ), p . 78.
12
A lfr e d C obban, R o u s se a u and the M od ern S tate (L ond on,
1 9 3 4 ),p. 4.6. T he c o n tr o v e r s y o v er th e in d iv id u a lism or to ta lita r ia n is m
of R o u s s e a u ’s thought is b eyon d the sc o p e o f th is d is c u s s io n . The
j b e s t p r e s e n ta tio n s of it a r e to be found in P e t e r G ay, "Introdu ction"
I in E r n s t C a s s ir e r , The Q u e stio n of J ea n J a cq u es R o u s se a u
(B lo o m in g to n , In d ian a, 1963 [ c . 19541) and C hap m an, R o u s s e a u - -
T o ta lita r ia n or L ib e r a l? . E x a m p le s of s c h o la r s w ho a rg u e th at
R o u s s e a u ’s id e a s le a d to d e s p o tis m or to ta lita r ia n is m a r e H . T a in e ,
L 'A n c ie n R e g im e (1876); E r n e s t B a r k e r , " In trod u ction , 11 S o c ia l
C o n tr a c t (1947); J . L . T a lm o n , The O r ig in s of T o ta lita r ia n
D e m o c r a c y (N ew Y o rk , P r a e g e r , I960); L e s te r G . C r o c k e r ,
157
158
" In trod u ction" to J e a n -J a c q u e s R o u s se a u , T he S o c ia l C o n tra ct and
D is c o u r s e on th e O r ig in of In eq u a lity (N ew Y o rk , W ash in gton S q u are
P r e s s , 196 7 ).
1 3 C. s . , III, 6 and 8 .
14
C . s . , III, 6 .
15
C obban, R o u s se a u , pp . 4 6 - 5 2 , and J . H . B r o o m e ,
R o u sse a u : A Study of H is T hought (L ond on, 1 9 6 3 ), p . 5 3 .
^ " L e t t r e a M . L e M arq u is de M ira b ea u , " 26 ju ille t 1767,
H, 160.
1 8 I b id ., p . 1 6 1 .
*9 C . s . , IV , 6 . F r ie d r ic h , pp. 9 0 -9 1 .
2 9 " P o ly sy n o d ie de l'a b b e de S a in t-P ie r r e " (w r itte n 1756),
I, 3 9 9 .
" J u g em en t su r la P a ix p e r p e tu e lle " (w r itte n 17 5 6 ),
I, 3 8 9 .
2 2 C . s . , III, 6 .
23
V augh an e m p h a s iz e s th at R o u s se a u m o v e d fr o m the
a b s tr a c t th e o r y o f the d is c o u r s e s and the S o c ia l C o n tra ct to a m o r e
h is t o r ic a l and r e la tiv e th e o r y under the in flu e n c e of M o n tesq u ieu
(" In tro d u ctio n, 11 I, 7 1 -8 1 ).
24 /
" C o n sid e r a tio n s su r le g o u v e r n e m e n t de P o lo g n e ,"
V au gh an , II, 4 6 5 .
2 3 Ib id . , p p . 5 0 7 -8 .
o A
C. s . , II, 6 ; I, 7. F r ie d r ic h , p . 87. C obban,
R o u s s e a u , p . 126; 1 4 7 -9 .
o V
" C o n sid e r a tio n s su r le g o u v e r n e m e n t de P o lo g n e ,"
V au gh an , II, 4 6 5 .
2 8 Ib id . , p p . 4 6 2 -3 .
2 9 Ib id . , p . 5 0 9 .
30 *
J u g e m e n t su r la P a ix p e r p e tu e lle , " V aughan I, 3 9 3 -4 .
V augh an,
V au gh an ,
V au gh an ,
159
31 *
" P o ly sy n o d ie de l ’abbe de S a in t - P ie r r e ," V aughan I,
3 9 9 .
32
C . s . , III, 6 . O b v io u sly R o u s s e a u ’ s id e a s on ed u ca tio n
a r e a p p lic a b le to th e p r in c e but an ex ten d ed d is c u s s io n of th a t su b je c t
i s not in o r d e r h e r e .
33
! J e a n -J a c q u e s R o u s se a u , L a H ein e fa n ta sq u e in O eu v res
| c o m p le t e s , e d . G agn eb in and R aym on d ( P a r is , 1 9 5 9 -6 1 ), V o l. II,
| p p . 1 1 7 9 -H 9 2 . T ow ard th e end o f the ta le the s t o r y t e lle r e x c la im s
about P e r e D r u id e T s in te r r u p tio n and g u e s sin g th e s to r y , "If I le ft it
to you , y ou w ou ld so o n ch ange a fa ir y ta le into a p o litic a l t r e a t is e
and it , in s te a d of M a c h ia v e lli, w ould s o m e day b e found in th e d e sk
| o f P r in c e B lu e -b e a r d o r th e F a ir y P r in c e " (0. c . , II, 11 9 1 ). The
s to r y w a s f i r s t p u b lish e d by e n e m ie s o f the p h ilo so p h e s in 1758 under
th e title L a R ein e fa n ta sq u e , con te c a c o u a c , b y M . R . , C . de G . , and
d e s c r ib e d a s one of th e m o s t d a n g ero u s s p e c im e n s o f " p h ilosop h ic"
p ro p a g a n d a . R o u sse a u h im s e lf d e s c r ib e d it a s a " fo lly of fiv e or s ix
p a g e s , a lth ou gh w r itte n in a m o m e n t of g a ie ty o r ra th er of
e x tr a v a g a n c e , it d o es not e v e n h a v e th e m e r it o f b ein g p le a s a n t and,
tr u th fu lly , can n ot be r ea d by anyon e w ith good s e n s e " (to M m e.
D u p in , J a n . 1759, q u oted in 0. c . , II, 1909). F o r fu ll d e ta ils s e e
0 . c . , II, 1177; 1 9 0 9 -1 0 ; and 1 9 8 6 -7 .
34
0 . c . , II, 1179. The sa m e id ea is e x p r e s s e d in the
S o c ia l C o n tra ct (III, 6 ) w h en R o u sse a u w r ite s th a t to m ake th e m s e lv e s
lo v e d by th e ir p e o p le w ou ld be to the advan tage o f a b so lu te r u le r s ,
b u t su ch a p r e c e p t w ill a lw a y s be m o c k e d by the c o u r t.
3 5 0. c . , II, 119 1 .
3 7 Ib id. , p p . 1 1 9 0 , 1 1 9 2 .
3 8 C. s . , H I, 6 .
3 ^ S ab in e, pp. 5 8 0 -1 . V au gh an , " In tro d u ctio n , " I, 5 0 -2 .
40
C . s . , n, 7. V augh an, " In tro d u ctio n , " I, 3 0 , 3 2 , 71.
41 f
A note to H e lv e tiu s1 sta te m e n t th a t " ev ery th in g for the
co m m o n g o o d b e c o m e s le g itim a te and e v en v ir tu o u s , " q u oted by
C obban, R o u s s e a u , p . 138.
P A R T in . THE ID E A L PR IN C E
IN E IG H T E E N T H -C E N T U R Y FR E N C H PR O SE FIC TIO N
C H A PT E R VIII
IM ITATO RS OF T EL E M A Q U E
W hen one tu rn s fr o m the m a s t e r s of the F r e n c h
i
E n lig h te n m e n t to the se c o n d and th ird ra te w r it e r s who w e r e the m o r e
; ty p ic a l r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s o f the lit e r a t e , a r tic u la te p o p u la tio n , the
c o n c e p t of the id e a l p r in c e , a s w e ll a s a ll o th er s o c ia l and p o litic a l
id e a s , is a t one and the sa m e tim e c o n s id e r a b ly l e s s c o m p lic a te d , j
i I
1
l e s s c le a r , and l e s s fo r w a r d -lo o k in g . T h e se a u th o r s, b e s id e s b ein g
I l e s s g ifted in te lle c tu a lly than the le a d in g p h ilo s o p h e s , fa c e d m u ch
g r e a te r o b s ta c le s in e x p r e s s in g p o litic a l id e a s than in b eg in n in g to
q u e stio n s o c ia l and r e lig io u s tr a d itio n s and to c r it ic iz e th e ir a b u s e s .
D a n ie l M o rn et in h is c la s s ic stu d y o f the sp r e a d of id e a s in p r e
r e v o lu tio n a r y F r a n c e c o n c lu d e s th at b e fo r e 1748 the p la c e of s o c ia l
is s u e s in lit e r a r y w o rk s is v e r y s m a ll and th a t o f p o litic a l
d is c u s s io n s is e v en l e s s . " E x cep t fo r so m e ca u tio u s and r a th e r j
s c a t te r e d ir o n ie s b y V o lta ir e or M o n tesq u ieu and so m e little -k n o w n
o r unknown t e x t s , nothin g a n n o u n ces to the g e n e r a l r e a d e r th at the
m e n of le t t e r s a r e w e a r y of or e v e n d is s a t is f ie d w ith the e s ta b lis h e d
g o v e r n m e n t. 11 E v e n b y 1780 w h en p o litic a l r e f o r m e r s had b e c o m e
!
n u m ero u s and p h ilo so p h ic ta le s and n o v e ls abundant, th e m a in th r u st
w a s s t ill r e a s o n and h u m a n ity o v e r c o m in g fa n a tic is m . C r itic is m of
th e e x is tin g p o litic a l a b u se s w a s e x p r e s s e d in r e p r e s e n ta tio n s of a
161
162
r e a s o n a b le m o n a r c h y . * M o r n e t's p o in t is th a t the o v e r w h e lm in g
m a jo r ity of w r it e r s did n ot e x p r e s s r e v o lu tio n a r y p o litic a l id e a s .
T hat is not to s a y th a t id e a s w e r e s ta tic am on g se c o n d ran k w r it e r s ,
a s on e s e e s in tr a c in g the ch an gin g c o n c ep t of the id e a l p r in c e .
| T he r e la tio n s h ip of the c o n c e p t of th e id e a l p r in c e h e ld by
! the l e s s s o p h is tic a te d and l e s s b o ld w r it e r s to th e c o n c e p ts of the
m a c h ia v e llia n p r in c e , the fe n e lo n ia n p r in c e , and th e v a r io u s
i
s e c u la r iz e d C h r istia n p r in c e s of the p h ilo so p h e s and p h y s io c r a ts w ill
be n o ted by e x a m in in g th r e e g e n e r a l g ro u p s of e ig h te e n th -c e n tu r y .
F r e n c h p r o s e fic tio n : im ita tio n s of T elem a q u e and w o rk s s tr o n g ly i
I
in flu e n c e d b y it; n o v e ls and s t o r ie s w r itte n d e lib e r a te ly fo r
c r it ic is m and p rop agan d a or w h ich g iv e the r u le of the p r in c e m a jo r
c o n sid e r a tio n ; and n o v e ls and s t o r ie s w h ich o n ly in c id e n ta lly r e fe r to
the r u le r .
In th e f i r s t c a te g o r y , the im ita tio n s of T e le m a q u e , the
d ista n c e b e tw e e n the th ou gh tfu l m a n of p o litic a l e x p e r ie n c e and h is
2
l e s s in v o lv ed fo llo w e r s is r e a d ily a p p a ren t. In fa c t, so m e of the
" im ita tio n s" a r e so s u p e r fic ia lly r e la te d to F e n e lo n ^ w o r k -'-B ig n o n ^
A ^
A v e n tu r e s dT A b d a lla and M outon net de C la ir fo n s1 L e s lie s f o r t u n e e s ,
fo r in s t a n c e - - t h a t th ey w ill be r e le g a te d to the th ird c a te g o r y and
3
c o n s id e r e d la te r in th e stu d y . M o st of the im ita tio n s a r e f i r s t of
a ll lit e r a r y im it a t io n s . T h ey e a g e r ly adop t th e s e n tim e n ts of
h u m a n ity , g o o d n e s s , and v ir tu e ; th ey do n ot p r e s e n t d is c u s s io n s of the;
king*s a u th o r ity or sp en d m u ch tim e on h is r e la tio n s h ip to law and
j u s tic e but r a th e r ig n o r e or o b sc u r e the p o litic a l th o u g h t--w h ic h
m a k e s th em v e r y tr a d itio n a l, u top ian , and u n p o litic a l, but
163
n e v e r t h e le s s an a n ti-m a c h ia v e llia n f o r c e .
It w a s not fo r la c k of a s e r io u s p u r p o se , though it cou ld
h a v e b e e n in s e a r c h of a g e n e ro u s p e n s io n , th at C h a n sie r g e s lim ite d
h is a d v ic e to the b o y -k in g of F r a n c e to the p r o b le m of p e r s o n a l
m o r a lity , fo r s e v e r a l y e a r s a fte r h is A v a n tu re s de N e o p to le m e , f ils
| d ^ c h i l l e {1 7 1 8 ), he c o m p o se d a tr e a t is e on l'ld e e dJun r o y p a r fa it
j
| (1 7 2 3 ). In N e o p to le m e the author r e it e r a t e s th at h is a im is not to
i
1 4
I te a c h h is p u p il how to r u le but how to m a s te r h is ow n p a s s io n s .
T hus the b a s ic a ssu m p tio n of the b o o k is the a g e -o ld one th at
p e r s o n a l v ir tu e is th e b a s is of good r u le and p e r s o n a l v ir tu e le a d s to
tru e g r e a tn e s s in a k in g . The th em e of the b o o k , fo llo w in g one
i
th em e of T e le m a q u e , is the a c h ie v e m e n t of v ir tu e th rou gh a d v e r s ity ,
h e n c e N e o p to le m e e x p e r ie n c e s the str u g g le of v ic e and v ir tu e a s he is
tem p ted in tu rn w ith m is tr e a tm e n t, tra n q u il r e p o s e , m a t e r ia l w e a lth ,
and s e n s u a l p le a s u r e s . It is c le a r th at e v e n the p r iv a te p a s s io n of
lo v e is not to be a llo w e d . A l e s s fo rtu n a te p r in c e h a s the p r o b le m of
o v e r c o m in g h is lo v e fo r a nym p h , but N e o p to le m e !s lo v e fo r
H e rm io n e is a lo v e fou n d ed on ly on r e a s o n and w is d o m , and he
sw e a r s h e w ill lo v e o n ly the one th e god s h a v e d e stin e d fo r h is w ife .
A g a in , a l e s s e r p r in c e than our h e r o is w a rn ed b y th e m e n to r ,
P h e n ix , to a v o id a m b itio n a s a k in g . "If a m b itio n h a s a h o ld on your
h e a r t, m ak e it your a m b itio n to s u r p a s s a ll o th er m e n in v ir tu e and
in w isd o m ; to r e s i s t y o u r p a s s io n s ; to a lw a y s h old eq u ity in your
s o u l. " 5
C h a n sie r g e s is one of the few im ita to r s w ho d o es not
in clu d e a d e g r e e of to le r a tio n w ith the r e q u ir e m e n t of p ie ty on the
164
p a r t o f the r u le r . A t M ile tu s w h e r e th e r e is a c iv il w ar am on g
r e lig io u s f a c t io n s , N e o p to le m e a d v is e s the k in g to r e - e s t a b lis h
r e lig io u s u n ity and c ite s the e x a m p le of the b r illia n t A lc a n to r , m o r e
a b so lu te th an h is p r e d e c e s s o r s , w ho d e s tr o y e d the cu lt of O s ir is in
£
h is la n d s b y te a r in g down th e te m p le s .
A m o r e fo rtu n a te b u t s t ill ra th e r s u p e r fic ia l r e p lic a of
T elem a q u e a p p ea r s in the H is to ir e d ’A m en o p h is by the C o m te s se
de F o n ta in e s . H e re the id e a l p r in c e is a h e r o ic a d v en tu rer ra th er
than a stu d en t p h ilo so p h e r . On the Isla n d of th e Sun he le a r n s the
d a n g er s o f e c c le s ia s t ic a l in te r fe r e n c e in g o v e rn m e n t and h e lp s the
7
le g itim a te h e ir r e g a in h is th ro n e fr o m the u su r p e r , the h ig h p r ie s t .
T he new king tr e a ts the b od y of the dead u su r p e r w ith d ig n ity ,
th e r e b y w in n in g , w ith "this g r e a t e x a m p le of m o d e r a tio n and
g
c le m e n c y , " the h e a r ts of e v e r y o n e .
In a n o th er a d v en tu re A m en o p h is h e lp s the kin g o f C yp ru s
put dow n a r e v o lt c a u se d b y the la c k o f a le g itim a te h e i r - - a
c ir c u m s ta n c e r e su ltin g fr o m the k in g ’s fo o lis h s a c r if ic e of h is
d au gh ter (fo llo w in g an a d v e r s e a s t r o lo g ic a l p r e d ic tio n ), and th e 'lo s s
o f h is s o n . The d a n g ers of s u p e r s titio u s and c r u e l p r a c tic e s a r e
o b v io u s. W hen A m en o p h is is s u c c e s s f u l in r e s to r in g the king to h is
th ro n e he is r ew a rd ed w ith the cro w n and the hand of the k in g ’s
d a u g h te r --w h o had not b e e n k ille d a fte r a ll- - t h u s com b in in g the
9
h e r o ic and th e le g itim a te c h a r a c t e r is t ic s of th e id e a l p r in c e . The
r o m a n tic in t e r e s t is p r e s e r v e d a ls o th ro u g h an e a r lie r m e e tin g
b e tw e e n A m en o p h is and the lo s t d au gh ter a t w h ic h tim e th ey had
fa lle n in lo v e . T h is id e a l p r in c e is v e r y m u ch a h e r o , but h e is a ls o
165
a w a r e o f th e p it fa lls of e c c le s ia s t ic a l p o w e r , s u p e r s titio n , and
th r o n e s u n se c u r e d by an h e ir .
A bout the sa m e tim e th e r e a p p ea r e d th e m o s t fa ith fu l
co p y of T e le m a q u e --to o fa ith fu l, m o s t c r it ic s s a y - - i n R a m s a y 's
j V o y a g e s de C y ru s (1 7 2 7 ). D e sp ite the s e v e r e c r it ic is m of th e
in s ip id C y r u s, th e b ook c a u se d a s e n sa tio n w h e r e v e r it a p p ea r e d ,
i T he C h e v a lie r R a m sa y w a s a S c o tsm a n , tu to r to P r in c e C h a r le s
| E d w ard Stu art; w h en tr a n sp la n te d to F r a n c e he b e c a m e the fr ie n d ,
f
! d is c ip le , and b io g r a p h er of F e n e lo n . He w r o te an E s s a i su r le
j g o u v e r n e m e n t c iv il (1719) and e d ite d F e n e lo n 's w o r k s, s o m e tim e s
i
i
i ad ap tin g h is m a s t e r 's th ou gh ts to h is ow n t a s t e . In h is ow n V o y a g e s
de C y r u s, R a m sa y fo llo w e d F e n e lo n 's p e d a g o g y , p o litic a l th e o r y ,
i -------- -------
and g e n e r a l o b je c tiv e of o u tlin in g the tr a in in g of th e p e r fe c t r u le r and
the d u ties of k in g s . * *
C o n tra ry to C h e r e l's ex p la n a tio n of the d iffe r e n c e
b e tw e e n the tw o , in w h ich he a s s o c ia t e s F e n e lo n w ith " a r is to c r a tic
12
m o n a rch y " and R a m sa y w ith "pure m o n a r c h y, 11 th e ir v ie w s of the
a u th o r ity of the p r in c e a r e q u ite s im ila r , though R a m sa y is a t the
s a m e tim e l e s s c a r e fu l of th e sa fe g u a r d s he p la c e s on a b s o lu tis m and
m o r e open to the id ea of sh a r e d a u th o r ity . The a u th o rity of R a m s a y 's
p r in c e is f i r s t of a ll not a r b itr a r y but r e a s o n a b le . The p r in c e is the
d e p o s ito r y of th e p o w er of G od , but he m a y n ot, lik e a g o d , a c t
13
w ith o u t g iv in g a r e a s o n fo r h is con d u ct. F u r th e r m o r e , h e is
r e s p o n s ib le to G od and bound b y the m o r a l cod e to tru th and
14
j u s t ic e . U su a lly he is a ls o bound by the la w s of the n a tio n . It is a
th o ro u g h ly w ic k e d c o u n se lo r w ho a d v is e s the p r in c e th at he m a y
166
b r e a k a c e r ta in law if be ca n a c h ie v e the law *s o b je c tiv e in an e a s ie r
w ay; "a p r in c e . . . sh o u ld n e v e r be th e s la v e of r u le s or of c u s to m s ,'
15
he c o n tin u e s, bu t the p e r fe c t p r in c e r e s i s t s su ch m a x im s of
d e s p o tis m . W hen the e x c e lle n t q u een of L y c ia w ho h a s a lw a y s
o b s e r v e d th e la w s , le d the a r m ie s , and b ro u g h t h a p p in e ss to h er
! p e o p le , s e e k s a d is p e n s a tio n fr o m the law fo rb id d in g m a r r ia g e w ith
| a fo r e ig n e r , sh e f i r s t g a in s the a p p ro v a l of h e r c o u n c il and then
; p r e s e n t s h e r c a s e b e fo r e the p e o p le . "The e n tir e a s s e m b ly
! ap p lau d ed the w isd o m o f h e r sp e ec h " and g r a n te d h e r r e q u e s t. ^ In
g e n e r a l, h o w e v e r , R a m sa y d o es n o t m a k e a p oin t of lim itin g the
I a u th o r ity of th e p r in c e b y la w s n or o f in s is tin g upon th e s u b m is s io n of
the p r in c e to la w s .
On the se c o n d a s p e c t o f the q u e stio n of a u th o r ity ,
w h eth er the a u th o rity of th e p r in c e is s h a r e d , the s u p e r fic ia l
c o n tr a s t b e tw e e n the " a r is to c r a tic " fe n e lo n ia n p r in c e and the
l " a b so lu te" p r in c e o f R a m sa y d o es not h old up. A c tu a lly , in C y ru s at
le a s t , th e r e a r e n u m ero u s e x a m p le s of sta te d or im p lie d sh a rin g of
a u th o r ity . A lth o u g h it m a y not a lw a y s be p o s s ib le , m o n a rc h y
17
te m p e r e d b y a se n a te is the fo r m of g o v e r n m e n t of w is e n a tio n s.
S p a rta is sa v ed fr o m ty ra n n y and a n a r c h y b y a c o u n c il of tw e n ty -
18
e ig h t. In P e r s i a , C y ru s sh u d d ers a t the e v il a d v ic e u rgin g the
p r in c e to g a in a b so lu te p o w er b y " w eak en in g th e r ig h ts o f the se n a te
and le a v in g it o n ly the p o w er of c o u n s e l, " th us im p ly in g th at the
19
sen a te d o e s sh a r e the s o v e r e ig n a u th o r ity . W hen C a m b y se s is
triu m p h a n t o v e r h is e n e m ie s , he r e a s s u r e s th e sen a te th at he w ill
p r e s e r v e its r ig h ts , w ith o u t, u n fo rtu n a tely , c la r ify in g w hat th o se
167
20
r ig h ts a r e . It is c le a r , h o w e v e r , in L y c ia th a t th e C o u n cil of
2 1
E ld e r s in itia te s le g is la t io n a s w e ll a s a d v is e s th e q u ee n . A nd in
E g y p t w h e r e th e th ir ty ju d g e s did not sh a r e th e su p r e m e a u th o r ity but
o n ly in te r p r e te d th e la w , d e s p o tis m and c o n q u e s ts d e s tr o y e d the
22
e m p ir e . The s h a r in g o f a u th o r ity is n o t to b e c a r r ie d to o f a r , th at
i s , it is n ot b r o a d e n e d to th e p o in t of in c lu d in g the p e o p le . R a m s a y
h a s on ly s a r c a s m and c o n te m p t fo r m a s s p a r tic ip a tio n in g o v e r n m e n t.
P o p u la r s o v e r e ig n ty is a lw a y s d is a s tr o u s and "the d e s p o tis m of the
p o p u la c e is e v e n m o r e u n b ea ra b le than th e a b so lu te a u th o r ity of a
23
s in g le m a n . "
T h e re a r e no in n o v a tio n s in the d u tie s and r e s p o n s ib ilit ie s
of R a m s a y 's p r in c e . H e is e x p e c te d to d efen d h is c o u n try b u t to
24
a v o id u n n e c e s s a r y w a r s and to shun th e d e s ir e fo r d o m in a tio n . In
the u n a v o id a b le w a r s a g a in s t in v a d e r s and t r a it o r s , C y ru s m a k e s
m o r e c o n q u e sts b y h is h u m a n ity than b y h is sw o r d and u s e s h is
25
v ic t o r y to b r in g j u s t ic e , la w s , and h a p p in e ss to the v a n q u ish e d . H e
j is e x p e c te d to c h o o se a b le m in is t e r s and w a tc h o v e r th em c a r e fu lly .
H e p r o m o te s the p r o s p e r it y of h is c o u n try th ro u g h fr e e d o m o f
c o m m e r c e , e lim in a tio n of e x o r b ita n t t a x e s , e s ta b lis h m e n t o f c r e d it
f a c i l i t i e s , and r e w a r d s and h o n o r s to a r tis a n s ; b u t R a m s a y ’s p r in c e
of T y r e h a s no r e a l id e a of in c r e a s in g tr a d e and is m o r e tr a d itio n a l
in h is e c o n o m ic s th an the on e in T e le m a q u e .
A p o in t th a t is o f so m e in t e r e s t is th e a ttitu d e to w a rd
la w s e x p r e s s e d in th e V o y a g e s . C y ru s t r a v e ls to le a r n abou t the
la w s o f o th er la n d s in o r d e r to p r e p a r e h im s e lf to r u le a ll A s ia , but
w h a t he r e a lly le a r n s is th at la w s a r e l e s s im p o r ta n t th an th e r u le r .
168
A t A th e n s S o lo n r e a li z e s th a t the b e s t of la w s a r e u s e le s s w ith o u t a
fir m e x e c u tiv e a u th o r ity , s o he a p p e a ls to the m il it a r ily ca p a b le
27
P i s is t r a t u s to su b d u e the p e o p le . A t C rete P y th a g o r a s e x p la in s
how th e la w s o f M in o s w e r e p e r v e r te d b y th o se w ho so u g h t to r e p la c e
th e la w s w ith th e ir a r b itr a r y w ill, fr o m w h ic h C y ru s c o n c lu d e s th at
the h e a lth and h a p p in e ss o f a sta te r e s u lt not o n ly fr o m the w isd o m of
la w s , b u t e v e n m o r e fr o m the w isd o m o f s o v e r e ig n s . T he p e r s o n a l
q u a lific a tio n s of the r u le r a r e s t i l l c o n s id e r e d to b e m o r e im p o rta n t
th an th e la w s or th e p o lit ic a l o r g a n iz a tio n .
B e c a u s e of th e im p o r ta n c e of th e p e r s o n a l q u a litie s of the
r u le r , h is e d u c a tio n b e g in s w ith le a r n in g p e r s o n a l v ir t u e , p r im a r ily
2 8
the c o n q u e st of s e l f - i n t e r e s t and p r iv a te p a s s io n s . C on tin u in g the
th e m e o f T e le m a q u e , the p r in c e is e d u c a te d fa r fr o m the r o y a l c o u r t,
p r e fe r a b ly in ig n o r a n c e o f h is tru e s ta tu s . H e is w e ll-g r o u n d e d in
h is r e lig io u s b e lie f s and d e m o n s tr a te s h is a b ility to a s s u m e m ilit a r y
le a d e r s h ip . T he b e s t m e a n s of a c c o m p lis h in g th is e d u c a tio n a r e
a d v e r s it y , t r a v e l, and fin a lly a p p r e n tic e s h ip on the th ro n e b e fo r e
29
th e d ea th of th e r e ig n in g k in g .
R a m s a y , w ho w a s a s s e r io u s in h is p u r p o se a s F e n e lo n
and w ho had so m e e x p e r ie n c e w ith th e v ic is s it u d e s o f r o y a lty , g iv e s
us q u ite an e x a c t c a r b o n -c o p y of th e fe n e lo n ia n p r in c e , y e t h is p r in c e
d o e s d iffe r s lig h t ly . C y ru s d o e s n o t h ave a s m u ch r e s p e c t fo r the
la w s , n o r d o e s he s e e th em a s the in s tr u m e n t of s o c ia l r e f o r m . A s a
r e s u lt , he d o e s n o t ca p tu re the p r o g r e s s iv e s p ir it of F e n e lo n 's id e a l
r u le r . F u r th e r m o r e , he d o e s n ot s h a r e T e le m a q u e T s r e s p e c t and
c o n c e r n fo r th e n o b ility . He e m p h a s iz e s th e in s titu tio n a l (s e n a te ,
169
ju d g e s , c o u n c il) r a th e r than th e s o c i a l - c l a s s a s p e c t s , and th u s
u n w ittin g ly tr a n s fo r m s the a b s o lu tis m of T e le m a q u e in to th e sh a r e d
a u th o r ity of C y ru s; n e v e r t h e le s s , h e d o e s n ot r e c o g n iz e the d iffe r e n c e
and thus r e p r e s e n t s no r e a l s te p to w a rd la te r e ig h te e n th -c e n tu r y
p o lit ic a l th o u g h t.
T he abbe T e r r a s so n to o k b o th T e le m a q u e and C y ru s a s
p a tte r n s fo r h is S e th o s (1 7 3 1 ). T he r e s u lt w a s a b o o k w h ic h c o m b in e s
E n lig h te n m e n t id e a s on r e lig io n , m o r a lity , and th e u se of r e a s o n
w ith a r e v e r s io n to th e e a r lie r th em e of th e id e a l p r in c e a s a h e r o .
S e th o s is a w a r r io r and a c o n q u er o r w ho a p p lie s the p r in c ip le s of
good r u le a s h e t r a v e ls fr o m k in g d o m to k in g d o m . He is th e d efen d er
o f th e a u th o r ity of k in g s , w h e th e r th at a u th o r ity is d e r iv e d fr o m
h e r e d ita r y s u c c e s s io n or fr o m p o p u la r e le c t io n . H e f ir s t s e e s how
a w e a k , la z y , ir r e s p o n s ib le k in g is a c tu a lly a d e s p o t th rou gh h is
v e r y w e a k n e s s e s , y e t w h en su c h a w e a k and d e c e iv e d king is fa c e d
w ith a r e v o lt by h is s o n , he r e c e iv e s th e su p p o rt o f S eth o s in the
in t e r e s t s o f le g itim a te a u th o r ity . T he r e b e l so n is c o n s id e r e d a
u s u r p e r , a n e n e m y o f E g y p t, and an e n e m y of a ll th e s ta te s in th e
30
w o r ld fo r h is a tta c k on le g itim a te a u th o r ity . W hen a p e o p le o p p o se s
th e a u th o r ity of th e ir king w ith r e b e llio n and f a it h le s s n e s s , th e ir
! . 3 1
lo v in g and b e n e fic e n t god b e c o m e s th e ir te r r ib le ju d g e . In
P h o e n ic ia w h e r e , a fte r s u ffic ie n t c h a s tiz e m e n t, S e th o s r e s t o r e s an .
e r r a n t k in g to h is th r o n e , he a s s o c ia t e s the p e o p le in th is a c t. He
d o e s th a t to r e in fo r c e b oth th e k in g ’s a ffe c tio n fo r h is p e o p le , s in c e
h e o w e s h is r e s to r a tio n in p a r t to th e m , and a ls o th e s u b j e c t s1
32
a tta c h m e n t to th e ir r u le r , b e c a u s e of th e ir r o le in c h o o sin g h im .
170
T h is is n ot a m o v e to w a rd p op u lar s o v e r e ig n ty but on ly a m e a n s of
m a k in g th e r o y a l a u th o r ity m o r e s o lid and b e n e fic ia l. In a s m a ll
sta te w h ere the king is e le c t e d , h e is " a b solu te" m a s te r of the
33
g o v e r n m e n t o n ce the e le c t o r a l p r o c ed u r e is c o m p le te d .
N e ith e r the h e r e d ita r y nor th e e le c te d k in g en jo y s
I a r b itr a r y p o w er but m u s t be bound by s u b m is s io n to th e la w s of G od,
j 3 4
! the la w s of j u s t ic e , and the la w s of the s t a t e . C u r io u sly
i
T e r r a s s o n s u g g e s ts th at th e b e s t m an fo r th e job of k in g m ig h t be ju st
an o r d in a r y m a n b e c a u s e h e w ou ld be l e s s lik e ly to th in k that h is
g e n iu s r a is e d h im ab ove the la w s .
T he king is a ls o bound to s e r v e the g e n e r a l w e lfa r e and
c o n s e r v e the a ffe c tio n o f h is p e o p le , as ca n be s e e n in h is a ttitu d es
tow a rd r e lig io n and h e r o is m . On both th e s e to p ic s S e th o s p r o v e s to
be a w o rth y d e sc e n d a n t of T elem a q u e as w e ll as a tru e p r in c e o f the
s e c u la r E n lig h te n m e n t.
R e s p e c t fo r th e god s is as n e c e s s a r y to S e th o s as to the
fe n e lo n ia n p r in c e , but th is r e s p e c t is show n by shunning fa n a tic is m ,
m is p la c e d p e ity , and p e r s e c u tio n ; in sh o r t, b y b a la n cin g p ie ty w ith
35
c a r e fo r o n e’s p e o p le . The god s a re a g e n ts of g o o d n e s s , lo v e ,
and h a p p in e ss; s o the h o n o r paid to th em m u st not be a p r e te x t fo r
p e r s e c u tio n b y k in g s, or fo r v a in e x p e n s e s , su ch a s th e b u ild in g of
the p y r a m id s , w h ich a r e d e tr im e n ta l to the g e n e r a l w e lfa r e of th e
36
s t a t e .
It is not s u ffic ie n t fo r the p r in c e to be a r e lig io u s p e r so n ;
he m u s t s t ill be a m an o f sta te to s e e th at th e e x e r c is e of r e lig io n
in h is k in gd om r e m a in s r e a s o n a b le and d o e s not d e s tr o y the lib e r t ie s ,
171
c o m fo r t, and e n te r ta in m e n ts o f the p e o p le . It is p e r m itte d , and e v e n
p r a is e w o r th y , fo r th e kin g h im s e lf to be d ev o u t, but he m u st tr e a t
w ith o th er m e n on ly th rou gh r e a s o n . R e lig io n , though of v a lu e in
p r e s e r v in g the good co n d u ct of th e p e o p le , m u st be r e g u la te d and not
37
a llo w e d to in te r fe r e in the o p e r a tio n s of th e g o v e r n m e n t.
R e lig io n te a c h e s the p r in c e to be v ir tu o u s and to be a
h e r o , w h ich is the sa m e thing: w o rk in g fo r the good of h is p e o p le .
j
A h e r o is u su a lly c o n s id e r e d to b e a s u c c e s s f u l w a r r io r of
e x tr a o r d in a r y v a lo r . T hat S e th o s i s , b u t T e r r a s s o n ’s d e fin itio n of
the h e r o g o e s fu r th e r . The tr u e h e r o h a s as the o b jec t of h is
38
a c tio n s th e in t e r e s t and w e ll-b e in g of o th e r s . V a lo r is n ot a v ir tu e
and is la u d a b le o n ly w h en it is e m p lo y e d by v ir tu e . In the c a s e of a
p r in c e , th e guid in g v ir tu e is "the lo v e fo r h is p e o p le , e n lig h te n e d by
the ju s tic e th at he o b s e r v e s e v e n w ith r e g a r d to h is n e ig h b o rs and
39
e n e m ie s . " T h is id e a of d u ty d is tin g u is h e s v ir tu o u s v a lo r fr o m
b lin d fu r y o r v io le n c e and m a k e s h e r o is m r e a s o n a b le .
T h ere a r e few o p p o rtu n ities fo r a p r in c e to p ro v e h is
v a lo r in le g itim a te w a y s . W ar of an y kind is a m is fo r tu n e fo r the
40
p e o p le , and the p r in c e sh ou ld m a k e e v e r y e ffo r t to a v o id it . Of
c o u r s e , th e lo v e of p e a c e is n o t s u ffic ie n t and o ften a v ig o r o u s
c o m b a t is n e c e s s a r y . In the fa c e of an u n ju st and b a r b a r o u s e n e m y ,
to su e fo r p e a c e w ou ld be co w a rd ly but w h en one is m a s t e r , to o ffer
41
a g e n e r o u s p ea ce is h e r o ic . A tta ck in g o n e ’s n e ig h b o r s and
42
su b jec tin g th em can n ot be c o n s id e r e d h e r o ic - - u n le s s it is done in
the in t e r e s t of th e ir w e lf a r e .
172
It is p e r m is s ib le to co n q u er p e o p le s w ho a r e w ith o u t a
m a s t e r and w ith o u t la w s in o r d e r to m a k e th e m m o r e
fo r tu n a te and m o r e r e a s o n a b le than th ey w e r e p r e v io u s ly .
Y ou m a y e v e n su b ju g a te p e o p le w ho h ave a m a s t e r and
la w s if th e y a r e the u n ju st and ir r e c o n c ilia b le e n e m ie s
of you r s u b j e c t s . 43
H e r e T e r r a s s o n is v e r y c lo s e to a d m ittin g , a lb e it u n in te n tio n a lly , a
b it o f e ig h te e n th -c e n tu r y m a c h ia v e llia n is m . O nce the p eo p le a r e
j
| c o n q u e r e d , the h e r o - p r in c e w o r k s n o t o n ly fo r th e ju s t tr e a tm e n t o f
44
s o ld ie r s and the r e s to r a tio n of la n d s and r ig h ts to h e i r s , but a ls o
j fo r th e w e lfa r e of th e p o p u la c e .
j
T he q u e stio n o f th e g e n e r a l w e lfa r e v e r s u s in d iv id u a l
r ig h ts is a ls o r e s o lv e d in fa v o r of the g e n e r a l and u ltim a te g o o d . In
i
the p r e s e n ta tio n of th e s to r y of a p e r f e c t q u een , w h en it is a q u e stio n
o f p u ttin g h e r m a x im s of g o v e r n m e n t to w o r k and of p r e s s in g fo r w a r d
the g e n e r a l w e lfa r e d e sp ite in c o n v e n ie n c e s to in d iv id u a ls , sh e
ig n o r e s c o m p la in ts . A t h e r fu n e r a l w h e r e , a c c o r d in g to c u s to m , sh e
is to b e ju d ged b y h e r p e o p le , the c a ll fo r r e p r o a c h e s a g a in s t the
la te r u le r is p r e fa c e d b y a w a rn in g : ’’in d iv id u a ls w h o s u ffe r h a v e no
rig h t to co n d em n th e p r in c e w h en the b od y of the s ta te is h e a lth y and
45
the p r in c ip le s of g o v e r n m e n t a r e b e n e f ic ia l." B y in d iv id u a ls the
author r e a lly m e a n s p e r s o n s w ho c o n s id e r e d t h e m s e lv e s p r iv ile g e d ;
he d o e s n o t c o n c e iv e of an y ju s tifia b le o p p o sitio n to th e g e n e r a l
w e lf a r e .
T he r e m a in d e r o f the c h a r a c t e r is t ic s of th e id e a l p r in c e
and h is g o v e r n m e n t a r e ro u tin e r e p e titio n s of T e le m a q u e . A s he
v is it s v a r io u s k in g s , S e th o s s e e k s to p r o m o te p r o s p e r it y b y
fou n d in g tr a d e r o u te s , te a c h in g p r im itiv e p e o p le th e p r in c ip le s of
173
c o m m e r c e , b u ild in g new c i t i e s , and e s ta b lis h in g the u se of m o n ey and
a s in g le , eq u ita b le ta x . H e a tta ck s s u p e r s titio n and p r o m o te s a
46
s im p le , hum ane r e lig io n . He b u ild s s c h o o ls fo r in h a b ita n ts of the
to w n s --b u t not fo r th e c o u n tr y sid e b e c a u s e th at w ou ld u n d erm in e hand
47
! la b o r and the m e c h a n ic a l a r t s . T he th e m e s of th e e x tr a o r d in a r y
p e r s o n a l v ir tu e o f th e p r in c e and the n e c e s s it y fo r c a r e in h is
ed u ca tio n a r e p r e s e n te d w ith no p a r tic u la r ch a n g es fr o m the
i fe n e lo n ia n p a tte rn .
i
I
! D e sp ite th e se fe n e lo n ia n t r a it s , T e r r a s s o n 's p r in c e
c le a r ly sh o w s h is e ig h te e n th -c e n tu r y o r ig in s . A lth ou gh he is
I
b a s ic a lly a h e r o , h is h e r o is m is tie d to v e r y d is tin c t s e r v ic e s to h is
p e o p le . He is c le a r ly bound b y b oth the fu n d a m en ta l la w s o f r e a s o n
and ju s tic e and th e la w s of the n a tio n . He m a y be an h e r e d ita r y or
an e le c te d k in g . A nd a lth ou gh he d o e s not sh a r e h is p o w er w ith any
in s titu tio n , he is ju dged not on ly b y G od , but b y h is p eo p le a s w e ll
{w ithou t im p ly in g an y r ig h t o f r e v o lu tio n ). He is d ev o u t and p r o m o te s
r e lig io n , but h is r e lig io n is n o n -d o g m a tic , and it s in s titu tio n s a r e
c le a r ly s e p a r a te d fr o m th e g o v e r n m e n t. O ste n sib ly the id e a l r u le r
48
h a s no n eed of ’’p o lic y , 11 o n ly v ir tu e , but th er e a r e u n co n sc io u s
m a c h ia v e llia n im p lic a tio n s in the a u th o r ’ s e m p h a sis on th e g e n e r a l
w e lfa r e . I r o n ic a lly , S eth o s n e v e r b e c o m e s a r u le r in h is ow n r ig h t
but c h o o s e s to r e m a in th e ’’P r e s e r v e r o f K in g s, " and the th ron e of
M em p h is g o e s to h is b r o th e r w ho h a s had none of the ed u c a tio n or
49
e x p e r ie n c e of S e th o s ! P e r h a p s w ith S eth o s a s p e r m a n e n t
tr a v e lin g h e r o th e r e is n ot m u ch fo r r e a l k in g s to do.
A n s a r t’s P h ilo te c te (1 7 3 7 ), co n c en tr a tin g on th e r e lig io n
174
and m o r a lity o f the r u le r to the e x c lu s io n o f o th er fe n e lo n ia n and
p h ilo so p h e id e a s , is a lm o s t a c a r ic a tu r e o f T e le m a q u e . P r in c e
P h ilo t e c t e a t fifte e n a lr e a d y p o s s e s s e s a ll the q u a litie s of a h e r o but
s t i l l n eed s to be c o n v e r te d to C h r is tia n ity . T o a c c o m p lis h th is h e is
s e n t to C o n sta n tin o p le to m a r r y the C h r is tia n P r in c e s s C o n sta n tin e . j
i
O n h is w ay h e tr a v e ls w ith h is C h r is tia n m e n to r th rou gh c o u n tr ie s j
: ]
j w h o se r u le r s r e p r e s e n t e a c h o f the s e v e n c a p ita l s in s .
i
A n s a r t s e r io u s ly b e lie v e s th a t the p e r s o n a l c h a r a c te r of
1 I
50 i
th e p r in c e fo r m s th at o f th e p e o p le and th at th e kin g is in tu rn |
: in flu e n c e d b y the e x a m p le of the C r e a to r . G o d -g iv e n k in g s ca n n o t
j
h e lp p r o v id in g w is e la w s , s e e k in g th e h a p p in e ss and w e ll-b e in g of j
| th e ir p e o p le s , g o v e r n in g w ith j u s tic e and g e n t le n e s s , and o th e r w is e
51
tr e a tin g s u b je c ts a s th e ir c h ild r e n . A t one p o in t, sp e a k in g o f the
o r ig in of s o c ie t y , A n s a r t m e n tio n s th at k in g s w e r e o r ig in a lly c h o s e n
52
to g o v e r n b e c a u s e of th e ir m e r it; h o w e v e r , th is is an e x c e p tio n to
h is g e n e r a l b e lie f th a t r u le r s a r e d e stin e d b y G od to be r u le r s . He
p r o v id e s a v e r y s u p e r f ic ia l l i s t of d u tie s and r e s p o n s ib ilit ie s of the
p r in c e , th e m o s t im p o r ta n t of w h ic h is o b s e r v in g and p ro m o tin g
r e lig io n . O th ers on th e l i s t a r e : a tten d in g c o u n c il m e e t in g s ,
c o m m u n ic a tin g w ith m in is t e r s , know ing th e p r in c ip a l la w s of h is
s t a t e , k n ow in g h is a r m y and s e e in g th at it is w e ll tr a in e d and
su p p lie d , sp en d in g s o m e tim e w ith h is fa m ily a s w e ll a s in r ea d in g
and e n te r ta in m e n t. L a te r he m e n tio n s b u ild in g h o s p ita ls and p u b lic
s c h o o ls , and b ein g c a r e fu l in h is c h o ic e of m in is t e r s and
53
a m b a s s a d o r s . T he o n ly to p ic on w h ich he h a s m u ch to s a y is th at
54
o f p r o m o tin g c o m m e r c e . P h ilo te c te ad d s n oth in g to the ch a n g in g
175
c o n c e p t of the p r in c e bu t in ste a d r e p r e s e n ts th e te n a c ity of tr a d itio n a l
id e a s .
T he fe n e lo n ia n p r in c e r e a p p e a r s fu ll b low n in a n o v e l b y
M m e. L e P r in c e de B ea u m o n t, know n p r in c ip a lly fo r h e r c h ild r e n ’s
s t o r ie s , fa ir y t a le s , and w r itin g s on ed u c a tio n . U sin g the d e v ic e of
ithe p r in c e to te a c h m o r a ls to c h ild r e n , h er f a ir y ta le s r e ite r a te the
th e m e s o f h e r n o v e l, C iv a n , R o i de B ungo (1 7 5 4 ). C ivan c e r ta in ly h a s
la m o r e ca p a b le author than N e o p to le m e or P h ilo t e c t e , but h e h a s
le a r n e d nothing sin c e F e n e lo n ’s n o v e l h a lf a c en tu r y e a r lie r , e x c e p t
fo r a few tech n iq u es of e le m e n ta r y ed u ca tio n .
The id e a l p r in c e in C ivan is an e x a m p le of an a b so lu te
C h r istia n k in g . He is the d e p o s ito r y of d ivin e a u th o r ity and e v en
r e ta in s so m e th in g of the m y s t ic a l s a c r e d n atu re of the m e d ie v a l
p r in c e s , a s God h a s g iv e n h im a c e r ta in a p p ea ra n ce to th e e y e s of
55
o r d in a r y m e n and h a s e n g r a v ed on m e n ’s h e a r ts r e s p e c t fo r h im .
In h e r e d ita r y s ta te s (F r a n c e ) su b je c ts cannot im p o se co n d itio n s on
the p r in c e . W h atever p r iv ile g e s s u b je c ts en jo y a r e g ra n ted b y the
g o o d n e ss of th e k in g. "It w ou ld be r id ic u lo u s to s e e k in the o r ig in of
the m o n a rc h y any r e s tr a in t s on the p o w er of the k in g s of F r a n c e ;
b e s id e s , e x p e r ie n c e h a s sh o w n that th e p eo p le h a v e n ev er b een
56
h a p p ier than under the m o s t a b so lu te k in g s ."
To guard a g a in s t a r b itr a r y and c a p r ic io u s a c t s , the
p r in c e is c o n sta n tly to r e m e m b e r th a t he is h ea d o f a g r e a t fa m ily to
w hom th e w e ll-b e in g of e a c h ch ild is eq u a lly d e a r . S im ila r ly , the
id e a l p r in c e is bound b y la w , b e c a u s e a s a good r u le r h e c h o o s e s to be
s o bound. C iv a n ’s m en to r p o in ts out the e v ils o f d e s p o tis m at
176
C o n sta n tin o p le and th en e x c la im s to h im , "How fo rtu n a te if you le a r n
to know a ll its d a n g er s and if y o u h a v e the c o u ra g e to ren o u n ce th at
| in d ep en d en ce b y su b m ittin g y o u r s e lf to w is e la w s w h ich w ill a s s u r e
I
I 5 7
| th e r e p o s e o f you r p e o p le . . . . " C ivan b e lie v e s th at k in g s lik e
I
j
j o th er m e n a r e bound b y the la w s of e q u ity . The good o r d e r of
I
j s o c ie ty d ep en d s on the o b s e r v a tio n of la w s fou nded on n a tu r e , by
|
! w h ich h e m e a n s the la w s " en g ra v ed on our h e a r ts by the fin g e r of the
i
j
A u th or of N a tu r e ." F u r th e r m o r e , he d o e s n o t, he s a y s , a d h ere to
! 58
I th e th e o r y th a t k in g s m a y be p e r m itte d to do w h a te v e r is u se fu l.
i E v en th ough the n e g le c t or s c o r n of the la w s b y the king |
|
m a y c a u se a b rea k d o w n in the s o c ia l o r d e r , or c r u e l ty ra n n y m a y
fo r c e a p e o p le to d e s p e r a te r e v o lu tio n , r e v o lt s can n ot be c o n s id e r e d
5 9
j u s tifie d . The p eo p le a r e n ot the ju d g es of th e ir k in g . In any
c a s e , a w is e p r in c e is v e r y c a r e fu l to s u p e r v is e th e w o r k of h is
m in is t e r s s o th at th e ir con d u ct d o e s not c a u se m is e r y and h a tred
am on g the p e o p le . H e f o r e s e e s the d em a n d s of h is p e o p le , g ra n ts
w h a te v e r is ju st and n e c e s s a r y , and th en h o ld s f ir m , r e fu sin g to
g iv e in to c a p r ic io u s o p in ion o r v io le n c e . ^ W hen C ivan is fa c e d w ith
a r e v o lt of h is n o b les h e q u ick ly p u ts th em in th e ir p la c e ; w hen
fa c e d w ith a r e v o lt of h is p e o p le in s p ir e d by a c o u r tly -r e lig io u s
fa c tio n , h e c r u sh e s it w ith a c o m b in a tio n of f ir m n e s s a g a in s t the
6 1
r in g le a d e r s and c le m e n c y fo r th e l e s s e r o ffe n d e r s .
T h is a b so lu te r u le r is g u id ed b y v ir tu e and la w , but he
s u ffe r s no c h a lle n g e to h is a u th o r ity . L ik e w is e , he c a lls m e e tin g s of
d e p u tie s to h e a r h is p o lic ie s and to v o ic e th e ir own in t e r e s t s , but he
6 2
d o e s not sh a r e h is a u th o r ity w ith th em .
177
The p r in c e 's e x e r c is e of p ow er is b a se d on a p o s itiv e
co n c ep t of g o v e r n m e n t but one l e s s fa r -r e a c h in g than F e n e lo n 's . The
author o f C ivan s e e s th e p r in c e a s p ro m o tin g the m a t e r ia l w e ll-b e in g
o f s o c ie t y but s e e m s to s e e c o n v e r s io n to C h r istia n ity a s th e lim it of
the p r in c e 's e ffo r ts to in s t ill m o r a lity in s o c ie t y . The p r in c e 's r o le
a s r e lig io u s le a d e r is h is m o s t im p o rta n t a c tiv ity . He m u st le a d h is j
| p e o p le to the tr u e r e lig io n and c o m b a t r e lig io u s d iv e r s it y w h ile
i 63
| a v o id in g fa n a tic is m and th e u se of f o r c e .
I
| W ar is to be sh u n n ed , but C ivan m a k e s s u r e th at h is
j a r m y is s u ffic ie n tly str o n g and w e ll-tr a in e d . T h en , w hen he is
; s e c u r e on h is th ro n e he g o e s to w a r to r e g a in p r o v in c e s lo s t du rin g
|
h is fa th e r 's r e ig n . On th e fie ld of b a ttle C ivan r e a d ily r e c e iv e s the
a m b a ssa d o r s of h is e n e m y , w e lc o m in g the p r o s p e c t of su b stitu tin g
n e g o tia tio n fo r b a ttle . L a te r he le c t u r e s a ca p tu red p r in c e on the
e v ils o f c o n q u est and d e m o n str a te s both r ig h te o u s n e s s and ta c t in
64
r e s to r in g a c o u n try to its r ig h tfu l r u le r . W hen the sa m e a u th o r 's
P r in c e C h arm an t c o m p la in s th at h is p eo p le a r e too cru d e and
ig n o ra n t to e v e r w in g r e a t m ilita r y e n g a g e m e n ts and th e r e b y m ak e
h im a g r e a t k in g , h e is reb u k ed b y h is g u a rd ia n fa ir y . To b e c o m e
th e g r e a t e s t king in the w o r ld and g a in the hand of P r in c e s s
Y r a i-G lo ir e , h e d o e s not h ave to tak e a sin g le tow n or h a v e an
. . 6 5
e x te n s iv e e m p ir e .
M m e. L e P r in c e de B ea u m o n t g iv e s lit t le d ir e c t
a tten tio n to th e r u le r a s le g is la t o r , but h is le g is la t iv e w o r k is s e e n
in the r e fo r m s h e u n d e r ta k e s. The w is e p r in c e d o e s not e n a c t
su m p tu a ry la w s to red u c e the lu x u ry of th e r ic h . In stea d he t r ie s to
178
im p r o v e the lo t of the p oor b y b u ild in g m o r e -works to e m p lo y m e n and
p ro d u ce g o o d s , b y r ed u c in g t a x e s , p r o v id in g fa v o r a b le in c e n tiv e s to
in v e s tm e n t, and g ra n tin g t it le s of h on or to m e n of c r a ftsm a n s h ip and
c o m m e r c e , a ll of w h ich co n trib u te to the c ir c u la tio n of good s and
m o n e y . ^ The m is fo r tu n e of the p e o p le is fu rth e r a lle v ia te d by
!
| r e fo r m in g the a d m in istr a tio n of ta x e s and fin a n c e . A s lon g as the
j
( ch u rch m is u s e s its in c o m e and n e g le c ts th e c a r e of the p o o r , the king
!
j m a y a p p ro p ria te e c c l e s i a s t i c a l w e a lth fo r c h a r ita b le p u r p o s e s . The
!
j k in g m u st a ls o le v y ta x e s , e n su r in g a lw a y s that the w e a lth ie s t p ay the
|
h e a v ie s t b u rd en and th at the ta x c o lle c t o r s a r e lim ite d to a c e r ta in ,
61
fix e d in c o m e . T h e se p o lic ie s a r e c o m p le m e n ted b y an e x te n s iv e
p r o g r a m o f h e a lin g and r e h a b ilita tio n fo r the s ic k and p o o r . In s istin g
th a t he is the king of a ll h is p e o p le , G ivan g o e s so fa r a s to
r e d is tr ib u te the land s o that the p o o r e s t a r e g iv e n a p o r tio n s u ffic ie n t
68
fo r th e ir n e e d s . P r in c e C h a rm a n t, in ste a d of s e iz in g h is
n e ig h b o r s la n d s, b u ild in g b e a u tifu l p a la c e s , and d isp la y in g
| m a g n ific e n t a p p a r e l, a ll a t the e x p e n se of h is o p p r e s se d p e o p le ,
w o r k s fo r th e ir im p r o v e m e n t. "You sa y th at you r su b je c ts a r e cru d e
and ig n oran t; th ey m u st be in s tr u c te d , 11 th e fa ir y e x p la in s . "M ake
w a r on ig n o r a n c e and on c r im e , co m b a t you r p a s s io n s , and you w ill
69
be a g r e a t k in g . "
C iv a ^ s a b ility to r u le is c le a r ly a ttrib u ta b le to h is
e d u c a tio n . H e is ab d u cted fr o m the c o u r t and ed u ca ted aw ay fr o m
fla t te r y and c o r r u p tio n in an e n v ir o n m e n t of tru th , c r it ic is m ,
r e a s o n , and p ie ty . A c o n sta n t th em e of h is ed u ca tio n is the n e c e s s it y
o f s e lf - s a c r if ic e and h e r o ic v ir tu e , p r in c e ly v ir tu e fa r su r p a ssin g
179
th a t of o r d in a r y h o n e s t m e n . T he p r in c e 's g r e a t e s t d iffic u lty is
m a in ta in in g s e lf - c o n t r o l and le a r n in g how to p ut th e in t e r e s t s of h is
70
p e o p le a b o v e any p r iv a te f e e lin g s . The fe n e lo n ia n th e m e s of
e d u c a tio n b y tr a v e l and a d v e r s it y a p p ea r in s e v e r a l o f th e a u th o r 's
| f a ir y t a le s . P r in c e C h a rm a n t ta k e s off on a v o y a g e w ith th e f a ir y
! |
S in c e r e to le a r n how to m a k e h is su b je c ts h ap p y, and P r in c e F a t a l, j
p la g u ed b y m is f o r t u n e s , b e c o m e s a b e tte r p r in c e than h is p a m p e r e d j
71
b r o th e r .
M m e. L e P r in c e de B ea u m o n t c o m e s v e r y c lo s e to
‘ j
r e p e a tin g the fe n e lo n ia n c o n c e p t o f the a b so lu te p r in c e , sa fe g u a r d e d
I a g a in s t a r b itr a r y a c tio n s b y h is r e s p e c t fo r th e la w of n a tu re and
|
G od , and ca p a b le o f p u rsu in g a p o s itiv e p r o g r a m of r e fo r m th ro u g h
u se of h is a u th o r ity . It w ou ld s e e m that sh e is m o r e a w a r e than
T e le m a q u e 's oth er im ita to r s of th e d eb ate o v e r F r e n c h c o n s titu tio n a l
th e o r y in the f ir s t h a lf o f the e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y . N e v e r t h e le s s , it is
d iffic u lt to d e te r m in e w h e th e r sh e h a s c h o s e n the th e s e r o y a le out of
c o n v ic tio n or m e r e ly to s h ie ld h e r s e lf fr o m r o y a l d is p le a s u r e .
R e g a r d le s s of th e m o tiv a tio n , h e r w o rk is an u n q u estio n a b le e x a m p le
j
o f a c lo s e d is c ip le of F e n e lo n c le a r ly su p p o rtin g r o y a l a b s o lu t is m . j
S im ila r th e m e s a r e r e p e a te d in v a g u e r fo r m b y M m e.
* 72
R o b e r t's V o y a g e s de m ilo r d C eto n (1 7 6 5 -6 ), a c o m b in a tio n of an
im a g in a r y v o y a g e to th e s e v e n p la n e ts and an im ita tio n of T e le m a q u e .
T he p e r f e c t p r in c e w ho e m e r g e s fr o m C eto n is a b s o lu te , a c c o u n ta b le
o n ly to G od , and h a s a r ig h t to h is su b je c ts c o m p le te o b e d ie n c e
w h a te v e r h e d o e s . Y e t, a s it b e c o m e s e v id e n t la t e r , th e r e a r e lim it s
to th is d iv in e -r ig h t a b s o lu t is m , fo r C eto n , on b e c o m in g c o - r u le r w ith
180
the p r in c e s s , ta k es an oath n e v e r to b r e a k the la w s , th e r e b y p la c in g
73
h im s e lf under both a c o n tr a c t and the la w s .
L ik e S o lo n , who is s e e n on one of the p la n e ts , the p r in c e
is a le g is la t o r who e s t a b lis h e s la w s w h ich co m b in e p u b lic s e c u r ity
and p r iv a te in t e r e s t . M ore im p o rta n t is h is e x e c u tio n of the la w s .
T he m o s t a d v a n ta g eo u s c h a r a c t e r is tic o f th e b e s t o f a ll p r in c e s is h is ;
I
e x tr e m e c a r e in r ig o r o u s ly e n fo r c in g th e la w s . B y o b se r v in g h is own
la w s the r u le r o v e r c o m e s h is ow n lim ita tio n s and th e d an ger of b ein g
74
m is le d by m in is t e r s and a d v is e r s . A t one p o in t th e g e n ie ,
le c tu r in g C eton and the p r in c e s s on p r in c ip le s of good r u le , s ta te s J
th at the w ill of th e r u le r m u st a lw a y s c o n fo rm to th e la w s; "the
a u th o rity of th e king c e a s e s to be le g itim a te w h en he n e g le c ts to
75
ren d er j u s t ic e to h is s u b j e c ts ."
j T h ese c o m m e n ts on law and a u th o rity a r e so v a g u e and
g e n e r a l th a t nothing d e fin ite ca n be co n clu d ed ab ou t the r e la tio n s h ip
b e tw e en the k in g ’s a u th o r ity and la w - - m o r a l, n a tu r a l, s ta tu te , or
w h a te v e r . T he r e m a in d e r of th e q u a litie s of the id e a l p r in c e a r e a ls o
j
v a g u e ly d e s c r ib e d . j.
I
! The au th or m a n a g e s to co m b in e a str o n g b e lie f in the
p r in c e a s h e r o w ith an a b h o rr e n c e of w a r . The r u le r h as a ll the
ta le n ts and q u a litie s of a h e r o and co n q u ero r: m a j e s tic b e a r in g )
nob le f e a t u r e s , c h a rm in g a p p e a r a n c e , b r a v e r y in fa c e of d a n g e r , and
f ir m n e s s d u rin g r e v e r s e s . W hile s t i l l a p u p il, the p r in c e p r a c tic e s
h is p r o w e s s in w a r s fo r r ig h te o u s c a u s e s . A s s o v e r e ig n , h e d efen d s
77
h is co u n try and e x te n d s h is d o m in a tio n . On the o th er h a n d , the
p r in c e is su p p o sed to avoid a b u sin g h is m ilita r y p o w er and w a g in g
181
78
u n ju st w a r s . Y et th e r e is no r e a l a ttem p t to d efin e a "just" w a r .
O nce p e a c e is e s t a b lis h e d , the p r in c e tu rn s to the ta s k
o f b ein g fa th er of h is fa m ily and m a k in g h is p e o p le h ap p y. F o r th is
p u rp o se he is h u m a n e, w is e , a fr ie n d of G od, a p a tro n of a r t and
lit e r a t u r e , and e s p e c ia lly a tten tiv e to im p ro v in g the e co n o m y (the
u su a l fr e e t r a d e , new m a n u fa c tu r e s, e n c o u r a g in g ta le n t ), and
r e fo r m in g the a d m in is tr a tio n of h is g o v e r n m e n t. A ll o f h is p r o j e c t s - -
w h at kind of p r o je c ts is a p p a re n tly not im p o r ta n t--a r e m o tiv a te d by
79
h is lo v e fo r h is p eo p le and a r e b a s e d on ju s tic e and eq u ity .
T he p r in c e d e s c r ib e d b y M m e. R o b ert is a v e r y good
j
e x a m p le of the d ile m m a fa c e d b y w r ite r s of fic tio n a l lite r a tu r e on
the id e a l p r in c e . The auth or w an ts a p r in c e w ho is n ot su b je c t to
q u e stio n or ju d g m en t b y h is p e o p le , but one w ho is a c c e s s ib le and
r e s p o n s iv e to th e ir n e e d s and w ho w ill g iv e th em a r u le of law w ith
so m e gen u in e r e fo r m s to im p ro v e th e ir m a t e r ia l co n d itio n and the
o p e r a tio n of th e g o v e r n m e n t.
In 1767, J ea n F r a n c o is M a rm o n te l, one of the fo r e m o s t
of th e F r e n c h a u th ors o f sec o n d ra n k , p u b lish ed h is B e l i s a i r e . The
a u th o r ’s rep u ta tio n w a s g r e a tly en h a n ced b y the S o rb o n n e’s c e n su r e
o f th e b o o k ’s a d v o c a c y of r e lig io u s to le r a tio n . F . C . G reen c a lls
B e lis a ir e " in cr e d ib ly d u ll. " G eo rg e S a in tsb u r y a g r e e s and ad d s that
it is "one of th e le a s t go o d of the n u m ero u s im ita tio n s of T e le m a q u e ,
80
and quite u nw orth y of its au th o r’ s r e a l t a le n t s ."
U nw orthy or n ot, it and th e la te r In ca s (1777) (n ot an
im ita tio n of T e le m a q u e ) b rin g th e fe n e lo n ia n p a tte rn o f the id e a l
p r in c e to the c h r o n o lo g ic a l lim it s of th is stu d y . M a r m o n te l’s w o rk
182
d e s e r v e s so m e a tten tio n , fo r it is a c o m b in a tio n of id e a lis t ic ,
s e n tim e n ta l, and tr a d itio n a l d e s c r ip tio n s w ith n o tio n s , or a t le a s t
te r m in o lo g y , d raw n fr o m the c o n te m p o r a r y L o ck ia n p o litic a l
v o c a b u la r y . H e is in c o n s is te n t and s o m e tim e s c o n fu sin g , but he is an
e x a m p le of a th ou ghtfu l au thor cau gh t b e tw e e n the old and the n e w . He
en jo y ed the fr ie n d sh ip and p r o te c tio n of V o lta ir e but a ls o th at of the
!
c o u r t, s e c u r in g the e d ito r s h ip o f th e M e r c u r e de F r a n c e in 1758 and
th e p o s t of r o y a l h is to r io g r a p h e r in 1771. N e ith e r the banning of h is
n o v e l b y the Sorb on n e on th e o lo g ic a l grou n d s n o r the d en u n cia tio n of
its p o litic a l th ought b y the abbe C o g er s e e m e d to ru ffle th e c o u r t or
| P a r le m e n t.
j
The p r in c e d e s c r ib e d b y M a rm o n te l h a s sh ed h is sa n c tity
I
t
and h is d ir e c t d ep en d en ce upon G od, though n o t, of c o u r s e , h is
m o r a lity . H is a u th o rity is not d e r iv e d fr o m G od but sim p ly fr o m the
n eed fo r g o v e r n m e n t. T r u e , in L e s In ca s th e r o y a l fa m ily is
d e sc e n d e d fr o m the S u n -g o d , but in th at r e s p e c t M a rm o n tel w a s on ly
82
b e in g h is t o r ic a lly a c c u r a te in r ep ea tin g th e In ca b e lie f .
The p r in c e Js a u th o rity is b a se d on at le a s t the ta c it
c o n se n t of the p eo p le r e g a r d le s s o f w h eth er he co n q u ered the sta te
or founded it. In d eed , the a u th o r ity of the p r in c e is a lm o s t e x p r e s s e d
in te r m s of a c o n tr a c t th e o r y . T he o b lig a tio n s of r u le r and su b je c ts
i
a r e r ed u ced to a l i s t .
A s so o n a s the p eo p le a r e in str u c te d in w hat th e y ow e and
w h at is ow ed to th e m , th ey a r e proud o f th e ir s e c u r ity
and co n ten t w ith th e ir d ep en d en ce; w h en th ey s e e w hat is
r etu r n e d to th em fr o m the s a c r if ic e s th a t th ey h a v e m a d e ,
and p e r c e iv e th e ir ow n in t e r e s t in the p u b lic w e lf a r e ,
th ey r e s p e c t the a u th o rity w h ich m a k e s the tw o
c o m p a tib le .
183
M a rm o n te l p r e fe r s not to c la r ify th e p o in t. M ore im p o rta n t to h im
is the r e c o g n itio n th a t "the tru e sp le n d o r and a u th o rity o f s o v e r e ig n s
a r e fou nded on ju s tic e . . . and the m o s t a b so lu te p r in c e is the one
84
w ho r e ig n s in the h e a r ts of h is p e o p le . "
The ju d ging of th e p r in c e b e lo n g s to h is su b je c ts a s w e ll
!
a s to God and r o y a l c o n s c ie n c e . M o r e o v e r , th e p eo p le n o t o n ly j
i
judge w h eth er or n o t th e ir r u le r ’ s g o v e rn m e n t is ju s t, but have so m e j
| c la im to c a r r y out th at ju d g m en t. The p r in c e a r m s h is p e o p le and
j t e lls th em to s e r v e h im , o r , if he is g u ilty of in ju s tic e , to a s s i s t a
u su r p e r a g a in s t h im . ^ T he e m p h a sis on the r u le r 's a c c e p ta n c e of
p op u lar op in ion is e q u a lly s ig n ific a n t. The In ca of Q uito su b m its a
p o lic y in v o lv in g th e s a c r e d la w , h is a u th o r ity , and w ar to h is p eo p le
86
and a s k s th em to p r o c la im it r ig h t or w ro n g . E ls e w h e r e the
p r in c e is a s s u r e d th at m e n a lw a y s know th e ir n eed s and u n d erstan d
th e ir r ig h ts; he sh ou ld "hear the v o ic e of the p e o p le , th at v o ic e
w h ich is the o r a c le k in g s ought to c o n su lt, th e b e s t and u n errin g
87
judge o f m e r it and v ir tu e . . . . "
T h e se fa m ilia r a d m o n itio n s to c o n su lt o n e 's p e o p le sound
m o r e in s is t e n t than in p r e v io u s w r ite r s and e v e n a p p ro a ch the
" r ig h t of r e b e llio n , " but M a rm o n te l d o es not em b od y th em in
in s titu tio n s . He r e j e c t s p op u lar or r e p r e s e n ta tiv e g o v e rn m e n t
o u trig h t, and w hat h e d e s ir e s in a se n a te is not an in te r m e d ia te
body b e tw e en s o v e r e ig n and p e o p le , but a p o o l of ta le n t fr o m w hich
to draw o f f ic ia ls . A t one p o in t he sp ea k s o f a le g is la tu r e a s a
g u a ra n tee a g a in s t the ty ra n n y of a p r in c e w ho h a s lo s t h is r e a s o n ,
88
but the id ea is n ot d e v e lo p e d .
184
R a th er than in s titu tio n s to lim it the p r in c e ’ s a u th o r ity ,
th e r e a r e la w s to gu id e it , and not so m u ch the la w s of God a s the
la w s of r e a s o n . N o id e a l p r in c e w ou ld r e s e m b le the su lta n w h o se
e v e r y w h im is a law unto h is p e o p le . D is a s t e r d o e s n o t e n su e w h en ,
a g a in s t the la w s of h is r e a lm , S o lim a n m a r r ie s the E u ro p ea n
b e c a u se o f h e r tu rn ed -u p n o se; but the s to r y d o es s u g g e s t th at w h ere
i
r u le is c a p r ic io u s and the fu n d a m en ta l la w s a r e w e a k , th ere is little
89
h op e fo r r e a so n a b le g o v e r n m e n t. To g u a ra n tee a g a in s t su ch
a r b itr a r y r u le B e lis a ir e w a rn s h is p u p il th a t th ere is no a b so lu te
| p o w er e x c e p t the la w s , and th at th e la w s a r e the e x p r e s s io n of the
| w ill of the co m m u n ity . The p r in c e is the le g is la t o r b e c a u s e he
e m b o d ie s th e w ill of a ll, and h is a u th o r ity is le g itim a te on ly s o long
90
a s he b a s e s it on the w ill of the co m m u n ity . M a rm o n tel a s s u m e s
th a t the w ill of a ll w ill a lw a y s b e r e a so n a b le and ju s t. The id e a l
p r in c e in te r p r e ts th e d is c o u r s e on la w s m o r e s im p ly - -a n d the r e a d e r
d o e s not b la m e h im : "sound p o lic y is o n ly sound r e a s o n , and the a r t
I
o f ru lin g c o n s is t s in fo llo w in g th e d ic ta te s o f a ju s t m in d and a good
91 ^
h e a r t. " That h a r d ly d o e s ju s tic e to B e l i s a i r e ’s a tte m p t to s a y that
the p r in c e ’s ru le m u st be la w fu l and th at w h at is la w fu l is both
r e a so n a b le and th e e x p r e s s io n of the w ill of the p e o p le .
I
B e lis a ir e h im s e lf fo r g e ts h is th e o r ie s and s a y s s im p ly
th a t "a p r in c e is a b ove the law ; the la w s s a y s o , and th at is a s it
sh ou ld be; but th at w ou ld be th e f ir s t th ing th at I w ou ld fo r g e t on
92
m ou n tin g th e th r o n e ." H ere a g a in w e s e e the d e s ir e fo r a r u le of
law but h e s ita n c y to tie the h an d s of the r u le r w ith s p e c ific
lim ita tio n s , or to d en y h is a u th o r ity .
185
T w o in c id e n ts o c cu r in L es In ca s in w h ich th e a u th o rity
of th e r u le r is p itted a g a in s t la w s of h is k in g d o m . In the f i r s t
in s ta n c e , the p r e v io u s kin g h a s v io la te d one of the fu n d a m en ta l,
s a c r e d la w s b y d iv id in g h is e m p ir e b e tw e en h is tw o s o n s . The
q u e stio n i s , do the la w s of the Sun g iv e w a y b e fo r e the f o lly , e r r o r ,
!
or c a p r ic e o f a sin g le k in g? Y e s , b e c a u s e the d iv isio n of th e e m p ir e I
I
j
! w a s r e a so n a b le and w a s u n d erta k en in the in t e r e s t s of good
| g o v e r n m e n t. O p p o sitio n c o m e s fr o m the r iv a l king of C u sc o , w ho
j is m o tiv a te d b y p rid e and v e n g e a n c e and w ho u s e s the a n a lo g y of the
t
| s in g le sun a s th e o r e tic a l ju s tific a tio n fo r h is dem an d fo r th e e n tir e
i 93
e m p ir e . T he king of Q u ito, on the o th er han d , r e c o g n iz e s the
r e a s o n s fo r the d iv is io n and fu r th e r m o r e su b m its th e q u e stio n to the
a p p ro v a l of h is p e o p le .
In the se c o n d co n fr o n ta tio n , the s e v e r e la w s w h ich
r e q u ir e the e x e c u tio n of an e r r a n t " v irg in o f th e Sun" and h e r e n tir e
fa m ily , and d en y th em b u r ia l a r e c h a lle n g e d by th e h e r o . He c la im s
the la w s a r e b a se d on s u p e r stitio n and th at th ey a r e c r u e l and
in h u m an . T he king r e sp o n d s b y rev o k in g the la w , d e c la r in g that
i
| 9 4
" r e a so n is su p e r io r to the la w ." W hile p r o h ib ited fr o m ru lin g
a r b itr a r ily , th at i s , w ith ou t r e a s o n and w ith o u t th e p u b lic in t e r e s t
f o r e m o s t , th e id e a l p r in c e is o b lig ed to fo llo w th e h ig h e r law of
r e a s o n and h u m a n ity w h en it c o n flic ts w ith w r itte n o r c u s to m a r y
la w .
T he tru e p r in c e is a fir m b e lie v e r in the p o te n tia lity of
h u m an n a tu re e v e n th ou gh , a s S o lo n le a r n s , th e p eo p le a r e s e lf is h
and s u s c e p tib le to th e fla tte r y of a d em o g o g u e w ho ta k e s ad van tage
186
95
of th e ir c a p r ic e , stu p id ity , and in g r a titu d e . T he a ttitu d e o f S o lo n
is s im ila r to K in g C le o b u le ^ . C le o b u le t r ie s to f u lf ill h is d u tie s
fa ith fu lly , but h e r e tu r n s fr o m an a u d ie n c e w ith h is p e o p le
e x a s p e r a te d a t th e ir f o o lis h n e s s . H is d a u g h ter e n c o u r a g e s h im w ith
the th ou gh t th at "in tim e th e y w ill b e c o m e m o r e r e a s o n a b le . " A fte r
96
a ll, if th e w h o le w o r ld w e r e w i s e , th e y w ou ld n e e d no k in g .
B e l is a ir e c la im s th at th e c o m m o n p e o p le a r e g r o s s ly m is r e p r e s e n t e d
b y th e ty r a n n ic a l o ff ic ia ls and f a v o r it e s of k in g s . He c o n tr a d ic ts th e
c o m m o n n o tio n th a t r e li e f fr o m ta x e s and h e a v y -h a n d e d r u le w o u ld
m ak e th e m la z y and r e b e llio u s ; r a th e r it is m is e r y and s u ffe r in g
9 7
th at c a u s e r e v o lt s . T h e re is no su c h th in g a s a p e o p le to ta lly
d ep ra v ed ; th e r e a r e a lw a y s s o m e m e n o f good w ill if th e p r in c e kn ow s
98
how to d is c o v e r th em and how to t r e a t th e m . W hen m e n of v ir tu e
a r e a t th e h ea d o f g o v e r n m e n t the p e o p le w ill b e fa ith fu l and
99
o b e d ie n t.
T h is c o n fid en t v ie w of h u m an n a tu re le a d s th e p r in c e to
a p o s it iv e c o n c e p t o f the fu n c tio n s of h is g o v e r n m e n t. H e , lik e the
fe n e lo n ia n p r in c e , w a n ts to r e v o lu tio n iz e the c u s to m s and m a n n e r s of
s o c ie t y th ro u g h la w s and h is ow n v ir tu o u s e x a m p le . H is b a s ic
| o b lig a tio n s a r e the p r o te c tio n o f lif e and p r o p e r ty , but the w is e
!
and go o d p r in c e s a c r if ic e s h is w h o le s e lf to th e p r o m o tio n o f th e w e ll
b e in g o f h is p e o p le .
T o p r o te c t h is p e o p le th e p r in c e m u s t m a in ta in tr o o p s and
s o m e tim e s e n g a g e in w a r , b u t he m a k e s no m is ta k e ab ou t th e g lo r y
of w a r . "The lo v e of w a r is th e m o s t fe r o c io u s m o n s te r th at the
102
p r id e of m a n h a s e n g e n d e r e d . " H e n e v e r w a g e s w a r fo r a m b itio n ,
187
p r id e , or c a p r ic e , nor d o es h e e m p lo y th a t "oblique and to rtu o u s
p ru d en ce" s o c h a r a c t e r is t ic of s u s p ic io u s and c le v e r ty r a n ts. H is
a b le ru le s e c u r e s the su p p o rt of h is p e o p le and the r e s p e c t of
fo r e ig n r u le r s , w h ile a w e ll-m a n a g e d a r m y is e v e r r ea d y to su p p r e ss
103
d is o r d e r and r e p u ls e in v a d e r s . W h e r ev e r the a r m y m u st an n ex
te r r it o r y in the c o u r s e of a n e c e s s a r y c a m p a ig n , it is the p rin ce* s
duty to p r o te c t h is new su b je c ts fr o m th e r a v a g e s and p lu n d er of the
' 104
tr o o p s . The la w s of the In c a s e x h o r t the r u le r to con q u er
th rou gh h is b e n e fic e n c e , to sp a r e the b lo o d of m e n , and tr e a t the
v a n q u ish ed w ith c le m e n c y . A s an e x a m p le of good p o lic y , th e w is e
and v a lia n t p e o p le of C hayanta v o lu n ta r ily su b m it to the In ca s w hen
the p r in c e p e r s u a d e s th em of th e s in c e r it y and u s e fu ln e s s of the
I n c a s1 la w s , c u s to m s , r e lig io n , and s e c u r it y - - a m o r e r e a so n a b le
and h a p p ier w a y of lif e .
B e s id e s b ein g the d efen d er and p r o te c to r of h is p e o p le ,
the p r in c e s e r v e s th em a s a m o r a l le a d e r . M ore th an any p r e v io u s
p r in c e s in c e T e le m a q u e , M arm on tel*s p r in c e is a p o w e r fu l ex a m p le
fo r h is p e o p le . The r e v o lu tio n in m a n n e r s to o v e r c o m e e x c e s s iv e
in e q u a lity "depends e n tir e ly upon the w ill and the e x a m p le of the
I
\ s o v e r e ig n ." D id he bu t know h is p ow er o v e r the m in d s of m e n , w ith
w h at fa c ilit y h e cou ld m o ld th em to h is w ill. "If h e is en lig h te n e d
and r e ta in s th e lo v e of g o o d n e s s , th en th e op in ion of the p r in c e w ill
fo r m p u b lic o p in io n and h is e x a m p le w ill d e te r m in e the n a tio n a l
c h a r a c t e r . F o r a ll of Ju stin ia n * s v ic t o r ie s and g lo r io u s
m a t e r ia l w o r k s , he h a s n ot b e e n a b le to r e fo r m h is p eo p le and g iv e
h is e m p ir e a d u rab le fo u n d a tio n , but the p e r fe c t p r in c e w ill go b eyon d
188
m e r e m a t e r ia l im p r o v e m e n ts, b eyon d the la w s e v e n , to the m a n n ers
and c u s to m s of the p e o p le .
T he r e v o lu tio n b e g in s w ith the red u c tio n of lu x u r y , w h ich
th is p r in c e v ie w s a s a c u a se of th e g r e a t d iffe r e n c e s of fo rtu n e in
c o n te m p o r a r y s o c ie t y and a s o u r c e of e ffe m in a c y and co rr u p tio n . He
| d e n ie s th e a r g u m e n t, g ro w in g in p o p u la r ity in th e e ig h te e n th c en tu ry ,
i ;
I ;
j th at lu x u ry is a p u b lic u tility ; on th e c o n tr a r y , su c h su p p o sed u tility
is u n r e a l, fo r the la b o r e r d o es not g e t fa ir and r e c ip r o c a l b e n e fits .
i j
! S in ce it w ou ld not be r ig h t, in the c u r r e n t v iew o f p r o p e r ty r ig h ts j
and in d iv id u a l lib e r ty , to r e g u la te fo r tu n e s and e x p e n d itu r es (j2 .£ . , !
i j
j to in stitu te su m p tu a ry la w s ), the p r in c e r e lie s on h is r ig h t to ta x |
I J
| the s u p e r flu itie s of h is n a tio n and on the p ow er of h is e x a m p le to s
i 108
change m e n ’s m a n n e r s .
The p r in c e ’s r o le a s m o r a l le a d e r a ls o in v o lv e s h is
r e la tio n s h ip to the r e lig io n of the s ta te . We h a v e a lr e a d y n o ted the
s e c u la r n a tu re of the p r in c e ’s a u th o r ity and h is r ig h t to p r o te c t h is
p e o p le a g a in s t c r u e l and u n re a so n a b le la w s of r e lig io n . H e i s ,
i
h o w e v e r , the p r o te c to r of r e lig io n , and the f in e s t ex a m p le o f its
m o r a l te a c h in g s . T he r e lig io n w h ich he s e r v e s is th at of a
I
1
I
b e n e v o le n t, p e a c e fu l, fo r g iv in g G od , fr e e of v io le n c e and c r u e lty .
S in ce th e p r in c e ’s a u th o r ity ex ten d s on ly o v er th e a c tio n s of m en
I
and n ot o v e r th e ir m in d s , and s in c e h is ta sk is to in su r e th e o rd er of
s o c ie ty and its w e lfa r e , h e h a s no ju r is d ic tio n o v e r the fin e p o in ts of
th e o lo g y . If m o r a ls a r e not d ep en d en t upon r e v e la tio n , th e p o litic a l
h a p p in e ss of m e n h a r d ly i s . "The s o v e r e ig n sh o u ld in q u ire
d is p a s s io n a te ly w h e th e r , b y b e lie v in g or not b e lie v in g any p a r tic u la r
189
s p e c u la tiv e p o in t, m an k in d w o u ld b e b e tte r or w o r s e , and m o r e
v a lu a b le c it iz e n s o r m o r e fa ith fu l s u b j e c t s ." T h e r e b y m o s t r e lig io u s
d is p u te s w ou ld b e e n t ir e ly e x c lu d e d fr o m c iv il g o v e r n m e n t. T he
f in e s t s e r v ic e th a t th e p r in c e p e r fo r m s fo r G od and r e lig io n is h is
ju s t and b e n e fic e n t g o v e r n m e n t.
It is the p r in c e ’s o b lig a tio n to in s u r e an e ffic ie n t and
i
e q u ita b le a d m in is tr a tio n , f i r s t , th ro u g h the s e le c t io n and s u p e r v is io n
o f w o r th y o f f ic ia ls . H e g r a n ts p o s itio n s o n ly on the b a s is o f m e r i t - -
|
and h e w ill fin d en o u g h m e n o f ta le n t, c h a r a c t e r , and d e s ir e to
s e r v e o n ce p e o p le s e e th a t h e r e s p e c t s and h o n o r s su c h m e r it . H e
w a tc h e s h is m in is t e r s and su b o r d in a te s v e r y c a r e fu lly and n e v e r
" s la c k e n s the r e in s of a u th o r ity . " W ith in the a d m in is tr a tiv e
s tr u c tu r e a r e m e a n s of ch e ck in g on p r o v in c ia l o ff ic ia ls and w a y s fo r
the p e o p le to m a k e th e ir g r ie v a n c e s know n to th e r u le r . C o n sid e r a b le
c a r e is sp en t on th e im p r o v e m e n t o f lo c a l a d m in is tr a tio n , s in c e its
a b u s e s a ffe c t the p o o r p e o p le d ir e c t ly and o ften h a r s h ly .
A fte r th e r e fo r m o f th e s e le c t io n o f o f f ic ia ls the p r in c e
m u s t s e e th at th e la w s a r e s im p lifie d and c la r if ie d , and th at a d ig e s t
! o f th em is m a d e th at the c o m m o n p e o p le ca n u n d e rsta n d . T h at w ou ld
f a c ilit a t e the a d m in is tr a tio n of j u s t i c e , w h ic h , of c o u r s e , w a s a s
in fa m o u s a s th e ta x c o lle c t io n s y s t e m in F r a n c e . D e c id e d ly , the
p r in c e ’ s f i r s t s p e c if ic job is to e s t a b lis h a r e a s o n a b le s y s t e m o f ta x
c o lle c tio n : a s in g le ta x , u n ifo rm th ro u g h o u t th e r e a lm , w ith the la w s
c o n c e r n in g it m a d e s im p le and a v a ila b le to th e p e o p le . A s fo r th e
e x e m p tio n s of th e n o b ility , th at a b u se w ill b e e n t ir e ly e lim in a te d ,
111
and a ll p e r s o n s w ill p ay a c c o r d in g to th e ir m e a n s . T he e n e r g e tic
190
p r in c e w ill go on to p r o je c ts su ch a s red u cin g the s iz e of th e c i t i e s ,
rew a r d in g th o se w ho p r o m o te in d u str y and a g r ic u ltu r e , and pu ttin g
112
id le s o ld ie r s b a ck on the la n d . H o w e v e r , h is r e a lly sig n ific a n t
w o r k is the p r o p e r a d m in is tr a tio n of h is g o v e r n m e n t th rou gh h o n e st
o f f ic ia ls , s e n s ib le la w s , and eq u ita b le ta x a tio n , and r e fo r m of the
s o c ie t y th rou gh h is m o r a l le a d e r s h ip .
T he p r in c e l s p r e p a r a tio n fo r th is r o le c o n s is t s in the
| s e r i e s of le c t u r e s b y B e lis a ir e e m p h a siz in g a s e n tim e n ta l,
| h u m a n ita ria n m o r a lity of w h ich the m a jo r te n e t is s e l f - s a c r i f i c e .
T h e p r in c e is on ly a m a n , and h is p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r is t ic s a r e o n ly j
th o se of the h o n o ra b le c itiz e n , a g e n e r o u s h e a r t and z e a l fo r
113
s e r v ic e . M o d esty and s im p lic it y a r e c o n s id e r e d m a r k s o f a good
p r in c e , a s o p p o sed to a m b itio n , p r id e , v e n g e a n c e , cu n n in g, and
115
la c k of h u m a n ity . S in ce a ll of th e s e p e r ta in to the p r in c e 's
c h a r a c te r , one a s s u m e s th at o th er q u a litie s a re not im p o rta n t. T he
p r in c e 's n a tu ra l te n d en cy tow a rd g o o d n ess and h is d e s ir e to s e r v e
m an k in d m u st be en lig h te n e d w ith truth; and tru th is th at w h ich is
ju s t and u se fu l fo r h u m a n ity .
M arm o n tel* s p r in c e is an im p e r fe c t a m a lg a m of the
fe n e lo n ia n and the V o lta iria n p r in c e s . H e is m o s t o ld -fa s h io n e d in
h is m o r a lis t ic a tta ck on lu x u ry and in h is e c o n o m ic p o lic ie s ,
a lth ou gh e v e n h e r e h is L o ck ia n u n d ersta n d in g o f p r o p e r ty rig h ts
m e a n s he m u st g iv e up p a r t of F e n e lo n 's a tta ck on lu x u r y . A c e r ta in
k in sh ip w ith the m e d ie v a l C h r istia n c o n c ep t is s tr o n g ly f e lt in the
th em e o f the e x a m p le of the p r in c e . M a r m o n te l's p r in c e s h a r e s the
tr a d itio n a l p r e m is e s th at the r u le r e x is t s on ly to s e r v e the p eo p le and
th a t go o d r u le is th e r e s u lt o f v ir tu o u s c o n d u ct. T h e se u n p o litic a l
p r e m is e s m e a n th a t h e is. th o ro u g h ly a n t i-m a c h ia v e llia n . H e is
s c o r n fu l o f m a c h ia v e llia n " p o licy " and d o e s n ot e v e n ju s tify th e
I
e x te n s io n of c iv iliz a t io n b y f o r c e , a s S e th o s , fo r e x a m p le , d o e s .
On th e q u e s tio n of a u th o r ity M a r m o n te l p r e f e r s to r e m a in
so m e w h a t a m b ig u o u s. H is is a s e c u la r r u le r w ho is ju d ged b y G od
and m a n , b ut m o s t im p o r ta n tly b y m a n . M a r m o n te l c le a r ly fa v o r s
j a b so lu te m o n a r c h y (i. e_. , th e F r e n c h m o n a rch y ) a s lo n g a s it is
r e s p o n s ib le , m e a n in g : a c tin g in th e in t e r e s t s of th e p e o p le . H e h in ts
a t a c o n tr a c t b e tw e e n r u le r and p e o p le , and n ot ju s t the o r ig in a l
p a r tic ip a tio n of th e p e o p le a s c o n c e iv e d b y F e n e lo n , b u t one th a t is
s t i l l o p e r a tiv e in th e r ig h t of r e v o lu t io n - - h is la te r a n tip a th y to th e
F r e n c h R e v o lu tio n n o tw ith sta n d in g . He e v e n m a k e s a fe e b le a tte m p t
to in tr o d u c e th e w ill, n ot ju s t th e in t e r e s t s , o f th e b o d y p o litic in to
the k in g ’s r o le a s le g is la t o r . On the o th er h a n d , th e r e is no sh a r in g
of p o w e r , no r e p r e s e n ta tiv e in s titu tio n , and no c o n s id e r a tio n g iv e n
to an y p r iv ile g e d g r o u p , n o b le o r ju d ic ia l.
L ik e T e le m a q u e and the p r in c e s o f th e p h ilo s o p h e s ,
M a r m o n te l’ s id e a l p r in c e r u le s a c c o r d in g to la w s . H e i s , lik e
|
V o lt a ir e ’s p r in c e in p a r tic u la r , a b o v e the la w s w h en th e y a r e n o t in
a c c o r d w ith r e a s o n and h u m a n ity . H e is n o t a s in t e r e s t e d in n a tu r a l
la w s a s the p h ilo s o p h e s and P h y s io c r a t s , and he sp e a k s s im p ly o f th e
h ig h e r la w of r e a s o n a s c o m p a r e d to the p h ilo s o p h e s ’ " ju s tic e , " but
a llo w in g fo r th e d ilu tio n of id e a s in the fic tio n o f l e s s th an f i r s t - r a t e
m in d s , M a r m o n te l is in th e fu ll s tr e a m o f th e E n lig h te n m e n t.
192
T he sa m e is tru e o f th e p o s it iv e , c o n s tr u c tiv e r o le of
the kin g w h ich is c h a r a c t e r is tic of M a rm o n te l’ s co n c ep t of the id e a l
p r in c e but w h ich is not a s c le a r and e ffe c tiv e a s e ith e r F e n e lo n 's or
V o lta ir e ’s . M a rm o n te l s t i l l d ep en d s a g r e a t d e a l on the e x a m p le o f
th e p r in c e and on a sim p le ch an ge of h ea rt; he s t i l l b e lie v e s the w ill
of th e p r in c e a lo n e ca n a c c o m p lis h m ir a c le s . S in ce h e a r d e n tly
d e s ir e s the m o r a l and m a t e r ia l im p r o v e m e n t o f s o c ie t y , ch a n g es in
its str u c tu r e and in its c u s to m s , he a ls o tu rn s to the m o r e m o d er n
c o n c e p t of the u se of the p o w er of g o v e rn m e n t b y an en lig h ten ed
r u le r .
S e v e r a l g e n e r a liz a tio n s e m e r g e fr o m th is stu d y of the
im ita to r s of T e le m a q u e . T he m o s t o b v io u s one is th at th e ir id e a l
p r in c e r e m a in s fa ith fu l to the tr a d itio n of the C h r istia n r u le r . He
d e r iv e s h is a u th o r ity fr o m God and is u ltim a te ly r e s p o n s ib le to G od.
O nly T e r r a s s o n and M a rm o n tel c o m e c lo s e to su b stitu tin g a j
c o m p le te ly s e c u la r ju stific a tio n of th e p r in c e 's a u th o r ity . The j
i
p r in c e , w h ile p r e s e r v in g h is g e n e r a l C h r istia n a ttitu d e , is no lo n g e r ;
|
n e c e s s a r ily a C h r istia n p r in c e p e r s e . The d iv in ity he h o n o rs m a y be|
G r ee k or E g y p tia n g o d s a lle g o r ic a lly r e p r e s e n tin g the C h r istia n G od, |
!
or it m a y be s im p ly the au thor of n a tu r e . In th e m o r e tr a d itio n a l j
r e p r e s e n ta tio n s the p r in c e is s t ill th e ch a m p io n of the one tru e
r e lig io n , b ut in s e v e r a l in s ta n c e s he p r o m o te s a s im p le , n a tu ra l
j
r e lig io n of lo v e and h u m a n ity . In the m a jo r ity of c a s e s h e is tru e to
the s p ir it of F e n e lo n in op p osin g fa n a tic is m and r e lig io u s p e r se c u tio n
or the u se o f fo r c e e v e n to c o n v e r t so m e o n e to the tru e r e lig io n .
Tw o e x a m p le s , the p r in c e s of T e r r a s s o n and M a rm o n te l, a r e
193
o u tsta n d in g fo r t h e ir to le r a n t a ttitu d e and th e s e p a r a tio n o f m o r a lity
fr o m r e lig io u s d o g m a . T he p r in c e is w a r y o f r e lig io u s in flu e n c e s
th a t ca n th r e a te n h is a u th o r ity and th e r e fo r e i s a n x io u s to k eep
e c c l e s i a s t i c s out o f the g o v e r n m e n t and to p r o te c t h is p e o p le fr o m
u n r e a so n a b le r e lig io u s p r a c t ic e s .
The r o le o f h e r o is s t i l l a s s u m e d on o c c a s io n b y the
p r in c e ; h o w e v e r , the u se o f the h e r o ic im a g e h a s a lte r e d s in c e the
s e v e n te e n th c e n tu r y . T he h e r o is b o th p r in c e and h e r o , not a f o i l to
the kin g a s h e is in s e v e n te e n th -c e n tu r y tr a g e d y . O nly in the c a s e of
S e th o s d o e s th e h e r o s e e m to be a d e v ic e to in tr o d u c e , not o n ly
p e r s o n a l d is tin c tio n , b u t c e r ta in p r in c ip le s o f g o v e r n m e n t as
e s s e n t ia l to th e k in g Js a u th o r ity . F u r t h e r m o r e , s e v e r a l of th e
e ig h te e n th -c e n tu r y a u th o r s m a k e a p o in t of e m p h a s iz in g the m o r a l
and c o n s tr u c tiv e e le m e n ts r a th e r th an m ilit a r y o n es in the d e fin itio n
o f th e h e r o - p r in c e . T h is a m b iv a le n t a ttitu d e to w a rd th e m ilit a r y
p r o w e s s o f th e h e r o - p r in c e is r e f le c t e d in th e a u th o r s1 q u a lifie d
a c c e p ta n c e o f w a r . F o r a p r in c e to b e a h e r o th e r e m u s t be w a r s ,
and w h ile a ll p r in c e s d e p lo r e w a r , th e y a ls o a c c e p t it . R a m sa y and
M a r m o n te l id e a lis t ic a lly s e e the p r in c e u sin g h u m a n ity , b e n e f ic e n c e ,
and r e a s o n in s te a d of f o r c e , but o th e r s a llo w h im th e r ig h t of
c o n q u e st and r e d r e s s o f p a s t l o s s e s , p r o v id e d he tr e a ts the
v a n q u ish e d w ith c le m e n c y and b e n e fic e n c e .
T he id e a l p r in c e p a tte r n e d a fte r T e le m a q u e is an a b so lu te
m o n a r c h e x h ib itin g s o m e v a r ia tio n s in the in te r p r e ta tio n of h is
a u th o r ity . S o m e a u th o rs b e lie v e h is r u le i s s im p ly G o d -g iv e n , and
h e n c e h e ca n b e ju d ged b y God a lo n e . In o th e r in s t a n c e s , the p r in c e
194
p r o c la im s h is a b so lu te a u th o r ity , but d o e s not m e a n to be a r b itr a r y
or d e s p o tic . He w ill not h e a r of sh a r in g h is a u th o r ity w ith n o b le s ,
m a g is t r a t e s , or p e o p le , y e t he s e e k s to ru le r e s p o n s ib ly . S lig h t
d e v ia tio n s fr o m the g e n e r a l a c c e p ta n c e of a b s o lu tism m a y b e d e te c te d
jin R a m s a y 's s u g g e s tio n s of sh a r ed a u th o r ity and M a rm o n te l’s
j
r e f e r e n c e s to th e a c tiv e r o le of th e p e o p le .
T h is a b so lu te p r in c e p r e f e r s to r u le a c c o r d in g to la w .
Y et th o se w ho b e lie v e he is bound b y a ll la w s o ffer no sa n c tio n s oth er
than G od’ s ju d g m en t to g u a ra n tee th a t o b lig a tio n . O th ers d e c la r e
j
that the p r in c e is bound b y law ; but w h a t th ey r e a lly pnean is th at he
is su b je c t to th e h ig h e r la w of G od, r e a s o n , or j u s t ic e , not p o s itiv e
la w s . The ru le of law is an id e a l w h ich m a k e s the p r in c e abh or
M a c h ia v e lli, a c c o r d in g to w h om the p r in c e m a y v io la te la w s in the
in t e r e s t of p u b lic g o o d . It is ir o n ic th a t, fo r a ll h is lip s e r v ic e to
a n tim a c h ia v e llis m , the p r in c e of T e le m a q u e 's im ita to r s s o m e tim e s
fo llo w s M a c h ia v e lli u n c o n sc io u s ly in h is p u r su it of the g e n e r a l
w e lfa r e and the e x te n s io n of c iv iliz a tio n .
F r o m th e s e g e n e r a liz a tio n s th re e c o n c lu sio n s can be
d raw n about the id e a l p r in c e of the fe n e lo n ia n im it a t o r s . F i r s t of
I a ll, th e s e im ita tio n s illu s t r a t e the co n tin u ed p o p u la r ity of the
fe n e lo n ia n p r in c e a t le a s t th rou gh 177 0 . T h ey a r e e v id e n c e of th e
w id e sp r e a d d e s ir e fo r a v ir tu o u s and r e a so n a b le m o n a rc h w ho w ou ld
p r o v id e a ru le of law and r e d r e s s th e a b u se s of a b so lu te m o n a r c h y .
S e c o n d ly , th e y d e m o n str a te h ow , in the h an d s of
T e le m a q u e ’s im it a t o r s , the fe n e lo n ia n p r in c e lo s e s h is r e fin e m e n ts
and b e c o m e s a s ta le p a tte r n fo r th e p r e se n ta tio n of e s ta b lis h e d id e a s .
195
M o st of th e p r in c e s , e v e n th e c l o s e s t im ita tio n s b y R a m s a y and Le
P r in c e de B ea u m o n t, do n ot u n d ersta n d the fa r - r e a c h in g im p lic a tio n s
o f F e n e lo n 1s c o n c e p t o f the o b j e c tiv e s o f r o y a l a u th o r ity . M a r m o n te l,
p r o b a b ly b e c a u s e o f th e in flu e n c e o f V o lta ir e , c o m e s the c l o s e s t to
r e p e a tin g F e n e lo n l s d e s ir e fo r m o r a l and m a t e r ia l r e g e n e r a tio n of
| s o c ie t y , b u t m o s t o f th e im ita tio n s a r e o s s if ie d arou n d a few i
j !
s im p lifie d c o n c e p ts .
i
T h ir d ly , d e s p ite the la c k o f an y r e v o lu tio n a r y in n o v a tio n s
in p o lit ic a l th ou gh t and a g e n e r a l la c k of an y s e n s e of p o lit ic a l
r e a li s m , th e r e is so m e a d o p tio n of E n lig h te n m e n t s e c u la r is m ,
r a t io n a lis m , and h u m a n ita r ia n is m b y th e s e a u th o r s. F o r th e m o s t I
p a r t F e n e lo n :s im ita to r s u se b oth fe n e lo n ia n and p h ilo so p h e e le m e n ts
to b u ttr e s s w h a t is e s s e n t ia ll y a c o n s e r v a tiv e v ie w o f r o y a l
a b s o lu t is m . M a r m o n te l is a n e x c e lle n t e x a m p le o f an au thor tr y in g
to g r a ft on to h is tr a d itio n a l c o n c e p t of th e v ir tu o u s , e x e m p la r y ,
G o d -fe a r in g p r in c e , th e p h ilo s o p h e1 s id e a s of p o s itiv e g o v e r n m e n t,
r e lig io u s to le r a tio n , and e v e n the g e n e r a l w ill. M o st of th e a u th o rs
a r e l e s s p h ilo so p h e th an M a r m o n te l i s . T h ey w an t r e s p o n s ib le
a b s o lu t is m w ith in th e tr a d itio n of n a tu r a l la w , n ot an y L o c k ia n s o c ia l
c o n tr a c t or lim ite d m o n a r c h y .
NOTES
^L e s O r ig in e s in te lle c tu .e ll.e s , p p . 49; 2 4 3 -5 4 .
2 ^
A r e c e n t w r ite r a s s e r t s th a t F e n e lo n 1 s p o litic a l a c tiv ity
h a s b e e n ig n o r e d (S an ford B . K a n ter , " A rch b ish o p F e n e lo n ^
P o lit ic a l A c tiv ity : The F o c a l P o in t of P o w e r in D y n a s tic is m , "
F r e n c h H is to r ic a l S t u d ie s , IV [S p r in g 1 9 6 6 ], 3 2 0 -3 4 ). T hat is s im p ly
n o t tr u e , a s e v e n a g la n c e a t C ahen*s e d itio n of T elem a q u e m a k es
o b v io u s .
3 ^ ^
T he l i s t p r o v id e d b y C h e r e l, F e n e lo n , pp. 6 4 0 -4 3 , is
b a s ic but la c k s a few e x a m p le s and is not e n tir e ly r e lia b le in its
n o ta tio n of w o r k s in flu e n c e d by the p o litic a l id e a s o f T e le m a q u e .
4 f
C h a n sie r g e s , L e s A v a n tu re s de N e o p to le m e , f ils
d ^ c h i l l e : p r o p r e s a fo r m e r le s m o e u r s d*un jeune p r in c e (T he
H a g u e, 1 7 1 9 ), pp . 4 4 , 2 4 0 . T he w o r k is d e d ic a te d to the king and is
v e r y c a r e fu l to in clu d e no c r it ic is m of or r e f e r e n c e to an y F r e n c h
c ir c u m s t a n c e s . It is one o f the le a s t s u c c e s s f u l im ita tio n s e x a m in ed
in th is stu d y .
^Ib id . , p . 2 5 4 .
6 Ib id . , p p . 1 2 7 -9 .
I
7
M a rie L o u is e C h a r lo tte , C o m te s se de F o n ta in e s ,
H is to ir e d ^ m e n o p h is , p r in c e de L ib ye (1728) in O e u v r es de
M e sd a m e s de F o n ta in e s e t de T e n c in ( P a r is , [ 1 8 6 4 ] ) , pp . 6 7 -7 1 .
Q
Ib id . , p . 90.
^ Ib id. , p p . 1 0 6 - 1 1 1 .
^ A n d r e M ic h e l R a m sa y , L e s V o y a g e s de C y ru s
(L u x em b o u rg , 1747).
^ G e o r g e D . H e n d e r so n , C h e v a lie r R a m sa y (L on d on, 1952).
p p . v i i , 1 0 9 -1 2 2 . A lb e r t C h e r e l, Un A y e n tu r ie r r e lig ie u x au
X V IIIe s ie c le : A n d r e -M ic h e l R a m sa y ( P a r is , 19 2 6 ), p . 142.
12 /
C h e r e l, Un A v e n tu r ie r r e lig ie u x , p . 100.
^ R a m s a y , pp. 9 1 , 2 7 9 .
196
197
1 4 Ib id. p . 307.
1 5 Ib id , pp. 2 6 3 -4 .
^ I b id . p p . 4 9 - 5 1 .
1 7 Ibid. p . 172.
1 8 Ibid. p p . 1 3 5 -6 .
1 9 Ib id, p . 2 6 6 .
2 °Ib id . p. 280.
2 1 Ibid. p . 4 6 .
2 2 t v-j
Ib id . p . 229.
2 3 Ibid. pp. 182; 10, 8 8 -9 , 172.
2 4 Ibid. p . 2 7 1 .
2 5 Ib id . p . 322.
2 6 ru -a
Ibid. pp. 2 5 0 -5 4 .
2 7 Ibid. pp. 1 7 7 -8 1 .
2 8 Ibid. B ook I; p . 246.
2 9 Ib id. p p . 2 4 8 - 9 , 258.
30
J ea n T e r r a s s o n , S e th o s, h istc
m o n u m en s a n e c d o te s de P a n c ie n n e E g y p te ( P a r is , 17 3 1 ), I, 1 3 -1 4 ;
III, 659.
3 1 Ib id . , H , 186.
32
33
Ib id . , II, 1 8 8 -9 1 .
I b id ., I ll, 3 9 7 -8 .
34
35
36
3 7
Ib id . , II, 170; H I, 398; III, 593; III, 814.
Ib id . , I, 63; II, 4 5 7 .
Ib id . , II, 186; III, 2 1 0 -1 2 .
Ib id . , II, 4 5 7 - 9 .
38
Ib id ., I, 307-8.
198
3 9 Ib id . , I, 3 1 1 .
4 0 Ib id . , I, 1 6 9 -7 0 .
4 1 tv ■ J
I b i d ., I ll, 584.
42_, . .
I b id ., I, 307.
4 3 - . .
Ib id . , I, 3 1 9 .
4 4 t, . j
I b i d ., H I, 6 1 5 , 6 3 4 -4 0 .
45
Ib id . , I, 69.
4 6 T , . ,
I b i d ., II, L iivres 6 , 7.
Ib id . , II, 2 1 8 -1 9 . T e r r a s s o n a ls o d e s c r ib e s a h ig h ly
r e g u la te d and s p e c if ic a lly s e g r e g a te d s o c ie t y of w h ite s and b la c k s ,
H , 2 lO ff.
4-fi
Ib id . , I, 64; III, 8 0 9 .
4 9 Ibid. , III, 8 1 1 -1 2 .
A n sa r t, P h ilo t e c t e , ou v o y a g e in s tr u c tif e t a m u sa n t
a v e c d e s r e fle x io n s p o litiq u .es, m ilit a ir e s e t m o r a le s ( P a r is , 1737),
p p . v iii; 15; 119.
5 1 Ib id . , p p . 15, 2 8 , 7 6 -7 .
5 2 I b id ., p . 2 1 1 .
5 3 Ib id . , p p . 2 1 2 -3 0 , 2 6 2 , 2 9 6 - 7 , 3 3 2 -7 .
54
I b id ., p p . 7 2 -5 , 1 1 4 -7 , 2 3 0 , 2 3 4 .
55
M a rie L e P r in c e de B ea u m o n t, C ivan R o i de Bungo;
h is t o ir e ja p o n n o ise , ou ta b lea u de ^ e d u c a tio n d*un p r in c e (L ond on,
1 7 5 8 ), I, 2 , 1 2 0 , u n n u m b ered p a g e fo llo w in g t it le p a g e . It is n ot
p o s s ib le to d e te r m in e in th is w o r k w h eth er the auth or a c tu a lly
fo llo w s B o s s u e t or F e n e lo n on th e r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n God and the
k in g 's a u th o r ity .
5 6 Ib id . , I, 1 2 0 -2 1 .
5 7 Ib id . , I, 140.
5 8 Ib id . , I, 217; II, 1 3 1 -5 .
59Ibid. , I, 143-4; II, 135.
199
6 0 t^
I b i d ., I, 144; 1 5 2 -3 .
I b i d ., 1 1 , 2 1 , 1 2 2 -3 .
^ I b id . , p . 3 5 .
63 , . ,
Ib id . , I, 148- 5 5 , 165, 1 8 5 -6 ; II, p a s s im .
64 , . ,
I b id .,
11, 5 8 ,
8 9 , 116, 138. If the au th or h a s ju stifie d
the w a r s of L o u is X IV , sh e h a s a ls o sh o w n v e r y little u n d ersta n d in g
of p r o b le m s of te r r it o r ia l c la im s and of w a r .
65
"Le P r in c e C h arm an t, " fr o m M a g a sin d e s enfan s
I [ c a . 1 7 5 0 -1 7 6 0 ] in C ab in et d es f6 e s , X X X V , 152.
i l l
\ C iv a n , I, 8 7 -8 ; II, 1 6 , 3 3 , 53.
i 1
| 6 7 Ib id . , I, 1 0 6 -7 .
I L q
\ ° °Ib id . , II, 18, 2 8 -3 0 , 3 9 .
! 69
"C h arm an t, M p . 153. "Le P r in c e C harm an t" is the
s to r y of a p r in c e 's c o n v e r s io n fr o m s e lf is h n e s s and p le a s u r e - s e e k in g
to d ev o tio n to h is duty. A s im ila r m o r a l is tau gh t b y a quite
d iffe r e n t s to r y , "Le P r in c e C h e r i, " C ab in et d e s f e e s , X X X V , in
w h ich an e g o tis tic a l and fa n a tic a l p r in c e is ch an ged in to a m o n ste r
and g r a d u a lly w in s b a ck h is hum an fo r m th rou gh good d e e d s .
70
C iv a n , I, 7 2 - 6 , 9 3 -1 0 2 , 1 4 8 -9 , 2 1 9 .
7 ^"C harm ant, " p. 153. "L e P r in c e F a ta l e t le P r in c e
F o r tu n e ," C ab in et d es f e e s , X X X V . A s im ila r th em e o f the a c q u ir e d
c h a r a c te r b ein g m o r e im p o rta n t than n a tu r a l ta le n t is u s e d by
M o n crif in L e s D ons d es f e e s .
72
M a rie-A n n e de R o u m ie r , M adam e R o b e r t, V o y a g e s de
m ilo r d C eton dans le s s e p t p ia n e tte s , ou le nou veau m e n to r (1 7 6 5 -
I 6 6 ) in V o y a g e s im a g in a ir e s , s o n g e s , v is io n s , e t r o m a n s
c a b a lis tiq u e s (A m ste r d a m , P a r is , 1 7 8 7 -8 9 ), X V II-X V III.
7 3 Ib id. , XVII, 428; X V III, 3 9 3 .
7 4 Ib id . , XVIII, 7 8 -9 , 2 7 0 .
7%
Ibid. , p. 3 6 7 .
7 6 Ib id . , p. 3 2 4 .
7 7 Ib id . , X V II, 543; X V III, 3 6 9 .
i
200
78
He h a s s e e n w a r i n a ll its h o r r o r on th e p la n et M a r s ,
ib id . , X V II, 4 2 2 - 3 7 , 4 6 7 , 4 9 2 - 5 .
7 9 Ib id . , p p . 5 3 1 , 5 4 3 -4 ; X V IH , 2 8 2 - 3 , 3 9 0 , 3 9 3 .
80
F r e d e r ic k C . G r e e n , F r e n c h N o v e lis t s , M an n ers and
Id e a s: fr o m th e R e n a is s a n c e to the R e v o lu tio n (N ew Y o rk , 1964;
1 st e d . , 1 9 2 9 ), p . 1 5 0 . G eo rg e S a in tsb u r y , " In tro d u ctio n ,"
M a r m o n te l's M o ra l T a le s (L on d on, 1 8 9 5 ), p . x v ii.
8 1 S . L e n e l, Un H o m m e de le t t r e s au XVIIIe s ie c le :
i M a rm o n te l ( P a r is , 1 9 0 2 ), p . 3 2 5 . F r a n g o is M a rie C o g e r , E x a m e n j
du B e lis a ir e du M . M a rm o n te l ( P a r is , 17 6 7 ). |
j g2
[ M a rm o n te l fo llo w s the S p a n ish h is t o r ia n s , p a r tic u la r ly
the C o m e n ta r io s r e a le s que tr a te n d e l o r ig e n de lo s In ca s b y "El
Inca" G a r c ila s o de la V e g a , tr a n s la te d , 1633, as L e C o m m e n ta ire
r o y a l ou H h isto ir e d es Y n c a s. . . (B e rth a u t, p . 354; G e o ffr o y
A tk in so n , The E x tr a o r d in a r y V o y a g e in F r e n c h L ite r a tu r e b e fo r e j
1700 [N e w Y o rk , 1920] , pp. 1 9 -2 0 ). i
83 , :
J ea n F r a n g o is M a r m o n te l, B e lis a ir e (1767) in O e u v r e s
c o m p le te s de M a rm o n te l ( P a r is , 1 8 1 8 -2 0 ), VII, 5 5 -6 ; 102.
84
° Ib id . , p . 72.
8 5 Ibid. , p . 153.
86 t
L e s I n c a s , ou la d e s tr u c tio n de F e m p ir e du P e r o u
(1777) in O e u v r es c o m p le t e s , V III, 2 9 7 .
8 7 B e l i s a i r e , pp . 1 1 8 , 152.
8 8 Ib id . , p p . 5 5 - 6 , 1 1 4 -5 .
89 *
" S o lim a n II, " C o n tes m o r a u x in O e u v r es c o m p le t e s ,
IH , 3 4 -5 5 . T he d a n g ero u s c o n s e q u e n c e s of a c a p r ic io u s kin g is a
p o in t in the s to r y of " L au su s e t L y d ie , " ib id . , pp . 1 1 4 -2 8 , The
C o n tes w e r e f i r s t p u b lish e d in th e M e r c u r e de F r a n c e , 1 7 5 3 -1 7 6 0 ,
th en c o lle c te d and p u b lish e d in 1761.
9 ^ B e lis a ir e , pp. 6 9 -7 1 .
9 1 I b id ., p . 72.
9 2 Ib id . , p . 154.
93I n c a s, pp. 242-4, 267, 288-93.
201
94
I b id . , pp. 3 5 0 -5 5 . T he in c id en t is an a tta ck on fo r c e d
r e lig io u s v o w s , e x c e s s iv e r e lig io u s z e a l, and inh um an p u n ish m e n ts.
9 5 , ' ,
"Le T r e p ie d d ^ e l e n e , " N o u veau x c o n te s m o r a u x in
O e u v r es c o m p le t e s , IV , 3 9 0 -9 3 . A lth ou gh the N o u veau x co n te s w e r e
w r itte n a fte r 178 0 , th e y illu s t r a t e m an y of the c o n s is t e n t th e m e s in
M a r m o n te l’s w r itin g s .
96
Ib id . , pp. 4 0 1 - 3 . T hat the p r in c e ca n n o t a ffo rd to be
c y n ic a l abou t hum an n atu re is a ls o th e le s s o n of " P la to n en S ic ile ,
s ix ie m e p a r t i e , 11 O e u v r e s c o m p le t e s , V I, 3 7 6 -4 0 0 .
^ B e l i s a i r e , pp . 1 0 4 -8 .
9 8 Ib id . , p p . 1 1 6 , 1 2 0 .
99
Ib id . , p . 140. M a rm o n tel had a lr e a d y sta te d th a t th e r e
is b oth good and e v il in m a n , bu t th at he c e r ta in ly im p r o v e s w h en he
is tr e a te d b e tt e r , "L e M isa n th ro p e c o r r ig e ," C o n tes m o r a u x ,
O e u v r es c o m p le t e s , IV .
^9 9 B e l i s a i r e , p . 100.
^9 ^ In cas, p . 5 4 . B e l i s a i r e , pp. 5 7 -6 4 . M uch o f the
in s p ir a tio n fo r th e In ca g o v e r n m e n t is d e r iv e d fr o m the se v e n te e n th -
c e n tu r y le g e n d , a c c e p te d a s tru e at th at tim e , of the w is e ,
p a t e r n a lis t ic , and h ig h ly r e g u la te d g o v e rn m e n t of th e In ca s w h o se
r u le r s w e r e good " fa th ers o f the fa m ily " (A tk in so n , pp. 1 9 -2 0 ; s e e
a b o v e , n ote 8 2 ). T he le g e n d is a ls o u se d b y G u eu lette and M m e .
G ra ffig n y w h o se w o rk s w ill be d is c u s s e d in the fo llo w in g c h a p te r s .
^^^ B e lis a ir e , p . 6 1 .
1 0 3 Ib id . , pp . 7 1 - 2 , 9 3 -4 .
^ ^ T bid. , p p . 9 5 - 6 . I n c a s , p . 3 3 3 .
^9 3 I n c a s , pp . 3 7 , 3 0 3 .
1 Q6 B e l i s a i r e , p p . 1 3 0 -3 1 , 135.
107
I b id ., p p . 6 3 - 4 , 120, 1 2 3 -4 , 1 3 7 -8 .
^9 8 Ib id . , p p . 1 2 0 -3 0 .
1 0 9 Ib id . , p p . 1 6 0 -7 1 .
1 1 Q Ib id . , pp . 7 8 -8 2 , 9 7 - 8 , 1 1 1 -2 , 1 1 9 -2 0 . L o c a l ta x
c o lle c tio n is b itte r ly c r it ic iz e d in "Le M isa n th ro p e c o r r ig e ," O e u v r es
c o m p le t e s , IV , 2 0 7 -8 .
^ ^ B e l i s a i r e , pp . 1 0 1 -3 , 109.
1 1 2 Ib id . , p p . 1 3 6 , 1 4 3 -4 .
^*2 Ib id . , p p . 4 9 - 5 0 .
^^ I n c a s , p p . 1 8 3 , 3 4 2 .
U 5 Ib id . , p p . 2 4 4 , 2 6 7 , 2 8 9 , 3 2 3 .
* *^ B e lis a ir e , p p . 6 5 , 7 5 .
CHAPTER IX
i
E X T E N SIV E DISCUSSION O F THE ID E A L PR IN C E
IN S E L E C T E D FIC TIO N
j T he id e a l p r in c e is not co n fin ed to th o se n u m ero u s w o rk s
I
| that im ita te d T elem a q u e and g e n e r a lly su p p o rted the e x is tin g a b so lu te
i
m o n a r c h y of F r a n c e . H e m a y be s e e n in a v a r ie ty of o r ie n ta l and
fa ir y t a le s , so m e s a t ir ic a l and so m e m o r a l, and in the s a t ir e s on
m a n n e r s and s o c ie ty w r itte n in the fo r m of im a g in a r y v o y a g e s ,
a lle g o r ie s , d r e a m s , and p h ilo s o p h ic a l c o r r e sp o n d e n c e s im ila r to the
P e r s ia n L e t t e r s . The fe n e lo n ia n in flu en ce is str o n g in th e se w o r k s,
and a few of th em d e v e lo p the p o s itiv e c o n c ep t of g o v e rn m e n t in
e ith e r the d ir e c tio n of e n lig h te n e d d e s p o tis m or r e p r e s e n ta tiv e
gove rn m en t.
O nce o u tsid e the p r e s c r ib e d p a tte rn of T e le m a q u e ,
a u th o rs w e r e under no co m p u n ctio n to p r e s e n t e v e n a s c o m p le te or
c o n s is t e n t a p ic tu re of th e p r in c e and h is fu n ctio n s a s did the
im it a t o r s . In g e n e r a l th ey s im p ly take the p r in c e ’s a u th o rity fo r
g ra n ted and a s s u m e th at it is s e c u la r , alth ou gh the d iv in e -r ig h t
e le m e n t of r o y a l a u th o r ity is s o m e tim e s a c c e p te d . S o m e a u th o rs
con tin u e to sp e a k of th e k in g ’s r e s p o n s ib ility to G od, in p a r tic u la r
the M arq u is d ’A r g e n s , a p r o lif ic p o p u la r iz e r of e n lig h ten ed id e a s ,
who d e s ig n a te s r u le r s a s " th ose to w hom God h a s e n tr u ste d the
203
204
co n d u ct o f the p e o p le . M o st w r ite r s f a ll sh o r t o f La B e a u m e lle 's
c a te g o r ic a l s ta te m e n t th at the a u th o r ity o f k in g s e m a n a te s fr o m the
2
v o lu n ta r y c o n c e s s io n of m e n ra th er th an fro m G od . T he C h e v a lie r
de B eth u n e in a u top ian R e la tio n du m o n d e de M e r c u r e (1750) h a s a
i
c o m p le te ly s e c u la r v iew of the p r in c e 's a u th o r ity , but h is e m p e r o r
I is a fa n ta stic d iv in ity w h o se a r r iv a l r e s e m b le s th e C h r istia n d ogm a
3
] o f in c a r n a tio n . L a te in the p erio d un der stu d y , the d ir e c t
j
| tr a n s fe r e n c e of p o w er fr o m God to th e s o v e r e ig n is r e a ffir m e d in an
a n t i- p h ilo s o p h e , m o r a l n o v e l, L e C om te de V a lm o n t, ou le s
e g a r e m e n s de la r a is o n (1 7 7 4 -5 ). N o d is c u s s io n of any o th er n o tio n s
4
j of the b a s is of r o y a l a u th o r ity is e v e n p e r m is s ib le . T h is C h r istia n
i i
! 5
p r in c e is so o n e r or la te r ju d ged b y G od and God a lo n e . It is not
fo r the su b je c t to c o m p la in or to p u n ish the p r in c e who a b u se s that
a u th o rity ; it is e v e n v a in and d a n g ero u s to q u e stio n the s o v e r e ig n 's
u se of h is p o w e r . ^
M o st a u th o rs a g r e e that it is not a p r e r o g a tiv e o f the
p e o p le to judge th e ir p r in c e . C a r a c c io li in h is V o y a g e de la r a iso n
|
en E u ro p e (1771) m e a s u r e s r u le r s by th e r e a s o n a b le n e s s of th e ir
g o v e r n m e n ts , and r e a s o n e x c lu d e s r e v o lu tio n s. Ita ly , fo r e x a m p le ,
I
i
n e e d s a sin g le r u le r , but not at th e p r ic e of r e v o lu tio n . E n glan d d o e s
n o t m e r it the p r a is e of L u cid o r (r e a so n ) b e c a u s e of the s u s c e p tib ility
7
of h e r p e o p le to lic e n s e and r e v o lu tio n . N or d id M o n crif intend to
g
q u e stio n the h e r e d ita r y m o n a rc h y of F r a n c e , alth ou gh in h is fa ir y
ta le on the ed u c a tio n of p r in c e s , tw o p r in c e s a r e su b jec te d to the
e x p lic it ju d g m en t of th e ir p e o p le , b a se d on th e ir p a st p e r fo r m a n c e
9
a s r u le r s . The e m p e r o r of the M onde de M e r c u r e is one o f the
205
m in o r ity of p r in c e s w ho a r e su b je c t to ju d g m en t b y th e ir p e o p le s . A t
any tim e if th e in h a b ita n ts of M e r c u r y a r e d is s a t is f ie d w ith the r u le r ,
th e y a s s e m b le and r e q u e s t a new m a s te r fr o m th e su n . ^ T he b o ld e s t
of th e a u th o r s, S e b a s tie n M e r c ie r , s e e s h is id e a l king fa c in g the
ju d g m en t of h e a v e n and p o s te r ity . H e , b ein g id e a l, w ould n ot h a v e to
con ten d w ith the aw ak en ed m u ltitu d e in the fo r m o f a r e v o lu tio n , but
| he m ig h t v e r y w e ll a c h ie v e h is p o s itio n th rou gh o n e . " L ib e r ty and
h a p p in e ss b e lo n g to th o se w ho s e iz e th e m , " M e r c ie r d r e a m s . " C iv il
w a r b r in g s ou t the m o s t h id d en ta le n t s . E x tr a o r d in a r y m e n a r is e
and s e e m w o r th y of com m an d in g m e n . It is a h o r r ib le r e m e d y ,
but s o m e tim e s n e c e s s a r y .
A n o th er m e a n s of a s s e s s in g the s o u r c e of th e p r in c e 1s
a u th o r ity is to n o tice how he is c h o se n . L e g itim a c y is a v e r y old
h a b it th at is n ot e a s ily d is c a r d e d . It is a c o n v e n ie n t m e a n s of
s u c c e s s io n and an a u th o r iz a tio n of r o y a l a u th o r ity e v en w h en nothing
o f d iv in e r ig h t is in ten d ed . M o n criH s tw o p r in c e s fa c in g the
ju d g m en t o f th e ir p e o p le s a r e , a fte r a ll, le g itim a te p r in c e s . In the
s a t ir ic a l o r ie n ta l ta le s of G u eu lette the c o n c e r n fo r an h e ir to the
th ro n e b e c o m e s an o c c a s io n fo r the p e o p le to th r e a te n r e v o lt a g a in st
12
an o th e r w is e e x c e lle n t p r in c e . B ut w h ile the In ca can th r e a te n to
13
d is in h e r it h is v io le n t and la w le s s so n , th at is not an o p tion open to
the g r a n d fa th er of P r in c e T iti w ho w ou ld lik e to e x clu d e h is h au g h ty ,
a v a r ic io u s s o n fr o m the s u c c e s s io n to the th r o n e . The la w s of the
14
c o u n try m a k in g the cro w n h e r e d ita r y can n ot be ch an ged b y a w ill.
T he p e r fe c t p r in c e in A r g e n s1 fa ir y t a le , H is to ir e du r o i de
C a m p an ie e t de la P r in c e s s e P a r fa ite (1 7 3 6 ), is f ir s t th e v ir tu o u s
206
h e r o , th en tu rn s out to be a le g itim a te s o v e r e ig n a s the c ir c u m s ta n c e s
15
r e q u ir e .
In a few in s ta n c e s m o n a r c h y is e le c t iv e . E v en in a land
•where s o v e r e ig n ty is in d iv is ib le , the a u th o rity to c h o o se a s u c c e s s o r
r e v e r ts to th e p eo p le if the ru lin g d y n a sty b e c o m e s e x tin c t. In
i
I a d d itio n , th e con tin u ed a p p ro v a l of th e su b je c ts is n e c e s s a r y to the
J
j
j new g o v e r n m e n t of the isla n d of C a r a v illis . It is to be h ea d ed b y a
! p r in c e c h o s e n by a ll the h ea d s of fa m ilie s and co n tin u a lly r e s p o n s ib le
to th at a s s e m b l y . ^ T he n a tu r a l s o c ie t y of good s a v a g e s en co u n tered
in the v o y a g e s of L e N ou veau G u lliv e r a ls o e le c t s its c h ie f b a s e d on
h is n a tu ra l en d o w m en ts o f in t e lle c t and b o d ily stren g th ; and th e m o s t
r e a so n a b le p e o p le , the L e ta lis p o n s , had an e le c te d m o n a r c h y u n til it
b e c a m e a r e p u b lic . ^
The id e a l p r in c e of n o n -fe n e lo n ia n lite r a tu r e is n ot a s
o f t e n , or a s c le a r ly , the a b so lu te r u le r a s h e is in the fe n e lo n ia n
c o p ie s or in the m o r e in c id e n ta l w r itin g s about p r in c e s , but
a b s o lu tis m is s u g g e ste d in s e v e r a l in s ta n c e s . In o r ie n ta l ta le s the
u se of the su lta n to illu s tr a te th e d a n g ers of c a p r ic io u s , d e sp o tic
I
| r u le d o es not n e c e s s a r ily im p ly th e r e je c tio n of r e s p o n s ib le a b so lu te
| ru le; su c h a d e v ic e u s u a lly is s im p ly a c r it ic is m of a b u se s of
a b so lu te a u th o r ity . N or d oes th e e le c tio n of a king a lw a y s m e a n that
h e s h a r e s h is a u th o r ity , in fa c t, h e is o ften su b jec t o n ly to the
o r ig in a l e le c tio n and on ce in the p o s itio n of r u le r , a s s u m e s fu ll
a u th o r ity . The e m p e r o r on M e r c u r y , fo r a ll h is d ep en d en ce on the
w ill of h is su b je c ts b oth d ir e c t ly and th rou gh the p e r p e tu a l a s s e m b ly
o f d e p u tie s, d o es n ot sh a r e h is p o w er w ith an yon e s o lon g a s he is
207
e m p e r o r .
O ther id e a l p r in c e s a re m o r e lim ite d . The author of the
c a u s tic sa tir e on L ouis X V , L es A m o u r s de Z eo k in iz u l, r o i des
K ofiran s (1746), p r e fe r s a feu d al m o n a rc h depend en t on the
a s s e m b le d e s t a te s of the r e a lm and on la w s in ter p r e te d by the
18
| e s t a t e s . C a r a c c io li d o es not m a k e h is F r e n c h king d ir e c tly sh a re
h is p ow er but in the v e r y c o n g e n ia l v is it of L u cidor (reason ) to
P a r le m e n t, he d e s c r ib e s that body as a " m a je stic co u rt w hich
r e c a lls the d ign ity o f kin gs and w h ich is the r e p o s ito r y of th eir
19
au th ority. " M e r c ie r , w h o se d ep en d en ce on R o u s se a u is w e ll
| know n, a r g u e s that no one m a n can be the v o ic e of the g e n e r a l w ill
and m ak e the la w s. H is id ea l p rin c e retu rn s to the e s t a t e s of the
nation th eir an cien t p r e r o g a tiv e s and fo r m s F r a n c e into a fed era tio n
of p r o v in c e s . A b solu te s o v e r e ig n ty , a s he c a lls it, is a b o lish ed .
A u th ority is sh a red by the a s s e m b le d e sta te s or le g is la tiv e p o w er,
the sen a te w h ich is in ch a rg e of g o v ern m en t a d m in istr a tio n , and the
k in g, who w a tch es o v e r the e x ec u tio n of law s and h old s the p o lice
20
p o w e r .
The only w r ite r to c o n sid e r the q u estio n of the k in g ’s
au th o rity e x te n s iv e ly , though not w ith the d e c is iv e n e s s of the la ter
M e r c ie r , is the M arquis d’A r g e n s . D esp ite M o rn et’s d is m is s a l of
21
A r g en s as being u n con cern ed w ith p o litic s , the q u estio n of kings
and r e b e llio n s o c c u r s a g a in and again in h is w o r k s. E a r ly in the
L e ttr e s ju iv es he s e ts down th ree b a s ic p o in ts. F i r s t , the king has
the r e s p o n sib ility to s e r v e the g e n e r a l w e lfa r e and be the fath er of
22
h is p eo p le. S econ d , he is su b jec t to the la w s , a s th ey are above
208
23
the king. T hird, he is judged and punished only by God.
C on seq u en tly, h is fa ilu re to fu lfill h is r e sp o n sib ility d oes not a ffect
24
the p eo p le 's obligation of ob ed ien ce, and th ey have no right to
25
r e b e l, a point rep ea ted n u m erou s tim es throughout the L e t t r e s .
A rg en s ela b o ra tes on this g e n e ra l view of ro y a l authority
a s he en cou n ters sp e c ific situ ation s and r iv a l in terp reta tio n s. In
h is d is c u s s io n of the C o r sic a n r eb ellio n and the o r ig in of m o n a rch ies
he notes that m o n a rch ies w e re o rig in a lly e le c tiv e and lim ite d by
sen ate and law s; fu r th e r m o r e , the C o rsica n s w e re ju stified in th eir
2 6
rev o lt a g a in st G enoa. G ranted, Genoa had no king, but it w as the
leg itim a te authority. N e v e r th e le s s , after com m en tin g that kings
27
who violate law s a r e unworthy to com m an d, A rg en s quickly r ejec ts
any thought of the righ t of rev o lu tio n or lim ite d authority. "Don't
think that I would d rea m of lim itin g so v e r e ig n a u th o r ity ," the m ajor
28
c o rresp o n d en t a s s u r e s h is fr ie n d . It is n ev er p e r m is sib le for
su b jects to judge the one w hom God has e sta b lish e d a s th eir judge;
29
they can only p ray to God for the r em o v a l of a bad king. Once j
again the q u estion is decided in favor of a b so lu tism .
The co rr e sp o n d e n t's v is it to England p ro v id es a m o r e
s e v e r e t e s t of A rgens* v ie w s , sin c e the E n g lish m o n a rch 's pow er is
c le a r ly not a b so lu te. In itially the E n g lish situ ation is favorab ly
cited as conform in g to the idea of the pow er of the d ivinity h eld by
so m e p h ilo so p h e r s. The king of E ngland, it is openly d e cla red by
h is su b je c ts, has two s u p e r io r s , God and the law , a con cep t w hich
A rg en s has supported a ll along. B y his con tract w ith the p eo p le, the
m on arch is req u ired to o b se rv e the la w s. If he d oes not, he fa c e s
209
30
rev o lu tio n . The le tte r -w r it e r ad m its that it is only rea so n a b le
that if the king break s h is w ord, the secon d p arty, the p eo p le, is not
bound to obey h im . B ut after fu rth er d is c u s s io n , w hich ends in
favor of the E n g lish p o sitio n , A rg en s r e v e r ts to h is o r ig in a l stand.
" T h ese r e a s o n s , m y fr ie n d , s e e m v e r y stron g a g a in st th ose who
I
t
| m a in ta in that it is not law fu l to take a rm s a g a in st our p r in c e . I m u st
J a d m it, h o w e v e r, that I am thoroughly p ersu ad ed that the people have
no righ t to dethrone th eir s o v e r e ig n ," p r im a r ily b e c a u se of the
31
m isfo r tu n e s brought about by continual se d itio n s. F u r th e r m o r e ,
he a r g u e s , kings cannot be thought of as o rd in ary m en signing a
! c o n tra ct, b eca u se k in gs are under no te m p o ra l p ow er. That truth
i
is a tteste d to by the num ber of g r e a t m en who oppose taking up a rm s
32
a g a in st on e’s so v e r e ig n . The argu m en t is not co n clu siv e: the
c o rr e sp o n d e n t’s bland quotation of L ivy’s adm onition to su ffer bad
k in gs h ard ly outw eighs the E n g lish m a n ’s su g g e stio n that the R om ans
should have dethroned T ib e r iu s, C aligula, and N ero w hen they
b e c a m e ty ra n ts.
The co rresp o n d en t b e c o m e s m o r e am b ivalen t w hen he
|
e x a m in e s the place of P a r lia m e n t in the E n g lish g o v ern m en t. He
I
i du tifully rep ea ts h is e a r lie r p r a is e of the E n g lish s y s te m and adds
p a rticu la r la u r e ls for P a r lia m e n t, arguing that in a w e ll-r e g u la te d
g o v ern m en t the authority of the s o v e r e ig n should be m od ified and
c h eck ed . The k in g -a s -r e p r e s e n ta tiv e -o f-G o d argu m en t is a lte r ed
to fit the occa sio n : " sin ce kings are the r e p r e se n ta tiv e s of God on
e a rth , it w a s thought that they should n ev e r be the authors of e v il.
In o rd e r to b e st stren g th en th em a g a in st the fr a ilty of nature,
210
33
P a r lia m e n t w a s in stitu ted . . . . " U n fortu n ately, he la m e n ts, the
F r e n c h e s t a te s h ave b e e n so m is u s e d by s e lf is h and ir r e s p o n s ib le
34
in d ivid u als that th ey h a v e b e e n su p p r e s se d . In G enoa a c o n tr a r y
situ a tio n e x is t s . T h ere is no king at a ll, and the rep u b lican
a r is t o c r a c y h as b e c o m e a hundred s o v e r e ig n s , a ll b lo o d su ck er s and
35
ty ra n ts o v e r the p eo p le.
The am ount of sp a c e g iv e n to a r g u m en ts in favor of the
E n g lish lim ite d m o n a rc h y , the w e a k n e ss of the opp osin g a r g u m e n ts,
and A r g e n s 1 n eed for cau tion about p o litic a l m a tte r s in ord er to
contin ue w ritin g on the a b u se s of r e lig io n , r a is e so m e doubts about
3 6
the a u th o r’s sta te d p o sitio n . A r g en s is g en u in ely opp osed to
r ev o lu tio n s and c iv il d is o r d e r s , p a r tly b e c a u s e of h is d istr u st of the
p e o p le . He a ls o d is tr u s ts the a r is t o c r a c y , w h eth er it be the u s e le s s
F r e n c h n ob ility or the ty ra n n ica l G en o ese " rep u b lica n s." He c le a r ly
p r e fe r s a m o n a rch y to oth er fo r m s of g o v ern m en t. He w ould be
37
happy w ith a w e ll- r u n a b so lu te m o n a rc h y , but h e a lso s e e s
p o s s ib ilit ie s in a lim ite d m o n a rch y .
N o tic e a b ly a b s e n t fr o m m o s t of th e s e c o n sid e ra tio n s of
id e a l p r in c e s is the r e fr a in , "the king is su b ject to the la w s. " Only
A r g en s and M e r c ie r in s is t upon th is point. The g e n e r a l la ck of
p r e c is e v iew s on the ru le o f law is illu str a te d by G u eu lette’s t a le s .
In one sto r y he m en tio n s v io la tio n of the la w s as ca u se for lo s s of
au th o rity by the p rin c e of C a r a v illis , who is e le c te d and r e s p o n sib le
38
to an a s s e m b ly of e ld e r s . In another s to r y he sh ow s a n ew ly -
cro w n ed p rin ce ab rup tly stopping the e x ec u tio n of a young
s h e p h e r d e ss and a b o lish in g at that m o m en t the law w h ich has
211
39
con d em n ed h e r . T h e se a re sep a ra te and u n rela ted e x a m p le s , so
not only is th ere no r e s o lu tio n of the q u estio n of law and the p r in c e ,
but the q u estio n is n ev e r e v e n r e a lly fo rm u la ted .
A r g e n s 1 tr e a tm e n t of the ru le of law is m o r e p en etra tin g ,
although h is d o g m a tic su p p ort of that p r in c ip le c o n c e a ls so m e
/
u n derlying co n fu sio n . T hroughout h is d is c u s s io n s of C o r sic a and
j
i
| E ngland he in s is t s on h is b e lie f that k in gs a re su b ject to la w s. He
I
| s e e s that in F r a n c e , as o p p o sed to the O ttom an E m p ir e , the m o n a rch
40
is (L. e_. , is su p p o sed to be) co n stra in ed b y law s; but he n ev er
d e c la r e s w hat th e se la w s a r e . W hen he w r ite s that the "law s w e r e
m ad e b efo re s o v e r e ig n s , w ho th e r e fo r e a re bound by th em as w e ll
41
a s th eir s u b j e c ts ," he m e a n s so m e h ig h er la w , th o se la w s of
nature that o r ig in a lly g o v ern ed m en; but ju st as often he m ea n s the
p a r tic u la r law s of a cou n try, both w r itte n and c u s to m a r y . And if
k in gs m ak e p o s itiv e la w s , a s he im p lie s by a s s o c ia tin g the f ir s t
42
a p p ea ra n ce of k in gs w ith the in trod u ction of w r itte n la w s , he is
caught in the c o n tra d ictio n of having the king su b ject to the v e r y la w s
he m a k e s . If the king d oes not m ak e the p o sitiv e la w s , an
43
in ter p r e ta tio n im p lie d by c a llin g the king the e x ec u to r of the la w s ,
w h ere do th ey c o m e fr o m ? T h is is p erh a p s the r e a l v a cu u m in
A r g e n s 1 thought. W hen M e r c ie r c a lls fo r the ru le of la w , he at
le a s t h as a so u r c e for it in a le g is la tiv e body. The abbe G era rd , to o ,
is c le a r in h is p o sitio n . The king sh ou ld use the la w s of the nation
to govern ; he should n ev e r put h is s e lf is h w ill above the law of
u n iv e r s a l r e a s o n or the law of God, but th ere is no q u estio n but that
44
the king is the d e c is iv e a u th o rity .
212
W hereas n o n -fen elo n ia n authors v a r y co n sid era b ly in
their in terp reta tio n of the p rin ce*s authority, th ere is a g e n e ra l
a ccep ta n ce of his g o v ern m en t a s a p o sitiv e fo r c e for the im p ro v em en t
of s o c ie ty . This is c le a r ly b a se d on a confid en t, if not o p tim istic ,
j view of hum an n a tu re. In th is r e s p e c t th ese se le c te d authors sh a re
the b a s ic a ssu m p tio n s of the E n ligh ten m en t.
I A rgen s is the le a s t o p tim istic of th e se w r it e r s . He s e e s
m an as having ex p e rie n c e d a "fall fro m g r a c e ," th ereb y exchanging
45
| the rule of natural law for the ru le of kings and w ritten la w s. He
p a r tic u la rly d islik e s m en in the m a s s . B e s id e s being in con stan t,
46
j w h im sic a l, and r e s t l e s s , hum an b ein gs a re ungrateful and have
a s s a s s in a te d the b e s t kings (H enry IV) w hile sp arin g bad ones
(Louis X I). To A r g e n s "it s e e m s that s e v e r ity is the only w ay to
im p r e s s fea r and r e s p e c t on a m a s s of m e a n and s e r v ile sou ls who
47
can be govern ed on ly by rough, rig id m e a n s. " P r a c tic a lly all
e ig h teen th -cen tu ry w r ite r s e x p r e s s som e r e s e r v a tio n s about the
virtu e and w isd om of the m a s s e s , but A r g e n s1 in s is te n c e on
connecting the o r ig in of m o n a rch y w ith o r ig in a l sin and h is b e lie f in
! the n e c e s s it y for r e p r e s s io n in d icate that he is not e n tir e ly fr e e of
i
1
| the sev e n tee n th -c en tu r y C h ristia n tradition of the ab solu te m on arch y.
M ost of the authors are m o re o p tim istic in th eir
a s s e s s m e n t of m a n , p a r tic u la rly his p oten tiality to b e c o m e m o re
rea so n a b le. M e r c ie r , com ing m u ch later in the cen tu ry , r e p r e se n ts
the o p p o site end of the sp ectru m fro m A r g en s in h is v iew of hum an
nature. In the utopia L !An 2440 "that b arb arou s p o lic y , founded on
ign oran ce of the tru e law s or on the d istr u st of the p o o r e s t and m o s t
213
u sefu l m en , is no lo n g er e sp o u se d . T hey w ere c r u e l and abom inable
48
la w s that a ssu m e d m en to be e v il. . . . " The p h ilosop h er of 2440
ex p la in s that "good is no m o r e d ifficu lt than e v il. The hum an
p a ssio n s a re frigh tfu l o b s ta c le s , but w hen the m ind is once con vin ced
49
■ of its true in t e r e s t , then m an b e c o m e s ju st and faith fu l. " M an has
i
j b e c o m e m o r e en ligh ten ed , and the p r in c e 's ta sk is e a s ie r , b e c a u se
■ w ith people w ho think, who have p r in c ip le s , and who know th eir
I 50
; d u tie s, he can use r ea so n . M e r c ie r b e lie v e s that the p r o g r e s s
| a lr ea d y m ade by hum an r e a s o n p e r m its the p r in c e s of the p r e se n t to
j
in itia te this new approach to p o litic s .
The p o sitiv e con cep t of go v ern m en t is ev id en t in the
num ber of id e a l p rin ces who are g r e a t reform in g le g is la t o r s .
i
| A ccord in g to G u eu lette, the f ir s t king of the Incas m u st e sta b lis h
s o c ie ty by in stru ctin g the peop le in the r elig io n of the Sun,
p r e sc r ib in g to them the la w s they m u s t fo llo w , and teaching th em the
s k ills n e c e s s a r y for m a te r ia l im p rovem en t: building h ou ses and
to w n s, w orking the land and cultivating p la n ts, feed in g h e r d s, "in
51
oth er w o r d s, m aking use of th eir r e a s o n ." D e sfo n ta in e s1
e x c e lle n t q u een of B a b ila ry is not p r e c is e ly a le g is la t o r , but she is
som ethin g of an en ligh tened desp ot undertaking sin g le-h a n d ed ly the
52
r efo r m of h e r r e a lm . In B eth u n e's im a g in a ry v o yage the em p e r o r
of M ercu ry m u s t c o m p le te ly r e v is e the la w s and regu lation s in ord er
to e sta b lish the p e r fe ct g o v ern m en t. He co n su lts the deputies of the
p e o p le , a lw a y s p r e fe r s h is s u b je c ts 1 v ie w s to h is ow n, but r e s e r v e s
the right to show them th eir true in te r e s ts in c a se th ey p r e se n t
req u e sts w h ich are co n tra ry to it. T his a s s u m e s , of c o u r se , that
214
m en can see th eir true in te r e s ts and w ill be r e a so n a b le . This
le g is la to r has the add ition al ta sk of con vin cin g h is su b jects of the
c o r r e c tn e s s of h is r e f o r m s , for he " regard s it as a c r im e to m ake
53
peop le happy a g a in st th eir w ill. "
The lim its of th ese o p tim istic w r it e r s 1 confid en ce in the
j
| p oten tiality of m an are s e e n in M e r c ie r l s w ork . F o r a ll h is
| con fid en ce in m an and h is d e sig n of a r ep re sen ta tiv e g o v ern m en t, he
i
s till req u ir es the tem p o ra ry ex p ed ien t of the en ligh ten ed d esp o t for
the in itia l state r e fo r m s . The rev o lu tio n that produced the F ra n ce
5^
of L 1 An 2440 w as effected by one g r e a t m an , a p h ilo s o p h e r -p r in c e .
An inhabitant of the new golden age exp lain s that "the m o s t noble of
a ll t it le s is that of le g is la to r . A s o v e r e ig n then ap p roach es n e a r e s t
to the divinity w hen he g iv e s w ise and durable law s to the nation.
We s t ill rep eat w ith rap tu re the au gu st nam e of C atherine II, " not
55
for h er co n q u ests, but fo r h er la w s. The E n g lish now ignore
C h a rles I's death and honor C r o m w ell, "that g r ea t m an [w h o] w as
5 6
the r e a l author of th eir fo rtu n ate, im m u tab le co n stitu tio n ."
It is not su r p r isin g that the a n ti-ph ilosop h e w r ite r ,
; G e ra r d , is not im m une to the contagiou s p o litic a l id e a ls of the
E n ligh ten m en t. H is co n cep t of g o v ern m en t is fa ir ly p o s itiv e ,
d esp ite the s e lf -im p o s e d lim its of the m e d ie v a l tra d itio n . Like
M arm on tel, he does not s e e as far as F e n e lo n , but at tim e s he
sounds m ore lik e an eig h te e n th -c en tu r y p h ilosophe than do A rgen s
and M e r c ie r . H e m ain tain s that th ere a re u n iv er sa l p r in c ip le s of
r e a s o n , ju s tic e , and v ir tu e w hich a re a n terio r to a ll le g is la t o r s .
"All th ose e n g in e e r s , so prudent and w is e , follow the sa m e m o d e ls ,
215
57
and w hat are th o se but r e a s o n and the nature of th in gs? " The
le g is la to r fo r m s the p o sitiv e law s fo r m an , but law s are not enough.
He m u s t w ork on the m a n n ers and cu sto m s of the p eo p le, o v e rc o m e
I
| fa lse p r e ju d ic e s , and r e fo r m the ch a ra cter of the people if
1 58 ,
n e c e s s a r y . Indeed, G erard quotes R o u sse a u , M ontesquieu, and
M irab eau to su p p ort h is b e lie f that the c u sto m s of people m u st
r e c e iv e attention. H o w ev er, he op p oses tryin g to a c c o m p lish the
m o r a l r eg e n e r a tio n of s o c ie ty through new law s and new in stitu tion s
sin c e he does not intend any ch an ges in the s o c ia l and p o litic a l
I 59
o rgan ization . In stead , the author r e lie s on r elig io n , on education ,
and above all on the ex a m p le of the p rin ce to change m en . "A g rea t
p r in c e , or one that the p eo p le reg a rd as g r e a t, d e te r m in e s the
ko
sp irit of h is cen tu ry and can s o m e tim e s change that of h is nation. "
The w r ite r s who trea t the id ea l p rin ce e x te n siv e ly in
fictio n know that w hether he is a g r ea t le g is la to r , C h ristian absolute
m o n a rch , or lim ite d m o n a rch , he has the r e s p o n sib ility of defending
h is cou n try, execu tin g its la w s , and p rom oting the g e n e r a l w elfa re
through a w ise a d m in istra tio n and a refo rm p ro g ra m of both m a te r ia l
i and sp iritu a l im p ro v em en t. Of th ese fu n ctio n s, authors pay the le a s t
!
! atten tion to the p r in c e 's r o le as defend er of h is country. That role
l
j is c e r ta in ly not d en ied , and it is c o n sid ered e s s e n tia l that the ru ler
both know som eth in g of m ilita r y a ffa irs and k eep h is a r m y in
r e a d in e ss; but n eith er h is p e r so n a l m ilita r y p r o w e ss nor h is
a c tiv itie s of figh ting and conquering are c en tr a l to h is w ork . In
sh ort, the p r in c e - a s - h e r o is a lien to the thought of the authors who
w rite s e r io u s ly about the id ea l p r in ce.
216
W ar is ju stifie d only w h en the p r in c e 's cou n try is
attack ed and h is p eo p le are k ille d . He is not ju stifie d in w agin g a
p r e v e n tiv e w ar or in conqu ering new t e r r it o r ie s .^ * The ab su rd
r e a s o n s fo r w h ich m e n go to w ar a r e e x p o se d by the p e r fe c t P r in c e
T iti. In a h u m o ro u s v e in , the au th or, S a in t-H y a c in th e , h a s a
n eigh b orin g m o n a r c h atta ck P r in c e T iti b e c a u s e one of h is su b jects
] £ 2
J h a s had h is m u sta c h e cut off w h ile tr a v e lin g in T it i’s la n d s.
i
!
j C on q u erors su ch a s A lex a n d er and Ju liu s C a e sa r are no m o d e ls fo r
the p e r fe c t p r in c e . A r g en s s e e s th em as g r e a t h igh w ay r o b b e r s ,
63
the s c o u r g e of m an k in d , o r, m o s t ch a rita b ly , m isg u id e d y o u th s.
A r g en s can e x c u se L o u is X IV 's t e r r it o r ia l co n q u ests b e c a u s e of the
64
Sun K in g's g r e a t a c h ie v e m e n ts in oth er m a tte r s ; but in M o n crif1 s
fa ir y tale the a m b itio u s p rin ce who is e a g e r to go to w a r , a lb e it only
a le g itim a te and ju st w a r , is r e je c te d in favor of the p rin ce who d o es
not s e e k to r e d r e s s h is fo r m e r l o s s e s or to in c r e a s e h is land s
65
u n n e c e s s a r ily . And C a r a c c io li's " r e a s o n ," o th e r w ise so p le a se d
66
w ith the a d m in istr a tio n of P r u s s ia , fin d s its king too m ilit a r is t ic .
The w h ole s y s te m w h ich m a k es E u rop e into one v a s t a r s e n a l and
puts the w hole h u m an s p e c ie s in the hands of ir r e s p o n s ib le kings is
6 7
d ep lo red b y M e r c ie r .
M ore im p o rta n t to th e s e w r ite r s than m ilita r y le a d e r sh ip
is the p r in c e 's a d m in istr a tio n of h is g o v e rn m e n t. T im e and again
the p r in c e is urged to ru le fo r h im s e lf . The n eed for the p rin ce to
s e e k c o u n s e l is fa r o v ersh a d o w ed b y h is n eed to be his ow n m a s te r .
N o th em e is m o r e p e r s is t e n t than that of the d a n g ers of c o u r tie r s and
e v il m in is t e r s , m o th e r s and m i s t r e s s e s , and the tr iv ia l b a s is of
217
c o u r t p o litic s . The c o u r t v isite d by S a u rin ’s M irza is typical: he
fin d s a su ltan ruled b y h is m other; the m oth er in turn is ruled b y
6 8
tw o v iz ie r s , but one ste p s on her s p a n ie l’s foot and is d isg r a c e d .
A rg en s m ig h t be able to r e c o g n iz e the im p ortan ce of
capable m in is t e r s and ap p reciate the s e le c tio n of R ic h e lie u , M a za rin ,
69
| C o lb ert, L o u v o is, and F le u r y , but m o s t w r ite r s a re opposed to
g r e a t m in is t e r s , e s p e c ia lly R ic h e lie u , M azarin , and F leu ry , a s w e ll
a s to the sw a r m of s m a ll- f r y who w e r e m o re ty p ica l of the
eig h te e n th -c en tu r y F r e n c h court. La B e a u m e lle ’s pitiful King
Z eo k in izu l, d e lib e r a te ly led to d eb au ch ery by h is m in is t e r s , sh o w s
s o m e im p ro v em en t w hen he gets rid of th em , but is s t ill a v ic tim of
w o m en . N ot until n ea r the end of h is reig n is he able to free h im s e lf
70
and w ork fo r h is p eo p le. The m o r a l is clea r: the id eal p rin ce m us
f i r s t of a ll take full ch a rg e of h is g o v ern m en t and a ssu m e fu ll
r e s p o n sib ility for how it is a d m in istered .
To be able to c a rr y out h is functions a s the r e sp o n sib le
h ead of the g o v ern m en t, the ideal p r in c e se e k s the ad vice of p e r so n s
e x p e r ie n c e d in g o v ern m en t, even m o th e r s who have b een r e g e n ts ,
71
and he g a th ers fir st-h a n d in form ation about h is country. He
c o n su lts, or has his o ffic ia ls c o n su lt, private c itiz e n s who have
p a rticu la r know ledge about certa in a ffa ir s . He p e r so n a lly tr a v e ls
through h is p r o v in c e s learn in g about the com m on people and th eir
72
o ccu p a tio n s. In add ition , it is freq u en tly pointed out, the king is
a lw a y s a c c e s s ib le to h is p eop le, p erm ittin g th em to bring th eir
73
co m p la in ts and r eq u e sts d ir e ctly to h is attention.
218
Once in control and in form ed about M s cou n try, the
p rin ce turns to h is p ro g ra m of action . F i r s t on the agenda is the
r e fo r m of fin a n ces and taxation. D e sfo n ta in e s’ en lig h ten ed d esp o t,
the queen of B a b ila ry , f ir s t r ed u ces the p o sitio n of the fin a n c ie r s on
the a ssu m p tio n that th eir w ea lth is ill-g o tte n . She then e sta b lish e s
74
| a s in g le , graduated tax and h a s it c o lle c te d by h e r own o ffic ia ls.
In the kingdom of the K ofirans the sa m e points a r e m ad e by n eg a tiv e
e x a m p le s . It is c le a r that the c o st of the king’s g o v ern m en t should
be m o r e equitably d istrib u ted , but unfortunately, in stea d of m aking
75
th eir peop le happy, the kings have e sta b lish ed a r b itr a r y p o w er.
The q u estio n of f is c a l r efo r m is trea ted w ith s till g r e a te r ingenuity
by the w r ite r B ethune. T h ere is no n eed to pay ta x e s in the utopia
of M ercu ry w h ere e v e r y n e c e s s it y is fr e e and a ll m o n ey c o m e s as
a gift fr o m the e m p e r o r ’s g a rd en . A v isitin g su ltan is prodded by
h is com pan ion to im itate the w is e and gen erou s ru le of M er c u r y ’s
e m p e r o r . The author deftly n otes that the m ajor o b sta c le in the
su lta n ’s path is h is sta te ’s p e r n ic io u s sy ste m of ta x c o lle c t in g - -
o b v io u sly an a llu sio n to e ig h te e n th -c en tu r y F r a n c e . R ev en u es do not
r ea c h the tr e a su r e d ir e c tly , su b jects do not contribu te fa ir ly , and
the poor are so m is e r a b le and o p p re sse d that th ey s e e no advantages
76
in the r u le r . It is left for M e r c ie r to d ev ise the m o s t id e a lis tic
tax: s y s te m . T his takes p la ce in a r efo rm ed F r a n c e of the tw enty-
fifth cen tu ry. The fis c a l stru ctu re is b a sed on a b a s ic in com e tax
of 1 /5 0 , w ith exem p tion s fo r the poor and volu n tary o fferin g s fro m
the w ea lth y . If the prince p r o p o se s w orthw hile p r o je c ts the people
77
f r e e ly finance th em .
219
Although th ere is le s s d is c u s s io n of the p r in c e ’s r o le in
the a d m in istra tio n of ju stice and l e s s in te r e st in law r efo r m than
am ong the philo s o p h e s , the im a g in a ry p rin ce is u su a lly co n sid ered
the guardian and e x ecu to r of the la w s, the h ig h est judge of h is
78
land. An en ligh tened p rin ce w ill s e e that h is kingdom n eed s a
| sin gle s e t of law s not v a ry in g fro m one p rovin ce to another. A s
L ucidor o b s e r v e s w hen v isitin g L anguedoc, "nature is regu lated
79
I ev ery w h ere by the sa m e la w s, why not im itate h e r ? " S im ila r ly ,
the king of P r u s s ia sim p lifie s the law s and r e fo r m s the cou rts to
80
m ak e ju stic e contin ually a v a ila b le. The sa m e sp ir it of rational
refo rm c h a r a c te r iz e s G era rd ’s la te -e ig h te e n th -c e n tu r y C h ristian
prince who s tr ic tly e n fo r c es the law s and m a k es th em s im p le , c le a r ,
81
and un iform so the people can know th em .
A trad ition al duty of the C h ristian p rin ce has b een to
se r v e as the p ro tecto r and p ro m o ter of h is r elig io n . A s the concept
of the p rin ce b e c o m e s m o r e sec u la r in the eigh teen th cen tu ry, and
as r e lig io n b e c o m e s m o r e rea so n a b le and ev en g iv e s w ay to natural
r elig io n , the r u le r ’s duty tow ard r elig io n a lso ch a n g es. Instead of
being the ch u rch ’s guardian, he is adm on ish ed to r efo r m c le r ic a l
ab u ses and to sep a ra te the church fr o m h is go v ern m en t.
This change is m o r e subtle than ap p ears on the su r fa c e.
F ro m the beginning of the century to the m iddle s e v e n t ie s , the
fictio n a l prin ce r em a in s p io u s, g o d -fe a rin g , and r e sp e c tfu l of
r elig io n . An a th e is tic a l king is c o m p le te ly unthinkable, and one who
82
is pious is p refera b le to one who is not. O c ca sio n a lly the prince
is s t ill ex p ected to fo ste r a sp e c ific r e lig io n alo n e, as in G era rd ’s
220
83
a p o lo g e tic s . C on trary to the g e n e r a l tren d tow ard r e lig io u s r efo r m
and the s e c u la r iz a tio n of p o lit ic s , G era rd m a in ta in s that God is the
only so u r ce of le g itim a te pow er; that p r e se r v a tio n of the true r e lig io n
is the k in gJs fo r e m o s t duty; and that the ch u rch and sta te a re
84
d e sig n e d to m u tu a lly su p p ort e a ch o th er. The m o r e ty p ica l attitude
is e x p r e s s e d by G u eu lette. He p r e se n ts the two p r in c ip le s of a true
r e lig io n and r e lig io u s u n ifo rm ity , but by r e p r e se n tin g th em in a
j
M o sle m r u le r of v a lo r , p ie ty , and p e a c e , he a ls o in d ir e c tly fo s te r s
85
to le r a tio n . The p rin ce of the E n lig h ten m en t h as a v e r y s p e c ia l
j
j duty to avoid fa n a tic ism , su p e r stitio n , and h y p o crisy ; h e should not
j ^ g ^
| be a d e v o t. M o r e o v e r , he m u s t not u se h is p ow er a s r u le r to
p e r se c u te su b jec ts fo r th eir r e lig io u s b e lie f s . L o u is X IV 's
r e v o c a tio n of the E d ic t of N an tes is the co m m o n ly c ite d e x a m p le of
inhum ane p o lic y , a s w e ll as of w e a k n e ss on the p a rt of the king,
87
who a llo w ed h im s e lf to be duped by a s e c t of p r ie s t s .
The p rin ce u n d ertak es r e lig io u s r e fo r m s not on ly in the
in t e r e s t s of r e a s o n and h u m an ity, but fo r p r a c tic a l p o litic a l r e a s o n s
a s w e ll. He m u st m a in ta in h is au th ority a g a in st c le r ic a l
I en c ro a c h m en ts and p r e s e r v e h is state fr o m the d a m a g es of r e lig io u s
I
i
q u a r r e ls . The th eo r y of divine righ t had d ev elo p ed as a rig h t of
r o y a l g o v e rn m e n t to be f r e e of c le r ic a l in t e r fe r e n c e , but that th eo r y
w a s rap id ly b eco m in g o b so le te am ong r ea so n a b le m e n , w h ile the
p r o b le m s of c le r ic a l in te r fe r e n c e and r e lig io u s d istu rb a n c es
continued. The p o litic a l a rg u m en ts are no lo n g er m ad e w ith in the
co n tex t of the C h ristia n r e lig io n but a re s im p ly p o litic a l. The p rin c e
m u s t e sc h e w a ll r e lig io u s q u a r r e ls and d isp u te s, a s th ey only distu rb
221
the p ea ce of the country, d iv ert h is atten tion from m o r e im portant
m a t te r s , and u n n e c e ssa r ily m ake c r im in a ls out of the disputants who
88
a r e oth erw ise good c itiz e n s . It fo llo w s n aturally that the w ise
m o n a rch w ill exclu d e ch u rch m en fro m p ow er in the g o v ern m en t, both
in p o sitio n s of authority and as a d v is e r s . "One of the g r e a te st
m isfo r tu n e s that can happen to a s o v e r e ig n ," the J e w ish
co rr e sp o n d e n t w r ite s , "is for h im to pay any so rt of attention to a
group of people w ho, lackin g a ll know ledge in the a ffa irs of the
w o r ld , are fu ll of a w ild , fa ls e z e a l for r e lig io n w h ich induces them i
to approve and e x e c u te , as far as they can , the m o s t extravagan t
89
d e s ig n s ." The J e s u its , having b een the m o st p rom in en t churchm en
in p o sitio n s of p o w er, r e c e iv e p a rticu la r c en su re . The R egen t of
F r a n c e , the due d 'O rlea n s, put no faith in the p r o m is e s of the
J e s u its , a C hin ese tr a v e le r e x p la in s, but unfortunately he ev en tu a lly
gave in, and they regain ed the stren gth th ey had en joyed under
90
L ou is XIV. The young p rin ce who su c ce e d e d to the throne a ls o
gave in to the S o c ie ty of F a q u irs and the M ollak (C ardinal F leu ry )
91
who w as in leagu e w ith them . The rea so n a b le p rin ce w ill r e s p e c t
92
the c le r g y but exclu d e them fro m state b u s in e s s .
In ca rry in g out h is r e sp o n sib ility to provide a ju st and
b e n e fic ia l a d m in istra tio n , the id ea l p rin ce adds to the refo rm of
fin a n c e, ju s tic e , and r elig io n , that of the g en era l eco n o m y . H ere he
sim p ly fo llo w s the p attern laid out by F en elon ; he co m b in es the
m e r c a n tilis tic in cen tiv es used by Louis XIV with a r efo rm of the
to lls and c u sto m s. The avow ed object is to in c r e a se tra d e, but the
id e a l p r in c e 's r e a l co n cern is to im p ro v e a g ricu ltu ra l production.
222
U n d erstan d ab ly su ch a p rin c e la c k s a co h e re n t id e o lo g ic a l p o sitio n .
Like so m an y of the w r ite r s of the day, the au th ors d ep ictin g the
p e r fe c t p rin ce a re caught in a co n tra d ictio n of supp orting in c r e a s e d
c o m m e r c e and " free trade" w h ile at the sa m e tim e op p osin g m an y
a s p e c ts of c o m m e r c ia l a c tiv ity .
The attitude of the n o n -fen elo n ia n w r ite r s tow ard lu xu ry
is n o ticea b ly ch an ged . The tr a d itio n a l c a stig a tio n of lu x u ry as an
a b so lu te m o r a l e v il is m o r e subdued. L uxury is s till g e n e r a lly
r eg a r d e d as w ro n g , but w rong b e c a u se of the h a r m done to so c ie ty .
M any, like M e r c ie r , s e e the m is e r a b le condition of the p eop le in
i
i
c o n tr a st to the p r o flig a te w ealthy; h en ce th ey a s s u m e that w ealth ,
lu x u ry , and c o m m e r c e a re the c a u s e s of the in eq u a lity of fo r tu n e s.
W hen d rea m in g of the id e a l p rin ce and the id e a l g o v e rn m e n t, th ey
93
th en e n v isa g e the r u le r 's im p o sin g strin g en t r e s t r ic t io n s , d esp ite
th eir dem and fo r in d ivid u al lib e r tie s and fr e e tra d e.
F o r e c o n o m ic a s w e ll as h u m a n ita ria n r e a s o n s , the
p r in c e has an e x te n siv e public w o rk s p r o g r a m , so m e o f w h ich is
s im p ly in the tra d itio n of a b s o lu tism . He b u ild s b r id g e s , c a n a ls,
a q u ed u cts, public b u ild in g s , r o a d s , h o s p it a ls , and a w e ll-r e g u la te d
94
b r o th e l, a ll in the public in te r e s t. The d is ta s te for the s e lf -
reg a rd in g ro y a l ex tra v a g a n ce of F r a n c e ’s r u le r s and the p h ilo so p h e s1
in t e r e s t in public w e lfa r e com b in e to p la c e g r e a te r e m p h a sis on
p u b lic w o r k s. In stead of havin g a pom pous d isp la y on h is w edding
day the p rin ce should e r e c t so m e public m on u m en t, M e r c ie r
s u g g e s t s , su ch as a "brid ge, aqu educt, p u b lic road , c a n a l, or
9 5
p la y h o u s e " --M e r c ie r being a p layw righ t!
223
In addition to th e s e r e fo r m s and p r o je c ts of a m a te r ia l
n a tu re, the p r in c e m a k es so m e p r o g r e s s tow ard in d ivid u al lib er ty
fo r h is su b je c ts. He h im s e lf h a s no a r b itr a r y p ow er o v er the liv e s
of s u b je c ts, only the au th ority to pardon; h en ce no le ttr e s de ca ch et
96
or oth er unjust and a r b itr a r y p u n ish m en ts a re p e r m itte d . He w ill
end the c r u e l tr e a tm e n t of p r is o n e r s of w ar and con q u ered p eo p les;
and he w ill a b o lish s la v e r y in h is k in gdom and the sla v e trade with
! 9 7
A fr ic a and the N ew W orld.
In oth er r e s p e c ts the dem and for ind ividu al lib e r tie s is
m o r e fa in tly h e a r d , e x ce p t fo r the atta ck on r e lig io u s p e r se c u tio n
and fa n a tic is m . A r g en s a r g u e s fo r , and G era rd a g a in st, fr e ed o m of
e x p r e s s io n . D e sfo n ta in e s and M e r c ie r r e q u e st fr e e d o m of
e x p r e s s io n , but w ant to lim it it s e v e r e ly a cco rd in g to th eir own
p e r so n a l t a s t e s . H o w ev er, G era rd d e s ir e s fr e e d o m under law and
th e r e fo r e u rg es the p rin ce to "defend the p e r s o n and righ ts of ea ch
98
su b ject, and h is p r o p e r ty , " by go v ern in g through the la w s.
A lth ough the ed u ca tio n of h is p eop le is v e r y im p ortan t
to th is en lig h ten ed p r in c e , th er e is v e r y little m en tio n of s p e c ific
in stitu tio n a liz a tio n of it. E v en M e r c ie r , who d r e a m s of a "m ore
en ligh ten ed " p eop le and w ould su b stitu te the exch an ge of know led ge
w ith d ista n t land s fo r the exch an ge of g o o d s, d oes not m en tio n a
99 *
public ed u ca tio n s y s t e m . C u r io u sly , it is G era rd , the anti-
p h ilo s o p h e , who d ir e c tly lis t s ed u cation a s p art of the p r in c e ’s ta sk
of r e fo rm in g s o c ie ty . Of c o u r s e , he b e lie v e s in "the g rad u al and
a lm o s t im p er c ep tib le r e fo r m of th o se [in stitu tio n s ] a lr ea d y
e sta b lis h e d , " w h ich m e a n s p r im a r ily ed u cation b y ch u rch m en ,
224
sup p lem en ted by so m e public education fo r the n ob ility and the
p rin cip a l c itiz en s of the tow ns.
In p r e fe r e n c e to g e n e ra l c iv il lib e r tie s and public
ed u cation , th ese m e n of le tte r s e m p h a siz e the p r in c e 's s p e c ia l
p ro tectio n and support of a rt and lea rn in g . Ju st as M e r c ie r 's prince
c o n sid e rs a theatre a s w orthw hile as a brid ge or a road,
D esfontaines* en lig h ten ed -d esp o t queen r e a liz e s that the n e g le c t of
liter a tu r e is a th reat to c iv iliz a tio n and to h er sta te . The prin ce
is freq u en tly urged to follow the exam p le of A u g u stu s, L ouis XIV, or j
j
I F r e d e r ic k of P r u s s ia in cultivating the a r ts and s c ie n c e s . N ot only
does h is own assistan ce rew ard lea rn ed m e n , but h is exam p le a lso
e n co u ra g es h is c o u r tie r s to p atron ize th em .
W hile the p r in c e 's ro le is c r u c ia l to the im p lem en tation
of r e f o r m s , the n o n -fen elo n ia n w r ite r s r e c o il fro m the u se of fo r c e .
R e a so n , not co m p u lsio n , is th eir m otto. Innum erable tim e s id eal
p r in c e s appear b efo re th eir p eop le to exp lain p o lic ie s and s e e k
su b jects' coop eration . T here is v e r y little id ea of the p rin ce
pursuing h is g o a ls in the face of op p osition , of sa c r ific in g individual
lib erty and l e s s e r b en efits to the g r ea ter good. The p rin ce m u st be
able to convince h is su b jects of th eir own in te r e sts w hen th ey are
103
ign oran t of th em , as w e have a lrea d y se e n on M ercu ry . He m ay
have to u se a little p o litic a l a cu m en in appealing to the em o tio n s as
w e ll as to r ea so n . F o r ex a m p le , w hen the su b jects of the Isle of U xi
refu se to a ccep t the d eform ed h eir to the th ron e, who is in e v e r y
other r e s p e c t an e x c e lle n t p r in c e , the king g iv e s h is son a p air of
beautiful w ings to m ake up for h is d efo rm ity in the e y es of the
225
104
p eo p le. "If we inq uire into the s e c r e t ca u se of the step s taken by
the m o s t illu str io u s p r in c e s , w e find v e r y few but what m igh t be
a sc r ib e d to p o litic a l v ie w s . M a ch iavellian p o lic y in a s m a ll
d eg ree is a d m is s ib le , p rovided it r e s u lts in b en efits for the p eo p le,
such as k in d n ess, ju s t ic e , and ch arity.
j In the m a jo r ity of the p r in c e ’s a c tiv itie s , h o w ev er,
!
i "policy" is c o n sid ered anathem a. C ra ftin ess is not g r e a tn e s s , and
t
I
bad faith is not w isd om ; a c r im e is a c r im e , and nothing m a k es it
lo s e its b la c k n e s s . T h ose p e r n ic io u s, od iou s, inhum an m a x im s of
the Italian m u st be b an ish ed fro m the p r in c e ’s co u rt, along w ith a ll
| 106
m en who in cu lcate th em and a ll books w h ich te a c h th em . Instead
the p rin ce w ill be guided by virtu e and ju s tic e . A s T elem aq u e has
107
taught, anything a r tific e can do, virtu e can do b e tte r .
The b e s t hope fo r r efo rm of s o c ie ty , or at le a s t for good
ru le, s t ill lie s in the virtu e of the p r in ce. "When a king is good, he
m a k es h is w hole state happy; nothing m o r e than h i s v irtu e alone is
log
needed to ren d er a kingdom fortu n ate. . . . " To be virtu ou s
m ea n s not only to liv e by a s tr ic t p e r so n a l m o r a l cod e, but a lw ays to
subordinate p e r so n a l d e s ir e s and p rivate in te r e sts to the in te r e st of
the state and tr e a t a ll p e r so n s w ith ju stic e and hu m anity. The m o s t
j
im portant p e r so n a l v ir tu e s of the p rin ce are th o se that co n cern h is
trea tm en t of people: g e n tle n e s s , k in d n ess, c le m e n c y , and hum anity.
H is v ir tu e s of c h a ra cter a re s in c e r ity , s im p lic ity , p iety , and
m o d e sty . The th em e of m o d e sty , in the fo rm of a m a n ’s
d is in te r e ste d n e ss and contem pt for the throne, o c cu rs s e v e r a l tim e s as
c er ta in p ro o f of h is w o r th in ess for the th ron e. Only o c c a s io n a lly and
226
109
in cid en ta lly is he cou rageou s and h e r o ic in the m ilita r y s e n s e .
The m a in talen ts req u ired of the p rin ce a re r ea so n and
hard w ork . One of the h a r d e st w orking p r in c e s of a ll is G ueu lette's
S c h e m s-E d d in who spends one hour per day in p u b lic, on e-fou rth
hour at the m o sq u e, on e-fo u rth hour w ith lea rn ed m e n , and o n e-h a lf
; hour in charity; the r e s t he spends at h is d esk w orking on plans to
i 1 1 0 /
m ak e h is people m o re fortu n ate. G erard is not unique in h is
|
| b e lie f that the p rin ce needs m o re com m on se n se and p atien ce than he
| does su p erio r in te lle c t. Arg.ens w ants the p rin ce to p ro tect
112
s c h o la r s and p h ilo so p h e r s, but not to tr y to be one h im se lf.
M e r c ie r , on the con tra ry , show s the p rin ce in h is study, w hich is a
s o r t of m u seu m of s c ie n c e and natural h is to r y , a zoo and botan ical
garden com bin ed . The p rin ce is a m a s te r of m e d ic in e and the arts
and se e k s true g lo r y in so m e s c ie n tific d is c o v e r y that w ill b en efit
m ankind. * ^
The in te r e st in the education of the p r in c e , introduced by
E r a sm u s and in ten sified by F e n e lo n , r em a in s the m a jo r hope for
eig h teen th -cen tu ry authors who s e e k r e fo r m through the m ea n s of
the m o n a rch . Both r o y a l b irth and natural genius a r e con sid ered
le s s im p ortant than the g rad u ally acq u ired ch a ra cter of the p rin ce.
I A r g e n s 1 P r in c e s s P a r fa ite d e s c r ib e s h e r s e lf as enlightened; and she
p r e fe r s the m e r it of F id e le to any m an of r o y a l b irth , r ea lizin g ,
h o w e v e r , that " o th ers, blinded by the b r illia n ce of a crow n, adore
the v ic e s of a m o n a rch and d e sp ise the so lid v ir tu e s of a h e r o whom
114
d estin y has not crow n ed . " The w hole point of M o n criP s tale of
the two p r in c e s is to show that, given adequate natural en d ow m en ts,
227
the c h a ra cter acq u ired by the p rin ce is m o re im p ortant than g reat
in te lle c t or am b ition .
The education of the p rin ce is p attern ed after T elem aq u e
both in its b a sic ob jective of m aking a virtu ou s ru ler and in its
tech n iq u es. F i r s t the p rin ce m u st be r em o v ed fro m the corru p t
en v iro n m en t of the court w h ere he w ould only b eco m e stupid,
ex travagan t, e x c e s s iv e ly proud, and a bigot. It is a good idea to
c o n c e a l h is r e a l identity fr o m h im , to o , so h e w ill le a rn to be a m an
i
b e fo r e he le a rn s to be a king. T ra v elin g is a con ven ien t m ea n s of
lea rn in g about the w orld and about hum an n atu re. A rg en s c o n sid e r s
j
it v e r y n e c e s s a r y that the p rin ce le a r n the c u s to m s , in t e r e s t s , and
c h a ra cter of the v a rio u s nations surrounding h is own. B y knowing
115
other sta te s he w ill le a r n how to tr e a t w ith th em . The prin ce
I
m u st a lso le a r n through the e x p e rie n c e of h a rd sh ip , as M irza d oes
under the tu telage of the F a ir y A d v e r sity on v o y a g es to the lands of
v ic e . M e r c ie r fo llo w s the sa m e p a ttern of the p rin ce educated a s a
sim p le m an , h is d estin y unknown to h im . He tr a v e ls through ea ch
p ro v in ce of h is own country, learn in g its cu sto m s and eco n o m y and
lea rn in g p a r tic u la rly about the m is e r y of the p eop le. W hen he
j
m a r r ie s he m u st ch o o se a p r o v in c ia l g ir l w hom he has m e t on h is
i 116
tr a v e ls as a co m m o n er.
One author, D e sfo n ta in e s , su g g e sts in a b r ie f ep isod e
that the w hole pattern of the virtu ou s and rea so n a b le id e a l p rin ce is
in valid . Like F e n e lo n , M on tesq u ieu , M arm on tel and nu m erou s
o th e r s, D esfo n ta in es d e s c r ib e s the o rig in of a m on arch y and the
burdens of k in gsh ip , but unlike o th ers he con clu d es f ir s t that a
228
p e r fe c tly virtu ou s m an could not be king.
A king should be b etter than a ll th o se w hom he co m m a n d s,
should m ake th em s e e in him a m o d el of a ll v ir tu e s . But
how can that be a llied w ith p o litic s? How can he be
in vin cib le to h is e n e m ie s and not to h is su b jects? If he is
p ea cefu l, he is a c c u se d of ind olence and w ea k n ess; if he
! is a w a r r io r , he frig h ten s h is n eighb ors and h is own
i p eo p le. 117
Then D esfo n ta in es show s that in ev en the m o s t r ea so n a b le so c ie ty ,
i
ithe land of the L e ta lis p o n s , a m on arch y is a con trad iction . Only the
j
jm ost rea so n a b le m an is q u alified to be k in g, but no tru ly reason ab le
m an would take the job. B y im p lica tio n , only a m u ch l e s s rea so n a b le,
118
and th erefo re m u ch le s s q u alified , m an would be king. Thus the
old id ea l of the virtu ou s king, as w e ll as the new , en ligh tened d esp ot
is d isc a rd ed as the in stru m en t for refo rm in g s o c ie ty .
The id ea l prin ce as he is rep re sen ted by th ese s e le c te d
a u th o rs, varying in tim e fro m the e a r ly eighteenth cen tu ry to the
1770’s , and in p o litic a l p h ilosop h y fro m d iv in e -r ig h t a b so lu tism to
r ep re sen ta tiv e g o v ern m en t, show s m o re v a r ie ty , so far as h is
au th ority and h is g o v ern m en t are co n cern ed , than d oes the p rin ce of
the fen elon ian im ita to r s. W hile he is s t ill v e r y m u ch under the
j in flu en ce of the g e n e r a l fen elon ian idea of a v ir tu o u s, law ful, and
(
j
| r e sp o n sib le k in g, and the p r in c e ’s ch a ra cter is s t ill co n sid ered the
m o s t im portant in g red ien t in good go v ern m en t, he is fr e e d fro m the
s p e c ific pattern of T e le m a q u e . That fr e ed o m m a k es it e a s ie r for
h im to adopt eig h teen th -cen tu ry ph ilosophe id e a s.
T his p rin ce b e c o m e s m o re and m o re s e c u la r and rational.
A lthough h is authority is g e n e r a lly su b ject only to God’ s judgm ent and
not to that of the p eo p le, notions of revolu tion and of r ep re sen ta tiv e
229
in stitu tio n s appear o c c a s io n a lly . He has no sin g le m e a n s of
ach ievin g h is p o sitio n . He is often an h e r e d ita r y m o n a rch , and
s o m e tim e s an e le c te d one. If he is e le c te d , he is s o m e tim e s an
a b solu te ru ler and s o m e tim e s he is con tin u ally r esp o n sib le to
ju dgm ent by h is su b jects d ir e c tly or through th eir r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s.
I
j W hen h is authority is lim ite d , it is in the fo r m of the trad ition al
i in stitu tion s of F ra n ce or in the fo rm of an E n g lis h -s ty le lim ited
| m o n a rch y .
j
| A lthough no p r e c is e type of p r in c e ly authority is c le a r ly j
{ s e t forth by any w r ite r a s id e a l, th ree m ajor p o sitio n s a re v a g u ely
r e p r e se n te d . A rg en s c h o o se s the absolute m o n a rch o v er any p rin ce
sh arin g h is authority w ith a r is to c r a ts or the m a s s e s ; L a B ea u m elle
w ould lim it the p rin ce through the in stitu tion s of p r e -a b so lu tism ;
! and M e r c ie r , w hile r ev ertin g to trad ition al in stitu tio n s, would at
the sa m e tim e a b o lish a ll p r iv ile g e s and d e c la r e all m e n equal, so
that the e sta te s w ould be m o r e r e p r e se n ta tiv e . It m u st be
e m p h a siz e d that th e se p o sitio n s are v e r y im p r e c is e ly e x p r e s s e d and
that th ere is g rea t v a r ie ty am ong the authors and ev en w ithin a
I sin g le author. A s e a r ly as 1730 D esfo n ta in es exp lain s that a
|
I m o n a rch y is im p o ssib le and m u st be rep la ced by a rep u b lic if m e n
I a re r ea so n a b le, and as late as 1775 G erard r e s ta te s the divine right
of k in g s, ab solu te but rea so n a b le and r e sp o n sib le .
The id ea l p rin ce p ie c ed togeth er fro m th ese s a tir e s and
f a ir y ta le s is not o v e r -p o w e r e d by the rule of law as the p r in c e s of
F e n e lo n and the p h ilo so p h es a r e . Law is an id ea l, but not one v e r y
c a re fu lly c o n sid e re d . The p rin ce is su b ject to la w s --m e a n in g
230
n a tu ra l, d ivin e, c u sto m a r y , or p o s itiv e , w ith v e r y little d istin ction .
O c ca sio n a lly C a r a c c io li or G erard m ention that p o sitiv e law s should
follow the law s of n ature, but th ere is little d evelop m en t of that
fa v o rite th em e of the P h y sio c r a ts and philo s o p h e s . M ore im portant
than the q u estion of the o rig in of law s or of the k in g's authority being
su b ject to la w s , is h is e ffo rt to r efo rm p o sitiv e law .
The con cep t of go v ern m en t pu rsued by the id ea l prin ce
is p o s itiv e , but not c o m p le te ly so . A rgen s is not con vin ced that
tim e s have so changed sin c e the sev en teen th cen tu ry that a w h olly
new con cep t of m on arch y is ju stifie d . G erard w ants the p rin ce to
| r e fo r m h is peop le m o r a lly but w ithout changing in stitu tio n s. On the
I
other hand, the id ea l p rin ce en v isio n ed by everyon e of th ese authors
s e e k s a p ro g ra m of s p e c ific m a te r ia l r e fo r m . S om e go on to dem and
that the p rin ce rem ak e s o c ie ty 's in stitu tion s and la w s.
The p r in c e 's v is io n is lim ite d . He often gran ts fa v o rs
to a few s p e c ia l in te r e sts in stea d of launching a bold, im agin ative
p ro g ra m , su ch a s in ed ucation . He a s s u m e s , without exploring the
m a tter at a ll, that v irtu e and utility a re synonym ous; that th ere is
no co n flict b etw een individual in te r e sts and the com m on good; and
!
I
that p eo p le, once they are en ligh ten ed , w ill a u to m a tica lly w ork for
the g e n e r a l w e lfa r e . The p rin ce h as no con cep t of having to use h is
pow er to o v e rc o m e the fo r c e s of trad ition , ig n o ra n ce, and sp e c ia l
in te r e sts; th erefo re th ere is no con cep t of an enligh tened r e a so n of
sta te , and he r a r e ly b e c o m e s an enligh tened d esp o t, d esp ite the
need for le g is la t o r s .
231
Out of the v a r ie ty of opinions about the authority of the
p rin ce and the functions of h is g o v ern m en t, one point is clea r: m en
of le tte r s w e re d is s a tis fie d w ith the ex istin g g o v ern m en t. M ost of
th e se authors w e re neith er p o litic a l th e o r is ts nor philo s o p h e s , but
th ey sh ared the co n cern for the state of F r en ch s o c ie ty and p o lit ic s
and e x p r e s s e d th eir own s e r io u s c r it ic is m of the e sta b lish e d
I g o v ern m en t in the fo rm of fictio n . T hey lea v e the d istin ct im p r e ssio n
I
that, if the p rin ce is to r em a in viab le a s the d e c isiv e p o litic a l pow er
in the sta te , he m u st take the g o v ern m en t into h is own m a ste r fu l
|
! hands and labor in c e ssa n tly to bring about a r e a so n a b le , efficien t,
and hum ane a d m in istra tio n .
NOTES
Jean B a p tiste de B o y e r , m arq u is d1 A r g e n s, L e ttr e s
ju iv e s , ou co rresp o n d a n ce p h ilo so p h iq u e, h isto riq u e et critiq u e,
en tre un juif voyageu r en d ifferen s etats de l'E u ro p e. . . . (The
H ague, 1764 L first pub, 1 7 3 6 -8 ]), L et. 5, I, 56. A ll r e fe r e n c e s to
the L e ttr e s ju iv es and L ettr es c h in o ise s w ill lis t the L etter n u m ber,
fo llo w ed by the volu m e and page n u m b ers.
2
L aurent A n g liv iel de La B e a u m e lle , L 'A siatiq u e
tolerant: T raite a l'u sa g e de Z eok in izu l r o i des K o fira n s, su rn om m e
le c h e r i (P a r is [A m s te r d a m , 1 7 4 8 ]), pp. 9 6 -7 . Although lis te d as
fic tio n by J o n e s, A L is t of F ren ch P r o s e F ic tio n , only the p refa ce
is in the fo r m of a sa tir e on the h isto r y of C h ristia n ity , p a rticu la rly
in F r a n e e .
3
In V oyages im a g in a ir e s , so n g e s, v is io n s , et rom an s
c a b a lis tiq u e s , ed. C. G. T. G arn ier (A m sterd a m , P a r is , 178 7 -9 ),
XVI.
4 f
Philipp e L ouis G era rd , Le C om te de V alm on t, ou le s
e g a r e m e n s de la r a iso n (P a r is , 1774-5), III, 246; V , 5 8 -9; 62. The
a n t i-p h ilosop h ic argu m en ts a re actu ally b a sed on G era rd 's own
e x p e rie n c e as a p le a su r e -lo v in g p y rrh o n ist who returned to the
Church.
5 Ibid. , V, 59, 77.
6 Ibid. , I, 32; III, 2 4 4 -7 .
L ouis A n toin e, m a rq u is de C a r a c c io li, V oyage de la
r a iso n en E urope (1771) in V o y a g es im a g in a ir e s , XXVII, 200, 218.
g
E dw ard P . Shaw, F r a n c o is-A u g u stin P a r a d is de
M on crif (1687-1770) (New York, 1958), pp. 3 5 -6 5 .
9
F r a n c o is A ugustin P a r a d is de M oncrif, "Les Dons des
fe e s " (1738) in Contes de A u g u stin -P a ra d is de M oncrif (P a r is , 1879),
pp. 192-3.
^ B e th u n e , p. 180.
^ L o u is S eb a stien M e r c ie r , L 'A n deux m ille quatre cent
quarante: rev e s 'il en fut ja m a is (London, 1775 L first pub. 1 7 7 1 ]),
pp. 3 3 9 -4 0 , 350.
232
233
12
T hom as Sim on G u eulette, L es M ille et une heare;
co n ies p eru v ien s (A m sterd a m , 1733), I, 1 05-7,
1 3 Ibid. , I, 7 -1 9 .
14
Le c h e v a lie r de T h e m is se u l de S a in t-H y a cin th e,
H isto ir e du P r in c e T iti ( P a r is , 1736), p. 2,
| ^ (A m s te r d a m , 1736).
i ^
| G u eu lette, C ontes p e r u v ie n s , II, 196-7; I, 180.
i
17 v * '
L'abbe P ie r r e F r a n c o is Guyot D e sfo n ta in e s, Le Nouveati
G u lliv er, ou voyage de Jean G u lliv er, f ils du capitaine L em u el
G u lliver (1730) in V o y a g es im a g in a ir e s , X V , 182, 308. It should be
r e m em b er e d that D esfo n ta in es w as a J e su it and a lite r a r y c ritic
I who sp ared no one h is sharp pen, including V o lta ir e .
i
18
L aurent A n g liv iel de La B e a u m e lle , L es A m ou rs de
Z eok in izu l, r o i des K ofirans: ouvrage traduit de P A rab e du
v oyageu r K rin elb ol (A m ste r d a m , 1746), p. 2. This w o rk is j
g e n e r a lly attributed to La B ea u m elle b eca u se of the s im ila r ity of
the n a m es in key w ith h is P A siatiq u e to le r a n t. The su b ject m a tter
and fo r m of the two w ork s a re e n tir e ly d ifferen t so the attribution is
not c erta in . M ornet, La N ou velle H e lo is e , p. 346, attrib u tes L es
A m o u rs to C reb illon f i l s , probably on the b a s is of the tr a v e le r 's
nam e w hich is an anagram of C reb illon , and on the b a s is of its
being s im ila r to C reb illo n 1 s licen tio u s ta les; but the sa tir e is too
obvious to be by C reb illon .
19
C a r a c c io li, p. 398.
^ M e r c i e r , pp. 3 4 1 -5 .
2 1
L es O rig in es in te lie c tu e lie s , p. 34.
22
L e t . 5, I, 56; L et. 27, I, 290.
2 3 Ibid. , L et. 5, I, 56, 60.
24
Ibid. , L et. 27, I, 290.
2 ^E . g . , ib id . , L et. 14, I, 138, with reg a rd to the
r e lig io u s w ars of the six teen th and sev en teen th century; L et. 102,
III, 115, con cern in g the sh o em a k ers of Spain.
2 6 Ibid. , L et. 55, II, 262-3; L et. 73, III, 112.
2 7 Ibid. , L et. 55, II, 2 6 4 -5 .
2 3Ibid. , p. 266.
234
2 9 Ibid. , pp. 2 6 6 -9 .
3 0 Ibid. , L et. 135, V , 1 1 1 -1 4 .
3 1 Ibid. , pp. 1 1 8 -9 .
3 2 lbid. , pp. 1 1 9 - 2 2 .
3 3 Ibid. , L et. 180, VI, 3 6 3 -5 .
34
Ib id . , pp. 3 7 0 -7 1 .
; 35
| Ibid. , L et. 28, I, 301; Le M entor c a v a lie r , ou le s
illu s t r e s infortunez de notre s ie c le (London, 1736), pp. 1 5 3 -4 .
3 (y
A rg en s g iv e s so m e accou n t of h is d ifficu lties with
ch u rch m en b e c a u se of h is attack on fa n a tic ism , in to le ra n ce , and
su p e r stitio n ('’P r e f a c e ," L e ttr e s ju iv e s , I). Not only d oes he tr y to
avoid the cen su re of the cou rt, but a lso that of P a r le m e n t, as s e e n
in h is m ild str ic tu r e a g a in st the abbe de St. - P i e r r e ’s ob jection s to
p a r le m e n ta r y r e m o n str a n c e s (L et. 13, 130-31). In a s s e s s in g
A r g e n s 1 p o litic a l c o m m e n ts, a r e m a r k he m ade about the plight of
the h isto r ia n should be r e m e m b e r e d . "An h isto r ia n who would
faithfu lly reco rd w hat has happened fr o m the tim e of H enry HI to the
p r e se n t, would be obliged to ch o o se b etw een the p le a su r e of tellin g
the truth and the so rro w of b eing b an ish ed fro m h is cou n try” (ib id . ,
p. 127).
37
Ib id . , L et. 28, I, 301-2; L ettr es c h in o is e s , ou
co rresp o n d a n ce p h ilo so p h iq u e, h isto riq u e et critiq u e entre un ch in ois
voyageu r a P a r is . . . . (The H ague, 1 739-40), L et. 18, I, 138.
38
C ontes p e r u v ie n s , I, 180.
39
C ontes c h in o is, ou le s avan tu res m e r v e ille u s e s du
m an d arin F u m -H o a m (The H ague, 1725 L fir s t pub, 1723] ), I, 132.
40
L ettr es j u iv e s , L et. 28, I, 304.
4 1 Ibid. , L et. 55, II, 264.
42
" [F a th e r s g o v ern ed th eir fa m ilie s ] by the law s of
natu re, and that w is e ju risp ru d en ce c e a s e d only w hen m e n b eca m e
m ea n enough to need w ritten la w s and a king w ho, having as m u ch
pow er as a father of a fa m ily , had l e s s g e n tle n e ss and in clin ation to
pardon" (ib id ., L et. 55, H, 265).
43
"The law s are the judges of m en; the kings are the
e x e c u to r s of the law s; and God is the only m a s te r of so v er e ig n s"
(ib id . , p. 2 6 9 ).
235
4 4 G era rd , V , 237; V , 156; I, 2 7 2 -3 .
45
L ettr es ju iv es, L et. 55, II, 265; L et. 27, I, 293.
46
Ibid. , L et. 135, Y , 119-
47
Ibid. , L et. 129, V, 5 3 -4 .
4 8 P . 351.
■ 4 9 Ib id . , p. 356.
! ^ L o u i s S e b a stie n M e r c ie r , Songes et v is io n s
! p h ilosophiq ues; De la royaute et de la tyrannie (1768) in V oy a g es
j im a g in a ir e s , XXXII, 8 6 -7 .
I 5 1
I G u eu lette, C ontes p e r u v ie n s , I, 3.
52
D e sfo n ta in e s, pp. 8 6 - 8 .
^ B e th u n e , pp. 1 7 9 -8 0 .
54
3 * P . 343.
^ Ibid. , pp. 4 4 6 -7 .
^ I b i d . , pp. 4 5 8 -9 .
5 7 G erard , I, 4 5 8 -9 .
5 8 Ibid. , V , 174.
5 9 Ibid. , pp. 174, 221.
^9 Ib id . , p. 234. G erard quotes M arm on teP s B e l is a ir e :
"it depends on the w ill and ex a m p le of the so v e r e ig n . . . . Thus
the opinion of the m o n a rch w ill fix that of the pu blic, and h is exam p le
w ill stam p the national ch a ra cter" (ib id . , II, 3 8 7 -8 ).
^ T h o m a s S im on G u eu lette, L es Su ltanes de G u zarate,
ou le s so n g es des h o m m e s e v e ille s ; con tes m o g o ls (U trech t, 1736
[ f i r s t pub. 1 7 3 2 ]), I, 412. D e sfo n ta in e s, p. 304.
62
S a in t-H yacin th e, pp. 7 0 -7 1 .
6 3
A r g e n s, L ettr es j u iv e s , L et. 27, I, 291; L et. 74, III,
1 2 8 -9 . B ern ard Josep h Saurin, M irza et F a tm e , conte indien,
traduit de P A rab e (The H ague, 1754), p. 158, B eth u n e, pp. 2 6 5 -6 .
64
A r g e n s, L ettr es j u iv e s , L et. 129, V , 50.
236
65
P p . 1 8 6 -8 , 1 9 2 -3 .
^ C a r a c c i o l i , p. 172.
6 7 L»An 2 4 4 0 , pp. 302n. , 304.
68
S au rin , p. 291. G ueulette h as nu m erou s e x a m p le s in
h is o r ie n ta l t a le s , and in the C ontes m o g o ls has a c h a r a c te r , a
fo r m e r k in g, who in stru cts oth er m o n a rch s to avoid the p itfa lls of
f la t t e r e r s , c o u r tie r s , eu n u ch s, and su lta n a s,
6 Q
L e ttr e s ju iv e s , L et. 23, I, 167-9; L et. 148, V, 288.
70
j La B e a u m e lle , L es A m ou rs de Z eo k in izu l, pp. 1 6 -1 8 ,
! 5 1 -2 , 106.
I
71
G u eu lette, C ontes p e r u v ie n s , II, 253. T hom as S im on
G u eu lette, L es M ille et un quart d 'h eu re, contes ta r ta r e s (1715) in
Le C abin et des f e e s , ou c o lle c tio n ch o isie des co n tes des f e e s , e t
a u tres co n tes m e r v e ille u x , ed. C. G. T . G arnier (A m sterd a m ,
1 7 8 5 -8 9 ), XXI, 1 4 7 -9 .
72 ^
M e r c ie r , L 'A n 2 4 4 0 , pp. 332-358; De la r o y a u te,
pp. 7 9 -8 0 .
73
A r g e n s, L e ttr e s ju iv e s , L et. 136, V , 125; L et. 147,
V , 2 6 8 -9 . B ethun e, p. 181. C a r a c c io li, p. 176 (M aria T h eresa );
p. 291 (King of S ard in ia). M e r c ie r , L 'A n 2 4 4 0 , pp. 3 3 0 -3 2 , 463.
74
P p . 8 7 -8 .
75
L a B e a u m e lle , L es A m ours de Z eo k in izu l, p. 3.
7 ^Bethune, pp. 2 2 2 -4 .
7 7 M e r c ie r , L 'A n 2 4 4 0 , pp. 3 9 1 -7 .
7 8
A r g e n s, L e ttr e s j u iv e s , L et. 27, I, 293; L et. 180, VI,
364.
79
C a r a c c io li, p. 436.
8 0 Ibid. , pp. 1 6 9 -7 0 .
8 ^G erard, pp. 2 3 9 -4 0 .
82
M e r c ie r , L'A n 2 4 4 0 , pp. 3 52, 369. G u eu lette, Contes
t a r t a r e s , XXI, 373, 419. C a r a c c io li, p. 174, on F r e d e r ic k II's la ck
of r e s p e c t for r elig io n being a fault; pp. 1 7 6 -7 , on M aria T h e r e s a 's
p iety.
237
8 3 G era rd , II, 76; V , 107, 164.
8 4 Ibid. , V , 62; V, 164; III, 2 0 2 -3 .
85
G u eu lette, Contes m o g o ls , I, 1 -3 .
86 ^
T hom as Sim on G u eu lette, L es S o ir e e s b reton n es (1712)
in C abinet d es f e e s , XXXII, 6 4 -5 . Saurin, pp. 6 2 -9 . C a r a c c io li,
p. 291.
87
A r g en s, L ettr es c h in o is e s , L et. 8 , I, 6 1 -2 . A r g e n s,
L e ttr e s j u iv e s , L et. 129, V, 50. La B ea u m e lle in h is d efen se of the
Huguenots c a lls the C hurch (E m o r , L_e. , R om e) a c ru el, a v a r icio u s
tyran t and condem ns L ouis XIII fo r allow ing R ic h e lie u to v io la te the
E d ic t (L 'A sia tiq u e to le r a n t, pp. v i - x i i ) .
88
A r g e n s, L e ttr e s j u i v e s , L et. 5 , I, 5 8 -6 0 .
8 9 Ibid. , L et. 148, V, 286.
9 9 A r g e n s, L ettr es c h in o is e s , L et. 12, I, 96.
9 ' ' ‘La B e a u m e lle , L e s A m ou rs de Z eo k in iz u l, pp. 1 6 -1 7 .
" c a r a c c i o l i , p. 2 9 2 .
93
M e r c ie r , the la te s t of the authors c o n sid ered in this
chapter and one who lauded R o u sse a u and the F r e n c h R evolu tion , is
p a r tic u la r ly n arro w -m in d ed about fo reig n trad e (L'An 2 4 4 0 , pp. 4 0 7 -
413).
94
The la s t item is r eco m m en d ed in A r g e n s, L ettr es
c h in o is e s , L et. 21, I, 1 6 3 -8 .
9 5 L T An 2 4 4 0 , p. 370.
96
A r g en s, L ettr es j u iv e s , L et. 135, V, 112. C a r a cc io li,
p. 153.
97
D esfo n ta in es, pp. 1 9 2 -5 . C a r a c c io li, p. 153. M ercier,
L'A n 2 4 4 0 , p. 411.
9 8 Ibid. , p. 237.
9 9Pe la r o y a u te , pp. 8 6 -7; L'A n 2 4 4 0 , pp. 4 1 2 -1 3 .
1 0 0 V, 2 1 0 -2 2 1 .
101P. 78.
238
102
C a r a c c io li, p. 171. A r g e n s, Le M entor c a v a lie r ,
p. 239; L ettr es c h in o is e s , L et. 35, II, 40; L e ttr e s ju iv e s , L et. 19,
I, 209-
^ ^ B e th u n e , pp. 1 7 9 -8 0 .
104
G u eu lette, C ontes p e r u v ie n s , II, 2 4 8 -5 1 .
^ ^ A r g e n s , L e ttr e s ju iv e s , L e t. 16 1, II, 112-13; L e ttr e s
c h in o i s e s , L et. 24, I, 191.
■'"^Argens, L ettr es j u iv e s , L et. 73, III, 1 1 5-18.
G era rd , V , 13; 252.
107
A r g e n s, L e ttr e s j u iv e s , L et. 73, III, 119.
1 0 8 Ibid. , L et. 28, I, 301.
109
G u eu lette, C ontes m o g o ls , I, 39-40; C ontes c h in o is ,
I, 1 4 1 -5 . Sau rin , pp. 3 9 -4 1 . S a in t-H y a cin th e, pp. 159, 171.
^ ^ C o n t e s t a r t a r e s , XXI, 37.
1 U V , 160.
^ ^ L ettres j u iv e s , L et. 117, IV, 292.
1 1 3 L 1 An 2 4 4 0 , pp. 2 8 1 -9 .
114
R oi de c a m p a n ie , p. 101.
^ 3 L e ttr e s j u iv e s , L et. 184, VII, 5 1 -4 .
^ ^ L 'A n 2 4 4 0 , pp. 3 5 7 -8 , 369; De la r o y a u te , pp. 7 9 -8 0 .
117
P p . 3 0 9 -1 0 .
* ^8 Ib id . , pp. 3 0 8 -1 1 .
CHAPTER X
THE IDEAL PRINCE AS HE A P P E A R S
INCIDENTALLY IN FICTION
The im a g e of the id ea l p rin ce p ro jected in cid en tally by
the p r o s e fictio n of the E n ligh ten m en t in d ica tes what a liter a te and
a rticu la te seg m en t of s o c ie ty , the n o n -p o litic a l m en of le tte r s ,
ex p ected fr o m the r u le r . B eca u se th ese authors are u su a lly not
p r im a r ily in te r e ste d in p o litic s , th ey r e fe c t a m o r e rep re sen ta tiv e
p ictu re of the co m m o n ly h eld p o litic a l v ie w s than do the m o re
in te r e ste d a u th ors. T hey do not r e p r e se n t the in tellectu a l e lite or
any one s o c ia l c la s s but rath er g e n e r a l litera te s o c ie ty .
S p e c ific a lly , the fictio n of th ese m in or lite r a r y fig u re s
illu str a te s how a sig n ifica n t seg m en t of liter a te so c ie ty adopted
th em es of the m o r e s e r io u s w r ite r s on the id ea l p rin ce and grafted
onto th eir own trad ition al con cep ts certa in id ea s of the philo s o p h e s .
Thus it g iv e s an in d ication of the exten t to w hich the g e n e ra l liter a te
so c ie ty sh a red the p o litic a l id ea ls of the philo sop h es and p rovid es a
b etter understanding of the clim a te of opinion of the E n ligh ten m en t
in F r a n c e ,
D esp ite the p rev a len ce of trad ition al p o litic a l id e a s, both
fro m the sev e n tee n th -c en tu r y m o n a rch y and the C h ristian tradition,
changes in the con cep t of the id eal p rin ce a re evid en t, ev en in the
239
240
c a s u a l p o r tr a y a ls of r u le r s in m is c e lla n e o u s fic tio n . F u r th e r m o r e ,
the l e s s c o m m itted a u th o rs, b ein g l e s s bound to the s p e c ific a lly
fen elo n ia n id e a s , s o m e tim e s offer a m o r e r e a lis t ic id ea l p rin ce than
the im ita tio n T elem a q u e s and the utopian r u le r s of distan t lands or
fu tu re tim e s .
|
i The co n cep t of the id ea l p rin c e d is tille d fr o m the
m is c e lla n e o u s fic tio n has th ree m a jo r fa c e ts: opinion con cern in g
the au th ority of the p r in c e , the in terp reta tio n of law and the
r e la tio n sh ip of the p rin ce to it, and the con cep t of the p r in c e ’s
r e s p o n s ib ilitie s and the fu n ction s of h is g o v e rn m e n t. The la s t a s p e c t
r e c e iv e s the g r e a t e s t am ount of atten tion , not in the fo r m of
s y s t e m a t ic , r a d ic a l r efo r m p r o g r a m s , but in the attack on a few
tra d itio n a l p r o b le m s . It is the p r in c e ’s ro le in the h ig h e st le v e ls of
g o v e rn m e n t a d m in istr a tio n and cou rt lif e , in the r e fo r m of fin a n ces
and r e lig io n , and in p r o b le m s of p o litic a l n e c e s s it y , that r e v e a ls the
m o s t im p ortan t c h a r a c t e r is tic s of the id ea l p r in c e .
T h e se v a r io u s authors of n o v els and s to r ie s a re r a r e ly
co n cern ed w ith the so u r ce of the k in g's au th ority. A lthough love of
God and r e s p e c t fo r r e lig io n continue to be im p o rta n t, even the m o s t
r e lig io u s ly -m in d e d r u le r , the abbe P r e v o s t ’s C lev ela n d , im p lie s no
id ea of divine rig h t, ^ The u se of r e lig io u s a llu sio n s in a sto r y d oes
not n e c e s s a r ily connote that the so u r ce of the k in g 's authority is
d iv in e. In the im a g in a ry v o yage b y the C h ev a lier de M ouhy, for
e x a m p le , th ere is an analogy w ith C h ristia n ity in the fo r m of a
c r e a to r -g o d w h o se d escen d a n t or prop h et b e c o m e s the r u le r ,
s im ila r to B eth u n e’s e m p e r o r of M e r c u r y . But any notion of divine
241
righ t is con trad icted by the e le c t iv e , lim ite d nature of the m on arch y.
In the 1740’s w hen the fa iry ta le and o r ien ta l tale b e c a m e fa v o rite
d is g u is e s for s o c ia l c r it ic is m and new id e a s , the old th em e of a king
who b eh a v es as if he w ere a god s e r v e s to w eaken the th eory of
divine right. W hen the g r ea t conqueror and e m p ero r of P e r s ia |
I
[ . |
| d e s c r ib e d by the C om te de C aylus cannot g et rid of an annoying fly , j
h is sla v e finds h is p reten se at divinity rid ic u lo u s. "This m an is
3
s u r e ly no m o re God than I a m , 11 he m u s e s . A nother king, who is
p ersu a d ed by fla tte r y that he is of the r a ce of gods and has h is
4
su b jects w orsh ip h im , is the ru ler of the kingdom of e r r o r s . T hese
i
e x a m p le s are not d ir e c tly qu estion ing the divine righ t th eory, but
they illu str a te how rid icu lou s any s p e c ia l rela tio n b etw een God and
king app eared to so m e w r it e r s , even b e fo r e m id -c e n tu r y . B y the
late 1760's the point is being m ade by p lacin g the s to r ie s in m o r e
r e a li s t i c , co n tem p orary se ttin g s rather than in the lands of fa ir ie s
and o r ien ta l d e sp o ts.
One exam p le of su ch a co n tem p orary settin g is the sa tire
on s o c ie ty and r e lig io n by the a n t i- c le r ic a l abbe D u la u ren s, w h ose
5
w o rk w a s confu sed with V o lta ir e ’s on s e v e r a l o c c a s io n s . In this
s a tir e D ulaurens d e sc r ib e s k in gs as the im a g es of G od. The obvious
im p lica tio n is that the ch arm in g and unabashed daughter of n ature,
I m ir c e , would find the " im ages" of God ju st as m u ch an affront to
r e a s o n and nature as she fin ds His s e r v a n ts , the p r ie s t s and
m o n k s. The se c u la r con cep t of the ru le r is p resu p p o sed by the
anonym ous author of the n o v el of m a n n e r s, Le P h ilo so p h e allem an d
(1769), as he ex p la in s that it is fla tte ry that has invented ch im e r a s to
242
p ersu a d e p r in c e s that the gods are con cern ed w ith th eir d e s tin ie s .
To p r e su m e that the p r in ce has h is cou n cil in h ea v en is to se t
7
h im s e lf up a s a dem igod , and no eig h teen th -cen tu ry ru ler would
m ak e that c la im .
S u c c e s s io n to royal authority contin ues to be b a sed on
h e r e d ity . The need for an h eir is a frequent e le m e n t in the fa ir y
t a le s , and the trick s to in su re the p rin cip le of le g itim a c y are s till
g
u sed . The p rin cip le of le g itim a c y is m o re lik ely to be rid icu led in
fa cetio u s and licen tio u s ta le s than in the fa ir y ta le s by fem a le
a u th o rs. F o r e x a m p le , the delightful abbe V o isen o n w r ite s that
P r in c e P o tir o n , "although ugly, stupid, and ungainly, w as not
9
le g itim a te . "
R evolt a g a in st the p r in c e ’ s authority is r a r e ly san ction ed .
R e sp e c t for the royal fa m ily s e r v e s to p reven t so m e r e v o lts, w hile
o th er s are d is m is s e d a s the w ork of petty u su rp ers inciting the
fic k le people and corrupting the n ob ility. Such r ev o lts only lead to
t y r a n n y .^ A uth ority, e v e n w hen it is c ru el and s e lf is h , is not
q u estion ed in the v a rio u s n ovels by the popular author Le S age. H is
V ic e r o y of N ew Spain, who for a ll p r a c tic a l p u rp o se s is a r u le r , is
the epitom e of cru elty , a v a r ic e , in ju stic e, and in co m p eten ce. Y et
w h en the p eop le and the c le r g y r e v o lt in d esp era tio n , only the
c le m e n c y of the king, not the ju stic e of th eir c a u s e , w ins th em an
a m n esty . ^ S u p erficia l r ev o lts do o ccu r, h o w e v e r, in the r e a lm s of
the d esp otic r u le rs and inept q u ee n -reg en ts of o rien ta l and fa ir y
t a le s . In an unusually e x p lic it c a s e , the o b scu re author of a sa tire
on L ouis XV and h is co u rt {set in the sev e n tee n th -c en tu r y O ttom an
243
E m p ir e ), s e r io u s ly a rg u es fo r the rig h t of rev o lu tio n . When the
e m p ire is th reaten ed w ith d is a s te r , the h ig h est-ra n k in g ju d icial
o ffic e r a g r e e s w ith the r e b e l lea d er that "good M o sle m s a re obligated
to p rev en t the m isfo rtu n e b y the o n ly m ea n s a v a ilab le to them ; the
law p e r m its th em to d ep ose an e m p e r o r who le ts the state p e r ish
through h is m isco n d u ct. . . . " So a group of o fficia ls and the a rm y
12
ch o o se a new su ltan and put the fo r m e r one in p riso n .
The m o s t outstanding c h a r a c te r is tic of the attitude tow ard
the p r in c e ’s authority is the d e sir e that it be w ield ed r e sp o n sib ly .
j
N u m erou s s to r ie s of o r ien ta l d e sp o tism , lik e th ose of G ueulette
co n sid ered in the p rev io u s chap ter, w e re popular fo rm u la s used
throughout the f ir s t h alf of the cen tu ry to c r it ic iz e ca p ricio u s and
a r b itra ry ru le . T hose d e sp o tism s w e r e used to illu stra te the
in efficien t and unstable nature of a r b itr a r y r u le r s . N ot only is the
su lta n ’s ca p ricio u s w ill a ca u se of con stan t a n xiety am ong h is
su b jects and ch aos in the g o v ern m en t, but u n lim ited authority in the
hands of a p rim e m in iste r is all the m o r e o p p r e ssiv e b e c a u se the
tenuous nature of h is p o sitio n p ro v id es no in cen tive to ru le , ex cep t
13
for s h o r t-te r m and s e lf is h o b je c tiv e s. P o lit ic s at the cou rt of the
|
su ltan are e s p e c ia lly su b ject to the p rivate p a ssio n s of lo v e,
je a lo u sy , r e v e n g e , and fa v o r itism ; th ey are c h a r a c te r iz e d by
in trig u e, corru p tion , and cru elty , a ll of w hich offend rea so n a b le
14
m e n .
A t the sa m e tim e that a r b itr a r y p ow er is c r itic iz e d ,
m an y of the authors a c c e p t a b so lu tism and support it fo r one r e a so n
or another. N o v e ls of adventure and intrique by authors such as Le
244
15
S age and L a V ie u v ille d 'O rville take the ab solu te authority of the
p rin ce for gran ted . E ven the d e sc r ip tio n of absolu te authority in
u tterly u n re a listic and p le a sa n t te r m s in s to r ie s such a s La
M o r lie r e ’s popular lic e n tio u s fa ir y ta le , A n g o la , g iv e s it tacit
X 6
a p p roval. S e v e r a l authors e x p r e s s a p r e fe r e n c e for a b so lu tism
o v er any s y s te m of sh ared au th ority. F o r ex a m p le , M ile, de L u ssa n
show s little sym path y for the m an who in n ocen tly but u n w isely
cham pions p r o v in c ia l p r iv ile g e s a g a in st the c en tra l authority.
E lse w h e r e h er id ea l p rin ce d istin g u ish e s h im s e lf by uniting in a
sin g le p e r so n the pow er that had b een divided am ong num erou s
17
lo r d s. A p r e fe r e n c e for a sin g le , undivided authority is a lso
e x p r e s s e d by Jacques C azotte, a co n scien tio u s co lo n ia l o fficer and
gay a n ti-ph ilosop h e who paid for h is support of the m on arch y w ith
h is life in 1792. He a s s o c ia t e s rep u b lics w ith tyranny in h is fa iry
ta le , La P a tte du chat (1741). "Human" nature (even am ong fa ir ie s)
is too w ea k to handle such pow er; b e s id e s , "the en ligh tened
in te llig e n c e w hich g o v ern s the u n iv erse" has g iv en its ru le to a
p e r fe c t r u le r (fairy), m o re p ow erfu l than the oth ers and obedient to
18
the law . S a in t-F o ix , w ritin g at m id -c e n tu r y , p r e fe r s the absolute
m o n a rch y to the feud al m o n a rch y and p r a is e s the late reg en t for
19
opposing the r e m o n str a n c e s of P a r le m e n t,
T here a re o c c a sio n a l e x p r e s s io n s of an attitude that
la te r in the cen tury w ill be c a lled en ligh tened d e sp o tism , such as the
b r ie f r e fe r e n c e to a m a ste r fu l and en ligh tened king in the abbe N ad al’s
20 ^
V oy a g es de Z u lm a . P r e v o s t ’s C levelan d a ccep ts the ta sk of
govern in g the s e m i-s a v a g e A baquis on the condition that h is authority
245
be a b so lu te . Once he has e sta b lis h e d la w s and in stitu tio n s and has
r e fo r m e d s o c ie ty , h o w e v e r , he a r r a n g e s for the tr a n sitio n to a
r e p r e s e n ta tiv e g o v e rn m e n t, a techniq ue u sed la te r in M e r c ie r ^
L*An 2 4 4 0 . 21
The attitude tow ard the E n g lish g o v e rn m e n t s e r v e s as
i
another m e a n s of d e te r m in in g the p r e v a le n t attitude of F r e n c h authors
tow ard a b so lu te or sh a r ed au th ority. The co n stitu tio n a l m o n a rc h y of
E ngland did not im p r e s s m e n of le tte r s to the sa m e ex ten t that it did
the p h ilo s o p h e s , but the au th ors who a c tu a lly e x p e r ie n c e d E n g lish
g o v e rn m e n t ap p roved it. P r e v o s t , who took refu ge in England w hen
out of fa v o r w ith h is r e lig io u s o r d e r , a d m ire d the E n g lish s y s te m
b e c a u s e it r e su lte d in w is e la w s and in d ivid u al lib e r ty . F u r th e r m o r e ,
in the a lm o s t id e a l s o c ie ty of the A b aq u is, he d e s c r ib e s the a b solu te
l
au th ority o f C levelan d as a step tow ard the tr a n sfo r m a tio n into a
22
r e p r e s e n ta tiv e g o v e rn m e n t h ead ed by a c o u n c il of tw enty e ld e r s .
On the oth er hand, the lim ite d au th o rity of the E n g lish
king, the r e p r e s e n ta tiv e in stitu tio n s, and the p o litic a l p a r tie s are
su b jec t to r id ic u le by one of the m o s t talen ted and popular of the
au th ors of lic e n tio u s t a le s , C laude P r o s p e r J o ly o t de C reb illo n ,
^ 23
c a lle d C reb illo n f i l s . It w ould be g r o s s ly unfair to c o n sid e r the
p o litic a l and r e lig io u s s a tir e of C r e b illo n 1 s ta le s as th eir p r im a r y
in t e r e s t . C r eb illo n w a s n e v e r a m e m b e r o f p h ilosop h e c ir c le s and
24
did not w r ite p h ilo so p h ic a l ta le s; n e v e r t h e le s s , h is c r it ic is m is
s in c e r e . In Ah q u el conte I (1751) he m a k e s fun of the E n g lish
g o v ern m en t of K ing, L o r d s, and C om m on s w h ere the p eop le are
" m ore d isp o se d to take aw ay the rig h ts of the s o v e r e ig n than to lo s e
246
25
any of th o se they b e lie v e belong to th em . " W hen the king d ecid es
to m a r r y but k eep s the identity of h is future w ife a s e c r e t , C om m on s
v o te s that he m u st r e v e a l i t - - a rath er tyran n ical a ct, C reb illon
c o m m e n ts, "but it is r a r e that a fr e e people d oes not go beyond
2
lib e r ty ." Upon h ea rin g the ru m or of the king’s p ro jected m a r r ia g e
to a g o o s e , the Senate (L ords) d raw s up a b ill a g a in st a ll g e e s e ,
tu rk ey s, and o s tr ic h e s , the b ird s w hich are m en tion ed in h is
i
I fa n ta stic p la n s. The king i s show n as m eetin g th eir p r o te st w ith
i
| fir m n e s s and good s e n s e , and then by s u c c e s s fu lly challenging th em
j
to prove he is violatin g any law . F u rth e rm o re , the b ill p a s s e d by
the Senate req u ires the k in g’s au th orization to m ak e it a law of the
sta te, so the fo o lish and p recip ito u s action of the p e o p le ’s
27
r e p r e se n ta tiv e s is thw arted. H ow ever rid icu lou s the king’s p la n s,
h is rule is p refera b le to a sy ste m subject to p o litic a l fa c tio n s,
r u m o r s, opp osition le a d e r s , and unruly su b jec ts. T h ese co n clu sio n s
by C reb illo n fils can a ls o be found in authors who w ere e v e n l e s s
co n cern ed about p o li t ic s . F or e x a m p le , M outonnet de C lairfons
d e s c r ib e s England as an islan d w h ere libertyJLs .pushed to lic e n s e ,
w here a m id st the fa ctio n s and r e v o lts the s o v e r e ig n is eith er a
28
usurping tyran t or a phantom king.
A few authors who n eith er a ccep t a b so lu tism nor id e a liz e
co n tem p o ra ry r ep re sen ta tiv e g o v ern m en t, retu rn to the th em e of the
m e d ie v a l p r in c e , r e s tr ic te d by "feudal" c h e ck s. In a s a tir ic a l fa ir y
tale B eau ch am p s d ep icts a g overn m en t in w h ich the e s ta te s are a
r ea l p o w er. The queen whom th ey ch oose to rep la ce the la z y and
in com p eten t king tak es ca re to h ave them e sta b lis h c o m m is s io n s to
247
d ecid e im p ortan t m a tte r s and to r e fo r m the a b u se s in trod u ced by the
29
e v il m in is t e r of the fo r m e r k in g. The C h e v a lie r de M ouhy c o m e s
n ea r P a r le m e n t's in terp reta tio n of F r e n c h h is to r y w hen he d e s c r ib e s
a king who a s s e m b le s h is people on a p lain and e s t a b lis h e s the old
m e n a s c o n s e r v a to r s of the p ro m u lg a ted la w s . T his body of e ld e r s is
a ls o in v ested w ith the s o v e r e ig n p o w er of d is p o s s e s s in g the king
i
h im s e lf if he should v io la te the la w s , and of e le c tin g a new king. In
an oth er in sta n ce a s im ila r c o u n cil of e ld e r s (m en who h ave ren d ered
im p ortan t s e r v ic e s to the state) h as the au th ority to convoke the
e s t a t e s g e n e r a l, to p ro p o se and r e s o lv e im p ortan t m a t t e r s , and to
j d ec id e on p ea ce and w a r . The king is c o n str a in e d by n u m erou s
d e v ic e s including the high p r i e s t e s s , but th ere is a c o m p lica te d meansj
3 o !
by w h ich he can a c h ie v e te m p o r a r y a b solu te p o w er in an e m e r g e n c y .
In M ouhy’s E ngland a r e s im ila r c o u n c ils and e s t a te s that have a
31
v o ic e in the g o v ern m en t and the s e le c tio n of the s o v e r e ig n .
A lthough M ouhy m a k es no r e a l d istin ctio n b e tw e en the tw o, h is
E n g lis h ex a m p le is a m o r e r e p r e s e n ta tiv e g o v e rn m e n t, and his
im a g in a r y g o v e rn m e n ts in L a m e k is a re m o r e feu d al.
T h u s, w h ile the m a jo r ity of au th ors at le a s t a ccep ted
a b so lu te m o n a rch y , th ey c r it ic iz e d , in the g u ise of o r ien ta l
d e s p o tis m , the u n re lia b le, in e ffic ie n t and a r b itr a r y g o v ern m en t th ey
saw in F r a n c e . A few a d m ired the E n g lish k in g, and a few d rea m ed
of an en ligh ten ed ru le r w ho w ould be a p erm a n en t p e r fe c t p rin ce or
w ould be the tr a n sitio n to r e p r e s e n ta tiv e g o v e rn m e n t. O th ers sought
th eir id e a l r u le r in the feu d al p a s t, although th er e is not a strong
e x p r e s s io n of the th e se n o b ilia ir e in eith er its feu d al or p a r le m e n ta r y
248
v e r s i o n s .
T h e se m en of le tte r s w e r e e v en l e s s in te r e s te d in the
r ela tio n sh ip of the king to law than in q u estio n s of r o y a l au th ority.
N eith er of the tw o th em es found in m o r e s e r io u s d is c u s s io n s of the
p r in c e - - t h e king b ein g su b ject to the law s and the king as the so u r c e
of j u s t ic e - - f in d s m u ch su p p ort in the in cid en ta l d is c u s s io n s in p r o se
fic tio n . The o r ien ta l d e sp o t is show n to ig n o r e law s and to take
| 32
; o ffen se at su g g e stio n s th at he should follow th em , but fu rth er
!
e x p lo r a tio n of the q u estio n is r a r e . One ex a m p le is M ouhy1 s
L a m e k is , in w h ich the k in g 's e x tr a o rd in a r y au th ority to change law s
is so m ew h a t s im ila r to the c a s e s p o se d la te r by V o lta ir e and
M a rm o n tel. In M ouhy's sto r y of P r in c e s s A m p h ite o c les and King
L in d ia g a r, the p eo p le th rea ten a r e v o lt w h en the p r in c e s s v io la te s a
law a g a in st s e e in g h er fa th e r . The King r e a s s u r e s h is daughter that
he is not the s la v e of h is p eop le or of the h igh p r ie s t e s s who in cited
th em to r e b e llio n . He r e s p e c t s the r e lig io n of the p r i e s t e s s , he
s a y s , but r e a s o n te a c h e s h im to d istin g u ish am on g the nu m ber of
law s th o se that have c o m e fr o m divirieV visdom and th o se that h ave
c o m e fr o m the p o lic ie s of m in is t e r s . Of another la w , one reg a rd in g
the m a r r ia g e of p r i n c e s s e s , he a s k s , "Should a r id icu lo u s r e s p e c t
p r e s e r v e the la w s so c o n tr a r y to good s e n s e ju st b e c a u s e th ey have
33
b e e n tr a n sm itte d fr o m antiquity? " King L in d iagar has no righ t to
chan ge su ch la w s e x c e p t in e x tr e m e c ir c u m sta n c e s w h en he can
m ou n t the " g rea t tribune" and, if he obtains the a p p roval of the
34
p e o p le , he c a n change the law s of the sta te . The co n sen t of the
p eo p le to the s p e c ific ch a n g es in the law is n e c e s s a r y in situ a tio n s
249
d ep icted by oth er au th ors a ls o . K ings a g r e e not to change an y la w s
w ithout the co n sen t of the p e o p le , and th ey p ro m u lg a te la w s d e s ir e d
35
by the p e o p le .
A lth ough the th em e of n atu ral law is u su a lly m is s in g fr o m
the n o v e ls and s t o r ie s under c o n sid e r a tio n h e r e , two au thors
d em o n stra te s o m e in t e r e s t in it. P r e v o s t ’s C levelan d ta k es a s h is
3 6
guide a natural law that is s t ill in the C h ristia n tra d itio n . He
d e c id e s that it w ould be unnatural and in the long run d e tr im e n ta l to
fo r c e the A baquis to w e a r c lo th e s w hen th ey a r e not n e c e s s a r y for
p r o te c tio n . He depend s upon the la w s of n atu re, rath er than a g r e a t
n u m ber of p o s itiv e la w s , to fa sh io n the s o c ie ty into one of p e a c efu l
37
unity, can d or, and h u m an ity. H e s e r v e s a s a q u a si-en lig h ten ed
d esp o t who tr a n s la te s his c o n cep t of n atu ral law and h is own
know led ge of God into la w s of m o r a lity and r e lig io n . C levelan d is
v e r y s im ila r to the abbe G e r a r d ’s le g is la to r s who follow the d ic ta tes
of r e a s o n and n a tu re, e x c e p t that C levelan d m a k e s a g r e a te r ap p eal
to p h y sic a l nature and l e s s to e sta b lis h e d r e lig io n .
D u la u ren s fa lls sh o r t of any im p lic a tio n of en ligh ten ed
d e s p o tis m in h is la te r d is c u s s io n of a p u re ly s e c u la r co n cep t of
natural law in I m ir c e (1765). H e re a good, n a tu ra l, and r ea so n a b le
fo r m e r ca v em a n w ould r e m e d y the a b u se s of s o c ie t y by the ab olition
of m a n -m a d e la w s and the ed u ca tio n of m en . He te lls h is p h ilosop h e
b e n e fa c to r , "Your le g is la t o r s have m ad e m a n le a v e nature and th eir
law s h ave only o b sc u r ed h is r e a s o n w h ile offending it; g e t rid of the
la w s , en lig h ten the in te llig e n c e of m an , and you w ill d riv e out c r im e
3 8
fr o m the ea rth , w h ere lib e r ty should be the f ir s t la w ." T h ere is
250
no su g g e stio n that any r u le r should c a r r y out th is ta sk or that any
en ligh ten ed d esp ot tr a n sla te the law s of nature into r e a lity .
The in cid en tal p o rtra y a ls of the id ea l p rin ce in fiction
r e v e a l m o r e about the r e s p o n sib ilitie s of the p rin ce as h ead of h is
go v ern m en t than about q u estion s of authority and law . H is m o st
im p ortan t r e s p o n sib ilitie s c o n cern h is conduct of w a r, h is
i
j a d m in istra tio n of the g o v ern m en t, h is r efo r m of fin a n ces and
r e lig io n , and h is r e s p o n se to the d icta tes of p o litic a l n e c e s s ity ,
j The p r in c e ’s trad ition al r e sp o n sib ility to provide
m ilita r y le a d e rsh ip for the d e fen se of h is country and as a m ea n s of
d isp layin g h is own v a lo r are d e scr ib e d in the fa ir y ta le s of the e a r ly
p art of the cen tu ry. T h ese ta le s a re by e s s e n tia lly sev en teen th -
cen tu ry authors lik e A uneuil and La F o r c e , In the la ter s to r ie s of
M ile s . L u ssa n and L ubert the p e r fe ct prince m u st s till d istin g u ish
h im s e lf in battle and have a burning d e s ir e to acq u ire g lo r y or to
39
shed a ll h is blood to p r o te c t h is p eo p le. The sam e is true of the
n o v els of adventure and in trig u e. The C o m te s se d’A ulnoy, m o st of
w h o se fictitio u s m e m o ir s w e re w ritten in the la te seven teen th
cen tu ry , is not p o litic a lly m in d ed , but even she p r a is e s the king who
40
puts h is m ilita r y ex p lo its above a ll other m a tte r s . The w a rrio r
king and h is m ilita r y en gagem en ts a r e b a sic to the n o v els of La
V ie u v ille , E d ele de P on th ieu (1723) and P r in c e Jakaya (1732), and to
M ouhy1 s M asque de fer (1747). In the la tter , the King of England is
fa v o ra b ly p r e se n ted as a b rave king who lo v e s w ar and r e g r e ts p e a c e ,
d esp ite the fo o lish c a u se s of w a r s . A fter his death the throne is
given to D om P e d r e , a b r illia n t g e n e r a l and m ilita r y h ero who saved
251
41
E nglan d fr o m the S p a n ia rd s.
N e v e r t h e le s s , the th em e of w ar as the f i r s t function of the
g o v e r n m e n t, and of v a lo r a s the m a r k of a good k in g , does b e g in to
fa d e. M ilita r y talents a r e s t ill im p o rta n t to the p r in c e of
B e a u c h a m p s1 F u n e s tin e , but w ar is undertaken only to guaran tee
p e a c e , and oth er m ean s a r e used to end the q u a rr e l that has c a u sed
42
so m u ch w ar in the p a st. P ajon e x p r e s s e s both the usual th em e of
f a ir y ta le s (an A m azon p r in c e s s see k in g d istin ctio n in w ar s im p ly for
43
p e r so n a l ren o w n ), and the tra d itio n a l p o litic a l th em e of the n eed
fo r d o m e s tic tran q u ility. In P r in c e S o ly (1740), a w is e king a v o id s
j
a sec o n d m a r r ia g e in o rd e r to p r e s e r v e h is lands fr o m probable
c i v i l w ar; and in another s to r y a le g itim a te king s a c r if ic e s h im s e lf
!
to the w e lfa r e of h is su b jec ts by refu sin g to undertake a long, c r u e l
44
c iv il w ar to r e g a in his th r o n e . H en ry IV, that id o l of eig h teen th -
c e n tu r y m e n , is d e sc r ib e d b y one of h is a d m ir e r s , C h arles P in o t
D u c lo s , as a king who lo v e d w ar and w on h is kin gdom by being a g reat
m ilit a r y le a d e r; but he m a d e p e a c e , sa c r ific in g h is own p e r so n a l
45
p r e fe r e n c e to the w elfa re of h is s u b je c ts. P a s s in g r e m a r k s about
the ab su rd r e a s o n s or p r e te x ts for w ar a r e m ad e in b an terin g s to r ie s
b y w r ite r s lik e C azotte and C h e v r ie r .
M ore s e r io u s c r it ic is m of w ar is le v e le d b y P r e v o s t in
C le v e la n d ^ p rep a ra tio n fo r the d e fe n se of the A b a q u is. The v e r y
f i r s t ta sk of C levelan d a s r u le r is to p ro v id e for d e fe n se a g a in st the
sa v a g e n eig h b o rs by b u ildin g a m o a t around the c ity . L ater he
b e g in s to o r g a n iz e troop s and tea ch th em the a r t of w a r . W hen a
r e p r is a l a g a in st the v ic io u s sa v a g e s w ho co n sta n tly attack the A baquis
252
can be d elayed no lo n g e r , C levelan d cou p les it w ith a g en ero u s and
w e ll-d e fin e d plan fo r p e a c e . The object of w ar is not v ic to r y but a
46
b etter life fo r a ll of th em . He e x p la in s,
War has alw ays held h o rro r for m e . It is the sh am e of
r e a so n and hu m anity. E x cep t in the c a se of ju st d e fe n se ,
w hich should m ak e one shudder e v e n after v ic to r y , a
battle is the la s t outrage to w hich ex travagan ce and fury
i a re carried ; and a ccord in g to the p r in c ip le s of m y
j m o r a lity , a w a r r io r h ero is only a fe r o c io u s m o n ste r . ^7
I
I The B aron B e s e n v a l, p robab ly b etter known for b eing in
ch arge of the troop s in P a r is on July 14, 1789, than for h is lite r a r y
fe a ts , c r it ic iz e s w ar in a d ifferen t w ay. H is P r in c e A lonzo is a
young m an of v a lo r , ch arm and v ir tu e , who tr e a ts a captive M oorish
p rin c e w ith c le m e n c y and r e s p e c t only to b eco m e a v ic tim of the
M oor’s c r u e l r e v e n g e --r e v e n g e n e c e s s ita te d by the w ar w aged by
A lon zo. A ll of A lo n z o ’s good q u a lities cannot com p en sate for the
v t 4 8
h o r r o r s of w ar.
War is freq u en tly s a tir iz e d in p h ilo so p h ica l ta le s and
n o v e ls . One by G a b riel M ailh ol, Le P h ilo so p h e n eg re (1764), b egin s
w ith a sa tir e on the c a u se s and conduct of w a r. A su b ject of the
King of M itom bo. c o m m its the c rim e of killin g a lio n fr o m a
neighb oring kingdom . A lthough the k ille r w as acting in s e lf d e fe n se ,
after b ein g m o r ta lly wounded by the lion ,, the neighboring king
d e c la r e s w ar on M itom bo. The author cannot help co m m en tin g that
"C onquerors are stra n g e o n e s. A ccord in g to th em it is not enough to
49
be devoured; one is s till gu ilty. " The death of the lio n is only a
pretext; the r e a l r e a so n for w ar is the sla v e tra d e. The conduct of
the w ar in the eig h teen th -cen tu ry sty le is sa tir iz e d in the two
253
p e r fe c tly m atch ed a r m ie s . W hen they confront ea ch oth er, one king
is s till lackin g 369 of h is m e n , so the other king p o lite ly w a its for
them to a r r iv e . P r in c e T in tillo , the a n ti-h e r o of the n o v el, is not
y et a p h ilo so p h er, s o he "contributes to the g e n e r a l b u tch ery lik e a
b arb arian and a h ero . " H is c o n v e rsio n to p h ilosop h y begins w hen he
; n o tice s that the w hole battle is decided by one fin ger pulling a sin gle
i
50
! tr ig g e r . F ir s t the tu telage of a F r e n c h p h ilosop h e (a c a ric a tu re of
| a s c h o la r ), and then w ork a s a lib ra r ia n h elp T in tillo along the path
| of b eco m in g a p h ilo so p h e r -p r in c e . But a la s ! in F r a n c e the only w ay
he can ea rn a livin g is in the a r m y .
The r e sp o n sib ility of the id ea l prin ce in the conduct of
w ar is oversh ad ow ed by h is co n cern w ith the h ig h e st le v e l of
g o v ern m en t a d m in istra tio n . The liter a tu r e in w hich the p rin ce is
only in cid en ta l, lik e the liter a tu r e in w hich he is m o re e x p lic itly
p o rtra y ed , co n cen tra tes on m isg o v e r n m e n t by the k in g’s fa v o r ite s .
B eginning at the top of the a d m in istra tiv e s y s te m , the king m u st
r efo rm h is g o v ern m en t by being h is own m a s te r .
The n e c e s s it y for su ch r e fo r m is d em on strated
n e g a tiv e ly through ex a m p le s of in effectiv e or fo o lish k in g s. The
king is often d ep icted a s being the unwitting dupe of a s e lf -in t e r e s te d
m in iste r or fa v o r ite , for e x a m p le , the m a g ic ia n B ecolh an in
B ignon’ s A ven tu res d’A b d a lla , who c a u se s the king lite r a lly to cut
51
off h is own n o se . The m o re r e a lis tic n o v e ls of Le Sage freq u en tly
d e scr ib e the r iv a lr y of m in is t e r s and m i s t r e s s e s to control a w eak -
w ille d r u le r . One m in iste r com p lain s of h is d efeat by a m is t r e s s :
254
F r o m the f ir s t m o m en t she saw the prin ce w ithin her
p o w er, she fo r m e d the r e so lu tio n of rem ovin g m e fr o m
h is confid en ce in order that she m ig h t take over the
en tire a d m in istra tio n of a ffa ir s h e r s e lf . . . . The
p r in c e , w h o se g r e a te s t w e a k n e ss w as an e x c e s s iv e good
n atu re, liste n e d s o m e tim e s to the m a r q u ise and so m e tim e s
to m e , like a ship w hich, to s s e d about by tw o opposite
w in d s, y ield s f ir s t to one and then the oth er. ^ 2
The im p lica tio n is that the id ea l ru ler w ill be lik e La M o r lie r e ’s
unique and p ow erfu l m on arch who "governs h is state h im s e lf, and
53
w h at is m o r e , h is m in is t e r s . . . . " The attack on the c o u r tie rs
and m in is t e r s of w eak r u le r s is not m e r e ly the tra d itio n a l adm onition
to avoid fla tte r e r s and e v il fa v o r ite s , but a lso a d ir e c t c r it ic is m of
the F r e n c h m o n a rch y under L ou is XV.
It is not enough fo r the id eal prin ce sim p ly to be the
m a ste r ; he m u st a ls o find m en b etter qu alified by m o r a ls and
a b ility on w hom he can depend fo r s e r v ic e and a d v ic e . The m o s t
p rev a len t them e rela ted to p o litic s in the fictio n exam in ed h e r e , is
the g e n e ra l ill-r e p u te and ir r e s p o n s ib ility of c o u r tie r s and fa v o r ite s .
It is a ccep ted opinion that they a re a ll poor sp e c im e n s of the human
r a c e . The e v il fa v o rite is a sto c k c h a r a cter in the n ovels of Mouhy
a s is the p o w er-h u n g ry m in iste r in o r ien ta l t a le s . A ty p ica l exam p le
of the reputation of c o u r tie rs o c cu rs in the in cid en t in Le S a g e ’s
G il B ia s in w hich a b o y ’s p r e se n c e in the retinue of a p rin ce is
counted a s evid en ce of h is g u ilt. " P rin ce s are p e r s o n s of honor as
a m a tter of co u rse; y et the r e ta in e r s to a court a r e inordinate
54
r a sc a ls ; it r e q u ir e s no conju rer to d is c o v e r that. 11 A s im ila r
judgm ent is p a sse d on the c o u r tie r s of L ouis XIV by L a m b ert de
S a u m ery . "When that m o n a rch . . . ca m e to the banks of the r iv er
255
S tyx, a ll the in fern a l b e in g s a scen d ed together and took p o s s e s s io n of
55
m o s t of h is c o u r tie r s . 11 The sa m e low opinion of the u su al
c o u r tie r is e x p r e s s e d by the Man of Q uality to h is pupil in P r e v o s t ’s
n o v el and by H ugary de L a m a r c h e - C ourm ont in h is seq u el to the
56
popular L ettr es d’une P e r u v ie n n e .
R elig io u s d ir e c to r s of k in gs and of p e r so n s at cou rt are
p art of the g e n e r a l c o te r ie of m a lic io u s c o u r tie r s . The sa m e angel
! p r o te c ts the p r in c e ’s r e lig io u s d ir e c to r as p r o te c ts his fo o l in
L a m b ert de S a u m e ry ’s ir r e v e r e n t s a tir e , Le D iable h e r m it e . The
a n g el U r iel ex p la in s h is ro le:
I insin uate to h is h ig h n ess through [th e d ir e c to r ’s] m ea n s
w h atever I p lea se; fo r ex a m p le , to s e ll a ll b e n e fic e s or
at le a s t confer th em only on ch ild ren incapab le of knowing
the function they c a r r y , or on block h ead s without the
le a s t ta ste of lite r a tu r e , or on d eb au ch ees who spend a ll
the r ev en u es in gratifyin g th eir ir r e g u la r p a s s io n s . ^7
N o v els of m a n n e r s, su ch as D u c lo s’ M m e de L u z , a lso s a tir iz e the
58
eloq u en t, s e lf -s e r v in g p r ie s t s " called by G od’ s voice" to the court.
The need for co u n se l and for lieu ten an ts is r e c o g n iz e d ,
but th ere are few capable and v irtu o u s m in is t e r s with w hom to
r ep la ce the d e c e iv e r s and p a r a s ite s . In Le S a g e ’s n o v els the p rim e
m in is te r is the r e a l p ow er in the s ta te , but m o s t of h is e x a m p le s
fa ll sh ort of the m in iste r in his id e a lis tic o r ie n ta l p a ra b le. In
P e r s i a a good m o n a rch , r e a liz in g h is inab ility to g overn , g iv e s the
go v ern m en t to h is grand v iz ie r . T hat talented m in iste r p r e s e r v e s
p e a c e and m a k es the r o y a l authority r e s p e c te d , w hile being an
59
affection ate fath er of the people and devoted se r v a n t of h is p r in c e .
Such a m in iste r a lso a p p ea rs in M ouhy’s M e m o ir e s de M. le m arq u is
256
de F ieu x (1735). A happy p r in c e , ca lled the w e ll-b e lo v e d by h is
s u b je c ts, con fid es the d ir e ctio n of the state to a m in iste r who is
c e a s e l e s s l y occu pied in taking c a r e of h is m a s te r 's affairs and the
(y 0
pu blic in te r e s t. W hether this is an a p p reciation of L ouis X Y 's
m in is t e r , F le u r y , or m e r e ly p erfu n ctory fla tte ry is not c er ta in , but
M ouhy d oes include fa v o ra b le v ie w s of p rim e m in is t e r s in h is other
w o r k s. B oth the King of Spain and the King of England in le M asque
de fer have d iligen t, tru stw o rth y , w is e , and unobtrusive p rim e
|
m in is t e r s , although the su r v iv a l of such a m in iste r in face of the
c le v e r , e v il favorite and the im p a ssio n e d king M ouhy d e s c r ib e s at the
S p an ish c o u r t is rath er co n tra d icto ry .
The r eco g n itio n of the need fo r a p r im e m in iste r and the
d e scr ip tio n s of the r ela tio n sh ip b etw een king and m in iste r by the
C om te de C aylus have v e r y sp e c ific h is to r ic a l co n te x ts. A fter
C ardinal F leu ry*s death in January 1743, a stru g g le for s u c c e s s io n
to h is p o sitio n en su ed , co m p lica ted by the d e sir e of the s e c r e ta r ie s
o f state to avoid any new p rim e m in is te r , Caylus offered h is
so lu tio n in one of h is C ontes orien taux (1743). A new king, good-
h ea rted and of a ju st m in d , d is c u s sin g g overn m en t openly and
rea so n a b ly w ith h is c o u r tie r s , a sk s them n ev er to fla tter h im and
alw ays to a d v ise h im of h is duties and h elp him c o r r e c t h is fa u lts.
Im m e d ia tely he is a d v ise d that he needs a d isin te r e ste d p rim e
m in is t e r . The king a c c e p ts the advice but he r e j e c t s the candid ates
su g g e ste d . L ater a v e r y w ise beauty of T artary r e fu s e s to b eco m e
the kin g's a d v ise r or w ife , and in stead su g g e sts that he ch o o se h is
grand v iz ie r fro m a fa m ily w h ich has provided v iz ie r s for the kings
257
6 X
of the Indies for over a thousand y e a r s . The so u r ce of this advice
is not d ifficu lt to tr a c e . C aylu s, d esp ite h is nu m erou s title s and
d istin g u ish ed n a m e, had no p reten sio n s of h is own, but he w as a
m e m b e r of the in fo rm a l A ca d em ie de c e s m e s s ie u r s w hich included
not only h is lite r a r y c o lla b o r a to r s, but a ls o a s e c r e ta r y of sta te ,
| M au rep as, and at tim es the am b itious fo r e ig n m in is t e r , the M arquis
! . . . 62
! d’A rg en so n .
A t a secon d c r u c ia l point in F r e n c h r o y a l p o licy , the
i
j a c c e s s io n of L ou is XVI, C aylus again d e sc r ib e d the prop er m in iste r
I
j of a good king. The king in the fa ir y ta le , C adichon (1775), is a good
m an but of a sim p le and lim ite d m in d . The se n e c h a l te lls h is m a s te r
to tend to w ife and gard en , and d eleg a te a ffa irs of state to h im s e lf.
L ater w hen the king im p o se s a new tax to pay for h is extravagan t
p alace and the se n e c h a l tr ie s to p ro tect the p eop le fr o m such u s e le s s
o p p r e ssio n , the other two m in is te r s m ake fun of h im and convince
the king that su b jects a r e only m ade for the pu rp ose of paying the
63
e x p e n se s of b ein g g o v ern ed , w hich include ro y a l p le a s u r e s .
U nfortunately F ra n ce did not have a fa iry godm other to a s s i s t the
r e fo r m m in is t e r s of L ou is XVI to ca re for the people and so lv e the
fin a n cia l p r o b le m s of the state a s C aylu s1 little king did.
The p au city of good m in is t e r s and the abundance of e v il
fa v o r ite s is due not only to the p e r v e r s ity of hum an nature but a ls o
to the kin g’s m eth od of ch oosin g o fficia ls and granting fa v o r s. The
sa tir e on the s e le c tio n of o fficia ls in V o lta ir e ’s p h ilosop h ic ta le s
w as s u c c e s s fu l p artly b eca u se the them e w a s a fa m ilia r one. Le Sage
a ls o p r e se n ts the p ro b lem in r e a lis tic t e r m s . The king s e le c ts
258
o ffic ia ls by the s a m e p ro ced u re u sed to d isp e n se r o y a l f a v o r s . H is
g e n e r o s ity is b a s e d on em p ty fo r m s of etiq u ette and on s e r v ic e s of a
p u re ly p e r so n a l and fr iv o lo u s n a tu re, su ch as e s c o r tin g h im on
a m o r o u s e s c a p a d e s . To obtain a d v a n cem en t at co u rt Don A nnibal
f ir s t m u s t have the righ t c r e d e n t ia ls , so he is p a s s e d off a s the uncle
of the m is t r e s s of the p r im e m i n i s t e r s f ir s t s e c r e t a r y . W hen the
king m a k e s a new gran t of o ffic e s and p e n s io n s , D on A nnibal
a u to m a tic a lly w in s one. The c a p r ic io u s nature of the s e le c tio n is not
the on ly e v il in the s y s t e m . Don A nn ibal m u s t b orrow the y e a r Is
in co m e of the p e n sio n in o rd e r to pay the m i s t r e s s 2 /3 of it. A nother
ten p er cen t is e x a c te d by the m o n e y len d er and Don A nnibal is le ft
64
w ith on ly a few c o in s . Such an u n rea so n a b le c o s t to the ind ividu al
can on ly lead to h is p a ssin g along the abu se to so m e o n e e v en l e s s
fortu nate am ong the k in g 's s u b je c ts . C reb illo n fils is m o r e s a tir ic
in d e sc r ib in g the su ltan of India w ho r eg a rd s e m b r o id e r y and
ca rv in g as the on ly m e a s u r e of a m a n 's m e r it . In the su lta n 's
e m p ir e an o b sc u r e c o u r tie r , who b y chance is an e x c e lle n t c a r v e r ,
65
is r a is e d to the p o s t of G rand V iz ie r . O ther au thors show that the
p r in c e c h o o se s a d v is e r s fo r th eir a b ility to d elig h t h im w ith
b u ffoon ery and low w it t ic is m s , and m a k e s l e s s e r app ointm en ts by
66
b lin d ly signin g l is t s p r e se n te d by m in is t e r s .
The w r ite r s w ho s a v a g e ly c r it ic iz e d p r in c e ly fa ilu re
to b a s e app ointm en ts on m e r it , a ls o w anted the p rin ce to r e c o g n iz e
and rew a rd good s e r v ic e . U n d ersta n d a b ly , that id e a l is unattainable
in the fr a g ile w o rld of Le S a g e 's p o litic s . The hope e x p r e s s e d by
G o n za lez that the king w ill not rep a y w ith the b la c k e s t ingratitude
259
the s e r v ic e s of the v ic e r o y of New Spain, is dam pened by the m o re
r e a lis t ic p a g e. The la tter c o r r e c tly a s s u m e s that the v ic e r o y who has
faith fu lly se r v e d Spain w ill be sla n d ered w ith fa ls e c h a rg es in stea d of
7
applauded for h is m e r it. A nother v ic e r o y who has s a c r ific e d his
|ow n in te r e s ts to th o se of the king b em oan s h is fa te.
| I should have fo llow ed the ex a m p le of m y p r e d e c e s s o r s ,
j the v ic e r o y s of S ic ily and N a p le s. I should have le t the
I T urks ravage the two kingdom s and en rich ed m y s e lf at
the ex p en se of the king and h is su b je c ts, and after that,
retu rn ed to co u rt to r e c e iv e p r a is e for m y w ise g o v ern
m en t. Oh, unfortunate m o n a rch y ! . . . m u st th ose
who se r v e you w ith the g r e a te s t ard or and who s e e k
only to augm ent your g lo r y , be reg a rd ed as your
e n e m ie s !
C ourt intrigue is the im m ed ia te ca u se of the d isg r a c e of this
i
i
I v ic e r o y , but the u ltim ate r e sp o n sib ility lie s w ith the king h im s e lf,
who can save his g o v ern m en t fro m su ch corru p tion if he shuns it
h im s e lf and rew a rd s only m e r ito r io u s s e r v ic e .
In ord er to c a r r y out h is functions as head of the
g o v ern m en t the id ea l p rin ce m u st em p lo y c a re fu lly ch o sen
lieu ten a n ts, and w o rk d ilig en tly at su p erv isin g th em . The la z y and
inattentive king opens the w ay to the petty tyranny of h is o ffic ia ls,
w h e r ea s the id ea l p rin ce is a h ard -w ork in g p rin ce in a ll s to r ie s that
m en tio n h is g o v ern m en ta l d u ties. E ven if he is an in com p eten t or
la z y r u le r , he can s t ill do so m e u sefu l w ork w ith h is h an d s. The
M ufti of the O ttom an E m p ire u rges the su ltan to w ork at som ethin g
69
p rofitab le in ord er to pay h is own e x p e n s e s . A m o re typ ical
attitude tow ard r o y a l in com p eten ce is r e v e a le d in two d escrip tio n s by
C aylus: the king who lo v e s the hunt but spends as m u ch tim e as he
can on a ffa irs of h is kin gdom , " c e a s e le s s ly arran ging and
260
rea rra n g in g h is p ap ers;" and the one who read s alm an ach s and tends
70
h is little k itch en -g a rd en . H ow ever, for a ll the a u th ors, the id eal
r em a in s the co n scie n tio u s and e n e rg e tic king devoted to the in te r e s ts
of h is p eo p le.
T h ere is no g e n e r a l a g r ee m e n t am ong th ese m is c e lla n e o u s
authors on the p r im a r y ob ject of the id ea l k in g's in te r e st and
e n e r g ie s . In te r est in the r efo r m p ro g ra m of the ru ler w an es once the
authors have d is c u s se d cou rtly intrigue and r o y a l app ointm en ts.
S till, w r ite r s cannot avoid m entioning the m ajor su b ject of f is c a l
r e fo r m sin ce p ro b lem s of p e r so n n e l a re c lo s e ly rela ted to fin a n cia l
a ffa ir s . L e Sage o ffers a p o sitiv e plan for reducing the exp en d itu res
of the crow n and im p roving the a d m in istra tio n . The king m u st put
an end to a ll p en sio n s and g ifts, the c o s t of w hich co m es out of the
revenu e of the s ta te . He should then rew ard only th ose su b jects who
have earn ed r ec o m p en se through s e r v ic e and h on or, and rew ard them
only w ith p o sitio n s in the g o v ern m en t, the c o u r ts, the m ilita r y , o r,
71
in the c a se of ch u rch m en , w ith b e n e fic e s. T his is no
rev o lu tio n a ry change, only an im p ro v em en t of the ex istin g s y s te m .
M ore sw eepin g is Saint-F.oix*s su g g estio n that b a s ic fin an cial changes
depend on r e fo r m of the c le r g y . The th ree or four thousand "fak irs,
b o n z e s, d e r v ic h e s , c a len d e rs [ s i c ] , and other robed clerg y " should
be m ade to contribute to the state c o ffe rs ju st as useful c itiz e n s do.
Sin ce the c le r g y "in sp ire la z in e s s , intrigue am ong fa m ily m e m b e r s ,
and have no c a re but to pronounce a few thousand w ords a day, " it
is tim e they paid their own w ay. S a in t-F o ix did not u n d erestim a te
the fo r c e s he w a s opp osin g. The day after announcing the p lan s for
261
r e fo r m , h is king is found p o ison ed in h is bed, and the a d v ise r is
72
a s s a s s in a te d that even in g.
An im p ortan t a s p e c t of the p r in c e 's r efo r m p ro g ra m
in v o lv es c h u r c h -sta te r e la tio n s . The p rin ce is d ep icted as both
cou n teractin g the c le r g y 's use of su p erstitio n to m ain tain pow er ov er
the p eop le and as using that sa m e pow er to h is own ends if
n e c e s s a r y . In addition to coping w ith the p r a c tic a l p o litic s of
j c h u r c h -sta te r e la tio n s , the id ea l p rin ce a lso s e r v e s as a sin c e r e
r e lig io u s lea d er and r e fo r m e r .
It is c le a r that the p rin ce m u st con trol the p r ie s ts who
i
e x e r c is e an inordinate d eg ree of pow er over the m a s s e s through the
u se of su p e r stitio n . The C o m te sse d'A uneuil, w ritin g sh o rtly
b efore 1700, d e s c r ib e s how A rta x a re won the p r ie s t s of P e r s ia to
73
h is in t e r e s t s and used them to gain pow er over the p eop le. The
s a m e th em e of an ignorant and su p erstitio u s p eop le under the con trol
of a high p r ie s t e s s fo r m s an im p ortan t p art of the sto r y of King
L ind iagar in M ouhy's im a g in a ry v o y a g e. In th is in stan ce the king
and the r e lig io u s authority are opposed to e a ch oth er. The high
p r ie s t e s s not only r iv a ls the king as r ep re sen ta tiv e of the gods but
a c ts as a fa ls e p ro p h etess who u ses tr ic k s , su ch as hiding in the
altar in o rd er to m ake h er god speak, to b eg u ile the p eo p le. B y u se
of h is in tellig en ce the king e x p o se s the d esig n s and s c h e m e s of the
high p r ie s t e s s , and by h is m a je sty , s e lf-c o n fid e n c e , and r ea so n ,
c a lm s the p eop le. He allow s th ese rath er lim ite d c r e a tu r e s , who
are h is su b jec ts, the use of th eir e y e s , a p r iv ile g e granted s c a r c e ly
74
once a cen tu ry, so that they m a y s e e the fa ls ity of the p r ie s t e s s .
262
The fa n ta stic e le m e n t n o tw ith sta n d in g , th is e p iso d e illu s t r a t e s the
n eed for quick p o litic a l m a n eu v erin g by the king a g a in st the c le r g y .
The p rin ce is not above using su p e r stitio n or r e lig io n to
s e r v e r e a s o n s of s ta te . C reb illo n p r e s e n ts the c le a r e s t and m o s t
r e a lis t ic ex a m p le of how the p r in c e , s r o le is c h a r a c te r iz e d by
p o litic a l ex p e d ie n c y w ith r e g a r d to r e lig io n in h is sa tir e on the
c o n tr o v e r s y o v er the B u ll U n ig e n itu s, L 'E c u m o ir e (1734). T h e re the
king m u s t guard a g a in st the au d aciou s P a tr ia r c h (the P op e) who
th rea ten s to e n c r o a c h upon the au th ority of the cro w n , w h ile at the
sa m e tim e he m u st co o p era te w ith the P a tr ia r c h to s e c u r e the
su b m is s io n of the H igh P r i e s t . The king d oes not h im s e lf r e s p e c t the
P a t r ia r c h , w h o se au th ority he c o n s id e r s far in fe r io r to h is own; but
b e c a u s e the s u p e r stitio n of the p eo p le m a k e s the P a tr ia r c h v e n e r a b le ,
he is u sefu l to the king in the v e r y d e lic a te p r o b le m at hand.
F u r th e r m o r e , r e lig io n is u se fu l in se c u r in g the ob ed ien ce and
tra n q u ility of the p e o p le , so the king d oes not d are offend the
P a tr ia r c h p u b licly . In retu r n fo r a p eo p le who reg a r d s the king as a
g ift of d ivin ity and n e v e r p r e s u m e s to judge fo r it s e lf or to d is c u s s
the nature of r o y a l au th ority, the king h a s to c o m p r o m ise w ith
su p e r stitio n and its m in is t e r s , but he m u s t at le a s t lim it the p ow er
75
of the P a tr ia r c h to sp ir itu a l fu n ctio n s.
The m o s t blatan t use of su p e r stitio u s m ea n s to a
p o litic a l end is found in P r e v o s t Js C lev ela n d , that p aragon of v irtu e
and g o o d n e ss. He b u ttr e s s e s h is au th ority by " su p ern a tu ra l”
p ro o fs that h is r e lig io n is the "true" on e. A fter te llin g the n a tiv es
that h is god is str o n g e r than th eir su n -g o d , he p r o c e e d s to have h is
263
d eity pu nish a r e b e l le a d e r . Taking advantage of the n a t iv e s 1
ign oran ce and s im p lic ity , two E u ropeans then stage an e x p lo sio n in
the r e b e P s hut and shoot h im , thus d estro y in g the n a t iv e s 1
''su p erstitio u s" b e lie f in the sun a s a god and adding im m e n s e ly to the
76
p r e stig e of both C levelan d and h is relig io n .
M ore freq u en tly the p r in c e :s r e s p o n sib ility as r elig io u s
r e fo r m e r is linked w ith the eig h teen th -cen tu ry e m p h a sis on
! com batting su p e r stitio n and fa n a tic ism . S u p erstitio n in the fo r m of
o r a c le s , m y s t e r i e s , and ritu a ls is a com m on object of r e fo r m .
O c ca sio n a lly a p rin ce is shown in the m o re p o sitiv e role of supporting
to lera tio n . W hen P a j o ^ s P r in c e S oly b e c o m e s king of two p eo p les
w ith opp osite r e lig io n s , he is s u e s a new law w hich is a c o m p r o m ise
allow in g the sun to be w orsh ip p ed in the daytim e and the m o o n at
77
night. An exam p le of to le r a tio n is often found in the a ctio n s of the
a lm o st u n iv e r sa lly a d m ired H enry IV. In D u c lo s1 w o r d s, although
H enry le ft the com m u nion of the p r o te sta n ts, he did not f e e l obliged
78
to hate th em .
The con cep t of the p rin ce as a r e lig io u s lea d er is no
lo n g er that of the d efend er and p ro m o ter of the one true r e lig io n ,
C h ristia n ity , but is a lte r ed to con form to the E n ligh ten m en t in te r e s t
in r efo r m and natural r elig io n . The trad ition al view of the C h ristian
king as a son of the C hurch who p r o m is e s to defend it w ith a ll h is
m igh t and to w ork for the in c r e a s e of the faith , is m en tion ed only
79 f
b r ie fly by C aylu s. P r e v o s t o ffers a cu rio u s com b in ation of the
trad ition al b e lie f in one r e lig io n and e ig h teen th -cen tu ry c r it ic is m of
the a b u se s of C h ristia n ity . He c o n sid e r s it the p r in c e ^ duty not
264 .
only to era d ica te the su p erstitio u s p r a c tic e s and e r r o r s in faith of an
u n civ ilize d p e o p le , but a ls o to sp e cify and e sta b lish the true r elig io n .
The pr ince - in - co riim o n er's-clo th in g , C levelan d , sim p lifie s
C h ristia n ity , om its a ll c e r e m o n ie s and m y s t e r ie s , and te a ch es that
God is the e te rn a l and om nipotent c r e a to r , the God of nature. He
g o es further; he e sta b lis h e s the r e lig io n by m aking r ec ita tio n of the
80
one sim p le p ra y er m an datory. In another in sta n ce , M ouhy’s King
L in d iagar, w ithout elaboratin g on the r elig io n its e lf, r e p la c e s an
o p p r e ssiv e r elig io n and its u n reason ab le law s w ith h is own " tru e”
81
r e lig io n , the w o rsh ip of V ilk on h is. Thus in th ese ex a m p le s the
trad ition al v iew of the prin ce as defend er of the faith is s till evid en t,
but its content has b ee n profoundly a lte r ed .
L ater in the cen tury M ailhol e x p r e s s e s a r e a l d e sir e for
r e lig io u s r efo rm in L e P h ilo so p h e n e g r e , w hile at the sa m e tim e he
s a tir iz e s the p h ilo so p h e r -p r in c e a s r elig io u s r e fo r m e r and p ro m o ter
of natural r elig io n . P r in c e T in tillo , now a p h ilo so p h er but unable to
lea v e F r a n c e , w ants to retu rn to h is A frica n kin gdom , do away w ith
the su p e r stitio u s r e lig io n of h is p eo p le, and tea ch th em to w orsh ip
the e te rn a l c re a to r as the Su p rem e B ein g . He w ill build a s im p le ,
reg u la r te m p le , he e x p la in s, b e c a u se that is how nature is . But
then as he d e s c r ib e s the tem p le it b e c o m e s a m a s s of in tricate
co m p lex ity co m p letely obscu rin g its orig in a l sim p le d esig n , and
T in tillo once again fa ils in the d ifficu lt ta sk of being a p h ilo so p h er-
82
p r in c e . .
T h ese ex a m p le s show that the id ea l p r in c e ’s ro le as
defend er of the C h ristian relig io n is no lon ger sign ifican t; in stea d ,
265
he is charged w ith refo rm in g the a b a se s of the e sta b lish e d r e lig io n .
W hen the p r in c e ’s role in the p rom otion of r elig io n is co n sid ered
im p ortan t, he is lik ely to be the exponent of a s im p le , m o r e natural
and m o re rea so n a b le r e lig io n .
The d is c u s sio n of the p r in c e ’s ro le in r elig io n ,
p a r tic u la rly in c h u rch -sta te r e la tio n s , a ls o r e v e a ls the w ay in w hich
w r ite r s of fictio n adm itted the need for the id ea l p rin ce to be a m an
j of p o litic a l w isd o m and ta c tic s . The p rin ce as he is in terp reted by
i
! the v a rio u s authors is m o s t co n scio u s of the dem ands of p o litic a l
n e c e s s it y w hen he is dealin g w ith r e lig io n or its r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s.
C reb illo n ’s L 'E cu m o ire is rep lete with m a c h ia v e llia n p o litic s; so is
M ouhy's sto r y of the king and the high p r ie s t e s s . L a m b ert de
S a u m ery is l e s s d ir e ct, but he at le a s t im p lie s that the p o litic a lly
astu te king would n ever en tru st the sa m e m an w ith both p o litic a l and
e c c le s ia s t ic a l authority. ^
The id eal p rin ce ap p ears as a m an of m a c h ia v e llia n
p o lic y , devoted to the in te r e s ts of h is sta te , in other in sta n ce s as
w e ll. P r e v o s t ’s C levelan d , ev en b efore he u sed a ru se to e sta b lis h
h is r elig io n , had planned and m a n eu v ered to w in the ru ler ship in the
f ir s t p la c e . C reb illon is m o r e c o n siste n t than P r e v o s t in h is
r e a lis tic a s s e s s m e n t of p o litic s and a ccep ta n ce of p o litica l
ex p ed ien cy . C reb illon s a tir iz e s the d iv in e -r ig h t m on arch y but
a c ce p ts it as the b e st m e a n s of govern in g the m a s s e s . G iven h is low
opinion of the people and h is p e s s im is t ic view of r elig io n and
p o lit ic s , th ere is no other c h o ice. He s e e m s to sym p ath ize w ith , but
d o es not actu a lly ap p rove, m a c h ia v e llia n p o litic s in both Ah quel
266
conte 1 and L 'E c u m o ir e . H is in terp reta tio n of d iv in e -r ig h t m on arch y
is divine rig h t w ith an em p h a sis on the p o litic a l and even
m a c h ia v e llia n a sp e c ts of the th eo ry , not the C h ristia n , and h is id ea l
p rin ce is f ir s t of a ll a m an of p o litic s .
A nother exam p le of the ap p recia tio n of m a c h ia v e llis m in
j p o litic s is M ouhy1 s M asque de f e r . In the n ovel th ree m a in
| c h a r a c te r s a re show n to follow r e a so n s of sta te . The King of Spain,
a good king until he is d e str o y ed by h is fatal p a s s io n , is alw ays
w illin g to lis te n to a d vice in the in te r e s ts of h is sta te . The author
o b se r v e s w ith r e fe r e n c e to h is King of England that "a p rin ce who
knows how to g o v ern n e g le c ts no o c c a s io n w hich can s e r v e h is
p o litic s and the in t e r e s t of h is sta te. " The h e r o , D om P e d r e ,
d isp la y s both the g r e a tn e ss of h is so u l and the w isd o m of h is p o litic s
w hen he d e cid es to dem and a r a n so m fo r the captured S p an ish king
in stead of taking p e r so n a l rev en g e on h im . The r a n so m w ill b etter
s e r v e the good of the sta te. A t other tim e s the h ero is not above
84
e x tr e m e cru elty in fu rth erin g h is own e n d s. Mouhy d oes not
p r e se n t the m a c h ia v e llia n p rin ce as the id eal but p la c e s the p rin ce
j in the co n tex t of a p o litic s of r u s e s , in tr ig u e s, and " p o lic y .1 1 The
id ea l p rin ce m u st p u rsu e r e a s o n s of state and have the p o litic a l
w isd o m to cope w ith r e a l ev en ts and p e r s o n s .
D esp ite th ese illu str a tio n s of p r a c tic a l r e a lis m , the
m o r e co m m o n attitude am ong w r ite r s of fictio n tow ard the
m a c h ia v e llia n p rin ce is n e g a tiv e . R e a so n of state is a s s o c ia te d w ith
the v illa in , not the id eal p r in c e . The p rin ce is w arn ed not to use
the "public w elfa re" as a cloak for in ju stice and not to em p lo y d e c e it
267
or bad faith in n eg o tia tio n s w ith other n a tio n s. P o litic a l m a r r ia g e s
are s t ill a c cep ted as a fa c t of life but the id ea l p rin ce m o re often
m a r r ie s fo r love than for r e a so n s of s ta te . Le S a g e, for e x a m p le,
in clu d es a sto r y of a "fatal m a rria g e" in G il B ias w hich pits the
p o litic a l argu m en t for the p r in c e 's m a r r ia g e to h is co u sin a g a in st
the p e r so n a l, but not e n tir e ly u n rea so n a b le, fe e lin g s of the p r in c e .
The m in is t e r , a la r m e d that P r in c e E nriqu e is going to throw h is
country into c iv il w ar by refu sin g to m a r r y the c o u sin , rem in d s the
p r in c e , "You c h e r ish your su b jects too m u ch to b ring them su ch a
sad fa te. You m u st not le t y o u r se lf be o v erp o w ered by lo v e . " The
p rin ce r e p lie s that he knows h is duty as a king, but he does not
b e lie v e he should b eco m e a sla v e of h is p eo p le. The end is f a t a l- -
the prin ce does not m a r r y eith e r this c o u sin or the g ir l he lo v e s ,
85
and h is country is torn by c iv il w ar. The m o r a l is that m ea n s
oth er than m a r r ia g e should be used to r e s o lv e p o litic a l q u estio n s.
T his is not a c a se of blind or fo o lish love v e r s u s the king's duty, but
of the too n a rro w ly p o litic a l fra m e of m in d of a m in is te r .
The fo reg o in g exam in ation of the id eal p rin ce in te r m s of
h is r o le in the h ig h e st le v e ls of go v ern m en t a d m in istra tio n and court
lif e , in the r efo rm of fin a n ces and r e lig io n , and in the p ro b lem s of
p o litic a l n e c e s s it y , p ro v id es the m ajor in g red ien ts in the con cep t of
the id e a l p rin ce as he ap p ea rs in cid en ta lly in p r o se fictio n . The
rem ain in g a sp e c ts of h is ro le do not app ear as c o n siste n t th em es
throughout the liter a tu r e but a re m en tion ed o c c a sio n a lly by a few
a u th o r s.
268
In only a few in sta n ce s d oes the p rin ce have an o v e ra ll
p ro g ra m of m o r a l and m a te r ia l r e f o r m s . In the se m isa v a g e so c ie ty
of the A baquis C levelan d in trod u ces new g o v ern m en t, new s o c ia l
o rg a n iza tio n (the fa m ily ), and new id ea s of m o r a lity and r e lig io n , and
un dertakes p r a c tic a l p r o je c ts to m ak e it a p ro sp e ro u s and flo u rish in g
i 86
j nation. C levelan d is an e a r ly en ligh tened despot: a le g is la to r
i
i guided by n atu re, r e a so n , and hu m anity. He b rin gs c iv iliz a tio n to
I
| an a lm o s t p r im itiv e s o c ie ty . A nother e a r ly q u a si-en lig h ten ed d esp ot
is the King of T om but in N adalT s V o y a g es de Z ulm a (1734). He is a
m an of profound know ledge and g o v ern s a ll a lo n e. Like C levelan d ,
he b r in g s c iv iliz a tio n to h is backw ard su b jec ts. H is r e fo r m
p r o g r a m , w hich is p r e se n ted only v e r y b r ie fly , in clu d es both
m a te r ia l im p ro v e m e n ts su ch as b u ild in g s, h o u s e s , and adequate
in co m e fo r ea ch su b ject, and m o r a l r e fo r m s su ch as the extirp ation
87
of child s la v e r y and lib er tin a g e. M m e. de G raffign y's highly
popular n o v e l is m o r e s y s te m a t ic , fo r it co u p les the ob ligation of
the s o v e r e ig n to guaran tee the m a t e r ia l w e ll-b e in g of a ll h is su b jects
88
w ith a dem and fo r r efo rm of the e x istin g s o c ia l stru ctu re.
In stead of sy ste m a tic p r o g r a m s of r e fo r m , th ese authors
of fictio n are content to m ak e p a ssin g r e fe r e n c e s to the p r in c e 's
a c tiv itie s . The em p h a sis on eco n o m ic r efo rm p r o g r a m s ty p ica l of
both the fen elo n ia n im ita to rs and the authors of w ork s cen tered on
the p r in c e , is m is s in g in th is third group of w o r k s, but th ere is the
b e lie f that the p rin ce should m ake h is state flo u rish . He d oes that
by tending to a g ricu ltu re and p ro tectin g the p ea sa n ts fro m tax
89
c o lle c t o r s . He p ays s p e c ia l atten tion to h is m o s t unfortunate
269
su b jects; le a rn s about h is kingdom by v isitin g the p ro v in ces; and
m a k es h im s e lf a c c e s s ib le to h is su b je c ts. H enry IV is c o n sid ered a
g r e a t king b eca u se he ca red for a ll h is su b jec ts. The king w h ose
o b s e s s io n w ith hunting d e str o y s the cou n trysid e and ruins the
p ea sa n ts is p ictu red as a d esp ot.
T here is no unique pattern to the p e r so n a l c h a r a c te r is tic s
of the id ea l prin ce as he is c a su a lly d e sc r ib e d in m is c e lla n e o u s
f
fic tio n . In view of the p o litic a l fortu n es of c h a r a c te r s in Le S a g e ’s
n o v e ls and of the r e a l w o rld , the id e a lis tic b e lie f in the n ob ility of
the king b e c o m e s a poignant d elu sio n . Count B elflo r w ish e s to
m a r r y L eo n o ra , but the k in g, he b e lie v e s , is about to ch o o se s o m e
one e ls e to be h is w ife . B elflo r f ir s t thinks of pretending that he and
L eon ora a re s e c r e tly m a r r ie d . "H ow ever m u ch [th e king] m ay want
to unite m e w ith an oth er, he is too g ra cio u s to think of tea rin g m e
fr o m the ob ject I a d o r e , " he te lls L eo n o ra , ,rand too ju st to offer so
g r iev o u s an affront to your honorable fa m ily , " B elflo r then r e je c ts
the use of d ecep tion , and the lo v e r s r e ly on the g o o d n ess of king
and fa th er. L eon ora r e p lie s to h er fa th er's s k e p tic is m , "the king
w ould n ev er do so g r e a t a v io le n c e to [ B e lf lo r 's ] f e e lin g s ." The
duenna a d d s, " m o reo v er, the m o n a rch lo v e s B elflo r too m u ch to
e x e r c is e su ch a tyranny ov er h is fa v o r ite . He is of too noble a
c h a ra cter to a fflict so g r ie v o u sly the v alian t Don L uis de C r esp e d e s
who has devoted the b e s t y e a r s of h is life to the s e r v ic e of the
90
sta te . " That is the id eal. In r e a lity , the king w ill do w h atever he
p le a s e s , a s Le S a g e ’s c h a r a cter s soon find out. T his ep iso d e
illu str a te s the g e n e r a l d e s ir e am ong authors fo r a king w h ose
270
g o o d n ess and eq u ity m a y be depended upon.
M ore s p e c if ic a lly , the id ea l p rin ce m u s t e x e r c is e s e lf -
c o n tro l and not a llo w h im s e lf to be ru led b y lo v e , in ord in ate g r ie f,
or the d e s ir e fo r r e v e n g e . The p rin ce of La V ie u v ille de O r v ille
sh ow s h is affin ity w ith k in gs of s e v e n te e n th -c e n tu r y tra g ed y w h o se
h on or is pitted a g a in st p a s s io n . In L a C o m te s se de V e r g i the r u le r
w ho c o m m its an a c t unw orthy of h is p o s itio n b r in g s on d is a s t e r ,
I
I
w h e r e a s in the sto r y of A lp h o n se, King of P o r tu g a l, the tru ly h e r o ic
91
king con q u ers h is p a s s io n and r em a in s tru e to h is h o n o r. The
J
k in g's s e lf - c o n t r o l is s o m e tim e s taken to the n ex t s te p , s e lf - s a c r if ic e
for the w e lfa r e of the p e o p le , but that th em e is n o t a s p e r s is te n t as
it is in the other tw o grou p s of lite r a tu r e . Only o c c a s io n a lly is the
p rin ce ex p ected to be v irtu o u s fo r the sa k e of s e r v in g as an e x a m p le
to h is people and in sp irin g th em to be v ir tu o u s.
The id ea l p rin ce is m o s t o ften sim p ly p a te r n a l, although
h e r e a gain , the th em e of b ein g the fa th er of h is p e o p le is not as
freq u en t a s in the w ork s ex a m in e d in the two p r e v io u s c h a p te r s. H is
m a jo r v ir tu e s a r e c le m e n c y , c o m p a s s io n for the unfortun ate,
h u m an ity, and d ep en d a b ility . He is not ex p ected to have e x tr a o r d i
nary w isd o m , a s a ru le, but to have a good nature and a w illin g n e ss
to w o rk at h is t a s k s .
The p r in c e 's ed u ca tio n is im p ortan t b u t not of fo r e m o s t
c o n c er n . T h ere is n o ticea b le c r it ic is m of the p r in c e 's m is p la c e d
stud y of su ch things as a s tr o lo g y , a str o n o m y , g e o g ra p h y , fa ir y ta le s ,
and the m y s t e r i e s of n a tu re, and of tra d itio n a l p ed a g o g y that
e m p h a s iz e s m e m o r iz a tio n in ste a d of ju d gm en t. It is noted that
271
q u e e n - r e g e n ts , c a p r icio u s f a ir ie s , and e v il m in is t e r s fa v o r the poor
ed u ca tio n of the p rin ce. In m any of h is s to r ie s C aylus m en tion s the
p o sitiv e ed u cation of the p rin ce b y tr a v e lin g , study of the p a st, and
p r a c tic a l e x p e r ie n c e . The fen elon ian influence is evid en t but is not
o ve rwhe lm in g .
The follow in g c o n clu sio n s m a y be drawn about the con cep t
of the id eal p rin c e w hich e m e r g e s fr o m the m is c e lla n e o u s p ro se
fic tio n of the E n lig h ten m en t. It is both le s s sy ste m a tic and le s s
id e a lis tic than the co n cep ts of the fen elon ian im ita to rs and the
au th ors w ritin g m o re d e lib e r a te ly about p o litic a l i s s u e s . The authors
d ep ictin g the p rin ce in cid en ta lly a re not p r im a r ily co n cern ed w ith
outlining p e r fe c t r u le rs or id eal s o c ie tie s ; r a th er, they tend to
resp o n d to s p e c ific c ir c u m sta n c e s and to r e fle c t the m o r e com m on ly
a ccep ted opinion about the duties of a p r in c e .
The p e r fe c t fa ir y p r in c e s notw ithstanding, the incid en tal
p r in c e is often m o re r e a lis t ic than the ones co n sid ered in the two
p rev io u s c h a p ter s. The p r e se n c e of p r in c e s lik e th ose of C reb illon
and Mouhy in d ica tes that fen elon ian sw e e tn e s s and ligh t had not
e n tir e ly dulled the p o litic a l s e n s e s of m en of le t t e r s . The
m a c h ia v e llis m of th ese authors is in part a resid u e of sev en teen th -
cen tu ry tra d itio n s'in both liter a tu r e and p o litic a l thought, but it is
a ls o sim p ly a r esp o n se to sp e c ific situ a tio n s.
E v en if the te r m is not c le a r ly defin ed , absolute
m o n a rch y is ju stified b y m o s t authors b e c a u se of the n eed for a
stron g and e n e r g e tic d ir e ctio n of a ffa ir s . T heir id eal p rin ce holds
an undivided and u n sh ared authority. During m o s t of the century
272
th ere is o c c a sio n a l p r a is e of the E n g lish s y s t e m and ap p roval of
r e b e llio n . H o w ev er, the g e n e ra l opinion of au th ors about the m a s s e s
rem a in e d so p e s s im is t ic that th ere is little in tim ation of a change in
the fo r m of g o v ern m en t in the d irectio n of r ep re sen ta tio n . The m o s t
fen elo n ia n of the a u th o rs, L u ssa n , c le a r ly c h o o s e s an ab solu te king,
!
| w h ile an in sig n ifica n t nu m ber of authors r e v e r t to a feud al con cep t of
j
| k in gsh ip .
i
The in cid en tal p rin ce is m o s t co n cern ed w ith what is
I
im m e d ia te ly surrounding h im , n a m ely , the cou rt and m in is t r ie s .
A u th ors e a r ly in the cen tu ry a g r ee in dem anding that the p rin ce be
h is own m a s te r . As the cen tu ry p r o g r e s s e s , a few w r ite r s su g g e st
that if the king is in co m p eten t, perh ap s a dom inant p rim e m in iste r
is not so bad after a ll. T his subtle shift is in part exp lain ed by
c r it ic is m of the con tem p o ra ry F r e n c h p o litic a l sce n e in w hich
L ou is XV rep la ced R ic h e lie u and M azarin a s the n egative ex a m p le of
ru ler sh ip .
One of the c le a r e s t ch an ges in the concep t of the ru le r
is that he no longer h a s that s p e c ia l r ela tio n sh ip w ith God, w hich
both the m e d ie v a l and sev e n tee n th -c en tu r y C h ristia n p rin ce had.
The id ea l p rin ce reta in s the m o r a l c h a r a c te r is tic s of the C h ristia n
p r in c e , and r e s p e c t for God and r e lig io n , but not the trad ition al
e m p h a sis on C h ristian ity a s such. F req u en tly he is a d e is t, seek in g
to r a is e h is s u b je c ts1 r e lig io n above the le v e l of su p erstitio n and
in to le r a n c e , and to p r o te c t h is authority fro m c le r ic a l in te r fe r e n c e .
The u n co n sc io u s, or at le a s t , le s s than thoroughgoing, adoption of
E n lig h ten m en t id eas by so m e of th e se authors r e su lts in an unusual
273
com b in ation of b e lie f in the prin ce as the p ro m o ter of one faith and
a s the eig h teen th -cen tu ry r e fo r m e r attacking the a b u se s of organ ized
r e lig io n . P a r a lle l to th is b e lie f is a concep t of the p r in c e rs ro le w ith
reg a rd to r e lig io n a s both m a c h ia v e llia n sta te sm a n and s in c e r e
r e f o r m e r .
In addition to the r efo rm of r elig io n , the id ea l p rin ce of
j
fic tio n sh a r e s w ith the p h ilo so p h es and fen elon ian s an in te r e s t in
p ea ce and h u m a n ita ria n ism . P e a c e is not a stron g th em e, but th ere
a re definite ex a m p les of the s e r io u s d e s ir e to a b o lish w a r . In
diluted fo r m , the in cid en tal id ea l p rin ce sh a r es the in t e r e s t in
h u m an itarian r e fo r m s such as the abolition of s la v e r y and c ru elty to
ch ild ren . H o w ev er, this p rin ce r a r e ly connects the g o a ls of r efo rm
w ith the E n lig h ten m en t’s em p h a sis on natural and hum an law as m ea n s
to that end.
In a few w orks such a s P r e v o s t ’s C le v ela n d , N ad al’s
b r ie f d e scr ip tio n of King Tom but, and M m e. de G raffign y's L e ttr e s
p e r u v ie n n e s , it is p o ssib le to d etect the p o sitiv e con cep t of
g o v ern m en t a s so c ia te d w ith the fen elon ian s and p h ilo s o p h e s , and the
p r e se n c e of id eas that b ear so m e r e se m b la n c e to en ligh ten ed
d e s p o tis m . F o r the m o s t p art, h o w e v e r, the p r in c e s d e scr ib e d
c a su a lly in fic tio n are tackling trad ition al p ro b lem s p ie c e m e a l, not
a s p a rt of a ra d ic a l r efo r m p ro g ra m .
The id ea l p rin ce p ortrayed in cid en ta lly in F r e n c h p r o se
fictio n during the E n ligh ten m en t finds the fen elon ian ju st and
p ow erfu l king attractive; he a d m ire s the p h ilo so p h e s1 p r a c tic a l and
hu m anitarian refo rm s; but eith er through o v e r s ig h t or co n v ictio n , or
274
b e c a u se of lit e r a r y con ven tion , he reta in s a se n se of p o litic a l
r e a lis m . It is iro n ic that it is w ith reg a r d to r e lig io u s is s u e s that
th e se authors r e s i s t the a ttra ctio n of the fen elo n ia n p rin ce and a ccep t
the p rin cip le of m a c h ia v e llia n r ea so n of sta te . S om e authors a c ce p t
it c o n s c io u sly , o th ers stu m b le into it by not r e a liz in g the im p lica tio n s
of the notions they are dep ictin g in fic tio n . P r e v o s t , who e lse w h e r e
i
d e c la re d h is antipathy to the Ita lia n ’s m e th o d s, is the c le a r e s t
illu str a tio n of the d an gers of adopting m a c h ia v e llis m u n co n scio u sly .
| W h erea s F e n e lo n and the p h ilo so p h es w e r e aw are of the p o s s ib ility
i
of the public w elfa re b eco m in g a ju stific a tio n of o p p re ssio n of
in d iv id u a ls, authors paying only ca su a l atten tion to p o litic a l q u estio n s
e a s ily subordinate individual righ ts to the public w e lfa r e .
Although the fu ll im p lica tio n s of the fen elon ian and
E n ligh ten m en t p r in c e s e sc a p e d h im , the in cid en ta l p rin ce of p r o se
fic tio n adopts so m e of the m o s t com m on a sp ir a tio n s of the p r in c e s of
the p h ilo s o p h e s . The authors s t ill p o rtra y what is e s s e n tia lly the
tra d itio n a l ju st and virtu ou s C h ristian p r in c e . But sin ce that im a g e
has b een tarn ish ed by the r e a litie s of the eig h teen th -cen tu ry F r e n c h
m o n a rch y , it is refu rb ish ed w ith E n ligh ten m en t s e c u la r is m ,
h u m a n ita ria n ism , and p ra g m a tic refo rm .
NOTES
^Antoine F r a n g o is P r e v o s t , H is to ir e de M. C lev ela n d ,
fils n a tu rel de C r o m w el (1731) in O eu v res c h o is ie s de P r e v o s t ,
( P a r is , 1 8 1 0 -1 8 1 6 ), IV -V II.
C h a r le s de F ie u x , le c h e v a lie r de M ouhy, L a m e k is , ou
le s v o y a g e s e x tr a o r d in a ir e s dT un E g y p tien dans la t e r r e in te r ie u r e . . .
(1 7 3 5 -3 7 ) in V o y a g e s im a g in a ir e s , X X , 159.
3
Anne Claude P h ilip p e , co m te de C a y lu s , " H isto ire de
D akian os et d es sep t d o r m a n s , " C ontes o rien tau x (1743) in O eu v res
b a d in e s, c o m p le tte s , du com te de C aylus (A m ste r d a m , P a r i s , 1787),
VII, 3 2 1 -2 .
4 *
" B leu ette et C oq u elico t, " F e e r i e s n o u v e lle s (1741) in
O e u v r es b a d in e s , IX, 104.
5 f < •
E m ile H en rio t, "L IAbbe Du L a u r e n s," L e s L iv r e s du
s e c o n d rayon ( P a r is , 1948), pp. 2 6 6 -7 .
^H enri Jo sep h D u la u ren s, I m ir c e , ou la f ille de la nature
( P a r is , n. d. [ 1st pub. 1 7 6 5 ]), p. 60.
7
(A m ste r d a m , P a r i s , 1769), p. 113 n.
Q
E . g . , A n on ym ou s, " G risd elin e t C h arm an te, conte;"
" M e r c e ille u x e t C h arm an te, conte;" "Le P r in c e A nanas et la
P r i n c e s s e M o u s te lle , conte;" fr o m La B ib lioth eq u e d es f e e s et
g e n ie s r e c u e illie par l T abbe de la P o r te in C abinet d es f e e s , XXXIV.
M a rg u erite de L u ssa n , L e s V e ille e s de T h e s s a lie (1731) in C abin et
d es f e e s , X X V I, 4 59. C aylu s, " L 'E n ch an tem en t im p o s s ib le , "
F e e r i e ¥ n o u v e lle s (1741) in O eu v res b a d in e s , IX, 145. C ath erin e
C a ille a u de L in tot, "T im andre e t B le u e tte , " T ro is nouveau co n tes
d es f e e s (1735) in C abinet d es f e e s , XXXII, 150.
9 *
C laude H en ri de F u s e e de V o isen o n , T ant m ie u x pour
e lle (1760), C ontes de I1 Abbe de V o is e n o n , ed . O ctave Uzanne
( P a r is , 1878), p. 3.
^ ? L e c h e v a lie r de M a illy , "A lphinge, ou le sin ge v e r t ,"
N ou veau r e c u e il de co n tes de f e e s in C abinet des f e e s , XXXI, 277.
A nthony H a m ilto n , H isto ir e de F le u r d*Epine (ca. 1715) in C abinet
d es f e e s , X X , 2 5 8 -9 . A ntipathy to the E n g lish R e b e llio n and
275
276
C r o m w e ll is e x p r e s s e d by P r e v o s t , C le v e la n d , and M outonnet de
C la ir fo n s , L e s li e s fo r tu n e e s, on le s a v en tu res de B ath ylle e t de
C leobule (1771) in V o y a g es im a g in a ir e s , X , 1 7 5 -6 .
^ A l a i n R ene Le S a g e, Le B a c h e lie r de Salam anqu e (1736)
in O eu v res c h o is ie s de L e Sage ( P a r is , 1810), VII, 4 3 3 -5 5 .
12
M a leb ra n ch e, Intrigu es du s e r a il, h is to ir e turque (The
H agu e, 1739), pp. 3 5 0 -5 2 .
I
| j 3
Ib id . , pp. 1 -3 . G erm a in F r a n g o is P o u lla in de S a in t-
F o ix , L e ttr e s d*une turque a P a r is , e c r it e s a sa so eu r au s e r r a il
(A m ste r d a m , 1731), p. 9-
14
In add ition to M aleb ran ch e and S a in t-F o ix , N ic o la s
F r o m a g e t, C ontes de F ro m a g et: Le c o u sin de M ah om et (1742), ed.
O ctave U zanne ( P a r is , 1882); and an o n y m o u s, T a c h m a s, p r in c e de
P e r s e ( P a r is , 1751).
15
A d rian de L a V ie u v ille d ^ r v i l l e , com te de V ig n a co u rt,
L a C o m te s se de V e r g i, n o u v elle h is to r iq u e , galante et tragiq u e
(1722) in B ib lioth eq u e de cam p agn e, ou a m u se m e n s de P e s p r it e t du
coeu r ( B r u s s e ls , 1785), XI; E d ele de P o n th ieu , n ou velle h isto riq u e
( P a r is , 1723).
^ J a c q u e s R o ch ette, le c h e v a lie r de La M o r lie r e , A n g o la ,
h is to ir e indienne (A gra, 1746), I, 43.
17
H is to ir e de la c o m te s s e de G ondez (A m ste r d a m , 1728
[ 1st pub. 1 7 2 5 ]), p. 151. L es V e ille e s de T h e s s a lie , p. 4 4 7 .
18
In C ontes de J. C a zo tte, ed . O ctave U zanne (P a r is ,
1880), p. 136.
19
L e ttr e s de N ed im C oggia in L e ttr e s tu r q u e s , r e v . ed.
(C ologn e, 1750), pp. 160, 1 7 7 -8 0 .
^ A u g u s t in N adal, L es V o y a g es de Z ulm a dans le pays
d es f e e s (1734) in C abin et d es f e e s , X V I, 347.
2 1
O eu v res c h o is ie s , V , 1 0 8 -3 5 .
M e m o ir e s e t a v en tu res d*un h o m m e de qualite (1728-
31), O eu v res c h o i s i e s , II, III. C le v ela n d , O eu v res c h o i s i e s , V,
1 3 3 -7 . E xclu d ed fr o m co n sid e ra tio n h e r e , of c o u r s e , a r e the English,
n o v e ls that w e r e so popular in F r a n c e a fter P r e v o s t tr a n sla te d
R ic h a r d so n 1 s P a m e la in 1742.
277
23 s
M o rn et, "L es E n s e ig n e m e n ts d es b ib lio th e q u e s, " pp.
4 7 3 -5 , sh o w s A h, q u el conte ! freq u en tly lis te d in the ca ta lo g s of
p rivate lib r a r ie s . Of h is c o n te m p o ra r y p o p u la rity th ere is little
q u estio n but h is rep u tation h a s b een u n even. S ee C lifton C h erp ack ,
An E s s a y on C r eb illo n fils (D u rh am , N. C . , 1962), pp. v ii- x v .
^4 Ib id . , pp. x ii, 54.
25 f
C o lle c tio n co m p le tte d es o e u v r e s de M. de C reb illo n le
fils (L ondon, 1772), IV, 559.
7 f\
I b i d ., p. 590.
^ I b id . , pp. 6 0 1 -9 .
28
M outonnet de C la ir fo n s, pp. 1 7 4 -6 .
29
P i e r r e F r a n c o is Godard de B ea u ch a m p s, F u n estin e
(1737) in C abinet d es f e e s , X X X I, 6 9 -7 2 . B ea u ch a m p s is the author
of an e a r lie r c o a r s e sa tir e a g a in st the p e r s o n a l life of the Due '
d'Or le a n s and h is co u rt (The H isto r y of King A p p r iu s , tr a n s.
[L o n d o n , 1 7 2 8 ]).
3 ° L a m e k is , X X , 1 5 9 -6 0 , 2 25, 234.
31
Le M asque de f e r , ou le s a v e n tu re s a d m ir a b le s du p e r e
et du f ils (The H a g u e, 1785 L 1 s t ed. 1 7 4 7 ]), III, 1 0 2 -6 .
3 ^ M aleb ran ch e, pp . 3 8 -4 0 .
3 3 L a m e k is , X X , 2 1 3 -1 6 .
3 4 I b i d ., p. 234.
35 *
P i e r r e C h a rles F a b io t, (abbe) du G uay de L aunay
A u n illon , A z o r , ou le p rin ce enchante; h is to r ie n o u v elle pour s e r v ir
des chron iq u e a c e lle de la T e r r e des P e r r o q u e ts (1750) in V oyages
im a g in a ir e s , XXI, 267. H e n r i P a jo n , H is to ir e du P r in c e S o ly ,
su r n o m m e P r e n a n y , e t de la P r in c e s s e F e s l e e (A m ste r d a m , 1740),
II, 124.
3 6
Two su c c in c t ex p la n a tio n s of the n a tu ra l law tra d itio n
are in B a s il W ille y , The E ig h teen th C entury B ack grou n d (B o sto n ,
1 96lj 1st ed . L ondon, 1940), pp . 1 4 -1 8 , and P e t e r G ay, "C arl
B e c k e r 's H ea v en ly C ity ," C a r l B eck er* s H ea v en ly C ity R e v is it e d , ed.
R aym ond O. R ockw ood (Ithaca, 1958), pp. 3 9 -4 1 .
^ O e u v r e s c h o is ie s , V , 1 2 5 -3 0 , 1 3 8 -9 .
3 8
Dulaurens, p. 97.
278
3 ^ L u ssan , L es V e ille e s de T h e s s a lie , XXVI, 446.
L u b ert, "La P r in c e s s e L ionnette et le P r in ce C oquerico" (1743), in
C abinet d es f e e s , XXXIII, 53.
40
M arie C atherine J u m elle de B e r n e v ille , c o m te ss e
d ’A ulnoy, Le C om te de W arw ick -(A m sterd a m , 1704 [ 1 s t ed. 1 703]),
I, 5.
4 1 I, 87-8; HI.
42
P p . 31, 55, 65.
43P r in c e S o ly , II, 2 6 -9 .
44
Ib id . , I, 16. "E ritzin e et P a relin " (1744), in C abinet
d es f e e s , XXXIV, 10.
45
H isto ir e de M adam e de Luz ( P a r i s , 1897; 1st pub.
1741), pp. 1 1 2 -1 3 .
46
O eu vres c h o i s i e s , V , 124, 1 3 9 -4 0 , 1 7 5-82.
4 7 I b id ., p. 175.
48
P ie r r e V icto r, baron de B e se n v a l, "A lonzo, " C ontes
de M. le b aron de B e s e n v a l, L ieutenant G en era l des a r m e e s du R oi
( P a r is , 1881), pp. 1 2 7 -4 6 . The sto r y w as p robab ly w ritten in the
1740’s or 1750’s and p u blished p osth u m ou sly in 1806. B e se n v a l w as
not the usual m ilita r y m an although he ser v e d in the cam paign s of
1735, 1743, and the S even Y e a r s ’ W ar. He accom p an ied the due de
C h o iseu l w hen he le ft the cou rt in d isg r a ce (O ctave U zanne, " N o tice,"
ib id . , pp. iv -x x iii).
49
Le P h ilo so p h e n e g r e , e t le s s e c r e t s des g r e c s :
ouvrage trop n e c e s s a ir e (London, 1764), I, 29. The s im ila r ity of
th is w ork to Candide is o b viou s, but it is the F r e n c h p h ilo so p h e-
p rin ce that M ailhol s a t ir iz e s , not a p a rticu la r p h ilosop h y.
Ibid. , pp. 3 5 -6 .
51
Jean P a u l B ignon , L es A ven tu res d’A b d alla, fils
d ’H anif, ou son voyage a P ile de B o r ic o (1712-14) in C abinet des
f e e s , XII, 352.
52 *
H isto ir e d’E ste v a n ille G o n za lez, su rn om m e le garpon
de bonne hum eur (1734), O eu vres c h o is ie s , X , 2 2 2 -3 .
53Angola, I, 1-2.
279
54
H isto ir e de G il B ia s de Santillane ( P a r is , 1873;
r e im p r e s s io n of 1747 ed . ; 1st pub. 1715-1 7 3 5 ), I, 331. A s im ila r
co m m en t is in Le D iable boiteu x (1707), O eu vres c h o is ie s , I, 215.
55
P ie r r e L a m b ert de S au m ery, Le D iable h e r m ite ou
a van tu res d*Astaroth bani d es en fe r s (A m sterd a m , 1741), I, 58.
56 * ■
H om m e de q u a lite , O eu vres c h o is ie s , II. Ignace
H ugary de L a m a r c h e -C o u r m o n t, [ L e ttr e s d*Aza ou d*un P e r u v ie n
(1749)] in L e ttr e s d*une P e r u v ie n n e , par M m e de G rafigny, s u iv ie s
de c e lle s d*Aza (P a r is , 1822), p. 271.
5 7 I, 8 5 -6 .
5 8 P . 130.
5 9G il B i a s , II, 112.
k^InjurM Innocence: B eing the In stru ctive and D ivertin g
M em o irs of the M arq u ess of F ie u x , t r a n s . (London, 1745; 1st
F r e n c h ed. 1 7 3 5 -6 ), p. 4 62. L odai in L a m ek is is a ls o a good
m in iste r but is undone by the kin^. L ouis X V 1 s su b jects did not
a c co r d h im the title of B ien A im e until the v ic to r y at F on ten oy in
1745.
^ " H is t o ir e de N oureghan et de D am ake, " O euvres
b a d in e s , VIII, 8 -3 0 .
6 2
C a y lu s1 lit e r a r y co lla b o r a to r s w ere M oncrif, D u c lo s,
C reb illo n f i l s , V oisen o n , and V ad e, am ong o th e r s. S ee O ctave
U zan n e, "N otice su r la v ie et le s o eu v res de C aylu s, " F a c e tie s du
com te de C aylus ( P a r is , 1879); F ern an d F le u r e t, "Le Com te de •
C a y lu s," De R on sard a B a u d ela ire (P a r is , 1935), pp. 1 7 5 -8 .
Sh ack leton d e s c r ib e s M on tesq u ieu T s r ela tio n s w ith the A ca d em ie de
c e s m e s s ie u r s (M o n tesq u ieu , pp. 1 84-5).
^ O eu vres b a d in e s , IX, 4 0 3 -4 , 432.
64
G il B i a s , I, 189; II, 306-9; II, 6 3 -5 .
65
Le Sofa, conte m o r a l ' (1740), C o llectio n c o m p le tte ,
IH, 7 -8 .
66 * .
L a m b ert de S a u m ery , I, 84. La M o r lie r e , I, 57.
6 7
O eu vres c h o is ie s , X , 4 3 7 -8 .
6 ft
B a c h e lie r de S a la m a n q u e, O eu vres c h o is ie s , VII, 74.
69
Malebranche, pp. 3 7-8.
70
"La P r i n c e s s e P im p r e n e lle et le P r in c e R o m a rin , "
F e e r ie s n o u v elles (1741), O eu v res b a d in e s, VIII, 343. Ca d ich o n ,
ib id . , IX, 4 05.
71G il B i a s , II, 324.
72
L e ttr e s d*une tu rq u e, p p . 9 1 -3 .
73 *
L o u ise de B o is s ig n y , c o m t e s s e d’A u n eu il, "A rtaxare
r o i de P e r s e , " N o u v e lle s d iv e r s e s du te m p s ( P a r is , 1702), p. 34.
The author died in 1700 and s e v e r a l of h e r w ork s w e r e p u b lish ed
p o sth u m o u sly .
7 4 L a m e k is , X X , 234, 4 1 4 -2 1 .
7 5 ^ * *
L 'E c u m o ir e , ou T an zai e t N ea d a rn e, h is to ir e ja p o n o ise
(1734), C o lle c tio n c o m p le tt e , II, 1 1 4 -1 6 . F o r id e n tific a tio n of the
e le m e n ts in the a lle g o r y s e e C h erp ack , pp. 5 1 -4 , and G reen ,
F r e n c h N o v e lis t s , p. 113.
76
O eu v res c h o i s i e s , V , 1 5 7 -6 3 .
7 7P r in c e S o ly , II, 108.
78M m e de L u z , pp. 1 2 8 -9 .
79
" H isto ire du v a illa n t c h e v a lie r T ira n le blanc" (1737),
O eu v res b a d in e s , I, 374.
80
C le v e la n d , O eu v res c h o i s i e s , V , 1 6 5 -7 0 .
8 1 L a m e k is , X X , 4 2 1 .
8 3 M a ilh o l, p . 123.
8 3 I, 75.
84
I, 24; H , 109; III, 109. B e c a u s e th is is a tr a g e d y for
e v e r y o n e , not m u ch w eig h t can be p la c e d on the fa c t that the h e r o
r e s o r ts to c r u e lty a g a in st a tru stin g fr ie n d in o rd er to hu rt the King
of Spain.
8 5 I, 2 3 -5 8 .
86 +
P r e v o s t , C lev ela n d , O eu v res c h o is ie s , V , 1 0 8 -3 8 .
87Nadal, p. 347.
281
F r a n g o ise cPIssenbourg d*Happoncourt, M m e de
G raffign y, L e ttr e s d*une p eru vien n e (P a r is 1822; 1st ed. 1746), pp.
1 1 6 -7 . She c o m p a res the Inca go v ern m en t to that of F r a n c e . This
n o v el is at the top of the l i s t in M ornet*s count of the ca ta lo g s of
p rivate lib r a r ie s ("L es E n seig n em en ts des b ib lio th eq u e s, " pp. 461,
4 7 3 ). Its p op u larity w as not due to its id ea s but to its sen tim en ta l
quality (E n g lish S h o w a lter, J r . , "An E ig h teen th -C en tu ry B e s t-
S e lle r : L es le ttr e s p e r u v ie n n e s , " d i s s . , Y ale 1964, D is se r ta tio n
A b s tr a c t s , XXV [ F e b . 1 9 6 5 ], 4708).
89
E . g . , S ta n isla s Jean , le c h e v a lie r de B o u ffle r s, A lin e ,
rein e de G olcon d e, n ou velle (1761), O eu v res c h o is ie s du c h e v a lie r de
B o u fflers ( P a r is , 1891), pp. 1 9-20.
90
Le D iable b o ite u x , O eu vres c h o is ie s , I, 54, 63.
^ E d ele de P o n th ie u , pp. 2 8 2 -9 4 .
I
CHAPTER XI
CONCLUSION
T h is ex a m in a tio n of the con cep t of the id e a l p rin ce in a
sa m p le of e ig h te e n th -c e n tu r y F r e n c h p r o s e fictio n p r o v id e s a
d efin ite in d ica tio n of g e n e r a l lite r a te opinion co n cern in g the au th ority
and r e s p o n s ib ilitie s of w hat w as s t ill the g e n e r a lly a c ce p ted m ea n s
of g o v e rn m e n t, the m o n a rch y . W hile M orn et in L e s Q rig in es
in t e lle c tu e lle s is c o r r e c t in statin g that th ere w e re few c h a lle n g e s to
the e sta b lis h e d g o v ern m en t, that d o es not w arran t the co n clu sio n that
m e n of le tte r s w e r e not d is s a t is f ie d with the king and the use he
m a d e of h is au th ority. T h ey w e r e not g e n e r a lly d is s a tis fie d w ith the
fo r m of g o v ern m en t, but th ey w e r e high ly c r it ic a l of the w ay in
w h ich the king ab u sed h i s a u th ority, or a llo w ed h is su b ord in ates to
do s o , and n e g le c te d the n eed s of the peop le and the sta te . M en of
l e t t e r s , as a r u le , w anted a p e r so n a lly m o r e v irtu o u s r u le r , thinking
he w ould be k in d er to^the m a s s of p eo p le, but so m e a ls o w anted h im
to u se h is a u th ority to b rin g about d ecid ed chan ges in go v ern m en t
a c tiv ity and s o c ia l o rg a n iza tio n .
The d eg ree of s e r io u s , c o n sc io u s thought g iv e n to
p o litic a l q u estio n s in fic tio n a l lite r a tu r e v a r ie s am on g the authors of
the th re e g e n e r a l c a te g o r ie s of fic tio n ex a m in ed h e r e . A m ong the
im ita to r s of T e le m a q u e , so m e m e r e ly took advantage of a popular
283
lite r a r y d e v ic e , oth ers u sed the d ev ice as a m ea n s of insinuating
th e m s e lv e s into royal fa v o r, and a few d e lib er a te ly undertook
p o litic a l c r it ic is m . A ll of th em e a s ily adopted the hu m anity,
g o o d n e ss, and virtu e of the fen elon ian prince; but few , if any,
understood the fu ll im p lica tio n s of F e n e lo n Is id e a s . The p op u larity of
T elem aq u e and of its im ita to r s, w hether s e r io u s ly p o litic a l or not,
d e m o n str a te s the v ita lity of the need fe lt am ong m e n of le tte r s and the
read ing public for a r efo rm of the apex of g o v ern m en t, the r u le r.
j
The secon d group of au th o rs, th ose who in ten tionally j
i
d is c u s s e d the p rin ce or c r itic iz e d the s o c ia l and p o litic a l
!
o rg an ization , w e r e , of c o u r se , m o s t c o n scio u s of the id eas they w e re
e x p r e s s in g in fictio n . T his group of authors illu str a te s v e r y w e ll
the adoption of new id eas by s e r io u s-m in d e d m en outsid e the fold of
the p h ilo so p h e s, such as the J e su it D e sfo n ta in e s , the m a g istr a te
G u eu lette, and the fo r m e r lib ertin e turned a n ti-p h ilo so p h e , G erard .
The d is c ip le s of the p h ilosop h es su ch as A rgen s and M e r c ie r , ev en if
not alw ays w h olly faithful to th eir m a s t e r s , w e re d elib era te in
d issem in a tin g the new id ea s to the reading p u b lic.
A m ong the authors of the third group, the id eas
e x p r e s s e d are g e n e r a lly u n co n scio u s, or at le a s t lacking in any
d elib era te ex p o sitio n . A w r ite r lik e M ouhy, the m o s t p ro lific
n o v e lis t of the cen tu ry, exp loited e v e r y popular lite r a r y top ic or
th em e w hile rem ain in g quite trad ition al in h is id e a s. C reb illon and
C aylus respon ded to s p e c ific , con tem p o ra ry p o litic a l even ts w ithout
ad op tin g any o v e r a ll ph ilosop h y of refo rm . P r e v o s t w as v e r y
d elib era te in setting up C le v ela n d ^ c iv iliz a tio n of the A b aq u is, but
284
he did not think through the new notions he e sp o u sed and th erefo re
ended up w ith in com p atib le com bin ations of C h ristia n trad ition ,
ph ilosophe r e f o r m s , and m a c h ia v e llis m . T h e se w r ite r s did not adopt
the p h ilosop h y of the E n ligh ten m en t, but they did r e fle c t the
p h ilo so p h e s1 dem ands for p r a c tic a l and hu m an itarian r e fo r m s .
In th is study of a sa m p le of the fictio n of the
| E n ligh ten m en t in F r a n c e , s e v e r a l qu estion s have b een ask ed in order
j
to d eterm in e the exten t to w hich the com ponent ideas of enligh tened
d e sp o tism w e re p r e se n t in popular liter a te opinion and a ls o to
d eterm in e what c o rresp o n d en ce e x iste d b etw een the id e a s of
ord in ary m en of le tte r s and those of the p h ilosop h es or P h y sio c r a ts .
i
The f ir s t of th e se q u estion s is w heth er the C h ristian th em e w as
rep la ce d by a s e c u la r , u tilitarian th em e, p a r tic u la rly w ith regard to
the authority of the p r in ce. The th eo ry of d iv in e -r ig h t a b so lu tism
had se r v e d sev e n tee n th -c en tu r y m o n a rch s v e r y w e ll in ju stifying
th eir effo r ts to unify and c en tr a lize authority, to su p p ress
p r iv ile g e d g ro u p s, and to fr e e th e m se lv e s fr o m c le r ic a l in ter fe r en ce .
Two s e ts of c ir c u m sta n c e s m ade d iv in e -r ig h t a b so lu tism o b so le te .
F i r s t , the p o litic a l and eco n o m ic n eed s of the sta te , once a b so lu tism
had b e e n e sta b lish e d , req u ired a d ifferen t and m o re p o sitiv e concep t
of g o v ern m en t. S eco n d ly , the w id esp rea d and p e r s is te n t c r it ic is m
of C h ristia n ity in the late sev en teen th and the eigh teen th cen tu ries
d isc r e d ite d id ea s bound too c lo s e ly to the trad ition al r e lig io n or its
in stitu tio n s. J u stifica tio n for the p r in c e ^ authority had to be
sought in the s e c u la r r e a lm of the m a te r ia l n eed s of the s o c ie ty .
285
T his se c u la r iz a tio n of the con cep t of the id eal p rin ce
illu str a te s the slo w , su b tle, and p e r v a siv e se c u la r iz a tio n of thought
at a ll le v e ls of in tellec tu a l life . The p h ilo so p h es undertook it boldly,
though not w ithout so m e angu ish . T hey continued to sp eak of the king
as the rep re sen ta tiv e of God, as ch o sen by G od, or in other
tra d itio n a l p h ra ses; but M ontesquieu, V o lta ir e , and R o u ssea u a ll
| r e je c te d any su p ern atu ral b a s is of the r u le r ’s authority or p erso n .
The l e s s e r w r ite r s r e a d ily follow ed the trend of se c u la r iz a tio n ,
e s p e c ia lly w ith regard to the o rig in of the p r in c e ’s authority. They
w e r e l e s s w illin g than the p h ilo so p h es to give up the traditional
}
| fo rm u la s; none of th em p ictu red a p rin ce who w as in tim a tely bound
to the p h y sic a l order of nature a s w as the p h y sio c r a tic p rin ce; and
none of th em elab orated a s e c u la r , u tilita ria n ph ilosop h y, but their
d is c u s s io n s of the p r in c e 's r e s p o n sib ilitie s r e fle c te d the in te r e sts of
the m o r e se c u la r in tellec tu a l c ir c le s of the eigh teen th cen tu ry. M ost
of th em sh a red the " g en era l, d iffu se d u tilitarian ism " ^ of the
E n ligh ten m en t. They thought in te r m s of m a te r ia l im p ro v em en ts for
a ll the individuals in s o c ie ty and a ssu m e d the h arm on y of individual
and g e n e r a l in te r e sts. W hile rejec tin g depend en ce on a sp e c ific
r e lig io n , th ey w ere no m o r e w illin g than F e n e lo n or the p h ilosop h es
to sep a ra te p o litics fr o m m o r a lity and to r e lie v e the p rin ce fro m the
r e s p o n sib ility of virtu ou s conduct; but the m ean in g of virtu ou s
conduct sh ifted aw ay fr o m an e m p h a sis on the p rivate m o r a lity of the
p rin ce and tow ard a s o c ia l and u tilitarian in terp reta tio n of v irtu e.
The sa m e p a r tia l a ccep ta n ce of new id ea s without
relin q u ish in g the s e c u r ity of the p a st is s e e n in the m o r e sp e c ific
286
is s u e of s u c c e s s io n to the th ron e. The r e s p o n sib ility of the p rin ce
to produce an h e ir rem a in ed a co m m o n them e in the fa iry ta le s of
the f ir s t h alf of the cen tu ry . D esp ite the im p ortan ce of secu rin g the
p e a c e fu l s u c c e s s io n to the th ron e, few w r ite r s su g g e ste d any m ea n s
other than in h eritan ce for doing s o . The s a tir ic b arb s at the off
spring of royalty d estin ed for the throne offer c le a r ex a m p les of the
d e s ir e to tem p er the b a s ic p r in c ip le s of le g itim a c y w ith m ore
| ra tio n a l c r ite r ia fo r d eterm in in g the h eir; but again , th ere a re few
I
s u g g e stio n s , su ch as R o u sse a u 's sc h e m e in h is con stitu tion fo r
P olan d , that the ru ler be ch o sen in any other w ay.
W riters trea ted the q u estion of who judges the r u le r , or
to w hom he is r e s p o n sib le , in a m an n er sim ila r to the g e n e ra l
ten d en cy tow ard secu la riza tio n : a cautious m o v e m e n t away fr o m the
trad ition al. The m a jo rity of th em retain ed the e sta b lish e d th eo ry of
g o v ern m en t, ab solu te m on archy; but they w anted to tem p er it w ith
sa feg u a rd s on the p r in c e 's p o w er. F e n e lo n 's, and h is c lo se
d is c ip le s ', r elia n c e on the p r in c e 's ultim ate r e sp o n sib ility to God
alone w as not su fficien t for the p h ilo so p h es and other m en of le t t e r s .
M ontesquieu d esig n ed p r a c tic a l sa feg u a rd s in the fo r m of
in term ed ia te b od ies and d iv isio n of p o w e r s. V o lta ire r e lie d on
fundam ental p r in c ip les of ju s tic e , and the P h y sio c r a ts on the la w s of
natu re. R o u sse a u req u ired the co n sen t of the peop le th e m se lv e s in
the p r in c e 's g o v ern m en t. The l e s s e r w r ite r s m e c h a n ic a lly rep eated
the tra d itio n a l notions of the p r in c e 's r e sp o n sib ility to God but a lso
o c c a sio n a lly d ep icted the p rin ce a s d ir e c tly r e sp o n sib le to h is
su b je c ts. M ore often than d eliv e r in g the p rin ce to the judgm ent of
287
h is su b jec ts, the w r ite r s im p lic itly rath er than e x p lic itly e x p r e s s e d
the idea of judging a ru le r in te r m s of a se c u la r m o r a l code b a se d on
r e a s o n and hu m anity, and the p r a c tic a l c o n seq u e n c es of h is
g o v ern m en t. G ranted, the r e s o r t to h ig h er p r in c ip les of ju stic e and
the id ea ls of r ea so n and hum anity w e re not ab sen t in p r e -
E n ligh ten m en t d is c u s sio n s of p e r fe c t p r in c e s , but it w as in the
j
E n ligh ten m en t that th o se id ea ls b e c a m e cen tra l and w e re d iv o rced
I
fr o m r elig io n . What is c le a r ly s e e n in the thought of the p h ilosop h es
and P h y sio c r a ts is a ls o r e fle c te d in that of the sec o n d - and th ird -
|
| rate m en of le t t e r s .
i
i
! The top ic on w hich ord in ary fictio n le a s t sh ared the
in te r e s ts of the p h ilo so p h es is the con cep t of law and the p r in c e ’s
rela tio n sh ip to it. The co n sid era tio n of the trad ition al ideas of the
p rin ce as la w g iv er and as the so u r c e of ju stice w as m u ch m o re
infrequent in fictio n by l e s s e r authors than in that by the p h ilo s o p h e s .
On the other hand, the d e scr ip tio n of the prin ce a s a le g is la to r ,
founding or rem ak in g s o c ie ty , w hich w as popular am ong the
p h ilo so p h e s, ap p eared often enough in the m in or liter a tu r e to be
c o n sid e r e d an im p ortan t th em e. N e v e r th e le s s , v e r y little attem p t
w as m ade in the ord in ary fictio n to con n ect the d e s ir e d r e fo r m s to
any o v e r - a ll in terp reta tio n of la w , natural or hum an. The
E n ligh ten m en t notions of law of nature w e r e only o c c a s io n a lly alluded
to by the m o s t s e r io u s au th ors. T hose who w rote d e lib e r a te ly about
p o litic s , both fen elo n ia n and o th e r w ise , se e m e d to a c ce p t G rotius
and P u fen d orf as th eir guid es on law and authority. But sin ce
G rotiu s had a lrea d y fr e e d n atu ral law fr o m any r e lig io u s sa n ctio n
288
and d e c la re d its so u r ce to be the d ic ta tes of right r e a s o n , w hich are
"w hatever hum an nature and the nature of things im p ly that th ey
2
m u st b e , " the popular w r ite r s h elp ed d isse m in a te a con cep t of
natural law that w as at le a s t co n gen ial w ith the s e r io u s e x p r e s s io n s
of the E n ligh ten m en t.
The m o r e s e r io u s of the authors of fic tio n , along w ith the
p h ilo s o p h e s , se e m e d to be w alking a tigh trope b etw een a p ow erfu l
but m o r a lly fr e e m a c h ia v e llia n p rin ce and a m o r a l ru ler r e str a in e d
fro m a r b itr a r y action by la w s . When th ese w r ite r s dutifully rep ea ted
the m a x im that the king is su b ject to la w s, w hat th ey m ean t w as not
a r e a l lim ita tio n on the p rin ce by p o sitiv e la w , but an a g r ee m e n t
that the p rin c e would a ct c o n siste n tly , p red icta b ly , and rea so n a b ly
rather than a r b itr a r ily and ir r e s p o n s ib ly . The few who thought
fu rth er p r o c la im e d the king to be su b ject to law s but c le a r ly
ex p ected h im to be above m a n -m a d e la w s, both statute and cu stom ary,
and to have the authority to rep la ce c r u e l or outm oded la w s w ith
hum ane and rea so n a b le o n e s. They could not approve of the
m a c h ia v e llia n r ea so n of state that a llo w ed the p rin ce the righ t to
v io la te law in the in te r e sts of the public good, but they n e v e r th e le s s
a ccep ted that p r in c ip le, e ith e r u n co n scio u sly or by qualifying it, to
allow the p rin ce to v io la te p o sitiv e la w s in the in te r e s t of r e a so n
and w ithin the lim its of w hat w as c o n siste n t w ith the d ig n ity of m an .
A t the sa m e tim e , h o w e v e r, a few p e r so n s su g g e ste d a
m o r e lit e r a l in terp reta tio n of the p r in c e ’s s u b m issio n to la w s . The
grow ing notion that th ere should be d efin ite sa n ctio n s to guaran tee
the k in g’s obed ien ce to la w , through r e s is ta n c e or in stitu tio n s, w as
289
fa in tly r e fle c te d in fic tio n . But it w as not the typ ical view of w r ite r s
in any of the th ree c a te g o r ie s of fic tio n sa m p led h e r e . M ontesquieu
m a y have r e v ita liz e d the th ese n o b ilia ire and R o u ssea u dream ed of
popular so v er e ig n ty , but m o st of th e se m en of le tte r s p r e fe r r e d an
a b so lu te m o n a rc h who w as law -ab idin g by c h o ic e.
The q u estion of how fic tio n -w r ite r s cam e to te r m s w ith
|
| m a c h ia v e llia n p o litic a l n e c e s s ity h a s a lrea d y b een m en tion ed in
a s s e s s in g th eir a w a r en ess and n aivete in e x p r e ssin g p o litic a l id eas
and th eir attitude tow ard law. M ontesquieu and R o u sse a u both sh a red
,
the p o litic a l in sigh ts of M a ch ia v elli, and V o lta ire w as able to s e e the
j p rin ce as a p o litic a l fa c t (rather than as e x istin g only fo r the good of
i
s o c ie ty ), but the p h ilosop h es did not agree w ith M ach iavellH s
sep aratin g p o litic s fr o m m o r a lity . On the con trary, th ey co n ceiv ed
of p o litic s as the p r a c tic a l ap p lication of m o r a lity , a m o r a lity b a se d
n eith er on the C h ristia n God nor the m a c h ia v e llia n sta te , but on
m a n , the hum an b ein g. The l e s s e r w r ite rs did not a ch iev e the sa m e
b alan ce of p o litic a l r e a lis m and b e lie f in a p o litic s of m o r a lity . F o r
the m o s t p a rt they condem ned the ta ctics of in trigu e, bad faith, and
c r u e lty a s s o c ia te d w ith M a ch ia v elli1 s nam e and sim p ly ignored the
m o r e s e r io u s q u estion of p o litic a l n e c e s s ity . In a few in sta n c e s,
notably T e r r a s s o n ’s S eth os and P r e v o s t 's C lev ela n d , the g en era l
w e lfa r e and the e x te n sio n of c iv iliz a tio n b e c a m e ju stifica tio n for
m a c h ia v e llia n p o licy , and o c ca sio n a lly an author a ccep ted such
p o lic ie s if only b en efit and no h a r m to p e r so n s r e su lte d . H ence
th e se authors sh ared , ev en if only u n co n scio u sly , the m ore
thoughtful h u m anized r ea so n of sta te advocated by the p h ilo s o p h e s .
290
T h is su r v ey of eig h teen th -cen tu ry fic tio n in d ica tes that w r ite r s who
reta in ed a c o n scio u s sym pathy w ith the m o re m a c h ia v e llia n p rin ce,
su ch as C reb illon and Mouhy, w ere not in te r e ste d in w ritin g s e r io u s ly
about r u le r s and g o v ern m en t. Those w r ite r s who ch ose to w rite
about the p rin ce w e r e g r ea tly in flu en ced by the fen elon ian r e v iv a l of
the virtu ou s prin ce and w e re opposed to the im m o r a l m a c h ia v e llia n
; {
o n e . !
In a s im ila r fa sh io n , th ose authors m o s t co n cern ed with
the refo rm of p o litic a l and s o c ia l con d ition s tended to adopt the m o re
o p tim istic view of m an as capable of using h is r e a so n to im p rove
th o se con d ition s. That i s , they exp ected at le a s t th ose p e r so n s in
p o sitio n s of authority and influence to be rational and hum ane.
V o lta ire m ade scath in g co m m en ts about the d e fic ie n c ie s of m ankind,
but he a ls o r eco g n ized a strong p oten tial for im p ro v em en t. Am ong
the d is c ip le s of the p h ilo so p h e s, A rg en s rep ea ts that qualified
o p tim ism and d istr u st of the m a s s e s . A m ong the authors who trea t
the su b ject of the p rin ce only in cid en ta lly , a few rem a in w ith in the
m o r e p e s s im is t ic tradition of the in terp retation of human nature.
The m a jo rity of the l e s s e r w r ite r s , e s p e c ia lly th ose who d e lib er a te ly
w ro te about the p r in c e , w e r e n a iv ely o p tim istic about hum an n a tu r e --
n ot that they n e c e s s a r ily a ssu m ed m an to be good , but th ey did
b e lie v e that a capable ru ler could e x p e c t h is p e o p le ’s coop eration and
a p p recia tio n , and w ould a ch iev e p o sitiv e r e su lts fro m h is effo rts to
im p ro v e th eir m o r a l and m a te r ia l condition.
The o p tim istic in terp reta tio n of hum an nature w a s h ard ly
a c le a r ly co n ceiv ed p h ilo so p h ica l p o sitio n and w a s undoubtedly due in
291
p a rt to the utopian nature of the fa ir y ta le s and im a g in a r y v o y a g e s.
N e v e r t h e le s s , it w as p e r v a siv e and m ad e the p r o je c tio n of a p o sitiv e
co n c ep t of the p r in c e 's g o v e rn m e n t a m a tte r of c o u r s e . The l e s s e r
w r it e r s r e f le c te d , though w ith l e s s c la r ity than the p h ilo s o p h e s , the
E n lig h ten m en t b e lie f that the p rin ce should u se h is au th o rity to
c r e a te b e tter m a t e r ia l con d ition s and to h elp m en a c h ie v e a good life
in h is k in gd om , on th is ea rth .
That r e s p o n s ib ility m ea n t e sp o u sin g c e r ta in r e f o r m s .
The authors both of im ita tio n T elem a q u e s and of v a r io u s oth er typ es
of fic tio n about id ea l p r in c e s w e re fa ir ly c o n s is te n t in th eir support
of a r efo r m p r o g r a m b a s e d on r e a s o n , h u m a n ity , and b e n e fic e n c e .
T h ey p ro m o ted the id e a ls of r e lig io u s to le r a tio n and p e a c e , and the
p r a c tic a l r e fo r m of g o v e rn m e n t a d m in istr a tio n . T h ey c a lle d for a
m o r e ra tio n a l ap p roach to fin a n c e s , ta x a tio n , law c o d e s , and the
a d m in istr a tio n of ju s t ic e . T hey co m b in ed the tr a d itio n s of
m e r c a n t ilis m w ith the h u m a n ita ria n c o n c e r n for the public w e lfa r e
in th eir e m p h a sis on e c o n o m ic p o lic ie s and e x te n siv e public w o r k s.
S o m e of the im ita to r s of T elem a q u e s t ill r eg a rd ed C h ristia n
sa lv a tio n as the u ltim ate g o a l of both p r in c e and p e o p le , and so m e of
the n on fen elon ian w r ite r s c o n c eiv e d of in d ivid u al rig h ts; but in both
grou p s th ere w as a g e n e r a l sh ift to c o n c er n w ith the a m e lio r a tio n of
the con d ition s of th is lif e . B oth groups of authors a ls o dropped
F e n e lo n 's a d m ira tio n fo r the n o b ility . T h ey did not ad vocate s o c ia l
r ev o lu tio n , but they often c r it ic iz e d the p r iv ile g e d p o sitio n of
c e r ta in e le m e n ts of s o c ie t y , e s p e c ia lly w ith reg a r d to taxation and
the a d m in istr a tio n of ju s tic e .
292
The r e fo r m s d e s ir e d by the au th ors w ritin g in cid en ta lly
about p r in c e s w e r e l e s s sw e e p in g . T hey tend ed to co n cen tra te on the
tr a d itio n a l p r o b le m s of p e r so n n e l, the c o u r t ie r s , m in is t e r s , and
m i s t r e s s e s of the k in g , on f is c a l r e fo r m , on the r e fo r m of r e lig io u s
a b u s e s , and on the c u r ta ilm e n t of c le r ic a l in flu en ce in the
g o v e rn m e n t. T hey exh ib ited so m e in t e r e s t in the id ea l of p e a c e , but
fr eq u en tly the lit e r a r y tra d itio n s th ey fo llo w ed w e r e not com p atib le
w ith a n ti-w a r s e n tim e n ts. T hey did sh a r e w ith the p h ilo so p h es and
the oth er tw o grou p s of fic tio n -a u th o r s an in c r e a s e d h u m a n ita ria n ism
and c o n c er n for the m o s t unfortunate m e m b e r s of s o c ie ty .
The m o tiv a tio n fo r r e fo r m , fr o m the fen elo n ia n
im ita to r s to the d is c ip le s of the p h ilo so p h e s lik e M e r c ie r , w as in
p a rt s im p ly id e a lis m , the old ap p eal to the king to fu lfill h is r o le as
"father of h is p e o p le . " But e x c e p t fo r the m e c h a n ic a l r ep etitio n of
utopian con ven tion s (e s p e c ia lly in fa ir y ta le s ) , the dem an d s fo r
r e fo r m w e r e a ls o a r a tio n a l r e sp o n se to the c o n te m p o r a r y s c e n e .
The fe n e lo n ia n im ita to r s resp o n d ed in a g e n e r a l w ay to the a b u se s of
a b so lu te a u th o rity , the d ev a sta tio n of w a r s , and the n e g le c t of the
w e lfa r e of the cou n try in the f ir s t th r e e -q u a r te r s of the eigh teen th
cen tu r y . B oth they and the au th ors of other fic tio n in w h ich the
p r in c e had a p r o m in en t r o le , s u g g e ste d so lu tio n s to the m o s t obviou s
tr o u b le s of F r a n c e : r e lig io u s in to le r a n c e , la c k of un iform la w s ,
in e ffic ie n t a d m in istr a tio n , and the g e n e r a lly d ifficu lt con d ition s fa c e d
b y the p e a sa n tr y . If th eir s o lu tio n s, p a r tic u la r ly the e co n o m ic
p r o g r a m s co p ied out o f T e le m a q u e , w e re not a lw a y s the m o s t
p e r s p ic a c io u s or p r a c tic a b le , th ey did show the a u th o r s1 c o n cern w ith
293
the v e r y r e a l p ro b lem s of F r e n c h so c ie ty and govern m en t.
A m ong the authors not w riting d e lib e r a te ly about the
p r in c e , th ere w as both l e s s r e sp o n se to the tim e s by so m e of the
authors and m o re d ir e c t r e sp o n se to s p e c ific even ts by o th e r s, su ch
as C reb illo n and C a y lu s. In sh o r t, th ose au th ors who advocated that
the p rin ce use h is authority in a p o sitiv e w ay to bring about r e f o r m s ,
eith er p ie c e m e a l or as p a rt of an e x te n siv e p ro g ra m of change,
resp on d ed to sp e c ific n eed s of eig h teen th -cen tu ry F r a n c e . Indeed,
the ty p ica l dem ands in the c a h ie rs of 1789 could have co m e as no
s u r p r ise to the reading p u b lic, sin c e the fic tio n a l litera tu re had fo r
y e a r s sta ted the sa m e com p lain ts and the sa m e dem ands in only
s lig h tly l e s s sp e c ific te r m s .
The id ea l p rin c e h im s e lf, as he w as co n ceiv ed by m e n
of le tte r s during the E n ligh ten m en t, w as m o s t c h a r a c te r is tic a lly a
m an of a ffa ir s . He w as a m an of im agin ation , d eterm in a tio n , and
a ction . M ontesquieu, V o lta ir e , the P h y s io c r a ts , and ev en R o u sse a u
saw the p rin ce in te r m s of h is p r a c tic a l a b ility and a ctiv ity . Of
the p h ilo s o p h e s , R o u sse a u w as the c lo s e s t to P la to , and his
le g is la to r b e a r s so m e r e se m b la n c e to P la to ’s p h ilo so p h er-k in g .
R o u s se a u ’s d is c ip le , M e r c ie r , p ictu red the p e r fe c t p rin ce as a
p h ilo so p h er-k in g and a m an of p r im a r ily sc h o la r ly p u rsu its.
O th erw ise both p h ilo so p h es and l e s s e r w r ite r s d epicted the id ea l
p rin ce not a s a p h ilo so p h er, not a s a s c h o la r , not ev en e s s e n tia lly
a s a g e n iu s. In stead , th ey req u ired that he be en ligh ten ed , that he
have a d m in istra tiv e a b ility , and that he be e n e r g e tic and d ed icated
to h is w o rk . ^
294
The popularity of T elem aq u e and its im ita to r s a tteste d
to the im p ortan ce given to the p r in c e rs education in the m in d s of
eig h teen th -cen tu ry w r ite r s and to the diffusion of one of the card in al
p r in c ip les of the E n ligh ten m en t, the p o w er of ed u cation . Non-
fen elo n ia n authors a lso e x p r e s s e d b e lie f in education and acq u ired
ch a ra cter as being m ore im p ortant to the prin ce than any in h erited ,
r o y a l q u a litie s.
T h ere w as a ls o , of c o u r se , a large r e sid u e of the
tra d itio n a l notions of p e r fe c t virtue and sim p le p a te r n a lism
a s s o c ia te d w ith the id eal p r in c e , and so m e reten tion of the h e r o ic
im a g e , e s p e c ia lly am ong the m o st s im p le im ita to rs of T elem aq u e
and the in cid en tal r e fe r e n c e s to p r in c e s . For the m o s t p art, however,
the dem ands of the p h ilosop h es for an en ligh ten ed , w orking ru ler
w e re c le a r ly ech oed in the l e s s e r fic tio n a l lite r a tu r e .
In ord er to a s s e s s the ex ten t of the co n cep t in p r o se
fic tio n , it should be r em em b er e d that "enlightened d esp o tism " is an
id e a l typ e, d esig n ed by h is to r ia n s , b a se d on the a c tiv itie s of cer ta in
e ig h teen th -cen tu ry E uropean ru lers and on the id e a ls of the
p h ilo s o p h e s . It has b een a con ven ien t te r m to r e fe r to an a ll-
p ow erfu l ru ler who continues to enhance the p o w ers of the state at
the ex p en se of other groups or in stitu tio n s, and who govern s
a ccord in g to r e a so n and the law s of nature in terp reted in s tr ic tly
s e c u la r , hum an te r m s . It h a s a lso b e e n a fla g ra n tly m is u s e d term
4
w hen applied in d isc r im in a te ly to the thought of V o lta ir e , A r g e n s ,
and ev en the P h y sio c r a ts .
295
F e w au th ors a d v o ca ted w hat h is to r ia n s h ave c a lled
en lig h ten ed d e s p o tis m , but the com p on en t id e a s w e r e p r e s e n t in
va ry in g d e g r e e s in d ifferen t a u th o rs. The fic tio n of the F r e n c h
E n lig h ten m en t a c c e p te d a lm o s t c o m p le te ly the s e c u la r iz a tio n of the
c o n cep t of the id ea l r u le r . T h ere is a ls o e x te n s iv e e v id en ce of the
adoption of r e a s o n a s an id e a l and of a r a tio n a l a p p roach to the
p r o b le m s of g o v e rn m e n t. The p o sitiv e co n c ep t of g o v ern m en t w a s
g e n e r a lly pop ular in fic tio n . A u th ors ad vocated the r e fo r m of
co n te m p o ra r y s o c ia l and e co n o m ic con d ition s and the g e n e r a l
im p r o v e m e n t of the m o r a l quality of life that w ould fo llow m a t e r ia l
and in stitu tio n a l r e f o r m s . M o st w r ite r s s t i l l r e lie d on the s in g le ,
a b so lu te r u le r as the m o s t f e a s ib le in str u m en t of good g o v ern m en t,
thus sh a rin g the idea of au th ority c h a r a c t e r is tic of the c o n tem p o ra ry
en lig h ten ed d esp o ts and of the th e o r y of en lig h ten ed d e sp o tism ; but
few w r ite r s w e r e p e r c e p tiv e enough , or o p tim istic enough , to
r e c o g n iz e that the s u c c e s s f u l en lig h ten ed r u le r w ould soon w o rk
h im s e lf out of a job . T hat w as the im p lic a tio n of the P h y s io c r a t s 1
th eo r y and is r e p r e s e n te d in fic tio n only b y the p r in c e s of P r e v o s t
(C leveland) and M e r c ie r .
W hat th is m e a n s is that, although the c o n cep t of
en lig h ten ed d e s p o tis m p er se w a s not p o p u la rly r e p r e s e n te d , its
com p on en t id e a s w e r e w id e s p r e a d . It, and its d iffu sed fo rm in
fic tio n , w e r e the c o n te m p o ra r y v e r s io n of the so lu tio n to the
p r o b le m fa c e d by F en elo n : how to se c u r e a p o w erfu l and e ffe c tiv e
r u le r w ho is a ls o ju st and r e s p o n s ib le . The ty p ica l eig h teen th -
cen tu ry w r ite r a c c e p te d the tr a d itio n a l id e a ls of a v irtu o u s r u le r
e x istin g only for the good of h is p e o p le , k n o w led g ea b le, ta len ted , and
fa th erly ; but our ty p ica l w r ite r r e d ir e c te d th o se id e a ls to co n crete
and im m ed ia te i s s u e s . T h ere w a s a c u r r e n t am ong p h ilo so p h e s and
l e s s e r w r ite r s that did not a c c e p t a b s o lu tism , that w anted a s e c u la r ,
r a tio n a l, but d e fin ite ly lim ite d p rin ce; but en ligh ten ed a b s o lu tism ,
allo w in g for its in co m p lete and im p r e c is e fo r m in fic tio n , w as the
m o s t p r e v a le n t su g g e stio n of an a n sw er to F r a n c e ’s n e e d s . It grew
out of the p ow erfu l and ju st fen elo n ia n p r in c e , s e c u la r iz e d and
r e p r e s e n te d at its b e s t by V o lta ire and in a s im p lifie d , often
su p e r fic ia l fo r m , by au th ors throughout the f ir s t th r e e -q u a r te r s of
the cen tu ry .
The co n cep t of the id e a l p rin c e in the lit e r a t u r e of the
F r e n c h E n lig h ten m en t b e g in s w ith T elem a q u e and tak es two
d ir e ctio n s: the s e c u la r a b so lu te r u le r and the se c u la r lim ite d
r u le r . In n eith er c a se w a s the s e c u la r id e a l prin ce as stro n g an
id e a l as that of the C h ristia n p r in c e , both m e d ie v a l and fen elo n ia n ,
had b een . It w as ev id en tly m o r e d ifficu lt fo r m en to think of a
p e r fe c t p r in ce in p u re ly r a tio n a l te r m s than w ith su p ern a tu ra l
su p p ort. Once the r e lig io u s a s p e c ts of the con cep t of the id ea l
p rin ce w e r e dropped, the quite hum an p r in c e w as open to the m o s t
s e v e r e c r it ic is m and, e v en tu a lly , c h a lle n g e s to h is v e r y e x is t e n c e .
One of the m o s t in te r e stin g c h a lle n g e s to the in stitu tion of m o n a rch y
w a s D e sfo n ta in e s 1 con ten tion that in a tru ly rea so n a b le s o c ie t y th ere
could be no p r in c e , m u ch l e s s an id e a l on e.
NOTES
Cobban, In S e a rch of H um anity, p. 128.
2
S ab ine, p. 424.
3
P e te r G ay m en tion s an analogous attitude in the
p h ilo so p h e st p r e fe re n c e for C ic er o rath er than P la to or A r isto tle as
th eir id eal and th eir ch oice of the a ctiv e life a s opposed to the
co n tem p la tiv e life w h ich had b e e n too c lo s e ly id en tified w ith C h ristian
m o n a stic life (The E nligh tenm ent: An Interpretation; The R is e of
M odern P a g a n ism L New Y ork, 1966] , pp. 1 9 2 -6 ).
4
M orn et, L es O rigin es in t e lle c t u e lle s , p. 35.
BIBLIO G RAPH Y
X. Bibliography, R eferen ce, and Methodology
B a u m e r , F ran k lin L . "In tellectu al H isto r y and Its P r o b le m s ," The
Journal of M odern H is to r y , XXI (1949), 191 -2 0 3 .
B ibliotheque u n iv e r se lle d es r o m a n s, ouvrage p eriod iq u e, dans leq u el
on donne P a n a ly se ra iso n n ee d es rom an s a n cien s et
m o d e r n e s . . . . 224 p a rts in 112 v o ls . P a r is :
D e m o n v ille, 1775-1789-
Cobban, A lfred . A H isto r y of M odern F r a n c e . V ol. I: Old R egim e
and R evolu tion 1 7 1 5 -1 7 9 9 . 2d. ed . B a ltim o re: P en gu in
B o o k s, 1961.
D orn, W alter L . C om p etition for E m p ir e , 1 7 4 0 -1 7 6 3 . (The R ise of
M odern E u rop e. E d. W illia m L . L a n g e r.) New York:
H arp er & B r o th e r s, 1940.
G ren te, G e o r g e s , e t a l . D iction n aire des le ttr e s f r a n g a is e s . V o ls.
HI-IV: h e D ix -h u itie m e s i e c l e . P a r is : F a y a rd , I960.
H a v en s, G eorge R . and Donald F . Bond, e d s. The E ighteenth
C en tu ry . V ol. IV of A C r itic a l B ib liograp h y of F ren ch
L ite r a tu r e . E d. D. C. C abeen. S y ra cu se U n iv e r sity
P r e s s , 1951.
H o e fe r, J. C. F . , ed. N ou velle b iograph ie u n iv e r se lle depuis le s
tem p s le s plus r e c u le s iu sq u T a nos jo u r s, a v ec le s
r e n se ig n e m e n ts bib liograp h iq u es et V ind ication des
so u r c e s a c o n su lte r . 46 v o ls . P a r is : D idot F r e r e s ,
18 5 2 -1 8 6 6 .
H u gh es, H. Stuart. "Some P r e lim in a r y O b se r v a tio n s. " Chapter I of
C o n sc io u sn e ss and S ociety: The R eorien tation of
E u rop ean S o c ia l Thought, 1 8 9 0 -1 9 3 0 . New York: Knopf,
1958.
J o n e s, S ila s P a u l. A L ist of F r e n c h P r o s e F ic tio n fr o m 1700 to
1750. New York: H. W. W ilson , 1939.
L an son , G u stave. M anuel bib liographique de la littera tu re fra n g a ise
m od ern eT XVIe , X V Iie, XVIHe e t XIXe s i e c l e s . New
ed. , r e v . P a r is : H ach ette, 1921.
300
L o v ejo y , A rthur O. E s s a y s in the H isto r y of I d e a s . New York:
C a p rico rn B o o k s, I9 6 0 . (F ir s t pub. 1 9 4 8 .)
___________ . The G reat Chain of B eing: A Study of the H isto ry of an
Id ea . New York: H arp er & B r o th e r s, I9 6 0 . ( F ir s t pub.
1 9 3 6 .)
M orn et, D a n iel, ed. La N ouvelle H e lo ise by Jean Jacq u es R o u sse a u .
P a r is : H ach ette, 1925. V ol. I.
Q u erard , Jo sep h M arie. La F r a n c e lit te r a ir e , ou d iction n aire
bib liographique des sa v a n ts, h is to r ie n s et gens de le ttr e s
de la F ra n ce . . . pendant le s XVIIIe et XIXe s i e c l e s .
12 v o ls . P a r is : D idot, P e r e e t f i l s , 1 8 2 7 -1 8 6 4 .
II. P r im a r y
A . C o llectio n s
B ibliotheque de cam pagn e, ou a m u se m e n s de F e s p r it et du c o e u r .
12 v o ls . B r u s s e ls : B en oit le F ran cq , 1785. V ol. I
c a r r ie s title page of 4th ed. , A m sterd a m : M arc M ich el
R e y , 1759.
G a m ie r , C h a rles G eorge T h o m a s, ed. Le C abinet d es f e e s , ou
c o lle c tio n c h o isie d es con tes d es f e e s , et au tres contes
m e r v e ille u x , orn es de fig u r e s . 41 v o ls . A m ste rd a m ,
P a r i s , 1785-1789. V o ls . 3 8 -4 1 pub. at G eneva, 1 7 8 8 -8 9 .
___________ . V oy a g es im a g in a ir e s , so n g e s, v is io n s , et rom ans
c a b a lis tiq u e s . 36 v o ls . A m ste rd a m , P a r is , 1787-1789-
B . P r e -e ig h te e n th -c e n tu r y A u th o rs, E ig h teen th -cen tu ry
P h ilo so p h e s and P h y sio c r a ts
B a lz a c , Jean L ou is Guez de. O eu vres de J. -L . de G uez, S ieu r de
B a lz a c . P a r is : Jacques L e c o ffr e , 1854. V ol. I.
D id ero t, D e n is , et a l . D en is D id ero tT s The E ncyclop ed ia:
S e le c t io n s . E d. and tr a n s. Stephen J. G en d zier. New
York: H arper and R ow , 1967.
___________ . The E n cyclop ed ie of D id erot and D 'A lem b ert: S e le cted
A r t ic le s . E d. J. Lough. C am bridge U n iv e r sity P r e s s ,
1954.
301
E r a s m u s , D e s id e r iu s . The E ducation of a C h ristia n P r in c e . T ran s,
w ith in tro , by L e s te r K. B orn . New York: C olum bia
U n iv e r sity P r e s s , 1936. (W ritten 1516; trans . fro m
F r o b e n ’s 1540 ed . of In stitu tio p rin cip is C h r is tia n i. )
F e n e lo n , F r a n c o is de Salign ac de la M o th e-. L es A ven tu res de
T e le m a q u e . E d. A lb ert Cahen. 2 v o ls . P a r is : H ach ette,
1920.
F r e d e r ic II. L 'A n ti-M a c h ia v e l. S tu d ies on V o lta ire and the
E igh teen th C en tu ry, Y . C r itic a l ed. w ith V o lta ir e ’s
n otation s, by C h arles F le is c h a u e r . G eneva: Institut et
M usee V o lta ir e , 1958.
M a ch ia v elli, N ic c o lo . The P r in c e . T r a n s. L u ig i R ic c i, r e v . E . R.
P . V incent; in tro. C h ristia n G a u s s . New York: The New
A m e r ic a n L ib r a r y , 1952. R ep rin t of the Oxford
U n iv e r sity P r e s s "W orld’s C la s sic s " ed ition , 1935.
M e r c ie r de la R iv ie r e , P ie r r e F r a n g o is Joach im H en ri. L ’O rdre
n atu rel et e s s e n t ie l des s o c ie te s p o litiq u e s . London:
Jean N ou rse; P a r is : D e sa in t, 1767. P p . 1 8 0 -8 2 , 185-9
tr a n s. H erb ert H. R ow en , F r o m A b so lu tism to
R evolu tion 1648-1848. N ew York: M a cm illa n , 1963.
P p . 1 5 9 -6 2 .
M on tesq u ieu , C h arles de Secondat, B a ro n de. O eu vres co m p le te s de
M o n tesq u ieu . Ed. A ndre M a sso n . 3 v o ls . P a r is :
E ditions N a g el, 1950-55.
The P e r s ia n L e tte r s . E d ., t r a n s ., intro. J. R ob ert
L oy. N ew York: M erid ian B o o k s, 1961.
___________ . The S p irit of the L a w s . T ra n s. T hom as Nugent; in tro.
F ra n z N eum ann. New York: H afner P u b lish in g , 1949.
R o u sse a u , Jean J a c q u e s. O euvres c o m p le t e s . E d. B ern ard
G agnebin and M a rcel R aym ond . (B ibliotheque de la
P le ia d e .) 2 v o ls . P a r is : G a llim a rd , 1 9 5 9 -6 1 .
___________ . The P o lit ic a l W ritings of Jean Jacq u es R o u s se a u . E d . ,
in tro. , and notes by C. E . Vaughan. 2 v o ls . New York:
John W iley & S o n s, 1962. (F ir s t pub. 1915.)
V o lta ir e , F ra n g o is M arie A rou et d e. C andide, Zadig and S e le cted
S t o r ie s . T r a n s ., in tro. D onald M. F r a m e . New York:
The N ew A m e rica n L ib r a r y , 1961.
. O eu vres co m p letes de V o lta ir e . E d . L ouis M oland. 52
v o ls . P a r is : G arnier F r e r e s , 1877-1 8 8 5 .
302
. P h ilo s o p h ic a l D ic tio n a r y . T r a n s ., in tro . P e t e r G ay.
2 v o ls . N ew York: B a s ic B o o k s, 1962.
C. Im ita tio n s of T elem a q u e and R ela ted W orks (C hapter VIII)
A ig u illo n , A rm an d L o u is de V ig n e r o t D u p le s s is R ic h e lie u , due d1.
(Join tly w ith L o u ise E liz a b e th de B ourbon de C onde,
p r in c e s s e de Conti; F ab be de G re court; and le P e r e
M od este V in o t .) S u ite de la n o u v elle C y ro p ed ie, ou
r e fle x io n s de C yru s su r s e s v o y a g e s . A m ste rd a m :
F r e r e s V V etstein , 1728.
A n sa r t. P h ilo t e c t e , ou v o y a g e in str u c tif e t am u san t; a v e c des
r e fle x io n s p o litiq u e s, m ilit a ir e s e t m o r a l e s . P a r is :
G is s e y , M e s n ie r , de P o illy , 1737.
C h a n s ie r g e s . L es A y a n tu res de N e o p to le m e , f ils dIA c h ille : p r o p r e s
a fo r m e r le s m o e u r s d*un jeune p r in c e . The Hague:
V eu ve d1 A d rian M o etjen s, 1719. (1 st ed . 1 7 1 8 .)
L e P r in c e de B ea u m o n t, M m e. M a rie , C ivan , R o i de B ungo,
h is t o ir e ja p o n n o ise, ou tab leau de F e d u ca tio n d*un p r in c e .
London: Jean N o u r s e , 1758. (1 st ed . 1754. V arian t
title: C ida, ro y de B u r g o s .)
____________. C ontes d e s f e e s fr o m the M a g a sin des e n fa n s . In
C abin et d e s f e e s , X X X V . See a b o v e, " C o lle c t io n s .1 1
M arivau x, P i e r r e C a r le t de C ham b lain d e. Le T elem a q u e t r a v e s t i,
co m p ren a n t le s t r e iz e d e r n ie r s liv r e s r e tr o u v e s et
r e im p r im e s pour la p r e m ie r e f o i s . E d . F r e d e r ic
D e lo ffr e . G eneva: D r o z , 1956. ( l s t e d . 1 7 3 6 .)
M a rm o n te l, J ea n F r a n g o i s . O eu v res c o m p le te s de M a r m o n te l. 19
v o ls . P a r is : V e r d ie r e , 1 8 1 8 -1 8 2 0 . V o ls. Ill-V I:
C on tes M orau x (1761); N ou veaux c o n te s m o r a u x . V ol.
VH: B e lis a ir e (1767). V ol. VIII: L e s In c a s, ou la
d e str u c tio n de F e m p ir e du P e r o u (1777).
R a m sa y , A n d re M ic h e l, le c h e v a lie r . L e s V o y a g es de C y r u s, a v ec
un d is c o u r s sur la m y th o lo g ie . New ed . b a se d on P a r is
ed . L uxem bourg: A ndre C h e v a lie r , 1747. ( l s t e d .
1 7 2 7 .)
____________. The T r a v e ls of C yrus; to w h ich Is A n n exed , a D is c o u r s e
upon the T h eo lo g y and M yth ology of the P a g a n s . 9th ed .
London: J a m e s B etten h a m , and so ld by H a w e s, C la rk e,
and C o llin s, 1763.
303
R o b e r t, M arie Anne de R o u m ier, M m e. V o y a g es de m ilo r d C eton
dans le s sep t p ia n e tte s, ou le nouveau m e n t o r . (1 st ed .
1 7 6 5 -6 .) In V oyages, im a g i n a ir e s , XVII-XVIII. S ee
a b o v e , " C o lle c tio n s."
T e r r a s s o n , J ea n (abbe). S eth o s, h is to ir e ou v ie tir e e des m o n u m en s
a n e c d o te s de P a n cien n e E gypte; tradu ite dT un m a n u s c r it
G r e c . 3 v o ls . P a r is : J a cq u es G uerin, 1731.
D . W orks w ith S ig n ifica n t R e fe r e n c e to P r in c e (C hapter IX)
A r g e n s , Jean B a p tiste de B o y e r , m a r q u is d1. H is to ir e du r o i de
cam p an ie e t de la p r in c e s s e P a r f a it e . A m ste rd a m : J.
W e tstein & G. S m ith , 1736.
____________. L e ttr e s c h in o is e s , ou co rr e sp o n d a n ce p h ilo so p h iq u e ,
h isto r iq u e et critiq u e en tr e un ch in ois y o y a g eu r a P a r is
e t s e s co rresp o n d a n s a la C h in e, en M o sc o v ie , en P e r s e
et au J a p o n . 5 v o ls . The H ague: P i e r r e P a u p ie , 1739-
40. (150 l e t t e r s .)
____________. L e ttr e s ju iv e s , ou c o rr e sp o n d a n ce p h ilos ophiq u e ,
h isto r iq u e e t critiq u e, en tre un ju if v o y a g eu r en
d iffe r e n s eta ts de ^ E u r o p e , et s e s c o rresp o n d a n s en
d iv e r s e n d r o its. New ed . , au gm en ted . 8 v o ls . The
H ague: P i e r r e P a u p ie , 1764. ( l s t e d . 1 7 3 6 -8 .)
____________. L e M entor c a v a lie r , ou le s illu s t r e s in fortu n ez de n otre
s i e c l e . London: C o m p a g n ie, 1736.
B eth u n e, le c h e v a lie r d e . R ela tio n du m onde de M e r c u r e . (1 st ed.
1 7 5 0 .) In V o y a g es im a g in a ir e s , XVI. S ee a b o v e,
" C o lle c tio n s . "
C a r a c c io li, L o u is A n to in e, m a r q u is d e. V oyage de la r a iso n en
E u r o p e . ( l s t e d . 1 7 7 1 .) In V o y a g es im a g in a ir e s ,
XXVH . S ee ab ove, " C o llectio n s . "
C o g e r, F r a n c o is M arie (abbe). E x a m e n du B e lis a ir e de M.
M a r m o n te l. P a r is : H . C. de H ansy le je u n e, 1767.
D e s fo n ta in e s , P i e r r e F r a n g o is G uyot (abbe). Le N ouveau G u lliv er ,
fils du capitaine L e m u e l G u lliv e r , ( l s t e d . 1 7 3 0 .) In
V o y a g e s im a g in a ir e s , X V . S ee ab ove, " C o lle c tio n s ."
G e r a r d , P h ilip p e L o u is (abbe). L e C om te de V alm on t, ou le s
e g a r e m e n s de la r a is o n . 5 v o ls . V o ls. I-III, P a r is :
M outard, L ib ra ire de M adam e la D auphine, 1774. V o ls .
IV -V , 6th ed . ; P a r is : M outard, 1781 (o r ig in a lly pub.
1775).
304
G u eu lette, T hom as S im o n . C ontes ch in ois ou le s a v a n tu res
m e r v e ille u s e s du m a n d a rin F u m -H o a m . 2 v o ls . The
H ague: P i e r r e G o s s e , 1725. ( l s t e d . 1 7 2 3 .)
____________. L es M ille e t un quart d 'h eu re, co n tes t a r t a r e s . (1 st ed.
1 7 1 5 .) In C abinet d es f e e s , X X I-X X II. S ee a b o v e,
" C o lle c tio n s. "
____________. L es M ille et line h eu re; con tes p e r u v ie n s . 2 v o ls .
A m ste rd a m : W e tstein S m ith , 1733.
____________. L e s S o ir e e s b r e to n n e s . ( l s t e d . 1 7 1 2 .) In C abin et d es
f e e s , XXXII. S ee a b o v e, " C o lle c tio n s ."
____________. L e s S u lta n es de G u z a r a te , ou le s so n g e s d es h o m m e s
e v e ille s : con tes m o g o ls . 2 v o l s . U trech t: N e a u lm e ,
1736. ( l s t e d . 1732?)
L a B e a u m e lle , L au ren t A n g liv ie l d e . L es A m o u rs de Z eo k in izu l,
r o i des K ofiran s; ou vrage trad u it de P a ra b e du v o y a g eu r
K r in e lb o l, A m ste rd a m : M ic h e l, 1746. (A lso attrib u ted
to C reb illo n f i l s .)
L 'A sia tiq u e toleran t: tra ite a P u sa g e de Z eo k in izu l r o i
d es K o fir a n s, su r n o m m e le ch eri; ou vrage tradu it de
P a ra b e de V o ia g eu r B e k r in o ll. P a r is : Durand
L A m s te r d a m , 1748] .
M e r c ie r , L ou is S e b a stie n . L*An deux m ille quatre c en t quarante:
r ev e s ' i l en fut j a m a is . London, 1775. ( l s t e d . 1 7 7 1 .)
____________. Son ges et v is io n s p h ilo s ophiq ue s : de la royau te e t de la
ty ra n n ie. (1 st ed. 1 7 6 8 .) In V o y a g e s im a g in a ir e s ,
XXXII. S ee a b o v e, " C o lle c tio n s ."
M o n crif, F r a n c o is A u gu stin P a r a d is d e . C on tes de A u g u stin -P a r a d is
de M o n crif. Intro. O ctave U zan n e. P a r is : Quantin,
1879.
S a in t-H y a cin th e, H yacin th e C o rd o n n ier, known a s le c h e v a lie r de
T h e m is s e u l de. H is to ir e du p r in c e T iti. P a r is : La
Veuve P i s s o t , 1736.
305
E . W ork s w ith In cid en ta l R e fe r e n c e to P r in c e (C hapter X)
(Item s of l e a s t r e le v a n c e to the top ic of the p rin c e w ill be
n oted by a (x) a t the end of the e n t r y .)
A r g e n s , Jean B a p tiste de B o y e r , m a r q u is d1. L e s C a p r ic e s de
l'a m o u r et de la fo rtu n e, ou le s a v a n tu res de la sig n o r a
R o s a lin a . The Hague: P i e r r e P a u p ie , 1737. (x)
____________. M e m o ir e s du m a r q u is de M irm o n , ou le so lita ir e
p h ilo so p h e . A m ste r d a m : W e tstein & S m ith , 1736. (x)
____________. L e s N onn es g a la n tes ou P a m o u r e m b e g u in e . B r u s s e ls :
G ay e t D o u ce, 1882. (R eprint of ed . of The Hague: J ea n
V an, 1740.)
A u ln oy, M arie C ath erin e J u m elle de B e r n e v ille , c o m t e s s e d1. L e
C om te de W a r w ic k . 2 v o ls . A m ste r d a m : Jaques
D e s b o r d e s , 1704. ( l s t e d . 1 7 0 3 .)
A u n eu il, L o u ise de B o s s ig n y , c o m te s s e d1. L e s C h e v a lie r s e r r a n s
et le gen ie f a m i l i e r . A m ste rd a m : R o g e r , 1709. A ls o
in C abinet d es f e e s , VI.
____________. N o u v e lle s d iv e r s e s du tem p s; La P r i n c e s s e des
P r e t i n t a i l l e s . P a r is : R ibou, 1702.
____________. L a T yran n ie d e s f e e s detruite; nou veau conte de f e e .
(1 st e d . 1702; r e v . and au gm en ted by M ile , de L u b ert,
1 7 5 6 .) In C ab in et d es f e e s , V. See a b o v e , " C o llectio n s."
A u n illon , P i e r r e C h a rles F a b io t de Guay de L aunay (abbe). A z o r ou
le p r in c e enchante: h is to ir e n o u v e lle , pour s e r v ir de
chroniqu e a c e lle de la te r r e d es P e r r o q u e ts : trad u it de
F a n g lo is du sa v a n t P o p in ia y . ( l s t e d . 1 7 5 0 .) In V o y a g e s
im a g in a ir e s , X X I. S ee a b ove, " C o lle c tio n s ."
B ea u ch a m p s, P i e r r e F r a n c o is G odard de. F u n e s t in e . ( l s t e d .
1 7 3 7 .) In C ab in et d es f e e s , X XXI. S ee a b o v e,
" C o lle c tio n s. "
____________. The H isto r y of King A p p riu s, e tc . ; E x tr a c te d fr o m the
C h ro n icle of the W orld, fro m Its C r e a tio n . London:
B o o k s e lle r s of London and W e s tm in s te r , 1728. (O rigin al
F r e n c h ed . 1 7 2 2 .)
B e s e n v a l, P i e r r e V ic to r , b aron d e . C ontes de M. le b aron de
B e s e n v a l, lieu ten a n t g e n e r a l d es a r m e e s du r p i. In tro .
O ctave U zan n e. P a r is : Q uantin, 1881.
B ign on , Jean P a u l. L es A v en tu res tPA bdalla, fils tPH anif, ou son
voyage a l*ile de B o r ic o , tradu ction de i'a r a b e . (1 st ed.
1 7 1 2 -1 4 .) In C abinet des f e e s , XII-XIII. See ab ove,
" C o lle c tio n s. "
B o rd elo n , L aurent (ab be). L 'H isto ire d e s im agin ation s
ex tra v a g a n tes de m o n sie u r Oufle c a u s e e s par la lectu re
des l iv r e s . . . . 2 v o ls . A m sterd a m : R o g er, 1710.
A lso in V oyages im a g in a ir e s , V.
B o u ffle r s , le c h e v a lie r S ta n isla s Jean d e. O eu v res c h o is ie s du
c h e v a lie r de B o u fflers: C ontes en p r o se et en v e r s .
P a r is : A rnould, L 1891].
C a y lu s, Anne Claude P h ilip p e, com te d e. O eu vres b a d in es,
c o m p le tte s, du co m te de C a y lu s . 12 v o ls . A m ste rd a m ,
P a r is : V is s e , 1787.
C a z o tte , J a cq u es. C ontes de J. C a z o tte . Intro. O ctave U zanne.
P a r is : Quantin, 1880.
___________ . O eu v res bad ines et m o r a le s de M. 3 v o ls .
A m ste r d a m , P a r is : E sp r it, 1776.
. A Thousand and One F o llie s and H is M ost U n look ed -for
L o rd sh ip . T ra n s. E r ic Sutton; in tro. S torm J a m eso n .
London: Chapm an & H all, 1927.
C h e v r ie r , F r a n c o is A ntoine. Le C olp orteu r, h is to ir e m o r a le et
c r itiq u e . London: Jean N o u r se , L'A n de la V e rite
[ The H ague, 1762] .
, M a-gak ou , h is to ir e japonnoise; tradu it par Hauteur
D. R. D. S. G oa, 1752. (x)
. M in a k a lis, fr a g m e n t d'un conte s ia m o is , London, n. d.
[ 1732 or 1752?] (x)
C oyp el, C h arles A n toin e. A glae ou N a b o tin e. In C abinet d es f e e s ,
XXXV. See a b ove, " C o lle c tio n s." (x)
C reb illo n [C r e b illo n fils ] , Claude P r o s p e r Jolyot d e . C o llectio n
co m p lette des o e u v r es de M . de G reb illon le f i l s . 7 v o ls .
London, 1772.
D o ra t, Claude J o sep h . N e v er A gain 1 and Other S to r ie s (P o in t de
L en d em a in ). T r a n s. E r ic Sutton; in tro . V yvyan Holland.
London: Chapm an & H all, 1928. (x)
D u c lo s, C h arles P in o t. A cajou et Z irp h ile, c o n te . ( l s t e d . 1 7 4 4 .)
In C abinet des f e e s , XXX V . See ab ove, " C o lle c tio n s ,’1
___________ . L es C o n fe ssio n s du co m te de ***; e c r it e s par lu i-m e m e
a un a m i. 2 v o ls . A m ste r d a m , 1742. ( l s t e d . 1 7 4 1 .)
___________ . C ontes de C h a rles P in o t D u c lo s . Intro. O ctave U zan n e.
P a r is : Quantin, 1880.
. H isto ir e de M adam e de L uz. P a r is : F la m m a r io n ,
[1 8 9 7 ] ." " list ed . 1 741.)
D u la u ren s, H en ri Josep h . I m ir c e , ou la fille de la n a tu r e . P a r is :
F la m m a r io n , n. d. ( l s t e d . 1765.)
Du T e r r a il, J o sep h D u rey de Sau roy (Sauvoy), m a r q u is. The M asked
Lady (Le M a sq u e). T ra n s. E r ic Sutton; in tro. A ndre
M a u ro is. London: C hapm an & H a ll, 1926. (O rigin al
F r e n c h ed. 1 751.) (x)
F agn an , M arie A n toin ette. M in e t-B le u et Louvette; c o n te . (1 st ed.
1 768.) In C abinet d es f e e s , XXXV. See ab ove,
" C o lle c tio n s." (x)
F a u q u es, M arianne A gnes P ille m e n t de. A b b a ssa i, h is to ir e
o r ie n ta le . 3 v o ls . P a r is : B au ch e, 1753.
F o n ta in e s, M arie L o u ise C h a rlo tte, c o m te s s e d e. L a C o m te s se de
S a v o ie , ( l s t e d . 1 7 2 6 .) H isto ir e d1 A m e n o p h is, p r in c e de
L ib y e . ( l s t e d . 1 7 2 8 .) In O eu vres de Me s d a m es de
F o n ta in es et de T e n c in . P a r is : G arn ier F r e r e s , [1 8 6 4 ] .
F r o m a g e t, N ic o la s . C ontes de F ro m a g et: le co u sin de M a h o m et.
Intro. O ctave U zanne. P a r is : Quantin, 1882. ( l s t e d .
1 742.)
G a lli de B ib ien a , Jean. The F a ir y D oll (La P o u p e e ). T ra n s. H. B .
V .; in tro. Shane L e s lie . London; Chapm an & H a ll, 1925.
(O rigin al F r e n c h ed . 1744.) (x)
G raffign y, F r a n g o ise d*Issenbourg d’H apponcourt, M m e. d e. L ettr es
d1une P e r u v ie n n e, par M m e de G rafigny; su iv ie s de
c e lle s d1 A z a . P a r is : M enard et D e se n n e , f i l s , 1822.
(1 st ed . 1746.)
H am ilton , Anthony. Le B e l i e r . ( l s t e d . 1 730.) H isto ir e de F le u r
d*Epine, c o n te . ( l s t e d . 1730.) In C abinet d es f e e s ,
X X . S ee ab ove, " C o lle c tio n s."
308
H u gary de L a m a r c h e -C o u r m o n t, Ig n a ce. [ L e ttr e s d1 A z a ou d*un
P e r u v ie n . ] ( l s t e d . 1 7 4 9 .) In L e ttr e s d*une P e r u v ie n n e ,
p ar M m e de G rafigny; s u iv ie s de c e lle s d*A za. P a r is :
M en ard e t D e se n n e , f i l s , 1822.
La F o r c e , C h arlotte R o se C aum ont d e. L e s F e e s . ( l s t e d . 1 7 0 8 .)
C on tes d es c o n t e s . ( l s t e d . 1 6 9 8 .) In C abinet d es f e e s ,
VI. S e e a b o v e, " C o lle c tio n s ." (x)
L a m b e r t de S a u m e r y , P i e r r e . Le D iab le h e r m ite on a v a n tu res
drA sta r o th bani d e s e n fe r s; ou vrage de f a n t a is ie . 2 v o ls .
A m ste rd a m : F r a n g o is J o ly , 1741.
L a M o r lie r e , J a cq u es R o c h e tte , c h e v a lie r d e. A n g o la , h is to ir e
indienne: ouvrage sa n s v r a i- s e m b la n c e . A g r a , 1746.
L a V ie u v ille d’O r v ille , A d ria n d e, co m te de V ig n a co u rt. The
A d v en tu res of P r in c e Jakaya: o r , The T riu m p h s of
L ove o v e r A m bition; B ein g S e c r e t M e m o ir s of the
O ttom an C o u rt. 2 v o ls . London: B e tte sw o r th , H itch ,
In n y s , M anby, 1733. (O rig in a l F r e n c h ed . 1 7 3 2 .)
____________. La C o m te s se de V e r g i, n o u v elle h is to r iq u e , galante et
tr a g iq u e . ( l s t e d . 1 7 2 2 .) In B ib lioth eq u e de ca m p a g n e,
ou a m u se m e n s de P e s p r it e t du c o e u r . B r u s s e ls :
B en o it le F r a n c q , 1785. V o l. XI, pp. 2 1 5 -3 2 2 .
E d e le de P on thieu; n o u v elle h is to r iq u e . P a r is : P is so t,
1723.
Le M archand, F r a n g o is e D uche de V a n cy , M m e. B o c a , ou la v e r tu
r e c o m p e n s e e . ( l s t e d . 1 7 3 5 .) In C abinet d es f e e s ,
XVIII. See a b o v e, " C o lle c tio n s ." (x)
Le S a g e, A lain R e n e . H is to ir e de G il B ia s de S a n tilla n e . R ep rin t of
1747 ed . Intro. F . S a r c e y . 2 v o ls . P a r is : L ib r a ir ie
d es B ib lio p h ile s , 1873.
____________. O e u v r es c h o is ie s de Le S a g e . 16 v o ls . P a r is : L eb la n c,
1810. V ol. I: L e D iab le b o iteu x (1707). V o l. IV:
A y e n tu r e s du c h e v a lie r de B ea u ch en e (1732). V o ls . V -
VI: H isto ir e de G uzm an d ^ lf a r a c h e (1732). V o l. VII:
L e B a c h e lie r de S alam an q u e (1736). V o l. X: H isto ir e
dtE s te v a n ille G o n z a le z , su rn o m m e le g a rco n de bonne
h u m eu r (1734).
L 'E v eq u e, L o u ise C a v e lie r , M m e. L e P r in c e d es a ig u e s - m a r in e s
e t le p r in c e in v i s ib le , ( l s t e d . 1 7 2 2 .) In C abin et d es
f e e s , XXIV. S ee a b o v e, " C o lle c tio n s ." (x)
L 'H e r itie r de V illan don, M arie Jean n e. La Tour te n e b r e u s e , e t le s
jou rs lu m in eu x, co n tes a n g lo is, a cco m p a g n ez
d1 h is t o r ie t t e s , e t tir e z dT une ancienne chronique c o m p o se e
par R ich a rd , su rn om m e C oeur de L ion . . . . P a r is :
le V euve de Claude B arb in , 1705.
L in tot, C atherine C a illea u , c o m te s s e d e . T rois nouveaux co n tes des
f e e s . ( l s t e d . 1 7 3 5 .) In C abinet des f e e s , XXXII. See
a b ove, " C o lle c tio n s."
L u b ert, M a rg u erite de. La P r in c e s s e Lionnette e t le prince
C o q u er ic o . Le P r in c e G lace et la p r in c e s s e E tin c e la n te .
La P r in c e s s e C a m io n . (1 st e d s . 1 7 4 3 .) In C abinet des
f e e s , XXXIII. S ee a b o v e , " C o lle c tio n s."
___________ . La V e ille e galante; n o u v e lle . The H a g u e, 1747. (x)
L u ssa n , M argu erite d e. H isto ir e de la c o m te ss e de G ondez, e c r ite
par e l l e - m e m e . A m sterd a m : C om p agn ie, 1728. (1st
ed . 1 7 2 5 .)
___________ . L es V e ille e s de T h e s s a lie . ( l s t e d . 1 731.) In C abinet
d es f e e s , XXVI-XXVII. See ab ove, " C o lle c tio n s."
M a ilh o l, G a b riel. Le P h ilo so p h e negre; e t le s s e c r e t s des g r e c s ;
ouvrage trop n e c e s s a i r e . 2 p a r ts. London, 1764.
? M a illy , le c h e v a lie r de. N ouveau r e c u e il de co n te s de f e e s . (1st
ed . 1718?) In C abinet des f e e s , XXXI. See a b o v e ,
" C o lle c tio n s. "
M a leb ra n ch e. In trigu es du s e r a il, h is to ir e tu rq u e. The H ague:
C om p agn ie, 1739.
M o n crif, F r a n g o is A ugustin P a r a d is de. L es A v en tu res de Z eloid e
et d 'A m anzarifdine; con tes in d ie n s. ( l s t e d . 1 7 1 4 .) In
C abinet d es f e e s , XXXII. S ee ab ove, " C o lle c tio n s." (x)
M ouhy, C h a rles de F ie u x , le c h e v a lie r d e. InjurT d Innocence:
B eing the In stru ctive and D ivertin g M e m o ir s of the
M arq u ess of F ie u x . . . . London: F . N eed ham , 1745.
(O rigin al F r e n c h ed . 1 7 3 5 -6 .)
____________. L a m ek is , ou le s v o y a g es e x tr a o r d in a ir e s d*un eg yp tien
dans la te r r e in te r ie u r e , a v ec la d eco u v erte de P ile des
S y lp h id es, e n rich is de notes c u r ie u s e s . ( l s t e d . 1 7 3 5 -7 .)
In V oy a g es im a g in a ir e s , X X -X X I. S ee above,
" C o lle c tio n s. "
310
____________. Le M asque de fe r , ou le s a v en tu res a d m ira b le s da
p ere et du f i l s . 3 p a r ts . The Hague: P i e r r e de Hondt,
1785. (1st ed. 1747.)
M outonnet de C la ir fo n s . L e s lie s fo r tu n e e s, ou le s a v en tu res de
B ath ylle et de C leo b u le. (1st ed . 1 7 7 1 .) In V o y a g es
im a g in a ir e s , X . See a b ove, " C o llectio n s. 1 1
N adal, A ugustin (abbe). L es V oyages de Z ulm a dans le pays d es
f e e s . ( l s t e d . 1734.) In C abinet des f e e s , XVI. See
ab ove, " C o lle c tio n s."
O liv ie r , J. (abbe). M em o irs of the L ife and A d ven tu res of Signor
R o z e lli at the H ague. . . . 3d ed. London: M orphew and
W oodward, 1715. (O rigin al F r e n c h ed . 1 704.) (x)
P a jo n , H en ri. L e s Contes de M. Pajon: E ritzin e & : P a relin ;
L 'E n ch an teu r, ou la bague de p u issa n c e ; H isto ir e des
tr o is fils d ^ a l i B a s s a de la m e r , & des f ille s de S ir o c o ,
gouverneur d ^ le x a n d r ie . (1 st pub. 1 7 4 4 -5 .) In C abinet
des f e e s , XXXIV. S ee a b ove, " C o lle c tio n s."
____________. H isto ir e du p rin ce S o ly , su rn o m m e P r e n a n y , et de la
p r in c e s s e F e s l e e . 2 v o ls . A m sterd a m : C om pagn ie,
1740. A lso in V oyages im a g in a ir e s , XXV.
P o r e e , C h arles G ab riel (abbe), or (abbe) P ie r r e Q u esn el. H isto ir e
de l 1 ad m irab le D om Inigo de G u ip u scoa, c h e v a lie r de la
V ie r g e , et fondateur de la m o n a rch ie d es I n ig h is te s .
New ed. 2 v o ls . The Hague: C om p agn ie, 1758. (1 st
ed. 1736.) (x)
P o r e e , C h arles G ab riel (abbe). L a M andarinade, ou h is to ir e
com ique du m an d arin at de M. F abbe de S a in t-M a rtin ,
m a rq u is de M isk ou, docteur en th e o lo g ie . . . . Siam :
M a n o u r y fils , 1769. ( l s t e d . 1 7 3 8 .) (x)
P r e v o s t , Antoine F ra n g o is (abbe). O eu vres c h o is ie s de P r e v o s t . 39
v o ls . P a r is: L eb la n c, 1 8 1 0 -1 8 1 6 . V o ls . I-III:
M em o ire s et a v en tu res d*un h o m m e de qualite; su iv is de
M anon L esca u t (1 7 2 8 -3 1 ). V o ls . IV-VH : H isto ir e de M.
C levelan d , fils n atu rel de C ro m w el, e c r ite par lu i-m e m e ,
et tradu it de l'a n g lo is (fir s t pub, as Le F h ilo so p h e
a n g lo is ou h isto ir e de m o n sie u r C levelan d , f il s .
1731). V ol. XXXIV: A lm o ra n et Harriet. . . pour
^ in str u c tio n d*un jeun e m o n a rq u e . T r a n s . fro m the
E n g lish of John H aw kesw orth (1761).
S a in t-F o ix , G erm ain F r a n g o is P o u lla in d e . L e ttr e s de N ed im C o g g ia .
In L e ttr e s turqu.es. R ev . ed . C ologne: P i e r r e M arteau ,
1750. P p . 1 0 5 -2 0 0 .
___________ . L ettr es d*une turque a P a r is , e c r ite s a sa so eu r au
s e r r a i l . A m sterd a m : P i e r r e M o rtier, 1731.
T en cin , Claudine A lexan d rin e G uerin d e. M e m o ir e s du com te de
C o m m in g e. ( l s t e d . 1735.) Le S iege de C a la is . (1 st
ed . 1 7 3 9 .) A n ecd otes de la cour et du regn e dT E douard
II, r o i d * A n g leterre. In O eu vres de M esd a m es de
F o n ta in es e t de T e n c in . P a r is : G arn ier F r e r e s , [ 1 8 6 4 ] .
( x )
Tiphaigne de La R o ch e, C h arles F r a n g o is. A m ile c , ou la grain e
d 'h o m m e . S o m n iop olis: M orp h ee, 1754. ( l s t e d . 1753.)
___________ . La G iro u ette, ou Sanfrein: h is to ir e dont le h e r o s fut
F in co n seq u en ce m e s m e . G en eva, P a r is : H u m a ire,
1770. (x)
V ille n e u v e , G a b rielle Susanne B arb ot, M m e. de. H isto ir e de la
B e lle et la B e t e . In C abinet des f e e s . XXVI. See ab ove,
" C o llectio n s. " (x)
___________ . Le Loup g a lle u x . B e llin e tte , ou la jeune v i e i l l e . (1 st
e d s. 1 7 4 4 .) In C abinet des f e e s , XXXI. See ab ove,
" C o lle c tio n s." (x)
V o isen o n , Claude H en ri de F u s e e de (abbe). C ontes de l 1 abbe de
V o isen o n . Intro. O ctave U zanne. P a r is : Quantin, 1878.
. L 'O euvre lib ertin e de Fabbe de V o isen o n . Introi and
notes b y B . de V illen eu v e. P a r is : B ibliotheque des
cu rieu x , 1911.
A n on ym ou s. La B ibliotheque d es f e e s e t des g e n ie s , r e c u e illie par
Fabbe de La P o r t e . In C abinet d es l e e s , XXXIV. See
ab ove, " C o lle c tio n s."
A n on ym ou s. L es I llu s tr e s f e e s . In C abinet d es f e e s , V . See ab ove,
" C o llectio n s. " (x)
A n on ym ou s. Le P h ilo so p h e a lle m a n d . P a r M. JE H ****.
A m ste r d a m , P a r is : V en te, 1769.
A n on ym ou s. T a c h m a s , p rin ce de P e r s e : n ou velle h isto riq u e et
tra g iq u e. P a r is : G u effier, [ 1 7 5 1 ] .
III. Secondary
A . P o l it ic a l Thought, the P h ilo s ophe s , and the E n lig h ten m en t
A n ch o r, R o b ert. The E n lig h ten m en t T ra d itio n . N ew York: H a rp er
Row"] 1967.
A n d er so n , Jane J a s p e r s e n . " P o litic a l N e c e s s it y in the L ite r a tu r e of
the F r e n c h E n ligh ten m en t: D id ero t and the
E n c y c lo p e d ie . " U np ublish ed P h . D. d is s e r ta tio n , B row n
U n iv e r sity , 1962.
B a r b e r , W . H. , et a l . , e d s . The A ge of the E n ligh ten m en t: S tudies
P r e s e n t e d to T heodore B e s te r m a n . (St. A n d rew s
U n iv e r sity P u b lic a tio n s, N o . L V II.) E dinburgh: O liv er
and B oyd , 1967.
B e lin , J. - P . Le M o u v em en t p h ilos ophiq ue de 1748 a 1789; etude su r
la d iffu sio n des jd e e s p h ilo so p h es a P a r is d*apres le s
d ocu m en ts co n cern a n t P h is to ir e de la li b r a i r i e . New
York- B u r t F ra n k lin , £ 1962] . ( F ir s t pub. 1 9 1 3 .)
B e r t ie r e , A . " M ontesquieu, le c te u r de M a ch ia v el, " in A c te s du
C o n g res M on tesq u ieu reu n i a B ord eau x du 23 au 26 m a i
1955 pour c o m m e m o r e r le d eu x iem e c en te n a ir e de la
m o r t de M o n tesq u ieu . B ord eau x: D e lm a s , 1956. P p .
1 4 1 -5 8 .
B e s te r m a n , T h e o d o r e. " V o lta ire, A b so lu te M on arch y, and the
E n lig h ten ed M onarch" in S tu d ies on V o lta ir e and the
E ig h teen th C en tu ry , XXXIX. Geneva: In stitu t e t M u see
V o lta ir e , 1965. P p . 7 -2 1 .
B o rn , L e s t e r K. "In trod u ction ," in The E d ucation of a C h ristia n
P r in c e b y D e sid e r iu s E r a s m u s . New York: C olum bia
U niv. P r e s s , 1936. P p . 3 -1 3 0 .
____________ . "The P e r f e c t P r in c e : A Study in T h irteen th - and
F o u rtee n th C entury I d e a ls ," S p ec u lu m , 111 (1928), 4 7 0 -
504.
B r o o m e , J. H . R o u ssea u : A Study of H is T hought. London:
E dw ard A rn o ld , 1963.
B u lletin of the In tern ation al C o m m ittee of H is to r ic a l S c i e n c e s .
V o ls . H (1 9 2 9 -3 0 ), V (1 9 3 3 ), IX (1937). A r t ic le s on
d e s p o tis m e e c l a i r e , in ad d ition to the s p e c if ic a lly cited
a r t ic le s b y L h e r itie r and O liv ie r -M a r tin .
313
B u tle r , K. T . "L ouis M achonl s ‘A p ologie pour M a c h ia v e lle 1- -1 6 4 3
and 1668," Jou rn al of the W arburg and Courtauld
In s titu te s , III (1 9 3 9 -4 0 ), 2 0 8 -2 7 .
C a r c a sso n n e , E ly . M ontesquieu e t le p ro b lem e de la con stitu tion
fra n p a ise au XVIIIe s i e c l e . P a r is : P r e s s e s
U n iv e r sita ir e s de F r a n c e , [ 1 9 2 7 ] .
Chabod, F e d e r ic o . M a ch ia v elli and the R e n a is s a n c e . T ra n s. D avid
M o o re. London: B ow es & B o w e s , 1958.
C hapm an, John W. R o u s s e a u --T o ta lita r ia n or L ib e r a l? (C olum bia
S tu d ies in the S o c ia l S c ie n c e s , No. 5 8 9 .) New York:
C olum bia U n iv e r sity P r e s s , 1956.
C h e r e l, A lb ert. La P e n s e e de M a ch ia v el en F r a n c e . P a r is:
L 1 A r tisa n du L iv r e , 1935.
C hurch, W illia m F . "The D eclin e of the F r e n c h J u r ists as
P o litic a l T h e o r is ts , 1 6 6 0 -1 7 8 9 ," F r e n c h H isto r ic a l
S tu d ie s , Y (Spring 1967), 1 -4 0 .
Cobban, A lfred . In S e a r ch of Hum anity: The R ole of the
E n ligh ten m en t in M odern H is to r y . New York: G eorge
B r a z ille r , I960.
___________ . R o u sse a u and the M odern S ta te . London: G eorge A lle n
& U nw in, 1934.
C ro ck er, L e s te r G. An A ge of C r isis : Man and W orld in E ighteenth
C entury F r e n c h T hought. B a ltim o re: The Johns
Hopkins P r e s s , 1959.
___________ . "R ecent In terp retation s of the F r e n c h E n ligh ten m en t, "
Jou rn al of W orld H is to r y , VIII (1964), 4 2 6 -5 6 .
E in au d i, M ario. The P h y s io c r a tic D octrin e of J u d icia l C on trol.
(H arvard P o litic a l S tu d ie s .) C am brid ge, M a s s .:
H arvard U n iv e r sity P r e s s , 1938.
F o r d , F ra n k lin L . Robe and Sword: The R egrouping of the F r e n c h
A r is to c r a c y after L ou is X IV . New York: H arper &
R ow , 1965. ( F ir s t pub. 1953.)
F u r e t, F r a n g o is, e t a l . "Renouveau de P etude des L tim ie r e s ,"
A n n ales: e c o n o m ie s , s o c ie t e s , c iv ilis a t io n s , XIX
(Sept. - Oct. 1964).
314
G a g lia r d o , John G. E n lig h ten ed D e s p o t is m . N ew York: T h om as Y.
C r o w e ll, 1967.
G a llo u e d e c -G e n u y s , F r a n g o is e . Le P r in c e s e lo n F e n e lo n . P a r is :
P r e s s e s U n iv e r s it a ir e s de F r a n c e , 1963.
G ay, P e t e r . T he E n ligh ten m en t: An In terp retation : The R is e of
M od ern P a g a n is m . New York: K nopf, 1966.
____________. "The E n lig h ten m en t in the H isto r y of P o lit ic a l T h eo ry , "
P o lit ic a l S c ie n c e Q u a r te r ly , LXIX (1954), 3 7 4 -8 9 -
(R e v ise d v e r s io n in fo llo w in g it e m .)
____________. The P a r ty of H um anity: E s s a y s in the F r e n c h
E n lig h te n m e n t. New York: Knopf, 1964.
____________. V o lta ir e ’s P o lit ic s : The P o e t as R e a lis t . P r in c e to n
U n iv e r sity P r e s s , 1959-
G ie r k e , O tto. P o lit ic a l T h e o r ie s of the M iddle A g e . T r a n s. , in tro.
F r e d e r ic W illia m M aitlan d. B oston: B ea c o n P r e s s ,
1958. ( F ir s t pub. 1 9 0 0 .)
G ilb ert, A lla n H . M a c h ia v e lli’s P r in c e and Its F o r e r u n n e r s: The
P r in c e as a T y p ica l B ook de R e g im in e P r in c ip u m .
D u rh a m , N . C. : Duke U n iv e r sity P r e s s , 1938.
G ordon, D o u g la s H . and N o rm a n L . T o r r e y . The C e n so r in g of
D id e r o t’s E n cy clo p ed ie and the R e -e s ta b lis h e d T e x t.
N ew York: C olum bia U n iv e r sity P r e s s , 1947.
H artung, F r it z . E n ligh ten ed D e s p o t is m . T ra n s. H. O tto, r e v . G.
B a r r a c lo u g h . (H isto r ic a l A s s o c ia tio n G en era l S e r ie s ,
N o. 3 6 .) London: R ou tied ge and K egan P a u l, 1957.
(O rig in a lly pub. as "Der A u fg ek la rte A b s o lu t is m u s , "
H is to r is c h e Z e it s c h r if t , CLXXX [ 1955] .)
H a v e n s, G eo rg e R . The A ge of Ideas: F r o m R ea ctio n to R evolu tion
in E ig h te e n th -C e n tu r y F r a n c e . N ew York: H en ry H olt,
1955.
H a za rd , P a u l. The E u ro p ea n Mind (1 6 8 0 -1 7 1 5 ). T ra n s. J . L . M ay.
C le v ela n d , Ohio: The W orld P u b lish in g Co. , 1963.
(O r ig in a lly pub. as La C r ise de la c o n s c ie n c e
e u r o p e e n n e . P a r i s , 1 9 3 5 .)
____________. E u ro p ea n Thought in the E ig h teen th C entury fr o m
M o n tesq u ieu to L e s s in g . T r a n s. J. L . M ay. C lev ela n d ,
Ohio: The W orld P u b lish in g Co. , 1963. (O rig in a lly pub.
a s L a P e n s e e eu rop een n e au X V U Iem e s ie c le : De
M o n tesq u ieu a L e s s i n g . P a r i s , 1 9 4 6 .)
315
H e a rn sh a w , F . J. C. , ed . The S o c ia l and P o lit ic a l Id ea s of S om e
G r ea t F r e n c h T h in k ers of the A ge of R e a s o n . London:
G eo rg e G. H a rra p , 1930.
H e x te r , J. H. "The L oom of L anguage and the F a b r ic of
Im p e r a tiv e s: The C a se of II P r in c ip e and U to p ia , " The
A m e r ic a n H is to r ic a l R e v ie w , LXIX (July, 1964), 9 4 5 -6 8 .
In stitu t In tern ation al de p h ilo so p h ie p o litiq u e. R o u s se a u e t la
p h ilo so p h ie p o litiq u e . A n n a les de p h ilo so p h ie p o litiq u e ,
V . P a r is : P r e s s e s U n iv e r s it a ir e s de F r a n c e , 1965.
K a n ter, Sanford B . " A rch b ish op F e n e lo n ^ P o lit ic a l A ctiv ity : The
F o c a l P o in t of P o w e r in D y n a s t i c i s m ,1 1 F r e n c h H is to r ic a l
S t u d ie s , IV (S p rin g, 1966), 3 2 0 -3 4 .
L e fe b v r e , G e o r g e s . "Le D e s p o tis m e e c l a i r e ," A n n a les h is to r iq u e s
de la rev o lu tio n f r a n g a is e , XXI (A p ril-J u n e 1949), 97-
115. T r a n s, by H ein z L u b asz in The D e v elo p m e n t of the
M od ern S t a t e . N ew York: M a cm illa n , 19647 P p . 4 8 -6 4 .
L e v i-M a lv a n o , E tto r e . M on tesq u ieu e M a c h ia v e lli. (B ib lioth eq u e de
^ In stitu te F r a n j a is de F lo r e n c e [ U n iv e r s it e de
G r e n o b le ], S e r ie s I, V ol. II.) P a r is : C ham p ion, 1912.
L h e r itie r , M ich el. "Le r o le h isto riq u e du d e s p o tis m e e c la ir e ,
p a r tic u lie r e m e n t au XVHIe s i e c l e , " B u lle tin of the
In tern ation al C o m m ittee of H is to r ic a l S c i e n c e s , I (1928),
601 - 12 .
____________. "Rapport g en era l: Le D e sp o tism e e c la ir e , de F r e d e r ic
II a la R ev o lu tio n f r a n f a is e , " B u lle tin of the In tern ation al
C o m m ittee of H is to r ic a l S c i e n c e s , IX (July 1937), 181-
205.
L ic te n b e r g e r , A n d re. Le S o c ia lis m e utopique: etu d es su r g u elq u es
p r e c u r s e u r s inconn us de s o c i a l i s m e . P a r is : F e lix
A lc a n , 1898.
L o u s s e , E m ile . " A b so lu tism e , d roit d iv in , d e s p o tis m e e c l a i r e , "
S c h w e iz e r B e itr a g e zur A llg e m e in e n G e s c h ic h te , XVI
(1958), 9 1 -1 0 6 . F i r s t third tr a n s . by H ein z L u b a sz in
The D e v elo p m e n t of the M odern S t a te . N ew York:
M a cm illa n , 1964. P p . 4 3 -8 .
M artin , K in g sle y . F r e n c h L ib e r a l Thought in the E ig h teen th
Century: A Study of P o lit ic a l Id eas fr o m B a y le to
C o n d o r c e t. E d . J. P . M a y er. N ew York: H a rp er &
R ow , 1963. ( F ir s t pub. 1 9 2 9 .)
316
M ein eck e, F r ie d r ic h . M a ch ia v ellism : The D o ctrin e of R a iso n
d*Etat and Its P la c e in M odern H is to r y . T ra n s. D ou glas
S cott. New Haven: Yale U niv. P r e s s , 1957. (O rigin ally
pub. as D ie Idee der S ta a tsr a so n in der n eu eren
G e sc h ic h te , 1924.)
M o ra z e , C h a r le s, "Finance et d e sp o tism e : e s s a i su r le s d esp o tes
e c la i r e s ," A n n ales; e c o n o m ie s, s o c ie t e s , c iv ilis a t io n s ,
III (1948), 2 7 9 -9 6 . T ra n s. J a m e s F r ig u g lie tti in
Shephard B . Clough, P e te r G ay, and C h a rles K. W arner,
e d s . , The E u rop ean P a s t . V o l. I: R e a p p r a isa ls in
H isto ry fro m the R e n a issa n c e through W a terlo o . N ew
York: M a cm illa n , 1964. P p . 3 7 5 -9 4 .
M orn et, D an iel. L e s Q rigin es in te lle c tu e lle s de la R evolution
fr a n g a ise , 1 7 1 5 -1 7 8 7 . 3d ed . P a r is : C olin, 1938.
( F ir s t pub. 1933.)
M o rr iso n , K arl F r e d e r ic k . The Two K ingdom s: E c c le s io lo g y in
C arolin gian P o litic a l Thought. P r in c e to n Univ. P r e s s ,
1964.
M o u sn ier, R oland. "Les Id ees politique de F en e lo n , " XVIIe s ie c le
(B u lletin de la S o c ie te d’Etude du XVIIe S ie c le ), XII-XIV
(1 9 5 1 -5 2 ), 1 9 0 -2 0 6 .
M o u sn ier, Roland and F r itz H artung. "Q uelques p ro b lem es
co n cern ant la m o n a rch ie a b so lu e, 1 1 in R eia zio n i d el X
C o n g r e sso In tern azion ale di S cie n z e S torich e (R om e 1955).
V ol. IV: Storia M od ern a. F ir e n z e : G. C. S an son i,
1955. P p . 1 -5 5 .
O liv ie r -M a rtin , F r a n g o is. "L es P ra tiq u es tra d itio n n elles de la
royaute fr a n g a ise e t le d e sp o tism e e c la i r e ," B u lletin of
the International C om m ittee of H is to r ic a l S c ie n c e s , V
(1933), 7 0 1 -1 3 .
P o u jo l, J a cq u es. "L 'E volution et P in flu en ce des id e e s a b so lu tiste s
en F ra n ce de 1498 a 1559, " L 'In form ation H isto riq u e,
XVIII (M a r .-A p r il 1956), 4 3 - 4 .
P r o u s t, J a c q u e s. D id erot et P E n c y c lo p e d ie . P a r is : C olin, 1962.
R ockw ood, R aym ond O. , ed . C arl B e c k e r rs H ea v en ly City R e v is it e d .
Ithaca, N. Y .: C o rn ell U niv. P r e s s , 1958.
R othkrug, L ion el. O pposition to Louis XIV: The P o litic a l and S o cia l
O rigins of the F r e n c h E n lig h ten m en t. P r in ce to n Univ.
P r e s s , 1965.
317
S ab in e, G eo rg e H. A H is to r y of P o lit ic a l T h e o r y . R e v . ed . {2d e d . )
New Y ork: H en ry H olt, 1950.
S a r ic k s , A m b r o s e . P i e r r e S am u el Du P o n t de N e m o u r s . L a w ren ce:
The U niv. of K an sas P r e s s , 1965.
S e e , H e n r i. "L es Id e es p o litiq u es de F e n e lo n , 1 1 R evue d *h istoire
m o d er n e e t c o n te m p o r a in e , 1 (1 8 9 9 -1 9 0 0 ), 5 4 5 -6 5 .
S h a ck leto n , R o b ert. M ontesquieu: A C r itic a l B io g r a p h y . O xford
U n iv e r sity P r e s s , 1961.
____________. "M ontesquieu and M a ch ia v elli: A R e a p p r a is a l, "
C om p a ra tiv e L ite ra tu r e S tu d ies (U niv. of M arylan d ), I
(1964), 1 -1 3 .
S m ith , P r e s e r v e d . E r a s m u s: A Study of H is L ife , Id ea ls and P la c e
in H is t o r y . New York: D over P u b lic a tio n s, 1962.
(F ir s t pub. 1 9 2 3 .)
S u tc liffe , F . E . G uez de B a lza c e t son te m p s: litte r a tu r e et
p o litiq u e . P a r is : N iz e t, 1959.
T ihan y, L e s lie C. "Utopia in M odern W e ste r n Thought: The
M eta m o rp h o sis of an Id ea, " in Ideas in H isto ry ; E s s a y s
P r e s e n t e d to L ou is G o ttsch a lk by H is F o r m e r S tu d e n ts.
E d . R ich ard H e rr and H arold T . P a r k e r . D u rh am ,
N . C. : Duke U niv. P r e s s , 1965. P p . 2 0 -3 8 .
T ou ch ard , Jean . H is to ir e des id e e s p o litiq u e s . V ol. II: Du XVHIe
s ie c le a nos j o u r s . P a r is : P r e s s e s U n iv e r s it a ir e s de
F r a n c e , 1962. ( F ir s t pub. 1959*)
V a u ch er, P a u l. Le D e sp o tism e e c la ir e , 1 7 4 0 -1 7 8 9 . P a r is : C entre
de D o cu m en tation U n iv e r s it a ir e , 1954. P p . 3 - 5 , 8 6 -9 8 ,
1 0 4 -6 tr a n s . John C. R ule in C r itic a l I s s u e s in H is t o r y .
B oston: D . C. H eath, 1967. P p . 4 6 7 -4 7 3 .
W a ille , V ic to r . M a ch ia v el en F r a n c e . P a r is : A u gu ste G hio, 1884.
W a tter, P i e r r e . "Jean L ou is G uez de B a lz a c Is L e P r i n c e : A
R e v a lu a tio n ," Jou rn al of the W arburg and C ourtauld
I n s titu te s , X X (1957), 2 1 5 -2 4 7 .
W eil, F r a n g o is e . "M ontesquieu e t le d e s p o tis m ," in A c te s du Congres
M o n tesq u ieu re uni a B o rd ea u x . . . 1955. . . .
B ord eau x: D e lm a s , 1956. P p . 1 9 1 -2 1 5 .
318
W e u le r s s e , G e o r g e s . L e s P h y s io c r a t s . P a r is : G. D oin , 1931. (A
sh o rten ed v e r s io n of L e M ouvem ent P h y sio c r a tiq u e en
F r a n c e de 1756 a 1770. 2 v o ls . P a r is : F e lix A lca n ,
1910.)
. La P h y s io c r a tie a la fin du regn e de L o u is XV (1770-
1 7 7 4 ). P r e fa c e by E r n e s t L a b r o u sse . P a r is : P r e s s e s
U n iv e r s it a ir e s de F r a n c e , 1959-
____________ . La P h y s io c r a tie sou s le s m in is t e r e s de T urgot e t de
N e c k e r (1 7 7 4 -1 7 8 1 ). P r e fa c e by P a u l M antoux; fo rew o rd
by J. Conan. P a r is : P r e s s e s U n iv e r s ita ir e s de
F r a n c e , 1950.
B . L ite r a r y S tu d ies
A lb e r t, P a u l. La L ittera tu re fr a n g a ise au d ix -h u itie m e s i e c l e . 3d
ed . P a r is : H a ch ette, 1879.
A tk in son , G eo ffro y . The E x tra o rd in a ry V oyage in F r e n c h L itera tu re
b e fo r e 1700. New York: C olum bia U n iv e r sity P r e s s ,
1920.
___________ . The E x tr a o rd in a r y V oyage in F r e n c h L ite ra tu r e fr o m
1700 to 1720. P a r is : C ham pion, 1922.
B a rc h ilo n , J a c q u e s. " U ses of the F a ir y T ale in the E igh teen th
C e n tu ry ," in S tu d ies on V o lta ir e and the E igh teen th
C e n tu r y , XXIY. (T r a n sa ctio n s of the F i r s t In tern ation al
C o n g r e ss on the E n lig h ten m en t, G en ev a , 1 9 6 3 .) G eneva:
In stitu t et M u see V o lta ir e , 1963. P p . 1 1 1 -3 8 .
B audin, M a u r ice . The P r o f e s s io n of King in S ev en teen th -C en tu ry
F r e n c h D r a m a . (The Johns H opkins S tu d ies in R om ance
L ite r a tu r e s and L a n g u a g es, V o l. X X X V III.) B a ltim o re :
The Johns H opkins P r e s s , 1941.
B ea u jo u r, M ich el. "P o ly e u c te et la m o n a rch ie de d r o it d ivin , " The
F r e n c h R e v ie w , XXXVI (A pril 1963), 4 4 3 -4 4 9 .
B e c la r d , L eon . S e b a stie n M e r c ie r ; sa v ie , son o e u v r e , son
te m p s . . . . avant la rev o lu tio n , 1 7 4 0 -1 7 8 9 - P a r is :
C ham pion, 1903.
B o n h o m m e, H o n o re. La S o c ie te galante et lit te r a ir e au XVIIIe
s i e c l e . P a r is : E douard R o u v ey re, 1880.
319
B u sh , N e w e ll R ic h a r d . The M arq uis D *A rgens and H is P h ilo s o p h ic a l
C o rresp o n d en ce; A C r itic a l Study of D 'A r g e n s 1 L e ttr e s
ju iv e s , L e ttr e s c a b a lis t iq u e s , and L e ttr e s c h in o i s e s .
Ann A r b o r , M ic h .: E d w ard s B o r t h e r s , 1953.
(D is s e r ta tio n , C olum bia U n iv. , 1 9 5 3 .)
C a lv e t, J. , ed . H is to ir e de la litte r a tu r e f r a n g a is e . V ol. VI: De
T elem a q u e a Candide by A lb e r t C h e r e l. V ol. VII: De
Candide *a A tala by H en ri B erth a u t. P a r is : D u c a , 1958.
C a r c a s so n n e , E ly . F en elo n : l'h o m m e e t l'o e u v r e . P a r is : B o iv in ,
1946.
C h e r e l, A lb e r t. Un A v e n tu r ie r r e lig ie u x au XVIIIe s ie c le : A n d re-
M ich el R a m s a y P a r is : P e r r in , 1926.
____________.. F e n e lo n au XVIIIe s ie c le en F r a n c e (1 7 1 5 -1 8 2 0 ); son
p r e s t i g e - - s o n in flu e n c e . P a r is : H a ch ette, 1917.
C h erp ack , C lifton. An E s s a y on C reb illo n f i l s . D u rh am , N . C. :
Duke U n iv. P r e s s , 1962.
C la r e tie , L eo . L e s a g e , r o m a n c ie r: le ro m a n en F r a n c e au debut
du XVIIIe s i e c l e . P a r is : C olin , 1890.
C la rk , Ruth. Anthony H am ilton (Author of M e m o ir s of Count
G ram m ont); H is L ife and W orks and H is F a m i l y . London
and New York: John L a n e, 1921.
C layton , V is ta . The P r o s e P o e m in F r e n c h L ite ra tu r e of the
E ig h teen th C en tu ry . New York: Institu te of F r e n c h
S tu d ie s, I n c ., C olum bia U niv. P r e s s , 1936.
C o d e r r e , A rm and D a n iel. L 'O eu vre r o m a n esq u e de T h o m a s-S im o n
G u eu llette (1 6 8 3 -1 7 6 6 ). M on tp ellier: M a r i-L a v it, 1934.
C uff, D o r is A . "Introduction a une etude sur M a rg u erite de L u ssa n
et le r o m a n h isto r iq u e au c o m m e n c e m e n t du XVIIIe
s i e c l e ," R evu e d ^ is t o ir e lit te r a ir e de la F r a n c e , XLHI
(1936), 1 -1 9 .
■* ,
D e s n o i r e s t e r r e s , G u sta v e. " V oisen on , " in E p ic u r ie n s e t le ttr e s;
XVIIe e t XVIIIe s ie c le s . P a r is : C h a rp en tier, 1879.
P p . 2 6 0 -3 0 2 .
E tie n n e , S e r v a is . L e G enre ro m a n esq u e en F r a n c e dep u is
P a p p a ritio n de la " N ouvelle H e lo ise " .ju sq ^ au x a p p ro ch es
de la R e v o lu tio n . P a r is : C olin , 1922,
F le u r e t , F ern a n d . "Le C om te de C a y lu s ," in D e R o n sa rd a
B a u d e la ir e . P a r is : M er c u r e de F r a n c e , 1935.
320
G reen , F r e d e r ic k C. "The C h ev a lier De M ouhy, An E ighteenth -
C entury F r e n c h N o v e lis t, " M odern P h ilo lo g y , XXII
(F eb . 1925), 2 2 5 -3 7 .
___________ . F r e n c h N o v e lis t s , M anners and Ideas: F r o m the
R e n a issa n c e to the R e v o lu tio n . New York: F r e d e r ic k
U ngar, 1964. ( F ir s t pub. 1929.)
___________ . "M ontesquieu the N o v e list and S om e Im itation s of the
L e ttr e s p e r s a n e s , 1 1 M odern Language R e v iew , XX (1925),
3 2 -4 2 .
G u eu llette, J. E . Un M a g istra t du XVIIIe s ie c le , a m i d es le t t r e s , du
th eatre et des p la i s ir s , T h o m a s-S im o n G u e u llette .
P a r is : D ro z, 1938.
H en d erso n , G eorge D avid. C h ev a lier R a m s a y . London: T hom as
N e lso n and S o n s, 1952.
H en rio t, Em j.le. C o u rrier litte r a ir e XVIIIe s i e c l e . 2 v o ls . P a r is :
E d itio n s M a rcel Daubin, 1945.
. L es L iv r e s du seco n d rayon: ir r e g u lie r s e t lib e r tin s .
P a r is : B ern ard G r a s s e t, 1948.
H o r sle y , P h y llis M. " T h em iseu l de S ain t-H yacin the (1 6 8 4 -1 7 4 6 ),"
C om p arative L itera tu re Studies (C ardiff, W a les), IV,
6 -1 3 .
La H arp e, Jacq u elin e d e. L'Abbe L aurent B ord elon et la lutte contre
la su p e r stitio n en F r a n c e entre 1680 e t 17 3 0 . (U n iv ersity
of C aliforn ia P u b lica tio n s in M odern P h ilo lo g y , V ol.
XXVI, N o. 2 .) B e r k e le y and Los A n g eles: U niv. of
C a liforn ia P r e s s , 1942.
Le B reto n , A n d re. Le R om an au d ix -h u itiem e s i e c l e . P a r is:
S o c ie te F r a n g a ise d U m p rim erie et de L ib r a ir ie , 1898.
L en el, S. Un H om m e de le ttr e s au XVIIIe s ie c le : M a rm o n te l.
P a r is : H ach ette, 1902.
L om b ard , A lfred . F e n e lo n et le retour a Pantique au XVIIIe s i e c l e .
(M e m o ir es de P U n iv e r site de N eu ch a tel, X X H I.)
N euchatel: S e c r e ta r ia t de P U n iv e r s ite , 1954.
M cC loy, Sh elb y T. " D u clos, H isto r ia n and P h ilo s o p h e r ," South
A tlan tic Q u a r te r ly , XXXVIII {1939), 6 0 -7 4 .
M cG h ee, D orothy M . The Cult of the "Conte M oral"; The M oral Tale
in F r a n c e - - I t s E m e r g e n c e and P r o g r e s s . M en ash a, W is.
G eorge B anta, I960.
321
____________. F o r tu n e s of a T ale; The P h ilo so p h ic T a le in F r a n c e ,
-- B r id g in g the E ig h teen th and N in eteen th C e n tu r ie s .
M en a sh a , W is .: G eo rg e B an ta, 1954.
M a sso n , P i e r r e M a u r ic e . M adam e de T en cin (1682-1 7 4 9 ); une v ie de
fe m m e au XVIIIe s i e c l e . P a r is : H a ch ette, 1909.
M ay, G e o r g e s . Le D ile m m e du ro m a n au XVIIIe s ie c le : etude su r
le s rap p orts du ro m a n et de la critiq u e (1 7 1 5 -1 7 6 1 ).
(Institut d retu d es f r a n g a is e s de Y ale U n iv e r s it y .) New
H aven: Y a le U niv. P r e s s , 1963.
M o n se le t, C h a r le s. L e s O ub lies e t le s d ed aign es; fig u r e s de la fin
du XVIIIe s i e c l e . New ed . P a r is ; C h a rp en tier, 1876.
M o rn et, D a n iel. " L es E n s e ig n e m e n ts d es b ib lio th eq u es p r iv e e s
(1 7 5 0 -1 7 8 0 )," R evu e d1 h is to ir e lit te r a ir e de la F r a n c e ,
XYII (1910), 4 4 9 -9 6 .
N e lso n , R o b ert J. "K inship and K in gsh ip in C in n a, " F o r u m for
M odern L anguage S t u d ie s , 1 (1965), 3 1 1 -2 7 .
S a in tsb u ry , G e o rg e . A H isto r y of the F r e n c h N o v el (to the C lo se of
the N in eteen th C en tu ry ). V ol. I: F r o m the B eginnin g to
1 8 0 0 . London: M a cm illa n , 1917.
____________. " In trodu ction," in M a rm o n te l1 s M oral T a le s . London:
G eorge A lle n , 1895.
Sh aw , E dw ard P . Ja cq u es C azotte (1 7 1 9 -1 7 9 2 ). C a m b rid g e, M a s s .:
H arvard U n iv. P r e s s , 1942.
___________ . F r a n g o is-A u g u s tin P a r a d is de M o n crif (1 6 8 7 -1 7 7 0 ).
N ew York: B ook m an A s s o c ia t e s , 1958.
S h o w a lter, E n g lish , J r . "An E ig h teen th -C en tu ry B e s t S e lle r : L es
L e ttr e s p e r u v ie n n e s . " D is s e r ta tio n , Y ale U n iv ., 1964.
A b str a c t in D is s e r ta tio n A b s t r a c t s , XXV (F eb . 1965),
47 0 8 .
T ille y , A rth u r. The D eclin e of the A ge of L ouis XIV; o r , F r e n c h
L itera tu re 1 6 8 7 -1 7 1 5 . C am b rid ge U niv. P r e s s , 1929.
U za n n e, O cta v e. "N otice su r la v ie e t le s o e u v r es de C a y lu s," in
F a c e t ie s du com te de C a y lu s . P a r is ; Quantin, 1879.
W ood b rid ge, B en ja m in M. G atien de C o u r tilz , S ie u r du V e rg e r:
etude su r un p r e c u r s e u r du ro m a n r e a lis te en F r a n c e .
(The Johns H opkins S tu d ies in R om an ce L ite r a tu r e s and
L a n g u a g e s, V ol. V I.) B a ltim o re : The Johns H opkins
P r e s s , 1925.

Abstract (if available)

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

The Old French Fabliau: A Classification And Definition

PDF

Legal Reformism And Codification Under Louis Xiv: The Sense Of Criminal Justice

PDF

Father Jean-Baptiste Labat And French Travel Literature

PDF

Les 'Contes Moraux' De Marmontel. (French Text)

PDF

Heimito Von Doderer'S Concept Of The Novel: Theory And Practice

PDF

The Novels Of Joyce Cary In Relation To His Critical Writings

PDF

The Twelfth-Century School Of St. Victor

PDF

French Interests In Louisiana: From Choiseul To Napoleon

PDF

The Relationship Between The Poetry Of T. S. Eliot And Saint-John Perse

PDF

The Poetry Of Henry Murger: Themes And Style In "Les Nuits D'Hiver"

PDF

Les 'Suites Romanesques' De Jean De La Varende. (French Text)

PDF

Leopold I Of Austria: A Reappraisal

PDF

Les Trois Visages De Roger Martin Du Gard: Le Romancier, Le Dramaturge, L'Homme. Une Etude Des Contrastes De Contenu Et De Style Dans Les Romans, Pieces De Theatre Et Les Ecrits Personnels De Ro...

PDF

The Historical Background Relating To Access Rights To Berlin

PDF

The Ambassador'S Craft: A Study Of The Functioning Of French Ambassadorsunder Louis Xiv

PDF

The Overtures Of Hector Berlioz: A Study In Musical Style

PDF

A Study Of Images In The Poetry Of Jonathan Swift

PDF

Agrippa D'Aubigne'S Les 'Tragiques': The Conquest Of Profaned Time

PDF

Narrative And Lyric Originality In The Old French Versions Of "La Vie De Saint Eustache"

PDF

Trial By Jury In Southern Rhodesia, 1900-1912

Asset Metadata

Creator Falk, Joyce Duncan (author)

Core Title The Concept Of The Ideal Prince In The Literature Of The French Enlightment (1700-1780)

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program History

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag History, modern,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Moote, A. Lloyd (committee chair), Dales, Richard C. (committee member), Knodel, Arthur J. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-700306

Unique identifier UC11361942

Identifier 6916548.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-700306 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 6916548.pdf

Dmrecord 700306

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Falk, Joyce Duncan

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA